Britannica Book of the Year 1965

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Britannica

1965

WILLIAM BENTON Publisher

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Chicago, Toronto, London, Geneva, Sydney, Tokyo

Inc.

©

1965

BY ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, INC.

Copyright Under Internationa! Copyright Union All Rights

And By

Reserved Under Pan American

Universal Copyright Conventions

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR {Trademark Reg. U.S. Pat. Printed

in

Off.)

U.S.A.

THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

The Britannica Book of the Year

is

published

with the editorial advice oj the faculties of

The University of Chicago

announced of us 1935 or 1947, for example,

means the year we

were horn, or finished school and got our first job, or perhaps married or became a parent. Only the exceptional year flashes a general recognition signal 1066, when William the Conqueror invaded England, or 1941, which all Americans remember as the year of the attack on I'earl Harbor Or 1929,

—

the year the bottom

fell

out of the stock market and

Great Depression. this hallmark of a year is slow to reveal itself. Today we count 1S09 as special in American annals because Abraham Lincoln was born in that year, but it was many decades before 1809 acquired set off the

Sometimes

significance.

its

No like

single event can be used to label 1964. It was,

many

others, a year of continuity.

But as the 28th edition of the Book of the Year went to press, Americans could see in 1964. whose events it records, one predominant hallmark: the struggle for civil rights, for racial equality. This had been a burning issue for a decade, but 1964 brought the bitterly fought enactment of civil rights legislation by the Congress of the United States, legislation that spelled out for the 20th century the words of emancipation written by Lincoln in the 19th. The year 1964 saw two great natural disasters earthquakes in Alaska and Japan. A notable leader, Nehru, died. A president was returned to office in the U.S. and a prime minister was turned out in the U.K. by orderly constitutional processes. In the U.S.S.R. Chairman Khrushchev was deposed, and so was President Goulart in Brazil, both peaceably. An observer might ask: Did this absence of violence presage an encouraging trend to orderly transition"-' Violence, unhappily, was widespread elsewhere. In Vietnam an inchoate nation was rent by a power struggle between two foreign ideologies. Close by, Indonesia openly harassed neighboring Malaysia, and President Sukarno, impatient with United Nations coolness,

that his country

was quitting the world

new African nations were swelling the L'X; membership rose to 115. A continuing power fight over finances, however, cast a shadow over the UN's future. organization. Meanwhile,

In Africa the blood of black and white victims of clashing factions spilled over in several lands groping

way to independence. In the U.S. racial violence took the form of riots in Northern cities; in the South their

continued in confrontations between a hostile status quo and the forces that sought first-class citizenship for Negroes. And for the first time, race emerged as

it

an

i.ssue in a

British election. In the

UN

Ambassador

Stevenson lamented the "specter of racial antagonism and conflict." Pope Paul VI pleaded at year's end that nations might "transcend all the obAdlai

stacles that stand in the

hood

of

all

way

of the effective brother-

men."

In much of the world 1964 will be remembered for growth and prosperity, new houses and more motorcars and overcrowded cities and schools, and traffic jams everywhere. For others there was squalor in the mid.>t of plenty or endemic poverty in underdeveloped lands. The Olympic Games took place for the first time in Japan, with notable harmony. Communist China achieved a nuclear explosion. Man continued his exploration of space. In Rome leaders of the Roman Catholic Church met in the third session of the Vatican Council. One of their agenda items was the population explosion, and as they recessed it might have been noted that since John XXIII opened the first session in 1962, more than 200 million babies had been born and the total world population had increased by more than 100 million. The population of the world was approximately 3.3 billion.

—

Continuity, then, is the word for 1964; world problems and trends continued. But change is the word for every year exciting, unceasing, ubiquitous change. The Book of the Year is the record of Mich

—

change.

the editors

page

Introduction

3

T

1h: he

Book

Britannica

of the Year

carefully planned

is

for ready availability of reference material.

How to Use the Book of

the

Year

4

Three devices aid the reader to find information in the main section, which begins on page 97: first and most important, the Index; second, hundreds of cross-reference entries grouped alphabetically in the margins of the pages for quick and convenient information; and third, inserted fre-

he seeks

Editors and Contributors

5-14

15-80

Feature Articles

quently

The Teachers and

the

Taught

suggestion to "see

in or after the articles, the

also" other specific articles for further related infor-

mation.

in the U.S.S.R.

by WILLIAM BENTON

16-48

The

reader will be repaid richly

if

he learns more

of the contents than just the answers to an occasional

reference question about an event of the year. In the

A

Wilderness by WILLIAM

Bill of

O.

Rights 49-80

DOUGLAS

896 pages of this volume, including the two special which begin on page 15, there are many fea-

articles

tures to be noted.

Calendar

for

1965

82

The

first

Chronology of 1964

83-96

thing to catch the attention of the reader

thumbs through

as he

of the

Year

will

be the

many many

of the outstanding news photographs of the year,

gathered from

Book

volume

the

pictures and other illustrations. These include

97-873

all

over the world, and they consti-

tute a remarkable pictorial record of the year's events.

Special Reports 5—1

Aquaculture

1 1

Homo

135-136

1

OTHER FEATURES OF SPECIAL INTEREST:

A habilis

.

Pop Art

151-153

.

.

and authors of the

of the editors

list

in the

Book

starts

articles

of the Year

on page

5.

Calendar of major events scheduled or expected to occur in 1965, including holidays, anniversaries,

The Origin

185-188

and other happenings of note

Urban Design

235-238

Chronology of 1964 the major events of the past year listed day by day as they happened

i.t.a.

315-316

Reapportionment

323-326

of Life

...

is

on page 82.

—

.

.

.

starts on page 83.

—sketches of hundreds of prominent

Obituaries

New York The

individuals .

.

.

starts

who

died in 1964 on page 596.

World's Fair:

First

Year

The Shakespeare Quatercentenary

347-349

495-498

Biographies of many prominent living figures appear as separate articles. Government officials are named in articles on their countries

and

states.

Hundreds

of other persons

are mentioned in articles

Psychotropic Drugs

626-628

The

Campaign

Beatles

.

in

Above

all,

all

Index.

in the

types, the latest available,

articles.

731-733

761-766

821-823

874-896

remember

to use the

Index (starting on

whenever you wish information in the Book of the Year. The alphabetical arrangement of the book enables a reader to find subjects easily; the Index tells not only where articles appear but often page 874)

guides the reader to other related subjects.

cumulative Index.

to information in the

Book

Index

data of

many

appear

It is a

Resurgence of the Railroads

names appear

their

685-687

The 1964 Olympics: Tokyo and Innsbruck

.

Statistical

Public Relations in the Presidential

.

It also

guides the reader

four preceding issues of the

of the Year. Before using the Index be sure to

read the instructions that precede

it.

PHILIP W. GOETZ Editor

Book

Britannica

DAPHNE

M.

of the Year

DAUME

DENIS FODOR Art Director

Senior Editor

STAFF

MAE

HARRIET

H. MacKAY Manager

TED

MILBURN

L.

Editorial Production

RUTH

MARTIN

E.

R.

LEIGHTON

Picture Editor

Supervisor Editorial Production

RICHARD

OTT

A.

Geography Editor

Assistant Geography Editor

MILDRED W. BENSON

FELICITE BUHL

Supervisor Index

Copy Control

Supervisor

Copy Editors

JUDY BOOTH

DAVID

SAMUEL

W.

R.

JAMES CHAPMAN

CALHOUN

FRANCES

E.

MARY

LATHAM

C.

THONER

Copy Control

Indexer

CATHERINE

CONRAD CHYATTE

LOUISE TAYLOR

KATHLEEN RAY

GADD

M. CAHILL

JANETTE

N.

MULLER

Copy Correspondent

Editorial Assignments

MARY

K.

FINLEY

Copy Recorder

Canadian Consulting Editors, University of Toronto Press

MARSH JEANNERET

FRANCESS HALPENNY

M.

JEAN HOUSTON

R.

SCHOEFFEL

Classification Advisers

MORRIS FISHBEIN, M.D.

JEROME HOLTZMAN

Editor

Sportswriter

Information Stafi

Excerpta Medica; Medical World News

Chicago Sun-Times

igency for International Development

FREDERICK

I.

ORDWAY

III

General Astronautics Research Corp. Huntsville,

Alabama

JOHN KERR ROSE Senior Specialist

The Library

MAURICE

B.

ol

Congress

MITCHELL

Editorial Director

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.

WILLIAM

CHARLES

R.

F.

McINTYRE

SCHWARTZ

Western Hemisphere Department International

Monetary Fund

)

and names of contributors to the Britannica Book of the Year with The arrangement is alphabetical by initials.

Initials

An.R.W.

A. A. Pa. Greece

ALEXANDER

PALLIS. Former Minis-

A.

tor Plenipotentiary attached to the Greek Embassy, London. Author of Greece's Anatolian Venture and After.

—

A. C. -Go. /Chile tin pari); Ecuador (in part)

ANTONIO CASAS-GONZALEZ. Economist. Social and Economic Development Division. Inter-American Development Bank. Washington, D.C. A.C.Pa.

Literature

(in part)

Assistant Director. Public- Relations Program, American Nurses' Association.

A.O.

Medicine

/

Chief, Division of Philosophy and Letters.

Pan American Union, Washington, D.C. Author of Plato's Conception of Love; Machudo de Assis.

President of Alton Ochsner Medical Foundation; Director Ochsner Clinic of Surgery, and Ochsner Foundation Hospital. Emeritus Professor of Surgery, Tulsne University, New Orleans, La. Author of Smoking and Health; X'aricose

I

nsurance

ARTHUR PEDOE.

Research Actuary.

Author of Life Insurance, Annuities and

A.D.Fi. Religion tin part)

A.R.W.

ANNIE

J.

Historian.

L'.S.

Department of

Housing

Senior

State.

Revue

Executive Officer for Finance-Law, Division of Business Administration, Portland State College,

A. W.Bs.

Japan

ARDATH WALTER BURKS. Professor. Chairman. Department of Political Science, Rutgers — The State University. New

Lawyer. Malta.

Religion (in part)

REYNOLDS. ArchivistHistorian. The United Church of Canada; Archivist Victoria I aivercitj Toronto

Brunswick. N.J. Author of Fur Eastern Governments and Politics; The Government of Japan.

A.G.Z. Uruguay

Aw.H. Fulbright, J(ames) phrey, Hubert Horatio;

ARTHUR GUY

(in part)

ALEJANDRO

G. ZWILGMEYER. Hispanic American Report. Institute of Hispanic American and Luso-Brazilian Studies. Stanford I'niversily, Stanford. Calif.

Orientalist

Hum-

ANDREW HAMILTON.

Ay. K.

Literature (in part)

(THOMAS) ANTHONY KERRIGAN.

and broadcaster.

Exploration and Discovery; Geogra-

A.J.Wr.

Editor and translator of Miguel de L'namuno's Collected Works.

phy

JOSEPH WRAIGHT.

Chief Geographer. and ieodel ic Survey, Washington, D.C. Author of The Field Study of Place; Const and Geodetic Survey 1 jU Years Of History. A.

I'

S

(

'oast

I

—

A.Ku. Germany Organization

for

Principal Administra-

Economic Cooperation

Paris.

AI.Fo. Labor Unions (in-part) FOX. Lecturer in Industrial Sociology, Department of Social and Administrative studies, Oxford University. Author of .\ History of the National Union of Hoot and Shoe Operatives; co-author of A History of liritish Trade Unions Since 1889

ALAN

(vol. i).

Taxation

ALFRED PARKER. Tax foundation.

Inc..

Executive Director, New York. N.Y.

Municipal Government (in part) AUDREY M. DAVIES. Library Director, Institute of Public Administration. New York, N.Y.

A.M.Ds.

A.M.Ro.

ARNOLD MARSHALL

A.Mu.

Relations.

Dance

(in part)

ARTHUR MURRAY.

Advisory Consul-

tant. Arthur Murray. Inc. Author of How to Become a Good Dancer; Dance Secrets; Let's

(in part)

BERENICE BARRICK MITCHELL. Supervisory Statistical Officer, Division of International Activities. Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior,

B.C.N.

Philanthropy

CHARLES AUGUSTUS ANGER. Chairman of the Board: John Price Jones Company. Inc.; Public Relations Service Corp. Trustee. Inter River Press. Author of Columbia's Academic Eminence; American Philanthropy for Iliyher Education. (in part)

Historian. U.S. Air Force. Author of The Korea Knot: a Military Political History; Broadsides and Bayonets: the

Propaganda War

of the

American

Revolution.

C.A.Bn.

Plastics Industry

CHARLES A. B RES KIN. Chairman of the Board. Modern Plastics and Modern Plastics Encyclopedia, Breskin Publications Div.; McGraw-Hill, Inc.,

Botany

C.B.Hr.

(in

New

York, N.Y.

pa rt

CHARLES BIXLER HEISER,

JR.

Professor of Botany, Indiana University,

Dance; Ballroom Dancing.

Education

C.B.Ro.

BRUCE CARLTON NETSCHERT. Director. Washington Office. National Economic Research Associates. Inc. Author of The Future Supply of Oil and Gas; co-author of Energy in the American

(in part)

CLARE BASIL ROUTLEY.

Acting Executive Secretary. Canadian Education Association. Toronto. Author of Under the North Star; Poetry for Boys and Girls.

CCA.

Western Samoa

C. C. AIKMAN. Professor of Jurisprudence. Faculty of Law, Victoria University of Wellington. N.Z.

C.C.O.

Fuel and Power

Building and Construction Industry

CARTER CLARKE OSTERBIND. Director. Bureau of Economic and Business Research, University of Florida. Gainesville. Co-author of Florida's Older People.

Investment Abroad

C.D.BI.

(in part)

CECIL DOUGLAS BLYTH.

Economy. 1850—1975.

Director.

National Accounts and Balance of Payments Be.B.

Medicine

(tn part)

BERNARD BAKER,

M.D.

Assistant

Clinical Professor, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago; Radiologist, Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago.

Machinery and Machine Tools BUR N HAM FINNEY. Editor. American Machinist. New York, N.Y. Author of B.Fy.

Arsenal of Democracy.

B.Go. Italy

I

in part

)

BASIL GONDICAS. Country

Studies

Division. Economics and ment, Organization for Economic Cooperation ami Development. Paris.

B.M.G. Brezhnev. Leonid llyich; Diaz Ordaz, Gustavo; Grivas, Georgios; Inonu, Ismet; Intelligence Operations; Kosygin, Aleksei Nikolaevich; Makarios III; Mao Tse-tung; Maurer. Ion Gheorghe; Suslov, Mikhail

Andreevich

M. G WERTZM AN. Foreign

Affairs Writer, the Washington Evening Star.

Statistics,

Ottawa.

C.D.McC. Mansfield, Michael Joseph; RockeNelson Aldrich; Romney, George feller, Wilcken; Shriver, (Robert) Sargent, Jr.; Smith, Margaret Chase; United States (in part); Wallace. George Corley

CHARLES DENNIS McCAMEY.

Staff

Writer, Political Desk. Congressional Quarterly News Service. Pickersgill, Lamontagne, Maurice; John Whitney: Sharp, Mitchell (LIVE BAXTER. Ottawa Editor, the

Ce.B.

Financial

C.E.R.

BERNARD

Dominion Bureau of

Division.

Statistics Depart-

Sociology

ROSE Professor of Sociology, University of Minnesota. Minneapolis. Author of Human Behavior and Social Processes; Sociology: the Study of Human

B.M. Mining

Washington. D.C.

and Development,

AI.P.

B.

(in part)

ALFRED KUEHN. tor.

Religion (in part) Y. LANDIS. Editor. Yearbook of American Churches, National Council of the Churches of Christ in the U.S.A., New York, N.Y. Author of World Religions; An Outline of the Bible. B. Y.L.

Bloomington.

ANDREW JAMES ALEXANDER MANGO.

William;

Russell, Richard Brevard; Transportation: Special Report; United States (in part) Staff writer, Congressional Quarterly.

Turkey

A. J. A.M.

Writer

CARL BERGER.

A.G. Malta

ALBERT G AN ADO.

(in part)

and Broadcaster on Middle Eastern and Balkan affairs Former Manager. Ionian Bank Ltd. Author of The Balkan States: an Economic and Financial Survey; Greece: a Political and Economic Survey.

Ca.Be. Air Forces

Portland. Ore.

France -U.S.A.; La Table Ronde.

A.G.R.

and Shipping

Consultants for Overseas Relations, Inc. (in part)

ALBERT HAROLD DEHNER.

M. BRIERRE. Literary

Critic. Les Nouvelles LUteralres; La des Deux Monties; Lares de France;

B.S.-E. Ships

C. A.A. /

Panama

ALMON ROBERT WRIGHT. At.H.D.

Literature (in part)

President,

United Church of Christ.

BENSON

Pensions.

A. DALE HICKS. Executive Secretary. International Convention of Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ). Author of This Is Missions.

Religion (in part)

'

BEN MOHR HERBSTER.

BICKHAM SWEET-ESCOTT.

(in part)

ALTON OCHSNER, M.D.

Ar. P.

the articles written by them.

B.M.H.

(in part)

WARNER.

R.

Veins.

ARMANDO CORREIA PACHECO.

Ae.B.

Medicine

ANNE

;

I'ost.

Lumber

CHARLES EDGAR RANDALL. Assistant Editor. Journal of Forestry. Author of Famous Trees; Our Forests.

C.F.Ka. Banking (tn part) C. F. KARSTEN. Managing Director, Rotterdamsche Bank. Netherlands. Author of Het Amerlkaanse Bankwezen.

7

Editors and Contributors

C.F.Sz. I Budgets, National tin ptul); Debts, National (in part); Finance, International;

Income and Product

Banking

'

DONALD

Director, Western Hemisphere Department. International Monetary Fund, I

Inghilterra; Iieowulf; Charlotte Bronte. d'

La

narrativa di

EDWARD ANTHONY RYAN

Archaeology

/

Professor and Head, Department of Economics, University of Maryland. College Park. Author of The Economics oj John Muynard Keynes. D.E1. / States, U.S.

DANIEL ELAZAR. Department of

CHARLES E. BORDEN. Lecturer in Archaeology. Department of Anthropology and Sociology. I'niversity of British Columbia, Vancouver. Associate Editor, Current Research, American Antiquity. C.H.F.C. / Advertising (in part) CHARLES H. F. CRUTTENDEN. Director, Alfred Pemberton Ltd., London.

Communications

Ch.G.

CHARLES

S.

GARDNER

Assistant

III.

News

Editor, Washington Bureau, McGraw-Hill Publications.

Ch.M.R.

/

Labor Unions

Temple

in the

M.

/ Civil

Commission on Washington, D.C. Officer,

Basic Steel

Information

Civil Rights,

CLIFFORD ARNOLD SCOTTON. Editor, Canadian Labour; Director, Depart-

ment of Provincial Federations of Labour and Local Labour Councils, CLC. Author of .4 Brief History of Canadian Labour.

D.F.F. / Transportation (in part) D. F FORSTER. Assistant Professor of Economics, University of Toronto.

Wages and Hours

/

E.B.Br.

Religion

Dean. College

Professor of History and Curator of the Quaker Collection. Haverford College, Haverford, Pa. Author of William Penn's Holy Experiment Editor. Sharing Our Quaker Faith.

E.B.He.

ELISE

Elections: Special Report (in part) B. HEINZ. Washington attorney.

Canada; Provinces, Canadian M. L. FARR. Professor of History and Dean of Arts, Carleton University. Ottawa. Author of Colonial office and Canada. 1867-1887; Two Democracies. D.M.L.F.

/

/

(in part)

MOUSE

DAVID

A, Director-General, International Labour Office, Geneva. Former Acting Secretary of Labor of the United

Telecommunication Union.

D.Ow.

Foreign Aid Programs

/

Religion (in part)

/

Religions, Northwestern I'niversity, Evanston, 111. Author of Christian Science Today; Spirits in Rebellion, History of the New Thought Movement. C. W.Hn.

/

Botany

(in part)

CHARLES WILLIAM HAGEN, Bloomington.

Ecuador

D.P.B.

UN

Technical

Chemical Industry

/

DONALD

P.

BURKE.

D.R.Pn.

(in

DIEGO ENRIQUE ARRIA.

D.S.Br. / Political Parties (in part) DAVIDS. BRODER. National Political Writer, the Washington Evening Star.

DAVID

W.

ANGE VINE

Public Relations Director. Cooperative League of the U.S.A., Washington, D.C. Co-author of Co-ops & Taxes.

America (OAS-ECLA-IDB).

E. A.J.D. /

Veterinary Medicine A. PRICE. Editor in Chief. American Veterinary Medical

Author of National Enterprise; editor of Traffic Engineering and Control.

Association.

E.A.Pr.

.

Ships and Shipping

/

Literature (in part)

DINA

ABRA.MOWICZ. Assistant Librarian, Yivo Institute for Jewish Research Library, New York, N.Y.

Medicine

/

(in part)

Emeritus

Professor of Parasitology. Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans. La Co-author of Clinical Parasitology; Animal Agents and Vectors of Human Disease.

Ed.J.B.

Patents and Trademarks

,

EDWARD

BRENNER.

J.

(in part)

Commissioner Commerce,

of Patents, U.S. Department of

Washington, D.C. Publishing

/

(in part)

EDWIN EMERY.

Professor of Journalism, I'niversity of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Author of The Press and America; History of the American Newspaper Publishers Association. Editor of Journalism Quarterly.

Printing H. OWEN. Editor, Printing Production Magazine, Cleveland, O.

E.H.O.

/

EDWARD

Laos; Thailand

/

EDWARD HAROLD STUART London. E.L.Be. / Public Relations; Public Relations: Spei ial Hi port

EDWARD

BERNAYS.

L

Counsel on

Public Relations. Author of Crystallizing Public Opinion; Public Relations.

E.L.Bn.

Horticulture

L

(in part)

BERGMAN.

Associate Professor of Plant Nutrition. Department of Horticulture. Pennsylvania State University, I'niversity Park.

E.L.Cy.

Medicine L.

(in part)

CROSBY.

Director, American

Hospital Associat ton EI.L.

Fashion and Dress

ELEANOR LAMBERT. .

President.

Inc.

Fisheries

/

Stair

Division of Economics. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Assistant

Chairman,

ERNEST CARROLL FAUST.

Eleanor Lambert

EDWARD ALLEN POWER D.Az.

E.C.F.

EDWIN (in purl)

ERNEST ALBERT JOHN DAVIES. /

DONALD

ERNEST BU TLER

Division of Medicine. City of Hope Medical ('enter. Duarte, Calif. Co-author of Clinical Disorders of Iron Metabolism.

ERNEST

Cooperatives

/

Economist, Operations Department, Inter-American Development Bank, Washington, D.C; IDB Alternate Representative in the Advisory Committee of Planning for Central

D.A.Pe.

EDWIN BOHANNON NEWTON. Manager. Advanced Rubber Technology, B.F. Goodrich Company, Brecksville, o.

Lecturer in Thai. School of Oriental and African Studies, University of

DONALD

D. W.A.

Rubber Industry

E.B.Nn.

SIMMONDS.

Liberia R. PETTERSON. Professor of Geography, East Carolina College, Greenville, N.C. Author of Outside Readings in Geography. /

purl); El

Salvador; Guatemala; Honduras; Nicaragua

V Industrie automobile.

E.H.S.S.

Associate Editor

for Technology. Chemical Week.

JR.

Professor of Botany, Indiana University,

D. Aa. / Chile (in part);

(in part)

ARTHUR DAVID KEMP OWEN. Executive Chairman, Assistance Hoard.

CHARLES S. BRADEN. Professor Emeritus, History and Literature of World

(in part)

Head, National Studies Division, Economics and Statistics Department. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris. Author of Marx el le problime de la croissance; Problimes de la croissance dans

E.Ey.

Labor Unions

/

France

ELIAN E BETOUT-MOSSE.

Society.

International Trade (in part) DAVID LYNCH chief Economist, United States Tariff Commission. Author of The Concentration of Economic Power; The Tariff Policy of Greece. /

D.Mo.

(in part
covv subways and buses every second or third passenger may be reading a book. Soviet books may become even tional

cheaper, since prices can be fixed regardless of profit. Libraries are used intensively. lowliest

worker

will

Early learning,

They may become

palaces,

and the

be encouraged to use them.

especially

during

those

most malleable

now endorsing it

as a

his point

theme

of view, although I

for public discussion.

He

am sees

emerging from the confusion of overall Soviet political poltoward an undeclared alliance between the two great powers, who will act as "joint nuclear policemen on a world-wide scale." But, as Crankshaw points out. logic is one

very high.

Soviet figure

not

icy a trend

educational development in which

so, the

they are desperately trying to catch up with

expensive.

am

glad to espouse

human its

aspiration, with

cake and have

it,

its

"incorrigible determination

quite another."

I

am

not sanguine

about the prospect of any foreseeable basic changes in the nature of Communism, although I feel that at this juncture in history it is essential for the people of the United States to know and understand the people of the Soviet Union much better than they have in the past and for them to under-

—

And why not?

the best chance? And through such understanding, may not a still better chance develop? This is perhaps the world's greatest hope. We must be on guard, but we must pursue the hope. Similarly, we must ever strive for better understanding, and ultimately for more agreement on goals of education in our two countries. Is it possible that our joint devotion to education may help foster even such a seemingly remote possibility as Crankshaw's un-

stand

us.

declared alliance?

Isn't

this

21

[

The Structure

l^v

.Lor Soviet hoys and

— schooling

girls

— as

for their counterparts in

universal and

Amer-

compulsory; to a far, far greater degree than in the U.S., Soviet primary and secondary education is uniform. Illiteracy, which 50 years ago ica

afflicted

is

more than

it

is

half the population of Russia, has virtually

disappeared except among the old. A population is being produced possessed of the mental tools for rapid intellectual growth.

The Soviet system is based on the "ten-year 7 to 17. The first four years are described as

ages

school." for the primary

grades, the next three as "incompleted secondary," and the last

three as "completed secondary."

made

obligatory in 1930.

The

The

first

next three were

four years were

made

obligatory

for urban children in 1949. Now it is Soviet policy to work toward making the ten-year system compulsory for all.

AI'TEK

>)

the

II

Lower Scnools

The problem has been how to reconcile the importance of manual work with the educational goals. Manual work as an integral part of education has always been stressed in

Com-

munis! ideology.* In 1958 Chairman Khrushchev proclaimed that the schools had departed from the principles of MarxismLeninism, that work was an essential condition of Communist

and that it was his "scientific opinion" that students should have more labor experience. Textbooks wore rewritten society,

to show the industrial and agri< ultural applu ations of various courses; laboratory experiments wore redesigned; the glory of physical labor was featured in anthologies of Russian lit-

erature as it has always been glorified in the billboard- which portrayed glamorous and muscular figures of men and women manual workers.

Now, according

to the 1964 decree, a

change

in the school

— Tif.

3*.

Soviet elementary school class: calligraphy and writing, and so-called "moral texts'

So intensive are the pace and pressure of the Soviet schools from the ten-year system represents a mastery of subject matter and often of very difficult subject matter at least equivalent to, and probably much greater than, the that graduation

—

—

American 12-year elementary-high schools. However. Soviet primary and secondary education is today a state of flux. In 195S an 11th year was planned to be

level of the better

in

tacked onto the schools (to be made universal in 1965) in order to give students more work experience. Students in the

two years of secondary school were to spend two days a week in productive work. The time devoted to polytechnical subjects at all levels in school was increased. The Ministry of Education changed its mind after a mere last

four or five years of experimentation. its

willing to confess

It announced in August 1964 a reduction of the system back to 10 years.

mistakes.

11 -year

It is

system must be made again. The transition back to the tenyear school with the more orthodox academic system is to be completed by the end of the 1965-66 school year. The primary argument against the 1958 "reform" seems to have been that good students lost one academic year which they needed on the road to higher education. Soviet educators, like the most advanced of our own. are increasingly concerned with speeding up the learning process. They are sean hing for new and better ways to "pack more knowledge into youngsters in less time." This is a remark of Mikhail Kharlamov. the former chairman of the State Committee on Radio and Television. (Kharlamov suggested to me that his-

Marx

in Das Kapital, ch. xv, sec. 9, refers to the education of the future av an "education thai will, in the case of every child over a given age, combine productive labor with instruction and gymnastics, not only as one of 'he methods of adding to the efficiency of production, but as the only method of producing fully developed human beings."

22

tory might be one of the subjects children could study at home order to have more time for other subjefts in the crowded

the time has come to admit that teachers, young ones, have not mastered the subjects they are teaching. They are as bogged down as their students.

But

school curriculum.)

The

decision to

months of debate

This

abandon the 1958 plan followed several in

openly expressed,

Today some

of

of education

in

it

is

relatively

new

in

Communist

is

the root of the evil in our secondary schools at the

And it has come about because fewer and fewer teachers are graduates of universities, where subjects are taught. Instead they are graduates of teachers colleges, where they are

present time.

the Soviet press. Scholastic standards

had dropped as a result of the stepped-up work program, the The press carried charges that the vocational critics said. training was badly organized and that students frequently stood around idly watching factory workers. Such criticism,

general,

in

especially the

in

supposed to be taught "how to teach." Even this questionable is sought with outmoded textbooks and theories.

goal

On June

30. 1964. in a letter to the editor of Sovietskaia

Rossiia, a professor of higher education complained:

society.

The elementary and secondary school study plans are so crammed that the whole idea of perfection in anything has been

sounds not unlike the continuing criticism

the United States.

lost.

The ministry of education is not taking this problem seriously enough. Workers of the ministry say. "Of course with present study plans, many subjects are taught and learned in some darkness.

Pravda, on-July 20. 1964. published the following editorial: Only the leaders in their classes art- now passing the entrance examination-, to universities. According to the textbooks and currk uluni plans available in secondary schools, all students should pass the exams if they are graduated. Hut one-half of them flunk mathematics and physics on entrant e exams even though they have passed in the secondary school subjects. They do even worse in chemistry. The preparation of the secondary school graduates in Russian language and literature and history leaves much to be desired. The fact is that textbooks are so jammed with unnecessary information and the curriculum is inflated with so many subjects that even outstanding students, who study 10 to 12 hours a day, cannot learn any subject well. Of course, a well-trained te n her in any subject can overcome these handicaps in textbooks and study programs and guide the students to master the subject. The student will be as good as

But this is not a disgrace." Well it is! The teaching of many subjects

Our own high school teachers sity professor's lament.

a disgrace.

And

Yes, a

will recognize this univer-

little

more

of this, and Ameri-

can schoolteachers will feel at home with the critics in the Soviet Union! The Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, for sound reasons, has views other than those of the Pravda editorial. The academy agrees that there is no doubt that one of the reasons for Soviet youth failing to show well in examinations is

the teacher.

is

so are the students.

that the teaching has been advancing too rapidly at too

theoretical a level.

Historically, in

Western Europe,

as in

the U.S. and Russia, only 5-10 f r of an age group has been

The Soviets seek In this they perhaps will prove

able to advance early to abstract learning.

up

to step

this percentage.

successful.

While instructional quality varies somewhat

in

different

sections of the vast country, the Soviet primary and secondary

w eeks of instrucdays per week during the first three grades, the pupil studies Russian language and literature 13 hours a week. This includes reading, calligraphy and writing, and socalled "moral texts." He has one hour of arithmetic daily. school curricula are rigorous. During the 33 tion per year

(

six

r

I

Two

hours a week are spent in physical culture and gymone hour in singing and music, one hour in freehand drawing, and one hour in pursuits of the kind known as arts nastics,

and crafts

in our early grades.

In the last of the four primary years the curriculum begins to diversify: language and literature drop to nine hours a

week, and the four hours saved in the reading-writing course two in history, two in geography, are replaced by six hours and two in biology. During the four primary years, then, the

—

Soviet pupil has 3.234 prescribed hours of instruction: 1.584

hours in language and literature regional language),

(

either Russian or his native

792 hours in arithmetic, 264 hours in

physical education, 132 hours in each of the cultural subjects of singing, drawing, arts and crafts, and 66 hours in history,

geography, and biology.

Reading In his

first

is.

of course, the key to other intellectual skills.

"reader." the Soviet child

is

introduced to easy-

to-read but sturdy selections from the Russian masterpieces of literature by such writers as Tolstoy, Pushkin, and Gogol.

When

he finishes fourth grade, he is expected to understand 10.000 words. These are standards far higher than the normal

ones in American schools.

When

the Soviet pupil enters the middle, or incomplete

secondary, school (the next three grades) in the

fifth year,

he

embarks on the study of a broad range of subjects at a surprisingly mature level. At this point the pupil is allowed to

make one Study

of a Soviet student: status

and material rewards

will

of his very few- choices

— the

foreign language he

study fur the remainder of his school career. English

is

most popular choice, then French and German. (John Gunther reports that there are 41,000 teachers of English in the

the U.S.S.R.) Even at this early age, Soviet schools in some areas begin the teaching of certain ".strategic" languages, such as Chinese

Weekly

and Arabic. class loads rise

from 24 to 26 hours, and the num-

ber of annual weeks of instruction increases. The prescribed weekly course load, while it varies in Mime details with locality

and

is

subject to change,

is

shown

in

Table

I.

Table I. Weekly Course toad. Through Tenth Grades, U.S.S.R.

Fifth

Grades Subject

5

Russian language and literature Foreign language History

9

—

Geography Physical education Singing

Mechanical drawing

Shop courses

— work

Arithmetic

6

7

8

6 3 2 2 2

9

8

4

3

3

3

4/3 2/3

3/4

4

4/5

4

2 2 2

2 2 2

2

2

1

1

1

11

1

11

2

2

2

2

2

2

6

4/0 0/4

4

2

4 2

4/3 2/3

2 2

2

2

2

3

Algebra

Geometry

3 2

1

2

Trigonometry

2

Diology

2

Physics

Chemistry

At

4

5

2

2 3 2

1

4/3 3

4 4

Astronomy

1

Psychology

1

least

80%

of

all

Soviet children finish the incomplete

secondary school, roughly comparable to the best of our elementary schools, which concludes at the end of the seventh year. (In urban areas, the percentage is higher.) Thus, according to Table I, supplied by the Soviet education ministry, at least four of every five Soviet children will have studied physics, algebra, and

geometry

for

two years, biology and a

foreign language for three years, and chemistry for one year

—by the time they are 14 years be interpreted as two to

six

old.

(The school "year" must shown in

periods per week, as

Table I.) I have said that in the fourth and fifth years the curriculum begins to "diversify." This does not mean that the student has a choice among an increasing range of "electives," as in a typical American comprehensive high school. Except for the choice of a foreign language he has virtually no options. Following my own visit to Moscow in May, three executives of Encyclopaedia Britannica Films called on top Soviet educators in September to discuss the possible exchange of teaching films. The three were Charles Benton, president of EBF; Milan Herzog. vice-president for production; and Ralph Buchsbaum, an eminent scientist who is responsible for film series. When they visited with Yevgeni Afanasenko, minister of education for the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, the minister disagreed emphatically with the American elective system, and with the

EBF's biology

decentralized American system which gives states and com-

munities control of the curriculum. He doesn't believe students in primary or even in secondary grades have the knowledge or judgment to decide wisely for themselves. As for state

and

asked what would happen if Alabama denot important, or if Arkansas decided that biology should be optional. His motto is, "one educational system for the entire country." Although it is Soviet policy that the completed ten-year school shall become universal, Nicholas DeWitt, of the Russian Research Center. Harvard University, estimates that only about 55' c of all Soviet children are now actually and preslocal control, he

cided that physics

is

Leningrad primary school pupils: 3,234 prescribed hours of instruction

24

ently enrolled in the upper secondary schools (grades 8-10), and that only about 30'; of all children graduate. The 30% will

of

have completed

a course of

can high school graduates. This contrast offers a very sharp challenge to American procedures and standards.

study which embraces a total

10 years of Russian language

and

literature;

7

Table

II. High School Enrollments Science and Mathematics, U.S.

years of

history (with special Soviet interpretations on every page!); 6 years of geography; 4-V years of algebra, 5 years of geometry, both plane

and

of chemistry;

years of physics; 6 years of biology;

5

of astronomy;

and

solid,

and

1

year of trigonometry; 4 years 1

Percent of students enrolled

Grade Courses

level

Generol science

year

of total

12

Elementary algebra

9

Plane geometry Intermediate algebra

10

.',1

6

32 2 9.2

11

Trigonometry Solid geometry

grade

75.5 34.6 24.3 67

1

1

Physics

in

67

9 10

Biology Chemistry

year of psychology. Secondary school education in the U.S. is more nearly universal than is the Soviet ten-year school. Roughly twice 1

in

12

12

Source: The Development of Human Resources, part iv of Dimension* of So-

Economic Power, prepared for the Economic Committee, Congress of the United States, 87th Congress, 2nd viet

Joint

Session, 1962.

The

Soviet student

the top

20%

who completes

of his class

is

examinations. If his work

may

still

work

entrance

below that of the top fifth, he take the entrance examinations, perhaps after an is

extra period of study, but he the

the ten-year school in

eligible to take university

is

more

likely to choose to enter

force at once or to try for a place in one of the two-

year technicums. These latter are run by the various ministries mining, railroads, etc. The technicums are vocational,

—

industrial,

and agricultural schools designed

workmen who can

rise to

to

produce skilled

middle, foreman-type, supervisory

positions in the Soviet economy.

The

pressure on a student as he takes the university en-

trance examinations to party

is

heavy. His

way

of

life, his

aspirations

depend upon the outkeeps. Only by continued applica-

membership,

his entire future

come. This is a game for tion will he achieve a second or a third chance. Applicants for places in universities outnumber the openings probably by as much as eight or nine to one. But an ambitious and persevering student can keep trying indefinitely. Those students scoring 5s (the top score) on all the university examinations are taken first, while those who make grade 2 (poor) in any subject are eliminated. After the straight 5s come the 5-4 students, and from these two groups all the stipend positions are filled. If a student has better than average marks but is not within the two top groups, he may be entitled to enter the university, but he must complete his

own

studies at his

Few

expense.

students

—except

sons of

cabinet ministers or college professors, of opera singers or novelists, or others of the top elite

do

—have

sufficient

funds to

so. It is

easy to see

why

the individual's motivation for learning

The achievement of education indeed a life-and-death struggle; there is no boss's daughter to marry; no father's business to enter; no easy way up the ladder; no road to success except the hard, tough, competitive road of excelling in one's chosen field. Thus, only through eduin

the Soviet Union

is

so strong.

is

as

many American

school and

5

7';

youngsters graduate

graduate.

—85%

Since high schools

cation can most young Soviet citizens hope to attain status and material rewards. This drive is methodically reinforced by the government, through so-called "techniques of persua-

enter

high

sion."

the

U.S.

American youth would strive for and if they were as strongly motivated. Rewards and choices for youth in the United States and many of them much are. of course, much more varied than in the Soviet Union. We less intellectually demanding are fortunate and indeed blessed in this. However, one result is that there is much less pressure on our educational system for excellence and much less pressure on our young people to

in

—

meet allegedly varying needs in academic, vocational, and commercial courses the average, or typical, curriculum of the American high school graduate is hard to define. However, a comparison of the percentages in Table II with Table I indicates that the average Soviet ten-year-school graduate will have had much more instruction in chemistry, physics, biology, and mathematics than most American high school graduates and that even the graduate of the Soviet seven-year school will have had more straight academic instruction than a very high percentage of Amerioffer different curricula to

—

—

Many more

achieve

—

of our

—academic

excellence

—

—

achieve an educational foundation for

them

to live

up

to their

maximum

life

that will enable

potential. This

challenge. It will continue to be one.

is

indeed a

25

t

The Thrust

-v

he Soviet universities train

teachers.

They

also

of Soviet

train

Now

when

there are 40. This

I first is

visited the U.S.S.R. in 1955.

almost one new university a year.

Engineers, physicians, agricultural experts, and other pro-

There are over 700 of these. They also train scholars in basic research. Only about 10% of Soviet students in advanced education attend

Forty-two percent preparing to teach

The rest attend the institutes. December 1963 Vyacheslav Velutin, minister

and secondary special education

—

nical experts.

Ten percent

specialize in agriculture.

Eight percent are in medicine.

Yelutin conceded, in

(

"More than

80'J of these

women."

are

the universities.

of higher

"the humanities." Most of these are the teaching of science in

in

—including

secondary schools. Forty percent are preparing to become engineers and tech-

fessionals are trained in specialized institutes.

In

•

Higher Education

re-

search scientists "at the theoretical level." There were 33 Soviet universities

in

many

areas.

You

"You

are

still

ahead

the higher level

at

are ahead in physics, chemistry, biology.

in the U.S.S.R., reported:

Students

At the present time there are more than

3 million students in higher educational institutions. The schools of higher learning will develop further in keeping with progress in science and technology. By 1970 the number of students will reach 4.7 that is, 1.4 times as many students in comparison with million 1963. By 1980 there will be 2.5 times as many students in higher schools. This means the rate of training of high level specialists in the Soviet Union will exceed that of the U.S.A. even more than

at

80%

Kiev Medical Institute: more than

""'

vnmrn

—

it

does at present.

Lomonosov

State,

Moscow: one new

university a year

The 3,258,000

students enrolled in Soviet higher educational 1963 compared with 4,494,626 degree-credit students in the United States. (Yelutin questions this comparison; he told me he doubts that the first two years of

University science lecture: definitely ahead

in

engineers

institutions in

undergraduate education in the U.S. should be classified as "higher education.") Of these enrollments, about 60% in the United States were full-time students, whereas only 40% were full-time in the U.S.S.R. The Soviet plan for 1965, as delineated in a May 1963 order of Yelutin. called for an enrollment of 3,S60,000. This projected an increase of 602,000 in only two years. However, only 1.6 million, or 41 c o were expected to be full-time day students. t

These increasing enrollments will require greater numbers of institutes and universities. During the years 1963-70, 23 new higher educational institutions are planned. Nineteen of these will be devoted to science and technology. Four will deal primarily with agriculture.

Because of the differences

between institutions and in the U.S., it is imcompare precisely the numbers to whom degrees in structure

are granted.

Yelutin gave

me

the following

rollment by specialization:

*

breakdown

of student en-

*

*

*

In the Soviet Union, higher education has generally conmore years of full-time study, culminating

sisted of five or in a

"diploma" {diplom

I

degree.

However,

curricula have been shortened in a

number

in

the current year

of fields, including

teacher education. In 1963 a total of 332,500 diplomas were granted by Soviet higher institutions, compared with 316.000

American

first-level (bachelor's and first profeswhich 417,846 were awarded in 1962, are generally based upon four years of undergraduate education. In the United States a master's or other second-level degree is generally obtainable with one or two years of additional study. This detrree is intermediate between the bachelor s and doctor's degree. The Soviet system has no similar intermediate degree.

in

1962.

sional) degrees, of

of higher education in the U.S.S.R.

possible to

and mathematics. Yes, you have more students in these areas. We are trying to catch up with you. But we are definitely ahead in engineers. We are now seeking to increase the number of students in the natural sciences, but we have solved the problem of engineers."

:

20

In 1963-64 there were 196,700 professional and teaching staff

members

in

Soviet higher educational institutions, in-

cluding about 500 academicians (the highest academic rank) in

various special

natik

i

fields,

6.700 holders of doctor's (doktor

degrees, and 59.000 holders of candidates of science

(kandidat nauk) degrees. These groups include about of the total

count

number

34%

of scientific research personnel in the

Sciences

is

government service and college teaching are

lowly paid professions

in a

relative sense, but this

is

not the

in the Soviet Union. The Supreme Soviet recently adopted a law, according to Izvestia, increasing' salaries of elementary and secondary schoolteachers an average of 25'', in 1964 and 1965. But teachers in the field of higher education in the Soviet Union have been extraordinarily well paid, again in a relative sense, for many years. These high rewards, plus the prized reward of relatively greater freedom of action than most officials and plant managers enjoy, help explain the tremendous motivation of Soviet students to achieve success in the world of Soviet scholarship.

ca^e

There are three grades of teachers in the higher Soviet institutes and universities:, assistants, a rank approximately equivalent to an American instructorship; the docents, who are roughly comparable to our assistant and associate professors; and professors, who normally hold the doctor's degree. (The Soviet doctorate is far more difficult to achieve than in the United States and thus is nowhere near as common; most achieve it only in middle age, with exceptions for the fields where scholarship flowers early, such as mathematics and physics.) The highest academic honor in the Soviet Union is membership in one of the academies, and academy members are known and addressed as "Academicians." Fourteen of the republics have their own academies. There are special allSoviet academies in medical science, pedagogy, agriculture, architecture, and other fields. Each academy elects its own

Student

at

Membership

all is

Academy Academy of

the

in the

the highest scientific honor that the Soviet Union

can bestow, and

carries with

it

academy members professional

men

it

Most They

a substantial stipend.

receive a professor's salary as well.

are the highest paid,

most honored, and most independent

in the

basic research in

ry.

In the L'.S.,

membership. The most prestigious of them of Sciences of the U.S.S.R.

all

U.S.S.R.

They conduct

or supervise

areas of science, and they are currently

credited with the extraordinary success of the Soviet in rocketry, space exploration,

and related

Union

fields.

The Academy of Sciences runs the great research institutes. In these are concentrated most of the fundamental or theoretical

research which in the U.S.

versities.

The

Academy

of Sciences

is

largely centered in Our uni-

members

prestige of the 162 full

of the Soviet

comparable to that we bestow upon the president of Harvard or a Nobel Prize winner. Our knowledge of how Soviet theoretical and applied scientific research are carried forward is not complete. But I think we can safely say that three "bureaucracies" carry on most is

at least

research 1.

The

Soviet

Academy

of Sciences

and

its

research insti-

tutes. 2.

Universities

and teaching

institutes, with their research

staffs. 3.

Agencies of the various universities and ministries

for health, or the

heavy industries),

{e.g.,

as well as institutes for

various regions, with the laboratories and teaching institutes

attached to them.

These three engage in some competition for personnel. However, in the monolithic society of the U.S.S.R. there is said to be even more competition for prestige. The lines of difference between basic or theoretical research, in which our universities specialize, and the applied research with which we identify the great laboratories of Bell Telephone and General Electric, for example these lines are much more blurred and

—

confused in the U.S.S.R. than in the U.S.

Leningrad library: the tremendous motivation of Soviet students

27

t

Visits with Vyacheslav Yelutin. The minister

of higher

and of

Two Top special-

secondary education, Vyacheslav Yelutin, whom I have had referred to frequently in the last chapter and with whom twice before visited in Moscow, began our interview last May by relating an episode of his stay in a New York City hotel. He feels he knows something about the United States. He told me of staying up late at his hotel one night to watch a telea gangster picture in which the line, "I'll kill vision show you," was used many times. When it ended, he called room service and asked, "Will you please kill me at seven o'clock?" The girl at the switchboard replied that she couldn't do ized

I

—

IV

Soviet Educators Higher education

some

of the

want to be killed at seven o'clock," Yelutin persisted. "You must do it as a service to me. I am a member of Chairman Khrushchev's delegation." The girl again said she wasn't going to do any such thing. But after a discussion she and Yelutin agreed that he had used the word "kill" when he meant "call," Yelutin tells this with a twinkle in his eyes. Less amusing

"But

I

— —expressed one language are translated another. Such mistranslations often occur RusEnglish — when

mistranslations inevitably occur ideas

litical

particularly po-

ideas

into

in

in translating

or vice versa.

sian into

*

*

*

it

has in the United States. Both

countries lack enough good professors.

But he had an advantage over the U.S.. he said, because he controls the state budget. He continued, "We start with a state plan which

guides us in deciding the

number

of students

we can

take,

and we give the minister of finance our judgment of what the total enrollment should be. Sometimes we argue with him about this. It can indeed be a problem. But. after we agree, there is no argument thereafter about money. Thus, the only argument between us and the national finance minister is how

many

that.

the Soviet Union, he explained, has

in

same troubles

we

students to admit. After

settle this, the rest

is

auto-

matic."

After planning the number of students to be admitted in each field, which is the first and basic decision, the second most important function of his ministry, in his judgment, is "the academic standard." For example, only he has the authority to designate which books shall be official textbooks.

Further, he appoints the professors. I asked him how he decided whether to approve the appointment of a professor. He explained that the faculty of a

particular university

He

can then

call

first

makes

recommendation

a

to him.

on leading figures from other universities or

elsewhere, in the particular field of specialization, to advise

*

him. If the advisers are uncertain about the recommendation,

Witty, urbane, often eloquent. Minister Yelutin greeted

me

and immediately spoke of my first visit 1955. Here he was, nine years later, in the same

they study the works of the candidate.

If

they are

still

in

as a familiar friend,

doubt, the matter goes to an "attestation committee." This

with him in

committee then has a secret ballot. Yelutin said that he has "one voice only but I am the chairman!" He has the right to try to persuade the committee. He said he was not always successful; he insisted that the committee could act independently, disregarding his views "and then it is adjudged that Mr. Yelutin has erred."

position,

ness to

still

giving an impression of vitality, of a willing-

make tough

decisions.

He seems

—

to

me

a symbol of

"new Soviet men" although I do not like that term from the Stalin era, and of course there is no "new man." He reminded me that in 1955 I had asked if I could quote him. He said he was not accustomed to such an inquiry. "I am accustomed to being misquoted," he said. "People come in to see me and quote me as saying many things I surely never the best of the

said."

Then he congratulated me

in the

book written on

I

commented

that

my

for quoting

him accurately

return.

Thomas

Jefferson was generally credited

human

with the proposition that every

being should have the

opportunity to get the best education he was able to absorb. Now the U.S.S.R., with a similar dream, was challenging the

up to its American dream, and thus to improve upon it.

United States to reality

—

live

to

make

it

a

"Yes," Yelutin agreed, "the dream of universal and progressively better education is the dream of any man who loves his country regardless of his political orientation." Continuing, and referring to the relations between our two countries, he said, "I favor the education race instead of the arma-

—

ment race." The power concentrated in Minister Yelutin's hands by American standards awesome. Although he insisted

is

—

there are not actually "too in Soviet education,

many

of students

points of high centralization"

he noted "the biggest point

ning." For example, he has the

who may

that

power

is

the plan-

to establish the

enter each course of study.

number

When

his

its decision, no one can change the added that there was no rule that forced young people into any particular field, but admitted that "techniques of persuasion" are employed to guide them into fields of greatest interest to the state. These techniques, the propaganda and the financial incentives, help persuade a young

ministry has reached figures.

man

He

that

rewarding

hastily

aeronautical engineering, for example, field

is

a

than economics or English literature.

more

—

—

Yelutin's authority

may

be

less

than

it

used to be. The

have

rights of the "learned councils" of the universities

re-

The deans now are elected by the faculties, the universities can now change their curricula, and the faculties have more authority in the granting of decently been broadened.

grees. This

seems to be

of controls which

is

in line

with the general relaxation

seeping through Soviet society.

Yelutin believes that

it

is

essential to bring higher educa-

tion "closer to practical work."

He

said.

"This

is

a

concern

not only of practical importance but of great social importance." He explained that the philosophy of Marxism and Leninism envisions the eventual merging of the intellectual class and the manual workers.

When we

visited,

I

did not

know

of the reversal of the un-

which had enlarged the 10-year schools to 11 to inject a year of "practical work." Thus did not a^k him about this, and I assume that he was speaking of higher called 1958 reform

I

education.

He

explained that the nature of the practical work varied

greatly. In the theoretical sciences, he said,

versity student's fourth year of the five tical

work

will

spend time

at a

may

much

ol

be spent

at

a

uni-

prac-

The student in mathematics computer, the chemistry student in a

research institute. at

a

laboratory; then, in the

fifth year,

he will return to the uni-

versity for a final year of theory.

Yelutin stressed that this system ui\es the student "respect labor," and thai this is of basic importance.

for physical

"Everything in life goes back to physical labor." This is good, sound Marxist doctrine. Minister Yelutin was originally trained as a metallurgist. Education for engineering stud nts is thus of particular inter-

— 28

him.

est to

He

talked about

engineers and ours has the classic

"Your training of common," he said. "We reject

a great deal.

it

much

in

the period the student

wages. While he

is

works

in school,

minister told me.

That

sive as possible.

is

in the plant

he receives

is

and During

"We must make why we

he receives regular a stipend.

education as inten-

up gur develop-

are stepping

of visual aids, our use of television and other 1

'Why

am

new

urging our scholars in pedagogy to break

the old methods, and to develop

new and more

tech-

down

effective ones."

my

don't you use

my

films?'

—

my

lectures? I've been giving these lectures exactly the for 30 years. It's hard for

And

But the teachers say, 'Your lectures how can I change

for nothing.

way

the other half working in the manufacturing plants.

niques.

them

of "'plant students" and "plant institutes." This

their time in the universities or the research institutes,

ment

say to teachers, films to

films break the continuity of

the Soviet system of having engineering students spend half

The

I offer

method of solely classroom instruction. W'e believe must be a part of engineering training."

that actual practice

He spoke

films. I

me

same

to change.'

"Once

I had a long argument with the rector of the UniverLeningrad." Yelutin continued. "I told him it was my impression that high school teaching had not changed since the days of Ivan the Terrible. He didn't agree. He argued that high school teaching had not changed since the Cheops

sity of

Pyramid was

built."

His implication was that schools would have to change, and would have to change rapidly, in order to meet the emerging needs of education. Manifestly, youngsters cannot change themselves in order to fit the schools. How rapidly will the schools learn to adapt their methods as the years ahead unfold? This is a key question in the U.S.S.R. as well as in the U.S. "The future," said the minister, "is subjective, and that is probably why I like it best. It calls for imagination." Alexei Ivanovich Markushevich. Alexei Ivanovich Markushevich. vice-president of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences and former deputy minister of public education of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, the largest of the 15 Soviet republics, is the prototype of the Soviet intellectual. His interest in education leaves off at the point where Yelutin's begins as the student enters into higher education. He is a graduate of Central Asian University, Tashkent. Uzbek S.S.R. He is a collector of old and rare books. During our interview he was as relaxed as if his future

—

him endlessly without a single obligation. Markushevich opened our conversation by describing his duties and interests. "I am a professor at the University of Moscow," he said. "I am interested in theoretical mathematics as far from applied mathematics as you can possibly

stretched before

—

imagine. ences.

I

My

am

also active in the

second

Academy

field of interest is

of Pedagogical Sci-

thus education, and

I

am

editor of the Soviet Children's Encyclopaedia in ten volumes."

(This

is

the Soviet counterpart

to

Britannica Junior, Bri-

tannica's elementary encyclopaedia in 15 volumes.)

He

Union was lagging behind in learning and teaching machines. Only the day before our visit, and I am here reporting on a visit in 1962, he had submitted his report on the subject to the third Conference on Technical Aids in Teaching. Several Soviet-made teaching machines had been shown at the conference one, he said, that "teaches grammar." "The principles of our work and yours in the United States in this said he felt that the Soviet

the development of

programmed

—

more or less the same," he ventured. Markushevich mentioned another pedagogical conference which dealt with special aids in Russian language and hisfield are

Vyacheslav Yelutin: planning the number oj students

The

minister

is

greatly interested in

programmed

tory.

learning,

whit h enables the student to teach himself, but he spoke rather

contemptuously of the "teaching machine" as such. "Why is there any need for a machine?" he asked. "A programmed book is perfectly adequate." (Encyclopaedia Britannica Press had reached the same conclusion in its Teniae programmed learning courses in mathematics and other subjects, which are

now

in

marked in

use in

some 2.000 U.S. school systems.) And he resome

further that teachers in the Soviet Union, like

the United States, are apprehensive that machines or other

forms of programmed learning might take over their jobs. "Conservatism among teachers is an international phenomenon." he said. "I have the same difficulty that you have even in the use of classroom films. I don't have part of the problem you have 1 don't have to charge money for my

—

"The decision of the ministry is to continue this research," he said, "and to develop identical techniques in mathematics. though I cannot find any field which is isolated from the rest many ideas are concealed in remote corners! "By 1970 the Soviet Union is determined to lift the present

—

seven-year minimum compulsory education and make it ten years for everyone. This is a most difficult objective but I am optimistic that we shall achieve it." I told him that this goal was indeed a high one. and that Soviet secondary schools faced a great responsibility in attempting to prepare enough students for the universities and

higher institutes to meet the goals described to Rector Ivan Petrovsky of the

Yelutin. by

Moscow, and others

me by

Minister

University of

—more than eight million students

in the

higher institutions by 1980.

Markushevich remarked that another major aim was

to

The Teachers and the Taught

improve the quality of the teachers. "The tempo of growth of the students is faster than the tempo of growth of the teachers,"

he said. "It takes

at least five

years to train a teacher.

We

must cut down on the time now required to develop the skills of teachers; we must study and adopt the new techniques of teaching and we must step up the number of stu-

—

dents

He

who

are being trained as teachers."

intimated he was not prepared to claim that the Soviet

if

the U.S. pupil works hard and

to follow his teachers' advice.

"Your

the

I

'.S.S.li.

In the prerevoluti onary days in Russia, we used both systems plus an extra and complicated one which was strictly Russian but now we use the metric system exclusively."

—

—

Thus he scored one more important point for Soviet education. The use of the metric system of measurement excluwould greatly simplify many problem- for American who now spend a great deal of time, and suffer much confusion and error, converting the elements of problems from one system to another. Nearly every teacher of mathematics or physics in the United States knows the metric ostein would be better, but no one does anything about it. There is no "central authority" in educational matters in this country, and no governmental agency is likely to institute such a change unless there is a strong and definite demand for it. Perhaps the leading scientists in the U.S. should sign a petition sively

students,

high schools have any advantage in curriculum content over the U.S. schools

in

is

w

illing

big problem," he said,

"is that the U.S. allows more electives in the ninth year. Johnny thus drops mathematics it's hard. He turns his back on physics and biology. They are too difficult. He abandons a foreign language. Why learn it? Thus Johnny will fall behind Ivan, who must take required courses in mathematics, all compulsory." chemistry, biology, and foreign languages Markushevich had visited a number of American schools. He gladly conceded thai he had met some very capable young people in the U.S. the kind who would have no difficulty with any subject that Soviet students handle if they had comparable exposure and instruction and hours of work. "In my opinion," he said, "if the demands on your students were

—

—

—

higher, they could cope with them.

"The

between your students and ours," he conbetween a film moving at slow speed and a film moving at regular speed. Soviet students work much harder." With a mixture of wit and wonder he told the story of a high school senior he had talked to in Detroit. This boy w-as in a large high school and was recommended as one of its most promising seniors. He liked the boy. He asked him, "What do you know about mathematics?" The American high school senior replied, "I intend to choose law, and I have no use for mathematics." Markushevich was bothered, and he said, "You are a bright young student and you must be a reader. Can you give me the names of some Russian writers?" The boy couldn't name a single Russian writer. Markushevich shifted his course and said. "What do you think of the French writers of the 19th century? Won't you name a few for me?" The boy blushed. Finally, with the help of Markushevich's young girl interpreter, he remembered the name of Victor Hugo. The boy then became a bit angry. He said, "Such questions should be addressed to my sister. She is studying in difference

tinued, "is the difference

Paris."

Markushevich claimed that when he gave young Americans problem of reasonable difficulty in mathematics, in Boston, Chicago, and San Francisco, they could not solve it. "Ameri-

a

can teachers," he suggested tentatively, "use more standard methods of solving problems. Their students may be able to solve a problem as presented in the textbook, but if the problems deviated from the textbook, my young American friends were at a loss." In saying this, he may have been giving me current and conventional criticism of U.S.S.R. education, which he felt applied to an even greater degree to the U.S. Both textbooks and teaching methods are, on the whole, highly standardized in the Soviet Union. As the quotations from Pravda in the previous chapter demonstrate, the letters to the editor and other criticism of education in the press often deal with over-

standardization and inflexibility.

have another comment," Markushevich said. "The English system of measurement is a great burden for your children when they study mathematics, physics, and chemistry. The metric system is far, far better.

"As

a

mathematician,

I

Alexei Ivanovich Markushevich: Soviet students "work much harder

—

requesting the use of the metric system and publicize it. T wish our National Academy of Sciences would take the leadership. We cannot afford to be oblivious to such challenges. Does this illustration indicate that there is something to

be said for centralized control of education?

know

well

word

for

all

it.

the arguments against

Even

at the state level,

We

Americans

We

never hear a good we have only reasonable

it.

states. New Vork and California. The French and most other European countries exercise a tight

centralization in

two

centralized control of public education through their national governments. They do so with no seeming danger or threat to the democratic processes of their societies. feel that we in the U.S. should seek to move rapidly toward more effective 1

leadership at both the state and federal levels.

— 30

apter v

N

Scientists ovosibirsk

is

booming

a

on the Soviet

more than

industrial city of

a mil-

New

said.

was founded as

3.

1893 and called Novonikolayevsk after the reigning czar. After the Revolution its name was changed to

who

lion

people

a railroad

the very heart of Siberia.

in

town

Novosibirsk, or

It

in

New

Siberia.

modern highway from Novosione reaches a new and most remarkable "city'' which has been carved out of virgin forests. It is an "Academic City," devoted solely to scientific study, teaching, In half an hour's drive on a

birsk's central square,

and research. In 1962 1 was the first American to visit it after major construction had been completed. When plans for Novosibirsk's Academic City were submitted to Chairman Khrushchev, the president of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences warned him: "Don't do it; you won't be

move

able to persuade the top scientists to

to Novosibirsk."

Khrushchev said, "do ahead; you can get the brilliant young ones and you can train them; they will learn to do the

And

promises to be. Eventually a staff of 50,000 not all of them trained scienti.-ts. of course will work there; 30,000 were in residence in

best research."

so

it

—

—

1962. I visited Novosibirsk on a warm summer's day, but in the winter the temperatures drop to 30 to 40° below zero. Aca-

demic City lies in the heart of a vast plain that stretches westward for 500 km., eastward for 2.500 or 3,000 km., southward for 500 km., and northward to the Arctic. The plain is heavily wooded and rich in minerals.

Frontier

"But each major division must be on its own." It is essential to procure men to head up the institutes are not only themselves capable scientists, but

who can

young men to follow in their footsteps. 4. Close ties between industry and science are essential "It isn't merely that industry and engineering need science. It's also the other way around. Science needs industry and

also train

engineering." 5. The most important point, insisted Lavrentiev. is the training of scientific workers. "In the U.S." he said, "you look

to your universities to train your scientific personnel

—and

not only to train them but to develop them thereafter. In the Soviet Union, achievements in science do not develop within the walls of the universities but within the walls of the re-

search institutes.

I won't go so far as to say there is no sciendevelopment in the universities the universities of Moscow and Leningrad provide examples to the contrary but in the provincial universities, which operate at a lower level, such examples are not common." Lavrentiev pointed to a big blotch of oblong red spots at one end of his map, and explained that these were the apartments for the construction workers, covering perhaps 10%

—

tific

He pointed map and said

—

of the total area.

to a section of squares at the

other end of the

that these represented housing

for the leading research scholars

and

institute

directors.

I

City, each devoted to a single field of science or engineering.

asked him when he expected to take over the apartments from the construction workers. His eyes gleamed with humor as he replied, "When we are through don't forget that the institutes can keep expanding

The

into the forests indefinitely."

Fifteen research institutes are being created in the Academic

completed was the Institute of Hydrodynamics. Its head, and the academic head of the Academic City, is Academician Mikhail Lavrentiev. He is vice-president of the U.S.S.R, Academy of Sciences and chairman of the Siberian branch. Academician Lavrentiev, a tall stooping man with friendly eyes and a ready laugh, greeted me with a great show of cordiality and introduced me to a number of institute heads. A large map of the Academic City was placed on the table between us. Lavrentiev explained that the plans for Academic City grew out of "prior experiments and failures to speed the development of science." He set out five principles first

to be

underlying the plans: 1.

Each of the

15 institutes

had been allowed enough acre-

age to build virtually unlimited

They

backward 2.

many

new

structures in the future.

face central streets or plazas, but their properties extend

"To

into the

woods

indefinitely.

solve the problems of science,

specialists

in

many

fields

in

it

is

necessary to have

proximity," Lavrentiev

Scientists'

apartments

in

.

We

.

.

were meeting

in

the Institute of Geology

and Geo-

physics, which happens to be squarely in the middle of the

compound. Geology faces Mathematics. Next door is the Institute of Automation and Electrical Measuring Techniques.

The new University

of Novosibirsk

is

to be in the center of the

Academic City. Why would distinguished Soviet scientists choose to come to Novosibirsk's Academic City? Lavrentiev said salaries for were uniform throughout the U.S.S.R., but that in this new Academic City because it would "enable scientists to realize their ideals very quickly," and they would have the newest and best equipment. Lavrentiev added, "But the scientists are not alone. They have wives and we must satisfy them; so we provide very good living conditions. They also have children and grandchildren and we take care of them." Andrei Trofimuk, head of the Institute of Geology and

scientists

there was

enormous appeal

—

Novosibirsk: pilot city for others yet to tome

—

"

Geophysics, went to a large map of the U.S.S.R. on the wall. many colors represented the mineral and oil deposits of the Soviet Union, and the varying shades were to show the Its

age and nature of the deposits and their closeness to the surface.

He

pointed out that far more than half of the territory of

the U.S.S.R.

lies

east of the Urals, that

all

of this territory

is

power potential and forests. "Just prior to World War II." he said, "it was believed that Siberia was poor in iron and had no oil. Our research parties

rich in hydroelectric

have now discovered that Siberia is very rich in iron ore, oil, and gas. Indeed, there is every mineral deposit in Siberia that there

is

in the table of the

elements."

Trofimuk said that the map revealed why geologists want to join his institute in Novosibirsk: "There is so much unknown and so much to be discovered they can help reveal the

—

riches of Siberia."

Mikhail Lavrentiev and student: expanding into the forests indefinitely

Sergei Sobolev, director of the Institute of Mathematics,

explained that his institute dealt with abstract mathematics or

—

—

forms of pure mathematics" that it had a computer center, "which has diversified uses, solving problems not only for industry but for all the sciences and, in some cases, the humanities." There were also divisions of his institute for "economic mathematics" and "mathematical technique." (According to my interpreter, the "mathematical technique" division helps "to determine the true road in the application of mathematics to computers so that the machines will then help to develop mathematics.") Lavrentiev interrupted to remark that computers were themselves producing greatly improved computers much faster than human beings were able to produce improved human beings. He challenged Academician llya Vekhua, the rector of the new university, to produce a child three times pure theory

"all

—

better than himself. a complete tour of the Academic City by Arnold Romanov, head of the laboratory on computers of the Institute of Automation and Electrical Measuring Techniques, rode beside me. A fascinating young man, he spoke English haltingly but well. He said he had jumped at the chance to come to Novosibirsk, and he was now urging his friends to come. "The competition," he said, "is less here. A young man gets a bigger job much quicker. He is not only in association with top men, but he can go up the ladder faster." The luncheon which followed our drive was at a clubhouse for the research scholars. We talked about the future. I asked the group to speculate about it. Sobolev asked, "How can we foresee the future? All we know is that there will be more changes created by science in the next SO years than have been created in all the past history of the world put together." r of I asked him if he agreed with the statement that 90 the scientists who had ever lived are living now. He thought a moment, then nodded his head in agreement. Academician Vekhua. also a mathematician, quickly interjected, "But there is no Newton alive today!" Let me describe the new University of Novosibirsk as seen through the eyes of Vekhua. its rector, who resigned his chair of mathematics at the University of Moscow to respond to I

was then given

car.

;

new frontier in Central Siberia. Academician Vekhua is a Georgian who entered the Geor-

the challenge of the

gian State University. Tbilisi, in 1925. Later he served for

many

years as prorector of the University of Tbilisi, and for one year as rector. He said that when he entered the university "all the

boys had

literature, science, etc.

we learned

that

it

—

—

study the same courses history, but later this was discarded because

to

was wise

to start specialization earlier."

He

when our students begin to we give them courses in the humanities, philosophy, political economy we even give them an extended course in the political economy of capitalism!" In 1962 Vekhua had 1,000 students in his new university. then insisted, "But even

specialize here at Novosibirsk,

None had

—

yet graduated. Only 100 of these students were in

Vekhua does not intend the number to inwhen the university reaches its anticipated maxi-

the humanities.

crease even

mum

enrollment of 4,000 students.

He City.

said,

"We are

very lucky to be here

Our university

During the

institutes.

first

in this

new Academic

here with 15 great research

affiliated

is

two years, the students devote

themselves wholly to their academic studies at the university. But in the second term of the third year, they begin to work with the institute in their field of specialization. This affiliation with the institute brings them step by step into research.

We

shall thus easily be able to spot the gifted students

these I

we

shall

—and

thereafter keep in the institutes."

asked him whether entrance examinations for the new-

university were stricter than those of the University of

Mos-

were about the same. He said he was afraid right now to be any stricter because he didn't want to scare talented students away. "There is a chance to create a new team here." He named Academician Sobolev as an example of a man given high academic rank and responsibility very early in life. Sobolev had been the head of the mathematics department of the University of Moscow. "But here he has his own institute. He is the head man instead of merely the head of a department. He has 500 young men under him and within two years will have 1,000. He can do a better job building his staff. In Moscow, he couldn't get apartments for the new men he wanted. Here he can give them apartments, further, nine meters minimum the apartments are bigger and better per person instead of the seven meters which is the goal in Mom ow." Vekhua anticipated that the Academic City when it reached its population of 50.000 within two or three years would be

He

cow.

said they

—

at its

approximate

limit.

"From

that point on." he said, "it

better to build other centers. First, there

comparable to

Kemerovo, then

a

this

one

at

Irkutsk.

coal-mining center

— and then —

Then

120 km.

is

a

to be a

is

center

smaller one at from here and

—

Thus he confirmed what Minister Velutin had already told me. The Academic City of Novosibirsk is a pilot city for and others yet to come. It is indeed on the "New frontier but the new frontier not merely the new frontier of Siberia of scholarly and scientific competition which is to dominate

—

—

the world of the future.

32

CHAPTER

The T

Communal viewing

Moscow's

Soviet

in

at a

House

VI

TV Means

Teach

of Culture: not to entertain but to enlighten

television chiefs. Minister Yelutin, as chief of

tives

from the broadcasting ministry and from the major

welcome, and respected collaborator. That is because in the Soviet view the prime purpose (jf television is not to entertain but to enlighten. This of course means primarily Communist propaganda. Hut it also mean- culture and education. And Minister Yelutin stands

education, is being established. The council will work with a group called the Television Authority in developing and

for higher education.

around and criticize!" He proposed to use them to help him learn better how to use TV to speed up the learning process. Why should students, he asked, spend ten years in

higher education,

a

is

Responsibility for

all

close,

Many top educators are to be inducted as consultants. Kharlamov seemed regretful that "the educators don't want to take the authority and the responsidirecting educational programs.

bility;

broadcasting in the U.S. SR.

is

placed

on the State Committee for Radio and Television. This functions as a ministry. At the time of my visit the chairman of that committee was Mikhail Kharlamov, a handsome and selfassured younger man who had served as Chairman Khruat the Vienna summit conference, when Khrushchev talked with Pres. John F. Kennedy. Kharlamov was removed from his chairmanship when Khrushchev was ousted in October 1964. Alexei Adzhubei. Khrushchev's son-in-law, was removed as editor of Izvestia at the same time. One may assume perhaps that both were removed partly because they were personally so close to Khrushchev, but partly because the Communist Party and the Soviet government have always been so acutely sensitive about the control of communications. The new government wanted its own men in the key posts. However, the views Kharlamov expressed to me seem so thoroughly representative of the Soviet social process, and and thus to so likely to tarry over into any new TV regime remain valid that I shall not hesitate to quote them here as representative of Soviet policy and goals. Kharlamov was wholly confident about the forthcoming rapid development of Soviet educational television. He was almost exuberant about it. and his enthusiasm was contagious. He was convinced that most people underestimate the potential of television for education, and I agree. " The L .S.S.R.'s forthcoming development of educational TV i- the most important venture in the history of television,"

shchev's press officer

—

—

he dri lared with absolute assurance.

A

fields of

joint council for educational television, with representa-

it's

them

easier for

to sit

thus proposed to draft them.

the schools

when much

less

He

time

is

needed?

TV

is

part of

the answer to the speeding up of education.

"Students

now

get so

Kharlamov

much redundant knowledge

in the

"Why

study the history of mankind from Adam and Eve to the present? I don't object to students knowing history, but can't they learn it outside of school? Further, why shouldn't we introduce all kinds of classroom,''

said.

programmed learning) to help them These new teaching methods will free a great deal of time for students. The teaching machines make it much easier for the ,-tudents to cover all of mathematics through algebra, geometry, and calculus. Of course, some of these new techniques are experimental. We shall have to await the results of the experimentation. But we want to use not teaching machines

{e.g.,

instruct themselves?

only TV but all modern techniques." Charles Benton. Milan Herzog. and Ralph Buchsbaum. who followed up my Moscow visit in September, spoke with another key figure

in

Soviet television, Vyacheslav Chernishov.

minister of television for the Russian Soviet Federated Socially Republic.

described to

me

He

described to them

— the

—as

Kharlamov had

plan for increasing Moscow's present

two TV channels to five or six. But whereas I was told that one of the new channels was to be reserved exclusively for educational TV, they were advised that present planning called for the programming of educational material on all channels "interchangeably, so that there will be 24-hour educational television." I suspect both things are planned.

The Teachers and

is

Said Minister Chcrnishov: "The aim of Soviet television not to entertain hut to elevate." At the present time the

TV

schedule

is

so laid out that the very early hours of the

morn-

ing are devoted to preschool children's programs, with pupfairy tales, etc. Then come the elementary programs, and these usually consist of films, with actors, addressed to the seven-to-nine-year-old audience. These programs are designed to sharpen the child's ability for observation and perception. They are planned not for the classroom but for the home, and the hours are so set that pets, cartoons,

school

the children will be at

home and

rent philosophy in television fesses that children get

able to see them.

programming

The

cur-

for youngsters pro-

enough curriculum activity

in

school,

and therefore can afford to see at home a broadening rather than a teaching program. A program later in the day called "Outside the School Books" aimed at the equivalent of our consists of features junior and senior high school students designed to broaden knowledge. There are contests in geometry, chemistry, physics, etc. The programs have a game spirit but with the purpose of enlightenment. Many programs are aimed at the 30- to 40-year age group, especially persons who have not finished high school and are trying to complete their education with the help of television and correspondence courses. Special programs are also offered

—

—

—

for professionals in various lines of national life; a

may

period

program

be directed on one day to the medical profession,

the next to biologists, the next to pharmacologists, and so on.

Asked about pure entertainment. Minister Chcrnishov said, "We have one program called 'The Blue Light.' It is a Saturday evening spectacular and lasts several hours. These Blue Light programs have become so popular that people in the villages dress up on Saturday evening as if they were going out and go to the community television rooms to watch the programs." He made "The Blue Light" sound like an amateurhour version of the "Ed Sullivan Show."

Our Britannica Films people felt that the Moscow programmers are slightly chagrined at the fact that Leningrad has moved ahead of them on educational programming; a new third channel in

opened

in

the

Leningrad, devoted entirely to education, of 1064. This channel is integrated

autumn

entirely with the curricula of the higher educational institutions.

It

went on the

air

for the first time with courses in

higher mathematics, descriptive geometry, chemistry, physics,

and theoretical mechanics. The programmers are especially interested in assisting mature students who are taking correspondence courses. Pavel Yershov of the Broadcasting Ministry stressed that Soviet educational television is being developed with the full cooperation of the "intellectuals." He pointed out that Academician Mstislav Keldysh, president of the Academy of Sciences, was helping in every way possible. "We want to rally all the top academicians, all the intellectuals, around our development of educational television and we expect to be successful in doing this." Yershov doesn't think a draft will

—

be necessary! Kharlamov observed,

"We

are in a better posi-

(

the Taught

in flic

Minister Yelutin once gave

:

.

a

booming

in-

have no idea how without raw meat and raw fish.

in

cm

Moscow

live

.")

Yelutin and the Broadcasting Mini-try plan to reach and peoples and at all ages. They talk of using

tea< h all the Soviet

four sputniks as television relay stations, but the government prepared to hook up station- throughout the Soviet L'nion

is

by cables us

method proves more

this

if

the U.S.

in

is

that the

TV

exclusively to educational or secondary

broadcasts

in

level,

practical. Interesting to

use of the channel to be devoted

first

is

not to be

we conceive our

as

the U.S., but

at

the elementary

limited

classroom

to be, as in Leningrad, for the

is

instruction of correspondence students

at

the level of profes-

and higher education. Yelutin -poke of these students as "good, hardworking people, people who want to learn and are willing to spend their leisure time to learn, and we should try to help them first." Educational television programming geared to the needs of these correspondence students was to be begun in the fall of 1964. This promises to be education at a much more formal and higher level than almost all educasional

TV

tional

in the

U.S.

There has been evidence of concern

in the Soviet press

over

the caliber of part-time higher education, and particularly the correspondence training which makes up the hulk of it.

The

substantial

number

of dropouts each year

— the weakness — and

of graduating students in the theory of their specialties

the fact that experienced teachers seek to avoid

—

work with

correspondence students these are some of the problems. Educational TV is to be one answer. "Until we have our national educational networks." Yelutin

"we shall make tapes of these TV programs and send them all over the country for local stations to use. It's no problem to get the programs on the air because the state ow ns

said,

all

the television stations.

get

I'll

a

governmental order

to

finance the development of the programs and also the films

— and another order That

to

make sure the stations use them." way of doing it. The U.S. is thus

indeed one sure

is

to be fated not only with the cold war of the classrooms but with the cold war of classroom TV.

When

I

visited

new Moscow

Moscow

1962

in

I

heard about the "great

television center" to be finished in 1065 or 1966.

There were then 116 television stations in the Soviet l'nion, but I was assured there would be many more in 1965. In

May

1064

I

asked how these plans were progressing.

I

was told that the Building Ministry had guaranteed that the new center would be ready for occupancy in January 1067. but that they were moving rapidly toward an earlier comple-

— "they are

tion date

When

—

overfulfilling their plan."

new Moscow center is completed, the present with new equipment will be used for educational the

—

center

television exclusively.

"When the eastern part of the work. Moscow is going to bed. Our

Soviet Union starts to

back

broadcasting

programs in the language of each region. Then there is the need to take into account the deeply entrenched local pe-

Kharlamov asked me. "Then come back again we shall have even more films with you. The logical

culiarities."

films

complicated by 70 different languages, and we must have

is

it

enter. Still the people in Irkut-k

i

the people .

Now

no alphabet.

lution, the people used

dustrial

United States for the development of educational merely that the public supports us. So do our educators and scholars. So does our government." Soviet TV planners have, of course, a variety of problems, not the least being the vastness of the Soviet Union and the diversity of its people. "We have seven time belts," I was further

a similar glimpse of the far-

and diversified Soviet domain when he spoke of establishing a new university in Irkut-k "Here is a place where the ground is frozen solid, even in summer, two meters below the surface. At this level, the earth never melts. Before the Revo-

television. It isn't

is

.S.S.R.

flung

tion than the

told.

me

r

I

produced

Two

types of programs

in addition to the

will

then be

one ior correspondence students

One of these will be tor enrolled students at the high school level, and the second for adults enrolled in higher education.

not formally enrolled in

is

six

at

any

months and

let

institution.

"Won't you come

me show you

our progress?"

few years," he insisted, "and show. Then we can exchange start in the exchange of classroom in a

to

with Britannica Films

in

the natural sciences

—

in

—

)

34

chemistry, biology, mathematics, cybernetics. Developing for the teaching of the natural sciences

uppermost

is

TV

in the

minds of the leaders of the Academy of Sciences." This was his vision as he saw it marching into reality within the immediate future. Later, he added. "You must understand that our documentary films are not limited to use on television or in classrooms. They aren't produced exclusively to meet TV or classroom standards. There are still vast areas in the U.S.S.R. where there is no television. We need the films for many usages. Thus they can't be compared with your films developed solely for the classroom." There are v indeed, vast areas for contrast and speculation. I suspect that the reach of the young men in charge of Soviet radio and television must exceed their grasp, at least for many years. The 1963 Yearbook of the Great Soviet Encyclopaedia reports there were 74.3 million radio receiving sets in use in the Soviet Union at the end of 1962. (But in an article in Pravda in May 1963, Kharlamov stated that 33 million of these receiving sets were loudspeakers e.g., nontunable sets fed by central receivers.) From 1958 to 1963, Soviet statistics show that the production of television sets increased at an average annual rate of about 20'", In May 1963 Izvestia reported the radio audience in the Soviet Union was 150 million and the television audience 40 million. (The nation's population is 223 million.) Many of the radio and television sets are in clubs, "houses of culture," and in public areas where each set may have a large number of listeners and viewers. .

The hope was expressed

to

me

that

there would be 40

million television sets in use in the Soviet as

many

receivers as there

now

Union by 1970,

tential of virtually full

—

to be used for education as well as for culture and propaganda, with unparalleled potential effects. The entertainment will merely be part of the bait. is

Kharlamov's office, he gravely presented me two issues of a new publication developed by his radio section. This was called Sound Magazine. It is a small magazine of text and records, so bound that the records can be played without being detached. He said it was planned to publish similar magazines, supplemented by tapes, to teach languages. He spoke also of Sound becoming a "register book of history" an easy way to present and circulate the voices of political leaders. The first issue had a picture of Chairman Khrushchev on the cover; it contained one of his speeches on a record. Will Brezhnev's be on the next? Will Kharlamov be back? It makes little difference. His ideas, I believe, will Before

with the

left

I

of

first

—

I even believe they will penetrate the U.S. We cannot remain largely impervious to the great potential of TV in the field of education. This should become the more obvious to us when the U.S.S.R. begins to use its power to demonstrate this potential to the world. Incidentally, the

be carried on.

Japanese are already demonstrating this potential, both to the U.S. and the U.S.S.R.. and the Soviets are studying the Japanese techniques and are seeking to apply them while we are

—

are viewers.

In the United States, by contrast, television has the po-

not.

CHAPTER

VII

The Soviet Film Makers: Important Teachers

A

types of films in the Soviet Union, whether for entertain-

ment,

or

instruction,

have

documentation,

been

always

considered to be a part, and not the most subtle part, of

Communist propaganda. This conception is changing for a number of reasons. One is that films loaded with doctrine

—

and exhortation do not attract audiences even in the Soviet Union. Soviet newspapers publish letters saying that the people want more entertainment in their films may Lenin forgive them! more "escape" in their entertainment, and more humor. Accordingly, some entertainment films are being produced in the Soviet Union today which have little or possibly no designed propaganda content. Perhaps they too are de-

—

—

signed as bait to bring the people to the theatres for the

propaganda It

i>

impossible to discuss Soviet films, or any of the comthe

in

U.S.S.R.. without discussing propa-

is no propaganda in the content of some of new entertainment films, there most certainly is in their administration. A movie producer or director is expected to

the

be concerned with press

truth only

politics. if

it

is

Usually he

Communist

writers of

any kind deviate from

when they

believe that they do. This

in

is

free to seek

"truth."

Few

and exSoviet

even of high importance

this basic principle, is

our judgment of the Soviet scene.

When

1 visited the Gorki Studios in 1962, the famous producer and director Sergei Gerasimov told me. "The time has passed when our films can win prizes because they are ideologically good hut artistically bad. We can no longer cover up a bad film with a good idea." (Good ideas, in his view, being

good Communist propaganda.) "The freedom of the artist is now absolute," he

but

Taught

of counterrevolution, or pornography."

tion

—

These are notable exceptions especially the "abjurations of Lenin!" But they apply primarily to the making of Soviet films for public entertainment. There are other categories of films into which it is impossible to inje"ct any form of MarxistInstructional films about the sciences cannot show the workings of a Communist atom, for example, or give a political slant to the principles of chemistry. Most Soviet educational leaders are perfectly aware of this, and

Leninist philosophy.

now being produced in the Soviet Union Communist propaganda. visited at some length with Sergei Romanovsky, the U.S.S.R. State Committee on Cultural Rela-

teaching films are that are devoid of

In 1964

I

tions with Foreign Countries,

the exchange of films. cultural exchange

man

one of whose major concerns

(Romanovsky negotiated

agreement with the U.S.

He

is

the current

served as chair-

of the U.S.S.R. delegation at the General Conference of

UNESCO

in the fall of

of the U.S. delegation

1964 — which —and we again at

I

served as chairman and lunched

visited

together in Paris.

Romanovsky was incensed that exchange of Soviet entertainment films with the United States was not increasing. High in the party hierarchy, he of course thinks first in terms of the political effect of what he says; but he appeared deeply concerned and frustrated by the lack of interest of the United States in Soviet films. He said that in 1963 the total exchange

"How can we buy unless we He blamed the lack of sales on the U.S. Department. He is free to buy U.S. films without

was one sell

?

'"

State said,

of the

he added, "except for abjurations of Lenin, and the presenta-

chairman of

films.

municative arts ganda. If there

coverage of the entire population. The

Census Bureau reported in May 1964 that 87.3% of the families in the U.S. have at least one television set. Thus the Soviet Union is far behind the United States in both the production and use of television sets. But the more important factor as we look ahead is the programming how television is to be used. In the Soviet Union, because the state so plans it, TV

film in each direction.

he asked me.

selling Soviet films in exchange, of course,

but he does not

—

)

The Teachers and so. Other countries do. Certainly it is misleading and erroneous for him to blame the State Department for his

choose to do

the Taught

lhc

in

Soviet Ministry of Culture has

and pun ha^e of motion pictures

theatres and to small audiences.

at

"Our

best efforts to establish direct

your country have ended

industry

in

will not

take our films."

He seemed

contact with the film

in failure."

"You

he said.

understand that the showing of

governmental, business in the United States. "Why would theatre owners show lilnis that customers do not want to see?" I asked him. " The movie Tom Jam s, produced by the British, has set an all-time sale-- record for a because the American customers wanted to see foreign film it. You will never get Rood distribution in the United States until you produce films that the American people want to see and until you learn how to publicize your films in our

movies

private, not

is a

a

—

—

country."

Romanovsky hammered on

He went your State

his

desk and said. "That

is

not

on.

recommendations of our films. Therefore, the theatre owners do not know about them. They do not even look at them or review them. How can your theatre owners decide whether to show our films if your State Department doesn't recommend them to be previewed?" anyone

way

In our

a list

of

of doing business, achieving either domestic

primarily the task of private enterprise. Furthermore, our State Department does call the attention ot

or foreign sales

is

U.S. distributors to Soviet films.

reason to encourage the exchanges.

The department has every Can it be that Romanovsky

way of doing business but wants to do and with inferior films? 1 report his only his way show how a "Berlin Wall" of words can be built

does understand our

and how can see

from

difficult

it

is

to tear

down. Later, however.

I

took

how some

of his misunderstanding might have arisen

it.

Some

a
a>t a great many ideal wilderness areas have been opened by roads which were of no great necessity and which have never returned in value of service anywhere near the investment which has been put into them. Had there been a little prior thought about a reasonable balance between primitive and developed areas, these roads would not ha' e been onstrui ted. From the standpoint of the Indians, it is of special importance to save as many areas as possible from invasion by roads. Almost everywhere they go the Indians encounter the competition and disturbance of the white race. Must o( them desire some place which is all their own. If, on reservations where the Indians desire privacy, sizable areas are uninvaded by roads, then it will be possible tor Indians of these tribes i

Corkscrew Swamp: outdoor classroom

Oct. 25. 1937. Indian roadless

areas,

Commissioner John Silcox estab-

containing slightly over five million

acres, on 13 Indian reservations. Wilderness acreage

on Indian

same today. Bureau of Land Management. The Bureau of Land Management, Department of the Interior, holds almost 500 million ac. of the public domain in 11 western states and Alaska. lands remains approximately the

is

about two-thirds of

all

federal land.

BLM

lands in

Nevada make up 67% or more of the state's total acreage. The Taylor Grazing Act of 1934, the basic statute regulating the management of BLM lands, is primarily aimed at the use and improvement of the land for grazing by permittees

Facilities

Access points (vehicular) Boat-launching ramps Picnic grounds

On lished

This

Recreational Facilities and Use, Corps of Engineers Properties 1961

maintain a retreat where they may escape from constant contact with white men. (The Living \Y ildcrncss, July 1940.) to

under the supervision of the secretary of the interior. Until recently no BLM land was reserved for recreation. Yet all of it is open, except in emergency situations, for any lawful purpose, including various forms of outdoor recreation. Over 150 million ac. of BLM land are leased to cattlemen, sheepmen, and others under grazing permits. There are about 20.026 holders of such permits in ten western states and Alaska. Of these, 1 5,255 graze cattle and horses and 4,771 graze sheep and goats. New Mexico has the largest number: 3,031 permittees for cattle and horses, and 2,119 for sheep and goats. Montana comes next and Utah is third. BLM lands serve some recreational needs well especially hunting and fishing. Visits to these lands by the public totaled 15 million in 1960, over half occurring in California, Nevada, and Oregon. Apart from Alaska, it is estimated that 2.9 million ac. of BLM land have a potential for campsite development, another 2.5 million ac. for picnicking, 3,000 ac. for swimming and beach sites, and 60,000 ac. for winter sports. Up to 1964, the BLM had received no appropriation at all for administering any part of Taylor Act lands as recreational

Natchez Trace Parkway: not compatible with wilderness per se

—

A BLM

Wilderness

BLM

61

Bill of Ri^Jits

making up the greater part of the Nevada, for example, has a central unit of 7.000 ac, privately owned, nourished by 250.000 ac. of

1065

with the

and other facilities designed to protect public health and safely and to avoid damage to the resources themselves by fire, erosion, and pollution. BLM also leases or sells land to other agencies to develop

acreage.

As of 1963, 142 such leases involving 90.541 ac. had been granted to state and county agencies and to nonprofit groups in Alaska and the western public-land

land

Arizona alone had lis leases Forty-three islands in Puget Sound were acquired by the state of Washington from BLM by lease or patent with a view to developing new rec-

though huge fortunes ride on these control over the prices paid for them. Bitter disputes have raged over the grazing fees to be paid by permittees. From the beginning the grazing fees have never been more than nominal, but when the grazing fee was raised in 1964 from 1') cents per animal unit per month to 30 cents, great protests went up. There is also a growing demand from stockmen to have these public lands attached permanently to their base (or home) properties, either by long-term leases or by sale. Some efforts have been made toward that end. but BLM lands, happily, are still a part of the public domain. BLM range conditions worsen with the passing years. Offiof BLM lands are now depleted, and onecials state that 80' third of that SO',' is in critical condition. Meanwhile, the western rangeland and livestock industry is slowly losing its competitive advantage over the cropland feed-forage livestock industry, due to the higher output per man-hour of the agricultural labor force and to more efficient equipment and

areas.

proposes, however, to spend $1 million

in

for construction of sanitation

for recreational purposes.

states.

)

(

reational areas.

The Taylor Grazing Act speaks of the livestock industry and grazing, not of recreation or multiple use. To remove doubts as to the authority of BLM to promote recreational uses on its part of the public domain, supplementary legislation has been sought

authorizing

multiple-use administra-

a

tion of its lands. In conformity with

recreation,

BLM

has reconstituted

its

its

and National Advisory Board Council

growing concern for

state advisory boards to

include represen-

tation of recreational as well as livestock interests.

BLM

devoted to multiple use rather than to grazing alone. These include over 2.5 million ac. in western Iregon originally granted to the Oregon and California Railroad and revested by Congress under the Act of Aug. 20. 1912. Known as the & C lands, they are dedicated to multiple use under the terms of the basic act governing them. Other specifically wilderness-type lands administered by the BLM include vast stretches in Alaska, constituting wilderness areas of great mag-

plicitly

(

land. In such cases the private holdings are usually the

choice spots where water

home

is

generally poorer

is

in

present and quality.

soil is

When

Administration of in

BLM

lands

the West.

is

closely

bound up with

The western ranches

good.

The

range-

a rancher sells his

BLM land go alone with BLM approval yet alpermits. BLM exercises no

ranch, the grazing rights on the

the property.

The

transfer

is

subject to

management of

BLM

in the

;

cropland-forage industry. Thus the value

lands for grazing use

is

being steadily reduced, and

the issue of grazing fees, like the attempts of stockmen to

acquire these public lands, will probably tant over the long run. In time, grazing

nitude.

BLM

in

;

does have jurisdiction over some lands that are ex-

ranching interests

BLM

lands often

One ranch

using

land are combined holdings of private and public tracts,

less

impor-

be reduced to an

extremely low position among the possible uses of public land. As a result, much BLM land may well be subject to reclassification for primary recreational uses.

Gettysburg: such parks take the pressure

»

become

may

o[l

wilderness areas

r

^^^^^

CHAPTER

III

THREATS TO THE RE) FINING WILDERNESS have spoken of the need for in a

sense of wonder

in

a

new conservation

ethic, rooted

the presence of nature, reverence for

and understanding of

life in all its forms, and acceptance of our responsibility to preserve wilderness values for future generations. Yet such an ethic is far from widespread today. We

are dominated instead by the ethic of the automobile, the

The growth factor

bulldozer, the industrial plant.

in

the gross

must give way. The meadow, (he swamp, the wooded alcoye and their inhabitants must surrender. Commercialized and mechanized recreational use and productive use come first; conservation national product

use

is

considered

The tendency

is

the imperative before which

a low-priority in

need.

the machine age

of the original wilderness.

And

all

is

to

wipe out every acre

with modern machines and

atomic explosives capable of producing energy measurable in megatons, we can remake the face of the earth leveling

—

mountains and turning beaches into bays. Whatever the ownership of a wild area, wherever it is located, it is under a constant threat. There are covetous eyes being cast on all our unspoiled areas. in trust to preserve in perpetuity. Tono peaceful pool, but a bathing beach. Across the day road are hot-dog stands and trailer camps. The commissioners in charge of it planned further "improvements": concrete ramps for the beach; cutting down of the embankment and using the excavated material to till in part of the pond; parking lots for cars; construction of a concrete bathhouse. It took the Supreme Court of Massachusetts to halt those "improvements." the court saying that such construction would defeat

given to Massachusetts is

the purpose of the trust, viz.. "the preservation of the

area as closely as possible in

Mass.

13.

23

any wilderness space left by the in terms of demand. The demand will be so great as to endanger the small areas of wilderness remaining. An acre can be turned to dust by human feet, even if the visitors walk reverently. By the 21st century we will face that risk, for acres will then be the measure of wilderness while visitors will be counted by the tens of thousands.

Automobiles and Highways. The whole present concept is involved with the dominant outdoor activity of Americans: automobile travel. The vast majority of our people see wilderness from the highways. Those who use the wilderness also use the highways to reach the wild places, where they hike, camp, or canoe. The American road system, useful as it is. at the same time stands as the greatest destroyer of wilderness, inching nearer and nearer to our few remaining wilderness sanctuaries and finally penetrating them. While there are many other threats, roads are the greatest. Time (Feb. 14, 1964) described our plight:

of wilderness preservation

Stretching

Walden Pond, made famous by Thoreau and Emerson, was it

rate of population increase,

year 2000 will be truly scarce

its

state of natural beauty"

pond I

341

).

—

Yet

Being in the outdoors is. by modern definition, recreation. That is the way the Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission defines it. and that is the popular concept. Driving for pleasure heads the list of outdoor activities measured by the number of days given over to each activity per year. Walking for pleasure which of course includes strolling in second. Table IV, condensed from the the city park is

Refuge,

is

ORRRC

ready desecrated. Greylock in Massachusetts is one. There a mountain fastness has been invaded by TV towers, a war memorial, and hostel facilities that promise to despoil with sewage effluent the slopes of Greylock and its springs and streams. The true wilderness is disappearing fast, and at the present

Days 20

7 3

17.93 12.71

Swimming

6.47

Sight-seeing Bicycling Fishing

5 91 5

15

4.19 3.75

Attending outdoor sports events Picnicking

3 '.3

Taking nature walks Hunting

2

7

U

36 1.25 it 1

Horseback riding

Camping Miscellaneous Ice-skating

factories are part of this devel-

of our noble mountains are al-

Days per Year, per Person 12

Activity

.55

Sledding or tobogganing Hiking Water-skiing Attending outdoor concerts, theatre,

opment. Reclamation has already smothered seven lakes once noted for smallmouth bass. Reclamation has also blocked off free passage of ocean waters to the marshes, and waterfowl will not live in a stagnant place. Worst of all is the garbage. Staten Island has become a major garbage-disposal site, and

some

of Activity

Driving for pleasure Walking for pleasure Playing outdoor games or sports

being opened up for development as a result by the new Yerrazano-

state-controlled areas

Number

Years and Over, 1960-61

the easy access to be provided

garbage does not mix with geese, ducks. Florida gallinules, and pheasant. Nor do garbage, muskrats, and rabbits mix. Rats, which tunnel the garbage, are on the increase. Even high peaks are in jeopardy. Cable cars now run to the top of Mt. Fuji in Japan, and the example may be contagious. Promoters of similar projects in the U.S. have had their plans vetoed by the Forest Service and the Park Service, but in

report, tells the story.

Table IV.

efforts

Narrows Bridge. Homes and

—

—

about $600,000 to purchase some 2.000 ac. of the Great Swam]). That provided the impetus for its acquisition by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Staten Island, home of the 260-ac. William T. Davis Wildof

track, strapping its concrete

too frequently the road builder has the demanding

all

in 25 states raised

life

its

voice of a majority of the people behind him.

saved it from being drained and filled by the Tort of New York Authority as a landing strip for jet planes. Over 3,000 individuals from nearly 200 communities

Herculean

wheelbase, spreading

—

The Great Swamp of New Jersey an S.OOO-ac. tract only 30 mi. from New York City— teems with life in its marshes, fields, swamps, meadows, and sandy ridges. Even otters reside there.

its

bands across the land, the encroaching automobile inches humanity back and hack shearing off a landmark for a thruway, gobbling up a park for a parking garage, turning field and forest into filling station and shopping center.

51

.42 •11

39

etc.

Canoeing

.12

Sailing

11

Other boating Mountain climbing

Snow

1

'3

5

09

skiing

.07

Except for mountain climbing,

strict wilderness use

must

be deduced from these figures. Camping, for example, embraces wilderness use, although a great deal of camping is not wilderness oriented. But even

if

all

canoeing,

all

hiking,

all

nature walks, half of hunting, half of fishing, half of horse-

back riding, and half of camping are added to the figure for mountain climbing, the total 7.41 still represents little more than a third of the days given over to driving for pleasure (

(20.73).

The automobile's

)

significance in recreational activi-

and especially its relationship to the wilderness are thus of major importance. Furthermore, even this is a conservative figure, for the ties

automobile

hidden

is

in

reation. It brings the

many

other categories of outdoor rec-

sportsman

edge of the domain

to the

where he hunts or fishes, if not right into it. Since the automobile is the dominant means of travel and travel is a component of recreation, the motor vehicle becomes a hidden (and immeasurable) factor in virtually all recreational activities.

The prominence

highways in our planning is evident and foremost recommendation made by the President's Appalachian Regional Commission 1964 was for bigger and better highways and more of them. Vet if and no area is more underderecreation is the objective everywhere. The

of

first

—

veloped than Appalachia secondary.

in that

respect

The primary considerations

—

Any

when

road, even

ceptable purpose, ness.

is

for fishing

built for fire control or

some other

a

Massachusetts Turnpike interchange

We Arc Dominated by the Ethic of the Automobile, the Bulldozer.

for recreation are pro-

and canoeing, the establishment of networks of trails linking the valleys and ridges, the construction of a hut system that exploits all the pure water holes, the location and development of picnic grounds, a string of hostels for hikers and cyclists. The big throughways proposed by the commission endanger these recreation potentials rather than promoting them. tection of free-flowing rivers

Over

then roads become

On

a

Xew York approach

road

ac-

the beginning of the end of the wilder-

Though only

a few miles long, it points like a dagger at any wilderness that lies ahead. Experience shows

the heart of

that a road, once begun, almost invariably

moves forward.

The

logger sees profits in the yellow pine up the canyon or in

the

Dougias

fir

on the ridge. The road-building contractor The road may be

sees even greater profits in the road itself.

extended only a mile this year, but in a decade or so it will have tapped the entire canyon or climbed into the mountains. The 1962 report of the Bureau of Public Roads stated: Highway use continued to break past records. Motor-vehicle registrations totaled 75.8 million in calendar year 1961 and were expected to reach 78.6 million in 1962, an increase of .5.7 per cent. Travel on all roads and streets was estimated at 737.5 billion vehicle miles in 1961, and was forecast to reach 767 billion in 1963, a gain of 4.1 per cent. Statistically the increase

view

tionist's point of

it is

is

less

a

"gain."

From

the conserva-

obviously such.

The Bureau of Public Roads, now in the Department of Commerce, is one of the principal instruments of highway extension. It works with the states in developing highway systems and may. in the case of the interstate highway system, acquire lands needed by a state, the state reimbursing the

bureau for \0 r to acquire land

',

of the cost of acquisition.

The bureau's power

extends to the federal domain.

It

has the power

"adequate rights-of-way and control from adjoining land." and every other federal directed to "cooperate" with it in this regard. Within

to obtain for the states

of access

agency

is

.

.

.

a federal enclave,

such as a national forest or a national park,

appropriations for road construction are controlled jointly by the bureau

is

and the agency that administers the

land.

The bureau, which is not sensitive to conservation needs, the source of much mischief. The desire to get a road of

particular dimensions through an area at the lowest possible cost often leads to cruel sacrifices of scenic wonders. The bureau was at long last dissuaded from running the Blue Ridge Parkway down the Appalachian Trail in Georgia, which would have deprived that state of practically all of its mountain footpaths. But it took a mighty effort to save Georgia's

scenic stretches of

trail.

The highway planners are fast ruining recreation on and along our waterways. Donner Creek, a trout stream tributary Truckee River

was ruined by Interstate under way for a highway that will destroy the marsh habitat of the Neponset River in Massachusetts. The Black Hills in South Dakota once had hundreds of the

Highway

80. Plans are

in California,

In the Allegheny Xational Forest

.

64

many

160 mi. of them. Montana also lost

quent. Telltale tire marks are left behind; one finds them

miles of trout

streams as a result of highway construction; once a highway was routed into a trout stream to avoid moving a power line.

The

same the country

reports are the

over.

A

in incredible places.

The counterclaims

trout hatchery

threatened here, a pure purling stream there, a swamp in another area, a lakefront in still another. When Sen. Lee Metcalf of Montana asked fish and game commissioners of the 50

are based

highway construction was threatening their rivers and streams, 36 of the 50 answered in the affirmative. Highway construction must be controlled by the same val-

torized vehicles

is

states

it's

other

all

weighed. As Gen. are not careful,

we

Omar

those

they

is

made

must

Great

God

considered

and

to the

be

behind.

We

The Bureau

(New York Times, May

Ownership of

times dangerous ones

17. 1959, p. 44).

—

roads and on

trails

tion of the use of

within the national forests, but regula-

Tote Goats and similar vehicles

a forest-by-forest basis. Potential

the land,

Some

and

to the resources

is

damage

become

the nation's newest

Waterways they are

filled

experience

traffic

— on summer weekends.

is

supposed to be the criterion.

have strict regulations; others are more lenient. While jeeps and Tote Goats are presumably barred from wilderness areas, they often come up to the boundaries and their drivers, seeing no ranger, roar straight ahead. These vehicles often have no licenses; the citizen who sees them has no identifying number to report to the authorities. Forest Service rangers cannot be everywhere. Thus the invasion even of remote wilderness areas is becoming more and more freLake Mead:

now

a big

—some-

true wilderness when with the roar of motorboats. Fish are fright-

ened; shallow beaches are subjected to heavy washings; the waters become unusable for those in rowboats or canoes. Canoeways today are largely unprotected in this respect, and there

This

is is

agitation to exclude motorboats

from some of them.

not easy. At one time the Park Service, in order to

protect the solitude of Yellowstone

more shallow

Lake and

to save

some

from motorboats from others. The regulations were revoked under pressure from organized motorboat interests. Motorboats are not barred from the Boundary Waters Canoe Area in the Superior National Forest, but long portages do limit their use. The threat to that area was from the airplane. Aircraft equipped with pontoons loaded up in Chicago. Milwaukee, and other Midwest points and put down in of the

shores, barred boats of a certain size

sections of the lake and barred

all

plane would be back at

home

base loaded with

derness was being gutted by those

who could

By fish.

fish

night the

The

wil-

there with-

out the effort a wilderness journey usually requires. It was

done on

to other users, to

forests

is

jams

their character as

lose

the heart of the Quetico-Superior lake system.

the national forests.

Forest Service regulations govern the use of motor vehicles off

pleasure boat has

Many waterways

business.

Roads has issued a directive for "suitable coordination" between highway and conservation agencies. This is a recent conversion, and whether it will really save our recreational resources from further depletion because of the highway remains to be seen. Other Motorized Vehicles, Powerboats, and Aircraft. Even a roadless sanctuary today is often invaded by jeeps and Tote Goats chain-driven motorcycles that can carry 450 lb. up a 45° slope. One Tote Goat alone is enough to startle every living thing in an alpine basin. When Papa. Mama, and each of three children has one. they come up a canyon or enter an alpine sanctuary with a roar that echoes and reechoes off the cliffs. Pack trains are frightened; elk leave the country; the turf is cut and chewed up; trails are gouged and turned to dust; a clatter and a din fill what should be quiet places of solitude. Under the Wilderness Act of 1964, Tote Goats are barred from the wilderness areas. But they will continue to in

a

status symbol, and the manufacture of such craft

building ourselves an

of Public

plague other areas

trails.

threatened by the jeep and the Tote Goat, so the nation's waterways are being invaded by motorboats.

asphalt treadmill and allowing the green areas of our nation to disappear"

a perversion of the principles that are sup-

recreational

to other congested places

are

—

is

Just as the peace and solitude of wilderness sanctuaries are

Bradley said not long ago: "If we our children a legacy of billion-

nowhere except

left

—

Service

shall leave

dollar roads leading like

alternatives

upon the presumably irrebuttable premise: "Well, isn't it?" And so it is. But the use of high even though they are not within a wilderness by mo-

posed to govern the use of public land, for they destroy the sanctuary by their noise, clatter, and dust. Stringent measures are needed to bar these noxious vehicles from all Forest

ues as every other project that affects recreational uses. Be-

Highway,

owners of

public property,

trails

if

fore a sacrifice of recreational needs

of the manufacturers and

these vehicles are legitimate in terms of free enterprise; they

clear that this practice

would soon seriously deplete the

ing resources of the area.

—

Some

of the rewards for those

fish-

who

by canoe using brain and brawn, making the long portages would vanish. Moreover, the very landing and got there

—

takeoff of aircraft disturbed the wilderness environment. In

1949, by presidential executive order, flights below 4,000 ft. above sea level were banned, except for official missions into the area; the action was approved by the courts. Planes have been used in some parts of the country to hunt often unjustly accused by stockmen of bethe golden eagle

the roar of motorboats

—

— A W ing a serious predator of lambs, kids, and calves. In

alone

it

was estimated

Texas

12.000 were killed, and

that at least

was feared the species would become extinct. Finally, by of the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, the hunting of golden eagles by aircraft was made unlawful. Another example of the abuses that arise when motors are pitted against tlesh in hunting was the case of the wild horses, whose carcasses were sought by meat canners. The cruel system used to trap these animals was described in a House committee report: it

regulation

traditional method of rounding up horses with crews of cowboys was too slow and costly for men bent on cashing this source of gain. They found that an airplane could be used to drive wild horses from their refuses in the rimrock to the flatlands where they could be captured. The method followed was to drive the mustangs from the rough and rugged rimrock at breakneck speed. W hen these planes dive on the horses, the tendency of a group of horses is to scatter and attempt to hide. To counter this, a shotgun is commonly carried in the plane, and is used frequently to flush the horses from hiding and to keep them bunched and running in the direction desired by the hunters. After the horses have been driven onto the flatlands, they are chased by trucks,

The

and are pursued to the point of exhaustion.

The Act

banned the use of an aircraft or mo"any wild unbranded horse" running at

of Sept. 8. 1959,

tor vehicle to hunt

on the public land. we are to keep hunters on

large If life,

allowing

a

competitive basis with wildskill,

motorized equip-

If the roadless hills and man's retreat, they, too, must be protected against invasion by any machine, whether it comes on wings or on wheels, and whether the area is a wilderness area under the Wilderness Act or a roadless area with-

ment must be banished completely. valleys are to be quiet alcoves for

out that high prestige.

Debris. Along with motor vehicles comes the debris of civilization

—

bottles, cans, tinfoil, rags, all the litter our

ma-

chine age produces.

From 1957

to 1963 the Sierra

teer projects to haul out

areas in the Sierras, parks.

The

Club organized seven volun-

cans and bottles from wilderness

some in national forests, some shown in Table V.

in national

results are

Table V. Debris

Removed from

Region

Year

Shadow Lake

1957 1958 1959 1960

Bullfrog Lake

Dmgleberry Lake Bishop Pass Big Pine Creek

Vogelsang Humphrey's Basin

the Sierra Tons

n 3 4

»

1961

5

1962 1963

3

23

Total

The canoe waters of Canada are so heavily used that good housekeeping of camps is breaking down and littering is ram-

The condition is so serious demand either substantial fees pant.

waters or issuance of permits on a quota basis. State and federal agencies, responding ti> popular demand, put up shelters in campsites in the wetter areas. The shelters are in time consumed by men who. like termites, take them apart piece by piece. Garbage and debris pile high, adding to the administrative task of digging holes to bury the can-, the

—

and the tinfoil, or—preferably of packing them out. Havelock Ellis once wrote. "The sun. moon and stars would have disappeared long ago if they had happened to be within bottles,

human hands." Water Pollution. Sewage and industrial waste

the reach of predatory

a sense are also the debris of civilization

lakeshores, and bays.

One has

— pollute

to travel about

which

in

our rivers,

20 mi. outside

swimhow he and his family swam in the Potomac in the environs of Washington. D C. At the beginning of the 20th century this would still have been possible, but today a person who went overboard near the city would run the risk of becoming fatally infected. A river is a "treasure," as Mr. Justice Holmes once said. of Cleveland to find

ming. John Quincy

Lake Frie water

Adams

that

is

safe for

related in his Diary

But we have despoiled most of them. The pure,

clear, tree-

flowing American river of the 18th or even the 19th century

be pitted against

skill to

65

ilderness Bill of Rights

that a litter-clean future

may

for travel permits in canoe

Texas sanctuary: heroic

efforts to save threatened species

has largely disappeared. In the mid-1940s the late Stanley Jcwett of the Fish and Wildlife Service and I took healthy

rainbow trout and lowered them into the water near the mouth of the Willamette River at Portland. Ore. The trout lived only a short while because little or no oxygen was available to them in the sewage-laden water. The Willamette in those days was not greatly plagued by silting, and oxygen-producing plants could grow in the river's bed. but this oxygen was rapidly used up in the decomposition of the sewage. When silting accompanies sewage, the water becomes so turbid that even the plants cannot grow, and the result, eventually, is a body of water with zero oxygen. It is this deadly combination of silt and sewage that has ruined the Potomac John Quincy Adams knew. The silt results from failure to use proper farming methods in the Potomac watershed, and from the extensive use of bulldozers in clearing vast acreages for urban housing projects. Seldom are trees preserved when homesites are being developed; rather the choice is to level a whole area and replant later. This leaves large sections of ground open to heavy erosion for a year or even two. The sewage that enters the Potomac is. in part, effluent the residue left after raw sewage has been treated. But this is not entirely the case. The towns along the river have sewagedisposal units, but most of them were constructed to serve a smaller population than presently exists, and some are inadequate to handle the present volume of use. Above the metropolitan area, raw or inadequately treated wastes from about Xorth Carolina

forest: the debris of civilization

66

4%

of the population (25,000 persons) now enter the Potomac. As a consequence, the river is at points nauseating, come July. What was once a pure, free-flowing river has been converted into a cesspool.

What is true of the Potomac and the Willamette is true of most of our waterways. We have made them ugly and noxious areas on which people turn their backs, not to which they walk with joy and eagerness. Some of our rivers even now have zero oxygen, an environment in which not even trash fish

—

can

live.

Overall, our sewage-disposal plants are adequate to serve

only between 70 and

S0%

The Kerr Committee

of the Senate reported in 1961 that

of the people

who new

use them.

we

must spend $600 million a year merely to catch up with the need for sewage treatment facilities. To meet present deficiencies and future need will require $1.7 billion a year until 1980 and increasing amounts thereafter. Even if there were adequate sewage-disposal plants, sewage effluent would remain a problem. After being subjected to the usual treatment processes, the effluent still contains some of the original contaminants. It also contains dissolved nutri-

forms of distillation, presently being used in pilot plants or demonstration centers. Each of these is usable for processing sewage effluent as well as saline water. Costs have not been worked out with precision, but enough is known to give assurance that distillation methods are practicable, and that the use of nuclear fuel as a power source will bring the cost within range.

That the distillation process can be used to eliminate contaminants from river water was demonstrated in the June 1963 Analysis of the Potomac River Basin Program of the and Division Engineers by A. W. Smith of the NaPotomac River basin, the Corps of Engineers had proposed a system of 16 large dams and 418 small ones on the Potomac and its tributaries. One of the large dams, to be located at Seneca, Md., would have as its chief function the supplying of a head of water for flushing the river of sewage. In opposing this whole

District

tional Parks Association. In its report on the

cumbersome arrangement, the Analysis explains that the embayments and would not be greatly affected by flushing of the deepwater channels. The Analysis then goes on to show that the cost of installing a single-pureffluent gathers in the

the form of nitrogen and phosphorus compounds, which in turn bring about excessive growth of algae in the water and an eventual loss of dissolved oxygen. If the effluent

fourths of the cost of an impoundment system such as that suggested by the Corps, and that operating costs for water

enters the river in small quantities, fish will feed on the algae,

purification

ents in

on the river may flourish. But the balance is a delicate one. and the influence of the effluent is cumulative. Yet technology today has advanced to the point where, if we would only utilize it, we could have free-flowing rivers with hundreds of swimming holes fast canoe waters freed of sludge and odor idyllic bays and estuaries for boating and fishing picnic grounds washed by pure water rivers that would cause people to turn their faces toward them. If dollars were the only values, the cheapest way of managing a river might be to use it as an open sewer. But there are other values. We have already arrived at a point in history where our rivers

and

life

—

—

—

—

are so heavily polluted that they are a public disgrace. as the population mounts, the situation will

And

become more

Drastic measures must be taken now. Although as a nation we pride ourselves on our ability to invent and exploit the very latest in technological improvements, we continue to try to meet our snowballing waterpollution problem with the technologies of a generation ago. Instead, we should be attempting to inaugurate a new regime, in which outmoded methods of sewage treatment would be replaced by processes similar to those now employed in desalinization. Plants using these processes would return pure water to the streams, not harmful or potentially harmful efcritical.

pose, coal-tired distillation plant would be only about three-

would also be less. Not calculable in monetary terms would be the reward of a national waterway stretching over 200 mi. east of Cumberland, Md.

Free-Flowing Rivers Versus Dams. The Corps of EnPotomac are only one in a long series of examples of how we tend to follow old habits in

gineers recommendations for the

dam

building, even

when

the technology that provided the

becoming obsolete. We have seen that dams are no longer the preferred method in pollution abatement. With new sources of energy from nuclear fission and from the sun within our grasp, we are entering an era when we shall no longer need additional increments of hydroelectric power. And with practical methods of desalinization within reach, we may not even need dams for irrigation. When it comes to building dams we should remember that from now on almost every structure will result in the sacrifice of scenically important streams and valleys. If we decide to preserve those beauties rather than to bury them forever under muddy waters, our decision is at best temporary, one that the next generation can undo. But if we destroy a stream rationale for

them

is

—

—

or valley,

we

sacrifice

it

forever.

Then men

There are several desalinization processes, including various Meandering

river: scenic ally

important

all

future time

—

Where

fluent.

for

must abide by the choice we have made. Much glamour surrounds the statistics concerning the use of reservoirs for recreation. But in truth all is not glamorous. there are severe fluctuations of water level as, for example, on the Potomac, and on the Youghiogeny tributary Gien Canyon

Dam:

the rationale

.

.

.

is

becoming obsolete

:

—

A —

Monongahela the drawdowns produce some ghastly These eastern areas are used for recreational purposes in the fall and winter as well as in the spring and summer. Drawdowns usually start by early July, and as the water recedes tree trunks often emerge and dreary debris appears in the form of bottles, oil drums, tin cans, auto tires, boards, driftwood, and paper stuck in slimy mud. These drawdowns produce eyesores, making some spots unapproachable. In Arkansas the Corps of Engineers built many clams across rivers for flood control, for electric power, and for other purposes. The power was neither needed nor used, existing capacity being about five times the demand. Yet dam building continues, and Arkansas's remaining free-flowing rivers seem doomed. Why? The land is not very productive from an agricultural point of view and the owners are happy to receive of the

sights.

Local groups become excited over the prospect of having several million dollars come into their area for construction work. Motel owners and recreational concessionaires cash for

it.

dream of converting the impoundment of water behind the dam into a popular playground. And, as I have pointed out, these reservoirs do attract people. But what are some of the other results? The free-flowing stream for canoes and float boats has vanished; the river that never slept is drowned under murky waters, and with it the grandeur of the valley through which it meandered. The stream was often good bass water, but within a few years the bass fishing gets poorer sedimentation covers up the gravel bars where bass spawn and the species dies out. Then a new tragedy may occur. Trash fish usually the gizzard shad in

—

Arkansas People

— — take over. The reservoir

still

swim. boat, or

sail

is

largely lost for fishing.

there or ride water skis, and

below the reservoir the discharged water coming from the

Wilderness

Rid its

Bill of

larger dams in the Pacini Northwest seem to run between 11 and 28 kilowatts per aire Hooded, while one very -.mall system (Carmen on Oregon's Mc Kcnzie) gives a figure of 2.S0! Does the American public want so much land irrevocably altered for so little power produced? 2. If there is such a demand for pitvrr why have the gas wells to the west of Anchorage which have burned for 20 years not been controlled' Alaska has at least two huge gas fields, and 4 mil power could be produced at tidewater from at bast one of them. What about coal

The

reserves? Or tidal power? Or nuclear fuel? h confidence that Why is there so

mm

dam when we know

fish

well that attempts to get

can be gotten over the around Brownlee on

fi^h

the Snake, for instance, have been c|uite unsuccessful? Brownlee is 395 feet high and Rampart proposed to be 530. \lso, fish are known to have great difficulties with quiet wate r impoundments. The only presently known way to get fish up or down this size dam is by truck.

Rampart has never been

from the standpoint of whether the vast amount of power that would be produced can be used by industry so far from consumers, or whether can be transmitted across Canada to the lower 48 states. There are excellent sources of power elsewhere far and beyond Alaska's needs, sources that would not destroy such priceless areas as the Yukon Valley. This gigantic $1-1.5 billion proposal is a dream of the Corps of Engineers, a project that would keep it busy for a quarter id" a century. Alter a few days amid the glories of the wast Alaskan tundra. Paul Brooks wrote in Roadless Area: "We now realize at what cost we have 'conquered' most of cuir continent. Alaska today offers us something that history seldom affords a second choice.'' Alaska presents our last opportunity to and

feasibility,

it

is

very

justified

questionable

it

—

preserve immense wilderness areas intact.

If

Rampart

Dam

succeeds, we will have lost the last true wilderness we have left.

—

The western states are very public-power minded and wdth reason, considering the tremendous economic development

that

was made possible by federal power projects along

impoundment is usually cool enough for trout. some gains. Yet on balance there is a net loss,

the Columbia River and elsewhere. Furthermore, states, pub-

gone forever. There is much talk of impounding reservoirs in Appalachia to attract tourists. But Appalachia cursed by strip-mining now has creeks that run acid. Those creeks can despoil an entire impoundment, making it wholly unfit for fishing or any

cates with a special interest in promoting federal hydroelectric

depths of the

So there are

for a free-flowing river

is

—

other recreational use.

The proposed Rampart Dam on the Yukon in Alaska, which would take 18 years to fill, would inundate the nesting grounds of two million ducks and geese. Of Alaska's furs, about 8% are taken on the Yukon Flats, which would be covered by impoundment. The ancestral homes and hunting grounds and Chalkyitsik Indians would be wiped out. The Pacific Northwest Chapter of the Sierra Club asks

the

of the Yenetie

many embarrassing 1.

Reservoir sites

in

questions about

Rampart

Dam

Alaska show particularly poorly

kilowatts produced per acre flooded.

Rampart

in

relation to

gives a figure of O.OSS.

lic

utility districts,

and municipalities are public-power advo-

The Rural Electrification Act of 1936 directs the administrator to give "preference" to stales and their

projects.

REA

subdivisions

— including municipalities, public —

utility districts,

and cooperatives in the distribution of electrical energy from federal hydroelectric projects. It is quite proper that public agencies be given this preference, but there is no reason to restrict the preference to federal hydroelectric projects. It should extend to federal steam plants whenever they are constructed, to federal nuclear energy plants when they arrive, and to any other federally financed power project. >nce this change is made or promised, the greatest single force for destruction of our fixers and valleys through dam construction will be eliminated. Then the political pressures will be for the most feasible, the most lasting, the least ruinous form of public power.

Saguaro Lake, Ariz.: on balance linn

(

is

*

J

—

— .

our present pockets of wilderness may be pounded to dust, unless severe rationing of use is imposed. Implicit within the new conservation ethic of which we

speak

is

the need to reexamine the values that guide and moti-

is a free country; what the peoThat is the theory, and its proponents go on to say that the majority vote should carry every issue wilderness as well as the income tax. The defenders of wilderness who speak against the road building or logging or the multiple-purpose dam are all too often put in the position of seeming to speak for unemployment and against profit making, for a reduced standard of living rather than an increase in the gross national product. But the defenders of wilderness— no matter how unpopular they may be on a particular issue are defending other values. Those who love the wildness of the land and who find exhilaration in backpacking and sleeping on the ground may lie idiosyncratic, but they represent values important in a free society. Wilderness people are -at the opposite end of the spectrum from any standardized product of this machine age; they represent basic values when they protest against automation of the wilderness and of themselves. Nor is it only the backpackers and the campers whose rights are being jeopardized. People treasure our wilderness even when they are too frail to visit it. They derive comfort and

vate American society. This

ple want, the people can have.

—

—

security from the realization that original a

America

as

vested interest

Most important

of

it

in all

was

in the

possess

some

of the

must be defended.

are the rights of our children and grandof

it

trust.

still

the wilderness that

—of the Americans the wilderness values — we must do

children

we

beginning. These, too, have

future.

They cannot defend

for them. This

is

our solemn

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 52

Description Western mountain valley Rhode Island beach

52

California cypress grove

53

Eastern woodland

54

Whooping crane

54

California condor

52

Credit Ansel

Adams

— Magnum — —

Nancy Palmer Nancy Palmer Photo Agency Rapho Guillumette Brett Weston Nancy Palmer Nancy Palmer Photo Agency

—

Cruickshank

54

Ivory-billed woodpecker

from National Audubon Society Carl B. Koford from National Audubon Society A. A. Allen from National Audubon So-

54

Timber wolf

Tom McHugh

54 60

Bighorn sheep Corkscrew Swamp

New York

John K. Terres from National Audubon

60

Natchez Trace Parjcway

Society Courtesy, Bureau of Public Roads, U.S.

61

Gettysburg Massachusetts Turnpike interchange New York approach road Allegheny National Forest

Allan

D.

ciety

from

National

Audubon

Society

63 63 63 64

65

Lake Mead Texas sanctuary

Zoological Society Photo

Department of Commerce Andre de Dienes Rapho Guillumette Laurence Lowry Rapho Guillumette

—

—

Herbert Loebel Courtesy, U.S. Forest Service Rapho Guillumette William Belknap Jr. R. C. Clement from National Audubon

—

Society

65 66

North Carolina forest Meandering river

Free Lance Photographers Guild F. W. Kent from National Audubon So-

66 67

Glen Canyon Dam Saguaro Lake, Ariz.

70

Caribou migrating

Margaret Durrance Rapho Guillumette Courtesy, Bureau of Reclamation, U.S. Department of the Interior Charles J. Ott from National Audubon So-

71 71

Lassen National Forest

ciety

—

ciety Illinois coal strip

mine

Courtesy, U.S. Forest Service John H. Gerard from National Audubon Society

73

Los Angeles

76 77 77

Cattle on range Tree in the city

Wright's Flycatcher

William A. Garnett Chuck Abbott Rapho Guillumette Brett Weston Rapho Guillumette William L. Dawson from National Audu-

—

—

bon Society 78

Wilderness canipfire

Leonard Lee Rue III from National Au-'

Britannica

Book

of the

Year

)

)

1964

20 Father's Day, U.S.

S

JANUARY M T W T F

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DECEMBER o

6 7 13 14

1112 8 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

o 6

ivi

7

13 14

20

vv

i

i

o

r

4

3

M

T

6 Epiphany Twelfth Night) 8 150th anniversary, Battle of N'ew Orleans, War of 1812 4 89th U.S. Congress convenes 1st session 19 Robert E. Lee's birthday,

2

8

9 10 11 12

W

T

F 1

3

4 5 6 7 8 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 7 18 19 20 21 22

S

S

2

9

16 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

7

M

T

W

4

3

1

2

8

9 10

F

1

1

5

S 6

12 13

141516171819 21

S

20 22 23 24 25 26 27

28

7

M

T

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T 4

3

1

2

8

9 10

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S

M

T

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2

3

4

5

6

7

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5

M

1

8

9 10 11 12131415 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

5

S

S

T

W

T

6

1112 13

141516171819 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

4

5

6

7

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F

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12

F

3

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T 1

W

T

2 3 9 10

F

4

S

7

8

1

S

M

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W

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5

12 1314151617 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 6

2

9 10

1213 14 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

1

1

F

2

S 3

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

4

5

6

S 1

M 2

T 3

W

T

4

S

F

6

5

7

8 9 10 1112 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

S

M

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3

4

1011

5

6

7

F

S

1

2

8

9

1213141516

17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

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M 1

W

T

2

3

4

F

5

S

S

M

T

8 9 10 1 1 12 13 20 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

T

5

6

7

3

Tuesday,

9 10

8

1

1213141516 1718 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

3 Ash Wednesday

T

F

S 1

2 3 4 9 10 11

5

6

7

8

12131415

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

5

FEBRUARY M T W T F

1

8

M

T

3 9 10 2

W 4

5

M

5

F

6

S

5 16 17 18 19

1

6

7

8

W

T

1

9

11

April

S

2 3 4 5 9 10 11 12

17 1819 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

S

M

3

4

T 5

W

T

6

7

F

S

1

2

8

9

1011 1213141516 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

S

M

T

W

12 5

6

7

8

AUGUST

JULY

T

F

3

S

S

M

T

W

T

4

9 10 11

12131415161718 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

F 1

S 2

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3

4

5

6

7

S

8

7

M

T

W

T

100th

anniversary, General Lee's surrender to General Grant at Ap-

SEPTEMBER M T W T F

S

3

4

5

6

1

2

9 10 11 12 13

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

S

OCTOBER M T W T F

(

Day

5

M

T

7

8

W

T

F

DECEMBER S

S

M

T

W

T

7

8

F

2 3 4 5 9 10 11 12

4 11

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

7

1

2

8

9 10

Memorial

May

10,

June

May Day

International Labor Day 2 Muslim N'ew Year, 138S 7 50th anniversary, sinking of the British liner "Lusi1

24

24 27 30

German

sub-

marine Mother's Day, U.S. Armed Forces Day, U.S. Rogation Sunday Victoria Day and queen's birthday celebration, Canada Commonwealth Day, U.K. Ascension Day Memorial (Decoration)

3

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

1

6

1808 6 Pentecost (Whitsunday) 6 Shabuoth (Jewish Feast

1

5

6

2 9

.

7

11 11

Day,

3

10

1213 14 151617

13 Trinity Sunday 14 Flag Day, U.S. 15 750th anniversary,

Remembrance Day, CanMartinmas (Feast

of

St.

Martin 15 200th anniversary, birth of Robert Fulton, U.S. in)

ventor

25 Thanksgiving Day, U.S. 28 First Sunday in Advent 30 Feast of St. Andrew

8 Conception Day 8 200th anniversary, birth of Eli Whitney, U.S. in-

ventor 15 Bill of Rights Day, U.S. Day, Brothers 17 Wright U.S.

18 100th anniversary,

Weeks ), 1st day Whitmonday

Kamehameha

Revolution Day, U.S.S.R. Veterans Day, U.S.

ada 11

of

7 11

Francis

All Saints' Day 1 2 General election day, U.S. 2 All Souls' Day 2 100th anniversary, birth of Warren G. Harding, 29th president of the U.S. 5 Guv Fawkes Day, U.K.

slav-

ery abolished in the U.S. by adoption of the 13th

Ha19

Amendment Hanukkah (Jewish

21

of Lights), 1st day Winter solstice (8:41

birthday, L'.K.

S

13141516171819

6

(.also

12 Trooping the color in honor of the sovereign's

91011 12131415

5

Pass-

3)

1

of St.

Yom

1st

waii

NOVEMBER S

(Jewish

Kippur (Jewish Day of Atonement 11 Thanksgiving Day, Canada 11 Sukkoth (Jewish Feast of Tabernacles), 1st day 12 Columbus Day 24 United Nations Day 31 Halloween 6

sination of Abraham Lincoln died April 1 5

141516171819

121314151617

4 11

4 Feast

pomattox Palm Sunday

16 Good Friday 17 Pesach (Jewish

S

8

Hashana

New Year, 5726) 29 Michaelmas Day

3 Jefferson Davis' birthday, F

Day,

Indian

U.S.

Day

Fools'

EST)

a.m.

24 American

14 Pan American Day 14 100th anniversary, assas-

15 23

APRIL F

31

S

(

27 Rosh

Day, U.S.

7

1112 13 14

T

13141516

JUNE T

20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 1

MARCH S

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28

MAY S

ico

17 itizenship Day, U.S. 23 Autumnal equinox (1:06

4 Passion Sunday

9

W

ada 16 Independence Day, Mex-

25 Annunciation Day

1966 T

6 Labor Day, U.S. and Can-

EST)

tania" by a

JANUARY

Augustine, Fla.

Gras

1

141516171819

31

M

St.

Mardi

4

21

Day,

ish landing at the site of

2 Shrove

S

F

12

6

7

W

Ab)

U.S.

day 18 Easter Sunday T

Day

Jewish Fast

28 400th anniversary, Span-

over).

4

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 131415161718 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

S

of

(

15 Assumption Day 19 National Aviation

George Washington's

3

1

8

151617

11

Lammas Day

8 Tishah bov

Hay

St. Valentine's

26 Confederate

M

1

6 Transfiguration

birthday, 1732

31

S

ern Ireland

1516171819

21

M

fiscal

U.S.

14 Bastille Day, France 15 St. Swithin's Day 25 Constitution Day, Puerto Rico

7 First Sunday in Lent 12 Girl Scout Day 15 Ides of March 17 St. Patrick's Day 18 Purim (Jewish Feast of Lots) 20 Vernal equinox (3:05 p.m.

T

Beginning of year 1966

1 Dominion Day, Canada 4 Independence Day, U.S. 12 Orangemen's Day, North-

2 Candlemas Day 2 Groundhog Day 6 N'ew Zealand Day 8 Hoy Scout Day 12 Lincoln's birthday. 1809 14 Septuagesima Sunday

14 22

(9:56

1

1807 20 Inauguration Day, U.S. 26 Australia Day 26 Republic Day, India

5

1

1965 S

Day

1

6

t»

5

Year's (

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

S

MARCH

FEBRUARY

Summer solstice a.m. EST) 24 Midsummer Day

21

N e\v T

1

p.m.

sign-

ing of the Magna Carta 17 Corpus Christi 18 150th anniversary, defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo

Feast

EST)

25 Christmas Day 26 Boxing Day, U.K. 28 Childermas (Feast Innocents) 30 100th anniversary,

of the

birth

of Rudyard Kipling, British author

31

New

Year's Eve

U.S. soldiers and 20 Panamanians had been killed in the disorders.

Appointment was announced Archbishop Makarios

|

III,

Montreal of George dent of the Montreal

presi-

and

its

territorial

Panamanian

manded complete

special presidential mission headed by A^-st. Secy, of State Thomas C.

Soviet Union in notes delivered to the U.S. and most other countries proposed the renunciation of force in all

Pres.

Chiari derevision of the treaties under which the U.S. operPanama Canal; U.S. ates the

integ-

rity.

Mann

their

decision

to

establish

diplo-

pany.

Committee

Sen. Barry M. Goldwater (Rep.. Ariz.) announced that he would seek the Republican presidential

general, reTerry, U.S. ported that the use of cigarettes substantially to the contributed so U.S. death rate that appropriate remedial action was needed.

nomination.

headed surgeon

by

Luther

UN

VI, beginning 3-day pilgrimage to the Holy Land, was surrounded by hysterical crowds near the Damascus Gate to Jeru-

Paul

Security Council, meeting in emergency session, called on the U.S. and Panama to establish an immediate cease-fire in the Canal Zone area and to use utmost reto

straint in

salem.

further violence, settlement of the the Organization of States.

avert

effect leaving

dispute

eral civil

took control of sevareas of Calcutta after the administration had failed to

Canadian government announced

Muslims.

it would issue an identification number to every employed person in Canada beginning April 1, 1964.

Cuba and the U.S.S.R. Havana a trade protocol

France offered Cambodia tanks, and combat aircraft to help

trucks,

defend

its

signed in

providing for a 1964 trade total equivalent to $610,000,000 and the granting to

Cuba

$159,000,000

of

in

Soviet

credits.

neutrality.

gress convened in

88th ConWashington, D.C. of the

U.S. Supreme Court unanimously held unconstitutional a Louisiana statute requiring that

Sale of 450 British buses to the Cuban government was announced simultaneously in Havana and Lon-

of

Karume.

Panama completed its breach of diplomatic relations with the U.S. after failure of inter-American efforts to end the crisis; Soviet Premier Nikita S. Khrushchev issued a statement supporting Panama

the race of

political candidates be printed on the ballot. all

U.S. Federal Trade Commission issued a set of proposed rules that would impose stringent curbs on cigarette

advertising.

U.S.

Civil

Rights

Commission

reported a national pattern of excluding Negroes and other minoritygroups from apprenticeship pro-

grams

for

Pres.

Johnson

skilled

labor.

in

his

first

forego inflationary increases in and wages.

British Commonwealth Relations Office reported that Dar es Salaam, capital of Tanganyika, was quiet after a day of mutiny by African troops.

the 26 miniscitizenship minister, was named minister of justice and government leader in the House of Commons.

Lyndon B. Johnson in his state of the union message to Congress called for a wide-ranging

tion of duties ters;

a

Pres.

in

first

search into the nature of the iono-

program

to

end poverty and

penditure at $9 7,900,000,000.

Congolese Pres. Joseph Kasa\ ubu declared state of emergency in Kwilu Province, about a third of which was under rebel control.

Prime Minister Pearson Washington, D.C., Pres. Johnson.

in

D. Kaunda was sworn in prime minister of Xorthern Rhodesia after his United National Independence Party won an overwhelming victory in parliamentary first

Canada and the U.S. signed in Washington, D.C agreements for Columbia of the development River basin and for establishment of an international park at the former summer home of Franklin D. Roosevelt on Campobello Island, N.B., off Canada's east coast.

Soviet Union in an economic re1963 acknowledged a for sharp drop in the rate of growth of production of consumer goods. port

Guy

among

Favreau,

Proposals for closer links between Britain and the European Economic Community were rejected by France at a Western European Union ministerial meeting in London.

Indonesian Pres. Sukarno announced agreement to a cease-fire in Malaysian dispute; agreement was negotiated by U.S. Atty. Gen. Robert Kennedy, in Southeast Asia as Pres. Johnson's sary.

personal emis-

sphere.

dis-

crimination at home and the threat of war abroad.

Canadian government announced that it would lay up 14 warships to reduce naval operations and maintenance costs.

Belgium and the Congo signed technical assistance Leopoldville.

agreement

a in

Thirteen Arab nations meeting in Cairo agreed to set up a military command to strengthen the Arab position on problems related to Israel.

Soviet government disclosed it had postponed construction of a major power project and aluminum plant in Siberia in order to divert resources to the expansion of the chemical industry.

Pres. Roberto Chiari of Panama suspended relations with the U.S. after

rioting

by Panamanian

stu-

dents who invaded the Canal Zone in a dispute over flying of the Panamanian flag within the Zone; 4

Increase

in

U.S. parcel post rates

averaging

13% was

Interstate

Commerce Commission.

approved by

arrived

for talks with

prices

U.S. and Canada announced agreement on a plan for the launching

Canadian satellites cooperative program of re-

Con-

eco-

nomic report to Congress forecast a rapidly expanding economy during 1964 but warned industry and labor

Minister Pearson anPrime nounced the first major revision of his government and a new distribu-

of 4

to

elections.

project.

by the U.S.

Johnson submitted

gress budget for the fiscal year ending I une JO, 1965, which estimated revenue at $03,000,000,000 and ex-

Kenneth

New

to the

conference nation in reconvened

disarmament Geneva.

in the dispute.

granting

constitution came into effect internal self-government Bahama Islands; Sir Roland Symonette took office as the first prime minister.

Seventeen on

Pres.

U.S. and Canadian negotiators reached agreement on the Columbia River hydro and flood-control

don.

Events

conti-

U.S. Charge d'Affaires Frederick P. Picard III was expelled from Zanzibar; he had been taken into custody at gunpoint the day before by provisional Pres. Abeid Amani

to

Second session

of

Lester

B. Pearson in a speech in Paris appealed for greater interdependence within the Atlantic community and

Army

stop fighting between Hindus and that

Chronology

as

African rebels overthrew. the predominantly Arab government of Zanzibar in heavy fighting.

Indian

Canadian Prime Minister

to

American

Pope Paul VI and Athenagoras I, ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople, met on the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem in the first meeting of leaders of the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches since 1439.

Agreement was reached in Chicago by negotiators for the International Brotherhood of Teamsters and Trucking Employers, Inc.. for a nationwide true king contract covering more than 400,000 union members and 14,000 companies.

of the dangers nental isolation.

of first of a series of

Soviet purchases of U.S. wheat was announced by a U.S. grain com-

Pope

Community.

warned

matic relations.

Completion

)

the

arrived in Panama.

Tunisia and Communist China, at the end of a visit by Premier Chou En-Iai to Tunisia, announced

territorial disputes.

1964

nations raise to the Italian level fi'; duties on steel imported into

stock exchanges.

dent of Cyprus, announced his intention to seek abrogation of treawith Britain, Greece, and ties Turkey guaranteeing Cyprus' constitution

in

Hees as presiand Canadian

High Authority of the European Coal and Steel Community formally recommended that member

KAUNDA, JAN. 22

PEARSON, JAN. 17 (Dominion-Wide

— Canadian

Press)

(Pictorial Parade)

83

Maj. Gen. Nguyen Khanh formed new South Vietnamese government with himself as premier; Maj. Gen. Duong Van Minh was named chief

34

Chronology of Events

Pres. Makarios of Cyprus rejected new compromise peace proposals made by the U.K. and the U.S.

of state.

Johnson

Pres.

Cuban support

Sino-Soviet ideological dispute was spelled out in communique issued after a 9-day visit to the U.S.S.R. by Cuban Prime Minister Fidel Castro. in

tion

program.

urgent

Secy.-Gen.

Somalia

Makarios,

of

Cyprus,

(antipoll-tax) to the U.S. Constitu-

force.

was completed with ratificaSouth Dakota, the 38th do so.

tion by state to

U.S. lunar probe Ranger 6

U

Soviet Premier Khrushchev declared that the U.S.S.R. was seeking to restore the monolithic unity of the world socialist system.

Thant sent an

appeal to Ethiopia and to end border hostilities.

re-

jected an Anglo-U.S. proposal for an international peace-keeping

adopt the 24th

Amendment

the

UN

Pres.

Necessary constitutional action to

announced

Peace Corps Director Sargent Shriver to organize and direct the government's antipoverty

selection of

of Soviet position

hit the

Olympic games ended

IX winter

at Innsbruck, Aus.; Soviet athletes won the unofficial championship.

Premier Khrushchev establishment

the

a

of

called for top-level

agency to keep track of great scientific and economic problems and promptly utilize technological changes in the Soviet economy.

Former British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan announced his retirement from political life.

moon precisely on schedule at 4:24 EST, but its television cameras

a.m.

failed to function.

Canada and the U.S.S.R. I

Nationalist China announced the breaking of diplomatic relations with France.

signed

in Ottawa a 5-year agreement to cooperate in the peaceful uses of atomic energy.

Four Cuban fishing vessels were seized in U.S. territorial off the coast of Florida.

in

Mrs. Lee Harvey Oswald began testifying as the first witness before the presidential commission investigating the assassination of Pres. John F. Kennedy.

troops.

I

Pres. Johnson in a special message to Congress submitted a housing program aimed at meeting the shelter needs of the poor and encouraging community development in the suburbs.

France announced its recognition of Communist Ghina and the estab-

of U.S.

Amendment

abolishing the poll tax formally became part of the U.S. Constitution.

charge of aggression against the U.S. to the Council the

of

Washington

consultations following anti-U.S. riots in Accra.

to

its

for

OAS.

Communist

Chinese

Premier China to

Saturn rocket was launched from Cape Kennedy, Fla., with a record

returned Chou from a 7-week tour of 10 African

load of about 20,000

nations.

En-lai

lb.

Pres. Johnson sent to Congress a proposal to increase job opportunities by requiring some employers to pay double time for overtime work; other proposals were made for extension of minimum wage and overtime laws to more work-

British

and French governments

announced to

build

a

that they had agreed railroad tunnel under

the English Channel.

U.K. Prime Minister Sir Alec Douglas-Home announced the appointment of Quintin Hogg (for-

ers.

merly Viscount Hailsham) as state and science.

Maj. Gen. Nguyen Khanh overthrew the ruling South Vietnamese military junta and was proclaimed

secy, for education

Cuba cut

the normal water supply to the U.S. naval station at Guantanamo in retaliation for the seizure of Cuban fishing vessels.

chief of state.

French Pres. Charles de Gaulle at press conference proposed the neutralization of

Pres.

began in Dallas of Jack Ruby on charges of murdering Lee

Trial

Johnson renewed

Harvey Oswald, accused assassin

his appeal

off

Pres. Kennedy.

Social Security.

UN Security Council suspended debate on the Kashmir question without taking any decisive action.

Congress for a program of hospital and nursing-home care for the aged to be financed through

Pres. Johnson signed a bill authorizing greatly increased federal aid for library services.

U.S. State Dept. announced curtailment of military aid to France, Morocco, Spain, the U.K., and Yugoslavia to penalize them for trading with Cuba.

U.S. Defense Dept. announced that no more dependents of U.S. personnel would be allowed to go to the Guantanamo naval base.

Second session

of Canada's 26th Parliament opened in Ottawa; in the speech from the throne Gov.Gen. George P. Vanier said the

France named Claude Chayet as charge d'affaires in Peking as the first step toward implementing diplomatic recognition of Communist China.

government would seek legislation to extend Canada's territorial waters to 12 mi. offshore.

Zanzibar ordered the expulsion of Donald K." Petterson, the last U.S.

Treasury Dept. announced the first U.S. drawing from the International Monetary Fund. U.S.

diplomat on the island.

Konthi Supramongkhol land was

British government proposed a record peacetime defense budget and reaffirmed its policy of maintaining an independent nuclear de-

named

to

of Thaisucceed Pote

Thailand, Sarasin, also of secretary-general of SEATO.

Georgios Papandreou took

terrent. i

Pres. Johnson and Prime Minister Douglas-Home concluded a 2 -day conference

in

Washington, D.C.

in cooperation with Communist China.

Vietnam

U.S. and Britain presented a plan an international force of at least 10,000 men to Cyprus.

Soviet

Hellyer ordered the stationing of troops at armories in the Montreal area following a raid on an armory in

Premier

national elections.

Khrushchev

strongly protested U.S. -British proforce in Cyprus. posal for a

NATO

downtown Montreal.

U.S. announced that incident involving U.S. plane shot down over Germany was considered East

Prime Minister Douglasaccused Premier Khrushchev making unfounded and offensive charges about U.K. attempts to U.K.

Home

closed after wreckage and bodies of 3 airmen had been returned by the U.S.S.R.

of

.

keep the peace

in

Cyprus.

(K.

ARIF, FEB. 10 Pix from Publix)

Murali

—

office

working parliamentary majority

to send

Canadian Defense Minister Paul

as

as prime minister of Greece after his Center Union Party won a

Pres. Johnson announced in a speech in New York City that the U.S. had agreed to cooperate with Israel in using nuclear power to help solve the water shortage in the Middle East.

Cambodia, Laos, and

of

to

training plane over

U.S. ambassador to Ghana, William P. Mahoney, Jr., was ordered

took

Arif of Iraq

who wished to leave Cyprus after 2 bombs exploded at the U.S. embassy in Nicosia.

Soviet fighters shot down an un-

Panama

Salam

Pres. Abdul

and Mustafa al-Barzani, leader of the Kurdish rebels, announced a truce and the resumption of peace

civilians

24th

armed U.S. jet East Germany.

U.S. Supreme Court held, by vote of 6 to 3, that the Constitution requires the congressional districts within each state to be substantially equal in population.

laws.

negotiations.

accused Premier Khrushchev of seeking world domination through collaboration with the U.S.

lishment of diplomatic relations.

i

U.S. House of Representatives passed by vote of 2 90 to 130 and sent to the Senate bill providing for sweeping changes in civil rights

Communist China

!

Evacuation was authorized I

waters

Kenya, Tanganyika, and Uganda to put down mutinies by African

British forces went into action

Ethiopia charged that troops from Somalia had attacked 3 points on the Ethiopian border 2 hours after a cease-fire went into effect.

VANIER, FEB (Wide World)

13

in

France announced that insurgents who had overthrown the government of Gabon had surrendered to French

forces

called

in

by Pres.

Leon M'Ba.

omega-minus

subatomic particle, providing confirmabinding theory of new tion of a forces in the atomic nucleus, was announced in a Uritish journal.

Detection

of

85

OAS

investigating

committee

report upholding Venezuelan charges that Cuba had smuggled arms into Venezuela in

made

public

a

Nov. 1963.

UN

Secy.-Gen. U Thant reported

Security Council that an had been reached in his efforts to establish a peace-keeping in

Morocco were

and

vealed to ha\

e

agreed

to

end

ret

ion

for

e


'',. Bank loans alone rose by $1,025,000,000, cash by $105 million, and holdings of municipal and corporate securities by

$70

million,

all

of

which exceeded the increase

assets by $202 million.

In order to obtain

in total

funds to

duction contributed to increasingly fierce competition growing markets. The Common Market, for

in ever

finance this excess, the chartered banks sold govern-

instance, had already brought considerable changes

ment

have their effect on banking. ways were open to the banks to meet the problems offered by the internationalization of economic activities. Either branches could be established in other countries a policy pursued in 1964 by a number of American banks on the European continent, in the Far East, and in Africa or banks could strengthen the bonds they already had with institutions in other countries. A remarkable example of this form of international cooperation was the linkup between the Midland Bank, the Deutsche Bank, the Banque de la Societe Generale of Belgium, and the Amsterdamsche Bank. The international character of banking was also underlined by increasing common

Canada

amounting to $95 million. They obtained an additional $54 million from a decline in their holdings of provincial government securities and $68 million from a decline in their net foreign assets. A further $45 million was obtained
n Sea (1962); Protozoa: One( 1955): 1955 ): The Sea (196.?); Celled Animals (1957); Reptiles What Is an Amphibian? (1962); W hat Is a Fish' (1963); Worms (The Annelida) ( 1955). brate


43346

40,5-4,6781 8 291 704

4i ,-, JO.U—T 7 634 1 09

3,341 ,847

2.085,295 1,004,348

912,818 880,272

869,0451 22,903,305tf

16,170,638ft

20,096,693

283,154 19 966 490

677,003 43,691,069 389,958

229,718

7355,683

4,624,197

630738

933,721

1 1

786,196*1 ,549,626*t

|

54,293

3,281,125

174.253 198,234

1.675,192 1,108,108

524,2501

7V2.190-

96,430 5,657,446

168.885 7,886,181

1957-58** 1,609,814 s

Libya

4,091 ,894

16,782 40,660

Greenland

1 1

3,643 97,600

34,591

45,232 134,564

U.7

2353

1960

1,706,226 8!o36!263 24,989,241 321,621 1,010,000 1,559,399 16.628

314,889s 169,299

200707

68V,350

101,472

63V,310 770 00,

'251384

638,732 4,232 714§i

815.910

810.162 8,130 155,481 83,897

t'i

1

10,152350 11

179,4860311

i

3,626 380 10,383

94,'l72 '

41 .'932

11

6,267

5369

7375

962

"3,273

114.376 40,271

128,475 37,905

19,325

45,223 22,000

62.2

70,892

129,621

95.2

68356

60,472

1717

A

4

8

Economically active population 7 Agriculture manufacturing

Urban Year of

male

Total

Total

Age

population* percent

Age

distribution of population

46 and over

16 to 45

population

population

1957 1960 1960 1957

6,278.758 454,421 744 529 1,445^929

3,237,579 236,616 375 846

26.5 14 9 15.0

2,752.208 204,874

2,576,252 206,528

950,298

331 ,096

301 ,890

111,543

762760

63.1

643^022

608^426

194^481

1964 1960-61** 1957

94,527 4,100,000 319,620

POLITICAL UNIT

census

to 15

Total

Malaysia

Malaya Sabah (North Borneo) Sarawak Singapore

Maldive Islands Mali Malta Martinique

1962

Mexico

1960

Monaco

1961

Mongolia

1963 960 I960

Montserrat

34,923,129 22.297 1,018,800° 1

1

Morocco

1

1960 1963

Mozambique Nauru Nepal

2

1

Caledonia Guinea, Territory of Zealand Nicaragua Niger

1956

Nigeria

Norway

1963 1960

55,653,821 3,591,234

Pakistan

1961

93,831,982° 1 075 541 42^122

Panama Panama Canal Zone

1

I960 1961

Papua Paraguay

1962

1

'

Portugal Portuguese Guinea Portuguese Timor Puerto Rico

1960 1960 1960 1 960

8,889,392° 521,336 517,079

Reunion

1961

349,282

Rhodesia

1961-62 1960 1956 1 960 1960

St.

Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla

St.

Helena

St.

Lucia

St.

Pierre

St.

Vincent

Sao Tome and Principe

1956 1960 1962 1 960 1960

Senegal

1960-61"

Seychelles

1960 1963

and Miquelon

Sierre Leone

961

Sikkim South Africa

1

South West Africa Spain Spanish Sahara

1960 1 960 1960 1956 960** 1

1960

Sudan Swaziland

Sweden Switzerland Syria

1

209,100 78,089 13 43599

2,127,900 121,846 1 30,260V? 258',334°

100',198°

13,999,075 14,962*

4,718,205 4,570*

3,023

3,946

98

4,619,973 5,706,874 94^811

2.8 55.4

'

6,853

16.550

70,866

27,560

11,332,016 10,580

6,144,930

2,147,963 1,700

4,282 3,290^950

1,881 1,721 !o00

36,058 765,264 an 1,213,376

32.0

6,952,166* 77,0691

24,8081

30,6711

'

'

840,443

73.7

279

900

1,379 3,684.000* 3,516 623* 79,6831

1,445,000# 993,175* 35,7861

4,258,000.* '

2,212

989,927

32.1

13

1

40,178,518--''

41 .5

491 102

31.9

15,204

1,396,484 36,322,838-' 435,207

1

,306 480

16,059

895,363

123,934

230*191

,506,490

703,610

4,510

639/135 1

1, 789,406 49,308,645 545 774 23^278

1,653

446,695 1,029

4,168,626 59,806

12,0011*6

935,406

1 ,20 1,823 00, 13.781 ,31

1,406,358 30,205,981

299,386"

149,232 7^030

19^888

188.431 22,441,783 153 053**

367,296

33,251**

336

17>)85

278,006 na 895,551

36.1

5,159,745s'//

47.1

866,052 12,377,240 lo!328]618°°

29.9 48.3

4,254,373 260,650 267,783 qaz OZQ 1 ,000,700

22.5

2,757,895

3,792,171

44 2

1

058 750

863,849

170,438

28.1

3,857,470 183,377 17,489,450°

1,984,050 90,915 8,503,420

21 6

1,866,850"

31.3

883 122° 56^693

422 810 26/149

79.1

5.116,806 367,5531 25^920

4,642 86,108 5,025° 79 948 63^676

2,224 40,693 2,469 37 561 35^468

1

1,531,760 20,289 1,081,123

3,110,000 41,425 2,180,354 1 62 1 89 16,002,797

yc j

03

8,043^493

32.9

2,025 38,109 1,887 39,3051

24.9 98.7

23.0 25.4 4 2 46.7

1,320,680||||

15,934

266,275

684,563

596,555

312.647

91,077

10,692,000 13,907,442

5,768,000 6,545^855

1,120,000

2,339,326

3,316,472

1,393,624

717,117

426,945

551 ,688

135,100

95,504

3,400,264 7,315,558°°

11,310,181

13 662,869 14,404]218

29,775,508°

480^267

.

3,158,275

523,442°°

Poland

Muni Rumania Ryukyu Islands

5

1.816,890 Z/ ,UO' ,OOJ

Rio

1 6 29^3

.

2700,060**

10,364,620°«

1

407

5

68,480 1,448.919°° 2,414,984 1 524 027

960 1960

Philippines

16,205,849 2,742*

.1^1 11 ,101

1961

Peru

50.7

9*4° 192,538°

New New New

1963 1959-60

34.1

4,801 9,387,661 1

148,3679? 323^087°

342,306

67°

1960 1960

1,763,000 119,685

17,415,320 9,933

1,626^470°

Netherlands Netherlands Antilles

515 29.1

6,592,994

1961

1961 1961

153,108

292 062 681,619

1961

Mauritius

.

58.499 7,272 179 68,355

2,164.861

11738,548'°°

1,990 620"

4,308,591 159,7991

8,064,053 355,6411 19/378

1 1

,395

713,640

247,030

147,710

10,449,128 356,249 32^023

7,253,979 152,041 8^565

1,478,025 20,474 2^078

1,120 14,877 1,469 12,3761

1,497

33,122 1,669 28,2671

1,469 28,544 1,773 24,856

171

603

15,144

3,485 80 2,868

11

9,954

9,000

1,317,580 17,665

1,087,020 5,910

1

147,7201111

1,641,420111 16,491

3',237]814

6,731,000

6,809,800

2,447,700

5,691,770

8,365,000

13,506,800

8,652,900

11,634,214

4,803,316

3,799,964

2,419,158

3,244,084 2,512,411 1,016,347

354,228

73,800 2,151

,697,526

1

,285,050

21.2

514,514

OU ,4oU,0 70 23,793 10,262,536° 970 nnn £.1 U,UUU

14 388 H ,'763 OO ,000

42 5

13,070 5,186,126 1 13 944

b.3

1960 1960 1960

7,495,316 5,429,061° 4,565,121

3,738,881 2,663,432 2,344,224

72.8 42.0 41.9

1,648,906 1,361,210 2,014,509

3,035,606 2,302,312 1,656,452

2,810.804 1,765,539 680,094

957 1958

8 7P.R

4 233 487 '157^502

3 5 26.5

3,739,492

3,981,175 150,911

1,067,799 41,179

12.5

11,823,535 695,411 24,964

3,484,393 185,550 7,756 140,177 15,092

13,836,984 566,868 14,323

11,334,382 452,889 10,303

33^332

10,949,932 558,839 24,118 336,730 27,139

1,610,790 11,427,006 2.557 2 846 000 63^495 7 68

1,649,540 11,441,606 1,975 2,796,000 94,205,904

682,943 4,886,208

173,070 10,414,281

895,000 51,116,616

1,297,000 12,993,245 2,034 239,460 99,130^212

10,516,328 20,783,9951 70,919,666 1,892,000

4,358,025 19,589,5001 52,617,336 677,600

23,014,320* 64,639,252 2,627,000

3,022,725 7,556,129* 12,510 42,211 8,168,259

962,325 1,305,282*

4,592,899***

3,092,4001

401,1901

1

2,042,936*

8,219,600*

2,749,419

1,167,877 1,006,038 128,954

280,191 518,933

Tanzania, Republic of

Tanganyika Zanzibar

1

Thailand

Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Trust Territory of the Pacific Tunisia

Turkey Turks and Caicos Islands

Uganda

United Arab Republic United Kingdom United States Upper Volta

1960 1958-60 1956 1 960 1960

26,257,916 1,439,800 56,838 827 957 75^836°

13,154,149 689,556 28,938 411 580

1956 1960 1960 959 1959

3,943,273 27,754,820 5,668° 6 53A Al

1,957,271

208,826,650

1960

"25,984,101

1961

52,709,354 179,323,175

1

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

— Egypt

1960 ] 9o0-61 1963

Uruguay Venezuela Vietnam, North Virgin Islands of the United States

1960 1960 1960

Western Samoa Yugoslavia

1961 1961

Zambia (Northern Rhodesia)

That population defined

as urban

the individual political units,

tl947 census. tO-13, 14-49, over 49. ^Employed population. 1(0-14, 15-49, over 49. 10-14, 15-44, over 44.

AAA

299,111

1961-63

/ /inn

nnn

9.6

26.4 1

'l06 737

351 050

7

38721

14,163,888 2,667 3 283 230 94/)5o]303

35.0 26.3 4.8

47^9

13,068,012 25,481,635 88,331,494 9 9Dfi ,ouu Ron z ,zuo

37.9 79.0 69.9 4 6

11,109,748 12,335,8591 55,786,173

3,823,569

62.5

3,538,949

i

am

400

7,523, 999##

15,916,955 32,099 114,427 18,549,291 3,493,590

7,687,81

9.5

7,055, 544*

15,930 58,785 9,043,424

57.9 19.0 28.8

12,768 59,966 5,770,817

1,734,860

21.3

1,492,1501

**Demog raphic sample

unknown.

D 0-8, 9-60, over 60. °Derived from percentage. *0-14, 15-64, over 64.

tt0-14, 15-45, over 45. Jtlndigenous population only. §§16 and over. 11110-14, 15-59, over 59.

^Estimate.

1130,280 unknown.

9,

61 ,464

°De

7,818,911

599

74,500 961 ,988

393 46,726

32,679 36,575^187

33,168^975

734,209 6,812,860* 18,167,092

4,406,379 790,990* 4,256,734 1 ,300,000

2,556,020

20-49, over 49.

by

1,136

500,595

survey.

6,821 12,250

2,406,725 8,119,286 10,845

773,650 6,377,024

27,941 8,340,400

19,148 4,674,856

693,000

220,000

990-20, 21-64 over 64. 661 ,000 unknown. aD Census of nonindigenous, estimate of indigenous. cc 3,437,939 unknown. **Excludes indigenous.

1,633.075 537,761 894 1,716 1,137,848

610

72,000

^'Excludes Amerindia population. &i1slot considered: 392,784. 0-16, over 16. 0-5, over 5. •Excludes Northern Ireland. ***17,316 unknown. i

iure.

221

222

continued from pane 219

Census Data

European nations increased their populations at an average rate of O.S r ; and the growth rate for all of North America was calculated at 1.8%. The U.S. population increased by more than 2 million to 192 million during the year, making a rather modest contribution to the burgeoning worldwide gain of about 63 million persons. Census Bureau officials predicted that the L'.S. population would climb to 200 million sometime in 1967; other projections foresaw a population of 362 million by the beginning of the 21st parison,

.

areas. Statistics indicated that of the total population

increase between 1960 and 1963 (8.2 million ), 78.2% took place in metropolitan areas, including both cities

and suburbs.

West continued to outstrip the East The Census Bureau confirmed boast that it had surpassed New York as

Nationally, the

in population growth.

California's

the most populous state in the Union. In July the

clined, to the battlement

bureau estimated California's population at 18.084,compared with 17.915.000 for New York. Pennsylvania and Illinois retained their standing as the third and fourth most populous states, respectively. Texas moved ahead of Ohio as the fifth ranking state, while Alaska remained the state with the least number

logical experts. In

of residents.

century. ,

ban growth during the year, although suburbia still grew three times faster than the core cities and rural

000.

Such projections were subject

to considerable quali-

fication because of uncertainty over the national birth rate.

From 1957

the L'.S. rate had unexpectedly de-

of demographic and socioMarch, for example, fewer babies were born than in any March since 1955. The total number of births in the L'.S. dropped from 4.3 million in 1961 to 4.2 million in 1962 and 4.1 million in 1963. A further decrease for 1964 was expected when

became

final statistics

The

available.

Public Health Service reported that

its

analysis

— the marriage

and the age composition of the female population shed no light on the trend. The marriage rate, in fact, showed signs of increase, and the number of women of childbearing age was greater than ever before. The decline was the subject of various sociological explanations. Some studies produced evidence of more careful family planning by parents concerned with the financial burden of raising children, esperate

—

cially the higher costs of college education.

the causes, the declining birth rate led

population experts to revise their estimate of the U.S.

growth rate downward from 1.6% to 1.5$ a year. The independent Population Reference Bureau cautioned, however, that that the nation's bain'

it

was erroneous

boom had

run

its

conclude

to

course. Girls

born in 1947. the first year of the postwar baby boom, would reach their 20th birthdays in 1967. By 1970 there were expected to be 5 million more women of childbearing age than in 1960.

The number

born annually was expected to

rise to 6 million in

— the

\ear the

birth

rate

reached

its

highest

peak since 1921. In 1947 about 43 million Americans were age 17 or younger. In 1964 the number stood at 70 million, and the teen-age group was growing four and one-half times as fast as the total population. The phenomenon of massive teen-age population growth obviously presented social and economic problems that appeared certain to intensify. For example, high school enrollment was expected to ri>e the next decade million in the

— from

autumn

12.7 million in

30','

in

1964 to 16.3

19th century, continued through 1964.

70 out of every

100 Americans

farms.

By

7 out of

The remaining

farms

in

lived

An estimated in

cities

or

100 lived on productive

23 lived in rural nonfarm areas.

contrast. 85 out of every 100

Americans lived on

1850.

The Census Bureau

had risen

1960 while New York's growth over the same period was only 1.2 million.

Among

the

most

significant

movements

of people

within the country, the migration of Negro citizens

from the South to the North and West continued. The Negro population was estimated to be growing about four times faster outside the South than

in

it,

although

there were indications that the migration might be

slowing because of heavy unemployment in some j

Northern cities and growing Southern industrialization. Larger numbers of Negroes were moving to the West than to the North. A Wall Street Journal survey reported that Denver was gaining Negro residents faster than Pittsburgh, and that Negroes were moving into the San Francisco Bay area at about the same rate as into Washington, D.C. In Canada the population at midyear amounted to 19.272.000, an increase of 344.000 since July 1963 and a net gain of 1.034.000 since the Canadian census of 1961. The trend from farm to city was also pronounced in Canada, with the Maritime Provinces re-

over the year, followed by Quebec and British ColumNew Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island all registered population gains of less than

reported a slackening of subur-

f

|

bia.

(G. H.

1%. Censuses. The

spatial

distribution

Wa.)

and various

characteristics of the people in a given area, as well

numbers, are recorded through populaVarious other types of censuses are taken to determine characteristics of places and to collect data about particular activities or resources. Quantitative accuracy and content reliability vary from place to place. Standards have been established by the UN Population Commission which, when applied on a worldwide scale, will allow valid comparison between the statistics of various nations, especially of data relating to population and economic as actual total

tion

censuses.

characteristics.

Many

of 1974.

In the L'.S. the farm-to-city migration, begun in the

suburbs, while only

boom was beyond

California's population

population gain. Ontario showed the largest increase

that age in 1963. Seven1964 were of course born in 1947

L'.S.

state's population

ceiving less than a proportionate share of the total

more than had reached in

The

1975

brated their 17th birthday during the year, almost a million

out.

dispute, however.

of infants

and to 6.5 million in 1980. As of 1%4. the impact of the postwar baby boom was being felt in the dramatic increase in the number of teen-agers. A total of 3.7 million Americans cele-

teen-year-olds

them

2.4 million since

of two prime factors related to fertility

Whatever

California officials had claimed the population lead since 1962, although federal statistics failed to bear

of the data required for an assessment of

have not been accumulated, although be inferred from periodic population censuses and from the activities of governments or administering authorities. To meet this need, the Population Commission developed a series of steps or stages for taking household sample surveys yielding relatively good, comparable, qualitative data. Priorities were established for areas of the world in need living standards

some

of these

may

||

i

i

Many

countries have carried out such sample surveys, and while the scale ol operations varied considerably, depending on the resources and of coverage.

statistics available in a

given country, the overall re-

was an accumulation of material.- permitting analysis of economic development and standards of

sult

surveyed were taken

countries

their

counts

in

In

nearly

110

Thus, about 90$ of the world's political entities witnessed an enumeration or survey. A total ol 256 enumerations were held (several places conducted more than one census during the period ). including 23 counts of nonindigenous populations in parts of Africa areas.

and Oceania. For statistics regarding certain aspects of the many censuses conducted, see the table on World Census Data. Additional data will be found in the individual articles on countries and on political groupings or

World; Vital Statistics.

within

same time, the

the

delicate

problem of how

A member

borders.

it-

influx of

to receive these people.

of the Organization of African

decisions of that body. Hut financial austerity," t

OAU

he

conferenc e

Dacko

President
4. Since

dence after the meeting; but, like Southern Rhodesia, did not attend. It was agreed that the Commonwealth had a special role to play in interracial problems, that the responsibility for the progress of dependent ter-

'The British Nationality Act. providing for the regis-

l

l

1962 meeting, seven former dependencies, with

more than 23 million people, had achieved independence: Uganda; Singapore, North Borneo (Sabah), and Sarawak as part of Malaysia; Zanzibar (which Kenya; and Nyasajoined Tanganyika in April 1964 land. Malta and Northern Rhodesia achieved indepen>

ritories

must remain with

Commonwealth

establishing a

;

Britain,

and

of

students

were in the U.K. to study in 1963. Voluntary Service Overseas personnel rose to 1,300 for the 1964-65 program, for which the U.K. government paid 75',' of the costs. Estimates for the Department of Technical Co-operation for 1964-65 showed an increase of £1.6 million to £34.7 million, of which the largest item was £1 5 million toward the salaries of expatriate personnel. The recommendation of the Plowden Report that overseas foreign and Commonwealth representation be unified as Her Majesty's Diplomatic Service was adopted in March The Trade Servii e was included.

the

? >7

1

Nations

of

r

U.K. than from any other country. The Special Commonwealth African Assistance Committee expanded million was spent on overseas its activities; nearly £1

Kingdom

tration as a United

that a basis for

had

secretariat for further

to give

cooperation be considered.

citizenship of another

Commonwealth trade was worth £2.6 billion in 1963. The U.K. took 32', of its imports from and sent 29% of its exports to the Commonwealth. The

passed

in

anyone who

to retain or acquire

Commonwealth

country, was

February.

At the meeting of

London

citizen of

up U.K. citizenship

in

July,

Commonwealth

(heat

Britain

leaders, held in

offered

to

extend

annual flow of private capital from the U.K. to the Commonwealth continued to average about £200 milrepresenting two-thirds of the total U.K. investment overseas. This included the Commonwealth Development Finance Co., whose current commitments amounted to £20 million. Total private assets in the Commonwealth were estimated at about £2.2 billion, of which the largest accumulations were in Canada, India, and Malaya. Under the Colombo Plan the U.K. spent £34.6 million in 1962-63, bringing total aid since 1951 to £248 million. During 1963-64 the U.K. gave aid worth £136 million to the Commonwealth; £17 million was also given to international agencies for disbursement to Commonwealth and

lion,

Mme Sirimavo Bandaranaike, prime minister of Ceylon, laughing with Pres.

Nkrumah

during opening session of conference

exports under

UN

at Marlborough

Realms and Member Nations (sq.mi.)

Pop. (1963-64 estimate)

93,602 2,971,081

54,200,000 11,090,455

leaders

House,

London, July 8, 1964. (UPI Compix)

programs came from the

Area Country

Commonwealth

of

other developing countries.

More

Kwame

Ghana

of

of the

Commonwealth Governors-general,

Capital

etc.,

and prime

ministers

(as of Dec. 31, 1964)

Status

Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United

Kingdom

of

Australia

London Canberra

Constitutional

monarchy

Federal parliamentary state

Canada

3,851,809

19,237,000

Ottawa

Federal parliamentary

10,624,507*

Colombo

Parliamentary state

Nicosia

state

Ceylon

25,332

Cyprus

600,000 7,500,000

Accra

461,300,000t

Delhi

Republic Republic Federal republic

1,706,000

Kingston

Parliamentary state

President, Kwame Nkrumah President, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Prime minister, Lai Bahadur Shastri Governor-general, Sir Clifford Campbell

9,104,000

Nairobi

Republic

President,

45,747

3,753,000

Zomba

Parliamentary state

128,563

10,853,000

Kuala iumpur

Federal constitutional

Governor-general Sir Gtyn Jones Prime minister, Hastings Kamuzu Banda Yang di-pertuan agong Tuanku Syed Putra ibni al-Marhum Syed Hassan

3,572 92,100 l,262,275f

Ghana India

Jamaica

4,411

Kenya

224,960

Malawi Malaysia

Prime minister, Harold Wilson Governor-general, Viscount De L* Isle Prime minister. Sir Robert Gordon Menzies Governor-general, George P. Vanier Prime minister, Lester 8- Pearson Governor-general, William Gopallawa Prime minister, Mme Sirimavo Bandaranaike President, Archbishop Mokarios III

monarchy

Prime minister, Sir Alexander Bustamante Jomo Kenyatta

Jamalullail

Malta

New

121.9

Zealand

325,296 2,590,787

103,740

Valletta

Parliamenlary state

Wellington

Parliamentary state

Lagos

Federal republic

"

Nigeria

356,669

Pakistan

365,529

55,620,268*

Prime minister, Tunku Abdul Rahman Governor-general, Sir Maurice Dorman Prime minister, George Borg Olivier Governor general, Sir Bernard Fergusson Prime minister, Keith J Holyoake President, Nnamdi Azikiwe Prime minister, Alhaji Sir Abubakar

Tafawa Balewa

Sierra Leone

27,925

Tanzania, Republic of (Tanganyika and Zanzibar) Trinidad and

2,180,354*

Federal republic

President, Field Marshal

Freetown

Parliamentary state

Khan Governor-general, Henry J L. Boston Prime minister, Albert M. Margai

362,844 1,980

10,118,000 900,000

91,134

7,200,000

Dar

Salaam

Port-of-Spain

Republic Parliamentary state

Kampala

Federal parliamentary

es

state

Zambia *1

963 census,

Muhammad Ayub

Rawalpindi

Cities

Affairs; District

of:

and Urban Washington, of Columbia

Commerce: Business Review;

sec

International Trade;

Tobago

Uganda

100,709,000

Columbia, District see

290,587 flncluding Kashmir.

3,610,000

^Provisional.

Lusaka

Republic

President, Julius

Nyerere

Governor-general, Sir Solomon Hochoy Prime minister, Eric Williams President, Mulesa II Prime minister, Milton Obote President, Kenneth Kaunda

Merchandising

Common

Market:

International Relations; International Trade. See also Index for information on specific common markets

see

258

Communications

Commonwealth preferences to other underdeveloped countries. The 22nd Congress of Commonwealth Chambers of Commerce agreed to make a study of the future of preferences veloping territories, The

relation to aid for de-

in

Commonwealth Migration

Council reported record numbers of British emigrants to Australia, Canada, and New Zealand in 1963-64.

The !ommonweaIth Economic 'onsultative "ouncil met on Sept. 1, 1964, to discuss economic prospects (

(


Near North ( ape, Nor. East German tanker sliced through a wooden fishing vessel obscured by an Arctic blizzard; 14 fishermen were lost and presumed drowned. Feb. 10 Ulladulla, N.S.W. Australian Navy destroyer "Voyager" sank in Jervis Hay shortly after colliding with the aircraft carrier "Melbourne"; 82 men of the "Voyager" (including the captain) were missing and presumed drowned. Feb. 19 Atlantic Ocean. British 10,000-ton freighter "Ambassador," disabled the day before by raging storms 660 mi. SE of Halifax, sank later during a salvage attempt by the Dutch ocean tug "Kibe"; 20 of the freighter's crew were rescued from the mountainous waves (9 by the Norwegian "Frucn" and 11 by the t'.S. Coast Guard cutter "Coos Hay") and the captain's body was pulled from the sea; 14 crewmen were lost and presumed dead. 23 Grand Cayman I. An open boat reached shore after drifting for IS days in the Caribbean sea in an attempted flight from Cuba; 17 of the 18 persons aboard had died.

Manh

March 29 Near Suva, Fiji. Fiji schooner "Kadavulevu," sailing on a pleasure trip to nearby Nairai Island, caught fire and capsized; more than 70 persons were lost and presumed dead. April 10 Persian Gulf. Iranian launch, reportedly loaded with Iranian workers being smuggled into Kuwait, caught fire and sank; an estimated 113 persons perished. May 1 Trapani, Sic. A motorboat capsized offshore and 16

Streams overflowing land north of Seymour, Ind., during March

1964 Ohio

River valley

which resulted in 15 deaths and caused damage estimated at about $100 million throughout Indiana, Ohio, flood

Pennsylvania,

West

and Kentucky. (Wide World) Virginia,

boys and a priest drowned. June Ml Off Morgan City. La. U.S. oil-drilling ship "C. T. Baker," working 78 mi. out in the Gulf of .Mexico, exploded, burst into flames, and sank within 15 minutes; 20 of the 43 men on board were lost and presumed dead. July 3 Off Cape Finisterre, Spain. Thick fog was blamed for the collision of two tankers, the 12,942-ton Spanish "Honifaz" and the 32, 1 25-ton French "Fabiola"; fire on the latter ship was brought under control but the "Honifaz" sank in flames; 21 crewmen were lost and presumed dead. Sept. 20 Off Coromandel coast, India. A fleet of 7 5 fishing boats was reported missing after a cyclonic gale on the high seas; about 450 fishermen were lost and presumed drowned. Oct. 25 Off Lugus Island. Phil. A motor launch on its way from Jolo to Siasi Island capsized in high waves; 58 passengers were lost and presumed dead. Nov. 1') Lakhnoor, India. A motor launch plying the Chenab River capsized with 150 persons aboard, of whom at least 125 drowned. Nov. 26 Off New Jersey Coast. Norwegian tanker "Stolt Dagali" was sliced in two when she crossed the bow of the Israeli luxury liner "Shalom" as the ships collided in darkness and heavy fog; 19 of the tanker crewmen lost their lives as the 140-ft. stern section of the "Stolt Dagali" foundered and sank; the "Shalom" returned to port with a 40-ft. gash in her bow. Dec. 8 Rauma Harbor, Fin. A tugboat working in icy rain rammed into a military motorboat transporting a group of 28 teen-age girls to an artillery ball; 16 of the girls and 3 soldiers drowned.

MINING Jan. 27 T'ai-pei, Formosa. Coal mine explosion killed 12 men and injured 9 others; 15 were listed as missing. Feb. 9 Keelung, Formosa. Explosion in a 3,000-ft. shaft of a nearby coal mine killed 17 miners. May 25 Prestea, Ghana. Fire in the gold mines brought death

Wreckage Bristol

to 12 workers. of

British

Britannia

wh:ch crashed Feb. 29, 1964, near Innsbruck, Aus.,

killing

83 persons

aboard, during flight from London. (D P A.

from Pictorial Parade)

June 12 Karkar. Afg. An explosion in a coal mine killed 74 miners and injured 6 others. Oct. 9 Wan-li, Formosa. A landslide engulfed a sulfur mine entombing 2 5 miners, all of whom were presumed dead. Nov. 16 Sasolburg, S.Af. Fire at the 4 50-ft. level of a coal mine trapped 54 miners; 23 were unable to escape and burned to death.

MISCELLANEOUS Burma. Harvest festival celebration brought death to about 30 persons who drowned in a northeastern river while participating in bathing rites. Jan. 15 Paris. The completed framework of 11 floors of a 12-story apartment building under construction collapsed and buried more than 40 workmen beneath 100.000 tons of twisted steel and concrete; 23 of the men died and 11 were hospitalJan. 15 Rangoon,

ized.

A two-story mud-brick school tumbled and teachers; 38 of the students and 2 adults were killed, at least 137 were injured. May 2 Seoul, Korea. A four-story slum building collapsed and killed 14 persons; 20 others were injured. May 24 Lima, Peru. Spectators at a game in the National Soccer Stadium, dissatisfied with a decision by the referee, surged out of the stands and stampeded onto the playing field and out into the surrounding streets; at least 318 persons were trampled to death or slain in the panic and ensuing riots. July 11 Bergerac, France. A group of spectators watching the Tour de France bicycle race were rammed by a speeding gasoline truck which swerved out of control and plunged over a bridge railing, taking about 30 persons with it into the canal below; 10 persons were killed and 20 injured. April 4 Madurai. India.

down upon 400

girls

Aug. 23 Puerto Ordaz. Venezuela. A footbridge over a Caroni River gorge collapsed and dumped a group of sightseers into the rapids below; all 29 persons were presumed dead. Nov. 6 Piracicaba, Braz. Collapse of a building in the process of construction brought death to at least 41 persons. Nov. 29 Jalapa, Mex. A political rally erupted into a stampede when a speaker invited the crowd of 3,000 to the governor's residence; 24 persons were killed and 33 others injured.

NATURAL Jan. 14 Eastern seaboard, U.S. Four-day storm moved out to sea leaving in its wake deep snow, freezing temperatures, and heavy crop damage over the Midwest and Northeastern section of the U.S.; a death toll of 140 persons was reported. Jan. 18 Formosa. Earthquake tremors were felt throughout the island with heavy damage centered in the area of the towns of Paiho and Tungshan; an estimated 100 persons were killed. Jan. 20 Eastern Brazil. Heavy rains and extensive floods in the Sao Francisco and Jequitinhonha river valleys brought death to more than 100 persons and left 100,000 homeless. Jan. 24 Harpersville, Ala. A sudden tornado struck the town, demolished a number of houses, and killed 10 persons; another 9

were injured.

Jan. 31 Northern Morocco. A series of floods left more than 83.000 persons homeless; a reported 76 persons died. Feb. 6 Southwest U.S. Heavy blizzards piling up 20-ft. snowdrifts blocked highways and killed thousands of cattle; 10 persons died in the storms. Manh 2 Temuco, Chile. Nearby 9,325-ft. Villarrica volcano roared into eruption and buried the village of Conaripe; a reported 2 4 persons perished. March 4 Southern U.S. Tornadoes and windstorms left a sixstate area heavily damaged by floods, wind, and lightning; 11 persons died and 40 others were injured. March 10 Midwest U.S. Flooding of the Ohio River valley brought great destruction to Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Indiana with damage set at $100 million; 15 deaths were reported. March 27 Alaska. A devastating earthquake struck the southern part of the state, destroyed the central business section of Anchorage, and heavily damaged the cities of Seward, Valdez, Cordova, Kodiak, and Chenega; giant tidal waves wrecked coastal areas in Canada, Oregon, and California, and were felt in Hawaii and Japan; the Alaska Civil Defense Office estimated damage at $750 million, and listed 117 persons as dead, or missing and presumed dead. April 12 Central U.S. Tornadoes, dust and sandstorms raged through a five-state area inflicting the worst damage on Garnett. Kan.; Pleasant Hill, Mo.: Yorktown, la.: and Lake Tawakoni, Tex.; with a property loss of about $5 million; 13 persons were killed. April 12 Jessore district, E.Pak. Cyclonic storms hit with gusts that obliterated 2 5 villages, killed hundreds I 50-mph of cattle, and flattened the rice crop; official figures listed 400 persons dead, 1,000 missing, and at least 700 injured. May 8 Southeastern Michigan. Tornado slashing through Chesterfield Township demolished or seriously damaged 500 homes and endangered the U.S. Air Force base at Sel fridge; II persons died and about 100 were injured. June S Northeast Italy. Sudden cloudbursts with hail, rain, and wind swept away the buildings of several large tourist re-orts on the northern Adriatic coast; many inland farm crops were a total loss: at least 10 persons died. June 8 Northwestern Montana. Rain and melting snow sent flash floods swirling clown the mountain valleys to break through dams and wash out bridges; 34 persons perished and 30 others were missing; damage was estimated at more than

$62 million. June 13 14 Hyderabad, W.Pak. Blanketing rains and high Firemen examining wreckage after collapse, Jan. 15, 1964, and concrete skeleton of an apartment building under construction in Paris. At least 23 persons were killed and 11 workmen injured. (Wide World) of steel

f

1

winds leveled hundreds of homes and destroyed 60,000 head at least .532 persons died. June U> Northern Japan. Violent earthquakes jarred tin- preexploding oil fectures of Niig.ua, Vamagata, and Akita; tanks at the oil-processing center of Niigata sit off raging floodwaters for three days; fires that burned uncontrolled overflowed the banks of the Shinano River; properly damage was estimated at $280 million with almost 30,000 buildings in ruins; 2 7 persons died, 5 were missing, and another 37 7 were injured, June IS Deni/.li Province, Turk. Rain-loosened boulders rumbled down the mountainside, crushed a small village, and

299

of cattle;

killed 2

1

persons.

June 30 Northern Philippines. Typhoon Winnie, striking with 118-mph winds, brought death to 107 persons before (bitting on to the Asian mainland; property damage exceeded $30 million,

July 6 Guerrero State. Mex, An earthquake jolted a coastal area and destroyed several mountain villages; 36 persons died and another n5 were injured. July 7 Near Chamonix, France. An avalanche rumbling down from the 13.540-ft. Aiguille Verte peak of the .Mont Blanc Range in the French Alps engulfed a party of instructors anil students from the National School of Skiing and Mountain Climbing; all 14 climbers were killed. July 10 Central and western Japan. Several days of torrential rains caused Hoods and landslides which brought death to 106 persons. 30 others were missing, at least 2 20 injured, and 44,000 homeless. Aug. 3 70 Philippines, Formosa, Hong Kong. Typhoon Ida, with winds of up to 140 mph, lashed from the China seas killing at least 75 persons; thousands of others were homeless.

Aug. 21-2S Caribbean and east coast of Florida. Hurricane Cleo, originating east of the Windwards, swept the island Guadeloupe, hit the southern tip of Haiti and the central part of Cuba before bearing down on the Florida coast from Miami to Jacksonville; of the estimated 13S persons killed none were from the Florida area, but damages there were estimated at more than $100 million. Aug. 23 Kyushu Island, Jap. Typhoon Kathy slashed through southwestern Japan leaving 13 persons dead. 2 5 injured, and more than 4,000 homeless, Sept. -I Punjab Slate, India. Floodwaters pouring from the Punjab swept into New Delhi, where drains were blocked by silt and debris; 51 persons throughout the area died. Sept. 5 Hong Kong and Kwangtung Province, China. Typhoon Ruby, with 120-mph winds, raked across the colony and swung up the Pearl Ri\er estuary of mainland China; more than 730 persons perished and hundreds were injured. Sept. 14 Central South Korea. Violent rainstorms battered the of

area and Kyonggi Province, flooding the village of Nagakni and drowning all 96 of its inhabitants; a reported total of 563 persons were dead, more than 250 injured, and Seoul

2S.000 homeless. Sept. 25 West coast of Japan. Typhoon Wilda slammed southern and western port areas, leaving 42 persons dead or missing and 459 injured. Sept. 20 Andhra State, India. Monsoon rains burst an upland reservoir, pouring a 10-ft. wall of water down upon the town of Macherla; 36 persons drowned and about 2,000 head of cattle were washed away. Oet. 4-7 Louisiana. Hurricane Hilda, spawned in the Gulf of Mexico, moved onto the coast of Louisiana with winds up to 120 mph spinning off two tornadoes, which killed 21 persons in the towns of I .a rose and Erath: 15 other deaths brought the total to 36; damage amounted to $100 million. Oet. n Western Turkey. A series of earthquakes jolted the provinces of Bursa and Balikesir; 30 persons were killed and 52 injured. Oct. 13 Hong Kong. Typhoon Dot. the colony's fourth severe storm of the year, sweeping by with 100-mph winds, left in its wake at least 36 persons dead, or missing and presumed dead; 85 others were injured. Nov. 1 Tunis. Tunisia. Rampaging rivers swollen by heavy rains flooded towns and villages; at least 35 persons died, or were missing and presumed dead.

Nov. 12 Northern areas

of

S.

Vietnam. Typhoons

Iris

and

Joan, striking earlier in the week, brought the most dev astating floods in 60 years to inundate 5 million, ac. in ten provinces (mainly Quang Ngai. Quang Nam, and Quang Tin); 1 million persons were homeless: roads, bridges, and railways were washed away; the final' death toll was placed at 7,000.

Nov. 20 Central Philippines, Typhoon Louise, with winds of 93 mph. swept across the central islands, leav ing an estimated 250 persons dead and about 100,000 homeless. Dec. 13 Central S. Vietnam. Provinces of Ninhthuan and Khanhhoa were heavily flooded and suffered great crop and livestock losses: about 400 persons drowned and at least 2,000 were left homeless. Dec. 10—31 Pacific Northwest. Drenching rain and melting snow flooded th" rivers of Washington. Oregon, and northern California, driving thousands of persons from their homes: subsequent freezing and heavy snows checked the flooding but added to the suffering of isolated communities in the three states and in Idaho and Nevada; at least 4 2 persons died;

damage was estimated at $7 million. Dec. 22-23 India-Ceylon. A powerful 150-mph

!

Dominican Republic Island

.

earlv

estin

Hi

RAILROAD Cairo, I'.A.R. Suburban train crashed into the side of c ro.n g in sons and injuring 22 others. Jan. 4 Jajim i, Yugos Crowded coi Belgrade rammed into a passenger train stalled on the tracks; 66 persons were killed and at least 300 injured. Feb. 1 Altamirano, Arg. The "f irefly Express," en route to Buenos Aires with more than 1,000 homeward-bound vacationers, piled head-on into a standing freight; both engines exploded ami two of the passenger coaches burned completely; an estimated 70 persons were killed ami 70 hospitalized. Jan. a

1

Ini- ,n

,i

1

i

March

Two train head-on collision at 8 Bhadrakh, India. Baudpur Station killed 22 persons and injured