Yueqi 樂器: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance [1 ed.] 0987720104, 9780987720108

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Gloria N. Wong

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Yueqi Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

Alan R. Thrasher and

Gloria N. Wong

British Columbia Chinese Music Association Vancouver, B.C.

_ BCCMA RAW EBD

Yueqi S225: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance Alan R. Thrasher and Gloria N. Wong

Cover design by Chi-ho Yeung 杨 志 豪

Chinese calligraphy by Tse Yim #{B§ Copyright © 2011 by BC Chinese Music Association Published by the British Columbia Chinese Music Association #303 — 8495 Ontario Street, Vancouver, BC V5X 3E8 Email: [email protected]

Canada

www.bccma.net

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,

mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of BC Chinese Music Association. Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Thrasher, Alan R. (Alan Robert)

Yueqi: Chinese musical instruments in performance / Thrasher, Alan R. and Gloria N. Wong. Includes bibliographical references and index.

Chiefly in English, some Chinese text.

ISBN 978-0-9877201-0-8

1. Musical instruments--China--Textbooks. 2. Musical instruments--China--Instruction and study--Textbooks.

I. Wong, Gloria N. (Gloria Ngar-Yan)

ML531.T529 2011

784.1951

II. Title.

C2011-905161-3

Printed and bound in Canada

Contents Preface Guide to Cipher Notation

vill

CHAPTER ONE

'Silk-Bamboo' Music in Perspective CHAPTER TWO

Sheng 4 CHAPTER THREE

Zheng 等 CHAPTER FOUR

Dizi 笛子 and Xiao # CHAPTER FIVE

Pipa BE CHAPTER SIX

Ruan 阮 and other Lutes CHAPTER SEVEN

Erhu 二 胡 and other Bowed Strings CHAPTER EIGHT

Suona Hy) and Guanzi @f

105

CHAPTER NINE

Yangqin = CHAPTER TEN

Luogu #@8% and other Percussion CHAPTER

ELEVEN

131

Wisdom of the Musicians

145

Appendix: Chinese book summary with special focus on chapter 11

167

Index

173

Preface The focus of this small book is upon Han Chinese musical instruments which are in common practice - that is, the ensemble instruments used in music clubs, teahouses and concert halls. In the older layer of traditional music making, these were often called 'silk-bamboo' (sizhu

44) instruments because stringed instruments - which dominate this

type of ensemble - were commonly strung with silk strings, and flutes were constructed from bamboo. While information on the instruments

themselves can be found in both Chinese and Western sources, it is

more difficult to locate information regarding performance practice — especially in Western-language sources. Therefore, the core orientation of the book will be upon the fundamentals of performance practice. Discussion of this project started several years ago when I approached Bill Lai, president of the large Vancouver-based British Columbia

Chinese

Music

Association

(BCCMA),

about

assembling

performance materials for the study of Chinese musical instruments. As the director of the Chinese Ensemble at the University of British Columbia, I had already assembled many folders of information on performance practice — especially regarding traditional style and ornamentation. We agreed to work together, find funding for a broader

study, conduct interviews with local culture carriers, and publish this

material. Therefore, this is a joint effort between the active members of

the B.C. Chinese Music Association and myself and co-author Dr. Gloria Wong, on behalf of the UBC School of Music.

zheng Nine instruments are assigned a chapter each, the pipa 6%, # being ruan Io, yanggin t=, erhu — tH, dizi 笛子 and sheng

specifically 'silk-bamboo' types, or instruments closely associated with these. The remaining two — suona 喷 啊 and Iuogu s#a% - while more are commonly associated with the ritual and processional genres, always sometimes performed with 'silk-bamboo' types, and nearly ant to import it think we So, ras. used in contemporary Chinese orchest basic the on mer perfor include these instruments. Dr. Wong, a trained pipa, zheng, ruan tanbo 48 instruments, has written these chapters (i.e.,

and yangqin), and I have written the rest.

Vi

Preface

Chapters are organized according to the chronological appearance

of instruments within Chinese history - the oldest (notably sheng and zheng) appearing first, followed by the others in approximate chronological order (yangqin appearing near the end). The one Chinese instrument which is seldom played in ensemble, and not included in this book, is the very distinctive and well-known

gin #

zither, the instrument

of the Confucian

scholar.

Due

to its

essentially solo repertoire (but also because entire books have been

written about the gin and its techniques), the authors have decided to

omit further examination of it in this small volume. Our specific aim, beyond introducing these particular instruments, is to examine their distinctive technical features, basic traditional (and

some modern) performance techniques and styles, and the essential

points on tuning, care and maintenance.

For more

comprehensive

information, the reader is referred to the sources cited at the end of

each chapter. We hope this information will be useful for musicians

wanting to learn these instruments and composers wishing to write for them; but also for the general public interested in understanding Chinese music from a performance perspective. These nine instrument chapters are framed by opening and closing

chapters of a more general nature. The opening chapter simply introduces 'silk-bamboo' music from _ historical and regional perspectives,

together

with

some

general

observations

regarding

performance practice within ensembles. The closing chapter, written by Gloria Wong but with my input, is ethnographic in nature and forms a social counterbalance to the earlier descriptive documentation. It is based upon interviews with established musicians and instructors. Social issues examined include questions of background, training, musical transmission and change. Some of this discussion is derived

from earlier fieldwork in China, Hong Kong and the Chinatowns of North America. Most, however, is based upon ethnographic interviews

with local musicians. These musicians, all initially from China or Hong

Kong but now

living in the Vancouver

region, are among

the top

talents in their fields - many with established recording careers before

leaving

China.

We

wish

to express

our

sincere

gratitude

to the

musicians who have participated in this project — their names and insights appear in every chapter. Without these senior musicians, this

book would not have been possible.

Preface

Vil

This project has been funded by the Canadian government grant entitled "New Horizons", the purpose being to document this heritage among established culture-carriers of the community and to pass on their knowledge to the younger generation, and to the Western world. We have been most fortunate in receiving this support and are grateful.

Additional support has also been received from the City of Vancouver's "125th Anniversary Celebration Grant". The grant has been particularly useful in organizing associated local events and performances. We thank the City for this support. Finally, I especially thank my co-author, Gloria Wong, who carefully researched and wrote five chapters; our technical support colleagues, Charlie Lui and June Lam, for their assistance in designing

fingering charts and most graphics; Christopher Chung, for his help in proofreading and writing a Chinese summary of the book; Robert Wong, for his technical assistance in doing the book layout; and the

BCCMA project committee members, Bill Lai, Mark Armanini, Larry Yan and Eric Chan for their assistance with administrative and organizational details. Working with this group of colleagues, together with the very talented local musicians, has been my pleasure. Alan R. Thrasher

July 2011

Chinese Cipher

Notation System

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Below for low range Without for mid range Above for upper range

Rhythms are notated in a similar manner as western notation: Numbers

appearing alone

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followed by a dash

6 一

= half note

followed by 3 dashes

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with single underline

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CHAPTER ONE

‘Silk-Bamboo’ Music in Perspective

y

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7 'Silk-Bamboo' Music in Perspective "Silk and bamboo [instruments] blend harmoniously"

Songshu R=, Sth century AD '‘Silk-bamboo' (sizhu 2%/J),

a very general domain term in Chinese

usage, refers to a category of chamber music performed on instruments with silk strings and bamboo flutes. While most bowed string players

today

have

replaced

the old silk with

steel strings,

and

other

instruments have been added to the small ensembles, bamboo flutes at

least have been maintained - often in leading roles. 'Silk-bamboo' ensembles are essentially chamber ensembles, in the sense that they tend to be small, generally between five and eight musicians. They play quasi-classical Chinese music (drawn from older well-established traditions),

within

the social

contexts

of homes,

music

clubs

and

teahouses. In this chapter, these ensemble instruments will be introduced as they have emerged within the imperial period and as they function within the major 'silk-bamboo' chamber ensembles. Examples are drawn primarily from the Cantonese and Jiangnan {14 traditions because these regional types are most accessible in the Western world. Some observations on ensemble performance practice will be offered at

the end of the chapter.

The Ancient Heritage In the classic text Zhouli FA## (‘Rituals of Zhou century

BC),

musical

instruments

used

in court

Dynasty’,

rituals

were

c3rd cited

within eight categories — a system known as the bayin 八 音 or eight

tone’ system. 'Silk' (si 4%) and ‘bamboo' (zhu 竹 ) are two of the eight

categories. During this period, 'silk' instruments included only those

zithers with strings of silk, notably the qin #, se #& and zheng 3%. Of

these three, the zheng alone would be accepted into music making among the common people (see Chapter 3). Lutes and fiddles were not mentioned. 'Bamboo' instruments were exclusively flute types, notably the paixiao HER (panpipe), xiao fff (vertical flute) and chi 篇 (transverse flute). The xiao would ultimately be accepted into chamber ensembles (see Chapter 4), the other flute-types retaining closer associations with ritual music of the court. One other important ancient instrument listed

within the bayin system (under the 'gourd' category) is the sheng 年 mouth-organ, an instrument still employed in the common-practice

traditions of northern and eastern China (see Chapter 2). Instruments

listed in the remaining five categories were used primarily in imperial

有

Yuegqi: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

rituals. The xiao, zheng and sheng have remained in continuous usage since this early period. By the time of the Han dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD), three broad ensemble types were documented in imperial sources — ensembles for court

ritual,

performed

procession,

yayue

2

and

entertainment.

(‘refined

music’)

Ritual

and/or

other

ensembles

officially-

sanctioned music in celebration of the ancient Chinese ideals and in honor of the sage, Confucius. Performing at Confucian and other shrines, ritual ensembles employed the most ancient of Chinese instruments, notably sets of bronze bells and stone chimes, gin zithers,

and other bayin instruments. Processional ensembles, generally known by such names as guchui

au (‘drumming and blowing’) and chuida

吹 打 (‘blowing and hitting’),

performed primarily for auspicious outdoor processionals and funerals — a practice that continues other wind

instruments,

today with the suona

drums

and

cymbals

40)

(shawm)

- all instruments

and with

loud, projecting volumes for outdoor performance. Entertainment ensembles performed a lighter music to be enjoyed within the walls of the palace - and later in the teahouses - by attentive audiences. 'Silk-bamboo' is one of the genre names by which this type of music was known. Another name for a related type is gingshang yue 清 商 乐 ,which may be translated as ‘pure music’. Following the great

southward migrations from the Central Plain during the 4th century,

gingshang music seems to have developed from a fusion of northern

traditions and the local traditions of central China (Yang 1981: 145-6).

While our knowledge of these historical genres is limited, their general nature at least has been recorded, together with occasional references to instrumentation. According to period documents, gingshang form was suite-like, a series of tunes performed sequentially. Poetry of the

period mentions the use of ‘silk and bamboo' instruments — that is, native Chinese instruments, together with the recently imported pipa EES: (lute) and di #f (flute). Actual music may not have survived from

this period, but it is known that musicians from both Minnan fi3j/—43 and

Hakka 客家 cultures of southeast China still use the term gingshang in

reference to their elegant chamber music.

Silk Road Influences Literary and visual evidence concerning makeup of entertainment ensembles from the post-Han period through the Tang 唐 dynast y (early 10th century) is abundant. This is the earliest period for which we have details about the development of the chamber ensemble. First to consider are the visual images in pre-Tang art. Buddhi st ideas and material culture were introduced into China beginning in the

2nd century by way of the 'silk road' connecting India and Central Asia

with northwest and north-central China. Along this caravan route,

‘Silk-Bamboo’ Music in Perspective

3

numerous religious shrines built into cliff-side caves contain carved and painted larger-than-life statues and paintings of the Buddha, bodhisattvas,

servants, dancers and musicians. These monuments

are

still preserved more than 1500 years later. Earliest are the Dunhuang Caves in present-day northwestern Gansu province, begun in the mid-

4th century with continuing artistic activity through the 10th century. In the 5th- and 6th-century Dunhuang wall murals, musicians are shown playing both native instruments (zheng, xiao, sheng and others)

and newly-introduced instruments reflecting strong Indian influence — notably pipa lute, di flute, reed-pipes, harps and many hourglassshaped drums (see Zheng 1993: 4ff.). The pipa, in its different forms,

and di transverse flute took on such great importance within the early ensembles, they were completely internalized by the Chinese and now considered to be essentially native instruments (see Chapters 4 and 5).

Aleere a eet NE 号 各

P e Dea 地

ivesLy Ea

ba息

‘a ) 9

5b

Re be

ue i ca 这

NS

AI

NA

Fig. 1.1 Song dynasty chamber ensemble — reconstruction of faded

ation by C. Fan. painting by Wu Zongyuan 武宗 元(c990-1050); line clarific

e), L to R: 'five-string' pipa, bent-neck pipa, yaogu (drum), paixiao (panpip di, sheng and xiao.

4

Yuegi: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

Similar small ensembles are shown in other period artwork, including two or three wind instruments (of mixed types), one or two

plucked strings (usually including pipa), and one or two percussion instruments being representative.

It may seem ironic that these introduced instruments, most of which were associated with ‘barbarian’ peoples, would become so widely accepted in China, some such as the pipa emerging as quasiclassical traditions. But the indigenous instruments, with few exceptions, were reserved for ritual usage in the courts. Instruments

brought in from outside became popular, forming the core of what I will call the 'common-practice' tradition.

During the 7th and 8th centuries, entertainment ensembles received official patronage at court. Indeed, the Sui and Tang emperors became so enamored with the exotic cultures associated with Buddhism, that

they appointed many hundreds of musicians and dancers to the court, organized in as many as ten resident ensembles of mixed Chinese and non-Chinese types. One ensemble type is shown in Fig. 1.1, a line reconstruction of a faded 11th-century painting by the artist Wu Zongyuan 武宗 元 (c990-1050). The painting depicts a procession of elegantly-dressed ‘celestial maidens’, seven of whom play popular Tang-style instruments.

Common-practice Traditions Over the next several centuries, there would be yet other changes

in the entertainment ensemble. Beginning with the Song # dynasty (960-1279),

clear

shifts

in

Chinese

taste

associated

with

the

re-

emergence of Confucian values and a renewed nationalistic spirit eased some foreign instruments out of fashion. Instruments such as harps and Indian-style drums appear less frequently in period art. Of the instruments imported after the Tang dynasty, the one to become most widespread is the two-stringed bowed fiddle. The name, hugin

胡琴

(literally

‘barbarian

gin'),

was

assigned

by

Chinese

musicians because the instrument was associated with tribal peoples near the northwestern frontier. Subsequently, hugin became a generic term, identifying the entire family of Chinese bowed string

instruments. Today hugin types appear everywhere in China, existing

in dozens of regional variants and known by names such as erxian 二 绞

erhu 二胡 ,gaohu Fxuh, banhu ys, yehu (see Chapter 7).

挪 胡 , tihu #EEH and tigin 提琴

Another instrument brought into China after the Tang dynasty is

the sanxian =%%, a fretless lute with snakeskin-covered resonator. The sanxian ("three string’) was first mentioned in Chinese sources during the Mongol-dominated Yuan dynasty (1279-1368), though it may have

been present in China earlier. Believed to be an adaptation of other three-stringed lutes played by Central Asian peoples (e.g., setar), the

J

‘Silk-Bamboo’ Music in Perspective

5

sanxian functions as a low-pitched instrument, lending heterophonic

support to high-pitched solo instruments, such as pipa (see Chapters 6). The suona lit, a shawm-type of instrument, also appeared during this period (see Chapter 8). Last of the Indian/ Central Asian instruments to be introduced into China is the yangqin +42 (literally ‘foreign gin’, also written #2), a trapezoidal hammer dulcimer with seven or more courses of metal strings (see Chapter 9). The yangqin is an adaptation of the Persian santur, which was imported during the late Ming 44 dynasty. It ultimately became widely accepted in Chinese ensemble music, both north and south. So, given this early history of instrument development, when did the common-practice traditions emerge? Dating is a matter of some controversy. The ensemble traditions in coastal Southeast China -

Chaozhou, Minnan, Hakka - are popularly believed to be very old. While some musicians trace their music to Tang forms, more cautious

scholars suggest that these traditions reflect six- to seven-hundred years of development, and were likely in practice in some form during the Southern Song and Yuan dynasties (12th to 14th centuries). Other scholars think that this type of instrumental music was not in popular usage until the Ming (14th to 17th centuries) (Gao 1981: 225). The instrumental tradition known as xiansuo 5% (‘strings’), which is carefully documented in the 1814 collection Xiansuo Beikao 52H,

is believed to have been in performance many years earlier. Xiansuo is a northern genre primarily for stringed instruments. In the 1814 collection, thirteen instrumental suites are notated in gongche 1 R

notation with considerable heterophonic detail. The best known of

八 板 these suites is Shiliv Ban 十 六 板 (‘Sixteen beat’), a clear Baban tempo increasing of variant arranged in sixteen ‘beat variation’ sections (see — not unlike the organization of the Chaozhou 湖 川 suite form

Thrasher 2008: 138ff.). Four stringed instruments are specified: huqin, pipa, sanxian and zheng, to which wind instruments may be added. Not in presentonly are these instruments of the same type as those used

day Chaozhou and Hakka ensembles, but variants of some xiansuo that pieces are still known to contemporary musicians. It seems likely form, and the northern xiansuo tradition (instrumentation, use of suite

China from possibly repertoire) may have been introduced into South

the North sometime during the Ming or Qing dynasties. and Entertainment ensembles in residence at the northern Ming ic chronicles Qing courts (1368-1911), which are documented in dynast

lly, these and period artwork, reflect this new direction. Typica strings — hugin ensembles included winds - xiao or di, bili and sheng, and yunluo types, pipa, sanxian, zheng; and percussion - paiban clappers gongs.

6

Yuegi: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

Contemporary 'Silk-Bamboo' Ensemble Types 'Silk-bamboo'

chamber

music

in China

has been,

and

remains,

highly regionalized. Whereas the Chaozhou, Minnan, and Hakka are believed to preserve the oldest ideals and performance practices, the cosmopolitan Jiangnan and Cantonese traditions are newcomers, though nevertheless best represented in the Western world - together with the solo pipa, qin and zheng repertoires. Other regional ensembles and repertoires are more marginalized - even in China — and they are

rarely heard in the West. Cantonese Music

The Cantonese region of South China is centered

in Guangdong province, though with major Cantonese populations in

Hong

Kong,

Cantonese

小

Singapore,

instrumental

and

urban

areas

music, sometimes

of the Western

world.

called 'short tunes’ (xiaoqu

曲) emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries — based in part

upon northern Chinese 'silk-bamboo' traditions, but mostly due to the

creativity of local composers. Because of this activity, especially during the 1930s, the Cantonese repertoire became very large - over 200 instrumental pieces in notation, of which two dozen or more are well

known (see Huang 2002). These include Pinghu Qiuyue 平湖 秋月 (‘Autumn Moon over the Peaceful Lake’), Hantian Lei ARK (‘Thunder

in the Drought’), Yule Shengping #484432 (‘Enjoyment of the Peace’) and Chanyuan Zhongsheng (#8 {i# (‘Bell Ringing in a Buddhist Courtyard’) - all composed by known musicians. The Cantonese ensemble is generally led by performers on the gaohu 高 胡 fiddle and

yanggin 扬琴 dulcimer, with supporting instruments zhonghu fiddle, qingin #82 lute, zhongruan 中 阮 lute, xiao #§ end-blown

and percussion. A small Cantonese ensemble is pictured in Fig. 1.2.

if flute

Fig. 1.2 Traditional Cantonese ensemble, with Huang Jinpei 黄 锦培 (centre left) playing qingin #8 lute (Guangzhou, 1986)

‘Silk-Bamboo’ Music in Perspective

ve

Wherever there are large populations of Cantonese people in the Western world = San Francisco, New York City, Vancouver — as many

as a dozen or more ensembles are certain to be active. But as purely instrumental music, this tradition has not survived well, the primary reason being that the Cantonese vocal traditions of local opera and narrative song have become the preferred modes of music making. Yet, many of the early 20th-century compositions have become well known

among Chinese ensembles throughout China and in the West as well. Jiangnan Sizhu The Jiangnan region of central-eastern China has Shanghai as its major population center. Jiangnan 'silk-bamboo' music

emerged during the 18th and 19th centuries, with roots extending back to earlier periods. The ensemble itself is comprised of between three and eight instruments — sometimes just erhu 二 胡 , pipa £4, yangqin i 2 and dizi 笛子 for a small ensemble; but more normally including zhonghu 中胡,sanxian =%%, sheng * and light percussion as well. This

repertoire is small compared to the Cantonese (only about a dozen pieces in regular performance), the most frequently played being Huanle Ge ##£3 (‘Song of Happiness'), Zhegu Fei BeugTR (‘Flying partridges'), and Xingjie 行 街 (‘Along the Street’) (see Witzleben 1995: 58ff.). While this repertoire is not as well known in the Western world,

these pieces and others are regularly performed in the music clubs and

teahouses of Shanghai. A traditional Shanghai music ensemble is

pictured in Fig. 1.3. Small 'silk-bamboo' ensembles are increasingly active

in Western

urban

environments,

their repertoire

a mix

of

traditional Shanghai music and more recent arrangements from other genres.

Fig. 1.3 Traditional Shanghai music club, the famous Lu Chunling [Fi (left) playing dizi FA-F flute. (Shanghai, 1986)

8

Yueqt: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

Repertoire and Style The 'silk-bamboo' repertoire is based upon a group of old tunes known as gupai 曲牌 Cnamed tunes’). The most popular and widespread of these is a melody known by several related names, notably Baban 八 板 (‘eight beat') in most regions of China, and Liuban 六 板 (‘six beat') in the Shanghai region. Essential elements of this structure can be seen in the transcription of Lao Liuban 老 六 板 (Fig. 1.4),

primary amongst them being the fixed number of beats (totaling 60 in this variant) and cadences emphasizing the pitches sol and re (occasionally do). The tune Lao Liuban is rarely performed by itself,

though occasionally it is heard as a final section in a suite of pieces derived from it.

=

———

eS

Fig. 1.4 Lao Liuban 327\tK, 60-beat version

Over the last five-hundred

year period, the Liuban/Baban

model

has been used repeatedly in the creation of new instrumental repertoire. A short list of just a few of the most famous derived pieces would include 'Lofty Mountains and Flowing Waters' (Gaoshan Liushui

高 山 流 水 ) in the zheng repertoire of Henan/ Shandong provinces; ‘Comfortable Breeze Melody' (Xunfeng Qu #@/B\ di) and ‘Emerging

Lotus Blossoms' (Chushui Lian (H7K3#8) in the Hakka/Chaozhou zheng repertoire; 'White Snow in the Spring’ (Yangchun Baixue 阳春 自 雪) and ‘Crazy Dance of the Golden Snake’ (Jinshe Kuangwu 金蛇 狂 舞 ) in the

pipa repertoire; Palace Lantern Dance' 'Moderately-decorated

Six-beat'

(Gongdeng Wu

(Zhonghua

Liuban

‘¥&#%)

and

中 花 六 板 ) in the

Jiangnan sizhu repertoire. While there are many other pieces in these repertoires derived from different (usually shorter) melodic models,

those drawn from Liuban/Baban are commonly among the most highly

revered in their respective areas.

Pieces such as these have been derived by way of several traditional methods, notably through employment of modal shift (in

which ti is substituted for la, and fa substituted for mi, creating a new

‘Silk-Bamboo’ Music in Perspective

9

modal feel to the old tune) and by slowing the beat and interpolating melodic notes (see Thrasher 2008: 99ff. and 130ff.). The technique of changing modes is roughly similar to changing a Western folksong from a major key to a minor key - rarely employed by Western composers or performers - but common in Chinese performance. The second method, known as 'slowing the tempo and adding 慢 加 花 )has been used in several ways. Most flowers’ (fangman jiahua 放 simply, it has served as the basis for new instrumental pieces such as ‘Palace Lantern Dance’ (Gongdeng Wu 富 登 舞) a variant based upon Lao Liuban at less than half the speed of the original, together with the addition of melodic interpolations (‘flowers’). The still slower Liuban variant known as 'Moderately-decorated Six-beat' (Zhonghua Liuban 中 花 流 板 ,beginning shown in Fig. 1.5) is approximately one-eighth the speed of the original, and characterized by greater rhythmic density in melodic interpolations. Zhonghua Liuban is a standard piece in the Jiangnan sizhu repertoire.

The 'silk-bamboo' sound-ideal is best realized in ensembles with a foundation of leading and supporting instruments, but without instrument duplication. This sound-ideal is also manifest in the heterophonic texture of Chinese traditional music. Where other world cultures have developed complex harmonic and rhythmic systems, the Chinese system of melodic enrichment is based upon development of the various

melodic

parameters

themselves.

In traditional

practice,

when musicians simultaneously perform the same basic melody, they allow for the contrasting idiomatic characteristics of their respective instruments and interact with each other according to established performance principles.

opening Phrase Fig. 1.5 Zhonghua Liuban 中 花 六 板 ， heterophonic interaction

10

Yueqi: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

These heterophonic performance principles are based upon several factors, notably the distribution (among instruments) of melodic lines

of varying rhythmic perform with high

density and range. rhythmic density,

When lead instruments supporting instruments

simultaneously perform simpler 'variations'. As seen in the opening measures of Zhonghua Liuban (Fig. 1.5), the dizi (flute) and zhonghu (tenor-range erhu) are most active in measure 1, the dizi employing

upper

and

lower

finger

articulations,

the

zhonghu

employing

portamenti

(short

on-the-beat

slides

instruments

occupy

supporting

roles, the sheng performing

on

one

string).

The

other

notes

of

longer value in parallel fifths and octaves, the pipa and yangqin utilizing tremolos and octave pitch reiterations. The plucked strings become more active in measure 2, the dizi again in measure 3, and so forth.

The essential element in traditional performance, and one that gives Chinese chamber music its richness and vibrancy, is the

spontaneity with which such decisions are made. Good performers, playing without notation but with a thorough understanding of

performance practice, improvise these interactive ‘variations’. As a result, every performance is different in textural detail.

Selected Readings Gao Houyong

高 厚 永 1981 Minzu Qiyue Gailun RyR2Z8426424 (Outline

of national instrumental music). Nanjiang: Jiangsu Renmin. Hu Dengtiao 胡 登 跳 1982 Minzu Guanxian Yuefa (Chinese instrumental-orchestration method).

Wenyi.

民族 管弦 继 法 Shanghai: Shanghai

Huang Jinpei 黄 锦 培 2002 "Ensembles: Guangdong Yinyue" in vol. 7, "East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea", The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. New York: Routledge. Liu Dongsheng SIF Ft, ed. 1992 Zhongguo Yuegi Tujian 中 国

乐 器圆 鉴

(Pictorial guide to Chinese instruments). Ji'nan: Shandong Jiaoyu.

Thrasher, Alan R. 2000 Chinese Musical Instruments.

Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.

New York and

Thrasher, Alan R. 2008 Sizhu Instrumental Music of South China: Ethos, Theory and Practice. Leiden, NL: Brill. Witzleben, J. Lawrence 1995 "Silk and Bamboo” Music in Shanghai.

Kent: Kent State University Press. Yang Yinliu #j(28] 1981 Zhongguo Gudai Yinyue Shigao Heya Rea

史 稿 (Draft history of ancient Chinese music), 2 vols. Beijing: Renmin Yinyue. Yu Siu-wah 2005 Such are the Fading Sounds (Chinese title: 8#7§4(/-). Hong Kong: HK Arts Development Council. [in Chinese and

English] Zheng Ruzhong 1993 "Musical Instruments in the Wall Paintings of

Dunhuang", CHIME Journal, 7: 4-56 (trans. A. Schimmelpenninck).

CHAPTER TWO

Sheng

Makin

Suopueys inyonsYyX6 alIquuasua YIM OM} :oloUd) edyserUI ‘tediey,(SZ6L

Suays Fy

NOU

sueSIO-Y puke 9UO

[[eWIs DUONS

2 Sheng 2 "The sheng looks like the body of a phoenix. Its music is the sound of New Year when all things grow." Shuowen Jiezi, 2nd century AD

Symbolic association between musical instruments and the natural world is ancient in China. In the above statement, drawn from the away classical dictionary Shuowen Jiezi 府 文解 字, the sheng mouth-organ is

said to resemble the likeness of the mythical phoenix - a bird of great natural

beauty

Moreover,

natural

its

in

sound

‘growth’

Chinese

belief.

corresponds

(sheng

4),

with

hence

the

name of the instrument: sheng ( 笔 ). Sheng construction consists of a bowlshaped wind-chest of wood or metal, a short blow-pipe extending out from the side,

and

17

(or more)

bamboo

pipes

arranged in an incomplete circle and mounted in the wind-chest. The pipes are of varying graded lengths, the tallest appearing on opposite sides of the circle. According to legend, this arrangement is believed to represent the folded-up wings

of the phoenix (Fig. 2.5). At the bottom of most pipes (several are usually mute) are free-beating

reeds

(huangpian

@E)

of

copper alloy, attached with wax. Like all free reeds, the sheng reed vibrates on both exhale and inhale, but only when reinforced by the coupled bamboo pipe. This reinforcement occurs when a fingerhole is closed, making the acoustical system complete.

THA -

x

Fig. 2.1 Musician with

sheng, detail from 14thcentury wall painting, Yongle 永乐 Temple,

Shanxi province

14

Yuegi: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

In performance, the instrument is held with the pipes tilted to the right of the player (Fig. 2.2). The wind-chest is held between both hands, though supported primarily by the right hand. Finger positions, with right index finger activating pipes 3 and 4 from the inside (through the gap in the pipes), are shown in Figures 2.6 and 2.10. The sheng plays a supportive role within the ensemble, accompanying

other instruments

with

organum-like

harmonies

of

upper fifths, lower fourths, and octaves. This harmonic system, known as peihe 配 和 (Fig. 2.9), adds a distinctive texture to Chinese ensemble

music. Historically and in contemporary practice, the sheng is used in both ritual and entertainment musics, as preserved today in the

Confucian rituals, the teahouses of Shanghai processions throughout North China.

Fig. 2.2

Zhang Taining #8223

sheng, Zheng

and

Zhenghua

the wedding

{iF #2, dizi

Sheng

15

Types There are more than a dozen historic, regional and contemporary types of sheng. Passing over some experimental models (see Liu 1992: 158ff.), the following outline selectively lists three dominant regional

types and two 20th-century "improved" types: Xiaosheng /|\#E (‘small sheng’) - used in Jiangnan sizhu 和缘 竹 and

kunqu 宣 曲 opera (in the Shanghai region), the 'small sheng has a narrow wind-chest of wood, with 17 pipes in a circle, but only

13 reeds. Tuning is essentially diatonic (playable in D and G),

and the volume relatively soft. Fangsheng 37% (‘square sheng’) - used in the music of north-central China, the fangsheng has a rectangular wind-chest of wood, 14

pipes in three parallel ranks, but usually only 12 reeds in diatonic tuning.

Yuansheng || (‘round sheng’) - employed in guchut 鼓吹 music of Shandong province and other areas of north-eastern China, this

type has a larger wind-chest of metal, 17 pipes in a circle, with

14 (or 13) reeds in diatonic tuning. Variants are constructed in

the keys of D, E, F and G. Volume is relatively loud.

Guoyue sheng #2226 (‘national music sheng’) - now most common in the pan-Chinese concert-hall music, this type of yuansheng has a large wind-chest of

metal, holding 21 (some-

-

FF

.

=

ae

all

times 24) pipes, all pipes with reeds in partial chromatic tuning. Larger wind-chest and addition of amplifying tubes. Jiajian sheng

加 键 笔 (keyed

sheng’) — another large type used in the concert hall,

the

‘keyed

sheng’

has a still larger windchest

26-,

of metal,

36-,

and

in 24-,

37-pipe

models, all with reeds in

full chromatic tuning, and with keys replacing finger-holes.

Fig. 2.3 Three sheng types (R ‘to Li) fangsheng, yuansheng and guoyue sheng

16

Yueqi: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

Historic Legacy of the Sheng Prototypes of the sheng are mentioned in the cl4th-century BC oracle bone inscriptions. These instruments, as suggested in later texts

and in archeological finds, had wind-chests of gourd and reeds of bamboo.

In fact, actual

instruments

have been

found

in grave

sites

dating from the 5th century BC and 2nd century BC. The name sheng was

first mentioned

in the c7th-century

BC

Shijing 诗经

(‘Book

of

Odes'). Its subsequent development over the next thousand years is

well documented in the classic texts of the Zhou and Han periods (further explored in Thrasher 1996: 3ff.)

During the 8th century AD, the Japanese court received from China three sheng mouth-organs, which are now preserved in Japan (see Hayashi 1967). In number and arrangement of pipes (17 pipes, in an incomplete circle), tuning of the reeds, shape of the pipes and materials

of construction, the continuity between these mouth-organs and the ‘small sheng’ in use today is remarkable, reflecting 1200 years of very little change (see Fig. 2.7a). There were many experimental models documented in later historic sources, such as the 19-pipe fully chromatic sheng described in the early 12th-century

Yueshu

“£22

(‘Book of Music').

The

author

mentions that mouth-organs were tuned to the ‘yellow bell pitch (huangzhong $4),

the foundational

pitch of the empire. While it is

clear that these sheng types were employed in court ritual and entertainment music, it is questionable whether Chinese merchants or peasants knew much about this instrument at that time. By the Ming and Qing dynasties (post 15th century), however, the sheng was in

common practice. Interestingly, it was the 8th-century structure which survived into the 21st century.

y

SS a Ss PAE a

一:

SS —

es=] 5 — EF

加q on Saees ae 一 一 一一 一 一 | a |

= ————— P = :

=e eae

| etc

ye

f)

= =a =

4

Ja mya 0 SS fo, Hees e/a 4

i

4

af

= bf | i es ee Pe e e j-——4 (a i a 2 SSS P

——

cy

y

Fig. 2.4 Sheng and dizi variations for Huanle Ge #72¢3x, beginning phrase

eas

etc

Sheng

17

Technical Information SHENG PARTS AND FINGER POSITIONS

Fig. 2.5 Sheng design and nomenclature ect

Guan pipe me Pos!

a

upper aperture

(on reverse side of pipe)

bamboo band

i

|

fingerhole

Shengjiao #2 F4 5] ¢—— Huangpian (reed) #4 }r

*— tuning spot tongue of reed

St oe aoe Douzi s+

(wind-chest)

SS

Chuiko 歇 口 (blow Pipe)

Fig. 2.6 Fingering positions.

Note that the pitches at pipes 5,6, 8 and 9 are variable,

according to regional and individual preferences;

pitches at the other pipes usually do not change, except when the entire instrument is pitched in a different key (such as F or G).

See next page for details. pipes without reeds

TAN

i} L. thumb

六

\

R.thumb

18

Yuegi: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

SHENG PITCH POSITIONS — THE STANDARD

PATTERNS

Fig. 2.7 Three Pitch Charts for D Sheng

a) 8th-century Sheng, 17 pipes/17 reeds

(Shés6in, Japan). Note: all pipes have reeds for performance in different keys.

b) 18th-century Xiaosheng, 17 pipes /13 reeds (Liilii Zhengyi (# & 1E#8). Note: present-day instruments may have c’

at 5, g#* at 6, and/or e’ at 8. The other pitch positions are stable.

c) 20th-century Guoyue Sheng,

21pipes /21reeds (author's collection). Note: great pitch variability at pipes 1, 3 4,2; 6/9, 16717518 19/90 and 21:

the traditional pitches remaining unchanged.

Sheng

19

Key The traditional Shanghai instrument is pitched in the key of D— that is, the pitches of a D major scale are present and at the most

convenient positions for the fingers. The pitch d* is invariably found at

pipe 14, with the other related pitches at assigned pipe positions around the circle. Occasionally, g#* and/or c* are found as well, often at pipes 6 or 9, which otherwise are rarely used. Modern instruments,

which are partially chromatic, still maintain the D orientation and pitch distribution (though pitch distribution on the 'keyed sheng' is different). In the

recent

past,

sheng

have

been

pitched

in G, F and E

to

accommodate the regional repertoires of North China and the modern concert-hall repertoire.

Fig. 2.8 Adjusting the tongue

| 4 oe = a IL ge) ee Soe 二 LEE i ee on ne ES Oe} eae ——_ 4 a CT

sol

Ss

la

ti

do

re

mi

fa

Fig. 2.9 Peihe system for 13-reed traditional sheng in D

eee

sol

ie

Os CN a eee ea eS (ee Ra SR

la

ti .

do

upper octave ——~>

© =zhuyin

® =peiyin

[o]= occasional usage

20

Yuegi: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

The Peihe System The system of producing harmonizing pitch clusters is known as peihe

配 和 (‘cooperation’), or sometimes simply as ‘traditional harmony'

(chuantong hesheng 传统 和 声).In traditional practice, sheng performers sound each melodic pitch as a cluster of pitches (Fig. 2.9). For example, the pitch 6 (in D) is sounded with pipes 3, 7 and 11; the pitch 1 with

pipes 12, 13 and 14. The main melodic pitch is known as zhuyin 主音 (‘root note'). This is sounded together with one or more accompanying

pitches, peiyin 配音 (‘supporting notes’), which are a fifth higher and/or fourth lower. The pipe combinations shown below are based upon their position

in the circle

(Fig. 2.7), and

are

appropriate

for the

traditional sheng types. Key

Pitches of one octave (shown in cipher notation)

1 5

D 6

Zhuyin

13,14

4,8

Petyin

12

11s

D

G

3 (7)

(4) 1

5 ®

Pipe Combinations* 3 2 125152

AO

4

4,8

6 3

7

3

(4)

(7)

6 5

2

“Note: pitch 4 in G (=c) is not present at this position on all instruments;

pitch 7 in D (=c#) is usually played alone.

Fig. 2.10 Position of right index finger, shown by Wu Zhongxi 吴忠 喜

Sheng

21

Performance Techniques Breathing and Phrasing. Air is alternately exhaled and inhaled through the instrument itself. The performer decides when to reverse, though generally change occurs every two or four beats (depending on tempo). Melodies are usually performed with a slurred (and very smooth) articulation. "Tonguing' is not a traditional technique, though occasional use of light tonguing is sometimes heard (but not identified in traditional notation). For a comprehensive listing of techniques, see Mou 1989: 45ff. THE MAIN TRADITIONAL TECHNIQUES

Peihe

配 和 (‘cooperation’) — sometimes marked as "AI" (‘harmony’),

this traditional harmonic system is basic to sheng technique and is outlined in detail above. Note: Some new compositions specify the use of full triadic harmony, which is not as convenient for fingering as traditional harmony. Dayin #]=% (‘breaking note’) - marked

with "7" above the pitch

number, this is an articulation in which fingers not in use lightly tap finger holes of adjacent pipes prior to sounding the main note; used especially on repeated notes and at phrase beginnings.

Ex. 6

6 played as é %% «& being any other pitch cluster)

46 (‘flower tongue’) - marked with an asterisk-like Huashe sign, "*", this is a flutter tongue (as a rolled 'R'), performed only on the exhale, usually for notes of short duration.

EX

*

ona = SELECTED NEW TECHNIQUES

Danyin

HH

(‘single

notes’)

—

marked

"i"

or

unmarked;

performance of melodic pitches only (without peiyin accompanying pitches), sometimes followed by return to traditional harmony.

Tugi t+ (‘aspirated breath’) - marked either "y " or me forceful tu

ff [ type of articulation, either dantu Hilt: (‘single tongue’) or shuangtu

(‘double tongue' - iev alternating staccato tu and ku articulations for fast passages). Houshe "7% (literally 'throat tongue’), optionally identified as hushe

呼 舌 ~- a shimmering vibrato type, effected by the tongue alone, alternately forcing and drawing air past the reeds (while breathing through the nose); used on long held notes, especially in introductions. (Other vibrato types are employed as well, though seldom differentiated).

22

Yuegi: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

Care and Maintenance 1. The sheng is tuned to beatless 5ths, starting on d (or a’), moving

upward to a’, e’/e’, b’, f#?, etc., and downward

from d’ to g”. For

tuning: a) To flatten the pitch of a reed, add very small drops of 'red wax' (hongla &L#) — a fortified beeswax =- to the tuning spot on the

tongue. This is best accomplished by heating a needle or an awl (or even the point of a knife blade) over a flame, melting a small amount of

wax with the tip (as it is inserted into the wax), and applying a drop to the tuning spot (Fig. 2.8). Do not allow wax to run into the gap or the tongue will not vibrate!

b) To sharpen the pitch of a reed, using a fine-tipped blade, remove very small slivers of wax from the tuning spot and test the pitch with each removal. Note that if the tongue on the reed is chipped or weakened by a small crack, the inhale pitch may be flat, in which case

the reed itself may need to be replaced.

2. Wax holding the reeds in place — beeswax with added pine resin — eventually becomes dry, and reeds may either fall into the wind chamber or become loose. If a reed has fallen, it will be impossible to

establish good air pressure. If a reed has simply become loose (resulting in a "clicking" sound when playing), air pressure will be weak. Reeds must be set securely in the wax. 3. Before playing, apply downward pressure on the pipes, assuring that they are well seated in the wind chamber. Improperly seated pipes result in a lack of air pressure. 4. If a closed pipe (ie., with fingerhole closed) doesn't sound, the usual cause is the tongue sticking in the reed gap, with dirt or wax preventing it from vibrating freely. Solution: clear gap with fine blade very carefully, maintaining the precision fit. Optionally, the bamboo pipe may be cracked, in which case it should be sealed with glue and clamped. 5. Check

that open

pipes

(ie., fingerholes

not

closed)

do not

inadvertently sound; blow very gently to test. If an open pipe sounds a

weak pitch while softly exhaling, then the tongue is elevated above the surface of the reed. Solution: remove pipe from the wind-chest and ease the tongue down to level using a toothpick or fingernail. If an open pipe sounds while softly inhaling, then the tongue is depressed below the surface of the reed. Solution: remove pipe and blow air into the open end (with vent hole sealed) to force tongue upward, catching it with a slip of thin cardboard (about the thickness of a name card). Carefully adjust the tongue upward. Note: when adjusting reeds,

guard against scraping the green protective film on the reed surface. 6. After playing for an extended period, loosen the entire cluster of

pipes (about 1/4 inch) to allow reeds to dry. Then store instrument

with blowpipe facing downward to drain condensed moisture.

Sheng

De

Melodic Patterns for Basic Sheng Techniques 1. Patterns for smooth alternation of exhale and inhale

|

Se

-一 一

一 一

pl:

ae

a

tele Go

> |3

一 -一

ee

es

S|l:6 1 1 él] -一 一 一，

Ex. |11 2

d)

50 3 |is played as

11 2 |$5532 3

huiyin 回音 (returning note’) — marked as “BY”.

After right hand plucks, left hand pushes gently on string and returns to unpressed pitch. This technique is used to embellish a single tone.

Huayin can also be used to play a series of pitches. As in the example below, the initial pitch under the beginning of the arrow is plucked and the successive pitches are produced with the left hand.

m |i 211s al

Anyin 按 音 (‘pressed note’) — marked as "0 " with a number inside

the circle. The left hand pushes on the string indicated by the number within the circle to produce the pitch notated in cipher numbers. Ex.

[3532|1261|

,

Fanyin 泛音 (harmonic) - marked as "0". The left hand taps the string lightly at the % or % point of the right side of a string while the right hand simultaneously plucks the same string to create a harmonic. Saoxian ##3% (‘stroking the string’) — marked as "* ". Can be played

with the left or right hand. A quick, percussive sweep of the thumb ina downward glissando.

38

Yueqgi: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

Care and Maintenance 1. If the instrument is not being played for a long time, store it in a hard

or

soft case.

Loosening

the strings

is not

necessary

when

preparing for long-term storage. The instrument can also be safely left

on the stands or placed vertically against a wall. Covering the instrument with a cloth will protect it from dust and direct sunlight. 2. Store the zheng in a cool, dry place. If the climate is particularly dry, make sure that the humidity of the room is regulated by a humidifier. In lieu of a humidifier, placing an open container of water near the instrument will help to prevent cracking due to excessive dryness. 3.

Tuning. Major tuning adjustments can be made by adjusting the

pins in the tuning box with a tuning wrench. Smaller changes can be made by moving bridges to the left or right. While most teachers recommend their students to tune all pitches of the zheng using an electronic tuner, learning to tune by ear has practical advantages, especially in an ensemble setting where many instruments may be tuning at the same time. The A pitches can be tuned first with an electric tuner. After this, the remainder of the pitches can be tuned using a circle of fifths (D-A, A-E, E-B, and finally B-F# or G-D for the

key of D and G respectively). 4. a) Placement of bridges. When retuning the entire instrument for the first time or after a long period of storage, make sure that the bridges are ideally spaced for tuning using bridge adjustments only. The bridge supporting the F#/G string should have a greater distance of separation from its adjacent strings so that there is room for the bridge to be adjusted for both pitches. Once all the strings are tuned and the bridges are in their ideal location, a marker can be used to indicate the location of the bridge for two pitches F# and G. The relative placement of bridges also determines in part the tension of the strings. It is advisable for an experienced zheng player to determine the placement

of bridges for optimal tension. If set too tight, the upper strings will break often and if set too loose, the strings will not sound properly.

b) Handling bridges. When moving bridges to the left and right, one

should pull the string up on either side of the bridge with one hand while moving the bridge with the other. This allows a bridge to move easily without the pressure of the string on it. Otherwise, the tension of the string may cause the bridge to fall over. 5. Filing plectra. Fingerpicks need to be filed and shaped to fit the size and shape of each individual player. Usually, the rounded end of each

plectrum needs to be filed down so that the nail does not impede the movement of the first joint. The thickness of each plectrum should be about 1 to 1.2 mm.

Zheng

39

Several Beginning Pieces Meng Jiang Nii fie “Lady Meng Jiang’ Sco

ha

eae

Bt

局

see,

ro

oe

see

oH

uu

Br

ry Ell Ss

|271 6 工 |5 55|561

i

3

peta

Se

ee oa

Some ol

yj

an

3

a2 Toes |

Lie

oe ee ty el oe

i

| 21 65/6666! | ie

gh

Lu

I

Bale & 6.0, ('22 22/55

|

5

e 1121 6115 5 | 5— | Xiao Baicai 小 自 某 “Little White Cabbage’

WW

4, OU

aU

hl

|

tC Spa

二

we APS Arey aya eS ice wry

ge al

40

Yuegi: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

Qian Sheng Fo --(#6 ’A Thousand Buddhist Bells Tolling’

1 1. Nouns 3) wl

MIRE GG G56 1)CenitesFe

号

NP

ENE

Z

dS ara 1 616

a, 5

eee

Sem |

eC

ela) niet

lege Diya Bit

e

NT

563653235|1 1 2335| 1675 6 5635 2 SL LS LIST Lees eg Pi Say DN HOD #0529" 106125 ale e223

te

1

pea 3523

313

ee

1655561 133 3.8 BD 3/398 P4351 8773

Hes | al

Selected Readings Cao Zheng. 1983. “A Discussion of the History of the Gu Zheng.” Asian Music, vol. 14, no. 2: 1-16.

Han Mei. 2001. “Zheng.” The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, edited by Stanley Sadie, vol. 29: 802-804, also vol. 3: 680-

681 on zheng solo traditions. Liang Tsai-Ping 3274. 1977. Music of Cheng: The Chinese 16 Stringed Zither 直 等 独奏 曲 .Taipei: Chinese Classical Music Association.

Lin Ling 林 玲 .1999. Zhongguo Yinyue Xueyuan Xiaowai Yinyue Kaoji Chuanguo Tongyong Jiaocai: Guzheng BF Se bee MF eS SY 通用 教材 (Chinese Music Conservatory Extracurricular National

Music Instruction Literature: Guzheng). Beijing: Zhongguo Qingnian Chubanshe. Witzleben, J. Lawrence. 2002. “Instruments: Zheng.” The Garland

Encyclopedia of World Music vol. 7 East Asia: China, Japan and Korea edited by Robert Provine et al, 171-174. New York: Routledge.

Wu Ganbo 5248/4 and Xiang Sihua

项

斯药,ed. 1987. Xiang Sihua

Yanzou: Zhongguo Zhengpu Way se ess : ch ey]Se3 (Xiang Sihua in performance: Chinese zheng scores) vol. 1 and 2. Hong Kong: Shanghai Book Co. Xiang Sihua. 2004. Meiribitan: Guzheng Zhixulianxiqu

每 日 必 弹 :二 等 指序

oreHH (Playing daily: guzheng finger exercises). Shanghai Music

Publishing House.

Yan Liwen [#i382&. 1993. Chinese Music for Zheng

PRA

sh HS

vol.

1 and 2. Shanghai: Shanghai Music Publishing House 597746 uER

人

CHAPTER FOUR

Dizi and Xiao

\2.

Clay figurine with dizi 季子 ,cl0th century (photo: A. Thrasher)

4 Dizitat and Xiao #4 "The Han emperor Ling Di liked the barbarian flute (hudi 胡 笛 );

therefore the empire went into decline." Yueshu #43, c1100

Historically

known

by a variety of different

names,

such

as

hengchui fx (‘transverse blow') and hengdi fa ff (‘transverse flute’), the

Chinese transverse flute is now generally known as dizi or di, though regional names exist as well. The dizi is constructed

from various

species of bamboo,

‘purple bamboo' (zizhu 2/7), ‘arrow bamboo' (jianzhu 箭

such as

竹)and several

others. The tube is closed at the blowing end with a cork, open at the bottom.

Distributed

along

the

upper

surface

are

a _blow-hole,

membrane hole and six fingerholes, with two end-holes on the underside which define the length of the vibrating air column and may be used to attach a string or decorative tassel. Other decorative holes may appear below this. The dizi is normally wrapped with windings of silk thread or nylon line, and often tipped on both ends with decorative bone or brass fittings. ' Traditionally,

Chinese

flutes

are constructed from a single piece of bamboo, though today most flutes are constructed in two pieces for tuning purposes.

Covering the mem-brane hole is a vibrating membrane

(dimo (4/5), a

very thin piece of skin peeled from the inner surface of a section of bamboo or reed. In performance, the flute is held either to the right or to the left of the player. While the dizi transverse flute has become the primary flute type used in ensembles of today, the xiao ## vertical flute has a more

ancient lineage. It is briefly described at the end of this chapter.

Fig. 4.1 Luo Dezai 28 (8%, xiao fff

44

Yueqt: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

Types Two basic types of dizi are usually differentiated,

qudi 曲 笛 and

bangdi 郴 箭 .The qudi (‘song flute’) is the prevailing "southern" type, employed in the traditions of central-eastern China (the Shanghai region), especially in Jiangnan sizhu 4#/J, Sunan chuida 歇 打 and kunqu =H opera (where it is often called kundi 宣 备). The qudi pitched in D (three holes covered) is externally about 58 cm. or more in length,

though the vibrating air column (distance between the blow-hole and lower end-holes) is nearly half this (c34 cm.). Its usual range is two

octaves plus one whole-step (a' to b’). The bangdi, also known as gaodi (‘high flute’ 高 笛), is the prevailing "northern" type, employed in Hebei bangzi i} opera and other northern genres, and in a large repertoire of solo compositions dating

from the mid-20th century. While structurally the same as the qudi, the bangdi is shorter and pitched in higher keys. For flutes pitched in G (three holes covered), the external length is about 45 cm. (vibrating air

column: c25 cm.). Bangdi flutes are pitched in other keys as well (notably A and F). Whereas the qudi is most commonly associated with slow and

lyrical melodies of the Jiangnan region, bangdi melodies are generally lively, requiring a more animated

performance

style. In the far south of China, while the transverse flute is not as

important vertical

as

the

flute,

xiao

a _ local

bangdi-type of flute is often employed in Chaozhou music.

Fig. 4.2 Charlie Lui

WJ, dizi

Dizi and Xiao

45

Historic Legacy of the Dizi Most Chinese scholars accept the theory that the dizi was introduced into China from Central Asia early in the Han dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD). In fact, China already had a transverse flute type prior to this, a ritual instrument known as chi 篇, with larger internal diameter and finger-holes on the side of the flute rather than on the top (i.e., 90

degrees from the blow-hole). It is very likely that this flute in some way influenced the development of the dizi. Nearly half a dozen bamboo flutes resembling the ancient chi have been uncovered from early sites, notably two 5th-century BC flutes with five finger-holes, and two 2ndcentury BC flutes with six finger-holes plus an additional hole on the opposite side (see Liu 1992: 126-27).

The Han period dizi, without the membrane hole characteristic of later flutes, was known as hengchui *ax (‘transverse blow’) and used in

outdoor military ensembles. From the 6th century onward, transverse flutes were more commonly known as hengdi

ff (‘transverse flute’),

though other names were used as well. Employed in Tang (618-907) court entertainment ensembles together with bili £52 (reed-pipe) and sheng 笔 (mouth-organ), hengdi flutes had six or seven fingerholes, but

still no membrane. As documented by Hayashi Kenzé in 1967, of the

many

instruments

sent to Japan during this period, four seven-hole

hengdi (Japanese: Oteki) are preserved at the Shésdin repository. The present-day Japanese ryiiteki #2—4 resembles these flutes very closely. The presence of a membrane was first mentioned in the early 12thcentury treatise Yueshu “#34. During the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) the qudi and bangdi (each with six finger-holes and membrane) became dominant instruments in kunqu 宣 曲 and bangzi Hi

opera, and they

later became lead instruments in instrumental genres as well. During the mid-20th

century, as musical ideals shifted and new

compositions called for equal-tempered scales, makers repositioned fingerholes accordingly (though the traditional flute used in kunqu accompaniment remained unchanged). For the performance of 20thcentury concert-hall repertoire, the most important flute type is the bangdi, with its bright tone colour and virtuosic techniques.

Fig. 4.3 Baduan Jin 八段 锦 (Jiangsu melody)

46

Yuegi: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

Technical Information FLUTE SIZES AND KEYS

Dizi flutes are constructed in different keys, identified by a single pitch name on the front of the instrument. With the understanding that

the six fingerholes are traditionally numbered from the lowest to the highest (1 - 6), the pitch name of each flute is located next to hole 3 indicating that when the upper three holes are covered (4, 5, and 6), the

pitch sounded at the open hole 3 will be the key of the instrument. It is usually called 'do' or 'l' in the Chinese cipher system (but see the fingering chart for other keys). The closing of all six fingerholes yields a pitch a fourth

lower

which,

however,

seldom

functions

as the

keynote of a piece. The following guide identifies the predominant

flute types and their pitches (that is, with the upper three fingerholes covered):

Qudi #4 = the medium-sized flute of central-eastern China,

usually pitched at d* (all holed covered yielding a’) In North China, this flute is commonly pitched at e(all holes closed = b’) In South China (Cantonese region), it is pitched at c

(all holes covered = g’) Bangdi #4 - the short flute of North China, usually pitched at g*

(all holes covered = d?) Other bangdi keys include f? (all holes = c’) and a? (all holes = e’) COMMON

PERFORMANCE KEYS, FLUTE PITCHES AND FINGERINGS

For the key of D - use either a qudi in d (all holes covered = pitch 5 or sol) for low range repertoire, or a bangdi in a° (all holes covered = pitch 2 or re) for high range repertoire. For the key of G - use a qudi in d’ (all holes covered = pitch 2 or re) or a bangdi in g (all holes covered = pitch 5 or sol). For the key of F - use a qudi in c (all holes covered = pitch 2 or re) or a bangdi in f (all holes covered = pitch 5 or sol). Note: Some solo repertoire requires the use of flutes pitched in keys

other than the above traditional practices, such as the use of a qudi in e for performance in the key of G.

Common range

Fig. 4.4 Qudi common range (one octave higher as indicated)

Dizi and Xiao

QUDI FINGERING

47

CHART

一 一 一 blowv hole

[ol

——

membrane hole

ceeeeeecoocoeeeeeocoecoocoee Ol@@eseeoeoesesaeesoeoce ®@ @

oje

@e@eeoceseoe@eeoeseseeodoveeoded70d

oOr@@seeoo0o0c0

0@@2828000808808800

oj@e@eocdcdcdc 0c 0 @e@e00008008080800 [Om

oO OU Ooo

Oe

OO

OCH

Ist octave |

qa! b!

ae

So

cit2 d2

a

ae 8

a b2 ci de e3 fi

ea

eI

aos ee

€8@4

0

2nd octave Y

e2 全

a as a

00D

BANGDI/

ron

了

ps

ee)

2

Y eg a?

bs

Cn ae ae:

z

es eg ee

ae

6

8

XIAO FINGERING CHART blow hole

——

blow hole

一 一 一 membrane hole

@ ®— @一 一 1@)一 一12) 一 12) 6 一 一 一 一 一

® ®

人 口一 一 oO— © 一 一i) @一 一 ® 一 一区 一 1e) 一 一 一

ee 008 e@ 0@ 08 ee! eee 00 o00 @® 000 0800000 ele @ O00 000 co3e eeo'ee eeeee 0e8e@

Y

Ind octave Y

ist octave

d2 e2 f¥2 g2 a? b? c3 cl da e3 £ 23 ab? ee ee ee ae ee e e ee

ee, e020 0@e0e @00,08 oooo @eeo0o ee 088

a

ct cHd* ee ee ee;

ce a. ar

Fig. 4.5 D Qudi and G Bangdi/ Xiao Fingering Charts

a)

ef

48

Yuegi: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

THE MEMBRANE

The most important characteristic of Chinese flutes is the presence of a vibrating membrane (dimo 笛 膜)- a very thin piece of bamboo skin

which, when properly adjusted, produces a soft, buzzing tone. The membrane

is peeled from the inside of a stem of bamboo

or reed.

Bamboo membrane (zhumo 人 竹 膜) while quite fragile, is generally preferred for its sensitivity. Reed membrane (/umo JERR) is somewhat

stronger but less sensitive to vibration. Both are sold in packets of thin, though

tubes,

flattened

pre-cut

membranes are also available.

In preparation: a) the tube must be cut into approximately one-inch sections, then slit lengthwise with a

knife or scissors, yielding roughly oneinch

squares;

b)

the

membrane

is

gently crumpled between the thumb and index finger (or simply wrinkled

a

bit),

then

carefully

opened up; c) the exterior surface around the membrane hole is

Fig. 4.6 Membrane Placement

lightly moistened with water (or saliva if necessary); d) a sticky watersoluble substance, such as hardened peach sap (taojiao ®kKFE) or hyacinth root (baiji 自若 )is rubbed over this same surface (around the membrane hole), leaving a sticky residue. (In the Western world,

postage stamp glue is considered equally effective). Finally, e) the membrane

is attached

over

the membrane

hole,

its grain

usually

running at 90 degrees to the length of the flute. Using the thumbs of both hands, the membrane is very carefully adjusted, allowing half a dozen (or more) lateral wrinkles to form. Proper adjustment of the vibrating membrane is essential to the production of the soft, buzzing tone quality. Adjustment of the membrane requires patience and experience. If pulled too tight (jin &8), with no lateral wrinkles, the flute will sound

without its buzzy quality. If too loose (song #4), with the appearance of an irregular surface, the quality of sound will be raucous and the high register will not sound. Blow-hole We

Membrane hole

孔

| Se

reas

上iTT THT

‘a:

a

j 4.7 Dizi iz] design i Fig.

Decorative holes

fit

Finger Holes

孔

a

出

孔

孔

|

前

a

a

ee

,

bs

Ba

He 5 Fr CEPA) Corks (inside)

Gs

A if He Membrane

第 第 第 第 第 ~ ££第 eee 2 _1AnRA AH A 6 5 4 3 2 1

全

出 = 孔 Endholes

Dizi and Xiao

49

Performance Techniques Articulation, for the most part, is accomplished by special finger movements. Otherwise, a smooth legato style without tonguing is idiomatic for most traditional music. Tonguing is reserved for special effects only. Vibrato is commonly employed on notes of longer

duration =- that is, a slow, pulsing diaphragm vibrato rather than the continuous fast style usually heard in western flute performance. These elements of performance are standard and rarely notated. THE MAIN TRADITIONAL TECHNIQUES

Zheyin $e

(‘twisting note’) - traditionally indicated as "%", now

simply shown as an upper grace note, or improvised within context.

This upper-finger ornament is especially characteristic of Chinese flute performance. The principle melodic note is approached from the note above (less frequently from below) in a manner similar to an appoggiatura, the appropriate upper finger dropping quickly and smoothly without tonguing. While any melodic note may be so ornamented, the pitches 6 (la) and 3 (mi) are routinely so embellished.

Ex.

.

a)single zheyin:

Ex. b) compound zheyin: Dayin

Z

,

5.‘6 1, playedas 56

“5

or

12

ee

5-

ee

76:

1

1

打 音 (‘breaking note’) - occasionally

marked

as " T "but

usually improvised. A traditional articulation employed when repeating the same pitch. For this articulation, the hole immediately

below the melody note is briefly tapped by the next lower finger, either closing it completely or partially (all without tonguing). For use with vented 5 (all holes closed), merely lift the right index finger to inflect

with sharp 4. Bx

1

Dept? “2, played as Sep)

Chanyin 8A (‘trembling note’) = marked "tr" for short turn, "w " for

a trill, but not always differentiated. Any of several types of trill, most

commonly between the principal melodic pitch and the next diatonic pitch above. The Chinese trill is usually employed on notes in the

middle of phrases, but not cadentially as in western music. In the

chuida music of North China, wider intervals are sometimes trilled.

Ex.a)

6 played as 1676: b)

6 played as 67676767

Zengyin $475 (‘gift note’) - occasionally marked

x

"7"

etc.

or " >" but

usually improvised. A grace note very occasionally played at the end

of a sustained pitch or phrase, effected by lifting one or more fingers

Yuegi: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

50

immediately above the sustained note and, at the same time, stopping the flow or air - resulting in a weak and often indistinguishable pitch. This ending grace note is often sounded at the highest open hole on the flute. Ri

Ex. 5 Geo

li

&

和

sores. Sel.

ra

SELECTED NEW TECHNIQUES

With the emergence of the concert hall repertoire in the 1950s, new techniques

accepted

were

into

the repertoire.

Some,

however,

are

considered to be ‘traditional’ in North China, such as duoyin and the related liyin (a sequential glissando, not shown).

Tuyin 43% (‘tongued note’) - marked either "v" or "T" for single tongue,

or

"TK"

for

double

tongue,

but

sometimes

improvised.

Employed in the performance of staccato passages or for emphasis, using the tip of the tongue to articulate each successive note. Two types:

Ex. a) dantu 章 呈 (‘single tongue’) - for quarter or eighth notes Ex. b) shuangtu ®$t (‘double tongue’) - alternating "T" and "Kk"

positions of the tongue for staccato performance of faster notes

(TK TK).

Huashe {£4 (‘flower tongue’) - marked" * ", or improvised. A flutter tongue (like a rolled "R"), either short or long, essentially

creating a tremolo. For pitches in the high range primarily. Huayin Yq (‘sliding note') - usually marked "7" or " 7%" for ascending," \" or" \" for descending, but basically any arrow before

or over the note. This portamento technique is effected by sliding one or two fingers upward or downward,

gradually opening or closing

holes adjacent to the principal melodic pitch. Exe 61

or

61

Duoyin |= (‘chopped note’) - usually marked "V". A sudden drop to the melodic note from a higher pitch, which is unfixed but usually from the highest open hole. This higher note is essentially played at the same time as the main melodic note, or slightly before it. Ex.

CNa (©) A

x

Dizi and Xiao

51

Selected Examples for Basic Techniques (Key of D) 1. Dayin {}& (‘breaking note’) - lower finger articulation

2. Zheyin $= and dayin finger articulations - for upper and lower i 1

Al 5615-

5% i 65 3/52321-

1%

3%



=>

@) indicate index, middle,

ring, and little finger

respectively. They are usually shown above cipher notation numbers whereas string symbols are shown below.

62

Yuegi: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

Fig. 5.6 Cipher notation for key of D (left: pitch names; right: cipher notation)

xiang rr.

positions

位

ee

eg

#

中

af

A

d

e

a

Pe ee

Ds ee

ee

as

hb

老

51

ee

ea eee tf ae te 86LE ee # CI d g a di

e

fe

el

es5

é

2

1

3 4

2

5

fi 5 6 pin

tf

b

tc!

g

in positions t=] Ty十

tf

di

g)

# cl

a

de!

al

b

ef!

b!

位

gs tcl = tf

2

:

Brewer

p

5 7

7

5

1

6

2

1

4

2»

5

3

6

: #2

di

8

al

二

e

a

hb!

e2

. _

2

3

B

ffi

bl

ie

fe

d2

外

e

ae

if

b

tc?

14 三

:

@

TI

i

ae ee ie

2

下

b?

a

Vv

B

“ 0 21 22

23 24

25

7

1

Ill

Pipa

63

Fig.5.7 Cipher notation for key of G (left: pitch names; right: cipher notation) 老 _d

中

+

e

a

Shan-kou

xiang 1 xiang

CI

positions

2

3

48 位

4 5 6

pin 1 2

pin positions

@ 老 下

中

Pee 4 1 eae

7

pirat

BOE ee 4

ee le

ie

eG

AGE

oO

AASy

位

253 4

(Bn

A 1

7 Beal

I

elie?

ae

ae 4

ae

JI

4

5

5

6

Th

i

3 3 上

xX

=

Il

VI

64

Yuegi: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

PLECTRA

Modern pipa technique requires the use of finger plectra for all five fingers. While some senior performers trained in more traditional settings still prefer to play using real nails, most performers today prefer using acrylic plectra. The latter can also be made of buffalo horn or tortoise shell. Plectra are sold in sets of five and come in various

sizes. With the exception of the thumb plectrum, finger plectra are curved on each side and pointed at the tip. The thumb fingerpick has a straight edge on the left side; its point is at the top left edge which curves downward toward the right side. The beginning student usually needs to make many adjustments to finger plectra. This can be done with scissors or a file. The length of the

plectrum must fit an individual’s nail size. The flat base of the plectrum must fit directly over one's cuticle leaving only a small pointed portion (c3-4 mm) showing above the fingertip. Finger plectra are to be taped firmly on top of the nails of one's right hand using cloth tape. The bottom third of the plectrum should be adhered to the top half of the tape’s width so that the pointed top portion of the plectrum is visible. The proper fitting of the thumb fingerpick is very important for good sound production. The flat left edge of the thumb plectrum must line up directly on top of the left edge of one's thumbnail. The medical tape used should be about 1 cm in width and long enough to wrap around each finger several times. It is hard to find good medical tape for the purposes of fitting pipa plectra in North America. Most performers buy their tape from pharmacies in China. Johnson & Johnson first-aid waterproof tape is fairly good for taping pipa plectra but it is about half an inch wide

and requires some

trimming.

Fig. 5.8 Taped position of plectra

Fig. 5.9 Shape of plectra: thumb (left), all other fingers (right)

Pipa

65

Performance Techniques POSTURE

Pipa posture. The pipa is held vertically in a relaxed sitting position.

The base of the pipa should be centerd with one's body, and tucked firmly against the abdomen, with one's thighs held together. The proper holding position requires the shoulders to be relaxed and somewhat slouched. The neck of the instrument leans lightly on one’s left shoulder. The right side of the instrument should be angled toward the body such that the entire fingerboard is easily visible. If the pipa is held properly, it should balance in one's lap without requiring support from the hands (see fig. 5.10b).

Left arm movement. The left upper arm should remain relaxed to the side, with the elbows bent. The left hand thumb rests on the back of the neck to support the index (1), middle (2), ring (3) and little (4) finger in

the pressing of frets. The full range of frets is used in pipa repertoire— both xiang and pin. When pressing frets, the fingers should be curved, and the center of the fingertip should be used to press the string. In order to produce a clean pitch, one must firmly press the area just directly above the fret without pulling or pushing on the string. When producing pitches in the xiang position, one should press the area just

directly above the highest point of the triangular fret. When pressing frets with 2, 3 and 4 fingers, make sure the fingers above it are also pressing firmly down on the string. _ When the left hand fingers transition between fret positions, the wrist leads in downward and upward movements. When moving between positions, the depressed finger releases the fret at the last

moment and the movement of the wrist leads the fingers to the next fret, sliding lightly along the string played until the new fret position is reached. In this way, the fingers work like a pivot point and the leading wrist movement ensures smooth transitions.

The left hand must adjust to the varied span of each fret position as well as the increasing distance of the frets from the edge of the instrument as one moves down the neck and resonating chamber. The higher fret positions also require a larger hand span than the lower fret position and adjustments must be made accordingly (see fig. 5.10a and

b). In addition, the left hand adjusts to the widening of the resonating chamber by bringing the thumb and wrist further out from behind the instrument. In the lowest fret position, the thumb comes out from behind the resonator altogether and supports itself on the edge of the first fret (see fig 5.10b).

66

Yueqi: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

Fig. 5.10 a) Left hand posture for xiang frets (top left); b) left hand posture for

position IV (top right); c) right hand plucking posture (bottom left).

arm

Right arm movement. The right rests relaxed with the

elbows

bent

but

not

raised.

When the right hand plays, the angle of the forearm should be on an upward diagonal toward the strings. The plucking should take place at the midpoint between the bottommost fret and the bridge (see fig. 5.10). The resting position for the two main plucking techniques used (tantiao and lun) requires index, middle, ring and little fingers to

be curved and touching each other. The thumb is slightly bent at the first joint and the tip of the thumb touches the first joint of the index finger. In the case of Jun (finger roll) technique, the wrist will rotate upward slightly during the roll so that the middle, ring and little fingers will strike the string at the same midpoint location as the index finger. Before striking, the index finger is positioned about 0.5 cm away from the string.

Pipa

67

PRINCIPAL RIGHT HAND TECHNIQUES

The majority of right hand pipa techniques are based on an outward pluck, in which the fingers move from a curved to a fully extended position, moving away from the center of the palm. The two techniques, tantiao and lun, enable one to play most beginning pipa repertoire and also form the technical basis of more advanced

techniques. For both tantiao and lun, the starting position of the right hand is the same: the index, middle, ring and little finger are curved

and touching each other while the thumb gently rests on the first joint of the index finger. Tantiao 弹跳

is a combination

of two techniques—that of tan, an

outward pluck of the index finger and tiao, an outward pluck of the thumb (away from the center of the palm). The two are marked as" \" and "7" respectively. After each plucking action, the index and thumb return immediately to the curved-finger resting position. Tantiao is the basic technique used to play all melodic passages. It is also used sometimes

to sustain short notes in a tremolo-like

manner.

When

played in rapid alternation, tantiao involves slight movement in the wrist. Lun #, marked in its standard form as "*
t is marked as" ~ ". Although its Chinese name means a ‘half rotation’, the technique itself is not a half rotation. It is rather a

4/5ths rotation. The technique involves outward plucking of the index,

middle, ring and little finger, but not the thumb. Unlike Jun, banlun is

executed with a subtle ‘flicking’ wrist action. This technique is often used to ornament eighth notes and sixteenths, and is commonly heard after dotted rhythms. Banlun is perhaps named a ‘half rotation’ because it often has a half or quarter beat rhythmic value. Gou “J is marked

as "©". The thumb plucks inward

(toward the

center of the palm) using the concave side of the nail. Mo 抹 is marked as " ) ". The index finger plucks inward using the concave side of the nail. Gou and mo are often played together. Inward plucking techniques produce a scratchier sound, particularly with the thumb. This is caused by the concave edges of the nail coming into contact with the string. Kou 扣 is marked as "= ". This technique involves the simultaneous

outward pluck of the index finger and the inward pluck of the thumb on two different strings. (This technique combines tan and gou.) Fen

47, marked

as

"/\",

refers

to the

simultaneous

outward

plucking of the index and thumb on two different strings. Zhe $4 marked as" 0 ", refers to the simultaneous inward plucking

of the index and thumb on two different strings. (This combines the techniques of gou and mo.) Zhe and fen are often played together in alternation. Sometimes the thumb and index pluck open strings. Other times a melody is played on the top string while the bottom string is repeated like a drone.

Pipa

69

LEFT HAND TECHNIQUES

Pipa left hand techniques are not nearly as numerous as right hand techniques. Yet they play an important role in creating subtleties of pitch and timbre. The most common left hand techniques are vibrato, portamento and harmonics. Huayin }7

(portamento techniques) are commonly used in pipa

performance. The two main techniques used to produce huayin are tui #—

and

la ff, marked

"~~",

meaning

‘to push’

and

‘to pull’

respectively. They can be used to either raise or lower a plucked pitch depending on how the technique is used in sequence with right hand plucking. In order to raise a pitch, a player plucks the fretted pitch then uses the depressed finger to push or pull the string to a specified pitch. If a descending- pitched portamento is desired, the player first pushes or pulls the string to a sharpened pitch, plucks the pitch, then releases the tension so that the pitch bends back to the fretted pitch. Tui and la are used interchangeably; usually the player decides which technique is appropriate based on the location of the string. (For example, pulling on the first position of the first string is not possible because the string is too close to the left edge of the fret.) Upper and lower sliding tones are referred to as shanghuayin Fig and xiahuayin Ya respectively. For most shanghuayin, the implied

portamento pitch is half the rhythmic length of the notated pitch. For xiahuayin, the implied pitch can be short like a grace note or it can also be half the length of the notated pitch. Unless otherwise indicated, the implied pitch is the upper neighbour note of the notated pitch based on a DO-RE-MI-SOL-LA pentatonic mode. In some regional styles, a sharp

FA or a flat Tl is used in place of SOL and DO respectively. Yin 1 and rou #, both marked

as "#", refer to two

different

vibrato techniques produced by undulating movement of the left hand

wrist and fingers once the note has been plucked. Yin refers to vibrato produced by the side-to-side pushing motion of the depressed finger. Rou refers to vibrato produced by up and down movement of the left wrist. In most cases, yin and rou are undifferentiated in performance. Most often, they are used simultaneously to produce vibrato. Fanyin 泛音 ,marked as "0", indicates the playing of harmonics. The

left hand quickly taps the string at a specific location at the same time that the right hand plucks, producing a harmonic.

70

Yuegi: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

Care and Maintenance 1.

Instrument

storage. Put the instrument

back in the case

or bag

immediately after playing. Store the case in 'a cool, dry place. If temporarily resting an instrument, place the pipa on a flat table or a lute stand. Do not lean it vertically on a wall. Do not allow the instrument to be exposed to long periods of direct sunlight. Do not place the instrument near a heater. This will cause the soundboard to crack. When the instrument is not being used for a long period of time or when travelling on long trips, release the tension on the strings. To protect the frets, place a thin layer of sponge

under

and

over

the

strings. An extra layer of sponge at the base of the soundboard will further protect the instrument. 2. Humidity. In places where the climate is dry and prone to extreme weather changes, regulate the humidity in the room with a humidifier. If this is not possible, place an open basin of water in the room where the instrument is stored to prevent cracking during cold, dry weather.

3. Tuning. To tune the pipa, lay the instrument horizontally on one's lap with the soundboard facing outward. Turn the pegs to tune as needed.

If there is difficulty in making pegs stay in tune, loosen the

string and force the peg into the peghole until it stays, then slowly tighten the string to the desired tuning. If sliding pegs continue to be a problem, try using some chalk on the peg area near the peg-hole in order to increase resistance.

To avoid loosening of strings during playing, tune each string slightly

sharper than the desired pitch, then pull the string so that it returns to the desired pitch. Do this by pressing down on the string and pulling it from side to side. This ensures that the peg is firmly fixed in its position and allows for fine-tuning.

4. Stringing the pipa. Insert the looped end of the string into the appropriate hole on the bridge from the front side. Then insert the other end of the string into the loop such that the loop appears on the backside of the bridge. Pull the entire string through the loop and place the end of the string into the small hole in the peg. The peg should already be inserted into the peg box. The end of the string should protrude at least 2 cm through the hole. Tighten the peg clockwise. From a frontal view, the pegs alternate left, right, left, right from the top down. The lowest string is strung to the topmost peg and the remainder are strung in order with the highest string strung on the lowest peg.

Pipa

71

Selected Examples of Basic Techniques Beginning of Lao Liu Ban ( 老 六 板 )“Old Six Beat”

1=D 2/4 2115 1 1 N

ZN

ZS

©

Ca VIN

zai

ON

i ©

7

ul

人

NSS

t'—- — an

6 32116 5 5 NEA

i

Wfh Bu 全

AN

gd &

Techniques employed: tantiao, shuangtan, fen (See p.59 notes on string symbols.)

Excerpt of a Technique Exercise in G by Gui Feng Bin (4/2) 1=G 2/4

Po Oe =

NO ANS obo: Mio)

S| ee-2512 3523 5635 6156

va

Lines |

二 -一 =Sa |7 - [6532 1612.65 6 Techniques employed: tantiao, lun, fanyin Notes: ¢ Extended /un tremolos are indicated with dotted lines ‘+ Techniques to be repeated continuously in sequence are shown in a box. Sequences are repeated until a new technique is indicated.

* Left hand fingerings are shown above cipher notation numbers. Excerpt from Shou Ting Hou ( 寿 停 候 )‘The time of the eternal pagoda’ 1=D 2/4 x

is

ees

6666 |6765 656 |ous ee |7237 6666 6666 a2 6666 0 BiG |797 6666 SRC EI

aS

aS

|Aig 53| 086 33'[i 58|58s8 [son a? 032 3533 |16 1 \v

Se

02

Techniques employed: tantiao, tui/la, fanyin, shuangtan, zhai

ees

S

1

Yuegi: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

72

Excerpt from 金蛇 狂 舞 Jinshe Kuangwu, ‘Dance of the golden snake’

1=D 2/4,1/4 S 56115643 64 [5 ei Seman

Sar

|2225 (5243 - |21244

S

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Techniques employed: tantiao, banlun, shuangtan, sao, zhefen

Suggested Readings Ling Feixiong 凌 飞 能 and Zhou Runhua jaj¥##. 1971. Zenme Tan Pipa /EJEEGHEEEE (How to play the pipa). Hong Kong: Xianggang

Xincheng Shuju. Liu Dongsheng 3 Ft, ed. 1992 Zhongguo Yueqi Tujian 中 国 乐 器图鉴 (Pictorial Guide to Chinese Musical Instruments). Jinan: Shandong

Jiaoyu. [Comprehensive review of all instrument types] Liu, Tsun-Yuen and Wu Ben. 2007. “Pipa.” Grove Music Online. Myers, John. 1992. The Way of the Pipa: Structure and Imagery in Chinese Lute Music. Kent: Kent State University Press. Myers, John. 1998. “Instruments: Pipa.” Garland Encyclopedia of World Music vol. 7, edited by Robert Provine et al, 167-170. New York: Routledge.

Thrasher, Alan. 2000. Chinese Musical Instruments. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.

Wong, Samuel Shengmiao. 2003. Impressions of a Pipa Player. Singapore: Beaumont Publishing. Wong, Samuel Shengmiao. 2005. An Instrumental Guide to the Chinese Orchestra. Singapore: TENG. Yu Siu-wah. 2005. Such are the Fading Sounds (Chinese title: 4277§ 41 I).

Hong Kong: HK Arts Development Council. [in Chinese and

English] Zheng Ruzhong. 1993. 'Musical Instruments in the Wall Paintings of Dun-huang', CHIME Journal 7, 4-56 (trans. A. Schimmelpenninck).

CHAPTER SIX

Ruan and other Lutes

Yu Zhimin FRR, ruan 阮 (photo: G. Wong, 2010)

6 Ruan ky and other Lutes “Because a poet of Jin, one of the seven sages of the Bamboo Grove, Ruan Xian played such an instrument, so it happened that from his time onward, we called the instrument ruanxian [i JK.” Du You #£{€ as cited in Tong Dian 通 盟,early 9" century

The ruan

阮 or ruanxian

阮

咸这 a

four-stringed plucked lute with a circular resonator and elongated tuning pegs. Unlike the pipa, the ruan is thought to be indigenous to China. According to Du You’s quote above, the instrument was named after Ruan Xian,

a famous performer of this lute. During its

earliest

existence

the

ruan

was

known generically under the rubric of pipa, a term used to refer to a variety of

plucked lutes. In later years, lutes with round resonators were grouped under the term yuegin

The modern

月 琴 (‘moon lute’).

ruan is an instrument

with 24 frets and

a three-and-a-half

octave range. It is an important midrange instrument in today’s chamber

ensembles and orchestras. The reformed Fig. 6.1 Yu Zhimin FRB, ruan ruan has a fret board that extends to the center of the resonating chamber. The chamber has two sound holes on either side of the fret board. The rim of the resonator is made of hardwood and the back and front are made of softwood such as wutong. The modern ruan retains its traditional elongated tuning pegs. Instead of the use of traditional friction pegs, many modern ruan have screw-based tuners much like that of the guitar. These are mounted

inside the headstock. Four steel strings extend from the pegs to a bamboo bridge located on the lower half of the resonator. The frets were traditionally made of bamboo although increasingly, many are made of wood with a metal edge.

76

Yuegi: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

Types Although the ruanxian is distinguished from other lutes due to its association with the performer Ruan Xian, there is historical evidence showing that the ruan shares similar structural and performance histories with other lute types. The following are descriptions of two such related lutes that continue to be used today: Yuegin A (‘moon lute’) - used in Beijing opera ensembles, the ‘moon lute’ is a short-necked lute

with a circular resonating chamber. The resonating chamber is shallower than the modern ruan and the soundboard is made of a

softwood. The instrument has four long tuning pegs that are inserted laterally into the pegbox.

Traditionally, the lute had between ten to twelve bamboo frets with four strings grouped in two double courses and tuned a fifth apart. Yuegin variants are also found among some minority cultures in southwest China where they are used to accompany dance-songs. Qingin 7 Opera

(‘Qin [region] lute’) - used in Cantonese ensembles,

this lute is named

after the

kingdom of Qin (Northwest China). The qingin has between two to three strings pitched about one octave lower than the yuegin. It has a long neck with a scalloped or ‘plum blossom’ shaped resonating chamber. Its bamboo frets are found only on the instrument neck and number between 12 to 13. Both yuegin and gingin lutes were originally played with silk strings. Today they can be found with acrylic strings also. Aside from these historical ruan variants, a family of

ruan with different ranges was developed in the 1950’s in response to the need for a registral range of plucked string instruments in the guoyue “% — orchestra. However, with the exception of the daruan 大 阮 and the zhongruan [>t, most of these instruments are not

commonly used. The zhongruan continues to be used in

both orchestral and chamber music settings and is favored for its resonant timbre and mid-range register. Fig. 6.3 Qingin

Ruan and other Lutes

TL

Historical Legacy of the Ruan The ruan dates to the Qin and Han dynasties (221-207 BC; 206 BC-

220 AD). It was initially known as the Qin pipa ##E# or Qin Hanzi

(Qin referring to the dynasty and region) and as ruanxian during the

Tang dynasty (618-907 AD). The ruan reached its height of popularity during the same period that many other lutes such as the pear-shaped

lute (the present-day pipa) and the wuxian 7% (a five-string lute) were

popular. Cave reliefs at Yungang and Dunhuang depict the ruan in Buddhist ritual ensembles dating to the Tang dynasty. Some Dunhuang paintings depict various lutes playing in ensemble with wind

and

paiban 拍板

percussion

instruments

(clappers) and yaogu

as

such

transverse

flute,

conch,

腰鼓 (waist drum). The ruan was also

featured in female entertainment ensembles of the Tang court. There is little documentation of the ruan during the Song and Ming dynasties (420-479; 1368-1644). However, its variants, the yuegin and gingin established themselves within regional common practice traditions. It was not until the mid 20" century that the ruan was revived as an orchestral instrument.

Technical Information The standard tuning for the zhongruan is: G, d, g, d’. In the figure

below, the first four notes show the pitches of the open strings. The lowest and highest pitches show the full range of the zhongruan, while the bracketed notes show the range that is most often played. most commonly used range

a

a

Fig. 6.4 Zhongruan tuning and range

The standard tuning for the daruan is: D, G, d, g. Likewise, in the

figure below the first four notes show the pitches of the open strings. The lowest and highest pitches show the full range of the daruan, while the bracketed notes show the range that is most often played. most commonly used range a

o Fig. 6.5 Daruan tuning and range

ee

78

Yuegi: Chinese Musical Instruments in Performance

Fig. 6.7 Cipher notation in D

Fig. 6.6 Pitches in D

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笔者 访 此 向 以 下 的 音乐 家 致 以 万 二 分 谢意 :

资料 。 吴忠 喜 提 供 笔、喷 呐 、 管 子 部 份 的 。 A TAT SE > RRR + SRE lg fetkis T+ MERTHYR 。 e t TAY Tt ° Ssab SeCe 于 志 敏 提供 阮 部 份 的 资料 。 常 青 提供 三 绞 部 份 的 资料 。 黄 继 和荣 提供 二 胡 部 份 的 资料 。 OBESE Rat Steins pana PRI he PEE Sc ESS aD TY ASE ARRE

SE PS ES > SESE. BREA GR RR ARH TSA RAAB SY RAKHI CR MEH

音乐 学习 资 料， HELEN -

撮 要及 译 者 : 伍炳机

Index A Dream of Africa, 163

Dahan Gongbao * Fi R#k, 149

Art Choice Chinese Folk Music Centre

daluo K2#, 132, 137, 138

音乐 曲艺 进修 中心,144, 150

daruan 大 阮 ,76, 77

Azalea Mountain, The 杜 明山 ,160

dayin 打 音 ,23, 51,111

Denburg, Moshe, 163 Baban /\4K, 5, 8

Bahe Huiguan

di. See dizi

八 和 会 馆 ,149

dizi 笠 子 ,ww 2-3, 5, 7, 10, 14, 16, 42-54,

bangu 板 鼓,132, 136, 140

107-108, 131-132, 152-153, 155-157

banhu 板胡 ,4 93-94, 98

drums, 2-4, 131-132, 134-135, 140

bayin /\, 1,2

Dunhuang Caves, 3

bo $i, 3, 80, 82-83, 86, 138-139

duoyin #4), 50

B.C. Chinese Music Association

FERS P24, @ 1, v, vii, 148, 152 B.C. Chinese Orchestra JFEay

42H, 148

erhu — if, v, 4, 7, 10, 90-102, 150, 152153, 162 erxian 5%, 4, 93, 94

Cage, John, 164

Central Conservatory of Music in

fangman jiahua 放 慢 加 花 ,9

fanyin 泛音 ,71

Beijing PRESSbe, 155 Chan Hung [i3§, 102, 149, 150

Chan Song 陈 松 ,149, 150

Gada Meilin US 2h,

chanyin 颤音 ,33, 34, 36

Gao Zicheng 高 自 成 ,156 gaohu 高 胡,4, 6, 93, 98, 102

Chanyuan Zhongsheng fabri, 6

Chaozhou 潮州 ,5 6, 8, 26, 29, 44, 93,

5, 150

Gongdeng Wu XG8E, 8, 9

chi f=, 1, 45 Chinese Broadcasting Folk Orchestra 中

ByEe 27g Bl— ERS41H, 159, 160 Chinese Oriental Song and Dance Ensemble BUR 77 x2,

Gaoshan Liushui 高 山 流 水 ,8 29, 157 gongche 1,

104, 118, 132, 135, 156

157

154, 160

gongs, 5, 131, 132, 135, 137, 138, 139

gou “J, 68 guanzi 管子 ,112, 131, 153

guchui 鼓吹 ,2, 15, 131

Ching Won Musical Society SHAS S2tt, 130, 141, 146, 149, 150 chuida 吹 打 ,2, 44, 49, 131, 132

Chushui Lian 7K, 8 cipher notation, viii, 20, 30, 37, 46, 61, 62, 63, 71, 96, 107, 126, 147, 155, 157

Hai Fung Association 海峰 会,146, 147, 152 Hakka 客家

,2 5, 6, 8, 29

Han dynasty, 45

Han Mei #3, 31-32, 40, 156, 162-164

clappers, 5, 77, 132. See also woodblocks

Hangong Qiuyue

Cowell, Henry, 164

Hantian Lei 2RE, 6, 84-85

Cultural Revolution, 154, 156, 159-160,

Hanya Xishui FIBEWK, 29

168-169 cymbals, 2, 59, 131-134, 137-139

2 AKA, 29

He Qiuxia {J #k#5, 59, 162

174

Index

Heilongjiang Arts College

Se)

2g =

nanguan 南 管 ,53, 94

Ng Ngon Pak. See Wu Ganbo

院 ,153

Hon See Wah. See Xiang Sihua Huang Jinpei = #pF2, 6, 10, 165

Ngai Lum Music Society 2254 34 ¢t, 146, 149

Huang Jirong m4254, 92, 102, 162

huangpian #3, 13

Oliver Yu Duo, 162-163

Huanle Ge #224, 7, 16, 156

Oliver, John, 162, 163

huapen gu 7E@ 5%, 140

Orchid Ensemble, 162

huayin 滑 音,33-34, 36, 69, 98, 102 huiyin 回音 ,37

paiban 拍板

hugin #2, 4, 5, 91, 93, 94

paixiao HERR, 1

,5, 77, 132, 134, 136

Pan Woliu 潘

Jin Wah Sing Music Society fret

沃流 ,133, 153, 155, 160

Peihe 配合 ,14, 20

pengling 碰 铃 ,132, 141

tt, 146, 149, 151

Jin Zuli 23838, 156

Pinghu Qiuyue 平湖

jingbo FS, 132, 139

pipa £6, v, 2-10, 56-72, 75, 77, 80, 82,

Jinshe Kuangwu 854#8, 8, 72

秋月 ,6

1527156; 1597162 Plimley, Paul, 164

Lai, Bill 22244, v, vii, 133

Lao Liuban

老 六 板 ,，8 9, 71, 84

qi 4, 157, 164

Lee Pui Ming 4°(ijllS, 163

Qian Sheng Fo

Li Wei 48, 28, 31, 145, 156, 160, 161

qin &, vi, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 27, 53, 59, 91, 115

#2 t#, 40

Lin Maogen 林 毛 根 ,26

qingshang yue jf,

lingwu 领悟 ,157

qingyue. See qingshang yue

Liu Guilian 33,

56-57, 156, 163, 169

Liu Tianhua 2K,

94, 99

2, 29

qingin 4225, 7, 76-77 qupai HHhe#, 8, 29, 111

liyin 涯 音,33, 35, 36, 50 Lu Chunling bai, 7, 156

Raine-Reusch, Randy, 164

Lui, Charlie

Luo Dezai 2 (mk, 43

Red Chamber Ensemble, 162, 163 Red Cliff Cappricio, 161 rouyin #27, 69, 157

luogu #@5%, v, 131, 135, 142

ruan [it, v, 74-86, 149, 152, 159, 162-163

19%, vii, 44, 171

lun #%, 58, 66, 67, 68, 71, 86

lutes, 4, 58, 75-77, 86-87

sanxian —5%, 4-5, 7, 86, 149, 152

Meng Jiang Nii MX, 39

se ##, 1, 27, 29

Ming dynasty, 45, 54, 118 Minnan 闽南 ,2, 5, 6, 93, 94, 134 mo fk, vi, 19, 27-29, 57, 60-61, 68, 75-76, 95, 116 Moshe Denburg, 163

Shanghai Conservatory of Music

muyu 木鱼 ,136

上上 海 音乐学 院 155 Shanghai Datong Music Ensemble

上 海 大 同音 乐团 ,156 sheng #, v, vi, 1 3, 5, 7, 10, 12-23, 45,

107-108, 131-132, 153 shifan luogu +-Rg8y, 142

nan bangzi Fath, 132, 136

Shijing 诗经 ,16

Appendix

Shiliu Ban

十 六 板 ,5

xiqin A,

shituzhi Fil(é fillteacher-apprentice

AS

91-92, 94

Xunfeng Qu = hal tH, 8

system, 155

Shou Ting Hou #1 (&, 71 Shuowen Jiezi 襄 文 解 字 ,13, 27, 29

Yan Guogiang 2A E52 (pseudonym), 153, 155, 158, 169-170

Silk Road Music, 162

Yang Guangquan

sizhu 24/7, v, 1, 8-9, 15, 44, 51, 53, 94, 96,

Yangchun Baixue 阳春 和 白雪，

98, 118, 147, 162, 165 Song dynasty, 59, 86, 112

yangqin #3, v, vi, 5-7, 10, eee 149,

Sun, C.C.

AAR #A, 90, 92, 100, 102

杨 广 泉 ,145, 156

1527 161

yaozhi 1478, 36, 158 Yee, William #7,

116, 152

suona II, v, 2, 5, 103-112, 131-132, 153

Yin Xiumei

Tang dynasty, 和 53, Oley, Oe 77, 112 135

yinse 音色 ,157, 170

tanggu 笔 鼓,132, 140

yinyin 143, 69

tantiao 58k, 57, 58, 66, 67, 68, 71, 72, 80,

Yip, Peter #28744, 152

股 秀 梅 ,160

yinging 5/22, 132, 141

Yip, Ronald #434, 152

82, 83, 84, 86 Thibault, Andre, 162 tongbo 铜钱 ,134

Yu Zhimin +e,

74-75, 80, 154, 159,

160, 162, 163

ses

Yuan dynasty, 4, 94

Tung Lan #8, 162

yueqin 月 a 75-77 Vancouver Chinese Folk Orchestra 温哥华iPee, 车

147

Vancouver Chinese Music Ensemble,

Yueshu#22, 16, 43, 45, 91, 94, 131

Yule Shengping t222AAE, 6 yunluo 228, 5, 132, 135, 138

162

Zhang Dasen 5A Fk, 160

Wang Fandi 王范 地,156

Zhang Jin 54, 160, 162

Wong Toa 黄 滔,151

woodblocks, 132, 136. See also clappers

Zhang Taining 383, 14 Zhegu Fei SERA, 7

Wu Ganbo {224(4, 40, 153

zheng #%, v, vi, 1, 3, 5-6, 8, 26-40, 53, 115,

Wu Zhongxi 584(H, 20, 105-106, 153 Wu Zongyuan 武宗 元,4

wutong 梧桐 ,57, 75, 93, 115

145, 153-154, 156, 158, 160-162, 164

Zheng Qinghua SBF ##, 114, 126, 161, 171

Zheng Zhenghua ¥h [E2#, 14 Xiang Sihua IABP HE, 27, 31, 40, 153-154,

158, 160, 165, 169-170

Xiansuo Beikao

5KE RAS, 5

zheyin 折 音,49, 110, 111 Zhiqu Weihushan

智 取 威 席 山 ,156

zhonghu iH, 6, 7, 10, 93

xiansuo 5%, 5

Zhonghua Liuban 中 花 六 概 ,，8, 9, 10, 51

xiao #8, 1, 3, 5-6, 43-44, 53-54, 116, 152

zhongruan 中 阮 ,，6, 76, 77, 87

Xiao Baicai 小 白菜 ,39

Zhou dynasty, 53

Xiaohe Tangshui 小河 消 水 ,157

Zhouli 周 礼,1

Xingjie 行 街 ,7

Zhuo Rui-Shi SyAtt, 162

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