Britannica Book of the Year 1971 0852291582

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1971 Edition/ Britannica

BOOK OF THE YEAR The

iilustrated factual record of great events of

an important year

including three feature articles ivritten especially for this editiofi

1970: Introduction to the Politics of

Korea:

Change

Building a Nation

author of the

President, Republic of Korea

"Making

the world's emerging nations, few have as dramatic progress- in recent years as South Korea" The leader of Korea since May 1 961 has been President Park Chung Hee, who describes the growth and reconstruction of his country after many years of colonraT domination and devastating war. Park afso offers his provocative views on U.S. policy in Southeast Asia, the prospects for reunification of Korea, and the Vietnam war.

Of

by Theodore H. White

by Park Chung Hee

all

made

of the President" books

In this article

White reviews,

in

the fascinating

style of his earlier books, the incredible

sweep

of

events in the United States during 1970, and analyzes their impact on American life and politics. White describes this as a "new form of historical reporting" which considers the social, economic, and political trends of this turbulent year, and all the major news events that have made the United States the focal point of world interest.

Opinion Polls: Servant or Master? by

Harold Wllson, former British Prime Minister

Harold Wilson, who was Prime Minister from 1 964 to 1 970, analyzes the impact of public opinion polls on politics— both in England and the United States. The polls showed Wilson's Labour Party a likely winner in the 1970 British elections— and it lost, so he has first-hand experience on this subject. This article is his first public comment on a timely

and

ALSO IN THIS ISSUE:

vital topic.

13

SPECIAL REPORTS OF INTERNATIONAL IMPORTANCE

PUBLISHED BY ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

AND SIGNIFICANCE

BRITANNICA Book of the \fear 1971

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. WILLIAM BENTON Publisher

Chicago, Toronto, London, Geneva, Sydney, Tol.

council passed -"'n)ementao' budget to be used at smog and pollution.

Nixon administration rejected the recommendations of the Commission on Obscenity and Pornography even thouah the report had not

for

black militant .Angela Davis in connection with the San Rafael court-

house deaths.

17 Pathet Lao reported a breakdown in en'orts to establish peace talks with the Laotian government.

been released.

Suleiman Franjieh was

British troops and Ulster police scaled off Catholic areas of Londonderry to quell disturbances fol-

lowing a Protestant

Shrimp boat

upheld.

Peruvian

10 Pres. Ovando Candia named a new Cabinet including all but one of the members of the Cabinet that had resigned on

12

vision.

U.S.

Middle

Bolivian

ico.

dorsed Sino-French relations in an interview broadcast on French tele-

28

in

Haley

Tokyo metropolitan

rawler.

Moscow.

J.

three

was

U.S. Poseidon missile was successfully test-iired from under water -hf first lime in the .Atlantic presence of an uninvited

•

of

his

issued statements opposition to

their

U.A.R. involvement East peace efforts.

members.

1

Pres. Nixon said in Denver, Colo., that Charles Manson was "guilty" of the Sharon Tate murders; a defense

27

and Syria

Pres. Nixon signed a bill extending unemployment insurance cov-

Anthony Barber was named U.K chancellor of the Exchequer.

its

Judge Harold

kidnappers were killed in an escape attempt at the San Rafael courthouse.

and

August

Army announced new measures for its forces

Xorthem

talks in Vienna.

Moroccan voters approved

California

First

Chief U.S. negotiator Gerald C. Smith formally presented a U.S. proposal on arms limitation at the

Iraq

reaffirming

U.S.S.R.-West

Ghanaian three-man Presidential Commission was dissolved with the resignation of

31

Department

Defense

Ninety-day truce went into effect on the Israeli-U.A.R. front along the Suez Canal. Misael Pastrana Borrero was sworn in as president of Colombia.

fire.

U.S.

59

Chronology of Events

fleet

rally.

elected to

succeed Charles Helou as president of Lebanon. Israeli

Foreign

Minister

Eban

took strong exception to remarks made the previous day by U.S. De-

wrecked by Hurricane Celia

August 3

60

sity of

Wisconsin

Chronology of Events

UN

Madison was

in

destroyed and one person killed an early morning explosion.

on

in j

25 Laird

Israeli that charges of U.A.R. truce violations were "difficult to prove or dis-

fense

Secy.

Peace talks aimed |

Conference of the Committee Disarmament ended its 1970

Zambia, with the adoption of resolutions dealing with Middle East-

session with the approval of a draft treaty banning nuclear weapons from the ocean floor.

ern,

Third

Indonesian Pres. Suharto began a state visit to the Netherlands that had been postponed two days because of disturbances in The

at settling the

Middle East dispute opened at UN headquarters in New York City.

prove."

'

26

Switzerland

would help the U.S. track down money held in Swiss banks for illegal purposes was announced.

Strike for Equality" demonstrations marked the SOth anniversary of women's suffrage in

Pres. Nixon signed a bill extending the Defense Production Act although he objected to the provisions authorizing him to freeze

the

wages, prices, and rents.

U.A.R. reported it had filed its first formal charge of Israeli cease-

Pres. overrode Senate U.S. Nixon's veto of the education appropriations bill, and the bill be-

law.

lished

July

for

indicators pubshowed a strong

against policies

public protest.

John W. Gardner, chairman of Urban Coalition, National

Czechoslovak Communist Party First Secy. Gustav Husak said that

the ,

an-

nounced the formation of Common Cause, a citizens' lobby for governmental reforms.

j

hijacked airliners in the Jordanian desert; all but 54 passengers and crew to be held as "prisoners of war" were released.

of cease-fire viola-

protectionist

U.S. Secy, of State Rogers announced the U.S. was planning to resume aid to Israel.

trade

toward Latin America.

Canadian

postal strike ended.

15 United Automobile by Workers began against the General Motors Corp. strike

UN

Cambodia

concluded a agreement in

Security Council condemned

Israeli attacks on bases in Lebanon.

Arab

guerrilla

I

Cease-fire was announced after lour days of clashes between the Jordanian troops and Palestinian forces attempting to strengthen ties with Iraq.

for

fire.

Pres. Nixon sent to Congress his program to overhaul U.S. foreign

Plenary session of the Chinese Communist Party Central Committee announced plans for a fourth National People's Congress.

Edward AkufO-AddO was

Penh.

U.S. officials reported Israeli violations of the Middle East cease-

aid.

Indonesian Amboinese separatists seized the Indonesian embassy at The Hague, Neth.

truce zone.

I

i

elected

Malagasy Republic

president of Ghana.

cities.

Phili-

Pres.

Fourth cease-fire in Jordan in two was announced; King weeks Husain dismissed Abdel Monem Rifai. prime minister since June 2 7, upon learning that the truce gave commandos control of the

j

Democratic Party won an overwhelming majority in parliamentary elections. bert Tsiranana's Social

Pres. Nixon requested that the U.S. Senate ratify the 192 5 Geneva protocol against the use of chemical and biological weapons in war.

U.A.R.

clashed

Phnom

about Penh.

seven

troops

miles

from

an

assassination

attempt

in

Am-

man. I

Mexican Pres. Gustavo Diaz Ordaz and U.S. Pres. Nixon agreed on a proposed treaty providing for settlement of all current and future border disputes.

U.S. Senate defeated an amendment proposed by Senators McGovern (Dem., S.D.) and Mark Hatfield (Rep., Ore.) to withdraw all U.S. troops from Indochina by the end of 1971.

Ministry

U.S.S.R.

of

[

i

[

endorsed

the

Justice,

National

North Korea

rejected the proposal for reunification made August 15 by South Korean Pres. Park Chung

General Assembly opened Edvard Hambro Norway was elected president.

Aeronautics

two

of

si;^

and

(NASA)

planned

program moon

8

Space

canceled

U.S. landings.

i

Apollo

,

j

U.S. Vice-Pres. Agnew began a intended to reassure four nations of continued U.S.

Asian

support.

23

North Vietnamese Israeli

Cabinet

named

Foreign

Minister Eban its chief delegate proposed UN peace talks.

to

chief

ator Xuan Thuy returned Paris peace talks.

Research building

at the Univer-

in

four

days

announced in Jordan and then called off by commandos.

was

first

9

negotito the

a Brit-

ish jetliner and landed it near two others in the Jordanian desert.

rejection of three draft treaties on the status of the

Canal Zone was announced by the U.S. State Department.

cease-fire

Arab commandos hijacked

Panamanian

24

Second

International Committee of the Red Cross was selected to seek the release of airline passengers held in Jordan by Arab commandos.

U.S. reported that its "latest evidence" confirmed U.A.R. cease-fire violations and appealed to the U.S.S.R. and U.A.R. to refrain from any further violations.

'

I

5th session;

Canadian ference 1

ended

in

federal-provincial

on constitutional Ottawa.

its

of

con-

reform

ie

'

North Korea proposed a "confederation" with South Korea that would precede eventual reunifica-

January 1967.

Hee.

tour

U.S. Middle

failed.

U.S. strength in Vietnam fell below 400,000 for the first time since

2 .Administration

the L'.K. in exchange for the passengers: a fourth hijacking attempt

I

new

U.S.S.R.-West German treaty.

Arab commandos hijacked three jetliners bound for New York from Europe and demanded the release of commandos held in Israel, Switzerland, West Germany, and

'

abolished in 1956. was restored.

Warsaw Pact

Mah

Minister the

UN

2

Cambodian and Communist

said

East peace initiative was "dead." Israel announced its withdrawal from the peace talks.

UN

I

Foreign

moud Riad

,

I

Jordanian King Husain escaped I

three

"eliminated."

Desegregated classes began

published photographs to U.A.R. its charges of a missile buildup in the Suez Canal

Phnom

12 Arab commandos blew up

been

the first time in more than 200 school districts across the southern U.S.

Israel

assistance

had

crisis

State Department anU.S. nounced that Thailand planned to withdraw all its troops from South Vietnam.

support

U.S. and

nation's

the

U.S.

Nixon ordered the use of armed guards on overseas

flights of U.S. airlines.

j

U.S. Senate defeated the second proposal in a week designed to limit extension of the Safeguard antiballistic missile system.

military

Pres. federal

Mexican Pres. Diaz Ordaz warned during a state visit to the U.S.

advance.

Jordanian peace plans.

to

tions.

U.S. Liberty ship and its cargo of nerve gas were sunk in deep water off the Florida coast despite strong

a

campaign with

11

U.A.R. rejected as untrue U.S. and Israeli charges

economic

U.S.

Agnew began

political

Arab commandos added new demands for a "national authority"

Marxist candidate Salvador Allende Gossens won a plurality in Chilean presidential election.

moveCanal

violations, including the ment of troops into the Suez truce zone. fire

and South-

cease-fire in Jordanian was announced.

U.S. Vice-Pres.

4

18

came

U.S.

.'\frican,

an attack on "radic-libs."

OAU summit conference in Addis .\baba ended after adopting resolutions on arms sales to South Africa, decolonization, and the Middle East.

"Women's

fighting

six-state

Hague.

Agreement by which

southern

east Asian problems.

tion.

Jordanian King Husain announced formation of a military government headed by Brig. Gen. Muhammad Daoud; Central Committee of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) rejected the new government and ordered its units to fortify their positions.

Jordanian Palestinian clashes with out Amman.

troops

attacked

refugee

camps

two in

commandos through-

Viet Cong presented an eight-point peace proposal at the Paris peace talks.

10

20

Summit conference of 54 nonaligned nations ended in Lusaka,

Israeli Prime Minister Meir con-

cluded a five-day

visit

to the U.S.

61

Chronology of Events I

the two countries would continue to seek peace in the Middle East.

4 Pres. Nixon met in Ireland with the U.S. delegation to the Paris peace talks.

U.S.

Commission on Campus Un-

issued its second report in four days, describing the Kent State shooting, like that at Jackson State, as "unwarranted." rest

British government publicized a regulate industrial-union re-

bill to

lations.

French Premier Jacques ChabanDelmas defeated reformist JeanJacques Servan-Schreiber deaux by-election.

in a

Bor-

were released as part of a deal for

strike

the release of Arab terrorists held in Britain, West Germany, and

agreement

in a week of a U.S. was averted with an

resume negotiations.

to

French-Canadian

Jordanian broadcast said Syrian tanks had crossed into northwestern Jordan to link up with com-

I

I

units.

Cross

Canadian Prime Minister Tru-

ture

dieux.

tions.

First general election under Sweden's new constitutional reform resulted in the loss of the absolute majority held by the Social Demo-

leader .Arafat announced he would meet with .Arab League en-

crats.

voys.

Secy, of State U.S. Rogers warned that Syrian intervention in Jordan raised the danger of a wider

to

25 PLO

war.

U.S. Senate failed to invoke cloon a constitutional amend-

ment

for

presidential

direct

Right-wing Bolivian Army Chief of Staff Gen. Rogelio Miranda seized presidential power immediately following the resignation of Pres. Ovando Candia.

elec-

Censure motion brought against Australian Prime Minister Gorton was defeated in Parliament.

Left-wing Gen. Torres ousted Gen. Miranda and named himself

I

Pres. Nixon proposed a five-point Indochina peace plan.

Commission on Obscenity

China and North Vietnam announced a new economic and mili-

commando

units

Nixon arrived

in

U.S.

U.S., Chile, Peru, and Ecuador concluded meetings in Buenos Aires, Arg., on fishing rights without reaching agreement.

26 I

street fighting erupted after a soccer game.

PLO

persuade leader Yasir

to

in Belfast

Razak Rahman

succeeded as

prime

con-

tary aid agreement.

troversial report.

Communique' ending three days Polish-West German talks in

U.S.S.R. denounced U.S. charges was building a submarine missile base in Cuba.

of

it

Bonn said negotiations on normalizing relations had reached an advanced stage.

U.K. Labour Party annual meetopened in Blackpool and endorsed U.K. entry into the EEC. ing

V'ice-Pres.

.Nguyen Cao Ky reversed his deto address a pro-war rally in Washington, D.C., on October 3.

King Husain

announced a new military-civilian government headed by Ahmed Toukan. U.S.

Commission on Campus Un-

rest

issued

growing

a

warning of

report

8 cease-fire violations.

I'.ast

Nobel Prize for Literature was awarded

Emotional demonstrations held throughout the .Arab world marked

sandr

I.

to Soviet novelist Solzhenitsyn.

Alek-

the funeral of U.A.R. Pres. Xasser in Cairo.

Niger Pres. Hamani Diori was

re-

elected to a third term without opposition.

crisis.

minister of Malaysia.

Foreign Ministry deinvolvement in Middle

U.S.S.R. nied any

cision

Arafat to attend.

Tun Abdul Tunku .Abdul

its

I

Vietnamese

South Formal emergency meeting in Cairo of .Arab chiefs of state was put off, and envoys headed by Sudanese Pres. Gafaar al-Nimeiry

Belgrade

the

in

Yugoslav Pres. Marshal Tito anership to succeed him.

Bolivia.

at the start of a two-day visit to Yugoslavia, the first by a U.S. president.

Transportation Department.

nounced plans for a collective lead-

of

Pres.

by Jordanian military government and the PLO as government troops held most of Amman and

and Pornography released Pres. Nixon named retired .Mr Force Lieut. Gen. Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., to the new post of head of civil aviation security in the

president

Nationwide cease-fire was agreed

encircled north.

21

King Husain and

Montreal.

in

j

deau completed a Cabinet revision in which Donald Macdonald succeeded Defence Minister Leo Ca-

I

were sent to Jordan

separatists kid-

napped British diplomat James R.

Switzerland. '

mando

Second threat rail I

I

,

Cambodia cially the

was

Khmer

proclaimed

offi-

Republic.

Big Four representatives met

Nixon signed a bill giving District of Columbia a nonvot-

Pres.

the ing delegate in the U.S.

House.

Chairman Pres. Nixon arrived start

a

of

in

Rome

at the

European

five-nation

Mao

Chinese National Peking.

over ceremonies

presided

Day

to

discuss the problems of Berlin.

in

tour.

23 "Brownouts" occurred along U.S. heat

East

the

Coast as a prolonged

wave taxed low power

re-

serves.

Syrian tanks.

Pres.

Nasser

suffered

Cairo

unmanned spacefrom the moon with

16, Soviet

returned rock samples.

craft,

UN General Assembly heard Cuba's offer to negotiate bilateral agreements to extradite hijackers. UN

ring suspended mission.

raged

fire

near

in

the

California

Cairo.

Middle East mediator Jarhis

peace-seeking

dian separatists.

Mexican

3

Pres. Nixon canceled U.S. naval demonstrations planned to jmphasize the U.S. presence in the Mediterranean.

29 Last hijack hostages

Laporte, Quebec labour was kidnapped from his Montreal home by French-CanaPierre

minister,

Largest brush

Jordanian Prime Minister Daoud resigned abruptly and disappeared in

a

air-

ceremonies ending the Arab summit meeting.

history border.

24 Luna

U.A.R.

fatal heart attack after

port

Jordanian forces pushed back a large commando force headed by

became independent in ceremonies presided over by Britain's Prince Charles. Fiji

in

Jordan

Pres. Nixon declared in Spain a "new era" in relations between Spain and the U.S., and met with Prime Minister Heath and Queen Elizabeth II during a five-hour visit to Britain.

UJV.R.-U.S.S.R. communique said

UN

Conference on Trade and De-

velopment

(UNCTAD)

agreed to

a plan to give trade preferences to less developed nations.

Nixon announced the Pres. withdrawal of 40,000 planned troops from South Vietnam by Christmas of 1970.

62

Chronology of Events

Calabria region.

party," was signed by 18 Republican senators.

SALT

talks resumed in Helsinki.

3 Mixed

Argentina, Belgium, Italy, Japan, and Somalia were elected nonpermanent members of the UN

concluded days of military exercises in

five

Security Council.

East Germany.

results

produced

elections

gains

U.S.

in

Senate

the

in

midterm

Republican and Demo-

cratic gains in the House of Representatives and state governorships.

of civil rights legislation.

Prime

Indian

diplomatic

China

Heavy fighting between governreported

relations.

signed in political

14 officially rejected Pres. Nixon's five-point Indochina peace plan.

General Assembly began

Body

21 to

Norman

;

Air Force plane two U.S. generals landed Armenia instead of its S.

carrying in Soviet intended

Turkish destination.

(

Pres. Kenneth

Kaunda

U.S.

its

NATO

'

statement clearly alluding to the practice in Brazil.

U.A.R. Acting Pres. Anwar alSadat was elected president in a

Hou-

Felix

Africa.

charged

the

Pierre Werner.

5

U.S.S.R.

had

1968 agreement by not

Ecuadorian Air Force Commander Cesar Rohon Sandoval was reportedly relieved of his duties following unsatisfactory accounts of his kidnapping on October 2 7.

Laotian government accepted a Pathet Lao formula for peace

U.S. military sources reported a massive supply buildup in southern

talks.

North Vietnam.

East and West Germany announced they would resume talks on normalizing relations.

Israeli Prime Minister Meir concluded a visit to London that included discussions of a L^.K. peace plan calling for Israeli withdrawal

22 Pres. Nixon and Soviet Foreign Minister Gromyko held a lengthy conference in Washington.

Pres.

i

i

15

Coast

Ivory

phouet-Boigny called for an African summit conference on South

contribution.

allowing prompt consular access to three detained U.S. Army officers.

j 1

VI condemned police torture of political prisoners in a

began a tour of Western nations at the head of an OAU mission seeking withdrawal of support for South Africa and Portugal.

plans to withdivision from the Korean demilitarized zone.

its draft of medium-term economic policies based on the Werner plan of Luxembourg Prime Minister

violated a

Pope Paul

;

announced

its

i

i

Zambian

U.S.

draw

EEC Executive Commission submitted to the Council of Ministers

29 I

U

of peace talks.

al-Tal as prime minister.

increase

E. Borlaug of the U.S.

Jordanian authorities announced that Iraqi troops had begun to withdraw from Jordan.

a

Jordanian King Husain appointed a new Cabinet, headed by Wasfi U.K. White Paper pledged the country would keep a small military force in Southeast Asia and

Nobel Peace Prize was awarded

U.S.,

U.S. Congress began a month-long election-time recess after completing action to establish a National Railroad Passenger Corp.

28

of

a

ten-day session commemorating its 2 5th anniversary.

U.K. entry

General Assembly adopted

EEC.

British government announced the "mini-budget," which called for cuts in taxes, subsidies, and public spending.

Quebec Labour Minister Laporte was found near Montreal.

special

U.S.S.R., and China exploded nuclear devices within hours of each other.

into the

18

North Vietnam

Four agreements were announced

calling for threeresolution a month extension of the Middle East cease-fire and the resumption

northern Jordan.

in

State and Defense Department officials that the U.S. had been secretly arming and training Ethiopian troops since 1960 was disclosed.

Moscow an agreement for and economic cooperation.

UN

in the negotiations for

Testimony by U.S.

French Pres. Pompidou and SoPres. Nikolai V. Podgorny

viet

Canada

announced the sale of 98 million bu. of wheat to China.

ment troops and commandos was

established

4

27

coalition

form a new government in Uttar Pradesh, which had been placed under presidential rule October 2.

13 and

Gandhi

to

vision and radio time.

Canada

Minister

permitted an opposition

Pres. Nixon vetoed legislation limcampaign spending on tele-

iting

UN

"radical-liberal"

Warsaw Pact troops

Commission on

ment

attacked by Vice-Pres.

17

Civil Rights reported that there had been a the enforcein breakdown" "major

U.S.

Agnew as a who "has left his

mer when the rival city of Catanzaro was chosen the capital of the

30 Four-hour street battle marked

j

fresh Belfast.

a

national plebiscite.

outbreak

of

violence

in

from Arab areas.

Vatican

instructions

end-

with experimentation Roman Catholic liturgy.

the

issued

ing

State of emergency was declared U.K. White Paper announced a government reorganization creating two new ministries, the Department of Trade and Industry and the Department of the Environ-

!

'

!

Chile after the fatal shooting of Commander Gen. Rene Schneider Chereau. in

31

Army

'

23

ment. I

Two

Lithuanians

accomplished

Pres. Nixon addressed General Assembly.

the

the first successful hijacking of a Soviet airliner; the stewardess was

Cincinnati Reds, 9-3, in the

fifth

game.

16 Canadian Prime Minister Trudeau invoked the War Measures Act for the first time in peacetime to deal with the Quebec kidnappings.

EEC warned

it

retaliation

the

if

would

consider

U.S.

adopted

pending trade legislation.

Ohio grand jury

AUende president

Japanese

indicted

2 5

troops were sent into Reggio Calabria after a renewal of violence that began in the sum-

Chile.

tiations.

25 Former French Premier Maurice Couve de Murville concluded a private visit to China.

South Vietnamese the second of into Cambodia.

forces opened two new offensives

Montreal Mayor Jean Drapeau won a landslide reelection in heavguarded voting.

26 NASA entists

engineers joined Soviet scifor discussions in Moscow

on standardized spacecraft docking systems.

Italian

Statement

Pres. Nixon called for the end of "appeasement" of "thugs and hoodlums" in a campaign speech in Phoenix, Ariz., two days after objects were thrown at him following a rally in San Jose, Calif.

tions;

Tanzanian Pres. Julius Nyerere won reelection overwhelmingly.

Two bombs

South Vietnamese Pres. Thieu

Prime Minister Sato Nixon agreed in Wash-

per-

May.

of

ington to resume textile-trade nego-

ily

sons, none of them National Guardsmen, on charges connected with the Kent Slate disturbances in

Chilean Congress chose Salvador

and Pres.

Pres. Nixon signed the Organized Crime Control and Urban Mass Transportation acts.

I

24

killed.

Baltimore Orioles won the baseball World Series by defeating the

UN

endorsing U.S. Sen. Charles E. Goodell (Rep., N.Y.),

j

British municipal workers ended their six-week strike for higher wages.

reiterated his strong opposition to a coalition government with the

Communists.

Italy

ment

and China announced to

agreeestablish diplomatic relaItaly severed

Taiwan and

ties.

exploded

Aviv central bus

in

station,

the

Tel

killing

one person in the first Arab terrorattack in an urban Israeli area

ist

in a year.

7

NOVEMBER 1 Polish diplomat Zygfryd Wolniak and three Pakistanis were killed when a van ran into a reception Polish Pres. Marshal Marian Spychalski at Karachi International Airport.

line

6

U.S.S.R. marked the 53rd anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution with a Red Square parade; U.S. downgraded its attendance to protest the continued detention of U.S. military personnel.

for

Jack the Ripper was reported in a Sunday Times of London story to have been Edward, duke of Clarence, a grandson of Queen Victoria.

2 Canadian Prime Minister Trudeau introduced legislation to replace the War Measures Act in dealing with the Quebec crisis.

8 U.A.R., Libya, and the Sudan agreed in Cairo to work toward a tripartite federation.

East German Pres. Walter Ulbricht warned that a reduction in West German presence in Berlin

would have

to precede talks eased access to the city.

on

Combined force of Cambodian and South Vietnamese troops rean offensive portedly launched south of

Phnom

Penh.

U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear a suit based on a Massachusetts law challenging the constitutionality of the Vietnam war.

North Vietnamese and forces

Cong

V'iet

launched an offensive near

Kompong Cham. Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie concluded his

first official visit to Italy since the Italian take-over of

Ethiopia in 1935.

10 JOHN-PIERRE REV FROM

released the two U.S. generals, a U.S. major, and a Turkish colonel held since their

:

U.S.S.R.

Army

Funeral of Gen. Charles de Gaulle

November 12

plane landed in Soviet Armenia on

October 21.

majority

Pompidou an"France is a widow"

French

Pres.

state

and

congressional

in

Motors Corp. and the

General

United Automobile Workers agreed on a new contract to end an eight-

week

16 Jordanian King Husain disclosed that he had rejected an Israeli proposal for bilateral peace talks amid rumours that such talks had been occurring secretly.

Chilean Pres. Allende announced decision to reestablish matic relations with Cuba.

diplo-

his

Major U.S. banks lowered their rate from 7.5 to 7.25%; Bank of Canada made effective its fourth bank rate reduction in six

prime

months, down to

6%.

17

Argentine workers concluded the third of a series of general strikes protesting government economic

and social policies.

Cyclone and tidal wave

inflicted

massive damage on the Ganges River Delta area of East Pakistan.

General Assembly approved

amendment

rejecting accreditathe South African delega-

tion.

Guatemalan Pres. Arana imposed a

30-day state of siege to combat

terrorism.

Bloodless coup by rightist Syrian officers headed by Defense Minister Gen. Hafez al-.^ssad deposed the government of N'ureddin

proved a draft proposal of a fiveyear transition for full U.K. adop-

EEC

rules.

18 tained of

that

common

relatively

C

main-

Pauling

Linus

vitamin

large

could ward

Guatemalan planes

cold.

19 U.S. House of Representatives passed and sent to the Senate a trade bill imposing import quotas on textiles and shoes. U.S.

Senate completed congres-

sional basic

farm support programs.

action on a

bill

continuing

vadorean

fishing

boats

Senate Finance Committee

U.S.

for

the

second time the welfare reform

S.

Army

Sgt.

Ky began an

charges

My

connection Lai incident.

in

Simple majority the

Vice-Pres.

unofficial visit to the

U.S.

Brazilian Alliance for Renewal party increased

of

murder

with

the

of the

Assembly approved bership for China for the

votes short of majority required. 16

the

UN GenUN memfirst

time,

two-thirds

21

ruling

East and West

Germany resumed

talks in East Berlin on normalizing relations.

28 U.A.R.

U.S.S.R. and China signed a oneyear trade agreement in Peking,

Coast Pres. HouphouetBoigny won a third term in unopposed voting.

North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces directed a new Cambodian assault south of Phnom Penh. Lithuanian

seaman was

forced

to return to his Soviet fishing ves-

Ivory

Pope Paul VI broadcast a "message to Asia" warning against militant atheism and visited Pago Pago on his way from the Philippines to VV'estern Samoa.

after boarding a U.S. Coast Guard cutter off Martha's V'ine-

sel

yard, Mass., seeking asylum U.S.

in

25 Soviet

Foreign

Minister

Gro-

myko

visited East Berlin for talks with Pres. Walter Ulbricht.

Japanese writer Yukio Mishima committed ritual suicide in Tokyo protest against Japan's "spine-

Icssncss."

Paris peace talks were boycotted by North Vietnam and the Viet

Cong

in

protest

against

30

the

U.S. Federal Reserve Board cut its discount rate for the second time in three weeks to 5.5 %.

Southern Yemen changed its name to the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen. U.S. 1970 census

final report, in-

dicating changes in congressional representation in 14 states, was presented to Pres. Nixon.

DECEMBER

the U.S. of North

U.S. Interior Secy. Hickel dismissed by Pres. Nixon.

was

Italian

Pres.

signed a

bill

Giuseppe

Syria agreed to join Libya, the Sudan, and the U..A.R. in the proposed .'\rab federation.

Soviet novelist Solzhenitsyn said would not attend the Nobel Prize ceremonies in Stockholm as

he

Saragat

to legalize divorce.

Canadian House

27

as a priest attempted to assassinate Pope Paul VI shortly after his arrival in the Philippines, the third

elections

the Florida coast and were picked up by a small boat.

29

bodia.

senatorial

Four East German seamen jumped their Cuba-bound ship off

Pope Paul VI issued a decree barring cardinals over age 80 from v'oting for a new pope.

planned.

Australian

would return to his post at Harvard University rather than become ambassador to the UN as had been rumoured.

Israeli patrol vessel sank a launch in the Gulf of Suez.

planes carried out heavy bombing of military targets in North Vietnam, Laos, and CamU.S.

National its

North

court-martial acquitted

David Mitchell

15 Vietnamese

to free

in

of

resumption of bombing Vietnam.

plan.

1968

Guatemalan Pacific coast.

South

2 1

war

prisoners

an

on Saloff

attempted on November

in

20

eral fired

doses the

off

West German-Polish treaty re•nouncing force and recognizing the Oder-Xeisse line as Poland's western border was initialed in Warsaw.

U.S.

14

override

Pres. Nixon's veto of the bill to limit political broadcast spending.

L'.S.

administration's

Pakistan and China signed economic cooperation pact.

to

Vietnam.

rejected

Unarmed U.S. plane was shot down over N'orth Vietnam.

failed

EEC Executive Commission

Army

al-Attassi.

Senate

U.S. Defense Secy. Laird described a commando-style U.S. raid

Nobelist

13

23

17, Soviet unmanned spacecraft, landed a "Lunokhod," a selfpropelled, eight-wheel vehicle, on the moon.

ap-

White House announced presidential adviser Daniel P. Moynihan

Conakry.

Luna

tion of

tion of

capital,

U.S.

U.S.S.R. Foreign Minister Gromyko during a visit to Italy met with Pope Paul VI.

an

Guinean Pres. Sekou Toure charged that Portuguese forces had invaded and attacked the

began its first lame duck session in 20 years.

12

UN

22

Congress

U.S.

strike.

country on his ten-day trip to Asia and Oceania.

and opposition Labor

nounced that with the death the previous evening of former Pres. Charles de Gaulle.

11

resulted in drops in popular supfor both the ruling Liberal parties.

port

elections.

of

Commons

ap-

proved legislation to replace the War Measures Act.

West German honorary consul in

San

Sebastian,

Beihl, was separatists.

Second

Spain,

Eugen

kidnapped by Basque

inflation alert was issued

by the U.S. Council

of

Economic

Advisers.

Knife-wielding assailant dressed

NATO

Defense Planning Commit-

and discussed other toward China, the U.S.S.R., and the Midecounrest, and dle East, campus nomic policy.

19

troops,

U.S.

64

issues, including U.S. policy

Chronology of Events tee adopted plans for improvements in conventional forces in Central Europe and the Middle East to

Federal court injunction ended 18-hour nationwide railroad strike.

12

counter growing Soviet strength.

3 a threeday visit to Australia and was wel-

Pope Paul VI concluded

comed

Jakarta by

in

14

Indonesian

Pres. Nixon nominated former Texas Gov. John B. Connally, a Democrat, to succeed Treasury Secy. Kennedy.

Spanish government granted British diplomat Cross was freed

unharmed

Montreal after had been flown

in

kidnappers

his

to

Cuba.

4 King

Lesotho

Moshoeshoe

ended an eight-month exile

in

po-

emergency powers because of

lice

intensifying protests against the conduct of the military trial in BurBasque separatists of 15 gos charged with banditry and other terrorist acts as well as the murder of a police official in 1968.

II

the

15

Netherlands.

Pope Paul VI addressed

Polish workers protesting the announcement of substantial in-

of unity to all

creases

a message Chinese from Hong Kong and concluded his Asian tour with a two-hour stop in Ceylon.

House

U.S.

of

Representatives

investigating panel approved a report recommending against the impeachment of Supreme Court Justice

Douglas.

threatened to to conconspiracy" of law"secret trol a

reported to have been airlifted to Kompong Cham in answer to a appeal from Cambodian

Two

to

rejection of

SST

Polish-West German treaty to end aggression was signed in Warsaw.

Basque separatists released West German diplomat Beihl. Israeli Knesset and religious and secular leaders in various countries urged reductions in the harsh sentences given Soviet Jews convicted of attempted hijacking in Leningrad.

Wladyslaw Gomulka and Secy. other key members of his 14-year regime resigned; Edward Gierek was named first secretary.

Nixon signed

Pres.

of

pieces

law 20 passed by

into

legislation

U.S. Coast Guard officers

who ordered

the return of a Lith-

uanian defector were reprimanded and allowed to retire. U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of legislation lowering the voting age to 18 for federa! elections but maintained the right of states to set qualifications for state and local elections.

Cambodian troops were

reported

have begun a drive to reopen the highway from Phnom Penh to the Gulf of Siam. to

U.S. command in Tokyo confirmed the planned withdrawal of 12,000 U.S. troops from Japan by

27 Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi dissolved Parliament, citing its opposition to reform programs.

28 U.A.R. Pres. Sadat ordered an end to government appropriation of private property.

men

Three

suspected of the kid-

napping and murder of Quebec Labour Minister Laporte were arrested near Montreal.

formally

resumed

diplomatic relations. 7,

Soviet

unmanned

j

rorist acts;

six received

of

East

Germany removed

tions

that had blocked traffic be-

West Germany

tween

16 Pres. Nixon vetoed legislation extending manpower training programs, rather than reorganizing them as he had requested.

ter-

death sen-

tences.

reopen

UN.

22 29

obstruc-

and

West

stock U.S. reached their

market highest

1970

U.S. Congress approved a mili-

Appeals for clemency

tary aid bill for Cambodia including a ban on the use of U.S. ground forces and began a Christmas recess with the fate of much major legislation unresolved.

North Vietnam released tive"

list

of

its

a "defini-

in

averages levels

Berlin for four days. space-

landed on Venus.

craft,

j

Spanish court-martial found 15

Israeli Cabinet voted to indirect peace talks at the

mid-1971.

'

Congress in recent days.

21 Two

,

28

First

Pres. Thieu.

CongOS

funds.

7

20 Communist Party

Polish

South Viet-

Pres. Nixon called on Congress to its

as prime minister.

personal

Venera

reverse

Kwon

II

several

Basque separatists guilty

South Vietnamese troops were

lessness.

5

South Korean Pres. Park named Paik Too Chin to replace Chung

cities.

namese

government

Irish

in

food prices began rioting Gdansk and other Baltic coast in

Premier Lon Nol

assume emergency powers

Pres. Toure charged Portuguese troops were massed at Guinea's border and called on the UN to safeguard its independence.

North Vietnam denounced Pres. Nixon's warning of possible bombing as a threat to expand the war.

Pres. Suharto.

U.S. Senate rejected an administration request for funding for further development of a supersonic transport (SST) plane.

Guinean

72-hour truce although clashes were reported.

for

i

heavy trading. for the six

Basques sentenced to death in Spain were made by various governments and private organizations.

Arab guerrillas in Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon stepped up attacks

U.S. prisoners of

against Israel; U.A.R. Pres. Sadat ordered a state of war readiness.

International convention calling "severe punishment" for hijacking of civilian aircraft was signed by 50 nations meeting at

war.

23

30

napped

The Hague.

British electrical workers began "working to rule" to press wage demands, thereby causing nationwide power shortages.

U.S. Army was charged with having conducted surveillance of prom-

Navy F-14 fighter-plane U.S. prototype crashed during a test flight from Calverton, N.Y.

inent Illinois civilians.

California Supreme Court ordered the release of Cesar Chavez, farm workers' union organizer, pending appeal of a contempt charge resulting from his refusal to end a nationwide lettuce boycott.

Awami League

declared a state of emergency in parts of Eritrea because of increased guer-

for

Swiss

Ambassador

to

Brazil

Giovanni Enrico Bucher was kidin Rio de Janeiro.

of East Pakistan majority of National Assembly seats in Pakistan's first

won

a

Ethiopian

rilla

government

activity.

direct general elections.

17

8 U.S. State Department issued a report urging implementation of a modernization plan to permit greater creativity in U.S. diplo-

macy.

10 Big

Four representatives held

their final

meeting of the year on

North Vietnamese delegation

to

the Paris peace talks called on the U.S. to suggest a "reasonable deadline" for the withdrawal of U.S. troops from South Vietnam.

U.S. Defense Department issued new antidiscrimination direc-

and

ment

Catholic-Jewish confer-

to

in

join

Rome forces

with agreeagainst all

forms of discrimination.

Vietnamese

SALT

Helsinki resessions in both sides agreed to meet

delegates to the Paris peace talks called for an immediate prisoner of war exchange.

cessed;

Pres. Nixon, at his first news conference in four months, warned he would order further bombing of North Vietnam if needed to protect

Report of an eight-year study by a U.S. Senate subcommittee called the F-111 fighter-bomber program a major "fiscal blunder."

in

Vienna

in

ress.

Spanish

Chief of State Gen. Francisco Franco commuted to 30-year prison terms the death sentences of six Basque separatists.

Benjamin

Sheares

was

|

elected

president of Singapore.

government freed Bolivian French Marxist writer Regis Debray, serving a 30-year sentence

31

24

U.S. House of Representatives completed action on a bill authorizing pay raises for federal employees, approved a military sales

Leningrad court sentenced to death two Jews charged with attempted hijacking and gave prison terms to nine other defendants.

tion continuing funding of the SST for three months; the Senate completed action on federal food stamp

for guerrilla activities.

following release of a report of unrest among black troops stationed in West Germany.

18 South

Roman

ence ended

tives

the future status of Berlin.

U.S.

Polish Premier Jozef Cyrankiewicz was named president of Poland and replaced as premier by Piotr Jaroszewicz.

Paris peace talks ended their second full year with both sides agreeing there had been no prog-

bill including the Cooper-Church amendment, and passed a resolu-

legislation.

March.

25 Allied

ended truce;

South Vietnam 24-hour Christmas their Viet Cong continued their

forces

in

Soviet court commuted the death sentences of two Soviet Jews and reduced the prison terms of three others charged with attempted hijacking. (J. W. Mw.)

I

1970: a year of violence

66

so that advertisements were seldom seen in colour on

Independent Television.

The Swiss Publicity Association founded

Advertising Europe. The Pan-European thinking that was evident 1970 in the opening of negotiations for an expanded European Economic Community a.so manifested itself in advertising at the European meeting of the International Advertising Association, held in Copenhagen. It was decided to form a secretariat to act on behalf of European advertising agencies and to in

The survey

also indicated

28% of all Eurobe bilingual and 42% of all perEnglish, 32% German, and 29%

a sharp drop in language barriers:

peans were found to sons under 25 spoke French. Advertising agencies were expected to make use of this and other indications in the survey that the postwar generation had emerged as the leader in fashion, music, leisure, and ideas.

General developments

in advertising in the differ-

ent countries were not seen to

contain

many

sur-

U.K., the main development was the growing use of colour television, with 65% of all homes owning or renting colour sets. The cost of colour transmission, however, was almost prohibitive, prises. In the

protests

tising

languages continued to prohibit expansion of the industry in Switzerland.

Of the rope,

total advertising expenditure spent in

31% was

spent by West

Eu-

Germany and 25% by

Norwegian advertising agencies, however,

the U.K.

at the price of uniformity.

Inc.,

The lack of good advermedia and the problems posed by three national

represented in Switzerland.

again set the pace for Europe. Agency turnover had increased an average of 12% a year during the 1960s

—

by the Friends of Animals,

limited to a few large, truly international agencies

strengthen activities of the association outside the that their future lay in products conceived for the

Advertisement produced

own

U.S. All major advertising agencies in Europe agreed

whole European market. A survey on the European consumer prepared by the Reader's Digest and presented at the Copenhagen meeting strongly indicated the breakdown of European national differences on all economic fronts. Although living standards and the pace of material progress were shown to differ substantially from country to country, those things most often bought and/or desired were very similar: a home; a car; television sets; all labour-saving devices; convenience foods; soft drinks, at the expense of wine; and coffee, even in Britain. The most at the expense of tea startling aspect of the report was the eagerness of the European consumer to accept material advances, even

COURTESY, FRIENDS OF ANIMALS, INC.

its

school in Biel but advertising opportunities remained

and increased estimated

15%

45%

to newspapers.

of

in the first six all

months of 1970. An

advertising expenditures went

Norway,

like

Denmark, Sweden, and

Belgium, had no commercial television. Advertising expenditures in the Netherlands

in 1970 were expected to rise by 4% while the gross national product (GNP) increased 8%. Volume of advertising, however, was expected to remain unchanged since media rates also rose about 4%. Television advertising was expected to be introduced in Belgium in mid-1971. The level of media space or time purchased was fixed at 18%. Advertising rates for newspapers increased 10-15% and for magazines 3-5%. Two major international agencies, Ogilvy & Mather and Batten Barton Durstine & Osborn fBBDO), bought major shares of Benelux agencies. In Italy expenditures were expected to rise in 1970 due mainly to heavy rate increases; rates were up 30% for television, 16% for radio, and a more reasonable 4% for press and cinema advertising. The percentage of France's GNP spent on advertising was the lowest in Europe and spending per capita was also relatively low, $10.50 in 1968 compared with $25 in West Germany. The two brief segments of advertising permitted on state-owned tele-

vision

'

'

'

'

i

and the lack of national coverage discour-

aged advertising at the levels seen elsewhere in Europe. The need for outside agencies to compete with the giant French national agencies was as obvious as it was difficult. The two largest agencies, Havas Conseil and Publicis Conseil, shared over 20% of all advertising investment in France,

and the

billings

\

of *

the slaughter of in

baby seals the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

were $40 million less than those Moreover, these two agencies had important holdings in other French agencies and businesses, which gave them advantages over non-French agencies. The professional standards of the French their nearest rival

of Publicis.

agencies, however, did not

French agencies with

meet those of the non-

offices in Paris,

such as

'

Young

& Rubicam, Ted Bates & Co., McCann-Erickson, and Co. While these agencies priJ. Walter Thompson marily serviced their international clients, all had succeeded in obtaining good French clients. Nonetheless, the prestige of Havas was certainly one of the major assets of a new network formed when Havas joined the three-year-old partnership of Needham, Harper & Steers of the U.S. and S. H. Benson of the U.K. The new Benson Needham Univas had

$300 million

in billings

and representation

in

;

93%

(Mu. L.) of the free world's advertising markets. North America. It seemed certain that 1970 would be the tenth consecutive year in which advertising volume in the U.S. increased over the previous year. Aden: see Southern Yemen

But not even the most optimistic forecaster was predicting a gain of the magnitude of the 7.7% increase

:

when

of 1969,

One

total dollar

volume was $20.4

67

billion.

substantial dent in advertising expenditures in

Advertising

1970 was caused by the prolonged General Motors, which began at the time of year when advertising expenditures by car makers were usually their heaviest. Although there was no the last quarter of

strike at

that

question

advertising expenditures were

off

in

other hard-goods lines, expenditures in the packaged-

goods

field

held up very well during 1970. While total for

expenditures

1970 would be greater than for

1969, the percentage gain

was

set

by the cautious

at

Dollar volumes for 1970 for all but one of the seven major media, outdoor advertising, were predicted to

down from the 1969 figures and the combined volume for all seven seemed likely to dip from the previous year's total of $9,950,000,000 to about $9.1 be

billion in

national advertising dollars

(local

adver-

were not included in the figures). Newspapers anticipated a national ad volume for 1970 of $1,080,000,000, down from $1.1 billion in 1969, a drop of 1.8%. Network television, usually a substantial gainer each year, saw 1970 as a $1,650,000,000 year in contrast with a $1.7 billion year in 1969; spot television predicted a slip-off from Si. billion in 1969 to $1.2 billion in 1970. Magazines dropped out of the "billion dollar" category in 1970, expecting a volume of $930 million in contrast with tising dollars

LONDON "DAILY EXPRESS" FROM PICTORIAL PARADE

Model carries a transparent

sandwich board advertising

"More" down London's the film

Oxford Street in February 1970.

$1,240,000,000 in 1969. Business publications expected a

volume of $807.4

O.S% from the Network radio expected 1970, compared with $40 mil-

million, a decline of

$811.8 million total for 1969. a $37 million

volume

in

drop of 7.5%; spot radio would be up, moving from $332 million in 1969 to $360 million in 1970, an increase of 8.4%. Outdoor advertising anticipated a $190 million year, in contrast with a $168 lion in 1969, a

million year in '69, or a gain of dollar

volume slipped from $2.9

13%. Direct mail billion in

1969 to

$2,850,000,000 in 1970.

A number

of events during 1970 kept the issue consumerism very much alive. In a unanimous decision handed down in May, the United States Supreme Court ruled that under present law a citizen had the right to prevent a direct mail advertiser from sending him anything at home. This sweeping ruling was looked on as being particularly inimical to direct mail advertisers. Ironically, it came about as the result of a 1967 law aimed at banning the use of the mails to smut peddlers. The court broadened the scope of the law to include anything the homeowner might wish to consider "erotically arousing and sexually provocative," whether it be a dry goods catalog, a department store circular, or a solicitation for a magaof

zine subscription.

In July 1970 the Federal Trade

Commission deground rules

industry. Probably the

most ambitious, and certainly most talked about, was unveiled in the fall by Victor Elting, new chairman of the American .Adverthe

tising Federation. Elting's plan called for the establishment of an Advertising Review Council, with a

budget of $1.5 million, to review complaints or inquiries from any legitimate group or person and, if voluntary compliance was not made to its rulings, to publicize the abuse and its findings, in order to direct public scorn at the violators,

and

on all Because present laws treated such an agreement among media as restraint of trade, the Elting proposal called on Congress to grant an exemption from antitrust legis-

media

call

to refuse to carry the offending ads.

lation.

In 1970 the FTC issued complaints against CocaCola Co. for misrepresenting the nutritional value of

its

Hi-C

fruit drink;

and against Standard

Oil Co.

of California for falsifying the antipollution potential

of the F-310 additive in

its

Chevron

gasoline.

The complaints were not in themselves unusual FTC issued a number of such complaints each

— the

year, including complaints in 1970 that the advertising for a toy racing car and a dancing doll were deceptive

and exploited the

gullibility of children,

and was

that tele-

cided on a test case to establish tough

vision advertising for Zerex antifreeze

govern the promotion of preselected winner sweepstakes. Maintaining that McDonald's Corp. had awarded only $13,000 in prizes in its "McDonald's

misleading. In the Hi-C and Chevron cases, however, for the first time the FTC proposed that each advertiser would be required in all its advertising for

to

$500,000 Sweepstakes," the

FTC

said

that

hence-

promotions of this sort must disclose to consumers the odds for winning each prize, and that sweepstakes promoters must award all the prizes that forth

are advertised.

Early in the year the Nixon administration served on the advertising industry that unless it worked strenuously to effect better and "more visible" forms of self regulation it was in for troubled times.

notice

As

if

in

response to this warning, a

regulation plans were

number

of self-

advanced by segments of the

false

and

the next year to state that previous ads for these products had been found by the FTC to be false,

misleading, and deceptive.

The advertising community

maintained that the decision was unfair. After a six-year battle, in March Congress finally passed a bill banning cigarette advertising from the nation's airwaves after Jan. 1, 1971. The bill also called on cigarette companies to beef up the health warning on all packages. Congress al.so made it quite clear that it would not look favourably on simply switching cigarette advertising dollars from radio and

68

Advertising

television to other media, particularly

they hap-

if

pened to be youth oriented. Nevertheless, by October it seemed fairly certain that as much as $30 million of the $200 million formerly spent on cigarette ads in broadcasting would find its way into outdoor advertising. Plans were also being made to sponsor sports events

that

would be

—together

with

sponsor's

the

December

name

FTC

accepted a proposal whereby eight major U.S. manufacturers agreed to voluntarily include tar and nicotine yield telecast.

In

the

information in their ads.

Ethnic groups were insisting that stereotypes of be used in advertising. Frito-Lay, which for some time had used a cartoon character their people not

called the "Frito bandito," finally advised the protest-

Mexican-American groups that it had instructed its agency to prepare new commercials. The quality of much of the advertising employed in the 1970 election campaign, which often used misleading information and smear and scare tactics, was generally regarded as having done more harm ing

investments but the investment of General Foods was down from $154 million to $151 million, ColgatePalmolive from $122 million to $121 million, and

Ford from $119,150,000

to $112,132,000.

The 663 advertising agencies covered in the Advertising Age annual agency billings survey had total billings of $9.9 billion in 1969, a

healthy increase of over the $8.9 billion reported in 1969 by 600 agencies. There were 66 agencies in the over-$2S million billing group, ten more than in 1968, and the largest agency once again was J. Walter Thompson,

11%

whose worldwide

billing total soared from $636.8 mil$736 million in 1969. The other top agencies and their 1969 billings were: Young &

lion in 1968 to billing

Rubicam ($522.9 million) McCann-Erickson ($511.1 Ted Bates ($375.1 million) BBDO ($356.2 million); Leo Burnett Co. ($355.9 million); Doyle Dj^ne Bernbach (DDB; $269.9 million) Foote, Cone & Belding ($265.5 million); Ogilvy & Mather International ($229.8 million); and Grey Advertising ;

million)

;

;

;

($228.1 million).

According

American Association of Adveragency profits showed a "modest improvement" in 1969 because of "a slight decrease in total payroll, which was tempered by a slight increase in overhead costs." Based on gross income, including commissions, service charges, and fees, the average net profit percentage in 1969 increased to 4.03%, up from 3.97%. Advertising agencies did to the

tising Agencies,

a

amount

considerable

of belt

particularly in the last half,

COURTESY. DOYLE DANE BERNBACH, INC.

Atr.-i

30 Volkswogens, Fother Siltman

still

beli«ves.

Advertisement created for Volkswagen of America, Inc., by Doyle Dane Bernbach, Inc.

than good. In

many

cases those employing the

offensive advertising lost their races.

As

most

a result of

strong criticism of the tactics used, Advertising

Age

and other responsible voices in the industry called for a set of ethical and moral standards for the advertising of political candidates and issues in future elections.

The 125

largest advertisers in the U.S. nudged media and promotion investment upward a modest 2.9% in 1969 for a total of $4,970,000,000, compared with $4,830,000,000 in 1968. Procter & Gamble continued its longtime leadership by edging its advertising upward 2% to an estimated $2 75 million, as compared with $270 million the year before. Second once again was General Motors, despite the cutback of its total investment from $214 million in their

Aerospace Industry:

when

tightening in the General

1970,

Motors

strike caused an almost complete cutback in massive automobile campaigns and in salaries and personnel at agencies handling General Motors accounts. The biggest account switch of 1970 was that of Miles Laboratories' "Alka-Seltzer" from Doyle Dane Bernbach to Wells, Rich, Green. DDB had acquired the account only in July 1969 and had produced for the product two of the most talked about television commercials of the year, one of an actor flubbing his line about spicy meatballs, and "Groom's First Meal," which won a Gold Lion award at the Cannes International Advertising Film Festival. Advertising revenue for Canadian media in 1970 was expected to show the lowest annual growth rate of the past decade, gaining an estimated 5.5% to $983 million, compared with a rate of almost 7% for the preceding ten years. The estimated revenue increases for 1970 for the various media were: daily newspapers, up 5% to $253 million; television, up 6% to

$131 million; radio, up 7% to $104 million; magaweekly newspapers, and business and farm pub-

zines,

lications,

up

5%

to

$132 million.

In September Canadian Consumer and Corporate Affairs Minister S. Ronald Basford suggested that limits on ad expenditures might have to be imposed

by

the

government unless the industry cut out "ad-

vertising overkill." In June, in response to criticism

by

federal authorities,

major cigarette manufacturers

agreed to stop advertising and offering cash prizes or major gifts with their various brands after July 1. To compensate, they turned more heavily to sponsorship of major sporting events, including car and snowmobile racing, curling matches, horse races, and tennis tournaments. In May the Canadian Radio-Television

Astronautics; Defense; Industrial Review; Transporta-

bers of the top ten, in decreasing order of investment,

Commission announced new regulations

tion

were

General Foods, Sears, Roebuck, ColgatePalmolive, Bristol-Myers, Ford Motor Co., American Home Products, Warner-Lambert, and American Telephone & Telegraph. Five of these eight increased their

increased Canadian content in both television and

see

Afars and Issas,

French Territory of the: see

Dependent States

1968 to $171.5 million in 1969. The next eight

mem-

radio programs.

calling

(J. J.

for

Gm.)

See also Industrial Review; IVIerchandising; Telecommunications; Television and Radio.

69

port of the prime minister ensured growing respect for the central government, but this did not prevent

A

monarchy

in

Afghanistan

is

An important factor in the modernizing process to which the king had committed himself was the steady improvement of communications with the outside

U.S.S.R.,

world. Several international airlines called regularly

constitutional

Asia,

central

bordered

the

West

China, Iran.

by

Pakistan,

Area:

250,775

and

Pass carried increasingly heavy

(649,508 sq.km.). Pop. (1970 17,124,583, including Pathans, Tadzhiks, Uz-

and

Kabul (metro, Language: Persian and

largest city:

area pop., 1970 est., 488,844).

Pashto. Religion: Muslim. King,

Mohammad

Zahir

Shah; prime minister in 1970, Noor Ahmad Etemadi. As expected, the elections held in the summer of 1969 for the House of the People and for one-third of the

House

of Elders produced

little

change in the

composition of Parliament. Since political parties were not legalized in time for the elections, most of the candidates were men of local prominence and were again chosen for their personal prestige rather than their political views. Only about 50% of the electorate voted; except in times of national crisis political life is so highly localized that interest in central institutions

remains

minimal.

Kabul, and the road from the capital to the Khyber traffic in both directions. The tourist industry received a great impetus both from the erection on the road between Kabul and Paghman of a luxury hotel with spectacular views, and from the readiness with which the Afghan diplomatic posts in many countries granted tourist at

sq.mi.

est.):

beks, Hazaras. Cap.

Africa

occasional outbreaks of severe intertribal hostOities.

Afghanistan

was generally true Kabul and its environs

This

throughout 1970, although in broadcasts of the proceedings in Parliament, which resulted in the confirmation (as required by

visas.

External communications were stimulated by a marked improvement in relations with Pakistan. The Afghan government showed increasing interest in the

economic success of the Regional Cooperation for Development program (RCD), which was being vigorously pursued by Pakistan, Iran, and Turkey; a visit to Kabul by the Pakistan finance minister, Nawab Mozaffar AM Khan Qizilbash, led to a scheme for technical aid in the fields of irrigation, seeds, and fertilizers

help Afghanistan achieve agricultural

to

self-sufficiency as part of its policy of decreasing its

reliance on external aid.

(L. F. R.

W.)

live

the 1964 constitution) of

Etemadi and

his

new

Prime Minister Noor

Ahmad

Cabinet, attracted large crowds

of listeners.

Progress in establishing a

modern type of adminis-

throughout the country to replace traditional was steady rather than spectacular. The personal popularity of the king and his firm suptration

tribal institutions

In 1960, a total of 17 countries, including Nigeria, Congo (Kinshasa), and former French depen-

Education. (1968-69) Primary, pupils 472,487, teach10,245; secondary, pupils 68,595, teachers 2,501; vocational, pupils 7,833; teacher training, students 7,724; vocational and teacher training, teachers 778; higher (including 2 universities), students 4,320, teaching staff (1967-68) 612. Finance. Monetary unit: afghani, with a par value £1 sterling) of 45 afghanis to U.S. $1 (108 afghanis and a free rate (Sept. 14, 1970) of 84 afghanis to U.S. (1969-70 Budget afghanis £1 sterling). (200 $1 est.): revenue 6,796,000,000 afghanis; expenditure 7,419,000,000 afghanis (excluding development expenditure financed by foreign aid). Money supply: (March 1970) 7,01 1 ,000,000 afghanis; (March 1969) 5,931,000,000 afghanis. Foreign Trade. (1968-69) Imports: 9,266,798,000 afghanis; exports 5,348,316,000 afghanis. Import sources: U.S.S.R. 38%; Japan 10%; India 9%; West Germany 9%; U.S. 8%; China 7%. Export destinations: U.S.S.R. 37%; India 22%; U.K. 10%; Pakistan 8%; U.S. 6%. Main exports: fresh fruit 22%; dried fruit 15%; natural gas 13%; karakul (Persian lamb) skins 12%; wool 10%; cotton 8%; carpets 6%. ers

=

=

Transport and Communications. Roads (motor1968) c. 6,700 km. Motor vehicles in use (1968): passenger 29,200; commercial (including buses) 17,able;

(1968): 95,770,000 passenger-km.; ton-km. Telephones (Jan. 1969) c. 10,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1967) 248,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969; 1968 in parentheses): rice (1967) 345, (1966) 337; wheat (1967) 2,200, (1966) 2,033; corn 785 (773); barley (1967) 37S, (1966) 375; cotton, lint 30 (24); sugar, raw value (1969-70) c. 18, (1968-69) c. 18; wool, greasy (1968) c. 27, (1967) c. 25. Livestock (in 000; 1968-69): cattle 3,605; sheep 21,668 (including c. 6,000 karakul); horses (1967-68) c. 277. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 196869): coal 125; electricity (kw-hr.) 325,000; cement 86; salt 41; cotton yarn 0.4; cotton fabrics (m.) 50,Air

traffic

freight 5,375,000 net

000.

A decade after Africa's momentous year of independence (1960) the continent in 1970 continued to experience the benefits and difficulties of freedom. The year's most dramatic event occurred early when the Nigerian government won a military victory over secessionist Biafra on January 13. the

AFGHANISTAN

800.

Africa

At the time, there were new states, but after ten years neither had been realized. In recent years, numerous coups, tribal disputes, border frictions, and economic problems had plagued the continent. No nation, however, petitioned during this era dencies cut their colonial

ties.

predictions of Utopia or chaos for the

r

.

.

•

1

I

1

Homeless Ibo refugees ..^^^^ g makeshift

»

for a return to colonial status.

As

in

previous years, Africans displayed both an

and a recognition of their deJ » n u-i while pendence upon outside countries. But economically tied to foreigners for capital, trade, and skills, assertive nationalism 1

.

.

•

1

camp

shortly

surrender of Biafra to federal

government forces TERENCE SPENCES. MAGAZINE TIME

©

"LIFE" INC.

the tenth anniversary celebrations that would make the economy self-sufficient in four years. As declared

on

Dec. 2, 1969, the government required that within ten years of the granting of a business concession, 75% of the managerial staff and all the lowskilled workers were to be Nigerian. Gowon said

on October

1

that he did not expect a return to civilian

rule before 1976.

Coups some 25

d'etat.

During the decade of independence,

successful coups and

many more

unsuccessful

attempts at seizing power took place throughout the continent. Their causes, a compound of frustrated expectations of rapidly improving living standards, dissatisfaction with party disputes, ineffectual leadership, different

tion of

power

economic philosophies, and concentrain the armed forces, were not easily

overcome. Individual circumstances varied. In Uganda, where a would-be assassin shot and wounded Pres. Milton Obote on Dec. 19, 1969. the opposition Democratic Party was banned. In the Congo A nomadic

family rests

at a waterhole

Mauritania near the Spanish Sahara border. Nomads apparently in

are unaffected

by the tripartite agreement

made

in

September 1970

between Mauritania, Morocco, and Algeria concerning the ownership of the Spanish Sahara and its phosphate reserves.

they could maneuver with increasing ability for aid from sources other than their former colonial gov-

For example, the building of Algeria's $600 million iron and steel complex was being done by French, West German, Soviet, and Italian concerns. Zambia, having taken over 51% of the copper companies' assets on January 1 but being unable, by itself, to mine copper, distributed new prospecting concessions to Canadian, U.S., and Japanese companies. And while an upward-turning economy in the Congo ernors.

(Kinshasa) might,

in part,

be ascribed

to the return

of approximately 45,000 Belgians, concessions were also given to an international consortium to mine copper in Katanga. Nigeria, formerly a British colony,

was able to suppress Biafran secession with both British and Soviet aid. And Chinese funds and labour were being used in the construction of the road between Tanzania and Zambia.

Nigeria. in

May

The breakaway

Tanzam

rail-

of Biafra which had begun

1967 ended with the capture of Owerri on

January

10.

Relief

for

the

defeated Biafrans was

quickly begun. Original estimates of death by starva-

hundred thousand) were revised downbetween 20,000 and 50,000. At the peak of

tion (several

ward

to

relief operations in March more than three million people were receiving emergency aid. Nigeria's chief

Gen. Yakubu Gowon, described his nation's victory as a triumph of Nigerian unity. The war had cost the country approximately $800 million in a land where per capita income was $70-$80 per of state, Maj.

(Brazzaville) four persons received capital sentences for their part in an attempted coup

on Nov. 8. 1969, aimed at bringing back former president Fulbert Youlou, ousted in 1963. On March 24, 1970, more than 60 persons were reported killed in an attempt to overthrow the government. In Dahomey, after 17 months of rule, the regime of fimile Zinsou was superseded by the military rule

Army

Maurice^ were held throughout the country in March, but they were attended by violence and the government annulled them. A constitutional coup occurred in Lesotho subsequent to the electoral defeat, on January 27, of Prime Minister Chief Leabua Jonathan. With the words, "I have seized power and I am not ashamed of it ... in my conscience I know that the majority of the people are behind me," Chief Jonathan imprisoned 30 leaders of the opposition Congress Party and drove King Moshoeshoe II into temporary exile. Guinean forces repulsed an invasion of the country in November. Pres. Sekou Toure claimed that the invaders included Portuguese forces and white mercenaries, who presumably were attempting to destroy of

the

Kouandete

chief

(Dec.

of

10,

staff,

1969).

Lieut.

Col.

Elections

the bases of guerrillas active in neighbouring Portu-

Guinea. A United Nations mission sent to Guinea reported that the invading force was led by regular white Portuguese officers and included mostly African troops from Portuguese Guinea. Lisbon denied any responsibility for the raid.

guese

Gowon's words the war had contributed

Unsuccessful plots against their respective govern-

to the objective of asserting "the ability of the black

ments were reported by Morocco (February 18), Somalia (April 27), and the Sudan (August 20). Earlier in the year, the Sudanese government put down an uprising of 30,000 Ansaris led by the imam al-Mahdi. He was killed. In Togo the official newspaper reported on August 9. that 2 7 people, including Ghanaians and Dahomeans, had been arrested in an abortive coup. Twenty-seven people were tried, and in November four were acquitted and the remainder sentenced to terms of six months to 20 years. Nationalism. Continuing to seek their identities,

year.

man

Yet

in

to build a strong, progressive

modern

state."

Gowon promised

and prosperous would be

that there

no policy of vindictiveness but that high-echelon Biafran leaders would be barred from holding office. In September, reconciliation was achieved with the four countries that had recognized Biafra: Tanzania, Zambia, Gabon, and Ivory Coast. Former Biafran leader Gen. Odumegwu Ojukwu took refuge in the Ivory Coast. Biafra's high oil revenues, which in 1969 amounted to $100 million and which had been a factor in emboldening the region to secede, were taken over by the Nigerian government. The government encouraged Anglo-Dutch (Shell-British Petroleum) in April to announce expansion of operations by $160 million. Concessions were granted to U.S., West German, Japanese, and Nigerian companies. Hoping to expand revenue fivefold by 1975, Gowon outlined a plan at

African states displayed nationalism in a variety of ways. Kenya, on May 9, proclaimed Swahili to be the official, national language, and a plan to adopt

was proposed. In Uganda, Ghana, Malawi, and Tanzania, Asian businessmen who did not secure licenses were to lose their holdings. Ghana compelled approximately 200.000 African "foreigners" to leave the country. Libya saw the British (March a national dress

71

Africa May Day parade

in

Algeria

features workers with saws rather than military might.

Under the leadership of Houari

Boumedienne

adopted dynamic programs of economic and political the nation has

development. MARC RIBOUO

FROM

MAGNUM

31) and U.S. troops (June 11) leave their military The government of Zanzibar, piqued by the

bases.

exclusiveness of residents of Asian ancestry, forced girls

of Persian, descent to

marry members of the

Cabinet.

To knit its people together more firmly, Ivor>' Coast announced plans for a nationwide educational television system. On June 17, the formerly estranged presidents of the two Congos ended their countries' disaffection by reconciling their differences at a meeting in the middle of the river that forms the boundary. In July nonwhites in South Africa were barred from participating in a Beethoven music competition on the ground that it was not "their" music. Zambians acted as hosts to the third Afro-Asian Conference of 54 nonaligned nations in early September. In his opening address to

the

conference,

Zambian

Pres.

Kenneth Kaunda (see Biography) called on the nonaligned nations

to

work together

strength against the world's

in

order to gain

major powers.

He

also

warned that a crisis was developing in regard to the minority white regimes in southern Africa. The conference adopted resolutions in support of the Palestine liberation

movements

Africa. It

Africa,

if

UN

movement

against Israel, and

Southeast Asia and southern also proposed sanctions m regard to southern

other such

in

the countries in the region did not

conform

of the banks, insurance companies, and important in-

Uganda were nationalized, though the fishing industry employing 30,000 was being developed through external assistance. In Libya the property of Italians was confiscated on July 21. Earlier in the month the country's oilimporting and distributing companies were nationalized. The L'.S. -owned Occidental Petroleum Co. reluctantly signed an agreement on September 3, raising the oil tax rate, and other companies followed. In effect, the new agreements gave Libya and the companies a 75-25 split on oil revenues. Ironically, while drilling for oil. Occidental uncovered in Libya a basin of underground water "equal to the flow of the Nile for a thousand years." On July 21, Algeria notified France in a unilateral revision of a 1965 accord that royalty taxes on Frenchowned property would be raised by 50'^r retroactive to January 1969. Earlier in the summer. Algeria launched a four-year development plan calling for the investment of $5 billion. In the Congo (Kinshasa) Pres. Joseph Mobutu, although he had nationalized the copper companies in December 1966. traveled to the U.S., in part to solicit involvement by private industry in his country. An economic boom in the Congo raised government receipts by 44% in 1969 and reserves to dustries and plantations of

$250

million.

resolution on decolonization and racial dis-

Ghana and Kenya, however, which had

These included: a trade embargo against Portugal, Rhodesia, and South Africa; severance of diplomatic relations with Portugal and South Africa; and refusal of landing rights and port facilities to aircraft and ships going to or returning from South Africa, Portugal, and Rhodesia. The conference also

tionalized several industries, were faced with

to a

crimination.

pledged

ments

more material support

to liberation

move-

southern Africa, to be channeled through the Organization of .'\frican Unity. Lesotho and Swaziland, in

both heavily dependent economically on South Africa, expressed reservations about the resolution.

Zambia's Trade Ministry drafted laws that would ban miniskirts, wigs, and skin-lightening creams. One-

also

na-

economic

Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya ordered employers to increase their work force by 10% to meet the unemployment problem. Ghana's prime minister. Kofi Busia, continued to seek refinancing of the country's large foreign debt of $800 million. Both lands pressed their search for oil, with Ghana making its first offshore strike in June. Economically successful in Tanzania were the ujamaas (agricultural cooperatives) to which many people flocked. Tanzania found no inconsistency in accepting a $10 million loan from Italy to build the Kilimanjaro International Airport and using Chinese labour and money to build the pressures. Pres.

party-state elections

Tanzam

Senegal,

nese workers and an interest-free loan of $412 million

nationalized portions of their industry. In

from the Peking government, was being built so as Zambia an outlet for its copper other than through the white-dominated southern African states. On May 7, the Somalian government declared the nationalization of banks and oil companies with compensation. Symbolic of Africa's interest in financial matters was the selection of an economist to be premier of Tunisia. Southern Africa. No major change occurred in the European-dominated southern lands. Rhodesia became a republic on March 2, and held its first election on April 10. Prime Minister Ian Smith's party won all

were held during the year in Cameroon, Congo (Kinshasa), Tanzania, and Kenya (December 1969). The Economy. Per capita income for 11 African countries, as reported by the UN Economic Commission for Africa, was between $300— $400 per year; for 13 countries it was $100-$200 per year; and in 17 countries it was less than $100 per year. Most Africans till lived in a subsistence economy, but they and their leaders wanted the products of modern industrialism. Needing external capital and skills, many thought, nonetheless, that they were prisoners of a "neocolonial" economy. Consequently, several countries

May, 60%

to give

railroad.

The

railroad, involving 6,000 Chi-

seats.

Under

the

new Land Tenure

Act, the whites

Rhodesia were allocated one-half of the land despite the fact that they were outnumbered 20-1 by black Africans. Protest came from the Roman Catholic Church, which feared that interracial worship would in

be prevented. Funds for education of the black Africans, which to a large degree had been channeled through mission schools, were to be reduced. In South Africa results of the general elections held on April 22 showed a loss by the Nationalist Party

government of 9 seats to the more liberal United Party and a gain of 4 from the ultrarightist Reconstituted Nationalists. Black nations continued to oppose South Africa's regime and received a promise of $200,000 from the World Council of Churches in September to aid guerrilla warfare. The Conservative government of Britain, however, decided to resume arms sales to

Pres.

of

Kenneth Kaunda

Zambia

chairs the Organization of African Unity

heads

of

states

meeting

Ababa September 1970.

at Addis in

South Africa, ostensibly to protect the sea route around the Cape. In July, France supplied South Africa with the first of three submarines. Efforts to isolate the South Africans economically were rebuffed by Japanese interests, which negotiated to build a

$428 million iron ore export harbour. The world's sports community, however, stung South Africa by banning it from the 1972 Olympic Games (May 15), Davis Cup tennis competition (March 23), and international track and field meets for two years (August 31).

Signs that not

all

South African whites agreed with

the government's racial separation policies were seen

by church and student groups. The Supreme Court in September again acquitted 19 Africans accused of terrorism who had been arrested in 1969, freed in February 1970, and rearrested. Despite millionaire Harry Oppenheimer's observation that discrimination against African labour was "economic suicide," white mine workers threatened to strike if

of State William Rogers conducted a of the African continent, the of his stature.

"We want

first

no military

by

IS-day tour

a U.S. official

allies,

no spheres

power competition in Africa," he said. In October it was revealed that the U.S. had had an agreement to protect Ethiopia since of influence, no big

1960.

In Tanzania a law easing the restrictions on polyg-

amy was

passed. In South Africa, although they had

acted as extras in the motion picture Zulu, 500 Zulus

were not permitted

to see the film. Forty-six years

Emperor Haile dramatic gesture, laid a wreath on the tomb of Italy's unknown soldier. The French, who had

after his last visit to Italy, Ethiopian Selassie, in a

government of Chad for several years in Arab rebellion in the north of that country, said that they would quit Chad in 1971. Death came to U.A.R. Pres. Gamal Abd-al-Nasser, to Abdullah Khalil, formerly prime minister of the Sudan, and to Belkacem Krim, a former Algerian rebel (W. So.) leader. (See Obituaries.) assisted the its fight

See

against an

also

Refugees;

Dependent States; Migration, International; articles on the various political units.

Encyclopaedia Britannic.a Films. Life in the Sahara (1953); Egypt and the Nile (1954); East Africa (Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda) (1962); The Suez Canal (1962); Continent of Africa (Lands Below the Sahara) (1963); The Republic of South Africa (1963); West Africa (Nigeria) (1063); The Nile Vallev and Its People (1964); Oasis (1965); Africa: Living in Two Worlds (1970); Boy of Botswana (1970); Citv Boy of the Ivory Coast (1970); A Family of Liberia (1970); Two Boys of Ethiopia ( 1970); Youth Builds a Nation in Tanzania (1970).

in protests

black workers were trained for skilled jobs, even in the black "homelands." Fang Yi (centre), minister Commission Economic Relations

of the

for

with Foreign Countries in the government of the People's Republic of China, and two other members of the Chinese delegation attend inauguration ceremonies for the Tanzam Railway in

Dar es Salaam,

Tanzania, Oct. 26, 1970.

In the fight against African guerrillas operating in and Mozambique the Portu-

Agriculture Whereas the world agricultural situation in 1969 had been characterized by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) as stagnant, that of 1970 could be described as one of renewed but limited progress. In 1970, unlike 1965-68, the increases were largest where they were most needed. Western Eu-

the colonies of Angola

Some

guese government admitted that heavy casualties re-

rope and North America, produced somewhat less than in 1969, while the big increases were in India, the U.S.S.R., and perhaps China. Rice, the staple food of the Far East, was in surplus, and sugar was exported

from an attack in February in Mozambique near the Zambian frontier. Also during the year a sulted

Portuguese revolutionary group sabotaged a freighter used in ferrying supplies to Africa. Miscellany. An International Congress of African People met in Atlanta. Ga., in September and heard

many

expressions of black solidarity. U.S. Secretary

by

of the developed areas, especially

India.

Even some

areas in Latin America and

Africa experienced a degree of progress.

Fittingly

1970 Nobel Peace Prize went to U.S. agriculturist Norman E. Borlaug {see Biography), who had been instrumental in developing high-yield grains that had contributed to improved production enough, the

in the less

developed countries.

Yet widespread skepticism remained that the Green Revolution, which in one form had led to the planting of new varieties of wheat and rice on an estimated 34 million ac. in .'\sia, would serve the food needs of the rapidly growing population for very long. One estimate was that an annual expenditure of $11 billion by governments, industry, and private sources would be required to expand the global food supply to meet needs in 1979. In April a total of $122.6 million was approved for World Food Program projects in 22 countries.

NORTH AMERICA United States. Farmers and the wider pubHc were reminded in 1970 of the complex and sometimes fragile chain of conditions on which the abundant produc-

modern agriculture depends. The southern corn leaf blight, a blackish-brown rot, spread north tivity of

into the

Corn

Belt, turning a promising corn crop into

a mediocre one.

com

By

early

crop was officially

prices sure to rise,

damage to the confirmed. With feed-grain

autumn

blight

farmers began to slow down pro-

many and how much

programs. The total wheat crop was estimated 7% less than a year earlier. The average yield of 31.2 bu. per ac. exceeded the record 30.7 bu. of 1969.

33.6 bu. per ac, also a

wondered whether to plant corn in 1971 resistant seed would be available. Current supplies were ample, however; because of earlier expansion, hog prices had declined as much as 80% from summer peaks and broilers were selling below cost. Overall, livestock provided the major contribution

acreage reductions, production, at 1,108,941.000 bu., was the lowest since 1966. Spring wheat other than

comparatively favourable situation; crops were held in check not only by fortuitous circumbut also by official programs designed to keep prices up. Export markets proved unexpectedly large, particularly for soybeans and feed grains. Fears were stances,

expressed over rising protectionist sentiment and the possibility that taliate against

re-

such products in the future.

Farm numbers ning of the year,

Average farm

might lead other countries to

it

declined to 2,895,000 at the begin-

down 28% from

a decade earlier.

income per farm. Unionization made a major breakthrough as the long boycott against California grapes ended with recognition of the union by the growers. The public became more aware of possible conflicts between a quality environment and pollution resulting from such agricultural activities as fertilization and the use of pesticides and herbicides. Chicago lost its last claim to be "hog butcher for the world" when that market was discontinued in May and Peoria. 111., became the new livehog price-basing point. The Chicago stockyards announced plans to discontinue the handling of all farm size increased, as did

animals on Feb.

1,

1971.

Crops. U.S. farmers' intentions in

March 1970 were

durum totaled 201,205.000 bu., about the same as in 1969. The durum wheat crop, at 50,036,000 bu., was than half that of the preceding year.

less

The hay and forage crop index was estimated at 116, down from 117 in 1969. Total hay acreage was 62,728,000, increased from 61,838,000 ac. harvested in

The total crop was indicated at 126,432,000 compared with 127,127.000 tons a year earlier. Alfalfa accounted for 73.877.000 tons and clover and 1969.

tons,

timothy for 23,927,000 tons. Preliminary indications were that the record high oilseed index of 196. set in 1969, would be exceeded by 2%, with production reaching 40.7 million tons. The 1970 soybean crop was estimated at a record 1,134,151,000 bu. from 41,619.000 ac. Cottonseed production was expected to rise by 4%. and the prospective peanut crop was up 16% to 2,926,775.000 lb. Flaxseed acreage was up 12%, but late planting, frost, and some dry weather reduced the crop to an estimated 30,877,000 bu., compared with 36,448.000 bu. in 1969. The index of cotton production was 85. compared with 82 a year earlier. The crop was estimated at 10.618.400 bales (480 lb. each), compared with 10.015.000 bales in 1969.

World

cotton production also rose: the total was estimated at 51,968,000 bales, including 16,518,000 bales

Communist countries. The production index

from

for the U.S. 1970 sucar crop

declined to 170 from the 1969 record of 175. Sugar-

million ac.

cane acreage was 9% above the previous year and production was indicated at 25,278,000 tons, 12% more than in 1969, Sugar-beet acreage and production both

above a year earlier. Acreage to be har\'ested was indicated at 289 million, up 1%. As fete as early August

fell, however; the sugar-beet crop Was forecast at 26.127.000 tons. Production of maple syrup totaled

to plant 6.4 million

more acres

to

major crops than

in

1969, but because of poor weather the acreage finally

planted totaled about 300 million, only

1

compared with 1,032,000

prospects nearly equaled the record 1969 outturn, but

1,105.000

mid- August a major crop, corn (maize), was heavily damaged by a widespread infection of southern leaf blight (Race T strain of Helminthosporiiim maydis). The July 1 prospects had indicated a record

earlier.

Production of all types of tobacco was indicated at about 1,873,742,000 lb., compared with 1,806.656.000

corn crop of 4,819,999,000 bu.,

000. Production of flue-cured types rose to 1.160.909,-

after

864,000 bu. in 1969, but the

compared with

November

report

4,577,-

showed

a total of only 4,103,973,000 bu. for an average yield of 70,8bu, per ac. This was 10% below 1969 and 15%, or 716 million bu., less than the July estimate.

There

continued to be unanswered questions about the feeding quality of the corn, as well as

supplies

would

for

about seed-corn 1971 planting and whether the blight

Agriculture

The average winter wheat yield was new record, but because of

duction of red meats, poultry, and eggs, and

to the still

73

official

at 1,360,182,000 bu.,

lb. in

gal.,

a year

gal.

1969. Acreage was reduced to 905,000 from 922,-

000

lb., but Burley declined to 552 million lb. Cigar binder increased about 20%. Fresh vegetable supplies from winter and .spring

crops

fell moderately in 1970. largely because of heavy and freezing in Florida. Summer and fall supplies were about 2% above 1969; onions, cabbage, and celery were short but carrots were abundant and

rains

persist.

Acreage planted to oats, barley, and grain sorghums was reduced, but those crops were less problem ridden than corn; total feed-grain production was estimated at about 159 million tons, 9% below 1969. The sorghum grain crop was an indicated 707,778.000 bu., about 5% below 1969. Production of oats was estimated at 891,310.000 bu., 6% below the 1969 crop. Barley was estimated at 410,255,000 bu., down 2%. In late autumn the production index for feed grains was 112 ri 95 7-59 = 100), compared with 123 for the preceding year.

The production index for food grains (wheat, rye, and rice) was 122, compared with 130 in 1969. The total crop of 46 million tons was down 6%. Acreage harvested was 46,804,000, compared with 51,017.000 in 1969, largely as a result of acreage reductions under

Table

I.

Index Numberi of Volume of Agricuilurol Production Averogo 1952-56

=

100 Total ogricullorol

Per capita food

production

Region

Western Europe North America Latin Americo Oceanic For East (excl. China and Japan)

U5

Near

EosI {excl. Israel) Africo (excl. Sooth Africa) Eastern Europe and U.S.S.R. Other developed countries (Japan, Sooth Africa, Israel)

All

above reQions

production

19481949* 1968 52

1969* 1968

125 149 163 154 159 142 169

145 126 147 166 148 157 142 174

84 93 87 90 87 82 88 82

129 105 100 108 106 94 142

130 107 102 129 106 108 97 148

163 148

166 147

81

143 112

143 114

121

194852 87

99 97 102 94 90 97 87

and

•Preliminary. Source: Food and Aaricollore Organization of the United Notions, Aer/co//ur», 1970 (1970).

f/ie

87 S/oto of

food


6S. IIAveroge of 4 years. 1|Averoqe of 3 years. 91950. 61945. °Averaae of 2 yeors. *farms and estates only. »1966. *ln( Sources: FAO Produclion Ytorbook 1969, FAO Trad* Ytarbook 1969, fAO Monthly Sullelin ol Agricullural Economici and Stalitlici. '

+ 79 -12* -25*

-166*

-36 +148

21

-667*

5,161

404

2,165

OCEANIA Australia

-30* -2*

60}

]

c.l}

-2* -8* +147 -69 +18*

-30*

181

-3,487

25.000}

31

-6*

1

Venezuela

35|i

-261*

61

— -

-

-1*

-164

Colomttla

114

280

C.65} 118

+3*

-6*

24}

3011

-28*

-63*

—44

7,816

-4* +15*

-237*

8.828}

6

.

+33

-94

+ 1* + 444*

—

14

_

+ 1*

-

-

47

1*

, '

-334

570

c.14,082

3*

-3*

6*

6,220

-30*

f

+ 54

5.7510

_ _

500

146

-8

+ 120*

.

-4,502

13

3,078

-

C.480

+ 811

+662

50

+ 27*

+ 115*

7,680

/

'

-5*

3}

42}

+e.

Chile

Peru

r

-45*

SOUTH AMERICA Argentina

[

108}

-116 -34* -149 +20*

f

-2,174

421

_ -

-

137

+3*

+ 1*

180}

I

-1*

C.36

-4*

-

-2*

18* C.80

{

Canada

United States

2.206

f

-233*

26

2.49511

14,120}

135

_ _

-5:

6

-

6}

-15*

1

—

e,24

326

/

-7*

-18

-125

+ 22*

-1

52

-19*

C.86

—

-

3.740

538}

+3*

-203

+ 73

in f JU "I

Algeria

-73*

+3*

-2,314

4,820

_

Vietnam South

AFRICA

+ 4t

-236*

{+T,702

c.421

57

_

-

-

2,270

287}

_

—

_

119

+ 52*

627

20

+36* -3*

+ 278*

248

—

-

— ?t 321

2§

c.2,081

+30

44

34

17,9619

+8t

+2

_ _

+2t

-

115

5

I

-51 -21

I

—44*

-

—487* -210*

-138

10,593

-

+ 7*t -22*

+ 206*

515

5,660

-45*

164

258

-157

34 11,639}

2,852

-55*

2.066

25

452

—39

I

767

-242*

—

/

C.50

482

-2*

2,424

8,

162

94

804

-1*

I

— 11 /

C.155

519

1}

I

69*

+ 1*

C.18,000S

-45t

+ 197t

-17*

t

4

-72

338 I

-262 (

-37*

+ 1* -1.016t

-47*

225

C.8

-7,122*

+ 7,033*

-177

3§

—

+8

f 27,054'

693

3

-37*

I

-14 i

-143*

-804

Philippines Syria

+2*

-26.965'

263,698

120

+ 24

1

1

Pakistan

2,886

294,650

1966-69 average

I

-250*

+95*

I

Malaysia

25

/

_

Iran

Korea, South

3,066

_

Indonesia

Japan

+24

47

— -4,966*

—425

I

C.120

163

73$

27.000§

f

167.335

139,516

480

670

c.l, 480

1969

316

1.110

2.516

average

2,415

C.28

+98

average

720

240

+ 9*

average

+3*1

i

654

323

4.882

45

15,91311

+280* -57 +238 -410

/

/

(ASIA Burma Cambodia China

345

260

2,397

1.402

-316

+ 791* 1

35,7591

+26 +400

I

U.S.S.R.

-1,200

c.2.067

1,146

-3*

/

1

Romania

Switzerland

-227* +96* -225

f

c.4,714

Pert u gal

Sweden

-|-34g«

1

677

324

—1,895

1

593

718

1948-52

—

J

-16*

1956-69

-39

I

Imports— Exports+

Production

1948-52

-15t

/

Rice

Imports— Exports+

+ 2*

-2*

-1*

-4* {1966-67 overage. (M. C.

Mac

0.)

80

CUlture

and antiquated and ineffiwere blamed by the prime minister, who indicated that some officials in charge of sugar production would be replaced. The government's recruitment of a reported 400,000 labourers over the tenmonth harvest period was costly in terms of its effect on other sectors of the economy. In a July 26 address, Castro stated that milk production had been reduced by a quarter and that production and delivery of cement, fertilizer, and other industrial products had declined sharply. Some 5.5 million tons of sugar from the 1970 harvest was earmarked for export to ComAcuities, labour shortages,

dent

mills

munist bloc countries, principally the U.S.S.R. The USDA's preliminary estimate for the 1969-70

world sugar harvest was 79,671,000 short tons (raw value), an increase of about 6% above the 1968-69 record of 75.3 million short tons. In addition to Cuba's record crop, South American production was up about 6% and African production rose slightly to an estimated 4,985,000 tons. A record cane harvest raised India's production 20% above the previous year. Substantial declines were registered for South American and African exporting nations, however, and this accounted for the generally lower volume of trading. Although the International Sugar Council had agreed to hold sugar export quotas for 1970 at 90% of basic export tonnages set by the International Sugar Agreement, a rise in prices by mid- July led the council to distribute an additional 125,000 metric tons to exporters to maintain price stability. Additional quantities

were authorized

in

October and November.

had declined

With

to the

lowest level since World

War

agricultural productivity increasing about

a year, the farm workers,

who

constituted

of Britain's labour force, requested a

some

37%

II.

6% 3%

increase

would raise farm costs more than! £100 million yearly. Net agricultural income for the' year was approximately £600 million, compared with a target of £650 million and a revised 1969-70 figure, of £528 million. The Price Review determinations allowed an additional £54 million in price guarantees, together with an extra £25 million for fertilizer, capi-| tal grants, and incentives for brucellosis eradication. The problem of mounting costs continued, however, and some 60% of farmers sampled reported cutting back on expenditures. A third attempt was made to gain admission to the EEC. While estimates of the possible effects on agriculture varied widely, it was generally felt that farm production might rise 3 to 10% but would be partly offset by higher costs. Net income would be higher, although distribution of gains and losses would differ widely among commodities, types of farming, and regions. Costs of food would increase 18 to 26%, with expenditures on food rising by some 15 to 22%. Early season crops in Ireland were good in 1970. in basic

pay;

this

i

^

1

Cattle production declined in 1969 to 1,260,000 head,

and live cattle exports totaled 570,000 head, compared with 625,000 in 1968. Hog output set a new record of more than 2 million and milk production continued near 7 billion lb. About 20% of the government's 1970-71 budget, or £95.8 million, was earmarked for

An

in 1970 was troubled both by problems of agricultural production and by those of organization and surpluses. The European harvest was reported to be almost universally poor. The wheat crop of about 43.6 million metric tons was 4% smaller

official White Paper on the implicamembership estimated that in seven years agricultural output would increase 30 to 40% in volume and even more in value. Membership would mean elimination of price supports and export subsidies, and food prices would increase 11 to 16%. EEC Countries. Though production of several im-

than in 1969, while barley, at 36.2 million tons, was

portant crops declined moderately in the

down 7%. Even

tries in 1970, the

agriculture.

WESTERN EUROPE

tions of

Western Europe

13%

the

Western European apple crop was

smaller than that of the previous year. Observers

continued to wonder when,

EEC

would sort out its farm policy and control burdensome surpluses of some products such as butter. United Kingdom and Ireland. In Britain the harvest was better than on the continent. A large acreage of fall-sown winter wheat developed ahead of an uncommonly dry summer. Spring sown crops, especially barley and sugar beets, were not so fortunate, and later harvests were below those of 1969. Generally higher market prices and a reduction in deficiency payments under the guaranteed price program resulted. The wheat crop totaled 4,148,000 metric tons, compared with 3,373,000 tons in 1969, while barley declined to 7,819.000 tons from 8.698,000. Food-grain imports in 1969-70 rose as much as 10% over the if

ever, the

previous year.

Livestock presented a mixed picture in 1970. Not

were livestock products imported in large amounts, but three breeds of cattle, Limousin, Simmental, and MRI, were brought from the continent for testing to improve production. Livestock markets were boycotted for a week in May as farmers expressed their dissatisfaction with the terms of the 1970 Price Review. Beef production was expected to increase by 30,000 short tons in 1970, but 1969 had been a poor year. Despite a 6.5% decline in dairy cow numbers in the year ended March 31, milk production rose 1% to a record 2,205,000,000 gal. Swine breeding herds were even smaller than in 1969, when numbers only

EEC

EEC

coun-

area continued to produce and hold

surpluses of several major agricultural items, notably

wheat and butter. The butter situation was still it was reported that almost $1 billion had been spent over 12 months to reduce the surplus from about 400,000 metric tons to 150,000 tons. Though at least 300,000 dairy cows had been used for beef, butter production was exceeding consumption at a rate of about 170,000 tons per year. Approximately $700 million had been spent in 196869 for price support measures and export subsidies for grain, and still higher expenditures were anticipated in 1969-70. Proposals for structural reforms in the agriculture of the EEC appeared to be stalled, although agreement was reached on the framework for soft

considered serious; in September

future financing.

The intensive but modernized agriculture of the Netherlands continued to develop. Broiler numbers were up by about 15% in the second half of 1969, and poultry meat exports rose 7%. Laying hen numbers rose 20%, and egg exports were nearly 15% above the 1968 level. Red-meat production also showed gains, as did milk cow numbers and milk production. West German

grain crops

all

showed declines

in

1970; total production fell from 17 million tons in 1969 to less than 16 million tons. Reduction in the number of small farms continued at the rate of about

4%

per year, and a

new program was set up to bring The agricultural budget

industry to the rural areas.

for 1970 totaled about $1,941,000,000,

$1,391,000,000

in the

previous year.

compared with

»

CHI

,

,

m

the livestock and

fruit

crop was estimated

,

fruit sectors.

000 tons from 14,535,000. Barley, oats, and rye were

at 224,000 tons, near the level of 1969.

less

seriously reduced,

and

September

in

ported that corn production was up plies

it

was

culture proceeded, particularly .

.

•11-

the

demand. Farm

3.1

deteriorated

prices rose

between

2

in

relation

to

and 12.5^ as part of the

agricultural price realignment.

The reference

EEC target

was raised from $4.15 per hundredweight to $4.46. It was not clear to what degree this was related to farm unrest. The 1970 Italian wheat crop of 9.5 million tons was price for milk ex-dairy

almost as large as the 9,536,000-ton crop of 1969.

summer

suggested that

producer with 420,000 tons, and 150,000 tons for Greece. Both cattle and beef were imported to meet demand, and some cheese was imported from the U.S. Other Countries. Agricultural production remained as the leading olive oil

against 358,000 tons for Spain

generally pro.sperous in other European countries. The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) marked its tenth anniversary; Iceland was admitted, changing the Outer Seven to eight, but with the U.K., Ireland, Denmark, and Norway seeking admission to the EEC, the organization's future was problematical. Denmark seemed to be the most eager of the applicants, not only because, as an efficient producer of livestock products, it found EFT.A's exclusion of agricultural goods from the tariff-free schedule discriminatory, but also because its important farm exports had

been increasingly squeezed out of the especially

West Germany. On

EEC

countries,

the other hand, special

agreements between EFTA members had been permitted, and the one between Denmark and the U.K. accounted for more than half of all Danish agricultural exports. The highly important Danish barley crop dropped to 4.857.000 metric tons in 1970, compared with 5,255,000 tons in 1969. Poultry production increased about 20% in the first half of 1970. A new agricultural price act with overproduction penalties became effective in Finland in April 1970. Dairy herds were severely culled to obtain a slaughter bilateral trade

of $120 per cow. A soil bank program took 222,000 ac. out of production in 1969, at a compensation of about $24 per acre. Austria developed a sur-

premium

plus of wheat and efforts were

made

to shift

•

tons,

^^

cated at 168.000 tons, Spain produced 35.000 tons,

surpassed only by the U.S. (71,500 tons) and Italy.

The world

filbert

crop also was large, with Spain pro-

of the 334,600-ton total. The orange crop rose despite severe drought, and new markets were being sought in late 1970.

viding

29,000

tons

The

1970 might be a vintage year for wine. Italy's almond crop was forecast at 37.000 tons, 61% above 1969. Some fruit crops set new records, and as much as 100.000 tons (mostly pears and peaches) were destroyed because of high costs and low prices to farmers. Italy displaced Spain long, hot

totaled only 4

1

compared with 4,691,000 tons in 1969; barley crop also declined, from 3,855.000 tons to million. Of a large 1970 world almond crop indi-

milhon

increased somewhat, but livestock production in

general

,

.

The Greek dried

The important Spanish wheat crop

re-

25%. Beef sup-

,

,

France also suffered a cutback in most grain crops in 1970, particularly wheat, which declined to 12.936,-

some

acreage to feed grains. Modernization of Greek agri-

AFRICA Early reports of good har\'ests in most African naencouraged the view that gains made in 1969 would be sustained. Above-average cereal crops

tions in 1970

North and West Africa reduced the need for imand the 1969-70 output of such export crops as coffee and cocoa in West Africa assured continuation in

ports,

of export earnings. The important South African corn and sorghum crops appeared to have recovered from the 1969 drought. Some areas of South .'\frica were stricken by drought at midyear, to the disadvantage of livestock herds, and the Rhodesian corn crop was reduced by lack of moisture. Total agricultural output in Africa in 1969 w-as about 2% greater than a year earlier and 28% higher than the 1957-59 base period. However, because of population increases, per capita food production in 1969 was 2% below the 1957-59 period.

North Africa. Cereal crops harvested

in the

May-

July 1970 season in the Maghreb were above average. Total production of more than 4 million metric tons of grain in

Morocco was 25% above

1969. Wheat,

estimated at 2,039.000 tons, exceeded the previous year's harvest by 400,000 tons, and corn production rose to an estimated 333,000 metric tons, comjiared

with only 240.000 tons a year earlier. Preliminary indications pointed to a 1970 wheat harvest in Algeria

equal to the

1.5

million tons of 1968. Tunisia's wheat

crop recovered from four years of drought, and production rose sharply to an estimated 450,000 tons.

was expected to reach 500,000 tons, a fivefold increase over 1969, but its citrus production, at an estimated 82,000 tons, was unchanged. Morocco's orange crop was 13% above the preceding year, while Algerian citrus production

Tunisia's 1970 olive harvest

showed

improvement. Flood damage to Tu1969 resulted in an extremely poor 1970 harvest; Tunisia continued to plant about 10,000 a slight

nisia's date trees in

new

trees annually in artesian-fed oases in the Sahara.

POPPEfiFOTO FROM PICTORIAL PARADE

_ Farmers demonstrate better prices outside the Ministry of Agriculture in London fo,,

u6 Of 6 tn6 StHft farm Price Review talks Feb. 2, 1970. 1

of

82

In Libya several important crops were reduced in

totaling 5,750 ac.

i^uiture

1970 by inadequate

trees,

rainfall.

The Algerian government announced plans

to reap-

3%

25%

of the landowners controlled

Ford and Rockefeller foundations, the institute's primary concern was the production of local-consumpthe

under the new plan, holdings would be limited to a size that could be farmed by a single family. The government also continued to encourage the conversion of vineyards to other crops as marketing difficulties made wine production less profitable. The Tunisian government's collective farm movement, strongly resisted by that country's farmers, was ofificially deemphasized. The Libyan government allocated $560 million for agricultural development, of which $78.5 million was earmarked for agricultural settleof the arable land

ment

;

tion crops such as rice, cassava,

and yams. Ivory Coast coffee production of 4.3 million bags was considerably above that of a year earlier. Nigeria's 1969-70 peanut crop, damaged by late rains, was esti-

mated

17%

U.A.R. rose

in the

to

at 1,355,000 metric tons,

an

bia,

6%. Production

that of the preceding year.

where prices were higher. Production of bananas and plantains in West Africa as a whole was above

of an estimated 975,000 tons of cot-

17% above

The harvest of Ghana's important cocoa bean crop was estimated at 417,000 metric tons in 1969-70, marking recovery from the rain-damaged harvest of

a year earlier. Sudan's cotton

production, estimated at

1.1

million bales, represented

Wheat production in the U.A.R. for 1969-70 was estimated at 1,518,000 metric tons and the 1968-69 corn crop at 2,297,000 tons. Development of additional agricultural land in the U.A.R. was being delayed by the financial demands of the military buildup, as well as by the dangerous proximity of some potentially arable areas to the Suez Canal. a slight increase.

only 338,000 tons a year earlier. Nigeria's cocoa bean harvest, at 230,000 tons, also indicated recovery from the poor 1968-69 output, and prospects were favour-

The USDA forecast a 1970-71 world cocoa harvest of 1,387,400 metric tons, about 2% less than the estimated 1,420,200 realized in 1969-70 and approximately equal to the 1967-68 harvest. The forecast for Ghana's 1970-71 crop was 406,000 tons and Nigeria's was estimated at 254.000 tons, able in the Ivory Coast.

The productivity of some areas of the lower Nile delta was reportedly being reduced as an indirect effect of the Aswan Dam; salt was being deposited over large areas of the delta by encroaching seawater, which was no longer held back by the full flow of the river. West Africa. Both export and subsistence crops showed improvement in 1969-70. Rice production in ten

West African

nations

increased

6%

although reports of heavy rainfall cast doubt on Nigerian production. Ivory Coast production was forecast at 160,000 tons.

Following four consecutive deficit years that had reduced world stocks to very low levels, 1969-70 production was expected to exceed consumption requirements. U.S. cocoa bean grindings in 1969 totaled 268,484 metric tons, 8% less than in 1968; the U.K. grind fell to 90,000 tons from 91,500, and most other

over the

2,002,000 tons of 1968-69. The important millet and sorghum crops were improved, and corn production was modestly higher. Cotton and oil palm production

continued to be encouraged. In Liberia two plantations

Table

Numbers

VIII.

in

Cattle

In

North America

Canodo Mexico United States

America

Argentina Brazil

Colombia Uruguay Venezuela Western Europe France

Germany, West Italy

United Kingdom Eastern Europe

Poland Yugoslavia U.S.S.R.

Africa South Africa Asia Iran

Japan Philippines

Turkey

Oceania Australia

New World

Zealand totalf

Table

Buffalo

IX.

171,000 11,828 28,000 112,330 196,000 52,500 91,115 20,359 8,500 7,226 89,500 21,886 14,286 10,280 12,311

34,200 5,078 95,000 134,200 12,251

426,100 5,960 3,650 6,050 15,265 30,900 21,500 8,950 ,176,900

Hog Numbers In

Average 1969*

1961-65

167,300 11,475 27,500 109,885 195,600 52,000 92,276 19,576 8,400 7,000 88,700 22,093

150,500 11,332 19,337 103,892 168,700 43,341 78,718 15,780

14,061

10,067 12,094 34,700 11,049 5,305 95,700 133,600 11,780 424,900 5,855 3,458 5,970 15,018 29,600 20,598 8,605 1,170,100

1

*Preliminory. flncludes allowance for any missing data for countries shown and for other producing countries not shown. Source; U.S. Department of Agriculture.

000

Estimated 1970'

North America

Canada Mexico United States South America Argentina

Western Europe France

Germany, West Italy

Spain United Kingdom Eastern Europe

Germany, Hungary

U.S.S.R.

Africa South Africa

Japan Philippines

Taiwan Oceania Australia

World

totalf

,000

56,743 79,600 4,000 64,000 81,900 8,350 10,622 19,323 9,224 6,400 8,135 47,700

East

Poland Yugoslavia

Asia

81,200 6,458 1 1

Denmark 6,580 83,400 20,020 13,115 9,292 11,610 33,000 9,697 5,509 83,500 128,100 12,514 395,500 4,782 3,327 4,849 13,783 25,300 18,357 6,646 068,000

Table X. Sheep Numbers in Major Producing Areas

in

Major Producing Areas

000

Estimated 1970*

Soulti

and

Major Producing Areas

1,455,-

year earlier; acreage was cut back 19% because of low prices set by the government, and large quantities were reported to have been smuggled into The Gam-

estimated 2,350,000 bales (480 lb. each). Acreage was increased to 1,680,000 and average yields improved tonseed was

compared with

000 tons in 1968-69. Senegal's 1969-70 peanut crop was reported at 885,000 tons, an improvement over drought-reduced production of only 815,000 tons a

projects.

Cotton production

had been planted to hybrid palm had begun to produce. The Inter-

of which

national Institute of Tropical Agriculture at Ibadan, Nigeria, was dedicated in April. Jointly supported by

portion agricultural lands in the north, where a survey revealed that

some

4,950 5,566 56,100 5,500 1,289

173,200 6,400 12,000

In

Average 1969* 84,000 5,695 10,698 60,632 80,500 3,900 65,640 76,500 7,769 10,020 18,732 7,300 6,129 7,969 47,600 9,523 5,334 14,356 5,093 49,000 5,500 1,240 172,100 5,429 12,000

...

3,011

3,100 2,300 528,300

3,100 2,253 518,300

Area

1961-65

76,100 5,220 9,170 55,544 66,700 3,388 53,126 66,300 7,284 8,908 16,933 4,787 5,870 7,098

47,000 8,654 6,216 13,080 5,815 59,800 5,100

122,400 3,474 9,236 2,917 2,500 1,567

445,900

•Preliminary. flncludes allowance for any missing dato for countries shown and for other producing countries not shown. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service.

000

Average

Estimated 1970*

North America

1969*

30,400 598 8,200 20,422 124,600 47,400 25,000 14,500 19,900 76,900

Canada Mexico United States South America Argentina Brazil

Pefu

Uruguay Western Europe France

9,681

Greece

7,700 8,160 18,800 19,254 43,500

Italy

Spain United Kingdom Eostern Europe Bulgaria

30,900 602 7,986 21,238 126,400 47,500 24,585 15,000 21,700 77,500 9,506 7,800 8,206 18,962 19,667 44,500 9,652 14,298 9,730 140,600 133,100 40,350 250,700 34,000 36,587 234,600 174,602 59,937

Romania Yugoslavia

8,968 131,000 132,600 39,850 252,000 35,000 37,000 242,000 182,000 60,000

U.S.S.R.

Africa South Africa

Asia Iron

Turkey

Oceania Australia

New World

Zealand totalf

1

,033,300

1

,038,300

1961-65 37,200 911

6,064 29,023 121,100 48,127 19,997 14,454 21,860 79,400 8,876 8,765 7,956 20,574 20,689 42,800 10,070 12,217 10,232 133,900 134,000 39,759 218,600 21,445 32,863 211,500 160,924 50,536 978,500

•Preliminary. flncludes allowonce for any missing data for countries shown and for other producing countries not shown. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service.

European nations reported similar declines. Imports 1969 fell to 221,941 tons from 231,S69. New York wholesale prices for Accra (African)

into the U.S. in

cocoa averaged 45.7 cents per pound in 1969, compared with 34.4 cents a year earlier. Bahia (Brazilian) cocoa prices at New York averaged 43.5 cents per

pound, a sharp increase over the 33 cent average of 1968. Prices in the early months of 1970 fell sharply, but in the third quarter,

New York

December cocoa

futures in

from approximately 26.5 cents

rose

to 35.5

cents.

East

Early

Africa.

reports

of

good

harvests

throughout East Africa pointed to continued agricultural

growth

in the region.

and a

A 2^%

decline in regional

reduced sugar harvest were offset by substantial increases in other important crops. Cotton production was 15' was still expected to be short in 1973 of approximately

14,000 of the technical personnel re-

quired.

Algeria put pressure on French oil-producing companies, nationahzed a

number

of non-French pro-

Education. (1967-68) Primary, pupils 1,485,390, teachers (public only) 30,666; secondary, pupils 116,077, teachers (public only) 4,735; vocational, pupils 38,877, teachers (public only) 2,603; teacher training, students 5,439, teachers (public only) 32 5; higher (including 3 universities), students 9,720. Finance. Monetary unit: dinar, with a par value of 4.94 dinars to U.S. SI (11.85 dinars =£1 sterling). Budget (1969 est.) balanced at 3,890,000,000 dinars. Foreign Trade. (1968) Imports 4,022,675,000 dinars; exports 4,097,891,000 dinars. Import sources: France 57%; U.S. 8%; West Germany 6%; Italy 6%. destinations: France 55%; West Germany 13%; Italy 6%; U.K. S%. Main exports: crude oil 69%; wine 9%.

Export

Transport and Communications. Roads (1965) 35,541 km. Motor vehicles in use (1968): passenger 117,000; commercial (including buses) 88,500. Railways: (1968) 3,951 km.; traffic (1969) 954 million passenger-km., freight 1,337,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1968): 362,692,000 passenger-km.; freight 3,747,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1969): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 7; gross tonnage 19,456. Telephones (Dec. 1968) 156,038. Radio receivers (Dec. 1967) 650,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1967) c. 100,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000: metric tons; 1968; 1967 in parentheses): wheat 1,534 (1,266); barley 538 (340): oats 42 (26); potatoes 272 (204); dates c. 148 (148); figs 45 (44); oranges 412 (381); tomatoes (1967) 69, (1966) 80; onions (1967) c. 39, (1966) 39; tobacco 4.6 (4.6); olive oil (1969) c. 22, (1968) c. 18; wine 1,005 (682). Livestock (in 000; Nov. 1968): sheep c. 7,300; goats (Nov. 1966) 1,800; cattle c. 890; asses (Nov. 1967) 255; horses (Nov. 1967) 113: camels (Nov. 1966) 175. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969^: crude oil 43,806; natural gas (cu.m.) 2,985,000; electricity (excluding most industrial production; kw-hr.; 1968) 1,305,000; iron ore (metal content; 1968) 1,664; phosphate rock (1968) 361.

joined the

23-member Cabinet

for the first time, but

retained their posts.

the key ministers

all

Boume-

dienne also initiated a thorough diplomatic reshuffle,

announcement

1969 that all Algerian ambassadors but one, appointed a few months earlier, would be replaced. Meanwhile, efforts to implement a regional development policy in preparation for a series of nationwide reforms were continued, notably in education and agriculture. The planned "agrarian revolution," as outlined in a draft issued during the course of following his

had a

late in

aim: to limit the size of privately owned estates; ban landholding by those with other sources of income; and distribute the land thus recovered to destitute peasants who were to be rethe year,

triple

grouped within cooperatives. Official statistics showed

25%

owned land was occupied by 16,000 farmers owning more than 50 ha. each (1 ha. = 2^ ac ), while 300,000 peasants with plots of less than 5 ha. each shared 10%. Privately owned that

of the privately

land accounted for about two-thirds of the nation's total cultivable land, the rest

being farmed either as

the

first

93

syndic (sindic procurador general de les vails

d' Andorra)

;

in 1970,

Francesc Escude-Ferrero.

Antarctica

Following the general elections of December 1969, Escude and Subsyndic Eduardo Resell Pujal were reelected for a three-year period by the new Council General. The new bishop of Urgel took First Syndic

up

his duties as co-prince,

Lerida,

who had

replacing the bishop of

served in the position temporarily.

On April 23, 1970, a decree issued by the vegeurs granted the right to vote to female citizens of the first time in history. The decree passed by the Council General on July 12, 1969. The right to vote, however, was re-

principality for the

put into effect a stricted to

bill

Andorran nationals,

i.e.,

female members

of families resident in the principality for at least two generations.

women

The decree

did not confer eligibility on

be elected to the Council General or to be chosen as first syndic. It would result in the doubling of the electorate, from approximately 1,500 to nearly 3.000 voters, and according to an unnamed official "will bring about great changes in the politics of Andorra." R. D. Ho.) to

(

self-managed estates or as cooperatives. In foreign affairs, a spectacular Algerian diplomatic achievement was a settlement of the border dispute with Morocco, reached at a meeting between Boumedienne and King Hassan II at Tlemcen, westAlgeria,

ern

in

May. The two commission committee

create a joint military

leaders

decided

to

to delineate the bor-

study the exploitation in common of the rich iron ore deposits near Tindouf, in that part of the Algerian Sahara over which they had gone to war in 1963. Algeria and Morocco, together with Mauritania, also took steps der, as well as a joint

to unify their policies

on the Spanish Sahara,

decolonization of

for

when

their leaders

to

that

met

Mauritania

in

calling

phosphate-rich territory

ber.

in

mid-SeptemCF. Dd.)

Andorra An autonomous principality i)f Europe, Andorra is in the Pyrenees Mountains between Spain and France. Area; 175 (453

sq.km.).

est.):

19,500.

-q.mi.

1970

(SCAR)

Council of Scientific Unions

Committee

of the International

(ICSU) was held

in

Oslo, Aug. 17-22, 1970. All 12 signatory nations to

the Antarctic Treaty were represented, along with

from affiliated international scientific Immediately preceding the meeting, SCAR sponsored a symposium on Antarctic Geology and Solid Earth Geophysics. The sixth Consultative Meeting of .Antarctic Treaty Nations was held in Tokyo, Oct. 15-17, 1970. The agenda included discussions on regulation of .Antarctic pelagic sealing, agreed measures for the conservation of .Antarctic fauna and flora, specially protected areas, environmental pollution, historical monuments, and tourism in Antarctica. The 22nd meeting of the International Whaling Commission took place in London, June 22-26, 1970, and reported that, in the 1969-70 whaling season. 3,001 fin, 5.856 sei, and 3,090 sperm whales were harvested eight delegates

unions.

Antarctic waters.

SCAR nations made preliminary plans for launching a joint interdisciplinary research program to

Andorra la Vieja 7.600). Language: chiefly Catalan. Religion: predominantly Roman Catholic. Co-princes: the president of the French Republic and the bishop of Urgel, Spain, represented by their vegeurs (provosts) and batiks (prosecutors). elected Council

11th plenary session of the Scientific

on Antarctic Research

Six

la Vella or (Spanish) (pop., 1970 parish est.

An

The

in

Pop.

Cap.: (Catalan)

Andorra

Antarctica

General of 24 members elects

include drilling through the Ross Ice Shelf, a floating mass of fresh ice up to 1.500 ft. thick and larger in

area than France. Field studies by a team of earth scientists from 11 nations showed that the geographic

South Pole of 450 million years ago had gradually

moved northward a distance of 5,500 mi. and was Alliance for Progress: sec Inter-American now situated in the Algerian Sahara Desert; it was beAffairs lieved that the movement was due to sliding action of Aluminum: the earth's

crust.

Studies of the

1967-69 volcanic

AXDDRRA

eruptions on Deception Island

Education. (1967-68) Primary, pupils 804, teachers 30: secondary, pupils 181, teachers 11. Finance. Monetary units: French franc and Spanish peseta. Xo income tax, death duty, or customs; public treasury is funded by levy on gasoline and liquor. Exchange and deposit banking is important.

sula suggested that further volcanic activity could be expected, and that eruptions profoundly altered the local ecological environment; only the local penguins

3%

Foreign Trade. fl969)

Imports from France Fr.

130, .520,000

(U.S. $25.1 million), from Spain, 868,682,000 pesetas (U.S. $12,410,000). Tourism (1968) c.

800.000

visitors.

Communications. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) 5,900. Tflcvision rcroivcrs CDcc. 1968) 1,600. Agriculture and Industry. Production: cereals, potatoes, tobacco, wool. Livestock (in c. 25; cattle c. 3; horses c. 1.

000; 1968): sheep

off the .Antarctic

Penin-

be unaffected. Uruguay applied for membership in SCAR and planned to establish stations in Antarctica along with a corresponding research program, both bcini; prerequisites for membership. Scientific Programs. The Antarctic Treaty celebrated its tenth anniversary in 1970 and had another

appeared

to

20 years to go. Of the 12 treaty nations, 10 had stations in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic. Norway and

Belgium, while not maintaining stations at present,

src

Mining

American Literature: sec Literature

American Samoa: Dependent States

sec

Anglican Communion: sec

Religion

Angling: sec Sporting Record

Angola: see

Dependent States

Anguilla: see

Dependent States

Anniversaries: see Calendar, 1971, page 50

94

Antarctica

had done so

and continued their active by participating in the programs

in the past

interest in the area

herself on

of other nations.

The Argentine Antarctic

Arge?itina.

in

its

Peninsula.

A new

atmospheric physics laboratory con-

structed near General Belgrano Ease investigated a large fissure in the Filchner Ice Shelf to determine

its

was located on the shelf. The Teniente Matienzo Base was temporarily closed and a new one established nearby, while Sobral Base was deactivated. Damage to the icebreaker "San Martin" cut short Argentina's involvement with the U.S. and Norway in the International Weddell Sea

March

18.

New Zealand. The New

Institute con-

program of Antarctic research at seven bases Antarctica, all but one located on the Antarctic

tinued

became beset in heavy sea ice. Before Soviet and U.S. help could arrive, the "Fuji" freed the "Fuji"

Zealand Antarctic research

program was centred in and around Scott Base, Vanda Station, and Campbell Island. Over 80 personnel participated in the

summer

scientific

program. Mrs.

Pam

Young

again accompanied her husband Euan Young to Cape Bird where they studied the behaviour of pen-

Two

possible effect on the base, which

guins and skua gulls.

Oceanographic Expedition.

were discovered on Ross Earthquakes originating in the Antarctic continent were thought to be quite rare; however. New Zealand scientists reported that small earthquakes, believed to have originated in the Terra Nova Bay region, were recorded on seismographs at Vanda Sta-

Australia.

The Australian National Antarctic Re-

(ANARE)

implemented a research program centred at its two main bases on the continent: Casey and Mawson. A geologic, mapping, and glaciologic party surveyed a rocky outcrop 190 mi. S of Mawson Base. Scientists at Amery Ice Shelf Base continued measurements of ice movement and accumulation, and 11 men wintered at the newly reoccupied Davis Station. Australian and U.S. scientists aboard the U.S. research ship "Eltanin" conducted a 60-day oceanographic study in the seas between Australia and Antarctica. The Australian government issued a license to harvest 1,900 tons of whale meat from the Antarctic for use as food for pets. Fifty-eight search Expedition

Australians received the British Polar Medal for serv-

Antarctica between 1959 and 1967. Belgium. Belgians joined with South Africans in an airborne ice-profiling program in Antarctica. Belgium's Otter aircraft crashed near Sanae Base early in the field season, thereby curtailing a major part of the planned effort. Chile. A broad research program was carried out at Chile's three permanent bases on the Antarctic Peninice in

sula,

with the support of helicopters, light aircraft,

Island.

tion.

On Dec. 1, 1969, representatives of several nations gathered at Scott Base to formally commemorate the

Rugby

whiteout caused by blowing snow, a match was played at Scott Base before a small

way

Medal was awarded

at their only base

on the continent,

Dumont

d'Urville,

with lesser programs on the sub-Antarctic islands of Crozet, Amsterdam, and Kerguelen. The wintering

complement

at

Dumont

d'Urville Station

was com-

posed of 15 scientists and 12 support personnel. The chartered Danish ship "Thala Dan" ran into heavy sea ice in its attempt to resupply the base and arrived 24 days late. Much of the planned summer construction program was delayed because of the late arrival of supplies.

The 11th Japanese Antarctic Research Ex(JARE) was launched from Japan's main Showa Base, where 28 members wintered over. A tenman over-snow traverse, with aircraft support, was launched to the Yamato Mountains to lay a glaciological grid for ice-strain measurements. The discovery Japan.

pedition

to

Brit-

New

Zealand Antarctic expeditions. Norway. While Norway did not maintain bases in Antarctica, its scientists continued studies of Antarctic bottom waters while participating in the International Weddell Sea Oceanographic Expedition. South Africa. The 11th South African National Antarctic Expedition

was composed of 18 members, four

whom

wintered at Borga Base, some 350 km. S of the main Sanae Base. Geologic investigations and mapping of the nearby Kirwan Escarpment were of

continued and a radio-echo ice sounding program initiated. Geologic maps of part of Queen Maud Land were compiled and published. For the first time, a member of the expedition was killed when

was

and Borga

The French Antarctic program was focused

The

29 members of

for holding the first full cricket match.

ish Polar

he

France.

in a

crowd of New Zealanders and startled Americans. Three New Zealanders and a U.S. admiral introduced cricket at the South Pole and discussions were under

Base underwent extensive refurbishing and expansion.

On New

tenth anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty.

Year's Day,

ships. The base on Deception Island was abandoned. The meteorological facility at Presidente Frei

and

extensive deposits of peri-

dot, a semiprecious stone,

fell

into a snow-covered crevasse

between Sanae

bases. In addition to resupplying bases,

the vessel "RSA" served as a platform for marine geophysical studies in the southern Indian Ocean. United Kingdom. The British Antarctic Survey

(BAS) used

three ships, helicopters,

and small

aircraft

resupplying the main Halley Bay Base on the continent and seven other bases on the Antarctic Peninsula in

and sub-Antarctic islands. A small group undertook topographic and geologic surveys of the Shackleton Range and were evacuated to Halley Bay Station by U.S. aircraft. Four field parties, operating from Stonington and Fossil Bluff bases, conducted geologic, glaciological gravity, and magnetic surveys in the vicinity of the Eklund Islands. A 15-man group traveled from Stonington Island to King George VI Sound, conducting geologic and geophysical studies en route.

Two

glaciologists conducted investigations in an area

south of Fossil Bluff Station. U.S.S.R. The 15th Soviet

Antarctic

Expedition

the scientific research ships "Ob," and its broad research

of thick morainal deposits suggested the former exis-

(SAE) was supported by

tence of rugged sub-ice structure with a thin ice cover

"Professor Vize" and program was centred at four bases on the Antarctic Mirnyy, Vostok, Molodezhnaya, and continent: Novolazarevskaya. Lesser programs were carried out mi. at Bellingshausen Station, which is situated 200

At Showa Station, new research programs on atmospheric electricity and infrasonic sound waves were introduced. Garth Morgan (Australia) and in this region.

Herman

Friis (U.S.) participated with the Japanese exchange scientists and conducted studies on oceanography and geology while aboard the icebreaker "Fuji." While evacuating Showa Base on February 25,

as

from the U.S. Hallett Station. Altogether 225 personnel wintered on Soviet bases in Antarctica, along with one exchange scientist each from the U.S., Ar-

i

gentina,

The research

tists

the Central and Southern Pacific Ocean,

A

Cuba, and East Germany; two Soviet scienwintered on bases of other nations. 14-man traverse over 1,500 km. from Mirnyy to

\'ostok stations provided

structure

underlying

new information on

East

Antarctica.

the rock

Along

the

and biological properties were studied and techniques were de-

coastal stations, the physical of near-shore ice

vessel "Eltanin"

made

and South Indian Ocean and the trawler

Tasman Sea, "Hero" made

America and the Antarctic Peninsula. Other Activities. In a new specially constructed

of South

ship,

Lindblad Travel Inc. launched three tourist ex-

cursions to Antarctica carrying nearly 200 passengers,

by distant storms. From a new facility at Molodezhnaya Station rockets were launched weekly to an altitude of 60 mi. for meteorological and upper atmospheric studies. The most powerful radio station in

who paid up to $5,000 each for cruises lasting 12-19 days. The New Zealand Transport Ministry revealed

was being constructed

at

Molodezhnaya

Station and, for the first time,

all

ceived real-time weather data

from space

United States.

The

Soviet stations resatellites.

U.S. Antarctic Research Pro-

gram included 66 individual field projects in biology, earth science, and atmospheric sciences. Around 200 scientists and technicians representing 47 institutions and government agencies participated; about 30 remained for the winter along with around 200 support personnel. Studies were carried on throughout Antarctica. Three U.S. exchange scientists joined foreign oqDeditions, while 14 foreign scientists accompanied U.S. expeditions.

A

highlight of the

summer

field

season was the dis-

plans for building a luxury hotel to

System announced that it was considering the extenits air route from South Africa to New Zealand via Antarctica. Max Conrad (U.S.) became the first solo pilot to land at the South Pole. However, his plane crashed at the South Pole shortly after takeoff for Punta Arenas, Chile. A few hours later, Thor Tjontveit and Einar Pedersen (Norway) also arrived at the South Pole and successfully flew on to Punta Arenas via McMurdo Station. (L. M. Go.) sion of

See also Geography; Oceanography.

Anthropology The most

amphibians and reptiles, in a site in the Transantarctic Mountains. All appear to be remnants of now extinct creatures that lived during the Triassic period, more than 200 million years ago. The discovery established beyond further question the

garding

former existence of the great southern continent of Gondwanaland. For the first time a group of five

women

scientists participated in

the U.S. Antarctic

program, under the leadership of Lois Jones, a geochemist. They conducted geologic studies in the ice-free dry valleys about 70 mi. of McMurdo field

W

Station. British

tinuing

and U.S.

program of

scientists joined in a con-

profiling

the ice sheet of Ant-

arctica using airborne radio-echo

sounding techniques.

accommodate 90

people on the Ross Ice Shelf. Scandinavian Airlines

covery of a bed of fossil bones of several types of vertebrates, including

Anthropology

eight cruises into the seas bordering the southern tip

veloped for recording oscillations of ice floes caused

Antarctica

95

six cruises into

striking revisions of previous theories re-

the

spread

emerged from

of

peoples

around

a 1969 conference in Fiji

the world on "Culture

Area" and from recent archaework in that region. Radiocarbon dates of sites in northern Australia and New Guinea, obtained principally by J. P. and C. White, dated into the terminal Pleistocene, between 20,000 and 30,000 before present (b.p.). The characteristic "waisted" and often edge-ground axes found there are the oldest ground axes in the world. These axes are also found on the island of New Britain, indicating that by that time southeast Asian man had the ability to cross open water. Histor>' in the Pacific ological

and

linguistic

If these early inhabitants are tentatively identified.

WIDE WORLD

Thor Heyerdahl, at the helm of "Ra II," waves to his wife and daughter aboard a Barbados government tug as the papyrus vessel sails into Carlisle Bay,

July 12, 1970.

96

Anthropology

as J. P. Golson has done, with speakers of nonAustronesian languages, then Melanesian speakers (one branch of the Austronesian family, which spreads from Madagascar and Taiwan to Hawaii and Easter

Island) must have arrived in the Southwest Pacific at presumably antedates the

a later date. Their arrival

diversification of languages within the Eastern Oceanic subgroup, which seems to have occurred, along with the population of islands as far away from Asia as

around 4,000 years ago. Other Melanesian language subgroups with much greater internal diversity and presumably greater age have been identified in inland areas of New Guinea. Fiji,

first occurrences of pig bone there date from about 6500 b.p., suggesting that the newcomers were already agriculturalists. Presumably they had adequate means of water transport before that date, possibly even contemporaneously with the emerging agriculturalists of southwest Asia. The widespread distribution of somewhat similar "Lapita ware" pottery in the Southwest Pacific around 3000 b.p., and the subsequent voyaging and peopling of Polynesia,

The

seem now

to fall into place as part of a history of

Southeast Asia and the islands

much

longer than had

been suspected. In his second attempt in as many years, the Norwegian anthropologist Thor Heyerdahl succeeded in sailing from Safi, Mor., to Barbados in a papyrus boat. Designed according to ancient Egyptian tomb

"Ra II" was built by four of the Bolivian who still use reed boats on Lake Titicaca. Heyerdahl made the voyage to provide evidence for

drawings, the

Indians

his controversial theory that the high

tions

of

Indian

civiliza-

Middle and South America were founded

by Egyptians who crossed the Atlantic in ancient times. The first "Ra" was abandoned in 1969 when its hull became waterlogged some 600 mi. from its destination.

Apart from its use in historical reconstruction, linanthropology has been receiving increasing at-

guistic

tention. In partnership with linguists, anthropologists

—

have considered how social factors class, situation, or the roles involved affect the language used. Most recently, interest in bilingualism has been reinforced by work on situations in Europe and America where people speaking language or dialect A at home and in childhood learn language or dialect B later as a public, polite, or adult language. William Labov's work on black dialects in New York, and their relation to standard American, has been outstandmg. To date, however, most of this work has been aimed at furthering linguistic analysis and has treated social factors as features to be included in the analysis of language. Robbins Burling tried to reverse this situa-

—

sec

Dependent States;

Kuwait; Middle East; Saudi Arabia; Souttiern Yemen;

Yemen Arab League: see Middle East

to all

"foreigners."

They achieve high

symbolic importance and are consciously manipulated as rallying points of cultural identity, even though they would often be relatively insignificant in an analysis of the internal structure of the culture.

By contrast, Eric Wolf, in his Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century, sees the existence of culturally distinct subgroupings within modern society as something of an anachronism. They exist, but only because the rewards of social life have been preempted by a limited elite, usually urban based, which fragments the large agricultural mass of society. In these terms, the first 70 years of the 20th century have seen a worldwide peasant reaction, spurred in large part by new means of communication. It has meant the breakdown of closed communities and, at the same time, a rejection of the subservient status that urban capitalist wealth has typically forced on the rural dweller. On a much less grandiose canvas, however, Emilio Willems, in an article in the American Anthropologist, sketched a thousand years of life in a peasant village near Cologne, Ger., in a way that questions whether large-scale urban society does inevitably imply the disruption of "peasant society." Although the village is now part of metropolitan Cologne, traditional costumes and ceremonials are still in evidence and are felt to be a matter of local pride. Local endogamy is practiced, and the presence of the same 20 family names has been common for a hundred years. The reason, Willems hints, is that agricultural prosperity, particularly during the 18th century, gave the com-

sophisticated peasant immigrants, but of constructing

sage

a viable

Many

is

Voices, in which he compiles

findings

and recent ethnological

categories to

show how such

a cultural one: the importance for individuals

maintaining distinct cultural identities at many levels, and of the constant (and patterned) innovations in all behaviour, linguistic and other, that go along with this search. of

Dependent States

common

jobs,

find-

Man's

sociolinguistic

work on semantic

Arabia:

are

same

ings contribute to cultural theory. In effect, his mes-

tion in his

sec

for

schools, does the

munity a structure and a degree of cultural self-respect and identity that have persisted despite the engulfing urban spread. Agricultural prosperity and urban poverty were not popular themes in the 1960s, but, increasing!}', anthropological studies were describing agricultural communities where modern facilities were being incorporated easily into "traditional" contexts and where agriculture was prosperous. A monograph of the Society for Applied Anthropology, entitled Urban Anthropology, points up the reverse wealth, despite the myth, is no longer to be found in the cities. Urban problems are no longer those of "urbanizing" un-

the

Antigua:

example, everyone goes to

the same and in public speaks the same language, but many domains of interaction revolve around whether a person is categorized as folk (Norwegian) or finn (Lapp). Why do people draw such boundaries around people they feel to be "their own kind" and exclude people they define as "foreign"? And what are the consequences? Very generally, even the act of defining a stranger as a "foreigner" establishes a code within which interaction can take place. Labeling of some kind is inevitable in social life. The extreme generality of the ethnic label, however, means that only a very few characteristics villages,

The

consequences of the tendency for subgroups within wider population aggregates to maintain their cultural identities was the subject of a seminal work, Ethnic Groups and Boundaries by Fredrik Barth. Why, he asks, amid a whole range of interactions, do people choose to label their partners for

some

social

of

them by ethnic

labels.

In Norwegian fjord

—

new urban life-style when productive work modern facilities are expensive and overused, and "traditional" facilities are unavailable. The emergence of the culturally distinct community within is

lacking,

the city as a topic of anthropological research

may

well be a reflection of this social reality. (R. F. Sa.) See also Archaeology. Encyclop/tdia Britannica Films. Remnants of a Race (195,'i): American Indians of Today fl957): Indian Family oi Long Ago ( 957); Indians of Early America ( 1957); Eskimo Family (1959): Cave Dwellers of the Old Stone Age (1960); Eskimo in Life and Legend (The Living Stone) (1960): Prehistoric Man in Northern Europe (1961); The Egyptologists (1967). 1

Archaeology Eastern Hemisphere.

Few

if

any large-scale or long-

range archaeological field programs were begun in the

Old World during 1970. Various older field expeditions continued to work, although generally on a somewhat reduced scale. A few new excavations of small size were undertaken, and surface surveys (without

heavy commitment

the

in

expense,

staff,

and gear become

characteristic of full excavations) tended to

more numerous. The situation was, of course, result of poHtical instability in

many

a direct

parts of the

world, of tightened financial circumstances, and of

—

xenophobia often prompted by the outrages of the growing illicit antiquities trade. Some agreement had been reached between the respective governments for the return of antiquities illicitly acquired and exported

from Mexico into the United States, but such arrangements did not yet exist as regards Old World countries. Twice during the year the serious probability arose that permission for U.S. archaeological work in Turkey would be denied because two American fine arts museums accepted gifts of illicitly acquired antiquities, reputedly coming from Turkey. Very few outstanding discoveries were reported during the year.

One

so-called archaeological effort

COURTESY, ROYAL GREEK EMBASSY

and Bader's report

of a broad-spectrum food supply,

and birds as well as reindeer, horse, and mammoth, was of interest. The Near East. In the U.A.R. archaeological activity was almost entirely restricted to the urban environs of such cities as Cairo and Luxor, where with evidence of small animals,

security could be assured.

The

fish,

Oriental Institute of

burst hke a toy balloon. After blasts of publicity, a

the University of Chicago continued to glean

fundamentalist-backed organization that proposed to "uncover and identify an ancient wooden structure of immense size that may well be the remains of Noah's ark" was refused permission to renew work in the

historical information

politically sensitive region of

Mount Ararat, where and Turkish frontiers join. At the same time came news of a second radiocarbon age determination (by a UCLA laborator>') on previously

that inner

the Iranian, Soviet,

Khufu and Sneferu do not exist. Surprisingly, there was considerable

taken specimens of the

wood

in question.

This age

determination, which closely conformed to that of an earlier

determination (by a British laboratory), sug-

gested timber felled around a.d. 700. If a find of the year were to be suggested, it would probably be the excellent series of Greek frescoes

Mario Napoli exposed in some 109 tombs adPaestum in the Salerno district, Italy. It was claimed that these were the only examples of truly classical Greek wall paintings yet found. The themes depicted range from games honouring the dead to mythological scenes. The tombs date to c. 340-310 B.C., and were those of Lucanians, tribes that overwhelmed the Greeks of Paestum about 400 B.C. The paintings themselves indicate that Greek artists were still available, however. Pleistocene Prehistory. North of Beirut in Lebanon, Ralph Solecki of Columbia University undertook the salvage clearance of caves that would be destroyed in new highway construction. Considerable that

jacent to the temples of

quantities of artifacts resembling those of the

Mous-

were recovered. Nearby, Jacques Tixier of the French Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique terian

ple reliefs at

new

from its careful study of temMedinet Habu. A detailed report of the

chambers such as those

in the

and a horse figurine. Sungir probably the northernmost substantial occurrence

lances, daggers, needles, is

of

Upper

Paleolithic material (c. 25,000 years ago),

the Battle

Eglon, that Petrie's pioneering studies in the value of

potsherds were

first made. At Gezer the Hebrew Union College completed its clearance of a monumental city gate of the time of Solomon and also encountered a cave burial of the

mid-1 Sth century

B.C.

A.

Biran, Israeli director of

continued his excavations at Tel Dan, where he exposed a city gate of very large size. B. Rothenberg's analysis of the excavations of sites in

antiquities,

Wadi Timna, once reputed to be the location of King Solomon's mines, indicated the clear presence of an Egyptian temple and of artifacts of about the 14th-12th centuries b.c, several hundred years too the

of the two uppermost levels of Tell al-Fakhar, south-

spears,

almost 2,500

in

archaeological

more burials. These included the skeletons of two boys, buried head to head in one grave, along with tusk

I

Marathon.

it

al-Hayr Sharqi, northeast of Palmyra, Oleg Grabar continued his clearances of this early Islamic site. In

mammoth

of Darius years ago of

was understandably concentrated along the Mediterranean littoral; i.e., in Philistia. The American Schools of Oriental Rese.irili and the Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion programs, both of which involved large numbers of student volunteers, were active. The American Schools began one of the few new longer-range projects of the year: a resumption of work at Tell el Hesi, begun by Sir Flinders Petrie in 1890 and continued by F. J. Bliss in 1891-93. It was on this large mound, believed to have been the site of the biblical activity in Israel although

of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., continuing his clearance of the Upper Paleolithic site of Sungir, encoun-

straightened

turning back the Persians

pyramids of

emy

and

April 1970.

cosmic-ray absorption examination of the second of

early for Solomon.

thinned

in

The Plataeans died

the great pyramids at Giza, that of Khafre, indicated

continued his excavations on the old and essentially undescribed site of Ksar Akil. Otto Bader of the Acad-

tered

Skeletons believed to be those of Plataean soldiers were unearthed in a mass grave on the Plain of Marathon northeast of Athens

Few

expeditions worked in Syria or Iraq. At Qasr

Iraq government archaeologists exposed broad areas

west of Kirkuk, recovering the walls of a palace and many cuneiform tablets of the mid-2nd millennium B.C. Most of the long-established foreign and national expeditions were at work in Turkey, and salvage ex-

These moldmade figurines from the Classic Teolihuacan period made the generalized "Princess" style were recovered from Mexico's TeotihuacSn in

sites.

98

Archaeology

cavations proceeded in the region to be flooded by a the upper Euphrates.

dam on

numerous

Iran, a relatively vast country with

sites,

tended to absorb the activities of many archaeologists displaced from other, less peaceful countries of the

Near East. Perhaps especially notf .vorthy were the new French exposures of additional monumental buildings of the Persian kings' capital at Susa and the finding there of a pair of Darius' inscriptions. For several years an Italian institute had been at work on a vast city site, Shahr-i-Sokhta in Seistan (east cen-

with exceptionally well-preserved maand building plans. The occupation appears to have been before c. 2000 B.C., and there were hints that the site was a centre of trade in lapis lazuli. At Altyn-Tepe, in the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic, Vadim Masson excavated an important 3rd-2nd millennium B.C. site, including a temple with features recalling Mesopotamia. The Greco-Roman Regiofis. The "News Letter from Greece" (American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 74, no. 3, pp. 261-284 [July 1970]) suggested no very Iran),

tral

terials

startling discoveries.

An

extensive prehistoric settle-

ment was being examined near Marathon, as well as a small mound with the burials of young adult males, possibly Plataeans, Athenian allies in the famous battle. At Mycenae a building complex discovered in 1968 was cleared further; more clay idols and some carved ivory heads appeared, and one room was taken to have been a cult room. The prehistoric exposures in the important Franchthi cave were enlarged, and more evidence of the transition from food-gathering to food-producing ways of life in early Greece appeared. The foundations of a building found in the Athenian agora were identified as those of the Stoa of the Basileus, the site of Socrates'

a Polish expedition at

New

Paphos reported

the recovery of a well-preserved series of sculptures

and

a

taur.

polychrome mosaic of the slaying of the MinoEtruscan site was identified at Porto

A new

Clementino, 62 mi. N of Rome. On the basis of recent excavations and topographical studies on the Palatine Hill in Rome, G. Carettoni identified structures he believed to be the house of the emperor Augustus and the temple of Apollo. The Augustus house is a relatively simple affair (cf. Suetonius, that

Augustus was

with a house "scarcely fit for a private citizen"), but fragments of fine painting and terra-cotta satisfied

came from

UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA MUSEUM

Baskets of broken pottery

from the excavation of Phoenician levels

at Sarafand

southern Lebanon. These fragments, first uncovered in April 1970, make up the first large body of evidence needed to piece together the origins of Phoenician culture.

in

the terrace below the temple. Late Prehistoric and Historic Europe. S. Bokonyi's study of animal bones recovered several years earlier from the remarkable site of Lepenski Vir, in the Iron Gate gorge of the Danube, Yugoslavia, revealed that the dog was the only domesticated animal of the two earliest phases. These two phases were both "vil-

lages" and dated sometime before

SSOO B.C. In the and a few pigs were kept. In England salvage archaeology revealed traces of circular roofed timber structures within a large henge (circular Bronze Age monument) at Durrington. Excavation on the largest British henge, at c.

following, third phase, cattle, sheep,

Marden, also revealed the traces of timber structures, and it was suggested that these larger henges demote Stonehenge to the position of "a 'parish church' as it were— even if [its] sophistication means that it must be accounted as a very 'royal' parish church." .

.

Asia. General claims continued to be

.

made

Non Nok

prehistoric village site in northeast Thailand,

Tha, was reported to have yielded

3500-2500

from

rice dating

(R.

B.C.

J.

c.

B.)

Western Hemisphere. Despite cutbacks in fundmore than 500 and perhaps as many as 1,000 field expeditions were active in the New World during 1970. Increasing numbers of field projects were being carried out to test explicit hypotheses generated by ecoing,

logical

and general systems theory,

as illustrated in

Anthropological Archaeology in the Americas, edited by Betty J. Meggers, which provides eight papers demonstrating the so-called "new archaeology." The selections

are

grounded

consistently

in

ecological

theory and provide a broad spectrum of current research problems and methods. Most of the papers either describe prehistoric settlement systems or at-

tempt

to explain changes that took place in them. Technical Studies. Leslie B. Davis, Montana State

University, dated approximately 1,300 obsidian speci-

mens from 145 prehistoric sites in the northwestern Plains by the hydration method, in which the hydration rim that forms naturally on obsidian is measured to determine age. In California, Clement W. Meighan, UCLA, and C. Vance Haynes, Jr., Southern Methodist University (Texas), reported an obsidian hydration study that helped to resolve controversy concerning the Borax Lake site in Lake County. findings suggested that the site

was

The

initially utilized

during the Palaeo-Indian period about 12,000 years major occupation between 6,000 and 8.000 years ago. ago, with subsequent

An

application of X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy

from sources throughout Mexico and Guatemala and to a large number of specimens from the San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan sites in Veracruz was reported by Michael D. Coe and R. Cobean of Yale University. The analysis demonstrated that extensive exchange or procurement systems involving obsidian existed as early as the Ojochi phase (14501350 B.C.) of the Early Formative and continued throughout the long occupation of the San Lorenzo to obsidian samples

trial.

Fine examples of Scythian gold and silver vessels and ornaments, with decoration suggesting Greek craftsmanship, appeared in a grave in the Ukraine. On

Cyprus

very early appearance of plant domestication at Spirit Cave in northern Thailand, but detailed descriptions of the botanical evidence were not yet available. A

for a

Tenochtitlan

A

sites.

systematic survey using a recording magnetome-

was conducted by A. E. Wilson, Canadian Naon the winter ice pan at the head of Chaleur Bay, Quebec, to survey the site of the 1760 Battle of Restigouche, the last major naval engagement between French and British forces in the Seven Years' War. Approximately 22 French ships were sunk or scuttled during the battle. Magnetic anomalies provided precise information regarding the location of both unknown and previously ter

tional Historic Sites Service,

recorded wrecks. Far North. A large artifact assemblage, dated

a.d.

400 or 500 and representing a non-Eskimo, possibly Indian culture, was recovered in the Brooks Range of Alaska during investigations at the Onion Portage site on the Kobuk River by Douglas D. Anderson,

Brown

University, Providence, R.I.

Edwin

S.

Hall,

Ohio State University, excavated a large Eskimo inland encampment on the shore of Tukuto Lake in the Etivluk drainage. He determined that the site was probably first utilized slightly before a.d. 1800 and abandoned shortly after a.d. 1900. Investigation revealed that bows and arrows were the primary hunting tools, even after the introduction of the rifle, and that these traditional hunting techniques, rather than Jr.,

:he

rifle,

tur>-

probably brought about the early 20th-cen-

decline in

Coastal Studies. Investigations in the Bella Bella region

of

Columbia, directed by James

British

J.

Hester. University of Colorado, focused on changes of the environment that might provide means for describing cultural phases. Faunal analy?i5 suggested a transition from the use of land animals to maritime mammaUan forms such as seal, orpoise, and whale. Efforts were being made to determine whether such changes resulted from cultural or environmental factors. David Sawbridge, University in utilization .

study of ecological suc-

of Victoria, B.C., initiated a

on shell middens at the mouth of Knight Inlet, Vancouver Island, designed to test the h%'pothesis that vegetation can serve as an indicator of age on Northwest Coast sites. Herbert Mills, Nassau County (N.Y.) Museum of Natural History, conducted a study of Wading River Marsh, Long Island, in an effort to reconstruct the ical environment during the period of prehistoric ccupation. Preliminary results indicated that an early shallow bay was eventually filled by deposition, so that -pen water was replaced by marsh and tidal creeks. The major prehistoric human occupation was believed :o have taken place during a period when extensive mud flats supported an abundant population of soft cession

clams.

A late Middle Period bufpound located south of Gillette. Wyo.. in the Powder River basin was investigated by George C. Interior United States.

falo

Prison, University of

Wyoming, The pound, dated

about A,D. 250, was almost entirely man-made, consisting of

two fence

lines in

an arroyo meander leadwhere the animals were

ing to a restraining structure killed.

In

southwestern

Chadron (Neb.

)

Idaho,

L.

D. Agenbroad,

State College, reported the investi-

gation of a buffalo

jump dated by

late

artifact analysis at

That buffalo drives may have even was suggested. ,by summary work done by B. Galdikas. UCLA, who found that fossil bison and mammoth became extinct at approximately the same time. On the basis of differences in faunal remains, he proposed that while both Clovis and Fol-

ing

from the Classic Teotihuacan period (c, 200 b.crecovered from 7 excavated and 126 surface

A.D. 750),

surveyed rural Classic

sites.

The range

of rural figurine

types was strikingly limited in comparison with the types found in the urban centre, and this was inter-

preted a^ reflecting a peasant orientation toward the metropolis.

In a substantial review paper, Paul Tolstoy, Queens (N,Y.) College, and Louise I. Paradis, Yale University, proposed a revision of the Preclassic sequence in the Valley of Mexico. They pointed out that resemblances between Veracruz. Oaxaca. and the \'alley of Mexico appear to be very close, although it is premature to accept the view that an Olmec empire was responsible.

Following survey and

test

excavations in the state

of Guerrero, Robert E. Greengo, University of ington, reported that there

was an early

to

Washmiddle

Preclassic occupation in the northern part of the state closely affiliated with those of ley of Mexico.

A number

Morelos and the Val-

of attributes in the figurine

complex appeared to represent on a general Preclassic theme, sance and testing were carried Oaxaca by D. L. Brockinglon,

indigenous variations

however. Reconnaisout on the coast of University of North

Carolina: preliminary findings indicated that, from at

middle Preclassic times throuch the Postdassic, produced distinctive ceramics related to those from the \ alley of Oaxaca and Tabasco. M. Jorrin, also of the University of North Carolina,

least

the. coastal cultures

located nearly 70 stone monuments, British

Honduras. Excavations

many

of

them

Oaxaca.

car%'ed, in a sur\'ey of a portion of

at

Altun Ha.

re-

ported by D. M. Pendergast, Royal Ontario Museum, yielded a claw-shaped bead of a gold-copper alloy occurring as part of an Early Classic oH'ering. Strati-

greater antiquity

graphic evidence and radiocarbon dating placed the

stalked individual animals or small groups,

Folsom man developed a drive technique for taking bison that was unknown to the earlier Clovis hunters. Christy G. Turner II and Nancy T. Morris of Arizona State University reported on fragmented human bone excavated in 1964. The bone was demonstrated to have been the remains of a massacre of at least 30 individuals of both sexes and all ages, who were killed, crudely dismembered, violently mutilated, and probably cannibalized about a.d. 1 700. The massacre occurred 10 mi. S of the Hopi villages. Available information suggested that the remains were those of villagers taken captive by other Hopi warriors, referred to in the legendary account of the destruction of

Awatobi Pueblo that occurred 10 to 12 generations The alleged purpose was to prohibit the return

ago.

Hopi country after the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, as well as to retaliate against Awatobians for witchery practiced on other Hopi vil-

of Spanish missionaries to

lagers.

Mexico. The Teotihuacan mapping project, directed by Rene Millon, University of Rochester, N.Y., completed the archaeological survey of the city. In addition to maps summarizing field data, publication would include maps showing hypothetical reconstruction of all substantial buildings that existed during the

Archaeology

nearly 3,000 fragmentary and complete figurines dat-

nearly 2000 B.C.

som man

99

phases of the Teotihuacan sequence. C. C. Kolb, Mawr (Pa.) College, reported on an analysis of

Bryn

numbers of caribou.

offering at or prior to a.d. 500. Stylistic elements in-

dicated a source for the bead in the

Code

gilded lead leaf, above, probably from a ceiling decoration in the bedchamber of Henry VIII's palace (c. 1500), Is among

the discoveries

culture of

Panama. The Altun Ha discovery provides evidence of trade ties, however tenuous, linking the Maya central

A

in

excavations

at the Royal Naval College in

London, below.

"THE

CUARPn

100

Architecture

with southern Central America at an unexpectedly early time.

^ , South America. One of the major mterpretive problems of Peruvian archaeologists concerns the character of the Middle Horizon expansion in the Central Andes, which occurred during the period a.d. 6001000. Rapid developments took place, involving conquest and the spread of a culture that brought sweep,

.

.

and engineer Yoshikatsu Tsuboi. The Architectural Review, in an issue devoted entirely to Expo 70, described this roof as the one astonishing architectural achievement of the show. The spectacular and monumental structure was also hailed as providing fruitful new ideas for the treatment of central spaces in towns of the future. The street furniture and fountains were other outstanding features, providing practical ideas

ing changes to nearly all of Peru, although the diver-

for existing urban areas.

gave rise to varied patterns of assimilation. The first step toward understanding the processes involved is to unravel the chronology, usu-

pavilions were outstanding examples of exhibition ar-

Many

sity of regional cultures

ally

achieved by

analysis of ceramic styles.

A

sophisti-

of the national, industrial, and commercial

chitecture.

The

British pavilion,

by Powell and Moya,

consisted of four connected exhibition galleries sus-

The plywood

cated methodology has been developed toward this end and, in addition to the study of new finds, older

pended from

museum

whole was "advertised" by a gigantic balloon coloured resemble the Union Jack. The United States pavilion made use of an adventurous form of construction. It was sunk into the ground with a minimum of visible external walling. The vast oval interior was covered with an air-supported roof of translucent vinyl-coated fibreglass. The architects for this were Davis, Brody, Chermayeff, Geismar, and de Harak. Canada's pavilion was among the more spectacular

collections are constantly being reexamined.

Allison C. Paulsen presented a reanalysis of field notes of the 1952 Columbia University expedition to Pinilla in the Ica Valley, demonstrating that each of

two key burials had

its

own

individually associated

This allowed a redefinition, carried out by Patricia J. Lyon, of the Pinilla style of the Middle Horizon and the distinguishing of all vessels of this style from the preceding Ica-Pachacamac style. Where earlier workers tended to lump archaeological manifestations in the northern highlands of Ecua-

grave

lot.

dor into a single broad horizon, Alice Francisco, University of California, Berkeley, distinguished a

temporal sequence of three ceramic styles in Carchi region. The Capuli style, earliest in the quence, had received relatively little attention, marily because commercial collectors in the region

the se-

pri-

had

focused upon the middle, Piartal style, thus distorting its importance. The final, Tuza style was associated with a new mode of manufacture involved in the production of flat-bottomed vessels.

Early Man. The earliest known date for human in South America was reported by Richard S.

remains

MacNeish, Robert

Peabody Foundation for Arand associates from UCLA. Crude unifacial tools, choppers, and a burin were recovered in association with extinct sloths and chaeology,

S.

Andover,

Mass.,

cameloids in a buried stratum in a cave located

Ayacucho Valley of highland Peru. The

in the

latest of three

occupation zones yielded a radiocarbon date of 12,200 B.C., so that older dates might well be forthcoming. The complex as a whole was unique among tool assem-

man in the Americas, and the absence of projectile points in the complex tended to confirm the hypothesis that the earliest horizon in South Amerblages of early

ica belongs to a preprojectile-point stage.

(D. A. F.)

See also Anthropology.

Encyclop/EDia Britannica Films. The Egyptologists (1967).

Carbon

Fourteen

(1953);

masts. foil

walls were and painted white. The

to

constructions, consisting of a vast mirror-faced trun-

cated pyramid designed by architects Erickson and Massey. Built around a courtyard, it exploited visual fascination in the multiple reflections from the building's surface and the interior pool. The Swiss exhibit was not a building at all but rather a stylized

aluminum "tree" 68

ft.

high standing

middle of an empty paved area and festooned with 32,000 electric lamps. The trunk of the tree was made of aluminum-clad lattice steel columns, and the main branches were box beams to which extruded aluminum bars were attached, thus creating a complex filigree effect. The structure broadcast electronic music and emitted cool air in hot weather. The architect was Willi Walter, in collaboration with Charlotte Schmid and Paul Leber. The Netherlands pavilion by J. B. Bakema and Carel Weeber was cubic in form to house a film display that occupied the whole interior. The steel structure in the

had wall surfaces of asbestos sheet, painted silver above and blue and orange below, with all the external angles rounded. The Czechoslovak pavilion consisted of two single-story buildings linked by a continuous roof, which was the dominating feature of the building. The roof was formed by a grid of lattice steel beams faced with oil-stained plywood and supported by tubular steel columns. The walls were of glass, stiffened by fins set at right angles, and the floor consisted of black ceramic tiles both inside and out. The architects were V. Palla, V. Rudis, A. Jencek, and J. Jiricny.

Some

Architecture

steel

faced with aluminum

of the commercial and industrial pavilions

erected by various Japanese groups were even more exciting. The Takara exhibit was one of the most successful architectural fantasies, consisting of a steel-

The outstanding architectural event of 1970 was Japan's Expo 70 exhibition at Osaka. With its theme "Progress and Harmony for Mankind," it followed the high architectural standard set by Canada's Expo

67 at Montreal three years earlier. As had become traditional with international expositions in this century, Expo 70 was a proving ground for new ideas in archi-

were inserted to house the exhibits. The architect fur this was Kisho Kurokawa. The pavilion of the Fuji group was claimed to be the world's largest pneumatic structure. Designed by Yutaka Murata, it was built up in an arched shape like a covered wagon and constructed out of

16 inflated vinyl-and-rubber tubes

and environmental technology. The central feature was the theme pavihon and Festival

painted yellow and red on the outside.

Plaza, a multilevel circulation area covered by a vast space-frame roof designed by architect Kenzo Tange

ing of nine circular capsules,

tecture, planning,

Archery: see Sporting Record

pipe framework in which cubic stainless steel capsule*

The Sumitomo

pavilion was a sort of science-fiction structure consist-

some glazed and some

opaque, set at different levels in a steel framework.

connected by bridges and escalators. The architect was Sachio Otani.

School and University Architecture. Once again, many of the more forward-looking architectural productions were commissioned by schools and universities. The British firm of Howell, Killick, Partridge, and Amis was responsible for three new college buildings at Cambridge University. At Downing College they designed new combination rooms, kitchens, and offices to harmonize with the famous 19th-century Greek Revival exteriors by William Wilkins. The new extension was a precast concrete structure with large double-glazed windows and was hnked to the old Greek Revival hall by a low, plain connecting wing. A new residential block and dining hall were added to Darwin College. The structure was built of cavity brick walls and featured an octagonal dining hall raised above an open car park. The hall was of brick with an impressive pine ceiling throughout the world,

on

supported Court, a

new

reinforced

beams. Blundell Sidney Sussex Col-

concrete

residential building at

designed by the same firm, followed the tradi-

lege,

Cambridge pattern of stacks of study-bedrooms rooms for the fellows of the college. The structure was of brick and reinforced concrete. With these new buildings, Cambridge continued to uphold tional

and

its

sets of

reputation as the centre for

modem

architecture in

Britain.

Another outstanding new university residence, deJames Stirhng, was Andrew Melville Hall, University of St. Andrews, Scot. The spectacular view across the Scottish mountains and the North Sea was exploited fully, and all student rooms in the residence were focused toward it. The hall consisted of precast concrete units forming a central core with two rambhng projecting wings. When fully developed, the project was to comprise two dormitory complexes grouped on adjacent crests with each pair symmetrically mirrored about a common central service yard. Hull University, Yorkshire, was the first British signed by

JAPAN

Office Buildings. High-rise office buildings continued to dominate city buildings as urban land values shot up everywhere. J

,

drama department. Named the Gulbenkian Centre, the building consisted of a theatre and television studio and was designed by Peter Moro and Partners. The structure was of board-marked consively for the use of its

crete with red brick panels

dad

and a projecting copper-

roof.

A new

departure

in

school design was exemplified

by the Butler County Community Junior College, El Dorado, Kan., by architects Schaefer, Schirmer, and

was

dozen or more individual buildings, ten of which had been built by 1970; they would be Unked by steps, ramps, and landscaped terEflin. It

to consist of a

races designed to provide informal areas for discussion

and relaxation. Brick plinths and tile-hung walls

clothed a steel frame.

The campus of the University of Diego had a new and magnificent

focal point

— the

Central University Research Library. Designed

William L. Pereira and Associates,

it

by

consisted of a

vast concrete structure that cantilevered five levels

over a narrow podium to create a treelike shape.

One

was that even on the widest horizontal level a student was never more than two minutes away from any other part of the building. Another excellent new library was the Goddard Library at Clark University, Worcester, Mass. Designed by John Johansen, it was intended to resemble a gigantic "box of books" with myriad shapes protruding from feature of the design

the central core.

sheathed

skyline of the City of Lon4V

J dome

r

Ci.

T>

in

mirrored

slopes to suggest the ice,

1)

of St. Paul

s

Cathedral had been the highest point, was taking on new look with an increasing number of tall office

mountains, and prairie sky of the Canadian landscape,

While nothing to compare with the giants of and other U.S. cities, they nevertheless seemed to dwarf some of the City's narrow streets and buildings.

New York

old historic churches.

new

Among

the best of the year's

Commercial Union by Gollins, Melvin, Ward and Partners. These were built facing one another across a common plaza. Each building is a square tower rising from a podium, and the site planning was arranged to allow for incorporation of the high-level pedestrian walkways envisaged in the City of London development plan. Basement parking space was another feature. The Commercial Union tower was 387 ft. high, and the P & 191 ft. Both buildings buildings in the City were the

building and the

P&

building, both

were of similar construction, with a central reinforced concrete core enclosed in curtain walling.

The new

Stock Exchange headquarters by Llewelyn-Davies and r,, Partners was completed and became another prominent part of the City's skyline. In Boston the First National Bank's new headquar•

,

,^

,

was takmg shape. Designed by architects Campbell, Aldrich and Nulty, its novel design featured the first six stories set back to leave room for a plaza and ^ . u» u the next eight stones bulging out to make up the lost ters

.

space.

•

AL

Above

.

1

1

1

,

1

•

.

1

-1

1

1-

.

Commercial Union in London

building

by Gollins, Melvin, a"^, Pa'-tne.'-s-

a plaza facing the

p

q

1

•

.

the bulge, the building continued straight

building,

Ward site,

new

would

feature high-level Pedestrian walkways

underground parking,

1

•

The

COUBIESY, GOLMNS, MELVIN, wa»[> «nd pahincrs

up in the normal way. Situated near the new Government Center, the bank promised to be a novel addition to the new skyline of this historic city. The Government Center with its new city hall and vast pedestrian |||||nilllllllllll| plaza continued to excite

comment

architectural

in

III

Illllllllllinilllllll

(Ircles.

new office building for the Development Corporation, designed by

In Nairobi, Kenya, a Agricultural

Richard Hughes, featured a double-height shopping l||||||||||inilini| complex running under the building and opening into a central courtyard.

California at San

j^e Canadian pavilion at Japan's Expo 70

a

.

university to acquire a specially built studio exclu-

The

,

,

don, where not so long ago the

INFORMATION

The

ten floors of offices were

linked to a cluster of three concrete towers containing elevators, stairs,

and cloakrooms. The reinforced-conand

Crete structure was placed outside the curtain wall J . J . u used to suspend precast concrete sunbreakers. 1

A new addition

San Francisco skyline was the Aetna Life and Casualty building by Welton Becket and Associates. This was an octagonal tower of steel sheathed with dark granite and bronze-tinted windows. Also exciting comment in San Francisco was the proposed pyramid-shaped skyscraper headquarters of Transamerica Corp. Religious Architecture. Again in San Francisco, the new Roman Catholic cathedral by P. Belluschi and P. L. Nervi was nearing completion. The vast cruto the

[l

(m"*"T|f"^T|M| ^

J"

102

Arctic Regions

ciform concrete edifice was described by the ArchiReview as "an extraordinary exercise in enclosing the smallest amount of space with the greatest

tectural

amount

Roman

Catholic church, that of St.

Verene, near Friedrichshafen, W.Ger., built to replace was designed by architects

a neo-Gothic structure,

Hans

Kammerer,

Walter

and

Belz,

Hans-Ulrich

Schroeder. It featured shed-roofed towers grouped around a central congregational area. Construction

was of reinforced concrete, and the interior was skylit. The new Roman Catholic church of St. Antonius in Wildegg, Switz., was designed in a castle-like form by Dahinden in order to harmonize with

architect Justus its

surroundings.

minimum volume Mass

The design sought

ing used at the

to

was the

use Astroturf on the

first

in-

field.

in

same

an open

Institute of British Architects awarded Royal Gold Medal for 1970 to Sir Robert Matthew. The American Institute of Architects similarly honoured R. Buckminster Fuller (recipient of the RIBA medal two years before). (S. Mi.) its

See also Cities

and Urban

Affairs;

Engineering Projects;

Housing; Industrial Review. ENCYCi,npA!;DiA Britannica Films. The Living City (1953); Art oj the Middle Ages (Humanities Course) (1962); Athens: The Golden Age (Humanities Course) (1962); Chartres Cathedral (Humanities Course) (1962); The Louvre (1966); The Medieval Mind (1969).

to enclose in a

the formation people fall into

when

Although it was a large church, the interior was nevertheless "domestic" in atmosphere, due to the low walls and the large expanse of boarded timber roof. The first joint AnglicanRoman Catholic church to be built in England was under construction at Cippenham, near Slough. The architects were W. S. Hattrell and Partners. The plan was a square divided unequally into sections by sliding folding doors; the doors also formed corridors in order to ensure access when more than one section was bethey attend

major league stadium

The Royal

of wall."

Another new

built over a triple-level parking deck. It

field.

Arctic Regions Despite the accelerated resource-exploration activities in both the Soviet and North American Arctic regions in 1970, the surge of actual development and production failed to materiahze. There was growing concern over legal and jurisdictional questions and

over the protection of the delicate northern environ-

ment and

To

its

native peoples.

assist with shipping in the polar basin, the U.S.

government announced plans

time.

A new

ecumenical centre was erected in Rotterdam, Neth., as a gift to the Dutch people from the churches

West Germany, a gesture of penance for the destruction of Rotterdam during World War II. Much of the construction was done by West German volunteer workers. The building was designed by Rietveld, in

van Dillen, and van Tricht and consisted of a perfect cube supported on four service and stair towers. Other Buildings. The new town hall at Bukoba, Tanzania, by Richard Hughes was modest in scale, in keeping with the relatively poor township on the shores of Lake Victoria for which it was designed. It was built mainly of brick and concrete for ease of

new 11,000-ton

to construct

up

to four

icebreakers at an estimated cost of

$50 million each. The Soviet Union disclosed its intention to construct two nuclear icebreakers to be used off the north coast of Siberia. The first was to be completed by 1975. The new series of icebreakers, to be called "Arktika," would be twice as powerful as the "Lenin," the Soviet Union's

first

nuclear icebreaker,

which completed her 11th year of service during 1970. It was thought that the new icebreakers would help extend the shipping season

off

the Soviet Arctic cCast

joining rows of two-story family houses.

from the present 4^ to 6 months. In January the Soviet Union declared a ban on all shipping within 30 mi. of the Komandorski Islands, the islands closest to Alaska's Aleutian chain. The ban was announced in order to protect seals, and apparently extended the Soviet claim from a 12-mi. limit to 30 mi. in that area. The Canadian Northwest Territories held centennial celebrations throughout 1970. One of the main events was a visit by Queen Elizabeth II, Prince Philip, Prince Charles, and Princess Anne to the Territories during the summer. On April 1 the Canadian federal government completed the transfer of responsibilities for the administration of government services in the eastern Arctic to the government of the Northwest Territories. In April the Canadian Defence Department announced that a permanent headquarters for the Canadian Forces would be established at Yellowknife, N.W.T., to coordinate the increasing military

had an "international style"

activity in Canada's northern regions.

maintenance.

A new department store for Tokyo, the Ichi-BanKan, was designed as a prismatic structure by Minora Takeyama. In New York a new building for the Feigen Gallery on E. 79th Street was the first U.S. commission for the leading Austrian architect

Hans

Hollein. It

featured a gleaming 18-ft.-high stainless steel column at the entrance and an excellent flowing interior.

The Acorn housing project, a low-cost scheme in West Oakland, Calif., was designed by Burger and Coplans. It was built by a black contractor and had a 50% black population. The dwellings were of timber frame construction that could be built rapidly and cheaply and consisted of three-story blocks of flats

The whole and was reminiscent of some of the German projects produced in the late 1920s and early 1930s by pioneers of modern architecture such as Ludwig Mies van der Robe and Walter Gropius.

A new addition

air to

to Boston's

it

Logan International Air-

port by Kubitz and Pepi comprised a bold geometric interpretation of the standard boarding-finger plan.

New York's Kennedy International Airport the new British Overseas Airways Corp. terminal by Robert Matthew Johnson-Marshall was completed, only to be severely damaged by fire a few months later. The Cincinnati Reds baseball team had a new stadium. The Riverfront Stadium by Heery and Heery-

At

Alexander and Rothschild was a four-level structure

In the spring the Canadian government introduced to prevent pollution in the waters of the far north, the Northern Inland Waters Bill and the

two measures

Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention

Bill.

The

legisla-

provided for the comprehensive management of northern freshwater resources and for stringent regulations governing ship design, construction, navigational procedures and aids, and pollution liability apphcable to all commercial shipping operating within a specified control zone. The two bills, and a letter to the United Nations, extended Canada's territorial sea limits to 12 mi. and claimed jurisdiction over waters tion

up

from its Arctic coastline. Canadian government announced a

to 100 nautical miles

In

May

the

sweeping research program designed to accelerate both development and conservation in Canada's North. The

areas as Wrangel Island in the U.S.S.R.,

four-point program, which was placed under the direc-

Land north

tion of the

Department of Indian Affairs and Northembodied northern land use regulations, Arctic land use research, a task force on conservation, and comprehensive trials of tracked ve-

the

ern Development,

In March 1970, the Soviet periodical Water Transport reported that the high latitude air expedition "North 22," organized by the Arctic and Antarctic

over tundra.

Scientific

erational.

sign of tankers in the

250.000-deadweight-ton

class,

Norway, and Southampton Island

Research Institute of Leningrad, was op-

For several years members of these expewhich used drifting ice stations as bases, had accumulated a vast amount of scientific material conditions,

One

cerning the nature of the central Arctic Basin.

struction of icebreaker tankers for transporting Alas-

program was to establish a new drift station north of Wrangel Island. A scientist at the University of Copenhagen re-

oil. The second voyage of the U.S. supertanker "Manhattan" took place during April and May. The "Manhattan," which had accomplished the historic west- and eastbound passages through the Arctic Islands in 1969. restricted its voyage in 1970 to the waters of Baffin Bay and the eastern half of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.

The construction

of the trans-Alaska pipeline sys-

of the objectives of the 1970

ported that a computer-aided analysis of a 4.000-ft. core of ice drilled from the Greenland Ice Cap indicated that the climate of the Arctic Islands was get-

and that

ting colder

this

would probably

affect the

overall climate of the Northern Hemisphere.

Early

1970 the Canadian federal government

in

tem (TAPS) continued to be delayed. Although hundreds of miles of Japanese-made pipe were stacked at Valdez and Fairbanks, permission to construct an approximately 400-mi. gravel road to haul the pipe from the Yukon River across the Brooks Range to Prudhoe Bay had not been granted. At stake was a pool of oil that had been conservatively valued at $60 billion.

decided to spend an additional Can$500.000 on the further development of the "Ale.xbow," a Canadiandesigned ice plow that would lift ice out of a ship's

(See CoxsERVATioN

areas.

:

Special Report.)

year the secretar\' of Tyumen Province in the U.S.S.R. stated that western Siberia contained

Early

in the

a giant oil field

comparable

to the

one

at

Prudhoe

Bay, and that production of 700 million bbl. annually by 1975 had been forecast. It was estimated that Soviet reserves of natural gas,

much

of

it

in the

path rather than crushing

Edmonton,

it.

During the year an

ordered a prototype air-cushion trailer capable of moving 25 tons of oil and mineral drilling equipment over Arctic tundra Alta., transportation firm

(K. de

See also Geography.

l.\

B.)

—

Encyci.op.t:di \ Kritannica Films. The Arctic Islands of the Frozen Sea ( 1959); The Face o> the High Arctic (1959); High Arctic Lite on the Land (]9>0): The High Arctic Bionie (1961); I.i'e on the Tundra ("1 065).

—

Tyumen

were now the largest in the world. Production had fallen far short of planned targets, however, and the U.S.S.R. was attempting to arrange large gas sales to Western Europe in exchange for pipe and other needed equipment. area,

In January, Canada officially entered the Arctic

sweepstakes when Imperial Oil Ltd. announced

oil

Argentina The

republic of .Argentina, occupying the southeastern

of South America, is bounded by Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, Chile, and the Atlantic Ocean. It is the second largest Latin-.\merican country, after Brazil, with an area of 1,072.156 sq.mi. section

the discovery of a large oil field at Atkinson Point in

(2.776.884 sq.km.), excluding 481,177 sq.mi. of Ant-

Mackenzie Delta, Northwest Territories. The discovery led to speculation that an ice-free harbour would be built somewhere between the Alaska North Slope and the Mackenzie Delta area, probably on Herschel Island. The Canadian government increased

arctic

and South

est.)

24.352.000. Cap. and largest city: Buenos Aires

the

its

stake in Panarctic Oils Ltd. to maintain a

43%

and gas exploration consortium. The Dominion Bureau of Statistics announced in June that petroleum industry expenditures for exploration, development, and production in the Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Arctic Islands in 1969 totaled Can$86.7 million, nearly double those equity interest in the Arctic

oil

:

.Atlantic

island areas.

Pop. (1970

(pop., 1970 est., 3.6 million).

Language: Spanish. Remainly Roman Catholic. Presidents in 1970, Juan Carlos Ongania until June 8 and, from June 18, Brig. Gen. Roberto Marcelo Levincston. ligion:

Domestic

Affairs. Argentina's political pattern in

on the North Slope had scattered the grizzly

1970 was dominated by the consequences of a change in its military leadership. On June 8, after almost four years as president, Juan Carlos Ongania leader of the revolution proclaimed in 1966 was quietly deposed by the heads of the three armed services: Lieut. Gen. Alejandro Lanusse, Adm. Pedro Gnavi, and Brig. Carlos Rey. Forming a military junta, they ordered the immediate closing of the foreign exchange

bear population of that region, the state of Alaska eliminated the 1970 spring hunting season. The state

market and announced changes in the revolutionary charter that empowered them to make all decisions

also curtailed the hunting of polar bears. This

of national importance.

of the previous year.

Science and Technology. Because oil-prospecting activities

was

a direct result of an international conference held during 1970 in Morges, Switz., where it was disclosed that the world polar bear population

capable of maintaining

itself in the face of

was

in-

new hunt-

ing techniques using light aircraft and snowmobiles.

One

of the most important polar bear denning areas world was discovered 100 mi. S of Churchill, Man. It was estimated that about 60 female bears reared young in dens in this region during the year,

in the

Argentina

in

although no decision had been reached on the con-

kan

'

of

Kong Karls

Canadian Arctic.

Resources. The Humble Oil and Refining Co. reported in May that it had let a contract for the de-

hicles designed especially for operating

103

and the area was ranked with such major denning

—

—

On June 13 the junta nominated as president Brig. Gen. Roberto Marcelo Levingston (see Biography), a former chief of army intelligence Sunder Pres. Arturo Frondizi ) and later military attache in the U.S. Taking office on June 18, Levingston appointed as economy and labour minister Carlos Moyano Llcrena, who at once devalued the currency by 12.5% (from new pesos to the U.S. dollar) the foreign exchange market. 3.50 to 4

and reopened

Areas: sec Populations and Areas; see also the individual country articles

Ongania's downfall could be partly explained by

openly denounced the government's proposals; the CGT, with which it had envisaged a political dialogue, promptly called a nationwide 24-hour strike for October 9, to be followed by protest demonstrations on October 22; and bomb outrages on October 3 in

and

social

troubles, coupled with reactions to his inept

of the

handhng

challenge presented by the kidnapping and

murder of ex-Pres. Pedro Aramburu,

finally

unseated

Giving more specific reasons for

its

take-over, the

junta emphasized Ongania's lack of preparations to restore representative government. Instead, his first priorities

had been

to forge a united labour front un-

der the Confederacion General de Trabajo

(CGT)

complete the revolution's economic and social phases before tackling the all-important "political

and

to

symptoms

of widespread opposi-

August the outproposed dialogue with the CGT's newly reelected executive council had been clouded by the tion to its "political plan." In late

look for

its

brutal assassination of Jose Alonso, leader of

the

was a recognized advocate of industrial development

of 1970, against

tion plan), stood for the policy that local business-

men and

international investors hoped would continue,

—

3.6%

necessary, of rigid stabilization.

in the same period of 1969 caused mainly by rises in the price of beef and other

This evidence of a counterweight to Moyano's policy was followed by wage increases (blanket and selec-

primary consumer goods. The gross domestic product grew by 5.8% from January to June, less than the

workers in the private sector and state which confirmed a growing belief that the

7.1% achieved in the first half of 1969 but well in with the 5.5% target for the year. By lowering the target (from 6.7% for 1969) the government hoped to curb inflationary pressures. Argentina's economic strength clearly lay in foreign trade. January-June exports, worth $947 million against $877 milhon in January-June 1969, largely reflected bumper 1969-70 harvests of grain and oil-

at

of staff.

these unmistakable

but Aldo Ferrer, minister of public works and services,

The composition of the new administrative team provoked much comment. Moyano, former adviser to .\dalbert Krieger Vasena (author of the 1967 stabiliza-

by appointment of the military cfiiefs

Aires, Rosario, Santa Fe,

garment workers' union and former secretary-general of the CGT. By early October it had become clear that organized labour and the traditional political parties had been deeply disillusioned by the plan and were in no mood to cooperate. The Economy. Progress was satisfactory despite the change in political management and an accelerating rate of inflation 11.2% in the first eight months

plan."

new president

and Tucuman were blamed on political extremists. The government was reportedly taken aback by

Buenos

officially

him.

Levingston,

a

storms of mid-1969, persistent labour

cal

of Argentina

demanded

short-term plan to permit all traditional parties to take part in the next elections. Other party leaders

unrest and the soaring cost of living had appreciably weakened his position by the beginning of 1970. These

Brig. Gen. Roberto Marcelo

gest of the country's political groupings)

the gradual erosion of public confidence in his administration. Although he contrived to ride the politi-

the expense,

if

tive) for all

enterprises,

new regime preferred

inflationary risks to public un-

rest.

however, was a planned approach of democratic government. On September 29 Levingston assembled all provincial governors to announce a five-year program for "the progressive normalization of institutions." Within that period, he said, the government would reform the Its central aim,

to

the

restoration

constitution, create "three or four" political parties

on June 28, 1966 (when the armed forces deposed Pres. Arturo Illia), activate economic development, promote social and educational reforms, and, finally, call presidential and congressional elections. Describing as "irreversible" the dissolution of pre-1966 political parties, Levingston said that the new ones would reflect "all currents of popular opinion in a politically tolerant climate." His announcement provoked anger and dismay throughout the political spectrum except from followto replace those dissolved

ers of ex-President Frondizi.

The Peronistas

(stron-

line

seeds.

Imports rose

less

than

in 1969, partly

because

of the lower economic growth rate and partly because

from devaluation. the El ChoconCerros Colorados hydroelectric-irrigation complex (planned capacity: 600,000 kw. by 1973; 1.2 million kw. by 1978). As part of its second stage, another hydroelectric plant was to be built between 1972 and of higher import costs resulting

Major

projects under

way included

1978 at Planicie Banderita on the Neuquen River. In June, Industrias Dow Argentina (a Dow Chemical subsidiary) began construction of its $100 million

petrochemical plant at Bahi'a Blanca.

(W. Bn.)

Encyclop/Idia Beitannica Films. Argentina (People the Panipa)

(

oj

1957)

ARGENTINA Education. (1967) Primary, pupils 3,206,625, teachers 158,858; secondary, pupils 189,754, teachers vocational, pupils 454,743, 29,093; teachers 64,653; teacher training, students 203,399, teachers 24,357; higher (including 14 universities ). students 264,048, teaching staff 16,307. Finance. Monetary unit: new peso (introduced on Jan. 1, 1970; 1 new peso 100 old pesos), with an e.xchange rate of 4 new pesos to U.S. $1 (9.60 new pesos £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, central bank: (March 1970) U.S. $501 million; (March 1969) U.S. $712 mil-

=

=

Budget (1969 est.): revenue 9,773.000,000 new pesos; expenditure 205 million new pesos. Gross national product: (1968) 61.1 billion new pesos; (1967) 52,1 50,000,000 new pesos. Money supply: (March 1970) 15,260,000,000 new pesos; (March 1969) 14,020,000,000 new pesos. Cost of

lion.

living

366;

(Buenos Aires; '963

(May 1969)

=

100):

(May 1970)

325.

Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports 5,516,320,000 pesos. Im-

new pesos; exports 5,642,130,000 new

port sources: U.S. 22%; Brazil 11%; West Germany 11%; Italy 7%; U.K. 6%. Export destinations: Italy 14%; Netherlands 10%; U.K. 10%; U.S. 9%; Brazil 8%; Chile 5%; Spain 5%; West Germany 5%. Main exports: cereals 26%; meat 19%; hides and skins 6%.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1968) 2 15,304 km. Motor vehicles in use (1968) passenger 1,152,300; commercial 652,400. Railways: (1968) 42,000 km.; traffic (1969) 14,128,000,000 passenger-km., freight 12,948,000.000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1968): 1,748,777,000 passenger-km.; freight 40,058,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1969): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 319; gross tonnage !,217,646. Telephones (Dec. 1968) 1,599,861. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) 9 million. Television receivers (Dec. 1968) 2.5 million. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969; 1968 in parentheses): wheat 5,700 (5,:

740): corn 6,900 (6,560); sorghum 2,579 (2,033); barley 523 (556); oats c. 381 (490); po-

2,339 (1,967); sugar, raw value (196970) 978, (1968-69) 936; linseed 520 (510); sunflower seed 876 (940); cotton, lint 96 (72); oranges 1,029 (816); apples 436 (470); wine (1968) 1,951, (1967) 2,817; tobacco 52 (62); beef and veal (1968) 2,579, (1967) 2,564; cheese (1968) c. 180, (1967) 157; wool, greasy (1968) 174, (1967) 190; quebracho extract (1968) 123, (1967) 1 19. Livestock (in 000; June 1969): 'cattle c. 51,600; sheep c. 47,600; pigs c. 3,900; horses (June 1968) c. 3,700; chickens (1968-69) c. 33,000. Industry. Index of manufacturing (1963 100): (1969) 151; (1968) 140. Fuel and power (in 000; 1969): crude oil 18,096 metric tons; coal 52 1 metric tons; natural gas 5,328,000 cu.m.; electricity (excluding most industrial production) 15,225,000 kw-hr. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969): cement 4,347; crude steel 1,698; cotton yarn 76; passenger cars (including assembly; units): 156; commercial vehicles (including assembly; units) 60. tatoes

=

Art Exhibitions became more and more popular in 1970 everywhere. The days of the enormous loan retrospectives seemed to be numbered, since the insurance costs and transportation risks involved in lending tended to make many museums more reluctant to send works of art long distances. But this gave new impetus to the organization Gallery-going

as exhibitions proliferated

of smaller exhibitions,

concentrating on single aspects

groups of

of artists or small

artists.

More

galleries

experimented with mixed-media exhibitions making

wonders of modern technology. and most magnificent exhibitions of the year was, fittingly, the exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York entitled "19thcentury America." It was the third of the Met's centenary exhibitions. (Others were the New York School show held in the autumn of 1969 and, in 1970, "The Year 1200,'' devoted to art of the period 11 80-1220.) The exhibition included architecture, painting, sculpture, and the decorative arts. The painting and sculpture section included many significant works in the history of American art. Works included portraits by Gilbert Stuart and J. S. Copley, landscapes of the Hudson River School, the famous "Gross Clinic," and many portraits by Thomas Eakins, paintings by Winslow Homer, and sculpture by Hiram Powers and John Rogers. The furniture section was equally impressive, ranging from the utilitarian everyuse of the

One

of the largest

lege" and consisted largely of French and

American

works.

of worlity, was largely responsible. There was, indeed, considerable continuing dissent over a broad range of isSucs on he New Haven campus. In the spring of 1970 the situation was made more volatile hy a Black Panther murder-conspiracy trial •in

I

in

New Haven

that attracted activists

from

around the country. Brewster's administration fostered open discussion among students ind faculty, permitted nonviolent demon-trations, and briefly suspended classes for a mass rally. Yale went so far as to prepare -imple food and shelter for out-of-towners. W hen 12,000 people gathered for the rally, Panthers joined undergraduates as marshals to keep the peace. Though there were scattered incidents, the city and the campus were remarkably free from violence. While these events were the most dramatic of Brewster's seven-year administration, they typified his approach. "Kingman k visible," as one associate put it visible to the undergraduates, available to dissidents, and in touch with the entire college community. A university administration must be held accountable, and students should be consulted in matters that affect them, but beyond that he believed the faculty "must have an ultimate, exclusive voice" in setting academic standards, deciding faculty appointments, and governing the university. Some of his poUcies he admitted women to the undergraduate body and radically liberalized admissions policies for men angered more than a few Old Blues. Nonetheless, the annual fund drive rai.sed more money than any similar appeal in the history of Yale or any other U.S. university. Brewster was born in Longmeadow, Mass., June 17, 1919. He received an A.B.

—

—

—

from Yale

in 1941, served in the Navy, and received a law degree from Harvard in 1948. He subsequently taught at the Harvard Law School before returning to Yale as provost and professor in 1961. He was elected president of the university two years

(Ph. K.)

later.

135

Biography

Brown

recalled.

Three drafts and more than it was pubUshed as My

three years later

Left Foot.

BROWN, CHRISTY

Brown resumed

Christy Brown, touted as the latest Dubliner to follow in the Joyce-Behan tradition of Irish lyricism, wrote better with his left foot than many people do with both hands. That was one reason he became a literary celebrity in 1970 he had severe cerebral palsy and typed with his toes. Born June 10, 1932, the 10th of 22 children in a slum family, Brown was considered hopelessly handicapped. One day when he w^as five, a sister was writing on a slate, and he clutched a piece of chalk in his toes. He began to draw with it on the floor his left foot, it appeared, was his single functional extremity. With the help of medical therapists. Brown learned to speak intelligibly. At 18 he began his autobiography, with the help of one of the dozen siblings who had survived the ravages of a squalid household. The first draft was "a veritable forest of seven and eight syllable words,"

—

;

writing,

and the

published in the U.S. in 1970, was

result,

Down

All

Days, which received mixed reviews. One critic called it a "tough but lyrical the

panorama

of the booze, fornication and heartbreak that teemed around him in '30s and '40s Dublin." Time's critic saw it as "more memoir than first novel," though he did recognize "a native gift" salted with

sexual gropings." That reserved his severest attack for the mawkish dust jacket blurb: "This Barnumesque hawking freak-show tone manages to degrade the book and insult the limited but quite legitimate talents of the author."

"O'Portnoyesque critic

Brown, who made

little

of his disability

did not appear troubled by it all. The subject of a well-received television documentary and with a biographical movie in process, Brown invested some of the in public,

profits electric

from Doivn All the Days typewriter.

Some

of

in a

the

new

rest

he

136

who was running Biography

parted with

in the

Stone Boat, a neighbour-

hood pub that he patronized with

regularity.

also held a brush with facility, and his paintings were exhibited in DubUn, Ziirich,

He

Switz.,

against

John

F.

Kennedy

for president, agreed but could not persuade the administration to follow Burns's advice. Later Nixon said privately that the recession

(Ph. K.)

and Stockholm.

BURNS, ARTHUR FRANK Arthur Burns stepped into the chairmanship of the U.S. Federal Reserve Board in February 1970, at a critical period in the nation's economic history. Appointed by Pres. Richard Nixon to succeed the retiring William McChesney Martin, Jr., a Democrat, Republican Burns was closely tuned to the administration's attempt to bring inflation under control without bringing on a recession. Burns had been chief White House economic adviser during Nixon's first year in office.

Burns's favourite slogan under pressure a steady hand at the Fed, allowing a moderate expansion of the nation's money supply. Before year's end he was pointing to signs of lessening inflationary pressures and an upturn in the economy. At the same time, critics complained that his tight-money policies had driven interest rates to their highest levels in a hundred years and that unemployment

was "don't panic." He kept

was rising. Burns was born April

27, 1904, in

Galicia, then a region of the

Eastern

Austro-Hun-

garian Empire and now a part of the Soviet Ukraine. His father emigrated to the U.S. when his son was nine, and later young Arthur learned his father's trade of paperhanging. He had a bent for scholarship,

He apphed for admission to Columbia University and made such an im-

however.

pressive appearance at his initial interview that he was admitted and was given a scholarship as well, even though enrollment for the school year had closed. Burns chose economics as his specialty and later, as an assistant professor at Rutgers University, became a pioneer in the field of business cycles.

As chairman of Pres. Dwight Eisenhower's Council of Economic Advisers, he warned that a recession in 1960 was on the way and advised a loosening of spending and crecht policies. Vice-President Nixon,

that year had cost him the election. As chai.man of the Fed, Burns headed an

independent body officially separated from administration or congressional interference. But Burns, like Nixon, was cautious in monetary affairs, a free trader, opposed to big government, and for such administration-backed measures as federal-state reve(M. B. Su.) nue sharing.

BUTKUS, RICHARD One

new glamour

positions that has increasingly violent and popular world of professional football is that of middle linebacker. It is a position manned by husky, bruising men who direct their team's defense. They must have the strength of a lineman and also the agility to defend against short passes. Some professional coaches regard the middle linebacker position equal in importance to that of the

emerged

in

the

of a quarterback. By the late 1960s, one such middle linebacker, Dick Butkus of the Chicago Bears, was generally acclaimed as the best in the

National Football League. Butkus was chosen four times, by unanimous consent, as the NFL's all-pro middle linebacker and had been selected to play in six Pro Bowl games. Butkus was born on Dec. 9, 1942, in Chicago. He started playing football in grade school on Chicago's South Side and continued at Chicago Vocational High School, where he was so outstanding that he received an estimated SO to 60 scholarship offers from colleges and universities. He played both fullback and linebacker as a schoolboy and in his senior year at Vocational figured, directly or indirectly, in approximately 70% of his team's tackles. Butkus attended the University of Illinois, where he won even more honours. He was a virtually unanimous All-American choice during his junior and senior years there, and in 1964, as a senior, was chosen by both the Associated Press and the United Press International as the season's outstanding college lineman. That same year the College Football Coaches Association selected

him

as the college player of the vear. (JE.

Ho.)

CARR, ROBERT Thirty years of continuous experience with the problems of industrial relations, both on the factory floor and in politics, brought Robert Carr to the Department of Employment and Productivity as the minister in'J Edward Heath's new Conservative Party government. Charged with achieving reforms in trade-union law and industrial relations, Carr was given potentially the most controversial job in the Cabinet, and one that seemed likely to be even more difficult because of the threat of labour unrest. He had been in office only a few days when a national dock strike began. The strike marked the beginning of a governmental

poHcy

of resistance to inflationary wage increases in which Carr was to show both coolness and firmness.

Born Nov. 11, 1916, Carr attended Cambridge University and graduated with a degree in metallurgy. He then went into his family's manufacturing business, metal where he rose from a factory foreman to a director of the company. Elected to the House of Commons in 1950, he made his first speech on industrial relations. At that time he said, "I believe most deeply that a

man

will never find satisfaction in his leisure unless he has first found satisfaction in his work." In the mid-19S0s Carr served as a parliamentary secretary to the Ministry of Labour before returning to his family business as company chairman. He took a hand in shaping Conservative Party industrial policy at that time, and ten years later was the principal author of the Conservative policy document. Fair Deal at Work. Carr's defense of the Heath administration's industrial relations bill was based on his belief in the importance of having a set of good rules for both management and the trade unions. He denied that the legislation was either pro-employer or antiunion, claiming that it constituted a fair deal for all. (W. H. Ts.)

CHAVEZ, CESAR ESTRADA gave Cesar Chavez much chance of when he began a farm workers' strike against California grape growers in 196S. Farm workers are not covered under federal labour laws, and they have remained largely unorganized. Not that they do not have grievances. Farm work is seasonal and

Few

success

Cesar Chavez CURT GUNTHER FROM CAMERA

5

sporadic,

and

field

hands often move

in

fam-

groups following harvests. Pay is low, hours are long, and the work is hot, hard, and dusty. Living conditions in migrant workers' camps are often substandard. Average migrant family income in the U.S. is less than $1,600 a year. Many of the three million hired farm workers in the U.S. are, like Chavez, of Mexican ancestry. Chavez, who headed the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee, turned the grape strike into more than just a labour confrontation. Under his direction it became "La Causa," almost a religious movement. Initially it gained limited support from workers in the San Joaquin grapegrowing area, but it was not until Chavez conceived the idea of a national consumer boycott in 1968 that it started to gain moily

mentum. Publicized by news of Chavez' fasts, supported nationally by the AFL-CIO and the United Auto Workers and locally by picket lines of housewives in front of supermarkets, Chavez' boycott began to work. Sales of table grapes fell off from Xew Hampshire to Honolulu in support of the "Chicanos," Chavez' people. In July 1970, in the face of declining sales, California grape growers finally capitulated. A substantial wage increase was granted, and one of the most agonizing and unusual of labour disputes was o%'er. Chavez said, however, that this was only "the end of the beginning." Late in August his union struck lettuce growers in California's Salinas Valley, and before the year was over Chavez had been jailed for failing to call off a boycott against a lettuce grower who had signed with a rival union. He was released on Christmas Eve pending further court hearings.

Born March 31, 1927, near Yuma, Ariz., Chavez was the son of an impoverished migrant farm worker; he attended dozens of schools but never got as far as the eighth grade. He began full-time efforts to organize farm workers in 1962, but he was not well known outside California until the boyHis goal was the organization of all farm workers, and he vowed "to stay with it if it takes a lifetime." (M. B. Su.) cott.

CHI

CHENG

1969 Chi Cheng, a 26-year-old late bloomer from Taiwan, developed into the world's fastest and most versatile woman in track and field. Over one stretch of 121 races, she lost only 2. At the end of 1970 she held 11 Asian, 6 U.S., and 4 world records. Two of her world records were set in June 1970 in the same meet the Portland, Ore., Rose Festival, where she ran as a member of the Los Angeles Track Club. At that tournament Miss Chi did the 100-yd. dash in 10.1 sec, breaking the old record by 0.2 sec, and the 220-yd. dash in 22.7 sec, 0.2 of a second faster than the old mark. In July she lowered the record for the 200-m. dash to 22.4. Miss Chi blossomed as a runner after coming to the U.S. from her Chinese island homeland in 1963 to enroll as a student at California State Polytechnic College and to run for Vince Reel, track coach at nearby Claremont-Mudd College. Reel first saw her in 1960, when she performed as a 16-year-

Beginning

in

—

her into coming to Los Angeles to complete her education and to train in earnest, with her government paying the cost.

She failed to qualify for any of the finals Olympics. But in 1968, at the Mexico City Olympics, running with pulled muscles in both legs, she qualified for the finals in the 100-m. dash, placing seventh, at the 1964

and the hurdles. Her third-place finish in the hurdles won a bronze medal and she thus became the only Asian woman to win a medal that year in track. After the Olympics she improved steadily, a situation that put Reel in a quandary trying to decide what she should speciaUze in for the 1972 Olympic ;

Games. On December 27, Reel and Miss Chi were married in T'ai-pei. In 1970 she posted the year's best marks six different U.S. events the 100- and 220-yd. dashes, the hurdles, the long (broad) jump, the pentathlon, and, most recently, the quarter-mile run, which she took up just to improve her time in the 220. In each event she beat the best U.S. women at their spe-

—

in

ment

in

Europe

(F.

Wt.)

COLOMBO, EMILIO was plunged into a government crisis 1970 when the coalition government of Premier Mariano Rumor resigned on July 6. After a month of searching for a new leader. Pres. Giuseppe Saragat chose Emilio Colombo, a Christian Democrat who had been serving as minister of finance. Colombo took office on .August 6 after succeeding in forming a centre-left coalition Cabinet consisting of 16 Christian Democrats, 6 Socialists, 4 Unitary Socialists (official name of the Social Democrats), and 1 Republican. (Colombo was born April 11, 1920, in Potenza. After graduating with a degree in

Rome University, he became interested in politics. In 1946 he was elected a deputy to the postwar Constituent Assembly and two years later was elected to

law from

Chamber

of Deputies. Reelected in 19.S3, he was appointed minister of agriculture and forestry by Premier Antonio Segni. He became minister of foreign trade in 19S8 and then served as minister of industry and commerce from 1959 to 1963. In that post his name was linked with the nationalization of the electrical industry. He also had a primary role in the preparation of agreements in Brussels that introduced the second phase of the European Common Market. After his reelection to Parliament in 1963, Colombo was appointed minister of finance. To create the basis for a new expansion of the economy, he applied measures to balance public expenditures with revenue and to de-

the

fend monetary stability. As premier, Colombo hoped to resolve the issue that had caused the Rumor government to fall: the feud between the Socialists and the Unitary Socialists over the former's collaboration with the Communist Party. Colombo committed himself to a strong national anti-Communist stand but allowed the Socialists to join with the Communists in local administrations where his centre-left group did not have a majority. (F. G.)

CORNFELD, BERNARD One

Cornfcid

fell

went un-

heat in the hurdles. Reel liked what he saw a girl unusually tall and lanky for a Chinese (S' 7{") and so full of desire that her teammates called her "the Iron Girl." Reel got a closer look in 1962, when he was sent to Taiwan by the U.S. Department of State to prepare the Nationalist Chinese team for the Asian games. He talked

generation of swinging financiers. For "Bernie," as friends and enemies alike called him, was big indeed. Starting from scratch in the mid-1950s, he had built his Investors Overseas Services and its Fund of Funds into an organization that employed 20,000 persons and boasted a million customers in 26 countries (including six heads of state

—

beauty queens. His legendary entertainefforts included an estimated $100,000 for his 1969 Christmas party. It was not always so. Born in Istanbul, Aug. 17, 1927, Cornfeld arrived in the U.S. at the age of four during the depths of the depression. He attended tuition-free Brook-

like

Italy

cialties.

China (Taiwan) in the Olympic Games. Even though she was last in her

and persons behind the iron curtain) and assets of some $2 billion. As a member of the jet set, 42-year-old Bernie was also a big swinger. Corporate headquarters was a lavish villa on the shores of Switzerland's Lake Geneva. Bernie's female employees were miniskirted and looked

lyn College, campaigned for Socialist Norman Thomas for president in 1948, then went into social work in Philadelphia. But capitalism beckoned and Bernie found he was a natural mutual fund salesman. After a vacation in Europe he decided he liked it enough to set up shop there. He started selling U.S. securities door-to-door on the installment plan, and the approach new in

(lay in M.iy 1970 Bernard from power. And if that event noticed by many persons, it was cause they were not current with

old for Nationalist

137

Biography

only bethe

new

—

— was

an immediate success. Cornfeld branched out into insurance, banking, and real estate. Estimates of his personal wealth reached SlOO million.

But the prosperity

of Cornfeld's financial

conglomerate was tied to the U.S. securities markets. Early in 1970 prices on the New York exchanges fell, and the value of Cornfeld's Fund of Funds dropped S200 million. His customers did not panic, but his financial

partners did as the value of their in-

vestment dropped from an earlier high of more than $30 a share to $2. Cornfeld cut overhead and costs but it was too late. With operating capital depleted and confidence gone, the lOS board fired him as chief executive officer. Out but not down, he remained the largest single lOS stockholder, regained a seat on the board, and at year's end was planning a proxy fight to trv to establish control. (M. B. Su.)

CRANKO, JOHN To lie responsible for direction of two West German ballet companies, in Stuttgart and Munich, and to bring one of them to the position of a principal European company with a great transatlantic reputation, would seem enough of a feat for one year. But then in addition to create a major full-length work. The Taming of the Shrew, and several shorter ones, including Poeme de I'Rxlase for

Margot Fonteyn, might seem almost

impossible. But all this John Cranko did between the spring of 1969 and that of 1970. Even before his Stuttgart company went on its first triumphant tour to the U.S., thus establishing itself as a company of international importance, it had been developing a personality and reputation of its own. Cranko's success at Stuttgart was not surprising since, while in England, first with the Sadler's Wells Theatre Ballet and later in other branches of the theatre, he had shown that he had an inventive and original mind. Born in the South African town of Rustenberg on Aug. IS, 1927, Cranko joined the Cape Town University Ballet School at the age of IS and there, in 1942, created his first work to Igor Stravinsky's Soldier's Tale. Four years later he went to Britain to join the Sadler's Wells, primarily as a dancer though in that year, 1946, he created a popular pas de trois, Trilsch-Tralsch. After several other creations of growing

Cranko's real breakthrough with his Pineapple Poll, a ballet .set to music by Sir Arthur Sullivan. This lighthearted work of great chorcoimportance,

came

in

1951

The kidnapping of Haley was an attempt by a group of radical revolu-

hesive tape.

138

Biography

tionaries to publicize the cause of the "Sole-

dad Brothers," three inmates of Soledad prison charged with murdering a guard. graphic ingenuity achieved a lasting popularity. After several more works for Sadler's Wells and the Covent Garden company, which joined to become known as the Royal Ballet, Cranko moved temporarily to the lighter theatre with his revue Cranks, originally put on in London and later equally

New

York. successful in Cranko also produced opera, including Benjamin Britten's A Midsummer Night's Dream, and more ballets for the New York City Ballet, the Paris Opera, and other comThrough all this he returned con-

panies.

tinually to the

Royal Ballet

to

mount works

such as Britten's full-length The Prince of and Mikis Theodorakis' Pagodas the In 1961, however, Cranko left Britain to take up his assignment in Stutt(P. Wi.) gart.

Antigone.

DAVIES, JOHN

EMERSON HARDING being time in June 1970, John Davies found himself with a seat in the Cabinet within weeks of reaching Westminster. In the reshuffle that followed the death of Iain Macleod in late July, he became minister of technology and then, in October, minister of the newly formed Department of Trade and Industry. Both his experience and his political beliefs fitted him for a place in Edward Heath's Cabinet. His knowledge of management of big business was linked with an outspoken conviction in the virtues of private enterprise and the misguidedness of government

Although he arrived elected an

MP

late in politics,

for the

first

Police investigating the case quickly discovered that four of the guns used by the abductors were registered in the name of Angela Davis, and a warrant was issued for her arrest. Under California law a person who abets a murderer before the act is as

in the area at the time of the abduction, she was

promptly charged with murder. The FBI placed her on its "most wanted" list, and a nationwide search was undertaken after she dropped from sight. Angela Davis, 26, was described by friends as quite literally "black and beautiful." The daughter of a middle-class Southern black family, she was a good student in high school at Birmingham, Ala., and later obtained scholarships and studied at Brandeis University, the Sorbonne, and the Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt, W.Ger. After receiving honours she returned to the U.S. study philosophy at the University of California in San Diego. There she became interested in Marxism and joined the Communist Party. Later that proved to be the reason for her dismissal from a teaching to

job at UCLA. Friends said that she was bitter over the dismissal, and Miss Davis began to show more interest in revolutionary causes and groups. This led to her involvement in the case of the Soledad Brothers. She gave speeches and helped raise money for a legal defense fund for the men, who claimed they were really the victims of a racial incident.

Two months

He set out his philosophy in uncompromising terms in speeches at the Conservative conference at Blackpool in October, when he argued the case for disengagement policies of inter-

vention that he said stultified management. Though an effective platform speaker, he was less successful in adjusting to the Commons, which gave him an unusually rough hearing in a debate on November 4 when he expressed his attitude to subsidies: "National decadence is the consequence of treating us all, the whole country, as though we were all lame ducks. The vast majority lives and thrives in a bracing climate and not

sodden morass of subsidized incompetence." in a soft,

Born in London on Jan. 8, 1916, and trained as an accountant, Davies joined the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. in 1946. By 1962, at the age of 45, he had become vice-chairman and managing director of Shell-Mex and BP Ltd., then the biggest oil marketing and distributing organization in Western Europe. There was some surprise when he moved to a less highly paid job as director general of the Confederation of British Industry in 196S, but it was in this role that he came into close contact with political and trade-union leaders. By 1969 his political ambitions had crystallized and he gave up his CBI job to seek a seat in Parliament. (W. H. Ts.)

DAVIS,

ANGELA YVONNE

In August 1970 four gunmen abducted a judge from his San Rafael, Calif., courtroom in one of the year's most brutal and bizarre cases of violence. Soon afterward, at a roadblock shootout, three of the men were killed by police fire. But their hostage, Superior Court Judge Harold J. Haley, 65, also was killed, by a burst of fire from a shotgun the group had attached to his neck with ad-

al-

though Miss Davis was not seen

interference.

by the government from

culpable as the killer

himself, and

after the

murder, acting on

picked up Miss Davis in a New York City motel room, registered under an assumed name. Extradited to California, she was booked on charges of murder, kidnapping, and criminal conspiracy on December 22 in the Marin County Jail, not far from the scene of Judge Haley's kidnapping. (M. B.Su.) a

tip,

police

DAYAN, MOSHE A major

shift in

the foreign policy of Is-

took place in 1970 as the nation's approach changed from insistence on direct negotiations and a peace settlement with the Arab world to a more pragmatic effort to reach a partial settlement with the United Arab Republic. Instrumental in formulating rael

new policy was Israel's minister of deMoshe Dayan. One of Dayan's most important sugges-

this

fense,

tions

was that

Israel

withdraw about 20 mi.

from the Suez Canal as the first step in a general demilitarization of that region. Despite opposition from Foreign Minister Abba Eban and a majority of the Cabinet, Dayan won the support of Prime Minister Golda Meir (q.v.) and the Cabinet on November 29. In IDecember he traveled to the United States to discuss the Middle East situation with Pres. Richard Nixon. Dayan thus emerged at the end of 1970 as one of the major shapers of Israel's foreign policy. Dayan was born May 20, 1915, in Degania "A," the first kibbutz to be established in Palestine. He spent his youth working as a farmer on Nahalal cooperative, which his parents had founded. He joined the Haganah, the Jewish defense force, and was arrested by the British authorities in 1939. After two years in prison he volunteered for service with the Australians during the invasion of Syria, then under Vichy French control, was seriously wounded and lost his left eye.

During Israel's war of independence in 1948, Dayan was appointed commander of the Jerusalem area. His personal contact ! with the Jordanian commander helped pave the way for an armistice. He served as chief, of the general staff from 1953 to 1958 and was largely responsible for the successful Sinai campaign of 1956. From 1959 to 1964. he served as minister of agriculture but re-»5 signed because of differences within the Labour Party to join David Ben-Gurion in forming the Rafi Party. Dayan was not; ,1

(

happy with

this breach and used every opportunity to heal it. His chance came oni the eve of Israel's Six-Day War against the; Arab nations in June 1967. At that time,; there was a sudden popular demand thati Dayan be included in the Cabinet. As a result, he was appointed minister of defense on June 1, 1967, and led Israel to its victory in the war. (J. K.) i

•

DOUGLAS-HOME, SIR ALEXANDER FREDERICK Few

British

'

governments have had former,

prime ministers

in the Cabinet,

but Sir Alecj

Douglas-Home, who became foreign and Commonwealth secretary in the new Conservative Party government in June 1970, had been the last Conservative prime minis-/ ter, in 1963 and 1964. In terms of years ini Parliament and in government. Sir Alec was, by far the most experienced of Prime Min-i j

Edward Heath's Cabinet. He entered, the House of Commons in 1931, and in the{ years immediately before World War II, served as parliamentary private secretary (or personal aide) to Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, accompanying him on the visit to Adolf Hitler at Munich. In 1951 Sir Alec moved to the House of Lords when he succeeded to an ancient Scottish title as 14th earl of Home. He moved up quickly in the Conservative governments of the 1950s, becoming foreign secretary in 1960. His leadership in the Conservative ister

Party was confirmed when he was chosen to succeed Harold Macmillan as prime minister in 1963. To do this he had to renounce his earldom for his lifetime in order to return to the Commons to lead the government After narrowly losing the 1964 general election, he made way for Edward Heath as leader of the Conservative Party. Born July 2, 1903, Sir Alec was educated at Eton and Oxford University. A substantial Scottish landowner, enjoying fishing and shooting on his estates, he was in the old tradition of Tory aristocracy. Yet he was no amateur. It was typical of his professionalism that when he was ill for some months in 1940 he used the time to study

Marxism. As foreign secretary he quickly showed that he intended to act more independenth' of the prime minister than some of his recent predecessors. Indeed, his prompt statement of intent to resume the sale of arms to South Africa was found embarrassingly impetuous by some of his colleagues. In his foreign policy he emphasized the importance of Britain joining the Common Market as a way of making British influence felt, and he looked for greater European self-reliance for defense through NATO. (W. H. Ts.)

ECHEVERRiA ALVAREZ, LUIS Luis Mexico's new president in 1970, Echeverria Alvarez, was the archetypical organization man of Mexico's ruling party, Party Revolutionary Institutional the

(PRI), which had made Mexico the success story of Latin America in the half century it had held control. PRI rewards loyal party members, and when PRI nominates a candidate for president, he is as good as elected. Echeverria had been a soUd party member

'

:

i

i

and PRI would not have chosen he had not been cast in the mold

since 1946,

him

if

of the successful presidents

who had gone

before.

Echeverria was born in Mexico City on Jan, 17, 1922, when Mexico was just beginning to emerge from the bloody era of the 1910 revolution. In a sense, he and PRI grew up together. There is nothing quite like It

is

with

Moshe Dayan GAMMA FROM

PiX

PRI anywhere

else in Latin America. an all-encompassing poUtical entity, room for campesinos and factor>'

and soldiers. Communists and white-collar workers. Operating on a

woriiers, planters

system of patronage, PRI has a cradle-tograve structure that can reward or ignore, and it has evolved into what has been called a unique system of consensual democracy. It is a native product of Mexico and Mexico

WIDE WORLD

Angela Yvonne Davis

has thrived under it. Echeverria's bloodlines are mestizo, as any Dwight David Eisenhow/er

successful Mexican politician's must be, with roots in Jalisco, San Luis Potosi, Sonora,

II

p^--- >;ewS service from PIX

He received his degree as or lawyer, from the National University in and 1945 immediately launched into party work, holding a series and

Oaxaca.

licenciado,

of party and leap forward

government offices. His major came in 1958 when he became

undersecretary of Gobernacion, similar to a European ministry of interior. The secretary

of

Gobernacion

was Gustavo

Diaz

Ordaz, and when Diaz resigned to become the PRI candidate for the presidency in 1963, Echeverria moved up to take his place. In July 1970 Echeverria was elected to succeed Diaz as president, and on December 1 he assumed office. The new president was very friendly to the U.S., but hke all Mexican presidents he was unalterably opposed to intervention in the affairs of one nation by another a kind of genetic reaction to the loss of Mexican territory to the U.S. in the 19th century. It was for this reason that Mexico maintained relations with Cuba, even though there was

—

no secret about the distaste Mexican leaders felt for the Castro government. Echeverria inherited few problems with the U.S., however. Such outstanding questions as that of the international boundary near Juarez had been solved, and while the narcotics traffic and the use of the Gulf of Lower California were potential irritants, on the whole Echeverria took office at a time when relations between the two countries were extremely good. (J. A. O'L.)

EHRLICH, PAUL Once a researcher in the quiet of the laboratory, by 1970 Paul Ehrlich had become the angry man of the ecology movement. A professor of biology and former director of graduate studies for the department of biological sciences at Stanford University, Ehrlich burst on the public scene with The Population Bomb (1968), a book that became the bible of those who believe we must act now to head off overpopulation. As of 1970, the book had sold almost a million copies in paperback and had made its author one of the leading figures in the battle to save the environment. Campuses clamoured for him as a speaker; he became a frequent guest on nationally televised interview programs; he was on the move 18 hours a day, traveling 80,000 mi. a year to spread his message.

The message was simple enough. "Over the next few centuries we must reduce the number of people on the planet to well under one billion." "Even if we prevented all unwanted children ... we would still have a severe population problem." "We must move from an economic system based on growth, production, consumption and waste to one that emphasizes stability, quality of capital

goods, recycling of resources." "The population has been increasing faster than the food supply since 1958." Some critics called Ehrlich an alarmist. He agreed. ".After all, I'm alarmed," he said. "I'm scared." To further the cause, Ehrlich helped organize an activist group called Zero Population Growth. Formed in 1969, it grew to a membership of more than 8.000 in 1970. Its program included legalized abortion, a maximum of two children in a family, government support of birth control, and tax incentives for smaller families. Ehrlich was born May 29, 1932, in Philadelphia, received his B.A. from the University of Pennsylvania in 1953 and his Ph.D. from the University of Kansas in 1957. In 1959 he joined the Stanford faculty as assistant professor of biological sciences, attaining the rank of full professor in 1966. (F. VVt.)

EHRLICHMAN, JOHN DANIEL One observer described John D. Ehrlichman as "both an individualist and a Middle American with that from time

a curiously vulnerable core

to time explodes in bursts of impatience with some of the trends in contemporary America and that seems constantly at war with the part of him which is compassionate and easy-going." This set of qualities evidently appealed to U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon, whom Ehrlichman served as

campaign

organizer,

presidential

assistant

from June 10, 1970, executive director of the Domestic

for

domestic

affairs,

and,

Council.

Ehrlichman's appointment to head the Domestic Council, designed as a counterpart of the National Security Council, was not unexpected. Soon after the 1968 presidential election, Nixon directed him to set up a domestic policy-making group similar to the NSC. Many Washington observers asserted that Ehrlichman had become one of the

most

influential

While House aides

in

his-

tory.

Ehrlichman regarded himself as a manager" of comjK'ling approaches

"traffic

to

do-

mestic problems. In this capacity, he played a key role in fashioning administration policy on such issues as student unrest, school desegregation, and purchase of national park lands. The welfare reform plan proposed by President Nixon was pieced together by Ehrlichman from the sharply differing proposals of presidential aides .Arthur Burns and Daniel Moynihan. Ehrlichman had been associated with the president since 1960, when he acted as an

advance man for Nixon's first presidential campaign. In 1962 he was in charge of scheduling for Nixon's unsuccessful campaign for governor of California. During the 1968 presidential race, Ehrlichman was responsible for all logistics on Nixon's 50,000mi. nationwide tour. In the process he developed a reputation for strict punctuality that kept the Nixon campaign always on schedule.

Ehrlichman was born in Tacoma, Wash., on March 20, 1925. In 1948 he graduated from the University of California at Los Angeles, where he was a classmate of H. R. Haldeman, another Nixon aide. Ehrlichman also held a law degree from Stanford. During

World War

in the

II he was a .Army Air Corps.

first

lieutenant (Ri. W.)

EISENHOWER, DWIGHT DAVID,

II

—

At a time when at least if one believed the world of youth was domithe media nated by radical ideology, long hair, love beads, and pot, David Eisenhower, the grandson of one U.S. president and the sonin-law of another, seemed to .symbolize the "straight," old-fashioned young .American that Middle America longed to believe was still in the majority. Nor was his father-inlaw slow to capitalize on that fact. In an

—

140

Biography

election year, David was in great demand as a speaker for Republican candidates. Yet despite or perhaps because of the symbolism, there was a question as to whether David was truly a part of his generation. He and his wife, Julie Nixon Eisenhower, had declined to attend David's com-

—

—

mencement ceremony

at

Amherst

in

June

1970 because they objected to the speaker (liberal journalist I, F. Stone) and because of the possibility of student demonstrations. Earlier, they had forgone Julie's graduation Wladyslaw Gomiilka

from Smith for similar reasons. Dwight David Eisenhower II was born on March 31, 1948, at West Point, N.Y., to Capt. and Mrs. John S. D. Eisenhower. He graduated from Phillips Exeter Academy before entering Amherst. The only grandson of Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower (Camp David, the presidential retreat in Maryland, was named for him), he was a frequent guest at the White House, where he first met Julie, the younger daughter of then

EL

1

:

i

'

M.

7.

t

I.

.M

MAGNUM

Vice-Pres. Richard Nixon. Years later, when they were both college students, they met again, became engaged, and were married on Dec. 22, 1968. In October 1970 David both followed and broke with family tradition by entering

Candidate School at Newhis father and grandfather had been Army men, but President Nixon

Naval

in the

Navy

in

World War

II.

The Navy was not all David and his fatherin-law had in common. Both were avid baseball fans. David threw out the first ball at the Washington Senators' opening game in April a task traditionally performed by the president and he worked for the Senators during the summer as team statistician.

—

Committed to remain in the Navy for three years, he said he had "no idea" what he would do after that. There was speculation, however, that he would choose a career.

political

(Ri.

W.)

FIGUERES FERRER, JOSE Elected president of Costa Rica for four years early in 1970, Jose Figueres Ferrer

was an uncompromising enemy of both Communists and right-wing dictatorships. This was the third time Don Pepe, as he was affectionately known to his countrymen, had been president of the tidy little democracy where there was no army and where more money was spent on teachers than on policemen. He had led an irregular army that prevented the ouster of the duly elected president in 1948 and had ruled Costa Rica until the elected official could assume charge. also

was

elected in the usual free Costa Rican election of 19S3. As president and leader of the National

Liberation Party, Figueres was one of the few democratically elected presidents in Latin America. He had mellowed from his youthful days when, as a vigorous democratic militant, he had counted among his mortal enemies such dictators as Anastasio Somoza of Nicaragua and Rafael Trujillo of the Dominican RepubUc. In 1970 Don Pepe was not only constitutional president of the republic but also a prosperous lawyer and planter and a respected voice in hemispheric councils. In Costa Rica he was regarded as the father and guardian of the country's democratic way of life. Figueres was born Sept. 25, 1906, at San

Ramon

PICTORIAL

PARADE

Both

had served

He

FROM

Officers

port, R.I.

—

RUSSELL REIF

Betty Friedan

in

the

upland

country of years studying

coffee

Costa Rica. He spent many economics and engineering in the U.S., and

often claimed that his real education was gained by random reading in the Boston Public Library. In the '30s and early '40s he became an implacable enemy of Caribbean dictators. The so-called Caribbean Legion, with which he was associated, gave arms, money, and men to exiles trying to bring the dictators down. In 1948 he fought the Costa Rican Army and Communist commandos to preserve the presidency for Otilio Ulate.

Elected to the office himself in 19S3, he to fight off invaders backed by Nicaragua. Figueres was an early supporter of Fidel Castro, but broke with him when the Cuban revealed his Marxist colours. Openly pro-U S., Figueres regarded Costa Rica as a pilot project for the future growth of democracy in Latin America. (J. A. O'L.)

had

FRANJIEH, SULEIMAN Elected president of Lebanon Aug. 17, 1970, by a one-vote margin, 60-year-old Suleiman Franjieh was typical of the society he represented. He was born on June 14, 1910, in a small village to a family that was the undisputed leader of the farmer-business community in the area. Franjieh completed his studies in Beirut and joined the family business at age 20. He developed a flair for banking and insurance and drew rich rewards from his highly specialized knowledge. Unlike the majority of successful Lebanese businessmen, however, he made no attempt at first to become involved in politics. He left this to his older brother, Hamid Franjieh, a distinguished lawyer who played a major part in Lebanon's struggle for independence in 1945 and then became the country's first foreign minister. In 19S6, however, Hamid suffered an acute attack of

poliomyelitis

and had

to

retire

from

politics.

Despite family pressure, Franjieh refused to step into the position vacated by his brother as a deputy to Parliament and continued to devote himself to the family business. But in 1960 he changed his mind and ran for his brother's former seat. He won and was subsequently appointed minister of trade and economics in the new govern-

ment. He won a considerable reputation as a banker of repute and integrity and as the country's ablest financial brain. He was, however, a surprise nomination in the confused situation that preceded the presidential election in 1970. His opponent was Sarkis, the nominee of Gen. Fuad Chehab, a former president and reputedly the most powerful man in the country. Franjieh's success, though narrow, reflected the consensus for which he stood. He had the support of Christians and Muslims, of the right and the left, and he reflected this in the government that he formed after his election. In place of the customary politicians and representatives of powerful interests, Franjieh formed a Cabinet composed of experts and experienced officials. He reasserted Lebanon's independence in relation to the Palestinian guerrillas and also in restoring quiet on Lebanon's border

Elias

with

Israel.

(J.

K.)

FRIEDAN, BETTY There were those (mostly men) who called Betty Friedan the Pandora of the U.S.

women's liberation movement, for it was her book The Feminine Mystique, published brought to popular attention the frustrations of the modern Ameri-

in 1963, that first

can

woman

traditional

trying to conform to the image of housewife and mother.

There were also those (mostly women) who considered her to be the movement's Joan of Arc. As leader of the National Organization for Women (NOW), she was a leading spirit in the national women's strike called on Aug. 26, 1970, and she was in the forefront of battles to strike down discrimination against women in such areas as employment.

For all that Mrs. Friedan's views had seemed radical in 1963, when the lustre was only beginning to fade from the 'SOs dream of suburbia, NOW in 1970 found itself at the right of the women's liberation spectrum. Drawing its strength largely from professional often concentrated on removing legal disabilities based on sex a stance that led some observers to call it the NAACP of white,

middle-class,

women,

it

—

Elliott

Gould

WIDE WORLD

up through the hierarchy. He faithfully followed the party line at the time of the Hitler-Stalin pact of 1939, when the party was outlawed and its activists were hunted down, and was active in the Resistance during the German occupation. After the war he was a deputy from 1945 to 1951 and again from 1956 to 1958. From 1959 to 1962 he was a senator. Among all Communist leaders, his qualifications and university experience made him a natural choice to take charge of the party An ardent Stalinist, hostile to Titoism and the various other heresies, he gained the reputation of being the most intelligent but also the most dogmatic and sectarian of Communist philosophers. intellectuals.

The change came around 1958-60. In an essay entitled "D'un realisme sans rivages," Garaudy attacked Stalinism and put the case for liberalization of Communist thought, a rapprochement with Christians, and an "open" and evolving Marxism. Mo\dng "from anathema to dialogue" (the title of one of his books), he led the Centre d'Etudes et de Recherches Marxistes, which he directed, toward a liberal Communism

and a humanist Marxism. It could not last. As long Thorez,

the

all-powerful

ber, he

NOW,

lib.

favoured

for example, strongly proposed women's rights

the

amendment

to

U.S. Constitution

the

that

would forbid discrimination on account

of

sex.

All those

seemed very

this

women

old-fashioned to especially younger ones

—

radical solutions. Some true equality between the sexes would be possible only when society was totally restructured. "We're the real radi-

who demanded more said

that

Mrs. Friedan told a New York Times when asked about these criticisms. "We're changing things." cals,"

interviewer

Despite these differences of opinion, most women's groups did cooperate on .\ugust 26. The day was more demonstration than strike, but the eminent seriousness of most of the participants signaled that many of America's women meant what they said about claiming what they considered to be their rightful place in society.

Mrs. Friedan was born Betty Goldstein on Feb. 4, 1921, in Peoria, 111., and graduated

from

Smith

College,

Northampton,

Mass. After a period as a working girl living in Greenwich Village, she married Carl Friedan (they were divorced in 1969) and raised three children in the suburbs.

GARAUDY, ROGER A member

of the

and

French Communist Party

leading intellectual, Roger Garaudy faced a dilemma at the end of 1970: how to remain a Communist although rejected by the party. Since 1956 he had been one of ten members of its Politburo, the supreme executive council. A doctor of letters and professor in the faculty of letters at the University of Clermont-Ferrand (1962-65), he had been considered the French party's chief theoretician. And in 1970 he was booed at the party's 19th congress in Nanterre and removed from the Politburo and from the Central Committee. Behind this episode lay a story of destalinization that went too far, or at least too far for the French Communist leaders to stomach. Garaudy was born July 17, 1913, in Marseilles, and attended the University of Paris. After joining the party, he moved since 1932

its

called

still

Maurice

leader

of

the

Com-

himself a better

munist and a better Marxist than those sponsible for his dismissal.

re-

(P. V.-P.)

GARDNER, JOHN WILLIAM Constitutional Convention of-

Wht-n

lilinoi.--

ficials

told former Health, Education,

and

Welfare Secretary John W. Gardner he could not give a speech he had written at their invitation because of its content he flew back to Washington and gave it to the press. The noise over his "muzzling" only

—

—

increased the attention paid his thesis that there was a "growing crisis of confidence in our leadership." It also demonstrated Gardner's skill at identifying problems that touch inner chords of .Americans of all classes and political stripes and for mobilizing remedial action in Washington. In the fall of 1970, he turned those talents to a new vehicle for dealing with the problems of politics and government, a national citizens' organization. Common Cause, as it was called, emerged from the Urban Coalition Action Council, a surprisingly effective lobby Gardner also headed. The purpose of Common Cause was to mobilize public opinion and energy behind the kinds of goals the Urban Coalition lobbied for privately. In Gardner's words: "It is a new, independent, nonpartisan organization for those Americans who want to help in the rebuilding of this nation. One of our aims will be to .

.

.

and government. We want public officials to have literally millions of American citizens looking over their shoulders." Gardner's efforts were endorsed widely and received for him the description in the New York Times of "the paradigm of revitalize politics

.

.

.

the concerned private citizen."

Born in Los Angeles on Oct. 8, 1912, Gardner took degrees at Stanford and the University of California prior to teaching psycholog>'. During W'orld War II he served as a U.S. Marine Corps officer with the Office of Strategic Services. He joined the Carnegie Corporation of New York in 1946 and became its president in 19SS. He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1964 and a year later became Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson's secretary, a post he held nearly three years. (Ph. K.)

HEW

Biography

GOMULKA, WLADYSLAW The 14-year

reign of

Wladyslaw Gomulka

as

head of the Communist Party in Poland ended suddenly and dramatically on December 20 as the 65-year-old leader resigned in the wake of bloody rioting over government-imposed price increases. The official announcement of the resignation stated that it was because of ill health, but most observers believed that the rioting had toppled the veteran politician. Pres. Marian Spychalski and three top aides of Gomulka

power in the party same time. Gomulka was replaced by Edward Gierek, a party leader from the Katowice area. Ironically, Gomulka's downfall came at the end of what had appeared to be one of his most successful years. He had pushed through a new system of managing the Polish economy, and his country had signed a treaty with West Germany that, in sublost their positions of

at

the

stance, recognized

as

French Communists, was alive, he had been protected. But Thorez was dead, and Garaudy's outspoken protests against the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia were too much. Reduced to an ordinary party mem-

women's

141

the Oder-Xeisse line as Poland's boundary. The treaty was, to a great extent, Gomulka's personal triumph, marking the first time since 1949 that there had been fruitful Polish-West German talks. Gomulka was born on Feb. 6, 1905, at Bialobrzegi, near Krosno, in the then .Austrian part of Poland. He joined the illegal Communist Party of Poland in 1926 and was arrested twice, in 1932 and again shortly after his return from the Soviet Union where he spent the years 1934-35 at the International Lenin School near Moscow. Escaping at the outbreak of World War II, he re-

mained

in

German-occupied

Poland

and

started his activity as an independent Communist organizer. In November 1943 Gomulka was made secretary-general of the Polish Workers' Party, which then numbered about 8,000 members. On Dec. 31, 1944, he was appointed deputy premier of the Soviet-supported provisional government formed in Lublin, and in November 1945 he was appointed minister of the former German lands east of the Oder-Neis.se line. Under pressure from Stalin, Gomulka was successively dismissed from the post of party secretary -general, removed from the government, expelled from the party, and arrested. Rehabilitated after Stalin's death, he was co-opted to the party Central Committee and, on Oct. 21, 1956, elected as its first secretary on a wave of national popularity following the Poznan riots earlier in that year. (K. Sm.)

GOULD, ELLIOTT Elliott

who

Gould,

attention at

all

attracted hardly any w'hen he was married to

one of America's superstars, came into his own in 1970 as the anti-idol of an iconoclastic generation. And "Mr. Streisand" succeeded in Barbra's adopted medium, film. His first hit was the comic socioscxual Alice, in Carol Ted comment Bob which he almost won an Oscar for playing an awkward show-biz attorney who almost tries wife-swapping. Next came M*A*S*H, a brutal antiwar, anti-Establishment blackcomcdy-in-technicolor about a combat hospital in the Korean War. In Gelling Straight, Gould played a reasonably maladjusted, reasonably radical graduate student in a riottorn university. He considered it his best work to date. His one unabashed box office flop was Move, a confusing sexual sketch. It did gain Gould a Playboy picture spread and the distinction of being the first Playmate with a hairy back.

&

&

&

lish

the unity of Nigeria after the abortive

attempt at secession by the Ibo people in the

breakaway republic

of Biafra.

Gowon was

born Oct. 19, 1934, of Christian parents belonging to the minority Pankshin tribe on the Benue Plateau. He was educated by Christian missionaries before going to a government secondary

On

leaving school he joined the sent to Britain's premier military establishments Sandhurst, Eaton Hall, and the Young Officers' Courses at Hythe and Warminster and was the first Nigerian to be appointed adjutant general of the Army. forces in the former He served with the Belgian Congo during the post-independence disturbances there. He had been back in the country for barely 36 hours when the first Army coup occurred in January 1966. Alschool.

Army, was

—

—

UN

though he was not

a party to

it,

he played

a leading role in helping to maintain discipline among the troops, and after the second coup he was chosen head of federal FROM MAGNUM

George Habash

military

government and armed forces.

commander

in

(Co. L.)

chief of the

GRAHAM, BILLY called Billy Graham "the president's preacher," Life, "an American Rasputin." Either way, he was the most influential clergyman in the United States in

Newsweek WIDE WORLD

Edward Richard George Heath

Moreover, his power did not rest on personal relationships with presidents but on his immense public following. That, of course, might have a direct bearing on his easy access to the White House, who1970.

solely Billy

Graham

SAHM DOHERTY FROM CAMERA

B

ever the tenant. A frequent preacher at White House religious observances since Harry Truman first received him in 1949, it was Graham who counseled Dwight Eisenhower on instituting the annual Prayer Breakfast. Friendly but not intimate with the more urbane John

Kennedy, Graham became

a

White House

regular again under Lyndon Johnson. Having known Richard Nixon's parents as evangelical Quakers at California revivals, he had played golf with Nixon when NixOn was a junior senator. The friendship apparently thrived over the years, though publicly endorsing Nixon for the presidency in 1960 and '68. However, in Nixon's final television ad blitz in 1968, widespread use was made of news service reports that Graham had voted for Nixon

Graham avoided

by absentee

The Born

Brooklyn, N.Y., on Aug. 29, 1938, Goldstein received prodigy treatment from a doting mother who enrolled him in elocution lessons before he was nine. The name change occurred before his debut on a local TV show at nine or ten. After a checkered career in and out of show business he auditioned to understudy the lead in the Broadway musical / Can Get It for You Wholesale. He got the part, not the backup in

Elliott

role,

sand

but an unknown named Barbra Streistole the show. "Marriage to Barbra

was a fantastic experience," Gould recalled. "It had a lot of chocolate souffle and things like that, but it was also like a bath of lava." They separated after seven years and the birth of a son

named Jason.

Meanwhile, Gould appeared on the London stage, toured the U.S. in The Fantasticks, and starred in a TV special. He won raves for his New York performance in Jules Feiffer's short-lived Little Murders. Then came a film part in The Night They Raided Minsky's and, at last, B & C & T & A and his big break. Not satisfied with Hollywood alone, he talked of playing an archaeologist in a feature directed by the Swedish master Ingmar Bergman. (Ph. K.) .

GOWON, YAKUBU Nigeria's head of state, Maj. Gen.

Gowon, emerged from

a

bitter

Yakubu

civil

war

that ended in January 1970 as the undisputed leader of Africa's most populous country. His prestige stood so high that there for his announcement, made on the tenth anniversary of Nigeria's independence (Oct. 1, 1970), that the Army would remain in power for another six years in order to give the country a chance to recover from the civil war and to develop national political parties. But the general remained opposed to military rule. "I hope I am speaking the mind of my fellow military leaders elsewhere in Africa when I say that our military government is purely a corrective one," he said, "and our aim is to lay the foundation for a stable civilian government." When Gowon took power after the second military coup in August 1966, he was a largely unknown lieutenant colonel not yet 32 years old, and completely apolitical. His success was due to the skill with which he won the Army's loyalty, the firmness with which he handled the older politicians, and his single-mindedness in fighting to reestab-

was widespread support

ballot.

evangelist's

position

as

a

sort

of

White House chaplain-on-retainer was made manifest at Honor America Day, July 4, 1970. Graham was the spiritual headliner at the morning's event, a prayer meeting on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial that drew a crowd of only several thousand people. A worldwide Christian celebrity who preached to royalty and commoners on every continent, Graham was more accustomed to praying with hundreds of thousands of the faithful at his 200 crusades a year. Such numbers were indicative of Graham's standing as the second "most admired" American; a 1969 Gallup Poll found he fit into the nation's esteem between the president and the vice-president. Born in Charlotte, N.C., Nov. 7, 1918, and oraained as a Southern Baptist, Graham launched his public pastorate by radio from Chicago in 1943. By 1970 his weekly broadcasts were carried by 900 stations, his televised crusades by 23S channels, his magazine Decision circulated four million copies a

month, and he received nearly SO.OOO

ters a

week.

let-

(Ph. K.)

HABASH, GEORGE When to the

soon

four passenger airliners were hijacked Middle East in September 1970. it became known that a Palestinian

guerrilla

the

organization,

Popular Front

the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), was responsible. Leading this organization throughout the year was a physician turned for

George Habash. Habash was born in 1925, in a

full-time politician,

'

,

village

near Haifa. He attended school in Jerusalem and then was chosen by U.S. missionaries as one of ten Christian boys to receive a higher education. During the 1948 war in which Israel established its control over Palestine, Habash fought on the Arab side. He was not satisfied with the Arab conduct of the war and afterward withdrew to Beirut, Lebanon, to study for a medical degree. From 19S0 to 1956 he practiced medicine in Beirut and then moved to Jordan. His practice was not very successful, and Habash gradually devoted more and more of his time to pohtical agitation. By 1965 he had decided to give all his time to politics. He joined Yasir Arafat iq.v.) and Naif Hawatmeh to form a secret Palesinian guerrilla movement, which they called Al Fatah. They started by recruiting Pal-

underground and inBut after Israel's triumph over the Arabs in the Six-Day War if 1967, dissension broke out, and Habash Arabs

litinian

lligence

ii

work

for

in Israel.

Hawatmeh

nd

rejected Arafat's leaderiiip and formed the PFLP. Habash's main liticism of Arafat was that he was opposed to any political ideology for the guerrillas,

Habash favoured

'.hile

a Marxist-Leninist

Hawatmeh later broke with Habash in avour of a Maoist orientation. During the hijacking crisis and subsequent i\il war in Jordan, Habash was in North Korea, with which he appeared to have lose ties. When he returned to Jordan in lie October, however, he was reelected liairman of the PFLP. His dramatic flair

line.

r

publicity, as illustrated in the hijacking

licy, 11

his

helped him increase the membership

movement

as

it

began

to attract re-

mits from Al Fatah.

(J.

K.)

HALL, PETER REGINALD

FREDERICK Unsure as a boy whether he wanted to be a conductor or a theatrical director, Peter Hall found the solution to his dilemma in 1970 with his appointment as co-director, together with Colin Davis, of the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, an appointment to be taken up in 1971. Meantime; this many-sided virtuoso had created something of a directorial revolution on the Britbh dramatic and operatic stage ever since he left Cambridge University and student dramatics and took charge in 1960 of what was to become the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in Stratford. It was he who understood that Shakespearean actors needed modern plays in which to extend their powers and created the second London home of the Royal Shakespeare Company at the Aldwych Theatre in 1961. Born at Bury St. Edmunds, Suffolk, on Nov. 22, 19.30, the son of a railway stationmaster. Hall spent his childhood traveling free on his father's trains to watch theatrical productions at Cambridge, where he later attended the Perse School and graduated from St. Catharine's College. His university activities included directing Shakespeare and

modern dramatists. After working in repertory theatre in England, he became head of the London Arts Theatre, where he made theatrical history with the English premiere of Wailing for Godot in 1955.

I

Hall formed his own company, the International Playwrights' Theatre, in 1957, the year in which he also directed his first opera

(The

Moon and

He made

Sixpence) at Sadler's Wells.

debut at Stratford in 1956 with Love's Labour's Lost and in 1957 directed his

Cymbeline. He resigned as managing director of the Royal Shakespeare Company in 1968, but remained a co-director. Among his outstanding stage productions during those years were The Wars of the Roses in 1964, Hamlet in 1965, and Harold Pinter's

The Homecoming, which won him a

York

critics'

Tony Award

New

in 1967.

Hall made his film debut in 1968 when he directed Henry Livings' Work Is a FourLetter Word. This was followed by A Midsummer Night's Dream, Three into Two Won't Go, and, in 1970, Perfect Friday. His principal operatic productions were Moses and Aaron and The Magic Flute at Covent Garden, where he staged the world premiere of Sir Michael Tippett's The Knot Garden in December 1970. (O. Tr.)

HAMBRO, EDVARD To

preside over

the

UN

Hambro

its milestone 25th session, General Assembly elected Edvard of Norway, a second-generation

diplomat whose experience went back to the League of Nations. When he took the chair as president on Sept. 15, 1970, he was folin the footsteps of his father, the late

lowing

who was the last president of the League of Nations assembly from 1939 to 1946. At the time of his election, Hambro was 59 years old and was Norway's permanent representative at headquarters. Hambro is a firm believer in the and in the Charter, which he had helped to draft. In his inaugural speech, he noted that "perfectionists" at times have insisted on revision of the Charter, but he added that "experience of 25 years has shown that the Carl Hambro,

UN

UN

Charter has proved sufficiently flexible to adapt to the ever changing needs and situations."

tion

He

said the success of the organiza-

depends upon the support and concern

143

Biography

Heath was

a

new

portent in the Tory

firmament; he arrived without the help of wealth or influence and was the first leader to be chosen (July 1965) by straightforward election. All his successes resulted from hard work and meticulous planning, with every detail taken into account. His government's apparent inertia in some fields stemmed, however, not from overcaution but from a doctrinaire policy of laissez-faire. In fact he

had remarkable nerve, and

his handling of the Palestinian hijacking crisis showed a firm and cool touch. He conducted politics as he sailed: ".KW the time you're going out to win." He won the Sydney to Hobart race (December 1969) by setting an unconventional but carefully calculated course; on this analogy, although his ship of state appeared to be headed for multiple collision, he might yet ultimately triumph. Born at Broadstairs in Kent on July 9, 1916, the son of a carpenter who later became a builder. Heath was educated at a

Ramsgate grammar school and at Balliol where he won the college organ scholarship and became president of the Oxford Union. Emerging from World College, Oxford,

War

II with the rank of lieutenant colonel, he entered the civil service and then worked in a merchant bank. As for Bexicy from February 1950, he served in the Whips' Office (1951-55) and as government chief whip (1955-59). He was minister of labour (1959-60), lord privy seal (1960-63) in charge of (unsuccessful) negotiations for

MP

Britain to join the EEC, and secretary of for industry, trade, and regional de-

state

of

men and women all over the world. "Those who observe the United Nations from the outside may have experienced

velopment (1963-64)

deeper disappointments over the past 25 years than those of us who work within the organization. It is our task to rekindle the enthusiasm of public opinion." Born in Oslo on Aug. 22, 1911, Hambro got his first taste of international affairs as a 22-year-old law student when he received a fellowship for study at the League of Nations. Although most of his adult life had been spent in diplomacy, he also served in the Norwegian Storting (parliament) and held teaching posts in widely scattered institutions, including Northwestern Univer-

After serving for ten years in the South African Nationalist government as minister of posts and telegraphs and also of health, Albert Hertzog was dismissed from the Cabinet in 1968. In 1969 he was expelled from the ruling party because he had disagreed openly with the program of Prime Minister B. J. Vorster and was heading a group in opposition to the party leadership. Ultraconscrvative in his views, Hertzog considered that the position and traditions of the Afrikaners, the white descendants of early Dutch settlers, were endangered by

sity in

Evanston,

111.,

Cambridge, and the

University of California at Berkeley. At one time he was acting chief of the legal section and he served as administrative head of the International Court of Justice for seven years. (Mx. H.)

UN

HEATH, EDWARD

RICHARD GEORGE Had

the Conservative Party not won the 1970 British general election, Edward Heath might well have been displaced from its leadership. It was understandable, therefore, that he claimed the result as a "famous vic-

tory."

Although he had rarely shown in politics conveyed in the television program (June 28, 1970) on his musical activities, he at least convinced The Times (Oct. 27, 1970) that he found it "natural" to be prime minister. The paper's claim that he had overcome his communication problem was based on impressive speeches made to the Conservative Party conference (October 10) and to the UN (October 23), but it remained to be seen whether he had acquired the adroitness to resume, on more equal terms, his parliamentary duel with Harold Wilson. the authority he

(S.

.

Mu.)

HERTZOG, ALBERT

government

policies.

He was

critical of

what

he regarded as concessions to "English liberalism." He disapproved of the encouragement of certain types of immigration, the official

attitude on racially mixed sports,

and

establishment of diplomatic relations with black African states. He was opposed to the introduction of television, believing it to be a social evil likely to undermine the Afrikaners' moral standards. Hertzog's differences with the government came to a head toward the end of 1969 when he formed a new party, the Herstigte Nasionale Party (Reconstituted Nationalist Party), based on "Christian-National" and the

Calvinist principles and dominance in the nation Three other members of had been expelled or had

emphasizing the of the Afrikaner. Parliament,

who

resigned from the Party, joined the HNP. Sup-

Nationalist ported by a newspaper Hertzog had founded and by a countrywide organization, the party nominated 80 candidates for the general election in April 1970, which the government held primarily to test the strength of the breakaway movement. All the party's candidates, including Hertzog, were heavily defeated.

Born

in

Bloemfontcin on July

4,

1899,

144

Biography

Hertzog was educated at South African, British, and Dutch universities and practiced as a lawyer.

He was

the eldest son of J. B.

Hertzog, a former general and prime (1924-39) who played a historic role as the leader of Afrikaner nationalism and founder, in 1914, of the Nationalist Party and, in 1934 (with Jan Christiaan (L. H.) Smuts), of the United Party.

M.

minister

HICKEL, WALTER JOSEPH Nobody expected

it

when he was named

secretary of the interior, but in 1970 Walter Hickel turned out to be the rebel of Pres. Richard Nixon's Cabinet and the first Cabinet member in 18 years to be fired. Initially, Hickel had sounded like an exploiter of the nation's resources. He was opposed to water quality standards that "hinder industrial development," did not believe in "conservation for conservation's sake," and felt that "a tree looking at another tree really doesn't

do anything."

Once in office, however, Hickel started taking on many of the interest groups that had helped put Nixon in the White House. He urged adoption of strong legislation requiring oil companies to clean up accidental oil spills in offshore waters at their own expense. He shut down wells around the

Union

Oil Co.'s spill in the Santa Barbara Channel, hauled the Chevron Oil Co. into court to face 900 violation counts, and took the initiative in saving the Everglades from a proposed jetport. He launched a lawsuit

against

U.S. Steel for alleged pollution, banned the use of 16 pesticides on government land, and moved against commercial signs on public lands. As if that were not enough, in May, at the height of student demonstrations against the U.S. move into Cambodia, Hickel wrote a letter to Nixon and allowed it to be leaked to the public. He accused the administration of lacking concern for the young and asked that Vice-Prcs. Spiro Agnew's tirades against students be toned down. Washington was agog at Hickcl's political impudence and the White House did little to quiet speculation that Hickel would not remain long as secretary. Hickel, however, resisted all efforts to get his resignation and finally was dismissed

that prevailed, the news created a sensation. It was also possible that it reassured the worried and nervous Catholics in the North and that it served as a warning, if only of the unpredictable nature of the South's reaction. It was also typical of Hillery himself. He made quitr clear on this occasion, as he had done previously, that the practical needs of the situation far outweighed more delicate diplomatic considerations. It was simply a visit to reassure a beleaguered minority. A mild, good-natured man, Hillery came from Clare in the far west, where he was born May 2, 1923. He attended University College, Dublin, and served as a doctor in Clare after qualifying in the '40s, He held several government posts before being appointed minister for external affairs in 1969. With Ireland actively seeking membership, placing the responsibility for negotiating on the shoulders of this friendly country doctor did not seem the most promising of decisions. But Hillery took over

EEC

smoothly from Frank Aiken, who had served from 1951 to 1954 and from 1957 to 1969, and quickly convinced the EEC of Ireland's determination to enter. He was firm and outspoken in setting forth Ireland's attitude during key periods of the crisis in the North, although he was in no real position to make positive proposals and his contribution, like that of Prime Minister John Lynch, was inevitably more emotional than practical. As Lynch's position became increasingly tenuous during the year, Hillery appeared

many

to

to be a likely successor.

HORATIO and made

comeback in U.S. Senate and per-

a

political

1970, returning to the haps gaining another chance to rekindle his dashed presidential hopes of 1968.

There was no hiding

famed campaign gusto as Humphrey moved out in June from a 17-month recess that had been his only out-of-office interlude since 1945. Even as the year began, he had rationahzed his defeat at the hands of Richard Nixon as a welcome opportunity to tone up for a fresh crack at public life. "I was running dry," he said,

"I'm sure

I

was.

I

his

knew

He hammered

on inflation, interest rates, the problems of the cities as he campaigned for the Minnesota seat being va-

1919, Hickel set out at 16 to make his fortune in Australia. Instead, he arrived in Alaska in 1940 with 37 cents in his pocket.

view of a U.S. senator's

office.

(F.

Wt.)

HILLERY, PATRICK JOHN On

July

6,

1970, just

a

week before the

Orangeman's Day celebrations in Northern Ireland, Paddy Hillery, Irish mincrucial

ister for

external affairs, told an astonished press conference in Dublin that he had just

come back from scene of some of

the Falls Road in Belfast, the most severe of the Ulster rioting. "I went," he said, "with the purpose of relieving the tension in the North of Ireland." He was in the Falls Road for only

He was recognized by only a few people, and he did not identify himself. He traveled in a private car, and he told neither the British nor the Northern Ireland government. In view of the tense situation 90 minutes.

needed new

ideas."

and

built a house and sold it, setting the pattern that led to a construction business valued at $14 million. Hickel became the first elected Republican governor of Alaska in 1966 in his first bid for elective

I

cated rival

by former Democratic presidential Eugene J. McCarthy. Outlining his

said, "I hear a call

role,

Humphrey

to leadership that will

not tolerate mindless and senseless violence, and at the same time, I've heard the voices of compassion

and tolerance and

justice."

While making the familiar promise

to serve

term in the Senate, Humphrey noted that, in all candor, he would not "turn away" from another presidential nomina-

a

full

tion.

Born

May

Humphrey College of

worked

1911, in Wallace, S.D., attended the Denver (Colo.) 27,

Pharmacy from 1932

to 1933

and

a pharmacist before earning a B.A. at the University of Minnesota in 1939 and an M.A. in 1940 from the University of Louisiana. He taught political science and held a variety of jobs before becoming mayor of Minneapohs on a reform ticket. In 1948 he was elected to the U.S. Senate, where he became one of the leading voices of as

liberalism.

In 1960 he made an unsuccessful try for the Democratic presidential nomination and,

four years later, became vice-president. In 1968, after Pres.

— —

and the University of MinMinneapolis and held a position

lege in St. Paul

nesota in with Encyclopaedia Britannica.

(R. L. A.)

HUNTLEY, CHESTER

ROBERT After nearly 14 years as half of the most famous team in broadcast journalism, Chet

Huntley

mer

retired from television in the sum1970. Cancehng a ?300,000-a-year

of

contract two years before

it expired, Huntwent back home to Montana to be the anchor man of Big Sky, a projected $15

ley

lS,000-ac. resort, to be developed recreation. Apparently Huntley felt he was getting stale. "I don't know what I believe any more," he said. "The noise the clamoring for attention the divisions in our society. When you deliver it night after night you start feeling almost responsible for it. Maybe where there's clarity of air, there's clarity of thought." That the veteran newsman found events million, for

summer and winter

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

overwhelming was understandable. At the time he quit, 17 million viewers were watching him six nights a week. For many of them, "The Huntley-Brinkley Report" was the primary source of information about the nation and the world. With David Brinkley he had covered eight national political conventions, four presidential elections, two presidential funerals, two manned moon exthe initial exploration of space, riots, and several wars. Huntley's unflappable and objective reason and Brinklcy's wry observations had created a

innumerable

Rested, restless and buoyant as ever, former Vice-Pres. Hubert Humphrey rolled up his sleeves

tion to Nixon. During his time out of office he returned to teaching at Macalester Col-

peditions,

HUMPHREY, HUBERT

on November 25. Probably the best summation of his conduct in office was his own parting statement: "I had to do it my way." Born in Ellinwood, Kan., on Aug. 18,

Soon he had

(B. Ar.)

that he would not rtin again, Humphrey won the party nomination but lost the elec-

Lyndon Johnson announced

unique chemistry.

NBC

irreplaceable, per

se,

changed the format show.

considered Huntley

and when he of

its

left,

national

]

;

c

it

:

news

J

However objective he may have been on the air, Huntley gave vent to a couple of startling personal opinions upon his retirement. Commenting to an interviewer on in remarks he later Pres. Richard Nixon claimed were misquoted he said, "The shallowness of the man overwhelms me the fact that he is President frightens me." He also criticized Vice-Pres. Spiro Agnew for "appealing to the most base of elements. ... I resent being lumped in with his Eastern Establishment effete intellectuals. I've had more cow manure on my boots than he ever thought about." Huntley was born in Cardwell, Mont., Dec. 10, 1911, and received a B.A. from the University of Washington in 1934. His broadcasting career began at radio station KPCB in Seattle, Wash. He moved on to Spokane, Wash., then to Portland, Ore., and Los Angeles before joining CBS there in 1939. He switched to ABC in 1951 and NBC

—

'.

;

—

i '

i

I '

;

in 1955,

moving

to

New York

the next year.

(Ph. K.)




transformed by language and imagi-

i

•

nation into a

new

existence with a vitality

hat can even survive critical explanation." Another wrote: "On the surface the book is lard, cold and terrifying. Its core, however, struggle of ^ mellow with sympathy for the

major characters. The

result

is

Urban

G'lthic."

Judging by the volume of her work. Miss •, s seemed to have an insatiable drive to te. Them was her third novel in three Liinsecutive years to be nominated for the N itional Book Award. In 1968 A Garden of r;hly Delights was in the running, and in following year. Expensive People. Since breaking into print as an undergraduate -vracuse University, Miss Dates had won honours, among them a Guggenheim !> llowship ancl several O. Henry Prize cita•

ti-ins.

Lockport, N.Y., June 16, 1938, Mi" Oates earned her master's degree in Enh at the University of Wisconsin, where met her husband, Raymond Joseph h, then a doctoral candidate. In 1961 moved to Detroit, where she taught un)67. Miss Oates and her husband in 1970 > re both professors at the University of

Born

in

:

1

.

W

indsor, across the river

from Detroit

in

(Ph. K.)

Ontario.

O'BRIEN,

LAWRENCE

FRANCIS The Democratic Party— out of the WTiite H use, out of money, and scrambling for a national image in the important off-year turned to an old pro with some elections new ideas for chairman of its National Committee in 1970: Larry O'Brien, a man who had served all three Democratic presidential

—

candidates in the 1960s. O'Brien could not the Democlaim total victory in November crats lost slightly in the Senate, gained slightly in the House, and made strong inroads among the governorships but the party on November 4 was far healthier than the disordered, demoralized loser of two years before. The change in chairmanship from Sen. Fred R. Harris of Oklahoma to O'Brien, a former chairman, took place in charac-

—

—

chaotic style. When word went cut in late February that O'Brien was the preference of titular party leader Hubert Humphrey, the hoped-for consensus of party teristically

to jell, and O'Brien— eyeing the dispute, not to mention a party debt of rejected the post. After nearly $9 million

leaders failed

—

two-day deadlock, the committee's executive committee finally settled unanimously

a

on a second offer to O'Brien, who then dropped regular duties with his new public firm in New York to begin revamping the political organization. Known before as a "nuts and bolts" organizer who had concentrated on power blocs, patronage, and precinct work, O'Brien changed his style to what he termed the "new form of the game of American politics Issues and Image." He set out to take issue with Pres. Richard Nixon on national topics, and fought to counter the president's easy access to television through demands for equal time. And he worked the circuit in an uphill fight for campaign funds. Lawrence O'Brien was born July 7, 1917, in Springfield, Mass., and received an LL.B. from Northeastern University, Boston, in 1942. He worked in real estate and public relations from 1943 to 1960, meanwhile becoming active in Democratic politics. In 1960 he directed John F. Kennedy's successful presidential campaign and then became special assistant to both Presidents Kennedy and Johnson. He served as postmaster general from 1965 to 1968, when he headed the presidential campaign for Humphrey. (R. L. A.) relations

.

.

.

ORR, ROBERT

153

GORDON

of age and with only five seasons as a professional, Bobby Orr of the Boston Bruins might have seemed a premature choice as the best all-around hockey player in the game's history. Yet many responsible hockey officials, including Clarence Campbell, president of the National Hockey League (NHL), insisted that such was the case. "I've seen all the greats except Cyclone Taylor," said Campbell, an pioneer, "and Bobby Orr is the best I've ever seen." Campbell was moved to this accolade after the 1969-70 season when Orr, a husky defenseman, won four of the NHL's prized trophies: the James Norris Memorial Trophy, as the outstanding defenseman; the Conn Smythe Trophy, for the outstanding player in the Stanley Cup play-offs the Art Ross Trophy, for leading the league in scoring; and the Hart Trophy, as the league's most valuable player. Additionally, Orr set records for the regular season for most goals, 33, and most assists, 87, by a defense-

Biography

At 22 years

NHL

;

NHL

man. That Robert Gordon Orr should score such an unprecedented sweep in his fourth professional season was not as surprising as it might seem. Bobby, born on March 20, 1948, at Parry Sound, Ont., was a child hockey prodigy. The Boston Bruins of the NHL had scouted him by the time he was 12.

Orr's prowess was such that at 12, when he should have been entering Pee Wee hockey, he was playing with older boys in the bantam division. When Orr was 16, Maclean's, a national magazine in Canada, ran a cover colour photo of him with an accompanying headline: "How Hockey's Is Groomed for Stardom Boston Captured the NHL's Next Super-Star?" Orr did, indeed, sign with the Bruins and was an immediate sensation. He won the

Sixteen Year Old

Has

Calder Memorial Trophy for 1966-67, given annually to the NHL's best rookie, and, in addition, was named to the NHL's secondstring All-Star team. He was chosen the league's outstanding defenseman every season afterward. By the start of the 1970-71 campaign he had grown to a burly 199 lb. with "arms and forearms the size of a heavyweight boxer." He led the Bruins to a Stanley

such

Cup championship title

in

in

1970, their

29 years.

first

(Je. Ho.)

PASTRANA BORRERO, MISAEL Installed as president of Colombia on Aug. 7, 1970, Misael Pastrana Borrero faced a difficult four years. The margin by which he won the election had been narrow, and his

support was so weak ready-made prescription

legislative

stitute a

as to confor parlia-

mentary paralysis. The 47-year-old chief executive of Colombia, one of the few Latin-American nations functioning as a democracy, defeated the aging former dictator Lieut. Gen. Gustavo Rojas Pinilla by about 60,000 votes in the April 19 election. Pastrana had been the official Conservative Party candidate, but he was unable to present a solid front to the voters because two other Conservatives, Evaristo Sourdis and Belisario Betancur, insisted on running. Under Colombia's unique National Front system, the two major political parties, the Liberals and Conservatives, alternate in holding the presi-

dency. Because of the Conservative split, Pastrana got more support from the opposition Liberal Party than from his own. (Rojas' following was outside the National Front arrangement.)

In only 92 in This

the Congress, Pastrana could count on 57 votes in the 118-man Senate and the 210-member Chamber of Deputies. meant that Pastrana would have to rule by coalition with the Liberals and dissident Conservatives, at the cost of

some

compromise. He had two major advantages, however: the backing of former president Carlos Lleras Restrepo and the admiration and respect of the U.S. government. Rojas, on the other hand, was feared by the armed forces and inspired no confidence in Washington.

Pastrana was born Nov. 14, 1923, in the town of Neiva. His father was a politician, and although Pastrana was undeniably of the political elite he was not a member of Colombia's social and economic top drawer. He was not wealthy and was still making payments on his 535,000 house in Bogota. A lawyer and an economist by profession, Pastrana had also been a judge, a business executive, and Colombia's ambassador to rural

the U.S.

He was

politicians

go,

colourless as Colombian the oratorical skill

lacking

is virtually a must in Latin politics. A democrat and believer in the free enterprise system, he had the backing of big business and of U.S. companies doing business in Colombia. (J. A. O'L.)

that

PAUL

VI

Seeminuly undaunted by the attempt of a Bolivian artist dressed as a priest to assassinate him on his arrival in Manila, Pope Paul \T remained on schedule throughout a busy, obviously exhausting tour of the Far in late November and early December 1970. Traveling farther from Rome than any other Roman Catholic pontiff (and thereby breaking his own record), Paul \T covered over 28,000 mi. to eight places in nine days. The purpo.se of the trip was a[)parcnt in

East

message to .^sia, delivered in English and broadcast throughout .Asia in Chinese, Japanese, and French, in which he called for an alliance of all faiths to counter militant godlessness, and in his message of "unity and love" to all Chine.se people, delivered in Hong Kong. The trip began with a stop in Dacca, East Pakistan, added as a gesture of concern for those stricken by a massive cyclone and tidal wave. .\t all stops the pontiff participated in religious ceremonies that crossed many denominational lines. his

Earlier in the year, on May 29, the pope celebrated the 50th anniversary of his ordination to the priesthood in a formal but simple style in St. Peter's Basilica. The anniversary, and the obvious fatigue the pope displayed by the end of his trip, pointed

September. These facts major ruling during the year, that cardinals over 80 could not take part in the election of a new pope, gave credence to speculation that Paul VI

up his age, 73 and the content

in

of his one

was considering following his own request that bishops and parish priests resign at age 75.

In other matters during the year, Paul the first pontiff to visit nearby Sardinia; expressed his distress at the passing of a divorce law by the Italian Parliament; reiterated his stand against legalized abortion; criticized the torture of prisoners in Brazil; sent aid to Christians in the Nigerian civil war; and personally pleaded for release of U.S. prisoners of war

VI became

in North Vietnam and kidnapped diplomats and passengers of hijacked airplanes in South America and the Middle East. Born Giovanni Battista Montini on Sept.

goal in the Janeiro.

154

Biography 1897, in Concesio, Italy, Paul VI was crowned pontiff on June 30, 1963. (J. F. Ba.)

PELE Rated by many as the world's finest association football (soccer) player, the Brazilian Negro Pele played a major part in his country's victory in the World Cup competition in Mexico in June. For Pele it was his fourth World Cup finals appearance, and for Brazil its third championship, thus alit to retain the Jules Rimet Trophy. In the final 4-1 triumph over Italy, Pele scored one goal and was instrumental in set-

lowing

up two others. Born Edson Arantes do Nascimento in Tres Cora(;oes, Minas Gerais, Braz., on Oct. 21, 1940, Pele, as he was soon nicknamed, started his footballing career with the Bauru ting

Athletic Club. In 1957, however, he joined his present club, Santos. Within a year his outstanding talent had been recognized, and he was selected for Brazil's victorious World

Cup squad to play in the finals in Sweden in 1958. He played in all but the first match collected a winner's

medal

at the age

of 17.

Pele was regularly included on Brazil's national team thereafter, and when the World Cup finals again came around in 1962 in Chile he was an automatic selection. But he played only in the first match, during which he scored, and part of the second, before a pulled muscle put him out of the

tournament.

The 1966 World Cup

in

Rio de (T.

W.)

finals

were

a tragedy

for both Pele and Brazil. He played in the opening and was injured. After missing the second contest he was included in the lineup for the third, against Portugal, even though he was not yet fully fit. Brazil lost the game and was eliminated from the tournament.

World

In 1967, despite Brazil's loss in the

Cup, the Italians were prepared to

offer

f500,000 ($1.2 million) for Pele's services on the soccer field. However, the Santos club, to which he was under contract, rejected the offer because of Pele's proven drawing power with Brazilian soccer fans. He played for Brazil regularly, and passed another milestone in 1969 when he scored his 1,000th

his

good

tions

in

offices to investigate

Perhaps only a rich Texan would have tried, but H. Ross Perot went to Southeast Asia early in -970 to ransom U.S. prisoners of war and end the Indochina conflict single-

handed. Had he succeeded, people would have pretended not to be surprised, because the self-made billionaire had not failed often.

The son

of a cotton broker, Perot learned watching his father trade horses around Texarkana, Tex., where he had been born in 1930. By the time he was six he was in business himself, breaking horses at a dollar a head. An Eagle Scout and a hustler, he received a commission to the U.S. Naval Academy and graduated in the middle of the class of 'S3. After completing his first tour of duty, he resigned and joined the computer sales staff at in Dallas. that the giant Perot did so well at corporation put a ceiling on the commissions salesmen could earn in a year. Perot ran into the ceiling at mid-January. Bored by sitting around the office, he hatched the idea of a software computer firm one that would sell computer programs (not the machines themselves) and teach clients how to use them. Starting with $1,000 in capital, he lured several colleagues from and incorporated Electronic Data Systems Corp. on June 27, 1962, his 32nd birthday. Six years later, when the company went public, it was worth well over $600,000, and it continued to double its business annually. Perot owned 81 7o of the stock. Fortune magazine wrote: "In the history of American business, probably no other man ever made so much money so fast." Neither was he reluctant to spend it on causes he supported. He gave $2.5 million for experimental public school programs benefiting black and Mexican-American Texans; gave $1 million to the Boy Scouts; and paid for a statewide antidrug program. In the fall of 1969 he organized United Stand and spent $2 million for ads supporting Pres. Richard Nixon's Indochina policy. Later he tried to fly a hundred tons of food, medical supplies, and gifts to U.S. prisoners of war for Christmas. When he was rebuffed by Hanoi (the material was later mailed in through the Soviet Union), Perot offered his first business lessons

IBM

IBM

—

IBM

—

We

condi-

(Ph. K.)

POMPIDOU, GEORGES JEAN RAYMOND One does not run

ten thousand metres like t hundred yards and the marathon is not a' sprint. This was the metaphor that French a

;

Pres. Georges Pompidou habitually invoked in reply to those who accused him of going too slowly, of being overcautious, and of not seeking the limelight. Unlike his predecessor Charles de Gaulle, who had tried to direct the wind, Pompidou was content to

avoid storms, and de Gaulle's death in November 1970 brought the contrast between the two men forcibly to the public mind. Yet it was clear that the period of comparafive calm that had followed de Gaulle's quest for grandeur was no mean achievement. Pompidou had been elected on a platform of Gaullism without de Gaulle, and as far

, '

as circumstances permitted he continued to apply the Gaullist principles national independence in foreign policy, economic ex-

—

pansion with proach made

stability.

His more open ap-

possible to contemplate entrance of the U.K. into the EEC. It also considerably widened the base of his regime it

by winning support from right-wing liberals and from the centre. The independent course in foreign policy was symbolized by Pompidou's two major trips of the year to Washington and Moscow. His visit to the U.S., from February 23 to March 2, was marred by demonstra-

—

tions of Jewish groups protesting France's sale of Mirage fighters to Libya. He and his

wife Claude were jostled by demonstrator-

lobby of a Chicago hotel, and whin Pompidou returned home she was reported to be very angry. The situation was saved when Pres. Richard Nixon made a in the

Mme

personal apology and an unscheduled appearance at a dinner in Pompidou's honour.

The eight-day on October

comed

trip to the U.S.S.R.

began

when Pompidou was welMoscow airport not only by

6,

at the the Soviet president and premier but also by Communist Party secretary L. I. Brezhnev the first time Brezhnev had made such a gesture toward a Western non-Communist leader. Pompidou was born on July S, 1911, at Montboudif in the Cantal. In 1958 de Gaulle

—

H. Ross Perot

Georges Jean Raymond Pompidou

POW

South Vietnam and negotiate a

peace settlement.

PEROT, H{ENRY) ROSS

26,

and so

Maracana Stadium

DENNIS BRACK FROM BLACK STAR

;

director of the Cabinet during the between the Fourth and Fifth Republics and in April 1962 appointed him I

his

right hip

transition

off

game

premier. He was dismissed after the disturbances of May 1968, but when de Gaulle staked his office on a referendum in 1969 and lost, Pompidou returned to stand suc(P. V.-P.) ci-sfully for the presidency.

heir apparent of Malaysian Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman, Tun .A!)dul Razak became the nation's second prime minister on Sept. 22, 1970. Probably b' St known to his people for his qualities a- an administrator, Razak served as a district officer and a state mentri besar (chief

before entering politics. Xot afraid innovate and to cut through red tape, he the prime mover behind the remarkf organizational effort that went into ducing the successful five-year plans for

r inister)

'ional and rural development. The significant progress achieved in nadevelopment was to a large extent t: mal ciae to Razak's genius in setting up a Na.

Operations

Room. From

this

opera-

which was duplicated on a smaller scale in every state and district, Rjzak kept constant watch on the performances of each government agency. Scheduled and surprise inspection trips took him uns

t

centre,

thousands of miles each year to every corner and West Malaysia. Often working 16 hours a day and living modestly, he ex-

of East

pected and received similar service from his subordinates. Born on March 11, 1922, the son of a member of the Malayan civil service and territorial chief of

Pahang

state,

Razak

at-

tended the elite Malay College in Kuala Kangsar. At 17 he entered the Malay Administrative Service and was later sent to Raffles College in Singapore (now the University of Singapore) for higher studies. He was awarded a scholarship in 1947 to study law at Lincoln's Inn in London and was called to the bar in 19S1. Razak entered politics in 1950, afid the following year he was appointed an unofficial member of the Federal Council. He was elected to Parliament at the first national elections in 19SS and was returned at every subsequent election. Among his administrative posts were those of minister of education, minister of defense, and minister of national and rural development. After May 1969, following the civil disturbances in Malaysia, he headed the National Operations Council and, as director of operations, was in effect the principal government executive during the most critical 16 months of Malaysia's history. (M. S. R.)

REED, WILLIS In his second day as a professional basketball player, Willis Reed, a 6 ft. 10 in. cen-

approached Eddie Donovan, who was New York Knicks' head coach. "Coach," Reed said, "could I borrow a

tre,

then the

book?" "A rule book?" Donovan replied in amazement. "Yes," said Reed. "I want to read it." In all of his years in basketball no one rule

had ever asked Donovan for a rule book, and Donovan was still telling of this incident six years later, after Reed by then one of the game's superstars had led the Knicks to their first National Basketball Association (NBA) championship. The Knicks won the title on May 8, 1970, when they defeated the Los .Angeles Lakers in the NBA's seventh and final play-off game. Reed only scored four points in that final

—

was

the climax to a sensational season who won virtually all of the NBA's individual honours. He was chosen the most valuable player in the mid-season All Star game, when he led the East to victory, and then, at the season's end, won the Podoloff Cup, given annually to the league's most valuable player. Though not an unusually high scorer he averaged only 21.7 points per game during the regular season Reed was the Knicks' individual star and team captain. He was the indispensable man and helped fuse the squad together for

The long-time

tional

safely ahead. It

RAZAK BIN HUSSEIN, TUN ABDUL '

and thigh in the fifth playagainst Los Angeles and sat out the sixth game, which the Knicks lost. Then, limping, he returned for the seventh game. He scored the Knicks' first two baskets and played the first 28 minutes. By the time he was withdrawn, the Knicks W"ere

made him

—

contest but, typically, was the inspirational force behind the triumph. He had injured

Reed,

—

with his spectacular teamwork and defensive play.

Reed was born at Hico, La., on June 25, 1942. During his senior year in high school, at Lillie, La., he stood 6 ft. 7 in., and received a scholarship offer from Grambling College, which he accepted. He emerged as a collegiate star at Grambling and upon graduation was drafted by the New York Knicks.

(Je. Ho.)

REICH, CHARLES

155

Biography

ceived it unfavourably. "The entire scheme is a delusive reduction of things to an unreal but orderly form," said the New York Times book reviewer. Reich would probably consider that a typical comment from a Consciousness II member. (M. B. Su.)

REUBEN, DAVID

—

—

As never before or so it seemed U.S. pubwere busy popularizing sex in 1970. And the readers were loving every word of lishers

it.

First there was Human Sexual Inadequacy, an authoritative study of sexual dysfunction based on the clinical studies of William Masters and Virginia Johnson. The detailed, scientific work was too deep for many, but a summary for laymen was published and Reader's Digest issued a condensed version that was simpler still. More popular was a "how to" manual, The Sensuous Woman, which told distaff amateurs how to be just that. Published anonymously, it was soon claimed by Joan Garrity, a New

York

career

girl.

But the leader of the pack, which sold 700,000 copies in less time than Homo sapiens takes to gestate, was Everything You

—

In a widely discussed book written during the year by Yale University law professor Charles Reich, the author attempted a scholarly analysis of the meaning, purpose, and future of the continuing revolution of the young. Hippie culture, flower people, freaky clothes, rock music, a campus culture, and dropping out were features of this revo-

Always Wanted to Know About Sex But Were Afraid to Ask, written by a West Coast psychiatrist, David Reuben. His libidinal Baedeker was serialized in a leading women's magazine, circulated by four major book clubs, and marketed in 22 countries. The movie rights were reportedly sold for

which to many was particularly disturbing since it seemed to have no direction or future. However, in his book. The Greening of America, Reich argued that modern

Reuben said he began writing after vacationing at a Mexican resort. "We'd see the honeymoon couples come in. They'd be laughing, dancing and sitting so close together that they'd only be using one chair.

lution,

man

actually entering into a significant of his existence. Reich described three such phases, which he named Consciousness I, II, and III. In Consciousness I, man is a freedom-loving, Jeffersonian-type free spirit, akin to the mood of the U.S. in its early years. But he argued that this stage eventually led to repression, bondage, and World War II. Consciousness II emerged then as the (false) hope of improvement it emphasized the attainment of a better quality of life through use of institutional organization. Consciousness III, Reich explained, is the next natural is

new phase

;

and continuing step

in

man's evolvement,

a total transformation into a new society that stresses a dedication to life style, simplicity, love, and comradeship. Such a society is always in a stage of becoming, eager for any and all experience. Reich maintained that many young people were entering or

$1 million.

The next morning, we'd

see them at breakdiscouraged." His literary purpose, then, was to describe human sexuality in clear, straightforward terms that would prepare the uninitiated for its complexities. However, a number of qualified scientists and commentators questioned the book's accuracy. Masters and Johnson were reported to have said privately that Reuben was wrong a third of the time. He declined to defend his theses or to reveal his source data, other than to say that he read medical journals and gleaned a good deal from private fast

— angry,

patients.

Born in 1934, the son of a Hungarian immigrant and lawyer, Reuben graduated from grammar school at 12 and from the

were already in Consciousness III. As the movement takes hold, Reich wrote, the world will green and flourish like a

University of Illinois medical school at 23. served as chief of neuropsychiatry at Walter Air Force Base Hosiiital and was a research associate at Harvard before going to San Diego, Calif., where he ran a clinic. (Ph. K.)

garden. Consciousness III, he says, leads to a "childlike, breathless sense of wonder." Reich gathered much of the descriptive

By

material on the culture of the new generation from observations of campus life about him. Before joining the Yale faculty in 1960, he had been a law clerk for U.S. Supreme Court Justice Hugo Black and an attorney for the Washington, D.C., law firm of Arnold, Fortas & Porter. Reich was born

May

20,

1928, in

New York

City.

He was

graduated from Oberlin College and received his law degree from Yale. Reaction to the book was mixed. Young readers who felt that they were part of it thought it gave their movement meaning and reason for being. Reich became their most articulate spokesman. But others re-

He

RICHARDSON, ELLIOT LEE protocol, the U.S. secretary of health, education, and welfare ranks tenth in the

—

Cabinet two places from the And, by expectation, his department, filled with more "New Deal" social programs than any other, would seem fairly low in priority in a Republican government. But with Elliot Richardson as the secretary in the Nixon administration, this was not the case. Richardson's place seemed to be wherever the administration had a major, but president's last.

delicate, assignment.

He had come

into the

Nixon government

as undersecretary of state, where his main assignment was to reform the internal ma-

chinery of the State Department while ac-

155

Biography

commodating of

the professionalism and pride permanent foreign service.

nation's

tlie

ment, Rippon was the Conservative spokesman on defense matters, gaining a reputation for hawkish views. He achieved a reputation for being a tough, hard bargainer, and in negotiations with the EEC nations made it clear that Britain would insist on (W. H. Ts.) fair term., for entry.

By most

ROBINSON, BROOKS

HEW

It

was the

of

the

reckoning, he did so. After 18 months he was shifted to the secretaryship for two new, but still delicate, assignments. The first was to reform the operations of a department that had resisted every secretary's efforts in that direction. The second was to rescue the Nixon administration's welfare program from its deep legislative trouble. Even amid those assignments, he was drafted temporarily to return to diplomacy. In October, Richardson was sent to Cairo to represent the president at the funeral of U.A.R. Pres. Gamal Abd-al-Nasser. This was the third time the precise, pa-

Bostonian had been recruited to Washington. In 19S3 he had joined the legislative staff of Sen. Leverett Saltonstall (Rep., Mass.). After returning to private law practice in Boston, he was called back to the capital by Pres. Dwight Eisenhower to serve as an assistant secretary in HEW. A native of Boston, Richardson was born July 20, 1920. He graduated with honours from Harvard and then, after service in World War II, returned to Harvard Law School, where he rose to the editorship of the Law Review. After law clerkships with Judge Learned Hand and Justice Felix Frankfurter, he began aiming toward politrician

1959, following his first stint at he was appointed U.S. attorney in Boston, and there, too, he was handed an assignment of delicacy prosecuting Bernard Goldfine, a close friend of Eisenhower's

In

tics.

HEW,

—

presidential

assistant

Sherman Adams. He

ran unsuccessfully for Massachu.setts state attorney general in 1962, was elected lieutenant governor of the state in 1964 and, in (L. Dn.) 1966, state attorney general.

RIPPON, (AUBREY) of Iain

Macleod

(see

Obituaries)

soon after the formation of Britain's new Conservative Party government brought Geoffrey Rippon the job of leading negotiations

for

Britain's application

to

join

the

European Economic Community (EEC). But for that Rippon would no doubt have remained for at least a year or two as mintechnology, the position first allotted in Edward Heath's Cabinet after the general election. Yet in many respects Rippon seemed so well qualified for the role of "Mr. Europe," as his job was nicknamed, that he might well have been a first choice. Few Conservative members of Parliament had shown more sustained interest than Rippon in the growth of a united Europe. He served as leader of Conservative delegations to the Council of Europe and to the Western European Union and as president of the British section of the Council of European Municipalities. There could be no doubt about his commitment to bringing the application for British entry to the EEC to a successful conclusion. ister of

to

him

Rippon was born May 28, 1924, and graduated from Oxford University. He was elected

a

local

councillor

game

the

slammed

a drive

down

the third base line.

Brooks Robinson of the Baltimore Orioles made a diving stop, scrambled to his feet, and threw Bench out. As the crowd cheered, Dick Moss, the attorney for the Major League Baseball Players Association, turned

Marvin

to

Miller, director of the players'

union, and said: "Brooks is so good fair to the rest of the players."

it's

un-

This statement was made somewhat in jest but it illustrated, nonetheless, Robinson's unique stature in major league baseball.

Many ing

considered him to be the best field-

third

baseman

in

the game's history.

Even Casey Stengel, when he was managing the New York Mets in the early 1960s, paid and admitted: does some things at

tribute to Robinson's skills

"That Robinson

feller

third base that I don't beheve Pie

Traynor

did."

Seldom had one player dominated a World as did Robinson in 1970 when he led Baltimore to victory in five games over Series

He turned in a half dozen outstanding fielding plays, all of which brought standing ovations. In addition, he was one of the most effective batsmen with 9 hits in 21 at-bats for a .429 average. He also drove in six runs, almost all of them in Cincinnati.

crucial situations.

could be said that Brooks Robinson was to play baseball. Born in Little Rock, Ark., on May 18, 1937, he was a sandlot infielder. Robinson attended Central High School in Little Rock, which did not have a baseball team. He competed and won allIt

born

honours on the school's football and basketball teams and drew the attention of major league scouts while performing in the American Legion junior baseball program with the M. M. Eberts Post No. 1, which he led to two state championships. The Baltimore Orioles signed him for a $4,000 bonus in 1955, and subsequently sent him to the minor leagues for more experience. He returned to major league competition in 1957. During his career he had set numerous fielding records, and for 11 years had been selected (by player vote) for the Sporting News Gold Glove award. (Je. Ho.) state

GEOFFREY The death

sixth inning of the third

1970 World Series. Johnny Bench, Cincinnati catcher, was at bat and

in

the

London

suburb of Surbiton when he was

21, and was mayor of Surbiton. Then he went to the London C'^unty Council, and at 34 was leader of the Conservative opposition there. He was elected to Parliament in 19SS, and after moving through a num-

at 26

ber of junior posts reached the Cabinet in 1963.

During the years of the Labour govern-

SADAT,

ANWAR

AL-

When Gamal

Abd-al-Nasser died on Sept. 28, 1970, the United Arab Republic faced the formidable problem of choosing a successor to its long-time leader. On October IS Anwar al-Sadat, the nation's vice-president, was elected president, polling more than 90% of the votes in a national referendum. His election had been virtually assured when he was unanimously selected as

the candidate by the Arab Socialist Union Higher Executive Committee and the National Assembly. After the death of Abd-alHakim Amer in 1967 and the resignation of Zakaria Mohieddin in 1968, Sadat became Nasser's most trusted lieutenant. Because he lacked his predecessor's charisma and stature, however, Sadat was expected to share power with others to a much greater extent than Nasser had. Born Dec. 25, 1918, in the Al Minufiyah Governorate of the Nile Delta, Sadat graduated as an army officer from the Cairo

Military

Academy

in 1938.

At the Manqabad

garrison in Upper Egypt he met and became associated with Nasser and others of the future revolutionary Free Officers. During World War II he worked secretly against the British occupation of Egypt and in 1942 was arrested by the British for spying. In 1943 he escaped but was again arrested in 194S. on a charge of participating in an assassination attempt against Wafd Party leader Nahas Pasha. Released on that charge, he joined the magazine al-Musawwar. In 1950 Sadat was readmitted to the Army and at once became part of Nasser's Free Officers movement. By accident he took no part in the Nasser-led military coup that overthrew the monarchy in 1952, but it was he who announced the revolution over Radio Cairo and he later served on the court that tried the leaders of the old regime. Sadat served as speaker of the National Assembly from 1961 to 1969 and was vice-president of the U.A.R. from 1964 to 1966 and again in 1969 and 1970. (P. Md.)

SAMUELSON, PAUL ANTHONY Paul Samuelson, a U.S. professor and writer of the most widely read and influential economics textbook in the modern world, won the 1970 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics. "By his many contributions, Samuelson has done more than any other contemporary economist to raise the level of scientific analysis in economic theory," said the Nobel committee in making the citation. His "extensive production, covering nearly all areas of economic theory, is characterized by an outstanding ability to derive important new theorems and to find new applications for existing ones."

The main body of his prolific output was published in 1966 in The Collected Scientific Papers of Paul A. Samuelson, which comprised nearly a million words and covered 130 specific topics. The text for which he was most famous. Economics : An Introductory Analysis, had introduced hundreds of thousands of undergraduates to what has been called the "dismal science." First published in

1948,

it

had gone through eight

editions and had been translated into 14 languages. One economics writer observed that the book had "made him a household word in the academic community and a millionaire as well."

Samuelson was known as a "liberal" economist, basing his theories on those of the great British economist John Maynard Keynes, and his overall thesis called for the federal government to adjust fluctuations in the economy. In domestic political terms this was confirmed by his support of the economic and fiscal policies of Presidents

Lyndon Johnson and John Kennedy, whom he advised. Conversely, he was an outspoken critic of Pres. Richard Nixon's economic approach. Samuelson was born in Gary, Ind,, May IS, 1915, and graduated from the University of Chicago before his 20th birthday. He took his master's and doctor's degrees at Harvard, where he won the David A. Wells Prize. In 1940 he joined the faculty of the Technology, of Massachusetts Institute where he continued to occupy a special chair. His theoretical adversary, Milton Friedman of the University of Chicago, wrote that he "has been the leader in creating a great center of economic study and research at MIT, raising a run-of-the-mill department to one of the premier departments in the world." Samuelson had been an adviser to the U.S. Treasury, the Federal Reserve Board, and the Rand Corporation. He was a fellow of the British Academy and of the American of Arts and Sciences and a past president of the International Economics (Ph. K.) Association.

Academy

\

I

e

>


'pt, the black cloaks of the tribesmen whipped by the wind, and at the same time re\ealed a strong

197

of films produced for business

Republic achieved real international status. Reconstructing the story of the discovery in the 1880s of a

largely used in education

and

industrial training, con-

tinued the dramatic rise of recent years, climbing from

2,300

titles in

1968 to 3,100 in 1969. (J. T. B.;

See also Photography; Television

T.

W. Ho.)

and Radio.

Encyclop/edia Britannica Films. New Tools for LearnThe Unique Contribution (1959): Project Dis( 1952): covery: A Demonstration in Education (1965); Let Them Learn (1967); Crowing (1969) a completely computer-

tury ago.

ing

Akira Kurosawa's first colour film, Dodeska-Den, was a kind of Lower Depths set in a mythical modern

animated

—

film.

Down-and-outs in a sordid shantytown live dreams and fantasies. Kurosaw-a employed images and colours with brilliant and often 1 okyo.

out a variety of

Cities

disturbing nonrealistic effect. India. Satyajit

Ray returned

in

1970 to his favour-

theme of the confrontation of old and new India, ith Days and Nights in the Forest, the story of four en who set out from Calcutta in a car, in search of relaxation and a little erotic excitement. (Da. J. R.i Nontheatrical. The most spectacular showcase of e

i

r:

nontheatrical

film

technique during

Expo 70, Osaka. As a: most

the

year took

place at Japan's

the international exposition

held at

recent international exposi-

tions, the fresh

and daring use of

feature of the show.

A number

film

was the principal

of the techniques intro-

duced at the Canadian exposition of 1967 were repeated or refined at the Osaka exhibits, one of the

main ones being the projection of multitudes of images on vast screens.

Among

for the Fuji

group by Kroiter. Britten, and

achieved an exceptional quality

Low

in col-

maker Ichiikowa. of image by filming

It

in

new 15-sprocket 70-mm.

horizontal format called and by projecting on a huge screen using a rolling loop mechanism and 2S-kw. lamp. Complete involvement of the viewer in multiple sights and sounds was accomplished by the Dutch producer Jan Vriiman, in the exhibit in the Netherlands pavilion. This show used fifteen 3S-mm. film loops, ten slide projectors, and a carefully designed building to project a vastly varied and swiftly changing array of images and sounds throughout the three stories of a great pavilion, to the accompaniment of an eight-channel stereo sound track. Trends in U.S. nontheatrical films indicated continued growth despite a slump in both the educational and the business markets for films, equipment, and services. According to an official report, there was an increase of 7% in customer spending in 1969, reaching the record level of $1,044,000,000. This was about the same as the increase of the preceding year. In the major markets, business and industry showed an inthe

IMAX

crease in spending of

9%, schools and colleges spent a more, and government agenciej made an increase of only 3%. This moderate increase in spending was not reflected

modest

it

Affairs has

become

increasingly

urban affairs from those of the population in general. In 1970 most people lived in urban areas, and those who did not were dependent on cities for their economic well-being and for services. Two of the most frequently mentioned problems of cities were only the most apparent manifestations of major world crises. The poverty of inner-city areas and the ghettos of underprivileged minorities reflected the poverty of vast areas of the world and the disparity between rich and poor nations. Urban pollution and overcrowding constituted the leading edge of the worldwide en\-ir()nmcntal crisis. difficult to distinguish

The Urban Environment. A long-standing problem received world attention in the course of 1970 the pollution of the biosphere land, water, and air became the subject of the day when big cities like Tokyo and New York were covered with a poisonous smog for days and weeks and when a major river like the Rhine was polluted to the extent that several million fish were killed. The continuing process of deterioration in the human environment, caused by an overemphasis on such priorities of contemporary society as economic growth, the indiscriminate use of technological inventions, the increase in motor traffic, and continuing urbanization, had reached critical propor:

outstanding exhibits was the film produced

laboration with Japanese film

and Urban

With each successive year

S%

the number of nontheatrical motion pictures produced during the year. They rose only i%. with 14.200 titles released as compared with 13,750 during the preceding year. The number of films produced for in

community agencies enjoyed a

—

—

tions.

Certainly air pollution was one of the most acute problems facing the cities. During a late summer heat spell the East Coast of the United States was blanketed by smog that at times reached dangerous levels, and the situation was made worse by power shortages that necessitated cutbacks in air conditioning. Sydney, Austr., experienced smog that was described as smelling like rotten eggs. According to press reports, the air pollution in Osaka, Jap., was bad enough on July 29 to kill 16 rabbits belonging to a primary school; the

some 20% of them suffered from dizziness and nausea. Similar effects were reported in Tokyo. Some cities planned "pollution alerts" that, in extreme instances, included shutting down factories and banning automobiles. However, the effects of smog were by no means confined to shortterm critical periods. Air pollution was reportedly killing the famous trees along Rome's Appian Way, and in Buenos Aires the chemicals in the air turned paint children survived, but

g^^y.

striking

growth of

Since automobile exhaust was one of the major con-

Circuses: see Fairs

and Shows

198

Cities and Affairs

Urban

tributors to urban air pollution, the proliferation of urban expressways came under increasing attack from

not only by long-term, continuous exposure to high noise levels, as in some factories, but also by the

environmentalists. There were, of course, other evils connected with expressway building, not the least of

all

which were the breaking up of neighbourhoods and the

such noise also

elimination of refuges for the pedestrian. At the Greater London Counc'l elections a

these findings, growing attention was being focused on the problem of aircraft noise in general and the proposed supersonic transport (SST), with its accompanying sonic boom, in particular. The problem of airport expansion and placement had been growing increasingly critical for some years, as both air traffic and the residential areas around airports grew more congested. The complexities of the situation were exemplified in Chicago, where O'Hare International, the world's busiest airport, was becoming obsolete less than IS years after it had been opened and where the once open space around it was J being engulfed in suburban sprawl. A possible solution was put forward in the form of an airport in Lake Michigan, just off the city's shoreline, to be built by a polder-type construction. The plan was op- ^ posed by the airline pilots, who feared the hazards of lake fogs and possible conflicts with the O'Hare traffic patterns, and by conservation groups who claimed that it posed threats of lake pollution, increased traffic congestion, and elimination of the city's beaches and lakefront recreational areas. The alternative seemed to be an airport inconveniently far away in the countryside, and it was noted that airline passengers still seemed to prefer the delays and overcrowding at National Airport in Washington, D.C., to Dulles International, a $15 taxi ride away. The SST was an especially interesting case in that

new

party fought a number of seats under the slogan "Homes Before Roads," and such persistent criticisms were made of the road proposals in the Greater Lon-

don Development Plan that the government set up an official inquiry into the plan, which started on October 6. Since London had a reputation as one of the best governed cities in the world, this was a sad commentary on the state of city planning everywhere. According to a draft report of the London Region Environment Group of the Royal Institute of British Architects, if the Greater London Development Plan were accepted, the future of London would be determined by the private car at the expense of publictransport users and pedestrians. The GLC was accused of starting from the assumption that the demand for road space should be satisfied wherever possible, without questioning whether this served the best interests of the population as a whole. "It becomes apparent that the pedestrian

every case

is

having

to the car driver.

trians are likely to

to

make concessions

Underpasses for pedes-

become more common. Apart from

the considerable difficulties of policing these,

become

a

in

permanent feature of

— shops — on

reach one part of a community or school, or church, or

London

life in

is

it

to

that to

group surgery, foot, it will be

say, a

necessary to go underground, or climb over a bridge to

do so?" As an alternative, the group suggested the

construction of

subway

lines that

went from point

to

point on the city's periphery rather than funneling into the centre, restriction of

commuter

cars in inner

more crowded

districts

were reserved on certain

City proper

and country

Metropolitan

Tokyo, Japan

New

census

Estimate

Year

8,893,094'

9,013,222

1970

6

York, U.S. Shangtioi, CtiinaJ London, U.K.§ Peking, Chinat Moscow, U.S.S.R.

7

Greater Bombay, India

8

Soo Poulo,

9

Cairo, U.A.R. Jakarta, Indonesia

4,219,85311

10 11

Seoul,

3,793,28011

12 13 14 15 16

Korea Delhi-New Delhi, India Buenos Aires, Argentine

Leningrad, U.S.S.R.

17 18

Chicago, U.S. Tientsin, China

3,513,000t 2,832,133 2,259,931 3,322,855t 2,693,8311 3,223,408 2,927,289 3,156,222*

4 5

;

i

jj

j

=

,

i

;

i

,

,

;

t

i

represented a still-untried technology, the effects of which could only be conjectured. In the U.S. the Nixon administration's request for funds for continued it

work on

the

SST was approved by

the

House

A

of

Rep-

attempt to get the measure past the Senate by parliamentary maneuvering was blocked by a filibuster, and in the last days of the session the two houses agreed to fund the project at a level of $210 million a year until March 31, 1971, when another effort would be made to reach a final decision. Proponents of the SST, testifying at legislative hearings, had argued that the supersonic plane represented progress and would provide jobs in the depressed aerospace industry. Opponents had pleaded that this was one instance in which a pollution-threatening technology could be

Most recent

1

t

resentatives and rejected

World's 25 Most Populous Cities

2 3

to

London, the establishment of clearways and lanes for

days for pedestrian use only. Another aspect of environmental pollution that was receiving increased attention during the year was that of noise. A number of doctors expressed the opinion that hearing impairment and loss could be caused

City

background noise familiar

The psychic damage resulting from came under investigation. In light of

city dwellers.

buses only, and shopping areas solely for pedestrians. In Tokyo an experiment was begun in which some of the

Rank

steadily rising level of

Brazil

S.

Mexico City, Mexico Madrid, Spain

7,771,730t

6,942.000t 4,152,056 3,164,804 2,973,052 2,359,408 2,966,634

19 20

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Calcutta, India

21

Osaka, Japan

22 23 24 25

Teheran, Iron Los Angeles, U.S.

2,719,73011

Rome,

Italy

Paris,

France

2,188,160 2,590,7719

23,123,355 11,900,000 10,000,000 7,703,410 7,060,000 7,061 ,000t

1970 1966 1970 1968 1967 1970 1970

3,772^457 7,866,000

3,483,649 3,381,406

1969 1970

3,950,000t 7,005,855 2,926,374

3,278,000

1958

6,892,509t 3,800,000

3,158,838 3,018,175 2,840,494

1970 1969 1967

2,731,397

1970

5,700,358 5,000,000 4,961,000 4,500,000 3,972,000 3,772,457 3,600,000

2,781, 829t

•1965.

Estimate

5,700,358 5,684,706 5,925,400 4,349,950

Year 1970 1969 1967-68 1969 1967-A8 1970 1970 1968 1970 1967

1970 1967 1970 1970 1965 1970 1958

6,974,1 03t

1968 1969 1970 1970

8,196,7469

1968

5,074^668 14,548,613 3,250,000

tMunicipality. tl970 census. §Greater London. 111966. 11953. 91968 census. Ranking based on latest estimates of city proper population. Most recent census refers to 1960 or 1961, except as footnoted. Berlin, both sectors combined 1970 population 3,218,156, is excluded due to the politicol as well as physical division of the city.

stopped before

—part

it

by

became an

the Senate.

integral

further

—and inseparable

of the system.

In Britain, where the British-French SST, the Conwas nearer completion, the problem was more immediate. Within the next two or three years, 50 corde,

supersonic flights were planned to determine whether supersonic flight over populated areas would be acceptable. Already doubts were being expressed.

In

February a Guardian editorial asked "whether millions of people on the ground should be expected to put up with the disturbance of some bangs, so that a few

hundred

air

passengers can get to their destination a

couple of hours earlier."

Such questions of pollution and congestion were both symptomatic of and contributing factors to the larger question of whether the city was still a viable form for the ordering of human life. The whole economic and social system of which the city was a product was called into question. Thus the economist E. J. Mishan spoke of the "myth" of economic growth.

The reason

for the myth, he said,

was

that gross na-

;

i

i

,

;

3

1

:

;

:

•

,

•

product "tots up the values of

tional

goods, while assiduously ignoring

all

man-made man-made

experienced 4,330 bombings, 1,475 unsuccessful bombing attempts, and 35,129 threatened bombings. The

(L. C. Br.)

bombings were responsible for 43 deaths, 384 injuries, and a loss of $21.8 million in property damage. In New York City alone, Police Commissioner Howard R. Leary testified, there were 368 bombings between January 1969 and June 1970 more than twice

all

the

bads that are produced simultaneously."

Throughout the urban United States, the onset of the new decade led to reevaluation of "the urban crisis" and speculation about the urban future. The 46th annual Congress of Cities of the National League of Cities, held in

December

1969, followed this course,

theme, "Cities in the '70s." As set forth by congress participants, who included mayors as indicated in its

of the

major as well as the smaller cities of the naproblems facing the cities included:

tion, the principal

physical problems, such as environmental pollution, insufficient

and inadequate housing,

air

and surface

congestion, insufficient recreational

traffic

facilities,

and deficient mass transportation; economic problems, Hich as poverty, unemployment, underemplo>Tnent, and inflation; social problems, t insumer protection, .Mich as the revolt of the blacks, the revolt of youth, crime and delinquency, alcoholism and drug addiction, controversial welfare provisions, and inadequate medical care; and problems of governance, such as "home rule" for cities, inadequate schools, rising needs for governmental services, deficient city revenues, and fragmented political control within metropolitan areas. Speculation on the future contained little that was hopeful. Projections of existing trends indicated that there

was

little

prospect that the urban

crisis

would

abate during the '70s or in the foreseeable future. Cen-

would gain increasing proportions of blacks suburbs remained predominantly white; continued white racism would be met with growing black prestral cities

as

and control; the gap between generations would widen rather than narrow. There was little evidence that the physical, economic, social, and governmental problems would be solved; unrest would lead to greater manifestations of alienation and violence; and increased disorder would lead to increased suppression and possibly a repressive society. The National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence Milton Eisenhower, chairman) held forth the prospect of future American cities as "places of terror" in which citizens would live in armed "fortresses." As a number of the participants in the congress saw it, the only hope for the future of American cities lay sures for separatism

—

in

changes

Chief among these, Mayor John Lindsay and

in national priorities.

as called for

by

New

York's

was the need to "halt the growth of the miliand turn our priorities toward home." Whitney Young, executive director of the National Urban League, agreed with Lindsay and added: "The national priority of life in space must be replaced by the national priority of making cities livable the top national priority must be elimination of poverty and racism and the revitalization of the city." The fiscal magnitude of such a change was indicated by Lindsay, who, after estimating that the cities faced a revenue gap of $250 billion in the '70s, called on the federal government to share revenues with the cities, others,

tary budget

.

.

.

beginning with a contribution of $5 billion in 1970. The events of the year provided no basis for greater

optimism. Although no major riots comparable to previous disorders in Watts, Detroit, or Chicago occurred during the year, disruptions and violence in perhaps an even more sinister form were manifest. At a hearing before a Senate panel,

Eugene T. Rossides,

assistant secretary of the treasury for

enforcement

and operations, reported that during the 15-month period from Jan.

1,

1969, to April 15, 1970, the U.S.

—

the

New

headquarters was bombed.

The

the total in the preceding eight years.

York City

police

Even

bombings were in the main unknown, but they undoubtedly had their origin in the frustrations of some combination of minority groups, in extreme leftist and rightist political groups, and in organized crime. There could be no question but that the great increase in bombings was attributable to increasing alienation and frustration with "the Establishment" and a growing belief that social change could not be accomplished by working within the system. (See Crime.) While racial riots were less prominent in 1970 than in preceding years, it would be dangerous to interpret this fact as indicating that discontent and anger were abating within the black community. On the contrary, as Whitney Young stated, the likelihood was that "the Hugh J. Addonizio, former revolution of rising expectations" had changed to a mayor of Newark, N.J. He specific sources of the

"revolution of rising resentment."

Some

riots, racial

occur in a number of cities, among them Miami. Fla.; Augusta, Ga.; New Brunswick and

in character, did

Asbury Park, N.J.; Peoria and Cairo, 111.; Kansas City, Mo.; Lima, 0.; and Hartford, Conn. Moreover, there was increasing evidence of guerrilla tactics, in-

and other city officials were convicted of conspiracy

and extortion of money from a company doing business with the city.

cluding accelerated sniper activities, directed espe-

toward policemen. were beset with violence from sources other than minority-group alienation. The Weatherman faction of the Students for a Democratic Society, after their violent "days of rage" in Chicago in 1969, went underground with avowed intent to harass and to wreak destruction on the Establishment. Widespread disruption and violence on college campuses often led the to counterviolence. as when construction workers attacked student and other so-called hard hats "peace" demonstrators in Manhattan. The "generation gap" also produced disorders, as well as flagrant violations of narcotics laws. Moreover, there was no indication that the rising tide of common crimes and gang warfare was abating. At the same time, evidence mounted that growing violence and threats of violence cially

Cities

—

—

were being met with increasingly repressive measures. fP. M. Ha.)

New York

City firemen

battle blazes on Sutter

Avenue

in

the Brownsville

section of Brooklyn.

A wave and

of arson

looting,

triggered

by large accumulations of uncollected garbage, swept the neighbourhood in mid-June.

and Local Government, said the annual loss of historic buildings during the preceding three years had been reduced by over a

third.

In 1966 more than 400

buildings had been destroyed; in 1969 the 266.

listed

number was

The advent of the 1970s brought an opportunity for reassessment of progress in the New Towns program.

A number of books were published, including Ray Thomas' Aycliffe to Cumbernauld, a study of seven older

New Towns outside London. According to New Towns outside London had had only

Thomas, the

They had asgrowth point strategy," but they had not made, and were not making, "an adequate contribua limited success in the regional context. sisted "the

tion to housing the truly under-privileged."

In January a special report by F. Zweig, commis-

Urban Research Bureau, was published on the award-winning British New Town of Cumbernauld in central Scotland. It was once regarded as a triumph of town planning, with complete pedestrianvehicle segregation and a density of 48 persons per acre, but Zweig considered it a "streetless city" with an inadequate social life and increasing risk of crime. Paradoxically, by excluding cars from the town centre and yet providing a garage and parking space in every home, the planners had inflated car ownership to the highest level in Scotland. The result was "a lack of involvement in community affairs," since the citizens preferred to drive elsewhere rather than to walk downsioned by the

Urban Planning.

In September F. Medhurst, re-

sponsible for the Teeside

(

U.K.) survey and plan, de-

livered a lecture to the sociology section of the British

Association in which he visualized the conflict be-

tween planners and politicians as a series of "games" between the technical planners and the elected members of the local authority.

"The

town.

politicians control

Fifteen

New Towns

had been

built in Britain in less

game, since in the last analysis they employ the planners and can terminate the game at any time by eliminating that is by sacking the other person." According to Medhurst, however, there were two other players missing from the game, the press and the public, who normally only became involved when the game had reached such scandalous proportions that no one was likely to win. The planners' pri-

were the conclusions of two doctors, quoted in The New Story by Frank Shaffer, on the medical record of Harlow. "Our survey has shown that the creation of a new town, with full social and economic planning, results in an improvement in general health, both subjective and objective. About nine-

should be to the public, who should be consulted on such matters as standards of ^pace, travel amenity, work, and leisure.

environment and the one-tenth who are dissatisfied would be dissatisfied wherever they were. Full satisfaction with environment is a product of time."

the rules of the

—

—

mary

responsibility

The problems

than 20 years, and

Of

a million

people were living

in

them.

special interest

new population

tenths of the

are satisfied with their

of public participation in urban plan-

(L. C. Br.)

ning were epitomized by the experience of two neigh-

Municipal Government. During 1970 municipal governments all over the world continued to show a capacity to adapt themselves to the demands of a society in rapid evolution. Such demands included the need for increased and better services at the local level, ranging from education to street lighting and

bourhood groups protesting similar road schemes in London. One group, in Acklam Road, threatened in the last resort to lie down in the road, and they won their battle. The other, Gilda Court group went through proper channels and lost. The Guardian epitomized the matter in an editorial "A situation in which broken glass works better than democracy is intolerable." A 1970 report published by the Civic Trust announced that 1,000 conservation areas had been designated throughout Great Britain under the Civic Amenities Act of 1967, the thousandth being the centre of the historic town of Shrewsbury. Of these, 395 were in cities and town centres, 475 in villages, and 130 in the suburbs of London, and they varied from one or two buildings and the surrounding landscape to the whole of Hampstead Garden Suburb. The Civic Trust predicted that 3,000 conservation areas might :

eventually be designated. Local authorities in Britain were sharply criticized for failing to face their obligations with regard to the preservation of listed buildings of architectural or his-

According to one survey, 165. 9c?. (about was the average amount spent by the local authorities in England and Wales on each listed building. However, in February Lord Kennet, then the joint parliamentary secretary to the Ministry of Housing

sewage disposal, but they were also increasingly expressed in the ticipation

by

call

for

more opportunities and for

citizens in local affairs

for par-

the pres-

ervation or creation of an environment fit to live in. Local authorities were increasingly aware of these demands and tried to develop policies to meet them.

Reform

of Local Government.

was the adoption of

One such

policy

drastic reforms in the overall

structure of local government, introduced in a grownumber of countries. In recent years it had been

ing

thought that various forms of cooperation and gradual amalgamation would solve the problems posed by enlargement of scale and the demand for more efficient services. However, it was clear that certain limits had been reached, concerning, for example, complexity of local governmental structure and available finances

toric interest.

and personnel.

$2

In Scandinavia, Denmark followed the Swedish example of an overall amalgamation of existing municipalities into new units of local government that were larger in size, had more financial and other powers,

)

i

i

and were generally better equipped for their new tasks. On April 1, 1970, the number of municipalities

and implicitly seemed

was reduced from some 1,100 to 280 and the number of counties (amter) from 23 to 13. At the same time, the distinction between boroughs and rural districts

ment

was abolished, and a transfer of certain tasks from the central to the local level took place. The Swedish reform, the second within 20 years, which had reduced

number of local authorities from some 1,000 to 232, was still in progress and was expected to be completed by 1974. In Finland plans were submitted that, the

comprehensive school system, would lead to the creation of 350-400 following

a

reorganization

of

the

municipalities with at least 8,000 inhabitants each.

Kingdom

I

!

the

have unitary authorities responsible for the provision of all services and would contain a population of between 250,000 and one million. Five metropolitan would have a two-tier structure of government,

areas '.vith

functions divided between a metropolitan au-

thority

and

metropolitan

district

authorities,

the

former (larger) ones covering such tasks as planning, transportation, and education. Local councils would be created (in place of the existing borough, urban, and rural district councils

and the parishes) that would

have advisory powers and would have to be consulted on matters of immediate local interest.

The new Conservative government did not take a but was generally believed to be in

definite position,

favour of the reform proposals.

A vigorous

minimum

to accept 8,000 inhabitants as population size for viable local govern-

units. A similar figure was used in the Scandinavian reforms. Local government reform proposals were contemplated in other areas of the world as well. In the Philippines the joint local government reform com-

mission was charged to conduct a comprehensive study into the need for a

new system

of local

government

administration. In Pakistan the ten-year-old multitier

system of basic democracies was scrapped altogether by the new government because of its rigid control and the indirect nature of

its

elections. In its place a two-

tier structure of directly elected councils at the

Labour government adopted many of the recommendations proposed by the Royal Commission on Local Government, whose report had been issued in June 1969. A White Paper issued in February 1970 proposed the division of England into 56 government areas, 51 of which would In the United

the

opposition

union

(lower) and district (higher) levels was installed. In

urban areas, town committees, municipal committees, and city corporations might be set up. The first general elections for the new local councils were due to be held before April 1971. Interest in the United States focused on metropolitan areas rather than on statewide reform schemes. In the course of 1970 a number of city-county consolidations took place (as in previous years), but more farreaching proposals were formulated by the Committee

Economic Development (CED), composed of 200 The CED recommended the creation of a two-level system of local for

leading businessmen and educators.

government, including an area-wide level containing one or more counties and a local level comprising "community districts." These proposals for a "metropolitan federation" were the first that went clearly in the direction of an overall reform of the structure of municipal government in metropolitan areas since the creation, a few years earlier, of voluntary and advisory metropolitan-area-wide councils of elected

officials.

campaign was mounted by the Rural District Councils Association, whose very existence was at stake, since the territory of its member authorities would be encompassed by the new unitary authorities. A campaign fund was created in an attempt to prevent the implementation of the reform proposals, which, it was held, would make local government "too remote from the

The growing importance of reform of local government systems was also reflected in a study being un-

people."

ticipation in them.

Yet another royal commission delivered its report in the United Kingdom in 1970. The Wheatley Commission on the reform of the local government structure in Scotland recommended setting up a new twotier structure whereby the existing 397 cities, districts, and burghs would be amalgamated into 37 new authorities (called districts) with an average population of

50.000 to

150,000 inhabitants.

The

existing

33

counties would be transformed into 7 regions, respon-

work, and health. The local planning functions and be responsible for housing improvement and libraries. "Community Councils" would be set up within these districts, designed to express the views of the local community on matters affecting it. It was sible for planning, police, social district authorities

would exercise

interesting to note that in three parts of the

United

Kingdom, proposals were submitted for either a onetier local government structure ("England outside London) or a two-tier structure (Scotland and Wales). Both solutions were defended on the grounds of democracy and efficiency and both were challenged on the same basis. The same complexity and diversity of local government structures were to be found in the various Lander ("states) of West Germany, where a series of reform proposals was made by experts' committees. In general they had one element in common they explicitly :

dertaken by the United Nations' Public Administration Division, which would evaluate experiences over the past 25 years, with reference to new arrangements for decentralization of responsibilities for

velopment programs and the promotion of Citizen Participation.

mands

One

of the most pressing de-

of contemporary society

pation

of

citizens

in

major decitizen par-

affairs

was for more that

partici-

concerned them

directly. These demands were often most clearly expressed at the local level. Increasingly, local authori-

were responding positively and were taking initiapromote such participation. These initiatives ranged from improving existing channels of information and communication and creating new forms of two-way communication to the promotion of active participation by citizen groups in the decision-making process. Information and complaint centres were being created in those areas where urban renewal was to take place; hearings and referenda were held to give ties

tives to

citizens a

chance to express their

own

desires; social

counselors and community-development officers were appointed to obtain more direct information on the

demands and problems. In certain areas of government ("sports, education, culture), functional councils, to whom specific tasks were delegated, were appointed. During 1970 the installation of local "ombudsmen" was proposed in the U.K. These officials would thorcitizens'

local

oughly investigate

citizens' complaints of maladminisunnecessary delays, nepotism, arbitrariness, and cases where the proper administration of a rule had caused an injustice. The London borough

tration, including

and would have the right to be consulted by highe government. In the U.S. people in severcl cities took the initiative in improving communicatiom between city hall and the neighbourhoods. Informal tion and service centres were installed, and "mini" cit halls and mobile city halls were being operated experii mentally. The Los Angeles City Charter Commission prepared a draft charter that would enable citizen! to create a neighbourhood organization with an electe' board and an appointed "neighbourman." A limite^ form of neighbourhood government was attempted New York City, where 31 community school board were elected directly and given certain distinct powers' More general measures that could improve the ca pacity and willingness of citizens to take a direc interest in their own affairs were the elaboration o an educational and information system directec toward these needs. In this context, the experience,with local radio stations in Britain were signiitcant In the course of 1970, 12 new stations were announcec by the government, bringing the total to 20. Aftei initial hesitation, the local government association; supported this innovation, which proved to be of greai

levels of

I

j \

i;

value in achieving more consciousness of local

among

citizens

and providing channels for

affair;

their view;

and complaints. Human Environment. Although rarely the immediate cause of pollution, local government was called' upon by many to develop the human environment in accordance with the needs of the inhabitants, what natural resources could be saved, and eral to involve citizens

more

to save in gen-:

directly in the decisions

own environment. Measures

that determined their

to

control pollution were taken at the local level in vir-

Camden

started a postcard scheme, enabling

Lauderdale Tower (centre),

of

the City of London School

zens to register their complaints by

and Defoe These three

for Girls (left),

House

(right).

citi-

prepaid

postcards.

In

buildings are part of the Barbican Project, a 32-ac. urban renewal development being undertaken by the City of London.

tilling in

Sweden

a law

was introduced

that

would give

local authorities the right to subsidize political parties

Civil

see

Defense:

Defense

Race Relations

Clothing:

Fashion and Dress; Furs

see

Coal: see Fuel and Power;

Mining

Cocoa (Cacao): Agriculture

see

Coffee: see Agriculture

Coinage:

and Numismatics

Many

such groups were formed to protest against the deterioration of neighbourhoods, particularly with regard to the pollution of the environment, poor housing conditions, and the need for better services. Thus, in several French cities, associations de qiiartier were created by citizen groups and citizen action groups.

aim of defending the neighbourhoods and promoting more

interests of their

participation

by

citizens in their affairs.

new

city,

Vaudreuil, with an eventual 150,000 infor construction in the lower

was scheduled

Seine region outside Paris. The aim was to make. Vaudreuil the world's first urban centre without noise: or pollution. Traffic arteries, conduits for smoke from factories, and refuse conduits would all go under-

ground. Gases would be burned off at the source, and the burning of refuse would provide part of the energy for the future city's central heating system. In several existing cities, measures were taken to reduce pollution and noise from traffic. The city of Lyons, France, was considering the introduction of a "silent" overhead rapid rail transit system. In Moscow a ten-seater electric minibus was tried out by municipal transport services. A similar experiment was

taking place in Koblenz, W.Ger., where a batterycity bus, a coproduct of several German

powered

firms, joined the fleet of the municipally

owned

trans-

buses from diesel fuel to a mixture of diesel and liquid gas. The town of Orange, Calif., used natural

selves.

gas as fuel for six of

In the U.K. and the U.S. the call for neighbourhood government received more and more support. In Brit-

effort to

ernment

Education

more

the Rhine.

spectacular plan was launched in France, where,

spontaneous action groups sprang up in those cities and rural areas where environment was threatened or where town planning did not appear to take into account the desires and demands of the citizens them-

Coke: see Fuel and Colleges:

In the Nether-

lands and Sweden, less institutionalized and

ain the Association of

see

A

habitants,

see Philately

Mining

from the pollution of a

be prevented by lack of economic resources from doing informative and opinion-creating work.

private organizations with the

Civil Rights: see

—

parties, which, therefore, should not

—

Civil Aviation: see Transportation

;

undertake research on municipal questions. It was recognized that democracy is realized through political to

Increasingly, however, citizens were choosing to undertake action outside the existing channels of communication and representation for example, through Citizenship: see Migration, International

all industrially developed countries, but usually an ad hoc manner, since air and water pollution;; do not respect administrative boundaries and, in-, deed, not even national boundaries, as was evident

tually

in

Neighbourhood Councils was

created with the object of pressuring the national govto

set

up elected neighbourhood or urban

Povi^er;

parish councils inside cities and large towns. These councils

would have the power to provide any amenratepayers were prepared to pay for,

ities that local

port company.

The

city

its

of Vienna reconverted

its

public motor vehicles in an

reduce both air pollution and costs.

Campaigns against

A

litter

were mounted

in several

week started in London and then moved across the U.K. The use of paper and plastic bags for refuse collection was encouraged in such cities as New York, where Mayor Lindsay also called upon 14 bottling firms to reintroduce deposit bottles to ease the enormous disposal countries and

cities.

national no-litter

'

jroblems caused by nondeposit, nonreturnable conAs part of a national litter-prevention camloaign, the city of Rodney, N.Z., introduced "talking" ;tainers.

on pedestrians to use them. took action in several towns to Drevent the undue expansion or attraction of such itter bins that called

Concerned

citizens

polluting industries as oil refineries, steel factories,

and aluminum plants. However, the possibilities of government action of this kind were limited,

local

necessary legal prerequisites were often lacking. Moreover, reliable data on the extent of pollution were seldom available. In the Netherlands, the since

the

Rijnmond Authority, operating in the Greater Rotterarea, put a fully automated monitoring network

work

the

203

of three subdivisions, including a reorganized

Ministry for Local Government and Development. (Ei. K.)

Colombia

See also Architecture; Crime; Historic Buildings; HousParks; Police; Transportation,

ing;

Encyclop.«dia Brit.^nn'ica Films. The Living City (1953); Health in Our Community (1959); Megalopolis Cradle oj the Future (1962); Chicago Midland Metropolis (1963): Operation Bootstrap (1968); Problems of ConservaOur Crowded tion Air (1968): The House of Man, Part II Environment (1969): Manuel from Puerto Rico (1969); The South: Roots of the Urban Crisis (1969); Chicano from the Southwest (1970): The Garbage Explosion (1970); The Industrial City (1970); Linda and Billy Ray from Appalachia (1970); The Rise of the American City (1970); What Is a Community? (1970).

—

—

—

—

dam

into operation to trace the degree of air pollution in

the heavily industrialized port area. In Britain the

Open University

initiated a spare-time course to train

Colombia

testing the

A

throughout the country in the framework of a massive test program. The Urban Scene. While preventing further pol-

is

private citizens to set quality

of

the

up laboratories for

air

was one of the tasks of public authorities at levels of government, it was increasingly realized that environmental problems would have to be put in the context of the overall environment in which they occurred the "urban crisis" experienced by many cities. It was not surprising, therefore, that new research centres were created in a number of countries to study in more detail the problems facing municipal government. In Canada the Canadian Council on Urban and Regional Research was to sponsor the groundwork needed for setting up a comlution

different

—

prehensive urban information service available to

all

In Austria the Association of Austrian Towns, the City of Vienna, and the Academy

local authorities.

founded the Institute of Urban Research. "Urban Research was launched by six research institutes under

of Sciences

In Finland a large research project. '70,"

supervision of the Association of Finnish Cities. financial aid

With

from the West German government, four

research divisions of the Municipal Research Centre in

West Berlin

started an interdisciplinary research

project on the aims, theory,

and instruments of urban

development. In the U.S. the Advisor>' Commission on Intergovernmental Relations issued a report. Urban America and the Federal System, that summarized the findings

of a series of separate

reports previously

by the commission. The report called for restoration of fiscal balance between national, state, and local government, the formation of national and state policies, and the reconstruction of state constitutions issued

and statutes with respect to local government. The newly created National Committee on Urban Growth Policy also emphasized the need for a national policy. Among other recommendations, the committee urged federal support in the creation of 110 new urban communities. The National League of Cities and the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development agreed on the elaboration of the "urban observatory" concept, which would link the resources available at the universities to local governmental action. There were experimental observatories in six metropolitan areas.

State religion: in 1970.

Roman

(90%). Presidents

Catholic

Carlos Lleras Restrepo and. from August

7,

Misael Pastrana Borrero. In 1970, against a continuing background of healthy

economic expansion, the political pressures for social reform were strengthened by the outcome of presidential and congressional elections held on April 19. Misael Pastrana Borrero {see Biogr.\phy), the National Front's presidential candidate,

won

1,614,419

Gustavo

Rojas Popular (Anapo). Two other contenders. Belisario Betancur and Evaristo Sourdis, polled 805.891 votes between them. Supporters of the narrowly defeated Rojas Pinilla, alleging electoral fraud, staged demonstrations which threatened to get out of hand, and a state of siege was imposed from April 21 until May 15. President Lleras appealed to all four candidates to restore political harmony by upholding public order, supporting vigorous social policies, and enabling the country's institutions to function democratically. Their response foreshadowed the congressional alignment of their parties, Pastrana, backing the president's appeal, asked the people to participate in a "Great Social Front." Rojas Pinilla. whose program was a judicious mixture votes,

Pinilla,

against

1,557,782

representing

the

cast

for

Alianza

Nacional

THC "HEW YORK TIMES'

Billboard sponsored by a group of businessmen

downtown Bogota reads, "Another child? Think about it in time." Persistent work by medical and social groups has overcome much in

On October

15 the U.K. government announced the creation of a new ministry, the Department of the

Environment, formed by the merger of three former Housing and Local Government, Transport, and Public Building and Works. The new secretary of state for the environment was to coordinate ministries

republic in northwestern South America. Colombia bordered by Panama, \'enezuela. Brazil. Peru, and Ecuador and has coasts on both the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Area: 439,734 sq.mi. (1,138,914 sq.km.). Pop, (1968 est.): 19,829,185, Cap.: Bogota (pop., 1968, 1,984,599), Language: Spanish.

—

of the traditional opposition to family planning in Colombia.

Catholicism, social reform, and

net exchange reserves rose (despite higher imports)!

nationalism, said that there could be no dialogue with the National Front unless the government freed politi-

from $96.6 million in January to a record peak of| $183.5 million on June 2. Manufacturing output in^ 1969, stimulated by adequate imports of raw materials and capital goods together with extensive credit

of traditional

Roman

cal prisoners, accepted Anapo's basic ideology, and recognized that electoral fraud had been widespread. Betancur reaffirmed his determination to oppose the National Front, but Sourdis hinted that his party

might be willing to cooperate with it. Lleras ordered a recount and promised to hand over power on August 7 to the winning candidate. Pastrana's victory was officially confirmed shortly before the new Congress assembled on July 20, and he was duly sworn in on August 7. He had earlier reached an understanding with Sourdis that gave the National Front an effective majority of 18 in the Senate and 14 in the House of Representatives. Since the constitutional reforms of December 1968 enabled ordinary legislation to be carried by a simple (instead of a two-thirds) majority, it was generally believed that the

out

its

new administration would be

program.

This, as Pastrana defined

was

to

able to carry

before taking

it

continue and develop

many

office,

of the policies

successfully pursued by the Lleras government, which

had ensured

a solid

improvement

in

exchange reserves,

a healthier balance of payments, greater diversifica-

and faster Under strong pressure from economic growth. Anapo, Pastrana's government was expected to lay greater emphasis on agrarian and social reform as distinct from industrial expansion. Anapo persisted in claiming that Rojas Pinilla had won the election and would therefore refuse to recognize Pastrana's tion of exports, a reduced rate of inflation,

facilities, rose by 7.5%, and in 1970 the monthly average of reimbursable imports was expected to reach

$65 million (against $60 million

in 1969).

With

a fiscal j

surplus of 1,484,000,000 pesos on June 30, Colombia'j seemed likely to achieve its fifth consecutive budget surplus. Efforts to contain internal inflation were reaj

sonably successful. The cost of hving index, which rose

by 8.7%

in 1969, registered a

3.8%

increase in

(R. B. Le.)

thefirsthalf of 1970.

Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films. Colombia and Venezuela (1961).

Commercial The

lull in

ity

that

Round

new

Policies

international commercial policy activ-

followed the

conclusion

of

the

Kennedy

1967 had ended by mid- 1969 as the world began grappling with a series of most complicated policy issues. Although the world trading system, which had been laboriously conof trade negotiations in

structed, gave a

good account of

itself in

1969-70

in

the sense that world trade continued to expand at a '

high rate, the pressures on the system were great and protectionist influences were stronger than at since the early 1930s.

any time

—

Those who believed that the world's welfare economic and political was best served by reducing,

—

rather than raising, barriers to trade did not lack op-

presidency. Efforts to reunite the Conservative Party (the Lib-

which had governed the country since 1958 made some progress, but newspapers committed to the Liberal Party carried articles suggesting that differences had developed over its future leadership. There were also insistent rumours of a split in Anapo, stemming from a proposal that Maria Eugenia Rojas de Moreno Diaz, a daughter of Rojas Pinilla, should stand as the party's candidate in the 1974 presidential election. Confirming this proposal, her husband later said it had been dropped at the request of Rojas Pinilla. The economy continued to gain strength. In 1970 the gross national product was expected to increase by 7% (compared with 6.5% in 1965, the best year of the previous decade). From January to May the balance of payments surplus ($49 million in 1968 and $59.1 million in 1969) grew to $82.3 million, while eral Party's partner in the National Front, )

portunities to argue their case. Matters before the General

Agreement on

Tariffs

and Trade (GATT), the

Economic Community (EEC) on enlargement and preferential trade agreements, and the efforts of many nations, the United

negotiations of the European

Conference on Trade and Development and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) to establish a program of preferences for less developed nations were not without their challenges and difficulties. Influencing all of these was the continuing debate in the U.S. over new trade legislation. National Commercial Measures. While the rate of expansion in U.S. production and imports, thanks to stringent monetary and fiscal policies, was sharply curtailed in 1969, high and sustained inflationary pressures became even more marked than in preceding years in continental Europe and in Japan. The high Nations

(UNCTAD),

COLOMBI.A. Education. (1966) Primary, pupils 2,408,489, teachers secondary, pupils 67,764; 320,287, teachers 2 1 ,332 vocational, pupils 1 2 9,562. teachteacher training, students 63.549, ers 8,567; teachers 4,62 7 higher (including 34 universities), students 49,930, teaching staff 8,190. Finance. Monetary unit: peso, with a free rate (Sept. 14, 1970) of 18.60 pesos to U.S. $1 (44.37 pesos £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1970) U.S. $280 million; (June 1969) U.S. $164 million. Budget (1970 est.): revenue 11,030,800,000 pesos; expenditure 12.132,500,000 pesos. Gross national product: (1968) 94,380,000,000 pesos: (1967 82,050,000,000 pesos. Money supply: (Feb. 1970) 18,796.000,000 pesos: (Feb. 1969) 15,612,000.000 pesos. Cost of living (Bogota: 1963 100): (May 1970) 199; (A'-iy 1969) 185. Foreign Trade. (1968) Imports 10,349,000,;

;

=

)

=

000 pesos; exports 7,431,000,000 pesos. Import sources: U.S. 50%; West Germany 9%; Spain 6%; U.K. 5%. Export destinations: U.S. 42%; West Germany 13%; Netherlands 8%. Main exports: coffee 61%; crude oil 4%.

Transport

and

Communications.

Roads

45.000 km. (including 7,200 km. with improved surface). Motor vehicles in use ( 1968): passenger 141,100; commercial (including buses) 123.200. Railways: (1966) 3.483 km.; traffic 969) 2 74 million passengcr-km., freight 1,166,( 000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1969): 1,743,000.000 passenger-km.; freight 65,3 13,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1969): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 47; gross tonnage 206,084. Telephones (Dec. 1068) 817,423. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) 2,210.000. Television receivers (Dec. 1968) c. 500.000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; (

1967)

1

c.

1969; 1968 in parentheses): rice c. 720 (784); wheat c. 80 (130); corn 796 (845); barley c. 110 (c. 85); potatoes 1,000 (900): cassava (1968) 900. (1967) 850: coffee c. 474 (480); bananas (1968) 770, (1967) 764; cotton, lint cane sugar, raw value ( 1969-70) c. 1 25 ( 120); 750, (1968-69) c. 709; sugar, panela (1Q69-70) c. 650, (1968-69) c. 660; tobacco 44 (43). Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1968): cattle c. 16,600; sheep c. 2,031; pigs c. 2,209; goats (Dec. 1966) c. 765; horses (Dec. 1967) 1,000; poultry (Oct. 1968) c. 25,000. Industry. Fuel and power (in 000; 1969); crude oil 10,688 metric tons; natural gas 1,338,000 cu.m.; coal (1968) c. 3,000 metric tons; electricity (excluding most industrial production) 6,520,000 kw-hr. Production (in 000: metric tons; 1969) crude steel (ingots) 206; gold (troy oz.; 1968) 237; salt (1968) 505; cement 2,400. :

205

West German mark, includsome 70 products, levies, and more liberal licensing

ing the revaluation of the

ing temporary duty reductions on

Commercial

lower equalization of some durable goods from Japan and Eastern Eu-

Denmark

rope.

liberalized a

number

Policies

of agricultural

commodities imported and undertook a substantial relaxation of remaining restrictions, particularly on imports from Eastern European countries. Commercial policy measures taken by France from mid-1969 included the extension of most of the 1969 import liberalization to French overseas departements, the reduction of tariff quotas for a number of products (silk and cotton piece goods), and the liberalization of additional imports from Eastern Europe and China.

With

the introduction of a floating rate for the

mark

end of September 1969, West Germany introduced a temporary levy on agricultural imports and, subsequently, a temporary subsidy on agricultural exports. The rates were increased in October and the measures remained in force until the end of 1969. A 4% special turnover tax was imposed on most exports prior to the changes in the exchange rate and remained in force until the revaluation of the mark on Octoat the

ber 27.

Container ship is unloaded at White Bay terminal in Sydney. Government officials expressed concern that the United Kingdom's expected entry into the EEC would seriously disrupt

Japan freed several products from quantitative re1969-70 and stated that it planned to free additional items earlier than the 1971-72 dates previously envisaged. Many products, however, remained subject to such restrictions. In October 1969 the U.K. renewed for a further year the import deposit system introduced in November 196S but reduced the rate from 50 to 40% of import value. This was further reduced to 30% in April 1970 and to 20% in July, pending the termination of the policy in December. The Greek import deposit system remained in force and the withholding period was extended from two to four months for a number of products. In December 1969 Spain also instituted an import deposit policy,

Australia's traditional pattern of foreign trade.

requiring importers to lodge a peseta deposit equal to

demand

for six months; the

strictions during

20% brought with it a record level of exports of primary producing countries. In 1969 world exports increased by nearly 10% in volume and by 14% in value, which was the highest rate in industrial countries

since the

Korean

War boom.

Parallel to this

were

several developments serving to facilitate the adjustment of payments imbalances in certain major countries and to lessen the strains on the international monetary system. Consequently, there were only a few cases in which a trading nation was compelled to take defensive action by tightening payments regulations

or trade restrictions.

On

the other hand, perhaps owing to the general

sense of insecurity while the poHcies of

were

in the

major nations

melting pot, the improvement

in the inter-

payments situation was not accompanied by steps toward trade liberalization. One notable feature was an increased propensity for governments to use import surcharges and import deposit systems, which required importers to deposit funds national

many important

equal to a given percent of their goods before they were released from customs. The deposit was usually

repayable after six months. The various formal and informal arrangements for voluntary restraints on ex-

of import value to be held by the

Bank

scheme was scheduled

of Spain

to expire at

the end of 1970. Israel introduced a similar import

deposit requirement in January 1970 in conjunction

with a wide range of other measures designed to stabihze the domestic economy and meet intensified balance of payments difficulties. The deposit, applied at the rate of 50% of import value on all goods subject to customs duty of 30% or over, was to be refunded after six months. In addition, in August an import surcharge of 20% was placed on the major part of imports.

Algeria placed a number of additional products under quantitative restriction in 1969 and reserved the

importation of certain essential products to specified agencies. Argentina introduced a number of modifications in its import duties; for example, in June 1970 duties on certain equipment not available from local

production were lowered by

20%

Chile substantially reduced

its

or reduced to zero. import deposit rates. The import prohibitions that had been in force in Peru since March 1968 were expanded in September 1969 by some 150 items. Ecuador's monetary stabilization surcharge was raised for all categories of imports in

May

1970.

To supplement

quantitative restrictions

ports fcotton textiles, meat, steel) were substantially

applied for balance of payments reasons, Yugoslavia

unchanged, and import impediments maintained by industrial countries in connection with domestic agricultural policies remained entrenched. Late in 1969 Austria introduced temporary mea-

also

period of nine months until July 1971. Ghana also imposed an import surcharge in the autumn of 1970.

sures designed to contain domestic price rises follow-

enlarged to include Iceland.

made

use of an import surcharge of

5%,

for a

The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) was

Colonies: see

Dependent States

Comecon: sec Economic Planning Commerce: see Commercial Policies; Consumer Expenditures; Economy, World; Merchandising; Trade, International

206

Commercial Policies

Policies of Industrial Nations. Tensions between major trading countries tended to increase during 1969-70. In the United States, where EEC policies had been criticized for some time, there was a gradual

interest groups,

but accelerated concretization of proposals for counteraction. Many U.S. spokesmen considered the EEC's

GATT

and preferential trade poHcies to be increasingly protectionist and discriminatory. Specific

agricultural

points of grievance included the practice of giving

border rebates of the value-added tax on exports and an electronics components agreement between London, Bonn, and Paris, which threatened to damage U.S. export interests substantially. For its part, the EEC expressed increasing concern about the strong protectionist overtones of proposals before the U.S. Congress, and criticized both the failure to abolish the Selling Price (ASP) system, as had been

American

agreed during the Kennedy Round, and

new proposals

noncotton textiles. Although the Japanese government had begun a gradual removal of its remaining import restrictions, to restrict

common

and Europe was that the present degree of protectionism was incompatible the

feeling in the U.S.

with Japan's position as a leading industrial nation enjoying fairly free access to the vast U.S. market

and gaining better footholds

The

in

European markets.

rapidly expanding Japanese exports of textiles

and there was growing concern

that

sentiment in the U.S. could lead to legislation that would bring about the disintegra-

rising protectionist

tion of the international trading

or even a

trade

system built around the end of July

war. At

senior representatives of the U.S., the

EEC,

Japan,

and the U.K. met at the GATT headquarters in Geneva to consult informally on the situation. In September trade negotiations opened between the EEGi and Japan.

EEC Expansion and

Association. By April 1970 had achieved the effective completion of the Common Market when agreement had been reached, inter alia, on the financing of the common agricultural policy and the common organization of agricultural markets. The way was clear for "strengthening" and "enlargement" of the grouping. In preparation for nethe

EEC

gotiations for the accession of

new members

(applica-

had been lodged by the U.K., Denmark, Norway, and Ireland), in the spring the member > tions for entry

states discussed certain points, such as the transitional

new members, and continued problems as the EEC attitude toward sterling and the British balance of payments, and toward EFTA countries not wishing to become period for adjustment by

discussion of such

full

members

of the

EEC.

U.S. industry and organized labour as justification for

This latter point raised difficult problems. Primarily, preferential arrangements between the Six and any other countries, unless they were to lead in a reason-

made by

able time to a free-trade area or a customs union,

(and of other goods) to the U.S. were seized upon by additional protection; serious attempts were

the U.S. to induce the Japanese to accept voluntary

would be incompatible with GATT. In addition, the

on exports of wool and man-made fibre products. In the background was the European fear that the products thus denied entry to the U.S. would be diverted to European markets. Some found the efforts of the U.S. to formulate its

likelihood of any wide range of tariff reductions on a

restraints

most-favoured-nation basis, such as would be needed impact of the separation between the new entrants and the nonentrants, appeared remote to lessen the

long-term trade policies disappointing: the adminis-

because of the general disinclination on the part of the major trading nations to embark on new tariff

tration continued to profess adherence to the princi-

negotiations.

ples of free

and expanding world trade but appeared

clamours for protection against rising imports. In November 1969 Pres. Richard Nixon had sent Congress a trade bill calling for auto

be unable

to resist

thority to make modest reductions in U.S. tariffs, ehminate ASP, extend the 1962 Trade Expansion Act to include duties and restrictions in retaliation for unfair limitations on U.S. agricultural exports, and liberalize the criteria for adjusting assistance to in-

and workers adversely affected by imports. introduced in April 1970 by the chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee, Wilbur D. Mills (Dem., Ark.), provided for quota restrictions on textile, apparel, and footwear imports and hmited them to the 1967-69 level, but permitted the president to negotiate agreements allowing imports above that dustries

Another

bill

level.

The

bill

as passed

by

the

House

in

tablished import quotas on textiles

November

es-

and nonrubber

footwear and provided for the introduction of quota on other imports. The administration had thrown its support behind quotas for textile items, but the House bill was considerably more restrictive than President Nixon had wanted. Protracted talks were held with the Japanese in the hope that Japan restrictions

would voluntarily limit its textile exports to the U.S. Such restraint was strongly opposed by the Japanese textile industry, however, and no agreement was trade

bill

died in the Senate during the last-

minute rush toward adjournment. The fact remained that it had received strong support from a number of

the British side, there

was deep concern over

Community's common

agricultural policy,

and

a de-

safeguard insofar as possible the vital interests of such Commonwealth suppliers as New Zealand farmers and Caribbean sugar growers. Other Comsire to

monwealth

countries,

notably Australia, bemoaned

their likely loss of privileged access

to

the British

market.

When

the negotiations officially

opened

at the

end

of June the Six reaffirmed their position: solutions

must be sought through

transitional arrangements, not through changes in existing rules; such measures must be of defined duration and preceded by initial signifi-

cant

tariff

reductions; increase in mutual access for

must be adequately synchronized with the achievement of the enlarged agricultural com-

industrial products

mon

market; and the transitional period must be the for all four prospective entrants and the accession treaties should enter into force on the same date. As soon as actual negotiations got under way in September, the British presented rather concrete pro-

same

posals regarding the transitional period. These envis-

aged a one-year initiation period after accession, a 40% cut in industrial tariffs by both sides at the end of that period, followed by two 30% reductions at intervals of one year. The same rhythm would be followed in aligning the U.K. tariff with the EEC com-

mon

reached.

The

On

the contribution that would be required to finance the

external

tariff.

A

six-year

transitional

period,

however, was proposed for agriculture. In December, however, the British dropped their insistence on separate periods and submitted a second proposal envi-

iii

ioning

a

single

five-year

transitional

period

for

larmonizing agriculture, industry, taxation, and the

selves.

Other

activities of

GATT were

was noted, however, that the

to further regulate trade in certain dairy products,

U.K. would probably need more than five years (possibly eight) before it would be able to bear its full

which entered into force May 14, 1970, and a general agreement that the arrangement regarding International Trade in Cotton Textiles, negotiated in 1962, should be extended for three more years from Sept.

novement of

capital. It

share in financing the

common

agricultural policy.

The

concerned seemed earnest about the negotiations and the British and West Germans, in particular, made public pronouncements on the need to complete parties

I

among theman arrangement

them before 1972. In 1969 the EEC negotiated a new Yaounde Convention to renew its association agreement with 18 African countries, and new association agreements with three East African countries (Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda) and with Morocco and Tunisia. Preferential trade agreements were signed in June 1970 with Israel and Spain and negotiations for similar agreements with the U.A.R. and Lebanon started in September 1970. By the summer of 1970 the EEC had thus entered into agreements involving reciprocal trade preferences with 27 countries. Of these countries, Greece, Turkey, and Spain were known to be desirous of eventually becoming EEC members. The Yaounde agreement and those with Morocco and Tunisia were said to be aimed at introducing free trade gradually between these countries and the

EEC

;

in the

view of the parties involved these arrangements had special- historical

justifications.

The Mediterranean

and East African countries considered the arrangements desirable because their economies and exports

resembled those of the associate countries in (Morocco and Tunisia), with which they had to compete in the European markets. These preferential agreements met with severe criticism from other countries. The matter came to a head at GATT meetings where the controversy centred around the so-called Mediterranean Policy of the EEC, which some called a "grand design," and its trade manifestations, which, in the view of several countries, directly contravened the basic principles and rules of GATT and could have a serious adverse effect on their exports. International Organizations.-After years of discussion, in various international forums, the proposed generalized system of tariff preferences for less developed countries began to take shape. Working unclosely

the region

down by the OECD in May more developed countries concluded that it

der general guidelines laid 1970, the

would not be possible to arrive at agreement on a single system of preferences or on essential elements that all individual plans should uniformly embody. They therefore proceeded to formulate schemes that were harmonized as much as possible and could be expected to yield comparable results. Specific problems related to the concern that the burden might not be equitably shared among the more developed countries and to the "reverse preferences" received by EEC countries and Britain from particular less developed countries. In September 1970 the OECD countries transmitted their individual proposals, and consultations with less developed nations took place in the Special Committee on Preferences of UNCTAD. An interesting and important development during 1969-70 was the growing interest of the Eastern European countries in participating in the multilateral trading system. Romania and Hungary were both actively seeking full membership in GATT. Also to be noted was the increasing attention being paid in GATT to the trade problems of the less developed countries, particularly the possibilities offered by a reduction of

207

trade barriers aimed at increasing trade

Commodities, Primary

30, 1970.

The tariff reductions negotiated during the Kennedy Round were originally scheduled for application by steps between 1968 and 1972. In many cases, however, the concessions were applied ahead of schedule

and

some cases (Argentina, Canada, Iceland, Ireland, and Switzerland) had been fully applied by 1970.

in

{Ga. Pa.; Co. S.) See also Agriculture; Commodities,

Primary; Development, Economic; Payments and Reserves, International; Trade, International.

Commodities, Primary Less developed countries, relying on agricultural products for exports, found

it difiicult

in

1970

progress in attracting

new

industries,

it

to increase

made more

trade with industrial nations. Until they

appeared that

would take a relatively small share of exports from North America, Europe, and Japan. For the most part, the less developed counthe less developed nations

tries

were largely shippers of agricultural products,

demand for which in the 1960s rose more slowly than did demand for industrial products. This trend was expected to continue. As prosperity increases, the the

power created does not result in consumption of coffee, tea, cocoa,

additional purchasing

much

additional

and similar products. many of the commodities grown in the less developed countries were faced with increased competition from man-made products. This was particularly true of rubber and the natural fibres, such as cotton and wool. The market for cotton produced in less despices,

Also,

Price Indexes of Primary

Commodity

Exports,

1963-70

115

110 1

nrli C f r 1

1

:i

1

r- /

ir\t r

,ac

105

100 1

acc HauAlnrtArl miiritnes

95

90

85 1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

Note: Industrial countries: North America, Western Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Africa. Less developed countries: Latin America, rest of Africa, rest of Asia, rest of Oceania. Sowrc*. United Nation*, Monlhlf Bu/tofin of SlatutKt.

some

208 Indexes of World Produellon* of Agricultural, Fishery, and Forestry Products Table

Commodities, Primary

1

959

116 116 116

Total production

Agriculture Fistieries

128 128 138 115

111

Forestry Population Per capita produ ction Agriculture Fistieries

110 105 106 105

Forestry

101

1967

963

1

1 1

107 108 116 97

1

968

142 143 170 125 1 29 110

147 147 176 127 132

"1

112 134 97

111

132 97

1969

(1970).

would encourage industries

Indexes of World Production of Certain

Row

1960

material

Coal* Crude petroleum

94

Cement

83 88 87 93 88 94

81

Pig ironf steel

(smelter)!

Zinc}§

Leadt§

102

Tinll

Aluminumt§

85 96

Natural rubber

Including

Materials

1967

103 108

105 135 129

110 113 113

equivalent

coal

1968

1969

105

108 158 144 150 148 127 145 126 122 174 136

147 138 138 137 117 133 115 129 156 125

130 129 102 119 110 122 146 119

105 108 103 98 113 108

in World Production. For the first time in combined world production of agricultural, fishery, and forest products in 1969 showed no increase, according to UN Food and Agriculture Organi-

zation

(FAO)

estimates (see Table I). This stability

compared with

a

4%

age growth of nearly cultural output

Germany, and North

The

Korea. §Excluding Czechoslovakia and Romania. pExcluding the U.S.S.R. and Eastern Europe. Source: United Nations, Monthly Bulletin of StaIhtks (November 1970).

would enable U.S. cotton

growers to meet all world needs at prices with which other world cotton producers could not compete. In addition, there were other agricultural products, such as sugar, where special pricing arrangements and trade barriers operated against the less developed countries. In fact, some observers believed that sugarproducing countries might be in a better position if the world sugar market were completely free. While prices would drop to very low levels, less developed countries of their

sales.

which

in

less

developed countries could

boost their agricultural exports would be by increasing meat production. World demand for meat was growing faster than production in the northern countries. Also,

Table

III.

Changes

in International Prices

of Selected Major Primary Wholesale price

Commodity, unit, country of origin, and market Beef (100

lb

)

U.K. (London)

Butter (100 lb.)

New

Zealand (London)

(100 lb-) Ghona (N.Y.) Coffee (100 lb.) Brazil (N.Y.) Copper (100 lb.) U.K. (London) Copra (100 lb.) Philippines (London) Cotton (100 lb.) U.A.R. (Liverpool)

Cocoa

Argentina (London) Jute (short tons) Pakiston (London) Lead (100 lb.) U.K. (London) Newsprint (short tons) Canada (Quebec) Peanuts (100 lb.) Nigeria (London) Petroleum (bbl.) Venezuela (La Cruz) Rice (100 lb.) Thailand (Bangkok) Rubber (100 lb.) Malaysia (Singapore) Sugor (100 lb.) Caribbean (N.Y. for exp.) Tea (100 lb Ceylon-lndio (N.Y.) Tin (100 lb.) Malaysia (Penang) Hides (100

lb.)

)

Tobacco (100

Wheat

(bu.)

lb.)

U.S. (U.S.)

Canada

(Ft.

William)

Wool (100 lb ) Australia (Sydney) Zinc (100 lb.) U.K. (London)

Commodities

U.S. dollar s July

1962

1967

29.19 37.50 21.00 34.30 29.23 7.28 41.84 23.84 279.00 7.00 116.70 7.75 2.80 6.93 25.56 2.93 51.70 109.70 62.20 1.82 51.10 8.43

32.74 36,60 29.07 37.93 51.10 9.28 53.24 25.26 310.00 10.28 122.40

•April 1970. 1970. Source: International Monetory Fund, Internation

tMoy

in

8.11

2.80 9.34 17.70 2.06 45,93 147.00 65.00

1968 35,42 32.14 34.40 37.48 56.09 10.42 58.66 19.53 291 .00 10.91

124.00 7,49 2,80 9.14 17.33 1.98

46.00 138.60 66.50

1.90

1.82

51.00 12,34

51.80 11 91

1969 37.04 32.14 45.59 40.27 66,54 9.23 63.20 23,74 315.00 13.14 128-20 9.38 2-80 8,30 22,81 3,45 42,60 153.40 69.33 1,76 49-60 12.69

1970 40,50 33,75 32,52 54,60 61.81 9.35

63.40 22,86 302.00 13,62 131.40 10.22 2.80* 6,31t 17.39 3.66 45.80 155.20 70.59 1,68

41.50 13.50

1968 and a 1958-68 aver-

per year.

A 2%

increase in

were

offset

by

a

2%

drop

in fishery

two

much

sectors.

however, might have been statistics. For example, the small increase in agricultural output largely reflected reduced production in the developed countries where surpluses, not shortages, were the problem. Although the 3% increase in agricultural production in the less developed countries was below that in recent years, the fastest growth, as was true in 1967 and 1968, was in the Far East ('excluding Japan and China), the region where in the past the food problem had been most serious and where governments and farmers of many countries had worked hard to boost agricultural output. The 4% increase in food production in the Far East, while below that in 1968, was actual

better than

veloped countries was almost wholly dependent upon the protection afforded by U.S. cotton acreage restric-

volume

3%

production, which in preceding years had risen faster than the other

to increase greatly the

rise in

forestry production and a very slight upturn in agri-

lignite,

tions. Lifting of those curbs

were being

in their direction

12 years,

brown coal and

of

migrants

Trends

1964

tlncluding ferroalloys. JExcluding ttie U.S.S.R., East

One way

open branch

considered in some industrialized countries.

1963 average=100

would be able

to

plants in the less developed countries in order to ar-

II.

Copper

able to abdrifting to

the developed nations in search of employment. Policies that

rest the flow of

Crude

of

industrial nations. Nevertheless, neither agricultural

become industrialized before they would be sorb some of the surplus labour that was

Ctiin a and ottier A ian ce ntrolly planned cou Source: Food ond \gricult re Or goniza tion o the United Nations, The Slate of Food ond Agricullure

Raw

had great mineral

a future in which they

nor mineral exports were likely to provide enough additional employment to permit those countries to develop into important consumers. Therefore, it appeared that the less developed countries must

147 148 173 130 134 109 110 128 97

Excluding

Table

countries

them with

might become important markets for the products

1952-56 average=100

em

1

developed

less

wealth, providing

1.

still

situation,

was indicated by the

higher than the longer-term trend.

Even more

noteworthy was the 4% increase in food-importing countries that were making determined efforts to increase their cereal output, such as Ceylon, Indonesia,

South Korea, Malaysia, and Pakistan. In the other less developed regions, agricultural production results were less favourable. Recovery of output in Latin America, which in large areas had been plagued by a drought since late 1967, was only about 2%, though there was a wide variation among countries. Output in the less developed countries of the Middle East also increased about 2%, somewhat less than the longer-term rate of growth. But in view of the instability of agricultural production in that region, too much importance should not be attached to data for a single year. However, countries in the Midsome difficulty in spreading the

dle East experienced

use of high-yielding cereal varieties. In Africa, overall food production showed little or no change, owing

impact of adverse weather on the cereal and Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. On a per capita basis, food production declined in each of the less developed regions except the Far East. Even in that region successive increases in output since the poor crops of 196S and 1966 only brought to the

olive crops of

food production per capita back

to the level of the

early 1960s. Despite the decline in per capita output, food intake per person in the less developed countries

did not necessarily

fall,

as shortages might

made up from imports and

have been

stocks. Nevertheless, the

data on production clearly indicated the stubbornness problem faced by the less developed coun-

of the food

and the importance of efforts to overcome it. Looking at the developed regions, total agricultural production in 1969 fell by between 1 and 3%, except in Western Europe where it remained at the 1968 level. This was in strong contrast with the rising tries

longer-term trend in those regions at rates ranging increase 'between 1.9 and 3.6% per year, and the I

3%

developed countries achieved in 1968. An exception to the trend in the developed countries was the 5^0 rise in South Africa. Reductions of agricultural for

I

output in the developed countries in 1969 were partly deliberate,

following

the

renewed and more wide-

spread accumulation of surplus food stocks that had

few years earlier. other primary commodities excluding agricultural, fishery, and forest products crude petroleum, pig iron, crude steel, and cement were still involved in 1969 w'ith problems of surpluses and excess started a

— —

Among

capacity, reflecting sizable increases in the output of

those items (see Table II). Similarly, except for tin,

occurred in the production of non-

sizable increases

ferrous metals.

The output

moved up markedly

of natural rubber also

as a result of increased world

needs, only a small part of which were

met from gov-

ernment stockpiles. However, synthetic rubber with somewhat lower price continued to meet the bulk of the world's new rubber requirements; it accounted for more than 75% of the total new rubber consumpits

Looking

at the principal agricultural commodities,

was estimated at $24.4 billion, 4%o above 1968. Although the 1969 level was only 1% above the earlier peak figure of 1966, the rate of increase in 1969 compared favourably with the value of world exports in 1969

the average increase of

3%

per year during the period

1961-63 to 1968, the 5% drop changed situation in 1968.

The

in 1967,

and the un-

increased value of agricultural trade in 1969

more from higher

prices than from the volwas about the same as in 1968. The only products for which there was a significant increase in volume were rubber and meat, up 22 and 4%, respectively. The upturn in prices of agricultural export products in 1969 was a reversal of the

resulted

ume

of trade, which

trend of the previous four years.

The

largest price in-

creases were recorded for sugar, meat, cocoa, wool,

and rubber.

Where export commodity

prices

fell, it

was gener-

because of ample supplies rather than declining demand. Possible exceptions were wheat and rice, where lower prices were caused by reduced import deally

mand

as well as

by

The

a rise in exportable supplies.

pressure of wheat supplies was so great that the Inter-

Arrangement could not keep prices below specified floors until late 1969. Falling prices of rice reflected a similar situation, and exports were increasingly aided by subsidies. national Grains

from

falling

World trade

in fishery

products

in

1969 featured a by both short-

substantial rise in export prices, caused

tion in the U.S. But with rising wage rates in developed countries adding to costs of producing synthetic rubber, the competitive position of natural rubber improved. Prices and Terms of Trade. Trends in primary commodity prices during recent years are shown in Table III. Although there was considerable variation

less

among

rapid. In 1969, export earnings of the less developed

in

the various products, rises exceeded declines

1969.

The

prices of beef, cocoa,

coffee,

copper,

ages in supply and improved demand. Fishery exports rose by nearly 10% in value despite a somewhat lower

volume of shipments. Showing an 11% increase

in

export value, world

trade in forest products in 1969 continued

growth. Although

still

its

dynamic

relatively less important for

developed regions, recent growth was particularly

countries of the Far East from this source rose

13%

International Coffee

developed African countries by re15%. Forest products accounted for 21 and 11 spectively, of the combined value of agricultural, fishery, and forest products from those two regions. Prices for forest products entering trade in 1969 were mostly firm, especially for chemical pulp. North American prices for sawn softwood, after rising to

well as

unprecedented high levels

hides, lead, peanuts, rubber, sugar, tin. tobacco,

zinc

showed the

and

were parand wool. hides, and wool

largest advances. Declines

ticularly noticeable for copra, tea, wheat,

In 1970, prices of cocoa, copper, lead,

weakened markedly, as did coffee late in the year. These declines reflected increasing production Harger

Agreement quotas for coffee), as economic recessions in some of the major de-

and those of the

less

''V'

in early 1969, fell

,

sharply

veloped countries.

thereafter.

The value of world exports of agricultural, fishery, and forest products combined increased by about 5%

Policies. National Policies. In NoCanada announced a new policy applicable to producing, marketing, and exporting wheat and other major grains and oilseeds. The new program

in

1969.

As

in

1968, a sizable share of the increase

was due to the continued rapid Although the expansion in agricultural and fishery products was smaller, a number of individual commodities showed large rises in value, particularly meat, cocoa, and natural rubber. As the accompanying chart shows, prices of commodity exports by less developed countries in 1969 were on a par with prices of exports from developed coun(the largest since 1964)

growth

in forest exports.

tries. In early 1970, the advantage shifted to the less developed countries, reflecting in part considerably

higher prices for copper, coffee, cattle, and oilseeds. Overall, the increase in the value of exports of

4%

agricultural products in 1969 was also largely a reflection of higher prices, since the total volume of trade

was unchanged. Although this increase was noteworthy in view of the near stagnancy in the overall value of agricultural trade in recent years, it was well below the growth in world trade in all commodities which in 1969 rose by 14%.

Commodity

vember

1970,

emphasized increased aggressiveness in finding and keeping overseas grain markets, and also stressed improving the efiiciency of grain production, storage, and selling within Canada. Under the program in effect during 1970, grain production was held down, and farmers were rewarded for taking land out of wheat or out of production entirely. The new program would reward farmers for selling grains during good export years by a scheme of income compensation effective when foreign sales were slow.. The U.S. Senate on Nov. 19, 1970, pa.ssed the Agricultural Act of 1970, signed by Pres. Richard Nixon a few days later. This new law provided price support programs for key farm commodities for three years following Dec. 31, 1970, when the 1965 Food and Agriculture Act expired. It called for a new market-oriented policy under which U.S. farmers would put more stress on seeking new markets and

209

Commodities Primary

per Corp., whose properties were already partially nationalized, and the Cerro Corp. According to President Allende, "we shall nationalize the major copper interest in accordance with Chilean law, with compensation, but

we

will

not pay exorbitant indemniza-

tions to anyone."

International Policies.

The

(ICO), meeting

ganization

International Coffee Orin

London, on Aug.

31,

(ICA)

ini-

1970, set International Coffee Agreement

overall export quotas for the 1970-71 coffee year (October-September) at 54 million bags (1 bag =

tial

132.3 lb.).

members the

AGRICULTURE

Danish bacon awaits shipment to foreign marltate, which replaced the government, and could dismiss him after consultation with the Central Committee. He would also appoint and dismiss the other members of the Council of State on the advice of its

vice-president.

No

national

assembly was pro-

The

from elsewhere. At the same time,

confirmation of the

moon

th(|

as a sterile satellite, devoir

of both air and water and utterly unable to supporl

brought home the continuing need to conservf water, air, plants, and animal life oii our own globe to prevent their deterioration to a similar state life,

soil,

of lifelessness.

People began to pay more attention to the risk thai land, and sea could all become so seriously polluted, through growing human chemical activity, that the pace of life might slacken. The consumption ol air,

—

—had

The single party was headed by a Central Committee of 41 members and an 8-man Political

fossil

Bureau.

over industrial districts and great cities packed with automobiles. Once this happened globally, the forests and farmlands would gain new values, beyond their production of timber and food. Only the green leaf

vided

for.

These profound changes proved insufficient to reand announcements of attempted coups and political trials followed in rapid succession. In March President Ngouabi announced the crushing of a coup planned by elements in the Army: three military men were executed, including a chief adstore stability,

jutant of the gendarmerie. Subsequently, the National Gendarmerie was replaced by a People's Militia. In

August the National People's Army chief of staff was suspended, shortly before Ngouabi announced that he had thwarted a further plot. In September, for

fuel

coal, natural gas,

and

oil

alread>

raised the proportion of carbon dioxide gas in the

aii

of the growing plant can lower this carbon dioxide content

on any worthwhile

ment and all

scale,

by

fixing the

carbon

ele-

man and

releasing the vital oxygen gas that

animals must breathe. Though the world's oceans still treated as convenient dumping grounds for

were

every sort of discarded

oil,

gerous radioactive waste,

noxious chemical, or dan-

it

was increasingly

realized

that there were limits to the pollution that they could

No nation could opt out of the harmful consequences of poisoned seas that might, for example, cease to support fish. Significantly, the U.S. celebrated an Earth Day on April 22, 1970, when, with the sup-, port of Pres. Richard Nixon, demonstrations were^ held on a nationwide scale to remind people of the.' neutralize.

CONGO, PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF THE Education. (1967-68) Primary, pupils 207,593, teach3,474; secondary, pupils 18,243, teachers 597; vocational, pupils 2,437, teachers 281; teacher training (1966-67), students 408, teachers 30; higher, students 1,1 10, teaching staff 83. Finance. Monetary unit: CPA franc, with a parity of CF.^ Fr. 50 to the French franc (CFA Fr, 2 77.7 1 £1 sterling). Budget U.S. $1; CFA Fr. 666.50 (1970 est.) balanced at CFA Fr. 18.1 billion. Foreign Trade. (1968) Imports CFA Fr. 24.060,000,000; exports CFA Fr. 12,190,000,000. Import sources: France 58%; West Germany 10%; U.S. 57oExport destinations: West Germany 25%; Netherlands

ers

=

=

19%; Belgium-Luxembourg 14%; France 12%; Israel South Africa 6%. Main exports: timber 51%;

6%;

diamonds 31 %. Transport and Communications. Roads (1966) 10,842 km, (including 243 km. with improved surface). Motor vehicles in use (1968): passenger 7,235; commercial 5,585. Railways: (1968) 785 km,; traffic (1969) 143 million passenger-km,, freight 488 million traffic (1968): 61,229.000 passengerkm,; freight 5,289,000 net ton-km. Telephones (Dec. 1968) 9,287, Radio receivers (Dec, 1968) 62,000, Television receivers (Dec, 1968) 500, Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968; 1967 in parentheses); cassava 400 (400); coffee 1,8 (1.9); peanuts 17 (17); palm kernels (exports; 1967) 2.8, (1966) 4; palm oil (1967) 5.6, (1966) 6.8. Livestock (in 000; 1968-69): sheep c. 34; cattle

net ton-km. Air

(1966-67) 28; pigs

17.

perils of polluted air, water,

Murray

and land.

Mitchell, a U.S. government scientist, cal-

culated that increasing carbon dioxide in the air could

eventually lead to a warming up of the world's atmosphere, followed

by the melting of polar

higher ocean levels, and coastal flooding.

On

ice

caps,

the other

hand, conservationists could increase carbon dioxide

on substantial and sterile. The Council on Environmental Quality, created by the U.S. National Environmental Policy Act, in its first report to Congress, in August 1970, said that, in fixation rates

by

raising irrigated crops

sunlit areas hitherto arid

addition to

its

threat to

human

life,

the total costs of

United States amount to many billions of dollars a year. "Acute episodes of [air] pollution in London, New York and other cities have been marked by dramatic increases in death and illness rates, especially among the elderly and those with air pollution in the

preexisting respiratory or cardiac conditions," the re-

port said.

*

At the end of July a devastating outbreak of smog New York City. A heat wave, combined with

rippled

succession of windless days, trapped

I

stale

from reactions between and the combustion of gasoline and lir, moisture, leavier hydrocarbon oils hung over buildings like a dark blanket. At the same time, the failure of a major crippled air-conditioning ilectric power generator plants, making it impossible for people to improve the

Smoky

naUy.

j

fumes and

they were unable to rise and spread nor-

jr so that

particles arising

would be needed, and the conference urged the Council of Europe to convene a European ministerial conference with the following international organizations

tasks to review and promote coordination of the programs of the existing intergovernmental organizations :

to instruct these organizations to secure

haust systems, and aircraft engines; and to promote the harmonization of national legislation relating to

More

ambitiously, the proposed con-

murky

the environment.

ference would probably be asked to examine the pos-

Italy.

sibility of setting up a "political authority at European level" to guide the management of the continent's natural environment, bringing in countries not in membership with the Council of Europe; and also to study the proposal for a European fund to combat

By

contrast,

of stringent

London began

to reap the benefits

"clean air" legislation, and plans were ad-

vanced to convert the

Thames from

its

old status of

an "open sewer" to a clear inland lagoon, protected

pollution.

Many

from the sea by a tidal barrage.

The Alaskan

oil

strikes resulted in fears of a con-

North .America. This had political implications since the region is shared between Canada and the U.S. Queen Elizabeth II, during her visit to Yellowknife, N.W.T., in July, echoed world opinion when she said: "In this North-West Territory, vast tracts of land and water are still unspoiled. This places a particularly heavy responsibility upon the authorities to plan and manage its development, not servation crisis in Arctic

'

as, for

example, the manufacture of pesticides, vehicle ex-

the

air within their dwellings. Similar fouling of atmosphere, together with pollution of coastal waters, was reported from Tokyo, West Germany, and the Milan-Turin-Genoa industrial triangle of northern

j

agreed-upon

standards for European industry in such areas

believed that the Council of Europe should

also be charged to

draw up a protocol

to its

Human

Rights Convention "guaranteeing the right of every individual to enjoy a healthy and unspoiled environair and water, freedom from undue noise and other nuisances," and reasonable access to coast and countr>'side. At the national level the conference urged all governments to declare publicly during 1970 their policy

ment, including clean

Canada, but as a vital part in the balance of nature throughout the world." Meanwhile, oil companies and conservationists formed two opposing camps whose interests appeared irreconcilable. Transport of oil south called for a major pipeline, serviced by an all-weather road system. The alternative outlet by huge tankers cruising through the Northwest Passage posed the hazard that any mis-

aims for the environment. Besides the necessary planning legislation, these were expected to include the training of adequate staff both to enforce and advise; and practical steps to reclaim and reuse derelict land, particularly for recreation and wildlife. The conference recommended that unspoiled areas of all types, including the solitudes vulnerable even to small developments, be safecuarded immediately. Land and Forests. The United Nations Food and

hap could release

Agriculture Organization

only for the benefit of

crude

oil

at

zero

temperatures,

would never disintegrate through biochemical action but would foul the seas for all time. On land the main difficulty was the permafrost, a layer of frozen earth just below the surface that remains rockhard the whole year round if left "undisturbed. Engiwhere

it

neering operations could so disturb the critical balance of heat gain this

and

loss that

hard roads, blasted through

frozen earth, would deteriorate into quagmires.

(See Special Report.)

European Conservation Year, sponsored by the

met

to consider amelio-

measures in one of the world's most densely populated and technically developed regions. rative

Starting

from the basis that "Nature is the proand amenities for man's material physical and mental well-being, and spir-

vider of resources

prosperity, itual

life,"

the conference suggested that these re-

must be used rationally and with proper planning "because of growing populations and technical progress," This demanded a scientific ecological approach, with the aim of maintaining as much disources

versity as possible, the stability of the

because diversity helps to ensure environment and enhance its qual-

The application of these principles to the highly Europe involved not only planning of the natural environment but also elimination or, where possible, reutilization of modern society's by-products and waste, and control of the ity.

industrialized countries of

use of

poisonous substances.

To put ing,

reassessed the forest

gion holds one-quarter of the world's natural forest,

with three times the world's average area of forest per inhabitant. Yet it was a net importer of forest produce, paying a bill of $200 million a year. Virtually all

the region's 2.2 billion ac. of forest are of broad-

leaved trees, whose hardwood timbers enjoyed only

Council of Europe, opened with a conference at Strasbourg, France, in February 1970, Seventeen member nations, with ten observers,

(FAO)

America at a Regional Consultation on the Development of Forest, Pulp and Paper Industries, held in Mexico City during May. The re-

potential of Latin

these principles into effect, the strengthen-

development, and better coordination of existing

limited demand.

By

contrast, the 50 million ac. of

native conifers, including pines in Mexico, Guatemala,

Honduras, and Nicaragua and the Araucarias of Brazil, Chile, and Argentina, had been overcut and reserves were fast becoming depleted. A tremendous expansion of conifer plantations was urgently needed to supply the growing paper, packaging, and timber industries, expected to double their intake of wood during the next ten years. Fast-growing pines from the southern United States and selected Eucalyptus species from Australia were leading candidates for extensive planting by many governments. Wilhelm Knabe, a West German scientist engaged in fume-damage and soil-fertility protection research in the province of North Rhine-Westphalia, listed contrasting types of man-made ground offered to conservationists for the establishment of

man-made

for-

Sometimes surface soil had simply been scraped off, leaving infertile compacted subsoil lacking humus, mineral nutrients, drainage, and aeration. Alternatively, waste from mining and quarrying was just dumped to form slag heaps, often with high conical forms that increased wind exposure. Other industrial waste minerals had been disintegrated by severe ests.

217

Conservation

SYEUS MOTTEL FROM NANCY PALMER AGENCY

POPPERFOTO FROM PICTORIAL PARADI

Top,

New York

air by

of the

City's Pageant Players dramatize the problem of polluted wearing gas masks to an ecology rally in April. Left, cover September 20 issue of the weekly magazine "Shonen Sunday"

features a "polluted

man"

to illustrate the effects of a deteriorating

environment on the inhabitants of Japan, Above, "Fritillaria meleagris," which grows only in certain riverside pastures along the upper Thames River, faces extinction because of the inroads of man. Opposite, a militant ecology group protests plans by the Pacific Gas and Electric Co. to run power lines through a park near Oakland, Calif.

KEYSTONE

echanical treatment or :tions

by

fire,

had undergone chemical reextreme cases the

acids, or alkalies; in

was a waste synthetic substance, nature. Dredged sand and silt from water-

Ackermann

of the Illinois State

its

simple physical quantity. For example, accidental pol-

nknown

lution

in

seabed might also be presented as a suitole medium for afforestation, though heavily polited by salt. Domestic waste, built up into rubbish iles, might include industrial by-products of high Dxicity, and could vary markedly with place and time, 'o reclaim such sites, the forester must have full inormation on the origins of

all

made" ground, and be ready cultivation,

Irainage,

normal

vith

components of the to

fertilization,

ameliorate or

it

by

covering-over

soil.

In April the U.S. government suspended the use of he leading herbicide 2,4,S-T, previously regarded chemists as a major tool for the economic control unwanted woody growth. This trichlorophenol com30und was in general use throughout the world as a selective weed kOler helpful to forestry and agriculture, and had also been extensively employed as a defoliant by U.S. forces operating in Vietnam. Aerial spraying there was followed by deaths among both )y

)f

and domestic animals, and a suspected inamong babies born to Vietnamese mothers. Experts believed that the harmful side effects arose from impurities in 2,4,5-T, but counseled

wildlife

crease in deformities

the substitution of safer, if less efficient,

chemical weed

project to

perature at the point of discharge. In July the U.S.

government sued eight industrial firms on charges of dumping mercury into lakes and rivers, while in August the Chevron Oil Co. was fined $1 million by the government for allowing an oil spill from an offshore well to pollute the Gulf of Mexico. In December, President Nixon ordered implementation of a section

announced a $2 million development increase rice production on the coastal low-

lands of Guinea.

li;tle

would require institutional and management changes, would possibly bring some changes in the products people consume, and would lead to higher prices for some products. In May the U.S. Federal Water Quality Administration announced a policy to control thermal pollution in Lake Michigan by forbidding the discharge into the lake of any water more than one degree Fahrenheit warmer than the lake water tem-

FAO

The

fall,

had to be reported promptly to users downstream even though several days might elapse before slow river flow brought polluted water to their intakes, so that alternative supplies might be organized. The water pollution problem existed in all parts of the U.S., particularly in the Northeast and in the Great Lakes region, according to a report of the U.S. Council on Environmental Quality. A national effort to reduce water pollution was imperative, the council said, and it maintained that such an effort

of an 1899 law requiring industrial plants discharging

killers.

continued on page 223

This region of high (100-in.) rain-

with a good temperature regime, had been of use because it is subject to seasonal floods from

delta rivers inland,

and

to the incursion of salt

water

from the sea. Hurza Engineering Co. of Chicago tackthe

d

nally

engineering

dry

fields,

problems of establishing sea-

free of salt.

FAO

plant breeders

modern high-yielding strains of rice, some lich had already proved their worth in the

iliplied ri-

stressed

ibstratum itself Durses or the

It

Water Survey

the need for forecasts of water quality as well as

'

rhilippines.

The government of Somalia published proposals for and conservation of the country's few Mirviving forests. Regions described by 19th-century avelers as open parkland teeming with elephants, itelopes, and wild asses had deteriorated into semi-ert. Increasing population had led to the felling trees for firewood or building timber, and the cutting of their foliage to provide fodder for sheep and L'oats. Overgrazing and fires lit to improve rough pastures had completed the wreck of the old savanna woodlands. The remedy proposed was the creation of nature reserves for picturesque semidesert trees and plants and outstanding animals to attract tourists and so boost Somalia's revenue. Other Arab states to the the protection

I

north also felt the need to conserve their semidesert regions.

Water. Recent developments in the assessment and water resources were outlined in papers presented to a symposium at Washington, D.C.. in control of

February, to celebrate the centennial of U.S. national weather services and the golden anniversary of the

American Meteorological Society. The emphasis was on "nowcasting," implying the immediate evaluation of any weather situation by computerized techniques rather than forecasting by slower methods. Max A. Kohler of Silver Spring, Md., described a new means of gauging the depth of snowfall by monitoring natural gamma radiation from the soil; this could be detected by both hand-held and airborne sensors. William C.

RALPH CRANE, "LIFE" MAGAZINE

SPECIAL REPORT

the state budget for the 1969-70 fiscal year. ture celebrated in 1970

budget

ALASKAN DILEMMA

as

—double the previous

much

as

The

state legisia

by passing a $314 million general year's authorized expenditures

$100 million above the

funt

am

state's anticipated incomr

from normal revenues. Despite

preoccupation with economics, however, the Alaski demonstrated a dawning awareness of the ecd logical problems presented by the prospect of oil development It established an Environmental Quality Control Commission with authority to veto projects (subject to the governor's con' currence) that it determined would significantly alter the en' vironment without some offsetting benefit to society; establishes a Pesticide Control Board; amended the Water Quality Contro Act to remove a water pollution exemption for placer mining its

legislature also

By Thomas M. Brown

In

the bitterly cold February of 1968, a drilling rig operating under contract to Atlantic Richfield Co. struck oil more than 8,000 ft. below the tundra of Alaska's remote northern rim, at an inhospitable place called Prudhoe Bay. The discovery was quickly proved to be the biggest ever in North America, with reserves that in 1970 were estimated at 12,000,000,000-15,000,000,000 bbl. of recoverable oil. It confronted the sprawling, sparsely peopled (population 302,173) 49th state with two possibilities: on the one hand, great wealth much needed by a poor

on the other, the destruction of the wilderness environmakes Alaska unique. In short, two valuable resources oil and wilderness were placed in direct conflict. That conflict had not eased in the succeeding three years. Indeed, as of 1970 a satisfactory resolution was not in sight. Oil development continued but not at the pace oil industry and state officials would like. A start on the controversial 800-mi. trans-Alaska pipeline had been delayed repeatedly. Conservation groups maintained their unrelenting pressure, but the environmental controls were not as strict as they would like. Even the most sincere attempts by industry at development without despoliation often ran afoul of the unusual conditions of the Arctic, and the degradation of the landscape state;

ment

that

—

—

—

and established three state parks totaling one million acres A bill banning oil lease sales and drilling in Bristol Bay 0$ Alaska's west coast was vetoed by Gov. Keith H. Miller. There appeared to be a growing awareness among Alaskan; generally that their desire to improve living standards througl exploitation of oil was frequently in direct conflict with the re: quirements of prudent conservation. That message was beinfj driven home by conservation groups throughout the countrj^ Wilderness true, unpopulated, untrammeled wilderness is fas vanishing from the earth. The last big piece of it in the United and much of Alaska's remaining true wilder; States is Alaska ness lies on the North Slope and in the magnificent, but little'ii known, Brooks Range south of the oil development area. Con' servationists have set a high priority on preserving as much o it as possible, and the bulletin of one influential conservation =

—

—

—

organization, the Sierra Club, has predicted that Alaska wil

become "the conservation battleground of the century." And there is more at stake than protection of the Nortl Slope alone, for the manner in which the North Slope is da veloped will set a critical precedent. About half of Alaska'' land mass and the vast offshore acreage are underlain witl

continued.

geologic formations that the

Bonanza. There was tremendous pressure for rapid development of the Prudhoe Bay oil fields: the industry was anxious

It

to retrieve its $2 billion

investment in the area, known as the

North Slope, and to reap the potentially great profits that would follow, and the state government urgently needed the money. Other dividends would include a favourable effect on the national economy and alleviation of the nation's dependence on the unstable Middle East for much of its crude oil. Many

—

Alaskans favoured rapid exploitation of the fields even at the expense of the environment because of the economic effect it would have on the state. Alaska receives a royalty of 12-|% on every barrel of oil produced and exacts a severance tax of between 3 and 8% per barrel, depending on well productivity. The state's share in the bonanza has been estimated at $4 billion-$6 billion over the lS-30-year life of the field. Alaska has an abundance of problems to spend it on. Since

—

becoming a

state in 1959, Alaska has lived a largely hand-to-

way of a domestic economy, (up to 85% above the U.S. average) because of its remoteness and harsh climate, and historically has been dependent on the federal government for six of every ten dollars spent within its borders. There has never mouth

existence. It has little in the

suffers

from a high cost of

living

been enough money to deal with the appalling poverty in rural areas, which particularly afflicts the state's first residents, the Indians, Eskimos, and Aleuts who constitute about 20% of the population. Education, though generously supported within the context of the funds available, has lagged. Social services are mediocre. Even the most elementary facilities sewers, pure drinking water, hospitals, and roads

—are

—

more often than not

lacking. first taste of what oil might eventually September 1969, when they sold ten-year leases on 450,000 ac. of North Slope land at an average price of about $2,000 an acre a windfall of $900 million, or almost six times

Alaskans got their

mean

in

—

220

•

is

oil

industry considers promising

reasonable to expect that some will be productive

—am

)me are of significantly greater importance to the quality of Alaska than the North Slope. Bristol Bay and the Gulf f Alaska, with their rich fisheries, are two examples. The way le North Slope oil fields are developed could have a decisive fe in

on how

ifluence

oil

discoveries in the rest of the state are

lanaged.

The Fragile Arctic. The North Slope runs north from the Range to the Beaufort Sea, a distance hat varies from roughly 40 to ISO mi. Near the foothUls it a rolling plateau, gouged by streams and rivers, fairly well Irained and quite dry in the summer. Along the ocean the piny peaks of the Brooks

J

tapers into a broad, utterly flat plain that

)lateau

poorly

is

and pocked by thousands of lakes. It is in the plain area hat oil was found. Winter descends on the North Slope in October and soon the

Irained

white in the wan twilight, with patches of black lake showing where the cold winds scour off the snow. For 2\ nonths the sun never edges above the horizon. The plain is monotonously flat, with no landmarks in the conventional sense: 10 trees, no bushes, no hills, no rise in the land of more than 1 couple of feet for as far as the eye can see, scarcely any )lain is

ce

snowdrifts, for there cold,

sometimes —65° F,

snow

drives the

snow to drift against. It is and when the wind blows hard and

little

is

for

in stinging pellets, a

man

can barely

make

out

THE "NEW YORK TIMES"

Sections of pipe lie piled in readiness north of Fairbanks, Alaska, pending government approval for an 800-mi. oil pipeline extending from the Arctic coast to Valdez. Conservationists fear the pipeline will cause irreparable damage to the environment.

his fingertips.

The Brooks Range

the south, a jumble of forbidding and stunning beauty. Fewer than 200

lies to

peaks of great variety

persons inhabit this formidable expanse, the largest virgin wilder-

—and perhaps

the world. Yet even in dozen species of birds remain. Hundreds of thousands of caribou inhabit the north and south slopes. Wolves persist, as do Dall sheep in the high crags and polar bears on the coast. There is no spring in the usual sense and summer comes suddenly late in May. Light returns, and the ice in the rivers goes out in a cacophony that can be heard for 20 mi. The caribou, most of which have spent the winter on the more temperate southern slopes of the Brooks Range, move back through the mountains to the North Slope. The ice melts on the slope lakes in June, the top few inches of tundra melt, and billions of mosquitoes appear. The permafrost beneath keeps the surface water from sinking in. The ground is wet and spongy and travel ness in the this

for

United States

frozen wilderness life exists.

man

A

is difficult.

The oilmen who have worked bite is a

in this wilderness,

constant hazard in winter and snow can

where fall

frost-

in July,

frequently scoff at the environmentalists' contention that the Arctic ecology

Vet

is

fragile.

They opt

for the adjective "hostile."

precisely because

it is so extreme that the Arctic is man's intrusions. Because it receives so little sunlight, the Arctic is very poor in plant life. There are about 435 plant species in the Alaskan Arctic a fraction of the number found in the great forests of the temperate and it

is

peculiarly vulnerable to

—

tropic zones. This, in turn,

means

that there

is

relatively

lit-

energy available in the form of food for plant-eating animals, and for the meat-eating animals that feed on the plant eaters. tle

Thus the food chains, through which the sun's energy is transfrom plants to animals, are short. The resulting food web, composed of the various food chains, is simple. Plant growth is slow. Animal populations per acre are sparse, since each animal ferred

requires a large area for sustenance.

The strength plexity.

A

of an ecosystem

tropical rain forest

is

is

com-

directly related to its

a complex ecosystem and there-

tough one. The Arctic has one of the simplest ecosystems, and hence one of the most fragile. Relatively slight disturbances can have significant effects. fore a

low level of solar radiation ensures permafrost, which is the cause of almost every major engineering problem in the Arctic. Permafrost, as defined by the U.S. Geological Survey, is "rock or soil material that Finally, the comparatively

the existence of

.

has remained

below

.

.

degrees C. (32 degrees F.) continuously

for two or

more

years." It can be any kind of frozen subsurface

and solid rock, and some of it remains stable when thawed, presenting no particular engineering problems. But much permafrost is of the so-called "ice-rich" material, including gravel

variety

—usually

silty

soil

with a high frozen-water content.

Such permafrost underlies much of the North Slope and many areas along the proposed route of the pipeline that the Alyeska Pipeline Ser\'ice Co. (formerly the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System [TAPS]) wants to build. On the North Slope the vegetative cover of the tundra insulates the ground, and normally only a foot or so of surface soil thaws during the summer. The permafrost beneath remains frozen solid. But disturbing the mat of soil and vegetation exposes the permafrost to warm summer air and sunlight and can quickly cause trouble, for,

when thawed,

ice-rich

permafrost

becomes an unstable slurry of watery, oozing mud. The Geological Survey has found that "the simple passage of a tracked vehicle that destroys the vegetation mat is enough ... to cause the top of the permafrost layer to thaw. This thawing can cause settlement of the surface of the ground, drainage

differential

problems, and severe frost action. Once the equilibrium is upset, the whole process can feed on itself and be practically impossible to reverse."

The Invasion by Man. The vulnerability of this environment was demonstrated during World War II, when the federal government dispatched crews to explore the 23 million-ac. Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 4 (NPR 4), located roughly between Prudhoe Bay and Barrow. A base was built inland at Umiat and the Arctic was invaded, for the first time, by heavy tracked vehicles. The crews left trash and garbage and countless miles of bulldozer trails all across NPR 4. Unsightly junk heaps still stand at Umiat. The bulldozer trails exposed the permafrost and eroded into gullies, draining lakes and changing the character of surrounding areas. Thousands of oil drums left floating in the shallow lakes are only now rusting through, polluting the lakes and, on occasion, killing birds.

More refuse was left during the construction of Distant Early Warning Line radar stations in the 19SOs, and some of the federal government's mistakes were repeated by the state of Alaska in the winter of 1968-69 when Highway Department crews built a winter road to help supply the oil fields. Development of the North Slope oil fields by private enterprise poses the same kind of threat on a much larger scale. Compared with the federal and state governments, the performance of the oil industry has been good. Still, there has been unnecessary damage, 221

more temper-

and the project was not only the biggest ever but also one o the most controversial. It had become, for many persons, sym

worst environmental abuses occurred before strike, when geophysical exploration crews, working under contract to the oil companies, were roaming the Arctic searching for promising subsurface geologic structures. They sometimes traveled across the tundra in tracked vehicles in the summer months, damaging the fragile vegetative mat and leaving a web of trails over hundreds of miles. They frequently

bolic of the entire question of conservation versus development

and even techniques that would leave ate regions cause

Some

harm

little

trace in

here.

the

of

Bay

the Prudhoe

up winter camps on frozen lakes, drained oil from machines ice, and left oil drums and heaps of garbage to bob on the lakes in the summer. They also did seismic surveying, a technique that involves planting widely spaced dynamite charges below the surface of the ground, detonating them simultaneously, and recording the resulting underground shock waves. In some instances, the vegetative cover of the tundra was removed in set

onto the

a straight line for ten miles to allow strings of charges to be set, and these trails have eroded into water-filled ditches several

Sometimes the wire used to detonate the charges was on the tundra, where it became a trap for unwary

feet deep. left lying

A

caribou. his

bulldozer operator for one geophysical firm carved

company's

high.

The

by other

initials into the

Atlantic Richfield

tundra in letters a hundred feet

(ARCO)

discovery triggered a race

leaseholders to explore their holdings, and soon dozens

of geophysical teams were roaming the slope, shooting their trail of powder boxes, detonating and polluted lakes. At the same time, the major oil companies themselves were beginning to learn some hard but valuable lessons about Arctic engineering. What was more, with conservation organizations throughout the U.S. taking an active interest in the North Slope, the companies soon realized that unusual concern for the environment would have to be demonstrated if they were to be allowed to develop their discovery. Led by ARCO and British Petroleum (BP), they began instituting development practices that were by far the most sophisticated and least harmful environmentally of any ever employed on a mass scale in the American Arctic. Instead of haphazard bulldozer trails, the oil companies began

seismic charges and leaving a wire, oil drums, garbage,

—

—

constructing $200,000-a-mile all-weather gravel roads,

made

five

underlying permafrost. Instead of merely scraping the frozen tundra smooth for a winter runway, they built airfields 5,000 ft. long, 150 ft. wide, and 5 ft. thick. feet

thick to insulate

the

Drilling rigs were put on gravel pads so they could be operated

summer without thawing

in the

lecting the refuse posal.

ARCO

from

the permafrost.

its drilling sites

oil

began

col-

sent cleanup crews out to collect refuse. Pressure

was put on the geophysical crews

The

BP

at one location for dis-

companies agreed not

to clean

up

after themselves.

to dispatch tracked vehicles across

the tundra before freeze-up in the

fall or after breakup in the began transporting drilling rigs from one site to another by helicopter. It would be hard to find a cleaner industrial site anywhere than ARCO's Prudhoe Bay camp. Yet even these exemplary practices were not without their environmental drawbacks. Conservationists wondered whether the network of roads, airfields, and drilling pads might not prove to be a monument as enduring and not nearly as attractive as the Pyramids. They also were concerned that the removal of millions of cubic yards of gravel from rivers might damage them irreparably. Pipelines and Tankers. Disturbed as they were about some of the things happening on the North Slope, there was little the conservationists could do except complain. There were no apparent legal soft spots. So they concentrated on the transAlaska pipeline that the Alyeska Pipeline Service Co. wanted

spring,

and

ARCO

—

—

And its

the conservationists

announced

in

early

1969,

the

800-mi.,

48-in.-

diameter pipeline, with an estimated cost of $900 million, was described as the most expensive privately financed construction project in history. 222

By

late

1970 the estimated cost had doubled

a chance to influence the

way

it

w

The pipeline project worried the environmental protectiol groups on a number of counts. The oil industry insisted tha it could bury 95% of the pipeline, thereby preventing it froa becoming an eyesore and a barrier to caribou migrations. Tht' conservationists were skeptical about the practicality of buryii]| a huge pipeline, carrying oil at a temperature of about 160° M

What would happen when the permafrost meltedl Furthermore, the pipeline would contain some 200,000 gal. oi oil per mile, and a major break could deluge the surroundin' countryside. They were also skeptical of the pipeline proponents argument that TAPS was requesting a right-of-way only 100 ftv wide by 800 mi. long, or about IS sq.mi. not much in a state

in permafrost.

—

that

embraced 586,000

sq.mi. of real estate.

The

conservationists'

maintained that a much larger area would be affected: an access, road would have to be constructed, and an enormous amount oti gravel would have to be dug from pits along the way to ben used during construction. The Interior Department was also concerned with these ques-^ tions, and it was insisting on satisfactory answers before is-' suing a pipeline construction permit. In late 1970, then Secre-^ tary Walter J. Hickel said that as far as his department wasj concerned, the most important unanswered questions were how* the pipeline would be constructed in permafrost areas and itsJ final design specifications. Hickel was believed to have been^ nearing an agreement on the pipeline when he was fired by PresJ Richard Nixon. 4 Despite its drawbacks, the pipeline might well be the lessen of two evils. The most commonly discussed alternative involved^ i

giant icebreaking tankers like the

SS "Manhattan" or extraorwould cross the North-

dinarily expensive submarine tankers that

west Passage across the top of Alaska to east coast markets. J The Humble Oil and Refining Co. spent about $40 million converting the 115,000-ton "Manhattan" into a 1,005-ft. icebreaker, and the "Manhattan" successfully transited the passage in the; summer of 1969 (though she returned home with a hole in her hull described as "big enough to drive a truck through"). Humble engineers concluded that it would be technically possible to build tankers that could withstand the rigours of the passage, where ice pressure ridges 100 ft. thick are encountered. The question was whether the ships, which naturally would be much more expensive than their conventional counterparts, could carry oil at a competitive price. Nonetheless, the tanker method apparently was gaining favour as costs of the proposed pipeline skyrocketed. Submarine tankers, proposed by General Dynamics, would cost far more than icebreakers, but presumably would be both safer and faster. In questioning the advisability of Arctic tanker operations, conservationists cited studies demonstrating the slow decomposition of oil in cold water, which meant that a spill would be more persistent than in warmer waters. Almost certainly, such a spill would have disastrous effects on the Arctic marine food

tji

Nor were

and Arctic tanker operations the Other potential trouble spots were tanker operations off Valdez, which has an ecologically delicate estuary important for its commercial fish runs and its population of sea otters, and possible offshore drilling operations, especially in the important Bristol Bay and Gulf of Alaska chain.

only threats that

the pipeline oil

posed

to Alaska.

areas.

In short, first

had

built.

to build.

When

since most of the pipeline route lay over federal land am construction required approval of the secretary of the interit^

is

it

had become

clear that

no matter how much care

exercised in developing the Arctic, the face of the land will

will be some environmental damage. The was how much damage was acceptable. There was no consensus on that.

be changed and there crucial question

219

linued from page

I

J ste

pumping

waterways to obtain permits. Hte Army Corps of Engineers was to be responsible issuing the permits upon recommendation of the Hivironmental Protection Agency. ' On the global scale, Roger Revelle of Harvard Uni-

X

11,

10^ ac.

The

•aporation

during that part of the year

hen temperatures are above freezing. The actual culvated area was only one-fifth of the theoretical pontial.

Nevertheless,

DO million ac,

jnted a

was

10%

all

man-made extension

of such a diversion on world climate. Fresh water

from those seas and,

and repre-

hitherto

into

sterile

estimated that this irrigated

would be doubled during the next ten years. "Managing Forested Water-

In a pamphlet entitled

heds," the Forest Service of the U.S. igriculture, besides restating

Irew attention

to

Department of

well-known principles,

phreatophytes, or "well plants."

low economic value, vhich form dense thickets along floodplains and river )anks in the southwestern U.S., tapping the groundvater and transpiring it rapidly. Their replacement jy shallow-rooted grasses provides pasture and lessens he drain on water supplies. In South Africa, S. P. Botha, minister of water iffairs and forestry, announced legislation to protect river sources by control of catchment areas under both private and public ownership. Unplanned uses of watersheds had been followed by soil erosion, leading in turn to the sludging up of dams downstream that were vital for both water storage and power supply. Correct treatment of catchments, whether by afforestation or thick bush covers to ensure silt-free outflows, was vital to South Africa's water-saving and hydroelectric power programs. Throughout April an exceptional series of avalanches demonstrated the need to conserve the Alpine environment shared by France, Switzerland, Austria, and Italy. The worst of these disasters demolished a boys' sanatorium at Plateau d'Assy, in the French Alps, killing 72 persons. The basic cause was held to be an exceptionally heavy winter snowfall, up to 20 ft. deep on the upper slopes, which brought about infability as soon as spring thaws began, followed by

ice cap.

slopes

above

their villages included daily

monitoring

—

and the use of explosives including bombs dropped by aircraft to trigger off dangerous slides at known and foreseen times. In England the Thames Conservancy, a public authority that controls the country's largest watershed of

snowfall

—

if its

On

the other hand, less water

would reach the

world's "free seas" because both the Caspian and the

Aral seas are completely landlocked.

In Australia a noteworthy development was the major construction work in a completely new

"hese are deep-rooted plants of

Imdslides at situations previously considered safe. Defenses mustered by the Swiss against the everpresent threat of the "white death" descending from

rivers raises the freezing point of the Arctic

supply were diminished, the polar ice cap might shrink. This could, in theory, release vast quantities of water from cold storage for free circulation and profoundly affect weather patterns across Europe, Asia, and North America. World sea levels might conceivably rise through the shrinkage of the

cultivated land, or

artificially irrigated

.imatic zones. Revelle

rea

of

situations

water could thus be used to irrigate the steppes, in a warm climate, rather than the sterile tundra. The potential benefits to food production were immense. Meteorologists speculated about the long-term effects

limiting circumstances are that rain-

by the soil, must exceed loss through and transpiration (loss of moisture

plus storage

irough plant leaves)

many

—

—

land surface was capable, for hydrological reaof supporting crops, the actual figure being

ns, )

basic idea of using existing

where similar physical conditions occur. The government of the Soviet Union announced its intention of diverting three major north-flowing rivers feeding the Arctic Ocean the Pechora, the Ob, and the Yenisei southward through a series of giant canals to the landlocked Caspian and Aral seas. This

only one-third of the earth's

rsity calculated that

The

or "fossil" water, could be applied in

Hr

tal

stations.

underground storage, currently occupied by "dead"

into navigable

start of

region for irrigation and river control. The Ord River, which flows north from the Kimberley Plateau in Western Australia to the Timor Sea, taps a region

with a reasonable rainfall in the southern

summer

around January, followed by many arid months. After pilot trials with a small dam and demonstration farm, the new Ord River Dam was planned. It was to rise 220 ft. above the existing riverbed at a narrow gorge, and hold back a lake covering 286 sq.mi. and containing 4.6 million ac-ft. of water.

of

1

million ac-ft.

would

The annual

yield

irrigate 178,000 ac. of black-

soil country, two-thirds being in Western Australia and the remaining one-third in the Northern Territory. Cotton and sorghum would be the main crops grown, and beef cattle would be fattened. There would

also be a substantial yield of hydroelectric power,

though part of this would have to be used to pump the water up to the more fertile areas. In southeast Europe the Bulgarian Academy of Agricultural Sciences announced a long-term program to

some of

raise the country's irrigated area to 8.5 million

equivalent to

70%

ac,

of the total arable acreage. In the

more water was to be drawn from the Danube, along the frontier with Romania, but all this water north,

had to be pumped up to the higher levels that existed on the Bulgarian side. About 100 mi. to the south, gravitational flow was feasible in the basin of the Maritsa River, and a great South Bulgarian Canal was being excavated to run east for 190 mi. from Pazardzhik to Karnobat. Fed by winter rains from surrounding mountain ranges, this canal would have a flow capacity of 2,000 cu.ft. per sec, and water would be led

off at eight

separate points to irrigate a total

and supplies London with two-thirds of its needs, announced a $20 million project to increase underground

area of 1.250.000

water storage by an entirely

countries attended the tenth General Assembly of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and

new method. The upper

Thames

flows over porous chalk rock beds that are normally saturated. If these are pumped partially dry

during a hot

summer, they

will

fill

up again during

the wet, cold winter that follows. A series of 100 deep boreholes that were being dug would increase avail-

able supplies itself

by 100 million

would carry

without

the

this flow

expense

of

gal. a day.

The Thames

downstream

new

to

reservoirs,

London, pipes,

or

Wildlife.

ac In November 1969

(H. L. En.) representatives of 44

Natural Resources (lUCN) in New Delhi, India. The assembly was inaugurated by India's prime minister, Indira Gandhi, who called for "a massive campaign to educate our people in the first principles of nature conservation" and for "long term vision" rather than "considerations of immediate economic gain." .

.

.

Following the retirement of E.

J.

H. Berwick, Gerardo

223

Conservation

224

Conservation

Budowski (Venez.), coming from two years' service and conservation with UNESCO, was appointed director general from April 1970. Harold J. Coolidge (U.S.) was elected to a second term as president. Peter Scott (U.K.) was appointed chairman of the Survival Service Commission (SSC), through which the "Red Data Books" of threatened species of wildlife were published. On Dec. 5, 1969, President Nixon signed the Enin ecology

dangered Species Conservation Act. Besides other far-reaching measures for the preservation of wildlife, this act prohibited the importation into the U.S. of any wildlife (or parts thereof) threatened with exeven if such wildlife tinction throughout the world enjoyed no protection in its native country. Importa-

—

tion of wildlife could be restricted to certain points

of entry,

by

land, air, or sea.

In January 1970 the ban by

Kenya on importation came into

of wildlife skins for commercial purposes

which only the skins of wild animals shot under control measures could be used in manufactures. This followed the realization that thousands of leopards were being killed in Kenya by poachers from the north and their skins taken to Somalia, to be effect, after

legally

reexported to

Kenya

for the local market.

in the crocodile popuwas alleviated by the release of 500 specimens

In Natal, S.Af., the decline lation

reared in a hatchery at the

These

reptiles,

been protected

Ndumu game

reserves.

previously regarded as vermin, had

Natal since April 1969, following when young, in maintaining the life balance in ponds by eating insects and snails and, when adult, by devouring large predatory fish and by acting as scavengers of decomposing carin

the realization of their value,

casses.

On

returning to

Rwanda

after four years,

Dian

Fossey found a reduction in the population of mountain gorillas (an endangered species) from 50 to 20 individuals and a similar reduction in other animals, except elephants and buffalo. She attributed the decrease to invasion of the area for illegal cattle grazing.

The meeting

of the International Whaling

Commis-

showed cynical disregard for conservation of the Antarctic whaling stock by fixing the sion, held in June,

quota for the 1970-71 season at 2,700 blue whale same as for the previous season. This catch could certainly not be achieved and was therefore no true restriction whatever. The increasing catch of the sperm whale also caused concern to conservaunits, the

tionists.

In Queensland, Austr., where marine turtles and their eggs enjoyed full protection except for some

by aboriginals, Robert Bustard, reporting on his investigations for the World Wildlife Fund, estimated the combined female breeding of green, flatback, and loggerhead turtles there to be not less than 75,000. Costa Rica also took steps to protect turtles by establishing a national park at Tortuguero, the biggest nesting site of the green turtle in the Caribbean. Nevertheless, the world situation of marine turtles and of other sea life remained critical. JacquesYves Cousteau, returning from a world exploration of the oceans in his ship "Calypso," declared that life in the oceans had decreased by 40% since 1950 beslight use

Construction Industry: see Engineering Projects; Housing; Industrial

Consumer see

Review

Affairs:

Merchandising

cause of pollution and overfishing. "The human species not survive if the oceans die," warned Cousteau.

will

In July the Council of Europe called on governto standardize control of the use of pesticides,

ments

met by manufacand presentation of their products,

particularly the requirements to be turers in the nature

stipulating that marketing should be authorized onl

when

the results of chemical, physical, toxicologic

and biological studies had been submitted. At the 15th International Ornithological Congres held in August in the Netherlands, D. Snow (U.K. advocated that a list of specimens of endangered bird that were in museums should be published, so tha those specimens could be used for scientific worl everywhere and the unnecessary collection of rar birds avoided.

During September, national

at a world meeting of the Inter Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP) ii

Texel, Neth., reports were received from 40 countrie

on the growing and almost uncontrolled traffic in wih Noting that the importation of birds of pre; had been controlled in the U.K. from July 1, the con ference advocated restrictions on the importation o birds.

birds in every country to

named

places of entry anc

urged that all containers of birds should be labelet with the numbers and the species they held. The ef fects of pollution, the continued decrease in birds ol prey, particularly of the peregrine falcon in the U.S.

and the

killing of small migratory birds in Europt were also discussed and action suggested. In Britain the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds estimated that the death toll of seabirds around the coasts of the British Isles might amount to 200.00C during the year, from oil and other pollution. Between 1967 and 196° guillemots had declined by 24%. Nearly half the guillemots and one-quarter of the razorbills had not returned to their cliff breeding ledges in the Irish Sea. J. Sultana (Malta) said that his country was a black spot for European birds, owing to uncontrolled and indiscriminate shooting, especially of migratory birds, for sport and collections and because

of the trapping of wild birds for caging. But, said

Sultana, there was one encouraging development

in

Comino had been made a bird sanctuary, and he made a powerful appeal that the that

the island of

pool at Ghadira, the only marshy area in Malta, which was saved from road building in 1967, should be made a nature reserve and that a field study centre should

be established there. At the end of September the International Fur Trade Federation, after discussion with the Survival Service Commission of

lUCN, recommended

ban on the skins of the La Plata

a total

otter, giant otter,

clouded leopard,

snow leopard, and tiger, three-year ban on the leopard and cheetah.

and

A

a

joint

survey into the use of the skins of South American cats feared to be becoming rare, such as the jaguar, ocelot, and margay cat, was started under the field directorship of Paul Leyhausen (W.Ger.), chairman of the SSC Cat Group. (C. L. Be.) Ser ahn Arctic Regions; Biological Sciences; Disasters; Engineering Projects; Fuel and Power; Historic Buildings; Medicine; Mining; Oceanography; Parks; Timber.

Encyclopedia Bkitannica Films. Nature's Plan (1953); Look to the Land (1954); Succession From Sand Dune to Forest (1960); The Cave Community (1961); The High Arctic Biome (1961); The Community (1962 ); The Grasslands (1962); The Temperate Deciduous Forest (1962); The Tropical Rain Forest (1962); What Is Ecology? (1962); The Pond and the City ( 1964) The House of Man: Our Changing Environment (1965); Waterfowl: A Resource in Danger (1965); Trees and Their Importance (1966); Water for Living Things (1967); The Everglades: Conserving a Balanced Community (1968); Problems of Conservation Air (1968) The House of Man, Part II Our Crowded Environment (1969); Problems of Conservation Forest and Range

—

;

— — — (1969) Problems Conservation — Minerals (1969); Problems Conservation — Water (1969); The Garbage Explosion Problems Cotiservation — Our Natural Resources (1970) Conservation — (1970); Problems (1970); Problems — Conservation Wildlife (1970). ;

;

of

of

;

of

of

of

Soil

,i

insumer Expenditures almost

all

the

Western industrialized countries, the

1970 was marked by quite exceptionally rapid

ar

owth of wages, leading to very substantial increases costs and prices. Inevitably the value of consumer penditure also rose at an above-average rate. In the

Economic Cooperaconsumer penditure rose by 9% in value and 4% in volume, impared with 8.8 and 4.4% in 1969. In the primary educing countries the dampening effect of a shallow cession in the U.S. on commodity prices, which had sen sharply in 1969, affected consumer expenditure untries of the Organization for

and Development

)n

(OECD)

as a whole,

toward the end of the year. Total spending on

ily

)nsumer goods and services in the non-Communist Grid rose

by some

8%

in 1970, as

much

as in the pre-

ious year.

While the problems in most industrialized countries developments were by no means syn-

•ere similar,

France and the U.S. deflationary meaures taken in 1969 reduced the rate of spending in 970. In Italy and West Germany, on the other hand, 'le wage explosion came later and consumer expendiure and the rate of price inflation accelerated in 1970. The situation in West Germany was especially ineresting. Wages began to move upward sharply in the inal quarter of 1969, and by the beginning of 1970 lourly earnings in manufacturing were already 13% iii'her than at the beginning of 1969. At the same time, neasures of monetary restraint were beginning to slow lown the rate of growth of output, so that unit labour 05ts were rising sharply. Additional measures, including a temporary income tax surcharge, were taken during the year and productivity growth slowed further, but wages continued to bound ahead. Revaluation of the mark in October 1969 had cheapened imports, thus shielding. consumers from the full effect of rising costs. Even so, retail prices rose by 4^% in 1970, compared hrqnized. In

with less than

3%

in

1969 and

preceding two years.

the to a

with

less

Growth

than

2%

in

each of

of 'wage incomes led

13% increase in consumer expenditure, compared 10% in 1969 and only 5^% in 1968. The accel-

however, kept the increase in volume consumer expenditure down to 8^%, less than 1%

eration in prices, 01

ahove 1969.

Developments in Italy were somewhat similar. Widespread strikes at the end of 1969 had led to a very

wage settlement, and further large inby midyear brought the index of hourly wage in manufacturing to 22% above the correspond-

inflationary

eases es

from

tion,

May

permitted to also

the exchange rate of the dollar

float;

it

was promptly moved upward, which

had a deflationary

effect.

As

a result, the

3^%

in-

crease in retail prices was less than in either of the

two preceding years. The increase in consumer expenditure 6% in value and 2^% in volume was well below that of 1968 and 1969. The French devaluation of August 1969 showed signs of being one of the most successful of such changes in recent years. Following devaluation, "stabilization" measures were immediately taken to check the growth of domestic spending, and by the end of 1969 the trade balance was back to equilibrium. During the first half of 1970 it proved possible to take selective measures of relaxation, including easing of credit for the purchase of durable consumer goods. In 1970 as a whole the volume of consumer expenditure rose by 4%, compared with 7.2% in 1969. Nevertheless, an inflationary problem remained. The growth of wages accelerated a little and retail prices rose by 5% in 1970, compared with 6^% in the previous year. Many countries had used tighter monetary policies in 1969 to curb excessive growth of demand, and in general these were continued in 1970. However, a wide variety of supplementary measures was also adopted. In Belgium introduction of the value-added tax (VAT), due in January 1970, was deferred for 12 months, partly on the ground that such an increase in indirect taxation would aggravate inflation in an already overheated economy. In the event, Belgium was

—

—

relatively successful in

containing inflation without

Productivity continued to rise rapi'ily, however, so that costs did not increase as sharply wages. Retail prices rose by 5^%, compared with

much

and 1^% in 1969 and 1968, respectively. Overconsumer expenditure increased by 14% in current prices and 8% in constant prices, both appreciably

The Belgian government may well have noted the experience of the Netherlands, where introduction of

level in 1969.

1

2

\

all

faster than in recent years.

An

unsettled political en-

vironment led to some delay in the adoption of effective measures to cool the overheated economy, but by the end of the year the temperature seemed to have been reduced a

little.

most countries, both developed and less devel1970 than in 1969. Canada and France were exceptions. The measures of economic restraint taken by the Canadian government in 1969 reduced the rate of growth of output in 1970 and increased the level of unemployment. In addiIn

oped, retail prices rose faster in

slowing

down

of the growth of output. In 1970

both prices and the volume of consumer expenditure rose by around 4%, about the same as in 1969.

the

VAT

in

1969 so accentuated inflationary pressure

that the retail price index rose

by 7%, necessitating

imposition of a price freeze by the government that had very limited success in curbing wage demands.

Both Sweden and Denmark resorted to price freezes during 1970. In Sweden, where wages and prices grew rapidly and the balance of payments was weak, the freeze on food prices was expanded in October to include goods and services for a six-month period. In Denmark where again a new VAT had aggravated an already severe inflationary situation, a general price freeze

was imposed from September.

Mrs. Doris Behre, before the U.S. Senate Consumer Subcommittee, shows that a one-eighth-ounce jar of chives at 69 cents testifying

would cost $88.32 for one pound if sold at the

same

rate.

226

Consumer Expenditures

By contrast, indirect tax increases formed the basis of measures taken in Italy to checlc the growth of consumer expenditure. In this the government may have been mindful of the results obtained by increasing indirect taxes in the U.K. between 196S and 1969, when the growth of consumption volume had been slowed and resources were diverted into exports. During this period the volume of consumer expenditure in the U.K. rose at an averagt annual rate of only

2%, compared with 3i%

a year in the seven preced-

ing years. This slowdown, however, was achieved at the cost of a steep acceleration in prices and mounting

wage demands, which burst out Chart

in the

autumn

of 1969.

1

Consumer Expenditure

Food

Clothing

Rene

Durables

9.8%

12.5%

10.8%

,9%

1968

in

OECD

43%

In 1970 wages and salaries rose by 10%, despite

cutj,

employment. Retail prices rose by 6%, compan with 5^% in the previous year, but the volume consumer expenditure rose by 3%, the biggest increas; in

since 1964.

Japan had persistently experienced faster

increase

in retail prices than other industrialized countries,

6%

the

was not

increase in 1970

si

far out of the ord;

nary. Despite a combination of monetary and

fiS'

on the economy, consumer expenditur remained strong. following record wage awards Growth of national income in the U.S.S.R. h; slowed to 6% in 1969, and there were no signs of reversal of the trend in 1970. Production of cop sumer goods continued to grow faster than productio; of capital goods. Eastern Europe was not exempt froi inflationary problems. They were particularly acut in Czechoslovakia, where output and consumption rf mained high despite the upheavals of political n organization, but where wage and price controls ha to be reinforced. Economic reforms led to a recover of growth in Hungary. Consumer expenditure Poland was still being affected by the sharp dip production growth in 1969. Early in 1970 the monetary squeeze, which ha brought the U.S. economy to the brink of a major re cession, was eased. The volume of output fell a Httl between the third quarter of 1969 and the first quai ter of 1970. It began to rise again in the second hal restraints

—

i

i

%

+ 47

change

/

and, with higher utilization rates, price inflation easec

The growth

of personal incomes slowed during

thi

"mini-recession," but the volume as well as the valu of

consumer expenditure continued

gathered strength

1963

26

0%

12.2

to rise. Spendin second half of 1970; for th

year as a whole it increased 7^% in value and 39 in volume. Slowing and, in some quarters, actual decline o U.S. output growth affected world trade and com

41.2°/,

500

in the

1,000

modity billions of U.S. dollars

prices, although

consumer expenditure

in

man

of the primary producing and less developed coun tries reflected

boom

the previous year's

more depressing

later,

rather thai

trends. In Australia

ment, wages, and spending continued to

Chart 2

retail prices Proportion of Personal Consumption Expenditure on Durable Goods

employ whil

rise

only gradually accelerated. In South

Af

consumer expenditure slowed from the 10% growth of the previous year but remained strong The end of the civil war in Nigeria led to an acut( rica

16

15

price inflation, but increased

oil

production substan'

income from exports. Inflation remainec endemic in many Latin-American countries, and the volume of consumer expenditure changed little

U.S..

tially raised

14

Among

13

the poorest areas of the world, food produc-

tion rose faster than population in 1969 only in the 12

Table

I.

Consumer Expenditure

% change from Region

EEC

North America

10

EEC Japan All

1967

1968

+ 5.8 6.4 + 4,6 -1-13.8 + 6.4

+ 8.9 + 7.0 + 7.4 -1-15.1 + 7.2

-t-

U.K.

OECD*

in

Current Prices

previous year

1969 8.0 -1-10.4 -1- 6,4 -1-

1970

+

7A

-1-11.0 -f-

9.0

4-14,0

4-16.0

+

+

8.8

9.0

•Including others.

Table

II.

Consumer Expenditure

U.K.

% Region

6

1960

1970

1963 Prices

1967

1968

1969

1970

North America

+3.}

EEC

+3.6

+5.2 +4.0 +2.8 +9.6 +4.9

+3.6 +6.2

+2.9 +5,7 +3.2 +9.0 +4.0

U.K.

-1-2,0

Japan

-t-9,6

All

•

at

Chang e from prev ious year

OECD*

•Including others.

+3.6

+1.1

+9.2 +4.4

fr East.

Bgrow

in

In India agricultural incomes continued 1970 and industrial production rose quite

began to move upward after two years was an increase in the voljie of per capita consumer expenditure. The proportion of income that must be spent on Ijpd declines as income rises. This is true within counIjes, between countries, and between periods of time. He latter is illustrated in Chart 1 for the OECD kuntries combined. The converse is true for durable |>ods and rent and housing. Spending on services, pecially those connected with leisure activities and ivel (included in "other" in the chart), was increaskrply. Prices

inear stability, but there

rapidly in the wealthiest countries.

Chart

I

2

hanged during the 1950s in three regions. The high reached in the EEC countries by 1960

much

growth in car ownership than the U.S. or the U.K. In the U.K. restrictions on Iredit and high rates of taxation took their toll. The arables proportion in the U.S. tended to level off lifter 1965 but remained very high. (J. G. M.) faster

lontract Bridge Bermuda Bowl,

1970 the United States regained the

|n

lie world bridge

championship, which

jhat

was

Italian

like

Blue

it

held in

last

tournament Hamlet without the prince; the famous

[954. It did so in

Team

Stockholm first

won

in

the

June

in a

Bermuda Bowl

1957

in

md, with only two changes of personnel in 13 years, lad retained the title. When it surrendered the title. It was by an act of abdication after the 1969 victory. Since the defending champion was Italy, and not le players Pietro Forquet, Benito Garozzo. Walter [lAvarelli,

Giorgio Belladonna,

Massimo

D".Alelio,

and

Camillo Pabis Ticci, Italy had the right to be repreIjsented in the championship play-off. The team it was •able to select was a poor substitute for its illustrious ipredecessors and took an undistinguished last place Ibehind the United States, Taiwan, Norway, and Brazil. (Taiwan was runner-up for the second consecutive [lyear, a

The

all

four opponents. Taiwan took second place

Taiwan threatened a surprise when they won the match 13-7. The United States won the second match 18-2 and one hand in the third match virtually

first

put an end to the contest {see box). Except with the help of an inspired view of the trump position, six spades would be expected to go down. North gave declarer an unexpected chance

when he opened a low diamond. West, however, feared that the diamond lead was a singleton (unlikely) and played the ace, subsequently going one down.

At the other

shows how the proportion spent on durables

|vel already Inflected

whelmed

and so qualified for the final, a series of four short matches against the United States.

splendid performance by relative newcomers. central character in the winning team, the

new

Jacoby and Wolff also

table

tried to

play in six clubs but when North-South sacrificed in six hearts, Wolff bid seven clubs on the East hand,

gambling on the heart void with

his partner. After a

heart lead, seven clubs, an excellent contract, was the help of the diamond finesse. The United team went on to win the third match 20-minus 2, making sure of the championship with one match still to play, and it won this last by 19 points to 1. Corn's ambition achieved, the Dallas Aces were in a position to cash in on their success. But another man and his ambition now appeared on the scene. When Taiwan took second place in the 1969 world championship, an untried team was playing the system of a U.S. -based Chinese. C. C. Wei. The team had had a two-week indoctrination in his methods, based on the Precision Club bidding system, and had gone on to outplay ofiponents with greater experience and superior playing techniques; then in Stockholm in 1970 Taiwan, again playing the Precision Club and taking second place, once more outplayed opponents with

made with States

far greater international experience. Wei, therefore,

decided that in the right hands his system might pos-

He

persuaded some young U.S. and at the first attempt a Precision Club team won one of the two major U.S. championships, the Springold Cup, beating three top U.S. teams on its way to the final and in the final comprehensively defeating no less than the new world champions, the Dallas Aces.

sibly beat the world.

experts to give

it

a trial

The Precision Club team would now have the chance to qualify as the North American representa-

world champions, was Ira Corn, a prominent Dal-

and a bridge enthusiast. Corn American team that could regain the world championship. He engaged six young bridge experts, Bill Eisenberg from New York, Bobby Goldman from Philadelphia, Bob Hamman and Mike Lawrence from California, and James Jacoby and Robert Wolff from Texas. He brought them to Dallas where their new occupation was to train to be world bridge champions. With salaries of up to $25,000 and various incentive schemes, they were free to talk, think, and live bridge. A computer was provided to help them test their thelas,

Tex., industrialist

decided in 1968 that he would create an

ories of bidding.

A

NORTH

4 V

Musumeci, was hired

as

2

10 9 5 2

4 K

10 8 3 2

WEST

EAST

4 R 10 5 y 87

4 AQ987 VJ

AQ6

7 5

4

KQ J 86 SOUTH

A 109

5 3

6

retired lieutenant colonel of the

U.S. Air Force, Joe

J43

y AKQJ643

team

9 4

coach and administrator. In 1969 four of the Dallas Aces, the

4

name under

7 4 2

which they played, won places on the North American team for the Bermuda Bowl and gave an undistin-

Dealer, West. Both sides vulnerable.

West

North

East

South

guished performance in the championship. In 1970 the

Hsiao

Hamman

Lin

Lawrence

—

two years' work began to tell and the Aces swept the board in the U.S. and qualified with ease to results of

be the

North American representatives. In the absence Blue Team they found no serious chalat Stockholm. In the qualifying pool they over-

of the Italian

lenge

1

3

y

Pass

24

y y

y 64

4

6

Pass

Pass

s

2

y

Pass Pass

227

Contract Bridge

228

Cooperatives

tives for the next

would have

Bermuda Bowl. And

to battle with

them

in the

the Dallas Aces coming year not

only for the championship but in the struggle to persuade the bridge-playing and bridge-reading public

was the system to adopt. Stockholm in June Mrs. B. Brier and W.

that theirs

Also at

von Zedwitz of the U.S. (14,239 points) won the world Pairs Olympiad; Mrs. R. Markus (U.K.) and George Catzeflis (Switz.) were a close second (14,101 (Ha. Fr.)

points).

member movements and increased contributionsj) the ICA Development Fund; increased exchangelf information among member movements on the motion of cooperatives in less developed countr,and intensive collaboration with UN agencies. A C( mittee was set up including representatives from ICA and several other interested organizations identify and prepare appropriate projects for mak better use of available resources and to coordin

;

the

experiences

of

intergovernmental

i

organizatitj

in providing technical assistance.

A

seminar on "Cooperative Management for j

Seventies" took place in Madison, Wis., in Septej

Cooperatives movement were proposals

for

cooperative

consolidated during 1970, and

further

integration

of

the

new

consumer

movement were accepted in a number of countries. The importance of cooperation in the social and economic development of the less developed countries was recognized by several governments. In Denmark the plan for amalgamation of the cooperative wholesale society and the retail societies into one national society was considered by the annual congress held in June.

A

proposal for a national

side Europe.

A

tj

•

the cooperative press in providing information abo

cooperative progress in less developed countries.

setting

The work of the ICA Regional Ofiice and Educatic! Centre for South East Asia was considered at tl meeting of the Advisory Council for South East Asi. held in Seoul, Korea, in May. At the earlier Agricu,] tural Sub-Committee meeting it had been decided set up a working group for promotion of trade agricultural commodities. A proposal was acceptei to conduct a survey of agricultural marketing project financed by the ICA, the Central Union of Agricu tural Cooperatives of Japan, and the cooperativ movements in Southeast Asia in membership with th ICA, in order to accelerate the development of cc operative agricultural marketing. "Cooperative Management" was the subject of seminar organized by the Regional Office and th Cooperative Union of Singapore, held in Singapor in April. A commodity conference on "Fruits am Vegetables and Feedingstuffs" met in Tokyo in Ma; under the auspices of the Regional Office, the Centra Union of Agricultural Cooperatives of Japan, and tht

loans

Institute for the

society in the Netherlands was rejected, but 8 of the

come under the manCO-OP Nederland. In the U.K. amalgama-

17 regional societies agreed to

agement of

and a move toward central movement was approved by the congress held in May. It was agreed to transfer the Co-operative Union's Trade Advisory Services to the Co-operative Wholesale Society. On February 23 Guyana proclaimed itself a "cooperative republic." Cooperation was declared to be the means for establishing social and economic democracy in the country. A bank was opened on the first day of the republic to channel funds to various cotion of societies continued,

control within the British consumer

operative ventures.

Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia outlined a change government policy, from agricultural cooperatives service and general-purpose cooperatives. The Co-

Pres. in

to

operative Fertilizers International, organized in 1967 by U.S. cooperatives to assist Indian cooperatives in

up a fertilizer plant, was to receive substantial from the U.S. and British governments. The U.S. government promised to advance $15 million through the Agency for International Development and the British government, $15.8 million through the Ministry of Overseas Development. Indian cooperatives and the Indian government and its agencies agreed to provide $110 million. In Ceylon a Royal Commission on Cooperation made 29 major recommendations about the cooperative movement. The most important proposed the setting up of a national cooperative development council to coordinate cooperative development.

The International Cooperative memorate

Alliance.

To com-

the 75th anniversary of the founding of the

International Cooperative Alliance in London in 1895, a history of the ICA, written by W. P. Watkins, was published in August 1970. The postal authorities in the U.K. and Belgium issued postage stamps to

mark

the occasion.

see

Copper: Mining

At the meeting of the ICA Central Committee in in October, it was decided to designate the years 1971-80 as the "Co-operative Development Decade." The program would include a series of plan-

Corn: Agriculture

ning studies geared to specific cooperative projects in less developed countries; fund-raising drives in

London

see

had been held o| European symposium on "The Cci tribution of the Cooperative Movernent to Integration of Rural FamiHes into Modern Societl took place in Milan in September. The first meeti, of the newly established ICA Working Party of t Cooperative Press was held near Vienna in Decembr This was followed by a conference, organized by t Vienna Development Institute, the ICA, and the Al trian cooperative movement, to consider the role ber, the first time such a seminar

Structural changes in the international

il

ij

Development

of Agricultural

Co

operation. It was followed by a regional seminar or

"Marketing of Fruit ind Vegetables Through Cooperatives." The second housing seminar in Southeast Asia, organized by the ICA Regional Office and financed by the Swedish cooperative movement to consider "Development of Housing Cooperatives in South-East Asia," was held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, from October 19 to November 3. A number of seminars were organized throughout the year in the four African countries in membership with the ICA, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia. Seminars were held for cooperative education secretaries, cooperative teachers, and cooperative committeemen, as well as on problems of cooperative marketing. Several women's cooperative seminars, financed by the Swedish International Development Authority and women cooperators in the Nordic countries, took place in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. The Latin American Technical Institute for Cooperative Integration introduced a uniform bookkeeping and stockkeeping system in some consumer societies in Brazil, Guatemala, Colombia, and Ecuador. The ICA Insurance Committee reported progress in cooperative insurance at a meeting in Columbus,

between cowere discussed. The Inmce Development Bureau allocated $24,000 to asinsurance cooperatives in less developed countries

May. Proposals

in

(

for collaboration

rative insurance societies

c 5 5

$6,000 to

provide scholarships for cooperative in-

£

I

;

ance students.

A

seminar for cooperative construc1 and housing societies, organized by the CommitWorkers' Co-operative Productive and of isanal Societies of the ICA in collaboration with Housing Committee, was held in Paris in May to

modern management methods and the deopment of prefabrication and industrialization in cuss

building industry.

;

The ICA Housing Committee meeting in London agenSeptember discussed collaboration with ;s and other international nongovernmental organitions, with special reference to a study of nonprofit d cooperative housing undertaken by the Commit-

UX

on Housing of the Economic Commission for jrope (ECE). The annual meeting of the Internae

:

Cooperative Housing Development Association

3nal

on "Interim Technical Assistance to Government of Tanzania.'' Following a feasibility

eived a report i.e f

udy carried out 2 in

1969 to develop cooperative hous-

in

East Africa, a pilot scheme was initiated in

anzania and the construction of the first 60 dwellings 15

begun.

M the annual meeting of the Cooperative Wholesale ommittee in London, it was reported that nonfood had increased from $16.5 million in 1968 to S3 1.1

ales

The

was registered in extiles, while food sales decreased during the same )eriod. At a joint meeting of members of the Coiperative Wholesale Committee and the Committee 1969.

lillion in

)n t

largest increase

was decided

to

London

September, amalgamate the two committees un-

Retail Distribution, held in

in

name of INTER-COOP. Membership and Trade. At the end

der the

number of cooperative federations with the

ICA

of 1970, the

membership

totaled 141 in 59 countries.

available statistics

number

in

showed

The

latest

a further decrease in the

membership with the ICA, from 593,712 in 1967 to 533,467 in 1968. Membership within these societies fell from 255.5 million in 1967 to 255 million in 1968. The apparent decline was partly due to amalgamations and partly to the fact that some of the societies had not supplied statistical total

of societies in

data for the period

under review. The largest

mem-

was again reported by the U.S.S.R. (over 57 million j, followed by India Cover 54 million). Of the total membership, the greatest proportion was in consumer societies ("44.21%), followed by credit societies (30.09% j, agricultural societies (13.98%), miscellaneous societies (6.25%), building and housing societies (2.75% ), workers' productive and artisanal societies (2.13%), and fisheries societies (0.59%). At the end of 1969, 29 cooperative organizations and 22 banks from 21 different countries were sharebership

holders in the International Cooperative Bank. Assets

from £36,790,000

rose

in

1968 to £55,070,000 in

Cosmetics A

noticeable change in the type of new product being given the "hard-sell" treatment by cosmetics firms

1970 suggested an all-out attempt to regain the custom of the older woman. Over the preceding decin a word, on ade, emphasis had been on "looks" makeup. In 1970 there was a return to the earlier concept of skin care. A great deal was heard about the "pH" factor in products an acid/alkaline balance which, when correctly proportioned, was said by specialists in the field to produce "the flawless complexion." Another essential property claimed for the pH factor in preparations was the control of skin in

—

—

bacteria.

Preoccupation with the face beneath the makeup

was the 1970 message from such leading beauty firms as Revlon ("Moon Drops Face Care Collection"), Elizabeth Arden ("Directional Collection"), and Orlane (Rosee Demaquillante Cleansing Gel, "with a

pH

all

types of skin"). Packaging,

showed signs of greater simplicity, aimed, it would seem, at the more thoughtful taste of the older woman. Revlon's Moon Drops Face Care preparations were marketed in workmanlike roll-on containers, swiv^el sticks, and plastic packs. A survey of beauty and toilet products carried out in

1970 revealed that

85% of women use lipstick, 92% 80% use smooth-on fragrance

use talcum powder, and in

one of

many

its

forms.

The

surv^ey also

showed

that

use of these three top-selling products begins in the

12-13 age group and continues up to the 60- and 70year-olds.

In line with the vogue for "unisex" clothes, the French firm Roger et Gallet promoted their famous Extra-Vieille Jean-Marie Farina Eau de Cologne in Britain as a unisex toilet water. In her unremitting

search for up-to-the-minute ideas and gimmicks, in in clothes, Britain's Mary Quant new range of stick-fast makeup preparalabeled "Make-up to Make love in." "Love,"

cosmetics as well as

introduced a tions

Miss Quant

is

reported to have said,

"is the

destroyer

medium, dark, and bronze shades, Mary Quant's Colour Stick was of the beautiful

said

to

face." Available in

have long-lasting adhesive properties. The

range also included a stubbornly clinging eye

tint.

Water-colour eye shadow, first marketed in the top and medium price ranges, was made available in cheaper brands. Mixed with a drop of water and painted on, these shadows could be applied in either intense or subtle shades. They were said to be proof against caking, fading, and streaking. "Beauty W'ithout Cruelty Cosmetics," founded by Lady Dowding in 1959 within the framework of the Beauty Without Cruelty campaign, continued to make progress. The 1970 price list included SO animal product-free beauty and hygiene aids prepared from nut, plant, and fruit oils blended with flower essences. (P. W. He.)

1969.

A

of 5-6 suitable for

too,

See also Fashion

and Dress.

barter arrangement was concluded between the

National Federation of Industrial

Cooperatives of

India and Centrosoyus, U.S.S.R., under which

the

National Federation would supply nylon and woolen knitwear in exchange for sunflower-seed oil from the Soviet Union.

The National

Agricultural Cooperative

Marketing Federation of India and UXICOOP Japan concluded a trade agreement during the year. (L. Ke.)

Costa Rica A

Central .Xnurican republic, Costa Rica lies between Nicaragua and Panama and has coastlines on the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Area: 19,650 sq.mi. (50,900 sq.km.). Pop. (1969 est.): 1,685,170, including white and mestizo 97.6%. Cap. and largest

230

Cricket

San Jose (pop., 1969 est., 203,148). Language: Religion: predominantly Roman Catholic. Presidents in 1970, Jose Joaquin Trejos Fernandez city:

Spanish.

May 8, Jose Figueres Ferrer. Maintaining its traditional stability, Costa Rica continued in 1970 to strengthen its domestic economy, while a change of government removed a political stumbling block to closer cooperation with its four fellow members of the Central American Common Market (CACM). In the general election on Februand, from

ary 1, Jose Figueres Ferrer {see Biography) of the Partido de Liberacion Nacional emerged as president (an office he had filled from 1954 to 1958) with an absolute majority, and his party

won

32 of the Legis-

Assembly's 57 seats. Figueres took office on armed with a majority in Congress, later secured ratification of the San Jose Protocol. This belated endorsement of an agreement signed on June 1, 1968, by all five CACM governments paved the way for cooperation within an economic framework to which Costa Rica's neighbours were already committed. Another midyear development of significance was an agreement with the U.S.S.R. to exchange comlative

May

8 and,

mercial representatives.

Among

because of higher prices, 1969-70 coffee exports wii expected to be worth $15 million more than the pi vious season's shipments. Industrial development continued with the ing of

new processing and manufacturing

growth of industrial output

1970 was $23.9 million, 13.3% more than

fii

The 1970 budget estimates put revenue

at

753

million colones and expenditure at 809 milhon colone

How much

had been allocated for investment w,t|( it was officially stated that public inve&i ment over the four-year period 1969-72 would ak ^ sorb 1,421,000,000 colones, about 80% more tha was actually invested during the preceding four year By June 30 Costa Rica had obtained external loai: totaling $31 million for highway and other common cations projects, industrial development, and fan unclear, but

research.

products for Soviet capital equipment. Agriculture remained the mainstay of the economy. In 1969, although crops and communications suf-

with

November,

in the

half of 1969.

In terms of

in

On

preliminary estimates tljls value of manufactured exports in the first half

nomic growth

Martha

Tij

in the first half of IQj

t'

preceding 12 months.

visaged was an exchange of Costa Rican primary

the gross domestic product grew by 7.7%. In April 1970 severe tioods did extensive damage to banana

opei

plants.

represented a 12.2% increase in the period from Jui 1969 to June 1970 against a 5.9% increase in

the trade deals en-

fered badly from Hurricane

1

its

per capita income ($387) and ecc Costa Rica compared favourabli

rate,

its Central American neighbours. The comb:^ nation of public investment, supported by externci loans, with foreign funds for private investment wai

expected to sustain the velopment.

momentum

of

economic (Ro. E.

de'

S.

plantations, housing, and transport in the Caribbean

was prom1969-70 crop was 1,370,000 quintals (1 quintal = 220.46 lb.) of which 1,060,000 were sold at an average price of $45 per quintal against $37 for the 1968-69 crop. Mainly region, but the outlook for coffee exports

ising.

The export quota

for the

Cricket All

the

West

major cricket-playing countries except

th(

Indies were engaged in competition betweei

September 1969 and August 1970. India played sb tests, three each against New Zealand and Australia

New Zealand South Africa played four tests against Australia, anc England played five against a Rest of the World XI The major event of the year, in which politics played an unsavoury part, was the cancellation of a South African tour of England. The English Test and County Cricket Board, despite threats of violence, damage to grounds, and disruption of matches by organized protesters against South Africa's racial sepa-ration policy, stood firm till the government at the 11th hour brought pressure to compel them to abandon the tour. In exchange, a series was hastily arranged against a Rest of the World XI, captained by G. S. Sobers, which included four other West Indians, four South Africans, and representatives of Australia, India, and Pakistan. This brilliant team won four of the five tests, but England, captained by R. Illingworth, won one test and was rarely outplayed. Sobers made 588 runs, including two 100s and three 50s, and took the most wickets (21, including a spell of six for 21). C. H. Lloyd (W.I.) and E. J. Barlow (S.Af.) each made two centuries, and R. B. Kanhai (W.I.) and R. G. Pollock fS.Af.) scored one each. Barlow also took 20 wickets, including a spell of seven for 64 that contained a hat trick and four wickets in five balls. Other good bowling performances were by while Pakistan played three against

COST.'\

RICA

Education. (1966-67) Primary, pupils 296,058, teachsecondary, pupils 47,823, teachers 2,570; vocational (public only), pupils 3,788, teachers 209; teacher training, students 1,759, teachers 22; higher (including University of Costa Rica), students 7,502, teaching staff 653. Finance. Monetary unit: colon, with a par value of 6.625 colones to U.S. $1 (15.90 colones £1 sterling). Gold. SDRs, and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1970) U.S. $30,370,000; (June 1969) U.S. $30.9 million. Budget (1969 est.) revenue 624.5 million colones; expenditure 720 million colones. Gross national product(1968) 4,935,000.000 colones; (1967) 4.486,000,000 colones. Money supply: (March 1970) 1,007,400,000 colones; (March 1969) 915 million colones. Cost of living (San Jose; 1963 100): (May 1970) 116(May 1969) 111. ers 10,742;

=

:

=

Foreign

Trade.

(1969)

Imports

1,616,200,000

colones; exports 1,2 79,300,000 colones. Import sources (1968): U.S. 38%; West Germany 8%; El Salvador

Cotton: Agriculture;

see

Industrial

Review

Council for Mutual

Economic Assistance: see

Economic Planning

Council of Europe: see European Unity Credit and Debt: see

Government

Finance; Money ano Banking; Payments and Reserves, International

8%; Guatemala 7%; Japan 7%; Nicaragua 6%. Export destinations (1968): U.S. 47%; Nicaragua 8%; West Germany 6%; El Salvador 5%; Guatemala S%. Main exports: bananas 30%; coffee 29%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1968) c. 10,000 km. (including c. 5,000 km. all-weather and 660 km. of Pan-American Highway). Motor vehicles in use ( 1968): passenger 33,700; commercial (including buses) 17,900. Railways (1968): 703 km.; traffic 71 million passenger-km. Air traffic (1969): 122.6 million passenger-km.; freight 10,650,000 net ton-km. Telephones (Jan. 1969) 50,093. Radio receivers (Dec 1969) c. 106,000. Television receivers (Dec 1967) ' 66.000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968; 1967 in parentheses): coffee 77 (83); bananas 703 (512); sugar, raw value (1969-70) 167, (1968-69) 144. Livestock (in 000): cattle (1968-69) 1,435horses (1967-68) c. 109; pigs (1966-67) 243. Industry. Electricity production (1968) 833 million kw-hr. (92% hydroelectric).

Intikhab

Alam

(Pak.) six for 113, and

M.

J.

Procter

(S.Af.) five for 46.

For England, G. Boycott, B. W. Luckhurst, and B. L. D'Oliveira each scored a century, but the bats-

man

of the series

was Illingworth, who scored 476 and four other 50s in nine in-

runs, including two 90s

jatiiiii

In the third test at Edgbaston, D'Oliveira made and 81. M. C. Cowdrey recovered from his achilles don injury- in 1969 to play in four tests and made ee 50s, while K. W. R. Fletcher (four 50s) also gs.

}

>

formed well. J. A. Snow (19 wickets) was the :kbone of the bowHng. followed by Illingworth (11 :kets). The best individual performance was seven 83 by P. Lever in his first and only test. South Africa v. Australia. Australia under W. M. wry suffered humiliating defeat in South Africa, ung all four tests by wide margins. South Africa, der A. Bacher, had a fine batting side, fielded brilntly, and had a formidable fast bowling partnerip of Procter and P. M. Pollock, who took 26 and wickets, respectively, at low cost. Medium-paced pport came from Barlow and T. L. Goddard, and )uth Africa had little need to use spin. South Africa's ading batsmen were R. G. Pollock and B. A. Richds, each of whom made more than 500 runs in seven nings. Pollock made the record South African score 274 in the second test, in which Richards made 140. arlow made two centuries and one 50, and B. L. vine one century and two 50s. In contrast Australian itsmen rarely mastered the fast bowling, and only vo bowlers, A.'N. Connolly (20 wickets) and J. W. 'leeson (19 wickets), showed international class, ustralia's major bowling disappointment was the )tal eclipse of G. D. McKenzie, who took only one •

icket in the series. I

South Africa :

!

Ilett

I

won

the

test at

first

Cape Town by

South Africa made 382 (Barlow 127. A. A. five for 126 j and 232 (G. Pollock SO, Con-

runs.

made 164 (K.D.Walters and 280 (Lawry 83). South Africa won the secn test at Durban by an innings and 129 runs. South Vffica scored 622 for nine declared (G. Pollock 274, Richards 140); Australia replied with 157 (A. P. Bheahan 62) and 336 (K. R. Stackpole 71, Walters 74, I. R. Redpath not out 74j. South Africa won the third test at Johannesburg by 307 runs, making 279 (Irvine 79, Richards 65, G. Pollock.52 and 408 (Barlow 110, G. Pollock 87, Irvine 73, Gleeson five for iyfive for 47); Australia

1

I

)

125); and Australia scored 202 (Walters 64, P. Pol-

and 178 (Redpath 66). South Africa won the fourth test at Port Elizabeth by 323 runs, scoring 311 (Richards 81, Barlow 73, Connolly six for 47) and 470 for eight declared (Richards 126, Irvine 102, Bacher 73. D. Lindsay 60); Australia made 212 (Shcahan 67. Redpath 55j and 246 (Procter lock five for 39;

six for 7

India

5

New

Zealand.

New

home from touring England

in

Zealand, on the

way

1969, drew a three-

match series with India. After India had won the first test and New Zealand the second. India was in a hopeless

•

and 175 for eight declared (Dowling 60), which India replied with S9 and 76 for seven. Pakistan v. New Zealand. New Zealand moved on to Pakistan and won a three-match rubber 1-0. The cricket was more positive than in India, and Dowling and his travel-weary team deservedly triumphed. Burgess and Turner each made a century and Howarth (slow left arm) was the outstanding bowler. For Pakistan, captained by Intikhab Alam, the most successful batsmen were Asif Iqbal. Sadiq Mohammad, and "^'ounis Ahmed, while Pervez Sajjad, with 22 wickets, was the leading bowler. The first test at Karachi was drawn. Pakistan made 220 (Sadiq 69. Howarth five for 80) and 283 for eight declared .(Younis 62). and New Zealand 274 D. R. Hadlee 56. Murray 50, Muhammad Nazir seven for 99) and 112 for five (Pervez five for 33). New Zealand won the second test at Lahore by five wickets. Pakistan made 1 14 and 208 (Shafquat five for 51)

to

i

Rana 95) to New Zealand's 241 (Murray 90, B. F. Hastings not out SO. Pervez seven for 74) and 82 for five.

position in the third

when

them from defeat. The batting of both sides was slow and defensive. India relied on slow bowling and \ew Zealand on fast medium, and the latter team's fielding was far rain saved

the first test at

Bombay by

60 runs,

under the nawab of Pataudi, made 156 and 260 (Pataudi 67; New Zealand, under G, T. Dowling, replied with 229 (B. E. Congdon 78) and 127 (B. S. Bedi six for 42). New Zealand won the second test ;

89,

Nagpur by 167 runs, scoring 319 (M. G. Burgess Dowling 69, Congdon 64) and 214 (G. M. Turner

Venkatdraghavan six for 74) to India's 257 (S. Abid AH 63) and 109 (H. J. Howarth five for 34). The third test at Hyderabad was drawn. New Zealand 57, S.

made

181

(B. A. G.

Murray

80, E. A. S.

Prasanna

Dacca was drawn.

New

Zealand

)

92, Shafquat

four for 20

India

v.

series.

Rana 65) and

51 for four (R. S.

Cunis

).

Australia. to

India

entertained

South Africa,

After holding their

own

in a

Australia,

five-match

for three tests, the In-

dians collapsed in the last two and Australia, despite political

and nationalistic disturbances, deservedly

won the rubber 3-1, All the men played at least one good

leading Australian hatsinnings,

and

I,

M. Chap-

Stackpole, Walters, and Sheahan each scored one century. The most successful bowlers were Mallctt,

pell,

McKenzie, and Connolly. Australia

won

India,

at

third test at

92) and 200 (Burgess 119 not out, Intikhab five for to Pakistan's 290 for seven declared (Asif Iqbal 91

superior,

Ind ia

The

scored 273 (Turner 110. Burgess 59, Intikhab five for

which was en route

i

v.

1

won the made

wickets, India

McKenzie

at

Bombay by eight Mankad 74,

first

test

271

(Pataudi 95,

and 137; and Australia reRedpath 77, Prasanna five for 121) and 67 for two. The second test at Kanpur was drawn. India made 320 (F. M. Engineer 77, Mankad 64) and 312 for seven declared (G. R. Vishwanath 137, Mankad 68) Australia scored 348 (Sheahan 114, Redpath 70, Walters S3) and 95 for no five

for 69)

plied with 345 (Stackpole 103,

;

wicket (Lawry 56 not out). India won the third test New Delhi by seven wickets. Australia scored 296 (Chappell 138, Stackpole 61) and 107 (Lawry not

at

During the fourth match at Headingley, G. Sobers (captain. Rest of the World) just reaches his wicket to avoid being run out as A. Knott (England wicketkeeper) breaks the wicket. test

out 49, Bedi five for 37, Prasanna five for 42) against India's 223 (Mankad 97, Mallett six for 64) and 181 for three

(Wadekar not out

91). Australia

won

the

fourth test at Calcutta by ten wickets. India got 212 54, McKenzie six for 67) and 161 (Wadekar 62), and Australia 335 (Chappell 99, Walters 56, Bedi seven for 98) and 42 for no wicket. Australia won the fifth test a*- Madras by 77 runs. Australia made 258 (Walters 102) and 153 (Redpath

(Vishwanath

six for 74); India made 163 (Pataudi Mallett five for 91) and 171 (Vishwanath 59, Wadekar 55, Mallett five for 53).

63,

Prasanna

59,

County and National Cricket. For the first time 1913 Kent, captained by Cowdrey, won the

since

county championship, with Glamorgan, the defending champions, second and Lancashire third. Kent's success was remarkable because they had contributed five players to the England XI. In another fine

four batsmen

—

—Turner, R. T. Virgin,

J.

summer

B. Bolus, and

Boycott all made more than 2,000 runs and four men, all slow bowlers, took more than 100 wickets D. J. Shepherd, F. J. Titmus, N. Gifford, and R. N. S. Hobbs. Lancashire won the Gillette Cup, beating Sussex by six wickets, and retained the John Player Sunday League title, with Kent second and Derbyshire third. Sobers easily headed the batting averages and T. W. Graveney, in his last season in English cricket before taking up an appointment as coach in Queensland, was second. The leading all-rounders were Sobers,

Mushtaq Mohammad, P. M. Walker, A. W. The first four made more than

Greig, and Intikhab.

concluded in its final report that violence was "co roding the central political processes" of U.S. societ

The commission urged a doubling of investment in tl prevention of crime and the administration of justii and recommended a national policy limiting ability of

the avai

handguns.

This latter recommendation appeared to provoke

;

much public controversy as a subsequent proposa made by a majority of members of the National Con mission on Obscenity and Pornography, that the go\ ernment should not interfere with the freedom c

adults to view, read, or obtain obscene or pornographi material. In the opinion of these members, there wa

no evidence that such material caused crime or othe forms of depravity. In 1969 a similar view seems have motivated an Obscenity Laws Working Part) sponsored by the Arts Council of Great Britain, t propose that restrictive laws should be dismantled fo an experimental period of five years in the U.K. De t

recommendations, it appeared most un U.K. governments woulc at least in the immediate future, follow Denmark am repeal the majority of obscenity laws. Meanwhile Danish experience continued to suggest that depravit; and corruption were not inevitable adjuncts of lav reform in this area. A worldwide trend to liberalize abortion laws con tinned throughout 1970. The state of South Australia for instance, introduced new legislation on abortioi modeled upon the U.K. Abortion Act of 1967. In Britain, the influx of women from other countries seeking spite these

likely that either the U.S. or

—

—

1,000 runs and took over 50 wickets, and Intikhab's were 923 runs and 86 wickets.

abortions

figures

estimated at 4,000 annually led critics tc claim that the U.K. was becoming the abortion centre

In Australia, Victoria won the Sheffield Shield, and Otago won the Plunket Shield in New Zealand. In South Africa, Transvaal and Western Province shared the Currie Cup, and in the West Indies Trinidad won

However, reform of U.S. abortion law? during 1970, particularly in New York State, seemec likely to stop much of this traffic. International trafficking in drugs, and the growing

the Shell Shield.

incidence of drug abuse in

(A. R. A.)

of the West.

many Western

countries,

continued to receive close attention and study by

na-'

and international agencies. Emphasis upon civil rather than criminal law processes to deal with the problems of drug abuse was called for by an increasing tional

Crime In 1970, governments perplexed and disillusioned by burgeoning crime rates appeared ever less impressed

number

by

abuse, these experts pointed to the need for far more treatment facilities for drug-dependent persons.

and justifications of the and ever more concerned to discover pragmatic solutions to the problems of crime control. Leading this development was the United States, which experienced throughout the 1960s "unusual intheoretical explanations

state of crime

^

creases in crime and criminal behavior" (J. Edgar Hoover, Ufiifonn Crime Reports 1969). The new and growing demands this increase placed upon law enforcement agencies was recognized in the far-reaching survey made of crime in the U.S. by a commission

appointed in 1968 by Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson. Implementation of many of the recommendations

of experts. Citing as support the failure

in

the U.S. of draconian measures to deter drug use and

Heated debate concerning the drug marijuana raged

many countries in 1970. Concluding that moderate consumption of marijuana produced no obvious harmful effects upon users, Canadian and British commissions studying drug problems, while not recommending legalization of marijuana, urged substantial reductions in the penalties imposed for the use of the drug and suggested that legislative and allied controls over marijuana be divorced entirely from those related to in

other narcotics.

made by this commission gathered considerable momentum in 1970. Congressional appropriations totaling

sexuals was also viewed with interest.

$268 million for

including the U.K., subsequently reformed their laws

1970, compared with $63 million in fiscal 1969, included substantial funds for applied research promising immediate benefits in such fiscal

communications, detection, and apprehension. Longer term benefits were intended to emerge from extensive programs to upgrade recruiting standards and training schedules for law enforcement personnel. U.S. government concern about crime was also refields as

flected in the continuing spate of research reports produced in 1970 by official commissions investigating

violence, pornography,

and allied ills. The National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence

The

liberal

approach of the Dutch toward homo-

Some

countries,

changed attitudes toward homosexuality. In 1970 active campaigns to further this liberal trend were launched in, among other countries, the U.S., Australia, and New Zealand. Canada, following the lead set by the U.K. Sexual Offences Act, 1967, reformed its law during 1969, so that homosexual acts between consenting adults in private were no longer to reflect

criminal offenses.

The fourth UN Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders was held at Kyoto, Jap., on August 17-26. The congress, held

I

the first time in Asia,

P. Jackson, brother of one of the "Soledad Brothers,"

icipants

three black prisoners charged with murdering a white guard at California's Soledad prison. Jackson had slipped the kidnappers' guns into Judge Haley's courtroom. On August 16 a warrant was issued for black militant Angela Davis (see Biography) after evidence showed that she had purchased the shotgun used to kill Judge Haley. Miss Davis was arrested in New York City on October 13. After a trial filled with courtroom disruptions, on Feb. 18, 1970, a Chicago jury acquitted seven defendants of conspiring to incite a riot during the 1968 Democratic national convention. (See Law: Special Report.) Late in the year hearings were held on whether the presiding judge or federal marshals had improperly influenced the jury during its deliberations. The trial of seven of eight persons charged with conspiracy to damage the Seattle, Wash., Federal Building (the "Seattle 8") began in Tacoma on November 23. At Ann Arbor, Mich., on August 19, John Norman Collins, a former college student, was convicted of the first-degree murder of Karen Sue Beineman, one of seven young women killed in the Ann Arbor area

was attended by over 1,100 from 82 countries. One interesting finding he congress was that the rapid changes in patterns rime over the previous 25 years contrasted sharply slow changes in criminal law and

t[i the relatively p al codes.

A

nine-member ad hoc group of

dele-

considered the problems of hijacking; several

gjas

urged a new law to make the seizure of

sfakers (jft in

the air an international crime.

air-

A summation

the current progress in criminal justice research

(

al

development took place at the sixth International which met in Madrid, Spain,

ngress on Criminology,

1

(Du. C.)

jfSeptember.

^ajor Crimes. Bombings created a major crime )blem in 1970. In the U.S., in the 15-month period m Jan. 1, 1969, through March 1970, there were 30 actual bombings resulting in over 40 deaths and

^

damage

Dperty

of $21.8 million,

mbings. and 35,129 ederal

grand jury

bomb

in

1,475 attempted

On

July 23, 1970, Detroit indicted 13 leaders of threats.

Weatherman faction of Students for a Democratic fSDS) on charges of conspiring to bomb and The indictment attempted to link a Weatherman -ing in Flint, Mich., in December 1969 with bomb ;ing in \ew York City and an arms cache found Chicago. In the wreckage of a town house blown on March 6 in New York City's Greenwich Vilpolice discovered 60 sticks of dynamite, some

e

ciety

J

'ing caps, and three bodies of persons later identi-

Weatherman members. After another explosion a Lower East Side apartment on March police found several live bombs, bomb-making as

•".ered

firearms. Black Panther party literature,

erials,

map showing

a

the sites of police stations and

\ thunderous explosion ripped the old Federal Office

Minn., on August 17. and on August 24, at 3:45 a.m., a bomb ripped through the building in Minneapolis,

reinforced concrete building of the

lix-story,

Army

Mathematics Research Center on the University of in Madison, killing a research as-

Wisconsin campus

and injuring four other persons. On September it had initiated a nationwide search for four young men, reportedly admirers of Cuban Prime Minister Fidel Castro, who were charged with the Madison bombing. Early on the morning of October 14 an explosion ripped through the Center for International Affairs at Harvard University. On December 5 an explosion at the Humble Oil and Resistant Z,

the

FBI announced

in

1967-69. The first-degree murder

Manson and

three

women members

ily" for the slayings of actress

trial

of Charles

of his hippie "fam-

Sharon Tate and

six

other persons in August 1969 began in Los Angeles

on June 16 and for the rest of the year was marked by disruptions by the defendants, including those prompted by a remark by Pres. Richard Nixon that Manson was "guilty." and by the disappearance of a defense law\'er in December. Black militant H. Rap Brown was placed on the FBI's most wanted list on May 5, 1970, after he failed to appear for trial in Ellicott City, Md., on charges stemming from a riot in Cambridge, Md., in 1967. In March 1970 two of Brown's friends were

when a bomb exploded in their automobile about a mile from the Bel Air. Md.. courthouse, where Brown had failed to appear for his scheduled trial. Martin Sweig, former chief administrative aide to U.S. House Speaker John W. McCormack CDem., Mass.), was found guilty of one count of perjury in a

killed

New York

federal court in 1970, but

B!

fj»

Arthur G. Barkley holds a pistol of the

in

the cockpit

TWA

727

he hijacked from Phoenix, Ariz., June 4. He was rushed and subdued but not before he shot the captain. Dale C. Hupe, in the abdomen.

was acquitted of

It

Co. plant in Linden, N.J., injured 30 persons. 5, 1970, the bodies of Joseph A. Yablonski, defeated candidate in a bitterly disputed election for fining

On

Jan.

president of the United

Mine Workers

and daughter were found Clarksville, Pa.

indicted three

A

in the

union, his wife Yablonski home in

federal grand jury in Cleveland, 0.,

men on

charges of conspiracy to kill Yablonski and, because Yablonski was to have been a witness before a federal grand jury investigating election fraud charges, of obstructing justice and also depriving Yablonski of his

ment accused local, of

civil rights.

A

later indict-

Silous Huddleston, president of a

UMW

"directing" the others in carrying out the

slaying.

WIDE WORLD

California Superior Court Judge Harold J. Haley and three of his kidnappers were killed and three

A policeman damaged by

persons wounded on August

that destroyed

7,

when police blocked a Marin County Hall of

commandeered van outside the San Rafael. The kidnappers were three San Quentin convicts, James D. McClain. William Arthur Christmas, and Ruchell Magee, and Jonathan Justice in

of the

inspects a car

bomb blast much Army Mathematics a

Research Center and a

staff

killed

member

at the University of Wisconsin

in

Madison

on Aug. 24, 1970.

Above, James McClain points a pistol at Judge

Harold Haley while keeping a grip on the shotgun taped to the judge's neck during an attempted escape

from the Marin County courthouse. converge on the getaway van seconds after the shooting slopped. Four persons including Judge Haley and McClain (Calif.)

At

right, police

were

killed.

conspiring

mack's

to

use the prestige of Speaker

office to

McCor-

defraud government agencies and for

lover,

and then committed

a national

off

suicide.

when

scandal

the

The drama touchec Communist pres;

Nathan M. Voloshen, a Washington Unusual legal issues came to light in Alexandria, Va., on July 30, 1970, when a technician, Mario Jaime Escamilla, of Santa Barbara, Calif., was charged, un-

not more than 100,000 heroin users in the entire U.S

der special maritime laws that apply to ships at sea,

at that time, in 1970 there

with killing Bennie Lightsy, of Louisville, Ky., leader

City alone, where for the

personal gain.

charged that the marquis had enjoyed tax privilege;

lobbyist, pled guilty to the conspiracy charge.

for

many

years.

Traffic in narcotics has

of a research team, on Fletcher's Ice Island floating

narcotics arrests

about 325 mi. from the North Pole. A key question was whether Escamilla could be tried in a U.S. court since it had not been decided previously that an ice-

in 1969.

berg

Japan's history ended on Jan. 28, 1970, when 110 defendants were found not guilty and 93 found guilty of the crime of "riotlongest criminal

ing" on

May Day

1952.

colleagues had devoted

trial in

The all

presiding judge and five

of their time since 1952

Chinese authorities began waging a vigorous campaign against crime, black market acto this single case.

tivities,

and persistent

political disorders

by staging

mass rallies throughout the Canton area at which alleged criminals were given short trials and executed.

The bodies

of wealthy eye surgeon Victor M. Ohta, two sons, and secretary were found by firemen in the swimming pool of his burning mountaintop home near Santa Cruz, Calif., on October 19. A typewritten note declaring World War III on anyone misusing the environment was found signed with the names of the four knights on Tarot fortune-telling cards. With help from the area's sizable hippie community, police arrested John Linley Frazier for the murders on October 23. In Fresno, Calif., William E. Thoresen III, son of the president of the Great Western Steel Company, was shot to death on June 10, during a quarrel with his wife, Louise. Mrs. Thoresen was acquitted of murder charges at her trial in November where she testified she had killed her husband

his wife,

in self-defense after

to kill his brother

On August

31

he told her he had hired a Richard in 1965.

Rome

Camillo Casati-Stampa

police reported that di

a hunting trip,

man

Marquis

Soncino, owner of a famous

had returned to his home killed his wife and her young

stable of trotting horses,

from

sinct

On

July

in

New

Yorl;,

months of 1970 increased 79.2% over the same periocj first

six

Harlem boy became

1970, a

7,

teen-ager in

were 100,000

New York

the 102n(ii

City to die of drug-relatedj

causes in 1970; during the same period 322 adult

a "ship at sea."

is

The

grown tremendously

1960. U.S. authorities indicated that while there wert

ad-j

had died of drug-related causes. Widespread use of marijuana was reflected in the numerous arrests, of youths from prominent U.S. families, including: John P. Cahill, son of New Jersey Gov. William T diets

Cahill; J.

Curtis

Howard

Sitterson, son of Chancellor

Carlyle Sitterson of the University of North Caro-,

Una; Michael M. Hollings, son of U.S. Sen. Ernest, F. Hollings of South Carolina; Theodore Rosenberg,, son of New York State Supreme Court Justice Samuel R. Rosenberg; Robert F. Kennedy, Jr., son of the late U.S. senator; and his cousin, Robert Sargent Shriver III. Reports from Hong

28%

Kong

in

July 1970 revealed a

increase in crime over a five-year period and

showed a link between crime and the use of drugs by young people. In 1969 persons under 21 committed

59% 65%

of the murders, of the robberies,

32% of the serious assaults, 85% of the common sexual

and

offenses.

Canada's largest city, Montreal, by the end of 1969 a crime rate 153% above the 1960 level. Major crimes in 1969 totaled 41,675, an increase of 10% over 1968; bank robberies jumped from 95 in 1968 to 192 in 1969 and armed robberies from 815 to 1,388, or a 70% increase. The 1969 robbery rate in Mon-

had

100,000 inhabitants was three times A report on the administration of justice in Quebec province pointed up the low crime treal of 117.3 per

the national level.

solution rate, the few arrests made in Montreal compared with the national average, and the apparent ease with which criminals escaped from Quebec jails.

Montreal's 34 murders in 1969, 7 were described

1

police as

}

gangland-type slayings.

countries were plagued

by assassinations

Iieveral

kidnappings in 1970. Canadian Prime nister Pierre Elliott Trudeau invoked the War iasures Act on October 16 after Quebec separatist political

1

kidnapped British diplomat James R. Cross Quebec Minister of Labour Pierre Laporte. In latemala. Foreign Minister Alberto Fuentes Mohr Id d U.S. diplomat Sean M. Holly were kidnapped d released in exchange for political prisoners, but est German Ambassador Count Karl von Spreti is slain after the government refused to grant his inappers' demands. In late July and early August, uguayan Tupamaros guerrillas kidnapped four )ups

Cuba The

sociahst republic of

Cuba occupies the West

island in the Greater Antilles of the

largest

Indies.

Area: 42,827 sq.mi. (110,922 sq.km.), including several thousand small islands and cays. Pop. (1967 est.) including (1953) white 72.8%; mestizo 14.5%; Negro 12.4%. Cap. and largest city: Havana (pop., 1967 est., 1,008,500). Language: Spanish. Religion: predominantly Roman Catholic. President in 1970, Osvaldo Dorticos Torrado; prime minister, Fi7,937,200,

del Castro.

A. Mitrione, whose body was found

Although political stability was maintained, 1970 brought severe economic setbacks that led to administrative changes. When the July sugar crop fell short of

In Brazil a Japanese diplomat, the West -man ambassador, and the Swiss ambassador were lapped during the year. The commander in chief

dismissed three ministers: Jose Llanusa (education), Francisco Padron (sugar), and Manuel Luzardo Gar-

Army, Gen. Rene Schneider Chereau, wounded by a gunman on October 22. (See

cia (commerce). Llanusa 's successor was Maj. Belarmino Castilla, previously responsible for technical

'

r-ons, including

.ruguay, lutrust

Dan

the

chief U.S. police adviser to

10.

[he Chilean 1:

1

fatally :les

on individual countries.)

he incidence of airline hijackings dropped notice-

V following the s

it

adoption of

strict

security mea-

after Palestinian terrorists took over three air-

bound

jeptember

6.

Nonetheless,

for

New York

from European

(See Tr.'^xsportatiox the

first

successful

:

on

cities

Special Report.)

hijacking

of

a

on October IS. U.S. Marine Corporal Raffaele Minichiello was convicted in Rome n November 1970 on various Italian charges stemmng from his hijacking of a Trans World Airlines jet rom California to Rome in October 1969. Minichiello was also wanted on U.S. kidnapping and hijacking 7.S.S.R. airliner occurred

:harges.

London police announced on August 27 that machine guns, other firearms, and explosives had been seized in ISO simultaneous raids throughout England. The raids, described as the largest such operation in England, were made under 1968 legislation controlling the licensing of traders in firearms,

and under the ExSubstances Act of 1883. On July 23, 1970, a demonstrator hurled two gas bombs of the type used by British troops to quell

iplosive

violence in Northern Ireland into a packed

Commons chamber. See also Law; Police; Prisons

House of

(V.

W.

P.)

and Penology.

l.S

million tons, he

and vocational training throughout Cuba, while Padron was replaced by Marcos Lage Coello, a former university administrator, and Luzardo by Capt. Serafin Fernandez Rodriguez, a junior Army officer who had been in charge of militarv- food supplies. Other Cabinet changes were expected, and the fact that two ministries went to .\rmy officers suggested an increasingly military regime.

In a speech on«July 26 Castro called the S.S millionton sugar crop a major disaster. In the hope of achieving his target, he said, vital economic been neglected; products whose output since 1968 included cement (23%), steel fertilizers (32%), tires (50%), milk

projects had

had declined

(38%), (25%), and rods

unspecified foodstuffs.

Blaming himself for these

Cuba was reaping

failures,

Castro said

the consequences of mistakes caused

CUBA Education. 0967-68) Primary, pupils 1,273.581, teachers 43,714; secondary, pupils 177,133, teachers vocational, pupils 50,181, teachers 3,637; 1 1,286; teacher training, students 22,977, teachers (1966-67) 1,438: higher (including 3 universities), students 37,326,_ teaching staff 4,499. Finance. Monetary unit: peso, officially at par with £1 sterling). Budget the U.S. dollar (2.40 pesos (1966) balanced at 2,718,000.000 pesos.

=

Foreign Firemen examine the ruins of some of the 24 Denver school buses dynamited in a parking lot Feb 5, 1970.

by

Castro's 10 million-ton target

Trade.

fl967)

Imports

1.001,000,000

pesos; exports 717 million pesos. Import sources (1968 U.S.S.R. 61%; China 7%; France 6%. Export destinations (1968 est.): U.S.S.R. 44%; China 9%;

est.):

Spain

6%;

Czechoslovakia

6%;

East Germany

5%.

Main exports

('1966) sugar and products 85%. Transport and Commuhlcations. Roads (1968) c. 13.300 km. (including 1,144 km. of the Central Highway). Motor vehicles in use (1965): passenger 162,000; commercial (including buses) 103,700. Railways (1968) 14,740 km. (including 9.528 km. plantation). Shipping (1969): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and

gross tonnage 277,206. Telephones (Jan. 242,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1969) c. 1,325.000. Television receivers (Dec. 1968) c. 575,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968; 1967 in parentheses): rice 182 (94); corn c. 127 (c. 120); cassava (1967) c. 200, (1966) c. 200; sweet potatoes (1967) c. 230, (1966) c. 240; sugar, raw value (1969-70) c. 8,300, (1968-69) c. 4,352; coffee (1969) c. 30, (1968) c. 30; oranges c. 130 (123); tobacco c. 45 (45). Livestock (in 000; 1968-69): cattle c. 7,250; pigs c. 1,940; sheep c. 270; goats (1966-67) c. 220. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968): crude oil 104: petroleum products c. 4,050; electricity (kw-hr.; 1967) 4,488,000; chrome ore (oxide content; 1967) c. 11; mang.nnese ore (metal content; 1967) 27; nickel ore (metal content; 1967) 32.

over 200;

1969)

c.

i„u^,a. see

Agriculture

Cross-country: see Sporting Record

in Miami, were speedily liquidated. Their incu provoked strong diplomatic protests to the U and U.K. The U.S. showed no sign of relaxing its econom; blockade of Cuba; mutual relations failed to improvi and rumours of an impending rapprochement we: categorically denied by both sides. On May 20 Cast: announced the severance of all remaining links wi{; the U.S. government. This put an end to the agrei airlift of Cuban refugees to Miami, which began i\ 1961 and was estimated to have evacuated more tha

based

236

sions

Cycling

300,000 people since 1965. On September 24 the regime handed over to KEYSTONE

U.S. government a U.S.

Prime Minister

Army

private

jacked a Trans World Airhnes plane to

Fidel Castro

in

by inexperience and

virtually admitted

that

living

conditions were the worst in his 11 years of rule. Eco1970s, he explained, had counted on attainment of the sugar target, which was prevented by bad weather, faulty equipment, and low productivity; it was, therefore, imperative to reform

nomic planning for the

the administrative machinery. Incentives to increase the workers' productivity were clearly to be moral

rather than material. It was officially admitted that economic prosperity could not be expected before 1975. To achieve it by then, Cubans were asked for a

further effort.

The

gross oiitional product in 1969 (by an unofficial

COMPIX

by boat to Cuba to help harvest the sugar crop.

Moscow for a renewal of th 1964 trade and aid agreement, previously extended oi a provisional annual basis; there were no reports of

;

declined to negotiate

rationing continued.

reaction.

Despite Castro's economic setbacks his personal authority remained unchallenged. Still enormously

dications of

tance

among workers and some degree

of internal ter-

rorism. Successive raiding parties from the

organized by the Alpha-66 group of

Bahamas,

Cuban

exiles

ti

negotiations took place in

1969, were expected to rise again in 1970. Strict sugar

in Latin America. Nevertheless, symptoms of popular dissent (to which Castro admitted) included passive resis-

Cuba continued

depend entirely on Soviet economic assistance. Estl mated to be running at an annual rate of $400 million this had raised Cuba's total debt to about $3 billionexcluding Soviet military aid and sugar imports unde the 1964 support price agreement. In May and Jum

successful

was rated the best trained and best equipped UPI

sion of Czechoslovakia. In 1970

U.S. reckoning) was $2.8 billion, $200 million less than in 1968; but nickel exports, valued at $55 million for

popular with the general public, he had the Communist Party's support and the complete loyalty of the Army —an estimated force of 200,000-300,000 men that

Boston, young people board buses to Canada. From there they went

He was the first U.S. citizen (80 had lande Cuba) ever extradited for this offense, but the U Department of State said that his return did not heral any thaw in mutual relations. Cuba's relations with the Soviet Union remained oi the cordial footing established in August 1968, whei Castro had declared his support for the Soviet inva,! gust 24.

donates blood for Peruvian earthquake victims.

In

th

who had h; Cuba on Au

outcome

mutual defense

to these talks.

treaty,

Cuba

also sought

which the Soviet governmen fearing adverse U.S

—possibly

During the year, however, there were several in Moscow's positive interest in military

links with the Castro regime:

the

first

range army transport aircraft to arrive

Soviet long

in the

Westerr,

Hemisphere landed in Cuba; while Soviet naval unit; were in Cuban ports, the Soviet defense minister Marshal A. A. Grechko, visited Havana; and wher the Cuban defense minister, Maj. Raul Castro, returned from a six-week trip to Moscow, it was reported that Cuba would offer repair facilities to the Soviet Navy. On September 25 Washington warned

Moscow

against building a nuclear submarine base

near the Cuban port of Cienfuegos, although the Soviets denied

any attempt

Encyclop/edia

to

Beitannica

do

(Rn. C.)

so.

Films.

The

West

Indies

(1965).

Cycling world championships with the title races organized in separate countries, there was a return to a combined meeting for the 1970 series, which was held at Leicester, Eng. (August 6-16). This was the first time in nearly half a century that Great Britain had been host counAfter two years of

split

professional and amateur

try.

Leading up

to

the world championships were the

Commonwealth Games

at Edinburgh (July 16-25). Zealand riders were the most successful at this tournament, each country winning two of the six Commonwealth titles, with Britain and Canada taking the others. In the sprint event two Australian rivals, John Nicholson and Gordon Johnson, worked their way impressively through to the "two

Australian and

New

which went to Nicholson as he won both by close margins. Johnson, however, got his gold medal by joining rces with his countryman, Ron Jonker, to finish first the tandem race (a new event for the Commonealth Games) ahead of the Canadian pair, Barry Harly and Jocelyn Lovell. Lovell had been regarded as 16 likely winner of the 1,000-m. time trial, but he had be content with the bronze medal behind Harry .ent (N.Z.), whose time of 1 min. 8.69 sec. was a ew Games record, and Leslie King (Trinidad), v'hereas Kent won this short but severe test by 1.71 ac, his compatriot Bruce Biddle was successful in /inning the 102 -mi. road race by only 0.01 sec. from iustralia's Ray Bilney after a tremendous duel in iQuring rain. Lovell finally secured his gold medal in )"

237

final,

atches

Cycling

)

The U.K.'s one success by Ian Hallam, impressive winner of the 4,000-m.

he 10-mi. track championship. vas

ndividual pursuit.

KEYSTONE

Hugh Porter

world championships, one of the runners-up n the Commonwealth Games was to provide the sensation of the tournament. Despite a fall in the early round of the world sprint, Gordon Johnson fought his ivay through to the final to beat a former titleholder, Santa Galardoni (Italy), in two straight matches. the

.\i

Having turned professional just after the wealth

pro-

amateur match to win his

in the

met Daniel Morelon (France), who went on

event to reach the semifinal, where he in

first

SO years. Johnson's compa-

John Nicholson rode strongly

triot

his

fourth championship in five years.

Hallam and Kent

also reproduced their fine Edin-

burgh form at Leicester, but each finished second the present or a

to

previous titleholder of the respective

championships. Kent (1 min. 9.21 sec.) lost to Denmark's Niels Fredborg (\ min. 8.82 sec.) in the l,000-m. time

mann

trial,

and Hallam

lost to

Xavier Kur-

(Switz.) in the 4.000-m. pursuit. It was,

how-

Great Britain took its only Porter dominating the 5,000-m. professional event to win-the final comfortably from Lorenzo Bosisio (Italy). ever, in pursuit racing that

gold

medal of the

series,

Hugh

Biggest total of victories in the tournament went to

and West Germany, each of which had The high totals resulted from victories in team contests, four Soviets winning the 100-km. road team time trial and four Germans taking the similar type of competition over 4,000 m. on the track. The West Germans' other championships were won by Jurgen Barth and Rainer MuUer f tandem) and E. Rudolph T 100-km. professional motor-paced). Soviet cyclists were supreme in the women's events, the U.S.S.R.

seven gold medalists.

winning with

Anna Konkina

(37-mi. road),

Tamara

Garkuschina f3.000-m. pursuit), and Galina Careva (sprint). In finishing third in the pursuit race Beryl Burton (U.K.) took her 13th world championship medal to equal the record total held by male competitor

Arie

Van

Vliet TNeth.).

Although not among the winners pionships,

Eddy Merckx

in the

world cham-

fBelg.) competed in the road

and gave valuable team support to his victorious compatriot Monsere. Yet Merckx was unquestionably race

the greatest professional road rider of the year, dominating the competition to an even greater extent than in 1969. The Belgian was in form early in the season for the eight-day race

up

to

off in

from Paris to Nice, which lived its name of the "Race to the Sun" by starting bad weather and finishing under the bluest of

Mediterranean

skies.

Merckx won

2 of the

in

the 5,000-m.

professional pursuit

during the world cycling championships in Leicester, Eng., Aug. 10, 1970.

Common-

Games, Johnson thus won Australia's

fessional sprint title in

of Great

Britain pedals toward victory and a gold medal

1 1

stages

and had a comfortable (Spain),

who

final

later in the year

lead over Luis

was

Ocana

to score several no-

Tour of Spain. Milan-San Remo

table successes, including the 19-day

Merckx was race (March

the favourite in the

19), the first big international event of the year in Italy, which he had already won three

On

times.

occasion, however, a native hero Michele Dancelli, convincing winner of the classic after a lone breakaway that had huge roadside crowds wild with enthusiasm, this being the first

emerged

this

in

Italian victory in the event since 1953.

Three weeks later Merckx was back on home roads win the four-day Tour of Belgium (April 6-9) in atrocious weather conditions, and from there he went on to crush the opposition in the Paris-Roubaix race, the last 40 mi. of which is over deliberately chosen narrow unkept cobbled roads. All this was building up to Merckx's two main objectives of the season, the tours of Italy and France. He won the Tour of Italy (May 17-June 6) with a final lead of 3 min. 14 sec. over Fehce Gimondi (Italy), Martin Vandenbossche to

(Belg.) finishing third.

Twenty-one days later, Merckx started the Tour de France, the race that he had won in 1969 to become the first Belgian victor since 1939 thanks to forceful riding that earned six stage victories. It was expected that Merckx would be less aggressive in the 1970

Tour, but he was even more so, winning eight stages ('equaling the 1930 record of Charles Pelissier of France and winning the race by 12 min. 51 sec. from new professionals Joop Zoetemelk (Neth.) and Gosta Pettersen (Swed.). Earlier in the season Merckx had won the one-day Fleche Wallonne race in the Belgian Ardennes. Other "classic" race winners were: LiegeBastogne-Liege. Roger De Vlaeminck ('Belg.); Tour )

of Flanders, Eric

Leman

Herman Van

rBelg.); Paris-Tours, Jurgen Tour of Lombardy, Franco Bitossi

(Belg.);

Bordeaux-Paris,

Springel

Tschan (W.Ger.) (Italy) Grand Prix des Nations Time ;

;

Van

Trial,

Herman

Springel.

Following the cancellation of the Tour de I'Avenir in France, the "Peace Race" (Warsaw-Berlin-Prague) again became the most important multistage amateur event, victory going to Ryzard Szurkowski (Pol.).

Curling: see

Sporting Record

Currency: sec

Money

ancJ

Cybernetics: see Electronics

Banking

238

Cyprus

Eastern Europeans also dominated the two main British events, the 14-day Tour of Britain (won by Jiri Mainus, Czech.) and the two-day Tour of Scotland (Jo. B.

(Wojech Matusiak, Pol).

W.)

island republic

terrorist campaign.

On January 16 Makarios (just back from a trip East Africa) flew to Athens for talks with the Gra' government, after which both parties condemned t!| terrorist acts

Cyprus An

After attacking several members of the Makarios go ernment, it was declared illegal and embarked on|

work and a member of the Common-

wealth of Nations, Cyprus is in the eastern Mediterranean. Area: 3,572 sq.mi. (9,251 sq.km.). Pop. (1969

and reaffirmed

their determination

for "the consolidation of peaceful coexisteno^

between the island's two communities. A roundup hidden arms was followed on January 29 by the pail sage of a law authorizing the police to detain suspec|

630,000, including Greeks 77%; Turks 18%. Cap. and largest city: Nicosia (pop., 1969 est., 114,000). Language: Greek and Turkish. Religion: Greek

for three months without trial, and in February t3 Greek prime minister, Georgios Papadopoulos, catil

Orthodox 77%; Muslim 18.3%. President in 1970, Archbishop Makarios III. Negotiations between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots on the administrative structure of a united and independent Cyprus made no headway in 1970, and a new challenge to the Makarios policy came from the National Front, a right-wing Greek Cypriot movement that wanted immediate enosis (union with Greece). Using terrorist tactics, it created tensions that came to a head in the spring, when an unsuccessful attempt on the president's life on March 8 was quickly followed by the assassination of his former minister of the interior and defense, Polycarpos Georghadjis. In November four Greek Cypriots, including a policeman and a constable, were sentenced to 14 years' imprisonment fcr the attack on Makarios. All four had pleaded not guilty to the charges. There were suggestions that Georghadjis, who was shot dead on March 15 near Nicosia, might also have been involved. Throughout most of the preindependence campaign against British rule, Georghadjis had been a prominent member of the militant EOKA (Union with Greece) resistance movement. The political atmosphere in which the shootings occurred had been building up since the National Front emerged a year earlier to revive the demand for enosis.

kind of support" from his government. But the terro

est.):

CYPRUS Education. (1967-68) Primary, pupils 72,394, teach2,202; secondary, pupils 31,466, teachers 1,292; vocational, pupils 4,143, teachers 236; higher, students 339, teaching staff 2 7. Finance. Monetary unit: pound, at par with the U.S. $2.40). Budget (1969 pound sterling (C£l expenditure C£24.6 milest.): revenue C£2 7,390,000 lion. Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, monetary authorities: (June 1970) U.S. $168.4 million; (June 1969) U.S. $160.3 million. Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports C£85, 780,000; exports C£39,980,000. Import sources: U.K. 31%; Italy 10%; West Germany 8%; U.S. 5%; Greece 5%; France 5%. Export destinations: U.K. 40%; West Germany 16%; Italy 7%; U.S.S.R. 6%. Main exports: citrus fruit 18%; copper 16%; potatoes 12%; iron pyrites 8%. ers

=

;

Transport and Communications. Roads (1968) 7,591 km. (including 3,309 km. with improved surface). Motor vehicles in use (1968): passenger 42,400; com(1969): 70.9 million pas1,640,000 net ton-km. Shipping merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over (1969): 134; gross tonnage 770,463. Telephones (Dec. 1968) 33,396. Radio receivers (Dec, 1968) 147,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1968) 32,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968; 1967 in parentheses): oranges 99 (c. 89); grapefruit 58 (51); wheat (1967) c. 97, (1966) 56; potatoes (1967) c. 139, (1966) 134; olives 15 (c. 17); grapes 168 (c. 146). Livestock (in 000; 1968-69): sheep 405; cattle 39. Industry. Production (in 000: metric tons; 1968): asbestos 19; copper ore (exports; metal content) 22; chromium ore (oxide content) 12; cement (1969) 246; electricity (excluding most industrial production; kw-hr.; 1969) 508,000.

mercial 13,500. Air senger-km.; freight

traffic

gorically denied that the National Front enjoyed

ism continued;

in

May

"ai-|

about 60 people, including'!

number of policemen, were arrested after an attaq by masked men on the main police station at Limassc'lj Despite the prevailing tension, the island's

first elef

tions since independence took place without inciderilj

Held on July 5, they gave 15 of the 35 Greek Cypri(ec. 27 Belo Horizonte, Braz. Two passenger trains fell from le tracks and plunged into a ravine killing 17 persons and ijuring 25 others. ct.

into the rear illing 13 persons in

RAFFIC iarck 6 Katmandu, Nepal. Swerving to avoid hitting a small irl, a speeding truck overturned and killed 14 persons riding n top of its load of cement; 14 other riders were hurt. larch 14 Pachuca, Mex. Pileup of a two-bus collision was mashed into and set afire by a truck loaded with industrial Icohol; 27 persons perished and 32 others were injured. Harch 20 Ambato, Ec. A bus plunged through the guardrail f a bridge and into the .'\mbato River, killing 56 of the 107 lassengers; 61 others were injured. Hay 3 Near Managua, Nic. Truck and bus collision caused 3 deaths. iug. 21 S. Korea. Seoul-Pusan bus plunged over liff, killed 25 persons, and injured 22 others.

a

130-ft.

icpt. 18 Ceara State. Braz. Loaded with pilgrims returning rom a religious festival, a truck suddenly lost its brakes, /eered off a hilly curve and into a lake, bringing death to 19 pilgrims and injuring 33 others.

Oct.

14 Near Onyang, S.Kor. As

passed over an unmanned

it

railroad crossing, a bus loaded with excursioning junior high school boys was struck by a train and pushed 100 yd. before bursting into flames; 52 boys and the driver were killed;

24 other students were injured. Oct.

24 Near Bangkok, Thai. About 70 mi. SE of the city smashed into a bus carrying Buddhist pilgrims and

a truck

killed 2 7 persons.

Nov. 3 Takane, Jap. Construction minibus ran off the road and plunged into a reservoir, killing all 10 passengers.

Domestic Arts and Sciences Home Economics.

Education and family living were concerned home economists throughout the world in 1970. Work in these fields was given special direction by close collaboration with subjects

that

deeply

two speciahst agencies of the United Nations, the

Food

and

Agriculture

Organization

(FAO)

and

UNESCO, through the International Federation of Home Economics (IFHE) centred in Paris. In conjunction with UNESCO, which had designated 1970 as International Education Year, the IFHE distributed

French to

its

collective

An

an evaluation of women's unpaid work in the home, and an investigation into the relationship between formal and informal home economics education. The International Permanent Council of the IFHE, which met at Konigstein, W.Ger., in July, reported an 8% rise in collective members. Recent progress included increased collaboration with international agencies, work on the documentation of home economics

in

formal educa-

was the new attitude

many

home economics

edu-

countries. In Britain a

new

to

four-year honours degree course the University

was established

of Surrey, emphasizing the

role

at

of

home economist as an educator in the home and community. In the United States there were signs of a change of thinking concerning the structure of home economics degree courses, reflected in a deeper study of the physical and social sciences, more emphasis on specialized areas of study, and less emthe

data and research, and a continuing inquiry into an

the

acceptable international definition of the profession.

phasis on the practical side of the subject.

The vision ily

Home Economics Branch of the Nutrition Diof FAO announced a "Planning for Better Fam-

Living" program to assist

member

nations in de-

veloping opportunities for their people to acquire the

In this connection, the Association of

VLADIMIR

KACAN

The "paper clip" lamp designed by Vladimir Kagan has a one-way mirror that makes the fluorescent bulb invisible when it is turned

off.

affects the

members, seeking information

home economics

Spanish,

indication of the growing importance of the pro-

cation evidenced in

it

preschool child, the aging and the aged living alone,

English,

in

tion in different parts of the world.

fession

program concentrating on nutrition as

and

questionnaires

on the position of

COURTESY.

knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed for sound planning in all aspects of family life. Assistance was pledged by the Home Economics Standing Committee of the International Council of Women, which held its triennial meeting in Bangkok, Thai., in February. Plans announced for the next three years included a

Home

Econo-

mists of Great Britain had formulated and circulated

"Home economists are proon food, nutrition, shopping, textiles, household equipment and services, research and education, related to the home and the community." Consumer education and protection involved many leading home economists. In the United States, Virginia Cutler, chairman of the family economics and the following definition

:

fessional advisers

Disciples of Christ: Religion

sec.

Divorce: see

Vital

Statistics

Docks: sec Transportation

tetic foods, the

280

again changed

Domestic Arts and Sciences

Food and Drug Administratior mind and forbade the sale of anj

U.S.

its

product containing cyclamates after September 1 California fruit packers protested to Washington ova: the February

1 deadline for the withdrawal fron cyclamate-sweetened canned goods, whih Canadian producers were given until September 1 Saccharin was declared safe by the FDA, althoug' studies of it were continuing. Another additive, mono

of

sale

sodium glutamate, 47 million lb. of which were con sumed annually in the U.S., had come under scrutin>

when

—

original

of Sciences undertook

particularly in

use,

it

tc

baby foods. Ar

was safe for

adults.

Considerable publicity was given during the year tc a controversy over the nutritive qualities of dry break-

—

its

its

interim report indicated that

Whirlpool Trash Masher one of the first new major household appliances compresses In 30 years household trash to one-quarter of

Academy

the National

investigate

COURTESY. WHIRLPOOL CORP.

closely involved with the special needs of the disabled.

which amounted to many milhons of dollars annually. Robert B. Choate, Jr., a nutrition crusader, testified before a Senate subcommittee that he had ranked the leading brands of dry cereals according to their nutritional content and had concluded that most of them consisted of "empty calories," with no more food value than alcohol or sugar. Furthermore, although a few fortified brands had been put on the market, it was the least nutritional ones that were most intensively advertised on television programs appealing to children. The breakfast cereal industry countered with statements by

A

other scientists

fast cereals, U.S. sales of

volume

a heavy-duty polyethylene bag. in

home management department

Brigham Young

of

University, Provo, Utah, was appointed chairman of the

Major

(MACAP),

Consumer

Appliance

Panel

Action

up by the home appliance industry to act as an ombudsman for consumer complaints. In Great Britain home economists became more set

Pilot Study of Disabled Housewives in Their Kitchens was published by the Disabled Living Group, comparing movements and daily patterns of ablebodied and disabled housewives and investigating the problems and needs of the disabled housewife in her particular kitchen environment.

The truly international basis of the work of the home economist was underlined by a report in the Bulleti?i of the IFHE on the work of the home econoSouth Africa, Swaziland, New Zealand, and Jamaica, compiled by four British home economists on a world tour. The special role of the home economist in translating the results of scientific research into terms of practical living was emphasized by an account of the work of home economists at Kasetsart University, Thailand, in the development of palatable forms of a protein evolved in the Institute of Food Research at the university and currently being used in a pilot feeding scheme for children. Food Preparation. The purchase and preparation of food were made more convenient than ever before for both the domestic and the industrial consumer in 1970. At the same time, while food scientists conmist

Australia,

in

tinued their search for

new means

countries

of increasing the

more afHuent became more and more concerned about the

world food supply, consumers

in

the

possible contamination of processed foods.

In

all

parts of the world, attempts were being

made

to develop protein, the nutrient in shortest supply,

from such varied sources as leaves, oilseed residue, and algae. In Great Britain textured vegetable protein (TVP), developed in the U.S. in 1968, was marketed for the first time and offered to caterers for inclusion in sausages and other processed foods. The yeasts,

first full

season's large-scale experience with the

new

high-yield rice (IRS), which promised a fivefold in-

crease in rice yields

compared with native

varieties,

revealed difficulties in harvesting and deficiencies in eating qualities.

Controversy continued

to rage

over the question of

cyclamates. After having relaxed

permit use of the

artificial

its

original

ban

to

sweeteners in certain die-

who

insisted that Choate's evaluation

was misleading and that, in any case, dry cereals were not meant to be consumed by themselves but with milk, fruit, and other foods added. The market for convenience foods continued to grow, particularly

in

Europe. In Great Britain the

U.S. firm of Pillsbury invested £750,000 in a bid

break into

this lucrative sector

to

with four refrigerated

dough products. New products included a Grand Marnier flavoured dessert (Chambourcy), a kipper flavoured potato chip (Tudor Foods), and in Britain, where the canned milk pudding market alone was valued at £2 million, a canned dairy custard (Heinz). The highly competitive instant coffee market became even more of a battleground with the new granular instant coffee being introduced in quick succession by

U.S. General Foods (Maxwell House) and the Swiss Nestle (Nescafe) both companies invested a total ;

of around $9.6 million in promoting their share of the

£42 million ($100.8 milHon) market. In Europe, where the frozen food market was expected to triple in the ensuing decade. Nestle and Unilever NV merged their frozen food interests in Italy, West Germany, and Austria, to share the burden of distribution costs.

In the U.S.S.R. ten sturgeon-breeding farms were established to safeguard the production of caviar, in

danger of disappearing as massive pollution of the Volga threatened the beluga sturgeon with extinction. In Britain a renewed appetite for porridge was reported, with sales increasing

On

20%

during the year.

the other hand, canteen diners were offered in-

creasingly sophisticated fare

when Gardner Merchant

Industrial Caterers launched a £400,000 project to

over 100 frozen dishes, including boeuf bourgignonne and coq au vin, that could be speedily reheated in microwave and convection air ovens. Greater convenience in shopping for food was offered to the housewife with a new system of marketing by computer (TeleMart, California), whereby a phoned grocery order was fed into an audio response computer that quoted prices and delivery times on

market

000 items. Greater speed in

menu

planning was also

$10,600) by a Honeywell tchen computer featured in the Neiman-Marcus price

(for a

Jered

of

hristmas catalog.

more immediate importance was the itroduction of so-called unit pricing by a number of .S. supermarket chains, including Safeway Stores, le second largest in the country. Under this system, Less futuristic but of

the housewife during a period of inflation

)

!

ijpermarkets posted the price of the products they )ld by the ounce, pound, or other standard unit. For Dme years consumer advocates had complained that lost packaged grocery products were put out in odd izes that made comparison shopping impossible withut complicated mathematical computations. Cooking utensils were increasingly designed for the onvenience of the cook. Although the new pots and ans looked beautiful, they were also more practical

han ever before. In

Sweden

the ceramics industry

(VDN

stabhshed a quality-control system

nked

cracking and the effect of various

resistance to

f

Fakta),

coding system, that guaranteed the degree

to a

oods and dishwashing methods on glazed and paterned ceramics of :ig

number

all

types. In Great Britain a grow-

of manufacturers designed utensils with

While were manufactured with

iishwashing performance particularly in mind. greater xisting

number

of utensils

hardbase nonstick finishes, the search for new

naterials continued; Phillips

Petroleum was undertak-

ng experirrients with the plastic

PPS

(polyphenylsul-

ide).

Household Appliances. There was consolidation in household appliances in and standard models were increasingly marketed

ather than innovation 1970,

OTth features previously available only in luxury ver-

Stoves of n design.

iions.

To

all

kinds provided the major advances

ART-WOOD PHOTOGRA

jority stake in the Belgian

company

of Atehers et

Constructions Electriques de Charleroi. In freezers the trend was toward combined freezerrefrigerators, with Swedish, British, and Danish firms

producing new models. In Britain, where one company announced a 50% increase in freezer sales during the year, the Swedish-owned Electrolux Co. forecast that British ownership would rise from 2 to 17% within five years. Sixty-two different models, priced from £42 to £218, were marketed by 24 companies of the Food Freezer Committee, many of them European in origin. Indeed, the Italian Indesit freezer was selected by the Consumer Association magazine Which as the best buy among freezers available in Britain. Refrigerators were increasingly designed as pieces

take advantage of the growing use of conve-

of furniture rather than as appliances. Finished in

which they could reheat more rapidly han conventional ovens, an increasing number of microwave ovens were introduced for domestic use. The Swedish Husqvarna 2000, rather like a helmeted spaceman in appearance, was a complete reassessment of microwave oven design. In the Philips (Eindhoven, Neth.) 1-kw. microwave oven, a frozen casserole for four could be reheated in 3^ minutes. Many electric ovens also incorporated new design features. An increasing number contained two ovens one for everyday cooking, the other for entertaining

wood, or in colours to match cooking utensils, they were designed to fit over or under working surfaces, or to be wall hung or built into wooden cabinets. One U.S. model had castors that could be locked when the refrigerator was in position and unlocked when it was to be moved for housecleaning. During the first five months of the year, it was reported that British refrigerator exports to Europe had fallen by 21% from

nience foods,

and family weekend use. of self-cleaning.

A new

Many

offered

departure

ances was a glass ceramic range,

in

some method

cooking appli-

made from

material

developed by the U.S. Corning Glass Works. This range, for which its designers predicted a profitaoriginally

ble future,

was characterized by the

rings

mounted on

its

dominance

in

the

and appliance

field,

the

North Eastern Gas Board forecast a boom in the sale and gas appliances, following its linkup with Research Building Materials of Yorkshire to produce bathroom and kitchen units at prices a third cheaper than was possible with conventional building methods. The method used one-inch-thick brick slips bonded to stressed

panel construction to achieve insulation more effective than any other known building

material. Greater U.S. influence of

European appliwas expected to follow the deal whereby U.S. Wesdnghouse Electric Corp. acquired a ma-

ance design the

ensure more effective laundering of the dress and furnishing fabrics.

With

many new

the quality of the

environment at the centre of public attention, the

of gas

800%

modules to slow down washing action for smaller loads and to ensure even distribution of the load. There was also increasing sophistication in rinsing programs and spin speeds to

high phosphate content of most popular laundry detergents and other cleansing preparations became an

underside.

fuel

of the latest automatic washers incorporated

conduct

In Britain, where electricity had begun to reassert its

Many

solid-state electronic control

and had heating

ability to

heat vertically rather than laterally,

the previous year.

issue

among

conservationists. According to the anti-

phosphate forces, the phosphates, when discharged into a sewer system and then into a river or lake, caused an excessive growth of algae, leading to a decrease in the oxygen supply and eventual "death" of the body of water. A few U.S. localities passed laws that would prohibit the sale of phosphate-containing detergents within a specified period of time.

Non-

phosphate products were introduced, although most major manufacturers insisted that the time limits were too short to permit them to find substitutes that would perform satisfactorily and that could be used in modern washing machines. Some of the proposed sub-

A woman warms

hot dogs

the 1-kw. microwave oven by Philips in

(Eindhoven, Neth.), which can heat a frozen casserole for four in 31/2 minutes.

282

Domestic Arts and Sciences

stitutes

were themselves under

fire,

and

it

was claimed

offenders as far as phosphates were concerned, were

wood sic

on the market, and some washing machines incorporated a presoak period intu their cycles.

metals also provided inspiration for new designs

in

West Germany, where Gunther Lambert produced

a.;

Interior Decoration. Spatial simplicity and

and a renewed

the keynotes

of

interest in shape

interior

flexi-

and form were

decoration in

1970.

Ma-

such as plastics and tubular steel, originally developed for industrial use, inspired designers in every terials

field.

Preoccupation with shape was especially evident in materials such as fibreglass, plexiglass, polyurethane foam, and Dacron were used to make "seating units" (as opposed to armchairs and seating design, where

couches)

in

nonstructural flexible shapes. Examples

were the 30-ft.-long sack seating unit of Max Clendenning, Eero Aarnio's bright orange, upholstered foam pads, and the platform-mounted seating shapes designed by Tobia and Afra Scarpa for Cassina of Milan, which won the Compasso d'Oro awarded by the Italian Association for Industrial Design.

Many

seating units

were designed to bypass conventional upholstery processes; an outstanding example was a chair (by OMK) of molded polyester foam, with a removable cover of wet-look plastic "Airskin" and a system of interlocking zippers allowing the chairs to be joined or left isolated as required.

was especially notable where interchangeable units allowed rooms to have multiple functions and created a strong feeling of spatial flexibility, a trend seen in modular systems such as Techno's "Graphis" and the shelving of CJFRA Mobili. Although there was much of interest to be found in Italian-designed interiors, Italy's twoyear-old dominance, particularly in furniture design, began to be challenged by the Scandinavians. This was evident at the 12th International Furniture Fair Flexibility in furniture usage

in Italy,

hall

at the opening

on March 3, 1970, of the "Daily Mail" Ideal

Home

Exhibition

at Olympia, London.

exhibit

also criticized as possibly causing skin irritations. Despite this, the enzyme products consolidated their posi-

bility

The main

W.Ger., where the Danish group

of injection-molded plastic chairs in vivid colours, teamed with aluminum-framed tables and laminated"

tion

CENTRAL PRESS FROM PICTORIAL PARADE

at Cologne,

that one, in particular, might be carcinogenic. Enzyme presoaks and additives, which were among the worst

armchairs, was in startling contrast to the

clas-

teak and rosewood furniture that had established' Scandinavian design during the 1950s. Plastics and'

outstanding range of clear plastic furniture; in France,

where Sentou designed unit furniture in plastic and) tubular steel; and in Sweden, where Mobelfabrik used' tubular steel for a range of chairs and tables made up from standard units, clipped together to act as supports for glass or wood. From Italy came some of the most beautiful light fixtures of 1970, particularly those from Murano and Venice, examples being Mazzega's hanging lamp and the white glass bell shapes of Vistosi. Generally, however, the

trend was toward

architectural fixtures allowing

and

more

cleanly designed

maximum

flexibility in

Trend setters included Swedish fixtures in plastic, steel enameled in car-body colours such as bitter chocolate and flaming orange, and Danish kits in perspex and polished aluminum light intensity

direction.

that could be permutated to

The

make 119

different lamps.

dominated floor-covering design, whether^ in ceramic, vinyl, or carpet. Indeed, many body carpets were woven in tile designs or in bold geometric patterns producing the same effect. These patterns were used in the design of Itahan ceramic tiles, and Italian influence could be seen in the tufted broadloom tile

won the U.S. M-1 (Monsanto First) student design competition a large-scale geometric patcarpet that

—

tern in sophisticated colours reminiscent of the rich reds,

blues,

teriors.

and greens that dominated Italian inwere repeated in fur-

Italian carpet designs

nishing fabrics, either in clear brilliant colours or

in

dark and richly sombre shades. Prints were to be found everywhere, especially in interiors designed for the young. Designs previously used in women's clothes were printed on such varied

aterials as toweling,

wallpaper, quilting, and oilcloth,

manufacturers used prints, such as those of [arimekko of Finland, on cloth laminated to hard irfaces such as doors and to make screens or to hang line

The

paintings.

;

.il

effect

had the same bright and

infor-

appeal as pop posters and fantasy furniture.

While kitchen decor remained as diverse as in years, there was a movement toward softer itlines, often achieved by relieving the starkness of itchen appliances with hand-turned pine paneling. the working area was often 1 kitchen-dining areas, irlier

1

jncentrated in a corridor, giving the dining area spaiousness

that

was enhanced by high-gloss paints

jrayed on to give an auto-body finish. Following the

"package deal kitchens" were increasmarketed, and other complete kitchens were

talian trend, igly

home assembly

\ailable in

(Ev. R.)

kits.

^ee also Fashion and Dress; Food; lerchandising: Special Report.

Industrial Design;

ExCYCLOP/EDiA Britannic.a Films. H ow to Make a Simple Weave (1958): How to Make a Starch Painting Lines in Relief Woodcut and Block Printing 58);

I

\.oom and I

Cloth

';4);

1

— Fiber

—

to

right-wing groups had given rise to an unhealthy po-

Fabric (1968).

litical

climate that was not conducive to achieving

free elections.

quiet rumours of political military aide was to be exchanged draw minority parties into the for 20 prisoners linked presidential race. President Balaguer announced that to the '"United he would turn over his executive powers from April Anti Re-election Command." 16 to May 22 to the chief justice of the Supreme Court. This prompted a brief attempt by moderates of several political groups to rally around the middleof-the-road National Conciliation Movement's darkhorse candidate, former president Hector GarciaGodoy. However, his untimely natural death on April

In

Dominican 'iivering

eastern twoCaribbean island

the

hirds of the

Hispaniola, the

i)f

Dominican

Uepublic is separated from \ liti, which occupies the westra third, ;i:n

by

a rugged

moun-

range. Area: 18,720 sq.mi. (48.484 sq.km.). Pop.

1*69

European 28%; and mulatto 60%; Negro 11%. Cap. and

est.):

iTstizo

4,174,490,

including

city: Santo Domingo fpop., 1967 est., 577,Language: Spanish. Religion: Roman Catholic. I'li iident in 1970, Joaquin Balaguer. Political events focused on the May presidential 1 rtion and dominated the course of" the year's events n the Dominican Republic. President Balaguer and hi- Reformist Party ushered in 1970 on a rising tide 01 rural-based popular support. Yet the Dominican electorate continued to remain divided. Attempts at n onciliation between the incumbent Reformist rty and minority political groups proved futile beL'pst

I

I

cause of basic ideological

differences.

Even within

Reformist Party, loyalty had been divided since Vice-Pres. Francisco Augusto Lora announced in 1969 his plans to enter the 1970 presidential race as the the

candidate of the Integrated Anti-Reelection cratic

Demo-

Movement CMIDA).

all

tion

participating parties.

Movement

(MIR)

The Independent Reelecimmediately

nominated

Balaguer as their presidential candidate and the National

Youth Movement (MNJ) quickly joined

their

February the Reformist Party at its national convention voted overwhelmingly to draft Balaguer for a second term. The leftist-oriented Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRDj, considerably weakened by the absence of viable leadership, decided to abstain from the comranks. In late

ing presidential elections. tional race,

By

early April six addi-

had withdrawn from the presidential conceding that terrorist acts by both left- and parties

attempt

20

left

and

to

to

the only viable opposition

a candidate. In the election on

movement without

Mav

16 the Reformist

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC Education. (1967-68) Primary, pupils 644,971, teach(including prcprimary) 11,681; secondary, pupils (including vocational and teacher training) 79,494, teachers (including teacher training) 3,344; higher, students 9,963, teaching staff 918. Finance. Monetary unit: peso, at parity with the U.S. dollar (2.40 pesos £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1970) U.S. $34 million; (June 1969) U.S. $36.3 million. Budget (1968 est.): revenue 215.6 million pesos: expenditure 211.3 million pesos. Gross national product: (1968) 1,169,100,000 pesos; (1967) 1,084,400,000 pesos. Money supply: (June 1970) 156.5 million pesos; 128.5 million pesos. 1969) Cost of living (Santo (June Domingo; 1963 100): (June 1970) 103; (June 1969) 101. Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports 211.3 million pesos; exports 184 million pesos. Import sources (1968): U.S.

ers

=

-

55%; West Germany 7%; Japan 6%; Antilles 5%. Export Main exports: sugar

bauxite

The campaign period opened early in the year with pledges by the government to provide constitutional guarantees and equal opportunities for campaigning by

an

profiteering

Republic ,

Tear gas routs Dominicans gathered in Santo Domingo on March 25, 1970, where a kidnapped U.S.

8%:

tobacco

destination

51%; 7%.

coffee

U.S.

12%;

Netherlands (1968) 89%. cocoa

11%;

Transport and Communications. Roads (1968) c. 6,000 km. (including c. 2,500 km. main roads). Motor vehicles (1968): passenger 33,300; commercial (including buses) 18,100. Railways (1968) c. 220 km. (excluding c. 1,600 km. on sugar estates). Telephones (Jan. 1969) 35,735. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) 155,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1968) 75,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968; 1967 in parentheses): rice 211 (173); corn 40 (39); coffee (1969) c. 36, (1968) c. 32; sugar, raw value (1969-70) c. 1,016, (1968-69) c. 845; cassava (1967) 152, (1966) 153; peanuts (1969) 62, (1968) c. 47; sweet potatoes (1967) 97, (1966) 100; oranges c. 55 (c. 55); bananas (1967) 231, (1966) 238; tobacco (1969) c. 21, (1968) c. 16. Livestock (in 000; June 1969): cattle c. 1,150; pigs (June 1968) c. 1,275; horses c. 255; mules c. 85; asses c. 145; sheep c. 83; chickens c. 5.370. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968): bauxite 1,008; cement 328; electricity (kw-hr.) 701,000.

Dominica: see

Dependent States

284

Economic Planning

707,136

Party polled

out

votes

of

an estimated

1,852,404 total, assuring Balaguer a substantial victory.

During the first quarter of 1970 the tempo of student disturbances and terrorist acts heightened, in large measure because of the unconcealed animosity between leftist-oriented splinter groups and conservative

factions

within

the

milita:y.

Notwithstanding

these acts of terrorism and increased pohtical tensions

the capital and several of the larger provincial

in

by

moderate policies became the first democratically elected government to complete a full term of ofiice within the past 40 years cities,

the Balaguer regime

its

plan for achieving this figure.

Films.

The

West

Indies

Economic Planning The

uncertainties

arising

from speculation on

ex-

change-rate adjustments, which had bedeviled planners in the industrialized countries in 1969,

faded

in 1970.

payments moved decisively into surplus in the summer and autumn of 1969 in a belated response to devaluation two years earlier; the French devaluation of August 1969 succeeded in restoring the equilibrium of French payments; and

The

the

British balance of

West German revaluation

of October 1969 finally

relieved the strains in the international adjustment

in the

—

—

Even this lacked conviction, since until an acceptable way could be found to control the inflation facing all three countries, there could be no real plan. The rate of inflation

was higher

in

1970 than at any time

in

the preceding 20 years. This

Defense

Dress:

Fashion and Dress; Furs

see

was particularly worrisome for a country like Britain that had only a slow rate of growth, since the effect on cost per unit of output was much more serious than in countries with similar levels of inflation but faster growth. But even France and West Germany were finding that failure to control the monetary flows inhibited any real planning of the development of their economies in physical

Drugs:

Dutch Overseas Territories: see

Dependent States

Earthquakes: see Disasters;

Seismology Eastern Orthodox

Churches: see Religion

Ecology:

Sciences; Conservation

see Biological

terms.

The Rapport

see IVledicine

Dutch Guiana: see Dependent States

regions. The debate emphasized the problems of environment, participation, and the quality of life that had been prominent in France since the May 1968:

with a formal five-year plan for the years 1971-75.

Bkitannica

Encyclop.«dia

Drama: see Cinema; Theatre

the growth of output would not be rapid enough tc prevent some increase in structural unemployment an'; a worsening in the relative position of the backwarc

mechanism. Nevertheless, 1970 saw VUile real progress development of medium-term planning in the West. In the less developed countries, where planning was used as a device to promote both economic and social development, the newer plans in contrast to the earlier ones were placing increasing stress on the agricultural as opposed to the industrial sector, as well as on the growing problem of unemployment. The centrally planned economies of Eastern Europe continued to discuss methods of implementing "socialist economic integration." Industrialized Countries. Among the three major Western European countries, only France proceeded

(G. A. A.)

history.

(1965).

Draft:

port the rapid expansion of manufacturing industry.t Indeed, the plan was criticized by the left because

and the plan was defended on the ground more easily within the context of rapid growth than by its sacrifice. Although public expenditure as a whole was planned to grow at the same rate as the GDP, public investment was expected to grow faster in an attempt to improve the social infrastructure. No vestige was left of the notion, current in the third plan period and fashionable at one time in much of Western Europe, that plans could be self-fulfilling. The French government recognized that the implementation of the sixth plan would depend on whether the correct policies were being followed, and the budget of 1971 would begin the process of making the plan credible by showing how it was to be implemented. The major weakness from this point of view was that the likelihood of keeping the rate of inflation down even to West German levels seemed remote. Despite a more favourable development of output relative to wage costs in West Germany, the government was very concerned over the accelerating rate of inflation. By mid-1970 the economy had reached the end of a long upswing, and the consequent pressure on wage levels gave rise to concern that these would exceed the growth of output for a year or two. Although the neoliberal and antiplanning ideology looked more and more out of date, the election of a Social Democratic government in 1969 had not led to any major developments in planning. The expected rate of growth for the early 1970s was 4.5%, lower than in either France or Italy, but there was no real

Dominican

of

see

demographic reasons, the working population woulc be growing faster than during the fifth plan period The shift of labour from agriculture and other de-i dining sectors was also expected to continue to sup-

sur les principales options for the sixth

French plan was published early

in 1970 and debated Assembly in June. It outlined the consequences and problems of growth of the gross domestic product (GDP) at rates of 5.5, 6, and 6.5% annually in the years 1971-75. The Assembly somewhat predictably chose the 6% option, and this growth rate would form the basis for the detailed planning that was expected to result in the publica-

in

the National

tion of the final version of the plan about the middle

of 1971.

The plan emphasized the need to expand industrial output and raise the competitiveness of industry. For

disorders,

that these problems could be solved

In Britain the

movement

into substantial balance

payments surplus made the forecasts in the last major planning document (The Task Ahead, February 1969) appear somewhat pessimistic during the first half of 1970. However, while it began to seem that the potential for growth by 1972 could be greater than the 3.3% per year indicated in The Task Ahead, actual growth remained very low indeed. Following the abandonment of the incomes policy in 1969, low growth of output began to be accompanied by an accelerating growth of earnings, with wage settlements in mid- 19 70 running at 15% or more. The economy thus faced the dilemma of low growth combined with rapid inflation, and this gave rise to grave doubts about how long the improvement in the balance of payments could be maintained. With the return of a Conservative government in June 1970, the trend was away from formal mediumterm planning. The intention of the government was to disengage itself as much as possible from economic intervention, and in pursuance of this policy the Ministry of Technology was merged with the Board of Trade, and the Industrial Reorganisation Corporation, the main instrument of the Labour government's industrial planning, was abolished. The intention was to rely on incentives to release the natural energies of

i businessmen and others. The autumn budget, which educed taxation and public expenditure, was not a onvincing implementation of this policy, but it was aid to be only the first stage of policies that

would

through the next few years, room in this context for any very

irogressively take effect

was little approach

"here

to economic planning. The NaEconomic Development Council and its office emained in being, and ministers clearly found them useful forum for discussing economic policy with epresentatives of business and trade unions. But even f the economic situation made a medium-term plan nore feasible, it was unlikely that the new governnent would be interested in this method of promoting

ormal

lional

.

;rowth.

The EEC published its third medium-term policy wogram in 1970. This appeared at an earlier moment n the preparation of national plans than

its

prede-

However, in view of the tentative lature of even the French plan for the early 1970s, t could not be more than a compilation of some very uncertain guesses about national growth rates for the ;essor

1966.

in

(G. R. De.) Less Developed Countries. While earlier plans n the less developed countries had tended to stress

1970s.

industrial sector, the plans of the later '60s

began more emphasis on agriculture. A significant ;rend of the past few years was the concern of planlers with the unemployment problem. High rates of industrial development achieved in the past decade were not accompanied by corresponding increases in industrial employment, because the less developed

::he .0

place

countries tended to imitate the capital-intensive in-

technology of the developed countries too same time, the slower growth of the agricultural sector was not sufficient to provide a dustrial

closely, .^t the

employment. These trends, combined rapid growth of the labour force, especially

large increase in

with the

in urban areas, magnified the unemployment probdem. Development plans, which had hitherto been

concerned largely with the financial balancing of resources with expenditures, were becoming more con-

ways of providing the growing labour adequate employment opportunities. Significant developments occurred in two countries during the year. After four years in which planning was done on an annual basis, India, while continuing with its annual plans, adopted its fourth five-year plan. In Tanzania the second five-year plan was drawn up to promote development on the basis of Pres. Julius Nyerere's Arusha Declaration, which greatly extended cerned with

force with

the role of

government in the economy. This plan was an exemplary one, with careful balancing of the long- and the short-term aspects in the choice of projects and with due emphasis on the social factors in development.

Economic planning

is

undertaken

in

the less de-

veloped countries primarily in connection with their efforts to

For

promote economic and

this purpo.se,

planning

is

social

development.

a technical device that

can make such development efforts more effective. In one sense, a development plan is a blueprint for various government agencies to follow in their

investment

activities.

In another sense,

way of looking inalso a way of choosing

it is

a

telligently into the future. It is projects in various sectors and putting them together so as to have maximum impact on the country's

development. Finally, particularly in mixed economies, It announces a set of government investment decisions, thereby increasing the climate of certainty and en-

couraging the rest of the economy to undertake longerterm investments.

The plans drawn up by the less developed countries covered various periods long-term plans covering a decade or two, medium-term plans covering about five years, and short-term plans covering one or two years. Because of their duration, the long-term plans

—

were more concerned with mapping out the broad strategy of a country's development program; there was less emphasis on their implementation in detail, especially since the less developed countries did not generally have the political basis for continuity of decision-making over a long period. Medium-term plans were drawn in more detail and were more generally geared to actual implementation. In conditions

of great uncertainty about the future, especially regarding the availability of resources for development,

made their development plans for short peeven as short as one year. The drawing up of a development plan is a difficult undertaking, since such a project requires a considerable mass of data about the workings of the economy and many persons skilled in its analysis. countries

riods,

Twenty years

of experience, plus technical assistance

from the developed countries and the UN, had greatly improved the less developed countries' stock of data and skilled personnel, and by 1970 most of these countries had some sort of development plan. However, the quality and effectiveness of a development plan depend essentially on its political backing and the planning organization through which it is expressed, and in this respect development plans varied greatly from country to country. In some countries such plans were still drawn largely for propaganda purposes or as bases for negotiating foreign assistance.

During the year a number of studies were made on the role of planning as a technique for promoting

an international framework. Commission on International Development, set up by the World Bank, was widely discussed. The UN adopted a resolution for the Second Development Decade, covering the '70s, which stressed the role of planning. The Centre for Development Planning of the UN Secretariat began a new periodical, the Journal of Development Planning,

tional plans, the latter are returned to the national planning commissions with appropriate recommenda-

containing theoretical and practical studies of plan-

are signed

summary descriptions of plans being lowed in a number of countries. To make development plans more effective in

fol-

and governments approve the development plans and submit them to their respective

the

national assemblies for legislative enactment.

286

development, especially

)nomic

^^^^

mning

in

report of the Pearson

ning and

would have to formulate longer-term development strategies and seek to draw up their medium-term plans on the basis of such strategies. Only in this way could they tackle some of their basic problems, such as unemployment, agricultural modernization, and social progress. At the same time, they needed more assistance from the developed countries, including measures that would make the availability of resources more certain so that they could plan more confidently over a longer period. In addition, more foreign assistance needed to be related to the development plan as a whole rather than to (R. M. Sm.) individual projects. Centrally Planned Economies. The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance CMEA, or Comecon)

tions.

(

24th session in

its

during

The meeting was attended by

1970.

eight

all

Warsaw

European

member

states

countries,

May

12-14,

and Mongolia), headed by the

premiers rather than by the

Communist

first

(or general) secre-

had been the case The main object of the Warsaw session was to examine the present stage along the road toward "socialist economic integration," approved in principle a year earlier. "We are all aware that realization of the many taries of the

parties as

at the special session of April 1969.

complicated undertakings of socialist integration is a process," said Jozef Cyrankiewicz, the

long-term

Once

6.

The Warsaw meeting heard and discussed a report Comecon Executive Committee (composed of deputy premiers), which met in Moscow in December

—

1969 and in February 1970. This report not pubsuggested a comprehensive long-term program for further strengthening and improving coop-

—

among

the

member

countries.

The

session also

heard reports from the chairmen of the national planning commissions on progress in the work of coordinating and dovetailing their respective 1971-75 development plans. This was the penultimate stage in

the trade of one of

Many member

capital of

1

socialist countries,"

member

a third

state.

had

Of

this,

70% was

in "con-

and

30%

was

in freely convertible

currencies or in gold.

What was

optimistically called

ruble was actually the 1961, and

"new

was simply

a

the "convertible"

ruble," introduced on Jan.

money

of account for ex-

trade within and outside the

lated to

Comecon

area.

was not rethe Soviet gold reserve, which remained a

Its official gold content of

state secret.

0.987421

The introduction

of the

g.

new

ruble had

resulted in a general exchange-rate adjustment

among

Eastern European currencies involving dual rates of exchange, one for foreign trade and another for other transactions, mainly tourism and expenditure by diplomatic missions. Ten years later these exchange rates remained unchanged, and the Comecon countries were no closer to true convertibility and multilateralism than before. Poland, for instance, had three exchange rates for hard currencies: in foreign

trade $1 was worth 4 zlotys;

Warsaw exchanged and

a Pole receiving

of seven

Comecon Executive Com-

mittee.

After a collective effort of coordination of na-

bank

for 24 zlotys;

money from an American

friend

or relative obtained 72 zlotys per dollar. There was

Moscow.

2. Specialized committees of the secretariat examine the drafts to sum up their respective supplies and demands in fuel and raw materials, as well as in agricultural and industrial goods. 3. Critical remarks on national plans are sent to

a tourist arriving in

his dollar at the

also an illegal black

4.

them with

billion rubles.

zlotys per dollar.

of the

eco-

vertible" rubles, described as "collective currency of

National planning commissions submit the drafts of their five-year plans to the Comecon secretariat

Moscow bureau

down

complained bitterly about the limited scope of the International Bank's activities. As a result, the 24th meeting of Comecon decided to create another financial institution, the International Investment Bank, with headquarters in Moscow and with authorized

1.

the

limits the possibilities

states, the U.S.S.R. excluded,

the following procedure:

in

respective party

all

of the

eration

— the

states could be used to balance the deficit existing in

1,

lished

not published

nomic development. Multilateral trading within the area was the obvious answer, but this was linked with almost inextricable problems of prices and payments in national currencies, none of which was convertible even inside the Comecon area. An International Bank for Economic Cooperation with an authorized capital of 300 million "convertible" rubles (almost two-fifths guaranteed by the U.S.S.R.) had functioned in Moscow since January 1964, but it only settled accounts between the member states and accorded them shortterm credits for approved foreign transactions. No surplus resulting from trade between two member

ternal

countries were indispensable.

the bilateral economic five-year agreements

—but

Such coordination of course

on, a single small or even medium-sized country

unable to resolve all the key scientific and technical problems connected with industrial development; this is why appropriate division of labour, economic specialization, and coordination among the Comecon

—

of "socialist division of labour" and slows

Polish premier, in his opening speech. Today, he went is

—

central committees

delegations from

(the U.S.S.R., six Eastern

their planning

pare agreements 2 7 in all stipulating precise quotas and values for goods and services to be exchanged.

future, the less developed countries

held

between the governcommissions in order to pre-

Bilateral negotiations start

5.

ments and

On

market price of more than 100

July 10, in Moscow, the ministers of finance Comecon member states signed the new

bank's charter. Romania, still distrustful of "socialist integration," declared that it would study the possibilities of some form of participation in the bank's

This stand was consistent with Romania's nonparticipation in such international trading organizations set up by Comecon as "Intermetal," "Inter-

work.

chem," and the Ball-Bearing Manufacturing Co-operative Organization.

Romania objected

to the rule that

e new bank's board decisions would be taken by a ;% majority and not unanimously to preserve mem-

rs' sovereignty.

Vasily Garbuzov, the Soviet min-

of finance, writing in

cer

appease

Romania by

Pravda on July

stating that the

75%

ould apply only to the transactions of the a

lat te

unanimous decision would be required

rates.

He viewed

majority

pollution.

charter, to increase the authorized capital, or to

meet sudden

Okun recommended

that the fiscal dividend

from

(the annual increase in federal tax revenue social needs in the public sector.

He

opposed a reduchad

tion in tax rates until these pressing social needs

The chief purpose of the International Investment ank was to supply medium- and long-term credits; dually 5 and IS years, to projects connected with

been met. Okun was prepared

international

socialist

division

of

labour,

spe-

and partnership in production, development and raw materials resources, and the construeindustrial plants vital to the economic growth

alization fuel

f

on of

the member countries. Every member country as represented on the board with an equal voice, jgardless of its contribution to the bank's authorized f

The 24th Comecon meeting recommended to the lember countries and instructed its Executive Com"that measures should be taken for the suc-

implementation of the work of drawing up a omprehensive program by the date laid down by the 3rd meeting" a date that had not been made pub-

essful

—

In addition, the meeting decided to set up an

c.

to accept a tradeoff of 4% un2% annual price inflation. Some believed 4% unemployment was unneces-

employment economists

for

sarily high. Melville

Ulmer outlined

a plan that he

would keep unemployment at about 2% with virtually no inflation (The Welfare State: U.S.A.: An Exploration In and Beyond the New Economics, felt

1969). His plan involved extensive

manpower

training,

improved job placement, and public employment of combination with flexible fiscal pohcy. Instead of relying on short-term flexible tax rates, he

last resort, in

apital.

littee

ris-

ing national income) be used to increase outlays on

3at a loan.

le

Economics

by squeezing civilian programs such as housing, education, health, and

social

to revise

as absurd trying to

increases in military spending

11, tried

bank and

287

expenditures be met by appropriate changes in tax

nternational Institute for

Economic Problems of

iVorld Socialist System. See also

the

(K. Sm.)

Development, Economic; Government Finance.

proposed compulsory loans (refundable taxes) to curb inflation and refunds to stimulate demand when needed. Tax rates would be adjusted over longer periods as circumstances dictated. Either the

Okun

or

Ulmer conditions would have represented a vast improvement over the actual state of affairs in 1970, w^hen unemployment rose to 5.8% and the rate of inflation was almost as high. The new monetarism, which gained wider support

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

during 1970, emphasized the superiority of monetary policy over fiscal policy for controlling economic ac-

Economics new decade opened in 1970, economics was still lominated by the "new economics," which had begun vith J. M. Keynes's General Theory of Employment, 'nterest and Money published in 1936. The prestige \s the

economics as a discipline and the influence of econon public policy may have reached a peak in •-he U.S. in the mid-1960s, immediately following the successful results of the 1964 tax cut which the neweconomists had advocated. Subsequently the discipline ii

omists

lost

some influence as

a result of persistent inflation

and the apparent difficulty of curbing it by fiscal and monetary policies. In 1970 growing challenges to the mainstream were visible from conservative monetar-

by Milton Friedman of the University of Chiand from a group of radical economists associated for the most part with the New Left. In The Political Economy of Prosperity ( 1 970) Arthur Okun, the last chairman of Pres. Lyndon Johnson's Council of Economic Advisers, reviewed the experience of the 1960s and projected a program of n-minflationary prosperity for the 1970s. Okun viewed the unbroken expansion from 1961 to 1969 as the outstanding fact of economic history during the decade. The U.S. unemployment rate, which had stood at 7% when John F. Kennedy became president in 1961, was r"i=hed below 4% by the stimulating effects of the ism, led cago,

.

The expansion got out of control because heavy spending on the war in Vietnam, but even Hhis obstacle to noninflationary prosperity might have been surmounted, according to Okun, if Congress had not balked for two years at raising federal taxes to pay for increased military expenditures. 1

For some years Friedman had championed the view that monetary policy is a more potent weapon for economic stabilization than fiscal policy. Economists in the Nixon administration were more sympathetic to monetarism than their predecessors under Kennedy and Johnson. Friedman espoused the rule that the money supply should expand at a constant annual rate, say between 3 and 5%. A fixed rule, he said, would yield better results than discretionary monetary policy by the central banking authorities, as well as better tivity.

^64 tax cut.

»of

I

t

t

Inflation reached unacceptable rates in

1969 and and attempts to apply the brakes resulted in higher unemployment. As a partial solution, Okun 1970,

proposed that in the future sharp changes in defense

results than flexible fiscal policy.

An

important reason

monetary policy was the variable and sometimes lengthy time lag between changes in money supply and their impact on business. Even if the central bankers knew what to do, they would not know when to do it. for rejecting discretionary

I*"riedman asserted that a change in

money supply

by itself has a potent effect on nominal ('money) income and real income in the short run that by itself it has important effects on nominal (money) income and prices in the long run; but it does not have, by itself, important long-run effects on real income and output. Long-term growth in real output depends on productivity and the operation of the free market. Advocates of the new economics made several at;

tempts during 1970 to respond critically to Friedman's monetarism. Nicholas Kaldor of Cambridge University described the new monetarism as a counterrevolution against the Keynesian revolution (Lloyd's Bank Review, ]u\y 1970) because it reverted to pre-Keynesian ways of thinking about the relations between money and business activity, namely, that the volume of demand (spending) in the economy is regulated by the supply of money and the velocity of its circulation, and that the level of expenditures can be regulated mainly by monetary policy. Kaldor's view was that the money supply accommodates itself to the needs of the economy, not the other way around. Even if one con-

IDE

WORLD

Paul A. Samuelson, winner of the 1970 Nobel Prize for Economics.

288

nomics

ceded the desirability of increasing the money supply ^ constant rate, Kaldor doubted the feasibility of carrying it out because forces that make for changes in the demand for money would continue to operate such a way that the banking authorities would be unable to keep the money supply on a smooth path of steady increase. James Tobin of Yale, the 1970 president-elect of the American Economic Association, also challenged Friedman's views {Quarterly Journal of Economics, in

May

He compared

a Keynesian model of the Friedman model in order to test the consequences of changes in money supply. In Keynes-

1970).

economy with

a

ian economics the role of

with less than

full

clear.

Starting in taxes,

is

more spending

for example, stimulates tion

money

employment, a reduction for

consump-

and investment, which in turn increases the defor money needed to turn over a larger volume

mand

The money supply should be increased accommodate the larger national income resulting from fiscal policy. The causal sequence in Friedman's analysis is not so of transactions.

to

clear.

He

tistical

changes

relies

heavily on historical case studies, sta-

regressions, in

and lead-lag sequences between

money and changes

in

income. Addressing

himself specifically to the leads and lags in the timing

Keynesian and in a Friedman model of Tobin found "every single piece of observed evidence that Friedman reports on timing is sequence

in a

the economy,

The

literature of the radical

in its criticisms of traditional

new

structing a

analytical

economics was stronger economics than in con-

framework

for radical re-

form. Marxism was important but not dominant in the thinking of the radical economists. Some were anar-

and many were neither. was perhaps most appealing to them was the alienation of the workers under the juggernaut of capitalism. The most comprehensive' radical work to appear was an English edition of the two-volume Marxist Economic Theory by the Belgian chists rather than socialists,

The

aspect of

Marx

that

Ernest Mandel (1968). Michael Zweig of the State University of New York at Stony Brook made one of the better statements about the content of radical economics ("New Left Critique of Economics" in David Mermelstein,

Economics : Mainstream Readings and Radical Critiques, 1970). He was highly critical of the concepts of equilibrium and competition, which are central in traditional economic theory. Criticism was directed at marginal, or incremental, analysis as a type of eco-

nomics that tells what happens when not very much happens. Zweig says; Our charge against economics

is precisely that it is at best not helpful to the construction of a decent society, and at worst supportive of the present order. Marginal analysis is legitimate only as long as the fundamental character of the thing being analyzed is legitimate. The spirit of marginalism is ill suited to radical questioning of the precepts of economic and social arrangements. .

.

.

Zweig was certainly correct

Keynesian model." In a reply, Friedman seemed

analysis

to accept Tobin's analysis but rejected his inference

reconstruction of society. It was never intended for

mone-

that purpose. In 1970 the positive theory of radical economics was still awaited. The 1970 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics was awarded to Paul A. Samuelson (see Biography) of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for doing "more than any other contemporary economist to raise the level of scientific analysis in economic theory." Specific reference was made by the awarding committee to Samuelson's Foundations of Economic Analysis (1947), the original version of which was written under the title "The Operational Significance of Economic Theory," mainly when he was 22 years

tary policy. Like

many attempted

confrontations in

economic controversy, this one proved unsatisfactory. Another challenge to the mainstream of economics came from a new radical economics. By 1970 a 1,000member Union for Radical Political Economics had begun to pubhsh a journal (Review of Radical Political Economics) and to hold conventions. At the annual meeting of the American Economic Association in New York in December 1969, a group of about 25 radical economists attempted to seize control of the business meeting in order to read a statement condemning the association. After some jostling for control of the microphone, Arthur MacEwan was permitted to read a statement containing the following passages

We

have come and

denounce the American Economic Asdenounce the dominant economics for AEA provides the organizational support economists are the sycophants of inequality, alienation, destruction of environment, imperialism, racism, and the subjection of women. But the economists do not merely praise the system; they also supply the tools indeed they are the tools instrumental to the elite's attainment of its unjust ends. Our conflict is a basic conflict of interests. The economists have chosen to serve the status quo. We have chosen to fight it. (The American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings, May 1970) sociation, which the

to

to

.

.

— .

.

.

—

.

.

.

.

The "establishment" group in the American Economic Association was not insensitive to the issues that distressed the radicals. In the association's regular sessions papers

were given on the economics

is

in stating that marginal

not useful for analyzing the revolutionary

His contributions were to method as well as subSamuelson set out to derive theorems that were operationally meaningful in the sense that they represented hypotheses about empirical data that could be proven wrong. In the process he discovered analogous features in many different branches of economics, which he brought together into a more unified theory. In Foundations of Economic Analysis and in 200 scientific papers, he ranged widely over the pure theory of such seemingly divergent topics as price theory, income theory, taxation, international trade, business cycles, and money. His major contribution was in the synthesis of pure theory rather than in bold In addition to being a great theoretician and a leader new economics, Samuelson was also the author

of the

His Economics (8th

economy

of cities, a radical approach to

economics and the basis for a new curriculum, and the dynamics of income distribution. The Journal of Economic Literature, an organ of the American Economic Association, published a full-length survey article on "Radical Economics in America, 1970" (September 1970).

,

innovation.

of the best-selling textbook in elementary economics.

countries, the

J

stance.

omists, the market and price

in socialist

.i

of age.

of imperialism, increasing the supply of black econ-

mechanism

I

ed.,

consistent with the timing implications of the ultra-

that the findings cast doubt on the potency of

t|

ed.,

1970) was reported to have A majority

sold three million copies in 14 languages.

of college students

who

the U.S. between 1950

Samuelson's See also

text.

studied economic principles

and 1970 cut

in

their teeth on

(D. D.)

Economy, World; Government Finance; Income,

National; Merchandising; Money and Banking; Payments and Reserves, International; Trade, International.

•

,

of 1970, the

slowdown

reflected

mainly a deceleration

(actually a small drop in the last quarter of 1969 and

the

xonomy, World economy

he world se

—economic

ith a

in

1970 experienced a deep mal-

stagnation at high levels combined

stubborn inflation of costs and prices. Accordreviews this "stagflation," analyzes

igly, this article

politics of disinflation,

le

and explores,

in the light

how

to live with inflation,

he industrial countries, beset

by domestic problems,

the 1970 experience,

f

so felt severe strains

and

stresses in their balances

payments, and inflation and business slowdown in idustrial nations had adverse consequences on the olume and quality of their assistance to Latin Amerf

Asia, and Africa. Stagnation at High Levels. The dominant feature 1970 was the slowdown in f the world economy in le growth of output in the main industrial countries f North America and Europe. Even Japan, which jniained the most rapidly growing large industrial conomy in the world, slowed down a little. For the (idustrial world as a whole, the combined output :a.

n

:5

national products

ifter

y only

first

the U.S.

(GXPs)

in real

in

—

rose in 1970 1969 (see Table

correction for price increases

2.8%, as against 4.9%

terms, that

quarter of 1970) of economic activity in deceleration occurred earlier in the U.S.

The

than in continental Europe and Japan because of differences in economic experience in earlier years. In the U.S., a peak in total output had been reached during the

first

half of 1966 but, following a short-lived

and mild slowdown, the rapid expansion continued through mid-1969, after which the economy cooled off. In Canada, economic growth generally also eased in 1969. In the U.K., output growth had begun to slow down as far back as 1965. In West Germany, however, there had been a marked softening in the economy during 1966-67; a cyclical upswing in 1968 led to a gradual using up of excess capacity and, late in 1969 and in much of 1970, the country experienced an extraordinarily strong boom. In France, the disruption after the waves of strikes in mid-1968 was followed by a marked expansion of output, which came to a halt in early 1970.

In Japan, the rapid expansion

dated back to 1966.

During 1970, the growth of output in West Gerheld back by a shortage of capacity. Strikes in the U.S., the U.K. (where they were the worst since 1926), and Italy (where spasmodic strikes had

many was

partly political motives) interfered with output

II

1

The cyclical positions of individual countries wed marked disparities (see Chart 1 and Table The most significant turnaround occurred in the which accounted for about one half of the rid's output. GXP at current prices late in 1970 -rd the trillion-dollar mark; but the landmark was

^ 1

.

~ory since, in real terms,

li

by 1.5% at an annual

GNP in the fourth quarter rate.

While the General

was the main factor in this drop, dein output and employment were also wideid among industries not directly affected by the The fourth-quarter drop followed a modest increase during the third quarter and a sideways Inovement during the second quarter. For the year whole, real output showed a small decline. Growth iJiitput also weakened in Canada. In both Europe and Japan, output rose at about the ors strike

I

-

To

than usually.

Canada, and most other industrial counwas held back because of demand that weakened as one nation after another found itself compelled in the U.S., tries

to take restrictive steps in order to hold

tion

Money and

(see

down

n.axce).

At the same time,

—

demand of consumers as new outlays for plant weakened because it was in-

total

well as of businesses, including

—

and equipment also hibited by inflation. In the

Table

I.

Growth

earlier phases of inflation,

of Real Gross National Product

in the Industrial

I

1

iverage rate of the past decade; but, in

n

comparison

most countries experienced a slowdown growth rates. Japan and West Germany, the sec-

vilh

1969,

and third largest industrial countries in the world apart from the U.S.S.R. ), showed a weaker perform-

t)nd

ince after periods of

the rise in

its

long-

economy, at a high level, moved sideTOys. Italy, where the economy was hampered by labour unrest in 1969, seemed to pick up renewed momentum. The United Kingdom was one of the few :ountries where output, sluggish in 1969, speeded up

Overall increase

11.1

3.0 12.3

4.9

6.1

5.2 5.3

7.1

4.9

11.5 5.0 5.5 2.8

•Excluding the U.S.S.R., Eastern European countries, China, etc. Source: Adopted from OECD, Economic Outlook (December 1970).

Table

II.

Growth

production

throughout

Country

Japan Holy France

Germany, West Conado United Kingdom Major countries

world reTiained stationary. In the U.S., it fell toward year-end ;o a two-year low. Elsewhere, it turned downward or 'fattened out with the exception of Japan. In the perspective of previous years, however, industrial production everywhere remained close to record levels {see Chart 2). the

—

,1970

slowdown in output growth during was an unusual phenomenon in the world econ-

fomy

for, ordinarily,

This general

while output accelerates

decelerates in others. In the

of Real Gross National Product

in ttie Principal

United Stotes

:onsiderably in the second half of 1970.

it

4.7

Jopan Western Europe European Economic Community

n France, the

countries,

Annual percent increases 1958-68 1969 1970

Area North America

ierm trend. In West Germany, the slowdown became nore pronounced during the second half of the year,

Industrial

World*

extraordinary boom. In Japan,

output seemed to have fallen below

in

first

some half

infla-

B.axking; Govt:rnment Fi-

,

;

more

a decisive extent, however, output

Austria

Netherlands Belgium

Sweden Switzerland

Norwoy Denmark Other industrial countries* Southern Europef

Countries Annual percent changes 1958-68 1969 1970 11.1

5.7

5.4 5.0 4.8 3.2 4.7 5.4 4.4 5.3 4.3 4.5 4.8 4.8 4.9 4.7 5.9

12.3 4.8 7.9 8.0 5.0 1.9 2.8 4.8 6.4 5.3 6.2 5.8 5.8 3.9 7.1

5.9 7.1

11.5 6.5 5.8 4.5 2.8 1.8

—0.3 2.5 6.5 5.5 5.3 5.0 4.5 4.3 4.0 5.0 6.3

Note: Arrongcd in descending order of growth of output within each group of countries in 1970. •Including Finland, Iceland, Ireland, ond Luxembourg in addition to )he countries listed, flncluding Greece, Portugol, Spain, and Turkey. Source: Adapted from OECD, fconomjc Outlook (December 1970).

289

Economy, World

290

Economy, World

it

consumers and businesses borrowed and

true,

is

spent freely in anticipation of rising prices; in the U.S., such euphoria prevailed in 1968. But, as infla-

tion persisted and became increasingly severe, consumers as well as businesses found their buying power diminished through the rise in prices, their assetsequities, bonds, and tangible properties reduced in value, and access to liquidity dr';d up. Retrenchment

—

became

thus

As

a necessity.

a result, the potential of the

economy ceased

be utilized to the same extent as previously. In the second half of 1970, GNP in the U.S. was some 4-5% below its estimated potential. Unemployment increased from a seasonally adjusted 3.9% of the civilian labour force in January to 6% in December, to

the highest figure registered since 1961. It

feared that unemployment

would

tion

rise

among

sharply; in fact,

had been

in several other

movec upward. Although profit margins declined and th( interest rates rose to astonishing levels, a state o euphoria pervaded the economies and stock market:

throughout the industrial world. Labour was hoarded wage increases met with little resistance, and busines: investment was undertaken not only to economize or labour costs but also in the expectation that inflatioi. would, in one way or another, validate almost anj business judgmerit.

Not

too surprisingly, productivit)

declined.

Cost-push

CHART

inflation,

on the other hand,

is

a state

1.

the black populait

Growth of Gross National Product

increased rather

Percentage changes from previous half year adjusted annual rates

of the country that had large concentrations of high-

15

technology industries with close defense and aero-

10

space links (parts of California, Seattle, Wash., the

Boston area, and others). Wall Street was hit hard. Canada had 6.5% unemployment, with wide differences among regions. The trend was also upward in Japan and most Western European countries. In West Germany, with only 0.6% unemployment, employment of foreign workers exceeded two million. Although the trends in output and employment differed from country to country, all countries experienced a severe inflation in 1970. Usually, there is inflation in one or several industrial countries; but in 1970 and this was the year's second characteristic feature there were no islands of relative price stability. Moreover, the rate of price increases was, apart from war years, the highest in history.

The

industrial countries, parties

not, for the time being, be increased, prices

moderately. The areas most affected were those parts

—

major

West Germany and Japan. As more monej chased an amount of goods and services that coulc^

larly

—

United States

5

-5 1968 15

1969

1970*

1969

1970*

1969

1970*

1969

1970*

United Kingdom

10 5

-5 1968 15

West Germany

10 5

1968

general price level in industrial countries rose

during 1970 by 5.5%; the average rate in the

at seasonally

first

France

was 3.5% (see Table III). In the where the price inflation was 2.1% in the early 1960s, the rate accelerated to 5.3%. In other major industrial countries, where price inflation had been

half of the 1960s U.S.,

much greater than in the U.S., it accelerated to 6%. In West Germany, prices surged at a whirlwind 7%, the highest rate in the industrial world. In most

1968 Italy

countries, however, the price rise seemed to have moderated during the second half of 1970; the Netherlands, Norway, and Switzerland were exceptions to this trend.

1

Generally throughout the industrial world, prices rose

most

in the service sectors

and

1968

1970*

1969

in construction;

food prices generally increased roughly in line with the general price level although, in

1

most

Canada

countries,

by farmers rose distinctly less rapidly; and prices of manufactured goods rose the least on the average by only 1-2.5% a year. For the first time in a decade, prices in world trade rose as fast as prices received

1968

1969

1968

1969

Japan

the general domestic price levels.

From Demand-Pull The

into

Cost-Push Inflation. was synchronized to

fact that the price inflation

an unusual extent did not necessarily mean that the causes were common. The circumstantial evidence reflected not only the spread of inflation at harsh, severe rates but also the fact that demand-pull inflation gave way increasingly to cost-push inflation. Demand-pull inflation, a state of the economy where the

demand is expanding even though the reeconomy labour in particular are virtually fully utilized, prevailed in 1968 and much of 1969 in the U.S. and France and in much of 1970

1970*

-Due Total

aggregate

sources of the

—

—

2nd

half as estimated by the OECD. ation for Economic

to

price rise

increase

1st half

Coope

ation

2nd half

and Development,

fcoi

economy where cost pressures persist even demand is slackening, real resources overstrained, unemployment is growing, and

the

ough excess e

not

output

itional

stationary or even declining. Con-

is

tions of this sort prevailed

during 1970 in the U.S.,

France, and, perhaps to a lesser extent, in Italy; ward the year-end, they appeared in West Germany, anything, the trend toward wage increases seemed have accelerated. The U.K. situation was probably

.K.,

le

most serious, judging from the steepness of wage time when real resources were not

id price rises at a

•erstrained.

To hold down excess demand, strong reliance was aced on monetary policy. Some countries also resteps

)rted to anti-inflationary fiscal

on and efforts to hold

down

—higher

the rise in

taxa-

government

Everywhere, however, monetary and fiscal perhaps too ;straint proved more difficult than had ptimistically been anticipated. For one thing, aeon that was recognized as necessary was, more often lan not, delayed or adulterated because of political Dnsiderations and, for another, domestic monetary jstraint was partly offset by recourse to borrowings the international Eurodollar market and tax in1 )ending.

—

— ;

reases

were

offset

by dissaving or by extracting wage

unemployment tended

.Although

idustrial countries

losion in

The

1970.

to rise, nearly all

experienced a veritable wage ex-

10-15%

of only a

—one-and-a-half

was of the

to three times the

few years before (see Chart

large

!arly

increases

occurred

West Germany, and

the

in

U.K.

3). Par-

Japan,

Italy,

fin that order).

The increases in hourly rates or in earnings in manifacturing were twice or three times as high as inreases in productivity. Labour costs per unit of outlut thus shot up fast, particularly in Europe (see 'e IV). Only in Japan, although wage inflation was c short of breathtaking, was productivity perfornance good and, as a result, wage costs per unit of out-

)ut rose

of

of 1969, the rise in unit labour costs

all

too rapid because compensation continued,

still

or accelerated,

and the nature of the

swift advance

its

productivity gains could not be regarded as permanent.

The impact

became

of cost-push inflation

increas-

pronounced as the slowdown in the growth of output pushed up labour costs per unit. This was not, however, quite the same thing as saying that price inflation necessarily became more acute and ingly

more critical. With demand pressures eased, it became more difficult to pass along increased costs into prices; prices of manufactured goods showed much smaller increases than those of food or services. The inevitable consequence was a squeeze

increased

on industrial

profits.

In the U.S.

in

1970, corporate

profits represented the smallest portion of the

GNP

any year since World War II and after-tax profits per unit of output were 34% below their peak in for

1966.

Not

too surprisingly, the profit squeeze tended

investment in plant and equipment. The flattening in real investment reduced the pressure on economic resources and was, therefore, a stabilizing into retard

it was economy, inimical and, hence, to economic

fluence in the short run; but, for the long run,

much

less

to productivity

than in other industrial countries

n 1970.

and

efficiency

growth.

The

typical figure for increases in

ourly rates or earnings in manufacturing

den.

was

7%

better performance than the

and

early 1970

a self-aggravating condition in the

icreases.

rder of

much

cated a

Politics of Disinflation.

tries also

of

had

curbing

in

common

inflation

—mainly

The

industrial coun-

the fact that the processes

and restoring noninflationary

through monetary restrictions and, rather marginally, through tax increases and efforts to hold down government expenditures were decidedly more prolonged, more arduous, and more painful than had been hoped in 1969 and early 1970. The sharp declines in Wall Street and on stock exchanges outside the U.S. had an adverse effect on both consumer and

growth

—

business confidence.

common view

Furthermore, a

of inflation in the

U.S. and, perhaps to a lesser extent, in other industrial nations

came increasingly

to

be questioned

in

1970.

Inflation used to be regarded as, fundamentally, a

In the U.S., because of vigorous efforts to cut costs,

—

—after

two years of stagnation began ncrease. Output per man-hour in the private noneconomy advanced at an annual rate of 5% in he third quarter. This gain was, however, associated vi'h a rather large decline in man-hours, rather than A) h an appreciable increase in output, and could not, h' refore, be regarded as a solid improvement resultfrom such factors as innovation, increased use of ;aijital, and a better educated labour force. Taken 'ot'ether, the output per man-hour and compensation movements indicated a third-quarter rise of 3% in aiiour costs per unit of output. Although this indiproductivity

II

II-

phenomenon that of money supplies

III.

2.8

3.5

Italy

3.5

4.1

3.1

5.1

4.5 .4.0 2.5

4.5 6.9 4.7 4.7

3.7 3,5

4.8 4.8

United

Kingdom

Japan Fronce United Stoles

Conodo

2.1

7.0 6.3 6.0 5.8 5.5 5.3

banks could invoke allevistemming from otherwise unmanageable deficits in government budgets or from governmental insistence on cheap money. For antiinflation strategy to be successful, therefore, it was enough to put a brake on the excessive creation of money. Inflation would die a natural death if the authorities refused to finance

Major countries

6.0 5.5

it.

Labour Costs

in

Manufacturing

Annuo! percent chongei 1970* 1968 1969

Germany, West United Kingdomf

—3.1

llolyt

—1.0

1.2

Canodof

1.6

Jopont

1.4

United Statest FronceJ

3.8 2.5

2.5 5.5 4.3 4.9 2.8 4.0

—2.3

14.1

9.5 9.1

8.4 6.5 5.8 3.8

percenloge change in most recent quorterly dato, compored with the corresponding period

•In descending order of

4.0

•As measured by deflotors oi gross national product. Source: Adapted from OECD, Economic Outlook (December 1970).

IV. Unit

Country

of 1969.

Mojor countries excluding United Stales

often than not over the past

circumstances

ating

Annual percent increases 1958-68 1969 1970

Germony, West

More

tary policy-making.

Price Trends in Industrial Countries*

Country

from excessive expansion failure of mone-

half century, the central

Table Table

resulted

—an aberration or

f

Wage and

salary costs, excluding fringe benefits and social

security.

tLobour costs, including fringe benefits and social security.

jWage

costs, excluding fringe benefits and sociol security. Source; Adopted from OECD, Economic Outlook (December

1970).

291

Economy, World

292

Economy World '

money supply

The view that inflation is, fundamentally, a monephenomenon is a curiously old-fashioned thought. ^^^Y Evidently, money matters; but, judging from the cur-

policy turned toward a

rent experience of the industrial nations, inflation

of 1969 and eliminated in mid-1970,

is

not merely a monetary phenomenon. In the highly and complex economies of the world today,

intricate

employment incomes, and prices cannot be explained within the narrow framework of monetary theorizing. Realistically, inflation is a political and social phenomenon stemming, in democracies with competing political parties, from powerful and pervasive demands of three kinds: (1) demands for increasingly costly and extensive social services for the masses of people and for an increasingly costly and extensive economic infrastructure for an urbanized society; (2) demands for higher living standards by people who want more of the good things in life and with less waiting, population growth, and the changes

in output,

expansion of industrialization to exert

still

further

the

ever,

increased by 5%. Fisca more expansionist directioi

income tax surcharge was reduced at the enc and as a mucl larger deficit than had been originally anticipated appeared in the federal budget. True, the deficit wai* as the

fiscal

mounted

for

much

larger spending in thl

year 1971-72.

The

campaign and

election

its

outcome

had little political appeal. Statistics cember showed an unemployment rate of

lation

is

manage aggregate demand

employment.

has come to be believed that it within the power of governments to keep the econ-

omy on

it

a path of perpetual growth.

the pace of expansion

same trauma earlier

is

times.

Even

A slowdown economy was

word "recession," which euphemism for "depression,"

had an unacceptable opprobrium attached to it and governments avoided it scrupulously. The business slowdown in 1970 was described as a "pause," a "retardation," a "minirecession," a "growth recession," or some other equally inventive phrase. Fears of recession receded as it became evident that no government was prepared, through monetary and fiscal restraint, to cut down the total demand for goods and services far enough to create a gap between actual and potential output, or to maintain a large margin of unused resources long enough to exert a downward pressure on prices and wages. Governments dependent on the popular vote felt unable unpopular decisions necessary to halt inflation. Rightly or wrongly, people concluded that a major recession could not occur as a deliberate act of government but only from gross miscalculation. to take the

The experience

in the

U.S. was particularly instruc-

Beginning with early 1970, and more forcibly in the second half of the year in the aftermath of the tive.

Penn Central bankruptcy crisis, the monetary policy was reversed a decision that was justifiable at a time when precautionary demands for liquidity were particularly strong. For the year as a whole, how-

—

79

Finland

Greece

But

o

to shoot for

Money

Annual rates of depreciolion (percent) '68-'69 69-70t

59-'69*

1969

8/

92 93

Canada Germany, West Netherlands Belgium

89 86 91

85 79

Austria

Spain

France

93 80 92 90 82

United States United Kingdom

94 87

Denmark Sweden

81

Luxembourg Italy

South Africa

New

4.8 1 9

61

83

Switzerland Australia

Zealand

84 82 88 77 85 63 85

Portugal

in

De

Japan Ireland Iceland

Norway developed countries Honduras

^1 78 78

2.4 2.4

78 67 77 72 58

2.4 3.8 2.6

3,2 5,3

81

.

79 71

59 69 57

2.5

2.9 3.0 3 4 3 6

2 5 2.8 4 3 2.6 6.9 3.6 3.0 2.2

3.6 3.8 3.9 4.1

4.2

3,1

4.3 4.6 4.9 5.0

3.7

5.7

5.5

2.2 3.4

5.1

5.6

5.1

5.7 6.2

1

3-6 2.3

5.1

3.7 5.5

67 60 68 37

2.2 2.3

2.2 2.5 2.8 4.7

2

70 79 73 69

71

3.9 5.0 3.8 9.5 3.3

3.2 2 6 4.8 8.1

4.9 6.9

16.2 3.0

6.2 6.5 6.5 6.9 7.1

7,9 9.0

iess

Morocco Thailand

Dominican Republic Venezuela Iran

Ecuador El Salvador

Guatemala Bolivia

92 80 94 86 98

81

2.1

77 83 85 90

2.6

2.6 2.8

1.9

2.1

1.6

1.0

84 83 100 100 72

Peru

90 69

Israel

75

Taiwan India

75 80

Pakistan

87

Colombia Jamoica

56 86 36

Mexico

Argentina Indonesia

2.3

1.6

78 67 96 96 55

2.4 3.8 0.4

3.0 6.0

2.2 3,0

—0.3

3.5

0.5

2,2

3,6

5.8

3.1

3.8

77 39 60 63 56

2.5

2.8 5.9

4.4 4.4

2.4 4.8 0.8

4.5 4.6 4.6

5.0

70 36

3,6

3-1

9,8

9.2

71

5.8

9.3

13

3.4 18.4

7.1

10.1

5

t

58.2

5.8

12.3

5.7 11.5 31.4 19,7 14.9

2.8

11.0 18.8 23.4 18.0

13.3 14.4 16.5 24.3 27.7

Philippines

67

South Korea

51

56 29

Brazil

11

2

Chile

35 84

South Vietnam

0.2 0.9 1.0 1.4

1.1

9.0 4.9 4.6 5.6

11

20

7.1

Note: Depreciation of money is measured by rates of decline currencies in the domestic purchasing power of nationol (as computed from reciprocals of official cost-of living or consumer price indexes), not by rates of price inflation. For example, a rote of inflation of 100% is equivalent to a 50% rote of depreciation of buying power of money.

*Compounded

annually.

tBosed on average monthly data available with corresponding period of 1969.

for

1970 compared

jLess than one.

Source;

First

National City Bank,

New

-

4% — arbitrarjj^

Industrial countries

Turkey

the

started to be used as a

1964

Country

in

resented with almost the

as a depression in the

Indexes of value of money (1959 = 100)

that lead to

—

Furthermore,

—appeared strong.

Table V. Depreciation of

monetary restraint will hold down prices and wages only if there is unemployment, but monetary restraint cannot be tightened enough to bring about unemployment at least within the fine limits full

was

thus the suc-

effective

near

6%

to cut a larger

slice of the national cake.

of tolerance necessary to

for

Although the figure was not higher than in the firs; half of the 1960s, it was commonly believed that a jobless rate above 4% would drastically reduce Reas the figure

even higher expectations for the future. At the same time, society is passing through a moral crisis, evidenced in the disappearance of the cult of hard work and the questioning of such values as saving that used to be accepted as incontrovertible. Central banks create money now dissociated from any gold cover; but they face an explosive dilemma:

-

:

the civilian labour force, the highest figure in 9 years

and (3) demands for higher wages by labour, endowed with strong political and economic power and

—

Novem*.

in

ber 1970 gave rise to the view that the policy oii refraining from greater monetary and fiscal stimui

publican chances in 1972. The lure of

The motive force behind inflation is achievements cess of modern society

i

resulted from the sluggishness in the economy, bu'

pressure

pressures on energy, food, and raw material resources;

prepared to take the necessary action

:

due, in large part, to the shortfall of revenues tha:

York, N.Y.

r

and for a target rate of real growth over the next years of, say, 6% a year without endangering a

— —

performance that is, inflation at perhaps 3% a year seemed a risky unrtaking. For in the past two decades, the U.S. econly experienced a rate of real growth of 6% on only 1950-51 in the wake of the Korean occasions ar and 1965-66. On both occasions, the end result after a two- or three-year lag. An even IS inflation :isfactory price

;

rate of

— —

consideration

Dre critical

is

the fact that, in earlier

were almost nondecade of excess demand d at a time when price-cost pressures had merely gun to abate, it would not take too much to rekindle aew outburst of inflationary psychology. inflationary expectations

riods,

iftent; today, after half a

The thought that there may well be political liain inflation as well as in unemployment was hering. The havoc wrought by the inflation of 1964nce again led to suggestions that the Employ-

iity

Act of 1946 be amended to include explicit

Liii

ference to the objective of general price stability,

change in the language would not, by )Out a

change

)pefully,

and

in attitudes

make

more aware

the nation

)mic and political health also

itself,

policies; but

that

it

bring could,

its

eco-

depended on reasonable

ice stability.

The U.S. experience was duplicated fl

ii

index in

e

much

in

In the U.K., with the

November 1970

standing

8%

of the

consumer above the

most urgent problem was, indeed, "mini-budget" in late October announced

ious year, the

e II

world.

i-trial

ition.

A

beginning April 1971, in direct taxation in the take-home pay would reduce the

cut,

jpe that increased

'ensure

^sed I.

wage

for

increases.

reductions

in

The

tax cut

government

matched

expenditures.

demand could not be allowed to rise demand pressures on the labour market

aggregate

L

)0 fast lest

was necesone of circumspection relying heavily on mone-

riTivate the

restraint

r

wage

—a

spiral, official policy

difficult

undertaking after the ex-

money supply had been exceedingly rapid second and third quarters. The policy of cir-

iiiMon of

he

1

—gradually eased the degree of domestic Awareness that renewed period of growth—as the mid-1960s — might perhaps snail's-

a

through

stiffer taxes

and use them

and

social security contributions

to stimulate

investment and to finance

health service reforms.

initial

In the U.S. as well as in much of Europe, it was feared that continued disinflation might bring about a sharp squeeze

on the cash resources of many busi-

if some large become bankrupt. A world that exPenn Central collapse, distress calls

nesses and even a crisis of confidence

companies were perienced the

to

from Wall Street, and cash stringencies of corporations in Europe was deeply concerned about corporate liquidity.

The Search

for

New Remedies.

Since inflation

could be contained only at costs regarded as politically

and

socially unacceptable in terms of growth and employment, the thought understandably emerged that conventional monetary and fiscal weaponry must be supplemented by other instruments. As 1970 drew to a close, more and more proposals were made for a wide range of measures that might be used to in-

and cost movements in the public interest what had come to be called incomes policy. The idea was by no means new. The difficulty was that there was no simple formula to inject consid-

fluence price

—

erations of the

and wage

common interest into individual price Among the many variants dis-

decisions.

cussed, the range encompassed moral pressure, vol-

untary guideposts, and "jawboning" at one end, and compulsory arbitration of labour disputes and compulsory price and wage guidelines at the other. They included a policy of punitive taxes on employers granting inflationary wage increases or a policy of

At

and thus temper price increases. But as lal caution had serious political risks, the opposite trategy had serious economic risks even if they were III

wage and other cost increases should not exceed some rate that would take account of productivity growth and of past inflation but not allow for future

lore acceptable politically.

inflation.

nds,

West Germany's environment of a moderate lowdown in economic growth amid renewed inflaion, the federal government was clearly reluctant to educe domestic demand. Eventually, after much dis.ussion, it introduced a stability program in July, ts main feature was the activation of the Stability nd Growth Law requiring an advance payment of 0% on personal income and corporation tax liabiliIn

ies.

The surcharge was to remain in force until June government decided to shorten the jeriod. Evidently, West Germany took no advantage )f the U.S. experience that showed the effectiveness )f a temporary surcharge of this nature to be limited. •Nonetheless, the central bank reduced in three steps —the official discount rate in circumstances where ower interest rates were indicated only by the need prevent the West German market from acting as 1 magnet for foreign funds. In France's slackened economy, the government ceasonably confident in the newly won strength of 971 unless the

—

Economy, World

pace in provoke social unrest, and, hence, political difficulties, may well have been in the background of the search for reexpansion. Italy, which had more than its share of industrial troubles, nevertheless achieved in 1970 a growth rate of 6.5%. But the performance was regarded as well below potential and a wide-ranging economic decree-law was adopted to raise funds

encountered criticisms urging a strategy f going resolutely for growth in the hope that a faster rowth would lower unit costs, reduce money wage jrri.>pection

293

the franc restraint.

forced savings by employees receiving such increases. a

minimum, they aimed

among

participants

the

in

at

an understanding

wage-price

negotiations

that

Aiming

at

substantial

concentrations

of

private

power, incomes policy required the exercise of high-

Another diffiwas that labour with hiring practices, work rules, and strike privileges that had developed in earlier decades was unwilling to recognize that the world has changed. Moreover, people who had had little increase in real wages wanted to catch up in the inflationary merry-go-round with little regard to the consequences for the nation as a whole not because

level, sophisticated political leadership.

—

culty

—

—

of greed but because of fear of missing out.

Only

few countries ventured on this path in 1970. Norway froze both prices and incomes; Sweden, Denmark, and the Netherlands, prices only. In Canada and Ireland, the experiment lasted only a a

Finland and

short time.

The

U.S.

administration

alerts," the second, in

issued

December,

two

"inflation

a little sharper than

the first in August, pointed a finger at wage agreements and price actions in the automobile, construction, and a few other industries. It took direct action

AFP

FROM

PICTORIAL

PARADE

French Economic Affairs and Finance Minister Valery Giscard d'Estaing presides

in

Paris

20, 1970, at the ministerial meeting of the Organization IVlay

for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).

294

in

one area

—

offshore

area

oil,

wells;

oil

larger imports from from federally leased

by allowing

larger production

Canada and

Economy, World

and

it

threatened action in another

— construction wages. But the administration did

not seek to quantify the price-wage standards or the it imply any program of backing

guideposts, nor did

up

these

was

they were not respected. Its reluctance

if

justified

by reference

to

i_.ist

failures,

for the

guidelines that were enforced during the early 1960s

were unable

to

withstand the renewed inflationary

pressures during the second half of the decade. Significantly, however, the chairman of the Board of

Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Arthur Burns, clearly and unequivocally identified "excessive wage increases" as by far the most important

during the past 20 years, most recently ir 1966-67, but were repeatedly allowed to lapse. In a country that was overtaxed but still overflooded with

sions

money, monetary caution continued

to be indicated-; but to cure the present inflation solely by restrict-

ing demand was regarded as likely to involve verj high costs in terms of unemployment, bankruptcies

and

falling output. Significantly, recourse to incomes

policy was advocated

by the governor of the Bank of England, Sir Leslie O'Brien. No country pursued a consistent incomes policy long enough to permit proper judgment. Nevertheconclusion could be drawn from past was that incomes policy could not be a substitute for effective monetary and fiscal restraints, only an adjunct to them. Where inflationary pressures originated from excess demand, incomes policy was wholly ineffective. But when monetary and fiscal restraints had stamped out excess demand and the economy operated below capacity, incomes policy might well have a chance at success. Another prerequisite for success appeared to be popular reless, if a single

CHART

2.

experience,

1964

300

single factor of the continuing rise in prices and advocated a "market-oriented" incomes policy. In the U.K., wage guidance, "pauses," or "statutory freezes" were imposed on a number of occa-

I

Industrial Production (seasonally adjusted)

= 100

Japan

rFietheriands

260 220

1

Hw1w

1

1W

180

w

140

9^

sistance to constant inflationary surrenders.

Strong emphasis was also put on other steps

100

hold 300 1

Canada

it

Sweden

down

inflation:

tion through the reduction or

ing tariff

260

and quota

removal of the remainon imports; more

restrictions

domestic competition through the tightening of 220

[a

islation -

on

restrictive trade practices;

for selective action

180

—such

as

140 100 •1

Australia

Italy

1

260 220 180

through reflation

140

manpower

training and

—

in the belief that the existence of

unused resources allowed some leeway for such stimu-

ti

1

100

300

leg-

and the need

and relocation programs to ease unemployment and alleviate its hardship. Help for the poor and the unfortunate must, over time, be made more effective, and, hence, possibly less burdensome. At year-end, the trade-off between inflation and unemployment thus appeared as unresolved as ever. There were no signs that nations were ready to change their political habits and processes so that economic and financial policy-making could become less subject to politics. Governments sought economic reexpansion retraining,

300

to

greater international competi-

lation.

But the scope

United States

France

1

circumscribed.

for stimulation

The thought

and reexpansion was

that governmental fine-

i

260

4-

tuning could deal simultaneously with the slack

4~

the

220

-

i

ernments succeeded in dislodging the deeply embedded inflationary psychology. For too many people everywhere tended toward the fatalistic view that the economies faced as they were, for the longer run, with an excess, not a deficiency, of demand and beset by strong cost-push forces might have to live with inflation for a long time to come. Living with Inflation. The 1970 experience thus added new dimensions and new urgency to the old problem of the depreciation of money. Unlike earlier years, there were no islands of price stabil-

180

140

-t-

—

100

300

in

economy and with cost-push inflation was not realistic. The malaise could be healed only if gov-

West Germany

—

United Kingdom

260

220 180

ity and, in industrial

140

money was 100 19 65

— Sources:

OECD,

19 66

19 67

19 6

An

lual

—

International

1964

3 1

969

1965

1966

1970

Quar terly

1968 1969

Annual

-v

Monetary Fund, and National

1967

Institute for

1970

Quarterly

Economic and Sociol Reseorch, London.

>

countries, the depreciation of

most pronounced

since the

Korean

The U.S. dollar lost 5.6% of its buying power in the 1 1 months ended November 1970, compared with losses of 5.1% in 1969, 4% in 1968, and 2.7% in 1967. When ranked by its rate of depre-

War 64

the

(see Table V).

ciation in 1970 with currencies of the industrial coun-

more than halfway

the dollar slipped to a point

's,

vn the

Among Western European

list.

currencies,

pound sterling, the Irish pound, the Norgian and Danish kroner, and Swedish krona deprecid more than the dollar. The French franc improved V the

The German mark

record modestly. )se.

The Canadian

suffered a re-

dollar fared distinctly better than

U.S. dollar. Elsewhere, the rates of shrinkage of rrencies persisted.

Toward the year-end, there was evidence of a slowwn in the pace of the depreciation of money, parularly in the U.S. and Canada. But unless this provement in price performance became more irked and widespread, the situation would remain rious.

In the past,

tion than in those of severe pressures

by

Economy, World

Agricultural land, forests, commercial properties,

diamonds, stamps, coins, antiques, works of art, and even vintage cars remained steadily in demand on the strength of expectations that they would beat the depreciation of money. Basically, of course, they are speculation and not particularly helpful to a man of modest means without specialized knowledge.

There are some counselors ot despair so overcome by the seemingly intractable depreciation of money

expectations about the

official

295

accompanied

a profit squeeze.

Prices and

Wages

understated the deprethat occurred. This alone was enough

ce of inflation consistently ition of

money

doubts on whether the slowdown in the rise prices forecast at the year-end for 1971 would lly materialize. The last time the value of the U.S. cast

had not been eroded between one year and the was in the mid-1950s. If inflation is not vanquished and, for reasons v- n earlier, vanquished at a cost, in terms of outand employment, acceptable to the popular vote eople have no choice but to live with it. Some Lintries in Latin America in particular have, of

jillar

'xt

—

II

i

—

—

-e,

learned to live with inflation rates materially

ding those that prevailed in 1970 in the U.S. in

much

of Europe.

But

this art

cannot be ac-

rd rapidly.

,

he year set a record for attempts to provide pro-

J

ion against the loss of the

natic

escalators

i;'

.

i~es

I

of

buying power of money, so-called

the

—arrangements

prices).

irners of the gain

and anger i

made

linking

cost-of-

wage

in-

automatically to increases in prices (usually

umer

ii

use was

ijur for

led,

As rising prices robbed wagefrom past wage increases, frustraunderstandably, to a widespread

the protection of real wages.

Not too surprisingly, savers and lenders of money •

sought protection against the depreciation

1

of

For people have become uneasily aware that longer they hold money, the less they will get '. Human behaviour is, naturally, deeply affected lie realization that even at a 3% rate of annual ciation now regarded as the most hopeful exition the buying power of money is cut by one in only 23 years. A 5% rate typical for 1970 :is halving the buying power in 14 years. 1 he realization that money is not worth saving exlept for the very short term brought about in 1970 (he obvious reaction of a search for suitable hedges ':.gainst inflation. "Equity kickers" (such as convertible bonds) and "variable annuities" (with assets invested in common stocks and with payments reflecting I'

ney.

i

;

'

—

—

—

1

Ihe results

of such investments)

oopular in the U.S. and abroad.

became increasingly

To

the surprise of

1970 badly hit the common itocks (see Stock Exchanges). Following a wave of speculation that had pushed prices of many stocks apward with little regard to actual or potential earnngs, the U.S. stock markets in 1969 and the first ,aalf of 1970 took their most severe spill since World War II. In the second half of the year, they staged a notable recovery. The stock markets outside the U.S. remained generally poor. The obvious lesson is that common stocks are a hedge against inflation only

nany people,

if

inflation in

they meet the tests of profitability and quality.

They do generally

better in periods of milder infla-

Hourly earnings

Consumer

in

prices

manufacturing 1

OECDf

Inlarnaltonal

Monetary Fund.

296

up and say we must simply learn to with inflation. Their ingenuity in inventing new devices and gimmicks to try to safeguard the buy-

political difficulties,

power of money must not be underestimated. At the same time, however, experience shows that while some individuals can protect themselves up to a point, most people do not have equal ability, bargaining power, or luck at passing on o others the burden of the depreciation of money.

June

that they give live

Ecuador

ing

Living with inflation at anything near current rates

would have profound consequences for society. In such an environment, income gains and the accumulation of wealth would come to depend less on work and saving and more on ingenuity and the exercise of political and economic power and influence; this would multiply social injustice and inequality and give

rise

political

to

discontent.

Furthermore,

ar-

up with price increases would institutionalize inflation and make it more difficult to control. At the same time, rampant inflation would rangements

to catch

—gov—

stimulate excessive indebtedness since debtors

ernments as well as businesses and individuals would repay their debts in money that would be worth less in terms of its buying power. The result would be a wholesale redistribution of wealth.

Most important, and

inflationary distortions of prices

would bring about distortions economy and, above all, an inefficient

interest rates

the real

in al-

location of resources. Uncertainty about future prices

and if

interest rates

money

would

inhibit long-run lending for,

depreciates rapidly, people cannot be ex-

pected to save and thus to create capital voluntarily. In a world desperately short of capital, voluntary savings would then be replaced by

still

higher taxes

or by a

government monopoly of investment

Such

course would, inevitably, strangle the free

a

it,

President Velasco to assume dictatorial powers o 22. The developments that culminated in th step dated back to December 1969 when his goveri

ment, already facing the prospect of a substanti: deticit in the 1970 budget, was forced by smaller n turns than expected from tax collections and bon sales to draw on 1970 revenue for the payment c salaries and other disbursements. It did so with a pledge that public expenditure 1970 would be cut by 1 billion sucres in equal month] i

installments from

March

the estimated 1970 deficit

to

December. In

was

to be

this wa modestly reduce

(by 400 million sucres to 2,538,000,000 sucres). B Congress adjourned, no furthe action had been taken to cope with a budgetary situa tion in which preliminary estimates suggested tha ordinary revenue would fall short of requirements fo^ debt payments, education, and defense. In mid-May Velasco attempted to solve this prob lem himself by promulgating four decrees. These pro vided for an emergency budget yielding 460 millio sucres, the abolition of tax exemptions under the in dustrial development law and other laws, the imposi tion of sales and consumer taxes, and an increase stabilization surcharges on imports. The private sector of the economy, led by th influential Guayaquil Chamber of Commerce, reactei by petitioning Ecuador's Supreme Court to declar

May 4, however, when

ii

the decrees unconstitutional, whereupon Velasco an nounced that he would resign if the petition sue ceeded. On learning of the Supreme Court's intentioi to veto his measures on the ground that they infringec

capital.

economy and undermine society and, with

emphasized by an accumulatiol of budgetary problems and growing student unrest, le

the very fabric of the free each citizen's basic political free-

ECU.ADOR Education. (1967-68) Primary, pupils 897,539, teach23,673; secondary, pupils 84,984, teachers 7,278; vocational, pupils 49,629, teachers 3,269; teacher training, students 16,584, teachers 886; higher (including 9 universities), students 19,600, teaching staff 1,969. Finance. Monetary unit: sucre, with a par value (following devaluation of Aug. 16, 1970) of 25 sucres to U.S. $1 (60 sucres £1 sterling). Gold, SDKs, and foreign exchange, centra! bank: (June 1970) U.S. $64 million; (June 1969) U.S. $49.7 million. Budget (1969 est.) balanced at 5,147,000,000 sucres. Gross national product: (1968) 26,510,000,000 sucres; (1967) 24.4 billion sucres. Money supply: (May 1970) 4,072,000,000 sucres: (May 1969) 3,571,000,000 sucres. Cost of living (Quito; 1963 100): (June 1970) 132; (June 1969) 128. Foreign Trade. (1968) Imports U.S. $210,8 million; exports U.S. $207.6 million. Import sources: U.S. 46%; West Germany 13%; Italy 10%; Japan 7%; Venezuela 6%; U.K. 5%. Export destinations: U.S. 38%; West Germany 16%; Japan 16%; Italy 5%. Main exports: bananas 50%; cocoa 19%; coffee 16%. ers

doms.

Our world has passed through many a dark valley and, at critical times, has repeatedly found regenerative

power

to

spurt ahead. It must be hoped that

there will be a reaction against the persistent depre-

money and

ciation of

and

political

that there will

dividual

its

cumulative economic,

must

social,

be hoped be purposeful efforts to safeguard in-

consequences.

initiative,

It

also

and

responsibility,

freedom

to

achieve higher output, better productivity, and an

improved quality of DE

WORLD

Jose Wlaria Velasco Ibarra, president of Ecuador, assumed dictatorial powers June 22, 1970.

which

life,

is

today one of the

deep-seated aspirations of youth. But the malaise in the world

economy

wfll

be overcome only through

responsible government at

all levels.

(M. A.-K.)

Srr nhn Economics; Employment, Wages, and Hours; Income, National; Industrial Review; Labour Unions; Merchandising; Prices; Profits; Savings and Investment;

Trade, International.

=

=

Transport and Communications. Roads (1966) 18,345 km. Motor vehicles in use (1968): passenger 22,000; commercial (including buses) 34,300. Railways (1968): c. 1,900 km.; traffic 59 million passenger-km., freight 60 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1968) 263,414,000 passenger-km. freight 5,1 74,000 net ton-km. Telephones (Jan. 1969) 88,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1967) 801,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1967) 71,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968; 1967 in parentheses): bananas 2,693 (3,163); corn (1969) c. 2 10, (1968) 177; barley 96 (82 ); potatoes 353 (403); dry beans 28 (38); coffee (1969) c. 48, (1968) 66; cocoa 65 (76); rice (1969) 288, (1968) 218; cassava 125 (327); oranges 196 (194); sugar, raw value (1969-70) c. 264, (1968-69) 204. Livestock (in 000; 1968-69): cattle c. 2,400; sheep c. 1,830; pigs c. 1,300; horses c. 235; chickens (196768) c. 5,380, Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968): petroleum products 972; crude oil (1969) 206; electricity (kw-hr.) c. 850,000; cement 434; gold (troy :

Ecuador A

republic on the west coast of South America, Ecua-

dor

is

bounded by Colombia, Peru, and the

Ocean. Area:

109,483 sq.mi.

Pacific

(283,561 sq.km.), in-

cluding the Galapagos Islands (a dependency of 3,075 and excluding claimed territory. Pop. (1969

sq.mi.) est.):

5,890,000. Cap.: Quito (pop., 1969 est,, 505,-

577). Largest city: Guayaquil (pop., 1969 633), Language: Spanish, but Indians speak

est.,

754,-

Quechuan

and Jibaro, Religion: mainly Roman Catholic, President in 1970, Jose Maria Velasco Ibarra. A marked worsening of Ecuador's economic and

oz,)

8,6;

;

silver

(troy oz,)

135,

right of

;

itters,

Congress to legislate on tax and budgetary president declared himself supreme

the

under the constitution of 1946. Supported by the armed forces, he suspended Consss, reformed the Supreme Court, placed all for,'0 exchange dealings under the control of the Banco acutive

and closed the university campuses in Quito, Cuenca, and Loja. In the wake of these midyear changes the Army, lose commander in chief. Gen. Nilo Alfredo Vil-

to

of the students, of

claim attention. Leonid

Brezhnev, the general secretary of the Soviet

I.

Komsomol (Young Communist League) in May that student upheavals in the West were an important symptom of the deepen-

He saw

such disturbances as a

ing crisis of capitalism.

serious factor in the political struggle, but he urged

-centre politicians, while the police

began a search

Jorge Zavalo Baquerizo and for the rmer president, Carlos Julio Arosemena Monroy. resident Velasco announced that he would hand over V'ice-Pres.

r

iwer in 1972

roval of

amendments public

In the ere leir

leet

and meanwhile would arrange a pleb-

for the purpose of seeking the country's ap-

cite

to the 1946 constitution.

uncertainty

that

prevailed,

banks

inundated with customers anxious to withdraw savings; one well-known bank was unable to its commitments and was closed for five months,

was from 18 to 25 sucres to the U.S. dollar. This accompanied by a series of measures ending all lange restrictions on international transactions exthose relating to foreign loans and investments, providing for tax allowances on exports, the aboliof stabilization surcharges on imports, the gradual limination of prior import deposits over a 24-year eriod, and strict price controls on petroleum deriva- and products of prime necessity. n August 16 Ecuador's official exchange rate tered

he

1

new exchange

rate,

applicable within a

was approved by Monetary Fund, which proposed

nargin to all operations, lational

nission to

1%

the Inter-

to send a Quito to negotiate a standby agreement

strengthen

the

country's

international

reserves.

second half of 1969 these had climbed rem their all-time low of $12.1 million in June to 539 million in December, thanks to higher banana orts and the advance payment of royalties and s by the Texaco-Gulf consortium. In the subsejuent six months, however, they steadily declined and in June 22, 1970, stood at $24 million. The country's relations with other members of the \ndean Group (Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, and Peru) ring the

Education

nist Party, told a congress of the

layaquil,

2omez, was replaced by his chief of staff, Col. Julio Montero, rounded up student leaders and left-

297

Commu-

ntral,

icoto

'

Student Unrest. The mood course, did continue

Soviet students to maintain firm discipline.

The

first

duty of youth was to follow Lenin's advice: "Firstly to study, secondly to study and thirdly to study." In the U.S. the year was marred by widespread student demonstrations, in places over civil rights or local issues but more generally over the war in Vietnam. After a relatively quiet spring, Pres. Richard Nixon's April 30 announcement that U.S. troops had entered Cambodia sparked a sudden and spectacular upsurge in the campus antiwar movement. A wave of student demonstrations swept the countrj-, and there were calls for a national

On May

student strike.

Kent State University in Ohio, one of se\-eral campuses where the National Guard had been brought in to restore order, guardsmen fired into a crowd of students, kilhng four and wounding several others. The exact sequence of events remained in dis4 at

pute at year's end, but the immediate effect was to bring out hitherto uncommitted or inactive students

and

to

plunge the country's higher educational system

For two weeks or more classes were can-

into chaos.

celed and demonstrations held as students and their elders agonized over the events.

The

killing of

two

students at nearly all-black Jackson (Miss.) State Col-

by policemen had racial rather than antiwar overit added to the general furor. With a great body of essentially middle-of-the-road students participating, the movement began to take a political direction. In the emotionalism of the moment, thousands of students pledged to work for antiwar candidates in the November election, and a few schools arranged to dismiss classes during the immelege

tones, but

diate preelection period.

Commitment dwindled

with

Disaffected students continued to

and while more students than usual engaged in political activity, they were far from tlic hordes that had been envisaged in the spring. The Cambodia-Kent State affair was the most spec tacular instance of campus unrest during the year, but it was far from being the only one. Students at the Santa Barbara campus of the University of California burned a branch of the Bank of America during a riot property damage on or near in February. "Trashing" campuses became so common that it usually went unreported outside the local area. ROTC buildings and Jr., other campus institutions with government connec- James E. Allen, talks to newsmen tions became favourite targets for bombing and arson, after being fired and in August a University of Wisconsin research as- as U S. commissioner education. He said sistant was killed in the bombing of a math centre of the post had "serious where government work had been carried on. By fall frustrations" but voiced this sporadic violence had spilled over into the larger surprise at being dismissed society, and it was difficult to tell how much of the "revolutionary" and "urban guerrilla" activity was

trol of their

actually campus-connected.

•

continued to improve. Early in the year the presidents

Ecuador and Colombia met at Rumichaca, where pledged their governments to mutual cooperain a number of development projects. From 16 Ecuador was authorized to export 19 producis, including bananas, coffee, and cacao, to the four other member countries of the group on a duty-free if

h -y

il

(R. B. Le.)

basis.

Education destinies in 1970.

demand more conSome used their time to

demonstrate against politicians and there were more ugly scenes

on the campus. Politicians,

in their turn,

continued to disrupt the a4ministration of education as they tried to press their social theories on it or to

campus unrest for their political advantage. There Was, however, some evidence that the educational institutions were learning to live with their troubles, and the year was marked by more thinking about fundamentals than had sometimes been the case. use

time, however,

-

—

—

Clearly the revolutionary activists formed only a

small part of the U.S. college population, although polls revealed a continuum of opinion that included

many nonactivist sympathizers. In an election year, however, campus protest could not long remain outside the political forum, and the fall campaign found many candidates using student protest as a whipping boy in their attempts to convince the electorate of their devotion to law and order.

Ecumenical Movement sec Religion

In the aftermath of Cambodia-Kent State, Presinamed a Commission on Campus Unrest,

dent Nixon chaired by

former Pennsylvania governor William

Scranton, to investigate causes and

recommend

solu-

The commission report, issued before the elecwas on the whole evenhanded, laying the blame on extremist students and faculty, unprepared administrators, and overreacting peace officers and public. All sides were counseled to seek reconciliation and understanding, ?nd the president in particular was urged to exert his moral leadership in what was seen as a crisis. Even this was brought into the political arena, however. Spokesmen for various factions castigated it for not placing all the fault on one group or another, and the president himself insisted that he was tions.

tion,

only one of

many molders

of public opinion.

Mean-

while, positive action against disaffected students in the air.

Many

was

university administrations began tak-

meet possible future disorders, and the term opened in an atmosphere of uneasy calm.

ing steps to fall

The rest.

U.S. was not alone in experiencing student un-

In Portugal, in February, fighting between strik-

ing and nonstriking students led the authorities at

Lisbon University to close the faculty of law. In June at Belgrade (Yugos.) University went on a hunger strike in support of striking miners. May saw extensive demonstrations by students of the English-language universities in South Africa against the prosecution of some Africans under the Suppression of Communism Act. In August, Barney Pityana, president of the black South African Students' Association, announced that he had been refused a pass-

some students

port to take up a scholarship at Britain's

Durham

University.

After some relaxation of authoritarian attitudes

toward them, the mood of West German students had become quieter, though there were indications of troubles ahead if the government's declared intention

der responsibility for student troubles that should

The following month

solved politically.

chard, the minister of education, told the French tional

Assembly

that a special

unarmed

t

Olivier Gu.j

force of

Nr

pplic;

was being created to maintain order in the Paris unij versities. In June there was serious rioting on th! campus at Grenoble after detectives had tried to arresj two students alleged to be agitators, and studen.j on the cam-j pus subsequently interrupted examinations there. In the U.K., Cambridge University students stageci] a violent demonstration against the Greek governmen,' strikes against the intervention of police

at a hotel in the

town

in

February, leading to som(j

prison sentences. Keele University experienced van

dalism and violence over several months, and the fordshire Education

Committee decided

Staf-i

to withholc

annual grant to the university until it was satisfiecabout discipline there. Disaffected students raiding administrative files at the University of Warwick in February discovered what they claimed to be political, reports on a lecturer and on an applicant for entry. The University Assembly passed a vote of no confidence in the vice-chancellor, John Butterworth, and there was a nationwide agitation about confidential files. In May. Margaret Thatcher, the new minister of education and science, expressed the opinion that students and other demonstrators who occupied buildings should be liable to prosecution. This did not prevent Birmingham University students, in June, from its

disrupting a meeting of the senate; there had been

continued protest at Birmingham over the case of Richard Atkinson, who had been involved in 196S troubles at the university and whose appointment to a lectureship in sociology was vetoed by the university authorities.

A Change

Midstream. In Britain the year fell by the midsummer genthat put the Labour Party out of office in

into two parts, neatly divided eral election

making education a priority did not enable the universities to accommodate the growing number of potential students. In Finland there was pressure from

and brought

students to replace the authoritarian university struc-

selective secondary school system. In April the govern-

of

ture with a national system of university that

would give the students a voice

government

in the election of

in the Conservatives.

part of

the comprehensive principle.

missed feel

it

this as a

that

authori-

The Labour Party disprocedural hitch and observers did not

was a major

Much

bill

hesitated to reorganize their schools on

ties that still

There was a sensation in France in March when Paul Ricoeur, dean of the faculty of letters at Nanterre and a declared supporter of university reform, resigned because of ill health and accused the government of leaving the academic authorities to shoul-

—

first

ment suffered a defeat in Parliament over a would have allowed it to doerce the few local

university councils.

—

In the

was generally clear sailing toward the Labour government goal of a comprehensive or nonthe year there

defeat.

anxiety did continue to be felt by the independent schools and those schools that, while inde-

^

ident of the local authorities, received a direct grant

m

the

al

authority pupils.

government

in return for taking a

quota of

The independent schools con-

ued to see their future threatened by the governegahtarian policies, while the direct-grant

'.nt's

grammar

face the well-nigh impossible task of abolishing the

whole nature )uld be changed by inclusion in the comprehensive stem. In April the governors of Manchester Gramir School, the most famous of the direct-grant hools, announced that, if the recommendation of the mmission was implemented by the government, the hool would opt for independent status. The climate was radically changed by the Conserva-

segregation resulting from housing patterns in the

pupils in their areas, felt that their

/e victory.

In a circular to the local authorities,

Thatcher reasserted the principle of local loice in the arrangements for secondary schools, onfusion followed as some local authorities abanDned or revised the comprehensive schemes on which [ley had embarked while others were all the more j'ermined to carry theirs through. The National nion of Teachers, the largest association of primary argaret

id secondary school teachers,

was sharply

critical of

Thatcher, but the Joint Four associations of

difficulties of

overcoming

de

forward for integrating large

would require bussing children long distances plus vast expenditures for the buses themselves. Although some smaller cities had introduced bussing successfully, it remained a highly emotional issue. Meanwhile, the seamier side of Southern desegregation was brought out in testimony before a Senate subcommittee, in which it was claimed that black children entering some white schools were resegregated by class, that such children were denied the amenities they had enjoyed in all-black schools, and that black teachers, rather than being integrated into the system,

had been fired. An Internal Revenue Service ruling denying tax exemption to private schools set up to

jsistant mistresses

ties.

—

chiefly

and representing the gram-

—

and independent schools supported er. Edward Short, her Labour predecessor, said that le was putting the clock back 50 years. Tory authoriles, he declared, would continue to subject children to he eleven-plus ( the procedure by which children were ested for academic or nonacademic schools) though hat system had been condemned by every educationdirect-grant,

Subsequently the general council of the its 150 affiliates to coordinate local moves in support of comprehensive 5t

of repute.

Trades

Union Congress urged

chools.

Mrs. Thatcher was unperturbed, however. At the Conservative Party conference in October, she prom-

do everything she could to encourage the directgrant schools, which she saw as a bridge between a completely independent system and the state system, ised to

offering opportunities to pupils regardless of their parents'

income or background. Noting that 5.3% of

chil-

In Britain the difficulty of achieving integration by school bus was becoming increasingly obvious to the few authorities still attempting it. It was reported

from West Bromwich, for instance, that when children were transported to a school away from their neighbourhood, any link between home and school was broken; the parents made virtually no contact with the school to which their children were sent. The problems of coloured school dropouts also began to be aired. At a London conference on the subject in July, Richard Stokes, group personnel adviser to the Burton Group of companies, said that staff managers had failed to do anything to avoid discrimination while positive discrimination existed in

many

were a valuable contribution to the nasystem and, more importantly, a safeguard against a state monopoly. "I would rather keep our

swelled the cost of education for

tional

secondary school system flexible," she said. "I

am

also

concerned to see some variety of choice retained in the system."

Desegregation. In the U.S. the effort to end sepaschooling for white and black pupils continued to a major issue. The official picture was rosy. By the autumn of 1970 some 94% of the school systems in the South were classified as desegregated. In July the Justice Department had filed suits against the state of Mississippi and certain school districts in Florida, \rkansas, and South Carolina in what was described a final push for desegregation, while in April Gov. laude Kirk of Florida had yielded to a federal district court contempt order and allowed court-ordered integration to be carried out in the Manatee County public schools. In May President Nixon had asked •"ongress for $1.5 billion over two years to assist de-cgregation in the South and to help school districts in he North overcome racial divisions based on resi!ence. The local authorities were to be given con(te

-

•

iderable latitude in

how

they spent the funds.

There was another picture, however. Earlier, there

The

in-

guages continued to present difficulties in Singapore, and the Malay Teachers Association was advocating a single school system with English as the main language of instruction.

these schools

firms.

tegration of different ethnic groups with different lan-

dren were in independent schools, she declared that

r

this so-called

by the schemes put cities, some of which

facto segregation were underlined

avoid desegregation did little to discourage the overt support being given to such systems by local authori-

lar,

I

North. The

:admasters, headmistresses, assistant masters,

Irs.

Education

—

schools taking the most

lools, traditionally le

299

had been unsuccessful legislative moves by Southern conservatives in Washington to force all areas in the U.S. to desegregate at the same speed a measure, it was pointed out, that would compel the federal authorities either to ease enforcement in the South or to

The Cost

Spiral. Efforts to achieve desegregation

some countries

in

1970, but costs generally were soaring. In a record

Norwegian budget of 23.7

billion kroner, education accounted for 2,696.000.000 kroner. In July, French Pres. Georges Pompidou said that in 1971 his country expected to spend more on education than on defense for the first time in its history. In Quebec the provincial budget for education was Can$792 million against $170 million in 1960. Italian parents were facing in-

creases of 10 to

20%

in the cost of school textbooks.

At a Paris conference of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development in June it was reported that,

if

current trends continued, eight

OECD

would be spending 10% of national income on education by 1980 and seven others would be spending 5 to 10%. In the U.S. in August, President Nixon vetoed a $4.4 billion aid to education bill on the ground that it was more than he had asked for and that such spending was inflationary. The opposition suggested that his action was politically motivated and, as it turned out, his veto was overridden. The difficulties of finance as well as those of desegregation were evident factors in the unrest that became marked in 1970 in the U.S. states

Florida Gov. Claude Kirk talks with

Manatee County

school officials after he personally

took control of the school in an attempt to block a court-ordered

system

integration

plan.

World Education Mosl recent

officio!

data Literacy

1st level

ou

y

Afghanistan Algeria

Angolo Aust^^o"^ Bahrain

Barbados Bolivia

Botswa na ^'^'^^'^^

Brune) Bur ma

Cam bod ia Canada Cape Verde Cey on Chad

Islonds

1

Chile

Colombia

Congo

(Brazzaville) Costo Rico

Denmark Dominica Salvodor

El

Ethiooia

France^

Germany, West Guatemala Honduras

Hong Kong Hungary Iceland Iran

Iraq Ireland Israel Italy

Jamaica Jopon Jordan? Kenya Korea, South

Kuwa

it

loos

Lebanon Lesotho berio Liechtenstein Li

Luxembourg

Mo joysia Malta Mouritius

Mexico Nauru Nepal Netherlands, The Netherlands Antilles

New New New

Caledonia Guinea Zealand Nicorogua Niger

Norway Pakistan

Pupua Peru Philippines

Portugal

Reunion Rhodesia

Romania Ryukyu Islands Singapore Somalia South Africa° Southern Yemen Spain

Sudan

Sweden Taiwan Thailand

Togo Turkey LJganda U.S. SR. United Arob Republic United Kingdom United Stotes

Venezuela Vietnam, South Western Samoa

Zambia

Students

Teachers

(full-time)

(full-time)

500,665 l,739'o33 333,767 3,600,787 '599^954

44,797 7,434 188,245 24,656

37,781

44,630 740,288 82,214 14,798 27,580 3,070,970 182,444 989,464 4,056,948 19,680 2,380,000 178,894 1,980,906 3,021,473 228,578 345,146 71,236 535,063 19,818 531,309 513,981 413,586 5,346,298 6,136,006 484,745 376,966 723,467 1,177,887 27,500 37,219,083 2,916,255 1,015,942 528,217 495,668 4,796,593 480,169 9,403,193 229,691 1,282,297 5,757,153 115,683 185,724 528,488 179,386 120,245 2,412 36,035 1,689,707 55,297 146,490 8,947,555 1,465 448,754 1,509,319 43,193 23,933 149,026 514,774 278,752 84,248 390,046 8,140,193 65,071 2,304,305 6,193,123 904,120 108,630 716,919 2,886,855 210,541 365,956 48,983 3,466,021 105,158 4,390,000 633,850 631,267 2,428,041 5,273,516 206,283 4,908,743 709,708 39,058,000 3,622,786 5,816,258 36,800,000 1,726,129 2,406,264 29,419 693,291

General 2nd

(primary)

1 1

,523

1,676 1,725

Total schools

2,848 5,559 3,576 25,849 4,018 82 131

9,524 2,037 1,268 1,230 48,656 4,852 22,465

381 57,447 2,596

280 395 118 14,539 970 5,699 257 8,184

81,552 3,712 11,656 2,255 41,461 481

877 7,302 30,265 883 2,346 562 2,460 58

13,501

2,891

10,403 18,755 225,274 192,067 13,009 10,437 21,625 62,834 1,320 944,377 89,320 73,316 15,640

1,844 5,110 68,116 28,498 4,924 4,143 1,437 5,626 195 391,064 15,776 5,172 4,307 l,774t

.

20,783t 223,806 361 149 5,643

38,312 101,340 6,337 5,678 429,124 3,419 2,990 89 1,597 53,486 2,546 4,405 191,091 96 17,563 37,777 1,200

950 4,743 18,769 7,391

1,965 16,763 190,880 2,061

66,844 208,587 28,434 4,112 18,546 133,842 8,301

12,263 1,542 78,388 3,493 128,407 13,493} 31,600 57,935 168,107 3,689 126,106 21,074 1,449,000" 97,938 201,686 1,261,000§ 51,040 45,077

869 14,360

39,261 1,273

25,013

748 6,111

6,030 235 2,995 1,881

1,124 910 14

337 6,313 164

337 44,610 9 6,880 8,879

119 255 1,177 2,584 2,063

673 3,091

66,860 484 19,942 36,679 17,075 398 3,480 14,928 401

427 292 13,089

645 126,337 3,485t 4,500 2,275 28,463

905 37,200 2,720 214,290 8,151

28,456 85,779 10,681 7,425

140 2,556

level

Students

Teachers

(full-time)

(full-time)

83,529 155,608 28,916 211,537 475.314 11,586 21,315 65,105 3,049 897 9,325 644,979

Total schools

339 384 160 940

3,352 6,540 1,779 31,947 26,999

2,055

652 925

32 35

157 53

456 15,401

2,888 1,498 3,663

54 105 70 209

1,533 60,870 88,861

81

4

2,635 3,399 20,494 194,107 91,445 5,122 2,516

300 84

4,141

15,494

689 10,086 575,366 12,074 42,444 1,451,89611

368 94,731 537,281

10,4156 3,448 10,672

38,149 5,587

234,449 3,346,190 5,597 424,421 1,284,306 168,486 27,086 50,663 261,749 54,653 144,181 4,966 412,530 12,305 1,210,249 263,208 391,642 872,277

444,614 16,688 965,697 46,483 4,400,000 1,087,490 3,587,163 14,800,000 288,060 632,221 9,619 52,074

1,150 9,256 4,272

364 110 302 344 130 103,275 2,298 863 903

305} 11,981

58 16,155

569 383 85,987 141,137 2,594 5,757 4,218 94,411

70 25,983 7,204 101,917 825,214 2,018,916 19,541 1,202

12,994 106,582 5,000 181,040 23,335 3,932 4,364 50,438} 250,760 4,127 1,414,324

141

714

8, 07911

5,091

388 9

24

5,931

211

550

50

12,380 2,050

2,174 164 17 107

391

3,010} 22,510

274} 1,987

239

11

48,916 107

379 592 157 48

37 87

1,664

384

252 503

17

36

9,541 1,751

4,500 390,502 5,317 1,136 2,974

131

29

35,000

1,982 28 4

1,681

152 23

3,722 137

1,171

77,1 15

,054

27,511 2,205

253 1 1

19 1,372 2,570

536 61

86,076 77^890 168,105 1^802 4^679

180 572

344J41

6,971

57 122

17,695 3,997

245 18,442

17 1,234

906 49,842

70 2,775 1,132}

263 702 1,577 63 2,057

118

'701*

300,798 2,420 174,058 155,947 182,540 2,072 222,507 2,784 4,166',600^

1,641

6,948 31,411

652 782 63 113

245,895 288,535 147,031

22,893 95

251

87

190 804 272

48 7

29

300 18,721

02 384 79

1 ,1

1,804 120*^

18,060 265 7,308 10,187 '157

9,268

245 134,000 12,104 50,070 6,756 1,103 11

Note: Third level may Include individual faculties within a university. *lncludes teacher training at both 2nd and 3rd levels. jTeocher training only. jPublic only. §lncludes part-time. l|General and vocational combined. ^Jewish populotion only. 9Data refer to east bank of Jordan only. 6Teacher training included in general secondary. °Not including Indian. ^Includes teacher training. '^Primary and secondary combined.

1

30 20 10

66.

29

71.9

43

3 27

14.

58,964 164,086 2,369 13,528

8,026 155

328

700,868 597,777 18,316 415,019 12,416 53,237 2,200 2,029,469 76,543 40,288 21,849 49,153 842,131 4,906 1,618,189 4,077 5,345 194,796 4,260 2^985 35,152

U025 1,499

70§ 365 1

8,722 1^602

7

954

6

49

5

— 10

13,225 601 9,413

250 133,769 3,268 1,850

526} 27,831

492 90,151

41

6

6,449

204 64 34 54 858 10 852

196 469

12 4

168

1,921

54} 146 28§ 78 1,336 287 41

5

10 22 5 1

3 26 4

26,0231

301

1,005 15,5006

3374

—

— 45

—

44

26

2

1,103 28,123

142 2,310

10 16 26

11/53 548} 38,695

699

100. 100.

96.6

28.12

89.61 91.6 57.28 42. 48.

93.3 48. 19.4

88.8 18.2 100. 50.8

72.

426

41764

2,591

121

59.7

54 202

4}

6

58

5 4

184 10° 725 12 775

12702

86

—

260,752

14,590

141

184743

285 25 57 95 47

9^987 121 '393

745

75,914

29 1,098 22

222,503

242 936 389 259 1

'332

7,71

221,865 339,675 7,600,000 86,463 47,670

1,078 9,470 6,660 33 11,001

757 201 ,000 7,828

42713 593,000§ 8,967 1,066

319

29

3,779

483

6

3

716 93,637

310 757

io

4 94

14,337

9 3

15 10

37

499

128796 7 J 65 10750

31

ii

10

81.9 11.8 100.

555

637

15

54.6

781

1,281

6

15

24.

15.9 23.5 46.9

20 904

16'

100.

111}

161

7'

100.

2,001} 19,463

21

425

7 7

100. 30.

1,409 17,590} 551 ,750

152

8

15

55.

360J84

1

71

'7'

2

15,331

153,5484

15 15

8

244,281

—

83.6 72.9 30.5 55.79 81.8 100. 86.5

24} 180} 3,350 90 4,273 15 87

10,270

722 387

...

—

41 7,901

533} 5,522 29,794 57,530

16'

68.

44} 3,383 14,674

21

5,725 1^700 98 8,172 1^916 9,187 168

20.4

1

—

9,895 6,225} 56,726§

is'

96.

1,376

2

959

32.2

758

612

1

2}

91,5 100.

19,018

5 3

5, 19211

4244

408

9,164 39,722 34,805 2,957 140

1,302 66 2 3 24

232

—

7-12

1

356

1

113 74 845 2,076

20.

Over age

41

1,299 24,537

580

238

5,212 17,316 2,608

2,465

559 508

2,891

lation

3,293

58,272

4

26} 18 23

7

popu-

10,198 345,966

11

26 66

23 1,070 23

41,941 192,584 1,014,000§ 12,401 16,260

15

303} 162 494 43,784

193

249 887

541

681

32

18 3

4

36,628 76,637} 41,250 32,244 21,356 556 24,146 2,067 251,000

315 355 273

397 197

33

15,622 112,772 298 25,133 39,173 8,158 1,172 2,566 13,679 2,726

1,381

1,155

174

28 4,060 34,907

5,644

662

190 902

102,44011

257

438

2,491

9,097 316,637 3,558

22,200 886 1,940

381 2 3 2

11,783

509 694 2,352 22 16 911 27

34 75 52

20 13 107

8,024 9 36

3,061

2,479

152 510

1,662

5,267 43,817

344

10,532

1

20,883

1,215

24 16 1

461 2,920

431,292

45 62

8

35,965 186

1,775

236 472

26

401,000 8,724 178,887 522,074 25,428 64,252 34,938 221,629

5,524t 244,217

2 2

19

13,226

Total (full-time) schools

2,269 1,052

79 4,164 1,202 5,798 181,511

172

(full-time)

^~of

Teachers

881 1,269 123 47,033 6,734

79

361

Students

5,680 20,243 1,074 465,686 59,990

14(5

17,047 5 1,555 33

1,230 1,006,860 25,890 10,114

54 222 69

809

328

7,291

1,038 2,483 1,227 71,583 12,177

10

3,990 260,908

8,079||

14,730 45,468 14,693 519,079 224,698 955 80

Total (full-time) schools

7 21

3,701

387,717 3,032,904 2,060,244 63,078 33,392 204,190 124,220 15,500 29,118,994 897,443 302,611 181,043 108,648 3,157,583 40,641 9,244,605 75,139 115,246 1,706,513 13,773 5,579 130,210

(full-time)

Teachers

2,681

1,413 18

672

Students

395

119,988 1,640,330 2,059

85

3rd level (higher)*

Vocational 2nd level

(secondary)

4

2

203 28

18.2 76.7

io

15.

19.4

72.

44.

48.72

68 254 2,525 55 9 2 13

97.

14'

80.

97.5

io'

of Education.

ffice

obert Finch

In June President Nixon removed

from the

office of

secretary for health,

ing the other.

from school

in

The parents withheld

their

increased boarding

demanded

better conditions for

and welfare and in the same month James who had been critical of the Nixon adlinistration, was fired as commissioner of education :ie was replaced by Sidney P. Marland, Jr., of New

themselves and their pupils, better schools and equipment, and more generous scholarships and grants.

ork in September).

illusionment over the recruitment of teachers from

iucation, .

Allen, Jr.,

Dissatisfaction led to the resignation of a f

senior officials. In a

litted

memorandum

when he gave up

his job,

number

of complaint sub-

James

J.

Gallagher,

eputy commissioner for planning, research, and evalation, alleged that the Office of

Education received

making of naand that the administration had an uncommitment to educational research and

nly perfunctory recognition in the ional policy

ertain

evelopment. ions

He

further alleged that "fiscal considera-

and budget technicians often determine major

ducational policy decisions, no matter the rhetoric of

spokesmen for the administration." The high cost of education prompted moves to enure value for money, and a number of experiments in iccountability were being made. These sometimes inolved the employment of a private company. Thus he 800-pupil Banneker Elementary School in Gary, nd., was taken over by Behavioral Research Laboraories of Palo Alto, Calif. The company was to emiloy the teachers and have charge of the curriculum md administration; for this it would receive $800 a .-ear from the city for each student, with the proviso hat the money would be refunded for any student oelow the national average of achievement after three vears. The same company had a guaranteed-readinghe visible

charges.

The

teachers

In Australia and

New

Zealand there was some

overseas. Teachers in New South Wales were angered by a poster campaign, conducted in Britain, that showed a man in cap and gown on a beach and in-

vited British teachers to teach in the sun.

The

poster

was reported to have prompted 1,300 inquiries in a week. New South Wales teachers retorted that they often did teach in the sun there were not enough classrooms. In New Zealand it was the recruits or at least some of them who said they had been oversold. There were protests over shortages of equipment, a lack of free periods for preparation, and the imposition of subjects the newcomers were not qualified to

—

—

—

teach, as well as complaints that promises made in London about accommodations were not kept. Dissatisfaction among British teachers about their

performance contract for 23,000 students in PhiladelWashington. D.C., a plan to improve pupils' reading standards envisaged paying the teachers, not on their qualifications or seniority, but on their ability

profession (the practice of increasing the basic scale

measured by the progress of their pupils. The plan was opposed by the local teachers' union. Another experiment was sponsored by the U.S. Office of Economic Opportunity and developed by Chris-

and thus giving extra pay

topher Jencks, associate professor of education at

decided to report

Harvard University and co-director-of the Center for the Study of Public Policy. Parents of school-age children would be given a voucher equal to the cost of educating each child in their district's public schools. The parent would give the voucher to the school of

Trades Union Congress, to which both belonged, for nontrade-union practice. The NAS, however, was fortified by an inquiry into teachers' pay by the Economist Intelligence Unit, which concluded that salaries were rising rapidly enough and that starting levels were sufficiently competitive, but that expectations for the career teacher were poor. In the event, the employers countered with proposals to abolish the single basic scale, to which various allowances had been added, and to replace it with a series of scales to meet different qualifications and appointments.

to teach, as

—

—

private, public, or parochial and the would cash the voucher with the public authorities. A voucher agency would supervise the system, decide which schools were eligible, give the parents information about them, and make sure that the schools

his

choice

school

accepted a fair share of children belonging to local minority groups. It was argued that with all the

on an equal footing, they would have to be efficient or close. The experiment was still schools thus placed

in

the discussion stage in 1970. Initial reactions

from

groups were hostile, but there was also responsible support for the project. Teacher Unrest. If some thought accountability was a way to improve the schools, others preferred teachers'

and demonstrations. Increasingly teachers, parand even pupils were united in such actions. Thus, in July, pupils in Christchurch, N.Z., marched in support of their teachers' demands for better pay and better schools, while in May most elementary school children in Amsterdam took part in a one-day strike, called by an action committee of parents and strikes ents,

teachers aggrieved at the state of education in the city. In France, April saw strikes against the authorities initiated

by both parents and teachers, each support-

Education

dis-

pay rumbled on through the year. In the early months there were sporadic strikes as the teachers campaigned for an interim increase. Then, after some adjustment had been made in their salaries, agitation began in earnest to set the scene for the next round of pay talks. Much was made in the late summer of a policy difference between the National Union of Teachers and the National Association of Schoolmasters. The NUT supported the official claim put to the employers by the teachers' representatives on the Burnham Committee, through which salaries were negotiated. The NAS. however, insisted that any money available should go to teachers of ability making a career in the

phia. In

301

children

against

protest

to

many young women who

did not intend to stay in the profession had long been a

bone of contention),

The

NUT

stigmatized the it

to

NAS

as disruptive

the general

and

council of the

Students of Karl-Rehbein High School in Hanau, W.Ger., get instruction In the workings of their school's station.

own

television

Though

it

was emphasized that the proposals were not

a formal offer, but merely an illustration of what might be done, it seemed evident that some grading of teachers was likely to emerge.

t

Other professional matters occupying British teachers in 1970 included moves toward compulsory union membership. The Association of Teachers in Technical Institutions was drawing jp plans for a closed shop in colleges of further education, and there were similar demands for the schools. Fred Jarvis, deputy general secretary of the NUT, said in May, "There is a growing feeling in the profession that those

make no

effort or sacrifice to

of the kind union

reap the benefits

who

win salary increases

—

members made last year should not won by others." Head teachers were

increasingly incensed at the difficulties in which they

were often placed because their assistants had won the right to withdraw from the supervision of school meals. There was also much discussion of a coming official

country. ^

Quarrels over language also continued in Belgiu;.! In April a token stoppage of lectures in the FrencJ

language sections of Louvain University was ordenl

by the university authorities as a protest against government grants for removing tl] French sections out of the Dutch-speaking area Belgium to new quarters in the south. The decision move was a concession to the Flemish after langua^ riots had unseated the government in 1968. SorrJi til

insufficiency of

ij

ii

13,000 students out of a total enrollment of 27,Oc]

were involved. There was much controversy in France over government reform freeing lycee students from stari ing a second foreign language at 13, in addition to th. one they had

inquiry into teacher training.

Some

on a nationwide training scheme to promote bilingu would be made to the provini for the education of minority groups and for secor language teaching in the two mother tongues of ism. Federal grants

California teachers struck in April as negotia-

tions between their union and the local authorities broke down. In Rhodesia there was anxiety among the church authorities after the government reduced its contribution toward the salaries of teachers in mission primary schools. It was reported that at least 6,000 mission teachers had been given notice, but the Ministry of Education announced that it planned to introduce a system in 1971 that would ensure the continuance of all African primary schools. Old Problems and New Directions. That was a promise of fundamentals in a less developed country, but there was preoccupation with fundamentals elsewhere. In November 1969 the Quebec National Assembly had passed a bill giving Quebec parents the right to have their children educated in either English or French in the provincial schools. There was vigorous opposition to the bill by some French Canadians, who felt that the measure might mean the ultimate disappearance of French, and there were violent dem-

to start at II.

The

first

language

choseii

was usually English, and it was argued that if th' French learned only English, other countries such a Italy, Germany, and Spain might follow suit an( French would disappear as an international language. There were also protests from other governments, ami it was pointed out that the reform violated a French-1 Italian cultural agreement under which each was to promote the use of the other's language. The Inner London Education Authority was arranging to transmit on its educational television service a series of programs on the teaching of reading, designed for teachers who had not been trained in thati subject. There had been concern over low standards] of reading in the metropolis. At Nottingham Univer^

i

Keith Gardner, lecturer in the institute of educa-J tion, was holding remedial courses in reading for un-| dergraduates. He estimated that one in five read too badly to manage the complex material facing a university student. In Australia a short course in Aus-^; tralian usage and pronunciation was begun for Asian students at the University of New South Wales. Research was going on in experimental schools in Rio sity

|

^

onstrations against the

bill,

particularly in Montreal.

In the same month the Canadian government announced that it would spend Can$50 million a year

hundred pupils in London who tool< their parents to school 1970. Above, London teachers on strike demonstrate Trafalgar Square Jan. 30, 1970.

Left, this youngster

was one

of a

to protest a teachers' stril'.

'i

305

major concern. His

his

decide his class of degree. These

—

gine without discussing automobiles. For not only has the

computer industry been one of the main benemodern-day electronics, but it has in turn

ficiaries of

served to stimulate the electronics industry to unimagined accomplishments.

Minicomputers. Of particular interest to the elecand to the field of computers was the growth of minicomputers. Although still shunned by the giant of the computer industry, IBM, these machines increased in phenomenal numbers. Just a novelty only a few years ago, by 1970 they had become a more than $100 million annual business. About the size of a breadbox, these computers were, tronics industry

simply, small, low-cost versions of general-purpose

data-processing computers. Although their capabilities

were, of course, limited

when compared with

a

huge million-dollar computer, their portability, versatility, and low cost (usually below $12,0001 made them practical for thousands of new applications. Minicomputers in 1970 employed essentially the same components as the larger machines: thus, their success was not due to a more advanced state of the art. But the overall state of the art was advancing, and this could only mean that the applications for, and the price of, the minicomputers would continue to drop. Experts in the field unhesitatingly predicted that before very many years the price of such a computer would be below $1,000. Sjiecific applications of minicomputers in 1970 included control of traffic in some parts of Massachusetts. The versatility of the system permitted virtually all traffic-control

principles to be applied. In the Pa-

minicomputer was being applied to sonar testing. In the normal, manual way of conducting such tests, several days are required to collect and analyze data from hundreds of transducer elements. By using cific

Ocean

a

a rrrinicomputer scientists can test these several hun-

dred elements

in a single "ping"'

of the system that

The prototype

of a

new

long-range radar able to delect and analyze a target traveling faster

than a bullet many miles away undergoes final tests at the Co.

in

Hughes Aircraft California.

306

Electronics

requires only about five seconds for acquisition, correlation,

and printing of the data.

In California a new, 2S0-mph vehicle being de-

veloped under contract to the state Department of Transportation was being tested with the aid of a minicomputer. Telemetered data were being accepted at the rate of 32,000 readings per second, thus greatly shortening

the

test

Colorado was aiding

intervals.

'\

minicomputer

in

in the refueling operations of a

nuclear generating station, while in California a mini-

computer was

tied to a

supermarket cash register

to

provide the check-out clerk with accurate price information. Finally, to bring these instruments home,

minicomputers were being sold by some stores for Not only would this machine balance the checkbook and do budgeting but it would also do all the necessary work associated general household applications.

with

menu

preparation.

Large Computers.

All the excitement about minicomputers, however, did not mean that the importance or value of the large computers was going down.

was one computer for every capita as in any other nation), and the number promised to continue rising. Furthermore, as many members of large companies realized, computer time was one of the scarcest commodities within an organization. IBM recognized this fact and produced System 370, which is an extension (not a redesign) of System 360. To demonstrate the vast difference between these new machines and the minicomputers discussed earlier, it is only necessary to examine the price. The IBM 370-165, the larger of IBM's two new models, rented for $98,715 per month, or sold for $4,674,160. Other firms, such as RCA, Honeywell, and Control Data, were also producing new equipment characterized by exceptional speed and complex microprogramming. One of the areas that should be watched most closely in the next few years is the application of computers to the communications industry. For instance, Sylvania Electric Products, Inc., demonstrated a computer system that converts and processes speech Already

in the U.S. there

4,000 people (twice as

Dozens of aircraft paths build up on the display

screen of a

new computer,

built by Goodyear Aerospace Corp., capable

of sorting out aircraft

on a potential collision course and showing

them on the

screen.

many per

immediately into digital information for subsequent transmission over communications lines. This "processed" data can be transmitted in approximately -j?^ the bandwidth required for the transmission of unprocessed signals. And Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a system that works just the opposite;

A supermarket checker

uses a kind of "ray gun" to read the prict on an item and ring it up. The system is designed to speed up check-outs and keep a constant inventory.

that

is, it

A

converts printed English to synthetic speech

rather recent use for large computers was time-

sharing, a system that permits subscribers throughout

the country to be tied in, via communications lines

one large computer. By charging the user for onl\ actual processing time (usually seconds), the power of a huge computer can be utilized without too much expense by an engineer miles away. to

the

Semiconductor Technology. The

semiconductoi.

tronics

upon which most recent development has been based, did not rest on its

during

the

industry,

year.

It

continued

its

in elec-

progress

laurels'

from

transistor technology (with a packing density of about

100,000 components per cubic foot) to integrated' technology (with a packing density of ten

circuit

million components per cubic foot), and was rapidly

entering the era of MSI (medium-scale integration), and LSI (large-scale integration). As a general comparison, a silicon chip using integrated circuit tech-

nology contains the equivalent of approximately 10 transistors; one using MSI techniques, the equivalent of approximately 100 transistors; and one using LSI' techniques, the equivalent of approximately 1,000,

Such a chip, when mounted, is the size; stamp or smaller. Particularly noteworthy in 1970 was change in emphasis within the industry. Whereas in 1969 manufacturers were talking about both MSI and LSI with only slight emphasis on the former, by the end of 1970 they were so busy designing, producing, improving, and selling MSI devices that little was being said about LSI. The usage of microcircuits of this sort was increasing at 24% per year, and seemed likely to continue to do so for the next several years, despite the transistors.

of a postage

MSI or LSI was over $100,000.

fact that the cost of developing a single

chip and putting

One

it

into operation

gets the impression

sions of integrated circuits,

great advantage that

so

is

in

from the various discusMSIs, and LSIs that their

the packing density. Actually

only one of the advantages (and this one not

is

much because

of size itself but because of the on interconnections); of equal importhe improvement in reliability and maintain-

ability to save

tance

is

ability afforded

One

by these new devices.

electronic device that began to appear in equip-

ent

ing of tiny semiconductors to the cutting of clothes

307

rectly

patterns to the drilling of holes in wire-drawing dies.

Electronics

was the light-emitting diode. It could be driven by transistors. It converts electricity directly :ii light, has very low power consumption, is in;pensive, and, most important, has a lifetime of the der of one million hours. This was far better than ly existing light bulb. The diode, however, was not ;arly as bright as a light bulb.

Memory Systems. For

several years the manufac-

integrated circuits had been promising high-

jrers of

memory systems

(a most desirable goal, computer is in the memry system). In 1970 these promises came true. Two bipolar and MOS itegrated circuit technologies were being used to metal oxide semiconductor) lake semiconductor memories. The bipolar memories ffered the fastest speeds, but the cost and power dispation were higher. MOS systems, because of their iL'h circuit-function density and higher \ields. as well 5 lower costs, seemed the most likely candidates for

erformance

up

nee

to half the cost of a

— —

memories.

'irze

the end of 1970 neither the bipolar nor the

\t

MOS

;ems were ready to take over from the firmly ennched magnetic core memory, but that event not too far off. For the time being the new ems were limited by their relatively small size, •-0 8,192 bits in a module, fin the memories of computers there must be, literally, millions of

'Tied

:.'e

]

information stored.) A significant advantage of new systems over the magnetic cores was their of

^

access time. While even the fastest magnetic

'er

memories had

time on the order of ^ rosecond (500 nanoseconds), the access time for

'r

a cycle

new semiconductor memories was about 100 nanoinds,

rate

with future models expected to be able to about 10 nanoseconds. Memory access

at

computer

is important because it is directly speed and power of the computer. During the year plated wire memories, which cond of an extremely thin conductive wire coated wiih magnetic film and sandwiched between the surfaces of a printed circuit board, received considerable publicity. This occurred not so miith because those memories were a new technolog>' but rather because they suddenly appeared to be a practical technology. The manufacturing problems were essentially solved, and the memories were appearing on the market.

r in

I

:

a

ited to the

i

memories, which promise high reliabihty, high speed, low power consumption, and small size, iwere being used in the Poseidon guidance system, as

IPlated wire

But the application that carried the most exciting promises communications had not satisfactorily materialized. It seemed likely that engineers were at that point where they understood the scientific side of the device but where certain practical problems simply defied solution. Research continued, but it appeared unlikely that anything spectacular would occur in the next months. The potential was still there, but by the end of 1970 it remained just potential, at least in the field of communications. Applications. Probably the most clever and certainly one of the most sophisticated applications for electronics was an electronic timepiece announced by the Hamilton Watch Co. This device, called "a wrist computer programmed to tell time," was, in fact, just that. It contained three major components: a battery, a high-frequency quartz crystal, and a computer module. The computer module contained the equivalent

—

—

of 3.474 transistors.

The

display, instead of rotating

A

hands, utilized light-emitting diodes. press a

A

"demand" button

user had to

to illuminate the diode dis-

and minutes person kept his finger on the demand button, the hours and minutes disappeared

play.

single touch lighted the hours

digits for \^ seconds. If a

and the

On ducted

digits

the

counted

more

off

seconds.

was work being conon electronic pacemakers,

practical side

in several countries

devices implanted in a

human body

to regulate the

The implanted energy source (most often a small battery) must be changed approximately every year and a half. This battery change costs money, inconvenience, and some pain. In the U.S. there was experimentation with a system that converts energy from the human body itself to run the pacemaker. In France and the U.K. a plutonium-activated isotopic battery, which would never need changing during the lifetime of the patient, was under development. Two such plutonium-powered pacemakers were successfully implanted at the National Heart Hospital. London, in July. (R. E. St.) heartbeats of certain medical patients.

Srr nhn Industrial Review; Medicine; tions; Television and Radio.

Telecommunica-

A

blind girl demonstrates

a device developed

by Stanford Research Institute that enables a blind person to read

well as in

telemetry data systems. Prices, also, were it was predicted that by 1972 the market

dropping, and

demand could approach $350 million. The importance of memory systems was demonstrated by the large number of companies working on them and by the many types of memories under development.

Many

firms were conducting active re-

The concept of they could be called involved semiconductor

search in the field of optical memories. these entire

memory systems ( perhaps computing systems)

technology, holography, and optical communication

Telephone Laboratories, working in a difannounced a "bubble" memory that stores information in tiny magnetic spots that move through channels etched on a film. This memory, like the opHril systems mentioned above, was, however, still ral years away from commercial availability. Lasers. At the time of its introduction in the early Js, the laser was touted as being the ideal instru!ncnt for many applications. And, indeed, the laser in 1970 was being used in many ways, from the weld-

links. Bell

ferent field,

'

ordinary print. A scanner guided by her right hand feeds in signals that are translated into Braille-like touch signals read by her left hand.

El

A

prewar times had been accomplished by land acre southern Honduras. By the end of 1970 these altern! five routes were operating smoothly, but until th

Salvador

El Salvador lost valuable revenue.

republic on the Pacific coast of Central

America

and the smallest country on the isthmus, El Salvador is bounded on the west by Guatemala and on the north and east by Honduras. Area: 8,100 sq.mi. (21,000 sq.km.). Pop. (1970 est.) 3,480,115. Cap. and largest city: San Salvador (pop., 1969 est., 349,933). Lan:

guage: Spanish. Religion:

Roman

Catholic. President

Sanchez Hernandez. Repercussions from the brief but disruptive open conflict between El Salvador and Honduras in mid1969 were evident in El Salvador in 1970. Diplomatic and trade relations between the two nations remained severed. However, a series of bilateral peace talks beginning late in January attempted to restore these relations. Held in San Jose, Costa Rica, the meetings were mediated by Jose A. Mora, former secretaryin 1970, Col. Fidel

of the Organization of American States (OAS). El Salvador and Honduras each sent three delegates. On June 4, the two countries accepted a

general

plan to establish a demilitarized zone

(DMZ)

within the zone, and financed and appointed the military observers who were to see to it that the June 4

agreement was honoured. The border closing made it imperative that El Salvador find alternative air and sea routes to carry on trade with Nicaragua and Costa Rica, which in

EL

S.^LV.'VDOR Education. ( 1967-68) Primary, pupils 47.^,449, teach-

12,736; secondary, pupils 48,378, teachers 2,081; vocational, pupils 1 7,885, teachers .S91; teacher trainins, students 3,210, teachers 295; higher (including 2 universities), students 6,748, teaching staff 1,017. Finance. Monetary unit: colon, with a par value of 2.50 colones to U.S. $1 (6 colones £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1970) U.S. $77.4 million; (June 1969) U.S. $56.5 million. Budget (1969 est.) balanced at 225,029,000 colones. Gross national product: (1969) 2,362,000,000 colones; ( 1968) 2,265,000,000 colones. Cost of living (1963 100): (June 1970) 109; (June 1969) 104. Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports 536.2 million colones; exports 505. 1 million colones. Import sources (1968): U.S. 29%; Guatemala 16%; Japan 8%; ers

=

=

Honduras 7%; West Germany 6%; Venezuela 5%. Export destinations (1968): U.S. 20%; West Germany 20%; Guatemala 15%; Honduras 11%; Costa Rica 8%; Nicaragua 7%; Japan 7%. Main exports:

44%;

cotton

9%.

Transport and Communications. Roads

(1966)

8,394 km. (including 625 km. of Pan-.-^merican Highway). Motor vehicles in use (1968) passenger 31,300; commercial including buses) 15,900. Railways (1968) c. 700 km. Telephones (Jan. 1969) 36,842. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) 398,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1967) 45,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969; 1968 in parentheses): rice c. 77 ( 72 ); corn c. 296 (258); sorghum (1968) 124, (1967) 108; coffee c. 138 (c. 114); cotton, lint c. 43 (43); sugar, raw value (1969-70) c. 166, (1968-69) 114. Livestock (in 000; 1968-69): cattle c. 930; pigs c. 300; horses c. 74; chickens c. 2,000. Industry. Production: cement (1969) 142,000 metric tons; electricity (excluding most industrial production; 1968) 582,000,000 kw-hr. :

(

_

duras

who returned

to

their native land.

To

off?

by the war, agricultur prospects improved markedly in 1970. The nation leading agricultural commodity, coffee, increased these adversities brought on

i

i

output at a time when world coffee prices were moi favourable than in past years. Cotton, sugarcane, coril sorghum, and beans also registered production iri creases.

Voting took place

in

March

to elect

members

c

Assembly. The incumber National Conciliation Party (PCN) gained contrc of 34 seats; the principal opposition party, the Chris tian Democratic Party (PDC), won 16 seats. Th right-wing Salvadorean Popular Party (PPS) and new leftist group, the Nationalist Democratic Unioi (UDN), each won one seat. (A. D. Bu. the

S2-seat

Legislative

.

1.8 mi.

wide on either side of their common border; military planes of both nations would not be allowed within three miles of the outer edge of the DMZ. Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Nicaragua, the other participants in the San Jose talks, acted as "guarantors" of the agreement, which went into effect on July 16. The OAS supervised the withdrawal of Salvadorean and Honduran forces from the DMZ, but allowed each nation to maintain security patrols in certain defined places

coffee

The war necessitated the diversion of federal fun^ from economic enterprises to assist in the care of a' proximately 80,000 Salvadorean refugees from Ho:

Employment, Wages, and Hours common to the world employmeni was the increasing militancy of workers. A growing level of strike activity was apparent in developed economies, and in many less developed countries similar conflicts found expression in other, One

characteristic

situation in 1970

usually less institutionalized ways.

The proportion

of

wages and salaries to other moneys in national incomes was thus an important variable, as seen in Table I. For the developed market economies, the share of labour in national income was highest in the United Kingdom and lowest in Japan, an interesting fact in view of their contrasting growth performances. On average, the share of labour in the less developed

economies was much lower than

in the industrialized

economies, reflecting their lower level of development and the fact that a great deal of output was by subsistence farmers with no defined wage costs. Even

when

their surplus of investable funds

was

greater,

the third world economies had to cope with a far

heavier burden of population growth than the de-

veloped economies. In nearly every country the share of labour in national income increased between 1953 and 1965. The Netherlands, Sweden, and Denmark experienced the largest increases, while the position of the U.S. changed very

little.

Employment and Unemployment. The

general

growth in employment, and consequent reduction in unemployment, in 1968 and 1969 was due partly to increases in agricultural production followed by faster industrial growth in many less developed economies and to a widespread expansion in world trade. Population growth in the third world appeared to slacken very slightly, but remained nearly 2\ times the rate of growth for the richer countries. {See Table II.) Third World Economies. Although the good agricultural harvests of 1968 and 1969 stimulated employment growth in many less developed economies, in many others the situation remained serious as rapid population growth continued to press on the inadequate development of resources.

i

more developed

a rapid rise in 1968 in the trade of the Table

Share of Wages and Salaries National Income

I.

economies, some were

in

Percent

Industrial

Belgium

Canada Denmark

points

1953

1965

change

59.3 58.9 53.7 64.5 55.5 57.3 58.7 49.7 53.9 53.9 59.5 62.6 61.2 70.0 68-4

63.6 65.2 60.8 68.9

4.3 6.3

France

Germany, West Japan Netherlands New Zealand

Norway Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom United States

Average

7.1

4.4 7.6

63.1

64.5 65.7 56.7

7.2 7.0 7.0 10.2 5.7 5.8

64.1

59.6 65.3 71 .0

8.4 2.8

64.0 74,0

4.0

69.8

1

59.1

65.1

5.9

46.6 39.4

44.3

4.9 4.1

.4

Third world:

Ceylon

Colombia Ecuador

48.1

Honduras Jamaica

42.4

Korea, South Mauritius

25.1

51.2 61.5 51.3 61.4 30.8

54.1

58.1

Panama

68.7 67.2 57.9 50.3

69.0 71.5 56.8 54.9

47.1 52.1

Guyana

58.3

Puerto Rico

Venezuela

Average Source-. Colculoted

from

Ui ited

1.5

9.4 8.9 3.1

5.7 4.0 0.3 4.3

-1.1 4.1

Nations, Year Book

of

National Accounts (1968).

The figures in Table III should be regarded with ome caution, but they show that the average increase n recorded unemployment in the sample of third vorld countries in 1959 was under 1%. This average -'ure if

concealed a diversity of changes. In Singapore,

example, unemployment continued to

fall,

owing

20%

annual rate of increase in industrial prosupported by foreign investment. In mid70 restrictions on immigration and work permits vt re relaxed in an attempt to ease the labour shortage. In South Korea, owing to the rapid expansion of iL'riculture and of industrial production stimulated by the

'uction

1

-substantial construction

Employment changes were, on averand unemployment continued to rise, except in the U.S., Japan, West Germany, and the Netherlands, where expansion had begun earlier. But by 1969 the boom was widespread and the average decrease in unemployment was nearly 10%, with industrial employment tending to rise quite strongly (see Table IV). However, as measures of economic restraint began to take effect, it was hkely that 1970 as a whole would see some general increase in unemployment. In the U.S. there was a further slowing down of growth as the government, alarmed by the high rate of price inflation, cut public spending and imposed credit restrictions. By mid-1970 there had been a massive 41% rise in unemployment; the unemployment rate reached 5.8% of the labour force by November. Changes in unemployment in Canada were unusual because active immigration policies had increased the labour force by over 3% annually in the last five years. Thus, any slight slackening of employment growth resulted in a large increase in unemployment. Slower growth of output and further increases in unemployment were likely to continue. Japan's remarkably high growth rate did not slacken; employment continued to rise and unemployment to fall. age, negligible,

market:

Australia Austria

A rapid increase in imports into West Germany as domestic demand expanded faster than supply was responsible for a great deal of Europe's boom. The fall

West German unemployment from

in

l'% growth

Table

boom, unemployment con-

ry

poor because of storm damage and, although inproduction and exports were expanding rap-

dustrial idly,

the slackening of

ri-e in

growth led

to a considerable

unemployment.

In Ceylon, despite rapid industrial growth of over 10%, unemployment increased by 15%, in 1969, adding to the already high level of

milHon.

Unemployment among

some one-third

of a

university graduates

continued to be a severe problem. In Pakistan, with high rate of inflation, there was much labour unrest

a

1969 as the trade unions tried to force reluctant employers to pay the minimum wage introduced at

in

midyear. Despite good harvests in India in 1969, un-

employment continued

Unemployment as industrial

to grow.

and agricultural growth was quite slow.

consumer goods and house construction

dwindled. In Greece, steadily as

export

unemployment declined

industrial production, stimulated

boom, grew

fairly

by an

over 10%. In Zambia, rapid 1969 was accompanied by sudden at

economic growth in and large increases in minimum wages, which reduced employment, particularly in commercial agriculture. Industrial

Chonges

Market Economies. Although there was

for 1963 over

1967 (%)

Employment Manu-

G enerol

Country

focturing

Numbers unemployed

Popul tion

Third world;

Honduros, British Korea, South Philippines Puerto Rico

Singapore Toiwan Tonzonia

9.8 3.8 2.5 2.3 5 3 4.7 0.9'

2.1

17.6 2.7

-15.9

7.7

-3.1 -15.1 -23.4

7.4

-6.9

12.8*

Zambia Averoge

5.2

13.3

-1.4

Trinidad

Turkey

0.9 2.3 3.5 1.0 1.6 2.4 2.7

-1.9

1.1

5.4

2.5 3.4 2.2

3.2 4.4

15.4 6.0 7.3

2.5

2.3

1.6

-0.9 -0.3

-1.7 -1.3 -0.8 -2.3

9.6 20.4 21.3 29.5

1.1

-29.5

-7.0

Industrial morket;

Austrolia Austria

Belgium

Canada

2.2

-1.5*

France

0.3

-0.2

2.0

0.7

Japan

1.7

0.4

Netherlands

0.8 0.9 1.2

-1.0 -0.6 -3.2 -1.0

-6.4 -8.8

Italy

rose considerably in Chile in 1969

popular vote, there was a huge capital flight from the country and a severe economic depression as purof

Employment, Unemployment, and Population

Germany, West

Following the September 1970 election, in which a Marxist presidential candidate won a plurality of the

chases

II.

In Taiwan the 1969 harvest was

rate.

the high

was massive and the labour force was further augmented by foreign workers. France, which had recovered from the 1968 unemployment during 1969, suffered a further increase in unemployment as the government attempted to relevels of 1967

tinued to fall as real national product maintained its

v

being affected by the re-

cession of 1967.

Percentage

Country

still

Norway Sweden United Kingdom United Slotes

Average

-0.7 2.0 0.6

44.7 4.9 4.9

1.7

-5.3

-0.3

6.7

1.9 0.4 0.4 1.6

0.8 0.6 0.8 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.6 0.4 1.0 0.9

Pjonned economies; Bulgaria

Czechoslovokia

Germany, Hungary

East

1.6 1.8

1.2

1.1

0.9 0.3

2.0

4.1

Poland

0.1

Romanio

2 2 0.6 2.5

3.6 4.3

Yugoslavia

USSR. Average

1.5

0.7 0.4 0.4 1.1

-0.3

2.3 1.0

3.7 2.2

1.0 0.9

•Nonagriculturol sector Sources: Inlernationol Laboiur Office, Yearbook of Labour Statistics (1969); United Nations, Monthly Bulletin of Stalistict (August 1970).

309

Employment, Wages, and Hours

The U.S.S.R. suffered a bad harvest in 1969 art delays in meeting construction targets caused by li hour shortages. The expansion of employment we

310 Table

Employment, Wages, and Hours

III.

UnemploymenI: Third World

Change over previous year (%] 1968

Country

Burma Ceylon Cyprus Chile

Ghana

6.5

15.2

-14.8

2.7

16.6*

5.0

-30.6* -9.8 -16.3

'

-11

Guyana

-14.5

Malaysia

workers, but only in return for higher productivitj" Yugoslavia, the most decentralized and open of

-7.3*

9.0

Pakistan Puerto Rico Sierra Leone

Singapore

Taiwan Zambia Average

-1.5

18.9

-3.1

-8.6

1.5

5.5

-15.2 -23.4

-9.5

5.4

18.5

-3.7

0.7

the

IV.

18.1

Employment

Industrial

in Manufacturing Market Economies

in

Unemployment

Employment 1969

Conada

1970*

2.5 2.0 3.5

Austria

3.1

Belgium France

3.3 1.9

Germany, West

5.7

Ireland

6.1

Italy

3.1

3.2t 2.4

Netherlands

0.9

t

Norway

1.1

3.3

-0.8 1.4

-6.9 -0.7

2.6

0.8

United States

Sweden United Kingdom

Average

1969

-2.3 -2.8

Japan

0.4

-3.4 -5.6 -17.5 -12.2 —44.8 -2.7 -4.5

2.7 3.8 1.1

2.2 4.4

-22.1

-5.5 -10.5 -0.7 -9.9

1970* 32.3 40.7

-5.1

-8.2 -17.9 11.9

-18.5 28.6

-10.8 -14.0 -26.3 -6.8 9.1

1.2

*Second quarter over second quar ter 1969. fFirst quarter 1969 ov er first quarter 1968. Source; Orgonizotio n for Econom ic Cooperation ond Deve opment, Main Economic Indicators (September 1970).

strain expansion of domestic

demand

order to pre-

in

serve the benefits of the devaluation and improve the balance of trade. In Italy, gross national product

expanded rapidly despite severe disruption caused by strikes in the second half of 1969, which cost about

2%

of the year's output.

The Netherlands continued

to

enjoy a strong ex-

boom, which caused a rapid drop in unemployment so that by the end of 1969 unfilled vacancies

port-led

were 2\ times greater than the number of job seekers. Austria, too, had an accelerating growth of output due to an export boom, and this was clearly seen in the expansion of industrial employment. Belgium was in a similar position,

but with the addition of a con-

siderable investment

boom. In Ireland, growth of out-

put and employment in 1969 continued to be strong, but a growing proportion of firms were unable to increase output for lack of skilled labour.

In the U.K. continued cautious policies of economic restraint

ratj

fully and investment was badly planned. By mid-197C however, there were signs that economic reforms wen beginning to have an effect.

In Poland, although the 1969 harvest was excep

unfavourable and industrial performanci patchy, overall growth was rapid and employment anc; wages rose considerably. Bulgaria's fast economi( tionally

growth was being threatened by labour shortages Romania had also begun to suffer increasingly severe labour shortages, which necessitated more flexible incentive wage systems. The economy, however, was badly damaged by floods early in 1970. Wages. Industrial Market Economies. The movement of money and real wages and of consumer prices is shown in Table VIII. The average rate of increase of money wages was accelerating: 7.8% in 1968, 9.1% in 1969, and about 12% in 1970. This acceleration was reflected quite strongly in real wage movements as the rate of price inflation lagged, although itself accelerating from 3.8% in 1968 to 4.4% in 1969 to an average of 5.3% in 1970. The higher rates of growth of wages were partly due to increasing pressures on labour markets, and partly to an upsurge of trade union militancy. (See Labour Unions.) In the U.S., the policies of monetary and fiscal restraint and the consequent rise in unemployment caused a slowing down in the rate of growth of money wages. But, as an anti-inflationary policy, restraint appeared to be a conspicuous failure: prices continued to rise at a rate even more rapid than before, with real wages actually falling in the first half of 1970. Pressure on prices was especially strong during 1969 because money wages rose much faster than productivity, thus pushing up labour costs per unit of

and a massive deflationary budget surplus

resulted in a rise in

unemployment

second quarwere twice as many unemployed as there were job vacancies, and the in the

ter of 1970. In the first quarter there

position continued to deteriorate as rose to

the fastest

and suffered from the highest rate of infla^ tion. While wages soared, unemployment remaine a problem. Czechoslovakia, too, suffered from a hig rate of growth of wages, but the rate of growth of out put in 1969 was very slow and the need to stimulate the output of food and consumer goods was urgent In Hungary, the demand for labour in 1969 was ver;' strong as industry continued to utihze labour waste;

Changes over previous year (%) Country

Communist economies, enjoyed

of growth

•June 1968 to June 1969. Source; International Labour Office, Bulletin ol labour Statistics (second quarter 1970).

Table

Wc.l

shortage was so acute that in October 1969 it W3,i decided that factories should dismiss "superfluou?''' labour and divide their wages among the remaining

10.4

7.3

-15.9

Korea, South

5%

considered insufficient, as rapidly rising money wagti encountered a slow growth of supply. The laboi'l

3.7

11.1

Greece India

about 2%, but the productivity growth of

1969

-21.6

2\%

Table V. Oufpuf, Employment, Wages, a nd Prices : Centrally Planned

Change

unemployment

of the labour force. It should be noted,

Country

Average

Consume

output

employment

earnings

prices

10.8 2,5

2.1

4.4 6,3

3.7*

2,8 3.7 5.6

3.5

1.3

4.4

1.3

2.1t 3.6

5.0t 15.5

Hungory

2.7

meant

Poland

9.1

Romania

9,1

to take longer

in finding suitable jobs.

Czechoslovakia

U.S.S.R,

Yugoslavia

%)

Manufacturing

Bulgaria

unemployed could afford

Economies

1969 over 1968

Industrie

however, that the introduction of payments to laid-off workers and earnings-related unemployment benefits that the

in

7.0 11.4

10,8

Centrally Flammed Economies. In general, growth in the Communist countries continued to be rapid in

•January 1969 to January 1970. fEstimated by applying productivity growth rate of 4.8% to output

1969 (see Table V). Nearly all countries, however, experienced severe shortages of labour, and this intensified the search for methods of stimulating pro-

JReal income. Source; Internationol Labour OfFice, Bulletin of Labour Slafistics (second quarter 1970); Economist Intelligence Unit Reports and Annua/ Supplemer)ts on individual countries.

ductivity.

grov/th.

>

Table VI. Weekly Hours of Country Austrio

Germany, West

1963

1969

43.7 40.3 43.0 45.3

43.7 40.0 43.8 45.4 43.9 42.9 40.6 35.6 44.6 45.7 40.6 42.4

Japan

44.6

Ireland*

43.7 40.2 36.7

New

Zealand

Norway

Work

44.6

Switzerland United Kingdom United States

45.8 40.7 42.6

Average

in

Manufacturing Absolute change

— .3 .8 .1

-.7 -.8

A

in June.

.4

—

dition, the working week was to be reduced by four hours within three years, beginning with a decrease of one hour at the start of 1970. In Sweden, where the demand for labour was very strong and immigration was rising, wage settlements during 1969 were quite generous. A 17% increase for a two-year period was given to the blue-collar workers

1 .1

become

year later the rate of price inflation had

so rapid that the

government introduced a round

-.1 -.1

direct price freeze in an effort to reduce the next

-.2

of

•September of each year. Source: International Labour Office, Bulletin of Labour

Statistics

(second quarter 1970).

wage

increases.

In Denmark, too. a price freeze was imposed as inflation accelerated and the balance of payments deteriorated alarmingly. Danish wages rising rapidly.

jtput

and reducing

profit

margins quite substantially.

Despite Canadian policies of monetary and fiscal •straint,

there was no diminution in the rapid rate of

icrease of

money wages, but

requests

by

the gov-

-nment to employers at the beginning of 1970 to hold price increases seemed to be having some effect

own

n price inflation.

As

the trade unions refused to co-

and incomes policy, the growth wages increased in 1970 and profit margins

Iperate in the prices ite

of real

re

-

reduced.

.

the changeover to a value-added tax in January

1970. But the freeze was gradually lifted and the rate of

wage increase accelerated with

In

rate of

wage increase continued

West Germany,

the rate of

money wage

wages

in manufacturing in less developed economies continued to be rapid in 1968 and 1969, and in common with the rest of the world, price inflation ac-

Table

VII.

Money woges Country

wage spurt on prices, and

have much immediate effect wages increased considerably. Wage increases remained high in France despite nnetary and fiscal restraint following the devaluan of August 1969. A temporary general price freeze IS imposed immediately after devaluation, and al-

real

Brazil

28.6 16.3 34.2 10.3 12.3

Ceylon* Chile

though this was later relaxed, the rate of price inflation diminished slightly so that the growth of real wages remained constant. The rate of price inflation,

however, was

high and, in October 1969, a

3.8%

minimum guaranteed wage was

given

still

increase in the

compensation for the increased cost of living. Although the Netherlands government imposed a price freeze in April 1969, the measure had an impact only in the second half of the year. The rise in prices caused by the introduction of a value-added tax led to demands for wage increases, and money wages rose by 9.3% during the year. In September 1969 the government passed a wage control bill entitling it to freeze wages and invalidate collective agreements judged not to be in the best interests of the economy.

Ghana

26.5

Menico

5.2 0.5 11.0

Philippines* Puerto Rico Sierra Leono

In

Austria

largely to

a

sharp

increase

wage changes

in

wages was due

in the public sector. In Italy, between the second quarter of 1969 and the second quarter of 1970, wages negotiated in an atmosphere of considerable militancy had risen by 21%. In ad-

—

—

8.7

10.2 4.6 34.2 2.3 4.0 7.6

-6.9

Toiwon

11.4 0.9 1.6 10.8

Tonzonio

& Tobago*

Avcraget

Real

1968 3.5 9.8 5.9

4.2 2.2 6.9 1.2

l'^}

wages 1969

1969

24.2

23.2

-6.8

5.9

7.3

8.9

26.6

27.0

-2.4

5.8 9.9

11.4 8.9 2.4

7.6 2.5 19.4

0.4 2.0 10.8 2.3 0.5 2.8

14.2 2.8

-0.6

8.0

4.2

2.1

-8.2

1.4

12.4 2.9 2.9 3.2 3.3

3.3 4

7.9 3.4 8.2 7.5

1.0 2.5 7.7

1.1

-2 3.9 11.4

Prices

1968

-6.0

1.3

3.0

3.5

5.1

•Nonogricultural sector.

fAverage of available

statistics.

Sources: International Labour Office, Bulletin of Labour Statistics (second quarter 1970) and Supplement to the Bulletin of Labour Statistics (July and August 1970).

Table

VIII.

Money and

and Consumer

Real

Wages

Prices: Industrial

in Manufacturing Market Economies

Changes over previous yeor (%)

in

J

38.3

7.3 3.2

Korea, South

Trinidod

1969

1968

Greece Guatemala

did not

Money and Real Wages In Manufacturing and Consumer Prices: Third World Changes over previous year

pattern for other sectors to follow, ffowever, as labour

productivity was also rising rapidly, the

2\-4\% had been

granted in the public sector, and trade union pressure forced the private sector to exceed these increases. Third World Economies. The growth of money

Colombia

V

further in 1970.

still

increase

and engineering industries, was successful in obtaining wage increases of 10-12%. These set a

be high in 1969,

to

Government powers to defer wage increases expired at the end of 1969 and were not renewed. But even before this, wage inaccelerating

the steel

n

prices.

In the U.K.. despite a slowing down in the rate of economic growth and high unemployment levels, the

)ther countries.

jumped from 4.4% in 1968 to 9.1% in 1969. The laDour market was very strained, and a sudden increase in workers' militancy, with several wildcat strikes in

and prices were

a price freeze prior

creases in excess of the ceiling of

growth of exports and estments continued and real national product exinded by 12% in 1969. Productivity' growth in inustry remained high, and this led to considerable age claims at the beginning of both 1969 and 1970 nd to some acceleration in the rate of wage and price ncreases. But, relative to the rapid growth and peristently favourable balance of payments, inflation vas not as crucial a problem for Japan as for most In Japan, the rapid rate of

i

to

Norway introduced

Money woges Country

Conado United Stales

Jopan Austria Belgiurn

Denmark France

Germany, West Ireland

1969

1970*

8.3 6.6 16.4 5.8 8.0 11.5 11.3

8.5 5.4 17.3 11.9 10.6

9.1

12.8

Italy

7.5

Netherlands

Norway

9.3 9.7

Sweden

8.1

Switzerlond United Kingdom

4.7

Averoge

7.9 9.1

10.6 12.7t 12.5t 21.0

Real

wages

Prices

1969

1970*

1969

3.6

4.6

1.1

-0.6

4.5 5.4 5.2 3.4 3.8 3.7

10.7 2.4 4.0 7.5 4.6 6.2 5.1

4.8

7.3 10.1 16.4

6.3 5.3

6.0 11.8 11.6

2,3 4.5

1.7

2.1

9.0 7.4 6.3

4.6

6.4

9.0t 6.2t 15.1 3.8 0.6

2.7 7.3

9.1

2.6 7.5 3.3 2.7

2.9 5.7 6.0

4.4

2.5 5.5

1970* 3.7 6.1

7.6 4.1 4.1

5.7 5.8 3,5t

5.9t 5.1

3.5 9.5 6.7 3.0 5.8 5.3

•Second quorter 1970 over second quarter 1969. fFirst quorler 1970 over first quorter 1969. Source: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Main Economic Indicators (September 1970).

311

Employment, Wages, and Hours

Engineering Projects Bridges. Suspension Bridges.

Work began

in

1970

orj

Europe and Asia across Turkey, this would be th(j

the Bosporus Bridge. Linking the

Bosporus Strait

in

longest bridge in the world outside the U.S., with central span of 3,524

Severn Bridge

in the

ft.

jsJI

Similar in conception to the|

U.K.,

it

had a number of

origina

features; besides being longer and wider (width ot ft.), the end spans (758 ft. and 837 ft. on| European and Asian banks, respectively) woulcJ not be suspended but carried by steel columns articu-l lated at the top and at the foot, thus reducing flexion'" in the pylons and allowing the cables to join the anchorings at a more abrupt slope. Two suspension bridges came into use in Canada: one, between Dartmouth and Halifax, N.S., had 1,400-ft. central span flanked by two spans of 514 ft., and an orthotropic deck; the other, the Frontenac Bridge across the St. Lawrence at Quebec, was the

deck, 110 the

s^

largest in

and 617

Canada, with spans of 617

ft.,

2,190

ft.,

ft.

Cable-Stayed Bridges. In West Germany, following the opening in 1969 of the Ludwigshafen Bridge, consisting of a THE

"NEW

Longshoremen's

YORK

TIMES"

hii-ing-hall

practices for casual dock

workers, as shown above, are being replaced with a computer system In the New York City area.

celerated [see Table VII).

Minimum wages

in

Cey-

lon were held constant during 1969 in an effort to

reduce the rate of price inflation, but with no success. In May 1970 a left-wing coalition won an overwhelming victory over the ruling United National Party,

and increases in wages, together with statutory price control, were likely. In South Korea, the rapid advance of the economy was accompanied by even more rapid wage inflation, and unit labour costs were forcing a rapid rise in prices. Prices in Greece, after be-

by military decree in 1967, began to rise, and wages in the public sector and for the armed forces were increased considerably in 1969. In Chile price inflation in 1969 was 27%, and likely to be over ing stabilized

30%

in 1970. Industrial relations deteriorated as trade

unions pushed their wage claims vigorously. In Trinidad and Tobago, a spurt of price inflation

196S led to a fall in real wages and to increased trade union militancy. This disturbed background of industrial relations set the scene for the army mutiny in

and the

15%

riots of April

1970; unemployment was about

of the labour force. Tanzania's 1967 policy of

1969 price inflation was down to 1%; manufacturing wages increased by only 0.9% in 1968. Hours. Table VI gives data on weekly hours of

work

in

in

industrial

market economies. On average

week shortened slightly during 1968-69. In Norway there was a marked shortening of the working week, as contractual hours were cut by 5.5% from 45 to 42.5 hours in mid-1968. There were decreases also in Japan and Ireland. Elsewhere there was little change, except for West Germany where the working week increased in response to the shortage of labour. The working week remained longest in the U.K. and shortest in Norway. (D. A. S. J.) the working

See also Economics; Economy, World; Income, National; Industrial Review; Prices.

Encyclopaedia Britannica Films. Working Together (1952); Walter P. Reuther ("Dialogue for This Decade") (1963); The Industrial Revolution Beginnings in the United States (1968): The Rise of Labor (1968); The Industrial Worker (1969); The Rise of Big Business (1970).

—

Endocrinology: see

Medicine

ft.

suspended from

a

burg Bridge across the Rhine, which set a new world record with a central span of 1,148 ft., had an allwelded deck comprising a triple-webbed caisson and an orthotropic plate. A second bridge over the Rhine, between Mannheim and Ludwigshafen, downstream from the Konrad Adenauer Bridge, consisted of two spans, a metal one of 944 ft. and a concrete one of 476 ft. Although of different materials, the spans were

way as to ensure continuity of moment. The new Diisseldorf Bridge (five spans of 169 ft. each, 845 ft., 246 ft.) was under construction alongside the old bridge and, after the latter was demoljoined in such a

would be moved sideways to replace it. Cable-stayed bridges were also completed or under construction in other parts of the world. The Leblanc-

ished,

Papineau Bridge across the Riviere des Prairies between Laval and Montreal (295 ft., 790 ft., 295 ft.) had an orthotropic deck with space for six traffic lanes. The bridge over the Yodo River at Osaka, Jap., with a 709-ft. central span, had A-shaped pylons specially designed for stalDility in earthquakes.

Construction of the West Gate cable-stayed box on the Lower Yarra at Melbourne,

wage-price control appeared to be remarkably effective:

span of about 920

tetrapod pylon by two groups of cables, work began on a number of constructions of that type. The Duis-

girder bridge Austr.,

was halted

in

October when one of the side men working on it.

spans collapsed, killing 34 of the

A

royal commission was set up to investigate the cause

of the failure. {See Disasters.)

Other Metal Bridges. Among inclined-prop bridges under construction was one spanning a gorge on the Santiago River near Guadalajara, Mex. At a height of 425 ft., its overall length was 984 ft., with the points of attachment of the props to the deck 360 ft. apart. Similar in type was the Caronte Viaduct in France, which crossed the access channel to the fitang de Berre at a height of 150 ft.; its main structure, 984 ft. long, had an opening of 689 ft. between the prop bearings, and the points of attachment to the

deck were 426

ft.

apart.

While inclined-prop bridges were particularly

suit-

able for spans at considerable heights, orthotropically decked box girder bridges were being increasingly

J

dopted for long spans because of the need to limit eadweight. However, work on an outstanding examof this type, the

ile

Milford Haven road bridge on the

'ieddau River, Wales,

was interrupted when

a section

ollapsed under construction. Following this accident,

and the subsequent Melbourne lisaster, in November the British government began n independent inquiry into the design and construcion of large box girder bridges. When completed, the ililford Haven bridge was to have the longest unsuplorted span in Europe (253 ft., 490 ft., 700 ft., 490 cost four lives,

v'hich

three of 252

t.,

ft.

each).

.\nother girder bridge of similar design iaduct over the

Danube

at

was the new

Vienna with three spans of

690 ft., and 390 ft., while in California the lavigable channel of San Diego Bay was also being ^ridged by three girder spans (two of 660 ft., 560 ft.). Prestressed Concrete Bridges. The successive cantievering form of construction was being used for a

.'60

ft..

umber of large spans. However, in the U.S., construcn of the Three Sisters Bridge over the Potomac ,vas halted by court order when the piers w-ere being rected because the design, which provided for a censpan of 750 ft., was considered dangerous. The rid record in this class of construction was still held the Bendorf Bridge in West Germany with a span 1

682

j;

ft.

Other cantilevered viaducts notable for the length of their central spans included: the Kingston Bridge at Glasgow, Scot. (205 ft.. 470 ft., 205 ft.), each of whose parallel components had a useful width of 68 ft and the Huccorgne Viaduct over the Mehaiene Valley. Belgium f 246 ft.), also consisting of parallel :

r';isS0ns.

For very long structures, however, the form of con-

was preferred. method was employed for the 8^-mi. bridge between Rio de Janeiro and Niteroi. Braz., of which five miles was made up of 262-ft. caisson girders of uni-

1

ruction using prefabricated voussoirs

This

form depth (to simplify prefabrication). In France the (

method was applied

164

ft.,

seven of 230

to several structures: at

ft.

each, 164' ft.).

Tours

Aramon (154

256 ft. each, 154 ft.), and Bourg-Saint:\ndeol (147 ft., three of 256 ft. each, 154 ft.). For spans of about 80 to 150 ft., the use of prefabricated, prestressed concrete girders remained the most economical form of construction, the current ndency being to eliminate crossbeams, as in the Weaver Valley Bridge, England, with 30 approach spans of 90 ft. each. For the erection of continuous structures with spans of between 100 and 200 ft., the use of self-launching centring proved economical where the overall length was sufficient to justify the ft.,

five of

ti

cost of the

equipment. This method was employed at

Saag, Aus., on a viaduct comprising 50 spans of about

98

ft.

each with twin cais.son-section decks, and on the Viaduct, France, also with twin decks, each

Incarv^ille

two longitudinal trapezoidal (Ro. Gh.) Buildings. In 1970 various approaches were employed to provide improved housing for slum areas in the United States. One of the continuing problems was consisting of plates with

ribs,

but no crossbeams.

the dislocation of the residents in the area while the

rebuilding was in process. An urban renewal concept by Frost Associates of New York City represented a novel approach to this problem. As reported in the Architectural Forum, it involved the concept of redeveloping one block at a time with a minimum dislocation of the existing residents. According to the concept, residential high-rise towers were to be built in

the backyards of the existing

homes

to provide

313

new

residences for the families living in the immediate area. After the families

were relocated

high-rise structure or structures, the existing

Engineering

new outmoded

in

the

Projects

tenements were to be replaced with nonresidential buildings that were to be uniformly no more than four stories in height. It

was planned, additionally, that would be made

the roofs of these low-rise buildings

into recreational areas for the children so that they

would not have

to play in the streets.

The construction procedure called for the initiation of a project by locating a construction site where there was adequate space on a street near the end of a block.

On

this site

could be constructed the

first

residential tower. If construction required the razing

would be done, but the relocation of would be kept to a minimum. The foundation and the concrete core of the building, which would contain the elevators, stairs, and exit halls of the dwelling units, would be built first, as would the lobby space between the tower core and the street entrance. Around the top of the tower a structure would be built so that dwelling units could be hung below it. of a building, this families

The plan

specified further that the tower's dwelling

were to be built at an off-site location while the core was under construction. These units were to be built according to methods that would be most suitable for complete fabrication. The completed dwelling units would be delivered to the building site by trucks and would be lifted into place around the core by a derrick on top of the core. When the residential tower was completed, the families in the nearby tenements were to be moved into it. The businesses in the block were then to be relocated into vacant commercial spaces in the block, or nearby, so that the vacated buildings could be demolished and the new uniform buildings constructed. As the new low-rise structures were completed, the displaced businesses could be moved in along with new businesses that wished to locate in the area. Plans to meet a variety of housing needs, such as the one proposed by Frost .Associates, underlined the importance of industrialized systems for building construction. One of these reported on in 1970 was the Townland Building System. According to the Apartment Construction News, this system created synthetic land by |>rovidinc pedestrian streets or walkunits

Denmark's new suspension Lillebaelt Bridge,

linl(ing

Fyn and Jutland,

is

the longest bridge of kind

in

its

Europe, with

a main span of 1,968

and side spans

of

787

ft. ft.

—

The condominium arrangement individual ownei ship of a residential unit in a multiunit structure-! continued to exert a significant influence on the desig] of residential buildings in the United States in 197(

was reported in Apartment Construction News thai Miami, Fla., area was one of the strongest coi dominium apartment markets in the nation. These developments were bringing forth interestin' and imaginative structures and land-use plans. An tt ample was Century 21, a 7,000-unit condominiur project located only a short distance from the centr' of Miami on a 160-ac. tract, almost completely sui' rounded by water. Only 40% of the land was to b covered by buildings. Each cluster or neighbourhooi, was designed to have a 27-story and 21-story buildin, plus a limited number of town houses, which were be placed between bays, lakes, and lagoons. The erec It

the

ti

tion of the towers of multistory buildings involvei

the use of the

Monroe

slip

form concrete system

core construction.

fo

(C. C. 0.

Dams. Europe. In Spain

dams un

three important

der construction were, on the Genii River, the Con treras concrete gravity dam (height 400 ft., volumi

679,500 cu.yd., storage 712.800 ac-ft.) and the Iznaja concrete gravity dam (height 390 ft., volume 1,830,

FROM PICTORIAL PARADE

The 1,200-ft. Van Staden's Gorge Bridge under construction near Port Elizabeth, S.Af.,

was

to be the

largest

concrete arch bridge in Africa upon

completion

in

mid-1971.

ways and backyards

The

as high as 15 stories

up

in the air.

objective of this plan was to achieve the eco-

nomics of high-rise construction and at the same time to provide the amenities of a town house. It was reported that the system consisted of two subsystems. The first comprised a long-span structural framework which contained precast concrete components. At three-story intervals there were to be spandrels supporting deck slabs. Within the structural framework there were to be three-story, metal-frame dwelling units. These three-story units were to be factory-built with preassembled utility cores. In front of each housing unit there was to be a pedestrian walkway and, in the back, an earthfill backyard. Aside from unique projects such as those described, the major thrust of industrialized housing systems was to integrate mass-production techniques into building construction. Efforts to do this involved both on-site and off-site production. As these alternatives were pursued, the economies of large-scale off-site production appeared to outweigh the transportation costs. The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), through its program "Operation Breakthrough,"

stimulated

a

building systems in 1970.

great

deal

The purpose

of of

interest

HUD's

in

pro-

gram had been to speed up the construction of housing for low- and middle-income families by bringing the techniques of mass production into the construction field. Stirling Homex, a firm engaged in the manufacture of housing units, presented a system to HUD by means of which, it claimed, the unit was so completely finished at the factory that a family could

move

in

immediately after the unit was installed on site. Such an installation required

the construction

about four hours. Every dwelling unit contained three or four modules, each 12 by 24 by 9 ft. The firm reported that a factory-built module could be completely ready for occupancy in 45 minutes. The company had three projects under way in New York State in 1970 in which the system was being used. In addition to the low-rise product, Stirling

was developing

a high-rise

000

cu.yd., storage 793,800 ac-ft.), and, on the Agua: Blancas River, the Quentar arch dam (height 436 ft.

volume 230,000

cu.yd., storage 11,016,000 ac-ft.). In the United Kingdom, the Llyn Brianne rockfil

dam on

the

Towy

River (height 300

the Paltinul arch

dam on

volume 366,000

344

ft.,

and

the Vidra earthfill

397

ft.,

the

Doftana River

dam on

the Lotru River (heighl

storage

cu.yd.,

ac-ft.) in the course of construction.

275,40C

The Krichim

con-

Vucha River in Bulgaria was being built, with a height of 338 ft. and a volume of 497,000 cu.yd., while in Yugoslavia, work was in crete gravity

progress on the

328

(height

394,470

Rama

ft.,

the

earthfill

dam on

volume 1,050,000

the

Rama

cu.yd.,

River

storage

ac-ft.).

There was considerable activity in Turkey, where the Kozan rockfill dam, with a central clay core, on the Kilgen River (height 272 ft., volume 1,562,000 cu.yd.) was scheduled for completion in 1970. The dam area was known to be seismically active, and horizontally acting earthquake accelerations up to 0.15 G were a factor in the design of the embankment, situated in a narrow limestone gorge. Other Turkish developments included a start in 1970 on the five years'

work required

to build the

Adiguzel arch

dam

on the Buyuk Menderes River (height 675 ft., crest length 1,568 ft., volume 1,184,000 cu.yd., and storage capacity 1,864,625 ac-ft.).

continued in the U.S.S.R. on the near the Black Sea, to be the world's highest concrete arch dam at 892 ft,, and on the Nurek Dam on the Vakhsh River, near the border of Afghan-

Construction

Inguri

Dam,

planned to be 1,017 ft. high, of earth. Two others under construction were the Charvakskaya earth and rockfill dam, on the Chirchik River (height 551 ft., crest length 2,499 ft., volume about 25 million cu.yd., storage 1,620,000 ac-ft.), and the Sayano-Shnshensistan,

kaya arch dam on the Yenisei (height 774 ft., length 3,503 ft., volume about 12 million cu.yd.,

would use the same type of modules. For such a building the steel beams and concrete flooring would be raised as a unit by use of an electronically con-

age 25,353,000 ac-ft.).

trolled jacking system.

1969, was under construction (height 656

that

(heighl

cu.yd., storage 48,600 ac-ft.)

volume 4,574,000

dam on

volume 2.5 Romania hac

ft.,

million cu.yd.) was under construction.

Asia.

dam on

crest stor-

The Reza Shah Kabir thin-arch multipurpose the Karun River in Iran, begun in December ft.,

crest

ft., thickness at base 115 ft.)- It was unded on limestone under 30 ft. of alluvium. Conruction was continued in Pakistan on the Tarbela rth and rockfill dam on the Indus, the world's largest an-made mountain, with a height of 485 ft., a length 9,000 ft., and a volume of 186 million cu.yd.

ngth 1,247

mong dams under construction ime (height 446

ft.,

in

dam on

heruthoni concrete gravity

India was the

the river of that

crest length 2,136

ft.,

volume

353,000 cu.yd.). In the Far East, Thailand

38

i.yd.,

length

crest

ft.,

dam on

earthfill

Sirikit

le

2,560

had work

on River (height

in progress

the

Nan

ft.,

volume 13,097,500

7,296,429 ac-ft.). In Malaysia, the dam with short

storage

[uda reinforced concrete buttress -avity

wings (height 105

eared completion

crest length

ft.,

and was of engineering

720

ft.)

interest be-

an unusual arrangement of post-tensioned :eel cables to anchor the dam to its foundations. Japaese work included the Shintoyone arch dam on the inyu River (height 374 ft., volume 410,700 cu.yd.) nd the Sameura concrete gravity dam on the Yoshino iuse of

347

Liver ('height

?e

ft.,

volume 1,570,000

cu.yd., stor-

Hollow

In South America the Esmeralda rockfill dam, with an included impervious core, was under construction on the Bata River, Colombia (height 754 ft., volume 14,126,000 cu.yd.). In Brazil the Ilha Solteira earth

and concrete gravity dam being built on the Parana had a height of 262 ft., a crest length of 20,300 ft., and a volume of 32,838,000 cu.yd. The Mantaro River concrete gravity dam in Peru was completed in January 1970.

the

1,420

ft.

and 282

in length

ft.

high, with

was under was the Grasshopper

Lime of approximately 3 million cu.yd.) '

istruction.

rockfill

tons of rockfill, storage 4.6 million ac-ft.), to irrigate

The dam's height was to be 680 ft., arch length ft., and volume 6 million cu.yd. The Kentucky

i-'es.

(

Three dams under construction were: the (height 330 ft., volume 2 million

Australia.

Ord River

the

dam

ft.,

cu.yd.).

North and South America. In the U.S. construction the Auburn double-curvature arch dam on the f "rth Fork of the American River was in its early .500

(height 350

dam on Gwydir River (height 370 ft., crest length 4,870 volume 10 million cu.yd., storage 1.1 million acand the Gordon double-curvature arch dam on Gordon River (height 450 ft., volume 196,000

178,000 ac; the Copeton earth and rockfill

256,000 ac-ft.).

ocldill

dam

volume 2.5 mil270 dams were under construction in the U.S., and 400 more were projected. In Canada construction continued on the Mica rockfill dam on the Columbia River (height 800 ft., volume 42 million cu.yd.). It was scheduled for completion in 1973. On the Montreal River the Lower Notch Dam was under construction. Construction began in 1970 of the Manic 3 earthfill dam on the Manicouagan River (height 350 ft., volume 12 million earthfill

lion cu.yd.). In 1970 approximately

Also being built

ft.,

ft.)

;

cu.yd.. storage 10.080,000 ac-ft.).

Ceremonies

Africa.

Aswan High

the

364

ft.,

crest length

Major World Dams Under Construction

in

Dam

July marked completion of

(Sadd 12,565

el

Aali\ U.A.R. (height volume 55,809,000

ft.,

1970*

in

Gross

Volume Height

Nome

of

dom

Almendro Auburn

Country

River

Tormej N.F, American

Ay vocilc

Yeiii

Bolimela

Slleru

Cohorabassa

Zombezi

Coslaic

Costorc Chirchik Sulok

Chorvalrjkayo Chirlceysko ya

•

-

Don Pedro, New5

Tuolumne

Dworshok Emo!Son

N.F. Clearwater

Gokcekaya Gron Suorna

Sokorya Novia

Idilcki

Periyor

ilho Solteira

Poroni

Inguri

Inguri

Joyokwodi Konev Kaochogoy Keban Khontoyko

Godovori Dnepr

Barberine

Typet

Spoin

AG

U.S.

Turkey

A A

India

E

Mozambique^

A

U.S. U.S.S.R.

(ft.)

(ft.)

649 680

13,438 3,500 1,715 15,200

551

E

230 525 340

ER

551

U.S.S.R. U.S. U.S.

A

Switzerland Turkey Spain

A A

764 585 717 590 518

A

499

India Brozil U.S.S.R. India U.S.S.R.

MA

561

EG A

ER

G

Mica Montonejos

Columbio

Canada

R

Mijores Pivo

Spain Yugoslovio

AG

Mrotinje

A

262 892 120 82 164 679 213 607 407 498 295 625 800 492 722

Nurek Rezo Shah Kobir

1.017

Soyono-Shushenskoya

Yenisei

U.S.S.R. Iran U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R.

E

Sorotov

Vokhsh Korun Volgo

Tochien Torbelo ToktoquI

Tachia Indus

Noryn Angora

Kolnbrein Krosnoyorsk

E E

Hi

USSR.

E

Euphrates

Turkey

RG

Khantoyka Molto

USSR.

RE

A

Yenisei

Austria U.S.S.R.

Los Portos

Camba

Spain

G G

Mortmbondo

Grande

Brozil

EG

Stonislous

U.S.

ER

Melones,

New^

UiMlim Zeyskoyo

Zeyo

el Aali)

Tolblngo Vilyuyjkoyo (Iststoge)

656

E

131

774

Taiwan

A A

Pokislon

ER

USSR. USSR.

A EG

485 705 344

U.S.S.R.

G

MAJOR WORLD DAMS COMPLETED Aawon High (Sodd

A

IN 1949

Nile

U.A.R.

Tumut

Austrolia

R

Vilyuy

U.S.S.R.

ER

ER

Length of crest

591

371

AND

2,025 2,500

689

29,627 589 44,000 24,975

1,109 1,900 3,287 1,736 1,529 1,150 1,201 20,300 2,198

1,602 16,760 6,500 1,400

32,493 59,950

15,409 49,520 10,338 19,600 2,452

3,097

129,389

350 1,620 2,252 2,030 3,453 182 737 567 1,182 17,172

850 882 609 32,838 4,967

7,741

3,598 21,058 1,814 3,493 1,587 11,970 1,600 2,600

891

2,110 2,125 22,761

25,110 16,743 130 59,425

1,804 5,685

820 853

12,565 2,300 1,968

oc-ff.)

3,267 6,000 1,464

994 5,200 2,499

2,390 1,247 4,130 3,503 951 9,000 1,352 11,695 2,312

copacity of reservoir (000

content (000 cu.yd.)

977

609

25,245 15,970 42,000

5,184 2,400 20,000

163 1,019 70,806

8,424

203 749

n.o.

n.o.

19,034 11,916

562 186,000 3,480 17,090 10,456

10,854 25,353 188 11,100 15,800 48,100 55,080

55,809 18,500 3,790

133,000 747 14,985

1970*

364 530 213

•Having o height exceeding 492 ft. (150 m.); or having a totol volume content exceeding 20 million cu.yd. exceeding 12 million oc-ft. copocity. tTypc of dom: E^eorth; R = rockfill; A = arch; G^grovity; MA^multiple arch. tMozombique is a Portuguese possession. jRenlocemeol of present dam. n.o.— data not ovoiloble.

[15 million cu.m.); or

forming a reservoir

(T.

W. Me.)

315

Engineering Projects

Italian border,

and the other between the border

Terme del Brennero, way sections opened

Italy.

Among

other

new

a]

expreil

to traffic in Italy during the

ye;]

were the Lauria North-Stazione Pollino (21 mi.), i\ Morano-Sibari (22 mi.), and the Sibari-Tarsia (J mi.) sections of the Salerno-Reggio di Calabria mote? way (A3) and the Turin/La Rotta-Marene (20 mi section of the Turin-Savona motorway (A6). The U.K. approached the aim of 1,000 mi. of mote' way by the early 1970s with 630 mi. completed as! 350 mi. under construction. Among new length opened to traffic in 1970 were parts of the tran Pennine route (M62) and the M6 approaching Sco land through the Lake District. North and South America. In Peru, a 14-mi. tc: road, the Pasamayo highway, was opened to traffic Forming part of the Pan-American Highway, it beg&i just north of Lima, near Ancon. The second stage the Paseo de la Republica expressway was also openet The completion of that stage meant that the expres way ran the full three miles from the National Spon Stadium in Lima to Miraflores. In January 1970 the 41.6-mi. section (Los Andes La Frontera) of the Valparaiso-Mendoza road frof Chile to Argentina was completed. Part of it rose mor than 10,000 ft. above sea level. The whole of the Par? American Highway system in Chile was now paveci It was announced in the U.S. that in 1967 (the late.< year for which complete figures were available) 2,63'^; mi. of interstate expressway were built. Africa. In South West Africa, construction sine 1958 reached 1,345 mi. The work was well ahead O; ;

i'

FOX PHOTOS FROM PICTORIAL PARADE

This giant roundabout at White City forms part

cu.yd., storage 133 million ac-ft.). In

West London's new Westway route,

dam on

which

2,575

of

is

45,000

expected to carry vehicles per day.

Morocco con-

struction continued on the Assan Addakhil earthfill the Ziz River (height 312

ft.,

volume 7,580,000

ft.,

crest length

cu.yd., storage 307,800

and the Ait Adel earthfill dam on the Tessaout River (height 328 ft., volume 7,319,000 cu.yd., storage 162,000 ac-ft.). (Al. Ma.) Roads. In almost all countries road-building programs continued to gather impetus. A selection of ac-ft.

)

some of

major projects completed during 1970 is detailed below. Overall, the amount spent on road building was broadly in the region of 1% of national the

income.

Europe. During 1969-70, an important new expressway between Corinth and Patras, in Greece, was opened to traffic. The work was done in three main stages. The section between Corinth and Akrata was

opened

in

October 1969, the Patras-Diacophto section

followed soon afterward, and the Diacophto-Akrata section

was opened early

in 1970.

Late in 1969, sections of two Swiss national roads were completed. One was the Wangi to Sankt Gallen

Nl (from Winterthur to Sankt Gallen the others were the Triibbach-Sargans and the Grono-Castione sections of the N 13 highway. section of the national road )

;

The Triibbach-Sargans

section linked up with the Sargans-Chur-Reichenau road and the SargansZiirich road (N3). Several expressway sections were opened in West Germany. These were: 7.5 mi. of the DortmundGiessen motorway; 9.3 mi. of the Schleswig-Holstein

motorway (bypassing

the city of Neumiinster)

;

6.2

mi. (from Stromberg to Rheinbollen) of the Krefeld-

Ludwigshafen motorway; the Weinheim-Heidelberg section of the Frankfurt-Darmstadt-Heidelberg motorway, and the Wolfratshausen-Penzberg section of the Munich-Garmisch motorway. In France an 8.7-mi. length of the MarseillesLyons motorway was opened between Senas and Salon. The first section of the Paris-Rungis motorway (H6) was also opened to traffic; it was intended to relieve congestion of A6, which attracts traffic going Orly International Airport. The two new sections of the Brenner motorway were opened, one between Brenner Lake in Austria and the to

'

schedule, the 20-year plan envisaging only 1,245 mi

by the end of 1978. In South Africa

itself,

tht

Chrissiesmeer-Oshoek section of the JohannesburgSwaziland road was tarred in late 1969. Upper Volta completed two main projects in 1970 the road from Bobo Dioulasso to the border with Mali and that from Ouagadougou to P6, near the bordei' with Ghana. The highway authorities in Nigeria built 51 mi. of road in the Idoma region. Asia and Oceania. In Israel the 6.2-mi. Lod AirportGe'a road was opened, reducing traveling time between Tel Aviv and the airport. The 267-mi. four-lane SeoulPusan express highway in South Korea was completed in 1970. It replaced an old road, more than halving the journey time between the two cities. The Ella-Wellawaya road in Ceylon was completed, connecting the northern and southern parts of Uva Province with the central and southern provinces. In New Zealand, the seaward lanes of the first section of the Wellington motorway, between Kaiwharawhara and Aotea Quay, were opened to traffic. (R. S. Mi.) Tunnels. An indication of the total value of tunnel-

was given during the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) conference on tunneling held in June ing being accomplished in 1970

in

Washington, D.C. The

total

annual rate of expendi-

ture on tunneling in the 20 participating countries was

approximately $1 billion ($3 billion including mining). During the previous decade a total of at least 13.000 km. (430,000 km. including mining) of tunnels with an excavated volume of at least 300 million cu.m. (4 billion cu.m. including mining) were constructed.

Demand was

expected at least to double during the

next decade. In

West Germany work

started at

Hamburg on

a

six-lane, triple-barreled, 2-mi. tunnel (estimated cost

$104 million) crossing under the Elbe River form a major link in the European route E3 from

in 1968,

to

ckholm to Lisbon. The first section of tunnel, 37 ft. long, extended under the river, and was med by eight 53,000-ton precast-concrete sunken-

1

e units,

each 433

ft.

long, 137

ft.

wide, 27.5

ft.

and with external walls 4 ft. thick clad with ^-in. The second section, 3,700 ft. long, started m the ventilation shaft on the north bank, rose at .5% grade and was being bored through clay and rl by two 36-ft. diameter mechanical shields work-

4

in

in.

(pounds square inch). Each shield cost $3 million and was ven forward by 40 jacks exerting a total of 9,000 1 shove, and erected behind it iron liner segments ;t. by 7 ft. by 9 in. thick. The third and final sec590

in,

ft.

long,

was being

built

by the cut-and-

L. Priestly Ltd.

example, in New York contracts totaling $222.6 million provided for a water supply project involving 13.7 mi., mostly of 24-ft. diameter tunnel deep under the city in hard rock. In Japan, the $350 mOlion Seikan rail tunnel, originally planned as a 23-mi. undersea link for conventional trains,

was now expected

to

be 30 to 35 mi.

long in order to provide the moderate grades needed

As part of the Spanish highway program, a second ad tunnel, costing $14.5 million and 3.6 km. long,

below the ocean

Guadarrama mountain Madrid and La Coruna. A

being pushed through the

nge on the route between

seam of clay was encountered between the normal anite strata, on which the rock sometimes slipped. a articulated steel tunnel shield 3 m. long was kept readiness to be moved quickly under any weakening le

Guinea

Extensive tunneling went on in many cities to meet demands for water supply and sewage disposal. As an

ver method.

IS

Equatorial

ft.

and was driven by a tunneling machine

crete segments,

made by Robert

air pressures of 22 psi

tunnel was 8

diameter, lined with precast con-

internal

et steel.

maximum

The

for the Essex River Authority.

h,

under

317

This was achieved on a drive of the 12-mi. aqueduct tunnel, part of the Ely-Ouse flood protection scheme

for

new high-speed

The

trains.

floor

tunnel passed 330

ft.

through badly faulted granite

containing water-filled seams of broken rock.

(H. D. M.) Encyct.oP/EDIa Britann'Ica Films. 5/. La-vreitcr Srnivav rioSO"): Thf Panama Canal (]0f,\); The Suez Canal ("106?"); Holland: Hold Back the Sea C 967) The Mississippi System: Waterway of Commerce (1970). !

;

innel section.

In the U.K. the Robbins tunneling machine boring 31-ft. 7-in. internal diameter, 7,400-ft.-long second

Equatorial Guinea

le

lersey

The African repubUc

of Equatorial Guinea consists

m

of Rio Muni, which

bordered by Cameroon on the

Tunnel holed through in March. Driving beon the 6,606-ft.-long pilot bore for the third lersey Tunnel, using an 11-ft. diameter tunneling lachine.

First-stage 45.6 million

construction was in progress

for

the

Hong Kong Cross Harbour Tunnel,

a

formed by IS sunken twin370 ft. long and 34 ft. in diameter,

our-lane crossing to be

ube sections 320 to

"ompletion was scheduled for 1972. In

many

of the world's large cities during 1970 ex-

ensive lengths of tunnel

were being constructed for

Gabon on

is

and the Atlantic Ocean on the west; and the offshore islands of Fernando Po and Annobon. Area: 10,830 sq.mi. (28,050 sq.km.). Pop. (1969 est.): 286,000. Cap. and largest city: Santa Isabel, on Fernando Po (pop., 1965 est., 37.152). President in 1970, Francisco Macias Nguma. In January 1970 President Macias made his first official visit abroad since the country became indepennorth,

dent

in

the east and south,

October 1968.

He

spent several days

in

Cam-

lew or existing

eroon, during which he attended that country's inde-

roronto on the

pendence day celebrations. In August the president visited Nigeria and voiced the hope that relations between the two countries would become closer and

for -he

subway systems. Work continued in 5-mi. Yonge Street extension scheduled

completion in 1972. Costing about $84 million, project consisted of three lengths of bored twin

tunnels

and three new cut-and-cover stations.

An

in-

more

cordial.

On

number

of Nigerian workers

the question of the treatment of the

New York,

on the plantations Fernando Po, a long-standing source of complaints from Nigeria, Macias stated that his government would draw up a new contract agreement to replace the harsh labour laws that had previously been in

of

force.

teresting feature of the project

large

struction

of

verted [)f

riod,

was a station in conunder the Don River, which had been di-

over the workings

during

the

construction

using a specially constructed steel flume. In

the chief project in an extensive program improvements was the 63rd Street East River tunnel, consisting of two lengths of immersed tube construction, each 750 ft. long, connected by a tunnel blasted under Welfare Island. The four 38-ft. by 38ft. concrete tube sections were 375 ft. long, double'li-cked with two tracks on each level. The San Francisco BART (Bay Area Rapid Transit) system, costing about $1.3 billion, neared completion, cons'

ruction of the

than

80%

subway

complete.

line structures

Some 20

being more

mi. of the 75-mi.-long

^tem were underground. Rates of driving achieved the tunneling machines were 364 ft. in one week in rock, and 363 ft. in one week in soft ground. The relative costs per foot were about $960 in rock and $1 .850 in soft ground for the 18-ft. external diameter tunnel. In comparison, the costs of the Victoria Line, Lon'!on, were about $384 per foot for a 13-ft. 6-in. exdiameter tunnel driven through London clay. The world record for rate of advance of bored and permanently lined tunnel was claimed by Edmund Nuttall, Sons & Co. Ltd., England, for their construction of 1,426 ft. in one week during December 1969. ternal

After the period of tension in the early months of relations with Spain improved steadily, and

1969,

Equatorial Guinea's economic and financial position was strengthened with Spanish assistance. Efforts to

EOrATORI.^L GUINEA Education. (1966-67) Primary, pupils 38,395, teachers 504; secondary, pupils 2,343, teachers 40; vocational (1965-66), pupils 464, teachers 35; teacher training, students 130, teachers 28. Finance. Monetary unit: peseta Guineana, at par with the Spanish peseta (70 pesetas to the U.S. $1; £1 sterling). Budget (1969-70 est.): 168 pesetas

=

revenue 712.5 million pesetas; expenditure 1,139,000,-

000 pesetas. Foreign Trade.

(1966)

Imports

1,278,000,000

(58% from Spain in 1965); exports 1,817,000,000 pesetas (97% to Spain in 1965). Main exports (1965): cocoa 44%; coffee 21%; timber 19%. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968; 1967 in parentheses): coffee c. 6.6 (c. 6.6); cocoa

(1968-69) 38; (1967-68) 33; palm kernels (exports) c. 2 (c. 1.7); palm oil c. 4 (c. 4). Livestock (in 000; 1967-68): sheep c. 27; cattle c. 3; pigs c. 6; goats chickens

c.

70.

English Literature: Literature

set:

Entertainment: Cinema; Dance;

see

pesetas

c. 6;

England: United Kingdom

sec

Fairs

and Shows;

Music; Television

and Radio; Theatre Entomology: see

Biological Sciences

Environment: Sciences; Conservation

see Biological

Episcopal Church: Religion

see

establish links with other nations continued.

On

July

was announced in Prague that Czechoslovakia and Equatorial Guinea had agreed to establish diplo31

it

matic relations at the ambassadorial

level.

(K.

I.)

social services, particularly education. U.S. militar}

aid

amounted

to U.S.

the total since 1953, Eritrea,

was

$12 million in 1970, bringinj the U.S. base at Kagnew

when

set up, to

$159 million.

In the industrial sector a metal tool factory

Ethiopia A

constitutional

monarchy

of northeastern

Africa,

bordered by Somalia, the French Territory of the Afars and Issas, Kenya, the Sudan, and the Red Sea. Area: 471,776 sq.mi. (1,221,900 sq.km.). Pop. (1968 est.): 24,140,200. Cap. and largest city: Addis Ababa (pop., 1968 est., 684,130). Language: Amharic (official) and English. Religion: Ethiopian Ethiopia

is

Orthodox (Coptic) Christian 65%; Muslim 30%. Emperor, Haile Selassie I; prime minister in 1970, Aklilu Habte Wold. Since the Ethiopian economy remained largely dependent on coffee, it benefited to some extent in 1970 froin a blight that reduced coffee yields in Brazil. At the same time steps were being taken within the framework of the country's third five-year plan to diversify crops and exports. Agricultural development centred on various regional "package deal" projects notably in the Awash Valley, Chilalo, and Wolamo districts south of Addis Ababa and in the Setit Humera region, northwest of Lake Tana along the Sudan border. Other moves to strengthen the economy included

—

breakaway eastern

Finance. Monetary unit: Ethiopian dollar, with a par value of Eth$2.50 to U.S. $1 (Eth$6 - £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1970) U.S. $80.3 million; (June 1969) U.S. $63.9 million. Budget ( 1 969-70 est.) revenue Eth$602 million; expenditure Eth$631 million. Money supply: (May 1970) Eth$456.9 million; (May 1969) :

Eth$406.8 million. Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports Eth$388.3 million; exports Eth$298.6 million. Import sources (1968): U.S. 19%; Italy 18%; West Germany 11%; Japan 9%; U.K. 9%. E.xport destinations (1968): U.S. 43%; West Germany 8%; Saudi Arabia 7%; Italy 6%. Main exports: coffee 58%; hides and skins 9%; cereals 8 7c: oilseeds

8%.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1968)

c.

23,000 km. (including 7,304 km. all-weather). Motor vehicles in use (1968): passenger 29,500; commercial 9.700. Railways (1968) 1,087 km. Air traffic ( 1969): 300 million passenger-km.; freight 17.4 million net ton-km. Telephones (Dec. 1968) 36,034. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) c. 500,000. Television receivers (Dec. 196S) 6,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968; 1967 in parentheses): teff, millet, and sorghum 2,425 (2,396); corn (1969) 869, (1968) 849; barlev c. 1,450 (1,430); wheat 755 (745); linseed c. 60 (c. 60); sunflower seed c. 35 (c. 33); sugar, raw value (1969-70) c. 103, (1968-69) c. 73; chick-peas c. 170 (174); lentils c. 100 (c. 95); sweet potatoes c. 239 (239); potatoes c. US (148); coffee c. 165 (c. 155). Livestock (in 000; 1968-69): cattle c. 25,900; sheep c. 12,600; goats (1967-68) c. 12,000; horses c. 1,390; mules c. 1,390; asses c. 3,850; camels (1967-68) c. 970: poultry c. 46,000. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 196667): cotton yarn 9.2; cotton fabrics (sq.m.) 58,000; cement 138; electricity (kw-hr.; 1967-68) 361,000.

A UNESCO

inter eight,

—

—

border delimitation treaty establishing the two coun 500-mi. frontier. In November he visited Italy marking the complete reconciliation of the two coun a

tries'

tries

35 years after Mussolini's invasion.

Among

vis

Ethiopia during the year was Pres. N. V Podgorny of the U.S.S.R., with whom it was agree( itors

to

open an

to

9,525; secondary, pupils 71,467, teachers 3,062; vocational, pupils 6,2 51, teachers 533; teacher training, students 1,816, teachers 115; higher (at 2 universities), students 3,360, teaching staff 600.

state of Biafra.

volume history of Africa also met in Addis Ababa Haile Selassie ended a series of state visits to th( U.S.S.R., France, and the U.A.R. in Nairobi, Kenya where on June 9 he and Pres. Jomo Kenyatta signet

cow.

ers

;

national committee charged with drafting an

government's development banking and investment structure. While a new investment code was being considered, new rates of income tax and land tax were approved to provide support for expanding

ETHlOPl.Ji Education. (1967-68) Primary, pupils 452,457, teach-

in

(

proposals to reorganize the financial intermediaries in the

wa:

Addis Ababa with Polish assistance; Greek-financed chemical detergent industry was t( become operational in 1971; and, with Eth$800,00( from the UN Development Program, studies werinitiated to determine the feasibility of exploitini geothermal power sources in the Rift Valley and tin Afar Plain. In November the Lagadadi Dam, about mi. E of Addis Ababa, began to provide a much needed addition to the capital's water supply. The seventh Organization of African Unity summi meeting was held in Addis Ababa on September 1 a notable result being Nigeria's reconciliation witl the four African countries that had recognized thi

opened

A

air service

between Addis Ababa and Mos

from

Pres. J. B. Bokassa of the Centra African Republic led to mutual agreements on tele visit

communications links and cultural exchanges. On October 12 Basilios, patriarch of the Ethiopiai Orthodox Church, died at the age of 79. He was thi first Ethiopian patriarch to be elected by the coun try's bishops and appointed by the emperor. From thi 4th century until his appointment in 1959, this brand of the Coptic sect had been ruled from Alexandri; in

Egypt.

(G. C. L.

European Unity The year 1970 was marked by another

of those sur

had

characterizet

prising turnabouts in outlook that

European Community since its creation 22 year, earlier. (Technically there were three Communities the European Economic Community or Common Mar ket, the European Coal and Steel Community, an( the European Atomic Energy Community or Eura tom, but for all practical purposes these were now one European Community.) Throughout most of 1969 even the more optimistic supporters of European unit\ had continued to regard the future as unpromising. Ir part, this was due to the unseemly but persisteni the

quarrel

among the six Community states over thf Community agricultural policy, and tc

cost of the

their insistence on maintaining national advantage; unimpaired by any compromise in the interests ol unity. Chiefly, however, the pessimistic outlook wa; inspired by the French position. Despite the retirement of Pres. Charles de Gaulle France had continued to oppose the admission of

Britain

and three other applicant

Denmark, and

states,

Norway

—

major anc seemingly unlikely actions had been taken by tht Community's six member states. These were, first adoption of a definitive system of financing agriculIreland,

—

until

certain

:i

support prices that would continue

1

France's

advantage over the other five states; and seccompletion, by Dec. 31, 1969, of the 12-year nsitional" phase of the Community as required ing

e

Rome. Since

he Treaty of

plied with at all)

c

it

seemed unlikely that

conditions could be complied with on time

e

,

(

or

only professional optimists were

V

ing to predict a satisfactory

r

it

future for this experi-

in regional integration,

December 1969, however, the pessimists by surprise. Largely on France's initiative with strong support from the new West German rnment of Chancellor Willy Brandt, a summit -ting of the six states was held at The Hague. re sufficient compromises were achieved, at least principle," to assure the French that their demands lid be met. The "spirit of The Hague" was. morearly in

taken

i

'

\

Community

and these sessions led

at Brussels,

I-

to carry

negotiators

through subsequent rather trying ses-

ressfully

;

enough

tangible

r. (j

to decisions

ended the Community's transitional phase and ided a path, if not a highway, for future developn:. These decisions, in turn, persuaded the French i.'ree to negotiate with Britain and the other three idate states. Negotiations for admitting these four

Community began in July 1970 followformal meeting at Luxembourg on June 30,

into the

-

'

a

which Britain formally reiterated its applicafor membership, originally made some years ear-

ring

n

amount to be contributed under this tax-sharing plan would be proportioned to the economic weight of each member state. By 1975 receipts from all these sources could total as much as $4 billion, and although the larger share of this amount would still be expended for farm subsidies, some of it would undoubtedly become available for expanding other Community activities. Although the Community Council of Ministers would continue to draw up the budget and exercise initiative in determining what ideas and projects were to be supported, it was agreed that, by 1975. as much as 3^% of the total budget could be redeployed by the European Parliament. Small though the percentage was, this was the first time that any really substantive authority had been committed to the Parliament, which had been little more than a debating society. Suggestions were also made to elect members of the Parliament directly and to enlarge it to accommodate new Community members, but decision on these proposals was postponed. In anticipation of the Community's expansion, the European Commission, only recently raised to 14 members, was reduced to 9; the full complement of 14 would be restored gradually as new members joined the Community. The reducon the occasion of the installation, Franco Malfatti (see Biography), former Italian communications minister, as the new president of the Commission, in succession to Jean Rey of tion took place

in July, of

the other three applicant states reiterated their

Belgium.

candidacy somewhat later. Thus the logjam had hampered Community expansion was effec-

various possible extensions of economic cooperation

•

During 1970 there was additional discussion about

:d

broken.

>

^

ime

characterized

the

-•-Hague summit discussions. Italy sought and refor price supports for certain notably wine and tobacco. West Ger-

concessions

i.ed

n Tiodities,

demanded and received a pledge that a ceiling be imposed on amounts the Community hence the individual states would be required

II

y

II

Id

—

If]

spend on ambitious structural agricultural reform

such as that advocated by Sicco Mansholt Biography), which would benefit other states than Germany, France received the most sub-

'otrrams, '

'

ial

concession

—

indefinite

continuation of pay-

from the Community agricultural fund that tnounted to about twice what it contributed. Such concessions to national advantage notwithitanding. other decisions were taken during the postlague summit talks that would have the effect of trengthening the unity of the Community and adit

Community, such

within the

sharp bargaining

fairly

its

a

common

currency

—

or

at

as the establishment of least

rencies with stabilized value ratios

of national

—and the

ing of industrial corporations on a

cur-

charter-

Community-wide

Such discussions did not move far beyond the committee stage, however, and serious consideration was more likely after the issue of the Community's enlargement had been settled. Although negotiations to add new states began in July, most observers believed that they would continue far into 1971. Meanwhile, some hard bargaining and jockeying for national advantage was expected to take place between the applicant states and the existing Community members. Britain asked that there be

basis.

a lengthy transition period for the

new members

—

:ontributions

something on the order of five years while the Community wanted the transition period to be more nearly that number of months. All the new member states would probably have to accept the new budgetary formula and the Community agricultural price system. For each of the proposed new members there would be sacrifices. Thus Britain, which imported half its food, might experience an immediate cost-of-living increase, estimated at 5%. because of the high Community agricultural price supports. It would presumably have to sacrifice less expensive Commonwealth imports, such as cheaper New Zealand butter, as well as special Commonwealth economic ties and preferences. Moreover, the high Community import duties would place a strain on Britain's balance of payments

permanent plan for financing not only agriculture but other activities as well. Ninety percent of all agricul-

home. There were more subjective

'

ancing the cause of supranationalism.

The

negotia-

produced a definitive plan for financing future 'ommunity operations that, in time, would make the "ommunity less dependent on the various national ions

•xfhequers and perhaps entirely independent of them.

Jnder the existing system, practically ;ultural levies

mports at the nunity

all

the agri-

Cthe import duties imposed on farm

Community

treasury

to

frontier)

finance

the

went

to the

agricultural

Comprice-

Any deficit had to be made up by from the member states. Between 1971 and 1975, the Community would put into effect a iupport program.

tural

and

proceeds would be ,paid into the Community treasury. In addition, by 1975 the Community would receive a small percentage |(of the value-added tax which, it was anticipated, would levies

industrial

common

to all

member

it

could greatly increase food production at liabilities,

as

well.

tariff

British statesmen disliked seeing their existing free-

states

dom of decision over national issues taken from their government and placed in forums in which Britain would merely share power although this, of course, was the inevitable price of any sort of unification.

1

be

unless

by that time. The

—

— Backesr^'Kblnische Rundschau."

British economists, mindful that Britain probably devotes a greater proportion of national income to welfare costs than any of its proposed partners, expressed the opinion that, after Britain joined the Community, British capital might seek investment in the partner

would be greater. The three other applicants had somewhat similar concerns although, because their economies were so

states because the return there

Britain's,

closely tied to

tered

Of

clearly be

would

staying out injurious

Norway had perhaps hesitating. The 10% of

the three,

reason for

gaged

in

if

if

Britain en-

not disastrous.

the most unusual its

population en-

agriculture enjoyed higher support prices

than the very high ones guaranteed in the Common Market area, and the Norwegian farmers' lobby did

British Foreign

and

Commonwealth Secretary Sir Alec Douglas-Home (above) and West German Foreign Minister Walter Scheel (below) attended the initial meeting in

Luxembourg June 30

on Britain's application to join the

EEC.

not hesitate to remind Norway's prime minister of concern. In any event, each of the three would undoubtedly follow Britain's lead in seeking to protect

its

national interests and obligations against the possible adverse effects of accepting Community policy in

and of having

certain areas,

discretion in

to share decision-making

Community forums

in the future.

What-

ever the obstacles and the liabilities of joining the Community, however, they appeared to be outweighed by the long-run economic advantages of sharing in the expansive

market provided by more than 200 mil-

EFTA and Nordek. As

the negotiations between the

EEC

and the membership candidates proceeded, other non-Communist European multistate agencies took stock as to the effect on their future. The two most concerned were the European Free Trade Association, or EFTA, and the proposed Organization for Nordic Economic Cooperation, or Nordek. EFTA, created in 1959 as a less ambitious alternative to the consisted originally of seven states, grew to

when Finland became an associate member, and expanded to nine on March 1, 1970, when Iceland joined. Plans for Nordek were laid in July 1969 by four Scandinavian states, Denmark, Norway, Sweden,

eight

and Finland, and the treaty establishing the agency came up for ratification a year later. Nordek was regarded as a means of extending traditional economic cooperation in Scandinavia, both directly among the states of that region and within EFTA, of which those

were also members. Finland declined to particiand by the end of 1970 it appeared that Nordek, if not dead, was at least dormant until the EEC negotiations had been completed. With the growing likelihood that Britain and at least two Scandinavian states would be absorbed by the European Community, suggestions that such groupings as EFTA were superfluous and possibly even mischievous were voiced with renewed vigour. France was especially emphatic about the need to liquidate EFTA now that the Community was about to be enlarged at the expense of EFTA membership. Sweden, Switzerland, and Austria, in particular, held back from seeking Community membership because the political implications of such an action might states

pate, however,

—

—

Evangelical Churches: see Religion

Exchange Rates: Payments and

see

Reserves, International Exhibitions: see Art Exhibitions;

Fairs

and Shows;

Museums and Galleries;

Photography Expeditions, Scientific: see Antarctica; Arctic Regions;

Mountaineering; Oceanography; Speleology Faeroe Islands: see Dependent States

damage

their traditional

neutralism.

The

possibility

remained that these states might be given "associate" status that would permit them to participate in Community trade arrangements, but French Foreign Minister Maurice Schumann, for one, insisted that any compromise of this kind would bring "chaos." Others, however, were not so concerned. Sir John

EFTA secretary-general, suggested EFTA might be dissolved, its member

Coulson,

though

would not

that for political reasons feared

intimate an identification with the

^o^

Community migh

indeed seek a special free trade status in "asso elation" with the Community. Other EFTA members

such as Portugal and Iceland, might also seek somi sort of special arrangement with Brussels. Moreover Nordek or some similar arrangement could satisfy

somewhat more intimate ecc nomic cooperation without the political fears tha Sweden and Finland, especially, might experience i they had to assume full membership in the wider Eurc pean Community. Thus, observed Sir John, ther' might come into existence a kind of two- or three-tie arrangement of Western European states, all haviu some association or arrangement with Brussels. Meat while, EFTA would provide its members or prospei regional aspiration for

—

tive members with an insurance policy a sort of faF back position in the event that negotiations with tl European Community collapsed. Council of Europe. Of the remaining organizatioi for European cooperation, the Council of Europe ;

Strasbourg, France, retained

During 1970

it

its

relative importanc

again demonstrated

its

well-testf

usefulness as a forum for discussion and for the worl ing out of solutions to problems

pean membership. This

result

common

to its Eurr

was achieved by

reS'

lutions establishing guidelines for national legislatic^

lion people.

EEC,

EFTA members

all

try to join the

on a given subject or by drafting appropriate legisli tion or administrative regulations. Often the rest was to mount a kind of transnational or continent attack on various problems, especially problems education, public health, social welfare, and in oth less politically sensitive areas.

Probably the Council's most publicized effort direction during 1970 occurred in Februai when its Consultative Assembly and various comm tees provided a forum for the discussion of enviro mental problems including urban decay and poll tion affecting all Europe. The sessions enjoyed patronage of Prince Philip, himself a noted advocr of conservation and environmental protection, a of several noted scientists and conservationists. T resulting reports and resolutions stressed the desii this

—

—

t

concerted national action to limit envirc mental pollution, expand university training in su, subjects as ecology and urban planning, and est: lish legal guidelines for regulation of the manufactu bility of

sale,

and use of certain

Membership

in

17 at the end of 1969,

European Community.

when

the

Greek military

regii

withdrew. Following an intensive two-year inves gation, one of the Council's committees had filed lengthy report alleging that there was no evidence

growing democratization of the Greek regime, a offering evidence that the regime had been guilty systematic ill treatment and even torture of politi in violation of art. 3 of the Counc which requires each member state to acc( the "principles of the rule of law" and to guaram "the enjoyment by all persons within its jurisdicti of human rights and fundamental freedoms." Gref withdrew when it became apparent that a major of the Council members, led by Britain, would vi to expel it. The decision to expel had been made

prisoners, statute,

i

spite a thinly veiled diplomatic effort

by

the U.S.

maintain Greek membership because of the possi adverse effects expulsion might have on NATO.

that,

states

pesticides.

the (i^ouncil had been reduced

(A. J. See also

ments and

Policies; Defense; France; F Reserves, International; Trade, Internatioi

Commercial

NaMonal and International

Selected Major Country and date

and Shows

lirs

tinued to

fairs and shows in 1970 grow on an unprecedented scale. Attend-

and revenues were generally higher in all sectors this multibillion-dollar industry. Fairs open to the eral public, numbering over 14,000 worldwide, ate

an estimated one billion persons, while some trade and commercial fairs accounted for an ad-

:ted

1;

'i

)

ii

'onal

42 million visitors. Over two billion persons

more than 16,500 amusement parks, aquarIS, zoos, and similar tourist attractions. Revenues m admissions, rides, and shows were generally her, but food and beverage income at parks and ;ked to

;|

:

Expo 70

at

Osaka, Jap.,

world's fair on the Asian continent.

The

183

be closed on several occasions to panic among the surging crowds. Sanctioned to

Bureau of International Expositions as a firstef,'ory universal exhibition. Expo 70 had begun inspiciously. At first only a few foreign nations reinded to Japanese Prime Minister Eisaku Sato's ration to participate, and the advance ticket sale short of expectations. Despite this slow start,

far

exhibit space was filled by opening day, word-of-mouth praise attracted unprecedented

'.vrver, all

d

Fair,

Vienna

260,000 340,000

Ghent

550,000

840,000

Exhibition, Toronto

Pacific National Exhibition,

Quebec

3,171,000 1,167,030 583,637

Vancouver, B,C.

Quebec

Provinciale Exhibition,

International Trade Fair, Bogota

260,000

16th International Cyprus Fair, Nicosia

2,250,000

international Trade Fair, Brno

1,225,000

International Fair of

El

Salvador, Son Salvador

800,000

Internotionol Trade Fair, Helsinki

200,000

France

gates

1

Canadian National

Sept. 24-Oct. 5

the

'

Graz

26fh International Trade Fair, Sofia

Aug. 20-Sept. 2 Aug. 22-Sept. 2 Sept. 3-13 Colombia July 10-26 Cyprus Sept. 4-27 Czechoslovokia Sept. 5-14 E! Salvador Nov. 7-29

e

lid

300,000

Fair,

Canada

a

had

International Trade Foir,

20-29

Sept.

days (March 15 to September set an attendance record of 64,218,770, as well new record for one day, 835,832 on September 5.

I,

International

Autumn Trade Autumn Trade

Bulgaria

Sept. 30-Oct.

I

Show, Claremont

International

Sept. 12-27

Germany, East Morch 1-10 Germony, West

ran for

Perth Royal

1

Belgium

fair,

ich

f

Sept. 24-Od. Austria Oct. 3-11 Oct. 6-13

Sept. 17-27

The focal event of 1970 was first

Attendance

Finland

slipped marginally.

rs

1970

Australia

spite spiraling inflation,

]

Fairs,

Event and place

International Trade Fair, Marseilles International Trode Fair, Metz

1

1,620,000 1,400,000

International Spring Fair, Leipzig

590,000

German Industries Fair, Berlin 17th German Camping Exhibition,

Sept. 18-27

April 4-12 Sept. 11-21

800,000 370,000 510,000

Essen 44th Internotionol Auto Show, Fronkfurt

Greece 6-26

Sept.

International Trode Foir, Thessoloniki

1,300,000

Hlungary

May

22-Jone

1

Iraq Oct. 1-30

Internotionol Trode Fair, Budapest

700,000

Baghdad

550,000

International Trade Fair,

Israel

June 2-16

International Trade Fair, Tel Aviv

200,000

Sept. 10-23

34th Internotionol Levante Trade Foir, Bori

May May

Infernofional Mediterranean Fair, Palermo, Sicily Internotionol Trade Fair, Bologna

550,000 406,000 270,000 360,000

Italy

23- June 7 16-31

June 21-July 5

22nd International Trade

Fair, Trieste

Japan

March 15-Sept. 13

Expo 70 world's

fair,

Osaka

64,218,770

Kenya

rongs.

Sept. 29-Cct. 3

US

Over

pavilions of every description dotted the

:turesque fair site, nestled ar

among

the Shenri Hills

Osaka. All were demolished or disassembled at of the fair except the Japan pavilion, the

e close

panese Gardens, the Steel Pavilion, the Japan Folk

and the Expo Museum of ne Arts, which were retained as permanent fixtures, oving sidewalks and assorted vehicles were used to ove visitors around the fairgrounds to the exhibits, ternational shops, novelty stands, rides, and the

Museum, Expo

'afts

ore

than

146

Hall,

restaurants.

A

jet-powered

roller

was an especially popular attraction. The fair's ficial emblem was a stylized cherry blossom. (See RCHITECTURE.) Philadelphia was selected as the site of a proposed L.5 billion exposition designed as a showcase for le 200th anniversary of U.S. independence in 1976. alf of the cost would be borne by the federal governtent and the balance was to come from city, state, id private sources. The American Revolution Bimtennial Commission, which made the final selecon. had also considered applications from Boston and 'ashington, D.C. aster

International Trade Fairs. Stringent policies aplied

by

many governments

in

an

effort to

stem

infla-

onary pressures, did not appear to hinder the vigorus growth of the world's trade and commercial fairs, 'ver lirs

ibit

75%

of the estimated 820 international trade

held in 76 countries reported sharp gains in ex-

space

demands and buyer

registrations.

West

ierman fairs closed the year with record-breaking reas did those held in France, Italy, Great Britain, nd Belgium. All exhibition facilities were booked to

ults,

and several countries announced the contruction of new exposition halls and convention cenres. Among the special and general category comapacity,

nercial fairs reporting excellent

business during the

Internotionol Agricultural Show, Nairobi

110,000

13th Annuol That Luang Fair, Vientione

400,000

Loos

October

Mozambique

Moy 30-June 14 Netherlands Oct. 2-13 New Zealand

Agricultural, Commercial,

Morch 13-31 Norv/oy Aug. 19-30 Polond June 14-23

and

Industrial Fair,

Lourengo Marques

350,000

Holidays, Travel, ond Flower Exhibition, Rotterdom

340,000

Easter Show, Aucklond

600,000

North Sea

240,000

Fair, Kristionsund

International Trade Fair, Poznon

800,000

11th international Trode Fair, Lisbon

690,000

Portugal

June 9-23

Romania Oct. 13-25 South Africa Morch 23-April 6 Spain July 1-12

International Trade Fair, Bucharest

450,000

Rand Easter Show, Johannesburg 1

Samples Fair, Bitboo 48th Internotionol Samples Fair, Valencia 30th Notional Samples Fair, Saragosso 5th internotionol

Moy 4-17 Oct. 3-18

,200,000

300,000 450,000 310,000

Sweden

Moy

9-18

53rd internationol Trade

Swilzerlond April 11-21 Sept. 12-27 Syria Aug, 25-Sepl. 20

Goteborg

Fair,

200,000

54th Swiss Industries Fair, Basel Swiss Autumn Fair, Lausanne 17th Internationol Trode Foir,

1,100,000 280,000

Damascus

1,260,000

Tanzania

Sobo Sobo

July

Turkey Aug, 20-Sept. 20

International Trade Fair,

Dor

es

Soloam

39th International Trade Fair, Izmir

700,000 2,400,000

U.S.S.R.

Internationol Chemistry

Sept. 10-24

Exhibition,

U. A.

Industriol Construction

in

and Agricultural

312,000

Moscow

R.

International Trade Fair, Coiro

October

340,000

United Kingdom Internotionol Trode Fair, Brighton Aviation Exhibition and Flying Display, Fornborough Internationol Motor Exhibition, London

Sept. 5-12 Sept. 7-13

Oct, 14-24 United Slates

Aug, Aug. Aug. Aug,

West

14-23 22-30 7-15

Missouri Stole Fair, Sedalla

29-Sept. 7

Oregon

Wisconsin Sfote Allentown

Fair,

Allls

Foir, Po,

State Fair,

Salem

Sept. 1-7

New

York State

Fair,

Aug. 27-Sept. 7 Aug, 29-Sept, 7 Aug, 26-Sept, 7 Oct, 10-25

Ohio

Stote Fair,

Columbus

Sept, 25-Ocl. 3

Mid-South Fair, Memphis, Tenn.

Uruguoy Feb, 10-March

Minnesota State Foir,

Pool Indiana Stote Foir, Indianapolis

State Fair of Texas, Dollos

Industrial Fair,

31

Yugoslovia April 18-26 Sept, 10-20 Source: Frederick

Syracuse St,

Montevideo

International Spring Fair, Zagreb International Fall Foir, Zogreb P,

Pittera, Fairs ol the

World

(1970).

150,000 1,000,000 600,000 639,162 352,000 639,162 420,519 601,478 2,219,170 1,332,734 1,009,426 3,022,495 684,245 310,000 1,300,000 2,000,000

year were the International Hardware Trade Fair, London; the International Trade Fair, Casablanca,

Mor.; the International Levante Trade Fair, Bari, and the Milan (Italy) Samples Fair. The num-

Italy;

ber

U.S.

of

Commerce-sponsored

Department of

trade fair centres overseas rose to 300 in 1970; the first

such centre had been opened in London on June

26, 1061.

American fairs rose Over 115 million persons of the 3,200 U.S. and 800 Cana-

Fairs. Attendance at Nortl-

more than 1.5% in visited one or more

1970.

dian fairs, and an additional 94 million were attracted to events held at fairground facilities during the off-

Most

season.

of the approximately 200 larger fairs

enjoyed good weather and

55%

of

them reported sub-

increases in attendance, but

stantial

many

of

the

smaller U.S. county and Canadian district fairs experi-

from North and provincial fairs were estimated at well over $200 million. With frontgate admissions generally higher, U.S. and Canadian fairs spent an estimated $23 million for live talent, largely for free grandstand shows. European fairs also raised gate admissions, but Asian and Latin-American enced

declines.

American

Total

gross

revenues

state, county, district,

lower prices. Canada's National Exhibition at Toronto continued to lead the North American continent in attendance in 1970. although it did not draw as well as in the previous season. Some 3,171,000 persons visited the Tofairs held to

ronto of

fair,

Texas

while at

its

3.022.495 visitors.

its

biggest year with

Moving into third position was Columbus with 2,219,170. Other

general public fairs reaching or surpassing the one-

mark were

million

the Minnesota State Fair, St. Paul;

the Pacific National Exhibition, Vancouver, B.C.; the

Indiana State Fair, Indianapolis; and the Royal Easter

Show, Sydney, Austr.

Some

50 million persons attended the more than

and wholesale industrial shows held in and Canada. Over $2.5 billion was spent by exhibitors to display their products and services at these events. At year's end an estimated $30 billion had been earmarked for new convention and exhibition facilities around the world, including over $8 billion in the U.S. and Canada. Boat and automobile shows continued to lead in attendance and sales, followed by sports, camping and recreational equipment, and home furnishing shows. Amusement Parks. The world's more than 17,000 fun and recreation parks again emerged as the leaders among public attractions, in terms of both money and attendance. Over two billion adults and children patronized these facilities in 1970. In North America alone, 450 million persons visited over 2.000 parks, zoos, aquariums, and similar tourist attractions, spending an estimated $920 million. More than $70 million was invested in new equipment by U.S. and Canadian recreation parks, an increase of almost $19 million over 1969. Asia's kiddielands and fun parks had 260,000

retail

the U.S.

their best season during the year, with better-than-

from Toshimaen Park, Tokyo; Lai Chi Kok Park, Hong Kong; and Wonderland Park, Singapore. In Sweden's fun parks more dance bands were engaged in an effort to attract average

business

•

(

!i

I

i^'i'M

PlCTQRUl PARA

^

closest contender, the State Fair

Dallas, reported

Ohio's State Fair at

i

The 1970 Boat Show at Earls Court, London, opened Jan. 7, 197( It was organized by the Ship and Boat Builders' National Federation and was sponsored by the "Daily Express."

reported

\-ounger crowds.

Carnivals, Rodeos,

and Circuses. The

carnival

than $452 million during 1970.

Most

units show&l

25% in revenues. However, highei and equipment were reflected in lower profit ratio than in previous years. Ride price were generally higher than in 1969. European carnivaKi also reported generally good business; the number oj units rose by an estimated 10%, bringing the tota' on the continent to approximately 1,500 carnivals ancj 700 independent and show operators. The highes' grosser among carnival and midway operators for f; single engagement was the Conklin Shows unit at Canada's National Exhibition, Toronto, which grossea gains of from 17 to costs for labour

;j

nearly $2 million in 19 days. Its founder, J. W.Conklin, died on Nov. 8, 1970. More than 4,000 rodeo performers in the U.S. and

Canada competed for -over $5 million in prize money more than 3,300 sanctioned and nonsanctioned

at

events in 1970.

A new

prize-money record of $96,245

Houston (Tex.) Rodeo (February 27 to March 8). Previous efforts to promote rodeos in Europe had not been successful, but eachwas established

at the

year new attempts were made. The International Western Rodeo Association, which spent $1.5 million in 1970 to produce 200 rodeo performances in France, Switzerland, the Netherlands,

West Germany,

Austria,

and Belgium, obtained only passive acceptance. Bloodless bullfights appeared here and there in North America, but the response was only fair. While the Florida legislature passed a special law legalizing such bullfights in that state, some other states banned these events altogether.

Over 660

circuses

were active throughout the world

with the major units reporting their best season; gains ranged from 15 to 19% over 1969, and some units indicated increases of up to 30%. Indoor

in 1970,

events showed higher revenues than tented shows. Atayde Bros. Circus (Mexico), Fossett Circus (Ire-

Knie (Switzerland), Hamid-Morton and England's Chipperfield Circus all reported more bookings and capacity business on their

industry in North America, comprising approximately

land),

410 carnivals, 265 independent show and ride opera•ors, and over 2,000 concessionaires, grossed more

(U.S.),

Circus

i

Mattel Inc., a toy-making concern, announced agreement in principle to buy Ringling Bros.rnum & Bailey Combined Shows, Inc., which had

among

irs.

junior department,

expanded its activities to include two music companies and a record company. The ckey-playing bears of the Moscow Circus on Ice

female employees to wear midis after August, and clerks were carefully instructed on how to overcome customer hesitancy. For whatever combination of reasons, the result was massive resistance. Midi coats sold reasonably well, possibly because

jviously

blishing

peared in the U.S. for the

time.

first

Livestock and Horse Shows. Thousands of live)ck shows were held during the year, either as indiJual shows or in conjunction with agricultural and

shows and fairs. The world's great livestock ows reported an increase of over 20% in animal enes and a 15% rise in average gross sales. Some of a larger shows, such as Denver's National Western ock Show, featured as many as 20,000 animal enies. The Royal Show at Trumpington near Cam-

urged

if

at

all.

Bonwit's,

reporting deep trouble in the fashion industry.

The

final

verdict

would not be known for many until after the midi had turned

months, certainly not

up

in the after-Christmas sales.

Some

observers

felt

iuntries.

would be a new "conservative" length just below the knee. Many stores, compromising between high fashion and sales, seemed willing to settle for that, and they received backing from the Italians who, at the Samia Trade Fair in Turin in September, showed dresses at that length as well as at mid-calf. Nevertheless, the midi predominated in Seventh Avenue's spring lines. Its advocates, arguing from history, pointed out that it was already

jrg

well established

celebrated

Eng.,

121st year.

its

Approximately 800 events w^ere sanctioned by the merican Horse Shows Association in North America, hile over 4,000 nonsanctioned shows were held in le U.S. and Canada and an estimated 13,000 in other

The Pennsylvania Farm Show at Harrisand the show held in conjunction with the New ork State Fair at Syracuse drew a record number (F. P. P.)

entries.

f

See also Art Exhibitions.

that the end result

and Dress

he

official

demise of the mini-length hemline was

ecreed by fashion designers in 1970. Paris, London, lunich,

Rome, Turin, and

—more

reluctantly

— New

voted in their spring and fall shows for i.i,'ths that varied from just below the knee to anklejong. In Europe it was the midi or mid-calf length •irk

'hat

had

all

emerged

itable

the

in

hemline.

fall

as the

The maxi

more generally

ac-

or ankle length had been

by a minority of younger fashion extremists n the winter of 1969-70 and, in London particularly, me saw the sorry sight of young women battling with he mud-clotted hems of long coats the ungraciousipted

i

—

less

jn

of which augured

ill

iwing urge for longer skirts. re

way hindered

One

the

Paris department

reported that midis were outselling minis by a of three to one.

In the U.S. the

outcome was more dubious. "Stop

greeted Christian Dior's

men

hems

in his fall collection.

For evening wear there was no equivocation in the matter of hemlines. From as early as 1969 everything was down to the ground wide silk culottes, full-skirted gypsy dresses in ultrasoft materials, full sleeves, soft sashes, long scarves. "Everything is frail and everything floats," reported a London fashion editor. Reporting from Rome in the International Herald Tribune, Leonora Dodsworth said of Capucci's spring 1970 collection, "The evening dresses posi-

—

tively dripped with nostalgia."

The

hemline

controversy

involved

more

than

adjustment was needed in the shape of clothes. Jackets were radically shortened: the prototype suit launched by Dior in the fall showed a

length;

This Cossack style outfit and white evening smoking dress are part of Manstyle International a

midi" campaigns and protest marches were rem.ii.iscent of the (unsuccessful) resistance that had ably,

fashion leaders and, in the end,

for the incoming trend. This

fortunate start, however, in no

io

among

mass of women had always followed. The U.S., in fact, had been last to adopt the mini. For those who still championed the mini, a last bastion of support fell when its inventor, Andre Courreges, showed the

midi-length

-ashion

Fashion and Dress

they could be rationalized as "practical," but the response to other midi-length garments was so poor that by early October the Wall Street Journal was

iry

idge.

323

others,

its

New Look

in 1947. Predict-

71,

collection

in

of fashions lerylene and crimplene

for

men shown

at London's

Piccadilly Hotel

March 17, 1970. UPl

COMPIX

voiced strong objections to the disappear-

tance of sightly legs.

There were, however, more subwhich American

stantial reasons for the hesitancy with

women approached

the

new

length.

The pinch

of in-

and business recession made the purchase of whole new wardrobe impractical for the vast ma-

flation

a

women. The militancy of the women's liberamovement many of whose advocates, indeed, had made the freedom of the mini part of their credo jority of tion

—

—accorded poorly with the inhibiting skirts. Finally,

effect of longer

warm

autufnn permitted women clothes far longer than usual, put-

a long,

wear summer day when a choice had to be made. Women's Wear Daily, which publisher John Fairchild had made into the arbiter of U.S. fashion, staked its reputation on the "longuette" (although some felt that its hard-sell approach created more resentment than acceptance). Most of the higher-priced women's

to

ting off the

stores followed

its

lead, stocking minis only in the

Falkland Islands: 5" Dependent States

Farming: see

Agriculture

spencer-short jacket cropped to the waist.

A

higb.

waisted effect was given by broad leather belting a a small, natural waistline, by high-placed patch pock

and by high and important collars. When, in tht coats began to be worn, it was clear that herf' was the most successful image of the new look.i

ets,

fall,

close-fitting, small at the top, double-breasted, firmlji

new

belted at the waist, the

coats flared softly

—

bu,|

welcome imi provement on the dreary, bedraggled maxi. The capr^ staged a dramatic comeback in most of the fall col-j lections and was heralded as the practical cover-uf] for all hem lengths. Dramatized accessories were seer^ as an essential adjunct to the longer skirt line, whichj unless worn with a dash, risked the stigma of dowdiness. Shoulder bags, flowing scarves, wide and offer without

exaggeration

mid-calf

to

a

clumsy-looking leather belts, dashing boots, exotic, jewelry, bolder patterned fabrics were all called on tc ward off the inherent menace.

The was

overall result of these various development;

a precious, covered-up, essentially feminine lool

was accentuated swathed headgear of that

in

the winter

all

kinds

bonnets, snoods, caps, and, above covering, long-haired fur hats,

by

close-fitting

—helmets,

cloches.:

head-and-eai-

all,

from under which

the.

face emerged, small, fragile, feminine. Boots, which:

continued to be worn, were given a lighter, more,! by the adoption of 5-cm. (2-in.) heelsj

graceful look

In an interview with a Boston paper, signer Giorgio di Sant'Angelo

New York

summed up

de-

the new

feminine look in fashion with a happy alliteration Left, a maxiskirt from Ungaro features a slash to mid-thigh. Above, a metallic gold lace evening dress is from the first

London's Yugoslav-born Franl(a. BelovK, a miniskirted young lady

collection of

considers the effect of a midiskirt, fashion's most visible controversy in 1970.

:-

"Exit the too tailored look, enter the frilly, fanciful., feminine female." And he added, "My things won't'

woman

stand up without a

inside them."

favourite fabric of the designers was jerseywool, silk, rayon, nylon. Jersey was reported to have

The

accounted for

60%

of the French ready-to-wear

col-

Yves St. Laurent voted jersey "a wonderfully modern material." Fabric priorities listed in the fall by the Paris-based International Fashion Office (International Wool Secretariat) put broadcloth and

lections.

I'

jersey (particularly jacquard jersey) in the lead,

fol-^

lowed by broadcloth and jersey reversibles, featherweight woolens, and tweed. Crepe and chiffon were favourite listed

warm

for

materials

by the

office

tones, black

later

in

the

day.

Colours

were smoky grays, muted

—

fully in line with the

tones,

a sophisticated range that was^

new

elegance.

While reaction against constructed clothes and

firm

materials, as seen in the closing years of the 1960s, was basically responsible for the softness and femininity of 1970 styles, the influence of the hippie moveout. The exotic prints with

ment could not be ruled their

melee of colours, the jacquard and patchwork

effects,

the

general

look

of

casual

softness

with

swathed heads and flowing draperies, peasant, gypsy,and "granny" looks, the bright wool ponchos worn, by younger women, the vogue for fantastic and often garish jewelry, the long hair— all could be traced to the hippie syndrome. By 1970 the trousered leg was "establishment." In the U.S., especially, it provided a refuge for women

unwilling to take a stand on skirt length, and news-

papers duly reported its acceptance as suitable attire for female employees by one conservative firm after another. The final accolade of respectability was given at the Ascot race meeting in England where, for the

first

time,

women were

admitted

to the

Royal

Enclosure wearing trouser suits. A new trouser formula, and one that was in line with the midi hem-

1

came with knickerbocker

;,

suits,

plus fours, and

cho pants.

{

1

I

i

(

of

ued to go hatless, while their daughters

still

ary, pupils 11,995; vocational, pupils 859; teacher training, students 294; teachers, all grades (1967) 3,588; higher (medical school), students 213. The University of the South Pacific at Suva opened in 1968;

students 260, teaching staff

=

Foreign

more feminine

;nt for

fa-

styles, trend-

His models

first

d halter outfits with er in the

show they stripped

|inds off

how we look and

to the skin. "This,"

—

it

take

will

our

enable us to concentrate

more important matters." Denouncing the new

I

Tiinine look as unsuitable for

modern

life,

F$68,402,000;

2,316 km. Railways (private only; 1968) 710 km. Shipping (1969): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 18; gross tonnage 6,280. Ships entered (1968): vessels totaling 1,880,000 net registered tons; goods loaded 544,000 metric tons, unloaded 482.000 metric tons. Telephones (Dec. 1968) 14,507. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) 40,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1967; 1966 in parentheses): sweet potatoes c. 8 (c. 13); cassava c. 80 (c. 80); sugar, raw value (1969-70) c. 304, (1968-69) 400: copra 2 5 (26); bananas (exports) 1 (4). Livestock (in 000; Sept. 1968): horses 25: pigs 24; cattle (Sept. 1967) c. 155. Industry. Production (in 000; 1968): cement 51 metric tons; gold 107 troy oz.; electricity 132,000 kw-hr.

appeared in identical slacks head and eyebrows shaved,

Rudi, "will simplify things

id

Imports

Transport and Communications. Roads (1968)

the '70s" that prophesied fewer clothes for

d for ever>'body "a total unisex look through bold5S."

(1968)

:

young, more and voluminous clothes for the old,

a

Trade.

exports F$49,l 18,000. Import sources: Australia 26%; U.K. 21%; Japan 15%; New Zealand 9%; U.S. 5%. Export destinations U.K. 38%; U.S. 14%: .\u5tralia Xew Zealand 5%. Main exports: 11%; Canada sugar 64%; coconut products 13%; gold 9%. Tourism (1968): visitors 66,500; gross receipts (1967) U.S. $12.6 million.

Rudi Gernreich of California made a "state-

ter

2 7.

Finance. Monetary unit: Fiji dollar, with a par value of F$0.87 to U.S. $1 (FS2.09 £1 sterling). Budget (1969 est.): revenue F$63,430,000; expenditure F$64,2 71,000.

ured floppy hats.

Despite the return to

Finland

FIJI Education. (1968) Primary, pupils 110.912; second-

young girls continued to wear ir hair long and loose from a centre parting, and straighter it was the better it suited the prevailtaste. Chignons with loose tendrils of hair on ler side of the face, "a la Ingres," were often n on formal occasions. Hair styling for older men was, on the whole, short, disciplined, unrerkable. The effort in 1969 to bring in waving and ris had met with httle response. Older women conThe majority

Gernreich

one of the few major designers to show funcmally designed, mini-length clothes in the fall. Anher designer retaining the mini was Yves St. Laurent, i~

J

'ho showed a spring boutique collection in a range of

from micro-mini to maxi. "Length," said St. no longer important. What is wonderful he freedom to choose one's length." With fa.shion in the balance, 1969-70 was a parilarly difficult time for industries that had to look the ready-toji far as 18 months ahead in styling: ear industry, lingerie, hosiery, and allied trades, and .'ths,

irent, "is

i

'

J

1^

wear.

Was

the longer hemline here

a flash in the

it

ontinue or would

had

cots

iutionary

to

stay or

pan? Would the vogue for tights women revert to stockings? Had

day? There had not been such a revchange in the wind of fashion since

their

lourreges launched the miniskirt

irt

1965. (P.

W. He.)

1

final stages of decolonization.

After meetings

was reached

Suva and London, an agreement

in

to leave the thorny question of future

which two or three years. Interim arrangements for the next election, due in October 1971, included equal representation in a lower house for Fijians (41.58% of the population and owners of 84% of the land) and Indians (50.12% of the population and the principal land users) and a complicated system of communal and cross voting. Provisions for the composition of a nominated upper house and for amending the constitution protected the electoral representation to a royal commission,

was expected

to

reach a decision

special interests of the Fijians.

-iji \

compromise. Awareness of Britain's anxiety to withdraw its commitments east of Suez, combined with a new spirit of confidence, had accelerated the to

in

(My.

B. B.)

independent parliamentary

ite

and member of the Com-

Finland

nonwealth of Nations, Fiji is iri island group in the South icific Ocean, about 2,000 mi.

The republic of Finland is bordered on the north by Norway, on the west by Sweden and the Gulf of Both-

'

I of Australia

and 3,200 mi.

two major islands, Viti Levu M.OlO sq.mi.) and Vanua Levu C2,137 sq.mi,), and several hundred smaller islands. Pop. C1970 est.): 526,765. Cap. and largest city: Suva Cpop., 1970 est., 61,000). Language: English, Fijian, and Hindi. Religion: Christian and Hindu. Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1970, Sir Robert Foster; prime minister, Ratu Sir Kamisese ^Mara. 10, exactly

96 years after the Deed of

Cession to Great Britain, Fiji became the fourth new ministate in the South Pacific and the 30th member 27th

east

:

Commonwealth. Three days

member

of the

UN.

later

it

became the

Fencing: sec Sporting Record Festivals: sec

—

government broadly enough based to avoid open conflict over price and wage issues were dramatically illustrated by the outcome of the general coalition

election of

March

15-16.

—

The

Socialists' parliamen-

Constitutional preparations

tary majority of 103-97 changed into a non-Socialist

for independence during the previous year had been marked by the willingness of the Fijian-based Alliance Party and the Indian-based National Federation Party

majority of 112-88, and the five-party Popular Front government headed by Mauno Koivisto promptly

1

Feed Grains:

uc Agriculture

15, Ahti Karjalainen.

In 1970 the essential problems of forming a stable

On October

of the

on the south by the Gulf of Finland, and on the by the U.S.S.R. Area: 130,128 sq.mi. (337,032 sq.km.). Pop. (1970 est.) 4,695,118. Cap. and largest city: Helsinki (pop., 1970 est., 531,425). Language (I960): Finnish 92.4%; Swedish 7.4%. Religion: Lutheran 91.7%; Orthodox 1.6%. President in 1970, Urho Kaleva Kekkonen; prime ministers, Mauno Koivisto, Teuvo Aura from May 14, and, from July

nia,

5 of Hawaii. Area: 7,707 sq.mi. Cl8, 314 sq.km.), with

resigned.

On May

14, after fruitless efforts to

assem-

Cinema; Music

Fibres: sec Agriculture; Industrial Review Field Hockey: sec

Hockey

Finance,

International:

Development, Economic; Economy, World; Money and

sec

Banking; Payments and Reserves, International

new coalition that would reflect the evident swing away from the Socialists, the Koivisto government was succeeded by a caretaker government of civil servants with Teuvo Aura, mayor of Helsinki, as prime minister. This in turn was succeeded in July by another five-party coalition, broadly similar to Koivisto's, under 47-year-old Ahti Karjalainen {see ble a

was an emotional upsurge containing element! anti-Communism. Most voters were reacting agains

tions,

of

the extension in recent years of the influence exert&

by young

Socialists through the mass media. As prej sented to television and radio audiences, their radica. opinions seemed one-sided, which offended the Finn

The Conservatives'

sense of fair play.

ish

came

victor,

as no surprise. Increased support fo

Biography).

therefore

The new Cabinet included five Social Democrats, members of the Centre Party, three Communists, two members of the Swedish Party, one of the Liberal Party, and two nonpolitical ministers (one of them close to the Centre Party). It had the support of 144 members of Parliament, with the possible exception

had also been expected, al^ though few people with the possible exception of th party's leader, Veikko Vennamo could have foreseei that its parliamentary strength would jump from seat to 18. Vennamo had been able to stir up thi grievances of small farmers and low-income groups To prominent Finns and the Soviet press alike, ht

four

of a few non-Socialist dissenters on controversial sues. After the

March

is-

election the party strength of

each group was: Social Democrats 51 (55 in the 1966 election); Conservatives 37 (26); Centre Party 37 (50); People's Democratic League (Communists) 36 (42); Rural Party 18 (1); Swedish Party 12 (12); Liberal Party 8 (8); and Christian League 1 (0).

The Radical Sociahst League, which won

6 seats in

1966, was wiped out.

had been generally had been defeated at the 1968 municipal elections and lost further ground in 1970. The primary cause of their reverses, at a time when expanding trade and industrial activity

The

clear non-Socialist majority

expected.

The

Socialist groups

placed Finland ISth

among

the world's richest na-

FINLAND Education. (1967-68) Primary, pupils 422,584, teach(full time) 18,531; secondary, pupils 375,549, teachers 19,681; vocational, pupils 96,604, teachers 8,696; teacher training, students 2,177, teachers 381; higher (including 7 universities), students 51,775, teaching stalT 5,023. Finance. Monetary unit: markka, with a par value of 4.20 markkaa to U.S. $1 (10.08 markkaa £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1970) U.S. $359.6 million; (June 1969) U.S. $253.3 million. Budget (1970 est.) balanced at 10,209,000,000 markkaa. Gross national product: (1968) 33,640,000,000 markkaa; (1967) 29.9 billion markkaa. Money supply: (June 1970) 3,62 7,000,000

ers

-

markkaa; (June 1969) 2,731,000,000 markkaa. Cost

living (1963 = 100): (June 1970) 144; (June 1969) 141. Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports 8,495,000,000 markkaa; exports 8,336,000,000 markkaa. Import sources: West Germany 16%; Sweden 15%; U.K. 13%; U.S.S.R. 13%; U.S. 5%. Export destinations: U.K. 18%; U.S.S.R. 14%; Sweden 13%; West Germany 10%; U.S. 6%. Main exports: paper 28%; timber 17%; wood pulp 13%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1969) 71,870 km. (including 108 km. expressways). Motor vehicles in use (1969): passenger 643,057; commercial 101,778. Railways (1968): state 5,725 km.; private 29 km.; traffic 2,201,000,000 passenger-km., freight (1969) 6,027,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1969): 587 million passenger-km.; freight 13,450,000 net tonkm. Navigable inland waterways (1967) c. 6,600 km. Shipping (1969): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 388; gross tonnage 1,330.488. Telephones (Dec. 1968) 1,009,336. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) 1,727,000. Television receivers (Dec, 1968) 927,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969; 1968 in parentheses): wheat 520 (516); rye 141 (134); barley 855 (7 18); oats 1,146 (1,064); potatoes 1,029 (908); sugar, raw value (1969-70) c. 55, (1968-69) c. 49; butter 101 (102); timber (cu.m.; 1968) 42,400, (1967) 41.100; fish catch (1968) 93, (1967) 74. Livestock (in 000; June 1969): cattle of

2,153;

sheep

168;

pigs

792;

horses

111;

chickens

7,797.

Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969): iron ore (66% metal content) 588; pig iron 1,231; crude steel 907; copper 34; cement 1,7 59; plywood (cu.m,; 1967) 574; cellulose (1967) 4,083; mechanical wood pulp (1968) 1,748; chemical wood pulp (1968) 4,202; newsprint 1,297; other paper and board (1968) 2,383; electricity (kw-hr.) 19,936,000; manufactured gas (cu.m.) 67,000.

the small Rural Party

—

and

—

his followers represented a

movement

incompati

ble with Finland's neutrality.

economic policy the new government followei program of previous years, involvinj cautious price and wage increases. In September however, the Communists advocated a departure fron it that seemed likely to jeopardize a national solutioi of labour problems. In February the persistent dis unity of the Communist Party led its "Stalinist" minority to approach the party's two governing bodies the Central Committee and PoHtburo. Although th( majority leader, Aarne Saarinen, remained part) In

its

the stabilization

chairman, the "Stalinist" leader, Taisto Sinisalo, became second deputy chairman, while his group ob tained IS of the 35 seats on the Central Committee and 6 of the 16 in the Politburo. This internal spill was seen as contributing to the Communist setback in the general election.

In 1970 Finland, which in to sign the treaty creating a

(Nordek), declared at

lationship

it

hoped

compatible

nol

Nordic customs union

readiness to enter into talks

its

the ministerial level with

with which

March had decided

members

to negotiate a

with

its

of the

EEC.

commercial

neutrality.

re-

Foreign

trade showed an increasing concentration on Western European markets, with the EEC and EFTA accounting for more than 67% of both imports and exports. The foreign trade deficit for the first eight months of 1970 was 557 million markkaa, against one of 151.6 million markkaa in the same period of 1969. Throughout the year the proposition of a European security conference was kept in the forefront of Finnish diplomacy. The question was discussed during President Kekkonen's official visits to Moscow and Washington in July. In Moscow Kekkonen agreed to

a

20-year extension

of

the

Soviet-Finnish

friendship pact originally signed in 1948.

mutual

(C. F. Sa.)

Fisheries Large trawlers and purse seiners were built only on a limited scale during 1970, and the year appeared to be dominated by shrimp, for which the U.S. market continued to be insatiable. French, Polish, and Spanish shipyards shared large shrimp boat orders for the Middle East, Cuba, and South America, and expansion of the Mexican and U.S. fleets showed no sign of slackening. With Greenland, Iceland, and Norway also active in the Northern Hemisphere, and Australia and Southeast Asia in the Southern, shrimp catching was worldwide, suggesting the desirability of a close watch on stocks. A number of nations, especially Japan, continued to experiment with the artificial

cultivation of suitable species.

was also a

[t

boom

year for scallops.

A

200-mi.

was the first nmercial bed to be charted by submarine the submersible "Aluminaut." For the first time 5. .Hops were shucked and processed on board by of the

i

calico variety off Florida

—

chanized equipment. In northwest Scotland, disof a 45-mi. bed of large scallops and the smaller

v'ery

ueens" (similar to the calico scallop) led to the :ing

out of a 300-boat

fleet.

U.S. shrimp and scallop was not shared by other American fleets.

'The prosperity of heries

the

)vernment subsidies did little to stimulate investby owners, for some of whom nothing short

ent

major injection of capital could be effective, two new freezer factory trawlers, "Seafreeze Jantic" and "Seafreeze Pacific," were not outstanda

le

gly successful. U.S. fisheries research also suffered

om a major cutback 'rm cost-effective

favouring the retention of short-

work

at the

expense of long-term

tort.

In the U.K. building of middle-distance trawlers as le

almost at a standstill because of uncertainty about

number of Most of these

best t>'pe of replacement for the large

de trawlers approaching obsolescence.

been constructed during the building boom of the te 1950s, with the result that much of the fleet ould be due for replacement over a short period,

id

ollowing the loss at sea of three U.K. trawlers in

week sued by

ie

in 1968.

new

safety recommendations were

committee under Rear Adm. Sir Holland related to improved staility and higher bulwarks on side trawlers. The continuing depression in the Icelandic and Xore^'ian herring purse seine fleet was alleviated some.'hat by alternative catches of capelin and mackerel, /hich helped to keep the fish-meal plants supplied, "here was, however, a marked swing from the speialized purse seiner back to the whitefish stern a

I

'fartin.

r

vvler,

The most sweeping

capable also of taking pelagic fish

— with

—especially

midwater trawl, using the sysem developed by the Germans and French. This in'olved a greater dependence on netzsonde, an echo lerring

the big

NATIONAL FILM BOARD OF CANADA

sounder mounted on the trawl, which enabled the skipper to "see" above and below his net and to set its depth accurately. The method also enabled a pelagic trawl to be skimmed above the bottom to take cod and haddock that were too high for the ground trawl. So important had this system become that it was made the subject of a special UN Food and Agriculture Organization conference in Reykjavik, Ice. The world fish-meal market, still dominated by Peru, was marked by lower stocks, higher prices, and

some uncertainty, the higher prices

the last resulting from fear that would encourage users to increase

the proportion of soy flour in their formula feeds.

A

small cloud on the horizon was the possibility of

production of protein, for example from raw petroleum. Two British scientists put forward the

artificial

theoretical possibility of increasing the use of fish meal to feed pigs

and poultry as an indirect means of obform easier to handle than fresh

taining protein in a fish.

They named

several species

that w'ere under-

Sardine fishermen utilize a special trap In

off

Passamaquoddy Bay

New

Brunswick. Fishing

and other industries are attempting to revive the economy of this once prosperous province.

Table

I.

Whaling: 1968-69 Season

Number

Area and country

of whales caught

Blue

Fin

Humpback

Sei

whale

whale

whale

whale

Percentage assigned under quota agreeOthers ment*

Sperm whale

Antarctic; pelagic (open sea)

Japan

3,495

1,821

Norway 1,199 3,020 3,113

U.S.S.R,

Total

Outside the Antarcticf Note:

No

5,776 6,603

2

whaling operations from South Georgia during the

1

18

?,682 2,682 21,512

2,281

... ...

47 23 30

60 335

968-69 season.

•Antarctic only.

tl967-68. Source: Committee for Whaling Statistics, International Whaling

fished but

to

among them Norway

a fishery, the

numerous enough

Statistics.

common

form

the basis of such

pout, silver smelt, and

dab.

Although whitefish catches were down, demand was good and prices improved. The proportion of

movement The U.K., West Ger-

Food Food Supplies. Harvests in 1970 appeared to set motion again an upward trend in food production tha

it

had been slowed by agriculture's poor performanct the previous year. The Food and Agriculture Organi

(FAO) index of 1969 food production, at 15' (1952-56 = 100), was unchanged from 1968. Thi world index overall was not affected by an increase o: three points in the index for the less developed region; of Latin America, the Near East (excluding Israel) the Far East (excluding Japan), and Africa (exclud> ing South Africa), which was offset by a loss of onf point in production among the more developed coun tries. The slowed rate of gain in total food productior zation

1969, when distributed among populations that continued to increase to an index of 145 above the

in

frozen fish continued to increase, as did

1952-56 average, resulted

of both fresh and frozen fish between countries.

per-capita food supplies for the people in the

major importers were the U.S., the many, and Japan. The last-named, unable to catch enough for its fast-expanding needs, emerged as a considerable importer a reversal of roles compared with a few years previously. In the field of technical innovation, the Soviet Union

developed regions. Food Production. Although production of some ma-

—

completed fishing trials of the world's biggest fishing catamaran, ''Experiment," and published a paper on the results. A major factor was the ability of this class to fish in weather that forced larger vessels into shelter. A fleet of these 131-ft. catamarans was to be built for the U.S.S.R. (H, S. N.)

World Fisheries, by Country, Catch, and Value of Catch, 1968*1 Country

in

Argentina

Burma Cambodia Canada

1,490

Ceylon

144 1,376

Colombiot Cuba

93 794 682 102 85

France

Germany, West Ghana Greecet Hong Kong Hungary

101 30 1,526 26

India Israel

363

Italy

Japan

8,670

Korea, South

841

Malaysia Mexico

407 366 323 60

Netherlands

Zealandt

Norway

2,804

Pakistan Peru

424

Portugalt

Ryukyu Islonds Senegal Spain

Thailand

1,089

Uganda United Kingdom

109 1,040 2,442 126

Venezuela *Excludes whaling. tSome double counting

ture

United

may

154,261 439,1 44t

25,234

occur,

Nations Food Organization, yeorfaooJc

Statistics, vol. 26.

IVIusic

24,091

313,794 42,156 127,207 193,722 17,156

527

United Stales

Folk Music:

560 35 194 1,503 315

Sweden Taiwan

J1967. Source:

14,531

146,760 172,467 1 24,046} 369,463 74,179 14,227

10,520 945

Philippines

sec

20,541

28,830t 100,492 19,148 239,328 91,829 23,692 35,234 14,984 43,282 186,200 14,222 183,675 1, 952,851 112,454} 93,234 75,533 62,567

1,467

Finland

Projects

27,387t

93 66

Denmark

Engineering

13,551

171

Chile

U.S. $000

62,089 16,845 76,956 77,632 43,985 169,134 64,269

419 396

Brazilt

Disasters;

in

223 103 68

Belgium

Floods: sec Conservationj

Value

Catch 000 metric tons

Australia

New

less than

were impressive harvests of staple crops many of the heavily populated less developed re-

in 1969, there in

gions. In spite of

some smaller

Canada continued

to

ticularly wheat, in

produce

crops, the U.S. and

a surplus of grains, par-

1970. In Latin America, record

sugar harvests were realized, and encouraging recoveries

in

cereal

production were reported

Argentina, Chile, and Mexico. tries

in

Brazil.

West European

harvested slightly smaller crops of grains

coun-

in 1970.

id

of

AgriculFishery

The

European Economic Community it would subsidize the slaughter of nearly 300,000 dairy cows and retire an additional 130,000 from milk production. Throughout the East European countries floods and surpluses.

II.

North America and Europe was

jor crops in

las;

but supplies were more than adequate, and in the case of dairy products, overproduction continued to build

Sec also Food.

Table

in a decrease in available

(EEC) announced

the effects of the severe 1969-70 winter reduced grain

crops and helped to reduce meat supplies.

On

the

other hand, there were reports of good-to-excellent

harvests in the U.S.S.R., where a set

new

new

five-year plan,

livestock production goals. Generally higher

incomes throughout East Europe and the U.S.S.R. raised consumer demand for meat, and generated government action to increase both imports and production incentives. Drought reduced grain crops in some countries in the east Mediterranean, and war conditions affected output of

some

crops.

Production of 7,329,000 tons of wheat in Pakistan was 9% above 1969, and more than 50% above the. 1964-68 average. India's wheat harvest was a record 20 million tons, a sharp increase from the 1964-68 average of 12.1 million tons. Impressive gains in East Pakistan's rice crops raised production to 21,266,000 tons, 20% above the 1963-67 average; a 61,560,000-

ton rice harvest in India was a similar gain over the average. India's 4 million-ton sugar harvest was more

than

10% above

port surplus.

a year earlier, allowing for an ex-

Abundant

rice crops in the Philippines,

Korea, and Indonesia raised production in the Far East 4% above 1969; although production in Japan was less than a year earlier, surpluses from earlier crops were on hand, requiring inauguration of an acreage reduction policy in 1970. Poor weather and heavy

world supplies acted to reduce wheat production in Oceania, but gains in livestock products and some grains cut overall food production losses.

Trade.

An

increase in wheat trade, and strong de-

and

.nd for meat, fats, ricultural

oils

held world trade in most

products at high levels in 1969-70.

Wheat

an estimated 1,800,000,000 bu. from shipments to East irope, the U.S.S.R., Communist Asia, India, and kistan rose above year-earlier levels. Canada, the had 67% of the world trade, S., and Australia Dorts rose to

jOO,000,000 bu. a year earlier;

ainst

65%

Heavy demand for meat U.K., and the EEC, along with a

a year earlier.

the U.S., the /eling-off of

production, held trade in beef and other

eats at high levels.

Rising incomes associated with

growth, particularly in Japan, added to the mand for meat. Reduced stocks of fats and oils in '69, along with relatively static production, resulted dustrial

heavy demand and high prices for fats and oils; exports of soybeans in the September 1969-July )70 period rose to 371 million bu., 43% more than the same period a year earlier. Strong demand for ,S.

ed grains in industrialized countries, particularly ipan, indicated increased trade

on the order of

10%

uli to

and the by which

their eventual susceptibility to local disease

possibility of genetic erosion, the process

primitive or "mongrel" strains are destroyed or lost as a result of the introduction of

new hybrid

varieties,

threatening to remove the sources upon which future plant breeding would have to depend.

Population. As in previous years, population growth continued to hold per-capita gains in food supplies to very low levels. In the less developed regions net increases in population continued throughout the

1960s to add an average 2.6% more persons each year, while gains in food production averaged only

2.5%. Per capita production the world

in

1969

was estimated by the

of only 104 (1952-56

=

100)

;

in this part of

FAO

in Latin

at an index America and

jction in Drts in

than 100 countries discussed implementation of the

Rice exports, in particular, declined as

demand

for

;avy food-aid shipments was filled by increased pro-

consuming countries. U.S. agricultural ex1959-70 were expected to exceed $6 billion, compared with $5.7 billion a year earlier. Comicrcial sales for dollars were expected to account for '•'c of total farm export values, as compared with 2''o of a smaller total the year earlier. In 1969 some 7'c of U.S. farm products were exported under the uijd for Peace program. High price supports in its system of variable levies ;

isolated to a considerable degree the

EEC

countries

rem foreign competition. In the U.S. a number of ills to further restrict imports of agricultural comlodities were not successful. The Green Revolution. The improved outlook for God supplies was largely attributed to the Green Revilution

— the widespread adoption of new

vheat and rice in the

varieties of

Middle East, the Far East,

^orth Africa, and, to a lesser extent, Latin America,

kreage planted

to

new

high-yielding varieties was

/ariously reported at 34 million

and 40 million

ac.

\cricultural leaders

and advisers, while crediting the

mproved

tended to view their adoption as

)iily

varieties,

one of the factors

in

increased productivity.

measure explained the upon introduction of new varieties ;n these countries. These included the development of ifricultural institutions, the existence of economic J'

her "pre-conditions" in large

success obtained

incentives for farmers to produce more, the development of agricultural industries to supply improved seed, fertilizers, machinery, and chemicals, the emergence of enlightened political leadership, and generally good weather worldwide. In spite of the impressive record, there was a consensus that programs were needed to cope with "later generation" problems, which were predicted to appear once increased production exceeded local needs; these would include the need for new facili-

and mechanisms for harvesting, storand marketing the ex'Cess production. More immediate, and even more disturbing, problems associated with unaccustomed productivity in some areas were identified. Successful adoption of new varieties required not only heavy inputs of fertilizer and chemicals but adequate water supplies, which more often than not meant irrigation. In addition, their promise of profits and their subties,

institutions,

ing,

processing, transporting,

Food

exodus of rural populations to already-overcrowded urban areas. The history of new varieties also showed

the 1969 index (97 and 98, respectively) showed a decline over previous years. The second World Food Congress met in The Hague, Xeth., in June to consider the overall foodpopulation problem. Some 1.500 delegates from more

1969-70.

329

by governments were seen by some as stimfarm consolidation, which in turn threatened dislocation of smaller farms and acceleration of the sidization

Africa,

FAO's Indicative World Plan for Agricultural Development, which estimated that by 1985 the developing countries would require 2^ times as much food as in the plan's base year (19621. The Congress concluded that, if its various proposals were adopted, an average increase in the growth of food production in developing countries of 3.7% was and was

feasible

sufficient

to

assure adequate food

supplies.

Development and Food Assistance. Strategy

for

economies of the developing countries continued in 1970 to shift from the individual-country approach that had been characteristic of most of the postwar period to an emphasis on the multilateral approach. U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon's message to the Congress in mid-September indicated U.S. policy for development assistance programs to be "a new aiding

the

partnership

among

nations in pursuit of a truly

in-

ternational development effort based upon a strengthened leadership role for multilateral development institutions." He also proposed legislation to create an

Hundreds at one of

of people wait

St

Louis' food

stamp distribution centres Oct. 13, 1970. Ai midyear

more than 14,000 households

in

the city

were receiving stamps; strikes and rising

unemployment in the swelled the number considerably.

fall

Development Corporation to handle biarrangements, and an International De-

estimate of per-capita consumption of major food in 1969 included red meats, at 182 lb. (of which bee

and trainand to

accounted for 110.5 lb.); 316 eggs (continuing a de cline from 356 in 1957-59); 271 lb. of fluid mill and cream (as compared with 337 lb. per capita 1957-59); 51.8 lb. of fats and oils; 79.1 lb. of fresl

International lateral aid

velopment Institute ing competence in

to help build research

lower-income

nations

cooperate in international efforts dealing with populaand employment problems.

tion

One report on development aid indicated that in some $13.3 billion of net financial resources

1969,

went

to

aid

the

economies of the

developed

less

countries from the industrial nations, mainly those

North America and Europe, but including Ausand Japan. Although 1969 aid was slightly

of

tralia

larger than a year earlier,

it

represented only

0.72%

of the combined gross national products of the in-

and included $4.3 bildevelopment aid by Agreement was reached

dustrialized nations involved

lion of export credits. Increased

the

was noted.

U.S.S.R.

among

the

21

nations

contributing

to

the

World

Bank's International Development Association to replenish IDA funds at the rate of $813 million per year for three years, beginning in November 1971; the second replenishment, in 1968, had been at the

$400 million per year. Agricultural developin 1970 to be a significant part of the total aid effort by international and national rate of

ment continued

agencies, as well as private organizations.

The

UN

Development Program announced in September approval of its 1,001st major preinvestment project to be aided since the Special Fund was established in 1959.

The Inter-American Development Bank reported that agricultural loans totaling $202.1 million repre-

sented

32%

of the Bank's 1969 loans, bringing total

agricultural loans to Latin-American countries in the

decade to $833.8 million, or 24.3% of

The U.S. Agency

for International

all

Bank

loans.

Development con-

tinued to aid agricultural development in countries where local funds, generated by sales of U.S. surplus farm commodities, had accumulated. Combined lending by the World Bank and the International Development Association reached a record of nearly $1.8 billion in fiscal 1969, and Robert McNamara, the World Bank president, announced that development loans in the next five years would reach $11 to $12 billion. Efforts to improve tropical food crops continued at the International Institute of Tropical Research, near Ibadan, Nigeria, and its sister institute, the International Center for Tropical Agriculture, in Colombia. The FAO in November 1969 announced a $300 million target for voluntary pledges to the World Food Program for 1971-72. The WFP target for 1969-70 was $200 million, and was over-subscribed by some $90 million. U.S. donations under its Food for Peace program in 1969 were reported at about $250 million; shipments of commodities in government-to-government programs of disaster relief and economic development totaled $103 million, and programs operated by voluntary relief agencies amounted to $153 mil-

fruits; 97.9 lb. of fresh vegetables;

Food Constimption and

Prices.

Estimated per-capita

consumption of major food items in the U.S. increased about 1% in 1970 over a year earlier, accord-

Department of Agriculture CUSDA). in consumption of red meats (especially beef) and fish, a 3% increase in cheese consumption, and heavier use of chicken (7%), shortening (5%), and apples (10%), offset a 9% reduction

ing to the U.S.

Increases of

2%

in the use of veal, as well as

milk, sweet potatoes,

reduced use of turkey,

and cocoa. The

USDA

118.2

lb.

of po

and 99.9 lb. of sugar Total food expenditures by U.S. consumers wen expected to total about $113 billion in 1970, an in, crease of 7% over 1969. A Department of Agricul ture report in August 1970 indicated that American' spent an average of $518 per person for food 1969, an increase of 4.6% from 1968. The percentagi of disposable income spent for food, 16.7% in 1969 tatoes; 112 lb. of

wheat

flour;

ii

continued its downward trend. Nevertheless, increasing food prices continued t( generate consumer criticism. The U.S. retail foo(

(1957-59 = 100) in Juik climb from 101.4 in 1960. Th

price index rose to 132.7

1970, continuing

its

June food price index was 2 points above January and 7.2 points above the average for 1969; the Jan uary-June retail food price increase of 1.5% com pared with a 2.9% increase in prices of nonfooc products. Total U.S. grocery store sales in 1968 wen reported at $70 billion, an increase of nearly $4 bil lion over 1967 and $16 billion more than five year: earlier. Sales of food by retail grocery stores in 196; accounted for $50.8 billion, or 72.5% of total sales Retail food stores in 1970 continued to experimen with

new computerized methods

for checkout, inven

and ordering operations. Simplified date mark ing on perishable grocery items was of major concerr to retailers, consumers, and legislators. A system o open dating of grocery items was instituted by somi of the larger chains, but widespread adoption of thi practice was generally resisted by industry spokesmen who claimed that open dating would result in in creased prices and waste. A survey, however, indicatec that open dating of grocery items was establishec practice in eight of nine European countries. Discoun sale of food was adopted by several grocery retailei chains in an attempt to reduce prices as well as t( tory,

placate critical buyers. Sales and profits of U.S. food manufacturers in

10% in 1969 over a year earlier. Sales totalet $83,362,000,000, and net profits (after taxes) wen reported at $1,985,000,000. Dairy manufacturers creased

sales increased

increased

11%,

13%, to

to $13,773,000,000,

$308

Sales

million.

and

profit;

of

bakery

products declined to $5,272,000,000, and profits tc $102 million, from 1968. The outlook for furtheL gains in 1970 was clouded; the canned fruit and veg-i etable sector of the industry was reported to be

plagued by problems of overproduction, and sugar refiners, faced with rising costs attributed to administration of the Sugar Act of 1948, were affected by

food manufacturers' searches for lower-priced sugar substitutes.

The index

lion.

fluid

ii

of retail food prices of

more than 40

changes to the United Nations revealed only one (Kenya) with lower food prices in 1969 than in 1968. Nearly two-thirds had food price increases ranging from 3 to 6% eight had increases over 6% and seven had less than a 3% countries reporting consumer price

;

The 5% increase in U.S. retail food prices in 1969 from a year earlier equaled or exceeded those in most European countries, but was far less than rise.

inflation-triggered increases in Latin

America, where a

shown

25%

for

most countries

increase was reported

•

•

Sao Paulo, Brazil, and a 31% increase was shown Santiago, Chile. In Japan a rapid rise in retail

331

Food

1970 resulted in the option of measures by the Cabinet to increase supes and improve marketing. )d prices in the first half of

Sweden price increases of

In

5 to

6%

between June

and mid-August 1970 resulted in Cabinet approval a controversial decision to freeze some food prices,

and flour products, dairy products, meat products. Food prices in Great Britain rose arply in the first quarter of 1970, and supplies were mporarily threatened by a national dock strike in id-July. Higher incomes, which generated heavier mand for meat, milk, eggs, and chicken in East luding bread

d

jropean countries,

moved

the U.S.S.R. to contract

meat imports from Australia and New Zealand and e Polish, Hungarian, and Yugoslav governments to crease livestock delivery prices and offer incentives farmers who increased beef and pork sales. Food ii.e increases imposed in Poland late in the year led r

ROBERT AZZI FROM NANCT PALMER AGENCY

rioting in several cities.

ji

At refugee camp

Developments. The paradox of hunger in the -t affluent country in the world was not easily aciicd by some, though by 1970 few could any longer ibt the reports of individual researchers and survey ams attempting to assess the problem. Overnourishjient of an estimated 20 to 25% of Americans was senerally accepted finding by medical and nutritional '

Associated as

it

often was with poverty,

Undernourishment was less visible to the medical proPreliminary results of the first National Nulon Survey, which got under way in 1969. indicated

•ession.

many

Americans might suffer rem malnutrition. The survey revealed that non-poor Americans as well were malnourished in one or an)ther respect: 10% of the population was apparently mic; 8 to 20% suffered from deficiency of one :nore vitamins; and percentages of the population t

.

'

as

as 15 million

-

ijving less than acceptable levels of other es.sential

ranged from 9% ('thiamine) to 19% friboOther findings indicated growth retardation n 10% of children surveyed, and.^n estimated 5% 3f the total population with low iodine intake. Surveys of schoolchildren in widely scattered areas produced evidence of malnutrition that was not necessarily associated with either poverty or geography. :utrients

lavin).

Against this backdrop of growing interest, several *symposia and conferences were scheduled late in 1969

and congressional

interest in the nutrition problem continued at a high level in 1970. The Senate Select

'Committee on Nutrition and Human Needs continued Ito hold hearings on a variety of hunger-related probits mission was extended through Jan. 31, 1971, by action of the Senate in February. In September

(lems;

Democratic Study Group of the House of Represymposium on a national nutrition policy. The Food Stamp Program was expanded by administrative action in 1969 and early 1970 to accomplish the goal of an operating food stamp or commodity distribution program in every county in the

U.S. foreign aid shipment.

with incomes of less than $30 per month and eliminated a House-passed provision that states share up to

10% of the programs cost. An estimated 21 million children

participated in the

school lunch and school breakfast programs in 1970, as compared with 19.125.000 a year earlier. Federal contributions to these programs in 1970 was estimated at

S562.1 million; state and local contributions (in-

cluding payments by children) totaled $1,795,000,000. Legislation to improve child nutrition programs in-

cluded a

bill

approved

in

May

that established eligi-

standards by which children would be selected for free or reduced-price meals, and authorized ad-

bility

vanced funding for the program. Other aspects of nutrition received attention in 1970. In September the Food and Drug Administration announced it would set voluntary nutritional guidelines for processed foods. Criticism of the nutritional value of dry breakfast cereals produced a sharp and noisy controversy in July. In August the

FDA

undertook a review of the safety of hundreds The FDA ban on cyclamates, an artificial sweetener, was extended to its use in all dietary foods and fruits in mid-August. Other additives, including monosodium glutamate and thyamine, were criticized as possibly dangerous to some consumers. (See Domestic Arts and Scienxes.) In October the report of a study conducted at the University of Texas disclosed that ordinary white bread was so low in nutritional value that two-thirds of food additives.

the

of the laboratory rats living exclusively on

sentatives held a

90-day period died of malnutrition. The USDA came under attack for permitting the use of pesticides and

it

for a

herbicides considered dangerous to human food supplies and the feeding of antibiotics to meat animals

was questioned

for

its

possibly harmful effect on con-

country.

sumers.

Senate and House versions of the Food Stamp bill replace the one that was to expire at the end of 1970 differed widely. A compromi.se, passed on

As a precautionary measure, the FDA announced on December 15 that an estimated one million cans of tuna fish representing several major brands were

to

December

31, authorized $1,750,000,000 for fiscal 1971 and open-ended authorizations for the next two years. It set a ceiling of $106 per month for a family of four while requiring that all able-bodied adult registrants also register for bill

work and accept

also provided for free

stamps

jobs.

The

to families of four

Jordan

of flour received from

j

lecialists.

in

a Palestinian carries a sack

U.S.

being withdrawn from the market. On the basis of sample tests, it was established that 23% of all tuna packed in the U.S. in 1970 contained mercury in excess of the federally permitted minimum. Excessive amounts of mercury were also reported in frozen swordfish samples. Mercury poisoning reports had

been responsible also for the banning of fresh fish during the year in parts of the U.S. and in Sweden. (H. R. Sh.) Food Processing and Technology. Greater sophistication and the need to try and contain food coupled with

prices,

labour

shortages,

stimulated

greatly the growth of highly automated giant food enterprises.

E

WORLD

The Rev. Jesse Jackson of the Southei-n

Christian

Leadership Conference's Operation Breadbasly

hand and no player was sent

the matches got out of off the field.

(He. B. H.) also Agriculture; 'rices.

Commodities, Primary; Fisheries;

ENCYcr.op^nrA Britannica Fir ms. Fond and People Why Foods Spoil (Molds. Yeasts, Bacteria) ( 1957); Vood from the Sun f 1965); Plankton: Pastures of the Ocean (1965); Produce From Farm to Market (1968). ;i956);

—

Association Football (Soccer). The World Cup finals, in which Brazil performed brilliantly to win the Jules Rimet Trophy for the third time, were the focal point of 1970; practically everything in the soccer world was directed toward the Mexico tournament. Held at four centres Mexico City, Puebla and Toluca, Guadalajara, and Leon the finals followed the usual pattern of being played on a league system in which the 16 finalists were divided into four groups of four teams, the winner and runner-up of each group providing the eight quarter-finalists. The competition then continued on an elimination basis, and the two

—

—

beaten semifinalists met for third place just before

have the advantage of an easy draw, England, Romania, and Czechoslovakia being their opponents in Group 3 at Guadalajara. The other finalists were (Group 1) Mexico, Belgium, EI Salvador, U.S.S.R.; (Group 2) Uruguay, Israel, Italy, Sweden; (Group 4) Peru, West Germany, Morocco, and Bulgaria. Host country Mexico opened the finals on Sunday, the final. Brazil certainly did not

draw against the U.S.S.R. in Aztec Stadium at Mexico City. Significantly, referee Kurt Tschenscher of West Germany 31, with a goalless

the magnificent

Sweden

in the

on the

opening game.

In the quarterfinals the Italians showed what their attack could do when they defeated the Mexicans 4-1.

Domenghini again led the way, Luigi Riva scored two more, and substitute Gianni Rivera added a fourth. Luis Gonzalez got Mexico's lone reply.

Two

of the

went into overtime (30 minutes). In Mexico City the U.S.S.R. was holding Uruguay to a goalless draw when Victor Esparrago slotted the ball in to send the South Americans through to quarterfinal

contests

the semifinals in extra

Football

May

against

2

time.

The other extra-time

match was at Leon, where West Germany rnet England. England went into a two-goal lead through the efforts of the Tottenham pair, Alan Mullery and Martin Peters, but the Germans fought back with Franz Beckenbauer moving forward out of defense into a more attacking role. With 25 minutes of the second half gone, he scored the first goal and then Uwe Seeler added a second to tie the game and forced it into overtime. The decisive goal came from Miiller after a few minutes, and West Germany thus qualified for the semifinals. In the all-South American game at Guadalajara, Brazil showed Peru the effectiveness of

its

attack, winning 4-2.

The

Brazilians were then committed to another allSouth American clash in the semifinals against the ultra-defensive Uruguayan squad. While Brazil swung into its familiar offensive rhythm, the Uruguayans played it hard and tough. Uruguay received a "gift goal" when a defensive error allowed Julio Morales to cross the ball for Luis Cubilla to tap

But Brazil

it

into the goal.

when seconds from the halftime break Tostao moved the ball from out on the tied the score

left to create

Santana Brazil

an opportunity for Clodoaldo Tavares it home.

to crack

had

to wait until the last quarter

hour of

CENTRAL PRESS FROM PICTORIAL PARADE

Chelsea

left half

Ron Harris

(centre) and centre

half

John Dempsey (left) manage to keep out Leeds' Jackie Charlton, as he makes an airborne assault on the Chelsea goal during the F A Cup final replay at Old Trafford,

Manchester, April 29, 1970. Chelsea won 2-1 in

extra time.

334 Otball

the tactically absorbing duel for the flying Jairzinho ^° shoot home its second goal. Then in the final sec-

onds Pele,

still

the master footballer, slipped a pass to

Rivelino to send Brazil into the

final.

Mexico

was a titanic struggle between West Germany and Italy, and was rated by most as the best game of the tournament. A composite blend of skill, flair emotion, drama, and courage, the game was soccer entertainment at its most tingling, right to the 30th minute of extra time. Italy was given a fine start when within seven minutes of the kickoff, Roberto Boninsegna scored. But the Germans were resihent and pounded away until Karl Schnellinger, their centre back, moved up just before the end of normal time to tie the score with a fierce drive; this was just reward for approximately 50 minutes of nonstop attacking, which saw Wolfgang Overath hit the bar and two brilliant saves by Enrico Albertosi from Uwe Seeler, who set a German record by earning his 95th cap during the tournament. Within four minutes of the beginning of the overtime period Muller had put the West Germans into the

The other

semifinal, at

City,

lead; then, within a similar period, Tarcisio Burgnich,

moved forward to minutes the Italians went in front again when Riva scored. Four minutes after the start of the second half of extra time, howthe Italian back-four

man,

even the score. After another

also five

that they needed, and with four minutes of extra tin remaining Ove Kindvall scored the crucial goal ar,. brought the trophy to the Netherlands.

European Cup-Winners' Cup. Manchester City b came the third English club to bring home this tropl: by defeating Gornik Zabrze of Poland 2-1 in the fin, in Vienna on April 29. Manchester City led after 1 minutes with a goal from Neil Young, but lost hah back Mick Doyle with an ankle injury 4 minutes late With young Ian Bowyer on the field as substitutiCity continued to have the edge against the side. Just

before the end of the

club went two up

when H.

first

Polls

half the EnglisJ

Kostla, the Polish goaJ

keeper, conceded a penalty for a Rugby-style

on Young and Francis Lee scored from the

tacklj

spot. Mid!

way through

the second half, the Poles fought bac!,. through their veteran international, H Oslizlo, but they never had enough penetration in at1 tack on the slippery Prater Stadium pitch to ruffle tbi

score

to

Manchester defense. Inter-Cities' Fairs' Cup. Arsenal captured thi trophy the night before Manchester City's triumpl; when, at their Highbury ground, north London, theji defeated the Belgian team Anderlecht 3-0 to win the! two-game final 4-3 on aggregate. In the first leg

ir,'

Brussels on April 22, Anderlecht lead with goals

moved

into a 3-(^

by Johann Devrindt and Jan Muldeii

ever, the irrepressible Mliller scored his tenth goal of

(2) before Arsenal got the measure of them. Ignor-i

the tournament to put

West Germany once more on even terms. But hardly had the cheers died away when they exploded again to herald Rivera's final goal that sent Italy through to its third championship match.

ing the usual tactic of closing up the game away fronvj home. Arsenal persisted with its attacking policy and^ was rewarded when Ray Kennedy, a substitute, scored] late in the game to cut the lead to two goals. In the]

At the .^ztec Stadium in Mexico City, on Sunday, June 21, the main question of the World Cup final was: could the Italian defense hold the quicksilver Brazilian forwards? The answer proved to be that they could not. The game ended with Brazil worthy winners by a score of 4-1. For the first 30 minutes or so of the game the magnificent Brazilians were matched by the Itahans with their exceedingly close marking in defense. Perhaps significantly, Brazil opened its scoring through Pele after 18 minutes with a perfectly timed header from a Rivelino pass. Casualness in defense led to the Italians' drawing even after 37 minutes when Boninsegna snapped up a lucky rebound to score. After 20 minutes of the second half Gerson Nunes scored for Brazil, and Jairzinho maintained his record of scoring in every round when a Gerson free kick was headed down by Pele for the flying winger to crack home. The fourth goal again stemmed from Pele. He passed the ball to his captain Carlos Alberto to thunder into the net as the Bra-

settle

second leg of the final, Arsenal took 20 minutes to! down, and then Eddie Kelly gave them a lead at half time. In the second half the London club used controlled attacks and added to its score through goals

by John Radford and Jon Sammels. British Isles Championship. This tournament was

played, as in 1968-69, at the end of the domestic season.

Though

officially

England, Scotland, and Wales

finished in a three-way goals.

On

tie,

England scored the most

the opening day, April

18,

Scotland beat

Northern Ireland 1-0 at Windsor Park, Belfast, with a goal scored by John O'Hare of Derby. Meanwhile, at Cardiff, England and Wales tied 1-1, a goal by Dick Krzywicki of Wales being equaled by one from Manchester City's Lee. England beat Northern Ireland the following Tuesday 3-1, led by Bobby Charlton of Manchester United on the occasion of gaining his 100th England cap. The following day the Scots were contained by the battling Welsh to a goalless draw at Hampden Park Stadium, Glasgow. In final matches Scotland and England fought out another

Hampden, before 137,478 fans, number of

zilians attacked until the final whistle.

goalless draw, again at

European Cup. Feyenoord of Rotterdam became the first Dutch team to win a major European competition when it defeated Celtic of Glasgow 2-1 after extra time in the San Siro Stadium, Milan, Italy, on May 6. Celtic had looked likely to repeat its 1967 triumph when it swept into the lead with a thundering shot by Tommy Gemmell. But the Scots then relaxed and were caught by a high cross into the goal mouth which Feyenoord skipper Rinus Israel headed home to tie the match. Gradually, the Dutch began to dictate the pattern of the game, yet they were unable to add to their score before 90 minutes of play had elapsed. Thus, the overtime period was required. Celtic had substituted George Connelly for Bertie Auld just before the game was extended, but he was not able to bring the Scots the dominance in midfield

while Wales, before a quarter of that

people, beat Northern Ireland at Swansea with a goal

from Ronnie Rees of Nottingham Forest. Inter-Continental Club Championship. The long sorry story of violence in this competition for the called world club champions continued European Cup holders, A. C. Milan, beat their South American counterparts, Estudiantes of Argentina, 4-2 on aggregate. The first leg in Milan on Oct. 8, 1969, was tough but gave no real indication of the rowdy affair that was to follow in Buenos Aires a fortnight later. The Italians triumphed in the first leg with goals by Angelo Sermani (2) and Nestor Combin, with the Argentines failing to score. In the return match Estudiantes went out determined to retain the trophy at any price, and fouls flew thick and right to be

when

the

I

UPl

Chilean referee

it.

me

side's

Ramon

anera, while

Milan

Domingo Alassaro Aguirre lost

sent off the

Suarez and Eduardo

Combin and

Pierino Prati

Estudiantes "set the Bocca stadium by scoring twice after Luigi Rivera had opened e account for Milan. Conigliari and Aguirre Suarez ;re the Argentine scorers. Being two men short after e penalty dismissals, Estudiantes lost the edge and ;re then unable to pierce the tightly woven Milan injuries.

th

ight"

:fense.

game the Argentine football association Manera for 20 league games and three internationals and Aguirre Suarez for 30 games

After the

ispended ;ars'

id five years' internationals; Argentine goalkeeper

was banned for life for his part in the T. W.) ime's becoming a shambles. Rugby. Rugby Union. The 1969-70 period included major tour of the British Isles by South Africa and major tour of South Africa by New Zealand. In ddition Scotland made short tours of Argentina and Australia, and the International Board decided to inIberto Poletti

1

(

orporate into the laws of the

aw

game

restricting kicking to touch

the experimental

between the 2S-yd.

ines.

The r:

first

jr

was Scotland's September 1969. On

activity of the period

itch tour of

Argentina

in

six-

this

Scotland twice played the Argentine national

first occasion 3-20 but winning second match 6-3. Scotland won the other four matches of the tour and ended with a points record

Lim, losing on the

by defeating Ireland 8-0 in Paris. Since Wales lost 0-14 to Ireland in Dublin, France had high hopes of beating Wales at Cardiff; but this vital match ended in victory for Wales, 11-6. Wales, meanwhile, had beaten Scotland 18-9 at Cardiff and England 17this

13 at

Twickenham;

match of the championship season, that between France and England in Paris. If France could beat England, it would share the title with Wales; if England were to beat France, Wales would have the championship title to itself. In the game France gave a magnificent display of Rugby in defeating England 35-13, the larg-

attacking

number of points ever scored against England in one match. Ireland, having lost to France and also to England (3-9 at Twickenham), recovered sufficiently to win both its matches in Dublin, 16-11 against Scotland and 14-0 against Wales, and so finished third. Scotland, having lost to France, Wales, and Ireland, managed to salvage something from its season by defeating England 14-5 at Murrayfield. For the English players, whose season began encouragingly with their first-ever victory over South Africa, the championship campaign was especially disappointing in that their 35-13 beating from France was their last match before arriving at their centenary season. The home international championship included several unusual events. For the England-Ireland match est

Twickenham the Irish selectors, faced with the late withdrawal of their left-wing three-quarter because of

[he

at

and 46 against. South Africa's tour of the British Isles lasted from the beginning of November 1969 until the end of 1970. During this time the visitors played J inuary 2 5 matches, winning 16, drawing 4, and losing 5, with

injury, recalled

of 68 for

a point

record of 345 for and 163 against. This was

compared with previous major tours South Africa, especially in that the South Africans i not win any of the four international matches, ihey were beaten by Scotland 6-3 and by England 11-8, and they drew with Ireland 8-8 and with Wales 6-6. Several reasons were advanced for the South Africans' relative lack of success, the most obvious being that they were hounded both on and off the field by demonstrations against their country's racial policies. Hundreds of police had to be on duty both inside and outside most of the grounds on which the South Africans played, and plain-clothes police were stationed in all their hotels. In this atmosphere some of the players failed to find their normal form, and the team as a whole took a long time to settle down. In addition, South Africa lacked penetrative runners and hard defenders in midfield. The captain, Dawie de Villiers, played many fine games at scrum half, as did the vice-captain, Tommy Bedford, at no. 8. The home international championship season was notable for the recovery made by France who, having finished last the previous season, now shared top position with Wales. France started its campaign by beating Scotland 11-9 at Murrayfield, and they followed f'isappointing as '

; :

thus, the position at the top of

the standings depended on the last

Tony

O'Reilly,

who had

first

for Ireland in 1955 and had not played for

1963.

The span

of his international career,

played

them since from 1955

was the longest ever known in the history of Rugby. In the same game. England's victory, 9-3, owed a great deal to two astonishing, long dropped goals by the fullback and captain. Bob Hiller. In the England-Wales game, also at Twickenham, the French referee, R. Calmet. was accidentally knocked over. He broke a bone in a leg and had to be replaced by one of the touch judges, R. F. Johnson (England), who was to 1970,

already an international referee.

Apart from incorporating in the laws the former experimental law restricting kicking to touch between the 25-yd. lines, the International

meeting

in

Edinburgh

in

Board

at its

March made no

annual

alterations to the character of the game.

significant

They

did,

up a new standing committee to examine the implications of any changes in the laws that might however,

set

be contemplated. Scotland's tour of Australia took place in

They played

May

and

matches, winning three and losing three, with a point record of 109 for and 94 June.

six

One full international match was played, and won this 23-3. The other teams who beat the Scots were New South Wales and Queensland.

against.

Australia

New

Zealand's tour of South Africa in June-Sep-

be the customary battle of the Rugby matches the New Zealanders scored 669 points and had only 149 scored against them.

tember proved

to

giants. In their 24

COHPIX

goalkeeper Enrico AlbertosI

Italian

lies stretched out on the pitch after a shot by Gerson Nunes of Brazil entered the goal during the final match

of the

1970 World Cup

championships Mexico City June 21, 1970. soccer in

Brazil

won the coveted

championship 4-1.

won

their three tests 19-15 at Wellington, 23-9 Christchurch, and 33-16 at Auckland.

336

Football

a

A triangular tournament took place in the nort of England in October 1969. It involved Englanc France, and Wales, who finished in that order. Th were France 8, Wales 2; England 11, Franc England 40, Wales 23. Wales got its revenge fron France the following January by beating the Frencl IS-U at Perpignan, thus becoming the first Welsi team to win in France since 1936. The referee a Perpignan, R. Thomas, of Oldham, was knocked m> conscious by the crowd as he left the field at the ent results

11

UPI

COMPIX

IMebrasJ.

DM. 84.7 billion. Cost 100): (June 1970) 121; (June

(April 1969)

ing(1963

=

116.

Trade. (1969) Imports DM. 97.4 DM. 113,420,000,000. Import EEC 44% CFrancc 13%, Netherlands

Foreign

exports

'in;

"cs:

Italy '

conlinucd on page 359

Federal Republic

Education. (1967-68) Primary, pupils 5,700,190, teachers 213,095; secondary, pupils 1.888,'74, teachers vocational, pupils 103,013; ',192,837, teachers 102,656; teacher training 'n65-66), students 50,134, teachers 2,481; f;r (including 36 universities), students 416,-

billion;

West German-Soviet

The

ituation in

')

and Aleksei Kosygin

(right) after signing

settlement. These talks, in the view of the Western

prove communications between West Germany and West Berlin generally, to restore and extend the permits scheme w'hereby West Berliners were allowed

flerman government, in accepting the realities of the

3ERM.\XY:

(left)

using the surface routes to and from Berlin, to im-

to Berlin.

According to Foreign Minister Scheel, the West

,

Willy Brandt (centre) chats with Leonid Brezhnev

10%, Belgium-Luxembourg 9%);

^ 11%. Export destinations: EEC 40% ranee 13%. Netherlands 10%, BelgiumItaly 8%); U.S. 9%; Switzer-

Luxembourg 8%,

6%. Main exports: machinery 30%; motor 14%; chemicals 12%; iron and steel 7%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1969) 414,673 km. (including 4.110 km. autobahns). Motor vehicles in use (1969): passenger

land

vehicles

13,168,560; commercial 1,083,612. Railways: (1968) federal 29,845 km. (including 8,091 km. electrified), private 4,233 km.; traffic (1969) 36,592.000.000 passenger-km., freight 67,195,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1969): 6,922,passenger-km.; freight 465,240,000 000,000 net ton-km. Navigable inland waterways in regular use (1968) 4,415 km.; freight traffic 47,932,000,000 ton-km. Shipping (1969): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 2,768; gross tonnage 7,02 7,384. Telephones (Dec. 1968) 1 1.248,979. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) 28 million. Television receivers (Dec. 1968) 14,958,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968 in parentheses): wheat 6,000 1969; barley 5,130 rye (6,198); 2,886 (3.186); (4,974); oats 2,976 (2,893); potatoes 15,980 (19,191); sugar, raw value (1969-70) 2,084, (1968-69) 1,980; wine 531 (556); milk 22,269 (22,176); butler c. 522 (537 ); cheese c. 440 (437); meat 3,373 (3,306); fish catch (1968)

682, (1967) 661. Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1968): pigs 18,732; sheep 830; chickens 89,104. Industry. Index of production (1963 100): (1969) 144; (1968) 128. Unemployment: (1969) Fuel power 1.6%. and (in 0.8%; (1968) 000; metric tons; 1969): coal 111,631; lignite 107,424; crude oil 7,876; coke (1968) 36,306; electricity (kw-hr.) 226,048,000; natural gas (cu.m.) 17,761,000; manufactured gas (cu.m.) 20,139,000. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969): iron ore (32% metal content) 6,060; pig iron 33.993; crude steel 45,316; zinc 279; copper 396; lead 306; aluminum 534; cement 35,014; sulfuric acid 4,459; cotton yarn 2 52 woven cotton fabrics 191; wool yarn 87 rayon, etc., filament yarn 78 rayon, etc., staple fibre 186; nylon, etc., filament yarn 239; nylon, etc.. fibre 213; nitrogenous fertilizers (1968-69) 1,598; potash (oxide content; 1968) 2,561; synthetic rubber 288; plastics and resins 3,961; passenger cars (units) 3,312; commercial vehicles (units) 287. Merchant vessels launched (100 gross tons and over; 1969) 1,643,000 gross tons. New dwelling units completed (1969) 500,000.

cattle 14,061;

=

;

;

SPECIAL REPORT

cation of any willingness to work for a more positive relations! However, during the West German general election ca in the summer of that year, the Soviet government show it was reconsidering its policies by inviting delegations fro the Social Democrats and the Free Democrats to visit It also addressed an invitation to the Christian Democrats so after the elections. The Soviet government was clearly for a Social Democratic victory in the election, but th that the Social Democratic leader, Brandt, won such a victi by maneuver was not in itself enough to account for the ra] development of both Soviet and German policy.

WEST GERMANY'S

M

OSTPOLITIK By

Philip

Windsor

The Soviet interest in developing better relations with Federal Republic can be accounted for in part by econoc necessity. At a time of considerable economic uncertainty i

throughout much of 1970, the Federal Republic of (West) Germany was conducting three sets of parallel negotiations: with the Soviet Union, with Poland, and with the (East) German Democratic Republic. The somewhat generalized attempt

improve relations with Eastern Europe that had been char"grand coalition" government during 1966-69 assumed this more distinct form after Willy Brandt had taken office as chancellor in October 1969. But such multilateral negotiations were also a feature of Soviet foreign policy. The Soviet Union was conducting difficult and delicate discussions with its two allies as well as attempting to reach a treaty with the West German government. An understanding with each of these three countries was an essential element of the Federal Republic's policy, but their own separate interests in reaching such an understanding were not necessarily compatible. Between them,. the Federal government and the Soviet government attempted to reconcile the differences, but since they did so from frequently opposed viewto

acteristic of the Ostpolitik of the

points, such attempts also complicated their

own

negotiations. It

was this set of interactions that made the negotiations themselves drawn out and complicated, although the actual content of the agreements that the different powers were trying to reach was comparatively simple. The Changing Soviet Position. Quite apart from the course of the negotiations, the very fact that they had begun raised one fundamental question: why was the Soviet Union, after years of hostility to the Federal Republic,

work

now prepared

to

for a treaty? Although the frequent declarations of funda-

mental hostility had grown more muted in 1969 (except on the part of some military commanders), there had been little indi-

West German Chancellor Willy Brandt

and

in circumstances

also producing political divisions, there

.)

i,

:

—

—

i

in particular,

that

it

could afford to dispense with the

had hitherto been used

German

to assure the solidarity of the

bogt

Wa

development of the Feder Republic's Ostpolitik was a direct consequence of the invasion

saw Pact. In

this sense, the successful

Czechoslovakia.

At the same time, however, the German Dem.ocratic Republ; had a direct interest in keeping alive the bogey of West Ge' man revanchism, since it could hardly afford an improvemei in relations between the Federal Republic and its own alii' and thi that did not lead to the recognition of its sovereignty had already been ruled out by the Federal government. Fc. this reason, the same degree of control that enabled the Sovi Union to contemplate a rapprochement with West Germanwas bound to be challenged by the state in Eastern Europe th had so far been most distinguished by its loyalty to Soviet policy One developing paradox of the situation in the following month was that East Germany, which had favoured Soviet repressio in Czechoslovakia and the reimposition of tighter control ir Eastern Europe generally, now challenged the Soviet governmen on one of the most important questions of policy. Moreover, the government of East Germany was not the onlj, one that in one respect or other attempted to either circum-,

—

(left)

Premier Willi Stoph as he arrives for the of their talks at Erfurt, E.Ger.,

where this uncertaiiwas an obvious centive to procure capital loans and investment from the stroi] est economic power in Europe; i.e., West Germany. But si economic difficulties appear to be endemic in the Soviet syst and since, in the past, political considerations had ruled out aj rapprochement with the Federal Republic, some political c planation must also be sought for this change of policy. The, is evidence to suggest that the political situation had changfundamentally in the view of the Soviet government, and tlij the changes that had come about not only permitted but quired a new approach to West Germany. The changes were of two kinds first, the change in the situ tion in Eastern Europe; second, the aggravation of the disp with China. The situation in Eastern Europe, after the invasit of Czechoslovakia and the promulgation of the various sta ments that have come to be known collectively as the Brezhm Doctrine, meant that for the first time in several years at the Sovi rate since the development of the East-West detente Union was able to impose direct limitations on the pattern relations between Eastern and Western European countries, no longer needed the more cumbrous methods of diplomacy a" the Soviet Union,

was

meets East German

first

March 19, 1970.

vent or challenge Soviet dominance. Romania continued fo dc^ so over plans for the future of the Warsaw Pact, and within; the Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) organization, many Eastern European governments were engaged in a complex diplomacy designed to safeguard their own interests, whatever plans the Soviet Union might have made for them.

During 1969, in consequence, the Soviet government made some attempt to use the issue of China as a means of assuring the solidarity of its allies in Europe. In doing so, it met with a double failure: its diplomacy in Eastern Europe came to nothing, and its relations with China continued to deteriorate to the point of open conflict. The question of China led to the breakup of a D.P.A.

356

FROM PICTORIAL PARADE

'erence of the

ference of

Warsaw

Pact, to a diplomatic defeat at the

World Communist Parties

Moscow, and to the ad hoc alignments among the Eastern

oation of empirical

in

I opean states. many governments

Eastern Europe Relic. By the beginning of 1970, Poland, Hungary, and CzechPivakia had all indicated in Bonn that they would favour closer

n

the other hand,

a anxious to

improve

in

their relations with the Federal

At the same time, the issue of Germany was bound tfwith a number of other matters that were occupying an imd tant place in Soviet diplomacy the Strategic Arms Limitation United States and their effects on European seT ks with the ity; the European Security Conference that the Soviet Union although in doing so it had provided 3 attempting to organize Federal Republic with a useful bargaining counter; and the !stern call for discussions on mutual force reductions. These re the complications of the diplomacy of detente that made tions.

ij

:

—

Walter Ulbricht, the East German president, demanded full international recognition which the Federal government had ruled out beforehand as the precondition for any agreement. In doing so, he raised an issue that the Polish goverrmient had openly dropped the previous May and that the Soviet government had allowed to lapse. This kind of maneuver was directed, in fact, more toward his allies than to the Federal government.

—

—

Equally, he asserted the continuing relevance of the

Agreement

German

to the

Potsdam

and that of Berlin

situation

in par-

ticular.

Such demands and assertions were not strictly compatible; under the Potsdam Agreement, the four powers were expected to

work together

German

Germany demand full

for a united

state could hardly

and, in that case, one international recogni-

mcreasingly important to reach

But as a means of embarrassing the Soviet government, they were entirely successful. In spite of the initial success of the conversations that went on in Moscow between Brandt's special envoy, Egon Bahr, and the Soviet Foreign Ministry,

nt of the

repeated

mtiers,

Ulbricht had raised.

some kind of interim settleGerman problem. On the other side of the Soviet the dispute with China made it worthwhile to consider

'elaxation in

Europe

that

joccupation and possibly

would reduce the

mark

level of military

the beginning of a transition

a more comprehensive security system. Complications in Eastern Europe. This combination of cirmstances gave the Soviet government a powerful objective erest in a rapprochement with the Federal Republic, and in 69 both Moscow and Warsaw had shown a desire to begin partly because IS process. Movement was slow and cautious the complicating deral elections. It

factor of East

was

— Germany—

until after the

at this point that the Soviet

govem-

an offer that had already been made by the evious West German government of the grand coalition: to art talks on the mutual renunciation of the use of force. The ent accepted

plomatic soundings that followed led to an agreement by the

governments at the end of 1969

vo

to begin negotiations

toward

nonaggression pact.

Although it had not yet become clear, the implications of this were to dominate the course of the tripartite negotiations 3r the rest of the period before the German-Soviet treaty was tialed in August. The first implication was that the course

West German-Soviet negotiations would provide the frameRepublic and astern Europe. Specifically, this was against the interests of he Polish government, which in May 1969, at a time when the joviet government was barely revising its own German policy, d called for a normalization of relations between the Federal Republic and Poland and though it had obviously done this /ork for other negotiations between' the Federal

—

the blessing of the Soviet leaders,

it nonetheless clearly xpected to achieve a greater independence in the conduct of its oreign policy thereby. The agreement to begin talks between

onn and

Moscow

end of 1969 relegated relations between second rank. The second implication was that East Germany would soon Have to face a decision on whether to join in this process of Eastern rapprochement with West Germany. Here the effects ere much more immediately apparent. East Germany, in spite the approaches to Bonn made by its different allies, had shown no interest in seeking any form of rapprochement with the Federal Republic. But the Federal government was deter)nn

and Warsaw

at the

to the

ined to bring East ternal

Germany

into the process, for reasons of

domestic politics and also because

it

had

little

direct

interest in a diplomatic offensive that left out the crucial question of

how

to

improve relations between the two German states. first weeks of 1970 were dominated by attempts,

Accordingly, the the

West German

side,

to

maneuver East Germany

into

it would have to talk and, on the East German avoid any such action, or at least to raise the price beyond what the Federal government was willing to pay. Thus, in exploratory conversations at the beginning of Jan-

position where

ide,

first.

were experienced over the very points that

difficulties

While two

parallel sets of preliminary discussions

were going with special representatives of the Federal government, one of the leading figures of the East German Socialist Unity Party (SED), Erich Honecker, delivered on

in

Warsaw and Moscow

a speech in which he

German

made

a

number

of sharp attacks on

West

was equally At almost the same time,

policy, in terms that left no doubt that this

on Soviet policy. however, the East German premier, Willi Stoph, suggested talks between the two German states, and did so as a direct result of the "progress" being made in the other talks that were going on at the time. In this respect, internal divisions in both of the German states not only complicated the course of other negotiations; they also limited beforehand the scope of any concessions that one side might be able to make to the other, and a sharp attack

so built into the other negotiations a

permanent feature of un-

certainty.

ict

th

tion

to

uary, rival proposals for an eventual treaty

were put forward.

Hesitant Progress. Hence, for months

it

was

difficult to dis-

cern any real progress. After Brandt's two special envoys, Bahr

Moscow and Georg Ferdinand Duckwitz in Warsaw, had been engaging in discussions for some weeks, the final agreement was made (clearly under considerable Soviet pressure on East Gerin

many) for a meeting between the two German heads of government at Erfurt in East Germany. What this meeting signified was

far

that

it

from was a

however. Its

importance lay in the fact first such meeting since the division of Germany in 1945. But the only tangible agreement reached was that the two should meet again. In all other respects, the meeting seemed to have been self-defeating even if it was regarded as an attempt on the West German side to draw East Germany into the process of negotiation. Perhaps because of the enthusiastic public demonstration for Brandt that marked his arrival in Erfurt and that must have alarmed the East German authorities, perhaps because they themselves had little idea of what to do next, the meeting was followed by a sharp downturn in the progress of negotiations in Moscow. Indeed, at the end of March the Soviet ambassador in East Berlin, Pyotr A. Abrasimov, made a speech in which he insisted anew on all the demands that had been quietly dropped over the previous year in particular, that for full international recognition of East Germany. This was a diplomatic defeat clear,

"historic occasion"

real

— the

—

for the Soviet

government

as

much

as

for

Bonn, and

it

re-

vealed the extent to which the Soviet leaders were vulnerable, not to the threat of East German power, but to that of an East

German

crisis.

This retraction did not last. It was indicative only of the extent to which West German insistence and Soviet demands

had made Ulbricht vulnerable to domestic revolt, and of the extent to which the Soviet government was anxious to avoid the manifestations of such revolt in the leading circles of the

SED. But although

it

did not continue to affect the direct course

357

KEYSTONE

West German

back Communist and rightist demonstrators

police push

allowing each party to

during the second summit talk between East German Premier Willi Stoph and West German Chancellor Willy Brandt in Kassel.

of negotiations between

Moscow and Bonn,

it

did, as

it

were,

East Germany off the hook. For months thereafter, the East German government made no visible concessions to the imperatives of the Western Ostpolitik, and a second meeting in May between the two heads of government, this time in the West German town of Kassel, was so unproductive that not

even a date for a subsequent meeting was agreed upon. ThereEast Germans would be able to stall until the approaching success of the Moscow-Bonn negotiations again led to renewed demands from the Soviet government. Nonetheless, the points raised by the East German government, especially that of Berlin, continued to make the course of Soviet-German negotiations difficult. Although the essence of the proposed treaty was simple that the two governments should, in renouncing the use of force, provide for recognition of the existing political map of Europe without engaging the Federal government in forms of legal recognition that, either for domestic reasons or for reasons of political principle, it

after, the

—

was not of

willing to accept

—the

question of Berlin immediately

more complicated. In one sense, the finding formulas was simple: Bonn could recognize the political the situation

East Germany or of the East German-Polish fronthe Oder-Neisse Line. But if the Soviet Union was asked,

reality of tier,

by

the

same token,

to

recognize the political reality of

West

German

links with West Berlin, it refused categorically. At same time, the West German representative came under heavy, and not altogether unjustified, domestic attack, because by agreeing to the Soviet search for formulas to cover the political map of Europe, he was also, willy-nilly, recognizing the Soviet right to speak on behalf of what were supposedly fully sovereign states in Eastern Europe. In West Germany this was denounced as a virtual endorsement of the Brezhnev Doctrine. Yet the Soviet Union was not merely safeguarding its own interests; the complex of difficulties it faced in Eastern Europe

the

made

a separate declaration of

wha

t

-

let

made

make

understood by the treaty, it did much to ensure that the F eral government would not have to face intolerable dome;!' criticism

and possibly

risk a rejection of the

treaty.

Secol,-

agreed to allow for a delay in the ratification of the trei; until the four-power discussions over Berlin, which were go!: on simultaneously, had reached an agreed conclusion. This sa\ it

the Federal government from domestic embarrassment; it a gave the Soviet Union a direct incentive to reach agreement wj the three Western powers over Berlin. At the same time, ho ever,

it

increased the risk that ratification of the treaty

coi_

be delayed to the point where, if the Berlin negotiations shoi^; prove to be too drawn out, it would no longer be of great f litical importance. The treaty was initialed on August 12 b had not been ratified by the end of 1970. In spite of these concessions and these risks, the Soviet go'j ernment gained more from the treaty than did West Germar' It secured virtual recognition by a leading Western power th it was competent to negotiate on behalf of other Eastern Eur pean governments. It ensured that German-Soviet negotiatiol would provide the framework for German-Polish and perhaj

And it immediately a quired considerable resources in capital investment for, coi other subsequent bilateral negotiations.

comitantly with the progress of the treaty negotiations, the Fa Republic agreed to give the Soviet Union what was virtuall

eral

a large

measure of economic

aid.

In consequence, the German-Polish negotiations were parti held up by the progress of the Soviet round; serious substantr progress was made only after the main Soviet-West Germa:

agreements had been reached, and the treaty with Poland w not signed until December 7. But the German gains wer also significant. Relations with the Soviet Union were put or a firmer footing than at any time since World War II. Anothe of the Federal Republic's principal enemies in the East, Po^ land, was also likely to become a friendly power. And the Eas. German government was confronted with a situation in which— if only because of its own self-interest and the preservation o

—

make more

provoke the East German govboycott of the process of rapprochement by recognizing, as a counterconcession, the West German links with West Berlin.

economic links

This knot of difficulties held up the outcome of the negotiations some weeks. It was finally resolved by direct meetings between the West German and Soviet foreign ministers, Walter Scheel and Andrei A. Gromyko. In reaching a conclusion, the

exchange ambassadors without full international recognition. It was a measure of how far West German policy had developed in 1970 that this could now be regarded as an East German concession. At the same time, such a concession suggested that the course of relations between the two German states might prove to be one of the most significant elements of inter-

it

virtually impossible to

ernment into a

total

for

Soviet government

government.

First,

made two

concessions to the

West German

by accepting a reordering of the

treaty,

putting certain proposed articles into an agreed preamble, and

358

it

was

heretofore.

likely to

concessions tha" ;

In July Ulbricht made a speech at Rostock in which he" indicated, among other things, that the two German states could

national politics in 1971.

CO

lued from page

tc

and

355

n the two parts of the city. treaty with Poland was signed in

tv

.le

C ember

The main

7.

Warsaw on

difficulty in the negotiations

h been the search for a mutually acceptable formula regard to the Oder-Neisse Line. Even if it wanted VI

'

,

Bonn government could not formally recogand thus anticipate the decision of an itual peace treaty, and its recognition of the fronin principle was accompanied by notes to the as explaining that the treaty did not infringe on r rights as victorious powers. The problem of ethGermans still living in Poland and desiring to grate, which Bonn had been anxious to settle, was the

ti

this frontier

n e t ^ :

r c

dealt with in the treaty itself, but the Poles gave mdt an assurance that they would be permitted

I

]

leave by. 1972.

I

The

treaty included a nonaggres-

and normalized relations between the two a step that was expected to lead to an ex-

a clause

I

intries,

mge

Richard

Washington

in April,

M. Nixon agreed

and he and U.S.

to revive proposals

a mutual step-by-step reduction of

•

arsaw Pact forces. It was ,

made

NATO

and

clear to the chancel-

however, that the future strength of United States

rces in

Europe was

to

depend almost entirely on

w much European governments were prepared

to

y for them. Bonn's view was that U.S. forces were it in the Federal Republic merely for the defense

West German

but of the whole alliance, le financial burden, Bonn argued, should therefore shared by the N.ATO partners. (N. Cr.) territory,

;

West Berlin. Almost 22 years

to

the day after

D. Sokolovsky, then Soviet military gov•nor, had left the Allied Control Council building West Berlin, and one week after the Erfurt meetlarshal V.

1

between government leaders from the two German :ates, four-power talks were held again on Berlin ig

n

March

26, 1970.

be held since linistry level;

These were the

first

major

talks

when they were at foreign time they were at the ambas-

1954,

this

One day before, the government of East through a commentary in Berliner Zeitiing,

adorial level.

Germany,

ncked the "absurd claim" that there was a fourlAcr responsibility for the

whole of Berlin.

In contrast to earlier Berlin talks, these

were not

he result of a crisis but took place in a relatively quiet

When

the ambassadors parted, after their on December 10, no outline of a Berlin settlement was in sight, but they agreed to go on talking. In the course of one of several visits to the city during the year. Chancellor Brandt stressed at a trade union conference on September 6 that the need for a settlement for the divided city was an "inalienable part" of his Eastern policy. As a conciliatory gesture at the beginning of the talks, representatives of the three Western powers announced that, as of March 27, they would no longer require East Germans to obtain special permission before visiting member countries of NATO. This announcement meant that the Allied Travel Office in West Berlin, which had issued the necessary documents, suspended its operations. Thenceforth, citizens of East Germany were able to apply for a visa at the

itmosphere.

12th meeting

West Berlin. The West German Bundestag passed new legislation to support Berlin's economy. The new laws, which came into force on June 27, provided for improved income and corporation tax concessions, as well as for consulates in

to attract yet

residents, representing an investment of nearly

DM.

600 million ($164 million). The newcomers' share in the total turnover of West Berlin industry amounted to about 8% in 1970. (S. E. S.) German Democratic Repubiic. Area: 41,766 sq. mi. (108,173 sq.km.). Pop. (1970 est): 17,074,504. Cap. and largest city: East Berlin (pop., 1970 est., 1.083.856). Language: German. Religion (1950): Protestant 81.3%; Roman Catholic 11%. First secretary of the Socialist Unity (Communist) Party (SED)

and president

in 1970,

dent (premier)

At

his

,

Walter Ulbricht; minister

presi-

Willi Stoph.

meeting with Premier Stoph

March 19, Chancellor Brandt reaffirmed "we must not make it impossible for people to decide

of ambassadors.

3randt went to 3s.

and white-collar workers, more investment and labour from West Germany and elsewhere. Since the building of the Berlin wall in August 1961, 132 new businesses and plants had been established in West Berlin by nonspecial allowances for blue-

adequate telephone links be-

to reestablish

in

Erfurt on

his

the

in free self-determination

view that

German how they

to live together." A month or so later, on April East Germany's State Council approved a "Declaration on the Implementation of the Principles of

want 29.

Democratic International Law in the GDR f German Democratic Republic) after the Defeat of Hitler Fascism," which said that the founding of the GDR was "an act of popular sovereignty implementing the people's right of self-determination." In spite of the

touehness of their confrontation in Kassel on May 21, both Brandt and Stoph made it clear on their return to their respective capitals the next day that they were ready to continue their talks at a later date. East Germany's Council of Ministers welcomed the Soviet-West German treaty on August 14, saying that its terms now made necessary the establishment of full diplomatic relations between East and West Germany. There was no reason at all for any state to evade diplomatic relations with the GDR. While Bonn had made it clear before and after the signing of the Moscow treaty that its ratification would depend on

the normalization of the West Berlin situation, the East German leaders clearly did not share this view. Speaking on October 7 at the 21st anniversary ceremony of the GDR, Stoph, without making a direct

By

360

the middle of October the

GDR was maintainir

diplomatic relations at the ambassadorial levi with 26 countries. During 1970 the governments c full

Germany

seven Afro-Asian countries accorded diplomatic nition to the

GDR:

the

Congo

recof

(Brazzaville), Somali;

the Central African Republic, Algeria, Maldives, Cej

and Guinea. The Indian government

Ion,

raised

th

status of

its

trade mission to that of consulate

February

19.

An

Office for External

Economic

o

Rel;

tions, operating in

conjunction with the Ministry c Foreign Trade, was set up on February 12 to he! further trade relations with those countries that di not accord

full

diplomatic recognition.

A

represent;

French industry was opened in Ea; Berlin on February 18. On the same day Austria tive office for

Chamber

Federal

of

Commerce agreed

to establis

East Berlin. The Londo Chamber of Commerce announced the formation c an East German section on July 20. According to a ordinance published on October 20, the products o East Germany's industry were no longer to be marke

an Austrian trade mission

in

"made in Germany" but "made in the GDR." The Politburo report to the 12th plenum of th Socialist Unity Party Central Committee spoke o an 8.4% increase in production of industrial good

KEYSTONE

The West German government came under fire from conservationists for failure to spend more money to combat pollution from industries such as these in the Ruhr

in

district.

reference to

t;ie

Berlin problem, said that anyone try-

ing to establish a link between matters that had nothing to do with one another,

and

to

impose precondi-

tions, could only cause complications.

On October official visit to

21

Walter Ulbricht paid a three-day

Czechoslovakia, the

itary intervention in

first

since the mil-

August 1968 which he described

as a "not very pleasant historical episode."

The

visit

1969 over 1968, a

5%

rise

in

national incomf

and an 8% increase in productivity. The plan fulfill ment report for the first half of 1970 stated that na tional income advanced by 5% over the correspondin period of 1969. The target for the whole of 1970 wa 6.3%. Industrial production grew by 7.5% on average compared with a plan target of 8%, and labour pro ductivity by more than 6%, against a planned 9.4^( Under an agreement concluded on August 13. trad between East Germany and the U.S.S.R. was plannei to increase by 55% in volume in the 1971-75 perioc Nearly half of the trade envisaged would be in ma chines and equipment, with the biggest increase ii

tacts with a

highly sophisticated machinery. According to the So viet newspaper Pravda, trade between the two coun

the

tries in

came

a

week

after Czechoslovakia's first working con-

West German representative to discuss improvement of relations between Bonn and

1975 would exceed that of West

Germany

witl

Prague.

the U.S., Britain, or France. In 1970 the Soviet shan

With effect from October 1, every citizen of East Germany, male or female, over the age of 16 could be

of East Germany's foreign trade was 43%. On Janu ary 29 the French government concluded a five-yea trade agreement with East Germany, providing fo

drafted for "national service" in the event of "crises, for men The new law superseded a Civil Defense Act of 1958. The government of West Germany decided on March 12 that the flag and emblems of the GDR could be shown at all

war or natural would end at

disaster." 65,

for

Compulsory service

women

sports meetings, exhibitions,

at

60.

and other events.

a doubling of trade

The

between the two countries.

sensation of the Leipzig Spring Fair was

thi

hour-long conversation of Ulbricht and Stoph witl Otto Wolff von Amerongen, president of West Ger

many's Association of German Chambers of Industry and Commerce, on March 2. Newspapers in Easi

GERMANY:

Democratic Republic Education. (1967-68) Primary, pupils 2,339,-

204; secondary, pupils 100,668; vocational, pupils 508,841; teacher training, students 14,907; primary, secondary, vocational, and teacher training, teachers 127,664; higher (including 7 universities), students 106,534, teaching staff (1966-

67)14, 200. unit: "Mark of the German Issue" (MDN, or Ostmark), with an eN-change rate of MDN.(0.) 2.2 2 to U.S. £\ sterling) and a gen$1 (MnNJO.l 5.33 eral rate (Oct. 1970) of MDN.(0.) 4.20 to U.S. 10.01 £1 sterling). Budget $1 (MDV.ro. 1 (actual; l'36Sl: revenue (O.) 60,939.000,-

Finance. Monetary

Bank

of

official

=

=

MDN.

expenditure MDN.(0.) 000; Gross material product: (1967)

60.093,000,000. 101 2

MDN.(0.)

(1966) MDN.(0.) 95.7 billion. Foreign Trade. (1968) Imports MDN.(0.)

billion;

15,432,000,000; exports MDN.(0.) 17,285,000,000. Import sources: U.S.S.R. 41%; Czechoslovakia 9%; West Germany 8%; Poland 6%.

U.S.S.R. 38%; Czecho10%; West Germany 8%; Poland 7%; Hungary 5%. Main exports: lignite, chemicals,

Export

destinations:

slovakia

machinery, transport equipment.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1967) c. 160,000 km. (including 46,832 km. main roads and 1,391 km. autobahns). Motor vehicles (1968): passenger 920,200; commercial (including buses) 352,800. Railways (1968); traf1 5,237 km. (including 1,203 km. electrified) fic 17,098,000.000 passenger-km., freight (1969) ;

39,445.000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic ( 1068): 730.1 million passenger-km.; freight 24.090.000 net ton-km. Navigable inland vvaterwavs in regular use (1967) 2,519 km.; freight traffic (1968) 2,443,000,000 ton-km. Shipping (1969): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 371; gross tonnage 895,932. Telephones (Dec. 1968) 1.896,151. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) 5.942,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1968) 4.173,000.' Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons;

1969; 1968 in parentheses): potatoes c. 9,00C (12,639): wheat (1968) 2,377, (1967) 2,012; rye c. 1,480 (1,936); barley c. 2,080 (2,131); oats c. 810 (864); sugar, raw value (1969-70) c. 489, (1968-69) c. 405. Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1968): sheep 1.794; cattle 5.109; pigs 9,523; horses used in agriculture 188; poultry 38.802. 100): Industry. Index of production (1963 (1969) 144; (1968) 134. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969): lignite 254,000; coal (1968) 1,579; petroleum products (1968) 9,190; manufactured gas (cu.m.; 1968) 3,868,000; electricity (kw-hr.) 65,463,000; iron ore (metal content; 1968) 354; pig iron 2.097; crude steel 4.826; potash (oxide content; 1968) 2,293; cement 7,551; sulfuric acid 1,104; synthetic ( 1968) rubber (1968) 102; cotton yarn ( 1968) 73; rayon filaments and fibres (1968) 158; passenger 1968) 115; commercial vehicles cars (units; (units; 1968) 24.

=

ilrmany gave

prominent coverage

to

event,

this

from

ereas in the past the presence of exhibitors

•

Germany had been consistently ignored. September 4 the Potsdam District Court

•st

)n

sen-

ced two young Americans, Jack Strickland, 28, of ita Barbara, Calif., and Lyle Jenkins, 31, of Nor-

and 2^ years' imprisonment, on charges involving East Germans aledly trying to reach the West. Mark Huess of richo, Vt., was sentenced to 7 years by an East rlin court on September 27, for allegedly saying it the East German government would collapse if viet troops were withdrawn. A fourth American, ank King. 25, of Detroit, was arrested on July 10, ^ether with his British cousin, Michael Woodbridge London. On October 10 the U.S. authorities in ;rlin restricted the granting of visas to East GerVa., to 4 years'

k,

pectively,

:

ans in retaliation for the detention of these four (S. E. S.)

en.

Germany — People

EncycloP/EDIA Beitannic.4 Films. Industrial West (1957) Berlin: Test for the IVest

e

;

(

1962

361

resentment came to the surface when police started to round up aliens during the two-week grace period that expired on December 2. Predictably, the result was panic, confusion, and a mass exodus in circumstances that caused

much

Ghana

personal suffering.

Early in 1970 the prime minister clashed with the judiciary following his attempt to cut government spending by reducing the level of the 200,000-strong Civil Service. One of the 568 axed officials sued the government for wrongful dismissal; in April, when the Supreme Court upheld the official's appeal, Busia accused two judges of playing politics. Debates on this issue in the National Assembly underlined the tribal cleavage between the Akan-Ashanti-based government and the mainly Ewe opposition. The political influence of the Ashanti tribal leaders was demonstrated in May when the Asantehene, Nano Opoku II, was enstooled on the death of his uncle and unanimously elected president of the House of Chiefs, which entitled him

on the national Council of State. In August, when presidential powers were trans-

to a seat of ).

ferred from the three-man commission to President

Akufo-Addo, Afrifa, who had headed the commission, was promoted to lieutenant general in recognition

ihana

of his leading role in restoring civilian rule.

republic

Coast.

fid Togo.

1970)

its

:

large-scale

8,545,561. Cap. and largest city: Accra Cpop.,

al

970 the three-man Presidential Commission was reby Pres. Edward Akufo-Addo; prime minister

)laced

n 1970, Kofi Busia.

m

Ghana's return to a government culminated,

institutional process of

democratic system of civilian

Aug. 31, 1970, in the election by the electoral col-

ege of

Edward Akufo-Addo

(see

Biography),

ner chief justice, as president for

a'

a for-

four-year term,

dominated by the ruhng Progress Party and elected by substantial majority, Akufo-Addo took over from

three-man Presidential Commission comAkwasi A. Afrifa, J. W. K. Harlley, and 'Mij. Gen. A. K. Okran. When the commission was the interim

prising Brig.

titutionally dissolved

cized

on August

7,

Afrifa

criti-

some aspects of the constitution, but the result of went unchallenged except by one of the

the election

other three presidential candidates

—Joe

.\ppiah, pres-

Bar Association, whose appeal against its validity was rejected by the Supreme Court. Toward the end of 1969 Ghana's relations with its West African neighbours were badly jolted by the Busia Cabinet's decision (in the prime minister's ab-

ident of the

sence abroad) to enforce a deportation order against

who had failed to ask for residence permits. The order, issued on November 19, gave those without permits two weeks to apply for them or leave the country. Those affected may have numbered more than half of Ghana's two million aliens (comprising almost a quarter of its whole population) and were made up mainly of Nigerians (at least 700,000), about 500,000 immigrants from Upper Volta, and smaller numbers from Dahomey, Togo, Ivory Coast, Niger, and Liberia. Most of these immigrants were engaged in petty trading, and they were widely blamed for the fact that Ghana had 600,000 unemployed. This local aliens

Ghana's its

unemployment, low productivity, and

in-

in

August, the finance minister,

H. Mensah, introduced a "hard work" budget. A business promotion act confined a variety of small trading and other activities to Ghanaian citizens. Seeking a long-term accommodation that would ease

GHAN.^ Education.

(1967-68) Primary, pupils 1,288,383, teachers 49,098; secondary, pupils 179,044, teachers 2.999; vocational, pupils 1 7,587, teachers 775; teacher training, students 16,782, teachers 1,200; higher (including 3 universities), students 4,768, teaching staff 672._

Finance. Monetary unit: new

cedi, with a par value cedis to U.S. $1 (2.45 cedis £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, official: (June 1970) U.S. $81.6 million; (June 1969) U.S. $99.9 million. Budget (1970-71 est.): revenue 426.7 million cedis; expenditure 324.4 million cedis. Gross national product: (1968) 2,035,000,000 cedis; (1967) 1,757,000,000 cedis. Money supply: (May 1970) 283.4 million cedis; (May 1969) 236.3 million cedis. Cost of living (Accra; 1963 100): (April 1970) 166; (April 1969) 159. Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports 354,391,000 cedis; exports 333,264,000 cedis. Import sources: U.K. 27%;

=

of 1.02

1

i

in

J.

est.,

The

payments

deficit,

flated prices. Also

92,100 sq. Pop.

sq.km.).

615,800). Language; English (official); loSudanic dialects. Religion; traditional tribal beiefs; Christian and Muslim minorities. In August 968

need to tackle the problems reflected

external debt and balance of

Upper Volta,

Area:

(238.539

Welcom-

ing the emergence of the civilian regime, he stressed

Africa,

is

uinea

li.

West

on the Gulf of and is bordered by

hana ory

of

=

Germany 11%; Japan 6%. Export 32%; U.S. 14%; Netherlands 10%; West Germany 10%; Japan 8%. Main exports: cocoa timber 48%; 12%: gold 8%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1968) c. 31,000 km. Motor vehicles in use (1968): passenger U.S. 18%; West destinations: U.K.

commercial (including buses) 21,400. Railtraffic 42 5 million passengerkm., freight 272 million net ton-km. Air traffic ( 1969) 134 million passenger-km. freight 3,5 million net tonkm. Shipping (1969): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 61; gross tonnage 165,670. Telephones (Dec. 1968) 35,950. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) 700,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1968) 6,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969; 1968 in parentheses) corn 305 (301 ) cassava ( 1968) 1,075, (1967) 1,174; sweet potatoes (1968) 1,351, 32,200;

ways (1968): 1,271 km.;

;

:

;

(1967) 1,134; millet and sorghum (1968) 131, (1967) 164; rice 61 (65); peanuts (1968) 62, (1967) 39; cocoa (exports; 1968-69) 339, (1967-68) 423; timber (cu.m.; 1968) 8.700, (1967) 8,600; fish catch (1968) 102, (1967) 1 10, Livestock (in 000; 1968-69): cattle c. 690; sheep c. 700; pigs c. 320; goats (1967-68) c. 700.

Industry. Production (in 000; 1968): gold 727 troy diamonds 2,447 metric carats; manganese ore (metal content) 198 metric tons; bauxite (1969) 246 metric tons; electricity (1969) 2,772,000 kw-hr. oz.;

Gerontology: Medicine; Social Services

see

pressures for the repayment of Ghana's external debts, government delegations visited Western and Communist capitals in April and May. A U.S. loan of up to U.S. Si 5 million was negotiated in Washington and, aided by an International Development Association credit of U.S. $8.5 million, Ghana embarked on the first stage of a program to rehabilitate the cocoa in-

362

Golf

dustry.

London conference with IS major Western Ghana secured an arrangement that refinanced about £130 million of medium-term debts contracted by the Nkrumah regime. In effect, At

a

creditors on July 7-11,

ensured a two-year moratorium (July 1970-June 1972) on 50% of the amounts due (both principal and interest). In London, J. H. Mensah, Ghana's chief this

negotiator, described this relief as "useful" but in-

on the need for a

sisted DE

WORLD

if

Ghana was

Britain gave

really long-term settlement

to recover its prosperity.

Ghana an

On

July 27

interest-free 25-year loan of

£3.7 million to be used for buying British goods and services projects.

and on mutually agreed upon development (M. Mr.)

ships in Madrid.

The

modern tournament

would became the first British golfer, and only the second from overseas, to win the United States Open championship. His victory by seven strokes was the largest margin except for that of James Barnes in 1921. At the time, Jacklin was British Open champion and for a month held both titles, a distinction previously achieved only by Bobby Jones and Gene Sarazen in the 1930s, Ben Hogan in 1953, and Jack Xicklaus In the history of

golf 1970

Tony

Jacklin

in 1967.

Xicklaus gained his second victory in the British Tony Jacklin tosses

his

putter after sinking his putt for a birdie

on the 18th hole to win the U.S. Open

championship at the Hazeltine National

Golf Club

in

Chaska,

Minn., June 21, 1970.

Jack NIcklaus, for a

in

the rough

moment, went on

to win the

Open at

1970

St.

British

Andrews.

Open

at St.

Andrews,

Scot., bringing his total in the

four major championships to eight,

more than any Ben Hogan, Billy Casper redeemed his failure of the previous year by winning the Masters at Augusta, Ga,, and eventually was named as the U.S. Professional Golfers' Association (PGA) player of the year. The top money winner of 1970 was Lee Trevino, whose earnings for the season totaled more than $156,000. other modern golfer save

On the international scene the United States won men and women's world amateur team champion-

the

never

closel

and

Australia,

disappointing performance by Great Britain and

them

i

Ire

seventh place, 25 strokes behind th week at the Club de Campo th U.S. women struggled home by one stroke ove France, Their champion, Martha Wilkinson, gainefive strokes from Catherine Lacoste de Prado ove land

left

U.S.

The

in

following

the last ten holes of the final round.

In World Cup competition at Buenos Aires in No vember, Australia, with David Graham and Bruc Devlin, won its first championship since 1959. Argen tina finished second, and its leading player, Roberti de Vicenzo, won the individual title by one stroke fron Graham. Earlier in the summer the U.S. women bea Great Britain and Ireland 1 1t-6^ at Brae Burn, Mass, and retained the Curtis Cup, The greatest individual performance of the yea was that of Jacklin in the U,S. Open at Chaska. Minn Many of the leading golfers had expressed their dis but Jacklin kept his counsel,

the lead in a strong

be memorable as the year when

men were

for second place with South Africa

like of the course,

Golf

U.S.

challenged at Puerto de Hierro and finished 12 stroke ahead of New Zealand, which survived a tight contes

wind on the

first

tool

day, and wa.

never caught. While others, notably Arnold Palmer Gary Player, and Jack Xicklaus, were flounderinf with first-day scores of around 80, Jacklin came ir with a 71, One of his major strengths was his supert putting.

The

following day Jacklin maintained a lead ol

Dave Hill, whose criticisms oi him a fine. In the third round Jackplayed with Hill, and once again a masterly short

three strokes over the course earned lin

two wonderful recovery shots, anc him to add another stroke to his lead. For one brief passage before the turn on the final day Jacklin faced crisis, but a great putt hammered home on the 9th steadied him, and he finished the final round with confidence. In the championship he had only 113 putts and was under par game, at

least

great holing out enabled

every round, a feat previously achieved only by in 1968. The impact of his victory on British golf was incalculable. For the first time in a generation the U.K. had produced a competitor of the in

Lee Trevino

highest class.

Jacklin at St.

made

a spirited defense of his British

Andrews. In

ficiently prepared,

title

was not sufcommercial commitments

spite of fears that he

owing

to

since his victory in the U,S., he shot to the turn on the Old Course in 29, the lowest ever in a championand was 8 under par playing the 14th-

ship there,

a violent thunderstorm flooded the course and stopped play. The spell was broken although Jacklin finished in 67 the next morning and, with Xicklaus. was only a stroke behind Trevino after two rounds. His challenge continued until the closing holes of the fourth round when the most dramatic finish that

when

even

St.

Andrews had ever seen was developing. Sanders, making a brilliant return

When Doug

to

championship contention, played an outstanding bunker shot to the side of the 1 7th hole and X'icklaus, playing ahead, took three putts on the 18th, Sanders needed only a four on the final hole to win. The 18th measures only 358 yd., with no hazards of any kind except the smooth hollow of the Valley of Sin guarding the green, but Sanders was only able to score five. His first putt was a yard short, and he missed the next. Xo one within memory had missed a shorter putt to lose a major championship outright. In the play-off of the tie Nicklaus steadily established a fourPOPPERFOTO

FROM

PICTORIAL

PARADE

but Sanders countered with great spirit end Nicklaus, after a monumental drive green, had to sink a six-foot putt to win

)ke lead,

;.

in the

j|i

the last

J

unemployment was unpleasantly

Fiscal policy

is

in

putting touch in the blustering wind, and Harold Henning, Neil Coles, and Peter Oosterhuis. hough Christy O'Connor won the £25,000 first ze, the highest ever in Britain, in the John Player

and interest

jrnament. Coles was clearly the finest golfer of the

hibited the smallest advance in economic activity

lost his

competing

in the

U.K., and Oosterhuis the most

took possession of the U.S. Masters tourna-

.nals

again with Billy Casper beating

Gene

Littler

by

an anticlimactic play-off. The two men d survived a great contest with Player. On the last e strokes in

Je Casper's eight-foot putt for victory circled the

and stayed out, and Player missed his tie from e same distance. In the play-off everything seemed run for Casper, but as the most consistent tourna•nt player of the time his success was deserved, i. e Stockton added a further chapter to the conluing frustration of Arnold Palmer in the PGA nmpionship at Tulsa, Okla. Stockton's inspired hing and putting set a pace that Palmer was unle

match.

to

le

In women's professional golf Shirley Englehorn

won

PGA

tournament by four strokes in an nole play-off with Kathy Whitworth. Donna Caponi n her second straight U.S. Women's Open by one )ke over Sandra Haynie and Sandra Spuzich. Miss I? ynie was named the player of the year on the basis f two tournament victories and five second-place Ladies'

:

r.:;hes.

October the joint committee of the Royal and Golf Club and the U.S. Golf Association lounced their agreement that a uniform-size golf of minimum diameter 1.66 in. was feasible for throughout the world. If further tests confirmed

In

i'cient

t

view,

it

was

to

be recommended for adoption by

he governing bodies. This

would mean that the

exist-

ng L62-in. British- and 1.68-in. U.S.-size balls would De obsolete, and a period of some years would be lecessary for existing stocks to be used. Dall '

would be confined

to

a

maximum

per sec. as currently permitted

ft. :

velocity tests

would be introduced

The new

velocity of in

the U.S.,

in Britain.

(P. A. W.-T.)

iGovernment Finance economic stabilization requirements on budget policy ("often called fiscal policy) were unusually complicated in most industrialized countries. If aggreigate demand in an economy is strong, generating upward pressures on prices and wages, one of the major In 1970

corrective policies available (or decrease the deficit)

budget, either

by

in

is

to increase the surplus

government by curbing expendi-

the central

raising taxes or

by a combination of the two. Conversely, unemployed labour or unutilized industrial caemerge as a result of flagging private demand,

tures, or

should pacity

monetary policy

fecting the

appropriate to redirect budget policy toward a reduced surplus Cor a higher deficit) as a means of bolstering aggregate demand. In many industrialized it is

countries in

1970, however, prices and wages were

rising strongly in

response to earlier

demand pressures,

money

Finance

central

{i.e.,

bank

activities af-

supply, commercial bank credit,

rates).

In some countries,

policies are designed to influence prices

still

other

and wages

through direct government intervention. United States. The U.S. economy in 1970 exthe highest average level of

—

unemployment

and

in several

^by November more than 5% of the labour was unemployed, compared with less than 4% during 1966-69. This performance was the not unexpected result of extraordinarily restrictive fiscal and monetary policies undertaken in 1969 in an attempt to curb excess demand and inflation. While these policies

years

Dmising.

After several years' lapse the established profes-

,'nt

Government

not the only stabilization tool avail-

The championship was memorable for great golf Trevino, who had seemed a probable winner until

ir

363

high.

able to governments. It has at least an equal partner

a stroke.

-

even though current demand was no longer excessive and, in fact,

force

succeeded in slowing down the economy in 1970, they were notably less successful in stopping inflation, and prices and wages rose rapidly for

most of the year. government for the fiscal year ended June 30. 1970, showed a small deficit, as against a small surplus originally budgeted for the period and a small surplus actually achieved for the preceding year. (See Table.) The change from earlier estimates came about as a result of somewhat slower growth of revenues than had originally been forecast, caused, in turn, by slower growth in the economy and in taxable incomes. Regular expenditures were held close to original estimates, and net lending was actu-

The budget

ally

for the U.S.

lower than budgeted.

Both receipts and expenditures grew considerably less in 1970 than had been typical for several years. On the expenditure side, this was primarily attributable to the leveling off of defense spending, which was actually a bit lower in 1970 than in 1969. On the receipts side, the slower growth in 1970 resulted from the combined effects of economic slowdown and the first

10%

phase of the elimination of the special

in-

come tax surtax initiated in 1968. The budget for fiscal 1971, transmitted to Congress by Pres. Richard Nixon on Feb. 2, 1970, was also planned to show a small surplus, although indications as of late 1970

were that receipts were running con-

siderably lower, and expenditures

than originally budgeted.

It

somewhat

higher,

thus appeared that 1971

would show a sizable deficit by the time the fiscal year was over. Defense spending was expected to be down sharply in 1971, reflecting the phased withdrawal of troops from Vietnam. Civilian spending appeared to be rising, however, in line with the experience of recent years, even though Congress had failed to approve some of President Nixon's major new expenditure initiatives. Revenue growth in fiscal 1971

was again being retarded by the economic slowdown which began about the middle of 1969, and also by the second phase of surtax elimination and

by

cer-

revenue-reducing "reforms" of the tax system enacted in late 1969, notably an increase in personal exemptions, an increase in the minimum standard deduction, and a new ceiling on tax rates applicable to earned income. tain

Gibraltar: see

Although the federal budget appeared headed for a substantial deficit in 1971, this could not

by

itself

be taken to indicate that fiscal policy was an expansionary influence on the economy. On the contrary, the prospective deficit could be attributed almost entirely to revenue shortfall caused by flagging private incomes and demand. A passive deficit of this kind

Dependent States

Glass Manufacture: sec Industrial

Review

Gliding: see

Sporting Record

Gold: see Mining; Payments and Reserves, International

364

Government Finance

does not have the same significance for the economy as a in

comparable

deficit reflecting tax cuts or increases

expenditure. For purposes of analyzing the eco-

effect of the budget, the distinction between "active" and "passive" sources of deficit is sometimes made by reference to a so-called "high employment"

nomic

budget, in which the surplus or deficit

is

calculated

by comparing expenditures, not with actual revenues, but with the hypothetical level ol revenues that would obtain at high employment (generally taken in the case of the U.S. to mean no more than 4% of the civilian labour force unemployed). On this basis, the "high employment" federal budget in 1971 would probably show approximate balance or even a small surplus (although official estimates on this basis are not published), indicating that fiscal policy in fiscal 1971 would be neutral or mildly restraining on the

economy, rather than expansionary. In a speech late Nixon indicated that his next budget, while actually in deficit, would be formulated so that it would balance if there were high employin 1970, President

ment.

A major

reform of that portion of the Executive

Office of the President responsible for preparation of

the federal budget

was undertaken during 1970. Un-

der the reform, the Bureau of the Budget

—

originally

created as part of the Treasury Department in the early 1920s and transferred to the Executive Office by

—

Franklin D. Roosevelt ceased to exist, and was replaced by a new Office of Management and Budget (0MB). Although the reform at first threatened an unworkable separation of responsibility for policy formulation and budget preparation, this problem was resolved by including the director of 0MB as a member of the President's Domestic Council, and the new machinery appeared to be functioning satisfactorily by year's end. The most significant changes appeared to be somewhat enhanced stature and authority for the director of 0MB as compared with Pres.

the budget director under the previous arrangement,

and greater attention within the Executive

management

efficiency

throughout

Office to

executive

the

branch of government. State and local governments in the U.S. were pinched financially to an even greater extent than usual. The strong growth of demand for state and local government services, which had been characteristic of

World War

the entire period since

con-

II,

Yet the sluggish performance of the national the growth of taxable sales and incomes and consequently the yields from existing taxes. At the same time, the rather stringent monetary tinued.

economy held down

The Budget of the U.S. Government In

$000,000,000 Fiscol yeors

1969

ending June 30, 1970 1971

(Jan.

Item

(Jon.

1

(actual)

est.)

(octual)

est.)

137.8 183.1

199.4

193.8 195.0

202.1 200.1

and

credit conditions that prevailed for

was evidence of somewhat greater taxpayer to

new

or increased levies.

Some 20

of

th

resistant

state legislature

did raise rates on one or more of their taxes, includin,

10 states in which rates were raised on major income sales, or excise levies.

However, both

the

number

separate tax actions and the amounts of revenue

d in

volved were well below the pattern of recent years

The number of major new state taxes in 197( was well below the recent pattern. Proposals for ne\ income taxes were defeated by the voters in Soutl Dakota and the state of Washington in November Proposed income-tax rate increases were rejected two other states in California by the legislature ant in Missouri by voter referendum. Personal incomi tax rates were increased in West Virginia and in tht District of Columbia, and the personal income taj in Louisiana b> base was broadened in three states eliminating the deduction for federal income taxes in Michigan by a temporary suspension of certain ta? credits; and in New Hampshire by including incomt earned in the state by nonresidents. New Hampshire enacted a new 6% tax on business profits, and Kansas and Rhode Island increased the rates on their existing corporate income taxes. Of the states levying general Louisiana and New Jerseyretail sales taxes, two Colorado, Kansas, and Michiraised rates and three gan broadened the tax base to cover previously unii

—

—

— —

—

taxed transactions.

West Germany. As in 1969, fiscal policy in West Germany in 1970 airhed at achieving budget surpluses as a

means

of cooling inflationary pressures in the

economy. Expenditures

in

1969 were restrained from

increasing as fast as revenues, so that public sector debt declined (by contrast with rather sizable increases in public debt in recent years).

The draft federal government budget for 1970 was adopted by the Cabinet and sent to the legislature somewhat later than usual at the enel of January because of the change in government in late 1969.

—

It

provided for a

12%

increase in spending, to

DM.

91.4 billion, and a cash deficit of DM. 2.7 billion. At the same time, DM. 2.7 billion of planned expendi-

was temporarily blocked, to be released only some slackening in the strong pace of economic ad-

tures if

vance warranted such a move. Moreover, the federal government was to set aside an additional DM. 1.5 billion in contracyclical reserves, to be deposited with the Bundesbank by the end of June; as much federal spending as possible was to be postponed from the first to the second half of the year; and previously planned tax cuts for wage and salary earners were postponed and temporary surtaxes on corporate and individual incomes were extended

1

most

year severely limited the ability of state and Iocs governments to borrow funds for capital improve It ments at reasonable interest rates. Moreover, ther

uled expiration dates.

Some

beyond

their sched-

special factors contributed

planned growth of expenditures in 1970, notably war victims and transfer payments to farmers to compensate for threatened income to the

Receipts Expenditures

Expenditure surplus (-f) or deficit (-)

+

4.7

Net lending

195.0

+

Budget surplus (+) or deficit (-)

+

3.2

+

4.4

-1-

1.5

2.0 0.7

2.9

1.5

-

2.9

+

1.3

Composition of expenditures and net lending Notional defense

Other

81.2 103.3

1

79.4 18.5

80.3 116.5

73.6 127.2

Total

184.6

l9A9

196.8

200.8

Note: Detoil

may

not

odd

to totals

due

to rounding.

increases in pensions to

losses resulting

1969.

The

from the revaluation

of the

mark

in

financial position of the social insurance

funds was expected to improve considerably in 1970, partly because of the rapid increase in wage and salary income liable to contributions, and partly because of from 16 a further increase of one percentage point

—

to

17%

—

in the

contribution rate.

Expenditures of the Lander (states) were also reDM. 1 billion of their planned ex-

strained in 1970

—

i

was to be set aside in contracyclical reon deposit with the Bundesbank. Thus, the )lic sector as a whole (i.e., local government, social jrance funds, and central government combined)

^

i

365

diture

J

Government

/es

s I

Finance

expected to show a substantial surplus in 1970 the second year in a row.

j

German economic boom showed more

The West

jngth than expected in the face of these restrictive

:

In July the government announced a tax surcharge for the

policies.

al ,v

10% temporary income

iod Aug. 1, 1970, to July 1, 1971, and temporary backs in tax depreciation allowances for firms. The ommended surtaxes would have the unusual feature

being repayable in later years. .\

major reform of the West German public finance

j;tem went into effect on Jan. legislation

May

enacted

1,

12, 1969.

1970. as a result

By

redistributing

shares of the federal government, the Lander,

'

major revenue Lander were given a more stable (i.e., cyclically sensitive) mix of revenues, and mu-

d the municipalities in the various urces, the s

were given revenue sources likely to reto economic growth in future jrs. Specifically, the Lander would receive 30% of e revenues accruing under the value-added tax AT), in which they previously did not share; the iiider share of individual and corporate income X was reduced and the federal share increased; and e municipalities would share in the proceeds of the come tax for the first time Cpreviously they had lied principally on local trade taxes). Other less lortant revenues were also redistributed, and preing inequities among municipalities were reduced. Japan. The Japanese budget outcome in the 1969ipalities

1

lad

more strongly

won't feel a thing" lerman, ''Long Island Press."

,

fiscal

year reflected a larger year-to-year growth

revenues than had been forecast initially, thanks

than anticipated growth of the national

faster

inomy. However, expenditures also exceeded

I

u '

1

1

expenditures rather than reductions in reve-

ited as

!

II

Japanese central government budget), liecause of the general elections at the end of 1969, ' budget for the fiscal year beginning in April was in the

e

month and was not announced

lyed a

i

u'inning of 0'

initial

mainly because of higher payments of rice isidies following a bumper crop, and larger trans- of tax revenues to local governments (which are ns.

il

increase

until

by

a large

18%

—

slightly

more than

increase

was

to

the

The

increase.

penditure rise would have been even larger

if

ex-

strikes

by employees of the revenue service and the postal service had not delayed the recording of both receipts and expenditures in the latter part of the year. Public debt rose

10%

1969 (to 19.1 billion lire); the inpursued by the central bank made it difficult for the Treasury to sell bonds to the nonbank public, and the share of public debt held in

terest rate policies being

by the central bank rose from 17

22%

to

of the

total.

The

1970 was expected to be

deficit for

with regular expenditures scheduled

more than

substantially

revenues.

to

still

rise

With

higher,

17%,

inflation

threatening Italy's previously favourable balance of 1971, submitted by Parliament in July 1970, aimed at achieving a less expansionary fiscal policy, mainly by holding down expenditure growth. The budgeted 8% increase in expenditures would be mainly for current rather than capital outlays, with higher wages trade, however, the budget for

the

government

and

salaries

to

for civil servants

and increased

social

economy.

security pensions accounting for most of the rise.

be financed by a small increase growth of revenues

In June 1970, after consultation with the trade unions, the government had agreed to increase income tax

e\7)ected rate of expansion in the national '

the

February. Expenditures were budgeted

most of the

benefits accounted for

irporate tax. together with the

The most

rapidly rising expendi-

exemptions, to be compensated by higher tax rates.

item was again subsidies to rice farmers. Italy. At the beginning of 1970 the Italian economy

The Chamber of Deputies subsequently voted to make this change effective for final 1970 paychecks. The government proposals for a major reform of

!er

v a,

existing taxes.

still

The

disturbances, which

began

involved

servants, industrial workers,

civil

dents, resulted in a tion,

wave

experiencing the effects of the severe

of strikes that

in 1969.

marked

and

stu-

deterioration in produc-

sharply rising wages and costs, and a significant

deterioration in the balance of payments.

omy resumed

its

The econ-

strong growth in 1970. but the

civil

disturbances had left an aftermath of inflation that

contrasted with the rather stable prices experienced for several years.

The 1969 and 1970 budgets were both strongly

the Italian tax

ment

in

and finance system, submitted

1969, were

in 1970.

to Parlia-

The aims

of

improve collection procedures; improve coordination between central government finances and those of local authorities; and permit the financial system to be more responsive to economic stabilization requirements. The proposed reform would provide for a single progressive income tax to replace 16 different taxes and surtaxes levied at various levels of government, and

company

a single

revenues, and the government deficit

enterprise levies.

measured by borrowing needs) rose to 1,590.000,000 lire, compared with 1,192,000,000 lire in 1968; central government expenditures and a large increase in social security

pending

the reform were to simplify the tax structure

expansionary. In 1969 expenditures rose faster than (

still

profits tax to replace a variety of

Proposals were also ation

made

to simplify indirect tax-

by the adoption of a 10%,

present

4%

;

VAT

to replace the

cascade-type sales tax, as well as a num-

366

Government Finance

ber of other national and local taxes.

EEC

policy was

have member countries rely on VAT as their primary form of indirect taxation, as a step toward tax harmonization in the Community. Italy was supposed to switch over to VAT on Jan. 1, 1970, but it obtained EEC permission to postpone the change to Jan. 1, to

1972, in light of the

volume

of preparatory

work

re-

its case. In December 1969 Italy also reached agreement with the EEC on a two-stage reduction of rates at which Italian exporters could be reimbursed for taxes paid under the present sales tax, pending the switchover to VAT. The reduction, to be com-

quired in

pleted Jan.

1,

1971, would tend to increase Italian

export prices, mainly those for chemicals, textiles, engineering, and automobiles.

United Kingdom. The British budget system is in that expenditure and revenue estimates are

unusual

presented at different times. Expenditure forecasts for the various ministries and agencies are presented around the turn of the calendar year, well before 1. On budget day, which is usually in April, the chancellor of the Exchequer presents the government's tax and borrowing program to Parliament, along with an analysis and forecast of the domestic economy and the balance of international payments. The stabilization program for fiscal 1969-70 featured stringent restraints on public expenditure and

the start of the fiscal year on April

substantial increases in taxation.

The

resulting large

budget surplus, together with tight reins on the extension of bank credit to the private sector, succeeded in

holding

down import growth

while releasing pro-

duction for export, enabling the U.K. to achieve a

These same unemrelatively high by British check price and wage infla-

large reduction in foreign indebtedness. policies of

ployment standards

demand

restraint served to increase

about 2\% but failed to

to

—

—

tion.

On Dec. 4, 1969, the government released a White Paper detailing plans for total public expenditure up to April 1974. Central government expenditures forecast for the 1970-71 fiscal year included increases for social services, roads, and assistance to industry and employment. Defense spending was also expected to show a modest increase, mainly as a result of pay increases for the

The chancellor

armed

Roy

Jenkins, pre-

1970-71 on April 14. Proposed changes in taxation, mainly in income tax, would reduce revenues by an estimated £220 million. The main changes were increases in exemptions and allowances for elderly people and low-income taxpayers. The recommended tax cuts were smaller than had been generally expected in light of the improved trade balance and considering that 1970 was an election year. With revenues for the 1970-71 fiscal year profiscal

jected to rise at a slightly faster rate than expenditures, the surplus in the central

(adjusted

Great Britain: see United Kingdom

to

exclude

certain

important study by W. B. Reddaway, publishe 1970, presented tentative conclusions re garding the effects of the controversial and somewha unconventional selective employment tax (SET'

March

initiated in 1966.

SET

had been designed

to stimulat

national productivity and exports by encouraging redistribution of labour

away from

th

service Industrie

and

into manufacturing through the imposition of dis criminatory payroll taxes on the former. Reddaway

study indicated that

some

SET

probably did have at

leas

of the intended effects, and the government wa

encouraged to continue the scheme, at least for th time being. France. The budget for 1970 was contained in th Loi de Finances pour 1970, presented to the Nationa Assembly in October 1969. Among other things, aimed at achieving restraint on the pace of economii advance. Ordinary budget expenditures were held t( i

the lowest rate of increase in a decade.

The

projectec

on ordinary transactions would b( offset by projected Treasury loans and advances (e.g. to nationalized industries), and the overall budget wa: expected to be approximately in balance, requiring no net financing of the Treasury through monetarj expansion. Expenditures of almost all government de partments were severely curtailed, although the re straint was less severe in the case of education, tech' nical training, social transfers to lower income groups and investment in telecommunications and roads anc Fr. 2 billion surplus

for "restructuring" of industry. Subsidies to nation-

were scheduled

alized industries

to

decline

for the

time in years, and agricultural price subsidies were scheduled to show a much smaller increase ir first

1970 than

On

in the

tax

the

A

previous year.

side,

there were no

major tax

rate-

on banks was introducec and, effective from September 1969, corporate tas payments were accelerated and depreciation allowances reduced. A special increase in taxes on alcohol and automobiles, introduced in November 1968, was changes.

special profits tax

extended for an additional year. Tax brackets (although not rates) under the income tax were revised

upward

to offset the effects of recent general price

increases.

Some

tax relief

was granted

to

low income

groups, especially the aged, and an increase in upper-

bracket rates, enacted earlier, was reduced.

forces.

of the Exchequer,

sented the budget for

An

in

government accounts repayable

revenues

from temporary import deposits) was projected at £1,041 million, up from the already high £392 million achieved in 1969-70. Borrowing by local authorities in 1970-71 was expected to be down slightly. In October Anthony Barber, chancellor of the Exchequer in the new Conservative government, announced a "mini-budget" that included reductions in income and corporation tax, as well as changes in welfare expenditures that were expected to effect a net saving of slightly over £1,000 million by the mid-1970s. {See United Kingdom.)

Later in the year there were some signs that economic expansion was slowing down, and the government announced that, before the end of 1970, it expected to release part of the monies previously frozen in its contracyclical reserve funds. Also, figures became available showing that the budget deficit for 1969 was actually considerably smaller than first estimates, and indicating that the 1970 budget was likely to show a significant surplus. The government's draft budget for 1971 announced in September, again projected an approximate balance between receipts and expenditures. Further reductions ,

support of the nationalized industries was projected, and proposals were put forward for making the tax system more progressive. These would increase in public,

income-tax exemptions at the lower end of the scale, raise tax rates on higher incomes, and reduce dependence on indirect taxes (mainly VAT) in the long run. More immediately, reductions in VAT rates on agricultural products were proposed as partial offsets to the inflationary effects of reduced agricultural subsidies.

(W. Le.)

See also Economic Planning; Economics; Payments and Reserves, International.

was acquitted.

the journalists were reduced and one

367

Zigdis, serving a 42-year term, refused to appeal.

On November

eece

I

monarchy

onstitutional

/

ope, Greece occupies

I

thern part of the

5

Area:

linsula.

I

committee on legislation" were chosen by 1,240 electors designated by the regime; the prime minister would pick 46 of these candidates and appoint 10

of

the

Balkan

50,944

others of his

mainland accounts for 41,r sq.mi. Pop. (1969 est): ^

8,834,560. Cap. and Athens (pop.. 1961, 627,564). Language: ?ek. Religion: Orthodox. King, Constantine II, e.xile since Dec. 14. 1967; regent in 1970, Lieut. Georgios Zoitakis; prime minister, Georgios n. :est city:

1

I

i

I

padopoulos.

domestic Affairs. The resumption of full-scale U.S. ary aid to the .Army-sponsored Greek regime was :'ar the most significant domestic event of 1970, ii

fly

ic

because of

I

political implications. It

that the leaders of the

ited ;

its

demon-

1967 military coup

scored three victories. First, by resisting all press for acceleration of the so-called democratization

they had convinced the U.S. that the heavy embargo, imposed after the coup, had been toineffective as a political lever. Second, by ne-

ess, >

V

gating

purchases

of

from

embargoed weapons

and elsewhere, they aroused misgivings in embargo might

nee

i-hington that a continuation of the

nate the regime's affections, at a time

II

own

the committee,

sq.

131,944 sq.km.), of which

(

Greece

29, 92 candidates for a "consultative

when

the

The decree

choosing.

establishing

announced on the third anniversary

of the coup (April 10\ indicated that its functions would be purely academic. It was seen as a "seminar for budding politicians," in keeping with the regime's ultimate aim of breaking completely with the nation's "sinful" political past. 'When there was a broad Cabinet reshuffle on June 29, all but one of the new government members a former Athens mayor -were totally unknown to the public. The only former political personality whose services were welcome to

—

—

the regime. Panayotis Pipinelis, foreign minister since

November

1967, died on July 19 (see Obitu.'^ries). His death deprived the king of a strong monarchist influence within the Cabinet.

Papadopoulos personally took over the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and gradually created around him a staff

of junior ministers and

undersecretaries

who

arrangement was strongly resented by his fellow revolutionaries and precipitated the first major crisis within the junta at the end of August. The rebels called for the prime minister's resignation, which he agreed to sign. The post was then offered to Gen. Odysseus .\nghelis, the acted

as

a

"brain

armed

This

trust."

who

Mediterranean was beling a source of grave concern for the U.S. Third, mderlining the absence of any feasible democratic

subsided as the rebels realized the magnitude of their

rnative to their rule, as well as the hazards of

leader

xtremist take-over, they induced the U.S. to con-

Foreign Relations. After withdrawing from the Council of Europe in 1969, Greece kept aloof from

rth of loyal allies in the

on protecting the moderate faction led by ne Minister Papadopoulos against his less prerate

chief of the

own impotence and

its

,is

hostile

forces,

declined.

The

the need to have as

Greek Prime Minister Georgios Papadopoulos on Independence Day.

crisis

shrewd a

Pajjadoiioulos.

Western European

allies,

encouraged good

ible associates.

hese developments took place against a backund of slow liberalization of the regime, which becoming less repressive as it consolidated its I'Jon at home. Habeas corpus and other constiutional safeguards against arbitrary arrest were reitored on April 10. The total number of political orisoners was reduced from about 1.500 to less than 700. One of the most prominent Communist political prisoners, the composer Mikis Theodorakis (see Biography), was unexpectedly freed and allowed to go 1

r

abroad.

The International Committee of political prisoners in

"validate

all

the

Red Cross had

detention sites for Greek

November 1969

in

accusations of torture, but in

order to

in-

1970

April

-alarming descriptions of alleged police brutality

f

prior

Red Cross

intellectuals

visits ) were read at the trial of 34 charged with sedition and bombing. Trials

by special military courts continued; well over 100 opponents of the regime were convicted and some were sent to prison for life.

One

of the most spectacular trials involved loannis

former minister, and five executives of the antiregime Athens newspaper Ethnos. They were found guilty on April 2 of publishing reports "likely to evoke public alarm," in the form of interview given by Zigdis. Ethnos was compelled " -hut down on April 4 after its three publishers and two editors were sent to jail for terms of up to five years. The worldwide outcry that followed induced the regime to grant them a retrial in September, in the course of which the prison sentences for four of Zigdis, a

aggressively

I

I

i(

Education.

(1966-67)

Primary, pupils 979,395, teachers 28,524; secondary, 12,111; vocational, pupils 90,2 1 1 teacher training ( 196566), students 4,350, teachers 261; higher (including 5 universities), students 64,591, leaching staff 2,541. Finance. Monetary unit: drachma, with a par value of 30 drachmas to U.S. $1 (72 drachmas = £1 sterlinR). Gold, SDRs. and foreisn exchange, central bank: (June 1970) U.S. $253 million; (June 1969) U.S. $243. 1 million. Budget (1970 est.): revenue 57.5 billion drachmas; expenditure 53.8 billion drachmas. Gross national product: (1968) 226.6 billion drachmas: (1967) 2 1.3 billion drachmas. Money supply: (.April 1970) 47,130,000,000 drachmas; (.Vpril 1969) 43.310.000,000 drachmas. Cost of living (1963 100): (June 1970) 1 18; (June 1969) puiiils 3i3S, 292, teachers

;

1

=

114.

been given free access to

to the

GREECE

Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports 47,82 5.000,000 drachmas; exports 16.609,000,000 drachmas. Import sources: EEC 42% (West Germany 19%, Italv 9%, France 7%); U.S. 10%; U.K. 9%; Japan 7%. Export destinations: EEC 45% (West Germany 20%, Italy 10%, France 7%, Netherlands 5%); U.S. 10%; Yugoslavia 7%,; U.S.S.R. 5%; U.K. 5%. Main exports: tobacco 19%; iron and steel

9%;

dried fruit (raisins, currants)

chemicals 6%; cotton U.S. $120 million.

8%; aluminum 7%;

5%. Tourism (1968):

visitors

fresh

879,500;

fruit

gross

7%;

receipts

Transport and Communications. Roads (1969) 34,692 km. Motor vehicles use (1969): passenger 194,940; commercial 96,904. Railways: ( 1967 ) 2,571 km.; traffic (1969) 1,438,000.000 passenger-km.. freight 5.S7 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1969): 1,717,000,000 passengcr-km.; freight 36.5 million net ton-km. Shipping (1969): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 1,700; gross tonnage 8,580,753. Telephones (Dec. 1968) 761.550. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) 985,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1968) 40,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969; 1968 in parentheses): wheat c. 1,770 ( 1,515); barley 540 (465); oats c. 120 (99); corn c. 42 1 (375 ); potatoes ( 1968) 648, (1967) 721; rice (1968) 108, (1967) 92; tomatoes ( 1967) 679, (1966) 611; tobacco (1968) 78, (1967) 114; oranges (lOftS) 470. (1967) 329; lemons c. 100 (100); cotton, lint c. 107 (98); olive oil 160 (154); wine (1968) 383. (1967) 395: raisins (1968) 188, ( 1967) 152: currants and sultanas (1967) 149, (1966) 183; figs (1968) 128, (1967) 90. Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1968): sheep 7,804; cattle 1,078; goats (Dec. 1967) 3,791; horses 260; pigs c. 614: chickens 24,500. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969): lignite 6,688; electricity (excluding most industrial production; kw-hr.) 8,012,000; petroleum products (1968) 4,150; bauxite 1,900; magnesite (1968) 446; cement 4,801; cotton yarn in

37.

368

Guatemala

relations with France

made

it

and the Balkan nations, and

a point at all times to underline its loyalty

NATO.

to

Otherwise the regime's principal preoccupation in foreign affairs was the problem of Cyprus. The abortive attempt (March 8) on the life of the Cypriot president, Archbishop Makarios, was attributed by some circles to an Athens plot to eliminate him, as the only obstacle to the drastic solution of partitioning

Turkey and incorporat-

the island between Greece and ing

it

into

NATO.

Although Greek

officers serving in

Cyprus were apparently implicated in the affair, there was no evidence that such a Machiavellian conspiracy had had the endorsement of Greek government leaders.

Greece's external interests were forcibly drawn to

Middle East conflict in the summer when six Arab commandos hijacked an Olympic Airways jetliner and held its 54 passengers and crew hostage until they had obtained the Greek regime's pledge to free the

seven Arabs, jailed

in

Greece for

terrorist activity.

The seven were released and expelled in August. The Economy. The economic scene was dominated in

1970 by an anticipated

7%

growth

combined

rate,

with relative monetary stability. However, liquidity remained high and the scarcity of foreign capital inflow forced the government to borrow abroad at onerto protect its balance of payments. On a longer-term prospect, the investment contracts signed with the two well-known Greek shipowners, Aristotle Onassis and Stavros Niarchos, in exchange for profita-

Guatemala City police line up suspects following a shoot-out between political factions Feb. 25, 1970, in which three persons were killed.

ous terms

ble crude-oil-supply concessions, Count Karl von Spreti,

West German ambassador to Guatemala, was

about $750 million into the Greek economy

Guatemala City March 31, 1970.

to

pump

in the next

decade.

kidnapped by terrorists in

promised

Colonel Arana, supported by a right-wing coalition

MLN

Movement) and PID Democratic Party) Mario Fuentes Pieruccini, supported by the ruling PR (Revolutionary Party) and Jorge Lucas Caballeros of the newly founded PDC (Christian Democratic Party). In the elections of March 1, Arana won a plurality of 43% of the votes as against 35% and 22%, respectively, for Pieruccini and Caballeros. Since no candidate reof

(National Liberation

(Institutional

;

;

The regime ern bloc in

campaigns of three presidential aspirants;

political

cultivated trade relations with the East-

its effort

to increase exports,

even conclud-

ing a trade agreement with Albania, with which Greece

had theoretically been

at

war

since 1940.

(Mo. M.)

ceived a majority of the popular vote, the issue

mained

in

doubt until

late

March when

Guatemala A

Guatemala is bounded Honduras, Honduras, El Salvador, the Caribbean Sea, and the Pacific Ocean. Area: 42,042 sq.mi. (108,889 sq.km.). Pop. (1970 est.) 5,172,000. Cap. and largest city: Guatemala City (pop., 1970 est., 770,000). Language: Spanish, with some Indian dialects. Religion: predominantly Roman Catholic. Presidents in 1970, Julio Cesar Mendez Montenegro and, from July 1, Carlos Manuel Arana republic of Central America,

by Mexico,

British

:

Osorio.

The third legal transfer of executive power in the ISO-year history of Guatemala's independence took place in July with the assumption of the presidency by Carlos Arana Osorio. Meanwhile, an upsurge of

Greek Orthodox Church: see

Religion

Greenland: see

Dependent States

Grenada: see

Dependent States

Gross National Product: see Economy, World; Income, National

Guadeloupe: see

Dependent States

Guam: see Dependent States

urban terrorism, which had begun in December 1969, continued unabated throughout the first half of 1970. A two-month respite after the inauguration of President Arana was followed by a resumption of terrorist activity in

September.

On

a moderately favourable rate of

the economic front,

growth was main-

tained throughout the year in spite of uncertainties

surrounding the national elections, the disruptions created in the aftermath of the conflict between El Salvador and Honduras, and in the wake of the devastating hurricane and rains that had struck the nation's southern region during the late

summer

of

1969.

The

first

two months of 1970 were focused upon the

GUATEMALA Education. (1967-68) Primary, pupils 474,919, teachsecondary, pupils 43,567, teachers (196566) 4,216; vocational, pupils 10,352, teachers (l965-

ers 12.594;

teacher training, students 7,601, teachers 1,197; higher (including 4 universities), students 9,388, teaching staff 665. Finance. Monetary unit: quetzal, at par with the Gold, sterling;). U.S. dollar (2,40 quetzales £1 SDRs. and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1970) U.S. $90,5 million; (June 1969) U.S. $74,5 million.

66)

985;

(1965-66)

=

Budget ( 1970 est.) balanced at 2 1 1 million quetzales. Gross national product: (1968) 1,530,000.000 quetzales; (1967) 1,425,000,000 quetzales. Money supply: (June 1970) 169.2 million quetzales; (June 1969) 15 7.7 million quetzales.

Foreign Trade. (1968) Imports 247.4 million quetzales; exports 222,4 million quetzales. Import sources: U.S. 41%; El Salvador 11%; West Germany 11%; Japan 9%; U.K. 5%. Export destinations: U.S. 28%; El Salvador 15%; Japan ports: coffee 30%; cotton 14%.

re-

the national

11%. Main

ex-

Transport and Communications. Roads (1968) 1,200 km, (including 830 km. of Pan-American c. Highway), Motor vehicles in use: passenger (1967) 33.400; commercial (including buses; 196S) 20,500. Railways; (1967) 1,160 km.; freight traffic ( 19681 1

75 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1968): 77,403,000 passenger-km.; freight 3.850,000 net ton-km. Telephones (Jan. 1969) 36,165. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) c. 215,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1968) 65.000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969; 1968 in parentheses): corn c. 805 (679); cotton, lint c. 49 (74); cane sugar, raw value (1969-70) c, 190, (1968-69) 1 54; sugar, pancla (1969-70) c. 48. (196869) c. 48; dry beans (1968) 69, (1967) 69; coffee c. Ill (c. 99); bananas (1967) c. 76, (1966) c. 74.

igress declared

(

Arana president.

He was

formally

jgurated to a four-year term on July 1. 'rior to the inauguration, Guatemala City was sub-

seven months of urban terrorism on an Between December 1969 and Febry 1970 a campaign of arson, bombings, and assinations reportedly inflicted 20 deaths and $10 lion in damages. The FAR (Rebel Armed Forces) ted to

leard-of scale.

s generally credited with most of these attacks, tween late February and April a new dimension of rorism was witnessed by the successive kidnapGuatemalan Foreign Minister Alberto igs of entes Mohr, U.S. embassy aide Sean M. Holly, and

von Spreti, the West German ambassador, Mohr and Holly were both freed in exchange release of "political" prisoners. The Guate-

unt Karl lentes r

the

ilan

government, however, refused to negotiate for exchange for 22 prisoners and

e release of Spreti in

00,000. Dril

The ensuing

assassination of Spreti in early

West German

increased tensions between the

d Guatemalan governments and culminated in the call

of their respective diplomatic missions.

Between April and July terrorism continued united, claiming the lives of prominent Guatemalan zens at both the left and right of the political ctrum. Toward the end of May the Mexican goviment announced the killing of the Guatemalan rrilla leader Yon Sosa and several of his comnions by an army patrol stationed in the Mexican ite of Chiapas near the Guatemalan frontier. (0. H. H.) '

movement's leader. Cabral, however, was not in Conakry at the time. The fighting continued sporad-

369

the

Guyana

about three days. President Toure's summer home was severely damaged, but the president was unhurt. It was estimated that about 100 Guineans were killed. Casualty figures among the invaders were unknown, but about 100 were captured. President Toure accused Portugal of sponsoring and manning the invasion as an attempt to destroy the movement supporting liberation in Portuguese Guinea. On November 28 he also charged Portugal with an attack on Koundara, near the border with the ically for

colony. Portugal denied these accusations.

The UN Security Council on November 24 sent a five-member commission to Guinea to inv-estigate the situation and make recommendations. The commission, consisting of Colombia, Finland, Nepal, Poland, and Zambia, reported to the council on December 4; it concluded that the invasion force in Conakry had consisted mainly of .-African troops from Portuguese Guinea under the command of white Portuguese Army officers. The Security Council on December 8 voted 11-0 to condemn Portugal for the invasion and demanded that the Portuguese government "pay full compensation to Guinea for the loss of life and property" caused by the attack. Portugal, however, continued to deny any involvement in the raids.

Guyana A

republic and a realm of the

Nations.

Guyana

is

Commonwealth

of

situated between Venezuela, Bra-

and Surinam on the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 83,000 (1969 est.): 741,978, including (1964) East Indian SO.2'^ Negro 31.3%; mestizo and mulatto 11.9%; .Amerindian 4.6%. Cap. and largest city; Georgetown (pop., 1969 est., 97,190). Language: English (official). Religion: Protestant and zil,

sq.mi. (21S.000 sq.km.). Pop.

3uinea

;

V if

republic on the west coast

Guinea

.\frica,

is

bounded

Portuguese Guinea, SeneMali, Ivory Coast, Libeii, and Sierra Leone. Area: W,925 sq.mi. C24S.856 sq. -|' adapted to take coloured key caps and a projector The colours were coded to match information on the

of 20 planned in 1965 to provide courses, flexible

organizers.

intensity

came up with a game consisting of sets ojf cards with words and pictures, used in conjunctiot Intertip

were mounted, each of which involved considerable preparation although they were reported to look spontaneous enough. Each one was serviced by a single truck, carefully designed to include aluminum arches (for decoration and to define the festival

nected to the nearest hydrant. They had the benefit of expert advice from a professional artist-cum-coordina-

lamp, designed by Angelo

as imJ

highly developed countries!

technology, at Kitchener, Ont.

boundaries), platforms (for stages), spotlights, loudspeakers, back cloths, and a street fountain to be con-

COURTESY. GEORGE KOVACS

many

truck carrying basic festival apparatus. Eventually, six street festivals

The "Xobra" high

was becoming almost

dition to this, that typing

portant as writing in

self, isolated the

passenger from carriage vibration.

In Switzerland the Ziirich firm Intertip AG developed a programmed reading game, "Tipsi," for three-

The firm based its thinking on the fact that children normally want to start writing after about 20 reading lessons, but are unable to do to five-year-old children.

so because of their lack of dexterity. Realizing, in ad-

furniture

—

some

of the chaos caused

by

their less gifted predeces-

sors. In particular, the U.S. designer

Henry Dreyfuss,

what was

likely to be a undertook the mpilation of an international dictionary of symbols, lich he hoped would eventually become the basis a major reorganization of the hundreds of thounot to mennds of individual symbols in existence )n the several different, allegedly international, symagreements that in the past had given rise to

egedly in retirement, began

He

igthy process of rationalization.

—

1

nflicting

and confusing sign languages.

Finally,

an Italian designer offered what seemed to from such a bewildering

The opportunity came

Gianfranco Fini's

:jt

lensione of

Rome,

something to

St

in the

"Monade"

form of

chair,

—

a chair.

made by Di-

more than The armrests contained the

offered a great deal

sit

on.

Ilowing aids to luxurious relaxation: telephone, ad-

lamp, radio and stereo speakers,

stable reading

re-

and an ashtray. Moreover, Fini's herical design had one really special refinement; n the outside world utterly overwhelmed the ocipant, he could close the hood and peer at it through ptacles for glasses,

(De. C.)

safe barrier of coloured plastic.

Review.

See also Industrial

of output.

A number of

Industrial

Review

in November to its lowest point since late The level of activity of Canadian industry, always to some extent dependent on the fortunes of the

production 1967.

an opportunity to escape nld.

395

had much more impact on the volume industries were hard hit, automobiles being the most noteworthy case. On the whole, appreciable idle capacity began emerging by the end of 1969. There was a mild relaxation of monetary policy in the second half of 1970, but a strike at General Motors and other factors brought industrial

inflation, they

U.S. economy, reflected the uncertainties across the

border;

during 1969, and continued to do so in

it fell

1970.

Kingdom

In the United

also, industry

began show-

ing signs of near stagnation after the early part of

1969, and this situation did not change until mid-1970.

The post-devaluation

deflationary measures restricted domestic demand, and industry was further hampered by a multitude of strikes. Exports were the most dynamic element in demand, but they could not entirely balance the stagnation in other sectors. In continental Western Europe, as in Japan, capacity rather than demand limited the growth of produc-

West German industry enjoyed a boom. All demand contributed to the increase, which amounted to about one-seventh over the previous tion.

sectors of

Review

idustrial

year's

which after a tem)rary slowdown in 1967 was resumed in 1968, connued into 1969 the advance achieved was about 7%, )mparable to the progress made in 1968. But whereas jress was uninterrupted during 1968, the pattern different in 1969; industrial output in the Westhe growth of industrial activity,

;

beginning of

n world started at a high level at the

down

year and the rate of expansion slowed

le

derably during

evelopments in

to capacity limitations.

mark in October 1969. In France industry was operating near the ceiling

con-

Table

Index Numbers of World Producfion, Employment, Productivity in Manufacturing Industries

I.

and

1963

off

middle of 1969 and actually fell in the Iter part of the year. These were important developlents for both the U.S. and the world economy which

by the average annual figures in 'able I. In Europe production continued to expand, Ithough some slowdown toward the very end of the not reflected

e ir

could not be avoided, due partly to the reaction

he U.S. recession, and partly to other factors. The same trends continued during 1970: the level of

was further reduced

'Europe persisted.

The

total of

thus remained on an

lut

in the U.S.,

but growth

in

world industrial out-

upward trend;

the rate of

xpansion, however, lagged behind that in 1969.

1969 advanced almost at the same rate both the less industrialized and the developed in-

Output n

lu.strial

/lanned

in

countries.

The progress

the

in

centrally

economies of the U.S.S.R. and Eastern Europe

TOS also of the

same

order.

In the United States industrial production

fell

in

months of 1969 and continued on with minor interruptions until mid-1970, Itvhen the level of industrial activity was about 4% kower than a year earlier. This slowing down produced 1 marked change in the combined output of industrial "ountries; during the year ended mid-1969 their total jpach of the last five

this trend,

I

iiii

production rose about 9% but in the second of 1969 the annual growth rate was more than

-trial

Area Worldt Industrialized countries Less industrialized countries

North Americot

Canada United Stoles

America! Mexico East and Southeast

Latin

Asia||

India

Japan Europel Austria

Belgium Finland Fronce

Germany, West Greece Ireland

The

largely because of the

decline in the

industrial recession in the U.S.

'tributable to the nation's restrictive

sures;

though principally designed

U.S.

was mainly atmonetary mea-

to

restrain price

100

importa nee 1963 1969

Production 1967 1968 1969

1,000

1,000

876 124 480

127 127 128 128 129 128 128

Netherlonds

Norway Portugal

Sweden United Kingdom Yugoslavia Rest of the world? Austroiio South Africa Centrolly planned economies^

28

452 49

432 49

8

5

88 16 55

120

3

3

141

151

350

338

14 86

7

7

10

4

4

51

89

50 90

115

2

2

141

151

1

125 128 126 125 135 128 114 134

139 136 138 129 143 135

120 132 140

129 137 152

36 12

35 13

4 2 14

4

2 14 63

73 13 33 14

'i3

5

5

14

emDioyment

Slates.

jSouth ond Centrol America {including Mexico) the

Coribbeon

193

11

tion of

and the U.S.S.R. tConodo ond the United

121

128 129 123 133 128 129

is

Ihe

146 150 115 164 119 119 115 125

100 times the production index divided by index, giving a rough indicachanges in output per person employed. t Excluding Albania, Bulqorio, Chino, Czechoslovokio. East Germany, Hungary, Mongolia, North Korea, North Vietnom, Poland, Romonia, •This

136 135 138 134 135 134 137 159 173

874 126 460 28

1

Italy

and

lialved,

=

Relative

Pakistan

•utput

in-

revaluation of the

ird the

re

1970,

course. This

China). There, industrial activity flattened

'

during

factured products, overtaking the U.S.; this leading role was retained in the first half of 1970, despite the

Imost half of world output (without the Soviet bloc :

off

West German

dustry was successful in export markets; as a result, it became in 1969 the world's largest supplier of manu-

was mainly due to North America, which accounted for its

Output then leveled

level.

mainly due

islands.

Afghanistan, Brunei, Burma, Ceylon, Hong Konq, Indio, Indonesia, !ron, Jopon, Moloysio, Pakistan, Philippines, South Korea, South Vietnam, Taiwan, Thailand, and Singapore.

121

121

142

145 145 143 139 143 139 146 183 198 129 227

Em ployment 1967 1968 1969

1967 1968 1969

116 114

lis 116

lis 118

ii7 116

iii

112

iii

iii

ii4

i48

i74

199

96

95 99 102 96 98 108 106 100 97 105

124 114

i47

98 102 112 113 104 98 107

123 119 129 120 129 129 118

i36 124 130 133 132 140

95 99 110

97 100 114

13i 121

142 122 129

\\4 138

ii? 147

ios 99

iis 99

Productiv ly«

iii

118

UO 143 136 145 143 147 168 147 141

152 136 154 146 126 159

101

103 98 97 109 104 99 98 106 98 100 111

137

iii

151

134

121

114

131

136 142 123

i46 144 150 130 136 155 127 isi

126 139

103

163

^Excluding Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania,

and

the U.S.S.R.

9Africa, the Middle East, and Oceania. 6These are not included in the above world total, and consist of Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Eost Germany, Hungary, Poland, Ro-

mania, and the U.S.S.R. UN Monthly Bulletin of Statistics; U.K. Notional Institute of Economic and Social Research, Economic Review.

Sources:

396

Industrial

Review

Chassis of the last Ford

Texas moves

built in

down the assembly at the plant

in

line

Dallas.

The plant was closed after 45 years of operation

because of unfavourable

economic factors. UPl

of capacity in 1969

and made rapid advances; during

1970 some slackening occurred. Industrial export performance improved considerably after the devaluation of the franc in August 1969. Italian industry was seriou.sly hit by major strikes. During the first eight months of 1969 industrial production was 9% higher than a year earlier, but in the next three it was considerably lower because of the

COMP

facturing activity continued rapidly; the excess ove

was 10% or more in Austria, Switz and Greece, only a little lowe Sweden and Finland, and about 5-6% in most othe

the previous year

erland, Yugoslavia, in

countries.

Japanese manufacturing industry followed the

shown

of unprecedented expansion

The domestic element

in

demand grew

of

patl

previous years strongly

i.

These continued into 1970, taking a political rather than ar industrial character, and had a disruptive impact on industrial development. They also af-

1969, and exporters were consistently successful ii world markets; in 1969 Japan sent overseas abou

fected export deliveries.

industrial countries,

strikes.

Boom

conditions in

West Germany and France

helped to maintain a fast rate of progress in the Benelux countries. In both Belgium and the Netherthe output of manufacturing industries was about one-tenth higher in 1969 than a year earlier.

lands

In the smaller European countries, growth of manu-

one-ninth of

the manufactured exports of the mairi

all

and its share equaled that of U.K. Although the overall increase of manufacturing

thfj

ac-

tivity in the less industrialized countries in 1969 wa:

relatively

high,

India,

the largest

of

them, had

a

somewhat lower rate of expansion (6^% over 1968) The growth of manufacturing output in Australia wa; 6%,, whereas South African industry increased produc-

by one-tenth. Productivity, measured by output per man-hour

tion Output per Hour Worked

1963=100

in

Manufacturing

200

Japan

190

/

France

itf

manufacturing, continued to grow. In West Germany and the U.K. it lagged somewhat behind the spectacular improvements in 1968, and in Italy remained rather '

low because of the disturbing

Italy

180

effects of strikes.

In the U.S.S.R. industrial output rose 8%, the same; rate as in 1968. The other Eastern European countries

West Ger many United K ingdom

a sharp contrast in industrial growth during 1969: Bulgaria, Poland, and Romania expanded by about 10%-, whereas Czechoslovakia and Hungary did: so more slowly, by about 2-3%. The reasons, however,

showed

tales

160

namely political troubles in Czecho-;! and the transition to a new system of eco(G. F. R.) nomic management in Hungary. were

different,

Slovakia,

140

y

Table

Industrial Production in the U.S.S.R.

II.

and Eastern Europe

y^

1963

=

100

_ ^

120

Country Bulgaria

Czechoslovokia

110

Germany, Hungary

East

Poland

Romania

100 1963

1964

1965

1966

Source: National Inslirufe of Economic and Social Research, Economic ftavtew.

1967

1968

1969

U.S.S

R.

Source;

1967

1968

1969

162 130 129 134 139 164

181

199

137 136

141

141

144 167 205 164

152 184 152

140

UN Mon (fi/y

f

u/te(/n of

EROSPACE less sure of its future than in previous five years, the world's aeroace industry entered into the general reisional trend that was apparent throughthe Western world. Basically this was t

stinctly

e

,e to the scarcity of money from both air msport operators and governments. Air insport operators had a particularly poor lancial year, largely because of heavy in-

stment costs and interest charges on new uipment. Among the major companies that felt the

wind of financial problems was Lockwhich had a considerable liquidity oblem because of contract payments Dzen on the Cheyenne helicopter program id because of difficulties with the huge 5.-\ transport plane. Boeing and McDon11 Douglas were among U.S. manufactur3 that cut back on design and manufacill

ed,

ring staff during the year, creating in the

number

considerable

a

ocess

of

unem-

oyed aerospace technicians. In the U.K. olls-Royce had trouble with its finances, hich were strained by the need to spend uch more on developing the RB.211 engine Lockheed TriStar (L-1011) than r the id been originally scheduled. Two other ritish airframe manufacturers went into juidation, Handley Page and Beagle Air-

years behind in

civil

in

test

to five

SST achievement.

The Boeing 747 seemed to have an unusually large number of technical problems following its entry into service. Before the end of its first year its Pratt & Whitney engines were being modified to correct a tendency to "ovalize," i.e., stretch out of true circular shape, thus reducing tolerances between high-speed turbine blades and the casing. It was also found that starting procedures and the use of reverse thrust entailed careful control procedures, and the airlines realized that the step forward in engine technology to the very-large-diameter front-fan high-bypass-ratio designs had not been as smooth as anticipated. In Europe controversy continued to rage over the two rival "airbus" designs. The

Although t

Market

in some cases sales rose, the earnings of the major U.S. companies considerably lower, and the number sonnel employed in the industry derj-tjd during the year from 1,295,000 to ip; u.ximately 1,170,000. New defense equipent for which U.S. government appropriapn, were gained included $175.1 million r the F-IS air superiority fighter, the line contract for which was won by Mc'iiiiiell Douglas. Grumman won the S441.S il'iun contract to perform the research and i lopment on the F-14 fighter, including manufacture of nine prototypes. Lock^ obtained S872.6 million (including million overrun on previous years) for i

I

;

I

!

-5A program, and General Dynamics an additional S857.2 million for the [-111 project, which was still continuing =;iite increasing pressure to stop it beef the number of accidents that such '

01.

had

-

suffered.

the beginning of the year U.S. industry an order book of 1,234 civil aircraft

.At

id

tilued at S8.6

jmmercial

Of

billion.

transport

these,

aircraft

608 were

worth

most of the remaining 626

S8.1 units

the use of businessmen, liternational collaboration in the

mili-

illion,

for

•irif;

continued to grow, one particunew aspect being the licensing of the r^i'^t manufacturer, U.S. McDonnell field

r

1

1

'

to make the British Hawker SidHarrier for the U.S. Marine Corps,

i-'ias,

and Northrop also concluded a agreement for the latter to make the li navigation/attack system for the Harriers, a typical example of the way nti

i

international

iiich

I'ling

collaboration

was

through the entire aircraft systems

e.'l.

In '

other respects the year

'hree

The

developments

in

was notable

commercial avia-

involved the introduction to service of the Boeing 747 and

first

•uercial le

flights of the McDonnell Douglas and Lockheed TriStar. All three ift had the "new-look" wide-bodied >:;e, which was clearly to become an itant feature in airline economics beof the greater passenger and freight

lirst

"10

" ity

that

it

offered for a given aircraft

The second development was an up-jr^e in both the U.S. and Europe of the "

1

Concorde was attaining Mach 2 flights, the U.S. was between three

French and German governments were still supporting the A-300B, to be built jointly by SXIAS (a new nationalized French airframe company formed by a merger of Sud Aviation, Nord, and Sereb), Dornier, and Hawker Siddeley. The British government was also under strong pressure, helped by political motives arising from Common

afl.

^

short-haul vertical and short takeoff and landing airliner (V/STOL) concept. The third development was the U.S. government's delay in giving a final approval to a U.S. supersonic transport (SST). It thus appeared that while the British and French

negotiations, to rejoin the A-300B partnership. But the British Aircraft Corp. fielded a strong case for the all-British,

Rolls-Royce-powered, Three-eleven airbus. In December the government announced that it would not back either project. Almost at the other end of the scale, the local short-haul market was rapidly recognizing the advantages of V/STOL air-

The

craft.

West

German

government

launched a de.sign competition in late 1969 which produced five different designs from the three national airframe companies, all with imported engines. Lockheed-Georgia said that it was studying a 100-passenger V/STOL transport that was lighter in weight than any of the West German proposals, and Britain's Hawker Siddeley also an-

nounced

its

designs for a 100-seater.

The SNTAS-BAC Concorde SST prototypes were reportedly achieving design performance during test flying from bases in both Britain and France. Both aircraft had flown at twice the speed of sound, and both had had engine-intake modifications and were fitted with uprated Olympus S93-3B engines. The Soviet Tu-144, in appearance almost identical to Concorde, was also being intensively test-flown, and reports indicated that this SST might see commercial service during 1972. Public opinion appeared to harden against excessive noise from aircraft of all kinds

and the SST sonic boom in particular. There was also a growing movement which complained of the atmospheric pollution by aircraft that deliberately or inadvertently dumped fuel overboard in flight. The money being spent on research into these problems began to be a significant proportion of the research and development funding of the manufacturers.

(J. B. Be.)

AUTOMOBILES major preoccupations were shared varying degrees by vehicle manufacturers of all nationalities during 1970; these were concerned with safety regulations, exhaust gas pollutants, and product quality. Industrial unrest, which interrupted produc-

Three in

tion hicle

at intervals in the plants of the vemakers and the suppliers of compo-

nents in the U.K., Italy, the U.S., and other

397

Industrial

Review

manufacturing countries, added materially to the problem of quality control as well as having a more obvious impact upon output and cost. Other recurring factors, such as increases in wages and material costs, caused general advances in the prices of passenger cars and commercial vehicles. countries other than West Germany and Japan recorded any substantial increase

Few

production figures for the first half of 1970. U.S. safety standards, both present and projected, continued to set the pace and pattern for legislation in European countries and elsewhere. A decision to share automotive safety technology with the rest of the W'estern world was announced by the U.S. Department of Transportation in May. The first specific example of this policy was a conference, held in Michigan, organized under the auspices of the X.'\TO Committee for the Challenges of Modern Society. Representatives from America, Europe, and Japan discussed the so-called "air-bag" system of passive restraint for automobile passengers, in which sudden deceleration of the vehicle triggers the rapid inflation of a cushion by gas or air stored at high pressure. A major advantage was that it required no prior action by the car occupants; surveys had shown that no more than 25% used their seat belts. However, the rapid rate at which the bag had to be inflated involved some formidable hazards and technical difficulties. Early in the year the drive to reduce the harmful constituents present in motor vehicle exhaust gases was given a new direction when Edward N. Cole, president of General Motors Corp., called for the elimination of the lead-based additives used in gasoline for in

many

years to improve its octane rating, antiknock properties. He claimed that a "crash" program of engineering development would make it possible for General i.e.,

Motors

to introduce in its 1971

model

lines

low-compression engines that could run satisfactorily on low-octane, lead-free gasolines

— a program that was,

in fact,

accomplished.

Ford Motor Co. and Chrysler Corp. programmed a more gradual transition to lowcompression engines. Increasing difficulties were encountered by engine designers in trying to meet the proposals of the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. These would require further drastic reductions in the permitted emissions of unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide with new and additional restrictions on oxides of nitrogen and particulate matter. Whether lead additives as such were harmful to health was debatable, but the engineers claimed that catalytic afterburners would be needed to destroy the other pollutants, and that lead would seriously reduce the active life of the costly metals used in these devices. The motor industry proposals presented the petroleum industry with many difficult, problems, not the least of which was the need to continue to supply high-octane lead gasoline for the millions of cars with high-compression engines already in use. Nevertheless, programs for the progressive phasing out of lead were initiated by the major petroleum companies, and both lead-free and low-lead gasolines became available to the

pumps by

the

fall.

In Europe, modest recommendations for

amounts of carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons in exhaust gases already existed, and the exhaust pollution

limiting the

entered the small car arena in February witi the Gremlin, using an existing six-cylinde engine. This was followed in the same montlj by Chrysler's new Avenger in the U.Ki which, as was announced later, would b imported for sale in the U.S. under the nam Cricket. Chrysler's Dodge division intro

duced the Colt, made in Japan. Of the many larger U.S. cars introducet in September, Chrysler's Plymouth spor coupe and Buick's new Riviera coupe hai particularly attractive lines. In the latte car a novel electronic power control syster. called the Max Trac, offered as an option "sensed" the onset of wheelspin and auto

matically reduced engine power until th tires gripped. The Chevrolet Camaro aiK Pontiac Firebird were restyled in Februar; and carried through with little change. The most original of the new cars intro in Europe during 1970 were thi Citroen-Maserati SM sports model, with V-6 engine and novel speed-sensitive power assisted steering system, and the Citroen G' sedan, which was introduced at the Pari: Show in October. Of about the same over

duced

:

New subcompact

automobiles introduced the Ford Pinto (top), the Volkswagen K.70, which features front-wheel drive (above right), the American IVlotors Gremlin (above), and the Chevrolet Vega (right). during

size as the Volkswagen Beetle, the G^ had an attractively styled fastback sedai. body, shaped for low air resistance, a fourall

1970 included

cylinder air-cooled engine driving the from wheels, and self-leveling hydropneumatic suspension. Volkswagen's principal exhibit at the Paris show was its entirely new ex-

decade earlier, the new models were intended to challenge the increasing share of the market taken by small cars imported into the U.S.; this share was expected to reach 13% in 1970. The Pinto was close

problem was not considered so serious as Another argument against follow-

in the U.S.

was the power and economy involved

ing U.S. policy with regard to lead sacrifice in the

in the

consequent reduction of compression,

to West Germany's Volkswagen Beetle in length and wheelbase, though wider, but the Vega was significantly larger in all basic dimensions. Both cars showed the influence of current European design trends, notably in their use of four-cylinder engines with belt-driven overhead camshafts. The Vega engine was unique in having an aluminum c\iinder block without the usual iron liners; new materials and surface treatments were developed that enabled aluminum pistons to run directly in the block, with savings in weight and cost. Ford announced that the Pinto engine and some other components would be made in its British and West German plants and shipped to U.S. assembly lines. American Motors

which would be

felt acutely by users of small engines, using heavily taxed gasolines. European governments were seriously endeavouring to reach agreement among themselves on exhaust emissions (as well as safety standards) and negotiations involving many countries were inevitably protracted. The danger that unilateral legislation could form a serious barrier to international trade was stressed by several leaders of the European motor industry. Of outstanding interest among the new U.S. cars announced in August were the Chevrolet Vega 2300 and Ford Pinto, each backed by manufacturing facilities capable of producing 400,000 such cars a year. Smaller than the "compacts" introduced a ,

Table

Production and Exports of Motor Vehicles

III.

In

000

units

1968

1969

Passen-

Commer-

Passen-

Commer-

ger

cial

ger

cial

cars

vehicles

cars

vehicles

7,436,7 2,295.7 1,776.5 1,552.1 1,375.3 1,439.2

1,539.4 186,6 233,2 385.1 1,770.7 103.5

1,971.8

226.4

Australia

720.8 313.6

8,848.6 2,862,2 1,833.0 1,815.9 2,055.8 1,544.9 900.9

Sweden

194.0

76.5 20.6

345.0 223.3

Country Production United Stales

Germany, West France United Kingdom

Japan Italy

Canada

U.S.S.R.* Other countries*

World

total

728,8

244.8 242.6 409.3 2,030,0 118.7 279.1

73.4 21.4

801.0 1,529.3 28,151.0

1,313.5 23, 688.7

Passenger cars

Commer-

8,224,3 3,312,5 2,168.5 1,717.8 2,611.5 1,477.3 1,035.5

1,980.7

371.1

cial

vehicles

290.0 290.6 465.7 2,062.8 185.6 317.4 80.7 27.8

242.9 293,6 974.1 1,830 29,900

Exports

Germany, West United Kingdom

1,350.8

Italy

502.6 547.0 404.4

United States

280,6t

Sweden

123.0 223.5 342.4

France

Japon

104.8 135.2 42 7 22.5 82. 6t

15.4 138.8

1,801 .6

676.6 628,6 557.7 330.5 138.8 406.3

145.6 142.0 47.5 29.5 92.2 15.4

206.2

1,875.1

771.6 787.5 594.6 333.4 141.8 560.4 714.5

Canada 111.8 522.1 155.0 *A reliable breakdown between cars and commercial vehicles was

a new overhead-camshaft V-8 engine. This, was followed by the Triumph 1500, which was a simplified rear-drive version of the, front-drive 1300 model. The versatile fourwheel-drive Land Rover chassis, redesigned and powered by a 3.S-litre V-8 engine, wasi the basis for a new Range Rover station' wagon (estate car). In October, Ford launched a new Cortina, model in the U.K. and a new Taunus in West Germany; each car made use of the Pinto, engine, which would be manufactured ati Ford plants in both countries. The use of. common components extended to many chassis and body parts, and to the configuration, which was conventional. The Vauxhall Viva, designed and made by

General Motors' British subsidiary, acquired, new sedan and station wagon bodies, notable for improved quietness and comfort, but there were few mechanical changes. An; outstanding new model from Opel was the Manta, a two-door high-performance coupe, appropriately described as "a sports car fori the family," with enough rear-seat space to accommodate children in comfort. General entirely

by the Principal Producing Countries 1967

perimental K.70 model, differing from all other Volkswagens in having a water-cooled engine and front-wheel drive. Several new British models were introduced in the second half of the year. British' Leyland was first with a new Triumph 0% convertible, named the Stag, equipped with:

164.3 181.2 56.6 35.5 103.5 18.8 297.6 409.7

not available for the U.S.S.R, until 1969 and is still not available for "Other countries." fExcludes unassembled vehicles now recorded only by value. Source: British Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders, The Molor Industry of Great Britain.

Motors announced far-reaching

organiza-

tional changes for its overseas division in October, directed toward a closer association between the Vauxhall and Opel com-

panies in

management and model programs;

the company also announced its intention to establish European headquarters in London.

In

November General Motors announced

a deal by which it would acquire manufacturing rights for the Wankel rotary engine

from"Audi-NSU for $S0 milhon. The importance of the station wagon was emphasized by new models of this type that were introduced in the fall by Renault, Peugeot, and Fiat. In August the French government authorized Fiat to increase its shareholding in Citroen to 49%, and ar-

rangements were made to market the small front-drive Autobianchi III through Citroen dealers in France. Another important commercial development was an agreement for

399

development program reached Dunlop and Pirelli, each company ac-

lordinated ;

Industrial

ring a capital share in the other.

'

)uring the year

Review

both Fiat and Renault

extensive contracts for the provision lutomobile manufacturing facilities in the 11

CHEMICALS

The growth of Japan's domestic market continued to be a major factor he sustained increase in production num-

i.S.R.

The chemical industry moved

Toyo Kogyo (Mazda) increased its put of the controversial Wankel rotary rine that was fitted to about one-sixth ii- total car production. A somewhat enjid version of the engine was developed it5 new Capella model RX2. Honda conitrated all its productive capacity on the nt-drive 1300 model, with its novel fours,

inder air-cooled

power

unit,

partment of Commerce, increased its value from $46,465,000,000 in 1968

of shipments

to 348,698,000,000 in 1969, a 4.8% increase. For the first six months of 1970, shipments

and added

GX

A new Toyota Corona "1600" was

Japanese car to offer an electroncontrolled automatic transmission.

first

•

lly

(M. Pl.)

JILDING AND

)NSTRUCTION

AVEN NATIONAL LABOBATORY

seven months of 1970 the of new construction in the United was 849,651,000,000, according to the

iring the first lue ites

Department

3.

of

Commerce. On

a sea-

adjusted annual basis this was equal $89,746,000,000. Compared with the first

Specimens of new concrete polymers are placed in an Infrared oven for drying. The new concrete shows great Improvement In such physical properties as strength, durability,

and freeze-thaw resistance.

lally

months of 1969, the dollar volume of was down approximately 2%.

•en

istruction

constant dollar basis, the physical voldeclined by 8%. r,f new construction \\ bile construction in the U.S. had reached i-CLord level of dollar expendituie in 1969, industry had been beset with problems. ]'eak (N.V. v. Peine: Fair Housing Cas California Law (1967) Equality Under (1969); Free Press vs. Fair Trial by Jury The Skeppal Case (1969); The Schempp Case Bible Reading in Pubh of the Charter)

(1966)

;

— —

;

—

—

banon public of the Middle East,

anon is bounded by Syria, el, and the Mediterranean Area: 4,015 sq.mi. (10,5q.km.).Pop. (1969 est.): 1

5,000.

and largest

Cap.

1965 est., 330,995). Language: nk. Religion: approximately 50% Christian, 34% ,lim. Presidents in 1970, Charles Helou and, from ember 23, Suleiman Franjieh; prime ministers, aid Karami and, from October 5, Saeb Salam. ,1970 Lebanon's uneasy role as a base for Palesn guerrillas caused serious disruption in the south Beirut

I;

(pop.,

stoked up internal unrest. Political differences, al-

gh sharpened by an extension of guerrilla infludid not harden into a Christian-Muslim confron,

n, and civil

war was avoided. The government's

concern was to protect the southern frontier

I

out enmeshing

Lebanon

in

a military

for Arab-Israeli negotiations

istained guerrilla actions against Israel

brought

and the Lebanon-Israel border was the Middle East front. In Januafter Israeli commandos took from a border vil21 hostages including 10 Lebanese soldiers, the stian right wing pressed for the guerrillas' expulfrom the country, while the Arab nationalist urged the government to give them a free hand, reprisals,

•y :

POPPERFOTO FROM PICTORIAL PARADE

alliance

1st Israel.

that erupted in August

when

created local

guerrillas

tensions

and Nasserites

fought a gun battle in the streets of Sidon.

After a

mid-May

visit to

Damascus

(the

first to

Syria

ring a

Lebanese prime minister since 1964), Karami said that the two countries had reached agreement on all matters discussed. Ten days later he announced, then "temporarily" shelved, a proposal that Moroccan and Tunisian troops should defend southern Lebanon

lal

against Israel.

middle course, left-wing Interior Minister Jumblatt sought to contain the activities of the rillas on the basis of an agreement pledging mutual )eration signed in Cairo in November 1969. In ch, however, about 40 persons were killed during ;t

fighting in Beirut

lyib, a •d

between the guerrillas and the

Christian paramilitary group. This crisis

when both

sides

(with Libya mediating)

re-

the Cairo agreement. Later, however, the ed Arab Republic's acceptance of the U.S. formula

lied

by

troops guard Lebanon's Parliament Building

Border defense remained an intractable problem.

active sector of the

Armed

a

in

Beirut as

government ministers discuss measures be taken against the guerrillas who stage raids into Israel across Lebanon's southern border. to

Thousands of Lebanese were forced to leave their

homes there

because of

Israeli

retaliation.

Instead, the government served notice that from

June 15

guerrillas

would be banned from

had

little effect,

but

its

firing rockets

The ban announcement coincided with

across the frontier and carrying arms in

cities.

a particularly heavy flow of refugees to the north that provoked a threat by Imam Moussa al-Sadr, leader of the predominantly southern Shi'ite Muslims, to par-

alyze the country's vital services failing adequate de-

The government then voted L£30 milan estimated 22,000 southerners driven from their homes by Israeli incursions. On August 17 the National Assembly chose the economy minister, Suleiman Franjieh (see Biography), to succeed President Helou, whose term was expiring. Elected on the third ballot, Franjieh took office on September 23. On October 13 Saeb Salam, appointed prime minister by Franjieh, announced a 12man Cabinet of "technicians." (P. Md.) fense measures.

lion to help

.EBAXON Iducation. (1967-68) Primary, pupils 401,776; secndary, pupils 109,767; primary and secondary, teachrs 26,465; teacher training, students 2,276, teachers 20; higher (including 4 universities), students 29,138, caching staff 1,266. Finance. Monetary unit: Lebanese pound, with a ree rate (Oct. 1970) of L£3.2S to U.S. $1 (L£7.76 sterling), Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, cen1 ral bank: (June 1970) U,S. $348.1 million; (June 969) U.S. $321.5 million. Budget (1969 est.): reveue L£387 million; expenditure L£661 million. Foreign Trade. (1968) Imports L£l, 881, 197,000; xports L£450 million; transit trade L£l, 532,938,000. report sources: U.K. 14%; U.S. 11%; Syria 9%; ranee 9%; West Germany 8%. Export destinations: audi Arabia 21%; Kuwait 9%. Main exports; fruit nd vegetables 17%; precious stones and metals 16%; lachinery 8%; textiles and clothing 7%.

=

Transport and Communications. Roads (1969) 75 km. Motor vehicles in use (1969): passenger commercial 16,050. Railways: (1968) 417 m.; traffic (1969) 7.3 million passenger-km., freight 4.5 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1968): 836.992,'00 passenger-km.; freight 102,620,000 net ton-km. "elephones (Jan. 1969) 150,3 70. Radio receivers Dec. 1968) 550,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1968) ,2

31,900;

73,000.

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968; 967 in parentheses): grapes 84 (88); wheat 48 (68); omatoes 60 (59); oranges 1 75 (168); lemons 63 70); apples 163 (157); tobacco 6.6 (6.4). Livestock m 000; 1967-68): cattle 86; goats 357; sheep 200: 'Oultry 14,980.

Lesotho A

monarchy of southern Africa, Lesotho completely surrounded by South Africa. Area: 11,719 sq.mi. (30,352 sq.km.). Pop. (1968): 1,018,135, almost 99% African. Cap. and largest city: Maseru constitutional

is

Language: English (ofand Sesotho. Religion: about 70% Christian. Chiefs of state in 1970, Paramount Chief Moshoeshoe II, in exile from April 3 to December 4; regent from April 3 to December 4, Queen Mamohato Seeiso; prime minister. Chief Leabua Jonathan. Stormy in both the political and economic spheres, 1970 was marked by the first general elections since independence. They took place on January 27 and Leeward Islands: were apparently a victory for the opposition Congress see Dependent States (pop., 1966 census, 14,077).

ficial)

448

Liberia

Party. Three days later, Prime Minister Leabua Jonathan (National Party) declared a state of emergency and suspension of the constitution. The reasons given were that thefts of ballot boxes, intimidation, violence, and even murder by the Communist-inspired opposition had made a democratic election impossible, and also that King Moshoeshoe, though prohibited by the 1966 constitution and debarred by personal promises from interfering in party politics, had supported the opposition, and had thus automatically abdicated. The king went into exile and the opposition leader, Ntsu Mokhehle, and his chief supporters were arrested. Calm was restored following an unsuccessful attempt by Congress Party supporters to seize two northern towns. King Moshoeshoe returned on December 4 and resumed the throne after promising to abstain from all political activity.

Under the interim constitution. Chief Jonathan exercised executive power, either directly or through

U.S. Secretary of State 'William P. Rogers visii Liberia in February at the end of his tour of Afri At a state dinner at President Tubman's residence

Monrovia, Rogers jokingly remarked that he knew was dining "among the establishment." The rem^ caused some uneasiness among Liberians, who

;

sensitive to the fact that the approximately 45,0

American-Liberians have constituted an ehte

class

the country.

Two

ships under Liberian registry ran into trou]

The cargo ship "Deep Freeze" was fore toward a Cuban port by a Cuban gunboat on Jar ary 1, but was permitted to proceed to British He during 1970,

duras the same day. Then, on February 4, the tanker "Arrow" ran aground in high winds off No

broke

two in Chedabucto Bay five da amounts of the 3,8 million gal. bunker oil it was carrying. A Canadian Transport D partment investigation later blamed the accident "improper navigation." A major domestic crisis was triggered by the sla ing on Nov. 19, 1969, of the American Episcopal m: sionary bishop of Liberia, the Rt. Rev. Dillard 1 Brown. The business manager of Bishop Brown's di cese also was killed and three other persons we Scotia. It

in

later, releasing large

i

New

his council of ministers.

elections under a

new

constitution were promised provided that the cratic process

demowould be guaranteed and that Lesotho

could not be

made

Communist base

into a

against

South Africa. The British Labour government refused recognition to Chief Jonathan and suspended financial aid.

Resumption of aid was, however, agreed upon

May, when Chief Jonathan undertook

in

to discuss con-

problems with the other three political and drought made aid urgent. M. Mr.)

stitutional

parties

(

wounded in the same incident. President Tubman w granted emergency powers by Congress on Novemb 27 in connection with the killings. He was entitled suspend habeas corpus for up to 12 months, ban su versive organizations, and arrest persons suspected sedition.

LESOTHO 3,0(i3:

chemistry professor Justin Obi, 63, k been charged with Brown's murder. Nine others we 29, 1969, that

Education. (1067) Primary, pupils tional,

.inclai y.

3.201,

pu|)ils

to:i
ids in the Stream was written shortly after the atiiin of Across the River and into the Trees 'Vj- (jriginally intended to be part of a larger a an and the W k that was also to include The Old 5 This novel shares many of the elements of both jse books, for it is the story of an aging man, and increasingly alone, aware that even a win-

and subtly complex novel Moving On is the story of Patsy Garpenter, a young woman attempting to find her own values in the man's world of Texas. She moves from man to man as her awareness of herself and of life grows, and she finds that a loving commitment to the flesh and the moment opens the future toward which the day always moves. Eudora Welty's longawaited new novel, Losing Battles, takes place on a day in which the past breaks openly into the present, when loss seems to outweigh all that has been gained from the lost past. But the novel ends at high noon when the "sun came out as if for good." Darker in tone and more directly painful, Saul Bellow's Mr. Sammler's Planet is a religious development of the manner and matter of his earlier Herzog. Artur Sammler, a Jewish intellectual who literally

man who loves life way up" wins finally Thomas Hudson, the

clawed his way out of the grave in a German concentration camp, finds the values he struggled to live for fading in contemporary America. In a world and life in which reason seems to have failed, Mr. Sammler finds his answer in love and in obligation, in doing "what is required of him" by those who love him, by

he

iplified

ii

ij

M

'

n

I

ikes nothing but also that a

I

not afraid to live "all the

is

ond

all

possibility of defeat.

ral character of the novel,

is, like Joyce Gary's an artist who before all else the world and its motions and then creates a lal art not of words but of physical images. This st's story recapitulates in its structure the thematic

ley Jimson, a painter, '

Hemingway's earlier fiction and gives form to the development of his imagina-

ression of stantial

understanding. tells of Hudson's son's and the attendant failures of cessful living, a reenactment of Nick Adams' iniions in In Our Time or Jake Barnes's in The Sun w Rises. But Hudson's son is killed soon after his iation into full life, and the second part of the '/el concerns Hudson's coming to terms with the 3 of all three of his sons and with them much of belief in life, with his learning how to live beyond 'he first

part of the novel

iation to the struggle

De,

a reenactment of Frederic Henry's painful edu-

A Farewell

Arms. The third part tells of omas Hudson's going to sea and to war where he es fully, beyond the shelter of the land or even of art, and where he is fatally wounded, not really his country but for life itself, a reenactment of defeats and victories unto death of Robert Jordan For Whom the Bell Tolls, Robert Cantwell in ross the River and into the Trees, and Santiago in e Old Man and the Sea. Islands in the Stream draws all of these strands toher into one structural whole, marred by Hemingy's never giving the book its final, careful rewriting, t nevertheless vital and sound. Thomas Hudson rns that the past must be cut away before it can troy the future, but also how a dependence on the ion in

to

can damage the present. The present alone be lived. Hudson, dying, maintains his love of of the sea and the blue hills, of his ship and "the ly throb of her engines," and "of the sky that he

ture St

always loved." The end of the novel looks out up to the life that renews itself in death, the sun sets and also rises. The other most important novels of 1970 develop d

d

t

Literature

a comic account of Reinhart's

1970 managed by the exercise of the imagination to ze the "So it goes'" of Kurt Vonnegut's recent '..n novels to the traditional (and possibly more free fantasy, the best writers of fiction in

r

453

Berger's Vital Parts, the third volume

ence of

God. And,

in a curious

Michael Crichton, author of "Five Patients,' published in 1970.

way, James Dickey's raw and

the same understanding. and must be buried. The worst and deadliest beast in the world lives in each man's heart, and a man is delivered from the horror of that truth perhaps only by knowing it fully, by being fully what he

violent Deliverance offers

The

past

really

is

is

with

all

defenses other than the bared fang

human new day comes.

gone. In both novels ugliness prevails, but the

heart continues to beat as each

And first

there were other fine nov-els. Richard Yates's

novel since Revolutionary Road,

A

Special Prov-

idence, and Sylvia Wilkinson's third novel. Cale, are

moving and perceptive accounts of a young man's growing into himself in the shadow of a strongly individual mother. James Purdy's Jeremy's Version is the first volume of a projected trilogy. Sleepers in Moon-Crowned Valleys, in which he abandons the surreal to return to the towns of the Midwest of his youth. And two novels by young writers deserve a place: Man in Motion, an unpretentious first novel by Michael Mewshaw, and Something in the Wind, a fine second novel by Lee Smith. No new books of stories could compare to Coover's exciting collection of the year before, but three in-

volumes did appear: David Madden's lively The Shadow Knows, Reynolds Price's highly unified studies of the moment of wrong choice in a number of lives. Permanent Errors, and W. S. Merwin's curiteresting

ously dissatisfying collection of Borgesian fictions, The Miner's Pale Children. (R. H. W. D.)

Biography and Memoirs. Of all the biographical and autobiographical writings published in 1970, the most memorable was Philip B. Kunhardt's My Father's House, not because it dealt with a world-mover or because the style of the book was "different." Kunhardt's memoir of his father was a frank paean to a good man, and one finished reading it with the sense that the book had been really written fas wood is whittled or stone carved; and not simply typed.

Philip

Kunhardt,

authoi- of

"My

Father's

House," which was published

in

1970.

ferences (Cairo, Teheran, and Yalta), Burns trac the enigma of Roosevelt to the final hours in War Springs, Ga.

The documentation

is

definitive

midable, but suffusing and enlivening

it

is

and

the

fo

stea(i

force of Burns's personality, never intrusive but

j]

ways sufficiently present to save the prose from b coming "objective." The epilogue (dealing with death, rites, and burial of the president) is as much, tribute to the poet in Burns as to the historian. tl

The Princeton University

Press's publication of^

Thoreau Gazetteer appeared not only as a biographic companion to Thoreau's prose but as a harbinger (ai a formidable one) of that press's projected 20-volun

Thoreau's complete works, to be edited Walter Harding. A deserved biography of Nathana" West was written by Jay Martin with the appropriaj subtitle The Art of His Life. Each of the plots of til small, tight, and excellent shelf of West's novels rl ceives its long overdue due. Lawrence Thompson's Robert Frost: The Years Triumph, 1915-1938 was a further documentation, absolutely true, of the cleavage between Robert Fro the poet (wise, tolerant, flinty, and folkishly perce] series of

1

-

of a 60-year-old author's passion for a boy of 20. Frangoise Mallet-Joris maintained her position among

Maurice Frot was awarded the Prix du Roman Populisle in 1970 for his novel "Nibergue."

the explosion of the written

of thought. Les

word and

the

breakdown

Commencements and Le Troisieme

M

aison the top best sellers for several months with La de papier, the story of her family life both bourgeois and Bohemian with piquant detail added by the family's Spanish maids. Moving in its courage and re-

—

—

serve was Andree Martinerie's

— the calvary lived through

Quand

in the long

finira la nuit?

agony of

a hus-

from cancer. Bruno Gay-Lussac's

In-

Corps by Helene Cixous tended toward pure oneirology. Pierre Boulle's collection of short stories, Quia absurdum, was a small masterpiece on the logic of the

band

absurd.

memories and dreams of childhood and adolescence. Three writers boldly entered the field of satire. With L'S^cole des jocrisses, J. Dutourd showed him-

Nonfiction. Historical memoirs and biographies of statesmen were the winners among French publications in 1970. At the forefront was the prodigious success of Charles de Gaulle's Menioires d'espoir. A writer as early as 1924, he revealed a command of the

written word, culture, and directness of style that led

one of the most exacting critics to place him between Montesquieu and Chateaubriand. P. Erlanger's monu-

suffering

troduction a la vie profane, one of his best works, was a delightfully depraved and enchanting account of the

self equal to the

masters of the genre in both

style

and manner, presenting a merciless but very humorous critique of contemporary bourgeois and academic society. Although the critique was presented from the point of view of a man of the right, Dutourd's talent was so remarkable that one left-wing critic expressed

Poemes de I'annee. The young poet J. L. Moreau avoided those extremes in Sous le masque des mots; the rhythm and warmth of inspiration of Seghers'

his

songs of beauty, wonder, and anguish enthrall

M. Auzias dedicated a study to Luc Decaunes, who in his verse or poetic prose draws images of penetrating fervour from nature itself. L. the reader. J.

Brauquier's

Feux d'epaves

reflected

his

journeys

around the world with tenderness and humour. M. Bealu's La Nuit nous garde verged on sheer fantasy, as did M. Leiris" Mots sans memoire, where the author's taste for darkness and blood was comparable with that of Lautreamont. Streams and sea currents abounded in Incarnada by M. Manoll, who was termed a modern Alfred de Vigny. C. Le Quintrec's La Marche des arbres was a hymn to Father, Son. and Creation in alexandrines and octosyllables, while Vandercammen's Horizon de la vigie was a furious attack upon all that is destructive. In Poemes a J. Tardieu drew his inspiration from everyday

jouer,

which he endowed with depth and resonance. The Prix Max Jacob was awarded to novelist Daniel

life,

Boulanger for

his first

two verse collections: Tclia-

diennes and Retouches. Meanwhile, the work of Jean Follain one of the most undisputed talents was

—

—

crowned by the French Academy's Grand Prix de Poesie.

?l

:

Tournier signs his book "Le Roi des aulnes" was awarded the Prix Goncourt in November 1970.

he

ri

(.\e.

GERMAN

me

of his

own

n le parle, R.

had not been written

persuasion. In L'Hexagonal tel

Beauvais attacked the French lan-

seen as being in the process of destruction due

.e,

vogue for pseudo-scientific and technical terms. showed extraordinary' virulence in both U'onie de la vieille (that is, democracy) and in picanas (subtitled "de la dictature et de la revole

("au

'.\

sous les tropiques").

had a particular by J. Derogy an odyssey of the 1947 exodus. Le Manifeste :mp no. 7 by J. Pouget was devoted to the experiof French officers who were prisoners of war

iie

experiences

:ty

of their own.

of

journalists

La Loi du

retottr

-

x'tnam

•

in

1951.

most remarkable sections of H. de Monthernt's Le Treizieme Cesar were those devoted to uicide almost an apology for suicide inspired by ae ancient Romans. Montherlant's writing was as emarkable as ever and his attitude haughtier than ver. Maurice Genevoix, disdainful of passing fashons and ages, produced an enchanting book dedicated nature. Bestiaire enchante, where '"he excels the :inglo-Saxons. masters of the literature of the open lir." M. Butor's La Rose des vents was an esoteric cosmogony inspired by Alain-Fournier in which a le

.

—

human history corresponds to each era of cosmos. In her monumental study La Vieillesse, Simone de Beauvoir showed evidence of uncommon

oeriod of 'he

and social knowledge. Although aking a severe attitude toward contemporarv- society, ;he nevertheless attacked with less rancour than usual. Poetry. What had become of poetry after years of nermeti.-im? Those who gave expression to their sensitivity through dear language and obedience to the rules of prosody were condemned as old-fashioned; the technical exercises of the "cliniciens du langage" historical, scientific,

Were

accessible only to the initiated. The schism was tvery well expressed in Alain Bosquet's and Pierre

was an increasing

shift

publishers and readers,

away

19 70, once again, there

In

of interest, regret that the masterpiece

B.)

from

among both

works and toward books on specific works of popular science, political subjects, or contemporary events, as well as memoirs and autobiographies. This apparently general tendency was obviously closely related to the quality of the most recent works of German literature, which offered no surprises in 1970, the situation being generally somewhat negative. The first volume of Uwe Johnson's trilogy Jahrestage, which had been awaited with high hopes, duly appeared, containing mainly impressions and sketches, commentaries and scenes from New '^'ork fictional

subjects, in particular

daily life seen through the eyes of a

recently arrived and working in a bank.

German just The journal

was admittedly based to a large extent upon readings from the much-quoted Xew York Times, but some ironic and parodistic passages offered enjoyable reading. Embedded in the journal was a second plot played out in a small North German town in 1933, This was the story of a petit bourgeois family and was intended to reveal the pressure of social and political conditions

on the private

life

of the individ-

However, the saga of family life set in the austere atmosphere of the north was not free from sentimentality. Moreover, to a considerable extent the rather solemn and ponderous language led to stylization and mystification both of the reality of those former times and of the characters presented. There was a rapid evaporation of interest in any further volumes of the trilogy. ual.

By hard's

contrast,

new

Austrian writer Thomas BernDas Kalkwerk, seemed to provoke

the

novel.

no surprise. Bernhard, obliged to struggle against and obsessions but pursuing his goals with a monomaniac single-mindedness although not always with praiseworthy results, presented an unusually sombre and repellent world; the central figure of Das Kalkwerk was mentally disturbed and probably mad a scientist living in monastic seclusion who kills his fixed ideas

^63

Literature

ERA

CAMERA PRESS FROM

PRESS FROM PTX

PIX

prose pieces of the experimental writer Jurgen Bee, ^

Umgebungen, seemed rather

entitled

arid and spa

I.

In Der Stillgelegte Mefisch, the Austrian Herl't

Rosendorfer offered amusing and lively

stories,

ofii

characterized by a high degree of inventive imagii. tion. Another Austrian, G. J. Jonke, born in 15;,

showed himself, with Glashausbesichtigung,

to beji

representative of the newest generation

original

prose writers in the

German

language.

In the realm of poetry, the most importantof Lichtzwang, the last lyric poet

Paul Celan,

—

event was the volume of poems

not the only important

publicat of the gri

who

tedly difficult of access

died in April. While adn' and mostly shunning ratioi

meanings, his poems nevertheless captivated their terseness, musicality,

and astonishing

throi

richness,

imagery. In the realm of drama, there was no shortage first

performances of works by prominent autho

In Trotzki im Exil, Peter Weiss attempted to

shi

Communism from the beg until World War II. Howev

the history of Russian

ning of the century

somewhat

his

dilettantish selection

a chaotic piling

up of

documentary episodes.

Irritating in its superficialit

the play degraded Trotski

crippled wife.

Many

critics felt

compelled to ask what

reader would voluntarily expose himself to the piercing diction of this extremely painful book.

The young Austrian Peter Handke achieved siderable success with readers with his

a con-

little

novel

Die Angst des Tormanns beim Eljmeter ("The Despair of the Goalkeeper"). Nevertheless,

many buyers

were probably disappointed at finding next to nothing about football in the book, which told the story of a man wandering round in despair after his presumed dismissal, murdering a cinema cashier, and finally fleeing. While the novel was impressively written in parts, Handke's slow-motion tempo rapidly became

merely produc

figures, themes, quotations, a

and reduced him

to

t

stature of a tedious phrasemonger in spite of

t

contrary aims of the playwright. Also undistinguished was Rolf Hochhuth's ne drama, Guerillas, a naively partisan work directi against U.S. imperialism.

by the

critics

More favourably

was Heinrich

Boll's

receive

Aussatz, an u

pretentious treatment of problems of Catholicism

West Germany. The Austrian Wolfgang Bauer, born not undeservedly the most successful

in

1941, w;

stage

writu

was clearly not greatl concerned with new forms, in Magic A fternoon an Change he drew a sharp and scenically convincim

of recent years. Although he

although admittedly one-sided, picture of the youngt

tedious.

In contrast to Handke, the excellent short-story

VVohmann had little interest in new expression. Her traditionally realistic novel

(M.

R.-R.

When

readin

generation.

writer Gabriele

forms of Eniste Absicht recounted episodes in the daily life of a woman from an intellectual background. Gunter

Herburger's futuristic novel Jesus in Osaka was not without humour and presented an entirely unconventional Jesus

confronted with the world of the 1980s.

The poet Helmut

Heissenbiittel's first novel,

D'Alem-

an attempt to parody the cultural life of the Federal Republic, proved a great disappointment. Against this uninspiring background, a little book from East Germany created something of a sensation: Jakob der Lilgiter, first novel of Jurek Becker, bert's Elide,

born

in

1937, told an extremely original tale from a

Polish ghetto during

World War H. The novel proved

that even events of the utmost horror could be treated with charm, grace, and humour, without the subject being trivialized ot rendered harmless as a result; it

found instant acclaim

placed Becker

among

in

both German states and

the few remarkable prose writ-

ers of his generation.

In addition to the novels mentioned above, there

were some notable collections of smaller prose works. Elias Canetti published a further volume of aphorisms and diary notes, Alle vergeudete Verehrung. Giinter Eich's

latest

collection

meinem

of

short

prose

texts,

Eiti

between the tenderly poetic and the utterly absurd. The most recent Tibeter in

Biiro, fluctuated

ITALIAN dead?

Is the art of storytelling alive or

enjoyable books, such as L'attore by Mario Soldat or // dissenso by Libero Bigiaretti, the question neve crosses the mind. Perhaps the critical conscience ough to

shudder at their old-fashioned

middle-class outlook,

their

style, their blinkeretj

failure

to

interpret

pojl

contemporary life; bu it lies strangely dormant. The contrast between so phisticated critical tools and their uselessness in justi'j

etically the central issues of

fying the simple pleasure of reading these books similar to the contrast, in Bigiaretti's

tween a couple of wealthy left-wing

intellectuals andi

their housekeeper, Filomena. Their "correct"

to-date ideology

is

isl

first story, be-

totally irrelevant

to

and

upi^

Filomena'sl

reactionary attitudes: they are enlightened, but can-j not cope with the housekeeping; she is a near Fascist,! but a very good cook. They wish that good cooking*

and is

political

orthodoxy went together, but

alas

it

not necessarily so.

This seemed to be true also of many Italian writers: concerned with ideological questions,they tended to forget that good writing does not neces-' sarily flow from "correct" intellectual attitudes. Their novels and stories provided wonderful material for. "aware" and sophisticated reviewers, but were often passionately

neither enjoyable nor palatable.

and

Proceeding slowly

carefully, the patient reader of G. L. Piccioli's

would eventually

'nolfini

realize that

it

about a

is

ny being educated in a Catholic seminary, and might entually sift out of the incredibly contrived and ntorted syntax a

few poetic phrases. But

is it

worth

e effort?

Occasionally the only readable thing about a novel publisher's

the

is

blurb

:

the

praise

of

Roberto

"extraordinary satirical powers" on

ijgevani's

the

Dalla pancia di un orso bianco, while se-

)ver of

was

clear,

antically

A memoria,

laraini's

factually

inaccurate.

Dacia

a polyphonic novel combining

and epistolary techniques and iterative structures, seemed almost ritten to suit the subtle interpretive essay by Renato arilli that preceded it. Alberto Moravia's latest book, paradiso, a series of existential monologues spoken, ways with Moravia's own monotonous drone, by 34 ream-of-consciousness

ith circular i

ifferent r's

women,

at least

managed

to arouse the read-

admiration for the difficulty of the feat

set of

—as would

34 musical variations on a Baroque theme for

and Jew's harp. metodo by Gaia Servadio and SiiperUiogabalo by Alberto Arbasino dealt with sex, pot, op, and yet more sex. Gaia Servadio seemed to take matter, and herself, rather seriously, ler subject irbasino fortunately did not: however, his spoof asted too long (322 pages) to be wholly enjoyable. Creole Patti's Graziella, a Sicilian love story, and Ugo )essy"s L'invasione della Sardegna had some good )oints. in spite of the fact that neither book told he reader much about what really goes on in either ercussion

Both

//

Sicily or

Sardinia.

The protagonist of Guido Piovene's long-awaited Le stelle fredde suddenly leaves his employTient and retires to his house in the country. There le quarrels with his father and is shot at by the nusband of his former mistress. Later, accused of murdering the man, he takes to the hills, where he is joined by a philosopher-policeman and by Fedor aovel

The

'Dostoevski. logue all

latter explains in a

how he has come back from

34-page monothe dead.

enlightened.

murderer

is

They

be Dostoevski disappears again, the real found, and the protagonist returns home,

go to a priest for enlightenment, but

fail

to

where he starts building up a card index of literary images. Short summaries do not usually succeed in conveying the real flavour of a novel, but this one does. little book of poems, Di opened with a quotation from Flaubert:

Nelo Risi's admirable certe cose,

"What a mire of stupidity our age flounders in!" The 1970 poetry vintage was definitely better than the prose. There were beautiful landscapes of the mind in Maria Luisa Spaziani's L'occhio del ciclone, and arresting images in Tittte le poesie by Sandro Penna, collected in one volume. Alfredo Giuliani's //

tautofono, "a sort of poetical Rorschach test," was

nonsense. More difficult to catalog were Dino Buzzati's Poema a fumetti, a poetic striprather pleasant

cartoon of

some merit; Giovanni

Testori's Erodiade,

unperformable dramatic monologue; and Carmelo Bene's L'orecchio tnancante, a mixture a

deliberately

of harsh invective,

avant-garde verse, serious

criti-

and rubbish. The year's essays made the most rewarding reading. Pietro Citati's Goethe was an imaginative presentation of the great poet's work. Three young postgraduates, Lucia Strappini, Claudia Micocci, and Alberto cism,

Abruzzese, produced the best critical analysis to date of Italian culture

and society

in the first

two decades

Maria Corti and Cesare Segre edited an important anthology of contemporary Italian literary criticism, / metodi atof the 20th century (La classe dei colti).

tnali della

critica

in

Italia.

lected, in Italia giiidicata, the

Ernesto Ragionieri colmost important writings

by contemporary foreign observers on Italian history between 1861 and 1945, making sobering reading. Umberto Eco and Eugenio Battisti wrote the commentary to two stimulating pictorial books on the history of artistic techniques, L'arte come mcstiere and L'arte

come invenzione.

(G. C.)

JEWISH Hebrew. The world

of

1970 by the death of

Hebrew

letters

was diminished

Y. Agnon, co-winner of the 1966 \obel Prize for Literature with Nelly Sachs, who

in

S.

also died during the year {see Obituaries).

Despite uncertain political conditions, erature in Israel again demonstrated

P. Sadeh's strangely mythological novel elec/t

Hebrew

its

lit-

creativity.

Mot Abim-

appeared, as did elder writer Z. Weinberg's Al

Admat Naihar and

the collected writings in four vol-

umes of Sippiirai Yehuda Vaari ("The Stories of Yehuda Yaari"). Y. Yaoz-Kast's Halon ha-Bayit haNogea was an evocation of the Holocaust. H. Bartov's Shel

Mi Atah

Yeled and A. Amir's

Noon were

note-

worthy. Volumes of stories by Z. Luz and G. Telpaz were Onot and ha-Epikoires, respectively.

A volume of critical writings, Otjwdot (^translated by its author, Y. Kesheth, as "Appreciations"), drew some attention. Related to this was S. Avneri's 12 Meshorerim and the late critic M. Feitelsohn's Behinot ve-Haarahot. I. Gour's Nojai Sijrut ve-Tarbut contained essays on the theatre. A fine scholarly work was D. Pagis' Shirat ha-Hol ve-Torat ha-Shir le-Moshe Ibn-Ezra u-Vnai Doro. A.

M. Habermann

in

Toledot ha-Shira veha-Piyut

dealt eruditely with the dcveloprnent of post-biblical

Centuries removed in time, background, and genre was D. Miron's thorough study entitled Sholom Aleichem. Poetry during 1970 ran the gamut from the relaliterature.

Among the former were a posthumous collection of M. Terhkin's Shirat Yerushalayim, A. Broides' Tahana ve-Derech, Z. tively simple to the sophisticated.

466

Literature

Gilead's

LATIN-AMERICAN

Tzava.

Latin America continued

Or Hozer, and I. Shalev's Naar Shav Min haAbba Kovner's Hupah ba-Midbar was a nostalgic statement in modern idiom, while T. Carmi's Davar Ahed represented a sharply concrete as well as abstract view of the world. Avot Yeshurun's poems in Ze Shaim ha-Sejer were characteristically aphoristic. In the U.S., Hebrew literature was again at a stand-

development and guerrillas. Des; censorship and torture, the radical vanguard was ag; represented by Brazil. Augusto de Campos publish 1970

lapsible

Yiddish. The year 1970 marked the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Yiddish press in the U.S. While many Yiddish literary luminaries were missing from the 1970 list, the books issued bore wit-

of

Of

significance,

Israel of lyunini

ness to significant accomplishments. In the U.S. Yiddish poetry was enriched by Joseph Rubinstein's Exodus from Europe, the last volume of a narrative trilogy; Wolf Pasmanik's My Poems; Kadya Molodovsky's Marzipans, essentially for children but aimed at adults as well; and Moshe Shifris' Under One Roof. Fiction included Ben Gold's In Those Days, Paul Rubinstein's popular novel Upon Strange Ways, and Wolf Karmiol's Carts on the Roads to the End of the

World, published in Tel Aviv. To the shelf of essays were added Solomon Simon's Faith of a Generation, S. Tenenbaum's Hunger for the World, Samuel Margoshes' In the Process of Generations, and Jacob Cahan's In the Struggle of Times, the latter two issued

in Israel.

The revised and enlarged edition of Samuel Niger's Mendeleh Moikher Sforini, about the classics of modern Yiddish writing, enriched the field of biography

and

literary research.

The

field of

autobiography

in-

model.

Midwest during several decades, and J. B. Beilin's All in One Life. Contributions from Canada included Melekh Ravitch's poetry collection Post Scriptus and Ida Maze's autobiographical novel Dinah, while Mexico added David Zabludovsky's memoirs Of Past Years, and the bilingual, Hebrew- Yiddish literary-scientific collection Grace to Abraham, dedicated to writer and educator Abraham Golomb, a resident of Los Angeles, on the occasion of his 80th birthday. Yiddish works from Paris were Mendel Man's collection of short stories The Black Oak, Jacob Sternberg's Poem and Ballad on the Carpathians, and Moshe Shmulevich's Warsaw Years. Moscow's contributions included M. Dobin's The Power of Life and Joseph Rabin's At the Nyeman River, in fiction, and the collection With Body and Life by Izzy Kharik as the most important

life in

the

event

in the sphere of poetry. Yiddish literary activity in Israel resulted in many accomplishments. In poetry these included Abraham

Sutzkever's Ripened Faces, Yaakov Zvi Shargel's Sunny Doorsteps, Aryeh Shamri's Song in the Barn, David Rodin's Young and Younger, for young readers,

and Thirst for Duration by Leizer Eichenrand, dent of Switzerland.

Among

a resi-

the outstanding works

In Wide Hopelessness, Joseph Ehrlich's Sabbath, and collections of short stories by Israel Kaplan and L. Kheyn-Shimoni. The field of the essay was enriched by Samuel Eisenof fiction were Yekhiel Hoffer's

Malka Locker's monograph Charles Baudelaire, and the bilingual Hebrew- Yiddish

stadt's Pioneering Figures,

collection President

and Author, published on the oc-

environment-poem resembling an

He

Mallarme whose language, despite

has elapsed,

is

remarkably modern.

disci;

the time

Two

poets

tl

frt

Minas Gerais sought a combir and elements of concre poetry: Affonso Avila (Codigo de Minas) and Silviai the baroque state of

tion of traditional diction

Santiago

Tutameia: Terceiras estdrias, Guimaraes Rosa, appean

(Salto).

1

the great novelist Joao

posthumously: one of the stories recounted the met morphosis of a man into a jaguar and the dissolutii of the Portuguese language into an expression bas( on the indigenous language of Brazil, Tupi-Guarar Among the lucid essays included in Mario da Silva Angido e horizonte was one devoted to the doyen the vanguard of the 1920s, Oswaldo de Andrade, who: novel Os condenados, with a foreword by Mario c Silva Brito, constituted the first volume of Andrade Obras completas. dorso do tigre brought togeth( Benedito Nunes' literary and philosophical reflection while Lingiiistica, poetica, cinema commemorated R( i

man own

Jakobson's

visit to Brazil

with a collection of h

work by Haroldo c Campos, Boris Schnaiderman, and J. Mattoso Camar; essays and studies of his

Jr.

The wealth

of Argentina's literary output defied

tailed description. Jorge Luis

public by surprise with his in

dc

Borges took the readin

first

book

of short storie

17 years. El informe de Brodie, in which he con

firmed that he was

still

the contemporary master o

Spanish prose writing. These short

realistic

storie

put aside the fictional form that had brought fame t^ Borges and whose translation, in the opinion of man; critics,

had

initiated a

new

era in

North Americai

literature. Julio Cortazar's miscellany, tJltimo rouna

gathered together stories, poems, essays, and collage games, while his reprinted play Los reyes invertec the Theseus myth and made a hero of the Minotaurl

His collection of Relatos reached the public at thd same time as an exchange published under the title of La literatura en la revolucidn y la revolucidn en k literatura, in which Cortazar and Mario Vargas Llosa engaged in a polemic with the young Colombian writer Oscar CoUazos about the extent of a writer's commitment. The horrors of power were satirized by H. A. Murena in Polispuercon and by Leopoldo Marechali, in his novel Megafon o la guerra, which appeared post-J humously. E. Mallea set his La penultima puerta in Delhi and Buenos Aires. David Viiias gave expression to his concern for the political present and future of Argentina in Cosas concretas. H. Constantini (Hdb-

lenme de Funes), G. L. Garcia (Cancha rayada), and H. Romeu (A bailor esta ranchera, an expression of the hippie subculture) developed the experimental forms of the narrative. Alberto Girri, an isolated and original poet, published his Antologia temdtica, while A. Vanasco assembled in Canto rodado the poetry of 20 years. In the second volume of her autobiography,

La vida

cotidiana,

casion of the 80th birthday of Israeli Pres. Schneor

that drive a

Zalman Shazar.

come

(M. Sn.)

architec

also recalled to public attention, in Revis

de Kilkerry, the work of a neglected Brazilian

cluded the two volumes of David Shub's 0?i the Revolving Stage of History, Benjamin Laikin's Memoirs of a Practical Dreamer, depicting chiefly Jewish

literary

Equivocdbulos, a collection of semantic-visual tex photo-poems, and "Viagem via linguagem," a c

however, was the publication in be-Mahashevet Y Israel by the late (G. P.) scholar Simon Rawidowicz. still.

its

in a context of repression

M. R.

Oliver described the motives

young daughter of the oligarchy

to be-

a socialist militant. In the critical field, Nicolas

sa's brilliant

Critica

y significacion earned him a

vileged place

among

the

many

students of struc-

alism.

The literature of each of the Central American rehad special characteristics. Guatemalan A.

blics

jnterroso, in

La oveja

negra, brought up to date

The complete works

of Jose

further enriched by the addition of five

new volumes,

Despite the obstacles placed in their way by men and their machismo complex, so vigorously denounced by Clara Silva in Prohibido pasar, women dominated the literary scene in Uruguay: M. I. Silva Vila sati-

worthy of particular note: Obras escogidas, Manlio gueta's novel El valle de las hamacas, and I. Lopez asombro. P. A. illecillo's book of poetry Piiro ladra, in El Nicaragiiense, probed deeply into Nicagua's culture and national character. Ernesto Carderewrote some of the Salmos for our time, infusing sm with his own political and religious concern. Gabriel Garcia Marquez continued to dominate the dor three books were

.Drt-story writer Salarrue's

1

jlombian literary scene.

its

of SoliEnglish translation, and

France was awarded the annual prize for the best reign work. In the same field, William Agudelo's uestro lecho no es de flores gave a frank issioned

and im-

account of the author's struggle between

and the priestly vocation. R. Fernandez Retamar's Que veremos arder stood it amid Cuba's abundant and often excellent poetic jtput, since it showed once again the poet's ability render poetic the most contradictory experiences. Poetry and criticism continued to maintain a single gh standard in Chile: Nicanor Parra's Obra gruesa -Qvided an opportunity to study the evolution of the xuality

eator

of

"antipoetry."

jbres esjeras

In

La musiquilla de

Enrique Lihn carried to

its

las

ultimate

5nsequences a hauntingly sincere and authentic arstic project. Jose Miguel Ibanez published the fruits a rigorous structural analysis in

La creacion

poetica.

Posdata Octavio Paz formulated the critique Mexican society that had experienced the student jbellion of 1968, in Conjiinciones y Disyunciones e examined the signs "body" and "no body" through HI of the finest expository styles in any language. His oetry, collected in La centena, was the object of an ,ble study by Ramon Xirau, Octavio Paz: El sentido e la palabra. The same clarity and precision charcterized the literary and artistic essays of Carlos 'uentes, Casa con dos puertas. The relations between Mexicans and non-Mexicans, Ithough an unusual theme, occupied a significant )lace in four new Mexican novels: Sergio Galindo's Vj«io, J. M. Torres' Didascalias, L. J. Hernandez' Nostalgia de Troya, and Ulises Carrion's De Alemania. uan Garcia Ponce developed his interpretation of he complexities of love in three new novels, the most loteworthy of which was La vida perdurable and )ub!ished El reino milenario, a study of Robert Musil. Prison experience was movingly described by Jose Revueltas in El apando. The most successful novel 5f the year was Hasta no verte, Jesus mio, in which Elena Poniatowska told the life story of a woman If in

a

,

whose experience synthesized the 20th century in Mexico. In Lo que es del Cesar Ricardo Garibay borrowed techniques from several of the media; in Acta

Hector Manjarrez drew his inspiration from the world of pop culture, while a passion for rock music motivated P. G. Saldana in El rey criollo. In Peru. Julio Ortega's Mediodia was a brilliant (novel about the writing of a novel. In the realm of apoetry, works by Washington Delgado {Un mundo t>ropiciatorio

rized the fall of an aristocratic family in Salto cancan,

and Cristina Peri Rosi gave ample confirmation of her talent in Los museos abandonados and El libra de mis primos. Sara de Ibanez described the catastrophes of the age in Apocalipsis

XX, and

L. B. Bejar

examined

current linguistic procedures in Andlisis de un lenguaje

en

crisis.

Mario Benedetti brought his indispensable XX up to date.

Literatura uruguaya sigh

One Hundred Years

de was a major success in

Literature

Carlos Mariategui, the Latin-American Gramsci, were

Rica gave birth to a Caribbean Papillon La de los hombres solos, an account of his 20 years jail by the ex-delinquent J. L. Sanchez. In El Salsta

467

J.

including Peruanicemos el Peru and Cartas de Italia.

2

f

cosas) were outstanding.

,

irony and style the ancient genre of the fable,

:h

f

G. Rose (Informe al rey), M. Martos (Cuaderno de quejas y contentamientos), and C. Bustamante {El nombre de las dividido), C. G. Belli {Sextinas)

(J. E. Pa.;

M.

A. G.)

NORWEGIAN In pride of place was Thor Heyerdahl's Ra, a fascinating report on his two transatlantic voyages with

papyrus vessels, seen against thousands of years of seafaring history, and with a cornucopia of amazingly well-reproduced photographs. Several historical novels appeared, foremost among them Kare Holt's Hersker og trell. Concluding a trilogy on the life of King Sverre, this volume covered the period 1179-1202, giving an imaginative and colourful account of the last years of his reign. Asbj0rn pksendal's saga pastiche Sigrid Ranesdatter og Sigurd Jorsaljare centred around Sigurd the Crusader's in-

woman

the early

12th

century. Belonging to the middle period of the

same

fatuation with a married

century was Ragnhild Mager0y's

volume

the second

in a series

in

Himmelen

er gul,

on Ingerid Ragnvalds-

daughter. Bergljot Hobaek Haff's

Den

sorte

kappe was a

strangely innocent account of an elderly businessman's fatal passion for a

deformed

Italian prostitute. Alco-

holism, sex, and manslaughter, seasoned with obscen-

main ingredients in Gunnar Lunde's Dr0mmekvinnen. In Tiljellet Martin, Solveig Christov juxtaposed a happy holidaying couple and a young murderer on the run. Acid social satire was the basic element in Tor Age Bringsvaerd's imaginative Bazar, an unusual mixture of pop art, surrealism, and science fiction. In Fredrik Skagen's novel Jeg vet en deilig have the social satire was tempered by refreshing baroque humour. Bj0rg Vik's first novel, Grdt elskede mann, extended the analysis of love re-

ities,

were

first

novel,

lationships dealt with in her earlier short stories.

A

from the point of view of three generations of women, was taken up by newcomer similar theme, seen

Elisabeth

Thams

of dolce vita

in

her novel Tre kvitiner.

A

touch

was introduced by another newcomer.

Axel Barre, in the thriller Alle elsket enken. The year's principal contributions to Norwegian

poetry were the posthumous Liv ved straumen by Tarjei Vesaas. Rolf Jacobsen's Headlines, Simen Skj0nsberg's Flyttedag, Stein Mehren's Aurora, and

Ragnvald Skrede's Lauvjall. In Tommy Odd Nansen drew a touching portrait of a Jewish boy he met in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp in 1945, while his Langs veien was a

I

series of reminiscences, including fascinating glimpses

of his father, Fridtjof Nansen, ling.

and of Vidkun Quis(To. S.)

YLDENDAL

NORSK

Kare Holt's historical novel "Hersker og trell" completes a trilogy life of King Sverre. «"

SOVIET To

conformist

in the Soviet

critics and so-called consensus writers Union, the literary landmarks of 1970

were the celebration in April of the centenary of Lenin's birth and in May of the 2Sth anniversary of victory over Nazi Germany. The first, emphasized at both the plenary session of the Councils for the Creative Arts of the Union Republics (December 1969) and the third Congress of Writers of the Russian Federation (March 1970), provided an opportunity to review the achievements and restate the aims of "the Soviet literature of today"; the second gave writers a chance to reassert the national unity and patriotic fervour that won the "Great Patriotic War" (World

War

II).

From

the viewpoint of the West, however, the

events of the year were:

main

the forced resignation in

February of poet and critic Aleksandr Tvardovski (see Biography) from editorship of the journal of liberal dissent, Novy Mir; publication by Andrei Amalrik, the young essayist and playwright opposed to the political and literary establishment, of two brilliant indictments of the political

system. Will the

Soviet Union Survive Until 1984? and Involuntary

Journey

ment

to Siberia, resulting in his trial

November

and imprison-

"disseminating

falsehoods derogatory to the Soviet state and social system"; in

for

London in October of the first uncensored revision of Babii Yar (1966), by "A. Anatoli." pseudonym of Anatoli Kuznetsov', whose defection had publication in

been a sensation of 1969; and. most important of all, acceptance by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn of the Nobel Prize for Literature, followed by his go to Stockholm to receive it.

Not

that

An

were disregarded

events

these

Soviet Union.

final refusal to

in

the

increasingly militant underground

greeted Amalrik's essays with enthusiasm: and even while condemning them, "party-line" So%-iet writers

Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn was awarded the 1970 Nobel Prize for Literature but declined to travel to Stockholm to receive

it.

Of books about Lenin himself, most original wa. Tiaelve Roads to Egl, a penetrating study of the in^ fluence on the development of Soviet foreign policy o Lenin's experiences abroad, by Saava Dangulov. Perhaps the best of the war novels was Yur^ Bondarev's During Snow, a description, epic in scaled

showed ambivalence in their attitude to Tvardovski and Solzhenitsyn in particular. Pravda, a leader in the attack on Tvardovski. in an article celebrating his

of the critical point in the defense of Stalingrad wher

60th birthday in June, praised him as "one of the major and most gifted" of contemporary^ Soviet poets; and speakers in the Writers' Union debate on Solzhen-

Sketches written at the front in 1941 by Konstantir Simonov and published in 1970 as Notebook of

made it clear that they thought him dangerous because he was "a writer of genius and a man of principle" and knew that his "courage, integrity, and attachment to the homeland" had won him wide admiration. In the letter written after expulsion from itsyn

—

the Writers" Union. Solzhenitsyn struck at the roots of their fear and their failure, reminding them that

Soviet troops turned back the attempt by Germai

tanks to break through to the encircled

t

Young

had the natural immediacy rarely, achieved by attempts to describe from memory whalj life in the army was like. In Sister of Sorrow, a wari story of a different kind. V. Shefair evoked the at-' mosphere of the period immediately before the war telling with delicate humour, poetry, and poignancy of first love, and the overwhelming grief of a young-

". the secrets of the heart and conscience, the confrontation between life and death. Life conquers death, the past .

.

human

Soldier

experience of irreparable loss.

girl's first

A

they looked to the past for their themes, while his

were eternal and universal:

novel treating the war from a different viewpoint,

volume of Grigori Konovolov's Sourcesvolume came out in 1959), chronicled the'

the second

(the life

first

of a w-orker's family living in a big industrial city

conquered by the future." It was partly because writers had already too often turned for inspiration to the great days of the Revolu-

on the Volga

and the Great Patriotic War that the works written to celebrate the Lenin centenary- and the Victory-

prizes

is

tion

Day

the war. It

in the

won

went

to

Mikhail Bubonnov. for Torrent,

Battle, set in a vast

Grigoriev's

Lenin's father, and

based on the

life

Ilya

Nikolaevich

Madimir Osoysov's

a

studv

of

April, a novel

of Lenin's elder brother, Aleksandr.

de-

scribing the struggles of a group of y^oung workers

den by Lenin in exile, was forced to retrace her tracks, and. in Four Lessons by Lenin, collected essays describing her \-isits to places where he had lived in

Nikolai

during''

prize in an All-Union contest'^

for a novel about the life of the Soviet worker: second

to

Switzerland, and England. E. Vechtomova's The Story of Mother was a life of Lenin's mother.

years leading up to and

first

anniversary fell a little fiat. Even Marietta Shaginian, tireless turner-out of stories on roads trod-

Italy.

German Armyv

clear the

Siberia

;

and

bed of the turbulent Argara River in Madimir Popov, for You Will If '/« the

to

new

metallurgical plant.

Chinghiz Aitmatov, Kirghiz novelist and Lenin Prize winner, regarded as one of the most interesting young Soviet writers for a style and idiom blending modern Russian with the ancient language and form of his people's oral epic poetry-, treated a

theme very

unlike that of his last novel. Farewell Gul'sary (1969; trans. 1970), in

White Ship.

ir.ifesto,

Diego Jesus Jimenez, who won the Adonais Prize for Poetry in 1964 and the National Literature Prize in 1968, was discovered in a state of actual hunger in Madrid by the newspaper Pueblo; he also objected to state aid, on the ground that it "entails an obligated and directed literature, as in Russia." The historiographer Americo Castro, however, published his new book, De la Espana que aim no conocta, in Mexico, although parts appeared in Spain; one central thesis was that much of the feverish paramilitary activity and feats of the Old Christians in 17th-century Spain were an effort to show that they were not Jews, until the point was reached where "the unanimity of 'clean blood' had reduced Spain to an uncultivated steppe on the margin of a fertile Europe." The philosopher Julian Marias produced an excellent report on Israel, Israel: una resurreccion. A most valuable contribution was made by the American Paul Hie in his Documents of the Spanish Vanguard: 57 texts from largely unavailable magazines and manifestos. A fascinating work on the world of magic plants was Botdnica oculta o El falso Paracelso by Juan Perucho, author of books on Antonio Gaudi and Joan Miro. Undoubtedly the outstanding verse collection published in 1970 was Jorge Guillen's Obra poetica, a compendium of pure poetry and a marvel of technical skill in which words and message were one. Another fine collection was by the Cuban-Spaniard Jose Caballero Bonald. whose Vivir para contarlo ("Live to Tell

pressed

It")

Dne of the most important of the year's collections poetry was Andrei Voznesenski's The Shadow of which, following the English Metaphysicals French Symbolists, he plays with words and iges, and arranges poems in patterns to suit their )jects. Other new collections included Y. Smelya•ind, in i

the

December; Boris Slutski's Tales for Today; by Evgeni Vinokurov, poet of things, who here scribes in cerebral, unrhetorical poems the world ,-'s

ows,

theatre, acrobat, circus,

banquet, legend, cave

art,

show; Leonid utynov's brilliant poems of metamorphosis, PeoLeonid Vasilyev's Ognevitsa; and a s' Names; respective collection by Evgeni Yevtushenko, iniding some new poems and omitting some controthe whole world

plying that

is

a

earlier ones.

rsial

The year's Lenin Prize winners were Nikolai Tionov, "elder statesman" of Soviet poetry; and the rgei Mikhalkov. a popular children's writer ;t writer for children to win the Lenin award. (See (X.) S^.R. Special Report.)

—

:

'ANISH le

longing for "amputated" Spain, the Spain

still

be reincorporated into the "mother coun•" was shown with new intensity during the year, le return to Spain of Francisco Ayala, novelist, jrt-story writer, and critic, elicited a remarkable exile, to

directed only "to public opinion," which "profound joy" at the "recuperation of ancisco Ayala for Spanish cultural life" and was

ned by velist

the

country's

outstanding writers.

Manuel Andujar, born

rmed as a writer

in

Andalusia

The but

Mexico, returned "definitively" his native country,' and a trilogy of his works was iblished under the general title of Vtsperas, narrate studies in an apolitical realism. The publishing luse Editorial Andorra published the work from ucelona as well as from Andorra where it had ;ued the work of many an exile. Many of these exiles had other Spanish publicain

—

)n during jis

Max Aub

the year.

Bunuel,

who was

visited

fellow-exile

filming Benito Perez Galdos'

"istana near Saragossa,

and wrote

a -trenchant piece

another amputation, a miraculous one involving unuel's family and the Virgin of Saragossa: De las )OUt

'.rdaderas relaciones ;/

Pilar.

.\ndorra; ifw. /

in

1

Ramon

in

a

new

novel,

La

sinrazon,

Sender published El rey y

la

Barcelona; and Ayala published his novel

fondo del vaso, a

'.tiva,

de Luis Bunuel con la Virgen

Rosa Chacel issued

critical

and a collection of

study La estructura narLos usurpadores,

stories,

Spain.

The increasing role of Spain as a presence in Histinic writing was exemplified not only by the return from exile but also by the physical emi' writers '

i.acement

of Hispano-.^merican writers the to mother country." The jury for the new Barral Prize lOr a Spanish novel ( offered by the new Barral Edi-

breakaway from Seix Barral) included the American writers Mario Vargas Llosa md Gabriel Garcia Marquez, now resident in Barce»na. Garcia Marquez turned down the position of onsul for Colombia, saying that he had "never reeived a cent not earned at the typewriter," and that ny fee foreign to the office of writer compromises )res,

a

ading South

writer's independence, something as important as nowing how to write: "I shall not be one more writer-

(le

nth-a-tie:

I

no longer wear one even who would not wear a

i»nother writer

in real life." tie,

the poet

469

Literature

(Ay. K.)

included "Zauberlehrling."

SWEDISH One

of the year's

most

interesting events

was the

creation of Forfattarforlaget (the Author's Publish-

members and owners company. The aim was to redress the balance of power in the book trade by giving more influence to writers, and to hold down book prices. Published titles included works by well-known writers: doctor and novelist P. C. Jersild's Vi ses i Song My, a political allegory set in Sweden but reflecting a worldwide moral dilemma; veteran writer and academician Artur Lundkvist's prose mosaic Ldngt borta, mycket ndra; and the poet Tomas Traning Co.), with 145 authors as

of the independent

stromer's collection

M orkerseende.

The poet Werner .Aspenstrom published

"""^

the collec-

tion Inre ("Inner") after a five-year silence.

Aban-

doning the magical and incantatory elements and rich

XerJuTsoda'^atir, "666" was published in

1970.

470

musical allusions of earlier works, he

Luxembourg

to a

still

now

listened

Flesch

voice from within in the face of threatening

ocrat).

global disaster.

The younger poet Goran Sonnevi was

The title of his latest colDet mdste gd ("It Must Be Possible"), in which most of the poems were socially "involved," reflected this categorical imperative. The style was the need to rebuild society.

succeeded

lectual

Ekelof's

77th year.

and emotional conten' was impressive. Maja award-winning Rapport frdn en skiirhink ("Report from a Scrub Bucket") looked on a cleaner's life. In their different ways, both Sonnevi and Miss Ekelof reflected the importance of human equality as a moral and political issue in Sweden.

The a fine

distinguished scholar

new study

Luxembourg, assumed office on Jan. 1, 1970. officially

VIDE

WORLD

of

1970, Prince

;

1

Luxembourg's defense expenditures rose in I'l an estimated LFr. 401 million, compared with L 374 million in 1968. (R. D. H

Gustaf Eroding

LUXEMBOURG

(d.

Education. ( 1967-68) Primary, pupils 36,625-, teachers 1,572 secondary, pupils 8,818, teachers 658; vocational, pupils 6,451, teachers 463; higher, students 667.

hagtornskrans,

;

Finance. Monetary

unit: Luxembourg franc, at par with the Belgian franc (LFr. 50 = U.S. $1; LFr. 120 £1 sterling). Budget (1969 est.): revenue LFr. 11,003,500,000; expenditure LFr. 11,009,900,000. Gross' national product: (1969) LFr. 43,61 5,000.000; (1968) LFr. 37,926,000,000. Cost of living (1963 100)(June 1970) 124; (June 1969) 118. Foreign Trade. See Belgium.

=

=

concerned with human relationships, responsibility, and loneliness, expressed in vigorous and vivid language. Tore Zetterholm's 666 (the Swedish word for the numeral 6 is a homonym for sex) was a social satire of formidable

8,

Henry Olsson published

the poet

och

to the post of

April

to

and Ole Soderstrom devoted a semidocumentary novel, Molnvandring, to Verner von Heidenstam. Another imaginative documentary novel was Tegelmdstare Lnndin och stora vdrlden by Per Gunnar Evander. Lars Gyllensten's Palatset i parken presented a return to a childhood background, but was essentially V.inldvsranka

1911),

first

.

mayor in 1970. Fehx of Luxembourg Nassau, the Austrian-bom consort of Grand Duct Charlotte and father of Grand Duke Jean, died in-;;

On

simple and clear with vivid images, and the intel-

of

]

city council of the capital and, as a coalition candic of the Liberals (Democrats) and Christian Sociali

lection,

Colette Flesch, the

stand for Parliament as a Liberal (Di

Having been victorious, she was appoin as a Luxembourg representative to the European I liament in Strasbourg. In 1969 she was elected to

deeply concerned about injustices and convinced of

woman mayor

left to

power.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1969) 4,440 km. Mot or vehicles in use ( 1969): passenger 88,642; commercial 12,136. Railways: (1968) 328 km.; traffic (1969) 253 million passenger-km., freight 72 5 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1969): 54.8 million passenger-km.; freight 350,000 net ton-km. Telephones (Dec. 1968) 97,978. Radio licenses (Dec. 1967) 133,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1968) 52.000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969; 1968 in parentheses): oats 34 (34); wheat (1968) 41, (1967) 49; rye 6 (5); potatoes (1968) 60, (1967) 91. Livestock (in 000; May 1969): cattle 191; sheep 4; pigs (May 1968) 105; chickens 440. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1Q69): iron ore (30% metal content) 6,311; pig iron 4,871; crude steel 5.522; electricity (kw-hr.) 2,203,000; manufactured gas (cu.m.; 1968) 16,000.

(K. R. P.)

Philosophy; Theatre. EncycloP/EDIa Britannica Films. Chaucer's England With a Special Presentation oj The Pardoner's Tale ( 1958); The Theater One oj the Humanities (Humanities Course) Early Victorian England and Charles Dickens (Hu( 1959); manities Course) (1962); Great Expectations I: The Story (Humanities Course) ( 1962 ); Great Expectations II: The Story Interpreted (Humanities Course) (1962); The Novel: What It Is, What It's About, What It Does (Humanities Course) 1962); Morning on the Lievre (1964); Huckleberry Finn I ( 1965); Huckleberry Finn II (1965); Huckleberry Finn 111 ( 1965).; The Odyssev I The Structure of the Epic (IQ(j5); The Odyssey II— Return of Odysseus (1965); The Odyssey III Central Themes ( 1965 ); Bartleby by Herman Melville (1969); Dr. Heidegger's Experiment by Nathaniel Hawthorne ( 1969); The Lady, or the Tiger? by Frank Stockton (1969); The Lottery by Shirley Jackson (1969); Magic Prison ( 1969); My Old Man by Ernest Hemingway (1969); James Dickey: Poet (1970). Sff also Libraries;

—

—

(

—

—

Malagasy Republic The Malagasy Republic occuMadagascar and minor adjacent islands in the Indian Ocean off the pies the island of

Luxembourg A

southeast

monarchy, the Benelux country of Luxembourg is bounded on the east by Germany, on the south by France, and on the west and north by Belgium. Area: 999 sq.mi. 2,587 sq.km.). Pop. (1970 est.): 338,500. Cap. and largest city: Luxembourg (pop., 1970 est., 77,500). Language: Erench and German. Rehgion: 97% Roman Catholic. Grand duke, Jean; prime minister in 1970, Pierre Werner. constitutional

(

On March Livestock and Animal Products: see Agriculture

Lumber: see Timber Lutherans: see

Religion

Macao: iff Dependent States Machinery and Machine Tools: sec Industrial Review Madagascar: Malagasy Republic

see

Magazines: Publishing

see

20, 1970,

Luxembourg joined with

rep-

resentatives of 20 other French-language nations of

Europe, Africa, Asia, and North America to form an agency for cultural and technical cooperation. The Francophone states chose Paris as the headquarters for the agency and Jean-Marc Leger, a Canadian, as its director.

Colette Flesch, a 32-year-old graduate of Wellesley (Mass.) College,

was elected mayor of the

capital

youngest and only female mayor in its recent history. The mayor was an active athlete, having represented her country in fencing at the last three Olympics. She had also had an active career in Luxembourg's diplomatic service. After serving on the staff of the Common Market in Brussels until 1968, Mile city, the

coast

of

Africa.

Area: 226,660 sq.mi. (587,051 sq.km.). Pop. (1969 est.) 7,198,640. Cap. and larges city: Tananarive (pop., 1970 est., 343.670). Lan guage: French and Malagasy. Religion: Christian (ap proximately 50%) and traditional tribal beliefs. Presi dent in 1970, Philibert Tsiranana. In 1970 the Malagasy political scene was dominatec by three events: the prolonged absence of the heac of state because of illness; the formation of a new government; and the signing of economic aid agreements with South Africa. President Tsiranana, suffering from a stroke, was taken to the Salpetriere hospital in Paris in January and remained under treatment until May. After various incidents at Tananarive during the electoral campaign, legislative elections took place on :

September 6 and the election of general councillors week later. President Tsiranana took the oppor-

a

tunity to accuse the opposition of "subversive activi-

The government Social Democratic Party (PSD) gained 104 of the 107 seats in the National

ties."

Assembly, the 3 remaining seats going to the main opposition party, the Congress for the Independence of

I

MALAGASY REPUBLIC

MALAWI

Primary, pupils 743,531, teachers (state only) 6,368; secondary, pupils 67,130, teachers (state only) 1,531; vocational, pupils 3,992, teachers (1965-66) 539; teacher training, students 2,600, teachers (1964-65) 118: higher (including University of Madagascar), students 3,449, teaching staff

Education. (1967) Primary, pupils 297,456, teachers secondary, pupils 7,964, teachers 424; vocapupils 1,096, teachers 114; teacher training, students 1,180, teachers 120; higher, students 644, teaching staff 98.

316.

the

(1967-68)

'Education.

8.104;

tional,

Finance. Monetary unit: Malawi pound, at par with pound sterling (Mal£l = U.S. $2.40). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, official: (June 1970) U.S. $23,980,000; (June 1969) U.S. $21,880,000. Budget (1969 est.): revenue Mal£17,620,000; ex-

Finance. Monetary unit: Malagasy franc, at par U.S. $1; MalFr. CFA franc (MalFr. 277.71 =£1 sterling). Budget (1969 est.) balanced at MalFr. 43 billion. Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports MalFr. 46.2 billion (52% from France, 9% from U.S.); exports MalFr. 29,150,000,000 (36% to France, 24%, to U.S., 12% to Reunion). Main exports: coffee 28%; vanilla 10%; rice 8%; sugar 6%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1969) 38,110 km. Motor vehicles in use (1968): passenger 42,925; commercial 27,860. Railways: (1968) c. 880 km.; traffic (1969) 175 million passenger-km., freight 209 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1969): 216 milfreight 8,930,000 net ton-km. lion passenger-km.: Telephones (Dec. 1968) 23,993. Radio receivers (Dec. 19671 350.000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968: 1967 in parentheses): cassava c. 910 (900); rice (1969) 1,785, (1968) 1,762; corn 88 (97); sweet potatoes 254 (300); potatoes 132 (85); bananas 165 (170); peanuts 43 (48); sugar, raw value (1969-70) (1968-69) 99; coffee 67 (71); tobacco 6.1 c. 115, (4.4): sisal (1969) 25, (1968) 21. Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1968): cattle 9,780; sheep 60S; pigs 522 goats (Dec. 1967) 700; chickens c. 11,500.

=

with the 666.50

penditure

S%

adagascar

(AKFM). The

AKFM

won

PSD

AKFM

3 of the 5

4, 3

29%;

tea

22%;

Transport and Communications. Roads (1968)

always considered a stronghold

gained 92 seats and the

exports: tobacco

13%.

10,488 km. Motor vehicles in use (1968): passenger 8,893; commercial 6,240. Railways (1968): c. 820 km.; traffic 49.4 million passenger-km., freight (1969) 152 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1968): 13,652,000 passenger-km.; freight 42 2.000 net ton-km. Telephones (Dec. 1968) 10,174. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) 100,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969; 1968 in parentheses): corn 998 (1,089); cassava (1968) c. 110, (1967) c. 140; sweet potatoes (1968) c. 40, (1967) c. 45; tobacco c. 12 (15); cottonseed 11 (7); peanuts (1968) c. 131, (1967) c. 245; tea (1968) 16, (1967) 17. Livestock (in 000; 1968-69): sheep c. 92; cattle 480; goats (1967-68) c. 700; pigs c. 154.

opposition. In the election of general councillors, e

Main

to U.S.).

peanuts

;

ats in the capital,

MaUl 7,620,000.

Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports Mal£30, 914,000 (30%, from U.K., 17%, from Rhodesia, 14% from South .Africa, 5% from Japan); exports Mal£22,083,000 (45%, to U.K., 11% to Zambia, 7%, to Rhodesia,

of these

Tananarive.

On November 20 Vice-Pres. Jacques Rabemananand the South African foreign minister, Hilgard signed four economic agreements between the /o countries, under which Malagasy would receive ans amounting to $3,240,000. Muller was accominied by a delegation of some 20 experts, who disjssed various possible fields of cooperation with .eir Malagasy counterparts. ("Ph. D.) ra

duller,

system of

to the British

justice,

had

failed to under-

Malawi which The next development came in March when President Banda stated that the police had captured the alleged leader and other members of a gang which since 1968 had been responsible for 28 ritual killings. It was later stand the significance of superstition

in

could only be dealt with by other methods.

claimed that among those detained in connection with the killings were three former Cabinet ministers. The president stated that D. D. Bolt, one of the four re-

was partly responsible for four of the deaths which had recently occurred because he had acquitted five men accused of murder during the previtiring judges,

ous September. In

May

South Africa's prime minister, B.

J.

Vorster,

Malawi accompanied by his foreign minister, Hilgard Muller. This was Vorster's first visit to an independent black African state. The visitors were followed in July by two senior officials of the South .\frican bureau of standards. They had been invited by J. Z. U. Tembo, minister of trade and industry, to advise the Malawi government on the setting up

visited

/laiawi republic

in

east

central

Malawi is bounded by anzania, Mozambique, and frica,

ambia. Area: 45,747 sq.mi. 118,484 sq.km.). Pop. (1970 )

4,530,000, nearly

:

all

are Africans. Cap.:

:n

of a standards bureau.

of

Zomba

('pop.,

1966, 19,-

Largest city: Blantyre (pop., 1966, 109,461). and Nyanja. Religion: predomi-

^.anguage: English i:nly -

traditional

beliefs.

President

in

1970,

H.

inuzu Banda. \s in the

/ft

previous year. President Banda rounded

1969 by appointing a

number

of

new

ministers.

G. E. Ndema, minister of government, did not hold office for long and

)ne of them, however, ocal

from the government and from the Malawi Congress Party in April 1970. Malawi's four British high court judges announced 'n November 1969 that they planned to relinquish -heir appointments as a result of legislation which, •ihey believed, seriously undermined the authority of the high court and weakened the safeguards against njustice. An international commission of jurists shared their disquiet, but the minister of finance, Aleke Banda, stated in London that the judges, accustomed vas

In September came the surprising news that Zambia, whose relations with Malawi had been far from good, was to open a high commission in Blantyre, This was all the more strange because President Banda had only recently announced his approval of a revival of British arms supplies to South Africa, a policy that Zambia strongly opposed. It was thought that the new move by Zambia might be aimed at countering the influence of

South Africa

in

Malawi.

(K.

I.)

expelled

Malaysia A

federation within the

Commonwealth

of Nations former Federation of Malaya fknown as West Malaysia) and Sabah (formerly North Borneo) and Sarawak (together known as East Malaysia), Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy situated in Southeast Asia at the southern

comprising the

1 1

states of the

472

Malaysia

end of the Malay Peninsula (excluding Singapore) and on the northern part of the island of Borneo. Area: 128,727 sq.mi. (333,401 sq.km.). Pop. (1969 est.): 10,455,119. Cap. and largest city: Kuala Lumpur (pop., 1968 est., 592,785). Official language: Malay. Religion: Malays are Muslim; Indians mainly Hindu; Chinese mainly Buddhist, Confucian, and Taoist. Supreme heads of state in 1970, with the title of yang di-pertuan agong, Tuanku Ismail Nasiruddin Shah ibni al-Marhum Sultan Zainal Abid'n and, from September 21, Tuanku Abdul Halim Mu'azzam Shah ibni al-Marhum Sultan Badlishah; prime ministers, Tunku Abdul Rahman and, from September 22, Tun Abdul

Razak bin Hussein. In 1970 Malaysia largely recovered from the tragic May 1969 racial disturbances. The ban

setbacks of the

and on publications of political parties was September 1970. Parliament, which had been suspended after the proclamation of a state of emergency after the May 1969 clashes, resumed meeting

on

politics

lifted in

MALAYSI.\ Education. West Malaysia. (1967) Primary, pupils 1,297.763, teachers 46,722; secondary, pupils 460,975, teachers 19,357; vocational, pupils 10,465, teachers 328; higher (including 2 universities), students 15,688, teaching staff 1,650. East Malaysia: Sabah. (1968) Primary, pupils 95,979, teachers 3,382; secondary, pupils 21,921, teachers 892; vocational, pupils 188, teachers 9; teacher training, students 509, teachers 40. East Malaysia: Sarawak. (1968) Primary, pupils 142,410, teachers 4,374; secondary, pupils 34,498, teachers 1,397; vocational, pupils 424, teachers 21; teacher training, students 460, teachers (1967) 57; higher, students 291, teaching staff ( 1965) 1 1. Finance. Monetary unit; Malaysian dollar, with a par value of M$3.06 to U.S. $1 (M$7.35 £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, official; (June 1970) U.S. $651 million; (June 1969) U.S.

=

$581 million. Budget (1969 est.): revenue M$l,961,800,000; expenditure M$l ,92 5.400,000. Gross national product; (1969) M$l 1,305,000,000; (1968) M$IO,288,000,000. Money supplv; (May 1970) M$l,897,000,000; (May 1969) M$l, 778.000,000. Cost of living (West Malaysia; 1963 100): (April 1970) lOS;

=

1969) 103. Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports M$3, 596,000,000; exports M$5,085,000,000. Import sources (West Malaysia only): Japan 17%; U.K. 14%; Australia 8%; Singapore 7%; China 6%; Thailand 6%; U.S. 6%; West Germany 5%. Export destinations (West Malaysia only): Singapore 19%; U.S. 18%; Japan 13%; U.K. 6%; U.S.S.R. 6%. Main exports; rubber 40%; (April

18%; timber 15%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1967)

tin

21,424 Icm. Motor vehicles in use (1968): passenger 230,000; commercial (including buses) 60,600. Railways: (1968) 1,82 1 km.; traffic (including Singapore) 583 million passenger-km., freight (1967) 1,080,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (MalaysiaSingapore .Airlines; 1969); 994 million passenger-km.; freight 17,711,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1969); merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 85; gross tonnage 38.697. Shipping (1968): vessels entered (excluding Sabah) 27,034,000 net registered tons; goods loaded 20,240,000 metric tons, unloaded 9,236,000 metric tons. Telephones (Jan. 1969) 156,354. Radio receivers (Dec. 1967) 538,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1968) 121,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968; 1967 in parentheses): rice 1,250 (1,061); rubber (1969) 1,281, (1968) 1,110; copra c. 190 {c. 180); palm oil (excluding Sarawak; estates only) 277 (234); tea (West Malaysia only) c. 3.4 (3.1); bananas (excluding Sarawak) c. 339 (c. 339); pineapples (West Malaysia only) c. 340 (350); pepper (Sarawak only; 1966) 15, (1965) 18; timber (cu.m.) 16,000 (14,200); fish catch (excluding Sarawak) 406 (367). Livestock (in 000; July 1969): cattle c. 315; pigs c. 965; goats (Dec. 1967) c. 335; sheep (West Malaysia only) c. 35; buffaloes (Dec. 1967) c. 337; poultry (Dec. 1967) c. 27,700. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969): tin concentrates f metal content) 73; bauxite 1,073; cement (West Malaysia only) 973; iron ore (West Malaysia only; 60% metal content) 5,236; crude oil (Sarawak only; 1968) 202.

Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Spiro Agnew upon his arrival on Agnew's tour in January.

in

Rahman in

greets U.S. Vice-Pres.

Kuala Lumpur, one of the

stops

February. The remaining nationwide curfew was on September 21.

lifted

Tunku Abdul Rahman resigned as prime minister or September 21 after 15 years in the post, and his long, time deputy and heir, Tun Abdul Razak bin Hussein (see BiOGR.'iPHY), was sworn in as Malaysia's second prime minister the next day. At the same time, TuankuAbdul Halim Mu'azzam, the sultan of Kedah, was in^ stalled as Malaysia's fifth supreme head of state oil September 21. The elections in Sabah and Sarawak, suspended because of the May 1969 disturbances, were held in July 1970.

The

Alliance Party

won

27 of the 48 seats

in^

Sarawak and 31 of the 32 seats in Sabah. This party,' made up of a coalition of the United Malays National Organization (UMNO), the Malaysian (Chinese As-^ sociation (MCA), and the Malaysian Indian Congress^

(MIC),

thus achieved a total of 93 seats in the 144-

member Parliament. On the state level, the Alliance commanded eight legislatures had a narrow, uncertain :

margin in three; and had lost to the opposition in Penang and Kelantan. A major threat to the internal security of the coun-< try was posed by armed Communist terrorists on theMalaysian-Thai border and in Sarawak. It was neces-1 sary to mobilize all efforts and resources to face this challenge, which continued throughout the year. The? government thus was forced to divert resources that' might otherwise have been used for economic development. From April to June war exercises involving five nations were held off the east coast of West Malaysia.' Taking part were units from Britain, Malaysia, Singa-pore. New Zealand, and Australia. The operation was designed to train and exercise the combined forces of the five nations under conditions that would prevail after the British military withdrawal from the region, i The Malaysian economy continued to expand and achieved a high rate of growth in 1969 despite some disruption in production caused by the disturbances.^ The higher rate of growth in gross national product j

(j

resulted in a steady rise in the per capita gross national product from M$845 in 1963 to M$1,000 in 1968 and

The

payments improvement and recorded a lus of M$530 million in 1969, compared with defof M$26 million in 1968 and M$256 million in Total net external reserves increased to M$2,000,000 at the end of 1969, M$530 million more in 1968. Despite the satisfactory rate of growth le economy, the unemployment situation in West aysia continued to deteriorate so that it remained nost important single economic and social problem

Pacific to the Indian Ocean.

d during the year.

geria,

he 1970 budget envisaged a current account deficit I$146 million and an overall deficit of M$930 mil-

Senegal, and Mauritania. Area: 478,652 sq.mi. (1,239,-

was expected to increase to and expenditure was estimated at !, 130,000,000, 5,076,000,000, of which M$2, 2 76,000,000 was for ent expenditure and M$800 million for developt. The overall deficit was to be financed through

largest city:

,060 in 1969.

tion

showed

overall balance of

a great

The

starfish

were weak-

ening coral reefs by stripping them of living polyps. A local radio station, largely donated by the Nuffield Trust, was established and staffed by

RAF

volunteers.

(M. Mr.)

S.

I

revenue

Total

taxes estimated to yield

M$133

million, special

M$22 million from foreign grants, domestic owing of M$603 million, foreign borrowing of 125 million, and a drawing of M$47 million from ipts of

government's accumulated assets.

federal

(M.

Mali A

republic of

Niger,

West Africa, Mali is bordered by AlUpper Volta, Ivory Coast, Guinea,

710 sq.km.). Pop. (1969 est.): 4,929,000. Cap. and Bamako (metro, pop., 1967 est., 175,-

000). Language:

and various

French

36%. Head of Moussa Traore.

animist Lieut.

Two Army,

(official);

tribal dialects. Religion:

Hamito-Semitic

Muslim 63%;

military government in 1970,

years after the take-over of power by the

In March, seven intellectuals were sentenced to imprisonment for defamation of Lieut. Moussa Traore and other Cabipolitical unrest persisted in Mali.

net ministers. S.

R.)

An important Cabinet

reshuffle took place in Sep-

members

government

MCYCLOP/EDiA Britannica Films. Malaya, Land of Tin

tember. Three civilian

Rubber

were dismissed, including Louis Negre, principal engineer of Franco-Malian financial agreements, and were replaced by three army officers. Lieut. Baba Diarra

(

195 7).

was given the post of finance minister. Capt. Yoro Diakite, a former head of government demoted to minister of transport the previous year, became min-

aldives republic

a

dives,

an Ocean,

lies

the

in

southwest

ister of state in

he southern tip of India, (1969): 110,770. Cap.: 1969,

(pop.,

\t

guage:

bers of the ruling Military

12,912).

Muslim.

Sultan,

Committee

of National Lib-

fCMLN). These

measures were designed to strengthen the Army's hold on the government however, owing to disputes among the officers, their aueration

Religion:

Maldivian.

charge of defense, interior, security,

and information. Lieut. Joseph Mara was appointed minister of justice. All three new ministers were mem-

115 sq.mi. (298 sq.km.).

i:

of the

;

Muhammad

ir

Farid Didi;

president

in

1970,

ihim Nassir.

thority was, in fact, increased only slightly,

laldives established diplomatic relations with East

many on May to

iDn

the left-wing election victory there.

r i;r

23, 1970. and later accorded recogNorth Korea, following Ceylon's example Its

only

overseas diplomatic representation was in Cey-

as the ifed

as

Maldivian mission

UN

in the U.S.,

which also

representation, closed down,

importance of work by the British Royal Air on Can Island in Addu Atoll increased with development of the Skynet satellite communicas system and the British government's policy of

'he

ce

ntaining a military presence in Asia.

more than 7,000 transit passengers. Air freight -led more than one million tons in 1969, and much 'e was carried by sea. J\F divers worked during 1970 on the crown-of'ns starfish menace, which had spread from the

'MALDIVES (State only; 1967-68) Primary, pupils secondary, pupils 190, teachers 22.

77", teachers 29;

Finance

and Trade. Monetary

unit: Maldivian rupee, with a par value of MRs. 4.76 to U.S. $1 (MRs. 11.4,5 £1 sterling). Budget (1968) expenditure

=

MRs. 17,069,488. Foreign Main exports (metric 53. Fishing

tons;

accounts for

c.

at

if

trade mainly with Ceylon. 1968): fish 3,700; copra 95% of exports.

all.

Diakite's replacement as defense

Doukara was announced, and M. Diallo became minister of information. In October, the military leaders came into conflict with the labour unions on the occasion of the second congress of the National Union of Malian Workers (UNTM). An emergency meeting of the CMLN was held. The decision was taken to dissolve the provisional consultative committee of the UNTM, to refuse to recognize the bureau appointed at the congress, and minister by Lieut. Kissima

As a staging

on the 8,500-mi. route between Singapore and don, the airstrip on the island provided various 'ices for about 400 air movements a month. Apart n the 600 RAF personnel, meals were provided :

Education.

The following month

MALI Education. (1967-68) Primary, pupils 186,022, teachers 5, .324; secondary, pupils 1,841, teachers 171; vocational, pupils 2,301, teachers 304; teacher training,

students 2,064, teachers teaching staff 90.

114;

higher,

Finance. Monetary unit; Mali

students

345,

with a par £1 value of MFr. 555.42 to U.S. $1 (MFr. 1,333 sterling). Budget (1969 est.) balanced at MFr. 23 billion. Money supply: (March 1970) MFr. 29,060,000,000; (March 1969) MFr. 23,870,000,000. Foreign Trade. (1968) Imports MFr. 22,770,000,000; exports MFr. 9,010,000,000. Import sources: France 32%; U.S.S.R. 19%; China 13%; Ivory Coast 9%; Senegal 7%. Export destinations: Ivory Coast 2 5%; France 17%; Senegal 16%; Ghana 9%. Main exports: cotton 33%; fish 13%; peanuts 8%. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968; 1967 in parentheses); millet and sorghum 757 (881); rice c. 150 (160); corn 72 (66); peanuts (1969) c. 120, (1968) c. 100; sweet potatoes c. 65 (c. 70); cassava c. 220 (c. 214); cotton, lint c. 15 (c. 12). Livestock (in 000; 1968-69): cattle c. 5,220; sheep c. 5,300; horses c. 170; asses c. 530. franc,

=

474

Malta

proposed there. The minister

to reject the statutes

of information reproached the union in a broadcast for overstepping its rights and setting itself up as a

(Ph. D.)

body.

political

Mathematics In 1924, at the International Congress of Matheniicians in Toronto, Ont., J. C. Fields of the Univeri;

Malta An

between

island in the Mediterranean Sea,

and Tunisia, Malta

member

(316

sq.mi.

a pailiamentary state

is

Commonwealth

of the

and a

of Nations. Area: 122

Malta,

including

sq.km.),

Sicily

Gozo,

and

Cap.: Valletta (pop., 1970 est., 15,547). Largest city: Sliema (pop., 1970 est., 21,983). Language: English and Maltese. Religion: mainly Roman Catholic. Queen, Elizabeth

Comino. Pop. (1969

est.):

2>22,2>Si.

II; governor-general in 1970, Sir

Maurice Dorman;

prime minister, Giorgio Borg Olivier. The change of government in the U.K. in June 1970 broke the deadlock between the British and Maltese governments on financial aid. Discussions were resumed shortly after the Conservatives were elected, and in October agreement was reached on whether the £22.7 million remaining from the tenyear financial agreement of 1964 was to be considered a grant or a loan. Of this amount, the British govern-

ment agreed

to

make

available as a gift £1 million

for the restoration of historic buildings, £3 million for dockyard development,

while the other

form of

25%

and

75%

of the balance,

of the balance would be in the

stamp duty on marketable securities was substantially increased, and a new tax on private car ownership came into force. Pending the introduction of an interest equalization tax, exchange control was extended to the movement the rising price level,

of capital to the rest of the sterling area. In July agreement was reached with the EEC on the creation of a customs union that would, over a period of ten years, lead to the elimination of tariffs, quotas, and

other restrictions between the EEC and Malta, and the adoption by Malta of the Community's common external tariff. Legislation was passed to raise a regular

armed

(A. G.)

force.

i

,

i,

decided that the awards should go to younger marmaticians who showed unusual promise. The Fi;;; prizes have since

had worldwide recognition

as

highest honour for mathematical research; in mat

matics they are judged equivalent to Nobel

prizes.

'

There were two prizes at the subsequent congres at Oslo (1936), Cambridge, Mass. (1950), Amsterd (1954), Edinburgh, Scot. (1958), and Stockhc (1962). The enormous growth of the world mat matical community was recognized at the 1956 cr gress in Moscow by increasing the number of Fie prizes to four, and four were again awarded at Ni France, in 1970. The recipients were Alan Hal (U.K.), Heusuke Hironaka (Jap., later in the U.S S. P. Novikov U.S.S.R.), and John Thompson (U.S The work of these four young mathematicians reflei important trends in mathematical research. Alan Baker's Achievements. German mathematici David Hilbert (1862-1943) posed his seventh pro lem (see below) by asking the following question: a and b are algebraic, a is not or 1, and b is irr (

tional,

a loan.

To check

of Toronto proposed prizes for outstanding worl mathematics. The 1932 congress in Ziirich, Sw endorsed the idea and, by setting an age limit of

necessarily

a*

is

w

This

transcendental?

answered affirmatively by A. Gelfond in 1934, and dependently a little later by T, Schneider. The G( fond-Schneider theorem can be recast as follows: X and y are algebraic, and log x, log y are linearly dependent over the field of rational numbers, thi they are likewise linearly independent over the field algebraic numbers. Baker made a significant general zation to w numbers, and at the same time strengtl ened the conclusion by inserting the number 1. In d tail: \{ x^, x„ are algebraic, and log Xj, It .r„ are linearly independent over the rationals, then log .Tj, log Xn are linearly independent over tl algebraic numbers. The simplest new transcendent: number that Baker obtained was tt log 2. Baker's methods are "effective" in the sense thr they yield numerical estimates for the numbers ir volved. In parallel work on certain diophantine equa tions (i.e., polynomial equations to be salved in in tegers), Baker likewise obtained explicit estimates A remarkable example is the bound: i

i

i

.

.

.

.

,

.

.

.

.

.

,

,

+

MALTA Education. (1966-67) Primary, pupils 53,456, teach2,516; secondary, pupils 10.820, teachers 749; vocational, pupils 2,208, teachers 213; higher (including Royal University of Malta), students 1,266, teaching staff 172.

ers

Finance. Monetary unit: Maltese pound, at par with pound sterling (M£l = U.S. $2.40). Budget expenditure (1969-70): revenue M£32,399,000

the

;

Manganese: see

Mining

Manufacturing: see Economy, World;

Employment, Wages, and Hours; Industrial Review Mariana Islands: see

Dependent States

Marine Biology: see Biological Sciences

Marine Corps: Defense

see

Marriage: see Vital Statistics

Marshall Islands: Dependent States

see

Martinique: see

Dependent States

M£33. 394,000.

for the integral solutions of y^

Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports M£61, 516,000 (43% from U.K., 16% from Italy); exports M£15,957,000 (34% to U.K., 11% to Italy, 5% to Libya,

where

5%

defined as the set of

5%

to France, to stores). Main exports:

West Germany, 13%

as ship's

20%; textile yarns products 9%; rubber products 8%; textile fibres 6%; transport equipment 6%; meat and products 5%. Tourism (1968): visitors 137,000; gross receipts U.S. $19 million. and fabrics

clothing

15%; petroleum

Transport and Communications. Roads

(1968)

1,110 km. Motor vehicles in use (1968): passenger 31,500; commercial (including buses) 9,300. There are no railways. Air traffic (1969): 236.3 million passenger-km.; freight 2,480,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1969): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 25; gross tonnage 58,112. Ships entered (1968) vessels totaling 1.638,000 net registered tons; goods loaded (1968) 66,000 metric tons, unloaded 737,000 metric tons. Telephones (Jan. 1969) 33,092. Radio receivers (Dec. 1967) 87,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1968) 37,000.

M

is

=

+

ax^

the largest of the integers

Heiisjike Hironaka' s all

bx^

-\-

cx-\- d

\b\, \c\, \d\\

Work. An algebraic variety

ifj

-

solutions of a system of poly-*

nomial equations. In the simplest case there is ont equation in two variables, and this is graphically represented as a curve in the plane. Certain well-behavedl algebraic varieties are called nonsingular; the precise definition

is

highly technical, but the rough idea

the variety should not cross

itself,

is

that

as the following

curve does:

The problem of the resolution of singularities is posedwhen it is asked whether any variety is equivalent to-i 1 one that

is

nonsingular, in a sense appropriate for'

algebraic geometry.

By

a long

and

delicate analysis,

ematics students at Beverley School

in

New Maiden,

e school's

Eng.,

built by three

computer

I

pupils,

machine can add, subtract, iply, divide, and evaluate simple problems.

lc(

UPl

I t

r I

1

t

COMPIX

onaka showed mathematically that the answer to question was affirmative. His work depended on hods previously developed by 0. Zariski, who in particular given an affirmative answer for variewith dimension not exceeding three. P. Novikov's Contributions. Novikov was hon-

'.

ed for

numerous contributions

to topology.

His

outstanding work included his extension of ralal Pontryagin classes to arbitrary manifolds, plus St

ircompanying proof of invariance: and his studies cohomology and homotopy of Thom spaces of olds. The spirit of this work is to assign to mani•

I

invariants of ever increasing subtlety; the result

:

been the achievement in recent years of a virtually Inplete theory of manifolds.

n Thompson's Efforts.

'

a

:

ra.

group

algebraic structure

modern

Finite groups are of particular interest,

ijor

I

The

a basic topic of study in

is

problem

is

and

to classify the ultimate building

that are called finite simple groups. Thompson two decisive contributions: in collaboration with r Feit he demonstrated that any finite simple order, and he then went on to show ]) has even -

I

the

It

I

of minimal simple groups

is

ex-

1900 congress mathematicians were by Hilbert with a list of 23 problems, the i')n of which would be important for 20th-cennathematics. Many of Hilbert's problems have i)lved, and each announcement of a solution is a le event. In 1970 the tenth problem was solved li-nged

V. Matijasevic of the U.S.S.R. This one asks

J 1

list

Paris at the

I

'

known

'ive.

I

'her

it

is

mathematicians concerning the training in that country of Ph.D. candidates in mathematics. Concern was voiced over a possible oversupply of those who hold the doctorate. It was also questioned whether current Ph.D. programs were appropriate for the positions most young mathematicians would be called on to fill. Articles in the American Mathematical Monthly grappled with these questions. The consensus seemed to be that there was little probability of more than a marginal oversupply (if any) in the foreseeable future. On the other hand, there were grave reservations on the wisdom of present programs. It was argued that graduate students are exposed to a range of mathematical topics too narrow for general teaching positions and that growing applications of mathematics to other fields (e.g., medicine or business) are being recognized much too slowly. (I. Ka.)

possible to give a definite

method

for

Mauritania The Islamic Republic of Mauritania is on the Atlantic coast of West Africa, adjoining Spanish Sahara, Aland Senegal. Area 397,683 sq.mi. ( 1 ,030,000 sq.km.). Pop. (1969 est.): 1,140,000. Cap.: Nouakchott (pop., 1967 est., 15,000). Language: Arabic (national); French fofficial). Religion: Muslim. President in 1970, Mokhtar Ould Daddah. geria, Mali,

:

M.\URITANI.\ Education. (1968-69) Primary, pupils 26,222, teach(1965-66) 1,025; secondary, pupils 2,663, teachers (1963-64) 61; vocational (1964-65), pupils 197; teacher training (1964-65), students 107. Finance. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with a parity of CT.\ Fr. 50 to the French franc (CFA Fr. 2 77.7 1

ers

any diophantine equation. The answer, as exwas negative; but it is to be noted that for equations (such as those handled by Baker) iins conceivable that the answer is affirmative. Appropriate recognition recently came to Hilbert, critical agreement the outstanding mathematician his time. A Soviet book, Hilbert's Problems (1969), flited by P. S. Aleksandrov, surveyed the current ;atus of his 23 problems, and a full-length biography Hilbert by Constance Reid (1970) offered a re-

= U.S. $1; CFA Fr. 666.50 = il sterling). Gold, foreign exchange, central bank: (April 1970) U.S. $4.2 million; (April 1969) U.S. $6.7 million. Budget (1969 est.): revenue CFA Fr. 7,084,000,000; expenditure CFA Fr. 6,649,000,000. Foreign Trade. Imports (1969) CFA Fr. 10,666,000,000; exports (1968) CFA Fr. 17,920,000,000. Import sources (1968): France 51%; U.S. 16%; Netherlands 11%; Congo (Brazzaville) 5%. Export destinations: U.K. 25%; West Germany 17%; France 17%; Belgium-Luxembourg 14%; Italy 11%; Japan

larkable picture of his

9%. Main

1,

1

i

'

•

The year saw

I

life.

a vigorous discussion

among

U.S.

SDRs, and

export iron ore

85%.

The

reconciliation

between Mauritania and Mo-

rocco achieved in 1969 began to assume a positive form when the first agreements on cooperation in

matters of mutual interest were concluded in February 1970. Shortly before this, the two capitals had agreed to

exchange ambassadors.

In June King Hassan II of Morocco received Pres. Mokhtar Ould Daddah in Rabat. The political future of the neighbouring Spanish Sahara was discussed and a treaty of solidarity and cooperation signed. In July commercial agreements were signed at Rabat between Mauritania and Morocco, and shortly afterward an in-

tergovernmental committee was set up. On his return, Ould Daddah received the Spanish minister of foreign affairs. Gregorio Lopez Bravo, at Nouakchott, but no agreement was reached on the future political structure of the Spanish Sahara.

A

meeting between Pres. Houari Boumedienne of King Hassan, and President Ould Daddah in September resulted in little more than the expression of a hope "to hasten the decolonization of the Spanish Sahara," together with the establishment of a tripartite coordinating committee. (Ph. D.) Algeria,

of foreign navies in the area. A fishing agreement v the Soviet Union in 1969 was expanded to a traw

landing rights agreement in July, but no naval

The high density of population and one-crop (sug: economy continued to be Mauritius' main proble: despite some attempts at economic diversificati Largely dependent upon British aid and concerned 1 the latter's proposed membership in the Europe

Economic Community

Medicine ment of drugs

for treatment of certain major illness' and the wide spread of several contagious diseases. Heart transplants remained a focal point of pub interest. When Philip Blaiberg of South Africa cc tinued to live month after month with a donor he:

Of

(1M5

including

in the

Indian Ocean. Area: C1970 est.): 830,-

sq.km.). Pop.

Indian and Pakistani 67- of Health

and Education, which increased the enrollment of medical students from approximately 50 in 1964 to 550 in 1969. Increasing attempts were being made to control

Spot '19S9): Health in Our Community CIOSP): DXA Molecule of Heredity 0960): The Blood (1961;): Mitosis CI 55 1.): Bacteria 0962): Meiosis: Sex Cell Formation C!?52 : Eyes and Vision r!963): Gene Action C19551: ictrs of Heredity 0963 >; Satural Selection (l9oi): The Digestive System (!?55;: The Hospital ('1966 ,1; Chromosomes O' Man (1967;: The Eyes and Seeing 0965): The Work of the Heart r!965): Ears and Hearing (1969): Muscle: Chemistry of Contraction 0969): Muscle: Dynamics of Contraction , and the emironment generally ''as with indestructible

was

trash

j

.

Concern with t' enWronmental consequences of consumer prodticts was much in evidence at the sixth conference of the

and behaviouristic patterns of some sections of modem society. Reports of high prevalence rates have come from all continents and particularly iron: Ethiopia, Japan. Thailand, and the Americas. W. M. Hutchinson produced convincing evidence

Consumers Union? Baden. Aus.. and there emphasis would grow. As a

is

the

—

toxoplasmosis and that Toxoplc be placed in the order Eucoccidia.

-zanism for .

iu.^ j.-der

may now

This disease results of the clear

damage or destruction anterior part of the eye and causes blind-

In-emational Organiza'

tion of

not without

its

that a child

bom

mor-in

-

-'"in

-July 3 at that this

priority,

challengers. It

however,

was

it

'

fc':"'

-

:

in the U.S. v

during

its lifetiir.c

jt 5

-.i.^r.

^

c:.:.:.

.,

was the depriva"The wealthy countries wo rr>-

the reverse of the coin

I

Eimeria.

Nutritional diseases remained among the most important in the tropics, and of these possibly ing most distress was xerophthalmia in

to

rally need and cheated it inadequate safety standards, and

alence of such disease resulting from changes in social

that a coccidian parasite

movement

preser\x the en\ironinent. .\ccording to consumer ad;c being brainwashed vocates, not only wa;

child.

-tor

of

the

said Shankran Kristnamurthy. Consumers Council in India. 'We

-V about stars-ation." Delegates representing un-ged groups in the developed countries agreed.

in severe

_ - ..

.

;iat

consumer organizations had paid too much

Mental Health: Psychology

see

the secrecy of credit information and

would provide and phone number of someone (presumably human) to whom the customer could make complaints. Three days before Christmas, the Food and Drug Administration, acting under the 1969 Toy Safety Act, announced its long-awaited ban on dangerous toys. (See Toys and Games.) In Britain the Consumer Council had done a subon each

bill

the name, address,

amount

stantial

of

the consumer, but class image.

work it

in protecting the interests of

suffered

from a

This seemed likely

to

staid, middlechange with the

appointment of Des Wilson (see Biography) as director, but the incoming Conservative government decided to withdraw the council's grant as an economic measure. (See Special Report.) Retail Trade. Whatever the strength of the con-

sumer

revolt,

economic conditions were

at the root

of the poor showing of retail sales in the U.S. In-

and the depressing effects of administration curb it combined to inhibit consumer enthusiasm, and preliminary indications were that 1970, like 1969, would be a generally poor year. Retail sales totaled approximately $340 billion in 1969, a 4% gain over 1968. However, since commodity prices rose nearly 5%, real consumer demand was down from the previous year. While stores specializing in consumer flation

efforts to

U

a Tokyo department

tore customers, for en,

may take any

500

parts

hey want from a used car perfect condition, ools are provided, nd a different car ) offered each day. "wenty minutes is allowed or the work.

attention to the relative merits of expensive appli-

ances and not enough to the needs of the poor. In the words of Lillemor Erlander of Sweden, "The young

1

feel frustrated listening to

our discussions of washing

machines."

the

In the U.S., consumer advocate Ralph Nader continued his gadfly activities. Early in 1969 he released a 185-page report, bluntly charging the Federal

Trade

Commission with inadequacy, incompetency, oversensitivity toward politicians, disregard for consumers, and friendliness with big business. The inadequacy of present consumer safeguards was also the theme of the report of the National Commission on Product Safety, issued in June 1970 following a two-year study. The commission, which had been established by Congress, urged the passage of additional safety legislation and the setting up of a Consumer Product Safety Commission to enforce standards. It listed 16

categories of products that

among them

it

considered hazardous,

colour television sets, household chemi-

cals, infant furniture, power tools, rotary lawnmowers, and wringer washers. It also criticized lax enforcement in some areas where standards had already been set, claiming, for example, that the Commerce Department had failed to apply "even the weak existing inflammability standard" to blankets and

FTC

same problem, with demand up

did take

some widely publicized

actions

during the year. It ordered the Coca-Cola Co. to pay the promised $100 prize to several thousand unsuccessful contestants in a promotional game on the ground that they had answered the game questions correctly under any reasonable interpretation of the rules, but that an "undisclosed rule" had been invoked to cut down the number of winners. It further proposed that, in all games of chance in the gasoline and food-retailing industries, the participant should

be given a clear definition of his chances of winning. Several cease-and-desist orders were issued against

among them

Campbell soup ad in soup to force the solid ingredients to the top and an ad purporting to show that Zerex antifreeze would seal radiator leaks. Of particular interest in an age of increasing computerization were proposed rules that would safeguard television ads,

which marbles were placed

a

in the

3%

and price

in-

creases exceeding 3.2%.

The most important determinant in the year's performance was the price level, which rose more than in any year since 1951, Overall, the consumer price index rose 5.75% in 1969, as opposed to 4.75% in 1968. Another factor was personal savings, spurred upward by public uncertainty concerning the economic future and high interest rates offered by savings institutions. During the first two quarters of 1969 savings constituted 5.3% of disposable personal income, but in the last two quarters this figure rose to more than 6.5% an increase of nearly 23% and the trend continued into 1970. Viewing the bright side of this phenomenon, a government economist late in 1970 noted that, when economic conditions improved, the consumer would be in a good position to spend. Meanwhile, consumer

—

installment debt continued to rise, but at a generally lower rate than had been the case a year earlier. Apparel stores reported a dollar gain of more than 5% in 1969, but it was entirely attributable to higher

Within the industry, men's and boys' stores, increase of 5.5%, outperformed women's stores (3.5%). The outlook for women's clothing was even more bleak in 1970, as the effects of inflation were compounded by consumer resistance to the midiskirt and a general hesitancy to buy when the direction of fashion was so uncertain. (See Fashion and Dress.) Department stores far and away outperformed other sectors in 1969, in both dollar volume and real volume growth. Dollar volume gains averaged in excess of 10%, while estimated price increases averaged slightly less than 5%. The increased volume was partially attributable to the continued growth of discount department stores, which realized a 14.3% gain in sales over 1968. Appliance sales remained steady in 1969, but prices were up approximately 1%. Sales of American-made cars lagged, partly as a result of higher prices. Foreign car sales rose some 10%, however, and in 1970 the American companies began a deterprices.

with an

bedding.

The

nondurables reported a 4.5% dollar increase, inflation in this area approached S.75%, so that there was, in fact, no real gain. Durables as a group experienced

mined such

efiort to cut into the foreign car

new domestic minicars

market with Vega

as General Motors'

and Ford's Pinto. In Britain the election of a Conservative govern-

ment pledged to do away with the selective employment tax had important implications for the retail trade, which was paying 48 shillings a head for each adult male worker. An employment tax of about 23 shillings levied on each worker was suggested as an alternative. This would increase manufacturing costs (in the absence of compensating charges) and lower retailing costs.

appeal by selling food at prices lower than super-

501

markets were able to offer while providing the convenience of an adjacent or integrated discount department store. Similar in approach were high-volume,

Merchandising

rationalized, supermarket-oriented, free-standing spe-

with "clarity of total offer." Fast-food such as McDonald's, Arby's, and Kentucky Fried Chicken were examples of this type of operacialty stores

sellers

tion.

Others were the

centres such as Wickes,

home improvement/recreation Handyman, and Gold Triangle,

and the "toy supermarkets" like Children's Palace. At the opposite extreme were the highly specialized

Also of concern to retailers was the possibility of if Britain joined the

boutique-t>'pe stores that carried a deep assortment

a value-added tax being imposed

of a very specialized line.

agreed to by the Six as part of their harmonization procedure, had had severely infiationar>- effects in Belgium, at least in the short run. Somewhat nearer at hand was the switch

to a concept or (as in the case of apparel) a "look"

higher than normal degree of personal selling was in-

scheduled

volved, together with an emphasis on service. In a

experts predicted that dec-

seeming contradiction in terms, the boutique concept made its appearance in a number of department stores,

EEC. The value-added

tax,

to decimalization of the British currency,

for Feb. IS, 1971.

imalization

Many

would cause

one or two price index over a pe-

rises of at least

percentage points in the retail riod of several months.

Shoplifting was a growing problem on both sides of

was estimated that the cost to British would total more than £30 million in 1970. Many reasons were put forward for the increase, but the most obvious was the rise of self-service and the accompanying change in shop layouts, which left the public open to a great deal more temptation. Almost the Atlantic. It retailers

without exception, shopkeepers made no effort to check a customer's bag or basket because it was feared this would frighten customers away.

Trends in Merchandising. Retail trade in the U.S. was becoming increasingly polarized. At one extreme were the mass merchandising operations that successfully implemented the approach already taken by the supermarkets. One example was the large discount department store with a grocer>' operation. It gained its

rather than to a

The

commodity

line

t>'pe,

was often limited and

it

usually ap-

pealed to a few or several small market segments.

A

especially higher-priced establishments catering particularly to

ments,

all

women. Instead

of the old-line depart-

or part of the store was divided into small

shops, each carr\'ing a single line or a cluster of products grouped around a certain concept. Another mcarnation of the boutique idea was the "head shop,"

wants of the youth culand often run by young people. In addition to Patterned after the familiar exotic or "hippie"-type clothing and jewelry, such hot dog cart, new "gourmet shops typically carried an assortment of posters, but- pushcarts" stand tons, books on the occult, incense, psychedelic lighting near New York City's Central Park. devices, and related exotica. Relatively unimportant They include: the "Oola in the total retail financial picture, they were not Cart," which features hot without influence on the decor and merchandising beef burgundy and caviar; the "Bao Cart" methods of more conventional establishments. with Chinese snacks; As had been predicted, the high-flying franchise in- the "Fruit 'n' Berries dustry was undergoing a shakedown. In this type of Cart"; and the "Texas

a small store catering to the

ture

•

:(••

d on page 505

Taco Cart." RUSSELL

REIF

FROM

PICTORIAL

SPECIAL REPORT

3.

The

elimination of unsafe products from the market

example, unsafe toys,

tires,

and television

sets

— for

and flammable

carpeting.

PROTECTING THE CONSUMER

4.

The strengthening

leading

advertising

of provisions against fraudulent and misfrauds, advertising frauds, medical

—land

frauds. 5.

The development

of speedy and equitable machinery for

handling consumer grievances, with an insistence upon more meaningful product guarantees and warranties.

By Colston

E.

6. The development of more adequate certification of the basic quality of articles offered on the market through the creation of product standards and grade labels that will indicate perform-

Warne

ance characteristics and safety. 7.

False scales are the Lord's abomination; Correct weights are dear to his heart. (Prov. 11:1, New English Bible)

I n an economy based on consumption,

is

and services offered on and to publish the results, with the clear mention of the brand names involved. 8. The development of consumer education and information is

too strong a

word for what was happening in 1970, but beyond question the consumer was troubled. Prices were rising but products seemed increasingly slipshod. Repairs were hard to obtain and often cost more than the item had originally. Computerization made it difficult to find a human to whom one could complain. Ralph Nader, the young lawyer who had gained fame by charging that General Motors' Corvair was unsafe, regularly brought out new of products that he maintained were dangerous or, at best, up to the claims made for them. Ecologists preached

lists

failed to live

that the

consumer was being forced

buying that

into a pattern of wasteful

did not poison the consumer and his environfirst) would eventually clog the world with refuse. No (if it

ment wonder

that consumers were raising their voices, organizing, and demanding protection. The idea of consumer protection is hardly a newcomer on

the world scene.

The

of impartial testing services to appraise

the market

a consumers' revolt

a matter of serious concern. Perhaps "revolt"

The development

the performance of competitive goods

services in the schools in order to acquaint future consumers with the nutritive values of foods, the use and misuse of credit,

and the

rights

and

responsibilities of buyers in a

complex market-

ing system. 9. The development of adequate and technically competent consumer representation in agencies and commissions dealing with the regulation of consumer prices and consumer services. This would mean that the voice of the consumer would be heard before commissions dealing with such issues as moving costs,

television licensing, crop quotas, tariffs, false advertising, product safety, oil imports,

and

airline rates.

consumers have a vital intermaintenance of a free competitive system, in which large corporate combines will not have the power to dominate the price structure and minimize the possibility of new and 10.

Finally, the recognition that

est in the

vigorous competitors entering the market.

shielding of the buyer against fraudulent

weights and measures

is

embedded

in the earliest codes of an-

an inconspicuous way, the weights and measures offiof the modern community are carrying out important but

tiquity. In cials

long-standing consumer protective functions that constitute the very basis for our exchange system. In the last century, how-

economic developments have vastly altered the consumer's competence to judge what he is buying. The limited knowledge that served in a rural technology is lost in a world of additives, preservatives, and synthetics. Today we depend upon packages, labels, guarantees, and, increasingly, upon the functioning of complex but little understood machines. Our heritage of product knowledge has rapidly eroded. We have faith that preservatives and additives are not injurious; that drugs have been adeever,

quately

tested;

that

tires

are

designed

for

safety.

surrounded with an abundance of advertising multiplicity of articles

—and by

We

claims

are

for

a

silence concerning their short-

comings.

The result of consumer experience has been the development of a healthy skepticism that demands the establishment of impartial agencies, governmental and nongovernmental, sift

truth

from

fallacy

and

to shield the

to

buyer from product

hazards or deficiencies. This, in turn, has led to the multiplicatesting organization of organizations for consumer protection tions, pressure groups, consumer education programs, consumer

—

consumer councils, government protective agencies, and consumer advisory bodies. Some of the major objectives sought by these consumer groups are 1. The ensuring of accurate weights and measures and the prominent display of weights on packages. 2. The protection of the health of the consumer through the elimination of dangerous additives and preservatives from foodstuffs and careful control of insecticides and pesticides, as well centres,

as pretesting of drugs. (Health protection in recent years has

been extended to include the antipollution campaign.) 502

of Consumerism. Behind the new "consumerism" United States was the impetus supplied by women's clubs and home economics groups that had become interested in the purity of food and drugs in the days of Harvey Wiley, father of the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act, and Upton Sinclair, whose novel about the stockyards. The Jungle (1906), had led to a demand for stringent meat inspection. The National Consumers League, formed at the turn of the century, also expressed concern over products made with sweatshop labour. The consumer movement still includes some of the state and local groups

The Rise

in the

formed during the period of the New Deal. However, the central thrust for consumer protection has been supplied principally by the consumer testing agencies. The pioneer in this field was Consumers' Research, Inc., of Washington, N.J., founded in 1929 as the outgrowth of a book, Your Money's Worth, by Stuart Chase and F. J. Schlink. The

significant contribution of

Consumers' Research was

to harness

the consumer's desire for impartial product advice to create a national consumer organization. Following a protracted internal dispute, Consumers Union of U.S., Inc., was founded in 1936 and quickly overshadowed its competitor. Both organizations continued, but as of 1970 Consumers Union's publication. Consumer Reports, went monthly to 1,875,000 families, compared

I

who received the Consumer Bulletin. consumer testing was greeted with hostility from the business community and skepticism from many consumers. This has been largely dispelled by the procedures used: buying samples in the open market; exercising care in testing and in reporting test results; refusing to permit any company to use test results in advertising and by CU's practice of giving the membership the tasks of electing board candidates and proposing goods and services to be tested. From its inception. Consumers Union has taken vigorous stands on the functioning of consumer protective agencies and penchng legislation. It has voiced the complaints of its members over deceptive advertising, watered ham, uninspected drugs, and auto safety. For a considerable period congressional support for these stands was minimal, but in recent years very real gains have been made. Within government in the U.S., a wide variety of frequently with the 100,000 families

OANE(R

OO#G

Initially,

tmm

.mum

;

^ 4^ CflU TiDH

*

overlapping protective agencies has emerged, largely because the consumer protection has historically been

basic jurisdiction over

lodged with state or local authorities, while market realities have brought into existence national trademarks as well as national production, packaging, and pricing policies. As a consequence, there is often considerable duplication of national, state, and local legislation. On the federal level the Federal Trade Com-

Food and Drug Administration, the Department of and many other government agencies share the field of consumer protection. By 1968 approximately 30 states had activated some form of consumer fraud or protection agency, functioning for the most part under the offices of the attorneys general. Three cities, Chicago, New York, and Philadelphia, had adopted consumer representation at the executive level. The Surge of the '60s. Aided by the initiative of such senators mission, the Agriculture,

as the late Estes Kefauver, Paul Douglas, Philip Hart,

Abraham

and Warren Magnuson, consumer legislation was enacted in unprecedented volume in the 1950s. Yet the great breakthroughs in consumer protection were to come after 1962. Upon his election, Pres. John F. Kennedy formed a Consumer Advisory Council, initially attached to the Council of Economic Advisers. This council gave consumer groups a link with the White House and laid the basis for the appointment by Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson of a special assistant for consumer affairs and the President's Committee on Consumer Interests. It also established the precedent of presidential consumer messages, the first of which was sent to Congress by President Kennedy in March 1962. The result was the establishment of a liaison between some 32 national voluntary organizations and the President's Committee on Consumer Interests. As President Johnson put it in February 1964: "We cannot rest content until [the consumer] is in the front row, not displacing the interest of the producer, yet gaining equal rank and representation with Ribicoff,

that interest."

With

federal stimulus, consumer organizations designed consumer problems on the state level emerged in a

this

to tackle

majority of the states during the late 1960s. On the national level the Consumer Federation of America was formed as an umbrella organization to coordinate the efforts of consumer, cooperative,

labour,

and agricultural and rural

electrification

groups interested in promoting a consumer program. This coalition was aided by the emergence of Ralph Nader as a leader in a wide range of consumer reform efforts. The list of consumer-oriented bills passed since 1962 is impressive, ranging from the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Amendment of 1964 through the Motor Vehicle Safety Act of 1966 and the Wholesome Meat Act of 1967 to the

CHARLES MITCHELL FROM CANADIAN PRESS

Canadian Consumer Affairs IVIinister Ronald Basford explains new regulations governing labeling of a wide range of hazardous household chemical products during a news conference in Ottawa, March 13, 1970. The regulations were to take effect June 1, 1971.

Truth

in Lending Act of 1968 and the Child Protection and Toy Safety Act of 1969. This astounding outpouring of legislation was by no means matched by enforcement, however. Consumer groups soon recognized the political reality that it is far easier

to secure the passage of legislation than it is to obtain the appropriations and the dedicated personnel to translate that legis-

Thus inadequate enforcement funds in the hands of the Food and Drug Administration had made the Fair Packaging Act largely ineffective. Thus the Fed-

lation into effective protection.

Trade Commission had for many years failed in its efforts enforce the mandate of the Wheeler-Lea Act for truth in advertising. The overlapping of the federal enforcement ageneral to

cies,

the pressures brought on

time-consuming

legal

them by

appeals that ensue

trative findings are challenged,

all

political

groups, the

when FTC adminis-

contributed to consumer dis-

couragement.

The

was the introduction in Congress of new legislawould establish a permanent Office of Consumer Affairs in the Executive Office of the President. This office would coordinate the consumer programs and activities in the executive agencies, as well as assisting in the development of such programs and activities throughout the government. In addition, the legislation would provide for the creation of a new independent consumer protective agency to represent the interests of the consumer in proceedings before federal agencies and the courts. This agency would gather and make available the results of tests and analyses of products and would examine the functions of the National Commission on Product Safety. A Consumer Advisory Council of 15 members would be created to advise the heads of the two agencies. An alternative proposal, preferred by some members of Congress, involved the formation of a Cabinet-level Department of the Consumer, which would include the existing consumer protective agencies, now widely scattered in various government result

tion that

503

Norway to foster the growth of quality marks. In Denmark consumer activities are divided between a governmentally

departments, as well as the independent commissions with consumer protective functions, such as the FTC. While the idea of a Cabinet-level department had some support from those who would like to see all these agencies under a single roof, there was a strong feeling among consumer groups that effective en-

lished in

forcement would be facilitated by creating a watchdog agency, rather than by building a new staff that would be subject to tlie same pressures as the old agencies and would probably receive minimal congressional appropriations.

as well as some 21 member organizations and the government. Perhaps the most notable of the European efforts is Austria's Verein fur Konsumenten-Information. This organiza-

The Worldwide Consumer Movement. The sumer protection

in

Europe bears

pattern of con-

a remarkable similarity to the

operated Household Advice Centre, which undertakes extensive programs in the field of nutrition and household equipment, and a consumer testing organization supported by its individual

members

tion not only issues a monthly testing publication but also operates a demonstration centre in central Vienna where the

consumer may view available brands and receive impartial guid-

U.S. experience. Industrialized nations on both continents generated extensive brand-name advertising and were faced with

ance.

Member

cover

80%

many

10% and the individual membership, 10%. A number of coordinating efforts exist among European groups,

same problems of packaging and of ensuring the The idea of supplying the consumer with the results of product testing by brand name crossed the Atlantic following World War II. Starting in Great Britain, the Netherlands, and Belgium, it spread to the Scandinavian countries, Austria, West Germany, and France, and was soon exported to Australia, Japan, and Israel. Initially, European consumer groups feared the legal consequences of publishing adverse test results by brand name, even though this had never proved a problem in the U.S. Nevertheless, the movement, once started, spread so rapidly that in April 1960 the International Organization of Consumers Unions (lOCU) was launched at a conference in The Hague. The charter members were Consumers Union of U.S., Inc.; Consumers' Association, London; Australian Consumers' Association; Consumenten Bond, The Hague; and Association des Consommateurs, Brussels. The lOCU sought to become an authenticating body that would admit to membership only those organizations that accepted no income from advertising and were financially supported by either consumers or governments. The lOCU stimulated the interchange of techniques and test results among its of the

purity of food and drugs.

afi&liates. It provided an interchange of educational materials and established a technical committee to represent consumers on international standardization bodies. It also moved to assist consumers in less developed nations by obtaining consultative status with the Food and Agriculture Organization, the Economic and Social Council, and UNESCO, agencies of the UN con-

cerned with raising living standards in less developed countries.

In Britain the White Paper of the Maloney Committee formed the basis for a revamping of governmental efforts. The privately operated Consumers' Association assumed the exclusive role of

consumer

testing.

Through

its

grants,

Consumer

the association

which conducts investigations into governmental, professional, and commercial services. It also established a National Federation of Consumer Groups to assist local consumer groups with such problems as complaints, store services, and price comparisons, and a Consumer Advice Centre in London. As of 1970, it had a membership of 532,000. A new Consumer Council was created by the government in March 1963 as an independent grant-aided body designed to give advice to the consumer and to initiate reforms on his behalf, but it was abolished in 1970 as an economy measure. Weights and measures controls in Britain remain in the established a Research Institute for

Affairs,

and county authorities. The body m.ainly responconsumer goods and services is the Board of Trade, although the Home Office deals with most of the safety aspects of consumer protection and the Ministry of Health en-

hands of

local

sible for regulating

forces the Food and Drug Act. The British also created Citizens' Advice Bureaux. Except for Belgium and the Netherlands, European consumer testing organizations have followed the pattern set by the Scandinavian countries rather than by Britain and the U.S. In Norway substantial government grants are given to a consumer

Forbrukerradet, operated by representatives of seven leading national organizations. The testing agency also handles complaints and publishes a monthly consumer magazine. An Institute of Informative Labeling has also been estaborganization,

504

organizations, including the

Chamber

of the organization's budget; the

among them

of Labour,

government covers

European Bureau of Consumers Unions, confrom the six EEC countries; the Contact Committee of Consumers of the European Economic Community; and the International Labeling Centre, which is the

sisting of nine organizations

linked with the International Organization for Standardization

and the International Electrical Technical Commission. These efforts were still weak, but it was expected that the Common Market would inevitably bring increased brand competition between European countries and hence a need for centralized testing. The consumer federations would also enable national groups act jointly in consultation with the EEC. Similarly, the Scandinavian groups established a Scandinavian Committee on Consumer Matters to coordinate their research and informa-

to

tional

efforts.

The European consumer

protection movement,

however, was measurably weakened by the establishment of competitive consumer organizations in

many

countries,

often

Thus the Belgians had two competing consumer groups, and West Germany had two central organizations, both undertaking consumer testing. The Swiss had splitting along political lines.

four consumer groups until the requirements for obtaining a government subsidy induced coordinated effort. The development of consumer standards and consumer testing also extended into Eastern Europe. Yugoslavia had a federal board on the family and the household to strengthen the role of consumers. Hungary recently entered the consumer testing field. The Soviet Union established a consumer institute which undertakes comparative testing.

In Asia leadership in the testing field belonged to Japan, where was competition between the Japan Consumer Associa-

there

tion, the Japan Housewives Association, and the Japan Consumers Union. Municipal governments also maintained advice centres in Tokyo and Osaka. A number of embryonic movements had been formed in Korea, the Philippines, Malaysia, and India. Perhaps the strongest organizations in the Pacific area, however, were those in Australia and New Zealand. The Consumers Institute of New Zealand received a heavy government subsidy. The Australian movement was independent in character and received no government money. Local consumer movements existed in leading Australian cities, and New South

Wales and Victoria had consumer counsels. In summary, the world consumer movement has grown most rapidly in more advanced nations that have the discipline of quality control, well-trained government inspection services, and discerning consumers. The unresolved problem in international consumer protection is that of discovering methods of aiding the low-income consumers in nations that have never known an honest civil service and that have low levels of business ethics and consumer competence. Through the Codex Alimentarius, the World Food Organization hopes to assist less developed nations by establishing basic food standards. The lOCU has

made

a beginning in establishing educational seminars for

developed countries. The problem, nonetheless, was that those with low levels of literacy and minimal income were most likely to be deprived of even the elementary protections of honest weights and measures and of purity in food. less

continued from page 501

operation (as distinguished from a chain, in which

every store

is

owned and run by

the parent

company)

the operator of the outlet purchases a franchise to sell the company's product or service in a given territory, under varying degrees of control and with varying amounts of assistance. The concept was not new, but in the past few years it had ballooned. Company after company was founded, many of them using the names of popular entertainment and sports personalities. A few spectacular failures, coupled with overselling (three takeout chicken shops on three corners of an intersection), tended to cool enthusiasm, however. There were also instances where the franchisee was unable to get rid of a failing outlet or did not receive the help he thought he had been promised. Franchise stocks ceased to be the darlings of the stock market, and while this form of selling was undoubtedly a permanent part of the merchandising scene, the attitude toward it was becoming considerably less euphoric. Xonstore retailing continued to grow in importance. Reversing the direction taken by such companies as Sears, Roebuck, which had gone from purely catalog selling to full-line retail outlets, more and more retail stores were placing greater reliance on catalog and

mail-order sales. At the same time, the mail-order in-

dustry awaited implementation of the U.S. postal reform with some ner\'ousness. since it seemed almost

At-home was exhibiting rapid growth, with Avon reporting a 59% increase in sales between 1965 and 1968. The vending machine industry was also expanding, both in volume and in type of products available. On the international scene, it was becoming increasingly clear that mass merchandising organizations were taking hold. Among the most significant were the Obs and Wessel operations in Sweden and Carrefour in France. Carrefour was especially noteworthy in that its new stores ranged in size from 200.000 to 300.000 sq.ft. In some ways, all of these operations were more advanced than those found in the U.S. for example, with regard to the display and storage of high-volume products such as soap and breakfast cereals. American firms apart, few foreign companies had certain to involve higher third-class rates.

selling

—

established themselves in the British market, but in

1970 Carrefour, in partnership with Wheatsheaf Investments, announced that, subject to planning per-

would open its first out-of-town discount Southampton. A number of other stores were planned. Another European entrant into the British market was Marko, a Dutch-German cashand-carry group, which announced plans to open a

mission,

it

store near

number

warehouses, stocking about the same range of goods as a department store. The first would probably be in the of

Birmingham

150.000-sq.ft.

luxury

wholesale

area.

Planning application was made for a new out-oftown shopping scheme at Almondsbury, which would

goods while the seventh was reserved for small shops. The site also had a children's playground, a small zoo,

tailer.

was reported from Switzwhere four specialized mail-order companies embarked on a joint promotion scheme. The covers and centre pages of the catalog were jointly designed, while the remainder included offers from each of the

An

interesting experiment

erland,

firms with separate order forms.

A West German

restaurant chain announced plans to open "entertain-

The

five miles from Bristol. In was granted for a vast shopping centre at Brent Cross, North London, to serve an estimated 1.8 million people. Turnover at the unusual Buywell shopping centre at Boston Spa, near the A-1 between York and Leeds, rose 60% in 1969, and sales

ment centres" on

in

1970 were expected to exceed £750,000. This venwhich utilized former military facilities, had ground-level parking space for 1,000 cars and ten buildings of 11,000 sq.ft. Seven of the buildings were occupied; six were devoted to a single category of

and other entertainment

ture,

able.

91-ac. site

was about

new gimmicks

to attract customers,

and a licensed restaurant. have now gone With some 40% of grocery turnover in Britain con- Into used-airplane sales. centrated in the top 15 food chains, power had largely On the roof of one large store two passed from the food manufacturer to the retailer. One small planes are for sale. result was that manufacturers probably spent more on promotions to retailers than on direct advertising to the consumer. Others were the heavy cost of promoting new products and the power of retailers to promote their own labels. Not surprisingly, views on these trends differed according to whether the commentator was a manufacturer or a large or small rea cafeteria,

incorporate a pool for boat sales and a garden centre. April planning permission

Tokyo's department stores, vying with each other for

the franchise principle.

Citta 2000, they would start in

To be

called

Germany and be

ex-

tended to other countries. The aim was to attract customers to the restaurants and then offer them a variety of goods and services such as clothing, accessories, hairdressing, and travel services. A dance floor facilities

would

also be avail-

The year saw considerable activity on resale price in West Germany. Deutsche Supermarket Co., part of the Weston group, advertised cut prices

maintenance

506

Metallurgy

on goods from seven leading manufacturers and the stopped supplies and took legal action. AgfaGevaert, Kodak, and Zeiss-Ikon-Voigtlander abandoned price maintenance on the German market in January. There was pressure in several European countries to eliminate resale price maintenance in line with latter

Britain

and Switzerland.

The Parly

2 regional shopping centre in Paris aroused widespread interest. Acclaimed for its quality of design, it included 55,000 sq.m. of shopping space

on two levels, enclosed in a landscaped mall with cafes and seating spaces. Shoppers appeared to fear that this luxury would have to be paid for by higher prices, and other retailers were watching the progress of the venture. (A. F, D.; G. C. Ho.) See also Advertising; Consumer Expenditures; Cooperatives; Domestic Arts and Sciences; Industrial Review; Prices.

Metallurgy Metallurgy during 1970 was strongly influenced by both economic and social forces. Keen competition, especially in international trade,

demanded

that pro-

it

became

profitable,

Most new

mills were based on fairly conventional showed a strong trend to large machines: grinding mills in which no grinding medium other

practice but

itself is used were as large as 40 ft. in diameter and were powered by 4,000-hp. motors, while flotation cells had capacities of 200 and even 300 cu.ft. rather than the previous standard of 30.

The use

of continuous casting

became more exten-

sive, while the cross-section size of a billet

continued

thereby reducing the amount of subsequent mechanical forming. Material for rolling into to decrease,

sheet was being cast into wide billets,

some

less

than

an inch thick. Both copper and aluminum for wire were being cast into strands only a few inches square which were fed directly into continuous hot rolling mills to produce rod for drawing into wire. The aluminum rod was being converted to wire by a unique continuous extrusion process. A shortage of good-grade steel melting scrap and the demand that automobile bodies and other lowgrade scrap be cleaned up accelerated investigation of means to utilize the latter material. A continuous run

from automobile scrap. Clean sheet was being sintered and rerolled into sheet

tion of pig iron steel scrap

without remelting.

An alloy of aluminum and silicon made an allaluminum automobile engine cylinder block practical. on the cylinder surfaces wear and seizing. Other new metals included an aluminumsilicon-manganese alloy with properties comparable Particles of this alloy exposed

by etching

after machining gave resistance to

18% chromium-S% nickel stainless steel, a development influenced by the nickel shortage, which continued but was much less severe than in 1969. A new high-strength stainless steel from Japan contained both niobium and titanium and more carbon than to

A

high degree of automation was practically universal, was highly instrumented and often precise process

sulfide

ores without

the

release

of sulfur

dioxide.

Mechanical alloying, which involves making powder

melting), finding greatly expanded use. The process had been so developed that a great variety of disper-

sion-strengthened alloys could be made. Copper-clad aluminum electric wire was being made in Britain from billets supplied by a U.S. company. Reliable mechanical

and soldered contacts could be made almost

easily as with ordinary copper wire but with an

reduction in the

teria that live

by oxidizing sulfides into water-soluble by using chemical solvents. Verylow-grade ore was being crushed and heaped on the ground where runoff could be collected and then

by high-strength

sulfates rather than

minum

sprayed with the leaching solution. Experiments with heap leaching an ore containing 0.02% gold recovered

plications

95%

fine

of the metal.

Although not tried in connection with the above experiments, an ion exchange resin developed in the Soviet Union proved selective in removing gold from leaching solutions as the next step in producing pure metal. An ion exchange resin that converted sodium tungstate to ammonium tungstate was being used in an important step in producing pure tungsten from a leaching solution. Finding expanded use was a solvent

as

80%

amount of the expensive metal needed. The development of metal composites reinforced

Leaching of waste rock from copper mines was general was often done by using cultures of bac-

practice and

Metallurgy; Mining

sulfur dioxide as a by-product.

metallurgy parts from pure metal powders that alloy on sintering, was, along with practically all other applications of powder metallurgy (alloying without

Hydrometallurgy as a means of metal recovery had two advantages of special interest: the potential for economically treating low-grade ore and even waste rock containing a little metal, and the ability to treat

Review;

is carried out before the prepared from its compounds. Leaching of nickel ores at elevated temperature and pressure was being used increasingly, and much development was being done on methods of leaching sulfide copper ores. Many of the processes yielded solid sulfur rather than

is

usual.

control.

Industrial

these processes purification

metal

than the ore

as

see

while leaving the impurities. In

of several hours demonstrated the technical feasibility

areas.

Transportation

it,

of using an electric furnace for continuous produc-

due to innovations in transportation and the growing demand for concentrates in newly industrialized

Metals:

liquid

immiscible with

the growing public awareness of environmental prob-

the world were being opened as

Merchant Marine:

of in-

terest

duction costs and material prices be kept down, while

lems spurred development in scrap and waste recovery and control of noxious emissions. Development in ore dressing and extractive metallurgy was being encouraged by these and other factors that gave rise to new problems. There was growing awareness of the rapid depletion of many high-grade ore deposits, notably those in the United States. Many new deposits around

see

removed the metal from the leaching solution into a second

extraction that selectively

fibres continued to be strong. Alureinforced with beryllium wire, though not quite as strong as that reinforced with boron, had some ductility which made it more desirable for some ap-

and

less subject to catastrophic failure.

process developed in West wire

18 to

Germany

A

for producing

of maraging steel (steel containing nickel) with twice the strength of boron

made

25%

was said to have a potential price (if production reached ten tons per year) of about $20 per pound, much lower than that of any of the other high(D. F. C.) strength reinforcement fibres. fibre

See also Industrial Review; Mining; Physics. EncycloP/^dia Britannica Films. The Miner Problems oj Conservation Minerals (1969).

—

(1967);

understand air/sea interactions and other

507

flux proc-

esses; weather forecasting requirements for synoptic

Meteorology Many

of the

common

questions about weather and

climate were weighed and expounded in the highest forums of the atmospheric sciences during 1970. In his

Royal Meteorological Mason, director of the official

presidential address before the

Society in April, B.

J.

meteorological organization of the U.K., reviewed the status and prospects up to the year 2000 in the major

branches of weather reporting and forecasting services.

Of special interest to agriculturalists, industrialists, and others with a practical interest in weather were the remarks and tabulated data Mason presented on applications and limitations of weather forecasting. Among the many high-level scientific symposia and working groups that reviewed and planned future research in meteorology and kindred fields were several sessions of specialized panels of

GARP

(the Global

Atmospheric Research Program of the World Meteorological Organization or WMO) and the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (lUGG), and the joint symposium commemorating the centennial of public weather reporting and forecasting services in the U.S.

The consensus

of these

many

solved. Nevertheless, the endless complexities of the

atmosphere's mechanics and the incredible volume of data to be obtained, analyzed, and interpreted would for slow progress.

As

of 1970 reporting and fore-

had been much most circumstances were

casting for periods of 24 to 48 hours

improved since 1940, and

in

experiments in modification of clouds and

The papers attempted

and technological advances in meteorology and examine potential applications to everyday living. Another feature of the WESCENT celebration was the publication of A Century of Weather Service 1870-1970, which described by word and photograph the evolving weather bureaus in the U.S. and included a 13-page chronology of important events. Other convenient "weather" chronologies were produced during tific

to

—

among them

1970,

(ESSA) and

istration

Table

few limited situations. In the U.S. a proclamation by Pres. Richard Nixon on January 27 commemorated the centennial of national weather services, established on Feb. 9, 1870, when Pres. Ulysses S. Grant signed a joint congressional resolution inaugurating a weather bureau as part of the U.S. Signal Corps. In proclaiming February 1970 as Weather Services Month, President Nixon urged institutions and science-minded citizens throughout the country to recognize and support constructive programs for the advancement of meteorology and public-service responsibilities. Accordingly, the lo-

cal

weather bureau

cities

Peru

January Feb. 20

Heavy

Denmark

weather forecasting services. The first of in Washington, D.C., on Feb-

it

tion

April 18

Tornadoes

Over 200-mi. area; 25 persons

Dakotas, U.S.

April 19-20

Heavy snows

Lubbock, Tex Washington, D.C.

May

Two tornadoes

Unusuolly late season snowfall; accumulation 1 Vi ft. in some areas Destroyed much of city; 26 dead

dead, $5 million damage

11

July 20-30

Frequent

days

heavy

of

roin

Sept

n-12

and in October

Heavy

rains; tornado

Lowest temperofure ever recorded at Kew in July (records covering 65 years) Venice hod tornado killing at least

Eastern U.S.

Sept. 20-30

41; flooding at Genoa, Naples "worst in 100 years"; at least 30 dead Prolonged heat and humidity An unusually oppressive heat wove

Puerto Rico

Oct. 4-12

Hurricane

Eight

A

Central squares in Genoa flooded to 5 ft. depth; 16 drowned on

cities of the eastern U.S. days heavy rain caused disastrous flooding and loss of 50

in

lives

Holy

second spell of heavy rain

Italian Riviera

Oct. 12-20

Typhoons Joan and Kate

Heavy rains (2 ft. in 30 hours); more than 1,000 drowned

Pakistan

Oct. 27

Cyclone (same as hurricane)

South Vietnam

Oct. 26-30

Floods

Prolonged rain and floods; at least 100 dead, and heavy loss of property Worst in six yeors; at least 193 dead, more than 200,000 home-

East Pakistan

Nov. 12-13

Cyclone and

Philippine Islands

and Vietnam

less

tidal

wave

Affected more than 3 million persons in a 2,800 sq.mi. area of

Ganges-Brahmaputra least

Table

delta;

at

200,000 persons died

1970

Selected Weather Satellites in Operation,

II.

Average Days

Usable photos

Feb. 1966

1,700

Local readouts,

Esso 8

Dec. 1968

700

Local readouts,

In

Esso 9

celebrated the SOth an-

ITOSl ATS 1

Feb. 1969 Jon. 1970

600 250 530

dence for the aforementioned consensus. They included reviews of the collection of facts needed to

Rainfall totals 5 in. or more; relieved ten-year deficit in woter

table

Minimum temperature 28°F

July 22

Eng.

Essa2

AMS and the beginning of the second decade of full-service meteorological satellites. Research Results and Prospects. Technical papers delivered at the February symposium gave evi-

much

Clorendon, Tex

operation

niversary of the

recurring rain;

loss of life ond property Flooding in usually desert areas Snarled air and ground trafficunusually severe for Denmark

industrialization Increased and population caused acute pollu-

Dote of lounching

fWESCENT).

Two months

Smog warnings, Madrid

Type

ruary 12-14, under the sponsorship of the American Meteorological Society TAMS) and the U.S. governaddition to the centennial,

rains; flooding

organized

was assembled

ment centennial organizing group

Unusual features

caused

Blizzards; temperature below freezing most of three onths

Spain

1970

Weather event Prolonged rains heavy flooding

technical conferences, symposia, or other suitable events for promoting research and planning improvein

Selected Weather Headlines,

Dec. 1969Jan. 1970

in a

its

I.

Libya

Italy

these

a selection of unusual weather

Dote

Place

"experimental" and often controversial as to scientific Attempts at weather modification were even

most large

the Historical

The scope and volume of research reports in the atmospheric sciences during 1970 was exceedingly great. There were numerous technical papers on a wide variety of abstract subjects, but probably the greatest number of research projects were directed toward the more immediate goals of understanding the mechanics

basis.

offices in

by

headlines over the century published in Weather-wise.

Kew Observotory,

ments

a detailed listing

Section of the Environmental Science Services Admin-

reasonably accurate, but long-range weather predictions beyond a general five-day extrapolation were

more conjectural except

rainfall.

to state the significance of scien-

studies

was that technological wonders such as radar and other optical, radiometric, and acoustical sensing devices, rockets, space satellites, and ultrahigh-speed electronic computers had opened a new era for the atmospheric sciences, and that many of the longstanding problems of meteorology and its applications in weather predicting and storm forecasting could be

make

Meteorology

observing systems; air pollution problems and composition of the atmosphere; new opportunities in applied meteorology; and synergisms of life and climate and

in

transmitted

altitude (miles)

Orbit or position

860

Near polar

orbit

890

Near polar

orbit

910 890

Near polar Near polar

orbif

probably thousands probably thousands

Dec. 1966

70,000 25,000 5,200

22,238

orbit

"Stationary" over Equator above mid-Pacific

ATS

3

Nov. 1967

110

2,200

22,232

"Stationary" over Equator above

Caribbean does not include Nimbus-type meteorological satellites, lounched primarily for research, and mony others which have sensing devices that "observe" meteorological parameters incident to some different primary mission. The Essa, ITOS, and ATS types listed above ore designed ond

Note: The above

list

used primorily for daily meteorological service operations.

of atmospheric phenomena, improving the reliability and time range of forecasts, and achieving practical methods for modification or "control" of weather, storms, and climate. Among the many noteworthy scientific contributions

solar constant were used as a basis for long-range weather forecasts. After many years of testing hypotheses that attempted to predict weather on this basis and much scientific controversy on the subject, however, this method of prediction had fallen more

were reports of the studies involved in the Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP), the Barbados Oceanographic and Meteorological Experiment (BO-

or less into disuse by 1960.

MEX), and the World Weather Watch (WWW). These programs had been conceived and planned during the 1960s, but GARP and would not be in full operation until the mid-1970s and the study of BOMEX data, begun in 1969, would continue for several years. BOMEX had been designed to investigate air/sea interactions and related atmospheric problems in the subtropics, both to promote understanding

WWW

of

the

role

of

tropical

atmospheric phenomena

in

weather and climate over the Western Hemisphere as a whole and as a trial run for GARP. The BOMEX field operations had been performed during mid-1969. A preliminary report of BOMEX results was published in the AMS Bulletin (September-October 1970). Significant

new

quantitative data vital to the

With the invention of very-high-altitude balloons and rockets and, more importantly, space satellites, it became possible to measure solar radiation outside the earth's atmosphere. As a result, during 1960-70

many studies were published regarding relationships between selected portions of the solar spectrum and apparently linked physical or biological phenomena on earth. One such study, published in July 1970 in the Quarterly Journal of the Royal

Society,

Meteorological

was by two internationally distinguished

the fact that volcanic eruptions

and nuclear explosions

cause a significant decrease in the transparency of the

construction of mathematical models of the mechanics

atmosphere and consequently

of the atmosphere were derived for the sea/air energy

radiation that reaches the earth's surface.

flux

over the approximately 250,000 sq.km. of the

area under study; measurements of evaporation, inso-

wind divergence, and other parameters were made. These were the type of data that GARP would acquire for the entire globe through an auglation,

also

WWW.

mented

The

GARP

WWW

and programs necessitated numerous meetings and study conferences of experts from the many countries participating in this huge international undertaking. Technical reports of subjects

under study and detailed analyses and plans were

published in several technical journals and monographs, for example in the

and April and

in the

WMO Bulletin for January

AMS Bulletin

for January, Feb-

Mav, June, and September. Other Basic Research. The sun's

ruarv,

radiation holds

sci-

Using data obtained by high-altitude balloons, they found the maximum value of the solar constant to be 1.94 calories per square centimetre per minute. They claimed an accuracy within 1% for this value. They confirmed entists of the University of Leningrad.

a decrease in the solar

—

Numerical weather prediction forecasting by the had begun on a regular daily-service basis in the 19SOs, based on mathematical models designed mostly in England, Norway, and the U.S. By 1970 scientific papers describing the design and use of models of atmospheric phenomena had become an important part of the meteorological literature in the 10 or IS countries that were most advanced in the atmospheric sciences, notably Australia, Canada, France, West Germany, Japan, Norway., Sweden, the U.S., and the U.S.S.R. Models ranged from simple one or two levels or barometric surfaces to very complex eight levels that aimed to encompass the significant parameters in three dimensions. Most models represented large segments of the general circulation, often the polar hemisphere, but a few dealt with smalleruse of electronic computers

—

fundamental interest for scientific study in many different disciplines. For meteorologists its attraction is that solar energy is the initial and by far the greatest

scale entities such as hurricanes, tornadoes, thunder-

source of power to drive the earth's "heat engine," which produces weather and climate. For many years

matical models that appeared in 1970 was an extensive

studies of sunspots, fluctuations in measurable received radiation,

and related phenomena had sought

termine

there are significant variations in the sun's

if

to de-

energy output that might cause weather changes and even account for the Ice Ages. During the first half of the 20th century assumed variations in the total

storms, or even local convection plumes.

Among

the hundreds of technical papers on mathe-

study of tropical circulation, published by three researchers at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, Princeton, N.J., in the AMS Journal of the

Atmosphere. The paper confirmed that most of the kinetic energy of tropical cyclones and other largescale tropical depressions comes from conversion of the heat of condensation, as well as that disturbances in the

upper troposphere transport angular

momentum

across the Equator and greatly influence the total

budget of this parameter in the model. Other papers dealt with exploratory studies of tornadolike vortex dynamics as simulated by both mathematical models and physical replicas, experiments in localized numerical weather prediction, and parameterization of macroscale heat transport in a mean motion model of the general circulation.

The extraordinary amount

of effort, money, and

time being devoted to quantitative models of atmospheric motions inevitably led many theoreticians to challenge the ultimate use of such models in predicting changes of weather. The question rested on uncertainty as to whether atmospheric motions over

longer periods of time are deterministic, or are ran-

dom and

thus impossible to predict. As of 1970 most

scientists in the field expressed

hopes that determi-

nistic forecasts of general

weather conditions could

eventually be developed to cover periods of two to four weeks, but it was recognized that random features

and other indeterminable elements might cut the range of accuracy to a few days.

Some

insight into the

many

uncertainties involved,

especially for those interested but rather unfamiliar

with the vagaries of the earth's three-dimensional ocean of air, was afforded by papers on frontogenesis in the mid-troposphere and cyclones in the intermediate layers of the troposphere over the southwest monsoon regions of the Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean {Journal of Applied Meteorology, June 1970). These were only two of numerous studies of invisible but often controlling cyclones and fronts in the upper air. They added to already conclusive evidence that the endless variety and changes in the atmosphere could be recorded, analyzed, and utilized for weather predictions only through the techniques of high-speed, huge-capacity electronic computers.

Experimental Meteorology. From small begin-

and its changes. Climate and Air Pollution. Probably one of the most significant developments of 1970 as far as the future welfare of mankind was concerned was the growing awareness that the atmosphere and the oceans have finite dimensions. They are not limitless in their

plain vital questions about climate

capacity to absorb the contaminants that

man

the daily press and serious scientific articles

increase in carbon dioxide content

continue. Moreover, there were

some circumstances

which meteorological conditions could be artificially modified to very considerable economic advantage, as in clearing some forms of fog from airports. For several years the Soviet Union had reported successes in

not attained in most other countries, especially in the suppression of destructive hailstorms.

Thousands of experiments in weather modification were made during 1970. both in the research laboratory and in the natural conditions of the free atmosphere. They embraced fundamental, phenomena in cloud physics, droplet mechanics, electrical properties and their induced effects on such phenomena as condensation,

coalescence, and lightning, and utilization

of

warned

a reversion to the Ice Ages, other major changes in weather and climate, lethal modification of the composition of the atmosphere, or slow but perilous transformations in the relationship of the oceans and the large bays, gulfs, and lakes that are the source of most of the moisture in the air. For years a few scientists had been trying to measure changes, if any, in the atmosphere. According to tentative reports during 1970, the oxygen content was about 20.9%, indicating that there had been no measurable change over the oceans since 1910.

weather were so great that intensive experimentation and serious research were certain to

pours

of possible catastrophic consequences in the future

more rain or snow had spread to all continents, and technical literature on this and other methods for modifying weather or climate had become voluminous by 1970. In most cases the results were controversial, but the economic and social implications of successful "control" of the

Mexico

continuously into the air and the water. Headlines in

nings in 1946, the practice of seeding clouds with "dry ice" or silver iodide in order to produce

509

largely theoretical, but they might eventually ex-

still

A

seemed

to

slight

have

occurred, however. Another report stated that pollutants in the air over the oceans had doubled in 50

problems were considered was planned. Most of these questions about the atmosphere involved close international cooperation; winds and weather are not confined within national boundaries. continued to be very active in promoting such cooperation. The process of merging related geophysical researches and services also went forward on the

These ominous and

years.

air pollution

closer surveillance

WMO

national levels. In the U.S.,

ESSA,

established in 1965,

was merged into the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. NOAA embraced, among other bodies, the U.S. Weather Bureau, which became the (F. W. Rr.) National Weather Service. Si-e also Astronautics; Conservation; Disasters; Oceanography. Encyclopaedia Britannica Films. The Climates of North Amrrica ('1963'): Origins of Weather (\96^): Weather ForeWeather Satellites flOft.';"): casting bv Satellite ("1964); What Makes Clouds? (19651: What Makes the Wind Plow? (1965); Whatever the Weather (1967); Reflections on Time

(1969).

multiple doppler radar and other advanced techniques

and devices for detecting distant elements pertaining to weather modification and storm suppression. Project Stormfury continued during 1970 in an effort to find ways to weaken the forces of destructive hurricanes. Reports made through ESSA's National Hurricane Research Laboratory and other channels were cautiously optimistic, although informed scientists

considered the idea of seeding hurricane

still

Mexico A

federal

republic of

bounded by the

Middle America, Mexico is Honduras, and Guate-

U.S., British

mala. Area: 761,600 sq.mi. (1,972,547 sq.km.). Pop. (1970) 48,313,438, including about 70% mestizo and 28% Indian. Cap. and largesf city: Mexico City :

clouds as experimental and unproven. It

(metro, area pop., 1970, 7,005,855). Language: Span-

surprising, therefore, that an official

ish.

spokesmen for and Navy, the agencies that jointly supported Project Stormfury, should have featured the results of hurri-

dents

was somewhat announcement by the U.S. Departments of Commerce

cane seeding in 1969 as a "potential breakthrough." Some progress was made during the year in devising

methods for assimilating and projecting mass of cloud photos and radiation data from

electronic

the huge

satellites, as well as in

including other

phenomena

to

be telemetered by satellite, for example, lightning flashes in clouds around the earth. The Nimbus family of experimental meteorological satellites tested new and highly sophisticated parameters designed to solve intricate problems of the atmosphere, such as the various aspects of radiation fluxes and the heat budget of the earth-sun system as a whole. These studies were

Y^^^^^ s^H^

ber

Religion: predominantly

1,

Roman

Catholic. Presi-

1970, Gustavo Diaz Ordaz and, from Luis Echeverria Alvarez.

in

Decem-

On Dec. 1, 1970, Luis EcheverMexico's I5th constitutional president {see Biography), began his six-year term of office. Elected on July 5 as candidate of the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI), Echeverria received 84% of the total vote cast; the rest went to the only other contender, Efrain Gonzalez Morfin, of the Partido Accion Nacional (PAN). Art. 34 of the constitution had been amended to lower the minimum voting Domestic

ria

Affairs.

.Alvarez,

age from 21 to 18; this increased the electorate by approximately 3 miUion to 21.6 million, of whom only 14 million voted. The election gave the PRI all 60 seats in the Senate

and 178

in the

Chamber

of

Depu-

Methodists: see

Religion

510

where the remaining 35 seats were shared by (20), the Partido Popular SociaHsta (10), and the Partido Autentico de la Revolucion Mexicana (S). Both the elections and transfer of power were peaceful and orderly. A national census taken in January-February showed that population growth had previously been ties,

Mexico

PAN

overestimated. In the 1960s the population actually increased by

38.3%

to 48.3 million, of

whom women

outnumbered men by almost 2.4%; the proportion of illiterates fell to 22% of the total from 35% in 1960. In addition to Mexico City, the country had four cities of more than half a million inhabitants 1960 figures (

parentheses): Guadalajara, 1,196,218 (740,394); Monterrey, 830,336 (601,085); Netzahualcoyotl,

in

571,035 (not available); and Puebla, 521,885 (297,257). The very rapid development of Netzahualcoyotl, Tlalnepantla, Naucalpan, and Ecatepec,

all in

the state

1970) and to marginal benefits for the working class under a new federal labour law implemented on May 1. These factors, together with the effect of more expensive imports from countries with inflationary trends (62% of all Mexican imports in 1969 were

from the U.S.), disrupted the price stabihty that Mexico had enjoyed for many years. In 1969 the official cost-of-living index rose by 3.5% although

—

many

Luis Echeverria Alvarez

was elected Mexico's

new

president

in

July 1970.

40%

of the country's total plant

was concentrated. This created problems of transport, labour costs, and pollution. Understandably the government announced in midyear that no new manufacturing plants would be allowed in the Federal District after 1975 and on the periphery of Mexico City after 1980.

The Economy. Despite

the atmosphere of uncer-

tainty associated with every election year, the econ-

omy

continued to grow in 1970 at much the same pace as in 1969, when the gross national product

6.4%. In many respects its performance in 1969 was typical of the 1960s as a whole. During the decade per capita income increased

showed

by

46%

a real gain of

in

real

terms, compared with

26%

in

the

1950s and 39% in the 1940s. Unlike previous governments during their last year in office, the Diaz Ordaz administration refrained from excessive public spending in 1970. Its attitude

Mexico's outgoing president, Gustavo

Dfaz Ordaz, met with U.S. Pres. Richard M. Nixon

at Puerto Vallarta in

August 1970.

was largely dictated by the

need to keep in reserve a number of large projects that might have had to be activated if a persistent economic recession in the U.S. had spilled over into Mexico. As things were, a moderate rate of public investment was maintained, and in the second half of the year efforts were renewed on some important public works, including those stages of the Mexico City underground railway scheduled by the authorities for completion before the change of government. Business was further stimulated by a growth of

consumer demand attributed to higher minimum wage rates for urban and rural workers (increased by 15% and 16% to 24.90 and 21.20 pesos a day after Jan. 1,

7%

a truer figure.

A

succes-

sion of price rises affecting steel, newspapers, textiles,

restaurant charges, and building costs accelerated the upward trend, and by mid- 19 70 the wholesale price index showed an increase of 6.4%. Under the cir-

cumstances the authorities, intent on handing over to economic situation than they had inherited six years earlier, took the classic steps their successors a tidier

to

combat

were

of Mexico, indicated the growth of industry around the capital, where

observers thought

inflation and, therefore, credit conditions

difficult in the

In 1970

much

second half of the year.

attention was paid to the promotion

of exports. Foreign trade results for 1969 had

great promise, with exports rising

by 15.7%

shown to $1,-

366,300,000 while imports were kept

in check and by a modest 5.9% to $2,075,900,000; as a result the trade deficit was $70.2 million less than in 1968. Unfortunately, the hopes raised by this performance were not realized in 1970, when statistics for the first six months showed a rise of 2.7% in exports and one of 13.6% in imports; this produced a deficit $118.6 million greater than in January-June 1969. Tourism,

rose

however, continued to reheve the pressure on the balance of payments. Fears of a disappointing 1969

from the 19th Olympic unfounded. In 1969 the number of

after the previous year's boost

Games

—proved

tourists visiting

Mexico increased by 11.5%

to 2,097,-

801, although the net income from tourism did not increase as

much because

of an extraordinary rise in

expenditure by Mexicans abroad. In the first half of 1970 when attractions included an international au-

—

tomobile rally in May and the World Cup soccer competition in June Mexicans spent less abroad

—

while the country's foreign visitors increased by

9.3%

to 1,063,724.

Relations with the U.S. After a period of strain in the last quarter of

1969, relations with the U.S. improved. On September 21 of that year the U.S. customs authority launched a massive land, sea, and air surveillance of the U.S. -Mexican border in an effort to stamp out contraband in narcotics. Known as Operation Intercept, it involved long delays to travelers, which caused resentment and adversely affected trade along the border. The U.S. did not con-

MEXICO Education. (1967-68) Primary, pupils 7,772,2 57, teachers 1 58,736: secondary and vocational, pupils 1,063,900, teachers 76,069; teacher training, students 57,845, teachers (1966-67) 6,553; higher (including 38 universities), students 154,289,_ teaching staff (1966-67) 16,203. Finance. Monetary unit: peso, with a par £1 value of 12.50 pesos to U.S. $1 (30 pesos sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, central bank; (May 1970) U.S. $606 million; (May 1969) U.S. $577 million. Budget (federal government; 1970) balanced at 28.1 billion pesos. Gross national product: (1968) 334.3 billion pesos; (1967) 301.4 billion pesos. Money supply: (Dec. 1969) 48.3 billion pesos; (Dec. 1968) 42,240,000,000 pesos. Cost of living (Mexico City; 1963 100): (May 1970) 124; (May 1969) 118. Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports 25,975,000,000 pesos; .exports 17,874,000,000 pesos. Import sources (1968): U.S. 63%; West Germany 8%. Export destinations (1968): U.S. 57%; Japan

=

=

6%. Main exports: cotton 14%; sugar 7%; coffee 5%. Tourism (1968): visitors 1,664,500; gross receipts U.S. $1,13 7,000,000.

Transport

and

Communications.

Roads

(1969) 69,719 km, (including 1,010 km. expressways). Motor vehicles in use (1968): passenger million; commercial (including buses) 465,800. 1 Railways: (1967) 23,826 km.; traffic (1968) 4,398.000,000 passenger-km., freight 20,433.000.000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1969): 2,620,000 passenger-km,: freight 35,510,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1969): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 118; gross tonnage 423,969, Telephones (Dec, 1968) 1,174,885, Radio receivers (Dec, 1967) 10,932,000, Television receivers (Dec, 1968) 2,150,000, Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968 in parentheses): corn c. 8,600 1969; (9,360); wheat (1968) 1,894. (1967) 2,058; rice c. 300 (455); potatoes c. 576 (400); coffee (1968) 171, (1967) 165; cotton, lint f. 401 (537); dry beans c. 1,000 (1,035); bananas

(1968) 1,000, (1967) 986; oranges (1968) 892, (1967) 882; lemons (1968) 172, (1967) 171; sugar, raw value (1969-70) c. 2,489, (1968-69) c. 2,394; tobacco c. 62 (62); sisal (1968) 148, (1967) 147; fish catch (1968) 366, (1967) 350, Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1968): cattle c. 34,900; sheep (1968-69) 6,706; pigs c. 15,000; horses c. 5,400; mules c, 2,020; asses c. 3,700; chickens (1968-69) c. 107,000. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969): crude oil 21,415; coal (1967) 1,424; natural gas (cu.m.) 17,217; electricity (kw-hr.) 25,435,000; cement 6,970; iron ore (metal content) 2,066; pig iron 1,701; steel 3,453; sulfur ( 1968) 1,685; sulfuric acid 1.068; nitrogenous fertilizers (1968-69) 196; lead 144; zinc 88; copper, smelter 66; aluminum 32; manganese ore (metal content; 1968) 27; antimony ore (metal content; 1968) 3.5; silver (1968) 1.2; gold (troy oz.; 1968) 1 77; cotton yarn (1968) 106; woven cotton fabrics (1968) 95.

with Mexico before beginning the operaand this caused particular strain. The U.S. Department of Commerce did its best to repair the damage, and relations were again cordial when Presidents Richard Nixon and Diaz Ordaz met on August 20-21 at Puerto Vallarta to discuss a treaty settlement of boundary disputes between the two countries. suit officially tion,

Their agreement, besides apportioning tracts of land in the Presidio Valley and about 320 islands in the Rio Grande, proposed maritime demarcations in the Gulf of Mexico and Pacific Ocean, and included provisions for resolving future disputes.

No

final

agreement was

reached on the use of the Colorado River waters, but President Nixon proposed an arrangement offering significant advantages to Mexico.

The

nationalization of Mexico's railways was com-

pleted on June 30

when

the federal authorities ac-

quired from the U.S. -owned Southern Pacific Transportation the 44-mi. link between Tijuana and Tecate.

A five-year program

for the joint development by puband private sectors of the Baja California penin(M. Pu.) sula was announced in the spring.

lic

Middle East Although a peaceful settlement between Arabs and Israelis still appeared distant at the end of 1970 and the civil war between Jordanians and Palestinians, which had been narrowly avoided for so long, broke out in Jordan, there was some progress toward the fulfillment of

some

Israel

Area occupied bv

A

U.S. peace initiative, which became known Rogers peace plan, was accepted in principle by the Soviet Union, the United Arab Republic, Jordan, and Israel, although each country placed its own interpretation on its acceptance. This made pospeace.

as the

sible the

the

A

UN

special representative in the

(June 1967)

^

Arab attacks

Arab-occupied

Israel since

Six-Day

War

Ijr

Israeli

reason Israel withdrew its delegate from indirect negotiations soon after they had started. However, the U.S. and the Soviet Union agreed that

For

this

the talks should be resumed,

Jordanian Army- Palestinian

territorv

guerrilla

clashes

I

Territory held by Palestinian guerrillas

• Popular Front

Cease-fire line (Aug

7

19 70)

for the Liberation of Palestine

its

anxiety that

its

and the U.S. government initiative should not be

Fatah led by Yasir Arafat (see Biography) and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) continued led by George Habash (see Biography) to reject any political settlement that did not include

—

the total liberation of Palestine. However, Palestinian spokesmen affirmed that while they aimed at dismantling Israel they had no intention of destroying or expelling the Jews but sought to establish a nonsectarian state in which Jews, Christians, and Muslims could live in equality. In February all the Palestinian

allowed to lapse.

organizations linked together in the Palestine

U.A.R. Pres. Gamal Abd-al-Nasser's death on September 28 was widely expected to cause delay in any renewed peace moves. All Middle Eastern states continued to devote an extraordinarily high proportion of their national incomes and budgets to military expenditure. Only the ending of the civil war in Yemen and of the war with the Kurdish nationalists in Iraq offered some prospect of reducing arms spending in

Struggle

21 a U.S.

De-

partment of State spokesman said that there had some progress in Big Four talks on the Middle and that a "settlement was possible." There agreement on the principle of Israeli withdrawal

been East

Arab-Israeli Conflict.

Command announced

On January

was from

occupied Arab territories in return for Arab de facto recognition of Israel, but there was still disagreement over the form of negotiations, the timetable of the Israeli

evacuation, the position of the demilitarized

zones,

and the future of the Palestinian Arab refugees.

principal Palestinian guerrilla organizations

—Al

Armed

formation of a unified command, which for the first time would include the PFLP. However, the PFLP continued to a the

large extent to act independently.

In January Israel stepped up

its

air

and ground

attacks on the U.A.R. Israeli forces occupied for 32 hours the U.A.R. -held Shadwan Island at the southern

end of the Suez Gulf. Israel also carried out several air raids close to

those two countries.

The

attacks

Middle East.

Suez Canal area was declared on August 7 and remained effective despite Israeli accusations that the U.A.R. had violated the military standstill agreement accompanying the cease-fire by installing new surface-to-air missile sites near the

showed

War

relaunching of the mission of Gunnar Jarring,

cease-fire in the

canal.

prior to the Six-Day

essential conditions for achieving

Cairo with the aim, according to the

Israeli defense minister, of

to hold the

Suez Canal

line

making with a

it

easier for Israel

minimum

of casual-

of convincing the U.A.R. leadership of the futility of launching an all-out war, and of driving home ties,

Egyptian people that their military and pothem harm. The U.A.R. responded by stepping up air raids in the Suez Canal area and the Sinai, and several major air battles took to the

litical

leadership was doing

place.

The Arab sales

to

states

Israel

were concerned about U.S. arms

Microbiology: Medicine; Molecular Biology

see

and especially

Israel's

request

for

Young members of at a training camp

a Palestinian guerrilla group

in Jordan 'right). Members of the groups are many refugee camps set up accommodate persons displaced by the formation of the state to of Israel in 1948. Since 1964 terrorist raids have been used

recruited from residents of the

to dramatize the plight of the refugees. Feeling publicity for their cause to be insufficient, one of the groups, tf^e Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine CPFLP), led by George Habash, undertool< a carefully planned operation on Sept. 6. 1970, to hijack four international jet flights. Three of the attempts

succeeded, and two planes landed Airstrip," about

40

mi.

in

the desert at the

'

Revolution

from Amman. There the passengers

were held hostage (below) v^hile negotiations proceeded for their release. On September 9 another hijacked plane was flown to the same airstrip. The PFLP threatened to blow up the passengers with the planes unless guerrillas captured earlier hijack attempts were released. Finally, hov«ver, the passengers were moved to other locations

in

and the planes v.ere destroyed (above).

STEVE

23

Phantom and 80 Skyhawk

planes.

On January

30

Nixon announced that a decision on the matter would be declared "within 30 days." Delegations led by the heads of state of the U.A.R., Jordan, Syria, and Sudan, and the Iraqi minister of the interior met in Cairo from February 7 to 9 and warned the U.S. about its "new hostile attitude towards the Arab nation" and its links with Zionism U.S. Pres. Richard

and

Israeli expansionism.

On March

UN

New York

deputy representaFour held several meetings to compile "memorandum of progress" on the Big Four's Mid25,

and

in early April the

tives of the Big

a

dle East discussions.

Heavy

artillery

and

air battles in the

Suez Canal

The 20 more

area continued throughout mid- 19 70.

killing of

in an air on the U.A.R. village of Bahr al-Baqar on April 8 was strongly condemned throughout the Arab world, although Israel claimed that there were military targets in the area. On April 28 an Israeli military spokesman described increased U.A.R. military activity as a spring offensive aimed to wrest the initiative from

46 children and the wounding of raid

Human

NANCY

Citizens gather in front

Practices

Israeli

Rights of the Population of the

mittee to enter the occupied territories unless investigated the condition of Jews in the

In his a

May Day

new diplomatic

it

also

Arab coun-

speech President Nasser launched

offensive in the

peal" to President Nixon.

He

form of

a "final ap-

the U.S. took one more step on the path of securing military

superiority for Israel

it

would

said that

if

affect U.S. -Arab rela-

tions for decades or even centuries.

He

also claimed

that with Soviet aid the U.A.R. forces were wresting

the initiative

from the enemy. On

May

30

Israeli

forces suffered their worst casualties since the June

1967 war in ground action across the Suez Canal when 13 were killed, 4 wounded, and 2 missing as a result of two U.A.R. commando ambushes. The Israeli foreign minister said on May 5 that in

exchange for true peace Israel would be prepared to make concessions that might surprise the world. His remarks were sharply criticized by Israeli right-wing parties. Big Four discussions remained in a state of stalemate; the U.S. still delayed a decision on Israel's request for Phantoms and Skyhawks, but the U.S. secretary of state said on June 9 that the military situation in the Middle East had deteriorated "largely as a result of increased Soviet involvement in the air defense of the U.A.R." and 73 U.S. senators urged Rogers in a letter on June 1 to "provide Israel with the aircraft so urgently needed for its defense." Israel had abandoned deep penetration raids into U.A.R. territory, but during June and July maintained an almost continuous bombardment of the Suez Canal area with the aim of silencing U.A.R. artillery and preventing establishment of

new

Soviet-built missile

sites.

On June new peace

25 the U.S. secretary of state launched a initiative in the

EAGLE FROf^ PALMER AGENCY

special three-

Occupied Territories set up by the UN General Assembly held hearings in London, Beirut, and Damascus, but Israel refused permission for the com-

head-

U.S.-Soviet talks on the possibility of resuming Big Four discussions on the Middle East were started on

March

Affecting the

A

tries.

10 Jarring was recalled to

from his post as Swedish ambassador to the Soviet Union and held talks with the representatives of the U.A.R., Jordan, Israel, and the major powers. Although UN Secretary-General U Thant still saw no sufficient basis for the reactivation of the Jarring mission, he reported some rapprochement among the Big Four in their attitudes toward the Middle East. President Nixon still delayed announcing his decision on Israel's request for Phantoms and Skyhawks, and on March 23 U.S. Secretary of State William Rogers said that the president had decided to grant Israel $100 million in aid instead of the planes. Nixon said that this was "an interim decision," while U.A.R. sources called it a "hoax" and "an attempt to deceive the Arab world." It was widely believed that Nixon was attempting to reach an understanding with the Soviet Union on the Middle East. Exploratory quarters at

and on the ground. member Committee to Investigate Israel in the air

Middle East, which be-

of the Knesset

in

Jerusalem

to protest the peace

plan offered by U.S. Secretary of State William Rogers which called for withdrawal by Israel from territory captured in the 1967 war.

514

Middle East

came known

On September

details

Four

as the Rogers plan. He refused to give on the ground that this would prevent the plan's success, but he said that it was based on the UN Security Council resolution of Nov. 22, 1967, and

The U.S. Sixth Fleet was ordered into the eastern Mediterranean and a division of U.S. paratroops was

that the U.S. had decided on the initiative partly in

alerted for the possible evacuation of U.S. citizens

response to President Nasser's appeal to President Nixon of May 1. In order to get negotiations started through the mediator, Rogers appealed directly

from Jordan. The Soviet Union issued a stern warning against the possibility of U.S. intervention.

UN

to Jordan, the U.A.R.,

An

Israeli

Army

lieutenant

leads a patrol

near the Jordanian border. CAMERA PRESS FROM PIX

and

Israel to agree to an im-

21

King Husain appealed

to take joint action against the

to the Big Syrian invasion.

A hastily summoned Arab summit conference in Cairo failed to end the civil war because neither King Husain nor the principal Palestinian leader, Yasir Arafat, attended. The Arab heads of state then sent a mission to Amman headed by the Sudanese presi-

mediate cease-fire to last at least three months. The peace initiative made progress when Nasser announced his acceptance of the Rogers proposals on July 23 on his return from a 19-day visit to the Soviet Union. He later told the Arab Socialist Union in Cairo that the U.A.R.'s acceptance was "uncondi-

presided over a cease-fire agreement between Husain and four leading Palestinian guerrillas who had been

On July 26 Jordan also announced its acceptance but absolved itself from responsibility for

captured by the Jordanian Army. But the Nimeiry mission returned to Cairo without having met Arafat,

tional."

Palestinian guerrilla action against Israel.

The

Pales-

denounced the U.S. initiative and unequivocally rejected it. On August 4 Israel announced its acceptance of the Rogers proposals after receiving assurances from the U.S. that the cease-fire would not be used by the U.A.R. to consolidate its position along the Suez Canal. The cease-fire came into force on August 7, and on the same day the 11 member organizations of the Central Committee for Palestinian Resistance announced that they would not abide by it. Moshe Dayan, Israel's minister of defense, accused the U.A.R. on August 13 of having violated the cease-fire on August 8 by moving surfacetinian organizations strongly

to-air missiles into the canal zone.

In the following

weeks the Israeli government repeated the accusations, which were supported by the U.S. Indirect negotiations for a settlement began on August 25 in New York when Jarring held separate talks with the permanent UN representatives of the U..'\.R., Jordan, and Israel. However, the Israeli government then recalled its delegate to Jerusalem and after a Cabinet meeting on September 6 announced that it was suspending participation in the Jarring peace talks as long as the U.A.R. continued with its alleged breaches of the Middle East cease-fire agreement.

On September

6

members

of the Popular Front for

the Liberation of Palestine attempted four hijackings

Western Europe. Of these, York-bound El Al plane failed, but a Pan American plane was taken first to Beirut and then to Cairo and a Swissair and a Trans

of passenger airliners over

an effort to seize a

World

(TWA)

Airlines

used airstrip border.

The

children,

manded

New

plane were taken to an unJordanian desert near the Iraqi

in the

most of the women,

guerrillas released

and elderly among the passengers, but dethe

Switzerland,

release

of Palestinians held in

West Germany, and

for the release of the rest

On September and flown

to the

jackers released

whom

BOAC

9 a

same

all

Israel,

Britain in return

they held as hostages.

On September

the agreement.

22,

and

it

Fighting continued,

and General al-Nimeiry accused the Jordanian Army of breaking the cease-fire.

Amman, and on September

The mission returned to more effective agree-

25 a

ment was reached between Arafat and King Husain. The agreement was broken on several occasions and sporadic fighting continued, but in the following days.

it gradually died out In a message on September 26

Nasser angrily accused Husain of violating the ceasefire and denounced the existence of a plot aimed at liquidating the Palestinian resistance. Husain and Arafat attended a meeting the next day in Cairo with eight Arab heads of state and their representatives; the conference resulted in a 14-point agreement providing for the withdrawal of all Jordanian Army and Palestinian guerrilla forces from every city in Jordan, to be supervised by a three-man inter-Arab committee headed by the Tunisian prime minister. The death of President Nasser (see Obituaries) on September 28 threw the whole Arab world into confusion as

it

mourned

the loss of

its

only leader of

was assumed that his death would inevitably cause the postponement of efforts to revive the U.S. peace initiative, although both Israel and the U.A.R. prolonged the cease-fire for three months in November. In a statement issued after Nasser's funeral on October 1, Soviet Premier Aleksei N. Kosygin said that the Soviet government reaffirmed its desire for a peaceful settlement of the Middle East crisis but would continue to supply defensive aid to the Arab states. On December 28 the Israeli Cabinet voted to rejoin the Jarring talks. The U.A.R.. meanwhile, indicated that it would not agree to a further world stature.

It

extension of the cease-fire unless a definite timetable for Israeli withdrawal

was established.

Inter-Arab Relations. The underlying division between conservative pro-Western Arab regimes and the radical republican camp persisted but remained latent during 1970.

On

the conservative side.

King Husain

aligned his foreign policy closely with that of the

Eventually, the hi-

U.A.R., while King Faisal of Saudi Arabia undertook no diplomatic initiatives and finally recognized the

of the passengers but destroyed

Transportation: Special Report.) 17 the international crisis caused by the hijackings was overshadowed by the outbreak of civil war in Jordan between the Palestinian organizations and the Jordanian Army. The war began soon after Jordan's King Husain had appointed a new military government and the Palestinians had responded by calling a general strike. Intervention by Syrian armoured units in northern Jordan caused fears that the conflict might spread and the U.S. secretary of state asked the Soviet Union to restrain the Syrians. the planes. (See

who denounced

September

also hijacked

airliner

airstrip.

was

dent, Gafaar al-Nimeiry, on

republican regime in Yemen.

A

conference of foreign

ministers of Islamic states meeting in Jidda, Saudi

Arabia, in March, decided to set up an Islamic secretariat with its headquarters in Jidda, but the decision

made little impact in the Middle East. In general, the pro-Western regimes were hampered by what the Arabs regarded as unstinted U.S. support of Israel, while the radical camp was strengthened by the addition of the new regimes in Sudan and Libya, especially the latter with its £500 million a year in oil revenues. However, the radicals were also divided and in 1970

515

Migration, International

GAMMA FROM

PIX

King Faisal of Saudi Arabia (second from left) opens tine

Arab summit

conference at Jidda

March 1970. On Faisal's left is Sudan in

Foreign Minister Omar Sakkaf, who was elected president of the meeting.

most important split in the Arab world was over attitudes toward the Rogers peace initiative. Both Iraq and Syria denounced it, the latter less vehemently. Iraq, which had 12,000 troops in Jordan and had improved its own military position by the ending of the Kurdish war, declared itself to be the protector of the Palestinian guerrillas and in doing so made a clear bid for Arab leadership. Its claim was largely nullified, however, by its failure to come to the

power. In their turn, these movements influenced

their

national labour markets and productivity

the aid of the Palestinians during the Jordanian civil

war, in contrast to Syria's intervention. factor behind Iraq's inaction

An important

was the continuing mis-

and antipathy between the Baathist regimes in Baghdad and Damascus. Nasser's death seemed certain to reduce the U.A.R.'s dominant position in the Arab world, at least until his successors had established themselves. The U.A.R.'s size and strength, however, meant that it would always be a major factor in the Middle East power balance. In November the U.A.R., Libya, and Sudan entered into an alliance aimed at eventual federation, and later in the month Syria announced that it also was joininK. The Persian Gulf. In the Persian Gulf area little real progress was made toward the establishment of the projected Federation of Arab Amirates because of rivalry and disagreement between the rulers. One of their anxieties was removed, however, by the shah of Iran's acceptance that Iran's claim to Bahrain should trust

b^ referred to the eral, 'Vittorio

UN. The

UN

undersecretary-gen-

Guicciardi, arrived in Bahrain on

March

30 to seek the views of the inhabitants, and in his report said that the Bahrainis were virtually unanimous in wanting Bahrain to be a fully independent the great majority added that it should be an Arab state. Iran accepted the verdict but continued to lay claim to three small islands in the Straits of Hormuz, of which one was claimed by

sovereign state;

Sharjah and two by Ras al-Khaimah. The advent to power of a Conservative Party government in the U.K. in June held out the possibility that it would reverse the Labour government's decision to withdraw all British forces from the Persian Gulf area by 1971. However, this seemed less likely after Saudi Arabia and Iran had both expressed opposition

Md.)

to a continuing British presence.

(P.

See also Defense; Migration, International; also articles on various political units.

Refugees;

Migration, International In

1970 economic considerations

determined to a

greater extent than in the past the rection of migratory

movements

volume and diman-

of European

by increasing man-

or diminishing the available supply of skilled

power essential to economic growth. As compared with the overseas emigration of Europeans in the previous IS years, mobility within Europe, mainly covering the movements of people from the Mediterranean area to the more northerly countries, gained in importance. In 1970 there was only a very small flow of people seeking new opportunities for themselves or their children in the traditional immigration countries overseas.

By 1970, West Germany, Switzerland, Belgium, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and France had become the principal immigration countries of Europe. The Netherlands occupied a halfway position: while maintaining a small flow toward overseas countries, it admitted a relatively sizable contingent of immigrants every year. In Austria, the number of foreign workers had almost saturated the labour market, while in Italy the migratory pattern had been progressively transformed and movements to European countries on a short-term basis predominated over permanent movement to countries overseas. The demands of the European labour market

called

for an extension of the recruitment areas to regions

farther afield than the Mediterranean. The question arose as to whether the influx of culturally and socially different people was justified or whether it would provoke tensions resulting from the creation of minorities of "second class citizens," due to differences in education, and from the fear of Vberfremdiing "overalienization"). Certainlv, com(the Swiss term plex sociopsychological mechanisms were involved.

—

In Switzerland, as in many European countries, forhad contributed to the creation of a social substratum, which at the same time allowed the

eign workers

local population to rise

on the

social scale.

By

1970,

one worker in three in Switzerland was a foreigner, and debate continued on proposals for restrictions on foreign labour. There were fears, however, that such restrictions might lead to an economic crisis, with Swiss workers, mostly in white-collar jobs, being progressively affected by firms having to slow down or halt production due to a shortage of labour. On June 7, a referendum was held on proposals to

reduce the proportion of foreigners to no more than 10% in any one canton, with the exception of Geneva,

where the limit would be 25%. Although seasonal workers, workers commuting from neighbouring countries, and various other special groups were excluded, the proposals would nonetheless have meant a very large number of departures. The proposals were rejected by a fairly narrow margin, with 557,000 in favour and 654,000 against. {See Switzerland.)

had to apply for special entry vouchers, limited to 1,500 per year for U.K. citizens

potential immigrants

from both Kenya and Uganda. Faced with increased pressure from the authorities in Africa and dwindling financial

more and more U.K. passport Kenya and Uganda without the necessary

resources,

holders left

permits in the hope of being allowed into Britain. This led to a number of "shuttlecock" Asians being stranded at various European airports, unable to return to Africa or to continue their journey to Britain, and consequently there was growing pressure on the British

government BEN

"It

ROTH

aGENCV

was the overcrowded °'-

^'"That officer.

^^o'^"'*'^ ^f,"^

."— Cooks'on,

London "Daily Mail."'

to

review

its

immigrants.

In Sweden, where one inhabitant second-generation immigrant,

in five official

was a

first-

estimates

forecast an additional 10,000 arrivals per year in the

near future. By April 1, 1970, there were about 210,000 foreign workers registered in Sweden. The bulk of these were from neighbouring Nordic countries a total :

of

some 135,000,

the Finns alone accounting for 102,-

000.

In the United States, efforts to revise the immigration laws enacted in 1965 gained

momentum

during

movement, which received support in the U.S. Congress and from the executive branch, resulted from unforeseen consequences of the 1965 law. 1970. This

A

wholesale alteration of the U.S. immigration laws

had been in effect since the 1920s, the 1965 wiped out the old entry quotas based on the country of origin and instead established a system of "preferences" designed to reunite families and favour those in needed occupations. After a gradual introduction, the new system went into full effect on July 1, 1968, and immediately revealed consequences that set in motion the follow up drive for revision. A clear result of the new law was a that

statute

The diminishing

flow of emigrants from

Europe

to

the traditional immigration countries overseas began to be felt ticularly,

by those

new

countries. In

the decline in the

from Great Britain of

annual quota of 1,500 such (G. 0. K, B.; X.)

New

number

—New Zealand's

citizens since the

Zealand, parof immigrants

traditional source

end of World

War

II

—

to-

gether with the loss of people attracted by higher

wages in Australia and by greater opportunities in the and professions in Europe, was causing considerable concern. Plans were under consideration to relax lowing unskilled British workers to qualify for en-

immigration into the U.S. away from such countries as Britain, Ireland, and West Germany and toward a heavier influx from the Philippines, Italy, Greece, Portugal, and other nations that formerly had not been allowed as many entries under the

trance.

old national-origin quotas.

arts

the

skill

requirements for assisted passages, thus

al-

In the countries of immigration, sociocultural differences sometimes caused difficulties for

new

arrivals.

In the U.K., resources were being mobilized against

and cultural prejudice and discrimination, and toward cultural pluralism. Nevertheless, immigration racial

continued to be a controversial subject. According to the 1966 sample census in Great Britain, out of a total population of 52.3 million there were 977,720 persons born in the Commonwealth, 885,600 persons born in foreign countries, and 718,010 born in the Republic of Ireland.

shift in the patterns of

A

ceiling of 120,000 placed

on entries from the Western Hemisphere for the first tirne also radically restricted immigration into the U.S.

from that part of the world. Such patterns emerged as soon as the 1965 laws went into effect and continued into 1970. According to preliminary figures from the Department of State, the

number

of visas issued during fiscal

1970 for non-

Western Hemisphere countries showed

that the Philip-

pines led the

list

of countries of origin for immigrants

into the United States with 25,425, followed

by Italy

with 24,481, Greece with 16,542, Nationalist China (Taiwan) with 16,297, and Great Britain and Northern Ireland with 13,925. They were followed by Por-

A study published in Britain during 1970 threw light on some of the effects of immigrant arrivals. In The Economic Impact of Commonwealth Immigration, prepared for the National Institute of Economic and Social Research by K. Jones and A. D. Smith, the authors found that immigrant families made smaller demands on the social services than other families, that immigrants still had lower living standards, but

tugal, India, Korea, West Germany, and Yugoslavia, This ranking was radically at variance with that of fiscal 1965, the last year the old system was fully in effect. In fiscal 1965 the ranking of non-Western Hemisphere countries showed Great Britain, West Germany, Italy, Poland, Ireland, France, the Nether-

that "indigenous" living standards did not suffer as

lands, Japan, the Soviet Union,

a result

—indeed, rather

the case. (See

A

the opposite appeared to be

Race Relations.) was Under

particularly difficult problem for the U.K.

the case of British Asians in East Africa. Uganda's Immigration Act, which came into force on May 1, non-Ugandan citizens had to receive specific permission before taking a job, and permits were granted only if the job in question could not be done by a Ugandan. The Kenyan government had intro-

duced similar legislation in 1967. Most of the people by these "africanization" measures were U.K. passport holders of Indian and Pakistani origin who had retained their British citizenship after the granting of independence to their countries of residence. But entry into the U.K. was limited by Britain's Commonwealth Immigrants Act of 1968, whereby affected

and Taiwan

in that

order.

In the Western Hemisphere, the rankings in fiscal 1970 were roughly unchanged from fiscal 1969 or fiscal 1965. The major exceptions were a precipitous decline in the number of entries from Canada, from the 40,013 in fiscal 1965 to 12,263 in fiscal 1970, Also notable was

the

swelling

number

of

entries

from

Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago in recent years. The fiscal 1970 ranking for Western Hemisphere countries was Mexico, Cuba, Jamaica, Canada, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Colombia, Trinidad and Tobago, Ecuador, and Argentina. Closer examination of these developments stemming from the 1965 law began in 1968 in the U.S. Congress and continued to generate increasing attention in 1970. Although no major revisions were enacted, the move-

ment seemed

to point

toward some concrete action

in

the near future. Especially crucial in this legislative

process was the acknowledgment by the federal administration in 1970 that changes were desirable.

Immigration into Canada during 1969 dropped 12.2% to 161,531 from 183,974 in 1968. The number of Europeans and Africans declined, whUe entries from the Western Hemisphere continued an upward trend. U.S. emigrants to Canada during the year increased 12% from 20,422 in 1968 to 22,785 in 1969. These figures also confirmed a new pattern that had emerged since the introduction three years before of a new point system based on education, skills, language, and age. Some attention in 1970 was also focused on emigration from the United States. For the first time in the century the number of Americans leaving for Canada exceeded the number of Canadians migrating to the U.S. Although no official statistics were available on U.S. emigration, some figures indicated the situation. In 1968 about 2.500 U.S. citizens either renounced or and in 1970 more than 200.000

lost their citizenship,

social

security

beneficiaries

were

receiving

their

checks abroad. Other figures indicated that in the last decade the number of Americans granted permits to

work

in Britain

increased from 517 in 1960 to 1.470 in

1969. Before the June 1967 Middle East war.

some

1,000 to 1,200 Americans a year were resettling in Israel, but the figure was up to 6.500 in 1969 and the

1970 monthly rate averaged 30% above that level. Other nations receiving a large number of Americans were reported to be Australia, Mexico, Sweden, Den(D. Fo.) mark, and West Germany. See also Refugees.

The upward trend

Mining

narrow range that, however, turned upward in the last quarter. High interest rates also reduced the availability of capital for mineral exploration and development projects. This undoubtedly contributed to the shortages and high prices of energy minerals, but did not have an immediate influence on the supply of other minerals.

One

analysis concluded that

side capital of

$40

billion

new

would be required

out-

in the

next five years to build or replace mine-plant capacity

meet anticipated mineral demand. of U.S. health and safety regulations for metal and nonmetal mines began on July 31. More than 1,000 standards, about half of them mandatory, were applied to ventilation, drilling, blasting, transportation, and other mining procedures. Formal U.S. Treasury Department sales of silver terminated on November 10. About 300 million oz. of silver had been sold at an average price of $1.85 per ounce from August 1967 until the program ended. Of this, 65 million oz. were sold in 1970. Two-thirds of this was derived from reclaimed coins. Industry Developments. The main mining event of the year was the worldwide mineral search by major companies and consortia of companies to find and develop mineral and metal supplies for the remaining decades of the century. There was widespread expectation that mineral demand would soar and that known resources would be inadequate. W'hile the physical availability of developed ore loomed as a midterm restraint on supply, the immediate restraints were political uncertainty in some of the less developed countries and the inadequacy of capital for ore searches. In Chile and Peru the governmental policies

to

The enforcement

continued to resources, a

Mining

517

year reduced the attractiveness of speculations in silver and gold and their prices fluctuated in a relatively

move toward nationalization of mineral move that deterred commercial mineral

exploration and development of large copper deposits.

development and production of recent years was slowed somewhat in 1970. A decline in industrial, construction, and defense activity combined to lessen mineral demand and caused a softening in prices for some minerals and metals. A contrasting picture developed for energy minerals, notably coal. Escalating energy demand was accompanied by a host of uncertainties in production of coal, oil, and natural gas. Prices rose, and there were serious disruptions and readjustments in the supply and demand pattern for fuel minerals. (See Fuel and Power.) Nationalization goals continued to impede mineral development in some of the less developed countries, but such goals often directed intensified commercial in mineral

mineral resource development efforts in the politically

more stable industrial countries. Environmental concern had a widening impact on mining and mineral

Mineral exploration in large areas of Africa, Asia, and the Middle East also was discouraged by unfavourable political conditions for business. As a result, the major mining companies concentrated their explorations in Australia, the U.S., Canada, and other countries having stable free-enterprise economies.

Going opposite to the trend in many less developed was a year of vigorous mineral activity in Indonesia. The most spectacular development was of the huge Ertsberg copper deposit in West countries, 1970

Irian

—

a 33 million-ton monolithic plug projecting out

of a mountainside at an elevation of 11,500

Despite a general high level of unemployment

The

Defense

Mineralogy: see

Geology

World Mining Production

1963 = 100

1963=100

160

160

150

150 Pet roleum and n Jtural as"~--

Less ndustri alized c ountrie

processing technology, and exerted a growing influ-

ence on mineral consumption and recycling patterns.

ft.

Military Affairs: see

i

140

140

in the

U.S., mining companies had difficulty in recruiting workers and engineers. There was a particular shortage of underground miners. Training programs were expanded, and efforts were made to recruit miners from the unemployed labour pools in large cities. The market for minerals was remarkably steady. Prices of metals drifted downward in the second half

of the year, probably in part as a reflection of the slowing of general inflation, but more as a result of

a growing supply and diminishing demand. The exceptionally high monetary interest rates during the

130

130 letals

World-

120

120

110

110 r,

:jstrial

Coal

countries

100

1

100

63 Source.

'64

'65

UN MontM,

'66

'67

«i>//«lm ol Stodilici.

'68

'69

'63

'64

'65

'66

'67

'68

'69

deposit contained

2.5% copper and recoverable conand silver. Freeport Indonesia, Inc., obtained government approval for the $120 million project in June and planned production by 1973 at tents of gold

a rate of 2.5 million tons of ore per year. Approximately two-years' supply of ore was available above ground and could be mined without sub jtantial strip-

ping of waste. In addition to Ertsberg, there were projects under way in Indonesia to develop offshore tin

dredging areas, large nickel deposits in Sulawesi

and elsewhere, and widespread bauxite deposits. Active mineral exploration and development continued in Australia. Both sulfide- and lateritic-type nickel deposits were being drilled out. A 45 millionton, 1.5% nickel reserve was detected by Freeport of Australia, Inc., and a pilot ore-testing plant was to be built in the U.S. A 17-mi.-long zone of ultrabasic rocks favourable for nickel sulfide ores was being explored in Western Australia at Mt. Keith. At Kwinana, Western Australia, a 16,000-ton-per-year

ammonia

leach nickel refinery started treating sulfide

concentrates from the

Kambalda mine. Mine output

where several huge mines were being developed. In British Columbia, Brenda Mines started its 24,000ton-a-day open-pit copper-molybdenum mine, and Utah Construction made good progress at its 33,000ton-per-day copper-molybdenum open-pit mine-mill on Vancouver Island. Production was scheduled to begin in 1972. Valley Copper Mines planned a 25,000ton-per-day copper-molybdenum mine with good prospects to ultimately mine 75,000 tons per day. The same ore body was expected to yield 30.000 tons per day for Bethlehem Copper. Rio Algom plans for the 38,000-ton-per-day Lornex mine moved ahead but were delayed by the need to meet requirements of new governmental regulations. The Fox mine of Sherritt Gordon Mines, Ltd., in Manitoba started production in September. About one million tons of ore per year were to be mined, and 84,000 tons of copper concentrate and 18,000 tons of zinc concentrate recovered.

Several developments in various stages of planning or construction were expected to maintain Canada's position as the world's leading nickel producer. Inter-

of 33,000 tons of nickel in concentrate

national Nickel Co. had a $1 billion expansion pro-

Excess concentrate was to

gram

was planned. be shipped to Japan for

processing.

Plans were made to double the capacity of the world's largest iron ore producer, Hamersley Iron Pty., Ltd.. in

A new

Western Australia.

mine was

to

be opened at Paraburdoo, 32 mi. S of the present Mt. Tom Mine. By 1974 the new mine was expected to add 15 million tons per year of ore to the 22.5 million tons from Mt. Tom. After seven years of preparation and investigation, a ten million-ton-per-year, $300 million iron ore project at

Robe River in Australia reached the development The project was financed by an international

stage.

consortium, and

its

output was to be shipped largely

to Japan. Mining, processing, pelletizing,

and land and harbour shipping facilities were being built, with initial shipments scheduled for 1972 at about 80% of ulti-

mate

capacity.

New

mines attracted much attention in Australia, but older well-known operations were also the scenes of activity. Mt. Isa Mines, Ltd., was expanding to mine 22,000 tons of ore per day and planned another 16.000 tons of daily output by the mid-1970s. It would

become

the world's largest lead-zinc-silver mine.

was sunk

20-ft. -diameter, 3,400-ft.-deep shaft ice the

A

to serv-

mine.

American Metal Climax, Inc., announced its intention to construct a $330 million bauxite-alumina complex in Western Australia that would produce 1.2 million tons of alumina per year by about 1974. The huge deposits of bauxite near Port Warrender were expected to permit a doubling of capacity if market circumstances warranted lation

On

was envisioned the

output from 190,000 tons of by 1972. In the Sudbury district, ten mines were in production, three others were being developed, and three more were in progress to raise

nickel in 1969 to 300,000 tons

it.

A new

city of 3,000

popu-

for plant employees.

Gove Peninsula

of the

Northern Territory

being appraised. In the newer

Thompson

area

of

northern Manitoba, two mines were in production

and two others under development. Iron Ore Co. of Canada planned expenditures of $270 million to produce high-grade iron pellets and iron concentrate in Newfoundland and Quebec. Mine expansions in the Schefferville area and at Carol were scheduled, and processing and shipping facilities were under construction. The annual output rate of pellets, ore, and concentrate was to be raised from 20 million tons in 1970 to 33 million tons in 1972.

Two

copper projects in Arizona, costing nearly $400 mining activity in the U.S. In April the Anaconda Co. reached a full daily ore production rate of 30,000 tons at its Twin Buttes Mine, 25 mi. S of Tucson. Copper production was expected to reach 60,000 tons a year. To uncover the copper million, highlighted

deposit, buried 600 to 800 ft. below the surface, it was necessary to remove 266 million tons of waste. The waste was used to build three huge earthfill dams to impound the waste material from which copper and molybdenum had been removed. Careful advance research and planning enabled the company to landscape and plant the waste areas to blend into the

desert terrain.

Only a few miles west of Twin Buttes the Duval Corp. began ore output at its Duval Sierrita coppermolybdenum mine. Capacity output of 72.000 tons of ore a day was gradually achieved. The 400 million-ton ore body averaged about 0.35% copper and 0.036% molybdenum, both of which had to be recovered to

of Australia, facilities were being built to mine a 250

yield a profit.

million-ton bauxite reserve and convert

Arizona also was the scene of major exploration for copper and of several major mine-plant projects. At Twin Buttes, exploration detected resources adequate to support a doubling of production. More than half a billion tons of ore were found at the Lakeshore

A

it

to alumina.

13-mi. conveyor belt was to transport the bauxite

to the

alumina plant on the coast.

million tons per year

An

output of one

was anticipated.

Exploration disclosed large reserves in the Groote

The output there one million tons per

Eylandt, Austr., manganese deposits.

was being doubled

to a rate of

year.

Major developments

in copper-molybdenum, nickel, and iron ore marked 1970 in Canada. The centre of attention shifted to western Canada,

lead-zinc-silver,

mine near Casa Grande. Additional work was being done in order to gather data needed for mine design and general long-term development planning. Exploration in the Miami, Ariz., area disclosed a potential large deposit suitable for surface mining and an underground extension of the long-established Miami-

more than 130 from 1910 to 1960. An 18-ft.diameter shaft was started in September to explore

New mines

Inspiration ore body, which produced

world's largest gold mine.

million tons of ore

reef were being developed to achieve a

the vein extension.

platinum output, from 1.1 million to 1,570,000 oz. per year. Consolidated Murchison, principal world antimony mine, raised its capacity substantially on the

Magma Copper financing for

its

Co. began working out details and

Si 50 million expansion plans at San

Manuel and Superior, Ariz. Delineation of the nearby Kalamazoo ore deposit was expected to raise San Manuel copper output from 96,000 tons to 145.000 tons a year. Copper output at Superior would probably be doubled from its 1970 level of 18,000 tons per year. Construction of a new smelter and refinery also was started in March at San Manuel to replace an obsolete plant at Superior.

There was widespread and intensive mineral exploration throughout the U.S. Investigation of copper-

occurrences

nickel

promising and,

if

south-central

in

successful,

Montana was

would lead

to the first

mines of this t>-pe in the U.S. The already productive southwest copper province, eastern zinc area, and midcontinental lead-zinc areas were the scene of geophysical prospecting, followed

by

drilling

when

ore

Company negotiations conCommonwealth to exploit large copper

basis of large reserves of high-grade ore.

per output to 1.3 million tons by 1972, compared with

750.000 tons in 1969. to

more than double

The government

of Peru

hoped

that nation's copper output

by

boom. In

coastal or overseas smelters.

Work

continued on the Si 60 million Marinduque

lateritic ore

searching for other minerals. Nevertheless, projects already well along were expected to raise Chile's cop-

The discovery

showed promising results. There was increased mining activity outside the principal and traditional metal mining areas of the world. It became increasingly evident that the PapuaNew Guinea area might be another major world copper province. The huge Bougainville copper project was well under way there. The port-to-mine access road was opened in October. Kennecott Copper Co. was drilling the area of Ok Tedi in northwest Papua, and its search extended to West Irian, the Indonesian part of the island. A major problem in development was providing the means to transport concentrate to

tinued with the

Political events again dominated mining news in South America. Nationalization policies in Chile and Peru discouraged private capital from attempting to develop the huge copper resources there and also from

rise in

adjoining Botswana, copper and nickel exploration

nickel project on

considerations and taxation were the principal issues.

50%

of nickel in Rhodesia led to an exploration

targets were identified.

deposits in west-central Puerto Rico. Environmental

on the Merensky

Nonoc

Island in the Philippines.

The

be treated by a hydrometallurgical process developed by Sherritt Gordon Co. of Canada. Large nickel deposits in New Caledonia continued

was

to

to attract interest. A S500 million project was planned by International Nickel Co. of Canada. It included mining, processing, and refining facilities, Patino Mining Corp. joined with Societe le Nickel in a $200 million mine and plant to produce 40,000 tons of nickel in ferronickel by 1972. Nearly a third of the Republic of Ireland was cov-

ered by prospecting permits in a geophysical search for lead-zinc-silver-copper ores. Although a nonpro-

1973 to a level of 450.000 tons. Japanese capital was expected to be instrumental in Latin-American mine plans, as that country's industry was actively seeking

ducer as recently as 1963, Ireland had since become the ieadins; lead-silver producer in Western Europe.

new

larger

supplies of mineral

raw

materials.

In Brazil the largest current mineral development in iron ore. By adopting the liberal mineral ex-

was

porting policies of .\ustralia. Brazil might

become

a

major supplier of iron ore to Western Europe, Japan, and the U.S. A $200 million project at the St. John del Rey mine was expected to produce eight million tons per year for shipment to Japan. U.S. Steel was a partner in a major project in the state of Para, 350 mi. inland. As in Australia, providing land and sea transportation facilities was a large cost element. Southern and central Africa's role as a major mineral

source grew

Congo

in

1970. Political stability in the

resulted in larger copper output in 1970 and

invited commercial interest in exploration, which un-

doubtedly would lead to the development of new Zambia assumed 51% ownership of its copper mines on Jan. 1, 1970. Agreements were reached with

mines.

private companies to expand present operations and search for new deposits. A massive cave-in at the

Mufulira copper mine on September 25 took 89 lives and halted production. Millions of tons of broken rock, old tailings, and water poured into mine openProduction was resumed slowly, and it was expected to be several years before full recovery was made from the disaster. About 150,000 tons of copper production would be lost in 1970-71. ings.

The Republic

of South Africa appeared likely to achieve a record output of gold, reversing the drop that occurred in 1969. Vaal Reefs increased ore pro-

duction to 336,000 tons per month, becoming the

Technological Developments. Improved and equipment accounted for much of the technological advance in mining in 1970. Special attention was given to transportation of ore and waste at the mine and of mine products to processing plants or to consumers. There was increased emphasis on environmental and health and safety research. At underground mines, the trend toward trackless mining and use of load-haul-dump equipment continued. Boring technology steadily improved, and a combined method was proposed of boring a pilot tunnel and enlarging it by conventional drilling and blasting methods. Boring of raises, shafts, and vertical service openings became routine. In South Africa the development of rock cutters to mine the hard and abrasive goldquartz reefs advanced to the design of prototv^pe equipment. The direct cost of breaking rock was high, but substantial indirect savings were expected to be made. In one test the reef mining width was reduced from 41 to 20 in., saving the high cost of waste handling.

The world's largest continuous underground mining system machine was delivered to Sylvite of Canada. The 230-ton machine was 39 ft. long and was designed to deliver broken potash to a belt conveyor. The use

of

pneumatically

placed

concrete

for

ground support had a resurgence. In this process concrete layers thick enough to provide strong support are placed over the rock or over reinforced steel networks. Accelerators are needed for high early strength.

The technique may be

particularly

applicable

to

mechanized rapid excavation systems. continued on page 522

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A

' as an aftermath of war. A nine-point program of national reorganization and development was outlined, including measures to it

eradicate corruption, the preparation of a

new

consti-

tution, the organization of political parties, a census in 1973,

settlement of the question of the

number

of

and the adoption of a nonaligned foreign policy. Nigeria showed signs of rapid economic recovery. Only a relatively small area had been physically devastated, and valuable oil installations were not completely wrecked. Production of oil had returned to one million barrels a day by June, and exports were estimated at four million tons a month. Losses were largely in overseas markets for agriculture, and in foreign exchange, and they to some extent were balanced by the development of local industry and an internal market. It was estimated that, with normal financial prudence, all 12 states should be economically viable by 1971, though the problems of the East Central State, the heart of Iboland and the area most ravaged by war, were far from settled. The rehabilitation commission was dissolved because of corruption; it was replaced by an interim agency controlled states,

UPI

COMPIX

Biafran children wait for food at a distribution centre in Owerri.

by the military governors

of the three eastern states.

(M. Mr.) Encyclopaedia Britannica Films. West Africa (Nigeria) (1963).

Norway Non-Chalcedonian Eastern Churches: see

Religion

North Atlantic Treaty Organization: see Defense

Northern Ireland: see United Kingdom

Norwegian Literature: see Literature

A

constitutional

monarchy of

northern Europe,

Norway

is

bordered by Sweden, Finland,

and the U.S.S.R.; its coastlines are on the North Sea, the Norwegian Sea, and the Arctic Ocean. Area: 125,049 sq.mi. (323,878 sq.km.), excluding the Svalbard Archipelago, 23,957 sq.mi., and

Jan

Mayen

Island, 144 sq.mi. Pop. (1970 est.)

:

3,866,-

and increased

subsidies,

children's

allowances, and

487,-

other social measures. Nationwide wage negotiations,

Language: Norwegian. Religion: Lutheran (96.2%). King, Olav V; prime minister in 1970, Per

hundred thousand workers, resulted unanimous approval by workers' and employers' organizations of a new two-year agreement with pay raises averaging 9.5%. A further rise in prices followed, so that by August the consumer price index stood at 111, against 100 in August 1969.

468. Cap. and largest city: Oslo (pop., 1970

est.,

363).

Borten.

The main poUtico-economic theme throughout

the

year concerned Norway's accession to an extended European Economic Community. The question was

complicated by the fact that the coalition government of Conservatives, Agrarians (Centre Party), Christian People's, and Liberals was not uniformly enthusiastic about membership in the EEC. In particular. Prime Minister Borten, while heading an administration that generally supported full membership, derived his position from leadership of the Centre Party, which from time to time expressed doubts about its wisdom. Until spring,

it

appeared that the situation might

be further complicated by the creation of Nordek, a customs union comprising Norway, Denmark, Fin-

and Sweden and embracing a variety of economic institutions aimed at even closer economic cooperation among the Nordic countries. Government experts from the four countries agreed to the draft treaty on February 4, but on March 24 the Finnish government decided not to sign, and the project was land,

shelved.

The first formal negotiating meeting on Norway's membership application took place on September 22. The Norwegian foreign minister, Svenn Stray, made it

clear that

Norway accepted

the political as well as

economic implications of the Treaty of Rome, but he added that certain aspects of EEC policy raised problems that would have to be solved through negotiations. This appUed particularly to EEC fisheries the

policy.

He

said that

Norway

:

Norwegian agriculture

in the

European context made

reasonable to expect agreement on special transi-

tional arrangements.

Norway's economic position was good throughout payments surplus on current account enjoyed in 1968 and 1969 was not expected to be repeated. Those surpluses, following ten years of deficits, were due largely to special facthe year, although the balance of

tors, in particular to exceptionally large sales of sec-

ond-hand ships and low imports of new tonnage. While exports of goods continued to grow, imports grew even

and a large trade and payments deficit was The deficit would have been larger except for an unexpected boom in shipping that occurred during the summer. A high level of economic activity was maintained during the year, with employment at a record high and unemployment in the best summer months at only 0.5%. Production, and in particular investments, rose to a new peak, resulting in strong pressure on prices and wages. The trend was reinforced by the valueadded tax introduced from January 1; it was estimated that this would raise the consumer price index by 5.8% during the year, although there was compensation in the form of reductions in direct income tax faster,

forecast.

affecting several in

To counter

the threat of inflation, Minister of Fi-

nance Ole MyrvoU Storting

the

in his

(parliament)

1971 budget, presented to

on October

5,

proposed

higher taxes on cigarettes, tobacco, beer, wine and spirits, mineral oils, and cars. Widespread indignation was aroused, and the Confederation of Trade Unions declared a 15-minute work stoppage. A cause of mounting excitement and expectation was the confirmation by the U.S. Phillips Petroleum Co. of an important find of oil in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea. It was announced that trial production would start in mid-1971, followed by fullscale production a few years later. The accession of

Norway

to the ranks of the oil-possessing nations coin-

cided with mounting recognition that Norway's water-

power resources were rapidly diminishing and would to be supplemented by other sources of power

have

before the end of the decade. A number of ministerial changes were announced,

most important being the resignation in May of John Lyng, and his replacement by Svenn Stray. The minister of defense. Otto Grieg Tidemand, took over as minister of trade from Kaare Willoch, and Gunnar Hellesen became minister of defense. All were Conservatives. (0. F. K.) the

the foreign minister,

EncycloP/Edia Britannica Films. Scandinavia Sweden, Denmark

(

— Norway,

1962).

could not accept in ad-

vance a fisheries policy agreed to by the Six, since the problems relating to such a policy would not be the same in an extended EEC an enlarged Community would have an export surplus of fish, rather than a deficit. There was condemnation in Norway of the EEC's apparent wish to determine its fishing policy before the entry of Europe'^ largest fishing nation. There was also concern about agriculture, although government ministers argued that the insignificance of it

553

Norway

NORVV.^Y Education. (1967-68) Primary, pupils 403,928, teachers 19,784; secondary, pupils 209,715, teachers 16,666; vocational, pupils 71,044, teachers 10,640; teacher training, students 7,870, teachers 871; higher (including 3 universities), students 22,2 59, teaching staff 2,446. Finance. Monetary unit: Norwegian krone, with a par value of 7.14 kroner £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, to U.S. $1 (17.14 kroner central bank: (June 1970) U.S. $572.5 million; (June 1969) U.S. $575.5 million. Budget (1971 est.): revenue 20.7 billion kroner; expenditure 23.7 billion kroner. Gross national product: (1969) 69,530,000,000 kroner; (1968) 64,430,000,000 kroner. Money supply: (June 1970) 16,120,000,000 kroner; (June 1969) 14,100): (June 1970) 139; (June 1969) 010,000,000 kroner. Cost of living (1963 127. Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports 21,021,000,000 kroner; exports 15.735,000,000 kroner. Import sources: Sweden 19%; West Germany 15%; U.K. 13%; U.S. 8%; Denmark 7%. Export destinations: U.K. 17%; Sweden 16%; West Germany 15%; Denmark 7%; U.S. 7%. Main exports: ships 15%; aluminum 12%; chemicals 8%; machinery 8%; fish 7%; paper 7%; iron and steel 7%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1969) 7i,i0l km. Motor vehicles in use (1969): passenger 699,683; commercial 141,297. Railways: (state only; 1968) 4,242 km. (including 2.269 km. electrified); traffic (1969) 1,450,000,000 passenger-km., freight 2,710,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (including Norwegian apportionment of international operation of Scandinavian Airlines System; 1969): 1,736.600,000 passenger-km.; freight 72,490,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1969): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 2,848; gross tonnage 19,679,094. Ships entered (1968) vessels totaling 14,402,000 net registered tons; goods loaded (1969) 36,756,000 metric tons, unloaded 17,518,000 metric tons. Telephones (Dec. 1968) 1.036,027. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) 1,152,000. Television receivers

=

=

(Dec. 1968) 739,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969; 1968 in parentheses): barley 506 (621 ); oats c. 130 (176); potatoes 765 (912); apples (1968) 65, (1967) 49; milk (deliveries) 1,596 (1,620); butter 19 (22); cheese (1968) c. 46, (1967) 50; beef and veal (1968) 53, (1967) 53; pork (1968) 61, (1967) 58; timber (cu.m.; 1967-68) 6,700. (1966-67) 7,500; fish catch (1968) 2,804, (1967) 3,269. Livestock (in 000; June 1969): cattle c. 1,050; sheep c. 1,920; pigs c. 630: goats (June 1968) 98; chickens c. 4,700. Industry. Fuel and power (in 000; 1969): coal (Svalbard mines) 391 metric tons; manufactured gas 30,700 cu.m.; electricity 57,196,000 kw-hr. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969): iron ore (65% metal content) 3,696; pig iron 1,434; crude steel 824; zinc 59; copper 22; aluminum 511; cement 2,480; sulfur (1968) 309; nitrogenous fertilizers (N content; 1968-69) 374; mechanical wood pulp (1968) 1.127; chemical wood pulp (1968) 854; newsprint 511; other paper (1968) 764. Merchant vessels launched (100 gross tons and over; 1969) 596,000 gross tons. Dwelling units completed (1969) 33,000.

broiled with citizens' groups and also faced pressures from state and federal agencies authorized to regu-

The dynamic by

power industry, complex field, contrasts and apparent

international nuclear

most important sector of

far the

presented a picture of startling

this

contradictions in 1970. In the U.S., companies in the of manufacturing

business

equipnr.jnt

nuclear-

for

and supplying

electric generating stations

their fuel

had what seemed to be an extremely encouraging year and bright prospects for the future. However, this apparent prosperity masked the fact that the industry as a whole was beset with acute problems, none of

obliged to live with. Thus, several companies with about a dozen big plants under construction on Lake Michigan were confronted with the possibility that federal standards,

still to be set, might require them extensive modifications, at costs that could easily total more than $100 million.

to

make

Ultimately,

was

would be to power plant long before construction begins, by state or it

clear, the solution

oblige utilities to obtain approval of sites,

all

and many of them discouragingly

regional authorities following clear guidelines. Legislation to that end was introduced in Congress, but

In other countries, the situation generally was even

meanwhile the status of plants representing millions of kilowatts of sorely needed generating capacity remained uncertain, at best.

them

easily solved

intractable.

less encouraging.

Fragmented and almost

frantically

competitive, the national nuclear industrial complexes in

water discharges. Most of these bodies had only recently been created, and as often as not utilities could not learn what limitations they would be late heated

Nuclear Energy

most industrialized countries faced the

fact that

had been

the rapidly expanding markets that they

created to serve had failed once again to materialize.

Nuclear-Electric Power. U.S.

utilities

ordered 16

nuclear power units with a combined capacity of

more

than 16 million kw., an output considerably greater than

all

of the generating capacity already installed

New

in the six

England

Added

states.

to the nuclear

plants already operating, under construction, and on order, the

new

orders brought the nation's nuclear

generating potential

to

85

million-90 million kw.,

An

equally serious problem, one with implications

for the nuclear energy industry as a whole, concerned

the limits,

power

if

any, that should be imposed on nuclear

plants'

The AEC,

discharges of low-level radioactivity.

following the guidance of national and in-

ternational expert committees, had long enforced reg-

and

ulations requiring that the release of these liquid

gaseous effluents not result in the exposure of large population groups to radiation exceeding an average of 0.1 7 millirem per year. While no commercial power reactor had ever violated this standard or even closely approached it, and although a large majority of health

somewhat more than half of what was available to utilities from all sources, including fossil- fueled and

physics experts considered

hydroelectric, as recently as 1960.

minority

100 in 30 represented a capital investment of approxistates mately $16 billion, and for suppliers of nuclear fuel they offered an assured market worth about $60

studies of existing data, they concluded that incidence

Together, these nuclear plants

—

—about

billion-$70 billion over the next 25-30 years. over, the utilities'

with

their

new commitments, taken

announcements of

future

More-

together

construction

plans, almost guaranteed that in 1980 operable nuclear

generating capacity would at least equal the long-

standing U.S. Atomic Energy Commission forecast of 150 million kw. fifth of the

—something

probable national

total.

(AEC)

more than a

Despite

this sizable

investment, however, the industry as a whole found

under heavy internal and external pressures. Heading the list of its problems was the determined opposition that a growing number of nuclear power projects encountered from local and national groups concerned that the plants would endanger public health and the quality of the environment. The elaborate preconstruction and preoperating licensing procedures imposed by the AEC gave opponents of indiitself

vidual projects wide latitude for intervention.

Opposition seldom stemmed from fears that a power reactor would explode like a bomb. The many hundreds of safe operating years logged by reactors of many types and sizes had almost eliminated the potentially

though sensationalistic books

catastrophic accident as an issue,

was occasionally revived in and articles. Instead, when criticism arose, it was usually based on one or both of two concerns: that the plant's small, normal discharges of radioactive effluents would be a health hazard or that discharges of heated water from its steam condensers would degrade the ecology of an adjoining body of water. Because of these environmental concerns, many utilities planning to build nuclear units and a few with plants already completed found themselves emit

—

—

emphatically

of leukemia

edly

if

it

conservative, a vocal

disagreed.

On

the

and other malignancies would

the entire population received the

basis

rise

of

mark-

"maximum

permissible exposure," and that genetic damage also

would be considerable. These conclusions influenced several states to adopt regulations more restrictive than the AEC's, though their legal authority to do so was far from clear. They also had much to do with the introduction in several state legislatures of bills calling for moratoriums on new nuclear power projects. One of the bright spots for power reactor operators during the year was the fact that the units already in operation generally proved to be reliable electricity producers, often more dependable than coal-fired units of comparable size. On the whole, however, the potential advantages of nuclear power were heavily clouded by the disadvantages, and many of the year's orders were attributed to the fact that building coal, gas, or oil-fueled plants involved even more serious problems. In Western Europe, generally, the scarcity of nupower orders posed an all too familiar problem

clear

for most equipment and fuel suppliers. With few exceptions, the companies concerned had gone into

the nuclear power business, often with direct government encouragement, primarily to serve their own national markets. However, since

it

was

clear

that

those markets would be uncomfortably narrow at best, they had counted on being able to widen them

through exports. Because they could expect to sell few plants in other industrialized countries, they were obliged to look for export customers elsewhere, and such potential buyers were few. Public concern about nuclear power plants as

sources of radiation hazard and thermal pollution was seldom acute outside the U.S. However, there were

^

some

signs that this

would become an important

555

is-

In West Germany, suspension of a chemical company's plan to build a large nuclear station to serve sue.

Nuclear Energy

a major chemical complex at Ludwigshafen was ordered by the government, pending research to confirm that

it

could be safely operated in that densely popuIn Britain, a proposal by the national

lated area.

electricity board to put a nuclear station in a heavUy populated area (Stourport) was rejected by regulatory authorities. Several countries, West Germany and

Switzerland in particular, showed increasing sensi-

thermal pollution.

tivity to the threat of

COURTESY, NATIONAL

In the Soviet Union a significant change in nuclear

An engineer at Brool-3iologist and biochemist (h. Freiburg im Breisgau, Ger., Oct. 8, 1883 d. West Berlin. Ger., Aug. 1, 1970), winner of the 1931 Nobel Prize for Phys-

—

iology or Medicine, was a leading cancer researcher. .After gaining doctorates in chemistrj- at Berlin (1906) and in medicine at Heidelberg (1911), he became a prominent figure in the institutes of Berlin-Dahlem. He first became known for his work on the metabolism of various t\-pes of ova at the Marine Biological Station in Naples. His Nobel Prize in 1931 was in recognition of his research into respirators- enzj-mes. In 1944 he was offered a second Nobel Prize, but being Jewish was prevented from accepting the award by the

Hitler regime, which nonetheless dared not imprison him because of his international prestige. From 1951 he was head of the Max Planck Institute for Cell Physiolog>- in (West) Berlin.

WATERHOUSE, WALTER LAWRY,

(b.

R.I.,

proxy battle for control of the company. He successfully defended the .America's Cup, highest achievement in international yachting competition, with the "Enterprise" in 1930, the "Rainbow" in 1934, and the "Ranger'' in 193 7. In the 19205 VanderbDt helped to establish the game of contract bridge, and in 1928 donated the Harold S. VanderbUt Cup as a trophy for an annual contract bridge tournament, which his team won in 1 932.

VINOGRADOV, SERGEI A^ Soviet diplomat (b. 19C5—d. Moscow, U.S.S.R., Aug. 27, 1970), was appointed to the critical fMjst of Soviet ambassador to Cairo in .August 1967, shortly after the

Six-Day War. Vinogradov joined the Turkey in 1940, and was soon appointed ambassador to .Ankara. He was present at talks between Churchill and

.Arab-Israeli

Soviet Foreign Serv-ice in

Australian

agricultural scientist (b. Maitland, .Austr., .Aug. d. .Australia, Jan. 12, 1970). made 31, 1SS7 plant breeding discoveries that revolutionized wheat growing in .Australia. His research, aimed at producing a disease-resistant wheat strain of gooid quality and high yield, resulted in the Gabo wheat, which was not only successful in .Australia but influenced breeding programs in many parts of the world.

—

WEISS, PIERRE,

general (ret.), French

—

.Air

Force

(b. Nancy. France, Oct. 17, 1SS9 d. .Antibes, France, .Aug. S, 1970). played a significant part in the development of aviation in French Africa. He entered the air corps in 1915, and after the war made a series of pioneering flights, including one from France to India in 1930 and another, from France to Ethiopia, in 1931. .As a colonel in the French .Air Force in North .Africa, he made aerial surveys of the Sahara. Recalled to France, he was promoted general in 193S. In 1940 he ser\-ed in .Algeria again, before taking command of the .Air Force in Tunisia. In 1944 he was mili-

govemor of .Algiers, and his action in calling for the death penally for the former Vichy mintar>-

Pucheu resulted in the Vichy government depriving him of his French citizenship and

ister Pierre

confiscating his property.

WILDE, JOHANNES,

British art historian (b. d. Dulivich, Eng., 2. 1S91 Sept, 13, 19 70). was professor oi the hiitor>- of art at the Courtauld Institute. London University, from 1950 to 1961 and afterward emeritus professor. He began his career in Budapest's Museum of Fine .ArU, and in 1923 joined the staff of the

Budapest. Hung., June

VANDERBILT, HAROLD STIRLING, 6,

Roosevelt in Cairo in 1943 and in the following September represented the Soviet L'nion in the peace negotiations with Romania. He remained in Ankara until 1948, when he returned to Moscow to become chief of the Foreign Ministr>-'s department of UN afiairs. He attended the Geneva conferences in 1955 and 1959 and the four-power conference in Paris in 1960. From 1953 until 1965 he was highly successful as ambassador to France, his efforts resulting in the Franco-Soviet friendship treaty of 1966.

—

Museum,

Vienna, where he specialized in Italian art. .At this time he set up for e.xamining apparatus efficient X-ray the first works of art, publishing his results in a series of notable articles. .After the Nazi occupation oi .Austria in 1938 he went to England. In 1949 he pubUsbed a catalog of the Windsor Italian Renaissance drawings, and his catalog of the British Museum's Michelangelo drawings appeared in 1953. Kunsthistorisches

WOODS, HARRY MacGREGOR, U.S. composer d. Phoenix, (b. North Chelmsford, Mass., 1896 .Ariz., Jan. 13, 1970), wrote more than 350 popular son^ during the 1920s and 1930s. .Among the best remembered were "When the Moon Comes over the Mountain." "I'm Looking over a FourLeaf Clover," "Side by Side." "River, Stay 'Way from My Door," "Paddlin' Madelin' Home," and "When the Red Red Robin Comes Bob-Bob-

—

Bobbin' Along."

569

Obituaries 1970

WRIGHT, MARY CLABAUGH (Mrs. .Abthue Weight), U.S. educator and

F. historian (b. TusGuilford, Conn,, historian and a full professor at

— Chinese

caloosa, Ala., Sept. 25, 1917

d.

18, 1970), a leading first woman to become Y'ale University. Marj- Wright and her husband Lt were in Japan at the outbreak of World

June the

War

and spent the war years

a prison camp. Returning to the U.S. in 1947, she became a member of Stanford University-. faculty at In 1959 the the in

Wrights went to Y'ale and in 1964 Mary Wright was named professor of historj-.

WRIGHT, QUINCY,

U.S. authority on the law Medford, Mass., Dec. 8, 1890 d. CharlottesVa., Oct. 17, 1970), emeritus professor of international law at the University of Chicago and the University of Virginia, taught at Harsard L"niversity and at the L'niversity of Minneapolis

—

(b.

ville,

before joining the faculty of the University of (Thicago in 1923. In 1956 he was chosen Carnegie %-isiting research scholar of the Carnegie Endowment for Intemational Peace, and from 1958 until 1961 he was professor of international law at the L'niversit>' of Virginia.

YABLONSKI, JOSEPH ALBERT,

U.S. labour (b. Pittsburgh, Pa., March 3, 1910 d. ClarksviUe, Pa., Jan. 5[?], 1970). was slain in his home, along with his wife and daughter, less than a month after losing a bitter campaign for

—

leader

the presidency- of the United Mine Workers of .America. Y'ablonski, who began working in the

mines at age 15, became a union organizer and

was elected president of his local in 1934. Next elected to the executive board of District 5, he represented the workers in Washington, D.C., until 1942 when he was voted to the international executive board, holding that post through seven elections. He won the presidency of District 5 in 1958, but in 1966 was defeated for reelection by W. .A. (Tony) Boyle, the same man whom he attempted to oust from the national presidency in

December 1969.

YEOMAN,

BERYL

(".Anton-"),

—

British

BOTTERILL cartoonist

(b.

ANTONIA .Australia,

London, Eng., June 29, 1970), whose cartoons showed beminked matrons and large plushy gentlemen, drew regularly for Punch, the .\'ew Yorker, Private Eye, and in earlier days for

1914[?]

d.

LiUiput.

YEREMENKO, ANDREI,

marshal of the Soviet d. Moscow, L'nion (b. Markovka, L'kraine, 1892 U.S.S.R.. Nov. 19, 1970), commanded the Soviet forces at the battle of Stalingrad in 1942. Yeremenko joined the Imperial Russian .Army in 1913 and ser\ed in the cavalr>- in World War I, joining the Communist Party in 1918 and the Red .Army in 1919. In 1940 be took over the 3rd Mechanized Corps. .After a short period in the Soviet Far East he returned to the European theatre, where he commanded the Western front but failed to check Gen. Heinz Guderian's thmst into the Ukraine. .After recovering from a severe wound, in .August 1942 he took over the southeastern front in the initial stages of the battle for Stalingrad, where he played a vital role in the defensive battle and the subsequent counterattack. He later participated in the capture of Riga. He was appointed marshal in 1955 and general inspector in the Ministry- of Defense in 195S.

—

ZENKEVICH, LEV ALEKSANDROVICH,

—

Soviet

oceanographer (b. Russia. June 1SS9 d. Moscow, U.S.S.R., June 20, 1970). was a notable marine biologist. In the 1920s he helped set up the State Oceanographic Institute and headed a

number of Soviet scientific expeditions, particularly in the Pacific. He was the author of many studies of marine life and was awarded a Lenin Prize in 1965.

ZIMMERMANN, BERND

ALOIS, German com-

poser and musicologist (b. Bliesheim, Ger,, 1918 d. Gross Kbnigsdorf, Cologne, W.Ger., .August 1970), taught at Cologne's School of Music from 1953. .An avant-garde composer, he produced works that included violin and cello concertos, a symphony, and the ballet Contrasts. His opera Die Soldalen, based on an 1 8th-centur>- play by J. M. R. Lenz. was first performed in 1965 and was hailed by some critics as the most significant addition to the operatic repertoire since Alban Berg's Wozzeck.

—

Measurements of currents and water characterison the same expedition led to another calculation

570

tics

of the water transport of the Antarctic Circumpolar

Oceanography

Current. In January 1969 measurements indicated a

were reported through 1970 of the

Significant results

work aboard the deep-sea drilling Challenger." The findings indicated

vessel

"Glomar

that the ocean

basins are relatively young, perhaps one-tenth to onetwentieth the 3,500,000,000-year agr of some of the

The concept

continental rocks.

of sea-floor spreading

of America, Europe, and Africa drifted apart almost certainly were proved: molten rock appears to come up in midocean

and

the

theory

the

that

continents

from deep in the earth to form a new oceanic crust, and the continents are moved apart as this new crust spreads outward.

The

beneath the ocean

is

half-spreading rate for the crust

about

1.2

cm. per year in the

North Atlantic, 2 cm/year in the South Atlantic, and about 12 cm/year for the equatorial Pacific. The North Atlantic began to form about 200 million years ago, and the South Atlantic about ISO million; thus Europe, Africa, and America had been joined before that time. The North Pacific is an area of very old oceanic sediments and must be a remnant of a basin that existed before the Atlantic had formed. However, some of the western Pacific basins may be much younger.

The

large

flow through the

Drake Passage of about 270 million work in January

tons per second, but the "Eltanin's"

1970 indicated a flow of about 320 million tons per second south of Australia. Later, in Antarctic winter, the "Eltanin" worked to 60° S latitude south of New Zealand, surveying the Macquarie-Balleny Ridge area for water characteristics, depth, gravity, and seismic studies.

Recent investigations

new concept

density enough to cause

of the deep Gulf of

some

Mexico

is

of which has squeezed up as

gas, the first demonform and accumulate in deep-sea conditions. The Mediterranean had deep passages to the Atlantic and Indian oceans IS million years ago, but when it was closed off for a time by the shifting positions of Africa and Europe it evaporated to strong salt brines and completely sterile muds in salt

domes;

it

contains

oil

and

stration that hydrocarbons can

LAMONT.DOHERTY CCLftTESr, GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATORY OF COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

Nodules, containing

manganese, cobalt, and other metals, that litter the ocean floors were the subject of a meeting in Malta of

260

scientists,

June 28-July 3, 1970. The methods and authority under which nodules should

be

harvested

were discussed.

which organisms could not live. One of the most remarkable technological developments of the year was the successful reentry into holes already drilled. Since the drill bits dulled as they penetrated hard rock and the pipe had to be withdrawn from the hole to change bits, before a method of reentry was devised the depth of penetration was Hmited to what one set of bits could do. A hole that was to be reentered was prepared with an inverted 16-ft. cone to guide the drill. The drill string was lowered to a location near the cone, its position was determined

by acoustical sensors, and it was placed exactly into the cone by surface maneuvering of the vessel and water-jet adjustments of the end of the drill pipe. Successful reentry was first made in 10,000 ft. of water in June 1970. The U.S. National Science Foundation continued to operate the research vessel "Eltanin" in the Antarctic Ocean. In January and February 1970 (Antarctic sum-

mer), work was done in the area between Australia and Antarctica. Three instruments were deployed on the ocean bottom at 40°, 50°, and 60° S latitude, at depths ranging from 3,500 to 5,500 m., to measure tides and sea-floor tidal currents in the open ocean. Such open-ocean measurements are of great value in the general study of the propagation of tides. Coastal Occupational Medicine: see Medicine

it

reits

bottom. A occur at the

to sink to the

The ocean floor Wilson Tractor Bell, being developed by Wilson Marine Systems, Inc., of Houston, Tex., is powered by a welded steel chain drive that can move the vehicle at a speed of one-half knot at depths up to 600 ft.

which showed that the deep ocean

Much

had been

newer concept was that this freezing may bottom of the glaciers that extend from Antarctica out into the ocean as ice shelves. The temperature at the tops of these shelves is about —20° C, and freezing

waters of the past contained dissolved oxygen, as do salt,

it

thought that the freezing of salt water into sea ice leased brine into the underlying water, increasing

lenger" allowed detailed studies of the evolution of

underlain by

led to a

the deeper

fills

major oceans. Previously

amounts of sedimentary material recov"Glomar Chal-

those of today.

Weddell Sea

cold water of moderate salinity that

parts of the

ered from the holes drilled by the the microfossils,

in the

for the formation of at least part of the

and island measurements of surface tidal rise and fall show the effects of local conditions and do not correctly represent the oceanic propagation. AUTHENICATED NEWS INTERNATIONAL

occur at the shelf water interface throughout the year instead of seasonally, as in the case of surface sea

may ice.

U.S. Pres. Richard eral agencies

M. Nixon

reorganized the fed-

studying the ocean and atmosphere into

single administration, under the Department of Commerce. The various groups making up the new the Environmental Science administration were Ser\'ices Administration (from Commerce), elements of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, the marine sport fish program of the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, and the Marine Minerals Technology Center of the Bureau of Mines (all from Interior), the Office of Sea Grant Programs (from the National Science Foundation), elements of the Army's U.S. Lakes Survey, and the Nav\''s National Oceanographic Data Center and National Oceanographic Instrumena

tation Center.

In September 1970 a Joint Oceanographic Assembly was held in Tokyo, under the sponsorship of a number of international organizations. Of the

many

topics

most important concerned the degree of ocean pollution and its possible consequences on marine life and climate. A great deal of information was available on the presence and effect of pollutants in lakes, ponds, streams, bays, and estuaries, but little information had been gathered about the open ocean. Previously it had discussed, one of the

been believed that the ultimate concentrations of pollutants in the ocean might be negligibly small, but the possibility existed that the

more

persistent sub-

might endure long enough to become concentrated and accumulated in the food chain. Specific evidence of such an effect was found in the livers of many marine fish, particularly in coastal areas near sewage outfalls. In 1970 the National Marine Fisheries Service (formerly the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries) began a systematic collection of planktonic organisms between the west coast of the U.S. and Hawaii for the purpose of assessing the concentrations of artistances, such as pesticides,

ficially

stances

introduced substances. Since the polluting sub-

may undergo

various cliemical and biological

cycling as well as mixing in the sea, to estimate in

advance what

it

was not possible

substance might have. Some direct measurements would be required before extensive research programs could be effects a given

properly planned.

Another accidental spillage of oil into the ocean from an offshore oil rig occurred, this time on the continental shelf of the Gulf of Mexico. The company was accused of drilling without the safety valves required by law and was fined $1 million. The spillage was estimated to be as high as 20,000 bbl. Later three other companies were fined $S00,000 for similar violations. Local effects of large oil spills were found to be

some

mi.

E

of Jacksonville, Fla., flooded, and sunk in water

of about 5,000-m. depth.

The monitoring

vessel re-

ported that the impact on the sea floor was not violent and did not result in any detonation. Monitoring plans included photographing the hulk and collecting water

samples from

its

vicinity at regular intervals.

result of the strong objections to this

posal, however, the

Army

As

a

method of disit would not

agreed that

through

dispose of any further chemical warfare agents in this

normal operations of tankers constituted a larger volume spread through broad areas of the ocean. Their effects were less certain and more difficult to assess, but might be more severe in the long run. Considerable controversy arose over the U.S. Army's decision to dispose of various stocks of nerve gas weapons, which could not be deactivated safely, by placing them at the bottom of the ocean. The weapons consisted of 12,540 rockets, containing in all 66 tons of GB nerve gas, 121 tons of propellant, and 17 tons of explosive. They were loaded aboard a decommissioned Liberty ship, the SS "LeBaron Russell Briggs," which was towed to a point about 300

way. In October President Nixon sent to Congress a report by the Environmental Quality Council detailing the damage caused by ocean dumping and suggesting

severe in

cases, but the ordinary losses

preserve the seas. Nixon called for a ban on disposal of toxic materials in ocean waters and for strict control of dumping trash and

strict rules to

total

waste at sea. Existing policy prohibited ocean dumping of wastes with a high level of radioactivity. The council

recommended

cessation of

dumping

of

most

other radioactive materials and of industrial wastes

and undigested sewage sludge. For some years aircraft had been used

to carry in-

Streams of water are poured onto a Chevron Oil Co. offshore oil platform burning in the mouth of the Mississippi River

March 1, 1970. Elaborate precautions were taken to minimize damage from escaping oil after the blaze

was extinguished.

struments that could estimate the sea-surface temperature from measurements of the back radiation. The instruments had been considerably improved and

adapted for use

in satellites,

and some success was

Pakistan

reported in -estimating ocean temperatures over vast areas. Similar instruments, designed to measure sea-

A

surface concentrations of the most abundant photo-

Nations, Pakistan

synthetic pigment, chlorophyll A, had not yet been adapted for satellite use, but aire aft instruments had been able to distinguish between concentrations of 0.1 and 0.2 mg. per cu.mi. from heights of up to 10,000 ft. (J. L. Re.)

into

See also Antarctica; Biological Sciences; Geography; Geology; Law; Meteorology; Seismology.

oj

—

EncycloP/Edia Britannica Films. Ocean Tides (The Bay Fiindy) ( 1956); The Marine Biologist (1963); Plankton Pastures oj the Ocean (1965); Waves on Water (1965);

How

Level Is Sea Level? (1970).

federal republic

ber of the

and mem-

Commonwealth is

of

divided

two parts, separated by

West main part of India.

Pakistan,

the

the country,

is

bordered on the south by the Arabian Sea and on the west by Afghanistan and Iran; East Pakistan lies on the Bay of Bengal. Total area: 366,041 sq. mi.

(948,042 sq.km.), excluding the Pakistani-con-

trolled section of

Kashmir. Pop. (1970

188,612. Cap.: Islamabad (pop., 1967

114,-

226,000).

Largest city: Karachi (pop., 1970 est., 2,340,042). Language: Urdu, Bengali, English. ReUgion (1961):

Muslim 88.1%; Hindu 10.7%;

Christian and Bud-

dhist minorities. President in 1970, Gen.

Agha Mu-

hammad Yahya Khan.

Oman An

est.):

est.,

One

independent sultanate,

Oman

occupies the south-

eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula and

is

bounded

by the Trucial States, Saudi Arabia, the Gulf of Oman, and the Arabian Sea. A small part of the country lies to the north of the rest of Oman and is separated from it by the Trucial States. Area: 82,000 sq.mi. (212,000 sq.km.). Pop. (1970 est.): 750,000. Cap.: Muscat (pop., 1969, 9,973). Largest city: Matrah (pop., 1960, 14,119). Language: Arabic. Religion: Muslim. Sultans in 1970, Sa'id bin Taimur and, from July 23, Qabus bin Sa'id.

of the worst natural disasters in history struck

coastal areas of East Pakistan on

A

Nov. 12-13, 1970.

cyclone and tidal waves ravaged a 3,000-sq.mi. re-

gion in the Ganges River delta, leaving about 200,000

dead and 100,000 missing. Governments and other organizations contributed approximately $50 million for the relief of the survivors. (See Disasters.)

President

Yahya Khan,

clared policy of returning

in

working out

power

to

his

de-

the people, in

be embarrassed by the highly unlife. In East Pakistan the widespread discontent with what was claimed to be the "colonial" status imposed upon the region by the western area caused constant anxiety to the national authorities. The president's primary objectives were to secure the maximum measure of

1970 continued

to

stable condition of Pakistan's political

During 1970 the situation of Muscat and Oman was by a coup which replaced Sultan Sa'id bin Taimur by his son Qabus bin Sa'id. Sa'id bin Taimur had kept his country in a state of medieval backwardness, insulated from Western influences despite its growing oil revenues; his son undertook to introduce "modern and forceful" government and hasten development in all fields. On July 23 the coup, carried out by the palace

agreement on certain broad governing principles and

guard, took place at Salalah; the slightly injured for-

Pakistan would also be given the

radically transformed

mer

sultan was then flown to Britain.

Amid

scenes of

new sultan announced ban on smoking, singing, and the wearing of Western dress and permitted the entry of foreign journalists. On August 9 his uncle, Tariq bin Taimur, who had returned from exile, was asked to form a new government. The new sultan announced that in the future the country would be known as the Sultanate of Oman and would apply to join the UN and the Arab League. The sultan released more

great popular enthusiasm, the the removal of his father's

than 100 prisoners, but the revolutionary opposition was divided in its attitude toward him. Some elements declared their loyalty to the

new

sovereign, but others

described him as being merely an imperialist puppet. (P.

Md.)

OMAN Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Saudi riyal, at par with the pound sterling (1 riyal = U.S. $2.40). Budget (oil revenue; 1969 est.) revenue c. £30 million. Foreign trade (1968): imports (excluding government and oil company imports of c. 3 million riyals) 4,044,761 riyals (mainly from India and U.K.); exports (f-\chidins^ oil c. 800,000 rival;. Main exports ((•.\rlu(!;rij nil: l')(,|-(j2); date^ 48','; fruit and vegetalil' ri^h :ind products OTt J4'; Industry. Crude oil production (1969) 16,317,000 metric tons. )

;

;

:

country together by convincing East Pakiwould henceforth exercise in federal matters the influence to which its predominance in population and its political expertise entitled it; East to hold the

stan that

it

of control over

its

own

maximum amount

affairs.

According to these principles, the country was to be an Islamic republic in fact as well as name. The future constitution was to be based upon a "one man, one vote" electorate. West Pakistan was to be broken into its original components of Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Baluchistan, Sind, and the tribal (thereby removing East Pakistan's complaint that it had been victimized by an artificial parity of

areas

East and West in federal affairs). Maximum autonomy, limited only by the needs of the national government, was to be exercised by every province in administrative, economic, and social affairs (thereby conciliating moderate political opinion on both wings).

At the same time, the president announced a plan of action: in March a "legal framework" to enable reforms to take place; in June the completion of the electoral rules; on July 1, the breakup of the West wing; elections for the federal and provincial assemblies in October; and a period of 120 days for the completion of the constitution, failing which a new Federal Assembly would be elected to do the job. The steps taken to remove corruption and other abuses from the administration, to allay industrial unrest, to reform the educational system, and to remedy the economic grievances of particular sections of the

population

won growing

confidence.

No

fewer than

303 officials were suspended in December 1969 and brought before six high-level tribunals set up for territorial regions. An Industrial Relations Ordinance of

Nov.

1969, gave recognition and negotiating auTo bring the administration

3,

thority to trade unions.

the people, decentralization of powers to

to

closer

was begun. Far-reaching educational reforms were planned; autonomy was restored to the universities; the grievances of students were examined; and universal primary education was brought nearer by setting up a National Literacy Corps to local levels

work

in the villages.

the promised "legal framework" was announced; it laid down the composition of the national and of the five provincial assemblies; rules for the conduct of elections; the independence of the judiciary; popular participation in every branch of national activity; and the gradual removal of economic disparities between different areas. The importance which the central government attached to removing the grievances of East Pakistan was consistently exhibited throughout the year. The president and his ministers toured the East wing frequently, explaining their policies, dealing with complaints, and setting out plans for the future. In addi-

In

March

P.AKIST.'^N Education. (1966-67) Primary, pupils 7,298,321, teachers 178.948; secondary, pupils 2,716,113, teachers vocational, pupils 22,675, teachers 1,594; teacher training, students 12,701, teachers 1.113; higher (including 13 universities), students 291,954, teaching staff 1 1,882. Finance. Monetary unit: Pakistan rupee, with a par £1 value of PakRs. 4.76 to U.S. $1 (PakRs. 11.43 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1970) U.S. $291 million; (June 1969) U.S. $316 million. Budget (1969-70 est.): revenue PakRs. 7,533,700,000; expenditure PakRs. 6,120,300,000. Xational income: (1968-69) PakRs. 63.1 billion; (1967-68) PakRs. 57.4 billion. Money supply:

98.345;

=

PakRs. 12,597,000,000; (June 1969) 11.524.000,000. Cost of living (Karachi; 1963 100): (June 1970) 137; (June 1969) 130. Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports PakRs. 4,798,000,000; exports PakRs. 3,220,000,000. Import sources 1970)

(June

PakRs.

=

U.S. 29%; Japan 12%; U.K. 11%; destinations: U.K. 12%; Hong Kong 6%; Singapore S%; Japan 10%; S%. Main exports: jute manufactures 22%; jute 22%; cotton 8%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1969)

(1968-69):

Drowning victim lies a stream In East

in

Pakistan after the cyclonic storms and floods which devastated the area in November 1970.

tion to ensuring the due representation of East Paki-

stan in the federal administration, three cadet colleges,

an ordnance factory, and improved communications with the West were sanctioned. The oil refinery, to be established with the help of Iran, was to be in East Pakistan. Flood control was given top priority, not only in its claim on the country's resources but also in its call on foreign aid; and when disastrous floods swept the area in August, the entire machinery of government, personally directed by the president, came to the rescue. Because of the dislocation caused by these floods the national elections were postponed

from October

5

to

December

7.

Despite the cyclone disaster the elections took place on schedule. The Awami League, an East Pakistan-

based party that had campaigned on a platform of

full

was the big winner, attaining 151 of the 300 National Assembly seats. The other major triumph was registered by the leftist People's Party, based in West Pakistan, which won (L. F. R. W.) 81 seats. regional

autonomy

for the East,

West Germany 9%. ExporL U.S.

200,000 km. ("including 46,289 km. with improved surface). Motor vehicles in use (1969;: passenger 88,977; commercial 31,384. Railways: (1966-67) 11,339 km.; traffic (1968-69) 10,221,000,000 passenger-km., freight 7,636,000.000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1969): 1,633,700,000 passcnger-km.; freight 71,206,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1969): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 172; gross tonnage 530,404, Telephones (Dec. 1968) 176,807. Radio receivers (Dec. 1967) 1,150,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1968) 32.000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969; 1968 in parentheses): rice c. 21,267 (20,065); wheat 6,71 1 (6,477); barley US (121); corn 654 (629); millet 302 (330); sorghum 283 (262); chickpeas (1968) 528, (1967) 578; rapeseed and mustard seed 353 (396); onions (1968) 41 1, (1967) 397; sugar, raw value (1969-70) c. 736, (1968-69) 506; gur (indigenous raw sugar; 1967-68) 1,881, (196667) 1,911; tobacco 166 (170); bananas (1968) 818, (1967) 792; dates (1968) c. 150, (1967) 145; tea (1968) c. 28, (1967) 30; jute 1.265 (1.036); cotton, lint 539 (529); fish catch (1968) 424, (1967) 417. Livestock fin 000; 1968-69); cattle c. 36,200; sheep c.

11,100; goats c. 11,600; buffaloes c. 8,800; horses 497; asses 92 5; camels c. 601. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969): cement 2,698; crude oil 478; coal and lignite (1968) c. 1,273; natural gas (cu.m.; 1968) c. 2,230,000; electricity (excluding most industrial production; kwbr.; 1967) 4,991,000; chrome ore (oxide content; 1968) 13; jute manufactures (1967) 490; cotton yarn 286; woven cotton fabrics (m.) 734,000.

Panama A

republic of Central America, bisected by the Pan-

ama Canal Zone, Panama

is bounded by the Caribbean Sea, Colombia, the Pacific Ocean, and Costa Rica. Area: 29,208 sq.mi. (75,650 sq.km.). Pop. (1970): 1,425,343. Cap. and largest city: Panama (pop., 1970, 418,013). Language: Spanish. Religion:

Roman

Catholic

civilian-military

93%. Provisional president government

in

of the

1970, Demetrio La-

kas Bahas.

During the

Omar

first

week of November 1969, Gen. commander of the Panama, eased his tight grip on

Torrijos (see Biography),

National Guard of the country to permit greater freedom of speech, assembly, and travel, and to restore the right of habeas

Orthodox Churches:

corpus and the inviolability of private homes. At about

Orthopedics:

the

same

see

see

time, however, the minister of the presi-

dency, Juan M. Vasquez, announced harsh new decrees. One of these defined the various kinds of activity that constituted

subversion and provided specified

prison terms for them. Another increased the punish-

ment for the publication of material ment construed to be libelous.

that the govern-

Despite his efforts to establish a stable, if somewhat ruthless, government, Torrijos had to confront a

Religion

Medicine

Osteopathic Medicjne: sen Medicine Painting: Exhibitions; Art Sales; Museums and Galleries

see Art

Paints and Varnishes: see Industrial

Review

Palestine: see

Israel;

Jordan

574

Paraguay

power play designed

remove him. Taking advantage Ramiro of the National Guard, and Lieut.

to

of his absence on a holiday in Mexico, Col. Silvera,

Col.

deputy chief

Amado

Sanjur, chief of

coup on Dec. for the revolt

staff,

staged a bloodless

Various reasons were assigned the fear that Torrijos intended to build

IS, 1969. :

a power base like that of former president Juan Peron in Argentina, enmities arising from his drive against corruption, his appointment of leftists to office, appre-

hensions that he would back compulsory unionism, and the irritations and frustrations among personnel of the National Guard.

Informed of the proceedings

in

Panama, Torrijos

returned to the capital where he received a wild reception of approval. Meantime, pro-Torrijos officers

their cargoes, in record

Canal. Neither

amounts, through the Panama

Panama nor

the U.S. indicated

much

resuming conversations concerning the stalled treaties on building a new waterway and alter-

interest

in

ing the administrative organization. In

and

in the

Washington

Canal Zone attention was focused on a plan

double the capacity of the present canal at a cost On the other hand, the Panamanian government formally rejected in September the draft treaties with the U.S. as a basis of a final accord on administration of the Canal Zone. Furthermore, it reached an agreement with a consortium of to

of perhaps $100 million.

British,

West German, and

Italian interests to build an

pipeline across the isthmus.

oil

(A. R.

W.)

aroused the Guard, and two of them, heavily armed, entered the quarters of the rebellious leaders and arrested them. Thus, the coup of Silvera and Sanjur

Paraguay

matter of hours and with scarcely a and Sanjur escaped from jail, finding asylum in the Canal Zone. The figurehead leaders of the governing junta, Jose M. Pinilla and Bolivar Urrutia, had thrown in their lot with the rebelling colonels and for their misjudgment were removed and also jailed by Torrijos. In their place two civilians were sworn into office on December 19: Demetrio Lakas Bahas and Albert Sucre. Torrijos announced that he would not seek revenge and that plans for a constituent assembly to draft a new constitution would not be changed. During the year Torrijos launched a program to improve the public vocational school system. The target was to provide facilities for double the number

A

of students in a period of approximately three years.

failed to silence the opposition of radical priests. In

was ended

in a

shot. Later, Silvera

In the midst of these activities, ships were carrying

landlocked republic of South America, Paraguay is

bounded by Brazil, Argentina, and Bolivia. Area: 157,047 sq. (406,752 sq.km.). Pop. (1970 est.): 2,386,000. Cap. ~ and largest city: Asuncion (pop., 1970 est., 437,136). Language: Spanish (official), though Guarani is the language of the majority mi.

**

of the people. Religion: in 1970,

Roman

Catholic. President

Gen. Alfredo Stroessner.

In 1970 the

Roman

Catholic Church continued to

provide a focal point for President Stroessner's critics. His earlier reversion to stricter rule (including the

banning of opposition newspapers and broadcasts) had late

1969 the Catholic hierarchy

in

Paraguay, reacting

PARAGUAY PAN.AMA Education. (1967-68) Primary, pupils 218,475, teach7.488; secondary, pupils 39,811, teachers 2,103; vocational, pupils 22,662, teachers 942; teacher training, students 1,2 77, teachers 67; higher (including 2 universities), students 9,265, teaching staff 417. Finance. Monetary unit: balboa, at par with the U.S. dollar (2.40 balboas £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange: (March 1970) U.S. $171 million; (March 1969) U.S. $82.2 million. Budget (1970 est.) balanced at 162.7 million balboas. Gross national product: (1968) 836.1 million balboas; (1967) 778 million balboas. Monev supply (deposits only) (March 1970) 94.2 million balboas: (March 1969) 80.3 million balboas. Cost of living (Panama City; 1963 100): (1st quarter 1970) 110; (1st quarter 1969) 107. ers

=

:

=

Panama Canal Zone: see

Dependent States;

Panama

Foreign Trade. Imports (1968) 266,490,000 balboas; exports (1969) 11,6,890.000 balboas. Net service receipts from Canal Zone (1969) 124.4 million balboas. Import sources (1968): U.S. 39%; Venezuela 21%. Export destinations (1968): U.S. 79%; Panama Canal Zone 5%. Main exports: bananas 59%; refined petroleum 20%; shrimps 8%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1968) 6,720 km. Motor vehicles in use (1968): passenger 40,400; commercial (including busesl 12,800. Railways (1968) 538 km. Shipping (1969): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 823 (mostly owned by U.S. and other foreign interests): gross tonnage 5,373,722. Telephones (Jan. 1969) 58,608. Radio receivers (Dec. 1963) c. 500,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1967) 77,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968; 1967 in parentheses): rice 163 (151); sugar, raw value (1969-70) c. 83, (1968-69) 80; bananas c. 600 (592); oranges c. 40 (41); coffee 4.6 (5.2); cocoa (1968-69) 0.4, (1967-68) 0.5. Livestock (in 000; 1968-69): cattle c. 1,210; pigs c. 180; horses c.

160.

Paper Industry: see Industrial Review; Timber

Industry. Production -(in 000): electricity (Panama and Colon; kw-hr.; 1969) 550,000; manufactured gas (cu.m.; 1968) 19,700; cement (metric tons; 1967)

Papua-New Guinea: Dependent States

c.

see

150.

Education. (1967) Primary, pupils 385,075, teachers 12,382; secondary (1966), pupils 33,744, teachers 4,680; vocational (1966), pupils 1,940, teachers 507; teacher training (1966), students 3,738: higher (including 2 universities; 1965), students 5,890, teaching staff 780.

Finance. Monetary unit: guarani, with a free rate 1970) of 126 guaranies to U.S. $1 (292.50 guaranies = £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1970) U.S. $2,070,000; (June 1969) U.S. $7,110,000. Budget (1970 est.): (Oct.

expenditure 7,662,000,000 guaranies. Gross national product: (1969) 68,360,000,000 guaranies; (1968) 64,160,000,000 guaranies. Money supply: (June 1970) 6,195,000,000 guaranies; (June 1969) 5,628,000,000 100): guaranies. Cost of living (Asuncion; 1964 (June 1970) 110; (June 1969) 111. Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports 8,846,300,000 guaranies; exports 6,304,100,000 guaranies. Import sources: U.S. 26%; Argentina 18%; West Germany

=

14%; U.K. 9%; Italy 5%. Export destinations: Argentina 29%; U.S. 21%; U.K. 7%; Netherlands 7%; France 5%; West Germany 5%. Main exports: timber 23%; meat 22%; tobacco 11%; oilseeds 9%; cotton

6%.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1968) 6,258 km. Motor vehicles in use (1968): passenger 6,900; commercial (including buses) 6,600. Railways (1968): 1,221 km.; traffic 28 million passenger-km., freight 2 2 million net ton-km. Navigable inland waterways (including Paraguay-Parana river system; 1966) 19,128. Radio c. 3.000 km. Telephones (Dec. 1969) receivers (Dec. 1968) 164,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969; 1968 in parentheses): corn 153 (ISO); peanuts 16 (18); cassava (1968) 1,504. (1967) 1,460; sweet potatoes (1968) 85, (1967) 90; sugar, raw value (1969-70) 46, (1968-69) 37; tobacco 21 (22); oranges 221 (216); bananas (1968) c. 250, (1967) 259; cotton, lint 13 (10). Livestock (in 000; 196869): cattle c. 5,600; sheep c. 460; horses c. 730; pigs c. 960: chickens f. 6.550. 1968): cement Industry. Production (in 000; (metric tons) 24; electricity (kw-hr.) 179,000.

^

breaking up of a peaceful demonstration by nuns, and students in Asuncion, excommunicated several high-ranking members of the regime. Despite the president's denial of a conflict between church and state, the clergy maintained its opposition,

Exchequer grant

land in the wildest and most open part of the park,

and the government banned the

Roman Cathohc

aid,

primarily for public access.

An Exchequer

grant was

of urban centres, and a further 32 schemes were the

subject of recommendations by the commission.

new nature

reserves were

the economic front inflation remained negligi-

declared: Breen Forest, Portrush, Randalstown For-

but the real growth of the gross national product was also slow. Measures to reduce the budget deficit included an attempt to introduce an income tax for the first time in Paraguay; this bill met with an un-

est, and SHeveanorra Forest in County Antrim; Quoile Pondage and Rostrevor Forest in County Down Castle Archdale Forest, Correl Glen Forest, Lough Naman Bog, and Marble Arch Forest in County Fermanagh; and Killeter Forest in County Tyrone, The new Donana National Park (approximately 150 sq.mi.), decreed by the Spanish government, was created. Situated in the Marismas of the Guadalqui\'ir

On ble,

usual display of resistance in Congress.

Paraguay's precarious trade and payments situation was temporarily eased by an export recovery that resulted from higher world prices for the countr>-'s traditional products, especially meat. This recovery began in the last quarter of 1969, but the year still ended with an overall deficit of $30 million in Paraguay's goods and services account. In the opinion of an International Monetary Fund economic mission, the main cause of the nation's growing trade deficits was overvaluation of the guarani Hast devalued in 1960). Devaluation was thus one of the IMF's conditions for granting a new standby credit in 1970. Stroessner, however, refused to devalue, making it a matter of national dignity to maintain the parity of the guarani; instead, he took measures that included the gradual reduction of export duties.

The

IMF

standby was not renewed when it expired in April, but by then the fortuitous export recovery was in full swing. In the first half of 1970 the trade deficit was reduced to $9 million, compared with $24 million in the same period of 1969. The debt-servicing element in the balance of payments reached excessive proportions in 1970. At $12 million it represented approximately 20% of projected export earnings. However, with the reduced trade deficit,

by

the continuing inflow of foreign capital attracted political

and economic

stability,

and the continu-

ing growth of tourism receipts ("$15 million in 1969),

an overall balance of payments surplus seemed possible for the first time in four years.

(J. J.

Sm.)

Parks Europe. In the United Kingdom in 1970, the CounCommission's Committee for Wales began formal consultations to designate approximately 500 sq.mi. of the high spine of central Wales as the Cambrian Mountains National Park. Two new areas of outstanding natural beauty were confirmed: Suffolk Coast and Heaths (151 sq.mi.) and Dedham Vale (22 sq.mi.), in East and West Suffolk and Essex, respectively. At Talybont-on-Usk, on the Monmouthshire and Brecon Canal in the Brecon Beacons National Park, the British Waterways Board replaced an old fixed bridge, an obstacle to craft, by a new drawbridge. After dredging, the canal would again be navigable between Jockey Bridge and Brecon. A grant from the Countryside Commission enabled tryside

the National Trust to purchase, for public access, 921

on Y Gyrn, part of the main Brecon Beacons range above the Tarrell Valley. An Exchequer grant was approved for the Peak District National Park Board's proposed purchase, for public access, of approximately 2 sq.mi. of mostly open moorland, including the popular climbing area of Stanage Edge. In Exmoor National Park the Somerset park authority acquired, with ac.

Parks

authorized for ten parks within easy driving distance

In Northern Ireland 11

charity organization, Caritas.

575

approximately 3 sq.mi. of moor-

to the

priests,

;

included the Marismillas

River,

it

mouth

of the Guadalquivir, Las

Down

south to the

Neuvas and Hinojos, together with the Coto Donana and Guadiamar nature reserves, established with financial aid from the World

WUdhfe Fund. Two new nature parks were

established in West Germany: Steinwald, comprising approximately 10

sq.mi. of the southern extension of the Fichtelgebirge,

wooded area interspersed by field patches; and Westensee (over 20 sq.mi.) in Schleswig-Holstein, an area of lake landscape with deciduous woods, the property of landowners and farmers. A Danish Conser\'ation of Nature Act of 1969 provided for the preservation of large areas of fine landscape and areas a mainly

of scientific interest, as well as for public access facilitating open-air recreation. Visitors to the 15

Swed-

ish parks totaled

approximately 69.000 in 1970. In the Netherlands a lookout to enable visitors to view red deer, roebuck, and wild boar was installed in Hoge Veluwe National Park, where 520,000 visitors were recorded.

In Italy the Parco Nazionale della Calabria Capproximately 9 sq.mi.) was established. It preserved outstanding landscapes of the Sila Mountains, with fine pinewoods, seminatural beech-fir mixed woods,

and rare species of animals. North America. In Canada agreements were signed for two new parks. One was Kouchibouguac, in New six-story-high Brunswick, located along the Northumberland Strait This gold dredge, built in 1911, between Richibucto Harbour and Portage River, east was donated to the Indian of Highway 11. The area comprised an open panorama Affairs and Northern Development Department of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, wave-built offshore bars that stretched across the entire ocean front, tidewater

lagoons,

wetland forests, sandstone marshes, peat

by Yukon Consolidated Gold Corp. Ltd. for display at a historic park at Bonanza Creek in

the

Yukon Territory.

viable ecological community, and the water quality also be protected. The Justice Department brought a legal suit against the Florida Power and Light Co., charging that heated water from the company's existing fossil fuel and planned nuclear power

would

plants would destroy the marine microlife and general

ecology of Biscayne Bay, a recreation area for a population expected to reach 2.7 million

Africa.

Improved

by 1980.

internal access roads were con-

all Kenya's parks, including some allweather roads, particularly in Tsavo, Meru, Aberdare, and Mount Kenya parks. Visitors to the parks numbered 243,483 in 1970. Hotel-style lodges were opened

structed in

in. Tanzania's Serengeti and Mikumi parks, and in Tarangire Park an animal-viewing track system was

developed and a tented camp opened for visitors. Visito the parks totaled approximately 106,200,

tors

excluding Sunday excursion flights to Serengeti. In

cally

Angola the Cangandala Integral Nature Reserve became the Cangandala National Park, and Milando Partial Reserve was disestablished. Improvement works took place in all the parks and game reserves. Oceania. In South Australia, 12 new parks were dedicated: Carcuma (approximately 11 sq.mi.); Karte (S sq.mi.) Piccaninnie Ponds (I5 sq.mi.) Sleaford Mere (2^ sq.mi.); Katarapko (12^ sq.mi.); Innes (23-^ sq.mi.); Cox's Scrub (almost 2 sq.mi.); Dudley (3j sq.mi.); Pooginook (11 sq.mi.); Swan Reach (3 sq.mi.); and two unnamed parks covering a total area of approximately 8,236 sq.mi. National park reserves established were White (148 ac), containing arid shrub community with black oak vegetation and black-faced gray and red kangaroos, and Totness (85^ ac), an area of stringybark forest with blue gum on the lower slopes. Also dedicated was Gammon Wilderness Park (44 sq.mi.), part of the

mum. A program

Gammon

INTERNAIIO

Herodion,

the

fortress

and tomb of King Herod near Bethlehem, was opened to the pubMc by the Israel National Parks Authority.

bogs, and extensive inland river drainage systems.

The

excellent recreational potential of the park in-

cluded boating, camping, and swimming. park, in Quebec's

Gaspe

The other

region, consisted of approxi-

mately 90 sq.mi. of rugged landscape, its highest points 1,800 ft. above sea level. Located on the Forillon Peninsula with main access by car via Highway 6, the park included most of the shoreline areas at the eastern extremity of the peninsula.

The use of persistent herbicides and insecticides was banned by the Canadian national parks administration, and use of nonpersistent chemicals was critireviewed to restrict their application to a miniof public hearings to examine the uses and development of Canada's national parks was launched on April 1 with a hearing in Halifax on Nova Scotia's Kejimkujik Park. Potential improvements resulting from each hearing would be incorporated into the master plan for that park. Visitors to the 18 parks totaled 12,586,492 during the year. The following areas were added to the U.S. NaFlorissant Fossil Beds tional Park System (NPS) National Monument, Colorado (approximately 9^ sq.mi.) St. Croix National Scenic Riverway, Wisconsin and Minnesota (approximately 90 sq.mi.); Wolf National Scenic Riverway, Wisconsin (12^ sq.mi.); and Theodore Roosevelt Island, District of Columbia (88.32 ac). Secretary of the Interior Walter Hickel announced the creation of a new Northwest Region of the NPS, with headquarters at SeatUe, Wash,, to administer some of the newest and largest NPS areas, including Glacier Bay National Monument (over :

;

New

Jersey was introduced in Congress. federal government prevented construction of

The

a major international jetport near Everglades

Na-

Department of the Inhad shown that the consequent ecological disruption would destroy the country's only mainland subtropical park. The Endangered Species Act, making tional Park, Florida, after a terior study

unlawful to transport illegally taken alligator hides across state lines, was expected to end alligator poaching in the Everglades Park and elsewhere in Florida, where alligator extinction had been threatened. Under new legislation, Everglades Park would receive a sufficient flow of fresh water to sustain its normal and it

ranges.

In Victoria two new parks were dedicated: Captain James Cook (10^ sq.mi.), located on the East Gippsland section of the Victoria coast and containing im-

mense dunes, virgin forest, and unspoiled beaches; and Lower Glenelg Park (35 sq.mi.), encompassing the lower reaches of the Glenelg River in western

Victoria and noted for

its

scenic river features, lime-

stone gorge, and wide variety of native flora and fauna.

Queensland proclaimed

;

4,000 sq.mi.). Legislation to establish a 20,000-ac. Gateway National Recreation Area in New York and

;

1 1

new

national

parks,

bringing the total to 271 with a combined area of

approximately 3,848 sq.mi. The new parks were: 1357 Russell (227 ac); 1351 Bellenden Ker (202 ac); 1353 Bellenden Ker (1^ sq.mi.); 72 Cockenzie (almost 43 sq.mi.) 1359 Parish of Grafton (100 ac.) ;

Southwood

(27 sq.mi.); 16 Minnimore (18 155 Whyansq.mi.); 1392 Bellenden Ker (205 ac.) 56

;

1394 Bellenden Ker (over 4 sq.mi.) and 176 Monkhouse (almost 4 sq.mi.). In New Zealand the value of national parks and other reserves of national importance and the need beel (34 sq.mi.)

;

to develop them for public enjoyment and education was recognized by the appointment of the first director of national parks and reserves, a planning surveyor with major responsibilities in recreational planning, and by an increase in ranger strength. Visitors to the

ten parks totaled 1,610,599, an increase of 18.7%.

Asia. In Japan work began on the 812-mi. Tokaido Trail, to run between Tokyo and Osaka, con-

Nature

necting national, quasi-national, and prefectural parks and other reserves. Visitors to the Japanese parks in (M. F. B. B.) 1970 numbered 250,671,000. See also Conservation; Tourism.

to a deficit of record proportions, while

ments surplus

—and, France, and the U.K. — experienced

West Germany

Payments and Reserves,

national payments. Japan

monetary scene, the trends, de-

the international

velopments, and events of 1970 were marked by two

A remarkable calm premarkets a calm barely disturbed by the floating of the Canadian dollar. Remarkable was, indeed, the word to characterize a stability of exchange truly paradoxical situation rates in a year when inflation in almost every major country was strong and pervasive, and when the sharply contrasting features.

—

vailed in foreign exchange

—

deficit in the

a

lesser

extent, ofificial

Italy returned to approximate balance in

International On

to

U.S. balance of payments resulted in the

biggest outflow of dollars ever recorded into the re-

governments and central banks of Europe, Canada, and Japan. This state of self-stabilizing confusion will be described, first, by reviewing the position of the U.S. dollar and those of each of the principal currencies,

serves of

and then by surveying the three elements of "the

gold-SDR-dollar complex."

The word "complex"

is

monetary arrangements at the end of 1970 were far from an orderly, self-correcting, and reliable system notwithstanding the debut in 1970 of "managed money" in the guise of Special Drawing Rights (SDRs). The U.S. Dollar. As the result of the U.S. balance of payments deficit, U.S. gold and other international reserve assets were reduced still further and the U.S. indebtedness to foreign governments and central banks was increased (Chart 1 and Table I, accompanied by a note explaining the two ways of calculating the payments deficit, which sometimes cause confusion). The deficit on official settlements was the worst ever about $10 billion. The worsening was sharp since in the previous two years the U.S. used, not "system," for the world's

—

—

had, on this reckoning, a considerable surplus.

increase in

its

managed

to

hold

Canada, surpluses. its

inter-

down

the

reserves.

Large shifts of short-term funds are quite normal in a world of convertible currencies in which funds are free to move in response to changing interest rate constellations and varying degrees of tightness in the principal money markets. These swings can be handled by a country so long as they take place within

framework consisting of the country's posiforeign trade, income from investments abroad, and long-term capital flows. But there is reason for concern when that very framework also shows

a strong

on

tion

signs of continued weakness, as in the U.S. during

recent years.

The U.S. deficit on the measurement showed, it is

so-called liquidity basis of true, a small

improvement

1970 in comparison with the previous year (Table I). But this end result obscured an improvement on trade account that could not be expected to last, for reasons given below, and a further deterioration on capital accounts other than Eurodollar flows. During the first 11 months of 1970, U.S. exports,

in

$43 billion at an annual rate, were 15% above 1969 the best gain since 1964. They exceeded 4%

at

—

of the gross national product

(GNP),

the largest fig-

ure ever recorded. But imports, at $40 billion, were up by 11%, an even higher rate than the 8.5% increase in of

GNP,

1969 over 1968. They represented 4.1% 3.8% in 1969 a rise indicative of

—

against

the growing popularity

eign

goods.

The

and competitiveness of for1970 export-import performance

thus resulted in an export surplus of $3 billion, than double the amount recorded in 1969.

more

The U.S. trade performance in 1970 benefited from volume of aircraft deliveries. Basically, how-

the large

This deterioration was generally received with a

ever,

it

reflected the swing in the cyclical positions

feeling of indifference. In part, tbis feeling reflected

of the U.S., which experienced a business slowdown,

with the game of balance of it reflected the knowl-

of continental Europe, Japan, and the primaryproducing countries like Australia, where business was buoyant. For the longer run, however, the U.S. could only rely on an unusual cyclical constellation of this sort. Nor could it rely on being outinflated by others. During the second half of the 1960s, the U.S. lost the advantage of the remarkable price-cost stability it had enjoyed during the first half. Over the decade as a whole, unit costs and export unit values in the U.S. increased by about 5-8% more than those of Europe and Japan. The consequences of this will be felt just at the time when the U.S. faces a greater challenge than ever before in those segments of its manufactured goods embodying adforeign trade vanced technology that have formerly been its greatest strength. European and Japanese automo-

past disillusionments

payments edge that

statistics.

much

In part,

of the shifting in these particular sta-

measures of surpluses and deficits was, in large part, due merely to big swings in short-term capital flows large inflows in 1969 and large outflows in 1970. Monetary conditions in 1969 had been tistical

—

far

more

trial

restrictive in the U.S. than in other indus-

countries, but the opposite

was

true in

1970.

Then, as the business slowdown and, in midyear, the threat of a liquidity crisis called for a relaxation of

monetary tightness, the Federal Reserve allowed U.S. commercial banks to offer interest rates high enough to attract funds from within the U.S. instead of taking in funds from money markets abroad, as in 196869 (see Money and Banking). Furthermore, as short-term interest rates in U.S. markets fell sharply and the holding of Eurodollars became costly, U.S. banks repaid large amounts of Eurodollars; by the end of 1970, their Eurodollar holdings had been whit-

down to about billion in November tled

Many

$7.5 billion

from

a

peak of $15

1969.

the international

market, found their

German banks and

way

back into into

the

businesses, which,

extreme monetary tightness, them for marks to West Germany's central bank. Other Eurodollars ended up in other central banks. As a result, the U.S. swung from an official settlefacing circumstances of sold

—

biles,

machine

—

tools,

electronic

products,

and the

supersonic airliner Concorde are obvious examples of

goods that

will

pose this challenge.

Income from U.S. private investments countries on a net basis,

i.e.,

in

other

after allowing for in-

payments on the large and costly U.S. shortterm indebtedness to money markets abroad, showed only a slight increase from the $5.7 billion in 1969. Military outlays abroad in 1970 were about $3.5 billion, up $1.5 billion from 1964, prior to the war in Vietnam. Of the $3.5 billion total, $2 billion was alterest

of these Eurodollars, thus shifted

hands of West

and

located to Vietnam and elsewhere in Southeast Asia;

Western Europe accounted for $1,250,000,000. Sav-

577

Payments and Reserves, International

578

ings, including the closings of bases,

Payments and Reserves, International

increased military and civilian pay.

were

The

offset

by

dollar costs

government aid programs to other countries remained, on the whole, unchanged. The deterioration of the capital account was partly accounted for by a speedup of long-term fund flows related to direct of U.S.

investment in plant and equipment abroad and by a sharp decrease, for the year as a whole, of foreign purchases of U.S. corporate securicies (see Invest-

ment. The

Intern.^tion.'Vl').

deficit on official settlements was financed only very small extent by gold. Some of it was financed through repayments by Britain and France

to a

of short-term assistance they had received

from the by

U.S. in earlier years. Another part was covered

the U.S. Treasury through the use of automatic draw-

Monetary Fund (IMF). For the most part, however, the deficit was financed by increases in short-term indebtedness to governments and central banks, particularly those of Canada. France. West Germany, and Japan (Chart 1). There was room for the rebuilding of foreign ofificial dollar reserves, some of which had been reduced in 196S and 1969; but. by the end of September 1970, ing rights in the International

such re.serves were, at $18.3 than at the end of 1969.

billion, $5.3 billion higher

Currencies of Countries with Payments Surpluses. The counterparts of the U.S. payments deficit and of the consequent U.S. reserve losses and increases in indebtedness to foreign governments

and banks were the reserve gains of countries with balance of payments surpluses, principally Canada, much of Western Europe, and Japan (Chart 2). Among those countries, Canada showed one of the central

CHART

most spectacular balance of payments improvements in 1970 as its traditional current account deficit was transformed mainly because of a sudden upsurge in exports into a large surplus. Together with capital inflows from the U.S. long- as well as short-term, partly on the chance of an upward trend in the value of the Canadian dollar in exchange markets Canada's overall surplus was one of the main counterparts of the U.S. payments deficit. The payments balance had swung in Canada's favour in late 1969 and even further during the first five months of 1970. Up to that point, however, little of the movement of funds into Canadian dollars was in anticipation of a higher value for the Canadian dollar. The vast bulk was due to the current-account surplus and the capital inflows attracted by high interest rates. At the end of May, in the wake of first inflows of funds motivated by anticipation of an exchange upward valuation, the Canadian authorities found it harmful to the nation's economic and finan-

—

—

—

—

cial interests to

limits.

cial

announced buying

hold the exchange rate within

On May that,

its offi-

government of Canada "for the time being," it would cease 31, the

keep the exchange rate Immediately after the Canadian dollar was thus allowed to float, it went up to U.S. $0.97; in September, it almost reached parity with the U.S. dollar, but at the year's end it eased to about U.S. $0.98, or 6.59^, above its old par value. Along with the announcement on May 31 that the Canadian dollar would be freed, the government stated that it would intervene in the exchange market to prevent the rate from rising excessively. For the second time in 20 years, Canada thus sufficient U.S. dollars to

at its par value of U.S. $0,925.

1.

Gold and Foreign Exchange Reserves of Governments and Central Banks

in

Selected Countries

Billions of U.S. dollars

Dec.

Dec.

Dec.

Sept.

Dec.

Dec.

Dec.

Sept.

Dec.

Dec.

Dec.

Sept,

Dec.

Dec.

Dec.

Sept.

1964

1968

1969

1970

1964

1968

1969

1970

1964

1968

1969

1970

1964

1968

1969

1970

Source: International

Monetary Fund.

placed

its

dollar

on a floating exchange rate

basis.

World War II, the exchange rate of the Canadian dollar was fixed at CanSl = U.S. $1. In the wake of the sterling devaluation in 1949, it was devalued back to its wartime parity of CanSl = U.S. $0.91.

Europe during much of the 1960s, 1969 and deteriorated still further in

the strongest in

After

weakened

Less than a year later, the Canadian authorities found theniselves supporting the U.S. dollar as capital in-

one revaluation and one devaluation in four years and faced wuth great difficulties in avoiding another re-

the first half of 1970. Behind this reversal, two factors were paramount: a marked decline in the currentaccount surplus as the prolonged industrial unrest had an adverse effect on both imports and exports, and substantial capital outflows seeking refuge abroad. The United Kingdom's current-account external surplus, which first emerged in 1969, reached the equivalent of Si. 4 billion in 1970, the largest in 20

valuation, the authorities in 1950 allowed the dollar

years. This

flows into

to float fixed

$0.925

Canada grew

and find

parity

—the

in

to

own

its

1962

—

massive proportions. After

level.

this

rate that they

They returned

to a

=

U.S.

time

at

abandoned

CanSl

Look-

in 1970.

backward, it would appear that the period of was economically and financially easier for Canada than the two postwar periods of a fixed exchange rate. A return to a fixed exchange rate obviously depended on the emergence of circumstances that would make such a move plainly in Canada's national interest, including more independence of economic polic\' in relation to the United States. Japan had been for most of the past three years one of the principal surplus countries. In 1970. it was true, the overall payments surplus was smaller than in 1969; but the current account surplus was larger than that of any other country. The capital account was in deficit. By and large. Japan's economic and financial strength in South and Southeast Asia, and also in Australia, was one of the most remarkable developments of the late 1960s. It was all

was the combined result of such factors as pound sterling in November 1967, the slowdown in Britain's domestic economy, and the exceptionally buoyant world trade. Beginning the devaluation of the

ing

with the

flotation

large

the

more

extraordinar>' since, as recently as

in

last quarter of 1969, Britain also received

amounts of short-term funds attracted by high

December

interest rates. In

1970,

international

its

vember

The bulk

1967.

of the current and capital

medium-term from its S8 billion peak in December 1968 to somewhat below $4 billion in December 1970. During 1970. Britain's underlying position became gradually less favourable. The foreign trade balance surplus was used to repay short- and

international debts. Such indebtedness declined

deteriorated as imports rose, while the expansion of

Table

I.

Main Components Paymenit

of the U.S. Balance of

ion-

uarySep-

many

observers had thought that Japan might have to devalue the yen.

West Germany's balance of payments experience 1970 was marked by a persistently high foreign trade surplus, a remarkable result when it is recalled that the revaluation upward of the mark in the fall of 1969 was intended primarily to reduce the trade surplus by slowing exports and speeding up imports. WTiile the mark upvaluation had little impact on trade, it made it less expensive for West Germans to travel abroad and encouraged the two million foreign workers in

West Germany

countries' receipts of

money home. Other income from investment in West

Germany also rose. On capital account,

to send

Hem Goodi ond

i'j

Trode surplus Income on investments Other services Surpli/s on goods and Government outloys

in

Debt repo/ments to U.S. government Private DirePorrfc , Short-ttf m

in

West Germany and

a decline

West Germany's favour. The West German

au-

took a variety of steps to stem the inflow of foreign funds, but national interest rates remained above the international level. thorities

France's balance of pa>'ments was in substantial surplus in 1970, only two years after the monetarycrisis

of

May-June 1968 and one year

after the devaluation of the franc in

August 1969

and the accompanying stabilization policies. With the current account in equilibrium. France received a sizable inflow of capital.

By

April 1970.

it

had

fully

repaid the S1.5 billion of central-bank assistance, and during the year it recouped a significant part of earlier losses

of

its

international reserves. Italy's external

position, which, together with

West Germany

s,

was

0.6

2

0.6 5.7

4.4

-2.3

-1.9

7.2

AS

-3.1

-3.1

-3.3

-5.2

-S.A

-5

4

4.5

-2.4 -3.7

^.^

1.2

-7.3

-7.1

-7.1

-5

-3.1

-3 2 -11

-3.1

-3.6

-1.5 -0.6

-5.6

-SA

-5.2

rurobonds

0,4

J.S. stocks, etc.

0.6

2 1 2 2

1.3

2.3

-1

-0.1

1

2

2

1.6

2.t

8.7

4.1

2,9

-12

-OS

-2.8

-1.5

•

-1.3 -1.2

1.3

-1.1

.

.

•:

31.6

-29.6

6

-2.1

1

" -^t outloys

''-

'erm

^

-1.1

-0.2 -4.9

;

revaluation was fol-

Eurodollar rales turned interest differentials clearly

and economic

3.9 5.6

services

34 i

-35.8

'

-33

-2.3

Militor/ expenditures 'net} Government gronts ond loans

•

in

7

-26.8

Tc'c

tember 1970*

1569

1968

»ervicei

Export! Imports

Fc--

mark

lowed in the last quarter of 1969 by massive outflows of funds to cash in on exchange profits. Early in 1970, however, the capital account was back in surplus. During the second half of 1970. large imports of short-term funds, mainly by West German businesses, were influenced by the fact that continuous monetary' stringenc>'

^967

Totol privote U.S. capital

the

manu-

exports practically ceased. British prices of

1967,

in

No-

reserves were, at $2.8 billion, the highest since

p^'

6

1

0.3

2.1

-Col pwrcJioses of

-

nonliqutd" U.S. assets

Other ^c• Errors

-.'•cji

•

:3Ukdit/

Bolonc*: bosii

Less: Special official purchases of "nonliquid" U.S. ossets

-3.5

0.2

-1.3

-2.3

-i.S

2.1

-7

tejl; Eurodollor distortions Balance on underlining liquidity

basis

-4

1

Oto

'i

OJ

1.5/

Eurodollor tolings ond liquid" liabilities increases in foreigners private to Bolance on official settlements

-4.5

-3J to -4

3.8

7.2

-3.2

1.7

2.7

-7.2

P/i/i.

'

-2.4

bosis

On

both of tKe two oWkiol meoiurcmerrts of tfi« U.S. balance of po/tTier^t, tf« retulting turpfui or deficit fefiects diongei in - •r'vt onvit. From tfiis point on, differencef in U S '.e the t:nd retyll decnively. '/o*' impor'tomly, ac

Note:

fh* liot,

'^>enti

:

boionce re^cdi

'^te foreigner:

('• 2HF is transferred to COo atoms in the gaseous mixture to release this energy as an infrared laser Transportation beam. Laser light is produced as long as the correct Planning, Economic: mixture of chemicals is fed into the device. see Economic Planning A major application of high-powered lasers during Plastics Industry: the year has been in attempts to initiate nuclear fusee Industrial Review Ho

see

Poetry: see Literature

develop practical triggers for In one such study (Phys. Rev., 188:300, 1969) a nanosecond pulse of 1 gigawatt from a neodymium-glass laser was used to heat a solid pellet of LiD. On each occasion a powerful burst of neutrons was detected indicating to

Superconductivity. Recent measurements (Phys. 3lA:349, 1970) on an alloy of niobium, germanium, and aluminum, Nbn 8(Alo 75 Geo 05)0 o.

tained; no external

Pipelines: Fuel and Power;

n -\- He-'. The aim is thermonuclear-power

sion; in particular to trigger off the reaction

two deuterium atoms producing a neutron:

between

D+D

Lett.,

it

is

a superconductor with a transition

K and an upper critical field F^2 of 410 kilogauss at 4.2° K. These are the highest values of T,. and H^2 Y^t recorded; the previous highest H^r, at 4.2° K was 220 kilogauss in Nb.-jSn. If the temperature

new

of 20.7°

alloy can be fabricated into wire form,

it

should

another generation of superconducting magnow is of the order of the boiling point of nets, liquid hydrogen (20.4° K) perhaps this achievement will open the way to reducing the cost of practical initiate

;

applications of the

phenomena

of superconductivity.

General. The 1970 Nobel Prize for Physics was shared by Hannes Alfven and Louis Neel for their work in magnetohydrodynamics and in antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism.

(See Biogr.'\phy.) (S. B. P.)

See also tronics.

Astronautics;

Astronomy;

Chemistry;

Elec-

man-Polish border line, determined at Potsdam on Aug. 2, 1945, by the governments of the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union and running from the Baltic Sea to Czechoslovakia along the Oder and Neisse rivers, "forms the western state frontier of Poland." The West German government "affirms the

Poland A

people's republic of Eastern

Europe, Poland

is

bordered by

and

inviolability [of this frontier]

East

Germany. Area: 120,756

{See

sq.

(312,757 sq.km.). Pop. (1970 est.): 32,727,100. Cap. and largest city:

mi.

War-

saw (pop., 1970 est., 1,289,000). Language: Polish. Religion predominantly Roman Catholic. First secretaries of the Polish United Workers' (Communist) Party in 1970, Wladyslaw Gomulka and, from December 20, Edward Gierek; chairmen of the Council of State, Marshal Marian Spychalski and, from December 23, Jozef Cyrankiewicz; chairmen of the Council of Ministers (premiers), Jozef Cyrankiewicz and, from December 23, Piotr Jaroszewicz. The year 1970 ended dramatically for Poland: in foreign relations an era of reconciliation with West Germany was foreshadowed; at home, major cities of the Baltic coast witnessed a violent eruption of popular discontent similar to that of Poznan in 1956. Both the 1956 and 1970 revolts had far-reaching political consequences: that of 1956 brought about Gomulka's {see Biography) return to power; that of 1970 swept him away. The establishment of normal and friendly relations with West Germany on the basis of the existing territorial status quo had been one of the chief aims of :

Poland's foreign policy, but until 1969 the response

from Bonn always was negative.

when

place in October 1969

A

the

radical change took

new

Social

Demo-

Willy Brandt, declared that the West German government was ready to open negotiations with Poland on issues suggested by Gomulka in May 1969. The Polish government acquiesced to this cratic

chancellor,

proposal and on Feb. talks

began

in

5,

1970, Polish-West

in

German

Warsaw.

Warsaw and Bonn,

year development plan for 1971-75. Adopted by the Communist Party's plenary meeting of May 19-20, 1970, this new system was aimed at ending the waste-

growth and beginning a more inby a system of economic incentives. The previous policy had reful era of extensive

tensive and selective regime, controlled

sulted in the hasty building of

took place, alternately

before the

final

negotiations

November 3 between two foreign ministers, Walter Scheel and Stefan Jedrychowski. The resultant treaty was signed in Warsaw on December 7 by Brandt and Premier Cyrankiewicz. In this historic document the West German government declared that the existing Gerstarted in the Polish capital on the

and

stations,

new steelworks, power Manpower had been

industrial plants.

signed on freely, and goods produced without due care as to their quality or cost. socialist planners

meant the

By

intensive growth the

use,

wherever possible, of

existing plants with their installed machinery, saving

power and raw materials, and fully employing shift labour without overmanning. Selective growth implied

—with

the balance of trade in

mind

—increasing pro-

duction of such goods as machine tools, electrical and electronic equipment, and chemical products.

The May plenary meeting adopted

a resolution set-

ting forth the following principles of the

new system:

must be directly related to technological advancement; (2) raises for manual and white-collar workers must be even; (3) the norms defining the economic incentives must hold (1)

wage

raises in every enterprise

steady for the whole five-year period.

A

by the government on Deon 46 items of basic foodstuffs, fuel, and clothing by 10 to 30%, while 40 other items household goods, television sets, and automobiles became cheaper. This measure was deeply resented by the majority of the Polish people, esperegulation announced

cember

12 raised prices

— —

cially

Six preparatory meetings

Poland

now and in the future." Germany: Special Report.) The basic cause of the Polish explosion at home was the new economic mechanism included in the five-

the Baltic Sea, the U.S.S.R.,

Czechoslovakia,

593

because

On December tee,

Gomulka

it

came

just 12 days before Christmas.

14, at a session of the Central

justified the

new

Commitsame

prices, but at the

time bloody riots started in Gdansk, Gdynia, and Szczecin where large Polish shipyards are located.

Three days

later

Premier Cyrankiewicz told the Polish

people by radio and television that rioters had been

and looting shops, and and army units had been authorized to use

setting fire to public buildings

that police

POL.^ND Education. (1967-68) Primary, pupils S,706,time) 201,382; secondary, pupils 306,135, teachers (full time) 15,044; vocational, pupils 1,398,665, teachers (full time) 53,637; teacher training, pupils 59,787, teachers (full time) 3,928; higher (including 18 universities), students 288,788, teaching staff 25,565. Finance. Monetary unit: zloty, with an official parity of 4 zlotys to U.S. $1 (9.60 zlotys £1 sterling) and a tourist rate of 24 zlotys to U.S. £1 sterling). Budget (1968 $1 (57.60 zlotys est.): revenue 329.7 billion zlotys; expenditure 326.2 billion zlotys. National income (net material product): (1968) 669 billion zlotys; (1967) 605.6 billion zlotys. Cost of living (1963 100): (2nd quarter 1970) 108; (2nd quarter 1969) 106. Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports 12,838,600,000 zlotys; exports 12,566,100,000 zlotys. Import sources: U.S.S.R. 37%; East Germany 10%; 2 70,

teachers

(full

=

=

=

Czechoslovakia tions: U.S.S.R.

oslovakia

28%;

8%; U.K. 6%. Export destina36%; East Germany 9%; Czech-

9%. Main

coal and coke

exports (1968): machinery 12%; transport equipment

9%; 6%;

iron and steel 7%; textiles and clothing meat and products 5%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1969) 309,042 km. (including 139 km. expressways). Motor vehicles in use (1969): passenger 423,081; commercial 248,004. Railways: (1968) 26,628 km. (including 3,206 km. electrified); traffic 36,204,000,000 passenger-km., (1969) freight 95,024,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1969): 504 million passenger-km.; freight 7,149,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1969): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 484: gross tonnage 1,536,384. Telephones (Dec. 1968) 1,650,896. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) 5,598,000. Television receivers (1968) 3,389,000.

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; wheat 4,714 1968 in parentheses): 1969; barley rye 8,167 (8.520); 1,939 (4,670); (1,494); oats c. 2,660 (2,891); potatoes 44,925 raw value (1969-70) sugar, 1,527, (50.817): (1968-69) 1,706; rapeseed c. 610 (712); linseed c. 60 (65); dry peas (1968) 61, (1967) 83; apples (1968) 746, (1967) 537; onions (1968) 334, (1967) 306; tobacco 85 (83); butter c.

187 (198); cheese c. 213 (214); beef and veal (1968) 528, (1967) 499; pork (1968) 1,291, (1967) 1,313; fish catch (1968) 407, (1967) 339. Livestock (in 000; June 1969): cattle 11,049; horses 2,633; pigs 14,337; sheep 3,329; chickens c. 131.000. Industry. Index of industrial production (1963 100): (1969) 164; (1968) 151. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969): coal 135,010; brown coal 30,86 5; coke (1968) 14,415; crude oil 438; natural gas (cu.m.) 3,918.000; electricity (kw-hr.) 60,062,000; manufactured gas (cu.m.; 1968) 6,581,000; iron ore (30% metal content) 2,820; pig iron 7,027; crude steel 11,291; aluminum (1968) 93; zinc (1968) 203; copper (1968) 44; lead (1968) 49; cement 11,831; sulfuric acid 1,517; nitrogenous fertilizers (N content; 1968) 759; superphosphates (1967) 1,569; passenger cars (units) 50; commercial vehicles (units) 46; cotton fabrics (m.) 841.000; woolen fabrics (m.) 99.000; rayon and synthetic fabrics (m.) 121,000. Merchant vessels launched

=

(100 gross tons and over; 1969) 423,000 gross New dwellings completed (1968) 189,260.

tons.

arms

to restore order.

The premier

also said that

from

10 to 20 had been killed and hundreds wounded.

The riots caused a plenary session of the Central Committee to be assembled in Warsaw on December 20. At the meeting. Gomulka and four of his close associates (Spychalski, Zenon Kliszko, Ryszard Strzelecki, and Boleslaw Jaszczuk) resigned from the 12man Politburo. Edward Gierek, from 1957 first secretary of the party organization in the country's

and a Politburo meniber from March succeeded Gomulka as first secretary of the party. On December 23 Cyrankiewicz, premier since February 1947 (except for a period between November 1952 and March 1954 when he was deputy premier), resigned and was elected chairman of the State Council, succeeding Spychalski. Jaroszewicz, deputy richest province 19, 1959,

premier from 1952, was elected the new premier. Broadcasting to the Polish people, Gierek said that he would get rid of the "ill-considered economic policies" of the past, and revise the 1971-75 plan in consultation with the workers.

There would be no can-

cellation of the price decree of

December

12,

but

small wage increases to the lowest paid workers were

expected partly to offset the higher prices.

(K. Sm.)

Police Membership

numbered 105 national

Reports to the General Assembly, held in Brussels in October, concerned international drug traffic in 1969; currency counterfeiting; police administrations.

and frontier posts; and the unlawful seizure of aircraft and ships. It was unanimously decided that the full resources of Interpol should be available to combat hijacking. The second Interpol European Regional Conference was held at the General Secretariat in Paris, April 20-24. Twenty European countries sent representatives, and five non-European countries and the Council of Europe sent observers. Interpol was represented at the fifth UN Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, held in Kyoto, Jap., theft in ports, airports,

August.

1, the General Secretariat's records comprised 1,451,750 general records of named indi-

As of June

viduals, 83,781 fingerprint cards, and 6.618 photographs of specialized criminals. Subscribers to the organization's Counterfeits and Forgeries numbered

and during the year June 1969-June 1970 the counterfeit department examined 456 counterfeits and drew up technical reports on 83 genuine notes for com5,713,

for higher ranks. Following the recommendations of an advisory committee headed by Lord Hunt, whose report was published on Oct. 10, 1969, the Northern Ireland govern-

ment announced

several measures to reorganize the province's police during 1970. The controversial Ulster Special Constabulary (the B Specials) was dis-

banded on April 30, being replaced by the Ulster Defence Regiment (part of the British Army), which became operational on April 1. On the same day a new volunteer force, the Royal Ulster Constabulary Reserve, also came into operation. As of June 15, the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) had a new district organization and a new rank structure. The commanding officer, previously known as inspector general, became chief constable. On June 19 the governor of Northern Ireland appointed Brig. Sir Ian Eraser to be chairman of the 20-member Police Authority, formed to take over administrative control of the RUC from the Ministry of Home x\f-

Europe. United Kingdom. During 1970 the Home Office ran a national crime prevention campaign, using extensive advertising on television and in the national and local press. As in previous campaigns, the advertising developed the theme of cooperation with the police, with special reference to reporting suspicious incidents and the protection of property.

The number

of indictable offenses

France. istry of

A

ten-year plan was drawn up

the Interior

by

the

Min-

reinforcement of the strength of city police. The 1969 and 1970 budgets of the ministry provided for a marked increase in for the

There was further progress in the files. The campaign against drug trafficking, in application since August 1969, showed appreciable results. Close collaboration was established with the U.S. police, and the FrancoU.S. narcotics committee met every three months. On March 3, 1970, about 125 policemen were injured during a five-hour clash with over 300 leftist students at Nanterre University in a Paris suburb. On May 27-28 Maoist student rioting swept the Latin Quarter in Paris and the police occupied a university building to keep the rioters from smashing the laboratory equipment. During June the Federation of Police Unions, many of whose members were dissatisfied with working conditions, threatened to follow the Swedish example (see Scandinavia, below) and report police strength.

electronic processing of police

sick en masse.

West Germany. During 1970 there were numerous commitments of police forces at mass meetings and demonstrations in several large

cities.

This put a

great strain on the police because innumerable of-

by demonwere punishable under existing legislation. The incidents furnished grounds for reviewing and fenses of the sort likely to be committed

parison purposes.

known

to

the

England and Wales during 1969 was 1,488,638. At the end of 1969 the strength of the police service in England and Wales was 91,762. General restrictions on increase in police manpower were removed early in 1970, and by the end of the year the strength of the service was about 93.500. An interim increase in police pay of 84% was effective from January 1. The normal biennial pay repolice in

56%

fairs.

of the International Criminal Police Or-

ganization (Interpol) in 1970

in

view took place in the autumn, with new rates effective from September 1. The standard workweek was reduced from 42 to 40 hours in April. On September 29 the Police Federation asked the government's Police Council to grant an increase in the starting salary for a constable from £900 ($2,160) to £1,434 ($3,442) plus pay raises ranging from 35 to

strators

mitigating

some provisions of

the Penal Code.

Radical spokesmen in West Berlin launched particularly vehement attacks on a draft law that would allow police to use truncheons, pistols, tear gas. submachine guns, hand grenades, and machine guns. Up

no firearms had been used. The central Records Bureau of the National Swedish Police Board began its activities on July 1, 1970, when records from the various police departments were transferred to the new office. The 1967 police inquiry, which presented its conclusions in June 1970. proposed that the number of police districts in Sweden be reduced from 119 to 90. In an effort to get higher pay, about 500 Stockholm to 1970

Scandinavia.

police reported themselves sick for SO hours during the

1, 1970, the total strength of the Danish was 7,821; during 1969 there were 352 new recruits, and 137 left the force. The number of of-

On

Jan.

police

fenses reported to the police in 1970 w-as 210,000,

an increase of about

7%. Sexual

continued to decrease, by nearly In

Norway

North and South America. United

offenses,

however,

7%. more than 60.000

the police investigated

crimes in 1969; about 21,000 were cleared up. Almost of the accused persons were under 20 years old.

oO%

The Netherlands. About 30 people were injured, them by police bullets, in a seven-hour battle etween policemen and hippies on Aug. 24, 1970, in what was described as the worst riot in Amsterdam's historj'. The riot stemmed from a municipal ban against overnight sleeping on the steps of the national war memorial in front of the royal palace, for some time a favourite haunt of hippies. On August 3 1 police forced the surrender of about 25 rebels, exiles from rhree of :

of Investigation

(FBI) Uniform Crime Reports

an increase of 5% over the 2.1 rate in 1968. State and highway-patrol organizations had a total of 52,812 employees in 1969, an increase of 49c over 1968. The Municipal Year Book 1970 stated that for 974 reporting cities with a population of 71,531,000, expenditures in 1969 for police department salaries police

and wages

(civilian

147,000, a per

and uniformed) totaled $1,490,-

capita

expenditure

population to $7,490 in

cities

and protection was

tions housing foreign interests.

function, akin to that of the probation officer.

ofiicer

cision

to

the government announced

reestablish

a

its

de-

Union-Republican Ministry

of Justice, "with corresponding agencies in the localities."

as part of

particularly the

an intensified drive against crime, embezzlement of state property.

Oceania. Australia. In a year of

social

unrest,

demonstrations and other forms of public protest resulted in numerous confrontations between police and citizens. The majority of these demonstrations, how-

and no instance was mainland Australia of recourse by police

ever, did not result in violence,

reported in

to such crowd-control devices as

armed

riot squads,

water cannon. In the Australian Trust Territory' of New Guinea, however^ a massive force of specially trained and armed riot police was used to evict

gas, or

government land in the Gazelle main island in the Bismarck Archipelago. Both state and federal governments moved to enact legislation granting police additional powers to deal with protesters and increasing penalties for a wide range of public-order offenses.

natives squatting on

Peninsula of

All

police

New

Britain, the

forces reported

increases

in

crime in

1970. although the lack of accurate and reliable stacontinued to make assessment of the state of

tistics

crime

difficult.

Increases

in

armed robberies and The num-

morale and public confidence

in police oc-

racket. Criminal charges

were brought against a num-

ber of police, including the head of the homicide squad.

The Victorian government

also

appointed Sir Eric

Johnston, chief inspector of constabulary in the U.K., to investigate the operations of the state's police

St.

force and to

make recommendations

for its reform.

— 159c —was

taking

men continued

to pre-

devoted most of his time

The recruitment

of qualified

sent a major problem to

many

departments. In July it was revealed that in New York City the average IQ score for police recruits in 1969, 98.2, was the lowest in recent years. Some departments, such as Los Angeles', would not appoint men with IQ scores under 110. To obtain ommended by

college-graduate police officers, as rec-

the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice in 1967, the New York City Police Department announced in February 1970 that more than 125 upperclassmen from such colleges as Princeton, Yale, Harvard, and Union Theological Seminary had been recruited to take the examination to become policemen. In September, however, it was charged that many of the men had gone to Washington, D.C., because of an absence of va-

cancies in

New

York. In several

cities,

organizations

of black policemen refused to help recruit black officers,

saying that

first

department so blacks

they "wanted to shape up the

will

be treated fairly when they

get in."

U.S. Atty. Gen. John N. Mitchell announced in January 1970 that about $2 1 million in planning grants and $182,750,000 for action programs had been granted

by

Law Enforcement

to states

curred in Victoria in 1970 following a lengthy public inquiry into alleged police involvement in an abortion

Research studies con-

care of sick people.

istration, established

to police

of 250,000-500.000.

ducted in New York City's 20th precinct revealed that on an average day a patrolman spent six hours patrolling the streets and one hour responding to various calls for service, of which 40 minutes were devoted to noncriminal activities and 20 minutes tc criminal matters. The single specific job to which the

ber of persons apprehended for drug offenses rose sharply, the majority of charges relating to possession sale of marijuana. Conditions of service for Australian police improved somewhat in 1970 following favourable salary awards in a series of arbitration hearings. A serious setback

The

to be eliminated at 17 of 37 loca-

burglaries appeared particularly significant.

and

$20.83.

Inadequate manpower to handle increasing demands for police services presented serious problems in many cities. In New York City, 50 of the 106 patrolmen assigned to diplomatic posts were to be withdrawn,

Amboina in the Moluccas, Dutch policeman and stormed the Indonesian embassy in The Hague. U.S.S.R. The Supreme Soviet enacted legislation affecting the corrective labour institutions of the Ministry of the Interior. The act included sections on prisoners' rights and duties and the powers of the institutions. The Soviet militia acquired a new social 1

of

median annual police "starting salaries, as of July 1, 1969, ranged from $6,318 in cities of 10,000-25,000

the Indonesian island of killed a

re-

vealed that as of Dec. 31, 1969, U.S. cities had an average of 2.2 police employees per 1,000 inhabitants,

who had

On September

States. Police

personnel strength increased in 1969. Federal Bureau

weekend of June 6-7.

the

Assistance Admin-

under the 1968 Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act. Seven regional offices were opened by LEAA to assist state and local governments. A nationwide conference on law enforcement education and training was held by LEAA in Jacksonville, Fla., on Feb. 1-3, .1970. Also in compliance with the Omnibus Crime Control Act, Mitchell filed an annual report of all electronic eavesdropping by federal agencies. The report revealed that only 31 electronic eavesdropping surveillances, in 15 cities, were carried out in 1969. Six conducted in Newark, N.J., were instrumental in the arrests of 55 persons on gambling conspiracy charges. In March Mitchell asked Congress for legislation making it possible to obtain an order from a federal

'

596

Police

judge, commissioner, or magistrate requiring suspects in

criminal cases to submit to fingerprinting, hand-

writing analysis, medical tests, and identification line-

ups to determine federal crime.

if

One

they should be charged with a

effect of the

proposed legislation

would be to deal with law enforcement problems created by an April 1969 Supreme Court decision that fingerprints taken from suspects who had been rounded up without probable cause could not be used subsequently in court. In a civil rights suit filed on behalf of three youths detained for six hours by Philadelphia police and then forced to appear in a lineup, U.S. Judge Harold K. Wood ruled in September that no citizen who

may

be required to participate in a lineup unless he acknowledges in writing that he is aware there are no charges against him, that he has not been arrested, and that is

not a suspect in a crime

is free to leave at any time. Between 1962 and 1969 assaults on police officers increased \44%. A record high of 86 officers were killed by felonious criminal action in 1969, compared with an average of S3 killed each year between 1960 and 1968. Violence against policemen in 1970 included sniper attacks, terrorist bombings, and assaults, and by August S6 oflicers had been killed in line of duty.

he

The heads older

men were

is

Mass.,

the largest city

in which both the fire and police departments

cooperate in the use of the "'911" emergency

number system.

retiring

promptly

at

the end of 20

In February 1970 a

bomb

detonated in a police

station parking lot in Berkeley, Calif., resulted in the

injury of two police officers and the destruction of three cars, and an explosion inside a San Francisco police

station

one

killed

Bay

the San Francisco

and

killed while

and wounded five two-month period in

officer

others. Subsequently, within a

area, three policemen

making out

were shot

traffic tickets.

On

July 24, 1970, Pres. Emilio G. Medici vigilante groups known as "death squads," believed to include policemen, which had Brazil.

condemned

the

killed 11 petty criminals in

Sao Paulo and 3

in

Rio de

Janeiro the preceding week. Medici's public acknowl-

edgment of the existence of the squads came after two leading criminal-court judges in Sao Paulo had linked the squads to the police on a court record and demanded action by the government. A local council of the bar association known as the Order of Lawyers of Brazil

delivered a protest on Feb. 26,

1970, to

Justice Minister Alfredo Buzaid, charging that a law-

yer in Brasilia had been tortured during a recent interrogation by federal policemen. This was the first publicly

documented accusation of

police torture of

howsmuggled out of Brazil had ac-

years' service because of the rising danger involved

political prisoners in Brazil in 1970. Previously,

were being handled more slowly because of the fear of ambush. In New York City on January 25 two police officers responding to a call in Harlem were shot from amHLsh, and three hours later a patrolman in Queens was shot at twice by two men in a car; a transit poiceman handing a summons to a drifter found smoking in the subway was shot and killed on February 28; a 23-year-old patrolman was fatally stabbed on

ever, written reports

and that

Springfield,

of patrolmen's associations reported that

ofi" by the shotgun slaying of a black patrolman, Glen Smith, while he was on his way to aid policemen answering a complaint that a sidewalk was being blocked.

May

calls for assistance

28 as he sat in a patrol car outside a junior high

school; and within a 24-hour period on September 1112 three

New York

City policemen were the targets

of violence in separate incidents.

On June

9 the

New

York City police headquarters was bombed, and on July 5 Molotov cocktails were found under five police cars in a fenced-in parking area.

In Chicago a policeman, Kenneth G. Kaner, was

making out

squad car on the city's South Side on June 19 when he was shot in the head twice with blasts from a sawed-off shotgun and killed. On July 7 two Chicago policemen, James Severin and Anthony Rizzato, were killed by sniper gunfire as they walked across a field near the Cabrini-Green public housing project, where they were assigned to a program intended to improve community relations. On August 13 James A. Alfano became the fourth Chicago policeman to be fatally shot from ambush in less than two months. Subsequently, seven members of the Black P. Stone Nation street gang were indicted for .'^Ifano's murder. In Omaha, Neb., on August 17. a suitcase exploded, killing Patrolman Larry D. Minard and wounding seven other policemen who had responded to an emergency call to a vacant hoiise. Two Nebraska leaders of an offshoot of the Black Panther Party were charged with the booby-trap murder. In Detroit, Mich., on June 28, one police officer was seriously wounded and two were slightly injured in an ambush on the city's East Side; two members of a black extremist group were charged with attempted murder. On Detroit's West Side, on October 24, a nine-hour confrontation between 100 policemen and black militants was touched 1

a report in his

cused military and police authorities of systematically torturing political prisoners. In August 1970

Maranhao protested that a young by police for two days

Catholic bishops and priests of

northeastern Brazil priest

was tortured

Roman State in

Brazilian after his

arrest.

Argentina. Deputy Inspector Carlos Benigno Balbuena of the federal police was allegedly one of four persons involved in an attempt to kidnap Yuri Pivovarov, 40-year-old assistant commercial attache at the Soviet embassy in Buenos Aires, on March 29, 1970. In May rioting in Cordoba, Rosario, and other Argentine cities resulted in numerous injuries and arrests of over 1,500 persons.

On May

23 political

police closed Argentina's largest publication, the daily

newspaper Cronica, charging

it

had

falsely reported

the death of a student in clashes with police in the

Cordoba. Uruguay. Allegations that the Uruguayan police had

city of

regularly

tortured

political

prisoners

prompted

a

three-month congressional investigation and caused a government scandal. The growing harshness of police methods was attributed to efforts to crush a group of left-wing urban guerrillas known as the Tupamaros, which had kidnapped two close friends of Pres. Jorge Pacheco Areco and, on April 5, perpetrated the biggest robbery in Uruguayan history, carrying off a safe

containing 441 lice

lb.

The poTupamaro suspects and On some occasions the Tupa-

of gold valued at $250,000.

captured thousands of

scores of arms caches. maros recaptured their weapons and freed prisoners, thus infuriating the police and the government. On April 13 the head of Uruguay's police intelligence. Hector Moran Charquero, was shot to death by machine gunners, presumably Tupamaros, as he drove to (V. W. P.; X.) work through Montevideo. See also Crime; lations.

Law; Prisons and Penology; Race Re-

Encyclop.^dia Britannic.a Films. Canada's Royal CanaMoimted PoUrc. (I960): The Policeman (Third Edition, 1966); Our Community Services (1969).

dian

Porlia-

mentary Affili-

Political Parties

COUNTRY AND NAME OF PARTY

world guide to political were independent on Dec. 1, 1970, are included; there are a number for which no

Canada

The following

table

a general

is

parties. All countries that

analysis of political activities

is

resented in parliaments

the lower house in bi-

(in

The date of the most recent general election follows the name of the country. The code letters in the affiliation column show the each

relative political position of the parties within

column

therefore, no entry in this

There are obvious

for single-party states.

difficulties

involved in labeling parties within the political spectrum of a given country. The key chosen is as follows:

F

—

ER—extreme

fascist;

centre right;

C

—

social-democratic;

and

CR R— SD —non-Marxist EL—extreme S— right;

right;

L

centre;

Central African Republic Military government since Jan.

in the

column "Voting strength"

who went

number

R

CR C S

Communist

K

Others (1969)

Union pour

le

Progr^s du Tchad

Chile (1969) Portido Nacional Partido Radical Partido Democrato-Cristiono Partido Socialista Chileno Partido Comunisto de Chile

China, People's Republic of Communist (Kungchan-tang)

China (Taiwan), Republic of Nationalist (Kuomintong)

73 154 14

22

— — R

C C s

— —

34.2% 33.0% 4.4% 7.9% 3.0%

17 91

13 19 6 5

75

20.9% 13.4% 31.1% 12.8% 16.6%

34 24 55 1

22

—

— 773

Colombia (1970) Alianza Nacionol Popular

R

Partido Conservodor Partido Liberal

r]

Congo [Kinshasa, 1970) Mouvement Populoire de Congo (Brazzaville)

la Revolution

Military government since

September

1968

of registered voters

Costa Rica (1970) Partido de Liberaci6n Nacionol Portido de Unificacion Nacional Accion Socialista

to the polls in single-party states.

—

0.7% 31.4% 45.5% 4.8% 16.7%

1966

Lanka Soma Samojo (Trotskyist)

Chod

indicate proportions of the valid votes cast for the

respective parties, or the

1,

Federol (Tamil)

left;

socialist;

L

Ceylon (1970) United National Sri Lonko Freedom

left;

K — communist.

The percentages

C C

Rossemblement des Credilistes Democratic

omitted.

is,

R

CR

New

and certain small political groupings are sometimes

country; there

50

Progressive Conservative

rep-

cameral legislatures), but the figures in the last column of the table do not necessarily add up to the total number of seats in parliament because independents

totion

(1969)

(1968) Sociol Credit Liberal

if

strength

Union Nafionole Comerounaise

given.

most instances only

Parties are included in

Cameroon

ation

Voting represen-

72 (

90

—

98.3%

420

—

—

—

c

32 22

L

2

R

Cuba Partido Comunisto de

Porlia-

mentory Affili-

COUNTRY AND NAME OF PARTY

atton

Voting represenstrength

Afghanistan (1969) Royal government with an elected House of the People (Wolesi Jirgo)

Albanio (1970) Albanian Labour (Communist)

100%

—

parties

—

People's

24

Military

Denmork 20 46

R

CR

R

5.5%

5

c SO

4'i.7%

79

48.4%

81

Communist

59

C

2 14

L

8

R

R

Parti Social-Chretien

CR C

Parti Socioliste Beige

SD

Communiste Beige

K

9.8% 20.9% 31.7% 28.0% 3.3%

20 47

69 59 5

Bhutan

No

parties

130

Bolivia

Militory government lince Sept. 26, 1969

Botswana (1969) Botswana Democrotic Party Botswana People's Party Botswona National Front Botswana Independent Porty

— C

24

L

3

EL

3

L

1

Brazil (1970)

Alion^o Renovadoro Nacional

Movimento Democrotico Bulgaria (1966) Bulgarian Comm

Agrarian Union Nonparty

I

f

Brosileiro

Fotherland Front

March

2,

1

962

Burundi Military government since Nov. 28, 1966

Cambodia Military government since

Nov.

1,

CR

220

L

90

99.8%

Burmo Military government since

20.4% 0.5% 18.6% 1.3% 15.0% 34.0% 6.1% 1.0% 2.0%

Left Socialists

et le Progrfes

1970

300

(1968)

Venstre (Agrarian) Centre (Liberal) Radicol-Liberol Social Democratic Socialist People's

L

Borbados (1966) Borbodos Notionol Porty Democratic Labour Porty Barbados Labour Party

Parti

99.9%

J

De Uofhaengige (Independents)

Austria (1970)

Belgium (1968) Volksunie (Flemish) Parti pour la Liberty

15

Conservotive

C

Osterreichische Volksportei Sozialistische Portei Osterreichs

2 2 9

K

Civilian Presidential Council reploced militory government on May 1, 1970

government since June 28, 1966

Freiheitliche Portei Osterreichs

7

15

L

Dahomey

Argentina Austrolia (1969) Country (Conservative) Liberal Democratic Labor (DLP) Australian Labor (ALP)

R

c

Czechoslovakia (1964) Communistl Socialist ^Notional Front

Military government since June 19, 1965

No

Progressive Front Unified Party Democratic Centre Union Independents Progressive Party of Working People Turkish-Cypriot National Solidarity

214

Algeria

Andorra (1969)

Cyprus (1970) Greek-Cypriot

tation

216

—

Cuba

416

37

34 27

62 11

Dominican Republic (1966) Portido Reformisto Partido Revolucionorio Dominicano

Ecuador (1968) Alianza Populor Izquierdo Oemocrotico El

Salvador (1970)

60.0% 28.8% 1.8%

Partido de Conciliaci6n Nacionol Partido Dem6crato Cristiono Portido Populor Solvadoreno

34 16 1

Equotorial Guinea (1968)

Movimiento por Uni6n Nacionol de Guini Ecuadoriol (MUNGE) Idea Popular de Guin^ Ecuadoriol (IPGE) Movimiento Nacional por Liberacion de Guini Ecuadoriol (MONALIGE) Ethiopia (1965) Imperiol government with on elected Yeheg Memrio [lower chamber)

(1966) Alliance Party (mainly Fijian) Notional Federation Party (mainly Indian ) Independents (mainly Chinese)

250 22

—

9 3

and (1970) Kansallinen Kokoomus Poulue (Cons.) Svenskaporliel (Swedish Party) Keskusliitto (Centre, ex-Agrorion)

R

5.4%

c

18.2%

Christion League

C

Kansan Poulue

c

(Liberol)

Rurol Party

Sosiolidemokrootinen Poulue People's Democratic League

R

L

SD K

18.2%

37 12 37 1

5.4% 10.5% 23.8% 18.1%

8

IB 51

36

Political Parties

598 Parlia-

Political Parties

Parlia-

mentary Affili-

COUNTRY AND NAME OF PARTY France (1968) Extreme right Union des Democrates pour

Qtion strength

ER

0.2%

CR CR C

38.1% 5.1% 10.8%

292

L

18.0% 4.1% 22.1%

57

61

Socialiste

EL

K

Communiste Francois

(1969)

10

34

German Democratic

C L

1

CR CR SD

I

Socialist

S

Communist

K

10,91% 47.63% 7,74% 21.44% 6.81%

— —

47

300 32 90 14

60 171

Korea, North (1967)

Christiich-Demokrotische Ui

—

Notional

Notionai-Demokratische Partei Partei Liberal-Demokrotische Demokratische Bauernpartei J

Front

98

82%

Korean Workers' (Communist) Party

434

of (1969) Christiich-Demokrotische Union

R

C SD

Freie Demokratische Portei Sozialdemokratische Portei Deutschlonds

46.1% 5,8% 42.7%

242 30 224

Ghana

(1969) People's Action Party National Alliance of Liberals Progress Party (Busio) United Nationalist Forty

C

Korea Party Toeiung Dang (Party of the Masses] Kuv/aif

300 130 44

R

New

Germany, Federal Republic

100%

...

Korea, South Democratic Republican Party

|

EL

1

—

Princely governrrtent

Laos

.

Greece Military government since April 21

, 1

967

R

2

CR C

29 105

.

Royal government; pro-Communist Neo Lao Hak Sot party controls area bordering North Vietnam

—

2

.

Lebonon (1969)

—

Chamber

of Deputies elected by univer-

sal suffrage

Guatemala

33 20

L

Japan (1969) Komeito Libera -Democratic Democratic Socialist

totion

— L

Kenya (1969) Kenya African Notional Union

Republic (1967)

Sozialistische Einheitsportei

C6te d'lvoire

Jordan Royal government, no parties

Gambia, The

(1966) People's Progressive Party United Party

la

People's National Party

—

Democratique Gabonais

Democratique de

Voting represen-

Gtion strength

Jamaica (1967) Jamaica Labour Forty

33

et

Parti Socioliste Unifie

Parti

COUNTRY AND NAME OF PARTY Parti

R^publique

la

Independent Republicans Centre Democrate Federation de la Gauche Democrate

Gabon

totion

Affili-

Ivory Coast (1970)

(Goullists)

Parti

mentary

Voting represen-

(1970)

according

tional division

Movimiento de Llberocion Nocionol Portido Institutional Democrotico Democrocia Cristiana Guotemalteco Partido Revolucionorio

R

CR C L

to the

propor-

between Christians and

Muslims

42.9% 21.5% 35.6%

Lesotho (1970) Constitution suspended Jon. 30, 1970,

following the ooparent defeat of

Guineo (1968) Parti Democratique de Guinee

—

the ruling National Forty Jon. 27 general election.

in

the

— —

— —

Guyono

(1968) People's National Congress United Force People's Progressive Party

EL

Presidential dictatorship since 1957

—

Haiti

C

30

Liberia (1968)

L

4 19

Libya Military government since Sept.

Socialist

Workers'

Notionol Peasant Party Smallholders' Party

Christlich-Soziole Partei

1 >

j

Patriotic

People's Front

—

Parti Chretien-Social Parti Liberal

99.7%

Iceland (1967)

Independence (Conservative)

R

C SD

Progressive Social Democratic United People's Socialist

K

37.5% 28.1%

157% 17.6%

23

Jon Songh (Hindu Nationalist) Swotontro (Freedom)

Dravlda Munnetra Kazhogom Indian Notional Congress Praja Socialist

Samyukto Socialist Communist (pro-Soviet) Communist (pro-Chinese) Indonesia Military government since Oct. Iran (1967) Iron Novin

(New

1,

1965

ER

35

R R

42 25

C SD

281 13

S

K

23 23

K

19

Pon-lronian Party Iraq

C C

Foil (Sons of Destiny]

Gael (United Ireland) Labour Fine

Communiste

75 50 18

L

ER

Gahol (Herul-Liberol Alignment)

R

Nationol Religious

C C

Agudat Israel Poalei Agudat

C

Israel

C

Independent Liberal State List (Ben-Gurion)

L

Moarokh (Labour Alignment) Two Arab lists Hoolom Haze (Avnery)

L

1.2% 21 .7% 9.7% 3.2% 1.8% 3.2% 3.1% 46.2%

L

Communist (Moki or pro-Israel) Communist (Rakoh or pro-Arob)

26 12 4 2 4 4

56 4

K F

4.5%

24

1

3

Italy (1968)

Malawi (1964) Malawi Congress Party Malawi Constitutional Party

Itoliano

Democrotico Italiono Monorchica

Partite

di

Unlta

Partito Liberole Italiono

Democrazio Cristiana

Partito Socialista Italiono

R

CR C SD

1.3% 5.8% 39.1% 14.5%

6 31

266 91

Partito Socialista Itoliano di Unita Prole-

Comunisfa Itoliano Sudtiroler Volksportei

EL

—K

15.5%

18 6

11

C

104

L

3

CR

50

L

3

Molaysia

Moloyo

(1969)

Federal Alliance Party Ponmoloyan Islomic Party Gerokqfi Rokyaf Malaysia Democratic Action (Chinese) People's Progressive Party

R R

C L

K

Opposition groups

4.5% 26.9%

R L

Saboh

(1970) Federal Alliance Party

Opposition groups

R L

Maldives (1965) Governm.ent by the Didi family

—

Mali

—

Military government since Nov. 19, 1968

Malta (1966) 28 22

R

SD

Mauritania (1965) Parti du Peuple Mauritanien

23 177 3

92%

40

Mouritius (1967)

Independence Party (Indian-dominated) Porti Mouricien Sociol-Democrate

C

39 23

L

Mexico (1970) Portido Accion Nocionol Partido Revolucionorio Institucionol Partido Autentico de la Revolucion

Mexicono

CR C L

Partido Popular Socialista

Monaco

Movimento Sociole

K

I

Malta Labour Party

2

K

21

3%

32

2

1.2% 1.2% 2.8%

L

35.3% 16,6%

Madagascar (AKFM)

Nationalist Party Israel (1969)

Free Centre

CR C SD

(1970)

Sociol-Democrate du Congres de 'Independence de

(1970) Federal Alliance Party

Irelond (1969)

tario Partito

CR C C

Sarawak

—

Militory governments since 1958

Parti

Parti

180 20 5

C C

(People's) Forty

Ouvrier Sociolista

Porti

— R

Iran)

Parti

Mologosy Republic

18 9 10

India (1967)

Partito

—

Luxembourg (1968)

Hungary (1967)

Ftanno

1969

Fortschrittliche Burgerpartei

35 29

R

C

Partido Liberal

Mardom

1,

Liechtenstein (1970)

Vaterldndische Union

Honduras (1965) Partido Nocionol

Hungarion

—

Whig Party

True

S

13.8% 84.4%

20 178

0.9% 0.5%

10

99%

295

5

(1968)

Union Notionole

et

Democratique

18

Mongolia (1967) Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party

Morocco (1970) Independents {pro-government) Popular Movement Istiglol

Notional Union of Popular Forces Others

CR C

C L

159 60 8 1

12

599

Affili-

COUNTRY AND NAME OF PARTY Nauru

Parlia-

Parlia-

mentory

mentary

Voting represen-

ation strength

tation

polifical parties

18

Nepal Royal government since December 1960

—

—

—

Nettierlands [1967}

Staotkundig Gereformeerde Portij Boerenparti) {Formers* Party) Anti-Revolutionoire Portij Ctiristelijk Historische Unie

R R

CR CR

Kottioiieke Volkspartij

C

"

"Democroten 66

Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie Parti|

von de Arbeid

Pacifistiscti

Socio

Communistische

New

1

ist

ische Portii

Portij

Zealand (1969) Notional (Conservative) Labour Porty

c SO

2.01% 4.77% 9.90% 8.15% 26.51% 4.46% 10.74% 23.55%

3 7 15 12 7 17

s

2

68%

37 4

K

3.61%

5

CR L

44 40

R

36

R

15 2

Nicaragua (1967) Partido Liberal Nocionolisto (Somoza) Portido Conservodor Tradicionolisto Partido Democroto Cristiano Partido Liberal Independenta

C C

1

Niger (1970)

May

—

25, 1969

Imbokcdvo Party

...

Sweden (1970) Moderato Somlingspartiet (ex-H6ger) Centerpartiet (ex-Agrarian) Folkpartiet (Liberal)

Socio Idemokratiska Arbetareportiet Vdnsterportiet Kommunisterno

R

n.5%

41

CR C SD

19.9% 16.2% 45.3%

58 163

K

4.8%

17

Switzerland (1967) Conservotive Christion-Sociol Evangelical People's

R

Radical Democratic Independents Social Democratic Communist (Portei der Arbeit)

Norges Kommunistiske

CR C C SD S

K

Parti

5

Booth and military government

C

(elected)

29

Togo

14 20 13 74

Tonga (1969)

L

Military government since Jon. 13, 1967

Legislative Assembly of seven nobles, seven ministers, and seven elected delegates

Trinidod ond Tobago (1966) People's Notionol Movement Democrotic Lobour Party

Oman

16 51

Tonzonio (1970) Tonganyika African National Union

Royal ond militory government

19.4% 9.4% 10.6% 9.3% 46.7% 3.5% 1.0%

49

K

Thailand

R

6 21

Syria

Norway

(1969) H^yre (Conservative) Kristelig Folkeporti Senterportiet (ex-Agrarian) Venstre (Liberal) Arbeiderportiet (Labour) Sosiolistisk Folkeporti

71

45 3

R

CR C C C SD

Liberol Democrotic Farmers, Artisans, and Middle Class

Zanzibar Afro-Shirozi Party (nominated) Nigeria Militory governments since Jon. 15, 1966

tation

Swaziland {1968)

50

Nigerien

Parti Progressiste

Militory government since

Voting represen-

otion strength

Sudan

(1968)

No

Affili-

COUNTRY AND NAME OF PARTY

—

120 52

—

—

—

—

—

21

C

24

L

1

Sultanote Tunisia (19691

Pakistan (1970)

People

s

—

Destourion Sociolist Party

Party of West Pokislan of East Pakistan

81

Awomi Leogue

151

Turkey (1969) Turkish Justice

Panama Civilion-mililory 11,

1968

C C C C

Reliance (breokowoy from RPP) R

Portido Liberal Rodicol Portido Liberal Portido Revolucionorio (Febrerista)

C C SD

Union Turkey

New

69.4% 21.5% 6.2% 2.8%

Notionolisf Action (Peosonts) Turkish Workers'

Uganda Uganda

Peru Military government since Oct, 3, 1968

Partido Nocionolisto Partido Liberal

Arab

Polsko Zjednoczono Portio

]

Robotniczo

Zjednoczone Stronnictwo

(

Ludowe

I

Stronnictwo Demokrotyczne

Nonparty

Front of Notio/ial Unity

255

—

97.6%

117

39 49

I

J

Porlugol (1969)

Acgoo Nocionol Popular

130

Rhodesia (1970) Rhodesian Front (European) Centre Party (mainly African) Notional People's Union (African) Others (elected by councils of chiefs)

Nonparty

257

33%

15 8

1.8% 1.3% 0.2% 0.4%

6 144

6 1

People's Congress

99.74%

767

\

/

People's Front

Sociolist

Union

350

United Kingdom (1970) Conservative and Unionist

R

Liberal

C

Labour Others

L

46.4% 7.4% 43.0%

330 6

287 7

United Stotes (1970) Republican

Democratic

CR C

180 255

CR C

37 12 6

Upper Volto (1970) R

C

70% 10%

L

50

Porti

1

Mouvement de

8

—

99.75%

Union Democrotique Voltoique du Regroupement Africoin Liberation Notionole

7

Romonia (1969) Romin

56.9% 1.3% 31.8%

United Arab Republic (1968)

Polond (1969)

Portidul Comunist

L

EL

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1970) Communist Porty of the Soviet Union

Philippines (1969)

Rwanda

R R

Republican Nation's Republican People's

government since Oct.

Paraguay (1967) Partido Colorado (Stroessner)

101

465

(1965)

L

Uruguoy (1967) Partido Nocionol (Blanco) Partido Colorado Partido Dem6crata Cristiano Frente Izquierdista de Liberaci6n

R

39.6%

41

C C

49

8%

50

K

3.0% 5.7%

3 5

ER

11.4%

21

Pormehutu Party Venezuela (1968)

Son Morino (1969) Portito Demorrotico-Cristiono Poriito

Sociol-Democrolico

Partito Sociolisto

Portito Portito

Communisto (pro-Moscow) Communisto (pro-Peking)

Cruzodo Civico Nocionol Uni6n Republicono Democr6tica

CR SD

R

96% 26%

17

Frente Nocionol Democrotico

S

Fuerza Democrotico Popular

C

5.5%

10

K

Comitodo Organizoci6n

K

Independiente (COPEl; Sociol Christians) C C Acci6n Democrotico Movimiento Electoral del Pueblo L Uni6n para Avonzor (Communist) K

25.4% 28.0% 14.5% 2.8%

57 68 27

Saudi Arabia Royal government

Senegol (1968) Union Progressiste S^n^galoisa Sierro Leone (1967) All People's

Congress

Sierro Leone People's Party

48 12

Singopore (1968) People's Action Porty United People's Porty

58

—

366

Vietnom, South (1967) Notionol coalition

—

137

Western Samoa ]1970)

»

45

No

political parties

November 1967

—

Yogoslovio (1969) 117 47 1

Southern Yemen Notionol Liberation Front

League of Communists Co of Yugoslovio Socialist Alliance of the

Zambia

\

670

Working PeopI e/

(1968)

United Notionol Independence Parly African Notional Congress lndeper>denti

Spoin (1967)

Movimiento Nocional

5

Vietnam, North (1964) Loo Dong (Communist Porty)

Republican regime since

Military government since Oct. 21, 1969

5

Politico Electorol

Yemen

Somolia South Africo (1970) Nolionolist Porty United Party Progressive Party

R

564

(K. S

Political Parties

600

— Stein Rokkan, of the —and elected new

unanimously a new president

University of Bergen, Nor., a leading figure in the

Political

field of

Science

Political scientists

from throughout the world gath-

ered in Munich, W.Ger., from Aug. 31 to Sept.

5,

1970,

World Congress of Political Science, convened by the International Political Science Association (IPSA). Attendance at the congress was large: 920 participants, as against 750 at the seventh World Congress (held in Brussels in 1967) and hardly more than 500 at the fifth and sixth congresses (Paris, 1961, and Geneva, 1964). A substantial proportion of delegates came from countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, showing that political science was gaining recognition as an academic field of research and teaching in countries where academic and political circumstances had long impeded its progress. Many delegates showed great concern, however, at reports concerning the fate of political science and individual political scientists in several countries where much progress had been achieved previously, such as Greece, Czechoslovakia, and Brazil. The congress had on its agenda four topics for plenary sessions: quantitative and mathematical methods in political science; the historj' of political thought: Hegel and Lenin; the church as a political institution; and models and methods in the comparafor the eighth

study of nation-building. In addition, 15 "specialmeetings" were held on the following subjects: European integration; the comparative study of local politics; food and politics; psychology and politics; tive

ist

recent trends in political theory;

political

finance;

biology and politics; the theory of international relations;

new

approaches to the study of social structure and voting behaviour; political attitudes and opinions of young people; political opposition; political decision-making; and political modernization. Nearly 200 contributions were written and circulated, and many participants found it difficult to discuss so many in a meaningful way. It was generally agreed that for international congresses to retain their usefulness as

confrontations,

intellectual

new

pro-

World Congress,

to

be held

in

1973 in

many new

ideas.

scientific

trends emerged at the

The papers and

Munich

Essex, Eng.). Political science in the U.S. continued to

by current

nessed the failure of the cus for a the

be affected

The previous year had witattempt made by the "cau-

political events.

new

American

political science"

to gain

control of

(APSA)

Political Science Association

so as to encourage the

development of "a new political science, devoted to radical social criticism and fundamental social change." At the mail ballot conducted in October and November 1969, Robert E. Lane, of Yale University, presented by the APSA nominating committee, was elected president for 1970-71 by 5,474 votes as against 2,816 for Christian Bay of the University of Alberta, the candidate of the caucus.

The reluctance

to

transform

action group thus expressed

did not mean, however, that

bership were indifferent

On May

APSA

into a political

by most of its members APSA's officers and mem-

to

political

developments.

recommending "an immediate and clear commitment to a rapid and orderly withdrawal of all American Armed Forces from Indochina to be substantially underway by December, 1970 and to be completed by July, 1971" was sent to Pres. Richard Nixon by Karl W. Deutsch and Robert Lane, president and president-elect of APSA, and by all ^ix 14 a telegram

Many

Nixon and to his advisers, Henry Kissinger.

A

the discussions confirmed

political scientists

especially to their colleague

sample survey of opinion among college and

reached in most Western countries was not going to be reached rapidly in most of the other countries, where inadequate training and research facilities, the

striking

mid-May by

a group of leading scholars produced

results.

Three-fourths

of

the

respondents

polled disapproved of the administration's action in

and, quite often, governmental indifference or hos-

Cambodia, over four-fifths thought it was a mistake to have sent combat troops into Vietnam, and two-

independent political inquiry were hampering

thirds anticipated a constitutional crisis in the United

tility to

progress.

The search

tent of studies as

for greater relevance in the con-

opposed

to

in private

States

if

the

war continued

at its present pace.

methodological refine-

ment, eloquently expressed by many junior political scientists and some very senior ones in West Germany, Great Britain, and the United States, was not demonstrated as much in the completed research as

(Se. H.)

Encyclop/EDia

Britannica

1952 ); Presidential Elections Search for a Candidate (1970). (

Films. (1952);

Political

Parties

The Presidency-

conversations or in criticism of the pre-

vailing trends.

Sporting Record

eight universi-

and research institutions, of a European Consortium for Political Science Research, designed to improve the level of information about current research and to provide training at an advanced level. A grant from the Ford Foundation supplementing the member institutions' contributions was made to help the consortium until 1975; it was hoped that by that year it would have a membership of 70-80 schools and research organizations. The chairman of the board of the consortium in 1970 was Stein Rokkan; its executive director was Jean Blondel (University of ties

university teachers of political science conducted in

ter,

tee

congress, and at-

by

that the high level of methodological sophistication

strength of traditional approaches to the subject mat-

Operations

Munich

made their opposition to the war in Vietnam and to the Cambodian intervention known to President

congress.

Polo:

at the

past presidents after 1964.

ninth

No new

Intelligence

was announced

tracted great interest: the creation,

The for

Political Security:

tion

cedures and methods of organization must be found.

Montreal, was expected to serve as a testing ground

see

UNESCO's discontinuing its support to international scholarly associations. A new venture in international scientific cooperaat the prospect of

comparative political recruitment; governmen-

organization and elite formation in Europe;

tal

comparative politics also a Great concern was expressed

executive committee.

Meeting on the occasion of the congress, the council of IPSA, composed of delegates of 33 national as-

made years. The

sociations of political science,

for the following three

policy decisions council elected

Populations and Areas World population reached an estimated 3,672,000,000 in mid-1970, a gain of about 72.6 million over the previous year. This represented a continued growth

2%

rate of

meant

annually, which

that the planet's

population would double in 35 years

if

the present

During the year there were 123.4 and 50.8 million deaths. The net addition to the population was 1.4 million per week, 199,014 a day, 8,292 an hour, and 138 a minute. In the period from July 1, 1965, to July 1, 1970, the '.vorld grew by a record 343 million people. The growth of human numbers was not evenly trend continued.

million births

were mounted

in a

number

of the less developed na-

and Asia, some with strong backing from the national governments. In the Latin-American tions of Africa

countries, because of the

Roman

Catholic Church's

methods of birth consuch programs were proceeding cautiously and opposition to

official

trol,

artificial

quietly.

Low

birthrates in the developed countries were the

distributed,

product of decisions by individual families to have fewer children and were not a matter of government

L-row slowly, at rates of

policy. Birthrates in these countries ranged

however. The rich nations continued to 1% annually or less. The {loorest countries, on the other hand, were growing at rates of 2 to 3%, suggesting that they would double their populations in from 24 to 35 years. Oddly enough, the fastest growing country was an exception to the rule.

The

sheikhdom of Kuwait

small, oil-rich

was adding to its population at a rate of 8.3% a year, the result of immigration, an extremely high birthrate (61.2 per 1,000), and an extremely low death rate (6.2

per 1,000). If this trend continued. Kuwait would

double

its

733,000 population in nine years. However,

with a per capita gross national product of $3,490,

Kuwait

had

the

resources

handle

to

population

growth.

Costa Rica was also growing rapidly, but without the influence of immigration. Its population was in-

by 3.8% annually, which could mean doubling in 19 years. In contrast to Kuwait, however, Costa Rica's per capita GNP was $400. In many ways this Central American nation typified the rapidly growing less developed nations. It had a ''young" population: about 48% of its people were under 15. in contrast to 30% in the U.S. and 21% in Sweden. Thus its growth potential was much higher than in the "older countries" of Europe and North America or Japan and Israel in Asia. At the other end of the scale were East Germany and Hungary, which were increasing by only 0.3 and 0.4%, respectively. East Germany, with an older population attributed to the loss of youth to West Germany, had a death rate that equaled its birthrate: each was 14.3 per 1.000. Some emigrants creasing

were returning to the country, but if the current growth pattern continued, it would take 233 years for East Germany to double its population. As of 1970. the fastest growth was in Latin America, where people were being added at an average annual rate of 2.9%. The 1970 population was estimated at 293 million. Average birthrates were about 38 and average death rates, 9. Africa, however, had the greatest

growth potential. It had the highest vital world average birthrates of 47 and high

rates in the

—

The introduction

from 13.4 Poland and in England and W'ales to 23.3 in Romania and 26.1 in Israel. Birthrates in the U.S. and the Soviet Union were moderately low, 17.7 and 17.2, respectively. Both countries were growing by 1% annually, and at that rate in

Luxembourg and

16.3 in

double in 70 years. China, the country with the world's largest popu-

their populations could

was growing at a rate 1.8% annually, which meant that its population could double in 39 years. India had 537 million people and the potential for adding an equal number in 27 years if its 2.6% growth rate continued. The next lation (827 million people),

of

ranking nations were the Soviet Union, 242 million; the U.S., 205 mUlion; Indonesia, 121 million; Pakistan. 114 million; Japan, 103 million;

and

Brazil, 91

million.

—

Of the world's largest nations, the richest the Japan, and the Soviet Union were growing most slowly. All had per capita GNPs of approximately $1,000 or more. They would double their populations in no less than 63 years (Japan) and no more than 30% of their populations were under 15 years

—

U.S.,

of age.

Among

the poorer nations the doubling of

population would occur in a quarter of a centur>' or less: per capita GNP was often below $250: and

almost one-half the population was under 15. Preliminary returns from the U.S. decennial census, taken on April 1, 1970, suggested that the nation's population had risen by 25 million since 1960. First reports, which did not include Americans overseas and

members

armed

of the

forces, indicated

200 million

people, and the final figure was exiiected to be about

205 million. The fastest growth was reported in the far Western states, Florida, Alaska. Maryland, Delaware, New Hampshire, Hawaii, Connecticut, and New Jersey,

The population

trends of the post-World

War

II

period were accentuated as Americans continued to move out of rural areas, small towns, and large, older

and into suburban areas within large metropoli-

cities

of im-

tan centres. Preliminary indications were that suburbia

proved medical care to Africa would result in an immense increase in the rate of growth, which in 1970 was 2.6%. Within Africa were countries whose birthrates were at the upper physiological limits of reproduction. Dahomey's estimated birthrate, for example, was 54, and Niger, Sudan, and Rwanda each had 52. Guinea had the highest death rate in the world, 40, and Dahomey, Burundi, and Cameroon each had an

had grown by 28%, or 2^ times faster than the U.S. as a whole. In 1970 about 40% of the nation's popu-

death rates averaging 20.

estimated rate of 26. In most of these countries a high percentage of the population

44%. They

15; the

had suggesting that between

average for the continent was high infant mortality rates,

was under

also

one-tenth to one-quarter of infants died before they

were one year old. In Dahomey the infant mortality rate was 259 per 1,000 live births. In the U.S. it was 20.8 per 1,000 live births and in Norway, 13.7. Because of increased concern over the implications of a population boom, national birth-control efforts

continued on page 607

The Ten Largest Naliont I. by Area and by Population*

Table Rar 1

2 3 4

Area

k

U.S.S.R.

Canada China United Slolei

5

Brazil

i

Australia

7

India

8

Argentine

9 10

Sudan Algeria

*Areai ore

in

Rank

sq.mi.

8,600,350 3,851,809 3,691,501

Chino

2

India

U.S S R, 4 United Stotei 5 Indonesia

3

3,615,2)0t 3,286,470 2,967,909 1,232,560 1,072,157 967,491 919,590

lolait officiol

1

6

Pakistan

7

Japan

8

Brazil

9

Nigeria

10

Germany, West

Population

827,000,000^ 536,984,0007 241,748,000 204,765,770 121,089,000 114,188,612 103,012,811 90,840,000 66,174,000 61,194,600

data avoilablo; populations ore 1970

estimotej.

tl969 estimate. lExcludes Great Lakes waters and

territorial sea,

94,485 sq.mi.

601

Populations and Areas

Table

World Cenxu* Data

II.

AGE DISTRIBUTION

ENUMERATED POPULATION POLITICAL UNIT Ators & Issas Albania Algerio

964

1

9jJq

Male

Total

census 1

82,100 626^315 833 1 26

•)

1 1

834,384 6,079,900 14,450 2,459,015 25,230 '

American Samoa Angola Antiguo Argentina Australia Austria Bahama Islands

970 I960 1960 1960 966 1

Barbados Belgium

1

Bermuda Botswona

1960 1 964 T960 1960 1959

Brazil British British

Honduras Solomon Islands

British Virgin Islands Brunei Bulgaria

Cambodia Canoda Canal Zone

Cope Verde

Cayman

Islonds Islands

Ceylon Channel Islands Guernsey Jersey Chile

4,830,449t 54!060t '

961

1 960 960 1965 1962 1966 1960

1

730,800 2,335,200 14^195 1 ,421,966 16,873

10.6 60.1

5,772,043§ 3,392,488 1,660,615 57,4521 83,667

3,663, 094§ 3,284,073 2,683,593 20,8441 17,947 54,809}

7,599,071 4,856,455 3,369,815 51^948 50,935 85,040

1,460,541

3,512,463 19,498 250,678 22,651,263 26,029 8,000

253,922 309 227,009 11,697,798 8,833 3,061

2 128 24 830 4,267'793

1,891 !398

2,333,846 14,199 242,424 29,931,4811 40,369 64,940

3,543,729 18,179 204,797 32,976,8691 34,615 43,960

3,312,166 9,470 80,198 7,210,7211

3 930

43 676 67 2,880,780

12 1 43 6 46.4 16.0

2,737 33^059}

U,Uj4,J*l4

73 6

23,278

31.9

808 1 1,709} 2,326^372 845,600} 5,097,437} 7,0301

94,027 3,974 J,DUJ,UUU

23.2 41.4

33.3

7,338

4,11 4'l

I

83.2 50.1 24.011

20

1

9.6

46.3 53.7 2.3

3,793 39!l09t 2,112^364 2,513,300} 6,591,757} 15,2041

42,122t 199,661

1961 1961

47,099 63,550

22,718 30,715

374 115

o Ai o ,ou/ on? o,o ^

8,51 It

960

7

1

1

16,140

2,381,215} 8,325,686} 19,8881 '

69,8169

99,023 9 3,020

,

68 2

3 075 036

3,062,1 43

1

8

AAR

368 468

1

,093 046 7,1 85 13^468

1,326 732

322 1,8000 3,364,232 3,329 2,508

629 317

107 5,1 71

1,124,885

01 n

1

,101 ,553

42,387

1,294

970A,OUUO flnn^ ,A/

1

1

'

258,1 70

'3,259

'2,028

9 TPR AA7 A, JOO,DO/

662 379

51 9,974

0H,UJ7 395,273

2 427 059 '194^309

46^459

30,696

236 936

,959 041

1

336

105,570

18,427t 25,373

1

5,882 4,348 22^440

3,132 2 542 920

,

183,500 3,674 26,508 4,084

767,604

1

S64 J7U 590 JC*

17,410} 25,643

ll,262t 12,534

1,300,000 1,218 944,716 12,564

17,085

1,976 11

Agriculture

A A^R 1 DO "lA 0,4D0,

29,3589

3,515 4,408 550

4 61 6 920

8.8

15,521

3,789j30

'

1960 1960 1 963

1

1,744,800 2,980} 641,440} 9,942

66.4

8,227366

m

4,387,700 10,865} 2,177,631} 20,964

4,496,860 21,233 264,535 35,010,717 44,659 65,550

1

5,740.115 on A oon

5,947,800 13,1451 2,011,378t 23,154

57.4 30.9

88,882t

89 741 42 640 543 105 70,119!o71t 90^505 124,076 9

Totol

1

1

40.3

1 82,2Q3t 232^327

7^073^807 1 3o]220t

46 and over

to

28'o

Mining and manufacturing

6 to 45

urban*

10,486,674§ 4,873,899 2,729,599 51,9241 80,589 88,636}

10,034,544 5,816,359 3^296,400 63,435 99,384 105,519

20 008,945 550,462 1 1

961

1963 1965 1960

Bahrain

27,'769t

1

1

ECONOMICALLY ACTIVE

Percent

Year of

Christmas Island

Costa Rica

Cyprus Czechoslovakia

Denmark Dominico Dominican Republic Ecuodor El

Salvador

1964 1963

1

961

965

HO ,J' 1 4 767 ^^97

I960 1962

59 91 3,047^070 4,476,007

1

1

Fill

Finland

Fronce French Guiana French Polynesia

Gabon Gambia, The Germany, East Germany, West Ghana Gibraltar Gilbert and Ellice Islands

Greece Greenland

Grenada Guadeloupe

Guam Guatemala

1

J,'

245 989

'

962 1960-61

1963 1 964 1961

1960 1

31 5 1

1961

965 960 967 1 960 1964

31 2

1960 961

1

966

1 71 X

1

961

Iceland

1

966

India

1961

Indonesia Iran

1961

Jamaica Japan Jordan Kenya Korea, South Kuv/ait

Lesotho

966 965 966 966

43 3

40,660 59,760

8 2 45.8

724f

1962 1 966 1965

1957 1960 1965 1967

1

2,172,'456

279 1 28 939 029 oon 07n

,884,765

^nn

1

7 ,70 ,U44 10/. OTi 70,7 JJ

76 744

1

4,0U4,U4J

1

1

1

1

J,

,51

1

011,819

322 421

807 092

,

Oflo nnnll ADA, UUU||

693 1 1 504^820 800,390

215,617

486

104,227

820710 1,442,591

1 1

22 477

5t

623,342

37,71

Ano nnnll

9*11 ,\J\J\Jl\ 9 nnnii Z,ZJ

3877301

81 *279

93 287

241 823

25,298t

,596,000|[ 1 1

1

58390

21

568'^

'^'^fl

1

1

1

1

831 849

17 9nfl n';9t

55,834}

ill ,UOO.j. HAAt H A ,4 ^1 n 01 U,7 91 ,Uj4 D^A A7fi A OOA 071 t

1

3

.3", .340^

01

1^71

11

11

5

nnfiii JJ,UUU||

*;p7 ,uuu nnn J, DO/ 11 ,

2 500|] 1 40 721 onp nnn A,yuo,uuu 282 1 68

3 1 1

SRI ni JO ,0 J 1

1

709

21 5

730

A noA -aoo *(,U70, J7Z

DO, OQA A" 4, DO J

42,458,049

13,316,102

1

9 AO! n'lA x,0 7 ,UOO 1

AQ'^ ATn ,47 J,0 JU

1

26 304

087

51

895

2 ^57

535

41

1,362^669

1 1

174 730 567^988

59 790

Al^A 7on ,4D4,/ JU

"^27970 1 fl79 7on ,0/ A,/ JU

019A,OJ flOl 3,0

1

1

QaO AAA ,70\J,HhO 3 651

85 874J

228f 1 53

99 TT^ 7A, 1 49 4Z,OJO

1

I

15 219

551,519}

z!o'ocn 64j,850 T Al A J, 170 / J,0

yl;in

1

1

7 321

1,786^505^

496

8,601

"3

715

21,512

267 257

1

ATP AOl JOjOU 0,0

9 9fl'i An9A Z,ZO J,OU 4 757 15 937J

30,47 2t 26 281 X 31

259 228J 940 827 1

1

,

'^97 ,0 9A OOP AO, DA/ AO 9 OOA A,/79T AJ,UAO

13,121

71Q 437 1 5 752 1

1,949,395}

5 5

273 9 484 153,414

1 An nnnli OU,iJUU 7 / A^^? OD/ ,/7flA 00

1

1

7 OnO 0')y( /,7UJ, JA4

1

3

'

42 268}

86 9 39 7

1

25 593

1

10,451 AAA CM 444,3

81

0101 J AU J , oon 0,

1

17,'l30t

2 392 51 1 9 091

1

1

720

311,'959

1

O,O.j0,U/ J

""359 656,921

1

8721 3 643 98^079 6

22 935 570 2,894,238} 9 336

1

"'930 125,809 9 nOT z,UJ J, 9AP AOO 1 OAl ,0D R'^9 7,70 A 1 1 981

97*^ 1ft9

1

90 ASS Sd4t 14,2961 34 591 210,611

118 586t A 9A9 941 19 OH,/7fl4 X, 1 Ri Ot 2,996,506} 5 456 20,323}

33.6

1

991

790 96nt 1 2,1 271 45 232 135^574

1 1

470^ 53,112

*i,'l34'

190,543

232,826

1

i

32 371 45 779 1 1

1

07n0,70/ 0fl7 ,J/

1

,^^0

Ol,^*

77H-

96,318,829

1 1

8 261 1 00,1

AA*? Z, Ofll 70 ,00 1

24,791,683

47.7

773 439 AO A A A AlZ 4o,z44,44j 867 597

32.0

A 07A OA"! 4,Z/ 0,70^3

7 8

1

r

]

07yl 0na

^

pnee a be mAer.*lIllO^>3b tOai auiUy ibeee juH foe *—p'""^ puipcHt Br il»ppu>9 *r«anj, * penoa een ooellr

nee

t ceiuple of

quotei

WieJ

penon

will

i

Uie lypKal

Bem^ a

ouXe by puictusn;

m

tin cai

Utrougb CJe.'Tuier' '

Today you

ifle

I

huaHrel dolWi

ffiheliBpnce

»e

9»ei

^ WoMwet

aeiaqi depend on

h^hlj compeatiee etee

oQ gee e ne» cee

mvdenuixl >I>e< Uai meani Tlie lot pey^ toe t Foed ^^bndc fom-doot Tbundetbinl u SSta2 Deelef icon u end .1 i S4139 The J401* Add

ay

ibe

Ejn-

peiee-bke Ibe MeJweit So i* gne one fiqoie WMld be unpooible OwtelL 1 wouW ay ihet *o indmduei ceo aye

betweeo IZOO and SSOO

peK* So c ao( only nuke bui he geli oee Deeleey elio he lia

I

I

cher^, end

le

d

Tiod e Uxal deele>-e

ofi

m aL*

Fool,

eedcr a

full line

end efeireotKl

adtf

Ibe cie

^ opuom. end you Ge d yoo

11

i

Uum^ CeeiTuie

teinq ibe quoie

m youi tocal d

Bj^ectuy] public.

proyyled by Cei/Puiee enJl jiee

•

After several years of increasing de-

mand, the market was glutted with new ventures in winter 1970-71, several of which fell well below sales targets.

Both the left-wing

New

Statesman and the con-

servative Spectator changed editors during the year.

Richard Grossman, Labour's secretary for health and social security, announced after his party lost the June general election that he had already accepted the editorship of the New Statesman. Nigel Lawson, the Spectator s editor, left after a policy disagreement with its owner, and there was a long, rumourfilled gap before George Gale, a professional journalist but with no editorial experience, accepted the post in September. A new left-wing monthly, the Spokesman, founded by Bertrand Russell, was begun in February, after his death. In West Germany, Axel Springer made the headlines with a short-lived linkup with his nearest rival.

1969 had acquired a 25% Gruner and Jahr, owners of Stern, a weekly with political views diametrically opposed to those of Springer, was to have acquired a onethird interest in Springer's empire for $85 million. The deal was canceled by Springer when he found out that Bertelsmann and Gruner and Jahr were plotting for control of his most influential daily. Die

Bertelsmann, which in

interest

refusal

to

heed warnings that the

for

new

editions

and translations of

all

of John

countries crash literacy and higher education programs created a need for books of all kinds, especially in English, which was becoming securely established as the world's main second language.

Preoccupation with international

-KONETSWORTH

"Moneysworth," a new consumer newsletter, made the claim that it could increase the buying power of its readers by 15%. in installments.

after

Galsworthy's works. In the highly industrialized countries new markets were being opened up by the spread of education and leisure, while in the less developed

I

Pul» wiH all OD Uojtvl Aoio boken

i

1969, Yuri Rybakov, editor of theatre journal, Teatr, was

leading

journal was making serious ideological mistakes, while Aleksandr T. Tvardovski (see Biography), independent-minded editor of the literary journal Novy Mir, resigned in February 1970. Also in the U.S.S.R., the first foreign publication devoted entirely to the U.S. began publication. In October, Literarni Listy, former weekly of the Czechoslovak Writers' Union, reappeared, published not from Prague but from "somewhere in Europe." (X.) Books. More books were being produced in 1970 than ever before and demand was growing for new books, new editions and reprints, and larger editions, especially in English. It was also apparent that the spread of television had, contrary to expectation, increased the demand for books. The worldwide popularity of the British televised version of The Forsyte Saga, for instance, had created an unprecedented de-

mand U

December

U.S.S.R.'s

in

Zeit.

In France, Jean-Paul Sartre added to his nominal editorship of the extreme left-wing journal

La Cause du peuple, that of the new Tout, founded by Maoist fellow travelers. In Spain, the popular weekly Sabado Grafico was banned for four months in April, al-

—publish—but actually

legedly for offenses against public morals ing photographs of a girl in a bikini

for attacks on the Cabinet as dominated by the Opus Dei technocrats. In September, two weeks after its reappearance, it was banned again, with no reason

tinued during 1970.

New

copyright

con-

printing techniques and dis-

tribution methods were geared to the production, at an economic price, of enough books, in larger editions, to meet the growing demand, and mergers and amalgamations were stimulated by the need to spread overheads and reduce wastage. International publishing operations for the simultaneous production of books in several languages using the same format and illustrations were another aspect of the attempt to provide large

quantities of cheap, well-produced books.

Increased production was generally accompanied by increased exports. In 1969, the U.K. published 32,39S titles, topping its 1968 record by nearly 1,000. Of a total turnover of some £142 million, compared with £137 million in 1968, £81 million was in foreign exchange, a £12 million increase over 1968. The value of exports exceeded that of imports for the second straight year and. during October

exports represented

47%

1968-October 1969,

of total sales.

West Germany and France, internal mergamalgamations of production and distribution, and take-overs, some by U.S. firms, were increasing. Production in West Germany reached a new record of 35,577 titles and total turnover was up by about 5%. Both exports and imports were up; exports, at DM. 544.7 million, by DM. 54.2 million and imports, at DM. 182.4 million, by DM. 29.6 million. In France, titles produced dropped to about 22,000 but total turnover was up by 8%, with exports up by 5%. French publishing was suffering increasingly from large-scale selling methods, including cut-price offers that undermined sales and price structures, and from the mechanical reproduction by universities and both public and private institutions of whole works or important sections of works. Another problem was the use of mass advertising, which made a book a best seller artificially and forced every other book off the market. For example, Henri Charriere's Papillon sold more than a million copies in France alone in 1969 and accounted for 10% of all sales of literary works. By 1970, it was a best seller in several countries. In both

ers,

625

Publishing

Of Spain's 1969 total of 125 million volumes (an 11.6% increase over 1968), 35 million were exported, an increase in terms of foreign exchange earned of 24%. Imports rose less steeply, by 13.7%. Although exports were to Latin America, most imports came from other European countries. Titles published showed only a slight 20,031 books and pamphlets increase over 1968, but numbers of copies per edition were higher. Production in Switzerland in 1969 rose by 15%,

—

to a record of 6,028 titles,

and exports

rose, reach-

ing a value of SFr. 129.7 million (1968, SFr.

and attempts

to persuade the U.S.S.R. to sign one

of the existing conventions. In October 1969 the joint

study group set up by the two conventions, meeting Washington, D.C., recommended replacement of the Stockholm Protocol by less sweeping relaxations. After prolonged negotiations with the less developed at

countries, revisions that would help provide books without endangering the basic principle of copyright were accepted in principle in September 1970. A conference of both conventions, to meet in Paris, JuneJuly 1971, was expected to confirm these proposals.

121.9

Injections of U.S. capital into British publishing

There was an unusually high increase of 30.7% in books published in Italian and French (up 27%). Italian book production also rose, to 14,000 titles from 11,000, with the greatest increase for literary works (3,060 new titles, or 26.3% of 1968's total output). In Denmark, production increased by only 6 titles, to 4,978, of which 809 were paperbacks (1968, 959). There was a fall in production in the U.S.S.R., from more than 75,000 books and pamphlets to about

continued in 1970, allowing U.S. publishers to gain a foothold in the rapidly expanding European market

million).

74.500.

An

international

Book Exhibition

in

Moscow

April-May 1970, at which books from 35 countries were shown, marked the Lenin centenary. Lenin's complete works were published in 30 languages of the Soviet Union and 22 foreign languages in 1969 and in English, French, and Finnish in 1970. More

in

translated books were published in the U.S.S.R. than in

any other country. In 1969, 321 editions of general

foreign fiction were produced.

and printed in Australia. The market as a whole, however, was expanding, with imports up from A$38.4 million to A$43.6 million for the year ended

The

rector of the U.S.

30, 1970.

International April

death to forestall other offers. The only danger had been from the U.S. firm McGrawHill, which had stepped up its share in Penguin to more than 17%. The struggle between Leasco Data Processing Equipment Corp. of New York and Robert Maxwell for control of Pergamon Press ended in November after a year of revelations and recriminations. Maxwell, founder of Pergamon, had announced his intention to regain, with U.S. or other backing, the chairmanship he lost in October 1969. He also resisted all attempts to dislodge him as managing diafter his real

In Australia, where sales were declining and overheads rising, publishing companies reported a sharp drop in profits in 1969, and statistics showed a decline in sales of A$106,000; exports fell steeply. The government set up a tariff board inquiry and, as an interim measure, agreed to pay a 25% bounty, with a ceiling of A$1.5 million, on all books typeset

June

At the same time, howamalgamations and new, independent British publishing companies, often headed by young, unconventional owners, were formed to withstand U.S. take-overs. The year's most interesting take-over in the U.K. was a take-over in reverse, by which, after the death in July of its founder, former chairman, and majority shareholder, Sir Allen Lane (see Obituaries), Penguin Books, Ltd., world pioneer of quality paperbacks, merged with Pearson Longman, bookpublishing subsidiary of S. Pearson & Son. Longman, Britain's second largest book publisher after the Oxford University Press, was willing to guarantee maintenance of the individual character of Penguin Books. The deal, planned by Lane, was announced the day for English-language books.

ever,

book

fairs

International

continued to proliferate. Children's

Book

Fair

at

Bologna, Italy, had become a firm date for publishers, with a record of 220 from 22 countries participating in 1970. The lifting of the East German quota restrictions on book imports early in the year made the February Leipzig Spring Book Fair more international than in previous years. The Frankfurt (W.Ger.) Book Fair held its position as main meeting

by

the

reaudit

Pergamon

Pergamon Press, Inc., 70% owned Press. The climax came when a

of Pergamon's profits

to

September 1969,

requested by Leasco, disclosed a £2

million

loss;

a substantial loss was also forecast for 1970. Leasco, which now owned 35% of Pergamon shares, decided that the position was more complex than when it had made a bid for full control, and withdrew. Meanwhile, Maxwell founded a new specialized publishing company. Sciences, Engineering, Medical and Busi-

place for the world's publishers, with 3,384 publishers

ness Data.

from 66 countries represented in September 1970. Copyright was again the year's biggest international problem. The differences between the Bern Convention and the Universal Copyright Convention (UCC) had become obvious in 1967 when the Stockholm Protocol was added to the Bern Union copyright

The British Printing Corporation (BPC), which had acquired control of the International Learning Systems Corporation (ILSC) from Pergamon, was

convention to help less developed countries acquire easily the books needed for their education

more

programs. Further difficulties had resulted from infringements of copyright by countries not signatories to either convention, from an increase of unauthorized reproduction of copyright material in the U.S. (a

adhered that

UCC,

while most European countries Bern Convention), and from the fact the U.S.S.R. was not bound by either conven-

signatory to

to the

tion.

A U.S. -U.K. publishers' conference in England in June 1969 had urged union of the two conventions

also in difficulties.

ILSC

of £1 million, forced

losses,

BPC

dends and to downgrade

BPC

was

also suffering

to its

running at the rate

cut

its

midyear diviin ILSC.

investment

from a heavy commitment

part-work publication and the failure of an in(See Magazines, ternational part-work venture.

to

above.)

The Reed group's take-over of the IPC led to a power in British book publishing. (See Newspapers, above.) Paul Hamlyn, who had become an shift of

IPC director and its books division manager, resigned May, and in September joined Rupert Murdoch's News of the World Organisation Ltd. as joint manin

aging director.

There was a power change,

too, in

Soviet book

when the deputy editor of the official Communist Party newspaper, Pravda, was appointed chairman of the Committee on the Press, controller

627

publishing,

of publishing firms throughout the U.S.S.R., and head of the Soviet Union's publishing industry. Although there was a tendency to relax rules against obscene publications, political censorship continued

Publishing

Scanlan^s Volume One Number One k: i.> rt oi!>'

A-

CO.

V.

,

.

...u,

X

34694

V.'.

The Oxford University Press had to publish two editions of its Oxford History of South Africa, deleting a chapter on the rise of African nationalism from the version distributed in South Africa. Books in 1970.

on Che Guevara and Frantz Fanon were also banned in South Africa. A French edition of a book by Brazilian revolutionary Carlos Manguela, first published in January by Editions du Seuil and banned by the Interior Ministry, appeared again in July with the imprint of 23 other publishers. Penguin Books' Australian company was prosecuted for pub(X.) lishing Philip Roth's Portnoy's Complaint. In the U.S., according to Publishers' Weekly, the

books published hovered around 30,000 for the third straight year. In 1969, 21,787 new titles and 7,792 new editions were published for a total of 29,579 titles, compared with 30,387 in 1968. These figures did not include government publications or works other than encyclopaedias sold only by subscription. Inflation, however, forced total total

number

of

1969, estimated at $2,765,000,000, up over 1968 receipts of $2,568,300,000. U.S. titles published in the first three quarters of publishers' receipts for

1970 totaled 24,629 and included 16,225 new titles and 8,404 new editions. The Census of Manufacturers report released in October 1969 and covering 1967 showed that publishers' dollar sales had increased 37.3% since 1963, the previous census year. Surveys of publishers indicated that 1968-69 net sales of trade and general books increased 8.9%. Adult trade hardbound books showed increases of 14.9% in dollar sales and 10.9%

number of copies sold. The number of corporate mergers and

in the

candid about who controls this new magazine. Over 700 people in these United States bought stocit in a put>lic issue floated by our undenATrilerFrantcly. we don't even know the names

1970,

contrast to the flurry of such activity that

had

begun in 1966 when publishing became a good business investment because of increased federal spending on education. Despite anxiety that a publisher's creativity and independence would be threatened in a large, diverse corporate structure, the

Ijefore they

and we know of no editors with sulftcient nerve or desire to fight such pressure before the public put up its money, So torial policy,

this

because, even

autonomy

most book divisions involved in such mergers to date continued to be preserved. In 1969 Dell Publishing purchased the remaining 40% of the Dial Press. Crowell-Coliier & Macmillan bought G. Schirmer, Benziger Brothers, and a British house, Cassell. Intext added John Day Co. and Chandler-Davis Publishing. Quadrangle Books was sold to the New York Times Co., while Harper & Row acquired Basic Books. Harcourt, Brace & World acquired Academic Press, Psychological Corp., and Arco Publishing, and in 1970 changed its name to Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. McGraw-Hill bought American Heritage Publishing Co., whose president, James Parton, was named president of Encyclopaedia Britannica Educational Corp. in 1970. W. W. Norton sold its children's books department to Grosset and Dunlap. Harrison-Blaine purchased Liveright Publishing, and Meredith Press sold its trade books divi-

Hawthorn Books.

There were even fewer acquisitions in 1970, perhaps because fewer companies were available. Nonetheless, Atheneum merged with the Lexington, Mass.,

we are not ones to look

a gift magazine in the mouth. Then again, we think we

But

pulled off quite a caper in this otherwise co-opted world of publishing. Since the halcyon days of the great muckraking journals of half a century

We

do

in.

investors.

at $3 a share, the two editors bought enough stock at a nickel to give them control of the magazir>e. had to borrow to

bought

We would be dishonest if we didn't allow our surprise at getting this sort of dough with no strings attached. This was a wingdinger of a stock issue to come through the great Bear Market of 1969. especially considering the wellkrrawn economic sand traps that magazines have become. Then there was the implicit promise by the editors of Scantan's Monthly to carry out an unreasonable editorial policy which would vilify the institutions so dear to Itie hearts of most

Our deal with the underwriter was that the editors have absolute and dictatorial control of the magazine. Such vrrgin promises of editonal freedom are usually a joke. There are few investors or owners who can conquer the very human temptation to influence edi-

from relatives

nickel, effective control of a publicly

owned publishing company takes cash. All this was fully disclosed to the public

of our stockholders. ryioreover, we don't care.

at

[Continued on Bacl< Cover)

COURTESY, SCANLAN'S LITERARY HOUSE, INC,

The of

first issue

"Scanlan's," a

new

monthly magazine of criticism

and investigative journalism edited by Warren Hinckle III, former editorial director and president

"Ramparts," and Sidney E. Zion, former "New Yofk Times"

of

reporter.

textbook house D. C. Heath & Co., a division of Raytheon Education Co.. and Simon & Schuster first announced a merger with Norton Simon, Inc., but later agreed to join the Kinney National Service, Inc.

conglomerate that owned Warner Brothers.

The most

interesting aspect of U.S.

book publish-

1969 was the reversal of the 20-year trend for nonfiction to outsell fiction by about two to one. The ten best-selling nonfiction books, usually a list ing in

dominated by "how to" books, only outsold the ten top fiction titles

1969 nonfiction

list

by

more than 2%. The "how to" American Heritage Dic-

little

contained only five

and was headed by the of the English Language, which recorded 440,000 sales. More copies of the books on the 1969 fiction list were sold than in 1968 and, curiously, more of the books had been panned by the critics. tionary

The top

fiction title, Philip

plaint, sold

Roth's Portnoy's

418,000 copies. Other best sellers

in

Com1969

were Hard-cover fiction: The Godfather by Mario Puzo; The Love Machine by Jacqueline Susann; The Inheritors by Harold Robbins; The Andromeda Strain by Michael Crichton; The Seven Minutes by Irving Wallace; Naked Came the Stranger by Penelope Ashe; The Promise by Chaim Potok; The Pretenders by Gwen Davis; and The House on the Strand by Daphne du Maurier. Hard-cover nonfiction: In Someone's Shadow by Rod McKuen; The Peter Principle by Laurence J. Peter and Raymond Hull; Between Parent and Teenager by Haim G. Ginott; The Graham Kerr Cookbook; The Selling

of

sion to

a

titles

acquisitions

declined in 1969 and dropped off sharply in in

We must be fiercely

owns and

of the President 1968 by Joe McGinniss; Miss Craig's lor Men and Women by Marjorie Craig; My Lije and Prophecies by Jeane Dixon with Rene Noorbergen; Linda Goodman's Sun Signs; and Twelve Years of Christmas also by Rod McKuen.

21-Day Shape-Up Program

Books

that sold well in hard-cover did even better paperback, an example being Couples by John Updike. The demand for publication of black history,

in

and literature paid off in best sellers by such black writers as LeRoi Jones, Malcolm X, and Eldridge Cleaver. Fantasy also did well, particularly

culture,

among

shown by sales of books Prince, and of Frank Her-

college age readers, as

by Tolkien, of The bert's Dune. See also Law.

Little

(P. B. St.)

Puerto Rico: see

Dependent States

Qatar: see

Dependent States

Quakers: see

Religion

628

Tanzanian Pres. Julius Nyerere's African socialism

Race Relations The worldwide resurgence

of nationalism continued

increasingly emphaand revolution rather than the manipulation of existing legislative and other peaceful levers. Bombings, hijackings, kidnappings, terrorism, and verbal aggression increased, and small extremist in

1970.

Dissident

minorities

sized violence

groups within the minorities sought to exploit the grievances of the larger group to achieve a base for continuing revolution against "imperialism" and neocolonialism. Their activities drew attention to the plight of the minorities concerned, but also

provoked

repressive countermeasures and sometimes strength-

ened the opposing extremist factions. The Soviet Union's approach to the third world remained an uneasy amalgam of expedience and doctrine as Moscow kept one eye cast on competitive Chinese activities, particularly in Africa. While Soviet propaganda in general advocated Pan-African unity, sohdarity with the Communist world in an "antiimperialist"

and

front,

the

"progressive national" regimes,

encouragement it

also continued

attacks on African forms of socialism.

Union remained only

The

of its

Soviet

indirectly concerned with help-

ing the "liberation" forces of Africa and Asia.

Mean-

whose offer of more than $400 million to Tanzania and Zambia to construct their railway was finally accepted in July, continued to accuse the Soviet Union of obstructing the African liberation struggle and of pursuing neo-colonialist policies, espewhile, China,

cially

in

On

Nigeria.

the

some African resentment Soviet

influence

outside

of a

hot breakfasts for schoolchildren

and taught

'"liberation"

classes stressing Puerto Rican culture.

WIDE WORLD

vast

in

government

reshuffles in

such Soviet republics as Moldavia, Azerbaijan, and the Ukraine, and solidarity among Soviet Jews also

was reinforced by official anti-Zionism. Double standards and overemphasis of black-white conflict were noted in many international councils. Preparations to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the United Nations included the rejection by Soviet-bloc and nonaligned members of the preparatory commission of a proposal to insert in the commemorative address the words: "This Assembly is opposed to oppression and tyranny everywhere."

South Africa. Two important but potentially selfbecame increasingly discernible in

cancelling trends

1970. Certain Afrikaner intellectuals began to cize the policy of separate

development of the

criti-

races,

maintaining that there had arisen a "credibility gap"

and the

official

statements. These utili-

tarianism similar to that displayed earlier by Englishspeaking economic liberals. Schalk Pienaar, editor

(OAU), meetsummit

of Die Beeld, told the government to stop playing poker with the public and face the fact that "we have a permanent black urban population." The editor of Dagbreek also expressed deep concern about the country's manpower shortage, calling on the government to revise the whole question of labour and to determine the "safe margin" for absorbing non-

that

northern Mozambique, which was regarded

Mozam-

bique and to help white South Africa economically.

war ended in January, and projects for relief, rehabilitation, and reconciliation gradually got under way. In Kenya and Uganda the dispossession of the Asian minority continued. Uganda strained relations with Kenya and Tanzania by dismissing large numbers of their nationals, because of massive unemployment and a serious financial crisis. civil

unrest, there were frequent

of

as likely to entrench the Portuguese firmly in

The Nigerian

national and religious

facts

Portuguese-inspired Cahorabassa hydroelectric

scheme

many

continued to seek greater political and cultural autonomy in opposition to the government's continued campaign against "bourgeois nationalism" (there were no non-Europeans among full members of the central party Politburo). As a result of this

displayed a spirit of enlightened

conference of nonaligned states, which met later in Lusaka, Zambia, both concentrated on the racial conflict in southern Africa. A particular target was the Young Lords, part

In the Soviet Union minorities

intellectuals

ing in Addis Ababa, Eth., in August, and the

group of 105 arrested for occupying the First Spanish Methodist Church in East Harlem, leave a New York City court building on Jan. 7, 1970. During their 11-day sit-in the group provided

bean.

interference,

China waned. of African Unity

of racial integration. From his base in Guinea, U.S. black militant Stokely Carmichael made a tour of Guyana in an attempt to import his violent Black Power doctrine and Pan- Africanism into the Carib-

between the

increased in Africa while

The Organization

name

despite

whole, however, at

was marred by bizarre events in Zanzibar, where elderly, much-married government officials were forcibly marrying young girls of Iranian descent on the island and decreeing compulsory intermarriage in the

whites into jobs currently reserved for whites.

Meanwhile, African groups were tending to withdraw from cooperation with white liberal integrationists and to set up separate bodies. African students set up an all-black, independent South African Students' Organization, aimed at crystallizing the needs and aspirations of black students and establishing a solid identity

among them. The

proliferation of Afri-

can Independent churches continued, but after a split with the African Independent Churches Association

(AICA), attributed to internal leadership disputes, some breakaway churches began to cooperate with the major Dutch Reformed Church (NGK). The number of nonwhite adherents of the NGK in South Africa was reported to be nearly half a million and increasing so fast that it had passed the number of whites.

For the white population,

at least, the early

months

of the year were focused on the general election, called over a year ahead of schedule, largely,

thought, to enable Prime Minister B.

smoke out and then crush

J.

the verkrampte

it

was

Vorster to

("cramped"

or conservative) elements within his party.

Many

of

by Albert Hertzog {see Biography), left the party in October 1969 to form the Reconstituted National Party (HNP). Half a year of infighting then these, led

ensued

between the verligte

verkranipte elements, and in to

I

crush the

HNP

("enlightened") its

and

successful attempt

challenge the Nationalist establish-

ment went all out to woo the more conservative voters. This campaign resulted in some very tough policy statements and in such measures as the further tightening of the job reservation laws, which excluded urban Africans from an additional range of occupations; the Bantu Laws Amendment Act gave the minister of Bantu administration complete control over the employment of Africans as telephonists, hotel receptionists, shop cashiers, and related urban jobs. The HNP was soundly defeated, but in achieving

for

The

latter

were

criticized

discriminatory and brutal behaviour, but

ap-

peared to be making serious efforts to improve matters.

The Race Relations Board's

analysis of complaints

received during the 12 months to

March

31,

1970,

and some alarm. The

first figures

from the national

showed a total of 1,870 complaints, including 935 from Greater London. Opinions were formed on a total of 432 nonemployment complaints, of which 299 related to the provision of goods, facilities, and services. Unlawful discrimination was found in 56 of these cases. Only 5 complaints concerned the sale of private houses, with three positive opinions. Of 116 complaints of unlawful advertisements, 111 were judged discriminatory. Out of 550 employment complaints on which an opinion was formed, discrimination was adjudged in 68 cases. For the Community Relations Commission, the year was one of consolidation and advance. By the end of March, 47 out of about 80 councils had full-time community relations

May showed

an expected

30%

officers,

this

objective the Nationalist Party largely negated

Hendrik F. Verwoerd's

1966 breakthrough to the

English-speaking voters and lost nine seats to the

United Party opposition, while Helen Suzman {see Biography), the Progressive Party's sole represen1

teenagers. Relations between these teenagers and the police were deteriorating.

tative in Parliament, nearly tripled her majority.

A

report in September caused political controversy

census in

overall popu-

with an additional 11 approved.

"new Commonwealth" immi-

to 21.3 mil-

The

total

number

But the percentage increase in the different racial groups was not proportional: the African population increased by 36.3%, from 10.9 miUion to 14.9 million; the Coloured (racially mixed) population from 1.5 million to 2 million; and the Asians from 477,000 to

grants

{i.e.,

excluding those from Australia, Canada,

lation increase

from 16 million

in

1960

lion.

614,000.

By

of

contrast, the white population increased

by only 22.4%, from 3.1 million to 3.8 million. The whites thus declined by 1.5% to 17.8% of the total. figures were also given for Africans in "white" areas and "homelands," showing that the absolute number of Africans in white areas had risen from 6.8 million to nearly 8 million but had fallen in proportion to the total population (from 62.5 to 53.3%). The number of Africans in the homelands had risen both in percentage and in absolute figures, from 4.1 miUion (37.5%) to 6.9 million (46.5%). While the government hailed these figures as clear proof that separate development was working, the opposition claimed that the rise of lion Africans

in

more than

a mil-

white areas was a clear indication

of the policy's failure.

The Cape Coloured people their

lost the last vestiges of

134-year-old franchise rights

when

the prime

minister announced that Coloured voters were to be

removed from the Cape Town municipal voters' roll. The tragic ludicrousness of apartheid was shown in the renewed debate about "honorary white" status for Chinese and Japanese; this was at least a partial result of South Africa extending its trade with China and Japan. There was

little

overt evidence of organized re-

from nonwhites within South Africa. However, individuals and groups within the white community continued to utiUze the remaining legal opportunities to moderate the inhumanity of the racial policy and to press for changes. United Kingdom. Immigration was fading as a

sistance or protest

and New Zealand) admitted for settlement in 1969 was 33,940, compared with 50,160 in 1968 and 57,648 in 1967. This total was made up of 3,512 holders of work vouchers (4,353 in 1968), 27,984 dependents (42,036), and 2,446 "others" (3,771). For the first six months of 1970 the overall total was 12,747, as compared with 19,658 in 1969. In addition, 6,249 U.K. passport holders from East Africa were admitted in 1969, including 1,672 special voucher holders. Corresponding figures for the first six months of 1970 were 3,005, including 882 special voucher holders. The growing waiting list in East Africa for special vouchers had reached 7,180 by the end of May. A Bow Group memorandum suggested allocating the unused

key political issue in Britain. Official attitudes tended toward "benign neglect" in the field of race relations, and there was a widespread feeling that the subject had been taken over by extremists on both

balance (about 4,500) of the overall allocation of work vouchers (8,500) for Commonwealth immigrants to help clear the waiting list in Africa. In October the European Commission on Human Rights de-

sides.

cided to hear the complaints of 25 Asian immigrants about degrading treatment and refusal of entry, and

There was a tendency to look to the second generation of black immigrants for a harmonious solution to current problems, but evidence was accumulating of social alienation, cultural confusion, and disenchantment over jobs and living prospects among black

a further flood of complaints was expected. In early June Enoch Powell's election manifesto listed

Commonwealth immigration

est danger

and

called for an

end

as Britain's greatto

the automatic

The drive for speedier and deeper integration into the mainstream of opportunity seemed to be due in

630

Race Relations

large part to the increasingly widespread acceptance

by the white community of the legitimacy of black demands for first-class citizenship. The year also featured the most sustained drive ever mounted by local and national police authorities against the militant organizations in the black community, most notably the Black Panthers. With Eldridge Cleaver in exile in Algeria, Fred Hampton dead in a so-called shootout in Chicago, and Huey Newton and Bobby Seale both on trial for crimes that could result in their permanent incarceration, or execution, the police authorities in numerous cities, including Chicago, Philadelphia, New York, and New Orleans, seemed determined, with significant encouragement and support from the FBI, to smash the Black Panther leadership and disperse the organization. The fate of Angela Davis {see Biography), a brilliant young black professor of philosophy at the THE

"NEW

Two members

of

YORK

TIME?

University of California,

NEGRO

most

Economic Growth and Reconstruction (the National

Organization) stand on top of the Great Hall

on

Ellis Island.

The 62-member group of former drug addicts

and former convicts took over on July 20, 1970. They hoped to turn the abandoned island

—

into a rehabilitation

centre for 2,500 people.

entry of dependents, a new law on citizenship, and an emphasis on repatriation. These views were rejected by the Conservative Party leadership. The race issue did not become a central element in the campaign, and the largely unexpected Conservative victory left

Edward Heath

as victor, not scapegoat,

with no commitments to Powell or his followers. Official Conservative pohcy was that all citizens should continue to be treated as equal before the law and without discrimination; that the causes of racial

somehow

exemplified the

thwarted black ambitions in the U.S. An outstanding academic career seemed likely to be destroyed as Miss Davis was indicted for kidnapping and murder resulting from a bizarre shootout in California's Marin County Court House in early August. The influence of both types of radical groups among the blacks the Panthers and their allies, and seemed to be diminishthe Nationahsts and theirs ing in terms of direct recruitment of sympathizers or augmentation of power. But it was evident that they had substantially contributed to the spread of acceptance in the white community of the legitimacy of tragic aspects of

—

black claims to first-class citizenship and, with that, of entitlement to

some form of compensatory redress and discrimination. More-

for historical grievances

it was evident that the general run of the black community, though neither radical socialist nor nationalist, was nevertheless much more willing openly to seek, if not demand, new sets of rights and oppor-

over,

tunities.

and

Substantial changes seemed to be occurring even

housing policies, and additional funds to local au-

in military life, the traditional bastion of conserva-

areas of heavy immigrant settlement. was proposed to introduce a new single system of control for all immigrants from overseas;

tive authority and the customary landing place for otherwise dispossessed black youth. Violent confrontations between black and white enlisted men occurred throughout U.S. Army, Navy, and Marine bases at

tension should be reduced thorities

Finally,

by education,

health,

in

it

immigrants already in Britain could bring in wives

and young children, but in the future work permits would be limited to a specific job in a specific area, usually for 12 months. While assistance would be given to Commonwealth immigrants who might wish to return to their countries of origin, "we will not tolerate any attempt to harass or compel them to go (Sh. P.)

against their will."

United States. The probable shape of relations between blacks and whites in the United States for the near future began to emerge in 1970, even though it was a year full of apparent paradoxes. Significant drives took place within both the black and white communities, and at local, state, and national levels, for integration of blacks and other minorities into all phases of American life, at a much higher rate of speed than ever before, and on significantly different terms

—such as reduced qualifications for admission

to

schools and jobs. At the

same time, it was a year that saw an undeniable increase in militance among that minority of blacks committed to the idea that no de-

home and tional

abroad, and serious challenges to tradimade and sustained

military authority were

by black cuts and

soldiers, including the retention of

Afro hair-

the use of the black solidarity salute.

Many

blacks claimed they were discriminated against in both promotion to officership and disproportionate

exposure to battle risks. Against these assertions, Brigadier Generals Daniel James, Jr., and Frederic E. Davison, the nation's only black generals, declared that "There is no such thing as inequality of opportunity in the armed forces today." Yet it was reported that "studies of military administrative procedures, such as that conducted this year by the Third Division in Germany, do tend to support the charges involving job assignments and promotions." drive for interpenetration and intermingUng of two races also was evident in many areas of civilian life, such as education, employment, welfare,

The

the

politics,

and student

dissent.

cent future could conceivably be achieved within the

Perhaps nothing seemed so closely to unify black and white as the nomination by Pres. Richard Nixon

framework of the American

of G. Harrold Carswell for a post

society.

on the U.S. Su-

preme Court. Patient investigation after the nomination revealed that Carswell, in a 1948 campaign for a seat in the Georgia state legislature, had declared that he would always be governed by principles of white supremacy. Subsequent investigations revealed that he had been an incorporator of a private club apparently particularly designed to evade state laws against segregation of public facilities. Yet it took great effort by some determined senators and leaders in the civil

rights

community

to

persuade other senators

vote a second time against Nixon's nominations (Clement F. Haynsworth having been previously de-

to

feated). Nixon asserted that while he had not known about Carswell's earlier white supremacy stand, he

would have nominated him even if he had known. Such assertions continued to persuade the black community that Nixon was still pursuing the so-called Southern strategy, involving the acceptance of black opposition in an effort to court the favour of the Southern states. This Southern strategy was said by civil rights spokesmen throughout the year to be most clearly revealed in the volatile shifting of the White House stand on school desegregation. In June Commissioner

from white within

cized device of segregating black schools.

The second Southern counterthrust to the Supreme Court ruling involved legal efforts through various law suits and through bills introduced in Congress by Mississippi Sen. John Stennis to enforce the desegregation ruling in Northern city schools, on the grounds that they were segregated de facto as much as, if not more than. Southern schools. Stennis was joined by Sen. Abraham Ribicoff of Connecticut, who said that he would support Stennis' amendment in which it was proposed that there should be equal application of the Supreme Court ruling to both de facto and de jure segregation. President Nixon announced his support for the Stennis amendment and for a second amendment the senator had introduced to prevent compulsory bussing designed primarily to produce racial balance.

How

effective the drive for school desegregation

largely completed

schools.

discrimination would be resolved without serious

While some members of the administration seemed determined to press the Supreme Court order, even through law suits against resistant communities, Nixon gave diverse signals, indicating that while he

culty over the next few months.

favoured desegregation, he did not intend to send "vigilante" squads to implement the ruling. He also made it clear that he would not move to force de-

and the resistance to at the end of 1970. to Health,

it

had been was not

at all clear

Little credence could be given

Education, and Welfare

Elliot Richardson's allegation in

(HEW)

December

Secretary that the

job of desegregation of the schools in the South was

and

that

problems of within-school

To many

diffi-

observers

it

South most black children continued to go to schools that were predominantly or all black, and most white children continued to attend schools that were predominantly or all

seemed

clear that throughout the

white.

The

financial crisis of institutions of higher educa-

was based on residence and was, thus, de facto rather than de jure. At the end of March, Nixon affirmed that he would rely on court orders and efforts of local Southern school officials to comply with such orders and that he would de-emphasize stern desegregation enforcement procedures. He did, however, propose an allocation of $500 million for 1971 and $1 billion for 1972 for technical as-

became a salient issue in black-white relationships. As the year drew to a close, the word was spreading that numerous scholarship programs would

sistance to public schools throughout the country that

maintaining their general policy of scholarship sup-

segregation where

wanted

it

to attenuate the effects of de facto segrega-

compensatory education programs. major Southern strategies for resisting the

tion with

Two

One involved the creaon a segregated basis. But this

desegregation orders emerged. tion of private schools

method ran

into difficulty

of such schools

when

the

and of donations

income tax status them was ques-

to

by the Internal Revenue Service. Serious confusion regarding the status of the ruling was created tioned

by the fihng of a brief in a Mississippi school suit by the U.S. Department of Justice in June, contending that segregated private schools that had developed in the South should be allowed to keep their taxexempt status. At the same time, the Department of Justice claimed that

its

action did not constitute

government support for segregated schools,

all

ap-

pearances to the contrary notwithstanding. Some greater clarity regarding the government's

seemed to emerge Revenue Service revoked

position

in

July when the Internal

the tax-exempt status of

schools that continued to practice racial discrimination in admissions,

and stated that

this loss of ex-

emptions would apply not only to school income and

Race Relations

commissioner of the Internal Revenue Service would not clarify what his intentions would be in cases involving only token desegregation, or the newly publi-

Education James Allen, a forthright and admired spokesman for the concept of integrated schools, was fired on the orders of President Nixon, presumably for his outspoken opposition to the war in Vietnam and for his insistence on implementation of the Supreme Court mandate regarding desegregation of the of

631

property but also would involve loss of tax deductibility for contributions made to such schools. Yet the

tion

undergo serious cutbacks and that this might seriously affect the admission of blacks. Alternatively, it might mean that the schools, especially "prestigious" private schools that had been conducting vigorous campaigns for recruitment of black students while

Members

of

Youth Against

War and Fascism protest the prosecution of

21

in

New York

Blacl
\->

brin)[«. lo «rrtr %\

thr lnlrr(allh(

SUnnn

Stri-ff.

636 ligion

used Jerusalem Bible was based on a modern French translation of the ancient texts. The NAB took more than 25 years to prepare and was the work of 51 was sponsored

scholars, including four Protestants. It

American Bishops' Committee of the ConThe work was begun in 1936 as a modern translation of the Vulgate, which since the Council of Trent in 1546 had been held to be "authentic." After Pope Pius XII encouraged the

by

the

fraternity of Christian Doctrine.

study of biblical languages, in tue 1943 encyclical Divhio Afflante Spiritu, the already completed portion was put aside and a new start was made using original sources.

Although it was not published in its entirety until September 30, parts of the NAB had been in use for some time in conjunction with the revised Catholic liturgy. Reflecting the increased interest in Bible

study

among

Catholics in recent years, it contained introductions and extensive footnotes designed to help the

layman, as well as more than 100 drawings and photographs.

NAB

was well received by scholars of all and clear. The language was rather more straightforward and less polished than that of the NEB, whose translators, working in the shadow of the King James, had been acutely conscious of that aspect of their work and had been assisted by a panel of literary experts. Unlike the NEB, which kept the archaic and sonorous "thee" and "thou" when the deity was being addressed, the NAB used "you" throughout. The Latin forms of some biblical names, used in Iranslations from the Vulgate, were dropped in favour of the more familiar English versions: for example, Hosea rather than Osee.

The

faiths as accurate, scholarly,

(A. P. Kl.)

PROTESTANTS rela-

one for the Anglican Communion, with no major conferences of the worldwide fellowship of churches in communion with Canterbury. One development of importance for the Communion's future was the implementation of one of the few positive recommendations of the 1968 Lambeth Conference the creation of a new Consultative Council tively uneventful

—

laity from would meet once every two years under the permanent presidency of the archbishop of Canterbury. Late in 1969 an overwhelming majority of the Anglican churches accepted this recommendation, and in 1970 it was arranged that the first meeting of the new council would be held in Uganda the following spring. High hopes were entertained that this new body would meet the need, pinpointed by the Lambeth Conference, for an effective, permanent channel of communication and cohesion linking all the independent churches of the Communion. There seemed little realistic prospect that it would do more than this, however, for true to Anglican traditions, the new body would have no executive control over the various churches. This aspect of the tradition was underlined during the year by the creation of new independent Anglican churches in Burma, Tanzania, and Kenya. Local independence of spirit and action was also exemplified by the decision of the Anglican church in New Zealand to follow Canada's lead and allow reall

FROM

fl.r

h

:

I

I

^ "

A

E

meeting that was part of the Cht islian ecumenical movement, Fran5ois Cardinal Marty, Roman Catholic archbishop of Paris, is greeted by the Most Rev. Michael Ramsey, Anglican archbishop of Canterbury, at Westminster Abbey, London, on Feb. 17, 1970.

Women,

replace in large measure the Mothers'

to

Union with

opposition to divorce. In England the archbishops appointed a new committee to examine Anglican doctrine and discipline on marriage. its

Anglicans remained prominent in the ecumenical

Anglican Communion. The year 1970 was a

composed of elected bishops,

"PARIS MATCH" In a

clergy,

and

the various Anglican churches, which

marriage of the divorced in church. This departure from Anglican norms was also reflected in New Zealand's formation of an Association of Anglican

field.

New

Zealand produced a plan for a united

church, to embrace Methodists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians, and others along with Anglicans. Sim-

plans remained under consideration in the U.S. and Canada. In Pakistan, Anglicans formed part of the United Church inaugurated in November. In Britain the archbishops made no secret of their hope that the official scheme for union with the Methodist Church (accepted by the Methodists but rejected by the Anglicans in 1969) would be brought before the Church of England again in the near future. Relations with Rome remained friendly, in spite of ilar

admittedly obstinate differences of doctrine. In July the Anglican authorities at Canterbury gave unprecedented permission for the celebration of the

Roman Mass Thomas a Roman Mass St.

in the cathedral precincts, in

honour of

Becket. This was soon followed by a celebrated, for the

first

time since the

Reformation four centuries before, inside an Anglican cathedral, that of Coventry. In October, while pro-

claiming the sainthood of 40

Roman

Catholic martyrs

Pope Paul VI expressed hope for the eventual union of the Roman Catholic and

of England and Wales,

Anglican churches. After the stormy sessions of recent years, the triennial General Convention of the Episcopal Church (U.S.) in Houston, Tex., in October was almost surprisingly calm and unified, although a projected deficit of some $3 million in the $14 million national budget indicated that not all the laity sympathized with the

more advanced social stands. The program of assistance to the disadvanbe continued, but the guidelines were

national church's controversial

taged was to

clarified

and strengthened. Despite declining revenues

50%

(which later in the year led to a tional staff), a

cut in the na-

$23 million budget was approved for

1971, although only about half

was for regular opera-

tions.

With women

J

in the

House of Deputies

for the first

time, the convention agreed to permit women to be ordained as deacons, normally a preliminary step toward the priesthood. For the time being, at least, a

move

to

ordain

women

as priests

was

rejected.

The

COCU

War,

conditions.

especially,

was condemned.

Presi-

dent Nixon was asked to keep his campaign promises on the war in Vietnam. In its 90th annual session in New Orleans, La., the

National Baptist Convention, U.S.A., Inc. (black), brought together the largest aggregate of delegates and visitors in its history. Some 5,000 college and high school youths participated in a special rally during the

they were concerned with three aspects of life peace on college campuses, the fight

session;

—

American

Plan of Union was to be transmitted to the dioceses for consideration, but without implying approval. Continued liturgical experimentation was en-

against drug addiction, and the unity and the salva-

couraged and revisions of about half of the 1928 Prayer Book were authorized for use. (R. L. R.)

American problems through the American ideology.

Membership

Baptists.

in Baptist

the world reached 31 million

churches around

by 1970. The

largest

Baptist groups outside the U.S. were in India, the U.S.S.R., the

Congo (Kinshasa),

Brazil,

Burma, and

Europe. Representatives 12th Baptist 12-18. This

from 69 countries attended the in Tokyo, July

World Congress, held

was the

first

time the quinquennial con-

William R. Tolbert, Jr., president of the Baptist World Alliance and vicegress

had taken place

in Asia.

president of Liberia, presided.

The Baptist European Federation Council held biennial

its

meeting in Glasgow, Scot., in September.

The general

secretary

of

the

Romanian

Baptist

tion of the nation. In his

keynote address, J. H. Jackemphasized solving

son, president of the convention,

Some 500

delegates to the triennial assembly of the

Baptist Federation of Canada, meeting in Winnipeg,

Man., July 2-5, sent ten young people to Bolivia to study missionary needs there. The federation was formed in 1947 by the Baptist Convention of Ontario and Quebec, the Atlantic Baptist Convention, and the Baptist Union of Western Canada. At Winnipeg a

fourth group was added

—the Union of the French —and commission was

Baptist Churches of Canada

formed

a

study the possibility of organizing a single national convention. Conservative (Progressive) Baptists meeting in to

San Jose,

Calif., in

June opposed violence but con-

cluded that there should be an attempt to understand

why

rioting.

Free Will Baptists, numbering

in the world,

held their 34th annual conven-

there

is

Union, the Rev. Nicolai Kovacs, reported that the

250,000

government had been greatly impressed by the generous help given by Baptists of the world after the recent floods. The Baptist seminary in Bucharest, closed in 1969, was to be reopened. It was further reported that in Bohemia, Czechoslovakia, where no new church had been opened for 25 years, official permission had been received to build four new

(R. E. E. H. R. W'. T.) Christian Science. The theme of the annual meeting in June one of the largest in the history of the Mother Church, the First Church of Christ, Scientist, in Boston was "But What Can I Do?" Those attending saw a documentary film report showing how members on six continents were endeavouring to make a more meaningful Christian response to problems in their communities. First-hand experiences were shared in an associated meeting by Christian Scientists who had been active in the fields of ecology, college administration, politics, and urban affairs. The denomination's daily newspaper, the Christian Science Monitor, published a series "Children in Trouble" that stimulated legislative action in six states

churches. In Poland, Baptists obtained permission to produce tapes for the official radio programs.

The Baptist Missionary Society

(oldest

the

in

world), with headquarters in London, reported that

work had

to

missionaries.

be restricted because of a shortage of

The Baptist Union of Great

Britain and

Ireland and the Baptist Missionary Society were

still

seeking a site on which to erect joint headquarters. Several schemes had been frustrated because of governmental building restrictions. The Baptist Union of Great Britain and Ireland issued a report on "Ministry

Tomorrow." Noting

full-time

a decline in the

number

of

proposed a smaller full-time ministry, highly trained and well paid, supported by a trained supplementary ministry drawn from persons earning their living in trades and professions. The Southern Baptist Convention observed its 125th anniversary in Denver, Colo., June 1-4, 1970. The messengers attending from local churches resolved to "vigorously oppose every effort to open channels for tax money for support of private church-related elementary and secondary schools." It was also decided to withdraw volume one of the Broadman Bible Commentary, published by the denomination's Sunday School Board, because of its liberal theology and critical approach to the Genesis account of the creation. The 1970 American (formerly Northern) Convenministers,

it

tion was held in Cincinnati, 0., May 13-17. The program was "designed to encourage examination and response to the issues of revolution, reconciliation and renewal," and the discussion, while spirited, reflected

unity in the recognition that the times called for deep and sincere religious concern over contemporary social

tion in Fresno, Calif.

;

— —

to help in the

meet the needs of juveniles. Its series "Crisis Courts" was the basis for judicial reform in

seven states.

The Monitor became

the

first

major U.S. news-

paper to change from letterpress to

offset printing.

Improvements in delivery of the Monitor were made possible by use of contract printing plants in SomerBeverly, Mass.; Chicago; Los Angeles; set, N.J. and London. All of the paper's editions were now ;

printed outside Boston.

Construction went forward on two important building complexes: the Christian Science Center in Bos-

ton and the

new

Christian Science Building in

Wash-

ington, D.C.

In October a five-day conference held in Boston was attended by committees on publication from many countries. Conferences were held by Christian Science Activities for Armed Services Personnel in Turkey, Vietnam, Thailand, Korea, Japan, England, Germany, and other overseas areas. (J. B. St.) Churches of Christ. There were approximately

20.000 congregations with a membership of about 2.5 million in 1970 (because of the independence of each

congregation and the lack of central organization, continued on page 640

637

Religion

SPECIAL REPORT

when

The Authorized

the disciples recognize their risen Lord.

Version (John 20:19-20) reads: Then the same day at evening, being the first day of the week, when the doors were shut where the disciples were assembled for fear of the Jews, came Jesus and stood in the midst, and saith unto them, Peace be unto you. And when he had so said, he shewed unto them his hands and his side. Then were the disciples glad, when they saw the Lord.

THE NEW ENGLISH BIBLE By

The

produced by

effect

Basil Willey

ever,

when

When

the original

the

.

English Bible in

its

com-

form on March 16, 1970, long-standing problems of bibliand criticism once more became matters of popu-

cal translation

Translating the Bible into English raises

lar discussion.

all

the

any ancient text, but it them in a special form. This is because of the unique part played by Holy Scripture in the spiritual and cultural history of Western civilization. However hard we may try to treat the Bible in Benjamin Jowett's phrase "like any other book," the issues involved in the translation of

raises

—

—

thing can be done only within strict limits.

No

other book has been to Christendom what the Bible has

"Word

namely, the

been;

means of Indeed,

God," the purveyor of saving supreme authority in doctrine, a

of

truth, the rule of faith, the

grace, a source of comfort, guidance, or admonition.

it

precisely because the Bible has been

is

things, because

it

all

these

has been held to be (or to contain) God's

revelation of truths

beyond the reach of human reason, that

considered worthwhile (or indeed essential) to put it into the language of today. Otherwise it might just as well be preit is

served as a historic monument, a masterpiece of Tudor-Elizabethan prose.

Why Improve the

Excellence? Even this brief summary indicates main problem underlying the whole New English Bible

Was the enterprise necessary or justifiable? We already had, in the King James or Authorized Version (AV) of 1611, a translation whose superlative qualities were universally acknowledged, and whose words, phrases, and rhythms have long enriched the very bloodstream of English language and literature. The excellence of its literary quality is one chief cause of the extraordinary hold exerted by this book over the hearts and minds of Englishmen and, indeed, of all English-speaking peoples. For this excellence we are indebted to the 1611 translators themselves, to William Tyndale and Miles Coverdale, their most notable predecessors, and to the youthful vigour of 1 7th-century English, of which, as yet, "custom had not bedimmed the lustre nor dried up the sparkle and the dewdrops." Moreover, the old translators achieved literary distinction largely because they were not self-consciously aiming at it. Convinced that they were dealing with the undoubted word of God, they concentrated upon rendering it faithfully and reverently, and the reward and outcome of their purity of in-

project.

tention was a style that reflected their

good

theirs

style,

own

nobility. Like all

was a by-product; aiming

at truth, they achieved beauty without effort or contrivance Never straining after effect, but imbued with a sense of the momentousness of their task,

the translators

The

is

result

worked humbly and

self-effacingly.

a style that, whether simple or elevated,

genuine as seasoned timber, free from

all

that

is

is

as

tawdry or

meretricious.

To lators

must be added the good fortune the English transenjoyed in working when the language had not yet staled

this

and cliche, when journalese, officialese, and other manifestations of our time were as yet far off. Think, for example, how a modern writer might have strained all his resources to render that supreme moment in the Gospel story into jargon

638

that

we

are in the

demands a

loftier style: all

the sons of

God

.

.

.

.

plete

is

shouted for joy. (Job 38; 7) Hitherto shalt thou come, but no further: and here shall thy proud waves be stayed. (Job 38:11) Canst thou bind the sweet influences of Pleiades, or loose the bands of Orion? Canst thou bring forth Mazzaroth in his season? or canst thou guide Arcturus with his sons? (Job 38:31-32) .

New

simplicity

morning stars sang together, and .

the publication of the

this

presence of something too holy for elaborate utterance. Of course, the simplicity is that of the writer of the Gospel of St. John, but the men of 1611 were transparent to it and let its light shine through. The same authentic quality is to be found, how-

.

.

And the ransomed of the Lord shall return, and come to Zion with songs and everlasting joy upon their heads; they shall obtain joy and gladness, and sorrow and sighing shall flee away. (Isa. 35:10) If,

'

then, the old translation

is so admirable, and if it has been so dear and so sacred to the hearts of generations, what need was there for a modern version? The onus of demonstrating such a need rested heavily upon those who promoted the New English Bible, and they devoted careful thought to the question. It was not likely, they knew, that any version in 20th-century English, however "timeless," however scholarly, and however free from colloquialism or cliche, would have anything like the literary merit of the AV. Should we not then, by reducing the Bible's style to the level of contemporary speech or writing, reduce its spiritual influence as well? Granted that the Bible has a unique importance for the spiritual life, should we, by modernizing it, enhance that value, bring it home to more people? Or should we in fact cheapen and enervate it by robbing it of its antique patina? Such misgivings were voiced, as expected, when the New Testament, the first part of the New English Bible to be completed, appeared in 1961 (as they had been even in 1611). Doubts of this kind had been ably expressed in an article by Dwight Macdonald in The New Yorker (Nov. 14, 1953) criticizing the American Revised Standard Version of 1952. The new

may make

more "accessible" to the modern more smoothly into the modern ear, but it also slides out more easily; the very strangeness and antique ceremony of the old forms made them linger in the mind." Macdonald illustrated his point with some examples: "Thus saith the Lord," for instance, is more impressive and "lordly" than "Thus says the Lord"; "Thou shalt not" more awesome than "Do not"; "Hast thou given the horse strength? version

reader or listener;

the Bible

may

it

"slip

hast thou clothed his neck with thunder? nostrils

is

terrible.

poetic than

." .

"Do you

.

—

this is wilder,

.

.

more

.

the glory of his passionate,

give the horse his might?

Do you

more clothe

neck with strength? His majestic snorting is terrible" (Job 39:19-20). Macdonald compares reading the Revised Standard with walking through the streets of a bombed city: "Is this gone? Does that still survive? Surely they might have spared that}" Followed through logically, this line of thought leads to the position that it doesn't much matter what is being said, or whether the translation is accurate, as long as the requisite religious rumble is kept going. For the uninstructed listener, the effect, liturgically speaking, might be almost as good if the lanhis

.

.

.

—

guage were entirely, instead of partially, unintelligible- that is, not translated at all. It may be said indeed, something of the that in the AV it sounds as if God were sort has been said speaking, whereas in the NEB the accents are those of English gentlemen and dons at that. Such is the prestige of the AV that an extraordinarily large number of people seem to think,

—

—

—

or unconsciously feel, that it is The Bible and that God himself spoke in Tudor English. This explains the many complaints that

\

AUTHENTICATED NEWS INTERNATIONAL

the

NEB

Bible.

As a matter of

directly

"tampered with" The the whole translation was made

translators have "altered" or fact,

from the best ancient

dependence on the

AV

at

texts into

modern English, without

all.

of the

translation

Bible

what could texts

had advanced so

us back to

justify such a project as a

directly into

There are two main justifications. scholarship

modern English?

First, since the 17th

century

far in the understanding of

He-

brew and Hellenistic linguistic usage and modes of thought, and so many new and important sources had come to light since the 1881 revision, that something more radical than a mere revision of the AV was called for. A great body of new information was now available about what the Bible really means, and it was high time for this to be put into circulation.

Many

of

those

of the

New

English Bible

may be primarily to words of the original, or it may be to translate its meanings. The former method may yield what is called a faithful translation, and it was the one that the old translators imbued as they were with rabbinical notions about the inspiration and sanctity of each Hebrew or Greek construction, word, letter, and even squiggle in the holy text were inclined to follow. Its disadvantage is that, as in the examples just quoted, the results may not be English at all and may be unintelligible. The latter method is the one that must be adopted if the result is to read like something written in English. It is the one followed by the NEB translators who, free at last from fundamentalist presuppositions, saw it as their "most sacred duty to render In any process of translation, the aim

translate the actual

The Advancement of Scholarship. This brmgs the point raised earlier:

The literary panel for the Old Testament meets to review new translations.

who condemn

all

modern versions

of

the

Bible as such are themselves familiar only with spot passages

and "hallowed phrases." They do not realize, as anyone must who has had to work over the whole AV in minute detail,

how much of the old translation is inaccurate or unintelligible. The old translators, when (as often happened) they could not make head or tail of a passage and had no alternative text to check by, fell back upon their belief in "verbal inspiration" and simply "Englished" what was before them, word for word. That is why we get things like shall the lambs feed after their manner, and the waste places unto them that draw iniquity of the fat ones shall strangers eat. (Isa. . with cords of vanity, and sin as it were with a cart rope:

Then

Woe

.

.

5:17-18)

—

into their real modern equivalents" The Listener, March 23, 1961). To do this, and to make sense of innumerable obscure passages, it was necessary to go behind the words to the meanings. The result, though far too faithful to be called a paraphrase, can certainly not be used as a crib. But who wants to use his Bible as a crib to the originals? Not the general reader and not only perhaps the embryo theological student, the true scholar and his needs can be otherwise met.

[the ancient expressions]

(C. F. Moule,

—

One

of the greatest difficulties facing the translator of

poetry into modern English

Hebrew

the parallelism on which

is

it

is

based: the structural principle of saying everything twice over, antiphonally, in slightly varying words: Pour out thine indignation upon them, and let thy wrathful anger take hold of them.

or:

Let their habitation be desolate; let none dwell in their tents. (Ps. 69:24-25)

be a tenth, and it shall return, and shall be eaten: and as an oak, whose substance is in them, when they

and

cast their leaves: so the holy seed shall be the substance thereof. (Isa.

He

6:13)

my house: he that telleth

But yet

in it shall

as a teil tree,

or:

that worketh deceit shall not dwell within

sight. (Ps.

With clouds he covereth the light; and commandeth it not to shine by the cloud that cometh betwixt. The noise thereof sheweth concerning it, the cattle also concerning the vapour. (Job 36:32-33)

Those who exalt Bible English as the grandest and noblest in our literature ignore this kind of thing. And there is something else they overlook; namely, the constant failure of the old translators to translate, that is, to render Hebrew or Greek idioms, constructions, and modes of speech by English counterparts. Too often they simply transliterate and give us mongrel English, which we tolerate only because we are accustomed to hearing it in church and are conditioned to revering whatever is "in the Bible." I am thinking of Hebraic constructions like:

Because of the sins of Jeroboam which he sinned, and which he made Israel sin, by his provocation wherewith he provoked the Lord God of Israel to anger. (I Kings 15:30) or:

By reason to cry:

of the multitude of oppressions they make the oppressed they cry out by reason of the arm of the mighty. (Job 35:9)

lies shall

not tarry

in

my

101:7)

This method of poetic utterance

is foreign to the English mind and language, and at first the NEB translators struggled hard, whenever they could, to make one statement out of the two without losing whatever was significant in either. In the end, however, they were forced to admit defeat; there was far too much of this kind of thing for even their patience and ingenuity to cope with it was like trying to change the colour of the Ethiopian's skin. Similarly, many things commonly said and thought and done in ancient times are almost unheard of today: anointing with oil, sacrificing bulls and goats, traveling with camels, possession by evil spirits, rending one's garments. These are all things that have no modern equivalents or, if they have, those equivalents would be quite inadmissible in a translation (tanks or trucks for camels, psychotherapy for casting out evil spirits). In a more general sense, as well, the biblical writers, whose world view was so remote from our own, were constantly saying things that we would neither think nor say. Consequently, to say them in the idiom of 20th-century speech may produce

—

—

639

new kinds

is one of the whole project of modernization.

of unreality or absurdity. This, in fact,

most serious objections Many things that were

to the

tolerable

when clothed

in the dignified

AV

language may, in the nakedness of current speech, risk perishing of cold. You cannot resuscitate an obsolete thought or an exploded belief merely by stating it

archaism or obscurity of

in

modern

all,

terms.

You

are

more

likely to kill off, for

good and

various notions that have enjoyed a sort of half-life in the

liturgical

shadows.

The NEB translators had to face these and other problems, and they recognized, of course, that some of them were insoluble. If they continued and completed their work in good heart as they did it was because they were convinced of the need to supplement the old version, often grand but often inaccurate and obscure, with a new translation incorporating all the insights of modern scholarship and intelligible to all readers. But there was also a second main justification for this work, which springs from the first but may be considered separately. A Bible for Modern Man. Reverting to Dwight Macdonald's image of the tourist revisiting an old bombed city, it is clear that he is presupposing a tourist who had been familiar with the city in its former state and had felt its picturesque charm. But the new translation is intended largely for readers who are not familiar with the AV and have no taste for antiquities. That indeed, that they form there are many such people nowadays can scarcely be doubted. The new masses have a vast majority not read or heard the Bible at their mother's knee. It can no longer be assumed that even so-called educated people will

—

—

—

—

understand an allusion to Jephthah's daughter, Naboth's Vineyard, or Jacob's Ladder. Most young people today know as little about the Bible as they do about Homer or Virgil. And this is

combined heritages of biblical and classical antiquity have given Western civilization such ideal purpose or meaning as it has had. Accordingly, one main hope behind the NEB was that the new translation might reach this new reading public, most of whom were presumably repelled or baffled by the archaic style of the old. It was hoped that, if they found the Bible was no mere special preserve for parsons and pious highbrows but spoke to them in their own language about things that mattered to a disturbing thought, for the

them, they might be encouraged to read it. As for those who love the AV because they have fed upon it from childhood, because its language has been intermingled with their lives and become inseparable from all that is holy and precious to them well, here Macdonald's image breaks down. The AV, unlike the bombed

—

and still intact. Those who are at home in it new satellite town. The NEB was never meant supersede the AV, but to supplement it by clarifying its

city, is still there

can ignore the to

meaning

language intelligible to all. To sum up: to make a translation of ancient texts that is accurate, up-to-date, and intelligible is not the same thing as to

make

in a

their

contents

more

credible

as

history

or

doctrine

even though many of the NEB's promoters may have unconsciously assumed or hoped that this would be the case. It may even reduce their credibility by rendering them less mysterious. But it must surely be said that the confidence of the translators in the importance and usefulness of their task was justified. Those who talk of loss loss of mystery, awesomeness, ceremony should make very certain that they themselves, in responding to the AV, have not mistaken a sort of liturgical trance for true understanding and spiritual discernment. Much of the Bible has an enduring message for every age; it is hoped that readers, seeing clearly at last what it is saying, may find their consciences disturbed at points formerly protected by the comfortable sonorities of the old version. The new translation was made in the belief that for too long the Bible's message has been embalmed in beautiful or familiar archaism, and that it is time to let it speak to our condition.

—

—

(.Adapted from Essays and Studies 1970, published by John Murray Ltd. for the English Association)

continued from page 637 statistics are

only estimates). The church continued

to maintain its simplicity of worship with strong

em-

phasis on biblical preaching, Bible classes, and mission

work. Youth

rallies

and seminars were conducted

across the U.S. in an effort to maintain the interest of teen-agers. Series of evangelistic meetings con-

tinued to be the main organized thrust for evangelism, but growing emphasis was placed on lectureships and seminars to bolster the commitment of the members.

Eleven hundred church programs outlined in Churches of Today, vol. ii, evidenced growth in budgets, increased interest in mission work and benevolence, and

emphasis on buildings.

less

"Campaigns

for Christ" were held, in which many churches in a city cooperated in an evangelistic ef-

One such campaign,

fort.

Tex., area, coordinated

in the Dallas-Fort Worth, by 87 churches, used tele-

vision preaching, door-to-door visitation, tract dis-

and mass telephoning. Two hundred were and attendance on the final night was 12,500. There were similar campaigns in Northern Ireland, Guyana, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, and Australia. In the U.S., where Churches of Christ were strongest in the South and tribution,

baptized,

Southwest, churches in those sections sent groups on evangelistic campaigns to Northern and Northeastern cities. Another missionary outreach was Exodus Guadalajara, in which 40 retirees from California began a movement to Middle America. fM. N. Y.)

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Church membership in 1970 totaled approximately 2.9 million. Among the numerous new stakes organized to accommodate the increasing growth of the church were the Tokyo Stake, the first stake in Asia, and the Transvaal Stake, the first in Africa. There were approximately 525 stakes in the church. Convert baptisms numbered 70,010. David 0. McKay, who had served as president of the church for 19 years, died Jan. 18, 1970, at the

He was succeeded by Joseph Fielding Smith Biography), president of the Council of the Twelve Apostles. Smith chose as his counselors Harold B. Lee and Nathan Eldon Tanner. These men were sustained as the First Presidency at the General Con-

age of 96. (see

ference of the church in April. Earlier, in January, the First Presidency issued a statement reaffirming its

stand

—based

on the teachings of the church's barring Negroes from the

founder, Joseph Smith

—

priesthood.

Some 2,500 representative Laurel girls, members Young Women's Mutual Improvement Associa-

of the

tion from the U.S. and Canada, assembled on the Brigham Young University campus, Provo, Utah, August 22, for a conference designed to give leadership training to 16-, 17-, and 18-year-old girls as part

of the church's new youth leadership program. On August 27-30 students of the Latter-day Saints Student Association met in the fourth annual LDSSA international conference to consider current social

is-

sues and the role of Latter-day Saint students in the modern age. A new Aaronic Priesthood Personal

Achievement Program, introduced by the presiding bishopric of the church, was devised to help young

men

of the church achieve a sense of identity in to-

day's society based on their relationship to Christ.

An improved primary program

introduced Jesus,

in

growth

ing skills.

April,

God and

for children,

emphasized the teachings of knowledge, and homemak-

in spiritual

(Jo. A.)

all theological factions within Lutheranism an international consultation in Vedbaek, Den. Significantly, the participants reached an early consensus that unity should be approached in terms of total

Disciples of Christ (Christian Church). Addiwere taken in 1970 away from the former convention-type structure and toward a more formal church organization. By mutual agreement, agencies that had developed independently in the past century related themselves to the General Assembly and general offices of the church as "provisional" divisions

virtually

and councils.

issued

tional steps

met

at

Christian

by Roman Catholic and Lutheran theologians

United Christian Mission-

as they

cussion.

largest of these, the

—

Work (domestic operations) and the Division of World Mission. Five other agencies accepted status and

church on a provisional basis, pend-

as divisions of the

and the drafting of a constitution. They were the Board of Church Extension, the Board of Higher Education, and the Pension Fund, all based in Indianapolis, and the National Benevolent Association (Division of Social and Health Concerns) and Christian Board of Publication, both of St. Louis, Mo. The Unified Promotion finance unit. Christian Church Foundation, Council on Christian Unity, and ing other changes

Disciples

Christ

of

Historical

Society

(Nashville,

Tenn.), which provided service rather than program,

completed their sixth year of doctrinal

The

of what

issue

crucial

constitutes

dis-

an

authentic ministry was regarded as a major factor

keeping the two communions apart. A separate Catholic statement asked church authorities "whether

in

from

the ecumenical urgency flowing

Christ's will for

unity" might not dictate recognition of "the validity the presence of the of the Lutheran ministry and .

body and blood of Christ

.

.

in eucharistic celebrations

of the Lutheran churches."

A

Lutheran statement

urged the Lutheran bodies represented "to declare formally their judgment" that ordained Roman Catholic ministers are "engaged in a valid ministry" and to acknowledge that "the body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ are truly present in their celebrations of the sacrament of the altar." of the LWF and the World Reformed Churches concluded that the dialogue between Lutherans and Reformed Churches

A new Joint Committee

were named councils. In June, 3,500

unity.

significance to the wider cause of Chris-

were findings on "Eucharist and Ministry"

tian unity

ary Society, based in Indianapolis, Ind., agreed to become two divisions the Division of Church Life

The

—not only Lutheran—

Of great

women

of the Christian

Church met

Lafayette. Ind., for their quadrennial assembly. Black Disciples held the first biennial meeting of their National Convocation in Columbia, Mo. The convocation replaced what formerly was the National Christian Missionary Convention. The change repre-

in

Alliance of

new

should place

way

in the

stress

on those factors that stood

of implementing the theological consensus

already achieved. Anglican and Lutheran theological delegations, meeting on a worldwide level at Oxford,

sented a merger of the convention with the General

Eng., for the

Assembly of the church while maintaining

lishment of a sufficient and convincing basis for recip-

for black concerns.

a

forum

(R. L. F.)

Jehovah's Witnesses. During 1970 the society of Christian carried

on

ministers its

known

as

206 lands. This work was organized by 26,524 congregations operating under the supervision of 93 branch offices. Increased interest in the Bible and the Bible study

program offered by Jehovah's Witnesses was in the

164,193

new

reflected

ministers Ctriembers) baptized dur-

worldwide total to 1.483.430. During the summer 67 "Men of Good Will" district assemblies were held in the U.S.. Canada, the British Isles, and Germany and over 800.000 in these countries heard the public talk "Saving the Human Race in the Kingdom Way." Continued worldwide growth of Jehovah's Witnesses was evidenced by a total attendance of 3,226,168 at the annual celebration of the Lord's Evening Meal, compared with 2,493.519 in 1969. Peak attendances at congregational meetings necessitated the building of more Kingdom Halls, and there were over 30 such structures being built each month, on the average, in the U.S. ing 1970, bringing the

Publication of the Bible study book The Truth that to Eternal Life reached a high of 32 million copies in 51 languages. During 1970 the Brooklyn,

Leads

N.Y., printing plant alone produced 26,232,766 Bibles and bound books and over 212 million magazines. Circulation of

The Watchtower, the

official

journal

time, set as their goal "the estab-

and fellowship between the two

recognition

rocal

churches." £vian-les-Bains, on the French side of Lake Geneva,

Jehovah's W'itnesses

ministry and Bible educational work in

first

was

finally selected in

LWF

assembly, as

June as the

site for the fifth

officials regretfully

concluded that

conditions for a working assembly no longer existed

Porto Alegre, Braz. The change had

in

the alleged use of torture

by

its

roots in

the Brazilian govern-

ment. The assembly, the highest forum in Lutheranism, met in July. Youth delegates were present as full delegates for the

Two

radical

time.

first

departures from tradition with far-

reaching implications for American Lutheranism oc1970. The 3.2 million-member Lutheran America (LCA), largest and most liberal of the nation's three major Lutheran bodies, became the first to allow the ordination of women and to permit

curred in

Church

in

communion

for children before confirmation. Favour-

by the American Lutheran Church LCA and the ALC had ordained

able action on both proposals was also taken

million-member (ALC), and both the

2.5

a

woman

pastor

by

the year's end.

The conservative

million-member Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod, holding its next convention in July 1971, might endorse the changes suggested in confirmation and communion practices, but was unlikely to consider the 2.8

admission of

A

women

to the ministry.

consultation sponsored by the three church bodies

and reporting through

their

common

agency, the Lu-

of Jehovah's Witnesses, rose to 6,650,000 in 73 lan-

theran Council in the U.S.A., called upon them to

guages, and

seek increasing theological agreement, congregational

its

companion magazine, Awake!,

at-

tained a circulation of 6.5 million in 26 languages.

fellowship, and unified programs "in awareness" that

(N. H. K.) Lutherans. In 1970 Lutheran churches had about 75.1 million members on all continents. The 78 member churches of the Lutheran World Federation

such efforts

(LWF; had

53.3 million

members. Representatives of

LCA

"may

lead to structural unity."

and the ALC were moving closer together, but internal problems in the Missouri Synod seemed likely to hinder the achievement of total unity in the foreseeable future. With plans for unified programs

The

641

Religion

and world mission and joint efunder way, merger within a decade loomed as a

in parish education

support for "self-determination of minority people"

forts to restructure church organizations

and which seated youth delegates

LCA-ALC

an

strong possibility.

The Inter-Lutheran Commission on Worship proved

common

nationally

Much

for

liturgical

texts agreed

upon

use by English-speaking

ap-

inter-

Christians.

of this ecumenical wording was incorporated in

Holy Commodern language and music issued for ex-

a newly developed text for the rite of

munion

in

perimental use

Lutheran churches.

in

Fredrik A. Schiotz, 69, retired as head of the American Lutheran Church. As his successor, the ALC elected Kent S. Knutson, head of Wartburg Theologi-

Seminary, Dubuque, la., who defeated nine other nominees in some of the most open political campaigning in the annals of American Protestantism. (E. W. M.; W. Vo.) Methodists. During 1970 the most significant events were once again the demonstrations of unity in which the Methodist Church participated. This was true in many parts of the world and particularly in Britain, where united acts of worship became commonplace. The fourth series of conversations with cal

representatives of the

Roman

Catholic Church was

held in September at the headquarters of the

World

Methodist Council at Lake Junaluska, N.C. In India the United Church of North India was inaugurated at Nagpur on November 29; it comprised the British Methodist Church, the Baptist Church, the Church of the Brethren, the Disciples of Christ, the Churches of India, Pakistan, Burma, and Ceylon (Anglican), and the United Church of North India (Presbyterian and Congregational). The new Church of Pakistan (United Methodists, Anglicans, and Presbyterians) was inaugurated on November 1. In December 1969 two new autonomous churches, related to the United Methodist Church (U.S.), came into being one in Bolivia, the other in Uruguay. It was anticipated that the church in Peru would also become autonomous. The Methodist Church lost two well-known leaders in 1970. Bishop Odd Hagen, president of the World Methodist Council, and Daniel T. Niles, president of the Ceylon Methodist Church. In August Charles C. Parhn (U.S.) succeeded Bishop Hagen; he was the first layman to hold the

—

post.

London

judgment was given in the Chancery Division of the High Court on June 16. Some Methodists had questioned the authority of the Methodist Conference to approve the AnglicanMethodist unity scheme and to appoint ministers to be bishops. After a three-day hearing, Mr. Justice Megarry ruled that the Methodist Conference was the final authority within the Methodist Church on the In

a historic

for the first time.

The conference reduced annual funds appropriated to its agencies by $2 million and allocated this sum to Commission on Religion and Race.

the

goals for support of

It also raised

black colleges to $4 million annually and approved $1 million a year in new scholarship and loan funds for minority students. its

Through the year there was a succession of developments concerning ethnic minorities, including some $2 million in loans to minority economic enterprises by the Board of Missions; a $1.3 million contract by the Board of Health and Welfare Ministries to train 700 "hard-core disadvantaged" for health-care caand $250,000 from Crusade Scholarships for deprived students at black colleges. The church had collected some $7 million for the four-year Fund for Reconciliation, launched in 1968, and allocated it to reers;

meet national and

local

needs of deprived or minority

groups. Part of this also was appropriated for re-

construction and rehabilitation efforts in South Vietnam. Structurally, too, there were changes involving minorities. Two black annual conferences in Texas merged with overlapping white conferences to reduce the remnant of the former segregated Central Jurisdiction from 17 (as of 1964) to 7. The denomination was the first to receive officially COCU's proposed Plan of Union. The General Conference authorized "thorough study" of the plan. Another ecumenical venture was merger of United Methodist and United Presbyterian mission-oriented magazines into the new World Outlook. The Rhodesia Conference strongly protested that country's segregating Land Tenure Act. A short time later, Bishop Abel T. Muzorewa, first African to head the Rhodesian church, was banned by the government from black tribal areas. This "unwarranted interference" with the ministry was condemned in turn by the executive committee of the World Methodist Council. (M. W. Wo. W. H. Ta.) Presbyterian, Reformed, and Congregational. The outstanding event of 1970 was the assembly held at Nairobi, Kenya, on August 20-30, when the World Alliance of Reformed Churches (WARC) and the ;

International Congregational Council

become

to

the

new World

Alliance

(ICC) united of Reformed

Churches (Presbyterian and Congregational). On the opening day, two brief separate assemblies were held in the Taifa Hall of Nairobi University. First, ICC representatives were onlookers as delegates to the voted for the 20th General Council of the

WARC WARC

dissolution of the alliance; then

representa-

Assembly

tives

watched delegates

ICC

as they formally recorded their vote to dissolve

their organization,

to the 11th

formed

of the

in 1891. All delegates then

doctrines, including the doctrinal

jointly voted to agree to the merger, adopting a for-

standards. The ruling gave added significance to the vote that had been taken in the Methodist Conference meeting in Manchester on July 2, 1969, when 79.64% gave approval to the following resolution: "The Con-

mal Act of Union and the organization's new constitu-

interpretation of

its

ference, affirming

lead us into a

auguration of

its

faith that the

Holy

Spirit will

new Church, gives approval to the inStage One of the Anglican-Methodist

proposals."

—

ethnic groups, youth, and major focus for United Methodist Church action. This was especially true at a special session of the denomination's General Conference in April, which revised its priorities for 197172 to direct funds from ongoing programs^ into new

In the U.S. minorities

others

— constituted

a

tion.

To complete

was held

at St.

the union, a service of thanksgiving

Andrew's Church (Presbyterian Church

of East Africa).

The

man

first

plenary session was addressed by the GerMoltmann on the assembly

theologian Jiirgen

theme,

"God

Reconciles and

Makes

Free."

Themes

for subsequent section meetings were: reconciliation and creation; reconciliation and man; reconciliation

and society; and reconciliation and the church. In the discussions, the issues of racial justice, concern for

developed countries, the effect of technical change on culture, and the responsibility of affluent nations toward poorer ones received prominence. less

With

the adoption

of

the

new constitution, the made up of a gen-

organization was administratively

and two departments of theology and and witness. The Rev. Edmond Perret Switzerland) was appointed general secretary, succeeding Marcel Pradervand, who had been WARC general secretary since 1948, and the Rev. Fred Kaan, minister-secretary of the former ICC. The assembly elected a layman as president, William P. Thompson, a lawyer and the stated clerk of the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. During the year four new churches were admitted the Sangir/Talaud Evangelical into membership: Church, Indonesia (200,000 members) the Reformed Church of East Africa (300,000 members); the Toradja Church in Indonesia (170,000 members and the Ethiopian Evangelical Church Bethel (17,000 members). These brought the total membership of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches (Presbyterian and Congregational) to 130. Spread over 75 different countries, they represented some 55 million people, eral secretariat

:

of cooperation (

;

)

;

including 3 million in the Congregational Churches.

The only constituent members of the ICC not to join merger with WARC were the Union of Welsh Independents, the Swedish Mission Covenant Church, and the Free Church of Finland. During the year 19 of the 25 churches of the Congregational Union of New Zealand were received into the Presbyterian Church of New Zealand while talks in the

continued toward a wider union. Progress continued to be made toward the union of Congregational, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches in Australia. Further steps were taken toward the union of the

Congregational Church in England and Wales and the Presbyterian Church of England, planned for 1972.

Unexpectedly the proposed union of the Congregational Union of Scotland with the Church of Scotland was finally, though narrowly, rejected by both bodies. Steps toward union were taken during the year between the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. and the Presbyterian Church in the U.S., separated over 100 years ago. For the third time in recent history, the two bodies held formal reunion conversations, two previous attempts at organic merger having failed in

1931 and 1954.

A

committee of the two denominations (including observers from the As-

printed initially with services and prayers, with

A policeman speaks hymns with two Protestant

being included in a later edition.

Although

decreases

in

membership

faced

U.S.

churches holding the Presbyterian order, contributions

were up. Members of the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. increased total giving to the church by $3.5 million over the preceding year, while

of the Presbyterian

Church

in the

members

U.S. contributed

an all-time high $133,730,777 in 1969. At the annual assembly of the Congregational Church in England and Wales in May, the Rev. C. S. Duthie, principal of New College, London, was chosen president-elect to succeed Erik Routley in 1971. The Congregational Council for World Mission recorded a substantial financial surplus during the year ended in March, but a decline of 27% in the number of missionaries during the past four years. In response to a general appeal for

1%

of income for aid to less

Reformed Presbyterian, Cumberland PresbyHungarian Reformed in America, Reformed Church in America, United Church of Christ, and Second Cumberland Presbyterian Church) began deliberations, and subcommittees were appointed to deal

developed countries, the Congregational and Presbyterian churches in Britain jointly raised nearly £130,000 during the year. Grants were made to projects sponsored by Christian Aid and the two churches. (See United Church of Christ, below.) CF. H. Ka.; R. F. G. C; W. B. Mi.) Religious Society of Friends. British Friends be-

with such subjects as the confessional, polity, mission,

gan the reorganization of

joint

sociate terian,

strategy,

and communications. Plans were under way

for presentation of a reunion plan before the assem-

both churches for study, but not for formal adoption, by the spring of 1971. blies of

Examples of

closer cooperation

between the two denominations in the U.S., pressed by financial necessity, were seen during the year in the merger of the sales organizations of the largest

Presbyterian

John Knox and the Westminster presses, in the joint publication of Church and Society magazine, and in the establishment of a Joint Department of Worship and Music within their boards of Christian Education.

A major editorial work with a long tradition was produced jointly by the Cumberland Presbyterian Church, the Presbyterian Church in the U.S., and the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. Featuring contemporary English, The Worshipbook would be

their social welfare work by up a Social Responsibility Council, to take over the work of committees concerned with race relations, penal reform, temperance and moral welfare, and social and economic affairs. About 2,000 Friends and their families contributed 1% of their net income to a fund to help development projects in

setting

poorer countries. British Friends continued to be active in rehabilitation work in Nigeria and in work

among

refugees in the Middle East.

mittee of

London Yearly Meeting,

The Peace Com-

conjunction with other organizations, pressed the British government in

not to resume the sale of arms to South Africa. The Friends World Committee for Consultation met for its 11th triennial session in Sigtuna. Swed., August 1-8. A new African section was created, to parallel

the

American and the European and Near

East sections. In the U.S. the Friends General Conference held

clergymen who chained themselves to the railing of Buckingham Palace to protest the church unity talks going on at in

January 1970.

Windsor

644

its

biennial gathering at

Ocean Grove,

N.J., late in

June, bringing together 2,000 Quakers from all parts of the nation. "Strategy for Action" was the theme

Religion

General Conference of the Evangelical Friends Alliance, held in July in Wichita, Kan. A proposal to give more administrative responsibility to the pastor in Friends' churches was discussed. The conference on the "Future of Quakerism" that gathof the

first

ered in St. Louis, Mo., October 5-7, marked the first time representatives from all different groups of Friends had come together since the separations early in the 19th century.

The American Friends Service Committee spent approximately $7.5 million during 1970 on a wide range of

programs

in the U.S.

and some 18 countries over-

seas. In addition to continuing its rehabilitation centre in South Vietnam, the committee inaugurated a two-year rehabilitation program in Nigeria and a child-

care centre

program

in the

Gaza

Strip.

(Cd. H.; E. B. Br.)

Salvation Army. The Salvation Army maintained and broadened its relief and rehabilitation program in Vietnam in 1970. The ending of hostilities in Nigeria allowed Salvationist medical personnel to enter the former war zones where, throughout the fighting, African Army officers had continued bravely to minister among their own people. Massive resources of manpower and materials were poured into the stricken area when Hurricane Celia struck the Corpus Christi, Tex., area. CENTRAL PRESS FROM PICTORIAL PARADE

A

Salvation

Army

officer stationed in

and several assistants were among the

first

Lima

rescuers

must assume

that agencies

in

combating drug use

in

the neighborhoods."

One

Army's

homes for the aging was The 15-story, nonprofit residence would accommodate nearly 400 men and women. A Spanish-language pilot program to train Salvation Army officers was launched in Puerto Rico, of the

opened

in

largest

New York

City.

combining classroom study with practical experience. (C. E. N.;

W.

P.)

Seventh-day Adventists. A total of 1,782 Seventhday Adventists from many of the 193 countries in which the church operates met in Atlantic City, N.J., June 11-20, for the Slst General Conference session. The ten-day conference emphasized the imminent return of Christ and how best to proclaim this doctrine to the world. Important features of the session included the adoption of a Declaration on Human Relations, strengthening the

commitment

of the church to

a policy of racial nondiscrimination; the election of three additional blacks to the general headquarters

Washington, D.C.; and the formation of the Afro-Mideast Division. During 1969 the last year for which complete statistics were available more than 171,000 converts were baptized, bringing the worldwide membership to almost two million; 497 regular workers were sent staff in

—

from home bases

—

to serve overseas, as well as

114 headquarters committee, the Committee for Inner City Ministry, was coordinating

student missionaries.

A

efforts to provide a substantial inner-city

program

in

each major city in North' America. Disaster relief work by the Seventh-day Adventist Welfare Service following the Peruvian earthquake of May 31 included the distribution of 1.2 million lb.

lb.

of food and 30,000

of clothing.

The Youth's Instructor, weekly youth magazine of was replaced by a new journal, Itisight, with a more modern format. The annual the church for 118 years,

Autumn Council, meeting in Washington, D.C., in October, voted a world budget that included appropriations of $49,735,080, an increase of $249,480.61

(K. H. W.) Unitarians and Universalists. Radical changes in

over the previous year.

administrative organization, complicated by a sense of

fiscal responsibility that

new

undercut some past

commitments, marked institutional develNorth America in 1970. Several years of overspending had exhausted unrestricted capital funds, and severe cutbacks in personnel, grants, and programs became obligatory. North America's 21 administrative districts were reduced to 7, and a $1 million grant voted by two General Assemblies to the Black Affairs Council for Black Empowerment was termiideological

opments

45%

fulfilled

money

directly

nated, raise

The new

look

in

The

old style

by the

woman

is

modeled

on the

left.

(the

council,

however,

could

from the churches). Although year for reflection and retrenchment, the

this was a Annual Fund for the support of the Unitarian Uni-

uniforms

for women of the Salvation Army (right) is introduced in London, May 12, 1970.

in

to reach the earthquake-stricken area in Peru; they were speedily joined by other comrades, including well-equipped, highly mobile disaster teams from North America.

The international travels of Gen. Erik Wickberg included Europe, North America, Scandinavia, and the Far East. In Sweden he was made a commander

versalist Association raised the second highest

sum

in its history.

Churches, clergy, and laymen continued to be profoundly involved in antiwar activities, racial equality

and campus drives for peace, justice, and freedom, and innumerable churches became meeting and issues,

highest honour, the

planning centres. The ninth annual General Assembly of the L^nitarian Universalist Association met in Seattle, Wash.,

In the U.S. the Salvation Army sponsored a series cf seminars on drug use and abuse to "sensitize youth leaders and Salvation Army officers to the new role

June 29 to July 4, 1970. It attracted 1,022 delegates from 359 churches and fellowships in 46 states, 6 provinces, and Mexico. Resolutions passed by the assemblage urged withdrawal of troops from South-

of the Order of Vasa, and Korea's Pres. Park

Hee awarded him the nation's Order of Moo-Koong-Wha.

Chung

spending on military activities and more for improving the quality of life, restricting family size to two children except for adoptions, east Asia, less federal

a

general

and complete program for international

disarmament, and a comprehensive program for the protection, compensation, and development of Eskimo and Indian rights and culture. A National Council of Churches survey revealed that Unitarian Universalist clergymen received a higher median income ($10,412) than their counterparts in the mainstream Christian denominations. A serious oversupply of clergymen existed, dramatized by the fact that only SO vacant pulpits existed in Canada and the U.S.

The

first

woman

president in the history of the

Canadian Unitarian Council, Mrs. Mary Lu MacDonald, was elected at the annual meeting in Toronto, Ont., over the May 8, 1970, weekend. Resolutions were passed dealing with pollution control, Canadian sanctuary for persons fleeing military involvement in Southeast Asia, deactivation and shipment of nerve gas, and the boycott of nonunion grape products. The process of creating an autonomous Canadian organization was under way. Half the moneys raised by the UUA Annual Fund in Canada would henceforth be returned to the Dominion churches and fellowships. Numerous observances occurred throughout the U.S. in honour of the 200th anniversary of Universalism in America. That movement, which merged with Unitarianism in 1961, dated from September 1770, when the Englishman John Murray landed in New Jersey and preached his first sermon in the New World. The British General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches met in London, April 6-10, 1970. It was decided to form a standing committee to plan and initiate action in support of world development, and a resolution was carried recognizing the need to impress on congregations the urgency of concerted action to conserve and improve the quality of man's environment. Full support was pledged for European Conservation Year. The assembly decided to affiliate with the National Council for Civil Liberties as an earnest of its traditional and continuing belief in the right to both civil and religious liberty. The Rev. John Kielty resigned as general secretary after 20 years' service to the assembly and was succeeded by the Rev. Brian L. Golland. formerly minister at Mill Hill Chapel, Leeds,

Yorkshire.

—an

emphasis on regionalism, the extent of which would not be known for some time. It became evident that the various regions of the church must have greater responsibilities, but it was also realized that the unity of the church must be preserved. It appeared that field staff would be related to conferences rather than to the national headquarters, and that the administration of institutions in various regions would be handed over to conferences or other regional authorities.

The involvement had

ical activity

of the United

Church

in

ecumen-

also increased, through cooperation

and cost-sharing with other denominations at the local, regional, and national levels. The United Church cooperated closely with other Protestant churches as Roman Catholic Church in such important

well as the

areas as corrmiunity ministries, shared buildings, and theological education. It also extended its cooperation with secular social agencies. In many areas congregations ceased to grow (there was a membership decline of

1%

in 1969),

but the church's ministr>' turned

up increasingly in crisis, rehabilitation, and drop-in centres, and ministers were appointed as detached or community workers. In the field of world mission, the United Church continued

its

policy of cooperating with ecumenical

agencies. It also continued to emphasize

its

role as

and supporting autonomous younger

a helping church, serving, advising,

rather

than

controlling

the

churches. Statistics for

1970 were not yet available, but the

decline in church school attendance continued in 1969

with a drop of 14%. In church membership, church attendance, and finances the decline was not nearly so serious, but great concern was felt in 1970 that a

mean curhome and abroad.

further falling off in financial support might

tailment of the church's mission at

Union negotiations with the Anglican Church of Canada and the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) in Canada continued during 1970. While many complained about apathy regarding union in the Anglican and United Churches, a joint commission was diligently at work on a plan of union. In the commission agreement was reached about the administration of baptism and confirmation. While the Doctrinal Commission was still studying the question of the ordination of women (a matter of concern to the United Church, which had ordained women since 1936), there was agreement that "there is no theological reason which would preclude the ordination of

During the year the assembly was admitted to corWorld Congress of Faiths and made an increased contribution to the International Association for Religious Freedom, as evidence

women

support for the principle of cooperation among great world religions and its belief in the underlying unity of origin and purpose of every religious

churches that at the beginning of the 20th century to four different communions in the U.S. The Congregational and Christian churches had united

faith.

in 1931, and the Evangelical Synod of North America and the Reformed Church in the United States had merged in 1934. The uniting denominations brought together a membership that in 1970 stood at 6,800 congregations and two million members. Following directions clearly set by the 1969 General Synod, the national agencies of the church engaged in programs directed toward the empowerment of minorities. The Board for Homeland Ministries put all of its mission work among American Indians under the control of a council composed entirely of Indians. The Commission on Racial Justice placed more than 225 students from black ghettos in colleges

to the ministry of

porate membership in the

of

its

all

CB. L. Go.; J. N. B.) United Church of Canada. The rate and extent of change in the United Church of Canada increased in 1970. This was particularly evident in relation to the

The abolition of adminboards in favour of divisions had been no mere absorption of the former by the latter. The overlapping of concerns and activities was to be eliminated and all the resources of the boards would come under restructuring of the church. istrative

the control of the divisions.

However, the restrucwas taking place primarily from the point of view of mission and not merely as a reorganization. A new phase of restructuring loomed large in 1970 turing

word and sacraments." (A. G. R.)

United Church of Christ. When the United Church of Christ came into being in 1957 it brought together had belonged

related to the United Church.

munication continued

its

The

Office of

efforts before

Com-

the Federal

Communications Commission

to assure fair minority representation in the control and operation of the

broadcast media. The Council on Church and Ministry undertook a special program to recruit black col-

Many of the conferences (state bodies) of the church engaged in similar program; The Massachusetts conference acted to give its unrestricted reserves (Si million) to the Black Ecumenical Commission of Massachusetts. This action was publicly opposed by

Roy Wilkins

of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, and some of the churches in the Massachusetts conference also were in opposition.

In a somewhat different vein, the Ohio conference passed a resolution condemning the Gulf Oil Corp. for its support of Portuguese colonialism in Angola, Mozambique, and Portuguese Guinea and calling on

members

of the conference to discontinue the use of Gulf products. Gulf threatened to sue the conference, and the matter was being given further study by the board of directors of the conference as the year ended.

The United Church continued in its commitment to church union, although there was a growing feeling that ecumenical action might offer a more viable way into church union than negotiation. As a full participant in COCU. it prepared during 1970 to engage in

among

local congregations

based on the

polarization affecting U.S. society

was also eviAs congrega-

Plan of Union.

The

and national leadership attempted themselves to the problems of racism, war, and the youth culture, signs of conflict in the church became more apparent. tions, conferences, to address

Officers of the church for 1970 were Robert V. Moss, president; Joseph H. Evans, secretary; and Charles H. Lockyear, treasurer. (See Presbyterian, Reformed, and Congregational, above.) (R. V. M.)

a

growth

"local churches" (that

is,

were particularly harsh in Paraguay and many priests were involved in the progressive "third world" movement. Two of them. Father Fernando Carbone and Father Fulgencio Alberto Rojas, were arrested and charged with being accomplices in the murder of the former president of Argentina, Gen. Pedro Eugenio Aramburu. But the main flash point in Latin America was Brazil. Throughout the year there were well-substantiated reports of torture, with priests and nuns among the victims. At the end of 1969, the bishop of Volta Redonda was accused of "subversive activities" he had supported trade unions and denounced torture. state

The bishops

of Brazil

came

to his support, the

Com-

mission for Justice and Peace in Rome issued protests, and Pope Paul referred to the matter indirectly.

Archbishop Helder Camara's visit to Europe in the spring helped to focus attention on Brazil. In June the bishops called on the government to stop using torture and other totalitarian methods, but within a week the government was threatening to take exemplary action against Archbishop Camara for "defaming Brazil" and Agnelo Cardinal Rossi, president of the Bishops' Conference, had backed down and claimed that "one cannot attribute to the government

in the

the

Roman

(see Biogr.-\phy) to Australia

Catholic Church.

The

independence of

to preside at

visits of

Another church-state clash occurred in Rhodesia, where the bishops protested vigorously against the Smith government's Land Tenure Act. Their pastoral letter, called Crisis of Conscience, ended with these fighting words; "We cannot in conscience and will not in practice accept any limitation of our freedom to deal

with

all

bers of the one

people, irrespective of race, as

human

family." This hint of

obedience gave the government pause, and

nounced that

its

restrictions

mem-

civil disit

an-

would be eased somewhat.

Catholics

national churches) within

VI

November were

and

In the U.S. there was continuing polarization among who were found on all sides in current de-

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH

in

In Latin America there was much discussion on "the theology of revolution." Conflicts between church

responsibility for several isolated cases of torture."

dent in the United Church of Christ.

The year 1970 saw

Church."

Argentina, where

lege students for the ministry.

conversations

In June the pope referred to local churches as "blossoming branches of the universal

hierarchies.

Pope Paul

and the Philippines

meetings of the local

bates.

Some

defied the law

and went underground, as

for example the two priests Daniel and Philip Berrigan,

both of whom were arrested in the course of the year. Another novel form of activity for Catholic priests was the attempt to run for Congress. The best known

among such candidates were two Jesuits, John J. McLaughlin as a Republican in Rhode Island and Robert F. Drinan as a Democrat in Boston. McLaughlin lost his bid for a Senate seat, but Drinan won election to the House of Representatives. joints were creaking at various France 44 priests left the ministry in June and issued a collective statement declaring that they could "no longer in conscience accept a great many the present structures of the Church." An international meeting of dissident priests took place in Amsterdam toward the end of September. There was talk of modifying or abolishing the concordats in Portugal and Spain, where many priests involved in the Basque nationalist movement had been arrested. The growing involvement of the church in the social problems of Spain was reflected in a document on poverty issued by the Bishops' Conference in July; it called for freedom of assembly and association and

In

Europe the

points. In

:

for the creation of "truly representative trade unions."

In Italy the Vatican risked a head-on clash with the

government by opposing its divorce proposals, which, however, were ultimately adopted. In June, for the first time in the histor>' of the church in England, a national conference of priests

was

held.

One

resolution

summed up

the spirit of the

meeting: "The future survival of the Church in England and Wales demands a radical reappraisal of our evangelical and pastoral mission

and

basically unprepared." "Consultation"

we

for this

are

was the watch-

Germany and Switzerland synods, also elected members of the laity, were planned

UPI

criticism from many theologians. In ecumenism there was a sense that the honeymoon period was over,

although there were increasing contacts at the local level. The World Council of Churches was scheduled to discuss possible

Roman

Catholic membership at

its

January 197L

word, and in

meeting

invol\^ng

Newspaper reports in midsummer described a pracwhereby Indian girls from Kerala state were sent to European convents as novices, the convent paying some S700 for each one. The girls, poorly educated and unfamiliar with Western language and customs,

for 1971.

Dutch Pas-

the reverberations of the

Council were

still

being

felt.

In January

it

voted

for the abolition of compulsorv- celibacy for priests,

and the bishops supported

Rome came

this request.

indirectly in the

form of

The

reply of

a papal

speech

from the balcony in St. Peter's Square and a letter to Jean Cardinal Villot, secretary of state rFebruaot- 3 ). The pope rejected the Dutch proposals, though he reluctantly aired the possibility of ordaining

men

already

married, but only in very special circumstances.

Leon

Cardinal Suenens of Belgium gave a dramatic inter-

view to the French newspaper Le Monde, in which he pleaded for openness on this question. There were secret meetings in the nunciature in Paris that led finally to a meeting between Hans Cardinal Alfrink of the Netherlands and the pope. Both sides gave a little. Cardinal Alfrink returned home and his statement concluded: "Without failing to understand the problems explained by the cardinal, the pope considers that the reasons for maintaining the traditional link

of priesthood

On

and celibacy

in the

Latin Church are

would be on the agenda for the Synod of the Church that was still

to

valid."

meet

in

Addis Ababa, Eth.,

in

tice

MeanwhOe, toral

in

the other hand, the question

Rome

in the fall of 1971.

Women

were another increasingly rebellious group. Ordination of women to the priesthood remained an extremely unlikely prospect, but a gesture was made when the title "doctor of the church" was conferred on two female saints. St. Catherine of Siena and St. Teresa of Avila. Heretofore, the title had been given only to men. Less spectacular questions received attention. New baptismal and funeral rites were promulgated. A ^fotu Propria on mixed marriages left more room for local hierarchies to

make

a given framework.

their

A

own arrangements

—within

draft for a "Constitution for

the Church," leaked to the press,

met with

energetic

could not qualify for the education that had been promised them and frequently ended up doing menial work. A \'atican statement called the press reports "unduly exaggerated," but added that the practice had been under investigation for some time and had been suspended. {See also Vatican City State.) (P. A. H.)

EASTERN CHURCHES The Orthodox Church. On

April 10, 1970, Patriarch

Moscow, together with 14 other bishops, members of the Holy Synod, signed a tomes granting

Ale.xii

of

total ecclesiastical

independence, or autocephaly, to

Church in America. First established on American soil by Russian missionaries working in Alaska in the late 18th century, the Orthodox Church, which had gathered into its fold immigrants of various ethnic origins, had been governed since 1870 by a bishop appointed from Russia. Plans for ecclesiastical independence were drawn up as early as 1905. but the events following the Rusthe Orthodox

Revolution slowed the process of integration; on a purely ethnic basis ("notably the Greek Archdiocese in 1921), and political factiousness brought disunity to the Orthodox in America. The original diocese itself broke with Moscow in 1924 and again in 1931. The action of the Patriarchate of Moscow gave a new start to the cause of Orthodox unity in .America: it canceled the former canonical rights of the Russian Church, formally recognized the "Church in America" as a sister church the 15th autocephalous Orthodox Church in the world and called on all Orthodox Americans, whatever their ethnic extraction, to join it. sian

parallel jurisdictions, organized

—

—

COMPIX

Private secretary of Pope

Paul VI (center) restrains

Benjamin Mendoza Fiores (right),

y

Amor

who

attempted to assassinate the pope on his arrival at Manila airport on Nov, 27, 1970.

648

minimal guarantees of freedom were not formally given by the Soviet government. The death of Theodosios VI, patriarch of Antioch (September 19), was followed by the rapid election of a successor, Elias IV, formerly metropolitan of suffer greatly if

Religion

Aleppo, Syria. The Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch exercised jurisdiction over 250,000 Christian Arabs

Lebanon, Iraq, the U.S., and South America. international conference of Orthodox theologians

in Syria,

An

was held at the Hellenic College, Brookline, Mass., September 7-11, with the participation of speakers from France, Romania, Greece, the U.S.S.R., Turkey, and Yugoslavia. It witnessed a great solidarity of concerns and purposes going beyond the tensions on

WIDE WORLD

A member

of the Orthodox

Church

America

in

the hierarchical level.

places a candle near the coffin of Father

Herman during

of Spruce his

of the Greek

Eastern Non-Chalcedonian Churches. The caof all Armenians, Vasghen I, residing at Echmiadzin in the U.S.S.R., paid a visit to Pope Paul VI in Rome on May 8-12, 1970. The catholicos also visited Armenian communities in France. Delegates from the churches of Egypt, Syria, Ethiopia, Armenia, and India met for a third informal consultation with theologians of the Orthodox Church in Geneva on August 16-21. The consultation dealt mainly with the problem of the authority of councils and with ecclesiological issues dividing the two communions; it prepared the elements of possible

tude.

solutions

Island

tholicos

canonization

ceremony in Kodiak, Alaska. He became the first American saint in an Orthodox church.

Positive responses

came from

the Antiochian dioceses; the

Church

in

first

the Romanian and became part of the

America, the other was taking appropriate its mother church. Official statements

steps through

Church indicated a more negative attiAttempts to raise the problem of American church independence and of adopting English as the liturgical language initially were supported by the Greek archbishop, lakovos, but they were violently criticized by the Greek press, both in Greece and in America, and were opposed strongly by the EcumenPatriarchate of Constantinople. In a statement addressed to the Greek-American

ical

community, the Patriarchate stressed again the importance of ethnic origin, Greek language, and dependence upon higher authority abroad. Patriarch Athenagoras, in two letters addressed to Moscow, protested

that

it

council.

could

American autocephaly and affirmed be granted only by an ecumenical

In

answers

against

its

to

Constantinople,

Moscow

pointed out that all the modern autocephalous Orthodox Churches had been established by simple action of the mother church. Soon after its establishment, the new Orthodox Church in America proceeded with the canonization of

monk Herman (d. 1837), who came from the Valamo monastery (presently in Finland) to work among Aleuts, Eskimos, and Indians. The canonization ceremonies took place on Kodiak Island, Alaska, and were attended by the Orthodox the missionary

to Alaska

archbishop of Finland, Paul.

The Orthodox Church sian mission, which

of Japan, originally a Rus-

had been

in the

American

juris-

diction since 1945, also acceded to independence as

to

be considered by the appropriate au-

thorities in the event of formal union. It reaffirmed

the agreement, reached at previous consultations, on the "substance" of a common Christology, but regis-

tered the persisting disagreement on the formal canonauthority of the Council of Chalcedon (451) and

ical

the following councils recognized by the Orthodox Church and rejected by the Non-Chalcedonians. The consultation designated a continuation committee and recommended the appointment of an official joint commission by the churches themselves. (J. Me.)

JUDAISM The unresolved Israel-Arab

conflict loomed over the Jewish communities in the year 1970 (5730-31, according to the Jewish calendar). Jews the world over were not only deeply concerned with the

diasporic

problem of Israel's security, but also were directly by the events in the Middle East. Particularly affected were the Jewish communities in the Arab countries. One of the first acts of the revolutionary junta that took over the government in Libya in September 1969 was the sequestration of all Jewish property, and the few hundred Jews who had remained in the country after 1967 were forced to leave. In the U.A.R. the government discreetly allowed all Egyptian Jews to emigrate, and some 90 families left. They were not allowed to take any possessions. Lebanese Jewry, once a thriving and affected

community of some 7,000, dwindled to fewer than 1,000. Although well treated by the authorities,

an autonomous church by agreement between the Patriarchate of Moscow and the Church in America. Its founder, Archbishop Nicholas (d. 1913), was also

affluent

proclaimed a saint. A few days after having signed the decisive documents concerning America and Japan, Patriarch Alexii died (April 17) at the age of 92 (see Obituaries). It was announced in Moscow that his successor would be elected at a council of bishops, clergy, and laity on June 2, 1971. This delay in choosing a new patriarch, as well as the legal uncertainty about the composition of the council and the procedure of election, was widely commented upon. It was obvious that the inter-

stable political situation

national prestige of the

Moscow

Patriarchate would

Jews had been leaving steadily because of the unand intensified commando activities in Beirut. The 2,000 Jews in Tangier, Mor., were said to be poised to leave, prompted by the incessant anti-Israeli propaganda and by local intimidations.

The

position of Jews in the Soviet Union remained permanent item of world Jewish concern. The tragedy of Soviet Jewry was that its members were not allowed to live fully as Jews within the U.S.S.R. and at the same time they were not allowed to leave the country except in a very few cases. However, in a

the past year or so, the

mood

of Soviet

Jewry had

changed, and like other Soviet dissenters Soviet Jews were now taking active steps to call the world's attention

to

their plight.

Many

signed appeals were

sent out of the Soviet Union, addressed to the

UN

secretary-general, the prime minister of Israel, Jewish

com.munities in the West, and international or-

ganizations, requesting in unequivocal terms the right to leave the

U.S.S.R.

The

authorities staged a public

by many prominent Soviet Jews, to denounce Israel and its "Zionist accomplices," but under the concentrated pressure of world opinion some meeting, attended

Jews were given permission to emigrate to Israel. (See Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.) There were no reliable statistical data relating to the number of Jews who left (or remained in) Poland and Czechoslovakia in the wake of anti-Zionist campaigns. In Czechoslovakia, Jews were accused of being behind the "anti-Soviet and anti-Socialist Dubcek era," but the anticipated anti-Zionist trials did not take place. The position of Jews in Romania and Hungary was generally satisfactory. The effect of the New Left pro-Arab attitudes was felt within some Western Jewish communities, especially among Jewish students in the U.S., France, and Great Britain, and some of the more radical students did not hesitate to adopt an anti-Israel stance, even supporting some Arab terrorist activities. However, there were signs that Jewish youth in the afcoming, as many of them did, from fluent societies a completely assimilated and secularized milieu were beginning to be more and more aware of their Jewishness and trying to find an outlet for their radical idealism within the Jewish context. Jews in Great Britain celebrated the centenar>' of the United Synagogue, their prime congregational union. The British Liberal and Reform congregations were dismayed by the failure of the Board of Deputies to give a formal expression to the de facto existing rights of their religious authorities to be consulted on matters that were their direct concern. The constitutional amendment to thdt effect was defeated by deputies representing the Federation of Synagogues and the Union of Orthodox Hebrew Congregations. However, the chief rabbi of the United Synagogue declared that he would continue to seek an understanding with the Liberal and Reform religious leaders whereby the existing dichotomy in matters of marriage, divorce, and proselytization could be eliminated or, at least,

—

reduced.

"who is a Jew?" was again One involved an Israeli non- Jewish wife who won a two-

The vexed problem by two cases in

raised

naval officer and his

of

Israel.

year legal fight to have their two children registered

The other case was that of Helen Zeldman, who had been converted from Christianity through the Circle for Progressive Judaism and whose conversion was not recognized by Israeli religious authorities. She was allowed to be registered as Jewish before a formal Orthodox conversion. Jewish religious leaders in Europe and elsewhere lined up behind the Israeli Chief Rabbinate on this issue, stating that "a Jew is only a person born of a Jewish mother or who has been received into Judaism by

as of Jewish nationality.

Rabbi Isaac Nissim of the Seit would be a sin for the Israeli Army to withdraw from any area that was part of the traditional Holy Land, and Rabbi Menahem Schneurson, head of the Habad-Hassidic society, issued a similar warning. Actually, the boundaries of the biblical Promised Land are variously described in the Bible and the Talmud. The vast majority of Jewish people, including most Orthodox, were interested only in the maintenance of a viable and secure state. The passage of abortion reform laws in several U.S. states divided the American rabbinate. The Or-

ing debated. Chief

phardic community maintained that

thodox rabbis regarded abortion as sinful, while the Conservative and Reform rabbis maintained that in many cases abortion is not immoral and that the parents have to make their own decision in accord with the dictates of their own conscience. In the Talmud, various opinions are given as to whether the soul enters the fetus at conception or at birth. In Jewish law, the baby was considered a human being only

after

its

head had emerged from the birth

canal.

The

the Orthodox on limiting

of

insistence

movement was back even more decisively by the demand of some Jewish theologians that Christians recognize the

menists. During 1970 the ecumenical set

religious validity of the state of Israel as a partial

fulfillment of biblical prophecy.

While some Chris-

tians concurred in this view, a great it

number considered

unacceptable.

A New York

law was enacted providing for

state

state grants to parochial schools to cover expenses

mandated by the

state,

such as maintaining attendance and keeping pu-

records, administering examinations,

health records. Rabbi Morris Sherer. executive

pil

president of the Agudath Israel of America, called this "a first step" in the "battle to obtain

government

support for the secular educational services offered" by religious day schools. Several states, including New

York and New

Jersey,

moved

to eliminate

strictions against granting aid to students

such religious day schools. The National Jewish Commission on lic

Affairs

(COLPA) won

York company

secularization" at the institution. (C. U. L.;

J.

B. A.;

the boundaries of the state of Israel, the concurrent question of Israel's biblical-rabbinical limits was be-

P.

Gl.)

BUDDHISM Many

noteworthy events took place

world of

in the

Buddhism during 1969-70. The unearthing

of a five-

foot Buddha-like statue, estimated to date from 700-

Mont

Dore

Guatemala by a group Buddhism the American continent nearly

of archaeologists stirred speculation that

to settle

New

had discriminated against a Sabbath observer. The company was found to have violated the New York State Human Rights Law, COLPA was also instrumental in getting the New York State Unemployment Bureau to continue payments to individuals who would not accept jobs that required work on the Sabbath and Jewish holy days. Students at Yeshiva University, the oldest and largest university under Jewish auspices in the U.S., began a massive campaign to end the "threat of strangulation by that

out in accordance with the halacha by a properly constituted traditional court of Jewish law."

were being made

re-

Law and Pub-

300

efforts

all

who attend

a judgment against a

the proper legal procedure of proselytization, carried

While diplomatic

the

dialogue between Jews and Christians to questions of ethics had cooled the ardour of some Christian ecu-

B.C., in

El

had been introduced

to

in

20 centuries ago. In India remains of a majestic early Buddhist stupa were discovered at Pauni, near

Nagpur, and the government announced

its

decision

to restore Savatthi,

where the Buddha spent the rainy

season during the last 25 years of his life. Indian authorities also agreed to provide funds and technical assistance for the restoration of the colossal

Buddha

Bamian, Afghanistan. In 1969 the Dalai Lama and his followers had commemorated the tenth anniversary of their flight from Tibet to India. They had complet d the construction of a three-story Tsuglag Khang (cathedral) in Dharamsala, where the Dalai Lama performed the esoteric Vajrayana initiation of Sri Kalachakra for 15,000 Tibetans. Still unknown were the whereabouts of the Panchen Lama, the second-ranking Tibetan leader. There were rumours that he had escaped from China to Mongolia, but it seemed more likely that he had died, probably in Manchuria. In Bombay, P. T. Borale, one of the leaders of scheduled class Indians, became the first Buddhist mayor of a major image

Mongolia. The tenth General Conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists was to be held in May 1971 in Colombo, Ceylon. (J. M. Ka.)

in

ISLAM Again the most notable events of the year were the political developments that affected the concerns and directed the energies of Muslims everywhere. Paramount were the civil war and Syrian intervention in Jordan during September 1970, followed by the death of Pres. Gamal Abd-al-Nasser of the U.A.R. (see Obituaries) on September 28, both of which further complicated the already unsettled relations among the

Arab

tensions

states

and further inhibited relaxation

among them. (See Jordan; Middle

of

East.)

North-Western Province Sangha Front, the Association of the Chief Incumbents and Trustees of Viharas, and the newly organized Sinhala Buddha Sanvidhanaya, were pressing the government to exempt paddy lands belonging to Buddhist temples and monasteries from the "Paddy Act" on the ground that the loss of income from paddy lands would destroy the economic foundations of Buddhism in that country. Kaled Amer Assrany, a Brazilian citizen and a member of the Druze sect, an offshoot of the Ismailis, was ordained in Colombo and became the first Brazilian monk, with the name Bhikkhu Dhammananda. In Burma the Buddha Sasana reported that it had established 132 Buddhist mission centres in the fron-

The effects of the Middle East political situation were felt throughout the year, however. In the middle of February, Id al-Adha observances in Cairo, marking the end of the formal rites of the annual pilgrimage to Mecca and usually noted for their festive gaiety, were somewhat curtailed by the need to observe blackout precautions against possible Israeli air raids. At the end of February the fifth Ulama Conference, convened in Cairo by the Islamic Research Academy, brought together some 100 Muslim scholars from 38 nations. Its major public pronouncements concerned the Arab-Israeli conflict. Later in March, King Faisal of Saudi Arabia opened a meeting in Jidda of foreign ministers from the Islamic countries; the conference was short but did agree to establish a permanent Islamic secretariat, its announced purpose. It had been called in the wake of the burning of Al Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem the previous August. Elsewhere in the Islamic world political upsets and

tier areas.

rioting

World Buddhist Social Service had been established. They were asking for assistance in setting up hospitals,

Communal

city in India.

In Ceylon

(See Religions of Asia, below.)

many Buddhist

organizations, especially

the

In South Vietnam 46 subbranches of the

dispensaries, orphanages, habilitation centres, in the

of

and vocational training schools

war-torn country. Meanwhile, about 100 monks

Khmer

down

kindergartens, refugee re-

("Cambodian) origin staged a five-day

sit-

strike outside the presidential palace in Saigon,

demanding the restoration of ethnic minority status for 500,000 Vietnamese of Cambodian origin. Pres. Nguyen Van Thieu rejected this demand, and armed riot police

forced the

monks

to

be confined

in

the

riots

clashes in the

less

acute than in previous years.

affecting

Muslims

Kashmir-Jammu

was known concerning the

activities of

Bud-

not at

all

called the worst since 1948.

in India,

Muslim

the disastrous cyclone and tidal

New

Buddhist groups

West included the Connaissance du Bouddhisme Paris, a new Buddhist circle in Cape Town, S.Af.,

in the in

and a Buddhist centre in Ziirich, Switz. An interesting seminar on Buddhism, family life, and population was held early in 1970 under the joint sponsorship of the East-West Center and the University of Hawaii.

On the organizational side, the World Buddhist Sangha Council and the World Buddhist Social Service had their conferences simultaneously in Saigon in 1969. In June 1970 a conference of world Buddhists, mostly from Communist nations, met in Ulan Bator,

which were

interests in Paki-

Convention attracted a large number of Shin-shu all parts of Japan as well as from abroad. The largest Buddha statue in Japan, 31.5 m. hieh, was completed at Mt. Nokogiri, southwest of Tokyo.

Theravada Buddhist Vihara.

and

as severe as the previous September's clashes

stan centred on the national elections.

In the U.S. a new Buddhist periodical, Washington Buddhist, was being published by the Washington

India

previous year, and relations between Pakistan and India also seemed less strained. The principal exception was the communal rioting in May in Maharashtra State, where nearly 100 persons were killed and many more injured. This event led to considerable discussion by the Indian press about the wisdom of playing down such occurrences on the theory that wider coverage would lead to an increase of conflicts. But the May riots in Maharashtra were

dhists in China. In Japan, however, the fourth World Shin-shu TTrue Pure Land sect) Buddhist Women's

women from

in

area were fewer than

in the

between Muslims and Hindus

Central Saigon Pagoda. Little

were much

Muslim

con-

tributions toward relief in East Pakistan following

wave

there included

$480,000 from Saudi Arabia. (See Pakistan.) Prominent among less political events were announcements of mosque-building projects. Early in

January the plans and a model of the Islamic Cultural Center in New York City were shown; the project was to include a mosque, school, apartment buildings, and a bazaar. Its establishment had been first announced in February 1967, when the cost was estimated at $6 million. By 1970 this had risen to $15 million, and in March an announcement was made that the centre would appeal to Muslim nations in an effort to raise this sum. It was announced in January that King Faisal of Saudi Arabia had offered to pay for the national mosque Pakistan was planning in its new and rapidly expanding capital of Islamabad. Early in March the Islamic Centre in London announced plans for a $2 million mosque to be built near Regent's Park. Designed by the noted British

it would accommoand would be the largest in

architect Sir Frederick Gibberd,

date 2,800 worshipers

Western Europe. Pakistan offered to donate a portion of the cost. Also in March, President Nixon donated a mosque lamp to the Islamic Center in Washington, D.C.

Azhar university

April 4, Al

On

noted

in Cairo,

as the world's oldest centre for higher learning, cele-

brated

thousandth anniversary. It was originally

its

built as a

mosque and

shortly thereafter

made

a centre

by the Fatimid Caliph al-Aziz. In 1970 had an enrollment of about 8,000 students from all

of learning it

over the world.

In July the Lebanese penal court of appeals acyoung Syrian Muslim scholar Sadiq al-

quitted the

Azm and his publisher of charges of criticizing Islam and fomenting religious strife. Al-Azm's book, Critique of Religious Thought, questioned whether modern Muslims need accept the ligious stories

literal

truth of

all

the re-

contained in the Koran and discussed

other theological problems such as the Koranic interpretation of Satan.

Following a visit of Muslim leaders to the Vatican,

was agreed to establish regular high-level consultations to promote greater understanding between the two faiths. (R. W. Sm.)

it

RELIGIONS OF ASIA world

—probably more than other parts of the — events continued have strong po-

litical

overtones while political events often had re-

In Asia

in

Above, his Supreme

be determined to go to India as a Buddhist mis- Holiness Sliri Yogiji IVIaharaj prepares to open sionary. On the other hand, he still claimed to be Shree Swaminarayan Burma's legal prime minister and stated emphatically Temple in London, June 14, that he would not rest until Buddhism was reestab- 1970. Below, members to

lished

in

his

country.

Rumours

persisted

that

his

ecrated a statue of Buddha. Leaders of the Republi-

were collecting arms. Prince Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia, who was deposed as head of state in March, admitted the failure of his brand of Buddhist socialism, saying that it had been unable to solve the problems of corruption, unemployment, and social justice. The United Buddhist Church of South Vietnam, which for some time had been critical of the Saigon regime, accused the Hanoi regime of massacring civilians and demanded the release of monks captured during the 1968 Tet offensive. For its part, Saigon indefinitely suspended the Buddhist daily newspaper Chan Dao ("True Religion") on the ground that it nurtured political dissension. In China after the Cultural Revolution, the cult of Chairman Mao appeared to have become de facto a

can Party, speaking for the 50 million scheduled class

full-fledged

religious

to

In India, Hindus and non-Hindus

ligious implications.

alike

found that

was

it

far easier to celebrate the

Mohandas Gandhi (1869-1948) than

centenary of

In Ladakh, situated close to and Chinese borders, relations between the predominant Muslim population and the approximately 3,000 Buddhist refugees from Tibet had been to practice his teachings.

the Pakistani

strained for

some

tion of the

Buddhist

time. Following the alleged desecra-

Action Committee ister of

by Muslims, the Buddhist Ladakh asked the prime min-

flag

in

India to intervene on their behalf.

In Aurangabad, Maharashtra, "militant Hindus des-

many

whom

were Buddhists, asserted that Buddhists in various villages had been beaten and that many Buddhist women had been molested. In Bhiwandi and Jalgaon, also in Maharashtra, nearly 100 persons were killed in a Hindu-Muslim clash in May Indians,

of

Alarmed by widespread sogovernment of India urged all state

1970. (See Islam, above.) cial

unrest, the

governments

to stress

moral instruction

in

educational

The All-India Gandhi Centenary Celebration Committee and other groups started an all-out campaign against liquor. On a more popular level,

institutions.

public debate continued regarding such issues as onscreen kissing and the short "hipster sari."

Ceylon continued

be hard pressed by communal Hindu-Tamils in the north, the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam had emerged as a new and aggressive political party, overshadowing the Federal Party which had cooperated with Dudley Senanayake's United National Party government. Fol-. tensions.

Among

to

the

the May 1970 victory of Mme Sirimavo Bandaranaike's United Front, which campaigned for the combined interests of Marxists and Sinhalese Buddhists, militant leftist youths rampaged in the former prime minister's home district.

lowing

Former Burmese prime minister

U Nu

was said

lieutenants

religion,

while the traditional

of the Society for Krishna

Consciousness dance on and about a 40-ft.-high

magenta chariot as they

prepare to leave

Marble Arch for Trafalgar Square, July 6.

religions,

such as Buddhism, Taoism, and Islam, had all but lost even their residual influence. In Taiwan and South

Korea, both of which were under the rule of strong many religious groups were taking on the colouring of patriotic organizations. Komeito, the political branch of the Soka Gakkai-dominated Nichiren Sho sect, now had 47 seats in the lower house military leaders,

of the Japanese Diet, only three short of the

number

would give it the right to introduce legislation. As though to symbolize the aspirations of Asia, a gigantic World Peace Pagoda (^Viswa Shanti Stupa) a joint Indo-Japanese venture was inaugurated in October 1969 in Rajgir, Bihar, by V. V. Giri, the president of India. Two months later Jesus Vargas, secretary-general of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, reiterated the familiar theme of "Asian unity" as a precondition to peace, freedom, and social justice, although the events of 1969-70 indicated that Asia had a long way to go before attaining these that

—

—

goals.

Meanwhile, the influence of Asian religions in the steadily. Those most in evidence ranged from sophisticated versions of Vedanta and Zen to the hypnotic cult of Krishna and the Soka Gakkai. (J. M. Ka.)

West grew

"THE TIMES LONDON, FROM PICTORIAL PARADE

652 Estimated Membership of the Principal Religions of the World

Rhodesia Religions

a Chr'stian n lan

North

Soulh

America*

America

Asia

Europet

Africa

214,258,000

150,426,000

442,006,000

61,473,000

42,056,000

126,468,000 3,675,000 84,1 15,000

147,219,000 47,000 3,160,000

226,303,000 114,103,000 101 ,600,000

47,622,000 2,819,000 11,032,000

28,751,000 4,956,000 8,349,000

6,035,^00 oo,uuu

705,000

4,025,000

31,000 16,000 96,000 187,000 55,000

116,000 19,000 109,000 157,000 660,000

12,000 2,000 12,000 55,000 8,000 160,000

126,000 69,513,000 54,2?7,000 371,261,000 176,568,000 434,447,000

Totals

220,844,000

152,608,000

460,128,000

Population*

304,439,000

174,246,000

636,993,000

T

t

1

Roman Catholic Eastern Orthodox Protestant§ Jewishll

Muslim^

Taoist'-'

Confucian^ Buddhisf^

Hindu*

1

World

055 000

924 274 000

4,107,000 84,000 9,864,000

580,470,000 125,684,000 218,120,000

74,000

13,537,000

4

1

238,000

2,460,000 Of H ,\0f ,uuu

1

Zoroastrian9 ShintoA

Oceania^

1 1

U4,/ 7/ ,uuu

—

Q

nnn 138,000 69,662,000 54,324,000 371,587,000 176,920,000 436,745,000

—

9,000

57,000

1,205,000

218,000

1,544,292,000

147,805,000

14,522,000

2,540,199,000

1,907,481,000

328,134,000

18,127,000

3,369,420,000

•Includes Central A merica and the West Indie!. tincludes communicants claimed by establistied churches; includes also the U.S.S.R., in which the effect of a half-century of official Marxist ideology upon religious adherence is much disputed among specialists. JIncludes New Zealand and Australia as well os islands of the South Pacific. §Protestant statistics usuolly include "full members'* rather thon all baptized persons and are not comparable to those of ethnic religions or churches counting all odherents. The World Council of Churches in 1968 constituted a working committee to seek uniform nomenclature and reporting procedures. IIBosed on 1968 estimates of Jewish Statistical Bureau. ^The chief base of Islam is still ethnic, and the statistics are largely derived from demographic studies. Evongelistic work is now carried on by Muslim renewal movements, and major gains have been made in Europe and the U.S. (viz. Black Muslims).

9A declining number of Zoroastrians are found in Iron, Pakistan, and India. 6A Japanese ethnic religion, Shinto has declined in strength since the emperor gave up claim to divinity (1947). Jopanese religious statistics are highly problematical because adherents frequently are related to several different religions simultaneously. In 1968 the Japanese government instituted a statistical survey to clarify the status of different religions, cults, and movements, several of which claim millions of new adherents since World War II. ^Figures on China ore highly speculative, including the number of remaining Muslims. The effect of Moo's Cultural Revupon Taoism and Confucianism is yet to be measured. Moreover, there is a long-standing dispute among scholars as to whether Confucianism should be counted as a "religion" at all. ^"'Buddhism has several modern renewal movements which have won adherents in Europe and the U.S. The shift from an ethnic to a missionary base is evident in some areas not formerly ethnic-Buddhist. ^Hinduism's strength in India has been enhanced by nationalism, and modern Hinduism has also developed renewal olution

movements- that have reached into Europe and the U.S. for converts. ^Source; 1968 United Nations survey.

World Churcti Membership. With the expansion movement, scholarly representatives

of the ecumenical

many

of world religions, confronting each other, in

cases, for the first time in history, often discovered

that they lacked a this

common

more evident than

language.

in the

Nowhere was

matter of religious

sta-

tistics.

Even

in the

of reckoning.

West there is a wide variety in styles Where religious liberty and voluntary

adherence obtain, as in the U.S., the relationship of the religious person to his faith community is termed "membership," comparable to membership in a union or professional association. In European Christendom,

where

state

scene,

those

churches long dominated the religious in

relationship

traditional

are

termed

"communicants" or "constituents." In the Eastern religions, even these terms are too Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam have "ad-

precise.

herents." In Confucianism, Taoism, and Shinto, phi-

losophy and

life style

A

Retail Sales: see

Consumer

Expenditures; IVlerchandising

Reunion: see

Dependent States

show only and 3.4%, respectively, in active connection. Similar problems exist for such countries as Spain, Greece, West Germany, Italy, Norway, and other lands where some form of religious establishment still prevails. The problem for totaling Christian statistics reaches its ultimate level of speculation in areas where Marxism is the official ideology. For example, some Orthodox Eastern Church tables still count 100 million Russians as constituents, and even delegations to international assemblies have been determined on a count of 40 million Orthodox in the U.S.S.R. Accordingly, readers who use the statistics provided in the table are advised to do so with consciousness that mi.xed styles of reckoning are incorporated. (F. H. Li.)

Encyclop,5;dia Britannica Films. Major Religions World (Development and Rituals) (1954).

number

Though 1970,

II.

tistics is

of the

Rhodesia

Japanese "belong" to one or more Buddhist sects, observe festivals at Shinto shrines, and are perhaps counted as adherents of one of the unique universal cults that have sprung up in the Orient since World

severely compromised

of counting.

of each popula-

3.6

itself

considerable

Clearly the compilation of reliable religious staResources, Natural: Conservation

98%

Li.)

tion as Lutheran, though official studies

of

times the total population.

see

the state churches reckon over

H.

are so intertwined that no terms

implying a separation of the religious relationship from other functional roles can be used accurately. In the mixed religious situation of modern Japan, for example, the total of religious statistics runs to four

War

(F,

The membership

by

ways Zen Buddhist

the different

of the

Society in Boston can be determined exactly; the number of Buddhist adherents in Burma is often based on estimates of population and population growth. The

membership of Lutheran churches in Chicago can be totaled quite precisely; in Sweden and Denmark

Rhodesia

a republic on it

declared

March

2,

remained a British

colony in the eyes of

many

bounded by Zambia, Mozambique, South Africa, and Botswana. Area: 150,820 other nations. It

^

is

sq.mi. (389,622

sq.km.). Pop. (1970 est.): 5,270,000, of whom 94% are African and 5% white. Cap. and largest city:

Salisbury (pop., 1970 est., 93,000). Language: English (official) and Bantu. Religion: predominantly traditional tribal beliefs; Christian minority. Presi-

dent from March 2, 1970, Clifford Dupont; prime minister in 1970, Ian D. Smith. On New Year's Day 1970, Ian Smith claimed that,

economic sanctions imposed by the

in spite. of

j

UN,

contest the black seats.

surge of economic expansion could be anticipated.

desia took the lead

Accurate figures of Rhodesia's economic position were hard to discover, however, and the British foreign secretary, Michael Stewart, challenged Smith's opti-

in

mistic view

when he

affirmed that Rhodesia's declara-

on March

Roman

Catholic Church in Rho-

among

the Christian communities

announcing that it would defy all government attempts to impose racial separation. Faced with this clear resolve, the prime minister, after several weeks

of protest

and

petitions,

announced

in late

August

was illegal. The U.S. also announced would not recognize the Rhodesian government under any circumstances, and after a brief hesitation submitted to British pressure and closed its

apply for permits to carry on their work on what was formally mission land the government would amend the Land Tenure Act so that permits would be deemed to have been issued. This was not a great triumph for the churches since the government retained the right

that

it

consulate in Salisbury.

A number

closed their consulates, while staff

still

of other countries

others reduced their

or appointed honorary consuls.

Only Portugal

I

I

contrast the

that in order to eliminate the need for churches to

2,

as president,

I

By

to

with Clifford Dupont

tion of a republic

I

by Smith's Rhodesian Front, which did not bother

Rhodesia was expected to have achieved a favourable balance of trade for the year 1969 and added that a

and South Africa retained former level.

their representation at its

The Council of Ministers of the Organization of (OAU), meanwhile, called on the major powers to be prepared to use force to achieve a demo-

African Unity

cratic solution in

to cancel any permit. In November the government announced plans to introduce legislation segregating whites from Asians and persons of mixed race. Earlier, in January, guerrilla forces from the black

African nations to the north carried out raids across the Zambezi River involving attacks on the Victoria Falls airport and on a South African police detach-

Rhodesia. At a press conference im-

mediately after the declaration of the republic. Prime Minister Smith said that he could not understand

why

and Britain wanted to destroy Rhodesia and maintained that though the black and white races were the U.S.

far apart in their level of civilization, black Africans

had been given 16 seats in Parliament which in time might increase to SO. Within Rhodesia itself the multiracial Centre Party offered its loyalty to the sovereign independent state of Rhodesia, but in the elections for Parliament held in April the party failed to win even one of the white seats. All of those were captured

RHODESIA Education. (1969) African: primary, pupils 680,778, teachers 17,498; secondary, pupils 19,817, teachers 926; vocational and teacher training, students 1,824, teachers 122. Non-.^^rican: primary, pupils 39,134, teachers 1,619; secondary, pupils 25,444, teachers

1,495; vocational and teacher training, pupils 2,657, teachers 154. African and non-African: higher (University College of Rhodesia), students 857, teaching staff 154. Finance. Monetary unit: Rhodesian dollar (introduced Feb, 1 7. 1970, equal to 10 shillings of old currency), with an exchange rate of R$71 to U.S. $1 £l sterling). Budget (1969-70): revenue (R$170 R$198.5 million; expenditure R$203.9 million. Gross national product: (1968) R$815.6 million; (1967)

=

R$7S0.4 million. Foreign Trade. (1968) Imports R$207 million; exports R$183,4 million. Import sources (1965): U.K. 30%; South Africa 23%; U.S. 7%; Japan 6%. Export destinations (1965): Zambia 29%: U.K. 20%; South Africa 11%; West Germany 8%; Malawi 6%; Janan 5%. Main exporU (1965): tobacco 51%; asbestos 12%; machinery 9%; copper 7%; clothing

6%:

cliemicals

5%.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1968) 78,470 km. Motor vehicles in use (1968): passenger 108,800; commercial (including buses) 42,200. Railways; (1967) 3,330 km.; freight traffic (including Botswana: 1969) 6,050,000,000 net ton-km. Telephones (Dec. 1968) 125,844, Radio receivers (June 1967) 105,078, Television receivers (Dec, 1968) 45,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969; 1968 in parentheses): tobacco c. 61 (c, 60); corn (I96S) c. 610, (1967) c. 600; peanuts (1968) c. 37,

(1967) c. 79; tea (1968) c. 2,3, (1967) c. 2,7; sugar, raw value (1969-70) c. 1 17, (1968-69) c. 117; beef and veal (on farms and estates; 1967-68) c. 68, (1966-67) c. 68. Livestock (in 000: 1968-69): cattle c. 3.800; sheep c. 445; goats (1967-68) c. 660; pigs c. 146. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968): coal 2,969: chrome ore (oxide content: 1965) 281; asbestos (1966) c. 160; iron ore (metal content: 1966) c. 830; gold (troy oz,; 1967) 500; electricity (kw-hr,) 5,576,000.

ment. Smith warned the Zambian government that essential power and tran.sport services might be withheld if Zambia continued to harbour and as.sist such terrorists and infiltrators. Although the raid caused consternation in Rhodesia, it seemed as if it might mark the end rather than the revival of military activity against Smith's government. Within the Zimbabwe Afri can People's Union (ZAPU), which had organized the attacks from across the divisions were already noticeable place,

of

and

in

Zambian border, when the raid took

March James Chikerema,

ZAPU, admitted

vice-president

from his party were numerous. Later in the month Chikerema seized power from jailed ZAPU president Joshua Nkomo and replaced the military command with a new command structure responsible to himself. As a result of the intervention of Zambian Pres, Kenneth Kaunda, the dismissed war council was reinstated, but in April that the defections

number of clashes involving among the members of ZAPU, a

violence took place

In early October the weakness of Rhodesia's finanposition was revealed by the government's admission that there was a serious shortage of foreign cial

exchange earnings. This meant that Rhodesia had difficulty in paying for the internal industrial expan-

sion that it so badly needed. Tobacco earnings abroad had been reduced virtually to nothing as a result of the sanctions, and mineral exports also were producing less foreign exchange than had been hoped for. South African aid remained the chief standby, but help from other sources was minimal. An attempt to increase white immigration into Rhodesia had met with little lasting success since many immigrants left soon after entering the country. (K. I.)

Romania A

on the Balkan Peninsula in southis bordered by the U.S.S.R., the Black Sea, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and Hungary. Area: 91,700 sq.mi. (237,500 sq.km.). Pop. (1969 est.) 20,010,178, including ( 1968) Romanian 87.8% Hungarian 8.4%. Cap. and largest city: Bucharest (pop., 1969 est., 1,457,802). Religion: Romanian Orthodox 70%; Greek Orthodox 10%. General secretary of the Romanian Communist Party and president of the State Council in 1970, Nicolae Ceausescu; chairman of the Council of Ministers (premier). Ion Gheorghe Maurer. The worst floods in Romania's history occurred in 1970. From May 12 to 25 one half of the country received between 80 and 100 litres (3-4 in.) of rainfall per square metre, while in the other half the downpour averaged from 35 to 80 litres (l^-^ in.). In not quite one month Romania was ravaged by three successive waves of floods, which caused 170 casualties and great material damage. Farm output on some 1.7 million ac. was affected, and 38,600 cattle were drowned. Production in about 294 industrial establishments was halted for weeks. In towns and villages more than 85,000 dwellings were destroyed, as well as over 3,500 bridges. More than 2,800 km. of roads, several hundred kilometres of railways, and 2,100 km. of electric lines were seriously damaged. The losses exceeded 10 billion lei (about 7% of the yearly state socialist republic

eastern Europe,

Romania

:

;

expenditure).

During

Ceausescu was called to 18-19) to attend a lecture on the vir-

this catastrophe,

Moscow (May

A week before, Comecon, Romania had

tues of "proletarian internationalism."

Warsaw meeting

the

at

of

refused to join the newly created International Investments Bank, and for more than two years Bucharest had argued with Moscow about the terms

new treaty of alliance the previous one, concluded for 20 years, had been signed on Feb. 4, 1948). Ceausescu stood his ground and refused to incorporate

of a

(

in the

new

treaty anything smacking of the

doctrine.

That doctrine

domestic

affairs of a socialist state if

Brezhnev

justified intervention in the

"the essential interests" of other socialist countries were threatened.

common Both

the

sides made concessions. In the preamble new 20-year Soviet-Romanian treaty (signed

of in

Bucharest on July 7 by the two premiers, Aleksei Kosygin and Ion Gheorghe Maurer), the principles of "socialist internationalism" were described with

some vagueness. There was, tion of the

"internationalist

for instance, no menduty" to intervene in

order to "protect the socialist gains," as was the case the Soviet-Czechoslovak treaty of May 6. The

in

main pledge taken by Romania was expressed in terms almost identical to those of the Soviet-Czechoslovak treaty, however. In art. 7 Romania expressed its firm determination to take, jointly with other states of

Warsaw

the

Pact, "all the measures necessary to preto ensure the inviolability of

vent aggression.

.

.

the frontiers of the

and

,

Warsaw Treaty member-states,

an aggressor."

to repel

Two other similar treaties were renewed by Romania: with Poland on November 12, on the occasion of a visit by Wladyslaw Gomulka and Jozef Cyrankiewicz to Bucharest, and with Bulgaria on November 19 when Ceausescu visited Sofia. During the year Ceausescu paid official visits to France in June and to Austria in September. In October he spent two weeks on a private visit in the United States; on October 19 he addressed the UN General Assembly, and on October 26 he was received by Pres. Richard Nixon. On November 19 an agreement was signed in Moscow on the coordination of the economic development plans of the U.S.S.R. and Romania during 1971-75. Trade exchanges between the two countries would amount to about $5,880,000,000, 40% above the previous five-year period. A few days later China announced that it had granted Romania a long-term, interest-free loan, the first ever made by China to a Warsaw Pact country. The loan was said to be for the "supply of equipment and installations of whole projects," but the amount was not disclosed. (K. Sm.) ROMANIA Education.

(1967-68) Primary, pupils 2,879,881, 131,235; secondary, pupils 202,398, teachers 1,338; vocational, pupils 32 7,642, teachers 17,690; teacher training, students 14,112, teachers 739; higher (including 12 universities), students 141,589, teaching staff_ 13,792. teacliers 1

Finance. Monetary unit: leu, with an official exchange rate of 6 lei to U,S, $1 (14.40 lei = £1 sterling) and a tourist rate of 18 lei = U.S. $1 (43.20 lei = £1 sterling). Budget (1968 rev. est.): revenue 138,757,000.000 lei; expenditure 131,921.000,000 lei. Foreign Trade. ( 1968): Imports 9,653,800,000 lei; exports 8,811,400,000 lei. Import sources: U.S.S.R. 27%; West Germany 11%; Italy 6%; Czechoslovakia 6%; U.K. 6%; France 5%: Export destinations: U.S.S.R. 31%; Czechoslovakia 8%; West Germany 7%; East Germany 5%; Italy 5%. Main exports: machinery 21%; foodstuffs 14%; raw materials (cereals, timber, etc.) 12%; petroleum products 9%; chemicals

6%.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1968) 77,019 km. (including 10,021 km. with improved surface). Motor vehicles in use: passenger (1965) c. 250.000; commercial (1968) 38,100. Railways: (1968) 11,016 km.; traffic (1969) 16,720.000,000 passengerkm.. freight 44,030.000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1969): 331.7 million passenger-km.; freight 6,972,000 net ton-km. Inland waterways in regular use (1967) 1,115 km. Shipping (1969): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 64; gross tonnage 338.242. Telephones (Dec. 1968) 568,588. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) 3.031,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1968) 1,115,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969; 1968 in parentheses): wheat c. 5,700 (4,848); barley r.. 574 (590); oats c. 155 (114); corn 7.680 (7.105); potatoes (1968) 3,665, (1967) 3,085; onions (1968) 148, (1967) 248; tomatoes (1968) 874, 967) 676; sugar, raw value (1Q69-70) 484, (1968( 69) 417; tobacco (1968) 32, (1967) 35; sunflower seed 795 (730); dry peas (1968) 76. (1967) 183; plums ( 1068) 562, (1967) 670: apples ( 1968) 222, (1967) 234; grapes (1968) 1,167, (1967) 910. Livestock (in 000; Jan. 1969): cattle 5,853; sheep 14,298: horses 703: poultry 47.618. Industry. Index of production (1963 100): (1969) 201; (1968) 182. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969): coal 5,863; lignite 11,113; coke (1968) 1,133; crude oil 13.345; natural gas (cu.m.) 23,929; electricity (kw;hr.) 31,477,000; iron ore (30-35% metal content) 2,999; pig iron 3,477: crude steel 5.540; cement 7.514; sulfuric acid 838; nitrogenous fertilizers (nitrogen content; 1968) 421; cotton yarn 102; cotton fabrics (sq.m.) 410,000; wool yarn 32; woolen fabrics (sq.m.) 5 5,300: newsprint S3: other paper (1068) 411; commercial vehicles (units) 33. New dwelling units completed (1968) 1 10,325. 1

=

KEYSTONE

and a bronze, while the U.S.S.R. took and a bronze. East Germany triumphed in the eights and two sculling events, while Soviet oarswomen beat them in coxed fours; the fifth gold medalist was Romania in the quadruple sculls. East Germany scored an unprecedented clean sweep

golds, a silver,

a gold, three silvers,

Rowing The

third

world rowing championships, held at

St.

Catharines, Ont., in September 1970, attracted 111 entrants from 29 countries. Canada, East Germany, West Germany, Great Britain, the U.S.S.R., and the United States contested all seven events, and 11 coun-

shared the medals. East Germany achieved the remarkable distinction of winning a medal in every tries

event, finishing with three gold and four silver medals.

West Germany reached four

finals and took a gold, a and a bronze medal, but the only other double medalists were the U.S.S.R. with a silver and a bronze and Denmark with a gold and a bronze. The two remaining gold medals went to Argentina and Romania. Poland won a silver medal, and other countries with bronze medals were Czechoslovakia, New Zealand, Norway, and the U.S. silver,

East

Germany

established a remarkable

new

record

500 m. They held off all challenges to win by more than 2 sec. in 5 min. 36.10 sec, breaking the record, which had stood since in eights after taking the lead at

1962,

by a staggering

New

Zealand

14.7 sec.

The

seven events

in the

Federation Internationale

(FISA) junior championships in loannina. Greece, in August. West Germany took Societes d'Aviron

three silver and three bronze medals, and the remaining medals were shared

by Austria, Czechoslovakia, France. Greece, Italy, and Switzerland. In the U.K. the five major events at the Henley Royal Regatta went to Germany. East Germany won the Grand Eights, Stewards' fours, and Silver Goblets, and West Germany triumphed in the Prince Philip Cup and Diamond Sculls. The sole U.S. victory was scored by T. McKibbon and J. Van Blom in the Double Sculls. Ridley College, Canada, captured the Princess Elizabeth Cup, while the Wyfold Cup went to Trident Rowing Club of South Africa. In the ll6th Boat Race, Cambridge scored its 64th victory over Oxford by 3i lengths. (K. L. 0.)

Soviet Union and

second and third places, with only one-fifth of a second separating them, were also well inside the old record. The only other record in any danger was. the double sculls, which Denmark missed by only 1.49 sec. in defeating East Germany and the United States by more than 2 sec. In addition to the East German eight, two other 1969 European champions to win were the West German coxed four and A. Demiddi (Arg.), who again outpaced his rivals in single sculls to finish 1.67 sec. in front of his

in all

in

nearest rival. Although the East Ger-

mans could not match

Rubber World production of natural rubber in 1969 was estimated at 2,805,000 long tons, an increase of 205,000 long

tons

over

Production for the

1968.

first

six

months of 1970 was estimated at 1,342,500 metric tons, up 35,000 metric tons from the corresponding period in 1969. (One metric ton = .98 long tons.) The management committee of the International Rubber Study Group fIRSG), meeting in London in June 1970, estimated world production of new rubber in

their W'estern neighbours in coxed fours, they gained revenge in coxless fours. The championships, staged in North America for the first time, were dominated by East and West

1970 as follows: natural rubber supplies, 3,030,000 metric tons; synthetic rubber supplies, 4,930.000 met-

Germany. That these two were indisputably the world's top rowing countries was due to their policy of introducing the young to the sport early. The East

synthetic rubber would be

consumed

manufactured goods)

1970.

German

eight that

won

the 1970 world

title

had an

average age of 20. Previously, few crews had reached such a standard much before their mid-20s. East Germany and the U.S.S.R. shared the honours in the Women's European championships, held in Budapest, Hung., in August. Both countries won medals in all five events, East Germany getting three

ric tons. It

was estimated

that

some 2,950,000 metric

tons of natural rubber and 4,930,000 metric tons of in

thetic rubber production

(i.e., turned into (Estimates for syn-

do not include the U.S.S.R.,

non-IRSG member countries in Eastern Europe, or China.) The New York spot price for no. 1 ribbed smoked sheets was 18 cents per pound at the end of October 1970, compared with 26 cents per pound at the

same time

in

1969.

West Malaysian production

of natural rubber in 1969 totaled 1,279,227 metric tons, representing a

The Cambridge crew leads Oxford as they approach

Hammersmith Bridge during the 116th Boat Race, March 28, 1970. Cambridge won by 3V2 lengths.

656

Rwanda

new

record.

The

U.S. remained the largest single buyer

of natural rubber, taking 572,204 metric tons in 1969.

World consumption

natural

of

rubber latex

(dry

was estimated at 244,750 metric tons in 1969. World consumption figures for synthetic latices (dry basis) were incomplete, but the U.S. consumed 145,basis)

278 metric tons (dry basis) of the

SBR

(styrene-

butadiene rubber) type.

World production

of all types of synthetic rubber 1969 (excluding countries not reporting) was estimated at 4,572,000 metric tons, of which the U.S. produced 2,286,301 metric tons. In 1969 synthetic rubber accounted for 77% of total rubber consumed in

66%

worldwide. World consumption in 1969 was estimated at 7,402,500 metric tons. Production of all types of reclaimed rubber amounted to 347,045 metric

and

in the U.S.

and synthetic rubbers

of both natural

SBR would not be altered. commercial development and customer acceptance were said to be at least several years away. Whether this new tire could compete with currently commercial bias or radial built tires remained to be seen, but the idea was fascinating. Monsanto announced the development of steel wires 3 mils (0.003 in.) in diameter that could be twisted into cords for tires. Such ideas as these could lead to even more that the total usage of

Actual

intensive competition in tire technology. (E. B.

Rwanda A

republic in eastern Africa,

Rwanda

ral)

bordered by the Uganda, Tanzania, and Burundi. Area:

As of Rubber

Pop. (1969

The

tons.

area under cultivation of plantation (natu-

rubber was estimated at 5,865,000 ha. the March 1970 issue (vol. 24, no. 6) of the Statistical Bulletin published by the IRSG Secretariat, quantities were expressed in metric tons. The Malayan Rubber Exchange and the Rubber As-

Congo

is

(Kinshasa),

10,169 sq.mi. (26,338 sq.km.). est.)

:

3,509,250;

composed of Tutsi (Watutsi), Hutu (Bahutu), and Twa (Batwa) tribes. Cap, and largest city: Kigali

sociation of Singapore appointed an ad hoc committee

(pop,. 1967 est., 20,000),

to

examine the implications of changing both territories to a market based on the metric system (1

tribal

metric ton equals 2,204 lb. or 1.000 kg.). The difference between a metric ton (2,204 lb.) and a long

Kayibanda.

ton

(2,240 lb.)

small but significant.

is

The whole

concept, obviously, would depend on overseas trading

and consumer acceptance. In the spring of 1970, the Firestone Tire and Rubber Co. of Akron, 0., announced that their technical people had under development an automobile tire

made

entirely

by an

injection process. It carried the

regular wire beads to hold the tire on the rims, but it

did not need fabric plies and carbon black was not

The

required in the tread.

The

coloured.

could, therefore, be

tire

material injected into the

mold was

referred to as liquid rubber, and the report mentioned

50%; Roman

Catholic. President in 1970, Gregoire

A

Central African summit conference took place

Rwanda, on Dec. 19, 1969. President Kayibanda, together with Pres. Joseph Mobutu of the Congo (Kinshasa) and Burundi's Pres. Michel Micombero, adopted a resolution there to establish greater unity and "respond to the profound aspira-

at

Gisenyi,

tions of the inhabitants of this region of central Africa."

The

foreign ministers of the three nations were

instructed to establish machinery for economic, technical,

and cultural integration, and a conference was

scheduled at Bujumbura, Burundi, to inaugurate the Common Organization for Economic Cooperation in Central Africa

(OCCEAC),

000 long Ions

Country

1965

1966

Malaysia

934 706 213 116 60 48 49

983 704 204 129 48

Indonesia Thailand

Ceylon Vietnom

Cambodia India Brazil

Total

1967

1968

1969

1,092

1,259 727 277 148

985 750*

40

740* 255 146 29

51

53

51

52

62

29 187'

24 202*

2,342*

2,397*

who

increased his strength

vote at the 1969 elections,

visit in

211 141

21

189* 2,452*

vided not only $4 million but also 261 technicians, to be settled at Murumbi, and 2,500 tons of wheat.

(M. Mr.)

26 51

79 180 24

68 156* 23 56* 2,600*

Afrira

Others

90% unopposed

welcomed King Baudouin I of the Belgians on his state July as a symbol of Belgium's friendship and aid. The aid agreement with Belgium for 1970 pro-

Natural Rubber Production In

(official);

Religion: traditional or tribal beliefs

with a I.

Language: French

dialects.

President Kayibanda, Table

Nn.)

33 2,805*

RW.'VNDA (1967-68) Primary, pupils 372,184, teachers 5.921; secondary, pupils 6,466; vocational, pupils 912; teacher training, students 1,464; secondary, vocational, and teacher training, teachers 580; higher, students 233, teaching staff 59, Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Rwanda franc, with a par value of RwFr, 100 to U,S. $1 (RwFr. £1 sterling) and a free market rate (Oct, 1970) 240 £1 sterling). of RwFr. 120 to U,S, SI (RwFr, 290 Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 19701 U,.S, $4,010,000: (June 1969) U,S, $1,020,000, Education.

Table

II.

Synthetic Rubber Production In

1966

1967

1968

1969

1,814

1,970

2,131

Canada United Kingdom Germany, West

203 172

200

1,912 197

2,250 196

191

200

161

182

France

146 159

161

180 186 276

United States

Rugby

Football:

see Football

Russia:

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

sec

Russian Literature: see Literature

Ryukyu Islands: Dependent States; Japan

see

Sabah: see Malaysia Sahara, Spanish: Dependent States

see

000 long tons

1965

Country

Japan Italy

118*

Netherlands

100*

Brazil

35

Czechoslovakia

30*

Australia

21

Belqium

21

Indlo

16 16 3

South Africa Argentina Spain

*

228 121* 111* 53 30* 20 20* 15 18

10

Mexico

116* 125*

194 233 234 220 375 123* 161

10* 20*

58 35* 30 25* 25 25 22 26 34*

3,415*

3,951*

51

33* 26 20* 22 24 17

Poland Total

3,015*

3,330*

•Estimate,

Source; Interna tional R ;bber Study Group,

269 287 271

518 133 210 61

39 33 34*

24 24 35* 34* 35* 47 4,500*

=

est,): revenue RwFr, ( 1969 expenditure RwFr. 1,664,000,000.

Budget

=

1,636,618,000;

Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports RwFr. 2,362,400,000; exports RwFr. 1,423,500,000, Import sources (1968) Belgium-Luxembourg 18'7r; Uganda 14%; Japan 14%; West Germany 12%; U,S, 7%, Export destinations: (1966) U.S, 57%; Belgium-Luxembourg ii^r. Main exports (1968): coffee 57%; tin 23%. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons: 1968; 1967 in parentheses): sorghum c. 145 (c, 140); dry beans c, 95 (c. 92); potatoes c, 46 (f, 46): sweet potatoes c. 300 (c. 300): cassava c. 190 (c. 190); coffee c. 12 (c. 11). Livestock (in 000; July 1969): cattle c. 640; sheep c. 133; pigs c. 29.

657

land to Castle Bay in the Island of Barra, to Lerwick in the Shetland Islands, Lowestoft on the east coast

The

15 boats

The 604-mi. Middle Sea race organized by the Royal Malta Yacht Club and Royal Ocean Racing Club, the

hulls

principal offshore racing event in the Mediterranean,

(Leslie Williams

started

on Nov.

1,

1969,

from Malta. Twelve yachts

competed, notable for their range of sizes and representing Italy, Malta, the U.K., France, the Nether-

and Austria. Winds were variable and sometimes highly localized, with a strong breeze in an area only five miles from one of calm. Winner was "Surprise" (N. Puccinelli and N. Violati), an English-designed, Italian-built and owned boat of the one-ton class. Second was the Maltese "Tikka" (J. Ripard), which gained the Farsons Trophy; third was "Spirit of Cutty Sark" (Leslie Williams), a contestant in the lands,

1968 single-handed transatlantic race.

The Sydney to Hobart race, starting on Boxing Day, Dec. 26, 1969, was won by the yacht owned and skippered by Edward Heath (prime minister of Great Britain from June 1970), the "Morning Cloud." The start was attended by an estimated 3.000 boats and 100,000 people. For the first time in this event a team of yachts from the U.K. was entered for the Southern Cross Trophy, the equivalent of the U.S. Onion Patch Trophy and the British Admiral's Cup. This team dominated the Sydney-Hobart race, having the winner and second overall, "Prospect of Whitby" (Arthur Slater), but it failed to accomplish its mission of winning the trophy. This went to the New South Wales team with 419 points, which was closely followed by the U.K. with 387 points. Finishing in third place was the New Zealand team of one-ton boats, with 316 points.

The Bermuda

Sailing

of England, and then on the final leg back to Plymouth.

Sailing

race, alternating annually with the

European Fastnet race and Admiral's Cup brought the principal offshore events of 1970 west side of the Atlantic.

A

fleet

series,

to the

of 149 yachts left

R.I., for a race whose course was slightly modified and lengthened, as compared with former

Newport,

courses, to face a variety of weather conditions rang-

some competitors between calms and modand for others to winds exceeding 60 knots. Six new yachts lost their masts, while others experienced tiresome windlessness. The overall winner was "Carina" of the U.S. (Richard Nye), the third boat of its famous name. Four boats from the U.K. were racing, and "Lutine" (Lloyd's Yacht Club) ing for

erate winds

was the highest-placed non-U. S. boat and

fifth

over-

all.

The Onion Patch Trophy series of races was domby the U.S. team, whose boats placed first,

inated

second, and third in

all

four of the races involved

Trophy, from Oyster Bay, N.Y., to Newport, R.I., the two races on triangular courses oS Newport, and the Bermuda race itself. The results gave the U.S. a massive lead of 86 points over the U.K. team, which was 45 points ahead of third-place the Astor

Argentina.

The Round Britain race, the 1,875 mi. of which were sailed in five legs, clockwise around Great Britain, continued to be an accepted battleground for single- against multihull craft. On July 4 a fleet of 27 craft, comprising 14 single-hull yachts, 6 catamarans, 6 trimarans, and a proa, sailed from Plymouth on the first leg of the course to Crosshaven in Ireland. Conditions over the course brought predominantly head winds as the yachts worked up the coast of Ire-

first

home comprised eight singleThe winner was the

and seven multihulls.

"Ocean Spirit" and Robin Knox-Johnston), which was about as big a boat as two men could handle over such a course. Next to "Ocean Spirit," in the second

large (71

to

ft.

overall) single-hull ketch

sixth places,

came multihull

craft,

while single-

hull boats took the last five places. In the

middle of

the fleet were two single-hull boats and two trimarans.

While the superb seamanship that enabled so large a boat as "Ocean Spirit" to maintain a high speed

over such a course was unquestioned, its great length inevitably gave it a built-in advantage. This race, in 1966, was a clear victory for the and one that was even more convincing owing to the amount of sailing to windward involved on this occasion. Yet, the capsizing of one catamaran with an experienced crew emphasized the danger inherent in all multihull types of craft, and somewhat lowered the prestige that their performance might have earned. The year marked the debut of France into Amerilike

the

first

multihulls,

ca's

Cup

"France"

racing,

though

its

challenger

potential

failed in the elimination contest for chal-

lenger against the Australian "Gretel II."

Even more

former America's Cup contests was the intensity of the preparations. In Australia, crew training had been in progress since 1968, with

striking than in

"Gretel," the

1962

challenger,

"Dame

Pattie,"

the

1967 challenger, and the old U.S. 12-m. "Vim" engaged. Early in 1970 a new boat, "Gretel II," was launched for the syndicate of Sir Frank Packer. Ini-

Norway's "Christian Radicli" tal/est

G. Pettersson,

T.

Pettersson

Winner

Event Portugal

Sporting Lisbon

Romania

UT Arqd

Scotland Spain Switzerland

Celtic

FC Basel

Uruguay U.S.S.R.

Nacional Moscow Sportak

West Germany

Borussia Munchen-

Yugoslavia

Red Star Belgrade

Glodboch

Germany

Sweden

CHAMPIONS

NATIONAL CUP WINNERS Austria

Wacker

Belgium

F.

P

Gut^ty'"^

F.

Bitossi

Luxembourg

E.

Schutz Kisner

1

Netherlands Portuga apoin Switzerland

P.

1

U.K.

Gonzalez Li no res K. Rub L. West (professional)

West Germany

R.

England

Chelsea (Football Association Cup) Manchester City (Football League Cup)

France

St. Etienne Aris Salonika Ujpest Dosza

Greece Hungary

J

Ireland

Linfield (Irish Cup) Bohemians (Footboll

D. Rollinson (amateur) Altig

Association of

Belgium

Luxembourg

Belgium

Netherlands Poland

Ireland Cup) Bologna Union Luxembourg Ajax Amsterdam Gornik Zabrze

Portugal

Benflco

Romania

Steouo Bucharest

CYCLO-CROSS WORLD CHAMPIONS

Italy

E. de Vlaerninck Belgium R. Vermeire Belgium

Professional, individual Professional, team Amateur, individual Amateur, team

Innsbruck

C. Bruges Levski Sofia

Bulgaria

Belgium France

Madrid

Atletico

EQUESTRIAN SPORTS Winner

Event

Country

Scotland Spain

Aberdeen geal Madrid

Sweden

Atvidaberg

Switzerland

FC Zurich

U.S.S.R.

Dynamo Moscow

Wales West Germany

FC Offenbach

CordifF City

WORLD CHAMPIONS Dressage, individual Dressage, team

Elena Petushkova

Show jumping, indivldua Show jumping, women

D.

Three-doy event

Mary Gordon Watson

Three-day event, team

U.K.

U.S.S.R.

USSR. Broome

U.K.

France

Lefevre

J.

U K

GLIDING County

WORLD CHAMPIONS Open

G. Moffat H. Reichmonn

class

Standard class

U.S.

West Germany

FENCING Winner

Event

Country

WORLD CHAMPIONS Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's Men's

F.

epee

A. Nikanchikov

sabre

T.

team foil team epee team sabre

U.S.S.R.

Women's foil Women's team

West Germany US.S R. Hungary

Wessel

foil

Pesza

GYMNASTICS Country

WORLD CHAMPIONS--MEN

Hungary

Combined exercises Floor exercises Pommeled horse Rings Long horse vault Parollel bars Horizontal bar

U-S.S.R.

G. Gorokhova U.S.S.R.

foil

WORLD JUNIOR CHAMPIONS Men's foil Men's epee Men's sabre

H. Hein

Women's

foil

West Germany

B.

Lukomsky

P.

Rensky

V.

Nikonova

U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R.

E,

A. A.

British Isles international

A.

Horse vault Asymmetrical bars

Turisheva Turisheva Zuchold E. Zuchold K. Janz

Teams

U.S.S.R.

L

E,

Country

England, Scotland,

World Champions' Cup South American Champions'

Burma

European Champions' Cup European Cup-Winners' Cup European Inter-Cities Fairs' Cup African Champions' Cup

Winner

Event

Sudan

World champions World champion,

(clubs)

Feijenoord

Cup

HANDBALL

(all tie)

Costa Rica

MAJOR INTERNATIONAL TOURNAMENTS

Estudiantes

de La Plata

Feijenoord

Manchester City Arsenal Cairo

Ismaili

(indoor) indi vidua)

U.K. U.K. U.A.R.

Belgium Brazil

Palmeiras (Notional League) Levski Sofia

Czechoslovakia

Slovan Bratislava Carl Zeiss Jena Ligo Deportivo

Germony

Ecuador

P.

Kirby

U.S.

JUDO Country

Winner

Event

Boca Juniors FC Austria Vienna Standard Liege

Bulgaria

Country

Romania

Netherlands Argentina Netherlands

NATIONAL LEAGUE CHAMPIONS

East

U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. Eost Germany East Germany East Germany

,

L.

(notional teams) Brazil

Wales

Austria

Nakayama

Kenmotsu Japan

TOURNAMENTS

chompionship

Central American championship Southeast Asian championship African Notions' Cup

Argentina

Japon Japan Japan Japan

WORLD CHAMPIONS —WOMEN

FOOTBALL, ASSOCIATION MAi'OR INTERNATIONAL World Cup

Yugoslavia

Nakayama

E-

Teams

Beam

Winner

Japan Japon

Nakayama

M. Tsukaharo

Combined exercises Floor exercises

Event

Kenmotsu

M. Ceror

EUROPEAN CHAMPIONS Lightweight Light-middleweight

Middleweight Light-heavyweight

J.

R.

Mounier Hendel

B,

Jocks

V.

Pokatyev Glohn Hennig

Heavyweight

K.

Unlimited weight

K.

Team

U.S.S.R.

Fronce East Germany U.K. U.S.S.R.

West Germany East

Germany

Universitario

England France

Everton

Greece Hungary

Ponathinaikos Ujpest Dosza

Ireland

Glentoran (Irish League) Woterford (FA of Ireland League)

Italy

Cagiiori

WORLD CHAMPIONS

Luxembourg Mexico

Jeunesse Esch

Team

EUROPEAN CHAMPIONS

Paraguay

Guadalajara Ajax Amsterdam Guoranl

Poland

Legia

Netherlands

St.

Etienne

Warsaw

KARATE Winner Japan

Individual

D. Volero

Team

West Germany

Country

SNOW-KARTING

LACROSSE U.S. Club

683

Winner

Even!

Country

WORLD CHAMPIONS

Long Island Athletic Club

Championship

Sporting Record

Men

Women

M. Schrott West Germany M. Hoss

Women's team

Switzerland

Men's team

West Germony West Germany

MODERN PENTATHLON Winner

Event

Country

WORLD CHAMPIONS Kelemen Hungary

Individual

SPEEDWAY

Hungary

P.

Team

Country

New New New New

Mauger

individual

1.

pairs

1.

Mauger,

1.

Mauger

B.

Briggs

European champion, individual U.K. champion, individual World champion, team

MOTORCYCLING

R.

Moore

Zeoland Zealand Zealand Zealand

Sweden

Make

Winner and country

Class

Winner

Event

World champion, World champion,

WORLD CHAMPIONS 50 cc. 125 cc. 250 cc. 350 cc. 500 cc. Sidecar

'

A. Nieto, Spain D. Braun, West Germany R. Gould, U.K. G. Agostini, Italy

Derbi Suzuki

MV MV

G. Agostini, Italy K. Enders,

SQUASH RACKETS

Yahama

open championship Brifish amateur championship British women's championship Champion of champions (South Africa) British

BMW

West Germany

POLO Oak

championship

Brook

(III.)

Country

Borrington

J.

U.K. Australia Australia Australia

G. Hunt H.

McKay

K.

Hiscoe

SURFING

Winner

Event U.S. 20-goal

Winner

Event

Agusfa Agusfa

Winner

Polo Club

Country

WORLD CHAMPIONS Men

R.

Arness

Women

S.

Weber

U.S. U.S.

RACKETS Winner

Event

Country

MAJOR TOURNAMENT WINNERS World chompionship U.K. open championsh p U.K. amateur chompio^ship U.K. amateur championship doubles

G. Atkins

TABLE TENNIS

C. Swallow M. G. M. Smith M. G. M. Smith, R. M. K. Gracey

ROLLER HOCKEY

EUROPEAN CHAMPIONS

Country

World champions

Spain

H. Alser A- Stipanek,

Women's singles Women's doubles

Z,

Mixed doubles Men's teom Women's team

Gomozkov, Sweden

SPEED

Yugoslavia

.

U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R.

Grinberg

S.

Z.

Rudnova

U.S.S.R.

U.S. SR.

Bengtsson Bengtsson,

S. S.

Women's singles Women's doubles

I.

T.

Sweden Klompor Sweden, Hungary

Voslova

E.

Czechoslovakia

Hungary

Johos, H. Lottaler

M. Orlovsky,

I.

Vostova

Czechoslovakia

Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakia

EUROPEAN NATIONS' LEAGUE Sweden

V/inner

WORLD

D Surbek

S.

Men's singles Men's doubles

ROLLER SKATING

1,000 m. 5,000 m. 10,000 m.

Rudnova Rudnova,

Z.

Mixed doubles Men's team Women's team

500 m.

Sweden

Men's singles Men's doubles

EUROPEAN JUNIOR CHAMPIONS

Event

Event

Country

VJirn

Event

U.S.

Country

CHAMPIONS G. Cantarella G. Cantorella 0. J.

Hoyes Folley

Hayej

20,000 m.

D.

Team

U.K.

Italy Italy

New

Zealand

TOBOGGANING

U.K.

New

Winner

E^ent

Country

Zealand

WORLD CHAMPIONS Men

J.

Men's pairs

M. Schmid,

Women

B.

West Germany

Fendt E.

Walch

Piecha

Austria

Polond

SAILING Helmsman

Class

Country

WORLD CHAMPIONS Cadet Cherub Contender Finn Fireball

Flying

Dutchman

C.

Tillelt

Australia

R.

Bowler

New

D. Jobbins

Zealand

U.K.

J.

Bruder

Brazil

J.

Coig

U.K. U.K.

R. Pottisson

Moth

P.

O.K.

K. Corlsson

Soling Star

S.

Sweden Sweden U.S. U.S.

Tempest

Maes

Wennerstrom W. Buchanan J.

Linville

Thunderbird

T.

Porkes

Tornado

M. Dovies R. Meyer W. Compbell

Vauriens

4-20 4-7-0 5-0-5 5.5.

m.

Belgium

Australia Australia

Netherlands U.S.

Y.

Carre

France

L.

Marks

U.K. Australia

D. Forbes

AMERICA'S CUP CHALLENGE Winner Helmsman

TRACK AND FIELD D. Quarrie, Jamaica D. Quarrie, Jamaica

100 m.

200 m. 400 m. 800 m. 1,500 m. 5,000 m. 10,000 m. Steeplechose UO-m. hurdles 400-m. hurdles

High jump Pole vault

Long jump Triple

jump

Shot put Discus throw Javelin

Decolhlon "Intrepid"

J.

Hardy

U.S.

SYDNEY-HOBART OCEAN RACE "Morning Cloud"

E.

Heath

U.K.

Kenya R. Ouko, Kenya H. K. Keino, Kenya

C. Asati,

Hammer throw Country

Winner

Event

Performance

COMMONWEALTH CHAMPIONS—MEN

Marathon 20-mi. walk 400-m, relay 1,600-m. reloy

Stewort, Scotlond Stewart, Scotland P. Manning, Australia P. Hemery, U.K. J. Sherwood, U.K. L. Peckham, Australia M. Bull, Northern Ireland L. Dovies, Woles P. May, Australia D. Steen, Canoda G. Puce, Canada A. H. Payne, Englond D. H. Travis, England G. Smith, Austrolia 1.

1.

A. D.

R. Hill, Englond N. Freeman, Australia Jamaica Kenya

10.2 sec. 20,5 sec. 45.0 sec. 1 min. 46.8 sec. 3 min. 36.6 sec. 13 min. 22.8 sec. 28 min. 11.8 sec. 8 min. 26.2 sec. 13.6 sec. 50.0 sec.

7 ft. 0'/* in. in. 16 ft. 26 ft, 5'/4 in. 54 ft. 10 in. 63 ft. 0'/* in. 193 ft. 7 in.

222 260

ft.

5

in.

ft.

9

in.

7,492

pt.

2 hr. 9 min. 28 sec. 2 hr. 33 min. 33 sec. 39.4 sec.

3 min. 3.6 sec.

684

Winner

Event

Pe rformonc©

WOMEN

BRITISH COMMONWEALTH CHAMPIONS— R. Boyle, Australia 100 m. R. Boyle, Australia 200 m. 400 m. M. Neufville, Jomaica R. B. Stirling, Scotland 800 m. R. Ridley, England 1,500 m. P. Kilborn, Australia 100-m. hurdles D. Brill, Canada High |um S. Sherwood, England Long jump M. B. Peters, Northern Ireland Shot put R. B. Payne, Scotland Discus throw

Sporting Record

Rivers, Australia

Javelin

P.

Pentathlon 400-m. relay

M.

Northern Ireland

B. Peters,

Australia

11.2 sec. 22.7 sec. 51.0 sec. 2 min. 6.2 sec. 4 min. 18.8 sec. 13.2 sec.

1

0-m. hurdles

1

400-m. hurdles High jump

Z.

Schenke, East

S.

Germany

Y.

Werner, Poland Arzhanov, U.S.S.R.

F.

Arese, Italy

J.

H. Norpoth, West Germany J. Haase, East Germany V. Dudin, U.S.S.R. G. Drut, France J. C. Nallet, Fronce

Pole vault

Long jump

J.

Poni, France

J.

Drehmel, East Germony

jump

K.

Germany

Shot put Discus throw

H. Briesenick, East

Hammer

A, Bondarchuk, U.S.S.R. W. Nikiciuk, Poland East Germany

throw

Javelin

400-m. relay 1,600-m. relay

NATIONAL AAU CHAMPIONS— WOMEN

in.

1 78 ft. 8 170 ft. 7 5,148 pt.

in.

in.

Bruch, Sweden

R.

Poland

East Germany 1. Mickler, West Germony R. Meissner, East Germany H. Fischer, East Germany H. Janze, West Germany Tittel,

E.

West Germany

K. ^aizer. East

Germany

Javelin

400-m, relay

West Germany

1,600-m, relay

East

R.

I.

Germany

Crockett, Southern

Vaughan,

B.

yd.

mi.

1

3 mi. 6 mi.

10.4 sec. 20.7 sec. 45.9 sec. 1 min. 47.8 sec. 3 min. 42.3 sec. 14 min. 25.4 sec. 28 min. 26.8 sec. 8 min. 31 .6 sec. 13.7 sec.

Chi Cheng, Taiwan

5 ft. 11 in. 21 ft. OVa in.

Shot put

M. Jocobson

46

O'/j in.

ft.

17

63/4 in.

ft.

231

ft.

270

ft.

2 6

J.

Smith,

Illinois

Army

U.S.

UCLA

Swenson, Kansas State H. Michael, William and Mary F. Shorter, Florida Track Club F. Shorter, Florida Track Club and J, Bacheler, Florida Track Club (tie) K.

in.

Men

W.

Women

R.

Men's pairs

D. Waters,

Women's

9

in.

j.

U.S. U.S. U.S.

G. Smith

Liebenberg,

L.

Odendool

South Africa

Event

Championship

U.S. Intercollegiate

WATER SKIING Country

Switzerland

U.K.

6

0'/2 in.

ft.

22 63

ft.

3%

ft.

S'/2 in.

202 198

ft.

in.

Striders

17

Moore, Oregon

26 2% in. in. 53 ft. 67 ft. 10'/4 in. 205 ft. 4 in.

R.

7

1

R.

ft.

in.

unattached J. R. Matson, Texas Striders L. J. Silvester, unattached G. Frenn, Pacific Coast Athletic Association W, Skrnner, Tennessee J. Warkentin, unattached R. Fitts, unattached

230 276

ft.

2

7

ft.

8,026

Italy

U.K.

Zucchi W. Slohle W, Stahle W. Stahle W. Stohle

Italy

Netherlands Netherlands Netherlands Netherlands

CHAMPIONS

Senior Senior

men

M, Suyderhoud

women

E.

Allan

WEIGHT LIFTING Performance

Winner and country

Flyweight

S.

Bantamweight

M

Featherweight

J.

V Kurenlsov,

lb.

843 969y. 1,019^4

lb.

1,113

lb.

in. in.

Team

U.S.S.R.

Ivanchenko, U.S.S.R.

V Kolotov, J.

798%

Benedek, Hungary Kaczmarek, Poland

Z.

G

710'/2 lb.

del Rosario, Philippines Nassiri, Iran

Lightweight

1,1841/2 lb.

U.S.S.R.

1,245 1,323

Talis, U.S.S.R.

V Alekseyev,

lb.

lb.

U.S.S.R.

lb. lb.

U.S.S.R.

pt.

24 min. 10.6 sec.

tir.

Italy

R.

Middleweight Light -heavyweight Middle-heavy weight Heavyweight Super-heavyweight

ft.

Tiff,

U.S.

Zucchi

WORLD CHAMPIONS

in.

2

ft.

R.

M. Hofer I. Walker

Women's slalom Women's tricks Women's jumps Women's overall

9 3 sec. 20.8 sec. 45.7 sec. 1 min. 47.4 sec. 4 min, 1.8 sec. 13 min. 24.2 sec.

Pole vault

G. Brontinghom F. Saunders G. Brantingham

Men's slolom Men's tricks Men's jumps Men's overall

10 in. 43-9 sec. 3 min. 37.0 sec. ft.

27 min. 24.0 sec.

I.

EUROPEAN Champions

in.

1

Walker Walker Walker

I. I.

Women's slalom Women's tricks Women's overall

13.1 sec.

Italy

CHAMPIONS

Men's slalom Men's tricks Men's overall

53.2 sec. 2 min. 4.9 sec. 4 min. 16.3 sec.

8 min. 34.8 sec.

Reilly,

Zucchi

R.

Team

High jump

M.

pairs

Miller

Ransom

Individual

sec.

B.

Country

VOLLEYBALL

sec.

1

New York Athletic Club Arkansas Stote Mann, Brigham Young Brown, California Track Club Seagren, Southern California

W.

Winner

Event

11.3 sec.

48 8

Marathon

ft.

WORLD CHAMPIONS

23

R.

Javelm Decathlon

7.6 sec.

Canada

in.

39.4 sec. 3 min. 5.1 sec.

13.3 sec.

Hammer throw

Brill,

TRAMPOLINE

26 ft. 6'/3 in. 56 ft. 2'/3 in. 67 ft. 5 in. 212 ft. 10 in.

T, Hill,

Shot put Discus throw

D.

50.1 sec. 7

Steeplechase 120-yd. hurdles 440-yd, hurdles

Long jump Triple |ump

24.9 sec. 55.2 sec. 2 min. 1 0.5 sec. 4 min. 58.9 sec.

Hammond

High jump Long jump

mi.

NATIONAL AAU CHAMPIONS — MEN (OUTDOORS)

880 yd.

6.7 sec.

Kummer

K.

F. Johnson G. Gibbons Chi Cheng, Tarwan

1

U.S.

loo yd. 220 yd.

Chi Cheng, Taiwan J.

EUROPEAN CUP WINNERS

Schmidt, East Germany H. Rosendahl, West Germany N, Chizhova, U S S R. K. Illgen, East Germany R. Fuchs, East Germany

440

min. 53.4 sec. 6 min. 1 4.0 sec.

1

60-yd. hurdles

EUROPEAN CUP FINAL — WOMEN Overall winner 100 m. 200 m. 400 m. 800 m. 1,500 m. 100-m. hurdles High jump Long jump Shot put Discus throw

7 min. 30.8 sec.

(INDOORS)

440 yd. 880 yd.

3

ft.

3 min. 14.0 sec.

East

Lundmark, Sweden W. Nordwig, East Germany

Triple

U.S.

52

44.1 sec.

Germany NowQsz, Poland

walk

60 yd. 220 yd.

ft.

Performance

Sports International University of Chicago Track Club Rutgers D. Romansky, unattached

1-mi.

10 in. 22 ft. O'A in. 5

EUROPEAN CUP FINAL— MEN Overall winner 100 m. 200 m. 400 m. 800 m. 1 ,500 m. 5,000 m. 10,000 m. Steeplechase

Winner

Event relay 2- mi. relay Medley relay 1- mi.

NATIONAL AAU CHAMPIONS — WOMEN (OUTDOORS)

WRESTLING

U.S.

TOO yd 220 yd.

Chi Cheng, Taiwan

440 yd. 880 yd.

M^Lairf"^'

1 500 m 1 00-m. hurdles 200 m. hurdles

C

f' Lar^rieu

M.

Rollins

Hawkins

P.

W

White

C. Frost

Jovelin

S.

440-yd. relay 1-mi. relay U.S.

5

ft.

21

8

Flyweight

Bantamweight Featherweight Lightweight

ft.

Calvert Tennessee State Atoms Track Club

Welterweight Middleweight Light-heavy weight

in. 1

in.

49 ft. 10 172 ft. 3 184 ft 9 45.2 sec. 3 min. 41

in. in. in.

mi. 3 mi.

C. Greene, U.S. Army M. McGrady, Sports International J. Luzins, unattached M. Liquori, Villanova A. Dulong, Holy Cross

6.0 sec. 1 min. 7.6 sec. 2 min. 6.2 sec. 4 min. 0-9 sec. 13 min. 19.6 sec.

60-yd. hurdles

W. Davenport, Texas

7.1 sec.

High jump

O.

1,000 yd. 1

Striders

Burrell, Southern California

Striders R.

Long jump

Striders N. Tate,

see

Triple

Numismatics Steel Industry: see Industrial

Review

jump

ft.

S.

New York Pioneer Club New York Pioneer Club Oldfield, University of Chicago

N. Tate,

Shot put

B.

35-lb. weight

Track Club G. Frenn, Pacific Coast Athletic Association

Turkey

Japan

Abossy

Iran tran

A. Mohaved W. Wells Y.

Shakhmurodov

Heavyweight Super-heavyweight

A.

U.S. U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R.

Medved

Romania

G. Berceanu

Flyweight

P.

Kirov

Bulgaria

Bantamweight

J.

Vorga

Hungary Japan

Feotherweight Lightweight Welterweight

H. Fujimoto

Middleweight

A.

Light-heavyweight

V.

Heavyweight Super-heavyweight

P.

R.

Rurua

V.

Igumenov Nazaryenko Rezyanov

Svensson A. Roshchin

U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R.

Sweden U.S.S.R.

in.

(D.K.R.P.

Seagren, Southern California

Pole vault

stamp

Collecting: Philately and

7

Iran

E. Javodi A. Aalan H. Yamagida

G. Stachev V. Gulyutkov

Light-flyweight

(INDOORS) 600 yd.

Country

CHAMPIONS

WORLD GRECO-ROMAN CHAMPIONS

.3 sec.

NATIONAL AAU CHAMPIONS— MEN

60 yd.

FREESTYLE

Light-flyweight

26.1 sec.

A. Plihol

Sho? put"^ Discus throw

WORLD

22.7 sec. 52.9 sec. 2 min. 5.1 sec. 4 min. 20.8 sec. 13.4 sec.

T^'ss^aint

Winner

Event 10.1 sec.

17

ft.

26 53

ft.

4'/.

fl.

4'/2 in.

63

ft.

10y
' tight money markets, and a smashing of the inflation psychology of investors and businessmen combined to make 1970 the most depressed stock market year in a

York Stock Exchange alone during of 1970 aggregated more than $110

44

CR. H. Tr.)

United States. The worst bear market years touched bottom on

45

market

prices

principle for equity investors in 1970.

46

Average

daily share .s

12,000

10.000

New

months 8.000

billion; the over-

the-counter market virtually collapsed for

many

SowfMi

days;

N«w

York Slock Cxdiong*

." e

May

June

m thousands

July of

Aug.

shares

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec

686

War, and ultimately slow down business in genIn 1970 the money supply was permitted to grow at an average rate of 5.4%, compared with the 3% average in 1969. The prime rate of interest, which was effective June 9, 1969, dropped to 8% on March 25, 1970, to 7^% on September 21, to 7i% on November 12, and to 7% by the end of 1970. Margin requirements for the purchase of common stocks were dropped on May 6, 1970, from 80 to 65%. On November 11 the Federal Reserve Board discount rate was reduced from 6 to 5^%, the first such decline since August 1968, and a further reduction to 5^% was made on November 30. On June 24, 1970, the Federal Reserve Board suspended the limits on rates that banks may pay on short-maturity certifCivil

eral.

Stock Exchanges

icates that represented large deposits left with the

Table

197C range Year.end indexes High Low 1969 1970

Country Ausfralia Austrio

663

474

654

2,154

1,946 85

1,956 92

93 86

Belgium France

71

81

130 76

94 56

129 70

94 56

2,534 134

1,930 108

2,359

1,987

122

113

56 337 355 423

45

47

53

231

327 347 407

246 302

West Germany Italy

Japan Netherlands Soutti Africa (gold stocks)

Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom

268 316

Percent

-21.1%

+

4.8

-

7.4

-27.1

-20.0 -15.8

-

7.4

-H2.8 -24.8 -13.0 -16.2

341

example, fell from 9.05 to 7.8%. A smaller drop in mortgage interest rates helped increase housing starts by 59% from January to November 1970.

Despite tight money market conditions and a badly depressed stock market, demands for capital market funds by corporations and by governments at every level .were hea-vy during 1970.

Corporate needs for long-term funds to restore liquidity, restructure balance sheets, and maintain projects already under way resulted in a record level of new corporate security offerings. Total gross volume of bonds and stocks issued by corporations during the first three quarters of 1970, valued at $27 billion, was more than one-third

changed from a year earlier despite the slump. The performance of mutual funds during 1970 was disappointing. A survey of 467 mutual funds showed that 394 trailed the performance of the Dow-Jones industrial average in 1970. Among "growth" funds, the performance was particularly bad with 220 such funds down an average of 20.74% in 1970. Eight funds were down more than 50% for the year. The average prices of industrial stocks in the Standard and Poor's index declined unevenly from a January 1970 level of 99.4 to a low in June of 82.96 be-

change

516 2,049t 92 75

more swiftly than at any time in the last century. Rates on average-grade corporate bonds, for

rates declined

larger than in the comparable period of 1969. New stock sold in the first nine months was virtually un-

Selected Major World Slock Market Price Indexes*

I.

banks for a specified time at a specified rate of interest. During the last two months of 1970 long-term interest

•Index numbers ore rounded, and limited to countries for which full year's data were available. tAs of Dec. 18, 1970. Sources: Borron's, The Economist, Financial Times, New York Times, Swiss Bank Corporation.

fore beginning the climb to a year-end level of 100.9

on 1970's

last

day of trading. (See Table

II.) Public

stock prices rose during the early months of 1970 from 55.72 in January to a high of 59.04 in

utilities

Table

II.

U.S. Stock

Market Prices and Yields

March before dipping Public (20 stocks)

Month

1970

January February

37.62 36.58 37.33 36.05 31.10 28.94 26.59 26.74 29.14 31.73 30.80

March April

Moy June July

August September October

November December

(425 stocks)

1969

1970 99.40 95.73 96.95

54.11

54.78 50.46 49.53 49.97 46.43 43.00 42.04 42.03 41.75 40.63 36.69

110.97 110.15 108.20 110.68 114.53 108.59 103.68 103.39 103.97 105.07 105.86 100.48

94.01 83.16 82.96 83.00

85.40 90.66 92.85 92.58

tocks)

(55

1969

1970 55.72 55.24 59.04 57.19 51.15 49.22 50.91

52.62 54.44 53.37 54.86

(200 stocks;

(500 stocks)

1969

1970

68.65 69.24 66.07 65.63 66.91

63.29 61.32 59.20 57.84 58.80 59.46 55.28

1969

90.31

87.16 88.65 85.95 76.06 75.59 75.72 77.92 82.58 84.37 84.28

1970

%)

1969

102.04 101.46 99.30 101.26 104.62 99.14

3.94 3.73 3.75 4.09 4.28

3.24 3.39 3.28 3.22 3.23

4.51

3.41

94.71

4.20 4.04

3.62 3.48 3.58 3.44 3.58 3.62

94.18 94.51 95.52

3.94 3.96 3.75

96,21 91.11

Source; U.S. Department of Commerce, Survey of Current Busmess. Prices ore Standard and Poor's monthly overages of doily closing prices with 1941-43=10. Yield figures ore Moody's index of 200 slocks.

Table

III.

Government Long-Term Bond

U.S.

Average price Averoae Month January February

March April

May June

Yield

in

Prices dollors per $100 bond

and

1970

1969

1970

1969

58.33 61.63 62.04 60.89 57.78 57.37

67.61

66.55 64.90 67.73 66.68 64.84

6.86 6.44 6.39 6.53 6.94 6.99

5.74 5.86 6.05 5.84 5.85 6.06

Month July

August September October

November December

Yield

1970

1969

1970

1969

60.59 59.20 60.10 60.44 63.27

64.75 65.18 62.64 63.05 61.08

6.57 6.75 6.63 6.59 6.24

6.07 6.02 6.32 6.27

58.71

6.51 6.81

Average

price

in

Month

1970

1969

1970

1969

62.2 62.4 62.8 62.8 61.2 59.4

72.5

7.91

72.1

7.93 7.84 7.83

6.59 6.66 6.85 6.89 6.79 6.98

April

May June

71.0 70.1

70.2 68.8

8.11

8.48

bond

Averoge

Yield (%)

January February

March

dollars per $100

Month July

August September October

November December

of 37.62 in ing to

January

to 26.74 in

composite index reflected the roller-coaster movement of

all

stocks of larger corporations.

The

decline that

June 1969 at a level of 104.62 had dropped the index to 90.31 by January 1970; from there it

began

fell to

in

75.72 in July before recovering to a year-end

level of 92.15, slightly higher at the

end of 1970 than

at the beginning. In contrast with the price recovery

of the listed blue chip stocks, the National Quotation

Yield

Average yields on high-grade common stocks

fluc-

tuated within a narrow range during 1970 as profits

dipped more than

8%

during the year and

many corFrom

porations cut or deferred dividend distributions.

January 1970 figure of 3.94%, average yields slipped February to 3.73%, then rose in March, April, and May to reach a high of 4.51% before dropping off a

in

during the remainder of the year. Every month of 1970 reflected substantially higher yields than its cor-

responding month of 1969.

Corporate Bond Prices and Yields

Average

fell from a level August before recovera year-end close of 35.4. The 500 stocks in the

close of 61.71. Railroad stock prices

(%)

3%

IV. U.S.

join-

Bureau Index of 35 industrial stocks traded over the counter fell 13.13% between the opening and close

Yields

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Survey of Current Business. Average prices ore derived from overoge yields on the basis of an assumed 20-year taxable U.S. Treasury bond. Yields ore for U.S. Treasury bonds that are taxable and due or colloble in ten years or more.

Table

June and then

of 1970.

Average

{%)

to 49.22 in

ing in the last half year's rise to a last trading day

Composite

utilities

(%)

U.S. government bond prices, as seen in Table III, during the first ten months of the

moved narrowly

1970

1969

1970

1969

year at levels below the corresponding months of 1969.

59.0 60.0 60.8 61.3 61.9

68.2 68.4 67.2 66.5 65.6 62.9

8.44 8.13 8.09 8.03 8.05

7.08 6.97 7.14 7.33 7.35 7.72

Yields, which were at all-time high levels for long-

Source; U.S. Deportment of Commerce, Survey of Current Business. Average prices are bosed on Standard and Poor's composite index of Al-j- issues. Yields ore based on Moody's Aoa domestic corporate bond index.

term government debt issues, averaged 6.86% in January 1970 and then fell to 6.44% in February and 6.39% in March. They rose in April to 6.53%, in May to 6.94%, and in June to 6.99% before the easing of money following the Penn Central bankruptcy dropped the level of interest rates generally.

I

At that time, yields began a steady decline, interrupted only briefly in August. Yields on three-month Treasury bills began 1970 at about 8%, fell in March to 6^%, rose through June

7%, dipped

to

to

6%

5% hy November.

in

September, and were under

Yields on

all

maturities of gov-

ernment securities plummeted in November as the growing conviction that interest rates were headed downward bolstered demand for both bills and coupon issues.

U.S. corporate rose slightly

from

bond a

prices, as seen in

January

Table IV,

level of 62.2 to 62.8 in

March, then declined to 59 in July, and finally began rise that gained momentum by the year's end. Yields on high-grade corporate issues were high throughout 1970. From a 7.91% level in January, a record, average yields rose to 7.93% in February, fell in March and April, rose to a new all-time record high of 8.48% in June, and then dropped off during the a

remaining months of the year. A sharp decline at the end of 1970 brought average yields back to the level of a year earlier. The economic recession and growing anxiety about continuing inflation, along with rising unemployment, sharply falling profits, high interest rates, and a sharp

consumer savings created a bearish climate first half of 1970 despite a moderate easing of the growth rate of the money supply and assurances by U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon and his Council of Economic Advisers that the economy was basically sound and inflation was being brought under control. By the end of 1970 bullish factors were dominant on the stock exchanges. Interest rates were falling sharply, and the prime rate moved downward in small but rapid steps. Fiscal policy was becoming more expansionary with a promise by President Nixon that budget deficits were planned with no new taxes for 1971 and 1972. Monetary policy was loosened, and stock prices were moving forward on a broad front. Customers were beginning to return to the brokers' offices, and speculative interest was reemerging. Unemployment, while abnormally high, was of less concern, and the price level rose more slowly than at the in

rise

during the

beginning of the year.

Most

forecasters asserted that

was over and that the economy was emergfrom a recession, with 1971 to be a good year and

the worst ing

1972 even better.

On the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) the volume of transactions during 1970 was 2,937,093,020 shares, a slight gain over the 2,850,504,873 recorded

The number of issues traded was 1,846 in compared with 1,794 for the previous year. Aggregate volume in 1970 established an all-time high for the NYSE. Bond volume was also at record in

1969.

1970, as

levels,

with 1970 recording $4,497,260,000 in sales, 23.2% over the $3,648,741,000 in 1969.

a gain of

A

profit squeeze

on brokerage firms,

in

which high

volume aggravated their myriad back-office problems and their securities portfolio values declined, caused many to become insolvent and resulted daily

fundamental changes in the securities marketplace. special $55 million trust fund of the NYSE was fully committed in the liquidation of ten substantial member firms that closed their doors, and additional contributions to the fund had to be assessed. Acquisitions of troubled firms by stronger members were encouraged, and in the case of Goodbody & Co., taken over by Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner and Smith, Inc., the trust fund agreed to indemnify Merrill Lynch for up to $20 million of losses arising from Goodbody's in

The

operations problems and for up to $10 million of

damages stemming from any lawsuits brought against Goodbody. The enactment of the Securities Investor Protection Act provided a guarantee for an individual investor against cash losses of up to $20,000 and total loss, including securities, of up to $50,000.

The insurance

fund, backed by a $1 billion line of credit from the U.S. Treasury, was to be financed by assessments against securities firms covered

by

it.

Stock brokerage commissions were increased in 1970 with a surcharge of up to $15 per transaction on purchases of less than 1,000 shares. On April 2 the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) approved the surcharge as an emergency relief measure for the securities industry. Rates on the exchanges' basic minimum fees were increased by $15 or 50% of the minimum fee, whichever was smaller. A stockholder survey conducted for the NYSE in 1970 revealed that there were 30,850,000 U.S. residents who were shareowners. This was 15% of the population, compared with 10.4% in 1965. Indirectly, through institutions, more than 100 million Americans had interests in stocks. Males accounted for 50.1% of stocks owned by individuals in 1970, displacing the female predominance in this area of wealth

ownership.

On

the

American Stock Exchange, the volume of

transactions in 1970 was the lowest since 1966, drop-

ping sharply to 843,116,260 shares, compared with

32%. The number Amex, however, at 1,234, was

1,240,742,012 in 1969, a decline of of issues traded on the

the highest ever, a gain of 62 issues over the 1969

number.

Canada. The Canadian stock exchanges

in

1970

exhibited patterns similar to those in the U.S. as first five months of and then rose to their 1970 highs two months. Total 1970 trading vol-

stock prices declined during the the year, leveled

during the last

off,

Investors check stock prices at a booth of Merrill Lynch, Pierce,

Fenner and Smith,

Inc.,

New

York's Grand Central Station, located

in

May 27, 1970. A record Dow-Jones average gain of

f

32.04

was recorded that day.

688

Stock Exchanges

FOX PHOTOS FROM PICTORIAL PARADE

London's new £10 million Stock Exchange building towers over other buildings at 350-ft. The 26-story structure was built by Trollope and Colls Ltd.

ume on off

the Toronto Stock

35% from

Exchange was $3.7

the 1969 figure but

still

billion,

the third largest

on record. At $1,350,000,000, the dollar volume on the Montreal and Canadian stock exchanges was down approximately 17%. Between December 1969 and December 1970 the average yield on 114 stocks on the Toronto Exchange rose 17.8%. Canadians were proud of the fact that no member firm of a major Canadian stock exchange went bank-, rupt in 1970. This performance was attributed to strict regulation of minimum capital rules and the conditions for withdrawal of subordinated capital notes of brokerage firms.

(I.

European Economic Community. Four five Index of industrial ordinary share prices on the London Stock Exchange, 1949-70.

EEC

of

Pr.) the

countries for which current stock market

data were available experienced bear markets in 1970.

West Germany showed

the largest average loss in

Italy,

while a

7%

Stock prices declined drop was encountered

20% in

in

both

France and the Netherlands. The Belgian stock price index ended 1970 at the same level as at the end of 1969.

For the first time in four years, the West German stock exchanges experienced a bear market. Stock began falling in the first week of January, and by March 4 the averages had lost' 9%. Mounting pressures on consumer prices in a period of unparalleled prosperity, in part caused by the upward revaluation of the West German mark in October 1969, led to a decision by the Bundesbank to raise the bank rate to a record 74%. In January the price level for industrial goods was 6% above that of January 1969. The cost of short-term borrowing to prime customers rose from 9.5% in early January to between 11 and 11.5% in March. Following a brief rally in early April, stock prices resumed their decline. From mid-April to May 27, the average decline was 20%. The Bundestag in mid-July enacted a series of prices

anti-inflationary measures, including a

10%

tax in-

In response to these fiscal measures, the Bundesbank sought to ease money market pressures through several reductions in the bank rate. Cuts of crease.

a half percentage point

December

November 6%.

each on

4 lowered the rate to

17

and

Average yields on domestic government bonds reached 8.34% in October, only slightly below the 1970 high set in June (8.49%) but substantially above

December 1969 (7.38%). The comparable

yield on

domestic corporate bonds was 8.32%, nearly a full percentage point above the yield that prevailed in January 1970. At the end of December, stock prices were at the year's lowest level, and the overall decline in 1970 was the severest of the major world stock price indexes.

The

market also took a beating in in 1968 and 11% in 1969, the Italian stock market dropped 20% from the end of 1969 to the end of 1970. Strikes and production losses were chiefly responsible, and stock prices at the end of December were at their yearly lows. Italian stock

1970. After rising

2%

In France, the price of stocks declined an average 1950

1952

1964

Source: The Financial Times.

1956

ly:

l^bZ

1964

1966

1968

1970

of

7%

first

from the end of 1969 to the end of 1970. The 1970 saw prices on the Paris Bourse

half of

drop 11%. Prices reached a peak in the last week of January and steadily moved lower until the end

May. The market was adversely affected, particularly in May, by the growing involvement of the U.S. in Southeast Asia. Battle damage to French investments in Cambodia precipitated a sharp decline in of

share prices. After a brief decline in early July, which carried equity values to the lowest point of the year, the index of stock prices

on the Paris Bourse settled

in

August

the U.S. after

20.

its most sustained rally of the year between September 14 and 30, rising ap-

putting

about

it

20%

above the June lows.

In retrospect, this relatively sharp increase in stock

some limited degree, Prime MinEdward Heath's October 27 announcement of

prices anticipated, to ister

marked by 76 on the upside and 72 on the downside. The Netherlands stock market in 1970 followed

lower corporate and individual income taxes, effective in April 1971. The Conservative government also proposed to reduce the projected annual growth in public

a pattern similar to the one experienced in West Germany. However, the average decline (7%) in stock prices was not as severe. The index of prices on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange moved within a fairly narrow range throughout 1970. The high of 134 was established on April 23, while the lowest reading (108) was recorded on May 26. In Belgium, stock prices ended 1970 unchanged from the 1969 close. In fact, price performance on the Brussels Bourse was the strongest of the EEC countries, and third best among the selected major stock price indexes. During the first 16 weeks of 1970, the index fluctuated around the December 1969 levels without any apparent trend. The 1970 peak, established on April 6, was 1% above the 1969 close. The subsequent decline (9%) lasted until June 5, which proved to be the year's lowest level. A rebound followed, and prices moved higher until the first week of August. At this point, stock prices were only 1% below the year's high. European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Current stock price data were available for four of the countries that make up EFTA. Counted among the countries with bear markets were Great Britain, Sweden, and Switzerland. On the bullish side, Austria showed higher stock prices. In Great Britain, the Financial Times index of 30 industrial stocks traded on the London Stock Exchange declined 16% from the end of 1969 to the end of 1970. The index reached its 1970 high on January 14, and the low was established June 15. Stock prices began 1970 on an uptrend. The rally of early January was more or less a continuation of the trend started in mid-December 1969 on news that the November balance of trade had shown a surplus for the fourth consecutive month. However, prices soon started to erode. The market declined on balance from about mid-January to well into June.

expenditures to 2.8% from 3.5%. At the same time, farm and housing subsidies were lowered. The govern-

The

Stock Exchanges

proximately 8%. A further spurt during the first seven days of October pushed the index 13 points higher,

into a relatively small trading range,

this,

689

The Financial Times

industrial index took off on

ment sought

to

restore individual initiative,

create

incentives for business enterprise, and stimulate the

accumulation of savings. Nevertheless, stock investors sensed that Britain's

economic problems were far from solved. Despite the Conservative government's good intentions, the fact remained that the British economy was operating below its productive potential. Unemployment also continued at a very high level by British standards. Consumer prices rose at an annual rate of approximately 8% in the first half of 1970, compared with 3% during the second half of 1969. Strike votes in

Stock trading on the New York Stock Exchange yearly range of prices and number of shares sold,

1949-70.

Stock prices

New York Stock Exchange Stock Index Closing Pnces

Common

High Close

OB 9 D

D

bearish attitude of British investors during

period

stemmed from growing apprehension

that

wage costs would severely squeeze corporate profits, and from an uneasy concern that the bear market in New York might be a harbinger of serious economic dif-

limited production gains in the face of rising

ficulties for the

U.S. that rnight afiect the entire non-

Communist world. The surprise election victory

of

Edward Heath and

the establishment of a Conservative Party govern-

ment on June

18 touched off a sharp rally on the Lon-

don Stock Exchange. From the June low to the close of July 1, equity prices rose 10%. However, the market resumed its decline when it became evident to investors that the Conservative government would continue the economic squeeze. A strike by dock workers, which lasted from July 16 to August 3, also

1950 3.000

1

September stock prices began to develop strength, in part due to the sharp rally that occurred in

1 1

1

1

m

llion sof

1954

—

1956

1958

1960

1962

1964

1966

1968

1970

1956

1958

1960

1962

1964

1966

1968

1970

shai es

2.700 2.400 2,100 1,800 1,500 1.200

900 600 300

nn

contributed to the negative attitude of investors.

Early

195?

1950 Sourcci

New

1952

1954

York Stock Eachong*

690

Sudan

November by British and Scottish miners reminded investors of the country's difficulty in restraining wage demands that exceeded productivity increases. Not surprisingly, the stock market drifted lower throughout November and early December. Share prices at the end of December were about 9% below the October high and 34% below the all-time early

high reached in January 1969.

was especially Swedish stock market. Average share prices on the Stockholm Stock Exchange declined 25% from the end of 1969 to the end of 1970. The index of prices retreated from the January high of 337 to approximately the 280 level at the end of February before turning upward. The subsequent rally, which carried stock prices back to the 300 level, proved to be of only short duration and before the end of May, the index had declined to less than 240. Average yields on domestic corporate bonds, which

The

influence of soaring inflation

apparent

in the

were steady

at the

82%

months of 1970, jumped

during the

level to

9.3%

in

May.

first

five

A summer

recovery in stock prices was quite vigorous. September's final prices were 8% above the May lows. This

was followed, however, by another wave of selling, and by late October the market had retreated into new low territory. By mid-December the market had recovered some of October's losses, but the overall decline in 1970 was the second largest among the major world stock price indexes. In Switzerland, the decline in the price index of on the Zurich Stock Exchange from the

issues listed

end of 1969 to the end of December 1970 was 13%. After a relatively modest rise during the first week of January, average share prices moved steadily lower end of April when prices began to drop much faster. Near the end of May, Swiss stock prices were 23% below the December close.

until the

managed

a brief rally.

In early June, stock prices This was largely in anticipation of a favourable vote on the June 7 referendum asking for a change in the Swiss constitution to limit the inhabitants in each canton to

number

10%

of

foreign

of the population.

Voters rejected the proposal; the margin was so narrow, however, as to create fears that new curbs would be introduced in the Federal Assembly. Foreign workers accounted for about one-third of the Swiss labour force, and any reduction in their admission into Switzerland would intensify labour shortages and thereby

impede the government's plans

to control inflation.

As

a result, stock prices tended to drift lower until the first

week of July when there occurred a sustained added 12% to the stock price index by Sep-

Labour Unions

Lower stock markets were experienced by Australia and Japan. The decline on the Sydney Stock Exchange was 21%. In mid- August the government presented its new budget, which called for substantial tax relief in the lower- and middle-income groups. However, the reduction in revenues was to be offset by indirect and corporate taxation. The tax increase on publicly owned corporations, from 45 to 47.5%, was primarily responsible for the depressed hopes of investors for continued gains in per-share earnings. Japan, with a decline in share prices averaging 16%, also experienced a weak stock market in 1970. The index of 225 common stocks on the Tokyo Stock

Exchange reached an

100%

the beginning of 1968.

for

market started

at

technical correction during

weeks dropped prices

the following six

24% below the June and early

July, the stock price index fluctuated in a relatively

narrow range for the

(R. H. Tr.)

rest of the year.

Economy, World; Investment, International; Money and Banking; Savings and Investments. See also

Sudan A republic of northeast Africa, Sudan

the

is

U.A.R., the

Kenya,

bounded by the

Red

Sea, Ethiopia,

Uganda,

the

Congo

(Kinshasa), the Central AfriRepublic, Chad, and can Libya. Area: 967,491 sq.mi. (2,505,805 sq.km.). Pop. (1969 est.) 15,186,000, including Arabs in the north :

in the south. Cap.: Khartoum (pop., 188,000). Largest city: Omdurman (pop., 203,000). Language: Arabic; various tribal

and Negroes 1967

est.,

1967 est., languages

Muslim

in the south. Religion:

in the north;

predominantly pagan in the south. Chairman of the Revolutionary Council and prime minister in 1970, Maj. Gen. Gafaar Muhammad al-Nimeiry. Sudan moved a stage closer to full cooperation with its

Arab neighbour

states

when

the formation of a

United Arab Republic (U.A.R.), Libya, and Sudan was announced in Cairo in mid-November. Collaboration between the three

unified

tember 4. After a brief decline, prices during the remainder of 1970 stabilized slightly below the levels recorded in early September. For the third year in a row, the Austrian stock market posted higher share prices. From the end of 1969 to mid-December 1970, the average rise was 5%, the second best increase shown by the major world stock market indexes. This could be traced to the noninflationary growth that had been achieved by the Austrian the other nations

the bull

A

historic peak. After a brief rally in

states

which current stock price information was available, only the South African gold stocks were able to record higher prices. From the end of 1969 to the end of December 1970, the South African gold stock index (traded in London) was the best performer ( 13%) among the world's major stock price indexes. These shares tended to reflect investor views regarding

all-time high in mid- April, about

when

higher than

met

+

see

London gold bullion market. In mid-October, gold prices reached $37.43, the highest level in 11 months.

bids and offers in the

rise that

economy since 1968. Other Countries. Among

strikes:

world economic conditions, international monetary prospects, and the price of gold as measured by the

leadership

for

the

had been increasing since

in

Tripoli, Libya, in

their three presidents

December

1969, but the by the

drive toward unity was given fresh impetus

death in September of Pres. Gamal Abd-al-Nasser of the U.A.R. and the consequent need for a united Arab front. During the year joint committees discussed cooperation in foreign

affairs, transport,

industry,

ir-

and trade; and the three presidents met in February, May, and September. A practical aspect of cooperation was the provision by Sudan of air bases and military training camps for the U.A.R. 's armed forces. Sudan was, however, hesitant

rigation, agriculture,

complete tripartite unity, preferring to no timetable even for federation. The military regime headed by Major General Nimeiry had severe internal political problems during 1970. In March, faced with some provocation during to rush into set

Sudan. Nimeiry decided to supmovement, the country's main Muslim

his tour of the central

press the Ansar

691

SUDAN

SW.A.ZILAND

Sweden

Education. (1966-67) Primary, pupils 455,765, teachsecondary, pupils 108,400, teachers 5,371; vocational, pupils 5,495, teachers 464; teacher training, students 1,355, teachers 156; higher (including 3 universities), students 8,708, teaching staff 1,012.

Education. (1968) Primary, pupils 62,082, teachers

ers 10,734;

1,62 7; secondary, pupils 6,246, teachers 300; vocational, pupils 81, teachers 10; teacher training, students 243, teachers 29; higher, students 69, teaching staff 15.

Finance. Monetary unit: Sudanese pound, with a par value of Sud£0.35 to U.S. $1 (Sud£84 = £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign e.\change, official: (June 1970) U.S. $39.2 million; (June 1969) U.S. (1968-69 est.): revenue million. Budget $48.2 Sud£113.5 million; expenditure Sud£100 million. Cost (Dec. 1969) 121; (Dec. of living (1963 = 100): 1968) 105.

rand

Finance and Trade. Monetary

6%; West Germany 5%. Export destinaWest Germany 15%; Italy 12%; India 10%; Japan 8%; China 6%; U.K. 6%; U.S.S.R. Netherlands 5%. Main exports: cotton 60%; 6%; gum arabic 10%; peanuts 6%.

(1968): 151,732,000 passenger-km.; freight 2,476,000 net ton-km. Navigable waterways (1967) 4,068 km. Telephones (Dec. 1968) 45,086. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) c. 180,000. Television receivers (Dec. -1968) 15,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969; 1968 in parentheses): millet 427 (278); sorghum I, 417 (710); cotton, lint 225 (184); durra (1967) 880, (1966) 914; sesame 202 (122); dates (1968) c. 70, (1967) c. 68; bananas c. 10 (c. 10); peanuts

383 (197). Livestock (in 000; 1968-69): cattle c. II, 300; sheep 12,678; goats (1967-68) c. 8,400; camels (1967-68) c. 2,500; asses c. 590. Industry. Production (in 000; 1968): salt (metric tons) 65; electricity (public supply only; kw-hr.) 334,000.

=

South African £1

sterling).

R 48 million. Main exports: sugar 22%; iron ore pulp 15%; asbestos 13%. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968; 1967 in parentheses): coru c. 36 (63); rice 8 (6); sugar, raw value (1969-70) c. 157, (1968-69) 154; cotton, lint c. 2 (2). Livestock (in 000; Sept. 1969): cattle c. 515; sheep c. 42; pigs c. 12; goats (Dec. 1967) c. 240; chickens (Sept. 1968) c. 350. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968): coal 97; iron ore (metal content) 1,292; asbestos 38.

Italy

Transport and Communications. Roads (1968) (mainly tracks, including c. 2,500 km. surface). Motor vehicles in use: pas27,400; commercial (including buses; Railways: (1967) 4,749 km.: freight traffic (1968) 2,366,000,000 net ton-km. .\\r traffic

unit:

1.71

2a%; wood

tions (1968):

50,000 km. with improved senger (1968) 1967) 18,500.

R

$1;

c.

Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports Sud£89,320,000;

c.

U.S.

( 1970-71 est.) balanced at R 15,164,000. Foreign trade (1969): imports c. R 38 million; exports

exports Sud£86, 250,000. Import sources (1968): U.K. 18%; India 10%; Japan 9%; U.S.S.R. 7%; China

7%;

(R 0.71=

Budget

Well endowed with natural resources and racially harmonious, Swaziland continued on its course of po-

and economic development in 1970, and reducing unemployment. The 1970-71 recurrent budget was balanced without external aid for the first time since independence, due to increased revenue from the revised terms of the South African Customs Union and from export returns. The U.K., however, continued

litical

stability

attracting large overseas investment

to provide

R

4.2 million of the

R

5 million capital

budget.

Economic prospects continued to lie in agriculdevelopment, buttressed by mineral resources

tural

and manufacturing mained Swaziland's

91%

of

its

diversification.

South Africa

re-

closest trading partner, supplying

imports as well as considerable capital aid. Anglo-American of South Africa

and technical sectarian organization, which in politics

had been

before the revolution of

a

major force

May

1969.

The

Ansar resisted in its main strongholds at Omdurman and Aba Island but, with tanks and aircraft, the

armed forces achieved a total, if bloody, victory. In May, on the first anniversary of the revolution, a series of nationalization measures was initiated when all banks and the main British-owned business houses were taken over by the state. Nationalization of other foreign businesses and the cotton trade followed in June, while the grain trade and the press were na-

reached record iron ore production at Ngwenya and undertook a mineral survey of the whole country by agreement with King Sobhuza (in whom all mineral rights were vested). Britain continued to finance the R 73.1 million five-year plan, 1969-74, and in January 1970 agreed to contribute £6.4 million for land devel-

opment

projects.

The Commonwealth Development

Corporation remained Swaziland's biggest single investor with a total investment of about £24 million.

(M. Mr.)

tionalized in August.

The southern Sudan remained troubled throughout 1970 with clashes between the armed forces and south-

Sweden

The Ministry for Southern Affairs sought to restore normal life to those parts of the southern provinces under government control, but there was little or no security in Equatoria Province and the armed forces launched a major of-

A

ern rebels reported every month.

fensive against rebel

camps there

in October.

(Pr. K.)

Encyclop/edia Bhitannica Films. The Nile Valley and Its

People (1964).

monarchy South

constitutional

with some Finnish and Lapp in the north. Religion: predominantly Lutheran. King, Gustaf VI Adolf;

is

Africa

bique. Area

:

bounded by and Mozam-

out the government's parliamentary majority, leaving

Sugar:

with 45.3% of the vote a loss of 4.8% compared with the 1968 election. The nonsocialist opposition

see Agriculture

—

it

parties actually

6,704 sq.mi. (17,-

363 sq.km.).Pop. (1969 est.): 408.609. Cap. and largest city,

was severely shaken. The election, the first new one-chamber Riksdag (parliament), wiped

grip

for a

of southern Africa,

Swaziland

lying

Sweden has common borders with Finland and Norway. Area: 173,648 sq.mi. (449,750 sq.km.). Pop. (1970 est.): 8,013,696. Cap. and largest city: Stockholm (pop., 1970 est., 747,490). Language: Swedish,

its

landlocked

monarchy of northern Europe

side of the Scandinavian Peninsula,

prime minister in 1970, Olof Palme. Sweden's Social Democratic government held onto office at the general election in September 1970, but

Swaziland A

constitutional

on the eastern

came through with

7

seats

more than

the government, but the latter could rely on the sup-

Mbabane

('pop.,

1966,

13,803). Language: Swazi. Religion: Christian 60%. King, Sobhuza II; prime minister in 1970, Prince Makhosini Dlamini.

port of the Communists, 17 seats.

who unexpectedly gained

The government survived

against tough odds,

Sulfur: see

Mining

Surfing: see

Sporting Record

Surgery: see

Medicine

including a deteriorating economy, factory closures,

Surinam:

unemployment

see

fears,

and crumbling labour

relations

Dependent States

had been used World War 11.

price controls trols

of

since the emergency- con-

The budget for 1970-71 reflected a tightening economic poUcy and restrictive spending, but allowed scope for the government's continiiing efforts toward social reform. It was said that a strict application of priorities would ensure security and development toward greater equality between sexes and classes. In connecuon with the latter, the budget outlined a major tax reform, due to come into force on Jan. 1, -urden on low-income 1971, designed to alle:

groups.

The budget

Tt

'

70>. .\s usual thr

Ministry of

hEMTICJT£C » IMTEaHATtOXJU.

An oil slick resulting from a two-ship collision in April

1970 burns

Tralhavet Bay near Stockholm with the help in

combustion-promoting chemicaJ called Cab-O-Sil ST-2-0. of a

—

say nothing of Gunnar Hedlund. leicz Centre Party, who emerged as the 'wir. since his party's share of the vote showed

he

to

defense.

by

predicted,

increase.

"'

In addition. Prime Minister Palme was a sharp contrast to his venerated predecessor. Tage Eriander. a reassuring father figure with a strong personal following. Palme, a clever, courageous, and extremely able politician,

displayed a noticeable concern for

social injustice

indeed, the linchpin of his idealistic

election

—

tainly, the election

common was

to

-:

:

and

-"duct rose

i.

r r

:

prices

la ::er

e

Dc

.

:

7

:

t

.

ten .

s

uie

J

onomy employment, continued eccr.;-.:: z::~"'r ire uniform distribution of income. >l: ae Organization for Economic Cooperi:: r.='~pment report on Sweden said th the balance of payments must : : v. :: economic policy in 1970.'p The budget also showed a _

r.

touch of Eriander. Cer-

some extent

r

.

.

'

campaign was the need for more equality

but he lacked the

rake went to the

_

iucation and J

half of the Irils.

-esc

'I

"

Du:

a greater

of 799 million kroner in 1969-

deficit

kronor (compare:

.

a rebuff, al-

though probably from older voters, since Palme had strong support among younger Social Democrats. The prime minister had other problems: the economy was faltering badly. Inflationary- pressures were high, the balance of pa>Tnents deficit was worsening,

26^c increase in aid to

Xordek and

the

less

EEC

.

developed countries.

contin-aed to be

major points

of discussion. Xordek. a proposed economic union

Norway. Denmark, and Finland, seemed have some hope of success toward the end of 1569, but in December of that year the Finns raised the question of whether future growth of the EEC influence Xordek's structure, a prospect that dii - :: please them. Xevenheless. hope persisted, and in February X'ordic leaders expressed their willingness to sign a treaty. .A month later, however, the Finns declared themselves unable to be a party to it. d :^ possible EEC developments. .Attention th; ;: :r turned to Sweden's efforts to find accommoda:::;within the Treaty of Rome, regarded by many as ziz more important. The EEC confronted the goverr.— er with difficult choices: determined to pursue i:; of Sweden. to

were climbing, and there was a profits December 1967 and July 1Q70 consum.er prices had risen by 11. 7-. r-jc;'; .^2^.400, teachers 3 7,798: vocational, pur teachers 16,019: teacher training, s: -3: higher (induding S universities). ;:.- -:; ;.-17. teaching stan 1964-65) 2,296. Finance. Monetary unit: krona, with a par value of 5.17 kronor to U.S. SI (12.42 kronor £1 sterling). Gold. SDRs, and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1970) U.S. S544 million; (June 1969) U.S. S470 million. Budget fl96970 rev. est.>: revenue 39.160.397,000 kronor; ex' i • ' ' penditure Gross national product: ('. ironor; fl96 7)

many 12%: Denmark 10%; Xorway 10%; VS. 6%: Finland 5%; France 5%. Mar- er^'^-ts: machinery 24%; paper 9%; iron ar. wood pulp 3 % motor vehicles 8 %

'T-^-p 124.880.0C ' 1970) 15.33^,::,:,:::. ironor, 760.000.000 kronor. Cost of 100): rjane 1970) 134; (June ::: . Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports 30,401,000,OOQ kronor: e-xports 29,425.000.000 kronor. Im-

A:r!ine Si-stem; 19: freight 109.59 ) : merchan t v 1 5 i ; gross tonnage

port sources: West Germany 19%: UJK. 14%; U.S. 9%: Denmark 8%; Xorway 5%: Finland 5%. Export destinations: U.K. 13%; West Ger-

2,343.0:]Q.

srade steel 5^320; ead (1968) 42: gold (troy oz.; 1968) : mechanical wood pulp (196S) 1,320; chemical wood palp (1968) 5,718; newsprint 934; other paper (1968) 2^26. Merchant vesels lamiched (100 gross tons and over;

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969: 1563 in parentheses): wheat 917 (1,059);

1969) U36.0OO gnes tons. completed (1969) 109,000.

Education.

'

i'

=

'

-

.

.

.

barley 1,402 (1,7

^

;

;

ships and boats 6

Transport

%

and

Communications.

Roads

(1965; 173,55- km. (including 575 km. expressways^. Motor vehicles in use (1969;: passenger Railwa>-s; commercial 142,602. 2,193.634: (1968) 12,812 km. (induding 7,347 km. electrified); traffic (state system only; 1969) 4.126,000.000 passenger-km.. freight 14.863.000,000 c appornet ton-km. .Air tra.^ C-avian tionment of interna"

.

^^enger-.;?ping i over

:

-

-

'

1

;

r

-

ts

(Dec

1968) 3.934,694. Radio receivers (Dec. 1958) (Dec. 1958) 2.927.000. Television receivers

63> 51 315, (; cattle

:

:

^—z;

chickens 3.5 15. Industry. Indes 100): (1969) 145; (in 000: metric tons:

;

=

metal tricity

c

-

5

:

135. proQuciion iron ore (60%

1969): (1959) 20; elec:a 196S; kw-hr.) '

58,004

cement (tnjy 3,524;

.

iihrer

Xew

dwelling units

Edinburgh; the World University Games and the European championships at Barcelona, Spain, helped spark an onslaught on world records that produced 25 new marks in 1970. U.S. Competition. U.S. swimmers lowered the individual world marks on 13 occasions and snapped the world standards for relays on three occasions. John Kinsella and Mike Burton engaged in a titanic strug-

Games

at

(FISU)

at Turin, Italy;

Amateur

gle at the U.S.

Athletic

693

Swimming

Union (AAU) long-

course (outdoor) championships in Los Angeles, and

became the

first

men

ever to break the 16-minute

barrier for the 1,500-m. freestyle. This

an achievement comparable

to

was considered

breaking four minutes

for the mile in track.

The AAU meet, August 20-23, produced 12 world and 17 U.S. records. Kinsella, 18, a high-school student from Hinsdale, 111., defeated Burton, the 1968 Olympic champion and defending world record holder, in the 1,500-m. freestyle (15 min. 57.1 sec.) and also erased the old world mark in the 400-m. freestyle by clocking 4 min. 2.8 sec. senior

KEYSTONE

SVENSKT PRESSFCTO FROM

Sweden's Parliament Building, Finance Minister Gunnar Strang answers questions from housewives demonstrating against the new tax reform, which they consider antifamily. In

Moreover, there was the question of SweThe government's views on the EEC remained somewhat obscure, but the future path was perhaps indicated by Franco Malfatti, president of the EEC Commission, who in speaking of Sweden's and Switzerland's chances of joining the EEC, said, "It is up to them to evolve, not us." On the industrial front, Sweden's long-stable labour relations began to show some cracks. Between December 1969 and February 1970 miners at the stateowned iron mines in Swedish Lapland were on strike. Ostensibly about higher pay, the dispute appeared to have other, deeper causes not least, perhaps, a feeling that the union had fallen into the hands of officials estranged from the rank and file. The strike had vice versa.

den's neutrality.

—

much

significance

for

a

country increasingly

cerned with the concept of industrial democracy.

among other things, about communication among employer, union

miners protested, of

con-

The

a lack official,

and worker, and there was a strong feeling that the government could ignore them only at its peril. Special in many ways, the strike was nonetheless a timely reminder that even the most successful systems must change and adapt. Relations between Sweden and the U.S.. somewhat cool in recent years, improved slightly with the arrival in .'\pril of Jerome Holland as U.S. ambassador to Sweden, a post that had been vacant since his predecessor's departure in January 1969. (A. D. Wi.) Encyclop.«dia

Britannica

Films.

Scandinavia — Nor-

from San Diego,

Mike Stamm, Calif.,

18, a high-school

erased Roland Matthes'

200-m. backstroke record with a time of 2 min. 6.3 sec. Gary Hall, 19, a freshman from Indiana University, for the second year in a row lowered three world records. Hall, from Garden Grove, Calif., bettered his own standards in the 200-m. individual medley (2 min. 9.5 sec.) and 400-m. individual medley (4 min. 31 sec.) and showed his versatility by breaking the threeyear-old world mark of Mark Spitz in the 200-m. butterfly with a time of 2 min. 5 sec. Earlier in the meet. Spitz had lowered his old mark to 2 min. 5.4 sec, but he was unable to improve on this time in the final

and

lost to Hall.

Brian Job, 19, a Stanford University freshman, lifted the world mark in the 200-m. breaststroke from the Sov'iet

Union with a time of

unpredictable

Mark

Spitz,

2

min. 23.5 sec. The

19-year-old Indiana Uni-

sophomore from Sacramento, Cahf., became

versity

the world's fastest

swimmer when he broke

freestyle world record of Australia's

pion Michael

Wenden by

the 100-m.

Olympic cham-

three-tenths of a second

AAU meet. The new record was 51.9 sec. Spitz could not repeat in the finals and lost the race to a slower time. in a

preliminary heat at the

Three of the world marks set in the AAU meet in Los Angeles lasted only three weeks. Hall's 200-m. individual medley, Kinsella's 400-m. freestyle, and Stamm's 200-m. backstroke records were lowered in the European championships. Perennial record smasher Debbie Meyer, a seasoned veteran at 18, showed that she was still the outstanding middle-distance woman swimmer. The Sacramento, Calif., Olympic champion again lowered her 400-m. freestyle mark, to 4 min. 24.3 sec. However, a new threat to Miss Meyer appeared in Australia's Karen Moras, who was less than one second slower than Miss Meyer. At the Australian championships, she lowered Miss Meyer's 800-m. freestyle record to 9 min. 9.1 sec. Subsequently, she broke her in the

Commonwealth Games with

own mark

a time of 9 min.

2.4 sec.

way, Sweden, Denmark (1962).

Alice Jones,

18,

a student at the University of

Cincinnati, lowered one of the oldest

Swimming

marks

in

when she won the 100-m. butterfly in min. 4.1 sec. The old standard had been

the

record book

the

time of

set

1

Midway between the 1968 and 1972 Olympic Games, a new set of swimmers emerged with their sights

by Ada Kok of the Netherlands in 1965. Earlier in the season, Karen Moe, 17, from Orinda, Calif., erased

1972 competition. Three international

Miss Kok's 200-m. butterfly mark, but it failed to hold up against the challenge of Miss Jones who

aimed

at the

quadrennial tournaments: the British

Commonwealth

Swedish Literature: see Literature

Above, 17-year-old Karen Moe is on her way to a record-breaking time of 2 min. 20.7 sec. in

the 200-m. butterfly

at the Santa Clara, Calif., international invitational swim meet, July 11, 1970.

Above, right, Brian Job edges Rick Colella to set a new 200-m. breaststroke record at the AAU meet in Los Angeles, Aug. 22, 1970.

further lowered the time to

2

min. 19.3 sec. at Los

Angeles.

Relays also went through changes, as the men set two world marks and the women one to give the U.S. three of the five new relay marks. A Los Angeles Athletic Club 400-m. freestyle sprint team clocked 3 min. 28.8 sec. at Los Angeles. The U.S. national team competing in Japan lowered the 800-m. freestyle to 7 min. 48 sec, and, also in Japan, the U.S. women's team lowered the 400-m. medley relay to 4 min.

2 7.4 sec.

European and Commonwealth Competition. The year was one of great success for East Germany. At the European championships the East Germans doubled the medal count of their closest rival, the U.S.S.R., 34 to 17. The East German men won six and the women ten gold medals. Nikolai Pankin, a winner in the 100-m. breaststroke, prevented the Soviets from being shut out in the men's individual races. Roland Matthes set world marks in both the

World Records Set

in

1970

Nome

Event

100-m. freestyle

Mark

Jofin Kinsella

U.S. U.S.

Gunnar Lorsson

Sweden

John Kinsella Brian Job

U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. East U.S. East U.S.

1,500-m 200-m. 200-m. 200-m. lOO-m. 200-m. 200-m.

breaststroke butterfly butterfly

backstroke backstroke backstroke

200-m individual medley 200-m. individual medley 400-m. individual medley 400-m. freestyle relay

800-m. freestyle relay

Spitz

Mark Gary

Spitz Hall

Roland Matthes

Mike Stomm Roland Matthes

Gory Hall Gunnar Lorsson

Gory

Hall Los Angeles Athletic

U.S. U.S.

Club (D. Frowley, D, Havens, F. Heckl, M. Weston) National team Australia (G. Rogers,

4 4 15 2 2 2

2

Sweden

2 2 2 4 3

51,9 sec. min. 2.8 sec. min. 2.6 sec. min. 57.1 sec. min. 23.5 sec. min. 5.4 sec. min. 5.0 sec. 56.9 sec. min. 6.3 sec. min. 6.1 sec. min. 9.5 sec. min. 9.3 sec. min. 31.0 sec. min. 28.8 sec.

7 min. 50.8 sec.

W.

Devenish, G. White,

M. Wenden) 800-m. freestyle relay

Notional team

400-m. medley relay

McBreen, G. Hall, M. Lompert) National team

7 min. 48.0 sec.

U.S.

Kinsella, T.

(J.

East

Germany

3 min. 54.4 sec.

(R. Motthes, K. Kotzur, U. Poser,

WOMEN 400-m. 800-m. 800-m. 100-m. 200-m. 200-m. 400-m.

freestyle freestyle freestyle butterfly butterfly butterfly freestyle relay

L.

Unger)

Debbie Meyer Koren Moras Karen Moras Alice Jones

Karen

Moe

Alice Jones

National team

U.S.

Australia Australia U.S. U.S. U.S. East

Germany

4 min. 9 min. 9 min. 1 min. 2 min. 2 min. 4 min.

24.3 sec. 2.4 sec.

20.7 sec. 19.3 sec. 00.8 sec.

was the surprise of the European meet. Larsthree gold medals (400-m. freestyle, 200-m. and 400-m. individual medley) and one silver (200-m. freestyle). While winning the 400-m. freestyle, he son

won

further lowered the world mark set less than three weeks earlier by Kinsella in Los Angeles to 4 min. 2.6 sec. and then lowered Gary Hall's 200-m. individual medley standard to 2 min. 9.3 sec. West Germany's Hans Fassnacht collected three gold medals (200-m. and 1,500-m. freestyle and 800-m. freestyle relay) and two silver (400-m. freestyle and 400-m. individual medley). East Germany's 400-m. medley relay team took a world record held by the U.S. for ten years when they clipped off one-half second to set the new

the

4 min. 27.4 sec.

and 200-m.

German

freestyle.

tet of

East Germans slashed the mark to 4 min. 0.8

sec.

The World University Games (FISU), generally much of its lustre because the East German and the Commonwealth nations' swimmers failed to enter. The U.S. won 19 of the 26 swimming events, capturing 34 gold, 15 silver, considered the college Olympics, lost

and 6 bronze medals. Australia and Canada dominated the Commonwealth Games, July 17-24. Australia, led by double Olympic gold-medal winner Michael Wenden, won all the men's freestyle events. The Canadians, paced by William Mahoney and George Smith, each winning two events, swept the eight backstroke and breaststroke races. In the women's competition, Karen Moras was the outstanding athlete, winning three individual gold medals (200-m., 400-m., and 800-m. freestyle) as Australia

won

10 out of 12 individual

events.

Diving.

Two U.S. v. Europe diving matches On April 4-5, at Fort Lauderdale,

took Fla.,

American girls, Cynthia Potter and Debbie Lippman, won the springboard and platform events, while Italy's Giorgio Cagnotto and Klaus Dibiasi won for Europe. In the return match at Bolthe U.S. won.

C. Schuize)

100-m.

For the first time in a decade the U.S. relinquished the women's 400-m. freestyle world record as a quar-

place in 1970.

Wetzko, 1. Komor, E. Sehmisch, Notional team U.S. (S.Atwood,K.Brecht, A. Jones, C. Schilling)

min.

athlete,

9.1 sec.

4,1 sec.

(G.

400-m medley relay

2

set three weeks earher. Sweden's Gunnar Larsson, 19, an American-trained

Gabriella Wetzko, 16, led a parade of East

T

Germany Germany

and

faster than

Stamm's

women, winning

400-m 400-m

sec.

sec.

record at 3 min. 54.4 sec.

Country

MEN freestyle freestyle freestyle

100-m. and 200-m. backstroke, 56.9 sec. His 200-m. time was 0.2

6.1

jzano, Italy,

September 19-20, Europe defeated the

United States with the Italian I ((Florida victories.

The

sole

men

duplicating their

U.S. victory was Jerrie

[Adair's win in the springboard.

At the World University Games, Cynthia Potter won the springboard, and the Soviet Union's Galena Kovalenko took the platform. Dibiasi won both men's titles.

1^

At the European championships. East Germany, which had barred its divers from competing in the U.S.-Europe matches, unveiled two Olympic goldmedal prospects in women's diving. Heidi Becker, 17, and Marina Janicke, 16, placed one-two in the springboard, and Miss Janicke was runner-up to Czechoslovakia's Olympic champion, Milena Duchkova, in the platform. In men's competition Cagnotto won the springboard, while Lothar Matthes of East Germany CA. So.) finished first in the platform event.

PFLP-occupied

territory

in

A

federal republic in west cen-

tral

whereby

695

the

sought to secure the release of a number of its members held for alleged terrorist acts. The government released the three persons imprisoned after

Switzerland

on an El Al plane at Ziirich airport in was critical of this action, as it was of the federal government's decision, late in the fall, to reject a request for political asylum by the Biafran leader Gen. Odumegwu Ojukwu. The year was marked by wide discussion of development aid. At a meeting of the Technical Cooperation Department of the federal government in Bern, Pierre Graber, head of the Department of Foreign Affairs, proposed measures to increase the Swiss contheir attack

1969. Public opinion

tribution, including the creation of a

new

functionary,

the "technical cooperator." After publication of sta-

showing that Switzerland's 1969 contribution development aid had dropped to 0.64% (as against 1.41% in 1968) of its gross national product CGNP) both public and i.e., below the recommended 1% private efforts were made to remedy the situation. Parliament was to discuss a system of generalized tistics

to

— Switzerland

Jordan,

PFLP

—

trade preferences operating in favour of the less developed countries, together with measures to increase the percentage of government

nondiscriminatory

Europe consisting of a

confederation of 22 cantons, is bounded by Germany, Austria. Liechtenstein, Italy, and France. Area:

Switzerland

15,945

(41.297

sq.mi.

Pop.

(1970 est.):

Bern Cpop.,

1970 est., 166,200). Largest city: Ziirich (pop., 1970 est.. 427.6001. Language ( 1960) German 69.4'^ French 18.9% Italian 6,184,000.

Cap.:

:

;

;

9.5%. Religion (1960): Protestant 52.6%; Roman Catholic 45.6%. President in 1970, Hans Peter Tschudi. Leisurely discussion of the total revision of the federal constitution continued in ingly important consideration sible closer association

1970.

was the

with the

EEC,

An

increas-

effect that pos-

requiring

more

centralized government, might have on the federative structure.

Around midyear no fewer than

initiatives" (each of to

become

15 "popular which required 50,000 signatures

effective) calling for partial constitutional

had been submitted, whereas the total of such initiatives since 1891 was only slightly more revisions

than 90. In April, Valais became the seventh canton to approve the right of women to vote in cantonal matters Lucerne followed suit soon afterward and Ziirich became the ninth on November 15. In June the lower house unanimously approved the federal decree proposing the introduction of the right of women to vote in federal matters by way of revision of art. 74 of the constitution. The issue was expected to be submitted to a nationwide plebiscite in February 1971.

On March 1 citizens of the canton of Bern voted on the new Tcantonal) constitutional provisions regarding the Jura, by which the Bernese government opened the way to possible autonomy and separation new canton. All political parties recommended approval of the proposal, which was accepted by a vote of 90.000 to 14.086. The Swiss policy of neutrality was put to a serious test by an explosion in a Tel Aviv-bound Swissair of the region as a

plane over Swiss territory in which 47 people were

Sabotage by members of the Popular Front for CPFLP) was suspected, but could not be proved. There was no possible doubt, however, of the identity of the perpetrators of the killed.

the Liberation of Palestine

hijacking of a

A

S\VITZERL.\XD

sq.km.).

New York-bound

Swissair craft

to

Education. (1966-67)

465,57 5, teach1961-62) 23,761; sec-

Priraar>', pupils

ers (excluding craft teachers; ondary, pupils 249,578, teachers (full time; 1961-62) 6,583; vocational, pupils 148,169; teacher training, students 12,397; higher (including 8 universities; 1967-68), students 35,914, teaching staff 2,773. Finance. Monetary unit: Swiss franc, with a par £1 stervalue of SFr. 4.37 to U.S. $1 (SFr. 10.50 ling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, central bank: 1969) U.S. $3,§6S,000,000; (June 1970) U.S. (June $3,220,000,000. Budget (1969 est.): revenue SFr. 6,724,759,000; expenditure SFr. 7,153,058,000. Gross national product: (1969) SFr, 79.8 billion; (1968) SFr. 74 billion. Money supply: (June 1970) SFr. 40,250,000,000; (June 1969) SFr. 36,560,000,000. Cost of living (1963 100): (June 1970) 126; (June 1969) 122. Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports SFr. 22,712,000,000; exports SFr. 19,885,000,000, Import sources: EEC 58% (West Germany 29%, France 12%, Italy

=

=

U.S. 8%. Export destinations: EEC 37% (West Germany 15%, Italy 9%, France 9%); U.S. U.K. 10% 7% Austria 5%. Main exports: machinery 30%; chemicals 21%; watches and clocks 12%; textile yarns and fabrics 7%. Tourism: visitors (1968) 6 million; gross receipts (1967) U.S. $694 million. Transport and Communications. Roads (1969) 58.550 km. Motor vehicles in use (1969): passenger 124,569. Railways: federal 1.283,670; commercial (1968) 2,914 km. (including 2,897 km. electrified); private ( 1967) 2,1 1 5 (including 2,106 km. electrified); traffic on federal railways (1969) 8,034.000.000 pas-

10%); ;

;

senger-km., freight 6,072,000,000 net ton-km.; traffic on private railways (1967) 1,143,000,000 passengerkm., freight 386 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1969): freight 175.3 million 3,835,000,000 passenger-km. net ton-km. Shipping (1969): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 32; gross tonnage 193,007. Telephones (Dec. 1968) 2,685,800. Radio receivers (Dec. 1968) 1,752,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1968) 1,011.000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons: 1969; 1968 in parentheses): barley c. 135 (112); wheat (including spelt; 1968) 409, (1967) 426: oats 34 (31): rye 44 (64); potatoes 1,210 (1.098)-, apples (1968) 470, (1967) 580: pears (1968) 194, (1967) 236; sugar, raw value (1969-70) 62, (1968-69) 68; wine (1968) 96, (1967) 89; milk 3.235 (3,322); butter c. 32 (37); cheese 93 (86); moat 319 (312). Livestock (in 000; April 1969): cattle 1,869; horses 56; sheep 290; pigs c. 1,920; chickens 6.345. Industry. Index of industrial production (1963 100): (1969) 136: (1968) 123. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969): cement 4.530: aluminum 77; rayon, etc.. yarn 12; rayon staple fibre (1968) 1 1; ciearcttes (pieces: 1968) 20.510.000: watches (units; 1968) 47,785; electricity (kw-hr.) 29.411,000: manufactured gas (gasworks only; cu.m.; 1968) 378,000. ;

=

technician

makes adjustments on the nuclear fuel rods inside Switzerland's first nuclear power plant,

Beznau

1.

It

was

officially

dedicated May 12, 1970, at ceremonies held in nearby Dotlingen. AUTHENTICATED NEWS

summit

as against private industrial and financial assistance.

limited

showed that there were nearly 600,000 foreign workers (more than 500,000 of them Italians) in Switzerland, which meant

Syria, Jordan, United

Statistics published in the spring

that,

if

their families

were included, the proportion of

foreigners resident in Switzerland had reached 15.8%.

The Federal Council took rise.

On June

steps to prevent a further

nationwide plebisJte on the second initiative, proposing more rigorous

8 a

Schwarzenbach restrictions on immigration, was rejected by a narrow margin (654,000 to 557.000). The restrictions were

considered to be a potential source of social injustice

and likely to harm the extremely labour-short Swiss economy. (See Migration, International.) The customary trade deficit reached a record high in January, but was slightly reduced later. According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the surplus in the balance of payments was expected to reach some $600 million. The GNP increased by 4.7% during 1969-70. (M. F. S.)

bordered by Turkey, Iraq, Jordan, Israel, and Lebanon. Area: 71,498 sq.mi. (185,180 sq.km.). Pop. (1969 est.): 5.866,000. Cap. and largest city: Damascus (pop., 1966 est., 594,426). Language: Arabic (official) also Kurdish, Armenian, Turkish, and Circassian. Religion: predominantly Muslim. Chairman of the Presidency Council and premier until is

;

1970, Nureddin al-Attassi; president from

Ahmed al-Khatib; premier from NoGen. Hafez al-Assad. In 1970 Syria's left-wing Baath Party regime maintained both its grip on the country and its uncompromising policies toward the outside world despite an internal power struggle that became acute toward the end of the year and eventually culminated in a

November vember

the pipeline to be reopened.

The Syrian government repeatedly

called for the

strengthening of the "eastern front" against Israel, but its own bad relations with Throughout the year the Damascus press and

the chief obstacle remained Iraq.

accused

radio

the

Iraqi

regime

Baathist and Arab cause. In the

of

betraying

summer Gen.

the

Salah

In the spring and early

summer

the Syrians

demon-

strated their intention to reactivate their front with

which had been relatively dormant since the

Israel,

1967 war. Their aim was to reduce the pressure on the U.A.R. at the Suez Canal and to reassert their claim to the Golan Heights in the event of a Middle East settlement. In late March and early April Syrian forces

made

a series of raids on Israeli forces in the Golan May 12-13 Syrian air forces and ar-

Heights, and on

18,

army chief of Arab summit meet-

minister of the interior and the

had represented Syria at the Rabat in December 1969, but the government used the summit's failure to justify its view that such meetings were worthless and that only the "progressive" Arab states could unite effectively against Israel. In early February Premier al-Attassi attended the staff

ing in

from Saudi Arabia after it was damaged on May 3 was at least partly a politically motivated action against Western oil companies and the right-wing regime in Saudi Arabia. Saudi retaliatory measures led to a Syrian ban on the overflying of Saudi aircraft, and Syria rejected pressure from the U.A.R., Jordan, and Lebanon to allow Syrian territory on

19,

military coup.

The

Syria's refusal to allow the repair of the Tapline

pipeline

organization, Al Saiqa.

southwestern Asia on the Mediterranean

in

Sea, Syria

13,

for talks with that nation's president.

al-Jadid, who controlled the Baath Party machine and was especially hostile to Iraq, strengthened his position by gaining control of the Syrian-supported guerrilla

Syria A republic

Nov.

Arab states (Iraq, Arab Republic, and Sudan) in Cairo, which strongly denounced U.S. policy in the Middle East; after the meeting he went on to Algeria of "front line"

SYRIA Education. (1967-68) Primary, pupils 767,895, teachers 2 1,228; secondary, pupils 214,536, teachers 8,509; vocational, pupils 7,688, teachers 897; teacher training, students 6,276, teachers 522;

higher (including

2

universities), students 33,027, teaching staff 941. Finance. Monetary unit: Syrian pound, with a par £1 sterling) value of S£2.19 to U.S. $1 (S£5.26 and an approximate free rate (Oct. 1970) of S£4.40 Budget sterling). (1968) £1 (S£10.50 to U.S. $1 balanced at S£l,142.7 million. Money supply: (March 1970) S£l,881 million; (March 1969) S£l,724 mil-

=

=

=

100): (June Cost of living (Damascus; 1963 1970) 116; (June 1969) 115. Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports S£l,409.1 million; exports S£789.7 million. Import sources: U.S.S.R. 9%; Italy 9%; France 7%; West Germany 7%; Iraq 6%; China 5%; Czechoslovakia 5%; Lebanon 5%; U.K. 5%. Export destinations: U.S.S.R. 17%; Lebanon 14%; Italy 12%. Main exports: cotton 39%; livestock 13%; crude oil 11%; fruit and vegetables

lion.

7%:

rice

5%.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1969) (including 10,532 km. with improved c. 14,900 km. surface). Motor vehicles in use (1969): passenger 29,379; commercial 16,012. Railways (1968): 543 traffic 85 million passenger-km., freight 122 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1968): 127,470.000 passenger-km.; freight 8 74,000 net ton-km. Ships entered (1967) vessels totaling 10,451,000 net registered tons; goods loaded (1968) 30,007,000 metric tons,

km.;

unloaded 1,178,000 metric tons. Telephones (Dec. 1968) 96,613. Radio receivers (Dec. 1969) 1,272,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1969) 106,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons: 1969; 1968 in parentheses): wheat 1,004 (600): barley 627 (512); grapes (1968) 215, (1967) 214; raisins (1968) 8.4, (1967) 8.8; figs (1968) 53, (1967) 52; olive oil c. 21 (22); tobacco (1968) 8.5, (1967) 6; dry broad beans (1968) 8, (1967) 14; chick-peas (1968) 36, (1967) 64; lentils (1968) 48, (1967) 84; cotton, lint 147 (1 59); wool (1968) 6.4, (1967) 6.7. Livestock (in 000: 1968-69): cattle c. 510; sheep c. 6,000; horses c. 63; asses c. 230; goats (1967-68) 743; chickens (Dec. 1968) 4,247. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968): petroleum products c. 1,100: cement (1969) 934; cotton yarn (1967) 19; electricity (kw-hr.) 773,000.

were engaged against

tillery

Israeli forces raiding

Leb-

anon. There were further clashes on the Golan Heights

which Syria admitted suffering more than 40 casualties, and more serious engagements between June 24 and 26 with Syria admitting the loss of 45 dead and 75 wounded in addition to the loss of two aircraft. Observers reported that the Syrian forces showed an improved spirit and standard between June

1

and

8 in

of training.

As the Jordanian

crisis

deepened

in

August and Sep-

tember, the Syrians expressed vigorous support for he Palestinian guerrillas.

On September

19, after the

outbreak of the Jordanian civil war, Syrian armoured units entered northern Jordan; the Syrians claimed that they

were

elements of the Palestine Liberation

all

Army. They withdrew a few days later, having suffered severe casualties and also, it was thought, beThis action led directly to a

crisis

within the regime,

with the civilian Baathists criticizing Minister of De-

Gen. Hafez al-Assad, who had opposed the

fense

Syrian interv^ention. General al-Assad took counterto ensure his position and the loyalty of the armed forces. On October 18 it was reported that he had won the power struggle and that his principal rival. General al-Jadid, was in flight. A Baath Party congress began meeting on October

measures

30

an attempt to reconcile the differences within the party. That it failed to do so became apparent when General al-Assad placed Premier al-Attassi and General al-Jadid under house arrest on November 13. in

Under

al-.-\s5ad's

China,

The

cause of Soviet pressure.

leadership,

the

697

from Nationalist to Communist renewed interest in bidding for China's seat in the UN, and decisions by the U.S. to reduce its military presence in Asia and to resume Sino-American talks at the ambassadorial level in Warsaw. Particularly threatening to Taiwan was the reiteration by the U.S. of its policy to conciliate Communist China by removing the regular U.S. Navy patrol of the Taiwan Strait and by allowing U.S. companies operating abroad to trade directly with Peking. On the basis of these developments it was generally believed that the United States would no longer resist Peking's obtaining membership in the UN as long as Nationalist China could also remain in the organization. In effect, this subtly became a "two-Chinas" policy, to which both the Communists and the Nationalists openly and strongly objected.

shifting recognition

Peking's

Taiwan

to develop more cordial Communist China was reportedly made clear to the Nationalists by U.S. Vice-Pres. Spiro Agnew on his first goodwill tour of Asia. On his way from Japan to Vietnam. Agnew visited T'ai-pei on

desire of the U.S.

relations with

January 2-3 and held talks with President Chiang and other high

officials.

In a statement in T'ai-pei,

declared that the future of Asia

lies in

Agnew

the hands of

the Asian people themselves but that the U.S. wished to cooperate fully in this

honour other

Asian

commitments

its

allies.

The

to

effort

and intended

to

Nationalist China and

Nationalist reaction was openly af-

firmed in Premier Yen's report to the Legislative

Yuan on February 24 when he

said that the U.S.-

more conservative

military wing of the Baathists took power, in a bloodless

coup, from the political wing, which was blamed

for the abortive tank invasion of Jordan.

A

TAIW.^X (1967-68) Primary, pupils 2,348,218, 55.683; secondary, pupils 640,447, teachers vocational, pupils 143,296, teachers 7,065; teacher training, students 1,570, teachers 88; higher (including 10 universities), students 138,613, teaching staff 1 5.872. Finance. Monetary unit: New Taiwan dollar (NTS40 U.S. $1; NT$96 £1 sterling). Gold and foreign exchange, official: (June 1970) U.S. $531 million: (June 1969) U.S. $411 million. Budget (1968-69 Education.

relatively

teachers

unknown former teacher, Ahmed al-Khatib, was named president, while al-Assad became the new premier. Although some observers expected the new regime to be more sympathetic to Israel and the West,

23,706;

it

soon pledged support to the Palestinian guerrillas

and announced that

Communist

it

would work

for closer ties with

nations.

CP.

Britannica Films. The (19S5); The Mediterranean World (1961). Encyci.op/f.dia

Md.) East

Taiwan, which consists of the islands of Formosa and Quemoy and other surrounding islands, is the seat of the Republic of China fXationalist China). It is situated north of the Philippines, southwest of Japan and Okinawa, and east of Hong Kong. The island of Formosa has an ;

including

its

Taiwan group and 63 Pescadores group), the area of Taiwan totals

77 outlying islands (\4 in the in the

13.887 sq.mi. Pop. ("1970 est.): ing

armed

T'ai-pei

14,500.872, exclud-

forces and aliens. Cap. and larcest city:

Cpop..

1970

est.,

1.742.626).

President in

1970, Chiang Kai-shek; vice-president and premier

Executive Yuan). C. K. Yen. In 1970, while economic growth and social advance-

("president of the

ment

Taiwan continued, the posture and position of government as the sole and legitimate government of all China greatly deteriorated. Factors in this deterioration were moves by Canada and Italy in

the Nationalist

est.):

revenue

NT$34,898,000,000;

NT$33, 108,000,000. Gross

expenditure

national product:

(1968) (1967) N"T$143,040,000,000. Money supply: (June 1970) N'T$30,4 10,000,000; (June 1969) XT$2 5,480,000,000, Cost of living (1963 = 100): (June 1970) 121; (June 1969) 116. Foreign Trade. (1969) Imports U.S. $1,212,800,000; exports U.S. $1,049,500,000. Import sources: Japan 44%; U.S. 24%. Export destinations: U.S. 38%; Japan 15%; Hong Kong 9%; South Vietnam 5%; West Germany 5%. Main exports: fruit and vegetables 16% (including bananas 5%); textile yarns and fabrics 13%; clothing 12%; telecommunications equipment 9%; plyivood 6%; sugar 5%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1968) 16. 885 km. Motor vehicles in use (1968): passenger 30,700; commercial (including buses) 33.400. Railways: (1968) 4,500 km.; traffic (1969) 5,935,000,000

NT$167,980,000,000; Middle

Taiwan

area of 13.807 sq.mi, ("35.760 sq.km.)

=

=

passenger-km.. freight 2,595,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1969): 521.2 million passcngcr-km. freight 8,385,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1969): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 216; gross tonnage 961,807, Telephones (Jan. 1969) 280,192. Radio receivers (Dec. 1967) 1,402,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1968) 19^.000. Agriculture. Production (in 000: metric tons; 1969; 1968 in parentheses): rice 3,041 (3,299); sweet potatoes (1968) 3,445. (1967) 3,720; cassava (1968) 342, (1967) 299; peanuts 101 (106); oranges 146 (ISl); tobacco 20 (21); tea (1968) 24, (1967) 24; sugar, raw value (1969-70) 874, (1968-69) 791 bananas (1968) 645, (1967) 654; jute 13 (11), Livestock (in 000; Dec, 1968): cattle 105; pigs 3,011; goal^ rnec. 1967) 1 55; chickens 13,787. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1969): coal 4.646; crude oil 82; natural gas Ccu.m.) 894,000; electricity (excluding most indust'-ial production; kw-hr.) 11.114.000; cement 4,070; pig iron 72: salt (1968) 311; caustic soda (1967) 91; petroleum products (1968) 3,109; cotton yarn 78; paper (1966) 214. ;

;

,

^,

Table Tennis: see Sporting Record

Peking talks

in

Warsaw were

to the free world,

World country improve

its

to

harmful, not beneficial,

and that "any attempt by establish diplomatic

a.

Free

relations

or

relationship with the Peking regime will

Tanzania

not only adversely affect the solidarity and the longterm interests of all the Free World, .but also solicit

This republic, an East African

humiliation."

wealth of Nations, consists of two parts Tanganyika, on

To

all the important Sino-American relations, Deputy Premier Chiang Ching-kuo (the son of President Chiang) visited the U.S. on April 18-27 at the invitation of Secretary of State William P. Rogers. Before his departure Chiang declared that U.S. -Nationalist relations could be further strengthened by the acceptance of his government's basic premise that it is the government of China and that it intends someday to recover the mainland. During his visit in Washington Chiang conferred with U.S. Pres. Richard Ni.xon, Agnew, and the secretaries of state and defense. On his way to a hotel in New York City on April 24 to deliver a scheduled address to the Far East-American Council of Commerce and Industry, Chiang was fired upon in the revolving door of the hotel by a student from Taiwan in an assassination attempt The student later identified himself as a leader of a newly formed organization called the World United Formbsans for Independence, with headquarters in New York. Returning to T'ai-pei on May 1, Chiang in a press statement confirmed that during his visit in Washington he had explained the Nationahst basic policy to U.S. officials, and that the U.S. government had renewed its assurance to Taiwan of "unchanged adherence to commitments made under the Sino-American mutual assistance treaty and of continued support of the Republic of China in the United Nations." Except for sporadic shelling by Communist China around the offshore islands of Quemoy and Matsu, the Taiwan Straits were quiet. Relative national security and continued political stability had led to greater freedom of discussion in the national election held in late December 1969 to fill 11 vacancies in the Legislative Yuan and IS vacancies in the National Assembly; this was the first national election since 1947. During the election campaigns nonpartisan and independent candidates sharply criticized the ruling Kuomintang for bureaucracy, inefficiency, and expenditure of 70% of the national budget for military purposes. In particular, the independent candidates demanded that the offices of mayor of T'ai-pei and governor of Taiwan should be made elective instead

seek better understanding of

issues facing

of appointive.

As

economic development plan second year in 1970, fhe National Security Council, of which President Chiang was ex officio chairman, issued a directive calling for greater efforts to maintain the economic growth rate of 8.5%, as the fifth four-year

entered

its

by the plan. The significant industrial development of recent yeits had caused the economic structure to undergo a notable change from a predominantly agricultural economy to an industrial one. In 1969 agriculture accounted for 20.8"% of the net domestic product and iildustry for 32%, compared with 35 and 20%, respectively, in 1952. To promote industrial development the Executive Yuan adopted in September a set of guiding measures that included financial aid and long-term bank loans to private firms so that they could purchase machines and set forth

thereby increase the amount of their exports. (H.-T. Ch.) See also China.

member

of

the

Common-

:

the Indian Ocean, bordered

Kenya,

Uganda,

by Rwanda,

Burundi, the Congo (Kinshasa), Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique; and Zanzibar, just off the coast, including Zanzibar Island, Pemba Island, and small islets. Total area of the united republic:

364,900 sq.mi. (945,100 sq.km.). Total pop. (1970 est.): 13,273,000 (approximately 98% Africans and 1% Arabs). Cap.

and in

largest city:

Dar

es

Salaam (pop., 1967, 272,821), primarily Bantu, of which

Tanganyika. Language

:

Swahili serves as the lingua franca. Religion: pre-

dominantly pagan; many Muslims in coastal areas and in up-country settlements; Christian minority. President in 1970, Julius Nyerere. Following their arrest in October 1969, seven people,

including

Bibi

Titi

Muhammad,

one

the

of

founders of the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU), were charged in May 1970 with plotting

overthrow the government and to assassinate Nyerere and the second vice-president, Rashidi Kawawa. Oscar Kambona, the former foreign minister, was charged in absentia with directing the plot. The accused were brought to trial in June, to

President

TANZANIA Education. (1966) Primary, pupils 740,991, teachers 14,809; secondary, pupils 23,836, teachers 1,171; vocational, pupils 2,499, teachers 68; teacher training, students 2,473, teachers 230; higher (including Dar es Salaam University; 1965), students 523.

Finance. Monetary

unit;

Tanzanian

shilling,

with

=

a par value of TShs. 7.14 to U.S. $1 (TShs. 17.14 £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange; (June 1970) U.S. $68.6 million; (June 1969) U.S. $77.8 million. Budget (1969-70 est.); revenue TShs. 1,505,-

719,000; expenditure TShs. 1,502,751,000. National income; (mainland onlv; 1967) TShs. 5,201,000,000; (1966) TShs. 5,003.000,000. Money supply: (June 1970) TShs. 1,461,000,000; (June 1969) TShs. 1,467,000,000. Cost of living (Dar es Salaam; 1963 100): (May 1970) 124; (June 1969) 120. Foreign Trade. (Excluding trade with Kenya and Uganda; 1969) Imports TShs. 1,419,000,000; exports TShs. 1,689,000,000. Import sources; U.K. 27%;

=

9%; West Germany 8%; Iran 7%; U.S. 6%; 6%; Italy 5%; Netherlands 5%. Export destinations: U.K. 26%; India 8%; U.S. 7%; Zambia 7%; Hong Kong 6%; Japan 5%. Main exports: coffee 15%; cotton 14%; diamonds 11%; sisal 10%. Japan China

Transport and Communications. Roads (1969) 16,743 km. Motor vehicles in use (1968): passenger 36,238; commercial 29,788. Railways (1967) 2.970 km. (for traffic see Kenya). Construction of a 1,600km. railway between Dar es Salaam and Zambia began at the end of 1970. Air traffic: see Kenya. Shipping traffic (mainland only; 1968) goods loaded 1,378.000 metric tons, unloaded 1,862,000 metric tons. Telephones (Dec. 1968) 29,348. Radio receivers (Dec. 1967) 13S.0OO. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1968; 1967 in parentheses): corn (mainland) 678 (642); sweet potatoes c. 284 (c. 259); millet and sorghum c. 1,100 (c. 1.145); sugar, raw value (mainland; 196970) c. 98. (1968-69) 100; rice c. 222 (2 12 ); cassava 1969) c. c. 1,205 (c. 1,200): cotton, lint (mainland; 68, (1968) c. 52; sisal (mainland) 197 (220); timber (cu.m.; 1967) c. 11.800; (1966) f. 11,600; fish catch (1968) 123, (1967) 1 18. Livestock (in 000: 196869): cattle c. 11,100; sheep c. 3,200; goats (1967-68) c. 4,716: asses c. 161; pigs c. 20. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons: 1968): salt c. 30: tin concentrates (metal content) 0.3: gold (troy oz.) 17: diamonds (metric carats: 1967) 927; electricity (public supply; kw-hr.) 315,000.

::h the .

exception of

Kambona, who, under Tanzanian

In July Kawawa announced that during 1971 he •.vould present to Parliament completed plans for a Tanzanian Air Force. He gave no indication as to the jurce of any assistance in the project, but observers e'.ieved that -J.

China, which was already constructing Dar es Salaam, was

naval base for Tanzania in

.ikely to be involved. In July, too, final discussions took place in Peking between members of the Chinese government and ministers and bank governors

from Tanzania and Zambia

to arrange

an

free loan of £169 million to finance the

interest1,1 00- mi.

that would link the two countries. construction of the line, which was

Tanzam Railway

Work on

the

scheduled for completion in five years, began in

officially

October.

Events

in

Zanzibar continued to cause concern on

the mainland, although, under the terms of the interim

government could not intervene in questions of law and justice. In May an order that 31 families of Iranian origin must quit Zanzibar had been the precursor of a series of events giving rise to considerable criticism on the mainland. Although at the time no reason was given for the deportation order, which in any case was revoked in June, the families had pre\aously been accused of opposing interracial marriages. In September it was reported that four girls of Iranian origin had been forced by the Revolutionary- Council to marry government officials against their will, and it was later claimed that one of the girls had been married to First Vice-Pres. Abeid Karume. while 11 men of Iranian origin, who had refused their consent to the marriages, were sentenced to flogging and imprisonment but were subsequently pardoned. In September. Nyerere was unanimously nominated constitution of 1965. the mainland

as the sole candidate for the presidential election on October 30. when he was reelected by an overwhelming majority. At the same time parliamentary' elections were held on the mainland, but not in Zanzibar. Most of the sitting members were reelected, though two ministers lost their seats. (K. I.) ,

Encyci.op/Edia Britan-nica Films. East Africa (Kenya. Tanganyika, Uganda) (1962); Youth Builds a Nation in Tanzania C197C).

699

data banks and increase their store of information. In return,

.w, could not be tried in absentia.

computer

new source

traffic

was expected

to

add

a valuable

Telecommunications

of business for the supphers of telecom-

munications services.

Governmental and Research

Activities.

An

en-

couraging sign in 1970 was that governments began to

realize

that

the

the importance of advance planning

so

continuing growth in telecommunications

would not be

had been

by a coming before the policy-making and regulatory bodies had usually been solved by ad hoc decisions. In 1970, however, government officials seemed to step back and take a long-range \dew in the hope that broad policy formulation would provide a framework that would end the need for ad hoc decisions. In the U.S. the broad policy decisions all seemed to have a common element: the use of competition between the suppliers of telecomstifled, as it

in the past,

lag in policy making. In the past, issues

munications services as a regulatory' tool in itself. Probably the most important single long-term development in the U.S. was the decision by Pres. Richard Xixon to create a new high-level office to handle the federal government's planning functions for telecommunications. The new agency, called the Office of Telecommunications Policy, was given an extraordinarily broad charter, permitting it a hand in all governmental telecommunications functions except for purely regulatory affairs of the Federal Communications

Commission fFCC).

In Britain,

traffic over the telephone trunk lines was doubling every seven years and data services were expanding quickly. In response, the Post Office's "Con-

fravision" service was brought to fruition in 1970,

A

laser

beam

is

injected

into an experimental

lightguide at Bell

Telephone Laboratories in Murray Hill, N.J. The lightguide,

a glass film deposited on a glass plate, may be used to develop a new class of optical circuits

communications systems of the future.

for laser

AUTHENTICATED NEWS [NTERNATIONAl.

Telecommunications Governmental policy makers

clearly

began

in

to take a greater interest in telecommunications.

new

1970

The

spurt of activity was geared toward gaining the

from modem technology and toward mapping guidelines for the future so that the

greatest possible benefit ideas of scientists

and engineers could be exploited

to

their fullest.

One reason for the heightened interest was the slowly dawning realization that many technologies not simply telecommunications were converging and

—

promising revolutionary improvements in the means of transferring information among people. This was

most dramatically illustrated by the growing relationship between computers and telecommunications facilities. Working together, computers and telecommunications could greatly increase the flow of information between the users of the information.

To

realize their greatest potential,

computers had remote locations. Furthermore, computers linked to other computers could pool their

to be linked to users in

Tariffs: see Commercial

Policies; Trade,

International

Taxation: sec

Government

Finance Tea: see Agriculture

700

Telecommunications

enabling businessmen hundreds of miles apart to participate in face-to-face conferences by television. The Post Office was setting up special studios for the purfirst in five

pose, at

—London, Glasgow, Man—where business and

cities

Bristol chester, Birmingham, leaders were invited to try the service, initially at a

nominal

fee. Later, larger

prefer to have their

own

companies would probably

studios.

In another attempt to solve the

g.

owing problem of

demonby wave-

ciently powerful yet cool like

was

converted into guide. digital pulses, and these were transmitted not through the free air but down a carefully constructed long hol-

The

television signal

first

low tube. This approach dealt with two problems at once. First, because the beamed signal was completely enclosed by the waveguide, there was no interference from outside. The same equivalent frequencies could therefore be used nearby for different transmissions with no fear of messages becoming intermixed. Second, because high radio frequencies were used, the amount of information that could be transmitted by waveguide was much greater than with a cable of the same physical dimensions. The waveguide developed by the Post Office's Research Department, only two inches in diameter, could carry a third of a million two-way telephone conversations, or 200 television circuits, or other signals, including music and computer data. A 1-km. length of the waveguide was installed at Martlesham Heath near Ipswich, and tests on a 30-km. length were planned for 1973. The number of messages that can be contained in a transmission is proportional to the frequency of that transmission. Since light has a

quency than even

radio, the

much

higher fre-

number of messages that light beam is, in theory,

could be transmitted on a extremely high. Many scientific laboratories were en-

gaged

in

transmitting light along very thin glass fibres

with this aim

in

view, but

all

had been beaten by the

difiiculty of building a switchable light

source

sufii-

enough

to

make anything

use of the transmission capacity theoreti-

Standard Telecommunication LaboraHarlow, Essex, successfully developed a small laser made of gallium arsenide which overcame this limitation. A single laser of this kind had the cally available.

tories

of

potentiahty for enabling millions of television programs to be transmitted along a fibre no thicker than a

human

hair.

Satellites. Despite technical troubles experienced

congestion, the U.K. Post Office in September strated the transmission of colour television

full

boih the launching and subsequent operation of communications satellites, the economics of telecommunications encouraged the development of more powerful satellites in 1970. The International Telecommunications Satellite Consortium (Intelsat) 4 system, in which over a period of years eight large satellites would be launched to provide global telecommunications coverage, was scheduled to be launched early in 1971. Whereas Intelsat 1 (Early Bird) weighed ISO lb. at Uft-off (87 lb. in orbit), each Intelsat 4 would weigh 2,452 lb. at Hft-off (1,075 lb. in orbit). Intelsat 4 would have a greater capacity than any previous satellite, being virtually a 5,000line telephone exchange floating in space. Alternatively, it would be able to transmit 12 simultaneous television broadcasts in full colour or any equivalent combination of various different kinds of transmissions. The first Intelsat 4 was to be put into synchronous orbit 22,300 mi. above the Atlantic Ocean, and subsequent launchings would eventually provide two Intelsat 4s for the Atlantic and Pacific regions and one for the Indian Ocean, plus spares in orbit. The first five were all to be launched within five in

years.

This new generation of communications satellites was not only larger and more powerful than its predecessors, but also more sophisticated. For example, a unique feature was to be an ability to focus part of the transmission capacity into two spot beams and direct

these

at

selected

stronger signal and

areas,

providing

more channel capacity

requiring the heaviest communications

both

a

for areas

traffic,

such

Western Europe and the eastern U.S. This would be made possible by having two steerable dish aerials on the satellite that could be controlled on command from the earth. Under the leadership of U.S. Ambassador Abbott Washburn, who succeeded former Pennsylvania governor William Scranton in January, the conference of 75 nations trying to work out a permanent charter for Intelsat remained without firm agreement late in 1970 as delegates debated minute organizational details. As the year ended, Washburn reported that a compromise had been worked out and that he expected approval of the complex agreement early in 1971. Essentially, the agreement would mean a smaller role in the organization for the U.S. and its agent, the Communications Satellite Corporation (Comsat). At the end of 1970 the U.S. appeared on the brink of a decision concerning which organization or organizations would have the right to operate a domestic satellite system. In September 1955 the first application for a domestic system was filed by the American Broadcasting Company. Approximately 11 months later, Comsat filed its first application. During the

as Countries Having

More Than 100,000 Telephones

Telephones

Algeria Argentine Australia*

Percent-

age

per

age

per

in-

100 pop-

Number

crease

of telephones

over 1959

156,038 1,599,861

Belgium

3,392,436 1,242,785 1,847,363

Brazil

1,560,701

Bulgaria

378,152 8,820,770

Austria

Canada Chile

Chinot

Colombial Cubat Czechoslovokia

Denmork Finland France

Germany, Eost Germany, West Greece Hong Kong Hungary India

Indonesia Iran Iroq Ireland Israel Italy

Japan Korea, South

312,042 244,028 574,700 242,000 1,789,373 1,516,802 1,009,336 7,503,491 1,896,151 11,248,979

761,550 426,540 684,389 1,057,193 181,377 250,300 113,388

268,670 401,362 7,752,042 20,525,211 489,912

service, 1969

Tele-

phones

in-

Country

in

Percent-

100 population

1.19

30.8 65.0 102.0 78,3 64.4 72.3 87.8

135.5 42.3 101.1

55.3 85.1

102.6 61.4 121.0 350.6 396.0 70.7 179.3 99.4 209.1 155.9 95.3 344.1 143.6 302.7 626.9

Number

6.72 28.20 16.88 19.18 1.74

4.50 42.12 3.30 0.05 2.85 2.97 12.44 30.88 21.50 14.98 11.10 18.65 8.63 10.74 6.66 0.20 0.16 0.92 1.30 9.20 14.42 14.37 20.12 1.60

Country

Lebanon Maloysia Mexico

crease of over telephones 1959

150,370 156,354 1,174,943 Morocco 160,326 Netherlands 2,917,384 New Zealand 1,155,465 Norway 1,036,027 Pakistan 176,811 Peru 165,121 241,496 Philippines Poland 1,650,896 Portugal 653,407 Puerto Rico 266,248 Rhodesia 116,973 596,000 Romaniat 119,184 Singapore South Africa 1,397,725 Soviet Union 9,900,CC0 Spain 3,723,239 Sweden 4,110,579 Switzerland 2,685,800 Taiwon 230,192 Thailand* 114,419 Turkey 451,769 United Arob Republlct 365,000 United Kingdom 12,901,000 United States 109,256,000 Uruguoy 205,174 Venezuela 345,704 Yugoslavia 549,019

255.6 162.3

Tele-

phones

ulation

5.76 1.50 2.44

25.1

1.08

108.1 80.2

22.80 41.56 27,02 0.16

51.7

176.7 31.0 175.9 125.3 96.6 247.2

•1968. {Estin-ote. tl948. Source: American Telephone ond Telegraph Co., The World's Telephones, 1959 and 1969.

12'77 137.5 57.5 159.8 149.9 62.7 82.1

378.7 258.4 88.9 96.8 71.4 63.9 51.1

118.0 152.4

1.27 0.66 5.08 6.87 9.73 2,47 2,99 5,95 7,29 4,14 11.44 51.76 43,42 2.05 0,34 1.33 1.14 23.26 54.02 7.23 3,51

2.70

following three years a

number

of organizations, in-

cluding the Ford Foundation, sought

FCC

approval

to build a system.

Then,

late in

1969 when the

FCC

was about

to

grant Comsat temporary permission to operate such

government asked for and received a by a committee from the executive branch. A report by this committee on Jan. 23, 1970, suggested that no single company be allowed to operate a domestic system but a system, the

delay so that the matter could be studied

that all organizations willing to risk the investment cost should

be authorized.

Later in 1970 the line

FCC

adopted a policy largely

with the committee's suggestions. Its

first

in

applica-

under these guidelines came from the Western Union Telegraph Co. Many other firms then announced their plans for filing, including Comsat, American Telephone & Telegraph Co., two special data transmission firms, the broadcasting networks, and a cable television operator. The logjam seemed to loosen further on October 19, when AT & T and Comsat announced that they had arrived at a plan for a joint system, with Comsat supplying two large sateUites and AT & T its vast amount tion

of lucrative business.

Most

satelhte specialists be-

was important for the economic AT & T and the networks had enough business to support a

developed and in 1970 brought out a "supercable" with a total capacity

to cope with this, the Post Ofiice

of 97,200 circuits, six times as

many

as the largest-

capacity coaxial cables previously in use.

A

for computer users.

•

corollary to the second issue

was whether new firms should be permitted pete with existing carriers for this lucrative

to

com-

new

busi-

ness.

In 1970 the FCC rendered a tentative decision on these questions. It said that computers and data processing should not be regulated; but, at the

well-being of a system because only

it

domestic system. Should the combined

cable

granted authority to link or provide data transmission

lieved that the latter

television

The

would be used to link London, Birmingham, and Manchester by the mid-1970s. Computers and Data Transmission. As mentioned earlier, computers became one of the thorniest problems facing telecommunications pohcy makers in 1 1970. There were two elements to the problem: whether or not computers should be regulated as common carriers and if so with what regulatory restrictions; and, second, who should have the government-

also said that existing

same time, communications companies

could enter the business only after agreeing to a rigid

The restrictions on telecommunications companies were made because of the belief that the companies would be unfair competition to other suppliers of computer services. One reason the telecommunications companies wanted the business was because the message switching systems in their facilities were, in fact, computers. These systems were not used at all times and the companies wanted to sell their services as computers set of rules.

AT &

T-Comsat system be

AT & T would build and own five earth Approval of the arrangement was somewhat in doubt, however, since it would seem to run counter to the philosophy of competition by lumping together two possible competitors. Additional awkwardness and possible antitrust violations might stem from AT & T's ownership of about 22% of Comsat stock. Late in the year there was a movement to pass new legislation to end AT & T's ownership share in Comsat. Meanwhile, Canada proceeded with its plans for establishing a domestic communications satellite system. In September it awarded a $30 million contract for the system to the Hughes Aircraft Co. of California. A controversy arose over the contract because a Canadian company, RCA Victor of Canada, had also sought the work but said that the cost would be $13 million higher. The Canadian Cabinet chose the lower price over any considerations of nationalism. Cables and Radio. On March 22 the highestcapacity communications cable ever to be laid across the Atlantic, called TATS, went into operation, linking Green Hill, R.I., and San Fernando, Spain. The opening of the system led to a series of international approved, stations.

rate reductions, including the reduction of

transat-

and West Germany by as much as 25%. The cable was jointly owned by AT & T, ITT World Communications, Western Union International, RCA Global Communications, Compaiiia Telefonica Nacional de Espafia, Companhia Portuguesa Radio Marcini, and Italcable. The new equipment could handle more than lantic telephone rates to Spain, Portugal, Italy,

800 telephone conversations simultaneously. Early in the year the U.K. Post Office set up one of the first television networks in the world capable of transmitting 22 television pictures simultaneously over one coaxial cable. The network linked the new 26-story London Stock Exchange, which opened in February, to more than 200 of its member's offices within the City of London. At the touch of a button, brokers could display on a television screen in their offices up-to-date prices of more than 700 stocks and shares and the latest news and information on commodities and exchange rates. The size of the trunk telephone system in Britain had been growing at about 15% annually. In an effort

during the off-hours. Restrictions placed on them by the FCC's tentative ruling were expected to hold down their profitability.

A

The FCC moved to increase competition in the data transmission field when it indicated that it planned to

in

grant operational authority to two companies that had sought permission to crisscross the U.S. with micro-

wave transmission

be used mainly for carrying computer data messages. As 1970 ended, 18 firms affiliated with Microwave Communications of facilities

to

America had

filed for authority for a nationwide system. Similarly, the Data Transmission Corp., a University Computing Co. affiliate, had a single nation-

wide application pending.

Telephones. One of the reasons AT & T and the other telephone companies were faced by vigorous asby upstart competitors was that complaints of poor performance of telephone service continued during the year. One of the most criticized, the New York Telephone Co., an affiliate of AT & T, replaced its president in 1970 and chose William M. Ellinghaus to succeed him. Ellinghaus later revealed plans for corsaults

recting the service deficiencies.

a

Nevertheless, the service complaints surely created climate conducive to the making of many regu-

phone companies. Furbegan an extensive program of

latory decisions against the

thermore, the

FCC

checking up on these complaints. Until recently,

AT &

T had never had the

man-

commission investigating

agement and service

its

responsibilities.

CL. H. Jo.; W. D. Hi.) International Telecommunication Union. During 1970 membership in the International Telecom-

munication Union (ITU) increased to 138 with the acof Equatorial Guinea to the International Telecommunication Convention. The 2Sth session of the Administrative Council of the ITU took place during May 23-June 11, at ITU headquarters in Geneva. cession

Post Office technician Great Britain works

on computer stylizing input characters. It is part of the effort to develop an optical

character-recognition scanner that could sort typed-addressed mail.

702

Television and P3(jjQ

council decided that the next ITU Plenipotentiary Conference would be held in Geneva in September 1973 and that the next World Administrative Radio Conference for Maritime Services would be held at the beginning of 1974. The latter should establish, on

The

the basis of single side-band operation, a

new

fre-

throughout the world in 1970 numbered approximately 12,900. Most were AM, but was gaining in both

FM

number and

and amend the associated proRadio Regulations. The International Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR) held its 12th plenary assembly in New Delhi from January 21 to February 11. Nearly 600 documents concerning radiocommunications were discussed and approved. The subjects included the use of satellites for the transmission of telephony and television, the use of computers to improve the rephone coast

stations,

liability of forecasts of

frequencies likely to be usable

between various points on earth, reliability of radio services, technical and economic factors related to broadcasting both sound and vision programs from satellites, and the means of facilitating participation in the work of the CCIR by new or less developed

(ITU)

countries.

and Radio.

Sec also Industrial Review; Television

Encyclop.^di.^ Britannic.^ Films. Development of Communications (From Telegraph to TV) ( 1955); Getting the News (1967).

Television and Radio In 1970, according to figures compiled by Broadcasting magazine and Broadcasting Yearbook, there were

an estimated 231 million television sets and 620 million radio sets in use throughout the world. Approxi-

mately SS million of the television sets, or 37% of the world total, were in the United States. According

had more than 25 miland the United Kingdom 20 million. Broadcasting's estimates, a few of them revised from earlier accounts, also showed West Gerto Broadcasting, the U.S.S.R.

lion,

Japan 22.3

many

million,

were

total, or 7,134,

of these were Broadcasting

FM,

More than

in the U.S.,

according to

half of the world

and about one-third reports published by

November. Organization. One of the biggest disappointments

quency-allotment plan for high-frequency radiotelevisions of the

proportion.

in

of the year in organization

was

failure of the inter-

national conference on the future organization of the

International Telecommunications Satellite Consor-

tium (Intelsat) to reach agreement on what form the administration of international satellite affairs should

The conference, which had opened in 1969 and then recessed, resumed in Washington, D.C., in February 1970, but after a month was unable to agree on take.

a

new system

of

management

for international satel-

Communications (Comsat) had managed Intelsat. When disagreement on future management persisted, the Australian and Japanese delegations at the Washington meeting proposed a compromise that at first seemed likely to succeed. Their plan provided for the establishment of a general assembly in which each nation would have one vote; a board of governors with voting based on use but not to exceed 40% for any one nation (as opposed to the existing system, in which the U.S. had a 53% vote) and a director general to be chosen by the board to serve as chief executive officer of the consortium. Under this plan, the new system would be put into effect over a period of six years, during which Comsat would continue as manager but with gradual diminution of its power. lite

operations. Since 1964, the U.S.

Satellite Corp.

;

The U.S. called the plan acceptable, but so many amendments were offered from the floor, seeking to change the weight of votes and the authority of the general assembly over the board of governors and

its

director general, that in the end the conference de-

cided to assign the problem to an "intersessional working group"

and consider

its

proposals at a subsequent

conference.

The nations were much more

successful in organiz-

with 9.1 million,

ing around-the-world distribution of special programs.

France 9 million, Canada 6.8 million, Spain 3.6 milPoland 3.5 million, Argentina 3 million, Czecho-

In one of the most massive coverage efforts in history, an estimated 800 million to 900 million persons in 40 countries witnessed live television coverage, via satellites, of the World Cup soccer championship games played in Mexico City. Between May 31 and June 21, according to Comsat sources, more than 470 hours

with 16.2 million

sets, Italy

lion,

slovakia 2.8 million, Australia 2.7 million, million,

Belgium

2

million,

and Hungary

Sweden

2.5

1.5 million.

At the opposite extreme, according to Broadcasting, Kuwait had 60,000 sets, Sudan 35,000, Mauritania 15,000, Uganda 10,000, Liberia 6,500, and Sierra Leone 3.000. Radio was even more universal than television in 1970.

Through

direct broadcasting stations, boosters,

or relays, amplitude modulation ('AM) or frequency

modulation country.

(FM)

stations penetrated virtually every

About 320.7

million, or a little

more than

half

AM

and

of the world total of 620 million radio sets,

FM, were

in the U.S.,

according to Broadcasting.

Approximately 6,360 television stations were on the under construction throughout the world in 1970. No area had gained significantly. There were about 2,000 in Western Europe, 2,100 in the Far East, 1,034 in the U.S., 905 in Eastern Europe, 170 in South America, 76 in Canada, and 35 in Africa. Many countries had only one or two program services; others offered multiple choices. In the U.S. it was estimated

air or

that virtually

ceive at least

all

stations,

could receive at least

(24%)

homes could remore than half (53%) seven, and almost one-fourth

television-equipped

two

could receive nine or more.

Radio stations on the

air

or under construction

of satellite time were used to distribute coverage of

On April 17, ten hours of satellite time were used to send live coverage of the splashdown of the near-disastrous moon mission of Apollo 13. Satellites the games.

were also used extensively to relay to television stations around the world live and taped coverage of, among other events, the funeral of Charles de Gaulle of France and concurrent memorial services attended by many of the world's leaders at Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris in

November.

In Canada, work on a satellite system that would provide six television channels to serve the entire nation was scheduled for completion by the end of 1972. In India, ground and airborne facilities were to be meshed with a satellite system for a massive educational program, also effective in 1972. The Soviet Union continued to use its Orbita system of satellites

programs from Moscow to remote areas, and first steps toward establishing a satellite system of its own by inviting and receiving applications from companies seeking to operate doto relay

the U.S. took the

mestic satellite services.

703

Television and

Radio

BOB PETERSON, MAGAZINE ® TIME

LIFE INC.

Draped with sensor wires attached to a physiograph recording his responses, a

nine-year-old boy views

filmed violence

shown

by Victor Bailey Cline, a

clinical

psychologist

Utah who wants to determine what extent Americans to at the University of

influenced by television violence.

are

Colour television continued to expand. In Ireland, state-operated Radio Telefis Eireann provided colourcasts of a British Broadcasting Corp. (BBC) program from the World Cup soccer matches in Mexico City in the spring as a test, then embarked on a program calling for five hours of colour a week starting in the fall and complete conversion to colour in the

Rundfunk G.m.b.H. (ORF),

The

sions were in colour.

three national networks

American Broadcasting Co. (ABC), the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), and the National Broadthe

—

(NBC) transmitted almost exclusively So did most stations except in relatively small cities, and these increasingly expanded their casting Co.

in

colour.

colour schedules.

And

the size of the colour audience

lion

was growing steadily. The 26.2 million total of colourequipped homes on Oct. 1, 1970. represented a gain of 4 million homes, or 18%. since Oct. 1, 1969, accord-

television production

ing to

1974. Osterreichischer

the Austrian broadcasting agency, ordered $6.1 mil-

worth of colour equipment to be installed in a new complex in Vienna. Introduction of colour was still complicated in most countries by the need to choose between the French SECAM and West German PAL systems. Spain and Sweden had chosen PAL in 1969, followed in 1970 by Italy and Australia Cboth to begin colour transmissions in 1971). Most Soviet-bloc countries and areas of influence chose SECAM, as did Middle Eastern, African, and other countries formerly part of the French empire.

A boom

Japan was expected to ownership by one family in every four by the end of 1970. With set production in 1969 in colour set sales in

result in colour set

reaching a total of 6 million (more than 3.6 million for export),

Japan passed the U.S.

world's top producer of colour sets.

to

become

A new market

Japanese sets was opening in Australia. Colour set sales reached boom proportions

the for

NBC,

in

Germany, and exports, up by 84% at Western European demand. Domestic sales in January-June exceeded 465,000, raising ownership to a total of some 800,000. In the U.K., where rental was preferred, especially for colour, both sales and installations rose steadily after a big jump ahead in September 1969, with another in September and October 1970, so that they had passed the total of 560,000 forecast for the year by the end of October. Estimates of total installations for 1970 were raised to 650,000, with expectations of more than 2 million by 1972 and more than 4 million by 1974. Black-andwhite sales and rentals also rose, by 20%. United States. Although most sets still in use produced only black-and-white pictures, most transmis-

the source of the estimates.

decision on the question of domestic satellites to

and radio programming moved a step when the White House, after years of uncertainty reaching back into the previous adminrelay television

nearer in January

recommended that the Federal CommunicaCommission (FCC) adopt an open-door policy that would permit virtually any entity with enough financial and technical resources to operate its own system. Although the recommendation was not binding on the FCC, the commission partially accepted it. It announced in March that it was inviting applications from all who were technically and economically qualified and who could show a need for the service. But it also called upon applicants to answer a broad range of questions concerning what future policy on istration,

tions

satellites

West midyear, showed

the extent of

A

satellite

should be. services

It

made

clear that

it

transmitting cable, or

envisioned

community

antenna television (CATV), as well as broadcast television programming, but it wanted views on questions such as whether it should authorize separate specialized systems for each or a multipurpose system capable of handling both, or perhaps some combination of specialized and multipurpose systems. The three national commercial television networks, goaded by a 1969 increase of 44%; in rates charged by the American Telephone & Telegraph Co. (.'\T & T), the principal supplier of networking facilities, had already commissioned a study of alternative means of getting programs to their affiliated stations. The study, completed in July, concluded that the networks could save 25 to 35% of their payments to AT & T, which in 1970 would total about $70 million,

704

Television and

Radio

by setting up either their own domestic-satellite system or their own specialized ground-based microwave system. Over a 20-year period, the study estimated, the total annual cost of either system would range between $50 million and $55 million. Both systems would be equipped to carry not only the television and radio programs of the networks but also the noncommercial programs of the National Educational Network and telecasts of other broadcast users such as Hughes Television Network, which specialized in sports and other occasional programming. Nonbroadcast and common-carrier use was not envisioned for either system.

The networks were until

Dec.

until

March

later given, at their request,

1970, and subsequently were allowed

15,

15, 1971, to let the

they intended to

file

Union had already

FCC know

a satellite application.

filed one,

potential applicants until

and the

March

FCC

1,

whether Western

gave other

1971, to do so.

Western Union's application was for

a

multipurpose

handle television transmissions as well as most of the communications services already handled

satellite to

by the company. Comsat and AT & T filed applications in October for a jointly operated multipurpose system, and a number of others, including TelePrompTer Corp. and Hughes Aircraft Co., indicated plans to apply for a system that would include program service to

C.\TV systems. The pressures upon broadcasters

—

political, social,

1,

1971. network-affiliated television

stations in the SO largest markets could carry no

more

than three hours of network programming between 7 and 11 P.M., Eastern time, on any night. In effect, Nicholas Johnson, Federal

Communications Commission member, criticized the television

networks and the Nixon administration for tactics that he said were intended to stifle dissent.

meant that stations must produce themselves or buy from non-network sources a half hour of programming each night (they already produced the other this

half hour).

The

rule affected

network

affiliates in all

markets, not just the top 50, because it would be uneconomical for networks to produce programs that would be seen only in the smaller markets. Broadcasting estimated that loss of the nightly half hour would cost the three networks at least $70 million a year in revenues in normal times. But the economy was below normal in 1970, and the rule seemed likely to help networks save money by reducing their production costs at a time when advertisers were spending less than usual. Even so, the rule was opposed by CBS and

—

NBC, and by

virtually

all

network

affiliates,

who

pro-

programming was not much more than they could

tested that suitable substitute

would cost Court appeals were pending as the year ended but seemed unlikely to be decided in time, even if the rule were overturned, to prevent its going into effect at least for the 1971-72 program season. After much debate. Congress enacted in 1970 a ban on the broadcast advertising of cigarettes, effective Jan. 2, 1971 {see Advertising). Television stations were increasingly confronted with challenges and in some cases competing applications for their licenses filed by local citizens' groups at license-renewal time. Such protests had become more and more widespread after a group of black citizens, assisted by the United Church of Christ, had accused station WLBT-TV in Jackson, Miss., of discriminatory treatment and, in 1969, had made the charge stand up in court. Another spectre for broadcasters was raised in 1970 when the FCC gave its approval, after 18 years of available or afford.

—

—

pay

win the But by then broadcasters appeared to be more worried by another potential competitor, CATV, which, unlike pay television, had established a foothold and was expanding rapidly. Broadcommission's

television, the first to

approval.

casters' concern centred on the effect CATV might have upon them by diverting segments of their audi-

ences and, eventually, some of their advertising revenues. Broadcastifig reported that, after growing at an

annual rate of 20% for the past five years, CATV by mid-1970 was serving 3,730,000 U.S. households, more than 6% of the total. Other authorities estimated that by 1980 CATV would be serving more than 28 million homes. Europe. In most countries in Western Europe broadcasting still faced the need to cut costs while meeting demand for more viewing time and colour programs. In some countries, expansion or introduction of commercial television and radio was controversial in others, commercial television was fighting a losing financial battle. Evasion of license fees remained a cause of losses, and expensive campaigns were launched to ensure their payment. Accusations of political bias in news presentation and documentary programs about foreign countries, and of the influence ;

of television in encouraging violence, crime, promis-

and

moral standards led to and these, in their turn, caused broadcasters to complain of threats to their freedom. Belief in the power of television and radio had been firmly implanted; claims by broadcasters that it had been greatly overstated were hard to swallow, especially when combined with high estimates of the incuity,

—

and economic intensified in 1970. In the hope of creating new program sources, the FCC ordered that, beginning Sept.

consideration, to the Zenith Radio Corp.'s Phonevision system of

demands

a general decline in

for control,

fluence of the effects of broadcast advertising. Studies

undertaken

to

provide a basis for a more

realistic eval-

uation of the effects of television on public opinion

and action, however, suggested by their preliminary reports that there had been much exaggeration. In the U.K., where charges that television increased aggressive demonstrations and crimes of violence had formed part of the Conservative election campaign's demand for "law and order," studies were undertaken by an Independent Television Authority (ITA) working party and by the University of Leicester's Centre for Research on Mass Communications; their first findings went far to prove that public opinion used what the television screen presented to support its own prejudices, and reduced fears that violence would result from seeing it enacted. The greatest organizational changes in the U.K. followed the change of government. Within a week of the election the Conservative minister of posts and telecommunications, Christopher Chataway, had given the go-ahead to commercial radio and cut back BBC plans for extension of

its

radio program. Al-

local

BBC

had been permitted to continue local stations, one to be in operation by March 1971, the 20 intended to follow by 1973 were almost certainly doomed. The new stations brought the BBC's total up to 20, giving it a good start against commercial radio's plans for 18 stations by 1973. The BBC, however, was restricted to VHF (very high frequency) transmission, although by 1971 it would

though the with 12 new

be capable of covering

commercial radio was

70%

of the population, while

to use the

medium wavelength

20 BBC stations commercial radio caused rumours that a government White Paper might contain plans to sell some BBC local stations to comuntil 6 P.M. Also, the fact that the

were

in

places

likely

to

attract

mercial companies. With support from provincial newspaper and industrial interests, 400 companies had been formed, and were ready to sponsor the new de-

velopment.

The

revival of pirate radio stations caused concern

Netherlands and other continental European governments as well as to the U.K. In February Radio Nordsee International (RNI) began transmissions from Dutch territorial waters, with plans for 21-houra-day programs of pop music and advertising spots aimed at "European listeners in the 15-35 age range," and a high enough power to reach Warsaw, Madrid, Dublin, and Helsinki, Fin. Its biggest potential audience was in the U.K., the Netherlands, and West Germany. Its arrival caused a crisis in the Netherlands coalition Cabinet, and in the U.K. sparked a demand for free radio that had died down with the silencing in 1968 of Radios London and Caroline. The Netherlands, an official signatory to the 1965 Strasbourg Convention against pirate stations on the high seas, had never ratified it because parties in the coalition government feared the effects on young Dutch voters to the

commerDutch-owned Radio Veronica, anchored off the Dutch coast since 1960. The Dutch Liberal Party, however, wanted both to ratify the convention and to of the banning, in consequence, of popular, cial,

revise the existing broadcasting legislation.

A

head-on

was averted only when RNI moved to the Belgian coast, then toward the North Sea coast of Britain. Meanwhile, despite demonstrations in favour of "free radio," the tabling in the U.K. of a motion by Conservative members of Parliament censoring a Conservative government for suppressing "free enterprise," and a public outcry at the- jamming of RXI programs (at a cost of some £1,200 a week), Chataway proved as tough as his Labour predecessor toward illegal commercial competition. A second private station, Radio Capital, began transmission from Dutch territorial waters in July. Progress in West Germany was hampered by rocketing costs, in part resulting from investment by the first and second television networks in colour program production on their own networks to meet a rise in colour transmission time by 70 to 80% for news programs and by 50% for others. Plans were under way to set up a privately owned commercial station in the Saar; and a group with strong newspaper and magazine interests was negotiating with Yugoslavia's Racollision

dio-televizija Ljubljana

grams

to

for rights to

West Germany from

transmit pro-

its station.

In France, the government resisted pressure from

and newspaper owners, led by the diRadio Monte Carlo, to break the monopoly

industrialists

rector of

of

the

state-controlled

Television Frangaise

Office

de

(ORTF) by

Radiodiffusion setting

et

up an inde-

pendent commercial television network. The report in July from a committee of inquiry under former minister of education Lucien Paye pronounced against an independent radio and television system financed by advertising, and recommended that the long-deferred third television channel should be part of the ORTF network, with no extension of the eight minutes a day advertising time introduced in 1968. The necessary money was to be provided by raising the television license fee. In October plans for a third television channel, to be in operation by 1972, were announced; like Channel 2, Channel 3 would transmit in colour. Television was gaining strength in Spain and Sweden. In Spain, the state-controlled national broadcast-

ing organization, financed

by

advertising,

had raised

C8S

output on two channels (one carrying colour) to an annual total of more than 4.000 hours w'ith more than

A big new production centre at Rey, Madrid, completed in 1969, w-as in full operation, and revenue had risen by $4 million since 1968 to top $53 million by mid- 19 70. Sweden's output was up to approximately 75 hours weekly on two channels, with 50% of all programs in colour and about 25,000 colour sets in use. Although in a strong financial position (with revenue from license fees and advertising more than 4 million sets in use.

Prado

del

trebled since 1959), the Italian broadcasting corporation.

Radiotelevisione Italiana (R.\I), was facing a monopoly contract was due for renewal in

crisis. Its

late 1970,

and throughout the year

Influential northern industrialists

it was under attack. and politicians, anx-

up a privately owned independent broadby discrediting R.\I, to prevent renewal of its contract. Accusations by the right-wing press that RAI was staffed at high level by Communists, fellow travelers, radicals, and dissident Catholics, and that stricter controls were needed, forced the resignation after only ten months in office of RAI's president, Aldo Sandulli. With its executive management seriously weakened, and still under fire, RAI seemed unlikely to keep its monopoly. In Eastern Europe, there were advances in both television and radio. Yugoslavia's plans for a new, centralized broadcasting system began in June, when a construction contract was awarded to Marconi's broadcasting division for an up-to-date radio and teleious to set

casting system, hoped,

vision

centre

for

Radio-televizija Zagreb,

to

bring

activities scattered in 19 localities together in a single

complex of buildings. In Poland a new radio and TeleWarsaw was due for completion in 1972. A new Czechoslovak radio station, Hvezda, was opened in August, replacing Czechoslovak I, and transmitting in both Czech and Slovak. With programs scheduled from 8:30 a.m. to 2 A.M. five days a week, it aimed eventually to provide daily around-the-clock service. Emphasis was to be placed on news bulletins (one every hour), magazine programs, and entertainment. The Soviet Union, with a Central Radio Organization providing seven services, averaged 142.2 hours daily in 1970, and programs for listeners abroad were vision centre under construction in

NEWS

seven-minute film clip aired on CBS in IVlay 1970, a South Vietnamese soldier stabbed to death a North In a

Vietnamese prisoner. The clip was aired In

its

entirety

after rumours were spread that the death

was broadcast November 1969, was staged. scene, which in

transmitted in 70 languages for approximately 215.8 hours a day. The Central Television Organization raised program time to 32 hours a day, with programs

seen by about 131.8 million persons. Output of colour sets was increasing to keep pace with rising demand.

The World Bank was

sponsor a long-term plan for educational television in the Ivory Coast, to begin in 1971. A nationwide instructional television Africa.

to

production centre was to be built l1 Bouake as part of a $19 million project for expansion and improve-

ment, by use of television, of teacher training, primary and secondary education, and vocational and technical instruction. Eventually it was expected that 700,000

would be taught directly by television, and by mixed television-correspondence-class

pupils

others

methods. In southern, central, and eastern Africa, radio was

used

increasingly

being

for

political

propaganda.

Radio South Africa had increased its external broadcasts, aimed mainly at the white minorities in independent African countries, with emphasis on abuse of native leaders who refused "South Africa's hand of friendship." Powerful transmitters installed in 1968 carried programs in English, Portuguese, French, German, Dutch. Swahili (the lingua franca of East Africa), and Chichewa, widely understood in Malawi and Zambia, throughout the continent. In December 1969 the UN General Assembly decided to hit back with antiracist programs broadcast from Katanga, in the Congo (Kinshasa), to keep up the morale of Africans in South Africa, South West Africa, Angola, and Mozambique. The station becan transmission in 1970. In September Radio Tanzania joined Africa's battle of the air, with an expanded external news service for 6^ hours a day, carried throughout southern and eastern Africa by a Chinese-built 500-kw. transmitter.

Programming. News and

sports continued to be

and radio broadcasters throughout the world in 1970. Coverage of the aborted moon-landing flight of the U.S. Apollo 13 mission in April and its dramatic return to earth after a nearly disastrous explosion was seen live, via communications satellites, in Europe, Latin America, Puerto Rico, Austhe basic services of television

and Japan and other Far Eastern countries, as well as in the U.S. The midterm elections in the U.S. in November, the events surrounding the hijackings of planes by Palestinian guerrillas in September, and the funeral services for Charles de Gaulle in France in November were also witnessed by audiences throughtralia,

out the world. if

all

One

of the biggest cumulative audiences

time watched telecasts of the World

Cup

soccer

Mexico City between May 31 and June 21. It was estimated that between 800 million and 900 million persons viewed coverage of some of the games,

L;ames in

with 80 million to 90 million tuned in for the finals

between Italy and Brazil on June 21. Entertainment programs from the U.S. continued to Und wide acceptance abroad. U.S. distributors had expected to reach $100 million foreign sales in 1969 hut fell short by $6 million, partly because of foreignimport quotas set by some countries and informal but effective

movies,

way

to

resistance in others.

demand

to

imports,

particularly

U.S.

In 1970, however, reluctance gave some countries, notably

for movies in

Japan. Westerns, comedies, and mysteries were the predominant favourites, with "Bonanza," "Gun-

Two new trends became apparent in programming in 1970. One was increased attention to ecology programs dealing with pollution of atmosphere, rivers and lakes, and the environment in general and the other was the introduction of many new programs concerned with the problems of minority groups and other social issues. For the most part, ecology was treated in so-called specials, while social and racial problems were dealt with in regular series. The latter were not always too successful in terms of audience response, and a number of the United States.

television

—

—

were scheduled to be replaced, or substantially end of the year in an effort to bolster audience ratings. Stations as well as networks, in both radio and television, also devoted substantial amounts of air time to the problem of drug abuse, acting both on their own initiative and in response to government agencies' calls for assistance. A study by the Television Bureau of Advertising found that, among television stations alone, the drug-abuse problem had received on-air scrutiny from more than nine out of every ten stations and had been the subject of 3,800 minutes of editorials alone during the first half of 1970, aside from special programs and spot announcements on the subject. series

revised, at the

Despite the failures of some regular series to attract

enough audience to justify keeping them on the network schedules, the overall blend of drama, comedy, and musical-variety programs succeeded in winning audiences of unparalleled size. The A. C. Nielsen Co. of Chicago, the principal national rating service, re-

ported that viewing during October averaged a record 6.04 hours per day per television household, up from 5.88 hours in October 1969.

remained a prime service news coverage continued to attract huge audiences. R. H. Bruskin & Associates, an independent research firm, found in a nationwide survey commissioned by the Television Information Office and conducted during September that television once again had increased its lead as the primary source of news for most Ameri-

News and

special events

of both television and radio. Day-to-day

cans.

But the criticism to which news media had been increasingly subjected since U.S. Vice-Pres. Spiro Agnew's blast at television news in November 1969 was having an effect, though most of it was not apparent to the

average viewer. Network news leaders insisted bowing to political or other pres-

that they were not

sures in their coverage but acknowledged that the pressures had grown stronger and showed no signs of abating. At the local level, according to a Broadcasting study in October 1970, the criticisms and pressures

were having some effect, at least to the extent of making radio and television newsmen think twice about their handling of news that might prove controversial. Some broadcast news operations definitely were affected by another factor. Slackening business, resulting from the general economic slowdown, forced a number of stations to curtail news operations. One of the most dramatic examples was presented by the Kaiser Broadcasting Corp., one of the nation's leading ultrahigh-frequency (UHF) station operators, which notified the

FCC

tions left

no choice but

it

in

November

that economic condi-

to reduce

news operations minimum, rep-

at five of its six television stations to a

smoke," "Carol Burnett Show," "Kraft Music Hall," and "Perry Mason" among those most popular in

resented by the maintenance of one experienced newsman at each of the stations. Kaiser officials told Broadcasting that "pure" news employees were being laid

overseas markets.

off.

UPI

COMPIX

David Frost (right) confronts Yippies led by Jerry Rubin (extreme left, standing) who disrupted his London Weel