Viking-Age Coinage in the Northern Lands, Parts i and ii: The Sixth Oxford Symposium on Coinage and Monetary History 9781407389677, 9781407389684, 9780860541509, 9781407326429

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Viking-Age Coinage in the Northern Lands The Sixth Oxford Symposium on Coinage and Monetary History edited by

M.A. S. Blackburn and D. M. Metcalf

Part i

BAR International Series 12 2(i) 1981

B.A.R.,

B.A.R.

122

Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R.-S122 (I):

"Viking-Age Coinage in the Northern Lands" Part I

© The Individual Authors, 1981. The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407389677 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407389684 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860541509 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407326429 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541509 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

CONTENTS P ar t i P age F oreword Abbrev ia t ions I n ternat iona l t rade a nd c o inage i n t he N or thern L ands d ur ing t he e ar ly M idd le Ages :

a n i n troduct ion , b y A lfred E . L ieber

1

The s tudy o f V ik ing-age n um is mat ics i n t he B a l t ic E ast , b y T uukka T a lv io

3 5

N in th-cen tury d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean Russ ia :

ap re l im inary

a na lys is , b y T ho mas S . N oonan

4 7

On Or ien ta l c o ins i n S cand inav ia , b y B eng t E . H ov& I

1 19

Ger man V ik ing-age c o inage a nd t he N or th , b y P e ter I l isch

1 29

T he Ang lo-Saxon a nd Ang lo-Nor man e le men t o f n or th E uropean c o in f inds , b y Mark B lackburn a nd K enneth J onsson

1 47

D as a nge lsächs ische E le men t i n d en s law ischen Manzfunde d es 1 0 . b is 1 2 . J ahrhunder ts .

Aspek te e iner Ana lyse ,

b y B ernd K luge

2 57 P ar t i

S o me t wen t ieth-cen tury r unes .

S tat ist ica l a na lys is o f t he V ik ing-

a ge h oards a nd t he i n terpre tat ion o f wastage r ates , b y D . M . Me tca lf

3 29

S o me u ses o f s cat ter d iagra ms f or d e monstrat ing h eterogene ity i n V ik ing-age c o inage a nd c o in h oards , b y

C . S . S . L yon

3 83

Methodo log ica l p rob le ms i n e d it ing a nd e va lua t ing t he Swed ish V ik ing-age c o in h oards , b y Br ita Ma l mer

3 91

T he c urrency i n D en mark f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he V ik ing a ge u n t i l c . 1 100 , b y K irsten B end ixen

4 05

D en mark ' ss econd o ldest min t a nd t he f ind f ro m I ge lösa c hurchy ard , b y Br i ta Ma l mer

4 19

A . S cand inav ian C rux/ In ter med iate Sma l l C ross d ie-cha in r eappra ised , b y Mark B lackburn

4 25

S tud ies i n t he D an ish c o inage a t L und d ur ing t he p er iod c . 1 030-1046 , b y C . J . B ecker C o ins a nd c o inage i n V ik ing-age Trondhe im , b y K o lb jg Srn S kaare

4 49 4 79

P age Merc ian c o ins f ro m R uss ia :

a mis in terpre tat ion , b y T uu ldm . T a lv io

H ow d id Ang lo-Saxon c o ins r each F in land?

b y I an S tewar t

4 87 4 91

F ive-f inger e xerc ises o n t he L ist h oard , b y M . A . S . B lackburn a nd D . M . Metca lf , w ith a n Append ix b y C . S . S . L yon '

4 95

T he me tro logy o f ? Ethe lred ' sL ong C ross t ype a t L inco ln , b y C . S . S . L yon

5 25

A .s umm ing-up , b y M ichae l D a i ley

5 33

T he S y mpos iasts

5 53

I ndex o f c o in h oards

5 55

FORE WORD

The S ix th Ox ford S y mpos iu m o n C o inage a nd Mone tary H istory , h e ld o n 9 -11 J anuary 1 981 u nder t he a usp ices o f t he H eberden C o in R oom , t ook a s i t s t he me t he V ik ing-age c urrency o f t he N or thern L ands . Most o f t he p apers e xp lo ited i n o ne w ay o r a no ther t he c o in f i nds f ro m S cand inav ia , t he B a lt ic , a nd Russ ia , wh ich a re s uch a r ich s ource o f n um is mat ic i n for mat ion , a nd a bou t wh ich , i n s p i te o f d ist ingu ished r esearches o ver a p er iod o f s evera l g enerat ions , t here i s s t i l l s o much t o b e d iscovered .

T he S y mpos iu m a sse mb led

ac ons iderab le a rray o f n um is mat ic e xpert ise , b r ing ing t ogether s tuden ts o f t he d if feren t c o inages — O r ien ta l , G er man , Ang lo-Saxon , a nd S cand inav ian — wh ich f i nd c o m mon g round i n t he mone tary a f fa irs o f t he N or thern L ands . T he p resence o f V ik ing-age h istor ians a nd a rchaeo log ists , a nd t he ir c on tr ibut i on t o t he d iscuss ions , h e lped g reat ly i n o ne o f t he p r inc ipa l a i ms o f t he S y mpos iu m , n a me ly t o f o l low t hose a rgu men ts a nd l i nes o f e nqu iry t hrough wh ich t he g enera l r e levance o f t he n um is mat ic d eta i l c an b e e stab l ished . T he p art ic ipan ts c a me f ro m e leven d if feren t c oun tr ies , a nd p robab ly r et urned h o me t hank fu l ly e i ther t o warmer c l i mes o r t o more g enerous c en tra l h eat ing t han Ox ford o n t h is o ccas ion managed t o p rov ide . B u t t he war m th o f f e l lowsh ip l ef t n o th ing t o b e d es ired . N ear ly e veryone a lready k new a nd c oun ted a s f r iends many o f t he c ompany .

F or t hose who h ad f i rst met a nd

h ad b egun t o c o l laborate i n r esearch t wen ty a nd more y ears a go , t he e ven t was a g ather ing w h ich e voked d eep ly f e lt me mor ies .

I n t he t rad it ion o f e ar l ier

V ik ing c ongresses , t h is v o lu me i nc ludes a s i t s f ron t isp iece a g roup p ho tograph , t aken a t Wo lfson C o l lege d ur ing t he S y mpos iu m . A l l t en p apers p resen ted d ur ing t he weekend a re p r in ted b e low , t ogether w ith M ichae l D oHey ' ss u mm ing-up , w h ich r efers t o e ach o f t he m i n t he s equence i n w h ich t hey were d e l ivered , a b o vo u sque a d ma la . T he p r in ted v ers ions a re i n s evera l c ases f u l ler t han c ou ld b e r ead i n a n h our , a nd i nc lude ( as was p lanned ) l i sts a nd t ab les o f mater ia l wh ich i ti s h oped w i l l b e u sefu l f or r eference . Two o ther p apers h ave b een a dded : ac onc ise s urvey o f t he D an ish c urrency b y K irsten B end ixen , who h ad i n tended t o b e p resen t b ut i n t he e nd h ad t o d ec l ine ; a nd a v a luab le i n troductory e ssay c omm iss ioned b y t he e d itors f rom a n e cono m ic h istor ian o f t he m idd le a ges , A lfred L ieber , who j o ined u s a t t he l ast mo men t when a n i l lness p reven ted P au l ine S taf ford f ro m t ak ing h er p lace .

T he v o lu me i nc ludes s even s upp le men tary n o tes b y

t he s y mpos iasts , t hree o f wh ich f o l low o n f rom o ne a no ther a nd c onst itute a m in iature d iscuss ion o n t he p rob le ms o f d ie-est i mat ion . The e d itors a re p leased , f i na l ly , t hat B r ita Ma l mer a cceded t o t he ir r equest t o p r in t at ransl at ion o f h er r ecen t n o te o n im itat ions i n t he I ge lösa h oard , a nd t hey e xpress t he ir t hanks t o t he e d i tor o f t he N ord isk N um is mat isk U n ions Med le msb lad . I ti s ap leasan t d u ty t o men t ion t hose w ho h e lped f i nanc ia l ly t o make t he meet ing p oss ib le .

S ubven t ions c a me f ro m t he K eeper o f t he H eberden C o in

R oo m , t he Modern H istory F acu lty Board , a nd B r it ish Archaeo log ica l Repor ts . T rave l f ro m e astern E urope was a rranged b y t he B r it ish Acade my o n b eha lf o f t he S y l loge o f C o ins o f t he B r it ish I s les ;

a nd J ar m i la i t ipkova 's p resence

i n Ox ford w as made p oss ib le b y h er t enure o f t he Rob inson V is it ing S cho lars h ip .

F or l ook ing a f ter u s a l l u nob trus ive ly a nd we l l , we were g ratefu l t o t he

d o mest ic s taf fs o f S t . Anne ' sC o l lege a nd Wo lfson C o l lege . M . A . S . B . D . M . M .

F ron t isp iece F ron t r ow ( l ef t t o r igh t ) : T . Ta lv io , Dr P . I l isch , M iss M . M . Arch iba ld, Mrs . H . W . Brown , N . M . L ow ick , P rof . M . D o l ley , P rof . B . Ma l mer , Mrs . V . J . Smar t , D r J . § t -i pkovä . B ack r ow :

D r K . S kaare , P rof . H . R . L oyn , K . J onsson , Dr A . E . L ieber ,

D r S . D . K eynes , J . G raha m-Ca mpbe l l , D rs G . v an d er Meer , B . E . H oven , D r D . M . Me tca lf , P rof . T . S . N oonan , B . K luge , C . S . S . L yon , P rof . C . J . B ecker , C . E . B lun t , Mrs . B . B ecker . ( photo M . A . S . B lackburn )

ABBREV IATIONS A NOH

Aarb0ger f or N ordisk O ldkyndighed o g H istor ie

ANS MN

Amer ican N um is mat ic S oc ie ty Museu m N otes

ASE

Ang lo-Saxon E ng land

ASSF

Ac ta S oc ie ta t is S c ient iaru m F ennicae

BAR

Br i t ish Archaeo log ica l R epor ts

BNJ

Br it ish N um is ma t ic J ourna l

CNS

C orpus n u m moru m s aecu loru m I X-X I q u i i n S uec ia r eper t i s unt ( ed . B . Ma l mer a nd o thers )

C o m men ta t iones

C o m menta t iones d e n umm is s aecu loru m I X-X I i n S uec ia r eper t is

F v

F ornvännen

Ha tz , H ande l u nd

G . H a tz , H ande l u nd V erkehr z w ischen d e m Deutschen

Verkehr

R e ich u nd S chweden i n d er s pä ten Wik ingerze i t . D ie d eutschen M t inzen d es 1 0 . u nd 1 1 . J ahrhunder ts i n S chweden , S tockho lm , 1 974

HBN

H a mburger B e i träge z ur N um is ma t ik

JNG

J ahrbuch f t lr N um is ma t ik u nd G e ldgesch ich te

NC

N um is ma t ic C hronic le

NC irc .

N um is mat ic C ircu lar

NE

N u miz ma t ika ie p igraf ika

NNÄ

N ordisk N u mis ma t isk Ärsskr if t

NNU M

N ordisk N u mis ma t isk U nions Med le msb lad

NZ

N um is mat ische Z ei tschr if t

PSW

P o lsk ie s karby wczesnosredn iow ieczne , 4v o ls . B adan ia Archeo log iczne , v o ls . 1 , 4 , 1 0 , a nd 1 2 .

P o lsk ie V o l .

1 1 i n t he s a me s er ies c overs P o lab ia . ) RN

R evue N um is ma t ique

S bGEG

S i tzungsber ich te d er G e lehr ten E s tn ischen G ese l lschaf t

S CBI

S y l loge o f C oins o ft he Br i t ish I s les

S C MB

S eaby C oin a nd Meda l B u l let in

SMYA

S uo men Mu ina is muis toyhd is tyksen A ikakausk ir ja

SNR

S chwe izer ische N um is ma t ische R undschau

TRHS

Transac t ions o ft he R oya l H istor ica l S oc ie ty

WN

Wiado mos 'c i N um iz ma tyczne

Z fA

Z e i tschr if t f Ur Archeo log ie

Z fMSu WK

Z e itschr if t f ür M i tnz, S iege l, u nd Wappenkunde

Z fN

Z e i tschr if t f ar N um is ma t ik

I NTERNAT IONAL TRADE AND CO INAGE I N THE NORTHERN LANDS DURING THE EARLY M IDDLE AGES :

AN I NTRODUCT ION

A lfred E . L ieber

I n a n a ddress t o t he I n ternat iona l H istor ica l C ongress o f 1 913 , e n t it led L es p er iodes d e l 'h isto ire s oc ia le d u c ap i ta l is me ', H enr i P irenne f i rst made k nown h is v iews o n t he p er iod u p t o t he m idd le o f t he e leven th c en tury , wh ich p receded t he f or mat ion o f t owns .' I tw as h is o p in ion t ha t c om merce a nd i ndustry h ad a lready b egun t o d ecay i n t he l ast c en tur ies o f t he R o man Emp ire a nd c on t inued t o d ec l ine i n Merov ing ian t imes , w i th t he r esu l t t hat s oc iety b eca me p redo m inan t ly a grar ian a nd r e ma ined s o u n t i l t he e leven th c en tury . Af ew b as ic p roducts , s uch a s w ine a nd s a l t , wh ich b y t he ir v ery n ature were u nequa l ly d istr ibu ted , s t i l l s erved t o g enerate s o me k ind o f t rade , a s d id t he o utput o f r ura l i ndustry i n p laces where r aw mater ia ls were p len t ifu l , s uch a s t he 'F r is ian ' c loth woven b y p easan ts i n F landers . O therw ise a gr icu ltura l p roduce b eca me a n o b ject o f c o m merce o n ly i n t imes o f g reat s urp lus o r f am ine . L it t le was t hen k nown—or i s y et k nown t oday—abou t t he merchan ts o f t he t ime , o r a bout t he c ond it ions u nder wh ich t hey t raded . T he o ne e xcep t ion was S a mo o f S ens who , a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he s even th c en tury h eaded a s laver a id ing e xped it ion b y ag roup o f merchan t-adven turers t o t he l and o f t he Wends , o f who m h e was s oon t o b eco me k ing . Y et P irenne v iewed S a mo n o t a s t he p roto type o f ac ap i ta l ist , b ut mere ly a s a n e nerget ic a nd f or tunate b and i t , c o mpar ing h im w ith t hose ' she iks ' who , i n P irenne ' s own t ime , h ad made t he ir f ortunes i n K a tanga o r t he C ongo .

H e d id g rudg ing ly a dm it t hat a c er ta in

amoun t o f t rade may h ave t aken p lace a t af ew p o in ts a long t he s ea-coasts , a t Marse i l les , Rouen , a nd Q uen tov ic , o r where a R o man r oad c rossed a r iver a nd t hus s erved a s ac o l lect ing-po in t f or t he s torage o f g oods , o r a s aw in teri ng-p lace f or s h ips a nd t he ir c rews . I n s uch p laces , h owever , t he f l oat ing p opu lat ion h ad n o p r iv ileges whatsoever , wh i le t he t raders w ere p edlars a nd h awkers , r a ther t han p rofess iona l merchan ts . T o t he p ub l ished v ers ion o f t h is p aper P irenne a dded a n o te r eferr ing t o ab ook b y A lfons D opsch , D ie Wir tschaf tsen tw ick lung d er K aro l ingerze i t , wh ich h ad r ecen t ly a ppeared .2 H ere h e a lready r efuted D opsch ' sc la im t ha t t rade h ad f l our ished i n C aro l ing ian t imes , i ns ist ing t hat t rade h ad n o t b een a n e ssen t ia l p ar t o f C aro l ing ian e cono m ic l i fe . P irenne s pen t much o f t he f i rst W o r ld War i n c ap t iv ity , d ur ing wh ich h e p ondered t he q uest ion o f why t rade , wh ich h ad s t i l l p layed s o me p ar t i n Merov ing ian t imes , s hou ld t hen f ina l ly h ave c o me t o ah a l t . H e a lso t ook t he o ppor tun ity t o s tudy t he works o f Russian h istor ians , t hus e x tend ing h is h istor ica l p erspect ive b eyond Western E urope .

Th is made h im r ea l ise t hat

i n o rder t o u nderstand med ieva l Russ ia h e n eeded t o k now more a bou t

1

B yzan t iu m , a nd h ence a bou t t he Med iterranean wor ld a nd t he Arab impac t u pon i t .

3

T he r esu l t w as t he a ppearance i n 1 922 o fh is p aper , e n igmat ica l ly e n t i t led ' Maho me t e t C har le magne ', wh ich e nded w ith t he s tate men t : 'S ans 1 'I s la m , l ' Emp ire f ranc n 'a ura it s ans d ou te j a ma is e x is ts , e t C har le magne s ans Maho met s era it i nconcevab le .'

4

T hese t en p rovocat ive p ages were t o s park

o f f ad ebate wh ich , n ear ly s ix ty y ears l ater , i s s t i l l b e ing c onducted a s v igorous ly a s e ver , a nd r e ma ins o ne o f t he b as ic i ssues o f e ar ly med ieva l h istory .

P irenne t hus i n troduced a n ew f actor i n h is a ssess men t o f t he

C aro l ing ian e cono my . H e a rgued t hat t he I s lam ic e xpans ion c hanged t he Med iterranean S ea , s o l ong a 'Ro man l ake ', i n to a h ost i le Mus l im l ake ', a nd t h is i tw as wh ich l ed t o t he r ap id d ecay o f t he Merov ing ian Emp ire . T he f o l low ing y ear , i n h is p aper , 'U n c on tras te e cono m ique - Merov ing iens e t C aro l ing iens ' ,5 h e a ga in t ook i ssue w ith D opsch , r es tat ing h is t hes is t hat t he a ccess ion o f t he C aro l ing ians c o inc ided w ith t he e nd o f t he a nc ien t w or ld a nd i t s Me d iterranean c u lture , t o b eco me t he s tar t ing-po in t o f an ew h is tor ica l e ra .

F or P irenne t he C aro l ing ian Emp ire w as e ssen t ia l ly a n im mob ile a gr i-

c u ltura l s tate , a nd p or ts o pen t o f ore ign t raf f ic w ere t o b e f ound o n ly i n t he n or th , where Rouen , Quen tov ic , a nd D uurstede ma in ta ined t enuous l inks w ith E ng land , S cand inav ia , a nd n or thern G ermany . F ur ther more , t he c lass o f p rofess iona l merchan ts , wh ich was s t i l l a pprec iab le i n Merov ing ian t imes , h ad a l l b ut d isappeared , a nd w i th i tt he o r ien ta l c on tr ibu t ion : t he l uxury c loths , t he s p ices , t he p apyrus , a nd t he g o ld c urrency . I n s ubsequen t y ears P irenne s ubs tan t ia ted t h is t hes is w ith more d e ta i led s tud ies , i nc lud ing a c ons iderat ion o f t he t rade i n p apyrus i n Merov ing ian t imes , a nd o f t he e nd o f t he t rade o f t he S yr ians .

H e f i na l ly s u m med u p h is v iews i n

h is b ook , Maho met e t Char le magne , wh ich w as c o mp le ted i n t he s pr ing o f 1 935 , s hor t ly b efore h is d eath , a nd p ub l ished i n 1 937. 6 A ccord ing t o t h is , t he G er man ic i nvas ions o f E urope i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he f i rst m i l lenn ium n e ither d estroyed 'R o man ia ' ,n or d id t hey e ven G er man ize i t : t he Orb is Ro manus , c en tred o n t he Med iterranean , b u t embrac ing E urope , A fr ica , a nd A s ia , s t i l l r e ma ined i n tact .

C lov is a nd h is s uccessors , t he n ew G er man ic

masters o f G au l , made e very a t te mp t t o e s tab l ish t he mse lves o n t he s hores o f t he Med iterranean , i n o rder t o o b ta in a w indow o n t he wor ld ; a nd t he e cono m ic l i nks o f G au l w ith t he r est o f t he Med iterranean w ere t o c on t inue u nd isturbed u n t i l t he m idd le o f t he s even th c en tury . T hanks t o Med iterranean s h ipp ing E urope r ema ined u nder t he e cono m ic i nf luence o f t h is Med iterranean w or ld , a s S yr ian a nd J ew ish t raders c on t inued t o s upp ly i tw ith l uxur ies , s uch a s p rec ious c loth , c ho ice w ines , p apyrus , a nd e nough g o ld

t o s uppor t ag o ld

c urrency . T hen , a ccord ing t o P irenne , a c os m ic c atac lys m ' o ccurred .

An ew f orce ,

I s la m , a ppeared o n t he h istor ica l s cene , a nd a ch ieved what t he G er man ic i nvas ions h ad n ever i n tended .

I tb roke u p t he u n ity o f t he Med i terranean ,

a nd i n l i t t le o ver f i f ty y ears i ts ucceeded i n d estroy ing t he Europe o f a n t iqu ity . T he Med iterranean b eca me a h ost i le s ea a nd a l l c o m merce b etween i t s n or thern a nd s ou thern s hores c a me t o a n e nd . F o l low ing a p er iod o f i n terna l d isturb -, a nces , w ith p rogress ive ly weakened r u le , t he C aro l ing ian c oup d 'eta t c rea ted an ew e n t ity , i n t he f or m o f aN or thern Emp ire b etween t he S e ine a nd t he

2

Rh ine , w hose o n ly c onnect ion w ith t he Med iterranean wor ld was t he t enuous l ink ma in ta ined b y t he C hr ist ian C hurch . I n c onstruct ing h is p ic ture o f t he c on t inu ity o f t rade i n Me rov ing ian t imes , P irenne l eans h eav i ly o n o ne p ar t icu lar s ource : at en th-cen tury c opy o f a d ip lo ma g ran ted b y C h i lper ic I t o t he Abbo t o f C orb ie i n 7 16 , c on f ir m ing t wo p rev ious c harters o fh is u nc le C lo ta . ir I a nd o f C h i lder ic I , wh ich e n t it led t he Abbey t o l evy merchand ise f ro m t he c e l lar iu m f i sc i o f F os .

7

I n a dd i t ion

t o t yp ica l Med iterranean wares , s uch a s 1 0 ,000 p ounds o f o i l a nd 'c ar ta t om i o f p apyrus , t he l ong l i st o f g oods i nc ludes q uan t it ies o f s p ices , s uch a s 3 0 p ounds o fp epper , wh ich u ndoubted ly c a me f rom f arther e ast . Accordi ng t o P irenne , t he q uan t ity o fp apyrus g iven r epresen ts 5 0 r ea ms : av ery r espec tab le amoun t . H e c ons iders t h is p roof t ha t p apyrus was t hen e as i ly p rocurab le a nd i n g enera l u se , a nd moreover , t hat i t must h ave b een impor ted i n who le s h ip loads .8 T he t er m 'c ar ta t om i T h as , h owever , b een d if feren t ly i n terpreted b y o thers , a nd t he q uant i ty i nvo lved h as b een p u t a sl ow a s 5 0 q u ires . I n t h is c on tex t P irenne a lso r efers t o ab r ief t ex t , o r ig ina t ing a t s o me t ime b efore t he e nd o f t he t en th c en tury , wh ich c on ta ins a l i st o f c o mmod it ies , i nc lud ing o r ien ta l s p ices , t o b e p urchased a t C a mbra i , p resu mab ly f or C orb ie Abbey , i n a dd it ion t o al i st o f o f fer ings .1 0 P irenne c la i ms t hat t h is i s y et a no ther—and b ad—copy o f t he Merov ing ian d ip lo mas .

H e d is m isses t he o bv ious

s uggest ion t ha t i ti s q u ite a d if feren t t ex t , o f C aro l ing ian o r ig in , w ith t he c ircu lar a rgu men t t hat i ti s imposs ib le ' t hat s uch w ares c ou ld h ave b een a va i lab le i n C aro l ing ian t imes . A s p apyrus i s men t ioned h ere o n ly i n v ery sma l l q uan t it ies f or f east-days , h e s uggests t hat i n t h is c ase i t was d est ined f or u se a s w icks , p ar t icu lar ly a s t a l low t o t he s a me v a lue h ad t o b e p rov ided . H e t hen c onc ludes t hat wh i le t he impor t a nd who lesa le o f p apyrus were c onc en trated i n Marse il les , where t he monks o f C orb ie wou ld h ave a cqu ired most o f t he p apyrus t ha t t hey n eeded f or wr it ing , t he f ac t t hat p apyrus c ou ld b e p urchased i n t he v ery n or th o f G au l a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he e igh th c en tury , mean t t hat t he s a me s tate o f a f fa irs must h ave o b ta ined i n a l l t he o ther markets o f t he k ingdo m .1 1 Yet , a lthough t he d at ing o f t h is l at ter t ex t h as i ndeed n o t b een f i na l ly e st ab l ished , t he e v idence a ga inst i t s C aro l ing ian o r ig in i s e x tre me ly weak . T he l i st o f g oods b ears l i t t le r ese mb lance t o t hat f ound i n t he Merov ing ian d ip lo ma . T here i s ac o mp le te a bsence o f t wo o f t he b u lk iest i t e ms o f t he d ip lo ma1 0 ,000 l bs o f o i l a nd 3 0 mod i i o f g aru m , at yp ica l Med i terranean c ond i men t . Th is a bsence may b e d ue t o ac hange i n f ood-hab its i n C aro l ing ian t imes , r esu lt ing f ro m t he f act t hat t he p opu lat ion o f t he monaster ies t hen c a me i n l arge p ar t f ro m B r i ta in a nd n or thern Gau l, r a ther t han f ro m t he Medi terranean a rea . N or d oes p apyrus a ppear among t he g oods t o b ep urchased a t C ambra i . I ti s men t ioned o n ly a s a n o f fer ing t o b e p rov ided f or c er ta in c hurch f est iva ls . T he v ir tua l a bsence o f p apyrus i n t h is t ex t may we l l r ef lect t he g enera l c hangeo ver t o p arch men ta s a wr it ing mater ia l f or a l l p urposes . I th ad f or c en tur ies b een u sed f or l i terary work , was l oca l ly a va i lab le , a nd was i n many o ther ways more c onven ien t . On t he o ther h and o r ienta l s p ices men t ioned i n b oth t ex ts a ppear i n f ar g reater q uan t it ies i n t he C a mbra i l i st .

Wh i le t he Merov ing ian d ocu men t

s peaks o f 3 0 l b o fp epper a nd 1 l b o f c innamon , 1 20 l bs o f e ach a re t o b e 3

9

p urchased a t C a mbra i .

I ti s s ign if ican t t hat t he marke t c oncerned i s C a mbra i ,

s ince t h is p o in ts t o as upp ly i n t he E ast . Impor ts v ia t he M e d iterranean wou ld s ure ly h ave b een made a va i lab le a t a more c onven ien t ly s i tuated market , s uch a s t he f a irs o f S a in t-Den is , i fn ot a ctua l ly a t F os o r Marse i l les . P irenne h i mse lf s hows s o me u neas iness a bout t he e xpor ts f ro m G au l n eeded t o f i l l t he b oats wh ich , h e c la i ms , b rough t s uch p len t ifu l merchand ise i n Merov ing ian t imes . H e s uggests t ha t t h is may l arge ly h ave b een s laves .1 2 B u t , a l though s laves i ndeed p layed a n impor tan t p ar t i n t he f ore ign t rade o f G au l , t hey w ere ma in ly impor ted , a nd f rom E ng land . w as c on f ined t o I t a ly .

T he e xpor t o f s laves

I t must a lso b e n o ted t ha t p ract ica l ly t hroughou t t he

s ix th c en tury E urope a nd t he M idd le E ast w ere r avaged b y n atura l c a tastrophes a nd e p ide m ics , s tart ing w ith t he s o-ca l led P lague o f J ust in ian , wh ich c aused ah eavy l oss o f l i fe . T hey h ave b een f a ithfu l ly d escr ibed b y e ye-w itnesses , a nd G ibbon l ong a go d e monstrated t he ir e f fect o n B yzan t iu m a nd E urope . Th is w as s ure ly n ot a p rop it ious mo men t f or a p rosperous f ore ign t rade . F ew o f P irenne ' sc r itics h ave q uest ioned h is a ssu mp t ion o f af l our ish ing t rade i n Merov ing ian t imes , a l though B aynes h as s uggested t hat Med i terranean u n ity h ad a lready b een s hat tered b y t he p irate-f leets o f t he V anda ls , n ever t o b e r estored . A . s f ar a s v i ta l c on tacts w ith t he Emp ire were c oncerned , h e c ons idered t hat G au l o f t he Merov ing ians w as marooned f ro m t he o u tset , a nd d oub ted whether t he g reat Med iterranean c o mmerce wh ich f l our ished i n Gau l d ur ing t he l a te Emp ire a ctua l ly p ers isted i n to t he s ix th c en tury , l e t a lone t he s even th .1 3 A ccord ing t o Moss , b o th P irenne a nd D opsch h ad d rawn o n i nsuff i c ien t s ources a nd h ad o vers tated t he ir v iews o n t h is i ssue .1 4 A s a no ther p i l lar o fh is t hes is P irenne c la imed t hat Merov ing ian G au l p ossessed a c o inage b ased e ssen t ia l ly o n g o ld , wh i lst t hat o f t he C aro l ing ian a ge was b ased o n p ure s i lver . T he g o ld r epresen ted t he s urp lus o f t he f l our ish ing f ore ign t rade—desp ite t he f act t hat , a s h as a lready b een n o ted , P irenne h i mse lf was u nab le t o s pec ify wh ich g oods were e xpor ted , o ther t han s laves . O ne o f t he f ew s ources t o men t ion t he e xpor t o f s laves i s al e t ter o f G regory t he G reat , d at ing f ro m S ep te mber 5 95 , i n wh ich h e i nstructs C and idus , t he a dm in istrator o fh is d o ma ins i n P rovence , t ou se t he r evenue f or t he p urc hase o f E ng l ish s laves o n h is b eha lf , a s Merov ing ian c o ins were n o l onger a ccep ted i n I t a ly—presu mab ly b ecause t hey were d ebased .

1 5

I nf luenced b y P irenne ' sb ook 1 V laho met e t C har le magne , wh ich h ad j ust a ppeared , L e G en t i lho m me p ostu lated t hat t he r ep lace men t o f t he g o ld c o ina ge b y s i lver h ad b een a cco mp l ished w ith in a r e lat ive ly s hor t p er iod . was , i n f act , al ong d rawn-ou t o perat ion .

1 6

I t

F irst t he s o l id i were r ep laced b y

t r ien tes , a nd t hen b y a n e ver more d ebased g o ld c o inage , t o e nd u p a s ap ure ly s i lver c o inage .

D ieudonne t hought t hat t h is w as a c on t inuous p rocess ,

e x tend ing o ver a p er iod o f t wo h undred y ears ,1 7 a nd L afaur ie a grees t ha t t h is t ransfor mat ion c ou ld n o t h ave o ccurred s udden ly , b u t was t he r esu lt o f as low e cono m ic e vo lut ion wh ich ma ter ia l ly i n f luenced t he v a lue o f money a nd o f g oods .1 8 Me tca lf a nd Merr ick , h owever , c ons ider t hat , a t l east i n t he c en tres o f c o mmerc ia l a ct iv ity a nd p o l it ica l s treng th , t he d ec l ine was n o t g radua l , b ut t ook t he f or m o f a' stepped ' r educt ion o f t he g o ld c on ten t o f t he c o in age .1 9 T hese c hanges d o n o t n ecessar i ly imp ly t hat Merov ing ian G au l was s hor t o f g o ld . I ndeed t here i s much e v idence t ha t g o ld w as s t i l l a va i lab le . T he 4

r ivers o f G au l y ie lded a c er ta in amoun t : g o ld-pann ing b e ing , t here a s e lsew here , a n o ccupat ion o f t he p oor . A long t he u pper r eaches o f t he Rh ine t h is c eased o n ly a t t he e nd o ft he l ast c en tury , when e ven t he p oorest o f t he p oor were n o l onger d rawn t o improve t he ir l ot i n t h is f ash ion . H owever , t he Merov ing ians p ossessed o ther , more s ubs tan t ia l s ources o f g o ld , w h ich t hus p er m it ted t he m a more e x travagan t mode o f l i fe t han h ad b een t he c ase i n p rev ious c en tur ies , o r was t o b e i n C aro l ing ian t imes . J ust in ian o f fered t he F ranks a l arge s um o f money f or t he ir a ss istance i n t he G oth ic War , b ut Wit t iges , t he k ing o f t he Go ths , s aved h i mse lf b y b uy ing t he m o f f w i th 2 ,000 p ounds o f g o ld , a s w e l l a s c ed ing t he m P rovence a nd h is o ther p ossess ions i n t he s outh-east o f G au l . 20 Moreover , t hey c on t inued t o r ece ive s ubs tant ia l g if ts o f t h is k ind .

I n 5 83 , f or e xa mp le , t he Emperor Maur ice p a id C h i ldeber t

It he s um o f 5 0 ,0 00 s o l id i t o a t tack t he L o mbards , t o wh ich more was a dded t he f o l low ing y ear . Y et , o n b e ing o f fered a c ons iderab le s um o f money b y t he L o mbards , C h i ldeber t t urned r ound a nd made f or h o me , w ithou t f urther t hough t f or h is u nder tak ing t o t he Emperor .2 1 The c hangeover f ro m a g o ld c o inage t o o ne b ased o n s i lver i s n ot n ecess ar ily a s ign o f r egress ion . I t may h ave r epresen ted a d e l iberate p o l it ica l d ec is ion , i n tended t o f ur ther t he p rogress o f t he l oca l e cono my , s ince a p ure g o ld c o inage w ithou t as ubs id iary c o inage o f s i lver a nd b ronze was u nsu i tab le f or t he c onduct o fd ay-to-day o perat ions . S uch a s i tuat ion h as b een n oted b y T ac itus w i th r egard t o t he G er many o fh is d ay : Another p o in t i s t hat t hey t ry t o g et s i lver i n p reference t o g o ld .

T hey h ave n o p red i lect ion f or t he me ta l ,

b ut f ind p len ty o f s i lver c hange more s erv iceab le i n b uy ing c heap a nd c o m mon g oods ' .z 2 P irenne , h owever , a ppears t o h ave b een c o mp lete ly u nder t he s pe l l o f t he mone tar ists o fh is t ime , who b la med a l l t he e cono m ic i l ls o f t he p er iod f o l lowi ng t he F irst Wor ld War , i nc lud ing i nf lat ion a nd t he wor ld-w ide d ec l ine o f c urrenc ies , o n t he a bandon men t o f t he g o ld-s tandard .

T hey ma in ta ined t hat

a r eturn t o t he g o ld-standard wou ld l ead t o ar estorat ion o f t he 'g o lden a ge ' wh ich h ad p reva i led u n t i l 1 914 . B e ing s o impressed b y t he myster ious p ower o f g old , P irenne c ons idered C har le magne ' si n troduct ion o f as i lver c o inage t o b e c lear p roof o f t he c on tract ion o f t he e cono my , wh ich h ad b ecome a s tagnan t , a gr icu ltura l e cono my . T he markets o f C aro l ing ian t imes were n o more t han c on tro l led p er iod ica l o ppor tun it ies f or s e l lers a nd b uyers f ro m t he r eg ion t o e xchange e ggs , b ut ter , a nd c heese , p rocure i ronmongery f ro m h awkers , a nd e n joy t he mse lves w atch ing t he i t ineran t e n ter ta iners . 'markets ' were l i t t le more t han v i l lage f a irs :

I n o ther words , t hese

r ea l c o m merce was d ead ,

a nd w ith i tt he p rofess iona l merchan t . The I s la m ic e xpans ion h ad c losed t he Med iterranean , t hus s eparat ing t he West b o th f ro m B yzan t iu m a nd f ro m t he r est o f t he f or mer R o man Emp ire w i th i t s w indows o pen t o A s ia a nd A fr ica .2 3 H av ing d ec ided t hat Merov ing ian G au l was p ar t a nd p arce l o f Med iterranean c u lture , P irenne f a i led t o d iscern t hat i t s e conomic c en tre o f g rav i ty was s low ly b ut s ure ly mov ing t o t he n orth . O ccas iona l d ocu men tary r eferences t o w ines imported f ro m G aza a nd Asca lon h e lped t o b l ind h im t o t he s teady e xpans ion o f l oca l v i t icu l ture , wh ich s upp l ied t he w ines t o q uench Br i t ish a nd I r ish t h irst , a nd t hus p a id i n p ar t f or t he import o f s laves a nd o ther g oods .

T he

g row ing impor tance o f t he n or th was , moreover , d e monstrated b y t he f oundat i on o f t he g reat a bbeys i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he s even th c en tury ; 5

ap er iod

when t here w as a s y et n o q uest ion o f Arab e xpans ion c los ing t he Med i terranean . S a in t-Den is , S ain t -Wandr i l le, S a in t-Vaast , a nd C orb ie were a l l f ounded a t t h is t ime , a nd t he a l locat ion o f g oods a nd o f t he means o f t ranspor t ing t he m t o monaster ies s uch a s C orb ie a nd S a in t-Den is , may a lso b e i n terpreted a s a way o fh e lp ing t hese n ew c o m mun it ies t o e stab l ish t he mse lves i n as trange e nv ironmen t . C er ta in ly t here i s l i t t le b as is f or P irenne ' sc onc lus ion t hat o r ien ta l wares were s o p len t ifu l t hat a l l monaster ies r ece ived s im i lar h e lp . Wh i le t h is p aper i s c on f ined t o t he e cono m ic a spects o f t he s i tuat ion , i ti s f a ir t o p o in t o ut t hat f or P irenne t he e cono my c onst ituted o n ly p ar t o f a much w ider c anvas a nd , p ar t icu lar ly i n h is f i na l work , Maho me t a nd C har lemagne , h e a lso c ons idered o ther a spec ts o f Merov ingian a nd C aro l ing ian c iv i lizat ion . F or h im t he p rob le m was i n l arge p art p o l it ica l : t he emergence o f t he C arol i ng ians s ign if ied t he e nd o f t he Ro man wor ld a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he 'D ark Ages '.

Most o ther h istor ians , h e d ec lared , s aw C har le magne a s t he i n i t iator

o f t une b r i l lan te r enaissance c o m merc ia le ' . S o me o f t he m e ven c la imed f or t he ir h ero t he i dea o f c onstruct ing a l i nk b etween t he Rh ine a nd t he D anube , w h i le t he Avar Wars were a scr ibed t o h is d es ire t o o pen a n a lternat ive r oute t o C onstan t inop le . I n o ther words , t hey c ou ld a lready d iscern i n t he n in th c en tury t he r oo ts o f G er man t wen t ieth-cen tury We ltpo l it ik .2 4 The f i rst r eact ion t o t h is n ew a ssess men t o f t he s tate o f t he e ar ly med ieva l e cono my c a me , n o t s urpr is ing ly , f ro m t he Dopsch s choo l . I n h er b ook , D ie K aro l ing ische R ena issance , p ub l ished i n 1 924 , E rna P atze lt t r ied t o s how t hat e ven i n t he h eyday o ft he Ro man Emp ire t here w as n o s uch t h ing a s

t he u n ity

o f t he Ro man wor ld '. G au l , wh ich h ad b een o f i ncreas ing impor tance s ince t he t ime o f J u l ius C aesar , h ad s low ly b een i nf i l trated b y t he G er man ic p eop le . I n f act Western E urope h ad b een c o mp lete ly G er man ized s ince t he f our th c en tury , a nd t he F ranks f or med t he l ink b etween t he Merov ing ian a nd C arol i ng ian a ges .

T he work a lso c on ta ins a l yr ica l d escr ip t ion o f t he h igh s tandard

o f G er man ic c iv i l izat ion e ver s ince p reh istor ic t imes , wh ich , i n t he a u thor ' s v iew , c ou ld we l l b e c o mpared w ith c lass ica l c u l ture .2 5 D opsch h i mse lf n ever r eal ly r esponded t o P irenne ' sc ha l lenge .

H e s ubs-

c r ibed t o t he l at ter ' sv iew t hat t he Merov ing ian a ge h ad b een a p rosperous o ne , b u t o n ly i n o rder t o r es tate h is t hes is t hat C har le magne i n it ia ted t he 'C aro l ing ian r ena issance ', o f wh ich h e g ives f ew d eta i ls . I ns ist ing t ha t t he C aro l ingians ma in ta ined a c urrency b ased o n g o ld a nd s i lver , h e t herefore s howed n o i n terest i n t he s o-ca l led C aro l ing ian r efor m o f t he c o inage . H e s tressed , h owever , t hat c o m merc ia l a ct iv ity c on t inued t o f l our ish a nd t o e xpand .2 6 More impor tan t was t he f act t hat h e e ncouraged Erna P a tze l t t o v is i t S weden a nd s tudy i t s r e lat ionsh ips w ith t he F rank ish Emp ire : t hus r evea l ing an ew f acet o f t he p rob le m . H er f i nd ings a ppeared i n h er b ook , D ie f ränk ische K u ltur u nd d er I s la m , i n wh ich , i nf luenced b y t he e xcava t ions a t B irka a nd t he a r tefac ts r ecovered t here , s he p resented a g low ing p ic ture o f t he r ichness o f I s la m ic c iv i l izat ion .2 7 F ar f ro m h av ing c u t t he Med iterranean l i nks b etween E urope , As ia , a nd A fr ica , i th ad , i n h er o p in ion , a dded a n ew d i mens ion , b y r estor ing t he c onnec t ion b etween C en tra l A s ia a nd t he E uropean N or th , wh ich h ad e x isted when t he G o ths h ad d om inated s outhern R uss ia . T o t h is h ad t o b e a dded t he s teady i n tercourse w i th B yzan t iu m , v ia t he 6

Russ ian r iver s ys te m . Ra ther t han e xper ienc ing a s hor tage o f o r ien ta l merc hand ise , C aro l ing ian E urope o b ta ined e ven g reater q uan t it ies , f or i tn o l onger d epended f or i t s s upp l ies o n t he Med iterranean a lone . N ow i th ad t wo s ecure l inks f or t he p rov is ion o f B yzan t ine , P ers ian , a nd C h inese s i lks , e astern s p ices a nd d rugs , p rec ious s tones f ro m I nd ia , C ey lon , a nd e lsewhere i n A s ia a nd A fr ica , works o fa r t , a nd a l most a ny o ther l uxury g oods d es ired .

I ndeed f or

Erna P atze lt a n ew g o lden a ge h ad a r isen . T he o n ly o ther a t te mp t t o q uest ion t he v a l id ity o f P irenne ' sc la im t hat t he e xpans ion o f I s la m h ad s evered E urope ' s Med iterranean l i nks w ith A s ia a nd A fr ica was made b y M i lada P au Iowa , t he C zech h is tor ian , p ar t ly i n r ap id r esponse t o t he w ork o f M me P atze lt .

S he ma in ta ined t hat e ven b efore 3 95

t he Med i terranean b as in was a lready d iv ided i n to t wo c u ltura l s pheres :

t he

B yzan t ine E ast , wh ich b eca me Greek , a nd t he O cc iden t , wh ich h ad b een c u t o f f f ro m o r ien ta l i n f luences b y t he G er man i nvas ions . T he e xpans ion o f I s la m mere ly i ncreased t he i so lat ion o f E urope b y p ush ing t he c en tre o f g rav ity o f t he I s la m ic wor ld s t i l l f ur ther t o t he e ast . With t he f oundat ion o f B aghdad a nd o ther c i t ies i nt he e ast , t he ir e ver-grow ing a nd p rosperous p opu lat ions made s uch d e mands o n t he s upp ly o f g oods t hat n ex t t o n o th ing r e ma ined f or t he ir f or mer c usto mers i n E urope . Moreover , t he West h ad l i t t le t o o f fer wh ich m igh t h ave t e mp ted Mus l im t raders t o u nder take t he p er i lous j ourney .2 8 Whether o r n o t o ne a ccep ts t he who le o f M me P au lowä . ' st hes is , h er r easoni ng c oncern ing t he a l leged c losure o f t he Med iterranean b y I s la m wou ld a ppear t o b e s ound :

f or t he t ime b e ing E urope was s i mp ly l ess a t tract ive t han o ther

p arts o f t he wor ld .

Un for tunate ly , h er work h as n ever a t tracted t he a t ten t ion

i td eserves . O ther s cho lars , wh i le h ard ly t ouch ing t he b as ic p re m ises o f P irenne ' s t heor ies—that i s , t he f l our ish ing Merov ing ian e cono my a nd i t s c lose c o mmerc ia l r elat ions w i th t he Med iterranean wor ld—began t o p roduce e v idence t hat t he i so lat ion o f E urope i n t he n in th a nd t en th c en tur ies c ou ld n ot h ave b een a s c o mp le te a s P irenne c la i med .

S abbe h as f ound many r eferences wh ich

s how t hat t he c our t a nd c lergy a t l east h ad a c ho ice o f p rec ious c lo th f ro m B yzan t iu m , Umayyad S pa in , a nd t he Mus l im E ast , a s we l l a s a l l t he s p ices a nd o ther l uxury g oods t hey r equ ired .2 9 H e a lso p o in ts t o t he c onnect ions e x ist ing w ith E ng land , a nd t o t he F r is ian t rade w ith t he N or th , a s we l l a s t o F r is ian i nvo lve men t w ith B a lt ic c o m merce wh ich t hus l inked t he C aro l ing ian wor ld w ith t he R uss ian t rade o f t he S cand inav ians , a nd t hence w ith B yzan t iu m a nd t he E ast . 3° T he c ap itu lary o f T h ionv i l le , d at ing f ro m 8 05 , p rov ides a l ong l i st o fb order-posts , s uch a s B ardow ick , S chese l , Magdeburg , E rfur t , H a lberstadt , F orchhe im , a nd B a mberg , t hrough wh ich t raders h ad t o p ass o n t he ir way t o a nd f ro m t he l ands o f t he S lays , a s we l l a s R egensburg a nd L orsch o n t he way t o t he l and o f t he Avars .3 1 A l l t hese r outes h ad c onnect ions w ith Ma inz a nd t hus w ith t he Rh ine , t he ma in a r tery o f C aro l ing ian t rade . S abbe a lso r efu ted P irenne ' st hes is r egard ing t he a bsence o f ac lass o f p rofess iona l merchan ts a t t h is p er iod .

3 2

Moreover , L auren t i nvest ig ated

t he i nst itut iona l b as is o f ap ar t icu lar g roup o f merchan ts i n t he C aro l ing ian Emp ire— t hose w ho were c harged w ith t he p rocure men t o f s upp l ies f or t he P a lace a nd t he a bbeys —and h e c onc luded t hat s im i lar a rrange men ts h ad a lso o perated i n Merov ing ian t imes .

3 3

T he e x istence o f a merchan t c lass wh ich

t raded b eyond t he b orders o f t he r ea lm t hus r a ises t he q uest ion o f t he l ega l 7

s tatus o f f ore igners i n g enera l .

Accord ing t o F rank ish l aw a f ore igner h ad

n o r i ets u n less s o me s pec ia l p ro tect ion were e x tended t o h im , u sua l ly b y t he k ing . 4 S uch p ro tect ion was n or ma l ly g iven t o p i lgr i ms a nd merchan ts . S im i lar a rrange men ts o bv ious ly p reva i led i n t he n e ighbour ing l ands , o r n o f ore ign t rade wou ld h ave b een p oss ib le . However , t he c o mp la in ts e xpressed b y O f fa , k ing o f Merc ia , i n al et ter t o C har le magne d iscussed i n a no ther c onnect ion b e low , i s e v idence t hat t hese r ec iproca l r igh ts were o f ten d isreg arded . T he s a me k ind o f s yste m o perated i n t he Mus l i m wor ld , where a f ore igner w as f ree t o t rade o nce h e h ad p a id t he c ustoms d ut ies o n e n try .

These w ere

n or ma l ly d oub le t he r ate p a id b y a Mus l im , u n less s o me s pec if ic r ec iprocal a gree men t was i n f orce .

I t was a lso e ssen t ia l f or a f ore igner t o a cqu ire a

s ecur ity p ass , wh ich was n or ma l ly v a l id f or o ne y ear .3 5 T here was t hus n o l ega l l im i tat ion o n t he c on t inuat ion o f Med iterranean t rade , a nd t he d eve lopmen t o f t he I t a l ian t rad ing-por ts , s uch a s Ama lf i , G ae ta , a nd V en ice , w as a c onsequence o f t h is o pen-door p o l icy . Any d oub ts a s t o whether t hese a rrange men ts c on for med w ith r ea l ity must b e d ispe l led b y al ong n o t ice b y t he Arab g eographer , I bn Khurdadbeh , w ho was a h igh o f f ic ia l o ft he cAbbäs id C a l iphate . H e d escr ibes t he c o m merc ia l a ct iv it ies o f t he R ad lan ites , ag roup o f J ew ish merchan ts whose h o me b ase was n ear B aghdad . A f ter n o t ing t hat t hey s poke n o t o n ly Arab ic a nd P ers ian b u t a lso G reek , 't he l anguage o f F ranc ia ' ( La t in o r P rovença l ? ) , S pan ish , a nd S lavon ic , h e p rov ides d e ta i ls o f t he r outes o ver wh ich t hey t rave l led b y l and a nd s ea t o t he ir d est inat ions , wh ich i ncluded C onstan t inop le , t he l and o f t he F ranks , a nd e ven I nd ia a nd Ch ina . The l i st o f wares i n wh ich t hey t raded i s af ur ther s ign o f t he r ange o f t he ir a c t iv it ies .3 6 G anshof h as , moreover , p roduced e v idence f ro m Western s ources t ha t a c er ta in amoun t o f c o m merc ia l a ct iv ity s t i l l c on t inued i n t he P rovença l p or ts i n t he e ighth t o t en th c en tur ies . C lear ly t he Med iterranean r e ma ined a n o pen l ane o f c o m mun icat ion . N e ither p iracy n or t he e xped it ions o f t he S aracens a nd V ik ings e ver b rought i t s c o m merc ia l a ct iv i ty t o ac omp lete s tandst i l l , e ven t hough t hese p er i ls may h ave c ons iderab ly r educed i t s l eve l .

3 7

I t was i n f act t he B yzan t ine Emp ire w h ich s evere ly l im ited t he r igh ts o f f ore igners t o c ircu late f ree ly . I ta lso p ut o bstac les i n t he way o f t he e xpor t o ft he mos t c ove ted p roduc ts , s uch a s g o ld c oins a nd c er ta in t ypes o f s i lk c loth , a s w e l l a s b ann ing t he e xpor t o f a rms a nd o ther ma ter ia ls o f war . B ans o n t he e xpor t o f war- mater ia ls , i n t he w idest s ense o f t he t er m , w ere a lso i ncorporated i n I s la m ic l aw , a nd t he F rank ish c ap itu lar ies r epeated ly r em ind merchan ts t o a dhere s tr ict ly t o s im i lar r egu lat ions . I n p ract ice t hey were c onstan t ly f l outed , t hen a s n ow , wh i le t he p roh ib it ion made t he t rade s t i l l more p rof i tab le . I n h is p aper , Moha m med a nd C har le magne : ar ev is ion ', L opez s h if ts t he i ssue f ro m t he p ure ly e cono m ic p lane , a nd c ons iders i ta s ac lash o f i nst itut iona l a rrange men ts .

3 8

D eny ing t he v a l id ity o f t he 'c atastroph ic

t hes is ', a s h e d ubs P irenne ' sc onc lus ion t ha t t he Arab c onquests p roduced as udden c o l lapse i n i n ternat iona l t rade , h e p roceeds t o i nvest igate wha t h e t er ms t he f our 'd isappearances ' wh ich , a ccord ing t o P irenne , were t he s igns

8

o f t he Arab d isrup t ion o f t he e cono m ic u n ity o f E urope a nd t he Med iterranean . Y et L opez a dm its t hat t he Western e conomy s low ly c hanged i t s n ature , t hereby imp l ic it ly a ccep t ing P irenne ' sv iews o n t he s tate o f i n ternat iona l t rade i n t he Merov ing ian e ra . H e ma in ta ins , h owever , t hat t hese c hanges w ere r e la ted t o t he c ond it ions o b ta in ing i n b o th t he A . rab a nd B yzan t ine wor lds . T hus , i n trod uc ing t he B yzan t ine Emp ire a s a n importan t f actor , h e d iscusses t he f a te o f p apyrus , o r ien ta l l uxury c loths , s p ices , a nd g o ld c urrency , a nd c onc ludes t hat n one o f t hese 'f our d isappearances ' b ore a ny r e lat ionsh ip i n t ime t o t he p rogress o f t he Arab c onquests , o r t o o ne a no ther . A s r egards s p ices L opez s uggests t hat a ny d im inu t ion i n t he ir s upp ly i n t he e ighth c en tury c ou ld h ave b een d ue t o u nset t led c ond it ions i n A s ia , w here t he Arabs f i rst c onquered S ind a nd t hen , i n t he m idd le o f t he c en tury , c lashed w ith C h ina i n C en tra l A s ia .

I n f act n o s p ices c a me e xc lus ive ly f rom t hese a reas .

N or i s t here e v idence o f a ny i n terrup t ion o f t rade , n or o f as hor tage o f s p ices i n t he g reat c en tres o f c onsu mp t ion o f t he I s la m ic wor ld . On t he c on trary , t he s tocks o f s p ices must h ave b een e normous . A ccord ing t o af ragmen t o f aC op t ic p apyrus , t he G overnor o f E dfu i n U pper E gyp t a t t he e nd o f t he s even th c en tury f orced t we lve l oca l g u i lds t o p urchase a t o ta l o f 1 56 l b o f p epper , a t ap r ice o f o ne-s ix th o f as o l idus p er p ound .3 9 T he m iss ing p ar t o f t he l i st may h ave i nvo lved more g u i lds a nd a s t i l l l arger q uan t ity .

T h is d ocu men t

s hows , moreover , t hat f or p epper a t l east t he o ld B yzan t ine monopo ly c ont i nued f or a l ong t ime a f ter t he Arab c onquest . L opez r ight ly p o in ted o ut t hat t he t hree o ther

d isappearances ' —of g o ld

c o inage , l uxury f abr ics , a nd p apyrus — c oncerned c o m mod it ies w h ich were s ta te monopo l ies i n t he B yzan t ine Emp ire , a s i n R o man t imes , a nd t ha t t he ir s a le was t hus s ub jec t t o s pec ia l r estr ict ions . I th as a lready b een n o ted t hat p apyrus was g radua l ly b e ing r ep laced b y p arch men t , al oca l p roduct , a lthough L opez p rov ides e xa mp les o f i t s u se , f or l ega l p urposes a t l east , u p t o t he e nd o f t he t en th c en tury , wh i le t he P apa l c hancery wro te i t s c har ters o n p apyrus u n t i l 1 056 . T he r e ma in ing t wo monopo l ies f o l lowed a d i f feren t c ourse . was n o t e ven f ree ly a va i lab le i n C ons tan t inop le .

P urp le c loth

U nder t he S u mp tuary L aw

t he t op q ua l it ies w ere r estr icted , o r e ven e xc luded f ro m g enera l u se a nd e xp ort . T hey were r eserved f or t he c our t , t o b e b estowed o n h igh o f f ic ia ls , o r t o b e g iven a sp resen ts i n d ip lo mat ic e xchanges . L opez a grees w ith S abbe , h owever , t hat t here i s s o me d ocu men tary e v idence o f t he ir a va i lab i l ity i n Western E urope , a nd t hat a ny f a l l i n c onsu mp t ion may h ave b een d ue t o a c hange o f f ash ion among l ay men , f or t he C hurch c on t inued t o u se t he m . T hese s upp l ies a ppear t o h ave c o me e i ther f rom I s la m ic s ources o r , i n f l uctuat ing q uan t it ies w h ich d epended o n t he d egree o f s urve i l lance , e ven f ro m B yzan t iu m . L east c onv inc ing o f a l l was t he a t te mp t made b y L opez t o e xp la in t he a bsence o f aC aro l ing ian g o ld c o inage .

H e s uggested t hat s ince g o ld c o ins b ear ing a

p or tra it o f t he Emperor wou ld h ave s erved a s as y mbo l , t he ir a bsence c ou ld h ave b een a s ign t ha t C har le magne h ad n o w ish t o a ggravate h is r e lat ionsh ip w i th t he Byzan t ine Emperor , whose f ee lings h ad a lready b een s uf f ic ien t ly r uff led b y C har lemagne 's a ssu mp t ion o ft he i mper ia lt i t le i n 8 00 .

B ut i n v iew

o f t he f ac t t ha t t he L o mbards h ad a lready i ssued f i gured g o ld c o ins , a nd t ha t C har le magne 's s on , L ouis t he P ious , a lso d id s o i n 8 16 , L opez h ad t o a d mi t t ha t t he p ara mount r eason f or a dop ting a p ure s i lver c oinage migh t we l l h ave b een e cono m ic .

9

I n ap aper e n t it led

P irenne a nd Muha mmad ', D ennet , a n o r ien ta l ist ,

s howed t hat t he Arabs n e ither c losed t he Med i terranean t o c o mmerce w ith t he West , n or h ad a ny d es ire t o d o s o . 4° I n h is v iew t he d ec l ine o f t he West —the s o-ca l led M idd le Ages —was d ue t o ac omp lex o f c auses , ma in ly i n terna l a nd l arge ly c onnected w ith s oc ia l a nd p o l it ica l i nst itut ions , a nd h e c oncluded t ha t a ny a t te mp t t o i n terpret t he Merov ing ian a nd C aro l ing ian p er iods i n p ure ly e cono m ic t er ms was b ound t o f a i l , s ince s uch f actors p layed o n ly a s ubs id iary r o le . Af i na l a n t ithes is t o P irenne w as p rov ided b y L o mbard , i n t wo p apers , L ' o r musu l man d u V I Ie a u X Ie s iec le—Les b ases mone ta ires d 'u ne s upre mat ie e cono m ique ' 41 a nd 'Maho met e t C har le magne— L e p rob le me e cono m ique ' .42 H e a rgued t hat i ft he 'b arbar ian West ' i mpor ted f ewer o r ien ta l g oods i n t he s even th a nd e igh th c en tur ies , t h is must b e a t tr ibu ted t o t he f act t hat t he Weste rn market h ad a l most e n t ire ly l ost i t s p urchas ing p ower .

On ly w ith t he

p ar t ia l r eturn o f t h is p urchas ing p ower i n t he n in th c en tury , d id t he West a ga in a cqu ire o r ien ta l w ares . I t s g radua l r es torat ion w as s o le ly d ue t o t he c ons tan t ly-grow ing d e mand o f t he I s la m ic c en tres o f c onsu mp t ion f or p roducts o f t he B arbar ian wor ld : l east , f or g o ld .

f or s laves , f urs , meta ls , t imber , a nd , l ast b u t n o t

T he i nf lux o f g o ld c aused t he d inar t o t r iu mph o ver t he n om is ma

a s t he c o in o f i n ternat iona l c o mmerce , a nd c onsequen t ly l ed t o t he c essat ion o f g o ld c o inage i n t he C aro l ing ian Emp ire . Wh i le L o mbard c red ited P irenne w ith b e ing t he f i rst t o r a ise t he q uest ion o f O r ien t-Occ iden t ' o n t he e cono m ic p lane , t he s o lu t ion h e p rov ided f or t he Muha mmad-Char le magne e quat ion was e xact ly t he r everse o f t hat s ugges ted b y P irenne . T he c reat ion o f s uch a g reat a nd p owerfu l d oma in a s t he I s la m ic wor ld mus t o f n ecess ity h ave i nf luenced i t s n e ighbours . Y et f or L o mbard t he I s la m ic wor ld , e ven a t t he h e igh t o f i t s d eve lop men t , c ou ld n ever h ave a cted a s a s tu mb l ing-b lock f or t he r egress ive 'b arbar ian West ' . On t he c on trary , h e c ons idered t hat f or t he West , a s f or t he B yzan t ine Emp ire a nd f or t he r eg ion o f t he R uss ian r ivers , i ts erved a s ac en tre o f e cono m ic , a r t ist ic , a nd i n te ll ectua l i nf luence : av ery r e incarnat ion o fb o th t he H e l len ist ic a nd R oman wor lds . I n t h is way i tr e-estab l ished t he e cono m ic c ircu lat ion , u n t i l e ven t he 'b arbar ian West ' g radua l ly b eca me r eat tached t o t he ma instrea m o f d eve lop men t , j ust a s i n t he t ime o f A lexander t he G reat , b ut n ow o n a much g rander s ca le , e x tend ing f ro m t he F ar Wes t t o t he F ar E ast . T o L o mbard g o ld was t he k ey wh ich e xp la ined a l l t he e cono m ic f l uctuat ions . T he S yr ian t raders , h av ing e xhausted t he western s tocks o f g o ld i n Merov ing ian t imes , h ad c eased t o t rade , a nd t he B yzan t ine Emp ire h ad f or v ar ious r easons l ost i t s s ources o f f resh ly- m ined g o ld .

H e ma in ta ined , h owever , t hat i n t he

c ourse o f t he ir e xpans ion t he Arabs t ook o ver t he e nor mous g o ld s tocks o f t he E ast , i nc lud ing t he d e monet ized t reasure o f t he S äsän ians a nd o f t he C hurch , f ever ish ly e xp lo ited t he g o ld- m ines o f N ub ia , a nd f ina l ly g a ined c on tro l o ver t he g o ld o f t he S udan .

T hey w ere e ven s upposed t o h ave o pened

t he P yra m ids i n s earch o f h idden t reasure . T hus , a ccord ing t o L o mbard , t he Musl i ms b y t he ir c onquests a ga in b rough t i n to c ircu lat ion t he g o ld a ccu mu la ted i n t he E ast a nd , h av ing c ap tured t he g o ld o f t he S udan , t hey t ook t he ir p lace i n wor ld e cono m ic h istory b etween A lexander t he G reat , who h ad o pened t he t reasures o f t he A chae men ids f or t he G reek wor ld , a nd t he S pan ish c onqu istadors w ho t ransferred t o t he O ld Wor ld t he g o ld a nd s i lver o f Amer ica .

1 0

I n L ombard ' sv iew p ar t o f t h is g o ld f ound i t s w ay t o E urope i n e xchange f or c er ta in g oods w h ich c a me more a nd more t o a t tract Mus l i m merchan ts , s uch a s a r ms , s laves , f urs , a nd C orn ish t i n; a nd t hey p a id i ng o ld , f or t he Wes tern d e mand f or o r ien ta l wares h ad s udden ly s lu mped . H owever , t he d inar h ad b y n ow r ep laced t he n om is ma a s t he c o in o f i n ternat iona l t rade , a nd t he mancus , a s t he d inar was c a l led i n t he West , w as b e ing u sed f or q uo t ing p r ices a nd was c ircu lat ing f ree ly .

T h is v ast i n f lux o f g o ld a ga in r educed t he r at io b e tween

g o ld a nd s i lver t o a round 1 :12 . I ta lso e ncouraged t he r esu mp t ion o f a r t ist ic work i n g o ld, a nd i te ventua l ly l ed t o ar enewed d emand f or o r ienta l wares . T he S cand inav ians , w ho n or ma l ly i ns isted o n s i lver a s a means o f e xchange , a ccep ted g o ld , b ut t ransfor med i ti n to i ngo ts o r j ewe l lery , o r r e-expor ted i t t o B yzan t iu m .

D ur ing t he p er iod o f i conoc las m t he l a t ter h ad a lready p ar t ly

r ep len ished i t s f a l l ing s tocks o f g o ld b y s e iz ing t he t reasures o f t he C hurch , a nd i tc on t inued t o p rof it f ro m t he t rans it-trade a nd f rom t he e xpor t o f i t s p roduce t o E urope , v ia K iev a nd V en ice . T here was t hus a c on t inuous s trea m o f Mus l im g o ld t o a l l p ar ts o f t he 'b arbar ian West ', wh ich c on tr ibuted l arge ly t o aC aro l ing ian r ena issance a nd t o t he s p lendours o f t he O t ton ian c ourt .

F or

L o mbard a mone tar ist ' sd rea m h ad c ome t o p ass . G r ierson , wh i le o r ig ina l ly d oub t ing t hat t he c o in was n a med mancus a f ter t he Arab ic manqush ', h as n ow c onceded t ha t t h is may h ave b een t he c ase . H owever , h e f i nds n o e v idence o f a ny l arge-sca le impor tat ion o f A rab g o ld i n to Western E urope ; 43 a v iew wh ich i s s hared b y C laude C ahen , w ith h is u nr iva l led k now ledge o f t he Arab ic s ources . 44

B o th H im ly 45 a nd D up lessy ,

4 6

a f ter c arefu l s tudy o fa l l t he West E uropean h oards c on ta in ing A rab c o ins , c a me t o t he c onc lus ion t ha t t he a l leged impor t o f I s la m ic g o ld c o ins s ee med t o h ave l e f t l i t t le o r n o t race i n t he h oards . D up lessy ' sp aper , w h ich a ppeared i n 1 956 , i nc luded a l i st o f 2 1 h oards ( p lus 4 s ing le f i nds ) c on ta in ing I s la m ic c o ins , b ur ied b efore t he y ear 1 000 i n E urope , west o f t he E lbe , i nc lud ing E ng land . ( There a re o f c ourse h undreds o f o ther h oards f rom b efore 1 000 w h ich i nc lude n o I s la m ic c o ins .)

D up lessy ' s2 5 c on ta ined 7 ,611 c o ins a nd

c o in-fragmen ts , o f wh ich 6 ,765 were f ound a t C uerda le .

T here were o n ly

1 70 I s la m ic c o ins , a nd o f t hese n o more t han 1 7 were i n g o ld , o f wh ich 1 1 were f ro m a s ing le d iscovery a t B o logna .

T hese f i nd ings p ose a p rob le m a nd

t end t o c ast d oub t o n t he t heory t hat l ong-d is tance t rade f l our ished o nce more i n western E urope i n t he n in th a nd t en th c en tur ies , a nd t hus p roduced a l arge i n f lux o f I s la m ic c o ins . I n h is p aper 'C o m merce i n t he D ark Ages ; ac r it ique o f t he e v idence ' , 47 G r ierson c ons iders t he d if feren t ways i n w h ich p rec ious wares , p ar t icu lar ly c o ins a nd p rec ious meta ls , c ou ld h ave c hanged h ands , a nd c onsequen t ly h ow t he t erm 't rade ' s hou ld b e d ef ined w ith r egard t o t hat e ra . H e c la i ms t hat i n v iew o f t he i ncreas ing a rchaeo log ica l f i nds o f a r tefacts a nd c o ins i n p laces f ar f rom t he ir o r ig in , t he p icture o f t rade i n t h is p er iod h as b ecome d istor ted b y t he i nc lus ion o f o ther f or ms o f e xchange o r a cqu is it ion .

Wh i le n ot d eny ing

t hat t he e ra k new c o m merce a nd t raders i n v ar ious s tages o f t he ir d eve lopmen t , h e d oubts w hether—foodstuf fs a par t— more t han a f ract ion o f t he g oods a nd c o ins wh ich c hanged h ands i n t hose d ays d id s o a s ar esu lt o f c o mmerc ia l a ct iv ity . The c o ins a nd b u l l ion wh ich c rossed b orders wou ld ma in ly h ave b een i nvo lved i n s uch t ransact ions a sp ay men ts t o c on federates o r mercena r ies , s ubs id ies t ou nru ly b order p eop les , o r r ansom f or t he r e lease o f 1

c ap tured p r isoners . Prec ious wares , i nc lud ing a r ms , may r epresen t t he c us to mary e xchange o f p resen ts b y d ip lo mat ic m iss ions . Or t hey may h ave b een b estowed s o le ly w ith t he o b ject o f p lac ing t he r ec ip ien t u nder a n o b l igat i on o f l oya l ty , r espec t , o r e ven s erv ice t o t he d onor , a s i n t he c ase o f C har le magne , who d istr ibu ted t he t reasure o ft he Avars t o h is v assa ls , t o c hurch d ign i tar ies , a nd e ven t o O f fa , k ing o f Merc ia , i n o rder t o man ifest h is e xa l ted p os it ion i n r e lat ion t o t he r ec ip ien ts . Y et , wh i le many o f t he B yzan t ine a nd o r ien ta l v estmen ts h ad i ndeed b een r ece ived a s g if ts b y t he C hurch , t h is d oes n ot e xc lude t he p oss ib i l ity t hat t he d onor h ad p rocured t he m t hrough a merchan t w ho f u lf i l led h is c o mm iss ion a nd made a p rof it . T hus , t hough G r ierson t ss tr ictures o n t he t endency t o s ee t rade i n e very move men t o f c o ins a nd g oods c er ta in ly d eserve t o b e t aken s er ious ly , h is s o mbre a ssess men t o f t he 'D ark Ages ', wh ich p ract ica l ly d en ies t he e x istence o f merchan ts a nd o f t rade i n t he t rue s ense o f t he t er m , h o lds t he d anger t hat t he emergence o f n ew e cono mic d eve lop men ts may g o u ndetected u n t i l t hey a re i n f u l l s pate . N or thern E urope a nd t he B a lt ic c oun tr ies h ave f igured r e lat ive ly l i t t le i n t he works s o f ar c ons idered , i n w h ich a t ten t ion h as b een f ocussed ma in ly o n t he Med iterranean s cene . T he V ik ing a ge h as g one d own i n h istory a s a p er iod o f v io lence , r obbery , a nd d estruct ion . T he c hron ic les o f t he e ra a re f u l l o f d readfu l d eeds , b ut s ay l i t t le o r n oth ing a bou t s uch mundane ma t ters a s t rade .

Moreover , t hey ma in ly d escr ibe t he a ct iv it ies o f t he D anes a nd

N orweg ians i n t he N or th S ea a nd r are ly c oncern t he mse lves w ith e ven ts i n t he B a l t ic . On ly works s uch a s t he V ita Anskar i i48 a nd Ada m o f Bre men ' s H istory o f t he C hurch o f H a mburg , " w h ich d ea l w ith t he m iss ionary a ct iv it i es o f t he C hurch i n t he B a lt ic r eg ion , o ccas iona l ly men t ion e veryday c o mmerc ia l p ursu its . C o m merc ia l a ct iv it ies i n t he B a lt ic S ea were d om inated b y t he Swedes , a nd i ti s o n ly t hrough t he e xcavat ions i n Sweden , a t H edeby , t he western t er m ina l i n J ut land , a nd a long t he s outhern B a l t ic c oast , t hat a l l t he r am if icat i ons o f t h is t rade h ave b een r evea led .

I te x tended f ro m t he r eg ion a round

L ake Mä lar i n c en tra l S weden , where a Swed ish s tate f i rst c a me i n to b e ing , v ia R uss ia t o C en tra l A s ia a nd t o B yzan t iu m , t hus g iv ing N orthern E urope a ccess t o s ources o f s upp ly wh ich h ad h ither to r eached i t ma in ly t hrough t he Med iterranean . T he o ldest t rading-cen tre o n L ake Mf f lar w as H e lgö , t he Ho ly I s land , wh ich f l our ished b etween 4 00 a nd 8 00 .

5 0

I tw as e as i ly a ccess ib le b y b oat f rom a l l

p ar ts o f t he MA lar v a l ley , o r i n w in ter o ver t he f rozen w aters .

I ts ee ms t o

h ave b een a p agan c u lt ic c en tre a t wh ich l arge c rowds c o l lected f or r e l ig ious f est iv it ies a t c er ta in t imes o f t he y ear . T hese f est iva ls w ere p robab ly a cc o mpan ied b y r egu lar f a irs , a t wh ich t he v is itors c ou ld b o th a cqu ire t hose g oods wh ich t hey d id n o t t he mse lves p roduce , a nd market t he ir own p roducts . T he l oca l c raf ts men s pec ia l ized i n me ta lwork , a s i s s een f ro m t he r e ma ins o f l arge workshops , i nc lud ing t housands o f f ragmen ts o f mou lds , cr uc ib le, a nd v ar ious r aw mater ia ls . T he e xcavat ions h ave a lso d isc losed a w ide r ange o f i mpor ted g oods , w h ich c lear ly r evea l t he e x tens ive a nd d iverse c onnect ions o f t he s i te , a nd a lso i nd ica te t hat t radel inks must h ave e x isted b etween S cand inav ia a nd A s ia e ven b efore t he V ik ing a ge . 1 2

A part f ro m s herds o f

western g lass , j e tons o f R o man g lass , p o t tery a nd b ronze v esse ls , a nd o ther o b jects , i nc lud ing s o me f ro m l a te C e l t ic t imes , as even th-cen tury s taf f o f a n I r ish b ishop h as b een r ecovered . T he e astern B a lt ic i s r epresen ted b y j ewe ll ery a nd t he A s ian E ast b y a wel l-preserved B uddha f rom n or thern I nd ia . S o me s even ty Ro man a nd B yzan t ine g o ld c o ins h ave a lso b een f ound , c o mpared w ith o n ly f i f ty f ro m t he r es t o f t he ma in land o f S weden . H e lgö d ec l ined a s a market-p lace when B irka , o n t he i s land o f B jörko , d eve loped ;

p oss ib ly b ecause o f t he more f avourab le p os it ion o f t he l a t ter ,

wh ich c o m mands t he i nner r ou te t o t he n or thern p ar t o f L ake M i llar a nd t he waterways t o t he ma in S wed ish s et t le men ts i n U pp land , V ästman land a nd S öder man land .5 1 B irka a lso p ossessed t wo n atura l h arbours , t o wh ich , a t t he h e igh t o f i t s d eve lop men t , aw e l l-protected a r t if ic ia l h arbour was a dded . More impor tan t s t i l l , i ts tood u nder t he p rotect ion o f t he k ing , whose r epresent a t ive c onducted t he a f fa irs o f t he t own w ith t he h e lp o f t he t h ing . I n h is a ccoun t o f t he v is its t o B irka o f Ansgar , Archb ishop o f H a mburg , i n 8 30 a nd 8 50 , R i mber t d escr ibes i ta s af l our ish ing t own , a l though w ith a p opu la t ion sma l ler t han t hat o f D uurstede , t he F r is ian t rad ing-cen tre . H e n otes t hat t he p opu lat i on was d iv ided i n to t wo p arts : t he p opu l i a nd t he n egoc iatores : t hus l eav ing n o d oub t a bout t he i mpor tance o f t rade i n t he e cono m ic l i fe o f t he t own . Archa eo log ica l e v idence s hows t hat l oca l p roduct ion must h ave b een s im i lar t o t hat o f H e lgö .

An t lers w ere worked i n to a w ide r ange o f g oods f or d a i ly u se , s uch

a s c o mbs a nd n eed les , a nd o ther we l l-estab l ished manufactures were t he p roduct ion o f p ots f ro m s oapstone impor ted f ro m N orway , a nd o f j ewe l lery f ro m B a lt ic amber .

I t s e xpor ts w ere ma in ly c oncerned w ith t he t rans it-trade ,

b ut t hey a lso i nc luded c er ta in l oca l i t e ms : a bove a l l f urs f rom t he s urround ing a reas , wh ich i n w in ter a rr ived a long t he f rozen waters . T he g raves h ave a lso y ie lded Rhen ish g lass a nd weapons , a s we l l a s B yzan t ine a nd e ven C h inese s i lks . H owever , i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he t en th c en tury B irka i n t urn b egan t o d ec l ine , f or r easons wh ich a re n o t q u i te c lear b ut may h ave b een r e lated t o t he f act t hat t he r e ma ins o f t he s hr ink ing e astern t rade were n ow b e ing a t tracted ma in ly t o t he i s land o f G ot land .5 2 G ot land , l y ing i n t he c entre o f t he r ou tes b e tween L ake Ma laren , H edeby a nd t he B a l t ic c oas t , e n joyed a v ery f avourab le p os i t ion , wh ich was e nhanced b y t he f ac t t ha t i tw as p rac t ica l ly i ce-free a l l t he y ear r ound , wh i le L ake Ma lar was i cebound f or much o f t he y ear .

T he i s land e ar ly c a me u nder t he

sway o ft he k ings o f U ppsa la a nd b ecame a n i mpor tan t s tag ing-p lace i n t he Swed ish a t te mp t t o g a in a f oo tho ld o n t he s ou thern c oast o f t he B a l t ic S ea , where j o in t s et t le men ts o f Swedes a nd G ot landers h ave b een e xcavated a t Grob ina a nd Apuo le .

T hese f l our ished f ro m 6 50 t o 8 00 , b e ing a bandoned when

t he ma in t hrust o f S wed ish t rade a nd c o lon isat ion moved f ur ther e ast a long t he g reat waterways , t o p enetrate Russ ia p roper .

5 3

T he o n ly l i terary r eference t o G o t land ' sV ik ing p er iod i s p rov ided b y Wu lfstan ,

a nd w ere i tn o t f or t he f i ve h undred t reasure-hoards wh ich h ave

s o f ar b een u near thed , V ik ing G o t land m igh t h ave f a l len e n t ire ly i n to o b l iv ion . I t was f or mer ly c ons idered t hat t he i s land h ad p ossessed n o c en tra l mar t o r h arbour , u n t i l V isby a ssu med t h is t ask i n H anseat ic t imes . T he n umerous , we l l-pro tec ted i n le ts were b e lieved t o h ave s erved a sh arbours : a n a ssu mpt i on wh ich a ccorded w ith t he f i nd ing t hat t he V ik ing t reasure-hoards were

1 3

w ide ly d istr ibu ted o ver t he i s land . Recen t ly , h owever , t he e xcava t ions a t P avi ken , n ear V ästergarn , s ou th o f V isby , h ave s hown t hat t h is was o ne o f t he b est n atura l h arbours i n t he i s land .5 5 I tc ou ld we l l h ave a cco m modated t he l arger merchan t-vesse ls , r ese mb l ing t he F r is ian c og , whose l arge d raugh t r equ ired a p roper p or t . I n t he h arbour a t P av iken a whar f h as b een f ound , a s wel l a s s o me t wo t housand i ron r ivets a nd r ivet-p lates ; wh ich s uggests t hat s h ips w ere r egu lar ly b u i l t a nd r epa ired h ere . T he w estern g ateway t o t he B a l t ic S ea was H edeby , wh ich c o mp lete ly c ont ro l led t he t rade o f western E urope , i nc lud ing E ng land , w ith t he l ands a long t he B a lt ic c oast .

5 6

I tl ay i n t he e astern p ar t o f t he n eck o f t he J ut land p en-

i nsu la wh ich e f fec t ive ly d iv ides t he B a lt ic f ro m t he N or th S ea . p ar t o f t he n eck c an b e a l most c o mp lete ly t raversed b y w ater .

H owever , t h is Thus , f ro m

t he e ast t he t own c ou ld b e r eached a long t he r iver S ch le i , a nd f ro m t he N or th S ea b oa ts c ou ld c o me u p t he r ivers E ider a nd T reene a s f ar a s Ho l l ingstedt , f ro m w h ich a s ix teen k i lo metre l and-br idge l ed t o H edeby .

I ti s u n l ike ly ,

h owever , t ha t t he p or tage h ere e x tended t o t he v esse ls a s we l l a s t he g oods , a s was t he c ase a long t he Russ ian r iver s yste m . T he s ea-go ing s h ips o f t he F r is ian merchan ts i n t he N or th S ea , s uch a s t he h u lk a nd t he c og , were b roadb ea med w i th a h igh f reeboard .

Y et b e ing s a i l ing-vesse ls t hey r equ ired o n ly

sma l l c rews : i nsuf f ic ien t f or t ransport ing t h is t ype o f c raf t f ro m o ne s ea t o ,t he o ther . T hus , w hen F r is ian merchan ts t raded i n t he B a lt ic S ea , o r s et t led t here , a s a t B irka , t hey p robab ly j ourneyed a board l oca l s h ips . T he o r ig ins o f H edeby a re q u ite u nknown .

I ti s f i rst men t ioned a s at rad ing-

p ost i n c onnect ion w ith t he f act t ha t i n 8 08 t he D an ish K ing G odfred f orc ib ly t ransferred merchan ts t here f ro m R er ic , at rad ing-post i n t he a rea o f t he O bo tr i te t r ibe .

I t was t o b eco me ma in ly a c o mmerc ia l t own , l iv ing o n t he

t rans it-trade a nd c ater ing t o t he n eeds o f t he t rave l l ing merchan ts a nd t he ir v esse ls , i nc lud ing s h ip r epa irs , a lthough i ta lso p ossessed workshops p roduc ing g oods f or l oca l c onsu mp t ion o r f or e xpor t . F ro m t he e ast H edeby impor ted f urs , amber , w ax , h oney , a nd p oss ib ly S wedish i ron , a s we l l a s o r ienta l l uxur ies , i nc luding s p ices a nd p rec ious c loth . Among t he wes tern merchandise wh ich s treamed e as twards were c loth a nd w ine , Rhen ish a r ms , s uch a s s word-b lades a nd l ance-heads , a nd g lass a nd m i l lstones f ro m t he E ife l .

As we k now f ro m O h there ' sd escr ip t ion o fh is

r oute t o E ng land , H edeby a lso c on tro l led t he t rade w ith t he O s lo F jord , where K aupang i n V est fo ld—Oh there ' sS k ir ingeshea l—was t he c en tral mar t .5 7 K aupang ' s impor ts were t he s a me a s e lsewhere i n t he B a l t ic r eg ion , wh i le i te xpor ted wa lrus , i vory , h ides , c ab les o f w ha leh ide o r s ea lsk in , a nd s oaps tone v esse ls . F or a t ime H edeby w as t he l argest t rad ing-town o n t he B a lt ic S ea b u t , l ike B irka , i tt oo b egan t o d ec l ine i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he t en th c en tury .

I tw as

g radua l ly o ver taken b y Wo l in , a t t he mouth o f t he O der ; p resu mab ly o n a ccoun t o f t he s h if t ing o f t he t rade-rou tes , when t he l and r ou tes f ro m K iev v ia P o land g rew i n impor tance . Impress ive a s t h is V ik ing t rade i n t he B a lt ic S ea a ppears t o b e , i ti s i mp or tan t t o r ea l ise t hat i t s o vera l l v o lu me c anno t b e c o mpared w ith t ha t o f Ro man t rade i n t he Med i terranean , n or w ith t he c on te mporary t rade i n t he I nd ian O cean . T he l arger o f t he t wo merchan t-sh ips r ecovered f ro m t he 1 4

s ea a t S ku lde lev o n t he R osk i lde F jord , ak narr , p ossessed a c arry ing-capac ity o f t h ir ty c ub ic metres :5 8 j ust e nough f or t h ir ty s acks o f woo l o r f i f teen h ogsh eads o fw ine . T rade i n t he N or th S ea w as d om inated b y t he F r is ians , b u t t ha t w ith Eng land h ad t o b e s hared w i th t he merchan ts o f Q uen tov ic , a t t he mouth o f t he C anche , a nd o f c ourse w ith E ng l ish merchan ts . 59 T he F r is ians h ad t he ir ma in c en tre a t D uurstede o n t he L ek , o ne o f t he b ranches o f t he l ower Rh ine , f ro m where t hey c on tro l led t he f l ow o f merchand ise a long t he Rh ine , t he ma in a r tery i n to Western E urope . A t f i rst D uurstede was a f ron t ier market , wh ich must h ave e nhanced i t s p os it ion i n t he i n ternat iona l t rade , b ut w ith t he C aro l ing ian c onquest o f S axony t h is p r iv i leged p os it ion c eased .

D ur ing t he p er iod when

i td om inated t he R h ine t rade , F r is ian merchan ts e stab l ished c o lon ies i n D u isb urg , Ma inz , a nd Wor ms , a s we l l a s i n Y ork a nd p oss ib ly a lso i n C o logne a nd B irka . I n t he f i rst h a lf o f t he n in th c en tury t he F r is ian t rade r eached i t s p eak , when i ts upp l ied t he B a lt ic r eg ion a nd Eng land w ith w ine f ro m t he Mose l le a nd A lsace , g lass f ro m N a mur , me tal ware , i nc lud ing a r ms , f rom D inan t a nd e lsewhere , m i l lstones f ro m t he E ife l a nd , l ast b ut n o t l east , w ith i t s own p roducts : s a lt a nd c loth . I ti s p oss ib le , h owever , t hat t he c loth s a i l ing k nown a s p a l l ia f r ison ica may n o t h ave b een manufactured b y t he F r is ians a lone , b ut b ore t he ir n a me b ecause t hey were t he ma in d ea lers i n t h is p roduct . S o me o f t h is c lo th may h ave b een woven i n F landers o r E ng land , t he o ther g reat s heep-rear ing a nd woo l-produc ing a reas o f t hat p er iod . D uurstede , l i ke Quen tov ic , s uf fered r epeated ly f ro m V ik ing a t tacks , a nd b oth t owns d isappeared i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he n in th c en tury ; t he d im in ishi ng t rade o f t he f or mer b e ing t aken o ver b y T ie l a nd U trech t .

Y et i ti s s t i l l

u nc lear w hether t he d em ise o f t hese t owns s hou ld b e e n t ire ly a t tr ibuted t o t he V ik ings , o r whether i t was o n ly h astened b y t he m . I t must b e b orne i n m ind t hat V ik ing r a ids w ere a lways a i med s pec if ica l ly a t p laces where r iches were b e l ieved t o h ave b een amassed . A s ar esu l t t he l oo t ing a nd b urn ing were p ract ica l ly c onf ined t o t hese p laces a nd d id n o t n ecessar i ly i nvo lve t he s urr ound ing a rea .

I ndeed , a s J . W. T ho mpson l ong a go s uggested w i th r egard

t o t he V ik ing r a ids o n F rance i n t he n in th c en tury , t he t e mporary o ccupat ion wh ich o f ten f o l lowed s uch r a ids p robab ly i ncreased t he d e mand f or f ood a nd o ther n ecess it ies , a nd may e ven h ave a cted a s as t i mu lus t o t he l oca l e cono my .6 0 R ecen t r e-examina t ions o f t he s ources p er tain ing t o t he p er iod h ave a lso l ed B e lg ian a nd F rench h istor ians t o e xpress more r estra ined v iews o n t he l ongt er m e f fects o f t he V ik ing r a ids . D uby h o lds t hat , t err ib le a s t hey were , t he ir e f fects o n t he l oca l p easan try were n o t worse t han t ha t o f t he ma ter ia l d a mage a nnua l ly c aused b y, t he r iva lry among C hr ist ian magnates . H e c ont ends , moreover , t hat t he r a iders may h ave s haken t he e x ist ing s e igneur ia l s tructure a nd l oosened t he b onds o f t he p easan ts .6 1 To wh ich Wa l lace-Hadr i l l r etor ts t hat t h is i s a n e cono m ic h istor ian ' sv iew o f t he mat ter , whereas t he c on te mporary p easan t

may n o t f u l ly h ave a pprec iated t hese h idden f ru its ' .62

D uby f ur ther ma in ta ins t ha t t he r a ids l ed t o a n i ncreased l i qu id ity wh ich s t i mu la ted t he c ircu lat ion o f s i lver , a nd t hat t he amassed s po i ls o f t he V ik ings i n it iated a c o mp lex o f e xchanges , r ed istr ibut ion , a nd c o m merc ia l t ransact ions wh ich a lso b enef i ted t he F rank ish a nd S axon c oun tr ies .

R ecen t Br i t ish r esearch

a lso t ends t o t ake a more p os i t ive v iew o f t he l ong-term e f fec ts o f t he V ik ing a ssau lts o n t he B r i t ish I s les .

I n L oyn 's v iew t hey ' r esu lted i n at horough

e nr ich ment o f t he c o m mun ity ' .

6 3

1 5

I n t he p reface t oh is b ook , T he B ir th o f t he Western E cono my , L a touche s tates t hat h e d ec ided t o b y-pass E ng land , s ince i t s e cono m ic e vo lut ion f ro m t he f i f th t o t he e leven th c en tur ies d if fered c ons iderab ly f ro m t hat o f t he c ont i nen t o f E urope .6 4 Y et i n i t s a bsence n o p icture o f t he Western e conomy o f t hat p er iod c an b e c ons idered t o b e c o mp lete . T he f act t hat t he B r it ish I s les b eca me t he ma in t arget o f V ik ing a t tacks a f ter c ons iderab le n u mbers o f D anes a nd N orweg ians h ad i n f i l trated d ur ing t he p reced ing c entur ies , s hou ld a lone h ave s uf f iced t o i nc lude i ti n a ny s urvey o f t hat p er iod . H app i ly , L oyn h as s ince f i l led t h is g ap w ith h is Ang lo-Saxon E ng land a nd t he N or man C onq ues t ,6 5 a f ter L ev ison i n h is b ook , Eng land a nd t he C on t inen t i n t he E igh th C en tury ,6 6 h ad d escr ibed t he d eve lop men t a nd n a ture o f E ng land ' sf ore ign c on tacts i n t he c en tury p reced ing t he V ik ing e ra . I n t he c los ing s tage o f Merov ing ian r u le t here was a s treng then ing o f t he b onds b etween t he B r it ish I s les a nd t he C on t inen t : a move men t wh ich b egan i n t he n or th . T he e igh th c en tury marked t he h igh-t ide o f E ng l ish a nd I r ish m iss ionary a ct iv ity o n t he C on t inen t .

I th ad b een i n it iated b y S t . W i l l ibrord

who i n 6 90 r eached t he mou th o f t he Rh ine t oge ther w ith e leven c o mpan ions . I n 7 16 t hey were f o l lowed b y S t . B on iface , who w orked i n T hur ing ia , H esse , a nd B avar ia , t o a t ta in mar tyrdo m i n F r is ia . H is c o mpan ions , who a lso f ounded monaster ies i n t he F rank ish Emp ire , i nc luded L u l , who was t o b ec o me t he f i rs t a rchb ishop o f Ma inz , a nd Wi l l ihad , who c onverted t he S axons a nd i n 7 87 b eca me t he f i rst b ishop o f B re men .

T h is s trong Eng l ish a nd

n o tab ly N orthu mbr ian i nf luence r eached i t s c l imax when C har le magne i nv ited A lcu in , t he h ead o f t he s choo l a t Y ork , t o b ecome h ead o f t he s choo l a t tached t o h is c our t ; where A lcu in was j o ined b y many o f h is Y ork p up i ls . A lcu in a lso b eca me C har le magne ' st rusted a dv iser , ap os i t ion h e h e ld u n t i l 8 04.

N ever

b efore o r a f ter t he e ighth c en tury d id Eng l ish men e xer t s uch g reat a nd l ast ing i n f luence o n t he c on t inen t o f E urope . T he n a mes o f o n ly t he most impor tan t me mbers o f t h is r e markab le g roup h ave s urv ived f or p oster ity .

F ro m t he ir V i tae , h owever , i ti s c lear t ha t t hey

w ere j o ined b y many o ther s im i lar ly d ed icated men , who h e lped a nd s us ta ined t he ir e f for ts .

T hey ma in ta ined c lose c on tacts w i th t he p apacy i n Ro me , w h ich

many o f t he m v is ited a n u mber o f t imes . I n f ac t p i lgr i mages t o R o me b eca me ar egu lar f eature o f Eng l ish C hr ist ian l i fe , a nd t he Eng l ish k ep t as choo l o f t he ir own t here .

T he p i lgr i ms f o l lowed we l l-es tab l ished r ou tes a nd i n b o th

d irect ions made u se o f v esse ls c arry ing merchan ts a nd t he ir g oods . T hat E ng l ish merchan ts were i nvo lved i n t he s o-ca l led F r is ian t rade i s a pparen t f ro m ap assage i n al e t ter s ent b y C har lemagne t o O f fa , k ing o f Merc ia , i n 7 96 , i n wh ich C har le magne o b jects t ot he f act t hat merchan ts i n t he g u ise o fp i lgr i ms were t ry ing t o e vade t he p ayment o f d ut ies . Y et i n t h is way t he merchan ts were a lso t ry ing t o g a in t he measure o fp rotec t ion wh ich p i lgr ims c usto mar i ly e n joyed;

f or f ore igners a broad , o ther t han p i lgr ims ,

w ere n o t p r iv i leged , a nd t he merchan ts t herefore made t he ir j ourneys a t c ons iderab le r isk .

H ence C har le magne o f fered t o e x tend h is p rotect ion t o

t he m , o n c ond it ion t ha t s im i lar p ro tect ion was a f forded t o F rank ish merchan ts i n E ng land .

6 7

T he i ncreas ing s cope a nd d eve lop men t o f E ng l ish f ore ign t rade f rom t he n in th c en tury o n , a nd t he o f f ic ia l i n terest t aken i n i t , a re c lear ly i nd icated b y

1 6

t he i nc lus ion i n K ing A lfred ' s Oros ius o f O h there ' sd escr ip t ion o f h is t rave ls i n t he N or thern S eas , wh ich c on ta ins n u merous d eta i ls a bout t he e cono my a nd f ore ign t rade o f N orway . 68 Moreover , t he C o l loquy o f A e lfr ic , as choo l b ook c o mposed t owards t he e nd o f t he t en th c entury , 69 c on ta ins a d escr ip t ion o f t he work o f a n o verseas merchan t , t hus l eav ing n o d oub t t hat i n E ng land t here a lready e x isted a p rofess iona l c lass o f merchan ts . Al i st o f i mported g oods i s i nc luded , b u t u n for tunate ly n o th ing i s s a id a bou t t he g oods e xpor ted . A s r egards E ng l ish t rade w ith t he C on t inen t , ad e ta i led a ccoun t i s f ound i n t he d ocu men t k nown a s ' Ethe lred I V , d at ing f rom t he b eg inn ing o f t he e leven th c en tury . T he c lauses r e la t ing t o t he t o l ls l ev ied a t t he B i l l ingsgate o f L ondon , i nc lude t he c oun tr ies o f o r ig in o f t he merchan ts i nvo lved a nd s o me i nd icat ion o f t he ir g oods . T he f ac t t hat s p ices a nd p epper a re e xpress ly men t ioned must i nd icate t hat a s ubs tan t ia l q uan t ity was i mpor ted . " E ng l ish p ar t ic ipat ion i n t he C on t inen ta l t rade i s a lso b orne o u t b y t he H onoran t ie c iv itat is P ap iae , a d ocu men t f ro m t he e ar ly e leven th c entury , wh ich s pec if ies t he f i nanc ia l a rr ange men ts o f t he L o mbard k ingdo m .7 1 A s pec ia l c lause i s d evo ted t o Eng l ish merchan ts , who s ee m t o h ave b een c onduct ing a r unn ing b at t le w ith t he l oca l c usto ms o f f icers .

I nd iv idua l p ay men t o f d uty was t o b e r ep laced ma in ly b y

ac o l lect ive t r ienn ia l p ay men t o f 5 0 p ounds o f s i lver a nd s pec ia l g i f ts f or t he o f f icers ;

t hus s ecur ing f or t he merchan ts i mmun ity f ro m i nspec t ion o f t he ir g oods .

T here i s l i t t le i n for mat ion a va i lab le c oncern ing t he wares i nvo lved i n Eng land ' sf ore ign t rade . T he e xpor ts p robab ly c ons isted o f woo l , c loth , s laves , l ead , a nd t i n , wh i le among t he impor ts t here wou ld h ave b een w ine , g lass , a r ms , a nd o ther manufactured g oods , a s we l l a s B yzan t ine a nd o r ien ta l merchand ise a cqu ired a t P av ia a nd o ther markets . The p er iod o f s teady g row th o f t he Eng l ish e cono my wh ich s us ta ined t h is f ore ign t rade c orresponded w ith t he s o-ca l led V ik ing a ge .

T he V ik ing r a ids

b egan a t t he c lose o f t he e ighth c en tury a nd c on t inued i n ter m i t ten t ly u n t i l t he f i rst h a lf o f t he e leven th c en tury . T he t error a nd d estruct ion wh ich t hey e ngendered s ee m , h owever , t o h ave b een l im ited b y t he f act t ha t a s u sua l t he r a ids were c on f ined t o s pec if ic a reas . Moreover , t he c usto mary a ssess men t o f t he s ize o f t he V ik ing f orces , a t l east i n t he ir i n it ia l s tages , h as b een g reat ly r educed b y S awyer ,

7 2

a nd h is f i nd ings a re s uppor ted b y ac lause o f

t he L ex B a juwaru m , i n wh ich 4 2 s h ie lds a re c a l led a n

a rmy ' .7 3

There was a lso a c on t inuous , p eacefu l imm igrat ion o f N orweg ian a nd D an ish s et t lers , w hose n u mbers were swe l led b y many o f t he r a iders who t hen t he mse lves b eca me s et t lers a nd t hus h e lped t o ma in ta in t he g row th o f t he Eng l ish e cono my . S awyer h as n eat ly s u m mar ised t he c ourse o f e ven ts : 'I n t he n in th c en tury t he V ik ings r anged f ar a f ie ld i n western E urope , wh i lst a t t he e nd o f t he t en th c entury t hey c oncen trated t he ir a t tacks a l most e xc lus ive ly o n E ng land , f or t he v ery g ood r eason t hat Eng land was b y t hen a r ich c oun try a nd t he Eng l ish , a s t he V ik ings s oon d iscovered , were r eady t o p ay l arge s u ms f or p eace .' 7 4 The wea lth o f E ng land was n ot c on f ined t o t he k ing a nd h is e n tourage , t he b ig l ords , t he C hurch , a nd t he merchan ts i n t he l ead ing p or ts , s uch a s L ondon , b ut a ppears t o h ave b een s pread f ar more w ide ly .

T he c oun try a lready p os-

s essed a r e lat ive ly e f f ic ien t s yste m o f t ax-co l lec t ion , wh ich made i tp oss ib le f or v ery s ubs tan t ia l s u ms o f d anege ld t o b e c o l lected w ith in a r easonab le

1 7

p er iod o f t ime ; a nd t he s a me a pp l ied t o t he h erege ld i n t he c los ing s tages o f t he V ik ing a ge . T he v ery e x is tence o f s uch a t ax-syste m i s a n i nd ica t ion t ha t money must a lready h ave p layed a n impor tan t p ar t i n t he e cono my o f t he t ime . I ti s e st i mated t hat t he L ong C ross i ssue o f c o ins s truck b y ' Ethe lred d ur ing t he y ears 9 97-1003 amoun ted t o a t l east £ 120 ,000 .7 5 D ur ing t hat p er iod o ne p ay men t o f d anege ld was l ev ied i n 1 002 , t o t he v a lue o f £ 24 ,000 , o r 2 0% o f t he i ssue . B u t we c anno t b e c er ta in t ha t more t han a f ract ion o f t he d anegeld c o l lec ted was t aken o u t o f Eng land , a t a ny r ate i f we j udge f ro m t he i ns ign if ic an t v a lue a nd n u mber o f t he c o ins o f ? Ethe lred s o f ar r ecovered i n S cand ina v ia :

t he 1 5 ,115 c o ins f ound amoun t ing o n ly t o a bou t £ 63 .

7 6

Th is i s v ery

d if feren t f ro m £ 24 ,000 , a l though o f c ourse many more c o ins may h ave r eached S cand inav ia t han were e ventua l ly b ur ied i n t he g round , t o b e f ound a ga in i n r ecen t t imes .

C onsequen t ly a l arge p ar t may h ave b een s pen t i n Eng land ;

f or t he p urchase o f p roper ty , o r o f merchand ise , wh ich c er ta in ly i nc luded many l uxury-wares , t hus p ro mot ing f ore ign t rade . S uch a l arge i ssue o f c o ins p resupposes t he e x istence o f as izeab le s tock o f s i lver : p oss ib ly 4 5-50 t onnes f or t he L ong C ross i ssue a lone . Y e t t he s ource o f t h is s i lver r e ma ins a n e n igma . I th as b een s uggested t hat i t may h ave c o me f ro m t he R a m me lsberg , n ear G os lar i n t he H arz Moun ta ins . The d iscovery o f s i lver v e ins t here i n 9 68 —wh ich h ave b een c on t inuous ly w orked e ver s ince— was d escr ibed b y T h iet mar v on Merseburg a s t he b eg inn ing o f t he 'G o lden Age ', b ut n o th ing i s k nown o f t he v o lume o f t he i n it ia l e xp lo itat ion . Moreover , t he d ate o f t h is d iscovery i s t oo l a te t o h ave made a s ign if ican t c on tr ibu t ion t o t he E ng l ish s tocks o f s i lver , wh ich must h ave b een t he r esu l t o f c on t inuous g row th o ver t he p rev ious t wo c en tur ies , c orrespond ing w i th t he e xpans ion o f t he c o inage . N or i s t here a ny r ecord o f s o me s udden , l arge-sca le move men t o f merchand ise f ro m Eng land t o G ermany , wh ich migh t h ave l ed t o t he impor t o f a n e nor mous q uan t ity o f b u l l ion w i th in a v ery s hor t p er iod . R ecen t ly , moreover , t he r efu tat ion o f t h is t heory o n h istor ica l g rounds h as b een c orroborated b y Metca lf ' sc o m ments o n t he meta l c on ten t o f A E the lred ' s c o ins , wh ich i nd icates t hat t he ir s i lver i s u n l ike ly t o h ave o r ig inated f ro m t h is G er man s ource .7 7 T he Eng l ish c urrency s yste m may we l l h ave b een o ne o f t he c auses w h ich i nduced t he V ik ings t o e x tor t e verincreas ing amoun ts o f d anege ld f rom Eng land r ather t han f ro m t he C on t inen t .

N owhere e lse i n E urope d id t here e x is t a ny

c omparab le s yste m o f m in ts , u nder r oya l c on tro l a nd c apab le o f t urn ing o ut l arge q uan t it ies o f c o ins i n ar elat ive ly s hort p er iod ;

n or d id t he t echn ica l

s k i l l o f t he moneyers a nywhere a pproach t ha t o ft he ir Eng l ish c on te mporar ies . Most impor tan t o fa l l , h owever , n o o ther t axat ion s yste m wou ld h ave b een c apab le o f c o l lect ing t he l arge s u ms i nvo lved .

T h is min t s yste m h ad e vo lved

g radua l ly f ro m t he t ime o f O f fa , t o r each i t s p eak w ith t he r efor ms o f E adgar .

7 8

T h is s teady d evelop men t o f t he E ng l ish e conomy a nd a dm in istrat ion , d esp ite t he V ik ing a ssau lts , h as b een l arge ly d isregarded b y h istor ians . I t s n eg lect must b e a scr ibed p ar t ly t o t he w idespread c onv ic t ion t hat t he V iking a ge was ap er iod o fu nm it igated s uf fer ing f or Eng land a s aw ho le , wh ich e ven tua l ly r esu lted i n t he N or man c onquest , a nd p ar t ly t o t he g enera l p reoccupa t ion w ith t he r e lat ive mer its o f t he Merov ing ian a nd C aro l ing ian a ges . I n v iew o f t he c har is ma o f C har le magne a s ah istor ica l f igure , t he r esu lt h as b een a g enera l u nderest i mat ion o f t he a ch ieve men ts o f s o me o f C har le magne ' sc on te mporar ies . 1 8

I ti s l ike ly , f or e xa mp le , t hat t he much-vaun ted C aro l ing ian c urrency r eform w as i n f act i nsp ired b y s im i lar measures a lready u nder taken b y K ing O f fa i n E ng land , a nd t hat i n t h is C har le magne h ad b een i nf luenced b y A lcu in , h is E ng l ish a dv iser who ma in ta ined c lose c on tac ts w ith Eng land .

Y et , i ti s g en-

e ra l ly h e ld t hat t he r efor m was i n it iated b y C har le magne , a nd t hen a dop ted b y O f fa i n o rder t o s afeguard h is c oun try ' sv a luab le t rade w i th i t s g reat c ont i nen ta l n e ighbour , b y b r ing ing h is c o inage u p t o t he s tandard o f C har le magne ' s n ew i ssue . Two q uest ions h ave t o b e r eso lved h ere : t he d a te o f t he C aro l ing ian r efor m a nd t he metro logy o f t he n ew c o inage . T he r efor m i s s upposed t o h ave c ons isted o f ac hange i n t he metro logy , r esu l t ing i n ad en ier much h eav ier t han t hat p rev ious ly i n c ircu lat ion , a nd a lso a c hange i n t he d es ign . whether e i ther o f t hese a ssu mp t ions a re c orrec t .

Y et i ti s d oub tfu l

T h is h eav ier d en ier i s

u sua l ly t hought t o h ave b een i n troduced a f ter 7 81 , t he d ate o f t he p ro mu lgat i on o f t he c ap itu lary o f Man tua , wh ich c on ta ins a n i n junct ion t hat t he d en iers t hen i n c ircu lat ion w ere n o t t o b e a ccep ted a f ter A ugust i st o f t ha t y ear . G r ierson a rgued t ha t t he h eav ier d en ier must h ave b een i n troduced b e tween 7 90 a nd 7 94. 79 T he c o mpos it ion o f t he I l anz h oard made i tc lear t hat t h is r efor m c ou ld n o t h ave t aken p lace b efore 7 90 , s ince t he n u merous c o ins f ound , i nc luded n o t o n ly o ne h eav ier c lass I I d en ier i ssued b y C har le magne , b ut a lso a n I s la m ic d irha m b ear ing t he d ate 1 73 H . ( A .D . 7 89-90 ) . H e p roposed 7 94 a s t he t er m inus a d q ue m s ince t he d ec is ion o f t he C ounc i l o f F rank fur t o f t hat y ear c on ta ined a n i n junct ion f orc ing t he p eop le t o a ccep t t he k ing ' s n ov i d enar i i ' a nd , a f ter c ons ider ing t he p o l it ica l e ven ts o f t he p er iod , h e c oncluded t ha t 7 90 wou ld b e al i ke ly d ate f or t he i n troduct ion o f C har le magne ' sc lass I I , a nd t hat t he h oard must h ave b een b ur ied s hor t ly a f terwards . S ubsequen t ly B lun t s uggested t hat O f fa ' sc lass I I c o ins were i n troduced a round 7 92 . H e n o ted t hat a lthough t hey were h eav ier a nd s truck o n ab roader f l an , t he ir d es ign r ese mb led t hat o f ac o in i ssued b y Archb ishop I wnber t , who d ied i n August o f t hat y ear .

I nf luenced b y G r ierson ' sc onc lus ions , h e

ma in ta ined t hat a s as im i lar u pgrad ing o f t he we igh t a nd i ncrease i n t he s ize o f t he f l an h ad a lready t aken p lace i n G au l , t h is 'wou ld a ccord wel l e nough w ith t he d ate s uggested f or t he c hange i n Eng land , a s i n e cono m ic , a s o pposed t o a rt ist ic mat ters t he C on t inen t was a t t h is t ime i n t he l ead .' 8 0 H owever , B lun t ' sa sser t ion t hat M a ' sc lass I I c o ins were i n troduced i n 7 92 , c aused G r ierson t o r econs ider h is own f i nd ings . H e n ow s uggested t hat t hese c o ins , a lthough more e labora te i n t he ir d e ta ils , c orresponded b as ica l ly w ith C har lemagne ' sc lass I c o ins a nd , i n ferr ing t hat t hey must h ave b een i n troduced wh ile t he l a t ter w ere s t i l l i n c ircu lat ion , h e a dvanced t he d ate o f i n troduct ion o f C har le magne ' sc lass I I i ssue t o 7 93 o r e ar ly 7 94.

8 1

T he me tro logy o f C har le magne ' sc lass I c o ins r a ises f ur ther p rob le ms , s ince i ti s d if f icu lt t o d ist ingu ish t he m f ro m c o ins o f as im i lar d es ign p u t o ut b y h is g randson C har les t he B a ld . C o ins o f t h is t ype i n t he h oards o f B iebr ich , L ondon ( M idd le T e mp le ) , a nd I bershe im c an b e a ss igned w ith s o me c on f idence t o C har le magne , b ut i n g enera l i ti s s i mp ly a ssu med t hat most o f t he h eav ier d en iers o f t hat t ype were s truck b y h im . H owever , t he C ounc i l o f F rank fur t met i n t he s hadow o f t he f am ine o f 7 92-3 ; among i t s d ec is ions max i mu m p r ices were l a id d own f or t he v ar ious k inds o f g ra in .

S uch a s i tuat ion wou ld h ard ly

h ave c onst ituted a s u i tab le b ackground f or u pgrad ing t he c urrency ; 1 9

a manoeuvre

wh ich wou ld h ave amoun ted t o a n i ncrease i n r ea l p r ices .

F ur ther more , t he

i n junct ion t o a ccep t t he k ing ' s' n ov i d enar i i i w ou ld h ave made l i t t le e conom ic s ense i ft he c o inage were s truck t o ah igher s tandard . T he r e luc tance o f t he p ub lic t o a ccep t t he n ew c oins , a s we l l a s t he me tro logy a nd t he e xact d a te o f t he r eform , a l l t herefore r e ma in s o mewha t p rob lema t ic . B o l in h as t r ied t o j ust ify t he a ssu mp t ion t ha t t he h eav ier d en iers were ma in ly i ssued b y C har le magne b y p ostu lat ing a h eavy impor tat ion o f I s la m ic s i lver a t t h is p er iod , a s we l l a s t he e xp lo itat ion o f n ew s i lver m ines i n t he West .

H e f ur ther s ur m ises t hat t h is l ed t o af a l l i n t he v a lue o f s i lver , wh ich

h ad t o b e c oun terac ted t o a vo id a p r ice-inf la t ion .8 2 S im i lar a rgu ments h ave b een p rof fered b y R enee D oehard , who f or g ood measure a dds t hat t h is n ew a nd h eav ier C har le magne d en ier was min ted a ta round 2g s ince , b e ing e quiva lent t o t wo-th irds o f ad irham , i tw ou ld h ave f ac i li ta ted t rade w i th t he I s la m ic wor ld .8 3 Un for tunate ly , n one o f t hese s pecu lat ions t a l ly w ith t he h istor ica l f acts . H ad t here e ver b een a n impor tan t i nf lux o f I s la m ic s i lver , i t wou ld h ave t aken p lace i n t he f i rst h a lf o f t he t en th c en tury , o r p erhaps i n t he l ate e leven th c en tury . B efore t hat t ime n or thern a nd western E urope h ad v ery l im ited t rade-re lat ions w ith t he I s la m ic wor ld . T he o n ly t rade wh ich c ou ld p oss ib ly h ave g enerated a l arge s urp lus o f I s la m ic s i lver was t he e xpor t o f wh ite s laves t o S pa in . H owever , n oth ing i s k nown o f a ny l arge-sca le t rade o f t h is k ind b efore t he r e ign o f

cA bd

a r-Ra t i män I I ( 9 16-61 ) , ac on te mporary o f O t to I .

Another h ypo thes is —that g o ld was d ra ined i n e xchange f or s i lver , b ecause o f a more f avourab le e xchange-rate i n t he I s la m ic wor ld—has a lready b een s hown h ere t o b e e qua l ly u n l ike ly . Y et s o me i nd irect I s la m ic i nf luence i s i ndeed a pparen t i n t he n ew c o inage o f O f fa , who must h ave b een a cqua in ted w ith Arab c o ins . H is mancus s o f ar im itates t he d inar , t hat i ta t te mp ts t o c opy t he A rab ic i nscr ip t ion , wh i le h is n ew p enny was a lso a n e p igraph ic c oin : t he n a me 'O f fa ' b e ing i nscr ibed o n t he o bverse . o f t he

T he we ight o f t he l at ter may h ave c orresponded w ith h a lf t ha t

cA . bbäs id

d irha m t hen i n c ircu lat ion .

T here i s l i t t le e v idence t hat t h is I s la m ic i nf luence c a me v ia S pa in .

I ti s

f ar more l ike ly t hat i to r ig inated i n t he N or th , w here a n i n f lux o f I s la m ic c o ins h ad s tar ted a t s o me p o in t i n t he e ighth c en tury , p oss ib ly a s ac on t inuat i on o f t enuous r e lat ions w ith t he E ast i n S fsän ian t imes .

8 4

T he V ik ing a ge h as l ef t i t s mark o n a l l t he c oun tr ies a round t he B a lt ic S ea t hrough i t s g reat c o in-hoards , wh ich h ave n o p ara l le l i n h istory , e ven t hough many h ave l ong b een d ispersed , l eav ing n o t race a nd n o i nven tory . P ract ica l ly a l l t he c on ten ts o f t hese h oards a re f ore ign t o t he r eg ions i n wh ich t hey h ave b een b ur ied .

Moreover , a s f ar a s t he Russ ian h oards a re

c oncerned , n ot a l l o f t hose f ound , e ven o n t he E uropean s ide o f t he Ura ls , a re n ecessar i ly c onnected w i th t he N or thern t rade .

On t he b as is o f h oard-l ists

d rawn u p b y Arne a s l ong a go a s 1 914 , D up lessy h as c a lcu lated t ha t t hose a lready k nown c on ta ined s o me 1 20 ,000 I s la m ic c o ins .

C ons iderab le n u mbers

o f s uch c o ins a re a lso p resen t i n t he many h oards f ound i n P o land a nd t he G er man D e mocra t ic R epub l ic . I n 1 964 Warhke p ub l ished a s hor t i nven tory o f 2 21 o f t hese h oards 8 5 a nd t en y ears l ater L ew ick i d escr ibed a dd it iona l h oards 2 0

a nd d iscussed t he r ou tes b y wh ich d irha ms c ou ld h ave r eached P o land i n S a man id t imes .8 6 H e n oted t hat a l l t he r outes s tarted a t K iev , t he g reat e ntrepö t o f B yzan t ine a nd o r ien ta l wares .

An or thern r oute made u se o f t he

Dn ieper a nd P r ipya t R ivers , r each ing t he Bug a nd f i na l ly t he V istu la b y a s yste m o fp or tages , w ith e x tens ions v ia P oznan t o t he O der a nd f ur ther west t o Magdeburg o n t he E lbe . A s outhern r oute t raversed L uck a nd V lad im irVo lynsk iy o n t he w ay t o C racow a nd P rague . I ti s d oubt fu l , h owever , whether a ny o f t hese r ou tes was u sed f or l ongd is tance t rade b efore t he m idd le o f t he t en th c en tury .

N or i s t here e v idence

o fa ny d irect t rade w ith t he I s la m ic West , t hrough t he C aro l ing ian Emp ire , b efore t hat t ime , a l though t h is p oss ib i l ity h as l a te ly b een s uggested , o n t he s treng th o f a sma l l n u mber o f Arab c o ins emanat ing f ro m m in ts i n N or th A fr ica a nd S pa in w h ich h ave b een f ound i n h oards n ear t he B a l t ic c oast .

8 7

A s

a l l t he h oards c on ta in ing s uch c o ins l i e away f ro m t he a bove l and-rou tes , i t wou ld s ee m more l i ke ly t ha t t hese c o ins were impor ted v ia Russ ia a nd S candi nav ia . Russ ian h oards f ro m t he n in th c en tury a lso c on ta in a n u mber o f c o ins m in ted i n A fr ica , t ogether w ith e ar ly c A .bbäs id c o ins . I th as b een s uggested t ha t t hese were c o ins w h ich h ad c eased t o c ircu late f ree ly i n t he I s la m ic wor ld , a nd were b ough t u p c heap ly b y Arab merchan ts , w ith t he i n ten t ion o f p a lm ing t he m o f f o n t he S lays , who were n o t y et e xper ienced t raders .

T he Arabs r e l ied

o n t he f act t hat t he l at ter , b e ing u nab le t o r ead t he i nscr ip t ions , i nclud ing t he d ate , wou ld a ccep t t he c o ins , s o l ong a s t hey were we l l-preserved , r egard less o f t he f act t hat t hey were n o l onger i n c ircu lat ion i n t he ir c oun tr ies o f o r ig in . I n t h is way t he Mus l i m merchan ts c ou ld make s t i l l g reater p rof its i n t he ir t rade w ith t he S lays .8 8 A l l t hese e ar ly c o ins must h ave a rr ived i n Russ ia v ia I raq : a n a ssu mp t ion wh ich i s s uppor ted b y t he r epor t t ha t ah oard o f 3 ,306 s i lver c o ins , t hough t t o h ave b een b ur ied e ar ly i n t he n in th c en tury , was u near thed a t Z akho i n n or thern I raq , o n t he r oute f ro m B aghdad t o Russ ia . Th is h oard c on ta ins c o ins i ssued o ver a l ong p er iod o f t ime , emanat ing f ro m a l l p ar ts o f t he Mus l i m wor ld , i nc lud ing 8 0 Umayyad c o ins , 3 7 c o ins f ro m Umayyad S pa in , 2 7 Agh lab id c o ins a nd n o f ewer t han 1 29 c o ins s truck b y t he I dr is ids i n Morocco .8 9 The l argest n u mber o fh oards f ro m t he V ik ing p er iod h as b een u near thed i n t he S cand inav ian c oun tr ies t he mse lves . I n Sweden a lone s o me 8 00 h ave b een d iscovered i n t he s ou thern a nd c en tra l a reas , p ar t icu lar ly a long t he c oasts , a t t he e stuar ies o f t he g rea t r ivers , o n t he i s land o f Ö land a nd a bove a l l , o n t he i s land o f G o t land , wh ich a lone h as s o f ar y ie lded s o me 5 00 h oards . T ab le 1

D istr ibut ion o f f ore ign c o ins i n S cand inav ian h oards f ro m V ik ing t imes ( adap ted f ro m C hr istensen , V ik inget idens D an mark , p . 1 96 .) 9 0

Sweden ( o f wh ich G ot land D en mark N orway To ta ls

I s la m ic

Ang lo-Saxon

G er man

B yzan t ine

T o ta ls

1 00 ,000

3 5 ,000

7 5 ,000

4 20

2 10 ,000

6 0 ,000 4 ,000

2 5 ,000 4 ,000

4 0 ,000 9 ,000

4 00 4 6

1 25 ,000 ) 1 8 ,000

4 00

3 ,000

3 ,500

2 6

7 ,500

C .1 05 ,000

4 2 ,000

8 8 ,000

5 00

2 35 ,000

2 1

D esp ite t he f act t hat n o d ist inct ion i s made i n t he a bove t ab le b e tween who le c o ins a nd t he f rag men ts wh ich make u p ac ons iderab le p art o f s o me h oards , r e markab le d if ferences c an b e s een i n t he d is tr ibut ion o f t he c o ins b etween t he t hree S cand inav ian c oun tr ies .

O f s ome 2 00 ,000 c o ins u near thed i n S can-

d inav ia , n ine-ten ths h ave b een d iscovered o n p resent S wed ish t err i tory , o f wh ich 6 0% was f ound i n G ot land . F ur thermore , 4 5% o f a l l t he c oins a re o f I s la m ic o r igin , a nd min ted b efore A .D . 9 70 . T hus , e ven a l low ing f or a h igh p ropor t ion o f f rag men ted c oins , t he f ac t t ha t awho le d irham we ighs more t han t w ice a s much a s a ny E ng lish o r G erman c oin r epresented , means t ha t t he I s la m ic c o ins must a ccoun t f or we l l o ver 6 0% o f t he we ight o f a l l t he c o ins . T he we ight o fa l l t hese S cand inav ian c o in-hoards amoun ts t o s o me 4 00 k g o f s i lver . Y et t h is d azz l ing q uan t ity o fb ur ied c o ins s hou ld n ot b l ind u s t o t he f act t ha t c o ins c onst ituted o n ly a f ract ion o f t he w ea lth o f p rec ious meta l i n t he V ik ing wor ld , e ven t hough we h ave n o e st i mate o f t he a ctua l q uan t ity o f s i lver a nd g o ld c onver ted i n to p rec ious o b jects . Moreover , a ssu m ing t hat t he r e lat ions h ip o f g o ld t o s i lver a t t hat p er iod was 1 :12 , 4 00 k g o f s i lver wou ld b e b are ly e quiva lent t o 7 ,500 g o ld s o lidi : a modes t s um w hen c o mpared w i th t he h uge amoun ts p a id b y t he B yzan t ines t o t he ir c on federates a nd mercenar ies , o n many o ccas ions . T h is l arge c oncen trat ion o f med ieva l c o ins h as o f c ourse a roused much i nt erest , a nd i tp resen ts many p rob le ms : S cand inav ia , a nd why t hey were b ur ied .

a bove a l l , h ow t hese c oins a rr ived i n T he I s la m ic c o ins h ave p ar t icu lar ly

b een t he o b jec t o f much s pecu la t ion , s ince i ti s b y n o means o bv ious why s o many o f t he m s hou ld h ave c o me t o r est t housands o f k i lo metres f ro m t he p laces where t hey were s truck . H ere , moreover , af ur ther p rob le m a r ises , c oncern ing t he a bsence o f c o ins d ated a f ter 9 70 ; af ind ing wh ich i s u sua l ly i n terpreted a s mark ing a s udden c essat ion o f t he i nf lux o f o r ien ta l c o ins a t t hat t ime . I n 1 939 B o l in e xa m ined t he e cono m ic f actors u nder ly ing t h is p heno menon , i n t he l i gh t o f t he P irenne-Dopsch d ispute c oncern ing t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween t he e xpans ion o f I s la m a nd t he f a te o f C aro l ing ian E urope . I t was B o l in who made t he S cand inav ian e v idence a n i n tegra l p ar t o f t he g eneral d iscuss ion , p ar t icu lar ly a f ter 1 953 , when h is t hes is b eca me more w ide ly k nown t hrough t he r epub l icat ion o fh is p aper i n Eng l ish , u nder t he t i t le , 'Moha m med , C har le magne a nd Rur ic ' .9 1

Th is was i n f act a s u mmary o f a much e ar l ier

work , Myn t o ch Myn tfynd , wh ich u n fortunate ly w as n ever p ub l ished . However , S awyer h ad a cess t o t he manuscr ip t , p ar ts o f wh ich h e r eproduces a nd d isc usses i n h is own b ook , T he Age o f t he V ik ings , i nc luding B o lin 's s ta t ist ica l t ab les a nd a na lyses o f t he Russ ian h oards .

9 2

Bo l in d en ied P irenne ' sc onc lus ions r egard ing t he l ack o f i n ternat iona l t rade i n C aro l ing ian t imes , b y c al l ing a t ten t ion t o t he f act t hat S abbe h ad c o l lected n u merous r eferences t o t he u se o f s i lk , p urp le , b rocades , a nd s p ices i n t he n in th a nd t en th c ent ur ies .9 3 Yet h e s t i l l a ccepted P irenne ' st hes is o f ac ausa l c onnect ion b e tween Muha m mad a nd C har le magne . Thus , a l though t he Arab e xpans ion i ndeed s ha t tered 't he u n ity o f wor ld c u l ture ', i ta lso b rough t w ith in i t s own r ange t he s i lver-r ich l ands o f Khuräsän a nd Transox iana . H e ma in ta ined , moreover , t ha t i n ternat iona l t rade n o t o n ly c on t inued a cross

2 2

t he Med iterranean , i te ven d eve loped v ia t he N or th , b e ing s t i mu lated b y a f l ood o f s i lver f ro m t he e astern p rov inces o f t he C a l iphate . An ew e ra h ad b egun : t he a ge o f o r ien ta l s i lver , wh ich d id n ot s top a t t he b oundar ies o f I s la m b ut p enetrated d eep i n to western E urope .

B ol in t hus a greed w ith D opsch

t hat c o m merc ia l l i fe f l our ished w ith in t he F rank ish Emp ire , a s we l l a s i n tern at iona l ly . H owever , i n c on trast t o b o th D opsch a nd P irenne , h e c ons idered t hat t he C aro l ing ian r ena issance was i n te l lectua l ly a nd mater ia l ly d ependen t o n t he C a l iphate . Arab i n f luence was n o t c on f ined t o t he a ctua l f l ow o f s i lver .

I n Bo l in ' s

v iew t he d es ign a nd e p igraphy o f t he C aro l ing ian d en ier h ad b een b ased o n I s la m ic mode ls s ince t he t ime o f P ep in t he S hort , whose c o ins d isp lay o bv ious C uf ic c harac ter ist ics i n t he ir L at in l et ter ing . Moreover , b o th t he B yzan t ine a nd t he C aro l ing ian c o ins f o l lowed t he I s la m ic e xa mp le b y b ear ing r e l ig ious i nscr ip t ions ; t he p ropaganda war o f t he c reeds t hus b e ing e x tended e ven t o t he c o inage . Y e t , d esp ite h is a sser t ions r egard ing t hese t rad ing l i nks a nd Arab i nf luences o n t he C aro l ing ian c o inage , B o l in a cknow ledged t he f act t hat f ew Arab c o ins h ave b een f ound i n w estern E urope , a nd h e t r ied t o a ccoun t f or t h is b y p ostu la t ing t hat t he C aro l ing ians i n troduced t he p r inc ip le o f f euda l e cono my '. Th is t heory , wh ich h e l a ter amp l if ied i n as eparate p aper ,9 4 was b ased o n t he p re m ise t hat p rec ious me ta l i s wor th more when m in ted t han i n t he u nm in ted s ta te . H e f ur ther ma in ta ined t ha t w ith in t he F rank ish Emp ire o n ly l oca l c o ins c ou ld b e u sed , a nd t hat t he ir u sage b eca me e ver more r es tr icted u n t i l , f ro m t he m idd le o f t he n in th c en tury , c o ins were v a l id o n ly w ith in a l im i ted a rea : t hus imp ly ing t hat a l l f ore ign c o ins h ad t o b e me lted d own a nd r em in ted a s F rank ish c o ins . 7

T h is t heory , wh ich f i nds s uppor t i n t he a bsence o f f ore ign c o ins f ro m t he h oards , p resupposes t hat , i n a n a rea where t he c en tra l a uthor ity was n ever p ar t icu lar ly s trong , i t was n ever the less a b le t o e n force t he l aw—un less i tb e c la i med t hat t he p opu lat ion c ons isted e n t ire ly o f l aw-ab id ing c i t izens .

I ft he

F rank ish e conomy were r ea l ly t hr iv ing o n a n i n terna t iona l t rade , o ne m ight h ave e xpected t o f ind n ot o n ly s ubstan t ia l h oards o f I s la m ic c o ins o n F rank ish t err itory , b ut a lso C aro l ing ian c o ins i n t he h oards o f S cand inav ia , where n o l ega l l im i tat ions e x isted o n t he u se o f f ore ign c urrency . Y et H atz h as c oun ted o n ly 1 11 C aro l ing ian c o ins i n4 8 S cand inav ian h oards , c o mpared w ith o ver 1 00 ,000 I s la m ic c o ins .

9 5

G ordus a nd Metca lf h ave , h owever , c on f irmed t hat t he s i lver c o inage o f B yzan t iu m d oes i ndeed a ppear t o s how Arab i n f luence . I n t he n in th c en tury e ven t he we igh t o f t he mi l iares ion was b rough t u p t o t hat o f t he d irha m : a s tandard wh ich was t o b e ma in ta ined u n t i l a t l east t he e nd o f t he t en th c en tury . P ar t o f t he s i lver emp loyed i n t he c o inage may p oss ib ly h ave c o me f ro m I sla m ic s ources , a s i nd icated b y t he c o ins o f C ons tan t ine V I , wh ich were o f ten n o more t han o verstruck d irha ms .

9 6

B o l in a lso d iscussed t he f l uctuat ions i n t he r e lat ive v a lue o f g o ld a nd s i lver , a rr iv ing a t t he amaz ing c onc lus ion t hat i n b o th E ast a nd West t he v a lue o f s i lver i n t er ms o f g o ld f i rst f e l l , u p t o t he m idd le o f t he n in th c en tury , a nd t hen r ose c on t inuously o ver a p er iod o f ah undred y ears .

H e s uggested t ha t

a s t he S ä män ids , i n whose t err itory l ay n ear ly a l l t he impor tan t s i lver m ines , made t he mse lves e ver more i ndependen t o f t he c a l iphs o f B aghdad , t he t i es 2 3

b etween T ransox iana a nd B aghdad were s evered .

T h is i s s upposed t o h ave

o ccurred a t at ime when g o ld-r ich N ub ia w as f i na l ly c onquered a nd more a nd more g o ld w as a rr iv ing i n t he I s la m ic wor ld .

9 7

Wh i le i ti s t rue t hat t he i n f lux o f g o ld f rom a l l p ar ts o f A fr ica s tead i ly i nc reased a nd g enerated a s ubs tan t ia l t rade w ith A fr ica s ou th o f t he S ahara , a t t he s a me t ime s i lver- m in ing i n t he E ast a nd t he t rade w ith E astern E urope a nd S cand inav ia must h ave r eached n ew h e igh ts , a s w itnessed b y t he g rea t a ccu mu lat ion o f S ä mhn id c o ins i n n in th- a nd t en th-cen tury h oards . I n t he a bsence o f a ny p roduct ion f igures , i ti s c lear ly imposs ib le t o d eter m ine whether t he i ncrease i n s i lver p roduct ion i n t he E ast k ep t p ace w ith t he g row ing i nf lux o f A fr ican g o ld a nd w hether t he r e lat ive v a lues o f g o ld a nd s i lver w ere a l tered t hrough t he d i f feren t r ates o f g row th o f t he ir s tocks .

Y et , s ince t here i s n o

e v idence t hat E urope s uf fered f rom a s urfe i t o f g o ld i n t hat p er iod , i ti s l og ica l t o p resu me t ha t t he v a lue o f s i lver a ctua l ly f e l l i n r e lat ion t o g o ld : a ssu mp t ion d irect ly o pposed t o B o l in ' sc onc lus ions .

a n

I n h is p ub l ished work a t l east , B o l in made n o c o mmen t o n t he d ry ing-up o f t he f l ow o f s i lver f ro m t he E ast t o b o th S cand inav ia a nd E astern E urope a nd i t s t e mporary r ep lace men t b y a n i nf low o f E ng l ish a nd G er man c o ins . H owe ver , S awyer t akes u p t he s tory a t t h is p o in t , c la im ing t hat t he d ec l ine i n t he i n f lux o f I s la m ic c o ins i n to S cand inav ia i n t he m idd le o f t he t en th c en tury a nd i n to R uss ia n ear t he e nd o f t ha t c en tury , was c lose ly c onnected w ith a s i lver c r is is i n t he I s la m ic wor ld . A ccord ing t o h im , t he s i lver mines b eca me e xh aus ted i n t he t en th a nd e leven th c en tur ies , c aus ing s er ious e cono m ic a nd p o l it ica l d is locat ion .

9 8

T h is r ed h err ing , w h ich h as b y n ow f ound i t s w ay

i n to most b ooks a nd p apers d ea l ing w ith t he h istory o r n um is ma t ics o f t he p er iod , w as o r ig ina l ly i n troduced b y B lake ' sc la im t ha t s uch a s i lver c r is is o ccurred s hor t ly b efore t he y ear 1 000 .

9 9

T he a ctua l i dea o f as i lver c r is is

h ad , h owever , b een p u t f orward b y V as mer , w ho ma in ta ined t hat i th ad b egun i n t he e leven th c entury a nd f or n ear ly 2 00 y ears p roh ib ited a f ur ther c o inage o f s i lver .1 00 A ccord ing t o B lake , t he c essat ion o f t rade was d ue t o f ac tors o perat ing a t t he c en tres o f p roduct ion o f t he s i lver , r ather t han a t t he p laces t o w h ich i tw as e xpor ted , a l though h e a dm its t hat t he e xpans ion o f t he K ievan s tate i n t he l a ter p ar t o f t he t en th c en tury a nd t he d estruct ion o f t he K hazar Emp ire a nd o f t he B u lghar s ta te o n t he M idd le V o lga may a l l h ave h e lped t o s top t he f l ow o f s i lver f ro m T urkestan t o t he West . H owever , B lake s ees t he d ec l ine o f S ä män id r u le a s t he ma in i ssue . T he d ynasty f i rst l ost c on tro l o ver t he Z arafshän v a l ley w ith i t s s i lver m ines , a nd s hort ly a f terwards t he Q äräkh an ids a nd t he G haznav ids d iv ided t he ir r ea lm b etween t he m .

T he l a t ter t hen

e x tended t he ir r u le t o t he s outh , d eep i n to I nd ia , t o wh ich t hey s iphoned o f f t he s i lver f ro m T urkestan . When t hat h ad d r ied u p , t hey d ra ined t he who le I s la m ic E ast , i nc lud ing I ran . A Ccord ing t o B lake , t he c r is is o n ly e nded i n t he t h ir teen th c en tury , when t he Mongo ls d rew o f f h uge q uan t it ies o f s i lver f ro m C h ina , westwards a long t he c aravan r ou tes . T h is l ast a ssu mp t ion w as b ased a l leged ly o n meta l lurg ica l e v idence , f or w h ich n o r eference was g iven . T he n ew c o inage min ted a t Treb izond a nd i n C yprus was k nown a s t he 'a sper ' ,a n a me wh ich B lake ma in ta ined was d er ived f ro m t he modern G reek t er m f or

wh ite '.

H e t hus c onc luded t hat t hese c o ins

were made f ro m C hinese s i lver , w h ich , h e c la i med , p ossessed a s uf f ic ien t a n t i mony c on ten t t o g ive i t a much wh iter a ppearance t han t ha t o f t he 2 4

'p lu mb iferous d arker meta l o f t he L evan t '

. 101

H owever , G ordus a nd Metca lf

h ave r ecen t ly s ub jected t he B yzan t ine s i lver c o inage o f T reb izond t o s em iq uan t i tat ive c he m ica l a na lys is , wh ich h as s hown t ha t t he a n t i mony c on ten t o f t he e ar ly c o ins t ends t o b e e xcep t ional ly l ow : i n f act s o me f i ve t imes l ess t han t hat o f many C rusader c o ins .1 02 T hus , c onc lud ing t hat B lake ' se v idence i s ac o mp lete i nven t ion , r est ing o n af a lse i n terpre tat ion o f t he n a me a sper , t hey e f fect ive ly d ispose o f h is t heory o f t he e nd ing o f as i lver c r is is wh ich h as n ever b een c onv inc ing ly s hown t o e x ist . B lake was ,

h owever , j ust if ied i n a sser t ing t hat t he c essat ion o f t rade t o-

wards t he e nd o f t he t en th c en tury w as d ue t o f ac tors o perat ing a t t he c en tre o f e xpor t o f t he s i lver , t ha t i s , i n t he f or mer S ämän id t err itor ies . T he ma ins tay o f t h is h igh ly l ucrat ive t rade h ad b een t he i mpor t o f T urk ish s laves who , f ro m t he n in th c en tury o nwards , f ormed t he b ackbone o f a l l Mus l im a rm ies a nd t hus f e tched e xorb i tant p r ices .

B u t t he n ew r u lers , b e ing t he mse lves

f or mer T urk ish m i l itary s laves , h ad n o i n terest i n c on t inu ing t hese impor ts f or t he ir o wn a rm ies . T hey f eared t hat a n ew g enerat ion o f s laves m ight r ise u p a ga inst t he m , j ust a s t hey t he mse lves h ad r evo lted a ga inst t he ir p red ecessors , t he S a m-a n ids . S ince t he p urchase o f t hese s laves h ad b een t he ma in r eason f or t he o utf low o f S i i m-a n id s i lver c o ins t o t he p eop le o f t he s teppes , t he l a t ter n ow f ound t he mse lves d epr ived o f t he p r inc ipa l s ource o f t he ir wea lth a nd p urchas ing p ower .

T h is i n t urn c ur ta i led t he ir t rade a t t he

market a t B u lghär a nd a t I t i l , t he K hazar empor iu m :

t he t wo p laces where

t hey h ad h i ther to t raded w i th t he S candinav ians . T hese d eve lop men ts , c oup led w ith t he p o l it ica l e ven ts i n Russ ia , n ow f avoured t hat r oute f or wares f ro m t he I s la m ic E ast wh ich p assed v ia K iev a nd P o land t o t he B a lt ic o r a cross G er many , w ith t he r esu l t t hat t he d irect t rade o f t he S cand inav ians w ith t he o r ien t was n o l onger p rof itab le . Moreo ver , t he t rade w ith E urope i n t he l uxury g oods o f t he E as t , i nc lud ing s p ices , was b e ing i ncreas ing ly d ef lected f ro m t h is r oute t oo , b y t he d eve lop men t o f s hor ter r outes a cross t he A lp ine p asses t o n or thern I t a ly a nd V en ice , where a l l o r ienta l a nd B yzan t ine c o m mod it ies were i n amp le s upp ly . I n o ther words , i t was t he c on t inua l e ros ion o f t he S cand inav ian t rade , r ather t han a s i lver c r is is i n t he E ast , wh ich l ed t o t he d ry ing u p o f t he s trea m o f o r ien ta l s i lver t o E urope . I n t he c ourse o f t he ir I nd ian c a mpa igns t he G haznav ids i n f act a cgu ired a n u n to ld n u mber o f s laves a nd f an tast ic amoun ts o f g o ld a nd s i lver ,1 0 . i a nd n o p roo fh as e ver b een o f fered f or B lake ' sc on ten t ion t ha t t hey d ra ined I s la m ic s i lver i n to I nd ia .

T hey c on t inued t o c o in s i lver , a nd t he s i lver c o inage o f

t he e ar ly G haznav ids s ee ms t o h ave b een o f as tandard h igher e ven t han t ha t o f t he ir S ä män id p redecessors , wh ich h ad b een s o c oveted i n R uss ia a nd S cand inav ia . Moreover , t hroughout t he e leven th c en tury T urkes tan r e ma ined r e markab ly p rosperous . T he Russ ians h ave l a te ly i nvest igated n u merous a nc ien t m in ing-s ites i n K irg izs tan a nd U zbek istan , o n t he b as is o f i n format i on p rov ided b y med ieva l Arab g eographers , a nd t hey h ave c onc luded t hat m in ing a ct iv it ies c on t inued h ere u p t o t he t h ir teen th c en tury A . .D . a nd b eyond ; s o met i mes e ven o n a n i ncreased s ca le .1 04 T hey h ave s o f ar l i sted o ver o ne h undred a nc ien t m in ing s i tes , most o f wh ich a re s t i l l f ar f ro m b e ing e xhausted . Y et , d esp ite t h is , t he Russ ian n um is mat ist Y an in c la i ms t hat t he m ines b ec a me e xhausted , w ith a r esu lt ing s i lver c r is is i n b o th t he I s la m ic E ast a nd 2 5

R uss ia .

1 05

E lena D av idov ich , a no ther R uss ian s cho lar , a lso a ccep ts t he

e x istence o f as i lver c r is is , b ut b e l ieves t hat t h is was d ue n o t s o le ly t o d i mi n ish ing m in ing a ct iv it ies , b ut a lso t o ah igh l eve l o f e cono m ic a c t iv ity i n C en tra l A . s ia a nd e as tern I ran , w ith wh ich t he m in ing o utpu t c ou ld n o t k eep p ace . T h is l ed i n t urn t o ap rogress ive l ower ing o f t he r eserves o f s i lver a nd t o ah a lt i n i t s e xpor t .1 06 I n ar ecen t s tudy C laude C ahen h as s hown t hat d ur ing t h is p er iod E gyp t a lso c on t inued t o m in t s i lver c o ins wh ich , a l though n ow h eav i ly a l loyed , r et a ined t he o r ig ina l r at io b etween g o ld a nd s i lver .

1 °7

S im ilar i nves t igat ions

o f t he c o inage o f o ther p ar ts o f t he I s la m ic w or ld f rom t h is e poch w ou ld a lmost c er ta in ly p roduce a na logous f i nd ings , w ith t he p rov iso t hat o ther c hanges i n t he c o inage , wh ich l i e o uts ide t he s cope o f t h is p aper , may a lso h ave o ccurr ed . Moreover , a s f ar a s t he i n ternat iona l t rade was c oncerned , g o ld c o inage may h ave c o me t o p lay a g rea ter r o le . I t mus t b e r eme mbered , moreover , t ha t f ro m t he s even th c en tury o nwards t he I s lam ic w or ld d eve loped a s ys te m o fp ayments b ased o n wr i t ten i ns tru ments , w h ich o bv ia ted t he p hys ica l t ransfer o f l arge amounts o f c ash i n many o f t he t ransac t ions a ssoc ia ted w i th t he l ongd is tance t rade .

1 08

A s r egards t he h uge n u mber o f t reasure-hoards f ound i n S cand inav ia , t wo p rob le ms r e ma in t o b e c ons idered :

h ow t he c o ins i n t he h oards w ere a cqu ired

a nd why t hey were b ur ied . D epend ing o n t he c ircu ms tances t hese h oards were c er ta in ly amassed i n many d if feren t w ays : f ro m r obbery , a s w ar-boo ty , t r ibute , o r p ay f or mercenar ies , a s we l l a s t hrough c o m merc ia l a ct iv i ty . Y et most o f t he I s la m ic c o ins f ound i n t he m must h ave b een o b ta ined t hrough t rade , s ince t he V ik ings h ad n o d irect c on tact w ith t he I s la m ic wor ld .

T he

s i tuat ion i s , h owever , q u ite d if feren t w i th r egard t o t he f inds o f G er man a nd E ng l ish c o ins . I tm igh t b e s upposed t ha t t he f or mer h ad b een a cqu ired o n t he n u merous e xped it ions a ga inst c on t inen ta l E urope , b u t f or t he f ac t t ha t t he h oards c on ta in s o f ew F rank ish c o ins . Moreover , most o f t he G erman c o ins were m in ted l ate i n t he t en th o r i n t he e leven th c entury :

ap er iod when o n ly

m inor V ik ing e xped it ions t ook p lace , a par t f ro m o ne a t tack i n 9 94 a ga inst S tade o n t he E lbe a nd o n t he Weser e stuary , w h ich i s r eported t o h ave y ie lded much b oo ty , i nc lud ing 7 ,000 t a len ts o f s i lver . 1°9 I t must t herefore b e c onc luded t hat t he G er man c o ins t oo were ma in ly o bta ined b y t rade . T he q uest ion o f t he E ng l ish c o ins f ound i n t he S cand inav ian h oards i s more c o mp lex . T ab le 2 , s how ing t he d istr ibu t ion o f t he c o ins f ro m d if feren t r e igns a ccord ing t o t he c oun try i n wh ich t hey w ere b ur ied , p rov ides s o me i n terest ing i n for mat ion o n t h is p o in t . I ti s e v iden t t hat o f a l l f our S cand inav ian c oun tr ies S weden h as y ie lded b y f ar t he l argest p ropor t ion o f Ang lo-Saxon c o ins ( 68% ). Moreover , t he g reat ma jor ity o f t hese c o ins i n a l l t he S cand inav ian h oards ( 8 6% ) were m in ted d ur ing t he r e igns o f Mthe lred a nd Cnut .

I tw as i n t h is p er iod t ha t h uge s u ms

were p a id o ver , f i rst a s d anege ld a nd t hen a s h erege ld , t o t he D anes a nd N orweg ians , b u t h ard ly a t a l l t o t he Swedes , w ho t ook r e lat ive ly l i t t le p ar t i n t he r a ids o r i n mercenary s erv ice . Y et t he a bsence o f t hese p ay men ts d oes n o t s ee m t o h ave a f fected t he c on ten t o f t he S wed ish h oards . O f t he E ng l ish c o ins f ro m t he t wo r eigns s hown b e low d iscovered i n S cand inav ia , 6 7% w ere f ound i n S weden—a v ery l arge p ropor t ion—as i s l ikew ise t he c ase f or e ach o f

2 6

D istr ibu t ion o f Ang lo-Saxon c o ins f ro m d if feren t r e igns i n

Tab le 2

S cand inav ian h oards ( adap ted f ro m P etersson , Ang lo-Saxon C urrency , p . 6 3 , T ab le h a ) N os . o f Eng l ish c o ins i n e ach p er iod C oun try

I

Sweden

1 51

F in land

I

I I

1 9 ,122

1 ,953

1 ,2 49

2 2 ,475

7 35

7

1 2

7 55

1

D en mark

1 8

N orway

1 75

P er iods :

T o ta ls

6 ,0 70

7 23

5 60

7 ,371

2 ,5 55

3 6

1 12

2 ,708

2 8 ,482

2 ,719

1 ,9 33

3 3 ,309

5

T ota ls

I V

I

E adgar a nd E dward t he Mar tyr ( 975-8 )

I

' Ethe lred I a nd Cnu t ( 978-1035 )

I I

H aro ld I ( 1035-42 )

I V

E dward t he C on fessor ( 1042-66 )

t he o ther p er iods s hown i n t he T ab le , wh ich were , h owever , o u ts ide t he p er iod o f t he l ev ies .

T hus t he p reponderance o f S weden a s t he b ur ia l-p lace o f

Eng l ish c o ins i n S cand inav ia c anno t b e a t tr ibuted t o r eturn ing warr iors . A l l t hese c o ins i n S candinav ian h oards f ro m t he p er iods o fA E the lred a nd Cnut amoun t , h owever , t o o n ly 0 .058% o f t he 2 06 ,000 p ounds o f s i lver r ep or ted t o h ave b een l ev ied d ur ing t he 2 8 y ears o f t he l ast V ik ing a t tacks o n Eng land , s o t hat o n ly a t iny f ract ion o f t hese p ay men ts n eed h ave b een t ransf erred h o me .

T he g reater p ar t o f what was r ece ived may n ever h ave l ef t

t he c oun try , b ut may h ave b een i nvested t here i n l and o r i n t he p urchase o f g oods .

I ft ha t w ere s o , i tc ou ld h ard ly b e a l leged t ha t t he l ev ies p roduced

as i lver h ae morrhage f ro m Eng land . T he r eason f or t he b ur ia l o f s uch a l arge n u mber o fh oards i n S cand inav ia h as b een d iscussed e ver s ince t hey were f irst d iscovered i n Sweden a t t he 10 The p e nd o f t he s even teen th c en tury .1 rob le m i s s t i l l b y n o means s o lved , b ut a s r egards t he c o in c on ten ts t he e xp lanat ions s o f ar p roposed c an b e d iv ided i n to t hree ma in c ategor ies :

t he h oards a re s a id t o h ave b een d epos ited

f or r e l ig ious r easons , f or s ecur ity i n t ime o f war o r u nrest , o r i n o rder t o s erve s o me e cono m ic p urpose . I th as b een ma in ta ined t hat t he t reasures were b ur ied a s o f fer ings t o t he g ods o r f or u se i n t he a f ter-l ife .

T he l at ter i s s uggested i n p ar t icu lar b y t he

Yng l ingasaga , i n wh ich i ti s s tated t hat , a ccord ing t o t he 'L aw o f Od in ' t he d ead wou ld b e a l lowed t o e n joy a ny t reasure wh ich t hey h ad t he mse lves b ur ied ! i n t he e ar th . Ar e l ig ious b as is f or t he b ur ia l o f t he h oards h as b een much d isputed , a nd i tc er ta in ly c anno t a ccoun t f or t he n u merous h oards f ound o n S lav ic t err itory ,

u n less o ne makes t he u n l ike ly a ssu mp t ion t hat t hey ma in ly

b e longed t o S cand inav ians .

However , a s f ar a s S cand inav ia i s c oncerned ,

t he r e l ig ious mo t ive wou ld n ot p rec lude t he owner o f t reasure f ro m h id ing i ti n t ime o f u nrest , a nd i t wou ld a ctua l ly e ncourage h im t o a dd t o t he d epos it whene ver p oss ib le , d ur ing h is l i fet i me .

2 7

T he c on ten t ion t hat t he h oards were b ur ied i n t ime o f war , p ar t icu lar ly when t he c oasts were u nder a t tack b y s trangers , h as b een r educed b y B o l in t o t he f or mu la : 'T he more t he t reasure , t he g reater t he d evasta t ion a nd t he g reater 1 1 1 t he d anger ' . Wh i le s ecur ity p recau t ions must h ave p layed a c erta in p ar t i n t h is d epos it o f t reasure , war a nd u nrest a re t e mporary p henomena , s o t ha t most o f t he h oards s hou ld s ubsequen t ly h ave b een r ecovered . Moreover , t h is t heory wou ld h ard ly a ccoun t f or t he n u merous h oards o f G ot land . D ue t o i t s l ong , i nden ted c oas t line , t he i s land was n ever a b le t o d efend i t se lf a ga ins t r a iders , w ho wou ld a lways h ave b een a b le t o f orce t heir v ict ims t o d ivu lge where t he ir r iches were h idden . T he h oards o f G o t land a re d istr ibuted t hroughou t t he i s land ; i n o n ly o ne o f t he p resen t 9 2 p ar ishes h as n one s o f ar b een f ound , a nd t hey a re a l most a bsen t i n t he f orest-be l t , wh ich was a lways s parse ly p opu lated .1 12 T h is w idespread d istr ibut ion o f t he h oards t ends t o i nd icate t hat t he b ury ing o f c oins w as a n or ma l p rocedure o f e veryday l i fe i n a n a rea where s o many p ossessed t reasure , a nd y et n o s trongho lds e x isted w ith s ecure v au lts , l e t a lone a b anki ng-syste m o f a ny k ind . I t was t hus a ga ins t l oca l t hef t o r f i re t hat p eop le c onc ea led t he ir r iches , p art icu lar ly when t hey l e f t f or a n o verseas v en ture . I n s uch a c ase t he h oard r epresen ted t hat p ar t o f t he o wner ' sc ap i ta l wh ich was n o t r equ ired f or t he c urren t j ourney .

K now ing t he t rad ing c ond it ions o f

t he p laces t hey v is ited , t he V ik ings were a b le t o e st i mate t he amoun t o f c ap i ta l w h ich c ou ld b e s uccessfu l ly emp loyed . Moreover , many o f t he G o t landers w ere s h ip-owners a nd a c t ive i n mar i t ime t rade .

T hus t hey w ou ld h ave h ad a t

t heir d isposa l t he s urp lus o f t he ir i nco me f ro m p rev ious v oyages , a s we l l a s t he i nco me f ro m t he f re igh t c ons igned t o t hem f or t he n ex t u nder tak ing . These r esources t hey c o l lec ted a t h o me u n t i l t hey w ere r eady t o s a i l , e xcep t f or t hat w h ich t hey i nvested i n merchand ise t o t rade o n t he ir o wn , o r wh ich w as r eq u ired f or e qu ipp ing a nd p rov is ion ing t he v esse l .

S uch v entures r anged f rom

p eacefu l c o m merc ia l v oyages , o r e ven s erv ice w ith t he V arang ian g uard o f B yzan t iu m , t o e xped it ions d esigned t o r ob a nd s ub jugate o ther p eop les , who m t he V ik ings p ressed i n to t he ir own s erv ice o r s o ld a s s laves .

Wha tever t he ir

p urpose , h owever , t hey o f ten l asted f or y ears a nd many n ever r eturned .

T he

d epos i ted w ea lth r e ma ined b ur ied , t o b e r ecovered o n ly many c en tur ies l a ter . A ccord ing t o t h is i n terpre tat ion , most o f t he c o in h oards , p art icu lar ly t hose i n G o t land , r esu lted f ro m c o m merc ia l o pera t ions r ather t han f ro m w ar o r v io lence .

I ft h is b e c orrect , i t must b e c onc luded t hat t he h oards r ef lect a

h igher l eve l o f e cono mic a c t iv i ty p r ior t o t he e leven th c en tury , t han h as g enera l ly b een a ssu med t o b e t he c ase .

T h is c o mmerc ia l a c t iv i ty t ook p lace

a t at ime w hen l arge move ments o fp opu la t ion were o ccurr ing : t he N orweg ians a nd D anesgoing ma in ly t o t he Wes t a nd t he S wedes ma in ly t o R uss ia . H owever , b y t he e nd o f t he t en th c en tury t hese migra t ions may h ave p roduced a t e mporary d iminut ion i n t he f oreign t rade o f S candinav ia i t se lf , w i th t he e xcep t ion o f G o t land , a s t he emigrants , i nc luding many o f t he merchan ts , s e t t led p erman ent ly i n t he n ew c o lon ies a nd g radua l ly r e linqu ished t he ir t i es w i th t he h o mel and . C hanges i n t he t rade-rou tes , wh ich b egan i n t he midd le o f t he t en th c entury , md s t h ave a cce lera ted t h is p rocess , s o t ha t o nce more t he Medi terr anean b eca me a f ocus o f t rade b e tween E urope , As ia a nd A fr ica .

2 8

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h istor ique 1 83 ( 1938 ) , 2 81-97 . 3 4.

F . L . G anshof ,

&ranger d ans l a monarch ie F ranque ', R ecue i ls

d e l a S oc iete J ean B od in , Vo l . 1 0 , P t . 2 , Brusse ls , 1 958 , p p . 5 -36 . 3 5 .

M . J . d e G oe je ,

Z um i n ternat iona len H ande lsverkehr im M i t te la l ter ',

I n ternat iona le Wochenschr if t 1( 1907 ) , 1 144-8 . 3 6.

I bn K hurdädbeh , K i tAb a l- Masä l ik wa 'a l- Ma mI l ik , e d . M . J . d e G oe je , L e iden , 1 889 , a t p p . 1 53-5 .

3 7 .

F . L . G ansho f ,

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Revue h istor ique 1 83 ( 1938 ) , 2 8-37 . 3 8 .

R . S . L opez , 'Moha m med a nd C har le magne :

ar ev is ion ', S pecu lu m

1 8 ( 1943 ) , 1 4-38 . 3 9 .

W. E . Cru m ,

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f ür Ägyp t ische S prache u nd A l ter tu mskunde 6 0 ( 1925 ) , 1 03-11 . 4 0 .

D . C . D ennet , J r .,

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1 65-90 . 4 1 .

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L es b ases

moneta ires d 'une s upre ma t ie e cono m ique ' , A nna les E SC 2 ( 1947) , 1 43-60 . 4 2 .

M . L o mbard ,

Maho me t e t C har le magne .

L e p rob le me e cono m ique '

i b id . 3( 1948 ) , 1 88-99 . 4 3 .

P . Gr ierson ,

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t he myth o f t he

mancus t, R evue b e ige d e p h i lo l . e t d 'h ist . 3 2 ( 1954 ) , 1 059-74 , a nd a ddendu m i n i d ., D ark A .ge N um is mat ics , 1 979 , a t p p . 2 -4 .

3 0

4 4.

C . C ahen , 'Q ue lques p robr e mes c oncernan t Pe xpans ion g cono m ique musu l mane a u H au t Moyen

A ge ' , i n I , ' O cc iden te e P I s la m n e l l ' A l to

Med ioevo , S et t i mane d i S tud io d e l C en tro I t a l ian° d i S tud i s u l l ' a lto Med ioevo 1 2 , S po leto , 1 965 , p p . 3 91-432 . 4 5 .

F . J . H im ly ,

Ya -ti l empr ise musu l mane s ur P e cono m ie d es e tats

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4 7 .

P . Gr ierson ,

, RN5 1 8 ( 1956 ) , 1 01-63 .

C o m merce i n t he D ark Ages :

ac r i t ique o f t he e v idence ',

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4 9 .

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5 0 .

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5 1 .

I b id .

5 2 .

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5 3 .

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5 4.

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5 5.

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5 6.

H . J ankuhn , H a ithabu :

E in H ande lsp latz d er Wik ingerze i t , 6 th e d .,

N eu münster , 1 976 . 5 7.

C . B l indhe im , 'K aupang i n S k i .r ingssa l . A N orweg ian p or t o f t rade f ro m t he V ik ing a ge ', i n J ankuhn e t a l ., e d . ( see n . 5 5 ) , p p . 4 0-57.

5 8 .

0 . O lsen a nd 0 . C ru m l in P edersen ,

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A .rchaeo log ia 3 8 ( 1967 ) , 7 3-174 , a t p . 1 09 . 5 9 .

D . J e l le ma , 1 5-36;

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S abbe , ( see n . 3 0 ).

6 0 .

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6 1.

G . D uby , G uerr iers e t P aysans , 1 973 .

6 2 .

J . M . Wa l lace-Hadr i l l , T he V ik ings i n F ranc ia , R eading , 1 975 .

6 3 .

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3 1

6 4 .

R . L atouche , T he B ir th o f Western E conomy : D ark Ages , 1 961 .

E cono m ic Aspects o f t he

6 5 .

H . R . L oyn , Ang lo-Saxon Eng land a nd t he N or man C onquest , 1 962 .

6 6 .

W. L ev ison , Eng land a nd t he Con t inen t i n t he E igh th C en tury , O x ford , 1 946 .

6 7.

MGH , E p ist . K aro l . A . ev i e Vo l . 2 , N o . 1 00 , p p . 1 44-7.

6 8 .

K ing A lfred ' s Oros ius

6 9 .

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7 0 .

A . J . Rober tson , T he L aws o f t he K ings o f E ng land f ro m E d mund t o

( see n . 5 4 ) .

H enry I , C a mbr idge , 1 925 . 7 1 .

' Honoran t ie c iv i ta t is P ap iae ' , MGH

S S , V o l . 3 0 , a t p . 1 444 .

7 2 .

P . H . S awyer , T he Age o f t he V ik ings , 2 nd e d ., 1 971 .

7 3 .

'L ex B a juwaru m , I V , 2 3 ,' MGH , L egu m 7 V o l . 1 , 5 , a t p . 3 31.

7 4 .

S awyer ( see n . 7 2 ) , a t p . 2 16 .

7 5 .

D . M . Metca lf , 'T he r ank ing o f t he b oroughs : n um is mat ic e v idence f ro m t he r e ign o f / Ethe lred I ', i n E the lred t he Unready , e d . D . H i l l , BAR , Br it ish s er ies 5 9 , Ox ford , 1 978 , p p . 1 59-212 .

7 6.

H . B . A . P etersson , Ang lo-Saxon Currency .

K ing E dgar ' s Reform t o

t he N or man C onquest , L und , 1 969 , a t p . 6 3 . 7 7.

D . M . Metca lf ,

Ana lyses o f t he me ta l c on ten t o f med ieva l c o ins ', i n

Methods o f Che m ica l a nd Me ta l lurg ica l I nvest igat ion o f Anc ien t C o inage , e d . E . T . H a l l a nd D . M . Metca lf ( Roya l N um is mat ic S oc iety , S pec . P ub l icn . N o . 8 ) , 1 972 , p p . 3 83-434 . 7 8 .

R . H . M . D o l ley a nd D . M . Me tca lf , 'The r efor m o f t he Eng l ish c o ina ge u nder E adgar ', i n Ang lo-Saxon C o ins , e d . R . H . M . D o l ley , 1 961 , p p . 1 36-168 .

7 9 .

P . Gr ierson , 'L a t rouva i l le mone ta ire d e I l anz ', G az . n um is ma t ique s u isse

4( 1953 ) , 4 6-8 ;

i b id ., 'Crono log ia d e l le r ifor me monetar ie d i

C ar lo Magno ', R IN 5 6 ( 1954 ) , 6 5-79 . 8 0 .

C . E . B lun t , 'The c o inage o f OM ', i n Ang lo-Saxon C o ins , e d . R . H . M. D o l ley , 1 961 , p p . 3 9-62 .

8 1 .

P . Gr ierson ,

Money a nd c o inage u nder Char le magne ', i n K ar l d er

Grosse , e d . W. Braun fe ls , V o l . 1 , D t Isse ldorf , 1 965 , p p . 5 01-36 , a t p . 5 10 . 8 2 .

S . Bo l in ,

cand inav ian E cono m ic Moha m med , C har le magne a nd Rur ie , S

H istory R ev iew 1 ( 1953 ) , 5 -39 . 8 3 .

R . D oehard , L es r efor mes mone ta ires C aro l ing iennes , Anna les E SC 7 ( 1952 ) , 1 3-20 .

8 4.

U . S . L . We l in , 'The f irst a rr iva l o f o r ien ta l c o ins i n S cand inav ia , F v . 6 9 ( 1974 ) , 2 2-9 . 3 2

8 5.

C . Warnke , D ie An fAnge d es F ernhande ls i n P o len ? Würzburg , 1 964 .

8 6.

T . L ew ick i , 'L e c o m merce d es S ä mha ides a vec l tE urope o r ien ta le e t c en tra le a l a l um iere d es t resors d e monna ies c ouph iques ', i n N ear E astern N um is mat ics , I conography , E p igraphy a nd H istory , e d . D . Kony ma jian , B e iru t , 1 974 , p p . 2 19-33 .

8 7.

T . L ew ick i ,

L a p ar t ic ipat ion d es p ays musu l mans a u c o m merce a vec

l es t err ito ires p o lona is a ux I Xe-X le s iec les a l a l um iere d es t rouva i l les d e monna ies c ouph iques f a ites e n P o logne ', 1 er C ongres I n ternat iona l d ' Archeo log ie S lave , 1 965 , V o l . 6 , C racow , 1 968 , p p . 1 47-53 ; C ahen ,

C .

P our l ' in terpreta t ion d es t rouva i l les mon &a ires a rabes e n

Europe Or ien ta le ', C ongres d e Med iev istes a D i jon , 1 978 , p p . 1 13-22 . 8 8 .

A . C zap lc iew icz , T . L ew ick i , S . Nosek , M . Opozda-Czapk iew icz , S karb D irhe mov Arabsk ich z C zechowa , Wroc law , 1 957.

F rench s u m-

mary , p p . 2 60-70 . 8 9 .

N . N akhshaband i , ( 1949 ) , 1 99-202 ;

R are I s la m ic c o ins i n t he I raq Museu m ', S u mer 5 i b id ., 'The Z akho T reasure ', S u mer 6 ( 1950 ) , 1 77-88 .

9 0 .

A . E . Chr is tensen , V ik inget idens D an mark , C openhagen , 1 969 .

9 1.

Bo l in ( see n . 8 2 ) .

9 2 .

S awyer ( see n . 7 2 ) .

9 3 .

S abbe ( see n . 2 9 ) .

9 4 .

S . B o l in , 'T ax money a nd P lough money ', S cand inav ian E cono m ic H istory Rev iew 2 ( 1954 ) , 3 -21.

9 5 .

Ha tz , H ande l u nd V erkehr e a t p . 2 9 .

9 6.

A . A . G ordus a nd D . M . Metca lf,

The a l loy o f t he Byzan t ine m i l iares ion

a nd t he q uest ion o f t he r em in t ing o f I s la m ic s i lver ', HBN 2 4/26 ( 1970-2 ) , 9 -36 . 9 7.

Bo l in ( see n . 8 2 ) , a t p p . 1 6f f .

9 8.

S awyer ( see n . 7 2 ) , a t p p . 1 15f .

9 9 .

R . P . B lake , 'The c ircu lat ion o f s i lver i n t he Mos le m E ast d own t o t he Mongo l e poch ', H arvard J ourna l o f As iat ic S tud ies 2 ( 1937 ) , 2 913 28 .

1 00 .

R . V as mer ,

D irhe m ', i n F . S chra t ter , W C r terbuch d er Münzkunde ,

Ber l in , 1 930 , a t p . 1 46 . 1 01.

B lake ( see n . 9 9 ) , a t p . 3 28 .

1 02 .

A . A . . Gordus a nd D . Metca lf, 'N on-destruct ive c he m ica l a na lys is o f t he B yzan t ine s i lver c o inage o f Treb izond ', Axche ion P on tou 3 3 ( 1975-6 ) , 2 8-35 , a t 1 3 . 3 2 .

1 03.

C . E . Boswor th , The Ghaznav ids , t he ir Emp ire i n A fghan is t an a nd E astern I ran , 9 94-1040 , E d inburgh , 1 963 , a t p p . 7 9 a nd 1 02.

1 04 .

M . A . Bubnova ,

D obu icha s erebro-sv in tsovu ikh r ud v s he ldzh i vI X-

X I I v v .', Axkheo log ichesk ie P a matn ik i T a lassko i Do l in , Akad . N auk 3 3

K irg izko i S SR , F runze , 1 963 ;

Y . F . B ur iakov , Gorneo D e lo iMeta l lurg ika

K reonevekovogo I l aka , Moscow , 1 974 , a t p . 1 3. 1 05 .

V . L . Y an in , 'N um iz mat ika ip rob le mu i t ovarno-denezhnogo o brashc hen iya v d revne i Rus i ', Voprosu i I stor i i , N o . 8( 1955 ) , 1 35-42 , a t p . 1 40 .

1 06 .

E . A . D av idov ich ,

G orod , r e mes lo id enezhnoe o brashchen ie v

s redne i Az i i p er ioda t ak n azu ivae mogo "s erebryanogo k r iz isa"

( X I-

X I I I v v .) ' , Mater ia lu i I S oveshchan iya A rkheo logov iE tnografov S redne i A . z i i , Moscow-Len ingrad , 1 959 , p p . 3 8-46 . 1 07.

C . C ahen , 'C on tr ibu t ion ä l 'e tude d e l a c ircu lat ion moneta ire e n Or ien t a u mi l ieu d u Moyen Age ' ,

Anna les I s la mo log iques 1 5 ( 1979 ) ,

3 7-46. 1 08 .

A . E . L ieber , 'E astern b us iness p ract ices a nd med iaeva l E uropean c o m merce ', E con . H ist . R ev .

1 09 .

2

2 1 ( 1968 ) , 2 30-43 .

Th iet mar i Merseburgens is e p iscop i C hron icon ', e d . W. T r i l lm ich , A usgewnh lte Que l len z ur d eutschen G esch ich te d er M it te la l ters ? Vo l . 9 , D ar mstadt , 1 957.

1 10 .

S tenberger ( see n . 5 2 ) , a t p p . 3 07-20 .

1 11.

S . Bo l in , l Ynden a v Ro mersk a Myn t id e t F rya G er man ien , L und , 1 926 .

1 12 .

S tenberger ( see n . 9 5 ) , a t p p . 1 4-15 .

3 4

THE S TUDY OF V IK ING-AGE NU MISMATICS I N THE BALT IC EAST T uukka T a lv io

T h is p aper i s c oncerned w i th t he r esearch i n to t he c oin h oards o f t he n inth , t enth , a nd e leven th c entur ies i n t he a rea f ormed b y F in land, t he n or thern p ar ts o f R uss ia , a nd t he e as t B a lt ic l ands . F or t he s ake o f c onven ience , I w i l l c a l l t he p er iod i n q ues t ion t he V ik ing a ge , e ven t hough t he e nd o f t he V iking a ge i s u sual ly p laced t o t he midd le o f t he e leven th c entury o r e ven e ar l ier .

I t must a lso b e n oted t ha t i n R uss ian h is tor ica l wr it ing , t h is t ime

i sk nown a s K ievan R us , o r t he s upremacy o f K iev . T he p o li t ica l a nd e cono mic r o le o f t he V ik ings (Warang ians ') i n O ld R uss ia i s , a s i s w e l l-known , s t i l l d isputed . My u se o f t he p hrase V ik ing a ge when d ea l ing w i th R uss ia i mp l ies n o s tandpo int i n t h is ma t ter b eyond b e tray ing a west E uropean p o int o fd epart ure .

I ti s o bv ious t ha t t he i mpor t o f s i lver , f i rst f ro m t he Or ient a nd t hen

f ro m western E urope , t o t he l ands a round t he B a lt ic must b e s een a s a who le , a nd i ti s e qua l ly o bv ious t ha t many d if ferent p eop les p ar t ic ipa ted i n i t . May Ih ere a dd a more p ersona l n ote? Iwas f i rst t o ld a bout t h is S ympos iu m i n S tockho lm t hree y ears a go . Ih ad b een s tudy ing t he c orrespondence b e tween B ror Em i l H i ldebrand a nd h is c o l leagues i n F in land , E s ton ia , a nd R uss ia , a nd i ts ee med t o me a g ood i dea t ha t Is hou ld wr i te a p aper o n H i ldebrand 's r e la t ions w i th h is c onte mporar ies i n t he E ast . Ih ave n ow w idened t he s cope o ft h is e ssay i n o rder t o t ake i n to a ccoun t r esearch i n more modern t imes , b u t my o r ig ina l p lan may s t i l l s o mewhat a f fec t t he b a lance o ft he p aper . T h is , p erhaps , h as a c er ta in j us t if ica t ion , c ons ider ing t ha t w e h ave n ow r eached t he h undredth a nn iversary o ft he s econd e di t ion o f H i ldebrand 's A ng losachsiska mynt . The e ar ly a n t iquar ians were a lmos t w i thout e xcep t ion i n terested i n c oins . C oins a re n u merous i nf i nds a nd r e la t ive ly e asy t o d ate a nd a t tr ibu te ;

t hey

were a lso u sed i n t he c ons truct ion o f r oya l g enea log ies . A lready b y t he e igh teenth c en tury w e f i nd i n n or thern E urope t wo k inds o fn um is ma t ic s tudy : t here were t he s cho lars who were p r imar i ly i n teres ted i n l oca l c ircu mstances , wh i le o thers s tudied c o ins a s d ocu men ts r e lat ing t o t he ir c oun tr ies o f o r ig in . T he s tudy o f Arab ic c o ins i n p ar t icu lar h as h ad a l i ngu ist ic a spec t , w h ich i s n ot o n ly n ecessary b ut v ery n atura l c ons ider ing t ha t t he p ersons i n terested i n t he m u sua l ly h ad l earned o r ienta l l anguages i n c onnec t ion w i th t heo log ica l o r o ther n on-ant iquar ian s tudies . N ot o n ly d o t he A rab ic c oins d if fer f ro m t he wes t E uropean ;

t here a re

a lso t he d if ferences b etween Ang lo-Saxon a nd G erman c oins . T he main s ource f or t he s tudy o f Arab ic n um isma t ics i s t he c o ins t he mse lves , e very d irha m r ecording t he n a me o f t he min t a nd t he e xac t y ear o f t he min t ing . O n Ang lo-Saxon c oins we f i nd t he n a mes o f min t a nd moneyer , b u t t he d a te mus t d epend o n t he r oya l n a me a nd t he t ype o f c oin i n q ues t ion . I n t he c ase

3 5

o f G erman c o ins , t he a t tr ibut ion c an b e q ui te d if f icu l t , f or t he c o ins w ere s truck b y ag reat n u mber o f s ecu lar a nd s p ir i tua l a u thor i t ies , a nd t he ir l egends—wh ich o f ten a re n ear ly i l leg ib le—can b e o pen t o s evera l d if feren t i n terpre ta t ions . C onsequent ly , t he s tudy o fd if ferent t ypes o f c o ins h as p roceeded i n d iff eren t w ays . T he Arab ic c o ins h ave b een t he s pec ia l i ty o fn um ismat is ts v ersed i n o r ienta l l anguages b ut n ot n ecessar i ly i na rchaeo logy . T he s tuden ts o f E uropean c oins , o n t he o ther h and, may n o t n eed a l i ngu is t ic b ackground , b u t i n o rder t o a t tr ibute t he c oins c orrec t ly t hey mus t h ave e xper ience i n w ork ing w i th t he f i nds .

F or e xa mp le , i n t he e ar ly n ine teen th c entury , c o ins

r eading A E DELRAED c ou ld b e a t tr ibuted , more o r l ess a rb i trar i ly , t o t wo d if feren t k ings . N A en ow k now t ha t t he o n ly A Et he lred whose c oins n orma l ly o ccur i n t he N or th was A Et he lred I .

A f ter t he a ppearance i n 1 846 o f t he f i rs t

e d it ion o f H i ldebrand 's A ng losachs iska m ,ynt , mos t o f t he d if f icul t ies o f t h is k ind were o ver .

Dannenberg 's g reat work , D ie d eutschen M t inzen d er s uch-

s ischen u nd f ränk ischen K a iserze i t , t he f irs t v o lume o f wh ich was p ub lished i n 1 876 , marked a s im i lar s tep f orward f or t he s t udy o f G erman c oins . T he h is tory o fn um is mat ics c er ta in ly h as a n i n terest o f i t s own , b ut t he o b jec t o f t h is p aper i s more p rac t ica l t han t heore t ica l : t o o f fer s o me g enera l i n forma t ion w h ich migh t b e h e lpfu l t o t hose e ngaged i n a ctua l work w i th c oin f i nds a nd t he ma ter ia l p reserved i n museu ms . I I n mos t c ountr ies , t he n a t iona l c o l lect ions h ave a h is tory o f ah undred o r t wo h undred y ears , a nd c onsequent ly a l arge p ar t o ft he c o in ma ter ia l i n t hese c o l lec t ions was a cqu ired i n t he n ine teen th c en tury o r e ar lier .

I t was a lso i n

t he n ine teen th c en tury when many o f t he c a ta logues w ere p ub l ished wh ich a re s t i l l u sed a s s tandard w orks . T he s cho lars o f t ha t t ime d id n ot , h owever , n orma l ly r ecord t he p rovenances o f i ndiv idua l c o ins . T hey w ere b ui ld ing u p s ystema t ic c o l lec t ions , a nd t he h oard mater ia l wh ich d id n ot f i nd a p lace i n t hese c o llec t ions w as u sua l ly r ea lized i n o rder t o f i nance n ew a cquisi t ions . T h is d oes n o t mean t hat t here was n o i n teres t i n t he f i nds t he mse lves . O n t he c on trary , a ccounts w ere p ub lished o f many i mpor tant h oards .

I n o rder

t o b e a b le t o e st ima te t he r e l iab i li ty o f t hese p ub l ica t ions , we n a tura l ly n eed t o k now t he ir b ackgrounds . Where S cand inav ia i s c oncerned , t he h istory o f t he r esearch i s r e lat ive ly we ll-known . Much l ess i sk nown i n t he Wes t o f t he c ountr ies o n t he e as tern s ide o ft he B a lt ic , p ar t ly f or h istor ica l r easons a nd p ar t ly b ecause o f l anguage b arr iers . I n t he n ine teenth c entury , b oth F in land a nd t he e as t B a lt ic l ands—wh ich n ow f orm t he S ov ie t r epub lics o f E s ton ia a nd L a tv ia b u t were t hen k nown a s t he B a lt ic Prov inces—be longed t o t he R uss ian Emp ire . F in land d id , n ever thel ess , s t i l l h ave s trong l i nks w ith S weden , a nd i n t he B a lt ic P rov inces t he G erman i nf luence was e ven more d om ina ting i n c u ltura l l i fe . i t se lf we mee t many G erman n ames .

I n S t . P e tersburg

I n t he B a lt ic P rov inces , t he f i rst u n iversi ty w as f ounded b y t he S wedes i n 1 632 a t T ar tu ( Dorpat ) . F in land g ot a u n ivers i ty e igh t y ears l a ter a t T urku ( Abo ) , w h i le i n R uss ia t he S t . P etersburg Acade my o f S ciences a nd t he Moscow U n ivers i ty were f ounded i n 1 724 a nd 1 755 r espec t ive ly . I ts eems s ymp to ma t ic t ha t t he e ar liest a ccoun ts o f V ik ing-age c o in f i nds d ate i n E s ton ia a nd F in land

3 6

f ro m t he s eventeenth a nd i n R ussia f ro m t he e igh teen th c en tury . H owever , i ti s n ot n ecessary t o d iscuss h ere t he l i terature o n t hese e ar ly f i nds , f or i t was o n ly i n t he f irs t h a lf o f t he n ine teen th c entury t ha t e nough k now ledge h ad b een a ccu mu la ted t o f orm t he b asis f or a s ystema t ic s tudy o f t he f i nds . I n S candinav ia , t h is was t he t ime o f T ho msen , H i ldebrand , a nd T ornberg . I n R uss ia , modern n um is ma t ic r esearch f ound i t s f i rst r epresen ta t ive i n C hr ist ian Mar t in ( v on ) FRAEHN ( 1782-1851) , t he G erman-born o r ienta lis t .

2

We may h ere c i te t he w ords o f ac ontemporary t ry ing t o c o mpress i n o ne s entence F raehn 's l i fe 's a ch ieve ment : ' h e ...not o n ly c o mp le mented t he f ew a nd i nsuf f ic ient e ar l ier s ources f or R uss ia 's o ldes t h is tory w i th ma ter ia l f ro m Arab ic l i tera ture , b u t a lso p resen ted l uc id a nd i ndispu tab le e v idence o f a l i ve ly c o m merce wh ich e x isted b e tween t he Or ien t a nd n or thern E urope d ur ing t he h eyday o f t he Arabs , a nd t hus g ave a p laus ib le a nd n a tura l e xp lana t ion f or t he f ac t , wh ich h ad b een i n terpre ted i n s o many ways a nd wh ich a t f i rs t s igh t i ndeed i s c ur ious , n ame ly t ha t e normous amounts o f Arab ic c oins h ave r epea te d ly b een f ound s ince o ld t imes , a nd a re s t i l l a nnua l ly f ound , n ot o n ly i n R uss ia , b ut a lso i n F in land a nd t he B a lt ic P rov inces , i n S weden , N orway , D en mark , P russ ia , P o meran ia , a nd Meck lenburg . ' 3 The p ub l ica t ion a l luded t o i n t he f orego ing was a t opograph ica l s urvey o f o r ien ta l c o ins i n R uss ian f i nds , p r inted i n 1 841 i n t he B ul le t in o f t he S t . P e tersburg Acade my o f S c iences .

4

T he work a ppears t o h ave b een i nsp ired

b y a sma l l v o lu me w i th t he t i t le U eber d ie i n d en Ba lt ischen L Undern i n d er E rde g efundenen Z eugn isse e ines Hande ls-Verkehrs mi t d em Or ien t , p ub l ished b y L eopo ld v on L edebur i n B er l in o ne y ear e ar lier . Fraehn h ad c o me t o R uss ia i n 1 807 a f ter h av ing b een o f fered t he c ha ir i n o r ien ta l l anguages a t t he u niversi ty o f K azan .

When , t en y ears l a ter , h e was

a bou t t o r e turn t o G ermany , h e was a sked t o h e lp i n t he a rrang ing o f t he o r ien ta l c oins i n t he c o l lec t ion o ft he Academy o f S c iences i n S t . P e tersburg , a nd t he r esu lt was t ha t h e was e lec ted t ot he Acade my a nd s tayed t he r es t o f h is l i fe i n t he R uss ian c ap i ta l . I n 1 826, h e p ub lished h is b est-known n um isma t ic work , R ecens io N u moru m Muham medanoru m Academ iae I mper ia l is S c ient iaru m P etropo li tanae . T here w ere a lready s o me 2 0 ,000 o r ienta l c o ins i n t he Museu m As ia t icu m o f t he Acade my , ah igh f i gure , b ut n ot s urpr is ing i n v iew o ft he s ize o f s o me o f t he R uss ian h oards . F raehn 's s urvey o f t he f i nds was s oon f o l lowed b y a more d e ta i led s tudy p ub lished i n R uss ian b y P . S . S AVEL 'EV . 5 A nother work o n t he s ame s ub jec t b y V . V . GR IGO WEV a ppeared i n t he Proceed ings o f t he L earned S oc ie ty o f O dessa i n 1 844 .

6

I n F in land F raehn h ad a f o l lower i n G abr ie l GEITL IN ( 1 804-71) , who h ad s tudied i n S t . P e tersburg a nd was i n 1 849 a ppo in ted k eeper o f t he C oin C abine t o ft he U n ivers ity o f H e ls ink i . I n t he p rev ious y ear h e h ad r ead a p aper o n t he F inn ish f i nds o fo r ienta l c oins a t a mee t ing o f t he F inn ish S oc ie ty o f S c iences ,

7

a nd i n 1 862 h e p ub l ished a c a ta logue o f t he Muha mmedan c oins i n t he U n ivers i ty C abinet . 8 The l eng thy i n troduc t ion t o t h is c a ta logue g ives e v idence o f w ide r eading , b u t a pparen t ly t he work was l i t t le k nown o u ts ide ( or e ven w i th in ) F in land .

I n t he s ame i n troduc t ion G e i t l in r ecords h is g ra t itude t o H i ldebrand

who , when v is i t ing H e ls ink i i n 1 857 , h ad e ncouraged h im t o p roceed w i th t he work . 3 7

I n t he B a lt ic P rov inces , t he mos t i mpor tan t e ar ly w ork i s al arge a rchaeol ogica l v o lu me b y Dr F r iedr ich KRUSE w ith t he e xhaus t ive t i t le N ecro l ivon ica , o der A lter thü mer L iv, E sth- u nd C ur lands b is z ur E inführung d er C hr is t l ichen R e lig ion i n d en K a iser l ich R uss ischen O s tsee-Gouverne ments , z usam menges te l lt u nd h istor isch e r läu ter t i n e ine m U n ter thän igs ten G enera lber ich te f i ber s e ine a uf A llerhöchs ten B efeh l i m J ahre 1 839 a usgeführ te a rchaeo log ische U nters uchungsre ise ..., D orpa t , 1 842 . A s upp lementary f asc ic le was p ub lished a t L e ipz ig i n 1 859 . T he w ork c on ta ins a wea lth o fn um is ma t ic mater ia l , t he o r ien ta l c o ins b e ing d escr ibed b y Dr . A . HANSEN , a lso o f D orpa t ( Tar tu ) , a nd t he wes tern c oins b y Kruse h i mse lf , w i th r eferences t o J oachim L e lewe l 's N um is ma t ique d u moyent ige ( 1 835 ) .

C onvenient ly e nough , t he r e levan t ma ter ia l

i n L e lewe l 's b ook i s p ar t ly b ased o n P o l ish h oards wh ich i nc lude s o me o ft he s ame c o in t ypes a s o ccur i n t he e ast Ba l t ic a rea .

T he a ccoun t b y Kruse o f

t he A ng lo-Saxon , G erman , a nd S candinav ian c oin f i nds i s t he f irst o f i t s k ind i n t he R uss ian Emp ire a nd a s s uch a f orerunner o f t he work o f K oehne . B efore K oehne , af ew w ords mus t b e s a id o f a me mber o f a n e ar lier g enera t ion , t he f a mous c o llec tor J akob ( v on ) REICHEL ( 1778-1856 ) . 9 B orn i n Warsaw , a nd a s on o f t he meda l lis t J . R e iche l t he e lder , h e was h i mse lf at ra ined e ngraver , b u t h e made h is r ea l c areer a s e xper t i n s ecur i ty p r int ing . F ro m r e la t ive ly h u mb le b eg inn ings h e r ose t o ah igh s oc ia l p os i t ion , wh ich e nab led h im t o b eco me o ne o f t he mos t p ro m inent c o in c ol lec tors o f h is a ge . H is c ol lec t ion c ons is ted o f s o me 4 7 , 0 00 c o ins a nd meda ls wh ich a f ter , a nd p ar t ly a lready b efore , h is d ea th were i ncorpora ted i n to t he H erm itage C ab ine t . Ac a ta logue o f t he c o l lec t ion , i n n ine sma l l v o lu mes , was p ub lished i n t he 1 840s .

1 0

R e iche l c orresponded w i th H i ldebrand .

H is l e t ters , n ow i n t he a rch ives

o ft he R oya l A cade my o f L et ters , H is tory , a nd A n t iqui t ies a t S tockho lm , c onta in i nforma t ion o f h is p urchases f ro m v ar ious s a les a s we l l a s o f h is a cqu is i t ions f ro m t he 1 846 Oran ienbaum ( Borovska ja ) h oard .

I n o ne o f t he

l e t ters , d a ted 1 2/24 J u ly 1 849 , h e ment ions h ow h e h ad l ef t t he d at ing a nd a rrange men t o f t he more d if f icu lt medieva l s er ies i nh is c o l lect ion t o h is y ounger f r iend K oehne . B ernhard ( Bor is ) ( v on ) KOEHNE ( 1 817-1886) c ame t o S t . P e tersburg i n 1 845 a nd worked a t t he Herm itage C oin C ab ine t u n t i l 1 850 , when h e b ecame d irec tor o f t he H era ldic D epar tmen t .

A t t he a ge o f 2 4 , h e h ad f ounded i n

B er l in t he Z e i tschr if t Mr Münz, S iege l- u nd Wappenkunde , i n t he f i rst ( 1841) v o lu me o f wh ich h e p ub lished a n o te o n ' Münzfunde i n d en Ka is . r uss ischen Os tseeprov inzen ' . I t was n o th ing more t han a r ev iew o f an ot ice wh ich h ad a ppeared i n t he p roceed ings o f t he E ston ian L i terary S oc iety f or 1 840 , b u t i td eserves t o b e men t ioned a s a n e ar ly d raf t o f t he work wh ich w i ll b e d iscussed b e low . I n R uss ia , K oehne e di ted Me-moires d e l a S oc ie te- d 'Archeo log ie e t d e N um is ma t ique d e S t . P etersbourg ( s ince 1 850 , S oc ie te I mper ia le d 'Archeol og ie ) . S ix v o lu mes a ppeared b e tween 1 847 a nd 1 852 . Wi th K oehne a s t he e d itor a s we l l a s o ne o ft he p r inc ipa l a uthors , t he Me moires were p rac t ica l ly ac on tinua t ion o f h is e ar l ier Z e i tschr if t , a nd i ti sp erhaps n ot b e wondered t ha t t hey were e ven tua l ly r ep laced b y aR uss ian p ub l ica t ion w i th p redo m inan t ly a rchaeo log ica l c ontents . 3 8

K oehne 's l i terary a c t iv i ty r anged f ro m a r t ic les o n a nc ien t c o ins t o a n a t tack , u nder a p seudonym , o n t he p oor s ta te o f c on te mporary h era ldic d es ign i n F in land . H is w ork o n V ik ing-age n um isma t ics i nc ludes a n ote o n ap arce l o f c o ins f ro m C uerda le , 1 1 w h ich h ad b een a cqu ired b y R e iche l , a nd a s o mewha t d isappoint ing s tudy o f f ore ign im i ta t ions o f B yzan t ine c oins .

1 2

Mos t

i mpor tan t , h owever , i s t he p ub l ica t ion ' Ueber d ie i m R uss ischen R e iche g efundenen a bend landischen münzen d es X , X I u nd X I I ten J ahrhunder ts ' , wh ich a ppeared i n t hree p ar ts i n v o ls . 3a nd 4 o f t he Memo ires 1 3 a nd was e ven i ssued a s as epara te v o lu me , i n R uss ian . 1 4 T h is work t oo i s l ess s a t isfac tory t han i tc ou ld h ave b een . T he d escr ip t ions o f t he h oards a re i n mos t c ases t oo s u m mary a nd , i th as b een p oin ted o ut , 1 5 s ome t imes u nre l iab le , ow ing t o t he f ac t t ha t K oehne a c ted h i mse lf a s a gen t f or s uch i nf luent ia l c o l lec tors a s R e iche l a nd C oun t S . G . S TROGANOV a nd t hus s o me t i mes h ad t o h o ld b ack i n forma t ion o f ak ind w h ich c an e as i ly b e g uessed a t—for t here was i n R uss ia , t oo , al aw r equir ing t ha t f i nds o f c oins a nd o ther a nt iqu i t ies mus t b e s urrende red t o t he a uthor i t ies f or e ven tua l r edemp t ion .

I n t he c ase o f t he i mpor tan t

Oran ienbaum h oard , f or e xamp le , we k now f or c er ta in t ha t mos t o ft he c o ins w ere c landes t ine ly b ough t b y R e iche 1; 1 6 af ew p ieces i n t he Ang lo-Saxon c o l lec t ion o f t he Br i t ish Museu m p robab ly a lso d er ive f ro m t h is f i nd .

1 7

As t he o n ly s urvey o f i t s k ind , K oehne 's w ork n ever the less h as i t s i mp or tance a s ar ecord o f wha t i s k nown o f t hese e ar ly f i nds . T he d escr ip t ions b y K oehne o f r are a nd o therw ise i n teres t ing c o ins i n t he h oards a lso a re q u i te v a luab le . Wi th f ew e xcep t ions , t he c oins i n q ues t ion were i n t he R e iche l C o l lect ion , n ow owned b y t he H erm itage . K oehne 's n a me a s as cho lar h as b een t arn ished b y h is r o le i n af a mous c ontroversy c oncern ing a t ype o f c oin wh ich h e w anted t o a t tr ibute t o t he n in thc entury Pr ince O leg , b ut wh ich i s n ow b e lieved t o h ave b een s truck e ar ly i n t he e leventh c entury b y P r ince J aros lay .

Wha t K oehne r ead a s t he n ame o f

O leg was i n d ue c ourse s hown t o b e q ui te i ncon tes tab ly t he n ame o f S t . G eorge i n Greek l e t ters . K oehne 's a t temp t t o u se h is i n terna t iona l r epu ta t ion a s a s take i n t he p lay p roved d isastrous . I n S t . P e tersburg s oc ie ty h e was s een a s af ore igner a nd a n u ps tar t , a nd t he o ppor tun i ty o fd er id ing h i m was e ager ly t aken .

1 8

P erhaps t here was s o me p rovoca t ive t ra i t i n h is p ersona l ity , f or

s t i ll , af ter more t han a h undred y ears , we f i nd p r in ted i n ah istory o ft he H erm itage C abine t s evera l s tanzas o f a n a bus ive p oem where t he k indes t c harac ter iza t ion o f K oehne i s ' b er l insk i j p ar t ik ju lar ist ' .

1 9

As a n e xper t i n w est-European n um is ma t ics , K oehne h ad a f o l lower i n J u lius I VERSEN ( 1 823-1900 ) , who i s c h ief ly k nown t oday f or h is b ooks o n R ussian meda ls .

A s a n emp loyee o ft he Herm i tage ( f ro m 1 877 ) , h e s e lec ted

f ro m t he h oard ma ter ia l t he c oins wh ich were p urchased b y t he museu m . B e ing a t t he s a me t ime a p r iva te c o l lec tor , h e s o me t i mes t ook c are o ft he r est h i mse lf .

2 0

T he l arges t p ar t o f t he g rea t L ode jnoe P o le h oard o f 1 878 i s

k nown t o h ave b een s o ld b y h im a t aH ess s a le i n F rankfur t ,

2 1

a nd o ne s uspec ts

t ha t n ot a l l o f h is d o ings o f t h is k ind were e n t ire ly u nse lf ish . H e s ee ms t o h ave c o l labora ted w i th H ermann Dannenberg b oth i n s c ient if ic a nd i n c o mmerc ia l ma t ters . 2 2 L ike K oehne , h e v is i ted F in land s evera l t imes a nd was , a t l eas t i ndirec t ly , r espons ib le f or t he d isappearence f ro m F in land o f V iking-age h oard ma ter ia l .

2 3

3 9

Wi th I versen , we h ave c o me t o t he t urn o ft he c entury .

Before d iscuss ing

t he w ork d one i n R uss ia , af ew words c an b e s a id a bout F in land .

Af ter G e i t lin ,

t he U n ivers i ty C ab ine t a t H e ls ink i was i n t he c are o f Wi lhe l m LAGUS ( 1 8211 909 ) . A t t he o r ien ta l is t c ongress h e ld i n S t . P e tersburg i n 1 876 h e r ead a p aper o n t he Arab ic c o ins f ound i n F in l and , 24 b u t t he s hor t c o m mun ica t ion was p erhaps more r e markab le f or b e ing p resented i n L a t in t han f or i t s c on tents . H is h istory o ft he U n ivers i ty C abinet a nd a n i nven tory o f F in land 's c o in f i nds 25 a re s t i l l v a luab le b u t s how l i t t le i n teres t i n t he p rob le ms o ft he V ik ing a ge . L agus was s ucceeded a s t he k eeper o ft he U n ivers i ty C ab ine t b y Ar thur H JELT ( 1 868-1931) , a nother o r ienta l ist .

H e p ub lished a f ew n otes o n f i nds .

2 6

More i mpor tan t was t he work d one b y O t to ALCEN IUS ( 1 838-1913 ) . 2 7 Or ig ina l ly a b otanis t a nd a s choo l mas ter , h e b egan work ing w ith t he w es tern c o ins i n F innish f i nds a f ter r e t ir ing a nd s et t ling i n H e ls ink i i n t he 1 890s .

I n

1 900 , h e p ub l ished a l eng thy e ssay ' Fyra a ng losachs isk-tyska myntfynd i F in land ' ,2 8 wh ich was meant t o b e ap re l im inary r epor t o n f our impor tan t f i nds t ha t h ad b een a cqu ired b y t he n ew ly-founded H istor ica l Museu m a t H e ls ink i , n ow t he N a t iona l Museu m o f F in land . T he p aper was r ev iewed f avourab ly b y Menad ier ,2 9 b ut a s o mewha t more s evere e va lua t ion b y Dannenberg 3 °may h ave made A lcenius c au t ious o f e xpress ing i n p r in t a ny th ing t ha t c ou ld b e d ee med p remature . H e was a lready a i l ing , a nd i n t he e nd h is p lan f or a d eta i led p ub l ica t ion o ft he F inn ish ma ter ia l me t t he s ame f a te a s h is e ar lier p ro jec t c oncerning t he p lants o f F in land : t he magnu m o pus n ever c ame o ut , t hough d raf ts e x ist . I t was l ef t t o C . A . N ord man a nd H e lmer S a l mo t o b r ing t h is w ork t o f u lf i l l ment , a s w i l l b e s een p resent ly . I n S t . P e tersburg , I versen was f o l lowed i n 1 900 a s c ura tor b y A lexe i MARKOV ( 1 858-1920 ) , av ersa t i le s cho lar b est k nown f or h is work o n o r ienta l c o ins . 3 1 H e c a me t o t he H erm i tage i n t he 1 880s , when t here was a lso a t tached t o t he museu m t he we l l-known s pec ia lis t B aron Wo lde mar ( V ladim ir ) v on T IESENHAUSEN ( 1825-1902 ) , a u thor o f as tandard w ork o n t he c oins o f t he e astern C a l ipha te . 32 I n 1 896 , Markov p ub lished h is I nven tarny j k a ta log musu l ' mansk ih mone t ,3 3 a nd i n 1 910 h e p resented an ew ' t opography ' o ft he f i nds .

3 4

Markov 's work was c ont inued b y R . VAS MER ( 1 888-1938) , 35 whose p ubl i shed w ork 36 i s a n i mpress ive monu men t t o t oo s hor t al i fe . E spec ia l ly r emarkab le i s h is u se o fd ie-studies i n w ork ing w i th p rob lems c onnec ted w i th t he i mpor t o fd irha ms . N ex t t o V as mer we mus t ment ion N iko la i BAUER ( 1888-1942 ) , whose l ong a r t ic le ' D ie r ussischen F unde a bend landischer Munzen d es 1 1 . u nd 1 2 . J ahrhunder ts ' a ppeared i n Z e i tschr if t f ur N um isma t ik .

3 7

T hough n ow s uper-

s eded b y V . P otin 's c orresponding work , i tr e ma ins v ery u sefu l . I n N um isma t ische Z e i tschr if t , Bauer p ub lished a t opograph ica l s urvey o ft he g o ld a nd s i lver b ar c urrency u sed i n med ieva l R uss ia .

3 8

Y e t a nother ' t opography ' t o

a ppear i n t he s a me p er iod was t he p ub l ica t ion o f R ussian c o ins o f t he 1 0 th a nd 1th c en tur ies b y A . A . I L 'IN , 39 Markov 's s uccessor a s c ura tor o f t he H erm itage C ab ine t . A c onte mporary o f V as mer a nd B auer was Wa l ter ANDERSON ( 1 885-1962) . B orn i n R uss ia o f E s ton ian p arentage , Anderson was d ur ing h is l ong l i fe

4 0

p rofessor a t f our u n ivers i t ies ( Kazan , 1 918;

T ar tu , 1 920-39 ;

a f ter 1 940 ,

K önigsberg a nd K ie l ) a nd h e e arned a n i n terna t iona l r eputa t ion a s af o lk lor is t . " H is n um is ma t ic work c ons is ts o f af ew h oard r epor ts p ub l ished ma in ly i n t he 1 930s 4 1 —b u t t hey a re r epor ts wh ich c an s t i l l b e c ons idered v ery s a t isfac tory . F or e xa mp le , h e r ecorded t he d ie-axes o f 1 0 th a nd 1th c entury c o ins , s o met h ing t ha t a t l eas t i n A ng lo-Saxon n um is ma t ics h ad n ot b een s een b efore . U ndoubted ly h e was h ere i n f luenced b y V as mer , w ith who m h e c o l labora ted . A f ter s e t t l ing i n G ermany , A nderson a pparent ly n o l onger h ad t he s ame o pport uni ty t o w ork w i th n ew h oards a s h e h ad h ad i n E ston ia , a nd t h is s ide o f h is a cade m ic a c t iv i ty c ame t o a n e nd . T hree e ar lier B a l t ic n um is ma t is ts mus t a lso b e men t ioned h ere . H erman FRANK , c ura tor o ft he museu m o f P ernau Archaeo logica l S oc iety , p ub l ished i n 1 908 a l ong p aper w i th t he t i t le ' D ie b a lt isch-arab ischen F und m t tnzen ' .

4 2

C onserva tor E rnst FREY a t Tar to wrote a r t ic les o n b o th o r ienta l a nd wes tern c o ins . 4 3 A t R iga , as hor t g enera l s urvey o f t he B a l t ic h oards was p ub lished i n 1 936 b y P rofessor A do lf FR IEDENTHAL . 44 T he s urvey was i nsp ired b y a nd i n tended a s as upp le men t t o B auer 's t opography . On ly a sma l l p or t ion o ft he p os t-war w ork d one i n t he S ov ie t U n ion c an b e p resented h ere , b ut more i nforma t ion c an c onvenien t ly b e f ound i n t he a r t ic le b y I . G . S PASSKY , ' Nu m is ma t ic r esearch i n R uss ia , t he U kra ine , a nd B ye loR uss ia i n t he p er iod 1 917-1967 ' , p r inted i n t he N um is ma t ic C hronic le f or 1 972 . 45 T he s a me p er iod i s a lso c overed b y c o mprehens ive b ib l iograph ies b y S passky , V . L . J AN IN , a nd M . B . S EVEROVA i n N um iz ma t ika ie p igraf ika , v o ls . 2 , 3 , a nd 1 2 , t he l as t o ne b r ing ing t he r ecord u p t o 1 972 .

4 6

Among t he S ov ie tn um is ma t is ts work ing o n wha t i s k nown i n t he Wes t a s t he V ik ing a ge , V sevo lod POT IN i s n ow t he mostpro m inen t . H is 1 967 ' Topog raf iya '4 7 r ep laces B auer 's a r t ic le a s t he s tandard work o n wes t E uropean c o ins f ound i n t he t err i tory o f O ld R ussia . a s c o mpared t o 2 40 i nt he e ar lier s urvey .

At o ta l o f 3 95 f i nds i s p resen ted ,

4 8

I nc luded i n t he n umber a re n o t o n ly

h oards , b u t a lso s ing le f i nds a nd t he c oin ma ter ia l f ro m b ur ia ls a nd o ther a rchaeo log ica l s ources . I n an u mber o fp apers P ot in h as s tudied s epara te ly t he v ar ious g roups o f c oins r epresen ted i n t he f i nds a nd d iscussed q ues t ions r e la ted t o t he i mpor t o f c oin .4 9 A s u mmary o f s o me o f h is v iews c an b e f ound i n t he monograph Drevn ja ja R us ' ie vrope jsk ie g osudars tva vX-X I I I v v . ( O ld R ussia a nd t he E uropean s ta tes i n t he 1 0 th-13th c entur ies . ) 5 0 T hough c er ta in i deas h e ld b y t he a uthor u ndoub ted ly a re c ontrovers ia l , t he b ook i s ar emarkab le s ynthes is o fn u misma t ic s c ience a nd e cono m ic a nd p o l i t ica l h is tory . Among t he o r ien ta l is ts , ment ion must b e made o f A . A . BYKOV ( 1 8961 977 ) , who b egan h is c areer i n t he 1 920s a s as tuden t o f V asmer . S evera l f i nds f ro m n orthern R uss ia h ave a lso b een p ub l ished b y S . A . J AN INA , V . N . R JABCEV IÖ , V . V . KROPOTK IN , a nd o thers . 5 1 The work d one i n t he As ia t ic p ar ts o ft he U SSR must b e l ef t o u ts ide t he s cope o ft h is s urvey . The B yzan t ine c oins i n R uss ian t err i tory were p ub l ished i n 1 962 i n a monograph b y V . V . K ropotk in .

5 2

The i mpor tan t f i nd o f mi liaresia f ro m

V e l la i n E s ton ia h as a lso b een s epara te ly d iscussed b y I . V . S OKOLOVA .

4 1

5 3

T he mos t i mpor tan t h oard p ub l ica t ion wh ich h as a ppeared s ince 1 972 i s p robab ly t he d e ta i led r epor t b y A . S . BELJAKOV a nd S . A . J an ina o n 5 75 west E uropean a nd o r ienta l c oins d iscovered i n 1 964 a t K o lodezi i n c en tra l R uss ia .

5 4

I n t he S ov ie t R epub lic o f E s ton ia , most o f t he n um isma t ic r esearch i s c arr ied o n a t t he I ns ti tu te o f H is tory o f t he Academy o fS c iences a t Ta l linn . I n c harge o f t he n um is ma t ic c o l lec t ion o f t he I ns t i tu te n ow i s Arkadi MOLVÖGIN . Ap ub lica t ion o ft he Ang lo-Saxon ma ter ia l i s i n p repara t ion , a s we l l a s as t udy o ft he G erman c o ins f ound i n E s ton ia . Men t ion mus t a lso b e made o f I var LE IMUS , w ork ing a t t he T a l l inn H istor ica l Museum , a nd o f h is 1 979 p ub l ica t ion o ft he i mpor tant Ma id L a h oard .

5 5

P resen ta t ions o f t he E s ton ian h oards a re i nc luded i n t he t opograph ies o f Markov , B auer , a nd P ot in . They a re a lso s urveyed f ro m a n a rchaeo log is t 's p o in t o f v iew b y E . TÖN ISSON i n ap aper p ub lished i n 1 962 . 5 6 Another a rchaeo log is t , J . S EL IRAND , h as r ecen t ly g iven a c onc ise p resenta t ion o f t he o r ienta l f i nds . 5 7 A n e spec ia l ly i n teres t ing p heno menon i st he r e la t ive ly c o m mon o ccurrence i n E s ton ian f i nds o f Ang lo-Norman p enn ies . A n i mpor tan t f i nd i n t h is r espec t was t he 1 896 Va jda h oard , n ow l os t , n ew i n for ma t ion o n w h ich h as b een p resen ted b y Mo lvög in .

5 8

A nother h oard w i th N orman c o ins , f rom

K oh t la K äva , was p ub l ished i n 1 965 b y V . S Ö ERD ,

5 9

b u t u nfor tuna te ly n ot a l l

t he i den t if ica t ions i n t ha t p aper a re q u ite r e liab le . L as t b u t n ot l east we mus t ment ion t he p ub l ica t ions b y T . S . NOONAN , a im ing a t as ynopt ic v iew o ft he E s ton ian a nd L a tv ian d irha m h oards .

6 0

I n t he L a tv ian S ov ie t R epub lic n u mis ma t ic w ork i s b e ing d one b oth a t t he Acade my o f S c iences a nd a t t he S ta te H is tor ica l Museu m a t R iga ;

t he C i ty

Museu m o f R iga a lso h as a c oin c abine t w i th s o me V ik ing-age ma ter ia l . A b r ief g enera l s urvey o ft he f i nds f ro m t he 9 th-13 th c en tur ies was p ub l ished b y E . MUGUREV I S i n 1 961 .

6 1

A more d e ta i led a ccount c an n ow b e f ound

i n t he b eaut ifu l ly i l lus tra ted b ook b y V . URTÄNS , S en i ik ie d epozr t i L a tv i jä ( w i th G erman s u m mary : D ie ä l tes ten V erwahrfunde L e t t lands; R iga , 1 977 ) . T he c urren t w ork b y T . M . BERGA i s a lso t o b e n o ted .

6 2

I n F in land , t he He lsink i U nivers i ty C ab ine t w as i n 1 920 i ncorpora ted w i th t he N a t iona l Museu m , a nd t he k eepersh ip was c onver ted t o ap roper o f f ice , t he f i rs t h o lder o f wh ich was C ar l Axe l NORD MAN ( 1 892-1972 ) . Ang lo-Saxon C o ins F ound i n F in land ( 1921) was h is ma in work a s an um is ma t ist . Though l arge ly b ased o n A lcen ius 's u nf inished manuscr ip t , t h is monograph i s a t t he s ame t ime a n i ndependen t s tudy , wh ich d ur ing t he l ast s ix d ecades h as b een much u sed o n b oth s ides o f t he Ba lt ic . As k eeper o f c o ins N ord man was f o l lowed b y H e l mer S ALMO ( 1 903-73) , whose D eutsche M t inzen i n v orgesch ich t l ichen F unden F inn lands 63 c ame o ut i n 1 948 . B ib l iograph ica l i nforma t ion o n o ther F inn ish l i tera ture c an b e f ound i n t he r ecent S y l loge p ub lica t ion o ft he Ang lo-Saxon c oins i n F in land . 64 A s epara te men t ion mus t , h owever , b e made o f t he c a ta logue o f o r ien ta l c o ins b y B ea tr ice GRANBERG , 65 a nd o ft he work b y P ekka S ARVAS o n c oins f ound i ng raves 6 6 a nd o n t he F innish i m i ta t ions o f B yzant ine mi l iaresia . 6 7

4 2

NOTES 1 . As w i l l b e a pparen t , my k now ledge o f o r ienta l n um is ma t ics i s s uper f ic ia l . More s ubstant ia l b ib l iograph ica l i nfor ma t ion a bout t he a u thors ment ioned b e low c an b e f ound i n L . A . Mayer , B ib liography o f Mos le m N um is ma t ics , 2 nd e d ., 1 954 . 2 .

F or a s hor t b iography a nd a b ib liography , s ee C . M . Frwhn , Opuscu la p ostu ma 1 , e d . B . D orn , L en ingrad , 1 855 , p p . 4 07-34 .

3 .

G . G e i t l in , ' Om ö s ter ländska myn t f unna if i nsk j ord ' , ASSF 3 ( 1852 ) , 3 03 .

4 .

C . M . Fr&hn , ' Topograf ische U ebers ich t d er A usgrabungen v on a lte m Arab ischen G e lde i n R uss land , n ebst c hrono log ischer u nd g eograph ischer Bes t i m mung d es I nha l ts d er v ersch iedenen F unde ' , B u l le t in s c ient if ique p ub l ie p ar l 'Acade m ie I mper ia le d e S c iences d e S a int-Pe tersbourg , n os . 2 12-13 ( Vo l . 9 , n os . 2 0-1 ) , 3 03-32 .

5 .

P . S . S ave l 'ev , Muha m medanskaya n um iz ma t ika v " o tnosheni i k " r usskor i s tor i i 1 .

T opograf iya k ladov" s " v ostochny rn i moneta m i ii zd l i ja m i

V I I , V I I I , I X iX I v ika v " R oss i ii p r i-ba lt irsk ikh" s tranakh" , L en ingrad , 1 846 6 .

V . V . Gr igor 'ev , ' 0 K uf ichesk ikh" monetakh" V I I I , I X , X io tchas t i V I I iX I v eka , n akhodinykh" v " R oss i i ip r iba l ta sk ikh" s tranakh" , k ak" i stochn ikakh" d lya d revner sheroteches tvennor i s tor i i ' , Z ap isk i Odesskago o bschestva i s tor i i id revnos ter , Odessa , 1 844 .

7 .

Ge i t lin , l oc . c i t . ( n . 3 ) .

8 .

G . Ge i t l in , Beskr ifning Myer K e jser l . A lexanders-Un ivers i te te ts F in land Muha m medanska myntsa m l ing e H e ls ink i , 1 862 ( repr . f ro m ASSF 7) .

9 . 1 0 .

F or a s hor t b iography , s ee Z fMSu WK e N ew S er ies ( 1859-62 ) , 1 -24 . D ie R e iche lsche Manzsa m m lung i n S t . P e tersburg 1 -9 , L en ingrad , 1 8425 .

1 1 .

B . K (oehne) , ' Unedir te E ng lische M t inzen ' , Z fY ISu WK 2 ( 1842 ) , 1 69-75 ; s ee a lso T . T a lv io , ' A p arce l o fc oins f ro m C uerda le i n t he R e iche l C o l lec t ion ', NC 1 40 ( 1980 ) , 1 88-91 .

1 2 .

B . . v . K öhne , ' Byzant in ische N achah mungen ' , Ber l iner B lä t ter f t ir M I . Inz, S iege l- u nd Wappenkunde 2 ( 1864 ) , 8 -16 .

1 3 .

MA NS tP 3 ( 1849 ) , 3 52-448;

4( 1850 ) , 3 4-113 , 1 95-246 .

1 4 .

B . K ene , Op isan ie e vropersk ikh" mone t" X , X I iX I I v eka , n ar dennykh" v " R ossi i , L en ingrad , 1 852 .

1 5 .

N . Bauer , ' D ie r uss ischen F unde a bend ländischer M t inzen d es 1 1 . u nd 1 2 . 7 J ahrhunder ts ' , Z fN 4 0 ( 1930 ) , 7 -9 .

1 6 .

I bid . ,7 8-9 .

1 7 .

Ta lv io , l oc . c i t . ( n .11 , ) , 1 89 .

4 3

1 8 .

S ee S t . P e terburger Z e itung 1 860 , n os . 1 32-3 , 2 24-5 .

1 9 .

I . G . S passk i j , ' Nu m iz ma tika v E rm itazhe ', NE 8 , 1 52-4 .

2 0 .

Bauer , l oc . c i t . ( n .15 ) , 1 1-12 .

2 1 .

I b id . 7 0-3 .

2 2 .

I b id . 4 2-4 , 7 0 .

2 3 .

T . Ta lv io , 1 , 6 •

2 4 .

V . L agus , ' Nu m i c uf ic i a l iaque o r ient is monu men ta v e tera i n F in land ia

' Om d e t f i nska f ynde t a v S ven Tveskäggs mynt ' , NNU M 1 979 :

r eper ta ' , T ravaux d e l a t ro is ie me s ess ion d u c ongress i n terna t iona l d es o r ienta lis tes , S t . P e tersbourg 1 876, L en ingrad a nd L e iden , 1 879 , p p . 3 67-70 . 2 5 .

W . L agus , N um is ma t iska a nteckn ingar 1 -2 , H e ls ink i , 1 885 , 1 888 , 1 900 .

2 6 .

S ee F insk t Museu m 1 894 , 8 1-98;

2 7 .

1 907 , 4 9-58 .

S ee M . D o l ley a nd T . T a lv io , ' A l i t t le-known c ontr ibu tion t o H ibernoN orse n um is ma t ics o f O t to A lcen ius ( 1838-1913 ) ' , Proc . o ft he R oya l I r ish Acade my 7 7 C 5( 1977 ) , 2 13-21 , a nd h is o b i tuary b y J . R . Aspe l in i n F insk t Museu m 1 913 , 1 -8 .

2 8 .

SMYA 2 1 :2 .

2 9 .

Z fN 2 3 ( 1902 ) , 2 83-4 .

3 0 .

Ber liner M t inzb lä t ter 1 902 , 1 49-51 .

3 1 .

S ee h is o b ituary b y N . Bauer i n Z fN 3 6 ( 1926 ) , 1 55-8 .

3 2 .

V . T izengauzen , Monety v os tochnago k ha l ifa ta , L en ingrad , 1 873 .

3 3 .

I nven tarnyika ta log" musu l ' mansk ikh" mone t" I mpera torskogo E rmi tazha , L en ingrad , 1 896 .

3 4 .

S upp le men ts i n 1 900 , 1 906 , 1 908 .

T opograf iya k ladov" v ostochnykh" mone t" ( sasan idsk ikh" ik uf ichesk ikh" ) , L en ingrad , 1 910 .

3 5 .

K nown i n R uss ia a s R o man R o manov ich F as mer , h e u sed t he n a me R ichard V . i n works p ub lished i n wes tern E urope . F or a s hor t b iograph ica l n ote b y A . A . Bykov s ee S ove tskaya a rkheo logiya 1 968 , 1 05-6 .

3 6 .

F or b ib l iograph ica l i nforma t ion s ee I . G . S passk i j a nd V .

L . J anin ,

' Sovetskaya n um iz ma t ika , b ib l iograf ichesk ir u kaza te l ' 1 917-1958 g g . NE 2 ( 1960 ) , 1 55-209 , a nd Mayer , o p . c i t . ( n . 1 ) , p p . 2 44-8 . 3 7 .

Z fN 3 9 ( 1929 ) , 1 -187;

4 0 ( 1930 ) , 1 88-228;

4 2 ( 1935 ) , 1 53-73 .

S ee

a lso ' Der M t 1nzfund v on Wich l iss ' , Deutsche M t inzb lä t ter 3 88 ( 1935 ) , 3 07-8 . 3 8 .

' D ie S i lber- u nd G o ldbarren d es r uss ischen M i t te la lters ' , NZ 6 2 ( 1929 ) , 7 7-100 ;

3 9 .

6 4 ( 1931) , 6 1-100 .

T opograf iya k ladov d revnikh r ussk ikh monet X -X I v v . imonet u de l 'nogo p er ioda , L en ingrad , 1 925 .

4 4

4 0 .

An o b i tuary b y K . Ranke i n F abu la 5 ( 1962 ) , b e tween p p . 1 84-5 .

4 1 .

' Ach tz ig n eue Münzen a us d em F unde v on N ag inäj ina ' , Ac ta e t C o m men tat iones Un ivers i ta t is D orpa tens is B 3 7 :4 ( 1935 ); Vaab ina ' , S bGEG 1 937 :1 ( 1938 ) , 1 -84 ;

' Der Munzfund v on

' E in n euer a bend ländischer

Mf inzfund a us S t Idos t-Est land ' , S bGEG 1 937 :2 ( 1938) , 1 -44 . a t ion w ith R . Vas mer :

I n c o l labor-

' Der C ha lifen munzfund v on K och te l ' , A c ta e t

C o mm . U niv . D orpa t . B7 :2 ( 1926 );

' E lf we i tere D irhe ms a us d em

C ha lifen münzfund v on K och te l ' , S I DGEG 1 928 , 8 9-95 . 4 2 .

Mi t te i lungen a us d em G eb ie te d er G esch ich te L iv , E s t- u nd K ur lands 1 8 ( 1908 ) , 3 11-486 .

F or a n o b ituary o f F rank s ee S i tzungsber ich te d er

A l ter tu mforschender G ese l lschaf t z u P ernau 8 ( 1926 ) , 3 60-1 . 4 3 .

S ee S bGEG 1 907 , 9 9-110 ;

1 911, 9 6-102;

1 920 , 8 1-4 .

4 4 .

' Ba lt ische Münzfunde d es 9 .12 . J ahrhunder ts a n d er Hand e iner M t Inzf undkar te ', S i tzungsber . d er Gese l lschaf t f ür Gesch ich te u nd A lter tu msk unde z u R iga ( Vor träge z ur H under t jahr fe ier 1 934 ) 1 936, 1 42-54 .

S ee

a lso S bGEG 1 921 , 8 1-4 , Z fN 3 6 ( 1926) , 2 03-8 . 4 5 .

NC 7 1 2 ( 1972 ) , 2 47-73 .

4 6 .

NF 2 ( 1960 ) , 1 55-209 ( see n . 3 6 ) ;

3( 1962 ) , 2 88-304 ;

9( 1971 ) , 1 91-219 ;

1 2 ( 1978) , 1 88-238 . 4 7 .

' Topograf iya n akhodok z apadnoevroper sk ih mone t X -X I I I v v . n a t err i tor i i Drevne j R usi ' , T rudy G osudarstvennogo E rm itazha 9 ( 1967) , 1 06-84 .

4 8 .

S ee h owever t he c o m men ts b y B . K luge i n ' Be merkungen z ur S truktur d er F unde e uropä ischer M t inzen d es 1 0 . u nd 1 1 . J ahrhunder ts i m Os tseegeb ie t ' , Z fA 1 2 ( 1978) , 1 82-5 .

4 9 . 5 0 .

S ee t he b ib l iograph ies i n NE 9 a nd 1 2 ( n . 4 3 ) . L en ingrad 1 968 .

The work i s d iscussed b y N . J . De jevsky i n ' The

Varang ians i n S ov iet a rchaeo logy t oday ' , Mediaeva l S cand inav ia 1 0 ( 1977) , 2 5-7 . 5 1 . 5 2 .

S ee S passky , l oc . c i t . ( n . 4 5 ) , 2 51-60 . K lady v izant irsk ikh mone t n a t err i tor i i S SSR , Moscow , 1 962 . b y t he s a me a u thor :

S upp le mented

' Novye n ahodk i v izan t it sk ikh mone t n a t err i tor i i

S SS W , V izan t ir sk ir v re menn ik 2 6 ( 1965 ) , 1 66-89 .

F or a shor t n ote o n

t he s tudy o f Byzan t ine n um is ma t ics i n 1 9th c entury R uss ia s ee D . M . Me tca lf , ' Jus t in S aba t ier 's " Iconograph ie" ‚ , The Y earbook o ft he Br i t ish Assoc ia t ion o f N um is ma t ic S oc ie t ies 8 ( 1962 ) , 4 1-9 . . 53 .

Wizan t ir sk ie mone ty k lada Ve l la ', Trudy G osudars tvennogo E rm i tazha 4( 1961) , 1 0-22 .

5 4 .

' Ko lodersk irk lad k uf ichesk ikh iz apadnoevrope jskikh s erebryanykh mone t 6 0-h g odov X I v .

5 5 .

N um iz ma t ichesk ir S I Dorn ik 5 /2 ( 1977 ) , 1 0-99 .

' Der S cha tzfund v on Ma idla ' , E es t i NSV T eadus te A kadee mia T oi me t ised , Üh iskonna teadused , 1 979 , 4 7-81 .

4 5

5 6 .

' Ees t i a arde le iud 9 .13 . s a jandis t ( German s u m mary :

D ie e s tn ischen

S cha tzfunde d es 9 .13 . J ahrhunder ts ', Mu istsed k a l med j a a arded, T a l linn , 1 962 , 1 82-274 . 5 7 .

' Ueber d ie R o l le d es o r ienta lischen S i lbers i n d en H ande lsbez iehungen d er Bevö lkerung E st lands ' , Z fA 1 2 ( 1978) , 2 45-50 .

5 8 .

' An E s ton ian h oard o f E ng l ish c o ins f ro m t he t we lf th c entury ', NC irc . 1 980 , 3 07 .

5 9 .

' E in Manzfund d es X I I J ahrhunder ts a us K oh t la-Käva ' , E es t i NSV TA T o i me t ised , tf l iskonna teadused, 1 965 , 4 86-513 .

6 0 .

' Pre-970 d irha m h oards f ro m E ston ia a nd L a tv ia ' , J ourna l o f Ba l t ic S tud ies 8 ( 1977 ) , 2 38-259 , 3 12-323;

9( 1978) , 7 -19 , 9 9-115 .

S ee a lso

' The 1 958 d irha m h oard f ro m T ar tu ' , ANSMN 2 2 ( 1977 ) , 1 35-59 . 6 1 .

' Nu mis mä tiska is ma ter ia ls p ar L a tv i jas t irdznie abas c e l ie m g ads im tos ( German s u m mary :

N um is ma t isches Ma ter ia l z u d en

Ha nde lswegen L e t t lands i m I X-X I I I J h ) ' , L a tv i jas PSR Z inä tnu Akad ni jas V 5s t is 1 961, 1-24 . 6 2 .

' Ana liz n um iz ma t icheskogo ma ter ia la i z a rheo logichesk ikh p a mya tn ikov L a tv i i X -X I I v ekov ( German s u m mary :

A na lyse d es n um is ma t ischen

F unds tof fs i n B odendenk mä lern L et t lands a us d em X . -X I I .

J h ) ' , i b id .,

1 977 , 8 6-99 . 6 3 .

SMYA 4 7 .

6 4 .

T . T a lv io , T he N a t iona l Museu m , H e ls ink i . a nd H iberno-Norse C oins .

6 5 .

A ng lo-Saxon , Ang lo-Nor man ,

S CBI v o l . 2 5 , 1 978 , p p . x xxv i i-x l i .

F ör teckn ing ö ver k uf iska myn end iF in land .

S tudia Or ienta lia 3 4 .

H e ls ink i , 1 966 . F or a s u m mary o f t he ma ter ia l s ee a lso Granberg , ' Arab iska mynt , F in land ' , K u l turh is tor isk l eksikon f or n ord isk midde la lder 1 , C openhagen , 1 956, c o ls . 1 91-4 . 6 6 .

L äns i-Suo men r uu m ishau to jen r aha-a joi tukse t [ Coin d a t ings o f wes tF innish i nhu ma t ion b ur ia ls ], H e ls ing in y liop iston a rkeo log ian l a i tos , Mon is te 6 , H e ls ink i , 1 972;

' Fynd a v u t ländska myn t f rän b ry tn ingen

me l lan d en f örh is tor iska p er ioden o ch mede l t id iF in land ' , NNÄ 1 968 , 7 8-86 6 7 .

' Bysan t t i la ise t r aha t s ek ä n i iden j ä l ji te l mä t S uo men 9 00- j a 1 000luku jen l öydöiss r , SMYA 7 5 ( 1973 ) , 1 76-86 .

S ee a lso T . T a lv io ,

' Coin i m i ta t ions

a s j ewe lry i n e leventh c entury F in land ' , F insk t Museu m 1 978, 2 6-38 .

4 6

N INTH-CENTURY D IRHA . M HOARDS FROM EUROPEAN RUSS IA : A . PREL IM INARY ANALYS IS T ho mas S . N oonan

T he n in th c en tury marks o ne o f t he g reat t urn ing p o in ts i n t he h istory o f E uropean R uss ia .

D ur ing t he c ourse o f t hat c en tury , t he f i rst R ussian o r

R us ' s tate a rose w ith i t s c ap i ta l i n it ia l ly a t N ovgorod a nd t hen a t K iev . A . t t he s a me t ime , t he K hazar k aganate , w ithou t a bandon ing i t s T urk ic a nd n o mad ic t rad it ions c o mp lete ly , b eca me a g reat c en tre o f i n ternat iona l t rade i n t he s outheastern R uss ian s teppe w h i le t he f oundat ions w ere l a id f or t he B u lgar s tate c en tred a t t he c onf luence o f t he V o lga a nd K a ma R ivers . T hese p o l it ica l e ven ts p ar t ia l ly o bscure a nd p ar t ia l ly r ef lect ma jor move men ts o f p eop les w ith in E uropean R uss ia : what might b e c a l led a s econd g reat m igrat ion e ra . T he E ast S lays b egan t o o ccupy t he f orest z one o f n or thern R uss ia , i n it iat ing t he p rocess b y w h ich many o f t he i nd igenous B a lt ic a nd F inn ic p eop les o f t h is a rea were e x term inated , c onquered , a nd a ssi m i lated , o r f orced t o move e lsewhere .

Wh i le t he E ast S lays were mov ing n or thward a nd e astward f ro m

t he m idd le Dnepr r eg ion a nd t he n or thern Ukra ine , T urk ic-speak ing p eop les m igrated n or thward f ro m t he E uras ian s teppe a nd e stab l ished t he mse lves a s masters o f much o f t he m idd le V o lga r eg ion s tretch ing f ro m C huvash ia i n t he west t o B ashk ir ia i n t he e ast . S i mu ltaneous ly V ik ings , o r V arang ians a s t hey w ere c a l led i n R us ' s ources , a ppeared i n n or thern R ussia a nd c a me t o p lay a ma jor r o le i n t he h istory o f E uropean R uss ia a s d id t he T urk ic P echenegs o r P a tz inaks w ho s low ly c a me t o d om inate l arge p ar ts o f t he s outh R uss ian s teppe . I n a dd it ion , t he g rea t t rade r outes o f med ieva l E uropean Russ ia were c reated i n t he n in th c en tury ; t he D nepr r oute t o K herson i n t he C r i mea a nd , most impor tan t ly , C onstan t ino p le ;

t he V o lga/Don r ou te t o t he N ear E ast a nd C en tra l A sia ;

r oute t o t he e astern B a l t ic .

a nd t he V o lkhov

I n s hor t , t he n in th c en tury i n E uropean R uss ia

w itnessed t he emergence o f t he f i rst med ieva l s tates , af unda men ta l r edraw ing o f t he e thn ic f ron t iers , a nd t he d eve lop men t o f t hree ma jor r ou tes f or c ommerc ia l a nd c u ltura l c on tacts w ith t he o uts ide wor ld . D esp ite t he u nquest ioned impor tance o f t he t op ic , s cho lar ly s tudy o f n in thc entury E uropean R uss ia h as b een s er ious ly h a mpered b y t hat f am i l iar p robl em , ap auc ity o f s ources .

F urther more , t he r e lat ive ly f ew wr i t ten s ources

w h ich e x ist p resen t g reat d if f icu lt ies . Most o f t hese s ources w ere c omp i led i n t he ir p resen t f orm a t a much l a ter p er iod , t he R us ' P r i mary C hron ic le a nd t he I ce land ic s agas b e ing g ood e xa mp les .

A l most a l l t he f ew more o r l ess

c on te mporaneous s ources we p ossess were u n for tunate ly c o mp i led b y p eop le w ho h ad n ever b een t o E uropean R ussia t he mse lves a nd t he ir i nformat ion i s t hus s econd- o r t h ird-hand . T he d if f icu lt ies o f i l lu m inat ing t he f ew wr it ten s ources f or t he h istory o f E uropean Russ ia i n t he n in th c en tury a re f ur ther c o mpounded b y t he c on f l icts o f modern n a t iona l ist ic t endenc ies a nd t he o f ten

4 7

t oo r ig id b oundar ies b etweeb v ar ious s cho lar ly d isc ip l ines .

F or t wo h undred

y ears , N or man ists h ave t r ied t o s how t hat a l l e ar ly R uss ian h istory c an b e a t tr ibuted t o t he a ct iv i t ies o f af ew V ik ings wh i le a n t i-Nor man ists h ave e ndeavo ured t o d e mons tra te t ha t t he E as t S lays d id e very thing t hemse lves w i th n o o uts ide a id o r i n f luence w hatsoever . B efore we c onde mn t he b latan t n a t iona li s m wh ich h as w arped t he h istor iography o f t h is p rob le m , w e must a dm i t t ha t more d ispass ionate s tuden ts h ave n ot a lways d one a v ery g ood j ob o f t a lk ing t o o ne a no ther a nd s har ing t he ir e xper t ise a nd i ns ights . S lav icists , B yzan t in is ts , S cand inav ian ists , I s la mac ists , T urko log ists , a nd F inno-Ugr iani s ts s e ldo m g et t ogether a nd d iscuss t he ir d iverse p erspect ives o n E uropean R uss ia i n t he n in th c en tury . S tuden ts h ave n o t d one a l l t ha t t hey c ou ld t ou nr ave l t he mean ing o f o ur wr it ten s ources a nd c orrect e rroneous i n terpreta t ions . N ever the less , t he wr it ten s ources f or t he h istory o f t he n in th c en tury a re f ew i n n u mber a nd t he ir c on ten t s ub ject t o many l eg it i mate d if ferences o f o p in ion .

F or t hese r easons among o thers , s o me p eop le l ike myse lf h ave

t urned t o a rchaeo logy a nd n um is mat ics f or h e lp i n u nderstand ing what t ook p lace i n E uropean R uss ia d ur ing t h is c ruc ia l c en tury . T he t housands o f b ur ia ls , h ab i tat ion s i tes , t reasure t roves , a nd c o in h oards f ro m n in th-cen tury E uropean R uss ia c onst itu te a n i nd ispensab le s ource o f i n for mat ion . G iven my i n terests i n t h is p er iod , Ih ave l ong f e l t t hat o ur b est h ope f or n ew i ns ights a nd s cho lar ly p rogress l ay w ith t he a bundan t a nd e ver-increasing mater ia l e v idence .

C onsequen t ly , Ih ave a t te mp ted o ver t he p ast f i f teen y ears o r s o

t o b eco me k now ledgeab le a bou t t he a rchaeo log ica l a nd n um is mat ic e v idence f or t he h istory o f E uropean R uss ia i n t he n in th c en tury . T o make a l ong s tory v ery s hor t , t here i s n o d oub t t hat S ov iet a rchaeol og ica l works o n o ur t op ic h ave made g reat s tr ides o ver t he p ast t wo d ecades o r s o . A .s er ies o f ma jor s tud ies o f h igh q ua l i ty h ave a ppeared o n av ar ie ty o fa spects o f e ar ly med ieva l E uropean Russia :

t he E ast S lays d ur ing t he

s ix th t o n in th c en tur ies , t he e vo lut ion o f t he F inn ic p eop les o f n or thern R ussia i n t he e ar ly med ieva l p er iod , t he emergence o f T urk ic c u ltures a long t he m idd le V o lga , t he d eve lop men t o f t he K hazar wor ld i n t he n in th c en tury , a nd t ha t p erenn ia l f avor i te , V ik ing a r tefacts f rom e ar ly K ievan Rus ' . I n f ac t , s o many f i rst-rate a rchaeo log ica l works h ave a ppeared r ecen t ly t hat Ih es itate t o men t ion e ven a f ew f or f ear o f i nadverten t ly om it t ing s evera l e xce l len t s tud ies .

I ts hou ld s uf f ice t o s ay t hat , whether o ne i s i n terested i n t he E ast

S lays o r B ashk irs , F inns o r S a ltovo p eop les , B aits o r V ik ings , we h ave b een b lessed b y a n a bundance o f v ery g ood a rchaeo log ica l s tud ies o ver t he p ast t wen ty y ears o r s o . And t hese s tudies a re i n a dd it ion t o t he a nnua l e xcavat i ons a t n u merous s i tes o f t he e ar ly med ieva l e ra l ocated t hroughou t E uropean R uss ia . Ir egret t ha t my e n thus ias m f or t he s ta te o fa rchaeo logy a s as ource f or t he h istory o f n in th-cen tury E uropean R uss ia d oes n ot c arry o ver t o n um is maL i es . T he t housands o f I s la m ic d irha ms f ound t hroughou t E uropean Russ ia h ave n o t r ece ived t he a t ten t ion t hey d eserve . S ov iet n um is mat ists t end t ob e most i n terested i n h ither to u npub l ished i ssues o r r are t ypes wh i le most h ist or ians l ack r ea l f am i l iar ity w ith n um is mat ics a nd t he n um is mat ic l i tera ture . T hus h istor ica l n um is mat ics , i .e . t he u se o f n um is mat ic d a ta a s a n h istor ica l . s ource , h as t ended t o f a l l b etween t he c rack ( or i s i t ac has m : )s epara t ing n um is mat ics f ro m h istory .

S ov iet n um is mat ists l ack a n i n terest i n t he 4 8

h istor ica l imp l ica t ions o f t he t housands o f d irha ms impor ted i n to E uropean R uss ia d ur ing t he n in th c en tury wh i le S ov iet h istor ians d o n o t a lways a pprec ia te t he p roper u se o f n um is mat ic d ata .

F ur ther more , t he work wh ich h as

b een d one d ur ing t he p ast t wo d ecades o f ten d isp lays a n i gnorance o ft he f unda men ta l s tud ies o f g rea t o r ien ta l n um is mat ists l ike R ichard F as mer ( Vas mer ) o r s uf fers f ro m a c o mp lete l ack o f imag inat ion , what o ne m igh t c a l l a most u nhea lthy d evo t ion t o n ine teen th-century me thods . F or a l most a d ecade a f ter c o mp let ing my g raduate work , Ih oped t hat s o me S ov iet n um is mat ist who was much more f am i l iar w ith t he d irha ms t han Ic ou ld e ver b e wou ld b eg in t o work o n t he s ign if icance o f n in th-cen tury d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean R uss ia . R egret tab ly , Iwa ited i n v a in . C ons equen t ly , al i t t le o ver s ix y ears a go , Ir e luctan t ly c onc luded t ha t i f Id id n o t a t te mp t t o d eve lop t he f i e ld o fh istor ica l n um is ma t ics w i th r espect t o t he d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean R uss ia , i ts i mp ly wou ld n o t b e d one . My i n i t ia l s tud ies o f t he med ieva l o r ien ta l c o ins f ro m p re- Mongo l Rus ' l acked a c oheren t f ocus . Ie xa m ined t he f inds o f I s la m ic c opper c o ins f rom E uropean R uss ia ,1 p repared s tud ies o n t he S asan ian d rach ms f ro m t he K a maU ra ls r eg ion , 2 e va luated t he a rgu men ts t hat t he K hazars p ossessed a mone tary e cono my ,3 p ub l ished a sma l l d irha m h oard f ro m E ston ia ,4 c o mp i led a c a tal ogue o fp re-970 d irha m h oards f ro m E ston ia a nd L atv ia ,5 p resen ted a n a lt ernat ive t heory o n when d irha ms f i rst r eached t he Ukra ine ,

6

e xp lored t he

mean ing o f t he t er m "monetary c ircu lat ion" w ith r espect t o t he V o lga B u lgar a nd B yzan t ine c o ins f ound i n d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean Russ ia ,

7

a na lysed t he med ieva l Anda lus ian d irha ms f ound i n E astern E urope .

a nd

8

I n b r ief ,

If o l lowed my own i m med ia te i n terests a nd e xa m ined whatever a roused my c ur ios ity . These s tud ies , wh i le s ee m ing ly r ando m a nd l ack ing i n c ohes ion , d id p rov ide me w ith a g ood i n troduct ion t o h istor ica l n um is mat ics . H owever , af ew y ears a go Id ec ided t hat t he t ime h ad c o me when a s yste mat ic a nd c o mp rehens ive a na lys is o f t he d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean R uss ia was i n o rder . I t was v ery n ice t o j u mp a round a nd s tudy a s er ies o fu nre lated q uest ions ; t he most p ress ing n eed , h owever , was f or a c o mprehens ive a nd c ohesive e xam inat ion o f t he d irha m h oards f ound i n E uropean Russia . Id ec ided t ha t t he p lace t o s tar t s uch a n e xa m inat ion was a t t he b eg inn ing . C onsequen t ly , my r ecen t work h as f ocused o n t he q uest ion o f when , h ow , a nd why d irha ms f irst r eached E uropean Russ ia . An e xa m inat ion o f t hese q uest ions h as a lready b een a n e ducat ion i n i t se lf .

Id iscovered t hat a l though Russ ian

s cho lars o f t he n ineteen th a nd e ar ly t wen t ieth c en tury ( Fr i thn , S ave l ' e v , T iezengauzen , Markov , a nd o thers ) h ad p ub l ished many f ine s tud ies o f d irha ms a nd d irha m h oards , i t was n ot t i l l t he 1 920s a nd 1 930s t hat F as mer d eve loped a method f or d eterm in ing when d irha ms f i rst a ppeared i n Russ ia . S o me work h as b een d one o n t he r ou tes b y wh ich d irha ms i n it ia l ly c a me n or th b u t t here h as b een n o d e ta i led s tudy o f t he p rob le m n or h as a ny methodo logy b een d eve loped f or r eso lv ing t h is q uest ion . F ina l ly , If ound t hat t he most import an t h is tor ica l q ues t ion h ad b een a l most c o mp lete ly .i gnored . T here s ee med t o b e n o i n terest i n t he k ey p rob le m o f why t he i n f lux o f d irha ms i n to E urop ean R ussia b egan a t ap ar t icu lar t ime a nd wen t b y ap ar t icu lar r oute .

My

c o m men ts o n t he l ack o f imag inat ion a nd t he d evot ion t o n ineteen th-cen tury a pproaches r efers s pec if ica l ly t o t he f act t hat i tr equ ired o ne c en tury o f f ine

4 9

s cho lars b efore F as mer a nswered t he q uest ion o f when ; t hat t he q uest ion o f h ow h as n ever b een p roper ly s tud ied ; a nd t hat t he q uest ion o f why h as n o t e ven b een r a ised . L e t me b r ief ly r ev iew t he r esu lts o f my r esearch t o d a te . I n ap aper p ub l ished r ecent ly , Ie xa m ined when a nd h ow d irha ms f i rst r eached E urop ean R uss ia .9 I n as er ies o f a r t ic les p ub l ished i n t he 1 920s a nd 1 930s , F as mer a rgued t hat t he i n it ia l a ppearance o f d irha ms i n R ussia c ou ld b e d et er m ined b y t he d ate o f t he e ar l iest d irha m h oards f ound t here . I n o ther w ords , t he i n f lux o f d irha ms c ou ld o n ly b e d a ted b y h oards a nd n o t b y f i nds o f o ne o r af ew c o ins . U s ing t h is a pproach , h e d a ted t he a ppearance o f d irha ms i n E uropean Russia t o a round t he y ear 8 00 .

1 0

P ersona l ly , If ind F as mer ' s

a rgu men t c o mp lete ly c onv inc ing , a s h ave most S ov iet n um is mat ists s ince t he 1 930s . T h is d oes n o t mean t hat h is v iews h ave g one u ncha l lenged . S evera l y ears a go , a n a t te mp t was made t o d ate t he i n f lux o f d irha ms i n to t he U kra ine t o t he m id-e ighth c en tury . T h is s tudy u sed f inds o f o ne a nd a f ew d irha ms r a ther t han h oards a s t he d eter m in ing f actor .1 1 R egret tab ly , t he a uthor f a i led t o a ddress t he c ruc ia l q uest ion o f method ; h e s i mp ly d isregarded F as mer ' sa pproach w i thou t a ny e xp lanat ion o r d iscussion . D esp i te t h is r ecen t r eturn t o t he p re-Fas mer e ra , t here i s n o r ea l r eason t o q uest ion F as mer ' sa rgu men t t ha t t he e ar l iest d irha m h oards d ate t he a ppearance o f d irha ms i n E uropean R uss ia t o a bou t 8 00 . T he work t hat h as b een d one o n t he r ou tes b y wh ich d irha ms f i rst r eached R uss ia f ocused o n e i ther t he f i nd-spo ts o f t he e ar l iest d irha m h oards w i th in R uss ia o r o n t he most r ecen t I s la m ic m in ts r epresen ted i n t hese h oards .

I n

o ther words , when s cho lars h ave a ddressed t h is p rob le m a t a l l t hey h ave c oncen tra ted o n where t he c o ins b egan t he ir j ourney n orth o r where t hey w ere b ur ied i n Russ ia . Wh i le t hese f actors c anno t b e i gnored , n e ither i s c omp lete ly c onv inc ing . Even s o meone w ith v ery l i t t le imag inat ion c an q u ick ly c onstruct a t l east f i ve d i f feren t r outes t o a ny f i nd-spo t i n E uropean R uss ia a nd a l l wou ld b e e qua lly p laus ib le .

Wh i le t he most r ecen t min ts i n ah oard

a re impor tan t , t he g reat d if ferences i n min t-ou tpu t a nd t he c ircu lat ion o f d irha ms w ith in I s la m c reate d if f icu lt ies w ith t h is a pproach . I n a n a t te mp t t o r eso lve t he q uest ion o f h ow , Id ec ided t o c o mpare t he d irha m h oards o f t he l a te e ighth a nd e ar ly n in th c en tury f ro m E uropean R uss ia , t he C aucasus , t he N ear E ast , a nd C en tra l As ia . r evo lut ionary s uch c o mparat ive a na lys is was .

Iq u ick ly d iscovered h ow

F or a bou t 1 50 y ears , most

R uss ian n um is mat ists h ave b een c on ten t t o c on f ine t he s cope o f t he ir r esearch t o E uropean Russ ia . S im i lar ly , n um is mat ists i n t he C aucasus u sua l ly f ocused t he ir work e n t ire ly w ith in t he C aucasus . A s ar esu lt o f t h is p aroch ia l is m , t he e xp lanat ion o f n um is mat ic p heno mena was s e ldo m s ought e lsewhere . A t te mp ts were made t o e xp la in a l most a l l n um is mat ic d a ta b y f actors w i th in t he a rea c oncerned . My r esearch , o n t he c on trary , s uggested more a nd more t hat t he b est e xp lanat ion f or t he c haracter ist ics o f d irha ms a nd d irha m h oards f ound i n E uropean R uss ia l ay w ith in t hose p ar t go f t he I s la m ic wor ld wh ich e xpor ted t he ir d irha ms t o t he n or th .

I n o ther words , t he d irha m h oards

u ncovered i n E uropean R uss ia r ef lected t he c o in s tock o f t he I s la m ic a reas where t he h oards were i n i t ia l ly f or med .

5 0

Without g o ing i n to t he d eta i ls , t h is c o mparat ive a na lys is d e monstrated s evera l p o in ts : 1 ) t he e ar l iest h oards f ro m E uropean Russ ia were c o mparab le w i th c ont e mporaneous h oards f ro m t he N ear E ast , i .e . t he d irha ms i n t he Russ ian h oards most l ike ly c a me f ro m t he N ear E ast , 2 ) t he e ar l iest h oards f ro m E uropean Russ ia were c o mp lete ly d if feren t f ro m c on te mporaneous C en tra l A s ian h oards , i .e . i ti s h igh ly improbab le t hat t he d irha ms i n t he Russ ian h oards c a me f ro m C en tra l As ia , a nd 3 )

t he e ar l iest h oards f ro m E uropean R uss ia were c o mparab le w ith s o me

h oards f ro m t he C aucasus b u t d if fered i n c er ta in impor tan t a spects f ro m a ma jor ity o f C aucas ian h oards , i .e . wh i le h oards t ranspor ted f ro m t he N ear E ast t o Russ ia may h ave b een b ur ied

i n t he C aucasus wh i le i n t rans it , i ti s

n ot l ike ly t hat t he d irha ms i n t he e ar l iest R uss ian h oards were a sse mb led i n t he C aucasus . As t he r esu lt o f t h is work , Ih ave b egun t o a sk why d irha ms w ere i n it ia l ly t ranspor ted i n to E uropean R ussia a round t he y ear 8 00 b y wha t w e m ight c a l l t he C asp ian-Caucasus r oute f ro m t he N ear E ast .

Wh i le t h is r esearch h as n o t

b een f in ished , s evera l b asic c onc lus ions h ave a lready emerged .

D ur ing t he

6 20s , t he B yzan t ines a ided b y t he K hazars d estroyed t he S asan ian s tate .

T he

r ea l v ictor , h owever , was I s la m wh ich a lready h ad b egun t o c onso l idate i t s c on tro l o ver T ranscaucas ia b y t he mid-seven th c en tury .

D ur ing t he n ex t

h undred y ears , t he Arabs a nd K hazars f ought a l ong b a t t le f or d om ina t ion o f t he C aucasus .

T h is s trugg le c u lm inated i n 7 37 i n ac a mpa ign a ga inst t he

K hazars l ed b y t he f u ture Umayyad C a l iph Marwän H .

T he Arabs d efeated

t he Khazar a rm ies i n t he n or thern C aucasus , p ursued t he K agan a s f ar a s t he B urtas l and i n t he l ower V o lga , a nd t here c o mpe l led t he K agan t o s urrender a nd t o b e c onver ted t o I s la m .

Marwän t hen r eturned t o T ranscaucasia a nd

t he Khazars s oon r ega ined t he ir i ndependence .

Marwän ' sc a mpa ign i n 7 37

d e monstrated t o t he Arabs t hat i t was n o t e nough t o d efea t t he K hazar a rm ies ; K hazar ia i t se lf h ad t o b e o ccup ied b y al arge f orce .

A t t he s a me t ime , t he

Khazars l earned f ro m t he e ven ts o f 7 37 j ust h ow d angerous c on t inued war fare w ith t he A rabs m igh t b e .

Ad eter m ined Arab f orce h ad d estroyed t he ir a rm ies

a nd h um i l iated t he ir r u ler .

I n s hor t , a f ter a c entury o f warfare n e i ther s ide

c ou ld d om inate t he e n t ire C aucasus n or were t he p rospects b r ight f or f uture v ictory . F o l low ing t he

cA bbäs id

r evo lu t ion , t he C a l iph a l- Mansür i n it ia ted a n ew

p o l icy o f d eten te w i th t he K hazars .

B eset b y ah ost o f p o l it ica l , s oc ia l ,

r e l ig ious , a nd e cono m ic p rob le ms a nd e n joy ing t he s uppor t o f merchan ts more i n terested i n p eace a nd t rade t han warfare a nd e xpansion , Mansür o rdered h is g overnor i n Ar mfn iyah t o marry t he Kagan ' sd aughter .

A c opy

o f t he l et ter r epor ted ly wr i t ten b y Mansür t o h is g dvernor e xpresses t he C a l iph ' sp os it ion v ery s ucc inct ly .

Un less t here i s p eace w i th t he K hazars ,

t hey may a t tack T ranscaucasia , a nd t he Arabs l acked s uf f ic ien t men a nd mater ia l t o d efend t hese p rov inces .

Man5 ir ' so f fer o f d eten te was r ead i ly

a ccep ted b y t he K hazars who d ur ing t he c ourse o f t he s econd h a lf o f t he e ighth c en tury h ad c o me t o f ear B yzan t ine i n ten t ions i n t he C aucasus more t han t hose o f t he Arabs .

Wh i le p eace b etween Arabs a nd K hazars d id n o t c o me

5 1

.

im med iate ly , t he p o l icy o f d eten te l aunched b y Maneur a round 7 60 e ven tua l ly c a me t o f ru i t ion . T he Khazar-Arab s trugg le s low ly wound d own a nd b y 8 00 h ad c eased f or a l l p ract ica l p urposes .

T he Arabs r u led T ranscaucas ia w h i le

t he Khazars d om inated t he n or thern C aucasus . T he Arab-Khazar d eten te wh ich b egan a round 7 60 made l arge-sca le t rade b etween t he N ear E ast a nd E uropean R uss ia p oss ib le . A lready b efore Mane t ir ' s t ime , K hazar merchan ts h ad v is ited D arbandia l-

M , t he ma in Arab c en tre

o n t he C asp ian , wh i le a rchaeo log ica l e v idence s uggests t hat t he A lan s e t t lemen t a t K hu mar in i n t he u pper Kuban h ad b ecome a ma jor t rade c en tre i n t he e igh th c en tury .

Thus , t he e x ist ing t rade b etween T ranscaucasia a nd t he

n or thern C aucasus b y way o f t he t wo ma in C aucas ian p asses s erved a s t he b asis f or t he I s la m ic-Khazar t rade wh ich b egan d ue t o t he c essat ion o f w ar . T he e ar l iest d irha m h oards f ound i n E uropean Russ ia c onst itute t he f i rst e v idence t hat t he I s la m ic t rade w ith t hat r eg ion h ad s tar ted . F urs a nd s laves f ro m Russ ia w ere e xchanged w ith I s la m ic merchan ts f rom t he N ear E ast f or d irha ms .

S t i mu lated b y t h is t rade , t he K hazars b egan t o e xpand t he ir t r ibu-

t ary d o ma in n or thward i n to t he E ast S lav ic l ands o f t he f orest s teppe a nd f orest z ones . B efore t he V ik ings e ver a ppeared i n E uropean Russia , t he E ast S lays w ere a lready p ay ing t r ibu te i n t he f orm o f f urs t o t he K hazars . I n a dd it ion , t he d irha ms b rought t o Khazar ia t o p ay f or f urs a nd s laves s low ly b egan t o f i nd t he ir way n or thward a pparen t ly t o p ay f or more f urs a nd s laves wh ich c ou ld b e s h ipped s ou th t o t he K hazar c ap i ta l i n t he l ower V o lga a nd e xchanged t here f or more d irha ms .

I tw as t he a ppearance o f t hese d irha ms

i n t he S t a .ra ia L adoga r eg ion o f Russ ia a nd i n v ar ious p arts o f t he e astern B a lt ic wh ich a t tracted t he V ik ings t o Russ ia .

B u t t hat i s a no ther s tory .

We c an s u m mar ize b y s ay ing t hat d irha ms f i rst a ppeared i n E uropean R uss ia b ecause t he Arabs a nd K hazars made p eace i n t he C aucasus .

T he

e nd o f h ost i l it ies e nab led a l arge-sca le c o m merce b etween t he t wo t o b eg in a nd i t was t h is c o m merce wh ich l ed t o t he i n f lux o f d irha ms i n to e astern a nd n orthern E urope . What r e levance , i fa ny , d oes t he P irenne t hes is h ave t o t he e ven ts i n E astern E urope wh ich we h ave j ust d escr ibed? Wh i le l im itat ions o f t ime a nd s pace p rec lude a n e xhaust ive d iscuss ion o f t h is q uest ion , c er ta in o bserva t ions a re i n o rder . F irst o fa l l , t he e ven ts i n t he Med i terranean wor ld u pon w h ich P irenne p ut s uch emphas is s ee m t o h ave h ad n o d iscern ib le impact o n I s la m ic r e lat ions w i th E uropean Russ ia . I s la m ic r e lat ions w ith E astern E urope , J ur ing t he p er iod 6 50-800 were d e ter m ined p r imar i ly b y Arab-Khazar r e lat ions i n t he C aucasus . C onsequen t ly , t here i s n o b as is f or t he a ssert ion t hat t he

t rade o f e astern a nd n orthern E urope w ith t he I s la m ic wor ld was a n a ttemp t t o c ircu mven t t he a l leged d isrup t ion o f c o m merce i n t he Med iterranean . T he t rade o f E uropean Russ ia w ith I s la m v ia t he C aucasus-Casp ian

1 2

r ou te

was n o t c reated a s a n a l ternat ive t o t he Med i terranean c o m merce b ut a rose f or c o mp lete ly u nre lated r easons . S econd ly , t he emergence o f I s la m ic c o m merce w ith E uropean Russ ia s uggests t hat t he Arabs were n o t a verse t o t rad ing w ith n on- Mus l i ms .

T he

Arabs managed t o p ar t ic ipate i n a n a ct ive t rade w i th a Khazar l eadersh ip whose r epresen tat ives h ad a b jured I s la m a nd t hen t urned t o J uda is m . T he i n f lux o f d irha ms i n to E uropean R uss ia was h indered b y m i l i tary c on f l ic t , 5 2

n o t b y r e l ig ion .

A s l ong a s t he Arabs a nd K hazars were a ct ive ly e ngaged i n

as trugg le f or d om inat ion o f t he C aucasus , n o e x tens ive t rade was a pparen t ly p oss ib le .

When t h is s trugg le r eached a s ta le ma te a nd b o th s ides w ere w i l l ing

t o a ccep t t he s ta tus q uo a s t he b as is f or p eace , t hen t rade r ap id ly d eve loped o n al arge s ca le . W i thout e n ter ing i n to t he l ong d ebate o n t he a ccuracy o f t he P irenne t hes is , Iwou ld o n ly s uggest t hat t he p at tern o f Arab-Khazar r el at ions i n t he C aucasus may a lso h ave a pp l ied t o Arab-Chr ist ian r e lat ions i n t he Med i terranean . T h ird ly , P irenne s uggests t ha t e ven a f ter p eace h ad b een r estored t o t he Med iterranean , c o mmerce s uf fered b ecause I s la m ( whoever t ha t i s ' . )h ad r ed irected i t s t rade i n to n ew r outes wh ich c onnected t he C asp ian w ith t he B a lt ic v ia E uropean R uss ia .1 3 T hese "n ew" r outes , a s we h ave s een , o n ly a ppeared a round 8 00 , l ong a f ter Arab e xpans ion a long t he Med iterranean l i t tora l h ad e nded .

T hese ” new"

r outes were n o t c reated a s ar esponse t o

c onf l ict i n t he Med i terranean d ur ing t he s even th c en tury b ut a s t he r esu l t o f p eace i n t he C aucasus d ur ing t he s econd h a lf o f t he e igh th c entury .

F ur ther-

more , t he t rade b etween t he N ear E ast a nd E uropean Russ ia was h ard ly n ew i n t he e ar ly n in th c en tury . T h is t rade h ad f unct ioned i n ter m it ten t ly o ver t he c ourse o f many c en tur ies a nd h ad b een p ar t icu lar ly a ct ive i n t he l a te s ix th a nd e ar ly s even th c en tury when many B yzan t ine a nd S asan ian c o ins a nd me ta lware a ppeared i n t he r ich f ur l ands o f t he K a ma b as in a nd t he n or thern C isUra ls , t he l ands t hen o ccup ied b y t he L o mova tovo c u lture . C onsequen t ly , t he A . rabs a nd K hazars w ere mere ly n ew p ar tners i n a n o ld t rad ing r e lat ionsh ip . F ina l ly , P irenne a long w ith many o thers a lways c red ited t he V ik ings w i th t he o pen ing u p a nd d eve lop men t o f t he n ew t rade o f E astern E urope w i th I s la m .

1 4

Without i n a ny way d im in ish ing t he a cco mp l ish men ts o f t he V ik ings ,

t he e v idence i nd icates t ha t cAbbäs id C a l iphs l ike Mang tr a nd a nony mous K hazar K agans d eserve p r i mary c red i t f or t he e stab l ish men t o f I s la m ic t rade w ith E uropean R uss ia .

T he V ik ings o n ly a ppeared o n t he s cene a f ter t he Arabs

a nd Khazars h ad l a id t he f oundat ions f or t h is c o m merce .

T he V ik ings were

a t tracted b y a n emerg ing c o m merce c reated b y o thers a nd n o t b y t he mere p o ten t ia l f or t rade .

I f Muha m mad a nd C har le magne were t he s y mbo ls o f

g reat c hanges i n t he Med iterranean , a s P irenne c on tends , t hen i t was t he C a l iphs a nd K agans who o ccupy c o mparab le p laces i n E astern E urope . I n c onc lus ion , Id o n ot f ind t hat t he P irenne t hesis h as much r e levance t o E uropean R uss ia .

Wha tever i t s v a lid i ty f or t he Medi terranean may b e , i td oes

n o t o f fer a ny i ns igh t i n to t he e ven ts t aking p lace i n E as tern E urope n or d oes i t p rov ide a f ramework f or mak ing s ense o f t he n um isma t ic d a ta f ro m t ha t a rea . As t he n ex t s tep i n my s ys te ma t ic s tudy o f t he d irha m f i nds f ro m E as tern E urope , Ib egan t o a na lyse a nd c harac ter ize t he n in th-cen tury d irham h oards f ro m E uropean R uss ia .

T he r esu lts o f t h is work t o d a te a re r epor ted h ere .

I ts hou ld b e s tressed t ha t t h is p aper i s i n tended a s a n i n it ia l , p re lim inary s tudy . Ih ave n o t y e t h ad t he o ppor tun i ty t o e xa m ine a l lt he p ub lished r epor ts o n a l lt he n inth-cen tury d irha m h oards f ound i n E uropean Russia . I n g o ing t hrough t he mos t i mpor tan t l i tera ture , Ih ave n ot b een a b le t o r econc i le t he c ontradic tory d a ta o n many h oards . N or c an Ie xp la in why , when t he a ccoun ts o f s o many h oards s ay 2 5 c Abbäs id d irhams , Iu sua l ly c an o n ly f i nd 2 4 o r 2 6

5 3

c o ins n o matter h ow many t imes Ic oun t . a l l t he t echn ica l p rob le ms .

F ur ther more , Ih ave n o t r eso lved

F or e xa mp le , t hree d ist inct t ypes o f Arab-

S asan ian c o ins a re f ound i n n in th-cen tury d irham h oards f ro m E uropean R ussia ; 1 ) c o ins s truck b y Umayyad g overnors i n t he e astern p rov inces u sua l ly b efore c Abd-a l- Ma l ik ' s mone tary r efor ms o f c .698; .2 ) c o ins s truck b y t he I spahbads o r n at ive r u lers o f T abar istän d ur ing t he f i rst h a lf o f t he e igh th c en tury ;

a nd , 3 ) c o ins i ssued b y t he cAbbas id g overnors o f T abar istän d ur ing

t he s econd h a lf o f t he e ighth c en tury . These t hree d ist inct s er ies a re c ons ist en t ly c on fused i n t he R uss ian n um is mat ic l i terature . One f i nds r eferences t o Arab-Sasan ian when , i n f act , o n ly t he p re-reform d rach ms o f Umayyad g overnors a re mean t . T he t rad it iona l l abe ls "I spahbad" a nd "T abar is tan " c reate c onfus ion s ince b oth a re u sed a s g ener ic t erms f or a l l c o ins s truck i n T abar istän d ur ing t he e igh th c en tury . Ic an b est i l lustrate t h is p o in t b y c i t ing af a ir ly r ecen t r epor t wh ich n o ted t hat a p ar t icu lar h oard o f t he n in th c entury f ro m E uropean R ussia c on ta ined Arab-Sasan ian c o ins , c o ins i ssued b y Umayy ad g overnors i n I ran , a nd c o ins o f t he cA . bbäs id g overnors o f T abar istän . I n b r ief , my p aper i s p re l im inary b ecause Ih ave n ot r eso lved a l l t he t echn ica l p rob le ms c onnected w ith t he 7 7 n in th-cen tury d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean R uss ia i n t he c ata logue a ppended t o t h is p aper n or c an Ib e s ure t hat n o r e lev ant h oards h ave b een i nadver tent ly omi t ted . Another t echn ica l p rob le m i nvo lves t he o rgan isa t ion a nd s tructure o f t he c a ta logue .

H ow s hou ld t he h oards b e a rranged—by p o l it ica l u n it a s Markov

d id 8 0 y ears a go i n t he l ast c ata logue , b y r iver b asin a s F as mer ma in ta ined i n t he 1 930s , o r b y t he d ate o f t he most r ecen t c o in a s Kropo tk in h as r ecen t ly d one? My p re l im inary c a ta logue i s o rgan ised b y t he d a te o f t he most r ecen t d irha m b ut o n ly b ecause If o l lowed Kropotk in ' sv ery h e lpfu l l i st ing o f n in thc en tury h oards .1 5 What k ind o f i n for mat ion s hou ld b e i nc luded a bou t e ach h oard a nd i n h ow much d eta i l?

I s i te ssen t ia l i n t h is t ype o f p ro ject t o i nc lude

a s much i n for mat ion a s i s p oss ib le o r c an c er ta in t h ings b e om it ted e n t ire ly o r d rast ica l ly a bbrev iated? Is hou ld l ike t o r a ise a no ther q uest ion wh ich h as p erp lexed me i n a na lys ing t he d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean R uss ia .

S ov iet n um is ma t ists f requen t ly

emp loy t he t er m "mone tary c ircu lat ion" when d iscussing t hese h oards . n ever d ef ined , "monetary c ircu lat ion"

Wh i le

i s a pparen t ly a s ynony m f or h oards

a nd f inds , i .e . at er m u sed f or t he a ssor ted c oin f i nds o f ap ar t icu lar t ime . I s t h is what "monetary c ircu lat ion" r ea l ly means? D oes t he e xpress ion "mone tary c ircu lat ion" in t he mid-n in th c en tury r efer t o n o th ing more t han t he h oards a nd f inds d epos i ted a round 8 50? A lthough Ih ave n o t y et worked o ut a s at isfactory d ef in it ion o f my own , Is uspec t t ha t t he t er m c onnotes t he move men t o f money f ro m o ne p lace t o a nother . I n o ther words , If ee l t hat d irha ms were n o t t aken f ro m t he ir p lace o f a ccumu lat ion w ith in t he I s la m ic wor ld a nd t ranspor ted d irect ly t o t he ir b ur ia l s po t i n e astern a nd n or thern E urope ; r ather , i ts ee ms t o me t hat t hey were b rough t t o K hazar ia a nd/or t he V o lga B u lgar l ands where t hey were o b ta ined , a long w ith c o ins wh ich h ad b een b rough t h ere e ar l ier , b y R us ' merchan ts . T hese merchan ts t hen b rought t he d irha ms t o ma jor t rade c en tres i n E uropean R uss ia s uch a s N ovgorod , K iev , Smo lensk , e tc . H ere o ther merchan ts a cqu ired t hese d irha ms a s p ar t o f t he c o ins u sed i n t ransact ions .

F ina l ly , a s at h ird o r e ven f ourth s tage ,

t he d irha ms were c arr ied t o t he e astern B a l t ic . 5 4

I n a dd it ion , Ib e l ieve i ti s

p oss ib le , w i th in c er ta in d ef in ite l im its , t o measure " mone tary c ircu lat ion " . Ih ave made t wo a t te mp ts a long t h is l ine b y a na lys ing t he V o lga Bu lgar a nd B yzan t ine c o ins wh ich were mixed w ith t he h oards o f d irha ms w ith in e astern E urope .1 6 The s yste mat ic s tudy o f d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean R uss ia , i nc lud ing t hose d at ing t o t he n in th c en tury , h as a c o mparat ive ly b r ief h istory .

I tb egan

o n ly a h a lf-cen tury a go w ith F as mer 's p ioneer ing works wh ich d e monstrated t hat d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean R uss ia d id n o t f or m a h o mogeneous l o t . R ather , t hese h oards c ou ld b e d iv ided i n to s evera l c hrono log ica l g roups e ach o f wh ich h ad i t s o wn d ist inct ive c harac ter ist ics .

I n o ther words , o ver t he

p er iod 8 00-1015 , t he t ypes o f d irha ms impor ted i n to E uropean Russia c hanged s ign if ican t ly a nd t hese c hanges t end t o d ist ingu ish t he h oards f ro m a ny g iven p er iod f ro m e ar l ier a nd l ater h oards f ound t here .

I n g enera l , d irha m h oards

f ro m E uropean R uss ia c an b e d iv ided i n to t wo ma in g roups : h oards i n wh ich

n in th-cen tury

d irha ms p redo m inated , a nd h oards o f t he t en th a nd

c Abbäs id

e ar ly e leven th c en tury i n wh ich S ä män id d irha ms were p redo m inan t . f ur ther d iv ided n in th-cen tury h oards i n to t wo p er iods .

F as mer

T he e ar l iest h oards ,

d at ing f ro m 8 00 t o 8 25 , were c o mposed a l most e xc lus ive ly o f c Abbfs id d irha ms among wh ich a v ery l arge p ercen tage were s truck i n n or th A fr ica . p er iod e x tended f ro m 8 25 t o 9 05 a nd c ons isted o verwhe lm ing ly o f

T he s econd

cA bbas id

d irha ms s truck i n A s ian m in ts a s we l l a s as ign if ican t p ercen tage o f c o ins i ssued i n t he T fh ir id l ands .

N or th A fr ican d irha ms d isappear a l most c o m-

p le te ly f ro m t he h oards o f t h is s econd p er iod .

1 7

Un for tuna te ly , F as mer n ever

e xa m ined t hese t wo p er iods a nd t he p ecu l iar c haracter ist ics o f t he d irha ms f ro m e ach i n a ny g reat d e ta i l .

H is o bserva t ions , wh ich mark a ma jor b reak-

t hrough i n o ur u nderstand ing o f d irha m h oards f ro m E astern E urope , were u sua lly made v ery s ucc inct ly d ur ing t he c ourse o f works d evo ted t o o ther t op ics . One o f t he minor t raged ies o f t wen t ieth-cen tury n um is mat ics i s t he f a i lure o f S ov iet s cho lars t o d eve lop F as mer ' sl and mark s tud ies .

S ince t he d eath o f

F as mer s hor t ly b efore Wor ld War I , V . L . I an in h as b een t he o n ly S ov iet n um is mat ist who h as a t te mp ted t o e xpand i n a ny ma jor way u pon t he p ath o pened b y F as mer .

And I an in ' sc o m men ts o n t he n in th-century d irha m h oards

were c on f ined t o t wo s ect ions o f o ne c hap ter i n a monograph d evo ted t o t he mone tary-we ight s yste ms o f p re- Mongo l R uss ia .

1 8

I an in i s i n s ubstan t ia l

a gree men t w i th F as mer . T here a re t wo p er iods i n t he h istory o f n in th-cen tury d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean Russ ia . T he e ar l ier p er iod d ates f ro m t he l ate e ighth c entury t o 8 33 a nd i s c haracter ized b y t he p redo m inance o f cA bbäs id d irha ms a s we l la s t he l arge p ercentage o fn or th A fr ican c oins . I an in a lso b r ief ly s urveys t he e ight d ynas t ic g roups r epresen ted i n t hese h oards

( cAbbas id , Umayyad , Täh ir id , I drr s id , G overnors o f T udgha , S pan ish Umayyad , I spahbad—a t er m wh ich i nc luded Umayyad g overnors , a nd S asan ian ) , c overs t he ir c hrono log ica l d istr ibu t ion i n o ne p age , a nd s pends s o me t ime o n a metro log ica l a na lys is d ur ing wh ich t he f o l low ing n or ms were d iscovered : n or th A fr ican , 2 .7-2 .8g ; I spahbad a nd 4 .0-4.2g .

cA bbäs id

A s ian cAbbäsid , 2 .8-2 .9g ;

Umayyad , 2 .7-2 .9g ;

g overnors o f T abar istän , 1 .9-2 .0g ;

a nd , S asan ian ,

I an in d a tes t he s econd p er iod f ro m 8 33 t o t he e ar ly t en th c en tury .

H e f ound t hree ma in d ynast ic g roups :

a n o verwhe lm ing n u mber o f cAbbäsid

c o ins f ro m As ian m ints a nd s o me T äh ir id a nd Umayyad d irha ms ,

The c o ins

o f o ther d ynast ies were c onsidered v ery r are a s were n or th A fr ican d irha ms . D evelop ing a p o in t made b y F as mer , I an in n o tes t he h uge n u mber o f c o ins

5 5

s truck b y a r-Rashid ( 786/7-808/9 ) a nd a l-A min ( 808/9-813/14 ) . S ubsequen t C al iphs a pparen t ly d id n o t f ee l an eed t o i ssue l arge n u mbers o f n ew d irha ms wh ich , a ccord ing t o I an in , e xp la ins why t he p ercen tage o f n ew ly- m in ted c o ins d rops b e tween t he 8 20s a nd 8 69 . On ly i n t he 8 70s d oes t he n u mber o f n ew d irha ms b eg in t o i ncrease . S ince o lder c o ins c onst itu te a n impor tan t p ar t o fh oards f ro m t he s econd p er iod , t he c hrono log ica l s pan o f t he c o ins i n t hese h oards g rows marked ly d ur ing t he n in th c en tury . Metro log ica l ly , t he f o l lowi ng n or ms w ere d eter m ined : 2 .8-3 .0g ;

cA bbäs id

d irha ms o f 8 33-68 a nd T äh ir id c o ins ,

cAbbäs id d irha ms o f t he 8 60s , 3 .0g ; a nd ,

cA bbäsidd irha ms

o f

t he 8 80s a nd 8 90s , 3 .13g . Aq uar ter c en tury h as n ow p assed s ince t he p ub l icat ion o f I an in ' s monog raph .

I an in ' s own r esearch i n terests h ave d eve loped i n o ther d irec t ions

a nd n one o fh is c o l leagues h ave p ursued t h is l i ne o f s tudy .

A t t he s a me t ime ,

many n ew h oards h ave c o me t o l igh t , s evera l ma jor n in th-cen tury h oards h ave b een p ub l ished i n f u l l o r l arge p ar t , a nd v ar ious t echn iques o f n um is mat ic a na lys is h ave b een c reated o r p erfected .

C lear ly , t he t ime h as c o me f or a

c o mprehens ive a nd d eta i led e xa m inat ion o f t hese h oards . I t wou ld b e at remendous l oss i f we l e t t he v a luab le work o f F as mer a nd I an in e i ther d ie o u t f or l ack o f i n terest o r b eco me d usty "c lassics" whose me thods a nd c onc lus ions a re n ever t ested a nd u pdated . An a na lys is o f t he n in th-cen tury d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean R uss ia s hou ld a t te mp t t o r eso lve t hree ma jor q uest ions . F irst o f a l l , we h ave s een t hat t he e ar l iest d irha ms t o r each E uropean R uss ia c a me b y way o f t he C aucasus r oute . F ro m t he r epor t o f I bn K hurdadb ih , we k now t hat a round t he mid-n in th c en tury t he ma in t rade r oute f ro m t he N ear E ast t o E uropean Russ ia l ed a cross t he C asp ian S ea b etween t he V o lga d e l ta a nd J ur jän .1 9 We a lso k now t hat i n t he e ar ly t en th c en tury S a man id d irha ms s truck i n C en tra l A sian m in ts c a me t o p redo m inate i n E astern E uropean h oards s uggest ing t ha t b y t hat t ime t he ma in t rade r oute wen t f ro m T ransox iana a nd Khwaraz m t o E urop ean R uss ia . D oes t he n um is mat ic i n for mat ion r ef lect t he e astward s h if t i n t he r outes b y wh ich d irha ms r eached E uropean R uss ia? a n a n a na lys is o f o ur h oards e s tab l ish when t he r oute moved f rom t he C aucasus t o t he C asp ian a nd , most impor tan t ly , c an i tt e l l u s whether t he C en tra l A s ian r oute h ad b egun t o f unct ion b efore t he e ar ly t en th c entury? I n b r ief , we must a sk i f t he n in th-cen tury h oards r evea l h ow a nd when d irha ms were b rought t o E urop ean R uss ia d ur ing t h is c en tury . S econd ly , we must s eek t hose c haracter ist ics o f t he d irha m h oards wh ich r ef lect o r i l lu m inate t he h istory o f E uropean R ussia d ur ing t he n in th c en tury . A s b o th F as mer a nd I an in a cknow ledged , s uch c harac ter ist ics a s t he h igh p ercen tage o f n or th A fr ican d irha ms i n h oards d epos ited d ur ing t he f i rst q uar ter o f t he c en tury r ef lect t he c o in s tock o f t he N ear E ast . The s ame i s t rue f or many o ther a spects o f t he n in th-cen tury d irha m h oards . T hus , wh i le e xpand ing t he t ypes o f a na lyses b egun b y F as mer a nd I an in a nd i n it ia t ing n ew methods o f i nvest igat ion , we s hou ld s earch f or t hose f actors wh ich r e la te t o E uropean Russ ia more t han t he I s la m ic wor ld .

T he d iv is ion o f n in th-century

h oards i n to t wo p er iods , f or e xa mp le , t e l ls u s much more a bou t t he monetary s i tuat ion i n t he N ear E ast t han a bou t t hat p reva i l ing i n E uropean Russ ia . C an w e i den t ify d a ta f ro m o ur h oards wh ich c an s erve a s i nd icators o f Russ ian

5 6

L o ca t ions a r e u n know n f o r 2 9 a n d 5

MAP t o s how t he a pprox imate l ocat ion o f n inth-century d irham h oards f rom European Russ ia. ( Numbers a s i n t he Append ix.)

a s we l l a s I s la m ic d eve lop men ts?

Are t he t wo p er iods o f F as mer a nd I an in

v a l id a nd u sefu l f or t he monetary h istory o f E uropean Russ ia i t se lf?

An i n-

t egra l p art o f t h is t ype o f i nqu iry i nvo lves t he c ompar ison a nd c on trast o f t he h oards f ro m d i f feren t a reas w ith in E uropean R ussia ,

F as mer a nd I an in

a ssu med t hat t he c haracter ist ics o f t hese h oards h o ld t rue t hroughou t a l l o f E uropean R uss ia . T h is a ssu mp t ion n eeds t o b e t ested . F ina l ly , we must e xa m ine t he d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean Russ ia i n a c o mparat ive f ra mework . More s pec if ica l ly , i ti s impor tan t t o c o mpare a nd c on trast t he n in th-cen tury h oards f ro m E uropean R ussia w ith t hose f rom t he s ou theastern B a lt ic , P o land , n orthern G er many , F in land , a nd Sweden .

We

must d eter m ine t he e x ten t t o wh ich t he c haracter ist ics o f t he E uropean Russ ian h oards a ppear t hroughou t e astern a nd n or thern E urope .

I n wha t w ays

a re t he n in th-century d irha m h oards f rom t h is e n t ire a rea r e lated a nd what d o t he s im i lar it ies a s we l l a s t he d i f ferences t e l l u s a bou t monetary h istory i n t he n or thern l ands? I n s hor t , we must g o b eyond t he t rad i t iona l n at iona l b oundar ies wh ich h ave s haped s o much o f t he n um is mat ic r esearch a nd t h ink i n t er ms o f l arger a reas a nd i n terre lated r eg ions . Wh i le we c anno t h ope t o t ake u p a l l o f t hese t hree q uest ions i n t h is p aper , i ti s impor tan t t o s pe l l o u t a t t he b eg inn ing s o me o f t he p rob le ms a nd i ssues t hat n eed t o b e c onsidered i n t he c ourse o f a n e xa m inat ion o f t h is t op ic .

*

*

*

*

*

A t f i rst g lance , t he t o ta l o f 7 7 d irha m h oards f ro m n in th-cen tury E uropean R uss ia s ee ms v ery impress ive . H owever , a s w e a l l k now , f irst g lances a re o f ten v ery m is lead ing . T herefore , i t wou ld b e w e l l t o r ev iew o ur 7 7 h oards b r ief ly a nd i nd icate why t he t o ta l may b e s o mewhat i n f lated .

T he g reatest

p rob le m , a s u sua l , i s t he l arge n u mber o fh oards f ro m wh ich o n ly a few c o ins r e ma in . R ather t han d escr ibe e ach o f t hese h oards s eparate ly , Ih ave c o mp ressed t he p er t inen t d ata i n to T ab le A . S ix teen h oards o r a l most 2 1% o f t he t o ta l b e long t o t h is c ategory . A s T ab le A s hows , o ur of ten f ragmen tary d ata i nd ica te t hat s o me o f t hese h oards were q u ite s ubstan t ia l , e .g . c . 8 00 c o ins ', s evera l h undred c o ins ',

' up t o 1 00 p ounds o f d irha ms ', 'a l arge h oard ',

a nd '2 k i logra ms o f c o ins '. O thers were o f modest s ize , e .g . 5 0 a nd 3 0 c o ins . T he s ize o f most h oards i n t h is c ategory i s n ot c lear s ince t he o n ly i n for ma t ion t hat h as b een p reserved i s t hat a f ew c o ins s urv ived f ro m a h oard o r f ro m a p o t f u l l o fd irhams . Wh i le Ih ave p rov ided a s much i n forma t ion o n t he s urv iv ing c o ins a s p oss ib le , t hese h oards , r egret tab ly , h ave v ery l im ited s c ien t if ic v a lue .

I n f act , Ih ave s er ious r eserva t ions a bou t t he p ract ice o f

c a tegor iz ing h oards f ro m wh ich o n ly a f ew c o ins r e ma in .

C an we g ive b ur ia l

d ates t o h oards when o n ly a sma l l p ercen tage o f t he o r ig ina l c o ins h ave s urv ived? D o we h ave a ny i nd icat ion t hat t he h andfu l o f c o ins t hat were a cc ident a l ly s aved a re i n a ny way r epresen tat ive o f t he e n t ire h oard? i s t o s ay n o a nd t o g ive v ery l i t t le we igh t t o t hese h oards . w i l l ing t o b e p ersuaded o therw ise .

5 8

My i nc l inat ion

H owever , Iam

T ab le A

N in th-cen tury Russian d irha m h oards f ro m wh ich o n ly a f ew c o ins r e ma in

A . pprox i mate s ize F ind s po t

N u mber o f c o ins • i den t if ied o r

o f o r ig ina l h oard

K a l in ingrad

s urv iv ing

Reference i n A ppend ix I

1 50

9

1

P ar istovka

8 00

7

3

L e lek i

p o t?

1

5

p ot? h oard? h oard?

4 9 7

7 1 1 1 2

2 5 1 1

2 0 2 4 3 7

3 1 9 1 1

4 6 5 6 5 7

5 9

6 0 6 3

p ot?

5

7 2

2k g?

1

7 5

B askach K h itrovka S e menov G orodok N abatovo S kop insk i i u ezd P ro tasovo

h oard? h oard? s evera l h undred

Gruch ino V itebsk p rov ince B ork i

h oard? 1 00 p ounds? 5 0

Mo iseevo O strog i

3 0 l arge h oard?

V eshenska ia N izhne-Pokrovka

Re lated t o t he a bove g roup a re t wo h oards ( about 3% o f t he t o ta l ) whose o r ig ina l s ize i s u nknown b u t f ro m wh ich o n ly a f ew c o ins a re l ef t ( n os . 8a nd 1 9 ) .

I n a dd it ion , i ti s n o t e xact ly c lear t ha t t he f or mer c onst ituted a h oard

wh i le a l most a l l t he d ata o n t he l at ter a re imprec ise s tar t ing w i th i t s l ocat ion . We a lso h ave f our h oards ( about 5% o f t he t o ta l ) wh ich a re e n t ire ly i n tact b ut v ery sma l l i n s ize ( nos . 1 8 , 2 3 , 4 9 , a nd 5 0 ) . T hree o f t hese h oards a re c o mp le te ly d escr ibed b ut c ons ist o f o n ly 1 0 , 1 0 , a nd 9 d irha ms r espect ive ly wh i le 1 5 o f t he 2 5 d irha ms i n t he f ourth h oard were c o mp lete ly e f faced a nd t he o ther t en a re n o t f u l ly d escr ibed . C an we p lace g rea t r e l iance i n ah oard where e ach i nd iv idua l c o in c onst itu tes 1 0%? g ather , i s n egat ive .

My r esponse , a s y o u migh t

C onsequen t ly , more o r l ess c o mp lete h oards o f l ess

t han 2 0 c o ins , wha t Iwou ld c a l l m in i-hoards , h ave b een e xc luded f rom my b asic d a ta b ase . T hese h oards a re s i mp ly t oo sma l l t o h ave s tat ist ica l v a lue . A t most , t hey c an o n ly b e u sed t o c onf irm t rends a scer ta ined f ro m a n e xa mi nat ion o f l arger h oards . H ow many c o ins c onst itute a h oard? Where i s t he d iv id ing l i ne b etween af ind o f af ew c o ins a nd a m in i-hoard? S hou ld a min i-hoard b e d ef ined a s l ess t han 2 5 o r e ven 5 0 c o ins? F ive o f t he h oards ( abou t 6% o f t he t o ta l ) l i sted i n Append ix Ia re q uest iona b le h oards ( nos . 3 3 , 3 5 , 4 8 , 5 2 , a nd 7 3 ) . One "h oard" c onsists o f 1 0-15 c o ins a pparen t ly f ound a t o r n ear t he s a me s pot o ver t he c ourse o f 3 5 y ears . A .s econd was f ormed o f d irha ms f ound i n d igg ing t he f oundat ion o f ah ouse ,

5 9

wh i le a t h ird a rose f ro m d igg ing t he f oundat ion o f ac hurch . Prec ise i n for mat i on o n t hese i s l ack ing . The r epor ts o n t he l as t t wo s i mp ly s tate t ha t d irha ms w ere d iscovered i n t he c oun trys ide ; t here i s n o i nd icat ion o f h ow t hey were f ound .

F or t he s ake o f c o mp le teness , Ih ave i nc luded t hese h oards i n my

c a ta logue a l though Ih ave s er ious d oub ts whether t hey d eserve t o b e c ons idered a s h oards . T here i s n o i n for mat ion a va i lab le t o me a bou t f our o f t he h oards ( abou t 5% o f t he t o ta l ) e xcep t t hat Kropo tk in i nc luded t he n a me o f t he f ind s po t a nd d a te o f t he most r ecen t d irha m i nh is l i st o f n in th-century d irha m h oards f ro m e astern E urope ( nos . 2 7 , 2 9 , 4 3 , a nd 5 5 ) . V ery f ew f ac ts h ave a ppeared a bou t t hree o f t he h oards ( about 4% o f t he t o ta l ) i n o ur c a ta logue a nd i ti s n o t e ven c er ta in t hat t hey a l l d ate t o t he n in th c en tury ( nos . 7 4 , 7 6 , a nd 7 7) . S u mm ing u p t he a bove d iscuss ion , we f i nd t hat 3 4 h oards c o mpos ing 4 4% o f t he t o ta l h ave l i t t le o r n o s tat ist ica l v a lue . T hese h oards may g ive u s s ome g enera l i dea a bout t he n u mber o fh oards t hat w ere d epos i ted i n E uropean R uss ia d ur ing t he n in th c en tury , b u t t hey p rov ide a l most n o s tat ist ica l ly r el i ab le i n for mat ion a bou t t he c haracter ist ics o f t he c o ins i n t he h oards . d a ta must c o me f ro m t he o ther 4 3 h oards .

S uch

Un for tunate ly , n o t a l l o f t he 4 3 r e ma in ing h oards h ave b een p ub l ished i n f u l l .

T he c o mparat ive v a lue o f many o f t hese h oards i s l im ited .

We h ave ,

f or e xa mp le , f our h oards ( about 5% o f t he t o ta l ) d iscovered d ur ing t he f i rst p ar t o f t he n ineteen th c entury whose o r ig ina l d escr ip t ion , u sua l ly b y F rähn , i s s er iously i nadequa te b y modern s tandards ( n os . 1 7 , 2 1 , 3 0 , a nd 6 2 ) .

T he

a ccoun ts o f t hese h oards u sua l ly g ive t he e ar l iest a nd most r ecen t c o ins o f v ar ious d ynast ies a nd t he min ts r epresen ted i n t he h oard . e nu merat ion o f t he i n for mat ion o n e ach i nd iv idua l c o in .

B ut t here i s n o

We p ossess o n ly

g enera l , a ggregate d escr ip t ions o f t hese h oards a nd e ven t ha t i s i nco mp lete , e .g ., t here i s u sua l ly n o i nd icat ion o f h ow many c o ins o f e ach d ynasty were i den t if ied . T he s a me b as ic s i tuat ion p reva i ls w ith f our h oards ( abbu t 5% o f t he t o ta l ) u ncovered d ur ing t he s econd h a lf o f t he n ineteen th c en tury ( nos . 2 2 , 4 0 , 6 5 , a nd 6 6 ) .

We h ave more o r l ess p rec ise i n for ma t ion o n h ow many c o ins were

f ound , t he ir c hrono log ica l s pan , a nd t he d if feren t d ynast ies p resen t i n t he h oard . h oards .

We e ven h ave t he d if feren t min ts r epresen ted i n s evera l o f t hese B u t we h ave n o d escr ip t ion o f t he i nd iv idua l c o ins a nd t he a ggregate

d a ta i s i nco mp lete .

T hese om iss ions a re t ru ly u n for tuna te s ince i n t he c ase

o f t he 8 42/3 I agoshury h oard ( no . 4 0 ) o f 1 50 d irha ms a l l t he c o ins were i dent i f ied a nd t h is d eta i led i n for mat ion a pparen t ly r e ma ins i n t he a rch ives where i t was u t i l ized b y b o th F as mer a nd I an in . One a lso h as t he impress ion t hat a more d e ta i led a ccoun t o f t he 8 72/3 h oard o f o ver a t housand d irha ms

f rom

K h itrovka ( no . 6 5 ) e x ists i n t he a rch ives s ince F as mer s pec if ica l ly men t ions t hat 4 63 d irha ms were i dent if ied f ro m t h is h oard a nd h e g ives t he ir c hronol og ica l a nd m in t d istr ibut ion .

I ti s t o b e h oped t ha t t he f u l l a ccoun ts o f t he

d irha ms i n t hese t wo h oards w i l l o ne d ay b e p ub l ished . F our h oards ( 5% o f t he t o ta l ) d iscovered s ince t he r evo lut ion a lso f a l l i n to t he a bove c ategory ( nos . 3 4 , 4 2 , 4 7 , a nd 5 8 ) . T he h oard o f 6 74 d irha ms f ro m K is la ia u near thed i n 1 967 h as b een d escr ibed o n ly i n t he most g enera l

6 0

t er ms ( no . 3 4 ) .

T here i s n o s ubstan t ive r epor t o n t he sma l l h oard o f 2 3 c o ins

f ound a t S tara ia L adoga i n 1 938 ( no . 4 2 ) .

Over t h ir ty y ears a go a d e ta i led

s tudy was p ro m ised o f t he 3 04 i den t if ied c o ins f ro m a h oard o f a bou t 2 ,000 d irha ms f ound a t t he S obo levo S ovkhoz i n 1 936 ( no . 4 7 ).

I ti s s t i l l awa ited .

We a lso n eed more i n for mat ion a bout t he 7 3 c o ins p reserved f ro m a h oard f ound a t T oropets i n 1 960 ( no . 5 8 ) .

I n b r ief , 1 2 h oards o r o ver 1 5% o f o ur

t o ta l h ave s o me b u t l im ited s cho lar ly v a lue . F our teen h oards ( about 1 8% o f t he t o ta l ) , wh i le n ot y et f u l ly p ub l ished , h ave b een d escr ibed i n s uf f ic ien t d e ta i l t o p er m it a t l east a p rec ise d ynast ic b reakdown ( nos . 4 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 5 , 2 6 , 2 8 , 3 1 , 3 6 , 3 9 , 4 1 , 5 3 , 5 4 , 6 9 , a nd 7 1 ) . Many o f t hese h oards h ave b een u ncovered f a ir ly r ecen t ly a nd i ti s h oped t hat t he ir f u l l p ub l ica t ion w i l l b e f or thco m ing e spec ia l ly s ince t he e x istence o f e xact f igures o n t he d ynast ic d istr ibut ion s uggests t hat t he c o ins i n t hese h oards h ave a lready b een i den t if ied ( no . 4-1958 ; n o . 2 8 -1954 ;

n o . 3 6 -1938 ;

n o . 5 4 -1935 ) .

n o . 3 9 -1961 ;

n o . 1 3 -1959 ;

n o . 4 1 -1961 ;

n o . 1 5 -1956 ;

n o . 5 3 -1973 ;

More i nfor mat ion wou ld a lso s ee m t o b e a va i lab le i n t he a r-

c h ives o n s o me o f t he e ar l ier h oards .

I an in , f or e xa mp le , h as g iven p rec ise

f igures o n t he c hrono log ica l a nd d ynast ic d istr ibut ion o f t he 1 50 d irha ms f ound a t E l med i n 1 906 ( no . 2 6 ) wh i le Goshkev ich p rov ided a b reakdown b y r e ign o f t he 7 5 d irha ms i n t he 1 902 h oard f ro m N ova ia L azarevka ( no . 7 1 ) .

I ts hou ld

a lso b e n o ted t hat o n ly p ar t o f t he c o ins f ro m t hree h oards i n t h is c a tegory were i den t if ied :

o n ly t wo-f if ths o f t he 1 956 K re m levskoe h oard was p reserved

( no . 1 5 ) , o n ly 4 1 o f s o me 1 00 d irha ms f ro m t he 1 954 L itv inov ich i h oard were i den t if ied ( no . 2 8 ) , a nd t he 1 39 c o ins f ro m t he 1 961 L esogur t h oard ( no . 3 9 ) c onst ituted o n ly a n u nspec if ied p ar t o f t he e n t ire h oard .

I n a dd i t ion , t he

i nfor mat ion o n s o me o f t he h oards i n t h is c ategory i nc ludes more t han j ust a p rec ise d ynast ic b reakdown .

D obrovo l ' s k i" ' sr ecen t a ccoun t o f t he h uge

h oard o f o ver 2 ,600 d irha ms f ound a t B o l ' s hoe T i merevo ( no . 5 3 ) c on ta ins , f or e xa mp le , ab reakdown o f t he a l most 2 ,400

cA .bbäsid

d irha ms b y C a l iph

a s we l l a s t he min t d istr ibut ion f or n ear ly 2 ,600 Umayyad a nd h a ms .

cA bbäs id

d ir-

I n b r ief , we p ossess s o me s ubstan t ia l d ata o f r ea l v a lue f ro m t hese

1 4 h oards a lthough i ti s n o t a s much a s we wou ld l ike . Ou t o f o ur 7 7 o r ig ina l h oards , o n ly 1 7 o r 2 2% h ave b een p ub l ished i n f u l l . I n o ther words , o ur d eta i led a na lysis o f a l l t he c haracter ist ics o f t he c o ins i n n in th-cen tury d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean Russ ia i s i nev i tab ly b ased , i n l arge p ar t , o n i n for mat ion f ro m o n ly o ne-f if th t o o ne-quar ter o f a l l t he p otent i a l h oards .

F or t he s ake o f c onven ience , t he b asic i n for mat ion a bou t t hese

1 7 h oards i s c ondensed i n T ab le B . c en tury , f ro m 7 86/7 t o 8 82/3 .

Chrono log ica l ly , t hey s pan a l most a

Bu t t hey a re n o t d istr ibuted e ven ly , a s t he

f igures b e low s how : 7 80s-1

8 20s-2

8 60s-2

7 90s-0

8 30s-0

8 70s-4

8 00s-2

8 40s-1

8 80s-1

8 10s-2

8 50s-2

8 90s-0

T here a re n o f unda men ta l h oards whatsoever f or t hree o f t he d ecades a nd o ne o n ly f or e ach o f t hree o f t he o ther d ecades . Even t hen , t he s o le h oard f ro m t he 7 80s i s sma l l i n s ize ( on ly 3 1 d irha ms ) wh i le t he s ing le h oard f ro m t he 8 80s i s l arger b u t s t i l l f a ir ly modest ( 82 i den t if ied c o ins ) . 6 1

T he i n for mat ion

T ab le B

F u l ly-pub l ished n in th-cen tury h oards f ro m E uropean Russia

F ind s po t

Nu mber o f

D ate o f most

R eference i n

i den t if ied c o ins

r ecen t c o in

Append ix I

S tara ia L adoga

3 1

7 86/7

2

Kr iv ianska ia

8 3

8 0 5 /6

6

Kn iashch ino

9 0 ( ou t o f 3 00 )

8 08/9

Z ava l ish ino

5 2

8 09/10

1 0

1 27 ( ou t o f _ c . 1 48) 2 85

8 12/13

1 6

Ugod ich i I ary lov ich i

9

8 20/1

2 5

Ug l ich

2 05

8 29/30

3 2

D obr ino

5 27

8 4 1 /2

3 8

2 4

8 52/3

4 4

Akhre m tsy P orech ' e

4 5

8 53/4

4 5

N ovgorod

2 03

8 64/5

5 1

M ishnevo

3 2/101

8 68/9

5 9

8 69/70

6 1

8 70/1

6 4

2 16 ( ou t o f 2 95 )

8 75/6

6 7

3 37

8 75/6

6 8

8 82/3

7 0

K uznetskoe

1 62

S hu m i lovo

1 326

P ogrebnoe B oby l i P o l tava

8 2 ( ou t o f 1 00 )

i s t hus weakest a t t he b eg inn ing a nd e nd o f o ur t ime p er iod , a nd n ot t oo s trong i n t he midd le ( on ly 1 h oard f ro m t he 8 30s a nd 8 40s ) .

N e ither h oard f ro m t he

8 00s i s l arger t han 9 0 wh i le b o th h oards f ro m t he 8 50s a re sma l l ( 24 a nd 4 5 d irha ms ) .

Aga in , t he d a ta b ase f or t he b eg inn ing a nd midd le p er iods i s n o t

a s g ood a s we wou ld l ike .

On t he o ther h and , t he 8 20s w i th t wo l arge h oards

a re we l l r epresen ted a nd t he f our v ery l arge h oards f ro m t he 8 70s , i nc lud ing t wo f ro m t he s a me y ear , p rov ide e xce l len t d ata f or t ha t d ecade .

We a lso

h ave a t l east o ne s izeab le h oard ( over 1 00 i den t if ied c o ins ) f or t he 8 10s , 8 40s , a nd 8 60s .

T he r ando m c hrono log ica l d istr ibu t ion o f o ur f unda men ta l h oards

s hou ld b e t aken i n to a ccoun t when c ons ider ing t he c haracter ist ics o f n in thc en tury d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean Russ ia . We s ha l l d iscuss t he g eograph ica l d istr ibut ion o f o ur f unda men ta l h oards i n s o me d eta i l when c o mpar ing t he c haracter ist ics o f t he h oards f ro m d if fere n t p ar ts o f European Russ ia .

F or t he mo men t , i ts hou ld s uf f ice t o n ote t ha t

t hese 1 7 h oards c o me f ro m s ix d if feren t r eg ions : N or thwestern R uss ia - 3 L ower D on - 1 M idd le Dnepr - 4 Upper V o lga - 4 Upper Dnepr a nd West Dv ina - 3 Oka b as in - 2 T he h oards f ro m s evera l r eg ions a re n o t s pread o ut more o r l ess e ven ly o ver t he c ourse o f t he p er iod u nder c onsidera t ion b ut a re c lustered .

6 2

A l l t hree

h oards f ro m t he u pper D nepr/ upper West D v ina , f or e xa mp le , d ate t o t he 8 40s8 50s . T he s ing le h oard f ro m t he l ower D on d ates t o t he e ar ly n in th c en tury . T he t wo h oards f rom t he Oka b as in d ate t o t he 8 60s a nd 8 70s . T here i s o ver ah a lf c en tury b etween t he t wo e ar l ier h oards f ro m t he m idd le D nepr a nd t he t wo l ater o nes , wh ich i s a bout t he s a me t ime s pan a s o ccurs b etween t he s econd a nd t h ird h oards f ro m n or thwestern R uss ia . T he t ime s pan b etween t he t wo e ar l ier h oards f ro m t he u pper V o lga a nd t he t wo l a ter h oards i s f or ty y ears . F ur ther more , t here a re n o h oards a t a l l f ro m t he m idd le V o lga . T he f unda men ta l h oards f ro m d if feren t r eg ions o f E uropean Russ ia a re n o t s paced o ut a t r egu lar i n terva ls b ut a re d istr ibuted h aphazard ly . must b e t aken i n to a ccoun t i n o ur a na lys is .

T h is imba lance a lso

I n s u m mary , o ur t ota l o f 7 7 d irha m h oards f ro m n inth-century E uropean Russ ia t urns o u t t o b e as o mewhat i nf lated f i gure . J ust u nder h a lf o f t he h oards u n for tunate ly h ave l i t t le o r n o s c ien t if ic v a lue wh i le a no ther t h ird h ave s ome b u t l im ited v a lue .

T o d e ter m ine t he c harac ter ist ics o f t hese h oards ,

we must r e ly , i n l arge p art , o n t he o ne i n f i ve o r s o o f t he h oards wh ich h ave b een p reserved a nd f u l ly p ub l ished .

O ur d ata b ase i s n o t t he b est , b ut i ti s t he

o n ly o ne w e h ave .

*

*

*

*

*

T ab le C s hows t he d ynast ic d istr ibut ion o f n in th-century d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean R uss ia .

I n a dd it ion t o o ur 1 7 f unda men ta l h oards , t here e x ists

f a ir ly c o mp le te i n for mat ion o n t he d ynast ic b reakdown o f 1 6 o ther h oards . T he d ynast ic i n format ion o n 3 3 h oards ( abou t 4 3% o f t he p o ten t ia l t o ta l ) makes t h is t he b est d ocu men ted c haracter ist ic . F ur ther more , t he a dd it ion o f 1 6 h oards f i l ls i n many o f t he weaknesses n oted i n t he d ata b ase o f 1 7 f unda men ta l h oards .

F or e xa mp le , we n ow h ave t he f o l low ing c hrono log ica l d istr ibu t ion : 7 80s-1 7 90s-O

8 20s-4 8 30s-2

8 60s-4 8 70s-6

8 00s-3

8 40s-4

8 80s-1

8 10s-5

8 50s-2

8 90s-1

E very s ing le d ecade o f t he n in th c en tury i s r epresen ted b y a t l east o ne h oard , a nd e igh t o f t he t en d ecades h ave t wo o r more h oards .

I n f act , s ix o f t he t en

d ecades h ave t hree o r more h oards . T he e x istence o f 3 3 h oards a lso p rov ides ab etter g eograph ica l d istr ibut ion f or t h is c haracter ist ic . We n ow h ave , f or e xa mp le , t wo h oards f ro m t he m idd le V o lga a nd o ne f ro m t he u pper D on wh i le t he n u mber o fh oards f ro m t he o ther a reas h as i ncreased . T he c o ins i n t hese 3 3 h oards c o me f ro m s even teen d if feren t d ynast ies o r t ypes . T he e ar l ies t c o ins , a s i s t o b e e xpected , a re S asan ian d rach ms s truck b efore t he I s la m ic e ra b u t wh ich c on t inued t o c ircu late i n t he N ear E ast f or s evera l c en tur ies a f ter t he Arab c onquest .

T hree v ar iet ies o f Arab-Sasan ian

c o ins a re r epresen ted , a s was n oted e ar l ier :

c o ins o f t he Umayyad g overnors

i ssued b efore t he e igh th c en tury , c o ins o f t he I spahbads o f T abar istan i ssued d ur ing t he f i rst h a lf o f t he e ighth c entury , a nd c o ins o f t he 6 3

cA bbas id

g overnors

B yzan t ine

CV

1

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

K hazar?

I

I

P ar t isans

I

T äh ir id

1

Im i tat ion & C oun ter fe i t

S afMr id

Z ayd id

T he d ynast ic d istr ibut ion o f n in th-cen tury d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean R ussia

cA bbäs id

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

1

I

1

I

1

1

I

c o

; 2 3

t-

Agh lab id

I drr s id

1 .4

C V

Umayyad

L

v v 4

c r ä

c Abbäs id G overnors o f T abar istän

00

Ce

G overnors o f T udgha

S pan ish Umayyad

C ,1

Umayyad G overnors

14

1 -

I spahbad

Arab-Sasan ian

( 3 )

S asan ian

C V

1 1

0

C n

c n

c : ; " CV CO C 10

L s L O c 0

v 4

C S T

C ,,

E4

•

t r 3

cA bbäs id

e

5

c )

6 4

to

• v r • i

0 c r j

4

C f l C,

c i d" • • • .

•

00

° CO

t o

c n

c i ) 1 4

P c ' t

e t ;

CV

c 0

00

I

I

1

1

C o u nte rfeit

I

I

I

I I

S affi ri d

I

1

1

1

1

1

I

1

1

I

Z a ydi d

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

K hazar ?

P a rti s a ns

1

1

T ähi ri d

C r 3 C s .

C •

C • 1

t C O

C O

C O

N

C V

C O

ma y ya d

A b ba sid . G o ve r n o rs

of T ud gh a

S pa nis h U

r . 1

1

1

I

I

I

c • 1

e-

t i p 0 2

C O t • •

0 C O

. O

I

I

I

I

I

I

0 0 1

C e C O

C . 0 0

r . 4

C O

▪

I I

I

m a y y a d G o v e r n ors

c e

I

I

I

1

c I

1

C V

1

C . .

. 11

1

I

c rj

I

I

•

I

1

I

1

1

O ' )

r I

r i

m a y ya d

Is pa h ba d

I

‘ 14

1

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

A ra b- Sa s a ni a n

L -

To '

6 5

L esogur t , 8 41/2-(132 )

Sa s a ni a n

Ugod ich i , 8 12/13-(127 ) 4

U

I

I I —

C O

of T a b a ristä n

G o ve r no rs

I

P orech t e , 8 53/4- ( 4 4 )

C O

c

I

I

1

A ghl a bi d

U

I

1

Akhre m tsy , 8 52/3-(24 ) -

A b bäsi d

c

I

‘ . 4

1

S i mony , 8 45/6-(88 )

A b bf f si d

1

D obr ino , 8 4 1 /2(527)

c

1

D ev i tsa , 8 37/8-(323 )

I mit ati o n &

B y za nti ne

B yzan t ine

Im itat ion & C oun terfe it

S affär id

1

I

I

I

I

I

I

, 1 • 0

I

I

I

1

1

4 , 4

I

1

1

1

I

1

,4

I

Z ayd id

K hazar?

cA bbäsid

I

I

I

. . 1

1

I

I

N

I

1

I

I

t

0

P art isans

•

I

I

1

1

I

I

1

1

4 . . 1

T ah ir id

C ) ;

C > 0

cA bbäs id

▪ t —

C O c o

t • • C I )

C D

C T ) t -

C D

0 0

N 0

Aghlab id

I dris id

Umayyad

cA bbäsid

I

N

o

Governors

o f Tabar istän

Governors o f T udgha

I

I

I

C D

c o

c e

1

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

1

I

1

I

I

1

I

I

I

I

I

1

N • 0

I

I

1

S pan ish Umayyad

I

, 4 • 0

I

I

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Umayyad Governors

1

1•

1

I

I

1

1

1

1

I

1

1

I spahbad

I

1

1

I

I

I

1

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

Arab-Sasan ian

1

1

1

1

6 6

t o 1

0 ( 2: 1

P o l tava , 8 82/3-(61)

g rebnoe , 8 75/6- (

B ork i , 8 75- ( 100 )

M ishnevo , 8 68/9- ( 32 )

Novgorod , 8 64/5- ( 203 )

S asan ian

o f T abar is tän i ssued d ur ing t he s econd h a lf o f t he e ighth c en tury .

S ince t he

r epor ts o n many h oards a lso emp loy t he t er m 'Arab-Sasan ian ' , Ih ave i nc luded i ti n my l i st .

T he h oards c on ta in p ost-refor m d irha ms o f n ine d if feren t

I s la m ic d ynast ies o rp o l it ies p lus c o ins o f t he a dheren ts o f t he cAbbäs ids . T hese n ine d ynast ies a re : Umayyad , c A .bbäs id , S pan ish Umayyad , t he G ove rnors o f T udgha , I drr s id , Agh lab id , Th ir id , Z ayd id , a nd 5 af fir id . T he d irha ms o f t he S pan ish Umayyads a nd t he n or th A fr ican d irha ms o f t he G overnors o f T udgha , I drr s ids , a nd Agh lab ids were p ar t o f t he N ear E astern c o in s tock i n t he n in th c en tury a nd were t hus e xpor ted t o E uropean R uss ia v ia t he N ear E ast .

Umayyad d irha ms c on t inued t o c ircu late w ith in I s la m l ong

a f ter t he d em ise o f t he Umayyad C a l iphate .

T here a re a lso a f ew d irha ms

s truck b y t he s o-ca l led cAbbäs id p ar t isans d ur ing t he l ast y ears o f t he Umayy ad C a l iphate .

S ince t hey a re l i sted s eparate ly i n af ew r epor ts , Ih ave made

as eparate c o lu mn f or t he m .

The T ah ir id , Z ayd id , a nd 5 aff är id d irha ms a p-

p eared d ur ing t he c ourse o f t he n in th c en tury a s t he C a l iphs g radua l ly l ost d irect c on tro l o ver v ar ious n or thern a nd e astern p rov inces .

cAbbas id d irha ms ,

a s d iscussed e ar l ier , c onst ituted t he o verwhe lm ing ma jor ity o f t he c o ins i n n in th-century h oards f ro m E uropean R uss ia . I n a ddi t ion t o g enu ine p ost-reform I s la m ic d irha ms , we a lso e ncoun ter c oun terfe its s truck w ith in I s la m a s we l l a s im i tat ion d irha ms p robab ly i ssued s o mewhere i n E uropean R ussia . T he l at ter a re u sua l ly c a l led b arbar ian ' im itat ions , n o d oub t d ue t o t he i n fer ior q ua l ity o f t he d irha ms r ather t han t he n ature o f t he p eop le who i ssued t he m . T he s o-ca l led Khazar c o ins a re i nc luded o u t o f r espect t o t he l a te A . A . B ykov who was t he ir c ha mp ion .

T here a re many l eg it i mate r easons t o q ues-

t i on B ykov ' sa t tr ibu t ion o f t hese c o ins t o t he K hazars . s ing le B yzan t ine c o in f ound i n o ne h oard .

F ina l ly , w e h ave a

Wh i le o ur d ynast ic c ategor ies a re n o t r ig id a nd may n eed t o b e e xpanded o r r educed , t hey d o p rov ide s o me means t o measure t he d ivers ity o f t he h oards . T he f o l low ing f i gures r ef lect t he n u mber o f d if feren t d ynast ies r epresen ted i n e ach o f o ur 3 3 h oards : o n ly o ne d ynasty

f our d ynast ies

-

f i ve d ynast ies

- 2

t wo d ynast ies t hree d ynast ies

s ix d ynast ies

3 4 6 4

s even d ynast ies e ight d ynast ies n ine d ynast ies t en d ynast ies

4 1 6 1 2

The a verage h oard c on ta ins c o ins f ro m 4 .9 , t hat i s a bou t f i ve , d if feren t d ynast ies .

S even teen h oards p ossess l ess t han f i ve d if feren t d ynast ies wh i le

f our teen h ave more t han f i ve . The n u mber o f d ynast ies r epresen ted i n ah oard d oes n o t s ee m t o b e a f unct ion o f t he h oard ' ss ize . T he l argest h oard , Bo l ' s hoe T i merevo , i s o ne o f t he t wo h oards w ith t en d if feren t d ynast ies .

B u t t he l arge h oard o f 5 27

d irha ms f ro m D obr ino o n ly c on ta ins t wo d if feren t d ynast ies wh i le t he h uge h oard o f 1 ,227 d irha ms f ro m S hu m i lovo h as c o ins f ro m o n ly f our d i f feren t d ynast ies , t wo o f w h ich a re r epresen ted b y o n ly a s ing le c o in .

T he s a me

d iversity i s w itnessed among sma l ler h oards , i .e . t hose w ith l ess t han 1 00 d irha ms .

T he h oards f ro m t he r ight-bank T s im l iansk f or t if ied s i te a nd

6 7

Z ava l ish ino h ave 7 -8 d if feren t d ynast ies among t he ir c o ins , wh i le S taraia L adoga a nd P o terpe l 't sy a re c o mposed e n t ire ly o f c Abbäs id d irha ms . B ut , a s t he c har t b e low d e monstrates , t he d ynast ic d ivers ity o f o ur 3 3 h oards t ends t o d ec l ine o ver t ime .

7 80s 7 90s

N u mber o f

T o ta l n u mber o f

Average p er

h oards

d ynast ies

h oard

1

1

1

0

0

0

8 00s

3

2 0

6 .7

8 10s

5

7 .4

8 20s 8 30s

4 2

3 7 1 9

8 40s

4 2

8 50s 8 60s

4

8 70s

6 1 1

8 80s 8 90s

1 8

4 .8 9 .0

1 9

4 .8

5 1 7

2 .5 4 .3

2 1

3 .5 3 .0 3 .0

3 3

D ur ing t he f i rst f ive d ecades o f t he n in th c en tury , t he a verage h oard i n e ach d ecade was e i ther e qua l t o o r a bove t he o vera l l a verage o f4 .9 .

D ur ing t he

l ast f i ve d ecades , t he a verage h oard i n e ach d ecade was c ons isten t ly b e low t he o vera l l a verage . T hus , t here was l ess d ynast ic d ivers ity among t he k inds o f d irha ms f ound i n E uropean Russ ia a s t he n in th c en tury p rogressed . T he p redo m inance o f cAbbäsid d irha ms i n n in th-cen tury d irha m h oards f rom E uropean Russia i s p erhaps t he ir most o u tstand ing d ynast ic c harac teri st ic .

cAbbäs id d irha ms c onst itu te t he s ing le l argest d ynast ic c o mponen t i n

e very h oard .

N o o ther d ynast ic g roup e ven c o mes c lose t o t he cAbbäs id

c o mponen t i n a ny o f t he 3 3 h oards . On ly o nce d oes t he p ercen tage o f cAbbäs id d irha ms f a l l b eneath 5 0% a nd i n a no ther c ase i te qua ls 5 0% e xact ly . A t t he s a me t ime , t hree h oards a re c o mposed e n t ire ly o f cAbbäs id d irha ms a nd n ine o ther h oards c on ta in a t l east 9 0% 3 3 h oards i s 8 1 .98% o ver 8 2%

cA . bbas id

cA . bbas id

cA bbäs id

d irha ms .

d irha ms o r 8 2% .

The a verage f or o ur

S even teen h oards c on ta in

c o ins wh i le 1 6 h ave l ess t han 8 2% .

T he c hrono log ica l

b reakdown o f t he c A .bbfs id c o mponen t i n o ur 3 3 h oards i s g iven b e low : N u mber o fh oards

Average c Abbäsid c o mponen t

7 80s

1

7 90s 8 00s

0 3

1 00 . 0 6 0 .6

8 10s

5

8 20s 8 30s

4 2

7 2 .2 8 1 .1 5 9 .7

8 40s 8 50s

4 2

8 5 .9 8 8 .3

8 60s

4

8 6.7

8 70s 8 80s

6 1

9 3 .5 9 6 .7

8 90s

1

9 4 .7 6 8

T he f igures d e mons trate t hat t he a verage cAbbäs id c omponen t i n e ach o f t he f i rst f our d ecades o f t he n in th c entury was b e low t he o vera l l a verage o f 8 2% , wh i le d ur ing e ach o ft he l ast s ix d ecades i te xceeded 8 2% . Wh i le t he cAbbäs id c o mponen t d oes f l uc tuate b y h oard a nd d ecade , t he o vera l l t rend i s f or t he p ercen tage o f c Abbäs id c oins p er h oard t o i ncrease a s t he c en tury g oes o n a nd t o b eco me a bso lute ly o verwhe lm ing ( 90% o r more ) d ur ing t he l ast t hree d ecades . I n g enera l , b ut n o t a lways s pec if ica l ly , t he p ercen tage o f cAbbfs id d irha ms g rew a s t he n u mber o f d if feren t d ynast ies d ec l ined . Umayyad d irha ms a re f ound i n 2 5 o f t he 3 3 h oards o r r ough ly 7 5% . I n t hese 2 5 h oards , t he Umayyad c o mponen t i s u sua l ly modest r ang ing f rom a l ow o f 2 .4% t o ah igh o f 1 9 .4% .

Umayyad d irha ms n ever c onst itute more t han a

f i f th o fa ny n in th-cen tury h oard . T he a verage Umayyad c o mponen t f or t he 2 5 h oards i s 7 .4% . A s o ne m ight e xpect , t he n u mber o f h oards w ith Umayyad d irha ms d ec l ines a s t ime g oes o n .

A l l e igh t h oards f rom t he 8 00s a nd 8 10s

c on ta in Umayyad d irha ms a s d o t we lve o f t he s ix teen f ro m t he 8 20s t o t he 8 60s .

On ly f our o f t he s ix h oards f ro m t he 8 70s h ave Umayyad d irha ms a nd

t hey a re f ound i n o n ly o ne o f t he t wo h oards f ro m t he 8 80s a nd 8 90s .

T he

d ec l ine i n t he Umayyad c o mponen t , wh i le n o t iceab le , i s n everthe less g radua l r ather t han p rec ip itous . T he n u mber o f a va i lab le Umayyad c o ins s i mp ly d ecreased a s t ime wen t o n . I drrs id d irha ms a re f ound i n 1 8 h oards o r a l most 5 5% o f t he t o ta l . T he I drr s id c o mponen t r eaches a h igh o f 1 0% t w ice a nd g oes b e low 1% f our t imes . T he a verage I drr s id c o mponen t i n t he 1 8 h oards i s 3 .6% .

T he c hrono log ica l

f a l l-of f i n I drf s id d irha ms i s more marked t han w i th Umayyad d irha ms . A l l 8h oards o f t he 8 00s a nd 8 10s h ave a n I drr s id c omponen t a s d o 8o f t he 1 0 f ro m t he 8 20s t o 8 40s .

H owever , o n ly 2 o f 1 4 h oards f ro m t he s econd h a lf o f t he

n in th c entury ( 1 4 .3% ) c on ta in I drr s id c o ins a nd i n b o th t he I drr s id c o mponen t i s o n ly 0 .5% . I drr s id d irha ms a re v ery c lear ly a p heno menon o f h oards f rom t he f irst h a lf o f t he n in th c entury where t hey a re p resen t i n 8 8 .9% o f t he h oards . S asan ian d rach ms f o l low t he s a me g enera l p at tern a s I drr s id d irha ms . T hese d rach ms a re p resen t i n 1 7 h oards o r j ust o ver 5 1% o f t he t o ta l .

T hey

r each a h igh o f 1 0% o n t hree o ccas ions a nd d rop b e low 1% i n t hree c ases . T he a verage S asan ian c o mponen t i n t he 1 5 h oards f or wh ich we h ave e xact f igures i s 4 .3% .

S asan ian d rach ms a re f ound i n a l l 8h oards o f t he 8 00s a nd

8 10s a nd i n 6o f t he 1 0 f ro m t he 8 20s t o 8 40s . T hen , as harp f a l l-o f f o ccurs a nd S asan ian d rach ms a re o n ly p resen t i n 3o f t he 1 4 ( 2 1 .4% ) h oards f ro m t he s econd h a lf o f t he c en tury . L ike I dri s id d irha ms , S asan ian d rach ms a re a l most e xc lus ive ly a f eature o f t he f i rst h a lf o f t he n in th c en tury . We h ave a lready n o ted t he d if f icu lt ies e ncoun tered i n d ea l ing w ith ArabS asan ian c o ins . D esp ite t hese p rob le ms , s evera l o bservat ions a bout t he m c an b e made h ere . T ab le C s hows t hat Arab-Sasan ian c o ins a re p resen t i n 3h oards ( 9 .1% ) , I spahbad c o ins i n 7o r 8h oards ( 2 4.2% ) , t he c o ins o f t he Umayyad g overnors i n 5h oards ( 1 5.2% ) , a nd t he c o ins o f t he n ors i n 1 1 o r 1 2 h oards ( 3 6 .4% ).

cA bbäsid

g overn-

On ly t he c o ins o f t he c Abbas id g overnors o f

T abar istä-n f or m a s izeab le c o mponen t i n a ny h oard r each ing 1 8% o n t wo o cc as ions a nd e xceed ing 1 0% i n t wo o ther c ases .

T he c o ins o f t he Umayyad

g overnors h ave a h igh o f 6 .3% , t hose o f t he I spahbads a h igh o f4 .4% , wh i le t he Arab-Sasan ian c o ins f or m a h igh o f a l most 9% i n o ne h oard . G iven t he

6 9

c on fus ion c oncern ing t hese c o ins , i ti s p robab ly p re ma ture t o c o mpu te a vera ges . A l l f our c a tegor ies o f Arab-Sasan ian c o ins w ere d ef in ite ly a p roduct o f t he f i rst h a lf o f t he c en tury . T he most r ecen t o f t he t hree h oards w i th Arab-Sasan ian c o ins d ates t o 8 12/13 , t he most r ecen t o f t he h oards w ith t he c o ins o f Umayyad g overnors d ates t o 8 37/8 , t he most r ecen t h oard w i th I spahbad c o ins d ates t o 8 42/3 , a nd t he most r ecen t h oard w ith c o ins o f t he cA bbäsid g overnors o f T abar istän d ates t o 8 65 . T he h uge B oP s hoe T i merevo h oard i s t he o n ly o ne f rom t he s econd h a lf o f t he n in th c en tury t o c on ta in a ny t ype o f Arab-Sasan ian c o in .

I f we u se t he 1 8 h oards f ro m t he f i rst h a lf o f t he

c en tury a s ab ase , Arab-Sasan ian c o ins o ccur i n 1 6 .7% , I spahbad c o ins i n 4 4 .4% , c o ins o f t he Umayyad g overnors i n 2 7 .8% , a nd c o ins o f t he g overnors i n 6 1 .1% .

cA bbäs id

I f we g roup a l l o f t hese f our c ategor ies t ogether , we f i nd

t hat s o me t ype o f Arab-Sasan ian c o in was p resen t i n o ver t hree-quar ters ( 7 7.8% ) o f t he h oards f ro m t he f i rst h a lf o f t he c en tury . D irha ms s truck b y t he G overnors o f T udgha w ere p resen t i n e igh t h oards ( 2 4 .2% ) . U sua l ly a sma l l c o mponen t , t hey o n ly e xceed 5% o n o ne o ccasion r each ing 1 0 .2% i n t h is c ase .

S even o f t he e igh t h oards w i th t h is c o mponen t

d ate t o t he f i rst h a lf o f t he c entury .

I n s um , a l most 4 0% o f t he h oards f rom

t he f i rst h a lf o f t he c en tury h ave a f ew d irha ms s truck b y t he G overnors o f T udgha . D irha ms o f t he S pan ish Umayyads a nd Agh lab ids a re e ach p resen t i n f i ve h oards . T hese c o mponen ts a verage a round 1 -2% o f ah oard a nd i n b oth c ases f our o f t he f ive h oards d a te f ro m b efore 8 40 . S pan ish Umayyad a nd Agh lab id d irha ms were t hus p resen t i n af i f th t o aq uar ter o f t he h oards f ro m t he f i rst h a lf o f t he c en tury . T äh ir id d irha ms f i rst a ppear i n h oards o f t he 8 20s a nd a re f ound i n termi t ten t ly u n t i l t he mid-870s .

D ur ing t hese s ix d ecades , t hey a re p resen t i n

n ine ( perhaps t en ) o f t he r e levan t h oards o r 4 1% .

Wh i le t he Täh ir id c o mpon-

e n t i s sma l l i n f i ve o f t hese h oards ( 0 .1-5 .6% ) , i t e xceeds 1 0% i n f our h oards a nd i s o ver 2 0% i n o ne . Iam n ot c er ta in i ft hese f i gures r ef lect t he e rrat ic i nf lux o f T äh ir id d irha ms i n to E uropean Russ ia o r t he way i n wh ich t hese d irh a ms a re c lass if ied . I n a ny e ven t , T äh ir id c o ins a re p resen t i n v ary ing d egrees i n a l most h a lf t he h oards d at ing f ro m C . 8 25-c . 8 75 . Two h oards o f t he 8 70s-880s e ach c on ta in a f ew Z ayd id a nd § af f ä 'x id d irh a ms . These c o ins c an t hus b e c onsidered a s econdary f ea ture o f t he h oards f ro m a v ery b r ief p er iod . C o ins o f t he

cA bbäs id

p ar t isans a ppear i n o n ly t wo h oards .

T hese h oards

a re s eparated b y 3 5 y ears a nd o n ly c on ta in a g rand t o ta l o f t hree d irha ms . We h ave a lready men t ioned t he c on troversy a bout t he s o-ca l led Khazar d irh a ms .

These c o ins a re o n ly f ound , t hus f ar , i n t wo h oards a nd o n ly i n t he

8 37/8 D ev itsa h oard d o t hey c onst itu te a s izeab le c o mponen t , 2 6.6% t o b e p rec ise . S ince t hese c o ins were f i rst i den t if ied a s cAbbäs id , t hose who d o n o t a ccep t B ykov ' st heory may w ish t o p u t t hese c o ins i n t he

cA bbäs id

Im i tat ion a nd c oun terfe i t d irha ms a re n o ted f ro m s ix h oards . f e its a ppear i n t wo h oards wh i le im itat ions ,

c o lumn .

T he c oun ter-

p resu mab ly made s o mewhere i n

e astern a nd/or n or thern E urope , a re f ound i n many d irha m h oards f rom E urop ean Russia .

I th as n o t y et b een d eter m ined who made t hese i mita t ions a nd 7 0

u nder what c ircu ms tances .

I n f act , t hese im itat ion d irha ms may h ave b een

s truck b y s evera l d i fferen t p eop les b e tween t he n in th a nd t he e ar ly e leven th c entur ies a lthough mos t s cho lars , t o d a te , h ave p os tu la ted a s ing le s ource . F ina l ly , n ot t oo much c an b e s a id a bout t he s ing le B yzan t ine c o in f ro m t he Z ava l ish ino h oard . T he d ynast ic c haracter ist ics o f t he 3 3 n in th-cen tury d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean R uss ia s ee m t o b e a s f o l lows : 1 ) t he p redo m inan t c o mponen t i n t he h oards i s c Abbäs id a nd t h is c o mpone n t t ends t o i ncrease d ur ing t he c ourse o f t he c en tury , 2 ) a modest Umayyad c o mponen t ( averag ing 7 -8% ) i s p resen t i n a bou t t hree-quar ters o f t he h oards a lthough t he p ercen tage o f h oards w i th Umayyad d irha ms d ec l ines s l ight ly a s t ime g oes o n , 3 )

av ery sma l l I drr s id c o mponen t i s f ound i n most h oards f ro m t he f i rst

h a lf o f t he c en tury , 4 ) a modest S asan ian c o mponen t i s f ound i n most h oards f ro m t he f i rst h a lf o f t he c en tury , 5 )

o ne o r more t ypes o f Arab-Sasan ian c o in i s f ound i n most h oards f ro m

t he f irst h a lf o f t he c entury , 6 )

s l ight ly l ess t han h a lf t he h oards f ro m t he f i rst h a lf o f t he c en tury

h ave a sma l l G overnors o f T udgha c o mponen t, 7 )

s o me 2 0-25% o f t he h oards f ro m t he f i rst h a lf o f t he c en tury h ave a

f ew S pan ish Umayyad a nd Agh lab id d irha ms , 8 )

T äh ir id c o ins i n v ary ing n u mbers a ppear i n a l most h a lf t he h oards

f ro m t he p er iod c . 8 25-c . 8 75 , a nd 9 ) af ew Z ayd id a nd § afr a-r id d irha ms a re f ound i n af ew h oards o f t he 8 70s a nd 8 80s . I n a dd i t ion t o t he ir o verwhe lm ing cAbbäs id c o mponen t , t he ma in d ynast ic f eature o f n in th-cen tury d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean R uss ia s ee ms t o b e t he f act t hat b y t he midd le o f t he c en tury many o f t he c o ins s truck much e ar l ier ( Sasan ian d rach ms , t he v ar ious Arab-Sasan ian c o ins , a nd S pan ish Umayyad , G overnors o f T udgha , Umayyad , I drr s id , a nd A .gh lab id d irha ms ) h ave a l most e n t ire ly d isappeared f ro m among t he c o ins b e ing d epos ited .

I tr e ma ins t o b e

s een whether t h is d ec l ine was d ue t o t he f act t ha t t hese c o ins were n o l onger b e ing e xpor ted t o E uropean R ussia b y t he mid-n in th c en tury o r whether t hese c o ins h ad , i n l arge p ar t , b een e xpor ted t o E uropean Russ ia e ar ly i n t he c en tury a nd were n ow s low ly b e ing u sed u p .

Was t he ir d ec l ine d ue t o al ack o f n ew

impor ts o r t he c onsu mp t ion o f c o ins b rought i n to E uropean R ussia much e ar l ier?

Wh i le t hese o lder c o ins s low ly d isappeared b y t he mid-n in th c en tury ,

s o me n ew d irha ms , p r i mar i ly T äh ir id , b egan t o t urn u p .

T hus , i tw as a round

t he midd le o f t he c entury when c o ins s truck much e ar l ier were n o l onger f ound w hi le s o me n ew d ynast ies b eg in t o a ppear .

*

*

*

7 1

T ab le D c on ta ins d ata o n t he c hrono log ica l d istr ibut ion o f 2 4 n in th-cen tury d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean Russ ia . I n a dd it ion t o o ur 1 7 f unda men ta l h oards , w e p ossess s o me p rec ise i n for ma t ion o n t he c hrono log ica l b reakdown o f s even o ther h oards :

E l med , L itv inov ich i , I agoshury , S obo levo , B o l ' s hoe

T i merevo , K h i trovka , a nd N ova ia L azarevka .

A s n o ted e ar l ier , l an in p rov ides

ad e ta i led c hrono log ica l d istr ibut ion f or t he E l med ( no . 2 6 ) a nd L itv inov ich i ( no . 2 8 ) h oards , d ata a pparen t ly c on ta ined i n u npub lished a rch iva l r epor ts . T he c hrono log ica l d istr ibut ion o f t he I agoshury ( n o . 4 0 ) a nd K h i trovka ( no . 6 5 ) h oards b y g enera l e ras i s f urn ished b y F as mer . Wh i le h is t ime p er iods a re much l arger t han o urs , t he i n for mat ion i s i nc luded b ecause i ti s p rec ise . As im i lar s i tuat ion p reva i ls w ith K uznetsov ' sd a ta o n t he S obo levo h oard ( n o . 4 7 ) .

D obrovo l ' s k i i p rov ides a b reakdown o n t he

h oard f ro m B o l ' s hoe

c. A bbäsid

T i merevo ( no . 5 3 ) b y c a l iph .

d irha ms i n t he h uge

B y a rb i trar i ly a l loca t ing

d irha ms t o d ecades t hese f i gures c an b e t ransposed i n to a f or m u seab le h ere . A lthough t h is p rocedure n o d oub t c reates d istor t ions , Ib e l ieve i ti s b et ter t o h ave f a ir ly g ood d a ta , i fn o t p erfect , t han n one a t a l l . Ih ave f o l lowed t he s a me p rocess o f a l loca t ion w ith r egard t o G oshkev ich ' sb reakdown o f t he d irh a ms i n t he N ova ia L azarevka h oard . Wh i le t he c hrono log ica l d a ta f or s o me o f t hese s even a dd i t iona l h oards a re n o t a s "p ure" a s o ne wou ld wou ld h ope f or , t he i nc lus ion o f t hese s even h oards g ives u s t wo more h oards f rom t he 8 20s , a no ther h oard f ro m t he 8 40s , t wo more h oards f ro m t he 8 60s , a nd a h oard f rom t he 8 90s .

T hus , s o me o f

t he d ef ic ienc ies i n o ur b as ic d a ta b ase a re e l im inated o r m in im ized . T he f igures o n t he c hrono log ica l d istr ibu t ion o f s ix teen h oards a re b ased o n I an in ' sc a lcu la t ions . Ih ave p laced a n a ster isk a f ter t hose h oards i n T ab le D whose b reakdown i s n o t f ound i n I an in ' sb ook .

I n t he c ase o f I agoshury ,

S obo levo , a nd K h itrovka , t he r eason f or t he ir i nc lus ion , a s men t ioned a bove , i s t he u se o f more g enera l ized b u t s t i l l p rec ise d ata . i nc luded d ue t o my c reat ive mathe mat ics .

Nova ia L azarevka w as

F ina l ly , t he D obr ino , P orech ' e ,

B o l ' s hoe T i merevo , a nd K uznetskoe h oards w ere o n ly p ub l ished a f ter t he a ppearance o f I an in ' ss tudy . T he e ar l iest d irha m h oard f ro m E uropean R uss ia , t he S tara ia L adoga h oard o f 7 86/7 , i s v ery c o mpact . A l l o f i t s c o ins a re r e lat ive ly n ew a nd w ere s truck w ith in a p er iod o f f our d ecades , i .e . i tc ons ists e n t ire ly o f f a ir ly r ecen t

cA . bbäsid

d irha ms .

R egret tab ly , we c annot s ay i ft h is c o mpactness

a nd n ewness were f eatures o f a l l t he l ate e igh th c en tury h oards f rom E uropean Russ ia o r whether S tara ia L adoga was a n a no ma ly .

B e ing t he o n ly h oard o f

t he p re-800 p er iod , a nd a sma l l o ne , we s hou ld p robab ly u se i t s d ata w i th c are . T he f i rst c hrono log ica l p at terns t o emerge among o ur 2 4 d irha m h oards d ate t o t he e ar ly n in th c en tury . More s pec if ica l ly , t here i s i n for mat ion o n f our h oards w hose mos t r ecen t d irha m was s truck b etween 8 05/6 a nd 8 12/13 . T hese h oards a re l ess c o mpact t han S tara ia L adoga s ince a l l c on ta in c o ins i ssued b efore 7 50 a nd a f ter 7 87/88 , i .e . t he t ime s pan o f t he c o ins i n t hese h oards e xceeds 5 0 y ears . I n a dd it ion , t he d irha ms , a s a who le , a re n o t a s n ew a s t hose i n t he S tara ia L adoga h oard .

A t t he s a me t ime , c o ins f rom t he

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N

t he f our most r ecen t d ecades , t he f igures b eco me 8 6 .1 , 6 4 , 8 4 .8 , a nd a t l east 4 4 .2% i n t he c ase o f Ugod ich i . I n o ther words , a ma jor i ty o f t he d irha ms i n t hese h oards f ro m t he e ar ly n in th c en tury were s truck w ith in 3 0 t o 4 0 y ears o f t he most r ecen t d irha m .

T hat i s j ust a no ther w ay o f s ay ing t hat t he h oards

d epos ited a t t h is t ime were c o mposed o f f a ir ly r ecen t d irha ms . T he a bove p heno menon c an b e e xp la ined b y t he c o mparat ive ly l arge n umber o f d irha ms s truck b etween 7 70 a nd 7 99 wh ich a ppeared i n European Russ ia . D irha ms f ro m t h is t h ir ty-year p er iod c onst itu te a ma jor i ty o f t he c o ins i n a l l h oards f ro m E uropean R uss ia u p t o 8 20/21 , t he p rec ise f igures b e ing 7 9 .3 , 8 3 .6 , 5 5.7 , 6 5 .2 , 6 5 .4 , 6 8 .4 , a nd 5 9 .3% . One c an t hus r ephrase o ur c onc lus ion e laborated a bove t o r ead : h oards d epos i ted i n t he e ar ly n in th c en tury were c o mposed p r i mar i ly o f d irha ms s truck b etween 7 70-799 . T o t he d irha ms f ro m t h is t h ir ty-year p er iod w ere a dded s o me o lder c o ins s truck b efore 7 70 ( 1 3 .9 , 3 6 .1 , 1 5 .2 , a nd 1 8 .1% ) a nd s o me n ew c o ins i ssued a f ter 7 99 ( 2 .5 , 8 .3 , 1 9 .6 , a nd 1 6.6% ) . A t t h is p o in t , we s hou ld a ga in r e iterate t hat t rends f or a g iven p er iod d o n o t a lways c haracter ise a l l t he h oards f ro m t hat p er iod . Among t he f our h oards f ro m t he e ar ly n in th c en tury , t he Kn iashch ino h oard c lear ly v ar ies f ro m t he o thers . I th as t he sma l lest p ercen tage b y f ar o f c o ins f ro m t he p er iod 7 70-799 a nd t w ice a s many o lder , p re-770 , c o ins a s a ny o ther h oard .

Wh i le

t rends d o e x ist , n o t a l l h oards f i t t he m p er fect ly a nd we s hou ld b e c arefu l n o t t o g enera l ize t oo much f ro m a ny s ing le h oard . T he t wo h oards f ro m t he e ar ly 8 20s , I ary lov ich i a nd E l med , h ave much i n c o m mon w ith t he f our e ar l ier h oards .

A s we n o ted a lready , o ver h a lf

t he ir d irha ms w ere s truck b etween 7 70 a nd 7 99 ( 6 8 .4 a nd 5 9 .3% ).

E ar l ier ,

p re-770 , c o ins c o mpose 2 0 .8 a nd 1 6 .0% o f a l l t he c o ins i n t hese h oards , f igures wh ich a re a l most i den t ica l w ith t hose f rom t he Z ava l ish ino a nd U godi ch i h oards .

I n f ac t , i ti s n o tab le t hat t he p re-770 c o ins g o f ro m z ero i n

S tara ia L adoga t o a l most 1 4% i n t he f i rst h oard f rom t he e ar ly n in th c entury a nd n ever g o b e low 1 5% i n s ucceed ing h oards u p t o t he e ar ly 8 20s . O lder , p re-770 , c o ins r e ma in a n impor tan t p ar t o f n in th-cen tury h oards f ro m E urop ean R uss ia u n t i l t he m idd le o f t he c en tury .

The n ewer , p os t-799 , c o ins

c ons t i tute 1 1 .0% o f I ary lov ich i a nd 2 4.7% o f E l med .

Aga in , t hese f igures

a re v ery c o mpat ib le w ith t hose f ro m Z ava l ish ino a nd Ugod ich i .

There i s n o

c lear p at tern o f a n i ncreas ing n u mber o f p ost-799 c o ins i n t he h oards d epos ited d ur ing t he f i rst t wo d ecades o r s o o f t he n in th c entury . G iven a l l o f t hese s im i lar i t ies , we s hou ld p robab ly g roup a l l o f t he h oards f ro m 8 05/6 t o 8 20/1 t ogether . On a verage , h oards f ro m t h is p er iod h ad t he f o l low ing g enera l p rof i le : p re-770 7 70-799 p ost-799

= 2 0% = 6 6 .3% 1 3 .8%

I n o ther words , af i f th were s truck b efore 7 70 , t wo-th irds b etween 7 70-799 , a nd s l igh t ly l ess t han a s even th a f ter 7 99 . T he t wo h oards f ro m t he m id-820s a nd e ar ly 8 30s , L itv inov ich i a nd U g l ich , b eg in t o d iverge f ro m t he c hrono log ica l p at terns o f e ar l ier h oards .

7 4

T he

p ercen tage o f c o ins f ro m 7 70-99 d rops s harp ly t o 3 1.7 a nd 3 9 .1% .

A t t he s a me

t ime , t he p ercen tage o f p re-770 d irha ms r e ma ins s ubstan t ia l a nd , i fa ny th ing , g rows l arger t han i n most e ar l ier h oards :

L itv inov ich i-22% a nd Ug l ich-28 .3% .

T he c on t inu ing p resence o f al arge c o mponen t o f o lder c o ins i s o ne o f t he d ist inct ive f eatures o fh oards f ro m t h is p er iod . 7 99 , d irha ms a lso g rows :

4 6.3 a nd 3 2 .7% .

T he p ercen tage o f n ewer , p ostI nstead o f c onst itu t ing a s even th

o f t he c o ins , a s i n t he a verage e ar l ier h oards , t hey n ow r ange b etween a t h ird a nd a h a lf .

I n s hor t , t he n u mber o f e ar l ier , p re-770 , c o ins i ncreases s l ight ly

a nd t he n u mber o f l a ter , p ost-799 , d irha ms r ises marked ly wh i le t he 7 70-799 c o mponen t , wh ich f igured s o l arge i n e ar l ier h oards , n ow d ec l ines s harp ly f ro m t wo-th irds t o b e tween t hree-ten ths a nd t wo-f if ths . The t wo h oards f ro m t he 8 40s , D obr ino a nd I agoshury , s uggest a c on t inuat i on o f t he n ew f eatures wh ich d eve loped f ro m t he mid-820s .

Un for tunate ly ,

o ur i n for mat ion o n t he I agoshury h oard i s n o t b roken d own b y d ecade s o we c an o n ly n o te g enera l c o mpar isons b etween t he t wo h oards o f t he 8 40s .

I n

t he D obr ino h oard , 1 7 .2% o f t he c o ins p redate 7 70 , 3 5 .6% f a l l b etween 7 70 a nd 7 99 , a nd 4 7 .3% were s truck a f ter 7 99 .

With r espect t o t he t wo p r ior h oards ,

t h is r epresen ts a sma l l d ec l ine i n o lder , p re-770 c o ins , t he s a me b as ic n u mber f or 7 70-799 d irha ms , a nd a sma l l i ncrease i n n ewer p ost-800 c o ins . T he i n for mat ion o n t he I agoshury h oard s ee ms t o f i t i n w ith t he a bove p a t tern : 1 6 .6% o f t he c o ins p reda te 7 50 wh i le 2 4 .1% were i ssued a f ter 8 15 .

I f we

a ssu me a more o r l ess p ropor t iona l d istr ibut ion o f t he o ther c o ins , t hen a t l east 2 0% wou ld p robab ly p redate 7 70 a nd a t l east 4 0% wou ld f a l l a f ter 7 99 . I n b r ief , t he h oards o f t he 8 40s s ee m t o c on t inue t he n ew t rends wh ich b egan a round t he mid-820s . S ince p ost-799 d irha ms c o me t o r epresen t s uch a n impor tan t p art o f d irha m h oards f ro m t he mid-820s , i t might b e a s we l l , a t t h is p o in t , t o s ee i fa ny p at terns a re d iscern ib le among t hese d irha ms .

P erhaps t he most

s tr ik ing f eature i s t hat d irha ms s truck i n t he 8 00s c onsisten t ly e xceed o r e qua l t hose s truck i n t he 8 10s i n a l l h oards f ro m 8 20 t o t he e nd o f t he c en tury . Th is p at tern c an p erhaps b est b e e xp la ined i f we a ssu me t hat a s ign if ican t ly g reater p ercen tage o f d irha ms were s truck i n t he 8 00s t han i n t he 8 10s .

The

r e la t ionsh ip o f t he 8 00s t o t he 8 10s t akes o n a dded i n terest when we n o te t hat d irha ms s truck i n t he 7 90s e xceeded t hose s truck i n t he 8 00s i n a l l h oards u p t o t he m id-820s when t he d irha ms o f t he l ater d ecade b eg in t o p reva i l , a p a t tern wh ich h o lds t rue f or t he r est o f t he c en tury w ith o n ly t wo e xcep t ions . T h is t rend i s what w e wou ld l og ica l ly e xpect ; n ewer d irha ms e ven tua l ly c o me t o o utnu mber s l ight ly o lder o nes . T he f a i lure o f t h is p at tern t o r epeat i n t he 8 00 v s . 8 10 r e lat ionsh ip p o in ts t o as ign if ican t ly l arger n u mber o f d irha ms f ro m t he 8 00s a va i lab le f or d epos i t . The p ercen tage o f d irha ms s truck a f ter 8 19 n ever r eached a v ery l arge f igure i n a ny h oard b etween 8 20 a nd 8 40 . 1 .3 , 2 .4 , 5 .9 , a nd 7 .4% .

T he p rec ise f igures a re :

0 .4 ,

I n o ther words , r e lat ive ly f ew n ew d irha ms s truck

a f ter 8 19 s ee med t o b e a va i lab le f or d epos i t i n E uropean Russ ia .

Aga in , t he

b est e xp lanat ion f or t h is d eve lop men t wou ld b e t hat r e la t ive ly f ew n ew d irha ms were b e ing i ssued b e tween 8 20 a nd 8 40 .

I n t he p ost-799 p er iod , we t hus s ee

ad ecreas ing n u mber o f n ew c o ins a vai lab le f or d epos it a s t ime g oes o n .

I n

t er ms o f c hrono log ica l b a lance , h oards b eg in t o g e t o lder b ecause r e lat ive ly f ew n ew d irha ms a re f ound . 7 5

S ince s o me n ew t rends a ppear i n t he 8 50s , i t wou ld b e h e lpfu l , a t t h is p o in t , t o g ive a g enera l c hrono log ica l p rof i le o ft he t hree h oards f ro m t he m id-820s t o 8 40s : p re-770

=2 2 .5%

7 70-799

=3 5 .5%

p ost-799

=4 2 .1%

I n o ther words , j ust o ver a f i f th were s truck a h a lf-century o r more e ar l ier , j ust l ess t han t wo-f if ths f a l l i n to t he 7 70-799 c ategory , a nd j ust o ver t wof i f ths were i ssued a f ter 7 99 , w ith most o f t hese d a t ing t o 8 00-819 .

T he b as ic

c hange f ro m o ur e ar l ier p rof i le i s t he i ncrease o f n ewer , p ost-799 , c o ins a t t he e xpense o f d irha ms s truck b etween 7 70 a nd 7 99 wh i le p re-770 c o ins h o ld t he ir own . Wh i le b o th h oards f ro m t he 8 50s , Akhre m tsy a nd P orech ' e , a re sma l l , we d o h ave f u l ly u seab le c hrono log ica l d ata o n e ach .

T he p ercen tage o f p re-

7 70 d irha ms i s 1 2 .5% a nd z ero , t he p ercen tage f ro m 7 70-799 i s 2 0 .8 a nd 3 5% , wh i le t he p ercen tage o f p ost-799 d irha ms i s 6 6 .6 a nd 6 5% .

I n o ther words ,

i ti s o n ly i n t he 8 50s t hat we b eg in t o f ind h oards i n wh ich most o f t he d irha ms were s truck i n t he n in th c en tury .

P r ior t o t h is t ime , we h ad n in th-cen tury

h oards t he ma jor i ty o f c o ins i n wh ich were s truck i n t he e igh th c en tury o r e ar l ier .

F ur ther more , t he b u lk o f t he p ost-799 d irha ms i n b oth h oards were

i ssued d ur ing t he p er iod 8 00-19 .

C o mpar ing t hese f i rst t wo d ecades o f t he

n in th c en tury w i th t he s ucceed ing f our d ecades , w e f ind 5 4 .1% a s a ga inst 1 2 .5% i n Akhre m tsy a nd 4 7 .5% a s a ga inst 1 7 .5% i n P orech ' e . T hus , e ven t he n in th-cen tury c o ins i n t hese h oards were c o mparat ive ly o ld . Ano ther f eature o f t he h oards f ro m t he 8 50s i s t he marked d ec l ine i n t he p ercen tage o f p re-770 c o ins .

Whereas t hese c o ins h ad c o mposed a n a verage

o f 2 0% o r more e ar l ier , t hey n ow d rop , o n a verage , b e low 1 0% .

Wh i le t h is

d ec l ine i s e xaggerated b y t he l ack o f a ny p re-770 c o ins i n t he P orech ' eh oard , T ab le D c lear ly s hows t hat f ro m t he 8 50s o n , t he p ercen tage o f p re-770 c o ins b eco mes much more modest o n a verage . T he p ercen tage o f c o ins f ro m t he p er iod 7 70-99 a lso d ec l ines , o n a verage , i n h oards f ro m t he 8 50s .

T he a verage o f 2 8% r epresen ts a d ef in ite d rop f ro m

t he 3 5% o f t he p r ior p er iod p r i mar i ly d ue t o t he v ery l ow p ercen tage o f s uch c o ins i n t he Akhre m tsy h oard .

Al ook a t Tab le D s hows , h owever , t hat t h is

l ower p ercen tage was t o b e t he p reva i l ing p at tern f or t he r est o f t he c en tury . The f our h oards o f t he 8 60s r epresen t af ur ther d eve lop men t o f t he n ew t rends n o ted i n t he 8 50s .

I n t he t hree h oards f or w h ich we h ave f igures b y

d ecades , p re-770 d irha ms c onst itute 1 4.8

,1 7 .6 , a nd 6 .2% , d irha ms f ro m

7 70-99 n u mber 2 7 .1 , 2 6 .6 , a nd 9 .3% , wh i le p os t-799 d irha ms f or m 5 8 .2 , 5 5 .8 , a nd 8 4 .4% .

T he l arge

N ovgorod a nd Bo l ' s hoe T i merevo h oards a re

v ery c lose i n t he ir c hrono log ical d istr ibut ion a nd , a s ag roup , d if fer s o mewhat f ro m t he much sma l ler M ishnevo h oard .

C onsequen t ly , we wou ld p rob-

a b ly b e we l l a dv ised t o t ake t he f or mer t wo a s b e ing t yp ica l o f t he d ecade , e spec ia l ly s ince t he a ggrega te d a ta f ro m t he l arge S obo levo h oard f i ts i n v ery we l l w ith t he o ther t wo b ig h oards ( 54.9% p ost-799 , o ver 8 .2% p re-770 , a nd 3 6 .9% f ro m 7 50-99 a s a ga inst 3 5 .0% a nd 3 4 .9% ) .

7 6

The h oards o f t he 8 60s t hus c on t inue t he p redo m inance o f n in th-cen tury d irha ms f i rst o bserved i n t he 8 50s .

Wh i le t he sma l l h oards o f t he 8 50s h ad

a l most t wo-th irds p ost-799 d irha ms , t he p ercen tage i n t he l arger S obo levo , N ovgorod , a nd B o l ' s hoe T i merevo h oards o f t he 8 60s v ar ies b etween 5 5 a nd 6 0% .

T he h oards o f t he 8 60s a lso r ef lect t he d ec l ine i n d irha ms f ro m 7 70-99

f irst n o ted a d ecade e ar l ier .

T he a verages o f t he t wo sma l l h oards o f t he

8 50s a nd t he t wo l arge h oards o f t he 8 60s a re r e markab ly c lose : a ga inst 2 6 .9% .

2 8% a s

S im i lar ly , t he d ec l ine i n t he p re-770 p ercen tage wh ich a p-

p eared i n t he 8 50s i s a lso r e f lec ted i n t he 8 60s where t he a verage f igure f or t he t wo l arge h oards i s 1 6 .2% . Desp i te t he c on t inu it ies b etween t he h oards o f t he 8 50s a nd 8 60s , s o me d if ferences a re a lso a pparen t .

A s we s aw , d irha ms f ro m t he 8 00s a nd 8 10s

p redo m inate among p ost-799 c o ins i n h oards f ro m t he 8 50s .

I n t he Novgorod

h oard , 3 3 .0% o f a l l c o ins were s truck d ur ing t hese t wo d ecades a s o pposed t o 2 4 .2% f or t he p os t-819 e ra .

T he c o mparab le f igures f or Bo l ' s hoe T i merevo

a re 1 7.3% f ro m 8 00-19 a s a ga inst 4 5% f or t he p ost-819 p er iod a nd t hose f or M ishnevo a re 4 3 .8% f or 8 00-19 a s a ga inst 4 0 .6% f or t he p ost-819 e ra .

I n

o ther words , d irha ms s truck a f ter 8 19 s low ly b egan t o a ssu me a l arge p lace among t he n in th-cen tury d irha ms . h a ms d ates t o t he 8 50s .

Th is u psurge o f

n ew n in th-cen tury d ir-

N ew d irha ms s truck d ur ing e ach d ecade o f t he 8 20s ,

8 30s , a nd 8 40s n ever c onst itu te a min i mu m o f a t l east 1 0% o f t he t o ta l c o ins i n a ny h oard f ro m E uropean Russ ia where we h ave a b reakdown b y d ecade . N ew d irha ms s truck d ur ing e ach d ecade o f t he 8 50s a nd 8 60s n ow b eg in t o e xceed 1 0% o ccas iona l ly a nd t aken t ogether c ons isten t ly a ccoun t f or a l arger t o ta l t han c o ins o f t he p er iod 8 20-49 .

T he fig ures f or t he 8 60s a re :

8 20-49

8 50-69

N ovgorod

1 0 .9%

1 4 .3%

B o l ' s hoe T i merevo

1 6.1%

2 2 .4%

3 .1%

3 7 .5%

M ishnevo

I n s hor t , t he most i mpor tan t n ew f eature o f t he 8 60s may we l l h ave b een t he a ppearance o f ag row ing n u mber o f n ew d irha ms s truck s ince 8 49 among t he c o ins a va i lab le f or d epos it i n E uropean Russ ia . A s eparate c hrono log ica l p ro f i le was n o t g iven f or t he h oards o f t he 8 50s b ecause t hey were b o th sma l l a nd b ecause t hey were v ery s im i lar i n many , b ut n o t a l l , ways w i th t hose o f t he 8 60s .

A t t h is p o in t , h owever , ap rof i le

f or t he 8 50s a nd 8 60s i s i n o rder : 1 ) p re-770 d irha ms a verage l ess t han 2 0% w i th t he f i gures r ang ing f ro m a h igh o f 1 7 .6% t o al ow o f z ero , 2 ) 7 70-99 d irha ms n ow a verage a round 2 5% i n most h oards b u t much l ess i n o ne ( under 1 0% ) , 3 ) p ost-799 d irha ms n ow c onst itute t he ma jor ity o f t he c o ins i n t he d irha m h oards a verag ing b e tween 5 6 a nd 8 4% , 4 ) d irha ms i ssued b etween 8 00 a nd 8 19 were t he p redo m inan t n in th-century c o mponen t i n t he 8 50s wh i le d irha ms f ro m a f ter 8 19 c onst itu te a l arger p erc en tage a nd s o met i mes e ven p reva i l among n in th-cen tury c o ins i n h oards f ro m t he 8 60s , a nd 7 7

5 ) t he i ncrease i n p os t-819 d irha ms i s t he r esu l t o f t he g row ing n u mber o f p ost-849 c o ins a va i lab le f or d epos it . T he 8 70s a re o ur b est r epresen ted d ecade w i th f i ve h oards :

Kuznetskoe ,

S hu m i lovo , K h i trovka , P ogrebnoe , a nd B oby li . F ur ther more , we h ave f i gures b y d ecade f or a l l h oards e xcep t K h i trovka a nd t he f our h oards w i th p rec ise d ecade f i gures a re a l l o ver 1 00 d irha ms w i th S hum i lovo a lone n u mber ing o ver 1 ,100 d irha ms .

Among t hese f our h oards , p re-770 d irha ms c o mpose

2 2 .7 , 8 .0 , 1 3 .6, a nd 1 0 .4% , t hose f ro m 7 70-99 c ons t i tu te 2 2 .8 , 2 1 .7 , 2 1 .9 , a nd 2 4 .2% , wh i le p ost-799 d irha ms amount t o 5 4 .6, 7 0 .3, 6 4 .4 , a nd 6 5 .3% . As t hese f i gures i ndica te , s o me o ft he c hanges n o ted i n t he 8 60s h ave n ow b eco me more p ronounced . c ont inues .

T he d ec line o fp re-770 d irhams , f or e xa mp le ,

T hese e ar l iest c oins n ow a verage 1 3 .7% i n h oards o f t he 8 70s a nd

o n ly t he h oard f ro m t he v ery s tar t o f t he d ecade h as o ver 2 0% .

D irha ms

f ro m 7 70-99 a lso c ont inue t o d ecrease i n n u mber a nd t he r e markab ly c lose f i gures a verage 2 2 .7% .

A t t he s a me t ime , we s hou ld n ote t ha t t he c on t inu ing

d ec line i n e ach t ime p er iod , wh i le n o tab le , was n ot p rec ip i tous .

Pre-800

c o ins were s low ly d isappear ing f ro m amongst t he d irha ms a va i lab le f or d epos i t i n E uropean R uss ia . T he a verage f igure f or p ost-799 d irha ms h as n ow r isen t o 6 3 .7% i n h oards f ro m t he 8 70s , e xceed ing t he 5 5-60% f i gure f ound i n l arge h oards f ro m t he 8 60s .

Aga in , t h is i s ag radua l r a ther t han a s harp i ncrease a nd r epresen ts

ac on t inu ing l onger-ter m t rend .

T he c har t b e low s hows t he b reakdown among

n in th-century d irha ms i n t he f our h oards o f t he

8 70s :

8 00-19

8 20-49

8 50-79

K uznetskoe

3 9 . 3%

4 . 6%

1 0 . 7%

S hu m i lovo

3 3 . 1%

7 . 1%

3 0 .1%

P ogrebnoe

3 6 . 9%

7 . 0%

2 0 .5%

B oby l i

2 7 . 8%

9 . 0%

2 8 . 5%

P erhaps t he most s tr ik ing f eature i s t he f a i lure o f n ew , p ost-849 , d irha ms t o i ncrease d ur ing t he 8 70s . t hree h oards o f t he 8 60s ;

S uch c o ins a veraged 2 4 .7% o f a l l c o ins i n t he

n ow , i n t he 8 70s , t hey a verage 2 2 .5 % .

F or r easons

t hat a re n ot im med iate ly c lear , t he p ercen tage o f n ewest d irha ms , wh ich b egan t o g row i n t he 8 60s , n ow s tab i l izes a nd e ven d ec l ines s l ight ly .

A t t he

s a me t ime , t he p ercen tage o f d irha ms f ro m t he p er iod 8 00-19 n ow i ncreases i n h oards f ro m t he 8 70s : 3 4 .3% a s a ga inst 3 1 .4% f or t he 8 60s . Thus , wh i le t he o ldest , p re-800 , c o ins g rew f ewer , o ld d irha ms f ro m 8 00-19 b eca me more impor tan t . The p rof i le f or h oards o f t he 8 70s i s t hus : 1 ) p re-770 c o ins c onst itute 1 0-15% o f t he c o ins o n a verage , 2 ) c o ins f ro m 7 70-99 c o mpose b e tween a f i f th a nd a q uar ter o f t he c o ins o n a verage , 3 ) p ost-799 c o ins n ow c o mpr ise t hree-f if ths t o t wo-th irds o f t he c o ins o n a verage , 4 ) t he g row th o f n ew , p ost-849 , d irha ms s tops a nd s uch c o ins f or m a q uar ter t o af i f th o f a l l c o ins o n a verage , a nd 5 ) c o ins f ro m 8 00-19 n ow i ncrease s l ight ly o n a verage . 7 8

Iam h es i tan t t o s ay t oo much a bout t he 8 80s a nd 8 90s .

E ach d ecade i s

o n ly r epresen ted b y as ing le h oard o f l ess t han 1 00 d irha ms .

T here i s n o

way t o d eter m ine t o w hat e x ten t t hese h oards a re t yp ica l o r r epresen tat ive o f t he c o ins d epos i ted d ur ing e ach d ecade .

N ever the less , s o me c haracter ist ics

c an b e n oted a nd e ach r eader c an make o f t he m what h e o r s he w ishes .

I n t he

P o l tava h oard f ro m t he 8 80s , 1 0% o f t he d irha ms a re f ro m p re-770 , 2 1 .6% a re f ro m 7 70-99 , a nd 6 8 .4% were

s truck a f ter 7 99 .

v ery we l l w i th t hose o fh oards f ro m t he 7 70s .

T hese f igures c o mpare

Ab reakdown o f t he n in th-

c en tury c o ins s hows 4 0% f ro m 8 00-19 , 3 .4% f ro m 8 20-49 , a nd 2 5% f ro m 8 508 9 .

A l though t he 4 0% f i gure i s al i t t le a bove t he c o mparab le f igure f or h oards

f ro m t he 8 70s , t he g enera l d istr ibut ion o f n in th-cen tury d irha ms i n t he P o ltava h oard i s v ery s im i lar t o t hat f ro m t he h oards o f t he 8 70s .

B ased o n t he

P o l tava h oard , i t wou ld s ee m t hat h oards o f t he 8 80s were b as ica l ly a n e x tens io n o f t he 8 70s . T he N ova ia L azarevka h oard c on ta ins 1 4 .5% p re-770 c o ins , 5 0 .0% d irha ms f ro m 7 70-99 , a nd 3 5 .3% p ost-799 c o ins .

T he b reakdown o f n in th-century

d irha ms s hows 2 2 .3% f ro m 8 00-19 , 7 .8% f ro m 8 20-49 , a nd 5 .2% p os t-849 . T h is h oard b reaks w i th many o f t he t rends n o t iced s ince t he mid-n in th c en tury , e .g . t he d rop i n d irha ms f ro m 7 70-99 t o 2 0-25% , a ma jor ity o f t he c o ins b e ing s truck i n t he n in th c en tury , a nd t he g row th o f p ost-849 d irha ms t o a bou t 2 02 5% o f e ach h oard . S ince t he N ova ia L azarevka h oard was s ub ject t o o ur p rop or t iona l a l locat ion o f c o ins , i t may b e t hat t he f igures f or p ar t icu lar d ecades a nd p er iods h ave b een d istor ted .

B u t i t may a lso b e t hat t he t rends t oward

f ewer n ew c oins a nd t oward s o mewha t o lder c o ins p resent i n t he 8 80s n ow a cce lera tes .

On ly more h oards f ro m t h is p er iod a nd f ur ther r esearch c an

r eso lve t h is q ues t ion . We c an s u m mar ize o ur d iscuss ion o f t he c hrono log ica l d istr ibu t ion o f n in th-cen tury d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean Russ ia i n t he f o l low ing way : 1 ) s evera l d ist inc t p er iods were n o ted , e ach w ith i t s own s et o f g enera l c haracter ist ics ( t he e ar ly n in th c entury t o e ar ly 8 20s , t he mid-820s t o 8 40s , t he 8 50s a nd 8 60s , a nd 8 70s a nd p erhaps 8 80s , a nd , maybe , t he 8 90s ) , 2 ) c o ins s truck b efore 7 70 a re p resen t i n a l l b u t o ne n in th-cen tury h oard ; t hey c onst itute a f a ir ly c onstan t p ercen tage o f t he a verage h oard i n e ach p er iod ( g.. 1 0-20% ) a nd t he ir d ec l ine d ur ing t he c ourse o f t he c entury i s much l ess t han o ne m ight e xpec t , 3 ) c o ins s truck b e tween 7 70 a nd 7 99 c onst itu te t he ma jor i ty o f c o ins i n a l l h oards u p t o t he 8 20s a nd t hen d ec l ine s low ly b u t s tead i ly t o c . 2 0-25% b y t he 8 70s a nd 8 80s , 4 )

d irha ms s truck d ur ing t he n in th c en tury c o mpose a l arger s eg men t o f

t he a verage h oard a s t ime g oes o n a nd b y t he midd le o f t he c en tury c onst itute t he ma jor ity o f c o ins i n t he a verage h oard , 5 ) among t he n in th-cen tury d irha ms , t hose f ro m t he 8 00s a nd 8 10s were o r ig ina l ly t he l argest g roup a nd t hey f or med a n impor tan t p ar t , i fn o t a lways a ma jor i ty , i n a l l h oards s tar t ing i n t he 8 10s ;

r e la t ive ly f ew d irha ms f ro m

8 20-49 a ppear i n t he h oards f ro m E uropean R uss ia p erhaps b ecause f ew were s truck i n t he I sla m ic wor ld ;

a nd , s tar t ing i n t he 8 60s , d irha ms i ssued a f ter

7 9

8 49 c o me t o c o mpose a s ign if ican t e le men t a verag ing 2 0-25% i n t he h oards o f t he 8 70s , a nd , 6 ) i n g enera l , d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean R ussia a re c haracter ized b y ad ef in ite a g ing f actor s tar t ing i n t he 8 20s — more a nd more o f t he c o ins i n most h oards were o lder a nd o lder .

*

*

*

*

*

O r ig ina l ly , Ih ad a lso i n tended t o e xa m ine t he r eg iona l d istr ibut ion o f n in th-cen tury d irha m h oards f ro m E uropean Russ ia i n t h is p aper .

I n f act ,

Is pen t much t ime i n c o mpu t ing s uch d a ta f or 1 9 h oards . Ip ar t icu lar ly l ooked f orward t o t h is a na lys is b ecause i th ad n ever b een d one b efore o n as yste mat ic b as is a nd f actors s uch a s t he l arge p ercen tage o f n or th A fr ican d irha ms i n h oards f ro m t he e ar ly n in th c entury d e mons tra te t he n ecess i ty o f c ons ider ing r eg iona l c haracter ist ics .

H owever , l im ita t ions o f t ime a nd s pace p rec lude t he

i nc lus ion o f s uch a n a na lys is i n t h is p aper . t o b e p ar t o f s o me f uture s tudy .

T he r eg iona l a na lys is w i l l h ave

N ever the less , Ib e l ieve t ha t my d iscuss ion

o f t he d ynast ic a nd c hrono log ica l c haracter ist ics s hou ld g ive y ou a g ood i dea o f h ow Iam p roceed ing . NOTES 1 .

T ho mas S . N oonan ,

'Med ieva l I s la m ic c opper c o ins f ro m European

Russ ia a nd s urround ing r eg ions :

t he u se o f t he F a ls i n t he e ar ly I s la m ic

t rade w i th E astern E urope ,' J ourna l o f t he Amer ican O r ien ta l S oc ie ty 9 4(1974 ) , 4 48-53 . 2 .

I d .,

R uss ia , t he N ear E ast , a nd t he S teppe i n t he E ar ly Med ieva l

p er iod :

a n e xa m inat ion o f t he S asan ian a nd B yzan t ine f inds f ro m t he

K a ma-Ura ls a rea , A . ev i . 3 .

f orthco m ing i n Vo l . 2o f Arch ivu m E uras iae Med i i

I d ., 'D id t he Khazars p ossess a mone tary e cono my? : t he n um is ma t ic e v idence ,

4 .

I d .,

a n a na lys is o f

f or thco m ing , i b id .

T he 1 958 D irha m h oard f ro m T ar tu i n E ston ia ,

ANS MN 2 2(1977 ) ,

1 35-59 . 5 .

I d ., 'P re-970 d irha m h oards f ro m E ston ia a nd L atv ia , I : C a ta log , I J ourna l o f B a lt ic S tud ies 8 (1977) , 2 38-59 ; f ro m E ston ia a nd L atv ia , I :

P re-970 d irha m h oards

G enera l c ons iderat ions ,' i b id ., 3 12-23 :

P re-970 d irha m h oards f ro m E ston ia a nd L a tv ia , I I : h oards ,' i b id ., 9 (1978 ) , 7 -19 ; a nd L atv ia , I V :

n in th c en tury

Pre-970 d irha m h oards f ro m E ston ia

a n a na lysis o f t he h oards b ur ied b etween 9 00 a nd 9 70 ,

i b id ., 9 9-115 . 6 .

I d ., 'When d id d irha ms f irst r each t he Ukra ine? ,' H arvard Ukran ian S tud ies 2 (1978 ) , 2 6-40 .

7 .

I d ., 'Mone tary c ircu la t ion i n e ar ly med ieva l Rus ': Bu lgar d irha m f inds ,

A s tudy o f Vo lga

Russ ian H istory/H isto ire Russe 7 (1980 ) , 2 94-311 ; 8 0

i d ., 'The c ircu lat ion o f B yzan t ine c o ins i n K ievan Rus ' ,' B yzan t ine S tud ies/Etudes B yzan t ines 7 (1980 ) , 1 43-81 . 8 .

I d ., 'Anda lus ian Umayyad d irha ms f ro m E astern E urope ,' f or thco m ing i n Ac ta N um is mat ica .

9 .

I d ., ' When a nd h ow d irha ms f irs t r eached R uss ia ,

C ah iers d u

Monde R usse e t S ov ie t ique 2 1 ( 1980 ) , 4 01-69 . 1 0 .

R . R . F as mer , Z ava l ish insk i i k lad k uf ichesk ikh monet V I I I-IX V . [ Izvest i ia G osudarstvenno i A .kade m i i i stor i i mater ia l ' n o i k u l ' t ury , Vo l . 7 , p ar t 2 ] , L en ingrad , 1 931 ; i d ., 'O b i zdan i i n ovo i t opograf i i n akhodok k uf ichesk ikh monet v v ostochno i E vrope , I zvest i ia A .kade m i i N auk S SSR ? O tde len ie o bshchestvennykh n auk , 1 933 , n o . 6 -7 , 4 73-84 .

1 1 .

N . F . K o t lar , 'O brö t a rabsk ich d irhe m6w n a t erytor iu m Ukra iny ,' WN 1 4( 1970 ) , 1 9-30 .

1 2 .

George V ernadsky , K ievan Russia , N ew H aven , 1 948 , p . 7 .

1 3 .

Henr i P irenne , Moha m med a nd C har le magne , N ew York , 1 957 , p p . 1 64-5 .

1 4 .

I d ., Med ieva l C i t ies , N ew York , 1 956 , p p . 3 2-7 ;

i d ., E cono m ic a nd

S oc ia l H istory o f Med ieva l E urope , N ew York , 1 937 , p p . 2 0-5 . 1 5 .

V . V . Kropo tk in ,

0t opograf i i k ladov k uf ichesk ikh monet I X V . Vv osto-

c hno i E vrope ', D revn ia ia Rus ' iS lav iane , Moscow , 1 978 , p p . 1 13-15 . 1 6 .

Noonan , l oc .c i t . ( n . 7 ) .

1 7 .

F as mer ,

Ob i zdan i i ,' 4 78 ;

i d ., 'K lad k uf ichesk ikh monet , n a idenny i

vN ovgorodev 1 920 g .', I zvest i ia Gosudarstvenno i Akade m i i i stor i i mater ia l ' n o i k u l ' t ury 4 ( 1925 ) , 2 67-69 ; 1 8 .

i d ., Z ava l ish insk i i , p p . 1 2-13 .

V . L . I an in , D enezhno-vesovye s iste my Russkogo s rednevekov i j a : Do mongo l ' s k i i p er iod , Moscow , 1 956 , p p . 8 6-118 .

1 9 .

BGA . , 6 (1889 ) , p . 1 53 ( t ex t ) , p . 1 15 ( French t r .) .

8 1

APPEND IX I D irha m H oards o f t he N in th C en tury f ro m E uropean Russ ia ( No te :

i n t he o r ig ina l a ccoun ts o f s o me e ar ly h oards , d istances a re g iven i n v ersts .

1 .

1v erst = 1 .07 km )

K a l in ingrad ( f or mer K ön igsberg ) , K a l in ingrad o b last ', 1 945.

a ir ing

e ar th works i n t he s ou thern o utsk ir ts o f t he c i ty , ah oard o f a round 1 50 d irha ms was f ound .

T he c o ins were d ispersed a nd o n ly 9 Umayyad

d irha ms f ro m t he h oard c ou ld b e i den t if ied .

The o ldes t was s truck i n

Wäs iI i n 7 04/5 a nd t he most r ecen t i n a l-Jazrrah i n 7 45/6.

[ V . V .

Kropo tk in , 'N ovye n akhodk i s asan idsk ikh ik uf ichesk ikh mone t vV ostochnoi E vrope ', NE 9 (1971 ) , p . 8 0 , n o . 2 9 ]. 2 .

S tara ia L adoga , L adoga u ezd , S t . P e tersburg p rov ince , 1 892 .

Ah orse

p u l l ing a b arge a long t he r iver Vo lkhov u ncovered a h oard o f 3 1 cA .bbäs id

d irha ms o n t he r iver ' sb anks .

5 0 a nd t he most r ecen t t o 7 86/7.

T he e ar l iest c o in d ated t o 7 49/

[Markov , T opograf i ia , p . 1 40 , n o . 2 4 ]

a l-Jazfrah , 7 49/50 a l-Küfah , 7 49/50 a l-Ba pah , 7 54/5 , 7 59/60 , 7 64/5 , 7 73/4 , 7 83/4(2 ) Madi nat a lSa l m , 7 67/8 , 7 70 , 7 70/1 , 7 71/2 , 7 73/4 , 7 74/5(2 ) , 7 76/7 , 7 78/9(2 ) , 7 80/1 , l xx A .H . ( 2 ) a l- cAbbäsryyah , 7 76/7 , 7 80/1 , 7 86/7 I f rrq iyah , 7 85/6 , 7 86/7(4 ) Ar mrn iyah , 7 78/9 a l- Mu l ia m madryyah , 7 83/4 3 .

P ar istovsk i i k hu tor/Par istovka ( now N ovye M l iny ) , B orzn iansk i i r a ion , C hern igov ° b last ', 1 895 .

Ah oard o f a round 8 00 d irha ms was f ound a bou t

2 -3 v ersts f ro m t he R iver S e im . d irha ms f ro m t he h oard were

The c o ins were d ispersed a nd o n ly 7

i den t if ied ( 5 who le a nd 2h a lves ) .

[ Kropo tk in , 'Novye n akhodk i ', p . 9 1 , n o . 1 57 ] I . Umayyad ( 1 ) Wäs iI , 7 39/40 I . cAbbasid ( 6 ) a l-Küfah , 7 53/4 a l- M ea m madryyah , 7 71/2 Madrnat J ayy , 7 78/9 An A fr ican d irha m w ith t he n a me Yazrd a l- cAbbasryyah , 7 87/8 Unknown min t , 7 86/7-795/6 , u nder a r-Rashrd 4 .

R igh t-bank T s im l iansk g orod ishche ( f or t if ied s i te ) , T s im l iansk r a ion , Rostov o b last ', 1 958 .

D ur ing a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions a t t he med ie-

v a l s i te , ah oard o f4 8

c o ins ( 6 who le , 4 2 f ragments ) was f ound . 8 2

T he ,

o ldes t c o in d ated t o 5 79-90 a nd t he most r ecen t t o a bou t 8 00 .

Kropotk in

h as g iven s evera l d ates f or t he most r ecen t d irha m i n t h is sma l l h oard , t he l atest a nd p resu mab ly t he most a ccurate b e ing 7 99/800 o r 8 02 . [ Kropo tk in ,

0t opograf i i k ladov k uf ichesk ikh monet I X v . v Vostochno i

Evrope ', D revn ia ia Rus ' iS lav iane , Moscow 1 978 , p . 1 14 ;

i d .,

Novye

n akhodk i ', p . 8 4 , n o . 7 6 .] I . I . I I . I V . V . V I . V I I . 5 .

S asan ian ( 5 ) Arab-Sasan ian ( 1 ) Umayyad ( 5 ) Umayyad G overnors o f I ran ( 3 ) c A .bbas id ( 24 ) cA bbäs id

G overnors o f T abar is tän ( 9 )

I drts id ( 1 )

L e lek i , Kote l ' n ichsk i i u ezd , V iatka p rov ince , 1 879 .

Wh i le p lough ing a

f i e ld , ap o t c on ta in ing s i lver c o ins , e v iden t ly d irha ms , was f ound .

L ater ,

ad irha m o f 8 02/3 s truck i n Mad ina t a l-Sa lä m was i den t if ied f ro m t h is h oard .

[ A . Markov , c o mp ,, T opograf i ia l d .adov v ostochnykh monet

( sasan idsk ikh ik uf ichesk ikh ) , S t . P etersburg 1 910 , p . 6 , n o . 3 2 ; R . R . F as mer , 'S p isok mone tnykh n akhodok , z areg istr irovannykh s ek ts ie i n um iz mat ik i Ig l ip t ik i Akade m i i i stor i i mater ia l 'n o i k uP t ury v1 920-1925 g g .

1, S oobshchen i ia

G osudarstvenno i Aka .de m i i i stor i i

ma ter ia l ' n o i k u l ' t ury 1 ( 1926 ) , p . 2 90 , n o . 1 7 ] 6 .

Kr iv ianska ia s tan i tsa , n ear C herkassk , D on C ossack l ands , 1 894 . I n t he S ukha ia K ada movka r av ine , 8v ersts n or theast o f C herkassk , a h oard o f 8 3 c o ins was f ound i n ac lay p o t d ur ing work i n aq uarry . e ar l iest c o in d ated t o 5 56 a nd t he most r ecen t t o 8 05/6 . T opograf i ia , p . 1 37 , n o . 8 ] I .

The

[Markov ,

S asan ian ( 2 ) K husraw I , 5 56, 5 61

I .

I spahbads o f T abar istän ( 1 ) Anony mous , 7 17

I I .

Umayyad ( 2 ) Wf .si t , 7 39/40 a l-Jaztrah , 7 46/7

I V .

cAbbas id ( 69 ) a l- Kü fah , 7 55/6 , 7 56/7 a l-Ba5rah , 7 60/1 Mad tna t a l-Sa la m , 7 68/9(2 ) , 7 73/4 , 7 74/5(3 ) , 7 75/6 , 7 78/9 , 7 81/2 , 7 76/7-785/6 , 7 91/2 a l- cAbbas lyyah , 7 69/70 , 7 70/1 , 7 74/5 , 7 75/6 , 7 77/8(2 ) , 7 78/9(2 ) , 7 79/80 , 7 80/1(3 ) , 7 82/3 , 7 83/4(4 ) , 7 86/7(4 ) , 7 87/8(4 ) , 7 88/9(2 ) , 7 92/3(2 ) , 7 93/4 , 7 95/6 , 7 96/7 , ho c A .H . ( 3 ) a l- Mu l la m madryyah , 7 76/7 , 7 78/9 , 7 81/2 , 7 84/5 , 7 88/9 , 7 96/7 , 8 05/6 J ayy , 7 78/9 ( 2 ) Z aran j , 7 82/3 Ar m iniyah , 7 83/4 , 7 93/4 Mand i , 7 84/5 a l-Härunryyah , 7 86/7 I frrq iyah , 7 91/2 , 7 92/3 , 7 96/7 , 7 98/9 8 3

M i r , 7 96/7 Arran , 8 03/4 V .

I dr i T s id ( 8 ) Wa lr lah , 7 90/1 T udgha , 7 92/3(5 ) , 7 93/4 , 7 95/6

7 .

B as k ach , K ash ir u ezd , T u la p rov ince , 1 861 . a nd b u l l ion h oard i n ac lay p o t . were d irha ms .

A .p easan t f ound a c o in

T he c o ins , b o th who le a nd f ragmen ts ,

On ly f our c o ins f ro m t he h oard were i den t if ied :

c A .bbf .s id a nd d at ing f ro m 7 65/6-807/8 .

a l l

[ G . F . Korzukh ina , R ussk ie

k lady I X-X I I I v v ., Moscow-Len ingrad 1 954 , p . 8 1 , n o . 7 ;

Kropo tk in ,

N ovye n akhodk i . ' ,p . 8 2 , n o . 4 6 ]. 8 .

V y leg i , Novgorod u ezd a nd p rov ince , 1 882 .

Wh i le d igg ing a d itch , d irha ms

w ere f ound o f wh ich s even were i den t if ied .

[Markov , T opograf i ia , p . 2 8 ,

n o . 1 52 .] cA bbäs id

Governors o f T abar is tan ( 1 )

S acr d b . D ac la j , 7 76 I .

cAbbäs id ( 6 ) J ayy , 7 78/79 a l-cAbbäsTyyah , 7 87/8, 7 89/90 I f riq iyah , 7 89/90 a l- Mu l la m madryyah , 8 07/8 I f r iq iyah o r a l- c Abbasryyah , y ear e f faced

9 .

Kn iashch ino , L adoga u ezd , S t . P etersburg p rov ince , 1 874 .

I n 1 874

p easan ts d iscovered a h oard o f o ver 2 00 c o ins wh i le p lough ing . a f ter , p easan ts f ound a no ther 1 00 c o ins .

S oon

O fa l l t hese c o ins , o n ly 1 5

w ere i den t if ied . I n 1 875 , a no ther h oard o f 6 5 s i lver c o ins a nd 2 s i lver b ars was f ound n ear Kn iashch ino a nd a l l t he c o ins were i den t if ied . A lso i n 1 875 , ah oard o f 7s i lver c o ins was r eported ly f ound i n S tara ia L adoga a nd a l l were i den t if ied .

I n 1 924 , t wo c o ins s upposed ly f ound i n

Kn iashch ino were a cqu ired b y t he H er m itage .

F ina l ly , i n 1 884 , p easants

f ro m Kn iashch ino f ound a l arge h oard o f d irha ms i n af i e ld o f wh ich o n ly 8 were i den t if ied .

I n 1 931 , F as mer ( Zava l ish ins ld . i , p . 1 9 , n o .

5 6 —fu l l c itat ion i n n ote 1 0 ) a rgued t hat t he h oard o f 7c o ins f ound i n 1 875 e v iden t ly b e longed t o t he s a me h oard a s t he 8 2 c o ins a lso f ound i n 1 875 .

T hese 8 2 c o ins a pparen t ly i nc lude t he 1 5 Markov r epor ted f ro m

1 874 , t he 6 5 Markov r epor ted f ro m 1 875 , a nd t he 2 a cqu ired i n 1 924 . I an in ( Denezhno-vesovye , p . 9 0 , n . 2 ) a rgued t hat a l l t hese Kn iashch ino f i nds " ev iden t ly were p ar ts o f o ne h oard" a nd i n h is T ab les Ia nd I h e n o ted 9 3-7 c o ins f ro m t he Kn iashch ino h oard .

I n a dd it ion t o t he 8 9 c o ins

g rouped b y F as mer i n to o ne s upposed h oard , I an in a dded t he 8 c o ins u nc overed i n 1 884 .

I fo ne a ccep ts I an in ' si n terpre tat ion , t he e ar l iest c o in

i n t he Kn iashch ino h oard d ated t o 5 38 a nd t he most r ecen t t o 8 08/09 .

How-

e ver , wh i le t he v iews o f F as mer a nd I an in r egard ing a s ing le Kn iashc h ino h oard s ee m v ery l og ica l , we s hou ld n o t e xc lude t he p oss ib i l i ty t hat more t han o ne h oard w i th c o ins t hat a re t yp ica l o f t he e ar ly n in th c en tury may h ave b een u ncovered i n a nd a round Kn iashch ino a nd n earby S tara ia L adoga i n t he 1 870s a nd 1 880s .

F ur ther more , r e lat ive ly f ew c o ins h ave

b een p reserved f ro m t h is h ypo thet ica l l arger h oard a nd t here i s n o way t o t e l l h ow t yp ica l t he c o ins wh ich h ave a cc iden ta l ly s urv ived a re o f t he 8 4

h oard a s a who le .

Th is b ackground may e xp la in why t he c o mpos i te

Kn iashch ino h oard d iverges f ro m s o me o f t he p at terns s höwn i n o ther c on te mporaneous R uss ian d irha m h oards .

B ecause o f i t s p ecu l iar

h istory , Ih ave l i sted t he c o mponen t p ar ts o f t he Kn iashch ino h oard s eparate ly . F as mer ,

[Markov , T opograf i ia , p p . 3 2-3 , n o . 1 79-81 ;

R . R .

S p isok monetnykh n akhodok , z areg istr irovennykh s ek tsie i

n um iz mat ik i ig l ip t ik i ... v . 1 920-1925 g g .,' S oobshchen i ia G os . Akade m i i i stor i i mater ia l 'n o i k u l ' t ury , 1 (1926 ) , p . 2 91 , n o . 3 8 ;

Markov ,

Topografl ia , p . 1 40 , n o . 2 6 ] 1 874 -15 C o ins I .

S asan ian ( 1 ) H urm izd I V , 5 89 Umayyad G overnors ( 3 )

I .

Z iy a l b .

A b t

S ufyan , u nc lear p lace a nd d ate , 6 72/3

a l-Ha j jä j b . Y üsuf , 6 96/7 I I .

cA bbäs id

G overnors o f T abar is an ( 1 )

I V .

Umayyad ( 3 )

eU mar b . a l-cA lä , 7 77 D i mashq , 7 03/4 Wäs it., 7 08/9 I f rrq iyah , 7 32/3 V .

S pan ish Umayyad ( 1 ) C ordova ( i .e ., a l-Anda lus ) , 7 72/2

V I .

c Abbäs id ( 6 ) a l- c Abbäs iyyah , 7 84/5 a l- Muha m mad iyyah , 7 78/9 , 7 98/9 , 8 00/1 I f rrq iy. a h , 7 95/6 ( A lthough h e s pec if ica l ly s ays 6 cAbbas id c o ins , Markov o n ly e nu merates 5 cAbbas id d irha ms .)

1 875 -65 c o ins I . S asan ian ( 7 ) K husraw I , 5 39 K husraw I , 5 91 , 5 93 , 5 95 , 6 12 , 6 22 , y ear u nknown I . Umayyad G overnors ( 5 ) Y azdagard I I , 6 40/1 —Sasan ian p ro to type cU ba idal läh ,

6 78/9 , 6 82/3 , y ear u nknown ( 2 )

I I . I spahbads o f T abar istä ' .n ( 1 ) K hurshrd , 7 55 I V .

cA . bbäs id e Um ar

G overnors o f T abar is tän ( 8 )

b . a l- cA lä , 7 73 , 7 78 ( 2 ) , 7 79 , 7 80

S a er d b . D a el a j , 7 77 ( 2 ) H än i b . H ä . 'n i , 7 89 V .

Umayyad ( 9 ) a l-Basrah , 7 00/1 Wäs it , 7 04/5 , 7 11/12 , 7 2 1 /2 , 7 30/1 , 7 34/5 D asta .wä , 7 11/12 K ir män , 7 14/15 D i mashq , 7 31/2

V I . cAbbäs id ( 3 3 ) a l-K t ifah , 7 62/3 ( 2 ) 8 5

a l-Rayy , 7 64/5 Madinat a l-Sa lä m , 7 70/1 , 7 76/7 , 7 78/9 , 7 96/7 , 7 97/8 , 8 03/4 a l- Mu t ia m madiyyah , 7 71/2 , 7 97/8 , 8 01/2 , 8 0 6 /7 a l- cAbbäsryyah , 7 76/7 , 7 87/8 ( 2 ) J ayy , 7 78/9 ( 4 ) I f ri c i iyah o r a l-cA .bbäsiyyah , 7 82/3-792/3 ( 6 ) I f riq iyah , 7 83/4 , 7 86/7 , 7 92/3 B ad ca , 7 84/5 B a lkh , 8 04/5 , 8 08/9 Ma ed in B ä . junays , 8 08/9 I dri s id ( 1 ) B adca , 7 88/9 V I I I .

S pan ish Umayyad ( 1 ) a l-Anda lus , 7 77/8

1 875 -7 C o ins I . I .

c Abbäs id G overnors o f T abar is tän ( 3 ) Anony mous ( ?) , 7 75 , 7 79 , 7 83 Umayyad ( 1 ) Marw , 7 48/9

I I .

cA .bbäs id

( 3 )

a l-cA .bbäsiyyah , 7 79/80 I f riq iyah , 7 85/6 Madinat a l-Sa lä m , 7 88/9 1 924 -2 C o ins I .

cA bbäs id

G overnors o f T abar is tän ( 1 )

eU mar b . a l- cA . la , 7 76 I .

cA .bbäs id

( 1 )

a l- cA .bbasryyah , 7 87/8 1 884 -8 C o ins I .

cA .bbäs id

( 8 )

Mubärakah , 7 72/3 a l- cAbbäsryyah , 7 72/3 ( 2 ) , 7 67/8-775/6 Madinat a l-Sa la m , 7 72/3 , 1 x9 A . .H . B a lkh , 8 04/5 I l leg ib le min t , 7 6 9 /7 0 1 0 .

Z ava l ish ino , S taro-Osko l r a ion , B e lgorod o b last ', 1 927 . f ound a h oard o f 5 2 s i lver c o ins . r ecen t t o 8 09/10 .

A .p easan t

T he e ar l ies t d ated t o 5 95 a nd t he most

[ Fas mer , Z ava l ish insk i i ]

I . S asan ian ( 2 ) K husraw I , I .

cA . bbäs id e Um ar

5 95 , y ear c ut o f f

Governors o f T abar istän ( 4 )

b . a l- cA lä , 7 75/6 , y ear c u t o f f ( 2 )

S acid b . D ae la j , 7 77/8 I I . Umayyad ( 3 ) D äräb jird , 7 09/10 Wäs i t , 7 05-716/17 , 7 2 6 /7 727/8 I V .

cA .bbas id

( 36 ) a l-Basrah , 7 56/7 , 7 86/7

Madinat a l-Sa lä m , 7 65/6-770 , 7 7 1/2 , 7 72/3 , 7 76/7 , 7 79/80 , 7 98/ 9 9-799/800 , 8 00/1 8 6

a l- cAbbäsT yyah , 7 72/3 , 7 82/3 , 7 83/4 , 7 8 5 /6 , 7 86/7-795/ 6 , y ear e f faced , y ear c ut o f f ( 4 ) T udgha , 7 76/ 7-785/6 I f r i t i iyah , 7 92/3-793/4 U nc lear A fr ican min t , 7 87/8 , y ear u nc lear ( 3 ) a l- Muba mmadi yyah , 7 71/2 , 7 77/8 , 7 84/5 , 8 02 , 8 05/6 Madinat J ayy , 7 78/9 a l-Hlrün tyyah , 7 85/6 Ma cd in a l-Shash , 8 05/6 Madinat B ukhärä , 8 09/10 M in t a nd y ear c ut o f f u nde ter m ined , 1 9x A . . H . V . G overnors o f T udgha ( 2 ) H a laf , 7 91/2 cA .mr

b . H am id , 7 92/3

V I . I dri sid ( 2 ) I dri s I( ?) , T udgha , 7 90/1 o r Wa li lah , 7 89/90 o r I dri s I , Wa li lah , 7 95/6 o r 7 9 6 /7 I dri s I , Wa lRah , 7 98/9 o r 8 0 1/2 V I I . B yzan t ine ( 1 ) V I I I . 1 1 .

L eo I V a nd s on , 7 75-80 C oun terfe i t D irha ms ( 2 )

Kh itrovka , K ash ira r a ion , Moscow o b last ', 1 932 .

D ur ing c onstruct ion

work , ah oard o f c o ins was f ound o f wh ich t we lve were p reserved . e ar l iest c o in d ated t o 7 48/9 a nd t he most r ecen t t o 8 10/11 . ' N ovye n akhodk i , I . I . I I . 1 2 .

T he

[ Kropo tk in ,

p . 8 2 , n o . 4 7 ]

I spahbads o f T abar istän ( 1 ) cA bbäs id

( 9 )

I drr s id ( 2 )

S e menov G orodok , S tar itsk i i u ezd , T ver p rov ince , a round 1 870 .

A long

t he s hores o f t he R iver K o loko lenka , at r ibutary o f t he Vo lga , a t ad ist ance o f 8v ersts f ro m S tar itsa , ap easan t f ound a h oard o f d irha ms . S even c o ins f ro m t h is h oard were i den t if ied ; l east s ix teen d irha ms .

t he h oard c on ta ined a t

Accord ing t o Markov , f ro m t he s a me h oard

t here l ater a ppeared a S ä män id d irha m o f 9 74/5 , min t e f faced .

H ow-

e ver , I an in a rgues t hat t he S ä män id d irha m men t ioned b y Markov d oes n ot b e long t o t h is h oard .

[Markov , Topograf i ia , p . 4 6 , n o . 2 63 ;

I anin , D enezhno-vesovye s iste my r usskogo s rednevekov 'ia :

V . L .

Do mongo l 'sk i i

p er iod , Moscow 1 956 , p . 9 0 , n . 2 . ] I .

c A .bbäs id ? ( 7 ) Madinat a lSa l m , 7 73/4 ( 2 ) , 7 80/1 , 7 95/6 , 8 07/8 B a lkh , 8 10/11 a l- Mu t ia m madryyah , y ear e f faced

1 3 .

N izhn ie N ovose l ld , Trubchevsk r a ion , B r iansk o b last ', 1 959 .

Wh i le

d igg ing i n ag arden , ah oard o f 1 24 s i lver c o ins ( 27 who le a nd 9 7 f ragmen ts ) was f ound . r ecen t t o 8 11/12 .

T he e ar l iest c o in d ated t o 5 73/4 a nd t he most [ Kropotk in , ' N ovye n akhodk i ,

8 7

p . 7 9 , n o . 1 2 ,]

I . I .

Umayyad G overnors o f I ran ( 1 )

I I .

Umayyad ( 1 3 )

I V .

cA bbäsid

V . V I .

G overnors o f T udgha ( 5 ) I drr s id ( 3 )

V I I . 1 4 .

S asan ian ( 5 )

( 9 1 )

U ndeter m ined ( 1 )

N izhn ia ia S yrovatka , S u my u ezd , K har ' k ov p rov ince , 1 848 . 2 06 c o ins was f ound i n ac lay p ot . t he most r ecen t t o 8 12/13 .

Ah oard o f

The e ar l iest c o in d ated t o 7 02/3 a nd

[Markov , T opograf i ia , p . 5 2 , n o . 3 01 ; E . A .

P akho mov , Monetnye k lady A . zerba idzhana id rug ikh r espub l ik , k raev io b laste i K avkaza , Vo l . 2( Baku 1 938 ) , p . 7 0 , n o . 6 10 .] I . I .

S asan ian a nd T abar istän ( severa l ) Umayyad ( 1 0 )

I I .

7 02/03-749/50 S pan ish Umayyad ( 1 )

I V .

A .gh lab id ( 1 )

V .

I drr s id a nd G overnors o f T udgha ( 2 1 ) T udgha a nd Wa l i lah

V I .

cA bbäs id ( 1 44 ) 7 49/50-812/13 .

O f t hese , 8 7 were f rom n or th A fr ican m in ts a nd

5 7 w ere f ro m N ear E astern min ts i nc lud ing 9 f ro m Transcaucas ian m in ts ( Ar mTn iyah , 7 83/4 , 8 02 , 8 10/11 ; 8 12/13 ;

a l-Här i t inTyyah , 7 86/7 ;

Arrän , 8 04/5 , 8 11/12 ,

Ma cd in B ä junays , 8 06/7 ( 2 ) ) .

I an in ( Denezhno-vesovye , T ab le I ) s uggests t hat t he h oard c ont a ined 2 2 I drr s id d irha ms a nd 2 2 d irha ms i ssued b y t he Governors o f T udgha . 1 5 .

Kre m levskoe , Dm i trovsk r a ion , Ore l o b last ', 1 956 .

Ah oard o f s i lver

c o ins was f ound o f wh ich 7 7 ( about t wo-f if ths o f t he e n t ire h oard ) were p reserved .

T he e ar l iest c o in d ated t o 5 57 a nd t he mos t r ecen t t o 8 12/13 .

[ Kropo tk in , ' Novye n akhodk i , I . I .

S asan ian ( 8 ) Arab-Sasan ian ( 1 )

I I .

I spahbads o f T.a bar istän ( 1 )

I V .

° Abbäs id G overnors o f Tabar is tän ( 8 )

V . V I . V I I . V I I I . 1 6 .

p . 8 3 , n o . 5 9 .]

Umayyad ( 2 ) ° Abbas id ( 5 1 ) I drt s id ( 5 ) Agh lab id ( 1 )

Ugod ich i , Rostov u ezd , I aros lav l ' p rov ince , 1 914 . P easan ts f ound a h oard o f a round 1 48 s i lver c o ins ( 140 who le a nd 8h a lves ) a nd t wo s i lver b race lets i n t he g round .

Ar ather l arge p ar t o f t he o r ig ina l h oard was

d ispersed a nd o n ly 1 27 c o ins ( 1 19 who le a nd 8 f rag men ts ) a nd b o th b race le ts were p reserved .

T he e ar l iest c o in d ated t o 5 92 a nd t he mos t

r ecen t t o 8 12/13 . [ R . R . F as mer , D va k lada k uf ichesk ikh monet [ Trudy n um iz mat ichesko i k om iss i i , V I ] ( Len ingrad : 1 927 ) .] I .

S asan ian ( 5 )

8 8

I .

K husraw I , 5 92 , 6 01 , 6 05 , 6 25 , u nc lear I spahbads o f T abar istän ( 2 ) Anony mous , 7 49/ 50 , 7 52/3

I I .

Umayyad ( 9 ) a l-Ba§rah , 6 9 9/7 0 0 D astawä , 7 09/10 a l-Sus , 6 9 9/7 0 0 a l- Mubärakah , 7 37/8 Wäs it , 7 11/12 , 7 30/1 ( 2 ) , 7 40/1 , 7 42/3

I V .

eA bbäs id

( 1 00 )

a l-Ba Fah , 7 50/1, 7 56/7 , 7 59/60 , 7 6 1/2 a l- Muha m madryyah , 7 66/7 , 7 7 1/2 , 7 77/8 , 7 9 6 /7 , 7 97/8 , 7 98/9 , 7 99/ 800 , 8 07/8 Madrnat a l-Sa lä m , 7 68/9 ( 2 ) , 7 70 , 7 72/3 , 7 73/4 , 7 7 6 /7 , 7 78/9 , 7 8 1 /2 ( 2 ) , 7 8 5 /6 , 7 96/7 ( 3 ) , 7 97/8 ( 2 ) , 7 98/9 , 7 9 9/80 0 , 8 04/5 ( 3 ) I f rrq iyah , 7 81/2 , 7 85/6 ( 2 ) , 7 89/90 , 7 9 1/2 ( 2 ) , 7 92/3 , 7 96/7 , 7 9 9 /80 0 , u nknown y ear ( 3 ) T udgha , 7 71/2 Madrnat J ayy , 7 78/9 ( 4 ) , 7 86/7 a l- cA .bbäsr yyah , 7 76/7 , 7 78/9 ( 3 ) , 7 8 1/2, 7 82/3 , 7 83/4 ( 2 ) , 7 84/5 ( 2 ) , u nknown y ear ( 9 ) , 7 87/8 ( 5 ) , 7 88/9 , 7 90/1 ( 2 ) U nc lear A fr ican min t , 9 a l-Här i inryyah , 7 86/7 Ar mtn iyah , 7 96/7 , 8 08/9 Madrnat B ukhärä , 8 08/9 Madrnat B a lkh , 8 02 ( 2 ) , 8 04/5 a l- Mubärakah , 7 9 1 /2 , 7 96/7 Maed in B ä juna .ys , 8 07/8 , 8 08/9 Ma cd in a l-Shäsh , 8 05/6 u nc lear m in t ( 1 ) Madrnat S a marqand , 8 12/13 V .

I dri s id ( 6 ) I dri s I , T udgha , 7 90/1 ( 2 ) , u nknown y ear I drr s I , T udgha , 7 94/5 , 7 9 6 /7 ; Wa lr lah , 8 02

V I .

G overnors o f T udgha ( 5 ) H a laf , T udgha , 7 91/2 , 7 92/3 ( 2 ) , u nc lear y ear eAmr ,

1 7 .

T udgha , 7 92/3

Orsha? , Mog i lev p rov ince , e ar ly 1 820s .

Ah oard o f 1 ,3 00 who le d irha ms

a nd s evera l h undred h a lves a nd q uar ters was f ound ; t ances a nd s i te o f t he f ind a re n o t r epor ted .

t he e xact c ircu ms-

I n 1 822 , t he h oard was

e xa m ined b y C . M . F rähn who n o ted t hat most o f t he c o ins were u n il ingua l a nd b i l ingua l I spahbad i ssues ;

t he b i l ingua l , P eh lev i-Arab ic

c o ins d ated t o t he e igh th a nd e ar ly n in th c entury . A ccord ing t o F rähn , t he r e ma in ing c o ins were ' ca lipha te ' d irha ms s truck u nder t he Umayy ads f ro m 6 99/700-746/7 a nd t he c A .bbäs ids f ro m 7 49/50-814/15 .

F rähn

s pec if ica l ly men t ioned d irha ms o f t he Umayyad Governors o f I f r i .h iyah ( 727/8 a nd 7 31/2 ) a nd S pa in ( 728/9 a nd 7 36/7 ) . i n I f rrq iyah d ated f ro m 7 68/9-799/800 .

cA bbas id

d irha ms s truck

D irha ms o f t he S pan ish Umay-

y ads d ated f ro m 7 67/8-802 wh i le I drr s id d irha ms d ated f ro m 7 89/90-802 .

8 9

F rähn e nu merated t he f o l lowing "A s iat ic" m in ts r epresen ted i n t he h oard ; h oard :

S aneä . , a l-Ya mä mah [? ] , a l-Jazirah , Q aer a l-Sa lä m , a l-Kü fah ,

Madrnat a l-Sa la m , Was it , a l-Baerah , Ma ed in B a junays , Ar m th iyah , Arrän , T abar is tän , Mäh i , a l- Muha m madr yyah/a l-Rayy , a l-Ta i mara , S urraq , J unda i-Sdbür , Rä mhur muz , I p takhr , D ärä ,b jird , Ardashrr Khurrah , K ir man , S i jis tan , Marw , B a lkh , a nd S a marqand .

N or th

A fr ican min ts i nc luded M ir , I f riq iyah , a l- eA . bbäsryyah , a l- Mubärakah [ Iraq ? ] , Wa l i lah , B ad ca a nd S isa [? ] wh i le t he s o le S pan ish Umayyad min t was a l-Anda lus . I n t he e ar ly 1 820s , al arge h oard o f I spahbad c o ins was u ncovered a long t he Dnepr R iver n o t f ar f ro m Mog i lev .

Most

o f t he c o ins were u sed t o make a l arge s i lver c up b u t af ew s urv ived a nd were d rawn b y J . L e lewe l i n 1 824 . o f t he c o ins i n t hese d raw ings :

Recen t ly , N . L ow ick i den t if ied t wo

1 ) S asan ian , K husraw I , 6 15 a nd 2 )

Arab-Sasan ian , Z iyäd b . Abi S ufyän , D äräb jird , 6 72/3 .

F rähn b e l ieved

t hat a l l t hese c o ins f ound a long t he D nepr were o r ig ina l ly p ar t o f t he h oard o f 1 ,300 d irha ms wh ich h e s tud ied , 2 5 , n o . 1 39 , p p . 2 5-6 , n o . 1 41 ;

[Markov , T opograf i ia , p .

J erzy K o lendo ,

N ieznany l i st J .

L e lewe la w s praw ie o dkry tego w 1 822 r . k or o O rszy s karbu mone t S asan idzk ich iK uf ick ich t, WN 1 7 ( 1973 ) , 6 5-74 .] 1 8 ,

S arskoe g orod ishche , R os tov r a ion ,

I aros lavP o b last ', 1 930 .

Ah oard

o f 1 1 d irha ms was d iscovered d ur ing a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions o f t he s i te i n 1 930 .

T he p rec ise c ircu ms tances o ft he f ind a re n ot k nown .

T en

c o ins f ro m t h is h oard p reserved i n t he Rostov Museu m were i den t if ied . T he e ar l iest d a ted t o 5 79-90 a nd t he most r ecen t t o 8 14/15 . L eon t ' e v ,

0v re men i v ozn iknoven i ia S arskogo g orod ishcha '

[ A . E . V estn ik

Moskovskogo Un ivers ite ta , 1 974 , n o . 5 , 6 8-74 . ] I .

S asan ian ( 1 ) H or m izd I V ( 5 79-90 )

I .

cA bbäs id

G overnors o f T abar is tan ( 1 )

S u la i män , 7 84/5 I I .

Umayyad ( 2 )

I V .

cA bbäs id

M in t c u t o f f , 7 07/8 o r 7 17/18 , 7 15/16 P ar t isans ( 1 )

Maha [ =Mahr/ Mahay? ], 7 46/7 V .

cAbbä .sid ( 5 ) M in t c ut o f f , e igh th c en tury I f riq iyah , 7 86/7-799/800 a l- Muha m madryyah , 7 91/2 , 7 93/4-805/6 S a marqand , 8 14/15

1 9 .

S o mewhere i n M insk p rov ince , c . 1 835 . 2 1 s i lver c o ins were i den t if ied . S äm iyyah , 7 48/9 , a nd s evera l

A .h oard was f ound f ro m w h ich

Among t hese were 1 Umayyad , a l-

cA bbäs id

d irha ms , 7 5 1/2815/16 , s t ruck

i n a l-HärünTyyah , Ma ed in B ä junays , Ar min iyah , a l-Küfah , Madina t a lS a lä m , J ayy , Z aran j , Marw , S a marqand , a nd I f rrq iyah . f ro m I f rrq iyah d ated t o 7 91/2 a nd 7 96/7.

The d irha ms

There were a lso Agh lab id

d irha ms o f I brährm Is truck i n I frrq iyah i n 8 02 a nd I drr s id d irha ms o f I dri s Is truck i n Wa li lah a nd B ad ca i n 7 90/1 .

I n 1 836 , 3 50 d irha ms

f ound i n M insk p rov ince were s en t t o t he d irector o f t he I nst itute o f E astern L anguages .

Accord ing t o Markov , t here i s n o d oub t t hat a l l 9 0

o f t hese d irha ms c a me f ro m t he s a me o r ig ina l h oard . [Markov , T opograf i ia , p . 2 4 , n o . 1 36 .] 2 0 .

N abatovo , T orope ts r a ion , K a l in in ° b last ', 1 926 . d irha m h oard w ere i den t if ied . n o . 3 2 . ]

Two c o ins f ro m a

[ Kropo tk in , 'N ovye n akhodk i ', p . 8 0 ,

Madinat B a lkh , 8 0 1/2 Madinat S a marqand , 8 15/16 2 1 .

L apo tkovo , K rap iv insk u ezd , T u la p rov ince , 1 823 .

Ah oard o f 6 2 d irha ms

was f ound a long w ith o ther o r ien ta l a n t iqu it ies . A l l t he c o ins were ' ca lipha te ' e xcept f or 6 I spahbad c oins . T he ' ca lipha te ' d irha ms d a ted f ro m 7 10 /11-816/17 a nd were s truck i n Wäs i t

MadIha t a lSa l m , a l-

Baprah , a l-Küfah , J ayy , a l-Taimara , S i jistan , Marw , B a lkh , a lMut ia m madiyyah , T abar is tan , a nd Arrän .

T he I spahbad c oins were

b oth b i lingua l ( Peh lev i-Arab ic ) a nd u ni lingua l . eU mar b . a l-cA lä , t he 7 78-780 , a nd 7 83 .

cA bbäs id

T hree were s truck b y

G overnor i n Tabar istän , 7 71-775/6,

T he t we lve N or th A fr ican d irha ms were s truck i n

I fri q iyah a nd a l- cA bbäsiyyah i n 7 79/8 0 -79 1/2 a nd i n B ad ca i n 7 90/180 2/3 b y t he I dri s ids . 2 2 .

[ Markov , T opograf i ia , p . 4 9 , n o . 2 81 .]

B ork i , R iazan ' u ezd a nd p rov ince , 1 874 . On t he s hores o f t he R iver Oka , wh i le e xcavat ing a s andy mound i n a n a nc ien t c e metery i n t he c ourse o f r a i lway c onstruct ion , t wo h oards were f ound .

T he f irst h oard was u n-

c overed i n ac o mp lete ly d ecayed b ox c overed w ith l eather .

I tc on ta ined

1 20 d irha ms p ar t o f wh ich were c ut i n to h a lves , q uar ters a nd sma l ler p ar ts .

T he c o ins b e longed t o t he Umayyads a nd

s truck b etween 7 36 a nd 8 17 . 2 3 .

cA bbä .s ids

N ovotroi tskoe ,L ebed in r a ion , S u my ° b last ', 1 953 .

D ur ing e xcavat ions

o f t he med ieva l s i te , ah oard o f t en d irha ms was f ound . c o in d ated t o 7 11/12 a nd t he most r ecen t t o 8 19/19 . G orod ishche N ovo tro itskoe :

a nd were

[Markov , T opograf i ia , p p . 4 0-1 , n o . 2 25 .]

T he e ar l iest

[ I . I . L iapushk in ,

0k u l ' t ure v ostochnykh s lav ian v p er iod

s lozhen i ia K ievskogo g osudarstva .

[Ma ter ia ly ii ss ledovan i ia p o

a rkheo log i i S SSR , V o l . 7 4 , Moscow-Len ingrad 1 958, p .28 .] I .

Umayyad ( 1 ) Wäsi I , 7 11/12 cA bbäsid ( 9 ) a l-Küfah , 7 50/1 , 7 60/1 Madinat a l-Sa lä m , 7 74/5 , 8 0 3 /4 , 8 18/19 a l- c Abbäsryyah , 7 87/8 I ff iq iyah , 7 91/2 a l- Mu t ia m madiyyah , 8 05/6 Madrnat S a marqand , 8 13/14

2 4 .

S kop insk i i u ezd , R iazan t p rov ince , 1 888 . h oard were i den t if ied . d ated t o 8 18/19 .

A l l were

cA bbäs id

F ive d irha ms f ro m a c o in d irha ms a nd t he most r ecen t

[ A . L . Monga it , R iazanska ia z em l ia , Moscow 1 961 ,

p . 9 3 , n o . 5 9 .] 2 5 .

I ary lov ich i , G orodn i ts u ezd , C hern igov p rov ince , 1 875 . was f ound a h oard o f 2 85 d irha ms . t he most r ecen t t o 8 20/1 .

I n as andy h i l l

T he o ldest c o in d ated t o 5 51 a nd

[Markov , " ropograf i ia , p p . 5 0-1 , n o . 2 90 .]

9 1

I .

S asan ian ( 21 ) Khusraw I , 5 51 Hor m izd I V , 5 83 , 5 90 Khusraw I , 5 92 , 5 93 , 5 94 , 6 05 , 6 16 , 6 18 ( 2 ) , 6 19 , 6 20 , 6 21 ( 4 ) , 6 25 , 6 28 , 3 x y ear ( 2 ) , f rag men t cA bbasid e Um ar

Governors o f Tabar istän

b . a l- cA lä , 7 73 , 7 75 ( 2 )

A . zfut-anony mous , 7 84? I I .

Umayyad Governors o f P ersia ( 7 ) Yazdagard I I-Sasan ian p ro to type , 6 40/1 cU baida l läh c Um ar

I V .

b . Z iyäd , 6 79/80-688/9 , 6 8 1/2 , 6 83/4

b . cUbaida l läh , 6 87/8 ( 3 )

Umayyad ( 22 ) D i mashq , 6 98/9 , 7 13/14 Mäh a l-Küfah , 7 00/1 It .a .khr , 7 08/9 , 7 11/12 Wäs it, 7 11/12 , 7 12/13 , 7 14/15 ( 2 ) , 7 15/16 , 7 22/3 , 7 25/6 , 7 27/8 , 7 29/30 , 7 4 1 /2 , 7 43/4 ( 2 ) , 7 45/6 , 7 46/7 Mubärakah , 7 27/8 I friq iyah , 7 3 1 /2 a l-A .nda lus , 7 32/3

V .

cA .bb-a s id

( 203 )

a l- K il lah , 7 57/8 ( 2 ) , 7 61/2 , 7 62/3 a l-Ba Fah , 7 60/1 a l- M ea m madryyah , 7 65/6 , 7 66/7 , 7 68/9 , 7 69/70 , 7 70/1 , 7 77/8 ( 2 ) , 7 83/4 , 7 86/7 , 7 88/9 , 7 97/8 ( 2 ) , 7 98/9 ( 2 ) , 7 99/800 , 8 02 ( 2 ) , 8 02/3 , 8 04/5 , 8 05/6 , 8 16/17 Madrnat a 1Sa l m , 7 70 ( 2 ) , 7 7 1/2 , 7 73/4 , 7 74/5 ( 2 ) , 7 75/6 , 7 7 6 /7 ( 3 ) , 7 77/8 , 7 78/9 ( 4 ) , 7 79/80 ( 2 ) , 7 80/1 ( 2 ) , 7 81/2 , 7 83/4 , 7 87/8 , 7 95/6 ( 3 ) , 7 96/7 , 7 97/8 ( 3 ) , 8 02/3 ( 2 ) , 8 04/5 , 8 06/7 , 8 07/8 ( 2 ) , 8 09/10 , 8 10/11 , 8 11/12 a l- cA .bbäsryyah , 7 72/3 , 7 76/7? ( 2 ) , 7 77/8 ( 4 ) , 7 78/9 ( 2 ) , 7 79/80 ( 4 ) , 7 80/1 ( 5 ) , 7 81/2 ( 3 ) , 7 82/3 ( 7 ) , 7 83/4 ( 2 ) , 7 83/4? ( 2 ) , 7 84/5 ( 2 ) , 7 85/6 ( 4 ) , 7 86/7-795/6 ( 5 5 ) , 7 87/8 ( 9 ) , 7 90/1 ( 2 ) , 7 89/90? Badca , 7 8 1 /2 I frrq iyah , 7 82/3 , 7 86/7 ( 2 ) , 7 86/7-795/6 , 7 88/9 , 7 9 1/2 , 7 92/3 ( 4 ) 5 an cd , 7 88/9 S i jistän , 7 88/9 Withou t n a me o f min t , 7 67/8-775/6 a l- Mubärakah , 7 90/1 Madrnat J ayy , 7 78/9 ( 3 ) Z aran j , 7 97/8 ( 2 ) , 8 0 1 /2 ? B a lkh , 7 98/9 ( 2 ) Arrän , 8 02/3 , 8 12/13 Ma ed in B ä junays , 8 06/7, 8 07/8 , 8 09/10 S a marqand , 8 09/10 , 8 13/14 , 8 17/18 , 8 20/1 I sbahän , 8 15/16 Är mrn iyah , 8 18/19

9 2

V I .

S pan ish Umayyads ( 3 ) a l-Anda lus , 7 70 , 7 97/8 , 8 00/1?

V I I .

I drr s id ( 2 3 ) Wa l l lah , 7 76/7-78 5 /6 , 7 92/3 , 8 00/1 B ad ca , 7 90/1? , 7 90/1 , 7 91/2 ( 2 ) , 7 92/3 ( 5 ) , 7 94/5?, 7 86/77 95/6 , u nknown y ear ( 9 )

V I I I .

Agh lab id ( 1 ) Wa l l lah , n o y ear

2 6 .

E l med , Ch istopo l ' s k i i u ezd , Kazan ' p rov ince , 1 906 . o f t he R iver C here mshan , 1 50 d irha ms w as f ound .

I n t he u pper r eaches

al ef t-bank t r ibu tary o f t he Vo lga , ah oard o f T he most r ecen t d irha m d ated t o 8 20/1 .

A l-

t hough a d eta i led d escr ip t ion o f t he h oard h as n o t b een p ub l ished , I an in h as p rov ided t he c hrono log ica l a nd d ynast ic d istr ibu t ion o f t he d irha ms i n t h is h oard .

[ I an in , D enezhno-vesovye , T ab les I , I ;

Kropo tk in ,

'Novye n akhodk i i, p . 8 8 , n o . 1 23 .] I . I .

2 7 .

Umayyad ( 1 0 ) cA bbäs id

( 1 31 )

I I .

G overnors o f T udgha ( 4 )

I V .

I drr s id ( 5 )

V itebsk r a ion , 8 22/3 . i n format ion a bou t i t . y ears .

2 8 .

K ropo tk in l i sts t h is h oard b ut p rov ides n o o ther P resu mab ly i th as o n ly c o me t o l ight i n r ecen t

[ Kropotk in , '0 t opograf i i ', 1 13 . ]

L itv inov ich i , R ech itsk i i r a ion , G o me l ' ° b las t ', 1 954 .

Ah oard o f 1 00

d irha ms was f ound o f wh ich 4 1 were s en t t o t he S tate H istor ica l Museu m i n Moscow f or i den t if icat ion . most r ecen t t o 8 23/4 .

T he o ldest c o in d ated t o 7 49/50 a nd t he

A lthough a d e ta i led d escr ip t ion o f t he h oard h as

n ot b een p ub l ished , I an in h as p rov ided t he c hrono log ica l a nd d ynast ic d istr ibut ion o f t he 4 1 d irha ms wh ich were i den t if ied . [ Ian in , D enezhnov esovye , T ab les I , I ; I . I . 2 9 .

T äh ir id ( 1 )

An ton inenberg , 8 23/4 . i n for mat ion a bou t i t . y ears .

3 0 .

Kropo tk in , 'N ovye n akhodkP , p . 9 3 , n o . 1 78 . ]

c Abbäs id ( 4 0 )

Kropo tk in l i sts t h is h oard b ut p rov ides n o o ther P resu mab ly , i th as o n ly c o me t o l igh t i n r ecen t

[ Kropo tk in , '0 t opograf iP , 1 13 .]

D em iansk , Novgorod p rov ince , 1 833 .

Ah oard o f 3 5 d irha ms ( 10 who le

a nd 2 5 f rag men ts ) was f ound n ear D em iansk . 6 97/8 a nd t he most r ecen t t o 8 24/5 .

T he o ldest c o in d ated t o

Un for tunate ly , F rähn , who i den-

t i f ied t he h oard , d id n o t p rov ide a n e nu mera t ion o f t he i nd iv idua l c o ins b u t o n ly d escr ibed g roups a nd t ypes .

[Markov , Topograf i ia , p : 2 8 ,

n o . 1 54 .] I .

Umayyad G overnors Markov men t ions s evera l d irha ms o f H adzhdzhadzh s truck b etween

6 97/8 a nd 7 13/14 a ccord ing t o t he S asan ian t ype .

H adzhdzhadzh It ake

t o mean a l-Ha j jä j b . Y l isuf . H owever , H and j was c lose ly a ssoc iated w ith c Abd-a l- Ma l ik s mone tary r efor m o f c . 6 97 wh i le t he most r ecen t d rach ms s truck i n h is n a me d ate f ro m a round 7 02/3 ( John Wa lker , A C a ta logue o f t he Arab-Sassan ian C o ins , 1 941 , p p . l x iv-lxv , c x lv i i , 9 3

1 17-21) .

S ince H a ir d i d ied i n 7 13/14 , t he men t ion o f t h is y ear b y F rähn

may r efer more t o t he e nd o f H a j jär s l i fe t han t o t he d ate o fh is mos t r ecen t d rach ms i n t he h oard . I .

Umayyad

D irha ms o f t he C a l iphs a l- Wa lrd I , S u la imän , e Umar a nd H ishä m s truck i n D är ab jird , D i mashq , a nd Wäsi t d ur ing t he f i rst h a lf o f t he e igh th c en tury . I I .

The o ldest a pparen t ly d ated t o 7 11/12 .

c Abbäs id

D irha ms o f a l- Mansür , a l- Mandr , a l-Hädr , a r-Rashr d , a l-A mrn , a lMa 'm f in , a nd a l- Ma 'm f in 's h e ir

( "A l i-R ida" )s truck i n a l- c Abbäsr yyah ,

I f rrq iyah , Madrnat a l-Sa lä m , a l-Shäsh , B a lkh , 'Oa If än , a nd S a marqand d ur ing t he s econd h a lf o f t he e igh th a nd e ar ly n in th c en tury . I V .

I dri s id ( 1 ) I drr s , I , 7 90/1

V .

T äh ir id ( 2 ) a l-Rayy , 8 23/4 H erät , 8 24/5

V I .

E f faced C o ins T he e xact n u mber i s n o t g iven .

F ive d irha ms f ro m t h is h oard were i den t if ied a s h av ing b een s truck i n D äräb jird , I sbahän , a l- Muha m madryyah , B a lkh , a nd S a marqand d ur ing 7 16/17 , 8 10211 , 8 11/12 , a nd 8 12/13 . 3 1 .

S arskoe g orod ishche , Rostov u ezd , l aros lavP p rov ince , 1 854 .

Ag roup

o f 6 0 d irha ms was f ound b etween c hanne ls o f t he R iver S ara n ear t he v i l lage o f D iabo l . Wh i le Markov d a tes t he most r ecen t c o in i n t he h oard t o 8 54 , I an in a rgues t hat t h is p ar t icu lar c o in w as f ound o u ts ide t he h oard ; h e t hus r edates t he h oard t o t he 8 20s . n o . 3 13 ; I . I .

[Markov , Topograf i ia , p . 5 4 ,

I an in , D enezhno-vesovye , p . 9 0 , n . 2 . ]

S asan ian a nd T abar istan ( 12 ) Umayyad ( 6 ) 7 13-747

i i .

cA bbäs id

( 40 )

I V .

I drr s id ( 1 )

7 72-854 7 90-800 3 2 .

Ug l ich , I aros lavP p rov ince , 1 879 .

On t he l ef t b ank o f t he R iver V o lga ,

n ear Ug l ich , ap easan t f ound a h oard o f 5s i lver b ars , 2 05 who le c o ins , a nd 9 09 c o in f ragmen ts s cat tered i n t he g round ; ac on ta iner . c o ins .

t here was n o s ign o f

The Imper ia l Archaeo log ica l C om m iss ion o b ta ined 2 02

T he o ldest d ated t o 5 07 a nd t he most r ecen t t o 8 29/30 .

Wh i le

Markov l i sts t he most r ecen t c o in a s 8 32/3 , S ov iet s cho lars g ive t he d ate a s 8 29/30 . I .

[Markov , T opograf f i ia , p p . 5 4-5 , n o . 3 14 .]

S asan ian ( 14 ) K avädh I , 5 07 H or m izd I V , 5 85 Khusraw I , 5 93 , 5 94 , 5 96 , 6 00 , 6 03 ? , 6 16? ( 2 ) , 6 20 , 6 23 , 6 24 , 6 28 Ardasher I I , 6 29 9 4

II. Umayyad Governors (8) Muc awiya, 663/4 CUbaidallah b. Ziyad, 671/2, 677/8 cu mar b. cubaidallah, 68 0/1, 687/8?, 689/90 al-Muhallab b. A.bf �ufra, 694/5 Unknown year III. c Abbasid Governors of Tabarist.an (37) Khurshid, 712, 716, effa ced year Farkhan, 726 Nameless, 759 (Some or all of the above three types may, in fac t, be Ispahbad coins. Markov simply lists them as 'fabaristan and makes no dis­ tinc tion between the native Ispahbad half-dirhams and the similar coins struck by the c Abbas id governors.) cumar b. al-c Ala, 771, 773, 774?, 775 (2), 776, 778 (2), 779 (2), 780 (5) Khalid b. Barmak, year not visible (767 /8-770/1 ?) Sa c id b. Da c laj, 776, 777, year effa ced Afzut/Anonymous, 780, 781 (fragment), 783 (3), 784?, 785, 786, 787, 794 Sulaiman, year not visible Hanf, b. Hanf, 789 Mu�til, 790? IV. Umayyad (23) al-Ba�rah, 701/2, 718/19 al-Kufah, 720/1 Dimashq, 703/4, 713/14, 742/3 al-Taimara, 709/10 Darabjird, 708/9 al-Rayy, 709/10 sabur, 711/12 Ardashrr Khurrah, 712/13 Jaiz or Jaiza?, 712/13 Marw, 713/14, 715/16, 717/18 Wasit, 714/15, 723/4, 728/9, 740/1, 741/2, 747/8 al-Andalus, 723/4 Balkh, 739/40 V. c Abbasid Partisans (1) al-KO.fah?, 745/6 VI. c Abbasid (114) al-Kufah, 754/5, 761/2, 763/4, 821/2 al-Basrah, 763/4 al-Rayy, 7.63/4 al-Muhammadfyyah, 768/9, 769/70, 770, 771/2, 777/8, 786/7, ° 788 /9, 791/2, 796/7, 798/9, 799/800, 800/1, 802 (2), 808/9, 811/12, 812/13, 818/19 Madthat al-SaHlm, 770/1 (2), 773/4, 775/6, 776/7 (2), 777/8, 778/9, 779/80 (3), 795/6, 796/7, 798/9, 802, 802/3, 803/4, 804/5, 805/6, 806/7, 808/9·, 813/14 (2), 815/16 (2), 821/2, 822/3

95

a l-cAbbäsryyah , 7 74/5 , 7 75/6 , 7 83/4 , 7 85/6 , 7 86/7 , 7 87/8 ( 2 ) , 7 90/1 , 7 92/3 , 7 93/4? J ayy , 7 78/9 Armrn iyah , 7 78/9 , 7 82/3 , 7 90/1 , 8 07/8 I f rrq iyah , 7 84/5 , 7 98/9? H ärünäbäd , 7 85/6 a l-Ya mä mah? , 7 85/6 B a lkh , 7 98/9 , 8 01/2 , 8 04/5 , 8 05/6 , 8 07/8 A . rrän , 8 02 , 8 03/4 , 8 07/8? , 8 12/13 , 8 14/15 , 8 22/3 , 8 23/4 , 8 24/5 , 8 25/6 ( 2 ) , 8 26/7 ? , 8 28/9-832/3 ( f ragmen t ) Z aran j , 8 02 , 8 02/3 , 8 04/5 , 8 09/10 Ma cd in B ä junays , 8 04/5 ? , 8 05/6 , 8 06/7 , 8 07/8 , 8 10/11 ( 2 ) , 8 11/12 o r 8 12/13 , 8 19/20 , 8 2 1/2 Ma ed in a l-Shäsh , 8 05/6 T abar istän , 8 05/6 ( 2 ) Abrashahr , 8 07/8 S a mar c iand , 8 09/10 , 8 13/14 , 8 15/16 , 8 16/17 I ebahän , 8 12/13 , 8 14/15 , 8 15/16 , 8 18/19 V I I . V I I I .

Unknown min t , 7 9 6 /7804/5 , 8 15/16-911/12 S pan ish Umayyads ( 3 ) a l-Anda lus , 7 88/9 , 7 89/90 , 7 93/4 I di r s id ( 5 ) Wa li lah , 7 90/1 ( 2 ) , 8 0 5 /6 B ad ca , 7 90/1 , 7 9 1/2

T he c o in f ragmen ts ( 66 S asan ian , 3 3 I spahbad , 7 0 Umayyad , a nd 6 81 were me lted d own .

cA bbasid )

3 3 .

Z agorod ' e , V yshnevo lo tsk i i u ezd , Tver p rov ince , 1 889-1924 . d irha ms were f ound a long t he R iver Mo loga i n 1 889 ; were u ncovered i n t he s a me s po t t he f o l low ing y ear .

E igh t

t hree more d irha ms Markov r epor ts

a no ther d irha m f ragmen t f ro m t he s a me o r n earby s po t b u t d oes n o t g ive t he d ate o f t he f ind .

F as mer n o tes y et a no ther d irha m f ro m t he

s a me o r n earby s po t wh ich c a me t o l igh t i n 1 924 . i n t he h oard ( 14

cA bbäs id

I a .n in l i sts 1 5 d irha ms

a nd 1 T äh ir id ) b u t d oes n o t i nd icate t he r efer-

e nce f or t he r e ma in ing t wo c o ins .

I ti s n ot c lear why s o many s tuden ts

b e l ieve t hat c o ins a pparen t ly f ound a t t he s a me s po t o r a rea o ver t he c ourse o f t h ir ty-f ive y ears b e long t o t he s a me o r ig ina l h oard : T opograf i ia , p . 4 7 , n o . 2 67 , p . 1 40 , n o . 3 1 ; 2 90 , n o . 2 0 ; I .

F as mer ,

L an in , D enezhno-vesovye , T ab le I .]

cA bbäs id

( 12 )

a l- Muha m madtyyah , 7 67/8 , 8 07/8 a l-K id ah , 7 49/50 , 7 77/8 Madrnat a l-Sa lä m , 7 70/1 , 7 78/9 , 7 96/7 , 8 3 1 /2 Tabar istän , 8 07/8 amar c iand , 8 08/9 I ebahän , 7 99/800 Z aran j , 8 02/3 I .

T äh ir id ( 1 ) I sbahän , 8 2 3 /4

9 6

[Markov ,

S p isok ', p .

3 4 .

K is la ia , Smo lensk r a ion a nd o b la .st ', 1 967 .

On t he R iver Z herespee , a

t r ibu tary o f t he K a ,sp l ia-Dnepr , a t as et t le men t o f t he n in th a nd t en th c en tur ies , i n ah and- made p ot , ah oard o f 6 74 d irha ms was f ound ( 427 who le , 7c u t i n to c irc les , 2 40 f ragmen ts ) .

T he most r ecen t c o in was

a n c Abbäsid d irha m o f t he f irst t h ird o f t he n in th c en tury .

[ V . M . Po t in ,

Russko-skand inaysk ie s v iaz i p o n um iz ma t ichesk im d anny m I stor ichesk ie s v iaz i S kand inav i i iRoss i i , I X-XX v v .: L en ingrad 1 970 ,

P .

7 6 , n o . 5 1 ;

v v .) '

S born ik s tate i ,

K ropo tk in , 'N ovye n akhodk i ', p . 8 5 ,

n o . 9 2 . ] I . I .

S asan ian ( 4 ) Umayyad ( 4 9 )

I I .

cA bbäs id

I V .

( ? )

G overnors o f T udgha ( ?)

V .

I spabad ( 9 )

V I .

D an ish ( 1 ) H edeby , h a lf -bracteate ,

3 5 .

C . 8 25

V iatka , V iatka p rov ince , 1 889 .

Wh i le d igg ing t he f oundat ions f or a

h ouse , s ix d irha ms were f ound . I .

[Markov , T opograf i ia , p . 7 , n o . 3 5 .]

Umayyad ( 3 ) D i mashq , 7 02/3 Wäs it , 7 07/8 , 7 12/13

I .

cA bbas id

( 2 )

a l- Muha m madryyah , 7 66/7 , 8 10/11 I I .

T ah ir iä ( 1 ) S a marqand , 8 35

3 6 .

D ev itsa , Voronezh r a ion a nd o b last ', 1 938 .

Ac o in a nd b u l l ion h oard

c on ta in ing 3 23 d irha ms was f ound ( 299 who le , 2 4 f ragmen ts ) . o ldes t c o in d ated t o 5 51 a nd t he most r ecen t t o 8 37/8 .

The

Ou t o f r espect

f or t he l a te A . A . B ykov , Ih ave l i sted t he 8 6 s o-ca l led "n azar " d irha ms wh ich h e i den t if ied f ro m t h is h oard a s as eparate c a tegory . T he e x istence o f ad ist inct K hazar c o inage i s , h owever , s t i l l q uest iona b le .

[ Kropo tk in , 'N ovye

n akhodk i '

p . 7 9 , n o . 2 0 ;

A . A . B ykov ,

I z i stor i i d enezhnogo o brashchen i ia Khazar i i vV L T I iI X v v .', V ostochnye i stochn ikov p o i stor i i n aradov i ugo-vostochno i it sen tra l ' n o i Evropy 3 ( 1974 ) , 2 6-71 .] I . I .

Umayyad ( 1 7 )

I I .

Umayyad G overnors ( 1 )

I V .

cA bbas id

V .

cA bbäs id

V I . V I I . V I I I . I X . X . 3 7 .

S asan ian ( 5 )

( 2 06 ;

t he f igure i s 2 92 i ft he "Khazar " c o ins a re

i n-

c luded a s cAbbfs id ) G overnors o f T abar istän ( 1 )

G overnors o f T udgha ( 1 ) I drr s id ( 2 ) Agh lab id ( 1 ) Im i tat ion c Abbäs id ( 3 ) K hazar ( 8 6 )

Pro tasovo , O doevsk i i u ezd , Tu la p rov ince , 1 856 .

A money b ox f i l led

w ith s evera l h undred d irha ms was f ound o n t he s hores o f t he R iver

9 7

Vo lkona where i te nters t he R iver U pa . o n ly 1 1 were i den t if ied . I . Umayyad ( 1 ) '

T he c oins were d ispersed a nd

[Markov , Topograf i ia , p . 4 9 , n o . 2 84 .]

Wäs iI , 7 39/40 I .

cA .bbäs id

( 10 )

a l-Baerah , 7 62/3 Mad inat a l-Sa lä m , 7 7 1/2 , 7 73/4 , 8 02/3 , 8 03/4 , 8 17/18 , 8 4 1 /2 Z aran j , 8 0 1 /2 a l-Sh5sh , 8 05/6 ( 2 ) 3 8 .

D obr ino , L ioznensk i i r a ion , Brest ' o b last ', 1 962 .

A .c o in a nd b u l l ion

h oard c on ta in ing 5 27 d irha ms ( 431 who le a nd 9 6 f ragmen ts ) was f ound i n ac lay p o t .

T he o ldest c o in d ated t o 7 38/9 a nd t he most r ecen t t o

8 4 1 /2 . [ V . N . R iab tsev ich , 'Dva monetno-veshchevykh k lada L X v . i z V i tebsko i o b last i ', NE 5 ( 1965 ) , 1 32-60 ; p . 9 2 , n o . 1 69 .] I .

K ropo tk in , 'N ovye n akhodk i ',

Umayyad ( 24 ) a l-Sä m iyyah , 7 48/9 Wäs it , 7 38/9 ( 2 ) , 7 39/40 , 7 40/1 , 7 4 1/2 ( 5 ) , 7 42/3 ( 4 ) , 7 37/8-

I .

7 42/3 , 7 43/4 ( 3 ) , 7 4 5 /6 ( 2 ) , 7 4 6 /7 ( 2 ) , 7 47/8 ( 2 ) ( 503 )

cA bbfsid

a l-Baerah , 7 5 1 /2 ( 2 ) , 7 53/4 , 7 54/5 ( 2 ) , 7 54/5 o r 7 55/6, 7 55/6 ( 3 ) , 7 57/8 , 7 5 6 /7760/1 , 7 60/1 , 7 61/2 , 7 62/3 ( 3 ) , 7 63/4 ( 3 ) , 7 64/5 ( 2 ) , 7 7 6 /7 , 7 77/8 , 7 83/4 ( 2 ) , 7 97/8 , 8 13/14 , 8 13/14-833/4? a l-Küfah , 7 49/50 ( 3 ) , 7 50/1 , 7 51/2 ( 4 ) , 7 5 3 /4 ( 4 ) , 7 55/6 , 7 5 6/7, 7 57/8 , 7 58/9 ( 2 ) , 7 59/60 ( 2 ) , 7 60/1 , 7 6 1/2 , 7 62/3 ( 3 ) , 7 63/ 4 ( 2 ) , 8 32/3 . Ardashrr K hurrah , 7 6 1 /2 Ar min iyah , 7 63/4 , 7 77/8 , 7 78/9 , 8 06/7 , 8 19/20 a l-Rayy , 7 64/5 ( 2 ) a l- Mu l la m mad lyyah , 7 65/6 , 7 66/7 , 7 67/8 ( 3 ) , 7 77/8 ( 3 ) , 7 81/2 ( 2 ) , 7 82/3 ( 4 ) , 7 83/4 ( 3 ) , 7 84/5 , 7 86/7 ( 2 ) , 7 87/8 , 7 90/1 , 7 91/2 ( 2 ) , 7 96/7 ( 3 ) , 7 97/8 ( 6 ) , 7 98/9 ( 4 ) , 7 9 9 /80 0 ( 4 ) , 8 00/1 ( 5 ) , 8 0 1/2 ( 5 ) , 8 02 ( 3 ) , 8 02/3 ( 3 ) , 8 03/4 ( 6 ) , 8 04/5 , 8 05/6 ( 2 ) , 8 06/7 , 8 07/8 , 8 08/9 ( 3 ) , 8 11/12 , 8 12/13 , 8 15/16 ( 2 ) , 8 16/17 ( 2 ) , 8 33/4 , 8 13/14-833/4 ( 3 ) Madinat a l-Sa lä .m , 7 6 5/6 ( 5 ) , 7 66/7 ( 2 ) , 7 67/8 ( 2 ) , 7 69/70 ( 5 ) , 7 70 ( 4 ) , 7 70/1 ( 4 ) , 7 7 1/2 ( 9 ) , 7 72/3 ( 7 ) , 7 73/4 ( 12 ) , 7 74/5 ( 7 ) , 7 75/6 , 7 76/7 ( 8 ) , 7 77/8 ( 6 ) , 7 78/9 ( 12 ) , 7 79/80 ( 8 ) , 7 80/1 ( 9 ) , 7 8 1/2 ( 2 ) , 7 82/3 , 7 84/5 ( 3 ) , 7 85/6 ( 2 ) , 7 88/9 , 7 9 1/2 ( 3 ) , 7 95/6 ( 7 ) , 7 9 6 /7 ( 7 ) , 7 97/8 ( 10 ) , 7 98/9 ( 4 ) , 7 99/800 , 8 00/1 ( 3 ) , 8 02 ( 2 ) , 7 9 5 /6 802 , 8 02/3 ( 7 ) , 8 03/4 ( 6 ) , 8 04/5 ( 12 ) , 8 05/6 ( 7 ) , 8 06/7 ( 5 ) , 8 07/8 ( 8 ) , 8 08/9 ( 3 ) , 8 09/10 ( 3 ) , 8 10/11 ( 5 ) , 8 11/12 , 8 13/14 ( 2 ) , 8 14/15 ( 2 ) , 8 15/16 ( 3 ) , 8 18/19 , 8 19/20 ( 3 ) , 8 19/20 o r 8 20/1 , 8 20/1 ( 3 ) , 8 2 1 /2 ( 4 ) , 8 22/3 , 8 23/4 , 8 28/9 , 8 13/14-833/4 ( 5 ) , 8 35 , 8 39/40 , 8 4 1 /2 I fr i i i iyah , 7 8 1/2 , 7 96/7 K ir män , 7 82/3 , 7 83/4 Madrnat J ayy , 7 78/9 ( 2 ) A .rrä ' .n , 8 01/2 , 8 05/6 , 8 06/7 ( 2 ) , 8 11/12 ( 2 )

9 8

Mad inat A rrän , 8 2 3 /4 , 8 3 1/2 ( 2 ) , 8 33/4 , 8 35 Madinat A brashahr , 8 07/8 Madinat B a lkh , 7 98/9 ( 3 ) , 8 0 1/2 ( 2 ) , 8 02 , 8 02/3 ( 5 ) , 8 03/4 ( 2 ) , 8 04/5 ( 7 ) , 8 07/8 , 8 08/9 ( 2 ) , 8 10/11 ( 6 ) , 8 15/16 Madinat Z aran j , 7 92/3 , 7 93/4 , 7 97/8 , 7 99/800 , 8 00/1 , 8 04/5 ( 2 ) , 8 05/6 , 8 07/8 ( 2 ) , 8 11/12 ( 2 ) Madi na t S a marqand , 8 08/9 ( 2 ) , 8 09/10 , 8 10/11 ( 2 ) , 8 11/12 ( 4 ) , 8 12/13 ( 3 ) , 8 13/14 , 8 14/15 ( 3 ) , 8 15/16 ( 6 ) , 8 16/17 ( 5 ) S a marqand , 8 17/18 , 8 18/19 ( 3 ) , 8 20/1 , 8 2 1/2 , 8 23/4 , 8 24/5 , 8 25/6 Madinat Marw , 8 0 1 /2 Marw , 8 14/15 Madrnat N aysäbür , 8 08/9 ( 2 ) , 8 09/10 , 8 10/11 ( 2 ) Ma ed in a l-Shash , 8 05/6 ( 5 ) a l-Härünr yyah , 7 86/7 a l-Räf iqah , 8 2 3 /4 Madinat Ipahän , 8 12/13 , 8 13/15 ( 2 ) , 8 15/16 ( 2 ) , 8 16/17 , 8 20/1 ( 2 ) , 8 22/3 ( 2 ) , 8 23/4 Ma ed in B ä junays , 8 24/5 Madina t ? , ? Ar9 a l-Khayr , 8 37/8 R iab tsev ich d oes n ot men t ion a ny T äh ir id d irha ms a lthough T äh ir id c o ins a re r epor ted f ro m s o me o f t he s a me m in ts a nd y ears a s t he d irha ms i n t h is h oard . 3 9 .

L esogur t , D ebessk i i r a ion , U d mur t ASSR , 1 961 .

On t he l ef t-bank o f

t he R iver C hep tsa , ac o in a nd b u l l ion h oard c on ta in ing d irha ms was f ound .

P ar t o f t he h oard was s en t t o t he S tate H istor ica l Museu m f or

i den t if icat ion a nd c ons isted o f 1 39 c o ins ( 22 who le a nd 1 17 f rag men ts ) . T he o ldest c o in w as a S asan ian d rach m o f 5 90 a nd t he most r ecen t a n cA bbäs id

d irha m o f 8 4 1/2 . [ Kropo tk in ,

N ovye n akhodk i ', p . 8 8 , n o .

1 24 .] I .

S asan ian ( 2 )

I .

I spahbad ( 1 )

I I .

G overnors o f T abar istän ( 1 )

I V .

Umayyad ( 2 1 )

V . V I . V I I . V I I I . I X . 4 0 .

G overnors o f Tudgha ( 1 ) I drr s id ( 1 ) T äh ir id ( 2 ) c A .bbäs id ( 1 03 ) Undeter m ined ( 1 )

I agoshury , K esty msk v o lost ', G lazov u ezd , V iatka p rov ince , 1 867. About 3 8 v ersts f ro m G lazov , ap easan t f ound a s i lver v esse l c on ta ini ng a s i lver b ar a nd 1 ,500 d irha ms . i den t if ied .

A l l t he c o ins were o b ta ined a nd

T he o ldest c o in d ated t o 5 87 a nd t he most r ecen t t o 8 42/3 .

[Markov , Topograf i ia , p . 8 , n o . 3 9 ;

R . R . F as mer ,

Mad k uf ichesk ikh

mone t , n a idenny i vN ovgorode v 1 920 g .', I zvest i ia Gosudarstvenno i Akade m i i i stor i i mater ia l ' n o i k u l ' Wry 4 ( 1925 ) , 2 64 ; v esovye , Tab le I . ]

9 9

I an in , D enezhno-

I .

S asan ian ( 2 ) Hor m izd I V , 5 87 Khusraw I , 6 19

I .

I spahbad ( 1 ) Khurshtd , 7 53

i f i

cA bbäsid c Um ar

I V .

Governors o f T abar istän ( 1 )

b . a l-cA lä , 7 78

Umayyad D irha ms s truck i n a l-Baprah , D i mashq , a l-Süs , Wäsit , Ardashrr Khurrah , a l-Rayy , a l-Ta i mara , 1 VMhT , S urraq , K ir man , H a madhan , Manäc ihir , J ayy ,

a l-Küfah , D äräb jird , I takhr , J undai-

S äbür , A .brashahr , I f rTq iyah , a l-A .nda lus , a l- Mubärakah , a nd a lJ azTrah d ur ing 6 9 9 /7 0 0-748/9 V .

cA bbäs id

D irha ms s truck i n Itakhr , a l-Küfah , a l-Basrah , S uq a l-A .hwäz , Ardashir Khurrah , J unda i-Säbür , Ar mT n iyah , a l-Rayy , Madrnat a l- S a lä m , Mu l la m madryyah , a l-cAbbäsT yyah , a l-Ya mä mah , S i jistän , Qa p - a l-Sa lä m , Arrän , K ir män , Här i inäbäd ,

a l-f lärüntyyah ,

I f riq iyah , J ayy , Z aran j , a l- Mubärakah , D i mashq , B alkh , Marw , S an cä , a l-Räf iqah , I V Iaed in a l-Shä .sh , H erät , Naysäbür , B ukhärä , Ipahan , S a marqand , F ärs , a nd Misr d ur ing 7 49/50-840/1 V I .

Täh ir id D irha ms s truck i n Herat , a l- Mu l la m madtyyah , S a marqand , Z aran j , I §bahän , Marw , Ma c d in a l-Shäsh , a l-Shäsh , F ärs , a nd Qu m m d ur ing 8 21/2-842/3

A lthough a d etai led a ccoun t o f t he h oard h as n ot y et b een p ub l ished , F as mer a nd I an in p rov ide a dd it iona l i n for ma t ion .

Accord ing t o F as mer ,

t he c hrono log ica l a nd mint d istr ibut ions were a s f o l lows : Nu mber o f c o ins

T i me

%o f t o ta l

8 16/17-843/4

3 02

2 4.1

7 86/7-813/14

4 03

3 2.2

7 49/50-785/6

3 40

2 7.2

2 05

1 6.4

6 9 9 /7 0 0-748/9

2

c en tur ies

1 252 Ch ief min ts

Nu mber o f c o ins

. 2 1 00.1 %o f t o ta l 2 7.6

Mad inat a lSa l m

3 46

a l- M ea m madryah

1 63

1 3.0

Wasit

1 38

1 1.0

S a marqand

1 11

8 .9

5 8

4 .6

a l-Ba rah

5 1

4 .1

Marw

4 9

3 .9

4 7

3 .8

4 3

3 .4

a l-Shash

a l-Küfah

4 2

3 .4

1 048

8 3.7

I sbahän

1 00

Accord ing t o I an in ' sd ata , t he d ynast ic d istr ibut ion was a s f o l lows : I . I . I I . I V . V .

S asan ian

O .1 9%

T abar istän

O .1 9%

or

2c o ins

1 9 .3 9%

o r

2 43 c o ins

o r

1 004 c o ins

Umayyad T äh ir id

+

cA bbäsid

8 0 .2 3%

o r

2c o ins

[ 1 ]

1 00 .00

c o in

1 252 c o ins

Unfortunately , I an in ' sd ata d o n o t c o incide w ith F as mer ' so r Markov ' s . I an in ' sf i gures , f or e xa mp le , s uggest 2 43 Umayyad d irha ms wh i le F as mer i nd icates t hat o n ly 2 05 c o ins f a l l w ith in t he t ime s pan o f Umayyad d irha ms .

S im i lar ly , l an in ' ss ing le T äh ir id c o in d oes n ot f i t i n w ith

Markov ‚s e nu merat ion o f t en Täh ir id min ts r epresen ted i n t he h oard . C lear ly , we n eed a d e ta i led p ub l icat ion o f t h is l arge a nd impor tant h oard . 4 1.

S i mony , M iade l l s k ii r a ion , Minsk o b last ', 1 961. was f ound i n ap o t . Marw , 8 45/6.

Ah oard o f d irha ms

The most r ecen t c o in was a n cAbbäsid d irha m ,

I ti s n ot c lear f ro m t he r epor t i ft he 8 8 i dent if ied c o ins

c onst itute a l l o r p ar t o f t he h oard .

[ Kropotk in ,

N ovye n akhodkP , p .

9 3 , n o . 1 84.] I . I .

Umayyad ( 8 ) öA bbasid

( 79 )

I dr i-s id ( 1 ) 4 2 .

S ta .raia L adoga , V o lkhov r a ion , L en ingrad o b last ', 1 938 .

D ur ing

a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions , ah oard o f d irha ms was f ound ( 5 who le a nd 1 8 f rag men ts ) .

The e ar l iest c o in was t he f rag men t o f a n Umayyad d ir-

h am w ith t he min t a nd y ear c ut o f f ; 8 46/7 .

t he most r ecen t d irha m d ated t o

[ E . A . P akho mov , Monetn _ye k lady A . zerba idzhana id rug ikh

r espub l ik , k raev io b laste i Kavkaza , Vo l . 4( Baku 1 949 ) , p . 9 3 , n o . 1 302 ; 4 3 .

Kropo tk in , 'N ovye n akhodk i ', p . 8 2 , n o . 4 4.]

Kunakovo , 8 5 1 /5 2 . f or mat ion a bou t i t . y ears .

4 4 .

Kropotk in l i sts t h is h oard b ut p rov ides n o o ther i nP resu mab ly i th as o n ly c o me t o l igh t i n r ecen t

[ Kropo tk in , '0 t opograf iP , 1 14.]

Akhre m tsy , Z iabkovska ia v o lost ', Dr issensk i i u ezd , V itebsk p rov ince , 1 888 .

Two p easan t c h i ldren f ound 2 4 d irha ms o n t he r ight b ank o f t he

R iver D r issa .

T he c o ins were s en t t o t he Imper ia l Archaeo log ical

Co m m ission f or i den t if icat ion . t he most r ecen t t o 8 52/3 . I .

The o ldest d irha m d ated t o 7 41/2 a nd

[Markov , Topograf i ia , p . 3 , n o . 1 2 . ]

Umayyad ( 1 ) Was4 , 7 4 1/2

I .

cA bbäsid

( 20 )

a l- K i lfah , 7 51/2 , 7 61/2 Madinat a 1Sal m , 7 71/2 , 7 95/6 , 8 03/4 , 8 04/5 , 8 06/7, 8 08/9 , 8 09/10 , 8 11/12 , 8 13/14 a l- M ea m madryyah , 7 78/9 , 7 87/8 , 7 96/7 , 8 0 6 /7 B a lkh , 8 02/3 Macdin a l-Shäsh , 8 05/6 N aysäbür , 8 10/11

1 01

S a marc iand , 8 08/9 If tahän , 8 16/17 I I .

T fh ir id ( 3 ) Marw , 8 4 5 /6 , 8 48/9 ebahän , 8 52/3

4 5 .

P orech ' e , P l issk i i r a ion , Brest ' o b last ', 1 960 .

Wh ile p lough ing , a

c o in a nd b u l l ion h oard c on ta in ing 4 5 d irha ms was f ound ( 39 who le c o ins a nd 6 f rag men ts ) . t o 8 53/4 .

The o ldest c o in d ated t o 7 6 9/7 0 a nd t he most r ecen t

[ R iabtsev ich , 'Dva monetno-veshchevykh ', 1 29-31 ;

Kropo tk in ,

N ovye n akhodkr , p . 9 2 , n o . 1 70 .] I .

cAbbasid ( 41) a l-Mu t ia m madtyyah , 7 70/1 , 8 35/6 Madinat a l-Sa lä m , 7 69/70 , 7 73/4 , 7 74/5 , 7 77/8 , 7 79/80 , 7 80/1 ( 2 ) , 7 86/7 , 7 96/7 ( 2 ) , 7 98/9 , 8 02/3 , 8 04/5 , 8 0 6 /7 , 8 07/8 ( 3 ) , 8 08/9 ( 3 ) , 8 4 1 /2 a l-Ba rah , 7 77/8 I f rrq iyah , 7 93/4 Madrnat B a lkh , 8 0 1 /2 Madinat J ayy , 8 01/2 S a mar : land , 8 09/10 , 8 18/19 , 8 35 Madrnat S a marc iand , " o e8 A . H . u nder a l- Mu tawakk i l —probab ly 2 38 o r 8 52/3 Madinat H erä .t , 8 09/10 H er a , 8 08/9 , 8 18/19? Madinat S hiräz , 8 17/18 M in t n ot c lear , 8 16/17 , 7 49/50-814/15 , 8 15/16-911/12 a l-Shäsh , 8 40/1 , 8 5 1 /2 Marw o r a l-Shnsh , 8 53/4

I .

C oun terfe it ( 2 ) a l- Mu4a m madryyah , 8 12/13 Madtnat a l-Sa lä m , 7 49/50-814/15

I I .

Im i tat ion ( 1 ) Madrnat

I V .

d irha m o f a l- Mandr

Undeter m ined ( 1 ) R iabtsev ich d oes n ot n ote a ny Täh ir id d irha ms a lthough Täh ir id c o ins a re r eported f ro m s o me o f t he s a me min ts a nd y ears a s d irha ms i n t h is h oard .

4 6 .

Gruch ino , Kash ir u ezd , T ula p rov ince ,

1 866.

On t he s hores o f t he

R iver B o l tshaia Smedva , a money b ox w ith d irha ms was f ound . c o ins were a l l o f ' M r° k inds ;

where o ne o f t he c o ins was i dent if ied a s T äh ir id .

L ater , t hree c o ins ,

a pparen t ly f ro m t hose s ent t o Moscow , were i den t if ied . T opograf i ia , p . 5 0 , n o . 2 87.] I .

c . Abbäs id ( 2 ) Madinat a lSa l m , 8 08/9 S a marc iand , 8 18/19

I .

The

o ne o f e ach k ind w as s en t t o Moscow

T äh ir id ( 1 ) Marw , 8 60/61

1 02

[Markov ,

4 7 .

B aevo , D ubrovensk i i r a ion , V itebsk ° b last ', 1 936 .

On t he S obo levo

s ta te f arm , ah oard o f a round 2 ,000 d irha ms was f ound i n ac lay p o t ; 3 04 were i den t if ied ( 136 who le a nd 1 68 f rag men ts ) .

T he o ldest c o in was

a n Umayyad d irha m o f 7 10/11 a nd t he most r ecen t was a n c A .bbäsid d irha m o f 8 56/7 .

I n h is most r ecen t work , Kropotk in g ives t he d ate o f

t he most r ecen t d irha m a s 8 62/3 .

P resu mab ly t h is r edat ing r ef lects

t he most r ecen t work o n t he s t i l l u npub l ished S obo levo h oard a nd h as t hus b een a dop ted h ere .

A lthough Kropotk in g ives t he o ldest c o in a s

7 83/4 , t he d ata o f P akho mov a nd Kuznetsov s uppor t t he e ar l ier d ate . [ K . V . K uznetsov ,

S obo levsk i i k lad ', I zvest i ia Akade m i i N auk B e lo-

r ussko i S SR , 1 949 , n o . 6 , 1 55-6 ; p . 9 3 , n o . 1 303 ;

K ropotk in ,

Kropo tk in , '0 t opograf i i ', 1 15 .] b een p ub l ished .

P akho mov , Mone tnye k lady , V o l . 4 ,

N ovye n akhodk i '

p . 9 2 , n o . 1 72 ;

Un for tuna te ly , t h is h oard h as n ot y et

K uznetsov p rov ides s o me d a ta o n t he c hrono log ica l

d istr ibut ion o f t he c o ins .

N u mber o f T i me

c o ins

F irst h a lf o f t he e igh th c en tury

8 .3

S econd h a lf o f t he e igh th c en tury

1 13

3 6 .9

F irst h a lf o f t he n in th c entury

1 38

4 5 .1

3 0

9 .8

3 06

1 00 .0

A f ter 8 50

4 8 .

2 5

L uchesy , n ear V i tebsk , V itebsk pr ov ince , l ate e igh teen th-ear ly n inet een th c en tury .

D irha ms were f ound n ear t he v i l lage o f L uchesy a nd

were e xa m ined .

I ti s n ot c lear t hat t hese c o ins c a me f ro m a h oard .

[Markov , T opograf i ia , p . 2 , n o . 8 . ] cAbbäs id , S a marqand , 8 62/3 Unknown min t , 7 18/19-814/15 4 9 .

N ear t he v i l lages o f Rostovets a nd O strogov , K ash ir u ezd , T u la p rov ince , 1 865 o r 1 866 .

Ac lay v esse l c on ta in ing 9 d irha ms was f ound .

[Markov ,

Topograf i ia , p p . 4 9-50 , n o . 2 86 .] I.

cAbbfsid ( 9 ) Mad inat a l-Sa lä m , 7 7 6 /7 , 7 78/9 , 8 05/6 , 8 06/7 , 8 08/9 a l-Räf iqah , 8 06/7 N aysäbür , 8 14/15 a l-Küfah , 8 2 1 /2 S urra man r a 'ä , 8 64/5

5 0 .

P ank ino , Cherepovetsk i i u ezd , Novgorod p rov ince , 1 833 .

Wh i le d igg ing

l and , p easan ts f ound a h oard o f 2 6 d irha ms o f wh ich 5 were i den t if ied . [Markov , T opograf i ia , p . 2 8 , n o . 1 55 .] I .

cAbbas id ( 2 ) Madrnat a lSa l m , 8 49/50 Mäh a l-Küfah , 8 59/60

I .

T äh ir id ( 3 ) a l- Mu l pa m mad lyah a nd Marw , 8 56/7 , 8 62/3 , 8 63/4

1 03

O f t he r e ma in ing c o ins , 1 5 were c o mp le te ly e f faced a nd 5 were s truck b y t he cAbbas id C a l iphs a r-Rashrd , a l-A mrn , a l- Madrna a l- Mu tawakk i l iyyah a nd a l- Musta er n i n Madrnat a lSa l m , S a marqand , a nd Ma ed in a l-Shäsh i n t he l ate e igh th-ear ly n in th c entur ies . o ther d irha m i s n o t c lear ;

The i den t ity o f t he

a pparen t ly , i ti s at rad i t ion g o ing b ack a l-

most 1 50 y ears t o c ite 2 6 d irha ms b ut o n ly d escr ibe 2 5 . 5 1 .

N ovgorod c ity , r a ion a nd p rov ince , 1 920 .

D ur ing r a i lway c onstruct ion ,

ac lay p o t c on ta in ing 2 03 d irha ms was f ound .

T he o ldest c o in d ated t o

7 38/9 a nd t he most r ecen t t o 8 64/5 . [ Fas mer , 'K lad k uf ichesk ikh monet ', 2 42-76 .] I .

Umayyad ( 14 ) a l-Sa m iyyah , 7 48/9 ( 2 ) Was it , 7 38/9 , 7 39/40 , 7 40/1 , 7 42/3 , 7 43/4 ( 4 ) , 7 44/5 , 7 47/8 ( 3 )

I .

cA bbäs id

( 165 )

a l-Küfah , 7 49/50 , 7 5 1/2 , 7 59/60 , 7 60/1 , 7 62/3 , 7 95/6 a l-Ba§rah , 7 54/5 , 7 59/60 ( 2 ) , 7 62/3 , 7 63/4 , 7 64/5 , 8 49/50 a l- Mu l ia m madryyah , 7 67/8 , 7 68/9 , 7 8 1/2, 7 83/4 , 7 84/5 , 7 9 1 /2, 7 9 6 /7 , 7 97/8 , 7 98/9 ( 2 ) , 8 03/4 , 8 04/5 ( 4 ) , 8 05/6 , 8 06/7 , 8 07/8 ( 2 ) , 8 09/10 Madrnat a l-Sa lä m , 7 6 6 /7 , 7 67/8 , 7 69/70 , 7 70/1 ( 6 ) , 7 72/3 ( 3 ) , 7 73/4 ( 3 ) , 7 74/5 , 7 76/7 ( 3 ) , 7 77/8 ( 2 ) , 7 78/9 , 7 7 9 /80 ( 3 ) , 7 80/ 1( 3 ) , 7 81/2 ( 2 ) , 7 9 1 /2 , 7 95/6 ( 2 ) , 7 96/7 ( 6 ) , 7 97/8 ( 2 ) , 8 00/1 , 8 01/2 , 8 02 ( 3 ) , 8 02/3 ( 7 ) , 8 03/4 ( 3 ) , 8 04/5 ( 4 ) , 8 05/6 ( 2 ) , 8 06/7 ( 5 ) , 8 07/8 ( 5 ) , 8 08/9 ( 4 ) , 8 09/10 , 8 10/11 ( 2 ) , 8 11/12 ( 2 ) , 8 14/15 , 8 19/20 , 8 33/4 , 8 39/40 ( 2 ) , 8 46/7 , 8 47/8 ( 2 ) , 8 48/9 , 8 49/50 ( 3 ) ,

8 50/1 ( 2 ) , 8 5 1 /2 , 8 55/6 ( 2 ) , 8 60/1 , 8 6 3 /4

a l- cAbbastyyah , 7 77/8 a l-Här i inryyah , 7 86/7 I frrq iyah , 7 95/6 Mad that Ba lkh , 7 98/9 , 8 02 , 8 04/5 , 8 09/10 a l-Räf iqah , 8 03/4 , 8 06/7 a l-Rayy , 7 95/6 Madrnat Z aran j , 7 94/5 , 7 96/7 , 7 97/8 , 8 02/3 Madinat N aysäbür , 8 09/10 , 8 10/11 , 8 15/16 Madrnat I ebahan , 8 11/12 , 8 13/14 ( 2 ) , 8 15/16 Madrnat Marw , 8 0 1/2 Madr nat S a marqand , 8 09/10 ( 2 ) S a marqand , 8 19/20 Mier , 8 30/1 S urra man r a ,ä , 8 44/5 , 8 45/6 , 8 55/6 Ar mrn iyah , 8 60/1 , 8 62/3 ( 2 ) I I .

T äh ir id ( 24 ) S a marqand , 8 32/3 , 8 52/3 , 8 56/7 o r 8 59/60 Marw , 8 32/3 , 8 41/2 , 8 47/8 , 8 52/3 ( 2 ) , 8 54/5 , 8 59/60 , y ear e f faced , 8 63/4 , 8 64/5 ( 4 ) a l-Shash , 8 38/9

( 2 ) , 8 60/1 , 8 63/4

Madrnat IOahän , 8 22/3 a l- Muha m madryyah , 8 37/8 F ar is , 8 63/4 Mäh a l-K i ifah , 8 60/1 1 04

5 2 .

Moskva c i ty a nd p rov ince , 1 837-8 .

A long t he s hores o f t he R iver Moskva ,

wh i le d igg ing t he f oundat ion f or a c hurch , s evera l d irha ms were f ound o f wh ich 2 were i den t if ied . t i tuted a h oard . I .

I ts ee ms q uest ionab le t hat t hese c o ins c ons-

[Markov , T opograf i ia , p . 2 7 , n o . 1 45 .]

cA bbas id

Ar m ih iyah , 8 65/6 I .

T äh ir id Marw , 8 62/3

5 3 .

B o l' shoe T i merevo ,

I aros lav l ' r a ion a nd o b last , 1 973 .

D ur ing a rchae-

o log ica l e xcavat ions a t t he med ieva l s et t le men t l oca ted n ear t he c onf l uence o f t he K o toros l t a nd V o lga R ivers , al arge h oard o f 2 ,618 d ir' h a ms was u ncovered ( 1 ,484 who le c o ins a nd 1 ,134 f rag men ts ) . e ar l iest c o in d a ted t o 4 59-84 a nd t he most r ecen t t o 8 65 .

T he

[ I . G . Dobrovo l '-

s k i i , I . V . D ubov , 'Ko mp leks p am iatn ikov u . d erevn i Bo l ' s hoe T i merevo p od I aros lav le m i, V estn ik L en ingradskogo Un ivers ite ta , 1 975 , n o . 2 , 6 5-70 .] I . S asan ian ( 6 ) Pgröz I , 4 59-84 Khusraw I , 5 90-628 ( 5 ) cA bbäs id

G overnors o f T abar is tan ( 4 )

eU mar b . a l-cA ll , 7 71-80 ( 4 ) I I . Umayyad ( 2 09 ) I V . V .

cA bbfsid

P ar t isans ( 2 )

c Abbas id ( 2 ,374 )

V I . Im i tat ions ( 3 ) cA bbas id

p ro totypes

V I I . Khazar ( 1 ) V I I I . S pan ish Umayyad ( 1 ) a l-Anda lus , 7 79/80 I X . G overnors o f T udgha ( 4 ) H a laf b . a l- Mada , 7 9 1/2 X . I drr s id ( 14 ) ' dr ib I , 7 89-93 ( 4 ) I drt s Io r I , I drr s I , 7 93-828 ( 2 ) Muha m mad b . I drr s , 8 28-36 cA i r

b . Muha m mad , 8 36-49 ( 2 ) Undeter m ined ( 4 )

The d istr ibut ion o f t he c l ibbäs id d irha ms b y c a liphs was a s f o l lows : C a l iph a s-Saf fäh , 7 49-54

N u mber

%o ft ota l

2 7

1 .1

a l- Ma le i ir , 7 54-75

2 24

9 .4

a l- Mandr , 7 75-85

1 90

8 .0

a l-Hädr , 7 85-6 a r-Rashrd , 7 86-809 a l-A mrn , 8 09-13 a l- Ma 'm i in , 8 13-33 a l- Mu ct as m in , 8 33-42

8 6 00

0 .3 2 5 .3

7 7

3 .2

2 52

1 0 .6

6 3

2 .7

1 05

a l- Wäth iq , 8 42-7 a l- Mu tawakki l , 8 47-61 a l- Mun tae ir , 8 61-2 a l- Mustaern , 8 62-6 Undeterm ined

7 3

3 .1

5 42

2 2 .8

2

0 .1

5 8

2 .4

2 57

1 0 .8

2 373

9 9 .8

The min t d istr ibut ion was a s f o l lows : Umayyad A . rdashrr K hurrah , 2

a l-Raf iqah , 2 a l-Rayy , 4

I 5 takhr , 3

Z aran j , 2 7

a l-Anda lus , 1

S i j istan , 6

a l-Ba rah , 1

S urra man r a . 'ä , 7 8

a l- T a i mara , 1

S a marqand , 1 01

a l-Jazrrah , 3

a l-Shä .-s h , 3 2

J unda i-Säbür , 2

T abar istä .n , 3

D äräl jird , 1

a . 1- cAbbäsryyah , 2 2

D i mashq , 9

F ar is , 4 2

S abur , 2

Qu m m , 6

a l-Sä m iyyah , 4

K irmän , 2

S i j is tän , 1

a l-Küfah , 3 5

S urra .q , 1 a l-Süs , 1

a l- Mubärakah , 1

S üq a l-A .hwäz , 2

a l- Mutawakk i lr yyah , 4

K ir män , 2

a l- Mu l la m madryyah , 2 32

a l-Küfah , 1

Madr n .at a lSa l m , 7 30

a l- Mubärakah , 1

Marw , 6 1 Mi r , 3

Mäh a l-Küfah , 2 1

Wäs i, 1 27 H erät , 1

Misr F ustä t , 1

H a madhän ,, ,1

Ma . .ed in B a junays , 5

Undeter m ined , 5 1

Maed in a l-Shäsh , 1 3

cA bbäs id

P ar t isans

a l-I -Esh i mlyah , 1

Mähr , 1

H erät , 1 1

cA .bbäs id

a l-Ya mä mah , 1 Undeter m ined , 6 04

Abrashahr , 1 A .rrä "n , 1 3

I drr s id

Ar mrn iyah , 2 6

T udgha , 2

A . dharbä-y jän , 1

a l- cA lryah , 1

I s. b ahan , 9 7

Warzrgha , 1

I i rrq iyah , 6

Wargha , 1

B ukhärä , 7 B a lkh , 5 6 T udgha , 1

H ärünäbäd , 1 a l-l erün iyyah , 2

J ayy , 1

a l-Basrah , 8 4

N aysäbür , 8

Wa t i t , 1( 820/ 1) •

Wa ll lah , 2 Undeter m ined , 6

J unda i-Säbür , 1 J ayy , 9 D i mashq , 1 3

1 06

5 4 .

P o terpeP t sy , B orov ichsk i i r a ion , Novgorod ° b last ', 1 935 . 6 0

cA bbäsid

d irha ms was f ound .

Ah oard o f

T he o ldest was s truck i n a l-Basrah

i n 7 5 1/2 a nd t he most r ecen t i n S urra man r a ' ai n 8 65/6 .

[ Kropotk in ,

Novye n akhod ld . ', p . 8 3 , n o . 5 5 .] 5 5 .

S upru ty , 8 66 .

K ropo tk in l i sts t h is h oard b u t p rov ides n o o ther i n for ma-

t ion a bout i t .

P resu mab ly , i th as o n ly c o me t o l igh t i n r ecen t y ears .

[ Kropo tk in , 5 6 .

0t opograf i i ', 1 14 .]

F or ty-f if ty v ersts f ro m V itebsk , V i tebsk p rov ince , 1 821-3 . On t he p roper ty o f ac er ta in Bogo mo lets , u p t o 1 00 p ounds o f d irha ms were u near thed . i den t if ied . I .

Mos t were me l ted d own a nd o n ly 1 9 c o ins s urv ived t o b e [Markov , T opograf i ia , p p . 2 -3 , n o . 9 . ]

Umayyad ( 2 ) Wns i t, 7 34 a l-Kt ifah , 7 45

I .

cA bbäs id

D irha ms s truck b y a l- Man 5 tr , a l- Mandr . , o r-Rashid , a l- Ma ' mün , a l-A mi n , a nd Musta c r n i n a l-Basrah ,

a l- Muha m madryyah , Madr na t

a l- S a l m , S a margand , a nd a l-Sh. 5 . sh . 5 7 .

Bork i , 3v ersts f ro m R iazan ', R iazan ' p rov ince , 1 874 .

On t he s hores

o f t he R iver Oka wh i le d igg ing e ar th i n as andy h i l l n ear t he v i l lage o f Bor l k i i n c onnect ion w ith r a i lway c onstruct ion , a sma l l c lay v esse l c ont a in ing u p t o 5 0 s i lver c o ins was f ound .

The c o ins were d ispersed

among t he workers a nd o n ly s o me 1 1 o r s o were r ecovered a nd i den t if i ed . I .

[Markov , T opograf i ia , p . 4 0 , n o . 2 24 .]

cAbbäsid ( 5 ) a l-Küfah , 7 57/8 S o ma/: land , 8 15/16-911/12 S urra man r a 'ä , 8 44/5 Ar min iyah , 8 66/7 , 8 67/8 The r e ma in ing 6 c o ins , wh ich were o n ly s truck o n o ne s ide , were

I .

v ery worn . 5 8 .

T oropets , T oropets r a ion , K a l in in o b last ', 1 960 .

D ur ing e ar thworks

i n as and-p it , ah oard o f d irha ms was f ound f ro m wh ich 7 3 c o ins were c o l lected . a n

The o ldest d irha m d ated t o 7 51/2 a nd t he most r ecen t was

cA bbäs id

c o in o f 8 67/8 .

[ Kropo tk in ,

1N ovye

n akhodk i ', p . 8 1 , n o .

3 4 .] 5 9 .

M ishnevo , Rusanovska ia v o lost ', L ikhv in u ezd , K a luga p rov ince , 1 892 . On t he s hores o f t he R iver Upa , t wo p easan ts f ound a h oard o f 1 01 d irha ms a long w i th a s i lver c hain . The e n t ire h oard was s en t t o t he Imper ia l Archaeo log ica l C o mm iss ion . The e ar l iest c o in was s truck i n 7 42/3 a nd t he most r ecen t i n 8 68/9 . 6 6 .] I .

[Markov , T opozraf i ia , p . 1 2 , n o .

Umayyad ( 1 ) Wäs it , 7 42/3

I .

cA bbfsid

( 24 )

a l-Ba e . rah , 7 63/4 Madrnat a lSa l m , 7 78/9 , 7 79/80 , 7 95/6 , 7 99/800 , 8 08/9 ( 2 ) , 8 09/10 , 8 11/12 , 8 14/15 ( 2 ) , 8 44/5 , 8 49/50 1 07

Ma c d in a l-Shäsh , 8 05/6 , 8 14/15 a l-Räf iqah , 8 0 6 /7 N aysäbür , 8 08/9 a l- Mu l la m madryyah , 8 08/9 A .r mrn iyah?, 8 11/12?, 8 66/7 ( 2 ) , 8 68/9 S a marqand , 8 13/14? Min t u nc lear , 8 67/8 I I .

Täh ir id ( 7 ) F ar is , 8 55/6 S a marqand , 8 54/5-863/4 ,

8 64/5-872/3

a l-Shash , 8 64/5 , 8 67/8 Marw , 8 65/6 , 8 67/8 I V .

O thers ( 69 ) These were c o ins p ar t ly i ndec ipherab le a nd p ar t ly f lans .

6 0 .

Mo iseevo , Dm itrov u ezd , Kursk p rov ince , 1 866 .

On t he R iver S vane ,

as o ld ier p loughed u p s herds o f ab roken sma l l p ot a nd w ith i tu p t o 3 0 c o ins wh ich were d ispersed .

On ly 5 c o ins were i den t if ied .

[Markov ,

Topograf i ia , p . 1 5 , n o . 8 8 .] I .

cA bbäsid

( 4 )

a l- Mu l la m madryyah , 7 89/90 Madinat a l-Sa lä m , 7 96/7 , 8 03/4 , 8 33/4 I l

B yzan t ine ( 1 ) Michae l I I , 8 42-67

Two o ther c o ins f ro m t he h oard were s en t t o t he Imper ia l Archaeo log ic a l C omm iss ion . cA bbäsid

6 1.

One was c o mp lete ly e f faced a nd t he o ther was a n

d irha m , S urra man r a 'a , 8 66/7-868/9 .

Kuznetskoe , V es ' e gonsk i i u ezd , Tver p rov ince , 1 899 . ap ot c on ta in ing 1 62 d irha ms was u ncovered . 7 08/9 a nd t he most r ecen t t o 8 69/70 . V o l . 8( Baku , 1 959 ) , p . 1 01 ;

D ur ing p lough ing ,

T he o ldest c o in d ated t o

[ Pakho mov , Monetnye k ] .ady ,

Kropotk in , 'N ovye n akhodk i ', p . 8 0 , n o .

3 1. I .

Umayyad ( 9 ) IK .akhr , 7 08/9 Wasit , 7 40/1 ( 2 ) , 7 42/3 ( 2 ) , 7 43/4 , 7 45/6 , 7 47/8 , 7 48/9

H .

cA bbäsid

( 143 )

Arrän , 7 62/3 Ieakhr , 7 56/7 a l-Ba rah , 7 51/2 , 7 53/4 , 7 56/7 , 7 59/60 , 7 6 1 /2 ( 2 ) , 7 63/4 ( 2 ) , 7 77/8 , 8 59/60 , 8 64/5 J ayy , 7 78/9 a l- c AbbasTyyah , 7 86/7 ( 2 ) Qa r a l-Sa lä m , 7 84/5 a l-K i f fah , 7 49/50 ( 3 ) , 7 53/4 , 7 54/5 , 7 58/9 , 7 63/4 a l- Mu t ia m madryyah , 7 65/6 , 7 66/7 , 7 68/9 , 7 77/8 , 7 82/3 , 7 84/5 ( 2 ) , 7 9 1 /2 , 7 99/800 , 8 00/1 , 8 02 ( 2 ) , 8 0 5 /6 ( 2 ) , 8 06/7 ,

8 07/8 ,

8 08/9 Madrnat a l-Sa lä m , 7 66/7 , 7 69/70 , 7 70 , 7 70/1 , 7 72/3 ( 3 ) , 7 74/5 , 7 76/7 ( 2 ) , 7 77/8 ( 2 ) , 7 78/9 , 7 79/80 ( 2 ) ,

7 80/1 , 7 8 3 /4 , 7 85/6

( 2 ) , 7 96/7 , 7 98/9 , 8 02 , 8 02/3 ( 3 ) , 8 0 3 /4 ( 2 ) , 8 04/5 ( 5 ) , 8 0 6/7 , 8 07/8 ( 5 ) , 8 08/9 ( 4 ) , 8 09/10 ( 5 ) , 8 11/12 , 8 44/5 , 8 53/4 1 08

B a lkh , 8 02/3 ( 2 ) , 8 03/4 , 8 08/9 a l-Räf iqah , 8 07/7 , 8 08/9 S a marqand , 8 08/9 , 8 09/10 , 8 11/12 ( 2 ) , 8 15/16 Ma cd in a l-Shäsh , 8 0 5 /6 IOahän , 8 12/13 , 8 20/1 Ma cd in B ä junays , 8 20/1 N aysäbür , 8 11/12 , 8 12/13 Ar min iyah , 8 6 6 /7 ( 2 ) , 8 67/8 , 8 69/70 S urra man r a '

a , x 2 ( 1 ) A . H .-221 o r 8 35/6?

M in t a nd y ear e f faced , 3 0 I I .

T äh ir id ( 9 ) 4bahän , 8 24/5 a l-Shäsh , 8 37/8 , 8 62/3 , 8 64/5 , 8 67/8 Marw , 8 52/3 , 8 57/8 , 8 64/5 , 8 65/6 Agh lab id ( 1 )

I V .

I brähim I , 8 08/9 6 2 .

C hersones , T aur ide p rov ince , 1 824 .

I n t he r u ins o f t h is a nc ien t a nd

med ieva l s ite , 8 2 d irha ms were f ound . v ary . a nd

The r epor ts o n t hese c o ins

Markov s tates t hat t hey i nc luded " Ca l ipha te" ( i .e . Umayyad

cA b

s id ) d irha ms o f 7 28/9-869/70 a nd a n A .gh lab id d irha m ,

I f riq iyah , 8 02/3 . I an in ' sf i gures s uggest 1 Täh ir id c o in a nd 8 1 cA pbäs id d irha ms w ith n o Umayyad o r Agh lab id c o ins . I n a dd it ion , F as mer b e l ieved t hat t he f ind-spo t was v ery d ub ious .

G iven t hese

q uest ions c oncern ing t he h oard , Ih ave n o t i nc luded i ti n my t ab les . [Markov , T opograf i ia , p . 4 5 , n o . 2 57 ;

F as mer , ( R iad k uf ichesk ikh

mone t ', p . 2 66 , n . 2 ; I an in , D enezhno-vesovye , T ab le I .] 6 3 .

O strog i , K ash ir u ezd , T u la p rov ince , 1 834 . was f ound i n ac lay p ot . A cade my o f S c iences .

Al arge h oard o f d irha ms

O f t hese c o ins , 9 were o b ta ined b y t he Imper ia l F ive were ' Ca lipha te ' d irha ms d a t ing f ro m

7 38/9-816/17 a nd s truck i n Madinat a lSa l m , W s it , W ig a l-Ahwa 72 , 4bahän , a nd S a marqand wh i le 4 were T äh ir id d irha ms d at ing f ro m 8 62/38 69/70 s truck i n S a marqand a nd a l-Shäsh .

[Markov , T opograf i ia , p .

4 9 , n o . 2 83 .] 6 4 .

S hu m i lovo , D em iansk r a ion , N ovgorod o b last ', 1 927 .

Ah oard o f 1 ,326

d irha ms was f ound i nc lud ing 3 31 f ragmen ts ( Pakho mov g ives 1 ,077 who le c o ins a nd 2 52 f rag men ts = 1 ,329 t ota l ) ; f i ed ( Pakho mov s ays 1 ,159 ) . t he most r ecen t i n 8 70/1 .

1 ,111 c o ins were i den t i-

The o ldest c oin was s truck i n 7 38/9 a nd

S ince i nfor mat ion o n t he h oard v ar ies , I

h ave f o l lowed K ropotk in ' sd ynast ic b reakdown ( 1 , 2 27 + 9 9 u n iden t if ied d irha ms ) b u t g iven P akho mov ' se nu merat ion o f 1 ,159 Umayyad a nd cA . bbäs id

c o ins .

[ Pakho mov , Monetnye k lady , V o l . 4 , p . 9 4 , n o . 1 ,305

a nd V o l . 9( Baku 1 966 ) , p p . 1 10-12 , n o . 2 ,159 ; n akhodk i ' I . I . I I . I V . V .

p . 8 3 , n o . 5 6 .]

Umayyad ( 3 1 ) cAbbfs id ( 1 ,194 ) T äh ir id ( 1 ) Z ayd id ( 1 ) Un iden t if ied ( 99 )

1 09

Kropo tk in ,

N ovye

I .

Umayyad ( 30 ) Wa-s it , 7 38/9 , 7 39/40 ( 2 ) , 7 40/1 ( 3 ) , 7 4 1 /2 ( 4 ) , 7 42/3 ( 5 ) , 7 43/4 , 7 44/5 ( 3 ) , 7 4 5 /6 , 7 46/7 , 7 47/8 , 7 48/9 , y ear c ut o f f ( 6 ) a l-Sä m iyyah , 7 48/9

I .

cA bbäsid

( 1 ,135)

Aid a l-Khazar , 7 5 3 /4 a l-Baerah , 7 50/1 ( 2 ) , 7 54/5 , 7 56/7 , 7 57/8 ( 2 ) , 7 59/60 , 7 60/1 ( 2 ) , 7 62/3 , 7 63/4 ( 2 ) , 7 64/5 ( 2 ) , 7 57/8-766/7 ( 2 ) , 7 76/7 , 7 82/3 , 7 8 3/4 , 8 37/8 , 8 37/8 , 8 49/50 , 8 61/2 I e takhr , 7 57/8 a l-Küfah , 7 49/50 , 7 50/1 ( 2 ) , 7 54/5 ( 4 ) , 7 58/9 ( 3 ) , 7 60/1 , 7 63/4 ( 2 ) , 7 5 3 /4 774/5 ( 3 ) , 8 14/15 , 8 49/50 , 8 70/1 M in t c ut o f f , 7 47/8-756/7 , 7 87/8 , 7 98/9 , 8 02 , 8 04/5 ( 2 ) , 7 86/7-808/9 , 8 10/11 , 8 12/13 , 8 13/14-814/15 , 8 41/2 , 8 33/4-84 1 /2 ( 6 ) , 8 41/2-846/7 , 8 46/7-861/2 ( 46) , 8 48/9?, 8 55/6 ( 2 ) , 8 57/8 ( 6 ) , 8 59/60 , 8 60/1 , 8 6 1/2 , 8 62/3 ( 16) , 8 63/4 ( 2 ) , 8 64/5 , 8 65/6 ( 5 ) , 8 62/3-866/7 ( 33) , 8 67/8 , 8 66/7-868/9 ( 17 ) Madinat J ayy , 7 78/9 ( 4 ) a l-Rayy , 7 65/6 , 7 95/6 ( 2 ) a l- Mu t la m madiyyah , 7 65/6 ( 2 ) , 7 66/7 ( 10 ) , 7 67/8 ( 2 ) , 7 7 1/2 , 7 53/4-774/5 ( 2 ) , 7 76/7 , 7 77/8 ( 5 ) , 7 78/9 , 7 79/80 , 7 81/2 ( 3 ) , 7 82/3 ( 2 ) , 7 84/5 ( 3 ) , 7 85/6 ( 43 ) , 7 86/7 ( 2 ) , 7 88/9 , 7 89/90 , 7 91/2 , 7 9 6 /7 ( 7 ) , 7 97/8 ( 8 ) , 7 98

/9 ( 8) , 7 99/800 ( 11 ) , 8 00/1 ( 6 ) , 8 0 1 /2 ( 2 ) , 8 02 ( 9 ) , 8 02/3 ( 4 ) , 8 03/4

( 6 ) , 8 04/5 ( 5 ) , 8 05/6 ( 3 ) , 8 0 6 /7 ( 4 ) , 8 07/8 ( 7 ) , 8 08/9 ( 2 ) , 7 86/7-808/9 ( 2 ) , 8 09/10 ( 4 ) , 8 10/11 , 8 11/12 ( 2 ) , 8 12/13 ( 2 ) , 8 13/14 , 8 05/06-814/15 , 8 15/16 ( 2 ) , 8 16/17 , 8 25/6 , 8 52/3 ( 2 ) , 8 53/4 , 8 44/5-85 3 /4 , 8 56/7 ( 3 ) , 8 57/8 ( 6 ) , 8 59/60 , 8 60/1 , 8 46/7-861/2 ( 3 ) , 8 62/3 ( 11 ) , 8 64/5 , 8 65/6 ( 3 ) , 8 62/3-866/7 ( 2 ) Madrnat a l-Salä m , 7 65/6 , 7 66/7 ( 2 ) , 7 67/8 ( 3 ) , 7 68/9 ( 5 ) , 7 69/70 ( 2 ) , 7 70 ( 2 ) , 7 70/1 ( 8 ) , 7 71/2 ( 2 ) , 7 72/3 ( 6 ) , 7 73/4 ( 14) , 7 74/5 ( 8 ) , 7 53/47 74/5 ( 9 ) , 7 75/6 ( 2 ) , 7 7 6 /7 ( 6 ) , 7 77/8 ( 13 ) , 7 78/9 ( 21 ) , 7 79/80 ( 9 ) , 7 80/1 ( 15 ) , 7 81/2 , 7 83/4 , 7 84/5 , 7 74/5-785/6 ( 4 ) , 7 85/6 ( 4 ) , 7 86/ 7 ( 3 ) , 7 88/9 , 7 92/3?, 7 95/6 ( 17) , 7 96/7 ( 8 ) , 7 97/8 ( 7 ) , 7 98/9 ( 5 ) , 7 99/ 8 00 ( 2 ) , 8 00/1 , 8 02 , 8 02/3 ( 13 ) , 8 03/4 ( 19 ) , 8 04/5 ( 24 ) , 8 05/6 ( 21 ) , 8 0 6 /7 ( 18 ) , 8 07/8 ( 32 ) , 8 08/9 ( 22 ) , 7 86/7-808/9 ( 8 ) , 8 09/10 ( 9 ) , 8 10/ 1 1 ( 2 ) , 8 08/09-813/14 , 8 11/12 ( 3 ) , 8 12/13 ( 5 ) , 8 13/14 ( 7 ) , 8 14/15 ( 3 ) , 8 15/16 ( 4 ) , 8 16/17 ( 2 ) , 8 17/18, 8 18/19 ( 2 ) , 8 19/20 ( 2 ) , 8 20/1, 8 15/168 24/5 , 8 13/14-833/4 , 8 34/5 ( 3 ) , 8 35 , 8 39/40 ( 4 ) , 8 33/4-841/2 , 8 41/2 ( 2 ) , 8 44/5 ( 2 ) , 8 45/6 ( 2 ) , 8 4 1 /2846/7 , 8 47/8 , 8 48/9 , 8 49/50 , 8 50/1 ( 2 ) , 8 52/3 ( 4 ) , 8 54/5 , 8 55/6 , 8 56/7 , 8 58/9 ( 3 ) , 8 46/7-861/2 ( 3 ) , 8 63/4 ( 2 ) , 8 64/5 , 8 67/8 , 8 68/9 , 8 66/7-868/9 , 8 70/1-872/3 Ar min iyah , 7 77/8 , 7 82/3 , 8 18/19 ( 2 ) , 8 66/7 ( 5 ) , 8 67/8 , 8 68/9 , 8 69/708 92/3 I f riq iyah , 7 81/2 , 7 86/7 ( 2 ) I sbahän , 7 8 3 /4 , 8 37/8 , 8 68/9 , 8 62/3-866/7 l iadrnat I ebahän , 8 11/12 , 8 12/13 ( 3 ) , 8 13/14 ( 2 ) , 8 14/15 , 8 15/16 ( 2 ) , 8 16/17 ( 3 ) , 8 17/18 , 8 19/20 , 8 22/3 , 8 13/14-833/4 Madrnat Z aran j , 7 82/3 , 7 94/5 ( 2 ) , 7 97/8 , 7 98/9 , 8 00/1 , 8 11/12 , 8 22/3 a l- c . Abbäsiyyah , 7 78/9 , 7 82/3 , 7 85/6 K ir man , 7 84/5 1 10

Härf inabad , 7 80/1 a l-Is ma ma , 7 81/2 , 7 82/3 , 7 8 3 /4 , 7 84/5 Madfnat Bukhärä , 8 08/9 ( 3 ) , 8 09/10 a l-Räf igah , 8 03/4 , 8 05/6 a l-Raqqa , 7 8 6 /7, 8 14/15 Madfna t Ba lkh , 7 98/9 ( 2 ) , 7 99/800 , 8 00/1 ( 4 ) , 8 01/2 ( 2 ) , 8 02 , 8 02/3 ( 2 ) , 8 03/4 ( 6 ) , 8 04/5 ( 2 ) , 8 08/9 , 7 8 6 /7 808/9 , 8 08/9 , 8 09/10 ( 6 ) , 8 10/11 ( 2 ) , 8 11/12 S i jistän , 7 89/90 , 7 9 1/2 Madrnat S a marqand , 8 0 5 /6 , 8 08/9 ( 2 ) , 8 09/10 ( 3 ) , 8 10/11 ( 5 ) , 8 11/12 a l- Mubärakah , 7 96/7 S a marqand , 8 20/1 ( 3 ) , 8 23/4 , 8 24/5 ( 3 ) , 8 32/3 ( 3 ) , 8 33/4 , 8 34/5 , 8 35 , 8 35/6 , 8 46/7 , 8 48/9 ( 2 ) , 8 5 1/2 , 8 52/3 ( 2 ) , 8 54/5 , 8 60/1 , 8 6 1/2 , 8 46/7-861/2 ( 6 ) , 8 62/3 , 8 64/5 , 8 64/5-872/3 ( 5 ) , 8 62/3-866/7 ( 2 ) , 8 65/6 , 8 67/8 ( 2 5 ) , 8 66/7-868/9 ( 3 ) , 8 6 9 /7 0 a l- Muha m madfyyah o r Madfnat a lSa l m , 8 0 3 /4 ( 4 ) Madrn t Marw , 8 00/1 , 8 0 1 /2 , 8 09/10 Marw , 8 30/1 , 8 32/3 ( 2 ) , 8 34/5 ( 3 ) , 8 35 , 8 43/4 , 8 41/2-846/7 , 8 48/9 , 8 52/3 , 8 53/4 , 8 54/5 , 8 56/7 , 8 57/8 , 8 59/60 , 8 61/2 ( 2 ) , 8 46/7-861/2 , 8 62/3 ( 2 ) , 8 63/4 , 8 64/5 , 8 65/6 ( 3 ) , 8 67/8 ( 3 ) Ma e d in B a junays , 8 05/6 , 8 06/7 Ma cd in a l-Shash , 8 04/5 ( 2 ) , 8 05/6 ( 3 ) a l-Shäsh , 8 37/8 , 8 40/1 ( 2 ) , 8 45/6 ( 2 ) ; 8 48/9 ( 3 ) , 8 52/3 , 8 56/7 , 8 57/8 , 8 58/9 , 8 60/1 ( 5 ) , 8 61/2 ( 2 ) , 8 46/7-861/2 ( 6 ) , 8 62/3 ( 3 ) , 8 63/4 ( 4 ) , 8 64/5 , 8 65/6 ( 2 ) , 8 62/3 866/7 , 8 67/8 ( 3 ) , 8 66/7-868/9 ( 2 ) Misr , 7 98/9 Madfnat Naysäbür , 8 08/9 ( 4 ) , 8 09/10 ( 3 ) , 8 12/13 , 8 13/14 , 8 16/17 Madfnat A .rrän , 8 23/4 Madrnat Herä t , 8 2 1 /2 S urra man r a 'ä , 8 37/8 , 8 40/1 , 8 4 1 /2 , 8 64/5 , 8 70/1 ( 7 ) D i mashq , 8 58/9 , 8 65/6 ( 3 ) Madrnat Mäh a l-K ü lfah , 8 65/6 , 8 66/7 , 8 70/1 a l- Mawei l , 8 70/1 Arran , 8 09/10 6 5 .

Kh itrovka , K ash ir u ezd , Tver p rov ince , 1 898 .

Wh i le c onstruct ing a

r a i lway , p easan ts f ound a h oard o f 8 66 who le d irha ms a nd 1 41 h a lves . T he c o ins were s en t t o t he Imper ia l Archaeo log ica l C o mm iss ion f or i den t if icat ion . 8 72/2 .

T he o ldest c o in d ated t o 7 04/5 a nd t he most r ecen t t o

[Markov , T opograf i ia , p . 1 41 , n o . 3 3 ;

F as mer ,

K lad

k uf ichesk ikh monet ', 2 65 .] I .

Umayyad

I .

cAbbas id

D irha ms o f 7 04/5-747/8 s truck i n D i mashq , Q i im is , a nd Wäsit . D irha ms o f 7 48/9-871/2 s truck i n a l-Shish , Madinat a l-Sa lä m , a l-Küfah , a l-Ba rah , a l-Rayy , a l- Mu l ja m madryyah , J ayy , Ar min iy ah , S i jis tän , a l-Ya mä mah , a l-c .A .bbasfyyah , Z aran j , B a lkh , Ma e d in a l-Shash , T abar istän , S a marqand , H erät , N aysabür , Bukhärä , ebahän , D i mashq , Arrän , S urra man r a ' A . • ; lharbay jan .

i ii

a nd

I I .

r äh ir id D irha ms o f 8 20/1-872/3 s truck i n S a marqand , Marw , a l-Shash , a l- Muta m madryyah , ebahan , F ar is ,

m ah

a l- K i lfah , a l- Mu t a .wak-

k i l iyyah , a nd P an jhr r . I V .

B arbarous Im i tat ions

A ccord ing t o F as mer , 4 63 c o ins were i den t if ied a nd t he most r ecen t d ated t o 8 76/7 .

H e a lso g ives t he f o l low ing c hrono log ical a nd min t

d istr ibut ion : T i me

N u mber

%o f t o ta l

8 16/17-876/7

1 58

3 4 .1

7 04/5-815/16

3 05 -

6 5 .9

4 63 M in t

1 00

N u mber

Madrnat a l-Sa lä m

1 78

5 0 .7

a l- Mu t la m madryyah

6 0

1 7 .1

S a marqand

3 6

1 0 .3

Ar M in iyah

2 1

6 .0

IAahän

2 0

5 .7

B a lkh S urra man r a '

1 8 1 8

5 .1 5 .1

3 51 6 6 .

%o f t o ta l

1 00

B ork i , R iazan ' u ezd a nd p rov ince , 1 874 .

Two more h oards were f ound

a s t he r esu l t o f f ur ther d igg ing i n 1 874 ( c f . n o . 5 7 a bove ) .

The s econd

was f ound i n ad ecayed l eather s ack a nd c on ta ined o ver 1 00 d irha ms , many worn smoo th , w ith h a lves a nd q uar ters . These c o ins were s truck b y t he cAbbäs id C a l iphs a l- Musta cr n a nd a l- Mu ct a .zz i n 8 63-9 . Kropo tk in d oes n o t e xp la in why h e d ates t he most r ecen t d irha m t o 8 75 . [Markov , Topograf i ia , p p . 4 0-1 , n o . 2 25 ; 6 7 .

K ropotk in , ' 0 t opograf iP , 1 14 .]

P ogrebnoe r av ine , M iropo l ' s ka ia v o lost , S udzhansk u ezd , Kursk p rov ince , 1 879 .

Ap easan t f ound a c lay p o t c on ta in ing 2 95 d irha ms .

were s en t t o t he Imper ia l Archaeo log ica l C omm iss ion .

T he c o ins

As a r esu lt ,

7 9 e f faced c o ins were me lted d own a nd 2 16 d irha ms were s en t t o t he H er m itage .

T he f i gures f or t h is h oard v ary s o mewha t ,

a tes 2 15 c o ins i nc lud ing 1 70 c o ins i nc lud ing 1 68

cA bbäs id

cA bbäs id

a nd 1 I dris id .

b ut n o I drr s id .

i n 7 10/11 a nd t he most r ecen t i n 8 75/6 . n o . 9 0 ; I .

Markov e nu mer-

I an in s hows 2 12

T he o ldes t c o in was s truck

[Markov , T opograf i ia , p . 1 6 ,

I an in , D enezhno-vesovye , T ab le I . ]

Umayyad ( 7 )

M ah r ,

7 10/11

Wäs i t, 7 39/40 , 7 41/2 ( 2 ) , 7 47/8 ( 2 ) , 7 48/9 I .

cAbbäs id ( 170 ) a l-K i lfah , 7 49/50 , 7 56/7 , 7 57/8-766/7 , 7 57/8 , 7 58/9 , 7 59/60 , 7 61/2 , 7 63/4 ( 2 ) a l-Basrah , 7 5 5 /6 , 7 60/1 , 7 62/3 ( 3 ) , 7 63/4 , 7 64/5 , 7 65/ 6 ( 2 ) , 7 76 / . 7 , 8 67/8 a l- Muha m madryyah , 7 66/7 ( 2 ) , 7 77/8 , 7 78/9 , 7 83/4 , 7 91/2 , 7 96%7 ( 2 ) , 7 9 9/80 0 ( 5 ) , 8 00/1 , 8 02 , 8 03/4 , 8 05/6 ( 3 ) , 8 06/7 , 8 19/20 1 12

Madinat a l-Sa lä m , 7 68/9 ( 2 ) , 7 70/1 , 7 71/2 , 7 72/3 ( 4 ) , 7 73/4 ( 2 ) , 7 77/8 ( 4 ) , 7 78/9 ( 4 ) , 7 79/80 ( 3 ) , 7 80/1 ( 3 ) , 7 9 1 /2 , 7 96/7 , 7 97/8 ( 3 ) , 7 98/9 , 8 02/3 ( 6 ) , 8 03/4 ( 3 ) , 8 04/5 ( 4 ) , 8 05/6-814/15 , 8 06/7 ( 5 ) , 8 07/8 ( 6 ) , 8 08/9 ( 2 ) , 8 09/10 ( 2 ) , 8 10/11 , 8 14/15 ( 3 ) , 8 18/19 , 8 20/1 , 8 25/6 , 8 33/4 , 8 34/5 , 8 4 1 /2 o r 8 43/4 , 8 54/58 63/4 , 8 55/6 , 8 57/8 , 8 67/8 , 8 75/6 a l- c A .bbäs iyyah , 7 82/3 ( 3 ) , 7 87/8 K ir män , 7 83/4 , 7 84/5 , 7 85/6 a l-Ya mä mah , 7 84/5 I f r il l iyah o r a l- cAbbäsTyah , 7 86/7-795/6 I f r ly iyah , 7 86/7 Z aran j , 7 96/7 , 8 00/1 B a lkh , 8 00/1, 8 02 , 8 03/4 ( 2 ) , 8 04/5 , 8 09/10 , 8 10/11 Ma cd in a l-Shä .sh , 8 05/6 Ma c d in a l-Bä junays , 8 06/7 , 8 29/30 H erät , 8 08/9 a l-Räf iqah , 8 08/9 Bu ldarl , 8 10/11 N aysäbür , 8 10/11 , 8 11/12 S a marqand , 8 11/12 ( 2 ) , 8 12/13 ( 3 ) , 8 13/14 , 8 15/16 ( 3 ) , 8 16/17 If tahän , 8 12/13 , 8 13/14 , 8 16/17 ( 6 ) S urra mann r a '5 . , 8 51/2 ( 2 ) , 8 59/60 , 8 65/6 , 8 66/7 , 8 74/5 . A .r mtn iyah , 8 60/1 , 8 66/7 ( 3 ) I I .

I drrs id ( 1 ) B ad ca , 7 90/1

I V .

T ä .h ir id ( 32 ) S a ma nand , 8 23/4 , 8 24/5 , 8 25/6 , 8 64/5 , 8 67/8 ( 8 ) Ipahän , 8 24/5 ( 3 ) , 8 59/60 , 8 62/3 , 8 67/8 F ärs , 8 34/5 , 8 53/4 , 8 57/8 , 8 58/9 , 8 59/60 , 8 62/3 , 8 68 Marw , 8 48/9 , 8 5 1 /2 , 8 56/7 Mäh a l-Küfah , 8 54/5 , 8 66/7 a l-Shäsh , 8 67/8 ( 2 )

V .

S af fär id ( 3 ) B an jhtr , 8 73/4 ( 2 ) , 8 74/5

V I . 6 8 .

Im itat ion D irha ms ( 2 )

Boby l i , Mtsensk i i r a ion , Ore l o b last ', 1 936.

On t he l ef t b ank o f t he

R iver Oka , wh i le d igg ing i n ag arden o n t he Revo liutsi ia s tate f ar m , ah oard o f 3 46 d irha ms was f ound ( 325 who le a nd 2 1 f rag men ts ) o f wh ich 3 37 were i dent if ied . r ecen t i n 8 75/6 . 1 ,306 ; I .

The o ldest c o in was s truck i n 7 39/40 a nd t he most

[ Pakho mov , Monetnye k lady , V ol . 4 , p p . 9 4-5 , n o .

Kropo tk in ,

Novye n akhodk i . ', p . 8 3 , n o . 5 8 .]

Umayyad ( 9 ) a l-Sä m iyyah , 7 48/9 Wäsit , 7 39/40 , 7 40/1 , 7 43/4 , 7 45/6 , 7 47/8 ( 3 ) Min t c ut o f f , 7 37/8-746/7 c. A .bbäs id

( 325 )

Madt nat I O Dahä .n , 8 12/13 ( 2 ) , 8 13/14 ( 2 ) , 8 14/15 , 8 15/16 , 8 16/17 , 8 55/6 Ar min iyah , 8 66/7 ( 2 ) , 8 67/8 , 8 69/70?

13

Ardashir Khurrah , 7 62/3 Adharbäy jän , 7 85/6 I friq iyah , 7 86/7 ( 2 ) Madinat Bukhärä , 8 09/10 Madinat Ba lkh , 8 00/1 , 8 01/2 , 8 02/3 , 8 03/4 , 8 08/9 ,

8 10/11

a l-Bagrah , 7 61/2 , 7 63/4 , 7 64/5 ( 2 ) , 7 7 6 /7 ( 2 ) , 7 77/8 J unda i-Säbür , 7 54/5 D i mashq , 8 58/9 a l-Räf iqah , 8 03/4 Madrnat Z aran j , 7 90/1 , 7 95/6 , 7 97/8 , 8 04/5 , 8 05/6 , 8 09/10 l q a l-Ahwäz , 7 51/2 S urra man r a '

n ,

8 44/5 , 8 47/8 , 8 66/7 ( 2 ) , 8 74/5 ( 3 ) , y ear c ut o f f

Madinat S a marqand , 8 08/9 , 8 09/10 , 8 13/14 , 8 14/15 , 8 15/6 , y ear c ut o f f S a marqand , 8 19/20 , 8 3 3 /4 , 8 60/1 , 8 65/6 , 8 67/8 ( 5 ) , y ear c u t o f f ( 3 ) a l-Shash , 8 35 , 8 60/1 ( 3 ) , 8 67/8 ( 2 ) a l- c A .bbästyyah , 7 86/7 , 7 88/9 , 7 91/2 F ärs , 8 23/4 , 8 40/1 , 8 53/4 , 8 62/3 a l-Küfah , 7 49/50 ( 2 ) , 7 50/1 ( 2 ) , 7 57/8 , 7 58/9 , 7 61/2 ( 2 ) , 7 64/5 , 8 16/17 K ir män , 7 77/8 , 7 82/3 Madinat a l-Salä m , 7 67/8 , 7 68/9 ( 2 ) , 7 6 9 /7 0 , 7 70/1 ( 13 ) , 7 7 1/2 ( 3 ) , 7 72/3 , 7 73/4 ( 2 ) , 7 74/5 , 7 7 5 /6 , 7 77/8 ( 3 ) , 7 78/9 ( 7 ) , 7 79/80 ( 4 ) ,

7 80/1 ( 3 ) , 7 8 1/2 ( 2 ) , 7 86/7 , 7 91/2 , 7 96/7 , 7 97/8

( 2 ) , 7 98/9 , 8 02 ( 2 ) , 8 02/3 ( 2 ) , 8 03/4 ( 8 ) , 8 04/5 ( 6 ) , 8 0 5 /6 ( 3 ) , 8 06/7 ( 2 ) , 8 07/8 ( 5 ) , 8 08/9 ( 2 ) , 8 09/10 ( 2 ) , 8 10/11 ( 2 ) , 8 11/12 , 8 13/14?, 8 14/15 , 8 17/18 , 8 19/20 ( 2 ) , 8 24/5 , 8 33/4 , 8 4 1 /2 , 8 4 1 /2 84 6 /7 , 8 47/8 ( 2 ) , 8 48/9 , 8 49/50 , 8 50/1 , 8 5 1 /2 ( 2 ) , 8 58/9 , 8 59/60 ( 2 ) , 8 60/1 , 8 7 3 /4 ( 5 ) , 8 75/6 a l- Mu t ia m madryyah , 7 68/9 , 7 77/8 , 7 83/4 , 7 9 1 /2 , 7 96/7 ( 2 ) , 7 98/9 ( 2 ) , 7 99/800 , 8 00/1 ( 3 ) , 8 0 1/2 , 8 02 , 8 04/5 ( 2 ) , 8 08/9?, 8 25/6 , 8 57/8 , 8 62/3 ( 3) Ma c d in Bä junays , 8 05/6 Macdin a l-Shäsh , 8 05/6 ( 2 ) Marw , 8 29/30 , 8 30/1 , 8 53/4 , 8 62/3 Madinat Mäh a l-Küfah , 8 60/1 Madinat Naysäbür , 8 08/9 Madinat H erät , 8 23/4 , 8 13/14-833/4 Wäsit , 8 71/2 , 8 74/5 Min t c ut o f f , 8 04/5 , 8 13/14-833/4 ( 4 ) , 8 46/7-86 1 /2 ( 7 ) , 8 62/38 66/7 ( 5 ) , 8 66/7-868/9 ( 6 ) , 8 6 9 /70 -892/3 ( 3 ) , c a l iph ' sn a me c ut o ff ( 57 who le , 5f rag men ts ) I I .

Im itat ion cAbbäsid ( 2 )

I V .

Täh ir id ( 1 ) S a marqand , 8 24/5

V . 6 9 .

Undeter m ined ( 4 )

Z helezn itsa , Z ara isk u ezd , R iazan ' p rov ince , 1 855.

Twenty v ersts

f ro m Z ara isk o n t he s hores o f t he R iver Oster a c oin a nd b ul lion h oard was f ound .

The c o ins c ons isted o f 2 58 ( so me r eports s ay 1 70 who le

1 14

a nd 1 02 f ragmen ts ) d irha ms . o f 6 18 ;

Among t he c o ins was o ne S asan ian d rach m

t he r e ma in ing c o ins were cAbbäsid .

d ated t o 8 77/8 .

T he most r ecen t d irha m

The ma jor i ty o f t he h oard d ated t o t he s econd h a lf o f

t he n in th c en tury .

Accord ing t o K orzukh ina , t he r eference i n Markov

( Topograf i ia , p . 4 0 , n o . 2 22 ) t o aS ä män id d irha m o f 9 65 i n t h is h oard i s n o t c orrec t . 7 0 .

[ Korzukh ina ,

R ussk ie K lady , p . 8 1, n o . 8 .]

Po l tava , P o l tava p rov ince , 1 898 .

I n t he g ardens o f N . S oko lov , ah oard

o f 1 00 d irha ms was f ound f ro m wh ich 8 2 were s en t t o t he Imper ia l Archaeo log ica l C omm iss ion . t he most r ecen t i n 8 82/3 . I . cAbbäs id ( 59 )

T he e ar l iest c o in was s truck i n 7 50/1 a nd

[Markov , T opograf i ia , p p . 1 40-1 , n o . 2 9 .]

a l-Baerah , 7 50/1 , 7 63/4 a l-Küfah , 7 5 1/2, 7 56/7 , 7 62/3 Madrna t a lSa l m , 7 66/7 , 7 72/3 , 7 75/6 , 7 77/8 ( 2 ) , 7 80/1 , 7 9 1/2 ( 2 ) , 7 96/7 , 7 97/8 , 8 0 1/2 , 8 02/3 , 8 04/5 ( 3 ) , 8 07/8 , 8 08/9 , 8 10/11 , 8 11/12 , 8 15/16 a l-cAbbäsTyyah , 7 74/5 a l- Muha m madryyah , 7 77/8 ( 2 ) , 7 82/3 , 7 96/7 , 7 99/800 ( 2 ) , 8 03/4 , 8 04/5 , 8 07/8 , 8 59/60 Ar mrn iyah , 8 64/5 , 8 66/7 ( 2 ) , 8 82/3 B a lkh , 8 01/2 , 8 03/4 ( 2 ) , 8 08/9 S a marc iand , 8 20/1 , 8 52/3 , 8 67/8 ( 2 ) S urra man r a '

8 64/5 , 8 6 6 /7

H erä t , 8 08/9 N aysäbür , 8 09/10 Z aran j , 8 11/12 Arrän , 8 11/12 I ebahän , 8 11/12 , 8 63/4 a l-S tash , 8 37/8 Marw , 8 59/60 Min t e f faced , 8 68/9 I .

S af fär id ( 1 ) B an jhir , 8 73/4

I I .

Z ayd id ( 1 ) J ur jän , 8 8 1 /2

I V . 7 1 .

S po i led a nd D efaced ( 21 )

N ova ia L azarevka , K azankovsk i i r a ion , N iko laev o b last ', 1 902 .

Wh i le

p lough ing a f i e ld , ah oard o f 7 6 d irha ms was f ound ( who le a nd h a lves ) . T he o ldest c o in was a S asan ian d rach m s truck i n H a madhän u nder Khusraw I( 590-628 ) a nd t he most r ecen t was a n 8 93 .

d irha m o f

[ V . I . G oskhev ich , K lady id revnost i Khersonsko i g ubern i i ,

Kherson 1 903 , p p . 4 0-1 ; I .

S asan ian ( 1 )

I .

Umayyad ( 3 )

I I .

cA bbäs id

cA bbäs id

Kropotk in , 'N ovye n akhodkP

p . 9 0 , n o . 1 46 .]

( 72 )

G oshkev ich p rov ides a dd it iona l i n for mat ion o n t he d istr ibut ion o f d irha ms b y r e ign :

1 15

Umayyad a l- Wa lrd I ( 705-714/15 ) , 1 S u la i mä-n ( 714/15-717/18 ) , 1 H ishä m , ( 723/4-742/3) , 1 cA bbasid

a l- Man§V ir ( 7 53/4-774/5 ) , 1 0 a l- Mandr ( 774/5-785/6 ) , 1 1 a r-Rashrd ( 786/7-808/9 ) , 3 9 a l- Ma ' mün ( 813/14-833/4 ) , 5 a l- Wä th iq ( 841/2-846/7 ) , 2 a l- Mu tawakk i l ( 846/7-86 1/2) , 2 a l- Musta cr n ( 862/3-866/7 ) , 1 a l- Mu ct am id ( 869/70-892/3 ) , 1 7 2 .

V eshenska ia s tan itsa , D on C ossack l ands , 1 868 . was f ound .

A .p o t w ith s i lver c o ins

T he c o ins were d ispersed a nd o n ly 5 were o b tained f or

i den t if icat ion .

A l l were

cA bbäs id

d irha ms .

[Markov , T opograf i ia , p .

9 , n o . 4 9 . ] Madrnat a l-Sa la-i n , 7 95/6 , 8 69/70-892/3 S a marqand , 8 13/14-833/4 M in t u nknown , Markov s ays t hat t h is c o in h as t he n a me a l- Mutawakk i l ( re igned 8 46/7-86 1/2 )a nd d ates i tb e tween 8 74/5-892/3 Unstruck f l an 7 3 .

P skov u ezd , 1 870s .

About 2 0 v ersts f ro m t he c ity o f P skov , d irha ms

were f ound i nc lud ing o ne Umayyad c o in , Wäs i t , y ear e f faced , a nd 2 cA bbäs id

c o ins , Wäs it , 7 48/9 a nd S urra man r a 'a , 8 47/8 o r 8 50/1 .

[Markov , T opograf i ia , p . 3 9 , n o . 2 15 .] 7 4 .

B obr ik , S tarodub r a ion , Br ianst o b last ', 1 963. d irha ms o f t he n in th c en tury was f ound . f i ed a s o f 1 970 .

7 5 .

[ Kropo tk in ,

A .h oard o f a round 2 00

T he c o ins h ad n o t b een i den t i-

N ovye n akhodk i ', p . 7 8 , n o . 8 . ]

N izhne-Pokrovka , O strogozhsk i i u ezd , Voronezh o b last ', 1 925 . o f d irha ms we igh ing a bou t 2k g was f ound . c en tury r eached t he O strogozhsk i i Museu m .

A .h oard

One d irha m o f t he n in th [ Kropo tk in , 'N ovye n akhodk i . ',

p . 8 0 , n o . 2 3 .] 7 6 .

O d in tsovo , I ansnogorsk i i r a ion , T u la o b last ', 1 968 .

Wh i le b u i ld ing a n

e ar then d am , ab u l ldozer d r iver f ound a l arge h oard o f d irha ms o ft he e igh th-n in th c en tur ies . 7 7 .

[ Kropotk in ,

N ovye n akhodk i ' ,p . 8 6 , n o . 9 8 .]

Ma loe T i merevo , l aros lavP r a ion a nd ° b last ', 1 968 .

A .h oard o f 1 ,503

d irha ms was f ound a long t he R iver S echka b y c hance .

The h oard i s

t enatat ive ly d ated t o t he n in th c en tury . 'Ko mp leks ', p . 6 6 , n o . 8 . ]

1 16

[ Dobrovo l ' s k i i-Dubov ,

APPEND IX I

A .

I ndex t o Hoards b y D ate o f D eposit

1 .

Ka l in ingrad , 7 45/6 ( ?)

4 1.

S i mony , 8 45/6

2 .

S tara ia L adoga , 7 86/7

4 2 .

S tara ia L adoga , 8 46/7

3 .

P ar istovsk i i k hu tor/Par istovka/

4 3 .

Kunakovo , 8 51/2 ( ?)

4 4.

Akhre m tsy , 8 52/3

4 5 .

Porech ' e , 8 53/4

Novye Ml iny , c . 7 95/6 ( ?) 4 .

R ight-bank T s im l iansk g orod ishche , c . 8 00

4 6.

Gruch ino , 8 60/1 ( ?) B aevo/Sobo levo , 8 62/3

5 .

L e lek i , 8 02/3 ( ? )

4 7 .

6 .

Kr iv ianska ia s tan itsa , 8 05/6

4 8 .

L uchesy , 8 62/3 ( ?)

7 .

Baskach , 8 07/8 ( ? )

4 9 .

Rostovets-Ostrogov , 8 64/5

8 .

Vy leg i , 8 07/8 ( ? )

5 0 .

P an ld .no , 8 63/4 ( ?)

9 .

Kn iashchino , 8 08/9

5 1.

Novgorod , 8 64/5

1 0 .

Z ava l ish ino , 8 09/10

•5 2 .

1 1.

Kh itrovka , 8 10/ 11

5 3 .

Bo l ' s hoe T i merevo , 8 65

S e menov Gorodok , 8 10/11 ( ?)

5 4.

Po terpe l ' t sy , 8 65/6

1 2 .

Moscow , 8 65/6 ( ?)

1 3 .

N izhn ie Novose lk i , 8 11/12

5 5 .

S upru ty , 8 66 ( ?)

1 4 .

N izhn ia ia S yrovatka , 8 12/13

5 6.

V itebsk p rov ince , 8 66?

1 5 .

Kre m levskoe , 8 12/13

5 7.

Bork i , 8 67/8 ( ?)

1 6.

Ugod ich i , 8 12/13

5 8 .

Toropets , 8 67/8

1 7.

Orsha ? , 8 14/15

5 9 .

Mishnevo , 8 68/9

1 8 .

S arskoe g orod ishche , 8 14/15

6 0 .

Mo iseevo , 8 68/9 ( ?)

1 9 .

Minsk p rov ince , 8 15/16 ( ?)

6 1 .

Kuznetskoe , 8 69/70

2 0 .

Nabatovo , 8 15/16 ( ?)

6 2 .

C hersones , 8 69/70 ( ?)

2 1.

L apo tkovo , 8 16/17

6 3 .

O strog i , 8 69/70 ( ?)

2 2 .

Bork i , 8 17

6 4.

S hu m i lovo , 8 70/1

2 3 .

Novo tro itskoe , 8 18/19

6 5.

Kh itrovka , 8 72/3

2 4 .

S kop insk i i u ezd , 8 18/19 ( ?)

6 6.

Bork i , 8 75?

2 5 .

I ary lov ich i , 8 20/1

6 7.

Pogrebnoe , 8 75/6

2 6.

E l med , 8 20/1

6 8 .

Boby l i , 8 75/6

2 7.

V itebsk r aion , 8 22/3 ( ?)

6 9 .

Z helezn itsa , 8 77/8

2 8 .

L itv inov ich i , 8 23/4

7 0 .

Po l tava , 8 82/3

2 9 .

An ton inenberg , 8 23/4 ( ?)

7 1 .

Nova ia L azarevka , 8 93

3 0 .

D em iansk , 8 24/5

7 2 .

V eshenska ia s tan itsa , 8 92/3 ( ?)

3 1.

S arskoe g orod ishche , 8 20s ( ?)

7 3 .

P skov u ezd , mid-n in th c entury ( ?)

3 2 .

Ug l ich , 8 29/30

7 4.

Bobr ik , n in th c en tury

3 3 .

Z agorod ' e , 8 31/2 ( ?)

7 5.

N izhne-Pokrovka , n in th c en tury ( ?)

3 4 .

K isla ia , C . 8 33

7 6.

Od in tsovo , n in th c en tury

3 5.

V iatka , 8 35 ( ? )

7 7.

Ma loe T i merevo , n in th c entury?

3 6.

D ev itsa , 8 37/8

3 7.

Pro tasovo , 8 41/2 ( ?)

3 8 .

Dobr ino , 8 4 1/2

3 9 .

L esogurt , 8 41/2

4 0 .

I agoshury , 8 42/3

1 17

ON ORIENTAL CO INS I N S CAND INAV IA B eng t E . H oven

I n t h is l ecture Iw i l l a t te mp t t o g ive y ou a s hor t a nd a s f ar a s p ossib le c o mprehens ive s urvey o f S asan ian a nd I s la m ic c o ins f ound i n Sweden . S ince Il ack f i rst-hand k now ledge o f t hese c o in s er ies i n c o l lec t ions i n D en mark , F in land , a nd Norway Iw i l l , a t t he e nd o f my l ec ture , g ive y ou a r esu me o f t he m b ased u pon wr i t ten s ources a nd c ata logues .

Iw i l l a lso t ry t o o ut l ine

o ur c urren t work o n S asan ian a nd I s la m ic c o ins a t t he Roya l C o in C ab inet , S tockho lm .

An impor tan t p ar t o f t h is work i s t he p repara t ion f or p ub l icat ion

o f t he C orpus N u m moru m S aecu loru m wh ich B r i ta Ma l mer , t he c h ief e d i tor , w i l l s peak a bou t . Two t op ics t hat c oncern o ur work a re t he p rob le ms o f im i ta t ions a nd o f c lass ify ing t he n u merous f ragmen ts o n e p igraph ica l a nd o r thograph ic g rounds . Accord ing t o U l la L inder We l in i n t he K u l turh istor isk t l ex ikon f ör N ord isk Mede lt id 8 0 ,000 I s la m ic c o ins , b o th who le a nd f ragmen ts , h ave b een f ound i n t he s o i l o f S weden .

My i n ten t ion i s f irst ly t o g ive y ou t he d istr ibu t ion b y

d ynast ies , a nd t o s o me e x ten t b y min ts , o f n ear ly 3 5 ,000 o f t hese c o ins wh ich Ih ave myse lf s tud ied .

T he p ub l icat ion h ere o f t he n u mber o f c o ins w i l l o f

c ourse o n ly a n t ic ipate t he more t horough p ub l icat ion i n CNS b ut It h ink t hat i t c ou ld n ever the less b e o f i n terest t o t hose who wan t a t l east a g enera l n o t ion o f t he o r ien t- c o ins i n t he Roya l C o in C ab inet ; y ears b efore t he C orpus i s c o mp leted .

a nd i tw i l l p robab ly b e s evera l

T he t o ta l i nc ludes t hose c o ins w i thout

i nven tory n u mbers , w h ich must n ever the less h ave b een f ound i n S wed ish s o i l . The s equence o f t he d ynast ies i s p ar t ly c hrono log ica l , a nd p ar t ly g eog raphica l f ro m west t o e ast . 1 .

T he R oya l C o in C ab inet h as 3 26 s pec i mens o f S asan ian a nd Arab-Sasan ian c o ins , d iv ided among 3 2 f inds , many o f wh ich c onsist o n ly o f o ne c o in e ach .

2 .

The Umayyad c o ins n u mber 5 78 , d iv ided among 8 3 f inds , o f wh ich o ne h as a s many a s 7 6 p ieces .

3 .

T he c o ins s truck u nder t he S pan ish Umayyads amoun t t o 2 37 p ieces .

4 .

T he

cA bbäs id

d irha ms t ogether w ith t wo d i : Mrs amoun t t o n o f ewer t han

9 ,539 , d iv ided among 6 4 f inds . 5 .

T he A .m i irs a lU mara - 'a re r epresen ted b y 4 0 c o ins f ro m 1 8 f inds .

6 .

C o ins s truck u nder t he T äh ir ids n u mber 4 9 p ieces d istr ibuted amongst 1 5 f i nds .

( On ly c o ins c arry ing t he n a me o f ar u ler o f t h is d ynasty a re

r ecogn ised a s T äh ir id. 7 .

C f . Granberg 1 966 .)

The I drrs ids a re r epresen ted b y 3 5 c o ins d iv ided i n to 7 f inds . 1 19

8 .

T he Khär i jite Ima m Kha laf i bn a l- Madä ? i s r epresen ted b y 1 0 c o ins f ro m 6f inds .

9 . 1 0 .

T he Agh lab id d ynasty i s r epresen ted b y 6c o ins , o f wh ich o ne i s g o ld . T he I khshrd ids a re r epresen ted b y 1 7 c o ins , o f wh ich o ne i s ad i nlr ; t he c o ins a re d iv ided among 1 1 f inds .

1 1 .

T he T ü lün ids a re r epresen ted b y 2c o ins , o ne o f wh ich i s g o ld .

1 2 .

The F ät im ids a re r epresen ted b y 2d irha ms a nd o ne d rnär .

1 3 .

T he D u laf ids a re r epresen ted b y 5c o ins f ro m 3 f inds .

1 4 .

T he B änl jür ids ( Abü-Dawdids ) a re r epresen ted b y 9 4 c oins f ro m 1 5f i nds .

1 5 .

T he P r ince Ah mad i bn

cA bd.A . 1 1äh

i n N aysa b t ir i s r epresen ted b y 2 2 c o ins

f ro m 1 2 f inds . 1 6 .

T he S a l lär ids ( Musäf ir ids , Wahs t idän ids )i n D ay la m a nd A dharbay jän a re r epresen ted b y 8c o ins f ro m 8 f inds .

1 7 . 1 8 .

T he S ä jids a re r epresen ted b y 3c o ins f rom 3 f inds . S a el ük id i n a l- Muha m mad iyyah i s r epresen ted b y o ne c o in f ro m o ne f ind .

1 9 .

T he J a cf ar ids i n C aucasus a re r epresen ted b y 3p ieces f ro m 3 f i nds .

2 0 .

T he

2 1 .

The S hähs o f Khwär iz m , s outh o f t he Ara l S ea , a re r epresen ted b y 6

cA l l i d

p r inces a re r epresen ted b y 9c o ins f ro m 5 f inds .

c o ins f ro m 5 f inds . 2 2 . 2 3 .

T he Z ayd ids a re r epresen ted b y 9c o ins f ro m 5 f inds . T he K urd ish p r ince D aysa m i bn I brährm i s r epresen ted b y 3c o ins f ro m 3f inds .

2 4 .

T he B äwand ids a re r epresen ted b y 2c o ins f ro m 2 f i nds .

2 5 .

T he S af fär ids a re r epresen ted b y 2 13 c o ins f ro m 5 8 f inds , most ly w ith o n ly a f ew c o ins i n e ach , a l though o ne f ind h ad 3 8 s pec i mens .

2 6 .

T he S ä män id p r inces f ro m 8 92 u n t i l a bout 9 80 a re t he d ynasty whose c o ins a re b y f ar t he most s trong ly r epresen ted i n Swed ish f inds .

F or

t h is r eason Ih ave g rouped t he c o ins a ccord ing t o t he 7 r u lers o f t he d ynasty , w ith t he a dd it ion o f a n e x tra g roup f or t he i ndeter m inab le ( i .e . f ragmen ts o r o b l i terated c o ins wh ich c lear ly a re o f S a män id t ype b u t where t he n a me o f t he r u ler i s i l leg ib le ) . A .

I s mä er li bn A h mad - 5 ,081 c o ins f ro m 2 03 f inds .

B .

A h mad i bn I sm .äe n - 1 d inär a nd 3 ,368 d irha ms f ro m 1 84 f inds .

C .

N asr i bn A h mad - 8 ,160 c o ins f ro m 2 17 f inds

D .

I \ Mh i bn N asr - 1 ,895 c o ins f rom 1 87 f inds

E .

cA bd

F .

i bn N ah - 2 10 c o ins f ro m 4 5 f inds

Mansur i bn N t lh - 2 0 `7 . c o ins f rom 5 7 f inds

G .

N ü t i i bn Maneür - 4 c o ins f ro m 3 f inds .

H .

T he i ndeter m inab le S ä mfn id c o ins - 9 09 s pec i mens .

1 20

2 7.

Under t he h ead ing 'S ä män id Rebe ls a nd V assa ls ' 3 8 c o ins f ro m 2 9 f inds h ave b een g athered ,

2 8 .

The o r ien ta l c o ins f ro m t he r e mo test a rea a re t hose s truck u nder t he Wä jih id p r inces f ro m

c Um an ,

o f wh ich we h ave 1 5 s pec i mens f ro m 1 1

f inds . 2 9 .

a l-Här ith i bn A . sad i n K hut ta l a nd Marw i s r epresen ted b y 5c o ins f ro m 3f inds .

3 0 . 3 1.

T he B uwayh ids a re r epresen ted b y 3 81 c o ins f ro m 8 9 f inds . The Z iyär ids i n T abar istän a nd J ur jan a re r epresen ted b y 8c o ins f ro m 6f inds .

3 2 .

The H a mdän ids a re r epresen ted b y 1 86 c o ins f ro m 7 3 f inds .

3 3 .

Abü Z ari f i n B arqac il l b y o ne c o in f ro m o ne f ind .

3 4 .

T he Marwan id p r inces a re r epresen ted b y 8 2 c o ins f ro m 2 5 f inds .

3 5 .

The

3 6 .

The I l ek id ( Qarakhän id ) r u lers a re r epresen ted b y 1 7 c o ins f ro m 9 f inds .

3 7 .

The G haznaw ids ( Sabuk tag thids ) a re r epresen ted b y 3c o ins f ro m 3 f inds .

3 8 .

Wh i lst we a re i n t h is e astern a rea Ih ave t o men t ion t he e x istance o f t he

cU qay l id

d ynasty i s r epresen ted b y 8 3 c o ins f ro m 2 8 f inds .

'b u l l a nd h orse man ' c o in s truck u nder S pa lapa t i D eva i n Oh ind , s o me t ime b etween 8 87 a nd 9 16 ;

t h is c o in h as n o i nven tory n u mber b ut i t may

h ave c o me f rom a f ind s ince c o ins o f t h is t ype h ave b een f ound i n V ik ing-age f i nds t ogether w ith I s la m ic c o ins ; a nd L isöwek ( Le is s ower Müh le ) ,

e .g . V aab ina i n E sthon ia ,

i n P o land ( near F rank fur t ) .

3 9 .

J u land id R4wän i bn J a cf ar i n Ur m iyyah i s r epresen ted b y o ne c o in .

4 0 .

An u nknown d ynasty i n Amu l i s r epresen ted b y o ne c o in .

4 1 .

The V o lga-Bu lghärs a re r epresen ted b y 4 20 c o ins f ro m 8 9 f inds .

4 2 .

The R oya l C o in C ab inet h as 4 c o ins o f t he Kök-Turk ish t ype f ro m 4 f inds .

4 3 .

The c o ins s truck u nder A . br i . Mus l im n u mber 7 , f ro m 5 f inds .

4 4 .

T he R oya l C o in C ab inet h as 7 01 c o ins f ro m i ndeter m inab le d ynast ies ( f ragmen ts o r o b l i terated ) f ro m 7 1 f inds .

4 5 .

We a lso h ave 1 ,637 im itat ions f ro m 1 65 f inds . t he S ä män id p ro to type a lthough s o me a re a f ter

( They a re most ly a f ter cA bbäs id ;

e igh t o f t he m

c arry t he h ead o f af a lcon .) 4 6 .

B lank f l ans o f a bout t he s a me d ia meter a nd we igh t a s t he I s la m ic c o ins h ave b een f ound .

T hey n u mber 4 51 s i lver p ieces f ro m 5 2 f inds .

Exc lud ing t he l as t c a tegory wh ich c an h ard ly b e c ons idered a s c o ins , e ven i f t hey may h ave b een u sed i n t rade a nd h ad a n i n tr ins ic v a lue , t he t o ta l c o l lect ion o f o r ien ta l c o ins i n t he Roya l C o in C ab ine t amoun ts t o 3 4 ,648 . g ive t he f o l low ing p ercen tage f igures f or t he d ynast ies :

1 21

T h i s wou ld

S ä män id

5 7.2%

cA bbas id

2 7 .5%

Im itat ions

4 .7%

I nde ter m inab le

2 .0%

Umayyad

1 .7%

Vo lga-Bu lghär

1 .2%

B uwayh id

1 .1%

S asan ian a nd Arab-Sasan ian

0 .9%

S pan ish Umayyad

0 .7%

§ aff är id

0 .6%

H a mdän id

0 .5 %

B ant jar id cUqay l id

0 .3% 0 .2%

Marwän id

0 .2%

T äh ir id

0 .1%

Ämir a l-U marä.'

0 .1%

S ä män id Rebe ls a nd V assa ls

0 .1%

I drT s id

0 .1%

I khshid id

0 .1%

Ab mad i bn

cA bd

A l lah

0 .1%

I l ek id

0 .1%

T he r e ma in ing C . 0 .5% c ons ists o f t he a bove- men t ioned d ynast ies r epresen ted b y 1 6 o r l ess c o ins e ach . I t must h owever b e k ep t i n mind t hat t hese p ercen tages may b e mod if ied i n t he p ub l icat ion o f t he C orpus N u m moru m S aecu loru m .

The l arge c o l lect ions

o f I s la m ic c o ins a t t he p rov inc ia l museu ms , a nd i n for mat ion i n t he a rch ives , wh ich h as s t i l l t o b e s tud ied , c o ins wh ich h ave b een me lted d own o r wh ich h ave d isappeared w i l l i nf luence t he f i na l f i gures p ub lished . Iw i l l n ow t urn t o t he Or ien ta l c o ins i n N orway , F in land , a nd D en mark . T he i n for mat ion Iw i l l g ive y ou i s t aken f ro m t he works o f K o lb jörn S kaare o n t he N orweg ian c o l lec t ions ;

o f G eorg G a lster o n t he D an ish c o l lect ions , a nd

o f B eatr ice G ranberg o n t he c o l lect ions i n F in land . I n S kaare ' sC o ins a nd C o inage i n V ik ing-age N orway , a t p p . 4 7-53 , t here i s ad escr ip tion o f o r ien ta l c o ins f ound i n N orway . l i sted i n t he c a ta logue ( pp . 1 27f f .). d ynast ies ;

T hese c o ins a re a lso

T hey a re d istr ibuted among t he f o l low ing

Umayyad 5 c o ins , S pan ish Umayyad 2 c o ins ,

cA bbäs id

8 7 c o ins ,

Arab-Sasan ian ( cA bbäs id g overnor ) o ne c o in , * aff är id 2 c oins , S ä män id 2 23 c o ins , H a mdän id 3 c o ins , c Uqay l id 2 c o ins , t he d ynast ies o f t he I drr s ids , t he Vo lga-Bu lghärs , t he Z iyär ids , t he Marwän ids , t he J a cf ar ids a nd t he H a m müdids , o ne c o in e ach .

T here a re a lso 3 3 im itat ions a nd 7 2-151 i ndeter m inab le c o ins ,

wh ich makes a t o ta l o f C . 4 44-523 I s la m ic c o ins .

As urpr is ing f eature , wh ich

i s wor th n o t ing , i s t he a bsence o f B uwayh id c o ins i n N orweg ian s o i l .

A l l t he

I s la m ic c o ins f ound i n N orway were s truck d ur ing t he p er iod 7 14-1050 A .D . I n F in land , a ccord ing t o B . G ranberg ' sF örteckn ing ö ver Kuf iska Myn t fynd iF in land ( 1966 ) , 1 ,663 o r ien ta l c o ins h ave b een f ound . amongst t he f o l low ing d ynast ies :

These a re d istr ibuted

S asan ian 1 8 c o ins , Arab-Sasan ian 2 0 c o ins ,

Umayyad 3 7 c o ins , S pan ish Umayyads 2 c o ins ,

1 22

cA bbäsid

7 81 c o ins ( 46% ) ,

_.

T äh ir id 1 99 c o ins ( I am h owever , s usp ic ious o f t h is l arge n u mber o f ph ir id C o ins ; Is uppose t ha t many cAbbäsid c o ins f ro m t he e astern p ar ts o f t he C a l ip hate h ave b een c lass if ied a s T ah ir id i n a ccordance w ith t he t rad it ion o f F raehn a nd T ornberg , b ut n owadays t hese c o ins a re c ons idered t o b e

cA bbäsid

u n less t hey c arry t he n a me o faT ah ir id r u ler . T he s a me c ond i t ions a pp ly , a s f ar a s Ic an s ee , t o t he 1 62 c o ins t hat a re c a l led cAbbäsid o r T äh ir id .) , I dri s id 4 c o ins , t he am irs o f T udgha 3 c o ins , S aff är id 1 0 c o ins , Ämrr a l-Umarä ' 2c o ins , S ä män id 3 09 c o ins ( on ly C . 1 8% ) , B uwayh id 1 8 c o ins , 1 . 1 amdänid 3 c o ins , I l ek id 3 c o ins , a nd o ne c o in.f ro m e ach o f t he d ynast ies o f t he Wä jih ids , t he Z iyar ids , t he Z ayd ids , t he S rm jür ids a nd t he a fore men t ioned b i l ingua l t ype s o me t i mes c a l led K ök-Turk ish . I n a dd it ion t o t hese c o ins t here a re 6 1 im it a t ions a nd 4 i ndeter m inab le p ieces . F or i n for mat ion o n D an ish c o l lect ions Ir efer t o G . G a lster i n NNÄ 1 977-8 , p p . 5 -246 , where h e d escr ibes t he c o ins f ound o n t he i s land o f Bornho lm , o f wh ich 2 33 were I s la m ic d istr ibuted a s f o l lows : 3 Umayyad c o ins , 3 cAbbas id c o ins , 1 41 S ä män id c o ins , 1 1 Vo lga-Bu lghär c o ins a nd o ne c Uqay l id ; t o t hese we c an a dd 5 7 i ndeter m inab le c o ins . I n D enmark a s a who le a bout 4 ,000 d irha ms h ave b een f ound f rom 7 3 f i nds ( U l la L inder We lin , KLNM p .183 ) a nd 7 p ah lav i ( t hese may b e p ure S asan ian o r Arab-Sasan ian ) . U nfortunate ly Ih ave n o t b een a b le t o g roup t hese c o ins i n to d ynast ies b ecause J . O strup ' sC a ta logue d es monna ies a rabes e t t urques i s as yste mat ic c a ta logue d escr ib ing t he t ypes e tc . w ithou t e nu merat ing t he c o ins . C o m men tary o n t he maps a nd l i st o f min ts T he maps s how t he m in ts o f S asan ian a nd I s la m ic c o ins f ound i n S wed ish s o i l a nd p ub l ished i n t he f i rst 3 v o lu mes o f CNS ( i .e . t he p ar ishes A -E o f G o t land a nd t he v o lu me o n D a larna ) . T he f igures b es ide t he min ts o n t he maps c orrespond t o t he f igures i n p aren theses a f ter e ach n a me i n t he l i st o f min ts . Un iden t if ied min ts a re s hown t hus : ( ) . ( P lease o bserve t hat t he "s ig lan o f S asan ian min ts a re t rans l iterated .)

C onstan t inop le ( no . 7 ) a nd T a ike ( no . 2 8 ) d o n o t d eno te

I s la m ic m in ts , b u t B yzan t ine a nd G eorg ian o nes . T h is l i st w i l l b e s upp le men ted i n f or thco m ing v o lu mes o f CNS .

E .g . t o

t he I s la m ic min ts w i l l b e a dded F i las t rh , T abar iyyah e tc . a nd t o t he S asan ian min ts S R , ZR e tc . On t he w ho le , h owever , t he most p ro l if ic min ts o f t he 6 th-10th c en tur ies i n t he C a l iphate h ave b een i nc luded o n t he e nc losed maps , w i th t he o bv ious p redo m inance o f t he Transoxan ian min ts d ur ing t he S a man id p er icd .

B y

t h is Imean t hat a l-Shäsh a nd S a margand were r espons ib le f or a bou t 7 5% o f t he c o inage o f t hat d ynasty .

1 23

1 24

MAP t o s how l ocat ion o f S asan ian a nd I s la m ic min ts ( 1-17 ).

1 25

MAP t o s how l ocat ion o f

L IST OF MINTS S A .SAN IA .N EMP IRE

Ardashrr K hurrah ( ART ) D äräbgard ( DA) Marw

( MR )

( 63 )

N ihäwand ( NYH ) R ay ( RD )

( 67 )

( 73 )

( 5 4 )

( 5 7 )

MB , NYHCH , ZD ( ) I SLA M IC DYNAST IES

4 3

a l-cA .bbädän min a l-Ahwäz

6 a l-cA .bbasiyyah 7 2

Abarshahr ( Abrashahr , Mad inat

4 5

a l-A .hwäz

A .)

8 0

F arghdnah

6 4

F är is

8 6

F arwän

6 6

F asä

1 1

H a lab ( Mad inat H .)

6 9 Amu l 1 a l-A .nda lus

5 5

i l a madhan

7 4

H arah ( Madinat H .)

8 5

Andaräbah

2 1

H arran

Andi järägh

1 0

i l ar t inAbad

A .rc. l a l-Khazar C Ard a l-Khayr )

1 0

a l- H ar un iyyah

5 2

H u lwän

8 2

H era t , v . H arah

3 3

A .rdab i l

6 3

Ardashir Khurrah

2 9 ,

Ar mr n iyah

5

3 2

fr ih iyah ( Mad inat I . )

5 9

I ebahän ( Madinat I . )

5 1

Arra jän

3 2

Arran ( Madinat A .)

6 5 6 0

I s takhr j a.n naba

8 7

cA . skar

Ban jhir

2 5

a l-Jazirah

4 6

cA . skar

Mukra m

5 9

J ayy ( Madrnat J .)

4 8

Aydha j ( i dha j )

7 0

J ur jän ( Madrna t J .)

8 1

K hut ta . 1 ( a l- Khu t ta l )

8 3

B adakhshä .n

6 8

K ir män

B a lad ( )

3 8

a l-K t ifah

B adacah , v . T udghah

Macd in ( )

7 8

B a lkh ( I V Iadrnat B .)

8 7

Ban jhrr ( a l-Ban jhir )

7 9

3 2

B ardha ca h

2 7

Ma ed in B ä junays

4 2

a l-Basrah

8 7

Ma ed in B an jhir

Ma cd in a l-Shä .-s h

3 7

B ihqu i pädh a l-A .wsa t

3 4

a l- Madinah a l- Mu tawak Id . l iyyah

7 1

a l-B iyär

3 6

Madrna t a l-Sa la .m

5 3

Mäh a l-Küfah ( Madi nat M . a l-K .)

7 3

Marw ( Madinat M .)

B inkath , v . a l-Shäsh 7 6 1 6 1 2

B ukhärä ( Madr nat B .)

9 a l- Mae l ah ( a l- M ieei eah )

Bu lghär ( Madinat B .) a l-Däbekryah ( )

2 6

a l- Mawsi l

D i mashq

2 4

Mayya dr iq in

1 3

Mier

D ja iy , v . J ayy

1 26

5 7

a l- Mubärakah a l- Muha m mad iyyah

7 9

a l-Shä .-s h

4 4

N ahr T rr a t

6 4

S hrrIz

2 3

N aeibin ( N ierbin )

7 5

S i j is tän

7 2 3 9

N aysäb i lr ( Madina t N .) a l-Qäd is iyyah

6 2

S rräf S i iq a l-A .hwä .z lq m in a l-Ahwäz ) S uräd iq Abarshahr

5 6

Qaer a lSa l m Q azw tn

4 5 . 7 2 3 5

S urra man r ae ä

5 8 1 9

Qu m m a l-Räf iqah

4 9 1 7

S urraq S umer

2 0

a l-Ra t ibah

5 0

Rä mhur muz min a l-Ahwäz

6 7 T abar is en 8 T arsus

1 8 2 2

( Rä m-Hor m izd ) a l-Raqqah Ra ' sa l-cAyn

5 7 6 1

a l-Rayy ( Ray ) S äbi lr

3 1

S a mandar

7 7

S a marqand ( Mad that S .)

4 1

a l-Sa m iyyah ( approx . l ocat ion )

a l-Shä m iyyah , v . a l-Sä m iyyah

8 4 3 0 4

T ayagan T if li s T i l i msän

3 4 7 1 5

T udghah T ustar m in a l-Ahwäz c Uraän

2 4 0

Wa ll lah Wäs i t ( approx . l oca t ion )

1 4

a l-Ya mä mah

7 5

Z aran j ( Madr na t Z . )

I n t he p ub l icat ion o f S asan ian a nd I s la m ic c o ins i n CNS j ust a f ew c haract er ist ics f ro m a n i n f in ite n u mber c an b e g iven . F or t he S asan ian c o ins t he n a me o f t he r u ler , t he y ears o fh is r e ign a nd t he min t ( i nd icated b y a "s ig lu m " o f t wo o r more l e t ters ) a re t he c haracteri s t ics g iven . S ince t hese c o ins a re p rofound ly e luc ida ted i n r ecen t s yste mat ic works i ti s o f ten s uf f ic ien t t o r efer t o as pec i men d escr ibed i n o ne o f t hese works . T he f ew c o ins f ro m t h is emp ire f ound i n Swed ish s o i l a re v ery o f ten f ragmen ts a nd/or o b l i terated wh ich makes t he m d if f icu lt t o c lass ify . T he I s la m ic c o ins a re p ub l ished b y r eference t o t he f o l low ing c haracteri s t ics : D ynasty , c a l iph ( f or t he Umayyads a nd t he cAbbäs ids o n ly ) , r u ler ( t he o ther d ynast ies ) , t he c a l iph a s a n o ver lord i s i nd ica ted b y af igure i n c onsecut ive o rder , A .H y ear i s g iven— i .e . Anno H i jrah ;

r eference i s g iven

t o o ne o r more o f t he w orks i n wh ich t he c o in i n q uest ion h as b een p ub l ished . T he ma in r eference w ork i s C . J . T ornberg ' sN um i C uf ic i R eg i i N umophy lac i i H o lm iensis q uos omnes i n t erra S uec iae r eper tos ( Uppsa la , 1 848 ) s ince i ti s t he work t hat h as t he most e xhaust ive d escr ip t ions o f S ämän id c o ins . T he d escr ip t ions b y Tornberg a nd t hose i n o ther c a ta logues a re o f ten s upp le men ted a s r egards t he v ar ious r ings : i .e . t he r ing b etween t he f i e ld w ith i t s l egend a nd t he s urround ing l egend ; i ft here a re a ny s igns ( l ud ic l e t ters o r o rna men ts ) i n t he f i e ld a bove o r b e low t he l egend t hey a re d rawn , a s a re a ny m isspe l l ings o ft he min t o r y ear i n t he i nner marg ina l l egend o f t he o bv erse .

I ft he l etters o f t he l egend o n t he f i e ld a re f or o rna men ta l r easons

s p l it o n t he t op t h is w i l l b e d escr ibed a s "s p l i t t ops" . T he f i e ld l egend o n t he o bverse may o ccur i n d if feren t s ty les wh ich a re d es ignated b y t he l et ters

1 27

A , B , C , D , a nd E a lthough t he most u sua l o ne i sn ot d es ignated . O u ts ide t he marg ina l l egends r ings o f ten o ccur wh ich a re c a l led "marg ins" . T hey a re d escr ibed b y f igures a s a re t he a fore- men t ioned r ings .

No a tten t ion i s

p a id t o t he marg ina l l egend o n t he r everse a nd t he o uter marg ina l l egend o f t he o bverse ( t hese a re q uo tat ions f ro m t he Qur 'ä n ) s ince a c o mprehens ive d escr ip t ion o f t he e p igraphy a nd f au lts i n t he o r thography wou ld make t he c o m men tary c o lu mn u nw ie ldy . F or t he c lass if icat ion o f f ragmen ts , o f wh ich a v ast n u mber e x ist , i t wou ld b e v ery u sefu l t o h ave s yste mat ic r eference mater ia l d escr ib ing t he d i f feren t v ar ian ts i n o r thography a nd e p igraphy wh ich c ou ld b e u sed whenever a f ragmen t l acks t he n a me o f ar u ler , m in t a nd y ear . T o p roduce s uch mater ia l o n c ards r equ ires a n e nor mous amoun t o f t ime a nd a s crupu lous e xa m inat ion o f e very d e ta i l o n e very c o in .

Work o n t h is p ro ject h as h owever c o mmenced

a t t he C o in C ab inet i n S tockho lm , b eg inn ing w ith t he e ar l ier S ä män id c o ins . I ti s h oped t hat i tw i l l b e c o mp le ted i n t he f uture , s ince t he o utco me may b e o f s o me v a lue i n t he c lass if icat ion o f t he f ragmen ts—if i tc ou ld b e c onc lus ive ly p roved t hat t he e ngravers c hanged t he e p igraph ic a nd t o s o me e x ten t o r thog raph ic s ty le f ro m o ne y ear t o t he n ex t , f ro m o ne m in t t o a nother o r a t l east f ro m o ne r u ler t o h is s uccessor . Ap rob le m c oncern ing im itat ions i s t hat o f s yste mat iz ing t he m b y t he ir d egree o f c rud ity . A f ter a c o mparat ive s tudy o f ah undred o f t he m t here s ee med t o b e , r ough ly s peak ing , a t l east t hree d egrees o f c rud i ty .

T he f i rst

was c haracter ized b y t he im i tat ion ' se x tre me ly f i ne a nd e laborate e p igraphy , s im i lar t o t hat o f t he r egu lar c o ins b u t w ith a mean ing less i nscr ip t ion wh ich was o f ten s y m metr ica l , g iv ing t he impress ion o fb e ing p roduced v o lun tar i ly . Th is g roup was b y f ar t he sma l lest , r epresen ted b y j ust a f ew s pec i mens .

The

n ex t g roup c ons isted o f c o ins where t he n a me o f ar u ler o f a we l l-known d yna sty was d iscern ib le , y et w ith a troc ious s pe l l ing m is takes a nd n ot wr it ten i n as tra igh t l ine a s i t wou ld h ave b een o n ar egu lar c o in . The l egends were p ar t ly l eg ib le , p ar t ly i l leg ib le s how ing t hat t he e ngraver t r ied t o d o h is b est b u t o f ten f a i led ;

t he min t a nd t he y ear were a l mos t a lways c orrup ted t o

c o mp lete i l leg ib i l ity . Th is g roup was t he l argest o ne , a bou t 7 0 p er c en t o f t he im i tat ions e xa m ined . T he l ast g roup c ons isted o f c o ins o f av ery c rude a ppearance w ith j ust a f ew c haracter ist ics t ha t w ere s im i lar t o t hose o f a r egu lar I s la m ic c o in , a lthough s uch a c o in must h ave b een t he p ro to type s ince t he im i tat ion s howed t he d if ference b etween t he f i e ld l egend a nd t he marg ina l l egend : b ut t he l egends were u t ter ly c on fused , o f ten r etrograde a nd u ps ided own w i th n o d ist inct ion made b etween t he "r everse" a nd t he "o bverse" ; t he i nscr ip t ion o f ten d eve loped i n to sma l l a nnu lets a nd o ther o rna men ts . T h is g roup c overs a bou t 3 0 p er c en t o ft he im i tat ions . O ne s ide o f ac o in o f t he l ast t wo t ypes i s s o met i mes l i nked t o a nother s ide s truck f ro m a r egu lar d ie , wh ich s hows t hat s uch d ies were a va i lab le o u ts ide t he I s la m ic a rea . Much e xa m inat ion a nd r esearch r e ma ins t o b e d one o n t hese im itat ions a nd a t l east s o me o f t he methods o f q uan t if icat ion o f t he t yp ica l f eatures o f t he d if feren t g roups ( t here a re c er ta in ly more t han t he t hree a bove- men t ioned ) o ugh t t o b e d eve loped b efore t hey c an b e p ub l ished s yste mat ica l ly . F ina l ly Is hou ld l ike t o e xpress my g rat itude t o my c o l laborator Mr . G er t R isp l ing f or h is a ss is tance i n t he e xa m inat ion o f t he f i nds a nd f or p repar ing t he maps ;

a nd t o M iss C aro l ine K evan f or t yp ing o u t t h is p aper a nd t ransform ing

my "Sweng l ish" i n to Eng l ish . 1 28

GER MAN V IK ING-AGE COINAGE AND THE NORTH P e ter I l isch

R ef lec t ion o n V ik ing-age c o inage f ro m G ermany s tar ted a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he n ine teen th c en tury . I t was a n e cho o f t he n at iona l movement wh ich f o l lowed t he d efea t o f N apo leon I . I n 1 827 C hr ist ian J acob G ö tz , al eather d ea ler w ithout s c ien t if ic amb it ions , p ub lished a f i rs t v o lu me o n t he c o ins o f G erman k ings a nd emperors .

1

I t was l arge ly s upp lemented a nd a lso p ar t ly

c orrec ted b y H einr ich P h i l ipp C appe , a merchan t t oo , i n 1 848 . a rranged t he c oins b y r u lers .

2

H e s t i l l

T h is s ys te m was h owever n ot v ery a dequa te

f or t he G erman V ik ing-age c o inage , b ecause t h is i s a much more i nho mogeneous a nd c o mp l ica ted s ub jec t t han l e t u s s ay E ng l ish c o inage . Dat ing i s s t i l l a p rob le m n owadays s ince many c oins d o n ot s how t he n ame o f a ny r u ler a nd e ven i ft hey d o t here w ere t hree O t tos f o l low ing e ach o ther i n t he t enth c entury a nd s evera l H enr ies b e tween 1 002 a nd 125 , i n terrup ted o n ly b y K onrad I ( 1024-39 ) .

Apar t f ro m t h is t he f rag mentat ion o f t he r igh t o f min t ing s tar ted

a lready i n t he n in th c entury , a nd b y t he e leven th we h ave more t han a h undred d if ferent min ts i n t he emp ire o pera t ing l arge ly i ndependent ly f ro m e ach o ther . F ur thermore i m i ta t ion o ft he more w idespread c o in t ypes was c o m mon , a s was t he s teady d eve lop men t o f t ypes i mmob i lises . b lundered a nd i n many c ases w i thou t a ny s ense .

L et ter ing i s o f ten w i ld a nd

Wi th t h is i n mind i ti s b y n o

means a stonish ing t ha t many o ft he a t tr ibut ions made b y C appe a re n o l onger o fa ny r e levance .

A t h is t ime ( and maybe t h is i s s t i l l t rue t oday ) t here were

n o c lear a nd d ef inab le c r i ter ia t o a t tr ibu te a V ik ing-age German c oin i n r espec t o f r egion a nd t ime .

T ha t i s why s o me p eop le i n t he p as t h ave i ndu lged i n

f antasy t o i n terpre t s uch c oinage , a nd h ave e ven b een a pp lauded f or d o ing s o . Much p rogress h as h owever b een a ch ieved s ince medieva l G erman n um isma t ics b egan t o b e s tudied a nd t h is i s most ly d ue t o al arge n u mber o f sma l l s tudies c oncerning i ndiv idua l c o in t ypes .

S uch c o m mun ica t ions a nd d escr ip t ions

o fn ew ma ter ia l were p ub l ished i n p er iod ica ls , e spec ia l ly i n t he Z e i tschr if t f ür M t inz, S iege l- u nd Wappenkunde ( 1 841-6 ) , t hen i n t he Memoires d e l a S oc ie te d 'Archeo log ie e t d e N um is ma t ique d e S t . P e tersbourg ( 1847- ) , t he B er l iner B lat ter f ur M t 1nz, S iege l- u nd Wappenkunde ( 1 863) a nd t he Z e i ts chr if t f ir N um is ma t ik ( 1 874-) .

3

T he l eading f i gure i n t he f i e ld was H ermann

Dannenberg , al awyer , whose c o l lec t ion i s a lready men t ioned b y C appe i n 1 848 . 4 We owe much o fo ur k now ledge o f V ik ing-age G erman c o inage t o h im , e spec ia l ly t o h is f our we igh ty v o lu mes , D ie d eutschen Münzen d er s achs ischen u nd f ra .nk ischen K aiserze i t , p ub lished b e tween 1 876 a nd 1 905 ,5 c o mpr is ing a l l t he c oin t ypes p ub l ished t i l l t hen . H e d id n o t h owever o n ly c opy wha t was wr it ten b efore , b ut made u p h is own mind a nd c r i t ica l ly e xa m ined t he a rgu men t . Dannenberg 's v o lu mes a re s t i l l n owadays t o b e c ons idered a s t he s tandard p ub lica t ion o n e ar ly G erman c o inage . A l though s evera l a t tr ibu t ions i n t he mean ti me h ave b een a l tered o r i mproved a nd s o me more h ave t o b e r econs idered , t he p rogress a ch ieved w i th t hese v o lu mes was e normous . 1 29

As i n many o ther c ases af ter p ub lish ing monographs wh ich make i te asy t o g ive r eferences t o c oins , r esearch s tagna ted d ur ing t he f irst h a lf o f o ur c entury .

N um is ma t is ts a t t imes a t te mp ted t o c omment o n t he t ypes o r l egends

o f c er ta in v ar ie t ies w i thou t t he n ecessary c r i t ic ism .6 S er ious r esearch e nj oyed a r ev iva l when a f ter t he s econd wor ld war c on tac ts were made w ith S cand inav ian n um is ma t is ts . U n t i l t hen mos t o f t he p ub l ished ma ter ia l c ame f ro m e as tern G ermany ( wh ich u nt i l 1 918 i nc luded a lso a l arge s ec t ion o f P o land ) , f ro m P o land i t se lf , o r f ro m R ussia .

T h is was b ecause B ernhard K öhne , o ne

o ft he f ounder members o ft he B er l in N um isma t ic S oc ie ty a nd t hen i t s s ecre tary , moved t o S t . P e tersburg i n 1 845 , where h e t hen f ounded t he S oc iete. d 'Archeol og ie e t d e N um is ma t ique ,

7

a nd a lso b ecause t here was a G erman-speak ing

u pper-c lass minor i ty i n t hese c oun tr ies , e spec ia l ly i n t he B a lt ic p rov inces . B ut many p ersona l c ontac ts r esu lted a lso i n b r ing ing h oards f ro m R uss ia o r t he B a lt ic a rea , a s we l l a s f ro m P o land , t o G erman c o l lec tors a nd c oin-dea lers , ad eve lop men t wh ich s er ious ly h inders p resen t-day r esearch s ince mos t n inet een th c en tury h oards f ro m t he e as t a reunpub l ished o r i nsuf f ic ient ly p ub l ished . L i t t le a t ten t ion was p a id , o n t he o ther h and , t o t he c ons iderab le S candinav ian ma ter ia l , w i th t he e xcep t ion maybe o f s o me f ew N orweg ian h oards . T he c ont inuous a nd i n terna t iona l c o l labora t ion i n t he S wedish h oard-pub l ic a t ion p ro jec t h as r ev ived a n i n tens ive r esearch ma in ly l ed b y t he t hree G erman n um is ma t is ts work ing i n S tockho lm , n a me ly P eter B erghaus , V era H a tz , a nd G er t H a tz .

T he p urpose o f t he G erman c o inage f ro m 1 0 th a nd 1th c en tur ies Many n um is ma t is ts a nd h is tor ians r ea l iz ing t ha t G erman c o ins s urv ived p r i mar i ly o uts ide t ha t emp ire made u p t he ir m ind a bou t why t ha t was s o . Wh i le s o me p eop le t hough t t ha t t he s i lver c oins i n S candinav ia were t he r esu l t o f V ik ing p lunder ing a nd r obbery , Wa l ter H ävern ick i n h is c lass ic c ontr ibut ion i n t he H a mburger B e i träge z ur N um isma t ik f or 1 955/56 a rgued t ha t t he r egul ar ity o f t he c on ten ts o f h oards i n t ha t a rea wou ld i nd ica te t ha t t he money h ad f l owed t o t he Ba lt ic S ea a rea a s ar esu lt o f t rade .8 G er t H a tz h as s treng thened t h is p oint o f v iew b y u nder l in ing t he f ac t t ha t wr i t ten h istor ica l s ources r epor t e x treme ly l i t t le a bout V ik ing r obbery d ur ing t he p er iod when S candinav ian h oards c onta in a h igh p ercentage o f G erman s i lver c o ins . 9 Ia ccep t t hese i deas a nd t h ink t ha t t oday n o-one wou ld s er ious ly d eny t he i mpor tance o f t rade f or V ik ing-age h oards . I n my o p inion H ävern ick , h owever , d rew s o me i l logica l c onc lus ions . a rgued :

H e

"Wäre d en Empfängern i m N orden u nd O s ten d ie F orm d es i hnen

a ngebotenen E de l me ta l ls g anz g le ichg t t lt ig g ewesen , s o h ä t te s ich n ie mand d ie K osten g e mach t , d ies S i lber v orher z u v erm t tnzen" . 1 0 He t hought t ha t s tr ik ing t he c o ins was i n tended p r imar i ly f or t he i nhab i tan ts o f t he N or th a nd E as t . F ro m t h is h e c onc luded t ha t t he e xpor t o f c o ined s i lver was i n tended t o c hange t he m i n to merchandise . F ro m t he c ontrast o fo n ly v ery f ew d o mes t ic h oards w i th in t he b oundar ies o f t he f ormer G erman emp ire a nd p lenty o f G erman c o ins a broad H ävern ick d educed t ha t t h is c o inage w as n ot r ea l ly c ircu la t ing i n G ermany , where i n t h is p er iod a b ar ter s ys te m m igh t s t i l l h ave b een o pera t ing w i thout money a s a n i n termediary . T he c o inage mus t h ave b een s truck f i rs t o f a l l t o b e e xpor ted . H is i dea was a nd s t i l l i st ha t t he c ircu la t ion o f c oined money a uto ma t ica l ly r esu lts i n many h oards b e ing b ur ied . 1 30

1

To b eg in w i th Iw ou ld s ay t ha t t he a ssu mp t ions o n wh ich t hese t heses a re b ased a re n ot i n a ccordance w i th h istor ica l r ea li ty .

E ven i f we c onsider t he

c oncea l ment o f mone tary s av ings b y b ury ing i ta s an orma l a c t t h is wou ld n o t mean t ha t i ts tays b ur ied f orever . s uch c oins embod ied r ea l wea lth .

As s i lver c oinage h ad a n i n tr ins ic v a lue T he p opu la t ion o f e leven th-century G ermany ,

i n c ontras t t o t he c on te mporary i nhab i tan ts o f t he i s land o f G ot land , d id n ot l i ve w i th a s urp lus o f s i lver .

On ly i n c ases when t he f ormer owner o f s uch

b ur ied c oins was u nab le t o r ecover t he m f ro m t he e ar th f or wha tever r easons d id t hey r e ma in t here .

T o e xp la in t he sma l l n u mber o fk nown h oards f ro m

t en th- a nd e leven th-cen tury G ermany we h ave t o r e me mber t ha t t he n u mber o f i nhab i tan ts was s o mewha t sma l ler t han i n l a te medieva l t imes a nd t ha t t he o ccas ions o fg enera l f ear ( war , e tc ) c o mb ined w i th v io lence were f ewer t han i n l a te medieva l c en tur ies when n u merous sma l l a nd l arger t err i tor ies f ough t a gainst e ach o ther .

O f c ourse Iwould n ot s ay t ha t t he e leven th c en tury i n

G er many , when we k now o f u pr isings a nd o ther b loody e vents , 1 3 was a p er iod o f a bso lute p eace , b ut we h ave t o s ee t hese i n p erspec t ive . Havern ick 's a ssu mp t ion t ha t t he s tr ik ing o f t he c oins w ou ld h ave b een o f i mpor tance f or t he S candinav ian p eop les i s e v ident ly r efuted b y t he h oards t he mse lves .

I n ah appy mixture we f i nd Arab ic d irha ms , A ng lo-Saxon p enn ies

a nd p fennigs f ro m t he emp ire , l i gh t o nes a s we l l a s h eavy o nes .

H avernick

a lso d id n ot a pprec ia te t he p o in t t ha t many i fn ot mos t h oards f ro m t he Ba lt ic s ea a rea a lso c on ta ined s i lver o f o ther f or ms : o f ten a re b roken , a nd a lso b lanks .

1 4

i ngots a nd o rna ments , wh ich

The t rea t men t V ik ings a nd S lays g ave

t o t he c o ins b y b ending t hem , b i t ing t he m w i th t he ir b ack t ee th , p ecking t he m w i th k nives , a nd o f ten b reak ing t he m i nto p ieces 1 5

c lear ly p roves t ha t what

was t o b e s een o n t he c o in was o f l i t t le i mpor tance t o t he i nhab i tan ts o f t he Ba lt ic s ea a rea .

A s f ar a s Ic an s ee t he d isf igure ment o f G erman c oins i s

s pread o ver a l l t ypes r epresen ted i n n or thern h oards .

T he o n ly t h ing t ha t

was i mpor tant was t ha t t he c oin was a p iece o fg ood s i lver .

T he n u merous

s ca les f ound i n S weden a nd e lsewhere i n t he v ic ini ty s how c lear ly t ha t b us iness was n ot d one b y c oun t ing o ut a greed n u mbers o f c oins , b u t b y we igh ing s i lver .

1 6

I f , h owever , t ype a nd r egu lar we igh t were o f l i t t le c oncern t o r es idents o f t he n or th a nd e ast , h ow i s i tt ha t we c an t race t he b eg inn ing o f ar eg iona li sa t ion w i th in t he c o inage o f t he German emp ire a s e ar ly a s a bout 1 000? A lready when c o ins b eg in t o f l ow t o t he Ba l t ic s ea a rea , a t t he e nd o f t he t en th c entury , we c an s ee o bv ious a nd i mpor tant d if ferences i n we ight a nd f abr ic , f or e xa mp le b etween t he h eavy , t h ick , a nd sma l l p fenn igs o fC o logne o n t he o ne h and a nd t he b road, t h in , a nd l i gh t p fennigs o fe astern F r is ia o n t he o ther h and , j ust t o g ive a n e xa mp le .

T he s o-ca l led " Per iode d es r eg iona len P fenn igs"

d id n ot s tar t a s H nvern ick t hough t a f ter 1 200 1 7 w hen s i lver c o ins were n o l onger e xpor ted i n s ign if icant q uant i t ies . c entury .

I t s b eg innings g o b ack t o t he t enth

I n t he c ourse o f t he e leventh c entury t he s a me t endenc ies i ncreased

e spec ia l ly i n s o f ar a s c er ta in t ypes were more s trong ly d ebased t han o thers . I n C . 1 030 a p fenn ig o f Ma inz we ighed a round 1 . 0g , a nd s pec imens f ro m Bruges , T huin , U trech t , a nd e astern F r isia l ess t han 1 . 0g , wh i le p fennigs f ro m C o logne , T ie l , a nd Wes tpha l ia a t a bou t 1 .3 g were r e la t ive ly h eavy , a nd ap iece f ro m Andernach , wh ich i s l oca ted b e tween C o logne a nd Ma inz , we igh ing a bou t 1 .2 g was i n b e tween t he t wo impor tant c i t ies b order ing t he R h ine .

I n

o ther words t he mone tary u n iform i ty c reated b y t he r eforms o f C har le magne was l ong s ince l os t . 1 31

The p rocess o ft he p fenn igs b eco ming l i gh ter a nd l i gh ter d ur ing t he e leventh c entury went o n w ith a r eg iona l ly d if ferent r ap idi ty .

I th ad i t s s trongest

e f fec t i n m ints b order ing t he s ea , wh i le C o logne k ep t t o i t s s tandard o f 1 .3 g u n t i l af ter 1 200 .

1 8

The r easons f or t hese d eve lop ments c an o n ly b e f ound i n

ad o mes t ic c ircu la t ion . A lso t he i mi ta t ion o f c oin-types w ith in G ermany p roves t ha t c er ta in c urrenc ies were d om ina t ing d if ferent r eg ions .

A t t he e nd o ft he t enth c en tury

t he C o logne p fenn ig h ad i t s own r eg ion o f c ircu la t ion a nd i m i ta t ion 1 9 w h i le t he mone ta r adasponens is f ro m Regensburg h ad i t s r eg ion i n t he s outh .

2 0

T he

i n terdependences o f G erman t en th- a nd e leven th-century c oin s er ies a re i ns uff ic ien t ly e xp lored a nd t here s t i l l i s much w ork t o b e d one f or g enera t ions o fn um is ma t is ts . Wr i t ten s ources d o n o t s hed much l i gh t o n mone tary a f fa irs .

B ut i n t h is

c ontex t we h ave t o r e member t ha t t he v ast ma jor i ty o ft he p opu la t ion was i l l itera te a nd wr i t ing was a n a r t p rac t iced ma in ly i n c a thedra ls , a bbeys , a nd monaster ies . o f c o m merce .

C har ters ma in ly c oncern p r iv i leges a nd o nly r are ly a ny k ind S o we s hou ld n o t d raw t oo many a rgu ments e x s i lent io .

Monet-

a ry a f fa irs a nd t rade l i ke most a spec ts o f e veryday l i fe i n t h is p er iod were n o t at h ing t o b e wr i t ten d own b y p ious monk ish wr i ters .

I n t he r eg isters o f

i nco me o f t he more wea lthy a bbeys h owever we c an s ee t ha t many f armers h ad t o p ay f euda l d ues i n sma ll amounts o f c oins . k ind were p redo m inant ,

2 2

2 1

A d mi t ted ly t r ibutes i n

b ut mone tary e cono my i s n o t at h ing c om ing o ver-

n igh t o r f ro m o ne d ay t o t he o ther . e ven i n t he g raves o f b ur ied S axons .

A lready i n C aro ling ian t imes we f i nd c o ins 2 3

T here o f c ourse t hey h ave n ot b een

d epos i ted a s a n i nstru men t o f e cono my , b ut t hey mus t h ave c o me t here s omeh ow .

Is uppose t ha t t he c hange f ro m a n e cono mic s yste m c o mp le te ly b ased

o n e xchange o fg oods t o a mone tary e cono my was a v ery s low p rocess where we h ave t o i mag ine s evera l s teps i n b etween . The g row ing n u mber o f t en tha nd e leven th-cen tury c o ins f ound i n e xcava t ions d ur ing t he l as t 1 5 o r 2 0 y ears , e spec ia l ly i n c hurches , s hows t ha t money was a va i lab le i n G er many . G ermany a nd t he N or th Wh i le t he o lder G erman h oard p ub lica t ions a re ma in ly i n teres ted i n t he c o in t ypes , t he ir a t tr ibut ion a nd d a t ing , t he o lder S cand inav ian p ub lica t ions o f ten o n ly s peak o f " tysk" ( Ger man ) w ithout f ur ther d e ta i l .

2 4

Is uspec t t ha t

ap rec ise a na lys is o f t he g eograph ica l o r ig in o ft he G er man c oins w i l l b r ing r esu l ts wh ich s hou ld s hed s o me l i gh t o n t he q ua l i ty o f t he c ontac ts b etween t he V ik ings a nd t he Germans . T he t radi t iona l way o f a na lysing t he c on ten ts o f V ik ing-age h oards a ccording t o t he t r iba l d uch ies b rough t n o s pec if ic r esu lts , wh ich i s why G er t H a tz i n h is s ubs tan t ia l v o lu me o n t he G erman c oins i n S weden d ist ingu ished s ub-groups w i th in t he t wo l arge d uch ies o f L ower L o thar ing ia a nd S axony .

He d iv ided

t he f irs t i n to t he U trech t a nd C o logne r eg ions , a nd t hen t he r est o f t his d uchy ( main ly F landers a nd t he Meuse v a l ley ) , t he l a t ter i n to Westpha l ia , L ower S axony , a nd E as tpha lia .

2 5

T he p ercentage v ar ia t ions b e tween t hose d is tr ic ts

s how t ha t t he f l ow o f c oinage d id n o t c o me i n t he s a me way f ro m t he who le o f t he d uch ies .

T hey were t r iba l u ni ts , b u t t hey were n ot u ni ts i n e cono m ic

r espects .

1 32

Reg iona l ly o f a l l t he V ik ing-age German c oins f ound i n S weden 2 6 3 .9% ( =

2 ,178 p ieces ) were f ro m F r is ia 2 7

7 .1% ( =

3 ,968 p ieces ) were f ro m t he U trech t r eg ion 2 8

4 .5% ( =

2 ,511 p ieces ) were f ro m L ower l othar ing ia 2 9

1 7 .8% ( =

9 ,964 p ieces ) were f ro m t he C o logne r eg ion 3 °

4 .1% ( =

2 ,162 p ieces ) were f ro m Wes tpha lia 3 1

2 8 .2% ( = 1 5 ,777 p ieces ) were f ro m L ower S axony 3 .4% ( =

2 ,364 p ieces ) were f ro m E as tpha lia

0 .8% ( =

c .4 50 p ieces ) were f ro m Thur ing ia a nd Me issen

1 6 .9% ( =

6 ., 4 66

4 .2% ( =

p ieces ) were f ron F rancon ia

2 ,370 p ieces ) were f ro m S wab ia

3 .2% ( =

1 ,800 p ieces ) were f ro m Bavar ia

4 .9% ( =

3 ,080 p ieces ) were f ro m U pper L othari ng ia

Ana lys ing t he h oards f ro m d if ferent S wedish r eg ions Ic ou ld f i nd n o i mp or tant d if ferences .

A s e xa mp les Ia na lysed S cane , Os tergot land a nd

Angerman land : 32

S lane

Os tergöt land

Ängerman land

F r is ia

3 .8

2 .1

8 .5

U trecht r eg ion

5 .2

8 .6

3 .7

C o logne r eg ion

2 2 .2

3 3 .3

1 2 .0

L ower L othar ing ia

4 .2

3 .1

3 .1

Wes tpha lia

3 .9

0 .0

3 .3

3 1 .0

2 2 .5

3 8 .4

7 .0

6 .4

8 .0

L ower S axony E astpha l ia Thur ing ia

0 .7

0 .0

0 .5

Francon ia

9 .6

9 .6

4 .6

Swab ia

4 .5

4 .3

5 .9

Bavar ia

2 .0

4 .3

6 .9

Upper L othar ing ia

5 .4

5 .3

4 .9

But we migh t emp loy a d if ferent b as is i n a na lys ing German h oard c on tents , n a me ly b y d o ing s o g eograph ica l ly .

T hen we c o me t o t he c onc lus ion t hat

3 7 ,9% o f t he c oins a re f ro m min ts l oca ted o n t he R h ine R iver a nd a f ur ther 9 .8% a re f ro m s e t t le men ts s i tua ted w i th in 1 00 km o ft h is s trea m ( see F ig , 1 ) . S o we migh t s ay t ha t a l together a l mos t h a lf o ft he c o ins f ound i n S weden c a me f ro m t he R h ine .

The p r inc ipa l min ts h ere were ( f ro m n or th t o s ou th ) T ie l

( 2 .2% ) , C o logne ( 16 .5% ) , Andernach ( 1 .7% ) , Ma inz ( 7 .4% ) , Worms ( 4 .9% ) , S peyer ( 2 .3% ) a nd l ast b u t n ot l eas t S trassburg ( 2 .2% ) . a s ton ish ing .

Th is i s n ot p ar t icu lar ly

The R h ine i nR o man t imes was n o t o n ly a f ron t ier b ut a lso a n

e cono mic a x is .

3 3

I n t he e leven th c en tury we f i nd l arge a nd i mpor tant J ew ish

s e t t le ments i n mos t o ft he p r inc ipa l t owns a long t he Rh ine 34

a nd e ven t he

F r is ians wen t t h is way .3 5 Among t he o ther h a lf o f t he c o ins , 2 2 .1% o f t he G erman c oins were O t to A de lheid p fenn igs .

As V era Ha tz a nd E . Krau me h ave s hown t hese were

minted f ro m t he s i lver o ft he R a m me lsberg s i lver mine n ear G os lar f ro m 9 91 o nwards a s at ype i m mobi lise u nt i l a bou t 1 040 . 3 6 We d o n ot k now f or c er ta in whe ther t hey were a l l s truck a t j us t o ne mint o r a t d if ferent mints .

1 33

F ig .l.

Q uotients o f p articipation i n c oin e xport

S weden i n t he

t enth a nd e leventh c enturies •

u p t o

1 .99

•

2 .00 - 3 .99

0

4 .00 - 6 .99

4 ,

7 .00 a nd o ver

1 34

( after G .

t o H atz)

T he l arge n u mber o fp ieces s urv iv ing a nd t he e normous r ange o f v ar ie t ies h as made t he m a r a ther u na t trac t ive f i e ld f or n um is ma t is ts .

A lso t he f ac t

t ha t a t p resent t here i s n o p rofess iona l n um is ma t ist a ta ny museu m o ru n ivers i ty i n L ower S axony g ives l i t t le h ope t ha t a nyone w i l l w ork o n t hese i mpor tan t i ssues .

I th as b een t hough t t ha t t hey o r ig ina ted ma in ly f rom G os lar .

I ft h is

were s o i ti s h owever v ery s urpr is ing t ha t t he G os lar p fenn ig w i th S imon a nd J ude , wh ich a ccord ing t o d o mes t ic f i nds s pread a l l o ver t he n or th o f G ermany i n t he s econd h a lf o ft he e leventh c en tury " a nd wh ich was i m i ta ted i n F r is ia3 8 a nd i n R e magen o n t he R h ine , 39 s hou ld b e s o much l ess i mpor tant ( on ly 3 .6% ) i n S weden t han t he O t to Ade lhe id p fennigs . I ti s t o b e n oted h owever t ha t t hey a re more n u merous i n t he e as tern B a l t ic a rea . " The f l ow o f c oins f ro m t he l a te t enth c entury t o t he e ar ly t we lf th c entury was n ot w i thou t c hanges . T he o ldest S wedish h oard r ecorded b y G er t H a tz wh ich i nc luded o ne G erman p iece ( f ro m R egensburg ) among 2 68 c oins i n t o ta l ( = 0 .4% ) was b ur ied a f ter 9 48 .

4 1

T he p ercen tage o f German c oinage i n S wed ish

h oards g rew t owards t he e nd o ft he t en th a nd t he b eg inn ing o ft he e leventh c entury t o a bout 5 0% .

4 2

Dur ing t he p er iod b e tween 1 000 a nd 125 t hey o utnu mber

t he c ont ingen ts o f S candinav ian , I s lam ic , Ang lo-Saxon , a nd Byzant ine c o ins .

4 3

I n d e ta i l , h owever , t he p ercen tage o f G erman c oins d if fers r emarkab ly , e spec ia l ly d ur ing t he t rans i t ion p er iod f ro m 9 75 t o 1 000 . T hus among t he n u merous h oards b ur ied af ter 9 91 a nd d a ted b y t he s o-ca l led O t to Ade lhe id p fenn ig t he s hare v ar ies b e tween 9 4% ( Herrv ide ) 44 a nd 2 .8% ( Snackarve ) .4 5 T he o pen ing o ft he R a mme lsberg s i lver mine wh ich i s r ecorded f ro m a bout 9 70 s ee ms n ot t o h ave l ed a t o nce t o t he e xpor t o f c o in . B etween 9 75 a nd 9 90 G er man c o ins a re s t i l l i n a minor i ty . T he b ig b oo m c a me a f ter 9 90 , a t t he s ame t ime a s Ang lo-Saxon c o ins a lso s tar ted t o f l ow t o S candinav ia i n l arge q uan t it ies .

4 6

E ven i f we e xc lude t he O t to Ade lhe id p fennigs s ta t is t ica l ly f ro m

t he h oards we s t i l l g e t a n a verage p ercen tage o f 3 2 ,84% G erman c o ins i n t he h oards w i th b ur ia l d a tes 9 90-95 . T he f i rst German c oins t o a rr ive i n S candinav ia were ma in ly i ssues f ro m C o logne , Ma inz , a nd f ro m a n u ncer ta in mint i n e aste r n S axony ( t he s oc a l led " Sachsenpfenn ige" ) . I f we a na lyse where c oins i n h oards w i th b ur ia l d a tes e ar l ier t han 9 91 a re f ro m we f i nd : U pper L othar ing ia

0 .5%

L ower L othar ing ia C o logne r eg ion

1 .2% 3 2 .1%

U trecht r eg ion

0 .5%

F r is ia

0 .5%

E astpha l ia

2 2 .8%

F rancon ia

2 5 .7%

S wab ia B avar ia

1 2 .0% 4 .6%

( 100% = 1 71 E x . )

A lthough i ts eems t ha t t he n u mber o f c o ins b e ing e xpor ted f ro m t hese r egions d id n o t c hange much s ta t is t ica l ly i n t he y ears i mmedia te ly f o l low ing , t he p ercen tages a re sma l ler i n h oards c oncea led af ter 9 91, b ecause o f t he O t to Ade lhe id p fenn igs n ow d om ina t ing a bso lute ly :

1 35

C oins p er a nnum 2 4 2 22 01 81 61 41 2 1 08 . 6 4 2

1 000 F ig .2.

1 0 10

. 1 020

1 030

1 040

1 050

C hronological d istribution o f t he G erman c oins i n

t he S anda/Dalarna h oard ( CNS 1 6.1). ( The n umbers o f c oins a re d ivided b y t he n umber o f y ears d uring w hich i t i s p ossible t hey w ere s truck; u p t o t he b urial d ate, w ith f ive y ears a dded. T he q uotients a re c alculated f or e ach y ear .

P ercen tages o f G erman c oinage i n h oards w i th b ur ia l d a tes u p t o 9 99 : U pper L othar ing ia

0 . 6%

L ower L othar ing ia C o logne r eg ion

1 .4 % 1 4 . 1 %

F r is ia Wes tpha lia

( 100% = 3 ,483 E x .)

3 .0 % 1 .2 %

L ower S axony E astpha l ia

5 2 .4 % 5 .1 %

F rancon ia

1 4 .6 %

S wab ia

3 .3 %

Bavar ia

2 .8 %

T hese f i gures , o f c ourse , s hou ld n o t b e t aken t oo l i tera l ly .

Amongs t

t hose s hown f or C o logne f or e xamp le t here may b e s o me p ieces s truck i m ita t ing C o logne p fenn igs i n n e ighbour ing r eg ions , e spec ia l ly i nt he Meuse r eg ion , t he U trech t r eg ion , a nd Westpha l ia .

4 7

T he e xpor t o f s i lver c oinage t o t he n or th s eems t o h ave r eached i t s p eak b e tween 1 025 a nd 1 040 ( see F ig . 2 ) . Thereaf ter f ewer a nd f ewer c oins f ound t heir way f ro m G ermany t o t he n or th o r t o t he e as t e i ther . 1 36

A n a na lys is o f t he

C oins p er

a nnum

7 -

1 000

F ig.3.

1 0 10

1 020

1 030

1 040

1 050

1 060

1 070

C hronological d istribution o f t he G erman c oins i n

t he K ohtla—Kgva h oard

( buried a fter 1 06),

f rom 9 90 t o

1 070.

a ge d istr ibut ion o f t he G er man c oins i n t he h oard f ro m K oh t la K a .va i n E s ton ia 4t 5 s hows t he s a me p eak a s d o t he S wedish h oards ( see F ig . 3 ) .

T he p ropor t ions

c om ing t o S weden f ro m t he d if feren t r eg ions o f t he emp ire af ter 1 050 were n ot t he s a me a s b efore .

We f i nd F rancon ia o ccupy ing t he f i rs t p lace , L ower

S axony c om ing s econd , t he U trech t r eg ion t h ird, f o l lowed b y U pper L o thar ingia , t he C ologne r eg ion , Wes tpha l ia , L ower L othar ing ia , e tc .

Mos t S wedish h oards

c onta in n o F r is ian c oins f ro m a f ter 1 050 o r j us t o ne , w i th t he e xcep t ion o f o ne h oard o f u nknown p rovenance ( Ha tz n o . 3 32 ) 49 where F r is ian p ieces c ons t itu te 5 9% o f a l l G erman c o ins s truck d ur ing t he s econd h a lf o f t he e leven th c entury . C a lcu la t ions b ased o n t he S wedish h oards , H a tz n os . 3 27-53 ( w i th e xc lusion o f t he a typ ica l n o . 3 32 ) g ive t he f o l low ing a pprox ima te p ercen tages o f c oinage s truck a f ter 1 050 ( w i th t he c orresponding f igures f ro m h oards u p t o 9 99 i n b rackets ) : 5° F rancon ia

3 0%

( 15% )

L ower S axony

2 0%

( 52% )

U trech t r eg ion

1 5%

(1 % )

U pper L othar ing ia

9 %

(1 % )

Wes tpha lia

9 %

(1 % )

C o logne r eg ion

8 %

( 14% )

L ower L othar ing ia

4 %

(1 % )

U nfor tuna te ly s ta t ist ics s how ing s h if ts i n t he c o mpos i t ion o f c o ins f l ow ing f ro m Ger many t o t he n or th c annot b e a s p rec ise a s w e wou ld l i ke b ecause we a re a t p resent u nab le t o d a te many c oins i n q uest ion e xac t ly e nough . t he less t he t endency i s c lear .

N ever-

I f we a ccep t t he t heory t ha t c oins c a me p r imar i ly

b y t rade , i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he e leventh c en tury t h is t rading a c t iv i ty h ad s h if ted t o t he F rancon ian t rading c en tres , e spec ia l ly Ma inz , Worms , a nd Würzburg , a nd a lso i n p laces a round U trech t , wh i le t he H arz w i th i t s s i lver mines , a nd a lso C o logne h ad l os t p ar t o f t heir i mpor tance .

Or i s i tt ha t s o me

p laces , a s p erhaps C o logne , h ad s tar ted t oe xpor t more a nd more l uxury g oods i nstead o f s i lver c oinage wh i le o thers c ont inued t o t rade w i th s i lver c oins o n ly? 1 37

I f we c o mpare t he s ta t is t ics o f S weden ,

5 1

F in land ,

5 2

t he S ov ie t U nion ,

5 3

a nd P o meran ia54 we f i nd t ha t i n t he t err i tor ies o ft he e astern S lays t he s i lver c o in i mpo r t was c onsiderab ly d if feren t : S weden F r is ia U trech t r eg ion C o logne r eg ion L ower L othar ing ia Wes tpha lia L ower S axony E astpha l ia 5 5 T hur ing ia F rancon ia S wab ia B avar ia U pper L othar ing ia

F in land

3 .9%

6 .8%

USSR

P o merania 1 %

3 3 .4% ( ! )

7 .1%

1 0 .1%

1 0 .1%

1 %

1 7 .8%

1 5 .5%

7 .4%

4 .5% 4 .1%

4 .1% 1 .9%

4 .5% 2 .5%

8 % 1 %

2 8 .2%

2 4 .5%

1 3 .6%

3 .4% 0 .8%

3 .C % 2 .1%

4 .2% 1 .2%

1 6 .9% 4 .2%

2 1 .2% 3 .7%

1 4 .9% 1 .7%

3 .2%

1 .8%

1 .7%

5 .5%

4 .9%

3 .3%

1 % 2 8% 4 1% 1 % 7 % 3 % 6 % 2 %

S o me o f t hese d if ferences a re c er ta in ly d ue t o t he f ac t t ha t h oards i n t he t err i tor ies o ft he e astern S lays a re mos t ly b ur ied l a ter t han t he ma jor ity o f t he S wedish h oards . H owever t he mos t s urpr is ing t h ing wh ich B ernd K luge h as r ecen t ly s tressed 5 6 i s t ha t t he F r is ian c oinage , wh ich i s o f modes t i mp or tance i n S weden , h as a h igher s hare i n F in land a nd makes u p a bou t o ne t h ird o ft he s i lver c o ins f ro m G ermany i n e as tern S lav h oards .

F r isian c o ins

h ave b een f ound e ven e ast o ft he Ura ls . 5 7 T he F r is ian p eop le l i ved l arge ly b y mar i t i me c o mmerce a nd we k now f ro m t he e igh th c entury t ha t Ang lo-Fr is ian s cea t tas a re w ide ly s pread i n F rance , a long t he R h ine , a nd a lso i n Den mark .

5 8

F ro m wr i t ten s ources we a lso k now t ha t i n t he n in th c en tury F r isians were l i v ing i n t he S wedish t rading p lace o fB irka a nd t ha t i n t he e leventh c entury t here was a F r is ian g u i ld i n S igtuna .

5 9

S o why a re t he ir c oins t o b e f ound main ly i n t he e as t?

I s i tt ha t a t t he

t ime when S cand inav ian h oards b eg in t o c on ta in G erman c oinage , r e la t ions b e tween F r is ia a nd G ot land a nd S candinav ia a re d ec l ining ? Or may we i mag ine t ha t t he F r isian c oins c a me i n to S weden a s ar esu lt o f V ik ing r e la t ions t owards t he e as t , wh ich a re e v idenced n ot o n ly b y t he e x is tence o f c o ins o f t he R us i n S wedish h oards?

H ere many q ues t ions r e ma in t o b e t hough t a bou t .

B a lt ic H oards a nd C oin Ou tpu t i n G ermany I f we c ons ider G erman d o mes t ic c ircu la t ion a s t he mos t i mpor tan t , ( however modes t i t may h ave b een i n c o mpar ison w i th l a ter p er iods ) a nd i f we s ee t he e xpor t o f c o inage t o t he Ba lt ic s ea a rea a s r esu lt ing f ro m t rade c onnec t ions , t hen we must a sk h ow we s hou ld u se t he h oards a nd f i nds a s a n h istor ica l s ource f or r esearch o n t he V ik ing a ge . T he s choo l o f Wa l ter Hävernick i n H amburg a f ter 1 950 s tar ted t o s tudy V ik ing-age h oards i n r espec t o f ap oss ib le i n terpre ta t ion f or n um is ma t ics a nd e cono m ic h is tory . " E spec ia l ly t he f irs t p ub l ica t ion o f t h is s choo l , t he e xce l len t s tudy o f t he b eg innings o f c o inage i n S axony b y V era J a m mer ,6 1 l a ter V era H a tz , i s marked b y ad efensive a t t i tude t owards h istor ians who a t t ha t t ime d en ied a ny s ource v a lue t o medieva l c oin h oards .

T he c oopera t ion

b e tween n um is ma t ics a nd medieva l h is tory h as much i mproved s ince t hen , a nd t h is i s a t l eas t i n p ar t d ue t he t he s tudy b y Mrs . H a tz . 1 38

T he s econd v o lume d evoted t o V ik ing-age c oinage wh ich t he H amburg s choo l p roduced was t ha t o f G t inther A lbrech t i n 1 959 .6 2 H e d ea l t w ith L ower L o thar ing ia a nd F r is ia . H is a t te mp t t o e stab lish a c hrono logy f or t he d o in t ypes i s more o r l ess o ut o fd a te , b ecause h e made l i t t le u se o f h oards f or d a t ing t he m . H is s ta t is t ica l a pproach t o d e term ine t he q uant i t ies o f c oins e xpor ted ,6 3 h owever , was t o i nf luence l a ter r esearch . H e d iv ided t he n umber o f s pec i mens o fo ne mint s urv iv ing i n h oards b y t he n u mber o f y ears i n wh ich t hese c o ins c ou ld h ave b een s truck .

I n my v iew t h is me thod i s n ot v ery h e lpfu l .

Iw i l l d e mons tra te t h is w i th a t heoret ica l e xamp le : ah undred c o ins s truck b y ab ishop who o n ly r e igned f or f i ve y ears g ive a v ery h igh n u mber , b ut i f we k now—unfor tuna te ly—on ly o ne p iece o f as ubsequen t b ishop who was l ucky e nough t o r e ign f or 5 0 y ears , t h is w i l l mean t ha t i ns tead o fd iv id ing 1 00 b y 5 , we d iv ide 1 01 b y 5 5 a nd h ave a s r esu l t 1 .83 i ns tead o f 2 0 . I n p rac t ice A lbrech t c a lcu la ted a v ery h igh q uo t ient-22 —for t he T ie l mint , 64 b ecause h e o n ly k new o f s uch c oins f ro m a r a ther s hor tp er iod . a t tr ibuted f ur ther ma ter ia l t o T ie 1 ,

8 5

S ince t hen h owever G er t H a tz h as

a nd t he p er iod f ro m wh ich w e k now

c o ins i s n ow much l onger . S o i f we were t o u se A lbrech t 's method t oday we would c a lcu la te a l ower i ndex , o f 1 0 . A lbrech t e qua tes t he n u mber o f c o ins r epresented i n h oards w i th t he p ropor t ion o f c oins s truck . T he me thbd o fd ef ining t he q uant i t ies s truck a s worked o u t b y A lbrech t was a lso u sed b y G er t H a tz , who s ta ted , " dass s ich d ie r e la t ive P räges tärke d urch d ie A usprägungs menge p ro Z ei teinhe i t b es t i m men l T ässt" . 6 6 B ut a lready t he d ifference b e tween F r isian c oins i n S candinav ian h oards a nd i n t hose f ro m R uss ia a nd t he Ba l t ic r epub lics t eaches u s t ha t t he e xpor t o f c oinage t o e i ther t he e as tern S lays o r t he Danes a nd Swedes was n o t e qua l .

T he o n ly r e liab le

method o fd iscover ing h ow many c o ins were s truck i s t ha t o fd ie-ana lys is .

6 7

As e veryone k nows , t he n u mber o f c oins t ha t c ou ld h ave b een s truck w i th o ne d ie v ar ied a round a c er ta in a verage amount . O f c ourse i t was p oss ib le f or a d ie t o c ontinue i nu se e ven t hough i tb ecame s er ious ly d amaged b y l ong u se , t hus p roduc ing more t han t he a verage .

A lso a d mi t ted ly we d o n ot k now

t he e xac t n u mber o f s tr ik ings p oss ib le w i th o ne e leventh-cen tury d ie .

B u t i s

t h is s o i mpor tan t? E ven i f we k new i t we w ou ld h ave n o p rec ise i dea e i ther a bou t t he p opu la t ion i n G ermany o r a bout t he p ercen tage o f c oins f ormer ly e x is t ing among t he V ik ings t ha t s urv ived t o o ur own d ays . I n my o p in ion we c an j ust a s we l l o pera te w i th r e la t ive f i gures . We may c a lcu la te w i th f i c t i t ious n u mbers wh ich e nab le u s t o make c o mpara t ive s ta temen ts , a nd t ha t i s wha t i s wanted .

I f we c a lcu la te t he a pprox ima te n u mber o f d ies e x is t ing i n t wo

m ints we a lready h ave c o mparab le d a ta . D ie-ana lys is a pp lied t o t he e leven th-century c oinage o f G ermany i s a d isc ip l ine j us t b eg inning . S o me f i rst r esu lts 6 8 s hou ld warn u s n ot t o e qua te t he p ropor t ions o f c o ins s truck a t d if ferent t imes a nd p laces w i th t he p ropor t ions r epresented i n h oards .

Obv ious ly t here were s o me s er ies o f c o ins , e spec ia l ly

d ur ing t he p eak o f 1 025-40 , o f wh ich a r e la t ive h igh p ropor t ion wen t a broad , maybe s o me e ven were s truck e spec ia l ly f or e xpor t , 69 wh i le a na lys is o fo ther t ypes s hows n ew u nknown d ies f ro m e ach s pec imen r epresented i n t he Ba l t ic s ea a rea .

7 0

I n Minster we h ave i n p rogress a d ie-ana lys is o f a l l a ccess ib le Wes tpha lian V ik ing-age c o ins .

T he v ast ma jor i ty o f t he m c o me f ro m B a l t ic S ea a rea

1 39

h oards .

U nfor tuna te ly d ue t o t oo many o f f ic ia l o b liga t ions o fo ther k inds t he

p ro jec t i s n ot y e t c onc luded .

B ut r ev iew ing t he D or tmund s er ies , wha t we

c an a lready s ay i s t ha t t he d ies o f c oins i ssued u pto t he e nd o f t he t en th c entury a re l arge ly u nderrepresen ted i n S wedish h oards s ince i n c ontras t t o l a ter i ssues we o n ly h ave v ery f ew d ie-dup l ica tes .

Obv ious ly t he n u mber o f d ies

t ha t o r ig ina l ly e x is ted mus t h ave b een r emarkab ly h igher t han t hose k nown f ro m B a lt ic S ea h oards .

T h is s ugges ts t ha t t he g row ing e xpor t o f c o ins f rom

D or tmund ( and e lsewhere ) i n G ermany t o S weden a f ter 9 75 i s n ot a r ef lec t ion o fd ra ma t ica l ly i ncreased mint-ou tpu t , b ut i s more p robab ly t he r esu lt o f g row ing e cono m ic r e la t ions b etween G ermany , t he V ik ings , a nd t he S lays . Ana lys is o f o ne t ype o f Henry I ( 1002-24 ) s how ing a l arge c ross w i th f our sma l l c rosses a round s howed among 1 09 p ieces 2 5 o bverse d ies , t hus a n a verage o f 4 .3 s urv iving c oins p er o bverse d ie . h ave 1 81 e xa mp les i n o ur p ho to-f i le .

F or t he p er iod 1 024-7 we

O ft hese , 1 64 were s truck f ro m 1 7

o bverse d ies , t hus a n a verage o f 9 .5 p er o bverse d ie .

Many o f t he d ies a re

r epresented h owever b y more t han 3 0 s pec i mens w h i le o thers , e spec ia l ly t hose w i th b lundered l egends , s urv ive a s s ing le tons .

I fo n ly 1 7 d ies were

u sed i n t he p er iod 1 024-7 , t h is r a ther s ugges ts t ha t t he p eak wh ich t he h oards s how f or t he s econd q uar ter o f t he e leven th c en tury i s n ot d ue t o ad ra mat ic i ncrease i n c o in p roduc t ion .

C o ins o f D or tmund o f t he s econd h a lf o f t he

e leven th c entury o ccur o n ly s poradica l ly i n S candinav ian h oards . . f i nd d ie-dup lica tes i f we e xc lude p ieces f ro m d o mes t ic h oards .

We r are ly

( One h undred

a nd e igh teen c oins a t tr ibutab le t o H enry I V , 1 056-1106 , f ro m 7 5 o bverse d ies a verage 1 .5 c oins p er o bverse d ie . )S im i lar ly t he Müns ter c o inage o ft he s econd h a lf o f t he e leventh c entury a na lysed b y P e ter B erghaus y ie lded f ew d ie-dup l ica tes .

7 1

F or b o th min ts we c an s ta te t ha t t he S candinav ian mater ia l

g ives u s o n ly a sma l l s e lec t ion o f t he c oinage f ormer ly e x is t ing . D ie-ana lys is o f d o mes t ic h oards , e .g . t ha t o f D or t mund -Ka isers tuh l o r t ha t o f R e msche id/Rh ine land , s hows u s f or t he s econd h a lf o f t he e leventh c entury n u merous d ies a nd s o me t i mes e ven c o in-types n ot r epresen ted i n n or thern h oards .

When Ih ad t he o ppor tuni ty t o a na lyse t he C o logne ma ter ia l

o f t he R e msche id h oard b efore i t wen t t o b e a uc t ioned Iwas v ery s urpr ised t o f i nd t ha t at ype o f Archb ishop Anno r epresen ted b y l ess t han 1 0 s pec i mens i n t he S wed ish h oards was s truck w i th s o many d ies .

T here were a t l east

4 0 o bverse d ies , s o t ha t f i na l ly Iwas u nab le t o s ay w he ther a p iece was f ro m a nother d ie o r f ro m o ne a lready s een . S o t o s um u p we f i nd t he p ercentage o f c oinage b e ing e xpor ted t o S candinav ia was b y n o means c onstan t .

I ti ncreased s teadi ly f ro m a bout 9 75 t o a bout

1 025/40 , a nd t hen s low ly d ecreased .

I ti s p ossib le , b ut s o f ar i th as n ot b een

d e mons tra ted , t ha t t he t ime when c oin e xpor t r eached i t s h e ight was d if feren t f or d if ferent r eg ions . A lso Ih ave t he i mpress ion t ha t t here i s ar eg iona l d if ferent iat ion .

T he

c oinage o f E as tpha lia i s s carce i n S candinav ia , b u t i ti s e x treme ly we l l r epr esen ted i n h oards i n t he n e ighbour ing S lav l ands ( Po lab ia ) .

A lso t he c oins

f ro m R egensburg a nd o ther B avar ian mints a re more n u merous i n h oards f ro m t he t err i tor ies o f t he wes tern S lays t han i n S candinav ia .

7 2

S o Is uppose

t ha t a t l eas t s o me o f t he G erman c oins , e spec ia l ly t hose f ro m s outhern G ermany a nd maybe a lso f ro m e as tern S axony , f ound i n S weden c a me t here b y way o f t he wes tern S lays .

T he s o-ca l led " Pragestärkenquot ien t" c a lcu la ted b y Ger t 1 40

H a tz 73

f ro m t he n umber o f c o ins r epresented i n S weden , t he n umber o f h oards

w i th c o ins o ft he s pec if ic min t , a nd t he l eng th o ft he p er iod o ver wh ich t hey were s truck i s e x treme ly i nforma t ive , b u t i n ad iferen t way t han was t hough t . The h ighest q uot ien ts a re f ro m c i t ies a long t he R h ine a nd f or t he O t to Ade lhe id p fenn igs s truck f ro m t he s i lver o ft he R am me lsberg s i lver mines . I ns tead o f s ay ing t ha t t h is i s d ue t o ah igher c oin p roduc t ion Iw ou ld i n terpre t i ta s a t es t i mony t o h igher c o in e xpor t .

I ti s o bv ious t ha t t he merchants who b rough t

t he s i lver c oins t o t he n or th 7 4 u sed t he R h ine a s ac o m merc ia l a x is .

A long

t h is n av igab le r iver were s i tua ted i mpor tan t marke t p laces , where merchandise f ro m t he h inter lands was a lso s o ld . p or tance t oo; r o le .

Maybe t he R iver E lbe was o f s o me i m-

b ut t here i s n o s ign t ha t t he R iver Weser p layed a ny i mpor tant

NOTES 1 . C . J . G ö tz , D eu tsch lands K ayser- M t inzen d es M i t te l-A lters , Dresden 1 827 . 2 . H . P . C appe , D ie MUnzen d er d eutschen K aiser u nd K ön ige d es M it te la lters , v o l . 1 , Dresden 1 848 . 3 .

T he y ears a f ter 1 840 i n p ara l le l s aw t he r ise o f medieva l r eg iona l G erman h istory .

4 .

C appe ( n . 1a bove ) , p .V I .

5 . H . Dannenberg , D ie d eutschen MUnzen d er s ächs ischen u nd f ränk ischen Ka iserze i t , 4v o l . t ex t , 1v ol . t ab les , B er lin 1 876-1905 . 6 . I n t h is c ontex t w e h ave t o s ee ma in ly t he c on tr ibut ions o fJ u l ius Menadier a nd e spec ia l ly t hose o f R ichard G ae t tens . 7 . A lso s o me n um isma t ists w ork ing a t t he L eningrad H ermi tage b efore t he p er iod o f S ta lin ism were o f G er man-speak ing o r ig in . 8 . W . H ävernick , ' Epochen d er d eutschen G e ldgesch ich te i m f rUhen M i t te la l ter ' , HBN 9 / 10 ( 1 955/6 ) , 5 -10 . 9 . Ha tz , H ande l u nd V erkehr , 1 58-60 . 1 0 . 1.

H ävern ick , l oc .c i t ( note 8 a bove ) , a t p . 6 . S ee a lso W . H ävern ick , ' E inze lprob le me d er h is tor ischen V o lkskunde , 2 : w ir tschaf t l iche S chwankungen u nd d ie S ta t is t ik d er S cha tzfunde ', B e i träge z ur d eutschen V o lks- u nd A lter tumskunde 1 4 ( 1970 ) , 1 5-24 ; i d ., ' Fundzah len u nd w ir tschaf t liche K raf t d er L andschaf ten S achsen , T hur ingen u nd P rov inz S achsen/Anha lt ( 1 1 . 18 . J ahrhunder t ) ' , L ago m , F estschr if t f tr P e ter B erghaus , e d . b y T . F ischer a nd P . I l isch , MUnster 1 980 ( i n p ress ) .

1 2 .

Th is t hes is was d iscussed b y P eter B erghaus a nd ma in ly a ccep ted b y t he S candinav ian p ar t ic ipan ts a t t he N ordisk F orskarkurs N um isma t ik 1 978 .

1 3 .

The mos t i mpor tan t wars t ook p lace i n I t a ly o r o n t he e astern , S lavon ic b order o ft he emp ire , where we d o h ave s o me h oards .

1 41

1 4 .

R . S l cov mand , ' De d anske s ka t tefund f ra V ik inge t iden o g d en w lds te M idde la lder i ndt i l omkr ing 1 150 ' , ANOH 1 942 , a t p p . 2 14-17 .

1 5 .

H a tz , H ande l u nd Verkehr , 1 06-8 .

1 6 .

H a tz , H ande l u nd V erkehr , 1 08-21.

F or t he s ame p heno mena i n t he

S lav t err i tor ies s ee C . Warnke , D ie A nfängedes F ernhande ls i n P o len ( = Marburger O stforschungen , e d . b y H e l l mu th We iss , v o l . 2 2 ) , Würzburg 1 964 , p p . 6 1-5 . 1 7 .

H ävern ick , l oc . c i t ( above , n ote 8 ) , p . 9 .

T he i mpor tance o f ad eve lop ing

d o mes t ic e cono my i n t he Emp ire i s a lso u nder lined b y B . K luge , ' Be merkungen z ur S truktur d er F unde e uropä ischer Münzen d es 1 0 . u nd 1. J ahrhunder ts i m Os tseegeb ie t ', Z IA 1 2 ( 1 978 ) , 1 86-7;

b y W . H ahn ,

Moneta R adasponens is , B ayerns Münzprägung i m 9 ., 1 0 . u nd 1 1. J ahrhunder t , Brunsw ick 1 976 , p p .

1 4-15;

a nd l as t n o t l eas t b y W . H ess

' Münzs tä t ten , G e ldverkehr u nd H ande l am R he in i n o t ton ischer u nd s a l ischer Z e i t ' , i n S tädtewesen i n h ochm i t te la l ter l icher Z e i t , e d . b y B . D ies te lkamp ( = R e ihe S tädteforschung s er . A , v o l . 1 1) , C o logne-V ienna , 1 981 ( i n p ress ) . 1 8 .

S ee a lso H a tz , H ande l u nd V erkehr , 1 41;

H . S a l mo, Deutsche M t inzen

i n v orgesch ich t l ichen F unden F inn lands ( = F inska F orn m innesföreningens T idskr if t 4 7 ( 1948 )) , a t p . 4 2 . 1 9 .

S ee a lso W . H ävernick , D ie M t inzen v on K ö ln v om B eg inn d er Prägung b is 1 304 ( D ie M t inzen u nd Meda i l len v on K ö ln , v o l . 1 ) , C o logne 1 935 , map 1 . Among t he min ts i m i tat ing C o logne p fenn igs , C ambray ( more p robab ly Deven ter ) , Bre isach ( more p robab ly Brusse ls ) , S chwabach , a nd R egensburg s hou ld b e e l i mina ted .

F or t he t endenc ies o f r eg iona lisa t ion s ee a lso

H ess , l oc . c i t . ( note 1 7 ) . 2 0 .

H ahn ( n . 1 7 a bove ) , p p . 4 9-56 .

2 1 .

S ee D ie U rbare d er A bte i Werden a n d er R uhr , A . D ie U rbare v om 9 .1 3 . J ahrhunder t , e d . b y R . K ö tzschke ( =Rhe in ische Urbare , v o l . 2 ) ; B onn 1 906 , C odex Tradi t ionu m Wes tfa l icaru m , v o l . 3 , e d . b y F . Darpe , Müns ter 1 888 , p p . 9 -24 , 1 15-8 .

S ee a lso H ahn , o p . c i t . ,p . 1 5 . —Payments

i n c oin a re b y n o means c oncen tra ted a round marke t p laces o n ly , a s i s c la imed b y R . S prande l , ' Von d er F rühze i t b is z um E nde d es 1 3 . J ahrh under ts ' , i n Handbuch d er d eutschen Wir tschaf ts- u nd S oz ia l-gesch ich te , e d . b y H . A ub in a nd W . Z orn , v o l . 1 , S tu t tgar t 1 971, p . 2 07 . 2 2 .

C f . W . A be l , ' Landw ir tschaf t 9 00-1350 ', i n H andbuch ( as a bove ) , p p . 1 86, 1 96-7 .

2 3

C f . P . B erghaus , ' Karo l ing ische M t inzen i n Wes tfa len ', Wes tfa len 5 1 ( 1973 ) , 2 2-31;

P . I l isch , M t inzfunde u nd G e ldu m lauf i n Westfa len i n

Mi t te la lter u nd N euze i t , Mins ter 1 980 , p . 7 7 . —For C aro lingian mone tary e cono my i n t he c en tra l R h ine land s ee W . H ess , ' Ge ldw ir tschaf t am M i t te lrhe in i n k aro lingischer Z e i t ', B lä t ter f ür d eutsche L andesgesch ichte 9 8 ( 1962 ) , 2 6-63 . 2 4 .

S ee e .g . S kov mand ( n . 1 4 a bove ) , p . 2 1 .

On t he o ther h and s ee r ecent ly

S . S uchodo lsk i , ' Be merkungen z u d en H ande lsbeziehungen i m L ich te d er n um is ma t ischen Q ue l len , 'Z fA 1 2 ( 1978 ) , 2 63 . 1 42

2 5 .

H a tz , H ande l u nd V erkehr , 4 1-2 .

2 6 .

F o l low ing H a tz , H ande l u nd V erkehr , 4 1 w ith c er ta in a l tera t ions a s n oted b e low ( 100% = 5 5 ,775 c o ins ) .

2 7 .

T he 3 68 p fenn igs o f c oun t Wichmann I I ( murdered 1 016) r ecorded b y H a tz u nder V reden/Westpha lia ( w i th a q uest ion- mark ) a re h ere a dded t o t he F r is ian c o ins .

2 8 .

T he e p iscopa l i ssues r ecorded ( w ith a q uest ion- mark ) b y H a tz u nder Vreden/Wes tpha l ia a re more p robab ly f ro m Deven ter a nd h ave h ere b een r ecorded u nder t he U trech t r eg ion . A lso a dded t o t he U trecht r eg ion s hou ld b e t he i ssues o f t he emperor K onrad I , r ecorded b y H atz u nder S oes t ( c f . P . I l isch , ' F ine G ruppe n ieder lothr ing ischer P fennige H e inr ichs u nd K onrads I .' , L ago m , F es tschr if t f ür P e ter B erghaus , f or wh ich s ee n o te 1 a bove ) . I tw as , h owever , n ot p ossib le f rom t he l i s ts i n H a tz t o c a lcula te t he ir p ercen tage among t he c o ins o f S oest .

2 9 .

I ti s p oss ib le t hat p ar t o ft he C o logne i m i ta t ions a re f ro m t h is r eg ion a nd s hou ld b e a dded .

3 0 .

T h is f i gure i nc ludes many i mi ta t ions f ro m n e ighbour ing r eg ions . E spec ia l ly when t he c oins t he mse lves c an n o l onger b e t raced i n p ub lic c o l lec tions a nd we h ave o n ly o ld h oard d escr ip t ions i ti s o f ten i mposs ib le t o s ay whe ther i t was a n i m i ta t ion .

S o t he e f fec t ive p ercentage s hould b e

s l igh t ly sma l ler . 3 1 .

H ere t he i ssues r ecorded b y H a tz u nder Vreden ( 4 89 s pec i men ) h ave b een s ub trac ted ( see n o tes 2 7 a nd 2 8) . On t he o ther h and i ti s p oss ib le t ha t p ar t o ft he C ologne O t ton ian s er ies o r ig ina ted f ro m Wes tpha lia , aq uest ion t ha t h as s t i l l t o b e s tudied .

3 2 .

I ts hou ld b e n o ted t ha t t he f i gures f or östergo t land a nd e spec ia l ly Änger rnan land s hou ld n ot b e t aken t oo l i ttera l ly a s t hey a re b ased o n sma l l n u mbers o f c oins o n ly .

3 3 .

C f . H . v . P e tr ikov i ts , A lter tu m ( = R he in ische G esch ich te , e d . y . F . P e tr i a nd G . Droege , v o l . I , 1 ) , D üsse ldorf 1 978, p p . 1 43-7 , a nd o ther l i tera ture c i ted a t p p . 3 25-6 .

3 4 .

C f . W . S tein , H ande ls- u nd V erkehrsgesch ich te d er d eutschen K a iserze i t , Ber lin 1 922 ( repr int Darms tadt 1 967 ) , p p . 1 9 , 9 1-101; G . C aro , S ozia lu nd Wir tschaf tsgesch ich te d er J uden i m M i t te la l ter u nd d er N euze i t , v o l . 1 : Das f rühere u nd d as h ohe M i t te la lter , L e ipz ig 1 908 , p p . 1 67-8; K . G e iss ler , D ie J uden i n Deu tsch land u nd B ayern b is z ur M i t te d es v ierzehnten J ahrhunder ts , ( = Z e i tschr if t f ür b ayer ische L andesgesch ich te , Be ihef t 7 , R e ihe B ) Mun ich 1 976 , p p . 3 3-42 .

3 5 .

S ee D . J e l le ma , ' Fr is ian t rade i n t he D ark A ges ', S pecu lu m 3 0 ( 1 955 ) , a t p . 3 5 . —I t i s n otewor thy t ha t 1 0 th/llth-cen tury F r is ian c oins a lso h ave b een f ound h ere a s s ing le f i nds ( co mpare H a tz , H ande l u nd V erkehr , 1 29 : E lten a nd G a m mer t ingen ) a nd i n t he S w iss h oard o f C orce l les-presPayerne ( Er ich B . C ahn , ' D ie Münzen d es S cha tzfundes v on C orce l lesp res-Payerne ' , SNR 4 8 ( 1969 ) 1 22 ,169 ) .

I ti s n o tab le t ha t a l lt he ' Freson ia '-

c oins i n C orce l les a re d iel inked , a nd t hus mus t h ave g ot t here t oge ther .

1 43

3 6 .

E . Krau me a nd V . H a tz , ' D ie O t to-Ade lhe id P fenn ige u nd i hre N achpräg ungen ' , HBN 1 5 ( 1961) , 1 3-23;

i d .,

' S i lberana lysen d eutscher Münzen

d es 1 0 . J ahrhunder ts ' , HBN 2 1 ( 1967) , 3 5-8;

V . Ha tz , ' Zur F rage d er

O t to-Ade lhe id-Pfenn ige , V ersuch e iner S yste ma t is ierung a uf Grund d es s chwed ischen F und ma ter ia ls ' , C o m men ta tiones 1 ( 1961) , 1 07-44 . 3 7 .

V . J am mer , D ie A nfänge d er Münzprägung i m H erzog tu m S achsen ( 1 0 . u nd 1. J ahrhunder t ) , ( Nu m is ma t ische S tudien , 3 /4 ) , H a mburg 1 952 , p p . 7 4-5 ;

H a tz , Hande l u nd V erkehr , 1 31 (M inster , S cher fede , R in te ln ,

Wa l lenstedt ) , 1 32 ( Mech tershe im , Wickerode ) , 1 33 ( W i ldeshausen , Aschen I a nd I I , N iedere ichs tädt , R üdeshe im , S an ters leben , L iesborn , L angense lbo ld , F u lda ) . 3 8 .

J a mmer ( n . 3 7 a bove ) , p . 7 4 ;

G . A lbrech t , Das M t inzwesen i m n ieder-

l o thr ingischen u nd f r ies ischen R au m v om 1 0 . b is z um b eg innenden 1 2 . J ahrhunder t

( N um is ma t ische S tudien 6 ) , H amburg 1 959 , p . 1 14 .

3 9 .

J a mmer ( n .37 a bove ) , p . 7 4 .

4 0 .

C o mpare K luge ( n .17 a bove ) , p . 1 85 .

4 1 .

H a tz , H ande l u nd V erkehr , h oard n o . 3 .

4 2 .

I b id ., p p . 6 53-4 .

H oards w i th G erman c o ins b ur ied a f ter 9 60 i n S weden

o n'average c on ta in : 9 90-5 , 5 0 .64%

9 60-9 , 2 .7 2%;

G er man c o ins .

9 70-9 , 9 .14% ;

9 80-9 , 1 3 . 3 9% ;

A s o ne o f t he mos t i mpor tant r easons f or

t he b eg inn ing o f s i lver e xpor t f ro m G ermany , S uchodo lsk i ( n .24 a bove ) , p . 2 65 , c ons iders t he e xhaus t ion o f t he I s la m ic s i lver s tock . 4 3 .

H a tz , H ande l u nd V erkehr , p . 6 53 , d iagram 9 .

4 4 .

I bid . ,h oard 3 8 .

4 5 .

I b id ., h oard 5 6 .

4 6 .

A lso s ee t he c ontr ibu t ions b y M . B lackburn a nd K . J onsson , a nd b y B . K luge i n t h is v o lu me .

4 7 .

S ee n otes 2 9 a nd 3 0 .

4 8 .

V . S öerd , ' E in Münzfund d es X I I .

J ahrhunder ts a us K oh t la-Käva ' , i n :

E est i N SV T eadus te A kadee m ia T oime t ised , X IV . t eadus te S eer ia 1 965 , n o . 4 , p p . 4 86-513 .

K ö ide , Ü h iskonna-

T o c ons truc t t he d iagra m o f

t he c hrono log ica l d is tr ibut ion o f t he G erman c oins i n t he h oard t he n umber o f c oins f ro m e ach t ype was d iv ided b y t he n umber o fy ears i n wh ich t hey may h ave b een s truck a nd t hese q uot ients h ave b een a dded t oge ther f or e ach y ear . 4 9 .

H a tz , H ande l u nd V erkehr , h oard 3 32 .

M igh t t h is h oard p ossib ly b e

f ro m F in land o r i s i tj us t as e lec ted p ar t o f al arger h oard ? 5 0 .

T he s tat is t ics a re b ased o n t he l i s ts p ub lished b y H a tz , H ande l u nd V erkehr . Because German c oins o f t h is p er iod c an b e d a ted o n ly a pprox i ma te ly a nd a ccord ing t o r u lers , i ft hey n a me t he m , many c oins a re d a ted i n p er iods b e long ing p ar t ly t o t he f irs t h a lf o f t he 1th c en tury .

I n o rder t o a na lyse

t he c o mposi t ion o f German c o ins f ro m t he s econd h a lf o f t he c entury , a l l c oins f ro m a mint ing-per iod o f wh ich a t l eas t h a lf f a l ls i n t he s econd h a lf h ave b een c ounted . 1 44

5 1 .

F o l low ing H a tz , H ande l u nd V erkehr .

5 2 .

Accord ing t o S a l mo ( n . 1 8 a bove ) .

5 3 .

S ee n . 5 0 a bove .

According t o V . M . P ot in , Drevnyaya R u ts ' ie urope i skie g osudarstva v

ro tcherk ,

X-X I I 1 v v ., i s tor isko-nu m iz ma t ichesk i

L en ingrad , 1 968 , p p .

1 55-63 . 5 4 .

Accord ing t o T . a nd R . K iersnowsk i , PS W 2 .

5 5 .

I t s hou ld b e n o ted t ha t P ot in ( n . 5 3 a bove ) u n l ike H a tz h as c ounted t he s oc a l led " Sachsenpfennige" , "Wendenpfennige" o r i n P o l ish n eutra l ly " denary k rzytowe" among t he west S lav c oins ( Pot in , p p . 1 72-4 ) .

T here were a t

l eas t 6 26 s pec imen ( Pot in p . 1 76) . 5 6 .

K luge ( n .17 a bove ) , p . 1 85 .

5 7 .

V . M . P ot in , ' Topograf iya n akhodok z apadnoeurope

rs k ikh

mone t X-X I I I

v v . n a t err i tor i i d revne j R us i , Trudy g osudars tvennogo E rm i tazh 9 , N um is ma t ika 3 , L en ingrad 1 967, p . 1 62 ( Jever ) . 5 8 .

C f . J e l le ma ( n .35 a bove ) , p p . 1 5-36;

P . l e G en t i lho m me , ' La c ircu la t ion

d es s cea t tas d ans l a G au le merov ing ienne ' , RN 1 938, 2 3f f ., = Me langes d e n um is ma t ique merov ing ienne , P ar is 1 940 , p p . 6 7-93;

V . Z ede l ius ,

' Neue S ceat tas a us d em R he in land -Bonn u nd Xan ten' , Z e i tschr if t f t ir Archäo log ie d es M i t te la lters 8 ( 1980 ) ( i n p ress ) ; Merov ing ian c o in-treasure f ro m Den mark ,

K . B endixen , ' The f i rs t

P roceedings o f t he 8 th

I n terna t iona l C ongress o f N um is ma t ics N ew Y ork - Wash ing ton , S ep te mber 1 973 , P ar is-Base l 1 976 , p p . 3 97-8 . 5 9 .

C f . V i ta Anskar i ic . 2 0 ( Ausgewäh lte Que l len z ur d eutschen G esch ich te d es Mi t te la lters , F re iherr v . S te in Gedäch tn isausgabe , v o l . 1 1, e d . b y R . B uchner , Darmstadt 1 968 , p p . 6 4-9 ); L .

J e l le ma ( n . 3 5 a bove ) , p .33;

L ec ie jew icz , ' Kauf leute i n d en f r t then Os tseestädten i n a rchäo log ischer

S ich t ,' Z fA 1 2 ( 1978) , 1 92 . 6 0 .

Th is i t e m was i n troduced h ere b y t he i nf luence o f t he e cono m ic h istor ian Hermann Aubin .

6 1 .

J a m mer ( n .37 a bove ) .

6 2 .

A lbrecht ( n . 3 8 a bove ) .

6 3 .

I bid ., p p . 1 23-32 .

F or A lbrech t t here was o n ly a n eed f or c oinage i ft he

c oins were t o b e e xpor ted , s ee e .g . p . 5 3 a bout t he mint o f Ghen t :

" In

zwe i wes tskand inav ischen u nd e ine m o s tdeutschen F und t re ten d re i e xe mp lare d ieses G epräges a uf , e s wurde a lso woh l n ur i n g er inger Menge a usgeprägt" .

C f . a lso t he c r it ic is m o f A lbrech t b y H . E nno v an

Ge lder i n h is r ev iew i n HBN 1 4 ( 1960 ) , 7 15 . 6 4 .

A lbrecht ( n .38 a bove ) , p . 1 25 .

6 5 .

C f . G . H a tz , ' T ie ler Denare d es 1 1 . J ahrhunder ts i n d en s chwedischen Manzfunden ' , C o m menta t iones 2 ( 1968 ) , 9 7-190; p lates 1 3-19 .

T he T ie l

e xa mp le i s q uoted f ro m P . Berghaus , ' D ie f rüh m i t te la lter l iche N um is ma t ik a ls Que l le d er Wir tschaf tsgesch ichte ' , i n G esch ich tsw issenschaf t u nd Archäo log ie , e d . b y H . J ankuhn a nd R . Wenskus ( = V or träge u nd F orschung en v o l . 2 2 ) , S ig mar ingen 1 979 , p . 4 28 . 1 45

6 6 . 6 7 .

Ha tz , Hande l u nd Verkehr , 4 4 . F or i t s a pp lica t ion t o V iking-age h oard ma ter ia l s ee Berghaus ( n . 6 5 a bove ) , p p . 4 14 , 4 29 .

6 8 .

P . Berghaus ,

' D ie ä l tes ten M t inzen Münsters i n s chwedischen F unden ' ,

C o m menta t iones 2 ( 1968) , 4 1-93;

J . Degener , ' S te mpe lverbindugen

Vredener Wich mann -Pfennige ' , i n F es tgabe P e ter Berghaus , Münster 1 969 , p p . 2 3-40 ;

W . H ahn i n s evera l i mpor tant c ontr ibu tions (Mone ta

Radasponens is , n .27 a bove;

i n WN 1 9 ( 1975 ) , 6 8-76;

7 9-92 , i b id . 2 8/29 ( 1978/79) , 5 3-64; ma t ik , S tuttgar t 1 976, p p . 5 8-72 );

JNG 2 7 ( 1977)

Be i träge z ur S üddeutschen N um is-

P . I l isch , ' D ie Anfänge d er M t inz-

p rägung i n M inden ', i n Zw ischen Do m u nd Ra thaus , e d . b y H .

N ordsiek ,

Minden 1 977 , p p . 3 7-59 . 6 9 .

I l isch ( n . 6 8 a bove ) , p p . 4 7-52 , 5 7 .

7 0 .

Berghaus , ( n .68 a bove ) a nd I l isch ( n . 6 8 a bove ) , p p . 3 9-45 .

7 1 .

Berghaus ( n . 6 8 a bove ) .

7 2 .

C f . Danuta A lbrych t-Rapnicka ,

' Les monna ies b avaroises e t t cheques

d ans l es t rouva i lles p olona ises d u h aut Moyen A ge ' , i n : I n terna tional d 'archeo log ie s lave , s ect ion 5 ; s laves d ans l 'Ant iqui te e t l e Moyen Age .

Ier

C ongres

L a monna ie d ans l es p ays

WroG raw- Warszawa-Krakow

1 968, p p . 1 59-77 . 7 3 .

H a tz , H ande l u nd Verkehr , 4 5 .

7 4 .

I n t he d iscuss ion K . J onsson p ointed t o t he f ac t t ha t i n S weden t here i s n ot o ne h oard w ith c oins f ro m p redo minant ly o ne G erman r egion .

1 46

THE ANGLO-SAXON AND ANGLO- NOR MA N ELE MENT OF NORTH EUROPEA N COIN F INDS Mark B lackburn a nd K enne th J onsson

Ang lo-Saxon c o ins h ave b een f ound i n c onte mporary c ontexts a s f ar west a s I ce land ; 1

a s f ar n or th a s t he i s land o f Hauköy i n N orway 2 ( 250 mi les

n or th o f t he Arct ic C irc le );

a s f ar s outh a s Ar icc ia ( 15 mi les s outh-east o f

R o me ) a nd S ic i ly 3 o r , f ur ther wes t , R oncesva l les i n t he a nd a s f ar e as t a s P erm i n C en tra l R uss ia ,

5

S i) a n ish

Pyrenees; 4

a t t he f ootof t he Ura ls .

Over

2 3 ,000 Ang lo-Sa xon a nd Ang lo-Norman c oins h ave b een f ound o n t he i s land o f G ot land , a nd t here a re more t han 4 50 h oards o r s ing le-f inds f ro m t he l ands t o t he s outh a nd e as t o f t he B a lt ic w ith s uch c oins .

F ig . 1

Nor thern E urope ;

t he e ight r eg ions .

1 47

The o n ly o ther p er iod f ro m

wh ich E ng l ish c oins h ave b een f ound i n c ont inen ta l E urope o n a ny th ing l i ke t h is s ca le i s t he t h ir teenth a nd e ar ly f our teenth c entur ies when s ter lings o ccur i n l arge n u mbers i n Germany a nd t he L ow C ountr ies , mos t n o tab ly s ome 8 0 ,000 i n t he Brusse ls h oard . T he c oin f i nds f ro m t he N or thern L ands t hus r epresen t av ery r ich s ource f or A ng lo-Saxon s tudies .

T hese f i nds h ave f requent ly b een c o m men ted u pon

a nd c i ted i ndiv idua l ly i n s uppor t o fp ar t icu lar a rgu ments , b u t t hey w i l l o n ly r evea l t he ir t rue w or th i fl ooked a t i n t he r ound a nd s ys tema t ica l ly c o mpared r eg ion b y r eg ion , p er iod b y p er iod , a nd o ne w i th a no ther . An u mber o f p apers a t t h is s ympos iu m h ave s hown u s t he s or t o f r esu l ts wh ich t he mater ia l c an y ie ld u nder s uch t rea t men t , a nd t he p rospec ts a re e xc i t ing .

T he a im o ft h is

p aper i s t o g ive a g enera l v iew o ft he e x ten t a nd r ange o f t he ma ter ia l wh ich i s a va i lab le —so meth ing wh ich h as s carce ly b een a t temp ted s ince 1 846 6 —and t o s e t o u t s o me o bserva t ions o n t he i mpor ta t ion a nd c ircu la t ion o f E ng l ish c o in o ft h is p er iod i n t he N or thern L ands . I n t he A ppendices we h ave l i sted t he f i nds c onta in ing A ng lo-Saxon a nd A ng lo-N orman c o ins , i n t he o rder o f t he ir d a tes o f d epos i t , f ro m G ot land , t he S wedish ma in land a nd b land , D en mark , N orway , I ce land , S het land , a nd t he F aeroes , F in land , a nd t he Wes t S lav l ands ( Po land a nd G ermany e as t o f t he E lbe ) .

Br ief d e ta i ls o f e ach f i nd a re g iven , i nc luding a n e st i ma te o f t he

t o ta l n u mber o f c oins a nd t he n u mber o f E ng lish c oins , t he e ar l ies t a nd l a tes t E ng l ish t ypes , a nd t he n a t iona l i ty o f t he o ther e lemen ts p resen t i n t he f i nd . T h is s u m mary o f s o me 7 57 f i nds i n a l l i s d er ived f rom a v ar iety o f s ources , s o me p r i mary a nd s o me s econdary , o f g rea t ly v ary ing r e liab i li ty .

I tf o l lows

t ha t s o me o f t he s ta t is t ics q uoted l a ter i n t h is p aper w i l l b e s ub jec t t o a marg in o fe rror wh ich c annot b e q uan t if ied , g rea ter i n t he c ase o f t he West S lav ma ter ia l t han t ha t f ro m S cand inav ia . T he f i nds f ro m t he E as t S lav r eg ion ( Russ ia , E s ton ia , a nd L a tv ia ) a re l i s ted i n a n Append ix t o B ernd K luge 's p aper b e low . 7 When c ons ider ing c oin f i nds a nd o ther a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f ro m t he V ik ing a ge , i ti s c onven ient t o d iv ide n or thern E urope i n to r eg ions wh ich h ad s ome p o li t ica l o r e cono mic s ign if icance a t t he t ime .

E igh t d is t inc t r egions

h ave b een s e lec ted h ere ( F ig . 1 ) , a nd t he s cope o f e ach i s i ndica ted b e low , b u t i ti s wor th p ar t icu lar men t ion a t t h is s tage t ha t t he modern S wedish p rov inces o f S le äne , H a l land , a nd B lekinge a nd t he West German r eg ion o f S ch lesw ig , wh ich were f or p ar t o r a l l o ft h is p er iod w i thin t he D an ish k ingdo m , a re t rea ted h ere a s p ar t o f Den mark .

T ab le 1 s hows f or e ach r eg ion t he n u mber

o f r ecorded f i nds d epos ited b efore c . 140 c on ta in ing E ng l ish c oins a nd a c onserva t ive e s t ima te o f t he t o ta l n u mber o f s uch c o ins , wh ich i s a bout 5 7 ,000 . E ven t ak ing a ccount o ff i nds wh ich a re i nadequa te ly r ecorded o r n ot r ecorded a t a l l , t he t o ta l n u mber o f Ang lo-Saxon a nd A ng lo-Norman c o ins f ound i n t he N or thern L ands i n t he l as t 2 00 y ears o r s o p robab ly d oes n ot e xceed 7 0 ,000 . As M ichae l Me tca lf p oints o ut b e low , s uch a f i gure i s sma l l i n t erms o f t he t o ta l mint o utput , b u t when c o mpared w i th t he f i nds o f t h is p eriod f ro m t he Br i t ish I s les ( ad m i t tedly l a id d own u nder v ery d if feren t c ondi t ions ) i ti s v ery l arge . 8 T he f igures i n T ab le 1a re b ased o n t he l i s ts i n Appendices It o VI a nd, f or R uss ia , E s ton ia , a nd L a tv ia , t he l i sts p ub l ished b y K luge b e low .

1 48

T ab le 1 F inds d espos i ted b efore c . 140 c on ta in ing A ng lo-Saxon o r A ng loN orman c o ins N o . o f R eg ion

f i nds

N o . o f Ang lo-Saxon a nd A ng lo-Norman c oins

A ppendix N o .

1

G o t land

1 90

2 3 ,400

S wedish Ma in land a nd Ö land

10

5 ,500

I

Den mark

1 26

1 3 ,600

I T I

5 0

3 ,300

I V

1

2 00

V

5 4

9 00

V I

West S lav L ands

2 16

4 ,500

V I I

E as t S lav L ands

1 74

5 ,600

K luge A

9 31

5 7,000

N orway I ce land , S he t lands , a nd F aeroes F in land

T ota l

C o in f i nds f ro m b efore t he 9 70s A ng lo-Saxon c o ins i ssued i n t he t wo h undred y ears b efore E adgar 's r eform o ft he c o inage ( 2 .973 )9 a re n ot p lent ifu l i n t he f i nds f ro m t he N or thern L ands ; o n ly s o me 8 5 c oins i n a l l h ave b een r ecorded . A lthough s tr ic t ly b eyond t he s cope o f t h is p aper , t wo o s tens ib ly Merc ian s cea t tas ( da ted c .7 50 ) h ave b een f ound , i n c on junc t ion w i th F r is ian a nd Merov ingian p ieces , d ur ing e xcava t ions a t t he Dan ish s i te o fD ank irke n ear R ibe a nd a re p robab ly t he p roduc t o f F r is ianD anish , r a ther t han d irec t A ng lo-Dan ish , t rade . 1 0 A mid-eigh th-century s cea t o f Archb ishop E cgberh t o f Y ork ( s truck w i th K ing E adberh t a nd t hus d a ted 7 37-58) f ound o n t he s hore o f t he N orweg ian c oas t may h in t , a s K o lb jv irn S kaare h as s uggested ,1 a t c on tac t b e tween N orway a nd E ng land b efore t he e ar l iest i nc ident r ecorded i n t he Ang lo-Saxon C hron ic le s .a . 7 87 ( r ede 7 89 ) .

1 2

T he f irs t p hase o f V ik ing r a ids , wh ich were p redo m inan t ly N orweg ian , a re we l l e v idenced b y t he c oin f i nds f ro m N orway ( see T ab le 2 a nd F ig . 1) . S o me t en c oins h ave b een f ound f ro m t he p er iod c .7 90-840 ( e igh t p enn ies s truck a t mints i n s outh-eas t E ng land , b u t wh ich c ou ld h ave c ircu la ted i n most p ar ts o f E ng land s outh o ft he H u mber , a nd t wo N orthu mbr ian s tycas mounted i n l ead we igh ts ) , w h i le f rom t he r es t o f S candinav ia t here a re n one .

F or t he f o l low ing

8 5 y ears n o t as ing le A ng lo-Saxon c oin i s k nown f ro m N orway . T he i n tensif ic a t ion o fD an ish a c t iv i ty i n t he mid-ninth c entury i s n ot s o we l l r ef lec ted i n t he D an ish f i nds; o n ly t wo c o ins o f A lfred a re k nown b efore t he t urn o f t he n in th c entury , when o ne S t . E d mund Me mor ia l c o in a nd t wo c oins o f ' Cnu t ' o f Y ork h as o ccurred i n l a ter f i nds .

T he S wedish f i nds , i n p ar t icu lar t he g rave f i nds

f ro m B irka , s how t ha t s o me E ng lish a s we l l a s o ther wes tern c o ins were r each ing t he B a l t ic f ro m t he midd le o f t he n in th c en tury , b u t s t i l l i n much sma l ler n u mbers t han o ne migh t h ave e xpec ted f ro m t he d egree o f V ik ing a c t iv i ty—ra iding , p aymen t o ft r ibutes , a nd s e t t lemen t —wh ich i s r ecorded f or

1 49

West S lav r eg ion

E ast S lav r eg ion

T ab le 2 E ng l ish c o ins s truck b efore c .9 73 f ound i n t he N or thern L ands a

Abp . E cgberh t o f Y ork ( 732/4-66) w ith E adberht o f N or thu mbr ia ( 7 37-58)

1

O f fa o f Merc ia ( 757-96 )

2

C oenwu lf o f Merc ia ( 796-821)

4

C eo lwu lf Io f Merc ia ( 821-3 )

1

Abp . Wu lfred o f C an terbury ( 805-32 )

1

E anred o f N or thu mbr ia ( 2 .810-41? )

2

A E the lred I o f N or thu mbr ia ( 841-9?)

2

A lfred o f Wessex ( 871-99 )

1

2

S t . E d mund Me mor ia l ( 2 .890-910 ) V ikings o f Y ork :

1

C nu t ( 2 .900 )

S t . P e ter ; S t . Mar t in ;

2

1

2

l b

3

2

2

l b

2

1

E dward t he E lder ( 899-924 )

2

Y ork ( 2 .905-25 ) L inco ln ( 2 . 9 20 )

1

S ih tr ic Io f Y ork ( 921-7 )

1

A Et he ls tan ( 924-39 )

1

6

E ad mund ( 939-46 )

1

An laf G u thfr i thsson ( 939-41)

1

2 2

2

E adred ( 946-55 )

6

1 ? 1

Eadw ig ( 955-9 )

1

p re-reform ( 959-73)

1

T ota l a )

1

5 4

An laf S ih tr icsson ( 940-3 , 9 49-52 )

E adgar ;

2

4

1 1 1

2 4

1

2 +?

4

3 3 1 8c

7 +?

1

-7 +?

N ot i nc lud ing a c oin o f B erh twu lf ( 840-52 ) a nd a c o in o f B urgred ( 852-74 ) r ecorded b y Keder a s f ound i n t he N ordic c oun tr ies ;

N . Keder ,

E p is to la a d C o l lec tores N . L . L ubicenses , i n N ova L i terar ia Mans Ba l t ic i , 1 700 , p . 3 64 . b )

Probab ly f ound i n B irka .

c )

I nc luding o ne u n iden t if ied Twoline t ype o f t he t enth c entury .

E ng land a nd F ranc ia .

C o m men t ing o n t h is , P e ter S awyer h as s ugges ted t ha t

t he b u lk o ft he t reasure c o l lec ted may n ever h ave b een r em i t ted t o S candinav ia , b ut may h ave b een u sed b y t he Danes s et t ling i n F r is ia a nd n or th-east E ng land . 1 3

1 50

T he f i rs t t hree-quar ters o ft he t enth c entury was f or E ng land a p er iod f ree f ro m h ost i le S candinav ian i n tervent ion , a l though t here was much i n terna l r iva lry b etween E ng lish , A ng lo-Danish , a nd H iberno-Norse i n teres ts i n n or the as t E ng land . T he c o in f i nds f ro m S cand inav ia s ugges t t ha t a sma l l b ut d iscern ib le t rade r esu l t ing i n t he i mpor t o f E ng l ish c oin d eve loped i n t h is p er iod . T h ir ty p re-reform t enth-century c oins h ave o ccurred i n f i nds f ro m Den mark ; e igh t f ro m ma in land S weden w i th p rec ise p rovenances , a nd a f ur ther f our t hat a re p robab ly f ro m S wedish o r G o t land f i ndspots . T he V ik ing i ssues o f Y ork a nd L inco ln a re we l l r epresented i n t hese f i nds , b u t t hey d o n o t d om ina te t he m , s ugges t ing t ha t c on tac t w as n o t s o le ly t hrough k insmen i n n or th-eas t E ng land . F ro m N orway t here a re s even c oins f ro m o ne h oard d epos i ted c .9 50 a nd o ne c oin o f E adgar wh ich c ou ld b e p re-reform , a nd f ro m I ce land , S he t land , a nd t he F aeroes , wh ich c a me u nder N orwegian i n f luence , t here a re a lso s even c o ins;

o ne o ther t enta t ive ly a t tr ibuted b y E ld järn t o

A n laf G uthfr i thsson i s more p robab ly o ft he S wedish k ing , O lof S kötkonung . 1 4 I n teres t ing ly , n one o ft hese f i nds , s ave f or t he d ub ious A n laf , b e longs t o t he V iking i ssues o f E ng land . As we s ha l l s ee , Ang lo-Saxon c oins d o n o t b egin t o o ccur i n t he G ot land f i nds u nt i l t he 9 70s ; t he f our p re-reform c oins a l l o ccurred i n p os t-reform h oards a nd were p robab ly b rough t t o t he i s land f ro m a nother p ar t o f S candinav ia we l l af ter t hey were s truck . T he s arc i ty o fp re-reform c oins f ro m t he l ands e ast o ft he B a lt ic may b e a ssoc ia ted w i th t h is; t hus , a par t f ro m o ne c oin o f A E the lstan—a s ing le f i nd f ro m A land b etween S weden a nd F in land —none i s r ecorded f ro m F in land , O ld R ussia , o r t he s ta tes o f E s ton ia , L a tv ia , a nd L i thuan ia ( t he t wo B urgred c oins r ecorded b y B auer a nd b y P ot in a re s hown b y T uukka T a lv io e lsewhere i n t h is v o lu me t o h ave b een i nc luded e rroneous ly ) . C lear ly , e ar ly c o ins r eached t he Wes t S lav r eg ion b y r outes o ther t han v ia G o t land s ince t here a re e igh t r ecorded p re-reform f i nds a nd a f ur ther s ix c o ins o f E adgar where t he t ype i s u ncer ta in .

T o wha t e x tent t he c o ins a rr ived

v ia Den mark o r a cross n or thern G ermany a t t h is p er iod we c annot t e l l , b ut , a s w i ll b e s een , t he West S lav r eg ion was p oised t o t ake t he i n i t ia l b enef i t o f t he wave o f i ncreased c oin i mpor t f ro m E ng land i n t he 9 90s . I n e ach o f t he r eg ions d iscussed a bove t here was n o r egu lated c urrency s yste m , a nd where t here were l oca l c oinages t hese c o mpe ted w i th f ore ign c o ins wh ich c ircu la ted f ree ly a nd w ere r e moved f ro m t he c urrency o n ly t hrough f ore ign t rade , l oss , h oarding , o r o ccas iona l me lt ing d own t o f orm i ngots , o rna men ts , e tc .

T h is i s i n marked c on trast t o t he c ircu ms tances

i n E ng land a nd t he C aro ling ian a nd German Emp ires where n a t iona l c o inages , were p rotec ted b y ar egu lated c urrency s ys te m wh ich p roh ib i ted , w i th v ary ing d egrees o f e f fec t iveness , t he c ircu lat ion o f f oreign c o in . T hus , f ro m p resen td ay G ermany wes t o f t he E lbe , f or t he e n t ire p er iod c .7 50-1140 , t here a re o n ly f our r ecorded f i nds o f A ng lo-Saxon o r Ang lo-Norman c o ins , t wo o f wh ich ' a re p robab ly r e la ted a nd , a l though f ro m t he r egion o f O ldenburg i n L ower S axony , h ave c o mposi t ions o f a West S lav c harac ter , wh i le t he r e main ing t wo d a te f ro m t he e ar ly t we lf th c entury .

1 5

A dm it ted ly we d o n ot k now h ow much

t rade r esu l ted i n af l ow o f E ng l ish c o ins i n to G ermany a nd t hus h ow many w ou ld h ave b een f ound h ad t here b een n o r egu la ted c urrency s ys te m , b ut t he f ac t t ha t G erman c oins c opy P Et he lred I 's H and , C rux , a nd Sma l l C ross t ypes— p r inc ipa l ly a t S tadel 6 a nd L t ineburg 1 7 —one e ven b ear ing P Ethe lred 's n a me , 1 8 s uggests t ha t t he n u mber migh t h ave b een s ubs tan t ia l . 1 51

F ig . 2 N u mber o f l ate Ang lo-Saxon c o ins o f e ach i ssue r epresen ted i n ( a ) H i ldebrand ( 1846 e d .) , ( b ) S CB I H e ls ink i , a nd ( c ) t he West S lav f inds ( exc lud ing t he L übeck h oard ) . 600-

500-

400-

H i ldebrand ( 1846 e d .)

3001

200

1

1 00-

RB 1 B2 C D E A3 E G H A B B O A C B E F H G Ac i

A

200-

SC B I H e lsink i

1 00-

RB 1 B2 C D E A3 E G

HA B E I D A C B E

F H G Ac 1 A

300-

West S lav F inds ( exc lud ing L i lbeck h oard ) 200-

1 00-

RB 1 B2 C D l Etr

EA3 E G H A B B D A C Cn

c

c . )

c c . )

X I I

1 52

B

E

F * e.

EdC

H

G

Ac

I

A

H ar l l

E xpans ion i n t he i mpor t o f E ng l ish c o in A f ter c .9 73 t he r epresen ta t ion o f E ng l ish i ssues i n t he f i nds f ro m n or thern E urope i ncreases s ign if ican t ly a nd f ro m c .9 90 t here i s what c an b est b e d escr ibed a s aq uan tu m l eap .

F or a p er iod o f s o me 5 0 y ears t he f l ow o f c oin

f ro m E ng land r ema ined a t ah igh l eve l w i th t he r esu lt t hat among n or thern E uropean c o l lec t ions e ach s ubs tan t ive t ype f ro m A E the lred 's C rux ( 2 .991-7) t o C nut 's S hor t C ross ( 2 .1030-5/6) i s n ow t o b e c oun ted i n i t s t housands . Af ter c . 10 36 t he d ura t ion o fe ach i ssue was r educed t o a pprox i ma te ly t wo y ears , a nd o ne w ou ld t herefore e xpec t t he n u mberof c o ins f ro m e ach i ssue t o b e l ess . B ut f ro m c .1 030 t here was a g radua l r ea l d ec line i n t he n u mber o f E ng lish c o ins r each ing S candinav ia a nd t he B al t ic u n t i l t he e ar ly 1 050s , when i tr eached a l ow l eve l wh ich was more o r l ess ma inta ined t hroughou t t he e leventh c en tury . T h is p a t tern i s i l lus tra ted b y t he h is tograms i n F ig . 2 , t he f i rs t o f wh ich s hows t he n u mber o f c o ins o f e ach i ssue i n t he S tockho lm S yste ma t ic C o l lec t ion r ecorded b y H i ldebrand i n t he 1 846 e di t ion o f h is c a tal ogue ;1 9

t h is d oes n ot i nc lude t he c o ins f ro m t he Ä sp inge h oard ,

2 °w h ich

d is tor t t he r epresen ta t ion o f H aro ld I , H ar thacnut , a nd t he f i rst i ssue o f E dward t he C onfessor i n t he 1 881 e d i t ion .

T he s econd h is togram p lots t he

c o ins f ro m t he F innish f i nds a s r epresen ted i n t he F inn ish S y l loge v o lu me 2 1 a nd t he t h ird s hows t he c o ins f ro m t he Wes t S lav f i nds a s l i s ted i n A ppend ix VU , b ut e xc luding t he L ubeck h oar c 12 2 w h ich , b ecause i ti s s o l arge a nd u nr epresenta t ive , wou ld u ndu ly d is tor t t he p a t tern o f t he f i nds . The i n i t ia l i ncrease i n t he n u mber o f E ng l ish c o ins r each ing n orthern E urope , wh ich o ccurred d ur ing t he R eform Sma l l C ross i ssue ( 2 .973-9 ) , a ppears r ough ly t o c oinc ide w i th t he r enewa l o f D an ish r a ids r ecorded i n t he Ang lo-Saxon C hron ic le i n t he a nna l f or 9 80 .2 3 I n 9 91, f o l low ing d efea t a t t he b a t t le o f Ma ldon , i t was d ec ided f or t he f i rs t t ime t o b uy p eace w ith t he Danes . F ur ther a nd i ncreas ing ly l arge p ayments o f t r ibute were made i n 9 94 , 1 002 , 1 007 , a nd 1 012 , a nd f ro m 1 012 a g enera l t ax was l ev ied a nnua lly , k nown a s h erege ld , i n i t ia l ly t o p ay T horke l l 's D an ish f l ee t wh ich h ad a greed t o d efend A E the lred . F or t h ir ty-nine y ears t h is t ax was a r egu lar f ea ture o f E ng lish l i fe , u sed b y t he k ing t o ma in ta in t he E ng l ish f l ee t wh ich was manned l arge ly b y S cand inav ian mercenar ies .

E xcep t iona l ly h igh p aymen ts were made i n 1 018

a nd 1 040 , t he l a t ter c aus ing g rea t d iscon ten t , b u t t he t ax was a bo l ished —at l eas t i n t h is f or m—in 1 051 f o l low ing t he d isband ment o f t he s tanding f l ee t . 2 4 On a ny r eckoning t he r ecorded p aymen ts a re v ery l arge;

i n t he p er iod

9 90-1016 t hey c ou ld r epresen t s o me th ing i n t he o rder o f aq uar ter o r at h ird o ft he t o ta l E ng l ish c oin p roduc t ion 25 i ft he p ayments were made e n t ire ly i n c o in , r a ther t han b u l lion o r c o mmodi t ies , o f which we c anno t b e c er ta in .

T he

c oinc idence b e tween t he p er iod i n wh ich t he Ang lo-Saxon c oinage i s we l l r epres ented i n t he S candinav ian a nd Ba lt ic f i nds a nd t he s ix ty y ears d ur ing wh ich t r ibutes were p a id o r h erege ld l ev ied i s v ery c lose . When t h is i s s et a ga ins t t he r e la t ive ly sma l l n u mbers o fA ng lo-Saxon c oins f ound i n S candinav ia wh ich b e long b efore o r a f ter t h is p er iod , t he i mpress ion i s e as i ly g a ined t ha t t he v as t ma jor i ty o ff i nds d er ive f ro m p lunder o r p ol i t ica l p aymen ts , a nd t ha t t he u nder ly ing c ontr ibu t ion made b y t rade was v ery sma l l —rough ly e qua l t o t he l eve ls s ugges ted b y t hose e ar l ier a nd l a ter c o ins . Th is v iew i s e ncouraged b y t he i mpress ion ( wh ich may b e af a lse o ne )2 6 t ha t t here i s ar e la t ive ly e ven r epresen ta t ion o f E ng l ish mints among c oins o f t he l a te t enth a nd f i rs t h a lf 1 53

o f t he e leventh c entur ies , a s o ne m igh t e xpec t o f money r a ised o n an a t iona l s ca le t hrough t axes , wh i le f or a pprox ima te ly t wo d ecades a f ter 1 051 L inco ln i s s evera l t imes b e t ter r epresen ted i n t he S candinav ian f i nds t han o ther m in ts , i nc luding L ondon ( co mpare , f or-e xa mp le , t he r epresen ta t ion o f L ondon a nd L inco ln i n H i ldebrand 's c a ta logue b efore a nd a f ter t he E xpand ing C ross i ssue ) .

2 7

I n w ork ing o ut a d e ta i led c hrono logy f or t he l a te Ang lo-Saxon c oinage , n u mis ma t is ts h ave u nders tandab ly p laced much emphas is o n t he e v idence o f t he S candinav ian f i nds f or a ssoc ia t ing t he C rux a nd E xpand ing C ross i ssues w i th t he c o m mence men t a nd c essa t ion , r espec t ive ly , o fp ayments t o t he V ik ings . d oing s o t hey h ave l ed s o me wr i ters t o c onc lude t ha t s ubs tant ia l ly a l l t he

2 8

! Ang lo-Saxon c oins f ound i n t he N or thern L ands a rr ived b y t h is means . 2 9 T he c on tr ibu t ion o f t r ibu te a nd d anege ld t o t he S candinav ian a nd B a lt ic f i nds w as u ndoubted ly v ery s ignif icant , b u t t hese w ere n o t t he o n ly r easons f or t he r e mova l o f c oins f ro m E ng land a nd more a t tent ion s hou ld b e p aid t o t hose w ho h ave s uggested t ha t t here was a n i ncreas ing c ontr ibu t ion f ro m Ang lo-Scandinav ian t rade i n t he l a te t en th a nd e ar ly e leventh c entur ies . " T he s tream o f s i lver d irhams wh ich h ad c o me p r imar i ly b y t rade f rom t he E as t v ia t he r ou tes a cross R uss ia was s evere ly r educed i n t he mid-tenth c entury , a nd f i na l ly c eased c .1 015 . I t was p robab ly t he r es tr ic t ion i n t he e astern t rade t ha t e ncouraged t he V ik ings t o l ook t o t he c ountr ies o f i ncreas ing wea lth t o t he wes t ( and s outh ) ,3 1 s o t ha t f ro m c .9 70 t he n umber o f G erman , a nd s hor t ly l a ter t he n u mber o fA ng lo-Saxon , c oins e nter ing S candinav ia w as i ncreas ing a s t he s upp ly o fn ew Arab ic c oins dw ind led . A lmost i m media te ly , a nd i nsp ired p ar t ia l ly b y t he s ame f orces , V ik ing a rm ies r esu med t heir h ost i le a c t iv i t ies i n E ng land ,

3 2

s o t ha t i ti s h ard t o d is t inguish t he f rui ts o f

t ha t a ggression f ro m t he i mpe tus o f a nynew t rade e xpedit ions . H owever , t here a re t wo f ac tors wh ich s ugges t t ha t i ncreased i mpor t o f E ng lish c oins h ad a lready c o m menced b y t he m id-970s , t ha t i s s evera l y ears b efore t he e ar l iest r ecorded r a ids .

F irs t , t here a re a t l eas t t en h oards f ro m G ot land a nd D enmark

i n wh ich t he A ng lo-Saxon e le ment e nds w i th c o ins o ft he R eform i ssue , w h ich were p robab ly g a thered b efore t he F irs t H and i ssue was i n troduced i n C .9 79 . 33 S econd ly , t he p ropor t ion o f R eform c o ins i n t he n ame o f E adgar , r a ther t han E dward o r A E the lred , i s s ubs tan t ia l ly g rea ter i n t he S candinav ian f i nds t han among t hose f ro m E ng land , s ugges t ing t ha t many w ere r e moved f ro m c ircu la t ion a t l a tes t mid-way t hrough , i fn ot t hroughou t , t he i ssue .

3 4

T he i mpor t o f G erman c oin f o l lowed a p at tern s imi lar , a l though a lways g rea ter i n t erms o fn u mbers , t o t ha t o f t he E ng l ish . G erman c o ins h ad b een c o ming t o t he B a l t ic i n sma l l n u mbers e ar lier i n t he t en th c en tury , b ut c .9 70 ( a f ew y ears e ar l ier t han f or t he Ang lo-Saxon c oins ) t here was a marked i ncrease i n t he ir r a te o f a rr iva l .

T hus , f rom G ot land a nd ma in land S weden

Ha tz r ecords o n ly s even h oards w i th a t .p .q . b efore 9 70 c on ta in ing a t o ta l o f 1 3 G erman c oins , wh i le f or t he d ecade f o l low ing 9 70 t here a re f our h oards w i th 5 1 G erman c oins . 35 T hereaf ter t he G erman i mpor t g rew a nd i t was p robab ly a t i t s h e igh t b e tween c .9 90 a nd C .1 040 . Af ter C .1 040 t here was a d ec line u n t i l t he e nd o ft he c entury , a l though i ti s d if f icu lt t o s ay h ow g radua l i t was b ecause o f t he d if f icu lty o fd a t ing many o ft he G erman p ieces a ccura te ly a nd b ecause t hey may h ave r e ma ined i n c ircu la t ion i n G ermany f or a n a pprec ia b le p er iod a f ter t he ir s tr iki ng .3 6

1 54

T he e v idence f or t h is p a t tern i s t o b e f ound i nt he o vera l l n u mber o f c oins o f e ach t ype f ound i n S candinav ia a nd f ro m t he many ' snap-shots ' o ft he c urrency a t d if feren t mo men ts w i th wh ich t he h oards p rov ide u s .

T he c hrono log ica l

d istr ibut ion o f t he A ng lo-Saxon a nd G erman c o ins c an c onven ient ly b e c o mpared t hrough t he r espec t ive e le ments o f t he l arger l a te-e leventh- a nd e ar ly-twe lf thc entury h oards;

a l though i ts hou ld b e r e me mbered t ha t t he p ropor t ion o f o lder

c o ins w i l l h ave b een c ons tant ly dw ind l ing w i th t ime , a s c o ins were r e moved f ro m c ircu la t ion t hrough t rade , l oss , h oard ing , o r b y b eing me lted d own . 3 7 F ig . 3s hows t he E ng lish a nd German e le ments o f t he J ohann ishus h oard f ro m B lek inge ,

3 8

d epos i ted a f ter 120 .

I n d raw ing c o mpar isons i ts hou ld b e r e-

me mbered t ha t w hi le t he d a te o f r emova l o ft he E ng l ish c o ins f ro m E ng land c an n orma l lybe d a ted t o w i th in a bout t wo t o s ix y ears , f or t he G erman c o ins t here i s f ar l ess a ccuracy f or t he r easons men t ioned a bove .

Thus i n F ig . 3

t he G erman c oins h ave b een r ecorded ( f o l low ing H a tz , H ande l u nd V erkehr ) a ccording t o t he ir e ar l ies t d a te o f s tr iking , a nd t he p eaks i n t he 9 90s a nd 1 000s c orrespond t o t he O t to Ade lheid p fenn igs ( da ted c .9 91-1040 ;

i m i ta t ions-

1 050 ) a nd c oins o f H enry I ( 1002-24 ) , s o me o f wh ich may h ave b een s truck d ur ing t he 1 010s where t he h istogra m s hows a t rough . f ro m S wed ish f i nds , r ecorded b y V era a nd G er t H a tz ,

3 9

T he B ohe mian c o ins a l though f ar f ewer

i n n u mber , s how a b road ly s im i lar p a t tern t o t he G erman , w i th a p eak i n t he e ar ly p ar t o f t he e leven th c en tury a nd a d ec l ine f ro m t he m id-e leventh c entury .

F ig . 3

Eng l ish a nd G er man e le men ts o f t he J ohann ishus h oard , B lek inge ( D 1 23 ) .

6 00-

50-

German

N umbe r o f Co ins

2 0 0Ang lo -Saxon a nd A ng lo-No rman

1 0 0— /

9 1 0

9 30 9 4 • o

7 0 5 0 9 9 ' 61 ) 1

9 8 0

V 9 1 0

l oco

1 0 10

1 010

1 030

1 55

/

/

1 040 1 050

1 060

2 , 1 070

1 01 10

1) 50

1 10 0

1 10

1 1 .0

130

E ng land was n ot a lone i n s uf fer ing v iolent a t tacks f ro m t he V ik ings; c hron ic les r ecord r a ids b e tween 9 91 a nd 9 95 o n F r is ia a nd S axony p enetra t ing u p t he E lbe t o S tade , a nd a r e turn i n 1 006 a nd 1 007 t o r a id ing i n F r isia . 4 0 On o ne o ccas ion i n 9 94 s o me G ermans were t aken p r isoners , a nd B ernhard , D uke o f S axony , h ad t o p ay a l arge r ansom f or t hem .

4 1

S ee m ing ly , h owever ,

t he G ermans p a id n o ma jor t r ibutes t o t he V ik ings , a nd t rade must h ave b een t he p r imary v eh ic le f or t he v as t q uan t i t ies o f c oin w h ich c ame t o S cand inav ia f ro m a l l p ar ts o ft he Emp ire; i mpor ted t o S candinav ia .

a bout t w ice t he n u mber o f A ng lo-Saxon p enn ies

I n a bout 9 70 t he r ich s i lver mines a t R am me lsberg i n t he Harz moun ta ins were e stab lished a nd b y c .9 90 t hey w ere b e ing e xp lo i ted o n a ma jor s ca le , a s i ndica ted b y t he O t to Ade lhe id c oinage ( c . 9 91-1040 ) . T he g rea ter a va i lab i l i ty o f s i lver may h ave b een a s ign if icant f ac tor i n t he a pparen t i ncrease i n t rade ( or a more money-or ienta ted t rade ) b e tween S candinav ia a nd G ermany , i n t he s ame way t ha t e ar l ier a s urp lus o f s i lver h ad a f fec ted t he c ourse o f t rade w i th t he E as t . S awyer h as s ugges ted t ha t E ng land 's a pparen t w ea lth , wh ich s o a t trac ted t he V ik ings i n t he l a te t en th a nd e leventh c entur ies , may h ave b een d er ived f ro m H arz s i lver , o b ta ined p r inc ipa l ly b y t he e xpor t o f woo l t o t he F le m ish c loth i ndus try .

4 2

I ft h is t hes is i s c orrec t , t he i ncreased s upp ly o f

s i lver i n G ermany may a lso h ave a f fec ted t he s ize o f t he c urrency i n E ng land , e ncourag ing A ng lo-Scandinav ian t rade , o r ac hange i n i t s b as is , a nd t he p aymen ts o f t r ibu te a nd h erege ld w ou ld o n ly h ave emphas ised a n e x ist ing t rend . We c annot b e s ure w h ich were t he ma in p roduc ts i mpor ted f ro m S candinav ia . F urs b ough t b y t he G ot landers f ro m K are lia were p ar t icu lar ly p r ized b y t he G ermans ,4 3 a nd may p erhaps a lso h ave i n terested t he E ng lish . I mpor tan t t hough t hey may h ave b een t o p ar t icu lar c en tres , s uch l uxur ies a re u n l ike ly t o h ave b een t he ma in a r t ic les o fn or thern t rade , wh ich were p robab ly more b asic p roduc ts n eeded i n q uan t i ty s uch a s t hose s uggested b y Professor L oyn : b lubber o i l , f i sh , a nd wood .4 4 O ther p roduc ts ment ioned i n t he I s land ic s agas a nd i n o ther a ccounts f ro m t he t we lf th a nd t h ir teen th c entur ies i nc lude h ides , b u t ter , h orses , a nd g ra in .

4 5

P o li t ica l f ac tors may a lso h ave a f fec ted t he

c ourse o f t rade , b u t i t was o n ly i n t he f i rst a nd s econd d ecades o f t he e leven th c entury t ha t t he modern c oncep t o ft o ta l war was e ven a pproached , a nd f or t ha t p er iod t he h oard e v idence d oes s ugges t at e mporary r estr ic t ion i n t he f l ow o f E ng l ish c o in t o S candinav ia .

4 6

Two f ac tors h ave b een i den t if ied a s c on tr ibu t ing t o t he b u i ld-up o f western c o in i mpor ts t o t he Ba l t ic r egion : ac ur ta i l ment o f t he s upp ly o f e astern s i lver a nd a s urp lus o f s i lver i n t he wes t .

I ti s l ess e asyto p oin t t o a ny

o bv ious c ause f or i t s d ec l ine wh ich c o m menced a bou t t he 1 030s , was more r ap id i n t he c ase o f t he E ng l ish t han t he G erman c oins , a nd w as v ir tua l ly c o mp le te b y t he e nd o ft he c en tury . T his d oes n o t n ecessar i ly i ndicate t ha t S cand inav ian t rade s uf fered a d ec l ine a s r ap id o r a s c o mp le te a s t he c oin i mpor ta t ion , f or a s Me tca lf h as of ten emphasised , o ne i s t o a n e x tent l ook ing a t t he n e t b a lance-of-paymen ts p os i t ion , a nd moreover , when s i lver i s i n s hor t s upp ly , ag ood d ea l o f t rade c an c ont inue u s ing f orms o fn on- mone tary c ons idera t ion . S im i lar r educ t ions i n t he n u mber o f c o ins r each ing b o th S candinav ia a nd t he Wes t S lav r eg ion s ugges t t ha t t he c o m mon c ause l ay i n ar educ t ion i n t he s urp lus o f s i lver i n G ermany t hereby a f fec t ing t he v o lume , o r t he b as is , o f i t s t rade w i th o ther c oun tr ies . R epercuss ions w ou ld h ave

1 56

b een f e lt i n E ng land , r educ ing t he amoun t o f s i lver a va i lab le f or c oinage , a nd i n t urn a f fec t ing t he n a ture o f i t s t rading r e la t ions w i th t h ird c ountr ies . T he f i rst d ie-stud ies o f E ng lish mints s ugges t t hat t here was a c ontrac t ion i n t he E ng l ish c o inage d ur ing t he 1 030s ,4 7 a nd i tw i l l b e i n terest ing t o s ee whe ther t he G erman mater ia l r evea ls a s im i lar p a t tern . T he e cono m ies o f D en mark a nd N orway were c hang ing a nd b y t he mide leventh c entury n a t iona l c oinages were d eve lop ing o n as ignif icant s ca le . T he r educ t ion i n f l ow o f c oins f ro m G ermany a nd E ng land made i te as ier f or t he a uthor i t ies t o e s tab lish r egu la ted c urrency s ystems , a nd f ore ign money e n ter ing t he marke t p laces o f t hese c oun tr ies wou ld t o a n i ncreas ing e x ten t h ave b een e xchanged f or l oca l c oin .

H owever , f ore ign c oin c on t inued t o

r each G ot land a nd t he e as tern B a l t ic i n s ign if ican t q uant i t ies , a s i s s hown b y t he A ng lo-Nor man c oins f ound i n t hese r eg ions .

On G ot land a l oca l c o inage

was s tar ted a bout 140 , p robab ly i n o rder t o mee t t he d e mand f or a c urrency t o r ep lace t he f ore ign c oins wh ich were n o l onger a va i lab le . On t he S wedish ma in land h ard ly a ny th ing i s k nown a bout t he mone tary c ircu la t ion— if i ndeed t here was o ne t o s peak o f—be tween c .1 080 a nd c . 170 w hen t he f i rs t c oinage s ince A nund J akob ( 1022-50 ) c o m menced a t U ppsa la . A ma jor i ty o f t he h oards f ro m t he N or thern L ands a ppear t o r epresent t he mixed c urrency o f t he r eg ions a nd p er iod o f d epos i t , b ut o ccas iona lly i t i s p oss ib le t o d iscern a d iscre te p arce l o f c oins b rough t f ro m E ng land wh ich h as b een a dded t o ac urrency h oard .

I ns o me c ases t he p arce l c an b e i dent if ied

a s t he p roduc t o f at rade v en ture , wh i le i n o thers i ta ppears t o r epresen t p ar t o f an a t iona l ly c o l lec ted t r ibute o r d anege ld p ayment .

Me tca lf h as r ecent ly

emphas ised t he r e la t ive ly h igh mob i li ty o f c oins i n c ircu la t ion i n E ng land i n t h is p er iod , b ut t he c urrency i n a ny r eg ion w ou ld s t i l l h ave s hown ab ias i n f avour o f t he l oca l m in ts , wh ich w ou ld d is t ingu ish money c o l lec ted a t a p ar t icu lar p or t o r marke t .4 8 I t maybe d if f icu lt t o d ist ingu ish b e tween c o in g a thered f ro m o ne l oca li ty i n t rade a nd a l oca l ly r a ised t r ibu te ,4 9 b ut p ar t icu lar f ea tures may h e lp t o d if feren t ia te t he t wo . T hus t he p resence o f ag roup o f c ontemporary H iberno-Norse p enn ies among a p arce l o f 6 09 u npecked L ong C ross c oins i n t he L is t h oard f ro m t he N or th F r is ian i s land o f S y lt s uggests t ha t t h is h oard was t he p urse o f at rader who was p robab ly r e turning t o t he Ba lt ic v ia H edeby . 5 0 H e a ppears t o h ave v isi ted marke ts i n n or th-eas t E ng land , L ondon , a nd t he S ou th-west , a s we l l a s t ak ing h is g oods t o D ub lin . O ther h oards a lso i n dica te t ha t S candinav ian t raders c ame u p t he E ng l ish C hanne l f ro m t he N or th S ea . T he V a ldarve h oard f ro m E ske lhem p ar ish , G o t land , 51 c onta ins ap arce l o f L as t Sma l l C ross c oins wh ich a ppears t o b e t he f rui ts o f at rade e xpedi t ion a long t he s ou thern c oas t o f E ng land , a nd p ar t icu lar ly t o t he S outh-wes t . O ft he 3 00 L as t Sma l l C ross c oins l i sted i n d e ta i l , 2 46 were f rom min ts o n o r s ou th o ft he Thames a nd 1 29 f ro m S o merset o r Devon; a s c an b e s een f ro m T ab le 3 , c o ins o f L ydford o u tnu mbered t hose o f L ondon b y 6 6 t o 6 3 , T he V a ldarve h oard a lso s uppor ts t he t heory t ha t d e mone t iza t ion o f t he i ssues o f. A E the lred I was e f fec t ive , s ince t here were o n ly 2 4 c o ins o ft he p receding H e l me t i ssue . T he L t ibeck h oard , d eposi ted a f ter 1 038 ,5 2 a lso o f fers e v idence o f t rade w i th E ng land , a nd o n a ma jor s ca le . O f t he 1 ,854 a scer ta inab le E ng l ish c oins , 4 1 were o f P E the lred 2 06 were o f C nu t 's Q ua trefo i l , 8 05 o f h is P oin ted He l me t , a nd 8 02 o f S hor t C ross t ype .

H ere i ti s t he min ts o f s outh-eas t E ng land ( par t icu lar ly Can terbury ,

1 57

T ab le 3 Ang lo-Saxon e le men t o f t he V a ldarve h oard , E ske lhe m , G ot land 1 1 E tr M

B 2

C

Barnstap le

D

E

1

1

1

2 1

B a th

3

1

C a mbr idge C anterbury

1

3 3

C hes ter

1

2 1 2 3

C issbury

1

C o lches ter

1

1

C r ick lade

1

D over

1

E xe ter

2

G loucester

3

H ereford

2

4 8 1

1

H unt ingdon I psw ich

A 3

2 1

3

L e icester L ewes

9

L inco ln

1

L ondon

1

8

L ydford L ympne

1

Ma ldon

1

4 1 2 1

N or tha mp ton

1

N orw ich

1

R oches ter

1 8 4

6 3

1

6 6

2 2

1

3

R o mney

1

S haf tesbury

2

1

S hrewsbury

3 3

S outhwark

2

2

S ta mford

2

2

T aunton

8 3

T he tf ord

3

3

T o tnes

1

7

Wareha m

1

1

Warw ick

1

Wa tche t

1

Wi lton

1

Winches ter

1

Y ork

2

T ota l

1

4

2 5

1 4 1

1

1 3

5

1 0

2 4

3 00

D over , a nd H ast ings ) t ha t a re o ver-represented i n e ach o ft he l ast t wo i ssues p resent i n t he h oard ( see Tab le 4 ) .

T he 1 ,607 P oin ted H e l me t a nd S hor t

C ross c oins i n t he L t ibeck h oard c er ta in ly d o n ot g ive t he i mpression o fb eing 1 58

T ab le 4

A ng lo-Saxon e le men t o f t he L t ibeck h oard , H o ls te in , BRD . A E tr C

D

C n

E

A 3

E

H

A xbr idge

1

B arnstap le B a th

7

B edford

1

B r idpor t B r is to l

1 6

1 2

1

2

2

1

4

1

B ruton C ambr idge C an terbury

2 7

3 3 4

4

1 7

1

C hes ter C h iches ter

4 3 9

2

4

C o lches ter

6

3

8

C r ick lade D erby

6

3 1

1 1

D over

3 0

E xeter

1

1

4

G louces ter

3

1 6 9

G u i ldford

8 1 2

H ast ings

1

Hereford

1

3 8 1

5

H er tford

1

H unt ingdon

2

I l chester I psw ich

1

L angpor t L e icester L inco ln 2

3

1

5

2

7

L ydford L ympne

8 1 6

8

3

4

5

2

1

3

2

1 9

7

2

6

4

L ewes L ondon

8 6

2 1

7 9

8 6

2 3

3 11

2 59

1 1

Ma ldon

4

2

Ma l mesbury

3

M i lborn P or t N or tha mpton

1 2

2

N orw ich

1

2

N ot t ingha m Oxford

1 3

R ochester R o mney

1

S a lisbury

1 1 0

1 2 3

3

3

9

9

4 4

5 1

6

8

S haf tsbury

2

5

7

S hrewsbury

2

3

2

7

1

S outha mpton

1

S outhwark

2 3

1 59

Tab le 4

c on t . A E tr C

S ta mford

D

C n

F

A 3

1

7

3 3

5 1

3

1 8

3 2

S teyn ing

3

T he tford T o tnes

1

Wa l lingford

1

2

Wareham

3

7

1

2

1

Warm ins ter

1

Warw ick Winchco mbe

1

Wi lton Winches ter

1

Worces ter

3

4 3

6 9

6 7

2 06

8 05

8 02

1

3

3 2 3

5

Y ork T ota l

1 7

2 2 7

1 7

7

1 4

3

p ar t o f a mercenar ies p ayment d er ived f ro m a n a t iona l ly c o l lec ted h erege ld . The p resence o f t he t wo i ssues i n a l mos t e qua l n umbers a nd w i th a s im i lar r egiona l b ias may r epresent c on t inuing t rade o ver a p er iod o fy ears , o r may i ndicate t ha t a lready b y t he e ar ly 1 030s o ld c oin r e ma ined i n c ircu la t ion a f ter d emoni t isa t ion a nd was u sed i n p ayments t o f oreign t raders . T he I ge lösa h oard f ro m S kä l ne c on ta ins a n u nusua l ly h igh p ropor t ion o f E ng lish c oins , w i th a bout 1 ,100 Crux a nd a bou t 6 00 L ong C ross ( i nc lud ing l a te v ar ie t ies ) wh ich t oge ther c ons t i tu te o ver 8 0 p er c en t . o f t he c oins i n t he h oard .

T he Ma jor i ty o f t hese c ou ld r epresent t wo o r more p arce ls o ft r ibu te ,

wh i le t he r e ma inder o ft he C rux a nd L ong C ross p enn ies a nd t he e ar lier E ng l ish i ssues were p robab ly c o l lec ted l oca l ly t oge ther w i th t he German a nd S cand inav ian c o ins p resen t i n t he h oard .

Two o ther e xa mp les o f h oards

c onta ining a p arce l o f t r ibute o r d anege ld money h ave b een s uggested b y S kaare;

t he F ug lev ik h oard f ound b y t he mouth o f t he O s lo F jord, wh ich

c onta ined s o me 6 2 A ng lo-Saxon c o ins ( over 9 0 p er c ent . o f wh ich were o f C rux t ype ) , o ne G er man , a nd a bout 1 7 u niden t if ied p ieces , a nd t he S le the i ( or T jore ) h oard f ro m R oga land , N orway , wh ich c on ta ined o ver 4 00 L as t Sma l l C ross c o ins ( represen t ing s o me 7 0 p er c ent . o ft he c oins i n t he h oard) .

5 3

Wha t i s

p erhaps s urpr is ing i s t ha t t here i s o n ly o ne h oard h av ing t he a ppearance o f as epara te p arce l , o r o ne i ndiv idua l's s hare , o f t r ibu te u nadu ltera ted b y o ther c o ins ;

t h is i s t he Tyskegaard h oard f ro m V es ter Mar ie , Den mark , wh ich

c o mpr ised 3 4 L ong C ross c o ins .

5 4

T hey a ppear , f ro m t he 1 2 u npecked a nd

u nben t c oins r eta ined i n t he C openhagen c ab ine t , t o b e long e ar ly i n t he t ype t ha t i s o n c onven t iona l d a t ing b e tween c .9 97 a nd C .1 000 , a l though n o t r ibute p ay men t i s r ecorded f ro m t hose y ears .

5 5

1 60

F inds f ro m G ot land E ng lish c oins d id n ot r each G o t land u nt i l t he 9 70s , b ut t he i s land 's wea l th h ad b een e s tab lished l ong b efore t ha t .

T he e ar liest c oins t o b e f ound o n G ot land

a re R o man d enar i i d a t ing f ro m t he f irst , s econd, a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he t h ird c entur ies A . D . ,b u t t hey were p robab ly b rough t t o t he i s land d ur ing a v ery s hor t p er iod i n t he f our th c entury .

I n t he s econd h a lf o ft he f i f th c en tury

R o man s o l idi b egan t o c ircu late , b u t t he i mpor ta t ion c eased c .5 50 . The e ar l ies t V ik ing-age f i nds c an b e d a ted t o s hor t ly b efore 8 00 a nd f ro m t hen o n t he f i nds a re made u p o f o ccas iona l S asan ian d rachms a nd a n i ncreas ing n u mber o f Arabic d irhams .

More t han 4 5 ,000 d irha ms h ave b een f ound f ro m

s o me 3 75 f i nds , a nd t hey c over t he p er iod d own t o t he e ar ly e leventh c entury , a l though t hey c on t inue t o o ccur , a lbe i t i n d ecreas ing n u mbers , i n f i nds d epos it ed d ur ing t he f o l low ing 1 00 y ears . T he r easons f or t he e x tre me wea l th o f f i nds o n G ot land t hroughou t t he V ik ing-age p er iod h as b een much d eba ted 5 6 a nd i s ma in ly t o b e a ssoc ia ted w i th t he c o m merc ia l a c t iv it ies a t t h is t rading c entre i n t he B a lt ic . B e tween c .7 90 a nd c .9 70 d irha ms c ons t i tu te o ver 9 9 p er c ent . o f t he c oins f ound . T he l ack o f wes tern c oins u p t o c .9 70 i s i n many w ays s urpr is ing , b u t i tw ou ld s ee m t ha t t he e as tern t rade was s o l arge a nd p rof i tab le t ha t t here was s i mp ly n o r eason t o t urn much a t tent ion t o t he West o r t ha t t rade w i th t he Wes t o n ly r esu lted i ng oods a nd n ot i n c urrency . By c .970 a f ew G erman p fenn igs h ad b egun t o o ccur i n t he G ot land h oards , b ut t here-a re n o h oards d a ted b efore c .9 73 wh ich c on ta in A ng lo-Saxon p enn ies; t here i s o ne h oard d a ted b y t he Arab i; c o ins t o 9 73/4 c onta ining a s ing le p enny o f E adgar 's Twoline t ype .

5 7

I n i t ia l ly o n ly a f ew E ng lish c oins r eached

G o t land a nd t he i ncrease d ur ing A E the lred 's H and t ypes was v ery s low .

Wh i le

d irec t c on tac ts h ad p robab ly b een e s tab l ished b etween G ot land a nd G ermany b y t h is s tage , E ng lish c oins s ee m t o h ave a rr ived b y t he mediu m o f t rade w i th D en mark . N ot e ven t he b oo m i n t he i mpor t o f C rux p ennies s hows a n i m media te e f fec t i n t he G ot land f i nds ; mos t o f t he h oards e nding w i th C rux h ave a v ery sma l l Ang lo-Saxon e le men t a nd o n ly o ne c on ta ins more t han 1 00 E ng l ish c oins . U n t i l e ar ly i n t he L ong C ross i ssue D en mark s eems t o h ave b een t he p r inc ipa l r ec ip ien t o f t he g row ing i mpor t o f c oin f ro m E ng land a nd a h igh p ropor t ion o f t he c oins r e ma ined i nt ha t a rea f or s o me y ears .

T he d if fus ion o f c oins f ro m

D en mark i n l a ter y ears a ppears t o h ave b een more r ap id a nd e f f ic ient ;

t hus

i t was o n ly f ro m L ong C ross o nwards t ha t A ng lo-Saxon c oins b eca me more p lent ifu l i n t he G ot land h oards ( see F ig . 5 ) . T here a re a l arge n u mber o f h oards a nd s ing le f i nds f ro m G ot land d a ted t o t he p er iod c .9 90-1005 ( i . e . r ough ly c ontemporary w i th t he C rux a nd L ong C ross i ssues ) , a l though many o f t he h oards , a s c an b e s een f ro m T ab le 5 , c onta in a r e la t ive ly sma l l p ropor t ion o f A ng lo-Saxon c oins a nd t he s ing le f i nds c ou ld h ave b een l os t l ong a f ter t he ir s tr ik ing , a s C rux a nd more p ar t icu lar ly L ong Cross c ont inued t o b e d om ina t ing t ypes i n t he c urrency o f G ot land f or many d ecades .

I n c on tras t , t here a re r e la t ive ly f ew G o t land f i nds wh ich a re

c onte mporary w i th P E the lred 's H e lmet a nd L as t Sma l l C ross i ssues .

H e l me t

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9 : O stslawen - Minimalangaben, n ur

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W estslawen - P olabien: Minimalangabe,

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D irham:

n ach K IERSNOWSKI

1 960;

S .

1 82

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O stslamen - nur W estslamen

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A uszählung d er i n d en F unden mit e uropäischen Münzen a uftretenden D irham,

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P OTIN

1 968,

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2 82

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1 968)

r egesten

b zw.

( POLABIA,

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1 0:

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P Sä I -IV, a uch d ie

P OTIN

A ddition n ach d en F und-

1 967)

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A us

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V erhältnis z wischen a ngelsächsischen u nd d eutschen Münzen i n d en s lawischen F unden A S

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( AS

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4 200 2 300

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1 960,

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3 )

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i n d enen d ie

a ngel-

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A ppendix A ,

4 44 a ngelsächsische z u 1 93 d eutschen

E stland

1 6,

2 0,

5 3),

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A S

2 69 E x.,

2 64,

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6 64,

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1 978).

i st n ur e in F und b ekannt,

M ünzen ü berwiegen R us

1 2.

5 2).

d ie a n a ngelsächsischen

s lawische F undlandschaft,

d er d er E instrom a uch i m

4 3,

V ajda,

A ppendix A ,

R us 2 0,

2 3,

2 5,

2 7,

2 8,

2 9,

A us d iesen 9 F unden s tammen n ur 2 07 a ngelsächsische,

a ber 2 0410 d eutsche Münzen! I m m estslamischen Raum i st n ur e in e inziger g rößerer Fund m it d eutlich ü ber d em d eutschen l iegenden a ngelsächsischen A nteil n achmeisbar.

E s i st d er

s chon m ehrfach z itierte F und v on L übeck m it

2 84

1 901

a ngelsächsischen u nd c a.

4 50 d eutschen M ünzen, was

i n d iesen

P roportionen a bsolut u ntypisch i st

f ür d ie w estslawischen S chätze.

E tea g leichstark s ind d eutsche

a ngelsächsische M ünzen i n d en

F unden v on I nowroclaw T rzebun ( 1 -SW I II, u nd 8 4 d t)

13,

v ertreten.

( PSW

I ,

u nd

3 9, ca. 9 0 E x., A S 3 8, d t 3 9) u nd

u nter c a.

2 00 g anzen E xemplaren e twa 8 7 A S

I n a llen a nderen F unden d ominieren d ie d eut-

s chen M ünzen k lar. ' N ährend d ie ü brigen B estandteile d er o stslawischen F unde E eihenfolge S kandinavien U ngarn, w eit

( vor

a llem D änemark), B öhmen/Mähren,

I talien g egenüber d eutschen u nd

z urückliegen,

i st

a ngelsächsischen M ünzen

i m w estslawischen Raum d er b öhmisch/mährische

L L inzkomplex v or a llem d urch g roße

s chlesische S chätze

d em a ngels i qchsischen A nteil v ergleichbare

G röße

d ie u ngarischen Münzen s ind s tark v ertreten. o stslawischen F unden z eigt d eutschen Münzen, w ährend

a uf e ine

a ngewachsen.

A uch

I m V ergleich z u d en

s ich e ine n och g rößere D ominanz d er d ie

a ngelsächsischen A nteile

D ie D irham e inmal a usgeklammert,

l äßt

F unde e ine D reiteilung i n d eutsche, M ünzen e rkennen,

i n d er

a bnehmen.

s ich f ür d ie o stslawischen

a ngelsächsische

u nd U brige

dagegen t endieren d ie w estslawischen F unde m ehr

z u e iner Z weiteilung i n d eutsche u nd ü brige Münzen. D iese Z weiteilung i st

s owohl A usdruck d er D ominanz d eutscher D enare a ls

a uch d es

s cheächeren E instroms a ngelsächsischer Münzen b ei g leichzeitiger S teigerung d er b öhmischen u nd u ngarischen F undanteile. V :

D ie Münzen d er a ngelsächsischen u nd

e nglischen K önige

i n

d en s lawischen F unden Haben wir b isher v on d en a ngelsächsischen Münzen i m a llgemeinen g ehandelt,

i st n un n och z u u ntersuchen, w elche H errscher u ns m it

i hren M Unzen i n d en F unden b egegnen.

2 85

1 --

I -

C V

1 -

I

t • • r -

. 4-

E-i

, . o 1 . N

in C . '1 C * -

t r N

c \ . 1 V D

et c o

S i

N ‘ . 0

ve 1 -

in ‘ .0

N -

E i

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c o C Y N

N ( " 1

N C T N

0

. 1-

C1 4, / 1 e -

c e.% I C O

0-\

r c i c t i I

4 > 0 2 z r a

I

I

I

1

C1

I

r1

L ettland

4. / 1 0

I

F 1 H 0

I

I

I

I

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I

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c o

0 C T \ 01

01

C r 1 C T \

0 0

in 0 C * * 1

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u )

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. 4 z 2 r - LO

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; 1

c

1 1

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r 1 0 C d

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c o

E T 1

286

i

l

l

( 1135-1154)

i

( 1066-87-1100) I I H arold

c r . 1

n

e -

( 1016-1035)

r -

(10 0 -113 5)

e r i

a i r i 0 P 4

C f N

D ie Exemplarzahlen a us d em o stslawischen Raum u mfassen a uch d ie a us G rab-, s owie

d ie

E inzel- u nd

a rchäologischen Funden s tammenden E xemplare

z uordbaren Nachprägungen.

E rmittelte Nachprägungen

( Imitationen),

O stslawen:

L ettland E thelred

I I

E stland

3 6

6

Cnut Harold

R us

7 3

8 2

2 0

6 6

I

3 (1)

9

Harthacnut E dward

3

t he C onfessor

a

E rwartungsgemäß l iegen d ie i v i t inzen E thelreds I I. w eitem A bstand C onfessor.

G eringere

u nd Eadgar. a uf.

D ie

h underts B us 3 4)

a n d er S pitze, A nteile

N ur v ereinzelt

b eiden Burgred

I .

Cnuts m it

u nd E dward

e ntfallen a uf Harthacnut,

, 7 illiam I ./II.

( 852-874) Münzen i n d em E nde d es

( PCLABIA 4 2).

a ufgeführt

E admund

F unden v ertreten

9 55, P SW I I,

3 3)

. CVNETTI

e inem F ragment

( 939 -9 46)

i st

( Piaski-Dra r aino,

1 21,

1 62).

b eginnt

I ( Appendix A ,

E dward

I I.

u nd

t he E lder

i m Fund v on D ransau

n ach 9 50 u nd T rzebianowo,

n achweisen

( 946-955)

( Paretz, f ast

l äßt

n ach s ich i n

n ach 9 65,

a usschließlich v om

d ann e in z war n och b escheidener a ber e twas

r egelmäßigerer Fundniederschlag a ngelsächsischer Münzen. E thelreds

J ahr-

i n z wei f rühen p ommerschen

1 28). Mit d en P ennies E adgars,

h eform-Typ,

u nd

E in E xemplar E adreds

e inem f rühen d eutschen Fund

Z eit

1 1.

s ind wahrscheinlich k eine g enuinen F undbestandteile

e rscheinen z usammen i n j e

t he

t reten Münzen d er H errscher v or Eadgar

z u d atierenden Fund v on L odejnoe P ole

d aher h ier n icht

P CLABIA

g efolgt v on Harold

u nd

E rst

i n d er

k ann man v on e inem wirklichen E instrom s prechen.

2 87

r

r

ceN

r -

I

( V

. 4 -

r-

In C V

In In

C 31 ie

In

c o

In r

( " ' N

C J

1 — C v

a )

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' t \

a l r C 3

" C I

4 4

U i r I

c d

c a r : 4

I

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!

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I C Y1

4. / 1 0

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C r.\ C V

1—

a )

s lazischen

z

L ettland

0

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4 2 )

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F 4 C D

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O D

( M

I

1

1

1

1

1

( 1135-1154)

I

( 1100-1135)

( ‚4

E deard C onfessor

C I r I

c o

+ o hne g enauere A ngabe

( 1066-87-1100) Harold

I I

( 1042-66)

( 1035-1040)

I I E thelred 2 88

( 1010-1035)

( 899-924)

P1

E deard E lder

Münzen d er e nglischen

: 0

Harthacnut

t d )

D as G esamtbild b edarf j edoch e iner D ifferenzierung, w estslaeischer F undraum e inige Unterschiede a ls

i n d en E xemplarzahlen,

s tark b eeinflußbar s ind, w obei

d a o st- u nd

a ufeeisen. D eutlicher

d ie d urch e inzelne a normale F unde

e rgibt

( Lübeck)

s ich d as P rofil a us d en F undzahlen,

i n d er Tabelle n ur d ie S chatzfunde b erücksichtigt

s ind.

A ls

B asis i st Tabelle 3 z u v ergleichen. D ie Z ahlen f ür d en w estslawischen R aum s ind

a us d en p olnischen R egesten e rmittelt

f ür P olabien I st F und D oroe

z u e rgänzen),

d ie

( PSW I -IV,

P OLABIA,

Z ahlen f ür d en o st-

s lawischen Raum s ind a n Hand v on A ppendix A n achprüfbar. N achdrücklich k orrigiert E thelred

I I.

s ich d as w estslawische F undbild

u nd C nut, w o d ie

1 872 E x.

i m B ereich

d er Münzen C nuts i m F und v on

L übeck z u e iner R eihenfolge d er Münzen Cnuts v or E thelred I I. g eführt hatten. C nut, was a bsolut

I n d en F undzahlen r angiert E thelred I I.

i n d ieser R eihenfolge

k lar v or

a uch i m E xemplarzahlbereich s onst

t ypisch f ür d ie w estslawischen F unde

i n d en Funden mit M ünzen E adgars,

s piegelt

i st. H ierin, w ie a uch

s ich d er f rüher a ls

i m

o stslawischen Raum e insetzende E instrom a ngelsächsischer M ünzen w ider. A uch i n L ettland u nd E stland v or Cnut, A nteile

r angieren E thelreds Münzen d eutlich

während i n d en r ussi ,schen F unden b eide e twa g leichstarke

a ufweisen. E ine

a uf d ie A ngaben v on V . P otin g egründete

B esonderheit d er r ussischen F unde, w onach i n i hnen d ie M ünzen C nuts e twa d reimal h äufiger e rscheinen a ls d ie E thelreds I I. S .

1 08,

n icht

3 4)

E thelred I I.

3 40 E x.,

.D ie n ur l eicht

C nut

1 074 E x.),

s tärkere B etonung C nuts g eht

a uf d ie h ier s päter e insetzende E infuhr z urück und

i st

z meiten Hälfte

b estätigt

J ahrhunderts b edingt.

2 89

1 968,

s ich z um e inen

a ngelsächsischer M ünzen

z um a nderen d urch d ie z ahlreichen F unde d es 1.

( POTIN

a us d er

D ie M ünzen d er a uf C nut

f olgenden K önige e rlauben e ine

A ussage

ü ber d ie D auer d er E infuhr. B ereits d ie g egenüber E thelred I I. d eutlich z urückliegende F undfrequenz C nuts i n d en w estslamischen F unden i st

e in I ndiz f ür e ine

( Ethelred I I.

1 53 F unde,

C nut

s ich r elativ v erringernde Münzzufuhr

9 5 Funde). N och b is e t a 1 050 ü ber-

w iegen i n d en F unden i m a llgemeinen d ie Münzen E thelreds

I I.

D ies

i st A eniger E rgebnis e iner Z irkulation i m S lawenland,

s ondern

A usdruck d es ü ber S kandinavien f ührenden W eges, w omit

s ich e ine

m ehr o der w eniger g roße V erzugsspanne

z wischen P rägezeit

u nd F undniederschlag i m s lawischen Raum e rgibt. G rund d afür,

Das i st

i n E ngland a uch d er

d aß a ngelsächsische Münzen f ast n ie d ie S chlußmünzen

i n d en F unden s tellen. F ür d en ü ber S kandinavien v ermittelten E instrom l assen s ich a nführen:

d ie r elative Ü beralterung

E thelreds

I I.

h underts ) ,

d ie F undkonzentration i m K üstensaum,

d er F lüsse

e rscheinen n och r egelmäßig b is

( Oder, W eichsel)

z um Ende d es

1.

J ahr-

i m Mündungsbereich

u nd e ntlang d er F lußläufe,

s kandinavischer N achprägungen i n f ast

( Münzen

d er Nachmeis

a llen g rößeren o stslawischen

F unden. D er ü ber S kandinavien f ührende W eg d er i n d ie

s lamischen F unde

s chließt

e in T eil d er Münzen E thelreds I I.

a ngelsächsischen Münzen

z ugleich d ie M öglichkeit

e in,

d aß

e rst n ach 1 016 e ingeflossen i s ' 4.

B is wann u nd i n w elchem Umfang d as g eschah, e ann d er Z ustrom v erebbte

u nd d ie Münzen Cnuts v ermehrt h ereinkamen - z ur K lärung

d ieser F ragen k önnen d ie F unde n ur i ndirekt b eitragen. m ünzen s ind

i n d er R egel d eutsche D enare,

S chätzen n iederschlugen.

p unkt

i hrer A nkunft

d ie s ich r ascher i n d en

D emgegenüber g ehören d ie

M ünzen z u d en ä lteren F undbestandteilen, i m F undraum n ichts

2 90

I hre S chluß-

a ngelsächsischen

s o d aß s ich ü ber d en Z eit-

a ussagen l äßt.

I n d en w est -

s lamischen F unden i st d ie

z eitliche D ifferenz z wischen a ngelsäch-

s ischen a nd d eutschen Münzen a usgeprägter a ls

i n d en o stslawischen, -

w o b isweilen d ie S chlußmünzen a uch a us d em a ngelsächsischen A nteil s tammen b zw. d ie

a ngelsächsischen Münzen a n d as S chlußdatum d er

F unde h eranreichen

3 5)

Z u k onstatieren b leibt, C nut n ur

d aß a lle

a ngelsächsischen M ünzen n ach

i n d en w estslawischen F unden r elativ s elten s ind 1 34 E x.). Münzen n ach 1 066,

t auchen mit e iner A usnahme W illiam I .,

P SW

I I,

1 93)

n ach Cnut

d er Z eit d er n ormannischen K önige,

( Fund V ossberg, D DR, n ach

ü berhaupt n icht

A nders l iegen d ie D inge

1 084,

1E x.

a uf.

i m o stslamischen R aum. D er E instrom w ird

z mar d eutlich s chwächer,

F unden b is W illiam I I.

( zusammen

( 1087-1100), f ort.

s etzt

s ich a ber i n d en r ussischen

i n d en e stnischen s ogar n och

b is H enry I I.

( 1154-1189)

d as d urch d as

1 2. J ahrhundert h indurch n och F unde m it e nglischen

u nd d eutschen Münzen a ufweist m estslamischen Raum u m 1 100,

E stland i st d as e inzige F undgebiet,

( MOLVÖGIN

1 978), m ährend

s ie

i m

i n d er R ue u m 1 110 a ufhören.

nm e r k u n g e n

1 )

C hne a uf d ie

z ahlreichen E inzelpublikationen e ingehen z u w ollen,

s ei u nter d en n eueren P ublikationen f ür d ie a ngelsächsischen h i ünzen n ur a n d as i m E rscheinen b egriffene

3 orpus d er s chwedischen F und-

m ünzen

S KAARE 1 976,

( Corpus,

C NS),

G ALSTER 1 964,

T ALVIO 1 978

e rinnert. 2 )

D ies

s cheint

B LACKBURN u nd K .

s ich j etzt

z u ä ndern w ie d ie S tudie v on M .

J ONSSCN i n d iesem B ande a ndeutet.

2 91

D ie A nalyse d er

w estslawischen Funde

s tammt d abei v on M .

B lackburn,

m .W.

d ie

i ntensive Auseinandersetzung d er e nglischen Numismatik m it

e rste

d em

s lawischen Fundaufkommen.

3 )

D ie A uffassungen d arüber,

u neinheitlich.

e in S chatzfund i st,

Z weifellos s ind n eben d er E xemplarzahl

s cniedlich a b 2 , a nzulegen.

w as

3 o der 5 M ünzen g ewertet)

a ls u nterer G renze b asiert,

w obei

( es w ird u nter-

a uch a ndere K riterien

F ür d iese U ntersuchung e rwies e s

f ormalen S chatzfundbegriff z u b ilden,

s ind d urchaus

s ich a ls n ötig,

e inen

d er i m N ormalfall a uf 5 M ünzen

g ehenkelte

o der v ergoldete E xemplare

a ls d er Z irkulation e ntzogene u nd i n d en B ereich d es S chmuckes o der K ultes

4 )

t ransferierte

S tücke a usgeklammert

H ierbei h andelt e s

s ich u m i m Z uge p lanmäßiger a rchäologischer

A usgrabungen u ntersuchte H ügel, G räber b argen,

5 )

E rst

d ie

i n d er R egel e in o der m ehrere

i n d enen s ich h äufig Münzen

o der g ehenkelt)

s ind.

( meist g elocht,

v ergoldet

a ls B eigaben f anden.

i n j üngster Z eit w ird d ie Numismatik z unenmend a uf E inzel-

und S treufunde u nd d eren b esondere,

d ie

S chatzfunde

e rgänzende

Aussage a ufmerksam.

6 )

V on d em Fund

k aum g eben l äßt.

i st s o w enig b ekannt,

d aß s ich e ine

D ie S chlußmünze k önnte

d urchaus

e xakte D atierung

a uch i n d em v oll-

k ommen u nbekannten o rientalischen A nteil v on 1 09 g anzen u nd 2 76 f ragmentierten D irham l iegen.

7 )

D en F und v on D ransau a usgenommen,

s lawischen Fundgruppe

z uzurechnen i st.

2 92

d er o hnehin n icht d er

8 )

D ie F unde

s ind n ach P SW I -IV z itiert:

9 50

S wiatki I ( Tempelhof,

9 55

Radun

9 55

K amien

( Kammin,

9 61

P oznan

( Posen,

9 62

D zierznica I I

( 1909),

9 65

P uck

1 853),

9 67

T urwia

( Turew,

9 70?

( 997?)

U sc I ( Usch,

9 71

Maurzyce-Ruszkow

9 73?

S wiatki I I

( um 1 875),

( Putzig,

d t 2 8

9 76

Z alesie

9 76

K om ik

9 76

K arwiany

1 872),

2 90 E x,

b ekannt

2 360 g ,

ü ber 3 3 E x, 1 59 E x,

1 872),

( vor 1 933),

1 86 Ex,

1 883-85),

6 3)

9 7)

7 Ex.

( I,

2 1)

1 33)

9 ( I,

d t

x E x,

1 ( II,

( I,

d t m ind.

b ekannt 8 8 Ex,

1 73)

1 36)

d t

1 Ex.

d t m ind.

( Siroschewitz,

( 1922), ( Ende

c a.

1 9.

1 020 Ex,

J h.),

( Karowane,

1 901), d t

2 56 Ex,

1 877),

1 91

1 18+x d t 2 36

b ekannt

d t

1 36) 6 ( II,

1 ( III,

1 87)

5 7)

b ekannt 4 2,

E x, ( I,

d t 2 7

( I,

1 8)

1 48)

( IV,

9 7 Ex,

S .

8 5)

d t 8 5

S chlesien 2 0

(sel),

A ppendix A ,

u nd R jajagi

K echra,

P jarsama/Rjajagi

E stland

1 -4.

( Appendix A ,

E stland 3 ),

w erden k onnte,

a lle E thelred I I.

o b

s ie

R eichsgebiet: L ebus,

d ie

o ffenbar i dentisch

a ngelsächsischen M ünzen n icht e rmittelt

K lein-Roscharden I I

R agow

( Persama),

e s h insichtlich d er F unde v on P jarsama

( 32)

F olabien:

d t

6 ,

d t x ( II,

s ind und b ei d eren 2 9

1)

d t 4 ( II,

d t 2 ( II,

ü ber 8 000 g ,

1 846),

Unklarheiten g ibt

( rersama)

b ekannt 6 ,

c a.

D ie F unde v on T allin I V,

S aaremaa

1 0)

1 906),

1 4 E x,

( 11,174)

S ieroszewice

9 )

x E x,

( Tempelhof,

9 76

( IV,

1 878),

( POLABIA 9 8,

2 93

a ngehören.

( POLABIA,

1 51),

D orow

S .

7 2,

F )

( KLUGE 1 977)

P ommern:

A lexanderhof, M oskorze

W icemice

W estpolen:

O stpolen:

( Gralow),

( Lenz-Ilsenhof),

P rzywidcz,

P SW I I,

G ralewo

z i kowarcz

M ierzeszyn

N iederlandin,

( Schönwarling),

( Meisterswalde),

P olczyn

S lupsk

( Polzin),

( Stolp),

( Witzmitz) 1 ,

5 3,

9 9, 1 05,

G niezno V ,

Murczyn

P SW I ,

8 1

2 8,

Brzesc n .

Bugiem,

13,

1 26,

C ekanowo,

1 32,

L dzan,

1 50,

1 53,

1 97

P oczalkowo,

P rzybranowo P SW I II, S üdpolen

1 1,

( Schlesien):

1 4,

4 8,

B oIeslawice w itz ) ,

K owale

P SW I V,

1 2)

E adgar

D orow 0 +2

P ommern:

G ralewo

( Gralow)

P ommern:

1 4)

( Tillendorf),

Bystrzyea

( Peister-

( Kawallen)

S chlesien 4 ,

0 +2,

N iederlandin 0 +1,

E dward

8 2

5 , 2 4

( 959 -9 75)

P olabien:

1 3)

7 8,

E thelred I I.

S lupsk

( Lenz-Ilsenhof)

( Stolp)

1 ,

1

( 975 -9 78)

t he M artyr

G ralewo

M oskorze

( Gralow)

0 +2,

S lupsk

( Stolp)

1

( 978-1016)

R eichsgebiet:

K lein-Roscharden I I 4

F olabien:

L ebus 2 ,

P ommern:

A lexanderhof 0 +2,

R agow 1 ,

M oskorze

D orow 0 +6 M ierzeszyn

( Lenz-Ilsenhof)

P rzywidcz

x ,

( Stolp)

W icimice

3 ,

S kowarcz

2 94

( Meisterswalde)

2 +1,

P olczyn

( Schönwarling)

( Witzmitz)

6 (10)+3

2 ,

( Polzin) 1 ,

S lupsk

2 ,

W estpolen:

G niezno V

O stpolen:

Brzesc

i a irczyn 0 ,5 g

1 ,

1 ,

C ekanowo 2 +1,

L dzan 2 ,

5 ,

P oczalkowo

P rzybranowo S üdpolen

( Schlesien):

B oleslawice

( Peisterwitz)

1 ,

E stland 4 ,

( Tillendorf)

K owale

x ,

( Kawallen)

B ystrzyca

1

5 , Rus 1 ( echter F und?)

1 5)

A ppendix A ,

1 6)

D ies b ezieht s ich v or a llem a uf d ie d eutschen M ünzen,

d ie a ngelsächsischen i n d en e igentlich russischen F unden g enauer b eschrieben s ind

1 7)

( Angabe d er M ünzstätten,

( ab Nr.

' nach'

9 91

u nd

' nach'

G niezno I II

1 004

K opytkowo

1 004

J arocin

1 004

S troszki

1 004

S tarczanowo

1 006

P lock I V

1 006

M ozgowo

1 006

K aty

1 006

U lejno

1 008

R adzikow I I

( 1843),

( 1878),

2 08 E x,

b ekannt

( 1895),

( 194 6 /4 7 ),

2 8 E x,

x E x,

d t x ,

5 30 E x,

1 868),

1 00+x E x,

( 1890),

d t 5 97,

7 81+x Ex,

( Mosgau,

d t 8 0,

b ekannt 3 0 E x,

( Jahr?),

( 1867),

( IV,

c a. d t

6 34(594)

( Rudelsg lorf,

d t A S d t

2 000 E x,

3

A S

d t

2 79,

1 901),

( 1,26)

1 9,

A S

4

( I,

3

( I,

A S 4

4 1)

( I,

( I,

1 27)

1 23)

( III,

d t x ,

7 7)

( II,

A S 3

2 0,

A S x

d t 5 16,

5 8,

E x,

A S x

A S x

7 4) ( II,

1 07)

4 6)

A S 2 0

( I,

5 58(497) Ex,

1 38)

d t 5 35,

A S 8

S chlesien 3 8)

1 009

D obra

1 011

L issowek ( I,

( 1902),

( 1869),

7 04 Ex,

d t

6 76,

( Leissower M ühle,

6 5)

2 95

A S 2 0

1 894),

( III,

4 813 Ex,

1

1 002 k ommen n och

( zitiert n ach P SW 1 -IV u nd P OLABIA):

1 003

1 44)

n icht d er T ypen).

Z u d en i m T ext a ufgeführten 6 Funden v or 9 78 u nd d en i n Anm.

g enannten 2 4 F unden z wischen h inzu

während

1 9) d t 4 471,

A S

1 25

1 011

P rzyborow

1 011

R uda

1 011

K amieniec

1 011

M iastko

( 1948),

d t 8 2, 1 011

( Priebrow, 2 8 E x,

1 914),

d t 2 6, A S

( Schöningen,

( Rummelsburg, A S 2 1

( II,

1 861),

1 012

d t 4 70,

( III,

4 69 E x, c a.

A S 1 4

( I,

1 05)

8 8)

d t 3 27, A S

1 200 E x,

2 4

( I I , 6 4 )

b ekannt 1 38,

9 8) 7 3 E x,

( POLABIA,

S .72,E)

D argocice

( Eickstedtswalde,

( II,

1

1 883),

K lein-Roscharden I ( 1883),

1 011

5 19 E x,

d t 7 1,

1 835),

A S 2

2 54(248)

E x,

d t 2 20,

A S 2

1 9)

T eresin ( III,

( um 1 839),

b ekannt 2 63 E x,

d t c a.

2 60,

A S 2

11)

1 012?

S ejkowice

( 1859),

c a.

1 014

S ochaczew I ( 1919)

1 014

D zierzaznia

1 014

D luga G oslina

( 1878),

1 015

D obra

v or 1 894),

x E x,

( 1948),

( Daber,

1 90 g ,

A S x

( III,

b ekannt 8 ,

3 39 E x,

9 3)

d t 6 ,A S 2

( III,

d t 3 27,

A S 5

( III,

d t 6 1,

A S 1

( I,

7 6 E x,

1 70 E x,

d t x ,

A S

1

1 03)

2 8)

1 8) ( II,

2 3)

z eitlich n icht e inzuordnen: K ack M aly

( Katz,

1 869),

x E x,

R akoczyn/Barkoczyn

( 1932),

O winska

7 E x,

S tepocin

( um 1 903),

( vor 1 893),

S tary C hiwalim

x E x,

d t 6 ,

9 1,9 g ,

( 1933),

d t c a.

x E x,

A S

n ur A S 1

A S

1 9)

S o k annte B auer n och k eine F unde

( II,

6 1) ,

1 37)

9 1)

A S 1 ,5 g

b ekannt 2 A S

s .

1

( II,

( I,

d t 5 0,6 g ,

1 8)

1 0,

1 50,

( II,

( I,

1 26)

1 57)

A ppendix A

J ahrhundert,

( nach 9 78), ( POTIN 1 967,

d ie a ber h eute m it K ejla

P jarsama/Rjajagi 3 ,

e uropäischer M ünzen a us d em

1 0,

4 0/43)

( Persama,

u nd S taryj

2 96

( Knmna; n ach 9 70),

n ach 9 78) D edin

f ür E stland

( nach 9 79),

R udki

T allin I V

( nach 9 91),

S avkovo

d er R us v orliegen

( nach 9 96),

( POTIN

1 967,

K orostovo 3 06,

3 82,

( nach 9 97) 3 60,

3 57).

f ür d as

G ebiet

D ie e stnischen

F unde v on T allin I V u nd P jarsama/Rjajagi e nthielten a uch a ngelsächs ische M ünzen

2 0)

( Appendix A ,

B AUER I II,

S .

F undbestandteile

2 03

E stland

1 ,

3 ).

l äßt a uch d ie M öglichkeit o ffen,

e rst g ar n icht a bgeliefert b zw.

d aß d iese

n icht r egistriert

w urden.

2 1)

S oweit d iese F unde a ngelsächsische Münzen e nthielten,

i m A ppendix A ,

2 2)

A ppendix A ,

2 0,

2 4.

1A S:

2 3)

P OTIN

A ppendix A ,

E s h andelt

B orovskaja 130?,

P ole d t 1.

1 967,

d t

d t

1 967,

E lement

1 -10,

Rus

3 91)

1 -6,

6 0-64,

L ettland 1 3,

1 4,

1 7,

1 8,

1 9,

c a.

1 800 E x), d t

c a.

V ichmjaz' c a.

3 8-57,

d t

6 6,

1 72,

1 87,

c a.

6 7,

R ucji

( um 1 090,

1 89,

d t

d t

1 2472

, x),

( um 1 075,

2 18,

2 20,

( Spanko,

1 989 E x),

L odejnoe

1 000,

2 29,

a uch K LUGE

Naginscina 6 64(669),

2 97

( um 1 095, ( 2.

H älfte

1 250 E x).

c a . 3 300-3500 Ex i m G ebiet d er Rus,

v on B orovskaja c a.

1 844 E x),

K olgolema

d t

2 28,

d t

S pan'kovo

L odejnoe P ole I II

M oskau? 2 06,

( um 1 090,

( um 1 090,

i n d en s lawischen M i4 lzfunden v gl.

I nsgesamt

7 1-74

1 000-J500 E x),

2 400 E x),

3 000 E x),

( 5 Ex,

h inzugezählt.

s ich um d ie F unde D emsino

( um 1 030-40,

2 433 E x),

I OTIN

2 5)

E stland

I ( um 1 05,

J h.,

1 -37 a ufgeführt.

Z u d en S chatzfunden i st d er f ragliche F und v on V il'njus

E th,

2 4),

u m

Rus

s ind s ie

3 57.

Z um d eutschen

1 978.

d avon i n d en F unden

L odejnoe

P ole I 6 26,

z usammen 2 290 Ex,

A ppendix A ,

2 6)

Außer d en d rei

P ole

I II 2 91(391)

Rus

2 7)

3 1,

P orecje

L it ü ber

( 3panko),

s .

1 8,

3 4.

2 5 g enannten Funden n och:

V ichmjaz'

1 47 Ex,

V as'kovo

7 4 Ex,

1 08 Ex,

2 5 und 2 6 g enannten Funden n och:

j trazevici I I

5 8 Ex,

A ppendix A ,

U ovgorod I ( Sobacji G orby), Rus

d azu A ppendix A ,

7 ,

1 5,

1 7,

2 1,

D egtjany,

d er a ngelsächsischen A nteile):

K ajsVere

( Klausholm)

K ochtla-Jarve

2 25 Ex,

3 0)

3 7,

3 2)

I I

( Kohtla-Kdva)

1 54 Ex,

Maidla

Kunda 8 8 Ex,

1 9,

8 ,

1 4.

P olock,

S pan'kovo

1 65(166)

A ppendix A ,

Vajda

Ex,

( in d er R eihenfolge

( Wait)

Vaabina

E stland 5 3,

5 0,

3 36 Ex, 2 22 Ex,

1 20 Ex,

5 2,

I chvi

5 8,

( Etz)

3 6,

1 6.

I n d en Funden v on E versmuiza

A ppendix A ,

3 1)

R us

E stland. l iegen

6 ,

K olodezi

3 5.

ü ber d em o stslawischen Funddurchschnitt

1 10 E x,

A ppendix A ,

1 0 angelsächsischen Münzen s ind n och z u r egistrieren:

A ppendix A ,

V ajmastvere

L odejnoe

5 .

2 8,

L oscngolovo,

2 9)

Ex,

A ußer d en 6 i n Anm.

8 7 E x,

2 8)

i n A nm.

9 ,

Rus

L ettland

P lonsk,

nach

1 ,

1 061,

c a.

3 000 Ex,

( Leissower Mühle),

T rzebun,

n ach

D obra

1 :195,

1 :35,

1 039,

c a.

D orow

U lejno

9 4 Ex und L edurga

1 5 Ex,

4 .

L issowek

J arocin

( Evershof)

nach

F lock

1 53

( PSW I II,

1 011,

2 000+x Ex,

1 :140,

1 :32,

A S

A S

4 813 Ex, 1 09

1 :132,

A ppendix B 1 9,

2 98

( FSW

A S

3 0,

1 25

I II,

Radzikow 1 ,

7 1)

4 3,

(1 S V /

1 3)

1 :62, 3 1,

2 0.

1 ,65)

3 3)

I n d em f ür d ie K enntnis d es F undes a llein maßgebenden Auktions-

k atalog A dolph H ess, i st

e inleitend e ingeschränkt,

l icher Münzen" ..

F rankfurt/M.

5 93

( Auktion v om 1 9.

d es

T uukka T alvio,

H elsinki,

Um d ie A bweichung d er i n T abelle

g egenübergestellt A bkürzungen s .

( POTIN 1 968,

2 2 Funde m it

g eteilt.

" 1

g egebenen Z ahlen v on d en

S .

s eien h ier d essen

1 07-108;

E rgebnisse

f ür d ie v erwendeten

1 76 E x. O n

1 1+2 NP,

H ar I 4 ,

H cn

1 ,

E dC 2

7 5 Funde m it 1 645 E x. E dg 3 , H cn S t

R us:

E th 3 60+69 N P,

1 0+2 N P, 6 3,

E dC

B urgred 2 ,

H ar I I x ,

H ar I 1 2+3 NP,

W m I 1 7,

Wm I I

1 0,

E n I 8 ,

3 350 E x

E dM

1 ,

E th 3 40+61

N P E th/Cn 3 5,

H ar I 1 08+3 N P,

N m I 4 ,

2 ,

H ierbei

W m I I

E stland 1 ,

3 ,

4 4,

5 2,

1 4,

R us 8 ,

NP,

O n 1 074+63 N P,

H cn 2 4+10 N P,

E dC 8 0+2 NP,

u nbestimmte N P 3 0

z eichnen s ich d ie

A ppendix A ,

5 1,

2 0,

O n 1 49+12 NP,

H n I I 2

8 9 F unde m it

5 0,

w as d ie b eiden

A ppendix A ):

E th 8 0+36 N P,

3 5)

J ahrhunderts

D iese A nsicht w ird a uch

d urch P otin e rmittelten z u v erdeutlichen,

E stland:

1 891)

und 5 94 i m Fund s ehr f remdartig w irkenden Burgred

v on H errn

L ettland:

1 0.-12.

d em F und e ntstammen,

i j inzen a us d em F und a usschließen k önnte.

3 4)

O ktober

d aß i n " dieser S ammlung m ittelalter-

nur " die D enare u nd O bole

m it g eringen A usnahmen"

u nter Nr.

1 891

1, 1 5,

e stnischen F unde e inmal m ehr a us.

1 6, 1 8.

2 99

1 8,

1 9,

2 2,

3 0,

3 1,

3 2,

3 8,

4 3,

A ppendix A O stslaeische M ünzfunde d es

1 0.

b is

1 2.

J ahrhunderts m it

a ngel-

s ächsischem A nteil D ie A ufstellung f ußt

a uf d en F undregesten B auers u nd P otins,

d ie b altischen F unde

s ind a ußerdem n och F riedenthal und U rtans

z itiert.

F ür e inzelne F unde

f ür

i st g elegentlich S pezialliteratur h eran-

g ezogen w orden, w enn a us d en R egesteneerken d er F undinhalt

n icht

e indeutig g enug h ervorging. B ei d en h äufig a bweichenden E xemplarz ahlen i st d ie n ach m einer A uffassung eahrscheinlichste Z ahl v orang estzt,

d avon a bweichende

D ie F unde

s ind i n K lammern n achgestellt.

s ind g etrennt

f ür L ettland,

E stland u nd

d ie Rue e rfaßt,

u nd n ach S chatzfunden e inerseits u nd G rab-, E inzel- u nd

a rchäologi-

s chen F unden a ndererseits g egliedert. E in g roßer T eil d er F unde n euerer F unde ( Lettland

i st u ngenügend b eschrieben,

i st n och n icht

e ine A nzahl

o der n ur s ehr s ummarisch publiziert

5 , 6 , E stland 2 ,37,40,46,48,58,59, Rue 2 ,6,7,10,11,22,28,

2 9,31,32,37). D amit

i st d iese Z usammenstellung n otwendigerweise

m it e iner R eihe v on Unsicherheitsfaktoren b elastet, b ei d em g egenwärtigen B ild

d ie

s ich a ber

d er r ussisch-baltischen F unde n icht

a usschalten l ießen. D ie F unde

s ind n ach d en b ei Bauer u nd P otin a ngegebenen V ergra-

b ungszeiten g eordnet,

o bei j edem Datum d ie

b are S chlu2münze n achgestellt

a us d em R egest

e rmittel-

i st. D ie dabei a uftretenden,

t eilweise

e rheblichen D ifferenzen g ehen z um T eil a uf d ie o ftmals n ur f ragment arische F undüberlieferung,

z um T eil a uf d ie e ingangs e reähnte

s ubjektive D atierung z urück. D ie Nachprägungen ( Imitationen) a usgeeiesen,

i n d er S umme

s ind,

s oweit m öglich,

g esondert

a ber j eweils d en V orbildern h inzugezählt

3 00

u nd i n d er G esamtzahl a ngelsächsischer Münzen e rfaßt,

u m P ropor-

t ionen u nd R eihenfolge d es a ngelsächsischen A nteils i n d en F unden n icht

z u v erschieben,

da n ur f ür d en g eringeren T eil d ie Z ahl d er

Nachprägungen a ngegeben u nd d iesen A ngaben w ohl a uch n icht

i n

a llen F ällen z u t rauen i st. D ie v on Bauer u nd P otin m itbehandelten f innischen Funde n icht

a ufgenommen.

A bkürzungen P.

P OTIN

B .

BAUER

F.

F RIEDENTHAL 1 934

U .

U RTANS

1 977

E dg

Eadgar

( 959-975)

E dM

E dward t he Martyr

E th

E thelred I I

C m

Cnut

H ar I

Harold I ( 1035-1040)

H cn

H arthacnut

E dC

E dward t he C onfessor

H ar

I I

1 967

( 975-978)

( 978-1016)

( 1016-1035)

H arold I I

( 1035-1037,

1 040-1042)

( 1042-1066)

( 1066)

N m I

W illiam I ( 1066-1087)

N m I I

W illiam I I

H n I

H enry I ( 1100-1135)

S t

S tephen

N P

Nachprägung

( 1087-1100)

( 1135-1154) ( Imitation)

3 01

s ind

Le t t l a n d a .) L 1

S chatzfunde 1 025

( 1017)

Eversmuiza ( Evershof, 9 4 A S, en 6 , P .

L 2

1 039

3

1 050

( 1046)

I ,

Laukskolas U .

E th 8 8,

9 50

( 1100) Ex.

dabei 3 6 N P,

dabei 4 N P

1 35, B .

1 A S,

L

d abei 4 0 N P:

1 911),

Har

1 16, F .

( 1969),

1 02,

U .

6 4

5 E x.

I

6 7

Jaunmokas

( Neumoken,

7 A S, m eist Cn

1 887),

6 1

( 420)

( in d er A ddition s ind

E x. 4 E x.

a ngenommen) P . L 4

2 . H älfte 1 1. J h.

( 1047)

5

d to.

1 5 A S;

( 1047)

I ,

L edurga I I

P . L

1 40, B .

( 1931),

E th 4 ,

1 14,

1 19,

U .

C n 9 ,

P .

1 03,

U .

6 8

3 40 E x. Har

I 1 ,

E de

1

7 3

L ivany I I/Straumes 1 A S:

F .

( 1932),

1 51

E x.

On

1 32,

U .

7 2

( unpubliziert) L 6

d to.

( 1059)

V ipe/Klaukava ( 1934), 2 A S: P .

On 1 ,

1 30,

U .

E dC

6 0

( 58)

E x.

1

7 4

( unpubliziert) L 7

1 065-70

( 1063)

L ielvarde

( Lennewarden,

2 10

E x.

( 243)

1 0 A S: P . L 8

L 9

1 068

1 075

( 1068)

E th,

1 27,

B .

C n, I ,

I psche,

H ar

1 13, F .

A izkraukles p ilskalns

9 9, U . ( 1975),

3 A S, dabei 2 N P: C n 3 U . 7 6 0 B ranty ( Horstenhof, 1 903), 1 A S: P .

8 9

7 1 1 99 Ex.

( 96)

On

1 20,

B .

3 02

I ,

1 884),

1 05,

F .

9 3,

U .

7 7

E x.

L 1 0

1 200

( 1016)

Salaspils

L 1 1

1 841),

1 0

( 6) A S: E th 1 , Cn 1

P .

1 22, B .

R eznes 2 A S: U .

L 1 2

( Kirchholm,

I ,

1 12, F .

( 1965),

9 7,

U .

1 4

( 8)

6 5

5 E x.

E th, C n

9 6

D undaga ( Dondangen,

1 882),

? E x.

1A S P . b .) L1 3

G rab-,

L 1 4

1 5

L 1 6

L2 3

L2 4

1 11,

B .

I ,

I ,

6A S: E th 3 , Cn 3

1 837),

1 . H älfte

1 9.

J h.),

6A S: H ar I 1

1 09

( slavek,

1 19, B .

9A S: E th 9

14

1 874-1875),

3A S: E th 2 , C n 1

1 04

( 1946),

2 A S:

E th 2

1 15-1

1 12, B .

I ,

T reiden,

13, B .

I ,

I ,

B .

O lin'kalns

I ,

L oddiger,

1 903),

1A S:

E th

1 874),

1 A S:

C n

1 01

P .

1 41,

2 A S

1 07

( Groß-Roop

1 16, B .

1 896),

1 08

( Esche,

v or

1 896),

1A S:

Cn

1 20

( 1961),

1A S:

Har I

1 25

Mazsalaza ( leu O ttenhof, P .

Cn 3 , Har I 2

1 11

S essava

P .

E th 4 ,

( Ascheraden,

1 28, B . I ,

S taupe

P . L2 2

1 889),

L edurga I ( Grünhof, P .

L2 1

I ,

Turajda ( Putel, P .

L2 0

1 10, B .

Z esis I I P .

L1 9

( Allasch,

S miltene P .

L 1 8

9 A S:

K rimulda ( Kremon, P .

L 1 7

( 1935),

A jskraukle P .

1 18,

1 23-124

A llaz P .

I ,

E inzel- u nd a rchäologische F unde

Daugmale P .

1 39, B .

1 07,

B .

I ,

S alisburg),

1 00 3 03

1A S, A ohl N P

E x.

Es t l a n d a .)

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E x,

E th 9 0 + 8 N P,

A S, w ohl D ruckfehler?)

2 20 t eilpubliziert,

E rmitage

.

2 .H .Ulfte

K olgolema ( 1960)

1 1.

x A S P .

2 871

u nbestimmte N P 2 9

L eningrad)

J h.

1 827

Har I 3 3, H cn 9 + 5 N P,

+ 1 6 N P,

( unpubliziert b zw.

R 3 2

b ekannt

5 4

( nach P otin 3 91 P .

2N P

E th 1 + 1 N P

L odejnoe P ole I II

E dC

E dC

E rmitage L eningrad)

( 1891),

1 72, B .

2 91

E th 2 N P,

( einige):

4 500

E th,

( 6000) E x.

O n, H ar

I ,

E dC

2 29

( unpubliziert) R 3 1

d to.

G ne kovo

( 1868),

2 0 E x.

1 A S P . R 3 4

1 105

( 1084)

3 01

L odejnoe P ole 6 26 E x.,

I ( 1878),

3 280 Ex.

d abei 2 4(5) N P:

C n 1 87 + 1 9(5) N P, H ar I 1 ,

R3 5

120-30

( 1106)

2 18, B .

S pankovo 2 4 A S,

R 3 6

1 130

( 1111)

( Spanko,

d abei 4 N P:

1 89, ' B .

S kadino 1 0 A S,

1 850 Ex.

N m I I 2 1 926

8 39 E x.

d abei 3 N P:

E th 2 + 2 N P,

Har I 1 ,

1 70, B . N 1 0

c a.

E th 1 0 + 3N P,

1 2, B AUER

( 1928),

3 14

1 913),

Wm I 1 ,

I I,

O n 3+ 1N P, P .

6 ,

3

I I,

O n 7 + 1N P, P .

E dC

9 3

u nbest. P .

+ 5N P,

E th 3 15

E dC

1

R 3 7

G orlevka ( 1965),

3 40 E x.,

e uropäisch 2 30 x A S P .

3 94

( unpubliziert) b .) G rabfunde R 3 8

R 3 9

S chelebovo

( 1852)

P .

I I,

R 4 2

R 4 3

R 4 8

9 2 ( 1901),

I I,

2 26, B .

1A S:

ina ( 1900), I I,

I I,

I I,

2 32, B .

I I,

2 68, B .

1A S:

E th

3 1 1A S:

E th

2 0 1 A S:

E th

2 1 1A S:

E th

2 5 1A S:

E th

1 34

( 1914-1915),

1A S:

E th

2 92 ina ( Blagodatny,

2 97, B .

S eksovo P .

I I,

E th

3 0

( 1879-1886),

2 23, B .

K opyrev P .

R 5 0

1 52, B .

C halapovo P .

R 4 9

I I,

A nikova ( 1899), P .

E th 2

3A S: E th

K irilina ( 1876-1886), P .

R 4 7

2 A S:

N ovaja ( 1876-1886), P .

R 4 6

1 51, B .

E ybeino P .

R 4 5

3 11, B .

Kalichnov P .

R 4 4

3A S: E th 2 + 1 N P

2 40

P arlov P ogost P .

i risch 1

1 59-1

P osady ( ?), P .

4 A S: E th 3 , E th,

1 07

Karlucha ( 1930), P .

R 4 1

3 46, B .

S amolva ( 1958), P .

R 4 0

( Kurganfunde)

I I,

I I,

1A S:

6 3

( Soksovo,

3 47, B .

1 899),

1 852),

1A S:

1 15 3 15

E th

E th

R 5 1

V asil'ki P .

R 5 2

5 3

R

5

3 81, B .

2 33,

I I,

E th

5 A S:

E th 4 ,

7 4

( 1928), B .

1A S:

I I,

S .

Z amos'e

( 1909/10),

P .

B .

1 50,

G orodi ne P .

R 5 6

3 53, B . I I, 1 19

R igaCevo P .

R 5 4

1A S: Eth

C ernigov ( 1908), P .

R

( 1851),

I I,

1 86, b 3 A S:

E th 2 N P,

O n 1

3 9

( 1853),

3 16, B .

O n 1

I I,

6 A S:

E th 5 , O n 1

1 11

Z aveliCje b ei P skov ( um 1 912),

3 (2)

A S:

On 1 P . R

5 7

5 9

R 6 4

1 46,

B .

I I,

1 62, -g .

I I,

( 1875),

1 79, B .

1A S:

1 A S:

O n

4 7 1A S:

I I,

O n

7 1 A S:

O n

1 A S:

O n

2 12

2 74

3 14, B .

gL ikovg 'Cina P .

O n

2 7

O sipova P ustyn' P .

R 6 5

3 A S: , O n 1

V es'jakarskaja ( 1957), P .

E th 1 ,

9 4

K rasnaja Sarja ( 1930), P .

R 6 3

4 A S:

2 44

O zera P .

a 6 2

I I,

K rivovicy ( 1899), P .

R 6 1

( 1875),

Kuklina G ora ( 1900), P .

R 6 0

3 21, B .

4 9

V idlica ( 1929), P .

R

I I,

V ladimirskoe P .

R 5 8

1 67, B .

2 31,

B .

I I,

( 1854),

1 A S:

1 14

( 1878-1884), I I,

C n

1A S:

2 4

3 16

O n

O n 3

E th 2 (1),

R 6 6

C elmusZin(1934), P .

R 6 7

R 6 8

R69

3 15,

( 1858), I I,

2 88,

Z ukovo P .

1

I I,

A S,

B . ( um

I I,

d abei E th, i risch 1

1 06

( 1853),

B .

3 (4)

2 A S

1 12

G ebiet C holm u nd V elikie L uki P .

R 7 0

3 45, B .

K riu v s kino F .

E th 1 , E dC

2 60

N ena evskoe P .

2 A S:

( ?),

x A S

5 5

1 860),

x A S

3 20

c .) E inzel- u nd a rchäologische F unde F t 7 1

V ysgorod P .

R 7 2

R 7 5

x A S:

E th

( ?),

2 A S:

E th,

C n

1 94

3 02,

( vor B .

I I,

1 921),

5A S:

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1 900),

1 A S:

Har

1 57

1 74,

B .

I I,

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G ebiet v on P skov P .

1 9. J h.),

1 6

U mgebung v on G dov ( vor P .

R76

1 93, B . I I,

S moljany P .

E th

3 72

S taraja L adoga I I P .

R74

1 A S:

S taraja L adoga I ( Anfang P .

R 7 3

( um 1 930),

( vor

1 843),

5 9

3 17

1 A S:

E dC

I

A ppendix B W estslawische S chatzfunde m it a ngelsächsischem Anteil, 1 100

1 000 b is

( Auswahl)

D ie A ufstellung g ründet ( PS : .

P OLABIA)

s ind d ie

s ich a uf d ie p olnischen Fundinventare

und i st n ach L andschaften g egliedert.

G esamtexemplarzahl

b ekannten E x.),

A ngegeben

( falls e rforderlich f olgend d ie

eutschen d ie d

( dt)

u nd a ngelsächsischen

Z ahl d er

( AS)

A nteile.

er a ufsteigenden F olge d er S chlußmünzen g eordnet, s ind n ach d

D ie F unde

i n K lammern i st d ie

Z ählung i m j eweiligen B and d er F undinventare

a ngegeben. P olabien 1

( POLABIA,

1 002

N r.)

D orow d t

( 1973),

3 25,4 g ,

1 024

( 164)

3

1 038

( 50)

4

1 038

( 106)

5

1 039

( 52)

S chwaan F arve

A S

P ommern

( PSW I I, ( 64)

7

1 023

( 135)

8

1 024

( 11)

B ierzglowo

9

1 034

( 97)

I L gowo

1 0

1 046

( 20)

D arlowo

1

1 055

( 234)

K amieniec Q uilitz

( Schöningen, ( 1914),

A S

d t 4 50,

4 00 E x.,

1 883),

2 198 E x,

( Eirglau,

( 1893),

9 51

2 93

1 7

A S

1 900

b ekannt

d t

A S

5 29 E x.,

6 84,

1 865),

u nbekannter O rt

4 69 E x.,

d t 2 021,

1 898),

E x.,

( Rügenwalde,

P ommern, A S

( 179)

1 840),

1 440,

A S

9 0,

d t 7 2,

Nr.)

1 011

1 057

d t

2 800 E x.,

v or

d t 8 67,

1 4

6

1 2

3 316 E x.,

3 775 E x.,

( 1875),

( Frankfurt,

b estimmbar e uropäisch 3 69 g ,

K LUGE 1 977

( 1859),

( 1848),

L übeck

g ,

A S 4 ,0 g

D OLLEY 1 980, 2

5 61

A S

d t 3 27,

( 1893),

d t 4 81,

A S 2 4

3 9

18 E x.,

( vor 1 857),

3 18

7 13 E x.,

d t

2 4

6 3

d t 8 6,

A S 2

3 500 E x.,

5 2

T hurow/Züssow

A S

5 65,

A S 4 0

d t

3 53,

1 3

1 060

( 127)

1 4

1 068

( 34)

P omierzyn

( Pammin,

G dansk-Orunia d t 4 49,

1 077

( 192)

I nsel U sedom

1 6

1 077

( 224)

Z akrzewko

1 7

1 084

( 3)

1 8

1 084

( 193)

B arwice

( PSW I ,

1 9

1 004

( 41)

2 0

1 006

( 138)

2 1

1 011

( 65)

( 1899),

( Seemark,

V ossberg

( 1883),

d t 5 226,

A S

d t 3 09,

1 900),

A S 4

5 56 E x.,

1 59 E x., 1 913),

1 920), c a.

d t

1 046 E x.,

1 048 E x.,

6 000 E x.,

A S 3

1 04,

d t

d t

9 56,

9 87,

b ekannt

A S

A S

1 0

1 8

5 888,

8 8

N r.) J arocin

( 1878),

7 81

U lejno

( 1890),

6 34 E x.,

( 729)

E x.,

( Leissower M ühle,

d t 4 471,

A S

( 105)

P rzyborow

2 3

1 016

( 12)

B ydgoszcz

2 4

1 025

( 47)

K inno

2 5

1 025

( 102)

2 6

1 027

( 60)

K ujawy

2 7

1 039

( 74)

M aszenice

2 8

1 055

( 90)

O strow

2 9

1 03 -9

( PSW I V, d t 5 25,

I II,

S .

5 97, A S

1 894),

A S 4

20

4 813 E x.,

1 25 ( Priebrow,

( Bromberg,

( 1900),

P oznan

d t

d t 2 79,

L issowek

1 011

( ESN

( Chra b ei D anzig,

( Bärwalde,

2 2

O strolen

3 52 E x.,

A S 7

1 5

W estpolen

1 885),

1 90 0, 5 25 E x.,

( um 1 875/80),

( 1900),

2 04 E x.,

8 5,

3 5)

h r.

5 19 E x.,

J ahr ? ),

7 12 E x.,

( Posen, ( 1914),

1 914),

d t

2 10 E x.,

6 37,

d t 4 57,

d t 4 93,

A S

7 88 E x.,

G rojec

1 69,

d t

1 61,

A S 2 4

4 99 E x.,

d t

d t 4 70,

1 2

d t A S

A S 7

5 62,

A S

1 5

( vor 1 916),

5 58 E x.,

A S 5

N r.)

3 0

1 006

( 74)

F lock

( 194 6 /4 7 ),

3 1

1 009

( 19)

D obra

( 1869),

3 2

1 014

( 28)

D zierzaznia

3 3

1 018

( 45)

K owal

3 4

1 026

( 120)

7 04 E x.,

( 1948),

( 1873),

; l ilczy D ol

5 30 E x.,

( vor 1 914),

d t 3 1

5 16,

6 76,

3 39 E x.,

4 10 E x.,

3 19

d t

d t

d t

3 77, E x.,

9 8

A S 4

A S 2 0 3 27 A S 5 A S 2 3 d t 2 3,

A S

6

A S A S

1 4 1 7

3 5

1 031

( 12)

B rzo . z owe N owe

3 6

1 039

( 49)

L ask

3 7

1 039

( 113)

3 8

1 040

( 29)

3 9

1 046

( 128)

4 0

1 047

( 15)

( 1940),

T rzebun G lowno

( vor 1 914), 3 41

E x.,

3 40 E x.,

d t 2 87,

A S

4 10 E x.,

d t 8 4,

( Jahr ? ),

9 25 E x.,

d t 8 74,

C iechanow

( 1858), ( 1868),

2 89

( 264)

4 800 Ex.,

A S 1 9

1 6

( 1824),

W yszogrod

d t 2 17,

A S 3 00 A S 3 4

E x.,

d t 2 50,

A S 1 3

b ekannt 6 78,

d t 477 ,

A S 7 9 4 1

1 060

( 22)

b ei D obrzyn

4 2

1 061

( 77)

P lonsk

( 1854),

d t

( 533),

S üdtolen

4 3

1 008

9 86

( 1910),

A S

( PSW I V,

K P

( PSW I V,

S ( Schlesien)

( S

3 8)

c a.

( Kleinpolen)

R adzikow d t

5 35,

4 11

3 000 E x .,

E x.,

d t

b ekannt

3 73, 1 289

A S 1 9 ( 836) Ex.,

1 53

N r.)

N r.)

( Rudelsdorf,

1 901),

5 58

( 497)

E x.,

A S 8

4 4

1 016

( KP 6 7)

Z ielona

( 1909),

4 5

1 034

( KP 2 7)

K rakow,

N owa H uta

4 6

1 034

( KP 3 7)

M ichalowice

4 7

1 034

( S 2 9)

M aniow

( 408)

6 9 E x.,

( 1961),

( 1944),

( 1894),

d t 6 2,

9 1

6 09 E x.,

E x.,

1 600 E x.,

A S 5

d t 4 9,

d t 4 41, A S A S 3

b ekannt 4 52,

d t 2 38,

A S 7 4 8

4 9

1 035

1 061

( S

( S

5 6)

5 0)

: i szemirow d t 6 7,

A S 4

U lesie

( Waldau,

d t 5 85, 3 6)

( Schimmerau,

P egow

A S

5 0

1 063

( S

5 1

1 079

( S 4 2) S okolniki d t

A S

7 6

8 00 E x.,

( 93)

E x.,

b ekannt 7 21,

5

( 1927),

1 30,

1 880),

1 867),

4 06 E x.,

( Wättrisch,

9

3 20

d t 3 81, 1 883),

A S 3

1 64

( 162)

E x.,

3 7

zi t i e r t e

Li t e r a t u r

1 935

A NDERSON

N .

A nderson:

v on NaginACina, Tartuensis 3 7 A NDERSON

i n:

A chtzig n eue Münzen a us d em Funde

A cta e t C ommentationes Universitatis

( 1935), H .

1 937/1

W .

4 .

A nderson:

D er Münzfund v on V aabina, Tartu 1 937/I

A nnales L itterarum S ocietatis E sthoniae, A NDERSON

1 937/11

f undfund

a us S üdostestland,

2 sthoniae, BAUER

i .

Tartu

N . Bauer:

1 1.

u nd

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Annales L itterarum S ocietatis S .

D ie r ussischen Funde i n:

1 -44. a bendländischer Münzen d es

3 9 ( 1929), S .

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4 0 ( 1930), S . 1 88-228, 4 2 ( 1935), S . BAUER

I

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( 1930),

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i n:

J anina:

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S chulenburg:

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1 980

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BAUER

( 1939).

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( 1939),

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i n:

M .

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8 2-84.

3 21

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i n :

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a nd M edals

I A ncient B ritish a nd

A nglo-Saxon C oins b efore A Ethelred

I I,

L ondon 1 964.

( SCBI 4 ) ( Fundverzeichnis S . K IERSNOWSKI

1 960

F .

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m czesnosredniozieczny. K LUGE

1 977

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v on D oroe, K r. M ecklenburg KLUGE

1 978

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B emerkungen z ur S truktur d er Funde 1 0.

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A rchäologie

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P ieniadz k ruszcowy m P olsce

1 1.

1 2

J ahrhunderts

( 1978),

v . K oehne:

S .

e uropä-

i m O stseegebiet,

1 81-190.

Ü ber d ie

i m Russischen R eiche

g efundenen a bendländischen Münzen d es X , X I u nd X II J ahrh underts, S .

i n: M SANP B d.

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1 861

( 1979),

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D er S chatzfund v on Maidla, S .

( 1851), 1 95-246,

D er S ilberfund v on S cheaan,

1 859-1862,

J . M enadier: 4 ( 1898),

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4 7-81.

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T afeln B d. L EIMUS

2 ./3.

3 -5 ( 1849-1851),

1 1.

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1 95-234

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( auch B M

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1 896,

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1 978

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i n:

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n a Morave,

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( 1939),

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1 959.

u nd R . K iersnowscy:

P olska s rodkowej,

1 965.

R . K iersnowski,

N armia, 7 , :azur,

G esellschaft

1 968.

Tabaczynski:

P odlasia,

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a us

D revnaja Rus i e vropejskie g osudarstva

K iersnoescy:

Mazowska,

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s karby e czesnosredniowieczne, B d.

S laski u nd S .

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R eyman: Malopolska,

S lask,

1 966.

S kaare:

C oins

a nd C oinage

i n V iking-Age N orway,

1 976.

1 965

V .

K ohtla-Käva, 1 978

p ublic

T .

S oerd:

E in Münzfund d es

ENSVTA T oimetised Talvio:

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1 4

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( 1965),

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i n F inland. L ondon

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a us

4 86-513.

The National i juseum H elsinki a nd

a nd Hiberno-Norse C oins, ( SCBI

3 07-308.

T opografija n achodok z apadnoevropejskich

L eningrad

J .

TALVIO

S .

s tribra z e

1 5

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SOERD

( 1980),

W czesnosredniowieczne

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V .M.

1 968

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S KAARE

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S .

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I V

f .

1 956.

1 924,

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i n:

i m e rsten V iertel d es

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Nalezy mind i v ä ' echach,

P rag NÖBBE

( anonym):

s toleti u K elC 'e

N M I I

u nd

2 05-210.

f rom t he T welfth C entury, N LZ

Jh.

i m L ichte d er Numismatik,

( 1978),

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1 963.

S U M MARY THE ANGLO-SAXON ELE MENT I N THE COIN HOARDS OF THE S LAV REGION FRO M THE TENTH TO THE TWELFTH CFNTURY . ASPECTS OF AN ANALYS IS B ernd K luge

T h is p aper a t te mp ts t o a na lyse t he V ik ing-age c o in h oards i n t he S lav r eg ion c ontain ing A ng lo-Saxon c oins .

T he S lav h oards s ee m t o h ave b een

t oo l ong i gnored b y E ng lish n um is mat ists a nd s o t he a u thor h opes t o g ive , a s a n ' o uts ider ' t o A ng lo-Saxon n u mis mat ics , an ot c o mp le te ly i ns ign if ican t c ontr ibu t ion t o t h is f i e ld o f s tudy . T he i n tent ion o f t he p aper i s t o o f fer : 1 .

a main ly q uan t i tat ive a na lys is o f t he A ng lo-Saxon e lement i n t he

2 .

a n a pproach t o t he c harac ter o f t he f i nds i n t he S lav l ands a s r egards

S lav c o in h oards , c .950-1150 , a nd t he A ng lo-Saxon a nd A ng lo-N orman c o ins t hey c on ta in . T he i nves t igat ion h as b een b ased p r imar i ly o n h oards , i .e . f i nds c on taining a min i mu m o f f i ve c oins .

S ing le , e xcava t ion , a nd a rchaeo log ica l f i nds a nd

ap ar t icu lar f or m o f e as t S lav f i nd , ' Kurgan f i nds ' ( i .e . b arrows o r mounds o f e ar th wh ich c onta in a v ary ing n u mber o f g raves ) , a re i nc luded i n s o me o f t he T ab les , b ut s eparate ly r ecorded . Ad is t inc t ion i s g enera l ly made b e tween t he f i nds f ro m t he wes t a nd t he e ast S lav r eg ion .

T he wes t S lav h oards a re f ur ther d iv ided b e tween P o lab ia ,

P o meran ia , a nd P o land ( s ub-div ided i n to western , e as tern , a nd s outhern P o land) ;

t he e as t S lav h oards a re c ons idered s eparate ly f or L a tv ia , E s ton ia ,

a nd O ld R uss ia . T he s pec if ic p rob lems w i th wh ich t he p aper i s c oncerned a re : 1 .

T he b eg inning o f t he i nf low o f A ng lo-Saxon c o ins i n to t he S lav r eg ion a nd

t he ir r epresen ta t ion i n t he h oards , e spec ia l ly t hose d epos i ted b efore 1 016 . T he e ar l ies t h oard wh ich c onta ins a n A ng lo-Saxon c oin i s d epos i ted a f ter 9 11 ( ? ) , t he n ex t c .9 50 .

T here a re s ix h oards d epos i ted b efore A E the lred 's

r e ign c onta in ing s even A ng lo-Saxon c o ins , a nd t hese a re a l l f ro m t he e x tre me west o ft he wes t S lav r egion , i n t he b as in o f t he R iver O der .

T he r u lers

r epresen ted a re E dward t he E lder , 1 , E ad mund, 2 , E adred , 1 , a nd E adgar , 2 .

3 24

There a re n o h oards f ro m t he wes t S lav r egion d epos i ted b e tween 9 73 a nd 9 91 . T he f i rst h oards c on tain ing A ng lo-Saxon c oins i n t he e as t S lav r eg ion c o me af ter 9 78, c on ta in ing c o ins o f ! E the lred . T hey a re f ound i n t he t err itory o f E s ton ia i n t he a rea n ear t o t he c oas t a nd o n t he i s land o f Oese l . T he e ar l ies t h oards w i th Ang lo-Saxon c oins i n O ld R uss ia a re a f ter 1 009 , a l though o ne e ar lier h oard ( depos i ted c .1 003 ) c onta ins a n i m i ta t ion o f A E the lred . T he h oards d epos i ted b efore 1 016 a re s hown i n T ab les 1 a nd 2 .

T he f irst

g ives t he h oards w i thou t A ng lo-Saxon c o ins a nd t he s econd g ives t hose w i th A ng lo-Saxon c oins ( s ee a lso N o tes 8 -17) . 2 .

C harac ter is t ics , s im i lar i t iesi a nd d if ferences b etween wes t a nd e as t S lav

h oards e spec ia l ly w i th r egard t o t he A ng lo-Saxon a nd A ng lo-N orman e le men t . I n t he wes t S lav r eg ion i ti s c harac ter ist ic t o f i nd a l arge n u mber o f h oards w i th a f ew A ng lo-Saxon c o ins , wh i le t he e as t S lav r eg ion h as a sma l l n u mber o f h oards c ontain ing a l arger n umber o f Ang lo-Saxon c oins . Fro m O ld R uss ia t here a re f ewer h oards t han K urgan ( grave- mound) f i nds . I n t hese K urgan f i nds u p t o t en Ang lo-Saxon c oins a re f ound , d epending o n t he n u mber o fg raves w h ich t hey c on ta in . I n c on tras t , h owever , t wo-th irds o f a l l Ang lo-Saxon c oins d iscovered i n O ld R ussia c o me f ro m o n ly t hree h oards ( note 2 5 ) a nd o n ly 1 4 h oards c on ta in more t han t en A ng lo-Saxon c oins e ach ( note 2 6-8 ) . Ang lo-Saxon c o ins b eco me a n orma l e lement i n t he h oards a f ter 1 002 i n t he wes t S lav r eg ion , a nd a f ter 1 010/15 i n t he e as t S lav r eg ion . 3 .

T he r epresenta t ion o f A ng lo-Saxon c oins i n t he S lav h oards g enera lly ,

1 .e . t he p ropor t ion o f A ng lo-Saxon c o ins i n ah oard a nd t he way i tv ar ies w i th t he s ize o ft he h oard a nd t he d a te o f d eposi t . F or t he o ver-a l l n u mber o f h oards a nd n u mber o f A ng lo-Saxon c oins i n t he S lav l ands s ee T ab le 3 . a nd K ur gan f i nds .

T he e ast S lav f i nds a re d iv ided b e tween h oards

Ang lo-Saxon c o ins i n west S lav h oards a re n orma l ly l ess t han 1 00 s pec imens , a nd t here a re o n ly f our e xcep t ions ( n ote 3 1) . B ased o n as tudy o f 5 1 r e la t ive ly w e l l-descr ibed h oards f ro m t he wes t S lav r eg ion ( Tab le 4 a nd A ppendix B ) , i tw as f ound t ha t t he p ropor t ion o f A ng lo-Saxon c o ins i n mos t h oards l i es b e tween 1 : 10 a nd 1 :70 ( 40 h oards l ay w i th in t h is r ange , T ab le 5 ) . S o me e xamp les o f h oards l y ing o uts ide t h is a re g iven a t t he b ot to m o f T ab le 4 .

T ak ing t he c o ins f ro m a l l t hese 5 1 h oards t oge ther t he p ropor t ion i s 1 :16,

b u t e xc luding t he L Ubeck h oard i ti s 1 :32 . p os i t ion o ft he h oard f ro m L ubeck .

Th is s hows t he v ery u nusua l c o m-

T he h ighest p ropor t ion o f A ng lo-Saxon c oins i s f ound i n t he h oards d epos i ted b e tween 1 010 a nd 1 040 , a nd i n t h is p er iod we a lso h ave t he g rea tes t n u mber o fh oards c on tain ing A ng lo-Saxon c oins . I nt he s econd h a lf o ft he e leventh c entury t he h oards were l arger , b u t t he p ropor t ion o ft he Ang lo-Saxon e le ment i s v ery sma l l .

Tab le 6 s hows t he p ropor t ion o f A ng lo-Saxon c oins i n t he

h oards i n f our c hrono log ica l p er iods , a nd T ab le 7 s hows t he s a me i nforma t ion p resented i n d if ferent c hrono log ica l d iv is ions , wh ich a re more r e levan t t o t he ma ter ia l .

T ab le 8 s hows t he p ropor t ions i n r e lat ion t o t he h oard s ize . 3 25

4 .

T he p ropor t ion o f A ng lo-Saxon c o ins r e la t ive t o t he o ther mos t c o m mon

e le men ts i n t he S lav h oards , e spec ia l ly t he r a t io o f Ang lo-Saxon t o German c o ins . Tab le 9 s hows a g enera l c o mpar ison o f a l l e le ments o f t he h oards b y r eg ions , a nd T ab le 1 0 s hows a s pec ia l c o mpar ison b etween t he Ang lo-Saxon a nd t he G erman e le men ts . A s tudy o f t he o ther e le men ts o f t he h oards s hows t ha t t he Ang lo-Saxon c o ins a re b et ter r epresented , c o mpared w i th t he o ther n on-German e le ments , i n t he e as t S lav t han i n t he wes t S lav h oards . T he west S lav h oards c an b e s een a s made u p o f t wo p ar ts :

t he G erman

c o ins a nd t he o ther c o ins ( wh ich a re a l l v ery sma l l i n n u mbers c o mpared w i th t he G erman ) .

T he e as t S lav h oards c an b e r egarded a s made u p o f t hree p ar ts :

aG erman e lement , a n A ng lo-Saxon e le men t , a nd t he o ther c o ins . T hus f ro m t he e as t S lav r eg ion t here a re s o me h oards i n w h ich t he A ng lo-Saxon e le men t i s l arger t han t he German e le men t ( Es ton ian h oards ! ) ;

f ro m t he w es t S lav

r egion t here i s o n ly o ne s uch h oard a nd t hat i s L Ubeck ( a v ery e xcep t iona l h oard w i th t he l argest n u mber o f A ng lo-Saxon c o ins f ound i n aS lav h oard ) . 5 .

S o me r ef lec t ions o n t he c oins o f t he s evera l A ng lo-Saxon a nd A ng lo-

N orman k ings i n t he S lav h oards . Tab le 1 s hows t he n u mber o f A ng lo-Saxon c o ins o f e ach r u ler i n h oards f ro m t he s ix S lav r eg ions . i n e ach r eg ion .

A s we w ou ld e xpec t A E the lred a nd C nut d o mina te

T he l arge n u mber o f c oins o f C nu t f ro m P o labia i s d ue t o

t he L Ubeck h oard wh ich d istor ts t he p ic ture , s o i n Tab le 1 2 t he n u mber o f h oards wh ich c on ta in c oins o f t he v ar ious k ings i s s hown .

H ere f or e xa mp le ,

L Ubeck i s e ntered a s o n ly o ne u nder A E the lred a nd o ne u nder C nu t .

T h is

t ab le s hows t ha t i n a l l r eg ions A E the lred d om ina tes C nut ( except L a tv ia , where t here i s o n ly o ne h oard b efore 1 039 ) . I n t he wes t S lav h oards t he d om inance o f . A E the lred o ver C nu t i s c lear , a nd much c learer t han i n t he e ast S lav h oards , e spec ia l ly i n t he O ld R uss ian h oards .

T he f i gures f or t he e as t S lav h oards i n T ab le 1 d if fer c ons iderab ly

f ro m t hose g iven b y P ot in ( POT IN 1 968) , who h as r ecorded t hat t he c oins o f C nut s ignif icant ly o u tnu mber t he c o ins o f A E the lred i n O ld R ussian h oards ( f or P o t in 's r esu l ts s ee n ote 3 4 ) . T he n u mber o f A ng lo-Saxon c o ins i n t he wes tS lav h oards f a l ls a f ter C nu t a nd e nds w i th E dward t he C onfessor .

T here i s o n ly o ne e xcept ion , as ing le

c o in o f Wi l l ia m If ro m t he V ossberg h oard . I n t he e as t S lav h oards t he p ic ture i s n o t t he s a me .

S o me c oins o f

Wi l l ia m Ia nd Wi l liam I o ccur i n O ld R uss ia , a nd i n E s ton ia E ng lish c oins c ont inue t o o ccur d own t o S tephen 's r e ign . Appendix A g ives a c o mp le te l i st o f t he e as t S lav f i nds c onta in ing Ang loS axon a nd A ng lo-Norman c o ins .

T he f i nds a re d iv ided b e tween t he t hree

r eg ions , L a tv ia , E s ton ia , a nd O ld R uss ia , a nd w i th in e ach r egion t hey a re c lass if ied a s h oards , s ing le-f inds , g rave f i nds , a nd a rchaeo log ica l f i nds . T he h oards a re o rdered a ccording t o t he d a te o fd epos i t r ecorded b y B auer a nd P ot in ( co lu mn 2 ) , a nd t he d a te o f t he l as t e s tab lished c oin i s a lso g iven ( co lu mn 3 ) .

T he t o ta l n u mber o f c oins ( Ex .) i s s e t o ut ; 3 26

where a ccounts

d iverge t he mos t l i ke ly f i gure i s g iven f i rs t a nd t he o thers a re g iven i n b racke ts a f ter i t .

I m i ta t ions ( NP ) h ave , a s f ar a s p oss ib le , b een e xc luded f ro m t he

n u mber o f Ang lo-Saxon c oins a nd i ndica ted s epara te ly , b ut i n many c ases t h is h as n ot b een p ossib le b ecause o f t he n a ture o f t he f i nd r epor ts . Appendix B l i s ts t he wes t S lav h oards w ith A ng lo-Saxon c oins d epos i ted b e tween 1 000 a nd 100 .

T h is i s b ased o n t he P o lish f i nd i nven tor ies ( PSW

I IV , POLAB IA ) a nd i s a rranged b y r eg ions .

T he t o ta l n u mber o f c oins

( f o l lowed i fn ecessary b y t he n u mber o f w e l l r ecorded s pec i mens ) a nd t he n u mber o f G erman ( d t ) a nd A ng lo-Saxon ( AS ) c oins a re s e t o u t . T he f i nds a re o rdered a ccord ing t o t he d a te o ft he l a tes t c oin ( c olumn 2 ) , a nd t he n umber i n t he r e levan t v o lu me o ft he f i nd i nventor ies i s g iven i n b racke ts ( c o lu mn 3 ) . I m i ta t ions a re i nc luded i n t he n u mbers o f G erman a nd A ng lo-Saxon c oins .

3 27

Viking-Age Coinage in the Northern Lands The Sixth Oxford Symposium on Coinage and Monetary History edited by

M.A. S. Blackburn and D. M. Metcalf Part ii

BAR International Series 122(ii) 1981

B.A.R.,

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Road,

Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., �1.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R.-S122 (II): "Viking-Age Coinage in the Northern Lands" Part II

© The Individual Authors, 1981. The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407389677 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407389684 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860541509 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407326429 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541509 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

CONTENTS

P ar t i S o me t wen t ieth-cen tury r unes . S tat ist ica l a na lys is o f t he V ik inga ge h oards a nd t he i n terpre tat ion o f wastage r ates , b y D . M . Me tca lf

3 29

S o me u ses o f s cat ter d iagra ms f or d e monstrat ing h eterogene ity i n V ik ing-age c o inage a nd c o in h oards , b y

C . S . S . L yon

3 83

Methodo log ica l p rob le ms i n e d it ing a nd e va lua t ing t he Swed ish V ik ing-age c o in h oards , b y Br i ta . Ma l mer

3 91

T he c urrency i n D en mark f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he V ik ing a ge u n t i l c . 1 100 , b y K irsten B end ixen

4 05

D en mark ' ss econd o ldest min t a nd t he f ind f ro m I ge lösa c hurchy ard , b y Br i ta . Ma l mer

4 19

A . S cand inav ian C rux/ In ter med iate Sma l l C ross d ie-cha in r eappra ised , b y Mark B lackburn

4 25

S tud ies i n t he D an ish c o inage a t L und d ur ing t he p er iod C . 1 030-1046 , b y C . J . B ecker

4 49

Co ins a nd c o inage i n V ik ing-age Trondhe im , b y K o lb jSrn S kaare

4 79

Merc ian c o ins f rom Russ ia :

4 87

a mis in terpre tat ion , b y T uu ldo . T a lv io

How d id Ang lo-Saxon c o ins r each F in land?

b y I an S tewar t

4 91

F ive-f inger e xerc ises o n t he L ist h oard , b y M . A . S . B lackburn a nd D . M . Metca lf , w ith a n Append ix b y C . S . S . L yon

4 95

The metro logy o f Athe lred ' sL ong C ross t ype a t L inco ln , b y C . S . S . L yon

5 25

A . s umm ing-up , b y M ichae l D o l ley

5 33

The S y mpos iasts

5 53

I ndex o f c o in h oards

5 55

S O ME TWENTIETH-CENTURY RUNES . S TATISTICAL ANALYS IS OF THE V IK ING-AGE COIN HOARDS AND THE I NTERPRETATION OF WASTAGE RATES D . M . Metca lf

The v as t n u mbers o f V ik ing-age c oins f ound h oarded i n t he N or thern L ands s ee m t o r ef lect a p ers isten t b a lance-of-paymen ts s urp lus d ur ing t he t en th a nd e leven th c entur ies , d rawn i n to t he r eg ion f i rs t f ro m Russ ia a nd u l t i ma tely t he Ca l ipha te , t hen f ro m Transox iana , n ex t f ro m G er many , a nd e ventua l ly a lso f ro m Eng land .

T he s carc i ty o f Caro l ing ian a nd p re-980 Eng l ish c o ins , i n

s p i te o f t he h eavy e xact ions o f t he V ik ing a ssau l t o n wes tern Europe i n t he n in th a nd t en th c en tur ies , r em inds u s t ha t t he c ash a cqu ired a broad a s g e lds o r b y l oo t ing was n o t n ecessar i ly a dded t o t he s tock o f c urrency i n t he Nor thern L ands , t o b e r evea led t o u s i n t he h oards .

1

I t may h ave b een me l ted d own

a nd t urned i n to o rnamen t , o r i t may s i mp ly h ave b een s pen t a ga in , f or e xamp le i n t he Meuse v a l ley o r t he Rh ine lands .

On ly i ft here was a s urp lus c ou ld c o in

p i le u p i n S candinav ia . We s hou ld n o t a ssu me , t hen , t ha t t he f ind- ma ter ia l g ives u s ap icture o ft he i n f low o f f oreign money , b u t r a ther o f t he r esidue , a nd t h is i s s o meth ing t o b ear i n mind i n a l l o ur a na lys is o f t he h oards . 1 .

The n eed t o q uan t ify t he e v idence s i n o rder t o c ons truct a g enera l h is torica l i n terpreta t ion o ft he c o in h oards .

The f i nd- ma ter ia l p resen ts a n o u tstanding ly l arge a nd c o mp lex b ody o f i nfor ma t ion , wh ich m ight b e e xpected t o o f fer many o ppor tun it ies f or a na lys is . Y et a t te mp ts t o s ta te t he g enera l h is torica l s ign i f icance o f t he c o ins h ave f or al ong t ime made r a ther s low p rogress .

T he n um is ma t ic i n for ma t ion h as

b een p ub l ished w i th i ncreasing ly me t icu lous c are . The l acon ic r e marks o f c on te mporary G erman a nd Arab ic wr i ters h ave a t trac ted a l arge b ody o f c o mmen tary . O ur g row ing u nders tanding o f e ar ly med ieva l s oc ia l a nd p o l it ica l s tructures h as b een b rough t t o b ear . The d iscover ies o f a rchaeo log ists a t Hedeby , B irka , K aup a ng , a nd many o ther s i tes h ave a dded t o o ur k now ledge . Y et s o mehow i t s ee ms t ha t n umis ma t ics , h istory , a nd a rchaeo logy h ave n ot f u l ly s ucceeded i n j o in ing f orces. The g enera l a rgumen ts c onsp icuous ly l ack aq uan t ita t ive d i mens ion .

And t he h oards h ave n o t y ie lded many o f t he g rass-

r oo ts i ns igh ts i n to mone tary c ircu la t ion wh ich o ne f eels i ts hou ld b e t he ir s pecia l r o le t o c on tr ibu te — ins igh ts o f ak ind wh ich c ou ld b e u sed i n t he g enera l h is tor ica l d eba te .

S o mehow t he h oards h ave n o t y et b een made t o r evea l t heir

s ecrets . I n t he c on tex t o ft he e cono m ic h istory o f Europe i n t he e ar ly midd le a ges , t he q uest ion t ha t n eeds t o b e a sked i s , 'Why was s o much s i lver c arr ied t o t he Nor thern L ands? ' I n e qua l ly g enera l t erms , t here a re t wo p oss ib le a nswers , o ne t ending t o emphas ize t rade , a nd t he o ther , u n i la tera l p aymen ts . 3 29

H is tor ians h ave p erhaps b een i n f luenced i n t heir c ho ice o f a n a nswer b yt heir a ssess ment o f e cono m ic a ct iv i ty i n western Europe , p ar t icu lar ly F rance , t he L ow C oun tr ies , a nd Eng land . S uch l i t t le e vidence a s c an b e f ound i n t he wr i t ten r ecord f ro m t hose c oun tr ies most ly r efers t o p ayments i n k ind , a nd t o a manor ia l o r e sta te e cono my o f l oca l p roduct ion a nd l oca l c onsu mp t ion . T here h as f or t ha t r eason b een a n u nder ly ing r e luctance t o b e lieve t ha t h onest t rade c an h ave b een s o i mportan t a s t o a ccoun t f or t he amoun ts o f s i lver t ha t t he V ik ing-age h oards s ee m t o i mp ly ; a nd why n eed o ne l ook f ur ther t han t he d anegelds , when c hron ic lers i t em ize p aymen ts amoun t ing t o t housands o f p ounds? T he n um isma t ic e v idence , h owever , p roves t ha t t he d ocu men ts l eave much u nsa id : i n n orthern Gau l u nder C har les t he B a ld , i n O t ton ian G ermany , i n t he Ang lo-Saxon k ingdo m i n t he V ik ing a ge t here was ad eveloped money e cono my g eared t o f oreign t rade , a nd i n e ach c ase t he c oun try 's n eeds were s upp l ied b y ac urrency measured i n mi l l ions o f c o ins , wh ich c ircu la ted r ap idly .2 F ur ther , a s r egards t he f l ow o f s i lver t o t he N orthern L ands , i th as b een p oin ted o u t t ha t G er man c o ins o u tnumber Ang lo-Saxon i n t he h oards , a l though t he Emp ire d id n o t i n g enera l s u f fer f rom h eavy e x tor t ions a s d id Eng land . E ssen t ia l ly , t herefore , i ts ee ms t ha t t he G erman c o ins f ound i n t he N or thern L ands c an o n ly b e a ccoun ted f or i n t erms o f t rade . I ft ha t i s t rue o f t he G er man c o ins , c ou ld i tb e p ar t ly t rue a lso o f t he Ang lo-Saxon? We k now h ow many t housands o f p ounds o f d anegeld a re men t ioned i n t he Ang lo-Saxon C hron icle ;

a nd i th as b een a ssu med t ha t t he amounts were

l arge i n r ela t ion t o t he n u mbers o f c oins min ted .

B u t d ie-s tudies , e specia l ly

H enry Mossop 's L inco ln c orpus , h ave n ow p laced a q ues t ion- mark a ga ins t t ha t a ssu mp t ion . A s n o a t te mp t h as b een made t o a ssess t he v o lu me o f t he o u tf lows o f s i lver f ro m Eng land , h ow c an we k now whether d anege lds made u p n ine-tenths o f t he t ota ls , o r t hree-quar ters , o r o n ly ah a lf? T he r e la t ive impor tance i n Eng l ish monetary a f fa irs o f t rade o n t he o ne h and , a nd o n t he o ther h and p iracy , l oot ing , g e lds , a nd p ay men ts t o mercenar ies c an h ard ly b e d iscussed w i thou t s o me i n for ma t ion a bou t t he s ize o f t he c urrency a nd t he o u tf lows . Ag enera l a rgu men t i n f avour o f t rade was a dvanced b y S tuar t R igo ld , n a mely t ha t when C nu t was r u l ing o ver a n Ang lo-Dan ish s ta te , h e wou ld n o t h ave p er m it ted o ne h a lf o f i tt o p lunder t he o ther h a l f , a nd y e t t he f l ow o f Ang lo-Saxon c o ins t o S cand inav ia s hows n o d im inu t ion i n h is r eign. a rgu men t u n fortuna te ly i s n o t c onclus ive .

T h is

Cnu t h i mse lf p laced Eng land u nder

ah eavy b urden o ft axa t ion , a nd much o f t he t ax-money may h ave e nded u p i n D en mark f or o ne r eason o r a no ther . T he Ang lo-Saxon C hron icle t e lls u s t ha t t he t r ibute p a id i n 1 018 amounted t o £ 72 ,000 p lus a f ur ther £ 10 ,500 f ro m L ondon —equ iva len t i n a l l t o 1 9 .8 mi l l ion p ence , i fi twas a l l p a id i n c oin . Much o f t he money c ou ld h ave b een u sed e i ther t op ay o f f t ha t p ar t o f t he a rmy wh ich r e turned h o me , o r t o f i nance C nut 's e xpedi t ion o f 1 019 . D ie-est ima t ion s uggests t ha t Qua trefo i l , t he f i rst i ssue d ur ing C nu t 's r e ign , was s truck f ro m s o me 4 ,650 r everse d ies . I ft ha t f i gure i s f ree f ro m b ias , a nd i ft he a verage o u tpu t o f ad ie was 1 0 ,000 ( wh ich i s a dm i t ted ly n o more t han a n a ssu mp t ion ) , t he t ota l m in tage w i l l h ave b een 4 6.5 mi l l ion c o ins , o r o ver t w ice a s much a s t he t r ibu te . How many o f t he m were e xpor ted? I t i s b y n o means e asy t o s ee h ow t he S cand inav ian e v idence c an b e s et i n r e la t ion w ith t he Eng l ish .

L arge a s t he f igures a ppear , w e must t ry n ot t o b e d azz led

3 30

b yt he m , a nd t o k eep t he m i n p erspec t ive .

F or e xamp le , t he 1 ,374 Q ua trefo i l

c o ins n ow i n t he C openhagen c ab ine t s ee m a n e nor mous q uan t i ty i f we c o mpare t he m w ith o ther p ub l ic c o l lect ions.

( The A sh mo lean Museum h as 4 7 s peci mens.)

I n r ela t ion t o 1 9.8 m il l ions , o n t he o ther h and , t hey a re a mere 0 .007% . O n ly o ne c o in i n 1 4 ,410 f ro m C nu t 's t r ibu te o f 1 u18 h as s urv ived t o f i nd i t s way i n to t he C openhagen c o l lect ion .

Where h ave a l l t he r es t g one?

When t he s amp le i s s o m inu te i n r e la t ion t o t he who le a s , f or e xa mp le , l ess t han 0 .01 % , f i nd ing q uan t ita t ive a rgu men ts wh ich w i l l c on tr ibu te t o t he g enera l h istor ica l d eba te i s n o t s tra ight forward . We c anno t , o bv ious ly , s ay a ny th ing a s s i mp le a s "We k now t ha t al o t o f Eng l ish c o ins o f C nu t were c arr ied t o Den mark b ecause s o many h ave b een f ound t here" . When t he o rders o f magnitude a re s o d iferen t , i ti s p robab ly n o t e ven s a fe t o s ay , "More Qua trefo i l t han L as t Sma l l C ross c o ins were c arr ied t o Denmark , b ecause more h ave b een f ound t here" . I n t hese c ircums tances , t he n u mer ica l r el iab il i ty o f a ny a rgumen t l i es i n i t s b eing b ased , n o t o n v ery l arge t o ta ls , b u t o n p ropor t ions c on f ir med o ver a nd o ver a ga in f ro m t he i ndependen t e v idence o fv ar ious h oards . A l though t he n u mbers o f c o ins i n t he i nd iv idua l h oards a re much sma l ler , a nd t herefore s ub ject t o r ela t ive ly w ider marg ins o f s a mp l ing e rror , i ts hou ld b e p oss ib le t o d ep loy t he m t o much b et ter efec t t han t he g loba l f igures . The l a t ter may b e d istor ted b yt he i nclus ion o f o ne o r t wo v ery l arge h oards , o r b y t he a va i la b i l ity o f more h oards f ro m o ne d ecade t han f ro m a nother .

T he h oards n eed

t o b e c ons idered o ne b y o ne , a nd t heir e vidence c o mb ined i n s o me b et ter way t han b y s imp le a dd i t ion . The t ask h as s carce ly b een b egun , a nd much d iscuss ion i s s t i ll n eeded o f t he a ppropr ia te methods t o b e f ol lowed . 2 .

The r eg iona l b a lance o fp aymen ts The b igges t s tumb l ing-b lock i n t he e cono m ic i n terpre ta t ion o f V ik ing-age

h oards i s t ha t t here s hou ld h ave b een a b alance-of-pay men ts s urp lus a t a l l . I t wou ld b e e as ier t o a ccep t t ha t w hereas t rade was i n d ef ici t , t he b a lance o f p ay men ts was f avourab le b ecause o f t he e x tra i n f low f ro m l oo t , g e lds , a nd s o o n ;

a nd t ha t may v ery wel l b e t rue o f t he Ang lo-Saxon c o ins f rom t he f i rst

q uar ter o ft he e leven th c en tury .

I ti s d i f f icu lt , o n t he o ther h and , t o b e l ieve

t ha t t he G er man c o ins c an r epresen t a ny th ing o ther t han a f avourab le b a lance o f t rade. Wha tever w ere t he N or thern L ands e xpor t ing o n s uch a s ca le o r o f s uch h igh v a lue t o t he c l ima t ica l ly more f avoured r eg ions o f G ermany a nd p ossib ly a lso E ng land a s a ctua l ly t o p rov ide a b a lance-of-paymen ts s urp lus ? S wed ish i ron was a k ey c o m mod ity , wh ich we may a ssu me wou ld b e d rawn i n to t he monetary s ector o f t he e cono my f ro m a c o mpara t ive ly e ar ly d a te , whether f or s words o r f or v ar ied a gr icu l tura l a nd d o mes t ic u ses , a nd t here i s ( d ispu ted ) e vidence o f e xpor t t owards t he B lack S ea .3

F urs a re a lways

men t ioned b y t hose w ho h ave t ouched o n t h is p rob le m , a nd i ti s t o b e a ssu med t ha t t hey were v a luab le e xports . Many d i f feren t k inds o f l uxury f urs a re n amed a lready i n at en th-cen tury s ource —sab le , min .ever , e rm ine , t ar tar f ox , mar ten , f ox , b eaver , v ar iab le h are —and Ada m o f Bre men , a t t he e nd o f t he e leven th c entury , makes i tc lear h ow h igh ly f urs were e stee med i n t he Wes t : ( The P russ ians ) h ave a n a bundance o f s trange f urs...these f urs t hey r egard , i ndeed ,

3 31

a s d ung , t o o ur s ha me Ib e l ieve , f or r igh t ly o r wrong ly we h anker a f ter a mar ten s k in g own a s much a s f or t he g rea tes th app iness. T herefore , t hey o f fer t he ir v ery p rec ious mar ten f urs ( i n e xchange f or w oo l len g ar men ts ) '. 4 O bv iously , t rade was c ross ing c u ltura l f ron t iers , a nd t he m idd le men n o d oub t t ook ah ea l thy s hare o ft he p rof i t .

B u t f or t he mone tary h istor ian t he q ues t ion

i s whe ther t he f ur t rade was o n s uch a s ca le , a nd t herefore o f s uch ah igh monetary v a lue i n t o ta l , a s t o p rov ide a s ign if ican t b a lance-o f-pay men ts s urp lus . How c an we k now? We h ave n o s urv iv ing c us to ms a ccoun ts s how ing t he a d v a lore m d u ty c harged ; a nd t he f urs t he mse lves h ave n o t s urv ived . I fa b earsk in r ug was i nc luded i n ab ur ia l , t he o n ly t races we c an n ow e xpect t o f i nd o f i ta re t he c laws , a nd t hen o n ly b y me t icu lous e xcava t ion . S laves , l i ke f urs , w ere c onsp icuous a nd i nd ividua l ly v a luab le , a nd c anno t n ow b e p lot ted o n ad is tr ibu t ion- map o f a rchaeo log ica l f i nds ; b u t was t he t o ta l i nco me f rom t he s lave t rade s o l arge? We h ave t o a dm i t t ha tw e c anno t p rove a c ase e i ther way . I fw e a sk t he s ame q ues t ion a bou t a sma l ler r eg ion , i ti s s t i l l p uzz ling : w ha tever w as G ot land e xpor t ingon s uch a s ca le o r o f s uch h igh v a lue a s t oa ccumu la te av as t b a lance-o f-paymen t s urp lus? P ar t o ft he a nswer i n t ha t c ase , p resumab ly , i s t ha t t he i s landers w ere b r ing ing h o me money wh ich t hey h ad w on e lsewhere . T hey w ere e xport ing e n trepreneur ia l s k i l ls a nd e f for t . I ti s l ess c on trovers ia l t ha t t he s i lver wh ich f l owed i n to t he N or thern L ands o f ten c a me f rom r eg ions wh ich h ad a n a bundance . S t ure B o lin s aw a c onnex ion b etween t he S ämän id d irham .s w h ich make u p s uch ah igh p ropor t ion o f t he I s la m ic s i lver h oarded i nt en th-cen tury S cand inav ia , a nd t he f abu lous m ines o f B an jh ir a nd t hose o f a l-Shäsh .5 O ne n eed n o t a ccep t t h is c onnex ion u ncr i t ica l ly : i tm igh t b e more e xac t t o c ommen t t ha t t he w ea l th o ft he S ämän ids was b u i lt t o a n impor tan t e x ten t u pon l ong-d is tance t rade a s wel l a s u pon t he i n tens ive e xp lo i ta t ion o f f ert i le i rr iga ted l and . N o d oub t t he n ew ly- m ined s i lver was i c ing o n t he c ake , b u t we d o n o t k now h ow t h ick ly i t was s pread . T here i s ac learer l i nk b etween t he e x tre me ly p len t ifu l O t to Ade lhe id c o ins , a nd t he m in ing d eve lopmen t i n t he Harz Moun ta ins f ro m t he l a ter t en th c entury o nwards .6 I n b oth c ases we may j udge t ha t t here was a s urp lus o f s i lver i n i t s r eg ion o f o r ig in , a nd t herefore a n i ncen t ive t o s pend i tf ree ly . 'Mak ing u se o ft he v ast wea l th o fh is r ea lm ', s ays A da m o f Bre men , ' t he C aesar H enry a t t ha t t ime f ounded i n S axony G os lar , wh ich h e t rans formed , i ti s s a id , f ro m a sma l l mi l lstead o r h un t ing l odge , b u i ld ing i tu p w i th g ood l uck a nd s peed i n to a s g rea t ac i ty a s c an n ow b e s een '. 7 T he s tages b y wh ich R amme lsberg s i lver r eached S cand inav ia , h owever , a nd t he v ar ious mo t ives o f t hose who made t he t ransac t ions i n t he i n terven ing r eg ions , r e ma in v ery o bscure. 3 .

N umer ica l c on trasts.

Ac r i t ica l s urvey o f s ome s ta t is t ica l a pproaches

t o mone tary h is tory G enera l h is tor ica l a rgumen ts , t hen , h ave n o t b een a b le t o l ead t o c lear c onc lus ions , o ne o bv ious r eason b e ing t ha t t hey h ave n o t b e a b le t o q uan t i fy t he p rob le ms . I ft he t ex t-books t ook n o te mere ly t ha t s o me 3 5 ,000 Ang loS axon c o ins h ave b een f ound i n S weden , w ide ly d is tr ibu ted i n many h oards , — i ft h is were t o b e a l l , t he c on tr ibu tors t o t he C orpus n u mmoru m q u i i n S uec ia 3 32

r eper t i s tm t migh tw e l l f ee l t ha t t hey were l abour ing i nv a in , a nd t ha t t hey c ou ld a s wel l d e l iver t he n um is ma t ic e v idence t o t he ir h is tor ian c o l leagues i n c losed s acks . We h ave h ard ly b egun t o make d eta i led h is tor ical u se o ft he n um is ma t ic e vidence , a nd i ti s i ndeed d i f f icu l t t o d o s o . T he c o in h oards o f t he N orthern L ands s peak t o u s c ryp t ica l ly , o f fer ing v as t amoun ts o f f ac tua l i n forma t ion , t he p rec ise s ign i f icance o f wh ich i s f ar f rom c lear . Many o f t he h oards ' s ecrets m ight j us t a s wel l s t i l l b e g uarded b y d ragons . T he s word w i th wh ich we i n t he t wen t ie th c entury may w in t he m i s e ngraved w i th p owerfu l , a rcane s ymbo ls : n o t r unes , b u t s ta t is t ics . S evera l b rave o r a dventurous s ou ls h ave a lready a r med t he mse lves w i th t h is s word , a nd h ave l a id c la im t o t reasures t ha t c ou ld s carcely h ave b een i mag ined . B irg i t ta HArdh , f or e xa mp le , h as b egun t o a na lyse t he i nc idence o f c u t p ieces o f d irhams i nt he f i nds , a rgu ing t ha t al oca l money e cono my w i th in S cand inav ia , r a ther t han l ong-d is tance t rade , b egan t o d om ina te t he u se o f c o ins f rom c . 9 70 , a nd t ha t t he sma l ler f ragmen ts i mp ly a money e cono my r each ing f ur ther i n to t he e veryday s ec tor o f t he e conomy , t he e v idence b e ing t hat t he smal ler f ragmen ts a re more p reva len t i nh oards f ro m t he r icher a gr icu ltura l a reas , a nd i n i t ia l ly i n western SAne i n p ar t icu lar .8 O ne wou ld l i ke t o s ee t he e v idence s et o u t i n d e ta i l , s epara te ly a nd c omparab ly f or e ach c o in h oard , i n o rder t o d ec ide f or o nesel fh ow i ts hou ld b e g enera l ized , a nd whether a l terna t ive e xp lana t ions c an b e e xc luded . Ryszard K iersnowsk i f or e xamp le , who l ong a go f orcefu l ly e xpressed h is b e l ief i n al oca l money e conomy , h as o f fered a c o mp le te ly d if feren t e xp lana t ion o ft he s i ze o ft he f ragments : i n h is v iew , a marked f a l l i n t he p urchas ing p ower o f s i lver i n t he l a te t en th c en tury r e moved t he n eed f or v ery sma l l f ragmen ts , wh ich were p robab ly me l ted d own t o b e made i n to i ngo ts ( l eav ing who le d irha ms t o c ircu la te ) . 1° O ne wonders whether t here c ou ld h ave b een r eg iona l v ar ia t ions i n t he p urchas ing p ower o f s i lver , f or e xamp le a s b etween S kIne a nd t he w es t S lav l ands , i n t he t en th c en tury . B u t i ti s l i ke a b rea th o f f resh a ir t o f i nd s omeone t ry ing t o c o mpare t he c o mpos i t ion o f i nd iv idua l h oards a s e v idence f or mone tary c irc u la t ion w i th in S cand inav ia . U n t i l n ow , a t ten t ion h as b een c oncen tra ted f ar t oo much o n h ow c o ins r eached S cand inav ia a nd t he B a l t ic , a nd n o t n ear ly e nough o n wha t h appened t o t he m a f ter t hey h ad a rr ived t here . We may a ssu me t ha t n o t a l l mone tary e xchanges w i th in t he N or thern L ands were b y mu tua l c onsen t . E ven t he p eop le o f B irka f ound i tn ecessary t o p ro tect t he ir h arbour a gains t v io len t a t tack , b y means o f s unken o bs tacles i nt he c hannel . P iracy a nd o ther f orms o f r obbery w i th v io lence were n o d oub t e nd em ic i n l ess f requen ted p laces i n a nd a round t he s eaways . T here i sn o o bv ious me thod o pen t o u s o f q uan t i fy ing o r d escr ib ing t he e f fec ts o f s uch l awl essness o n monetary c ircu la t ion . W i thou t f orget t ing a bou t i t , w e mus t t herefore l eave i to n o ne s ide , a nd c oncen tra te o n ma t ters wh ich w e c an h ope t o e xp la in i n t erms o f c u mu la t ive t endenc ies —d iscern ib le , f or i ns tance , i n t he r eg iona l d iferences wh ich B irg i t ta Hh c lh s eeks t o i den t i fy . As a s econd e xamp le o f t he s ta t is t ica l a pproach , F rands H ersehend h as i den t i f ied a c on tras t i nc o mpos i t ion b e tween t he h cards a nd t he s tray f i nds f ro m G ot land .

D irhams make u p af ar g rea ter p ropor t ion o ft he s tray f i nds

f ro m t he i s land , whereas Eng l ish a nd e spec ial ly G er man c o ins a re s ign i f ican t ly 3 33

9

wider-represented in comparison with the hoards. Herschend goes on to wonder whether many individuals may not have had a share in the profits of the long-distance journeys that brought the dirhams to Gotland: by contrast the German coins represented the, profits of a relatively wealthy traders-­ engaged in an entrepot trade. 11 This seems rather a heavy structure of theory for the facts to suPPrt, and one would be happier about it if the survey could be extended to one or two other regions perhaps in Denmark to see if a similar contrast exists there between hoards and stray finds. It might be a way to discount some of the ha�ards of cpmparing coins of different sizes and, more important, of different centuries.·

few

As a third recent example, Klaus Randsborg has suggested that variation in the size of the hoards found in a region is an indication of the structure of society there. The small hoards found on Bornholm, he suggests, point to social equality, wealth being evenly distributed among the higher social echelons, whereas in Skfme and especially in south Jutland a very different society existed, with a high degree of stratification. 12 Here again it is hazardous to compare hoards of different date. Randsborg also makes the interesting suggestion (which however he does not substantiate in detail) that the plundering of western Europe was motivated by a shortage of the silver needed to keep up large and efficient military forces, and that warfare as an alternative economic strategy accompanied a particular stage in the process of state formation. 13 Much of the inspiration for Randsborg' s ideas comes from work in progress in other disciplines rather than being- built up step by step from the numismatic evidence. His bold theories, like those· of Hardh and Herschend, have the double merit of seeking to place the use of coinage into a social and economic context, and to detect regional variations in monetary affairs within t Scandinavia. The basic method on which all three rely is to group the data in some way, for example geographically or by typ'e of material, in order to identify a contrast; then by means of statistics to put numerical values on the contrast in order to judge how insistently it demands an explanation; then to speculate about possible explanations. This kind of statistical approach to the coin hoards does not call for arw­ thing much more complicated in the manipulation of figures than finding averages and percentages, but it does call. for sensitive and painstaking analysis, and for a great deal of hard thought about what exactly the figures may be held to prove. Thus a recent attempt by Ulla Linder Welin to move the. beginnings of the Viking age back from £-800 to_£. 700 on the evidence of single finds mostly from Birka14 attracted the sharpest censure, 1 5 for reasons that had nothing to do with the mathematical aspects of the argument, which was essenti­ ally of the same pattern that has been described. Numismatists should not imagine that statisticians will be competent to do th e important part of their work for them, or that they can be exonerated from common sense and caution. Unexpected insights, which may be into very narrow or even seemingly trivial aspects of the numismatic evidence, are likely in the long run to supply the fixed points in a network of general arguments about how coins were used in the Northern Lands once they had accumulated there. students who are inventive enough to propose new interpretations deserve our gratitude, even though it may sometimes happen that they follow a false trail, and have to retract. They should not necessarily be shot pour encourager les autres.

334

Es tab l ish ing s o me sma l l c on tras t f or wh ich t he e v idence i su nshakeab le may s tr ike h is tor ians a s an um isma t ic e xerc ise t ha t i sn o t o f much g enera l i n teres t , o r a tl eas t n o t u n t i l i th as f ound a p lace i n t he c onsensus .

O n t he

o ther h and t hey wou ld d o we l l t o v iew w i th d eep d is trus t t hose more s weep ing h ypotheses wh ich p ropose s i mp le a nswers . N o t hes is c ou ld b e b roader t han t ha t wh ich d escr ibes t he t urn o ft he t i de : t he e nd o ft he i n f low o f d irha ms f ro m t he e as t , a nd t he b eg inn ing o ft he i n f low o f G er man a nd t hen A ng lo-Saxon c o ins f ro m t he wes t . K iersnowsk i , c o m men t ing o n t he i deas o f B o l in , h as r e marked t ha t t he r e trea t o f t he d irha m i s a lways l i nked w i th t he i nf low o f t he d enar ius , a nd t ha t t he c hange b eg ins a t at ime when m in t-ou tpu t i n c en tra l a nd wes tern E urope was g row ing r ap id ly , i n ter a l ia b ecause o f t he o pen ing o fn ew s i lver m ines i n S axony .

T he t wo k inds o f c o inage c ompe ted i n t he v as t marke ts o f

t he Ba l t ic a nd Russ ia , a nd t he d enar ius won . K iersnowsk i c har ts t he s tages o f t he v ictory : a round 9 60 t he d irham was d isp laced f ro m t he w es tern S lav l ands , a round 9 80 i t was d r iven o u t o f P o land a nd S cand inav ia , a round 1 000 i td isappeared i n t he B a l t ic c oun tr ies a nd i n wes tern Russ ia , a nd a round 1 010 e verywhere e xcep t i nt he Vo lga b as in .1 6 The t hes is p rovokes s o many c o mmen ts t ha t t hey c an b e t ouched o n h ere o n ly b r ief ly a nd ( a s ac ase i n p o in t ) b y r e ference t o t he E ng l ish c o inage . T he i dea t ha t Ramme lsberg s i lver s w if t ly i nf luenced t he c ourse o f m in t-produc t ion i n western E urope h as b een a ccep ted w i thou t much a t te mp t t o e xp lore i t s i mp l ica t ions .

T o whom d id t he n ew ly-m ined s i lver b e long? Was i t mos t ly

c o ined i n to O t toAde lheid d enar i i? Have t hese h ad a n u nusua l ly h igh s urv iva lr a te i n t he w es t S lav l ands a nd t he N or thern L ands? I s t here a ny e v idence o f af l ow o fp aymen ts f ro m S axony t o t he l ower Rh ine lands , where t he O t to A de lhe id c o ins c ou ld h ave b een r em in ted , f or e xa mp le , i n to c o ins o f K b ln? D id t he b a lance-of-paymen ts s i tua t ion b e tween r eg ions impose l im i ts o n t he r a te a t wh ich Harz s i lver c ou ld f i l ter w estwards? Was G ermany an e t i mpor ter o f g oods d irec t f rom E ng land , a nd i fs o wha t s or t o f g oods? I st here a ny e v idence t ha t F landers h ad ap lace i n t he e qua t ion? How l arge was Eadgar 's p re-reform c o inage? C o ins b ehave l ike b irds o f af ea ther , wh ich p roverb ia l ly f l ock t oge ther . I n a' nor ma l ' c urrency , u n iform i ty i s t he r u le . B u t i n V ik ing-age S cand inav ia a nd t he S lav l ands , i t was q u i te o therw ise : a ny th ing wen t , a s l ong a s i t was o f r easonab ly g ood s i lver ( o r c ou ld p re tend t o b e ) . T o s peak o f c o inages c o mpe t ing i st hus b y n o means a n o bv ious r ead ing o f t he s equence o f e ven ts . A t s o me p o in ts , i ndeed , i ti s d e mons trab ly e rroneous , ma in ly b ecause i td oes n o t t ake a ccoun t o f t he a ge-s tructure o ft he h oards . I n G o t land , f or e xamp le , t he n e t i nf low o f d irhams a ppears t o h ave dw ind led s harp ly ( a s we s ha l l s ee ) f ro m t he 9 20s o nwards , a t l eas t t h ir ty y ears b efore t hey were s uperseded , a nd c er ta in ly b efore t here was a ny s er ious c o mpe t i t ion f ro m wes tern c o ins . T he i dea o f a mov ing f ron t ier ( l ike t he Amer ican f ron t ier o ft he Wi ld Wes t ) s h if t ing s tead i ly e as twards-960 , 9 80 , 1 000—has a l lt he c harm o f s imp l ic i ty , b u t o ne h as o n ly t o c on te mp la te h ow o ne wou ld map t he d a ta t o s ubs tan t ia te t he c la im , i n o rder t o s uspec t t ha t i ti s a n o vers i mp l i f ica t ion . T he h arb ingers o f wes tern money , o ccurr ing a s s trays i n t he e ar ly h oards o f c u t d irha ms , a re c o ins o f K 5 ln o r , i n teres t ing ly , o f R egensburg a nd o ther s ou th G er man m in ts. 1 7 N ex t c o me t he s o-ca l led S achsenp fenn ige , o r d enary

3 35

k rzyZowe .

F ew o ft hese c o in-types c an b e d a ted p rec ise ly i n r e la t ion t o t he

t wen ty-year s tages 9 60-80 a nd 9 80-1000 .

D irhams s urv ive i n mixed h oards

l ong a f ter wes tern c o ins b eg in t o a ccu mu la te i n S cand inav ia .

The p ropor t ions

may v ary c onsiderab ly e ven i n h oards f ro m t he s ame d is tr ic t a nd t he s ame d a te. F ina lly t here a re e xcep t f ro m G o t land i ar t oo f ew h oards f ro m a round 9 80 t o d e monstra te t ha t t he t heory h as a ny v a l id i ty w i th in S cand inavia .

T he

t imelag b etween S cand inav ia a nd t he e as tern S lav l ands may b e a ccep ted , b u t t o d is t ingu ish b etween r eg ions w i th in S cand inav ia t he a va i lab le e v idence f ro m a round 9 80 i s who l ly i nadequa te. An a l terna t ive g enera l t heory was s ugges ted b y V . M . P o t in who , b y means o f ab road s ta t ist ica l a na lys is , was a b le t o p o in t t o ac on tras t b etween t he S candinav ian h oards a nd t he west S lav h oards .

I n S candinav ia a round 8 0%

o f t he h oards c onta in s o me Ang lo-Saxon c o ins , wh ich make u p o neth ird o f a l l t he c o ins i n a ggrega te .

G er man c o ins a re n o t p resen t i n e very h oard , b u t a

f ew l oca l ly- m inted ( Scandinav ian) c oins a re f requen t ly i nc luded .

I n t he w es t

S lav l ands , o n t he o ther h and , f ewer h oards c onta in E ng lish c oins , wh ich a ccount f or o n ly b etween 2 a nd 5 % o f t he a ggrega te . G erman c oins a re d om inant , S candinav ian c o ins a re l ess r egu lar , b ut t here a re more c oins f ro m B ohe mia , H ungary , P o land , I t a ly , a nd F rance . T he e ast S lav h oards , w i th wh ich P ot in was o f c ourse e spec ia l ly c oncerned , a pprox ima te t o t he wes t S lav p a t tern , r a ther t han t he S candinav ian . 1 8 T hus f ar P ot in h as f o l lowed e xac t ly t he s ta t is t ica l me thod d escr ibed a bove : g eograph ica l ly i n o rder t o i dent ify a c ontras t ;

f i rs t h e g roups t he d a ta t hen h e p u t n umer ica lv a lues

o n t he c on tras t i n o rder t o s how u s h ow i ns istent ly i td emands a n e xp lana t ion . When h e c o mes t o s pecu la te a bout t he ways i n wh ich s uch a p a t tern c ou ld h ave b een c rea ted , h e c oncentra tes o n o ne p ar t icu lar mechan is m , n ame ly l ong-distance t rade. The s im i lar i ty b etween t he c urrenc ies o f t he west S lav a nd e as t S lav r eg ions i s s een a s e v idence o f t rade l i nks b e tween t hose r eg ions . T he c urrency o n B ornho lm a nd b land i s i n termedia te i n c harac ter , a nd G ot land t oo s hows e v idence o f t rad ing w i th t he wes t S lav r eg ions. More r e markab le i s t he i dea t ha t b ecause d if feren t v ar ie t ies o f G er man c o ins a re p len t i fu l i n P o meran ia o n t he o ne h and a nd i n Russ ia o n t he o ther t he t rade l i nks t o t he e as t were d irec t .

F r is ian c o ins i n p art icu lar , h e p o in ts o u t , a re more

p len t i fu l i n Russ ia . I ti s o n t h is n ote t ha t P o t in 's v iew i s o pen ly d iscordan t w i th t he ' mov ing f ron t ier ' h ypo thes is : i ft he c urrency o f Russ ia i nc ludes ah igher p ropor t ion o f F r is ian c o ins t han a re f ound i n S weden o r P omeran ia , t h is s ee ms t o imp ly t ha t merchan ts made j ourneys f ro m F r is ia s pec i f ical ly t o Russia , c arry ing F r is ian money w i th t he m a l l t he way . Presu mab ly t he F r is ian r eg ions e ven tu a l ly r ece ived impor ts o f as im i lar v a lue i n r eturn . Money c ou ld a lso t o s o me e x ten t h ave d r i f ted g radua l ly e as twards , s tage b y s tage , e nd ing u p i n Russ ia a f ter h av ing f or med p ar t o ft he c urrency i n e i ther S cand inavia o r t he wes t S lav l ands . Bu t s o me s pecia l e xp lana t ion o ver a nd a bove a p rogress ive d r if t i s r equ ired t o a ccoun t f or a n u nusua l ly h igh p ropor t ion o f F r is ian c o ins i n Russia .

I tc ou ld , o f c ourse , h ave b een mere ly ap rocess o f s e lect ion :

mer-

c han ts o n G ot land c ou ld h ave g one t hrough t he ir c ash a nd p icked o u t t he F r is ian c o ins w ith av iew t o s pend ing t he m i n Russ ia .

A l though o ne c annot e xclude

t he p ossib i l i ty , t here i s n o th ing i n t he h oard e v idence wh ich wou ld e ncourage o ne t o make s uch a c on jec ture .

3 36

L ong-d is tance t rade a s t he e xp lana t ion o ft he e xcep t iona ln u mbers o f F r isian c o ins i n R uss ia i s t he c omp le te a n t i thes is o f B irg i t ta 1 § ,rdh 's v iew o f money s erv ing l oca l , d ayto-day n eeds i n t he r icher a gr icu ltura l l ands o f d eve loped r eg ions s uch a s SOne , b u t t he t wo a re n o t n ecessar i ly i nco mpa t ib le . I n a ny c ase t hey r e fer t o q u i te d i f feren t p er iods , t he l a te t en th a nd t he l a te e leven th c en tury r espec t ive ly . P o t in ' sg roup ing t oge ther o f a l l t he c o ins f ro m e ach p resen t-day c oun try p roduces a b lun t i ns tru men t f or t he p urpose o f a na lys is , b u t i ft he s pec ia l r ela t ionsh ip w i th F r is ia c ou ld b e s ecure ly d emons tra ted , i t wou ld e ncourage u s t o t h ink o fp ar t ly-separa te r eg iona l ' p oo ls ' o f c urrency r a ther t han a n o pen s ea t hrough wh ich t he t i de c an s weep u n in terr up ted ly . B ernd K luge h as t aken P o ti n ' sa na lys is a s tep f ur ther , b y d ef in ing ( a bove , p p . 2 80f f ) t he d i f feren t c o mpos i t ion o f t he f i nds f ro m s ix r eg ions ( Po lab ia , P o meran ia , t he r es t o f P o land , L a tvia , E s ton ia , a nd R uss ia ) , a nd a lso b y s how ing t ha t F r is ian c o ins i n F in land make u p ah igher p ropor t ion t han i n S weden , a l though s t i l l l ess t han i n R uss ia .1 9 A nd an o te b y I an S tewar t ( b e low , p p .4 91f f ) s e ts o u t s urpr is ing e v idence t ha t t he A ng lo-Saxon c urrency o f F in land i nt he y ears c .997 o nwards was a s epara te ' poo l ', f ed i t wou ld s ee m d irec t ly f ro m E ng land . P o t in 's t heory i s , h owever , n o t w i thou t i t s d i f f icu l t ies .

F irs t , t he h oard

e vidence f ro m wh ich t he h igh p ropor t ion o f F r is ian c o ins i sd er ived i s most ly l a te i n d a te . B u t a s K luge h as n o ted , t he p ropor t ion o f F r is ian among a l l G er man c o ins r ises marked ly d ur ing t he c ourse o ft he e leven th c en tury , b o th i n S weden ( s ee t he A ppend ix ) a nd i n P o mer ia . T hus t he c on tras t w i th t he e as t B a l t ic a nd R ussia a r ises p ar t ly b ecause P o t in i sn o t c o mpar ing l i ke w i th l i ke . S econd ly , where t he R uss ian h oards h ave b een p ub l ished i n a ny d egree o f d eta i l , a s f or e xa mp le t he P o lna o r t he 'Moscow ' h oards , 2 °t here i s r eason t o s uspec t t ha t t he F r is ian e le men t i nc ludes many b lundered o r b arbarous s peci mens . I n aword , i m i ta t ion s ee ms t o h ave b een p reva len t , j us t a s i t was i n t he c ase o f A ng lo-Saxon c o ins i n Russ ian h oards. ( The p enny im i ta t ions , i nciden ta l ly , wou ld s ee m t o b e mos t ly o f S cand inav ian manu fac ture .2 1 ) T he a pparen t e xcess o f F r is ian c o ins may t herefore c ons is t p ar t ly o f c op ies , a nd i n s o f ar a s t he s ta t is t ica l c on tras t r es ts o n t he m , i tp robab ly d oes n o t p rove t ha t t here was l ong-d is tance t rade d irec t f ro m F r is ia—a lthough i td oes s ee m t o p o in tt o as pec ia l p reference f or F r is ian c o in t ypes. A c arefu l s tudy o f t he s ty l is t ic r ange o ft he s ame t ypes a s f ound i n F r is ia may b e n eeded , b efore much p rogress c an b e made ; a nd i t may a lso b e n ecessary t o d ef ine t he a rea i n wh ich t he c op ies o ccur , s ince S a lmo 's work o n t he F inn ish f i nds 2 2 l i s ts v ery f ew . I n l igh t o f t he a bove , p erhaps o ne s hou ld l ook f or a c o mmon f ac tor i n t he p reva lence o f F r is ian c o ins a tt he L app o f fer ing-p laces . 23 Aw ider-rang ing a na lys is o f t he ma ter ia l w i l l q u i te p oss ib ly c on f ir m t he d irec t l i nks w i th F r is ia . T he S wed ish h oards , wh ich a re an ecessary p ar t o f t he e v idence , a re d iscussed i n a n A ppend ix . I ts ee ms l ike ly t ha t P o t in r eached t he c orrec t c onc lus ion i n s p i te o f r e ly ing o n a rgu men ts t ha t a re o pen t o c orr ec t ion i n d e ta i l . T here c an b e n o q uarre l , o n t he o ther h and , w i th h is i den ti f icat ion o f t he b road c on tras t b e tween S candinav ia a nd t he w es t S lav l ands , wh ich i s s ta t is t icaly c lear-cu t , a nd o f p r i me i mpor tance f or mone tary h is tory . T he p rob le m i s t o u nders tand h ow i tc a me a bou t . C on te mporary wr i ters g ive 3 37

u s g l impses o ft he c om mer ica l a c t iv i ty a t empor ia s uch a s J umne ( Wo l in ) , B u .cu ( Lübeck ) , Truso ( Elb ing ) , a nd Ho l mgard ( Novgorod ) . Archaeo log ical e xp lora t ion h as h e lped t o d ef ine t he p er iods d ur ing wh ich t hey f l our ished—and h as a dded t o t he l i s t o ther c en tres , s uch a s S tar igrad ( O ldenburg ) , R er ic ( Meck lenburg ) , t he n in th-cen tury Ra lsw iek o n t he i s land o f R ügen , a nd t he e ighth-tenth c entury s et t le men t o f Menz l in , o n t he ma in land f ur ther s ou th .2 4 T he g eograph ica l l oca t ion o f t he more e as ter ly o ft hese p laces , w i th in r each o fp o in ts where t he l ong , s andy c oas ts o ft he B a l t ic a re i n terrup ted b yt he mou ths o ft he f ew b ig r ivers wh ich g ive a ccess t o t he h in ter land , i n i t se lf i nd ica tes mar i t i me t rade , —as i n t he c ase o ft he w iks o f wes tern Europe . T he e x ten t a nd d irec t ion o f t he B a l t ic t rade i n t he V ik ing a ge a re h owever k nown f ro m o n ly t he f l ims ies t e v idence . T he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord r evea ls a t horough ly i n terna t iona l t aste i n c onsu mer d urab les . F ro m Menz l in , f or e xamp le , we h ave , a s we l l a s S cand inav ian b rooches a nd f i bu las , b e l t-ornamen ts i n I r ish s ty le , ar ing-brooch i n F inn ish s ty le , h orse g ear p robab ly f rom N orway , ar ec tangu lar b rooch f rom Wes tpha l ia o r F r is ia , r ock-crys ta l a nd c arne l ian f ro m t he Caucasus , as word f ro m F r is ia , f ragmen ts o f C aro l ing ian g lass , a Ta tinger j ug , a nd aB adorf p ot . 2 5 A l l t hese a re d urab le i n a n a rchaeo log ica l s ense t oo : b u t t here i sn o way o f t e l l ing f ro m t he m wha t t he b a lance o r e ven t he ma in d irec t ions o f t rade were . Archaeo logy s imp ly c anno th ope t o p rov ide s ys te ma t ic e v idence o ft he t rad ing r e la t ions b e tween S cand inav ia a nd t he wes t S lav l ands . A da m o f B re men , e ndeavour ing t o c orrec t f a lse r epor ts , a l though o bv ious ly w i thou t h i mse l f e n joy ing t he b enef i t o f much d e ta i led o r f i rs t-hand i n forma t ion , wr i tes t ha t J umne ' i s t ru ly t he l arges t o f a l l t he c i t ies i n E urope , a nd t here l i ve i n i tS lays a nd many o ther p eop les , G reeks a nd b arbar ians . F or e ven a l ien S axons a lso h ave t he r igh t t o r es ide t here o n e qua l t erms w i th o thers , p rov ided o n ly t ha t wh i le t hey s o journ t here t hey d o n o t o pen ly p ro fess C hr is t ian i ty ... R ich i n t he wares o f a l l t he n or thern n a t ions , t ha t c i ty l acks n o th ing t ha t i s e i ther p leas ing o r r are '. E lsewhere , A da m s peaks o f J umne a s b e ing o ppos i te B irka . I n t he h arbour o f B irka , h e s ays , ' a l l t he s h ips o ft he D anes a nd t he N or thmen , a s we l l a s t hose o f t he S lays a nd t he S e mb i ( Pruss ians ) a nd t he o ther S cy th ian p eop le , a re a ccus tomed t o mee t a t s ta ted t imes f or t he v ar ious n ecess i t ies o f t rade ' .26 F ro m t h is a nd f ro m g eograph ica l c onsidera t ions o ne migh t b e l ed t o s uppose t ha t much o ft he t rade was a cross t he B a l t ic , l i nk ing S cand inav ia w i th t he wes t S lav l ands e cono m ica l ly .27 I ti s t herefore v ery i mpor tan t t o r ecogn ize t ha t t he n um is ma t ic e v idence c anno t e as i ly b e r econc i led w i th t ha t s uppos i t ion . I fS cand inav ian-wes t S lav t rade h ad d om ina ted mone tary a f fa irs , s hou ld o ne n o t h ave e xpec ted t ha t t he f l ow o fp ay men ts wou ld h ave c rea ted a much g rea ter s im i lar i ty b etween t he c urrenc ies o f c en tra l S wed m a nd G o t land o n t he o ne h and a nd , f or e xamp le , P omeran ia o n t he o ther? I ti s i ndeed s urpr is ing t ha tt here was n o t more c onvergence b etween t he c urrenc ies o ft hese r eg ions , p ar t icu lar ly a s r egards t he d i f feren t k inds o f G erman c o ins a nd d enary k rzyZowe . T he d if ferences migh t b e e xp la ined i f we c ons ider t he c o mpos i t ion o ft he r eg iona l c urrenc ies i n t er ms o ft he a ccumu la t ion o f b a lance-of-pay men ts s urp luses . I t wou ld s ee m t o b e n ecessary t o a ssume t ha t mos t Ang lo-Saxon c o ins were c arr ied t o S cand inav ia i nt he f i rs t i ns tance . ( The G er man h oards r u le o u t t he p oss ib i li ty t ha t t hey were c arr ied t o G er many , a nd f ro m t here 3 38

t o S cand inav ia .) T hereaf ter t here was v ery l i t t le i n t he way o f an e t f l ow o f p aymen ts i n t ha t t ype o f c oin f ro m S cand inav ia i n to t he w es t S lav l ands . T h is c ou ld h ave r esu l ted s i mp ly f ro m a s e lec t ive c ho ice o f c o in t ypes , b u t o ne d oub ts v ery much whe ther i t was s o . I n g enera l , i ts ee ms t ha t money was b e ing t ransferred e as twards o r n or thwards —and i nt he c ase o ft he G er man c o ins a t l eas t , p resu mab ly b ecause t here was a c orrespond ing n e t t ransfer o f v a lue ( i n t he f orm o f g oods ) wes twards o r s ou thwards . I ti s d if icu l t , h owever , t o s uppose t ha tt he G erman c o ins a ccu mu la t ing i n S cand inav ia w ere c om ing s o le ly o r e ven ma in ly v ia t he wes t S lav l ands— i f o n ly b ecause o ft he r e la t ive s carc i ty o f d enary k rzyZowe o n G o t land . T he ma in d irec t ions o f b u l l ion f l ow wou ld t herefore s ee m t o h ave b een : f rom G ermany i n to t he N or thern L ands ; f ro m Eng land i n to t he N or thern L ands ; f rom G er many i n to t he w es t S lav l ands . T h is p a t tern s ee ms t o i mp ly t ha t t he N or thern L ands a nd t he wes t S lav l ands were n o t t o a ny g rea t e x ten t e cono m ica l ly c omp le men tary . I t may b e p oss ib le t o t ake t he a na lysis f ur ther b y a rgu ing t ha t t here were s hor t p er iods when t hese n a tura l mone tary g rad ien ts were r eversed , a nd when p aymen ts were , u nusua l ly , b e ing made f ro m S cand inav ia t o t he w es t S lav l ands a nd t he e as t B a l t ic , o ne s uch p er iod b e ing t he i n i t ia l p hase o f s urp lus o f Eng l ish money , w itness t he r e la t ively l arge n u mbers o f C rux a nd L ong C ross c o ins s urv iv ing a t al a ter d a te i nh oards f ro m t hose r eg ions . 4 .

How much c o inage f l owed i n to , a nd o u t o ft he N or thern L ands? How much a ccumu la ted t here? And h ow f ree ly d id i tc ircu la te w i th in t he N or thern L ands?

We h ave l ooked a t av ar ie ty o f r ecen t a t te mp ts t o h and le n um is ma t ic e v idence s ta t is t ica l ly i n o rder t o g a in a n u nders tand ing o f S cand inav ian monet ary a f fa irs . A l l o ft he m a re amb i tous a nd s t imu la t ing , b u t a l l i n v ary ing d eg rees r es t o n s haky o r u n tes ted f ounda t ions . P erhaps i t wou ld b e wor th g o ing b ack t o s imp ler a nd more f ac tua l q ues t ions , a rmed w i th t he s word o f s ta t is t ics , t o t ry t o e s tab lish s ome n u mer ica l p erspec t ives . H ow much c o inage was t here i n t he N or thern L ands? How much c a me i n f ro m o ther r eg ions—and h ow much v an ished a ga in t hrough wastage o f o ne s or t o r a no ther? A nd h ow r ap id ly d id c o inage p ass f ro m h and t o h and w i th in S cand inav ia? I f we h ad n umer ica l a nswers , e ven v ery a pprox i ma te ly , t o t hose s imp le q ues t ions , t hey wou ld s erve a s af rame o f r eference f or t he more e xc i t ing d e ta i led o bserva t ions t ha t s ee m t o t hrow l i gh t o n mone tary a fa irs , a nd wou ld a l low u s t o f o l low t he ir a pparen t ly r easonab le a rgu men ts w i th f ewer n ervous f ears o fp i t fa l ls . S i mp le t he q ues t ions may b e , b u t i ti s e x tre me ly d if f icu l t b y a ny o ft he f am i liar h is tor ica l a rgu men ts t o q uan t ify t he a nswers e ven t o w i th in a f ac tor o f t en .

T hey r e ma in s o v ague , t ha t i s t o s ay , a s t o b e a l mos t u se less a s a

b ase f ro m wh ich r esearch c ou ld a dvance . T hey d o n o t a l low u s t o e s tab l ish e ven t he r e la t ive q uan t i t ies a nd t hus t o d ec ide , f or e xamp le , whe ther t he c urrency was much sma l ler i n t he t enth c entury t han t he e leven th , o r whe ther t he s tock w as sma l l , l arge , o rv ery l arge i n r e la t ion t o t he a nnua l i n f lows . K iersnowsk i 's t heor ies a bou t d is hoarding i n r esponse t o as i lver s hor tage ,2 8 a nd P o t in ts a bou t t rade l i nks a ppear t o a ssume t ha t t he s tocks were sma l l , a nd t ha t may h ave b een t rue o f t he r eg ions w i th wh ich t hey were c oncerned . I t wou ld b e h ard t o b e l ieve t he s a me a bou t t he c urrency o f Den mark o r S weden . 3 39

Much l ess a re h is tor ica l a rgu men ts p rec ise e nough t o s how whe ther O r ien ta l , G erman , a nd E ng l ish c o ins were a l l t rea ted i n t he s ame way o nce t hey h ad e n tered t he s tock o f c urrency . We s ha l l l ook a t s ome o ft he a rgu men ts , a nd i np ar t icu lar a tt he ir i nsuf f ic ienc ies , a s ap re l im inary t o c oncen tra t ing o n a s ta t is t ica l e xp lora t ion o f was tage r a tes . F irs t , t hen , h ow much c o inage a ccumu la ted i n t he N or thern L ands? T ex t-books h ave u nw ise ly o f fered o n t h is p o in t t he s ee m ing ly v ery l arge n u mbers o f c o ins d er iv ing f ro m t hehoards . T hey p o int t o 3 5 ,000 A ng lo-Saxon c o ins a s i ft ha t were a l o t , w i th n o o bv ious a wareness t ha t i t may b e e qu iva len t t o t he o u tpu t o f o n ly t hree o r f our d ies—whereas t he c o ins i n q ues t ion were min ted f rom u pwards o f2 5 ,000 d ies . 29 I ft he s tock o f c urrency i n t he N or thern L ands h ad c ons is ted o fn a t iona l c o inages min ted w i th in t he r eg ion , o ne c ou ld h ave a pproached t he p rob le m t hrough s ta t is t ica l e s t ima t ion o f t he n u mbers o fd ies u sed . B u t t he f ore ign c o ins wh ich made u p u sua l ly b e tween 9 0 a nd 1 00% o ft he c urrency were o n ly a p ropor t ion , a nd a q u i te u nknown p ropor t ion , o f t he n u mbers m in ted i n t he ir c oun tr ies o f o r ig in . Many h undreds o f d i f feren t C rux a nd L ong C ross d ies a re r epresen ted , f or e xamp le , among t he f i nds f ro m t he N or thern L ands , b u t wha t p ropor t ion o ft he a verage o u tpu t o f ad ie was c arr ied a broad , a nd wha t s tayed i n Eng land? E ven i f we h ad g ood e s t i ma tes o f m in t-ou tpu t f or t he C a l ipha te , G ermany , a nd Eng land t hey wou ld a t b es t s e t u pper l im i ts ; a nd b ecause t he s amp le i s s o m inu te i n r e la t ion t o t he l i ke ly t o ta ls i nvo lved , t he marg ins o fu ncer ta in ty w ou ld r e ma in v ery w ide . S econd ly , t herefore , c an we measure t he f l ow o f c urrency i n to t he N or thern L ands? F or o r ien ta l c o ins t he a nswer i s q u i te s imp ly t ha t we c ann o t . F or wes tern c o ins we h ave t he a tf i rs t s igh t p ro m is ing e vidence o f d anege lds , a s r ecorded i nt he A ng lo-Saxon C hron ic le . I f we a ccep t i t s f igures we c an s ay t ha t b etween 9 91 a nd 1 014 E ng land p a id g elds o f a t l eas t £ 150 ,000 , e qu iva len t t o 3 6 mi l l ion p ence . T here may we l l h ave b een o ther l oca l g e lds n o t r ecorded b y t he C hron ic le wh ich wou ld make t he t o ta l l arger .3 ° The q uan t i t ies o f c o ins m in ted i n Eng land b e tween 9 91 a nd 1 014 h ave b een e s t ima ted a t a bou t 1 00 m i l l ion p ence , s o t ha t t he r equ ire men ts o f p ay ing d anege lds w ere f ar f ro m b e ing t he s o le o r e ven t he ma jor r eason f or t he s trik ing o f c oi n .3 1 I th as b een a rgued o n t he b as is o f as ta t is t ica l mode l t ha t ag rea t d ea l more t han 3 6 m i l l ion p ence f l owed o u t o f Eng land , t he b a lance p resu mab ly a s a r esu l t o ft rade ,3 2 b u t t here i sn o way o f s how ing wha t i t s d es t ina t ion was . Much p resumab ly was t aken t o S cand inav ia , b u t s ome may h ave g one t o t he L ow C oun tr ies o r t he R h ine lands .

T he ma in r eason f or t h ink ing o f S cand inav ia

a s t he d es t ina t ion i st ha t Eng land s ee ms t o h ave e n joyed a s ubs tan t ia l b alanceo f-paymen ts s urp lus a r is ing f rom i t s t rade w i th t he L ow C oun tr ies a nd t he R h ine lands , i .e . t he f l ow b e tween Eng land a nd t hose c oun tr ies was i n t he o ther d irec t ion . T h ird ly , was t here a r e turn f l ow f ro m t he N or thern L ands t o western E urope? Wa l ter Hävern ick t wen ty-f ive y ears a go p ub l ished a n e f fec t ive d iagra m ( F ig . 1 )u n i t ing v ar ious e le men ts i n t he r eg iona l b a lance o f e conom ic a nd mone tary e xchanges , a nd h e h as k ind ly c onsen ted t o my r eproduc ing i t n ow . T he d iagram s hows a s tream o f s i lver f l ow ing t o t he e as t .3 3 I td oes n o t make a ny a l lowance f or t he e xpor t o f g oods f ro m G ermany t o t he Nor thern 3 40

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S ilber /Geldstrom S chatzbildungsmöglichkeit

S ke tch o f as che ma t ic r epresen ta t ion o f e conom ic c ircu la t ion ( a f ter H avern ick ) .

L ands — the Warens trom i s a l l t he o ther way—nor f or a ny r eturn f l ow o f s i lver t o t o wes tern E urope . I ft here w ere s uch a r eturn f l ow , t he e v idence f or i t wou ld n ot b e v isib le i n t he f or m o f am ix ture o f c o ins s uch a s i s f ound i n t he Nor thern L ands .

T he c urrenc ies o f b o th Eng land a nd t he R h ine lands , a s we

n ow a pprec ia te f ro m a s tudy o f t he h oards a nd more e spec ia l ly f rom t he s ing le f i nds , 34 were u nder c lose p o l i t ica l c on tro l . When f ore ign o r o bso le te c o in c a me i n f ro m a broad , i t was s tr ic t ly r equ ired t o b e r em in ted . I nt he c ase o f G ermany Ih ave a rgued t ha t d ie-es t i ma t ion p o in ts t owards a g loba l f igure f or min t-ou tpu t d ur ing t he V ik ing a ge s o l arge a s t o b e i nconce ivab le u n less t here were f requen t r ecyc l ing o ft he c o in s tock .3 5 T he N or thern L ands , o f c ourse , o f fer a c o mp lete c on tras t . U n t i l we l l i n to t he e leven th c en tury i n D enmark a nd N orway , a nd l a ter s t i l l e verywhere e lse , f ore ign c o in was f ree ly p er m it ted t o e n ter a nd t o r e ma in i n u se .

T h is c on tras t , t aken t oge ther w i th t he e xcep t-

i ona ln u mber o fh oards t ha t h ave b een r ecovered , c rea tes a s uperf ic ia l imp ress ion t ha t t he t ra f f ic was o ne-way . A t s o ine t imes i t may h ave b een , b u t a t o thers i tc er ta in ly was n o t . F ore ign c o in was s tr ic t ly c ons igned t o t he me l t ing-po t when i mpor ted i n to Eng land , a nd t hus i td isappears f rom o ur s igh t . B u t i td oes n o t d isappear q u i te w ithou t t race . S ome m in ts s truck h undreds o f t imes a s much b ul l ion a s o thers . T he h ead-and-shou lders d om inance o f t hose m in ts i n t he p or ts

3 41

wh ich h and led t he N or th S ea t rade , s uch a s K 5 1n , D even ter , T iel , U trech t ,

3 6

L ondon , L inco ln , a nd Y ork n o d oub t r ef lects t he m in t ing o f f oreign o r o bso le te s i lver o n r e-en try , j ust a s t he e xcep t iona l a ct iv i ty o f Dores tad d oes i n t he Caro l ing ian a ge . 37

A s p ar t o f t he t rade , h owever , was i n terna l t o western

Europe , t he a ggregate o f m in t-ou tpu t o f t he p or ts w ou ld n ot b e a measure o f mone tary f l ows f ro m t he N orthern L ands . Aga in , i t wou ld mere ly i nd ica te a n u pper l im i t . T hus a l though t here were a pparen t ly v ery l arge f l ows a nd c oun terf lows a cross t he t r iang le o f S cand inavia , G er many , a nd Eng land , i ti s v ir tual ly i mp oss ib le t o measure t he ir r ela t ive impor tance o r t o i dent i fy t he c urrencies b etween which t he t ransfers t ook p lace .

A t a ny p ar t icu lar mo ment i n t he f i rs t

h a l f o f t he e leven th c entury t here may wel l h ave b een more Ang lo-Saxon c o ins a bove-ground i n t he N or thern L ands t han t here were i n Eng land — a nd more G erman c oins t han t here were i n G er many .

The mone tary a f fa irs o f a l l t hree

r eg ions were t o t ha t e x ten t h eavi ly i n terdependen t . Whether t here was a r e turn f l ow o f d irha ms e astwards t owards T ransox iana o r t owards t he Ca l ipha te , a nd whe ther t hey wou ld h ave b een r equ ired t o b e r em in ted o n e n try , a re q uest ions f or c o l leagues e xper t i n t ha t s er ies. I f p eck- marked c oins t urned u p i n h oards f ro m t he C a l ipha te o r f ro m S ämän id t err i tory , t he ir e v idence m igh t b e t hough t t o b e o f g enera l i n teres t . F or v ar ious r easons , t hen , i ts ee ms h ope less ly d i f f icu l t t o a ssess t he s ize o f t he c urrency i n t he N or thern L ands b y measur ing t he i nf low , measur ing t he o u t f low , a nd s ub trac t ing t he o ne f ro m t he o ther .

The o n ly r e ma in ing

p ract icab le a pproach t o t he p rob le m i s t o e s t i ma te t he n u mbers o f d ies u sed f or t he S ig tuna c o inages i n t he n a mes o f O lof S k5 tkonung , a nd p erhaps a lso o f Anund J acob a nd C nu t ,3 8 a nd t hen t o t ry t o a ssess t he p ropor t ion t hese c o ins make u p i n n or thern h oards , a nd t o mu l t ip ly t he t wo . The s a me p rocedure c ou ld b e f ol lowed i n s tudy ing t he a na logous , more s ou ther ly mint , a pparen t ly S can lan , wh ich s truck C rux a nd L ong C ross im ita t ions ;

a nd i tc ou ld b e r e-

p ea ted , l a ter i n to t he e leven th c en tury , w i th r eference t o t he Dan ish i ssues o f Cnu t . 39 T he me thod i s n o t w i thout i t s d if f icu lt ies , o f wh ich t he more o bv ious a re t ha t t he p ropor t ions v ary f ro m o ne h oard t o a no ther ; t ha t n ot e nough h oards h ave y et b een p roper ly p ub l ished ; t ha t t he a verage o u tpu t o f ad ie might n o t h ave b een t he s ame a s t he a verage f or Eng l ish c o ins o f t he s a me d a te ;

a nd

t ha tv ar iab le wastage f ro m t he c urrency a nd t he e x istence o f s epara te r eg iona l ' poo ls ' o f c urrency w i th in t he N or thern L ands c ou ld s er ious ly d istor t t he a r i th met ic. A s a n i l lus tra t ion , l e t u s c o mpare t he n u mbers o f s pecimens o f O lof S k eekonung 's c oinage w i th t he n u mbers o f Eng l ish C rux c o ins. 4° I t migh t b e e qua l ly v a l id t o c o mpare t he S wed ish c o ins w i th E ng l ish C rux p lus L ong C ross b u t o ne wou ld e xpect t he e nd-resu l t t o b e much t he s a me . t he r a t io c an v ary f ro m o ne h oard t o a nother .

We s ee h ow much

S o me o f t he 5 0 o r s o v ar ie t ies

o f O lof ' sc o ins c lass if ied b y L agerqv is t a re k nown o n ly f rom s ing le s pec imens , a nd may b e f ro m d ies t ha t were l i t t le u sed . Many d ies, h owever , a re k nown f ro m f i ve o r t en s pec i mens o r e ven more . T h is s or t o f d ispar i ty i s n orma l f or most med ieva l c oin s er ies ;

i th as b een d escr ibed a s p roducing a n e xpon-

e n t ia l c urve i ft he n u mbers o f c o ins s urv iv ing p er d ie a re p lo t ted o n ag raph a ga ins t t he e xa mp les f or e ach n u mber . 3 42

I ti s c lear f ro m L yon 's f or mu la t ha t

O lof

Crux

Ra t io

D igerätk ra , G o t land

9

2 77

1 :3 1

Enge I , G o t land

2

2 6

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Larsarve , G o t land Myrände , G o t land

2 4

4 9 4 1

1 :2 5 1 :1 0

S igsarve , G o t land

1

6 1

1 :6 1

Munkegärd , B ornho lm Ho lsegärd , B ornho lm

1 1

1 18 1 8

1 :1 18 1 :1 8

t he k nown d ies f or O lof s c o ins r epresen t c o mfor tab ly o ver 9 0 p er c en t , o f t he o r ig ina l o u tpu t .

The med ian r a t io i n t he t ab le i s 1 :2 5 , a nd i f we r e me mber

t he h oards , f or e xamp le f ro m Den mark o r P o land , c on ta in ing C rux c o ins b u t n one o f O lof , i t wou ld s ee m r easonab le t o s ay p rov isiona l ly t ha t t here were n ot l ess t han t wen ty-f ive t imes a s many Eng l ish Crux c o ins i n t he N or thern L ands , i .e. a q uan t i ty e qu iva len t t o t he o u tpu t o f n o t l ess t han 2 5 x5 0 , o r 1 ,250 t imes t he a verage o u tpu t o f a n e ar ly S ig tuna p enny d ie . Un fortuna tely t here i s n o a gree men t o n wha t t ha t a verage o utpu t may h ave b een . I fi t were 1 0 ,000 , we s hou ld p erhaps b e t h ink ing o f af i gure o f n o t l ess t han 1 2.5 mi l l ion C rux c o ins a va i lab le i n t he Nor thern L ands —or e ven i n S weden a lone . I fi t were 1 ,000 , t he t ota l wou ld c orrespond ing ly b e more l ike 11/4 mi l l ion . Were O lof 's d ies v ery much u nderused?

T he s i mp lest a pproach t o t ha t q uest ion i s

t o s ay t ha t h is c o ins h ave h ad a s urv iva l-ra te a verag ing i n e xcess o f 4p er d ie , whereas f or Crux c o ins o f t he L inco ln m in t t he c orrespond ing f igure i s u nder 2 .

S im i lar ly , t he S can ian A Ethe lred im i ta t ions h ave h ad a s urv iva l-ra te i n

e xcess o f 4p er d ie ( w i th c lear e vidence o f d ispar i ty b etween i nd ividua l d ies) . I f we om i t t he L inco ln c o ins f ound e lsewhere t han t he Nor thern L ands t ha t f igure w i l l n ecessar i ly b e s t i l l l ower .

The who le o f t he Eng l ish C rux c o inage

was s truck f ro m s o meth ing l ike 4 ,000 d ies , o r 8 0 t imes a s many a s f or O lof 's c o ins.

T he c on jectured min i mu m r a t io o f 1 :2 5, t aken t oge ther w i th a n

a verage d ie -outpu t a ssu med t o b e t he s ame f or O lof a s i n Eng land , wou ld a lready imp ly t ha t o nly a t h ird o f t he Eng l ish c o ins were t o b e f ound i n t he Nor thern L ands a t t he e nd o f t he v a l id i ty-per iod . T o s ugges t , t herefore , t ha t t he S ig tuna d ies were u sed f ar b elow t he ir t echn ica l c apac i ty a nd t ha t o n ly p erhaps a t h ir t ieth o f t he C rux i ssue f e tched u p i n S candinav ia w ou ld r a ise i n a n a cute f orm t he q uest ion wha t b eca me o f t he d anege ld p a id d ur ing t he v a l id i ty o f t he Crux t ype . Br i t ish n um is ma t ists s ee L ondon moneyers b e ing d raf ted t o v ar ious s ou thern Danelaw m ints d ur ing t he Crux p er iod t o c ope w i th t he r ush o f work c rea ted b y t he d anege ld , wh i le S cand inav ian n um is ma t is ts wou ld p erhaps p refer t o e nv isage O lof 's d ies a s b e ing l i t t le u sed : b u t s o mewhere a long t he l ine , i deas l ike t hese h ave t o b e n u mer ica l ly r econc i lab le . We a re p lay ing w ith f igures wh ich a re o n ly a pprox i ma te , y e t a lready t hey s ee m t o r u le o u t o f c our t a ny s ugges t ion t hat t he h oards migh t c o mpr ise as ubstan t ia l f rac t ion o f t he V ik ing-age c urrency .

Un less t he S ig tuna a rgu-

men t i s h igh ly m is leading , i ti s p oss ib le t o a sser t t ha t t ha t c urrency ( Ger man a s wel l a s Eng l ish , a nd o f wh ich t he Crux t ype i n d ue c ourse made u p o n ly a f ract ion ) r an i n to t ens o f m i ll ions.

3 43

The s ame g enera l a rgu men t c an b e d ep loyed , u sing t he l arge d ie-l inked s er ies o f L ong C ross im i ta t ions r ecen t ly s tud ied b y Mark B lackburn .

I ti s

c lear t ha t t hey were m in ted i nt he N or thern L ands , f ro m s o me 4 8 r everse d ies . They h ave h ad a s urv iva l-ra te wh ich a ga in v ar ies w ide ly b ut wh ich a verages a l mos t e xact ly 3 c o ins p er r everse d ie . I n t he ( pub l ished ) h oards i n wh ich t hey o ccur , t he ir r a t io t o Eng l ish L ong C ross c o ins v ar ies i nv ery much t he s a me way a s t he S ig tuna i ssue . E specia l ly when t he l egends o n t he d ies were , a s i n t h is c ase , i rre levan t , t here i s n o o bv ious r eason t o a ssu me t ha t c raf te men wou ld h ave b een s o u n thr i f ty a s t o d iscard a r everse d ie b efore i t was worn d own , o n ly t o r ep lace i tw i th a no ther . I fa verage d ie-outpu t were o n ap ar w ith t ha t a t Eng l ish m in ts , i t would imp ly ( sub ject t o a more e xac t a ssessmen t o f t he r a t io , o n t he b asis o f a s-ye t u npub l ished h oards ) s o me th ing b etween 1 0 a nd 1 5 m i l lion L ong Cross c o ins i n t he c urrency o f t he Nor thern L ands . t hese a re o n ly v ery r ough f igures. t he b es t we h ave .

Aga in ,

F or t he p resen t , t hey a re u nfortuna te ly

T o wha t e x ten t , a nd h ow r ap id ly , d id t h is s ee m ing ly v ery l arge s tock o f c urrency c ircu la te? P ure ly l oca l e xchanges , w i th in t he o rb i t o f t he n eares t market-p lace , a re a l most i mposs ib le t o d e tec t i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , e ven when c o ins were m in ted l oca lly , b ecause t hey d id n o t r esult i n a ny o bv ious g eograph ica l d isp lace men t o f t he c o ins . T it he f i nds s how t ha t e xchanges were t ak ing p lace o ver a med iu m d is tance , s ay 5 0-250 k in , i ti s p erhaps l i ke ly t ha t t here w il l h ave b een l oca l t ransact ions a lso ; d if f icu l t t o p rove.

b u t t he c ase i s e x traord inar i ly

I n e leven th-cen tury Eng land t he d is tances a t wh ich c o ins

a re f ound f ro m t he ir m in t o f o r ig in g ive u s , a ga inst a b ackground o f f requen t t ype-changes , a n e xce l len t measure o f t he impor tance o f r eg iona l o r i n terr eg iona l e xchanges , a nd t hey r evea l ar ap id a nd w idespread monetary c irc u la t ion . 41 The s ame me thod o f a na lys is u n for tuna te ly c anno t b e f u lly a pp l ied t o t he V ik ing-age f i nds f ro m t he N or thern L ands , a s t he ir m in ts o f o r ig in l ay f or t he mos t p ar t f ar a way o verseas . One r eason why B irg it ta 1Mrdh r sr e marks o n c u t d irha ms a re e xci t ing a re t hat t hey h o ld o u t s o me h ope o f g et t ing a f oo t i n t he d oor w i th t h is i n trac tab le p rob le m , b y s how ing t ha t i n t he l a te t enth c entury s o me r eg ions h ad a more i n tens ive l oca l c ircu la t ion t han o thers .

F or

t he e leven th c en tury i ti s a ga in p oss ib le t o make u se o f t he l oca l i ssues.

E ven

t hough t hey u sua l ly make u p o nly a sma l l p roport ion o f t he h oards , o ne may a ssu me t ha t t hey a re r ando m i n r espec t o f t he ir mob i l i ty c o mpared w i th o ther c o intypes wh ich t hey s uper f icia l ly r ese mb le , a nd t ha t t hey g ive a g ood i nd ic a t ion , t herefore , o f t he r ap id i ty o f c ircu la t ion o f al arge s ect ion o f t he c urrency . I n p ar t icu lar t he Dan ish c o inage f ro m t he r e ign o f C nu t o nwards , s truck mos t ly a t L und i n S kane , b u t a lso a t Rosk i lde a nd S lagelse o n S j2 1 land , a t V iborg i n J u t land , a nd a t R ibe a nd Hedeby i n S lesvig , a nd e lsewhere , a l lows u s t o s ee t ha t t he i ssues o f t hese s cat tered min ts ming led q u ick ly ,4 2 a nd a lso t ha t t hey s oon o ccur s porad ica l ly i n h oards e verywhere f ro m N orway t o P o land . 43 S im i lar ly N orweg ian c o ins f ro m b efore c .1100 h ave b een f ound i n more t han f orty l oca l i t i tes i n Den mark , S weden , a nd t he S lav l ands , i n s pi te o f h av ing b een m in ted f or t he most p ar t f ar away t o t he n or th-wes t a t Trondhe im .4 4 B u t t hen we h ave t he c onf l ict ing e v idence o f a sma l l a nd r ather i so la ted p oo l o f c urrency i n F in land . P erhaps t here were o ther p er iphera l r eg ions , i n to wh ich c o inage was c arr ied , a nd where i t was t hen t rapped. We c anno t b e s ure , j us t b ecause t he s a me k inds o f c o ins a re s ca t tered w ide ly t hrough 3 44

t he Nor thern L ands , t ha t t he p rocess o f m ixing wen t o n e qua l ly b etween a l l r eg ions. The f orce o ft he F inn ish e v idence c ou ld n ot h ave b een s uspec ted b efore a f u l l r ecord o f d ie-dup l ica t ion h ad b een c o mp i led . 45 I n t he t en th c en tury , e ven t hough c ons iderab le amoun ts o f S ä män id a nd o ther o r ien ta l c o ins were a lready a va i lab le , c ond i t ions may h ave b een d if feren t . Ev idence t ha t t rade a t ad is tance was wel l d eve loped e ar ly i n t he V ik ing a ge i s f or thco ming f rom d istr ibu t ion- maps o f f inds o f a r tefac ts o f v ar ious k inds ; 46 b u t t o a rgue f ro m t ha t wou ld b e t o b eg p rec isely t he q ues t ion wh ich c oncerns u s : whether t he t rade i nvo lved mone tary e xchanges , o r was c onducted b y means o f b ar ter . 47 I n t he l as t r esor t o n ly t he n um is ma t ic e v idence c an p rove t he e x ten t o f mone tary c ircu la t ion . The v ery r estr ic ted e astward d istr ibu t ion o f t he Hedeby c o inage u n t i l m in t-ou tpu t r ose i n a bout t he 9 70s 4 8

s uggests t ha t

i n t hat r espect Denmark a nd t he e as t B a l t ic u n t i l t hen r e ma ined q u i te i sola ted f ro m e ach o ther .

( An e ar ly s ign o f c hange i s s een i n al i t t le g roup o f h oards

f ro m t he 9 50s f ro m t he O der mou th n ear Wo l in , i n t he K am ier i P o morsk i d istr ic t . 49 ) I t s ee ms t hat t he c rea t ion o f a monetary z one u n i t ing a l l t he N or thern L ands o ccurred r a ther q u ick ly a t t he e nd o f t he t en th c en tury . A t t he s ame t ime a n umber o f m in ts b egan s tr ik ing im i ta t ions o f Crux a nd t hen L ong Cross p ennies—in c en tra l S weden f or O lof S kö tkonung , f ur ther s ou th p erhaps i n S käne , s o mewhere e lse n or th o f t he Danev irke , a nd ( l ess s uccessf u l ly ) w i th t he n a mes o f S ven F orkbeard o f Den mark a nd O la f Tryggvason o f N orway .

T here i s , o bv ious ly , ap o l i t ica l d imension i n t h is n ove l a c t iv i ty , b u t

t he b asic i mpetus s ee ms t o c o me f ro m t he i n f low o f Eng l ish Hand a nd Crux c o ins b eg inn ing i n t he y ears a round 9 90. Any e v idence f ro m a bou t t ha t d a te t herefore d eserves s pec ia l a t ten t ion . T he h al l-bractea tes o f Hedeby t ype , Ma lmer KG 1 3 , a re t hough t t o h ave b een s truck s hor t ly b efore t he mi l lenn iu m . 5 ° By c .1005 t hey t urn u p i n h oards f ro m Upp land , S käne , Da is land , B ornho lm , i lek inge , a nd G o t land .5 1 S im i lar ly , t he d iffus ion o f t he e arly S wedish Crux p enn ies o f O lof S k t S tkonung f ro m t heir m in t-p lace o f S igtuna ofers c er ta in a nd v a luab le i n for ma t ion f ro m t he e nd o f t he t enth a nd t he v ery b eg inn ing o f t he e leven th c en tury .

They o ccur i n a t

l east f i ve G o t land h oards w i th t .p .q . i n t he y ears 9 95-1000 ;

a nd t here was

o ne s pec i men i n t he sma l l V i ts 1 5 h oard f ro m t he s ou thern Tr5nde laK , wh ich may a lso h ave b een c oncea led b efore t he e nd o f t he t en th c entury .5 z

I n t he

I ho lm h oard f ro m F yn , c oncea led s oon a f ter 1 002 , t here were 1 8 s pec imens ; 5 3 a nd t here w ere t wo i n t he H ököp inge h oard f ro m S lane ( t .p .q . 1 002 ) , a nd o ne i n t he M tmkegard h oard f ro m B ornho lm , n ot much l a ter i n d a te. 54 I n t he G o t land h oards a lso f ro m t he v ery b eg inn ing o f t he e leven th c en tury , s uch a s Ö sarve , L arsarve , a nd D igeräkra , t hey o ccur i n u sefu l q uan t i t ies. 5 5 t hey were b eing s ca t tered q u ick ly .

Thus

There i s o ne f ro m t he P o l ish h oard o f

L isöwek c oncea led s oon a f ter 1 011. 56 Much t he s a me s t ory i s r epea ted b y t he d iel inked g roup o f a nonymous im ita t ions men t ioned a bove , wh ich a re d a teab le t o c .1000-3. T he l oca t ion o f t he workshop t ha t p roduced t he m i s n o t k nown , a nd h as b een d escr ibed s i mp ly a s ' so mewhere t o t he e ast o f t he N orth S ea a nd n or th o f t he Danev irke '. A lready b y c .1003 c o ins o f t h is g roup a re f ound i n h oards f ro m I celand , f ro m t he i s land o f- S y l t , f rom I ge l5sa ( Skane) , Y t l ings ( Go t land ) , a nd Vaab ina ( Es ton ia ) . ( I f o ne c o mpares t he e ar ly p rovenances f or O lof 's c o ins , t he

3 45

impression o f a more wester ly d is tr ibu t ion o f t he L ong Cross im ita t ions i s s treng thened b y t he n u mber o f G o t land h oards f ro m t he f irs t y ears o f t he e leven th c entury wh ich d o n ot f igure i n t he l i st .) S imi lar ly t he S ig tuna c o ins i n t he n a mes o f Anund J acob a nd Cnu t h ave b een f ound a t as core o fw ide ly-sca t tered l oca l i t ies , r ang ing f ro m Ärstad a nd Trondhei m i n Norway , 57 a nd Rossv ik a nd U ndro m i n L german land , 5 8 t hrough G o t land , a nd B lek inge , t o L l ibeck ,

5 9

N ous is i n F in land ,

Ku jawy ( w i th a t .p .q. o f 1 027) , Rychnowo , a nd P lönsk , h oard f ro m Russ ia .

t he P ol ish f i nds o f

6 0

6 1

a nd t he K o lodei i

T he o ccurrence o f t he S wedish p enn ies i n P o l ish h oards may s ee m a t f i rs t g lance t o c onf l ic t w i th wha t h as b een s a id a bou t t he n or thward mone tary g rad ien t a nd t he r ela t ive ly sma l l p ropor t ions o f Ang lo-Saxon c o ins s ou th o f t he B a l t ic. B u t o ne h as t o r e me mber t he n u merous h oards f ro m wh ich S wedish c o ins w ere a bsen t .

The a ggrega te p ercen tage c on tras ts b etween r eg ions a re t he o verr id ing

f ac t . D if fus ion was r ap id w i th in S cand inav ia , a nd c o ins moved o utwards f ro m S ig tuna t owards a l l p o in ts o ft he c o mpass , a nd n o t p redo m inan t ly i n o ne d irec t ion . Th is o f fers i n teres t ing e vidence f or t he n a ture o f monetary c ircu la t ion w i th in t he N or thern L ands : v iewed f ro m c en tra l S weden , i t was n ot , f or e xamp le , merely a n e as twards d r if t o f s urp lus s i lver . F ur ther g enera l s uppor t i s p rov ided b y t he p reva lence o f p eck ing . C o ins t ended t o b eco me more p ecked a s t ime w ore o n , a nd t hus i tc ou ld b e a rgued t ha t p eck ing i s r a ther imprec isely a measure o f t he amoun t o f u se t he c o ins r ece ived . T he most r ecen t Eng l ish c o ins i n t he D igerAkra h oard , f or e xamp le , a re v irtua l ly u npecked , whereas s o me o f t he e ar l ier i ssues i n t he s ame h oard may c arry u p t o 2 0 p ecks e ach .6 2 And i n av ery l a te h oard s uch a s S nova lds , d epos i ted af ter 1 085 , t here a re G er man c o ins w ith o ccas iona l ly a s many a s 5 0 o r 6 0 p eck- marks .6 3

One c anno t , h owever , make a s i mp le e qua t ion b e-

t ween t he n umber o f p ecks a nd t he d egree o fu se.

C o ins were a lso b en t t o

t es t t he ir me ta l , a nd t here a re d if feren t methods o f p eck ing , e .g . o n t he r im a s we l l a s o n t he f ace o f t he c o in . 5 .

The h oards s een a s imper fec t s amp les o f t he c urrency :

' quas i-rea l

s tructures ' There a re s o l id r easons , t hen , t o s uppose t ha t t hroughou t t he f irs t h a lf o f t he e leven th c entury a nd i ndeed p robab ly o ver a l onger p er iod t han t ha t t he s tock o f c urrency i n S cand inavia was r ece iv ing i ncre men ts a s ar esu l t o f b a lance-of-paymen ts i n f lows , a nd a t t he s ame t ime was b eing d if fused q u i te r ap id ly t o d istan t r eg ions , o ver d istances measured i n h undreds o f k i lo me tres . P resu mab ly i t was u sed f or l oca l e xchanges a s we l l , b u t t ha t i s much more d if f icu l t t o p rove. We o ugh t n ex t t o a sk o urse lves whe ther , i n t hese c ircu ms tances , h oards a re l i ke ly t o r ef lect s u ms o f money n ew ly c arr ied t o t he N or thern L ands , o r w i th in t he N or thern L ands n ew ly c arr ied f ro m o ne r eg ion t o a no ther , o r whe ther i tc an b e a rgued t ha t most o f t he h oards a re s a mp les d rawn a t r ando m f ro m t he c ircu la t ing med iu m i n t he r eg ion where t hey were c oncea led , a nd t hus s uscep t ib le t o ac o mpara t ive s tat ist ica l a na lys is .

Th is amb igu ity l i es a t

t he h eart o f t he p rob le m o fd ec id ing h ow t o i n tegra te t he e v idence o f i nd iv idua l

3 46

h oards . T he d i f f icu l ty was s een c lear ly b y Andrze j Ma tuszewsk i a nd J erzy Wie low ie jsk i , who s poke a bou t t he s truc tures w h ich t he h oards d ep ic t a s ' q uas ir ea l s truc tures '. Al o ur a na lyses ( excep t where t hey u se s tray l osses o f s ing le c o ins ) n ecessar i ly r e fer t o t he money t ha t was h oarded , p erhaps s e le ct ive ly , o r a t ad is tance f rom i t s s ource , a nd n o t t o t he ' rea l s truc tures ' among t he c o ins t ha t r e ma ined a bove-ground : i ti s a n u n tes ted a ssump t ion t ha t t he t wo a re e ssen t ia l ly t he s ame i n a ny p ar t icu lar r espec t .6 4 T heore t ic ians may w ish t o c onsider whe ther t here a re a ny n ew p ossib i l i t ies f or a na lysis a r is ing o u t o f t he v iew ( d efended h ere ) t ha t t he h oards f ro m t he N or thern L ands a dd u p t o o n ly av ery sma l l s amp le i n r e la t ion t o t he n u mbers o f c o ins a boveg round . T he f o l low ing r e marks , h owever , a re e ssen t ia l ly emp ir ica l . B r i ta Ma lmer d e mons tra tes b e low 6 5 t ha t t he s ta t is t ica l a na lys is o f p eck ing i s ap owerfu l a nd c onc lus ive me thod o f d is t ingu ish ing d oub le h oards o r ' s av ings h oards ' ( c ons is t ing o ft wo o r more s ums o f money p u t t oge ther a t d i f feren t t imes o r p erhaps i nd i f feren t r eg ions ) . I f we r u le o u t s ome h oards i n t ha t way a s n o t b e ing r andom s amp les , t he mos t p rac t ica l me thod b y wh ich w e c an h ope t o t est t he v a l id i ty o ft hose t ha t r e ma in a s as amp le o ft he l oca l c urrency a t a p ar t icu lar mo men t i nt ime , i s b y an u mer ica l a ssess men t o f t he i n terna l c onsis tency o f t he h oard-asse mb lage f or a p ar t icu lar p rov ince o r r eg ion . B u t a s ap rel im inary t o d iscuss ing t ha t , t here i s av ery s imp le a nd f am i l iar a rgumen t wh ich d eserves t o b e p u t i n to t he c on tex t o f b ul l ion f l ows a nd r eg iona l s tocks o f c urrency . I ti s t ha t o ne h ard ly e ver e ncoun ters h oards o f a ny a pprec iab le s ize i n S cand inav ia c ons is t ing e xc lus ive ly o f A ng lo-Saxon c o ins o r e xc lus ive ly o f G er man c o ins , a s m igh t b e t he c ase i ft hey were s u ms o f money n ew ly a rr ived f ro m o verseas a nd p ro mp t ly b ur ied i n t he g round . T here a re av ery f ew e xcep t ions , s uch a s t he T yske erd h oard f ro m B ornho lm c ons is t ing o f 3 4 L ong C ross c o ins i nv ery f resh c ond i t ion .6 6 F ro m c .970 o nwards , h owever , n ear ly a l l t he h oards a re o f av ery mixed c harac ter a nd , a par t f ro m a rm-r ings , b ars , r ods , a nd many o ther f orms o fu nco ined s i lver , t hey o f ten c on ta in o ld c o ins , wh ich were n o l onger a va i lab le i n q uan t i ty i nt he ir c oun tr ies o f o r ig in . A l though o ne s hou ld h es i ta te t o d educe t ha t s i lver c o ins were t rea ted mere ly a s ac onven ien t f orm o f b u l l ion—and t h is i s ap o in t t o wh ich we s ha l l r eturn— t he t horoughness o f t he mix ing o f d i f feren t i ssues s trong ly s ugges ts t ha t t he c o ins i n a ny o ne h oard h ad c o me t oge ther a f ter b e ing u sed i n many s ca t tered t ransac t ions s ince l eav ing t he ir r eg ions o f i ssue . T he G erman c o ins may t o ac er ta in e x ten t h ave b een m ixed b efore e ver t hey r eached t he s hores o ft he B a l t ic ,b u t g iven t he much l ower p ropor t ion o f Ang lo-Saxon c o ins i nt he wes t S lav l ands , t here i s ap r ima f ac ie c ase f or s ay ing t ha t S cand inav ian h oards r ef lec t t he mix ing o fG erman w i th A ng lo-Saxon c o ins a s ar esu l t o f t ransa c t ions w i th in S cand inav ia . The h oards w i l l n o tn ecessar i ly b e c o mp lete ly r ando m i n e very r espec t . Apar t f rom t hose w h ich c an b e s hown t o b e l ongterm s av ings h oards , a nd t he f ew w i th a s pec ia l r ecen t c harac ter , e ven t he more a verage h oards may i nc lude l i t t le c lus ters o f c o ins t ha t s ee m t o h ave s tayed t ogether s ince t hey were impor ted i n to t he N or thern L ands . ( A f ew e xamp les , d rawn f ro m among many , a re d iscussed i n t he A ppendix . )T h is i s w here n um isma t ic a na lys is b eco mes a n a r t , a nd w here awe l l-ba lanced j udge men t i s r equ ired . F or many

3 47

h oards c an b e f ound wh ich a re f a ir ly c onsisten t among t he mse lves , i n t he s ense t ha t t aken t oge ther t hey r evea l s teady p ropor t ions , o r as teady t rend . I ti s n o t d i f f icu lt , b y ac arefu l c o mpar ison t o s ee wh ich a re t he a bnorma l h oards , t o d ef ine t he n orm , a nd t o a rrange t he ma ter ia l i n s uch a w ay a s t o p rov ide as amp le w h ich may b e j udged t o b ei ns truc t ive i nr espec t o f t he p ar t icu lar c onc lus ions t ha t o ne w ishes t o d raw f ro m i ta bout t he c o mpos i t ion o f t he c urrency . 6 .

T ranspos ing a ge-s truc tures n u mer ica l ly i n to was tage r a tes , f ro m t he e v idence o f t he E ng l ish c o ins T he k ey t op ic t o wh ich a s ta t is t ica l a na lys is o ft he h oards s hou ld b e d e-

v o ted i s , n ecessari ly , t he ir a ge-s truc ture . E very h oard h as a n a ge-s truc ture , a nd t h is f ac t p er m i ts d irec t c o mpar isons b e tween h oards , e ven t hough t hey may c on ta in q u i te d i f feren t s er ies o f c o ins—Or ien ta l , G erman , a nd Engl ish , o r am ix ture o f t hese . P rov ided t ha t we c an i den t i fy s a t isfac tor i ly t hose h oards t ha t a re ' norma l ', t he s pec ia l v a lue a nd i n teres t t o t he mone tary h ist or ian o f i n forma t ion a bou t t he a ge-struc ture o ft he c urrency i s t ha t i tc an b e t ransposed n u mer ica l ly i n to d e ta i led e v idence f or w as tage r a tes , i n t er ms o f a verage p ercen tage l oss p er a nnu m . T he f i gures a re d irec t ly r e leven t b o th t o t he p rob lem o f r eturn f l ows o f s i lver o u t o f S cand inavia , a nd t o c a lcu la t ing t he s i ze o f t he s tock o f c urrency r e ma in ing i n .t he N or thern L ands . T he c onc ep t o fv ary ing was tage r a tes o f fers u s aw ay o fi n tegra t ing o therw ise u nmana geab le amoun ts o f h oard-ev idence i n to a s ing le h is tor ica l p erspec t ive . A nd t he q uan t if ied s tudy o f r eg iona l v ar ia t ions i n was tage r a tes s hou ld l ead u s t owards a mode l b y r eference t o wh ich we c an d escr ibe a nd i n terpre t c urrency f l ows w i th in t he N or thern L ands . F or t he b es t r esu l ts , o ne n eeds t o b e a b le t o d a te t he c o ins c lose ly .

T he

v a l id i ty-per iods o f t he l a te Ang lo-Saxon c o inage h ave c rea ted a l mos t i dea l ma ter ia l . I ft here a re s o me r e ma in ing d i f ferences o f o p in ion a bou t c hrono logy , t hey c oncern a l terna t ive d a tes wh ich a re o n ly o ne o r t wo y ears a par t a nd wh ich a re o f o n ly marg ina l c onsequence f or t he p urposes o ft h is e xerc ise .6 7 T he c o ins a re u n iform f ro m a l l t he E ng l ish m in ts , a nd a re c onven ien t ly d iv ided u p i n to b locks o f a bou t s ix , l a ter a bou t t wo o r t hree y ears . F or t he p er iod u p t o c .1040 i ti s r easonab le t o a ssume t ha t t he b u lk o f t he S cand inavian f i nds o f ap ar t icu lar t ype l e f t Eng land d ur ing t he f ew y ears o f t he ir v a l id i ty-per iod o r v ery s hor t ly a f terwards . T he G er man c o inage i sn o t h and led s o c onveni en t ly , b ecause s ucceed ing i ssues d id n o t l as t f or e qua l l eng ths o f t ime a nd were n ot n ecessar i ly d e mone t ized when t he ir i ssue c eased ; a nd b ecause t here was n o n a t iona l u n i for m i ty i n d es ign o r i nt he d a tes a t wh ich t he t ypes w ere c hanged . We s ha l l b eg in , t herefore , where t he e v idence h appens t o s u i t o ur p urpose b es t , n ame ly w i th t he A ng lo-Saxon s er ies , a nd f o l low t he o bv ious p rocedure o f c onver t ing t he n u mber o f c o ins i n e ach h oard i n to p ercen tages , s o t ha t t he a ge-s truc ture o f t he E ng l ish p ar t o f o ne h oard c an b e c o mpared w i th t ha t o f a nother o n l eve l t er ms . As equence o f h oards c oncea led a tv ar ious d a tes t hrough t he l as t q uar ter o f t he t en th a nd t he f i rs t h a l f o f t he e leven th c en tury s hows ap rogress ive ly e x tended a ge-s truc ture ( S ee Tab le 1 ) .

O ld c o ins r e ma ined i n c ircu la t ion ,

e spec ia l ly f ro m t he t ime o f t he C rux t ype o nwards , a nd t h is i n i t se lf s ugges ts , a l though p erhaps i td oes n o t q u i te p rove , t ha t S cand inav ia e n joyed a b alanceo f-pay men ts s urp lus v is-à-v is E ng land f ro m c .990 o nwards . 3 48

I f we t ake o ne t ype a t at ime , a nd f o l low i tt hrough t he s equence o fh oards , we c an i n terpre t i ti nt er ms o f t wo p a t terns i n terac t ing . F irs t , t he t ype r ises s w if t ly f ro m z ero t o a max i mu m p ercen tage a t o r v ery s hor t ly a f ter t he e nd o f i t s v a l id i ty-per iod , a nd t hen i ts inks t o a modera te p ercen tage , a nd t herea f ter dw ind les t o v ery l i t t le.

Thus f or e xamp le Hand c o ins a re j us t b eg inn ing

t o s upp lan t R efor m/F irs t Sma l l Cross i n t he Vaa lse h oard , where t hey make u p o n ly 1 7% .

I n t he K u lhusgärden a nd G u f fr ide h oards , h owever , i n which

Hand c oins a re s t i l l t he l a test t ype , t hey h ave r isen t o 9 5-100% o f t he t o ta l . Dur ing t he n ex t v a l id i ty-per iod ( t he C rux t ype ) , t he Hand c o ins q u ick ly f a l l b ack t o 3 2% ( Res 15v ) , 1 7% ( Munkegärd ) , b y c . 1 005 t o s ing le f igures . I f we f o l low C rux t hrough t he c har t , i tb ehaves i n much t he s ame way : i n t he Res 15v h oard w e s ee i tc om ing i n ( 5 4% ) , a nd j us t a f ter t he e nd o f i t s v a l idity-per iod i tr eaches 8 0-85% ( Munkegärd , Sm iss , D igeräkra ) . I tt hen f a l ls t o 6 1% ( I ge lbsa ) , 2 5% ( Ho lsegärd ) , 8% ( My ilnde ) , 4% ( Enegärd ) , a nd s o o n. We migh t imag ine t he p ercen tage o f e ach t ype a s at heoret ica l c urve ( s ee F ig . 2 ) .

4 — v

F ig 2 .

t i me

—9 0-

Theore t ica l p ropor t ion o f at ype i n t he c urrency , p lo t ted a ga inst t ime . v =t he t ype 's v a l id i ty-per iod i n Eng land .

The p eak o f t he c urve r eaches s uccess ively l ower l eve ls w i th e ach n ew t ype . H and r eaches 9 5-100% , Crux r eaches 8 0-85% , a nd L ong Cross r eaches c .60% , b u t Cnu t 's Q ua trefo i l a nd Hel me t t ypes e ach r ise t o o n ly 2 0-30% .

A f ter 1 035 ,

e ach n ew t ype , a dm i t ted ly w i th a s hor ter v a l idi ty-per iod , h ard ly e ver makes d oub le f igures .

Th is i s b ecause a r es idue o f o lder t ypes i s a ccoun t ing f or a

g row ing p ropor t ion o f t he c urrency ( s ee F ig . 3 ) .

V2

F ig 3 .

Theore t ica l p ropor t ions o f s uccess ive t ypes i n t he c urrency , p lot ted a ga ins t t ime . A t a ny p o in t o n t he h or izonta l a x is t o t he r igh t o f t he b eg inning o fv a l id i ty-per iod v 2 , t he s um o f t he o ver lapp ing c urves s hou ld b e 1 00% .

3 49

T ABLE 1 .

S elected h oards f rom t he N orthern L ands t o i llustrate t he p roportions o f s uccessive

i ssues o f A nglo-Saxon c oinage

( expressed a s % o f i dentified A nglo-Saxon c oins).

S ources

g eform F irst H and

8 3 i 17

4 9 6

1 00

1 4 3 2f

S econd H and C rux

1 5

2

7 3

2

0

5

2 9 {4

1 2 {7 8

9 1

8 1

8 5 1

H elmet L ast S mall C ross

7 9 5

-

4 4

6 1

4 6

2 5

2 0

3 1

2 5

6 0

4 8

1

2 4

-

1

H elmet S hort C ross J ewel C ross F leur-de-lis A rm a nd S ceptre P acx R adiate T refoil S mall F lan ( Later c oins)

3 50

0 1 I

0 2

1 5

1 7

1 0

6 2

5 3

1

1 2

7 8

Q uatrefoil

K ännungs ( Gotland)

E keskogs ( Gotland)

S lethei ( Rogaland)

4

1 7

L ong C ross

N äs ( Uppland)

I gelösa ( Skane)

2

. } 9

1 2 5 4

D igerAkra ( Gotland)

B ore

S miss

( Gotland)

( Stavanger)

K aldal ( Nord-Tr/ndelag)

G uffride

( Gotland)

K ulhusggrden ( Sjaelland)

s ee n otes a t e nd o f t ext.)

8

7

1 0

3

1 0

R eform

}

C rux

3 9

L ong C ross

4 0

( 1 8

5 2

3 1

1 8

1 : 1

. i 4 ) 0 2

0 P I Z , . ..

O CO

› , 4 2 P

0 C O " 1

,

. 2 I a a o

• r i

s

c d

Q CO

z

C O . 1 3 % . 0 m z

e , u ) 1 2 C O z a

-

1

G

1

3

2

1

4

_

_

,

1

-

1

-

5

_

-

-

if

4

1

2

6

- 18 12 1 8

5 1

2 4

37 2 4

1 8

2

5 1 4

1

2

1 {

1 3 1

2 -

g 4

3 novalds ( Gotland)

• r i

. . . C O

S jgsarve ( Gotland)

0

B r/holt ( Buskerud)

C O

c e

: 0

V alla ( Gotland)

' C O

. . . . . .

—,

0 i r , , 2

L .

c o

( Gotland)

F . a )

G andarve

E nner ( Jutland)

0

F irst H and S econd H and

' C O C O

C

T rondheim

( Gotland) M yrände

H attula ( Finland)

C O C O

S anda ( Dalarna)

c ont.)

K ongs/plantage ( Jutland)

( Table 1 ,

1 -

-

2 2

4

4

2 4

8

H elmet

7

1 2

L ast S mall C ross

8

1 8

Q uatrefoil

-

1 9

2 5

3 0

3 2

4

1 7

9

1 3

1 9

1 7

9 1 2

8

1 9

H elmet

1

2 2

2 1

3 9

1 5

7

1 3

1

2 1

2 5

2 3

2 6

4

1 3

6

1 9

4

0

1 3

2 2

1 0

1 3

3 1 8

5

9

0

C

S hort C ross

2 3

2

0

9

4 1 0

1

J ewel C ross F leur-de-lis

7 2 2

6 1 4

4 1 ',

2 1 0

3 1 6 9

4

8

9 2 5

2

4 1 2

4 1 3

1 2

5

3

1

3

2

5

2 7

6

2

1

8

2

5

A rm a nd S ceptre

1

1

1

4

1

-

P acx

4

1

0

6

1

-

R adiate

8

1

0

1

5

T refoil

1

S mall F lan ( Later c oins)

3 51

1 2

2

8

1

4

0

2

-

-

3

0

3

There we h ave a o ne-sen tence e xp lana t ion o ft he s ta t is t ica l p a t tern i n to wh ich t he Ang lo-Saxon c o ins i n t he h oards f a l l . I ti s r a ther d i f f icu l t t o e nv isage c ircums tances i n wh ich t he p ercen tage o f a n o bso lete t ype c ou ld i ncrease w i th t he p assage o f t ime . I fn o n ew c o ins were b e ing a dded t o t he s tock , t he f igure m igh t s tay t he s a me , b u t e ven t hen i tc ou ld n o t i ncrease . When we f i nd ah igher p ropor t ion i n al a ter h oard , t herefore , t here i s r eason t o s uppose e ither t ha t t he h oards c anno t b o th h ave b een w ithdrawn i n t he ir e n t ire ty f ro m t he s ame r eg iona l s tock o f c urrency—or t ha t t ha t s tock was v ery i mper fec t ly h o mogen ized . I ti s impor tan t t o b e c lear t ha t t he v ert ica l a x is o f t he t wo d iagrams measures p ropor t ions n o t a bso lu te q uan t i t ies o f c o ins . T hus , e ach t ype may dw ind le e i ther b ecause t he s tock o f t ha t t ype i n t he N or thern L ands r ema ined t he s ame , wh i le t he t o ta l c urrency c on t inued t o g row ; o r b ecause t he a bso lu te n umbers o f t he t ype were d ecreas ing a s c o ins were l os t , h oarded , me l ted d own , o r r e-expor ted ; o r f or s o me c o mb ina t ion o f t hese r easons . We c anno t e ven b eg in t o g uess t he b a lance b etween t he t wo r easons f ro m t he p recen tages a lone. T ha t i s o ne p a t tern . T he o ther , wh ich i n terac ts w i th i t , i s ar eg iona l v ar ia t ion i n t he was tage r a te . I n t he wes tern p ar ts o f S cand inavia , o bso lete t ypes t end t o dw ind le t o sma l l p ercen tages q u ick ly , i n t he e as t more s low ly . T hree h oards c oncea led a round 1 040 w i l l i l lus tra te t he c on tras t . T he K ongsS p lan tage h oard f ro m J u t land c on ta ins o n ly 3% o f C rux a nd L ong C ross c o ins. T he E ne erd h oard f ro m B ornho lm c on ta ins 2 0% o ft he s ame t ypes ; a nd t he N ous iainen h oard f ro m F in land c on ta ins 3 6% . T hese a re b ig d i f ferences , a nd e xamp les c ou ld b e mu l t ip l ied .

T he F o ldby h oard , f ro m R oga land ( s ou th-

wes tern N orway ) , f or e xa mp le , c on ta ins a r e markab le 6 1% o f ( r ecen t ) c o ins o f E dward t he C on fessor ,6 8 w hereas 1 0% wou ld b e ag ood p roport ion f ur ther e as t . O ne c an a rgue t ha t t he S le the i h oard , a ga in f ro m Roga land , a nd c ons is t ing o f o n ly 1 6 G er man c o ins w i th 5 34 Eng l ish , o f wh ich s o me 8 0% a re o f t he l a tes t t ype , i s p robab ly a c ompound h oard c ons is t ing o f aq u i te sma l l s um r ef lec t ing t he l oca l c urrency , t o wh ich al arge p arce l o fn ew lyi mpor ted money h as j ust b een a dded . Y e t i tr e ma ins t rue t ha t s uch h oards a re c harac ter is t ic o f t he wes t , a nd a re v ery r are ly f ound f ur ther e as t . P erhaps s o f ew o lder c o ins were a dded t o t he h oard s i mp ly b ecause s o f ew s tayed i n R oga land , wh ich a s ar eg ion t ended n o t t o r un a b a lance-o f-paymen ts s urp lus . I n t he F o l ay h oard i ti s o n ly t he v ery l a tes t t ype ( Expand ing C ross ) wh ich s hows a s trong n or thern f l avour , w i th 9 c o ins o f Y ork a nd 9 c o ins o f L inco ln , among a t o ta l o f2 8 o f t ha t t ype . A l though t he g eograph ica l p a t tern i s c lear , i ti sn o t p ar t icu lar ly c ons is ten t , e spec ia l ly p erhaps i n t hose r eg ions t ha t were mos t i nvo lved i n l ong-d istance t rade —for e xamp le G o t land . T hus , f ro m B ornho lm , t he E ne erd a nd S tore F r i Ard h oards h ave v ery much t he s ame p rof i le ( s ee T ab le 1 A ) ; a nd f ro m G o t land t hey a re c losely ma tched b y G andarve a nd ( l ess w e l l ) b y Myrände ; whereas S igsarve a nd K ar ls a lso f ro m G o t land, c on ta in ad is t inc t ly h igher p ropor t ion o f o ld c o ins. I nt he l ennungs a nd N y erds h oards t he L ong C ross e le men t i sv ery much l arger s t i l l .

Wh ich o ft he t hree p a irs o fh oards i s more t yp ica l o f t he c urrency o f 3 52

B ornho lm

G o t land

E

S F

G

M

Hand

S 9

K

Kt

9

2

N

-

1

2

2

Crux L ong Cross

4 1 6

5 1 6

6 1 4

8 1 8

2 2 2 4

3 7 2 4

1 7 5 3

1 8 5 1

Hel met L as t Smal l Cross

4 1 1

6 1 3

4 9

1 2 1 8

4 1 2

6 1 4

8 1 0

4 1 0

Qua trefo i l

1 2

1 3

1 7

1 9

8

9

Hel me t

1 9

2 1

2 6

2 2

6

1

-

7

S hor t C ross

1 2

( La ter t ypes ) TABLE 1 A .

x

8 x

1 3 x

1 0

3

4

-

5

0

-

1

-

x

x

-

-

Prof i les ( % ) o f s e lec ted f ro m B ornho lm a nd G ot land .

G ot land? ( Kenne th J onsson a dv ises me , o n t he b asis o f h is s tudy o ft he u npubl ished h oards , t ha t C nu t 's i ssues n or ma l ly make u p a much sma l ler p ropor t ion o f G o t land h oards t han t hey d o i n G an .darve a nd Myrhnde , a nd t ha t t he t h ird p a ir s hou ld b e r egarded a s more t yp ica l .) The h igh p ropor t ion o f Crux i n r ela t ion t o L ong C ross i n t he s econd p a ir c an h ard ly h ave a r isen t hrough t he a ge ing o ft he c urrency r ef lected b y t he t h ird p a ir : i n Kar ls t here a re a ctua l ly more Crux t han L ong Cross c oins . A s im i lar h igh r a t io i s f ound i n P o l ish h oards s uch a s Bydgoszcz , S chwaan , C iechano.w , a nd P lönsk ,

6 9

( s ee Tab le 4 ) ,

o r i n F in land a t Ha ttu la , 70 ( s ee Tab le 1 ) . Th is migh t s ugges t t rad ing l i nks b etween G o t land a nd e .g . P o meran ia , a nd o ne p ossib le i n terpre ta t ion wou ld b e t ha t o ld c oins were f l ow ing b ack i n to G o t land f ro m more e aster ly r eg ions i n c .1040 o r l a ter . T he G er man c o ins i n t he Kar ls h oard , s uch a s t hose o f K t 5 ln a nd o f R egensburg , a re a lso u nusua l ly e lderly f or a Swed ish h oard o f t ha t d a te . ( Perhaps i tw i l l t urn o u t t o b e a' d oub le h oard ' . ) I fi ti s n ecessary t o e s tab l ish t he g enera l c ons istency o f t he f i nds s epara te ly f or e ach r eg ion , a nd n o t f or t he Nor thern L ands a s awho le , t he t ask o f a na lysis b eco mes much b igger .

I tw i ll n eed t o d igest t he e vidence o f al arge

n u mber o fh oards , a nd wha th as b een p o in ted o u t o n t he b asis o f a mere t h ir ty o r s o c an b e n o more t han awork ing h ypo thes is , t o b e t es ted b y f u ture r esearch . Meanwh ile , i n o rder t o g a in a c learer i dea o f t he s or t o f a nnual wastage r a tes t ha t wou ld p roduce t he h oard-prof i les f ound i n S cand inav ia , l e t u s make as i mp le mode l o f t he c urrency ( Tab le 2 ) . A more r igorous ly d e f ined ma thema t ica l model h as b een d iscussed b y Ma tuszewsk i a nd Wie low ie jsk i .7 1 T he p resen t e xercise i s l ess amb i t ious , a nd p erhaps l ess n eu tra l , t han t heirs a s i ts eeks t o i n terpre t t he h oard-prof i le i n t erms o f b u l l ion- move men ts . T he p re m ises o n wh ich i tr es ts a re f a ir ly a rb i trary .

Apar t f ro m t he a ssu mp t ion

t ha t t he a ge-s tructure o ft he h oards i s n or ma l ly a n a ccura te r ef lec t ion o f a much l arger c urrency , t hey a re t ha t t he i nf lows i n to t he N or thern L ands a re r ela ted t o t he o u tf lows f ro m Eng land ( f or wh ich e st i ma tes , i n mi ll ions o f c o ins , a re t o a ppear i n t he B r i t ish Nu m is ma t ic J ourna l ) , a nd s econd ly t ha t a ny was tage o r o u tf lows o f Ang lo-Saxon c o ins f ro m t he N or thern L ands were u nse lect ive w i th r espec t t o t ypes .

I ft he c urren t t ype was p referent ia l ly r e-expor ted b e-

c ause i t was more a ccep tab le o r more v a luab le , t h is f ac t wou ld s i mp ly n o t s how u p i n t he h oard-prof i les , a l though i n d e ta i l i t migh t t end t o l eave ah ighert han-expec ted s hare o f c o ins ( such a s Sma l l Crux?) s truck l a te i n t he v a l id i typ er iod .

No e vidence i s a va i lab le wh ich wou ld e ven s ugges t s uch a t endency . 3 53

T heoretical m odel o f t he d eveloping c omposition o f t he A nglo-Saxon c omponent i n t he

c urrency o f t he N orthern L ands.

( Inflows a re r elated t o w astage f rom t he E nglish c urrency ,

b ased i n t urn o n e stimates o f m int-output.

P lus r esidue

2 ?

O UTFLOW

9

7

2 5

1 5

1 0 .5 1 4.5 3 4

5 0%

7

3 8 .25 3 6

) (

A rm a nd S ceptre

F leur-de-lis

J ewel C ross

S hort C ross

L ast S mall C ross

L ong C ross

F irst H and

I NFLOW

O utflows a re d ivided a mong t he s urviving t ypes

A ll f igures a re i n m illions o f c oins.)

S econd H and

p ro r ata .

Q uatrefoil

T ABLE 2 .

1 6

2 5

1 7

8

3

3

1

1

4 2.3

5 7

6 5

6 1.8

5 3.2

5 4 .7

5 4 .6

5 4 .5

3 0%

2 0%

3 % X

2 %

% / t ype E arlier t ypes C urrent t ype

?

0 .75 3 .75 4 .5

6 .98

8 .7

7 .88

6 .4

9 .62 1 0 .76

1 .5 1

1 .03

1 .07

1 .07

0 .5

2 .25 1 .75 6 .25

2 .25

1 .05

2 .4

2 .5

1 .7

0 .04

0 .03

0 .0 1

0 .0 1

1 .5

7 .5

0 .8

R ESIDUE a t e nd o f t ype

9 .0 2 3.25 2 9.03 2 6.28 3 2.0

4 8 .09 5 3.78 5 0 2 1

5 1.66 5 3.6 1

5 3.53 5 3.45

D IVIDED a mong R eform F irst H and S econd H and C rux L ong C ross H elmet L ast S mall +

1 .5

0 .75 0 .38 0 .19

0 .13

0 .09

0 .06

0 .05

0 .04

0 .03

0 .03

0 .03

0 .03

0 .03

6 .75 3 .38 1 .69

1 .18

0 .83

0 .58

0 .46

0 .37

0 .30

0 .29

0 .28

0 .28

0 .27

5 .25 2 .63

1 .84

1 .29

0 .90

0 .72

0 .58

0 .46

0 .45

0 .44

0 .43

0 .42

1 8 .75 1 3.13

9 .19

6 .43

5 .15

4 .12

3 .29

3 .19

3 .13

3 .07

3 .0 1

1 2.75

8 .93

6 .25

5 .00

4 .00

3 .20

3 .10

3 .04

2 .98

2 .92

5 .95

4 .17

3 .33

2 .67

2 .13

2 .07

2 .03

1 .99

1 .95

1 0 .88

8 .70

6 .96

6 .75

6 .62

6 .49

6 .36

1 3.97 1 3.69 1 3.4 1

1 3 .15

1 3.6

Q uatrefoil

2 2 .5

H elmet S hort C ross

1 8 .0

1 4 .4

1 5.3

1 2.24 1.87 1.64 1.40 1.17 7 .2

J ewel C ross F leur-de-lis A rm/Sceptre P acx

6 .98

6 .84

6 .7 1

6 .57

2 .96

2 .90

2 .84

2 .79

2 .97

2 .9 1

2 .85

0 .99

0 .97 0 .99

3 54

10%

5 0% -

9 73

F IG .4.

( 7

9 79

1 0 16

10 35

A ge-structure o f t he A nglo-Saxon c omponent o f t he c urrency : p ercentages. ( Source

:T able 3 .)

C oins, m illions 5 0

4 0

3 0

2 0-

10-

9 73 F IG.5.

9 79

A ge-structure o f t he A nglo-Saxon c omponent o f t he c urrency : a bsolute f igures. ( Source

:T able 2 .)

1 00%

5 0% -

/

.

I

9 36

9 65 F IG.6.

9 83

9 96

1 003

1 0 14

A ge-structure o f t he c oins o f K öln i n S wedish h oards ( Source

:T able 5 .)

3 55

1 027

1 036

:p ercentages.

1 046

1 056

B y ap rocess o f t r ia l a nd e rror , ar easonab le f i t was a ch ieved o n t he b as is t ha t u p t o t he e nd o f A E the lred 's r e ign mos t o ft he o u t f low f ro m Eng land r eached S cand inav ia , t herea f ter r a ther l ess , a nd f ro m t he t ime o f Haro ld Ia bou t a h a l f , d ec l in ing t o aq uar ter a tt he b eg inn ing o f t he r eign o f E dward t he C onf essor .

A n a nnua l was tage r a te o f 1 0% i s p os tu la ted u p t o t he e nd o f t he C rux

t ype , r ounded t o 5 0% f or e ach v a l id i ty p er iod ( 1 0 + 9+ 8.1 ..) . F rom L ong C ross o nwards t h is i s r educed t o 5% ( r ounded t o 3 0% ) , a nd f ro m Q ua trefo i l t o 3% ( r ounded t o 2 0% ) . F ro m J ewe l C ross o nwards , b y wh ich t ime E ng land 's f ore ign t rade w ou ld s ee m t o h ave b een s h i f t ing more t owards c on t inen ta l p ar tners ,7 2 awas tage r a te o f 1% i s p os tu la ted . J ewe l C ross i s a ssumed t o b e at hree-year v a l id i ty-per iod , t he l a ter o nes t wo-year p er iods . I f ad i f feren t c hrono logy were t o b e e s tab l ished i nvo lv ing , f or e xa mp le , l onger o r s hor ter p er iods t han 6 y ears f or c er ta in t ypes , s ome r e la t ive ly m inor a d jus tments wou ld b e n eeded t o t he a r i th me t ic o f t he mode l . T he d ec l in ing a nnua l was tage r a te o f t he mode l i s c oun terba lanced b y a n i ncreas ing s tock o f c urrency , s o t ha t was tage i n a bso lu te t erms i s more n ear ly c ons tan t . T hroughou t t he model , i ti s a ssu med t ha t t he s tock o f t he c urren t t ype was b u i ld ing u p p rog ress ive ly t hrough t he v a l id i ty-per iod , a nd t he was tage-ra te f or t he c urren t t ype i s t herefore h a lved , i n o rder t o make i te qu iva len t t o t he f u l l r a te a pp l ied t o t he s tock h a lf way t hrough t he p er iod . We c an n ow d raw a g raph wh ich s hows t he s t ock o f p os t-reform A ng loS axon c o ins i nt he N or thern L ands b u i ld ing u p f ro m z ero a t t he d a te o f Eadgar ys r efor m t o at o ta l o f r ough ly 5 0 m i l l ions b y a bou t 1 025 . I tt hen r e ma ined a lmos t c ons tan t d ur ing t he s econd q uar ter o f t he e leven th c en tury , i fn o t f or e ven l onger . The g enera l s hape o f t h is g raph ( F ig . 5b e low ) c anno t b e s ign i f ican t ly a l tered w i thou t c hang ing t he mode l 's p re m ises . T he r a te o f g row th o f t he s tock o f c urrency wou ld , f or e xamp le , b e l ower i ft he wastage-ra te were h igher—bu t i ti s a lready h igher t han o ne w ou ld h ave v entured t o g uess , e ven om it t ing a ny p referen t ia l r e-expor t o f t he c urren t t ype d ur ing e ach v a l id i ty-per iod . T he s ize o f t he s tock o f c urrency wou ld b e l ess i ft he i n f lows were l ess , i .e . t he who le model c ou ld b e s ca led d own i n s i ze . I n l i gh t o f t he p rovis iona l c o mmen ts o n O lo f S k5 tkonung 's c o inage , a nd o n t he a nonymous i m i ta t ions a bove , t h is m igh t b e a move i n t he r igh t d irec t ion , e ven t hough i t wou ld p ush s o me o f t he f i gures b e low t he l eve l o ft he d anege lds r ecorded i n t he C hron icle .

When more work h as b een d one o n d ie-est i ma t ion o f t he e ar ly

S wed ish a nd Dan ish i ssues , we s hou ld b e b et ter a b le t o a vo id many o ft he a ssu mp t ions t ha t o ne o therw ise h as t o make a bou t b u l l ion f l ows i n to a nd o u t o f t he N or thern L ands . T he i dea t ha t t he l osses c onsis t o f c oun ter-f lows o f c o in i s o ne t ha t mos t s tuden ts w il l f i nd h ard t o d iges t , i fo n ly b ecause o f t he e x tre me s carc i ty o f p ecked c o ins among Eng l ish f i nds , b u t t he mode l e xposes t he d i f f icu l t ies i nh eren t i n a l terna t ive e xp lana t ions . I ft here h ad b een o u t f lows e astwards , f or e xamp le , t he p ropor t ion o f A ng lo-Saxon c o ins i n t he S lav l ands p robab ly o ugh t t o b e s ubs tan t ial ly h igher .

And i ft he l osses a rose f ro m t he c onvers ion

o f c o in i n to j ewe l lery , e tc ., i t wou ld b e r a ther s urpr is ing t o s ee t he p ropor t ion o fn on-co ined s i lver i n t he h oards f a l l w i th t he p assage o ft ime a s s harp ly a s i td oes .

3 56

T heoretical m odel o f t he c omposition o f t he A nglo-Saxon c omponent o f t he c urrency f or c omparison w ith t he c ompositions o f t he h oards.

R eform

1 00

F irst H and S econd H and

1 0 9 0

4 3 8 5 8

C rux

1 8 1

L ong C ross H elmet

C C

•4 4 C O

-

F leur-de-lis

L ast S mall C ross

1 7

( Percentages.

:T able 2 .)

L ong C ross

S econd H and

F irst H and

S ource

J ewel C ross

i n t he N orthern L ands ,

Q uatrefoil

T ABLE 3 .

C

_

4

3

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

6

5

3

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

4 5

3 5

2 0

1

8

7

6

6

6

6

4 4

3 4

2 0

1 0

7

6

6

6

6

5

2 3

1 3

5

4

4

4

4

4

L ast S mall C ross

4 3

Q uatrefoil H elmet S hort C ross J ewel C ross

7 2 3

1 6

1 4

1 3

1 2

1 2

1 2

4 7

3 3

2 9

2 7

2 6

2 5

2 5

2 8

2 4

2 3

2 2

2 1

2 1

1 4

1 4

1 3

1 3

1 2

6

F leur-de-lis A rm a nd S ceptre

5

5

5

6

5

5

2

2

P acx

2

G iven t ha t t he mode l 's p re m ises a re u n i for m b u t o therw ise h igh ly c onj ectura l , i t s c la im t o r epresen t t he mone tary r ea l i t ies c lose ly mus t r est s i mp ly o n i t s r ese mb lance t o t he a ge-structure o f t he h oards . The p os tu la ted n u mbers o f s urviv ing c o ins o f e ach t ype , d ur ing e ach t ype , h ave t herefore b een c onv er ted i n to p ercen tages ( Tab le 3 ) , a nd Ih ope i ti s f a ir t o s ay t ha t t hey ma tch t he S cand inav ian h oards ( Tab le 1 ) c onv inc ing ly .

One c ou ld o f c ourse i nven t

v ary ing c ond i t ions , a nd p roduce awho le f am i ly o f models , s o me o f wh ich wou ld f i t t he c urrency o f N orway o r Den mark b e t ter , o thers , S weden o r F in land , a nd s t i l l o thers P o land o r Russia . Wha t i s , It h ink , imposs ib le—or a t l eas t Ic ou ld n ot manage i t— is t o p roduce a s ens ib le mode l wh ich d oes n ot d e mand b oth an et b a lance-of-pay men ts s up lus i n S cand inavia v is-à-v is Eng land f ro m 9 75 u n t i l a t l east t he 1 020s , a nd a t t he s a me t ime s ubs tan t ia l l osses . T he was tage r a tes i mp l ied b y t he N orweg ian a nd Dan ish h oards wou ld s ee m t o b e e ven h igher t han t hose a dop ted i n t he model , t ha t i s t o s ay e x tre me ly h igh b y med ieva l s tandards , e ven om i t t ing p oss ib le r e-expor t o f t he c urren t t ype .

F or e xa mp le , L ong C ross r eaches 6 4% a t Ho lsegärd , c o mpared w i th a

max i mu m o f4 4% i n t he model .

I ta ppears t herefore t ha t i n t he f irs t q uar ter

o ft he e leven th c en tury d is t inc t ly more t han h a l f t he s tock o f A ng lo-Saxon c o ins i n t hose c oun tr ies was d rain ing a way e very s ix y ears o r s o .

A s t he

s tock amoun ted e ven tua l ly t o s o me m i l l ions o f c o ins , i ti s d i f f icu l t t o i mag ine t ha t t he d ef ic i t was a l me l ted d own a nd c onver ted t o n on- mone tary u ses . The q uan t i t ies i nvo lved s eem t oo l arge .

I fo n t he o ther h and t he l os t c o ins were

3 57

T ABLE 4 .

S elected P olish h oards t o i llustra te t he p roportions o f s uccessive i ssues o f A nglo-Saxon c oinage ( expressed a s % o f i dentified A nglo-Saxon c oins).

O O , -3 O , . 1

R eform

6 ?

, s 4 c i ) 3 . c . C O

N 0 N 5 0 4 0 e

4

r z l

• H

5 '

F irst H and

-

S econd H and

1 9?

C rux

6 9?

6 9

6

1 4

L ong C ross H elmet

1 10

3

› ,

6

o

. 1 5 3 0

_ 19

2 9 2 4

5 1 8

-

9

L ast S mall C ross

1 2

2 7

Q uatrefoil

2 9

3 2

0 n 1 b l ) N

0

o 0 0

• , 1

• , I

-

5 c d 3

c n ,

0 1

4

: 5

A I 04

_

-

_

_

-

-

1

-

12

2 5

1 7?

3 9

4 5

3 8?

1 6

a l

5 2 0 5

8

C . )

o 0

1 3?

5

4

9

2 1

H elmet

5 2 4

S hort C ross

0

1 2

1

9

o

2

1 1 2

1 3 1

4 3 4 3

9 1 4

J ewel C ross

5

F leur-de-lis

3

A rm a nd S ceptre

_

P acx

2

R adiate

1

1

T refoil S mall F lan

_

1

( Later c oins)

r e-expor ted , t hey p o int t o ac ons iderab le v o lu me o f t rade .

We c anno t , u n-

f or tuna te ly , s ay i n wh ich d irec t ion Ang lo-Saxon c o ins d isappeared .

S ome ,

b u t o ne s uspects n o t al arge s hare , w i l l h ave g one t o t he e as t B a l t ic a nd b eyond. T he ma jor i ty a re l ike ly t o h ave b een c arr ied b ack t o t he wes t . There may h ave b een a f i nanc ia l a dvan tage i n t ak ing t he m b ack t o Engl ish min ts , b u t i f money was n eeded t o p ay f or g oods b ough t e lsewhere , t hey m igh t h ave b een c arr ied t o t he L ow C oun tr ies o r t he Rh inelands a nd r eco ined t here . I n a ny c ase t here i s r eason t o s uspec t s trong ly t ha t t he b ul lion f l ows a cross t he t r iang le Eng land-Ger many-Scand inav ia were b y n o means a l i nwards t o S cand inav ia . 7 .

Age-structures among t he G er man c o ins may c ast d oub ts o n t he ir c hrono logy

C an we a t tack t he p rob le ms o f G er man c o inage i n t he N or thern L ands u sing t he s word o f s ta t ist ics i n t he s ame way a s w e h ave a t temp ted t o d o f or t he Ang lo-Saxon s eries ? T he e vidence i s n o t n ea t ly p re-packaged f or u s i n to v a l idi ty-per iods o f e qua l l eng th , a nd u nfor tuna tely we h ave l i t t le i n t he way o f e st ima tes b ased o n c arefu l d ie-sa mp l ing f or t he t o ta l q uan t i t ies o f c o ins m in ted . N ever the less we c an i n p rinc ip le h ope t o a ssess a pprox i ma tely t h e

3 58

A verage p roportions i n h oards f rom S weden o f s uccessive i ssues o f c oins o f K öln

r e N

0 0

4 )

+ ; c 3 ‘

9 36-965 9 65-983 9 83-996 9 961003 1 00310 14 10 141 0 27 1 0271036 1 0361039 1 0391046

9 9

r • < ,

7 8 8 1 4

7 3 1 1 6 1

6 2 7 2 6 4 1

6 9

H andel u nd V erkehr .

T he

f or e ach g roup a s s tated b y H atz.)

7 2

H .262-3 13 ( t .p .q.1060)

L atest t .p.q.

H atz,

\

7

H .220-26 1

r elevant c oins h ave s imply b een a dded u p.

( Source:

H .168-2 19 ( t.p .q.1036)

( expressed a s % o f i dentified c oins o f K öln).

H .136167 ( t .p .q.1027)

5 .

H .120135 ( t.p .q .10 14)

T ABLE

3 9

3 5

2 5

5

3

3

1

4

4

2

1

1

4

1 5 7

1 3

1

1 4

5

1 3

3

5

1 2

6

1 2 8

1 4 1

1 9

1 8 1 3

2 2

3

1 056-

9

a ge-struc ture o f t he G er man c urrency i n S cand inavia , a nd we c an p roceed f ro m t ha t t o f or m s ome i dea o f t he was tage r a tes. A t o n ly a f ew m in ts c an t he i ssues b e d ivided c onven ien t ly b etween s hor t p er iods o f t ime .

F or tuna te ly t he l eading min t , K 5 1n , i s o ne o f t he m .

I n-

f or ma t ion a bou t t he o ccurrence i n S weden o f c oins o f K 5 ln a nd o ther n earby min ts u s ing t he S anc ta C o lonia t ype h as b een p ub l ished b y G er t Ha tz. 7 3 The s ta t ist ics d er ived f ro m h is h oard-repor ts a nd s u m mar ized i n Tab le 5 o f fer a n a ston ishing c on tras t t o t he Ang lo-Saxon e v idence , i n t wo p ar t icu lars.

F irs t ,

t he i ssues a t tr ibuted t o t he p er iod 9 36-65 s t i ll make u p 6 2% o f t he K ö ln c o ins i n h oards a t t he e nd o f t he c entury , a nd t hey s t i l l make u p aq uar ter a f ter a s much a s ah undred y ears , i n s p i te o f a l t he s ubsequen t a dd i t ions . The f igures were c o mp i led b y t he r ough a nd r eady me thod o f a dding u p a l l t he r elevan t s peci mens l i sted b y Ha tz , a nd i t wou ld n o d oub t h ave b een b e t ter t o weight t he m s o t ha t e ach h oard was g iven a t o ta l s core o f 1a nd was t hus r epresented e qua l ly i n t he t o ta ls ; b u t t he r esu lt wou ld h ave b een v ery much t he s a me . F ro m t ha t p oin t o fv iew , we c an s ay t ha t t he was tage r a te s ee ms f ro m t he f igures t o h ave b een d ra ma t ica l ly l ower t han f or t he e ar ly Ang lo-Saxon t ypes , where h a l f t he t o ta l c ou ld d isappear i n s ix y ears. The c on trast s ta ted i n t hose t er ms i s n o d oub t a r t if icia l , t o t he e x ten t t ha t t he v ery h igh was tage r a te i s merely t he c onsequence o f a smal l s tock . L ack ing a bso lu te f igures , h owever , t he p ropor t ions a re t he o n ly k ind o f c o mpar ison o pen t o u s . The p a t tern f or K ö ln i s s im i lar i n h oards f ro m P o meran ia a nd f ro m P o land p roper ( W ie lkopo lska ) , b ut t he a ge-s tructure i s l ess e xtended i n t he E lbe b as in ( Po labia ) . 7 4 3 59

I fi t were t he c ase t ha t t hese e ar ly O t ton ian c oins were n o t s wa mped b y t he n ex t k inds t o a rr ive ( a s Ang lo-Saxon Hand c o ins were , f or e xa mp le ) , o ne wou ld h ave t o c onc lude t ha t t hey were m in ted a nd e xpor ted i n c ons iderab le q uan t i t ies ; a nd y e t t hey a pparen t ly a n teda te t he f l ow o f Ram me lsberg s i lver . P erhaps t h is i s where t he s i lver f ro m t he v ery p len t i fu l Eng l ish c o inages o f A thels tan a nd h is s uccessors e nded u p . C er ta in ly much o f i th ad v an ished f ro m Eng land b y t he t ime o f Eadgar a sr efor m , a nd Ih ave s uggested e lsewhere t ha t mu l t ip le we ight-s tandards were a s che me t o g e t s o me o f i tb ack .7 5 A s ac oro l lary , i ft he was tage r a tes f or E ng l ish a nd G erman c o ins were s o d if feren t , s peci f ical ly b etween c .980 a nd 1 027 , i ts trong ly s uggests t ha t p eop le i n S cand inav ia d id n o t h and le t he c o ins i n t he ir v ery m ixed h oards q u ite a s i nd iscr im ina te ly a s h as b een a ssu med . I ft hey merely t ook h andfu ls o f c oins a t r ando m , o ne wou ld e xpect t he r esu l tan t was tage r a tes t o b e t he s ame f or Eng l ish a nd G er man i ssues , a nd t he s ize o f t he s tock o f e ach wou ld n o t b e af actor . Apparen t ly , t herefore , t hey c hose t o p ick o u t t he E ng l ish c oins ; a nd t h is i s p erhaps a c lue t o t he p urpose ( r e-expor t?) , a l though t he f act t ha t p eck- marked c oins a re v ir tual ly n ever f ound i n Eng la nd 7 6 p ause o ver t he ir d es t ina t ion .

s hou ld make u s

S econdly , t he s ta t is t ics a ppear t o s ugges t t ha t t here were d elays i n t he a rr iva l o f S anc ta C o Ion ia c o ins i n S weden : i nstead o f d ec l in ing a s n ew i ssues b eg in t o b e m in ted i n t he Rh ine la n .ds , t he p ercen tages o f o lder t ypes s o me t imes s tay t he s a me o r e ven g o u p , q u i te u n l ike t he Ang lo-Saxon s ta t ist ics u p t o t he t ime o f Cnu t . Th is a ga in i s p ar t ly a n a r t if ic ia l e f fect a r is ing f ro m a c ons erva t ive s ty le o f s ta t ing t he t er m in i p ost q ue m ; b u t i ti s u ndoub ted ly a lso i n p ar t ar ea l f eature o f t he e vidence a s p ub l ished . ' de lay f ac tor '

H ahn h as s poken a bout t he

( Verz5gerungsfak tor ) w i th r eference t o s o me l ater-eleven th

c en tury R egensburg i ssues i n Russ ian a nd S wed ish h oards.

7 7

Tha t t he p ercen tages s hou ld a ctua l ly i ncrease i s imposs ib le u n less o ne o f t hree t hings h appened . E i ther t he t ypes i n q ues t ion c on t inued t o a rr ive i n t he Nor thern L ands i n l arge q uan t it ies , many y ears a f ter t he ir i ssue h ad c eased , b ecause t hey h ad f i rs t s pen t t hose y ears i n c ircu la t ion e lsewhere ; o r im i ta t ions were m in ted o n al arge s ca le , a t as o mewha t l a ter d a te ;

o r

t he more r ecen t S anc ta C o Ion ia c oins were p referen tia lly r e-expor ted i n a p er iod d ur ing wh ich t he t o ta l s tock d ec l ined . As t o t he f i rs t p ossib i li ty , t here i s h ard ly a ny p ubl ished h oard-evidence t o s how t he a ge-s tructure o f t he S ancta C o Ion ia i ssues c urren t i n t he Rh ine lands i nt he l a te t en th c en tury .

T he

B onn h oard o f 1 890 , c oncea led c .1040 , a pparen t ly l acked a ny c o ins o f K 5 ln m in ted b efore 1 014. 7 8 As t o S cand inav ia n im ita t ion , o ne i s r e luctan t t o s uppose t ha t i tc ou ld h ave o ccurred o n s uch a l arge s ca le ;

a nd y et t he me tro logy o f

t he c oins o f K ing O t to Ia s p ub l ished s o f ar i n t he C orpus r eveals s o me i mp robab le we igh t-d is tr ibu t ions . The t h ird p oss ib i l ity r e minds u s t ha t t he s ta t is t ics d er ived f ro m t he S wedish h oards c an o n ly r evea l t he r e la t ive p ropor t ions , n o t t he a bso lu te n u mbers , o f G erman c o ins . The Ang lo-Saxon s ta t is t ics h ave b een p resen ted g raph ical ly i n t wo ways : F igs . 4a nd 5 s how t ha t t he s ame i n for ma t ion c an b e g iven a q u ite d i f feren t a ppearance . F or K ö ln ( F ig . 6 ) we h ave o n ly t he r e la t ive p ropor t ions ; b u t i ft hey a re f actua l ly c orrec t , i ts ee ms u n l ikely t ha t t he s tock wh ich h ad a ccu mu la ted i n S weden b y 9 65 c an h ave g rown s ign if ican t ly t hereaf ter , a t l east u n t i l 1 027. 3 60

T ABLE 6 . a nd W orms

A verage p roportions i n h oards f rom S weden o f s uccessive i ssues o f c oins o f M ainz ( expressed a s % o f i dentified c oins o f t hese m ints.)

V erkehr.

T he r elevant c oins h ave b een a dded u p.

. -, N 0 0

,,

7

N 0

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9 731002

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• 4, , L , 4 . •

= -,

1 00

8 6

5 8

2 6

1 9

1 4

3 0

4 1

4 9

1 2

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2 3

10 241 0 47/51

2

1 047/5 1-

8

A verage p roportions i n h oards f rom S weden o f s ucessive i ssues o f c oins o f

D ortmund ( expressed a s % o f i dentified c oins o f D ortmund.) V erkehr .

T he r elevant c oins h ave b een a dded u p.

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ä s-

t . , 1 • r-

2

8 5

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1

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•

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9 83-996

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= -

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. , 0

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• 4 , = -

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a s g iven i n H atz.)

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a s g iven i n H atz.)

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a p 0 M 4 . C r\ I K.\ • I C r . Ln • CD

04

I • r 1 • • 4 -, = .•

0 -

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1

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6 7

3 61

T ABLE 8 .

A verage p roportions i n h oards f rom S weden o f s uccessive i ssues o f c oins o f

R egensburg ( expressed a s % o f i dentified c oins o f R egensburg .) V erkehr .

T he r elevant c oins h ave b een a dded u p .

T .p .q .

. 4,

B efore 9 48 9 48-76

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0.1 C T \ I

L Cl C ;

0 7)

7 4

I • V . ) ' f :24 • • •4, =, . . . . . .,

;

_

1

1 00

6

9 76-95

9 3

9 951026 10 26-47

0 C -

7

4 / 1 , 0 • -

• C T ' I • N a C O • • 4 > = , . . . ,

H andel u nd

a s g iven b y H atz .)

L O

C " ^ al I

1 • • 4 -, = ,. . . . .

( Source:

C s 0 • •

, . 0

NI C • M C O • ` , 0 P • . • • 4 -, = -,

2

1

3 9

1 2

5 9

6 6 2 1

T hese r ef lect ions , h owever , may t urn o u t t o b e merely a cade m ic , f or P eter f isch d ur ing o ur d iscuss ions i n Ox ford h as r a ised t he r adica l q ues t ion whether t he OTTO RE X t ype may n o t h ave b een t aken u p a ga in b y O t to I I . I ft ha t were t he c ase t he p ub l ished s ta t ist ics c ou ld b e v ery d ecep t ive—ano ther F irs t Sma l l C ross/Las t Sma l l C ross s i tua t ion—and t he who le q ues t ion wou ld n eed t o b e l ooked a t a ga in . H avern ick 3 4 may d e mand a d el ica te s ty l ist ic a na lys is. S o f ar a s o ne c an s ee , n ever the less , ar ev ised c lass if icat ion o f t he c o ins o f K ö ln wou ld s t i l l l eave s urpr is ing c on trasts b e tween t he a ge-s truc tures o f G erman a nd Ang lo-Saxon h oards.

T he s ame p heno menon o f l ate a rr iva l i s

r epea ted among t he c o ins o f Ma inz a nd Wor ms ( Tab le 6 ) . Those d a ted t o 1 002-1024 , i n p ar t icu lar , were s t i l l a pparen t ly b u ilding u p a s ap ropor t ion o f t he S wedish s tock o f c urrency f ro m t hose m in ts d ecades l a ter . F or D or tmund ( Tab le 7 ) , t he was tage r a tes a re c loser t o t he Ang lo-Saxon mode l , b e ing modera te a t f i rs t , a nd t hen s low ing d own . T he c o ins f ro m t he f i rs t f or ty y ears o f t he e leven th c en tury a pparen t ly c on t inued t o a rrive t hereaf ter . F or R egensburg ( Tab le 8 ) t he f igures , t aken i n c on junct ion w ith work o n d iee st i ma t ion b y Hahn ,7 9 s ugges t t ha t r ela t ive ly f ew c o ins were c arr ied n orth i n t he t h ird q uar ter o f t he t en th c en tury , c o mpared w i th a much h igher p rop or t ion o f t he m in t-ou tpu t i n t he l as t q uar ter o f t he c en tury . The p ropor t ion f or c o ins o f t he f i rst q uar ter o f t he e leven th c entury r epea ts t he ' de layed a rr iva l ' p a t tern—presu mab ly i n c o mb ina t ion w i th r educed i n f lows a nd r educed wastage. The s ta t is t ics o f G er man c o ins s e t o u t i n T ab les 5 -8 d o n o more t han h in t a t p rob le ms which r e main t o b e d ef ined a nd d iscussed . B u t i td oes s ee m t o b e t he c ase t ha t t he wastage-ra tes o f Ang lo-Saxon a nd G er man c o ins were s ign if ican t ly d i f feren t i n t he e arly e leven th c en tury .

3 62

8 .

Reconci l ing t he A ng lo-Saxon a nd t he G er man e v idence f or t he s ize o f t he c urrency I f we h ad e st ima tes f or b o th t he Ang lo-Saxon a nd t he G er man c o mponen ts

o f t he c urrency , i tm igh t b e p ossib le t o e xa m ine h ow f ar t he t wo were i n h ar mony w i th e ach o ther i n p ar t icu lar h oards .

As a n e xa mp le o f t he i n terest

a t tach ing t o t he c o mpar ison , l e t u s l ook b r ief ly a t t he S wed ish h oards f ro m t he l as t q uar ter o ft he t en th c entury , a nd i n p ar t icu lar a t t hose c oncea led b ef ore o r d ur ing t he v a l id i ty-per iod ( i n Eng land ) o f t he Crux t ype , c .991-7 , t ha t i s , b e fore t he n u mbers o f Ang lo-Saxon c o ins h ad b u il t u p i n t he Nor thern L ands . The p roport ion o f Ang lo-Saxon c o ins i n e ach h oard ( expressed a s ap ercen tage o f G er man p lus A ng lo-Saxon c o ins ) v ar ies a g ood d ea l. I f we l ook a t t he h oards l i sted b y Ha tz w i th at .p .q . o f 9 91 o r e ar l ier , a nd c on ta in ing t en o r more G er man p lus Ang lo-Saxon c o ins , t he p ercen tages r ange a s i n F ig . 7 ,a . T he Eng l ish c o mponen t i s l ess t han 1 0% o f t he wes tern c o ins i n most o f t he h oards . A lso , t he n u mbers a re v ery sma l l : t he med ian q uan t i ty o f Ang lo-Saxon c o ins i n ah oard i s 2 . T he a dd it iona l Dan ish h oards , o f wh ich t here a re v ery f ew ( t hose f ro m S käne b e ing i nc luded among t he S wed ish ) , s how v ery much t he s a me r ange o f p ercen tages a nd q uan t it ies a s i n S weden .

I ti s t e mp t ing t o

a ssu me t ha t t he ma jor i ty o ft he h oards ( and n ear ly a l l o f t he m a re f ro m G o tl and ) r ef lect a s tock o f wes tern c urrency t ha t was s t il l n ine-ten ths G erman — a nd t ha t t he sma l ler n u mber o f h oards i n wh ich G er man a nd Ang lo-Saxon c o ins a re more e ven ly b a lanced r epresent Engl ish money n ew ly a rr ived i n S weden . T he med ian q uan t ity o f Ang lo-Saxon c o ins i n t hese h oards i s 1 7. I fo ne a tt e mp ted t o c o mpare t he t wo g roups o f h oards ( as d is t ingu ished i n F ig . 7 a ) , o ne wou ld b e l ucky t o f i nd a ny c on trasts i n t he c o ins t he mse lves f ro m wh ich t o a rgue t ha t t hey were n ew ly a rr ived , b u t o bv ious ly i t wou ld b e i n terest ing t o t ry . T here might b e l ess p eck ing a nd b end ing ; o r t here migh t b e ac onc en tra t ion o f c o ins f ro m a p art icu lar d istr ic t o f Eng land . The Ku lhusgaard f ind , f or e xa mp le , h as a c onsp icuous ly h igh p ercen tage o f Ang lo-Saxon c o ins f or i t s t .p .

c t .

,a nd t hey c ons ist e xclus ive ly o f t he H and t ype ( B1, 1 3;

B 2 , 1 4 ) .

When we c o mpare t he h oards o f t he n ex t d ecade , w i th t .p .q . o f 1 002 o r e ar l ier , t here i s ac lear c on tras t . Hardly a ny h oards h ave a s f ew a s 1 0% Ang lo-Saxon c o ins ( F ig . 7 ,b ) , a nd t he n orma l p ropor t ion i s a round a t h ird . The med ian q uan t i ty o f Ang lo-Saxon c o ins i s f ar h igher , a t 6 9. T he a dd i t iona l Dan ish h oards a ga in c onfor m t o t he p a t tern . An ew a spec t o f t he e v idence i s t he p ro m inence o f S kgne , B lek inge , a nd Smä land i n t he f i nd-ser ies . T hese h oards f ro m s ou thern ma in land S weden a ccoun t f or r a ther more t han t he ir f a ir s hare o f t he h igh p ercentages , a nd a ga in o ne i s t e mp ted t o t h ink o f r ec en t ly-arr ived Eng l ish money— the more s o a s s evera l o f t he h oards a re c oas ta l . The l as t q uar ter o f t he t en th c en tury was a p er iod o f r ap id g row th i n t he n u mbers o f Ang lo-Saxon c o ins i n t he Nor thern L ands , a nd t he c hange i s c lear ly i l lustra ted b y t he h oard s ta t ist ics.

I n s ugges t ing t hat t he Eng l ish c o mponen t

r ose f ro m a bou t o ne i nt en o f t he wes tern c o ins t o a bou t o ne i n t hree w ith in n o more t han f i f teen t o t wen ty y ears , t hey g ive u s s o me i nd ica t ion o f t he s ize o f t he s tock o f G erman c o ins t ha t h ad a ccu mu la ted i n S cand inav ia . T he f igure p ro jected f ro m t he model ( Tab le 2 ) i s o f t he o rder o f 6 0-70 mi l l ions , b u t , a s e xp la ined a bove , t ha t may n eed t o b e s ca led d own . 3 63

N umber o f h oards

1 5

a

1 0

5

1 01

5

20

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 00

% A nglo-Saxon

b

1

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 00

% A nglo-Saxon

F ig . 7 N umbe r s o fh oards a rranged a ccord ing t o t he p ercen tage o f A ng loS axon c o ins t hey c on ta in , i nd ec i les. a ) t er m inus p os t q ue m 9 91 o r e ar l ier , b ) 9 92-1002. 9 .

Wastage-ra tes s ee m n or ma l ly t o h ave b een l ow among t he O r ien ta l c o ins Wha t a bou t t he O r ien ta l s er ies? A s t he d irhams a re d a ted , t hey s hou ld

p rov ide e xcep t iona l ly s u i tab le ma ter ia l f or t he a na lys is o f a ge-structure . T he mos t s er ious l im i ta t ion a t p resen t l i es i n t he f ewness o ft he h oards t ha t h ave b een f u l ly p ub l ished a nd a re o f s uf f ic ien t s ize . C u t f ragmen ts , o f c ourse , may l ack t he v i ta l p ar ts o ft he l egend . T he s equence o fh oards f rom G o t land s e t o u t i n T ab le 9 a lready s hows a f am i ly l i keness t o t he l a ter p ar t o f t he s equence o f A ng lo-Saxon h oards . A n e t i n f low , e ssen t ial ly o f S ämän id s i lver , b eg ins q u i te a brup t ly i n t he 2 80s A .H ., t ha t i s a tt he v ery e nd o ft he n in th c en tury A .D .

I tl as ts f or o n ly a bou t

t h ir ty y ears , a f ter wh ich t he a dd i t ions t o t he s tock b eco me p rogress ive ly sma l ler . I nt he e ar ly e leven th c en tury s im i lar p ropor t ions a re s t i l l f ound , s ugges t ing t ha t e i ther t here h as b een l i t t le was tage , o r t ha t t he c on t inued i nf l ows were m in i ma l . T he o ther p ar t o f T ab le 9 r evea ls a d i f feren t p a t tern i n t he S lav l ands . T he K owa lewo h oard , i n p ar t icu lar , c ons is ts p redom inan t ly o f r ecen t ly- m in ted d irhams , a nd t he o ther h oards a re l i kew ise more u pto-da te t han t hose f rom G o t land —excep t f or P o morze X I I , wh ich ma tches t he G o t land p a t tern c lose ly ,

3 64

T ABLE 9 .

S elected h oards f rom ( a) G otland,

i llustrate t he c ontrast i n a ge-structures. i nventory;

a nd W N X VIII.

a nd ( b)

t he S lav l ands o f A rabic d irhams,

( Percentages.

S ources:

C orpus , :

t o

t he P olish h oard-

P omorze X II h as b een i ncluded i n t he l eft-hand h alf o f t he t able.

g l ' T s i — i 2 ) S i ) 0 • H O > : C I L i O 4 ,

p re-270

8 8

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I

I N 0 0 4 . _ . . ,

I ,. 0

a

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l c D

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I 2 \ 1 0 0 4 — , _ . ..

I

, .,

C

0 > i s Z a : 0

oc l : 1 ; i C D t o • q

4

1

4

3

_

9

5

8

-

-

-

-

0

1

_

3

3

2 70s

( 883/4-)

2

2 80s

( 893/4-)

5

2 0

3

3 3

1 7

1 3

1 5

1 3

5

2 9

2 2

3 4

3 1

2 3

2 6

2 8

2 3

3 5

1 8

2 8

2 4

2 3

2 3

1 8

1

1 6

1 2

2 90s ( 9C2/3 -) 3 00s

( 9 12/ 13-)

2 9

3 10s

( 922/3-)

1 4

3 20s

( 932-)

3 30s ( 94 1/2-)

4

6

7

-

2

6

9

6

8

1

2

4

7

1

8

2

7

4

4

6

3 40s

( 951/2-)

3 50s

( 961/2-)

-

2

3 60s

( 970/ 1-)

1

1

1

1

p ost-369

8 9

8

1 3 3 0

3

1

2 4

4

2

1 2

1 0

1 2

1

1 3

19

1 4

2 7

2 7

2 2

1 5

1 6

1 3 2

3 6

1

1 2

8

5

a nd h as b een t ransferred t o t ha t h a lf o f t he Tab le , o n t he h ypo thesis t ha t i ti s as um o f money n ew ly impor ted f ro m S cand inav ia .

S uchodo lsk i h as s uggested

t ha t , e ven w i th in P o land , t here i s as ign i f ican t v ar ia t ion i n t he a ge-structure o ft he d irha m h oards . A we igh t ing w i th r ecen t c oins i s e spec ia l ly c harac ter is t ic o f t he Russian h oards , a nd o f t hose wh ich s ee m t o r epresen t money c arr ied t o P o land o ver land f ro m Russ ia :

t hus t he Za les ia h oard c on ta ins a g roup o f

Z iyär id p ieces , n o t i n frequen t ly f ound i n Russia , b u t wh ich a re n orma l ly r are i n P o land . 8 ° Aga in , t he s ta t is t ics i n Tab le 9 c an d o n o more t han s igna l t he o pportun i t ies f or f u ture r esearch , i n wh ich i tw i l l b e n ecessary t o g rasp t he c harac ter o ft he h oards a s we l l a s t heir b are a ge-s tructure. 1 0.

O u tf lows o f d irha ms t o western Euro e : n o t b efore c .900? As r egards o u tf lows o f n in th-century d irhams , B o l in s ugges ted t ha t

O r ienta l s i lver was a lready s upp ly ing western Europe w i th b u ll ion b y c .850 , a nd t h is s ugges t ion p layed a n i mpor tan t p ar t i n t he t h ink ing o f e cono m ic h ist or ians s uch a s Maur ice L o mbard.

T he e xpor t o f d irhams h as e ven b een l i nked

w i th t he n ew d enar ius o f P ep in a nd C har le magne ( f ro m c .755) .

3 65

B o l in 's

s tart ing-po in t was t he im mense wea lth o f t he C a l ipha te i n s i lver , a nd t he d ocu men tary e vidence f or t he e xpor t ( or r e-expor t ) f ro m t he Wes t o f f urs a nd e specia l ly s laves . He s aw t he F rank ish Emp ire o ft he n in th c entury a s a c oun try o f t rans i t b e tween t he f ur- a nd s lave-produc ing t err i tory i n n or thern , c en tra l , a nd e as tern Europe a nd t he Med i terranean world ; a nd t h is was h ow Francia b u i l t u p i t s s tock o f s i lver .

The o pen ing-up o f t he s hor ter d irec t r ou tes

f ro m t he B a l t ic t o t he M idd le Eas t d epr ived t he F ranks o f t he ir r ole a s i n termed iar ies . Wha t B o lin 's t hesis s ee ms t o imp ly i s t ha t t he F rank ish Emp ire e n joyed an e t b a lance-of-pay men ts s urp lus v is-h-v is t he C a l ipha te , a nd t hus t ha t s i lver p resu mab ly i n t he f or m o f d irhams f l owed i n to F rance v ia t he western Medi terranean . ( The e x tre me s carc i ty o f f i nds o fd irhams i n G aul , t he r el a t ive u n i mpor tance o f t he min ts o f s ou thern Gau l wh ich wou ld h ave h ad t o r em in t t h is h ypo thet ica l f low o f s i lver , a nd t he a bsence o f a ny s ign if ican t d r if t o f c o in f ro m t he l ower Rhone i n to F ra ncia o r F r is ia a re a l l f or m idab le o bstacles t o t he t heory .) The o ther l eg o f t he t rade-rou te , f ro m t he n orthern c oas ts o f F ranc ia o r f ro m F r is ia t o t he N or thern L ands , was p resumab ly i n monetary b a lance o r e ven i n s urp lus , s ince s o f ew Caro l ing ian c o ins a re f ound i n D enmark o r b eyond.

The q ues t ion i s whe ther d irha ms were e xpor ted f ro m t here

t o G au l , t o b e r e- m in ted f or e xa mp le a t Dores tad .

T he a nswer w i l l h ard ly

a f fect B o l in 's ma in t hes is c oncern ing t he a ccu mu la t ion o f s i lver s tocks i n t he F rank ish Emp ire u lt i ma tely f ro m t he Ca l ipha te , b u t i ti s o f c ourse o f l i ve ly i nteres t f or t he mone tary h is tory o f t he e ar ly V ik ing a ge . E igh th-cen tury d irha ms a re b y n o means u nco mmon i n S cand inav ia , a nd e ar ly s tuden ts j u mped t o t h e c onclus ion t ha t t hey were t here i n t he e igh th c entury . T hey were n o t : t hey were a lready o ld c o ins when t hey a rr ived i nt he n in th c entury— in t he e as t B a l t ic a t t he v ery b eg inn ing o f t he c en tury , a nd i n G o t land a nd c en tra l Sweden n o t much b efore 8 25.

I ti s a bso lu te ly o u t o f t he

q ues t ion , t herefore , t ha t d irha ms a rr iv ing i n n or thern Gau l v ia Hedeby c ou ld h ave f uel led t he r efor med d enar i i o f t he e ar ly Caro l ing ian p er iod, wha tever t he s im i lar i ty i n t heir b road , t h in f l ans . Ma lmer d is m issed t he i dea i n h er Nord iska myn t f t Sre h 1 000 , i n wh ich s he p o in ted o u t t ha t u n t i l c .900 d irhams a re r arely f ound a nywhere i n Den mark o r S ch lesw ig-Ho lste in . 8 r There i s t he S y Snder K irkeby h oard f ro m F a lster , w i th at .p .q. o f 8 46 , a nd t he R an tru m h oard f ro m s ou th S ch lesw ig , t .p .q. 8 64 , t he l a t ter , l i ke t he n earby Wi tzwor th h oard , c onsist ing most ly o f s i lver b ars .8 2

These b ars h e lp t o s treng then t he

a rgu men t , wh ich wou ld o therw ise r est s i mp ly o n n ega t ive e v idence , n a me ly t ha t o u t o f s o me 1 7 t reasures o f s i lver a rmr ings , e tc ., a pparen t ly f ro m t he n in th c en tury , o n ly t wo i nc luded d irhams .

I fl arge n u mbers o f d irha ms h ad

r eached Den mark , o ne a ssu mes t ha t t hey w ou ld n o t h ave b een d rained o ut o f t he r eg ion q ui te s o t horough ly , u n less t here w ere a n e xcep tiona l ly a dverse b a lance o fp ayments . On t he o ther h and, k uf ic s i lver i s s een i n h oards f ro m t he B r i t ish I s les a lready b y c .900.

I n t he C uerda le t reasure , c oncea led c .903 , t he m in t o f

Ar m ln iyah i s p ro m inen t among t he d irha ms. 8 3 Mos t o f t he h oards a re f rom t he Norse s phere o f i nf luence i n t he n or th a nd west , 84 we l l o u tside t hose r eg ions u nder Eng l ish r oya l c on tro l, b ut s o me a re f ro m N or thu mbr ia .

T he

S ä män id c o ins i n h oards s uch a s G o ldsborough ( wh ich c onsis ted most ly o f d irha mst )a nd B ossa l l/F lax ton 85

s uggest t ha t d ur ing t he y ears when Y ork was

3 66

l os t t o t he Eng l ish c rown ( 8 67-927 ) S cand inav ian ( and Caro l ing ian ) money was a b le t o p ass i n t he n or th o f Eng land , when n or ma l ly i t wou ld h ave b een me l ted d own o n e n try .

T h is t hough s hou ld c au t ion u s t ha t i ti s d if f icu l t t o k now h ow

much S ä män id s i lver was c arr ied i n to L ondon a nd L inco ln , where v ig i lance o ver t he c urrency was n ever r e laxed i n t he s a me way a s w e may j udge t ha t i t was a t Y ork . B u t t he s ca le o n wh ich c o inage h ad b een m in ted i n F ranc ia u nder C har les t he B a ld , a nd i n Eng land u nder " E the lred I , A lfred , a nd B urgred was s o g rea t 86 t ha t O r ien ta l s i lver a rr iv ing v ia t he Nor thern L ands c anno t p oss ib ly h ave b een a ma jor s ource o f b u l lion f or i t , a nd i tf o l lows t ha t we h ave n o o bv ious n eed t o i nvoke i ti n t he t en th c entury . There a re t oo f ew r e levan t P o l ish h oards f ro m wh ich t o j udge t he wastage r a te o f d irha ms t here d ur ing t he n inth c entury , b u t t hose f ew p o in t t o t he r a te a s b e ing l ow .

The P innow a nd Karn ice h oards , b oth f ro m t he 8 60s A .D., i n-

c lude v ery f ew c o ins t ha t a re l ess t han f i f ty y ears o ld .

They h in t a t c onsider-

a b le i nf lows i n t he e ar ly n in th c entury , a nd a n a l most s ta t ic c urrency t herea f ter . Once i n f lows h ad c eased o r h ad dw ind led t o a n i nsign i f ican t l evel , wha t b eca me o f t he s tocks o f c urrency t ha t h ad b u i l t u p i n t he Nor thern L ands? I f wastage f ro m t he m was u nselec t ive , t he a ge-s tructure o f t he s tock w i ll h ave r e ma ined p roport iona te ly t he s a me , a nd s ta t ist ica l a na lys is c annot e as i ly r evea l c hanges i n t he s ize o f t he s tock . A t b est , o ne c ou ld p erhaps measure t he p ropor t ion wh ich d irhams ( i nc lud ing f ragmen ts ) made u p among c o ins o f a l l k inds i n an u mber o fh oards f ro m G o t land , a nd p lo t t he d ec l ine o f t he d ir h a ms i n t he h ope o f d iscover ing whe ther t here i s a ny s udden i n terrup t ion i n t he t rend — in o ther words whe ther t here was a mo men t when d irha ms l ost t he ir a ccep tab i l i ty a nd were me l ted d own , o r whe ther l i ke o ld s o ld iers t hey j ust f aded a way .

T he a vai lab le f igures a re s o e rra t ic t ha t t hey r a ise a s many

q ues t ions a s t hey a nswer : P ropor t ion o f d irhams

Hoards w i th at .p .q . o f : ( S ource : CNS 1 .1 ; 1 .2)

i n e ach h oard ( % )

9 91

7 1 , 2 9 , 1 8

1 00 2 /3

5 7 , 3 5 , 8 , 7

1 029

8

1 036 1 040 1 047

9 0 2 .2, 0 .7 , 0

1 085/7

1 .4 , 0 .9

Even i ft hey were more c ons is ten t , t hey c ou ld n o t e as i ly b e c onstrued i n t er ms o f a nnua l p ercen tage wastage r a tes , b ecause t he f igures r ef lect b o th t he d ec l ine i n t he s tock o f d irha ms a nd t he b u i ld-up i n t he s tock o f western c o in , t he r ela t ive c on tr ibu t ion o ft hese t wo f ac tors r e ma in ing u ncer ta in . F igures o f 8a nd 9% a s l a te a s c .1030 s ugges t q u i te l ow was tage r a tes u p t o t ha t t ime , b u t much work r e ma ins t o d o d one i n a sse mb ling t he f ac ts .

3 67

1 1.

' F inger-pr in t ing ' b u l l ion s ources b y t race-e le men t a na lysis p lus l ead i sotope a na lys is F ina l ly , ac o m men t o n t he p oss ib i l i t ies o f d e tect ing b u ll ion f lows b y t race-

e le men t a na lys is. Our p resen t k now ledge r e l ies h eavi ly o n e xper i men ta l work b y McKerrel l a nd o n a na lyses p ub l ished b yh im a nd S tevenson , wh ich s how t ha t S ä män id d irha ms o ften c on ta ined u nusua l ly l arge t races o f b is mu th . McKerrel l s ta ted t ha t c upe l la t ion r e moved b is mu th o n ly d own t o a' f loor ' l evel o f 0 .5-1.0% . A s er ies o f c o ins w i th l ow b is mu th c on ten ts ( e .g . i n t he r ange 0 .05-0 .1% ) c ann o t t herefore , i f McKerrel l ' sc la im i s c orrect , d er ive f ro m t he r ecyc l ing o f as er ies w ith h igh b is mu th c on ten ts . 87 Th is i s o f s uch f ar-reach ing i n teres t f or n um is ma t ic a nd mone tary s tud ies t ha t t he l abora tory e xper i men ts , wh ich McKerrel l n ever d escr ibed i n d e ta i l , d eserve t o b e r epea ted .

A lso , t he

c harac ter isa t ion o f t he me ta l o ft he S ämän id s er ies r es ts o n t he a na lysis o f o nly af ew c o ins i n t he Ed inburgh c o l lec t ion , o n n o t a l l o f wh ich was t he m in tn a me c lear . I t wou ld b e we l l wor th t ry ing t o d iscover whe ther h igh b is mu th c haracter izes a l l t he S ämän id min ts e qua l ly , o r s o me o f t hem much t han o thers . One h as o n ly t o c onsider t he i nves t men t o f r esources o ver a p er iod o f g enera t ions i n b u ild ing c i t ies l ike Ba lkh a nd S amarqand , a nd i n i rr iga t ing t he r ich l ands wh ich s urrounded t he m , t o s ee t ha t t he wea l th o f t he S ä män id r ea lm , t oo , migh t h ave r esu lted p ar t ly f ro m a b a lance-o f-pay men ts s urp lus .

B o l in

p erhaps o ver-s tressed t he c onnex ion b e tween t he p ro l i f ic c o inage a nd t he mines o f Ban jh ir . A t l east , t he min t o f Andarabah , wh ich wou ld b e t he o bv ious p lace t o c o in t he ir s i lver , d oes n o t d om ina te t he S äm .än id c o inage i n t he way t ha t o ne migh t e xpec t i fi t were mos t ly made f rom n ew me ta l . h ave b een min t ing s i lver mined i n t he I l ak d is tr ic t ;

A l-Shäsh may

b u t t he g eographers d o

n ot d escr ibe t he min ing t here a s b e ing o n s uch a mass ive s ca le .

8 8

Twen ty

c o ins f ro m e ach min t w i l l b e a min imu m t o e s tab l ish s ta t is t ica l d if ferences , a nd XRF f i gures s hou ld p referab ly b e i anehored iby means o f a tl eas t af ew a na lyses c arr ied o ut b y a more a ccura te me thod , s uch a sa to mic a bsorp t ion s pec tro me try . L ead i so tope a na lys is i n c on junc t ion w ith t race e le men t a na lys is b y n eu tron a ct iva t ion p lus a to m ic a bsorp t ion h as g iven impress ive r esu l ts i n ' f ingerp r in t ing ' o re-sources i n t he a ncien t Greek s er ies .8 9 I t might we l l o ne d ay d o t he s a me f or t he V ik ing-age c urrenc ies o f t he N or thern L ands.

3 68

APPENDIX S O ME CO M MENTS ON THE OCCURRENCE OF FRISIAN MONEY I N S I

i n 7 : 3 0 a ) g . P I c d u )

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f rom S mäland a nd

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• • r d r d • r d c d • c v i • o P . c r ) c d

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0 ( r)

t ha t Res15v ( 1.87 ) , w i th 2 0.8% ( 1.87 ) d oes n o t g ive a f a lse i mpress ion , a s o n ly 5 0 o u t o f 3 82 G er man c o ins were a va i lab le f or l i s t ing , b u t I gel5sa , w ith 2 1.8 % ( 1.124) i s more f u l ly r ecorded . F or t he p urposes o f t h is e xerc ise , a l t he F r is ian c o ins h ave b een l u mped t oge ther . One c ou ld p ursue t he a na lysis f ur ther b y d is t ingu ish ing b etween g roups w ith in F r isia .

T he Kvarna h oard , f or e xa mp le ,

( H.73) c on ta in ing o n ly

c o ins o f Deven ter , c on tras t w i th t he Horda f i nd ( 1.75) , w i th much t he s a me t .p .q . ,c on ta in ing o n ly East F r is ian c o ins o f u ncer ta in min t .

C o ins o f Deven ter

g enera l ly s ee m t o o ccur i s a ssoc ia t ion w i th p len tifu l c o ins o f Min , t hose o f East F r is ia w i th f ewer o f K 5 1n .

Eas t F r is ian a nd F le m ish c o ins o ccur i n a s-

s oc ia t ion i n t he D jursho lm a nd G erete h oards ( H.30 a nd 3 4) , b o th w ith a t .p .q o f 9 91. T he Rossvik h oard , f ro m Änger man land , ( H.161) i s u nusua l i n t ha t t he F r isian c o ins a re c h ief ly o f t he Emden , L eer , J ever g roup .

And s o o n .

The t endency f or s o me h oards f ro m s ou thern S weden , e special ly S k&ne , a nd c en tra l S weden , e spec ia l ly S 5der man land , t o i nclude we l l a bove t he a vera ge n u mber o f F r is ian c o ins m igh t b e e xp la ined i n v ar ious ways : i n s o me c ases n ew ly-arr ived money ( and t his r a ises t he q ues t ion o f t he r ou te b y wh ich s h ips r eached S kAne ) , i n o thers p erhaps merely a l ow r epresen ta t ion o f ' Saxon ' money .

I t wou ld b e h azardous t o p ursue t h is l i ne o f t hough t f ur ther

w ithou t s e t t ing t he D an ish h oard-evidence a longside t he S wed ish ;

t he modern

p ol i t ica l f ron t iers a re i rrelevan t , e ven where t hey c o inc ide w i th t hose o f t he V ik ing a ge —wh ich f or S idne , o f c ourse , t hey d o n o t .

T he r e la t ive s carc i ty

o f t he ' above-average ' h oards o n G ot land p erhaps s ugges ts t ha t F r is ian money was c arr ied f irs t t o t he ma in land , a nd t hen t ransferred t o G o t land a t al a ter s tage. One wou ld n eed t o l ook c arefu l ly a t t ha t a rgu men t b efore d ec id ing whe ther i tc ou ld d ecep t ive . Af u l l a na lysis o f t he e v idence w il l n eed t o b eg in b y e xa m in ing t he p at tern f or n u merous o ther m in ts o r g eograph ica l g roups o f m in ts i n t he way t ha t h as b een b r ief ly s ke tched f or F r is ia , a nd w i l l t hen h ave t o h o ld a l l t he p at terns i n c onsidera t ion s i mu ltaneous ly , i n o rder t o c harac ter ize e ach h oard a s c lear ly a s p oss ib le , b y d ec id ing i n wh ich a spec ts o f i t s c o mpos i t ion a nd a ge-s truc ture i ti s t yp ica l , a nd i n wh ich i fa ny i ti s a typ ica l .

T h is w il l b e ac o mp lex a nd

d e l ica te t ask , where o ne c anno t h ope a l together t o a vo id s ub ject ive j udge men ts . T o min im ize t he s ub ject ive e le ment , s ober p rocedures a re c a l led f or :

t he

l as t t h ing o ne wan ts i st o p ick a nd c hoose among t he s ta t is t ics . The e ssence o f t he s ta t ist ica l a pproach i s s u m med u p b y t hese w ords o f J u lien G uey i n d efence o f mode ls . ' Ces p robr emes s on t a rdus . Ma is o nne p eut l esaborder q ue p ar P e tude d es d is tr ibu t ions ( d ispers ions )—et l e "mode le" ... mime s ' i l Wes t p as p le ine men t r ea lis te , al e mer i te ( qu ' i l g ardera ) d e f orma liser u n f a i t a lea toire ... L a d e marche s ta t is t ique c o m mence t ou jours a ins i.' When mos t o ft he h oards a re t oo sma l l f or s ta t is t ica l c o mfor t , a nd when t he c orrela t ions a re r are ly c lear-cu t , o r a re p osi t ive a t o n ly a modes t l evel o f c onf idence , a na lys is b eco mes a n a rt more t han a s c ience .

(C 'es t

i a q ue l e n ob le d u t rava i l c o m mence.') T he t ask i s a l l t he more d e l ica te , b ecause o ne i s s eek ing t o d iscover , t hrough t he ' quas i-rea l ' s truc tures o f t he h oards , t he c o inciden t r ea li t ies o f mone tary c ircu la t ion , —and many h oards s ee m t o b e a mix ture o fn ew ly-arr ived money a nd more t horough ly mixed money d rawn f ro m t he l oca l c urrency . 3 71

No tes o n Tab le 1 : s ources o f i n for ma t ion Vaa lse .

G . Ga ls ter , i n S CB I Copenhagen , v o l . 1 , p .27 , n o . 1 8.

Ku lhusghrden . Gu f fr ide , Reslöv .

I b id., n o . 1 9.

CNS 1 .1.2. Ga lster , l oc .c i t ., p .28 , n o .23 .

Ka lda l. H . Holst , i n NNÄ e 1 955 , 9 3-105. B ore.

Ho lst , i b id ., 1 952, 4 -8.

Munke ard. Ga lster , i n NNÄ 1 977-8, 5 -246 , n o . 2 5. Sm iss.

K . J onsson , i n NNA 1 975-6 , 6 6-82.

D iger&kra . CNS 1 .2.4 I ge lösa . Ns .

Ga lster , i n S CB I C openhagen , v o l . 1 , p3 0 , n o . 3 7 .

G . Ha tz e t a l ., i n Co m men ta t iones 2 ( 1 968) , 2 77-372.

Ho lse Ard . F iskL

Gar st—e r , i n NNÄ 1 977-8, 5 -246 , n o . 2 3.

Hols t , i n NNÄ 1 952, 4 -8.

S le the i . K . S kaare , C oins a nd C o inage , p . 1 48, n o . 8 2 . Ekeskogs .

I nfor ma t ion f ro m K . J onsson .

la rmungs .

The s a me .

Ha t tu la .

T . Ta lv io , i n S CB I He ls ink i , p .x xv i i .

Myr5nde . CNS 1 .1.19. Trondhe im . S kaare , 2 2 . c i t . ,p . 1 66, n o . 1 47 Opp-Norrby . NNUM 1 968, 2 08 . Ny erds.

I nfor ma t ion f ro m K . J onsson .

N ous ia inen .

Ta lv io , l oc .c i t ., p . XXX.

Karls . M . Do l ley e t a l . i n BNJ 3 6 ( 1 967 ) , 6 2-80 . Enner . Ga ls ter , i n S CB I C openhagen , p . 3 4 , n o 6 5. EnegArd.

G a ls ter , i n NNÄ 1 977-8, 5 -246 , n o . 3 1.

Kongs g S p lan tage .

Ga ls ter , i n A NOH 1 962 , 5 4-78 .

S anda . CNS 1 6 .1.8. Gandarve . CNS 1 .1.9. L ila Va l la .

I n for ma t ion f ro m K . J onsson .

BrSho l t . H . Ho lst , i n NNÄ 1 957-8, 8 9-114 . S igsarve. P . B erghaus , i n An t ikvar iska S tud ier 5 ( 1 953) , 1 39-74. S nova lds. CNS 1 .1.16 .

3 72

NOTES A cknow ledge men ts Iam g ra tefu l f or v a luab le c o m men ts a nd a dv ice o n t he b as is o f e ar l ier d raf ts o ft h is p aper , f ro m P rofessor P . H . S awyer , P rofessor H . R . L oyn , Mr K . J onsson , a nd my c o-ed i tor Mr M . A . S . B lackburn . Among much e lse , P rofessor S awyer d rew my a t ten t ion t o t he p assage i n Ada m o f Bre men r ef err ing t o t he t rad ing a rrange men ts a t B irka . Mr J onsson s upp l ied u npub l ished i nfor ma t ion a bout s evera l G ot land h oards , i n o rder t o c orrec t my i deas a bou t wha t was t yp ica l , a nd a lso h e v ery k ind ly s pen t t ime , when h e h ad b et ter t h ings t o d o , i n t ransla t ing t he s u m mary i n to S wed ish .

1 .

P . H . S awyer , The Age o f t he V ik ings2 , 1 971 , p p .99-101

2 .

Ih ave a rgued t he c ase , a nd c i ted e ar l ier c on tr ibu t ions t o t he d iscuss ion , i n ' A s ketch o ft he c urrency i n t he t ime o f C har les t he B a ld ', i n C har les t he B a ld : C our t a nd K ingdo m , e d. M . G ibson a nd J . N e lson ( BAR I n terna t iona l S er ies , 1 01) , Ox ford , 1 981 , p p 5 3-84 ;

' So me s pecu la t ions

o n t he v o lu me o f t he G er man c o inage i n t he t en th a nd e leven th c entur ies ', ( Fes tschr if t f or P eter B erghaus , f or thco m ing , Mf in .ster , 1 981) ;

a nd

' Con t inu i ty a nd c hange i n Eng l ish mone tary h istory , c .9 73-1086 ' , BNJ , f or thco m ing , 5 0 ( 1 980 ) a nd 5 1 ( 1 981) . 3 .

H . C larke ( e d .) , I ron a nd Man i n P reh is tor ic S weden , S tockho lm , 1 979.

4 .

S ee Ha tz , Handel u nd V erkehr , p . 1 77 , n o te 1 288 ;

F . J . Tschan , Ada m

o f B re men . H is tory o f t he Archb ishops o f H amburg —Bremen , N ew Y ork , 1 959 , b ook 4 , x v i i i . 5 .

S . B o l in , 'Muha m med , Kar l d en s tore o ch Rur ik ', S candia 1 2 ( 1 939 ) , 1 81-222. R eferences t o t he Arab ic s ources w il l b e f ound i n G . L e S trange , The L ands o f t he Eastern Ca l ipha te , Cambr idge , 1 905, p .351. Ban jh ir i s d escr ibed a s ac i ty i nhab ited b y 1 0 , 0 00 m iners ; Yaqu t g ives d eta i ls o ft he m in ing o pera t ions : t he whole moun ta in s ide was h o l lowed o ut i n c averns , a nd miners wou ld r eck less ly s pend 3 00 ,000 d irhams i n t he mere d igg ing o f an ew s haf t . On t he s i lver mines i n t he I lak h i lls , i n t he r eg ion o f Tashken t , s ee L e S trange , p . 4 83 .

6 .

E . Krau me a nd V . Ha tz , ' D ie O t to Ade lhe id-P fenn ige u nd i hre N achprag ungen t d es 1 0 .

HBN 1 5 ( 1 961) , 1 3-23 ; i d ., ' S i lberana lysen d eu tscher 1 V I t inzen J ahrhunder ts ', i b id . 2 1 ( 1 967 ) , 3 5-8.

7 .

Adam o f B re men , 3 ,

8 .

B . HArdh , ' Trade a nd money i n S cand inav ia i n t he V ik ing a ge ', Meddel anden f rAn L unds U n ivers i te ts H istor iska Museu m NS 2 ( 1977-8) , 1 57-71 .

XXViii

S ee a lso t he s ame a uthor 's ' Gewundene u nd g ef loch tene H a lsr inge

i n S kandinav ischen S i lberhor tfunden d er Wik ingerze i t ', i b id .

3 73

1 973-4 ,

2 91-306 ( abou t l oca l d iferences i n t he d egree o f c u t t ing u p o f o rnamen ts) , a nd Wik ingerzei t l iche D epotfunde a us S t idschweden . K a ta log u nd T afe ln ( Ac ta Archaeo log ica L undens ia , s er ies i n 4 ° , 9 ) , a nd i d ., , P rob leme u nd Ana lysen ( i b id ., s er ies t er t ia i n 8 ° minore , 6 ) , L und/Bonn , 1 976 . ( Rev iew b y L . L unds trö m i n F v 1 977/3-4 , 2 37-9.) 9 .

R . K iersnowsk i , ' Co in f i nds a nd t he p rob le m o f money h oarding i n e ar ly med ieva l P o land ', P o l ish Numis ma t ic N ews 1 961 ( =WN 5 , S pec ia l I ssue , 1 961) , 3 5-56 . Th is v a luab le a r t icle makes a va i lab le i n Eng l ish s ome e x trac ts f ro m t he a u thor 's b ook , P ien iadz k ruszcowy w P o lsce wczesn os redn iow ieczne j ( Bu l l ion C urrency i n Early Medieva l P o land ) , Warsaw , 1 960.

1 0.

I d ., i n d iscuss ion o f S . B o lin , ' Die Anfange d er Münzpr5 .gung i n S kandi nav ien ', i n Mone ta e s ca mb i n e ll' a l to med ioevo ( S e t t i mane d i s tud io d el C en tro i t a l iano d i s tud i s u l l ' a l to med ioevo , 8 ) , S po leto , 1 961, p p . 4 08-9.

1 1.

F . Herschend , ' Om v ad s i lver myn t f rä i n G o t lands v ik inga t id v ara u t tryck f 5r—en F v 7 4 ( 1 979) , 2 17-27.

1 2.

K . Randsborg , T he V ik ing Age i n Den mark , L ondon , 1 980 .

1 3.

I b id .

1 4.

U . S . L inder Wel in , ' The f i rs t a rr iva l o f O r ien ta l c o ins i n S cand inav ia a nd a nd t he i ncep t ion o f t he V ik ing a ge i n S weden ', F v 6 9 ( 1 974) , 2 2-9 .

1 5.

J . Ca l l mer , ' Or ien ta l c o ins a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he V ik ing p er iod ', i b id . 7 1 ( 1 976 ) , 1 75-85 ( A map s hows t ha t h oards f ro m t he f i rs t q uar ter o f t he n in th c entury a re modera te ly s ca t tered—V5sby ; S ved je lande t ; G dansk ; S tara ja L agoda ; He jde o n G o t land . Impor tan t e ar ly a reas were A land , t he l ower Da lä lven r eg ion , t he Mä lar v a l ley , O land , K a lmar d is tr ict , t he mou th o ft he Oder , a nd t he l and o f t he o ld Prussians. U . S . L inder We l in . , ' Rep ly ', i b id . 1 86-90 . S ee a lso 0 . Kyh lberg , ' B irka . P rob le m k r ing s tra t igraf i o ch myn tda ter ing i, i b id.

6 8 ( 1 973) , 2 6-36 .

1 6 .

l oc .c i t . ( no te 1 0 a bove ) .

1 7.

Ha tz , Hande l u nd V erkehr , h oards 1 -7 .

1 8.

V . M . P o t in , ! Nekotorr e v oprosr t orgov li Drevner R us i p o n um iz ma t ic hesk im d annfm ' ( S o me q uest ions a bou t t he t rade o f O ld Rus i n t he l i gh t o fn um is ma t ic e vidence ) , V es tn ik i s tor i i m irovo j k urtury 1 961/4 , 6 7-79.

1 9.

B . K luge , ' Be merkungen z ur S truk tur d er F unde e uro A ischer Mänzen d es 1 0 . u nd 1 1.

2 0.

J ahrhunder ts im O stseegeb ie t ', ZFA 1 2 ( 1 978) , 1 81-90.

N . Bauer , ' D ie r uss ischen F unde a ben c and ischer M fmzen d es 1 1. u nd 1 2. J ahrhunder ts ', Z fN 3 9 ( 1 929) , 1 -187 ; 4 0 ( 1 930 ) , 1 88-288 ; 4 2 ( 1935 ) , 1 53-73; V . M . P ot in , ' Topograf iya n akhodok z apadneoevr ope isk ikh mone t X-XI I I v v . n a t err i tor i i d revne i R us t ' , Trudy G os , Er m i tazha 9 ( Nu m iz ma t ika 3 ) ( 1 967) , 1 06-94 .

2 1.

S ee f or e xa mp le W. Anderson , ' Der Manzfunde v on Vaab ina ', Anna les L i t teraru m S oc ie ta t is Es thon iae ( S i tzungsber ich te G e lehr ten Es tn ischen G esel lschaf t ) 1 937/1, p la tes 2 -3. 3 74

2 2.

H . S a l mo , Deu tsche Münzen i n v orgesch ich t l ichen F unden F in lands ( = F inska F orn m innesfören ingens T idskr if t 4 7, 1 948) .

2 3.

J . S ern ing , L apska o f ferp la tsfynd f rän j ürnä lder o ch medel t id id e s venska l app markerna , S tockho lm , 1 956, ( w i th n um is ma t ic s ec t ions b y U . S . L inder Wel in , V . Ha tz , B . Ma l mer , a nd N . L . Ras mus s on ) .

2 4.

O n J u mne , s ee b e low , ( no te 2 6 ) . On A l t L übeck , s ee He l mo ld v on B osau ( Ausgewüh l te Q ue l len z ur d eu tschen G esch ich te d es M i t te la l ters , v o l . 1 9 e d . H . S toob ) , Dar ms tad t , 1 963 , I ; 4 8.

On Truso , s ee B . Ehr l ich ,

' Truso , e ine p reuss isch-w ik ing ische S ied lung b e i E lb ing ', G er manen-Erbe 1 937 , 8 Of f .;

J .

a k ,

‚Kw est ia

H is t . 2 7 ( 1961) , 1 37f f .

s kandynawsk ie j f ak tor i i w Druso ', Rocz.

On R a lsw iek , s ee J . H ermann , ' Ra lsw iek a uf

R t igen —e in H ande lsp la tz d es 9 . J ahrhunder ts u nd d ie F ernhande lsb ez iehungen i m O s tseegeb ie t ', Z fA 1 2 ( 1 978) , 1 63-80. On Menzlin , U . S choknech t , ' Hande lsbeziehungen d er f rüh m i t te la lter l ichen S ied lung Menz lin b e i A nk la m ', i b id ., 2 25-34. 2 5.

S choknech t , l oc .c i t .

2 6 .

Ada m o f B re men , 2 , x x i i a nd 1 , l x .

2 7.

S ee v ar ious s tud ies b y J .

2 a k ,

i nclud ing S tud ia n ad k on tak ta m i h and lowy m i

s po • tecze f istw z achodn ios low ia i isk ich z e s kandynawsk im i o d V I d o V I I I w .n .e . ( Po lsk ie T owarzys two Archeo log iczne , B ib l ioteka Archeo log iczna , 1 5 ) , 1 962 . B ut Z ak 's ' impor ts 'a re c oins , n ot g oods , a nd t he c ase r e mains s o mewha t i nconc lusive . C . Warnke , D ie Anfünge d es F ernhande ls i n P o len ( Marburger O st forschungen , 2 2) , Marburg , 1 964 , e ar ly r es igns h ersel f ( pp . 7 f .) t o t he i dea t ha t a rchaeo logy c anno t p rov ide e vidence o f mos t o f t he k inds o f g oods t ha t a re l ike ly t o h ave b een t he l ead ing impor ts. 2 8.

K iersnowsk i , l oc.ci t ( no te 9 ) , e spec ia l ly a t p .54.

2 9.

Th is l as t f igure i s f ro m Metca l f , ' Con t inu ity a nd c hange ' ( l oc.ci t ., n ote 2 ) .

3 0 .

P . S ta f ford , ' His tor ica l i mp l ica t ions o f t he r eg iona l p roduc t ion o f d ies u nder A Ethe lred

3 1.

BNJ 4 8 ( 1 978) , 3 5-51.

D . M . Metca l f , ' The r ank ing o f t he b oroughs : f ro m t he r e ign o f P E the lred I ' ,

n um is ma t ic e v idence

E thelred t he Unready .

P apers f ro m

t he M i l lenary C on ference ( ed . D . H i ll ) ( BAR , B r i t ish S er ies , 5 9) , Ox ford , 1 978, p p . 1 59-212. 3 2.

I d ., ' Con t inu i ty a nd c hange ', l oc.ci t . ( no te 2 a bove ) .

3 3.

W. Hüvern ick , ' Epochen d er d eu tschen G eldgesch ich te im f rühen M it te la lter ', HBN 9 /10 ( 1 956) , 5 -10.

3 4.

F or h oards a nd s ing le f inds i n G er many , s ee Ha tz , Handel u nd V erkehr , p p .127-35 a nd 1 67-8.

F or a n impor tan t d iscussion o f t he s a me t op ic

i n P o land , s ee R . K iersnowsk i ,' 0 t zw . " Lu z nychn z na lez iskach monet wczesnosredn iow iecznych w P o lsee ' ( Ear ly med ieva l s ing le f i nds i n P o land ) , W iado mo s c i Archeo log iczne 2 5 ( 1 958) , 1 81-96 .

F or a n a na lysis

o f E ng l ish s ing le f i nds o f t he e leven th c entury , s ee Me tca lf ,

' Con t inu i ty

a nd c hange ', l oc.ci t . ( no te 2 a bove) . 3 5.

I n ' So me s pecu la t ions o n t he v o lu me o f t he G er man c oinage ', l oc.c i t . ( no te 2 a bove ) . 3 75

3 6.

S ee t he map , b ased o n f igures e stab l ished b y G . A lbrech t , i n D . M . Me tca lf , ' Co inage a nd t he r ise o f t he F le m ish T owns ' , i n C oinage i n t he L ow C oun tr ies ( 8 80-1500 ) ( ed . N . J . Mayhew ) ,

( BAR I n terna t iona l S er ies

5 4) , Ox ford , 1 979 , p p .1-23 , a t p .3. 3 7.

W. Hess ,

G eldwir tschaf t am M i t telrhe in i n k aro l ing ischer Z ei t ',

B la t ter f ür d eu tsche L andesgesch ich te 9 8 ( 1 962) , 2 6-63. 3 8 .

F or t he c o ins , s ee B . Ma l mer , O lo f S k5tkonungs myn t o ch a ndra E thelredim i ta t ioner ( = An t ikvar isk t Ark iv 2 7 , 1 965) ;

i d ., K ing Canu te 's

C oinage i n t he Nor thern Coun tr ies ( The Doro thea C oke Me mor ia l L ec ture i n N or thern S tudies , Un ivers i ty C o l lege , L ondon ) , 1 972 ; q vis t ,

L . 0 . L ager-

' The c oinage a t S ig tuna i n t he n a mes o f Anund J acob , C nu t t he

Grea t , a nd Har thacnu t ', C o m men ta t iones 2 ( 1 968) , 3 83-413 ;

T . T a lv io,

' So me S ig tuna c o ins i n t he B r i t ish Museu m ', NC 7 1 7 ( 1977) , 1 74-6 . 3 9.

B . Ma l mer , ' O m Dan marks n 5 .st e ä ldsta myn tor t o ch d e Afydet f r5n I ge nsa k yrko erd ', NNU M 1 981 , 6 2-7 ;

n ote t he t o ta ls o f d ies d iscussed b y

P rofessor C . J . B ecker b e low :

1 ,950 c o ins f ro m 1 71 r everse d ies .

The

h igher s urv iva l-ra te p er d ie c ou ld a lso b e t aken a s ah in t o f l ower wastage-ra tes i n t he s econd q uar ter o f t he e leven th c en tury . 4 0.

F or t he p ub l ica t ion o f Enge Ia nd L arsarve , s ee CNS 1 .2.19 a nd 1 .1.3. F or t he o ther h oards , s ee t he l i st o f s ources a t t he e nd o f t he t ex t .

4 1.

Me tca l f , ' Con t inu i ty a nd c hange ', l oc.ci t . ( no te 2 a bove) .

4 2.

R . S kov mand , ' De d anske S ka t tefund f ra V ik inge t iden o g d en

21dste

M idde la lder i nd t il omkr ing 150 ' , A NOH 1 942 , 1 -275 . 4 3.

S ee t he f ind-records p ass im , e .g . S kov mand 1 942, S kaare 1 976 , S tenb erger 1 947-58, N ord man 1 942, P o t in 1 967 , e tc.

4 4.

K . S kaare , C o ins a nd Co inage i n V ik ing-Age N orway , O slo , 1 976 .

4 5.

T . Ta lv io , S CB I F in land , 1 978.

4 6.

S ee f or e xa mp le C . B l in c lhei m , ' Trade p rob le ms i n t he V ik ing a ge .

S o me

r ef lec t ions o n i nsu lar me ta lwork f ound i n N orweg ian g raves o f t he V ik ing a ge ', i n The V ik ings .

P roceed ings o f t he S y mposiu m o f t he F acu l ty o f

Ar ts o f Uppsa la Un ivers i ty , J une 6 -9 , 1 977 ( ed . T . Andersson a nd K . I . S andred ) , Uppsa la , 1 978, p p . 1 66-76 , d iscussing a d is tr ibu t ionmap o rg ina l ly d rawn b y B f 6e .

F or s o me u sefu l c aut ionary r e marks o n

ad istr ibu t ion- map o f o va l b rooches , s ee p . F oote a nd D . M . Wi lson , The V ik ing A ch ieve men t , 1 970 , p p . 1 92-4. 4 7.

No te f or e xa mp le E . B akka ,

g ravfunn f r5 . F osse iMe land , H orda land,

o g d et a rkeo log iske p er iodesk i l je t Merovingar t id o g V ik inga t id ', F inska F orn m innesföreningens T idskr i f t 7 5 ( 1 973) , 9 -17 ( Hiberno-Scot t ish imp or ts a re a d ef inab le f ind-hor izon , s oon a f ter 8 00 , i n western N orway . F inds c harac ter ist ic o f t h is h or izon a ppear a lso f ro m B ornho lm , S kAne SmA land , ö s tergö t land , a nd Upp land .

There i s as u m mary a nd b ib l io-

g raphy i n F l y 7 1. 4 8.

B . Ma l mer , N ordiska mynt f dre ä r 1 000 , L und/Bonn , 1 966 , p p .197f f . a nd 3 41f . 3 76

4 9.

I n p ar t icu lar P SW I , 1 21, P iask i-Dra m ino = Ma l mer 1 40 , a nd I , 1 82, Trzeb ianowo = Ma l mer 1 47.

The h oard o f K am ien P o morsk i , I , 6 3

Ma l mer 1 34 , o f wh ich t he Arab ic e le men t wou ld d a te i tn o t much a f ter 9 50 , i s g iven a r evised d a t ing o f c . 9 80 o n t he b asis t ha t t he Hedeby c o in i s o f t ype KG 9 d : s ee M . D eköwna , J . Rey man , a nd S . S uchodo lsk i , Wezesn d sredniow ieczny s karb s rebrny z Z a les ia p ow ia t S lupca , v o l . 2 , 1 974 ,

P .

1 85.

R as musson s poke o f a n a pparen t h ia tus i n k u f ic impor ts

i n to t he Ba l t ic a rea b etween 9 65 a nd 9 83 , a nd t ha t might e xp la in t he d iscrepan t a ge-s tructure o f Ma l mer 1 34.

B u t o ne must r epea t t ha t t he

e vidence f or ' imports ' i s p urely n um is ma t ic : 5 0.

s ee a ga in n ote 2 7 .

B . Ma l mer , ' Sver iges ä ldsta myn t ', B r 6 1 ( 1 966 ) , 2 08-18;

i d ., Nord iska

myn t f ire ä r 1 000 , p p . 2 38-41 , where K :Bl/K :D = KG 1 3 .

Whether t he

p rovenances c an d e monstra te t he p o in t o f o r ig in o f t h is g roup i s , h owever , o pen t o d eba te . 5 1.

I b id.

5 2.

The G o t land h oards , w i th s ugges ted t .p .q ., a re S tora Ha l tarve ( 9 95. Ha tz 7 9 ) ; R isungs ( 996 . H .88) ; H ögdarve ( 997. H .39) ; Kvarna ( 997. CNS 1 .3.39) ;

a nd Sm iss ( 9 99. NNÄ 1 975) .

who p o in ted t hese o u t t o me .

Iam i ndeb ted t o Mr B lackburn ,

As r egards t he V i tsö h oard ( Skaare , o p .

c i t ., h oard 1 37 ) , t he c ircu ms tances c ou ld b e p o l i t ica l/ m i li tary r a ther t han s i mp ly c o m mercia l . 5 3.

S kov mand , o p . c i t . ( no te 3 8 a bove ) , p . 9 1, n o . 3 2 ;

G . Ga ls ter , S CB I

Copenhagen 1 , p . 2 9 , n o . 3 0 . 5 4.

Ga lster , S CB I C openhagen 1 , p . 3 1 , n o . 4 3 ;

i d .,

1V ik inge t ids

m A t fund

f ra B ornho lm ', NNÄ 1 977-8, 5 -246, n o . 2 5 . 5 5.

CNS 1 , 2 , 2 :

5 6.

P SW 1 , 6 5.

5 7.

S kaare , o p .c i t ., h oards 9 5 a nd 1 47 .

5 8.

L . 0 . L agerqv is t , l oc. c i t . ( no te 3 5 a bove ) , p p . 4 04f .

5 9.

1 , 1 , 3 ;

1 , 2 , 4 .

R . K iersnowsk i , Wezesn d sredn iow ieezne s karby s rebre z P o 4abia , 1 964 , h oard 1 06.

6 0.

L agerqvist , l oc . c i t .;

6 1.

P SW 1 , 6 0 ;

6 2 .

CNS 1 , 2 , 4 .

6 3.

CNS 1 ,1, 6 .

6 4.

2 , 1 43 ;

Ta lv io S CBI F in land , p .

m a nd n .12.

3 , 7 7.

A . Ma tuszewsk i a nd J . Wie low ie jsk i , ' S ta t is t ica l me thod o f i nvest iga t ing t he s truc ture o f c urrency c ircu la t ion f ro m c o in f inds ', P o lish Nu m is ma t ic N ews , 2( = S upp le ment t o WN 1 7) , 1 973 , 1 7-25. 1 29-44 ;

i b id . 1 8 ( 1 974) , 1 -16.

6 5.

S ee p p . 3 97f f . b e low .

6 6.

Ga ls ter , l oc . c i t . ( no te 5 0 a bove) , h oard 2 0.

3 77

S ee a lso WN 1 5 ( 1 971) ,

6 7.

P etersson 's c hrono log ica l s che me i nvo lves s even-year v a l id i ty p er iods , wh i le Dol ley h as c on t inued s trong ly t o d efend t he s ix-year p er iods o r ig ina l ly p roposed .

Many s tuden ts h ave f el t s ome u nease a bou t t he r egu lar i ty

o f t he s che mes , w i thou t , f or t he most p ar t , b e ing a b le t o s us ta in t he ir c r i t ic is ms i n d eba te . S candinavian

B . Ma l mer h as o f fered a rgu men ts i nvo lv ing

c hrono logy , i n K ing C anu te 's C o inage i n t he Nor thern

C oun tr ies , o p .ci t . ( no te 3 5 a bove ) , a nd D . M . Me tca l f h as s ugges ted a n i n terpreta t ion o f mu l t ip le we igh t-standards wh ich wou ld make i tu nnecessa ry f or v a l id ity-per iods t o h ave a f oreseen d urat ion ( l oc . c i t ., n ote 2 8 a bove ) . 6 8.

A . W. B r kger , ' Ang lo-Saxon s i lver c o ins f ro m t he X I th c en tury i n a s i lver-hoard f ro m Ry fy lke , Norway ', S aga-Book o f t he V ik ing C lub 7 ( 1 911-12) , 2 32-46 .

6 9.

PSW 1 , 1 2 :

P o lab ia 1 64 ;

PWS 3 , 1 5 ; 3 , 7 7 .

7 0.

S CB I F in land , p . XXV

7 1.

l oc. c i t . ( note 6 4 a bove ) .

7 2.

Me tca l f , ' Con t inu i ty a nd c hange ', l oc. c i t . ( n o te 2 a bove) .

7 3.

G . Ha tz , Handel u nd V erkehr .

7 4.

PWS a nd P o lab ia , p ass im .

7 5.

Me tca l f , ' The r ank ing o f t he b oroughs ', l oc .c i t . ( no te 2 8 a bove ) .

7 6.

Even i f i th ad b een f orb idden t o r e-i mpor t t he c urren t t ype , t he t e mp ta tion t o e vade t he i n terd ict wou ld n a tura lly h ave b een s trong . Th is a rgues s trong ly t ha t E ng land's b a lance o f p ayments w as i n d ef ic i t v ish -v is S candinav ia .

7 7.

W. Hahn , ' Regensburger Denare mi t d em B i ldn is Ka iser Heinr ichs I V . im b yzan t in ischen S t i l a ls S ch luss münzen i n n ord ischen S cha tzfunden ' , Acta Un ivers i ta t is Upsal iens is .

F igura , N ew S eries 1 9 ( 1 981)

S ympos iu m :

L e p ays d u n ord e t Byzance , 1 979) , 1 17-24 . 7 8. 7 9.

Ha tz , Handel u nd Verkehr , p p . 1 27f f . W. Hahn , ' Be i trege z u e ine m S te mpe lcorpus d er b ayer ischen M t inzen d es 1 0. u nd 1 1. J ahrhunder ts . 1 . D ie Regensburger M t inzpragung i n d en J ahren 9 48-967 ', JNG 2 7 ( 1 977 ) , 7 9-92 ; i d ., ' . 2 . D ie Regensb urger Münzpregung i n d en J ahren 9 67-76 ', i b id . 2 8/9 ( 1 978/9) , 5 3-64 : i d ., ' D ie R egensburger 1 V I l inzpregung u n ter H erzog O t to v on S chwaben u nd Bayern ( 9 76-982 ) ' , B e i trage z ur s Uddeu tschen MUnzgesch ich te , F es tschr i f t z um 7 5j5hr igen B es tehen d es WUr t te mberg ischen V ere ins f ur MUnzkunde , S tut tgart , 1 976 , p p . 5 8-72 .

8 0.

M . DekO "wna , J . Rey man , a nd S . S uchodo lsk i , Wczesn d sredn iow ieczny s karb s rebrny z Z a les ia p ow ia t S lupca , v o l . . 2 , 1 974 , p p . 1 57f f . a nd 1 87 . V o l . 1 , w i th t he s a me t i t le , i s b y A . Km ie tow icz a nd W. Kub iak , 1 969 , a nd c o mpr ises a c a ta logue o f t he Arab ic c o ins w i th c o m men tary .

8 1.

Ma l mer , o p .ci t ., p p . 2 16-19.

3 78

8 2.

S kov mand , l oc . c i t . ( no te 4 2 a bove ) , p p . 3 5, 3 8f .

8 3.

N . L ow ick , ' The k u f ic c o ins f ro m C uerda le ', BNJ 4 6 ( 1 976 ) , 1 9-28.

8 4.

F or a t horough a na lys is s ee M . Dol ley , The H iberno-Norse C o ins i n t he Br i t ish Museu m ( SCB I ) , 1 966 , p p .25-7.

8 5.

J . Dup lessy , ' La c ircula t ion d es monna ies a rabes e n Europe o cc iden ta le d u Wa le a u X I I Ie

RN5 1 8 ( 1 956 ) , 1 01-64 ;

d a tes o f d epos i t a s i n

Do l ley , o p .ci t ., p p . 4 8-54. 8 6.

Me tca l f , l oc .c i t ( no te 2 a bove ) .

8 7.

H . McKerre l l a nd R . B . K . S tevenson , " So me a na lyses o f A ng lo-Saxon a nd a ssoc ia ted Or ien ta l s i lver c o inage ', Methods o f Che m ica l a nd Me ta l lurg ica l I nves t iga t ion o f Anc ien t C oinage ( ed . E . T . Ha l l a nd D . M . Metca l f ) , 1 972 , p p . 1 95-209.

8 8.

S ee n o te 3 a bove .

8 9.

N . H . Ga le , W . G en tner , a nd G . A . Wagner , ' M inera log ica l a nd g eog raph ica l s i lver s ources o f a rcha ic Greek c o inage ', Me ta l lurgy i n Nu m is ma t ics 1 ( 1 980 ) , 3 -49 .

3 79

S ammanfattning

H ittills h ar u ppmärksamheten k oncenrerat$ a lltför m ycket p ä h ur m ynten k om t ill N ordeuropa,

o ch i nte t illräckligt m ycket p ä v ad s om

s kedde m ed d em s edan d e k ommit d it. k unna g e o ss e tt u tmärkt m aterial

D e v ikingatida s katterna b orde

f ör e n d etaljerad s ifferanalys a v

m yntcirkulationen mom N ordeuropa, m en t yvärr h ar ä n s ä l änge i nte n ägra s törre f ramsteg g jorts v ad g äller t olkningen a v d em .

I e tt

f örsök a tt g e e n a llmän t eori s om s kulle f örklara p roportionerna a v o lika m ynttyper

i s katterna,

b etonar d enna u ppsats

a tt m ynten

s om s amlats i N ordeuropa ä terspeglar b etalningsbalansöverskott. D et ä r f örvänande a tt e xporten a v v aror

( särskilt t ill T yskland)

s kulle h a h aft e tt s törre v ärde ä n i mporten, m en m an k an i nte f örk lara f örekomsten a v m ynten p ä n ägot a nnat s ätt. O m m an a nvänder s tatistik p ä m aterialet b aseras d et i a llmänhet p ä a rgument s om f örst i dentifierar e n s killnad g enom a tt materialet p g e tt v isst s ätt,

i ndelas

a ntingen g eografiskt e ller e fter m ynttyp;

s edan s ätter s iffervärden p ä s killnaden o m d et k rävs e n f örklaring; E xempel

s edan s pekulerar ö ver t änkbara f örklaringar.

f inns i f orskning u tförd a v H ärdh,

L inder W elin,

f ör a tt k unna b edöma

B olin/Kiersnowski o ch P otin .

H erschend,

R andsborg,

V arje e xempel

g ranskas

k ritiskt. O m a ntalet e ngelska,

t yska e ller a rabiska m ynt i e n s katt r äknas

o m t ill p rocenttal k an ä ldersprofilen f ör v arje e nskild

s erie i s katten

ä terges p ä e tt s ätt s om u nderlättar j ämförelser m ed a ndra f ynd.

G enom

a tt s amla i nformation o m ä ldersprofilerna i e tt

t illräckligt a ntal f ynd,

k an m an u pptäcka l ikheter o ch m önster i nom d em .

E fter a tt h a u teslutit

d e f ä a typiska e ller o regelbundna f ynden k an m an a nalysera s iffrorna u nder a ntagande a tt s katterna r epresenterar e tt s lumpmässigt u rval a v m ynten i d en r egion d är d e h ittats.

T v gs amverkande m önster u pptäcks.

3 80

F ör d et f örsta a tt v arje f l y m ynttyp s uccesivt t illförs

d en

c irkulerande m yntstocken o ch s edan m inskar o ch b ortfaller.

F ör d et

a ndra a tt t akten i m inskningen f ör t yperna v arierar f rän r egion t ill r egion mom N ordeuropa. ä r m ycket l ägre i ö ster.

D en ä r i bland s ä h ög s om 1 0% i v äster, m en D et i ntressanta f ör h istorikern

s om s ysslar

m ed m ynt m ed i nformation o m m yntstockens ä ldersstruktur ä r a tt d en k an o mvandlas

t ill d etaljerade b evis

f ör t akten p 3 .

m inskningen.

H ur

d et k an s ke i llustreras m ed e n h ypotetisk m odell a v d en e ngelska d elen a v m yntstocken g enom a tt k ombinera i nförsel, k varvarande m ängden .

I nförseln

( i m iljoner

u tförsel o ch d en

m ynt) b eräknas

f rän a n-

t aganden o m u tförseln a v m ynt f rän E ngland; m en m odellens a nspräk p ä a tt t roget r epresentera f akta v ilar p ä d ess e mpiriska ö verenss tämmelse m ed f yndprofilerna. E n s amling a v m odeller s kulle k unna k onstrueras d är v ar o ch e n m otsvarar m aterialet i d e o lika d elarna a v N ordeuropa.

D en

a llmänna m odellen v isar a tt t vä m otstäende t endenser v erkade s amtidigt:

e tt b etalningsbalans ö verskott s kapade e n v äxande m ynt-

s tock a v e ngelska m ynt i N ordeuropa t alet)

( under f örsta h älften a v 1 000-

o ch s tora m inskningar ä gde r um,

r esuitatet a v e n ä terexport a v m ynt.

a v v ilka ä tminstone e n d el v ar

B eräkningar a v m yntningens

s torlek I T yskland a ntyder e n o fta ä terkommande o mmyntning a v d en u telöpande m yntstocken. Ä ven o m m ynt r örde s ig f ritt o ch s nabbt ö ver h ela N ordeuropa, k an e n d el r egioner h a h aft e n m yntstock s om v ar m er e ller m indre i solerad.

IF inland o ch R yssland t .ex.

k an d en d elvis h a v arit

i nförd d irekt f rän E ngland. Ä ldersstrukturen f ör d en t yska d elen a v s katterna g er ö verraskande b evis

f ör a tt m inskningstakten

v ar m ycket

3 81

l ägre ä n f ör e ngelska

m ynt v id s amma t idpunkt.

D et k an v ara e n k onstlad e ffekt a v d et s ätt

s om s iffrorna p resenteras p ä, m en d et v erkar o cksä d elvis v ara e tt f aktiskt f enomen.

D en " sena a nkomsten"

f lera ä r e h er t .o.m .

f ör t yska m ynt t ill S verige,

ä tskilliga ä r e fter a tt d e p räglats,

d iskuteras.

Ä ldersstrukturen f ör d e a rabiska m ynten i 9 00-tals f ynden ä r a nnorlunda p ä G otland i j ämförelse m ed d et v ästslaviska o mrädet. U tflödet a v d irhemer f rän N ordeuropa t ill V ästeuropa v ar h elt b etydelselöst m onetärt s ett.

U nder 9 00-talet u tgjorde d e i nte n ägon

s tor t illförsel a v s ilver f ör V ästeuropa .

3 82

SOME USES OF S CATTER D IAGRA MS FOR DE MONSTRAT ING HETEROGENEITY I N V IK ING-AGE CO INAGE AND CO IN HOARDS C . S . S . L yon

I ti s c o m mon g round t hat p rogress i n i n terpret ing t he h oards f ro m t he V ik ing a ge d epends o n c o mpar ing a nd c on trast ing t he ir c o mpos it ion .

Th is

t ask i s made e asier i f , f or t he p urpose o f ap ar t icu lar c o mpar ison , e ach h oard c an b e d ef ined b y ap a ir o f p ara meters .

Al arge n u mber o f h oards

c an t hen b e p lo t ted o n as cat ter d iagra m a nd a v isua l impression o b ta ined . T h is may i n t urn h e lp i n d ec id ing h ow t he i n for mat ion c an b est b e t abu lated . The u se o f s i mp le p ara me ters n eeds n o e xp lanat ion .

F or e xa mp le , o n

t he b asis o f G er t H a tz ' sp ub l icat ion o f t he Ger man c on ten t o f t he Swed ish h oards' i t is p oss ib le t o make a p re l im inary e xa m inat ion o f t he mix o f G er man a nd Eng l ish c o ins b y r eference t o t he t er m inus p ost q ue m g iven f or t he l atest c o in i n af ind .

The m ix c an b e r educed t o as ing le s tat ist ic i n v ar ious ways ,

TABLE 1 T he mix o f G er man a nd Eng l ish c o ins i n Swed ish h oards

E ar l iest d ate o f t he l atest c o in i n t he h oard A f ter

N u mber o f G ot land h oards i n wh ich t he p ercen tage o f E ng l ish c o ins i n t he t o tal o f Eng l ish a nd G er man c o ins i s : 0 -9

1 0-24

2 5-49

5 0-75

7 6-90

9 1 &o ver

To ta l

u p t o

9 80

1 000

1 000

1 020

1 020

1 040

1 040

1 060

8

4

4

1

1

-

1 8

-

1 4

4

1

-

1 9

3

1

1 5

6

7

-

5

2

-

2 6

3

3

2

1

2 2

1 060

1 080

1

2

3

1

1 080

1 100

4

4

4

2

1 100

1 120

_

1 120

1 140

1 2 3

. ..

1 8

-

7

-

1 4

2

-

1

-

3

-

-

-

-

1

7

1

4 5

1 6

1 10

o ne o f t he most i l lu m inat ing b e ing i n t he f or m o f t he l ogar ith m o f t he r at io o f t he r espect ive n u mbers . h oards r ecorded b y H a tz :

F ig . 1p lo ts t h is s tat ist ic f or 1 10 o f t he Go t land h oards w ith a n a ggregate o f f ewer t han 3 0 G er man

a nd Eng l ish c o ins h ave b een e xc luded , a s

h ave t hose f or wh ich t he t o ta l

n u mbers ( i nc lud ing f ragmen ts ) a re s hown a s b e ing u ncer ta in .

Accep t ing t hat

t he r ecorded n u mbers may b e d istor ted b y t he i nc lusion o f im i tat ions , n evert he less i ti s e v iden t t ha t f or most o f t he p er iod t he mix v ar ies e nor mously b etween h oards w ith a s im i lar t .p .q .

The i dea t hat G er man a nd Eng l ish

3 83

S UTOO U UM . le -D 0 1 . I STI2UH J O O T1 .VH

s uToo u sTT2ug oq . T r eMaG f p J O

O T1 .PH

o f l atest

T HE R ELATIVE N UMBERS O F E NGLISH

c oin i n h oard

C r \

E arliest

••

G OTLAND H OARDS:

•

0 •

•• •••

•

• 0

•

• •

C O C 3l

0

1-1

9

L I

7 S UTOO T I PMJGD 0 1 . l i STI2UH J O o Tvea J o

3 84

( cm

e s 'ec t) m ul .Tau2or i

c o ins a rr iv ing i n G o t land were i n jected i n to a we l l- m ixed a nd r ap id ly c ircu lat ing c urrency s ee ms u n tenab le : o n ly f or h oards w i th a t .p .q . o f 1 000-20 d oes t he m ix v ary w ith in l im its t hat a re o ther t han e x tre me ly w ide .

A lso

c lear i s t hat where t he t .p .q . i s b e tween 1 000 a nd 1 060 t he Eng l ish c o ins o utnu mber t he G erman i n as ign if ican t p ropor t ion o f t he h oards ( v iz a bou t 2 5% ) . T hese c onc lusions a re s hown n u mer ica l ly i n T ab le 1 , wh ich s u m mar ises t he e v idence o f t he s cat ter d iagra m . N o d e ta i led p ub l icat ion o f t he Ang lo-Saxon c on ten t y et e x ists , b ut a b road i nd icat ion o f t he c o mpos i t ion o f t he S cand inav ian f inds i n a ggregate c an b e o bt a ined f ro m t he a na lys is o f n ear ly 3 5 , 0 00 we ighed c o ins i n B er t i l P etersson ' s Ang lo-Saxon C urrency .2 With t he e xcep t ion o f t he f i rst i ssue t he g reat ma jor i ty o f t he s urv iv ing c o ins f ro m E dgar ' sr eform i n c . 9 73 u n t i l t he a bo l it i on o f h erege ld i n 1 051 a re d er ived f ro m f i nds i n S cand in av ia a nd t he B a lt ic a rea , a lthough t here a re s ign if ican t c on tr ibut ions f ro m B r it ish h oards i nc lud ing t hose f ro m I psw ich ( Do l ley 3 1 25 2Ethe lred F irst H and ) , K ingsho lm (?) ( Do l ley 1 46 —Cnut Q uatrefo i l ) , H a lton Moor ( Do l ley 1 51 — Cnu t P o in ted H e l met ) , C a ldale ( Do l ley 1 52— Cnu t S hor t C ross ) , Wed more ( Do l ley 1 57 — ma in ly H aro ld I , H arthacnu t , a nd E dward t he C on fessor P acx ) a nd T hwa ite ( Do l ley 1 60— E dward t he C on fessor Sma l l F lan ) . P etersson d iv ides Eng land i n to t en m in t ing d istr icts f or t he p urpose o f h is a na lys is . B y c omb in ing t hese i n to f our g roups a nd t hen i n to p a irs o fg roups , 'N or th-east ' =2 ( York ) +4 ( L inco ln ) +5 ( Dane law ) +1 0 ( East Merc ia ) ; 'S ou th-east ' =6 ( East Ang l ia ) +1 ( London ) +8( South-east ) ; 'S ou th-west ' =3 ( Winchester ) +7 ( West Wessex ) ; N or th-west ' =9 ( We st Merc ia ) o ne a rr ives a t t he c onc lusion t hat 6 0% o f t he a ggregate o f s urv iv ing c o ins f ro m c . 9 73 t o 1 066 were m in ted i n L ondon , E ast Ang l ia , K en t a nd Wessex a nd 4 0% i n Merc ia , L indsey a nd N or thu mbr ia , I n e i ther c ase a bou t 7 0% were min ted i n i n t he e ast a nd 3 0% i n t he west . Tab le 2 s hows t he a ctua l n u mbers a nd t he p ercen tage d istr ibut ions . The n ex t t wo s cat ter d iagra ms d e monstrate t hat t here a re s ign if ican t d ep artures f ro m t h is a pparen t h o mogene ity when t he c haracter ist ics o f e ach s epara te t ype a re p lo t ted .

TABLE 2

I n F ig . 2t he n orther ly c o mponen t ( v iz n or th-west

D istr ibu t ion o f s urv iv ing l ate Ang lo-Saxon c o ins b y min t ing r eg ion S ou th

To ta l

9 868 ( 4 0% ) ( 7 2% )

1 4886 ( 60% ) ( 7 1% )

2 4754 ( 1 00% ) ( 7 1% )

3 837 ( 39% )

61 06 ( 6 1% )

9 943 ( 1 00% )

N orth

E as t

West

To ta l

( 28% ) 1 3705 ( 3 9% ) ( 1 00% )

( 29% )

( 2 9% )

2 0992 ( 61% ) ( 1 00% )

3 4697 ( 100% ) ( 1 00% )

3 85

0

l c • / 7 0

—/ / / /

. •2 2

1 8 / • , "

1 / • / / / /

/

A/

50

1 78 •,, 1 7 •

12 5

, . ,

60

70

1 4 • 108 • . , 7 A

11• /

.

1 5 I D

80

1 0 .1 • % \l3 19 • 20 •

40

(3)

7 •

18

8

•

23 0

I

.9

/ T

5

4 • 1 6 a

30 2A /

•

/

3

/ / / 10A •

20

1 1 2C'

• _ _ _ ___ \ •2

I I I i I

l o

F IG.2:

1 1 1 2 8.

O VERALL R EGIONAL B IAS O F S URVIVING C OINS O F LATE A NGLO-

S AXON C OIN T YPES

3 86

p lus n or th-east a s ap ercen tage o ft he t o ta l ) i s g raphed a ga inst t he e aster ly c o mponen t ( v iz n or th-eas t p lus s outh-eas t a s ap ercentage o ft he t o ta l ) , s o g iv ing a v isua l impress ion o f t he g eograph ica l c en tre o f min t ing o f t he s urv iv ing c o ins , t ype b y t ype . T he s trong s ou thern a nd e astern b ias o f 2 Ethe lred ' s F irst H and a nd Crux t ypes ( 2A . a nd 3 ) i s s een t o s h if t g radua l ly t owards a f a ir ly e ven e aster ly b ias wh ich p ers ists t hrough t he h erege ld p er iod , a f ter wh ich i tb eco mes l ess p ronounced .

S pec ia l c ases i nc lude t he R eform-F irst

Sma l l C ross i ssue , i t s n or thern a nd e astern b ias f or E dward t he Mar tyr a nd 4 / Ethe lred ( 1B a nd 1 C ) b e ing s trong ly i nf luenced b y t he c o mpos it ion o fh oards f ro m O akha m ( Do l ley 2 4 , r edated b y B lun t a nd L yon4 )a nd C hester ( Do l ley 1 20 ) ; t he e xcep t iona l ly s trong s ou thern b ias o f ! Ethe lred ' sS econd H and a nd B ened ict ion H and i ssues ( 2B a nd 2 C ) , c a l l ing i n to q uest ion t he ir n a ture a nd p urpose ;

t he s im i lar b ut n o t u nexpec ted b ias o f H ar thacnut ' sJ ewe l C ross

t ype ( 10A . ) ; t he s ou thern a nd e astern b ias o f E dward t he C on fessor ' s Sma l l F lan i ssue ( 1 6 ) , p erhaps d ue t o E ng l ish h oards ; a nd t he n or ther ly b ias o f E dward t he C on fessor ' sP yra m ids t ype ( 22 ) , i nf luenced b y a ma jor h oard f ro m York ( Do l ley 1 74 ) .

C ur ious ly , t he ma jor h oards a ssoc ia ted w ith t he

B at t le o f H ast ings d o n o t c ause t he o ther l a te t ypes o f E dward a nd t he s o le t ype o f H aro ld I t o b e s trong ly s ou thern i n t he ir b ias . U sefu l t hough F ig . 2i s f or g iv ing a b ird ' s -eye v iew o f t he g eograph ica l b ias o f e ach t ype a s i th as c o me d own t o u s , i t may n ever the less s t i ll mask s ign if ican t h e terogene i ty .

F or e xamp le , b ecause o f t he d om inance o f t he e as tern

d istr icts o ver t he w estern a s outher ly b ias i n t he e ast c ou ld c a mouf lage a n or ther ly b ias i n t he w est . To d etect s uch e f fects F ig . 3p lo ts t he n or thern c o mponen t o f t he e astern d istr icts ( v iz n or th-east a s ap ercen tage o f n or the ast p lus s ou th-east ) a ga inst t he n or thern c o mponen t o f t he western d istr icts ( v iz n or th-west a s ap ercen tage o f n or th-west p lus s ou th-west ) . T he d iagona l l i ne d eno tes a n e qua l n or ther ly p ropor t ion o n b oth s ides o f t he c oun try ;

f or

t ypes l y ing c lose t o t h is l i ne t he impression g iven b y F ig . 2i s c on f irmed b u t f or t hose t ha t l i e we l l away f ro m t he d iagona l s o me q ua l if icat ion i s n ecessary . T he g enera l impress ion g iven b y F ig . 3i s t hat most t ypes l i e t o t he l ef t o f t he d iagona l a nd t herefore h ave a s tronger n or ther ly emphas is i n t he west t han i n t he e ast . T he most s pectacu lar e xa mp le i s I Et he lred ' sB ened ict ion H and ( 2C ) , s how ing t ha t— in c on trast t o S econd H and ( 2B ) —the d ear th o f m in ti ng i n t he n or th-east d oes n o t f ind a p ara l le l i n t he n or th-west .

O f t he t ypes

t hat l i e t o t he r igh t o f t he d iagona l f ew a re a t ag reat d is tance f rom i t . T he n or ther ly b ias o f t he s econd a nd t h ird p hases o f t he R efor m t ype ( 1B a nd 1 C ) i s s hown t o b e t he r esu l t o f v ery s trong n or th-eas t c o mponen ts t ha t a re o f fse t t o s o me e x ten t b y weak r epresen tat ion o f t he n or th-west .

I n t he n ex t t ype

( F irst H and , 2 A ) t h is w eakness i s a ga in a pparen t a nd r e in forces what i s n ow as outher ly b ias i n t he e ast . Another t ype where t he s ou ther ly b ias i s s tronger i n t he west t han t he e ast i s L ast Sma l l C ross o f / Ethe lred . I tw i l l r equ ire more d eta i led s tud ies , i nc lud ing d ie-ana lysis , b efore g ene ra l c onc lus ions c an b e d rawn a s t o h ow f ar t hese e f fects a re a t tr ibu tab le t o d if ferences i n m in t ing p at terns a nd h ow f ar t o d if ferences i n t he s ources o f t he s urv iv ing c o ins . H owever , most o f t he t ypes o f E dward t he C on fessor f ro m t he h eavy Expand ing C ross i ssue o nwards ( 1 7A-21 ) l i e we l l t o t he l ef t o f t he d iagona l ( t he ma in e xcep t ion b e ing P yra m ids , 2 2 ) a nd i ti s p oss ib le t hat

3 87

o f E ast N orth-East a s

/

I ) • / /

Z / Z c r a

C OMPARISON O F N ORTH-SOUTH C OMPONENTS

. -• , e l e l •