Later Medieval Mints: Organization, Administration and Techniques. The Eighth Oxford Symposium on Coinage and Monetary History 9780860545033, 9781407346663

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Later Medieval Mints: Organisation, Administration and Techniques The Eighth Oxford Symposium on Coinage and Monetary History

N.

J.

edited by Mayhew and Peter Spufford

BAR International Series 389 1988

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR S389,1988 'Later Medieval Mints :Organisation,Administration and Techniques' © Th e Individual Authors, 1988 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545033 paperback ISBN 9781407346663 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545033 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

L ater

M edieval

M ints:

O rganisation , T echniques

Administration

a nd

C ONTENTS

3

P reface P eter S pufford

M int O rganisation i n l ate m edieval E urope.

H elen W .

T he M edieval M int o f C airo:

B rown

s ome a spects

7 3 0

o f m int o rganisation a nd a dministration . M int O rganisation i n I taly b etween t he

L ucia T ravaini

t welfth a nd f ourteenth c enturies: P amela N ightingale

' The

K ing 's P rofit':

T rends

3 9

a s urvey .

i n E nglish

6 1

M int a nd M onetary P olicy i n t he E leventh a nd T welfth C enturies. C hristopher E .

C hallis

A ssays a nd A ssaying i n t he r eigns o f

7 6

H enry I II a nd E dward I . N icholas J .

Mayhew

I rregularities

i n t he I rish m int a ccounts

8 7

1 279-84. A lan M .

S tahl

T he M int o f V enice i n t he T hirteenth

9 7

C entury. J ean D uplessy

L es m onnaies c oncurrentes d e H enry V I, r oi d e F rance e t d 'Angleterre, C harles V II.

1 28

e t d e

P i6ce justificative.

E nglish r esum6. Marjoke d e R oos

M en a nd manners

i n a f ifteenth-century

1 47

m int. M int p ersonnel i n H olland . P eter I lisch

Münzmeister i n D eutschland 1 400-1500.

1 59

E nglish r esum6. A ppendix: I ndex o f M intmasters G ermany 1 400-1500. J Orgen S teen J ensen

i n

L ate m edieval M ints a nd M int Masters

i n

2 02

S candinavia. i llustrations A ppendix:

I ndex o f M intmasters a nd

M intworkers J oan E .L .

Murray

i n S candinavia c .1350-c.1536.

A T ender f or t he S cottish C oinage i n 1 538.

2 22

I ndex

2 29

1

P REFACE

I n

r ecent

o rganisation h as

s o

f ar

e dition 1 984

b een

o f

a nd

y ears

a g reat

o f m edieval

t he

e xpressed

C apitolar

a c hapter

i n

d eal

m ints. i n

o f

i nterest

O nly

a v ery

p rint.

F or

d alle Broche b y

t he

f irst

v olume

has

b een

l ittle

V enice

t his

t here

G iorgetta

o f

s hown

o f

has

L ane

t he

b een

B onfiglio

F rederic

i n

i nterest t he

D osio

a nd

i n

R einhold

Mueller's M oney a nd B anking i n M edieval a nd R enaissance V enice, w hich a ppeared i n 1 985, w hilst t wo a rticles b y P eter S pufford a ppeared o n t he N etherlands

i n 1 979 a nd 1 983.

H owever

a v ery

C hristopher

C hallis

g reat h as

c o-operative H istory o f 1 987,

whilst

t o

t he

o f

T he

1 987.

L ane

t he

C atalogue

H istory . I n

r ecent

t o

o f

a c omparative w ork

i n t he

i n

p reparation .

o f

o f

t he

d ue

t he R oyal v olume,

i s

t o

o n

t o

t o

C ollection

i s

c omplementary p lates, t he

i s

r ecords

c omplement

a nd

o f

a nd

F rederic

L ucia

T ravaini

i s

d evelopment

o f m ints

t hroughout

t welfth a nd t hirteenth c enturies.

a i n

t rial

D osio

w rite p ress

t hrough

s tudy

E ngland

t o

g o

M int

w orking

B onfiglio

M eanwhile

o n

i s

a d ocumentary

G iorgetta

I n

c ollaborators

i n t his w ill b e

f irst

S tahl

p roduce

w ork

a nd R einhold Mueller.

w rite

T he

I taly A lan

t he V enetian m int

e xtend

i s

a t eam

i ntroductory m aterial

c o-operative i n

m ore

t he R oyal M int w hich

a multi-volume

a lso p lanned . e xpected

d eal

a ssembled

a ttempting

t o

I taly

I n t he N etherlands Marjoke d e

R oos i s p reparing a v olume o n t he m ints o f t he f ifteenth c entury a nd t heir p ersonnel, t o c omplement a nd e xtend t he w ork o f P eter S pufford , w ho has,

h imself,

t he

i ntention o f p ublishing f urther a rticles

i n t his

f ield . I t

t herefore

s eemed

t o

t he

e ditors

o f

t his

o pportune

i n t he

t hat t hey c ould have t he b enefit o f a c omparative back-

f ield s o

o f

a n

t ogether a s m any a s

g round t o t heir o wn w ork .

p ossible

v olume

m oment t o b ring

t hose c urently w orking

T his m eeting t ook p lace a s

t he E ighth O xford

S ymposium o n C oinage a nd M onetary H istory under t he a uspices H eberden C oin R oom o f t he A shmolean Museum i n S eptember 1 985. A s

w ell

a s

L ucia T ravaini, i nvite a l arge

C hristopher

i n i ts s cope. f rom G ermany,

T he

o riginal

b rief

t o

t he

o f

h is

c ollaborators,

J ean D uplessy c ame o ver a nd J Orgen S teen J ensen

s peakers

t he m ost

c ommon

t he

f eatures

o rganisation

o f

c omparative p inpoint

t he

a nd

l arge

l ater m iddle

m inting

s ome

f rom f rom

whilst H elen B rown d iscussed t he n on-European m int o f E gypt.

t hat m ight b e p ursued .

t he

a nd

t he

A lan S tahl a nd Marjoke d e R oos, t he e ditors t ried t o e nough c ross s ection o f o ther s peakers t o m ake t he

o ccasion t ruly c omparative F rance, P eter I lisch c ame D enmark,

C hallis

o f

a pproach d ates

t he

e stablishments

w orkshops

i n

d ifferent w ell

o f

t he

t he

t hat had e xisted e arlier.

p ay p articular

a ttention

t o

t he

o f

t he

t hemes

d iscover

t he

between

p arts

t his

o f

t he

E urope

d escriptive

m ight

E urope,

numerous,

f elt

t hirteenth

3

a s

s ymposium p arts

m ore W e

o f

t o

f eatures

a s

d ifferent

r eplaced

w as

t hat

m embers i n

s ome

t hese

m ints

W e h oped

w hen ,

o f

d ifferentiating

' factory '

a ges.

s uggested

o bvious

but

b e

a ble

t hese

a s ' the

s maller m ost

t o

l arge m int

i t w ould b e w orthwhile

c entury

i n a nd

t o

l ikely

p eriod f or t he t ransition b etween t he t wo k ing o f B ohemia u sed a T uscan m intmaster,

m odes o f m inting . S ince a c ount o f F landers u sed

a a

L ombard m intmaster, a nd a k ing o f E ngland u sed a P rovençal m intmaster, i n t he t hirteenth c entury, w e s uggested t hat T uscany, L ombardy o r P rovence m ight b e t he a rea i n w hich t o s eek t he o rigins o f t he n ew ' factory ' m ints. A lternatively w e a sked t he m embers o f t he s ymposium t o c onsider w hether t hese T uscans, L ombards a nd P roven9als c ould m erely have b een i ntermediaries w ho w ere i ntroducing i nto o ther p arts w estern E urope a m int o rganisation t hat was e ffectively B yzantine

o f o r

A rab i n o rigin . o ther parts o f

i n o f

g overnment,

W e a lso a sked whether t here w ere a ny d evelopments E urope, whether i n t he e conomy, i n t he s tructure

o r

i n

preconditions ' factory '

t he

f or

s cale

c alling

m inting .

W e

o f i n

m inting

s uggested

d iscover what happened t o

n eeded ,

s outhern t hat

i t

t he e arlier

t hat

w ere

entrepreneurs m ight

a lso

i ndividual

n ecessary

t o

b e

e stablish

i nteresting

' moneyers'

w ith

t o

t heir

i ndividual r ights a nd p rivileges, a fter t he n ew m int-masters had a rrived . W e a sked h ow t heir f ate r elated t o t he c reation o f h ereditary g roups o f s worn m int w orkers w ith c orporate p rivileges. W e a lso s uggested o ther t hemes l ike a nd

t o

t ouch o n :

w ithout,

t he

a nd

a dministration ;

t heir of

was p rovided by t he

o f a vailable o uvriers o f

o utput,

t eam

o f w orkmen ;

t he v arious

t he

a nd

t ypes

m ints

d ie, t he

t he o r

mints,

m ints

t he

and

p ublic g eneral

how

much

e ntrepreneur;

t he n umber

h ow m any o f t hem w ere

c alled o n ,

d aily p er

c osts

o f w orkers,

e xchanges;

o f

t he a nd

d ivision o f l abour b etween t hem ;

e lse

t rue

b oth w ithin

g oldsmithing,

a nd

e quipment

a nd m onnayeurs,

p er

o fficers,

b anking,

a nd h ow much by t he

a nd w hat was

e ither

w ith

b etween

m ints; s tate

t hat m embers o f t he s ymposium m ight

o f m int

l inks

c onnections

administration

a nd h ow o ften ,

c areers

f urnace,

o f m inting,

a nd w hat v alue

p er

h ow much

man was

r ates o r

p er

p aid

l ost

t o

o f m etal

was

i n

t he

p resent,

i nspired by

t he

r efining a nd m inting p rocesses. A fter

t he

d iscussions, v olume. which

c onference

a number

P amela N ightingale t he

o f

t hose

p resented a dditional p apers l ate

m edieval

has

t hat h ave b een i ncluded i n t he

c ontributed a n

s tyle

o f

m int

w as

e ssay

o n

t he

d eveloped

p eriod

i n

a t

E ngland ,

N icholas Mayhew a n e ssay o n t he I rish m int i n t he t hirteenth c entury , a nd J oan Murray o ne o n t he S cottish m int i n t he e arly s ixteenth c entury . D espite

t hese

a dditional

p apers,

t his

v olume

c ertain l acunae. F or e xample, n o c ontributors p eninsula o r f rom E astern E urope w ere a ble t o c ome,

s till

s uffers

f rom

f rom t he I berian a nd t here c ould b e

n o p aper o n t he o rganisation o f t he m int o f B yzantium a s n o d ocumentary e vidence s urvives

f rom w hich s uch a p aper c ould b e w ritten .

T he t ypes o f e ssay P eter

S pufford

a nd

t o b e

L ucia

f ound i n t his v olume

T ravaini

p rovide

S tahl a nd H elen B rown p rovide k ey d escriptions c entral

mints

a t

f ixed

p oints

i n

a re v ery

c omparative

d ifferent.

s tudies.

A lan

o f t he w orking o f g reat

t ime.

Christopher

C hallis

c oncentrated o n o ne p art o f t he m inting p rocess, a ssaying. Marjoke d e R oos, P eter I lisch a nd J Orgen S teen J ensen h ave a g reat d eal t o s ay a bout

t he

m obility

p ersonnel o f

N etherlands

s uch

w ho

m en ,

r an

who

t heir

c ould ,

m ints, a nd

a nd

i ncidentally

s ometimes

d id,

t o G ermany o r f rom G ermany t o S candinavia.

4

m ove

a bout

t he

f rom

t he

I t

d id

not,

t hematically, o ne

t heme,

t heme. h ave

t heir

I t has,

o gical

a nd 1 225. t he

p apers

After

H elen

p oint

c entury.

f or

P amela p aper

c entury.

S pufford 's

d escription

h er

p aper,

F rom

t he

o n a ssaying

i t was

o f

t he m ints o f t he M arjoke d e R oos f or

w hich

O f

o n

t hat

p aper

a lso

i n

E ngland

i s

t o

e ssay,

b etween

1 248

t he

t he

b elongs

c entury i n

m int

w e

1 185

i nfluences may h ave s haped which

c hronological m id-fourteenth

e ssentially

t here a nd

i s

1 279,

i n

t he

p aper

t o

t he

C hristopher a nd

i s

a

t hese

g reat

w e

i t w ould h ave

d iscussion

t hat

t he

N icholas

h ave

a nd

J ensen's

paper

c entury .

J oan Murray 's

G ermany

S candinavian p aper o n

p laced J ean

r espectively, m ints

t he

c ome

o f

o n

t he

p aper,

o n

o f F rance, f irst. o f t he f ifteenth

whilst

J Orgen

i nto

S cottish M int

t his

e specially

e ssays

D uplessy 's

e xtends

a t

l ater m edieval

o f w estern E urope,

c oncentration

r ival Valois a nd P lantagenet k ings a nd P eter I lisch c over t he whole on

volume

o nly

i ntroductory

E gyptian

e xtends

i nfluenced b y t hose

H olland

t he

p rimarily

1 279-84. A lan S tahl's e ssay o n t he V enetian 1 320 c arries t he v olume i nto t he f ourteenth

T here

f ifteenth c entury.

c entury

t he

t hirteenth

s uggested

V enice.

a rrange

c oncerned w ith

g eneral

o f

t hat I slamic

N ightingale's

B yzantine m ints w ere t hat

e xclusively

H ad t here b een a B yzantine

f or

t o

c oncentrated

i n t welfth c entury S icily,

c entury.

C hallis'

a uthors

b een put t ogether i n a n a pproximately c hronol-

P eter

M ayhew 's o n I reland i n m int b etween 1 278 a nd p oint,

n ot

L ucia T ravaini h ints

s tarting

p ossible

s ome

w ere

B rown 's

P alermo m int

t welfth

prove

a lthough

i nstead ,

o rder.

p ut

however,

s ince,

t he

i n 1 538,

S teen

s ixteenth b rings

t he

v olume t o a c onclusion . P eter

I lisch

a nd J Orgen

S teen J ensen

w ith e xtremely u seful a ppendixes. t o

m int-masters

S candinavia.

and mintworkers

A lan S tahl h as

have

e nriched

i n

f ifteenth-century

a dded t o h is

I t was h oped t o p rovide i n

print,

t o

a f ull b ibliography a s

a ssist

f uture

p apers i ndexes

G ermany

and

p aper a n a ppendix o f s ources

f or t he h istory o f t he m int o f V enice, t ogether w ith c hapter h eadings f rom t he C apitulary o f M int M asters.

a lready

t heir

T hey h ave p roduced e xtensive

workers

Unfortunately o nly s ections o f t his m aterialised ,

a l ist

a g uide i n

o f

t o w hat

t his

t he

i s

f ield.

s o t hat t he r esult

i s

r ather unbalanced . I t

was

p atently

n ot

p ossible

t o

f ollow

u p

a ll

t he

o riginal

s uggestions, a s made by t he c onvenors o f t he s ymposium , a nd o utlined a bove, but w e b elieve t hat t he m embers o f t he s ymposium have g one a c onsiderable b elieve

t hat

i nstitutional

way

t o

t his a nd

p rovide

i s

a n

s ocial

a nswers

a rea

h istorians

e conomic a nd p olitical h istorians, t hat t his

t o

which

s ome

i s o f

o f t he

o f

t hese

i mportance m iddle

a s w ell a s

p roblems.

W e

n ot

t o

a ges,

m erely

but

t o numismatists.

a lso

t o

W e k now

i s a f ield i n which a g ood d eal o f s cholarly w ork i s g oing t o

b e undertaken

i n

t he

i mmediate

f uture,

a nd w e

b elieve

t hat

t he

p apers

i n t his v olume p rovide a s ignificant c ontribution t o t hat w ork .

P eter S pufford Queens'

N icholas Mayhew

C ollege

H eberden C oin R oom

C ambridge

O xford

5

M int O rganisation i n l ate m edieval E urope

P eter S pufford ,

C ambridge

F or P hilip G rierson 's F estschrift f our y ears a go I w rote a c ontribution o n m int o rganisation i n t he B urgundian N etherlands i n t he f ifteenth c entury, t ogether w ith a n a ccompanying p aper o n t he g eneral o fficers o f t he B urgupdian M ints,

which P rofessor E nno v an G elder p ublished a t

t he

s ame t ime I n t hese papers I g ave individual mints and

t he

Burgundian

mints

r espectively.

i ndividual m ints had b ecome t he

s ame

t hroughout

c onsequence

o f

P hilip t he e xpectation ,

t he

Whereas

t he

o rganization

o f

t he

f airly s tandardised a nd r emained v ery much

c entury,

t he

c entral

a dministration ,

t he a ccumulation o f m any p rincipalities

i tself

i n t he h ands

a o f

Good w as a ltogether experimental and variable. My t herefore, l ooking a t t he o ther p arts o f E urope f rom a

B urgundian s tandpoint, e lsewhere

a d escription o f t he p ersonnel i nvolved i n t he c entral administration of a ll t he

i n

E urope

was

t hat I w ould e xpect t o f ind i ndividual m ints

o rganised

i n

m ore

o r

l ess

a n

a ccepted

s tandard

f orm , but t hat r elations b etween t he m ints a nd t he g overnment m ight v ary g reatly f rom t ime t o t ime a nd p lace t o p lace. A brief r esumé o f m y

f indings

s tepping

f rom

s tone

t he

t o

f ifteenth

a n

c entury

e xamination

o f

N etherlands

whether

f orms

t hese

a n ecessary

e xpectations

a re

j ustified . F ifteenth C entury N etherlands M ints E ach o f t he m ints was r un a s a s eparate businessman , y ears.

H e

who,

brought

e ntrepreneurial a mongst

t he

c ame

n ear

a s

d id b efore a ny o ne

a s

t o

t he

w ith

s kill

l argest

p lace,

m aster, t o

t ook

h im

t he

' factory '

e ighteenth t he v ery

t he

a lum m ines

m ining p laces

may h ave had

f or a s ingle e mployer, v ery

s mall

a t

s cale

c lustered v ery

a t

c onditions c entury .

T olfa a s

m anagement w orking

o f

I n

t he

a ny

S uch

l ate

o f

o nly

a

t erm

numbers s urpassed

a nd

m ints

m iddle

manufacturing

t erms

w ere

f or

c apital

a p rofit.

a s

m ints

t he A rsenals o f V enice a nd G enoa, o nly by

i t

c omplexes

l argest

i ndustrial e nterprise by a

i ts

n ecessary

o perate

i ndustrial

o n

o f t he

w ere

a ges

a nd

e nterprise

e mployed , i n

s cale

i n by

a nd w ere p robably e qualled i n numbers a nd

t he

s alt w orks

m any w orkers,

but

a t

S alins.

t hey w ere

O ther

n ot w orking

s ince m any m ining e nterprises w ere o perated o n a

b y

' free'

m iners,

c losely t ogether.

T uscan l anaiuoli e mployed a s t ogether, but s cattered a bout

T he

a lthough

numerous

l argest e nterprises

s mall

p its

c onducted by

m any p eople, but t hey w ere n ot w orking t he c ity a nd t he s urrounding c ountryside

i n t heir own homes, with only r elatively modest numbers i n t he w arehouse o r w orkshop o f t he e ntrepreneur h imself. T he w orking c apital r equired was c onsequently e normous. T hose who t ook u p t he m anagement o f s uch m ints w ere t herefore n aturally d rawn f rom a mongst t he r ichest a nd m ost s uccessful m en i n t he c ommercial a nd i ndustrial c ities o f t he N etherlands. Many o f t hem w ere d rawn f rom t he r uling e lites o f t heir c ities w ere

a nd p articipated

s imply

' goldsmiths'

d escribed o r

i n a s

t he

g overnment

' merchants',

' moneychangers'.

7

o f

t hem

o thers

a s

m ore

e chevins.

M ost

s pecifically

a s

T he p rinces p rovided t he physical

' factories'

buildings,

f ixed c apital.

t hemselves.

i ncluding n ot

o nly

T hey p rovided t he

These

d ifferent

w ere

' rooms'

c omplex f or

a ctual

warrens

d ifferent

o f

m inting

o perations, but a lso o fficial h ouses f or m int o fficers, a nd o ccasional s urprising f eatures l ike t he g arden a t t he V alenciennes m int w ith f ruit t rees Much

i n i t, o f

t he

e xpensive,

which h ad s everal n ecessary

d ifferent

e quipment

f or

l ockable

m inting ,

d oors

s ome

o f

t o

i t

which

i n 1 458.

w as

q uite

w as a lso p rovided by t he p rinces.

T he p rinces

a lso

s aw t hat

t here

w as

i n

e ach m int

a c omplement

o f

o fficials t o r epresent t heir i nterests. E ach m int h ad a warden , w ho had t he g eneral o versight o f i t. H e k ept h is o wn c lerk a nd e mployed a c leaner-caretaker t o l ook a fter t he buildings. e nsure

t hat

e ngraver.

t he

c oinage

w as

o f

t he

T here w as a n a ssayer t o

c orrect

A ll t hese w ere s alaried o fficials,

f ineness,

a t l east p rovided

i n p art, b y t he r uler o ut o f h is s eignorage. t hem w ith o fficial h ouses w ithin t he m int.

f rom

s ame

p osts

t he 1 . 1-

m ilieux

t he

a s

s ervice

t he

o f

m asters,

t he

a nd

p rince,

a nd

a

d ie

whose s alaries w ere p aid ,

l ike

T he r uler a lso T hey w ere d rawn

t hem ,

a lso

p articularly

t ook

t hose

o ther

i nvolving

f inance.' S uch m en i nvested a t l east a p art o f t heir w ealth i n l and a nd t he m ost s uccessful o f t hem a cquired s eigneuries a nd w ere e nnobled . I n

a ddition

i nterests

t here

o f

w ere

f requently

t he m erchant

c ontregardes

c ommunities

who

w ere

who

t he

r epresented

p rime

c ustomers

t he o f

t he m ints. T hese m en , w ho w ere t hemselves m erchants, a s w ell a s r eceiving a t iny p ercentage f rom e ach c ustomer, w ere a lso s ometimes p aid a n a nnual f ee b y t he c ity a uthorities. The

skilled

c orporations

o f

workforce

o uvriers

was

a nd

provided

m onnayeurs

by

who,

privileged under

t he

hereditary

l eadership

o f

prövots, p erformed t he l ong s equence o f o perations r equired t o p roduce c oin i n t he l ater m iddle a ges. T here was a c onsiderable d ivision o f l abour i n t hese m ints, 3 which w ere g eared t o c onvert bullion i nto n ew c oin by t hese

t he m illion,

c orporations

s lightly

f rom

whenever e njoyed

p rincipality

t he

m arket

e xtensive t o

r equired

i t.

p rivileges

p rincipality

T he

w hich

w ithin

t he

m embers

o nly

L ow

o f

varied

C ountries.

T he p rincipal p rivileges e njoyed by f ranc-monnayeurs w ere e xemption f rom t axation a nd f rom m ilitary s ervice a nd t he r ight t o b e t ried o nly b efore t heir o wn p rovost a nd t he m aster o f o f murder,

a rson a nd

m onnayeurs

e ngaged

r ape.

i n

t heir m int,

W hen n ot w orking

t rade,

a nd

i t

w as

t hen

i n

t he

t hat

e xcept m ints

t heir

i n c ases

t he

franc-

p rivilege

e xemption f rom t axation , p articularly f rom i mport a nd e xport d ues f rom t olls, was s o v aluable t o t hem . W hen a franc-monnayeur c alled u pon

t o

s erve

i n

t he

m int,

t he

d isadvantages

o f h is

c alling a t o nce b ecame a pparent. H e had i mmediately business i n which h e was e ngaged a nd c ome t o t he m int. c ommercial p rofits

t he p ay

f or

m int w orkers

o f a nd was

h ereditary

t o a bandon a ny C ompared w ith

s eemed v ery

p oor.

I t was

f ixed i n p roportion t o t he a mount m inted , a nd , a part f rom t he uneven p roduction o f t he m ints, wages w ere o ften i rregularly p aid by t he m int m asters. M oneyers w ere t herefore a ctually e mployed i n t he m ints. 4 T he p rince's m int

d ocumentation t hat s urvives a rchives,

a ccounts.

a ccounts'

a t a ll,

a nd F or a s

o f t he

t hese

t he

g enerally

b etter

i s n aturally m ostly m ost

N etherlands

a bundant

t hey

a re

t hey d o n ot d irectly d escribe

8

o ff

a re

n ot

t hat t he

w hen

n ot

f rom

t he

s o-called

s trictly

' mint

t he whole r unning o f

t he

m ints

b y

t he

o nly d eal w ith

m int

m aster,

t hat p art

a ny o utlay o n t he p art t herefore m ake

but

o f t he

r ather

o f t he p rince.

t he m ints

' seignorage

a ccounts'

o rganisation o f m inting which M ost o f

t he

w hich

i nvolved

s urviving d ocuments

l ook l ike d epartments o f s tate,

which f rom t he

d uke's p oint o f v iew t hey w ere, but f rom t he m aster 's p oint o f v iew t hey w ere businesses t o b e m anaged f or p rofit. T he e xpertise o f t he m aster was a s a n e ntrepreneur, a s a n o rganiser o f m en a nd m oney, a s a n i ndustrialist a nd a f inancier. T he

s tate

o verview

p rovided

a p rofit. a ll,

a n

t he

h ereditary

e quipment

T hey m oved

a nd

a t

t he

i n w ith

e nd

o f

c orporation

a nd

k ept

a n a nd t he

o f

o n ,

a nd

s killed w orkforce, b ut i t was l eft t o t he master t o t ake t he r isks t o p rovide t he w orking c apital a nd t he m anagement a bility t o r un a t

w ent

p remises

t he

f igures

what

t he

c ontributed

m ints

o f

t heir

t heir

s taff,

t erms,

t he

m ost

m oved

o n

s hadowy

t o

o ther

business. W ere t hese f eatures o f m inting i n t he B urgundian N etherlands e lsewhere? e quipped

D id

m int

t he

whole

buildings

o f

E urope

p rovided

by

have

t he

c omplex

p rince

o r

a nd

f ound

e xpensively

c ity?

D id

e very

p rince a nd i ndependent c ity r un t he s ame s ort o f d epartment o f s tate t o l ook

a fter

t he

m ints?

Was

t he

manpower

e verywhere

h ereditary c orporation o f p rivileged m oneyers?

W ere

p rovided

a ll

by

t he m ints

a n r un

f or p rofit b y businessmen? An

i mmense

v ariety

o f

p ractice

t urned

o ut

t o

h ave

d ifferent p laces i n E urope. A ll o f i t, h owever, f ell s imilar g eneral f ramework by t he e nd o f t he m iddle a ges.

e xisted

w ithin

i n

a v ery

B uildings B y

t he

b uildings

f ifteenth

p rovided

c entury

a nd

v aried e normously .

n early

e quipped

by

a ll t he

t he

m ints

s tate.

o f

E urope

H owever,

5

w ere

t he

W e m ostly k now a bout t he l argest buildings.

i n

s cale A round

t he T ower o f L ondon , f or e xample, t here was a n e normous c omplex o f buildings d evoted t o m inting . T he t hirteenth c entury m int buildings a t t he

T ower

building

w ere

4 00

f urther

f eet

e xtended

l ong

t o

T he n ew m int built i n P aris

i n

1 300

a ccommodate

by

n o

t he

f ewer

a ddition

t han

t hirty

o f

a n ew

f urnaces.

i n 1 396 w as e ven g rander t han s ome o f t hose

i n t he L ow C ountries. I t had a c hapel a nd a c loister, a nd a c ommunal k itchen a s w ell a s a g arden a nd h ouses f or t he m int o fficers. I t i s n ot

c lear

h ow

s urrounding

e arly

t he

s hops

m int,

but

t he m iddle o f t he m int. f or g old,

w ere e ven

I n 1 296

t he o ther f or s ilver,

l et

a long

o ut, t he

n ot

o nly

p assageway

o n

t he

s treets

r an

t hrough

t hat

t wo s eparately a dministered m ints,

o ne

w ere b eing h oused i n d ifferent p arts o f

t he p revious g roup o f buildings, w hich had b een e rected under S t. L ouis. A s imilar a rrangement o f t wo m ints w ithin t he s ame g roup o f buildings was c argied o ver i nto t he n ew m int a nd l asted i nto t he f ifteenth

c entury.

t hree m ints

r espectively . f or

u se.

m int s ame

1 385

o f

V enice

s ite,

w as

F lorence

i n 1 363

t o

m ore

c omplex

p roducing d ucats,

a f ourth m int was

I n

8

o ne pulled d own

r eplacement, a n

I n

c olonial

m ints,

T he

sp a ring t he

w e

a dded

h ave

c reate

t o

d etails

t he

g rossi

s et

o f

m int

buildings

9

a ctually

w ith

a nd b illon

p roduce

t orneselli

o f

s uccessive

L oggia

f or w hich a r ow o f h ouses was b ought u p.

i mpressive

s till,

d ei 9

s urvives,

t wo

L anzi

a nd

i ts

At K utnä H ora , a lthough

much

a ltered by t he i ntrusion o f s uites o f w hich d warf t he m int m aster's h ouse. l ike

t hat a t

T oulouse had

f actory-like

t he t wo l argest p rovincial c ities u s

o f

s ome

s ilver, r ooms

o f

s trong

w ith

t he

c ontents

r ooms,

c ounters

f or t he K ing o f B ohemia , a F rench p rovincial m int

p remises.

i n F rance.

o f

c lerk 's

f or

r ooms E ven

t he

s eparate

r ooms,

r ooms

d ealing w ith

T oulouse

A p artial

w as

o ne

o f

i nventory t ells

f oundries

f or

g old

c rushing

t he

' ciment ',

f or

c ustomers,

f or

a ccepting

a nd

bullion

a nd making d eliveries, a s w ell a s a c ommunal k itchen , a c orporate c hapel a nd a n o fficial h ouse f or t he master, w ith i ts o wn k itchen , a h all

a nd

a c hamber

o ver

t he

r epairs t o t hese buildings

g ate.

M int

1 0

f rom t ime

t o

a ccounts

t ime.

T he

g ive

t he

r epairs

c osts

t o

o f

t he m it

a t C anterbury i n 1 331 u sed o ver 4 00 c artloads o f building m aterials. " M ints

n eed

n ot,

s urviving m int h ouse w ell w as

a s

h owever,

b e

a t F igeac

a p roper h ospitium ,

i s

o f

t his

s cale.

r eally v ery

a g roup

o f h ouses

a lso o n o ne o ccasion c arried o ut

T he

s mall. i n

I n

d elightful

S c

Wand ,

E dinburgh,

i n a 9 4ph s impler way a t

i n a r oom o ver t he g atehouse o f t he c astle.

a s

m inting S tirling

A longside t he m ints w ith

l arge f ixed p remises, t he l ater m iddle a ges s till s aw s ome t iny m ints s urviving w hich w ere barely l arger t han a j eweller's w orkshop. I a m r eminded t hat i t i s s till p erfectly p ossible f or a s ingle p erson t o m ake

a l iving a s

a p otter,

e ven

t hough

d ivision

o f

l abour

a nd p ottery

f actories have e xisted s ince t he e arly e ighteenth c entury . S uch t iny m ints f requently s urvived i n N ordic E urope a nd e ven G ermany t o t he e nd o f t he m iddle a ges. 14 A s w ell a s t he g reat r oyal f actory m ints a t L ondon a nd C anterbury ,

t iny e cclesiastical m ints

s till s urvived i n l ate

m edieval E ngland . A t B ury S t. E dmunds t he a bbot had o nly o ne d ie a nd o ne m oneyer a t a t ime, a t D urham t he b ishop h ad o nly t hree d ies, a nd a t Y ork t he a rchbishop's m int was i n h is p alace. P hilip G rierson h as d rawn o ur a ttention t o t he p ortable m ints u sed o n m ilitary t hat

r an

e xpeditions,

s ome

o f

t he

i n

l ate

l argest

m edieval m ints

i n

T uscany,

p ortable m int m ore p ortable

r un by S t. L ouis o utside Tunis. m ints s et u p by C harles V II a nd

f ront t o F rance. 16

h is

p ay

a rmies

w hile

t hey

w ere

b y

C hristendom ,

t he

s ame a nd

I 5

c ities t o

t he

T here w ere t hirty o r h is c ommanders a t t he

d riving

t he

E nglish

o ut

o f

E quipment S imilarly t he s cale o f e quipment varied . A t t he l argest, t he m int o f F lorence w as e quipped w ith n o l ess t han s ix l arge balances. I n t he e arly f ourteenth c entury t he but d uring E dward I 's

L ondon m int

r ecoinages

t he s ame t ime t he m int o f P rovence, R 6my had

f orty f t unaces

o f m etal a d ay. n ormal u se. l i d

t he

c apable 1 471

o f handling t wo

t he

S eville

m int

t welve

l ate m edieval m ints

i nventories

t o

i ron

t he

c oncentrate

e ven m ore

1 407

t here w ere

o ne,

w ith

t he o n

n umerous

number

t he

s even c opper w eights

o f

h eavy

w eights

t wo b alances,

o ne

t he

t hat w ent w ith l arge

c opper f rom

f urnaces

s urvive

c andlesticks.

e quipment,

r anging

1 0

A t

t housand p ounds w eight

h ad

F or a number o f d own

f urnaces,

t hirty .

a ttached t o t he r oyal c astle a t S t.

e quipment

i nventories a nd

I n

1 /

r egularly u sed f ive

i ncreased t heir number t o

o ne

o ne

f or

d etailing

1 9

T hese

n umerous

b alances

t hem .

A t

N amur

a nd a s maller

m ark u p

t o

f orty,

i n

i ron a nd

f ive

s tone

w eights,

r unning

f rom

t welve

m arks

u p

t o

a hundred .

T hey

d escribe t he e quipment f or t he f urnaces, b ellows, s ingle a nd d ouble, r akes, p incers, a nd c hisels, a nd baskets f or m easuring a nd c arrying c harcoal. w ith

s ilver o nes

T he m ost n umerous p ieces

g utters, a nd

a nd

t ripods

o r

g old w ere p oured

a nd t hirty-four

bars

f rom

o rdinary

o f e quipment w ere

t he

t o

o n

t he

o nes

s upport

t hem ,

f urnaces.

a t

N amur

T here

i n

1 407,

i ron t ables, t o

which

w ere

t wo

t wenty

t he

l arge

a t

L ondon

i n 1 327, a nd s ixteen a t C anterbury i n t he s ame y ear. T here w ere a lso a n umber o f i ron pails f or a nnealing a nd r ather f ewer c opper o nes f or b lanching, p owder

p estles

f or

e quipment, t he

a nd

r efining

m ortars

g old,

f or

c rushing

besides

t iles

a c ertain

a nd

s alt

amount

o f

a n e ll o f s triped c loth f or t he a ccounting t able,

c ounters,

a c alendar,

and

t ouch-needles

f or

i nto

a

' office' c anvas

d etermining

f or t he

f ineness o f t he g old b rought i nto t he m int. E quipment i nventories, r ecorded.

i s

when F or

a lso t he

t o

b e

f ound

purchase

e xample,

t he

o f

m int

a t

w eights o f s ix F lorentine p ounds p apal f lorins b egan i n 1 322. 20 H owever, S ometimes s hears

n ot

a ll

t he

h and-tools,

and

( maillets)

o f

f requently

t hey w ere

a nd w orkmen

a s

f rom

t he

( marteaux)

t he m oneyers

w ere

m int

j ust

a s

w ell i tems

b ought

when

t he

t wo

a s i s n ew

s triking

o f

a lways p rovided w ith t he m int. t ools

t he

o f

t he

ouvriers

s pecified

a s

o bviously p rovided by

t hemselves,

a s

r eplacement

F lorence

g raving o f

a ccounts

o r

P ont-de-Sorgues

e quipment w as

s uch

hammers

i n

a dditional

a m odern

m int

t he

e ngravers,

and

t he

t he

hammers

e quipment,

but m ore

master

c arpenter

o r

t he m oneyers

o ften

has

h is

o wn

p ersonal t ools. A s

w ell

a s

s uch

f ixed

c apital

a s

buildings

u sed e normous s upplies o f c onsumable m aterials.

a nd

e quipment,

m ints

F uel f or t he f urnaces,

c opper f or a lloy, l ead f or r efining a nd a ssaying s ilver, n itric a cid o r c rusted t artar f rom t he i nside o f w ine barrels f or b lanching i t, b roken r ed

t iles

a nd

s alt

f or

r efining

a nd

a ssaying

g old ,

k eeping r ecords, w ere a ll b ought i n q uantities. c onsumables was n ormally t he c oncern o f t he master, t hat

i n

p laces

s ome l ike

p laces

t he

F lorence,

p rince where

b ore t he

a s hare

m ints

o f

w ere

a nd

p aper

f or

T he c ost o f s uch but t here a re h ints

t heir

c ost,

managed

w hilst

d irectly,

i n t he

p urchase o f s uch m aterials h ad a lways t o b e a ccounted f or. A D epartment o f S tate I h ave f ound m uch l ess uniformity d epartment o f s tate. A s w as p ointed o ut t ook

o n

t he

E nglish

m ints

' encore

d oit

i n i n

t he o rganisation o f t he 1 279 w hen t he T urnemires

h or n

bailler

a l

m estre

ung

g arde' 21 a nd i n m any p laces a warden , o r wardens, f or t hey n eed n ot b e o ne, e xisted . T he d ifferent f unctions o f t he m aster a nd t he w arden i n l ate

t hirteenth

c entury

E r land

a re

c learly

s pelled

' Treatise o n t he N ew M oney '. T hey d id n ot, h owever, w here t he m int was n ot r un a s a business v enture. T he

r ole

e xchanges.

o f

t he

I n E ngland ,

warden

g enerally

i nvolved

a n

out

n eed

o versight

t here w ere o fficial r oyal e xchanges,

1 1

in t o

o f

t he

e xist

o f

t he

which

t he p rincipal w ere, l ike t he m ints, i n L ondon a nd C anterbury. 24 I n o ther p laces t hey w ere i n t he h ands o f p rivate, a lthough l icenced , m oney c hangers. T he w arden h imself m ight n ot b e F rom a l ifetime a n h ereditary t hat t he c entury

o ne.

I n

wardenship a s i t d id

2 5

o ffice.

a ppointment,

a ll

which was

P rovence

a t

t hat e fficient

c ommon,

i t w as

T arascon ,

H enri

a s

a w atchdog .

a s mall

R olland

s tep

t o

s uspected

m ight b e b ecoming h ereditary i n t he f ifteenth a t Avignon , where i t e ven b ecame a s ellable

A ssayers a nd e ngravers w ere e verywhere, a lthough t heir numbers v aried w ith t he s cale o f o perations. I n F lorence t here w ere t o b e t wo o r t hree a ssayers f or g old a s w ell t o

b e

q ualified

g oldsmiths.

d elicate o perations.

T he

a s

o ne o r t wo

A ssaying

p urity

o f

w as

t he

f or s ilver.

o bviously

c oinage

o ne

A ll w ere

o f

d epended

t he

o n

t he

m ost s kill

o f t he a ssayer, o r a ssayers, t o c ontrol a nd c heck t he a lloy o f t he c oin p roduced . T he r ole o f t he a ssayer i n l ate t hirteenth-century E ngland i s

a lso

s pelled

v ariety

o f

o ut

i n

t he

f inenesses

o f

' Treatise bullion

o n

t he

a vailable

a ssaying i t a re r evealed i n C hristopher C hallis' One e ngraver p er m int

s eemed t he n ormal

i n

N ew

M oney '.

a nd

t he

p aper.

T he

c an

s ee

h ow

t he

c omponent p arts.

w ork

b efore t hey r eceived a ny t he puncheons. p uncheons. t russels, l arge

T he

t he L ow C ountries.

a nd n o a s

t he

e ngraver

a s mith

i mpression ,

t o

w as

p repare

b roken t he

a nd a s inker

t o

d oubt w el1.

t here was

a s imilar

a s mith

d own

m ore

i nto

a nd

i mpress

t hem w ith t he

t he p iles

a nd

l abour h appened

t han

o ne

i ts

t russels

t o p repare

f or p reparing

d ivision o f

E lsewhere

2 7

I n

I n E ngland

p iles

e ngraver was h imself o nly c oncerned

I n G enoa t oo

m ints

o f

T here w as

o f

2 6

E ngland o ne e ngraver was e nough f or b oth L ondon a nd C alais. w e

w ide

c omplexity

p erson

i n o ther

c alled

a n

e ngraver was e mployed . I n s ome p laces t he e ngraver n ot o nly h ad t he j ob o f p reparing t he p uncheons, o r e ven t he d ies, but had a lso t o l ook a fter t hem , a nd was r esponsible

f or

s eeing

t hey w ere

t hat

t heir

i ssue

e very

l ocked u p

m orning

a gain

t o

t he

e ach n ight.

m oneyers I n

t he

C anterbury m ints t here w ere s eparate k eepers o f t he d ies, p laces, l ike t hi5heenth-century F rance, t his was a mong

a nd

f or

L ondon

a nd

a nd i n o ther t he w arden 's

r esponsibilities. C ontregardes a re r ather m ore e lusive P rovence i n G arde. T he c ounter,

t han o ther m int o fficers.

I n

1 338 t he C ontregarde w as a lternatively k nown a s t he V ice E nglish e quivalent, t he c omptroller, who k ept t he s econd ,

r oll t o c heck u p o n t he warden 's w as a r oyal o fficer i n o rigin

r ather t han a m erchant o r c ivic o ne.

H is p ost e volved f rom t hat o f t he

c lerk who had t he t ask o f r ecording p urchases o f bullion i n e mpcionis' i n a s et f orm i n t he L ondon m int i n t he 1 290s. 29 I n s ome p laces

t he

c lerical

s taff w ere m uch m ore

t he N etherlands,

w ith a s cribe o r c lerk ,

t he

c ashiers

p aper w ork ,

a t

t he

a ' rotulo

a pparent t han

i n

o r e ven a n otary t o l ook a fter

c ounters

a nd a ccountants

b ehind

t hem .

I n t he m ost c omplex m ints v ery numerous d ifferent b ooks w ere k ept. 1 325 a t t he vast m int a t I glesias i n S ardinia n ear t he s ilver m ines,

I n n o

l ess

i n

t han

e ight

s ets

o f

b ooks

w ere

1 2

k ept.

E ntries

h ad

t o

b e

m ade

e ach o f t hem f or e very c ycle o f o perations. I n o ccur

t he

l argest

e lsewhere.

m int

t here

m ints

t here

I n G enoa

w ere

t wo

w as a k eeper o f

s uch

t he

w ere

p articular

w as

a p esatore

t here

s pecialist

c oals,

a nd a master

s hop where f lorins w ere s ealed u p H owever,

i n e very m int

r eceptionist,

o r

o ften

o r

s ome

u sher,

0

I n

d id

t he

n ot

V enetian

F lorence

t here

l ooked a fter

t he

3 1

s ort

o f c aretaker f igure,

s ometimes o f

t he

e mployed

s tate,

who

by

a

t he

but

t o b e p lace.

i d t o l ook a fter t he e mpty buildings when n o m inting w as t aking I n t he P aris m ip a round 1 420 t here was a c ontre-voleur , a a s w ell.

e mployee

t hat

i n

w arden ,

s ecurity o fficer,

a d irect

,. 3

a nd

g oldsmith w ho

i n p ouches.

t here was

g ate-porter

q uite

' weighers

o ffices

c ontinued

J J

A lan S tahl a nd L ucia T ravaini have a g reat d eal t o s ay I talian e nts a nd h ow t hey w ere o rganized f rom t he g overnmental

a bout p oint

o f v iew . G eneral Oversight I n s o

f ar

t hirteenth f inancial

a s

t here was

c entury

i t

a ny

s eems

d epartment

o f

g eneral

t o

t he

have

o versight

b een

s tate,

t he

o f

t he

e xercised

m ints

b y

e xchequer,

t he

t he

i n

t he

p rincipal

c hambre

d es

c omptes, t he c our d es c omptes, t he maitres r ationaux o r m agistri r ationali. S uch o versight was p rincipally e xercised b y t he r equirement t hat

a ccounts

m ints, T o

b e

r endered

b y

o ne

o r

m ore

o fficers

t his

b oxes,

e nd o ne

e very f or

m int

had

a l ocked

e ach d enomination ,

b ox,

i nto

o r,

which

t he

i ndividual

m ore

bussule,

w ere

o fficers

t hen c arried o ff a t o f

t he

f inancial

f or a p ublic

I n

3 5

a s eries

T hese p yxes,

i ntervals,

c ourt.

o ften

a p re-ordained

t he c oinage w as put i n t he c ourse o f m inting. t he

o f

a nd b y s ome s ort o f a ssay o f a r andom s ample o f t he c oin s truck .

s o

f ar

a s

o f

s ample

o f

b oistes,

o r

a ssay b efore

t here

was

a ny

i ndividual c harged w ith t he g eneral s upervision o f m ore t han o ne m int a t t his s tage, i t w as t he warden i n E ngland , who had t he s upervision o f a ll t he m ints i n t he c ountry. f ourteenth c entury , t o e volve

T he F rench a s eparate

a dministration o f g roups o f m ints.

I n 1 346

m asters was s et u p, f our o f w hom w ere t o w hom w ere t o t our t he p rovincial m ints. t his

n ew

a rrangement

a lso

t he

p attern

m ints

e lsewhere,

c entury .

I n

t here were a ttached

t o f or

a lso

F rance

c opied

M astre

i n a s

o f

t he

i n

t he

o f

t he f or

a s

m ore

c entral

d istant

3 7

a g roup o f g eneral

m iddle

g roup

i n o f

t he

g eneral

I n

i n

1 411 a s H is

l ater

c hanged

t o

' Maitre

v isiteur

g eneral'.

d e I n

l a

m onnaie'.

E ngland

n o

o r

l ater was

C atalonia

a ppointed

e t

masters

m asters

m aitres r ationaux w ho had p reviously o verseen t he m ints ' Conservateur

o f

p ermanently

g eneral

N etherlands.

was

f ifteenth

L anguedoc

P rovence

I t

3 6

s upervision

g eneral m asters

p rovincial

I n

a ges.

g eneral

p rovinces,

o f

c entury

1 398.

1 347

N etherlands

p rovincial

n otion

f ifteenth by

e nd

t he

1 360s

T he

e xisted

t he

o r

i n t he g eneral

r emain i n P aris a nd f our o f W ith a number o f v ariations

a rrangements B urgundian

w ell

e xample.

G eneral

t he

f rom t he

s ome

t o

s imilar

a s

a lso,

D auphin6

l asted

f or

w ere t he f irst, s ystem f or t he

g eneral

o ne

o f

a

t he

a g roup was t itle

was

m astership

d eveloped , p erhaps b ecause t he number o f m ints was s o f ew , but p erhaps b ecause o f t he w ide p owers o f t he warden . I n G enoa t he g eneral o versight

h ad

b een

i n

t he

h ands

o f

1 3

t he

u ffici

m ercanzie,

p erhaps

a n

i ndication t hat

t he

c ommerce

t han

r ather

m ercanzie m onete.

G enoese a s

d elegated

r egarded t heir m int

a m eans

t heir

I n e orence

t he

o f

r aising

a uthority

s imilar

t o

a s p rimarily a n a id t o

r evenue,

a

until

t he

s ub-committee

c ommittee w as

known

u ffici

t he

u ffici

a s

t he

U fficiale

t he m int w ere d ivided i nto

t wo

s ections,

d ella Z ecca.' T he D ivision o f L abour T he w orking p ersonnel

o f

t he o uvriers a nd t he monnayeurs. bullion t o s pecification , whilst o uvriers p assed o n t he b lanks, s ize,

f lattened

r eady

f or

T he f ormer r efined o r a lloyed t he l atter s truck t he c oins.

p repared a lloy

d iscs

o f

m etal

s triking .

T he

t o

o f

t he monnayeurs

e xactly

t he

r egulations

f or

i n t he

r equired t he

t he T he

f orm o f

w eight

S icilian

a nd

m int

i n

1 466 g ive a g reat d eal o f t echnical d etail, w hich i s n ormally l acking , f or t he w hole o f t his a ctivity was t he c oncern o f t he m intmaster r ather t han t he s tate.

T hese

3 9

r egulations m ake

t o p roduce c oins a t a r ate m int

had

t o

b e

o rganised

m arked d ivision o f c onveyor

b elt

o f u p a s

t o

a n

i t v ery c lear

a m illion a m onth,

e fficient

f actory,

t hat,

i n o rder

a l ate m edieval

w ith

a n

e xtremely

l abour a long a v eritable p roduction l ine.

s eems

t o

have

b een

l acking .

T he

S icilian

O nly

t he

r egulations

b egin by d escribing t he w ork o f t he f onditore who p roduced r ough s heets o f m etal o f t he c orrect a lloy. T he B urgundian m int a ccounts r efer t o t he

s meltere

o r

f ondeur

a nd h is

a ssistants.

At

t he

L ondon m int

t hey

w ere c alled m elters. E ven a t t his s tage a number o f d ifferent p rocesses w ere i nvolved . F irst i mpurities h ad t o b e r emoved f rom t he g old a nd s ilver b rought i nto t he m int, w ith t he a id o f s alt a nd c rushed r ed t iles i n t he c ase o f g old , a nd l ead i n t he a lloy had t o b e a dded t o b ring t he m etal d own t o

c ase o f s ilver . T he t he s tandard r equired

f or t he p articular c oin t o b e m inted a nd f inally i t h ad t o b e c ast i nto t hin

s heets.

v igilant m etal

o n

p assed

g igantic d egli

T he

e ye

t o

t he

s hears.

o perai,

a ssayers

t hese

t agliatore who

T hese

t he

w ere

p rocesses. r ough

s upervisor

s upposed

t o

F rom

f onditore

c ut

b lanks

t he o ut

w ere

k eep

r ough

o n

c oining d ies.

p aintings Kutnä t he

f rom

H ora

t he

t he

s pecific

s urviving l ate

c hapel

s hows

d ocument

t his

o f

m oneyers°

i n B ohemia

S icilian

c arried o ut

t he

One

t erm

t he

t he

i n

f lattened

whose

b lanks

m en m ade

t he

t he

i s

c hurch

t he

o f

S t.

t o

w ere

k nown

t hen

u p

p assed

b lanks

a s

s izers.

a s

t o t o

n early I n

4 0

w eighed b lanks w ere passed t o b efore

s triking .

' black '. t his,

I n

known

T his

t he a s

m int

t he

known a s b lanchers. a ccounts s altpetre

o f

t he

f or

r eady t o p ass t o

was

t he

w hilst

t he

a ctual

t he

p reposito

c ircular

a s

t o

c lean

o f H olland

c olorisuer .

S icily

t he

i n

B arbara

s triking.

w ho f rom

t here

p ossible,

I n

4 1

f or

t he

b lanks,

was

o nly

t he

a ffilatori a nd

f or

t his

t he m onnayeurs.

o f

H olland

t he

p urpose.

4 3

1 4

O nly

m int

t hen

t he

r ounded

a nd

f inal p rocess

w hich

r eveal

a t

I n L ondon s uch

a s ingle

L ondon

I n S icily

d egli

w ere

s uch

t he w ere

s till

man w ho

d id

m en w ere

T his w ork was d one w ith d ilute n itric a cid . m int

a t I n

g roup

d ocuments

f lattened ,

i mbianchiatore

r eceiver-general

t he

i mpression

t he

s ame t ime e nsured t hat t hey w ere o f t he c orrect w eight. m en

preposito

r ough b lanks

f lattening b lanks.

l imited

w ork ,

o f

w ith

i s u sed t o c over a ll t he w orkmen who c arried

o ut t he whole r ange o f p rocesses t he

t he

i t

f ifteenth-century wall

o f w orkmen

o perai

s tage

t he L ow C ountries o uvriers

i n

a p air

s heets

f rom

t o

r eheated

a nd t hen hammered t hem t o a s uitable f latness t o r eceive o f t he

p articularly

t he

b lanks

p assed

o f w orkmen who

a

4 2

purchase t he

T he o f

b lanks

W ith s o many f unctions o uvriers

g reatly

t o p erform i t i s hardly s urprising t hat t he

o utnumbered

t he

m onnayeurs.

T hey

had

d one

s o

e ver

s ince t he i ntroduction o f ' factory ' m ints. I n t he l ate t hirteenth c entury t he o uvriers o utnumbered t he m onnayeurs i n L uxemburg a nd N amur b y f our t o o ne. T he numbers t o t ime m inted .

o f m en w orking

a ccording t o A lan S tahl

i n

a m int v aried

t he a mount o f s uggests t hat

e normously

f rom

t ime

bullion t hat was brought t o b e t wo hundred m en w ere r egularly

e mployed i n t he V enetian m int i n t he e arly f ourteenth c entury, 44 a nd J ean Duplessy s uggests t hat s ixty w ere r vularly e mployed i n t he P aris m int

i n

t he

e arly

f ifteenth

i ntroduced t he numbers

c entury.

e mployed w ere

When

4

v ery much

a

n ew

c oinage

g reater.

A t

t he

w as G hent

m int i n 1 434 t here w ere a round t hree hundred p eople a t w ork . A round 1 300 t he S t. R emy m int i n P rovence e mployed 5 4 m oneyers a nd a n unknown n umber o f o uvriers, p erhaps f our t imes a s m any, making a p robable t otal o f o ver 2 50 p eople w orking i n t he m int a ltogether. I t i s n ot c lear i f t his was

f or a r ecoinage o r n ot.

4 6

C orporations o f M oneyers T he

h ereditary

c orporations

s eem t o have b een g eneral

i n t he

o f m int w orkers

i n w estern E urope,

a nd

o f

m oneyers

e xcept S candinavia .

W e know m ost a bout t he o rganisation o f m int w orkers t he Rhöne valley a rea b ecause o f t he s urvival o f t he S erment

d e

l 'Empire.

T he

S erment

p robably c reated i n t he l ate f ourteenth, of t he privileged P roven

,

O range

a nd

o ther

d e

l 'Empire

was

a lso

4 7

a nd m oneyers r egisters o f a f ederation ,

t hirteenth c entury or t he e arly c orporations of Dauphin6, S avoy,

p rincipalities

o n

t he

e ast

bank

o f

t he

R höne.". ° T he m oneyers o f t he L oire v alley a lso, r ather s trangely, s aid t hey b elonged t o t he S erment d e l 'Empire. 49 H owever, I know o f n o e vidence o f t heir e ver b eing i n c ontact w ith t hose o f t he Rhöne valley . S imilar

f ederations

S erment

d e

p rincipalities T oulouse F rance, w orking

o n

u nited

w ere

w as

a n

t Q

a ffiliated .

5 U

I n

1 311

w est

t o

b etween

c reate

t he

t he

A quitaine

t he

E mperor

f irst

t hose

a s eparate

o f

R höne,

who

t he

s o

m oneyers

a nd

t he

a rea.

' of

i mperial

t he

S erment

m oneyers

H enry

b elonged

Under o f

V II,

i mperial m ints

m int w orkers a nd m oneyers t he

e xample,

o f

l 'Empire.

a ll

r egulated t he n ominally w as p erhaps

bank i n

f or

c orporations

c alled i n

t he

S erment

T he

d e

S erment

d e

s omewhat o lder, united t he c orporations o f t hose o n t he F rench r oyal d emesne. I n t he N etherlands

which

t he

t he

w orking

S erment d e

a ttempt

B ourgogne

t he

d ivided

France a nd t he

e lsewhere,

united

t hose

p ossibly i n m ints

m oneyers

e xisted

l 'Espagne

d e t he

h aving o f

t o

t he

S erment

B urgundian r ulers Brabant

o r

N etherlands

d escended

I taly,

r ecognition o f t he

S erment

d e

c ould

b e

i nto

I taly,

by a greement w ith

I taly o f o ur E mpire,

s worn t o u s'. S ocietas

d e

t here

t he T his

o perariorum

e t m onetariorum L ombardie, which had a lready b een i n e xistence f or s ome t ime. I t a ppears i n a G enoese n otarial d ocument o f 1 258. T he S ocietas i ncluded

s ome

c orporations

w ell a s L ombargy, w as a bolished .

f or

t he

o f m int w orkers P isan m oneyers

j i

1 5

a nd m oneyers

i n T uscany

g uild b elonged t o

i t until

a s i t

N o

' serment'

b elonged

t o

was

a s ingle

n eeded g roup,

i n

E ngland

s ince

p rivileged ,

a s

a ll

E nglish

e lsewhere,

w ith

m oneyers e xemption

f rom d irect t axation , f rom c ustoms d ues, f rom purveyance, f rom m ilitary s ervice, f rom jury s ervice, a nd f rom judgement o utside t heir o wn c ourt. T hey b ecame a n i ncorporated

' Company o f M oneyers'

F rom t he R höne valley e vidence w e b e

i nherited e ither

r ights

c ould

g roup;

t hat

o nly

t hrough b e

t he

male

e xercised

e xtra m embers

l earn t hat

l ine

a fter

c ould j oin

i n 1 462.

a n

o r

t he p rofession c ould

t hrough

o fficial

f or

t he

f emale;

r eception

a l ifetime

o nly,

t hat

i nto

a t

t he

a s tiff

f ee, but d id n ot g ain t he h ereditary r ights; t hat a n a pprenticeship w as n ecessary, but t hat i t was v ery b rief , e ventually b eing r educed f rom a y ear t o

t hree m onths,

f ollowed by a p roof o f c ompetence.

t his c onsisted o f t he p reparation o f a nd

f or

m onnayeurs

o f

t he

f ive m arks

s triking

o f

F or o uvriers

o f a ny s ort o f b lanks,

f ifteen

p ounds

o f

b illon ,

t ogether w ith a d emonstration o f t he a bility t o r ender a n a ccount; a lthough m embers

c ould h ave

o ther o ccupations,

a nd o thers w ere c arpenters,

t hey w ere n ot a llowed t o e ngage

b ecause

i nterests

o f

e xemptions

t he

c onflict

by

b eing

o f

p rofessional

i nvolved ,

c arriers

o f

o r

t o

o ther

s haping b lanks.

T hey w ere

i n b anking,

a buse

m en 's

d aughters, w ives, a nd , unless r emarried , w idows o f d id a lso w ork i n t he m ints, l ooking a fter t he t ailleresses,

t hat

i ndeed s ome w ere bakers t heir

t oll

g ood ' s.

T he

m embers c ould f urnaces, o r,

a nd a s

a pparently o nly e xcluded

f rom

t he a ctual s triking o f c oins. 52 T he p rgvöts o f t he m int w orkers m oneyers w ere c hosen by t hemselves, a nd i t w as n ormally t he p rgvöt,

a nd n ot

t he

t he

warden

o r

t he

m aster,

m ints n eeded l abour. justice t he p rgvöt w as i mpose manners a rms,

t hey

w ho

a nd m orals

w ere

s ummoned

t he

m embers

t o

c ome,

w hen

S ince t he m embers w ere e xempt f rom e xternal s upposed t o a rbitrate b etween c ompagnons a nd o n

s upposed

t hem .

t o

M embers

d ress

w ere

d ecently

a t

n ot

s upposed

w ork ,

t hey

t o

b ear

c ould

b e

t hrown o ut o f t he c orporation a nd l ose t heir p rivileges f or t heft o r f or t he s eduction o f t he w ife, s ister o r d aughter o f a nother m ember, a nd t hey c ould b e c orporations

t emporarily

had

c ommon

s uspended

f unds,

l ike

f or k eeping

o ther

s pend o n t heir m embers' m ajor e xpenses, f or d aughters, t he c osts o f s ickness o r m oneyers

g uild ,

t he

Arte

s ickness

a nd

a rranged

t he

t hat a ll

t he

o ther m embers

d el

o f

a c oncubine. which

T he

t hey

c ould

l ike p ilgrimages, o r d owries o f f unerals. T he F lorentine

Monetieri,

f unerals

g uilds,

i ts

f or

e xample,

m embers.

I t

g ave

h elp

a lso

i nsisted

s hould a ttend t he g uild a rranged f uneral

i n o f

a ny m ember a nd t hat t he m int s hould b e s hut o n f uneral d ays. 53 F rom a t l east a s e arly a s 1 219 t he P arisian m oneyers g uild r an a h ospice a nd l eprosarium ,

t he M aladrerie d u R oule,

t heir f amilies, T hese

p rivileges,

particularly a ntagonism o f

t he

t hey d id i n t he

d e

R okesle,

warden

e scaped

w hich w ere

exemptions

t ax c ollectors

a s

1 291,

n ot o nly f or

but f or o thers a s w el1.

p ayment

v irtue o f h is m int

t he o f

o ffice,

t he

t axes,

o fficers

m ints

hundred

o fthe

m ints,

t axpayers,

a nd

marks

e xchanges i n

o ne

w ool

1 6

e xporter,

w ine

f rom

l ay

w hich had b een a ssessed o n t he

h e h ad built u p a s g oldsmith, i n c loth, c orn a nd f ish. 55

a nd

a roused

T hey c ould b e v ery valuable.

E nglish f ive

o wn m embers

e verywhere

a nd t he j ealousy o f o ther

N etherlands. o f

s hared by

f rom

i ts

5 4

G regory 1 279

t o

s ubsidy,

by

f ortune

i mporter

t he just

a nd

t hat

t rader

A lthough

t hese

p rivileges

w ere

g enerally

t hey w ere n ot a lways e ntirely untouched . t he t aille, d espite r oyal p rivileges t o t he e arly y ears o f P hilip V I's reign, u pheld t heir e xemption f rom t axes. 5/ m int m asters

o f

P rovence,

r ather

u pheld

when

I n 1 297 P aris t he c ontrary, 56

a ttacked ,

m oneyers p aid a nd a gain i n

but t hereafter t he P arlement I n 1 339 t he c ount a llowed t he

t han

t he

p rovosts,

t o

p ick

t heir

o wn

w orkmen , a nd t he p rivileges o f t hose n ot e mployed w ere t o b e a llowed t o l apse. A t P isa i n 1 318, a nd i n F lorence by 1 321, t he whole g uilds s eem t o have b een a bolished , a nd t he m ints w ere p ermitted t o e mploy a ny s uitable c itizens.

T hose

t een o n w ere

t o have n o

s pecial p rivileges,

o nly p ay f or t he w ork d one. 58 I n 1 441 C harles V II t old F rench m oneyers who c laimed t o b e o fficials r ather t han c raftsmen ' Monnoyer n 'est p as un o ffice,

mais un m estier,

c omme v errier...'

5 ‚

F arming M ints T he

f arming

o ut

o f

m ints

by

a uction

t o

t he

h ighest

a lmost, but n ot q uite, universal. F arms varied i n f ifteenth-century N etherlands t hey w ere n ormally f or t he o r

f irst e ven

d elivery

f ive

o f

y ears.

c oin , I n

a lthough

o nly f or o ne y ear a t a t ime, m ost f requently f or f our, N ot

q uite

a ll

e ntrepreneurs.

t hey w ere

f ifteenth-century

w as

t hey

f or

w ere

o ne,

t wo

g enerally

but i n f ifteenth-century G ermany t hey w ere

f ive o r s ix y ears.

l ate

s ometimes

F rance

b idder

l ength . I n t he t hree y ears f rom

m edieval

m ints

T he m ajor e xceptions,

6 0

w ere

p erhaps

r un

by

p rofit-seeking

i ronically,

w ere t hose o f

s ome o f t he v ery c ities o f n orth I t2i _y t hat s upplied businessmen t o r un t he m ints

i n o ther p arts o f E urope. '

I nitially t he n ew f actory m ints w ere r un by l ocal businessmen , a s

t he

r aised

c apital

i nvolved g rew b eyond t he

l ocally,

f inanciers

a s

I talians

t he

w ere

t hirteenth

t he s ame t ime managed t o c ut

a ble

r esources t o

c entury

t hat

undercut

p rogressed ,

F lemish businessmen

but

c ould e asily b e

a nd

just

o utbid a s

l ocal

I talians

t o a l arge e xtent

a t o ut

o f c arrying E nglish w ool t o F landers o r F lemish c loth t o F rance a nd t he C hampagne f airs. E urope

i s

T he h old t hat

i llustrated by

e ntrusted t o I talians o f t he F our

L ombards

y ears

F rench

i n 1 300.

I talian f inanciers had o n

way

t he

P hilip s ame

t hat

t he

I t w as

G ino a nd R anieri

e arlier

m ints,

t he

a nd

a t

t he m ints

Kutnä

H ora

o f w as

t aken o n by a c onsortium made u p o ne

I V h ad u sed

y ear

n ew m int

a m ember

o f

t he

F alco o f

D onati

G algani

t he

a s

f rom F lorence. m aster

F rescobaldi

o f

f irm

t he f rom

F lorence was r unning t he m int o f C astel C apuana f or t he k ing o f N aples, a nd a nother m ember o f t he s ame f irm was r unning t he m int a t M erano f or t he b ishop o f T rent a nd t he c ount o f t he T yrol. M embers o f t he s ame f irm w ere r unning t he L ondon m int a s w ell f our y ears l ater. I ndeed until t he e arly f ifteenth c entury t he L ondon m int was f requently f armed t o I talians, a s w ere t he'Proven9a1 m ints, a nd e ven m ints a s f ar a part a s D ublin a nd i4 eslau ( Wroclaw), L übeck a nd T oulouse, S chwäbisch H all a nd E dinburgh. °L W here t he m ajority o f m ints r emained s mall, a s i n S candinavia o r many p arts o f G ermany, t here w4s n o n eed o r o pportunity f or I talian businessmen t o c ome i n a t a ll. 63 T his wave o f I talian businessmen

was

s ucceeded

a t

t he

e nd

o f

t he

m iddle

a ges

by

l ocal

e ntrepreneurs who b y t hen c ould r aise t he c apital t hemselves t o o perate o n t he l argest s cale.

1 7

D irect Management I n

F lorence

i tself,

q uite d ifferent. d ella z ecca,

h owever,

t he

m ethod

o f

I nstead o f m asters a nd w ardens

who

c ombined b oth

f unctions.

m int

m anagement

w as

t here w ere t wo s ignori

T hey w ere

e lected o fficials

w ith a v ery s hort t erm o f o ffice. O ne w as e lected by t he A rte d i C alimala ( the i mport-export m erchants g uild) a nd t he o ther b y t he A rte d el C ambio ( the bankers g uild). T hey s erved f or s ix m onths a nd w ere p aid a s alary f or d oing s o. T hey w ere n ot p ermitted t o h old t he o ffice a gain f or t hree y ears: " I n G enoa a lso t here w ere t wo s upervisors o f t he m int, who a lso s erved f or h alf a y ear a t a t ime. T hey w ere e lected by t he officium mercantium, 4nd c ommittee, t he officium m onetam . 65

l ater

c hosen

I n V enice t he c ity a ppointed m assari s eparate

mint,

m inting g old , c oins

T hese

m assari

o f

r epublics m int

w ere

h olders

v ery

e xcept

r ate,

a s ystem

G iuseppe

t welfth

o f

i t

t en y ears. r un

p revent

t o o versee e ach

e stablishments

until

a nnual t he

a nybody

f or

a nd f or m inting

basis.

g reat

e ngravers.

S ince

c entury

e vidence

I t w as

h as

t o

e ntrenched

i n

t hese

w ere

a ppointed

t he

m ints.

c ollected t hat

i n p arallel

p receded ,

i n

f or

F rom

a bout 1 141

t he

t he

w ith

a s hort s craps

G enoese

a c onsortium

s hort t ime o f

t erm

a t

a ny

e vidence

m int

i n

t he

f armed

t he

n ew

a nd t hat i n 1 149 a nother c onsortium f armed i t

t hat

1 303

f rom

s upposed

r apid

I talian

a nd t o n early a ll

t here

b y

i s

which

n o

e vidence

t ime

t he

a bout h ow

c ity

had

G enoa

i s

s tartlingly

b elong

t o

t he

e arly,

o lder w orld

t he

G enoese

e stablished

s ystem o f d irect management t hrough e lected s oprastanti. g enerally

T he

n orth

g etting

t he m ints

s ystem d eveloped

a ppears

After

a n

w hich

a pplied t o

t he

f arming

F elloni

c entury,

was

t o

i n g eneral.

m int f or f ourteen m onths, m int

sub-

t hey h eld o ffice f or much l onger p eriods.

d ifferent

o ffice

by

o n ,

o n

o ffices

a dministration ,

e lective

f or

s eparate

f or m inting p iccoli,

a ppointed

public

i nsisted

o fficials

T his

a ll

o f

f or a particular s kill

t hat

( mintmasters)

maintained

f or m intive g rossi,

a ny p art o f t he t he

Venice

a s pecial

f or t he c olonies.

r otation c ity

f or

by

f or

t he

T he t welfth

6 7

t he

1 140s

a re

o f h ereditary m inters

r ather t han t he n ew w orld o f m int f armers. P re-Factory M ints R obert L opez has m oney ', c ity

l ocal

a nd

t he

g iven u s

n otables,

o ften

s urrounding

w orkshops o n t heir a ctivities. H e has

a v ivid p icture l andowners,

c ountryside,

o f h is

w ith w ho

' aristocracy

p roperty

r an

b oth

s mall

i n

o f t he

m oney-making

o wn p rivate p remises a s p art o f a m ix o f o ther s uggested t hat f rom t he n inth t o t he e arly t welfth

c entury t hese m oney m aking w orkshops w ere n ormally r egarded a s a p art o f t heir a ctivity a s m oney c hangers, q uoting t he e quation ' trapezetas, i d e st m onetarios'. H e h as s hown u s t hat t hey w ere n ormally u rban p atricians, but c ould b e m embers o f t he r ural m ilitary n obility, a nd w ith c astles a nd vassals o f t heir o wn , a nd h ow t heir h ereditary p roperty, w ith w hich t hey w ere i nvested a nd d id

f ealty.

H e

has

u sed

t he

f amily

e xchange a nd m int i n M ilan f rom t h9 o f e nfeoffed h ereditary m oneyers. "

1 8

o f

9 30s

B enedetto t o

t he

1 020s

e xchanges w ere f or w hich t hey

R ozo, a s

w ho

r an

a n

a k ey e xample

Evidence a rrangement P avia .

f rom

P amela

w hich

r an

o ther

e lsewhere

s ome

o f

t hese

has

m oney

e ngravers

a s

L ouis

I n B ruges

m aking

o f

d ies,

i n 1 265.

but

t he

t o

e voked

i n

° 'T here o r

F itz

t he P lastrarts d id ,

i n

minting

M ilan

f amily

o f

L ondon

f rom

have

d one

O ttos

a nd

D eorman , E dward

i s n o e vidence

c ould w ell

O ates

t hat

t hose

t he

w or hhops

t hey

F itz

s uggests

s imilar

r ecently

f iefs,

t he P aris e ngravers o f d ie ,

o f f our

Europe

r eign t o t hat o f H enry I I.

t hey h eld t heir m ints

o ut by S t.

o f

r emarkably

N ightingale

t he C onfessor 's E nglish

parts

w ere

d id ,

t hat

a s

t he

o r

/ 0

a s

u ntil t hey w ere b ought

7'

t he m int a nd e xchanges w ere l inked a nd w ere

e nfeoffed m inter-changers,

a nd

c ontinued

t o

b e

i n t he hands

s o

f or much

o f

t he t hirteenth c entury. I n 1 229 t he c ountess o f F landers, J ohanna , a llowed o ne o f t he f ief h olders, R oger M onetarius s on o f A rnulph M onetarius, t o s ell s urrender o f h is m int h is h eirs

his a nd

i n p erpetuity.

f ief t o N icholas C alkar, a ccepting e xchange a nd r egranting t hem t o C alkar

t he a nd

I n C ologne a nd i n S trassburg t he m ints w ere

7 2

a lso c ombined w ith e xchanges, a nd w ere a lso s till r egarded a s f iefs i n t he t hirteenth c entury . T he f ief-holders w ere m inisteriales o f t he a rchbishop a nd b ishop r espectively.

I n 1 248 t he h ereditary r ights o f

7 3

s triking d eniers a t L e P uy w ere s till e njoyed by a number o f f eudatarii s eu v assali o f t he b ishop.

7 4

H owever s uch e xamples a re n ot f requently t o b e f ound l ater t han t hirteenth c entury. E nfeoffed m int r ights w ere t hen c oming t o

t he

t heir e nd . S ometimes w e c an c learly s ee t hat t he h olders w ere b ought o ut, a s w ith S t. L ouis a nd t he P lastrart's d ie-engraving f ief . I n o ther c ases

i t i s o nly c lear t hat t he r ights w ere e xtinguished ,

n ot h ow

i t was a chieved , a s i n t he c ase o f L amberto Masneri who s urrendered h is m int r ights t o t he c ommune o f L ucca i n 1 221. T his l ooks l ike t he e nd o f

a nother

m int

f ief,

f or

t he

r ights f amily . / 5

h ereditary m onopoly i n h is T hese m ints w ere t he

f ief-holder

n ine o r

b y

t hat

h e

e ssentially v ery s mall

m embers

o f

h is

o wn

s urrendered

had b een

e nterprises,

f amilia.

t en s uch s mall m oney-making w orkshops

T here

o perated

may

i n L ondon ,

have

l ike

a n

f or b een

t he

f our

i n B ruges. In Winchester t he moneyers' workshops, a lthough s eparate e stablishments w ere c lustered t ogether i n t he H igh S treet c lose t o t he r oyal palace. t hat

i n L ondon , a n

O n

7

d ie-links a s

i nterchange

t he

o ther hand

b etween m inters t hough o f

t he

d ies

a re

w orkshops

w as

n ot

P amela N ightingale r are

o n p ennies

t here

e asily

w ere

i n

p ossible.

has

p ointed

s truck b efore

d ifferent After

p laces

1 158

o ut 1 158

i t

a nd i s

a

d ifferent s tory. I t i s i nteresting t hat when a f actory m int was built i n B ohemia a t Kutng H ora, i t t ook t he f orm o f a g roup o f w orkshops, e ach

r elated

t o

a

t iny

p reviously

e xisting

i ndependent

m int

i n

a

d ifferent B ohemian t own .

T ransition t o F actory M ints T he t ruly

t ransition

t o

e xtraordinary.

t he I t

f actory

m int

c oincided

o f i n

t he t ime

' commercial r evolution o f t he t hirteenth c entury '

1 9

l ater with

m iddle t he

a ges

w as

s o-called

a nd w ith t he e normous

e xpansion i n t he a mount o f m oney t hat n eeded c oining .

7 7

T here i s n o n eed t o r ecapitulate h ere t he s equence o f d iscoveries o f o re f rom F reiberg a nd F riesach i n t he s econd h alf o f t he t welfth c entury t o K utnä H ora a t t he e nd o f t he t i Arteenth t hat m ade s ilver a vailable i n q uite u nprecedented q uantities. 7° I n t he s econd h alf o f t he t welfth c entury t he e arliest o f t hese d iscoveries o f s ilver b rought a bout a n i mmense p roliferation o f t he t hen t raditional t iny w orkshop m ints. I n t he a rea a round F reiberg , f or e xample, b ounded o n t he w est b y t he S aale a nd o n t he e ast b y t he S pree, t here w ere o nly n ine m ints b efore t he d iscovery o f t he F reiberg s ilver . B y 1 197, a fter t hirty y ears o f s ilver m ining t here w ere t wenty-five m ints i n t he s ame a rea , a nd t his n umber h ad r isen t o n o f ewer t han f orty b y t he m id-thirteenth c entury . I n T uscany a nd n orthern I taly t he n ew s ilver m ines a t M ontieri a nd e lsewhere

i n t he C olline M etallifere,

c ombined w ith t he f low o f n ew s ilver f rom t he A lps a nd b eyond , h ad m uch t he s ame e ffect. W hereas t here h ad b een o nly f our m ints n orth o f R ome i n 1 130, b y 1 200 t here w ere t wenty-seven , a nd a m int w as b eing w orked i n R ome i tself a s w ell. E ven i n a reas i n w hich t here w ere n o n ew m ines, b ut t o w hich t he s ilver c ame, n ew m ints w ere o pened a nd o ld o nes r e-opened . I n A rtois, f or e xample, u nder P hilip o f A lsace, c ount f rom 1 168 t o 1 191, t he n umber o f m ints w as i ncreased f rom t hree t o t en . A t t he f irst s tage o f d evelopment i t w as a lso p ossible t o i ncrease t he p roduction o f p ennies b y o pening u p a dditional w orkshops o f t he s ame t ype w ithin t he s ame t own , a s w ell a s i n d ifferent t owns. H owever, a t s ome s tage, i n s ome p laces, t he v olume t o b e p roduced p assed t he c ritical p oint w hich j ustified t he t otal r eorganisation o f m inting i nto f actory m ints w ith a s pecialised w orkforce. T he d ifficulty i s t o p inpoint w hen a nd w here t his h appened . I t i s c lear t hat i t h ad h appened b y t he m id-thirteenth c entury i n s ome c ases. I t i s p ossible t o c hart t his t ransition t o s ome e xtent b y l ooking a t t he e arliest a ppearances o f s ome o f t he f eatures t hat m ark o ut t he f actory m ints o f t he l ater m iddle a ges. A s w ell a s t he m arked i ncrease i n t he v olume o f c oin s truck a nd t he c hange i n d ocumentation f or i t, i t i s w orth l ooking f or t he e arliest m int buildings p rovided b y t he s tate, t he e arliest a ppearance o f p aid w ardens, t he e arliest t rials o f t he p yx , t he e arliest p rivileges f or c orporate g roups o f m oneyers a nd m int w orkers, t he e arliest f arms o f m ints, a nd f rom t he o ther e nd t he l atest m oney m aking a nd c hanging f iefs. T he v ery e xistence o f m int a ccounts a nd m int f arms, l et a lone t he s cale o f a ctivity i ndicated , s uggest t hat t he n ew f actory s ystem w as u nderway . T he e ar l iest s urviving m int a ccounts t hat I k now a re o f 1 220-2, f rom E ngland , b ut I w ould n ot 1 2 2 s urprised i f t here w ere h ot e arlier o nes s till s urviving i n I taly . " T hey s how t hat t he C anterbury m int w as a ble t o s trike o ver e ight m illion p ennies i n t wo y ears a nd t wo m onths. T his w as a t a n a verage r ate o f w ell o ver t hree m illion p ennies a y ear. W e c annot g o b ack e arlier t han t hat , w ith a ny d ocumentary c ertainty , b ut N icholas M ayhew h as r ecently a rgued t hat t he s cale o f o perations a t t he L ondon a nd C anterbury m ints, o f w hich w e h ave d irect e vidence i n t he 1 220s, c an b e t raced b ack t o t he 1 180s. 81 I n o ther w ords t he t wo p rincipal m ints o f E ngland c ould a lready p roduce

f our m illion p ennies

2 0

a y ear b etween t hem

a t t hat d ate. T hese a re s mall q uantities c ompared w ith t he hundred a nd f ifty o r s o m illion p ennies p roduced f or E dward I 's r ecoinage o f 1 279, b ut a re v astly l arger t han a ny a mount e ver p roduced b efore. I n 1 253 A lfonse o f P oitiers l eased t he m int o f P oitou M ontreuil-Bonin t o p rovide f or t he m inting o f e ight m illion d eniers;

a t i n

1 262 h is b rother C harles o f A n jou l eased t he m int o f P rovence t o p rovide t hirty m illion d eniers o ver f ive y ears. T here i s a m int a ccount f rom M ontreuil-Bonin m ade s hortly a fter t he d eath o f A lfonse o f P oitiers i n 1 271 w hich s hows t hat n early t welve a nd a h alf m illion d eniers a nd n early t wo a nd a h alf m illion m ailles ( half-deniers) h ad b een s truck i n e ight m onths. 82 A s w ell a s e vidence t hat c an e ven b e t entatively q uantified I h ave t he i mpression t hat a lmost f rom t he b eginning o f t he g reat e xpansion o f m inting i n E urope i n t he 1 160s, 1 170s a nd 1 180s s ome m ints w ere p roducing c oin o n q uite a d ifferent s cale f rom o thers. T hese w ere m ints t hat o ften e ventually r eplaced t he m inting o f m any s mall w orkshop m ints. L ondon a nd C anterbury a re e vident e xamples o f t his. N early a ll t he o ther E nglish m ints w ere c losed i n t he s econd h alf o f t he t welfth c entury . Ib elieve t hat I c an i dentify a n umber o f o ther s uch m ints i n t he l ate t welfth c entury.

T he m int o f A rras

i s o ne

s uch c andidate

f or

' factory ' s tatus, f irstly u nder ' Simon ' f or A rtois/Flanders a nd t hen , w hen s triking d eniers p arisis f or P hilip A ugustus, f or much o f n orthern F rance a s w ell. T he m int o f P rovins, w hich p rovided m any o f t he d eniers f or e astern F rance i s a nother. T he m int o f T ours f or w estern F rance, t hat o f M elgueil f or t he w hole o f L anguedoc, t hat o f P isa f or T uscany , a nd t hat o f R ome f or c entral I taly, a nd p robably f rom a s e arly a s 1 140, t hose o f P alermo a nd M essina f or R oger , I I's N orman k ingdom o f S icily a re a ll c andidates f or t he s ame s tatus. 83 U p t o t his p eriod t he d ocumentation a vailable a nywhere i n E urope i s v ery s parse, b ut f rom t his p eriod o nwards t he d ocumentation b ecomes e normous. I t w ould b e a u seful e xercise t o c arry o ut a s urvey n ot o nly o f s urviving m int a ccounts f rom t he v arious c ountries o f E urope, but a lso o f m int i ndentures, o aths o f m int o fficials a nd m oneyers, c harters o f p rivilege t o g roups o f m int w orkmen a nd m oneyers, d aybooks o f w ardens r olls o f c ontregardes, i nventories o f m int e quipment, a nd c orrespondence b etween m ints a nd o ther ' government d epartments'. S uch a s urvey w ould b e a nother e xtremely u seful s tepping s tone t o f urther r esearch i nto m int o rganisation i n l ater m edieval E urope. I t i s o bviously a l ong w ay f rom t he t raditional m oney-making w orkshops o f a n e arlier p eriod t o t he v ast, s ophisticated , ' mint f actories' o f t he f ourteenth a nd f ifteenth c enturies, but t he f irst m ajor s teps s eem t o h ave t aken p lace i n a h andful o f p laces i n t he t welfth c entury a t t he v ery b eginning o f t he m onetary a nd c ommercial e xpansion . A lthough i t i s c lear t hat s uch p remises w ere n ormal i n t he f ifteenth c entury, i t i s n ot c lear t o m e y et h ow l ong t hey h ad e xisted . T he e arliest e vidence I c an f ind a nywhere o f a p ermanent m int building p rovided b y t he s tate i s t he p urchase f or m inting o f t he h ospitio o f J udge C onon b y t he c ity o f G enoa i n 1 164. T he c ity h ad h ad m inting r ights f or 2 5 y ears b y t hen .

2 1

I n

E ngland

I know

o f

n o

e arlier

i ndenture o f 1 279, by which E dward t he h ouses o f t he m ints i n L ondon , t heir

t ools,

' in

t heir

p resent

e vidence

I a greed t o C anterbury,

c ondition ',

t han

t he

T urnemire

hand o ver t o T urnemire B ristol a nd Y ork , w ith

i mplying

t hat

t hey

a lready

e xisted a nd w ere n ot b ought o r r ented f or t he o ccasion . I w ould g uess t hat t hey w ere i n f act p rovided f rom 1 180 a t l east, p erhaps f rom 1 158. O n t he o ther hand when A lexander N orman o f L ucca s et o ut f or D ublin i n 1 300 t o r un t he m int t here f or E dward I h e h ad t o t ake t hree f urnaces w ith h im ,

p rovided a t t he k ing 's

e xpense.

t hat what was a lready i n D ublin w as I n

t he

B rabant,

L ow

a nd

p rivileged

t o

i n

C ountries 1 298

1 298

i n

i n

c harters

o f

L uxembourg

F landers

T his

o nly

i nadequate,

p rivileges

a nd

g o

F landers.

a ppeared

t o

i mplies,

h ow9ver,

n ot n on-existant. "

b e

back

t o

H owever, o ne

t hat

1 291

t he

had

i n

g roup

a lready

e xisted f or s everal g enerations, f or f ifty-five p rivileged m en s hared o nly t hirty-five p atronymics. E lsewhere c harters o f p rivilege a lso g o b ack t o t he l ate t hirteenth c entury. I n E ngland t he e arliest g eneral c harter

o f

p rivilege

w as

i n

1 280,

but

t he

E nglish

c orporation

a lso t o have b een i n e xistence f or s everal g enerations. w orkers

a nd

C hilham

f amily,

S t.

m oneyers

A lbans,

f rom

f ive

a round

C higwells,

i mplying

t hat

1 300,

f our

s everal

i ncludes

H erts,

e ight

f our

g enerations

m embers

B onseriants had

s eems

A l ist o f m int

p assed

o f

a nd

t he f our

s ince

t he

o riginal C hil W , C higwell, H ert, B onseriant a nd S t. A lban h ad w orked i n t he m ints. °j I t i s n ot c lear h ow t he t hirteenth c entury m embers o f t he n ew h ereditary c orporations o f m int w orkers a nd m oneyers w ere r elated o r l inked t o t he m en who had r un t he o lder m oney m aking w orkshops, i f, i ndeed t hey w ere l inked a t a ll. H owever t he C hilhams s ound v ery much l ike t he s ort o f m en w ho had e arlier r un s uch w orkshops.

T hey

w ere

a l ong

e stablished

K entish

f amily

w ith

u rban

p roperty i n C anterbury a nd m anors o utside. T his t ime

i s

i mplication

t hat

r einforced b y

r ight t o t rial

t he

t he f act

g roup t hat

had

t he

i n t he warden 's c ourt,

b een

1 280

i n

e xistence

c harter

f or

s ome

i ncorporated

t he

which w ent back t o 1 234 a t l east,

a nd e xemption f rom t allage w hich w ent back t o 1 219 a t l east. c harter e ffectively o nly a dded e xemption f rom j ury s ervice. 86

T he

1 280

I n P rovence C harles o f Anjou a pparently g ave a c harter i n 1 262 t he m int w orkers a nd p rivileges t o s urvive

m oneyers o f S t. R emy , a lthough w ere n ot g ranted u ntil 1 320.

f or

t he e arliest T hey g ranted

f reedom f rom a ll t ailles a nd a ll t olls, a nd t he r ight t o b e t ried t he p rovost o f t he c orporation , r ather t han by t he warden a s E ngland , o r t he m aster e lsewhere. B y m ints

t he

a nd

e nd

o f

many

o f

t he

t hirteenth

t hem

w ere

c entury

b eing

t here

o perated

w ere

by

many

b y i n

m ore

s uch

e ntrepreneurs

f rom

T uscany a nd L ombardy a nd ' a f ew by m en f rom P rovence. I s t hat e vidence t hat t he f ocus f or t echnical c hange i n m int o rganisation l ay i n n orth I taly? c apital

O r

was

m ore

i t

m erely

r eadily

t hat

a nd m ore

m en

f rom

c heaply

t his s cale e ffectively a t t hat p eriod? o f t he much g reater p ossibilities o f

t hese

p laces

a vailable

w ere r un b y

l ocal masters

2 2

had

t ake

t he

o n

w orking

a m int

o f

I s t his t hen o nly a r eflection r aising l arge s ums c heaply a nd

e asily i n n orthern I taly t han e lsewhere? I t t hat t he f irst ' factory ' m ints, i f w e may c all t welfth c entury,

t o

a s

i s p erhaps s ignificant t hem t hat, o f t he l ate

f ar a s wA know ,

a nd t hat

i t was o nly a s t he t hirteenth c entury a dvanced a nd t he s cale o f c apital r equired i ncreased , t hat I talians c ould undercut a nd o utbid l ocal f inanciers. f actor,

I f

t he

t he

s cale

t ransformation

o f o f

c apital m ints

i nvolved

i n

t he

w as

i ndeed

t hirteenth

t he

c entury

k ey

s hould

p erhaps b e c ompared w ith t he t ransformation o f m ining i n c entral E urope i n

t he

l ate

S tromer,

f ifteenth

t ransform

c laims

a nd

w hich

a business a nd

t welfth

e ssentially

a

a nd

b een

numerous

p its,

a whole A re

f ield

c entury

w e

t hree

i n

w ere

a m int

t o

bring

by

f ree

i nto

a rea

W olfgang

a nd

v on

t hen

w itnessing y ears

s ame

a bout

i n

s taked

m ining

e xploited

a n A rras

t he

m iners

c apitalist

hundred

F landers/Artois

a bout

F uggers

o n

o utlined

o f S outh G ermany w as u sed t o

w hich o wn

e quipment.

d ifferent

bringing

has

i n

t heir

t ook

e xpensive

' Simon ' S tromers

d ug

f irm

i n

i n

m ining,

e ach

p henomenon

t hat

a ccumulated c apital

s mall-scale

t heir

c omplex

c entury

i n which t he

w ith

t he

s ame

e arlier?

f inancier

m ines

i n

Was

who

w as

a s

t he

t ransformation

t he

i n

i t

f ifteenth

c entury S lovakia?

N OTES 1 .

P eter i n

S pufford ,

t he

' Mint

f ifteenth

P ollard

a nd

o rganisation

c entury ',

T .R .

V olk

i n

( eds.),

presented t o P hilip G rierson, P eter

S pufford ,

' The

t he N etherlands Penningkunde, 2 .

I n

h er

l xv-lxvi

paper

d etail,

M arjoke

t he

B urgundian

B rooke,

S tudies

C ambridge,

g eneral

i n t he

i n

C .N.L .

o fficers

o f

i n

d e

R oos

N etherlands

S tewart,

N umismatic

1 983, t he

f ifteenth c entury ', ( 1978-1979),

I an p p.

J .G.

M ethod

2 39-61,

a nd

B urgundian m ints

i n

J aarboek v oor H unt-

e n

p p.5-14.

d escribes

t hese

m ilieux

i n

m ore

s ee b elow p p.147-58.

3 .

S ee b elow p .14.

4 .

Marjoke

d e

R oos'

p aper,

b elow

p p.147-58,

a lso

d eals

e xtensively

w ith t he c orporation o f m oneyers o f H olland . 5 . 6 .

B ut s ee b elow p .21-2. C hristiane

L orgues,

' L 'ancien h ötel

d e

l a m onnaie

d e

P aris

e t

s es

p roblemes', R evue N umismatique, 6 th s er., x ( 1968), p p.138-157, a nd i nformation p rivately c ommunicated by D avid S orenson who i s w riting

a d octoral

t hesis

o n

t he

c oinage

o f

F rance

under

C harles

V I. 7 .

F rederic C .

L ane a nd

R einhold

C .

M edieval a nd R enaisgänce V enice, T he m int was T edeschi

t o

t hirteenth l onger

c ould b e t he

P iazetta

c entury,

l arge

a djoining

t ransferred f rom n ear t he

e nough

s hipyard . c arried o ut

r efining

p osition,

a fter

r efining

1 237. t o

E ventually o n t his was

t he

D oge's

1 319

t he

e xtended

n ot

s ite.

a ll S ince

a t

t he t he

w ere

t oo

o bnoxious

put

out

t o

2 3

1 985,

p p.204-5.

t he R ialto a nd t he B y

b e

M oney a nd B anking i n

B altimore,

o pposite

a nd had

p rocesses

Mueller,

i ,

F ondaco

p alace n ew

t he

m int

f umes f or

t he

was

e xpense

m inting

d ei

i n o f

n o a n

o perations

g iven o ff b y s o

s ub-contractors

c entral i n

a

l ess

s alubrious n eighbourhoods. 8 .

A lan

M .

S tahl,

T he

V enetian

T ornesello:

a

m edieval

c oinage, American Numismatic S ociety, Numismatic M onographs, c lxiii, N ew Y ork , 1 985, p p.11-18.

c olonial

N otes

and

9 .

Mario B ernocchi, L e M onete d ella R epubblica D ocumentazione, F lorence, 1 976, p p.3-5.

1 0.

C . D ouais ( ed .), ' Un r egistre d e l a m onnaie d e T oulouse p ieces i nedites ( 1465-1483)', A nnales d u M idi, x i ( 1899), p p.165-8.

1 1.

A lice B eardwood , ' Royal M ints a nd E xchanges', i n J .F . W illard , W .A . M orris a nd W .H . D unham ( eds.), T he E nglish G overnment a t W ork 1 327-1336, Medieval Academy C ambridge, M ass., 1 950, p .38.

of

America

Publications,

1 2.

J oan Murray g ives m ore d etails b elow p p.222-8.

1 3.

T his w as

i n 1 544,

f or

a s emi-regular c oinage

a uthority o f Mary o f G uise,

F iorentina,

lvi,

o f bawbees u nder

t he

a ccording t o J oan Murray.

1 4.

J Orgen S teen J ensen a nd P eter I lisch p p.202-221 a nd 1 59-201.

1 5.

P hilip G rierson , " Coniazione p er d ispetto" n ell'Italia M edievale, Q uaderni T icinesi d i N umismatica e A ntichitä C lassiche, viii ( 1979),

p p.345-58.

1 6.

J ean D uplessy p p.128-146.

1 7.

H enri

R olland ,

s iäcles. 1 956, 1 8.

M .A . d es

M onnaies

H istoire

C omtes

d e

6 conomique

Provence

e t

X IIe

c orporative,

- XVe P aris,

c hapter 1 . L adero Quesada,

' Les

t emps m odernes',

s ame

d es

m onätaire,

t ime

t he

f inances r oyales d e C astille a l a v eille

A nnales E .S.C .,

T oledo

m int had n ine

x xv ( 1970), f urnaces,

p p.776-7.

t he

B urgos

A t t he m int h ad

s even a nd t he C orunna m int had s ix . 1 9.

F or

L ondon

a nd

C anterbury,

1 327,

B eardwood ,

a rt.cit.,

p p.41

a nd

4 3-44. F or F lorence,

1 345,

B ernocchi,

o p.cit.,

i ,

F or F lorence,

1 353,

B ernocchi,

o p.cit.,

i ii,

F or N amur,

1 407,

C .Piot,

p .xli. p p.40-1.

' Ancienne Administration M onetaire

B elgique', R evue Belge d e N umismatique, i ( 1841), F or T oulouse, 1 483, D ouais, a rt.cit., p p.165-8. I h ope t o publish c ourse. 2 0.

t he V alenciennes,

1 460,

d e

l a

p .63.

i nventory myself i n d ue

Marc B ompaire, ' La m onnaie d e P ont-de-Sorgues m oitie d u X IVe s iècle', R evue N umismatique, 6 th

d ans s er.,

l a p remiere x xv ( 1983),

p .151. 2 1.

J ohn C raig, 1 948,

T he M int:

C ambridge,

1 953,

A H istory o f t he L ondon M int from A .D.287 t o p .46.

2 4

2 2.

Attributed by i ts t o 1 279-81,

e ditor

t o W illiam d e

C harles J ohnson

( ed .),

Oresme a nd E nglish M int Documents, p p.77-81.

N icholas

Mayhew ,

T urnemire a nd d ated by h im

T he

D e

L ondon

h owever,

i n

M oneta and

o f

N icholas

E dinburgh,

C hristopher

1 956,

C hallis'

n ew

H istory o f t he M int p roposes a d ate o f 1 286-7. 2 3. 2 4.

S ee b elow ,

D irect M anagement,

p .18.

I n l ate t hirteenth a nd e arly f ourteenth c entury E ngland t he warden o f

t he m ints

f or

a nd

t he m ints,

e xchanges

but

a lso by

was

n ot

t wo

c hangers,

o nly

L ondon a nd o ne f or t hat i n C anterbury. e ach

e xchange,

' Mint

a nd

O fficials

s ometimes

u nder

o ne

I a nd

f or

t he

a m aster

e xchange

H e had t wo c lerks,

a ppointed

E dward

Edwardian M onetary Affairs

c omplemented by

a d eputy.

I I',

( 1279-1344),

i n

Mavis

N .J.

B ritish

i n

o ne f or

Mayhew

Mate, ( ed .),

Archaeological

R eports, x xxvi, O xford , 1 977, p p.32-44. I n L ondon i n t he 1 290s b oth w arden a nd c hanger w ere p aid o ut o f t he s eignorage. J ohnson , o p.cit.,

p p.92-5.

exchange

a t

Yarmouth,

w ith

o wn warders

w ere

York

a nd

a rt.cit.,

s ubsidiary

and

Hull,

c omptrollers

t ables

B oston

o p.cit.,

2 7.

G iovanni

P esce

a ccountable

p p.78-80;

a nd

a nd s ee b elow p p.76-86.

G iuseppe

F elloni,

L e

M onete

G enovesi,

I n P aris by

1 266,

F .

d e

S aulcy,

R eceuil d e D ocuments r elatifs ä

o p.cit.,

P aris,

G enoa,

p p.94-5.

P esce

a nd

F elloni,

l oc.cit.;

B onfiglio D osio, ' Lavoro e L avoratori a ttraverso i i " Capitolar d alle B roche" C racco, M .C. B illanovich a nd A . S tudi i n o nore d i P aolo S ambin, c omplete

r un

based o n b roche" Mueller, 3 1.

i ,

p p.134-6.

J ohnson , F or

G enoa,

p p.265-79.

1 879,

3 0.

t o

- XVe s iäcles,

l 'histoire d es M onnaies frappäes p ar l es r ois d e France,

2 9.

o f and

p p.34 a nd 5 5-8.

M onnaies d es c omtes d e Provence X lle

J ohnson ,

2 8.

t here

1 956.

2 6.

1 975,

1 330s

S andwich,

B eardwood ,

H enri R olland , P aris,

t he

and

t heir

t he e xchequer. 2 5.

I n

D over

d own

o f

G iorgetta

t he

o p.cit.,

various

B ernocchi,

p p.211-33,

o p.cit.,

' i ii,

V enice,

G iorgetta

R igon ( eds.), V iridarium f loridum : P adua, 1 985, p p.255-76, g ives a

B onfiglio

d ella Z ecca d i V enezia

f or

n ella z ecca V eneziana ( XIV-XVI s ec)', i n G .

o fficers

D osio

( 1358-1556),

d iscusses

p p.5-14,

o f

( ed .),

t he I l

P adua,

V enetian

m ints

" Capitolar d alle 1 984.

t heir f unctions

L ane a nd

f urther.

g ives a c omplete r un d own o f t he

o fficers o f t he F lorentine m int. 3 2.

Mate,

a rt.cit.,

p p.32-3,

s hows

h ow

t he

w ages

t he L ondon a nd C anterbury m ints r ose a nd f ell r eigns w ith t he busyness o f t he m ints. 3 3.

P rivate

i nformation f rom D avid S orenson

2 5

o f

t he

h ostiarii

i n

i n E dward I a nd I I's

3 4.

S ee b elow p p.97-127 a nd 3 9-60.

3 5.

T he e arliest d escription i s

i ncluded

i n

t he

o f

s uch

' Treatise

a ' trial

o n

t he

o f

N ew

t he

pyx '

M oney '

i n

o f

e arliest s urviving w rit o rdering s uch a t rial d ates

E ngland

1 279;

t he

f rom 1 282;

a nd

a d etailed m emorandum o n h ow t o c arry o ut t he t rial was e ntered i n t he R ed B ook of t he Exchequer a round 1 300. J ohnson , o p.cit., p p.79-82.

Rulers

w ould b e

s hort

E ngland

a nd

h oped

a nd

t hat

t he

r egular.

P rovence.

i ntervals

T hree

H owever,

i n

m onths

b etween was

p ractice,

s uch

p roposed a ssays

a ssays i n

t ook

b oth p lace

i rregularly a nd o ften a t l ong i ntervals. 3 6.

J . B ailhache, ' Chambre e t C our d es M onnaies ( XIVe, XVe a t XVIe s i6cles). A perçu h istorique', R evue N umismatique, 4 th S er., x xxvii

( 1934),

p p.63-99,

( 1936),pp.157-79, / 4/3, V I. 3 7.

P aris,

1 75-97;

3 27-45,

1 965,pp.129-32,

L es C auses d u D eficit.

C hantal

L ozachmeur,

( Thesis,

x xxviii

P aris,

1 965,

' L 'Organisation M on6taire

i ii,

p p.67-89;

x xxix

L a D omaine d u R oi 1 388-

a nd L es F inances R oyales s ous C harles 1 388-1413,

Maitrise d 'Histoire M gdievale, o p.cit.,

( 1935),

a nd Maurice R ey,

p p.524-31.

C atalane

P aris V II,

1 350-1410'

1 975).

3 8.

B ernocchi,

4 4-8.

3 9.

C armello T raselli, ' La Z ecca ', N ote p er l a s toria d ei b anchi i n S icilia nel XV s ecolo, i , P alermo, 1 959, p p.117-33. C f . t he m odern d escription o f t he o perations c arried o ut i n t he v arious b otteghe ( shops) o f t he V enetian m ints p rovided by L ane a nd Mueller,

4 0.

C raig,

4 1.

Marjoke

o p.cit.,

o p.cit., d e

personeel

p p.233-54.

p .44.

R oos,

S ij O ntbooden

t e C oomen R ekenen.

G roningen ,

1 978,

4 2.

P hilip G rierson ,

4 3.

L ucia

( duplicated),

p .25. Numismatics,

T ravaini's

paper,

L ondon ,

b elow ,

1 975,

p rovides

S ee

A lan

S tahl's

p aper

b elow ,

a nd

p p.106-7.

a g reat

o f t he d ivision o f l abour i n I talian m ints S tahl's i n t he V enetian m ints i n p articular. 4 4.

M unt e n H unt-

i n H olland i n d e v ijftiende e euw

L ane

i n

a nd

d eal

m ore

d etail

g eneral,

a nd

A lan

Mueller,

o p.cit.,

p p.205 a nd 5 31-5. 4 5.

S ee b elow p p.128.

4 6.

B ompaire,

4 7.

Lucia

a rt.cit.,

T ravaini's

p .153.

paper,

b elow ,

p rovides

a g reat

d eal

o f

d etail

a bout t he p rivileged m oneyers o f I taly. 4 8.

T he e arliest s eal has b een d ated s tylistically t o a round 1 300,

but

t he

T he

f irs .t

r ecorded m eeting

S erment was

i nitially

d id

f ocussed

2 6

n ot

t ake

p lace

o n D auphin6,

u ntil

w ith the

1 342. m oneyers

o f

V ienne

a nd Valence

t he S erment

d e

1 ,

turn

who

in

p laying

l ' Empire

heavily

S ee J ean Duplessy b elow p p.128.

5 0.

S pufford , C inzio

V iolante, L a

' Per

l a

R iforma

s toria

d ella

I stituto S torico I taliano,

5 3.

B ernocchi, P .

o p.cit.,

G inori C onti,

R obert

5 6.

Mate, K .

i ii,

C onstitutum

e conomica

Z ecca

l xvi

f ollows

l e

o n

c hapter

G entilhomme's

p .241.

e s ociale 1 318',

d i

P isa

B ulletino

n el

d ell'

p .137.

L opez,

S peculum ,

a rt.cit.,

M ichaelssen

r eprints

m onetariorum

a l arge

c ivitatis

o f

t he

F lorentie,

p art

e d .

1 931.

' An

A ristocracy

x xviii

( 1953),

o f

M oney

i n

t he

e arly

l 'an

1 297 ,

p p.29-30.

p p.34 a nd 3 7. ( ed .),

L e

l ivre

d e

l a

A cta Universitatis G othoburgensis, 5 7.

d el

( 1954),

p p.14-24,

a rtis

F lorence,

S abatino

M iddle Ages', 5 5.

P ierre

t hat

o p.cit.,

I n F rance s ee b elow p p.128.

p re-1314

5 4.

on

' Mint O rganisation i n t he N etherlands',

T recento.

5 2.

A ll

f or t he ü cole d es C hartes o f 1 931.

4 9.

5 1.

r ole.

d erived f rom R olland ,

r elied

unpublished t hesis

a l eading

i s

t aille

l xvii

d e

( 1961),

P aris

p p.428-31.

J ohn B ell H enneman , R oyal T axation i n F ourteenth C entury France: T he D evelopment of W ar F inancing 1 322-1356, P rinceton, 1 971, p p.311-2.

5 8.

V iolante,

art.cit.,

p p.161-2

a nd

B ernocchi,

o p.cit.,

i ii,

1 5. H owever, t he h ereditary p rinciple c rept back i n 1 372. F or t he S ienese a ttack o n m oneyers' p rivileges

p p.14-

F lorence i n i n 1 262 s ee

L ucia T ravaini's p aper b elow . 5 9.

L opez,

o p.cit.,

6 0.

S ee b elow p p.130

6 1.

S ee b elow p p.18

6 2.

R obert

p .43. ( Duplessy) ( this

D avidsohn ,

a nd 1 63

i ntro)

S toria

a nd 5 0

d i

( Ilisch). ( other e xceptions).

F irenze

( Italian

t ranslation),

v i,

F lorence, 1 968, p .600. A loys S chulte, G eschichte d es m ittelalterl ichen H andels u nd V erkehrs z wischen W estdeutschland u nd I talien m it A usschuss v on V enedig , B rucker

( ed .),

L eipzig ,

Two' M emoirs

o f

1 900.

R enaissance

R olland ,

o p.cit.

F lorence,

N ew

G ene Y ork ,

1 967, p p.25-6. I an S tewart, ' Scottish M ints', i n R .A .G. C arson ( ed .),Mints, D ies a nd C urrency E ssays i n M emory o f A lbert B aldwin, L ondon ,

1 971,

p .229.

6 3.

S ee b elow p p.163 a nd 2 02.

6 4.

B ernocchi,

o p.cit.,

i ii,

p p.5-6.

2 7

6 5.

G iovanni 1 975,

6 6.

S ee

P esce

a nd

G iuseppe

F elloni,

L e

M onete

L ane

a nd

G enovesi,

G enoa ,

p .265.

A lan

S tahl's

p aper

b elow ,

a nd

Mueller,

o p.cit.,

p p.211-3. 6 7. 6 8.

P esce a nd F elloni,

l oc.cit.

R obert

S abatino

L opez,

Ages',

S peculum ,

x xviii

' An

A ristocracy

( 1953),

o f

p p.1-43.

t hat t he a mount o f p roperty a ccumulated d irect c onsequence o f t he p rofit t o b e m ints.

H e b elieves

t hat

t he

M oney

i n

t he

M iddle

P rofessor L opez s uggests by t hese m oneyers w as a made f rom r unning t heir

e arly e leventh c entury H onorantie

o f

P avia i ndicate a s eignorage o f o ne s ixth a nd c oncludes t hat, i f s uch a h igh r ate a pplied o ver t he p revious t wo c enturies w hen t he purchasing p ower o f m oney was v ery h igh, g reat

w ealth

c lear

t hat

e njoyed

s ome

p revious

t wo

c enturies. a nd

but i t d oes m ean t hat

i t

r unning

w orkshops

I t

w ould

was

making

e qually,

m en who

t his

f or

t he

I a m

n ot

i nterpretation .

I t hink

f ine, i .e. 5 /6ths. g ood s ilver. H e p roduces n o t hat s eignorage r ates w ere a s l arge a s a s ixth

c orrelation b etween m oneyers m oney

Unfortunately

t hat h e u ses t o t his e ffect, p rinted i n V iolante, n .2, m eans i nstead t hat t he d enarii t o b e s truck

s hould b e 1 0d . o ther e vidence t he

i t w ould a ccount

m oneyers.

t he Honorantie w ill b ear

t hat t he passage art.cit., p .131,

d uring

by

a nd

w ere

i s n ot

i n

m y

T his

d oes

c onsiderable

c lear

t hat

t hat

o pinion

a lready w ealthy

i t was

a ccounted m ore

a nd

n ot

a nd

t he

f or

p robably,

t he

s tatus,

f unction o f

t heir

i mportant who

w ith e xchanges a nd t he a ssociated m ints.

d estroy

w ealth

w ealth.

m ean w ere

t hat

i t

i nvested

S tatus was m ore p robably

a p rerequisite r ather t han a c onsequence o f r unning a m int. 6 9.

P amela

N ightingale,

o rganization c enturies', 7 0.

T he

of

L ondon

g oldsmith

O tto

by

e states

i n E ssex

o r

W illiam

t hought

i ntermarried

O tes

I i n

w as

t he

i n

t hemselves

w ith

t he

c xlii g iven

B y a s

t he

a ristocracy .

c entury

p repared

I was

d eputies,

i n

d escended

t hrough

a nd was t he

b oth

L ondon t he

C raig,

t he

t o

and

o n

p p.34-50.

h ereditary

c entury,

j ob

w ith

o f

l anded ,

t herefore

f or t hem . o ut

o f

d ie

s upporting

t hirteenth c entury t he

p ay

t he

t welfth

F itz

f amily ,

a nd

a rranged

f or

B y t he e nd o f t he t he

s eignorage

f or

t o s upplement t he a ctivities o f t he F itz O ates a nd

f emale

C anterbury.

l ine

t o

o nly e xtinguished w ith t he

1 370s.

( 1982),

T hey

t o c ut t he d ies

E dward

r eflections

e leventh

a k nightly,

p ractising g oldsmiths k eepers o f t he d ies

t he

e leventh

a nd S uffolk .

o f

m oneyers,

m ints

N umismatic C hronicle,

c utting O ates

' Some

English

o p.cit.,

p .17

L ords

T he

F itz

B otetourt

O ates a nd

f ief

L atimer

i mpeachment o f L ord L atimer

a nd J ohnson ,

o p.cit.,

i n

p p.xxxvii

a nd 8 9-90. 7 1. 7 2.

d e S aulcy, J .

o p.cit.,

Marechal,

Brugge,

i ,

B ijdrage

B ruges,

1 955,

p .129. t ot d e p .79.

2 8

g eschiedenis v an h et

b ankwezen

t e

7 3.

W .

J esse,

' Die

Z eitschrift,

d eutschen

l xiii

( 1930)

7 4.

L opez,

a rt.cit.,

p .39.

7 5.

L opez,

a rt.cit.,

p p.42-3.

7 6.

Martin B iddle

( ed .),

Münzer-Hausgenossen ',

N umismatische

p .60.

W inchester i n

t he E arly M iddle Ages,

O xford ,

1 976. 7 7.

P eter

S pufford,

' Le

r ole

d e

c ommerciale d u X IIIe s iècle', Monätaire X IIe

l a

monnaie

i n J ohn D ay

-X IXe S iäcles,

L ille,

dans

( ed .),

1 984,

P eter S pufford , M oney a nd i ts U se i n M edieval 1 987, c hapter 5 , ' New S ilver c .1160 - c .1330'.

7 9.

C hristopher

8 0.

S ome

E .

B lunt

a nd

J ohn

D .

British N umismatic J ournal, i ndication

c an b e

o f

g athered

t he

f rom

m int

t he

B rand ,

x xxix

a ccounts

a rticle

by

m atisk Ärsskrift a ccounts 8 1.

N icholas

( 1981),

p p.24-6,

A .

' Mint

a lready

C ambridge,

O utput

o f

H enry

i n

p rint

6 1-6. a vailable

D ay,

E urope',

i n which h e

' The

q uestion

o f

i n N ordisk N umisu sed

a ll

t he

m int

t hat h e c ould f ind t o e stimate t he a mounts m inted . Mayhew ,

' Frappes

Angleterre d e 1 180 a 1 220' 8 2.

E urope,

( 1970),

J ohn

M onetary C ontraction i n l ate M edieval

r evolution

p p.355-95.

7 8.

I II',

l a

E tudes d 'histoire

d e

m onnaies

i n D ay

( ed .)

e t

hausse

o p.cit.,

d es

p rix

e n

p p.159-77.

D ieudonne, ' Compte d e F abrication d e T ournois p ar P hilippe I II M ontreuil-Bonin ( 1272)', R evue B elge d e N umismatique, l xvi

( 1924),

p p.9-28.

8 3.

S ee L ucia T ravaini's paper b elow .

8 4.

J ohnson ,

8 5.

Mavis Mate,

a rt.cit.,

p p.36-7.

8 6.

Mavis Mate,

a rt.cit.,

p .37.

o p.cit.,

p p.63-4.

2 9

T he M edieval M int o f C airo: S ome a spects o f m int o rganisation a nd a dministration H elen W . T he

p eriod

c overed

by

o n

the

B ibliography,

a -d .

c hief

m int-town

a fter

h is

t heir

t he

c onquest o wn

t his

o f

n ames

t his

t he

w ill

t ime

C airo

s tate,

F atimid

o r i ssuing o f d ies. s eparate

ways,

t he

was

C aliphate

t he

was i n

half-century

l isted

c apital

f ounded A D

i n

t he

c ity

a nd

b y

1 169.

S aladin

T ributary

M esopotamia a nd t he Y emen a lso m inted l ocally

( though

c oppe r .

i s

a ccounts

which

n ot

a s

a r ule

t heir E gyptian o verlord o n t heir c oins. a v ery l ittle

f ocus

c ontemporary

A yyubid

i n S yria,

O xford

p aper

a lmost

D uring

o f

Ayyubid p rinces i n

which

f our

B rown ,

T here

i s n o

R ather,

g old),

a nd

a cknowledged s ilver

a nd

e vidence o f a ny c entralised c utting

t he c apital

numismatically

i n

C airo m inted g old ,

a nd t he p rovinces w ent

s peaking.

C airo

was

t heir

c oncerned

w ith

maintaining t he f ineness p roducing a n a cceptable

o f i ts g old d inars, a nd w ith t he p roblems s ilver c oinage w ith i nadequate s upplies

s ilver.

m ints

T he

p rovincial

m eanwhile,

e specially

t hose

i n

o f o f

S yria ,

w ere p roducing r egular s upplies o f g ood q uality s ilver d irhams. I T he M int B uilding Until

l ate

i n

t he

F atimid

p eriod ,

t he

t he F atimid C aliphate i n E gypt was s till

m int

which

i n F ustat,

c hiefly

t he s ite o f t he e arliest s ettlement o f t he Muslims i n E gypt. 1 122 t he C aliph a l-Amir h ad a m int built i n t he n ew c ity which

was

r esidence

by

t hen

o f t he

r e .garded

I mam

a s

( i.e.

t he

t he

s eat

C aliph

o f

t he

i n h is

s erved

t he o ld c apital,

C aliphate

s piritual

o n

B ut i n A D o f C airo, a nd

r ole).

t he T his

m ove was a ssociated w ith,

a nd p erhaps n ecessitated by t he r eform o f t he

c oinage

t he

- i n

p articular

i mproving

o f

t he

f ineness

o f

t he

g old

c oinage - which h e had i nstituted a nd o n which I bn B a 'ra c omments, i n h is s ection o n t he r efining o f g old a s b eing o f unsurpassable q uality . a l-Maqrizi a lso r eported 3 t hat " the g old c oins s truck t here w ere o f b etter a lloy t han t hose m ade

i n o ther c apital c ities".

T he o pening o f t he n ew m int w as m oving

o f

c apital,

t he

a dministration

presumably

c onvenience.

B ut

t he

g old

F atimids,

w ell a s

f or

a l-Maqrizi a l-Amir',

g ives

n amed

a nd was

p oint

F ifty y ears

o f

i n

t he

l ater,

t o

f rom

t he

o ld

s ecurity

and

administrative

t hat b e

r emained

i ssued

t ill

f rom

t he

t o

t he

t he

n ew

f all

o f

o ld m int

a s

a f ew hundred m ade,

m etres

t his

c hange

a t l east f or a while.

s treet

a nd

h e

f rom

t he

n ew

n ear

t he

m int:

i ntellectual

t he

' the h ouse

a l-Azhar a nd

brought

a n ew

m int

t he

o ne.

W e

i t m ay b e

o f

m osque,

s ocial

a

l ife.

w as

w riting

e arly f ifteenth c enturies.

o ld

t hat

b oth

i nto

d o

buildings

n ot

u se

i n

k now

c ontinued

a

why i n

B ut w e d o know t hat S aladin 's m int building

o f which I bn B a 'ra w rote,

a l-Maqrizi

a bout

a ldar a l-Amiriyya,

r eligious,

C aliphate,

u se,

o ne

i nformation

C aliph

when S aladin c ame t o p ower a nd t he Ayyubid s tate had

F atimid was

s ome t he

c ity 's

building

t he

f ifty y ears

a c ommercial

t he

t ime

a r ather b elated p art o f t he

s tate

of

c ontinued

u s

a fter

r eplaced

w as

r easons

t he

c oins

t hus

t he

t he n ew .

building was f ocal

f or

o f

h is

a nd t he

h istories

I t w as,

3 0

i n

o ne

s till

t he

l ate

i ncidentally,

a t

t he

f ourteenth

i n u se

a nd

where t he p resent-day

m arket

o f

b rass-workers

i s

n ow

a nd

where

t hey

m ay

w ell

have

b een

w orking i n t he t welfth c entury. N ew p remises w ere n eeded a gain when a m ajor r eform o f t he w as

i nstigated

T his t he

t ime

by

i t was

t he

S ultan

o nly

a l-Kamil,

a t emporary

n ephew

m easure,

o f

S aladin ,

s pecifically

i ncreased v olume o f w ork c aused by t he r eform .

c oinage

i n

t o

1 225.

c ope

w ith

I t i s r ecorded t hat

t wo t emporary m ints w ere s et u p/ . o ne i n t he C itadel o f C airo a nd t he o ther o ne, o nce a gain , i n F ustat', which was by n ow e nclosed w ithin t he c ity walls

o f

m int-name,

a ttest t o t his.

C airo.

S ome

s urviving

g old

c oins,

w ith

t he

a ppropriate

5

I I T he O fficials o f t he M int I bn

B a 'ra

d evotes

h is

f inal

c hapter

( no.17)

t o

t he

t itles

a nd

f unctions o f t he o fficials o f t he M int. B efore g iving a n a ccount o f t his i t may b e u seful t o l ook a t t he r elationship o f t he M int w ith t he c entral a dministration o f t he g overnment. The

administration

of

Egypt

was

c losely

s tructured,

with

a

c arefully p lanned c hain o f c ommand f rom t he v ery t op - i .e. f rom t he C aliph ( in F atimid t imes) o r t he S ultan ( in t he A yyubid p eriod) - d own t hrough t he various D iwans ( ministries) a nd s ometimes s ub-divisions o f m inistries, t hrough t he e xecutives, d own t o t he c lerks, s tore-keepers a nd g uards. At t he h ead o f t he

c hain ,

t he

r uler a ppointed t he V izier

c harge o f c ivil a dministration a nd f inances ( and r esponsibility f or t he a rmies a s w ell). T he V izier o fficers o f s tate, h ere w e r eturn t o

a mong whom was t he C hief t he t heme o f t his p aper,

t o b e

i n

s ometimes t o have a ppointed t he h igh

Q adi ( chief j udge), a nd s ince h e i t was who i n

F atimid t imes was n ot o nly t he h ead o f t he j udiciary but a lso t he c hief o verseer o f t he M int. part

of

his

I t

duties

d istribution o f

l argesse

t he C hief Q adi i s o f t he M int). 6

t here B ut

a dministration was

i s n ot

i n

t o b e

p erson t o

c ivil

i n

s ervants

a l-Maqrizi d oes

i n p erson t o w e

s trict:

know f or

s upposed t hat h e p erformed t his

( though

d escribing

s upervise

t hat

t he

annual

s tress

t hat

o pening a nd c losing

a ccountability

i nstance,

t he

i n

t he

t he h igh o fficers

E gyptian

o f S tate

o f

t he r ank o f C hief Q adi w ere r equired t o r eport p ersonally t o t he C aliph e very t wenty d ays. I t m ay t herefore b e s upposed t hat t he t itle o f o verseer o f t he M int was n o m ere f ormality a nd t hat t hrough t he d eputies who p erformed t he a ctual

f unctions

f or h im t he C hief Q adi k ept

i n t ouch w ith t he a ffairs o f t he M int t o a c onsiderable d egree. T he

d uty o f t he

C hief Q adi,

t hen ,

f unction a s t he p roducer o f c oins. h ouse s phere

o f

t he

o f

s tate,

( Nazir)

r equirements

of

t reasure-house; s hould",

o fficial

t he T reasury d epartment

S upervisor

s cornful

a nd ' t he

o f h e

o f t he

a nd

t he s aid ,

t o

t he

S tate;

" on

c oming

m ethods o f t he d epartments o f p rofits

t o

b e

t o

d ecide

a chieved .

o versee

t he

t o

t ake

r elease

o f

s ome

t o

o ffice

s urvey

i n t heir c harge; t hey

3 1

o n

f rom

e xchange.

h olders

i t

i n

i ts

i nto

t he

f or

t he

I t w ould b e

d ecisions

bullion o f

m int

a s a t reasure-

b rought

a l-Mal).

o n m atters

T hen

t o

E xchange,

( Bait

T reasury

c ompetence

was

I ts o ther f unctions,

t he t he

c oinage S tate's

a l-Nabulusi

o f

t his

o ffice:

t he

f undamental

i s

" They w orking

a nd s et t hemselves a t arget

s hould

i nvestigate

t he

d etailed

m ethods t heory.

by which t he " In p ractice",

t argets c ould b e r eached". S o much f or t he h e s ays, " when n ewly-appointed t hey a re d azzled

by t heir n ew r ank a nd p restige. T hey f all i n t oo r eadily w ith t he s uggestions o f t he a ccountants a nd o fficials i n t heir d epartments, e ven a bout c oncerns

o f p rime

d ay w ould n ot b e

l ong

i mportance e nough

f or

but t hey f ritter a way t heir t ime R epresenting

t he

l ike budget p lans, a ll

t he

d uties

t axes,

t hey

o uld

e tc.

T he

p erform ;

i n w orthless a ctivity".

C hief Qadi

i n

h is

r ole

a s

o verseer

o f

t he

M int

was a n o fficial d rawn f rom a p anel o f a pproved " witnesses" w hose f unction was t o a ssist t he Qadi i n h is various f unctions a nd r esponsibilities.

I t

i s

r ecorded

t hat

t he W itness

( al-Shahid)

was

t o

be of upright character, but n o particular qualifications a re s pecified . H is j ob, o n t he C hief Q adi's b ehalf, was t o b e p resent when t he M int was o pened a nd c losed ; t o s upervise t he r efining p rocesi, s et h is s eal o n t he p roduct; a nd t o t ake c harge o f t he s tandards. °

a nd

After t he t ransfer o f p ower f rom t he F atimids t o t he Ayyubids, r esponsib pity f or t he M int passed f rom t he judicial, s emi-religious a uthority was s till

o f t he C hief Q adi t o a r ole f or a W itness

s ome o f t he

d uties

t hat ( see

o f t he F inance M inistry. T here I bn B a 'ra 's a ccount, b elow) but

o f t he Qadi's w itness

s eem t o have b een t ransferred

t o t he Musharif o r S upervisor. ( a)

T he M aster o r D irector T his

- t he

s enior

( Sahib o r Mutawalli)

o fficial

- d oes

n ot

a ppear

a t

t he

h ead

o f

I bn

B a 'ra 's l ist i n c hapter 1 7, t hough h e i s n amed e lsewhere i n t he t ext. I bn B a 'ra s ays, " He must have a g ood t heoretical knowledge o f t he M int's p rocesses b efore h e a ttempts

t o p ractice h is c alling".

r ole s eems t o have b een s upervisory,

T hus h is

a nd h e m ay i ndeed have b elonged t o

t he M inistry o f F inance. ( b)

T he S upervisor

( Musharif)

F irst i n I bn B a 'ra 's d uties a nd

a re

c learly

g old ,

t he

l aid

d ies,

must l ook a fter]

t he

m easures

o f

c apacity,

o f

t he

w e

have

g old

a nd p ut h is c onfirmation

Supervisor

" must

s ubordinates,

a nd i mmediately b elow t he D irector, " He

must

a pparatus,

l ook

t he

a fter

t ools,

t he

a nd

who

t he and

f urnace

s ignature o f

s tamp

s ilver t o

t his,

w ith

encompass

t he

s hould

n ot

( or

s eal),

s tandards,

and

a ll

F rom

t hat".

t he

a dditional

s pecialised

e xceed

h im

i n

a ny

r efined

o ther

t he w eights o f t he s tandard m easures,

weights a ccounts;

l ist, d own ,

h is

s ilver

t hings;

[ he

t he s eals o f t he

t he

r ecord

t he

s tatement

o f

I bn Mammati, s tatement t heir

of

t oo,

t hat

t he

o f

his

knowledge o f

t he

r equired

s kills". ( c)

T he W itness T his

i s

( Shahid)

t he

r epresentative

o f

t he

t he C hief Q adi, but by I bn B a 'ra 's d ay i t was t o o bserve a ll t hat w ent o n . " The M int

h igher t he

a uthority,

W itness must watch o ver a ll w ho w ork a t a s a n e ye-witness t o w hat t hey d o.

3 2

( till

F inance M inistry)

t he H is

l ately

whose

j ob

e xperience

i s

a vailable

t o

t hem

i s r equired f or t he a ccounts,

a nd h is

a cceptance

w hich h e m ust s ign".

I bn M ammati 's a ccount o f t his o fficial's m ust have a g ood g rasp o f e verything

d uties i s h e s ees,

m uch t he s ame: " he a nd m ust w rite a

c orresponding a ccount f or t he r ecord". ( d)

T he E ngraver

( Naqqash)

" It i s n ecessary , i f h e b e n ot t rustworthy , t hat h e b e s tamped ( or b randed) o n h is h and , a s i s t he p resent c ustom . H e m ust n ot w ork o n a nything e xcept

t he

e ngraving

o f

t he

d ie,

s o

t hat

h e

m ay

p erfect h is s kill t o t he b est o f h is a bility a nd [ so t hat] f orgers c annot i mitate h im . T here i s a nother a dvantage i n t his, t hat t he o ther w orkers w ill n ot h ave a ccess

t o a n ew d ie".

T hus t wo a nd a h alf l ines o f t he A rabic t ext i s a ll t hat i s d evoted t o t he e ngraver a nd h is w ork ; a nd h e r emains a s hadowy f igure, w orking a way i n s olitude a nd w e l earn h ere n othing m ore o f h is m ethods, h is t ools o r h is t raining . ( e)

T he F oreman

( Muqaddam)

[ Paraphrased i n p laces] " He i s r esponsible a bove a ll e lse f or l ookip& „ a fter t he s tandards o f g old a nd s ilver i n t hree lv r espects: f irst, b y c hecking t he w eight o f a ll r efined g old [ possibly ' coined g old '] w hich i s b rought t o t he M int, a nd n oting e very d ay what i t l acks i n f ineness [ i.e. a scertaining t he d ifference i n f ineness b etween w hat i s b rought i n a nd t he s tandard r equired f or n ew c oins]; a nd c hecking t he a mount i n s tock t o s afeguard t he e xchange o f t he a uthorized g old [ i.e. n oting what e xtra g old i s r equired t o bring s ubstandard i mported c oins u p t o t he E gyptian s tandard ? ] And h e f ixes i ts d uty f or t he D iwan [ i.e. c alculates t he t ax d ue]. S ometimes t he o wner o f t he g old h as h is o wn s tamp a nd m arks i t o utside t he M int" [ then i n a v ery e lusive p assage I bn B a 'ra d escribes h ow t his c an r esult i n a l oss t o t he T reasury o f i ts d ue t ax]. " Second , h e m ust b e c areful a bout t he s ealing o f t he f urnace w hen i t i s u nattended". T hen f ollows a n a ccount o f ' the a buses t hat c an o ccur i f t he f urnace i s n ot s ealed w ith t he f oreman 's o wn s ea1. 11 I n p articular h e m entions t he s ubstitution b y u nauthorized p eople ( "the o wners o f t he g old") o f g old i nferior t o t hat w hich h as p reviously b een r ecorded . A lso t he r ecords o f t ransactions w ere l iable t o b e f alsified , a nd t he f oreman w as t o g uard a gainst t hat t oo. A ny d iscrepancies t hat c ame t o l ight w ere t o b e m ade g ood b y t he f öreman

3 3

h imself . ( f) T he S triker

( Darrab)

I t i s s omewhat d isappointing t o f ind t hat w hat I bn B a 'ra r ecords o f t he f inal t wo c ategories o f w orkers - t he S trikers a nd t he S melters - i s m ore c oncerned w ith a ccountability a nd r esponsibility t han w ith w hat w ork t hey a ctually p erform . " The d uty o f t he S triker i s t o t ake p recautions t o p rotect t he s ilver i n t wo w ays: h e s hould s afeguard t he s ilver a t t he t ime o f i ts p urification f rom t he b lackness a nd i mpurities; a nd t o q uench t he s ilver w ith s alt a nd v inegar a nd s umac a t t he s tage w hen a ll i ts b rightness i s r evealed" ( i.e. during r efining a nd p olishing). " And w hatever s hortfall t here i s i n t he w eight o f t he s ilver a t t he t ime o f w orking i t, h e m ust m ake i t g ood". I bn B a 'ra a scribes t o t he S triker r esponsibility o nly f or s ilver ( though h e w orked a lso w ith g old a t v arious s tages); f or g old t he r esponsibility l ay w ith t he f oreman ( see a bove). E lsewhere i n t he t ext I bn B a 'ra s peaks o f t he S triker t he m etal, p olishing t he b lanks, a nd f inally s tamping t hem". ( g)

T he S melter

" hammering

( Sabbak)

" The d uty o f t he S melter i s t o a ttend t o t he w eight o f t he c opper b efore i ts e xtraction i n t he c rucible; a nd t o a ttend t o t he s ilver a t t he m oment o f l iquefaction . F or h e i s a ccountable f or w hat c omes f orth . A nd w henever t he d ue s tandard i s n ot r evealed, h e i s h eld r esponsible. H e i s a ccountable f or t he r efined m etal i n i ts m olten s tate, a nd i ts f lawlessness i s h is r esponsibility". I II S alaries, T he s ources, p ossible

T ax a nd P rofits

f igures f or t hese i nterrelated t opics, d rawn f rom v arious a re c onflicting a nd r equire m uch m ore d etailed s tudy t han i s i n t his b rief o utline. T here i s c ertainly n o s ystematic

r ecord o f t he s alaries o f m int-workers, b ut t he p rinciple i s c lear: i n m ost c ases t hey w ere c alculated a s a p roportion o f t he t ax e xacted a t t he M int f rom t he v endors o f m etal. T he v olume o f w ork m ight v ary c onsiderably f rom y ear t o y ear, a nd t he f ixing o f t he r ate o f t ax m ight b e a d justed t o r eflect ' temporary s hortages o f m etal a nd t he n eed t o a ttract m ore s upplies. T he p urveyors o f g old i n i ts v arious f orms ( coined , j ewellery , b ullion , e tc.) w ere f or m uch o f t he p eriod t axed a t a r ate o f 3 3 d inars p er 1 000 d inars. O ther r ates n oted a re 3 0 a nd 3 4.1/4 p er 1 000, a nd i n I bn B a 'ra 's a ccount 5 0 p er 1 000. F rom t he s ums t hus r aised , a p roportion w as s et a side f or f uel 1 2 f or t he r efining a nd m inting p rocesses,

a nd

t he r est w as f or t he s alaries o f t he M int s taff a nd

3 4

a

s um

f or

t he

r elative

D iwan ,

s alary

o r

F inance

s Wes

f or

M inistry.

d ifferent

S ome

r anks

s light

may

b e

i dea

d erived

o f

t he

f rom

a l-

M akhzumi's a ccount " where h e s tates t hat f rom 3 0 d inars o f t ax 4 .11/12 d inars

w ent

d iscretion

t o

o f

t he

t he

S upervisor,

W itness

a nd

m int-workers

a re n ot m entioned

f igure

n ot

( i.e.

c alculated

a nd

1 .2/3

d ependent i n

a s

t his

t o

o n

t he

E ngraver

s atisfactory

a ccount,

a p roportion

but w e

o f

t he

have

t ax

a t

w ork .

t he

O ther

o ne

f ixed

e xacted):

o ne

h alf-dinar p er m onth f or t hose who t ended t he f urnace. F or

t he

s ilver

s ilver was b rought i t

r eached

r ate

o f

e xpenses o f

t he

1 /2

t he

i nto

r equired

d inar

v endor.

p urity.

[ about

c onnected w ith

c hemicals,

a rrangements

a ny

T he

1 5-20 w araq t he

o ther

a l-Makhzumi

" The

M int

1 6

i s

m inting

t ax

t hat

o f

t he

was

e tc.

( ir \ h is

W hen

t hen

c alculated 1 00

i ncluding w ere

t ime

t o

a t

a t

t he

d irhams. f uel,

b e

s upplies

b orne

l east)

A ll

t he

b y

t he

t ax

o n

I 5

b ranches

e xpected t o

d ifferent.

t ested a nd r efined until

p rocess,

r aw m aterials,

r eports

o ne

a nd i t was

s omewhat

d irhams 14 ] p er

s ilver y ielded n o p rofit t o t he D iwan .

M aqrizi,

w ere

t he M int a s ample was

o f

public

r evenue",

s how a g ood p rofit.

w rote

T his

a l-

i t c learly

d id o n i ts g old w orking , e ven i f i t o nly b roke e ven o n i ts s ilver w orking . I n t he e arly y ears o f t he t hirteenth c entury t he r evenue f rom t he

M int

was

a bout

3 ,000

d inars

t ogether

t he p rofit was m ore

Y et l ess

t han t en y ears l ater t h a

m onth,

p er

t han

m onth,

8 0,000

a nd

- o r

i n

3 ,500

1 238

d inars

a nd

1 239

p er m onth.

i ncome had d ropped t o 1 00 d inars p er

a ccording t o a l-Nabulusi.."

T his

f all i n r evenue h e a scribes

a f ailure t o k eep p roper r ecords i n t he M int; t o f or a n i ncreased M int t ax w ithout r egistering T reasury T ax; a nd a f ailure t o d ifferentiate b etween p roffered g old o f d iffering s tandards.

t o

d emands by o fficials t he t ransaction f or

s ufficiently

c arefully

N OTES 1 .

O ther t han t he d inars o f t he y ear A .H. 5 94 ( A .D. 1 198) p roclaiming t hemselves " struck i n M ecca" ( Balog, C oinage, n o. 2 25) which w ere undoubtedly

s truck

i n

C airo,

p robably

i n

c onnection

w ith

t hat

y ear's P ilgrimage. 2 .

S .

d e S acy,

T raitd,

( see B ibliography i nf.,

3 .

S .

d e S acy,

Traitd,

p .61.

4 .

F rom H istoire d es P atriarches d 'Alexandrie, t ranslation o f a l-Maqrizi, 2 , n .2.

B alog , C oinage, n os. 3 83-385, n ame ' Misr' f or t he y ears A .H.

6 .

S .

7 .

a l-Nabulusi,

8 .

a l-Maqrizi,

T raitd, c hap.

p .60-1.

q uoted i n E .

H istoire d 'Egypte,

5 .

d e S acy,

l e)

P aris,

l ists t en d inars b earing 6 23-4 ( A .D. 1 126-7).

p .62-3. I V,

f olio 8 5v-86r,

K itab a l M awasiz,

3 5

I ,

t rans.

p .110,

4 50.

O wen ,

B lochet 's

1 908,

p .70.

t he

p .361-

m int-

9 .

T he s taff o f t he M int w ere a t t his t ime M uslims. S o m uch m ay b e i nferred f rom a l-Magrizi's s tatement t hat b y h is d ay t he M int h ad b ecome m anned p redominantly b y J ews o r t hose p aying o nly l ips ervice t o I slam . a l-Maqrizi, K itab a l-Mawa 'iz, I , p .110.

1 0.

I bn B a 'ra i n f act m entions o nly t wo.

1 1.

I t i s c lear, f rom t his a nd o ther l eft i n t he f urnace o vernight.

1 2.

I t i s c lear f rom s everal t exts t hat t he p rovision o f s ufficient f uel t o f eed t he f urnaces w as a c onstant p reoccupation t o t he m int a uthorities. C harcoal a nd a cacia w ood w ere t he m ost f avoured . T he o btaining o f w ood b y s enior m inistry o fficials g ave e vidence o f i ncompetence a nd d ishonesty . S ee a l-Nabulusi, t rans. O wen , p .72-3.

1 3.

a l-Makhzumi,

1 4 .

T he d irham w araq w as a ' silver ' c oin o f a bout t wo p arts c opper o ne p art s ilver, m ade f or l ocal c irculation .

1 5.

a l-Makhzumi,

1 6.

a l-Maqrizi,

1 7.

a l-Nabulusi,

t rans.

t rans. t rans. t rans.

C ahen ,

C ahen , S .

t hat

m etal

w as

o ften

p .338.

p .338.

d e S acy ,

O wen ,

p assages,

p .75.

3 6

T rait6,

p .59.

t o

S ELECT B IBLIOGRAPHY I .

Contemporary

Egyptian

t ranslations,

( . ‘ 2 )

a l-Makhzumi, Written

i n

writers,

with

European

editions,

e tc. ' Ali b . 1 170,

' Uthman ,

r evised

K itab a l-minhaj f i

by

a uthor

' u m k haraj M isr .

c .1186.

S urvives

a s

a n

unpublished m anuscript i n t he B ritish Museum , a nd u sed a s t he basis f or a rticles by C . C ahen i n Journal o f t he E conomic a nd S ocial H istory o f p p.217-314. w ith a u

t he Orient,

T he

s ection

a nnotations,

V I e/ XII e

by

s iècle

( b)

M iles,

I bn Mammati, A .S.

A tiya,

t he author's a dministration .

()

a l-Nabulusi, e d .

C .

C ahen ,

D .K .

a l-As'ad b .

Written c .1200 a s

p p.139-59

' La l e

a nd

f rappe

M inhaj

K ouymjian ,

d es

was

m onnaies

K itab

S tudies 1 974,

q awanin

1 964,

t ranslated ,

d 'al-Makhzumi'

B eirut,

a l-Khatir,

a nd 2 44-78;

m inting

I conography a nd H istory :

e d .

C airo,

( 1962), c oinage

d 'aprds

E astern Numismatics G eorge C .

C .

o n

e n

E gypte

i n

Near

i n H onor

o f

p p.335-38. a l-dawawin,

e d .

1 943. a t ribute

t o

t he

S ultan a nd f or

t he

successors i n t he d epartments N o t ranslation known .

' Uthman b .

I brahim ,

K itab L uma'

g uidance

of

o f

f inancial

a l-qawanin a l-mudiyya

B ecker a nd C . C ahen i n B ulletin d 'Etudes Orientales,

X VI

( 1958-60). A

s emi-official

r eport

o n

t he

f inancial

d epartments

o f

s tate

written c .1236. a l-Nabulusi, a s enior o fficial who h ad b een d ismissed a s a r esult o f c harges l aid by h is p olitical e nemies, wrote this t reatise t o vindicate himself and s eek his r ei nstatement. N ot a d ispassionate a ccount! T ranslated by C . C ahen , ' Quelques a spects d e l ' administration d gyptienne m ddidvale vus p ar un d e s es

f onctionnaires'

i n

B ulletin d e l a f acult6 d es

L ettres, ( Univ . d e S trasbourg), 2 6e a nnde ( 1948) p p.97-118. M ost o f t he r eferences t o t he M int a re c ontained i n c hapter I V o f t he w ork , which i s s eparately t ranslated by C .A . Owen , ' Scandal i n t he E gyptian T reasury ', i n Journal o f N ear E astern S tudies, X IV , ( 1955), ( d)

p p.70-80.

I bn B a 'ra,

M ansur a l-Dhahabi

a l-Kamili,

K itab k ashf a l-asrar a l-

i lmiyya b i-dar a ldarb a l-Misriyya, e d . A . F ahmi, C airo, 1 966. A f actual a ccount, w ritten c .1230-38, o f t he m ethods o f a ssaying, r efining a nd m inting by o ne w ho had h eld a s enior p osition i n t he C airo m int. e mploy o f

H is n ame t ells u s t hat h e was a g oldsmith,

t he

S ultan a l-Kamil.

" On t he Unveiling o f t he

T he p romise

s ecrets

o f m ethods

i mplicit i n t he

a nd i n t he

i n t he

t itle

E gyptian m int"

i s n ot wholly borne o ut f or m odern r eaders, s ince t he t ext i s nowhere s traightf &rward, and i n places a lmost i mpenetrable. S elected passages a re t ranslated by A . S . E hrenkreutz i n ' Extracts f rom t he T echnical M anual o f t he Ayyubid m int i n C airo' i n Bulletin ( 1953),

o f

t he

p p.423-27;

' Contributions E gypt

i n

t he

t o

S chool a nd t he

M iddle

o f t he

Oriental t ext

knowledge Ages'

H is r eferences a re t o t he i n t he E gyptian L ibrary .

i n t hen

3 7

i s o f

a nd t he

t he

B .S.O .A .S. s till

African

basis f iscal XVI

f or

S tudies,

a dministration ( 1954),

unpublished

X V,

E hrenkreutz's

s ole

o f

p p.502-14. m anuscript

( t )

a l-Maqrizi, v ols,

Ahmad b .

C airo,

a l-Karmali

1 853-4;

i n

' Ali,

K itab a l-mawatiz w al-iitibar

a l-Nuqud

a l-'Arabiyya,

C airo,

1 939.

o n

c oins.

f rom t he f ormer, musulmanes,

T he

l atter,

t ogether

w ith

w ere t ranslated by S .de S acy,

P aris,

1 797.

T his

e d .

T he

t hese i s a l arge-scale w ork o n t he h istory o f E gypt, t reatise

( Khitat)

S hudhur a l-'uqud f i d hikr a l-nuqud,

2

A .

M .

f irst

o f

t he s econd a

r elated

e xtracts

T raitä d es m onnoies

i nvaluable c ompendium was r eprinted

i n m odern t imes i n G . S almon , S ylvestre d e S acy , C airo, 1 905, p p.11-63, b eing B ibliothäque d es Arabisants Franvais, T ome I . a lMaqrizi ( d . 1 442) w as w riting a bout t wo c enturies l ater t han t he f our a uthors whose w orks

a re

a re

h is

i nvaluable,

r emarks

t hat

' he

a nd

o f

had

m ore

l isted

i n a - d .

t reatise

r eliable

o n

B ut h is

c oins

i deas

o n

d e

h istories

S acy

m onetary

j ustly

p rinciples

t han many writers o f o ur t ime'. I I E uropean w orks B ALOG,

P .

T he

C oinage

o f

t he

Ayyubids,

L ondon ,

1 980.

L ists

a nd

d escribes s everal t housand c oins m inted i n E gypt. R ABIE,

T OLL ,

H .

C .

T he

F inancial

S ystem A

o f

d etailed

Egypt

1 972.

a ffairs,

w ith a v ery f ull b ibliography.

' Minting T echnique Orientalia

S uecana,

a ccount

G .

o f

a ccording t o A rabic 1 9-20,

( 1970-71),

s ome p roblems o f t echnical t erms W IET,

AH 5 64-741 / AD 1 169-1341,

L ondon ,

f iscal

a nd

l iterary

m onetary

s ources',

p p.125-37.

i n

T ackles

i n I bn B a 'ra.

' Hötel d e l a M onnaie' i n M ämoires d e d 'Archeologique Orientale d u C aire, v ol.

l 'Institut Francais L II, ( 1930), p p.183-

4 . T he E ncyclopaedia of I slam , n ew Mal, D ar a lDarb, D iwan , e tc.

e dition ,

3 8

L eiden,

1 960-

s .v .

B ayt

a l-

M int O rganization i n I taly b etween t he T welfth a nd F ourteenth C enturies: a S urvey L ucia T ravaini, I talian

m ints

makes

q uite

l imited t o t he t welfth u p

t o

a

t he

R ome

l arge

s ubject

e ven

f ourteenth c entury,

f or

but

a

s urvey

I w ill

t ry

t o

g ive a g eneral v iew o f I talian m int o rganization a t t hat t ime. We

have

d etailed

d irect

s ources

a bout

t he

d ivision o f l abour i n t he m int i n B ologna i n 1 200, m ints

a t

l ater

d ates,

but w e

m ay

a ssume

t hat

o rganization

a g ood

o rganization

e stablished e arlier i n o ther m ints s uch a s P avia a nd M ilan , a nd M essina f rom t he t ime o f t he m onetary r eform o f 1 140. S ince r oyal,

t here

w ere

i mperial,

t he s ituation , c haracterietics

many

f eudal,

m ints

o f

e piscopal)

w ith s ome a nd g iving

d ifferent

I w ill

a nd

a nd i n s everal o ther

c haracter

p resent

w as

o r P alermo

( communal,

a g eneral

v iew

o f

e xamples, t rying t o i dentify t he major a s hort a ccount f or e ach c ategory o f m int

p ersonnel.' F irst,

h owever,

I n eed

t o

s ay

a f ew

w ords

a bout

t he

number

o f

t hese I talian m ints a nd a bout t he s ources I u sed . I talian m ints numerous.

W e

i n

have

t he

s ome

p eriod

t hat

I a m

g ood m onographs

o n

u p-to-date g eneral w orks o n I talian m ints, T he

m ost

c omplete

w orks

a re

s till

c oncerned s ingle

w ith

m ints,

t heir a ctivity,

a g eneral

w ere

but

v ery

w e

l a0 (

a nd s o o n .'

s urvey

o f

1 901

b y

S alvioll 3 , a nd t he C orpus Nummorum I talicorum b y K ing V ittorio E manuele I II, who was p recious .4 I ndeed ,

t ruly

a d edicated

while

I was

s cholar,

t rying

t o

n umber o f I talian m ints

a ctive

r ealized

h imself had

t hat

t he

K ing

a nd

f ind

whose

a way

f rom t he X Ith a lready

t o

t o

w ork

s how

i s

i n

s till

v ery

a g raph

t he

t he X IVth c enturies,

d one

t he

w ork

t hat

I

I w as

g oing t o d o. I n

f act,

C orpus,

t he

o n

t he

K ing

basis

c ompiled

o f

t he

m aterial

a number

o f

c ollected

d iagrams,

t o

d ated

p repare 1 919,

p ublished until n ow . T hese g raphs w ere g enerously d onated t o I talian S tate i n 1 973 by h is s on Umberto t o b e k ept t ogether w ith K ing 's c ollection ,

a nd a re n ow c onserved i n R ome

t he

n ever t he t he

i n t he Museo N azionale

R omano. T he a ctive

g raph

f rom

l imited

t o by

a s

i ndicates

1 919, m ints

w ell

I talians

a ctive i n F rance L evant, f rom t he s hows

F ig.1 t o

I talian

c onsidering, s truck

a t

1 001

a s

i n

( shown t he

a broad :

t he

s teps b y

c oins s o

t hat

g eneral

o f l ine

5 0

2 );

s truck t he

t rend

y ears. t he

i n

o f T he

K ing ,

I talian g raph i n

m ints i s

n ot

f act,

w as

I taly,

a lso

t he

c oins

s hows

a lso

t he

m ints

g raph

( Savoie a nd C omtat V enaissin , l ine 3 ), a nd C rusaders t o t he r ecent c olonies ( line 4 ).

i n t he L ine 1

t he t otal number o f m ints. L imiting m y s urvey

t o

I talian t erritory,

3 9

w e

c an s ee

t hat

t he K ing

F igure

2

Mint organization i n I taly between XIIth and XIVth c enturies:

D tm

ib )"p la

AA o s t4

A

I re c h iv a 54 0 . T

. ,t 1 m er ce IN

A 5t rA 3 a luzz oI r ' t em i t ia

A lg a

V e iden A ße reveo

( )M i lano El esc iJ o ALo s i i

A Ä4

" I b rT ona

IC . ;v id Ai o r iz ia

17

\ l ictA 123 A

A z e s sfu i vi a iw ij A A c remou/ Hay it ou L

XiSc e d pi

1 7l cef _

et a . \ \

) 9 nezia a c io v i

o oE d .e r i A aF tr r ar . . P arm 1 a xte m

l u i

ÄG er a

CO Xto

C omo

N o 2 v ar a

' I w it .n :3 0

a survey

h e na

A B o lo3 na

_ S av o r w s L ucca 0

P C sa A

K av enna

14 m 2 A

a no

F i renze

Vo lik .rr a

, n , Arta2o S ie .„ a

Cort ona

P e r( j 2 L3

M a ssa / I .

3

C a rn e r , „

A sw e . r c

a rv id oi m r ic nt zl l

as c

-

3 \ n ' tz l

A L ic iTue i [ dani° Z 1% , , ard i

5 U 1 rf lon a

41

r e le

r ecorded

o nly

7 m ints

a t

t he

b eginning

o f

t he

X Ith

c entury,

a nd

1 1

m ints i n t he f irst half o f t he X IIth c entury . B ut w e f ind 2 0 m ints i n t he s econd h alf o f t he s ame c entury ( an i ncrease o f m ore t han 8 0%), a nd 4 6 m ints

i n a bout 1 250

T hese

f igures

( an i ncrease o f 1 30%).

s hould b e

a djusted

s lightly

i n

s tudies, but, o ver a ll, t hey a re s till valid . basis, w ith s ome variations, I a lso c ompiled t he f rom t he

1 130

t o

1 400,

a t

n orth

o f

I taly

c ompared

F ig .2.

t he number o f m ints w as

a t

I t

s hows

w ith

t he

t he

h ow n umerous

s outh.

i ts m aximum ,

l ight

o f r ecent

E ssentially o n t hat map o f I talian m ints t he

m ints

N evertheless,

I s uppose

a re

i n

e ven w hen

t hat o ver

t wo-thirds

o f t he t otal o utput c ame f rom o nly o ne-third o f t he m ints. After

c onsidering

b riefly

p eriod w e a re e xamining , s ources u sed . T hey a re a nd

d iscontinuous.

s cattered

i n

t he

number

o f

I talian

m ints

i n

t he

I must g ive a s hort a ccount o f t he d ocumentary numerous a nd r ich, but t hey a re a lso v arious

M ost

o f

t hem w ere

p eriodicals

o r

i n

published b efore

c ollections

o f

1 910,

d ocuments.

a nd

S ome

5

a re g ood

e xceptions a re t he m ore r ecent s tudies o n t he m ints o f P isa by H erlihy a nd V iolante, F lorence by B ernocchi, G enoa by F elloni, a nd V enezia by B uenger R obbert. 6 I

d o

n ot

p retend

t hat

my

s tudy

i s

c omplete:

t he

s ample

o f

d ocuments I i nspected i s a ctually just a s ample, but I t hink t hat i t i s q uite a r epresentative o ne, b ecause i t i s s cattered i n t ime, a nd w ell d istributed

t hroughout

I taly.

I t

c onsists

o f

s everal

m int f armers, s ome i nventories o f e quipment, o aths c hapters o f s tatutes r elated t o t he m int, a nd s o o n .

o f

F or t he p eriod p rior t o t hat under i nvestigation ,

i ndentures m int

o f

o fficers,

w e may n ote t hat

i n t he X Ith c entury i n t he n orth t here w ere o nly a f ew i mportant m ints, namely P avia, number

o f

M ilan ,

V erona,

d ocuments

o rganized

i n

f or

V enezia

t he

privileged

a nd L ucca .

m oneyers

o f

c or4orations,

W e

P avia

which

h ave

a nd

q uite

M ilan

have

been

a g ood

who

w ere

a ccurately

s tudied by L opez a nd V iolante.' I n a nd

t he

t he

i nformation F rederick S icilian m int, t he

o n

t here

P alermo

i s

o rganization

o f

t here

m int

m int

i n

S o,

n ever

t he

s tarted b e

b e

u sed

i n

c onquered n orthern I taly, e ncouraged b y t he

f act

i n t heir t erritories I n t he n orth,

l anguage:

a ctivity u sed

b efore

t he

w hen

t he

c ame f rom

I taly

t race

t he

t he u se

t hat

1 200s i n

o f z ecca

t he k ings

i n t he n orth,

t he

s teps

b y

4 2

t he

I talian

t he

w ord

f or f rom

a nd m oneyers

8

X IIIth which

w hich w e T he

f ind

w ord

c entury, t he

n orth was

f or i nstance C uneo

o f

o f

c hanged

m int

o nwards.

i n t he

m uch

t ime

A pparently,

p ower

s ame

o f S icily a lso

t he o ld t erm m oneta s eems

Amalfi,

have

s ikka.

t he L atin s icla, t he

n ot

r epercussion

f rom t he A rabic

i ts

n orthern t o

l inguistic

S alerno,

d o

when t hey c aptured P alermo.

d ocuments

i nteresting

a

N ormans

f rom t he A rabic'sikka, t o

W e

s outhern m ints

I talian

t he

n amely

P alermo.

b e

s topped

r ulers:

s outhern I talian

w ould

m ay

which c omes

which t hey f ound i n 1 072,

a ll

f ew m ints,

o f

z ecca,

t o N orman

a lso

m int

but

A rabic

w ere

A rabic

t he

I I,

t oday,

I slamic

s outh,

i mportant

w ord

i n

t hen

a nd

i t

z ecca

a pparently

f armed s gme m ints i n 1 307.'

t o l ast l onger i n o fficial

d ocuments

t han

l anguage

i n u nofficial

s eems

t o p revail

w ord had b ecome m int,

where

t he b etter

o ne

T his

t o

t he

n ew w ord

may b e

i dentify

f rom

t he

s poken

t hat

t he

A rabic

a s ign

t he

t echnical

m eaning

o f

a

a s a n e stablishment. T here i s o nly a s mall

h ad

o nes,

s ooner.

a d ifferent

n ame:

l inguistic

i n

t he

i sland i n T uscany,

X IIIth

a nd

X IVth

where t he m int

c enturies,

i n

S iena,

A rezzo a nd s ometimes V olterra, t he m int w as c alled b olgano, which p robably c omes f rom t he w ord b ulga ( Latin : l eather bag); t here m ight b e a lso s ome c onnection w i 0 b olzone o r buglione f urther i nvestigation . T wo

d ocuments

( bullion),

but t his n eeds

l u

o f

V olterra

o f

1 321

a nd

1 323

s how

a m ixed

u se

o f

t erms: t he f armers p romised n ot t o t ake p art i n a liquam m onetam s ive z eccham . T he l anguage i s i n f ormation a nd a pparently t he u se o f d ifferent

t erms

i nvolved ; i s

s o,

called

m ay

b e

d epending

i n B ologna, z echa,

T ornaquincis,

i s

i n

while

t he t he

o n

t he

i ndenture

f armer,

t he

c alled b ulgano v el

but h er

t he m int f armer a nd n ot t o t he m int i tself. s tarting

p oint

o f

my

o f

o f

n ext

t he

1 269,

F lorentine

c onductore m onete:

a re u sed t ogether i n t his d ocument,

T he

p rovenance

f armer 's

p eople

t he

m int

B itto

t he

t hree

d e

t erms

b ulgano i s o nly r elated t o I 1

c onsiderations

i s

t he

y ear

1 140,

when w e s ee, i n t he n orth, t he b eginning o f t he c reation o f n ew m in , l ike G enoa, which o pened i n a bout 1 139, f ollowed by o ther c ities ", a nd ,

i n t he

s outh,

t he

i mportant

m onetary

r eform p romoted by R oger

I I

i n t he K ingdom o f S icily. W e

d o

n ot h ave

numismatic e vidence, o f

t he

m ints

f or

w ritten

s ources

t he

n ew

i nage.

v ery s trongly c entralized . f or

t he

whole

r elating

k ingdom ,

I n

I n

t he

f act,

r eform ,

w hich w ere

P alermo

w ere

t he

o rganization

o nly

a nd M essina, T he

t wo

o n w as

main m ints

which p roduced

m inor m ints

T he

1 4

n ame

o f

t he

m int

i s

w ritten

t here a re a f ew c ases o f hybrid c oins,

o f

S alerno

o n b oth

s ides

c onsequence o f a c onfusion o f d ies, m ints w ere c entrally c ut,

o f

t hese

t hat b ear o n o ne s ide t he

n ame o f P alermo a nd o n t he o ther s ide t he n ame o f M essina:

m ints

but,

f amous S icilian g old t an i w ere s truck i n b oth P alermo a nd a t t he s ame g old a nd w eight s tandards, a nd i n t he s ame

q uantity. c oins;

t his

s outh

t here

c oins f or b oth S icily a nd s outhern I taly . a nd Amalfi had o nly a l ocal i mportance. T he M essina,

t o

w e m ay a ssume a f ew a spects a bout t he o rganization

t his was

a nd i t m ay p rove t hat d ies

a nd t hen d istributed .

t he

f or b oth

1 5

While t he g old w as p roduced by b oth P alermo a nd M essina, t he t wo s pecialized , P alermo f or t he s ilver, a nd M essina f or c opper. 16 T he main c haracteristics o f t he n ew s ilver a nd c opper c oins o f t he

r eform

o f

1 140

a re

t heir

t he

a lignment,

which i s a lways r egular.

O n t hat

t his

c oncave

B yzantine

l egends),

basis,

B yzantine

o ne

s hape

m ay

c raftsmen

o f

a ssume,

w ere

s tyle

t he

a s

c alled

( often

m ajor

P rofessor t o

m ixed

G rierson

o rganize

t he

p roduction a nd t he s triking w ith a r egular d ie a lignment.

4 3

w ith

d enominations,

1 7

d ie

s uggested ,

n ew .

Arabic

a nd

c oncave

T hese n ew

c raftsmen t here,

m ay

w ell

b ecause,

have

i n

b een

o rder

t o

a dded

e nact

t o

t he

s uch

m oneyers

a r eform ,

n ecessary t o i ncrease t he number o f w orkmen . t he w ord z ecca, which s pread n orth l ater, a t

a lready

i t

w ould

w orking

have

b een

And w e may a ssume t hat t his t ime r eferred t o a

m int where A rabic a nd B yzantine e xperience h ad m elted t ogether. Whilst i n t he s outh w e s ee i n t he n orth t he w e n ote

e mperor was

t his c entral o rganization o f t he m ints,

r elinquishing h is

r ights

t he c reation o f many n ew i ndependent m ints,

t ransformation o f i mperial m ints T he

c reation

o f

m any

n ew

o n t he m int,

a nd

e pd t he p rogressive

i nto c ommunal o nes. ' m ints

i n

c ities

w ithin

a s mall

a rea,

n ecessarily l ed q uite s oon t o m onetary l eagues a mong d ifferent c ities, t o h elp t rade a nd e xchange. E ven t hough i t i s d ifficult t o s ay i f t hey w ere

a ctually

s uccessful,

o rganizational

t hese

c ooperation .

m onetary

I n

s ome

a greements

c ases

t here

d id

l ead

w ere

t o

s ome

e xchanges

o f

c raftsmen , a s b etween C remona a nd B rescia i n 1 183, w hen t he c onsuls C remona s ent t o B rescia o ne o f t heir m int m asters a nd o ne w orkman ,

o f t o

ensure

of

t hat

t he

c oins

p roduced

were

t he

s ame

a s

t hose

C remona:...item c onvenit...quod d abunt m agistrum m onetae, q ui s e a stringat s acramento s ibi e t c onsulibus Brixiae f aciendi m onetam s uam , s icut s unt a stricti

i lli,

q ui f aciunt monetam C remonae;

o vrarium s imiliter c onsulipms Brixiae, m onetam hominibus Brixiae. I n

1 254

P iacenza ,

c oins,

i n

c ities,

P avia a nd T ortona,

a greed

e t q uod d abunt u num

d ocebit,

e t

o stendet f acere

1'

s even n orthern

P arma,

q ui

q uantities;

a nd ,

n amely

C remona,

B ergamo,

undertook t o m ake a mong

t he

o ther

t he

B rescia,

s ame

c lauses,

t ype

t hey

o f

a lso

d etermined t he m aximum s alary t o b e g iven t o t heir w orkmen : ..quod n ulla praefatarum c ivitatum , s ive c ommune n ec a liquis m agister m onetae, n ec s uperstans p er s e, m ittat a liquo modo, c ui overeri m onetae, d e grossis,

n ec p er i nterpositam p ersonam d et,

v el

u ltra q uatuor

q uam d e p arvis...item ,

i mperiale 1 R q ualibet v el m inus.

i ngenio q uod d ici,

v el

nec d are per -

e xcogitari possit,

a li-

i mperiales d e q ualibet m archa,

t am

q uod n on d etur m onetariis u ltra u num

m archa d e grossis,

e t d e p arvis

d uos m edianos,

L u

T he p osition a nd c onditions d istinguished

i n

t he

t wo

o f m int w orkmen ,

g roups

o f

o perarii

which w ere

a nd

g enerally

m onetarii,

varied

c onsiderably f rom m int t o m int. R egarding t heir p rivileges,

w e may n ote a g reat d ifference b etween

i mperial a nd r oyal m ints o n o ne s ide, I n t he e arly 1 200s w ere

t he

p rerogative

a nd c ommunal m ints o n t he o ther.

t he p rivileges, o f

i mperial

i mmunities a nd e xemptions,

m ints

l ike

e xtended t o t he m oneyers o f t he k ingdow o f a b o mnibus e xaccionibus e t c ollectis.

L 1

P avia

S icily, I n

1 346

a nd

M ilan ,

t hat w ere

w ho b ecame i mmunes Queen

Johanna

of

N aples c onfirmed t he p rivileges a nd i mmunities c oncessis i am d udum s icl ariis Brundisii

e t M essane n ecnon e t f orma privilegii

p tura

p er

o stensi...

q uondam Fredericum

i n p ublica s cri-

o h m R omanorum

i mperatorem ...

s int i mmunes e t e xempte a b o mnibus d acis e t c ollectis a tque s erviciis q uodque d e n ulla c ausa t am c ivili q uam c riminali c oram a liquo j udice s eu

C urie

n ostre

o ff i ahi

t eneantur

s iclarum n ostrarum

4 4

r espondere

n isi

c oram

m agistris

T he s ame p rivileges w ere d ocument which,

c onfirmed

a fter r epeating

i n 1 401 b y K ing L adislaus

t he p revious

i n a

c harter by K ing R obert

o f

1 326, a dds t he l ist o f t he p ersonnel o f t he m int o f N aples a t t hat m oment: n omina v ero e t c ognomina prefatorum i nfrascriptorum m agistrorum s icle

prefate a c

a ffilatorum o perariorum e t m inistrorum a ctu s ervien-

t ium i n s icla e adem s unt h ec v idelicet ( from

S iena

s ummator , c uneorum ,

and

F lorence),

( the n ames

4 factores

f ollow):

d ictorum

t wo m agistri

magistrorum,

o ne

o ne notarius c redencerius, o ne m agister m onete, t wo i ncisores 1 7 a ffilatores ( trimmers), 1 5 c usores ( for s triking), 2 5

m alleatores,

u brierii e t o perarii a c m inistri d icte s icle.

T ogether w ith

e xemptions

m oneyers had t he p rivilege p rovost a nd t he m asters o f s uch a s,

f rom

a nd

m ilitary

o f b eing j usticiable t he m int, e xcept f or

f or i nstance h omicidii,

I n t he n orth,

t axation

2 3

s ervice,

t he

o nly b efore t heir o wn c ases o f m ajor c rimes

f alse m onete e t f urti.

2 4

t hese p rivileges w ere g radually e roded w ith t he r ise

o f t he c ommunes. I n o ur d ocuments c hange f rom a v ery p rivileged c lass,

i t i s p ossible t o s ee t he s low i nto a c lass o f s imple c raftsmen ,

e ntirely d ependent o n c ommunal o fficers. H eredity f ace t he

o f

t he

s eems

t o

p ressure

have

o f

b een

t he

c ommunal

i ncreased d emand f or w orkmen ,

t o t he 1 202

l east

d ue

t o

i ncreased l evel o f p roduction .

i n P avia,

t utors

o f

h ard t o

e nduring

i nstitutions, t he

S o,

number

f or

p rivilege

e specially

o f n ew m ints,

e xample,

w e

where m oneyers had p rivileges by a ncient

t wo

m inors,

w ho

w ere

r etain t heir r ight

d escendents

t o name

s ee

t hat

t radition ,

o f

m oneyers,

i n

t he

a d eputy

i n

b ecause

m int

had

t o

until

t he o f a nd i n t he

f ight

t he

e nd

o f t heir m inority ( habere f acultatem ...faciendi l aborare a d i psam m onet am i n l iterandi d enariis a liquam personam pro e is). 25 I n a d raft o f c ontract o f t he m int o f R eggio w orkmen ,

m ostly

r enounce

t heir

r espect g ive

t he

a s um

f rom

r ight

o ther o f

t o

g oing

o n

b e

c lauses

c aution

d ocumented i n s everal w ithout

M ilan ,

C remona,

j udged b y

P arma,

a s pecial

( renuntiando

a ppointed

o ther m ints),

m oreover,

a ny

o ther

w orkman

i n

i n 1 233,

P iacenza,

c ourt

privilegio

w hen

s trike,

m oney

E milia,

a nd

i f

t hey

f ori); t he

had

t hey

m int

( as

t hey p romised t o

c alled by

t he

d id

t he t o n ot

had

t o

i t

i s

a ccept,

m aster,

a nd

t he p ossible e xpulsion o f o ne o f t hem ( Promissione q uod pro a liquo o per ario..quem ...vos d omini v elletis r ecipere a d d ictam m onetam ..non d esinemus n ec d imitemus o perari e t l aborare). 26

o perandam

T here w ere d ifferent r ules r elated t o t he m obility o f w orkmen f rom m int t o m int,

f or e xample,

i n

F lorence a nd P isa t he m int was r eserved o nly f or t heir o wn c itizens,

i n

o ther

a nd t o t heir a ccess

mt27n ts

t here

t o t he m ints.

w ere ,w orkmen

f rom

While,

d ifferent

c ities

a nd

c orpor-

a tions. W e

may

e xamine

t he

d ifferent

c ases

o f

S iena

a nd

F lorence,

which

b oth e xercised a v ery s trong c ontrol o n t he m int a nd had v ery s evere r ules f or t heir p ersonnel. I n 1 262, S iena p rohibited a ll m int w orkmen f rom having a ny s ort o f a ssociation :

..statuimus q uod q uicumque f uerit

v el

i n

e st

d esubtus,

l aborator n on

a ppostamentum

v el

m onetator

b ulgano

s enensi,

d esuper

p ossit n ec d ebeat f acere a liquod b reve v el s tatuta d e

f acto

b ulgani v el

4 5

m onetandi...et

e go

e t v el

p otestas...

f aciam

r u ni

e t

c assari

e t a bsolvi

o mnia

o rdinamenta

i psorum

e t

i uramenta. ' T hey

a lso

L ombards,

w ere

who w ere

e t L ombardos,

c ompelled a mong

t o

f rom

p romise

S iena

d ominos

a ccept

f oreign w orkmen ,

q ualified :

t o

a nd

S i f uerint b oni l ook

f or

F lorence:

t he

..et

d enda,

L "

e t l egales...

b est

c raftsmen ,

( the

p articularly

..et p ermittam f oretanos

q ui b ene s ciant l aborare d e m oneta

i n b ulgano c omunis, h ad

t o

t he b est

p odesta)

s tare e t e sse

T he

m int

e specially

t enear

b ulgani e t i n e orum b revi a pponi f aciam:

m asters

e ngravers,

f acere

h abere

i urare

m eliores

e t

u tiliores l aboratores, prout u nquam i nveniri p oterunt v el h aben iS enis v el F lorentie, e t s pecialiter i ntalliatores e t i wmiatores, a d h oc, u t m oneta S enensis p ulcra e t b ene f acta i nveniatur .

J u

B ut a t t he s ame t ime, t he c ommune o f S iena warned a ll i ts c itizens a gainst t aking p art o r w orking i n o ther m ints: q uod p otestas t eneatur c ompellere e t c ompelli f acere o mnes c ives S enenses e t d e i urisdictione S enensi q uod n ullus t eneat n ec p artem h abeat i n a liquo b ulgano T uscie v el s ocietate b ulgani;

e t q uod n on f aciat i bi

l aborari,

v el d e i n e o

a uxilium v el f avorem q uod l aborerium a licuius m onete i bi f iat. F lorence moneyers had

a lso a pplied s trict r egulations, but a t l east i ts a s ort o f a ssociation, t hough i t was not a r eal

c orporation . m int

I t

masters

c hanged

was

c ould

g enerally

o nly

a p rofessional

c hoose e very

t he

s ix

w orkmen

a ssociation

t hey

m onths.

n eeded ,

B esides

t his,

b lacksmith,

s pecial

i ts

o wn

p ermission

e xpense,

S i

a liquis

o riundus,

f rom

t he

p roviding h im ,

p rovost;

e sset

s uch a s t hose o f

o n

t he

o ther

hand ,

i f

a

t he a ssociation w ould h elp h im a t

v ery k indly ,

i n o ther w ords,

m oneterius

b e

i ndividual

C onstitutum a rtis monetariorum c ivitatis t o l eave F lorence t o w ork i n a nother m int

f oreign m oneyer c ame a sking f or h elp, t o g o back h ome:

t he

t o

a nd s o o n .

A ccording t o t his F lorentie, n o m oneyer was w ithout

which h ad

t he

w orkmen w ere r egistered i n various o the3 ; c orporations, t he g oldsmiths,

f rom who

w ith

t he

m oney n ecessary

t hey e xcluded a ll f oreign w orkmen ( ...

e xtraneus,

s eu

e xtra

d istrictum

F lorentie

v eniret...prepositus d ebeat i psum h onorifice r ecipere...et s i

i n

n ecessitate

d ebeat i psum providere i n

t aq a

s eu

d e

t anta

m oneta q uod p ossit c ommode a d p atriam s uam r emeare). -" A lso m onete

t he

s tatutes

o f V olterra,

r ecipiatu s alarium . T he

j

C onstitutum o f T he

t he

1 310,

l aboratores q uod

e t

n ullus

e t o mnium ,

g eneral

F lorentine

i mpression i s

t hey s hould n ot w ork

d ied ;

t hey

c olleagues,

t heir

o rdained

d ontaining a ll

s hould

n ot

p roduced by a c olleague, i ll

c urerii,

f abricatores

a lius

a nd

t o

e xtraneus

r efuse

m inuere

J" '

f ollowed . t hem

t he

1 316,

.nisi c onsensu prepositi

d ocument o f a bout m anners:

o f

i n

o wn

a nd

i nterest,

o n

m oneyers

i s

t he

a nd r egulations

r ules

e ach

f estivals,

o ther,

n or c ommit b lasphemy;

g ive

a lms;

r efusing

but a ny

a cceptance o f n ew m embers.

4 6

i nteresting t o b e

t hat o f a n e xcellent c ode o f g ood

r eligious

o ffend

a v ery

t hey c ut

a lso

o f

n or

n or

when

c riticize

o ne

t he

o f

w ork

t hey s hould h elp p oor o r t ried

p ay,

a nd

t o

t ake

c are

c ontrolling

o f t he

B ut

a ll

pay was s trikes

t his

e xodus t owards s uccess a broad c onsider

t hat

may

b een

have

m oneyers, h ome. 37

t he

w e

s ee

e nough

t o

p rotect

t heir

p rofession .

d ominus

t he

B rindisi

B ittus d icta

o btained

e xample

i s

t o

m int

e t

e ius

f acienda

t o

c all

t o

m ints

t hey

t he d id

f armers

t he

o f whatever

s ocii

i n

1 351

w orkmen

c lause

N aples:

..quod,

d e Brundisio a d

f armers

u bi

o f

m int

t hose

c ontingat

e t

e orum

t he

i f

a t

p ossit

a d

o f

r equiri

l aborem d icte s icle a c

e t non v enirent, q uod c abellotus i dem p ossit e t d ebeat a lios e t monetarios e xpertos i n t alibus q uarumcumque t errarum noticia

which

o perarios

a broad ,

a t

a s

( ...

v oluerint

t he

f rom

have

o rigin ,

h abere

u ndecumque

a broad ,

F lorentine

n ot

a ctually a F lorentine

f rom N aples:

m ove

e t m onetariis

o f

a nd m oneyers

B ulganos

f armed

M oreover,

p rivileges

f armer w as

m oneta

w ho

t hem .

i ndentures

a uthorization

r efused

o perariis

m any

m ercha gs

a ppoint

have

w hen t he

monetarios pro v oluntatem). 38 One m ore

t o

T heir

a bout s ome s tarted a n

f ind t hem a ll o ver I taly. T heir t o t heir s kill. B ut w e m ay a lso

F lorentine

m ay

i n

W e d ue

a ppoint w orkmen

B ologna i n 1 269,

c laimed

m any

d isposed

t hem t o

d ictus

n ot

o ther m ints. was c ertainly

a broad ,

S o, a llows

w as

v ery p oor a nd t bey h ad n o p rivileges; w e a lso know a nd r ebellions. 35 A s a c onsequence o f t his, t here

e vocari

o perarios s int c um

e t c onsientia predictorum d ominorum m agistrorum r acionalium a d

l aborem d icte s icle o rdinare,

privilegiis e g i ndultis i psis Brundusinis

proinde f actis non o bstantibus q uoquomodo. m oneyers

o f

t he

m int

o f

B rindisi,

w ith

T his o lder

s uggests

a nd

m ore

t raditions a nd p rivileges, c ould n ot b e e nticed t o t he k ing had g ranted s pecial p rivileges t o t hose N aples;

t his

s hows

t he

w eakness

m oneyers a nd t he f Armers, r oyal p rivileges.

who

o f

t he

C rown

t hat

t he

e stablished

N aples, e ven when who d id m ove t o

t owards

b oth

t he

r oyal

i n p ractice o btained t he a nnulment o f t he

4 u

T here w ould e xamine n ow t he

b e a l ot m ore s pecializations

t o s ay o n t he s ubject, but I w ill o f t he various c ategories o f m int

w orkmen, which p „ re a ccurately d efined i n many d ocuments f rom t he e arly 1 200s o nwards. 4i T here w e f ind a c lear d escription o f t he d ivision o f l abour

t hrough

a ll

t he

p hases

o f

m int

o perations,

r ich n omenclature, f ar b eyond t he d isti Ntion monetarii t hat w e f ind i n n orthern E urope. '

w ith

b etween

a n

e xtremely

o perarii

a nd

I n R eggio E milia i n 1 233 a n i ndenture m entions t he p resence o f : o perariorum , monetariorum, t aliatorum, s aziatorum, i nblanchi orum , f onditorum,

a finatorum ,

f abricatorum e t a liorum m ercenariorum .'4

F irst we have t he, fonditores, f usores, o r a lligatores, f or s melting. T he s melters f or t he g old i n F lorence w ere c alled a ffinatori 4 4 o r r imettitori. F rom d ocuments o f B ologna f or

t he

p oured

bullion

t he

n ecessarios s uas i psi

m etal; pro

c oinage N apoli:

t hey q uod

i n 1 200 u sed

a nd N aples

s moothed

C uria

i n 1 351 w e know t hat

s tones

t eneatur

e t

o nto

which

d ebeat

f aciendis p arvis d enariis d evehi f acere

a d

t hey

l apides e xpensas

d e Brundusio v el a lio l oco i n q uo r eperiantur e t a ssignari f acere c abelloto pro e xercicio d icte c abelle

4 7

( cabella

here

means

t he

m int,

d ist a iguished f rom s icla,

which m eant m ore p recisely t he h ouse o f

t he m int)."" T hen

w e

h ave

t he

t aliatores,

who

c ut

o peration i n F lorence i n 1 353 t he _ inventory s hears ( paria c esoiarum m agnarum). 46 T hen b lanks; o f

t he

a lso

1 353

o perarii,

o vrieri

c alled m alleatores

r ecords

f or

t heir

o r

l aborantes,

i n N aples.

b lanks; t wo

who

T he

4 7

T capsone,

w ork :

r ough r ecords

f or

p airs

t his

o f

b ig

f lattened

F lorentine

2 hammers

t he

i nventory

( martellus),

1

t assum fractum ( chopping b lock ? ). " T hen ,

t he

a ffilatores,

c orrect w eight, a lso

who

m ade

t he

b lanks

c ircular

a nd

by t rimming t hem a fter having a nnealed t hem ;

c alled amendatores

o r

a ddirizzatores;

P egolotti

s o

o f

t he

t hey w ere

d escribes

t he

d ifferent o perations: g li , uvrieri c he l avorano e d irizzano e r endono i f iedoni f atti e r icotti e r ibianchiti. 49 T he F loren q _ne i nventory o f 1 353 r ecords T he c arefully

f or t his o peration 1 8 p airs o f s cissors.

m etal

S iena o f 1 262 o f

t he

l eft

o ver

c ollected .

m int

a fter

F or

r ecommends

t o

( spazzaturam

t he

t his

t rimming

r eason ,

t he

m int

b ulgani

o f

v el

t he

a c hapter

o fficers

t o

f ornacum).

5'

b lanks

o f

t he

c ontrol I n

5 1

t o

b e

s tatutes

h ad

o f

t he

s weeping

N aples

i n

1 351

t he m int f armer had t he r ight t o a sk a r epayment f rom t he t rimmers w hen t hey wasted s ome m etal: i tem s i c ontingat i nfra d ictum t enpus e xerciis ( sic) s ui a ffilatores d evastare a liquam a rgenti e t e n s q uantitatem i n a ffilando

i n

prejudicium

d icti

t eneantur r esarcire d anpuum d anpnificatus f uerit. 52

c abelloti

i n

q uo

T hen t here w ere t he i mblanchitores, o r

t artar°.

f eccia):

P egolotti

5 3

t artaro s i

d escribes

q uod

a ffilatores

propterea

d ictus

f or b lanching,

i t

é gromma d i b otte c he

a s

w ine

s i f a

d i

At t he e nd w e have t he monetarii, c alled c uniatores o r c usores ( Naples) S ometimes e xample,

w e f or

know t he

t he

w ere t hree t russels i n

p roportion

c arlini f or

v ino,

o ne p ile,

o f

( pari c ungnorum)

t russels

i n N aples

b y

a nd

p iles I i n

c ost:

m ore

w orkmen w ere

f or t here

e t

q uod o mnes

t here w ere a lso:

c hief o f t he f urnace?), ( toppo i n I talian m eans

a ppointed :

t he

n ames

o f

4 8

a ll

t he

1 f errarius, 2 d eputati a d s tump — c hopping b lock?), 2

s taff was n ot e nough,

a re r ecorded , b oth o fficers a nd w orkmen a mong t hem , a m inistrator c arbonum . 58

b esides

2 d uctores m anticorum

t errea a d o pus d icte s icle

t he m int

q uodlibet

5 7

I n t he m int o f N aples u nder K ing R obert o f Anjou ,

but

l a

a d r acionem d e 56to rsellis t ribus pro q ualibet — e t grana x iii. I n P isa i n 1 318 a s et o f

v arious w orkmen m entioned a bove,

o ver 1 3 c arbonerii;

u sed ; 1 278

m emoria

XXXVI,

c onsisted o f o ne p ile a nd t wo t russels:

d eputati a d f aciendum v asa

I talian

5 4

C harles

a nd w e know t heir

p ar i ntelligatur p ila u na e t d uo p untelli.

( for b ellows, o r f aciendum t oppos

( in

e q uando

w ho s truck t he c oins, a lso o r affioratores ( Pisa). 55

q ualibet d ucena p ilarum n ecessarii s unt t orselli

r edacti s unt d ucena u na, p ila v alentes t arenos d ies

s truck

who u sed gromma

d regs

b otte a t enuto m igliore v ino t anto é m igliore t artaro.

i psi

c abellotus

m ore

t han

w ith

t heir

( potters), s o

t hat

a hundred

and

i n 1 326 p eople

s pecialization ;

F rom a c hapter o f p otestas p romised p er m onetam, f aciam

e t

e ar n

t he s tatutes o f S iena i n 1 262 w e know t hat t he t otum m ensem F ebruarii i ncipiam f acere c udi

c udi f aciam i n

i urare d ominos b ulgani

c ippos c udi,

A ll a mount

t ermino a d d uos

s ine a mmissione i llud f acient;

whether t he t erm c ippos r efers g enerally, w orkshops.

t oto m eo

t o

s ome

c ippos;

q uod s i v iderint q uod p ossit i t

i s

a d

d ifficult

t o

t o s ome k ind o f c hopping b lock ,

d ivision o f

t he

m int

i nto

t wo,

o r

e t

p lures o r,

s ay m ore

e ventually m ore,

5 9

t he

c raftsmen m entioned

m inted ,

w ith

s ometimes

a bove

w ere

p aid

a d ifference

i n p roportion

b etween

o perarii,

t o

t he

p aid

b y

t he w eight o f m etal w orked , a nd m onetarii, p aid by t he number o f p ieces s truck . 50 A ll o ther c ategories o f m int p ersonnel had a f ixed s alary. Engravers

were

c uneorum ;

t hey w ere

t hey w ere

a lso

1 286.

k eepers

F lorentine

6 1

i nstance

called v ery o f

t he

W hen t he t ribune,

i ncisores

o fficers

d ies

e ngravers

i n S iena i n 1 262.

R ome i n master,

i ntagliatores,

i mportant

i n

( custodes

w ere

t he

o r

m int

c uneorum)

p articularly

s culptores

a nd a s

s ometimes

i n

r equested

P isa

a broad ,

i n f or

6 2

C ola d i R ienzo,

w anted t o s tart a n ew c oinage

i n

t he m id-fourteenth c entury, h e a sked F lorence f or a m int an a ssayer and an engraver ( zeccherium peritum e t

i nstructum

a ssaggiatorem

c onsuetum

e t

e xpertum

e t

c udis

forme

s cultorem). 63 B ut i t i s q uite s urprising t o s ee t hat i n t he s ame y ears t he F lorentine m int i tself h ad s erious p roblems w ith t he e ngraver: t hough t here s hould h ave b een t wo e ngravers, i n 1 332 t here was o nly o ne i n c harge, a nd h e w as o ld a nd n early b lind , s o t hat t he c oins w ere bad a nd

f ull

o f m istakes.

An

a pprentice

w as

a ppointed

t o

l earn

t he

a rt,

but e ven t en y ears l ater, w hen C ola d i R ienzo made h is r equest, F lorentine m int had o nly o ne e ngraver. 64 A F lorentine was a lso g oldsmith c harged o f d ie e ngraving i n t he m int o f V olterra i n 1 322. W e

have

i mportant

c arlini

i ntroduced

N aples,

o pened

o n

d ata

i n

1 278

t hat

o n by

o ccasion ;

t hat w ere s ent t o h im i n R ome; w ere

n ot

c lear

c ircuitum

i n

u triusque

s culpture d ebent;

a nd

s eu

s o,

t he

t oo

t he

l ictere

i psorum

K

d ies

t he

k arolenses U t

i psos

u niforme

h ead

o f

t he

f or

n ew

c hecked

e tiam

p osite

b esides

n ew d ies,

t he

m int

t he

o f

p roofs

p er

s ecundum

t hat

i stum m odum

r eddantur,

m int

g irum

propter t he

s eu

b revitatem l egibilis

u t

c oins w ere

t o

s o t hat t he h ead o f t he f igures o n o ne t he c oat o f a rms o n t he o ther s ide: i ta

predictis c apitis predicti s cuti jt p edes p edes e iusdem s cuti r espöndeant. 6 t he

t he

i n

i mpressionis n on s unt c lare e t d istincte

f aciatis

A t

o f

Anjou

k ing h imself

r elief:

p artis

b e s truck w ith a ligned d ies ( 0°) s ide c oincided w ith t he t op o f c etero

I o f

6 5

h e d id n ot l ike t hem b ecause t he l etters

l ow

t he k ing o rdered ,

v olumus...ut

p reparation

C harles

t he t he

t here

e arumdem

w ere

e t f ormam

q uod

t he

c udi

c apita

i maginum p unte

m int

d e

i maginum

m asters

a nd

s eu

t he

w ardens. T he

masters,

c abelloti m erchants m ore

c alled

i n N aples, o r bankers

y ears,

o r who

g enerally

m agistri

o r

c onductores f armed

a fter

t he

t he

d omini

i n m int

f or

d eposit

o f

4 9

m onetae,

B ologna,

w ere

a nd

a p eriod

o f

a

s um

l arge

s ometimes

u sually o ne o f

p rivate t o

5 o r

c aution

m oney , o ften w ith t he h elp o f s everal p artners. W e h ave m any e xamples o f c ontracts o r d rafts a nd i t i s d ifficult t o s ummarize t hem : t he i mpression I g et i s t hat t here m ay b e a r eat d ifference a mong t hem i n t he g eneral t erms a nd c onditions. °7 S ome c ontracts s how g reat o pportunities f or t he m aster, e specially w hen h e i s a lso a m oneyl ender o f t he s tate, o r w hen t he s tate i s a k ing o r a b ishop. T reviso i n 1 317 t he f armer w as a d yer, w ho a lso k ept t he e xchange ; a fter a f ire i n t he m int, h e c laimed t hat t he h ouse o f t he m int s hould b e r estored b y t he c ommune, w ith m oney l ent b y h imself , t hus o btaining a n o bvious d ouble i nterest i n t he p rocess. " I n t he m ajor c ommunal m ints t here w as n ot t he s ame o pportunity f or a f armer t o m ake s uch p rofits. m int s trictly , i t m ay n ot h ave

T hus, w hen t he s tate c ontrolled t he b een p rofitable t o f arm . A pparently ,

t his w as s ometimes t he c ase a t B ologna , w here i n 1 289 t he w as v acant, s ince n obody a nswered t o t he p ublic a uction . "

m astership

A c hapter o f t he s tatutes o f P arma o f t he X IIIth c entury o rdered q uod m assarius d ebeat a d p ensionem l ocare d omum m onete, q uando m oneta n on f it, f acta prius p reconiatione i ta u t p lus o fferenti d etur . 71 S ome c ontracts b ear a v ery c onvenient c lause f or t he f armers, a ccording t o which t here w as t o b e a c omplete r epayment i n c ase o f d amage c aused by w ars, r evolutions, r iots o r r obbery : V ercelli 1 255, p ro g uerris e t o ccasionibus; B ologna 1 269, s i c ivitas Bononie esset i n a 7liquo r umore, q uod D eus a vertat(!)...commune d ebeat e i s atisfacere ... 2 T hanks t o t his c lause ( si g uerra g eneralis v el s pecialis n ovitas s eu b riga f ieret i n R egno s eu i ncursur m alandrinorum „,) i n N aples i n 1 351 t he F lorentine f armers c laimed a n e normous s um i n r ggayment, a nd i t w as d ifficult t o f ind a n a greement b etween t he p arties. " A c lause w hich i s o ften r epeated i n c ontracts, i s t he p ossibility f or t he f armer t o r esign i f t he s upply o f b ullion c eased , a nd t his i s i mportant b ecause a ll m ints w orked w ith t he m etal b rought i n b y p rivate p ersons: C uneo 1 307: S i b ona f ide e t a bsque f raude d arent o pus e t o peram a d i nveniendum b ilionum n ec i lium p ossent a liquo m odo i nvenire, e x t unc i n a ntea n on p gisint n ec d ebeant a d o perandam d ictam m onetam c ompelli n ec m olestari. "4 T he f ormula r elating t o bullion s carcity b ecomes n early a r ule f rom a bout 1 300, a nd u sually i t g oes t ogether w ith t wo o ther d ispositions. T he f irst o ne g ives t o t he f armers a nd t heir s taff t he r ight t o t ransfer a ny k ind a nd q uantity o f bullion , s ilver, c oins o r f ragments t o t he m int, a nd g ive f ree a dmittance t o t he m int t o a ll t hose who b rought m etal t o make c oins; t he s econd d isposition , o n t he o ther h and , p rohibited a ny m ovement o f b ullion o utside t he t own : V ercelli 1 255, a liquod a rgentum v el b olzonum n on p ortetur n ec e xtrahatur d e V erc211is a liquo m odo v el i ngenio s ine l icentia v el p arabola p otestatis. 7 ' A v ery i nteresting d efinition o f bullion i s g iven b y P egolotti: b uglione e b olzonaglia v uol d ire o ro e a rgento i n p iastre o i n v erghe o i n v asellamenta r otte d 'argento, o i n m oneta d 'oro o d 'argento n on c orrenti n e' l uoghi; e q uesto s 'intende b uglione s iccome c osa r otta p er d isfare o p er f ondere; e l a b olzonaglia s i ä t anto a d ire c ome

5 0

m onete p iccole n on c orsibole i n q uelli l uoghi o ve s ono p er f ondere o p er d isfare. 76 S o, t he s tatutes o f S iena i n 1 262 o rdered t hat o mnes r ectores a rtium ...non p ortent a liquod a rgentum v q4 c ambium d e f oco, n ec c rudamen n ec t ascas c ambii a d a liud b ulganum ... " B ut e very t own h ad t he s ame r ules, t hus s uggesting a n a ctive c ompetition f or t he bullion s upply . I n

t he

kingdom

o f

Naples

t hese

r ules

w ere

v ery

s trict;

n evertheless i n 1 382 a F lorentine m erchant o btained t he p ermission t o e xport s ex m ilia l ibrarum d e v eteri e t u suali p ecunia g erardinorum s ive m onete p arve q ue o h m e xpendebatur ...queve m odo p rohibita e st e xpendi i n R egno. 7 1 6 T he r ules i n t he k ingdom a re d escribed b y P egolotti: v eramente n ä o ro n ä a riento i n b uglione n e n ulla m oneta c oniata n on u sa t rarre d el r egno s alvo l a m oneta d el r e...e n on s i u sa v endere i n N apoli a ltro c he a lla z ecca d ello r e, e s e a ltra p ersona l o c omperasse f uori d ella z ecca, q uello c otale c he l o c omperasse s arebbe a lla m ercb d el r e e d el m aestro d ella z ecca d i p erdere l 'argento c he c omperato a vessi. 79 I n S iena i n t he e arly f ourteenth c entury t he s carcity o f bullion w as s uch t hat t he c ommune i tself h ad t o p rovide t he m int o fficers w ith e nough m oney f rom t he p ublic t reasury t o b uy t he m etal f or s triking c oins: ..per c agione d el d efetto d e l a p ecunia, < la q uale é b isogno a vere p er c omprare l 'ariento> , d etta m oneta p ienamente b attare n on s ia p otuta i nfino a d o ra; e t p er q uesta c agione e l b olgano q uadagno n on e be i nfino a l p resente t empo, s tatuto e t o rdinato é c he l o c amarlengo e t i iii p roveditori d el C omune d i S iena, o v ero e l c amarlengo e t l i e ssecutori d e l a C abella, s ieno t enuti e t d ebiano p restare a l i s ignori e t c amarlengo d el b olgano, d e l a p ecunia e t a vere d el C omune d i S iena, p er l a d e Ua m oneta b attare, q uella q uantitä d e l a p ecunia, l a q uale b isognerä. " B esides t he m asters, t here g eneral s upervision o f t he m int.

w ere t he w ardens, c harged w ith t he T hey a re c alled u sually s uperstantes,

but a lso guardiani ( Volterra 1 316), l audatores ( Vercelli 1 255), a pprot Wores o r s ententiatores ( Florence), c ustode s eu c ognitore ( Cuneo 1 307). °1 T heir p osition v aries a ccording t o t he d ifferent r elationship b etween t he s tate a nd t he m int m asters. W hen t he m int m asters w ere p rivate f armers, t he w ardens w ere v ery h igh o fficers i n c harge o f t he i nterests o f t he s tate; o n t he o ther h and , i n c ases l ike t he m ints o f F lorence a nd V enice, w here t he m int m asters t hemselves w ere o fficers o f t he s tate, e lected f or a s hort p eriod , t he r ole o f t he w ardens a ppears t o b e l ess i mportant .b i 2 T he e ventuality o f d isagreements b etween m asters a nd w ardens i s t aken i nto c onsideration i n s ome c ontracts, a s i n B ologna i n 1 269: e t s i d icti s uperstantes, q ui e runt s uper d icta m oneta a pprobanda, w ent i n d iscordia c um d icto d omino B itto B ulgano, c onductore m onete ... ° ' A ccording t o t heir d uties i n t he d ifferent m ints, t he m asters o r t he w ardens, o r b oth , h ad t o r ecord i n v arious b ooks a ll t he m int 's o perations, w ith t he h elp o f v arious c lerks.

5 1

S ometimes t he q uantity o f b ooks t hat h ad t o b e k ept i s i mpressive. int m asters h ad t o w rite i n 1 1 b ooks f or I n N aples i n a bout 1 350 t b9 m I n t he A ragonese m int o f I glesias, i n e ach c ycle o f o peration . °" t here w ere 8 b ooks f or e ach c ycle o f S ardinia, i n a bout 1 325, ooks t here w ere t wo s eparate a nd o perations; o f t hese 8 b ditions: o ne b y t he m aster, a nd t he o ther b y t he c ontemporaneous e his p arallel r ecording w as a ctually a f orm o f m utual c lerk , s g t hat t 5 c ontrol. A n i mportant r ole i n t he m int w as h eld b y t he a ssayers, w ho w ere o fficers o ften c hosen f rom a mong s killed g oldsmiths. T hey w ere u sually c alled a ssaggiatori, o r m agistri probe ( Naples 1 383) o r o fficialis a d s aggiaplum 1 324).

s eu

p onderandum

e t s igillandum

f lorenos

a uri

( Florence

° °

S everal k ind o f c lerks, p aid w ith a f ixed s alary . 87

e specially

s cribani,

a re

r ecorded ,

a ll

F inally , Iw ould l ike t o s ay s omething o n t he building o ccupied b y t he m int. T he t opographical p osition o f t he m int-house i n a t own o ften c orresponds t o t he c haracter o f m int i nstitutions. S o, w e m ay n ote t hat i n S iena a nd F lorence t he m int, t hat w as under s trict p ublic c ontrol, w as e xactly i n t he a rea o f t he c ommunal p alace, w I t ilst i n o ther s ituations t he m int h ad t o b e a rranged i n p rivate h ouses. " A w hole r ange o f v arious s ituations c ould b e f ound , i nvestigating t he r ich d ata r elated t o t he buildings, f rom s ecurity s ystems, b ased o n c offins ( scrinea) w ith t wo o r e ven t hree k eys, w ater s upply a nd e quipment ( usually s upplied b y t he s tate), u p t o e veryday n eeds, f rom a prons f or t he w orkmen t o c urtains f or t he w indows. A ll t his i s j ust t he t ip o f a n i ceberg w hich f urther r esearch, t hat I a m g oing t o c ontinue.

d eserves

a l ot

o f

N OTES I w ish t o t hank N icholas M ayhew , f or t he i nvitation t o t his S ymposium w hich l et m e d iscover t his i nteresting a nd q uite n eglected s ubject; D r M ichael M etcalf , f or h is p recious s uggestions a nd h elp; D r S ilvana B albi d e C aro, f or h er c onstant e ncouragement t owards m y r esearch; M essrs S antamaria , f or g enerously p ermitting m e t he u se o f t heir l ibrary . M ore t hanks t o P rofessor C arlo M . C ipolla , f or h is k ind s uggestions a fter h aving r ead t he p roofs o f t his p aper. 1 .

F or t he s tructure o f t his p aper I a m v ery m uch i ndebted t o P eter S pufford , ' Mint o rganization i n t he B urgundian N etherlands i n t he f ifteenth c entury ', i n S tudies i n N umismatic M ethod presented t o P hilip Grierson, e ds. C .N. L. B rooke, B .H.I.H. S tewart, J .G. P ollard , T .R . V olk , C ambridge 1 983, p p.239-59. S ee a lso P . S pufford , ' The g eneral o fficers o f t he B urgundian m ints i n t he N etherlands i n t he f ifteenth c entury ', J aarbock v oor M unt-en P enningkunde, 6 5-66 ( 1978-79), p p.5-14. I a m a lso i ndebted t o N icholas M ayhew , w ho g enerously l et m e r ead h is c hapter o n t he E nglish R oyal M int w hile i n p reparation f or T he H istory o f t he

5 2

M int, 2 .

e d .

C .E.

C hallis,

C ambridge 1 988.

A b rief but valuable l ist o f I talian m ints i s i n U . K lein , 'Mü nzs tätten d er S tauferzeit ( etwa 1 140-1270) i n D eutschland und I talien ',

S chweizerisches N umismatische R undschau,

5 6

( 1977),

p p.

1 71-278; a s tudy o f t he i mperial m ints o f n orthern I taly i s i n A . H averkamp, H errschaftsformen d er Frühstäufer i n R eichsitalien, S tuttgart,

I I v ol.,

1 971,

L a m onetazione c omunale

p p.559-615;

i n I talia,

s ee

a lso F .

[ Archivio

d i

P anvini

S tato

Quaderni d ella S cuola d i P aleografia e A rchivistica, o ld

l ist

i s

m edioevali ( 1916), 3 .

i n e

E .

G necchi,

m oderne',

' Nuovo

R ivista

e lenco

d elle

I taliana

d i

R osati,

d i

V ],

B ologna, 1 963.

z ecche

N umismatica,

XXIX

p p.497-524.

G . S alvioli, ' Moneta ', E nciclopedia G iuridica I taliana, X , p art I II, M ilan 1 901, p p.16-128. S ee a lso C . M . C ipolla, L e a vventure d ella l ira, M ilano 1 958 ( 2nd , B ologna 1 975); U . T ucci, ' Le m onete i n I talia ', f or a r ich m oneta.I. P avia

S toria d 'Italia ( Einaudi), 5 , T urin b ibliography, C .M . C ipolla , S tudi

I m ovimenti

1 948.

G rierson,

F or

d ei

t he

Monnaies

c ambi

c oins

d u

o f

moyen

i n

I talia

t he

d al

p eriod ,

age,

1 973, p p.535-79; d i s toria d ella

s ecolo X III i n

F ribourg

s ocietä d ell'alto M edioevo o ccidentale, C entro I taliano d i S tudi s ull'Alto M edioevo, I I,

a l

g eneral, 1 976.

XV ,

s ee

F or

t echnical n otes o n I talian m ints, F . P anvini R osati, ' La m onetaria a ltomedievale', i n Artigianato e t ecnica

4 .

An

i taliane

P .

s ome

t ecnica n ella

XVIII S ettimana d el S poleto 1 970 ( 1971),

p p.713-44.

T he C orpus Nummorum I talicorum c onsists o f 2 0 v olumes, published b etween 1 910 a nd 1 943; t he c oins o f S icily a re s till unpublished a s w ell

a s

t he

r est o f t he K ing 's c ollection ,

r elating t o

i n t he L evant a nd t he c ollection o f w eights.

F or

c oinage

a s tory

o f

t he

K ing 's c ollection , n ow c onserved i n t he C oin C abinet o f t he Museo Nazionale Romano i n Rome, s ee V . D 'Incerti, ' La raccolta numismatica d el R e', i n R ivista I taliana d i Numismatica, LXXIII ( 1971),

pp.239-62.

S ee

a lso

L .

Travaini,

' La

s toria

d ella

c ollezione d i V ittorio E manuele I II n ei c artellini a utografi p osti s otto o gni m oneta ', i n C ollezione d i V ittorio Emanuele I II d i S avoia-La

z ecca

d i

F errara,

' Carte a utografe d i I II I l

d onate n el

B dN-Monografie,

i n

t he

p ress;

E ad .,

i nteresse numismatico d el R e V ittorio E manuele

1 973

d a Umberto

C orpus Nummorum I talicorum

I I e l a

a l

Museo

N azionale

C ollezione

c he n e

R omano', ä a lla

i n

b ase

( Atti d el I V C olloquio d ell'Accademia I taliana d i S tudi F ilatelici e Numismatici d i R eggio E milia, 1 9 A prile 1 986), i n t he p ress; E ad .,

' King V ictor

E mmanuel

I II

o f I taly:

h is

c ollection a nd h is

numismatic a ctivity t hrough his l etters and notes', ( 10th I nternational Numismatic C ongress, L ondon , S ept. 1 986). F or t he numismatic l ibrary o f t he K ing , d el

B anco

d i

numismatica

S icilia d el

r e

i n

V ittorio

C ircolo Numismatic° N apoletano, 5 .

Many

d ocuments

w ere

n ow k ept by t he F ondazione M ormino

P alermo,

p ublished

s ee

E manuele

R .

V olpes,

I II',

L IX-LX ( 1974-75), i n

t he

i mportant

numismatic s tudies o f t he e ighteenth c entury, D e

m onetis

I taliae

v ariorum i llustrium

5 3

i n

' La

b iblioteca

Bollettino

d el

p p.45-85. c ollections

n amely:

F .

o f

A rgelati,

v irorum d issertationes,

M ilan

1 750-1759

m onete

e

( 6

z ecche

d ocuments

v ols);

G .A .

d 'Italia,

published

i n

Z anetti,

B ologna

t he R ivista

w ill b e m entioned

i n t he

' Per una r accolta

d i

N uova

I taliana

f ollowing n otes.

d ocumenti

r accolta

1 775-1789

r elativi

( 5

d i

S ee a lle

Many

N umismatica a lso E . I ,

( RIN)

Martinori,

m onete',

M emorie d ell'Istituto I taliano d i N umismatica,

d elle

v ols).

i n A tti

1 913,

e

p p.103-24

( for p apal m ints). 6 .

P isa:

D .

T uscany, s ecolo,

H erlihy,

' Pisan

1 150-1250',

i n

c oinage

L e

a nd

z ecche

t he

m inori

h istory

f ino

a l

o f X IV

A tti d el T erzo C onvegno I nternazionale d el C entro I taliano

d i S tudi d i S toria e d 'Arte d i P istoia 1 967 a lso

m onetary t oscane

ANSMN ,

V I,

N ew Y ork

1 954,

( 1974),

p p.143-68);

C .

p p.169-92

V iolante,

( see

' Per

l a

s toria e conomica e s ociale d i P isa n el T recento: l a r iforma d ella z ecca d el 1 318', i n B ullettino d ell'Istituto S torico I taliano, L XVI,

( 1954),

p p.129-205;

R epubblica F iorentina, f iorino 1 300,

e i i

F lorence:

q uattrino.

B ologna

1 982,

M .

B ernocchi,

F lorence 1 974-78

a nd

L a

P .

politica

G inori

L e m onete

( 4 v ols);

C .M .

m onetaria

C onti

( ed .),

d ella

C ipolla ,

a F irenze

C onstitutum

I i n el

a rtis

m onetariorum c ivitatis F lorentiae, F lorence 1 939; G enoa: G . P esce, C . F elloni, L e m onete g enovesi, G enova 1 975; V enezia: L . B uenger R obbert, ' Reorganization o f t he V enetian c oinage by d oge E nrico D andolo', S peculum , 4 9 ( 1974), p p.48-60, a nd E ad ., ' The V enetian m oney

market',

p p.3-94;

G .

1 150

t o

B onfiglio

1 229,

i n

D osio

S tudi

( ed .),

I l

d ella z ecca d i V enezia ( 1358-1556), W insemann F alghera 1 ], w hich i s a

V eneziani, " Capitolar

X III

( 1971),

d alle

Broche"

P adova 1 984 [ Bibliotheca d ocument o f t he g reatest

i nterest f or m int o rganization ; s ee a lso t he i mportant w ork o f A lan S tahl i n t he p resent v olume. I w ould l ike t o m ention h ere a r ecent s tudy o n t he p apal n ineteenth c enturies: S .

m int o f R ome i n t he e ighteenth a nd Balbi d e C aro, L . L ondei, Moneta

P ontificia, R ome 1 984; a lthough i t i s r elated t o a much l ater p eriod , i t i s i mportant a s a r are o pportunity t o c ompare w ritten a nd numismatic e vidence i n a c omplete d ocumentation b oth f or t he a rchive s ources o n t he m int a nd f or t he c oinage t hat was p roduced . 7 .

S ee

R .S.

L opez,

m illennio

d i

' Continuitä

s toria

d elle

m eridionale',

i n S tudi

p p.74-117;

V iolante,

B ari

1 974,

C .

p p.51-87

i n o nore d i L a

( 1st

A .

S olmi,

d i

nel

m edioevo:

m onetieri

G ino L uzzatto,

un

n ell'Europa

I I,

M ilan 1 950,

s ocietä m ilanese nell'etä precomunale, e d .

" Honorantie c ivitatis P apie" d ocument).

e adattamento

a ssociazioni

1 953);

C .

B rühl,

,K öln-Wien 1 983

' L 'amministrazione

C .

V iolante,

D ie

( new e dition o f

f inanziaria

d el

t he

R egno

I talico n ell'alto m edioevo',

i n B ullettino d ella S ocietä P avese d i

S toria P atria,

p p.111-27;

' I

m onetieri

( 1907),

d el

( 1931),

S äcro

pp.295-310;

n ell'Italia XXXIII

XXXI,

U .

barbarica ,

( 1920),

R omano

Monneret I I,

L a

p p.169-232.

A .

I mpero d e

L uschin v on E bengreuth,

i n

I talia ',

Villard,

l egislazione

R ecent

i n

' La

R IN ,

m onetaria ',

s urveys

o n

XXI

monetazione

I talian

i n

R IN ,

e conomic

h istory i n t he p eriod f rom n inth t o t welfth c enturies ( and t o t he n ineteenth c entury) a re i n t he v olume E conomia n aturale, e conomia m onetaria, 6 ],

e ds.,

( Einaudi),

R .

R omano,

T urin

R utenburg,

1 983 J -M .

U .

T ucci,

( see, Martin ,

[ Storia

a mong

T oubert,

V .

T oubert,

L es s tructres d u L atium m ädiäval.

5 4

D .

d 'Italia,

o thers,

e ssays

A bulafia). L e

L atium

S ee

Annali, b y a lso

P . P .

m äridional

e t

l a

S abine

d u

I Xe

a l a

o f

P alermo

f in

d u

X IIe

s iacle,

R ome

e leventh

c entury

a nd

1 973,

I ,

p p. 5 51-624. 8 .

F or

t he

s mall

m int

S icilian

m ints,

i n

t he

i ndependent

o f

t he

c entral

t he

o ther

a uthority

o f

P alermo, s ee N . L owick, ' Un r ipostiglio d i m onete d 'oro i slamiche e n ormanne d a Agrigento', i n B ollettino d i Numismatica ( BdN), 6 -7, 1 986,

p p.145-166.

F or

S alernitan c oinage o f ( 1077-85)', i n P apers

S alerno

a nd

Amalfi:

P .

G rierson ,

' The

G isulf I I ( 1052-1077) a nd R obert G uiscard o f t he British S chool a t R ome, 2 4, 1 956,

p p.37-59; P . G rierson , ' La m onetazione a malfitana n ei s ecoli X I e X II', Atti del Primo Convegno I nternazionale, Amalfi 1 973, ( Salerno, I V);

1 977),

P .

p p.217-43

B alog,

C .

( now

Mancini,

i n

P .

L ater

P etrillo

Medieval S erafin,

Numismatics, L .

T ravaini,

' Nuovi c ontributi s ul c ontenuto a ureo e l a t ipologia d el t an ', A nnali 8 1), 9 .

d ell'Istituto I taliano d i N umismatica

( AIIN),

2 7-28

i n

( 1980-

p p.155-84.

A pparently,

o ne

o f

t he

o ldest

m entions

i s

( ...de d uabus p artibus r edditum M onterii ' Le m onete e l e z ecche d i V olterra, i n R IN ,

XXII

( 1909),

p .266;

P iemonte i nedite o r are, f ind

a lso

a gain

t he

t he

t erm

f or

M ontieri,

C uneo

T urin 1 852,

b olzano

t erm z echa.

( for

I w ish

a ttempt i n s tudying t he

s teps

s ee

n ote

o f t he

V olterra s ee

i n

A .

1 218

L isini,

B erignone e C asole',

D .

p .39.

which

t o

i n

c ece...):

P romis,

Monete

d el

I n V olterra i n 1 316 w e

s ee

b elow),

t hat

t his

but

i s

i n

o nly

1 321

a f irst

d erivation o f t he w ord z ecca

i nto i ts c ommon u se i n I talian l anguage, a nd t hat f urther r esearch w ill b e n eeded t o c heck i ts o rigins a nd h istory . 1 0.

D .

P romis,

n ote. ( L .

Monete

S iena:

Z dekauer

1 262,

( ed .),

M ilan

c omune

d i

1 897, f f.);

C amerarius

o f

z echa

i n

Deputazione p .301,

d i

a nd F .

p p.389-92. N aples,

( G.B. d el

S toria t he

u se

S iena

p .225

p .448).

I ,

S iena

r eceived

P atria

n .1);

' La

p er

l a

Romagna, i n

e

l a

d ella R egia ( 1895),

X I

( 1898),

f ourteenth

c entury

o f

s icla

1 316:

w here w e

X II

i n R IN ,

w ord

V olpe,

b olognese 3 s.,

t he

q uarta

( G.

e M emorie

' La z ecca d i B ologna ', t he

f rom

V olterra

m oneta

i n A tti

d el

1 903,

c ontingente,

S ee a lso B ologna,

S alvioni,

S avigny ',

d ell'anno

c ostituto

b ulgano c ivitatis Aretii 1 964,

p .25

b ulgani

s ee b elow .

1 1.

V olterra:

1 2.

F or

t he

e idem

1 863,

d omum

I l

MCCCIX-MCCCX , bishop

i n

d i

( ed .),

t he

c it.n .9,

Malaguzzi,

F or

n el

T orino

c omune

L isini

p arte

F lorence

1 269

d el

A .

pro

q ue f uerat

i taliana

S iena,

b ulgani...in

1 258:

C ommune

( Lisini 1 909,

t raduzione

c ostituto

Arezzo

m edievale,

b olzano f ind

I l

d i

c onios

v olgarizzato

t he

p ars d e moneta

R epubblica

b ulgani;

p p.153,160;

S iena

p .179,276

T oscana

d ella

d ominos

L isini, m ints

o f

1 909 c it.n .9, n orthern

p .454,461;

I taly,

s ee

B ologna:

P anvini

s ee n .10.

R osati,

c it.

n .2.

F or t he m int o f G enoa w e h ave t wo c ontracts o f m int f armers a lready i n 1 141 a nd 1 149 ( Pesce, F elloni, c it.n .6, p p.265-79). T he y ear

1 140

i s

o nly

a c onventional

c oincidence o f t he e vent o f o f n ew m ints i n t he n orth.

t he

5 5

m oment

r eform

i n

t hat

S icily,

I c hose a nd

t he

f or

t he

g rowth

1 3.

T he

o nly w ritten c ontemporary

c hronicler

F alco

m onetaria

d i

m eridionale

o f

s ource

B enevento:

Ruggero

I I

t ra X e X II

e

r elated

c f

l a

L .

t o

t he

c ircolazione

s ecolo',

r eform i s

T ravaini,

i n R IN ,

' La

m inuta

LXXXIII

t he

r iforma

i n

( 1981),

I talia p p.133-

5 3. 1 4.

L .

T ravaini,

( 1985),

' Two

h oards

p p.177-208;

P .

o f

S icilian

G rierson ,

N orman

A .W .

t an ',

O ddy,

S icilien d u m ilieu d u X Ie s i6cle a 1 278,

i n

NC ,

' Le

t itre

6 5

( 1974),

i n RN ,

d u

1 45 t ani

p p.123-

3 4. 1 5.

L . T ravaini, r ipostiglio d i M ontecassino e l a m onetazione a urea d ei n ormanni i n S icilia ', i n B ollettino d i N umismatica, 6 -7 ( 1986),

1 6.

T he

p p.167-198.

s pecialization

t hat,

where

t he

t he s ilver, T ravaini,

o f

t he

P .

' Le

monete

G rierson ,

' Pegged

h istory o f d ie 1 05,

w ith

m ints

i s

m ay

w ritten ,

a nd M essina o n t he c opper: a rgentee

B ollettino d i Numismatica, 1 7.

t wo

m int-name

6 -7

s ome

d ei

r evision

i n

a lways

o n

S erafin P etrillo,

L .

d i

S icilia',

i n

p p.97-126. d ies:

t heir

6 th s eries,

H .E.

o bserving P alermo

N ormanni

c oin

i n NC ,

a ssumed by i s

s ee P .

( 1986),

V enetian

a djustment ',

b e

t his

I ves

p lace

X II

( and

P .

i n

( 1952),

t he

p p.99-

G rierson),

T he

V enetian g old d ucat a nd i ts i mitations, ANSMN 1 28, N ew Y ork 1 954, p p.33-4. T he p ossibility o f a manual, a nd n ot m echanical, d ie adjustment T ravaini,

i s s uggested, f or t he c arlini of Naples, i n L . r ipostiglio d i O schiri', i n BdN , 1 ( 1983) p .60, a nd

E ad ., r ipostiglio d i M ontecassino', c it. n .15, o n t he m odel o f w hat s till happens i n a ll o ur o ffices, where a c lerk c an s tamp hundreds o f p apers i n t he u pright p osition , b ecause b ears o n t he t op a m ark i ndicating t he u pright s ide! 1 8.

S alvioli,

1 9.

Z anetti, c it. n .5, p p.123-5; f or t he ' The

c it.

o rigins

n .3,

o f

I V, p .411 n .274. T uscan l eague o f

t he

g rosso

2 0.

Z anetti,

2 1.

S ee a d ocument o f 1 278, I nnsbruck , f ineness, s iclis

a nd

X II

o f

F or o ther l eagues, a bout 1 230 s ee P . g old

( 1971-72)

c oinage

( also

i n

i n

S alvioli, G rierson , I taly ',

Later

i n

Medieval

p .423.

1 880,

I ,

i n A cta I mperil I nedita,

p .767;

i t

g ives

a lso

e d .

E .Winkelmann ,

i nformation

o n

t he

t he c ost f or a m ercator q ui f acit l aborari a urum s uum i n

( of

B rindisi' and M essina),

t he w eight

s tandards

u sed,

t he

c ost o f s melting a nd b lanching,

a nd t he p ay o f q uilibet o perarius

pro q uolibet m arclo d enariorum ,

a nd t he p ay o f q uilibet m onetarius

pro q ualibet 2 2.

s tamp

p p.53-66.

Numismaticky S bornik, Numismatics, X ), p .38. I V,

t he

G .

M .

N apoli

M onti, 1 928,

[ gaczia] Z ecche, p .14

d enariorum , m onete e

( this

B ollCircNumNapoletano,

b ook ( 1925)

p p.13-47).

5 6

q uam c udit e t m onetat i n s icla.

l egislazione

i s

c omposed

p p.33-56;

o f

monetaria

a ngioina,

4 a rticles

( 1927)

p p.7-22;

f rom

t he

( 1928)

2 3.

I bid .,

p p.49-51.

s ources A .

o n

F or

t he m ints

S ambon published

o f

edition,

t he

d ivision

o f

o f t he k ingdom i n

a bout

d ivided

i n

l abour

o f

1 920,

S icily

w ithout

c hapters,

s ee a re

t itle,

namely:

b elow . i n

t he

d ate

O ther w ork b y

a nd p lace

Normanni,

Svevi,

Angioini. 2 4.

T hus

i n

C uneo

i n

1 307

( Promis,

c orporations o f m oneyers 2 5.

G . B iscaro, i n R IN , X IX s ulla

c it.

s ee L opez,

n .9,

c it.

p p.37-42).

z ecca

F .

pavese',

Malaguzzi

( 1894), 2 7. 2 8.

t he

' Altri d ue d ocumenti s ulla z ecca pavese ( 1160-1202)', ( 1906), p p.429-36; I d ., ' Un d ocumento d el s ecolo X II i n

RIN,

XVIII

( 1905),

pp.277-83;

C iapessoni, ' Nuovi d ocumenti s ulla z ecca p avese', i n d ella S ocieta P avese d i S toria P atria, 1 907, p p.155-74. 2 6.

F or

n .7.

Valeri,

' La

z ecca

d i

R eggio

E milia ',

P .

B ollettino

i n

R IN ,

V II

p p.490-3.

F or F lorence s ee b elow . Z dekauer,

c it.

n .10,

P isa:

p .155;

V iolante,

t he

c it.

n .6,

p .140.

t erm d esuper e t d esubtus p robably

r efers t o s ome h ierarchic p osition o f t he m int p ersonnel. 2 9.

I bid .,

p .158.

3 0.

I bid .,

p .155.

3 1.

I bid .,

p .161 n .l.

3 2.

G inori C onti,

c it.

3 3.

G inori C onti,

p .19.

3 4.

L isini 1 909,

3 5.

B ernocchi,

3 6.

S ee

c it.

I II,

f or e xample

n .6,

n .9,

p .xi;

B ernocchi,

The

n .6,

I II,

p p.12-38.

p p.446-7.

p .29. t he

l ist

o f

n ames

1 401 w ith t wo T uscan m int f armers, 3 7.

c it.

F lorentine

moneyers

h ereditary s uccession ,

o f m int c it.

o btained

p ersonnel

i n N aples

i n

a bove n .23.

i n

1 372

the

privilege

o f

but a pparently i t was o nly a d emagogic a ct;

B ernocchi,

I II,

p .15.

3 8.

Malaguzzi,

c it.

n .10,

3 9.

M onti,

4 0.

F or t he p rivileges o f t he m oneyers o f B rindisi s ee a bove a nd n .21.

4 1.

A ll

c it.

m int

B ologna

n .22,

p .24.

o perations of

M alaguzzi,

1 209, c it.

p .389-95.

a re

an

n .10,

a ccurately

o ath

o f

p p.384-7;

e quipment o f t he y ear 1 200.

5 7

t he

d escribed

i n

s uperstantes

o n p .382

t here

i s

a of

d ocument t he

o f

mint;

a n i nventory o f

4 2.

S pufford ,

' Mint o rganization ',

4 3.

Malaguzzi Valeri,

4 4.

B ernocchi,

4 5.

M onti, c it. n .22, p .24. B ologna 1 200: t he i nventory r ecords t hat t res l apides a d f aciendas v irgas a rgen t eas w ere i n d omo f iliorum

c it.

S cannabicci p .383).

( Bernocchi, m int

o f

b anchi 1 959,

n .6,

i n

S ee

c it.

I II,

o perabatur F lorence,

moneta

1 353:

T hese

1 3

( Malaguzzi, p aria

s tones

( C.

a re

p art I ,

c it.

l apidum

a lso

T rasselli,

i n S icilia n el XV s ecolo,

d a

n .10, g ittare

m entioned

f or

t he

N ote p er l a s toria d el

Z ecche e monete,

P alermo,

p .121).

4 7.

S ee a bove a nd n .23.

4 8.

B ernocchi,

4 9.

F .

I II,

I II,

B alducci

C ambridge, 5 0.

B ernocchi,

5 1.

Z dekauer,

5 2.

M onti, Gromma, De

p .241.

p .488.

i n 1 460

B ernocchi,

gromma

n .1,

p .12.

p .41).

M essina

4 6.

5 3.

I II,

q ue

a lso

n .26,

c it.

p .41.

p .41.

P egolotti,

Mass., I II, c it.

c it.n . f or

L a

1 936,

Pratica

p p.83,

1 91;

d ella

M ercatura,

e d .

A .Evans,

1 59.

p .41. n .11,

n .22,

p .154. p .23.

i nstance,

( Bernocchi,

l a P irotechnia,

i n

I II,

F lorence

p .40).

V enice

1 558,

i n

1 353:

1 t inellus

T artaro

i n B iringuccio

p .133:

..nel

d a

t enere

Vannuccio,

b ianchimento o ltre

a l t artaro e s ale, p erchb m eglio b ianchischino, v i s i m ette a lq uanto l ume d i r occa... I n N aples i n 1 278, a mong t he e xpenses f or t he nova l ibris d e

d enariorum m oneta f acienda: pondere, q ue s unt d e n umero

l ibre

i n s ingulis c entum c entum L XXV , e st

n ecessarius medius t humbulus d e t artaro e t s exta p ars t humbuli s ale ( Acta I mperii, c it. n .21, p .765). F ecza ( Italian f eccia)

d e i s

m entioned i n t he m int o f M essina i n 1 460 f or t he p roduction o f p iccoli, whilst i n 1 466, f or t he p roduction o f g old r eali, w e f ind t he u se o f a lume a nd a ceto ( vinegar) ( Trasselli, c it. n .42, p p.148-58). 5 4. 5 5.

P egolotti, F or

p .380.

N aples

s ee

a bove.

P isa

( Violante,

c it.

n .6,

p .203):

a ffio-

r atores s ive c uditores. 5 6.

A cta Imperii,

5 7.

V iolante,

c it.

C .

V .

5 8.

P rota,

n apoletana.

p .765. n .6,

p .203.

M orelli, L a

' Documenti

p olitica

BolCircNumNapoletano,

p er

m onetaria

( 1923),

5 8

d i

p p.22-8

l a

s toria

C arlo ( it

i s

I II

d ella d i

numismatica

D urazzo',

a d ocument

o f

i n 1 383

w hich r eports a c harter o f 1 326). 5 9.

Z dekauer,

c it.

6 0.

F or t he p ay o f t he w orkmen o f B rindisi a nd M essina s ee a bove n .21. S ee S pufford ,

n .10,

p .157.

M int o rganization ,

6 1.

V iolante,

6 2.

A bove,

6 3.

C . S erafini, ' L ' autoritä p ontificia n eu e m onete d el S enato R omano ', i n A tti e M emorie d ell'Istituto I taliano d i N umismatica, I ,

c it.

n .6,

p .241.

p .177.

a nd n .30.

1 913,

p .138.

6 4 .

B ernocchi,

I II,

p p.8,25.

6 5.

L isini 1 909,

6 6.

S ambon , ' Angioini', c it. n .23, p p.146-7; T ravaini, ' Ripostiglio d i O schiri', c it. n .17, p .58. M any i nteresting d ocuments o n t he m int a re i n t he v arious v olumes o f t he c ollection I R egistri d ella

c it.

n .9,

p p.293,295,456,460.

C ancelleria A ngioina, ( ricostruiti d a R iccardo F ilangieri c on l a c ollaborazione d egli A rchivisti N apoletani) [ Testi e D ocumenti p ubblicati d all'Accademia P ontaniana ], N apoli - w ith v ery g ood i ndices. 6 7.

F or t he v arious t ypes o f c ontracts s ee S alvioli, c it. n .3, p p.1031 0. I t i s i mpossible t o l ist t hem h ere; a mong t hem s ee: B ologna a nd V olterra , a bove n .10; G enoa , n .12; N aples a nd B rindisi, M onti, c it. n .22; C uneo a nd V ercelli, P romis, c it . n .9, p p.37-50.

6 8.

S ometimes t he m int a nd e xchange w ere k ept i n t he s ame p lace, d id n ot i nvestigate t he s ubject .

6 9.

Q .

7 0.

S alvioni,

7 1.

P . I . 1 351:

7 2.

P romis,

7 3.

M onti,

7 4 .

P romis,

p .39.

7 5.

P romis,

p .50.

7 6.

P egolotti,

7 7.

Z dekauer,

7 8.

P rota ,

P erini,

L e m onete d i T reviso, c it.

n .10,

R overeto,

n .9,

p .49.

M alaguzzi,

p .20.

p .17. c it.

M orelli,

n .10, c it.

p p.64-7.

p p.302-8.

A ff6, L a z ecca e m oneta p armigiana, s icla s ubbastata ( Monti, c it. n .22, c it.

1 904,

but I

p .160. n .58,

p .21.

5 9

c it.

P arma 1 788, p .22).

n .10,

p .392.

p .33.

N aples

7 9.

P egolotti,

8 0.

L isini,

8 1.

D ocuments q uoted a bove.

8 2.

F or

p p.182-3.

c it.

t he

n .10,

w ardens

p p.180 e 3 13.

s ee

t he

s ame

d ocuments

q uoted

f or

V ery i nteresting i s t he o ath o f t he s uperstantes 1 209v , i n Malaguzzi, c it. n .10, p .384. 8 3.

Malaguzzi,

8 4.

M onti,

8 5.

S aggio d i l ona.

c it.

n .32,

1 323-1396,

e d .

G .

0 11a

F onti

e

S ussidi

C orona d e Aragon"

R epetto,

R ome

1 975

d i B arcel[ Ministero

P ubblicazioni d egli A rchivi d i

V III-Archivio

d i

S tato

d i

C agliari],

p p.107-17; s ee a lso C . G iorgioni M ercuriali, ' La z ecca politica monetaria', Appendix t o M . Tangheroni, La d ell'argento. I glesias N apoli 1 985, p p.405-441. 8 6.

P rota ,

8 7.

S iena 1 262:

8 8.

S iena :

o f

p .39.

p er i B eni C ulturali e Ambientali. S tato.

m asters.

B ologna

p .392.

F onti d ell'"Archivo d e l a

A nni

t he o f

M orelli,

c it.

Z dekauer,

d alle

o rigini

a lla

n .58,

p .24;

B ernocchi,

c it.

n .10,

p .155.

s ee L e B iccherne,

f ine

I II,

d el

e l a c ittä

M edioevo,

p p.9-10.

T avole d ipinte d elle m agistrature

s enesi

( secoli X III-XVIII), e d . L . B orgia, E . C arli, M .A . C eppari, N . M orandi, P . S inibaldi, C . Z arrilli, R oma, 1 984, p .4. F irenze: B ernocchi,

I II,

p p.2-5.

6 0

' The K ing 's P rofit ':

T rends

i n E nglish M int a nd M onetary

P olicy i n t he E leventh a nd T welfth C enturies P amela N ightingale, ' I t hat T his

have

s aid

o nce

f or

a ll

a nd

i t i s t he k ing 's p rofit t hat a ssertion i n t he D ialogue o f

i t

O xford

must

b e

understood

t hroughou t

i s s erved i n a ll t hese m atters.' t he Exchequer , was w ritten b etween

1 176 a nd 1 179 when H enry I I's T ealby o r C ross-and-Crosslets c oinage w as s till c urrent. I t i s E nglish m onetary a nd

a c omment which m inting s ystem

e xceptional

r oyal

d egree

o f

c ontrol

c ould have b een f rom t he t enth

which

m ade a bout c entury.

c haracterised

i t,

t he T he

a nd

i ts

e xploitation f or r oyal p rofit, a re t he k ey t o understanding m ost o f t he c hanges which t ook p lace i n m onetary p olicy a nd t he o rganisation o f t he m ints

i n t he e leventh a nd t welfth c enturies. W ere,

which

t hough,

u shered

P rofessor

a s

i n

W .L .

s ome

t he

c ommentators

Tealby

Warren ,

l ie

c oinage

b iographer

c laim , an

t he

r eforms

exception

o f

H enry

I I,

t o

o f

t his

was

1 158 rule?

s ummarising

D erek A llen 's c onclusions when h e w rote t hat t he r eforms o nly d rew a s mall f raction o f t he p rofits f rom c oining a nd e xchanging t o t he r oyal t reasury, a nd t hat i t was n ot until 1 180 t hat s atisfactory r oyal c ontrol was a pplied t o t he c oinage. I t was, h e judged , ' a makeshift, a u seful but c lumsy m easure whi l l s peaks

o f a g overnment n ot a s y et

a ble

t o undertake c entral c ontrol'. The

r eforms,

a ccession ,

a fter

c ontrol o f s ome

of

c ourse,

a l ong

c ame

p eriod

o f

within

c ivil

o f t he p rovincial m ints

h ad c irculated .

T he

m ain

f our

w ar

i n

years

which

H enry's

C rown

a nd i n which baronial

c hange which H enry made

t he r egular i ssues o f n ew t ypes c oinage s ince t he t enth c entury.

o f

t he

i n

1 158

l ost

c oinages

was

t o

e nd

which had c haracterised t he E nglish I n a ddition t here was a p rogressive

r eduction i n t he number o f m ints f rom t hirty i n 1 158 t o e leven i n 1 180. A lso

i n

1 158

t he

o ld

f amilies

o f

p rivileged

m oneyers

w ere

d ismissed ,

a lthough many o f t hem h ad p robably s erved t he m ints f or g enerations. T heir p lace w as t aken b y n ew m en . F inally t here was a n i ncrease i n t he w eight o f t he s terling p enny f rom c . I n v iew ,

1 180,

h owever,

p ointed c learly

f urther t o

t he

k ing i mported f oreign w orkers

1 .39g .

c hanges

w eaknesses

t o c .

w ere o f

1 .46g . 4"

m ade

t he

which,

e arlier

f rom N ormandy whom h e

i n

A llen 's

r eforms.

e mployed t o

T he s trike

t he n ew S hort-Cross c oinage. H e a lso p rovided t he c apital f or a n ew n etwork o f r oyal e xchanges i n t he m int-towns which w ere s upervised b y m en

e mployed

c hanges

was

by

t he

t hat

a s

C rown .

I n

r evenue f rom t he m ints h ad b ecome m ints

a nd

c ompared

o ccasional w ith

t he

A llen 's

a c onsequence t axation

p rofits

o f

m oneyers

t he

1 158

i nsignificant,

o f m oneyers

which

v iew

t he

f or

t he

t hese

C rown 's

b ecause t he f arming o f

b rought m ade

r eason

r eforms i n

b y

a t rivial

e xchanging

i ncome f oreign

s ilver f or E nglish c oin .5 T he r eforms o f 1 180 w ere t herefore i ntended t o o btain f or t he C rown t he p rofits o f e xchanging , a nd ' the m ain i ncome o f t he C rown w as t o b e e xchanging o f m oney , .6

d erived

n ot

f rom

t he

P rofessor W arren n aturally c oncluded f rom s urvey o f t he s ubject,

t hat t he r eforms o f 1 158

6 1

m aking,

t his,

t he

but

f rom

t he

a uthoritative

i llustrated t he C rown 's

w eakness r ather t han a c oinage m anaged f or t he k ing 's p rofit. I t i s m y c ontention , o n t he c ontrary, t hat t hey r eflect t he r ecovery o f t he C rown 's f ull a uthority o ver t he m ints a nd H enry I I's c onception o f h ow t hey c ould b est s erve h is f inancial i nterests i n t he m onetary c ircumstances o f t he t ime. T o u nderstand t his w e m ust s ee t he r eforms o f 1 158 w ithin t he c ontext o f t he C rown 's w hole m int, m onetary a nd f iscal p olicy d uring t he p receding c entury a nd a h alf . F irst, h owever, w e m ust c onsider t he q uestion o f t he C rown 's s upposed w eakness i n 1 158 w hich c ould h ave p revented i t f rom t aking c ontrol o f t he m ints. T his c onclusion s eems t o c onflict d irectly w ith t he f act t hat t he k ing w as a ble t o d ismiss a ll t he o ld m oneyers a nd t o f ine t hem , w ithout a ny a pparent o pposition o r p ublic c omment. 7 S ome o f t hese m en w ere v ery p rominent i n t heir c ommunities. F or e xample, T heoderic, t he s on o f D eorman , w ho b elonged t o a n i mportant f amily o f L ondon m oneyers a nd s truck c oins u p t o 1 158, h ad b een a j usticiar o f L ondon u eer S tephen a nd w as m arried t o a r elation o f t he E arl o f P embroke. ° O nly a k ing c ertain o f h is p ower a nd c onvinced o f h is p rofit w ould h ave t aken t he r isk o f a lienating s uch a m an , a nd o thers l ike h im , w hen t he l oyalty o f L ondoners w as a m atter o f i mportance t o t he C rown . F urthermore, P rofessor Warren 's o wn a ccount o f H enry 's a chievements i n t he f irst f our y ears o f h is r eign c onflicts w ith h is c onclusion t hat h e w as u nable t o r e-assert h is a uthority o ver t he m ints. W e s ee t hat H enry l ost n o t ime i n r estoring t he f ull a uthority o f t he C rown . T he b arons w ere d eprived o f t he c astles t hey h eld b y ' a b old a nd c hallenging m ove' w hich ' struck a t t he h eart o f b aronial c ontrol o f t he p rovinces' .9 T he C rown i nsisted o n t he r estoration o f i ts o wn p roperty , a nd a nyone w ho c ontinued t o e njoy i t d id s o b y r oyal f avour o n p recisely d efined t erms. I n 1 157 H enry w on h is f inal v ictory o ver t he b arons w hen h e d eprived H ugh B igod a nd W illiam o f B lois o f t heir c astles a nd o f t heir c ontrol o f E ast A nglia . ' Henry 's m asterful a ction ', c ommev s P rofessor W arren , ' is i ndicative o f t he d ominance h e h ad a chieved '.." " B y t he f ollowing y ear h e h ad a lso w on b ack f rom t he K ing o f S cotland t he c ounties o f C umberland, W estmorland a nd N orthumberland , a nd a fter a m ilitary w edition t o W ales h e a lso s ecured t he h omage o f t he W elsh p rinces. " I n c omparison w ith t hese a chievements t here c ould b e l ittle d ifficulty i n a sserting h is a uthority o ver t he m ints, a nd h is d ismissal o f t he o ld m oneyers s hows t hat h e w as i n h is w ay .

u nwilling

t o

a llow c ustom ,

s entiment

o r

' rights'

t o

s tand

T he m ost o bvious e xplanation , t herefore, f or t he r eforms o f 1 158 i s t hat t hey r eflect H enry I I's v iew o f h is f inancial i nterests a s h e s aw t hem i n t he c ircumstances o f t hat t ime, w hich m ight n ot h ave b een t he s ame a s t hose o f 1 180, o r t hose o f t he e leventh c entury. W hat H enry I I h ad i nherited , l argely i ntact, i f b attered b y t he c ivil w ar, w as a s ystem o f l ocal m ints a nd a b ody o f m oneyers w hich h ad b een c reated t o s erve a d ifferent m onetary a nd n umber o f l ocal m ints c reated b y E dgar 's

f iscal r eform

s ystem . T he l arge w as o nly j ustified

f inancially b y t he p olicy h e a lso i nitiated o f f requent r ecoinages c oupled w ith t he c omplex m anipulation o f t he w eight o f t he p enny . T here c an b e l ittle d oubt t hat i ts p urpose w as t o s erve r oyal p rofit, a nd t hat b y v arying t he w eight o f t he p enny t he m ints w ere b eing u sed

6 2

a s p art o f t he f iscal s ystem . S uch a s ystem d emanded t he c losest c ontrol a nd s upervision , a nd t o a dminister i t a b ody o f r oyal m oneyers h ad b een c reated w ho w ere p aid b y t he C rown a nd w ho c ould m ove a bout f rom m int t o m int a s t hey w ere n eeded . T here i s e vidence t hat s uch a b ody o f p rivileged r oyal m oneyers w as o rganised f rom c entres l ike L ondon a nd W inchester, a nd t hat t hey w ere c ontrolled b y h igh-ranking o fg cials o r m inistri, w ho w ere g ranted r oyal e states f or t heir s ervices. ' I n t he c ourse o f t he e leventh c entury t he m onetary s ystem t hey s erved was m odified by t he Danish and N orman c onquerors. T hey a bandoned t he v arying w eight-standard o f c oinage o f a s table w eight a nd f ineness, i ntegrate t he p ossessions. 13

t he p enny i n f avour o f a w hich m ade i t p ossible t o

E nglish m onetary s ystem w ith t hat o f t heir o versea W hen t his h appened , t he c oinage c eased t o h ave t he s ame

f iscal p urpose, a nd a lmost c ertainly t he C rown 's m ain p rofit w as d erived f rom t he e xaction o f a s tandard m inting f ee f rom e very p ound o f s ilver. T his m ade i t p ossible t o f arm o ut s ome m ints t o l ocal m oneyers o r t owns, b ut p robably m ost o f t he m ints w ere s till r un b y r oyal m oneyers 1 4 T he

c omposition o f

t he

l ate

S axon h oards

a lso

s uggests

t hat

f rom

t he r eign o f E dward t he C onfessor, m ost p robably f rom 1 051, i t w as n o l onger c ompulsory f or a ll c oins t o b e e xchanged f or n ew o nes w hen f resh t ypes w ere i ssued , a nd t herefore c oins o f m ore t han o ne t ype c irculated t ogether. 15 I t s eems l ikely t hat t he k ing r equired t hat h is d ues s hould b e p aid i n c oin o f t he l atest t ype, a s t he D ialogue t ells u s w as t he c ase i n t he t welfth c entury . T he o nly e xceptions t hen w ere t he t hree n orthern c ounties o f C umberland , W estmorland a nd N orthumpprland w hich h ad n o m ints a nd h ad t o g et t heir c oins w here t hey c ould . T he r equirement t hat r oyal d ues s hould b e p aid i n c oin o f t he l atest t ype w as p robably m eant t o p rotect t he C rown f rom r eceiving t hose p ayments w hich w ere c alculated a d n umerum , o r b y t ale, i n w orn c oins o f l ighter w eight, b ut i t a lso h ad t he e ffect o f d rawing m oney t o t he m ints. W hile t his w as t he C rown 's p olicy, i t w as n ecessary t o m aintain a g ood n umber o f l ocal m ints, but i f , a s t he h oards s uggest, i t w as n o l onger o bligatory f or a ll c oins t o b e e xchanged , t hen t hese m ints must h ave b ecome l ess p rofitable. T here w as a s triking r eduction i n t he n umber o f m oneyers a t f our o g the five major mints after 1051, which probably r eflects t his c hange. 1 7 I t i s a lso l ikely t hat t he a bolition o f t he h ergeld a ltered t he m inting p attern s ince t he m uch l arger n umber o f m oneyers a t L ondon b efore 1 051 p robably r eflected t he p ayments t o t he S candinavian m ercenaries w ho w ere s tationed t here. T he r eduction i n t he n umber o f m ints, t hough , b ecomes m ost o bvious i n t he r eign o f H enry I . A t l east s ixty-five m ints a re k nown t o h ave s truck t he C onqueror 's P axs t ype. 18 T hey w ere r educed t o f orty-six b y H enry I 's T ype X IV a nd e ven m ore r emarkably t o n ineteen i n h is s ucceeding T ype X V . 19 I t s eems t herefore t hat b y t he 1 130 's a n i mportant, i f i nvoluntary, c hange h ad t aken p lace i n t he C rown 's m inting p olicy . T here c an b e l ittle d oubt t hat i ts c ause, w hich a lso c ontributed t o t he m onetary c rises o f t he r eign , w as a n i ncreasing s hortage o f s ilver. I t i s l ikely t hat t his w as d ue t o t he e xhaustion o f t he s ilver m ines i n t he H arz m ountains, s ince i t a lso b ecomes

6 3

a pparent i n m ost o f t he c oinages o f n orthern E urope a t t his t ime. W e

c an

b e

c onfident

t hat

i t

w as

t his,

c oupled

w ith

t he

2 °

k ing 's

e xpenditure o f E nglish s ilver i n N ormandy , w hich e xplains t he m onetary c risis o f 1 124, w hen t he A nglo-Saxon C hronicle r ecords t hat t he c oinage b ecame s o b ad t hat a p ound w ould n ot b uy t welve p ennyworth o f g oods i n t he m arket. 21 T his w as o bviously a n e xaggerat42n , f or i t i s n ot s upported b y t he c ondition o f t he s urviving c oins, " a lthough i t m ay b e p artly e xplained b y t he h igh p rices o f f oodstuff f ollowing a d isastrous h arvest. 23 T he

k ing

n onetheless

s ought

s capegoats

i n

t he

m oneyers,

o r

m ore

l ikely t heir workmen, and i nflicted on t hem s avage punishment, a lthough , s ays t he C hronicle, ' many h onest m en e aid t hat a g reat . i n justice h ad b een d one i n e xecuting m any o f t hem ' 2 4 T he w ay i n w hich t his w as s tage-managed , w ith t he m aximum p ublicity , c ould h ave b een i ntended m erely a s a w arning t o t heir s uccessors, but i t i s p ossible t hat i t c oncealed a nother m otive. The D ialogue l inks w ith an a gricultural a nd m onetary c risis, l ike t hat o f 1 124, t he k ing 's d ecision t o a ttach t o t he f arms o f t he c ountiRg a n a dditional f ixed p ayment, a d s calem , o f s ixpence i n t he p ound . " T his i s t he f irst i ndication o f t he E xchequer 's l evying a n ew c entral t ax o n p ayments t o t he C rown , a nd i t c ould b e t hat H enry I u sed t he m onetary c risis o f 1 124 t o j ustify i t. T he P ipe R oll o f 1 130, t hough , s hows t hat b y t hat y ear p ayments b y t he s heriffs a d s calem h ad b een r eplaced b y p ayments a d p ensum , b y w eight, a nd i n s ome c ases b y p ayments i n a ssayed o r b lanched s ilver . P ayments f rom i ndividual m anors b y w eight, o r i n b lanched c oin a nd bullion , a re f airly c ommon i n D omesday B ook ,1 a nd a t l east o ne o f t he l atter d ates f rom t he C onfessor's r eign . '6 T here i s n othing t o s uggest, t hough , t hat t he c oin w as a ssayed c entrally , a nd i t i s l ikely t hat t he l ocal m ints p erformed t his t ask f or t he s heriff . 27 T he m anors c harged w ith b lanched p ayments a re s cattered t hroughout t he c ounties, a nd t here i s n o e vidence t hat t he s heriff h ad t o m ake b lanched p ayments f or t he f arm o f t he c ounty a s a w hole. T his i s p robably w hat t he a uthor o f t he D ialogue m eant b y h is o bviously w oneous s tatement t hat t here i s n o m ention i n D omesday o f b lanch f arm ."' A ccording

t o

t he

D ialogue

i t

w as

R oger

o f

S alisbury

w ho

a dvis 0

H enry I t o e xtend t he b lanching s ystem t o t he f arms o f t he c ounties, " a nd w e c an s ee f rom t he 1 130 P ipe R oll t hat t he C rown w as d educting a s hilling i n t he p ound f or b lanched p ayments, o r a llowances, t o t he s heriffs o ut o f t he E xchequer. " G rants o f b lanched p ayments s ubjects s eem t o h ave b een a t t he r ate o f o nly s ixpence i n t he p ound ."' T he 1 130 P ipe R oll a lso r eveals, i n R ound 's w ords, ' a t endency t o r educe a ll t he f erms t o ä " blanch" d enomination ; t hat i s t o s ay t hat t he b alance l eft o utstanding i s n ormally g iven i n " blanch" m oney , a nd a ccounted f or a ccordingly i n a s ubsequent y ear '. T he n ormal m ethod o f p aying i n m oney , t hough, w as a d p ensum , w ith o nly t he s heriffs o f L ondon a nd S taffordshire p aying i n t heir s ilver b lanched . 32 T he l ack o f a ny s urviving P ipe R olls b etween 1 130 a nd 1 156 m eans t hat w e h ave l ittle k nowledge o f t he C rown 's f inancial p olicy i n t his p eriod w hich o f c ourse i ncludes t he r eign o f S tephen a nd t he c ivil w ar .

6 4

B ut

i t

i s

c lear

f rom

t he

P ipe

R oll

o f

1 156

t hat

t he

C rown

w as

t hen

u niformly e nforcing t he p ayment o f b lanched m oney i nto t he E xchequer b y t he s heriffs w ith t he e xception o f 1 5e ven c ounties. B y 1 158 t hese e xceptions h ad b een r educed t o f ive, s o t hat i t w as c learly H enry I I's i ntention t o p rotect t he v alue o f h is r evenues fv sm t he s heriffs' f arms b y s ubjecting t hem t o a n a ssay a t t he E xchequer.' 4 T here c an b e n o d oubt, t hough , t hat t he s heriffs c ontinued t o m ake a n a dditional p ayment o f a s hilling i n t he p ound t o s atisfy b lanched p ayments, e ven i f t heir c oin w as o f s terling s tandard , s ince a ny p aymeuts w hich w ere c redited t o t heir a ccount w ere b lanched a t t his r ate. 35 I t a ppears f rom a c harter o f 1 228 t hat t he s heriff c ompensated h imself b y t aking a n e xtra s hilling i n t he p ound f rom t he t axpayers ' for t he b lanching ' 36 H ence w hat h ad b een a t erm u sed o riginally o nly f or a n a ccounting t ransaction c ame t o m ean a lso a n a ssay . T ogether s urcharge a nd t he a ssay a t t he E xchequer t ook t he p lace o f w hat C rown h ad p reviously g ained f rom i ssuing n ew c oin-types n amely , f ees c ollected a t t he m ints f rom t hose t axpayers w ho w ere f orced e xchange t heir o ld c oin f or n ew , a nd a lso a t est o f t he q uality o f c oinage.

t he t he t he t o t he

I n a ddition H enry I I m ade a nother s ignificant c hange i n r aising t he w eight o f t he s terling p enny f rom c . 1 .39 g . t o c .

1 158 b y 1 .46 g .

I h ave

o f

a rgued

e lsewhere

t hat

t his

r eflects

h is

i ntroduction

T roy

w eight-standards i nto E ngland i n p lace o f t he R oman w eight-standards i ntroduced b y C nut. T he c hange i n 1 158 w as t o u nite t he E nglish w eight a nd m onetary s ystem w ith t hat o f h is d ominions 4 1 1 N ormandy , A n jou a nd M aine w hich w ere a lready u sing t he T roy w eight. 3 ' H owever, t he c hange m eant t hat t he E nglish p opulation l ost a s hilling i n t he p ound b y e xchanging t heir o ld p ennies f or t he n ew C ross-and-Crosslets c oinage, q uite a part f rom p aying t he m inting f ees o f a nother s hilling . T his w as a h ardship w hich e ven a k ing a s s trong a s H enry I I c ould n ot i mpose w ithout o ffering a c oncession i n r eturn , p articularly a s h e w as a lso e nforcing t he f urther t ax o f a s hilling i n t he p ound o n p ayments t o t he E xchequer. I n t he l ight o f t hese i mpositions a nd h is s uccess i n r estoring t hrough t hem h is d iminished r evenues f rom t he c oinage t he k ing h ad e very r eason t o r e-assess h is w hole m inting p olicy. H is s ubjects w ould b e m ore w illing t o t olerate t he l oss o f a s hilling i n t he p ound i n e xchanging t heir o ld p ence f or t he n ew c oinage, i f t hey c ould b e s ure t hat i t w ould b e c urrent f or a l ong p eriod a nd w ould s ave t hem m inting f ees i n t he f uture. T he D ialogue c ertainly a ccounted t his i ntroduction o f o ne w eight a nd o ne c oinage t hroughout t he k ing 's d owlnions a s o ne o f H enry I I's ' great d eeds' w hich w on t he h ighest p raise. ' S uch a p olicy , o f c ourse, m eant t he e nding o f t he r egular i ssues o f n ew c oin-types. B ut t he k ing w as p robably a lready d isposed t o t ake t his s tep, b ecause t here w as n o p oint i n m aintaining a b ody o f p rivileged r oyal m oneyers t o s taff a l arge n umber o f m ints i f t he r evenues h e r eceived f rom t hem w ere n egligible i n a p eriod w hen s ilver w as s hort. I n a ny c ase h is g ains f rom b lanched p ayments a t t he E xchequer m ore t han c ompensated h im f or t he l oss h e s uffered i n s eigniorage b y n o l onger c hanging t he t ypes. H e c ould c lose t he u nprofitable m ints, d isband t he p rivileged m oneyers a nd m ake n ew

6 5

a rrangements t o s hare t he p rofits o f t he r emaining m ints. t ime h e c ould h ope t o r econcile h is E nglish s ubjects m onetary s ystem .

A t t he s ame t o h is n ew

T he c losing o f t he u nprofitable m ints h ad t o b e d one i n s tages n ot b ecause t he k ing h ad t o p ersuade a nyone t o g ive t hem u p, b ut b ecause a c omplete r ecoinage a t a d ifferent w eight-standard r equired t he s imultaneous o peration o f a g ood m any m ints a nd e xchanges. O nce t his had b een d one t he r eorganisation c ould be c arried t hrough g radually t o a void t he b ad e ffects o f a ny s udden d isruption o f t he m inting s ystem o n l ocal t rade a nd t he s upply o f m oney . M ore d ifficult t o e lucidate a re t he t erms o n w hich t he n ew m oneyers t ook o ffice i n 1 158. T here i s n o e vidence t hat t he C rown s upplied t hem w ith c apital o r b uildings a s i t d id i n 1 180, a nd i t a ppears f rom t he p ayments r ecorded i n t he P ipe R olls t hat s ome a t l east o f t he n ew m oneyers, o r t heir l ocal c ommunities, p aid f or t heir o ffice. T wo s heriffs, f or e xample, p aid 1 00 m arks i n 1 160-1 f or the m int o r m oneyers o f N orwich a nd 1 00 m arks f or t he m int o f E xeter. I t m ay s eem d ifficult a t f irst s ight t o e xplain w hy l ocal m en s hould b e w illing t o p ay t hese s ums f or m ints i f t he C rown n o l onger f ound i t w orth r unning t hem i tself . W e m ust d istinguish h owever b etween t he m ints which a ttracted f oreign m erchants a nd were l ikely t o b e p rofitable e ven i n a p eriod w hen s ilver w as s carce, a nd t hose w hich a fter t he i nitial r ecoinage s erved l ittle e conomic p urpose. I n t he f irst c lass w e s hould l ist L ondon , C anterbury , p ossibly Y ork , a nd t he e astern m ints o f L incoln , N orwich , I pswich a nd T hetford , w ith E xeter p ossibly s erving t he s outh w est. T he i mportance o f t he e astern m ints i s e mphasised b y t he r ecords o f F lemish g oods w hich w ere c onfiscated i n t he 1 170's. T hese s how t hat F lemish t rade t hen e ncompassed t he c oastal r egion f rom H ampshire t o Y orkshire vAth i ncursions i nto t he c ounties o f N orthampton , N ottingham a nd D erby . ' O f t he e astern m ints i t s eems l ikely f rom t he D omesday e vidence t hat L incoln , I pswich a nd T hetford h ad b een f armed b y l ocal m oneyers b efore 1 158, s ince I pswich 4 1 1 086 p aid £ 20, T hetford £ 40 a nd L incoln £ 75 a nnually f or t heir m ints. 4L B y c ontrast t here a re n o r ecords o f a nnual p ayments o f t his s ize i n t he P ipe R olls. T he s ingle p ayments l ike t he 1 00 m arks p aid f or t he E xeter and N orwich m ints i n 1 160-1 a ppear t o b e t he m oneyers' p urchasing t heir o ffice, n ot a nnual f arms o f t he e xpected p rofits o f t he m ints. A llen t herefore c oncluded t hat a fter 1 158 t he b oroughs n ormally p aid a n a nnual f ixed s um o r f arm t o t he C rown o f 2 0s. a m oneyer. H e d educed t his f rom t he ' defalta m onetariorum ' e ntries i n t he P ipe R olls. T hese r ecord a llowances m ade b y t he E xchequer t o t he s heriff o f 2 0s. f or e ach o f t he m oneyers a t s ix m ints w ho d id n ot s trike c oins i n a p articular y ear . A llen a ssumed t hat t his s um r epresented a c ommutation ' o f t he e stimated a nnual p rofit o f t he d ies t o a t raditional f igure w ich b y 1 158 b ore n o r elation t o t he a ctual p rofits o f t he m ints. 42 H e c oncluded t herefore t hat t hese d erisory s ums, a nd t he s ingle p ayments w hich m oneyers m ade o n t aking u p a nd l aying d own t heir o ffice a nd t heir s poradic t axation w ere t he o nly s ubstanti A i ncome w hich t he C rown r eceived f rom t he m ints b etween 1 158 a nd 1 180.""

6 6

f irst

H e was l ed t o t his c onclusion b ecause, f ollowing W . C . W ells d iscussed t he ' defalta ' e ntries i n d etail, h e a ssumed t hat

w ho a ll

t he m ints h ad l ong b een f armed b y t he b oroughs a nd t hat t he ' defalta ' e ntries i ndicated t hey h ad t he r ight t o t raditional q uotas o f m oneyers a long t he l ines o f £ thelstan 's G reatley d ecrees. 44 B ut i f o ne c ompares t he a nnual p ayment o f £ 75 b y t he L incoln m oneyers i n 1 086 w ith t he £ 6 a y ear w hich a ccording t o A llen t he C rown s tood t o g ain f rom t hem a fter 1 158, t hen t he C rown w as a cquiescing i n a s taggering l oss o f i ncome w hich w ent f ar b eyond w hat c ould b e e xplained b y a s hortage o f s ilver. M oreover, i f i n f act r oyal m oneyers w ere r unning m any o f t he m ints b efore 1 158, i ncluding L ondon a nd C anterbury, a nd i f , a s s eems l ikely , t hey w ere h anding o ver s eigniorage f ees f rom t hese m ints t o t he C rown , w e c annot s uppose t hat t he C rown w as w illing t o c ommute t hose r evenues a s w ell t o t he p ayment o f 2 0s a y ear f rom e ach m oneyer a fter 1 158. T he f act t hat t here a re ' defalta ' e ntries f or o nly s ix t owns, t hat o f t hese i t i s l ikely t hat I pswich, T hetford a nd C olchester,

a nd a nd

p ossibly t he o thers t o po, h ad b een f armed b y t heir b urgesses w hen D omesday w as c ompiled , 46 m ay i ndicate t hat i n 1 158 t he C rown m ade s pecial a rrangements w ith t hese t owns - o r w ith a g roup o f m oneyers i n t hem - t o f arm t heir m ints. B ut t he p ayments o f 2 0s. r ecorded i n t he ' defalta ' e ntries a re f ar m ore l ikely t o r epresent t he p urchase o f d ies t han t he c ommutation o f t hese m ints' p rofits, s ince 2 0s. w as t he s um p aid b y t he m oneyers i n D omesday w hen t hey b ought n ew d ies. 47 F or t he r est o f t he m ints i t i s m ore r ealistic t o d educe t hat a fter 1 158 t he C rown a greed w ith l ocal m oneyers o n a n a rrangement w hich o ne s uspects i t h ad p reviously e n joyed w ith t he r oyal m oneyers - t hat t hey c ollected m inting f ees o f s ixpence i n t he p ound a nd h anded o ver t o t he C rown a f urther s ixpence i n s eigniorage f ees. S uch a s ystem w ould e xplain t he o pportuni aes f or f raud w hich w ere l ater e xploited b y t he C anterbury m oneyers. T he

r eason w hy

t here

i s

n o

r ecord

i n

t he

P ipe

R olls

o f

a ny

s ums

w hich c ould b e i nterpreted a s a nnual f arms o f t he m ints o r a s s eigniorage p aid b y m oneyers t o t he C rown i s t hat t he r evenues o f t he m ints w ere n ot t hen v Irt o f t he s heriffs' f arms w hich w ere a ccounted f or a t t he E xchequer . I nstead t hey s eem t o h ave c ontributed t o t hat s ystem o f l ocal f inance w hich s ustained t he r oyal h ousehold i n i ts j ourneys r ound t he k ingdom . T he r eign o f H enry I I s hows t he i ncreased u se o f t he C hamber a s a n i nstrument o f r oyal f inance, a nd t here c an b e l ittle d oubt t hat t he r evenues f rom t he m ints w ere p aid d irectly t o i t, t hereby l eaving u s w ith n o r ecord o f w hat t he C rown 's t otal r eceipts f rom t hem w ere i n t he T ealby p eriod . 50 S imilarly t here i s n othing i n t he P ipe R oll o f 1 130 t o s how u s w hat H enry I 's i ncome w as f rom t he m ints.

m ints

H owever t he d egree o f c hange i ntroduced i n 1 158 i s i llustrated b y t he e vidence

i nto t he r unning o f t he f or L ondon . W hereas i t

s eems t hat b efore 1 158 a ll t he L ondon m oneyers m ay h ave w orked d irectly f or t he C rown a nd h ad t heir o wn s eparate w orkshops, a fterwards t here w as a d ifferent k ind o f o rganisation . T he n ew m oneyers, u nlike t he o ld , w ere s ubject t o t axation , a nd t he s udden i ncrease i n t he n umber o f d ie-links i n L ondon c oins s uggests t hat t he m oneyers m ay h ave b een

6 7

w orking i n a c entral w orkshop. 51 A lso i t i s l ikely t hat i n L ondon t he c ity a uthorities m ay h ave a cquired r esponsibility f or t he r unning o f t he m int. T he P ipe R olls o f 1 157-9 s how t hat t he s heriff p aid £ 12 f or i ts c ommutation , a nd t hen 6 21 2 / m arks f or t he m int. T here i s a lso a l ater r eference t he p ayment b y t he c itizens o f £ 18 6 s. 8 d . f or t he m int 's c hattels. T his c ould m ean t hat t hey p urchased s ome o f t he o ld m oneyers' e quipment. F urthermore o ne o f t he d emands w hich t he c itizen5 l ater m ade t o K ing J ohn w as f or t he r estoration o f t heir o ld m int . 53 T his

i mplies t hat t hey h ad l ost c ontrol o f i t i n 1 180.

B oth t he c hanges o f 1 158 a nd o f 1 180 r emind u s o f t he r esponsibilities w hich s ome t owns m ay h ave m ints a t c ertain p eriods i n t he e leventh a nd t welfth r emember t hat c ollective r esponsibility d oes n ot t hereby a cquired i nalienable r ights o ver t hem . T he

t hat w hen w e t hink a cquired f or t heir c enturies, w e m ust p rove t hat t owns C rown m ade u se o f

c ollective r esponsibility t o t ax o r p unish t owns l ong b efore t hey c ontrolled t heir o wn f arms o r w ere r ecognised a s s emi-autonomous c ommunes. E ven w hen t hey d id a cquire s uch r ecognition , t he k ing c ould a nd d id w ithdraw i t. L ondon h ad b een r ecognisea a s a c ommune f or a b rief p eriod u nder S tephen , p resumably a s t he p rice o f i ts s upport, b ut i t l ost i ts a utonomy l ater i n h is r eign . I n t he H usting , t hough , i t c ontinued t o h ave a c entral, d ecision-making b ody w hich w as r esponsible f or m ost o f t he c ity 's a dministration a nd j ustice. I t i s p ossible t hat b y 1 158 t he c itizens h ad r ecovered c ontrol o f t heir o wn f inances a nd w ere e lecting t heir o wn s heriffs, b ut i t i s m ore l ikely t hat L ondon 's n ew r esponsibility f or i ts m int i n t he T ealby p eriod e xhibits H enry I I's p ragmatic u se o f e xisting c ollective a dministration t o t ake o ver t he r esponsibility , w hich h e n o l onger w anted , t he e conomic c onditions o f 1 158. 54

o f r unning

t he m ints

i n

S imilarly t he ' defalta' e ntries a re m ore l ikely t o r eflect a rrangements i mposed o n t he s ix t owns b y t he C rown f or i ts o wn b enefit r ather t han a ny c laim b y t hem t o a ncient m inting r ights. I n 1 158 t he C rown h ad e very r eason t o t hink t hat t he m ints w ould b ecome l ess, a nd n ot m ore p rofitable, a nd i t t herefore s uited i t w here p ossible t o b ind m oneyers t o p ay f ixed s ums f or t he p rivilege o f s triking c oin e ven i f t here w as l ikely t o b e l ittle d emand f or t heir s ervices. T he T ealby p eriod s hows t hat a t a ll t he m ints t here w as a r eduction i n t he n umber o f m oneyers a t w ork a fter t he r ecoinage, 55 a nd i n t he c ase o f W illiam d e B retegate w e s ee a m an w ho p aid 2 0 m arks i n 1 170-1 t o b e r elieved o f t he c ustody o f t he Y ork m int. 5 ' O ne c an o nly t hink t hat h e w as t rying t o d ivest h imself o f a n u nprofitable b usiness, a nd t hat t he ' defalta ' m oneyers f ound t hemselves i n t he s ame p osition . I t s eems t herefore t hat w hen H enry I I d isbanded t he r oyal m oneyers a nd r educed t he n umber o f m ints, h e h anded o ver t he r esponsibility f or t hose w hich r emained t o'local m oneyers o r, i n s ome c ases, t o l ocal b oroughs. T hose f or w hich t here a re ' defalta ' e ntries i n t he P ipe R olls m ay p ossibly h ave f armed t heir m ints, b ut i t i s l ikely t hat t he r est, i ncluding L ondon a nd C anterbury, s hared t heir m inting f ees w ith t he C rown . T his t hough d id n ot m ean t he e nd o f c entral c ontrol o f t he m ints. T he D ialogue t ells u s t hat, ' The S heriff , f inding t hat h e s uffers o n a ccount o f t he l oss o f i nferior m oney, w hen h e h as t o p ay h is f arm , t akes g ood c are t hat t he m oneyers w ho w ork u nder h im d o n ot e xceed t he e stablished p roportion o f a lloy . A nd i f h e c atches t hem ,

6 8

t hey a re s o p unished a s t o d iscourage t he o thers. , 57 T he P ipe R olls g ive s everal e xamples o f s uch d iscouragement. 58 I n t he l ast a nalysis t herefore i t w as t he e xtension o f t he E xchequer 's c ontrol o ver t he q uality o f t he c oinage t hrough t he u se o f t he c entral a ssay w hich e nabled H enry I I t o g ive u p d irect r esponsibility f or t he r unning o f t he

m ints,

s ince

t hey

h ad n ow

c eased

t o

b e

a n

i mportant

p art

o f

t he

d omestic f iscal s ystem . I f t hen , a s I h ave a rgued , a ll t he c hanges m ade i n 1 158 r eflect t he k ing 's i deas o f h ow h e c ould b est p rofit f rom t he E nglish m ints a nd w ere a chieved f rom a p osition o f s trength a nd n ot o f w eakness, w hy w as i t n ecessary t o m ake f urther c hanges i n 1 180? T he m assive f ines o f 2 ,100 m arks i nflicted o n t he C anterbury m oneyers i n 1 176-7, a nd p aid b y t hem , s uggests p art o f t he a nswer. 59 T hey s eem t o r eflect t he o pportunities o pen t o l ocal f inanciers, w ho h ad i nvested i n t he p rofitable m ints,

t o

f alsify t heir r ecords

a nd s o d eprive

t he C rown o f

i ts s eigniorage. D ishonest m oneyers, t hough, w ere n ot a n ovelty . W hat w as n ew was t he s cale o n w hich t he C rown m ight p ossibly b e d efrauded . I t s eems t hat t he s hortage o f s ilver w hich h ad a fflicted t he m ints t hroughout t he t welfth c entury b egan b y t he l ate 1 170 's t o c ome t o a n e nd . A llen c ould n ot d ate h is s ix c lasses o f t he T ealby t ype w ith a ny c ertainty a part f rom b eing s ure t hat C lass F w as t he l atest. 6U I t i s p ossible, h owever ' t hp _t t he c lass w as s truck o ver a much s horter p eriod t han h e s uggested . 61 A t t wo o f t he e astern m ints, B ury a nd I pswich, t here i s i n t his c lass a r emarkable i ncrease i n t he e stimated n umber o f d ies u sed . A t B ury t he n umb yr ises f rom t hree t o s ixteen , a nd a t I pswich f rom s ix t o f ifty-six . ° `T he i mportance o f F lemish t ra i c le w ith t he e astern c ounties i n t he 1 170 's h as a lready b een m entioned . 63 T he p ort o f I pswich a nd t he n earby f air a t B ury S t E dmunds w ere p oints o f e ntry c onveniently c lose t o F landers a nd t he R hineland , a nd i t i s h ere t hat o ne w ould e xpect t o s ee t he o utput o f t he m ints f irst r eflect a n i ncreased t herefore

f low o f s ilver i nto E ngland f rom t he C ontinent. I t i s l ikely t hat t he f igures f or B ury a nd I pswich r eflect t he

e xpansion

o f

s ilver

p roduction

w hich

f ollowed

t he

d iscovery

o f

n ew

m ines i n S axony a fter 1 168. I ts e xport t o E ngland f or t he p urchase o f w ool e xplains t he g reat v olume o f t he S hort-Cross c oinage a nd t he i nfla aon o f p rices w hich b ecomes e vident i n E ngland f rom a bout 1 180.

.

I n t he f ace o f a p rospective i ncrease i n t he o utput o f t he m ints a nd t herefore i n t he o pportunities f or f raud o n a l arge s cale, t he k ing n eeded t o t ake f urther m easures t o s afeguard h is r ightful s hare o f t he m ints' p rofits. T he m ost i mportant w as t o i nstall t he C rown 's o wn e mployees a s e xchangers, , equipped w ith r oyal c apital a nd b uildings, s o t hat t he a mount o f b ullion f lowing i nto t he m ints c ould n ot b e f alsified t o t he C rown 's l oss. T he r eduction i n t he n umber o f m ints a lso m arks t he c ompletion o f t he d esign , w hich i s a pparent t hroughout t he T ealby t ype, o f p roviding o nly t he n umber s trictly n eeded f or a r ecoinage a nd t o m eet t he r equirements o f o versea t rade. I t w as p robably i ntended o riginally t hat l ocal m en s hould o nly b e r esponsible f or m anufacturing t he c oin a nd t hat t he e xchangers s hould a lways b e r oyal e mployees, but once i t became p ossible t o e stimate more a ccurately t he n ew f low o f s ilver t o t he m ints, a k ing l ike R ichard I

6 9

i n h is

e agerness

t o

a nticipate h is

r evenues

a gain

r esorted

t o

f arming

t he m ints.b 5

w hich

I t was t herefore was r esponsible

t he f or

g reatly i ncreased f low o f f oreign s ilver t he c hanges o f 1 180, a nd n ot t he C rown 's

l ong-delayed s uccess i n w inning b ack c ontrol o f t he m ints. T he s hift i n t he C rown 's i nterest, w hich A llen c laimed f or t he r eforms o f 1 180 f rom t he m aking t o t he e xchanging o f m oney, 1 158

w ith

t he

d isbanding

o f

t he

r oyal

h ad a ctually t aken p lace i n

m oneyers

a nd

t he

u se

o f

t he

c entral a ssay a t t he E xchequer. T here

i s

a lso

n o

e vidence

t hat

t he

C rown

d id

m ore

i n

1 180

t han

s afeguard t he s eigniorage f ees which i t h ad e njoyed a t l east f rom 1 158 f or exchanging both f oreign and d omestic c oin. The c harge f or e xchanging

f oreign

s ilver

c an b e

b e a s hilling i n t he p ound . F landers a nd C ologne a ltered t he E nglish T roy a nd T ower

d emonstrated

i n

t he

T ealby p eriod

t o

T his i s i llustrated by t he way i n which t heir w eight-standards t o match t hose o f p ounds d uring t he T ealby p eriod . T wo

hundred a nd f orty o f t he n ew T ealby p ennies m atched t he

T ower p ound o f

3 50 g ., w hich was t welve p ennyweights l ighter t han t he T roy p ound o f 3 67.5 g . T he E nglish m ints r eceived a T roy p ound o f s ilver b y w eight, a nd i f, when i t was a ssayed , i t p roved t o b e o f s terling f ineness, t hey handed o ver a T ower p ound o f s terling p ence, k eeping t he o ther t welve a s m inting a nd s eigniorage f ees. T his c an b e s hown f rom t he f act t hat by 1 166

F landers had a dopted

w eight-standard

f or

T roy p ound but was F lemings a dopted i t E nglish

m ints

o ne

a s

t he

h alf

t he

valued a t t en s hillings s terling . C learly b ecause t hey w ere a ccustomed t o r eceive f rom

t he t he

i ts

t he

s ilver

hundred

' petit m arc c oinage.

a nd

t wenty

d e

1 0s.

T his

s terling

p ound o f t heir o wn c oin o f s terling f ineness.

s terling '

mark

w eighed

p ence

f or

half

a T roy

6 5

S imilarly by 1 170 C ologne had a dopted a s i ts M agna M arca t he T ower mark o f 2 33 g-.6/ T he r eason why i t a dopted t he T ower a nd n ot t he T roy w eight i llustrates t he p rinciples e lucidated b y D r C hallis e lsewhere i n t his v olume. T he t hirteenth-century m int d ocument which g ives t he values o f d ifferent q ualities o f f oreign s ilver t ells u s t hat C p pgne p ence f ell o nly s ixpence s hort o f t he T roy p ound o f pure s ilver. ' I n o ther w ords a T roy p ound o f C ologne c oins was t welve p ence h igher i n s ilver

c ontent

t han

t he

s ame

w eight

o f

s terling

p ence.

T he

t welve p ence c overed t he E nglish s eigniorage a nd m inting c osts, C ologne

c oins

c ould

s terling.

H ence

a nd m ark .

T his

C hallis

f or

b e

e xchanged

t hey w ere s ystem

t he

h ere

e xchanged b y

i s

c learly

t hirteenth

a nd

t he

a nd t he

o verseas w eight

s ame

f ourteenth

a s

o f

t hat

o n

a

t he

T ower p ound

p ar

d escribed

c enturies,

e xtra

s o t hat

a nd

i t

i s

w ith b y

D r

q uite

p ossible t hat i t was e mployed by t he E nglish m ints a t l east f rom 1 051. I n

s ummary,

F itzNigel, t heme

t he

t herefore,

a uthor

o f

t he

r elated t o

- t hat

t he

W hat

I h ave

t he

a rgued

D ialogue,

i n

t hat

m ints i s

k ing 's f iscal

r eflect

o bvious

which e xplains p rofit. s ystem ,

c hanges

i n

b oth

i n i s

a ll

T his

i s

m eant

t hat

t hat

c hanges

t he

w ay

t he

w ith o ne

t hroughout

t he c hanges

a nd

i ncreasing

c ompany

t here

i n E nglish m inting a nd m onetary p ractice

a nd t welfth c enturies,

t he

o f

k ing

i n

t he

I have

m inting t he

R ichard

c onsistent e leventh d escribed

p olicy

o rganisation

c ollected

c entralisation .

h is

was o f

t axes.

Whereas

t he

l arge number o f m ints a t w ork u nder t he Anglo-Saxon k ings a nd t he l ocal

7 0

m anipulation o f t he w eight-standaxd s eem t o i ndicate a t ax s ystem w hich was

s ubject

t o

l ocal

d irection ,

t his

6 9

w as

r eplaced

by

a much

m ore

c entralised s ystem under t he D anish a nd N orman k ings which was d ictated b y

t he

e xploitation

o f

E nglish

r evenues

f or

t heir

p olitical

a nd

m ilitary i nterests o verseas. What w e i mproved

s ee

i n

c entral

t he

t welfth

c ontrol

o f

c entury

t he

t ax

i s

t he

f urther

s ystem by

t he

r efinement

E xchequer.

a nd T his

c ulminated i n t he c entral a ssay o f t he c oinage p aid i n by t he s heriffs. a c onsequence t he p art which t he m ints had p layed i n t he d omestic f iscal s ystem was a ll but e liminated . A ccordingly t heir numbers c ould

As

b e

r educed

s ubstantially

t o

t he

r elatively

f ew

n eeded

t o

e xchange

f oreign c oin . S imilarly t he e nding o f t he m ints' f iscal f unction m eant t hat t he C rown c ould d isband t he r oyal m oneyers who had s erved a nd s upervised i t. T hereafter t he m ints' m ain f unction , a part f rom t he o ccasional r ecoinage, was t o e xchange f oreign c oin , a f unction w hich by 1 180 was c ontributing i ncreased f unds t o t he E xchequer f rom t he k ing 's t raditional s eigniorage a nd t herefore c alled f or n ew m easures t o p rotect i t. T hese d evelopments i n f iscal a nd m inting p olicy w ere e ncouraged by t he

p rogressive

d iminution

bullion

which

t welfth

c entury.

t he

C rown 's

a ffected E ach

r esponse

v iew o f h ow b est

t o

t he

a nd

t hen

whole

c hange

g reat

o f

I t was

t he

s upply

E urope

t herefore

a nd e conomic

f rom t hem .

i n

n orthern

i n m inting p ractice

n ew p olitical

t o p rofit

i ncrease

e conomy

a ble

i n

o f t he

r eflected

c onditions

a nd

t o

i n

r espond

i ts t his

way b ecause o f i ts unquestioned c ontrol o f t he s upply o f bullion a nd o f t he m ints c ontinued

a nd m oneyers, a n

a nd b ecause

uninterrupted

r eflected n ot o nly

s ince

t radition

t he

o f

t he m onetary w ealth

t enth

managing

o f

c entury t he

E ngland but

t here

c oinage a lso

t he

had

which u nique

p ower o f t he E nglish C rown t o e xploit i t.

N OTES 1 . 2 .

D ialogus d e S caccario, D .F .

A llen ,

e d .

C harles J ohnson 1 950,

C atalogue o f E nglish C oins

Cross-and-Crosslets ( henceforward

( ' Tealby')

r eferred

t o

a s

i n

t he British M useum:

Type

B . M. C.,

p .38.

of

Henry

Cross-and

I I,

T he 1 951

Crosslets),

p .xciii. 3 .

W .L .

Warren,

4 .

A llen , x li;

H enry I I,

B .M .C ., C .S.S.

C oinage',

1 973,

p p.265-6.

C ross-and-Crosslets,

L yon ,

' Some

A nglo-Saxon E ngland,

5 .

A llen B .M .C .,

6 .

L oc.

7 .

I bid.,

p p.lxxxviii,

P roblems

V (1976),

C ross-and C rosslets,

c it. p .lxxxiii.

7 1

i n

c lxxvi,

I nterpreting p .209.

p .xciii.

l xxxii

&

Anglo-Saxon

8 .

P amela N ightingale, Organization C enturies',

of

i n

Numismatic C hronicle,

1 42

Warren ,

Henry I I,

1 0.

I bid.,

p p.60-8.

1 1.

I bid.,

p p.67-70.

1 2.

N ightingale,

1 3.

P amela

1 4.

' The

O ra,

C oinage

Numismatic C hronicle,

S ee

N ightingale,

F reeman

t ypes

i n

C onfessor, 1 5.

' Some L ondon M oneyers',

a nd t he

d ifferent

J .D.A . 1 956,

' The

o f

h oard);

( 1982),

o n

t he

Twelfth

t able 1 & p .38.

p p.40-6.

M ark ,

S ee

a nd

a nd

B .A .R .

t he

t he

Mancus:

M int

i n

t he

B ritish S eries, o f British

D olley & D .M .

p .44

W eight-

P arts

R eign

o f

1 45(i),

C oin

I &

p ossible

by

Anthony

E dward

1 985,

A .D.600-1500,

p p.25-7

( the C hancton

( the Watford h oard).

' The R eform o f t he

A nglo-Saxon C oins,

t he

p p.77-8.

Hoards,

& p .143

M etcalf ,

on

d iscussion

( the S edlescombe h oard);

C oinage under E dgar ',

t he

Moneyers', a lso

( the S hillington h oard)

S ee a lso R .H.M .

and

( 1983-4).

L ondon

I nventory

p p.120-2

t he

1 43-4

m ints.

1 042-66',

p .124

R eflections

E leventh

i n E leventh-Century E ngland ',

' Some

M oneyer

T hompson , e .g .

a nd

t he

p .59.

N ightingale,

S tandards

L ondon M oneyers M ints

9 .

I I,

' Some

English

e d .

R .H.M .

E nglish

D olley ,

1 961,

p p.157-8. 1 6. 1 7.

D ialogus, F reeman ,

p p.9-10. ' The

M oneyer

a nd

t he

M int',

p p.

5 6,

6 3,

7 0-1

& 7 9-80.

F or S candinavian m ercenaries i n L ondon s ee P amela N ightingale, ' The O rigin o f t he C ourt o f Husting a nd D anish I nfluence o n L ondon 's D evelopment i nto a C apital C ity ', R eview , C CCCIV , ( 1987) p p. 5 67-70 & 5 73-8. 1 8.

1 9.

H istorial

G .C. B rooke, C atalogue o f E nglish C oins i n t he British M useum : N orman K ings, 1 916, p p. 9 4-213. D .M .

Walker,

' A

P ossible

M onetary

S eaby 's C oin & Medal B ulletin, 2 0.

E nglish

P amela

N ightingale,

' The

C risis

D CCCII,

E volution

o f

i n

( 1985)

t he

E arly

T he

1 130 's',

p .285.

W eight-Standards

a nd

t he

C reation o f N ew M onetary a nd C ommercial L inks i n N orthern E urope f rom t he T enth C entury t o t he T welfth C entury ', E conomic H istory R eview ,

2 nd S eries, ) (XXVIII,

( 1985)

p .203.

2 1.

A nglo-Saxon C hronicle,

2 2.

D .M . M etcalf & F . S chweizer, ' The M etal C ontents o f t he S ilver P ennies o f W illiam I I a nd H enry I ( 1087-1135)', Archzometry , X III ( 1971),

2 3.

a nno 1 124(E).

p .178.

A nglo-Saxon C hronicle,

a nno 1 124(E).

7 2

2 4.

L oc.cit.

( G.N.

G armonsway 's

a bove f or a s imilar c risis 2 5.

t ranslation ,

1 953).

S ee

a lso N ote

1 9

i n t he 1 130's.

D ialogus, p .41. H enry I 's c harter c onfirming Queen M aud 's g ift t o C hristchurch P riory o f ' xxv l ibras a d s calam ', which l ater i n h is r eign

b ecomes

a lthough

' xxv

under

s calam ':

J .H.

o f L ondon,

l ibras

S tephen

R ound ,

1 899,

2 6.

D omesday B ook,

2 7.

D ialogus,

2 8.

I bid., ' farm '

b lancas',

i t

i s

c onfirms

a gain

' The O rigin o f

d escribed

t he

t he

p rogression ,

a s

E xchequer'

' xxv

l ib.

a d

i n T he C ommune

p p.85-7.

I ,

f .39b.

p .xli.

p .14. O n p .31 R ichard F itzNigel r efers t o t he m eaning o f a s a c ollective n oun , t hat i s, t he s um o f a ll t he f ixed

p ayments. 2 9.

I bid.,

3 0.

R ound ,

p p.42-3. C ommune,

S ociety 1 929,

p .90:

e .g.

P ipe

R oll,

3 1

H enry

I ,

P ipe

R oll

p .122.

3 1.

R ound ,

C ommune,

3 2.

I bid .,

p p.89-91.

3 3.

P ipe

p .87,

R oll,

2 H enry

M iddlesex,

N orfolk ,

W orcestershire,

a nd n ote 2 5 a bove.

I I,

g ives

S uffolk,

n o

b lanched

S urrey ,

N orthamptonshire,

but by 5 H enry I I o nly S ussex,

p ayments

S taffordshire,

Rutland ,

Rutland ,

f or

L ondon

&

H erefordshire,

S hropshire

a nd

N orthumberland ,

S ussex,

C umberland

a nd S hropshire d id n ot p ay b lanch . 1 4.

D ialogus,

p .43.

3 5.

R ound ,

3 6.

C alendar of C harter Rolls,

3 7.

N ightingale,

3 8.

D ialogus,

3 9.

A llen l ists t he R olls i n B .M .C .,

4 0.

P ipe Rolls,

4 1.

Domesday Book ,

I I,

4 2.

A llen ,

B .M .C .,

C ross-and-Crosslets,

4 3.

I bid .,

p .xciii.

4 4.

I bid.,

p p.xiii & l xxix.

C ommune,

p .92;

D ialogus, I ,

p .125.

p .68.

' The E volution o f W eight-Standards',

p p.

2 05-6.

p p.9-10. v arious p ayments f rom t he s heriffs i n C ross-and-Crosslets p p. l xxxii-lxxxv .

1 9-22 Henry I I, f .290v .;

p assim . I ,

7 3

3 36v . p p.

l xxvii-viii.

t he

P ipe

4 5.

N ightingale, a rgued

i n

' Some L ondon M oneyers',

' Domesday

B ook ,

t he

F orgotten M inting R eform ', p p.

8 9-90,

g eld

d e

f or

i nvolving a c hange i n

f uture

..

n o

f or 1 086

t hirteen

i n t he

l onger

but w ith

D e

P rofessor G rierson h as

M oneta

a nd

M onetagium :

British N umismatic Journal,

t hat t he e ntries

moneta

p .44.

G eld

have

t o

d eal T wo

' must

be

i nterpreted

w ith

t he

o f t hese

c onsiders

t he

e vidence

t he

l ate

i n

t hat

N orman

m oneyers

p eriod

m oneyers

i ndividually

t hirteen e ntries,

c ontinued

a nd

t hat

a s

T he k ing w ill t hose

f or I pswich a nd L eicester, d o n ot s upport t his i nterpretation , t wo-thirds o f t he m ints a re n ot r ecorded a t a ll. W hen m ints

A

( 1985),

i n D omesday B ook which s how a

m ints

o rganization o f m inting.

t he b oroughs'.

5 5

t o

m ove

d etailed

a nd o ne

b etween

e ntries

i n

D omesday B ook f or s uch i mportant b oroughs a s C anterbury a nd Y ork make n o m ention o f l ocal c ontrol o f t he m int, i t s eems m ost unlikely

t hat

a ll

o r

even

t he

majority

of

t he

mints

were

c ontrolled a fter t he 1 080's by t he b oroughs. 4 6.

S ee n ote 4 1 a bove.

4 7.

D omesday Book ,

4 8.

S ee n ote 5 9 b elow .

4 9.

J .E.A .

J olliffe,

J ohn '

i n

M aurice O xford ,

1 948,

5 1.

N ightingale,

5 2.

P ipe Rolls,

Mary J ohn ',

5 4.

i n e d .

a nd t he C astle T reasures under K ing

M edieval R .W .

H istory

Hunt,

W .A .

Presented t o

P antin

&

R .W .

Frederick S outhern ,

p .122.

C hapters i n t he Administrative Manchester 1 920, p p.100-15. ' Some L ondon M oneyers', 2 -4 H enry I I,

7 Henry I I, B ateson ,

p .114;

O xford ,

H istory of

p p.46-9.

P ipe R olls,

5 Henry I I,

' A

L ondon

Municipal

A n I ntroduction 1 977,

p p.105-7.

C ollection

XVII

( 1902),

A llen ,

B .M .C .,

5 6.

I bid.,

c lxxi.

5 7.

D ialogus,

5 8.

E .g .,

5 9.

P ipe Roll,

6 0.

A llen ,

o f

2 H enry I I,

2 3 H enry I I,

p p.c1xxxii-iii.

p .4.

p .208.

C ross-and-Crosslets,

7 4

t he

R eign

o f

t o t he H istory o f E nglish M edieval

p .43.

B .M .C .,

P ipe

I a m i ndebted t o M iss R eynolds f or

C ross-and-Crosslets,

P ipe R oll,

p .3;

p .726.

d iscussing s ome o f t hese p oints w ith m e. 5 5.

M edieval

p .18.

E nglish H istorical R eview ,

S usan R eynolds, T owns,

1 79 & 2 52.

' The C hamber,

P owicke,

T .F . T out, E ngland, I ,

5 3.

p p.172,

S tudies

5 0.

R oll,

I ,

p p.

l xv-lxxiv .

6 1.

I bid.,

p p.

l xix-lxx.

T here

i s

n o

prima

f acie

r eason w hy W illiam

F itxErembald s hould c ease t o p roduce c oins f rom h is m int a fter c . 1 173 s imply b ecause h e was i n d ebt t o t he C rown , s o t hat o ne c annot w ith c onfidence d ate C lass F b efore 1 173. 6 2.

D .M .

M etcalf,

' An

d uring

t he

M ints

E stimate

E dwardian M onetary Affairs 1 977, 6 3. 6 4.

p p.

P .D.A . e t

t he

T otal

O utput

( 1279-1344),

o f

C oinage,

e d N .J.

t he

E nglish

1 158-80'

M ayhew ,

i n

B .A .R .

3 6,

P ast

a nd

3 0-31.

S ee a bove,

p .

H arvey,

Present,

o f

" Cross-and-Crosslets"

L XI

hausse

' The

( 1973),

I nflation

3 -30;

N .J.

p rix

en

Angleterre

d 'Histoire Monätaire,

e d .

J .

S pufford ,

d es

E nglish p p.

D ay,

o f

1 180-1220',

M ayhew , d e

L ille

' Frappes

1 180 1 984,

a

d e

m onnaies

1 220',

p p.159-77

Etudes

a nd P eter

' Le r ole d e l a m onnaie d ans l e r evolution c ommerciale d u

X III s iecle',

i bid.,

p p.

7R ichard I ,

3 60-1.

6 5.

P ipe R oll,

6 6.

C . Wyffels, ' Note s ur l es m arcs m onetaires u tilises e n F landre e t e n A rtois a vant 1 300', H andelingen v an h et G enootschap, ' Societä d 'Emulation

t e Brugge,

6 7.

N ightingale,

6 8.

T he D e M oneta

N ightingale, 4 0.

C IV

( 1967),

p p.67-71 & 8 3.

' The E volution o f W eight-Standards', o f N icholas

C harles J ohnson 1 956, 6 9.

p .210.

' The O ra,

Oresme

p .207.

a nd E nglish M int Documents,

e d .

p .50. t he Mark ,

a nd t he Mancus',

P art I I,

p p.239-

I a m g rateful t o Mr Mayhew f or d iscussing s everal p oints i n t his p aper w ith m e. H owever I t ake s ole r esponsibility f or t he v iews e xpressed i n i t.

7 5

A ssays a nd A ssaying i n t he r eigns o f H enry I II a nd E dward I C .E.

C hallis,

L eeds

B efore t he i ntroduction i n t he n ineteenth c entury o f G ay L ussac's m ethod of a nalysis based on t itration, t he s tandard method of d etermining t he f ineness o f s ilver was by f ire a ssay. T his d irect m ethod , i nvolving t he m easurement o f a s ingle q uantity - t he a mount o f s ilver i n a g iven m ass - i nvolved t ime h onoured a nd p erfectly w ell known p rocedures.

A q uantity

p laced i n a c upel o f b one a sh,

o f

s ilver was w eighed ,

a nd f ired

w rapped

i n a f urnace.

O nce

i n

l ead ,

t he m etal

l iquified t he i mpurities d rained a way i nto t he c upel, l eaving b ehind a b ead o f s ilver which w as s ubsequently w eighed . B y d educting t his s econd w eight f rom c ould b e d etermined

t he a nd

i n a bsolute t erms. g enerally e xpressed

S ince i n a s 1 2 o z.

ounces

and

e xampl _e,

f irst t he q uantity o f t he o riginal i mpurity t he o riginal mass a ssigned a d egree o f p urity

p ennyweights

c ontaining 1 8

l ate m edieval E ngland p ure s ilver was f ine, a lloys o f s ilver w ere g iven i n

below

d wt.

o f

t hat

f igure;

c opper,

s terling

b eing d efined a s

s ilver, 1 1

o z.

f or

2 d wt.

f ine. S imple i n t heory t hough f ire a ssaying s hould have b een i t w as i n p ractice a f ar m ore c omplicated a ffair whose a ccuracy w as d ependent o n a number o f i mportant v ariables; t he t emperature o f t he f urnace a nd t he f low o f a ir t hrough i t, t he q uality o f t he c upels, t he a mount o f l ead u sed , a nd t he f ire a ssaying

c oncentration o f base m etals i n t he m elt. was a s much a n a rt a s a s cience a nd f or

e xperts

t he

o ver

c enturies

w ere

a greed

t hat

a ccurate

I n r eality, t his r eason a ssaying

was

d ifficult t o a chieve a nd a ll t oo s eldom t o b e m et w ith. I t i s n ot m erits o f f ire

t he purpose o f t his p aper t o c onsider t he i ntrinsic a ssaying v is a v is t hose o f o ther d irect m ethods o f

a nalysis,

l ess

i ndirect

much

m ethods,

t o

s uch

a ttempt a s

m easure t he i mpurities i n t he b y d ifference. Rather i t i s m eant

by

c alculate

' fineness'

o r

a c omparison

s pectographic

o f

d irect

a nalysis,

m ethods

w hich

w ith

s eeks

t o

m ass a nd e stablish t he purity o f s ilver t o e xamine what l ate m edieval a ssayers

' purity '

a nd

t o

c omment

o n

t heir

a bility

t o

i t d uring t he r eigns o f H enry I II a nd E dward I .

S ince t he publication i n 1 956

o f T he D e M oneta o f N icholas Oresme

a nd E nglish M int Documents, e dited b y r eadily a vailable i n p rint a n umber

C harles J ohnson , t here has b een o f d ocuments which d iscuss i n

g eneral t he whole q uestion o f f ineness a nd p in-point i n p articular what t he s terling s tandard was. C oming a s t hey d o f rom n o l esser s ource t han

t he

s ingle, a nd

R ed

B ook

o f

a uthoritative

c onfuse.

I n

t he

E xchequer

t hese

t ale,

y et

o n

t he

c .1248 ' we

a re

t old

d ocuments

f ace

t hat

o f

' the

i t

o ught

t hey

m oneyers

t o

s imply s hall

t ell

a

b affle a dd

t R

e ach p ound 6 d wts o f c opper a ccording t o t he r ight a nd a ncient c ustom ". a nd s uch a s tatement i s a pparently b orne o ut by t he T he C ourse o f t he Exchequer ,

which had

s tated c learly

i n

t he

p receding

c entury

t hat

' the m oney o f t his r ealm i s n ot l awful i f t he p ound , when t ested , f alls s hort b y m ore t han s ixpence', 3 a nd by a n a ssay c arried o ut i n 1 248 i n t he p resence

o f H enry

I II h imself .

n ew , l ong c ross, m oney ' was t han t he ( standard) p ound ;

O n

t hat

o ccasion

o ne

p ound o f

t he

f ound n ot t o w eigh m ore t han s ix p ence l ess wherefore by t he c ustom o f t he r ealm o f

7 6

E ngland i t h ad b een g ood a nd l awful a nd a pproved b y a ll ' . 4 O n t he o ther h and , o ne p ound o f t he o ld , s hort c ross, m oney w as f ound l acking b y 1 0d . a nd w as t herefore d eclared ' not g ood n or l awful'. T hese s tatements a re c lear, b ut h ow a re t hey t o b e r econciled w ith t he a ssumption t hat s terling a lways w as s terling , 1 1 o z. 2 d wt. f ine, a nd m odern m etallurgical a nalyses w hich h ave s hown t hat b oth s hort a nd l ong c ross c oins w ere i ndeed a t o r s lightly a bove t hat s tandard? 5 O ther, a pparently e qually c onflicting s tatements o ccur i n r espect o f t he c oinage i n 1 279 a nd 1 280. O n t he o ne h and P hilip d e C ambio, a m oneyer, a nd W illiam H arlewyn , o ne o f t he a ssayers, w ere h apged f or p roducing a nd i ssuing c oin w hich c ontained 81 2 / d wt. o f c opper, y et i n t he v ery n ext y ear ' A T reatise o n t he N ew M oney ' s tated t hat e very s tandard p ound o f s terling c ontained ' eighteen a nd a h alf p ennyweights o f c opper ' .7 J ust f or g ood m easure w e f ind t hat G regory d e R okesley , w ho w as w arden o f t he m int i n 1 280 a nd t herefore f ully a ware o f w hat t he s terling s tandard w as, i nformed t he a bbot o f B ury S t E dmunds t hat t he n ew c oin ' must c ontain 1 1 o z. 21 4 d / wt, o f f ine s ilver'; a s tatement w hich h as l ed t o o ne m odern s cholar b elieving t hat E dward I a dded t o h is n ew c oin ' 8.3/4d . o f c opper, s lightly m ore c o uer t han t he a mount f or w hich h e h ad r ecently h anged P hilip d e C ambio'.

°

I n my o pinion t hese d ifficulties which historians a nd n umismatists h ave d etected i n t he m int d ocuments o f 1 248 a nd 1 279/80 a re i n p ractice m ore a pparent t han r eal, f or I b elieve n ot o nly t hat t he d ocuments o f 1 248 a re c onsistent o ne w ith a nother, j ust a s i ndeed a re t hose o f 1 279/80, b ut a lso t hat w hat i s s aid i n r espect o f t he e arlier c oinage i s f ully c onsistent w ith w hat i s s aid o f t he l ater. I n s hort, t here i s one c onsistent a nd entirely c oherent m ethod o f c alculation b ehind a ll t he d ocuments r elating t o t he m int i n t he r eigns o f H enry I II a nd E dward I , a nd t o d emonstrate t his w e n eed a n u nderstanding o f n o m ore t han t wo f airly o bvious a nd w ell k nown p henomena : t he a ssayer 's p ound o f h alf a t roy o unce, a nd t he r eady r eckoner f or buying b ullion c ontained i n ' A T reatise o n t he N ew M oney ', w ritten s ubsequent t o t he i ntroduction o f t he n ew E dwardian c oinage o f 1 280. F irst, t he a ssayer 's p ound . T he f ull t roy p ound c ontains 1 2 o z., e ach o z. 2 0 d wt., a nd e ach d wt. 2 4 g r.; t hus t he f ull p ound c ontains 1 2 o z., o r 2 40 d wt ., o r 5 760 g r. A s e veryone k nows, t he f ineness o f s terling i s e xpressed i n t erms o f t he t wo l arger u nits o f m easurement, o z. a nd d wt., but i t i s c lear t hat f rom t he a ssayer 's p oint o f v iew i t w ould b e b etter t o u se t he t wo s maller u nits; a fter a ll, t he a ccuracy o f h is o verall r esult d epended o n a c omparison o f t he w eight o f m etal g oing i nto t he f ire w ith t he w eight o f m etal w hich c ame o ut, a nd t he s maller h is u nit o f m easurement t he g reater w ould b e h is e xactness. T he c onsequence o f t his ' w as t he d evelopment o f a p ractice w hereby a ssayers u sed n ot a f ull t roy p ound f or t he a ssay but h alf a t roy o unce. Q uite a part f rom t he p ractical a dvantages o f c upelling a s ignificantly r educed a mount o f m etal, t he n ew p rocedure e nabled a ssay r esults t o b e r ead o ff i n t erms o f t he f ull t roy p ound w ith g reat e ase. H alf a t roy o unce c ontains a s m any g rains ( 10 d wt. x 2 4 g r. — 2 40 g r .) a s a f ull t roy p ound d oes p ennyweights ( 12 o z. x 2 0 d wt.), w hich m eans t hat f or every g rain o f d ifference a t t he a ssay t here i s o ne p ennyweight o f d ifference i n t he f ull t roy p ound .

7 7

P recisely

w hen t he

r• •

0 0 a c • . 0 C -"D 0 . . , 4 . . bl) 0 . c ,-, . z z ," . + _ . 4 ,• , . .. E . , . .e y c, i , . z 1. )

1

1

. . c e E2 , 40 . z , 0

4 , o t . . . . 4 0 _ ; • : , '

V " li

. 5• c s. 2=

Q C 4 4 0

V "C i

gz.. ä)

• •

0 1 '

0

1 : 1

.

.t o

N icholas

)

U

c e

THE MINT

t ext

a . ) . • u, 9 . , 4 . ) u . . c e 5 0 c 2 u c; i : ) . c • . ›v . -, < 1 . ,. 0 0 . , cv cr 2• 1 ,( . „ c ra• › gu el.) • 0

= , . 4 ,.74

C 1 J 4 . 4 0 L . 4 , C L ) c L . ) e , c u _ _ . , , . -5 .0 z c 2 › , _ . , , •• •

V "z , ..

7 :

0 c • •

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c u

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.

1 . )

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0.

I 0 • •

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.ä) . . . ,

>▪.

M S

g -)

; . 1

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9 ,

. 4 .

( . 2

-0

)

+ '

a . e ) 7 , 2 4

. Z

b i )

: ":

•

, . a . ) e >

u

b / D

c a

;o u o • „ . , _, . . .

0 s ,

U

-

r

E

. . 4 z g 0

" -C 5

o

C 2

.

z ;

0 . . , : g

0

_f

. ,

. ‘ : z . . e ;

4 • 1 • ) •" ' % T .0 : ) -* •• ., . . . , : ° • • ", •' , ,' .. . , . , . . . , -t g

-I c z i

. „ , ;

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2

•

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•

: : • , ) ' 12

: 7 4

• t i

0

.

.le

-t : 3

§ z ,

• ' ‘ Z ; •" ' Z g . : 7 7, •• • • ) . '

• 1: 3 •

e

> > 5 " 5 " > 5 ,

• • . 1: 3 " t 3 " / Z : 3 •• • > •• • e

.s t ,21tEEc s . 9 .g e 3 3 " t3 0 c 5 -> g

< E z 4

9 4

0r z .

o >

" . -2 .5 e ,8. .c , . : 4 . ,. „ ,„ 1 . 3

z - 0t ic ,2 .ü .a 2K i 5

g : i a .i .

. 2 / : _ N 2 'i i ii u l 8 t o. n tc d ' a> g

w c z . ‘ : ; . . c z ; o

• , . ';

,: i

: •1 .

%

.

.

1 4 0 . )

V '

c z ;

o• • . ., ,z 2, " , : e • .. • . • . ., -c ;

:

:

. S.

( 1 . )

,

;< «1 14

V

14

e )

1 4 V

• . ) :

o • " z i 7 2 1 . 4 V

"

Z

1 4 g . )

• „ , ; >4

1 4 C . )

. c :

. 4 : :. ) . . : • -• >1

1. 4 C . )

•e g •

1 4 )

.

o• 1: 3

• , : . o

• , : o

-z;

, , : ;

. ,e;

• • 1

• t : , c z

-e , o

. 2-... ' .. 5 -. 5 2» 1 4 . V

4

L . , 1 . )

7 8

,e ;

1 4 C 1 . )

1 . 4 C . )

V

I . V

1 . 4 < 1 . )

1 4 V

t z 1

z 1 4 V

. i s o _• . . " lj

• • I •r

1 4 C l . )

-% .

. c : ; .

'g j .. t 2

•. . n

•P . ..,

1 4 C . )

1 . 4 1 . )

•• -1

1 4 4 )

t 2 . 1P 1 P i

1 4 V

5

, . , z

o .

o .j

• 5 . 1 • • I • • n • .. 1 .. . . - •• . ., 1 .4

V

0 . )

•• • • • . , 1.

1 .4

a ssayer's

p ound

c ame

i nto

v ogue

i s

unclear

but

i t

e stablished b y t he t ime o f E dward I 's n ew c oinage o n t he N ew M oney '

h ad t his

was

o bviously

i n 1 280.

w ell

' A T reatise

t o s ay:

N owadays a n a ssay i s made o f t en o unce, w eighed w ith t he g reatest

p ennyweights, t hat i s half a ccuracy. T his i s p laced

a n i n

c upels

t he

by

a rranged

i n

t he

e nough l ead f or t he which i t c ontains.

f ire

f or

p urpose

a nd

i s

purged

a ssay, f rom a ll t he c opper o r o ther m etal T he w eight o f e ach g rain o f t he a ssay i s

p roved b y c orrect c alculation t o b e e quivalent t o a p enny i n e very p ound ,

a nd

c onsequently

q uarter a f arthing; t wenty-fourth p art make

o ne

E ach

g rain ,

o f

F urther o n

s o

t herefore,

i n

f ine',

c ontained

t erms

t he

o f

f ull

T herefore,

b eaxs

t he

a halfpenny

a s

t wenty-four

h alf-ounces

s ame

a nd

s ince t he g rain i s make

p roportion

t o

a

t he

g rains

a p ound .

a p enny

a s

t o a p ound .'

t he

which

s terling

e quals

t wenty-four

s ame

t reatise

i n t erms o f t he a ssayer's p ound , a half

a g rain

a p enny.

p ennyweight,

e ach p enny d oes

half

w hich i s e asily p roved ,

t he

a uthor

1 8s.5 1 2d / .

s ays,

o f

t roy p ound

t he

i .e.,

q uite

s ilver

t his

s terling

s tandard

' nine s terlings, c orrectly,

a nd

1 81 2 / d wt.

r epresented

i s

s et

o ut

f ive g rains a nd w ould m e .r

o f

c opper.

a f ineness

o f

t hat I n

l u

1 1

o z.

11 2 /

d wt. U sing t hese f igures a s a s tarting p oint I have s et o ut i n T able 1 t he s ilver a nd c opper values f or e ach half g rain o f d ifference i n t he a ssayer's p ound b etween 9 d wt.

a nd 1 0 d wt.

o f

t he

s ilver

i n

d wt.

C olumn 2 g ives t roy

l b.:

p ounds,

a nd

g r.

o n

i n s hillings

s ince

t here

i n a t roy

b y d ifference,

l b.,

a ssayer's

a nd p ence

a re

C olumn 1 g ives

t he

t wenty-four

p ound

value half

o f

o f

o f c opper

i n e ach

half

t he

o unces,

c olumn 2 — c olumn 1 x 2 4.

t he a mount

t he f ineness

i .e.

C olumn

t roy l b.

a t roy

s ilver

i n

o z. e ach

a ssayer 's

3 e xpresses,

o f e ach

f ineness;

c olumn 3 a nd c olumn 2 a lways a dd u p t o 2 0s.0d . L et

u s

t urn n ow

w ould b e u seful t he

r eady

t o

t he

s econd

i n e lucidating t he

r eckoner

c ontained

A ccording t o t he e ditor,

t he

o ne

i s

halfpenny

s ilver

p rice

o f i s

c opper r educed ,

p iece

i n

t able t o b e

o f

i nformation

which

t hirteenth-century m int ' A

T reatise

' shows a dded .

s ilver c ontent

F or what

o f a g iven l b.

t he

o f

t o

F or

New

halfpenny

T able

i s

-

Money'.

s ilver b ought a t

e ach

c opper

t he

t hat

1 4d t he

e nding w ith 1 1 o ne halfpenny f or t he s ilver a nd f ourteen p ence o f c opper' . B ut h ere h e m istook h imself .

a h alfpenny

t hat

on

I s aid

d ocuments

a ctually

o f bullion s old

a dded ;

s hows

t o

t he

i s

m int

t hat

a s

r ose,

s o

t he a n

i ncreasing a mount o f a lloy c ould b e a dded t o i t t o b ring i t t o s terling ( the r ight hand c olumn i n t he T able) a nd , c onsequently, s o t he a mount d emanded

f or

c oinage

a t

t he

m int w ould

f all

( the

l eft

hand

c olumn

i n

t he T able). T his i nformation I have t ransferred t o T able 1 i n c olumns 4 a nd 5 . S ince t he a uthor s ays t hat t o s ilver u pon which t he f ull c oinage e nough

c harge t hat

o f 1 41 2d / .

i t b e

i s

l evied

e quivalent

f or bullion b ought a t

t he

t o

' no t he

s terling

a lloy

i s

t 9 )

s tandard '

b e

a dded,

t his

s tandard a nd ,

f or

c harge

c onsequently,

i t

i s

must

b e

a ll

t he

c oinage c harges i n t he r eady r eckoner, f rom 1 4d . d own t o 1 2d / ., must b e f or bullion which i s a bove s terling . T hus t hey o ccur i n T able 1 b elow t he

s terling

l ine

l ine.

B y t he

i n t he T able t he

s ame

f or bullion which w as

s old t o

t o

s ilver

which,

t herefore,

l ogic

I have

g iven

a bove

t he

s terling

i ncreased c oinage c harges which w ould b e d emanded t he m int b elow t he w ould

7 9

have

t o

b e

s terling s tandard a nd a dded

t o

p roduce

t he

TA B L E 1 F ineness o f s ilver/1 o z. d wt. g r.

1 5

2

3

V alue o f « pi lver/lb. 4 J t s . d .

C opper c ontent

S ilver/Copper a dded . , .

C oinage c harge, 1 2 79

d wt./lb.

d wt./lb.

d ./lb.

4

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 L ong C rosd . 9 i n 1 279 9 9

0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 3 3 1 4 4 1 5

1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 81

0 O i 1 1 4 2 2 1 3 3 1 4 4 1 5

2 4 2 31 2 3 2 21 2 2 2 11 2 1 2 01 2 0 1 9/ 1 9

5 1 ' 5 4 1 S ilver 4 a dded t o 3 1 > bring t o 3 2 1 s terling 2 1 1 o z. 1 1 d wt. 1 1 1 0 1 ,

2 0 1 9/ 1 9 1 81 1 8 1 71 1 7 1 61 1 6 1 51 1 5

S terling

5 1

1 8

5 1

1 81

0

1 41

9

N ormal m arket f ineness i n 1 279

P ure s ilve

0 1 ' 1 1 1 2 2 1 3 3 1 4 4 1 5 5 1 6 . 6 1 C opper 7 a dded t o 7 1 8 > bring t o 8 1 s terling o f 1 1 o z. 1 1 d wt. 9 9 1 1 0 1 01 1 1 1 11 1 2 1 21 r 1 3 1 31 1 4

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

6 6 1 7 7 1 8 8 1 9 9 1 1 0 1 01 1 1 1 11 1 2 1 21 1 3 1 31 1 4 1 41 1 5 1 51 1 6 1 61 1 7 1 71 1 8 1 81 1 9 1 91

1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9

6 6 1 7 7 1 8 8 1 9 9 1 1 0 1 01 1 1 1 11 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 3 3 1 4 4 1 5 5 1 6 6 1 7 7 1

1 8 1 71 1 7 1 61 1 6 1 51 1 5 1 41 1 4 1 31 1 3 1 21 1 2 1 11 1 1 1 01 1 0 9 1 9 8 1 8 7 1 7 6 / 6 5 1 5 4 1

9

2 0

1 9

8

4

1 41

0

9 9 9 9 9 9 9

2 01 2 1 2 11 2 2 2 21 2 3 2 31

1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9

3 1 3 2 1 2 1 1 1 0 1

1 5 1 51 1 6 1 61 1 7 1 71 1 8

0 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 3 3 1

0

' 1 81 -

4

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

1 0

0

8 1 9 9 1 1 0 1 01 ' 1 1 1 11 , 0 2 0

80

1 4 1 31 1 3 1 21 1 2 1 11 1 1 1 01 1 0 9 1 9 8 1 8 7 1 7 6 1 6 5 1 5 4 1 4 3 1 3 2 1 2 1 1 1 0 1

A dditional c harge o f d . f or e ach 1 d wt . u nder s terling

F ull c harge ,

C harge r educed b y i d. f or e ach 1 d wt . o f s ilver a bove s terling

N o c harge P remium p aid I to m erchant o f i d.for e ach > 1 d wt. o f s ilver a bove 1 1 o z. 1 6 d wt.

,

c orrect f ineness. A f inal t he

l ast

p oint

n ine

c oncerning

l ines,

t he

t he

p art

c onstruction

w hich

f ollows

o f

t he

t hat

T able

f rom

c oncerns

t he

' ready-

r eckoner' i n t he ' Treatise'. When t he t roy l b. c ontains 1 9s. 8 d . s ilver a nd c an t herefore b ear a f ull 1 41 2 / d wt. o f c opper t o b ring i t s terling n o c harge w ill b e m ade. i s e ffectively 1 1 o z.

1 6 d wt.,

F or s ilver a bove

t hat f ineness,

o f t o

which

a p remium i s t o b e p aid t o t he m erchant.

I n a s ection d ealing w ith t he v arious k inds o f s ilver o n t he m arket t he ' Treatise' put i t t his way: T he

f ifth

e xample

i s

L imoges

purest,

wherefore

i n buying

c an

g iven

a ddition

b e

i n

i t t o

s ilver,

which

a n a gio

o f

t he

i s

s aid

f ourpence

w eight;

t o

i n

b ecause

b e

t he

i t

t he

p ound

c an

t ake

e ighteen a nd a h alf p ennyweights o f c opper t o t he p ound a nd b e o f s tandard f ineness; wherefore t he f ourpence a bove t he f ourteen p ence a nd a half s hould b e t he s eller's a dvantage. T o s ee t he t heory o f t he

' Treatise'

1 3

o n bullion purchasing put i nto

p ractical e ffect a nd t he d ay-to-day u se o f t he s liding s cale o f c harges e laborated

i n

T able

1 ,

o ne

n eed

d o

n o

m ore

t han

c onsult

t he

r ecords

w hich s till s urvive f or t he purchase o f s ilver a t t he L ondon a nd C anterbury m ints. A p articularly g ood i llustration i s t he r oll f or t he y ears u pon

1 288-90 which

which

r ecords

t herefore

n o

n ot

o nly

c oinage

s ilver

c harge

b ought

was

made,

a t

2 0s.

but

O d .,

a lso

o ther t ypes o f s ilver w hich a ttracted c harges r anging f rom a s l d .

f or t he b est t o a s much a s 2 s. I n c ompleted f orm T able

O d .

f or t he w orst.

1 s uggests

s everal

a nd

f ourteen l ittle a s

1 4

i mportant

c onclusions.

T o b egin w ith t here c an b e n o d oubt t hat t he s terling s tandard a imed a t i n E dward I 's n ew c oinage f rom 1 280 c ontained 1 81 2 d / wt. o f c opper; t hat i s w hat t he ' Treatise' i n f act s ays but t he basic a rithmetic o f t he c oinage

c harges

h ave b een

s o.

a nd

a dditions

S econdly,

i t

o f

i s

s ilver/copper

c lear

t hat

d emand

when

t he

t hat

i t

d ocuments

s hould a lready

d iscussed o r o thers s uch a s t he m int a ccounts f or s ilver purchased s peak o f t he m int master b eing c harged w ith s ums i n e xcess o f 1 41 /d 2 ./lb. c oined t his i s n ot b ecause t he s eigniorage has b een c hanged but b ecause t he s ilver b rought t o t he m int w as b elow t he s terling s tandard . F rom t he

' Treatise'

a nd T urnemire's

c oinage c harge o f 1 41 2d / ./lb. c over Turnemire's c osts. 1 8s.

51 2d / .,

s terling,

w hich t he

was

m int

c ontract

i t

was m ade u p o f

i s 9 d .

t hat

t he

s eigniorage

s tandard

a nd 51 2d / .

what

t here

s hould

m aster w ould h ave

t o

have

a dd

b een

s ilver

i n

t o

a

b ring

p ound

o f

i t

t o

c harge m ore. 11 /d 2 . a bove t he

' for t he r emedy o f e ach p ound o f m oney ' a nd t he t hat t he m oney i n question was ' old E nglish m oney ',

u p

I n h is n ormal

' Treatise' p resumably

o f t he l ong c ross variety. 15 T hirdly , T able 1 d emonstrates t hat f ineness o f n ormal market bullion i n 1 279 c ontained 4d . i n c opper was

t hus

1 1 o z.

1 6

t o

I f t he s ilver c ontained i n a p ound f ell b elow

s tandard a nd t herefore h e w as p ermitted t o i ndenture T urnemire w as e xplicitly a llowed 51 2d / ./lb. t ells u s

c lear

d wt.

f ine.

T his

g ives

d efinition

t o

t he

t he a nd

c onclusion

d rawn l ong a go by M r M ayhew t hat i n t he d ocume qs o f t his p eriod ' pure' s ilver d oes n ot n ecessarily m ean 1 00 p er c ent. S terling was a chieved by

a dding

c opper

w ith c opper.

t o

I n 1 279

a m ass 1 1

o f a dding o nly 1 41 2 d / wt.

o z.

which 1 6

was

d wt.

a lready

was

a lloyed

t he n orm ,

t o a chieve s terling a t 1 1 o z.

8 1

t o

h ence

s ome

e xtent

t he n ecessity

11 2 d / wt.

f ine.

TA B L E

1

2

5

4

3

2

F ineness o f s ilver/1 o z.

V alue o f s ilver/lb.

C opper c ontent

S ilver/Copper a dded

C oinage 248 c harge, 1

d wt. g r.

s . d .

d wt./lb.

d wt./lb.

d ./lb.

S hort C ross} i n 1 248

S terling

N ormal m arket f ineness i n 1 248

5

1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8

0 0 1 1 l i 2 2 1 3 3 1 4 4 1 5

2 4 2 31 2 3 2 21 2 2 2 11 2 1 2 01 2 0 1 91 1 9

5 1 5 4 1 4 3 1 3 2 1 2 1 1 1 0 1

1 71 1 7 1 61 1 6 1 51 1 5 1 41 1 4 1 31 1 3 1 21

9

5 1

1 8

5 1

1 81

0

1 2

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

6 6 1 7 7 / 8 8 1 9 9 1 1 0 1 01 1 1 1 11

1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8

6 6 1 7 7 1 8 8 1 9 9 1 1 0 1 01 1 1 1 11

1 8 1 71 1 7 1 61 1 6 1 51 1 5 1 41 1 4 1 31 1 3 1 21

0 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 3 3 1 4 4 1 5 5 1

1 11 1 1 1 01 1 0 9 1 9 8 1 8 7 1 7 6 1 6

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 3 3 1 4

4 1

6

s tandard d ti f t a c od pi pe ron o

s tandard c oinage i c harge

I n v iew o f t his, w hat W arden R okesley m eant by t elling t he a bbot o f B ury S t E dmunds t o p ut 1 1 o z. 21 4 d / wt. o f s ilver i n h is n ew c oins i s p erfectly c lear. R okesley d id n ot s ay , a s h as s o o ften b een i magined , t hat t he a bbot 's c oin s hould c ontain 1 1 o z. 21 4 / d wt. o f s ilver a nd 1 7 3 /4 d wt. o f c opper, but r ather t hat i t s hould c ontain 1 1 o z.2 1 4 d / wt. ' of p ure s ilver, l ike t hat o f w hich s ilver l eaf i s m ade. i s c ommonly c alled s ilver o f G utheron 's L ane ' ( i.e. h ome o f t he L ondon g oldbeaters). 17 I n o ther w ords,

And s uch s ilver G utter L ane, t he t he a bbot w as t o

m elt

i mpure

a g iven w eight,

1 1

o z.

21 4 / d wt .,

o f

a n

a lready

s ilver

i n

o rder t o a chieve t he s terling s tandard S imple a rithmetic s hows t hat t o a chieve a s tandard o f 1 1 o z. 11 / d 2 wt. b y m elting 1 1 o z. 21 4 d / wt . o f a n a lready i mpure 1 91 4 d / wt. f ine.

s ilver,

t he

s ilver m ust

i n

f act

h ave

b een

o nly

1 1

o z.

F inally , t he c oherence o f t he f igures i n T able I d oes, I b elieve, e nable u s t o o ffer a r ational e xplanation o f w hat t he d ocuments s ay c oncerning t he l evel o f s eigniorage i n 1 248 a nd t he a ssay o f t he o ld a nd n ew m oney i n t hat y ear. T he j ury f ound t hat o ne p ound o f t he n ew m oney w eighed n ot m ore t han 6 d . l ess t han t he s tandard p ound a nd w as t hus a cceptable. I f w e a ssume t hat ' acceptable' m eans s terling , t hen i t

f ollows

t hat

t he

s tandard

r eferred

8 2

t o

c ontained

6 d wt.

m ore

o f

s ilver, i .e. 1 8s. 1 11 2d / . i nstead o f 1 8s. 51 2d / . ( Table 2 ). I f t his i s c orrect t he o ld m oney w hich t he j ury f ound t o b e 1 0d . b elow s tandard c an o nly have c ontained 1 8s. 11 2d / . o f s ilver. B ecause o f t his d eficiency, i t w ill b e r ecalled , t he h olders o f t his bullion w ere t o p ay 1 0d . m ore t han t he s tandard c harge o f 6 d ., m aking 1 6d . i n a ll. I f w e s et t his l evel o f c harges a gainst s ilver o f 1 8s. 11 2d / ., w e d o i n f act f ind t hat t he s tandard c harge w ould b e 6 d . f or b ullion 6 d wt. a bove s terling a nd t hat o bviously o nly 6 d wt. o f c opper n eeded t o b e a dded t o t his s tandard t o r educe i t t o s terling . I n s um , t he f igures i n T able 2 a ccommodate a ll t he s tatements i n t he d ocuments c oncerning f ineness, s eigniorage a nd t he a mount o f a lloy a dded: t he c onundrums have d isappeared. I n 1 248 t here was n o c onfusion, n o f raud; s imply s traightforward d ealing w hich t hose w ith a g rasp o f t he a ssayer 's p ound a nd t he a rithmetic w hich w ent w ith i t w ere w ell a ble t o a ppreciate. A s f ar a s I k now , t here i s n o s urviving m edieval v ersion o f t he r eady r eckoner I h ave p resented i n T able 2 , but t hat c ontemporaries i n t he L ong C ross p eriod w ere a ware o f i ts p rinciples a nd u sed j ust s uch a m ethod o f c alculation c an b e s hown b y r eference o nce a gain t o t he r olls which s till s urvive f or purchases o f s ilver a t t he L ondon a nd C anterbury m ints. I n 1 257-58 f or e xample, £ 34,593 o f s ilver w as p urchased a nd a ccounted f or a t 6 d ./lb. S ince t hree-quarters o f t his s um w as b ought a t 6 d , 6 d wt. o f c opper c ould b e a dded i n t he t imeh onoured w ay , b ut f or t he r emainder, w hich f ell s hort o f t he ' standard ' - b eing b ought a t s evenpence, e ightpence a nd s o o n , r ight d own t o a s m uch a s 3 s. O d ./lb. - s ome e lement o f c alculation m ust h ave b een r equired t o d etermine t he c orrect m ix . 1 8 T he n eed f or a t able o f r eference w as i n f act a s e vident t hen a s i t w as t o b e i n t he n ext r eign a nd i t i s t herefore o f s ome i nterest t o n ote t hat w hereas t he r eady r eckoner o f t he E dwardian ' Treatise' w as a t ruly o pen-ended s cale, w hich a llowed t he m int e ither t o p enalize t he m erchant f or t he p oorness o f h is s upply o r r eward h im w ith a n i mproved o ffer a s t he s tandard o f h is s ilver i ncreased , e ven u p t o a bsolute p urity , t hat o f t he L ong C ross p eriod w as n ot. I n t he e arlier p eriod s uppliers w ere s till p enalized f or t he p oorness o f t heir s ilver but a t n o t ime c ould t hey b e c ompensated f or i ts e xcellence a nd t herefore r educe t he s tandard c harge o f 6 d . T he

p ractical

i mplications

o f

t his

a re

o bvious

a nd

i mportant.

A nyone w ho b rought bullion t o t he m int o ver t he ' standard ' p aid h is 6 d . s eigniorage, j ust a s i f i t w ere a t t he ' standard ', but t he m oneyers w ere f ree i n a lloying d own s uch s upply t o k eep h owever m uch s ilver t here w as o ver t he ' standard '. S uch a n a rrangement, o ne m ay g uess, c ould n ot l ong e ndure w ithout m int o fficials g rowing r ich a nd m erchants a nd a n i mpoverished C rown b ecoming i ncreasingly e nvious. A gainst s uch a b ackground t he s etting u p i n 1 260 o f t he r oyal c ommission t o e nquire i nto t he m int, t he r eplacement i n 1 262 o f W illiam o f G loucester a s w arden , a nd t he a ppearance i n t he a ccounts o f h is s uccessors o f a n ew s ource o f r evenue, t he p rofits o f t he m elting h ouse, f all m ore c learly i nto p erspective. 19 T he k ing h imself w ould n ow b enefit f rom s uch bullion a s c ame i nto t he m int a bove t he ' standard '; t he b asis h ad i n f act b een l aid f or t he o fficial w hich b ecame e ffective i n 1 279. T ogether

w ith

t his

i ncrease

d evelopment

8 3

m ust

i n

b e

s eigniorage,

c onsidered

o f

t he

3 d ./lb,

d ecision

w hich w as t aken t o c ut 2 42d . r ather t han t he t raditional 2 40d . f rom e ach l b. o f b ullion , f or o bviously t his t oo i ncreased t he C rown 's p rofits f rom t he c oinage. T o p rofit o n t he s hear i n t his w ay i s, o f c ourse, a m atter o f n o g reat c omplexity : a ll t hat i s r equired i s f or t he bullion t o b e r eceived b y w eight a nd p aid f or b y t ale ( 240 d wt. o f s ilver c omes i n , 2 42d . a re s truck , 2 40d . a re r eturned t o t he m erchant l ess t he m intage c harge, a nd t he C rown k eeps t he e xtra 2 d .). A t f irst s ight t he a ccounts a ppear t o c onfirm t hat t his i s e xactly what h appened , b ecause t hey s peak o f a p rofit a rising f rom r eceiving b y w eight a nd p aying o ut b y n umber. B ut c loser i nspection r eveals t hat t his w as n ot e ntirely t he c ase. I n 1 261, f or e xample, W illiam o f G loucester a ccounted f or £ 23,907 o f b ullion r eceived a t t he L ondon m int, o n w hich t he s eigniorage a t 6 d ./lb. w as £ 597. 0 I f t he s hear w as 2 d . a nd w ent e ntirely t o t he k ing o ne w ould e xpect t he t otal u nder t his h ead t o b e e xactly o ne-third o f t hat f or t he s eigniorage, n amely , £ 199. I nstead , w e f ind o nly £ 4 1 9s. 7 d ., o r 1 195d , w hich m eans i n e ffect t hat t he k ing o nly b enefited a t t he r ate o f 2 d ./lb. o n h is £ 597 o f s eigniorage. T his s eigniorage h ad b een r eceived b y w eight, j ust a s h ad t he £ 23,907 o f bullion p urchased o f w hich i t f ormed p art; s o, j ust a s t he b ullion s upplier w as p aid i n n ew c oin b y w eight a nd t hus g ained a ny p rofit o n t he s hear, s o t he s hear o n t he s eigniorage, a nd o n t hat o nly , w ent t o t he k ing . T he m ain b eneficiary o f t he i ntroduction o f t he l ighter p ennies w as t hus t he s upplier a nd , o n t he f ace o f i t a t l east, t his w ould a ppear t o s uggest t hat t he u nderlying m otive w as t he s timulation o f t he m int 's b ullion s upply . I n d iscussing t he p rofits o f t he s hear w e m ove a way f rom t he m ain f ocus o f t his p aper w hich i s t he c alculation o f f ineness i n t he E nglish m edieval m int a nd t he e lucidation o f t he d ocuments w hich r elate t o i t; y et, i t t oo r einforces t he b asic a ssumption w hich u nderlies t he d iscussion a s a w hole. T he a ssayers a nd m oneyers o f t his p eriod w ere a n a ble l ot, c apable n ot o nly o f a rticulating t he t heory o f t heir c raft w ith a n a dmirable d egree o f s ophistication b ut a lso o f p ractising w hat t hey p reached w ith s ome p recision . I t i s i ncumbent o n u s a ll t o t ake w hat t hey s ay m ost s eriously a nd , i f d oubts a rise b ecause e ither t heir f igures s eemingly d o n ot a dd u p o r t heir s tatements a ppear t o b e c ontradictory , w e o ught t o a dmit m ore r eadily t han w e o ften d o t hat t here i s j ust a c hance t hat i t i s w e, n ot t hey , w ho a re c onfused .

N OTES 1 .

A lthough t he p ractice p ennyweights i s a ttested

o f d efining s terling i n ounces a nd i n t he l ater t hirteenth c entury, i t w as

n ot u ntil 1 356 t hat t his p ractice a ppeared f or t he f irst t ime i n a w ritten m int i ndenture, a nd n ot u ntil t he e arly s eventeenth c entury t hat a ll a mbiguity i n t he d efinition w as f inally r emoved . T he p roblem o f d efinition i s i nherent i n t he f ire a ssay i tself , f or t he a ction o f t he f ire c auses p art o f t he s ilver ( usually r eckoned a t 2 d wt./lb.) t o d rain i nto t he c upel a t t he s ame t ime a s t he i mpurities, t hus e nsuring , a s s ixteenth-century a ssayers p ut i t, t hat p art o f t he s ilver i s ' hid f rom r eport '. T he c onsequence i s t hat f ineness i s u sually d efined i n o ne o f t wo w ays - e ither a s t he p roportion o f t he m etals w hich g o i nto t he f ire, o r a s t he f ine s ilver w hich c omes o ut - a lthough o ccasionally , a s

8 4

i n r espect o f t he t rial p late o f 1 601 f or I rish c oins, a re

I have

previously

d iscussing s ome

t he

d etail

t ouched

K eeling

when

on

d ispute

l ecturing

Numismatic S ociety i n 1 981. ( with M r G P D yer) however,

o f

a ssays

o f

s ought

a s ample Mr

i mportant

t he

on

1 580s

t rial

t o

o f

p lates

d elayed .

extend

e xamining

a gainst T udor

J .S.

a nd

question

when

c onsidered t o

t he

i t

i n

B ritish

P ublication o f t he t rial p late v olume

b y

c entury

with

t his

o f

n ow unavoidably

s terling

s ixteenth

jointly

i s

I have

d efinition t he

b oth u sages

f ound e mployed a t o ne a nd t he s ame t ime.

t he

my t he

and

T his Mr

t he

d ocumentary

r esults

c oins.

F orbes

I n

m eantime,

i nvestigation o btained

f rom

r esearch,

D .B.

o f

e vidence

o f

m odern

c arried

Dalladay,

t he

will

o ut be

published s hortly. T he

D e

M oneta

e dited

by

Moneta);

o f

N icholas

Oresme

a nd

C harles

J ohnson ,

1 956,

p .68

C alendar

o f

T he T udor C oinage, 2 .

D e Moneta,

3 .

D ialogus

d e

De Moneta,

5 .

N .J. a nd

S caccario:

6 .

a nd

P roblem

Monetary

Manchester,

1 978,

1 950,

2 96-8;

C .E.

a s

D e

C hallis,

p p.141-2.

T he

C ourse

o f

t he

Exchequer ,

e dited

by

p .39.

D .R . o f

Affairs

Walker, F ineness

' Crockards i n

( 1279-1344),

Archaeological R eports,

3 6.

Mavis

P olicies

Mate,

( 1972),

1 354-60,

D ocuments,

c ited

p .54.

Mayhew t he

R olls,

M int

( hereafter

p .51.

C harles J ohnson , 4 .

C lose

E nglish

' Monetary

a S ilver e dited

1 977),

p p. i n

by

De M oneta,

p .68.

8 .

De M oneta,

p .87;

9 .

D e M oneta,

p .67.

1 0.

De M oneta,

p .73.

1 1.

D e M oneta,

p .74.

1 2.

D e Moneta,

p .73.

1 3.

De Moneta,

p .69.

1 4.

P RO.

1 5.

De M oneta,

1 6.

Mayhew a nd Walker,

Mate,

p p.60,

S ee a lso p p.57 a nd 8 2.

6 8. p p.

1 32-35.

8 5

N .J.

E ngland ,

p .45.

E 1 01/288/20.

P ollards:

C oinage',

i n

I mitation Edwardian

Mayhew

( British

1 32-35 a nd A ppendix 2 .

p p.40-42.

7 .

a nd

1 272-1307',

BNJ

4 1

1 7.

D e M oneta,

p .87.

1 8.

P RO.

1 9.

C alendar o f P atent R olls, 1 258-66, p p.77, 1 97. A lthough t he e xplanation o f t he m echanism w hereby p rofits o f t he m elting h ouse a rose i s m y o wn , i t i s r ight t o p oint o ut t hat i t w as M r M ayhew w ho f irst d rew a ttention t o t he e mergence o f t his n ew s ource o f i ncome. I a m m ost g rateful t o h im f or a llowing m e a s ight o f h is d raft c hapter f or t he f orthcoming H istory o f t he R oyal M int, i n w hich h e s ets o ut h is c ase.

2 0.

P RO.

E 1 01/288/3.

S ee a lso E 1 01/288/5,

E 3 72/105 m .20.

8 6

6 ,

7 a nd E 1 01/698/40,

4 1.

I rregularities

i n t he I rish m int a ccounts 1 279-1284 N .J.

Thirteenth o pportunity. I n

M ayhew ,

c entury I reland I reland a s i n t he

O xford

s eems t o have been a l and r est o f E urope t his was a t ime

of o f

g eneral e conomic e xpansion , but a dditionally I reland was e njoying a gricultural a dvantages a rising f rom t he Anglo-Norman s ettlement. a ll

a ccounts

w ithout

J ohn 's

i nstances

r ecord

o f

a s

c ruelty

L ord

a nd

o f

I reland ,

s tupidity,

r eign a s K ing o f E ngland was d isastrous. a n etwork o f c astles

a nd t owns,

J ohn 's

m arkets

t hough

was

a s

n ot

t he B y

e ntirely

s uccessful

a s

h is

s ettlement e stablished

a nd f airs,

v illages

a nd m anors

which provided a f ramework o f o rdered and peaceful prosperity. C oinage, c ommunications a nd s tandardised w eights a nd m easures w ere a ll p rovided by c entral g overnment, c ommercial b oom .

w hich d id a ll

i t c ould t o e ncourage t he

T he A nglo-Norman s ettlement b rought,

t oo,

t he

i ntense

c ultivation o f d emesnes, p roducing g rain s urpluses f or t he m arket h ome a nd a broad , a nd ( often m onastic) w ool g rowing f or e xport. 1 s hort t he E nglish a gricultural s ystem w as s uperimposed i n I reland . I rish

nobility,

f or

i ncreasingly I talian , O pportunities

T he p ickings t he

c ivil

g ain ,

t he

s ervice,

m erchant c ommunity

f or

t ransported ,

- f or

whether

and

e mbezzlement r ighteous i ndeed

Justiciary

a nd

p eculation ,

o utrage,

t he

t wo

o f

o r b y

l egitimate

e motions

I reland. t hough

i gnoble a re

t he

a nd

t he Anglo-

g rowing,

and

o r

c orrupt,

whether

t hey

i s

n ecessarily

must

have

b ishop o f W aterford ,

Fulburn's

j ealousy,

n ot

f or

-w ere r ich .

b een e specially p lentiful f or S tephen F ulburn , T reasurer

f ully g rown ,

c rown ,

f or

a t I n

r ivals

w ere

n ot

m otivated

e ntirely

mutually

a nd

a lleged by

c lear,

a nd

e xclusive.

B ut

w hat i s i nteresting f or o ur purposes, i s t hat t heir a ccusations g enerated a n i nquiry a nd a c ertain a mount o f d ocumentary e vidence which t hrows

l ight a mongst o ther

t hings

o n t he c onduct o f t he

I rish m int

a nd

e xchange. T he

i nquiry i nto t he m in ,

c ontext by M r

D ykes

i nvestigation

i nto

t hen e xtant S eptember

i n

1 964,

F ulburn 's

which was was

c onduct.

c overing t he p eriod 1 281.

These

I t

o f m int

t hree

f irst s tudied i n a numismatic

i nstituted a s

o nly

i temised

p art

t he

a ctivity under

a ccounts

survive

o f

t hree

a w ider a ccounts

E dward

t oday

I t o

and

2 1

make

i nteresting r eading . T he f irst was t hat o f R ichard O laf , warden o f t he D ublin e xchange, a nd w as d ated 8 June 1 276 t o 1 May 1 279. 3 I t r eveals v ery

l imited

s ilver

f rom

a ctivity t he

m ines

a bout

o f

T ipperary.

o f

t he

£ 130

T he

Unred ,

t own),

c overing t he p eriod f rom 1 May 1 279 t hat o f H enry d e

D ublin

o utput,

Walter

a ccount was

warden

o f

P onte

i ncluding

s econd

e xchange t o

a nd James

5

£ 3675 was p aid i nto

£ 11

o f

was

t hat

o f

( and

a lso

Mayor

o f

3 0 May 1 280. D onati

D ublin e xchange w ith W alter Unred a nd Humphrey t he d ies a nd f oundry .

a lmost

a ccount

l e

a s

G aunt

t he m int

T he

4

wardens a s

t he

t hird o f

t he

K eepers

a ccordin% t o

o f

t his

a ccount f rom w hich s ome £ 3603 w as p aid o ut t o S tephen F ulburn . B eyond

t hese

t hree

a ccounts,

t here

w ere

t wo

v iews

o f

a ccount

f or

t he Dublin mint made by t he wardens, James Donati 7 and Andrew S persholt. T he f irst c overed t he p eriod 2 9 March 1 281 8 t o 4 June 1 282 a nd w as made s ums

i n E ngland a nd s ent

m entioned

t here,

while

t o

t he

8 7

I reland t o c harge s econd

r an

f rom

F ulburn w ith 4

June

1 282

t he t o

M ichaelmas

1 284.

T he f igures f rom t hese t wo a ccounting p eriods s urvive

i n c onsiderable d etail. I n t he p eriod e nding 4 June 1 282 t he a ccounts s peak o f £ 31433 p ounds t ale s t uck , t hough o nly £ 2168 was s truck i n t he p eriod e nding M ichaelmas

1 284.

2

I t i s m ost i mportant t o n ote t hat a ll t hese

f igures r elate o nly t o

D ublin . T he i nquiry i nto t he M int n otes t hat t he k eepers o f t he Waterford m int w ould n ot c ome t o m ake a v iew d espite numerous w rits m ade

t o

d istrain

t hem .

E ventually

o ne

o f

p robably r esulted i n t he s urviving v iew . o f £ 2682 D ublin , 1°

t he

k eepers

c ame,

w hich

T his v iew r ecords t he r eceipt

w eight o f which, i nter a lia, £ 200 o ld m oney while £ 1435 i n n ew m oney was p aid t o F ulburn . 11

was

T he m int i nquiry t hen r ecords a number o f g eneral a gainst F ulburn . T he r ecoinage c harge had r isen f rom o ne

s ent

t o

a ccusations s hilling i n

t he p ound t o 1 6d - f or w hich F ulburn was n ot r esponsible, but i t s eems t hat F ulburn o nly a llowed t his r ate o n s pecially s elected h eavy p ence. S mall m oney was r eceived a t t he E xchequer a nd i n p ayment o f d ebts o nly by w eight a nd b lanch . 12 Again , t his was p robably r egular e xchange p ractice but F ulburn i ncurred f urther o dium b y h imself paying o ut w ith t his

s mall m oney, When

t he

t hus

n ew

t aking p rofit b oth i n r eceipt a nd i n p ayment.

m oney

was

f inally

B ishop's m oney o r S tephening , but was a lleged n othing was n ow t o N orm?nnni o f f or.14 E ven

o rdered

i t

was

o f t he p rofits b e f ound . '

c alled

S calding ,

o f t his r ecoinage i t Only when A lexander

L ucca c ame was t he m oney p roperly m ade a nd a ccounted t hen t he k eepers o f t he m int - e specially T horosianus

D onati a t Waterford - w ere s aid t o b e u tterly s ubservient t o F ulburn , a nd c omposed t heir a ccounts e ntirely w ithout s upporting e vidence. A lexander's w hen ,

s urfeit D onati G aunt

a ppointment

a ccording o f a s a s

t o

m int

t he

a s

o fficials.

k eepers k eepers

o f o f

t he t he

master

a ccounts, T he a nd

w ith

i n

w as

a ccount

e xchange, d ies

e arly

t here

o f

H enry

Walter

f oundry

1 281

r an

1 281,

but A lexander a pparently j oined t he

o f

when

James

D onati

a lso

b egan

a n ew

a nd

3 0

a t ime

t eam

a nd

o f

1 280

a

J ames

H umphrey

May

l e

t o

2 1

i n t he

s pring

w ith

Andrew

a ccount

S persholt a s j oint Warden . I f t he d ating o f t he f ace value t here w as a n o verlap o f a ccounts a nd s ummer o f 1 281.

P onte

Unred

f rom

a t

s omething

d e

S eptember 1 281,

c ame

a lready

a ccounts i s t aken a t s taff t hroughout t he

1 5

T his d ating o f t he r ecords i s i mportant b ecause a n e xamination o f s eparate F ulburn a ccounts s uggests t hat t he m int a ccounts which a ppear t o r un c onsecutively c over

t he

F ulburn 's m ints

o f

whole

a ccounts D ublin

o r

i ndeed

p eriod

o f

t o

t he

a cknowledge

a nd Watei-f ord .

o verlap,

m ay n ot

r ecoinage. t he

r eceipt T hese

1 6

i n

f act

S urviving o f

s ums

various

a re

On c ertain p oints T reasurer's

a ccounts

i t w ill

b e

c orroborate

s een o ne

t hat

t he

a nother.

s ums

i temised

t ogether w ith s uch c orresponding m int a ccount d etails a s m int T he

c ompletely

t ranscripts f rom

o f t he

o n T able

I

s urvive.

a ccounts

p ayments

a nd o f

t he

£ 1855

a nd £ 350 r eceived b y F ulburn f rom t he m int a ppear i n t he a ppropriate m int a ccounts a s m int p rofits p aid t o t he T reasurer. S imilarly t he s um o f £ 1415 p aid t o F ulburn a lso a ppears i n t he s ole s urviving v iew o f t he Waterford m int, a nd t he s um o f £ 3603 r eceived b y F ulburn c orresponds t o

8 8

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