Handbook of Materials for Percussion Musical Instruments 3030986497, 9783030986490

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Voichita Bucur

Handbook of Materials for Percussion Musical Instruments

Handbook of Materials for Percussion Musical Instruments

Voichita Bucur

Handbook of Materials for Percussion Musical Instruments

Voichita Bucur School of Science RMIT University Melbourne, VIC, Australia

ISBN 978-3-030-98649-0 ISBN 978-3-030-98650-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-98650-6 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

Handbook of Materials for Percussion Musical Instruments follows my previous two books published by Springer in 2016 on string instruments and in 2019 on wind instruments and is related to the materials for percussion instruments used in the symphony orchestras. The scope of this book is primarily confined to percussion instruments of the symphony orchestras, but I also take account of centuries of musical art and tradition. With this volume I intended, to the best of my ability, to bridge the existing gap in the technical literature relating to the description of the properties of materials for percussion instruments—timpani, other drums, marimba, xylophone, vibraphone, gong, cymbal, triangle, celesta, castanets, etc. As I mentioned in the prefaces of the previous two books on this subject, the idea of connecting material science with the specific properties of materials used for musical instruments became a reality following my long conversations in 2011 with Dr. Grahame Smith at CSIRO—Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation—Material Science Laboratory in Clayton, located near Melbourne, in Australia. I would like to mention that the organologic study of musical instruments cannot be dissociated from the study of the physics of the musical instruments because of the sounds the instruments produced which, in turn, cannot be dissociated from the study of material science related to the materials from which they are made. The goal of this book is to suggest ways of combining these parallel developments having in mind that the construction of musical instruments requires study of the corresponding materials at different levels of complexity. Being one of the oldest family of musical instruments, the percussion instruments can be classified using various schemes: one is using the means by which the sound is produced—the instruments are the membranophones and the idiophones, by the traditional musical division into two groups, the pitched and the unpitched instruments, by the way of playing—with mallets or by hands, or by cultural tradition—the instruments being European, Latin American, African, Asian, etc. Physical criteria for the classification of percussion instruments of the symphony orchestra are the pitch, the mode of vibration, the shape of vibrating bodies, the nature of the materials used (wood, metal, skin), the type of excitation, etc.

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Preface

The family of percussion musical instruments is probably the oldest existing family of musical instruments and includes numerous instruments made of a large variety of materials having instruments of a large variety of sizes and timbres. Over centuries, some percussion instruments, like the timpani, underwent important technical improvement while others like the tambourine have maintained the same shape from antiquity. It is worth mentioning that new percussion instruments have been invented in the second half of the XXth century using metallic materials for their manufacturing. Traditionally, the following materials have been used for the manufacturing of percussion instruments: wood for idiophones like marimba and xylophone, metallic materials for the struck idiophones played with mallets like the gong, cymbal, tubular bell, and triangle, leather for the membranes of the drums and of course new materials became available, especially during the second half of the XXth century. This book has twenty chapters and is structured in four parts. The first part deals with the classification of percussion instruments, the second part describes the structural parts of the instruments, the third part is related to the properties of materials and the fourth part deals with the maintenance and conservation procedures of percussion instruments. The elaboration of this volume took several years and was possible, thanks to my association in Melbourne with RMIT University, School of Science, Acoustic Research group directed by Prof. John Davy and thanks to the access given to the library of the RMIT University and the generous help of its scholars. The manuscript of this book was technically revised by Dr. Grahame Smith who continuously and enthusiastically encouraged me for over 10 years to finish the first, then the second draft and then the third draft of the manuscript of this book, reading and commenting on about 2000 pages of each draft. I am very grateful to Dr. Grahame Smith for his enthusiastic support over so many years. I am also very grateful to Mr. Len Tosolini for kindly proofreading the drafts of this manuscript over so many years. I am very grateful to Dr. Cathy Foley AO PSM, Australia’s chief scientist. My work on three books published by Springer related to the materials for musical instruments was a labour of love that she sponsored when as Chief of the Division of Material Science and Engineering at CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation—Australia) she championed this project and provided a supportive work environment For their contribution with comments, documents, figures, unpublished results, etc., helping to improve the manuscript of this book, I would like to address my warm acknowledgments to Dr. Mariana Domnica Stanciu—University Transylvania Brasov, Romania, Dr. José Antunes—Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal, Dr. Vincent Debut—Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal, Dr. Joâo Carvalho, Faculty of Human Sciences Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal, M. Peter D. R. Bond, retired Director of the Projects Directorate, European Investment Bank, Luxembourg, Dr. Jean Marie Heinrich—Mulhouse, France, Dr. Adrian Hapca, Scotland, Prof. Lamberto Tronchin, University of Bologna, Italy, Prof. Cyril Touzé—Ecole

Preface

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Polytechnique, Paris, France, Mme Elisabeth Wiss, Museum of Musical Instruments, Paris. I owe a debt of gratitude to colleagues in musical acoustics and in materials science, musical instrument makers, scientific organisations, museums and publishers cited in the reference lists for their permission to reprint figures and other data. This book is in fact a record of the work of many researchers who have studied percussion instruments and the materials from which they are made. Due to space limitations, I have been obliged to be selective, and many interesting ancillary topics have not been treated in depth. For the publication of this book by Springer, I acknowledge the contribution of Dr. Mayra Castro and the technical staff involved in the production of this book. I am very grateful to my sister, Despina Bucur Spandonide, architect, for her cheerful encouragement and support during the many years needed for the completion of this book. She gave me support through interesting discussions about the representation of percussion instruments in Greek art. She contributed with her background to the insertion in this book of numerous images of works of art. I hope that this book will be of interest and of assistance to readers approaching this subject either as a concise survey of the subject, or by using the index for specific topics, and I hope it will generate new ideas for further research. Melbourne, Australia January 2022

Voichita Bucur

Contents

Part I 1

2

Percussion Instruments, Their Classification and Their Sound

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 The Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 Description of Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 The Frequency Range of Percussion Instruments . . . . . 1.1.3 The Layout Plan of Percussion Instruments in a Symphony Orchestra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.4 About the Musical Works Including Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 The Purpose of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 1.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony Orchestra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Iconographic Representation of Percussion Instruments for Early Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 Written Documents About Percussion Instruments for Early Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Historical Evolution of Membranophone Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 The Timpani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 The Snare Drum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 The Bass Drum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 3 8 16 17 19 25 27 27 32 34 35 36 38 41 41 43 45 65 65 89 90 ix

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Contents

2.3

Historical Evolution of Idiophone Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

4

90 94 95 96 97 99

About the Sound of Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Vibration of Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Vibration of Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Rectangular Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Circular Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Vibration of Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Vibration of Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 Impact Sounds of Percussion Instruments and the Effects of Materials on These Sounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.1 Physical and Mechanical Properties of the Sound Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.2 Effect of Contact Stiffness on Vibration Modes of Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.3 About the Impact Sound on Bars and Plates Made of Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.4 Impact Sound on Bars and Plates Made of Various Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.5 About Sound of Percussion Instruments and the Vibration of Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6.6 About the Sound of Percussion Instruments and the Vibration of Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 3.2: Wood Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 3.3: List of Wood Species Cited in this Chapter . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

103 103 105 110 110 110 112 125

Methodology for Percussion Instruments Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Modes of Vibration of Percussion Instruments and Finite and Boundary Element Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Experimental Studies on Modes of Vibration of Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Modal Testing with the Response of the Structure Measured Mechanically . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Optical Interferometry, as a Noncontact Method for Modal Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

189 189

129 130 131 133 146 150 162 170 172 172 183 184

190 191 191 204

Contents

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4.4

233

Numerical Simulation of Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 Numerical Methods in the Time and Frequency Domain–General Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2 Modal Behaviour of a Drum with One Membrane—The Timpani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3 Modal Behaviour of a Drum with Two Membranes, the Tom-Tom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.4 Modal Behaviour of a Bowed Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.5 Interaction Between Bar and Mallet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Improvement in the Design of Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . 4.5.1 The Bars of a Xylophone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.2 The Shell of a Snare Drum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part II 5

234 235 237 240 251 257 258 259 265 266 268 270

Structural Parts of the Instruments

Materials for Membranophones—Timpani, Drums, Tambourine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Timpani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Structural Parts of the Timpani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Materials for the Timpani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3 Technological Aspects of Manufacturing of the Kettle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 The Snare Drum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Structural Parts of the Snare Drum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Materials for the Snare Drum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3 Technological Aspects of Snare Drum Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Bass Drum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1 Structural Parts of the Bass Drum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.2 Materials for the Bass Drum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.3 Technological Aspects of Bass Drum Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.4 Effect of Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical Treatment on Wood Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 The Tambourine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.1 Description of the Tambourine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.2 Materials for Tambourines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.3 A Replica of a Tambourine of the XVth Century . . . . . 5.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

279 279 280 280 283 284 295 300 301 308 315 315 317 319 319 325 325 329 329 329 334

xii

6

Contents

Idiophones Made of Wood and Played with Mallets: Marimbas and Xylophones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Marimba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.1 Structural Parts of the Marimba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2 Materials for the Marimba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.3 Tuning a Marimba bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.4 Technological Aspects of a Marimba Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 The Xylophone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 Structural Parts of the Xylophone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2 Materials for the Xylophone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.3 Technological Aspects of Xylophone Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

364 365 367

7

Materials for Metallic Idiophones Played with Mallets . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 The Vibraphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 Structural Parts of the Vibraphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2 Materials for the Vibraphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.3 Tuning the Vibraphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.4 Tuning the Resonators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 The Glockenspiel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.1 Structural Parts of the Glockenspiel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.2 Materials for the Glockenspiel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.3 Tuning the Glockenspiel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

369 369 369 371 376 376 388 393 393 395 395 398 399

8

Struck Idiophones Played with Mallets: Gongs, Cymbals, Chimes, Sound Plates, Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Structural Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.1 The Gong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.2 The Cymbals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.3 Chimes or Tubular Bells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.4 The Bell Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.5 The Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Material of Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.1 Materials for the Gongs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.2 Materials for Cymbals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.3 Materials for the Chimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

401 401 409 409 419 431 432 433 437 437 437 440

337 337 337 341 344 351 355 355 357

Contents

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8.3.4 Materials for the Sound Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.5 Materials for the Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 Manufacturing of a Gong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 Manufacturing a Cymbal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 8.1: Theoretical Aspects Related to the Vibration of Thin Plates and Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 8.2: About the Non-linear Mode Coupling in the Symmetrically Kinked Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 8.3: About the Vibration of the Tubular Bells . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 8.4: Modes of Vibration of Triangles (data from Stanciu 2020) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

440 444 444 452 453 456

The Mallets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Materials for Mallets and Drum Sticks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.1 Mallets for Membranophones: Timpani Mallets . . . . . . 9.2.2 Mallets for Idiophone Instruments Made of Wood: The Xylophone and Marimba . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.3 Mallets for Metallic Idiophones: Vibraphone, Glockenspiel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.4 Mallets for Struck Metallic Idiophone Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Materials for Mallets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 Response of the Structural Elements of Idiophones to Impact Excitation with Mallets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.1 Interaction Mallet—Infinite Rigid Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.2 Pulse Duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.3 The Contact Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.4 Impact with Internal Energy Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5 Frequency Range at Maximum Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5.1 Spectrum of a Circular Membrane of a Timpani . . . . . . 9.5.2 Spectrum of a Gong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5.3 Types of Mallet Contact Generating Sound . . . . . . . . . . 9.5.4 The Strength of the Blow and the Dynamic Quality of the Mallet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6 Manufacturing of the Mallets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 9.1: Mallets with Handles Made of Hollow Tubes of Aluminium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

483 483 488 488

456 467 473 477 480

490 490 490 493 493 500 500 502 502 505 507 509 512 514 519 523 528 528

xiv

Contents

10 The Carillon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Structural Parts of the Carillon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.1 The Bells and the Mechanical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.2 The Clapper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.3 The Headstock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.4 The Dynamics of the Bell Clapper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.5 The Console . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3 Materials for the Bells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3.1 Chemical Composition of Tin Bronzes for Bells . . . . . . 10.3.2 Materials and Acoustical Properties of Bells . . . . . . . . . 10.3.3 Substitutive Materials for Bells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4 Manufacturing of Bells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.1 Technology for Bell Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.2 The Templating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.3 The Mould . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.4 The Pouring of the Bronze Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.5 Cooling of the Bell in the Mould . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.6 The Tunning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.7 Manufacturing the Clapper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.8 Manufacturing the Headstock of the Bell . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.9 Non-destructive Technique for Tuning a Bell . . . . . . . . 10.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 10.3: Processing of the Modes of Vibration of Carillon Bells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

531 531 549 551 555 560 560 574 574 578 586 594 597 597 603 606 607 608 610 613 615 617 625 626 629 631 632

11 A Percussion Idiophone Instrument with Keyboard: The Celesta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Structural Parts of the Celesta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3 Materials for Celesta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4 Manufacturing of Celesta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 11.1: Celesta and Organ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

637 637 640 645 649 650 655 656

12 Concussion Idiophones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1 The Concussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2 Structural Parts of Concussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

657 657 657 659 659

Contents

13 New Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2 Glass Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.1 The Crystal Baschet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.2 The Materials for the Crystal Baschet Instrument . . . . . 13.2.3 The Instrumentarium for Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.4 The Verrophone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3 The Metallic Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3.1 Criteria for the Creation of New Metallic Musical Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3.2 New Metallic Musical Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 13.1: Photographic Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 13.2: Short Description of the Earlier Instruments Invented by Francois Baschet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xv

661 661 662 662 667 670 670 675 675 681 687 688 688 692

Part III Properties of Materials 14 Properties of Wood Species for Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . 14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2 Rosewood and Other Wood Tropical Species Traditionally Used for Xylophone, Marimba and Other Small Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2.1 Rosewood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2.2 Species Commonly Used for Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3 Methods of Wood Identification and Related Wood Acoustical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3.1 Visual Identification of Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3.2 Ultrasonic Methods and Identification of Wood Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3.3 Chemical Spectroscopy for the Identification of Tropical Wood Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4 Acoustic Methods, Elastic Properties of Wood and Related Wood Structural Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4.1 Structural Elements of Wood and the Propagation of Mechanical Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4.2 Elastic Properties of Wood by Dynamic Methods . . . . . 14.4.3 Effect of Anatomical Elements of Wood on Some Elastic Constants of Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5 Mechanical Characteristics of Wood Determined with Static Standard Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

695 695

697 697 701 701 701 703 709 715

715 716 719 729

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14.6 Alternative Wood Species for the Bars of the Xylophone and Marimba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.6.1 Current Alternative Wood Species for Xylophone and Marimba Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.6.2 Other New Alternative Wood Species from Tropical Geographic Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.6.3 Treatments to Improve the Characteristics of Alternative Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 14.1: Theoretical Aspects Related to the Vibration of Rectangular Bars and of Thin Plates . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix 14.2: CITES and the List of Endangered or Vulnerable Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Metallic Alloys for Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.2 Historic High Tin Bronze Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3 Non-destructive Methods for Testing Materials of Historical Bells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.4 Fatigue in Metallic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.5 Fatigue in Bells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.5.1 Current Damage in Church Bells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.5.2 Fatigue Phenomena in Historical Bells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.6 Hammering and Hardening of Bronze Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.6.1 Residual Strain in Cymbals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.6.2 Residual Stress in Cymbals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.6.3 Tensile Residual Stress and Dome Formatting in a Gong Made by Cold Forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Leather for Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2 Structure of Various Types of Skins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Leather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3.1 Static Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3.2 Thermal Methods for Non-destructive Testing . . . . . . . 16.3.3 Microwave Method for the Measurement of the Orientation of Collagen Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3.4 Acoustic Non-destructive Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4 Effect of Animal Genotype on Physical And-Mechanical Characteristics of Leather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4.1 Identification of the Animal Source for Leather . . . . . . 16.4.2 Effect of Animal Genotype on Physical and Mechanical Characteristics of Leather . . . . . . . . . . .

736 737 740 763 773 774 777 779 787 787 787 793 794 796 796 798 824 828 828 834 837 838 841 841 844 847 848 858 865 867 872 872 873

Contents

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16.5 Leather Looseness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.5.1 Macroscopic and Microscopic Structure of Tight and Loose Leather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.5.2 Ultrasonic Imaging of Tight and Loose Leather . . . . . . 16.5.3 Layered Structure of Tight and Loose Leather with X-Ray Scattering Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.5.4 Looseness Identification with Spectroscopic Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

875

17 New Materials for Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.2 Materials and the Coupling of Vibrations of a Drum’s Membrane Its Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.3 Composites for the Shell Made of Carbon Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.3.1 Carbon Fibre Composites Made with Epoxy Resin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.3.2 Layered Structure of Carbon Fibre Epoxy Composite with Balsa Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.4 Composites Made of Wood Fibres for the Shell of a Drum . . . . 17.5 Composites Made of Vegetal Fibres for a Drum Shell . . . . . . . . . 17.5.1 The Vegetal Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.5.2 The Polymer Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.5.3 The Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.5.4 Acoustic Emission Properties of Bio-Composites for the Shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.6 Composites for the Velum of Membranophone Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.6.1 The Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.6.2 The Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.7 Composites for Profiled Bars of Marimbas and Xylophones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.7.1 The Profiled Bars for Marimba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.7.2 Pultrusion Technology for Xylophone Bars . . . . . . . . . . 17.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

889 889

876 876 879 882 884 886

890 900 900 902 908 913 914 916 918 918 923 923 926 928 928 929 932 933

Part IV Maintenance and Conservation of Percussion Instruments 18 Care, Maintenance and Restoration of Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.2 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

937 937 937

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18.3 The Effect of Environmental Temperature on Maintenance of Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4 Restoration of Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.1 Restoration of a Celesta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.2 Restoration of an Archaeological Bell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.3 Reverse Engineering Method and Some Acoustical Properties of a Reconstructed Bell . . . . . . . . 18.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Conservation of Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.1 Basic Aspects of the Conservation of Musical Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2 Indoor Deterioration of Cu Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.3 Indoor Deterioration of Wood by Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.4 Degradation of Leather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.4.1 The Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.4.2 Leather Aging and Laboratory Experiments . . . . . . . . . 19.5 Ageing of Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Patents for Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.1 Patenting of the Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.2 Patents for Timpani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.2.1 Patents in German Speaking Countries in the XIXth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.2.2 Patents in the Netherlands in the XIXth Century . . . . . . 20.2.3 Patents in England in the XIXth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.2.4 Patents in France in the XIXth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.2.5 Patents in Italy in the XIXth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.2.6 Patents for Timpani in the XXth Century and in the First Two Decades of the XXIst Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3 Patents for Snare Drum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.4 Patent for Percussion Instruments with Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.5 Patents for Cymbals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.6 Patents for Tubular Bells and Other Tubes for Percussion Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.6.1 Tubular Bell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.6.2 Other Hollow Tubes Made of Composite Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

938 942 943 943 952 959 960 963 963 964 969 973 973 976 983 984 986 989 989 990 992 995 995 997 998

999 1005 1013 1015 1019 1019 1022

Contents

20.6.3 Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . American Patents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Patents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1024 1025 1027 1029 1029

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031

Part I

Percussion Instruments, Their Classification and Their Sound

Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 The Background In a contemporaneous symphony orchestra, the family of percussion instruments is composed of the following instruments: the timpani, the snare drum, the bass drum the cymbals, the triangle, the tambourine and the mallet percussion instruments— the xylophone, the glockenspiel, the vibraphone, the marimba, the crotales, the bell plates, the tubular bells, the gong, tam tam, etc. and many other new instruments as aluphone, sixes, etc. These instruments are grouped in sections which are defined by the musicians as: the timpani, the other tuned percussion instruments and the auxiliary percussion instruments. The purpose of this book is to describe the properties of materials used for making percussion instruments for classical music played by a symphony orchestra in which the instruments could be played as a soloist instrument or could be a group or several groups of instruments, as they are included into a musical work. A chapter is devoted to the bells. Percussion instruments have a long history, as long as the history of humanity and have been firstly involved in religious ceremonies and military activities and secondly in the musical life of societies, as described in numerous reference books (Blades 1975; Peinkofer and Tannigel 1976; Montagu 2002; Beck 2013; Liblin 2014; Hartenberger 2016). Musical percussion instruments in primitive human societies had first of all a rhythmic role. The early instruments were percussion idiophones, like the rattles made by natural objects—hooves, shells or seeds laced together and shaken by dancing. Other instruments from the palaeolithic era were the stampers, the scrapers and the clappers sounded by concussion. The drums as musical instruments were made from a hollowed log or a clay vessel covered with a skin. Drums have been strongly connected with primitive human societies. Archeologic studies noted reasonable evidence for drums existing in 3000 BC, as represented on monuments in Egypt, Assyria, India and Persia. The drums were associated with royalty. The drummer was a privileged person who observed the tradition of the community. Another percussion musical instrument present in human society from its early age © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 V. Bucur, Handbook of Materials for Percussion Musical Instruments, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-98650-6_1

3

4

1 Introduction

was the xylophone. The xylophone made of wood is the simples melodic instrument which was widespread in Asia and Africa. The xylophonists used a playing technique comparable to those of the drummers. Bronze adapted xylophones existed in Far Eastern countries for about thousand years. Cymbals made of metallic discs were important in Chinese music, Indian music and Turkish music. Other percussion musical instruments worth mentioning are small bells, jingles, gongs and instruments made of narrow metallic tongues. In Africa these instruments played a prominent part in religious and secular music. Ancient Greek music was made using lyres, pipes and trumpets. The drums were used for specific military ceremonies. The percussion musical instruments promoted by Greek poetry and music were castanets, clappers, cymbals and the sistra. The double headed drum was associated with the god Dionysus and was played by women. The Bowl drum, covered with a skin can be seen on Greek vases from the IVth century BC. Marble statues existing in prestigious museums of the world attest to the way of playing percussion instruments (Fig. 1.1). Note the consistency with which the crotales were represented over centuries by various artists from Antiquity to the Renaissance. Romans used similar percussion instruments to those used by the Greeks, inventing nothing new. Cymbals of Roman civilisation excavated from the ruins of Pompei can be seen in the National Museum of Naples. The official adoption of the Christian Religion by the Roman Empire occurred during the rule of Emperor Constantine (306 AD–337AD). During his time the Edict of Milan was proclaimed in 313 A.D. which tolerated Christianity in the Roman Empire. For religious music and ceremonies only the trumpet and the psaltery were used. The cymbals and the drums have been excluded from religious music because of their “diabolic pomposity”. The drums “reintegrated” their place in the family of musical instruments only during the Early Baroque era. The Middle Ages in Europe were a period of little activity in instrumental musical. From the Renaissance era there exist numerous art works depicting musical instruments. Percussion instruments were introduced to Baroque musical scores to add expressiveness to the new musical genus of opera and oratorio. Later, the Romantic Period vigorously promoted “the musical percussion instruments in the scores for the orchestras for lyric operas and symphonies”. The concise Oxford dictionary defines the term orchestra, usually as “a large group of instrumentalists, combining strings, woodwinds, brass and percussion instruments” (Allen 1990). For example, percussion instruments for classical music of the contemporaneous Vienna symphony orchestra are classified into five groups: group 1—the timpani, group 2—the drums, group 3—the mallets instruments, group 4—the group of cymbals and other “metals”, group 5—the group of bells. This classification for percussion instruments is adopted by numerous symphony orchestras over the world and also by orchestras for opera or ballet performances (www. vsl.co.at/instrumentology/Percussions). Compared with the other orchestra’s instrumental groups, percussion instruments have a very big variety of sizes and shapes generating a big variety of timbres. A general view of contemporaneous percussion instruments is given in Fig. 1.2.

1.1 The Background (a) Goddess Isis holding sistrum,

(c) Satyr with cymbals and kroupezion

Fig. 1.1 (continued)

5 (b) Satyr playing a foot clapper and small bells.

(d) Satyr dancing

6

1 Introduction (e) Putti playing crotales

Fig. 1.1 Percussion instruments in artworks of Antiquity and in Quattrocento Italian Renaissance. a Romanised goddess Isis holding sistrum, statue from the time of Emperor Hadrian 117–138 AD (https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Marble_statue_of_ Isis%2C_the_goddess_holds_a_situla_and_sistrum%2C_ritual_implements_used_in_her_wor ship%2C_from_117_until_138_AD%2C_found_at_Hadrian%27s_Villa_%28Pantanello%29% 2C_Palazzo_Nuovo%2C_Capitoline_Museums_%2812945630725%29.jpg/532px-thumbnail.jpg, accessed 24 May 2021). b Satyr playing a foot clapper and small bells. Galleria Uffizi, Florence and in Cambridge. https://museum.classics.cam.ac.uk/sites/museum.classics.cam.ac.uk/files/casts/ 359.JPG, accessed 24 May 2021. c Dancing satyr with cymbals and kroupezion from a so-called group “Invitation to the dance”. A Roman copy of 1st–2nd cent. CE after a Greek marble or bronze model of the second century BCE, Louvre Museum Paris. https://www.louvre.fr, accessed 24 May 2021. d Satyr—Pallazzo Massimo-type in the collections of the National Museum in Stockholm. © Hans Thorwid/National Museum, Stockholm. https://www.nationalmuseum.se, accessed 24 May 2021 (“Said to have been found around 1772 in the vicinity of the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano in Rome and restored by Alessandro Lippi. Previously in the collection of Giovanni Battista Piranesi”). e Luca della Robia—Putti playing cymbals, detail from the Cantoria or the Singers’ pulpit,—the reliefs are exhibited today in the Opera Duomo Museum in Florence. https:// duomo.firenze.it, accessed 24 May 2021 and https://www.art-prints-on-demand.com/kunst/luca_d ella_robbia_8026/putti_playing_cymbals_detail_hi.jpg, accessed 24 May 2021

1.1 The Background

7

(a) Timpani

(b) Snare drum

(c) Bass drum

(d) Gong

(e) Tubular bells

(f ) Cymbals

(g) Suspended cymbal

(h) Triangle

(i) Celesta

(j) Marimba

Note: instruments not at scale

Fig. 1.2 General view of contemporaneous percussion instruments of symphony orchestra. a Timpani. https://megamusic.blob.core.windows.net/images/0004565_yamaha-29-inch-copper-tim pani.jpg. b Snare drum. https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQDoh03Q7s VaHeNSkLDanmusfsW4utDST-6GN7WkTafIcvAXr-j&s. c Bass drum. https://www.classicsfork ids.com/music/sights/27.jpg. d Gong. https://i.pinimg.com/originals/68/61/03/6861032bfc1b19f 61156aa34d8ad4214.jpg. e Tubular bells. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/ 53/Yamaha_Deagan_chimes_%28from_LA_Percussion_Rentals%29.jpg. f Cymbals. https://az5 8332.vo.msecnd.net/e88dd2e9fff747f090c792316c22131c/Images/Products5146-1200x1200-754 229.jpg. g Suspended cymbal. http://media.vsl.co.at/images/EmbNavAc_SuspendedCymbal_720 x300.jpg. f Triangle. http://www.musictherapysuite.ca/image/cache/catalog/triangle-500x500.jpg. i Celesta. http://cdn.classical-music.com/sites/default/files/imagecache/623px_wide/112454412_ getty_625.jpg. j Marimba. http://www.professionalpercussionproducts.com/images/2011marim baonephoto.jpg

Historically speaking some percussion instruments were first included in opera orchestras after about 1600, and much later in symphony orchestras. However, these instruments were in use in the Western music tradition for about five centuries. First of all it is worth mentioning that at the beginning timpani were “accepted” in orchestras only very reluctantly. Other percussion instruments were included only sporadically in orchestral scores for their ability to offer sound effects. Often percussion instruments were dismissed from orchestras scores because of their inability to produce a definite pitch. The structure and design of many of those percussion instruments changed relatively little over those 500 years. A chronological list of some musical compositions and the corresponding percussion instruments for the period 1680–1937 (data from Bug 2003) is given in Appendix 1.1. However, the “destiny” of percussion instruments in symphony orchestras changed from the second half of the XIXth century. While initial acceptance of percussion instruments into orchestral compositions was slow, changes and developments that have taken place after about 1960 were spectacular and motivated by the research of composers for new timbres. The second half of the XXth century was called “the period of renaissance in percussion instruments” (Peters 1975).

8

1 Introduction

Keller (2013) examined numerous musical scores cited in Appendix 1.2 covering the broad spectrum of percussion developments in the orchestral field during the second half of the XXth century and the beginning of the XXIst century. “The 1960s marked the beginning of an era of increased experimentalism in percussion composition and also marked the beginning of an era of time when serious studies of percussion and timpani began to appear in great number. Not only have a large number of instruments been explored, exploited, and accepted, but composers have awakened to the possibilities inherent in such a wide selection of sound”. It is worth referring to Read (1979) who noted “From a modest nucleus of two timpani, plus the occasionally used bass drum, cymbals, and triangle (mostly in compositions for the theatre), to a grouping of some fifteen or twenty assorted wood, metal, and membranous instruments (requiring from three to eight players), the percussion has evolved into an orchestra within an orchestra. This expansion, which began in the early nineteenth century (with Berlioz, Meyerbeer, and others), reached its zenith by the era of late Romanticism at the turn of the century. Today, in the late twentieth century, the concept of the “percussion orchestra” is an essential aspect of Neoromantic, exotic, and avant-garde orchestral expression”. In the analysis presented by Keller (2013) based on 87 compositions (Appendix 1.2) written between 1960 and 2009 the frequency with which percussion instruments were employed in these scores was studied. For instance, the glockenspiel was cited in 65 compositions, the vibraphone and the chimes were cited each in 56 compositions, the xylophone and marimba were cited each in 48 compositions, crotales were cited in 42 compositions and bell plates were cited only in 6 compositions. We can see that the glockenspiel was the most cited instrument. Chronologically, if we look for the proportion of the compositions including percussion instruments per annum, we have: 28% of musical works analysed during the 1960s, 9% during the 1970s, 27% during the1980s, 21% during the 1990s and about 15% during 2000–2009. Evidently, there was an increasing interest by composers in percussion instruments during the decades of the 1960s, 1980s and 1990s. A chronological listing of some musical works for orchestral percussion section and percussion solo instruments for a period of about 70 years, between 1949–2018 is given in Appendix 1.3.

1.1.1 Description of Percussion Instruments In what follows we will describe succinctly the groups of percussion instruments depicted in the figures of the next following pages (Figs. 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7). The need to support the visual aspect of percussion instruments with these images may facilitate our efforts for a better understanding of the relationships between the players, the instruments and the materials used for their construction and the ergonomics. Group 1—the timpani also known as kettle drums, are made of large hemispheric or parabolic bowls of cooper, aluminium or fiberglass, covered with a head hawing a

1.1 The Background

9

(a) Timpani and bass drum

(b) Snare drum

(c) Tambourine

Fig. 1.3 Membranophone percussion instruments—timpani, drum, tambourine. a Timpani and bass drum. https://media.npr.org/assets/img/2016/08/11/miles-salerni-on-the-timpani-tanglewoodmusic-center-orchestra-7.10.16-hilary-scott-4_wide-c4e86dde6a7db820c7f105d39d8dcbb82d71 1816-s1200-c85.jpg. b Snare drum. https://www.nws.edu/media/145861/will-james-signaturesnare-drum_02-lisa-scherer-800.jpg. c Tambourine. https://www.cleveland.com/resizer/fKqm9Ifrb tvRR85LgYBBjGsEtPA=/325x0/smart/advancelocal-adapter-image-uploads.s3.amazonaws.com/ image.cleveland.com/home/cleve-media/width2048/img/musicdance_impact/photo/13164263large.jpg

10

1 Introduction (a) Marimba

(b) Xylophone

(c) Glockenspiel

Fig. 1.4 Idiophones percussion instruments played with mallets—marimba, xylophone, glockenspiel. a Marimba. http://www.professionalpercussionproducts.com/images/2011marimbaonep hoto.jpg. b Xylophone. https://static.wixstatic.com/media/492c96_2d074bffad684debaa49b99d 5fdd9780.jpg/v1/fill/w_640,h_480,al_b,q_80,usm_0.66_1.00_0.01/492c96_2d074bffad684debaa 49b99d5fdd9780.webp. c Glockenspiel. https://www.musicalinstrumentcity.com/images/stories/ virtuemart/product/Ludwig%20Glockenspiel%20na81%20A.jpg

1.1 The Background

11

(a) Crashed cymbal

(b) Suspended cymbal

(c) Crotales

Fig. 1.5 Struck idiophone percussion instruments played by crashing or striking. a Crashed cymbal. https://mlgykah612mv.i.optimole.com/w:auto/h:auto/q:auto/, https://goodear.com.au/ wp-content/uploads/2019/05/waso_musicians_3.jpg. b Suspended cymbals. https://liber.post-gaz ette.com/image/2014/09/05/500x/20140515lfHeinzMag01. c Crotales. https://rog-percussion.de/ packages/theme_long_story_short_parallax/themes/long_story_short_parallax/images/crotales1. jpg, https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5cd15b8c77b903d08da5299d/155772923 1212-C610TK7RZEAY5F6A6XJI/ke17ZwdGBToddI8pDm48kFyD7pzB8zoMIVY5aiUuFlp7g Qa3H78H3Y0txjaiv_0fDoOvxcdMmMKkDsyUqMSsMWxHk725yiiHCCLfrh8O1z4YTzHvnK hyp6Da-NYroOW3ZGjoBKy3azqku80C789l0jG2lbcDYBOeMi4OFSYem8DMb5PTLoEDdB05 UqhYu-xbnSznFxIRsaAU-3g5IaylIg/Louise+Devenish+Media_.jpg?format=1500w

12

1 Introduction (a) Chimes (tubular bells)

(b) Gong

(c) Triangle

Fig. 1.6 Idiophones percussion instruments—chimes, gong, triangle. a Tubular bells or chimes. https://i.ytimg.com/vi/B7DKXsJz17Q/maxresdefault.jpg. b Gong. https://resources.stuff.co.nz/ content/dam/images/1/o/v/5/o/p/image.related.StuffLandscapeSixteenByNine.710x400.1ouqce. png/1521059340448.jpg. c Triangle. https://newschool.imgix.net/Media/mannes/content/Academ ics/Percussion/20171117_Orchestra_270.JPG?n=4064&fit=crop&w=960&h=380

1.1 The Background

13

(a) Several woodblocks

(b) Castanets

(c) Claves

Fig. 1.7 Percussion instruments made of wood, exclusively, struck by hands or with an object. a Woodblocks. https://i.ytimg.com/vi/i4JQD0cy87I/maxresdefault.jpg. b Castanets. https://www.dav iddarling.info/images_music/castanets.jpg. c Cleves. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com mons/5/51/Playingclaves.jpg

14

1 Introduction

membrane made of calfskin, goat skin or mylar (a polyester film made from stretched polyethylene terephthalate) and stretched over the top of the bowl. The diameter of the membrane can be up to 82 cm and can produce the note C2 (the C below the bass clef—F3 ). The membrane is lapped by a rim. Modern timpani have a foot pedal for tuning the instrument. The percussionist strikes the membrane with mallets to produce the sound of the required note. Timpani are pitched instruments and have a range of perfect fifth or seven semitones. Group 2—the drums, including the snare drum, the bass drum, the field drum and the tambourine. The snare drum is a typical unpitched instrument and consists of a shell and two heads with two membranes. The upper or the top drumhead, is struck by the player. The resonance head is on the underside of the drum and is tensioned at a slightly lower tension than the top drumhead. The sound can be changed slightly by tightening the drum head. The shell can be made of plywood moulded into a cylinder, metallic sheets, acrylic materials, or fiberglass. A typical orchestral snare drum might be 14 (36 cm) in diameter and 6 (15 cm) in depth. The snare drum is almost always double-headed, with rattles (called snares) of gut, wire (metal wire or synthetics) stretched across one head, rarely across both heads. The bass drum is typically a cylindrical large percussion instrument currently of indefinite pitch, or sometime, it can produce a note of low definite pitch. The bass drum is about 100 cm in diameter and 50 cm in width. The bass drum has two membranes made of goatskin of cowskin or mylar, which cover both sides of a cylindrical shell. The bass drum should be mounted on a stand because of its very big size. The player strikes either side with a felt-covered mallet. The tambourine is made of a circular frame of wood or plastic, with several pairs of small metallic jingles and a drumhead. The tambourine is held in the hand and played by tapping or hitting the drumhead or by shaking the jingles. Group 3—the mallets instruments group composed of xylophone, vibraphone, marimba, glockenspiel struck by mallets. In this group is included also the celesta; which is a keyboard instrument made of metallic bars struck by hammers The xylophone is made of wooden bars (rosewood, padauk) or various synthetic materials (fiberglass or fiberglass—reinforced plastic) fixed on a metallic or wooden frame, struck by mallets. Each bar is tuned to a specific pitch of the musical scale— chromatic for orchestral use. Concert xylophones typically span 3 ½ or 4 octaves and can have resonators below the bars to sustain the sound. The heads of the mallets are made of very hard rubber or acrylic or, for softer effects yarn mallets are used. Wooden-headed mallets made from rosewood, ebony, birch, or other hard woods may be used for harder effects. The marimba is made of a set of wooden bars and resonators suspended underneath the bars to amplify the sound. Marimba is a new instrument introduced in orchestras in the second half of the XXth century. The bars of a chromatic marimba are arranged like the keys of a piano. The groups of accidentals (black keys) rise vertically, overlapping the natural bars. The bars are struck with yarn or rubber mallets. Marimba bars are typically made of either wood (rosewood, padauk, mahogany) or synthetic material. The resonators are tubes made of aluminium that hang below

1.1 The Background

15

each bar. The marimba is played with two or four mallets (two in each hand). Sometimes six mallets can be used (three in each hand) or even eight mallets (four in each hand). The characteristic sound of a marimba is related to the following factors: the construction of the bars, the tuning of the bars, the use of resonators, and the selection of mallets and playing areas of the bars (Merrill 1996). The vibraphone is made of aluminium bars, similar to a xylophone or marimba. The keys are struck by the player with mallets, while standing up. The keys are of graduated width, lower and wider bars for lower notes and narrow bars for higher notes. The celesta is a struck instrument operated by a keyboard. In general, it is similar to an upright piano with four or five octaves. The keys are connected to the hammers that strike a set of metallic plates suspended over resonators made of wood. The celesta spans four of five octaves and has a pedal that sustains or dampens the sound. The timbre of a celesta is very subtle and delicate. The glockenspiel, in music scores designated by the Italian term “campanelli”, is made of a set of metallic tuned plates, and works in a similar way to the xylophone. The glockenspiel is a small instrument, but is higher in pitch than a xylophone. Group 4—the group of cymbals and other “metals”, which include cymbals, suspended cymbals, gong, tam-tam and triangle. Orchestral Cymbals are mostly used in pairs and are made of thin circular metallic plates. Cymbals are played in pairs by striking them against each other. The loudness of the cymbals is determined by their size and weight. When played softly, the cymbals are slid against each other. A single cymbal, hanged by a strap, is played with a mallet or a drum stick. A single cymbal vibrates freely. The sound of cymbals played in pairs is very different from the sound of a single cymbal. The gong is a suspended brass disc-shaped percussion instrument made of bronze and is played by striking the disc with a soft large mallet. Gongs are made in a big variety of sizes from smaller gongs producing a high sound to a low deep reverberating sound (>2 m diameter) produced by larger gongs. The gongs for opera performance are from 18 to 30 cm in diameter. Several gongs can be tuned. The tam-tam is in fact a suspended gong, made of a circular plate in bronze, which is slightly concave, ranging in size from 18 to 203 cm in diameter. The rim of about 1 cm is perpendicular to the disk surface, forming a shallow cylinder. The triangle is made of a metallic bar bent into a triangular shape, with one corner left open, allowing generation of overtones. It is struck with a metallic beater, giving a ringing tone. The triangle is suspended by a loop or a wire at the top vertex allowing it to vibrate freely. Group 5—the group of bells composed of tubular bells and bell plates. Tubular bells called also chimes are metallic tubes of 30–38 mm diameter and of various lengths to produce sounds ranging from C4 to F5. They are played by striking the top edge of the tube with a hammer. A sustain pedal is attached to the frame supporting the bells to allow sound attenuation of the ringing bells. A bell plate sound is very similar to a tubular bell. A bell plate can be made in different sizes, of aluminium sheet or bronze sheet, of 100 × 74 cm weighing about 6 kg or, 28 × 25 cm weighing about 1 kg. Bell plates comprising 29 plates, cover 4

16

1 Introduction

octaves in the form of a C major scale. The bell plates are suspended from a circular frame and sometimes can be fitted with resonators to enhance the sounds of low partials. Following the “von Hornbostel-Sachs” system of musical instruments classification, the percussion instruments of a symphonic orchestra are classified as: membranophones (timpani, drums and tambourine), idiophones (xylophone, marimba, celesta, chimes or tubular bells, cymbals, gongs, triangle), aerophones (whistles, sirens). (von Hornbostel and Sachs 1961). This classification also includes the chordophones (piano, harpsichord, harp). Chordophones are not a subject for this book. The materials for the construction of chordophone instruments have been discussed in “Handbook of materials for string musical instruments” Bucur (2016).

1.1.2 The Frequency Range of Percussion Instruments The frequency range of percussion instruments of a symphony orchestra is given in Fig. 1.8. The lowest frequency is C2 (65 Hz) produced by the timpani and bell plates while the highest frequency C8 (4186 Hz) comes from the xylophone, glockenspiel and celesta. Celesta is the instrument with the largest frequency range from C3 (130 Hz) to C8 (4186 Hz). Appendix 1.4 gives the names and frequencies of musical notes of percussion instruments.

Fig. 1.8 Frequency range of percussion instruments (data from Vienna Symphonic Library. https:// www.vsl.co.at, accessed 25 November 2019)

1.1 The Background

17

Appendix 1.4 gives the corresponding MIDI—Musical Instrument Digital Interface—numbers and frequencies and the corresponding name of musical notes

1.1.3 The Layout Plan of Percussion Instruments in a Symphony Orchestra The layout plan for a symphony orchestra playing classical music is shown in Fig. 1.9. Percussion instruments are at the rear and in the upper row of the orchestra. Figure 1.10 shows the percussion instruments among other instruments in symphony orchestra on a seating plane. The way in which percussion instruments are associated with string and wind instruments in the orchestra has varied over the centuries and has been influenced, among other factors, by the evolution of musical taste and by the technological advances in the manufacturing of these instruments. Some of percussion instruments are very heavy i.e. timpani can have 80 kg. Instrumentalists grouped in orchestras have existed in Europe from the fifteenth century. The oldest German orchestra is the orchestra of the Statstheater Kassel, founded in 1502 (Werner-Jensen 2015). One of the earliest existing documents,

Fig. 1.9 Layout of London Symphony Orchestra—for Mahler 6th Symphony, with a general view of the percussion instruments and instrumentalists—the upper row (https://pbs.twimg.com/media/ C2kD8EqXcAI7L8G.jpg, accessed 15 November 2019)

18

1 Introduction

Fig. 1.10 Percussion instruments among other instruments in symphony orchestra illustrated on the seating plane (https://i.pinimg.com/originals/d3/9f/96/d39f963e5814c1baad0c2901ebca2231. png, accessed 23 November 2019)

mentioning the structure of an orchestra is in the score of the opera Orpheus by Claudio Monteverdi, published in 1607 in Venice, in Italy (Whenham 2001) In this score (Fig. 1.11). The following instruments are mentioned in Italian: due (2) gravicembalo, due (2) contrabass de viola, due (2) viole da brazzo, una (1) arpa dopia, due (2) violini picolline alla francese, due (2) chitaroni, due (2) organo di legno, tre (3) viole da gamba, quatri (4) trombone, un (1) regalo, due (2) chitaroni, un (1) clavecino con tre trombe seconde. Figure 11c shows on a graph, the calculated regression line relating the number of players versus the historical period 1600–1877 in orchestras in Europe, calculated for 415 European orchestras and on the basis of ensemble member lists. As mentioned by Reuter (2002, 2017) one can say that the number of orchestras increased drastically during the XIXth century as did the number of instrumentalists playing in an orchestra because of the increasing of the number of parts in orchestral scores. In the early scores for Baroque orchestra only two timpani were mentioned. Early romantic orchestras required eight percussion instruments. For late romantic orchestras the number of percussion instruments increased considerably. Contemporaneous orchestras require twenty percussion instruments or much more (Table 1.1). Appendix 1.3 gives a chronological listing of some musical compositions and the corresponding number of percussion instruments for the period 1680–1937 (data from Bug 2003).

1.1 The Background

(a) The cover of the score

19

(b) Characters and orchestra instruments

(c) Number of players versus the period 1600 – 1877 in orchestras in Europe

Fig. 1.11 Orchestras in Europe between 1600 and 1877. a Score of the opera “Orfeo” by Claudio Monteverdi published in Venice in 1607 the cover of the score. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wik ipedia/commons/f/f2/Frontispiece_of_L%27Orfeo.jpg. b List of characters and instruments for the score of “Orfeo”. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Orfeo_libretto_instru ments_characters.jpg. c Number of musicians in an orchestra between 1610 and 1877, based on 415 European orchestras calculated on the basis of ensemble members lists. Axis Y—number of players; Axis X—year of performance (Fig. 2, p. 4, Reuter 2017)

1.1.4 About the Musical Works Including Percussion Instruments We have seen that the history of the development of the orchestral percussion section was a subject of interest to many scholars, and was related to the growing significance of percussion and rhythm in Western music since the XVIth century, when timpani were incorporated into chamber ensembles (Hartenberger 2016). The scores for timpani began to be written in the XVIIth century and were introduced to the court orchestras and opera ensembles, as for example in the opera Ester (1680) by the

20

1 Introduction

Table 1.1 Evolution of the number of percussion instruments in orchestra (data from Raynor 1978; Sptizer and Zaslaw 2004) Orchestra

Period

Instruments

Possible number of instruments

1

Baroque and classical orchestra

Eighteenth century

2 timpani (one player) to 4 timpani

4

2

Early romantic orchestra

First half of the nineteenth century

2 timpani (one player), 8 snare drum, bass drum, cymbals, triangle, tambourine, glockenspiel

3

Late romantic orchestra

Second half of the nineteenth century

4 or more timpani (one 20 player), snare drum, bass drum, cymbals, tam-tam, triangle, tambourine, glockenspiel, xylophone, tubular bells

4

Modern and contemporaneous orchestra

After the Second World War to present

4–5 timpani (one Very numerous, player), snare drum, could be tenor drum, bass drum, over 100 cymbals, triangle, tam-tam, tambourine, wood block, glockenspiel, xylophone, vibraphone, marimba, crotales, tubular bells, mark tree

German composer Nicolaus Adam Strungk (1640–1700). This score also introduced the bass drum and cymbals (Bug 2003). During the eighteenth century, for example Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714–1787) in several operas introduced the bass drum, the cymbals and the triangle (Bug 2003). These instruments were also included in the scores of Mozart’s operas. During the XVIIIth century technological advances allowed changing the pith of the timpani by faster tensioning of the membrane with a pedal. Major technological advances for the design of timpani were possible in XIXth century with the rotating timpani, the suspended timpani and the foot activated tuning system, providing a superior tone quality. The composer Joseph Haydn (1732–1809) was the first to write a solo passage for timpani in the “Military” Symphony No. 100, and in Symphony No. 103, “Drum Roll”. Ludwig van Beethoven with a more sophisticated symphonic writing for solo timpani, presented a new challenge for timpanists in the violin concerto and in Symphonies No. 7, and No. 9.

1.1 The Background

21

The playing ability of timpani for symphony orchestras in the second half of the XIXth century was exploited by the French composer Hector Berlioz in the “Symphonie Fantastique” written in 1830. The percussion section in this work is very important and is composed of 4 timpani played by four players, cymbals, snare drum, bass drum and bells in C and G. The timpanists have to play challenging rhythms and make several tuning changes. Another symphonic work written by Berlioz in which the score for timpani is remarkable is the Requiem, or—Grande Messe des morts—written in 1837 and revised in 1852 and 1867, for 16 timpani (6 pairs, 4 single), 2 bass drums, 10 pairs of cymbals and 4 tam-tam (Holoman 1989). This work is one of the pinnacles of symphonic music ever written. During the XIXth century, the invention of the “Dresden” foot pedal system for timpani attached at the side of the instrument and operated by the timpanist’s ankle motion, allowed for minute pitch adjustments. In this way, composers have seen limitless possibilities for timpani in symphonic or opera scores and the use of three timpani became usual as seen in works by Schumann (1810–1856) in Symphony No. 1 (Perrey 2007), or Verdi (1813–1901) in the Othello opera composed in 1887 (Balthazar 2004), or Richard Strauss (1864–1949) in the opera “Der Rosenkavalier” composed in 1911 (Youmans 2010). Portraits of these composers are depicted in Fig. 1.12. At the beginning of the XXst century Stravinsky (1882–1971) wrote three remarkable ballet works: The Firebird (1910), Petrushka (1911), and The Rite of Spring (1913). The score for the Rite of Spring does call for two timpani, two orchestral bass drums, two clash cymbals, a tam tam, a tambourine, a triangle, two crotales and two washboards, As noted by Ford (2011), Stravinsky liberated the rhythm from its subordinate position due to a radical rethinking of musical syntax in this score. It is the rhythm rather than the harmony that propels the music with percussion instruments. Contemporary percussion music was born around 1930 in North America and Europe with the introduction of percussion instruments used as solo instruments by several audacious composers such as Roland, Varese, Cage, Beyer, Cowell, Harrison. The landmark in the percussion repertoire is the work called “Ionisation” composed by Varese between 1929 and 1931. It is for 30 musicians and uses following percussion instruments: snare drum, temple block, gong, siren, guiro, tambourine, triangle and bells. This work was composed exclusively for percussion instruments. During the same period the American, Australian born composer Percy Grainger (1882–1961) included in his orchestral works up to 10 percussionists including the marimba as mallet instruments. Another Australian composer, Peggy GlanvilleHicks (1912–1990) was fascinated by the sonorities of percussion instruments, as in the composition with celeste and other instruments Three Gymnopedies, for oboe, celeste, harp, string (Claire Edwardes (July 2020)). https://www.australianmusic centre.com.au/ish/percussion-music.

22

1 Introduction (a) Joseph Hayden (1732-1809)

(b) Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827)

(c) Hector Berlioz (1803-1869)

(d) Robert Schumann (1810-1856)

(e) Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901)

(f ) Richard Strauss (1864-1949)

Fig. 1.12 Portraits of the composers promoting timpani in symphony orchestra of XVIIIth and XIXth century. a Joseph Hayden, Portrait by Thomas Hardy. https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/2/21/Haydn_portrait_by_Thomas_Hardy_%28small%29.jpg. b Ludwig van Beethoven. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Beethovensmall.jpg. c Hector Berlioz, painting by Emile Signol at Villa Medici in Rome. http://www.hberlioz.com/ Photos/Berlioz1.jpg. d Robert Schuma. https://www.conservapedia.com/images/f/f7/Schumann. jpg. e Giuseppe Verdi, painting by Bice Lombardini. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Giuseppe_Verdi,_portrait_by_Bice_Lombardini.jpg. f Richard Strauss painting (1918) by Max Lieberman. https://reproarte.com/images/stories/virtuemart/product/liebermann_max/00360175_bildnis_des_komponisten_richard_strauss.jpg

1.1 The Background

23

The increasing number of compositions for percussion instruments in the 1930s and 1940s requiring highly professional performers required the development of professional percussion ensembles which emerged only after the 1950s. Composers such as Stockhausen, Riedl, Bussotti, Tenney, Feldman, Xenakis, Drouet, and Gualda contributed to the foundation of “the solo percussion canon” (Devenish 2015) (Fig. 1.13). The first ensemble established as a highly professional group of classical percussion musicians was Les Percussions de Strasbourg. The ensemble was composed of six percussionists and was founded in 1962 by Jean Batigne under the inspiration of the conductor Pierre Boulez who stimulated the formation of this ensemble from 1959 (https://www.percussionsdestrasbourg.com/en/). As mentioned in the official site (https://www.percussionsdestrasbourg.com/en/ les-percussions-de-strasbourg-2/presentation/) The first concert was given by “Les Percussions de Strasbourg” at the ORTF in Paris, on January 17th, 1962, in the presence of French composer Serge Nigg (1924–2008). Very quickly, the ensemble inspired the creation of a new repertoire by composers such as Messiaen, Stockhausen, Serocki, Kabelac, Ohana, Xenakis, Mâche or Dufourt. As Pierre Boulez says later: «A repertoire was necessary for the Groupe, but the Groupe has made the repertoire necessary». “No matter how you look at it, the catalogue of the Percussions de Strasbourg, dedicatee of more than 350 works, is quite simply unique”. “Through their many travels and a strong collusion with the composers, they actively contribute to the sound research and the invention of new instruments, such as the sixxen designed by Xenakis”. Several other ensembles have been created around the world. Examples are the New Jersey Percussion Ensemble in the U.S. in 1968, and in Canada the Nexus ensemble in 1971. As mentioned by Devenish (2017) five percussion ensembles originated in Australia between 1970 and 2000, including the Australian Percussion Ensemble, Synergy Percussion, Adelaide Percussions and the Nova Ensemble. The ensemble Offspring has become one of Australia’s most significant commissioners and exponents of new music. These ensembles had large repertoire lists supported by enthusiastic Australian sponsors (https://www.australianmusiccentre.com.au/ish/per cussion-music). Musical classical compositions for percussion instruments were commissioned for the composers Peter Sculthorpe (1929–2014) and Barry Conyngham (born in 1944). Ross Edwards (born 1943) is known for the following works: (Yarrageh, Nocturne for Percussion and Orchestra (1989); Prelude and Dragonfly Dance, for percussion quartet (1991); Djanaba, for guitar and marimba, also arr. for two guitars (2002), More Marimba Dances (2004); Frog and Star Cycle, Double Concerto for Saxophone and Percussion (2015). Nigel Westlake (born 1958) wrote “Fabian Theory” which requires a digital delay in performance. After 1990 the Australian percussion scene was very active with performers and composers, as shown in Appendix 1.5 and it is worth mentioning the interest of composers in mallet instruments, which are pitched instruments. Among the unpitched instruments the snare drum is cited several times.

24

1 Introduction (a) Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971)

(b) Olivier Messiaen (1908-1992)

(c) Luciano Berio (1925-2003)

(d) Pierre Boulez (1925-2016)

(e) Philip Glass (b 1937)

(f ) Silvano Bussotti (b 1931)

(g) Jennifer Higdon (b 1962)

(h) Ross Edwards (b 1943)

Fig. 1.13 Portraits of composers promoting percussion instruments in the second half of the XXth century and the begging of the XXIst century. a Igor Stravinsky. https://images.for wardcdn.com/image/1300x/center/top/images/cropped/gettyimages-2635145-1491513193.jpg. b Olivier Messiaen. https://cdn.radiofrance.fr/s3/cruiser-production/2018/05/39345885-8fb1-48278e26-f19469935e96/200x200_gettyimages-803855486.jpg. c Luciano Berio. https://direct.rha psody.com/imageserver/images/Art.38725/356x237.jpg. d Pierre Boulez. http://5against4.com/ima ges/composers/pierreboulez.jpg. e Philip Glass. https://www.billboard.com/files/styles/article_m ain_image/public/media/philip-glass-smile-billboard-1548.jpg. f Jennifer Higdon. http://www1.pic tures.zimbio.com/gi/Jennifer+Higdon+okY729b5XNCm.jpg

1.1 The Background

25

The innovative current trend in the field of percussion and electronics, in digital sound and in new technologies in contemporary music, is manifested in percussion instrument performance. The fascination with live electronic music for giving a “spatial impression of the sound” was evident in pieces written by Stockhausen, and among others in “Mikrophonie I”, composed in 1964 for only one percussion instrument, the tam tam and six players to excite the instrument with different mallets and objects, to pick up the vibrations using microphones, and two control filters and a potentiometer. An important centre for the development of computer-based live-electronic music in France is IRCAM (Institut de Recherche et Coordination Acoustique/Musique) in Paris, where composers, acousticians and specialists in modern technologies work together for the development of computer systems for musical applications. In Canada, Schulich School of Music at McGill University Montreal promoted research in this field. de Oliveira Rocha (2008), in his Ph.D. thesis discussed musical works for percussion and computer-based live electronic music and commented on aspects of performance related to the technology. The performer uses a MIDI—(Musical Instrument Digital Interface) pedal which gives the correspondence between the musical notes and the corresponding frequencies. As the world undergoes unprecedent technological innovations, so also must music styles. The result is a stimulative and provocative challenge in which percussion instruments are of growing significance. The “electronic musician” is a new type of musician who is specialised in creating music for acoustic instruments with interactive electronics or for computer networks. In Australia, Music for One Percussionist, commissions new works from Australian composers each year. It is worth mentioning the monograph CD music for percussion and electronics by Louise Devenish. “Each work presented explores a different metal percussion instrument: vibraphone and stereo tracks, tam-tam and subwoofer, glockenspiel and tape and bossed gongs and live processing” (https://www.limelightmagazine.com.au/reviews/music-for-per cussion-and-electronics-louise-devenish/, accessed 24 May 2021). This challenging approach offers an authentic experience that musicians and the listeners never had before. Another development in classic percussion instruments is the creation of new acoustic instruments like: auluphone, sixxen invented by the composer Yannis Xenakis (Fig. 1.14), Spica, Gaiabells, Bassdesmophone—and all other types of “Lunasons” invented by the contemporary timpanist Domenico Melchiorre (https:// www.lunason.com/english/).

1.1.5 Summary Since the second half of the XXth century the repertoire of classical percussionists and percussion ensembles has been very small because they were a “new medium” in orchestral musical life. During the Early Medieval Ages, the drums were used for military purposes. Cymbals and triangles were known at the time. However, they were

26

1 Introduction

Fig. 1.14 Percussions de Strasbourg, contemporaneous rehearsing of Pleiades, by I. Xenakis on the Sixxens (https://www.percussionsdestrasbourg.com//wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Pleiades_ Re%CC%81pe%CC%81tition-1085x545.jpg, accessed 28 May 2021)

never considered members of even the crudest orchestra. In the late Middle Ages, the tympani was used to accompany trumpets. Early snare drums had a gut snare stretched across the lower head. The instrument was used strictly as a delicate rhythm instrument. Tambourines were played by minstrels. In the Baroque and Rococo periods, composers recognised the timpani as a musical instrument The tympani were used in pairs; one was tuned to the tonic of the scale, the other to the dominant. The construction of the snare drum was improved by replacing the wooden shell with a metallic shell which gave a clearer sound. In the second half of the eighteenth century, the use of the tympani in the orchestra became more and more common. Tympanis underwent some significant structural changes which facilitated tuning by adding cranks and pedals to simplify their tuning. The romantic era promoted the use of percussion instruments. Since then, the following instruments have been added to the orchestral percussion section: tenor drum, gong drum, cymbals, modern xylophone, marimba, vibraphone, glockenspiel, and the celesta. At the beginning of the XXth century these numerous instruments had no musical repertoire for soloists. In 1931, Edgar Varese composed “Ionisation”—the first compositions for percussion ensemble alone. In the early 1960s, the percussion ensemble had come into a new era for solo instruments. Composers gave the percussion ensemble prominence. During the two first decades of the XXIst century we have seen numerous orchestral percussion ensembles flourishing across the world for which a repertoire was demanded and therefore created. New acoustic percussion instruments have been invented for classic percussion ensembles.

Appendix 1.1

27

1.2 The Purpose of the Book This book is written focusing on the requirements of materials science and on the physical, acoustical and mechanical properties of materials for the structural elements of percussion instruments. This book is structured into four main parts and 20 chapters. PART 1—Percussion instruments, their classification and their sound—presents the organologic classification and the sound of percussion instruments while Chap. 2 presents Organology of percussion instruments, and Chap. 3 the Experimental methodology for determination of acoustical properties of percussion instruments. PART 2—Instruments and Materials—describes the materials for specific percussion instruments while the following chapters are: Chap. 5 Membranophones— timpani, drum, tambourine, Chap. 6 Idiophones made of wood played with mallets— marimba and xylophone, Chap. 7 Metallic idiophones played with mallets—vibraphone, glockenspiel, Chap. 8 Struck idiophones played with mallets—gong, tam-tam, cymbal, tubular bell, triangle, plates, Chap. 9 The mallets. Chapter 10 Other struck idiophones—the church bell, the carillon Chap. 11 Idiophones with keyboard— celesta, carillon, bells, Chap. 12 Concussion idiophones—castanets, woodblocks Chap. 13 New percussion instruments. PART 3—Properties of Materials—studies the properties of three main types of materials for percussion instruments: leather, wood and metallic alloys and some new materials respectively in Chaps. 14 Properties of wood for percussion instruments, Chap. 15 Properties of metallic alloys for percussion instruments. Chapter 16 Properties of leather for percussion instruments. Chapter 17 Properties of new materials for percussion instruments. PART 4—Maintenance and conservation of percussion instruments—examines the requirements for maintenance –and conservation of percussion instruments in Chaps. 18 and 19. Chapter 20 comments some patents for percussion musical instruments. The patents are seen as technical documents in which are specified and conserve the technological aspects of percussion instruments manufacturing.

Appendix 1.1 Chronological listing of some musical compositions and the corresponding percussion instruments for the period four main historical eras (data from Bug 2003; Massin and Massin 1985).

Year

1680

2

1761

1764

1764

1775

1778

1779

1779

1779

1782

1787

1794

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

1800

1812

1813

1813

15

15

16

17

XIXth century

1706

3

XVIIIth century

1680

1

XVIIth century

No

Rossini

Beethoven

Beethoven

Boieldieu

Haydn

Mozart

Mozart

Grétry

Gluck

Gluck

Mozart

Grétry

Gluck

Gluck

Gluck

Marias

Freschi

Strungk

Composer

Opera L’Italiana in Algeri

Orchestral work Wellington’s victory or “The battle of Victoria”

Incidental music, Die Ruinen von Athen

Opera, Le calif de Bagdad

Military Symphony # 100

German Dances K 571

Die Eintfuhrung aus dem Serial

Opera Lucile

Opera Echo et Narcissus

Opera Iphigénie en Aulide (Iphigeneia in Aulis)

“Turkish Marech” from Piano Sonata AM K 331

Opera La fausse magie

Opera The pilgrims of Mecca

Opera La rencontre imprèvue

Opera Le Cade dupé

Opera Alcione

Opera Berenice

Opera Ester

Musical work

“Banda Turka”

Bass drum, cymbals, triangle, side drums, ratchets

(continued)

Bass drum, cymbals, triangle, tambourine, (castagnets + other not written)

Two triangles

Bass drum, cymbals, triangle

Cymbals, tambourine, tuned sleigh bells

Bass drum, cymbals, triangle

Triangle

Tambourine

Bass drum, cymbals, triangle, snare drum

Bass drum, cymbals

Triangle, cymbals—not written

Bass drum, cymbals, triangle

Bass drum, cymbals, triangle

Bass drum, cymbals, triangle

Snare drum

Cymbals

Bass drum, cymbals

Percussion instruments

28 1 Introduction

Year

1816

1817

1820

1823

1829

1830

1834

1837

1838

1839

1841

1842

1844

1855

1857

1870

1861

1867

1875

1887

1894

No

18

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

40

(continued)

Mahler

Rimsky–Korsakov

Bizet

Wagner

Wagner

Wagner

Wagner

Listz

Berlioz

Wagner

Schumann

Berlioz

Glinka

Berlioz

Wagner

Berlioz

Rossini

Beethoven

Weber

Rossini

Rossini

Composer

Musical work

Symphony No. 3

Capriccio espagnol

Opera Carmen

Opera Die Meistrersinger

Opera Tannhauser

Opera The Valkyrie

Opera Das Rheingold

Piano concerto in E flat

Overture Roman Carnival

Opera Rienzi

Spring Symphony No. 1, Op 38

Opera Romeo & Juliette

Opera Ruslan & Ludmila

Grande messe des morts—Requiem

Das Liebesverbot

Symphonie Fantastique Op 14

William Tell overture

Symphony No. 9

Preciosa

Opera La Gazza ladra

Opera Il barbiere di Siviglia 0verture

(continued)

Bass drum, cymbals, triangle, tambourine, chimes, gong, glockenspiel

Triangle, cymbals, tambourine, snare drum, tam tam

Castanets

Timpani, bass drum, cymbals, triangle, glockenspiel

Timpani, bass drum, cymbals, triangle, tambourine

2 sets of timpani; cymbals; triangle; gong; tenor drum; glockenspiel

2 sets of timpani; cymbals; triangle; gong

Triangle

Tambourines

Tenor drum

Timpani, triangle

Bass drum, cymbal, triangle, tambourine

Tambourine

Bass drum, cymbals, tam-tam

Tambourine

16 timpani (6 pairs, 4 single), 2 bass drums, 10 pairs of cymbals and 4 tam-tam, bells

Timpani +3

Bass drum, cymbals, triangle

Triangle, cymbal, tambourine, snare drum,

Timpani +4

Bass drum, cymbals

Percussion instruments

Appendix 1.1 29

1897

1899

41

42

Elgar

Dukas

Composer

1901

1905

1910

1913

1915

1920

1918–1924

1924

1929–1931

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

Varese

Antheil

Bartok

Milhaud D

Strauss

Stravinsky

Stravinsky

Debussy

Mahler

First half of the twentieth century

Year

No

(continued) Musical work

Ionisation – The first compositions for percussion ensemble alone

Ballet ·Mecanique

Ballet, The miraculous mandarin

Le bœuf sur le toit

An Alpine Symphony

The rite of spring

The firebird

Symphonic poem La Mer

Symphony No. 6

Enigma variations No. 11

Symphonic poem L’apprenti sorcier

(continued)

Thirty percussionists: Three bass drums (medium, large, very large), two tenor drums, two snare drums, tarole (a kind of piccolo snare drum), two bongos, tambourine, field drum, crash cymbal, suspended cymbals, 3 tam-tams, gong, 2 anvils, 2 triangles, sleigh bells, cowbell, chimes, glockenspiel, three temple blocks, claves, maracas, castanets, whip, sirens, guiro, lion’s roar

Four pianos, two xylophones, glockenspiel, tympani, tenor and bass drums, military drums, gong, triangle, cymbal, woodblock

Bass tuba, timpani, snare drum, tenor drum, bass drum, cymbals, triangle, tam-tam, xylophone, celesta

2 flutes, 1oboe„ 2 clarinets, 1 basson, 2 trompets, 1 trombone, 1 violin, 2 violas, 1 violoncel, 1 contrebass, grosse caisse, 1 cymbal, 1 tambour basque 1 guitcharo, 1 Portoricain guiro

Timpani 2 players, snare drum, bass drum, cymbals, triangle, tam-tam, cowbell, wind machine, thunder machine, glockenspiel, celesta

5 timpani (requiring two players), bass drum, tam-tam, triangle, tambourine, cymbals, antique cymbals in A and B, güiro

Bass drum, cymbals, triangle, tambourine, tam-tam, glockenspiel, xylophone, celesta, timpani

Timpani, bass drum, cymbals, triangle, tam tam, glockenspiel

6 timpani (two players), bass drum, bells celesta, cowbells, cymbals, glockenspiel rute, snare drum, tam-tam, triangle, xylophone hammer—a wooden mallet striking a surface made of wood

Timpani, side drum, triangle, bass drum, cymbals

Timpani, glockenspiel, bass drum, cymbals, triangle

Percussion instruments

30 1 Introduction

1938

52

Bartok

Composer

1948

1955

1971

53

54

55

Shostakovitch

Boulez

Messian

Second half of the XXth century

Year

No

(continued) Musical work

Symphony No. 15

Le Marteau sans maître

Turangalîla-Symphonie

Music for strings, percussion and celesta

Timpani—Int’l 32/29/26/23 Prem 32/30/28/25 and other 6 percussions: Wood block, whip, triangle, glockenspiel, xylophone, vibraphone, glockenspiel, snare drum, clash cymbals, orchestral bass drum, tom tom, tam tam

The xylorimba recalls the African balafon; the vibraphone, the Balinese gamelan; and the guitar, the Japanese koto, tambourine, 2 bongos, frame drum, viola vibraphone, finger cymbals, agogô, triangle, guitar, xylorimba, vibraphone, maracas, ibraphone, claves, agogô, 2 bongos, maracas small tam-tam, low gong, very deep tam-tam, large suspended cymbal, guitar, viola

Bass drum, snare drum, cymbals, celesta, vibraphone, keyed or mallet glockenspiel, triangle, temple blockers, wood block, tam-tam, tambourine, maracas, Provencal tabor, tubular bells

Strings orchestra section—violins, violas, cellos, double bass, percussions section—timpani, xylophone, snare drum, cymbals, tam-tam, bass drum, and celesta and piano

Percussion instruments

Appendix 1.1 31

32

1 Introduction

Appendix 1.2 List of compositions written for symphony orchestra with an important section for percussion instruments between 1960 and 2009 for detecting the frequency with which the percussion instruments other than timpani were used. Data from Keller (2013). Adams, John Chairman Dances (1985) Naïve and Sentimental Music (1998). Adès, Thomas: Asyla (1997) Concerto for Violin (2005). Barber, Samuel: Andromache’s Farewell (1962) Essay No. 3 for Orchestra (1978). Berio, Luciano: Sinfonia (1968–69). Bernstein, Leonard: Chichester Psalms (1965) Symphony No. 3 “Kaddish” (1961– 63). Birtwistle, Harrison: Exody “23:59:59” (1997) The Triumph of Time (1972). Boulez, Pierre: Notations (1978) Le Visage Nuptial (1951–1989). Brant, Henry: Ice Field (2001). Britten, Benjamin: War Requiem (1961). Carter, Elliot: Concerto for Orchestra (1969). Colgrass, Michael: As Quiet As (1965–66). Corigliano, John: Gazebo Dances (1980–81) Symphony No. 1 (1989). Crumb, George: Echoes of Time and the River (1967) Tredici, David Del: An Alice Symphony (1969; revised 1976). Druckman, Jacob: Aureole (1979) Prism for Orchestra (1980). Dun, Tan: Death and Fire (1995). Dutilleux, Henri: Cinq Métaboles (1965). Erb, Donald: The Seventh Trumpet (1969). Feldman, Morton: In Search of an Orchestration (1967). Ferneyhough, Brian: Plotzlichkeit (2006). Ginastera, Alberto: 49 Cantata para America Mágica (1960) Concerto for Violin and Orchestra (1963) Glass, Philip: Symphony No. 4 Heroes (1996). Gorecki, Henryk-Mikolaj: Slave, Sidus Polonorum (1997–2000). Gould, Morton: Symphony of Spirituals (1975) Harbison, John: Symphony No. 1 (1980–81) Symphony No. 2 (1986–87). Harrison, Lou: Symphony No. 4 “Last Symphony” for Baritone and Orchestra (1990). Henze, Hans Werner: Heliogabalus Imperator (1971–72; revised 1986) Symphony 9: M 1001 (1995–97). Higdon, Jennifer: Violin Concerto (2009). Hovhaness, Alan: Floating World: Ballade for Orchestra (1964) Symphony No. 19, “Vishnu” (1966) Husa, Karl: Mosaïques (1960). Knussen, Oliver: Flourish With Fireworks (1988) The Way to Castle Yonder (1988). Kraft, William: Contextures: Riots-Decade’60 (1967) Interplay (1982; revised 1984).

Appendix 1.2

33

Kurtag, Gyorgy: …quasi una fantasia…for Piano and Groups of Instruments (1988). Ligeti, Gyorgy: Atmospheres (1961) Macabre Collage for Large Orchestra (1974– 77; revised 1991) Lindberg, Magnus: Cantigas (1998–99) Kraft (1983–85). Lutoslawski, Witold: Concerto for Cello and Orchestra (1970) Les Espaces du Sommeil (1975). Messiaen, Olivier: Des Canyons aux Etoiles (1970–74) Éclairs sur L’au-dela (1988–92). Panufnik, Andrzej: Symphony No. 8, Sinfonia Votiva (1980–81). Penderecki, Kyzysztof: Fluorescences (1962). Persichetti, Vincent: Night Dances for Orchestra (1970). Piston, Walter: Symphony No. 7 (1960) 50. Rands, Bernard: Body and Shadow (1988). Reich, Steve: The Desert Music (1984) Tehillim (1981). Rouse, Christopher: Gorgon (1984). Saariaho, Kaija: A la Fumée (1990) Orion (2002). Salonen, Esa-Pekka: Insomnia (2002). Schnittke, Alfred: Concerto No. 2 for Cello and Orchestra (1990) Concerto for Viola and Orchestra (1985). Schuller, Gunther: Four Soundscapes for Orchestra (1975). Schwantner, Joseph: Concerto for Percussion and Orchestra (1994) A Play of Shadows: Fantasy for Flute and Orchestra (1990). Sessions, Roger: Concerto for Violin, Cello and Orchestra (1971) Symphony No. 6 (1966). Shchedrin, Rodion: Concerto No. 4 for Orchestra, “Roundelays” (1989) Old Russian Circus Music: Concerto No. 3 for Orchestra (1990). Stockhausen, Karlheinz: Michael’s Greeting (1978) Stucky, Steven: Concerto No. 2 for Orchestra (2003). Takemitsu, Toru: From me flows what you call Time (1990) Twill by Twilight (1988) Tcherepnin, Alexander: Piano Concerto No. 5 (1963). Tippett, Michael: The Rose Lake, A Song Without Words for Orchestra (1991–93) Symphony No. 4 (1976–77). Tower, Joan: Sequoia (1981) Silver Ladders (1986). Turnage, Mark-Anthony: Your Rockaby (Concerto for Soprano Saxophone and Orchestra (1992–93) Wuorinen, Charles: Movers and Shakers (1984). Zwilich, Ellen Taaffe: Symphony No. 3 (1992) Symphony No. 4 “The Gardens” (1999).

34

1 Introduction

Appendix 1.3 Chronological listing of some musical works for orchestral percussion section and percussion solo instruments for a period of about 70 years, between 1949–2018. No.

Year

Musical work

Percussion instruments

1

1949 Messiaen

Composer

Turangalila symphony

8–10 players, Vibraphone, Keyed or mallet glockenspiels, triangle, temple blocks, wood block, cymbals (crash and three types of suspended), tam tam, tambourine, maracas, snare drum, Provençal tabor, bass drum, tubular bells, celesta

2

1954 Vaugham Williams

Tuba concerto

2 flutes (2nd also piccolo), oboe, 2 clarinets, bassoon 2 horns, 2 trumpets, 2 trombones, timpani, snare drum, cymbals, triangle, bass drum, strings

3

1958 Britten

Nocturne

For tenor and seven instruments (flute, cor anglais, clarinet, bassoon, harp, French horn, timpani) and strings

4

1968 Berio

Sinfonia

3 players: timpani, glockenspiel, tam-tam (large), snare drum, bongos; marimba, tam-tam (medium), sizzle cymbal, bass drum, snare drum, tambourine, 3 wood blocks, whip, güiro, sleigh bell, triangle; vibraphone, tam-tam (small), cymbal, bass drum, snare drum, bongos, tambourine, castanets, güiro, sleigh bells, 2 triangles

5

1978 Boulez

Notations

100 percussion instruments and other objects

6

1978 Brant

Origins—symphony for 93 percussion instruments percussions

7

1979 Orff

De temporum fine commedia—opera

100 percussion instruments

8

1988 Messiaen to 1991

Éclairs sur l’Au-Delà (Lightning over the Beyond)

Keyboard—percussion: crotale, glockenspiel, xylophone, marimba, xylorimba; Percussion (10 players) • I. first player of tubular bells • II. second player of tubular bells • III. third player of tubular bells • IV. 3 triangles • V. wind machine, bass drum, second triangle • VI. wood block, 6 temple blocks, réco-réco, third triangle, • VII. 3 high gongs, whip, • VIII. small suspended cymbal, suspended cymbal, large suspended cymbal • IX. 3 large gongs, bass drum • X. small tam-tam, tam-tam, very large tam-tam

9

1992 Kagel

Konzertstück

For timpani and orchestra

10

1995 Schwanter Concerto for percussions and orchestra

Xylophone, marimba, vibraphone, drums, timpani, bass drum, field drum, cow bells tuned, crotales, triangle, gong in water

11

2000 Glass

Concerto fantasy for two timpani and orchestra

Two solo timpanists Percussion (4 players): snare drum, glockenspiel, xylophone, tenor drum, bass drum, piano, triangle, tambourine, tom-tom, tam-tam, chime, wood block, cymbals, suspended cymbals, vibes, marimba

12

2005 Higdon

Percussion concerto

One movement concerto for percussion instruments

13

2018 Higdon

Tuba concerto

Tuba solo, two flutes, oboe, English horn, two clarinets, bassoon, contrabassoon, four horns, three trumpets, three trombones, timpani, percussions, and strings

Note The snare drum as a solo instrument was discussed by Baker (2004) in his Ph.D. thesis

Appendix 1.4

35

Appendix 1.4 MIDI—Musical Instrument Digital Interface—gives numbers and frequencies and the corresponding name of musical notes (https://newt.phys.unsw.edu.au/jw/gra phics/notesinvert.GIF, accessed 25 November 2019).

*

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1 Introduction

Appendix 1.5 List of Australian compositions for percussions and corresponding instruments (data from https://www.australianmusiccentre.com.au/ish/percussion-music-list compiled by Peter Neville in 2020). Year

Composition

Comments

1

2020 Falling Embers (2020) by Ella Macens

Falling Embers utilises a mixture of bowing and 4 mallets technique as well as different combinations of mallet hardnes. This highly idiomatic piece, which came out of a highly collaborative approach between the composer and performer, was composed as a meditation for peace and relief from the fires that raged across the Australian landscape in the summer of 2019–20

2

2019 Drum Dreamer (2019) by Rhyan Clapham

Rhyan Clapham, AKA Dobby is a rapper, drummer and composer, whose family is from Brewarrina on Ngemba land. Drum Dreamer is based on a poem by Rhyan, recited by him via tape while a snare drum solo is performed live. The performer also has to scream out in unison with Rhyan throughout, ‘is that where you put your little dumb lyrics and that?’ The work is catchy with a pertinent message for young people

3

2018 Raqad II (2018) by Paul ‘Raqad’ is an ancient Hebrew word which has the Stanhope connotation of both leaping and dancing. Both of these elements are present in this work for two marimbas where there is a frequent use of wide intervallic leaps as well as quirky dance rhythms which often dissolve and transform

4

2017 Electors of Middlemarch (2017) by Elizabeth Younan

A drum solo (hi hat, snare drum, bongos, toms, kick bass drum) set to Mr Brooke’s political speech from George Eliot’s Middlemarch (1871). Soloist vocalises and plays simultaneously, often to comical effect. Mr Brooke’s stream-of-consciousness, although delivered with good intentions, is humorously incoherent. In 3 sections, the work explores the different relationships between the voice and percussion

5

2016 Spel (game) by Kate Moore

Written for Perth percussionist Louise Devenish, Coral Speak is a percussion suite of laments and playful dances in homage to the fragility of the Great Barrier Reef. The vibraphone movement ‘Spel’ is a particular favourite and can be performed in its own right. Its swirling repetitive rhythms are very satisfying to perform

6

2015 Temple (2015) by Michael Smetanin

Simply utilising the 5 temple blocks that typically come in a set, this short, showy and striking work features driving rhythmic figures, a free cadenza section and a physical percussive energy to the very end (continued)

Appendix 1.5

37

(continued) Year

Composition

Comments

7

2014 Self Accusation (2014) by Kate Neal

Self Accusation was written for Vanessa Tomlinson’s epic 8 HITS project, and based on Peter Handke’s first three plays—Offending the Audience, Self-Accusation, and Prophecy—Sprechstücke (literally, speaking pieces). The plays examine the power and banality of public and private speech as does the solo itself

8

2010 Hi Hat and Me (2010) by Matthew Shlomowitz

A quirky solo for hi-hat and vocals written for Edwardes. Throughout the piece the performer is directed to tell a story from ‘when they were seven’, imitate four animal sounds and three military sounds all performed in a dead-pan manner. The counting which opens the piece is reminiscent of Shlomowitz’s Letter Pieces

9

2009 Golden kitsch (2009) by Elena Kats-Chernin

Golden Kitsch is one of only a handful of percussion concertos by Australian female composers. Written for Claire Edwardes and Sydney Youth Orchestra, it has been performed all over Australia. The work celebrates the kitschy golden tourist objects found in Vienna and showcases sound worlds unique to Kats-Chernin, including the waterphone, multiple toy pianos, bells and singing from the orchestra

10 2008 Flash (2008) by Matthew Hindson

Originally written for xylophone, this is an adaptation for 2 mallets on marimba. Just over 4 min in length, Flash is a very fast, virtuosic showpiece, continually changing between regular sets of repeated notes and arpeggios, and cadenza like ‘explosions’ across the marimba. Hints of singing melodies briefly emerge, only to be put back in their place by the hyperactive rhythmic figures

11 2007 Clockwork lemon (2007) by Stuart Greenbaum

This snare drum and hi-hat solo was written for the MSO’s Snare Drum competition in 2007. It is an exploration of rhythmic ratios including standard syncopations as well as some more unusual ones which can sound somewhat ‘wrong’—this is the ‘lemon’ factor. The irony is that in order to capture this essence of ‘wrong’ they have to be played with clockwork precision, hence the title Clockwork Lemon (as well as being a reference to the famous film by Stanley Kubrick)

12 2004 More marimba dances (2004) by Ross Edwards

Written 22 years after the original Marimba Dances, this solo extends the instrumentation of marimba with percussion including temple blocks, crotales and guiro. It was written on the request of Claire Edwardes who had had the original Marimba Dances in her repertoire since high school and felt the world needed another catchy percussion solo from Edwards

13 1998 Celestial dance (1998) by Jane Stanley

This duo for marimba and congas is effective for its ‘maninyas’ style of catchy marimba writing. And early work by Stanley, it utilises the congas as an accompanying rhythmic force and is an extremely effective chamber work for this unusual combination (continued)

38

1 Introduction

(continued) Year

Composition

Comments

14 1996 Coil (1996) by Gerard Brophy

A work for solo vibraphone inspired by Brophy’s teacher Franco Donatoni (and his solo vibraphone work Omar) in its frenzied style. The piece combines repetitive gestures which keep returning in slightly different combinations and formats—a tour de force for the vibraphone

15 1993 Composition in blue, grey and pink (1993) by Andrew Ford

This solo multi-drum work has become a core repertoire work, unique in its free instrumentation, dynamics and stick choice. The work celebrates the percussionist’s own interpretation and open instrument choice and is a great vehicle for musical as well as rhythmic development

16 1983 For marimba and tape (1983) by Martin Wesley-Smith

Probably the most performed work for marimba by an Australian composer and a classic on the international scene. It’s also remarkable for the composer’s use of early digital samples featuring the Australian-developed Fairlight CMI (Computer Musical Instrument)

17 1983 Soundscapes (1983) by Richard Mills

A musically vibrant percussion concerto celebrating a huge array of instruments scattered across the front of the stage. Written for the composer himself to perform, it features mallet instruments alongside drums and more unusual percussion, and showcases the percussionist very successfully

References Allen RE (ed) (1990) The concise Oxford dictionary of current English. Clarendon Press, Oxford Baker JC (2004) The snare drum as a solo concert instrument: an in depth study of works by Milton Babbitt, John Cage, Dan Senn, and Stuart Saunders Smith, together with three recitals of selected works by Keiko Abe, Daniel Levitan, Askell Masson, Karlheinz Stockhausen, and others. University of North Texas. Balthazar SL (ed) (2004) The Cambridge companion to Verdi. Cambridge University Press Beck JH (2013) Encyclopedia of percussion. Routledge. Article Percussion ensembles, p 272 Blades J (1975) Percussion instruments and their story. Faber and Faber, London Bucur V (2016) Handbook of materials for string musical instruments. Springer Bug DD (2003) The role of Turkish percussion in the history and development of the orchestral percussion section. LSU Major Paper 27—Louisiana State University de Oliveira Rocha F (2008) Works for percussion and computer-based live electronics: aspects of performance with technology PhD thesis, Schulich School of Music McGill University Montreal, Canada Devenish L (2015). ... And now for the noise: contemporary percussion in Australia, 1970–2000. PhD thesis, University of Western Australia Devenish L (2017) Contemporary percussion explorations in twenty-first-century Australia. Contemp Music Rev 36(1–2):1–4. https://doi.org/10.1080/07494467.2017.1368176 Ford A (2011) Illegal harmonies, music in the modern age. Black Ink Collingwood Vic 3066 Australia Hartenberger R (ed) (2016) The Cambridge companion to percussion. Cambridge University Press

References

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Holoman DK (1989) Berlioz. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA Hornbostel EM von, Sachs C (1961) Classification of musical instruments. Translated from the original German by Baines A, Wachsmann KP. Galpin Soc J 14:3–29 Keller RE (2013) Compositional and orchestrational trends in the orchestral percussion section between the years of 1960–2009. PhD thesis Evanston, Illinois J Liblin L (2014) The Grove dictionary of musical instruments, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press Massin B, Massin J (1985) Historie de la musique occidentale. Edition Fayard, Paris Merrill G (1996) The Marimba: scientific aspects of its construction and performance. http://fac ulty.smu.edu/ttunks/projects/merrill/MarimbaH.html. Accessed 7 Mar 2019 Montagu J (2002) Timpani and percussion. Yale University Press Peinkofer K, Tannigel F (1976) Handbook of percussion instruments. Belwin-Mills Publishing Corp, New York Perrey B (ed) (2007) The Cambridge companion to Schumann. Cambridge University Press Peters GB (1975) The Drummer, man: a treatise on percussion. Kemper-Peters Publications, Wilmette, Ill Raynor H (1978) The Orchestra: a history. Scribner, New York Read G (1979) Style and orchestration. Schirmer Books, New York Reuter C (2002) Klangfarbe und Instrumentation. Peter Lang GmbH, Frankfurt, pp 523–544 Reuter C (2017) Commentary on “An exploratory study of Western orchestration: pattern through history” by SH Chon, D Huron, & D DeVliger. Empirical Musicology Rev 12(3–4):1–15 Sptizer J, Zaslaw N (2004) The birth of the orchestra: history of an institution, 1650–1815. Oxford University Press Werner-Jensen A (2015) The great German orchestras. Laaber-Verlag, Laaber, Germany Whenham J (2001) Orfeo, In: Macy L (ed) The new Grove dictionary of music and musicians. London, Macmillan Youmans C (ed) (2010) The Cambridge companion to Richard Strauss. Cambridge University Press

Chapter 2

Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony Orchestra

2.1 Introduction This chapter is devoted to the description of the organology and to the historical evolution of percussion instruments used in symphony orchestras as classified by musicians in three groups: the timpani, other tuned percussion instruments and all other auxiliary percussion instruments. The percussion instruments produce a big diversity of tones, pitches and melodic sound. Intuitively the main function of percussion instruments is to provide rhythm. Percussion instruments have been used for religious ceremonies, for military signals for the encouragement of soldiers in war or for other military ceremonies and for dance. Montagu (2002) refers to the history of the timpani and percussion instruments in four important historical periods namely the Early baroque, the High baroque, the Classical and the Romantic. This chapter brings together examples of percussion musical instruments in these historical periods in Europe. Chronologically we have the Early baroque (corresponding to the Renaissance periods after 1500 AD). The High Baroque period occurred during the XVIIth century and the Classical era during the XVIIIth century, while the Romantic period was in the XIXth century. Modern music in Europe started at the beginning of the XXth century. Of course, there is an overlap of musical styles during these periods. This chapter is based on aspects of musical history and of musical organology with data related to iconography and literary sources illustrating percussion instruments and to the material science describing materials from which these instruments are made. This interdisciplinary approach enables a variety of perspectives to be presented which are obviously confined by the space of this chapter. This long period of time of more than five centuries allows for the observance of the evolution of percussion instruments and for the recognition of the validity of some principles related to the design and manufacturing of these instruments. The study of music is firmly related to the study of musical instruments. Musical instruments’ organology is a branch of music related to musical instruments in terms

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 V. Bucur, Handbook of Materials for Percussion Musical Instruments, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-98650-6_2

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2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony …

of “their history and social function, design, construction and relation to performance” (Libin 2001). Sachs (1940) mentioned that musical organology is a subdiscipline of musicology, and is at same time a part of the history of civilizations. According to Oler et al. (1970) the term organology for musical instruments was proposed in the modern era by Bessaraboff (1941) for designing “the scientific and engineering aspects of musical instruments.” This term was inspired by the term “organographia” employed by Praetorius in his reference book Syntagma musicum. The appendix of his volume (Theatrum Instrumentorum seu Sciagraphia, 1620) has 42 drawn woodcuts, depicting instruments from the early XVIIth century, grouped into families. The size of the instruments is defined by referring to the scale on the lower part of the page of the engraving in Braunschweig foot/fuss (1 Fuß = 28.3 cm). The designs and sizes of some percussion musical instruments like cymbals, triangles, castanets, and clappers, have changed very little since the instruments first appeared in an opera orchestra. Other instruments of the symphony orchestra like timpani and snare drum underwent permanent changes from the Renaissance to the Modern era. The organologic study of musical instruments cannot be dissociated from the study of the physics of the musical instruments because of the sounds the instruments produced which in turn, cannot be dissociated from the study of material science related to the materials from which they are made. Our goal is to suggest ways of combining these parallel developments having in mind that the construction of musical instruments requires study of the corresponding materials at different levels of complexity. Being one of the oldest family of musical instruments, the percussion instruments can be classified using various schemes: using the means by which the sound is produced—the instruments are the membranophones and the idiophones, by the traditional musical division into two groups, the pitched and the unpitched instruments, by the way of playing—with mallets or by hands, or by cultural tradition—the instruments being European, Latin American, African, etc. von Hornbostel and Sachs (1914) at the beginning of the XXst century classified percussion instruments into two main groups, the membranophones and the idiophones This organological classification of percussion musical instruments deserves to be analysed in more detail. The membranophones are musical instruments equipped with a membrane which produce sound through the vibration of this membrane. The drums—kettledrums of various kinds, timpani, tubular drums, rattle drums and the friction drums- belong to this group of instruments. Timpani have a metallic shell on which the membrane is stretched. Tubular drums have a shell made of wood on which the membrane is stretched. Friction drums sound when the membrane is rubbed. For all drum types the shell acts as a resonator for the vibration of the membrane. The greater the diameter and size of the shell, the deeper the sound, while the greater the membrane tension the higher the pitch. The drums are played with mallets or drumsticks. The idiophones are those musical instruments acting as entities which vibrate to produce a sound when struck, shaken or scraped such as xylophones, marimbas, glockenspiels, vibraphone, cymbals, woodblocks, triangles, bells, gongs, rattles,

2.1 Introduction

43

castanets, etc. Idiophones are made of materials that give off unique sounds. Idiophone instruments which sound by concussion are the castanets, the clash cymbals, and the claves. The idiophones which sound by impact when percussed are the cymbals, the percussion tubular bells, the marimba, the triangle, and the xylophone. An idiophone instrument which sounds by being shaken is the maracas. Physical criteria for the classification of percussion instruments of the symphony orchestra are: the pitch, the mode of vibration, the shape of vibrating bodies, the nature of the materials used (wood, metal, skin), the type of excitation, etc. Table 2.1 summarizes the possible criteria of classification of percussion instruments based on the material used for their construction, the modes of vibration, pitched or unpitched, and the shape of the vibrator.

2.1.1 Iconographic Representation of Percussion Instruments for Early Music Percussion musical instruments have been painted since the Early Renaissance, using the form of iconographic representation in allegories with religious subjects in which angels are painted as musicians playing various instruments, or shown in stained glass windows of cathedrals or in the form of woodcuts in printed treatises referring to the organologic description of the musical instruments. Winternitz (1979) advanced the term iconology of musical instruments to illustrate the necessity for systematic studies of a” new” branch of music related to the representation of musical instruments in fine arts. The idea that “one day someone will write a book about the parallel between the painting and the music” was not completely new in the XXth century, as mentioned by Gétrau (2017). This idea was advanced in 1859 in Paris by Louis Viardot in his article “Ut pictura musica” (the music is like the painting) published in the journal La Gazette des Beaux Arts. Baldassarre (2010) cited Martin Gerbert (1720–1793) as the first author who in 1774 used visual sources and written documents to describe musical performance practice in the Middle Ages. In France, the term iconography was used from the end of XIXth century as mentioned by Gétreau (2007) citing the study by Eugène de Bricqueville on the iconography of musical instruments in the Louvre Museum—“Iconographie instrumentale au Musée du Louvre” published in 1894. It is worth mentioning that from the last decades of the XXth century musical iconography has experienced important developments in Europe and America (Brown and Lascelle 2013). An example is the catalogue of musical iconography in France for the period 1936–2006 (Gétreau 2007). An Iconographical Documentation Centre was established in 1967 in Paris at the initiative of Genevieve Thibault de Chambure, among others, curator of the Musée Instrumental du Conservatoire de Paris between 1961 and 1973 (Bridgman 1976). Together with Barry Brook and Harald Heckmann, Genevieve Thibault de Chambure founded the—RIdIM—Repertoire International d’ Iconographie Musicale, which now formally identifies itself as

44

2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony …

Table 2.1 Criteria of classification of percussion instruments based on physical parameters 1

2

3

4

5

6

Criteria

Type

Name of the instruments

Musical

Pitched

Marimba, xylophone, vibraphone, celesta, tubular bells, timbales

Unpitched

Triangle, cymbales, grosse casse, tambourine, gong

Idiophones—vibrating rigid objects, by percussive stroke, by striking, plucking or rubbing, sharking

Striking—xylophone, gong, triangle Plucking—lamellaphone Rubbing—glass harmonica Sharking—maracas, jugle

Membranophones—vibrating stretched membrane by striking, rubbing, sinking

Striking—timpani, bass drum, Rubbing—tambourine, Sinking

Bars

Celesta, marimba, vibraphone, xylophone, glockenspiel, triangle

Plate

Cymbals, bell plates, gong

Mode of vibration

Shape of the vibrator

Type of excitation

Material used

Mass

Tube

Tubular bells

Membrane

Drums, tambourine

Shell

Bells, carillon

Other

Castanets

Mallets made of wood

Xylophone, marimba

Metallic mallets

Glockenspiel, vibraphone

Keyboard

Celesta. Carillon

Clashing

Cymbals

Striking

Bells, triangle, gong

Wood

Xylophone, marimba, castanets, whistles

Metal

celesta, vibraphone, bell, gong glockenspiel, tubular bells, triangle

Skin and other

Timpani, drum, tambourine

Heavy instruments

Timpani, gong, bass drum, tubular bells, marimba, celesta

Lightweight instrument

Snare drum, suspended cymbal, Glockenspiel

“Association RIdIM”. This action to establish an international inventory of iconographic sources with musical subjects was possible in 1971, with the arrival of the Internet (McKinnon 1977; Guilloux 2017). The mission of the Association RIdIM includes the management of a database of images which is accessible without subscription. In addition to the flagship RIdIM

2.1 Introduction

45

database of images, various RIdIM working groups around the world have databases of local image collections, including RIdIM Arbeitsstelle Deutschland in Germany and Iconografía of the Asociación Española de Documentación Musical (AEDOM) in Spain. Alongside this a growing interest developed from 2017 in the relationship between music and visual culture within both musicology and art by the American Musicological Society” (https://ridim.org and https://ridim.org/ridim-database/). Iconographical representation of musical instruments in the Renaissance period in Italy is rich in examples of percussion instruments played by angels. However, string instruments are more frequently represented than percussion instruments. The instruments held by angel musicians are represented on monumental large paintings, on frescos on the walls of churches, on glass windows or, on woodcuts of the size of the page of a book. Several images representing percussion musical instruments from the Renaissance are reproduced in Figs. 2.1 and 2.2. The percussion instruments are painted individually or in a group of angel musicians playing several types of musical instruments in a celestial concert. Note the accuracy of the detailed representation of each instrument with details of the decoration, as in the case of the membrane of the tambourine painted by Fra Angelico. It is worth mentioning that the instruments were painted accurately when compared in a number of paintings by different artists of the same historical period or when comparing the instruments painted by the same artist in various works on different supports such as wood or stained-glass windows of cathedrals.

2.1.2 Written Documents About Percussion Instruments for Early Music Several written documents describing the organologic terminology of musical instruments, with various degree of depth—treatises—exist from the Renaissance and the Baroque era (Table 2.2) Differences in design and tuning are seen in works by Sebastian Virdung in Musica getutscht, (1511), Martin Agricola in Musica instrumentalis deudsch, (1529), Michael Praetorius in Syntagma musicum (1619) and Marin Mersenne in Harmonie universelle (1636), Trichet in Traité des instruments de musique (1640) and Kircher in Musurgia universalis sive Ars magna consoni et dissoni (1650). The earlier treatises tend to present less detail on the construction of musical instruments. Since the end of the XVth century “there was a decided reticence on the part of authoritative writers to include drums of any description in the category of musical instruments “(Blades 1974). The book published in 1511 by Sebastian Virdung—Musica getutscht und außgezogen (Musica gutted and pulled out), has been printed in Basel by Michael Furter. The book is written as a dialogue between two colleagues, Andreas Silvanus— (Andreas Waldner)—and Sebastianus—Virdung himself. The language of the book is the German Bavarian dialect. Given the increasing interest in Early music of the

46

2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony … (a) the tabor

(b) the tambourine

(c) the triangle

(d) the luth

Fig. 2.1 Musician angels playing one percussion instrument. Legend: a–d Musician angels from fresco painting of the Basilica dei Santi Apostoli in Florence by Melozzo da Forli (1438–1494), now in the collection of frescas conserved in Pinacoteca Vaticano, Roma, Italy (Photo Alvesgaspar, 9 September 2015. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Angels_Mel ozzo_%28Pinacoteca_Vaticano%29_1.jpg/1500px-Angels_Melozzo_%28Pinacoteca_Vaticano% 29_1.jpg, accessed 30 July 2018); e, f Several percussion instruments in concert. Fragments of the painting Assumption of the Virgin (1474) by Matteo di Giovanni di Bartolo, known as Matteo da Siena, painting presently in The National Gallery of Art in London (Appendix, this chapter). https://miguelmorateorganologia.files.wordpress.com/2017/03/ima-4-603.png, accessed 30 July 2019 and https://miguelmorateorganologia.files.wordpress.com/2017/03/ima-4-575.png, accessed 30 July 2019; g Cymbal player by Pietro di Francesco degli Orioli. El Paso Museum of Art. Texas Kress collection. https://live.staticflickr.com/65535/49403299071_eeb2cc4d4d_b.jpg, accessed 28 April 2021)

musicians of the second half of the XXst century, this book was republished again in facsimile edition in 1970 by Klaus Wolfgang Niemöller and was translated into English in 1987 by Beth Bullard (Facsimile in Fig. 2.3). In a French version, Meyer (1980) commented in detail on the musical instruments described by Virdung and on the related musical practice in the XVIth century in Bavaria. Virdung’s book refers to the following instruments: clavichord, virginal, clavier and clavicitherium, organ, luth, flute, drums and tabor. The instruments are classified according to their sound generator (string, tongue, etc.). The instruments are described in detail with illustrations. Musical notation is specified as was utilised until the second half of the XVIth century (https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musica_getutscht, accessed 3 April 2021).

2.1 Introduction Fig. 2.1 (continued)

47 (e) tambourine played with the fingers of the right hand, accompanying the luth and by the aulos

(f) cymbals played with two hands

(g) Cymbal player

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2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony …

Fig. 2.2 The same instrument represented as played by various ensembles, painted by the Italian painter Fra Angelico (1395–1455) for the Linaioli tabernacle, now in the Museo di San Marco Florence. Legend: a Tambourine played with the fingers of the right hand; b inside view of the membrane of the tambourine; c and d The tabor was suspended by the elbow and played with only one stick and with one hand. https://www.pinterest. com.au/pin/385972630554 682380/. https://upload.wik imedia.org/wikipedia/com mons/thumb/b/b2/Ang elico%2C_angelo_del_tab ernacolo_dei_linaioli%2C_ 02.jpg/320px-Angelico% 2C_angelo_del_tabern acolo_dei_linaioli%2C_02. jpg. https://upload.wikime dia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/8/87/Angelico%2C_ linaioli_tabernacle_07.jpg/ 320px-Angelico%2C_lin aioli_tabernacle_07.jpg

(a) the membrane of the tambourine

(b) view inside the membrane of the tambourine

(c) Tabor played with the left hand

(d) Tabor played with the right hand

By the end of the XVIth century Arbeau (1588) used engravings for the illustration of a deep side drum, of a pipe and tabor, of a tambourine, and of a pair of German cavalry timpani with rope tensioning. A century later in the Baroque period, between 1619 and 1620 Praetorius published the reference book “Syntagma musicum “on musical instruments in three volumes. Details about the construction and use of musical instruments with corresponding illustrations are given in the second volume De Organographia (Fig. 2.4). A separate section of this volume published at Wolfenbüttel in 1620, under the title Theatrum Instrumentorum seu Sciagraphia described in detail with woodcuts,

1511

1517

1529

1549

1588

1607

1614–20

1634

1636

1640

1650

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

(a) Martin Agricola

Portraits

1487

1

Publication year

(b) Michael Praetorius (continued)

Athanasius Kircher (1650) Musurgia Universali, Romae 1650 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musurgia_Universalis see facsimile in Appendix, this chapter

Pierre Trichet Traité des instruments de musique (vers 1640). Original text in Bibliothèque St Géneviève in Paris

Marin Mersenne, Harmonie Universelle, París, 1636. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marin_Mersenne

Bartolomé Jovernardi or Bartolomeo Giovenardi (arpista), Tratado de la música (Madrid, 1634)

Michael Praetorius, Theatrum instrumentorum seu sciagraphia (p. 269) de Syntagma musicum (1614–1620)

Agostino Agazzari, Del sonare sopra’l basso con tutti li stromenti e dell’usu loro nel conserto, Siena. https://es.wik ipedia.org/wiki/Agostino_Agazzari

Thoinot Arbeau, Orchésographie, first published in Langres France

Juan Bermudo, Declaración de instrumentos musicales (1549–50–55). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Bermudo

Martin Agricola, Musica instrumentalis Deudsch (1529). https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Agricola

Andreas Ornithoparchus, Musica activae Micrologus (1517)

Sebastian Virdung, Musica Getutscht (Basilea, 1511). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastian_Virdung

Johannes Tinctoris, De inventione et usu musicae. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Tinctoris

Author and title of the treatise

Table 2.2 List of the treatises on musical instruments from the XVth century to the XVIIth century (data from Miguel Morateo. https://miguelmorateorgano logia.wordpress.com/que-es-la-organologia/, accessed in 20 April 2021)

2.1 Introduction 49

(c) Marin Mersenne

Publication year

Table 2.2 (continued)

Author and title of the treatise

(d) Pierre Trichet (continued)

50 2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony …

Author and title of the treatise

Note A chronologic list of the music theorists is to the following link. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_music_theorists Portraits uploaded as: Martin Agricola (https://photos.geni.com/p13/fe/27/c5/75/534448397504f451/agricola_large.jpg accessed 19 April 2021; Michael Praetorius. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Michael_Praetorius.jpg, accessed 19 April 2021; Marin Mersenne. https://upl oad.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Marin_mersenne.jpg, accessed 19 April 2021; Pierre Trichet. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/7/74/Pierre_trichet.jpg/390px-Pierre_trichet.jpg, accessed 19 April 2021

Publication year

Table 2.2 (continued)

2.1 Introduction 51

52

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Fig. 2.3 Facsimile of the title page of the book published in the first half of the XVth century. Legend: a Facsimile of the title page of the book Musica getutscht und außgezogen by Sebastian Virdung. https:// vdm.sbg.ac.at/illustrations/ 153_1_D-KA%20115% 20E%204096,%20A1r.jpg. b The conversation between two characters Andreas Silvanus and Sebastianus. https://www.musicologie. org/Biographies/v/i/vir dung_01.jpg. c The description of the drums https://www.musicologie. org/Biographies/v/i/vir dung_02.jpg

(a) Facsimile of the title page of the book

(b) the conversation between two characters Andreas Silvanus and Sebastianus

(c) The Drums

the construction of the musical instruments of that time—pipe organ, string instruments, wind instruments and percussion instruments. It is worth noting the systematic classification of European musical instruments, which is reproduced in the Fig. 2.5. As mentioned by Cooper (2012), Praetorius limited his in-depth comments about percussion instruments to the kettle drum family. The other percussion instruments of the family used for military music like the field drum, the cymbal, the handbells, the tambourine etc., were not of interest to this author because at that time “they do not belong in music”.

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53

(a) Facsimile

Fig. 2.4 Several percussion instruments described by Praetorius in Syntagma Musicum published in 1619 (Photos Jean Marie Heinrich 2019). Legend: a Facsimile of the cover of the book; b Facsimile of the cover of the third volume, Theatrum Instrumentorum published in 1620 (https://upload.wik imedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Syntagma01.png), c percussion instruments—Plate XXIII— upper image—kettle drums (timpani)—two screw tensioned timpani with mallets and a tuning key beneath; lower image—rope tensioned snare drum presented under two angles to facilitate observation of the instrument, including a scale drawing (https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/8/85/Syntagma13.png), d plate XXII triangle, tambourine, straw fiddle, e plate XXX various drums, tabor

54

2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony … (b) facsimile

Fig. 2.4 (continued)

2.1 Introduction

55

(c) the instruments : 1- the kettle drum, 2- field drum 3- Swiss fipple flute, 4- Avil

Fig. 2.4 (continued)

In France, in the XVIIth century, a remarkable contribution to musical organology was given by Mersenne in 1636 (Facsimile of the book “Harmonie Universselle” in Fig. 2.6 and by Trichet in 1640 with the book “Treaty on musical instruments” (Traité des instruments de musique). They facilitate observation of the instrument, including variety of musical instruments of their time.

56

2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony … (d) Plate XXII triangle, tambourine, straw fiddle

(e) Plate XXX various drums, tabor

Fig. 2.4 (continued)

Cooper (2012) based on the classification criteria of percussion instruments into pitched and unpitched instruments noted the following sizes and materials as described by Mersenne: The “pitched” instruments are: the hand drum, the field drum, the tabor and the tambourine. – The hand drum has two heads made of skin and a shell made of wood. On the bottom head there is a snare stretched over the head. The size of the hand drum is 2 inches to 5 inches in diameter and 14 inches “across”. The hand drum is played with the hand, mostly in dance music. – The field drum and the tabor are similar in construction to hand drums but much larger in size and are struck with sticks. The field drum is 3 feet long and 2 feet in diameter. The head is made of a skin fastened near the rim with hoops. The two hoops, one for each head, were bound with cords. A snare made of a gut string was put under the upper head. The lower head is tensioned with two sticks arranged perpendicularly. The rim of each head is adjusted with a counter hoop. The tension is controlled by tightening a node on the side of the shell. This system allows for relatively good tuning. Therefore, three or four field drums of different pitches can be used in choirs. These drums were associated with a pair of cymbals. The tabor was suspended by the elbow and played with only one stick. – The tambourine is made of pairs of spinning slots. They are suspended on the shell with leather cords. The shell has the shape of a cylinder of 12 inches diameter.

Fig. 2.5 Classification of musical instruments following Praetorius. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/de/c/c9/Instrumente1_Syntagma_musicum.png

2.1 Introduction 57

58

2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony … (a) facsimile of the title page of the book “Harmonie Universelle” published in 1636

Fig. 2.6 Instruments described in the book by Marin Mersenne. Legend: a Facsimile of the book by Marin Mersenne Harmonie Universselle. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/e/ed/Marin_Mersenne_-_Harmonie_universelle_1636_%28page_de_titre%29.png/320pxMarin_Mersenne_-_Harmonie_universelle_1636_%28page_de_titre%29.png. b and c Description of the triangle and of the drum https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Triang ulum_001.jpg, d strawfiddle, a kind of xylophone with a single row of bars suspended on a bed of straw

2.1 Introduction

(b) description of the triangle and of the drum https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Triangulum_001.jpg

(c) the drum

Fig. 2.6 (continued)

59

60

2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony …

(d) strawfiddle, a kind of xylophone with a single row of bars suspended on a bed of straw

Fig. 2.6 (continued)

One side of the shell can be covered or not with a skin. The other side is always free. The tambourine is mostly played in dance music by striking the head with different parts of the right hand and fingers. This playing technique is still in used today. The “unpitched” instruments are the triangle, the cymbals, the castanets and the clappers. The triangle was held suspended in the left hand and struck with a beater held in the right hand. Triangles were made of silver, brass or steel. Around the bottom edge are suspended circular rings made of the same metal. The cymbals are played with two hands. The castanets are played with one hand. The straw fiddle (Fig. 2.6e), a kind of xylophone with a single row of bars suspended on a bed of straw, was illustrated by Pretorius with fifteen graduated bars. Mersenne reported 17 bars, the longest bar being about 10 inches long was made of beech, other woods, or brass, silver and stones. A further step in the graphic representation of musical instruments was achieved with their description in the Encyclopedia by Diderot and d’Alembert (1751). (Fig. 2.7). It describes the percussion instruments in use in the XVIIIth century in two folio plates on the article “Lutherie” which are of widely artistic and musicological interest (Dart 1953). The tools used by the luthier for making musical instruments

2.1 Introduction

61

(a) drums, tabor, cymbals, triangle, castanets, tambourine.

Fig. 2.7 Percussion instruments of the XVIIIth century described in the Encyclopedia by Diderot et d’Alembert

62

Fig. 2.7 (continued)

2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony …

2.1 Introduction

Fig. 2.7 (continued)

63

64

Fig. 2.7 (continued)

2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony …

2.2 Historical Evolution of Membranophone Percussion Instruments

65

are also depicted. It contains a table showing the compass and tunings of a very large number of instruments of the time (Plate XXIII).

2.2 Historical Evolution of Membranophone Percussion Instruments The Timpani is the percussion instrument mostly showing a continuous evolution from an instrument for war and military music instrument to an instrument for classical orchestras with its debut in the opera orchestral pit at the beginning of the XVIIth century and advancing to the stage of a large symphony orchestra at the end of the XIXth century. Other percussion instruments such as the snare drum, the bass drum, the tambourine, the triangle, or the tam-tam were less affected by technical progress over the centuries, maintaining their initial shape and probably their size. A brief description follows of the musical context in which percussion instruments evolved. One of the earliest existing documents, mentioning the structure of an orchestra is in the score of the opera Orpheus by Claudio Monteverdi, published in 1607 in Venice, Italy. For the performance of this opera only two timpani were necessary. The Baroque era (1600–1750) required string instruments, woodwind and brass instruments and instruments for basso continuo which are instruments capable of playing chords such as the harpsichord, lute, theorbo, harps and other instruments playing in the bass register as do the cello, double bass, bass viol or bassoon.

2.2.1 The Timpani The most representative percussion instrument for the orchestra by repertoire is the timpani. During the Early Music period to the Romantic period the timpani underwent continuous technical improvement for a historical period between about 1600 when the first Italian opera was performed at the Medici court in Florence, and when percussion instruments were regarded with “reserve” for their musical abilities, to the performance of the Requiem by Berlioz in 1837 in Paris which were required 16 timpani, 2 bass drums, 4 tam—tams and 10 pairs of cymbals (Baurraud 1999). Timpani and other percussion instruments played an important role in the orchestral scores of the Italian operas of the second half of the XIXth century, when the opera reached the most glorious pinnacle of the marriage of the arts (Meucci 1998; Meucci and Quinn 2011). From an organological standpoint, to consider the evolution of the timpani we have to refer to the main structural elements: the head with the corresponding membrane called the skin, and the shell, commonly named the bowl or the kettle and the tuning

66

2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony …

system of the timpani including the pedal. For this purpose, as we have seen previously, we consider iconographic representations of the instruments and of written documents from the Renaissance period. (a)

Iconographic representation of timpani and other drums

We have seen that with iconographic investigations it is possible to observe the successive changes in the structure of an instrument or, to identify the chronological moment when its structure is modified or, when a new playing technique was adopted. Another aspect of musical iconography is related to the question how some instruments differed in various countries in a given historical period. Fortunately works of an encyclopaedic span exist for the musical instruments of the XVIth and the XVIIth century, namely those by Virdung, Agricola, Pierre Trichet, Praetorius and Mersenne, but no such references exist for earlier periods. We have seen that the Trecento Italian paintings, with instruments played by musical angels, are a chief source of evidence for contemporaneous musical activity. On the other hand, it can be assumed that links exist between the time when new instruments appear in frescos or paintings and the historical period when they are effectively used by musicians. This is the case for drums used firstly for military ceremonies and then much later at the beginning of the Baroque period as instruments in orchestras. Until about the end of the XIVth century drums were not included by the composers into the groups of musical instruments. On the other hand, it is impressive to see how often the tambourine was painted from the XVth century to the end of the XIXth century. Technological advances in the last decades of the XXth century allowed for assemblies of impressive collections of images as for instance, to take only one example, in France, the cataloguing musical iconography that was done by creating specific internet sites such as EUTERPE https://iremus.huma-num.fr/euterpe/ and MUSICONIS https://musiconis.huma-num.fr (Guilloux 2017). A remarkable achievement is the reference book—Voir la musique—(Gétrau 2017). In what follows we will see how iconography of drums is of special value for understanding the evolution of these instruments from military drums to orchestral timpani, over several centuries in the context of Western music. Figures 2.8 and 2.9 illustrate some engravings in which can be seen details of the instruments made in an era when the art of the timpanist was guarded secretly by the guild and was only orally transmitted from the master to the apprentice. Kettledrummers were in the service of royalty and nobility in the courts of Europe. In the early 1600s’ the drummers were followed by the trumpeters for important ceremonial activities. Large kettledrums were in fashion in Germany in the cavalry and they were played as a pair, slung on either sides of the horse. Figure 2.9d illustrates an emperor’s drummer. He was a noble man, who played the pair of drums carried on the back of the drum carrier. Bowles (1997) mentioned that probably the early timpani were “tuned” with a rope to the tonic and subdominant key in which the trumpets were playing. The membranes (the vellums) were thick and stiff made of very thick skins of calf, goat or donkey manufactured by a parchment maker. The sticks used to play the drum were made of boxwood, beach, or ivory. The length of the sticks was between 8 and 12 inches. The head of the stick had the shape of a small

2.2 Historical Evolution of Membranophone Percussion Instruments

67

(a) Kettledrums and trumpets – the triumphal Procession of Maximillian (Triumphzug) by Burgkmair the Younger in 1526

Fig. 2.8 Engraves representing the drums as musical instruments for military ceremonies. Legend: a kettledrum on horse and trumpets at the court of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian Triumph-zug nº 115, H. Burgkmair (1516–18) (https://miguelmorateorganologia.files.wordpress. com/2017/03/ima-4-121.jpg). b The musicians at the court of Maximilian. https://upload.wik imedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Hans_burgkmair_musikantenda.jpg. Musikantendarstellung, Holzschnitt, um 1517

knob, or of a rosette. The sound produced probably was loud and dry but appropriate for ceremonial music in large open spaces at court festivities of the XVIth century. During the early XVIIth century these cavalry kettledrums were dismounted. The music played in indoor spaces, with a lower level of dynamic, with small instrumental ensembles required other instruments of small different sizes. The kettledrums were about 18–20 inches in diameter and 11–15 inches in depth. The playing was no longer totally improvised and written music was more formalized. The size of the instruments increased gradually over time (Bowles 1991). In 1517 Hans Burgkmair the Younger illustrated the book “The skill of music” which depicted the musicians and the musical instruments of the court of the Emperor Maximilian of the Holy Roman Empire, Emperor from 1508 until his death in 1519. In Fig. 2.8a are depicted four drummers and the kettledrums are on horseback followed by four trumpeters in a military ceremony. As noted by Myers (2007) the “Triumphzug” (Triumphal Procession) of Maximillian the Ist is shown in a collection of woodcuts made to preserve the memory of this emperor and to illustrate musical

Fig. 2.8 (continued)

(b) The musicians at the court of Maximilian in Triumphal Procession

68 2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony …

(b) Snare drum by Jacques de Gheyn engraved in 1587

Fig. 2.9 The drumsticks and the way of playing. Legend: a Early kettledrum engraved by J. C. Weigel in 1772 and printed in Musikalisches Theatrum, published in Nuremberg (Weigel 1772). b Snare drum by Jacques de Gheyn engraved in 1587. https://www.allposters.com/-sp/Drummer-engraved-by-JacquesII-de-Gheyn-1587-Posters_i15609661_.htm. c Negro commander and kettle drummer 1638 Rembrandt British museum. d The drummer of the emperor playing two drums probably made in 1676. The engraver is Christoph Weigel after Caspar Luyken in 1703. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/ Welt-Galleria_T025_koloriert.jpg

(a) Early kettledrum engraved by J C Weigel Musikalisches Theatrum

2.2 Historical Evolution of Membranophone Percussion Instruments 69

Fig. 2.9 (continued)

(c) Negro commander and kettle drummer 1638 Rembrandt British museum See the mallets (d) the drummer of the emperor, 1703 by Christoph Weigel

70 2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony …

2.2 Historical Evolution of Membranophone Percussion Instruments

71

instruments used for ceremonies during that time. These miniatures are of the greatest musical significance. The players and their instruments (Fig. 2.8b) are arranged in various places on the wagon, probably depending on their importance at the court. The instruments are: a reed organ with swan-like pipes, a regal, a clavicytherium (upright harpsichord) a tabor, a viola, a viola da gamba, small and large luth, fiddle or vielle, small and large reedpipe, a harp, etc. The drummer playing a tabor and a pipe is the first character in front of this group of musicians playing different string and wind instruments. We know that the pipe is made of wood and has three holes, one hole of the back for the thumb and two for fingers at the front. The tabor is suspended on the left shoulder of the drummer and is played with the right hand. At this stage of our research about the iconography of drums it could be useful to look at the evolution of drumsticks. The drum sticks are represented in Fig. 2.9 and can be uncovered or wrapped and the round heads are encircled by a leather ring. The way the drums are played is shown. The drumstick strikes the vellum in the middle of the surface. The knob is spherical. In Rembrant’s painting we note the important size of the head of the stick having a quite spherical shape. A Flemish tabor of impressive size is illustrated in Fig. 2.10a Structural details of a side drum are illustrated in Fig. 2.10b from “The night watch” (1642) by Rembrandt. The drum is suspended at the player’s body. We can see the the counter hoops, the flesh hoop, the shell, the snares and the rope for tensioning. The drum is hung at the player’s side. The head of the drum is painted realistically, and is depicted at an angle appropriate for two-handed playing. Figure 2.10c shows the side drums made in 1575 and in 1573 in Basel, in their original state of conservation. These drums can be compared with the details painted by Rembrandt. From the XIIth century, as shown in the Basel chronicles, until today the drum is a basic instrument used in communal ceremonials and festivals organised in this Swiss town (Fig. 2.10d). The diameter is 60 cm and the depth 70 cm. For the residents of the City of Basel, the drum is a symbol of their identity. It is the same for the drummers of the Suisse guards at the Vatican in Rome (Fig. 2.10f) and for the Royal Scots dragoon guards (Fig. 2.10g). Baroque painters have been very skilful in revealing the details of the materials used for the drums and mallets. The shell of the drum is reproduced in detail. The holes on the shell of the snare drum are precisely painted. The same detail can be seen on the perfectly conserved snare drums made in Basel in 1575. The drum was rope tensioned with a snare on the upper head and was played with two sticks. Chronologically speaking the snare appears on the lower head of the side drum in the XVIth century. At the beginning of the XVIIth century, the way was cleared for the introduction of the timpani into the opera baroque orchestra. Lapped heads and a screw tensioning membrane around the bowl were developed in Germanic courts at the beginning of the XVIIth century and were described as tuned instruments, high or low. Some baroque timpani are shown in Fig. 2.11 The size of a baroque pair of kettledrums had a diameter between 46.6 and 50.5 cm and a depth between 28 and 38 cm. The notes played were G3 (or A3 ) and C3 (or D3 ). The beating point for timpani was at about 11.5 cm from the edge and was adopted in the second half of the XVIIIth century.

(a) Porter by Coignet G. Drummer of the Old archers’ Guild, stick with spherical knob (b) Detail of a drummer by Rembrandt - The Night Watch, stick with narrow knob

72 2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony …

Fig. 2.10 Structural elements of drums in some paintings of the Baroque era. Legend: a Porter by Coignet G - Pierson la Hues. Drummer and Page of the Old archers’ Guild. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/La_Hues_par_Congnet_Gillis_%28gros_plan%29.jpg/330px-La_ Hues_par_Congnet_Gillis_%28gros_plan%29.jpg. b Detail of a the side drum—the air hole—painted by Rembrandt—The Night Watch (1642). https:// ichef.bbci.co.uk/news/976/cpsprodpb/0E0F/production/_112299530_drummer’sstickcrop2image001-4.jpg. c Snare drum detail of the painting by Gerrit Dou Officer of the Marksman Society in Leiden (detail) 1630. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Gerard_Dou_-_Officer_of_the_Marksman_ Society_in_Leiden_%28detail%29_-_WGA06638.jpg. d The side drums made in 1575 and in 1571 in Basel, Switzerland decorated with the coat of arms of the canton of Basel, in their original state of conservation Photo P. Porter Historische museum Basel. https://www.lebendige-traditionen.ch/tradition/en/home/tradit ions/basel-drumming/_jcr_content/par/slideshow/images/item_1/image.imagespooler.jpg/1555577209041/basler_trommeln_b03.jpg. e The drum is the identifying instrument of the citizen of Basel in Swiss. The drummers of the honourable guild of “Zum Himmel” in 2010. https://www.lebendige-traditionen.ch/ tradition/en/home/traditions/basel-drumming/_jcr_content/par/slideshow/images/item_3/image.imagespooler.jpg/1555577223065/basler_trommeln_b05.jpg. f The drumers of Pontifical Swiss gard turn 500 years old in Rome in the service of the Vatica. https://www.akg-images.com/Docs/AKG/Media/TR5/1/2/0/d/AKG 8549393.jpg. Photo Eric Vandeville/akg-images 10 Novemnber 2002. g The Royal Scots dragoon guards. https://images.squarespace-cdn.com/content/v1/5dd 2981a52b7125e8bb881ae/1583740421600-PBIHUVTM82AKX468BID6/rsdg-drummers-bonnet-royal_med-318.jpeg?format=750w. “The regiment’s drums, created as part of the drumhead service which is traditionally held in the field during armed conflict. The service is a “reflection of all that we stand for as a regiment – looking after each other, supporting the ideals the regiment has held not just since amalgamation but all the way back to 1678”. https://royalcentral. co.uk/uk/queen/the-duke-of-kent-marks-the-50th-anniversary-of-the-formation-of-the-royal-scots-dragoon-guards-165042/

2.2 Historical Evolution of Membranophone Percussion Instruments 73

Fig. 2.10 (continued)

(c) Snare drum detail and size compared with other objects

(d) Snare drum made in 1575 in Basel, in original state of conservation

74 2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony …

Fig. 2.10 (continued)

(e) the side drum is the identarian instrument of the citizen of Basel

2.2 Historical Evolution of Membranophone Percussion Instruments 75

Fig. 2.10 (continued)

(f) the drumers of Pontifical Swiss gard turn 500 years old in Rome in the service of the Vatican https://www.akg-images.com/Docs/AKG/Media/TR5/1/2/0/d/AKG8549393.jpg photo Eric Vandeville / akg-images 10 Novemnber 2002

76 2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony …

77

Fig. 2.10 (continued)

(g) the Royal Scots dragoon guards

2.2 Historical Evolution of Membranophone Percussion Instruments

(d) tuning the timpani for Early Music Vancouver orchestra

(c) inside view with a collector of air

Fig. 2.11 Timpani for baroque orchestra Legend: a French timpani of XVIIIth century, diameter 57 cm Collection Musée des Instruments de Musique – Paris MMP, E.1176.1–2. Photo Claude Germain; b German timpani of 1731 diameter 62.5 cm and 59 cm, 8 screws with a collector of air humidity, Collection Muses des Instruments de Musique – Paris MMP, E.980.2.269–70. Photo Claude Germain; c inside view with a collector of air humidity; d tuning the timpani for Early MusicVancouver orchestra (https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-T7U6vPfUNBY/VHoQn_D2qcI/AAAAAAAAXxA/JlbvHJRLJFU/s1600/Night%2B03.jpg)

(b) German timpani of 1731

(a) French orchestral timpani of XVIII th century

78 2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony …

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By the end of XVIIIth century kettledrums had been built in France and England with diameters of 59–67.5 cm and were beaten in the centre of the membrane. The tensioning system for the mechanical kettle drum is shown in Fig. 2.11e, f. (b)

The evolution of the bowl of the timpani

The evolution of the shape of the shell of the timpani over four centuries is presented in a very simplified way in Fig. 2.12. The bowl initially had a hemispherical shape which was successively improved to a parabolic shape and to the very complex shape that we have today. To improve the understanding of this illustration several comments are needed in the context of the historical and musical landscape in Western Europe. The ancestor of the timpani was the tabor. In medieval Europe the common shape of the bowl of the tabor was approximately cylindrical with the diameter greater than the depth. We know little about the structural details of the tabor. From Arbeau’s description we learn that the diameter is 1 foot and the length is 2 feet and that the tabor is struck with a stick in the middle of the velum. (a) Baroque timpani

(b) Viennese timpani

(c) Parabolic bowl

(d) Multi-ellipse or cambered bowl

Fig. 2.12 Evolution of the shape of the bowl of the timpani. Legend: a Baroque timpani (Boosey & Hawkes). https://www.geocities.ws/scottweatherson/boosey_hawkes.jpg; b Viennese “Hochrainer” timpani. https://www.geocities.ws/scottweatherson/vienna_timpani.jpg. c Parabolic bowl (Concorde). http://www.geocities.ws/scottweatherson/concorde-kettle.jpg. d Multi-ellipse or cambered bowl by Yamaha—contemporaneous instrument. https://www.yamaha.com/en/musical_i nstrument_guide/common/images/timpani/parts_viewer01.jpg

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The orchestral timpani has a well-designed precursor, the large cavalry kettledrum. As noted by Blades (1974), Virdung in 1511 mentioned the existence of large kettledrums in Germanic countries. During that time, these big kettledrums were not accepted as belonging to the group of musical instruments. In 1623 the Imperial guild of trumpeters and kettledrummers was established who wore hats with ostrich feathers reserved for the nobility as we can see in various engravings. The guild maintained close control over its members and this was still in force during Bach’s time. However, as we have seen previously, a kettledrummer is depicted in front of the group of the musicians at the court of the Holy Emperor Maximilian the First. Those kettledrums were equipped with side screws for tuning of the vellum. The screws applied pressure on the flesh hoop, the vellum forming a floating head, or on the counter hoop. The vellum is pierced at each lug. The screw has access to threaded bracket attached to the bowl. With a counter hoop the vellum is lapped to a separate flesh hoop. In this way, the vellum fits well to the shell. The screws were turned with a loose key. The number of screws is variable but can even be ten. The bowl was made of copper or brass. The diameter of the kettledrums according to Praetorius was 17 ½ inches to 20 ½ inches and the depth was 12 inches (Contemporaneous timpani has 25 inches or 28 inches in diameter). The timpanists’ opinion is fairly unanimous that the bowl enhances some harmonics. The material of the bowl—copper, brass, fibre glass or wood has little effect on sound quality. Blades (1974) mentioned the experiments by G Gordon Cleather in 1908 on the bowl concluding “that the deeper the shell the greater the tendency for the pitch of the note to flatten on impact”. Furthermore, H Taylor suggested that the ideal drum is “one where the depth of the shell is equal to the distance from the playing spot to the further most edge”. Modern makers specify that the bowl should be as deep as one half of its diameter but no formula exists for a perfect bowl. The timpanist should adjust the tonal differences by getting the optimum position for the striking point, reasonably closed to the rim (Blades 1974). As regards the resonance of the air trapped by the shell, no appreciable difference is perceived whether the hole in the bottom of the shell is open or plugged. The conditions of temperature and humidity of the dry air in the concert hall tend to shrink the vellum causing the note to sharpen. Sometimes there could be a heating or moisture creating unit fitted inside the bowl During the Baroque era composers such as Bach, Philidor, Lully, and Purcell, introduced the timpani to orchestras’ scores. From the middle of the XIXth century, composers have been interested in the extension of the scope of the timpani. The use of three or more timpani in symphony orchestras was common for the execution of one musical piece. As an example, we have in Fig. 2.13a. The Romantic symphony orchestra in Paris in the second half of the XIXth century with numerous percussion instruments. We can see four timpani of various diameters, a snare drum, a triangle, chime bells, several small bells, a xylophone, a celesta, a Turkish crescent, cymbals, clappers and other small percussion instruments, etc. The contemporaneous section for percussion instruments Fig. 2.13b has the same instruments but they are more numerous and a marimba, a vibraphone, the crotales, various sizes of snare drums and a large gong have been added.

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(a) The percussionist of a Romantic symphony orchestra in Paris, France.

(b) Percussion section of the contemporaneous symphony orchestra

Fig. 2.13 Percussion section of the symphony orchestra. a The percussionist of a Romantic symphony orchestra in Paris, France. Portrait of Joseph Baggers (born in 1858)—Premier timbalier—First timpanist of the Opera Comique in Paris and of Société des Concerts du Conservatoire/professor at the Conservatoire National de Musique” de Paris. Photo Jean-Marc Anglès E.995.6.190. https://collectionsdumusee.philharmoniedeparis.fr/image.ashx?q=http://www.mimointernational.com/media/cm/image/cmim000020916.jpg, accessed 23 October 2019, b Percussion section of symphony orchestra in the XXIst century. Percussion instruments of the Oregon symphony orchestra. https://www.orsymphony.org/globalassets/hero-images/instruments-of-theorchestra/percussion-instruments_pc-jacob-wade_1900x600.jpg, accessed 20 May 2021

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(iii)

2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony …

The pitch of the timpani

The pitch of the timpani is governed by the tension of the velum of the head and the diameter and depth of the bowl. Figure 2.14 illustrates four contemporaneous systems for velum timpani tensioning, namely: by hand, by a handle, by using the pedal and balancing a spring or by locking the pedal. When the tuning is done by hand, each tuning bolt is tightened to achieve the desired pitch. This is a fastidious operation. When the tuning is done with a handle, the pitch of the drum is changed by rotating the tuning handle. The tuning cannot be done instantaneously. A more advance tuning is achieved if the timpani is equipped with a pedal. In the case of the pedal balancing spring device, the tension of the pedal spring and head is balanced. The pitch can be maintained in any case, even if the player releases the foot from the pedal. In the case of the pedal lock device, the tension in the vellum is maintained with a ratchet or with a clutch. For very fine tuning a handle is attached to the tuning system. From a historical perspective, this classification can be better understood if one refers to some particular cases. The early drum was equipped with a counter hoop and the velum was lapped to a separate flesh hoop, so that the vellum fitted closer to the bowl. The lugs for the tensioning screws were attached to the counter hoop. The screws were turned with a loose key. On the early instruments there are numerous tensioning screws, up to ten. The screws may be turned one or two at a time. The T—shaped key attached at each screw was a good technical solution to avoid noise during tuning. In German speaking countries from the beginning of the XVIth century a screw tensioning system was introduced. With this system pressure can be applied directly to a flesh hoop and the velum is as a “floating head”. The velum is “lapped” on the counter hoop. The counter hoop conveys pressure to the flesh hoop. The velum is pierced at each lug and the screw is connected with a bracket attached to the shell. The next crucial advance in the history of timpani was the invention in the XIXth century of the so called “machine drum”. Machine drums are of three types: pedal operated, timpani with rotating bowls and those fitted with a single master screw. In these configurations the whole counter hoop is raised or lowered in a single operation. The chronology of the patents filed during the XIXth century given in Table 2.3 illustrates the effervescence in innovative ideas related to percussion instruments which were able to influence compositional styles in the Romantic Era starting with Berlioz, Wagner, Tchaikovsky, etc. and ending with Gustav Mahler and Richard Strauss at the beginning of the XXth century, or in other words at the time of the First World War. Percussion instruments had a fascinating life in the contemporary classical music of the second half of the XXth century due to unprecedent innovations in musical forms and styles (Salzman 2002). (iv)

The pedal

To play musical compositions in the second half of the XIXth century, not only were timpani more numerous but also a rapid change of pitch for each instrument was required. This problem was solved with the development of the so-called “machine drum” equipped with a mechanical device to modify the tension in the membrane

(d) Pedal lock type

(b) handle type

Fig. 2.14 Contemporaneous systems of velum timpani tensioning. The case of the instruments made by Yamaha. Legend: a hand tightens. https://www.yam aha.com/en/musical_instrument_guide/common/images/timpani/structure_p03_01.jpg, accessed 17 May 2021. b Handle type. https://www.yamaha.com/en/ musical_instrument_guide/common/images/timpani/structure_p03_02.jpg, accessed 17 May 2021. c Pedal balancing spring type. https://www.yamaha.com/en/ musical_instrument_guide/common/images/timpani/structure_p03_03.jpg, accessed 17 May 2021. d Pedal lock type. https://www.yamaha.com/en/musical_i nstrument_guide/common/images/timpani/structure_p03_08.jpg, accessed 17 May 2021

(c) Pedal balancing spring type

(a) hand Ɵghten

2.2 Historical Evolution of Membranophone Percussion Instruments 83

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Table 2.3 Chronologic table of some patents reflecting the technical advancements on the tuning systems of the timpani during the XIXth century (Data from Blades 1974) Year

Inventor

Subject of invention

1

1812

Gerhard Cramer in Munich

The tuning system of the central screw operated all screws simultaneously. The rods are attached to the counter hoop and to a metal ring below the bowl

2

1815

Johan Stumpff in Amsterdam

Rapid drum for tuning with two rims, the second metal ring attached to the legs supporting the bowl. Different levels of tension on the counter hoop produced different pitches. Tension is applied by rotating the bowl

3

1821

Johann Kasper Einbigler in Frankfort-on-Main

The bowl was suspended with struts. The struts were directly connected to the support system under the drum and allowed the bowl to resonate more freely

4

1827

Labbaye in France

Mechanically tuned drum with a regulator system indicating the pressure on the vellum

5

1837

Cornelius Ward in London

First patent—Endless cable tuning system with pitch indicator. Second patent—by defecting the head from the horizontal position-

6

1840

August Knocke in Munich

Turning drum by foot

7

1840

Boracchi in Monza

A single screw internal mechanism He wrote “Manuale per timpanista” in 1842 (in Italian)

8

1855

Adolph Sax in Paris

Velum stretched over a long conical resonator, the pitch was changed by adjusting the air column with a foot pedal operated shutters

9

1875

Ernst Gotthold Pfundt in Leipzig

A much larger and heavier fork-shaped support for the bowl which was attached the very rim of any existing kettle (continued)

and to allow rapid tuning. The device was composed of a tension screw or lever and a foot pedal. A new special device—the ratchet pedal—was patented by Carl Pittritch in 1881 in Dresden, “the Dresdner pedal” (Fig. 2.15). This tuning device was thought of as an independent device to be attached with a crank to any existing timpani. This technical advance for rapid tuning was a crucial step in increasing the expressivity and embellishment of timpani playing (Benvenga 1979; Tobischeck 1977; Bowles 1997; Schweitzer 2010; Hartenberger 2016). This pedal is basically the same as for the contemporaneous timpani. As an alternative to the ratchet pedal with mechanical teeth to lock the pedal, a continuously adjustable mechanism with rubber clamps and stoppers to regulate the movement of the pedal was proposed. The mechanism holds the pedal in position as long as the timpanist needs to alter the pitch of the head. It

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Table 2.3 (continued) 10

Year

Inventor

Subject of invention

1881

Carl Pittrich in Dresden

Dresden model – the tuning device was thought of as an independent device to be attached with a crank to any existing timpani. The pedal had a heavy counter weight at the top which was then connected to a rod at the bottom of the pedal. With several gears and couplings, this rod was attached to the rocker arm underneath the kettle. To change the pitch the pedal had a clutch, which allowed the player to disengage the pedal. The change of pitch was obtained when the tension of the velum was altered and when the pedal was disengaged, moving up or down together with the rod connecting to the rocker arm and modifying the tension in the vellum. When the correct pitch was reached, the timpanist again engages the clutch and the pedal and the required pitch is fixed The timpani facilitated a new era in composition

was stated that tuning is easily achieved, but a fine tuning is required. The general advice of timpanists is that the ratchet mechanism gives better connection between the pedal and the skin. The Berlin Pedal is another option (Fig. 2.16). This system is very similar to that of the Dresden pedal but has a longer armed pivoting pedal and is operated by a full movement of the leg. Depending on the anatomy of the timpanist, his knees can be above the level of the rim of the drum. The choice of one of the pedal systems depends on personal preference, developed over years of practice. (e)

The velum

During the late XIXth century and at the beginning of the XXth century, composers such as Gustav Mahler and Richard Strauss required timpani of large size in symphony orchestras with 20 inch or 32-inch diameters. Today the head of the timpani of the Munich Philharmonic Orchestra has a diameter of 34 inches and that of the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra has a diameter of 41 inches (Weatherson 2006) The velum is produced from animal hides. The technology of skin manufacturing underwent improvement due to a more refined chemical treatment of skins. During the 1850s a thinner and translucid velum made of calf skin or goat skin was produced. The sound was better and was described as “bell” – like tone. After World War II, this material was replaced with polyethylene-terephthalate (Mylar) produced by the Remo company in 1957. This was more resistant to variation in air temperature and humidity but lacking in decay between strokes. Hardy and Ancell (1961) analysed the effect of material, calf skin and mylar, on the sound of a snare drum and of a bass

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2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony … (a) General view

(b) Tuning key

(c) Fine tuner handle

(d) Tuning gauge

(e) Pedal mechanism

Fig. 2.15 The contemporaneous Dresdner classic timpani. https://www.hardtketimpani.com/instru ments/dresden-timpani/

2.2 Historical Evolution of Membranophone Percussion Instruments (a) General view

(b) Tuning gauge and hand lock

(c) Handle tuning key

(d) Fine tuner handle

87

(e) Adjustable Ringer style pedal system

Fig. 2.16 Berlin classic timpani made following the 1950 tradition and the modern technology (https://www.hardtketimpani.com/instruments/berlin-classic-timpani/)

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Table 2.4 Preferred pitch range for different drum sizes with the vellum made of calf skin and plastic head (Campbell et al. 2004) Diameter of the head

Pitch range

Diameter in mm

Diameter in inches

Calf skinhead

Plastic head

1

565

23

D3 to G#3

F3 to Bb 3

2

615

25

Bb 2 to F3

C3 to G3

3

690

28

F2 to C3

G2 to D3 F2 to C3

4

740

30

Eb

5

790

32

C# 2 to G# 2

2

to A2

D2 to A2

drum. The membrane made of calf skin afforded a more flexible range of adjustment and pitch changes. The concert bass drum membrane was adjusted with a relatively loose tension and gives a low pitch. The response to mechanical excitation of a calf skin head was superior to that of the plastic head in withstanding extended beating at the same position on the drum head. The head of a bass drum in mylar produced greater sound intensity in the range 150–212 Hz than the membrane in calf skin, when the bass drum was tuned in “concert tightness”. Also, the attacks and decays of the sound output are different when the head drums are set for concert adjustment. The main advantage of the mylar drumhead is the very good response to variations in air temperature and humidity. Campbell et al. (2004) mentioned “a drum with a good head can be tuned over one octave, but the best tone is given in the middle of the range”. Table 2.4 gives the range of best tones for common sizes of drums Throughout the decades from 1960 until today, important progress was achieved in the production of synthetic drumheads which are successfully used by current timpanists of symphonic orchestras. A notable patent number US 10,102,833 for Musical drumhead by Remo Inc, California/August 17, 2017, used an innovative technology described as follows: “A musical drumhead having a plurality of multifilament yarns joined to form an open weave mesh fabric wherein the surface of the multifilament yarns is uneven or undulating for enabling a strong bond with an applied coating, which, in turn, is provided to encapsulate the individual multifilament yarns. When struck by a hard object, the open weave mesh fabric absorbs vibrations resulting in a sound that simulates the sound properties of a modern-day synthetic drumhead at substantially reduced sound levels. Integrating a plurality of soft fibre tufts into the surface (top and bottom) of the mesh fabric reduces the sound levels produced by the drumhead of the present invention even further”. (f)

The mallets for the drums

Pictorial evidence of military characters of the XVIth century points to a widespread use of sticks with uncovered hard ends, made of wood or ivory. The early XVIIIth century had seen the gradually embellishment of playing timpani. J. S. Bach (1685–1750) and Handel (1685–1759) incorporated the timpani

2.2 Historical Evolution of Membranophone Percussion Instruments

89

into their orchestral scores. During that time, the beating on the vellum was closer to the rim and not into the centre. To avoid the sound being too loud, the knobs of the sticks were wrapped with leather or cloth or chamois or flannel. Berlioz (1844) in his well-known treatise of orchestration recommended three types of stick ends for drumsticks, which should be of wood or covered with leather or with sponge. The drum stick end covered in sponge was described as “the best” giving a velvety quality to the tone. The greatest innovation for the sticks was the introduction of sponge ended sticks in around 1825 in France by Charles Poussard, the timpanist of the Paris Opera. Timpanist Carl Golmick from Frankfurt was the first to use three types of heads for mallets, namely heads made of wood, sponge and felt (Blades 1974). The handles should be tapered and made of whale bone, or ivory, or of hickory straight grained wood or Malacca cane. The length of the sticks is between 13 inches and 14 ½ inches. The diameter is 3/8 of an inch to ½ an inch. The shape of the heads of the sticks can be elliptical or pear shaped, depending on the tone desired and on the place where the velum is struck, at 1 ½ inches or at 2 inches. The weight is between ¾ and 1 ¼ ounces, (1 once = 28 g) (Blades 1974). At the beginning of the XIXth century a sandwich structure composed of thin donut shaped discs of leather fixed with a nut was introduced. Cloth was replaced by felt. Large size drums, called double drums had diameters for a pair of 23–24 inches and 26–27 inches. Instruments of bigger size were preferred in France rather than Germany where the instruments were smaller.

2.2.2 The Snare Drum The orchestral snare drum evolved from the military side drum with two heads which had a single gut snare across the bottom head. In English two terms are used to name this instrument, the side drum and/or the snare drum which is in fact an American term, adopted universally. The snare drum is an unpitched drum and has two heads. Orchestral snare drums are 14 or 15 inches in diameter and 12 inches in depth or for special occasions they could be 14 or 15 inches in depth (Blades 1974). The snare drum is played with sticks made of wood. The snares are strings made of silk, gut, nylon or wire stretched across the lower head. The snare vibrates sympathetically with the lower head. The snare drum was occasionally employed in the XVIIIth century and in the XIXth century. Only in the XXth century did the snare drum acquire its own musical characteristics for creating rhythmic patterns. For a contemporaneous snare drum, the tensioning rope was replaced by metallic rod tensioning (Campbell et al. 2004). The size of the snare drums decreased with time. The shell was built initially of wood and later of brass. With this shell the snare drum acquired a higher pitch and a crisper sound. At the beginning of the XXth century further improvement was achieved with the design of metallic counter hoops, and with coiled wires for tensioning the drumhead efficiently. Presently the coiled wires are typical features

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2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony …

of the snare drum. The shell constructed of one solid piece of hollowed wood can be made of wood of various species like birch, maple, mahogany, poplar or even of plywood. Stave shells can be made of pieces of wood glued into a cylinder and rounded out by a lathe. The vellums are made of calf skin or of new synthetic materials. Figure 2.17 displays some examples of snare drums for different historical periods. Note the finesse of the snare details for the snare drum made by Ludwig in 1937. The snare drum is a very loud instrument and it can be of 120 dB.

2.2.3 The Bass Drum The bass drum has two heads and a cylindrical shell. The bass drum is suspended in a frame with a swivel attachment for positioning the velum at an angle. The bass drum is used for a wide range of dynamics and rhythmics. The bass drum with the velums of the heads tensioned by a rope appeared in the XVIIIth century orchestra. Mozart used this instrument in 1782 for the opera The Abduction from the Seraglio. During the XIXth century bass drums had larger diameters and a shorter shell. The contemporaneous bass drum is the largest instrument in the drum family. The diameter of the heads could be between 70 and 100 cm. The bass drum is not tuned to a specific note. The shell is cylindrical and is made of wood, plywood or metallic sheet. The velums (membranes) are made from calf, goats, cows, or rarely of donkey skins or plastic material. The velums are stretched with the flesh hoop across the ends of the shell. Over the flesh hoop is placed the counter hoop, and it is attached with screws to the tensioning brackets mounted on the shell. The heads are tightened by 10–16 screws https://www.vsl.co.at/en/Bass_d rum/Brief_Description) (Fig. 2.18). The contemporaneous concert bass drum has a shell made of plywood e.g. 6 plies in African mahogany, which is hand-stained and lacquer finished. The rounded bearing edges reinforce the response of the instrument in the low frequency range. The tuning is done with a tension lug system. Each T-handle lug and claw is insulated at every contact point with the shell to assure minimal rattle from the drum. The fine adjustment of the velum, in case of temperature and air humidity variations, is done with 8 mm tuning rods. Remo Nuskyn heads are commonly used. The hoops are made of maple. The bass drum has two acoustic air vents. The loudness of the bass drum could be as high as 105 dB.

2.3 Historical Evolution of Idiophone Percussion Instruments An idiophone percussion instrument generates sounds by vibrating itself, by concussion or by shaking or scraping.

2.3 Historical Evolution of Idiophone Percussion Instruments (a) Renaissance snare drum reconstructed

91

(b) Renaissance snare drum reconstructed

(c) Snare drum – in contemporaneous Pacific Baroque Orchestra – Alex Waterhouse

(d) snare drum of large depth for contemporaneous symphony orchestra

Fig. 2.17 Evolution of the snare drum from the medieval edge to contemporaneous time. Legend: a Our Medieval Drum is a cylindrical drum with two heads, one with a snare. Medieval style drums are made with two rope tuned skin heads that are rolled and stitched with the snare on the top head. Size 13 × 13 in. https://www.bytheswordinc.com/images/category/medium/1568.jpg. b Renaissance snare drum reconstructed—It is a cylindrical drum with two heads, one with a snare. The Renaissance style drums have a tension rim holding the skin head, and the snare is on the bottom head. b Renaissance 11 × 11 inch. https://www.soundtravels.co.uk/upload/images/5fad7-RenaissanceDrum.jpg. c Snare drum—Pacific Baroque Orchestra—Alex Waterhouse. https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-MhK apT8GinY/VHoREmT2FqI/AAAAAAAAXxQ/BLYPZAnmmi0/s1600/Night%2B10.jpg. d Snare drum for contemporaneous orchestrahttps://i1.wp.com/orchestralpercussion.co.uk/wp-content/upl oads/2015/05/wpid-img_20150506_180317.jpg?w=2000&ssl=1. e Snare made by Ludwig Gold Triumphal 100th anniversary. Size 6.5 × 14 inches https://i.ebayimg.com/images/g/XFAAAOSwN chaP1pR/s-l1600.jpg. f Snare made by Ludwig Gold Triumphal 100th anniversary—the snare and the fixing system. https://i.ebayimg.com/images/g/BpwAAOSwxixaP1qi/s-l1600.jpg

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2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony … (e) Snare drum made by Ludwig in gold ,

(f ) the snare and the fixing system of remakable quality

Fig. 2.17 (continued)

2.3 Historical Evolution of Idiophone Percussion Instruments

93

(a) bass drum in romantic period, the head skin tensioned by a rope

(b) contemporaneous orchestral bass drum made in 2021. Size 90 cm x 40cm

Fig. 2.18 The bass drum for symphony orchestra. Legend: a bass drum in romantic period with the head skin tensioned by a rope. https://images.slideplayer.com/20/5932961/slides/slide_12.jpg, accessed 1 May 2021. b Contemporaneous orchestral bass drum made in 2021. Size 90 cm × 40 cm. https://pearldrum.com/products/concert/concert-bass-drums/philharmonic, accessed 1 May 2021

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In symphony orchestras the idiophone percussion instruments are: the xylophone, the marimba, the vibraphone, the tubular bells or the chimes, the bell plates, the cymbals, the gongs, the triangle, the castanets and the block wood). These instruments can be classified into two groups, the pitched instruments and the unpitched instruments. The pitched instruments are: the xylophone, the marimba, the vibraphone, the tubular bells, the bell plates. The unpitched instruments are grouped in the subsection of a symphony orchestra called “auxiliary percussions” which contain an enormous variety of instruments including the cymbals, the gongs, the triangle, the castanets, the block woods, etc. Among the idiophone instruments only the triangle is described in the earlier books of organology by Virdung and Praetorius. The triangle was probably the earlier instrument introduced in the orchestras of the early XVIIIth century. The glockenspiel was known since the XVIIth century. Cymbals have been used in orchestral scores since 1680. The bells were struck by hammers by one or two players. The historical development of percussion instruments is commented on by Campbell et al. (2004). The Romantic period strongly promoted the use of percussion instruments in symphony orchestras, as for example by Berlioz. The xylophone was introduced into the orchestra by Saint Saens in 1874. The marimba has been highly prized in America since about 1910. The vibraphone was developed from the glockenspiel in 1920 by the American company Leedy Drum, and has the same basic layout as the xylophone, with bars at one level. Idiophones like marimba or the block wood were introduced into the symphonic scores of the XXth century.

2.4 Summary This chapter is devoted to the description of the following percussion instruments used in symphony orchestras: the membranophones (timpani, drums and tambourine), the idiophones (celesta, xylophone, marimba, chimes, cymbals, gongs, triangle, bells). Each percussion instrument is a vibrator. The pitch is the most common criterion for classification of percussion instruments. Some instruments are tuned to a definite pitch such as timpani, xylophone, marimba, vibraphone, celesta, tubular bells and some instruments have a pitch which is indefinite such as the triangle, bass drum, gong, cymbal, castanets, tambourine, etc. New acoustic percussion instruments have been invented e.g. alupfone, sixes, etc. The historical evolution of percussion instruments is described. The iconography of musical instruments and the images conserved as frescos, paintings, engravings etc. have been a primary source of information about individual instruments. The modifications and improvements which took place in the construction of percussion instruments are noted. The growing significance of percussion instruments in Western classical music since the beginning of the nineteenth century led to innovation in musical composition

Appendix 2.1

95

which led to continuous improvement in the technical performance of these instruments. This created the necessity to successively patent newly invented technological solutions for improvements for each type of percussion instrument.

Appendix 2.1 Assumption of the Virgin (1474) by Matteo di Giovanni di Bartolo, known as Matteo da Siena, presently in London, The National Gallery of Art. https://upload.wikime dia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Assumption_of_the_Virgin_London_NG.jpg

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Appendix 2.2 Tabernacle of the Linaioli From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia: The Tabernacle of the Linaioli (Italian: Tabernacolo dei Linaioli, literally “Tabernacle of the Linen manufacturers”) is a marble aedicula designed by Lorenzo Ghiberti, with paintings by Fra Angelico, dating to 1432–1433. It is housed in the National Museum of San Marco, Florence, Central Italy. Medium: Tempera on wood panel. Size: 260 cm × 330 cm. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com mons/thumb/a/aa/Angelico%2C_linaioli_tabernacle_02.jpg/640px-Angelico%2C_ linaioli_tabernacle_02.jpg. Note: “It has been speculated that the marble frame was sized according to a preexisting painting, which was later replaced by Fra Angelico’s, or that the size was inspired by that of the statues in Orasanmichele niches [1]. Work had been moved to the Palazzo della Borsa as early as 1777, together with other works commissioned by the city’s guilds. In that year it was transferred to the Ufizzi whence it was transferred to the current location in 1924. The tabernacle was restored in 2010”. https://www. wikiwand.com/en/Tabernacle_of_the_Linaioli.

Appendix 2.3

97

Appendix 2.3 Musurgia universalis by A Kirscher (1650). Legend: a facsimile of the first page; https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Musurgia.jpg. b Engraved portrait of Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria (left, to whom the work is dedicated to) and the added engraved title page (right, depicting seated Musica holding a lyre and panpipes and with Pythagoras pointing to blacksmiths) from Athanasius Kircher’s Musurgia Universalis, St Andrews copy at r17f ML3805.K5M8. https://special-collections.wp.st-andrews.ac.uk/files/2013/04/ kircher-musurgia-engraved-frontispiece-and-title-page.jpg?w=470.

98 a). facsimile

2 Organology of Percussion Instruments for the Classic Symphony …

References

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b) Engraved portrait of Archduke Leopold Wilhelm of Austria

See also: Fletcher J (1982) Athanasius Kircher and his ‘Musurgia universalis’ (1650). Musicology Australia, 7, 1: 73–83.

References Agricola M (1529) Musica instrumentalis deudsch. A Treatise on Musical Instruments, 1529 and 1545. Cambridge University Press (1994) Arbeau T (1588) Orchesography. English translation (1967) Courier Corporation Baldassarre A (2010) The Jester of musicology, or the place and function of music iconography in institutions of higher education. Music Art XXXV:9–35 Baurraud H (1999) Hector Berlioz. Paris, Eds Fayard Benvenga N (1979) Timpani and the Timpanist’s art: musical and technical development in the 19th and 20th Centuries. PhD thesis, University of Goteborg Berlioz H (1844) Grand traité d’instrumentation et d’orchestration modernes, dédié à sa majesté Frédéric Guillaume IV roi de Prusse. Schonenberger, Paris—a translation and commentary by Hugh Macdonald Editor. Published 1 May 2007 Bessaraboff N (1941) Ancient European musical instruments: an organological study of the musical instruments. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass Blades J (1974) Percussion instruments and their story. Faber and Faber Limited, London Bowles EA (1991) The double, double, double beat of the thundering drum: the timpani in Early music. Early Music 19(3):419–435 Bowles EA (1997) The timpani and their performance (fifteenth to twentieth centuries): an overview. Perform Practice Rev 10(2):192–211

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Bridgman N (1976) Geneviève Thibault, comtesse de Chambure (20 mai 1902–31 août 1975). Revue De Musicologie 62(2):195–203 Brown HM, Lascelle J (2013) Musical iconography. A manual for cataloguing musical subjects in Western Art before 1800. Harvard University Press Campbell M, Greated CA, Myers A (2004) Musical instruments: history, technology, and performance of instruments of Western music. Oxford University Press, Oxford UK Cooper IM (2012) Chapter 9: percussion instruments and their usage. In: Carter S (ed) A performer’s guide to seventeenth-century music. Indiana University Press Bloomington, pp 150–165 Dart T (1953) Musical instruments in Diderot’s Encyclopaedia. Galpin Soc J 6:109–111 Diderot D, d’Alembert JLR (1751) Encyclopédie. https://quod.lib.umich.edu/d/did/ Fletcher J (1982) Athanasius Kircher and his ‘Musurgia universalis’ (1650). Musicol Aust 7(1):73– 83 Gétrau F (2017) Voire la musique. Editions Citadelle – Mazenod, Paris Gétreau F (2007) 1936-2006: cataloguing musical iconography in France—a disciplinary perspective. RIdIM Newsl 2:13–17 Guilloux F (2017) Novembre. Technology applied to research and to the iconography databases: Euterpe and Musiconis. In: IMS Study Group on Musical Iconography. https://halshs.archivesouvertes.fr/halshs-01674603/file/RIdIM_Colloque_2017_Madrid.pdf Hardy HC, Ancell JE (1961) Comparison of the acoustic performance of calfskin and plastic drumheads. JASA 33:1391–1395 Hartenberger R (2016) Timpani traditions and beyond. In: Hartenberger R (ed) The Cambridge companion to percussion. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 7–20 Hornbostel von EM, Sachs C (1914 reprint 1961) Classification of musical instruments. Translated from the original German by Anthony Baines and Klaus P. Wachsmann. Galpin Soc J 14:3–29 Kircher A (1650) Musurgia universalis sive Ars magna consoni et dissoni Ex Typographia Haeredum Francisci Corbelletti. Übersetzung der lateinischen Texte: Günter Scheibel Revision: Jacob Langeloh unter Mitarbeit von Frank Böhling Übersetzung des italienischen Texts: Elisabeth Sasso-Fruth hrsg. von Markus Engelhardt und Christoph Hust Kircher, A., 1999. Musurgia universalis sive ars magna consoni et dissoni. Ex Typographia Haeredum Francisci Corbelletti. Translation in English Crane F B (1956) “Athanasius Kircher, Musurgia Universalis” (Rome, 1650): the section on musical instruments.” MA (Master of Arts) thesis, State University of Iowa. https://doi.org/10.17077/etd.yvcfxpgt Libin L (2001) The organology. https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.20441. In Sadie S, Tyrrell J (2001) The New Grove Dictionary of music and musicians. London Macmillan, New York Grove’s Dictionaries McKinnon JW (1977) Musical iconography: a definition. RIdIM/RCMI Newsl 2:15–18 Mersenne M (1636) Harmonie universelle, contenant la théorie et la pratique de la musique. Paris: Sebastian Cramoisy, 1636–1637; facsimile edition by François Lesure. Paris: Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1965; translated by Roger E. Chapman as Harmonie universelle: The Books on Instruments. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff (1957) Meucci R (1998) Timpani and percussion instruments in XIXth century in Italy (I timpani e gli strumenti a percussion nell’ottocento italiano). Studi Verdiani 13:183–254 Meucci R, Quinn (2011) The timpani and percussion instruments in 19th-century Italy. Lugano, Banda Turca Meyer C (1980) Sebastian Virdung: “Musica getuscht”: les instruments et la pratique musicale en Allemagne au début du XVIe siècle. Ed. du CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. France Montagu J (2002) Timpani and percussion. Yale University Press Myers H (2007) The musical miniatures of the Triumphzug of Maximilian I. Galpin Soc J 60:3–28, 98–108 Oler WM, Montagu JP, Hellwig F (1970) Definition of organology. Galpin Soc J 23:170–174 Praetorius M (1619) Syntagma musicum II, De Organographia. Wolfenbüttel, Elias Holwein, 1619. Translated and edited by David Z. Crookes. Clarendon, Oxford (1991)

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Sachs C (1940) The history of musical instruments. Norton, New York, W.W Salzman E (2002) Twentieth-century music: an introduction, 4th edn. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ Schweitzer SL (2010) Timpani tone and the interpretation of Baroque and Classical music. Oxford University Press, Oxford Tobischeck H (1977) Die Pauke: Ihre spiel- und bautechnische Entwicklung in der Neuzeit. Tutzing Trichet P (1640) Traité des instruments de musique (vers 1640) Original text in Bibliothèque St Géneviève in Paris see also Annales musicologiques : Moyen Âge et Renaissance 3 (1955), pp 283–387 et 4 (1956), pp 175–248.Publié avec une introduction et des notes par François Lesure. - Neuilly-sur-Seine : Société de musique d’autrefois, 1957. 4°, 191, new reprint Minkoff Reprint, 1978 Genève, Lesure F (1962). Pierre Trichet’s Traité des Instruments de Musique: Supplement. Galpin Soc J 70–81 Virdung S (1511) Sebastian Virdung, Musica getutscht und ausgezogen, Basel, Michael Furter, 1511; facsimile (a cura di Klaus Wolfgang Niemöller): Kassel, Bärenreiter, 1970, see also Bullard B (1987) Musical Instruments in the Early Sixteenth Century: A Translation and Historical Study of Sebastian Virdung’s ‘Musica getutscht’ (Basel, 1511). PhD thesis, University of Pennsylvania Weatherson (2006) Brief history of the timpani. In: Heng Va Kok M (ed). https://www.geocities. ws/scottweatherson/history.htm. Accessed 20 Aug 2020 Weigel JC (1772) Musikalisches Theatrum. Published in Nuremberg PDF scanned by Ralph Theo Misch Ralph Theo Misch (2011/5/17) Winternitz E (1979) Musical instruments and their symbolism in western art studies in musical iconology. Yale University Press

Chapter 3

About the Sound of Percussion Instruments

3.1 Introduction Each musical instrument produces a characteristic sound, which can be studied by examining its spectrum. To illustrate this, from the large variety of percussion instruments, we have selected only three representative percussion instruments: the timpani or the kettledrum, the cymbal and the ratchet (Fig. 3.1). The sound spectra of these instruments are illustrated in Fig. 3.2 and are presented in three different ways, namely, as the variation of amplitude versus frequency, as the envelope of the sound for a selected time, ranging from the start to 2 s or to 5 s, and, as a short section of this envelope of the amplitude of sound for 10–25 ms. In the case of the ratchet (which is made of a cogwheel onto which are pressed the end of wooden blades and is played by turning the cog by a handle, in such a way that the blades strike the wheel rapidly and successively) we see a very broad spectrum envelope, without any predominant frequency and a sequence of short clicks illustrated by the selected short section waveform. The cymbals excited by striking together, generates numerous resonances, with a random set of peaks which can be seen on the broadband spectrum. In the case of the timpani, we see a number of large peaks corresponding to the vibration of the drum head, superimposed on a wide-band spectrum associated with the initial transients involved in the vibration of other parts of the instrument. To help to clarify ideas, it is necessary to note that: – for the recognition of any musical instrument, the spectrum of sound produced by an instrument represented as the variation of frequency versus time is equally as important as the envelope of the amplitude of the sound signal; – the envelope has two parts, a starting transient and a period of free decay, when the instrument is no longer excited. The starting transient and the subsequent decay sound are important in the identification of percussion instruments, for which the waveform and spectral content changes rapidly with time, after the start of the note; – the sound produced by a percussion instrument is significantly affected by the environment in which the instrument is played. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 V. Bucur, Handbook of Materials for Percussion Musical Instruments, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-98650-6_3

103

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(a) Timpani

(b) Cymbal

(c) Ratchet

Fig. 3.1 Three selected symphonic percussion instruments. Legend: a Timpani (photo https://cdn. shopify.com/s/files/1/2858/8212/products/MP2000A_fb191ce9-be6a-4939-aca9-5aee6fef163e_ 930x930.jpg?v=1530735069, accessed 6 November 2019). b Cymbal (photo https://az58332.vo. msecnd.net/e88dd2e9fff747f090c792316c22131c/Images/Products5146-1200x1200-754229.jpg, accessed 6 November 2019). c Ratchet (photo https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 6/6a/Troccole.jpg, accessed 6 November 2019)

Fig. 3.2 Sound spectra of three types of percussion instruments: ratchet, cymbal and timpani (Fig. 15.9, p. 547, Gough 2007)

Percussion instruments are free vibrators, and after an initial impulse by striking or crashing, the instruments vibrate in their natural modes. These vibrations are damped due to radiation and loss of energy by friction. The percussive sound of these instruments is aperiodic. A systematic classification of percussion instruments, according to the type of vibrator can be by: bars, membranes, plates and shells. In what follows we will analyse these vibrators in more detail. For each type of vibrator data will be given

3.2 Vibration of Bars

105

about their theoretical modes of vibration, followed by several examples of their vibration modes and acoustic spectra.

3.2 Vibration of Bars Bars can have rectangular cross sections, or circular cross sections. A particular case is that of a long hollow bar of circular section, that is in fact a tube, and is commonly used for making a chime (tube bell). Vibrations of bars of rectangular cross section are fundamental to the acoustics of the following representative instruments: glockenspiel, celeste, xylophone, marimba and vibraphone. Musically, the most important modes of vibration of a thin bar are the flexural modes involving a displacement perpendicular to their length. As discussed by Fletcher and Rossing (2010) any perturbation in the geometry of the bar, such as local thinning or added mass over a distance, modify the ratio of the first three partials as specified in Fig. 3.3. Note the lowest flexural modes of a freely supported thin rectangular bar are inharmonic, with frequencies in the ratios 1:2.76:5.40:8.93. By thinning the central section of the bar, the frequency of the lowest mode can be reduced. To bring the first four harmonics more closely into a harmonic ratio, it is necessary to vary the profile of the bars by thinning. For thinned xylophone bars the ratios are 1:3:6, or 1:4:8 or 1:4:9. For a typical marimba bar, the ratios are 1:3.9:9.23. When a bar is struck with a hammer, a set of natural modes of the bar vibrate simultaneously, depending on how the bar is supported and where it is struck. For example, for a glockenspiel bar, supported at the two nodes of the first mode, striking the bar centre generates a strong mode. Higher modes are weakly excited because no nodes occur at the supports. On the other hand, because the point of striking is a node, the second and the fourth modes are not excited. Therefore, almost all the Fig. 3.3 Ratio of the frequencies of the first three partials of a simple rectangular bar for three selectively thinned xylophone bars and a typical marimba bar (Fig. 15.120, p. 649, Gough 2007)

1:2.76:5.40

1:3:6

1:4:8

1:4:9

1:3.9:9.23

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3 About the Sound of Percussion Instruments

Fig. 3.4 Vibrational modes of a glockenspiel bar. The relative frequencies are given for C6 bar (Fig. 15.121, p. 649, Gough 2007)

sound of a glockenspiel is produced by the first mode of vibration of a bar of constant thickness along its length. Measured flexural and torsional modes of vibration of a glockenspiel bar are given in Fig. 3.4. In this figure, the transverse modes are labelled 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 and the corresponding frequencies are labelled f 1 , f 2 , f 3 , f 4 and f 5 . The torsional modes are labelled a, b, c, d and the corresponding frequencies are f a , f b , f c , f d . The longitudinal mode is labelled l and the transverse modes in the plane of the bar are labelled 1x and 2x. The relative frequency is referred given for a C6 bar. The sound spectrum of a glockenspiel is described in Fig. 3.5. The waveform envelope and the FFT spectra with two dominant peaks at 1 kHz and at 3 kHz of the prompt sound is shown in the upper part of the figure. Sound attenuation after 0.2 s is shown in the lower part of the graph. Note the long-time dominance of a few slowly decaying inharmonic partials. Xylophone, marimba and vibraphone have bars of variable transverse section along their length. The thinning of the bar at the centre lowers the first vibration mode and increases the interval between the first and second mode to exactly two octaves. Xylophone sound spectra is shown in Fig. 3.6, namely the FFT spectra at the start of the note (upper trace) and after 0.2 s (lower trace), highlighting the persistence of the strong low-frequency air resonances excited in air resonators. Studies of the vibrations of bars having circular cross section are useful for understanding the acoustics of triangles, of mallets and of the drum sticks. The triangle

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107

Fig. 3.5 The spectrum of a glockenspiel note (Fig. 15.121, p. 649, Gough 2007)

minimizes any effect of definite pitch. A larger triangle of 250 mm does not sound lower than a smaller triangle (150 mm). Longitudinal standing waves and transverse standing waves can propagate in a long thin bar of circular section. The mode patterns are similar in many respects to those of a string, but strong differences are observed when we look to the relative pitches of the modes. As noted by Campbell et al. (2009) “the mode pitches are much more widely spaced than those of a string and are clearly not members of harmonic series”. The weight of the mallets or of the sticks determines the timbre of the resulting sound. The forces require to move the mallets or the sticks from one note to another depend on the ability of the player. To hit a gong, the player needs several seconds to accelerate a large and heavy mallet. The timbre of the sound generated with various heads is also determined by the nature of the material used for the head of the mallet (rubber, hardwood or metal) and by the time of contact between the head and the surface of the percussion instrument. The contact time is determined by the mass and the compliance of the head. Hard light heads are associated with high frequency components and bright sounds, and are used for the glockenspiel, while soft heavy heads generate low frequency vibrations and are used on the bass drum and tam-tam. Finally, the preference for one or other type of material for the head of the mallet

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3 About the Sound of Percussion Instruments

a)

(dB) 0

–100 0

b)

2

4

6

8

10 (kHz)

60 ms

Fig. 3.6 Xylophone spectra (Fig. 15.123, p. 650, Gough 2007). Legend: a FFT spectra at the start of the note (upper trace) and after 0.2 s (lower trace), highlighting the persistence of the strong low-frequency air resonances excited in air resonators; b The initial 60 ms of a xylophone waveform showing the rapid decay of high-frequency components

is an individual choice of each percussionist. He can select from a wide variety of mallets, having various shapes, mass and hardness. Figure 3.7 shows the effect of the material used for the head (thread, silicon rubber, leather) on the waveforms and impulsive forces of the drumsticks of a Japanese wooden drum. The force duration contact time varies from 1 to 6 ms according to the material wrapped around the tip, thread having the shorter impact time and leather, the longest impact time. The effect on frequency shows that leather and silicon rubber have similar spectra, which are very different from that of the thread. On thread, the effect of the force is constant in the frequency range 1000 Hz …. 1200 Hz. Studies on the vibrations of hollow bars of circular section (which in fact are tubes) are necessary to understand the acoustics of orchestral chimes also called tubular bells. The chimes are made of a set of long brass, cylindrical hollow tubes that hang in a rack. The vibration of a chime is characterized by the vibration of the

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109

Fig. 3.7 Effect of the material (thread—a kind of thin yarn used for sewing, silicon rubber, leather) on the waveforms and impulsive forces of the drumsticks of a Japanese wooden drum (Fig. 5, p. 2250, Sunohara et al. 2005). Legend: a Effect of time on impulsive force. b Effect of frequency on impact force

walls of the tube. The speed of sound in a chime is the speed of a wave propagating into the wall of the tube. The modes of vibration of a chime are similar to the modes of a solid bar. If the chime is suspended, the higher frequency modes can propagate and can be sustained longer. The pitch of the chime comes from the modes of vibration 4, 5 and 6 and their frequencies are proportional to 92 , 112 and 132 , having the ratio 2:2.99:4.17 (very closed to 2:3:4). By loading the end of the chime tube with a solid plug, the ratio of frequencies can be corrected. The tubular bell is commonly struck at the end, which is not a node for any of the modes. This allows the tubular bell to vibrate freely for a large number of modes. For this reason, the spectrum of the radiated sound of a tubular bell contains many components at many inharmonically related frequencies, which give the specific sound of this instrument.

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3.3 Vibration of Plates Vibration of thin plates characterize the acoustics of celeste and of metallophone plates. Celeste is an idiophone instrument which produces sound by the vibration of freely supported thin rectangular metallic plates. Metallophone plates, which are metallic rectangular shaped thin plates, are used as bell plates, sometimes replacing the tubular bells. A thin plate can vibrate with free or fixed ends and with or without external tension. In what follows we will analyse the vibration modes of thin rectangular and circular plates using Chladni patterns.

3.3.1 Rectangular Plates The Chladni patterns of a square thin plate of 240 mm side length made of aluminium, of 1 mm thickness, are shown in Fig. 3.8. Chladni pattern—white lines indicate the nodal lines of the first few modes of the plate. The spectrum of resonance frequencies is also given. Tuan et al. (2015) experimentally demonstrated that Chladni nodal line patterns and resonant frequencies for a thin plate excited by an electronically controlled mechanical oscillator, are not affected by the ambient air and remain undisturbed as long as extra masses are placed at the nodal lines.

3.3.2 Circular Plates Figure 3.9 shows the vibrational modes of circular plates with the three different end conditions being free, hinged and clamped outer edges. This shows the lowest frequencies and the ratio of frequencies of higher modes. The plate with free edges has the most complex vibration pattern. The simplest patterns are obtained for the hinged plate. More explicitly, the frequencies of vibrational modes for circular thin plates made of an isotropic material are given in Table 3.1. The effect of material on the mode of vibration of thin circular plates is illustrated in Fig. 3.10 in which can be seen the resonant Chladni figure for an isotropic plate made of aluminium which follows the symmetry of the boundary geometry of the plate, and the resonant Chladni pattern of an orthotropic plate made of brass, figures which cannot be simply explained by its boundary shape geometry. When one compares the modes of vibration of isotropic plates of two different geometries as for example the circular and the squared thin plates as shown in Fig. 3.11 one observes similar modes, but as noted by Duvigneau et al. (2016), the eigenfrequencies of the respective modes show a poor correspondence.

3.3 Vibration of Plates

111

Fig. 3.8 Chladni pattern—white lines indicating the nodal lines for a square thin plates of 240 mm side length made of aluminium, of 1 mm thickness (Fig. 3, p. 2115, Tuan et al. 2015)

Most plates of percussion instruments such as cymbals and gongs have arched plates. Acoustic nonlinearity of such instruments having arched plates, is related to the arching geometry. When these instruments are excited at large amplitudes the nonlinear effects can be very important. The nonlinearity results in mode conversion. As noted by Gough (2007) “The nonlinear bistable flexing of a belled-out plate can be disastrous, turning a cheap pair of thin cymbals inside out, when crashed together too strongly”. The high frequency sound content of the cymbals and of the gongs increases with the time of playing, generating a specific “shimmer” (or brightness) to the sound quality. Circular arched plates for cymbals are made in a large variety of sizes. In pairs the cymbals are clashed or brought together gently. If suspended, the cymbals are played with soft or hard beaters, or with wire brushes. Figure 3.12 shows the transverse profile of circular arched plates for some percussion instruments and the corresponding zones producing sound.

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Fig. 3.9 Modes of vibration of circular plates with three support conditions: free, hinged and clamped outer edges (Fig. 15.126, p. 653, Gough √ 2007). Legend: a—the radius, h—the thickness and cL —the velocity of longitudinal waves, cL — E/ρ, E—Young modulus, ρ—density, f —the frequency

Figure 3.13 shows the wave envelope and spectrum of a cymbal clash, and the decay of the sound played through a 0–1 kHz band pass filter and through a 1–10 Hz band pass filter. This figure also contains the sound wave envelope and spectrum at the start (0 s) and for 1 s after the clash, showing a wide band of noise at all times. If the very thin plates of the cymbals are hit extremely strongly, nonlinear effects are activated generating harmonics, bifurcations and chaotic behaviour as mentioned by Legge and Fletcher (1989). These effects can destroy the cymbals by destroying the geometry of plates.

3.4 Vibration of Membranes An ideal membrane has no stiffness of its own, and its oscillations depend upon the restoring force supplied by an externally applied tension. Membrane frequency is directly proportional to the square of the tension and inversely proportional to the diameter of the membrane. The membrane’s partials are not harmonic. The zones of the membrane in which the displacement equals zero—the non vibrating zones—are called nodes, which are not single points. These nodes can be observed with Chladni figures and are defined as circular nodes, which are circular lines concentric with the circumference and, diameter nodes which are straight lines which correspond to

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Table 3.1 Frequencies of vibrational modes for an ideal circular thin plate (data from Fletcher and Rossing 2010) Reference

Mode frequencies 0,1

1,1

Plate with clamped edges f01 = 0.4694cL f01

f01 0.4694cL

f02 f03

h/a2

2,1

3,1

4,1

5,1 f51

h/a2

f11

f21

f31

f41

2.08 f01

3.41 f01

5.00 f01

6.82 f01

f02

f12

f22

f32

f42

3.89 f01

5.96 f01

8.28 f01

10.87 f01

13.71 f01

f03

f13

f23

f33

f43

8.72 f01

11.75 f01

15.06 f01

18.63 f01

22.47 f01

Plate with free edges f20 = 0.2413cL h/a2 f01 f02

f01

f11

f21

f31

f41

f51

1.73 f20

3.91 f20

6.71 f20

10.07 f20

13.92 f20

18.24 f20

f02

f12

f22

f32

f42

f52

7.34 f20

11.40 f20

15.97 f20

21.19 f20

27.18 f20

33.31f20

Plate simply supported edges f01 = 0.2287cL h/a2 f01

f01 0.2287cL

f02 f03

h/a2

f11

f21

2.80f01

5.15f01

f02

f12

f22

5.98f01

0.75f01

14.09f01

f03

f13

f23

14.91f01

20.66f01

26.99f01

Fig. 3.10 Effect of material on the mode of vibration of circular plates made of aluminium (of isotropic structure) and of brass (orthotropic microstructure) (Fig. 1, p. 2113, Tuan et al. 2015)

the diameter of the membrane. The number of nodes and the type of nodes define the vibrational modes of a membrane. For example, mode (0,1) has only one nodal circle; the mode (2,2) has two nodal circles and two nodal diameters. Each partial composing the sound of a percussion instrument corresponds to a specific vibrational mode of the membrane. Rayleigh (cited by Rossing 2005) noticed

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3 About the Sound of Percussion Instruments

Fig. 3.11 Comparison between the mode shape of vibration of squared and circular plates, sorted by the number of diameter and circle in each pattern (Fig. 5, Duvigneau et al. 2016)

Cymbal Lowering pitch

Large gong or tam-tam

Rising pitch

Steel pan

Chinese opera gongs

Fig. 3.12 Transverse cross section of some “plate” type percussion instruments (cymbal, large gong and steel pan) and the areas producing sound indicated by arrows (Fig. 15.127, p. 654, Gough 2007)

3.4 Vibration of Membranes

115

Fig. 3.13 Wave envelope and spectrum of cymbal clash, illustrating wide band noise at all time (Fig. 15.130, p. 655, Gough 2007). Legend: a Decay of the sound played through 0–1 kHz band pass filter; b Decay of the sound played through 1–10 Hz. Band pass filter; c Sound wave envelope and spectrum at start (0 s) and after 1 s (lower)

that the main sound of a kettledrum corresponds to the second partial mode (1,1). Experiments with a 65 cm diameter kettledrum allowed definition of the following partials—one to the other of a fifth (1.5 frequency ratio), a major seventh (1.89 frequency ratio) and an imperfect octave (having a frequency ratio of about 2), that Rayleigh thought them linked to the (2,1), (3,1) and (1,2) modes. Benade (1973) found the first ten components of the sound of a timpani of 65 cm diameter tuned to the note C (130.8 Hz) to be in harmonic ratio with a missing fundamental an octave below the audible sound. Rossing in studies published between 1982 and 1998 noted that for a timpani (also known as a ketlledrum), all the vibration modes with only diametral nodes are in a harmonic ratio one to the other. These modes are (1,1), (2,1), (3,1), (4,1) and (5,1) and the ratios are 1, 1.5, 2, 2.44 (a ratio of about 2.5) and a ratio about 3 (2.9) with the fundamental mode (1.1). The sound of the timpani is harmonic and is due to the effect of air loading. The alternating compression and decompression of the air in the kettle allows membrane movement in circular modes. The differences between ideal membrane modes and membranes with and without kettle are given in Table 3.2. Data from Table 3.2 have shown a downward shift in frequencies of timpani, especially for the modes of low frequency. For example, for the mode 0,1 the decrease

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3 About the Sound of Percussion Instruments

Table 3.2 Modal frequencies of an ideal membrane compared with timpani frequencies with and without kettle (data from Fletcher and Rossing 2010) Mode

Membrane (ideal case)

Timpani without kettle

Timpani with kettle

Frequency

Frequency ratio

Frequency

Frequency ratio

Frequency

Frequency ratio

fm,n

fm,n /f11

fm,n

fm,n /f11

fm,n

fm,n /f11

Hz

–

Hz

–

Hz

–

0,1

143

0.63

89

0.54

131

0.87

1,1

228

1.00

165

1.00

150

1.00

2,1

306

1.34

237

1.44

227

1.51

0,2

328

1.44

257

1.55

253

1.68

3,1

380

1.66

308

1.92

299

1.99

1,2

417

1.83

343

2.08

352

2.34

4,1

452

1.98

377

2.28

370

2.46

2,2

501

2.20

424

2.57

411

2.74

5,1

522

2.29

445

2.69

434

2.93

3,2

581

2.55

501

3.04

492

3.28

6,1

591

2.61

512

3.10

507

3.38

1,3

605

2,66

525

3.18

507

3.38

4,2

658

2.89

578

3.50

570

3.80

in frequency of the timpani without kettle is 38% and of the timpani with kettle is only 8%. At higher modes, i.e. mode 4,2 the decrease in the frequency of a timpani without kettle is 12% and with kettle is 13.5%. At higher modes the effect of the kettle is less important. Generally speaking, the membranes can be rectangular, square or circular. Percussion instruments such as the kettledrum, also called timpani, and other drums are equipped with circular membranes. Figure 3.14 shows the first twelve modes of an ideal circular membrane, giving the mode nomenclature, nodal lines and frequencies relative to the fundamental mode (0,1). To convert the frequencies noted in this figure, to actual frequencies, multiply the value by the following expression √ (2.405/2π a)/σ T /σ , where a is the radius of the membrane, and T the surface tension acting to restore the equilibrium. Modelling of the displacement of an ideal membrane is shown in Fig. 3.15, for the modes which most significantly determine the tone quality of a timpani which are the modes (1,1), (2,1), (3,1), (4,1), and (5,1). Now we turn our attention to the behaviour of a real membrane. In this case, the membranes have stiffness and have air loading. The three principal effects in the membrane acting to change the mode frequencies are: air loading, bending stiffness and stiffness to shear ratio. Air loading lowers the modal frequency. The other two effects tend to raise the modal frequencies. A dominant effect for air loading is observed in thin membranes. In a kettledrum for example there is a confined volume of air which will raise the frequency of the axisymmetric modes, caused by stiffness

3.4 Vibration of Membranes

117

Fig. 3.14 Modes of vibration of an ideal circular membrane (Rossing and Fletcher 1995). Legend: The m, n designation corresponds to the number of nodal diameters and circles, respectively. The relative frequency for each mode is given

to shear ratio, if the amplitude of vibration is big enough. This is a second order effect observed especially on frequency (Fletcher and Rossing 2010). Referring to a kettledrum, Tronchin (2005) and Tronchin et al. (2004) mentioned that the air in the kettle has its own resonance, which interacts with the modes of the membrane. Rossing (2005) found a great difference between membrane mode frequencies and the respective weight of air mode frequencies. As a consequence, kettle air vibrations have a very low interaction with membrane vibrations. However, air vibrations influence the gradations of kettledrum sound. As regards the metallic accessories they play a secondary role, compared to the effect of the weight of the air mass, and contribute to the “fine tuning” of the membrane frequencies. To these effects can be added the effect due to the “strength” of the membrane, that raises the frequencies of the superior partial vibration modes of air in the kettle and the bending stiffness of the membrane. Chladni patterns of the modes of vibration of a real membrane of a real instrument, namely that of the head of timpani are shown in Fig. 3.16. which illustrates the following modes: (0,1)—one nodal circle, (2,1)—one nodal circle and two nodal diameters, (0,2)—two nodal circles, (2,2)—two nodal circles and two diameters, (1,2)—two nodal circles and one nodal diameter and (3,1)—one nodal circle and three nodal diameters. Another interesting case is that of the vibration of a cylindrical drum, which has two parallel membranes. During the tuning of this instrument, it is possible to alter the fundamental frequencies and modal ratios of each membrane. Rossing (2005) demonstrated that coupled heads of a cylindrical drum have two normal modes of vibration, one head moving in phase and another out of phase. The coupling can be seen in the mode (0,1) and (1,1). Figure 3.17 illustrates the Chladni pattern of the vibration mode (2,3) of a cylindrical drum for which the theoretic value of f 23 = 4.832 f 0 (Brozak 2008). Note the difference in the complexity of patterns of vibration of the timpani membrane and that of the cylindrical drum, which is mainly due to the shape and volume of the shell.

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3 About the Sound of Percussion Instruments

Mode 0,1 m=0; n=1; f01=1

Mode 1,1 m=1;n=1; f11 =1.59f01

Mode 2,1 m=2; n=1;f21=2.14f01

Mode 0,2 m=0; n=1; f02=2.30f01

Mode 1,2 m=1; n=2; f12=2.92f01

Mode 2,2 m=0; n=2;f02=3.50f01

Mode 0,3 m=0; n=3; f03=3.60f01

Mode 3,1 m=3; n=1; f31=2.65f01

Mode 3,2 m=3; n=2;f32=4.06f01

Mode 4,1 m=4; n=1;f41=3.16f01

Mode 5,1 m=5; n=1; f51=3.65f01

Fig. 3.15 Modelling of the displacements of a membrane (Data from Russell 2018, https://www. acs.psu.edu/drussell/Demos/MembraneCircle/Circle.html, accessed 4 February 2020). Legend: The red and blue regions indicate respectively positive and negative displacements. White region doesn’t oscillate, displacement equals zero. Mode’s labelling: m—number of nodal diameters and n— number of nodal circles

3.4 Vibration of Membranes

119

Fig. 3.16 Chladni patterns of several modes of vibration of the head of a timpani. Legend: The modes are shown successively as (0,1)—one nodal circle, (2,1)—one nodal circle and two nodal diameters, (0,2)—two nodal circles, (2,2)—two nodal circles and two diameters, (1,2)— two nodal circles and one nodal diameter and (3,1)—one nodal circle and three nodal diameters. https://www.lpi.tel.uva.es/~nacho/docencia/ing_ond_1/trabajos_05_06/io2/public_html/ima ges/percusion/modostimbal2.jpg

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3 About the Sound of Percussion Instruments

Mode 2,1

Mode 1,1

Mode 0,1

Mode 2,2

Mode 1,2

Mode 0,2

Mode 2,3

Mode 1,3

Mode 0,3

Fig. 3.17 Modes of vibration of a head of a cylindrical drum, excited by a subwoofer put at 2 cm under the bottom of the drum (Fig. 12, p. 13, Brozak 2008)

Richardson et al. (2012) mentioned that a cylindrical drum, has an indefinite pitch, but this does not mean that its pitch is indeterminate. This drum can be tuned as shown by the data from Table 3.3. Table 3.4 summarises some comments on the vibration modes of the membrane and of the head of a timpani for the modes which most significantly determine the tone quality of a timpani. These modes are (1,1), (2,1), (3,1), (4,1), and (5,1). Mode (0,1) of the membrane acts much like a monopole source, which radiates sound very effectively (Fig. 3.18). The membrane quickly transfers its vibrational energy into radiated sound energy and the vibration is attenuated rapidly. This mode does not contribute greatly to the musical tone quality of a timpani. At mode (1,1) the circular membrane acts as a dipole source. This mode contributes to the musical sound or Table 3.3 A cylindrical drum tuned such that the different frequencies approach the ratio 1:1.5:2. The frequencies are: f 01 , f 11B and f 11R —of the mode (0,1), of the mode (1,1) of the batter head and of the resonant drumheads (data from Richardson et al. 2012) Cylindrical drum size

Drum shell

cm

Type of material

Frequency

Ratio

f 01

f 11B

f 11R

f 01 /f 11B

f 01 /f 11R

Hz

Hz

Hz

-

-

1

25 × 18

Gretsch 9 ply mahogany

181

281.1

365

1.5

1.95

2

30 × 20.5

Gretsch 9 ply mahogany

174.2

260.9

33.7

1.5

1.92

3

32.5 × 25

Tama 6 – ply birch

109.9

165.0

225.2

1.5

2.05

4

32 × 35

Gretsch 9 ply mahogany

77.6

116.5

157.1

1.5

2.02

3.4 Vibration of Membranes

121

Table 3.4 Comments on the vibration modes of the membrane and of the head of a timpani Mode 0,1

Mode 1,1

Mode 2,1

This mode is excited for impacts at any location of circular ideal membrane or timpani head. The membrane acts much like a monopole source, which radiates sound very effectively. Membrane quickly transfers its vibrational energy into radiated sound energy and the vibration is attenuated rapidly This mode does not contribute greatly to the musical tone quality of a timpani When struck at the centre, timpani, or other large drum, produces a “thump” which decays quickly and has no definite pitch

At this mode the circular membrane acts as a dipole source; one half of the membrane pushes air up while the other half sucks air down resulting in air being pushed back and forth from side to side. This mode radiates sound less effectively than the (0,1) mode. This mode does not transfer its vibrational energy into radiated sound energy as quickly as the (0,1) mode and therefore, the (1,1) mode decays longer. This mode contributes to the musical sound or pitch of a drum. When timpani’s head is struck somewhere between the centre and outer edge, the sound has a definite pitch. The sound duration is of several seconds

This mode acts like a quadrupole source which is worse at radiating sound than the (1,1) dipole mode and much less effective at radiating sound than the (0,1) monopole mode. This mode transfers its vibrational energy into radiated sound energy much more slowly than the (1,1) and (0,1) modes and therefore takes longer to decay, and contributes to the musical pitch of a timpani For a real membrane, the exact locations of the nodal diameters depend on the homogeneity of the membrane and the initial shock, when the vibration starts

Mode 0,2

Mode 1,2

Mode 2,2

The (0,2) mode has only two circular nodes—one at the outside edge and one at a distance of 0.436 a from the centre of the membrane (a—the radius of the circular membrane). The sound radiation characteristics of the (0,2) mode are more complicated than the first three modes—it appears to be a mix between a monopole and a dipole. Its decay time is longer than the (0,1) mode, but shorter than the (1,1) mode This mode contributes to the “thump” sound when a timpani is hit at the centre, but does not contribute much to the musical pitch of a timpani, when hit off centre

The (1,2) mode has one nodal This mode has two nodal diameter and two nodal circles diameters and two nodal This mode does not radiate circles sound very effectively. It has somewhat of a quadrupole type behaviour The (1,2) mode takes a relatively long time to decay This mode doesn’t seem to play a dominant role in the musical tone quality of a timpani

Mode 0,3

Mode 3,1

Mode 3,2 (continued)

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3 About the Sound of Percussion Instruments

Table 3.4 (continued) Mode 0,1

Mode 1,1

This mode has no nodal diameter and has three nodal circles

This mode has three nodal This mode has three nodal diameters and one nodal circle diameters and two nodal (the outside edge). Like the circles (1,1) and (2,1) modes, this pattern is a poor radiator or sound and therefore takes longer to decay, and contributes to the musical pitch of a drum

Mode 2,1

Mode 4,1 This pattern is a poor radiator of sound (like the (1,1), (2,1), (3,1) modes), and takes longer to decay, and therefor contributes to the musical pitch of a timpani or other drum Mode 5,1 This mode has five nodal diameters and one nodal circles at the fixed outer rim, and contributes to the musical pitch Note The modes which most significantly determine the tone quality of a timpani are the (1,1), (2,1), (3,1), (4,1), and (5,1) Monopole, dipole and quadrupole sources of sound radiation are shown in Fig. 3.18

pitch of a drum. When the timpani’s head is struck somewhere between the centre and outer edge, the sound has a definite pitch. The sound duration is several seconds. Mode (2,1) acts like a quadrupole source and therefore takes longer to decay, and contributes to the musical pitch of a timpani. Modes (4,1) and (5,1) take longer to decay, and therefore contribute to the musical pitch of a timpani or other drum. The effect of the kettle on the decay time of various modes of vibration of the membrane of the timpani is given in Table 3.5, for a timpani of 65 cm diameter. The kettle slightly increases the frequencies of the modes (0,1), (1,1) and (2,1). The kettle has a strong effect on the decay time. For example for the mode (0,1), the decay time is 0.3 s without the kettle and is 0.8 s with kettle; for the mode (2,1) the decay time without kettle is 1.2 s and is 3.3 s with the kettle. In general, the sound of any drum depends on the position of the impact of the mallet on the membrane. Namely whether on the centre, on the periphery or anywhere between these two extreme positions. Figure 3.19 shows the modelled displacement of a vibrating drumhead when it is struck off-centre. The amplitude of the displacement is very large, in the range of 104 , compared to the reference position of the membrane. The sound spectrum of any drum also depends on the position of the

3.4 Vibration of Membranes

123

Fig. 3.18 Monopole, dipole and quadrupole sources of sound radiation (Fig. 15.2, p. 573, Gough 2007). Legend: a Monopole; b Dipole; c Quadrupole Table 3.5 Decay times and frequencies for a 65 cm diameter timpani membrane with kettle and without kettle (data from Fletcher and Rossing 2010) Mode (m, n)

With kettle

Without kettle

Ttension = 5360 N/m

Ttension = 3710 N/m

f m,n

time

f m,n

time

Ttension = 4415 N/m f m,n

time

Hz

s

Hz

s

Hz

s

0,1 monopole

140

0. During the transient contact there is impact and rolling. During the lasting contact the sliding contact is ubiquitous. A model (referring to the pixel level) of the geometry of the contact at: macrolevel, meso-level and micro-level is presented in Fig. 9.19b. The object is conceptualized as having a trapezoidal shape. The wiggly curve represents the deformation

514

9 The Mallets

Table 9.2 (continued) Frequency spectrum in range

Musical note

f1 0–1 kHz

Notation

f2 0–400 Hz

Sound Frequency

Relative intensity

Decaying characteristic time of gong sounding

of the surface. At meso level the main contribution to sound generation is that of the bumpiness. At micro level, the main contribution to sound generation is that of the roughness of the surface. Based on this model, Ren et al. (2010) generated sounds of a virtual instrument of marimba type, for three types of materials: wood, metal and a new material (Fig. 9.20).

9.5.4 The Strength of the Blow and the Dynamic Quality of the Mallet The mallets are produced in a large variety of materials. The traditional Viennese flannel and leather mallets generate a dark characteristic sound of timpani. The head is made of a stacked flannel or leather discs, which is mounted on a stable plastic thread and secured against loosening by itself during playing. Classic timpani mallet’s head is made of cork core, covered with felt or leather.in general, the head is light. For special mallets for Baroque and period orchestras the head is made of wood. Also,

9.5 Frequency Range at Maximum Excitation

515

a) phases of the contact

b) contact surface representation at macro, meso and micro levels

Fig. 9.19 Phases of contact between an impact object and a static impacted object. Legend: a Contact phases (Fig. 5, page 144 Ren et al. 2010). b A model at the pixel level of the geometry of the contact at: macro-level (b.a); meso-level (b.b); micro-level (b.c); (Fig. 6, page144 Ren et al. 2010)

516

9 The Mallets

Fig. 9.20 Contact sound generated by a virtual marimba, in amplitude-time representation, for the contact mallet with three types of materials b mallet-wood, c mallet-metal, d mallet—a new designed material. The signal is in time-amplitude graph (Fig. 8 page 146 Ren et al. 2010)

head made of hard felt with different cores in several sizes and degrees of hardness are manufactured for a special sound spectrum and light attack. Figure 9.21 illustrates the large variety of the materials used for the heads of the mallets for symphony orchestra. The strength of the blow in musical terms is expressed as pp—piano-pianissimo, p—piano, f —forte, etc. The force excreted by the mallet can be measured when

9.5 Frequency Range at Maximum Excitation

517

a) Ø: 25mm; 24-26 g; hard

Vienna type mallet, Flannel head b) Ø: 30-33mm; 23-26 g; medium hard,

c) Ø25mm; 25-28 g; hard

Vienna type mallet, Leather head d) Ø: 28mm; Weight: 28-31; medium soft

Classic type mallet. Felt head e) Ø: 28-30mm; 22-25 g; hard, very concise f) Ø: 30-33mm; 23-26 g; medium hard, concise

g) Ø: 39-43 mm; 27-32 g; medium soft

h) Ø: 50-53 mm; 38-44 g; very soft

Fig. 9.21 Heads of mallets for timpani made of various materials. https://www.batteria-timpanist icks.com/de/produkte/paukenschlaegel/vienna

518

9 The Mallets

Special mallets. Head of wood i) Baroque Ø: 28-29mm; 26-29g: hard j) Ø: 28-30mm; 25-28 g; hard

Special mallets. Leather head k) Ø: 32mm; 26-28 g; medium-soft, felt insert l) Ø: 29mm; 26-28 g; hard a wooden core

Cork head Wooden core

Fig. 9.21 (continued)

the head’s mallet strikes upon a force transducer. The strength of the blow can be measured with a force transducer. The output of the force transducer displays the time dependence of the applied force. The dynamic quality of a mallet can be expressed as a function of head velocity and frequency, at the maximum excitation. Bork (1990) tested numerous soft and hard mallets as reported in Fig. 9.22. In frequency range 50 Hz–2 kHz, the soft mallet Sonor S100, head made of soft wool is in the lower position on the graph. In the higher position is the rubber head mallet S9. The increasing in hardness of the head mallet determines the increasing in frequency.

9.6 Manufacturing of the Mallets m) Ø: 40 mm; 25-28 g; hard

519 n) Ø: 32mm; 25-28 g; hard, wooden core

Fig. 9.21 (continued)

The slope of the line for the soft mallets is steeper than that for the hard mallets. For pp blow strength, the soft mallets vibrate from about 50 Hz–1 kHz, while the hard mallets vibrate only on the range 150–500 Hz. For the forte blow strength, the soft mallets vibrate in the range 200 Hz–3 kHz and the hard mallets vibrate in the range 300 Hz and 1.8 kHz. The soft head mallets have a larger scale of frequency vibration than the hard head mallets. It is worth mentioning that these graphs presented below can be used as reference for the quality testing of mallets corresponding to a specific tonal range controlled by the blow strength.

9.6 Manufacturing of the Mallets Generally speaking, the manufacturing of mallets for percussion instruments has two distinct technological aspects, the manufacturing of mallets having the head made of felt, leather, etc. like the mallets for timpani and the hammer type mallets made of wood, leather, plastic, etc. for the tubular bells and sound plates. During the Baroque period and since the beginning of the Twentieth century, each timpanist made his mallets. Different styles evolved for the design and manufacturing of the mallets such as in Europe, the Viennese style, the Dresdner style, and in North America, the American style, which was mostly developed during the second half of the Twentieth century, as a result of the collaboration between the remarkable timpanists at the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, Metropolitan Opera Orchestra and Cleveland Orchestra, and the Maestro George Szell (Stubbs 2013). The Viennese style mallet employs a layered disc, made of flannel. The head of layered flannel doubles the playing surface. The handle is made of turned wood. The flannel circular layers are stacked up over a threaded post with a turned-out neck that support the neck. The nut on the top compress and secure the layered structure of the flannel. Viennese style mallet is a very old and effective type of mallet used in Europe (Fig. 9.23).

520

9 The Mallets

a) soft mallet - wooden mallets with a rubber ring

b) hard mallet

Fig. 9.22 Dynamic quality of the mallets. Legend: a Effect of shock intensity on head velocity and frequency in the range 50 Hz–2 kHz (Sonor mallets—wooden mallets with a rubber ring primarily intended for glockenspiels) (Fig. 8, page 214 Bork 1990); b idem Studio 49 hard mallets, in frequency range 150 Hz–2 kHz (Fig. 9, page 215 Bork 1990)

9.6 Manufacturing of the Mallets

521

a) Bass drum heavy hard felt

b) Bass drum heavy with deerskin

c) Bass drum roll soft felt soft

d) Gong mallet “Staatsoper” heavy, massive

e) Glockenspiel mallet with Rattan handle long

f) Very hard flannel with Tonkin handle

Fig. 9.23 Percussion mallets handmade in Viennese tradition (https://www.wienerschlegel.at/en/ shop/, accessed 2 October 2020)

522 g) Xylophone mallet ebony Rattan

9 The Mallets h) Cork mallet, felt large with wooden handle

Fig. 9.23 (continued)

As described in the reference book by Stubbs (2013) the mallets for timpani should have the following characteristics: – immediacy of the pitchto produce the pitch in the same moment with the initiating of the note. The delay in pitch response makes to hear first the impact followed by the note. – clarity of articulation, is determined by the impact of the cover layer of the head followed by the response of the core of the mallet. – tone quality clarity. The timpani which is a pitched instrument, must be played in the same tonality as the other instruments of the orchestra. – the balance of the pair. Both mallets should have the same weight, the same furculum, the same covering, handle pitch. Each timpanist should possess several pairs of mallets, for instance minimum six pairs are required for an amateur timpanist which can be described such as: Hard bright, Hard warm, Medium bright, Medium warm, Soft articulate and Soft legato. A professional timpanist should have minimum eight pairs for finer articulation, and some “specialty mallets” for particular effects required such as for the Elgar’s “Enigma variations”. The manufacturing of a mallet requires materials for the handle and for the head— called also core in American literature. The methods for head covering requires special attention. The handles could be made of wood, bamboo, carbon fibre, aluminium, etc. Solid wood handles have more weight and are less flexible than hollowed handles. Wall thickness of the handles affect the flexibility of the mallets. Each mallet has a taper to the tip. Thinner taper mallet has more flexibility than thicker taper mallet. The tip of the handle flares outwards and forms the neck. The neck supports the head which add weight to counterbalance the taper.

9.7 Summary

523

Bamboo species for handles, mostly used, is Pseudosasa amabilis from Tonkin. This species has long span between knots, and has thick walls. For the handle, the bamboo is cut with the knots in the middle. The bamboo could be finished with a thin coat of varnish or linseed oil. The performances of the handle made of wood are affected by the mechanical and physical characteristics of wood species and by the geometry of the handle—the tapper, by the neck, by the diameter and by the length. By construction, the head can be integrated to the handle or the head can be removable from the handle. The handle is finished by varnishing with a transparent varnish, or with tung and linseed oil. Handles made of hollow tubes of carbon fibre or aluminium are extremely durable. A handle mallet made aluminium is shown in Appendix 9.1. The tubes fitted with rubber grips and featured sliding rubber sleeves change the balance point of the mallet. The head of the mallet has the following characteristics: the shape, the size and the weight which are determined by the material used: wood, felt, cork and leather. The head of the mallet has a stratified structure. The head can be flat, of rectangular section, with corner edges rounded or can be “convex” which is in section a rectangle limited on both sides by two semicircles. The surface of the contact between the head and the membrane is different if the mallet has a rectangular profile or a convex profile, favoriting a type of sound—round, focussed, etc. The head is glued on the handle and can be covered with billiard felt, craft felt, flannel, chamois leather. The hardness of covering material affect the quality of the sound. There are several types of covering such as cartwheel type, ball type covering, flannel or layered discs. Operations to recover the head of the ball type timpani mallet are shown in Figs. 9.24, 9.25 and 9.26. An important operation is the voicing of the mallet, which is done by reducing the cover tension strength with a needle, as for piano hammer felt cover. Cover tension is critical for pitch clarity. The coverer layer of the mallet’s head should be extremely tightened. Looseness in mallet cover is catastrophic.

9.7 Summary Percussion instruments are struck with mallets or drumsticks. The percussion mallet has a crucial role for the generation of sounds with percussion instruments by striking. Each particular mallet produces a particular sound. The mallets are mostly used for pitched percussion instruments. The drumsticks are used for unpitched percussions instruments. Apparently, the mallets are very simple objects, having a head (called also core) and a handle (called also shaft). The handles must be pitched matched and must be very flexible. The head has a layered structure of various materials. The mallets are made in different styles, namely the American style which is different from the European styles—Viennese style or Dresdner—German style. The drumsticks are commonly made of wood species of high density, hardness and mechanical

524

9 The Mallets

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

f)

g)

h)

Fig. 9.24 Operations to recover the head of the ball type timpani mallet (data from http://www. dkpercussion.com/diy-parachute.html, accessed 15 October 2020). Legend: a mark a circle around the core, on the non-playing side of the felt; b splitting the felt, cutting notched; c single knot the thread on the notched circle; d felt tight and double knot. This layer of felt will tend to bunch up and the notches help to alleviate this issue; e pulling of the outer layer tight against the shaft of the mallet; f trimming the felt and voicing; g finished mallets

9.7 Summary

525

a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

f)

g)

h)

Fig. 9.25 Operations to recover the head of the cartwheel timpani mallets (data from http://www. dkpercussion.com/diy-cartwheel.html, accessed 15 October 2020). Legend: a the core and the handle b the core glued on the handle; c sawing the length in excess; d drilling the centre with a lathe; e the width of your felt; f both felt loops stitched on both top and bottom; g wrap the pieces of thread around two dowels, pull tight on top and bottom; h finished mallets

b)

c)

Fig. 9.26 Manufacturing of mallets in Viennese style by Gerard Fromme (Steiner superior mallets https://www.mallets.at/newpage). Legend: a loading padding onto the mallet shaft; b shaped padding on shaft; c trimming padding to form soft head; d alternative wooden head added to shaft; e wooden head secured; f tying cord

a)

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9.7 Summary

527

characteristics like rosewood, hickory, hornbeam, etc. and have a variety of profiles. The batters for the tubular bells and sound plates have mostly the shape of hammers. The mallets and the drumsticks for orchestral percussion instruments can be classified in four groups such as: – mallets for membranophone instruments—mallets for the timpani and the drumsticks for drums, – mallets for idiophones instruments made of wood—the xylophone and the marimba – mallets for metallic idiophones the vibraphone, the glockenspiel – mallets of batter type, for metallic struck idiophone instruments—the gong, the tam-tam, the chimes or the tubular bells and the bell plates. Materials used for the mallets can be classified as materials for the handle and materials for the head. The materials for the handle are mainly wood species such as exotic wood species: rosewood, hickory, temperate hardwood species like hornbeam, beech, birch, maple, walnut, etc. Plywood is used for mallets for students. Bamboo, especially Tonkin bamboo is appreciated. The handles can be made in carbon fiber or in other composites. The head of the mallets has a layered structure made of various materials, having various hardness such as felt, rubber, leather, etc. The head of the mallet can have high hardness or soft hardness. The shape of the head can be spherical or elliptical. An exception is the shape for the gong and bass drum. Of particular interest are the stresses and the deflections arising from the contact between the mallet and the percussion instrument, Contact phenomena are governed by the law of Hertz. The modelling of the interaction between a mallet and an infinite rigid plane—a bar, requires several mechanical parameters of the head of the mallet and of the bar. These parameters are: E M —the Young’s modulus; νM —Poisson ratio of the mallet; RM —the radius of the head of the mallet; The mechanical parameters of the bar are: E B —the Young’s modulus; ν B —Poisson ratio of the mallet; RB — the radius of curvature of the bar. The materials for the mallets have rheological properties. Internal energy dissipation can be due to elastic or plastic deformations, depending on the intensity of the impact. The dynamic qualities of the heads of the mallets depend on the stroke strength and on the maximum excitation frequency. Of particular interest is the relationship between the blow strength and the frequency at maximum excitation. Therefore, it is of primarily evidence to analyse some spectra of percussion instruments. This enables one to understand how the various components of frequency spectrum depend on the characteristics of materials. The spectrogram in one of the most powerful way, to represent time, frequency and amplitude of a signal on the same graph. The spectrum of a circular membrane of a timpani and the spectrum of a gong are analysed. Several details are given about the manufacturing operations for mallets for timpani.

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Appendix 9.1: Mallets with Handles Made of Hollow Tubes of Aluminium (https://images.reverb.com/image/upload/s--rTzs78Y2--/a_exif,c_limit,e_unsharp_ mask:80,f_auto,fl_progressive,g_south,h_620,q_90,w_620/v1461865720/klxf4g eesvwntkz4lijd.jpg, accessed May 2019)

References Avanzini F, Marogna R (2009) A modular physically based approach to the sound synthesis of membrane percussion instruments. IEEE Trans Audio Speech Lang Process 18(4):891–902 Bork I (1990) Measuring the acoustical properties of mallets. Appl Acoust 30(2–3):207–218 Chabassier J, Chaigne A, Joly P (2014) Time domain simulation of a piano. Part 1: Model description. ESAIM: Math Model Numer Anal 48(5):1241–1278. https://hal.inria.fr/hal-00913775/file/ ChabassierChaigneJoly.pdf Chaigne A, Doutaut V (1997) Numerical simulations of xylophones. I. Time-domain modeling of the vibrating bars. J Acoust Soc Am 101(1):539–557 Chaigne A, Kergomard J (2016) Chapter 1.4.3.2 Elastic Hertzian impact in acoustics of musical instruments. Springer, pp 54–60 Fischer Cripps AC (2000) A review of analysis methods for submicrons indentation testing. Vacuum 58:569–585

References

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Fletcher NH, Rossing TD (2010) Chapter 19.7 Mallets. In: Physics of musical instruments. Springer, pp 639–641 Marogna F, Avanzini F, Bank B (2010) Energy based synthesis of tension modulation in membranes. In: Proceedings of the international conference on digital audio effects (DAFx-10) Graz, pp 102–108 Morse PM, Ingard KU (1986) Theoretical acoustics. Princeton University Press Popov VL, Heß M, Willert E (2019) Chapter 2: Normal contact without adhesion. In: Handbook of contact mechanics. Springer, Berlin Rao JS (1998) Dynamics of plates. CRC Press, New York Rapoport E, Shatz S, Blass N (2008) Overtone spectra of gongs used in music therapy. J New Music Res 37(1):37–60 Ren Z, Yeh H, Lin M C (2010) Synthesizing contact sounds between textured models. In: 2010 IEEE virtual reality conference (VR), pp 139–146 Rocchesso D, Fontana F (Eds) (2003) Chapter 8. Low-level sound models: resonators, interactions, surface textures. In: The sounding object. Mondo Estremo, pp 137–172 Sreng J, Bergez F, Legarrec J, Lécuyer A, Andriot C (2007) Using an event-based approach to improve the multimodal rendering of 6DOF virtual contact. In: Proceedings of the 2007 ACM symposium on virtual reality software and technology, pp 165–173 Stubbs A (2013) Art of timpani mallet-making. Steve Weiss Music, USA

Chapter 10

The Carillon

10.1 Introduction The carillon composed of numerous bells is the largest musical instrument. The carillon originated in the Low Countries in the XVIth century and is played by a carillonneur. Carillons are located in church towers or in city towers. Like the pipe organ, the carillon is a keyboard instrument strongly related to its history and modern technological innovation. A carillon is defined by The World Carillon Federation as “a musical instrument composed of tuned bronze bells which are played from a baton keyboard. Carillons can be defined as traditional or non-traditional (http://www.car illon.org/eng/fs_orga.htm). A traditional carillon is played from a traditional baton keyboard, while a non-traditional carillon is played with bells by any mechanism other than a traditional baton keyboard. Only those carillons having at least 23 bells will be considered as musical instruments. Instruments built before 1940 and having between 15 bells and 22 bells may be designated as “historical carillons”. Bells for carillons in China as well as in other Asian countries have a millenarian history before the Christian era. A comprehensive literature of bell history and evolution (as religious and secular objects) is given in various reference books (Price 1983; Elphick 1988; Jennings 1988; Lehr 1991; Butler 2000) and Ph.D. theses (van Heuven 1949; Bigelow 1961; Hasell 2002; Hibbert 2008; Carvalho 2012; Ng 2015; De Llera Blanes 2018). Bells as objects for making music were used in Europe relatively late in the history of Christianity. In Italy the bells have been used at the end of the IVth century, in Campagna and have been introduced for liturgical services by Paulinus of Nola in Campagna who lived between (353–431) in Italy. In AD 313, during the time of the Roman emperor Constantine the Great, the Edict of Milan recognised Christianity as the religion of the Roman Empire. The liturgical orders used bells to announce the canonical hours, calling the monks and the people living in the vicinity of the monasteries to regular prayer. The Dodge of Venice, Ursus Patricianus sent in 852 two bells as gift to the Byzantine Emperor Michael III (842–867) in Constantinople. For these bells it was built a campanile near St Sophia Cathedral © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 V. Bucur, Handbook of Materials for Percussion Musical Instruments, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-98650-6_10

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in Constantinople. In the XIIth century the used of bells for liturgical services was generalised in Europe. Benedictine monks were famous for the art of bell casting in the Middle Age (Munteanu et al. 2011). In Latin the bell is called “signum” which translates into English as “the signal” and in Portuguese the word bell is translated as “sino”. The symbol of the bell was woven within the texts of the illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages (Fig. 10.1). Large bells have been mentioned in England from around 670 AD. The first record of a complete peal of bells dates from the Xth century. Ecclesiastics have been involved in casting bells through the ages. Methods of moulding by “lost wax” were described by the Benedictine monk Walter de Odyngton, known as Walter of Evesham, who lived in Evesham Abbey and later in Oxford. He died in 1330 (Herbermann 1907). During the Xth and the XIst centuries in Europe, with the construction of Gothic cathedrals the function of bells and the significance of their sounds increased enormously. The sound of the bells becomes the characteristic feature of the soundscape. Bells were housed in towers in the upper part of the church, or in a tower specially constructed for this purpose as for example in the tower of Pisa. Bells can be large in size and weigh several tons, and can have a clapper that is more than three meters long, swung with a rope, or, the bells can be of smaller size, struck with a separate beater as for hand bells constructed in a tuned set for ritual performances. Bells for carillons are of a different type, and commonly in Europe they are fixed to a metallic frame. The largest and heaviest bell weighs about 9 tons and the smallest bell about 9 kg (Denyn 1915). Clappers strike inside the sound bow of the bell to produce the sound. The bells do not move. In Medieval times each carillon bell was tuned for a specific note as can be seen in the illustration (Fig. 10.1c)—a monk playing a cymbala containing seven bells, labelled [A, B], C, D, E, F, G as shown on the knobs. The archaic version of the bell has a tulip shape with a narrow rounded top. The waist is long and straight spreading outward at the bottom as instanced in the bell Hossana cast in the XIII century in Freiburg in Breisgau, Germany. It is still in service (Fig. 10.1e). This shape for a bell predominated until the XVth century, when a bell of new shape was designed. This shape was slowly transformed. Based on golden proportions, the waist was made shorter and concave, the top broader, the shoulder squarer and the thickness of the sound bow was thickened. Beside their religious purpose, the sound of bells in the towns growing around Gothic cathedrals had a secular function which was to tell the time of day, to signal the closure of the town gates, to sound alarms for fires, etc. Therefore, there arose a growing need to distinguish these events by a recognizable timbre for each bell and event. In Flanders, in Oudenaarde, the first carillon dates from 1510. During the XIVth and XVth centuries liturgical melodies were played with bells of various sizes. Technology for the automatic playing of carillons developed simultaneously with the development in the mechanisms of the clocks in the cathedral’s tower. An important technologic achievement of the XIVth century was casting of bronze alloys for making cannons. The techniques for casting cannons improved the art of casting bells and their acoustical quality. At the same time new bells were needed in many towns to celebrate military victories. Some of the bells cast during that time still

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a)

b)

Fig. 10.1 Bells in the Medieval ages in Europe. Legend: a Hunterian Psalter 1179 in England, during the reign of King Henry II of England (1154–1189). On the upper side of the image are two players with the bells fixed on a metallic frame and the corresponding notes are written as: ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, etc., This notation was invented by the monk Guido d’ Arezzo (992– 1033) for Western musical notation having staves with five lines. The main character playing the harp is King David (https://i.pinimg.com/474x/e3/f5/cb/e3f5cb966ae3be296ec11a5f44ec4459--thcentury-harp.jpg). b Psalter of Noyon, in France (psautier de Saint Elisabeth, diocése de noyon 1260, orchestre médiéval avec orgue à soufflets, carillonneur, joueur de harpe, de flute et de viole. France/m….). The Abbey Saint-Éloi in Noyon is a Benedictine Abbey in the North of France in Picardie. The carillonneur plays four bells with two batters in both hands. The organist and the pipe organ is in the centre of the image. A viola player is also depicted. c A monk playing a cymbala containing seven bells. They seem to be conveniently labelled [A, B], C, D, E, F, G as is seen on the knobs (http://www.essentialvermeer.com/music/carillon/carillon_a. html). d A monk playing fixed bells and hitting the rim of the bells (https://i.pinimg.com/236x/ 90/d2/d0/90d2d06c35e98dfeb60df075e680e5c6--gri-illuminated-manuscript.jpg). e Hossanna Bell (Christus Glocke) in Freiburg Cathedral in Germany built in the XIIIth century and still in service (https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Christus-Glocke_ M%C3%BCnster_Freiburg.jpg/675px-Christus-Glocke_M%C3%BCnster_Freiburg.jpg, accessed 1 November 2020)

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d)

e) Hossana bell in Freiburg in Bresgau Cathedral, cast in 1258 AD, with adiameter 1.6m, weighing 2.29t

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exist, such as for example the bells for the carillon made by Pieter van den Ghein in the late Sixteenth century, for the tower of Monnickendam, near Amsterdam, which are still in use. Commonly, the carillon is housed in the bell tower of a church or in a tower of a municipal building—the belfry. Figure 10.2 shows the famous bell tower built in Pisa in Italy in the Fourteenth century and in modern times the bell tower built in Canberra, in Australia, in the Twentieth century. Nowadays the carillons can be put in botanic gardens or in parks—as in the techno cultural complex in Eindhoven the Netherlands, the Olympic Park in Munich, the Park of Philip Island, near Melbourne, Australia, etc. Carillon bells are also decorative elements of architectural landscapes as shown in Fig. 10.3 for the Zwinger Palace in Dresden or in a park in Chicago. In the splendid Portuguese baroque palace, the monastery of Mafra National Palace, near Lisbon, six pipe organs and two carillons built between 1717 and 1730 have existed since the XVIIIth century (Lehr 1984). They are located in the South Tower and the North Tower (Fig. 10.4 and Appendix 10.1, Figs. 10.39 and 10.40). The carillon in the South Tower today has 53 bells, mostly cast by Willem Wittocks in 1730. In the North Tower there is a carillon with bells cast in 1730 by Nicolas Levache from Liège in Belgium. The bells are arranged on several levels. The lowest level houses the striking clock dial, the clock’s mechanical escapement, the striking train of the clock and the drum for automatic playing. The carillons are located above that on the third level down, the swinging bells on the second level and the clock bells on the top level with the largest “hour” bells weighing 12 tons. The largest carillon bell weighs about 9 tons. The floor surface of the carillon of each tower is about 3.8 × 4.1 m2 . The height of each level is about 3 m (Joris 2015). An exhaustive study about historical, acoustical and technical aspects related to the bells of the carillons of Mafra is presented by Carvalho (2012) and de Llera Blanes (2018). A collection of 102 historical bells with 56 bells in their original tuning condition was recently restored (Debut et al. 2015, 2019). Carvalho et al. (2017) developed a non-destructive bell tuning technique according to the pre-defined accepted harmonic relationship between the first modal frequency of all bells such as 0.5:1:1.2:1.5:2. This excellent method consists of attaching sustainably designed masses (of appropriate magnitude and in precise locations) to the bells for complying with the target frequencies of each bell. An inventory referring to the existing carillons from all over the world is given by the World Carillon Federation (http://www.carillon.org/eng/fs_orga.htm) and a list of existing carillons by country is given in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_c arillons. In Europe the most numerous historic carillons are located in the Northern Countries (Belgium, the Netherlands, North of France, UK, Germany, etc.). During the Twentieth century, numerous carillons have been built mostly in public towers, towers of universities and private chapels. After the First World War about 170 carillons were installed in North America. Presently there are about 700 carillons worldwide. It is worth mentioning that the carillons are not built as a whole but have been gradually created. In what follows, our discussion will be limited to the description

536

10 The Carillon a) Pisa – Italy

b) Canberra, Australia

Fig. 10.2 Bell towers. Legend: a Pisa tower, constructed in 1372 and height 55.86 m https://upl oad.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/2016_Putti_fountain_in_Piazza_dei_Miracoli_%28P isa%29_01.jpg; b Canberra bell tower constructed in 1970, height 100 m https://upload.wikime dia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Canberra_Carillon_on_Lake_Burley_Griffin-2_%283844121 7986%29.jpg

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a) Bells in Zwinger Palace

b) Bells in a park

Fig. 10.3 Bells of carillons as components of the architectural landscape. a. Carillon Pavilion in Dresden in Zwinger Palace in Germany (https://fotoeins.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/img_ 7630a.jpg?w=602&zoom=2, accessed 26 October 2020). b Carillon in a park in Chicago USA (https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Carillon_through_the_trees%2C_ Chicago_Botanic_Garden.jpg/675px-Carillon_through_the_trees%2C_Chicago_Botanic_Garden. jpg, accessed 26 October 2020)

538 a) Carillons in towers North and South

c) North tower – transmission cables

10 The Carillon b) Bells displayed on six levels

d) Wood structure for hanging the bells

Fig. 10.4 Bells of the Carillons in the South Tower and North Tower of the church of Mafra Palace in Portugal. Legend: a Two carillon towers of Mafra Palace, Portugal http://farm6.sta ticflickr.com/5288/5334028895_c239b92336_b.jpg; b Bells in the South Tower displayed on several levels, https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn%3AANd9GcS1LWMwlNu1zVv KDvCHohwUpnAeduRKaDO2rw&usqp=CAU; c Bells in the North Tower https://live.staticflickr. com/8571/15311853713_aa227aac44_w.jpg; d wood structure for bells(http://www.palaciomafra. gov.pt/Data/ContentImages/Imagem%209%20sistema%20manual%20carrilh%C3%A3o.jpg

of several “golden era” historical carillons built in Europe since the late Renaissance and in the flourishing Baroque period. The first carillon used as a musical instrument, was built in Flanders (now Belgium) in 1510, at the beginning of the Sixteenths century, and was located in the medieval Schepenhuis (Aldermen’s House) in Oudenaarde (Audenarde in French) in the Flemish province of East Flanders. This carillon had a baton keyboard and was

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played by a carillonneur who was in the same time a jester—an itinerant performer who entertained people at town market. The medieval Schepenhuis (Aldermen’s House) has been replaced by the Renaissance Oudenaarde Town Hall having a tower for a carillon (Fig. 10.5), which is still in use. The most famous school for carillonneurs is in Belgium, in Mechelen—The Royal carillon School—of Jef Debyn—was founded in 1922 by Jef Denyn. This school is shaped in the Belgian tradition of playing the carillon. Concerts are given in summer on the carillon in St Rumbold Cathedral. The tower of St. Rumbold was built between 1452 and 1520 and is 167 m in height. In Mechelen the first carillon was built in 1460. The actual carillon has 49 bells, some of them in original form such as the “Jehus” bell cast in 1490. The “Liberation” bell was caste in 1947 to commemorate the memory of the victims of the Second World War. Above the old carillon there is a new one. Both carillons have 98 bells and weigh more than 80 tons. Figure 10.6 shows some details of the magnificent Mechelen carillon. The carillon of the city of Bruges in Flanders in Belgium, is among the finest of the carillons in Europe. Figure 10.7 shows the belfry in which the carillon is located. This carillon now has 47 bells, of which 26 are historic bells cast by Joris Dumery between 1742 and 1748.The carillon underwent restoration in 2010–2011. The pitches and the tuning of this historic carillon is discussed by Schneider and Leman (2017) and are presented in more detail in this book in Chap. 19—Conservation and restoration of percussion instruments. In the Low Countries (i.e. the Netherlands), carillons have been built since the XVIth century. Musical compositions have been written especially for the carillon. Rossing (2008) cited Lehr (1991) and mentioned that the carillonneur Jacob van Eyck (1590–1657) in Utrecht, observed that “the best sounding bells had five partials tuned harmonically to form intervals of an octave, a minor third, and a fifth with respect to the strike note: C1 , C2 Eb 2 , G 2 , C3 ”. Based on this knowledge the founders François (Franz) Hémony (c. 1609–1667) and his brother Pierre (Pieter) Hémony (1619– 1680) tuned numerous very fine bells some of which still exist today (Appendix 10.2, Fig. 10.41). Together with Jacob van Eyck they developed bells for carillons as a musical instrument by casting the first famous bells in 1644, for the carillon installed in Zutphen’s Wijnhuistoren tower located in the town of Zutphen in the province of Gelderland, the Netherlands. The carillons in Amsterdam have a special place in the history of the development of this instrument as mentioned by Finlay (1953). Figure 10.8 shows some famous carillon towers in the Netherlands. Carillons have been strongly connected to the public clocks of the towns. The great clock- towers and carillons first came into prominence in the Netherlands toward the end of the Eighty Years’ War (1568–1648). Hendrik de Keyser (1565– 1621) the sculptor and architect designed many of the clocktowers in Amsterdam, e.g. Zuiderkerkstoren (1614), Montelbaanstoren (1615) and Reguliers—or Munt—toren (1620). The most famous makers of bells for the carillons were the brothers Pieter (Pierre) and Franz (François) Hémony having been born in the Duchy of Loraine, part of the Holy Roman Empire (today Loraine is in France, capital city Nancy). Between 1656 and 1664 they casted over one hundred and fifty – six carillons and nine great bells. The bells had beautiful shapes and decorations and have never been

Fig. 10.5 Carillons’ towers in Belgium. Legend: a The Town Hall in Oudenaarde, (https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Stadhuis_ Oudenaarde_07.jpg/450px-Stadhuis_Oudenaarde_07.jpg). b Mechelen Grote Markt (Grand Market square), St. Rumbold’s Cathedral Belgium https://upload. wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/St-Romboutskathedraal3.jpg

a) Carillon Town Hall in Oudenaarde,

540 10 The Carillon

Fig. 10.5 (continued)

b) Carillon Tower of St. Rumbold's Cathedral

10.1 Introduction 541

542 a) the console

10 The Carillon b) the traction

Fig. 10.6 Carillon in Mechelen, St. Rumbold’s Cathedral Belgium. Legend: a The console; b the traction with crown wheel escapement; c small bells; d bell “Liberation”; e large bell and the corresponding clapper; f clapper for a smaller bell

surpassed in sound quality. Some of these bells still exist today. In Amsterdam there are six carillons and five of them are the work of Pierre and Francois Hémony. These are: – Zuiderkerkstoren built between 1602 and 1614, the was architect de Keyser. One of the bells that still exists was made by F Hémony in 1659 and is a carillon with a keyboard which is entirely mechanical actioned – Westerkerkstoren was built between 1620 and 1638, by the architect de Keyser. It’s a carillon with a keyboard that is entirely mechanically actioned. – Ouderkerkstoren—the most majestic tower in Amsterdam, built from 1565 and has 39 bells in the carillon. The Carillon with keyboard is entirely mechanically actioned. – Royal Palace, designed by the architect Jacob van Campen, has a carillon with thirty-five bells cast by Francois Hemony in 1664. The carillon keyboard is entirely mechanically actioned.

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c) small bells

d) bell Liberation

e) large bell and the corresponding large clapper

f) clapper for a smaller bell

Fig. 10.6 (continued)

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10 The Carillon a) the belfry of Bruges with carillon tower, 83 m height.

b) Bells cast by Dumery between 1742 and 1748.

Fig. 10.7 Carillon in Bruges, Belgium. Legend: a The belfry of Bruges with its carillon tower, 83 m in height. The octagonal upper stage of the belfry was added between 1483 and 1487 to the existing building since 1280. The roof top was added in 1822. https://www.visitbruges.be/files/uploads/ imagecache/nexPhotoGalleryModalPhoto/dms/80460_belfort-hoofdafbeelding.jpg. b Bells cast by Dumery between 1742 and 1748. https://visit-bruges.be/sites/default/files/Belfry%20tower-15.jpg. c Frank Deleu carillonneur in Bruges for 33 years from 1984 to 2017. Console after restoration in 2010. http://users.skynet.be/frank.deleu/fotos%20site%20FD/FDindex.jpg

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c) Frank Deleu and the console after restoration in 2010.

Fig. 10.7 (continued)

– Munttoren, tower was built in 1620 and was designed by the architect de Keyser. As mentioned by https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munttoren. “The carillon was made in 1668 by Pieter Hemon who added new bells to the instrument that he and his brother François had made earlier for the tower of the Amsterdam stock exchange in 1651. He also made a bronze drum for automatic music to announce the strike of the hour and half hour bell. It also chimes on the quarter with a short melody. The old drum is still in use. In 1873, the original baton keyboard was removed from the carillon, in favour of changes to the clockwork mechanism. Since that year the Munt clock also has had a minute arm. In 1960 when the carillon was restored by Petit & Fritsen by Aarle Rixtel, a baton keyboard with a manual playing system was re-installed. Some of the original smaller Hemony bells have been damaged over the years by pollution from traffic around the tower and have been replaced by new bells in 1959 and 1993. The original smaller Hemony bells are now on display in the Amsterdam museum. The current carillon consists of 38 bells (2 more than the original carillon had). Only 13 original Hemony bells remain. A mechanism causes the bells to chime every quarter of an hour. Twice a year the pins on the drum are changed by the city carilloneur. Weekly on Saturdays, between 2 and 3 p.m., Gideon Bodden, the Amsterdam city carillonneur gives a live concert on the bells. – Rijksmuseum—the oldest carillon in Amsterdam, has fourteen of the twenty-four bells cast by Peter van den Ghein at Mechelen in the second half of the Sixteenth century.

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a) Carillon Oosterkerk church

Fig. 10.8 Some famous carillons in the Netherlands. Legend: a Carillon in Nieuwe Toren in Kampen in Netherlands, after the restoration in 2011 (https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/thumb/b/ba/Nieuwe_toren%2C_Kampen.jpg/330px-Nieuwe_toren%2C_Kampen.jpg). b Carillon in the Munttoren in Amsterdam (https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/1/19/Munttoren-Amsterdam.jpg/640px-Munttoren-Amsterdam.jpg?1603669876990). c Carillon in Amsterdam, the Munttoren bells inside the tower (https://upload.wikimedia.org/wik ipedia/commons/9/9b/Munt2.jpg). d Bell made by Hemony probably around 1650—detail of the decorated surface with the name of the master (https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ thumb/1/19/Munttoren-Amsterdam.jpg/640px-Munttoren-Amsterdam.jpg?1603669876990)

10.1 Introduction b) Carillon in Munttoren

Fig. 10.8 (continued)

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c) view of the bells

d) bell made by Hémony

Fig. 10.8 (continued)

In the city of Kampen the carillon is located in the Nieuwe Toren (New Tower) at the Oudestraat. As mentioned in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuwe_Toren,_ Kampen, the Tower houses a carillon which originally was cast and created by François Hemony. Hemony who cast 30 bells in 1659/62, which, with the exception of one little bell that was replaced in 1790 by L Haverkamp, are still present. During the first years, these Hemony bells were located in the Tower of the Kamper Town Hall, as the Nieuwe Toren hadn’t been finished yet. As the town hall tower

10.2 Structural Parts of the Carillon

549

was unable to provide room for the largest bells, these were only added when the instrument finally was installed in the Nieuwe Toren, in 1663. The added bass bells included three by Hemony, four by Geert van Wou (1481/’83) and one by Kiliaen Wegewaert (1627). This addition of very large bass bells made the instrument an exceptionally heavy and low-sounding carillon. The Nieuwe Toren itself was restored in 2011. The carillon had to be removed from the tower in 2008, due to structural problems with the timber upper tower construction. The entire oak structure needed to be replaced as the original beams had been severely damaged by the Death-watch beetle (Xestobium rufovillosum). The restoration was completed by the end of 2011. During this tower restoration the carillon was enlarged with an additional bass bell and again hung according to the design from before 1939. The largest bass bells were located at the top of the lantern at that time. The treble bells were newly made in 2011 by the Royal Eijsbouts bell foundry and are a modern interpretation of an old bell shape. The g3 bell by L Haverkamp had been already replaced in 1939 by Petit & Fritsen and is still present in the tower. The supervisor/Tutor and advisor/consultant of this restoration was Arie Abbenes the former carillonneur of Utrecht. Today the carillon of the Nieuwe Toren consists of 48 bells, on which music is performed twice a week by the current City Carillonneur Frans Haagen. After the Second World War, interest by scientists in providing an alternative vision of the use of early electronics for the traction of organs and carillons, caused remarkable progress in the connection of craft and tradition to the contemporaneous world of sounds. Carillons have been reinvented and reimagined as the liaison between high art and popular culture, with the purpose of creating public music for the elevation of general musical taste.

10.2 Structural Parts of the Carillon We have seen that the carillon has an impressive and imposing construction. However, its kinematic configuration is relatively straightforward. The structural parts of a carillon are: the bells with their clappers, the transmission mechanism with the crown wheels escapement and the console with the hand keyboard and pedal keyboard (Fig. 10.9). The functioning of a carillon is similar to that of the pipe organ. The main difference is in the substructures producing sounds, the pipes for the pipe organs and the bells for the carillons. It is important to mention that each key corresponds to a well-defined bell. Each key requires a different degree of force to play; lighter for small bells and heavier for large bells. The force necessary for playing depends on the mass of the bells, which can vary from about 5 kg to several tons. More than this, the force needed to activate the keys varies widely, non-linearly, across the instrument and is subject to important seasonal variation of temperature and air humidity. Carillon concerts in Europe are given from April to October, never in the winter time.

550

10 The Carillon

a) Parts of a bell: 1. yoke, 2. crown, 3. head, 4. shoulder, 5. waist, 6. sound bow or sound ring, 7. lip, 8. mouth, 9. clapper, 10. bead line

b) The playing action of the carillon

Fig. 10.9 Structural parts of a carillon (data from Centralia Foundation US). Legend: a Structural parts of a bell (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell#/media/File:Parts_of_a_Bell.svg, accessed 17 November 2020). b The playing action of the carillon (http://nebula.wsimg.com/9a4244929248be7 161e97bf76fd695b7?AccessKeyId=FF8E9C4A80561CF64FD0&disposition=0&alloworigin=1, accessed 17 November 2020). c Connection between the keyboard and the bell (http://www.centra liafoundation.com/images/carillon-diagram.gif, accessed 17 November 2020)

10.2 Structural Parts of the Carillon

551

c) Connection between the keyboard and the bell.

Fig. 10.9 (continued)

For playing, the musician presses the baton of the keyboard or the pedalboard which acts by wires on the adjustable turnbuckle which transfer the movement to the bel crank by wire and to the clapper of the bell. The ball of the clapper hits the bel. The bell has a headpiece called the headstock or the yoke, which is hung on a beam made of wood. The clapper is articulated with a clapper pin on which is fixed the clapper stem. At the console, the baton has two positions, the detente position and the playing position. In the detente position each baton is supported by one of the two beams that run horizontally across the range of the clavier. The upper beam is for the “black” notes and the lower beam is for the “white” notes if compared with a piano clavier. When the player presses downward on a baton, the clapper is pulled toward the sound bow wall of the bell.

10.2.1 The Bells and the Mechanical Systems The bells are displayed over several levels. Each carillon has a particular plan for the arrangement of its bells. For example, the heaviest bell is on the top lever like the carillon of Mafra Palace, or for some carillons in Belgium, in the Netherlands or in Berlin, (Fig. 10.10), the heavier carillon bell is on the lowest level. For automatic playing, the carillon has a play drum of cylindrical shape which rotates. The play drum has numerous perforated rows, with holes in which pins are fixed. The pins catch hook like devices pulling a rope which plays a single bell per pin. Figure 10.11 shows the complexity of the automatic mechanical playing devices for the carillon in Utrecht cathedral.

552

10 The Carillon

a) the arrangement of bells on several levels

b) the device – the play drum – for automatic playing

Fig. 10.10 A possible arrangement for the bells of the carillon, with the heaviest bell at the lowest level. Legend: a The arrangement of the bells on several levels (http://www.essentialvermeer.com/ music/carillon/carillon_imagesBISBIS/bell_tower.jpg, accessed 17 November 2020). b The device (the drum) for automatic playing (http://www.let.rug.nl/koster/musicbox/scheme.jpg, accessed 17 November 2020)

10.2 Structural Parts of the Carillon

553

a) Bells made by Hémony for the carillon in the tower of Utrecht Cathedral

b) the play drum of the tower of the Dom in Utrecht

c) A detailed view of the play drum with the pins for the carillon in the belfry of Ghent in Belgium

Fig. 10.11 The connection between the bells and the mechanical device of the play drum (also called the speeltrommel) for automatic play. Legend: a Bells made by Hemony for the carillon in the tower of Utrecht Cathedral (https://erfgoed.utrecht.nl/fileadmin/uploads/documenten/zzerfgoed/torens/Hemonycarillon2.jpg, accessed 2 November 2020). b The drum of the tower of the Dom in Utrecht (https://erfgoed.utrecht.nl/fileadmin/_processed_/d/2/csm_Domtoren4_afa420 44db.jpg, accessed 2 November 2020). c A detailed view of the drum with the pins used for the carillon in the belfry of Ghent in Belgium (https://www.kenneththeunissen.be/img/speeltrommel550/speeltrommel-01-beiaard-belfort-gent.jpg, accessed 2 November 2020). d The complexity of the mechanical device to activate a very heavy bell for the carillon in Utrecht (https://www. Hemony-carillonindeDomtoren|Gemeente-Utrecht-Erfgoed, accessed 2 November 2020). Note Data from https://platform-duic.imgix.net/app/uploads/sites/2/2016/04/Domtoren-7.jpeg?auto=for mat%2Ccompress&ch=Width%2CDPR%2CSave-Data&dpr=1.5&fit=max&h=750&ixlib=php-1. 2.1&q=80&w=9999, accessed 2 November 2020

554

d) the complexity of the mechanical device to act a very heavy bell

Fig. 10.11 (continued)

10 The Carillon

10.2 Structural Parts of the Carillon

555

As mentioned in the article “Hemony carillon in the Dom Tower” Utrecht in the Wikipedia Dutch version, in 1664 Francois and Pieter Hemony supplied 35 bells for the Dom Tower carillon. The bells had a range of three octaves and weighed 13,540 kg. The play drum was made between 1666 and 1669 by the clockmaker Jurriaan Spraeckel from the town of Zutphen. When completed, the play drum had 66 rows and 125 sizes. Each row operates a hammer that strikes the outside of the clock. The melody to be played automatically was determined by the position of the pin on the play drum. The ‘starting signal’ for the playing drum is given mechanically by the clockwork of the Dom Tower. The play drum was connected to 38 bells of the carillon. This system worked continuously for more than three centuries. During the Twentieth century extra holes were perforated on the drum to extend musical capacity. The initial system with fixed notes was replaced by a system with shiftable notes which allows a more flexible way for the bells to be to struck. Today the drum has 24,750 holes. The play drum was driven by a 700 kg cannon barrel. The original system has been utilised again since 1996. The electrical driver operated for a short period during the XXth century but was replaced with the original system. Play drum automation was the first remarkable invention related to carillons. Another traditional automatic mechanical system called the Welte system was invented in 1832 by Michael Welte (1807–1880) in the Black Forest in Germany. Modern systems for carillons of pre-registered musical pieces with computer control are similar to the MIDI system used for pipe organs.

10.2.2 The Clapper The clapper is hung on the bell with a leather loop made of an old pit-tanned, multilayered cowhide. Individual layers of the loop can be up to 5 mm thick, and up to ten layers can be used. The clapper, the bell and the yoke are shown in Figs. 10.12 and 10.13. The clapper is composed of sub-ensembles which can be defined as: – The “suspension bracket” is the plate that attaches the clapper to the top of the inside of the bell. – The “swinging pin” is the part of the suspension bracket that allows the “shaft” of the clapper to be attached to it—usually by leather “straps”. – The “straps” are the parts that go around the swinging pin and are attached to the shaft that allow the clapper to move. – The “shaft” is the long component of the clapper. – The “ball” is the rounded part of the clapper that strikes the bell. For optimal bell sound quality, the weight of the clapper is about 1/40th of the weight of the bell. The shape of the clapper should be designed to match the size of the bell and the ringing method. The clapper is hung on the crown staple which is fixed inside the crown of the bell. Depending on the ringing method, the crown staple may come in different shapes.

556

10 The Carillon

a) mechanical system to act the clappers with articulated cables

b) the mechanical connection of the clapper

Fig. 10.12 Systems to activate the clappers of the bells. Legend: a Mechanical system to activate the clapper for the bells in Mafra Palace (http://www.palaciomafra.gov.pt/Data/ContentImages/ Imagem%209%20sistema%20manual%20carrilh%C3%A3o.jpg, accessed 12 November 2020). b Detail of the clapper of the bells shown previously. c Electro–mechanical system to activate the clapper. The dampers act on the bell and the clapper (https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/com mons/thumb/1/1b/Glockenspiel_9238.jpg/800px-Glockenspiel_9238.jpg, accessed 12 November 2020)

10.2 Structural Parts of the Carillon

557

c) electro – mechanical system to activate the clapper

Fig. 10.12 (continued)

The tuning of the clapper is very important for the sound quality of the bell because the duration of the contact between the clapper and the bell wall depends on the mass of the ball of the clapper and on the material used. The centre of gravity of the clapper is on the upper edge of the ball. Nowadays the clapper is made in soft steel C15. The hardness of the clapper should be lower than the hardness of the bell wall T. The vibrations of the clapper are negligible compared to the vibrations of the bell. The clapper should be adjusted correctly for even striking of the bell wall. As noted by Whitechapel Bell Foundry (2003) a bell is “even” struck by swinging, if the

558

10 The Carillon

a) Schematics of the clapper fixation

. b) The clapper, hand forged from one piece

Fig. 10.13 The clapper, the bell and the headstock, (also called the yoke). Legend: a Schematics of the clapper fixation (http://jaharrison.me.uk/thb/14-7.html, accessed 2 November 2020) (Chap. 14, Sect. 7 Tower book). b New clapper for the apostle bell in Mönchberg Photo: Astrid Lurz (https://med ia04.meine-news.de/article/2019/04/17/2/550202_XXL.jpg, accessed 2 November 2020). c The clapper attached to the bell (https://www.rauscher-time.com/bilder-turmuhren/hi/Glockenarmatur0 2hi.jpg, accessed 2 November 2020). d The yoke to attach the bell (http://www.rauscher-time.com/ bilder-turmuhren/Glockenarmatur01.jpg, accessed 2 November 2020)

clapper moves like a metronome. Frequently one observes the tendency of the clapper to strike early on one side and late on the other side of the bell. This is called “odd struck”. Clapper design and adjustment are the main causes of this phenomenon. For “even” struck an adjustment should be made with the twiddle pins fixed under the bell supporting bolts. The twiddle pins are two hexagon headed setscrews projecting from either side of the yoke in line with the staple bolt and in the direction of the clapper swing. The setscrew should be manufactured for each bell. The effect of odd

10.2 Structural Parts of the Carillon c) the clapper attached to the bell

d) the yoke to attach the bell with two canons.

Fig. 10.13 (continued)

559

560

10 The Carillon

struck is audible, the clapper blow on the “early” side is loud whereas the blow on the “late” side will become quieter. Ultimately, due to wear, the clapper will strike the bell wall only on one side. Nowadays the clapper can be protected from excessive wear on the striking points with an electronically controlled ringing motor, employed to program the start, the swing and the braking of the bell.

10.2.3 The Headstock The bell is hung on the headstock, also called the yoke. The headstock is composed of several beams made of oak, the sizes of which depend of the mass of the bell. The longest horizontal beam of rectangular cross section runs in bearings on the bell cage in the bell tower. In the zone of maximum bending moment of this rectangular beam, a second beam is added to improve the resistance of the system to static and dynamic stresses. The second beam has a decorative profile (Fig. 10.14). This is the so-called cranked yoke, which can be hat–shaped. Both beams are fixed with two metallic elements called “the canons”. The bell is hung from its crown on the yoke with corresponding metallic structural elements. The bell and the yoke have a considerable mass. The dynamic forces developed by a large swinging bell induce considerable horizontal forces in the bell cage and the supporting structure of the building in which the carillon is housed. The size and the complexity of the structure of the yoke depends on the mass of the bell. For a structure composed of two superimposed beams, the oscillating fixed point of the bell is displaced, and moved closer to the centre of gravity of the bell. This geometry acts on the striking frequency of the clapper. Sometimes, for specially designed beam geometry, the centre of gravity of the bell and of the clapper coincides. Another effect of this geometry could be to slowdown the swinging of the bell. For modern bells, the clapper is suspended from an independent crown staple. The fixing bolt is passed through a hole in the centre of the crown of the bell and in the headstock and is held in place by a nut bearing on the top of the crank. Clapper misalignment and bush wear could generate difficulty in striking the bell wall accurately and consequently, modifying the sound of the bell. Maintaining the correct clapper alignment is a simple and important operation, using a vertical slider track as reference. If the alignment of the clapper is checked regularly, then the clapper bushes wear less and should last longer. The security of the pivot pin should be checked at the same time as the clapper alignment.

10.2.4 The Dynamics of the Bell Clapper The mechanical system which activates the bell clapper is relatively complex and requires skilful maintenance (Fig. 10.15). The sound of the bell depends on numerous

10.2 Structural Parts of the Carillon

561

a) cranked yoke for three bells

b) typical cranked yoke

c) transverse section of the cranked yoke

d) cranked yoke of variable section

Fig. 10.14 Various structural solutions for a cranked yoke. Legend: a Cranked yoke for three bells (https://www.perrot-turmuhren.de/fileadmin/perrot/Public/Content/Images/Content/Glocke nanlagen/joche_content.jpg); b Typical cranked yoke (https://static.bodet-campanaire.com/ima ges/content/EN/maintenance/headstock/headstock-clappers-3.jpg). c https://encrypted-tbn0.gst atic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcTMO-lhbDaY-tNraGIZJwrgWenXp3CVlgTbSw&usqp=CAU. d https://banner2.cleanpng.com/20180604/ztf/kisspng-church-bell-yoke-felczyscy-church-bell-5b1 54c275b11b3.412937421528122407373.jpg

factors among which is the clapper, which has a major role in the acoustics of the bell. The clapper is characterized by its geometry, its size and shape, mass, the mechanical properties of the materials of which it is made of, its hardness, the strength of the blow and the point at which it strikes the bell. The preferred material for the clapper was wrought iron, replaced nowadays by cast iron or by steel. Clappers are struck against the bell wall with considerable force and a velocity which can be about 965 km/h (The weight of the clapper of the St. Peter’s bell of the Cologne cathedral is 600 kg and it is 3.3 m in height, while the weight of the bell is 24 tons). The main bolt of the clapper hanger can be broken because of bending during repeated fatigue cycles, which can be about 0.35 million load cycles over 60 years of service. On the Berlin Freedom bell the main bolt was fractured at its lower thread, after a period of more than 60 years of daily service. The stress amplitude applied to the bolt of this belt in bending can be as high as 280 MPa (Bettge and Bork 2014). On the other hand it is interesting to note that the largest bell of Notre Dame cathedral

562 a) the relative position of the bell and the clapper during the impact

10 The Carillon b) the geometry of the bell and clapper during the impact

c) Sound spectrum of the bells before (a) and after (b) re-voicing

Fig. 10.15 The bell and the clapper impact. Legend: a The relative position of the bell and the clapper during the impact (Fig. 7, p. 34, Klemenc et al. 2012). b The geometry of the bell and clapper during the impact (Fig. 2, p. 1430, Fletcher et al. 2002). c Sound spectrum of the bells before a and after b re-voicing (Fig. 1, p. 1438, Fletcher et al. 2002). d Change in force required to bring the carillon system to static equilibrium across the range of batons in the National Carillon in Canberra, Australia (Fig. 2, Havryliv et al. 2009)

10.2 Structural Parts of the Carillon

563

d) Change in force required to bring the carillon system to static equilibrium across the range of batons in the National Carillon in Canberra, Australia

Fig. 10.15 (continued)

in Paris, named Emmanuel (“le Gros Bourdon”) weighing 13 tons with a clapper of 500 kg, was cast in 1685 and has had no catastrophic failures in four centuries, but it is rung only for special religious events each year (Easter, etc.) and other secular events such as for the Te Deum for the kings of France, the end of the First and Second World Wars, and for the fall of the Berlin wall in 1989. (a)

Effect of playing on the sound of bells and the necessity of re-voicing

The necessity for re-voicing the bells of the National Carillon in Canberra, Australia was evident around 2000 AD after about 30 years of service. This carillon was designed and built by John Taylor and Company of Loughborough in UK and was open in 1970 by Queen Elizabeth II, to mark the Golden Jubilee of the establishment of Canberra as the national capital city of Australia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nat ional_Carillon). The carillon has 53 bells and has a compass of four and a half octaves from G2 to C2 . Studies on these bells was promoted by the fact that it was observed that the sound of the bells changed progressively as they were used (Fletcher et al. 2002). It was observed that the change of the tone was determined by the development of an elliptical flat area on the bell and on the clapper in the impact zone between the clapper and the bell. For example, bell no. 29, cast from bronze, has the following geometric characteristics: 43 cm diameter, 36 cm in height to its shoulders, with a spherical part of the pear-shaped clapper of 9.5 cm. The damaged zone on the clapper was of elliptical shape measuring about 17 mm × 14 mm. Inside the bell

564

10 The Carillon

Table 10.1 Bell of the carillon in Canberra before and after revoicing. Experimental results (data from Fletcher et al. 2002; Havryliv et al. 2009) Name of the bell

Bell

Clapper

Flat zone Contact time on clapper

Frequency

Diameter (cm)

Mass (kg)

Diameter (mm)

Diameter (mm)

Before (ms)

After (ms)

Before (Hz)

After (Hz)

No. 9 E3

120

950

200

18

1.5

3.5

900

600

No. 29 C3

43

59

95

15

0.6

1.2

4000

1800

No. 47 F# 6

20

7.7

56

7

0.6

0.8

>4000

>4000

the corresponding zone was 20 mm × 14 mm. The grooves of the bell had been plastically deformed. The re-voicing of the bell was done by hand, using a powered angle grinder and then a file was used for finishing for obtaining a uniform spherical curvature. Comparing the spectrum of 29 bells before and after re-voicing and by analysing qualitatively the distribution of the frequencies, characterised by an index for the “brightness of the sound”, it was noted that this index was 4 kHz before and 2 kHz after re-voicing (Table 10.1). Referring to bell no. 9, note E3 , the drop of frequency after re–voicing was of the order of 30%, from 900 to 600 Hz. (b)

Contact time during the impact between the clapper and the bell

The time of contact τ H during a collision between the clapper and the bell can be studied with the theory of Hertz (Fletcher et al. 2002). For the case of a sphere of mass m and radius R, Poison ratio μ1 and elastic modulus E 1 impacting a massive plate with a Poison ratio μ2 and elastic modulus E 2 at a speed V then: 1/5  1 − μ21 1 − μ22 (δ1 + δ2 )2 m 2 τ H = 4.5 , where δ1 = and δ2 = RF π E1 π E2 3/5

1/2

6/5

The force during the impact is F = Fmax sin(π t/τ H ) and Fmax ≈ 0.44 m (δR1 +δ2V) . The prediction of the impact behaviour for the geometry of the bell and the clapper illustrated in Fig. 10.12 with the reference origin in the centre of the clapper assumed that: – The impact takes place in elastic domain, at least during the first impact; – The bell is large enough and the impact time short enough that no significant reflections occur during the contact time; – The bell is displaced from the initial position y0 by elastic wave propagation; – The clapper deforms the surface of the bell in the elastic domain, so that the diameter of the contact increases from d 0 to d; – The clapper penetrates the bell surface by h2 and the depth of the spherical surface d2 d2 increases from h0 to h0 + h1 . Furthermore h 0 = 8R0 and h 1 = 8R − h 0 and we can calculate h 0 + h 1 + h 2 = y2 − y1 + R;

10.2 Structural Parts of the Carillon

565

– The diameter of the contact area increases from the initial d 0 to a new diameter d, dependent on the time of contact impact. The force F imposed by the clapper impact can be calculated as a function of the characteristic impedance Z for flexural waves on the bell: F = −Z

  dy2 and Z = 100 b2 kg · s−1 dz

Due to the complex geometry of the system the characteristic impedance cannot be determined exactly, but can be only approximated as a function of the thickness of the plate [mm]. Moreover, the impedance depends on the place where the clapper strikes the bell, because the thickness of the bell is not constant and can vary between 20 and 30 mm. The impedance calculated as the product of wave velocity and density Z = V. ρ-for bronze is in the range 2–5 · 104 kg · s−1 . dF = The total force F on the impact surface can be approximated as dh 1  2 K 1 πd E1 K1d = 4δ1 , where K 1 is a constant and K 1 > 1. d 4 1−μ21 From Hertz’s theory, the force can be deduced for the bell and for the clapper as: F = K1

(2R)1/2  3/2 (h 1 + h 0 )3/2 − h 0 3δ1

F = K2

(2R)1/2  3/2 (h 2 + h 0 )3/2 − h 0 3δ2

and

It is supposed that K 1 = K 2 . These forces depend on the geometry of the bell and clapper, and on the elastic properties of their materials (E modulus and Poisson ratio) and of course on the density of the materials. Finally, it was demonstrated that the motion of the centre of the mass of the clapper m, obeys the law described by the equation: F d 2 y1 = 2 dt m and the displacement over time depends on the ratio between the excitation force transmitted from the clavier to the clapper and the mass of the clapper. Havryliv et al. (2009) mentioned that the force measured at the tip of the baton for the lower bells is between 20 and 30 N, and for the upper bells the force is between 1 and 3 N. The variation of this force is not linear across the range of the clavier (Fig. 10.12d). The displacement from the baton at the top of its stroke to the bottom is approximately −5 cm.

566

10 The Carillon

The clapper is the only structural element of the carillon bell whose striking force is variable from one bell to another and from one baton to the next one. Therefore, it is very useful to characterise this force theoretically and by measurement. In practice is vital to know the change in striking force at the tip of the baton, as the felt of the batons is worn following numerous hours of playing. We have seen that because of the numerous cycles of impact between the bell and the clapper the contact surface is flattened by wear, and consequently, the sound of the bell is modified. The local wear takes place mostly in the plastic domain. c.

Deformation in plastic domain at the clapper–bell contact

FEA analysis was used to describe and understand the causes and the effects of the local wear at the clapper-to-bell contact point in the plastic domain (Klemenc et al. 2011, 2012). A 3D model of a 320 kg bell with a 15 kg clapper was used for the finite-element simulations. This approach allows us to calculate stress and strain distributions in the contact zone and identify the wear-risk surfaces around the contact point. By combining the results of the finite-element calculations with the RuizeChen parameter it is possible to identify potential risks of fatigue crack zones on the clapper. The Ruize–Chen parameter is defined for the uni-directional stress state and for the elementary volume below the contact force, as the product of the tangential stress, the sliding displacement and the normal stress. For the multidirectional stress state this parameter is calculated as the product of a specific work and the normal stress (Ruiz and Chen 1986; Klemenc et al. 2011), Understanding the dynamics of the contact between the bell and the clapper requires firstly a preliminary laboratory approach with a simplified model such as: the clapper was replaced by a steel cylinder with a spherical tip and the wall of the bell was replaced by a bronze block (Table 10.2). The cylinder weighed 10 kg with Table 10.2 Parameters of the materials used for the modelling of the impact between the cylinder made of steel and the bronze block simulating the contact between the clapper and the bell (data from Klemenc et al. 2012) Structural elements for modelling

Material

Cylinder/as clapper

Steel C45E

Cylinder/as clapper Block/as bell

Young’s modulus

Poisson ratio

(kg/m3 )

103 (GPa)

–

Piecewise linear plasticity

8050

210

0.30

Mild Steel TStE285

Piecewise linear plasticity

7850

200

0.30

Bronze

Piecewise linear plasticity

8600

99

0.30

Cylinder guides/as Rigid streel clapper holder

Rigid

7850

210

0.30

Block support/as pin joint clapper-holder

Linear elastic

7850

210

0.30

Elastic steel

Modelling with LD Mass –DYNA–Material density

10.2 Structural Parts of the Carillon

567

L = 270 mm, R = 80 mm being made of two kind of materials, the hard steel being C45E and with the mild steel TStE285. The block made of bronze weighed 56 kg and was 560 mm × 220 mm × 50 mm in size. The bronze has the following characteristics: a yield stress of 130 N/mm2 , a compressive strength of 310 N/mm2 and the modulus in the plastic region of 66 × 103 N/mm2 . The cylinder was dropped ten times against the flat surface of the bronze block. The bronze block was loaded mainly with compressive loads in the contact area. For computation purposes, the characteristics of the materials were taken as those of an isotropic linear plastic material. A comparison of the measured and computed results is given in Table 10.3. We can see that the computed contact time is 0.4 ms for a cylinder—tip radius of 50 mm and is 0.375 ms for a cylinder tip—radius of 150 mm. The corresponding measured time is respectively 0.50 ms for the cylinders made of C45E steel and is 0.39 for the cylinder tip radius of 50 mm, and 0.37 ms for the cylinder—tip radius of 150 mm made of mild steel TStE285. As shown by the parameter d max (maximum deformation) the cylinder made of C45E steel damaged the block more than the cylinder made of mild steel TStE285. The hardness of the material for the cylinders as well as the hardness of the bronze block increases after the 10th impact cycle. Data from the same table show important differences (about 40%) between the computed and measured values of acceleration. Higher measured values of acceleration are due to the effect of the superimposition of the longitudinal vibrations of the cylinder on the variation in time of the acceleration. If the signal corresponding to the measured acceleration is filtered by 10 kHz, a better agreement between computed and measured values can be achieved. This is the case displayed for the computed maximum accelerations versus time occurring in the time interval from 0.7 to 2.7 ms at the 10th impact, which is in relatively good agreement with the measured acceleration for the cylinder made of mild steel. After experimental measurement corrections, it can be noted that data on contact time, acceleration and deformation allow realistic comparison of computed data with measurement results. The distribution of the residual stress and plastic strain across the section of the cylinder and of the block after the tenth impact is illustrated in Fig. 10.16. Large values of the residual stresses and effective plastic strains are evident at the contact point after the tenth impact (see blue spots). The residual stresses and the plastic strains generate local material hardening and an increasing yield stress. The distribution of the RuizChen parameter for the bronze block after the tenth impact with the cylinder made of TStE285, (R = 50 mm and drop height 80 mm) displays a quasi-axis—symmetric distribution. FEA for the dynamics of the bell-clapper contact area underwent computation for the following parameters: – the clapper material is hard or soft (mild-steel clapper TStE285, hard-steel clapper C45E; – the clapper mass can be heavy or light; – the relative impact velocity of the clapper is slow, 1.4 m/s or rapid, 1.673 m/s;

100

–

−0.060 200 242

Dmax block (mm)

Cylinder hardness initial (HV)

Cylinder hardness at 11th impact (HV)

–

–

–

0.50

Contact time (ms)

–

5540

Acceleration (m/s2 )

Measured results

21.08

164

144

– 0.040

0.39

5800

25.17

–

–

–

–

–

25.56

233

200

– 0.030

0.50

6010

19.83

–

–

–

–

–

25.33

0.0131

162.1

0.0015

164

144

– 0.030

0.37

5840

22.66

0.0070

117.8

0.0082

185.3

0.375

(continued)

–

–

–

–

–

30.08

0.0076

140.0

0.0094

227.3

0.375

18.77

0.0120

168.9

0.0014

90.7

0.375

10,696

Ruiz Chen parameter for the block RCP block N2 /mm3

0.0211

247.8

0.0296

87.2

0.375

8627

100

−0.2176 −0.2545 −0.1220 −0.1407 −0.0854 −0.0944 −0.0547 −0.0604

0.0198

256.5

0.0267

245.3

0.400

9041

80

Maximum deformation cylinder tip. d max block

0.0378

274.2

0.0044

243.9

0.400

8285

100

267.1

0.0041

Maximum residual effective plastic strain in cylinder. ε cylinder

169.6

0.400

9880

80

0.0343

149.2

Max residual Von Mises stress. σ cylinder (N/mm2 )

8190

100

Maximum residual effective plastic strain in block. ε block

0.400

Contact time (ms)

8970

80

Max residual Von Mises stress. σ block

7758

Computed results

80

Drop height (mm)

Cylinder material TStE285 Mild steel

Cylinder material C45E Hard steel

Cylinder material C45E Hard steel

Cylinder material TStE285 Mild steel

Cylinder-tip radius 150 mm Initial velocity 1.40 m/s

Cylinder-tip radius 50 mm Initial velocity of drop 1.25 m/s

Maximum acceleration (m/s2 )

Parameters

Table 10.3 Comparison of computed and measured results, after the 11th impact of the steel cylinder on bronze block (data from Klemenc et al. 2012)

568 10 The Carillon

–

–

100

(a) computed results (b) measured results for cylinder TStE285

Computed and measured results of acceleration (Fig. 13, p. 370, Klemenc et al. 2011)

260 278

Bronze block hardness at 11th impact (HB)

80

Drop height (mm)

266

260

80 –

100 282

260

80 –

–

100

260

260

80

–

–

100

Cylinder material TStE285 Mild steel

Cylinder material C45E Hard steel

Cylinder material C45E Hard steel

Cylinder material TStE285 Mild steel

Cylinder-tip radius 150 mm Initial velocity 1.40 m/s

Cylinder-tip radius 50 mm Initial velocity of drop 1.25 m/s

Bronze block hardness initial (HB)

Parameters

Table 10.3 (continued)

10.2 Structural Parts of the Carillon 569

570

10 The Carillon

– the clapper shape can be spherical or elliptical. A spherical clapper with a radius of 75 mm, and an elliptical clapper with a radius of 75 mm in the horizontal plane and a radius of 55 mm in the vertical plane at the contact area; – the clapper-pin support can be a single-pin support, or a double-pin support; – the clapper impact angle can be small at 70°, or large at 80°); a) models for the contact cylinder – block (Cylinder tip radius 50 mm and 150 mm)

b) Residual 1st principal stresses [kN/mm2] after the 10th impact;

c) Distribution of the plastic strain after the thenth impact

Fig. 10.16 Material behaviour at the impact contact zone following an elastic and a plastic stress for the cylinder (as clapper) and the block (as bell wall). FEA and computed data. Legend: a Models for the contact between the cylinder and the bronze block. At left the cylinder tip radius 50 mm; at right the cylinder tip radius 150 mm (Fig. 2, p. 30, Klemenc et al. 2012). b Residual 1st principal stresses [kN/mm2 ] after the 10th impact; cylinder TStE285, R = 50 mm, H = 80 mm (Fig. 6, p. 34, Klemenc et al. 2012). c Distribution of the plastic strain after the thenth impact of the cylinder R = 50 mm H = 80 mm (Fig. 10, p. 268, Klemenc et al. 2011). d Ruiz-Chen parameter after the tenth impact (Fig. 11, p. 269, Klemenc et al. 2011)

10.2 Structural Parts of the Carillon

571

d) Ruiz - Chen parameter after the tenth impact Fig 11 page 269 Klemenc et al. 2011

Fig. 10.16 (continued)

– the bell sound-burp thickness (thin-bell sound burp, thick-bell sound burp); – the clapper guide accuracy can be exact guidance, or loose guidance in the direction of the clapper’s swinging axis; – the coefficient of friction between the clapper and the bell (zero and 0.1). Figure 10.17 summarises the FEA modelling related to dynamics of the contact impact area between the bell and the clapper. The bell–clapper–yoke model is symmetrical to the vertical plane (perpendicular to the rotation axes of the clapper) and to the evolution of the behaviour of the clapper and the bell contact area (Fig. 10.16a). The effect of the impact angle of the clapper was modelled as shown in Fig. 10.16b, for the reference model and for the modified mech for the contact area. The effect of losing the guidance on the plastic strain in the clapper and in the bell for 41 impacts (Fig. 10.16c) shows the step wise increasing of plastic strain, after about each ten impacts. The distribution of the cumulative Ruiz-Chen parameter for the contact area on the bell for the 10th impact, is not smooth at the boundary of the area. This parameter calculated as the product between the specific friction area and the normal stress, varies between 800 and 2000 N2 /mm3 . The normal stress is parallel to the sliding vector. Figure 10.16d shows the variation of the residual 1st principal stresses [kN/mm2 ] after the tenth impact for the finite-element model in the contact area between the bell and the clapper for the hard C45E clapper (see maximum stress in blue). This figure shows the real effective damage in a well defined region at the contact area for the bell that has been rung with a hard-steel clapper. In this spot, some amount of the material was removed from the border of the contact area. It is useful to mention that the position of this spot coincides with the spot of highest tensile residual stress revealed by computation. In

572

10 The Carillon

a) Bell – clapper – yoke models

b) Effect of impact angle of the clapper to bell -

c) Effect of the guidance type (left -the reference model, right- model - loose clapper guide).

Fig. 10.17 FEA analysis of the behaviour of the contact area between the clapper and the bell (data from Klemenc et al. 2012). Legend: a Bell–clapper–yoke models. Mesh of the reference finite-element model and of the bell–clapper contact area (Fig. 8, p. 35, Klemenc et al. 2012). b Effect of impact angle of the clapper to bell (left: reference finite-element model, right: modified finite-element model) (Fig. 11, p. 35, Klemenc et al. 2012). c Effect of the guidance type on the plastic strain variation as a function of impact numbers (Left: the reference finite-element model, right: the finite element model with the loose clapper guide) (Fig. 15, p. 38 Klemenc et al. 2012). d Distribution of cumulative Ruize-Chen parameter for the bell at the 10th impact for the reference finite-element model (Fig. 16, p. 38, Klemenc et al. 2012). e Variation of the residual 1st principal stresses [kN/mm2 ] after the 10th impact for the finite-element model with the C45E clapper and the effective damage at the contact area of the bell that has been rung with a hard-steel clapper (Fig. 17, p. 38, Klemenc et al. 2012)

this contact zone the material is no longer elastic, and behaves as it does in the plastic zone. The modification of the material properties is ascertained by the distribution of the cumulative Ruiz-Chen parameter which is not axis–symmetric, as can be seen in the previous figure.

10.2 Structural Parts of the Carillon

573

d) Distribution of cumulative Ruize - Chen parameter

e) Variation of the residual 1st principal stresses and the effective damage at the contact area.

Fig. 10.17 (continued)

“During the clapper-to-bell contact at the impact, there was a combination of local sliding due to the clapper’s indentation into the bell and global sliding of the clapper over the surface of the bell due to the elasticity of the bell’s sound burp”. (Klemenc et al. 2012)

After plastic deformation no effect of the material’s properties was observed on the acceleration of the clapper. The distribution of the effective plastic strains in the contact zone of a bell was similar to that in the simplified cylinder-drop test. Moreover, it was also stated that a smaller impact velocity and a larger clapper radius generated less damage in the impact area.

574

10 The Carillon

10.2.5 The Console The console (Fig. 10.18) known as the clavier, is placed in the playing cabin, which is an enclosed space in the bell tower. The enclosed space prevents the degradation of the console by rain, wind, dust and air pollution and of course, protects the musician. The hand keyboard for the natural and sharp keys, has a series of batons, arranged in the same basic pattern as a piano keyboard. The natural keys are a few centimetres longer than the sharp keys. The natural and sharp doubling pedal key (foot keys) are very different in size and geometry from the hand keyboard. The doubling pedal keys are played with both feet. For a carillon with a playing range from G3 to C8 commonly there are 48 manual keys and 26 pedal keys. Twenty four of the pedal keys double up on notes played by the manual keys. The lowest bells of the carillon (A3 and G3 ) are played with the remaining two keys of the pedal. (https://dotsandlines.steveboerner.com/2017/ 12/26/carillon-redux-building-the-console/). The bells are played by hitting a baton key of the console with the side of the hand or by pressing a key of the pedal keyboard with the feet. The keys activate a mechanical system composed of levers and wires connected to the clappers which strike the bells mechanically, or with a pneumatic or electrical system for some contemporaneous instruments. The keys, the levers and the rods are supported by an open frame. When the keys are acted on by the musician, the wires connected to the bells are tugged to ring the bells. The doubling pedal keys are connected to the hand keys by a system of roller bars and linkage rods. Roller bars are attached to the back of the frame. Acting on a pedal pulls a lever connected to the roller bar, which in turn pulls the rod connected to the manual key. Each manual key is connected to a transmission wire with a linkage rod and a turnbuckle.

10.3 Materials for the Bells During the long history of bell manufacturing, both ferrous and nonferrous alloys have been employed. Traditionally church bells and the bells for carillons have been made and continue to be made of bronze alloys composed of about 80% copper, 20% tin and other elements such as nickel, zinc, iron, lead, arsenic, antimony, silver, sulphur, phosphorous and bismuth in trace amounts. Some of these elements are transferred as impurities by the process of melting, using charcoal and coke. Exceptions to using bronze for church bells are very rare and occurred only during the wars when special bells for cloisters were cast from cast iron or steel. Bells made of Fe–C alloys probably started being used in 1875 with the development of cast steel technology. The poor acoustical quality of these bells argued in favour of the abandonment of these materials. The same was the case for aluminium bell manufacture.

10.3 Materials for the Bells a) the batons of the manual (hand keyboard)

575 c) the manual and the foot pedal keyboard

c) perspective view of the manual keyboard

d) the frame and the mechanical connections

Fig. 10.18 The console with the hand keyboard and with the pedal keyboard. Legend: a The batons of the manual hand keyboard (http://www.kenneththeunissen.be/img/instrument-550/instru ment-03-pinkbescherming.jpg, accessed 3 November 2020). b View of the manual keyboard (http:// www.kenneththeunissen.be/img/instrument-550/instrument-01-manuaal.jpg, accessed 3 November 2020). c The manual and the foot pedal keyboard (http://www.kenneththeunissen.be/img/instru ment-550/instrument-011-klavier.jpg, accessed 3 November 2020). d The frame and the mechanical connections (https://i1.wp.com/dotsandlines.steveboerner.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/ console_front.jpg?w=600&ssl=1, accessed 3 November 2020)

576

10 The Carillon

Bronze has been cast for bells in Egypt and in the Far Orient millennia before the Christian era. An archaeological discovery in 1978 in China included eight sets of magnificent bells of exquisite workmanship, with the largest bell weighing 203 kg. The range of frequency of the bells is from C2 (64.8 Hz) to D7 (2329.1 Hz). The bells were cast in clay moulds (Hua 1993). In Europe, bells have been cast in moulds since the time of the Greek civilisation and later during the time of the Roman Empire. During the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the Baroque period, the bronze for church bells had a similar composition and technology as that for the manufacturing of the cannons. Some of bells of the Baroque period still exist and are operational, such as for example the Emmanuel bell, in Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, built in 1686 AD. Strafford et al. (1996) reviewed the literature concerning the bronzes used for bells from the Middle Ages to the end of the XXth century in Europe. Knowledge about bell casting was spread in Europe by Benedictine monks. During the XIIth and XIIIth centuries. Changes in the geometry, the design and in the technology of bell production have occurred to create a better acoustical quality of bells. Historical events such as the One Hundred Years War in France (1337–1453) caused deep disasters in the economies of many countries resulting in a decline in metal production which influenced bell making for churches and cloisters. The economic crisis lasted until the middle of the XVth century, when new methods were adopted for the melting, alloying and casting of bronze. The art of decoration of bells took a new step. By the XVIth century the art of bell casting was well-established throughout Europe. Patterns for shaping bells were designed and the understanding of some acoustical properties of bells progressed during the XVIIth century. The bell foundry of the Dutch brothers of French origin Francois and Pierre Hémony and the musician Jacob Van Eyck are credited with developing bells into sophisticated musical instruments, based on the frequencies of five partials for each bell. In 1644 the first tuned bell was created. After the deaths of Francois and Pierre Hémony and that of their star pupil, C. Noorder, in the XVIIIth century, the art of bell manufacturing suffered a decline in the Low Countries and everywhere in Europe. Figure 10.19 depicts some aspects of the technology of a bell foundry in France in 1756, as illustrated in the Encyclopedia by Diderot and d’Alembert. Bell ringing requires important excitation forces, which act on the stability of the bell towers. In Europe there exist three main bell ringing systems namely: the English system, the Spanish system, and the third system used in France, Italy and in the Central European countries. Ivorra and Cervera (2001) noted the Spanish system creates the lowest dynamic forces which are imparted onto the bell tower structure. The bells are swung full circle around their axes in a continual manner. In the English system the bells are swung 360°. In other systems the bells are swung around the bell axis with swing angles ranging between 60° and 180°. In the Spanish system bell yokes are very heavy, acting as counterweights, thus allowing unbalance values of only 2–11 cm. In the other bell ringing systems, the yokes during swinging are only bell supports. For example, in the Spanish system, for a bell of about 6.3 tons, and for a swing velocity of 2.82 Rad/s the maximum horizontal force is 114 N and the maximum vertical force is 6432 N. For another bell of only 500 kg, the calculated swing velocity is 4.92 Rad/s; the maximum horizontal force is 47 N

b) construction des moules : le noyau, le modèle, la chappe

c) élévation et coupes du beffroi

Fig. 10.19 Bell casting illustration from the Encyclopedia of Diderot &d’Alembert. Collaborative translation Project. Ann Arbor Michigan Publishing. «Fontes des cloches». Plates Vol. 5 1756. Legend: a L’atelier d’un fondeur de cloches, la fosse dans laquelle on fait les moules (https://artflsrv03.uchicago.edu/ima ges/encyclopedie/V22/334.sm.png, accessed 14 November 2020). b Construction des moules sont au nombre de trois, savoir; le noyau, le modelé & la chappe qui demandent chacun une construction particulière (https://artflsrv03.uchicago.edu/images/encyclopedie/V22/336.sm.png, accessed 14 November 2020). c Elévations and coupes du beffroi dans lequel on suspend les cloches (https://artflsrv03.uchicago.edu/philologic4/encyclopedie1117/navigate/22/35/, accessed 14 November 2020)

a) la fosse dans laquelle on fait les moules

10.3 Materials for the Bells 577

578

10 The Carillon

and the maximum vertical force is 552 N. The vertical forces are much larger than the horizontal components. The kinetic energy developed by bell swinging is very important. Strafford et al. (1996) described the following English ways to ring the bells by: clocking, chiming, ringing and tooling. “In “clocking” a rope is pulled against the wall of the bell. In “chiming” the sound bow of the bell is struck with a hammer whose movements are traditionally controlled by a rope pulled by hand, later machine– operated. In “tooling” the bell itself is swung by a rope. The last-mentioned method is ringing and involves pulling the bell from side to side. The origin of this method dates from the XVIth century when ringing using bells mounted on a whole wheel was invented. By using this method, the bell can sound with its full note because the clapper is able to strike the bell with maximum force”. There is another important problem related to bell ringing involving the mass of the clapper which should not exceed 1/40 of the total mass of the bell. A heavier clapper can reduce the serviceability of the bell generating cracks in the bell wall. The life span of a bell is from five to seven decades and depends on many factors among which the number of cycles of ringing (every day, ones a day, for special events, etc.) which determines the creep and the fatigue behaviour of bell’s material. In the XIXth century a peak was reached in the technology used in church bell fabrication with the adoption of bronze mechanized casting processes. The quality of the clay mixture for production of the mould of the core, bell shirt and bell coat was improved. The tone of the bells was modified based on the variation of the bell geometry and on the variable wall thickness. Knowledge of the acoustics of bells was spread based on the work of Raleigh (1890). In the second half of the XXth and the beginning of the XXIst century important progress was achieved with systematic studies on the vibrations of bell with FEA and on the other hand with improvements in the technology of bronzes. Numerous articles have been published and some of them are synthetised in reference books (Rossing 2008; Fletcher and Rossing 2010),

10.3.1 Chemical Composition of Tin Bronzes for Bells Bells are made of a bronze alloy of Cu and Sn and traces of other elements such as nickel, zinc, iron, lead, arsenic, antimony, silver, sulphur, phosphorous and bismuth. Some of these elements are transferred as impurities by the process of melting, using charcoal and coke. Table 10.4 gives the chemical composition of the alloys used for bells produced in Europe since the Middle Ages to modern times. The presence of Cu decreased through time while the presence of Sn and Pb increased. Elements like Bi, Sb, As, S, Ni, Zn, Fe decreased significantly due to an improving technology for alloy fabrication. Ag disappeared almost completely from the chemical composition of the alloys. The production of bells made of Fe–C alloys probably started around 1875 AD with the development of cast steel. The poor acoustical quality of these bells argued in favour of abandoning this material. The same was the case for using aluminium in making bells

10.3 Materials for the Bells

579

Table 10.4 Chemical composition of materials for bells produced in Europe in different historic periods (Strafford et al. 1996) Era

Period

Chemical composition (% wt)

AD

Cu

Sn

Pb

Ag

Bi, Sb, As, S

Ni, Zn, Fe

Middle agesothic renaissance

1150–1560

80–82

10–12

2.0–3.0

0.2–0.4

3.7–5.5

0.3–0.4

Baroque

1600–1780

80–81

11–16

1.5–1.7

0.1–0.2

3.0–3.5

0.9–1.1

Empire

1800–1870

79–81

16–18

0.5–1.8

–

1.0–1.2

1.2–2.5

Modern

1900–

74–77

23–25

0.3–2.5

–

0.2–0.4

0.3–0.6

Table 10.5 Chemical composition of tin-bronzes for bells produced in Europe at the beginning of the twenty first century (data from Audy and Audy 2009) Country

Chemical composition (%wt) Sn

Ag

P

Fe

Zn

Cu

France

26.5

1.5

0

–

–

72

Switzerland

25

–

0.5

–

–

74.5

Czechoslovakia

20.25

–

1.5

0.25

–

Balance

Germany

22–26

–

Max 1

0.3

0.5

Balance

The chemical composition of materials for bells made in contemporaneous Europe are shown in Table 10.5. The alloys are rich in Sn 22-26%wt. Ag is used only for very high-quality alloys made in France. Elements like P, Zn, Fe are completely absent. The microstructure of the alloys made in various historical periods is shown in Fig. 10.20. The material of the bell cast around 1750 AD contains α phase, (α + δ) eutectoid; Pb; CuS inclusions and importantly has porosity. Relatively recent materials, produced with a better technology no longer have CuS inclusions. The chemical composition of the corresponding specimens is given in Table 10.6. The weight percentage of tin varies from 7 to 20%wt. All bronze alloys contain Pb, Zn, Sb, Fe, P and S. The presence of these elements depends on the technology used for bell casting. For specimen A, the bell has been cast into a clay mould, whereas for the specimens B and C the bells have been cast into green sand (bentonite) moulds. The chilling rate of alloys affects the microstructure. Figure 10.21 illustrates the tin bronze phase diagram. Bronze alloys are classified as low–tin bronzes (