Urgent Socio-Anthropological Queries on Contemporary Egyptian Society [1 ed.] 9781443893695, 9781443843911

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Urgent SocioAnthropological Queries on Contemporary Egyptian Society

Urgent SocioAnthropological Queries on Contemporary Egyptian Society By

Mohamed Abdo Mahgoub

Urgent Socio-Anthropological Queries on Contemporary Egyptian Society By Mohamed Abdo Mahgoub This book first published 2017 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2017 by Mohamed Abdo Mahgoub All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-4391-1 ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-4391-1



TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 First - The aim and scope of this book Second - The Foundations and Ethics of the Socio-Anthropological Approach in the Alexandria School of Anthropology Chapter One ............................................................................................... 13 “The Folk Traditions and Customs of the Life Cycle in Egyptian Society” First - The Customs and Traditions of Pregnancy and Childbirth Second - The customs and traditions of breastfeeding and weaning Third - The customs and traditions of the circumcision of male children Fourth - The customs and traditions of menstruation and puberty in girls Fifth - The customs and traditions of adolescence and adulthood amongst males Sixth - The customs and traditions of parents' differentiations in playing their roles in of the different style socialization of boys comparing with it of girls Seventh - The customs and traditions of engagement and wedding ceremonies Eighth - Funerary rituals and the traditions of mourning Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 25 “Guidelines in Field Studies of Socialization in Egyptian Society” First - The rituals and traditional elements in the life cycle of the individual and the community (such as pregnancy, childbirth, puberty, the individual life cycle, and holidays and festivals in the community life cycle) Second - Treatment of children Third - The relation with parents Fourth - The relations with the community Fifth - The self's perception Sixth - The Social Stratification System and Tribal Relationships



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Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 31 “Questions about Marital Choice in Contemporary Egyptian Society” First - The elements of marital choice Second - The traditions, rituals and ceremonies of marriage Third - The customs associated with children Fourth - The customs associated with family interaction Fifth - The role of wives Sixth - A wife's own ownership Seventh - Education of wives and their work Eighth - Manifestations of folklore in the wedding celebration Ninth - The social shunning, within contacts amongst relatives and friends Tenth - Arabic blogs on the customs and traditions of marriage amongst Christians in Arab Societies Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 45 “The Phenomenon of Female Genital Mutilation, Girls Circumcision in Egyptian Society” First - Ethnography of the phenomenon of female genital mutilation Second - The religious, health, ethical, aesthetic, and sexual constituents of the phenomenon of female circumcision Third - Community vision for the reasons leading to developing governmental and private efforts to oppose female genital mutilation Fourth - The government, and private efforts, for opposing and leading to decreasing the propensity of the circumcision of girls Fifth - A questionnaire on the Study of "The cultural and social foundations of the phenomenon of girls’ circumcision and the governmental and private efforts towards opposing and leading to the decreasing of it" Chapter Five .............................................................................................. 51 “The Illiterate Culture in Arab Societies” First - Questions on literacy programs Second - Questions on the social life and leisure time of the illiterates Third - Documentation of the folk proverbs, and sayings, that are repeated among the illiterates, which is expressive of their knowledge, and their experience of life: Fourth - The illiterates self cognition of their social position Fifth - The illiterate’s information sources



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Sixth - The folk proverbs: An oral source of illiterate’s information Seventh - The traditional medicine in the illiterates’ culture. Chapter Six ................................................................................................ 69 “Notes and Questions on Youth and Innovation in Traditional Societies Socio-Anthropological Study in Rosetta” 1. Youth cognition of social and cultural changes. 2. The Foundations of Youth innovation. 3. Development of Youths’ innovation. 4. Evaluative study of Youths’ activities in rural and urban societies. 5. Questionnaire on Youth and Innovation in Traditional and Newly Established Societies, Socio-Anthropological Study, in Rosetta. Chapter Seven............................................................................................ 77 “Re-documentation of Al Awayid i.e. The Customary Laws of Awlad Ali Tribes, and Tracing Changes that Occurred throughout the Last Fifty Years” 1. The non-quantitative methods, and the data collecting techniques: 2. Working directory in the collection of ethnographic data on the customary law and social control in Al Saadi, Al Murabitteen and Al Gemiaat tribes of the western desert of Egypt. 3. Monitoring and archiving changes in the, “nomadic” traditional ways, traditions and values, and tracing the impact of social changes and cultural developments in the Egyptian desert. Chapter Eight ............................................................................................. 87 “Questions on the Customary Laws, Criminal Responsibility and Judgment in Awlad Ali Tribes, Stability and Contemporary Change in Tribal Structure” First - The extent of stability and change in the customary laws of Awlad Ali tribes. Second - Reasons for the change in customary laws. Third - The quantitative ethnographic study of: Stability and Change in the Customary Laws of Awlad Ali Tribes of the Western Desert of Egypt. Chapter Nine.............................................................................................. 97 “Customary Laws and Ecological Adaptation and the Impact of Economic Development on the Tribes, and Women's Rights in Awlad Ali Tribes of the Northern Coast in the Western Desert of Egypt” First - The impact of the ecological setting on the Customary laws of Awlad Ali tribes in the western desert of Egypt.



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Second - The guidelines of data collecting, and questions for documentation of the impact of economic development, on the family in Arab Tribal Societies. Third - Questions on Women’s Rights in the Customary Laws of Awlad Ali Tribes of the Western Desert of Egypt. Fourth - Notes and questions on the functions of the traditional Arab tribes, and structural changes that have occurred as a result of economic and demographic conditions in the new Arab societies. Chapter Ten ............................................................................................. 107 “The Follow- Up of the Socioanthropological Study on: The Social Structure of the Manual Workshop in Alexandria City and “Action Research Project on the Sociocultural Conditions in the Wadi Al Kumar Region- and the Proposed Urgent Development Projects for Upgrading the Local Community of Wadi Al Kumar” 1. Socio-Anthropological Study on: The Social Structure of the Manual Workshop in Alexandria City. 2. Action research project on the Socio-cultural conditions In Wadi Al Kumar Region- and the proposed urgent development projects for upgrading the Wadi Al Kumar local community” Chapter Eleven ........................................................................................ 129 “Proposed Questions on Sexuality in Contemporary Arab Culture” Questionnaire of the comparative socio-anthropological study on sex education, and hetero and homo sexuality in contemporary Arab culture Chapter Twelve ....................................................................................... 135 “Ethnographic Notes on Rituals and Traditional Beliefs associated with Pregnancy and Childbirth in Rashid (Rosetta) Egypt” Chapter Thirteen ...................................................................................... 151 “Working Paper on The Violence in Contemporary Societies; Reasons and Strategies of Intervention- A Proposed Socio, Anthropological Field Research, Towards Anthropology of Violence, an Urgent Discipline in Human Science” 1. First - The in-depth study of such multi-dimensional phenomenon, the integrative study of the social, psychological economic, political and cultural aspects. 2. The study of the patterns of violence in contemporary society. 3. A field study focused on some images of violence.



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4. Preliminary hypotheses in the identification and interpretation of the phenomenon of violence. 5. The linkage between the phenomenon of extremism and violence in contemporary Egyptian society. Chapter Fourteen .................................................................................... 155 “The Connotations of Socio-Anthropological Concepts and Societal Cognition of them in Egyptian Society”



INTRODUCTION

The aim of this book is to present urgent questions in the mind of an Egyptian anthropologist, concerning the contemporary Egyptian society. It is not about virtual guidelines to be applied in the ethnographic field of research in general, but it is a documentation of the author’s observations through conducting a series of field research projects since 1962 till the present time. The author had begun his intensive field studies in the western desert of Egypt in 1964. During the last fifty years, a great deal of research projects have been accomplished on the Egyptian socio-cultural phenomena/problems by the author, with the participation of his assistants. The scope of those projects may be summarized in the following: Bedouin settlement project in the Egyptian Western Desert; rebuilding the Egyptian man; assessment of the displacement and resettlement of the Nubians in the construction of the High Dam; the Egyptians’ attitudes toward manual labor; the social structure of the craft workshop; the social aspects of the river transport industry; study of youth and creativity/innovation in Rosetta; documentation of the customary law of Awlad Ali tribes of the Egyptian Western Desert; study of the phenomenon of violence in Egyptian society; study of traditional medicine in nomadic, rural and urban environments; study in the anthropology of sexuality in Egyptian society; study of the cultural and social components of the tourism industry development in the Wadi Al Natrun and Edko districts at AL Beheira governorate; project of the preservation of archaeological heritage and the tourism development in Rosetta; a survey of the traditions in the rural and Bedouin environment in Egypt; a study on the social and cultural dimensions of the phenomenon of illiteracy in Egyptian society; ongoing development in the national sustainable development "Shiruk"; a study on the problems which the graduate youth are facing in the villages and communities of the Al Nubaria region; a study on the community of origin in the cultivation of narcotic plants; a study of environmental degradation in the Wadi Al Kumar region west of Alexandria. It is interesting that those phenomena/problems still deserve in-depth field work investigation, for example the problems of illiteracy; social plus political violence; tribalism and legal pluralism; deterioration of natural

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Introduction

resources and handcrafts; sexuality and harassment of women; unplanned residential regions and ecological deterioration; the position of women and women rights; stability and the impact of national developments and the globalization on the traditional ways; plus the implications of the current political and security crises in the Egyptian society. This book aims to present a set of questions on specific socio-cultural phenomena/problems in contemporary Egyptian society. The old “Notes and Questions” and “African Ethnology” guides in ethnographic field research were to document explicitly the ecological, economical, tribal, and religious primitive systems, especially in African communities. Those ethnographic field research directories were inspired by the participant observations, and the native informants’ stories being told in those indigenous communities. It was not just a table of questions to be asked in a field study for the assessment of folk traditions of "any" community, as it was applicable in the ethnographic survey of "African primitive societies". Of course, primitive ecology, Bedouin economy, stateless communities and primitive material cultures no longer prevails in the so called "primitive societies". Central authorities, industrial production, formal education, medical services, and telecommunications etc. are developing in those traditional “non western” societies. The Egyptian society is an Arab- African society, but of course it is not a tribal one, although tribes as kinship and feudal units exist in the western desert, Sinai, Al Delta and Upper Egypt. Semi- Bedouin, rural, urban and industrial communities, and cultures, are intermingled in Al Delta and Upper Egypt. So the target of this book is to formulate a relevant directory of questions on specific issues, problems and/or phenomenon in contemporary Egyptian society. The formulation of these questions is reflecting the preliminary findings, research notes, community visions and highlighting problems and/or proposed urgent questions. Also, it comes compatibly with the foundations and ethics of the “Socio-Anthropological Approach”, which could be presented in the following:

“The Foundations and Ethics of the Socio-Anthropological Approach” The following paragraphs give a telegraphic definition of that SocioAnthropological Approach as follows: First: The integrated data collecting techniques in socioanthropological field research could be presented in the following:

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A: The Method of Participant Observation: The demographic and ecological configuration of the Bedouin community, especially the camping settlement in specific desert locations, the kinship network relations linking members of the tribal group, give the anthropological researcher a chance not only for very careful observation, but also enable him to participate in various activities of the group with a high degree of spontaneity. So, the participant observation has been considered the most important (the royal) method, or the main characteristic, of anthropological field studies. The anthropological researchers initial participant observation, to collect ethnographic data, after rooted relationship, and personal and professional relationship, with members of "his research community", the chiefs and the youth, through common interactions with them and presenting himself as interested in their culture for documentation of their traditions, or planning for development projects in their society. He can begin field research after gaining the confidence of the community in his “goals”; honesty with their secrets; the feasibility of the work carried out with their collaboration, and the ability to help them. and its With the community's confidence the fieldworker has the opportunity to participate in, and observe, the traditional councils, which allowed him to document the traditional ways of reconciliation within Bedouin disputes, ranging in severity from disagreements over land rights and wells, to issues related to death and honor attacks, and the trade in smuggled goods. The anthropological researcher does not register in random ways all that could draw his readers attention, whether the data be strange or exciting, but rather, he documents the scientific data that answer his queries, or questions, about specific phenomena/problems or relationships within the research community. Accordingly, he determines exactly what are the status/positions occupied by the members of the group who is attending any relevant activity. What are their roles, what are the manifestations of coordination among them? What are the criteria that they adhere to in the performance of their roles and in which we can judge this behavior, and what are the positive and negative sanctions, which are subject to them, and what are the functions and objectives, which they seek to achieve? Perhaps the most successful opportunities for participant observation, which are available to the researcher, are in his daily contacts and transactions with members of the community in the “market”, with “neighbors” and while sitting in forums; visiting traditional doctors and teachers; and sharing one’s vision for the people who cultivate land, or dig

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Introduction

wells or build dwellings, whilst keeping one’s affectation to a minimum. The investigator must learn well when asked about what he sees, and know when he should keep silent, and he must not be biased to any one of the participants in the social activities, which he is observing. B: Relying on the Informants: The second method of anthropological field research is to depend on the informants. This method was used by the researcher necessarily whilst lacking the chance of direct observation and participation in certain social activities, especially those activities that did not appear during the specified period of the field research. For example, during the ceremonies of selection and ordination of tribal leaders and religious chiefs, during periods of drought, which were exposed to the Bedouin community from time to time, or during the tribal wars. Also, there are definitely some activities when the community welcomes the researcher's observations and/or participation. He is welcome and invited to weddings whilst as an outsider, in some cultures; he is not able to participate in various rituals or ceremonies. These are the sorts of areas in which the researchers need to depend on informants is necessary. This is the case when studying areas such nomadic migrations, magical beliefs and practices, and sexuality. The socio-anthropological researcher depends on a “limited” number of informants whom he succeeds in establishing a personal, and professional, rapport. These are individuals, who are confident in their expertise in the area of research, with good memory skills, have a desire to cooperate with the researcher, and have allowed time for the frequent meetings that will necessarily be required. It is certain that the informants’ information may vary concerning the same event, or “incident”, or even the norm in relation to, for example, the value of the dowry, or ethnic origins, and positions occupied by differentiated kinship groups, but in all of this the socio-anthropological researcher does not seek to achieve the grasp of the “truth”, but rather the interpretation of the reasons for the differences, and inconsistencies, therein. In most cases, a socio-anthropological researcher depends largely on key informants such as the “mayors”; traditional doctors; tribal judges; religious Sheikhs; administration clerks; educators; merchants and narrators of popular literature. But, of course, there are preferred informants for a specific research topic. In cases of wounding disputes, the informants are “Al Nazzar” i.e. the traditional doctor who estimates the extent of the wounds to determine the seriousness of the offence; the “Mardi” i.e. the tribal judge who determines “Al Deyah” “blood money” and the religious Sheik who convinces the disputing parties to accept the

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conciliation. In studying children’s games, the informants are the mothers, grandmothers, boys and girls, etc. C: The Individual and Tribal Genealogies: The third research method, which characterizes the anthropological field studies, especially in the Bedouin communities, is tracing individual and tribal genealogies. It is known that there is more than one "kind" of kinship as in: Patrilineal and Matrilineal, Consanguine and Affine, Agnatic and Cognates, Actual or inherited, or acquired, kinship and Paternal, Maternal and Dual descent. The Anthropological researcher collects the largest possible number of individual genealogies, varying in depth and represented by the number of traced generations, which really connect between the great grandfathers i.e. the founders of the family, and the current generation of children. It is known that the ability of members, of the same family, to keep track of kinship ties that bind them to their great grandfather, varies to a large extent between the case in urban communities and that of Bedouin tribes. The researcher tries to document accurate information, from his informants, including the names; terms of address; occupation; marital status and descriptive kinship with their spouses, and the areas of residence for the members of the individual genealogy. He checks in every possible way the validity of the information, which enables him to know the size of the tribe, endogamy and exogamy, monogamy and polygamy, in marital choice, intensification and diversity of the kinship unit, members’ place of residency, and the function of classificatory kinship terms. In tribal genealogies the researcher begins with the ancestor, or ancestress, of the greatest tribal (feudal) unit, then traces his, or her, children and grandchildren, remembering that every one of them was the grandfather of each distinct feudal unit within the tribe or clan as a greatest feudal kinship unit. The genealogical documentation reflects the foundations of political (feudal), economic solidarity among distinct autonomous kinship units of tribal society. This is of great importance especially in the cancellation and settlement of blood feud disputes; tribal fission and fusion; tribal migration in drought seasons and markets' organization. D: Tracing Life History: In the fourth technique in socio-anthropological field work the researcher must trace the life history of a number of people (informants,) who are considered to be expressive "models" of the Bedouin culture, those whom he was able to earn their trust and talk with about their personal lives, and the events that they had experienced in their different

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Introduction

life stages. He follows the life history of the judges and religious chiefs; traders; herdsmen; traditional doctors; war leaders; Al Daya; witchdoctors; educators etc. He documents their stories about their training and experiences they have inherited from generation to generation, how they dealt with, and succeeded or failed, in specific cases. The life histories and stories of those "models" give significant information towards the study of the cultural changes that had occurred across generations in the Bedouin society as concerning the forms of clothing, nutrition and ceremonies of marriage to the trend towards relocation and modernization. E: Documentation of Bedouin Traditions: The structural/functional socio-anthropological research in Bedouin societies begins with something of an ethnographic survey. The scope of this is planned according to the focal questions, or issues, of the research. Description of the ecological, demographic non-material, and material, cultural foundations of the society are relevant in "understanding" the economic, kinship, political and ideological phenomena/issues/problems in the research society. For that, the field researcher cares to document elements of the Bedouin folklore and traditions, including different subjects of "Bedouin poetry", including love and hating, wars, battles, governance and love etc. The Bedouin poetry expresses the norms of division of labor among the tribal units and family members; the status of women and their property; the areas of communication and shunning; patterns of saving and the value of friendship and obligations within the neighborhood in Bedouin culture. The ethnographic documentation includes folk proverbs; traditional ceremonies; practices and tools; narrators' story telling of tribal history etc. plus the local dialect and contact with other languages, and dialects, in the region. The anthropology, ethnology and folklore departments at universities, and research centers, are keen to establish museums for the recording and preservation of the elements of folklore and traditions in different cultural areas, for historical and comparative studies. National researchers in traditional societies, in particular, are taking care to preserve the elements of national heritage, which are exposed to all elements, to keep them far from the impact of "globalization" and decay at the present time. F: Reviewing the available records and memos, reports, documents, studies and statistics at the official authorities and members of the community, which is in the court records, official police records; medical records, and records of the markets; tribal peace agreements and agreements on the exploitation of water resources and desert land; the

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registration of births and deaths; and educational records; the records of the peace agreements in tribal disputes and Statistics and estimationspublished, and unpublished, are significant sources of information in the ethnographic surveys. G: The Audio-visual Techniques: Before the video camera, the pioneer ethnographers recorded by drawing the elements of the primitive material culture such as: Bedouin tent and desert homestead; primitive agricultural machines; weapons, dresses and ornaments; transportation vehicles, etc. The audio-visual technique is great for recording the social interaction in ceremonies, festivals, celebrations, production processes, markets, plays, and even wars. Of course, for interpretation of an ethnographic picture, or video, the researcher has to hear from his informants. H: The Questionnaire: In addition to the ethnographic field research guidelines, or table of questions and open and structured interviews, the socio-anthropological researcher uses the questionnaire for quantification of research phenomenon, and verification of the qualitative data, which had come from observation and the informants’ information. Second - The establishment of the Egyptian school of anthropology could be acknowledged by a book entitled "African Ethnology" as the first published guideline of ethnographic field research. In the 194 0s, with the establishment of Alexandria University, the eminent anthropologist A.R. Radcliffe-Brown visited The Faculty of Arts and he was a founder of The Institute of Social Sciences. Later in 1951 E.E. Evans-Prichard of Oxford lectured in Cairo University. At that time reviewing the Arabic writings on the scope of sociology and anthropology could be summarized in the following: Discipline and Scope Societal Type Scientific Subject

Sociology

Anthropology

Civil Societies Social Change

Regional Scope

Western Societies

Primitive Communities Structural Stability Africa, Australia, China, and India Qualitative Techniques and Analysis, Except in Physical Anthropology

Research Methodology

Quantitative Techniques and Analysis

In 1973, the author of this book had given a paper, in Alger University, entitled: “The Socio-Anthropological Approach in the Alexandria School of Social Sciences”. The Socio-Anthropological Approach implies specific

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Introduction

conceptualization of the social structural components, the qualitative and quantitative methodology in ethnographic documentation and analysis, and stability and change in structural - functional analysis as follows: One: The foundation of social structure, which is the subject of sociocultural anthropology, is ecological, demographic and cultural, As the “interaction” between man and his environment is inevitably through material and nonmaterial cultural ways, the ecological, demographic and cultural foundations of the social structure is reflected in the social systems: the economic, kinship, political and belief systems. The nuclear unit of social structure is social relationship. The social relationship implies interaction amongst two, or more, persons in specific statuses, in which everyone has to play his role according to the prevailing norms (Values - Standards). The failure to behave, not only according to societal, but also to global norms, is faced with specific and different types of sanctions. Two: The “traditional” regional scope of socio-cultural anthropology, although inherently concerned with so called “primitive” communities, is almost confined to traditional, pre-industrial and "non-western" communities. Monitoring the contemporary anthropological field research reveals that it has interest in different "human types". To date, it has covered urban, industrial, developing and developed, modern and even post-industrial or post-modern societies. Anthropological research is “accepted”, or rather not refused or suspected, to some extent, in traditional societies nowadays. Ethnographic documentation as a background for anthropological analysis includes the elements of the local or community culture. So, a social analysis, apart from a cultural one, looks irrational. Social interaction is necessarily through cultural practices and tools. Three: Anthropological research since World War II has not only dealt with structural stability, interdependence and balance among the structural components and social systems, but also with the different stages of change i.e. cultural, social and structural changes as matters of concern in contemporary anthropological research. Giving a great deal of room, and time, to “traditional communities” in the anthropological field of research is not mainly for historical or theoretical reasons, but it is also for “applied targets”. Four: The royal method of anthropological field research: as participant observation;, informants information; tribal and individual genealogies; life histories; administrative and personal unpublished documents and other verbal or qualitative techniques of data collecting,

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may not be informative enough in classical anthropological issues, such as marital choice. Quantitative data and statistical analysis is essential in the assessment of the demographic and economic changes. Of course, quantitative documentation was unavailable in “primitive” societies because of the prevalence of illiteracy and vocal culture, and it was difficult in studying specific issues such as: feudal solidarity, belief systems and aesthetic values. In contemporary anthropological research, questionnaires and quantitative surveys are there to check the validity of qualitative ethnographic data. Third - The Ethics of Socio - Anthropological Research: While considering the differentiation between research ethics and the protocols of research techniques, the aim of this introduction is also to introduce the research ethics in socio - anthropological studies. It refers to the ethics of scientific research in general, and highlights the ethics in application of ethnographic data collection techniques and analyzing methods in ethnographic research as follows: Elementary assumptions and issues: • The cultural context of the ethics of scientific research. • The “general” ethics of scientific research and the "specific" ethics in ethnographic studies. • The researcher and the informant's human rights. • The professorship and apprenticeships in scientific research. • The subjectivity and objectivity in the humanities. The general ethical requirements to socio - anthropological research: There is no doubt that: the availability of published scientific literature; and specialized scientific journals; lingual ability; scientific publishing facilities; participation in conferences and scientific societies activities; freedom of information; and administrative transparency; as well as the availability of allowances to cover the costs of scientific research, are requirements, or ingredients, that must be available in order to accomplish scientific research. But also, in order to gain fruits in the socio anthropological research the following must be honored: • Honoring the value of research freedom. • Scientific integrity. • Accuracy of research, documentation and archiving. • Teamwork in the research and field studies. • Structured cumulative field research. • Rooting professorship and apprenticeships, and continuity of between scientific research generations. • Societal respect for the value of scientific research.

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Introduction

General ethics in socio - anthropological research: Dealing with caveats: • Ideological caveats. • Political caveats. Social, and cultural, caveats. Ethics of funding sources: • Commitment to national legal rules in funding acceptance. • Refusing/receiving funding for the carrying out of research to gain specific results in order to be employed to achieve the goals of the downers with ignoring of societal needs. Ethics of introducing and promoting the research projects: • The honest information of the social and economic feasibility and expected fruits of the scientific research project. • The research team should not be involved in promises that certainly will not be achieved. • Permissible courting may be accepted, but not bribes, in field research projects. • Abusing the community needs to promote that the research project is amoral. The ethics of the personal, and professional, relationship between the researcher and the sources of information: • The separation between search sessions and personal conversations between the researcher and information sources (his informants). • The ethnographic documentation of the occurring events in the presence of a researcher should be only with the consent of the participants in those events. • The researchers’ responsibility to express the societal viewpoint. • The responsibility of the researcher, in the registry of objective descriptive data, not to cause any damage to the research community. The ethics in the implementation of the socio-anthropological methods: Ethics of participant observation: • The respect for the values of the research community concerning the bezel to allow the researcher to participate in its activities. • The balance between exhausting participation and scientific observation. • The relative view/estimation to the extent of accepting the researchers’ participation and his close observation. • The researchers’ considered view of what could be published, and what should not, when the information comes through participation.

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Ethics in relying on the informants: • Maintaining the privacy or specificities of informants, and not publishing any information attributed to them unless they are in agreement. • Moderation in determining the social distance between the researcher and the informants. Ethics of tracing tribal and individual genealogies: • In the overlap between ethics and conformity, with perfect application of scientific research techniques, the importance of the careful choice of informants who are of sharp memory, and in not relying on single informants. Agreement among the informants could be a proof of credibility. Ethics of recording and relying on of non-specialist ethnographers in socio- anthropological interpretation: The unpublished documents, such as personal letters and documents; commercial and rent contracts; tribal conventions ( feudal reconciliations, land tenure and water sources agreements); as well as unpublished, governmental or nongovernmental statistics; reports and studies, offer immense amounts of ethnographic data, which should not be published, or cited, without the consent of their owners, to avoid offense. Ethics of the use of audio and video techniques: • Manual drawings had been used to record the elements of material culture (housing, clothing, work tools in fishing and agriculture, weapons, ornaments, and transportation). Audio recording and photography, fixed and mobile, have also been used in early studies to record different social activities and practices (such as festivities, rituals and ceremonies, and folk art). In all of that, knowledge and approval of the informants/community, in particular with respect for local traditions (for example with regard to women) is a precondition for this. Ethics of presentation and application of socio - anthropological research results: • Harmonization at the level of deployment of ethnographic data and the research results of socio - anthropological studies. • Un-publishing, or displaying, the results which would be detrimental to the research community or a particular class, although it is documented in one form or another, with the possibility of considering it in the scientific analysis. • The socio - anthropological research is for community service, but it should not be used deliberately in favor of a particular group.

Introduction

12

•

The socio-anthropological research is dealing with studying different social phenomena, including the illegal phenomena, and in those cases it should not be detrimental to the informants.

CHAPTER ONE “THE FOLK TRADITIONS AND CUSTOMS OF LIFE CYCLES IN EGYPTIAN SOCIETY”

First - The customs and traditions of pregnancy and childbirth: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

When the woman is asked for pregnancy: Who needs to know about the beginning of the woman’s pregnancy? Traditional medicine to rush the woman’s pregnancy: Who have to hear about the woman’s pregnancy first? Period of craving, and the problems and symptoms of the pregnant woman during that period: The signs of early pregnancy: Foods that the pregnant woman may like to eat and their significance in the popular story telling: Activities to be avoided by the pregnant woman, especially household heavy duties: The diet, and foods that she is advised to eat throughout the pregnancy: Restrictions imposed on the pregnant woman in marital relations: The intimate marital relationship in the early stages of pregnancy: The intimate marital relationship in the late stages of pregnancy: Movement and activity of the pregnant woman in the beginning of pregnancy, and near birth: Costumes and decorations worn by pregnant women: The fact that pregnancy is to be hidden because of the fear of envy: The ways to prevent envy of pregnant women: Special treatment for women who are pregnant for the first time: Special treatment for women whose pregnancy is long overdue: Special treatment for women who have given birth to girls, and who await the birth of a boy: Popular beliefs about women in pregnancy: Things that make the pregnant woman optimistic: Things that make the pregnant woman pessimistic:

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Chapter One

23. Prediction of the sex of the fetus in popular knowledge, and how to show signs of pregnancy with a girl or boy: 24. Signs of a twin pregnancy: 25. Preparations in the family to near the time of birth: 26. Who determines where, and why, the preferred place will be for childbirth? 27. Signs of near birth: 28. How is the pregnant woman to give birth in the case of a home birth? 29. The current role of "Al Daya", the midwife, when the birth is overdue. 30. The current role of Al Daya when health problems arise during pregnancy,: 31. Are there certain popular habits to facilitate the birth process? 32. Arrangements, or medical precautions, that are popular during childbirth: 33. Is the pregnant woman advised to read holy texts of the Quran whilst giving birth? 34. Are the people around women, during childbirth, reciting certain calls? 35. Who are allowed to attend the birthing process? 36. Who are not allowed to attend the birthing process? 37. Is the reception of a newborn male infant different from that of a female? 38. Is the sex of the newborn to be hidden, and why? 39. Religious rituals for the reception of the newborn: 40. The placenta, and what to do with it: 41. The naming of the child, and how it is to be chosen from among the proposed names: 42. Are there names to avoid envy? 43. Are there names to conceal the sex of the baby? 44. Are there names that reflect the long-awaited reproduction? 45. Is there a habit of handing down names in the family from one generation to another, and the significance that? 46. Are there special restrictions placed upon strangers, or indeed the husband, when visiting women after childbirth? 47. Popular beliefs about the dangers faced by women after childbirth (and how to prevent them): 48. Traditional medicine in the health care of women after childbirth: 49. Feeding the mother and newborn, after birth: 50. Gratuities or grants offered to the midwife, or employees, to serve the women at birth, whether it differs in the case of a male infant or female:

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51. Who are asked to offer those grants (the father, the grandfather or grandmother, for example)? 52. Rituals and practices, when the newborn is surrounded by the family in the seven days of the initial week in anticipation of the celebration of the seventh day: 53. Why is the celebration on the seventh day, and what is the goal of it: 54. How to prepare the newborn for the ceremony (bathing, kohl, ear piercing for girls): 55. Grains that are placed under the pillow of the newborn, and their significance: 56. Popular beliefs to avoid envy of the newborn in seventh day celebrations: 57. Description of the seventh day celebration (decorations, baby and mother dresses, songs, loud sounds, phrases that reluctance of women, carrying the 58. newborn around the house, wills that frequency in the ear of the newborn: 59. Salt spray in the festivities, and why? 60. Personal hygiene care for women after childbirth: 61. Personal hygiene care for newborn children (ears, bathing, hair): 62. Purity of women in the fortieth day after birth: 63. Restrictions imposed on women after childbirth until the passage of forty days: 64. After the birth of a girl, is the woman called ‘mother’, just as she is so called after the birth of a boy, and why? 65. The popular view of the woman who frequents the birth of girls, in relation to her husband and mother in law: 66. The popular view the woman who frequents the birth of boys, in relation to her husband and mother in law: 67. Popular practices at the multiplicity of infant mortality: 68. Popular practices to avoid the envy of twins: 69. When is a baby given an unpleasant name, and why is that?

Second - The customs and traditions of breastfeeding and weaning: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Feeding the baby in the first week: People's beliefs and knowledge about breastfeeding after birth: When the child can feed complementary foods besides breast milk: What are the people's beliefs and knowledge of breastfeeding? " industrialized " lactation and its impact on the child:

16

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Chapter One

The popular knowledge and beliefs concerning artificial lactation: Do some mothers deliberately stop breast feeding and depend on artificial devices even if the mothers milk has not dried up?: Do some mothers deliberately hire wet nurses to breast-feed their babies, and why is that? Criteria for the selection of nursing and how they are chosen: Popular practices to alienate the child from the mother's milk: Popular practices to deal with the effects of weaning the child: Popular practices to deal with the effects of weaning on the mother: The extent of variation in the age of weaning environments, and levels of education in the family: How differences in the weaning age depend on the state of health of the child: People's knowledge and practices in order to avoid the envy of the mother's milk: Who are the people the mother will allow to watch her breast-feed her baby? How the mother organizes the routine of breast-feeding her newborn.

Third - The customs and traditions of circumcision of male children: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

The favorite age for male circumcision: Who decides on the circumcision of the new born child: How the family prepare the boy mentally for circumcision: Preparations are made before a circumcision: Is the boy is to be surprised at the time of the circumcision, or will someone tell him about the circumcision before the occasion? Is the circumcision to be hidden from some members of the family? Who are those? Where is the process of circumcision to be carried out? How to help the boy who has to endure a circumcision: The relatives who attend near the boy at the circumcision: Was there a follow-up, or any health care, for the child after the circumcision, and what form did it take? Does circumcision sometimes result in health problems for the child? What are they? How are they treated? Is the newly circumcised boy fed special food? Restrictions imposed on the newly circumcised boy: Could the newly circumcised boy suffer from envy? How may this be prevented?

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16. Clothing worn by the circumcised boy, and the decorations that are embellished upon them: 17. Were there ceremonial practices for circumcision of the child, and what were they? 18. Is the circumcision of boys customarily operated annually during specific seasons? What are the reasons for this?

Fourth - The customs and traditions of menstruation and puberty of girls: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Age, at which signs of puberty begin to show on girls in the nomadic, rural and urban environments: Age at which girls experience puberty: Signs of puberty in a girl: Symptoms that precede the onset of menstruation: Signs that attracts the attention of others to the onset of the menstrual cycle in a girl: How a girl behaved with the onset of menstruation: Girl's feelings of surprise at the revelation of menstruation for the first time: How a girl's self-opinion changes after the onset of menstruation: The first person whom the girl usually tells about the onset of menstruation: The eagerness to conceal the onset of menstruation, to be unseen by some specific family members. Girl's feelings when she come to the menstrual cycle: How the mother's view of her daughter changes after she has reached menstruation. How do older sisters view changes in the girl after she has reached menstruation age. How the girl's view of her younger sisters changes after she has reached menstruation. How the girl's view of her friends changes after she has reached menstruation. How the girl views her older sisters' now that she has changed after reaching menstruation. How do brothers' view changes in the girl after she has reached menstruation age. The precautions that must be followed by the girl during the menstrual cycle:

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Chapter One

18. The modes of behaviors that must be followed by the girl during the menstrual cycle: 19. The modes of behaviors that the girl should refrain from during the menstrual cycle: 20. The things that girls do after the end of the menstrual cycle: 21. How to get rid of the means that are used during the session: 22. Traditional food given to girls during the period of the menstrual cycle 23. Previous information given to girls about the menstrual cycle: 24. The sources of previous information given to girls about the menstrual cycle: 25. The popular beliefs and caveats imposed on women during the menstrual cycle: 26. The popular beliefs and caveats imposed on dealing with the medium used during the menstrual cycle:

Fifth - The customs and traditions of adolescence and adulthood amongst males: 1. 2.

The early signs of puberty in boys: The popular viewpoint of changes in the behavior of the boy after puberty: 3. The popular view of changes the mother considers in treating the boy after puberty: 4. The popular view of changes the father considers in treating the boy after puberty:: 5. The popular view of changes older brothers consider in treating the boy after puberty: 6. The popular view of changes older sisters consider in treating the boy after puberty: 7. Sources of information given to boys about puberty. 8. Things that are now allowed for the boy after puberty, that were previously not available to him. 9. Things the boy must refrain from after puberty, that were previously allowed: 10. When the boy is left to bathe alone. 11. How the parents react when their children do not obey them, when they would have done so before puberty. 12. How the mothers react when their children do not behave, when they would have done so before puberty.

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Sixth - The customs and traditions of parents’ differentiations in playing their roles within the different styles of socialization compared between boys and girls: 1.

What are the things that are allowed for boys, but are not allowed for girls? 2. What are the things which are permitted for girls, but are not allowed for boys? 3. At what age must different sexes sleep separately: 4. The skills set that families are keen to teach the girls, that are not for boys: 5. The skills set that families keen to teach the boys, that are not for daughters: 6. Family conversations that are allowed to be heard by the boy, but not by by the girl: 7. Family conversations that are allowed to be heard by the girl, but not by the boy: 8. The behavior that is acceptable by girls, but it is unacceptable by boys: 9. Does the family differentiate between feeding boys and girls, and why is that? 10. Does the family differentiate between the boys and girls as to when they must return home at night, and why? 11. The means to be followed in disciplining boys, which are not acceptable for girls: 12. The means to be followed in disciplining girls, which are not acceptable for boys:

Seventh - The customs and traditions of engagements and weddings: 1. 2.

3. 4.

Is the role of the matchmaker "Al Khatbah" still in use amongst young people at the present time? The traditional areas of social communication, at which it is usual for young men and women to meet to discover relationships that may lead to marriage (such as educational institutions, clubs, work areas, weddings, family visits). The popular evaluative view of young men and women of different social groups (professional, age, ethnic, educational, urban etc.). What are the common advantages to be had in choosing the bride from a different social group?

20

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

18. 19. 20. 21. 23. 24. 25.

Chapter One

What are the common advantages to be had in choosing the groom from a different social group? What are the disadvantages in choosing the bride from a different social group? What are the disadvantages in choosing the groom from a different social group? The tradition where the bride’s family receives, or does not receive, the groom’s family in order to prepare for the engagement: Is the bride's family happy to receive the groom alone, without the presence of his family, for the engagement preparations? The effect on the family view as to whether the bride will accept or reject the engagement. The role of the mother, and sister, in the matchmaking of the groom with the bride: The gifts that are to be presented when the groom’s family visits the bride's family to request an engagement. The bridal accessories that are present when the groom's family visit to request an engagement. The signs of acceptance or rejection by the bride, or her relatives, when the groom’s family visit to request an engagement. The signs of acceptance or rejection by the groom, or his relatives, when they visit the bride’s family to request an engagement. The reading of The Holy Koran "Al Fatiha" as a preliminary sign of the acceptance of the engagement. What is the agreement that is made regarding the provision of the engagement ring "AL Shabka", the value of the dowry, the period of courtship, date of marriage contract, furnishing the marital home, and the wedding etc.? Who accompanies the bride to choose "Al Shabka"? Who provides the decorations, songs and foods that are to be served during the ceremonial giving of Al Shabka, and engagement? Who are to be invited to attend the ceremony which provides Al Shabka, and engagement? The covering of the expenses that the celebration incurs when providing Al Shabka, and engagement: What behavior is acceptable from the groom, after the announcement of the engagement, in connection with the bride and her relatives: The gifts offered by the groom, to the bride, on holidays and at social events, during the engagement period: What are the activities that the bride would not do, without the permission of the groom, during the engagement period?

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26. The celebrations, procedures, and place of marriage, and who are to be invited to attend: 27. The obligations of the groom, and the bride's family, concerning the provision of furniture for the marital home: 28. Who provides the Wedding Dress? 29. The ceremonial transfer of a bride to the marital home: 30. The nutritional lifestyle of the bride and groom during the preparation of the wedding: 31. Celebratory henna night that precedes the night of the wedding: 32. The advice received by the bride before the wedding, and who gives it. 33. The bride preparing her make-up and hair for the wedding ("Al Mashta" and the "Coiffure": 34. The shaving of the groom’s hair, and his clothing for the wedding festival. 35. The advice received by the groom before the wedding, and who provides it. 35. The Wedding Photographs. 36. The bride hype at the wedding ceremony: 37. Receiving the groom hype at the wedding ceremony: 38. The rituals, songs and dances at the wedding ceremony: 39. The financial gifts that are presented to the bride and groom’s mothers: 40. The ritual of serving Sherbet during the wedding ceremony: 41. The ritual when the Wedding Cake is served and hospitality for the guests: 42. The description of the couple's hype: 43. The rite of passage into the marital home and reception for the couple. 44. The dinner for the couple on their wedding night: 45. The rituals of the wedding when the announcement of the bride’s virginity is made: 46. The breakfast for the couple, and the provider of it: 47. The festivity of "Al Sabahia", the first morning after the wedding: 48. Offering gifts to the newlyweds in the morning: 49. The gifts offered from the couple, to their guests, during the first morning after the wedding:: 50. Serving the couple during their honeymoon: 51. The restrictions imposed during the visits to the bride: 52. The ritual to prevent envy of the bride and groom. 53. When the groom usually returns back to his life and work:

Chapter One

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Eighth - Funerary rituals and traditions of mourning: Death and funerary rituals: 1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 21. 22. 23. 24.

The grieving process, and how it is expressed: The stories circulating about the sense of approaching death: Predicting the imminent death (dreams of falling from a high place, seeing a deceased person, a fire, tooth extraction, hearing dogs bark) Preparing for the moment of death (such as reciting prayers, providing funeral expenses, procession of the Holy Shroud, especially with holy "Zamzam" water, the writing of a will, telling the secrets of debt and the rights of others, Dreams predicting the approaching death: The reminiscent stories about dying, and the pronunciation of unification at the coming of death: The spontaneous aid provided to the dying: The supplications which are prayed when the agony of death is seen: The arrangements that are prepared in the house after the death: The announcement of the death (from the mosque loudspeakers phones, the newspapers): People who rush to be beside the deceased: People who are denied entrance to the room of the deceased: How the deceased is shown respect, for the sanctity of their death, by being put in a special place Investigations to ensure the reasons of the death, and the issuing of the burial permit: Buying the shroud, their styles, and the differences between the shrouds of men and women: The arrangements which are to be made in the case of the corpse staying in the house overnight until the burial: Viewing the body of the deceased, and allowances made for that: The ritual of washing the body of the deceased, and who are allowed to attend: Shrouding the deceased and what is placed within the Shroud: The funeral prayers and recitations: The funeral of the deceased, and the participants in a funeral (men and women): Carrying the body, and taking it to the grave: Are still there women who cry in the back the funeral, and the frequent texts: The burial rituals and procedures:

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25. The prayers that are said by those who were present at the moment of death: 26. The words to be recited during the burial of the deceased: 27. The public and private cemeteries: 28. Signs of a good ending in burial (burial next to a child), cactus plant and spraying water on the grave: 29. The handouts distributed during and after the burial: 30. Receiving consolation after the burial rites are completed: 31. Providing food for the deceased, and the mourners coming from distant places: 32. The solace night, setting up a marquee where expressions of solace can be made on a social level: 33. The Holy Koran, and providing hospitality to the mourners and recording the solace: 34. Publishing news of the death in the newspapers, in which the names of the relatives of the deceased will be noted and their positions within the family made known, showing a sense of pride: 35. Deployment of condolences, and expressions of sympathy, in the press at the death of public figures: 36. How the room, and house, is cleaned after the deceased has been removed: 37. Reading the Holy Quran, and receiving solace during the three Thursdays following the death: 38. Commemorating the fortieth of the deceased: 39. When the deceased is visited on a Thursday, on the first Thursday of the month of Rajab, holidays, and why: 40. Are there certain foods that are distributed to the poor?: 41. Is there a distribution of money to those who read the Quran? 42. Are there some rules of taboo to be considered during the period of mourning, or in attending at the moment of death, or for those who are returning from cemeteries after having visited the grave of the deceased?: 43. Manifestations of mourning, do men have their hair, and beards, cut as a sign of grief? 44. Restricted practices during the mourning period: such as, not watching television, or attending weddings parties:

CHAPTER TWO “GUIDELINES IN FIELD STUDIES OF SOCIALIZATION IN EGYPTIAN SOCIETY”

The definition of the subject: The goal of this chapter is to identify the ways and methods used in the upbringing (socialization) of children so that in later years they can be compatible with the community, and accept the prevailing social values. The study then, is not just a description of what actually happens, but goes beyond that, to try to identify the impact of these methods in the formation of the social and personal behavior of the child, determining his position and attitudes towards the community. It is also to identify the views of themselves, regarding both sexes, and the roles they have to perform within the community, which are identified by virtue of their education and upbringing, their sex and age, and over the conviction of these roles, and the gratification they get from carrying out these roles. Not to mention their occupation of a certain niche within the community, or who suffer from depression as a result of this upbringing.

Upbringing in general: First - The rituals and traditional elements in the life cycle of an individual and the community (such as, pregnancy, childbirth, puberty, the individual life cycle, holidays and festivals within the community): A: The Social Areas in which the Presence of Children is Allowed: 1.

2. 3.

What are the social areas in which the children are allowed to participate, and what are those in which they should not generally be present? The conversations which children are prevented from listening to? Which relatives are allowed to mentor the children within the family?

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4. 5.

Chapter Two

What sorts of information are the adults keen to teach to children during the stages of their development in general? What is the public perception of the child's personality patterns (depositary child - the writhed child.../etc.) from the point of view of fathers and mothers, brothers and sisters?

B: The Goals of Child Rearing and Training: 1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

7.

Do the parents take into account the needs of the “new generation” in the upbringing of their children in general? What are the behaviors that children see as “normal” but the parents see as abnormal, or strange, at the present time? Are the parents, in every social class, keen to partake in the social customs of their young children or are there trends towards the simulation of other social groups? Methods of teaching behavioral ways within the family: What are the means of disciplining children in general? The role of the father, mother, and uncles, in evaluating the behavior of the children, and the difference between the methods of “disciplining” the boys and the girls: The popular cognition of the personality's nature and naturalizing.

Second - Treatment of children: 1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

Reception of newborns (male and female): Are there clear differences in the formats of their celebrations? The child care of both sexes, its manifestations and its relation to certain privileges for males and females, and its reflection on the status of each: Taking care of young children after birth: The weaning - at what age it should be for both sexes and the significance of that? And how it is done? The sense of deprivation of the child as a result of weaning, and how to overcome it?

Third - The Relationship with parents: 1. 2.

Is the relationship between the parents affected by the sex of a newborn child? Manifestations of this: The world of women, the breadth or narrowness, and the mother's contacts and concerns with, and their impact on, the child:

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3.

The role of the fathers in the upbringing of their children, of both sexes, the fatherly relationship and its impact in the formation of their children's personality, and their roles: 4. The role of the mothers in the upbringing of their children, of both sexes, the motherly relationship and its impact in the formation of their children's personality, and their roles: 5. Physical center who moves the child - you add to the experience? And how? 6. The environment in which the children grow up, and is it of help in creation and innovation, thinking or Independence ? 7. The children plays, and is it of help in creation and innovation, or thinking? 8. Who takes care of the children whilst playing, and how is this carried out? 9. The formation of the child’s habits? How is this done? Guidance from the others: 10. Personal hygiene habits, such as toilet training. How is the toilet training carried out, and by whom? 11. Sleeping habits? How to extend the length of sleep as the child increases in age? 12. The child's relationship with relatives of the same age, and his peers within the community (co-operation, hostility and independence) and their impact on the formation of the child’s personality later on in life:

Fourth - The relationships within the community: 1. 2.

3. 4. 5. 7. 8. 9.

Participation in the workplace - when? And how? Gender-specific roles at various stages of life? Various occupations and their relevance to masculinity or femininity? Supervision and guidance according to sex: The impact of a form of occupation on the formation of a personality? The roles played by participating in various actions in preparation for the future? The songs, proverbs and anecdotes that reflect the status of the child in society, and society's perception of him? The relationship between the sexes during childhood and its manifestations: The prohibitions and restrictions, at the age of separation: The religious education, and manifestations:

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Chapter Two

10. The customs, traditions and heritages related to childhood and childrearing. (the incitement to revenge, for example). 11. The most important values, in which the child has been trained (values of the environment? of religion? of home-life? 12. To what extent these values have helped create a sense of belonging (tribal, family, national, religious etc)? 13. The type of non-formal education in the home and community, which the child receives (religious, practical, legendary etc.) and its reflection on his character: 14. Is this (education) meaningful? And where will it lead the child in the future? 15. Is he interested in the past or is he bemoaning of it, and appears keen to freeze it? What are the children, and ‘their’ society, keen to hold on to from the past?

Fifth - The self’s perception: 1.

Is there a particular example in people's minds about: the elements of manhood and femininity? What are their ingredients? To what extent do they intervene in the style of child-rearing? 2. The child’s view of himself – both sexes. 3. How either the male or female child cherishes him/herself? 4. Does the boy or girl feel that he/she is awarded a higher status than the other as a result of belonging to a particular gender? Manifestations of that: 5. Does either the boy or girl feel that he is of inferior status than the other as a result of belonging to a particular gender? Manifestations of that: 6. Do you wish to change a gender roles and situations and solve each other shop? 7. Does it sometimes look like members of one gender might express their wish to change the roles that they are playing in any area that change is desired? 8. Manifestations of dissatisfaction among both sexes: 9. How the boy or girl (until the age of 12, for example) imagine his/her role in the future? Occupations that he/she hope to embark upon? 10. The types of activity, especially for a girl? The role she hopes to play in family life? Staying at home with the family or leaving the home to have a working life? 11. The parents' vision for the future of their children, of both sexes, and how it compares with the aspirations the children have of themselves.

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Sixth - The Social Stratification System and Tribal Relationships: 1. 2. 3.

The social class and behavioral patterns and moods. The social class and extension / depth in the kinship unit. The social class and communication patterns, and communication patterns and avoidance between the sexes. 4. The social class and the importance of the role of the mother and father in the marital choice of their sons and daughters. 5. The social class and the trend of fatalism. 6. The social class and cognition of sexuality. 7. The social class and recognising the appropriate age for marriage. 8. The social class and regular exchanges of visits to begin courting with a member of the family. 9. The social class and recognising legal, and illegal, sexual relationships. 10. The social class and the selection criteria norms of marital choice and arrangement. 11. The social class and the defining concept of a good wife. 12. The social class and defining concept of a good husband. 13. The social class and parental authority. 14. The social class and the importance of procreation within marital stability. 15. The social class and the longevity of engagement, for both sexes. 16. The social class and polygamy. 17. The social class and divorce rates. 18. The social class and the position of divorcees. 19. The social class and the position of widows/widowers. 20. Patterns of consistency and avoidance between families and justifications on both sides. 21. History of settlement and the migration of differentiated families within the community.

CHAPTER THREE “QUESTIONS ON MARITAL CHOICE IN CONTEMPORARY EGYPTIAN SOCIETY”

First - the elements of marital choice7: 1. 2. 3. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

16. 17. 18. 19.

What are the characteristics that men usually like to find in their wife? What are the characteristics that women usually like to find in their husband? Is educational parity currently necessary in a successful marriage? 4 - Is tribal parity a condition for a successful marriage? Is it generally preferred that a woman marries one of her paternal cousins? Is the marriage of a woman, to a man from another community, generally successful, or not? Why is that in both cases? Is the marriage of a man, to a woman from their own community, generally successful, or not? Why is that in both cases? Is marriage to one of the daughters of the maternal uncle usually preferred? Why is that? What is the preferred age of a girl’s marriage? What is the preferred age of a male youth’s marriage? What is the reasonable difference in age between the spouses in general? 14- Is the economic parity necessary for a successful marriage at the present time? What is the age in which it does not improve a man to marry? Is it essential, in a successful marriage, that women should be younger than their husbands? Does the education of girls usually lead to a delayed marriage? What are the preferred occupations for working wives?

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Chapter Three

20. What are the occupations which are not currently acceptable for working wives? 21. Does a girl’s education lead to an increase in the chance of an early marriage? 22 - Why is that? 23. What is the current reasonable value of the dowry? 24. Does the amount of the dowry depend on the age of the bride or the groom? 25. Does the amount of the dowry depend on the education of the bride or the groom? 26. Is the value of the dowry, paid for the virgin woman, greater compared with that which is paid for a divorced woman? 27. Is the value of the dowry paid for the daughter of a paternal uncle less, compared with that which is paid for a daughter outside of the tribe? 28. Is the high value of the dowry the only reason for the delayed age of marriage amongst young people, at the present time? 29. In the case of a negative answer to the previous question, then what are the reasons? 30. Are people exaggerating, or over spending, in marriage ceremonies at the present time? 31. What aspects of the celebrations are unnecessary, and lead to the increased costs of the marriage? 32. To what extent are the costs of marriage different in the nomadic, rural and urban areas? 33. What are the usual obligations of the groom towards the relatives of the bride? 34. Does the new family prefer to be near the bride's family or the family of the groom? 35. Do they face some difficulties in adapting to their new environment whilst moving to live in another area? 36. What are the roles of parents within the marital choice, in detail? 37. Do sons sometimes oppose the recommendations of their parents, concerning marital choice? 38. What is the extent of divorce rates, at the present time? 39. What are the reasons for that? 40. What is the extent of the separation of the couple, without a divorce at the moment? 41. What are the reasons? 42. What are the conditions demanded by the bride's parents at the present time?

“Questions on Marital Choice in Contemporary Egyptian Society”

33

43. What is the current role of the girl in marital choice, in general? 44. Do you believe that there is exaggeration in the wealth of the bride, at the present time? 45. If ‘yes’ was the answer to the previous question, what methods might be suggested to overcome the problem?

Second - The traditions, rituals and ceremonies of marriage: 1. 2.

A: the customs associated with marriage: The young man usually talks confidently to his relatives about his desire to be married. 3. Is there a particular preference in that? 4. What is the role played by the mother with regard to the young man’s choice of wife? 5. How is this choice usually made? 6. Can the mother lead the way forward for her son's marriage, if the father's opinion is different? 7. The marriage ceremony. (The dowry and how to come to an agreement about it? How will it be paid? Who is involved in the payment of the dowry?). 8. The methods used by the mother to assist with her daughter's betrothal. 9. Is marriage kept within the tribe, or is it acceptable from outside the tribe? 10. Is the marriage within the fathers’ line or that of the mothers?

Third - The customs associated with children: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Naming of children. Relationships between mothers and their young male children, and their daughters, when they behaved badly. The position/ role of the father in the process of socialization. Conception: ceremonies of reproduction. The decision of the family to have a male, or female, baby.

Fourth - The customs associated with family interaction. 1. 2. 3.

The mother in laws relationship with her daughter's husband. The relationship between mothers and their daughters after marriage. How mothers intervene when a dispute happens between her daughter and her husband?

34

4. 5. 6. 7.

8.

Chapter Three

Duties of the daughter's husband regarding his mother in law. The status of the various sons and daughters of the mother? The role of the mother in the marriage, or divorce, of her daughters The treatment of the mother towards her children and her daughters after marriage, especially if they are married to someone outside of the tribe. The role/ position of the grandmother regarding her grandchildren.

Fifth - The role of the wife: 1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

The role played by the mother in the house (in economic terms, the distribution of work, resolving disputes between the brothers, disputes between sons’ wives). The position of the woman when she knows that her husband wants to marry another. Is there a case for the multiplicity of wives? Do they belong to preferred tribes and nationalities? Reasons for the marriage of each one. Details of the polygamous family life (distribution of housing economic life, the division of labor, distribution of the husband's time among them, the relationships between wives and especially with regard to the treatment of the children). How the husband distributes the family budget among the various houses in which his wives live. The position of the sons and daughters concerning the marriage of their father. Do the children feel upset because their father will bring a rival to their mother, and they will have more brothers involved in the inheritance? The role of the first wife, in particular within the life of the family. Does the birth of a son give any privileges to his mother compared with the rest of the wives? What are the manifestations of these privileges, with regards to her role at home, and her relationship with the other wives? What happens in cases where the man stands at the side of his wife, against his mother? Is it normal that a man should assault his brother's wife, or cause her harm? Is there a particular system for a consolation wife Brother?

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15. The position of the man if there is a dispute between his wife and his little sister who was not yet married, or divorced or widowed sister, who lives with them in the house. 16. The details of divorce proceedings. 17. The position of in-laws upon divorce. 18. The rights of the divorced wife. 19. Whom the husband divorces if he wants to marry another woman? 20. The position of the children of divorced the mother. 21. The responsibility of the husband towards a child who is born after divorce?

Sixth - The wife's own ownership: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

May a girl own some private property before marriage? The ownership of wealth that, on the whole, women have (from different sources). Women's independence concerning economic ventures without the involvement of their husbands: Do women own the right to dispose of a property without the involvement of their father or husband? Who looks after a woman’s property and supervises her economic dealings before and after marriage? How is a woman to behave when economic disputes arise between herself and her relatives, or husband? Do women refer to certain figures in the community for advice in order to maintain their rights if a spouse, or non-relatives, are angry with her? And who are these people?

Seventh - Education of the wife and her work: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

The level of education to be reached for the wife. The trend towards girls' education and the quality of education: (primary, secondary, high ). The trend towards literacy for women. Is it preferred, all of the time, for a woman to work professionally after completing her education? What is the quality of the work that is suitable for women? Do working women contribute to the housekeeping? Is the community - in general - in favor of women's work? Do children contribute to the family’s income? How is that done?

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Eighth - Manifestations of folklore in the wedding celebration: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Preparation of the marital home and the contents of the furniture and utensils to prepare food. Decorations and celebrations to be held in preparation in order to receive the bride into the house of her husband. Preparation of the bride and taken to adornments ready for the wedding. Restrictions imposed on the bride before the wedding. Detailed description of the ceremonies, songs, and dances held in the bride's house before the wedding night. Foods, songs and other manifestations of folklore on the night of the wedding. 7- The role of the mother of the bride and groom on the wedding night. How to attend to the groom before the wedding, “accompanied by whom, the songs and dances". The magical and religious means of defense to avoid envy, for example. The announcement which completes the wedding, and of the bride’s virginity. The foods that are provided for the newlyweds on their wedding night. The morning celebrations after the wedding night, Al "Sabaheya" and the offering of gifts to the newlyweds? Who will assist the bride in the first week of her normal life as a married woman? What are the restrictions that surround the bride on the first day after the wedding? What is done if these restrictions are violated?

“Questions on Marital Choice in Contemporary Egyptian Society”

37

Ninth - The social contact that is shunned amongst relatives and friends: Regular exchanges of visits and social participation during social occasions: • 1.

The regular exchange of visits amongst family members:

Regular exchanges of visits amongst family members during different social occasions: 2. Gifts exchanged at regular visits between family members: 3. Contraindications of the regular exchange of visits amongst family members: 4. Times of regular exchanges of visits amongst family members: 5. Tradition of young women to refrain from participating in regular exchanges of familial visits: 6. Traditions of young males refraining from participating in regular exchanges of familial visits: 7. Gifts exchanged at regular familial visits: • Regular exchanges of visits amongst non-relatives/friends: 1. Regular exchanges of home visits amongst primary boys/ school pupils: 2. Regular exchanges of home visits among primary girls/ school pupils: 3. Regular exchanges of home visits amongst friends from boys/ preparatory school pupils: 4. Regular exchanges of home visits amongst friends from girls/ preparatory school pupils: 5. Regular exchanges of home visits amongst friends from boys/high school students: 6. Regular exchanges of home visits amongst friends from girls/ high school students: 7. Regular exchanges of home visits amongst friends from university/ male colleagues: 8. Regular exchanges of home visits amongst friends from university/ female colleagues: 9. Regular exchanges of home visits amongst male and female friends from university colleagues: 10. Regular exchanges of familial visits amongst the neighbors within the home: 11. Regular exchanges of familial visits amongst friends of co-workers:

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12. Regular exchanges of familial visits amongst friends of the neighbors: 13. Regular exchanges of familial visits amongst friends of co-workers: 14. Regular exchanges of home visits amongst the aged friends: 15. Regular exchanges of home visits amongst friends of the favorite café, or club: •

The relationship of friends:

1.

The common view of the benefits, and negative consequences, of the friendships amongst the children: 2. Common view of the benefits, and negative consequences, of the friendships amongst the young teenagers: 3. Common view of the benefits, and negative consequences, of the friendships amongst co-workers: 4. The common view of the benefits, and negative consequences, of friendships amongst neighbors: 5. Common view of the benefits, and negative consequences, of the friendships amongst friends in the village: 6. Common view of the benefits, and negative consequences, of the friendships amongst unmarried men: 7. Common view of the benefits, and negative consequences, of the friendships amongst teenage girls: 8. Common view of the benefits, and negative consequences, of the friendship and visits amongst neighbors who are housewives: 9. Common view about those who are do not preferred to be from friends: 10. Common view of what information, about their own affairs, can be made accessible to all and what information should be hidden from friends: 11. Common view of what information, about their own affairs, can be made accessible to all, and what information should be hidden from neighbors: •

Exchanging gifts amongst friends and neighbors:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Exchanging gifts of food amongst friends and neighbors: Loaning and exchanging clothing amongst friends and neighbors: Loaning and exchanging ornaments amongst friends and neighbors: Exchanging financial loans among friends and neighbors: Keeping savings at care of friends and neighbors:

“Questions on Marital Choice in Contemporary Egyptian Society”

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

21. 22.

23.

39

Exchanging the service of child care amongst friends and neighbors: Involvement in the settlement of marital disputes amongst friends and neighbors: Involvement in the settlement of disputes amongst family, friends and neighbors: Participation in preserving the environment well, in the residential area, with the collaboration of friends and neighbors: The problems and situations in which they will ask for help from their neighbours and friends: The extent to which advice will be exchanged between themselves, and their friends and relatives, in the area of marital adjustment: The extent to which advice will be exchanged between themselves, and their friends and relatives, in the area of familial disputes: The extent to which advice will be sought from friends and relatives in the area of seeking employment opportunities: The extent to which advice will be sought from friends and relatives in the area of the sons' marital choice: The extent to which advice will be sought from friends and relatives in the area of the daughters' marital choice: The extent to which advice will be sought from friends and relatives in the area of investment: The extent to which advice will be sought from friends and relatives in the area of sexual compatibility: The extent of exchanging regular visits, and gifts, amongst friends, relatives and neighbors during the occurrence of illness: The extent of exchanging regular visits, and gifts, amongst friends, relatives and neighbors during the occasion of feasts and holydays: The extent of exchanging regular visits, and gifts, amongst friends, relatives and neighbors on the occasion of the sons and daughters success in educational exams: The extent of exchanging regular visits, and gifts, amongst friends, relatives and neighbors during the occasions of Hajj and Umrah: The extent of exchanging regular visits, and gifts, amongst friends, relatives and neighbors on the occasion of a homecoming when a member of the community has had to live away from home in order to find employment: The extent of exchanging regular visits, and gifts, amongst friends, relatives and neighbors on the occasion of a birth.

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•

The participation and presentation of gifts to/from the relatives and friends during various celebrations:

1.

The participation and presentation of gifts to/from the relatives and friends during the celebration of Al Sebooa, the seventh day of the newborn: The participation and presentation of gifts to/from the relatives and friends on the celebration of the circumcision of boys: The participation of the relatives and friends during the occasion of “Al Arbaeen” i.e. the fortieth day after the death of the deceased: The participation of the relatives and friends on the anniversary of the deceased: The participation and presentation of gifts from the relatives and friends during the celebration of the preparatory visit to the bride's family for an engagement: The participation and presentation of gifts from the relatives and friends during the celebration of Al Shabka i.e. the ceremony when the engagement ring is presented: The social participation and exchange of gifts, between the groom and bride's family during the period of courtship: The participation and presentation of gifts from the relatives and friends in furnishing the marital home in preparation for the wedding: The participation from the relatives and friends in the settlement of disputes, which may have broken off the engagement: The participation and presentation of gifts from the relatives and friends in celebration of providing the dowry: The participation and presentation of gifts from the relatives and friends in celebration of the marriage party: The participation and presentation of gifts from the relatives and friends in celebration of the bride's adornment and in travelling to the wedding: The participation and presentation of gifts from the relatives and friends in celebration of the groom's adornment and in travelling to the wedding: The participation and presentation of gifts from the relatives and friends in preparation for the wedding (the bridal dress, the invitation to attend the ceremony, decorations in the house both of the bride and groom, songs and dances, providing sherbet joy, the bride and groom's sharing in eating the wedding cake, dinner invitations, filming the concert, the wedding joyful hype, transfer of bride and groom to the marital home):

2. 3. 4. 5.

6.

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

13.

14.

“Questions on Marital Choice in Contemporary Egyptian Society”

41

15. The participation and presentation of gifts from/to the relatives and friends during "Al Sabaheya" celebration - the first morning after the wedding: 16. The participation and presentation of gifts from/to the relatives and friends in celebration of the seventh day after the couple’s wedding: •

The responsibilities, communication and possible shunning of the bride and groom after the wedding:

1.

The bride's mother’s responsibilities, communication and towards the bride and groom after the wedding: The groom's mother responsibilities, communication and towards the bride and groom after the wedding: The bride's father responsibilities, communication and towards the bride and groom after the wedding: The groom's father responsibilities, communication and towards the bride and groom after the wedding: The bride's sister’s responsibilities, communication and towards the bride and groom after the wedding: The groom's brother’s responsibilities, communication and towards the bride and groom after the wedding:

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

shunning shunning shunning shunning shunning shunning

•

Providing advice to the newlyweds:

1.

Tips offered by the mother of the bride, or her aunt, regarding how to deal with the groom at the wedding: Tips offered for the bride by girlfriends at the wedding: Tips offered for the groom by friends about dealing with the bride at the wedding: Tales that tell about the wedding night: Announcement of the bride’s virginity when the marriage is complete:

2. 3. 4. 5.

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Tenth - Arabic blogs on the customs and traditions of marriage amongst Christians in Arab Societies: x The customs and traditions of marriage amongst Christians in Iraq: It is known that there is more than one way in which marriage is celebrated in different cultures, that is because each country and its people have their own customs and traditions. Regarding the traditions in Iraq, among the most prominent marriage rituals is enrolling the betrothed in a course of education in the church for at least one month, the purpose of which is to prepare them psychologically and to educate them in the social and moral values, and mutual respect, which should prevail between the two in order to live in love and sincerity. Marriage ceremony lasts three days from the first day of marriage. After preparing the wedding supplies a relative of the groom is made the attendant for the party to an end and he calls “AL Eshpeen” (best man) as well as “Al Eshpinah” (maid of honour) for the bride. In Iraq there is only one “Eshpeen” and one “Eshpinah”, but in other countries there could be six or more. The wedding celebrations begin with the groom, and his family and relatives, travelling to the bride's house with the sound of music and dancing. After arriving and meeting the bride, and before going out of the door of the bride's house, one of the relatives of the bride stands and closes the door to prevent the bride from leaving with the groom, unless a symbolic ransom is paid. After taking the ransom from the groom he gives way to them - the groom and the bride - to go out with sounds of joy. Then the couple travel to the church to begin the marriage ceremony, at the hands of the clergy, on the basis of the word of God. The ceremony and church rituals follow in the presence of invited guests, and friends of the relatives, from the two sides. After the completion of the ceremony the priest announces that the couple are husband and wife. After completion of the marriage ceremony in the church the wedding celebrations start at a place specified by the couple, or their families. The celebrations include the Eastern dance, “AL Dabkeh”, which does not differ much from among the other components of Iraqi society, which mostly involves the tangle of hands amongst each other to confirm solidarity, love and unity. Musicians play the drum and flute, the banquet is prepared and the presentation of gifts takes place.

“Questions on Marital Choice in Contemporary Egyptian Society”

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On the second day, during the afternoon, there is a gathering in the house of the groom in the presence of his relatives, and the bride’s family, with “AL Dabkeh” dances and banquets. As for the third day, to conclude the proceedings, the bride’s family arrive at early dawn to take her to her family home to await the arrival of the groom in the afternoon. The groom comes with his family and relatives, with “Alzerna” (drums and flute), to the bride's house to take her again, and here the girl's father must donate anything from the house and give it to the bride in front of the guests, or say to one of the members of the groom’s relatives that he can take anything he wants from the bride’s family home. Traditionally, it was the custom to take one or two sheep, and dance with the livestock till they arrive at the marital house. Then “AL Dabkeh” and joyful celebrations start again. During the celebration, anything can be taken from the bride by one of the friends, or relatives, of the groom. One of the guests might say to the bride: “Can I try on your shoes?”, or, “Is your wedding ring size the same as mine?” The guest may take the ring and insist it is not returned to the bride until she pays a ransom. The bride must be very wary of that game. At midnight, the marriage ceremony ends and all who have attended return to their homes after three days of joy. (http://ahlaalsalawat.montadarabi.com/t1157-topic In Arabic) x The popular traditions, and the religious rituals, of weddings in Lebanon: The customs and rituals practiced by the Christians and Muslims: although they differ in religious orientation, they are in the same vein, and the Lebanese people follow the same traditional customs and traditions that precede the wedding ceremony. First, on the wedding day, the groom's parents and family travel in a decorated car to the bride’s house. They are received with “AL zgarrid” expressing joy - by the bride's family and are welcomed with drinks and sweets, and by taking photographs and joining in punctuated dances. The bride, accompanied by her parents, travels in a special car to the church.. Then both the bride and groom's families travel to the church in cars. Everyone toots the car horns loudly. At the church, the groom and the first Eshbeen, wait for the bride who arrives with her first Eshbeena and some friends and family members. At the front of the church, the bride's father introduces the bride to the groom and then all the guests enter into the church as music begins to play.

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The marriage contract among the Christians is so-called “Al Ekleel”. This is related to the crowns which are placed on the heads of the couple during the ceremony, which is performed by a priest. The ceremony includes a speech by the cleric expressing the meaning of marriage, and its importance in the renewal of birth and building a family in the context of love and mutual respect between the couple. Then comes the classic question that is asked of the couple, and the answer of it, of course, should be ‘yes’ from both them, to complete the marriage. The question is: “Do you accept this woman, standing before you, as your wife?” Then the same question is asked of the bride. The priest may also add: "For better, or for worse, until death do you part?” If the answer is ‘yes’, the priest announces the couple as husband and wife, testified by the church, and the two “Eshbeens” and guests. After the wedding ceremony, the guests accept the prior invitation to the reception at a restaurant, which is determined by the financial standing of the groom. A dinner, or luncheon, is held in honor of the bride and groom amidst an atmosphere of joy, music and dancing. There are Western habits practiced today, when two white doves may be released to fly, and the first dance is reserved for the bride and groom. (http://www.sawtakonline.com/forum/showthread.php?94491, In Arabic.)

CHAPTER FOUR “THE PHENOMENON OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION GIRLS CIRCUMCISION IN EGYPTIAN SOCIETY”

This project is a socio-anthropological field research on "The cultural and social foundations of the phenomenon of girl’s circumcision i.e. genital mutilation, and the governmental and private efforts for opposing and leading to the decrease in numbers of its occurrence" in the rural and urban environments in the Bedouin and in the rural and urban regions of Egyptian society. It is inquiring of the cognition and evaluation of the female informants’ information, taken from young unmarried and married women, concerning the following issues: 1. Ethnography of the phenomenon of female genital mutilation (People's view of the extent of the phenomenon in urban and rural environments, and cultural and economic stratifications of the traditional medical practices, and health care, of circumcised girls, and the social context and festivals taking place within the practice of circumcision). 2. The religious, health, ethical, aesthetic, and sexual constituents of the phenomenon of female circumcision (such as the people's traditional religious beliefs, inherited social traditions from African origins, folk cultural and medical beliefs, traditional controlling of the female sexual arousal, ways for compatibility in the marital-sexual relationship). 3. Community view for the reasons leading to developing governmental, and private, efforts to oppose female genital mutilation (such as the growing sense of the implication of circumcision concerning abuse to the female body, the bad psychological effects on circumcised girls, the open societal debate on marital incompatibility issues, problems of drug abuse -women’s health problems, particularly in cases of the so-called Sudanese circumcision and marriage that brings foreign women into the new generation). 4. The governmental, and private, efforts for opposing and leading to the decrease in numbers of the occurrence of circumcision in girls: NGO's activities in the fight against female circumcision, legislative intervention and the criminalization of female genital mutilation, mass media programs

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against female circumcision, especially regarding religion, the growing freedom and ability to express and search for sexual compatibility, the medical care of girls with sexual problems and the growing awareness of the risks of the practice of female circumcision. The following is a questionnaire on the Study of "The cultural and social foundations of the phenomenon of female circumcision and the governmental, and private, efforts towards opposing and leading to the decrease in numbers of its occurrence" There were great governmental, and private, efforts during the 199 0s in this area to develop an intense awareness of the serious implications of the practice of female circumcision in Egyptian society. Some people attributed this to the impact of globalization, the Beijing Conference and the media hype and exaggeration of the bad effects of the phenomenon, but there were also efforts to investigate, objectively review and evaluate the traditional practices, especially after the declaration of nonuniversality, not in all, but in most of the Arab or Muslim societies. There were frequent conflicts over its origins, since the exaggerated form of female circumcision is known as Sudanese Circumcision in Egypt, whilst it is known as Egyptian Circumcision in the Sudan.

The Questionnaire Preliminary data: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8.

Place of residence of the family: Desert ( ) Countryside ( ) attended ( ) Religion: Father profession: Mother profession: Father's education: Reads and writes ( ) Secondary education ( ) High education ( ) Mother's education: Reads and writes ( ) Secondary education ( ) High education ( ) Are there girls amongst your family at an age at which they would usually be circumcised? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘yes’ was answered to the previous question ask the following one: Has circumcision been carried out on any daughter in the family? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘yes’ was answered to the previous question asks the following questions:

“Female Genital Mutilation Girls Circumcision in Egyptian Society”

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33.

47

How do you, as a father, justify the necessity to conduct a circumcision? As a father, what is your point of view on the positive effects of circumcision for girls? What is your point of view on the negative effects of the lack of circumcision for girls? What is the popular point of view regarding the un circumcised girl, from the standpoint of the family? At what age is circumcision conducted within your family? Who decides that circumcision will be carried out? How did you prepare your daughter(s) mentally for the circumcision? What preparations are made before a circumcision?: Were your daughter(s) suddenly confronted by their mother, or a female relative, telling her the decision that the circumcision would be conducted shortly? Are circumcisions hidden from some members of the family? Who are they? Where is the process of circumcision carried out?: What happens during the process of circumcision? How did you, as the father, help the girl to accept the circumcision? Who are the relatives that are in attendance beside your daughter(s) when circumcision takes place?: Is there any follow-up, or health care, when your daughter(s) are circumcised, and, if so, what form does it take? Has the process of circumcision ever caused any health problems for your daughter(s)? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘yes’ was answered then ask the following two questions: What were the health problems? How were the problems treated? Were your newly circumcised daughter(s) cared for in terms of nutrition? Were there any restrictions imposed on your newly circumcised daughter(s): Was your daughter(s) exposed to envy? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘yes’ was answered then ask the following question: How was this prevented? Were there ceremonials for the female circumcision, and, if so what form did they take? Is there a common season for female circumcision? What are the reasons for this?

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34. Do you, as a father, intend to circumcise your daughters in the future? Yes ( ) No ( ), and why? 35. Do you believe that female circumcision has any influence on a marital relationship? 36. If so, what is that? 37. Do you believe that an un-circumcised girl will be condemned by the community? Yes ( ) No ( ) 38. Why is that? 39. Does circumcision cause health problems in some cases? Yes ( ) No ( ) 40. What are these health problems? 41. Does circumcision cause problems within marital relationships in some cases? Yes ( ) No ( ) 42. If so, what are these problems? 43. Are you aware of the religious texts regarding female circumcision? What are they? 44. What is your source of information regarding female circumcision? 45. Do you believe that, in some cases, the circumcision of a married woman can cause drug abuse by their husbands,? Yes ( ) No ( ) 46. Are you aware of the recent criminalization of female circumcision? Yes ( ) No ( ) 47. How are you confronting that issue in continuing to circumcise your daughter(s) when they reach a certain age? 48. Why do you insist on conducting female circumcision? 49. Are you aware of the discussions that are reported in the media regarding female circumcision? Yes ( ) No ( ) 50. In case of Yes or No, what is your response to what is being said? 51. Are you aware of what religious clerics are preaching regarding female circumcision? Yes ( ) No ( ) 52. In case of Yes or No, what is your response to what is being said? 53. Are you aware of the discussions regarding female circumcision within the nongovernmental societies? Yes ( ) No ( ) 54. In case of Yes or No, what is your response to what is being said? Second - Ask the following questions for the circumcised mother: 1. 2. 3.

What are the memories you have of when the operation of circumcision was carried out on you? If the decision were solely up to you, would you be against your daughter’s circumcision? Yes ( ) No ( ) Why is that?

“Female Genital Mutilation Girls Circumcision in Egyptian Society”

49

4.

Are there any lasting effects of your circumcision in your marital relationship? Yes ( ) No ( ) 5. In case of ‘Yes’ what are they? 6. Did you have any difficulties during childbirth because of your circumcision? Yes ( ) No ( ) 7. Have you experienced difficulties regarding sexual intimacy within your marital relationship, because of your circumcision? Yes ( ) No ( ) 8. If the answer was ‘yes’ to the previous question ask “how was it dealt with”? 9. As far as you are aware, is the effect of circumcision commonly known as frigidity? Yes ( ) No ( ) 10. Is it common for lack of demand for the marriage of circumcised women? Yes ( ) No ( ) 11. Why is that? 12. Is it usual, these days, for men to be willing to marry an uncircumcised women? Yes ( ) No ( ) Third - In the case of a ‘no’ answer to the previous question: “Has a circumcision been carried out on one of your daughters?” Ask the following questions: 1. 2. 3.

What are your reasons for refusing a circumcision? What is your view on the negative effects of female circumcision? What is your view on the positive effects of their daughter(s) remaining un circumcised? 4. Revelation of the popular vision for the circumcised girl from the standpoint of the family: 5. Revelation of the popular vision for the un-circumcised girl from the standpoint of the family: 6. Does circumcision causes any health problems for their daughter(s)? What are they? 7. Do you intend to circumcise your daughters in the future? Yes ( ) No ( ) 8. Why is that? 9. Is female circumcision of any impact in marital relationships? 10. What is that impact? 11. Do you believe your circumcised daughter(s) will be accepted, or condemned, by the community? Why is that? 12. Has circumcision, in some cases, resulted in any health problems? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘yes’ answered: What were they?

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13. Does circumcision, in some cases, cause problems within marital relationships? Yes ( ) No ( ) 14. If ‘yes’ answered: What are they? 15. Do you remember the religious texts about female circumcision? What are they? 16. What is your source of information regarding the issue of female genital mutilation?: 17. Does the circumcision of a married woman cause her husband's drugs abuse? Yes ( ) No ( ) 18. Are you aware of the discussions that are reported in the media regarding female circumcision? Yes ( ) No ( ) 19. In case of Yes or No, what do you think about what is being said? 20. Are you aware of the religious clerics preaching on the issue of female circumcision? Yes ( ) No ( ) 21. In case of Yes or No, what do you think about what they say? 22. Are you aware of the discussions regarding female circumcision within the nongovernmental organizations? Yes ( ) No ( ) 23. In case of Yes or No, what do you think about what they say?

CHAPTER FIVE “THE ILLITERATES CULTURE IN ARAB SOCIETIES”

Introduction: Even though the art of writing had been born in Egypt, the ratio of illiteracy is too high in contemporary Egyptian society. It is about 24.9% in Egypt, but it is 17.7% among males and 30.7 among females. It is too high in spite of the instigation and application of governmental, and nongovernmental, projects of literacy and adult education, which have been implemented since the 195 0s Primary education has been compulsory since World War II, but failure in education is continuing amongst males, and is more so amongst females. There are many reasons for that, as it is a result of: the backward infrastructure and teaching techniques, poverty, high birth ratio, unemployment amongst the educated and the opportunities for unskilled labor. Of course, literacy and adult education should be a top priority in developing countries, in order to face the consequences of illiteracy such as, prevalence of illness, crime, law productivity, ecological deterioration, violence, extremism, unhealthy pregnancy, and addictions. It is true that all of those problems do not only exist amongst the illiterates. Some of the above may actually be more prevalent amongst the educated, but illiteracy makes way, for example, for the opportunity to think and behave unwisely The illiterates have their own oral culture. Certainly they have religious, political, economic, aesthetical, medical and environmental information etc., through which they live out their daily lives, but they also have their own ideas and experiences, as indeed they have their own problems, which should be considered by their society. The aim of the project is to present questions on the culture of the illiterates as follows: First - Questions about literacy programs.

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Second- Questions about the social life, and leisure time, of the illiterates. Third- Documentation of the folk proverbs, and sayings, that are handed down amongst the illiterates, which are expressive of their knowledge, and their experience of life: Fourth - The illiterates’ self-cognition of their social position. Fifth - The illiterates’ information sources. Sixth - The folk proverbs: An oral source of illiterates’ information:

Questionnaire on the Culture of the Illiterates Preliminary data about informant: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Place of birth: Marital Status: Current residence: (nomadic environment) (rural ( urban environment ( ) Main occupation: Educational Status of the husband:

)

First - Questions on literacy programs: Your educational history: Did you ever go to school? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘yes’ answer the following: 1. Years of study: 2. Reasons for leaving school: If ‘no’ answered for the previous question ask the following question: Reasons for not attending a primary school: Reasons for enrollment in the literacy programs: Evaluation of the literacy program: 1. Why did you specifically join this literacy program? 2. When did you start the program? 3. What are your main aims in joining the program? 4. Had you been enrolled in a literacy program prior to this? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘yes’: 1. In what way did you benefit from the previous program? 2. Why did you not continue to attend that program?

“The Illiterates Culture in Arab Societies”

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

53

What were the advantages of the former literacy program? What were the disadvantages of the former program? How would you evaluate the current program? What is your opinion of the current program in terms of the time allocated for study? What is your opinion of the current program in terms of the space of the study: What is your opinion of the current program in terms of the educational methods used in the study? What are the more interesting elements in the program? What do you feel is difficult in the program? What do you feel is irrelevant in the program? What is your evaluation of the teaching methods used in the program? What sort of topics would interest you, which are not found in the program? Are you keen to do your literacy homework? If ‘no’ answered ask the following question: What reasons do you have for not doing your literacy homework regularly? If yes’ answered to the previous question: Does a member of the family assist you in your work? Who encourages you to continue with the literacy programs? And, in your opinion, why do you think they do that? Who discourages you to continue with the program? Why do you think they do that? What changes would you expect to find in your personal life after completing the program successfully? What do you feel you have lost because your early education was not completed successfully? What are the reasons for your determination to enrol and complete this program in particular? What is your subjections to increasing in the efficiency of this program:

Second - Questions on the social life, and leisure time, of the illiterates: 1. 2. 3.

What do you think are the areas where most of the youth spend their leisure time nowadays? Do you believe that most parents are in control of how their children, spend their free time? Do you think that many parents share leisure time with their children?

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4.

Do you think that many children consult their parents sometimes as to how to spend their leisure time? 5. Do you feel that there are sufficient areas available for recreation? 6. Which recreation areas do you feel could be further developed? 7. Do you feel that often you don’t know what to do in your spare time? 8. Is it true that people are suffering at the moment because of a lack of friends who can be relied upon? 9. What concerns do you have about harmful entertainment that is enjoyed by some young people at the present time? 10. Have you visited archaeological sites within Alexandria? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘yes’ answered: 11. Which sites did you visit? 12. With whom did you visit those places? 13. Have you visited archaeological sites outside the city of Alexandria? Yes ( ) No ( ) 14. The ownership of the accounts of banks or post offices: Yes ( ) No ( ) 15. How does a father behave towards his son who will not accept enrollment in primary education? 16. How does a father behave towards his daughter who will not accept enrollment in primary education? 17. Is the marriage of an educated woman, whose father is an uneducated man, acceptable?: Third - Documentation of the folk proverbs and sayings that are handed down amongst the illiterates, which express their knowledge, and their experience of life: What is said by the illiterates to express their cognition of the following? Chastity, Caucasian women, colored women, women who are overweight, women who are too slim, mothers of many children, infertile women, the wife of the father, the mother's husband, the wife's mother, the husband's sister, the mother in law, a young bride, the bride's great age, the eldest daughter, the divorced woman, a widowed woman, the childish man, the honor of the young virgin woman, the brother of the wife, the wife's sister, the paternal uncle, the maternal uncle, the grandmother, grandfather, profligate wife, the intelligent wife, the miserly husband, the polygamous man, the serial monogamous woman, the polygamous women, beautiful women, women who are not good-looking, the unveiled

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women, women who come into wealth, men of sudden wealth, people who talk too much, people who don’t talk enough, the devil, the sun, the moon, silence, the immature woman, i.e. older woman behaving as if she were still young, women who give birth to males, women who give birth to females, birth, poverty, wealth, sudden wealth, illness, good health, death, youth, aging, prudence, wisdom, madness, the love of women, the love of money, hatred, jealousy, envy, gold, silver, alienation, dreams, optimism, pessimism, greed, generosity, fulfillment, honesty, intelligence, stupidity, foolishness, civility, prudence, fear of poverty, fear of death, confidence in women, trust in friends, a woman's confidence in a man, vanity, humility, courage, frequency, impulse, an aversion wife, love, platonic love, homosexuality, lesbianism, patience, rushing, war, relationships of peace, violence in dealing with others, friendship between men, friendship between women, friendship between men and women, cheese and cowards , parsimony, the loveless, good luck, bad luck, optimism, pessimism, popular superstitions surrounding back cats, the snake, the dog, the camel, the lion, rain, thunder, the rain, the moon, the sun, summer, autumn, winter, spring, the common view of experiences and lessons learned from personal experience, the common view of science and scientists, the common view of politicians, and business men. Fourth - The illiterates self cognition of their social position: 1.

The illiterates view of the difficulties they face because of illiteracy in their marital choice: 2. The illiterates view of the difficulties they face because of illiteracy in their business: 3. The illiterates view of the difficulties they face because of illiteracy in maintaining the confidentiality of their own affairs: 4. The illiterates view of difficulties they face because of illiteracy in the knowledge of political news: 5. The illiterates view of the difficulties they face because of illiteracy in the knowledge of the religious do's and don'ts: 6. The illiterates cognition of the difficulties they face because of illiteracy in the area of political participation: 7. The difficulties they face because of illiteracy in the follow-up of children's education: 8. The difficulties they face because of illiteracy in guiding their children: 9. The difficulties they face because of illiteracy in dealing with governmental agencies: 10. The difficulties they face because of illiteracy in the follow-up

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11. development in their businesses, or industries: 12. The difficulties they face in dealing with their bank accounts: 13. The difficulties they face because of illiteracy in the marriage of their sons: 14. The difficulties they face because of illiteracy in the marriage of their daughters: 15. The difficulties they face because of illiteracy in taking medications: 16. The difficulties they face because of illiteracy in travel: 17. The illiterates view of the link between illiteracy and low income: 18. The illiterates view of the extent of the link between illiteracy and low political awareness: 19. The illiterates view of the link between illiteracy and a low awareness of religious texts: 20. The illiterates view of the extent of the link between literacy and low health awareness: 21. The illiterates view of the extent of the link between literacy and non-observance of the rules of " etiquette": 22. The illiterates view of the link between illiteracy and low aesthetic sense: 23. The illiterates view of the extent of the link between illiteracy and a lack of awareness of traffic rules: 24. The illiterates view of the extent of the link between literacy and a tendency to be violent: 25. The illiterates view of the extent of the link between literacy and a tendency to polygamy: 26. The illiterates view of the extent of the link between literacy and a tendency for families to have large numbers of children: Fifth - The illiterates information sources: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

The extent of illiterates follow-up illiterate what it offers or published in the newspapers: The extent of illiterates follow-up what it offers or published in journals: The extent of illiterates follow-up what it offers or published in TV: The extent of illiterates follow-up radio programs: The extent of illiterates follow-up the theater The extent of illiterates follow-up the cinema: The extent of illiterates follow-up publishing on the web: Favorite items in the media programs- news items: Favorite items in the media programs - Arabic serials:

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Favorite items in the software media - TV Shows: Favorite items in the media programs - religious programs: Favorite items in the software media - television interviews: Favorite items in the media programs - announcements: Favorite items in the media programs - fashion shows: Favorite items in the media programs - football games: Favorite items in the media programs - wrestling: Favorite items in the media programs - commercials:

Sixth - The folk proverbs: An oral source of the illiterates information: The Arab societies, like other societies in the present time, are facing structural challenges because of expected environmental disasters as a result of the overexploitation of people in developed and underdeveloped countries. The degradation of natural resources, the population explosion, unplanned migration and demographic changes, globalization and the erosion of privacy, political and cultural conflict, economic breakdown and the increase of poverty and sense of deprivation, plus the deterioration of traditional social ties and the expansion of a new generation’s vision regarding the values of marriage and the family, political crises and conflicts, and growing ideological extremism in both directions. All of these are apparent not only among literate people, but they are also known by the illiterates in one way or another. These structural challenges have their impact, in particular, on the Arab social systems and lifestyle, and it is reflected in the popular/ traditional knowledge and ancient Arabic proverbs. The target of this project is to document Arabic contemporary popular expressions / folk proverbs about the following issues: A woman's honor, the marital relationship, marital choice and the arranged marriage of an uncle's daughter, a woman's beauty, love and hate, choosing a spouse- the wife of the Son and of sludge, customary and "AL Mesyar" marriage. It also aims to document the Arabic proverbs which express the community view as to the kind of care for parents and the status of older people, cousin's rights, friendship, travel companions and neighbor's rights, conservatism in relationships, alienation, and to be cautious and not rush to judge things. The folk proverbs could be expressing the social cognition of the profession of grazing, income and the pursuit of laziness, the value of money, contentment, generosity and avarice, not to fall with the first blow, patience, optimism and pessimism, envy, and the inevitability of sanction,

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arrogance and conceit and lack of expertise and pretension, ignorance and arrogance, a warning that most fires begin with a small spark, the view of poverty, and do you have your origins, the value of privacy and perseverance, the perception of selfishness, hypocrisy and vanity, the value of work, manipulation, sense of disappointment, the value of children, self-esteem and the recalcitrance of a friend, the value of noncompactness, and the vision of his merits, peaceful withholding of ones opinions, no secrets in the desert, nature of both men and women, what is said in the falsification of history, jealousy, impatience, and impossible to verify the possibilities, a man reaps what he sows, the ability to confront matters, the need for self-reliance in decision-making, what is said when you see the debauchery, what is said in orphan hood, the position of stepmother, and an aversion to the old woman.

“Working directory in the study of proverbs and social control” A - The following information may be considered while recording popular proverbs: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

The text of the proverb: The meaning of the proverb: When the proverb is set as an example: Who usually recites the proverb: Information on the different wordings of the proverb: The informants place of residence: Bedouin( ) Rural( ) Urban( ) The informants place of birth: The informants age: The informants educational Status: Illiterate ( ) Read and Write ( ) University graduate ( ) 10. The informants gender: Male ( ) Female ( ) B - The informants are requested to recite the popular proverbs, which are frequently said about the following topics: 1 - Righteousness for the parents, 2 - Keenness on learning, 3 - Rights of friendship, 4 - The status of wives, 5 - Choosing a spouse for daughters, 6 Rights of a cousin, 7 - Farming, 8 - Religion and religiosity, 9 - Saving and investments, 10 - Good manners,11 - contentment, 12 – A woman's honor, 13 - Patience 14 - Faithfulness, 15 - The marriage of an uncle's daughter.16 Power and authority, 17 - Fighting between relatives, 18 - The status of the

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elderly, 19 - Compassion amongst relatives 20 - Rights of the neighborhood, 21 - The relationship between mother - in – law’s and husband's mother and the wife 's mother, 22 - Rights of the travel companion, 23 - Winning gifted livelihood, 24 - Envy, 23 - Love and hate, 25 - Generosity, 26 - Beauty, 27 Laziness, 28 - The tongue, 29 - Foulness, 30 – The overweight woman, 31 Marriage of the maternal uncle’s daughter, 32 - The jinx - pessimism, 33 Leniency, 34 - Experience with the matters, 35 - Visits between relatives and friends, 36 - The status of the husband, 37 - Selection of the wife of the son, 38 - Alienation, 39 - Working in grazing, 40 - Destiny and gifts from God, 41 - Wastefulness, 42 - Foreigners 43 - Avarice and miserliness, 44 The face, 45 - Buying and selling 46 - The virgin young woman, 47 Freedom, 48 - Optimism, 49 - Childishness, 50 - False claims of the acquisition of knowledge. C - Also, the informants are requested to recite the folk proverbs, which are frequently ‘coloured’ against, or in favor, of the following: x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

People from different countries. People from different regions in one’s own county. People from different ethnic origins. People who speak with a different dialect. People from different age groups. People who have studied with different educational programs. People with a different sexual orientation. People who have different skills or professions. People from different cultural/political orientations. The proverbs which express the informant's self evaluation. The reflection of economic issues/ problems/ events within the popular proverbs. The reflection of political issues/ problems/ events within the popular proverbs. The image of different animals within the popular proverbs. The image of different metals within the popular proverbs. The image of femininity within the popular proverbs. The image of masculinity within the popular proverbs. Marriage in the popular proverbs. Sons in the popular proverbs. Daughters in the popular proverbs. Consanguine relationships held within the popular proverbs. The rich and poor in the popular proverbs. Beauty and ugliness within the popular proverbs.

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The conception of time in the popular proverbs. Olden times within the popular proverbs. The present time within the popular proverbs. Death and the after life within the popular proverbs. The reflection of ideological/ traditional beliefs in the popular proverbs. x Sexuality within the popular proverbs. x x x x x

D - This project aims also to document the traditional/ folklore knowledge. The following table of issues, subjects and concepts could be relevant in documenting the traditional/ folklore or popular knowledge: First - The ecological ingredients: 1 Earth: 2. Heaven: 3. Sun: 4. Moon: 5. Stars: 6. Sky: 7. Time: 8. Vacuum: 9. Fire: 10. Cold: 11. Night: 12. Day: 13. Spring: 14. Summer: 15. Autumn: 16. Winter: 17. Seas: 18. Rivers: 19. Mountains: 20. Plains: 21. Deserts: 22. Water: 23. Air: 24. Wind: 25. Rain: 26. Storms: 27. Thunder: 28. Lightning: 29. Plants: 30. Animals: 31. Sahara: 32. Minerals: 33. Stones: 34. Villages: 35. Cities: 36. Homes: Secondly - the demographic composition: Breeds and the human race: 1. Caucasian skin: 2. Coloured skin: 3. Height: 4. Short stature: 5. Obesity: 6. Slim build: 7. Health: 8. Disease: 9. Multiple births: 10. Barren women: 11. Infertility: 12. Longevity: 13. Palace Age: 14. The Inheritance of physical characteristics: 15. Visual acuity: 16. Visual impairment: 17. Eyes: 18. Hair: 19. Teeth: 20. Mouth: 21. Nose: 22. Hands: 23. Arms: 24. Chest: 25. Belly: 26. Football: • Demographic characteristics: 1. Hustle: 2. Population decline: 3. Immigration of Foreign Affairs: 4. Immigration to cities: 5. Male successors: 6. Female successors: 7. Bachelors: 8. Divorced men: 9. The deposed man: 10. Divorced women: 11. Male infertility: 12. Female infertility: 13. Aging men: 14. Aging women. Thirdly - Folk proverbs that mirror the culture of illiterates: The popular view of the validity (accepting or rejecting) of frequent folk proverbs: What is your view of the following proverbs? Frequent folk proverbs about friendship: 1. Man is of the same religion as his close friend.

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If you keep love you'll see that the interior face of it is better than the explicit one. When adversity is shared, Brotherhood is really known. Your friend deserves your blood and money. Your brother is one who gives honest advice. The continuation of friendship is due to the loyalty of one partner or of both. The one who makes you face the Lion, does not deserve your friendship. Good brothers are those who forgive, and forget. Your close neighbor is more useful in case of emergencies, than your brother. Do not ask about the man, but rather ask about his companion. There may be a brother yet, that has not been born by your mother. It is better to be alone, than to be with an unpleasant companion. Friend is either benefiting or intercedes. The companion is o like companion. Be true to your friends, even in the case of a fire. Be sure of who your companion is before you take to the road. Your brother is one who comforts you in your time of need. Love your friends and cajole your enemies. The good things is the new and good friends are the those from olden times. The brothers are recommended as they are accessories in prosperity and packing in case of needing.

Frequent folk proverbs about friendship love: 1. A lover’s fury is as a heavy rainstorm in summer. 2. No advice in love. 3. The most beloved nothing is what prevented. 4. Love may be infused in a moment. 5. Man is with whom he loved. 6. The beloved is always be mentioned. 7. Do not allow your love to make you biased all of the time, and do not allow your anger to be destructive. 8. Absence makes the heart grow fonder. 9. Nothing creates a heartache more than lovers parting. 10. The lonely foreigner is he/she who is without a lover. 11. Nothing is more unwelcome than a sergeant between a loving couple. 12. Love is blind, and deaf. 14. Love is a bump and the lover is blind.

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Frequent folk proverbs about anger: 1. The one who shows his anger frequently, shows poor tactical judgement. 2. The one who controls his anger, his enemy take care of him. 3. Anger destroys the mind. 4. The quickest answer comes when a man is calm. 5. The one who obeys his anger ignores his intellect. 6. The beginning of anger is madness, and it ends with remorse. 7. The greatest struggle is the struggle against oneself. 8. Beware of your brother's anger. Frequent folk proverbs about envy: 1. The one who envies you will not be satisfied until you die. 2. Envy is the weight which its bearer does not ever put down. 3. No rest for the wicked. 4. The one who has envy sees the demise of grace that is upon you, as a grace upon himself. 5. Those who envy have never mastered themselves. 6. Those who live by the sword, die by the sword. 7. Envy is so fair, when it be shown of someone it kills him. 8. Those who envy are the least pleased with life. 9. It would appear that those who envy were only created to be resentful. 10. It is enough that those who envy become downhearted at the sight of your joy. 11. The envious of grace does not please him, but its demise. 12. The one who is envious is poor in spirit and those who know him despise him. Frequent folk proverbs about parsimony: 1. The miser is deprived of his property. 2. Chivalry does not come from one who is miserly. 3. The misers right hand does not help his left. 4. The richest of the rich who is not prisoner in his scrimp. 5. The parsimony had humiliated the necks of men. 6. The miser has a great hallway, but he is poor in spirit concerning ethics. 7. The miser’s richness is poverty and his kitchen is poor. Frequent folk proverbs about patience: 1. When I am drowning, why do I fear getting wet.

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The consequence of patience is beauty. The best manner in a man is in being patient. His patience is more the wedge's patience while being strike. Patience is when the initiation of being shocked. Patience is key to the solution. If patience is sour then its result is sweet. There is need to leave the orphan crying. Patience to oneself is better than the patience of others towards you. Those who are patient succeed in the end. The medicine for fate is patience. Patience is the trick of helpless. Be patient with those you hate and love.

Frequent folk proverbs about justice: 1. Be fairer than the balance of scales. 2. The penalty is of the kind of work. 3. The wise man does not refute the correct and not entitled to accept unfairness. 4. The one who struggles against righteousness will be defeated. 5. The one who makes you equal unto himself is not wronged. 6. The one who digs a hole for his brother will fall into it. 7. Repentance is better than continuing to do wrong. 8. This is equal to that, but the initiator is more unjust. 9. Who is forewarned, is forearmed. 10. Admonishment should come before punishment. 11. Do not judge lest you are judged yourself. 12. The unjust will be punished sooner or later. 13. When fate comes the space is narrow. 14. An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. 15. The right is a state and the wrong is a round. 16. Justice is the basis of ruling. Frequent folk proverbs about generosity: 1. God is generous and loves generosity. 2. If you are generous with the noble you will own him. 3. The most generous relationship is the most long-lasting. 4. The pest of generosity is the wasteful. 5. To be generous is to give of what you possess 6. The biggest pot gives room for others. 7. Generosity of spirit is to have equality with all men 8. The best generosity is to give without receiving anything in return.

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9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Be as generous as Hatem Al Taii. Generosity comes - is expected - from the noble. Generously forgetting the gift is as a golden necklace for the giver. The promise is a cloud and the giving is its rain. Richness in the hands of the depraved is as ugly as the ugliness of poverty in the hands of those who are humble. 14. A smiling face is a sign of generosity. 15. It is better to be generous in giving before the deadline. Frequent folk proverbs about courage: 1. Great things are small in the eyes of great men. 2. Intelligence comes before the courage of the brave. 3. Who don't face horrors never been given the demands. 4. The butcher does not fear multitude of sheep. 5. All types of courage are required in life, but wise courage is the most required. 6. Men are saved for the hardships. 7. The courage of the horse comes from the knight. 8. If the coward is alone, he resorts to fighting. 9. The sword is more informing than books, 10. Those who face difficulties head on succeed in facing misfortune. Frequent folk proverbs about science: 1. Ignorance is the worst companion. 2. Fine requesting at need is a half of the knowledge. 3. Science without action is a fruitless tree. 4. Scientific knowledge is as a light to all who benefit from it. 5. Scientific knowledge is the greatest honor. 6. The lesion which threatens science is oblivion. 7. Scientists are heirs of the prophets, 8. The best companion in leisure time is a book. 9. Man's scientific knowledge is a loyal son. 10. Ignorance is a vehicle: when one rides it, loses and when one accompanies it, gets lost. Frequent folk proverbs about intelligence: 1. Intelligence displays clarity of self, and ignorance displays sadness. 2. When ones intelligence is good one talks less. 3. The height of intelligence, after faith, is to woo people. 4. The most precious gift of the rich is his intelligence. 5. Intelligence is the most honorable inheritance.

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The wise man controls his tongue and the ignorant ignores his status. The wise does not receive grace without gratitude, and not deposited with deep sadness. Intelligence brings self-control. The one who becomes a prisoner in his bias loses his mind. Intelligence brings sincerity in judgement. Intelligence brings instinct which develops through experience. The poorest are those without intelligence. The intelligence of people is suited to their era. Above every knowing who knows more than him. A good image is apparent beauty, but a good mind is latent beauty.

Frequent folk proverbs about contentment: 1. The one who is unsatisfied with little, will never be happy with much. 2. Those who believe in God will be satisfied with destiny. 3. Remove greed from your heart in order to lift the constraint of your foot. 4. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. 5. A few in the pocket is better than the unseen many. 6. A bride is a blessing, her dowry a thanksgiving. Frequent folk proverbs about injustice: 1. To whom do you complain if your opponent is the judge. 2. Others eat chicken and I fell in the stockade. 3. Someone traps, and another eats, the hunted animal. 4. Every unjust man will suffer injustice. 5. The scourge of power is injustice. 6. Injustice is the quickest thing to accelerate a curse, and a blessing switch. 7. If you are unjust with who is under you, do not be sure of who is above you. 8. The one who is unjust with himself, will be more unjust with others 9. Unjust relatives are more severe than the sword. Frequent folk proverbs about folly: 1. The fool is as a hunter in the lion's den. 2. Foolishness is a sickness, there is no drug for it. 3. The fool is one who asks for shelter from within a burning fire. 4. The worst scourge is the reason for your laughter. 5. The one with an ignorant tongue has the key to his destruction.

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The fool seeks shelter in a cobweb. The fool is one who butts with clay horns. The fool is one who says: “I cured myself” but my nose is cut. When thieves quarrel, the theft appears. The fool is the one who came back empty-handed. The foolish is like who slept at leaving hour. The fool is one who tries to keep water in his hands.

Seventh - The traditional medicine in the illiterates culture: 1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

12.

13. 14. 15. 16.

What are the illnesses that it is thought traditional medicine offers an effective means of treatment for?. The extent of the reliance on traditional medicine that exists before patients will visit a doctor. What are the diseases which people commonly resort to traditional medicine for treatment before visiting a doctor? Traditional remedies for common diseases such as colds, eye diseases, hair loss, underweight, obesity, recurrent miscarriage, diabetes, high blood pressure, low blood pressure, loss of appetite, measles, diarrhea, constipation, indigestion, kidney disease, bone fractures, myopia, infertility in women, weak sexual ability of men, insomnia, delayed ability to walk. What are the diseases that traditional medicine is not capable of treating? What is the therapeutic use of certain foods such as fish, fenugreek, honey, garlic, onion, lemon, hibiscus, fruits Dom, star anise, etc.? People's knowledge of the nutritional value in different vegetables. People's knowledge of the types of nutritional value in fruit. People's knowledge of the nutritional value in different spices. People's knowledge of the nutritional value of different fish species.  Do people have knowledge of the therapeutic benefits of medicinal herbs? Yes ( ) No ( ) Are people still resorting to the popular treatment when: "Almjibrati", Al Daya, heath barber, Roma, treatment by ironing, the gypsy. Does eating a lot of certain foods cause health problems? The reasons that people choose traditional medicine. The reasons that people consider there are dangerous risks in resorting to traditional medicine. The reasons for a growing interest towards traditional medicine.

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17. What do people know about spiritual medicine? 18. Vision popular means of treatment of diseases caused by evil eye. 19. The people who aer benefitting from pharmaceutical medicines without medical (doctor) consultation. 20. The reflections of nutrition, habits of personal cleanliness, the sharing and using of personal toiletry accessories - such as shaving equipment for example - on health problems.

CHAPTER SIX “NOTES AND QUESTIONS ON YOUTH AND INNOVATION IN TRADITIONAL SOCIETIES SOCIO-ANTHROPOLOGICAL STUDY IN ROSETTA”

It is a socio anthropological study on the demographic, social, cultural and political conditions, which encourage and discourage youth innovation in rural-urban and newly established (modern) communities in Egyptian society. The study is concerned especially with the economic, family, administrative, religious and educational circumstances leading to or discouraging from “Youth Innovation”. It also aims to know who accepts and who rejects innovation, and the models of acceptance and rejection, and the development of innovation. The study also tries to evaluate social projects for the youth in rural and urban communities. This is a socio-anthropological study in “Rosetta” as a traditional rural society, and “Sadat City” as a newly established society in the western desert of Egypt. The anthropology Department in Alexandria University has been leading research activities in Rosetta and Sadat City for more than three years, and this, of course, will facilitate the study on youth and innovation in those two communities.

Methodology: This socio-anthropological study depends on living for one year amongst the data-resources for the collection of quantitative and nonquantitative information. It is a descriptive, analytical and evaluative research project depending on the following techniques: x Participant observation, x Informants. x Case studies. x Life histories. x Questionnaire.

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The Main Queries or Questions: The main queries, or questions, in this study on youth and innovation in traditional and modern societies in Rosetta and Sadat City are: One – Youth in the demographic structure of Rosetta and Sadat City: 1. Population growth. 2. Males and females in the demographic structure. 3. Marital status. 4. Education. 5. Youth in manpower. 6. Youth and migration. Two – Youth cognition of social and cultural changes: 1. Youth’s vision of rural work and the social and economic value of land. 2. Youth’s vision of life within the extended family. 3. Youth’s vision of Kinship and social control. 4. Youth in different sub-cultures. 5. The position of youth in urbanization and cultural assimilation. 6. Youth’s vision of religion. 7. Youth’s evaluation of education and socialization in rural and urban society. Three –The Foundations of Youth innovation: Youth’s vision and evaluation of administrative, political and economic changes within the social structure of traditional societies in Egypt. 1. Youth’s acceptance and rejection of innovation. 2. Youth’s models in acceptance and rejection of modernity and innovation. 3. Reaction of Youth in different age, education, sex and cultural groups towards innovation. 4. Ways of youth’s acceptance and rejection of the contemporary culture and innovation. 5. Costs of social and cultural changes and acceptance and rejection of innovation. 6. The reactions of those who suffer from innovation. Four – Development of youth’s innovation: 1. The role of the family in the development of youth’s innovation.

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The political and cultural groups vision of the development of youth’s innovation. Youth’s vision of voluntarily works. Youth’s attitudes towards non-governmental projects. Youth’s attitudes towards working in governmental and private sectors. Youth’s hobbies in rural and urban societies. Youth’s vision of the development of the productivity in economic activities. How the youth overcome vocational problems. Information policy and youth’s innovation. Youth’s motives towards innovation. Youth’s vision of the political and cultural contexts which lead to innovation. Youth’s belonging / alienation and innovation. Local government and development of youth’s innovation.

Five – Evaluative study of youth’s activities in rural and urban societies: 1. Youth’s investment of leisure time in rural and urban countries. 2. Youth and political participation. 3. Youth’s evaluation of governmental services for youth. 4. Youth’s vision of migration. 5. Youth’s vision of family and work. 6. Youth’s vision of contemporary social and economic problems.

Questionnaire Youth and Innovation in Traditional and Newly Established Societies Socio-Anthropological Study in Rasheed 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Serial No.: Informant's Name: Principle Occupation: Secondary Occupation: Age: Working outside Rasheed: No. of Wives: No. of Sons and Daughters:

Sex: M ( ) F ( )

Yes ( ) No ( )

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Researcher’s Name: Date of Research: 9. What are the traditional occupations and skills which youth do not like to be employed in nowadays? 10. Is work in agriculture still fruitful nowadays? 11. Is fishing still fruitful nowadays? Yes ( ) No ( ) 12. Is work in traditional skills still fruitful nowadays? Yes ( ) No ( ) 13. Do you think that agricultural land is still the best investment nowadays? Yes ( ) No ( ) 14. Do you think that this proverb is still correct? “If you missed the governmental occupation it means that you have lost everything”? Yes ( ) No ( ) 15. What are the advantages of governmental occupation nowadays? 16. What were the advantages of Governmental occupation in the times past? 17. What are the disadvantages of Governmental occupation nowadays? 18. What are the main disadvantages of Migrant labor nowadays? 19. What are the main advantages of migrant labor nowadays? 20. What are the advantages of migrant labor besides a high income? 21. Where do Rasheedi youth prefer to travel to work outside of Rasheed (inland)? 22. Where do Rasheedi youth prefer not to have to travel to work to (inland)?23. What are the honorable occupations nowadays? 24. What are the unpleasant occupations nowadays? 25. Which is the best branch in technical secondary education nowadays? x Agricultural education. x Commercial education. x Industrial education. 26. What are the advantages of working in commerce nowadays? 27. What difficulties arise in the of work in commerce nowadays? 28. What are the most important types of investments nowadays? 29. Is it necessary for a man to work in his specialist field if he wants to get additional work? Yes ( ) No ( ) 30. Why? 31. What are the additional jobs which attract governmental laborers and employees nowadays? 32. Why? 33. What are preferable educational programs for women nowadays? 34. Why?

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35. Are women offered all the opportunities which will enable them to be useful and productive nowadays? Yes ( ) No ( ) 36. What are the jobs which women should not work nowadays? like to marry his daughter? Yes ( ) No ( ) 37. Is it the father only who should decide to accept or refuse the man who wishes to marry his daughter? 38. Should a son consult his father when he has decided to marry? 39. What should the son do when his father refuses his marital choice? 40. What should the son do when his father refuses his educational choice? 41. Is it the father only one who can make decisions about family investments? Yes ( ) No ( ) 42. Do young wives and husbands consult their relatives about their marital life? Yes ( ) No ( ) 43. Should the youth consult their relatives when they decide to work abroad? Yes ( ) No ( ) 44. Why? 45. Should the youth consult their relatives when they are considering selling their agricultural land? 46. What type of decisions do the youth prefer to take without consulting their fathers? 47. What type of decisions do the youth prefer to take without consulting their mothers? 48. What type of decisions should the youth not take without consulting their fathers? 49. What type of decisions should the youth not take without consulting their mothers? 50. Do you think that the youth of today prefer to marry later in life more so than they did in the past? Yes ( ) No ( ) 51. Do the youth prefer to marry later in life these days because of economic reasons? Yes ( ) No ( ) 52. Do the youth prefer to marry later in life these days because of the changes in the marital norms? 53. Does the education of women incline them to marry later in life these days? 54. Do the youth get married later in life because they are now freer than they once were? 55. Do the youth get married later in life these days because they are more inclined to work abroad? 56. At what age should young men marry nowadays? 57. At what age should young women marry nowadays?

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How many children do young couples like to have nowadays? Do young men prefer to marry non-working wives nowadays? Would you agree to send your daughter to co-preparatory education? Would you agree to send your son to co-preparatory education? Do you agree to send your daughter to co-preparatory education? Yes ( ) No ( ) Do you think that the high number of divorce cases is because of high incomes nowadays? Do you think that high the number of divorce cases is because of the leaning towards monogamy nowadays? Do you think that the high number of divorce cases is because women are more free than they were before? Do you think that the high number of divorce cases is because of a relative’s role in the marital life of young couples? Is education a decisive norm in marital choice? Yes ( ) No ( ) Is social stratification a decisive norm in marital choice? Yes ( ) No ( ) Is beauty a decisive norm in marital choice? Yes ( ) No ( ) Are morals a decisive norm in marital choice nowadays? Yes ( ) No ( ) Do the youth prefer to marry their father’s brother’s daughters nowadays? Yes ( ) No ( ) Do the youth prefer to marry their mother’s sister’s daughters nowadays? Yes ( ) No ( ) Do the youth like to live with their parents in law nowadays? Yes ( ) No ( ) Why? Do young wives prefer to use contraception nowadays? Yes ( ) No ( ) Do young husbands prefer to use contraception nowadays? What do you think about birth control in general? (a) Absolutely necessary ( ) (b) Depends on the husband’s wish ( ) (c) Depends on the wife’s wish ( ) (d) Not necessary ( ) Do you think that the increase of population in Egypt is: (a) Natural and desired ( ) (b) Un-natural and unreasonable ( ) (c) Should be increased more ( ) Has inflation in Egypt come about because of overpopulation? Yes ( ) No ( )

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80. Do Egyptians migrate abroad because of overpopulation? 81. Is over-population the main factor in the education problems in Egypt nowadays? Yes ( ) No ( ) 82. What are the main advantages of Rasheedi Youth? 83. What are the main disadvantages of Rasheedi Youth nowadays? 84. Do youth are trying all the time and irrationally to imitate the new modes? Yes ( ) No ( ) 85. Do you think that the youth nowadays live in the moment without any panning for the future? Yes ( ) Mo ( ) 86. What are the differences between the youth of today and the youth of previous generations? 87. What do you think about the views that are held by the youth of today regarding the economic changes in Egypt? 88. Who is innovating between youth nowadays? 89. To whom do the youth look to as models for their innovative efforts? 90. Who is against the innovation of the youth nowadays? 91. To whom do the youth look to as models for conservatism? 92. How do the youth react towards innovation nowadays? 93. Does the family encourage youth innovation? Yes ( ) No ( ) 94. How? 95. What are the governmental institutions that are encouraging youth innovation? 96. How? 97. Do the youth like to participate in non-paid social work nowadays? 98. When and how do they like to do that? 99. Why don’t the youth like to participate in non-paid social work nowadays? 100. Do the youth prefer to work in governmental or non-governmental institutions? 101. What are the advantages of working in the private sector nowadays? 102. What are the disadvantages of working in the private sector nowadays? 103. What are the main hobbies that the youth are involved in nowadays? 104. Are you planning to migrate to work abroad? Yes ( ) No ( ) 105. What do you think about the views of the youth regarding governmental youth programs? 106. What do you think about the views of the youth regarding main social and economic problems nowadays?

CHAPTER SEVEN “RE - DOCUMENTATION OF AL AWAYID I.E. THE CUSTOMARY LAWS OF AWLAD ALI TRIBES AND TRACING CHANGES THAT HAVE OCCURRED THROUGHOUT THE LAST FIFTY YEARS”

The aim of this research project is to re-examine the findings of the anthropological field research project that was conducted in 1966/67. At that time the author was a research assistant at The Social Research Center, AUC and by chance he succeeded in finding a hand written undated document headed by the following sentence: “A copy of AWAYID, upon which tribal government is going on in the western desert of Egypt”. “The introduction clarifies that the recording of AL AWAYID happened at the beginning of the eighteenth century”. The Awayid codified various aspects in the life of this community in the field of economic, kinship and political relations as follows: Tribal leadership, the responsibilities, and roles in which tribal leaders play a part in political and economic life. “Amar Al Damm”, and the criminal responsibility of vengeance among the tribal political unit. Criminal responsibility of the women in the divisive tribal lines. “ Al Barawah” or Disavowal. “Al Nazalah” and harboring the accused, or offender, for the protection of a third party until he proves his innocence or impair a fair trial. Witness testimony. Oath and sponsorship to prove the innocence and sincerity of the case. “Maradi” or tribal judges in Awayid. “Al Deyah” blood money in the murder and error. “ Al Nazarah” forensic doctor in wounds and disabilities. “Kabara” compensation in non physical offenses. Crime and punishment in the Awayid Ali tribal society. Murdermotivated theft. Wounded by a close relative. The crime of theft. Dispel the credit. Crime-guide of seeking revenge and invaders. Breaking rules Al Nazalah. Sexual crimes. Cases of land and real estate. Cases of wells and water sources. Cases of camels. Damages resulting from the development and circulation of arms. The damage caused by riding horses. Conniving.

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Neighbors rights and attacks on neighbors. Responsibility in assigning male children for dangerous tasks. Sanctions on the young in offenses against the elderly. Criminal responsibility in attacks on Al Awaqel who called for a cease fire i.e. the two fighting parties being separated i.e. “Al Motaarekeen”. Codify the rights of a cousin to marry the daughter of his uncle. During the last fifty years the author participated in and supervised several field research projects in the realms of: x An Ethnographic survey of the semi-Bedouin livelihood of the tribal peoples in the western desert of Egypt. x Sedentarization projects and Bedouin settlements in desert regions. x Sustainable development project in rural communities. x The social structure of isolated, border and marginal communities. x Local government and administration in desert communities. x Nutrition, traditional medicine and rites of passage ceremonies in traditional communities. x Investment of human energy in Bedouin communities. x The establishment of new urban tourist villages in coastal desert regions. x Literacy and social development projects in tribal communities x Migration and demographic changes in the western desert of Egypt. x The position of women and women's rights in the customary laws of Awlad Ali tribes. In all the issues of those projects Al Awayid i.e. the customary laws of Awlad Ali tribes, was a core factor in the inquiries. The guidelines of data collecting and questions for documentation of Al Awayid are presented in the following:

Working directory in the collection of ethnographic data on the customary law and social control in the Al Saadi, Al Murabitteen and Al Gemiaat tribes of the Western Desert of Egypt First-The non-quantitative methods, and the techniques used, in the collection of data: 1. Participant observation 2. The informants 3. Tracking individual and tribal genealogies 4. Recording life histories

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Collection of popular traditions The use of audio and visual aids

Second- Ethnographic questions: 1. What are the customary laws that are followed as a basis for the settlement of disputes that exist amongst members of the local community? 2. In case of presence, what are the texts of those laws? 3. Who are the people who keep those texts? 4. What is the date of the codification of these laws? 5. What were the causes, or events, that accompanied the documentation of those laws? 6. In the absence of such documents - Who are the narrators who preserve, and recount the texts of those customary laws? 7. Is there any contrast between these different narrators? 8 - Are there specialist people who are known as experts in resolving the disputes amongst these different parties? 9. What are the texts of these customary laws that are followed in the settlement of particular disputes concerning personal or financial attack, or concerning different economic activities, such as grazing, agriculture, trade, fishing, transportation and skills? 10. Are the tribal, ethnic or religious units differentiated by their commitment towards the same customary laws? Or, does each ethnic, religious or tribal group have its own customary laws? If ‘yes’, how are the disputes amongst the members of those different ethnic, religious or tribal units settled? 11. Are there people in the community called "Al Maradi" or "Al Awaql" or "Al Awaref" or "judges" who issue resolutions in disputes between individuals or different groups? 12. Who are these people? Do they belong to any tribal, ethnic or religious unit? 13. Are any of them well known for being an authority in dealing with certain types of disputes in particular? 14. What are the terms/conditions that must be met in the customary Judges? 15. On what basis do people choose to put certain disputes before the "judge"? 16. Are there any kind of training programmes or qualification routes that these “judges” must embark upon in order to be able to carry out this work?

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17. What are the stages of this training or education, which give reassurance to the members of the community that the “judge” has the ability to resolve their disputes? 18. Are there particular tribal judges in charge of the settlements of disputes that exist amongst members of every feudal unit? 19 -In case of such disputes - who has the authority to settle disputes that exist between people belonging to different tribal, religious or ethnic units? 20. Does it sometimes occur that more than one "judge" will gather to settle a particular dispute? 21. In such cases how are these judges chosen? 22. On occasions when multiple judges gather, is one elected as chairman? And how they choose a chairman? 23. What happens if there are disagreements between them about a particular decision? 24. How do they reach an agreement on the election of a certain "judge" to deal with the dispute between two parties? 25. What is the extent of the adversary's commitment to the implementation of the tribal judge's decision in the dispute? 26. On what basis does the tribal judge reach a decision to be implemented on the conflicting parties as a solution to end the conflict? 27. What happens if one of the disputants refuses to carry out the judgment, or decision, put forth by the customary judge? 28. Who represents the conflicting parties at the gathering to discuss the tribal conflict? 29. Are there particular people who take over the task of the prosecution - and the defense - in the tribal discussion boards to enable the settlement of feudal disputes? 30. Are there people present who can be consulted regarding the fairness of judgements and decisions? 31. What is the position of the judge when his judgement is invalidated, and to what extent may it affect his political and social stature? 32. Are there records, or formal registrations of customary resolutions issued by the customary judges? 33. Are there traditional formats to the resolutions issued by these tribal judges? 34 - Are these judges dependent on modern governmental institutions to adopt their judgments?

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35. Are there customary methods, or formulas, in place for the adoption of these resolutions by state authorities, such as the police departments, for example? 36. Do tribal chiefs volunteer, of their own volition, to be customary judges, to consider disputes among different feudal units in the tribal community? Or are they nominated by formal invitation for this work? If so, who are the people who make such a nomination? 37. What are the procedures, in detail, within the councils to discuss conflict in the case of murder, theft, adultery, wounding, and disputes in trade and agriculture, grazing and fishing? 38. Are there experts assigned who contribute to the decision making process by way of consultation, or to give an opinion, or to estimate the extent of the damage referred to in the dispute? 39. Are customary judges bound by the estimations of these experts? 40 - Does the customary council, and the disputing parties, consider swearing on oath to establish guilt or innocence? 41. Does the defendant, or the accused, swear on oath alone? Or must he be endorsed by members of the feudal unit to which he belongs? 42. What are the conditions that must be met by those who endorse the defendant, or the accused, in the oath? 43. Is it their choice to participate in swearing on oath or might they refuse to do that? 44. What happens if one of them fails to swear on oath on time? 45. What is the text recited for swearing on oath in various disputes? 46. Is the oath sometimes sworn upon the graves of the saints? 47. What are the dignities of these saints? 48. What are the secular, and otherworldly, sanctions that are exposed in a false oath, with an attempt to get the largest possible amount of information available about these sanctions? 49. Are there men of religious positions who are carrying out certain political roles? 50. What is the nature of these roles in certain situations? 51. What are the manifestations of religious dignity? 52. What are the indications that religious clerics have any influence in the political processes? 53. Do these clerics belong to any feudal, or tribal, unit ? 54. Do all the tribal, religious or ethnic units accept the political role played by these religious clerics? What are the indications that these roles have been accepted?

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55. The tribal history of different units in the local community (their origins, the original home, the tribal migrations, wars in which they participated)? 56. The historical background to the settlement of rival groups in certain areas of the local community? 57. Mapping of land ownership, or land tenure, in the region? 58. Are there units that occupy the center of tribal sovereignty, or the presidency, of other tribal units in the community? 59. What is the manifestation of that sovereignty and presidency – mentioning specific situations in detail? 60. What are the tribes challenging in that sovereignty? 61. What are the manifestations of unity and solidarity in the tribal feudal unity or unit? 62. What are the manifestations of customary cooperation, and solidarity that exist between members of the kinship, or ethnic unity? 63. Is there an indication of solidarity, unity or co-operation between different tribal units? 64. What is the indication of this solidarity, unity or co-operation? And the extent of those units? 65. What is the role played by political leaders who occupy the positions of "Al Omad" i.e. the mayors or "Sheikh ", and what are the issues in which that they succeed in reaching a settlement? 66. What types of issues do tribal leaders sometimes fail to settle, so that they are forced to resort to the judgements of Al Sheikh, or the mayor, or the police? 67. What are the procedures that they (Sheikh or mayor) carry out when they fail to settle disputes which came to their adjudication? 68. What are the conditions that must be considered by Al Sheikh or the mayor? 69. Genealogical research of the life history of the tribal chiefs, Al Omad, Al Sheikhs in the community? 70. What is the role played by the Sheikh in the traditional political system, and in the contemporary state administration? 71. Does Al Sheikh, or Al Omda, combine his occupation in the state, and his position as tribal leader? 72. What are the roles performed by Al Sheikh or Al Omda as tribal leaders? 73. Who are the tribal leaders in the community – collect the life history of them all? 74. What is the indication of rivalry between older men in the tribe in reaching the status of leadership?

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75. What are the customary laws that regulate individual and tribal relationships in the following areas in particular (case studies): A. The extended and individual criminal liability, and the criminal liability for women. B. What consequences would a man be responsible for if he were to command a male youth to cause harm to himself, or to others? C. The feudal unit disavowal of a member of "Amar Al Damm." D. Al Nazalah or "Al Dakhalh" system i.e. the accused recourse to temporary protection till fair trial? E. Swearing on oath to prove innocence, or conviction. F. The value of Al Deyah in Al Awayid. G. Individual responsibility in murders motivated by robbery and the fixed penalties for theft. H. What sort of intervention is necessary to bring about a ceasefire? I. Customary judge in murder trials and manslaughter?. J. Responsibility in the supply of weapons to non tribal warring , and for acts of " Al Nafis " who is battling with non tribal i.e. non member of his feudal unit, and the agreement with relatives on hitting a man, and in instructing a seeking for revenge. K. Cases involving wounds, and impairments. L. The accusation of theft. M. Cases of financial deposits and dishonesty. N. Cases of sexual offense. O. Cases involving camels. P. Land issues. 76. The rights of neighbors. 77. Cousin rights in the initial marry the daughter of his uncle.

Monitoring and archiving the changes in, “nomadic” folklore, traditions and values, and tracing the impact of social change and cultural developments in the Egyptian desert: I - First – Changes in the Ecological System: 1. Prevalence of re-settlement projects, the disappearance of Arab tents and setting up of new urban communities, and residential Villas. 2. Extinction of traditional crops (barley) and the decline in sheep farming, the emergence of intensive agriculture and cattle-breeding. 3. Loss of dependence on conventional sources of irrigation (rain and the wells). 4. Deterioration of vegetative and animal valuable desert lands.

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The creation of new cities adjacent to the tribal areas.

II - Changes in the demographic system: 1. Increase in the volume of non-tribal populations amongst “Awlad Ali tribal lands”. 2. Increase in the amount of education. 3. Labor migration amongst the tribal Awlad Ali young men. III - changes in the economic system: 1. “Nomadic manpower occupations in new areas of agriculture and trade, clerical and professional jobs, services, and the work of women in government posts and the private sector. 2. The integration of the Bedouin tribal economy in a market economy. 3. Extinction of some domestic economic activities (cottage industries). 4. The emergence of nomadic capital (the sale of tenure rights in desert lands). IV - Changes in the social control system: 1. Change in the status of “Al Awaql” i.e. tribal chiefs. 2. Increased recourse to the courts, police and official authorities. 3. The emergence, and functions, of formal "state" law in tribal communities. 4. The emergence of “new” crimes not previously seen amongst Awlad tribes before, such as: revenge, robbery, and disputes over land tenure). 5. Changes in articles of customary law, which codify women’s rights, particularly in the following aspects: * Individual and tribal criminal responsibility. * The right of inheritance. * Marital choice. * Adversarial husband in marital disputes. * The right to divorce. * The right to personally acquire property. * Compensation in the case of sexual assault. * Right to education. * The status of women working outside the home. * The right to participate in public life (political and social activities). 6. Changes in the following systems: • Inherited wealth.

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• “Al Nazalah” i.e. protection for the accused until the commencement of tribal trial. • The position of “Murabitteen”. • The right to marry the uncle's daughter. • Women's activities outside the home. • Changes in the status of religious leaders and tribal groups. • Changes in celebration and festival ceremonies. • Change, or disappearance, of “Al Mawalid”. V - Changes in material and non-material culture, such as: • The means of communication, information and openness to “Egyptian” and global culture, (television programs). • Changes in the status of women (education, work, social and political participation, marital selection. • Changes in the marriage of women to men outside the tribe Awlad Ali). • Changes in the clothing of men and women. • Changes in nutrition. • Changes in the areas of recreation. • Changes in markets and shops. • Changes in the social value of the elderly, and “Al Awakel”. • Changes in songs and dances. • Changes in the disappearance of traditional schools “Al Kuttab”. • Deterioration of women's arts industries. • Changes in the values of interdependence, and presentation gifts. • Changes in values of education and socialization. • Changes in relationships with non - tribal Awlad Ali peoples. • Changes in housing, and household items. • Changes in practices of the occult and mediums. • Changes in the methods of treatment and medication. • Changes in the education of women. • Changes in the value of financial saving. The objectives of this proposed project: 1. Monitoring changes in the “traditional nomadic” customs, traditions and values, through an anthropological field study focused on Awlad Ali tribes in Western desert of Egypt, compared with available articles of ethnographic data. 2. Tracing the impact of social changes and cultural developments in the Egyptian desert areas on the Status of Women, especially regarding education, political and economic changes, urban growth,

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information and new media, means of communication, the growth of the role of civil society, the demographic changes. The development of research skills of a number of graduates of the Division of Folklore and Popular Museums, in the Department of Anthropology, Faculty of Arts - University of Alexandria through participation in the implementation of the project. Archiving the project findings in a text ready for publication.

CHAPTER EIGHT “QUESTIONS ON CUSTOMARY LAWS, CRIMINAL RESPONSIBILITY AND JUDGMENT IN AWLAD ALI TRIBES, STABILITY AND CONTEMPORARY CHANGE IN TRIBAL STRUCTURE”

As is presented in the fifth chapter, Al Awayid of the Awlad Ali tribe, i.e. the articles of customary law codify the following: Individual and extended tribal criminal responsibility. Female criminal responsibility. Male responsibility for criminal commands executed by a youth “Al Barawah” Tribal – Political (feudal) unit’s disavowal of one of its members. “Al Nazalah” Third partner mediation between two feudal fighting units. Swearing on oath to prove innocence or guilt. “Al Deyah” compensation in Awlad Ali tribal laws. Individual culpability for “orchestrated murder to steal” crime. Intervention to stop fighting between two tribal units. Culpability for providing others with weapons. Culpability for fighting in non-tribal, political or non-relatives side. Culpability for leading a man, looking for revenge, to his goal. Culpability for causing injury and disability. Accusation of theft. Financial deposits and dishonesty. Sexual crimes. Culpability for accidental discharge of a weapon. Cattle cases. Land tenure cases. Neighborhood rights. Marriage with father “brother’s daughter rights”. Since the second half of the last century a lot of structural changes have happened in the western desert of Egypt: The establishment of local civil administration, governmental social institutions of education, health care units, police departments, sedentarization and land reform projects, cooperative societies, branches of governmental authorities, roads/ transportation network, plus state courts. Along the Mediterranean coastline, in the western desert of Egypt, a series of tourism villages have been established, which have attracted migrant laborers and tribesmen, and have changed the demographic structure of the region.

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As a governorate in the Egyptian state, Matrouh which extends for more than 500 Kilometers i.e. the “the land of Awlad Ali tribes" participated in contemporary political activities and were subjects to different Egyptian legislations. As is stated before, this urgent research project aims to document the impact of the ecological, cultural and social changes on the Al Awayid i.e. the customary laws of Awlad Ali tribes which have occurred throughout the past fifty years. The guidelines of data collection and questioning for documenting that could be presented in the following: Questions on The Customary Laws, Criminal Culpability and Judgment in Awlad Ali Tribes, Stability and Contemporary Change in Tribal Structure: First - The extent of stability and change in the customary laws of Awlad Ali tribes particularly as follows: A - The customary laws governing individual criminal culpability, and the culpability of tribal revenge. B - The change in the value of "restitution" which is to be paid as a result of physical assault. C - The change in the values of "Al Kabara" which are paid in moral attacks. D - Do you think the size of Amar Al Damm, the solidarity in the criminal culpability amongst feudal units, is expanding, or decreasing, at the present time? E - Are the occurrences of individual culpability increasing, and tribal culpability decreasing in the social control system at the present time? F- Have the customary laws governing the criminal culpability of women been changed in recent times? G - Are all the people of Western Sahara of different ethnic origins subjects for and customary laws? H - The current changes in the status, and roles, of tribal leaders? Second - Reasons for the change in customary laws, especially with regard to the following aspects: A - Internal migration and changes to the demographic map of the region. B - Changes to social stratification, and the class ranking system, amongst different tribal groups, for example, because of what is known as the independence of Al Murabitteen from Al Saadi's control. C - The spread of education among the semi- nomadic settlements.

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D - Establishment of governmental organizations and modern civil services (especially police stations and official People's Councils). E - Engagement in "modern" economic activities. F- The emergence of new, "non-traditional", disputes and crimes. G - Widening the network of relationships "external" to the tribal people. Third - What are the pros and cons of the legal pluralism in the social control system in the Western Desert of Egypt, which is represented in particular by the pairing between Al Awayid (customary laws) and formal laws, to regulate interactions amongst members of the tribes and other inhabitants of the region, and even amongst members of the tribes themselves? What are ways in which the state can take advantage of this monitoring in order to draw management plans for the region? Fourth - The quantitative ethnographic study of: ”Stability and Change in The Customary Laws of Awlad Ali Tribes of the Western Desert of Egypt”.

Questionnaire Researcher Name: Search: References Name: Date Reviewed: Serial Number: First- Preliminary information: 1. Informan's tribe - House: 2. Age: 3. Current occupation: 4. Former profession: 5. Current place of work: 6. Address of previous occupations: 7. Current residence: 8. Former residence: 9. Educational Status: Primary ( ) Preparative ( ) High ( ) University ( ) 10. Marital Status: Unmarried ( ) Monogamous Marriage ( ) Divorced ( ) Widowed ( ) Polygamous Marriage ( ) Ask the following two questions for those whose marriages are monogamous: 11. Kinship relation with first wife.

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12. The original place of residence of the first wife. .

Ask the following two questions only to those whose marriages are polygamous: 13. Kinship relation with the second wife: 14. The original place of residence of the second wife: Second - Knowledge of Al Awayid: 15. Are you aware of the documentation of Al Awayid? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘yes’ to the previous question, please answer the following two questions: 16. What is the date which is due to write down Al Awayid? 17. What are the causes, or events, that led to the documentation of Al Awayid? 18. Are all the tribes in the Egyptian Western Desert subject to Al Awayid? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘no’ to the previous question, please answer the following two questions: 19. Which tribes are not subject to Al Awayid? 20. Why is that? 21. Is the value of restitution the same amongst all the tribes of Awlad Ali? If ‘no’ to the previous question, please answer the following question: 22. What causes this differentiation? 23. What is the current figure for restitution Al Deyah in the case of manslaughter? 24. What is the current figure for restitution Al Deyah in the case of females accused of manslaughter? 25. Who is it his responsibility to pay Al Deyah in the crimes of the married women whom has male children ? 26. Who is it his responsibility to pay Al Deyah in unmarried women crimes? 27. Who is it his the responsibility of payment of blood money in crimes of married women who did not give birth to boys? 28. Do sisters still waive their rights to inherit land tenure in favor of their brothers as was done in the past? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘no’ answered to the previous question, please answer the following question: 29. Why is that?

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30. Do you think that young people still cling to the laws of Al Awayid as their parents do? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘no’ answered to the previous question, please answer the following two questions: 31. Why do young people no longer cling to the laws of Al Awayid ? 32. What are the examples of young peoples’ non-adherence to Al Awayid these days? 33. Do young literate men have the same respect for the laws of Al Awayid as their parents did in the past? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘no’ answered to the previous question, please answer the following two questions: 34. In your opinion, why do you think young illiterate people currently do not respect the laws of Al Awayid? 35. What indications are there that the young illiterates lack respect for Al Awayid? 36. Do Al Saadi tribes recognize the right of Al Nazalah to some families of Al Murabitteen at the present time? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘yes’ answered to the previous question, please answer the following question: 37. What are the Murabitteen families whose right of Al Nazalah is considered? 38. What do you think are the most important functions of Al Omda i.e. the mayor at the present time? 39. What do you think are the most important changes regarding the position, status and role of mayors, and sheikhs, from what they were in the past? 40. Is there a specific Maradi for each tribe to govern its disputes? 41. Is there a Maradi assigned to govern the issues of all the tribes of Awlad Ali? Yes ( ) No ( ) 42. Is there a Maradi for Al Murabitteen? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘yes’ answered to the previous question, please answer the following three questions: 43. Do Al Maradi, from Al Murabitteen tribes, belong to any family? 44. Can Al Maradi, from Al Murabitteen tribes, govern disputes amongst Al Saadi parties? Yes ( ) No ( ) 45. What types of disputes do Al Maradi, from Al Murabitteen, usually govern? 46. Are the disputants always bound by the judgements of Al Maradi? Yes ( ) No ( ) 47. What happens in the case of failure of one of the parties to carry out the judgment issued by Al Maradi?

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48. What are the reasons that an offender alone, without family assistance, is obliged to pay the restitutional value of Al Deyah? 49. What are the reasons that not only the offender, but all tribal unit members aught to share in paying the restitutional value of Al Deyah? 50. What are the reasons that the offender alone, without family assistance, is obliged to pay the restitutional value of Al Kabara? 51. What are the reasons that the offender alone, without family assistance, is obliged to pay the restitutional value of Al Nazarah? 52. What happens when the next of kin refrain from endorsing their relative without a legitimate reason? 53. Are you aware of oaths having been taken near the shrines of the saints? 54. Is it the right of the family of victim falls if the government acquitted the accused ? Yes ( ) No ( ) 55. What happens when the government exonerates the accused, and the family of the victim insists he should be convicted? 56. What are the current reasons in which Awlad will refrain from involving the police, and the state judiciary? 57. Are there situations in which Awlad Ali tribes cannot find solutions within the laws of Al Awayid, and they must therefore resort to the government? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘yes’, please answer the following question: 58. What are examples of these situations where no solution can be found in the laws of Al Awayid and it becomes necessary to resort to the government? 59. Do the people who moved from the Nile Valley, in order to live in the region have access to the laws of Awayid in their disputes with Awlad Ali tribes? Yes ( ) No ( ) 60. Do the residents who have moved from the Nile Valley, in order to live in the region, but without making an alliance with the tribes of Awlad Ali, apply the laws of Al Awayid in their internal disputes? Yes ( ) No ( ) 61. What are the reasons that some people of the Nile valley do not make an alliance with some of the Awlad Ali tribes? 62. Is there a special welcome from specific tribes of Awlad Ali - when they accept an alliance with the people of the Nile Valley to come amongst them? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘yes’, ask the following two questions: 63. Which are the tribes that welcome the alliance of others? 64. And why are they happy to that?

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65. Do you think that the tribes of Awlad Ali, who live in Al Behira, also cling to the laws of Al Awayid as their relatives in Matrouh do, for example? Yes ( ) No ( ) 66. And why is that? 67. What are the laws that the tribes of Awlad Ali no longer cling to these days? 68. Do the tribes of Awlad Ali still cling to the right to ensure the daughters of a paternal uncle remain unmarried if she refuses to marry her cousin? Yes ( ) No ( ) 69. Why do members of the tribes of Awlad Ali prefer to marry their cousins? 70. Why do some members of these tribes not adhere to the right to ensure an uncle's daughter must remain unmarried if they refuse to marry their cousins? 71. What happens if a woman refuses to marry her cousin? 72. Does the dowry "Al Mahr" of an educated woman differ from that of an illiterate? Yes ( ) No ( ) 73. Does the dowry ”Al Mahr” of an Al Saadi woman differ from that of an Al Murabitteen tribeswoman? Yes ( ) No ( ) 74. Do all the tribes accept marriage between their daughters and the sons of peasants in the Nile Valley? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘no’ answered, please answer the following question: 75. Why do some of the tribes discourage marriage between their daughters and the sons of peasants? 76. If a woman marries someone from outside her tribe, is the value of her dowry differerent compared to what it would be if she were to marry her cousin? Yes ( ) No ( ) 77. Is the value of a dowry very specific in an endogamous marriage? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘yes’ answered to the previous question, please ask the following question. 78. What is the specified dowry, within the different tribes, for an endogamous marriage? 79. Do the tribes of Awlad Ali welcome the marriage of their daughters to the people from Alexandria at the present time? Yes ( ) No ( ) 80. Do the tribes of Awlad Ali welcome the marriage of their daughters to the people from Upper Egypt at the present time? Yes ( ) No ( ) 81. What are your views regarding the educational stage at which the education of girls should cease? Primary ( ) Preparatory ( ) Secondary ( ) University ( )

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In your opinion, which of the following professions do you believe are better than the others: 82. Agriculture ( ) or Grazing ( ) 83. Crafts ( ) or Agriculture ( ) 84. Grazing ( ) or Crafts ( ) 85. What do you think about the professions that the tribes of Awlad Ali prefer not to engage in? 86. What are the new aspects of nutritional health amongst children at the present time? 87. What are the new recreation areas that attract members of the tribes of Awlad Ali at the present time? Are members of these tribes keen to provide assistance in the following events: 88. Marriage: Yes ( ) No ( ) 89. Holidays: Yes ( ) No ( ) 90. Birth: Yes ( ) No ( ) 91. Illness: Yes ( ) No ( ) 92. Death: Yes ( ) No ( ) 93. Drought: Yes ( ) No ( ) 94. Unemployment: Yes ( ) No ( ) 95. Disputes: Yes ( ) No ( ) 96. Do you agree that it is necessary to resort to violence, in dealing with disputes, when you are passionate about your views? Yes ( ) No ( ) 97. Do you agree that litigation creates a tendency in people to take matters into their own hands? Yes ( ) No ( ) 98. Do you agree with the proverb: “Me and my brother unite in facing our cousin, but me and my cousin unite in facing the stranger”. Yes ( ) No ( ) 99. For what reasons do people tend to lean towards violence? 100. Do you agree with the consistent non-payment of restitution amongst tribal people living in cities? Yes ( ) No ( ) 101. Why some people do not keep on public property as they keep their personal belongings, from your point of view? 102. Are people ashamed that they no longer live by the old traditional customs?, Yes ( ) No ( ) 103. Do you see that there is sometimes a conflict between traditional custom and the laws of today? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘yes’ answered to the previous question, please answer the following question:

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104. What are examples of the conflict between the laws of today and the traditional customs? 105. What do you think are the uppermost reasons for large numbers of people resorting to dissention and bickering these days? 106. Do you think that people nowadays are as interested in the rights of their neighbor, as they should be? Yes ( ) No ( ) 107. Do you think that young people these days dignify and respect the elderly, as much as their parents did when they were young? Yes ( ) No ( )

CHAPTER NINE “CUSTOMARY LAWS, ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATION AND THE IMPACT OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ON THE FAMILY AND WOMEN'S RIGHTS IN THE AWLAD ALI TRIBES OF THE NORTHERN COAST OF THE WESTERN DESERT OF EGYPT”

First - This research project concentrates on the impact of the ecological setting of the Customary laws of the Awlad Ali tribes in the western desert of Egypt This includes a description of the ecological systems of the northern coast of the western desert, the ethnic origins, the tribal structure and of “Al Awayid” i.e. the customary laws of Awlad Ali tribes. The customary laws, of the tribes of Awlad Ali, legalize and govern land tenure, using water resources, economic and social processes in the tribal market, seasonal migration and the division of labor. The deterioration of natural resources, sedentarization, and the establishment of newly formed rural communities and urban centers, had a great impact on the system of values and the customary laws of the Awlad Ali tribes. The guidelines for the collection of data, and questions, for the documentation of “Customary Laws and Ecological Adaptation in Awlad Ali Tribes of the Northern Coast in the Western Desert of Egypt”, could be presented as in the following: 1. Map showing the regions of different tribal units within the coastal region of the western desert of Egypt. 2. History of tribal migrations, and settlements, within the western desert of Egypt. 3. History of tribal migrations, and settlements, within the western desert, and out to the Nile Valley in Egypt. 4. History of migrations from the Nile Valley, and settlement in the western desert to the Nile Valley in Egypt. 5. Assessment of tribal land tenure rights within the customary laws of the tribes of Awlad Ali.

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7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

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Real estate transactions within the customary laws of the tribes of Awlad Ali: x Renting. x Selling and Purchasing. x Joint Purchase. x Foreclosure. x Gifting issues. x Acquisition. Land tenure inheritance within the customary laws of the tribes of Awlad Ali. The economic value of desert land of the tribes of Awlad Ali. State land reform projects and their impact on tribal land tenure rights. Selling tribal land tenure rights to the tribes of Al Fellahin of the Nile Valley. The increase of land price because of sedentarization, selling tribal land for housing investments. The deterioration of natural resources in Awlad Ali tribal land: The desertification and deterioration of horticultural and grazing lands. The deterioration of water resources through times of drought and the high level of salty water. The deterioration of traditional plants such as palm, olive, barley, and medicinal plants. The deterioration of traditional industries such as as olive oil production, and the production of traditional woolen carpets. The decline in the traditional concept of Bedouin women remaining at home and taking the role of a housewife. The implications of ecological changes within the customary laws of Al Awayid, of the tribes of Awlad Ali, concerning the following: x The rules of Al Nazalah x The amount of Al Deyah x The concentration of the tribal units within specific camps. x The heterogeneity of the demographic structure in the tribal lands of Awlad Ali. The impact of ecological changes on the divisions of labor subjective norms, according to gender, tribal origin, age set system, and the objective norms.

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The establishment of infrastructure services: paved roads, transportation routes, telecommunications, and the effects on folklore of the tribal people of Awlad Ali as in: x Feudal responsibility in modern individual economic transactions, the impact of automobiles, governmental jobs, trading, private professions. x Social interactions as: the exchange of visits, favors and the exchange of gifts, traditional hospitality. x The tribal demographic distribution, homogeneity of the homestead or neighborhood. x Education among Awlad Ali tribes. x The occupations of “Bedouin“ women. x The effects of new media on the traditional ways such as: traditional clothing of males and females, nutrition, the original “Bedouin” language, traditional ceremonies for different social occasions. x The value of desert lands. x The introduction of non-traditional agrarian and animal husbandry activities. 20 - An assessment of the emerging social, criminal, environmental etc. problems in Awlad Ali tribal communities. Second - Economic Development and the Family in Arab Tribal Societies. The scope of this project could be summarized as the following: x The traditional Arab family as a unit within a tribe. x Economic and social functions of the traditional Arab family. x Social stratification system and endogamy in Arab families. x The extended and compound traditional Arab family. x Urbanization in rural and in Bedouin Arab societies, and the impact of sedentarization on Arab families. x The production of oil, and structural changes within Arab countries. x The contemporary social stratification system and the Arab family. x The position of women within the modern Arab family. x The division of labor within the contemporary Arab family. x Marital choice within the contemporary Arab family.

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Appendix The guidelines of data collection and questions to document: “The impact of economic development on the family in Arab Tribal Societies, could be presented in the following (in no particular order): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

16. 17. 18.

19.

The family as a social model in contemporary cultures. Divorce as an occurrence, and problem, within contemporary Arab societies. The relationship between parents, children and generations within the family. The effect of education on members of the Bedouin, and rural family. The relationship between economic growth and changes within the family structure. The status of women, and the political structure available to accommodate that status in Arab countries. The elderly and their role within the family and society. Caring of the aged in cotemporary Arab society. The importance of discussing the experience of the “rich” and the “poor” in the care of the Care of young people within cotemporary Arab society. The problems of destitute children. The relationship between law, and the future of the family in Arab countries. Defining the different stages of poverty levels, within the different Arab countries, in comparative studies. The standard of family welfare projects within different Arab countries. The tribal policy between the responsibilities of government and nongovernmental organizations. Dealing with the loss of status that men enjoy when the status of women is changed within a given society. In this situation it is inevitable that the status of men will also change. What are the consequences of this? The problems of immigrant parents who leave their families in order to find work. How to accept illegitimate children. The role of voluntary groups, and organizations, within the local community in contributing to family programs, such as in family planning, family micro industries projects, etc. Dealing with problems that arise within non-integrated communities and their families (refugees).

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20. The definition of the word ‘family’ in contemporary cultures, and the prevalence and infrequence of traditional, extended and compound, families. 21. The impact of cultural, social, and global changes regarding parental control within the family. 22. The out of loyalty to parents about love children in family patterns. 23. The centeredness about the revolution in gender equality and familial interactions. 24. Studying the future of the family,from the perspective of social science. 25. The structural changes within rural family life. 26. Changes in the pattern of lifestyle, and the relationship between the generations within the extended family. 27. Changes in tribal policy within Arab countries. 28. The tribal unit in a post - industrial society. 29. Gender equality, social change and socialization. 30. Women and the international division of labor. 31. Tribal involvement in education and development. 32. Tribal policy, and legal objectives, in Arab countries. 33. The women's movement and the liberal transformations in society. 34. The advancement of new individuality and the decline of traditional kinship. 35. Gender equality and social change. Third - “Questions on Women’s Rights in the Customary Laws of the Tribes of Awlad Ali of the Western Desert of Egypt” 1. Articles of customary law, which codify women’s rights in the tribes of Awlad Ali of the Western Desert of Egypt. 2. Tracing the impact of social changes, and cultural developments, in the Egyptian desert regions on the Status of Women, especially regarding education, political and economic change, urban growth, information and new media, means of communication, the growth of the role of civil society and demographic changes. 3. Documenting the articles of customary law which codifies the position of women in the tribes of Awlad Ali, the traditional texts and the impact of socio- cultural changes on them concerning the following: 1. 2. 3.

Individual and feudal responsibility. Financial discloser. Right of inheritance in tribal land tenure.

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4.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

The status and role of women in relation to: x Husband x Other wife of her husband x Sons and daughters socialization x Mother Father, and Sister in law x Son's wife and Daughter's husband Right of Marital choice. Right of marriage with spouse of lower rank in social stratification. Right of living in a detached marital house in the case of polygamy. The rights of single women living in independent accommodation. Protection from physical and immoral aggression. Women as housewives and women working in the open market. Right of travel. Right of education. Rights to choose an occupation. Right to participate in political activities. Right to participate in outdoor social activities. Right to choose style of clothing. Rights of visiting relatives, and female friends. Rights of separation from husband, in specific cases. Human rights.

Questionnaire on Woman’s Rights in the Customary Laws of the Tribes of Awlad Ali of the Western Desert of Egypt Preliminary information: Marital Status: never married ( ) Married ( ) Divorced ( ) Widowed ( ) Educational Status: Illiteracy ( ) read and write ( ) Preparatory ( ) Secondary ( ) collectors ( ) Place of Birth: Countryside ( ) Urban ( ) Age: 20-29 ( ) 30-39 ( ) 40-49 ( ) 50+ ( ) The informants answer to the questions concerning customary laws and the freedom of women to exercise their human rights in the following: • Basic Education: Yes ( ) No ( ) • Secondary Education: Yes ( ) No ( ) • University Education: Yes ( ) No ( ) • Do you have a choice regarding your profession: Yes ( ) No ( ) • Do you have a choice in the selection of your spouse: Yes ( ) No ( ) • Independent financial disclosure of: Yes ( ) No ( )

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Do you have the right to complain about spousal violence: Yes ( ) No ( ) Do you have the right to complain about domestic violence: Yes ( ) No ( ) Do you have the freedom to exercise your political rights: Yes ( ) No ( ) Do you have the freedom to choose an outfit: Yes ( ) No ( ) Are you able to participate when other students go on University excursions: Yes ( ) No ( ) Do you have the right to participate in making investment decisions concerning the family: Yes ( ) No ( ) Do you have the right to receive the same salary received by men for the same work: Yes ( ) No ( ) Do you feel you are equal with your brother in social obligations? Yes ( ) No ( ) Do you feel you have equal rights with your brother? Yes ( ) No ( )

Fourth - Notes and questions on the functions of the traditional Arab family, and structural changes that have occurred as a result of the economic and demographic conditions in the new Arab societies: 1 - The Arab tribe is still the extended kinship unity, which has divided into a number of familial nucleus units, but those units remain as deep relationships and strong links. There is a sense of kinship and shared responsibility among its members. The shared responsibility is in many areas, including solidarity with tribal disputes, and the value of paternal and maternal cousinship in rural and urban communities. There are many social events, which include gatherings where the nucleus familial units remain under the “umbrella” of the extended tribal family such as on holy days, crises, marriages and deaths. 2 - The traditional Arab tribe is obliged to fulfill specific functions not included in the “terms of reference” for the "European", for example, economic interdependence among its members, determining the social status and trends of marital choice of its members, notwithstanding the contemporary changes in the social stratification and systems of social order. 3 - The family in many Arab societies is a compound family, as Islam allows, according to humanitarian controls, regarding polygamy. With the varying size of this phenomenon in the Arab countries, and surrounding areas, some Arab writings concentrate on it as a social problem, but contemporary writings highlight other problems at the present time,

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including divorce, the late age of marriage, spinsterhood, and the absence of one, or both, parents. 4 - The plans regarding the resettlement of nomads, and the assimilation of tribal groups, within the “national community” has been associated with oil investments, in some Arab countries, and with political liberalization and building of the state in some others.. Industrialization, and urbanization, in the desert and rural areas has been associated with this whole trend towards modernizing aspects of the lifestyle of Arab countries, but the problem of maintaining a balance between "originality" and “modernization” is a common Arab problem. This is reflected in the high cost of marriage, the rise in the age of marriage, the trend towards living in nuclear family units in independent living, and the dispersion of members of the family unit as an impact of the phenomenon of internal and external migration. 5 - Despite efforts being made to eliminate nomadic lifestyles, and the trend towards "developing" the integration of tribal groups, the impact of rural development and urban growth on "tribalism" will continue for generations in many Arab societies. The indication of these elements appears within political elections, as in the phenomenon of revenge, and in particular the formation of social groups in rural and semi-nomadic communities. 6 - Western and Arabic literature includes, in some cases, a great deal of misunderstanding regarding the status of women in traditional Arab society, particularly in relation to their contribution to productivity and decision-making in the family. In fact the involvement in productivity that women share in nomadic and rural environments is more than that of the productivity of women in urban communities, or industrial environments. They contribute to agricultural production, animal husbandry, cottage industry, household decision-making, the process of "budgeting" and in their sons' marital choice. It is women who breed revenge in tribal communities. Education has led to the exit of Arab women to work in multiple areas, although this is permissible only with some restrictions. But we find, on the other hand, that there are tendencies towards the re-evaluation of women's occupations outside the home, and that there is a return to women being housewives and the development of cottage industries, to cope with the many problems associated with the exit of women from the home to go to work. 7 - The demographic and economic changes, that have affected the tribes in Arab society, are of great importance with regards to "social security". There are acute crises faced by some communities, such as the trend towards the collapse of confidence in the money market, sectarian

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strife, religious militancy, separatist movements, and religious extremism. It is a warning bell to the need for strengthening familial, and national, cohesion and to the need for awareness of the demographic heterogeneity, which requires a great deal of time and care in its assimilation, especially when this “assimilation” is desired. This is the situation in some Arab societies, which have been forced to “host” migrant labor workers in order to develop various conditions, and it has led to the existence of subcultures conflicting with each other, and contradictory behavior, in many cases, to the culture of the host community. 8 – What follows is a process of modernization within the tribes of some Arab societies? There are some problematic situations that require "social awareness", for example, the increase in the acquisition of types of modern technology, the vision of housing and means of transport, method of spending vacations, the value of dowries and the type of education used as "status symbols" for social stratification by families keen to occupy a prominent social status, and for those who try to bypass the traditional social distances. 9 - Although many have written about the social impacts of migration within communities, whether they are attracted or averse to it, as well as on the effects of the returning immigrants in Arab countries exporting the labor force, there are many aspects that still need to be researched indepth, both in regional and comparative studies. These must be carried out with impetus and especially with regard to the effect of the imbalance between the numbers of both sexes in the countries that attract migration; the impact of the absence of one or both parents on family relationships; socialization in the spreading out of the migrant workforce; the cultural impact of communities that attract migration on the migrants; the impact of migration on young people living within countries that are non-oil producing; the vision for the future with regard to education, occupational choice and marriage and the impact of alien cultures that bring “new crimes” into the communities that attract immigration, and other issues related certainly to the national security of Arab societies.

CHAPTER TEN “THE FOLLOW- UP OF THE SOCIOANTHROPOLOGICAL STUDY ON: THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF THE MANUAL WORKSHOP IN ALEXANDRIA CITY AND “ACTION RESEARCH PROJECT ON THE SOCIOCULTURAL CONDITIONS IN THE WADI AL KUMAR REGION- AND THE PROPOSED URGENT DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS FOR UPGRADING THE LOCAL COMMUNITY OF WADI AL KUMAR”

First – “The Socio-Anthropological Study on: The Social Structure of the Manual Workshop in Alexandria City”: This project aims to accomplish a comparative study of the Social Structure of the Manual Workshop in Alexandria City as a follow-up to the Socio-Anthropological Study that was conducted for the same goals some forty years ago. The aim of that study was to assess: the position of the private skills sector in Egyptian society; the workshop owners; the location of the workshop; incentives for manual laborers to work in the workshop; the class structure embedded within the occupations; the governmental and nongovernmental support for the workshop; the rights of the apprentices; the voluntary participation of graduates from Industrial Schools to work in the workshop; the engagement of public sector laborers in the workshop; the generations of workers in the workshop; relationships and interactions amongst the laborers in the workshop; problems of absenteeism (dropouts) among the laborers of the workshop; lack of skillful workers; migration of skillful laborers; the workshop and the problems of tax and supply of raw materials; the physical conditions akin to manual labor;

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working hours in the workshop; medical treatment in the workshop; Medical Insurance for the workshop laborers; the social position of the workshop laborers; the syndicates and social services for the workshop laborers in the Egyptian Society. The stages of the previous study: The field study began with an exploratory stage (phase) in the Kom El Nadoora region in Alexandria for the following reasons: 1 - Kom El Nadoora is an area of manual labor as well as being a residential district in Alexandria City. The area comprises various occupational activities such as the industrial workshops, marine works, the trading in seeds and commodities, blacksmith workshops, carpentry workshops, construction sites, (etc.). Such an area allows us to become acquainted with more than one subject, dealing with the social structure of the manual workshop, especially as it refers to the integration of manual laborers (skills) and to the ecological aspects of the manual industry, and the social life of skilled laborers. 2 - The research group had detailed information on the size of the labor force, and its skillful specialties. The group also had personal and occupational relationships, which it developed through previous field research studies in the same area. The previous studies dealt with the problems that arose within urban regions, and the degradation in Alexandria city gave some background for research in the training of new research assistants. Also, relevant research methods have been used, and modified, before being applied to the intensive field study. The field study included an ecological survey of the area i.e. the identification of the administrative borders; the most important streets; the small districts with their residential specialties; and the centers of workshops with their various manual (skills) activities. Also, the houses were enumerated according to their locations in the area. This stage was also important to orient the people, who were residents of the research area, about the research subject. The collection of data was based on visits to the area. Visits were carried out by two researchers to the same workshop. Such a method gave the researchers a better opportunity to remain for longer periods of time in the meant workshop in order to develop their observation, and to apply unstructured interviews with the owners. The revision of the collected information was also made possible through the above mentioned method. The workshop owners resented, to a large extent, the researchers’ encounter with supervisors and apprentice staff. They would have preferred to answer all the questions as they probably feared any

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information made available to the researches that was incorrect may have caused them problems with administration centers, and especially tax and insurance centers. The researchers tried to overcome such fears before any questioning took place. Researchers also promised not to ask any questions during working hours. They also made it clear that they would not ask any questions dealing with the relationship between the workshop owners and their staff, whether they were supervisors or apprentices. The basic subject matter of the questions therefore concentrated mainly on the data of occupation, the personal circumstances of the laborer, and his social perceptions. The research guidelines of the study of the workshop’s social structure included the following subject matter: First - Background: 1. Name of the workshop, its ownership, the date it was established and the date it began trading. 2. Location of the workshop and its relationship to the area in terms of its residential and occupational centers. 3. The environment within the workshop (the space, the openings, the lightning system, the air conditioning system, the equipment). Second - Occupational specialization in the workshop: 1. The work performed in the workshop 2. The laborers’ specialization in the workshop 3. The development of manual labor carried out in the workshop. Third - The integration of skills (manual labor) and the workshop community: 1. Which are the workshops whose work is integrated and carried out by others in the area? 2. Which are the workshops that offer the integration of manual labor amongst laborers within the same workshop 3. Which are the workshops that provide a division of the work, and its assets, amongst the laborers? Fourth - The Organizational Rules of Labor in the Workshop: 1. Social Insurance 2. Industrial Insurance 3. Tax 4. City Councils and the streets they occupy 5. Commercial and Industrial Registration and other permits

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Occupational Medical Insurance

Fifth - Evaluation of the Labor Force in the Workshop: 1. Excellent choice of instructors to train each apprentice, and their background. 2. The training of each young apprentice and their promotional opportunities in line with other laborers within the workshop. 3. The amount of involvement that the various vocational training centers offer. Sixth - The workshop and the customers: 1. The traits of the customers and the extent of their loyalty to the workshop. 2. How prices are set for the repair of various items and for the service charge. 3. What is the competition in attracting customers Seventh - Problems that arise within the Workshop and the (Skills) Manual Labor: 1. Problems of the workshop and the various administrative centers (insurances, taxes). 2. Problems of with the supply of raw materials, and various necessary items 3. Problems with migration of the labor force. 4. Problems in the decline of capability, or in the improvement, of the proper order of production. Eighth - The Workshop and Technical Development in the Field of Manual Labor: 1. Development of the workshop laborers according to their experience. 2. The effort of the workshop to maintain production in accordance with the required up to date modifications or trends. 3. The traditional production of the workshop and the production of imported ideas. Ninth - The Social Conditions of the Workshop Laborers: 1. The background, and conditions, of the laborers. 2. Previous occupations before the laborers’ engagement with the workshop. 3. The social conditions of the laborers: marriage, education, housing, children.

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The economic situation for workshop laborers: income and expenditure, savings, debts, extent of house commodities. The health condition of the laborers, and their families.

Tenth - The workshop laborers and the official, and unofficial, organizations: 1. The syndicate or the union. 2. Gatherings in coffee shops and other locale. 3. Leadership in manual labor. 4. Unions of official corporations, and their effect on the laborers’ relationships. Eleventh - The Stratified vision of workshop labor: 1. The workshop laborers view of their conditions compared with other manual labors. 2. The workshop laborers view of their position in society, as a whole. 3. How the laborers view society’s image of themselves with respect to their stratified condition. 4. The social stratification system and the laborers satisfaction with their social condition. 5. The disappearance of manual labor due to increased educational opportunities. 6. Social participation amongst the workshop laborers, and members of other social classes. Research limitations to be considered in the field study of the Social Structure of the Manual Workshop: The field researchers may be faced with some limitations in their task, such as the following: 1 - In spite of the efforts made by the field researchers to align the workshop owners with the objective, theory and method of the project, they still fear even general interference into their own matters. Their main fear is that the collected information will find its way to administrative centers such as the tax administrations, the insurance centers, etc. 2 - The informants may dislike the idea of pen and paper and prefer normal oral conversations. In this case, the researchers had to depend on their memories to later write and record what had happened during their encounter with either the workshop owners or laborers. Researchers would, thus, try to interpret the encounter with all its details, including the dialects and expressions used by their interviewees.

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3 - The workshop owners commonly resisted, to a great extent, the researchers encounter with their laborers 4- Researchers tried to meet with the laborers outside their place of work because of the difficulties caused by the workshop owners. So they met either during rest hours, leisure time or at weekends in areas far from the work place. 5- Audio-visual recording techniques were not used without clear and open agreement from all involved. It was considered important to begin recording information regarding the material cultural elements. The following information gives details of the Kom Al Nadoora study, which was accomplished in the late 197 0s. It deserves to be re-examined, after more than 35 years, as it may be relevant to the assessment of the stability and development of Egyptian society.

The Social Structure of the Workshop in Alexandria City: The Private Manual Labor Sector in Egypt: In Alexandria’s industrial society the workshop is still only a small productive unit. It is made up of a master (Osta), with two to three assistants, and some boys or apprentices (Sobian). This type of productive system is not only in the industrial field but also in the commercial field. For instance, there are no special agencies to sell the spare parts for a particular model of car. The sale of such parts is only available in these numerous, but small, shops where you can buy spare parts for only one type of car at each shop. Such a traditional system allows expansion within personal contacts and in the manual labor experience. However, it prevents workshops from further technical development, because such development usually necessitates more modern equipment, which requires further sizeable capital. Such developments may only be applied in the manual specialization of tailoring and plumbing. It becomes a problem if technical development is, for instance, applied to the shoe industry as it would require larger areas of working space, expensive modern equipment and, thus, cause an crease in the commercial price of the produced goods.

The tributaries of manual workshop human resources: A laborer, in a cutter workshop, says that laborers in the field of manual labor have not retained their original status, as many among them have become deviant in their behavior, and others have come to the field

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with no background. Also, customers try to buy imported goods, which causes many problems for manual labor in general. For instance, in the case of carpentry and plumbing, the government has recently restricted the application of these jobs according to various specific measures. Such measures are difficult to deal with amongst manual laborers. These difficulties reflect negatively on the commercial price of the goods. With regard to the youth, who are engaged in the future of such workshops, it has been ethnographically proven that of these workshops tribes of Kom El Nadoora resist these restrictions for several reasons and researchers have found out that this resistance has had a great impact on such a social phenomenon. Many young workshop owners have inherited the workshop from their parents. This inheritance means that the business remains in the father’s name, and it also facilitates as a training center. There are also some laborers who have temporarily migrated, and with their savings from working abroad, they have returned and have become business owners themselves. Some of them started the importation of modern equipment, such as sewers in the field of shore industry, and of glue stuff. Also, among the workshop owners there were some who were educated and with university degrees in commerce, agriculture, the arts etc. These eventually had to leave their government jobs to take over the businesses inherited from their fathers.

The manual business owners: Competition is a natural aspect amongst the business owners. It is accepted by all the owners, in their relationships and also in their contacts with the public sector. Competition does affect the positive communication among business owners, for instance, with regard to celebrations as well as funerals, etc. All business owners have confirmed to the researchers that cooperatives and unions, or syndicates, have a role in development projects. The business owners also meet, and unite, to discuss the pricing policies of their manual labor productions. Such a development could only have been possible through the skillful training and education, of the laborers, plus an improved salary package. Business owners have other places to meet, but they are usually held in coffee shops, such as the Nile coffee Shop. These co-operatives, or unions, have an important role to play in the manual labor market. For instance, the ironing price policy is discussed by several ironing men. However, not all manual laborers can be submitted to a pricing policy.

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Business location: There are certain criteria that limit the location of a business. For instance, by law from the town’s municipality, it isn't allowed to establish businesses in luxurious residential areas. Also, businesses of the same or relevant nature, or specialization, are allowed to be in the same area. There are however, certain manual labor productions that depend on market needs, and on the presence of those customers who reside in luxurious areas. This is the case of tailoring, etc. Although most businesses are found in locations known to the municipality, there are others scattered about the city, which are not necessarily of the same nature as their neighboring businesses.

Incentives for laborers in manual businesses: The researchers observed that most of the interviewees started their lives in the business as mere apprentices, moving from one business to another until they settled in a specific business that corresponded to their desires, and experience. The interviewees also mentioned several other reasons that brought them to the various businesses. One of the reasons is the family condition. If the father dies, or if he remarries, the son has to work for economic reasons, perhaps because of failure in school (especially at primary level). Working within a business is also of important financial support to a poor family. A laborer sometimes chooses to work within a business, not necessarily because of any relevant experience, or background in the work, that they may have, but because of the good treatment he may receive from the supervisor, or boss. Sometimes the laborer chooses manual labor, either because it is easy work, or because he has an interest in the work. For example a laborer may have left the manual labor of cutting (iron, wood etc.) to work in a print shop.

The class structure of manual labor occupations: It is impossible to stratify the manual labor occupations as in carpentry, for instance, which has developed since the early history of mankind. That is an occupation which is tied to the environment. There is a rural carpenter in each village, and in coastal areas we may find carpenters as boat builders; there are also carpenters specialized in the restoration of furniture, etc. But we cannot say that carpentry is a higher level of

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occupation, than that of plumbers, car mechanics, electricitions, or construction workers. A class structure is found amongst the laborers within the same occupation. As mentioned before, we have the apprentice (sabi), the laborer (El Sana’eyi), and the supervisor or boss (Osta). Each has a certain status within his occupation. In general, all manual labor workers are gradually experiencing an increase in their wages, which gives their occupation a higher value than before. The higher value is displayed in terms of the salary package, efficiency and general appearance (e.g.: plumbers are better dressed).

Recruitment of workers in manual businesses: Most of the factory owners do not depend on introductions from employment agencies for the employment of laborers. Laborers engaged through such offices would require social insurance and tax implementation by the factory. Apprentices, however, represent the majority of the labor force in the factories and they are usually the youth of the families living in the same district. The apprentices are also relatives of the supervisors and of other laborers and, as such, a relationship increases the trust of the factory owners in them. Also, the disciplined and educational background of the apprentice helps him to develop a sense of loyalty, and a social connection, towards the factory owners that sometimes goes beyond normal occupational ties. For instance, the apprentice receives daily expenses, as well as a meal and training, from the factory owners. On the other hand students from Vocational Training Centers and Industrial Schools prefer occupations involved in governmental work and those from within the public sector. Therefore their work in factories is usually only temporary. Only in their free time, or at weekends, or during their annual vacations would they consider work in a factory. The factory owners cannot, therefore, depend on them being a major part of the workforce. Accordingly, the apprentices make up the major part of the work force, and they may be the only work force available today in these factories.

The selection of the apprentices: The selection of an apprentice does not take place on an occupational bias. The apprentice is usually a young member of a family nearby, or is the relative of a laborer, or supervisor. Sometimes the apprentice is a pupil

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who works only during his summer vacations. Generally, the workshop owners do not mind the temporary nature of the work ethic of such pupils as his apprentice compensation is usually very meager. However, the factory owner is less eager to train a part time apprentice. Physical strength, honesty and courage, are the basic requirements for the admission of any apprentice. Only apprentices involved in the manufacture of products that incude working with gold are chosen on a more restricted basis. There are also secrets of any industry, which should only be taught to the trusted apprentice. With honesty, physical strength and courage the apprentice sometimes receives harsh discipline so that he may later develop into a good and worthy supervisor.

The participation of students from Industrial Schools in the factory workforce: Factories still depend on a traditional workforce, which is represented predominantly by the apprentice. From the field study it is clear that it is rarely students from Vocational Training Centers, or Industrial Secondary Schools, who work on a full time basis in factories. Most of these students are considered as assistant engineers and prefer to work in companies which provide them with employment that brings with it a higher social status, and better insurance. Factory work is considered only as extra, and overtime, work usually carried out in leisure time. Also, students from Vocational Training Centers, or from the Industrial Secondary Schools, cannot work in factories straight after their graduation, as the companies sign a three to four year contract with them as soon as their graduation becomes effective. Also, the quick training programs, organized by the big companies as that of Othman Ahmed Othman, allow older laborers to be employed as assistant engineers instead of going back to factories as mere apprentices.

The engagement of public sector laborers in the factory workforce: Many of the public sector laborers work in private sector factories in their spare.time. The factory owners welcome such a concept as these public sector laborers possess skills, and training. They can also perform their work in a limited time as their insertion into the workforce is focused on a highest rate of production. They do not cause the workshop owners any social insurance or tax problems since their work is on a part time basis, and is mostly carried out in their homes. The public sector laborers

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also accept lower compensation than those working on a full time basis. A part form the above, the factory owner is free, at any time and without any ant sense of commitment to dismiss a public sector worker. There are, however, some employees who own factories themselves and who depend on some colleagues, or on laborers, from the private sector.

Generations that exists in the factory workforce: Factories usually comprise of three generations: the generation of older supervisors, the generation of younger workers and the generation of the apprentices. There is integration amongst members of the workshop. The boss orders the younger workers to carry out the operations and these are then assisted by the apprentices. The apprentice has the job of moving, or carrying, equipment from one place to another, In general, today’s relationship between the supervisor, or the boss, and his apprentice is limited. The supervisor is no longer allowed to physically abuse his apprentice in order to discipline him to become perfect at his work, as did happen in years gone by.. The relationship between supervisors and young laborers was based on mutual respect. The young laborer wants to improve his efficiency by his own efforts. He seeks adventure abroad and becomes Effendi. The young laborer can be criticized by the older generation if he believes that he has become successful in his work when he arranges the importation of more modern equipment. The young laborer is also criticized, by the older generation, for being casual in his working hours when he is unable to compromise between long evenings spent in a café, and his early arrival the following morning at the factory.

Working relationships within the factory: There is a rigid hierarchal relationship amongst the supervisors, or bosses, and the workers and apprentices in factories. For instance, in the case of the car mechanic, the boss Osta makes only initial investigations, and then decides with the factory owner upon the cost of the repair that is required. He then gives instructions to the workers, and apprentices, to carry out the repair. Also, the workers enjoy a higher status in relation to the apprentice. The apprentice serves the worker at all times. He also buys food, etc. for him. The apprentice is often exposed to insults and physical abuse. Such levels of status amongst members of the factory are reflected in their salaries.

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Students from Industrial Schools, or from Institutes of Vocational Training, cannot be integrated into any level of relationship within the factory, so this represents a problem. They lack the experience of field work in factories, and also, at the age of 18 or 19 they cannot be treated, as mere apprentices. They are also criticized by other workers in the factories as they assume the air of an employer. They seek an office, and the treatment of a respected employee.

The lack of skillful manpower for the factories: The lack of a skilled workforce is one of the most important problems facing the national economy. The major reasons for the development of such problems are presented in various reports, and research papers, such as, the following: 1. The system of education, which encourages a large number of youngsters to register in Universities as a consequence of the increased numbers of Secondary Schools. At the same time, the Vocational Preparatory Schools decrease in number, and close down, their prodigy could be the source of the much sought after industrial workforce. 2. Lack of efficiency in the educational programs of both the Vocational Training Centers and the Industrial Schools. The implementation of various training programmes is lacking because of problems in the schools equipment etc. There is no comparison, for instance, to the quality of training that students enjoy from the Private Italian Industrial School. 3. The government posts still carry special prestige in society. This leads the younger generation towards academic studies, either in agriculture or industry.

Administrative problems facing the owners of factories: The factories do not possess any books for tax registry. The decisions regarding tax is made in an unbelievable way: the tax officer usually increases the business tax rate of the factory. Such a statement has been made by the owners. As the increase is always expected of the tax officer, the factory owner is, thus, expected to bargain with the officer. There was a case when the tax officer required about L.E. 2000 (two thousand Egyptian pounds) from a factory owner. The owner kept bargaining until he could lower the tax to about L.E. 500 (Five hundred Egyptian pounds). In general, the tax evaluation is based on the amount of

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raw materials in the factory, the number of employees and apprentices, the amount of equipment, and the size of production? However, such an evaluation is always approximate as the factory owners never register the real total number of employees engaged in their business.

Providing factories with raw materials: The scarcity of raw materials on the market causes problems with distribution and prices, especially in the smaller factories, which may have irregularities within their formal, legal, commercial and industrial registration. Such a problematic situation forces these factory owners to buy their raw materials on the black market. The cost of these transactions are then reflected in the retail price of the finished goods.

Governmental terms and conditions for factories: There are terms and conditions made by the government before the issue of any work permit can be implemented for factories. Some of these conditions refer to the physical aspects of the aspects, and its location. For instance, no factory is allowed to be established unless its owner satisfies the following: the public utilities for health conditions, proper air conditioning and sufficient lighting. We find, however, that most of the factories are like store-rooms with only one exit, or door. These doorways become the only source of aeration, and light. The limited internal space is polluted by the environmental noise of production tools. These situations are particularly prevalent in the case of printing, and of carpentry businesses. Public utilities (infrastructure) are very poor in most of the factories. Such an aspect is contradictory to the current view of many of the young employees who are graduates from Vocational Training Centers, or from Industrial Schools, and who prefer to be known as “engineers” rather than “workers”.

Working hours in the factory: The usual terms of official working hours, weekends and annual holidays, etc. are not applied in most factories. Although, it is stated that the working day should not exceed eight hours, yet some workshops remain open from 9am till 8pm, with only a break for lunch. Some workshops even open at weekends, including Sundays

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In certain cases, we found that the payment of wages is based on the amount of “units or pieces” produced, i.e. the more the employee produces, the higher his wage. Therefore, many of the employees prefer to work longer hours in order to produce more units, and thus gain additional financial payments. This is the case for employees who do not have the chance to travel abroad for the purpose of work. Others like to spend their weekend working part time. Certain employees work overtime to earn more money for special occasions. This is especially the case of tailors, who sometimes through the night. Others have to work during the early hours of the morning, such as bakers. In general, employees in private businesses envy employees, in public sectors who usually have limited working hours, fixed salaries, and numerous holidays.

Medical insurance and medical treatment for factory employees: Medical insurance is linked to the conditions within the industrial health and safety of the business, and to the extent of its implementation. Also, the employees themselves are not used to receiving any medical care from their employers. First Aid boxes/ cupboards are often used for reasons far from any medical treatment. Instead of medications, band aids and fabric bandages being housed in such places we found papers, or equipment. Sometimes there is no provision made for First Aid at all in certain businesses. Injuries do not prevent the employee from completing their work. In serious medical cases, employees with their own private medical insurance are given the relevant medical care. All their rights regarding sick leave, etc. are respected. Employees with no insurance, however, have to come to an agreement with the business owners as to how their situation will follow through with regard to sick leave etc. This situation is risky when employees become permanently ill, or as they grow older and situations of ill health occur more frequently. As they depend on a daily wage they may suddenly find they have no income and no medical care. In general, there is no awareness made with respect to industrial insurance in the private business.

Social conditions of the employees: The following are general observations made by the researchers concerning the social conditions of the factory employees. The poor socio-economic conditions are considered to be among the most important reasons that encourage parents to send their children, as

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apprentices, to the factories. The inadequate and badly planned urban residential areas lie close to the factories. Until recent times the economic, health and cultural conditions of the factory employees were quite poor as most of them were illiterate, and they lived in old housing that was often in a dilapidated state. It is only recently that their social conditions have improved, especially since migration opportunities have come about. Such an improved standard of living is reflected in their purchase of certain household goods, in their general appearances and in their investments, such as, the education of their children in private schools. Generally, the economic conditions of the employees have improved tremendously within the few last years. Also, the opportunity for factory work has increased. For instance, in 1970 the tailor used to charge about ten Egyptian pounds for a suit. Today, the same tailor would charge about 30 Egyptian pounds for the same service. The increase in the financial income, brought home by factory employees, is reflected in two ways: first, the tailor, plumber or mechanic, have become entrepreneurs who own their own car. They may also invest their money in a plot of land that may be used for construction projects. Their appearance is more fashionable. In their homes they own all necessary of today’s household goods considered necessary for today’s lifestyle, such as, the refrigerator, television, and central heating. In their daily consumption they compete equally well with that of government employees. Until now however, we have not had any proof of the change in the financial status of the factory employees, and their lifestyle. Some believe that a great proportion of their income is spent on leisure goods and food. The same individuals believe that these employees continue to remain in old housing, within poorly developed cultural environments, in spite of their higher income.

The factories social union: Although the factory community is united by the leadership of the factory owner "Al Meallem", the urban style of life has affected the employees. It is true that they take their lunch breaks together, but each one has their own friends, and their own individual lives, which might be completely different than that of their colleagues. In general however, all members, within one factory exchange visits to various social occasions, such as marriages, and funerals. This social exchange strengthens the social ties between the various groups, and occupational classes.

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Social services for the factory employees: In spite of the expansion in social services for the employees in general, such as conventional leisure centers, transportation facilities, housing developments, leisure excursions, sports facilities, and social welfare, the employees in the private sectors, in general, do not enjoy enough of the above mentioned services. The factory and private business owners commented on this situation by stating that their employees are not numerous, and that such services should be the responsibility of the state. Also, the co-operatives and other social centers, which the factory owners develop, are rarely visited by the employees. The latter are usually too tired after a long working day to go to such centers. Anyway, usually the centers are made of one or two rooms, mainly dedicated to administrative work, and in any event there is no space available in these rooms for any activities Social ties between all employees increase especially during times of crisis, such as death, unemployment, etc. In these situations financial aid is provided by all the members of the factory.

Social ties of factory employees: The social ties of factory employees differ according to their social status. Married employees maintain the working relationship with other employees only during working hours. No contacts, or ties, extend to their home lives. Young unmarried employees however, do maintain their working relationships and extend it to friendships outside of work. The unmarried employees meet, thus, in public enters, such as, cinemas, coffee shops etc. and discuss their mutual adventures with respect to the opposite sex. They also share their joys. There are also official organizations which unite the manual laborers, such as in the case of the “Bakery Laborers Social Ties”. Whatever the activities of these organizations, the laborers mistrust their operation. They pay their membership fees, but they know that nothing will be done for their social or work insurances, or salary improvement, etc. There are unofficial organizations, such as, coffee shops (e.g.: a coffee shop in Ma’aroof Street in Alexandria). Tapestry workers meet, for instance, in Ma’aroof Coffee shop to discuss their pricing policies, which might differ from one another.

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Second - “Action Research Project on the Socio-cultural Conditions In Wadi Al Kumar Region, and the Proposed Urgent Development Projects for Upgrading the Wadi Al Kumar Local Community” The aim of the project is to assess the social cultural systems surrounding the victory with special concern to the following: 1. The mutual interaction between the local community in Wadi Al Kumar, and the factory, from the point of view of both the community and the factory itself. It aims to explore the Wadi Al Kamar population and the positive, and negative, effects of the factory being within their own local community, and at the same time discover what the problems are that the factory faces, because of the surrounding population. 2. Exploring what hopes and expectations the population of Wadi Al Kumar have of the factory regarding the upgrading of the local community, and in facing the economic, social and eco-social problems that exist i.e. unemployment, pollution and ecological deterioration, the lack of recreation facilities, green spaces etc. 3. Exploring public, and non-governmental, organization participation in the application of welfare projects, for example, micro and handcraft projects, indoor economic activities, literacy, public health culture etc. 4. Exploring the possibility of improving the factory public relations department so that it may become more intimately involved with the local community and so that a much more positive and co-operative relationship may develop between the factory and the Wadi Al Kamar population, thereby fostering a, mutual participation in the upgrade of the local community surrounding the factory.

The Main Questions I - Family Social Aspects: 1. The Family size, economic conditions, education, etc.) 2. Housing in the Wadi Al Kumar community. 3. Manpower and unemployment in the region. 4. Migration and settlement in Wadi Al- Kumar. 5. Advantages, and disadvantages, of living in the region. 6. The recommendations of Wadi Al-Kumar residents to upgrade the region.

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II - Social Leadership in Wadi Al-Kumar III - Public Chieftainship/leadership and Social Control: 1. Non-governmental societies, organizations and volunteer efforts. 2. Area for Social Gatherings, Coffee Shops, “Al Makahy”, Clubs, and Public Recreation Areas). 3. Neighborhood relationships. 4. III- Public Health: 5. Prevailing health conditions. 6. The Practices of Traditional Medicine 7. Sources of pollution. 8. The scarcity, and deterioration, of green areas. 9. Health habits, sleeping habits, personal sanitation, circumcision). 10. Epidemic, and endemic, diseases in the region. 11. Availability, and the capability, or difficulties of the health services. IV - the infrastructure of Wadi Al-Kumar: 1. The conditions of the infrastructures of Wadi Al-Kumar. 2. Availability of Social and Urban Services (Markets, Transportation, Communication, Schools). V - The Cultural Folklore of Wadi Al-Kumar: 1. Nutritional lifestyle. 2. Social, national and religions festivals, and celebrations. 3. Information on traditions and beliefs. 4. Language and dialects. 5. Traditional clothing. 6. The status of women, their roles and occupations. 7. Traditional economic activities and skills. 8. Social relationships amongst communities of different sub cultures.

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The Questionnaire Informant Name: Mail Address: 1. Number of family members: 2. Educational status of the husband: 3. Educational status of the wife: 4. Has any child in your family completed his/her, primary education? Yes ( ) No ( ) 5. Has any child in your family completed his/her secondary education? Yes ( ) No ( ) 6. Monthly income of family members: 7. Husband’s occupation: 8. Wife’s occupation: 9. Number of unemployed persons within the family: 10. Sex of the first unemployed person: Male ( ) Female ( ) 11. Age of the first unemployed person: 12. Educational status of the first unemployed person: 13. Marital status of the first unemployed person: 14. Sex of the second unemployed person: 15. Age of the second unemployed person: 16. Educational status of the second unemployed person: 17. Marital status of the second unemployed person: 18. Husband’s second job: 19. Number of rooms in the family home: 20. Ownership of the family home: Yes ( ) No ( ) 21. Is there a member of the family living in separate accommodation? Yes ( ) No ( ) 22. Husband’s place of birth: 23. Wife’s place of birth: 24. When did you take up residence in Wadi Al-Kumar? 25. Reasons for choosing to live in Wadi Al-Kumar: 26. What do you feel are the advantages of living in Wadi Al-Kumar? 27. What do you feel are the disadvantages of living in Wadi Al-Kumar? 28. The medical services which are not allowed in Wadi Al-Kumar and the near area: 29. Do you feel there are not enough services in Wadi Al Kumar e.g.? 30. Drinking water: Yes ( ) No ( ) 31. Drainage system: Yes ( ) No ( ) 32. Paved Roads: Yes ( ) No ( ) 33. Public transportation: Yes ( ) No ( ) 34. Food markets: Yes ( ) No ( )

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Pharmacies: Yes ( ) No ( ) Sports Clubs: Yes ( ) No ( ) Clean roads and garbage collection: Yes ( ) No ( ) Mosques and Churches Yes ( ) No ( ) Public Youth Clubs: Yes ( ) No ( ) Coffee Shops “Al Makahy”: Yes ( ) No ( ) Public Gardens: Yes ( ) No ( ) Family suggestions for upgrading Wadi Al-Kumar local community: Does any member of your family suffer from chest related diseases? Yes ( ) No ( ) Does any member of you family suffer from any type of chronic disease? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘yes’ answered please specify: Do the N.G.O.’s offer services to Wadi Al-Kumar Community? Yes ( ) No ( ) 48- If ’yes’ answered, what services are they? Yes ( ) No ( ) What sort of services, which the N.G.O’s are offering? Do family members in the community of Wadi Al-Kumar go to doctors who offer traditional medicine? Yes ( ) No ( ) In what circumstances would family members go to doctors who offer traditional medicine? Do the women of Wadi Al-Kumar visit traditional midwives “Al Daya” during their pregnancies? Yes ( ) No ( ) Do family members in Wadi Al-Kumar sometimes depend solely on traditional medicine? Yes ( ) No ( ) Do family members sometimes use medicines without a physician’s prescription: Yes ( ) No ( ) In ’yes’ answered: in what circumstances would they do that? Are there enough green areas in Wadi Al-Kumar? Yes ( ) No ( ) What is the family view of female circumcision: What are the medical services which are not available in Wadi AlKamar: Does the husband of the family attend, or participate, in cultural meetings, which are held in Wadi Al-Kumar, or nearby? Yes ( ) No ( ) In which cultural meeting is he interested? Does any member of the family participate in voluntary work? Yes ( ) No ( ) If ‘yes’ answered: in which field of voluntary work? If ‘no’ answered: for what are the reasons?

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62. Which are the Urban services that are not available in Wadi AlKamar? 63. Which are the urban services that need upgrading in Wadi Al-Kamar: 64. Family suggestions for upgrading the regional planning of Wadi AlKumar: 65. What is the husband’s view of neighborhood relationships in Wadi Al-Kumar: 66. Do neighborhoods/“settlements” in Wadi Al-Kumar depend mostly on Kinship? Yes ( ) No ( ) 67. Are there neighborhoods/“settlements” in Wadi Al-Kumar that revolve mostly around, and amongst, work colleagues? Yes ( ) No ( ) 68. Do neighborhoods/“settlements” in Wadi Al-Kumar attract those who are of the same of tribes? Yes ( ) No ( ) 69. Evaluation of family house in general: 70. Family evaluation of the Wadi Al-Kumar roads and streets: 71. Family evaluation of the Wadi Al-Kumar environment: 72. What is the traditional nutritional lifestyle in Wadi Al-Kumar: 73. What number of fish dishes are normally consumed during the week: 74. What is the level of participation of family members with regards to religions feasts like “Al Mawalid”: 75. What is the level of participation of family members with regards to social events in Wadi Al-Kumar: 76. Weddings: 77. Funeral ceremonies: 78. Christening ceremonies: 79. Familial visits: 80. Collective savings in “Al Gemiaat”: 81. Visiting sick neighbors, colleagues and relatives: 82. Family evaluation of medicine of the occult: 83. Family evaluation of mediums and "Al Zar”: 84. Do the people of Wadi Al-Kamar have a distinct dialect, or is there a mix of different dialects? Yes ( ) No ( ) 85. Do the people of Wadi Al-Kumar dress traditionally? Yes ( ) No ( ) 86. Do women work in cottage industries? Yes ( ) No ( ) 87. If ‘yes’ answered: what are those industries? 88. What opportunities are there for women to take occupations outside of the home in Wadi Al-Kumar? 89. What are the traditional handcrafts of which Wadi Al-Kumar is famous?

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90. Are there any kin-societies “rawbitt” in Wadi Al-Kumar? Yes ( ) No ( )

CHAPTER ELEVEN “PROPOSED QUESTIONS ON SEXUALITY IN CONTEMPORARY ARAB CULTURE”

Introduction: A few years ago, writing and conversing about sex was very much a taboo subject that was strongly disapproved of. Men in the streets, or in communal areas, would refer to their wife as: "No culpability time", "the woman" or "the mother of his children." There is no doubt that this has changed now for many reasons. All kinds of sexual relationships have become acceptable. Marriage within heterosexual, and homosexual, relationships nowadays have not only become acceptable topics, but the subject is also often referred to in Arab media. In short the population conferences and globalization are the cause of the growing ease at which sexual relationships are discussed, as is the acceptance of the social and legal status of homosexuals in Arab societies.

“Questionnaire of the Comparative Socio-anthropological Study on Sex education and Hetero and Homosexuality in Contemporary Arab Culture” Preliminary data: The informant's age: Marital status: Never married ( ) Married ( ) Divorced ( ) Widowed ( ) Educational status: Illiterate ( ) Primary ( ) Middle ( ) Secondary ( ) University ( ) Current Occupation: Residence Environment: Rural ( ) Urban ( )

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Questionnaire 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. .13

Do you agree with the way in which homosexuality is presented in the movies? Yes ( ) No ( ) Do you agree with the way in which homosexuality is presented in television programs? Yes ( ) No ( ) Do you agree with the way in which homosexuality is presented in newspapers and magazines? Yes ( ) No ( ) Do you agree with the publication of books about homosexuality? Yes ( ) No ( ) Would you agree to answer questions about homosexuality in a piece of social research? Yes ( ) No ( ) Would you agree to answer research questions about the social problem of prostitution? Yes ( ) No ( ) Would you agree to answer questions about sexual compatibility in marital relationships? Yes ( ) No) ( ) Have you ever read anything in connection with "sex education” Yes ( ) No ( ) What areas do you think the media could cover in relation to sexual problems? Do you agree with homosexuals trying to have their own compound communities? Yes ( ) No ( ) Do you agree with homosexual individuals trying to have their own common places? Yes ( ) No ( ) Do you think that individual homosexuals tend towards having good morals, such as honesty, truthfulness etc? Yes ( ) No ( ) What is your view of the presentation of homosexuality in the Egyptian cinema (Yacoubian Building):

Positive effects : Negative effects: 14. What are your reasons for accepting the existence of homosexuality on the one hand, and your refusal to learn about, or discuss, it like any other phenomena and/or problem, on the other ? 15. Do you think that heterosexual individuals can exhibit homosexual thoughts or desires? Yes ( ) No ( ) Do you think that homosexuality is present within communities and institutions, such as, the following? 16. Penal institutions: prisons? Yes ( ) No ( ) 17. Penal institutions: correctional? Yes ( ) No ( ) 18. Clusters of homeless individuals: Yes ( ) No ( )

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19. Unplanned district groupings: Yes ( ) No ( ) 20. Poor communities: Yes ( ) No ( ) 21. The intellectuals: Yes ( ) No ( ) 22. Do you think that the delay in the age of marriage may lead to homosexuality? Yes ( ) No ( ) 23. Do you think that spinsterhood amongst women can lead to lesbianism? Yes ( ) No ( ) 24. Do you think that the bachelorhood could lead to homosexuality? Yes ( ) No ( ) Do you think that male homosexuality may be found closer to the following groups, or environments: 25. Slums: Yes ( ) No ( ) 26. Over affluent communities: Yes ( ) No ( ) 27. Traditional communities: Yes ( ) No ( ) 28. Closed communities: Yes ( ) No ( ) 29. Low-IQ groups: Yes ( ) No ( ) 30. Western culture groups: Yes ( ) No ( ) 31. Groups with low educational level: Yes ( ) No ( ) 32. Groups with high cultural level: Yes ( ) No ( ) 33. Groups with psychological problems: Yes ( ) No ( ) 34. The poor: Yes ( ) No ( ) 35. Groups that face sexual health problems: Yes ( ) No ( ) 36. Groups that face problems of illegal residency: Yes ( ) No ( ) 37. Have you ever heard a joke about homosexualit Yes ( ) No ( ) 38. Have you told a joke about homosexuality? Yes ( ) No ( ) 39. What do you think are the reasons for the many slang words in the Arabic vocabulary that relate to sexual connotations? Do you think that homosexual individuals need the following : 40. Psychological counseling or therapy: Yes ( ) No ( ) 41. The understanding of personal circumstances: Yes ( ) No ( ) 42. Pursuit and punishment: Yes ( ) No ( ) 43. Religious outreach: Yes ( ) No ( ) 44. Secrecy and cover up: Yes ( ) No ( ) 45. Health education: Yes ( ) No ( ) 46. Are homosexual tendencies inherited by children? Yes ( ) No ( ) 47. Do children of homosexual fathers inherit their parent’s social stigma? Yes ( ) No ( ) 48. At what age should boys be separated in bed? 49 At what age should girls be separated in bed?

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Do you think that it is necessary to control the amount of children and young people gathering together to prevent the possible harassment of homosexual or heterosexual individuals, at the following locations: 50. Sports Clubs: Yes ( ) No ( ) 51. Primary Schools: Yes ( ) No ( ) 52. Middle Schools: Yes ( ) No ( ) 53. Secondary Schools: Yes ( ) No ( ) 54. SwimmingPools: Yes ( ) No ( ) 55. Cinemas: Yes ( ) No ( ) 56. Gardens and Parks: Yes ( ) No ( ) 57. Cafes and Cafeterias: Yes ( ) No ( ) 58. Beaches: Yes ( ) No ( ) 59. Public Transportation: Yes ( ) No ( ) 60. Internet Cafes: Yes ( ) No ( ) 61. Public Toilets: Yes ( ) No ( ) 62. Traditional Folk Events: Yes ( ) No ( ) 63. Markets: Yes ( ) No ( ) 64. Do you think that globalization is the reason behind the open presentation of gays and lesbians? Yes ( ) No ( ) 65. Do you think that there are political reasons behind that? Yes ( ) No ( ) 66. Are you happy to participate in programs to raise awareness of the dangers of the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, through homosexuality? Yes ( ) No ( ) 67. Do you think that female circumcision can contribute to the tendency towards lesbianism? Yes ( ) No ( ) 68. Do you think that homosexuality is increasing, or decreasing? Increasing ( ) decreasing ( ) 69. Have you ever met a person known to be a homosexual? Yes ( ) No ( ) 70. Have you ever met a person that looks like a homosexual? Yes ( ) No ( ) 71. Do you know of anyone who said that he had been subjected to sexual harassment by a gay person? Yes ( ) No ( ) 72. Do you sometimes read published books, or magazines, on sex education? Yes ( ) No ( ) 73. Would you agree to discuss the claims of free exercise of non heterosexual behavior (homosexuality, and lesbianism, and the Trans gender? Yes ( ) No ( ) 74. If ‘Yes’ is answered: Why? 75. If ‘No’ is answered: Why?

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76. Is it possible to feel confident in transactions (for example, a commercial transaction), with homosexuals? Yes ( ) No ( ) 77. Are you happy to live next door to a homosexual? Yes ( ) No ( ) 78. Do you think that there are genetic reasons in determining heterosexual or homosexual orientation? Yes ( ) No ( ) 79. Do you think that there are economic reasons in determining heterosexual or homosexual orientation? Yes ( ) No ( ) 80. Do you think that there are psychological explanations for homosexuality? Yes ( ) No ( ) 81. Do you think that residential overcrowding i.e. the increase in the number of individuals living in narrow housing units may lead to homosexuality? Yes ( ) No ( ) 82. What do you think are the reasons that make homosexuality an issue, at the present time? Do you agree with the discussion of the following issues in the media, namely: 83. Rape: Yes ( ) No ( ) 84. Incest: Yes ( ) No ( ) 85. Sexual harassment in the workplace: Yes ( ) No ( ) 86. Sexual harassment in public places (parks, beaches) Yes ( ) No ( ) 87. Sexual impotence in males: Yes ( ) No ( ) 88. The sexual abuse of children: Yes ( ) No ( ) 89. Fragidity: Yes ( ) No ( ) 90. Why do you think that sexual problems are on the increase, at the present time? • Do you agree with any of the following types of students being able to receive sex education? 91. Primary education for males: Yes ( ) No ( ) 92. Primary education for females: Yes ( ) No ( ) 93. Middle education for males: Yes ( ) No ( ) 94. Middle education for females: Yes ( ) No ( ) 95. Secondary education for males: Yes ( ) No ( ) 96. Secondary education for females: Yes ( ) No ( ) 97. Do you believe that it is the duty, or the role of preachers in places of worship, to raise awareness of sexual proble Yes ( ) No ( ) 98. If ’Yes’ to the previous question what do you think are the specific problems that the advocates need to speak about?

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99. Do you agree with the programs, of non-governmental organizations, to raise awareness in the area of sex education? Yes ( ) No ( ) 100. Are you happy to allow your son(s) to ask you questions in the area of sex education? Yes ( ) No ( ) 101. Are you happy to allow your daughter(s) to ask their mother, grandmother, or aunt, questions regarding sex education? Yes ( ) No ( ) 102. Do you allow your male children to read articles about sex education? Yes ( ) No ( ) 103. Do you allow your daughter(s) to read articles about sex education? Yes ( ) No ( )

CHAPTER TWELVE “ETHNOGRAPHIC NOTES ON RITUALS AND TRADITIONAL BELIEFS ASSOCIATED WITH PREGNANCY AND CHILDBIRTH IN RASHID (ROSETTA) EGYPT”

Introduction: This chapter presents the results of the ethnographic field study conducted in the city centers, and villages, of Rashid in Al Beheira governorate in Egypt. Rashid is located on the Mediterranean east of Alexandria, by the estuary to the west of the Nile River. Rashid is an historic city about which stories are told of tournaments that were engaged in to show pride for religion and the motherland in the face of the French campaign on Egypt. Thanks to the "Rosetta Stone" we have a ‘document’ giving us information of the ancient Egyptian civilization. Also, Rashid is the second main location of Islamic monuments in Egypt. This field study of the ritual and traditional beliefs associated with pregnancy had been conducted within the framework of a research project. The project was carried out over the period of a full year from September 1987 through until August 1988. The data collection was carried out by four full-time research assistants. It was carried out through the traditional anthropological techniques, such as participant observation, relying on informants, tracking genealogies, and referring to published and unpublished documentation along with a questionnaire. This chapter presents the recorded ethnographic data of the rituals and traditional beliefs associated with pregnancy, and childbirth, regarding it as a vital and crucial stage of life experienced by women. It includes information about many popular practices, or rituals, known as "rites of passage". Beside this, it could be considered a base for tracing cultural changes in Egyptian society and the comparative study of Arab traditions.

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1 - The Desire for Pregnancy: The husband’s mother plays an important role in the formation, and development, of the urgency of the desire for pregnancy in both the husband and wife- from the beginning of the marriage,- for the arrival of the firstborn male “Born” who will continue the name of his grandfather. The husband's mother protects and incites her son to bring the first born into the world as soon as possible. Also, the wife's mother encourages her daughter's “pregnancy” so that she may be in a stronger position with regard to the relationship with her husband, and amongst his family. It is not only the husband’s mother who hopes for the firstborn to be a male, it is also a hope shared by the wife's mother too, but the latter considers her daughter's pregnancy to be very important, no matter what the sex of the baby, in order “to consecrate the marriage”. Also, the female relatives, and friends of the wife encourage her towards her first pregnancy. In addition to all this, the informants in Rashid say that the pregnancy is to confirm the completion of femininity in women, and some of them see it is a proof of the completeness of strength and manhood in a husband It is, therefore, of high concern to both the husband and wife together if the first pregnancy does not happen soon after the marriage ceremony. The congratulatory sentiments at the wedding feast include wishing the rapid arrival of “Al Bekry” i.e. the firstborn. The informants had a different view concerning the preferred number of children born into a family. Some of them fully refuse to discuss this issue, because it suggests interference in regards to the gifts and blessings of God in this area. The educated, or those who belong to a higher social level, tend towards hoping for a limited number of children. The desire for pregnancy among educated working women begins later in marital life, and long after the wedding ceremony is over. This may also be because of difficulties in life at the beginning of the marriage. On the other hand, some educated husbands prefer that pregnancies do not happen at the beginning of the marriage, but the situation in rural family’s is quite different when there is a desire to begin a pregnancy at the start of the marriage. This is considered a first-class way to achieve “Al Aezzwah” i.e. dignified status, and it is provides manpower in the family. With regard to the concept of reproduction, the common point of interest is the period separating each pregnancy. Some women increase the period of separation because of the progress in education, in particular, leading them to have occupations outside of the home, and also the period

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of separation may increase because of the tendency to have a limited number of children in general. 2 - Barren Women: The educated informants said that community look to the barren women rely on the social class. Some sympathize with them, and others see them as imperfect creations. In general, barren woman in rural communities are regarded by other women with compassion, self-pity, distress, dissatisfaction and even aversion at times. When a woman, who has delayed becoming pregnant, quarrels with other women, they insult her by reminding her that she is “dead alive”, that she is like a tree without fruit that has been felled. 3 –The Nutritional Supplements of Fertilization: There are special foods that the rural informants believe improves fertilization. The bride's mother prepares cooked pigeon to be served to the groom on the wedding night, and there are those who mistakenly think that if the groom drinks wine, or smokes cannabis, it will strengthen his ability to engage in sex with the bride, and that fertilization has a better chance of taking place on that first night. Some of the female informants believe that the chance of pregnancy is increased if the couple is away from their families homes in the early days of the marriage. Some rural women insert honey into the vagina, to act as a lubricant on the vaginal lining so that the chance of pregnancy is enhanced. Also, they use recipes that include ingredients, such as grasses and blended beverages. They may also visit the shrines of some of the saints. 4 - Adoption: The Rasheedi people do not give their own family name to an illegitimate child on adoption. Also, the adopted child does not enjoy the same rights of inheritance as that of legitimate children within the family. But, it does happen that childless couples may apply to an Adoption Agency, Charitable Organization or Institutions for the Homeless, especially in urban areas, to take a child as their own after having proven their eligibility, and capability, to care for the child. The host family must not be poor and they must be of good reputation. There must be no suspicion of the possibility of exploitation, regarding the adopted child working in the family business, and the religions of each must be compatible along with the base of morality. The adopted child may have a share in the adoptive parent’s estate, but he is not allowed t

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5 - Cravings During Pregnancy: Women refer to the first months of pregnancy as the “craving months” to be informed of what makes them optimistic, and they love to see smart and are characterized by the beauty children, as is said when a woman gives birth to beautiful baby boy, or a baby boy who may be considered to be plain, or disfigured “I have been craving a beautiful, or plain, or disfigured son, or daughter”. It is believed that if a pregnant woman is deprived of food during these first months, this will have an effect on the body of the newborn. Women explain away blemishes on the skin of her newborn as ‘strawberry patches’, or beads, or clusters of grapes, because she had been craving them. So the husband is keen to bring his pregnant wife everything she asks for, especially during the first pregnancy. 6 - Optimism, and Pessimism, of Pregnant Women: The informants said that the optimism, and pessimism, of pregnant woman should be mentioned. A pregnant woman will have a sense of optimism when she hears that another woman gave birth safely. On the other hand, she may feel pessimistic if she hears that her neighbor, or cousin, has lost their baby. A pregnant woman wil rejoice when she has a dream that she gives birth to a baby girl, however, if the delivery of a boy comes into the dream this is believed to be an indication that there is something wrong with the pregnancy. She also feels pessimistic on hearing about another woman who has given birth to a son, after having given birth to many children previously, but if she hears that the mother of sons has given birth to a daughter she becomes optimistic. Also, the pregnant woman becomes pessimistic when she hears about the birth of a deformed child, and from barren woman she receives looks of envy. 7 - Abortion: Some rural women in Rashid think that fetal loss, within the first trimester of the pregnancy, is due to fetal defect, or genetic disease in the embryo. Abortion during the second trimester is thought to be due to weakness of the cervix. It is also believed that women frequently lose their unborn child through psychological reasons. Many rural women believe the treatment of recurrent miscarriage is in resorting to charms and amulets; visiting shrines of the saints and/or in eating types of herbs and traditional remedies that are used to "install" pregnancy beside the psychological comfort and physical and confined to bed and sleep on the back for a long time.

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8 - Predicting the Sex of the Baby: Some informants think that the season the pregnancy takes place in determines the sex of the baby, for example, a woman carrying in the summer months should give birth to a baby boy. It is said that a pregnant woman who feels the movement of the fetus in early pregnancy will have a baby boy, and vice versa. It is said that if the fetus is female, it makes the pregnant woman look beautiful. But, there is no consensus on this amongst the informants. Some of them said that the opposite is true. According to some informants, the color of the capillaries in the eyes of pregnant women foretells the sex of the fetus., Also, the pregnant woman can predict the sex of a forthcoming boy if her abdomen grows particularly large during the pregnancy, whereas, a girl is said to be forthcoming if the fetus lies under the ribcage making the woman's abdomen raise less. 9 - First Pregnancies: First pregnancies cause many concerns for women regarding the actual “miracle” of birth, and the fear of perhaps having to endure a miscarriage. There is also anxiety about engaging in sex and whether the woman will manage to have a natural birth or not, and whether she will be able to cope with labor pains. The primigravida is encircled by much care and pampering, and is exempt from many of the usual efforts, and duties, of a wife. She is cosseted by all of her relatives, and the relatives of her husband's with compassion and understanding. In rural, and urban, communities all "primigravida" receive special attention in recognition of the importance of their first pregnancy, and its consequences. There are many ways to take care of the woman who is pregnant for the first time. She is offered certain foods such as olives, cheese and other choices during her pregnancy, and amulets are placed on her bed, or in front of her home. After birth, the primigravida is often asked not to leave her bed, and not to leave the house, nor engage in any household work. She is also asked not to meet visitors, and not to correspond with non-relatives, or allow the male family members to see her, such as her father and brothers, so as not to be envied. 10 - The place of birth: The delivery of newborns, in rural areas, generally happens within the marital home, and in some cases, pregnant women may be moved to her

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mother's home, in order to be close to her at the hour of birth. In cases where women may have a choice as to whether to give birth at their family home, or the husband’s parents home, she generally chooses to have the birth in her family's home, beside her mother or sister. In future deliveries, not in case of the primigravida, birth usually happens in the marital home, where the woman has already experienced the ritual of childbirth, the difficulties that may be present at the time, and subsequent preparations for the moment of birth. A woman who appears to be in some difficulty during the birth will be advised by the midwife “Al Daya to be transferred to a hospital, or she will ask the husband to request the assistance of a doctor, that is after the midwife has exhausted all other conventional methods of assisting the woman at the hour of birth. There are countless cases of doctor’s being called out, or of the transfer of women in such circumstances to the hospital, after their condition had approached near danger. It is now a growing trend that childbirth, within urban and rural areas, will often be carried out in public, and private, obstetric clinics and hospitals, although, most deliveries in rural areas still rely on the assistance of the midwife "Al Daya". 11 - Al Daya – the Midwife: Al Daya occupies a position of great importance in the villages of Rosetta, and she is considered by many rural women to be of the utmost importance when her presence is particularly needed at the hour of birth. In the words of the educated women of Rosetta: Throughout the existence of Al Daya she is firmly acknowledged by the “International Bodies Overseeing Health” and “Health Authority in Egypt.” The residents in the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, at Rashid Central Hospital, report that young women who are between the ages of sixteen and twenty appear to be of the preferred age for marriage. Young women in Rashid enter into puberty possibly before they reach the legal age of marriage, which is the age of sixteen, depending on the "estimated age", and Al Daya is the first medic they resort to when they want to seek advice about a pregnancy. The young woman will seek out the Al Daya, who took care of her own mother, or sister, and perhaps also her grandmother. Al Daya confirms she will not involve herself when there are times of dire consequences. When she sees there is potential for a difficult delivery, or in the case of bleeding during pregnancy, she recommends that the pregnant woman is delivered of her child in hospital. The field study showed that most of the cases, at the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, had been hospitalized when they were in difficult situations,

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or exposed to frequent bleeding during pregnancy, which Al Daya was not able to deal with. Many pregnant women said they would prefer to consult Al Daya first. One of them said: ”Al Daya was the midwife who took care of my mother and my whole family, and she is probably more experienced than any doctor”. A midwife, working in the villages of Rosetta, said that because she lived near the peasant's homes she was in a better position to facilitate for them, and that they relied upon her because she was within easier reach than the hospital. The Director of Rashid Hospital stated that the World Health Organization has recognized the presence of Al Daya, and that it recognizes the importance of her work among the Third World peoples. Her experience cannot be denied by anyone, therefore, a body of health programs has to be developed to ensure co-operation exists between hospitals and Al Daya. 12 - Who else is in attendance beside the woman at the time of birth? In the last few weeks of pregnancy, the woman is surrounded by much attention, especially in the last days leading up to the birth. When labor pains start Al Daya, with the mother of the pregnant woman and her sisters, and nearest neighboring women, assist in helping to do something in preparation for the moment of birth. Usually, women who are expert in the reception of newborns are in attendance when the delivery is carried out in the "home", but if the delivery is performed by a doctor, or in a hospital, only the mother and sisters are allowed to be near the pregnant woman at the hour of birth. In urban and rural areas, the husband is not allowed in the delivery room. Instead he sits near the delivery room, waiting to have the happy news conveyed to him by the midwife, or nurse. The conveyer of this news receives a sum of money commensurate with the sex of the baby. In cases where the labor has taken many hours, Al Daya insists on receiving a substantial grant. 13 - The Facilitation of the Birth: At the hour of birth, pregnant women eat fried eggs with oil, and they drink milk with added sugar. She is also given a hot drink of cinnamon and ginger. This is considered necessary to accelerate the onset of the birth. It is believed that women who wear the rosary will give birth easily and conveniently. The Holy Koran is placed beside the woman, as it is brings hope of an easy birth. Opening the windows and doors is even

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recommended for the intervention of angels. The women unzip all that is knotted things in order to down the baby safely. In some cases the use of amulets, and the recitation of verses from the Holy Koran, and special prayers, may take place. 14 - The Purity of Women at the Hour of Birth: Many informants think that women are "pure" at the hour of birth, particularly because intercourse has ceased in the previous month, and, there is also a belief that women's prayers are answered at the hour of birth, because she is surrounded by angels. The informants’ believe that if women suffer extreme and intense pain, they fulfill the message of motherhood. It is then that they are considered to be "close to God" with Angels flying around them to help any difficulties pass during the birth. 15 - Dealing with the Placenta: In a situation where a Doctor is present during the birth, he will cut the umbilical cord, and assist at the afterbirth of the placenta. Al Daya will carry out these tasks if a Doctor has not been called upon, and she receives the baby at birth and places him next to his/her mother. The doctor, or Al Daya, receives the placenta, and then measures the amount of distance along the umbilical cord - three “carats” - i.e. fingers, and then cuts it to disconnect the newborn from the mother. In some cases the mother, in rural areas, will carry out these processes by herself if she gives birth without the assistance of Al Daya. There are various ways of discarding the placenta: it may be placed in running streams, the sea or rivers, in order to bless the newborn with good fortune; it may be thrown in the toilet for the safety of the baby, or it may be dug into the sand in order to increase the sands fertility. In other cases, the placenta is disposed of through burning, or burying, in order to avoid envy. It also prevents the placenta from being stolen by a barren woman, who may use it in various ways to harm the baby, or the mother. In any case, it should not to be thrown in the trash as there are some pharmaceutical companies, which combine the placenta with other chemicals to manufacture certain drugs. Many years ago, the placenta was retained awaiting resurrection, and immortality. 16 - The male newborn: The joy of the father and mother intensifies at the arrival of a newborn male infant because he will bear the family name, and his father's name after his death. At the arrival of a boy, celebrations are held, and they are bigger than celebrations for the arrival of girl. Most parents are so keen to

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celebrate well on the arrival of a boy that they will hold a feast in which an animal is slain, and a “Night of the people of God” is held, to which the people of the village are invited. This feast is held on the seventh day after birth. 17 - Twins: “Al Rashaida”, or Rosetta, people call twins of the same sex, or of different sex, "brass". Some believe that the brass turns her picture to be in the shape of a cat, which sneaks into the homes of neighbors to drink milk, or eat fish. In order to guard against this, the mother of the twins gives them camel’s milk to drink. It often happens, that a perhaps a neighbor has struck a cat with a stick - on the leg for example - to prevent it from stealing milk or food, and it is reflected in a bruise on one of the twins. The neighbors, of the twin babies mother, consider that if they see a cat near the milk they give some to it, so as to not hurt the neighbor “Brass”. When twins are born, the mother may become afraid that her babies, or she herself, could be subjected to envy, especially if the newborns are males, so she resort to the use of a talisman to avoide the eye of evil. These mothers place the Holy Koran, and pieces of bread, next to the twins. The talisman used differs according to the sex of the twins. If they are male and female special incantations may be said for each of them. Often the twins are given names that begin with the same letter. 18 - The Deformed Newborn: The informants explain that the birth of a deformed child is because of a genetic problem within the ancestral family of the mother, or father. Some attribute deformities in rural areas to the mother eating certain foods without knowing. Some educated informants report that it is due to exposure to natural radiation that comes from the black soil, or by ingestion of certain drugs. It is rare that mothers in Rosetta notice they have given birth to a mentally retarded child. When the child is older, they explain the mental condition by saying: “the child has no soul”. This is also the reason given, if, for example, the child is born with six digits on either of the hands or feet. If there is a birth mark present on the baby's skin in the form of an apple, or carrot for example, they explain this away by saying that the mother had cravings for either the apple or carrot, but could not find one to eat,

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19 - Foods Given During Childbirth: At the hour of birth, women are given eggs that have been boiled or fried in oil, and syrup made with cinnamon and sugared water, which “protects the vagina” and helps her birth - as noted above - and after the childbirth, the mother and newborn are transferred to a warm room, where they are provided with comforting drinks. On the first day, the newborn is given anise syrup. During the next day, he is fed with the "colostrum milk" from his mother's breast. The postpartum woman wears suitable clothing so she can breast-feed her child. Women drink a great deal of hot drinks to expel the maternal blood after childbirth. The husband, and the wife's mother, in particular, is keen to ensure that the mother is able to have good nutrition. Often, some birds, such as chickens, or perhaps rabbits are kept to one side in preparation for childbirth, when the mother remains in bed for few days of complete rest with good feeding. It is believed that rabbits offer great nutritional value for women after having given birth. After childbirth, women eat certain foods, which are believed to generate milk such as halva or radish, and they refrain from eating certain foods that “sour” her breast milk, or may infect her child. 20 - The Family Reception of the Newborn: The celebrations for the arrival of the baby start when he is born, when the father, for example, gives grants to nurses or the midwife whether the birth was carried out at home, or in the hospital. The baby wears clothes in light colors such as light blue, which prevents envy of a male child. The rose color is cheerful for the female. They place a “shield” next to the baby, which protects him from envy, and also some seeds from plants, such as green beans, chick peas, beans, or rice as a good omen. There are some rituals that take place for the child after birth, such as ear piercing, and eyes eyeliner and connect the navel, and placing the Holy Koran and pieces of bread and water next to the baby. There are specific functions for these rituals. Linking the child's head is to ensure that it remains round, and to correct any abnormal curvature in the head. The kohl is “Sunnah” of the Prophet Muhammad - peace be upon him -, which lengthens eyelashes, and offers protection from envy. The ear piercing of the female newborn ear is done to accommodate the earring. The ear piercing that is done in the top of one ear of a male newborn is to prevent envy, and it is believed to prolong his life. The placing the Holy Koran, and bread, is for blessing and protection for the newborn, and is even to attract the presence of angels, and to send demons away. The placing of a green plant is for optimism.

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“Tkahil” i.e. the insertion of kohl into the eyes of the newborn is done by putting kohl on a sliced onion, then the Kohl is mixed with onion water and is inserted into the child’s eyes, to keep them beautiful and “open”. Piercing the ears of the baby is done with a fired needle, either immediately after the birth, or within the first week of the newborns life. 21 - Care of the Newborn: Al Daya is involved with the aesthetic look of the body of the newborn. She paints his eyebrows, for example, which is thought to encourage the growth of hair in that area. Some Al Daya kill a bat and they paint the newborns head with the bats blood in order to make the hair grow quickly. If a male infant is born after previous miscarriages they are treated as females, in that they are clothed in dresses and also have their ears pierced The child should not be left to sleep only one side in order to protect his soft bones, and the mother is sometimes keen to have her baby sleep on his stomach to get relieve the infant of wind after feeding. 22 - Nutrition for the Newborn: Once Al Daya receives the newborn the umbilical cord is cut. Religious families are keen that the newborn should hear his family at prayer as soon as he comes into this world. This is in order to be obedient, and to be blessed. The mother, whether she is a housewife or a professional woman, begins to breastfeed her child, especially up until he is three months of age. It is believed that colostrum makes the baby an open minded child, so the mother gives it immediately after the birth, for it is of great importance in the growth of the child, and the enjoyment of immunity and cruelty. After the first three months, the mother starts giving her baby a limited amount of natural juice, then when he reaches the age of six months she gives the child and an additional meal, along with the breastfeed. The number of meals that are given to the child, with the mother's milk, which contains vegetables, eggs, fruit puree etc., is increased till the time of weaning, when he reaches the age of about two years. Some mothers, especially working mothers, resort to feeding their babies milk powder, or what is known as "industrial milk, instead of breast feeding. In some cases, the aunt, or grandmother, plays the role of surrogate mother to feed the child and care for him. Caring for the baby’s feeding, and personal hygiene, changing his clothes, and giving him a bath, is the responsibility of the mother, or

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surrogate mother. The mother refrains from breastfeeding her child in front of strangers in order to avoid envy. It is the tradition, followed in most cases, to give the male child a greater chance with regard to breastfeeding. Infant boys may be breastfed for up to three years. The informants report that the continuation of the period of breast-feeding for male infants is to give them a strong sense of opinion, and strength of character, but such qualities are not recommended for the female, whom AL Rashaida are keen to become gentle of spirit. It is believed that the child who suckles from the bosom of his mother grows in power, and is free from “psychological complexes”. The informants report that breastfeeding does not satisfy all the needs of the child: the “physiological and psychological needs.” The mother, and husband's mother, is keen to see that infants are breastfed in order to have a sense of tenderness when they grow up. 23 - Personal Hygiene for the Newborn: On the third day, after the birth, Al Daya gives the infant his first bath. The mother offers her dinner on this occasion. Then she comes again on the eve of the sixth day, "AL Sebooa" i.e. the seventh day after birth, whereupon she puts herbs and a mascot on the remaining part of the umbilical cord, “tummy button”, and different grains (seven grains) are placed in a small dish next to the child. Then once again Al Daya bathes the baby. 24 - The Baby’s Crying: Some informants explained that if the baby cries frequently it is the sign of an evil spirit within. The child may be left suffering a neurological disease, for example, without the consultation of a doctor, with only the sprinkling of salt, the making of a talisman, and the sprinkling of incense. 25 - Cutting the Newborns Toenails for the First Time: When cutting the toenails of the baby for the first time, a sum of money is placed in his hands to bring him good fortune, and to help him to resist looking at what is in the hands of others in the future. 26 - Announcement of the Child’s Birth: Al Daya announces the news of the child's birth first to his father, or uncle, or grandfather, in order that she may receive an appropriate gift. The primigravidas birth of a son brings a larger gift to the Al Daya, which varies depending on the richness of the family of the newborn. After that,

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Al Daya publicizes the news of the birth everywhere to let all the people of the village know when the “Al Sebooa” will be celebrated. After about a week, the registration of the child's birth is to be made by his father at the Health Office. In the villages, the mayor informs the Health Center so that an official birth certificate can be produced. 27 - Choosing a Name for the Newborn: The choice of a name for the newborn depends on various considerations and they vary according to the place of birth, whether in rural or urban areas. Also, it varies according to the culture, education, tradition and religion of the family. Some parents name their babies after their fathers and mothers. In some cases, such names, such as, Shehata, Al Shahat are used i.e. the beggar, to hope for longevity for the baby. Some of the names are given for optimism and happiness, such as Masoud and “Abu Saud” and Saad A lot of Muslims are keen on naming their children the names of the “sacred”, such as the names of the prophets, and of the family of the Prophet Muhammad - peace be upon him. Also, there are sacred names such as Abdul Rasul, Abdullah, and Abdul Aziz. Some of the names are given to pamper the child, such as the names of animals like cat, duck, deer, and the names of flowers such as Dalia, Basant, Sawsan. The names of leaders, such as King Farooq, Gamal Abdul Nasser, are frequently given to boys, as the names of actresses like Shadia and Leila, are given for girls, When the child's birth coincides with a certain occasion he may be named, for example, Eid or Ramadan, or Khamis (Thursday) and Gomaa (Friday). Some names are given to children to prevent envy, such as, “Atris”. They sometimes give the male child a female name and dress the boy in girls clothes nearly right up until the child enters primary school, to avoid envy. Some parents give their daughters names, such as, Tahra (pure), Sharifa (honest), and Afifa (chaste), to declare values of the family and its nobility. Choosing the name of the baby is determined in some cases through certain rituals. For example, his father, grandfather, and some relatives may be asked think of a name for the child, then the names are put in a dish, which contains seeds. The dish is placed next to the child, and in the center of the dish a large candle is lit. More candles are placed around the

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dish and these represent the proposed names. All of these candles are lit, and the candle that remains alight the longest determines the choice of the baby’s name. 28 - The Celebration of “AL Sebooa” i.e. the Seventh Day after Giving Birth: The celebration of "AL Sebooa" begins with an invitation.The mother, or one of her sisters or aunts, visit the proposed guests and deliver the invitation to them to attend the celebration of “AL Sebooa”. Sometimes cards are distributed for the invitation. On the night of Al Sebooa the newborn has a bath. His clothes are placed in water with some grains. At the baby’s bedside, a knife is placed to prevent envy and evil spirits. The Holy Koran and pieces of bread are also placed beside the baby for blessing. In the morning, seven pierced grains are strung together as a necklace to be worn against the chest area of the robe of the child. A print of five fingers is also placed on the chest of the robe of the child to prevent eye envy. The newborn child wears bright white clothes, as does the mother, or she may perhaps wear bright colors. Sometimes spells blue beads or horseshoe print are put on the mother and the baby clothes to draw the evil eye. and. These amulets are also useful in preventing the mother's milk from drying up. At the Al Sebooa celebration all the members of the family, the relatives, friends, and neighbors, are served hot and cold drinks, and boxes of chickpeas and nuts are presented to them. The guests gather in a circle around a decorated pitcher if the newborn is a male or a lack, as there is belief that there is a brother "Jenny" of the opposite sex for the born with the moment of birth. On the day of Al Sebooa salt and chickpeas are sprinkled, decorations and lights are set, and candles are distributed to the children, and there are many songs sung to demonstrate the joy of receiving the baby. At the beginning of the ceremony Al Daya, or the grandmother, or a female family member, or a confident guest, repeats loudly some jocular advice to the baby to be obedient to specific relatives etc. All the guests contribute some words such as “prayer upon prayer for him”, or “prayer upon the messenger Mohamed”. The baby is carried, behind the women and children, to visit all the rooms of the house, amidst candles, and everyone is so full of joy and cheer. Either at the beginning, or at the end, of this ritual to the people gathered pray into the ears of the baby, and sprinkle him with salt.

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29 - Presents Given to the Newborn: Gifts are presented to the newborn at the Al Sebooa ceremony. It varies depending on the sex of the baby, as it may be a golden chain, ring or earring, or picture of the Holy Koran if she is a girl, or it may be toys, clothes, a ring, or the Holy Koran if he is a boy. Besides the precious presents, gifts of food, especially from parents, such as chicken, sugar and soap etc., may be presented. These gifts are also added to by guests offering financial gifts. The gifts come from relatives, friends and acquaintances, neighbors and co-workers. 30 - Circumcision: The circumcision of a newborn male infant could be during the first week of his birth, or forty days after the birth, or when he has reached his first birthday, as in most cases. The circumcision of the male occurs in all environments, cultural groups, and class status, in Egypt. With respect to females, the situation is different as there are those who are stick fast to the concept because they consider it to be cleansing and "protective" for the girl. The circumcision of girls comes much later, when they are perhaps in their sixth or tenth year. The ethnographic data shows that some urban families are not keen on female genital mutilation. They would prefer to avoid what may result in sexual frigidity later on. It is believed that some of the male babies are born circumcised by angels. These babies are happy in their lives. 31 - The Phenomenon of Envy and the Belief in the Evil Eye: One of the field researchers had recorded, through participant observation, the following: Belief in envy, and the evil eye, is common in Rashid amongst all the people. There is no difference of opinion on this subject to be found amongst the educated, uneducated, or higher or lower social classes. All of them have belief in it. 32 - The Fortieth Day after Giving Birth: From the celebrations of Al Sebooa, till the fortieth day after giving birth, mothers are surrounded with a great deal of care and restrictions. She is served very good food, which is saved by her mother, or older sister, to be offered to her during the postpartum period. She must not do any strenuous work in the house, and is encouraged to wear roomy clothes. Her room is always clean, and well-ventilated.

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The mother refrains from meeting with people who are known as being envious people with evil eyes. She must not be exposed to the cold, so she is prevented from going out of her house, unless it is absolutely necessary. On the fortieth day of the child's birth, the mother washes and bathes the newborn child. The woman's mother pours forty jugs of water on her daughters body. After bathing, the woman can pray, giving thanks for her wellbeing during the lapse of forty days since giving birth. On the fortieth day a rabbit is killed. After this she can return to sexual intimacies with her husband, and to her life and work in the home.

Conclusion: I have included the previous pages to present ethnographies of some popular beliefs and rituals associated with pregnancy and childbirth in Rashid society. The outcome of this study reflects the community's view of itself. It could be the platform for building a comprehensive table of questions for ethnographic surveys of contemporary Egyptian society.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN “WORKING PAPER ON THE VIOLENCE IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETIES; REASONS AND STRATEGIES OF INTERVENTIONA PROPOSED SOCIO – ANTHROPOLOGICAL FIELD RESEARCH, TOWARDS THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF VIOLENCE, AN URGENT DISCIPLINE IN HUMAN SCIENCE”

Typical violent behavior is not only confined to the “traditional” fields, such as, criminal aggression, workers strikes, ethnic confrontations and political rebellions. Nowadays, violent reactions are more obviously frequent in the “customary“social relationships, such as, in marital, kinship, gender, age groups and neighborhood relationships. The aim of this working paper is to propose a cross-cultural, socioanthropological intensive research on the socio-cultural factors of the prevailing frequency of violent behavior in contemporary societies. The study of the socio-cultural effective factors in the prevalence of violence may provide us with scientific background for evolution and/or the development of human/peace between individual and group relationships, and create tools for fighting against violence in our contemporary societies. The guidelines of data collection and questions for documentation of violence in contemporary societies, reasons and strategies of intervention could be presented in the following:

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Questions and Hypotheses in the Research Project on “Violence in Social Relationships Amongst Young People - Its Causes, Manifestations and the Means with Which it may be Tackled.” First - The in-depth study of such a multi-dimensional phenomenon is necessarily an integrative study, which deals with the social, psychological economic, political and cultural aspects. So to reach a detailed and accurate understanding of this phenomenon the following questions are significant: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Is there really a trend toward increasing violent practices in the community at the time being? Do these practices vary according to the level of economic, social and educational personnel? Does it vary according to age and sex of the individual? What is the point of view of society regarding the phenomenon of violence, and what is society’s explanation of it? Is there a particular personal attribute that characterizes the person of violence? What are the implications of violent practices from the perspective of community members in economic, social, family interactions? What are the current formal, and informal, methods to combat violence? What is the community’s evaluation of the adequacy of these methods? How should official organizations confront this phenomenon, as seen by society?

Secondly - The study of the patterns of violence in contemporary society, particularly in the following respects: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Culture, and the concept of personal violence between distinct subcultures. Violence as a way to express masculinity. Rejection of violence as an expression of moral development. Violent expression of political rejection. Violence as an expression of the economic crisis. Violence for community control. Ethnic violence in dialogue. Violence in the dialogue within the class structure.

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Third - A field study focused on some images of violence: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Apathy in raising the issues of expression of violence and its behavioral patterns. The speed at which violence, or quarreling, is aroused in individuals. Assault on public property. Manifestation of criminal behavior. Violence in political dialogue. Violence in dealing with people of other faiths. Violence and the disintegration of family relationships. Violence amongst student groups. Violence in emergency gatherings (markets, sports gatherings, transportation, etc.). Violence within working relationships. Violence between neighboring groups (villages, the tribes, residential neighborhoods). Violence between members of organized groups. Violence within ethnic relationships.

Fourth - Preliminary hypotheses in the identification, and interpretation, of the phenomenon of violence: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

violence as a way of life in some sub - cultures. Violence in the culture of poverty. The excessive violence in over urbanization. Socialization and a tendency towards violence. The impact of mass media on the tendency towards violence. Intolerance and ethnic prejudice. Religious intolerance and prejudice (undiminished religiosity). Failure of education in the field of arts and literature. Existence of conflicting standards. Self cognition, frustration and self - excess aspirations. Migration and family separation, and intimacy in family relationships. The problems of illegitimate, marginal, economic and business. Increase of drug addictions. Failure of the possibilities and ways of leisure. Sociological, and psychological, effects of overcrowding and congestion. Failure of social control institutions.

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Fifth - The linkage between the phenomenon of extremism and violence in contemporary Egyptian society: The global phenomenon of extremism is not limited to only one country out of all the others, and therefore, attempting to diagnose and deal with it on the basis of local conditions only brings about errors, because of the imbalance in the programs designed to confront it. The following are the principle axes used in examining this phenomenon: A - Examining the following issues: 1. The wrong understanding of religion and religiosity. 2. The frustration generated by a lack of ideals, and error in the perception of reality. 3. Error in the simplification, and dissemination, of judgments. 4. A sense of oppression, and repression, in social relations. 5. The absence of open and structured dialogues. B - The study of the manifestation of extremism, which could be described as an intolerant, fanatical opinion, does not recognize the opinion of the ‘other’. Rather, it manifests militancy and exaggeration in the performance of religious duties, violence and harshness in behaving heavy-handedly towards the invitation to religiosity, mistrust of others, and an absolute pessimistic outlook. The far ranging form of extremism manifests all of these issues, whilst failing also to recognize the human right of the ‘other’ and transgresses against their lives, their money, and accuses them of atheism. C - Assessment of the historical evolution of the phenomenon of religious extremism, and its relationship to the phenomenon of violence in Egyptian society, and the causes and consequences of this.

CHAPTER FOURTEEN “THE CONNOTATIONS OF SOCIOANTHROPOLOGICAL CONCEPTS AND THE SOCIETAL COGNITION OF IT IN EGYPTIAN SOCIETY”

This chapter is based on the following postulates and assumptions: Whether in etic or emic socio-anthropological research, the researcher is influenced by his own culture and the culture of which he is studying. The connotations of socio-anthropological concepts are not typical in different societies/cultures. Also, they may be different within the same society. The conceptual connotations of a woman's honor may be different among Bedouins, rural and urban subcultures. So it is not acceptable for the researcher to assume that the connotations of his research concepts are identical with his society’s cognition of them. The target of this chapter is to examine the identification of the current connotations of specific concepts in indigenous socio-anthropological research, and the societal cognition of them. For example, the "family", in demographic statistics, consists of a wife, husband, and their children, but it is a feudal unit consisting of relatives, and allied persons, who all participate in giving allegiance within a tribe. So the family may live in an autonomous homestead, or in more than one settlement, or village. This chapter includes a table of the following defined socioanthropological concepts to be presented expressively to informants belonging to different cultural types within contemporary Egyptian society, in order to observe agreement, or disagreement, upon it. These observations will reflect its validity in describing the society and the cultural homogeneity, and heterogeneity, among its components. 1. The Individual or the Person: Radcliffe Brown considers the “person”, or the "individual" is the initial unit in anthropological analysis, when he sees that the individual, with his own physical and psychological characteristics and abilities, is the subject of psychological analysis.

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One individual may carry out ascribed roles in different social activities as another person in different social relationships. He is a son or daughter, father or mother, or husband or wife in a family relationship. At the same time he may be teacher and student, buyer and seller, ruler and ruled, etc. so he plays different social roles according to the design of specific norms of behavior in these social activities. One individual, as a person in different activities, or certain relationships, may not have the same rights or privileges. For example, an executive at work cannot exceed the punishment to his relatives in his staff when they are scheduled. 2. Status and Role: People have certain numerous roles whilst being involved in different social activities. These roles are determined by social, professional, religious, administrative, legal, moral and aesthetic activities etc. The multiple roles of the individual are defined according to the multiple social activities in which he is involved. Acquiring specific status may give the person specific responsibilities, and it may help him gain some privileges. Conflict of the ascribed roles to be played by the individual may occur, for example, when the father, or husband, has to sign a testimony, or issue, which harms his son or wife. In that context a lot of questions need to be raised about the following: x The foundation of division of labor among males and females, and the different ethnicity and age groups, in contemporary Egyptian society. x The impact of subjective attitudes in implementing the formal objective norms. x Stability and change in traditional norms. x The accuracy and manipulation, or even corruption, in the application of norms and sanctions. 3. The Socio-cultural system: The social systems are components of the social structure alongside the economic, political and belief systems, which are built on the ecological, demographic and cultural foundations of the social structure. In other words, the social systems consist of a set of institutions that organize different relationships/aspects of social life. For example, the kinship systems, descent, marriage and inheritance institutions are integrated, as are the foundations and structural systems. In that context a lot of questions need to be raised regarding the following:

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x The types of exploitation, and ill exploitation, of the natural resources in the local community. x Economic and social evaluation of exploitation, and ill exploitation, of the natural resources in the local community. x Development, and deterioration, of natural resources in the local community. x Evaluation of the investment of human energy in the population. x Development, and deterioration, of labor skills in the population. x Evaluation of the investment of time amongst the different demographic components. x The current demographic problems, such as poverty, health, illiteracy, unemployment, illegal migration, overcrowding and homeless problems etc. x Assessment of current social order problems, as different penal and economical crimes, violence and extremism. x Assessment of the revitalization of traditional medicine, and superstitious practices. 4. The Acculturation Process: Acculturation continues to be a societal process. Briefly put, it implies an exchange between two distinct cultures. Usually it happens between two adjacent societies, but this is not always the case. In acculturation both of the acculturated societies acquires some cultural elements, which are characterized by the other. In order to be accepted by the hosting society, the migrant has to modify their native way of life, but at the same time, they transfer some of their cultural ways to the hosting society. In antagonistic acculturation, the conquered community must either confront the invading community, or adopt the prominent features of the colonizing culture using the same methods of combat, weapons, or behaviors, used by the enemy in the war. Related to this, some questions could be raised concerning contemporary Egyptian society as the following: x What is the truth, and the myth in what is called the balance between originality and modernity, or openness and conservation. x The over consumption of western products, as in so called ‘McDonaldization’. x The irrational consumerism of society with regards to foreign technological products, such as, the mobile telephone and internet. x The destructive implication of noble principles, such as, free markets and freedom rights.

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5. The Bedouin and Tribal Society: The Bedouin way of life depends on herding camels and/or cattle and sheep. Semi-Bedouins add horticulture to grazing. Seasonal migration is the main scheme for ecological adaptation for both the Bedouins, and semi Bedouin, communities. The tribe is a great kinship unit. Under the umbrella of real or fictional kinship, all members of the tribe constitute a corporate and cohesive political feudal unit. All of them participate in giving allegiance when it is has to be given. We find extended Bedouin communities across regional boundaries and differentiated states. 6. Nomadism and Tribalism: From the socio-anthropological perspective, differentiation between nomadism and tribalism is due to lifestyles. Since nomadism (Bedouins or semi Bedouins) is a style of life based on ecological adaptation, associated with seasonal migration in order to be near water resources and grazing lands, the tribal organization is based on the extension of feudal/criminal culpability, and solidarity amongst members of the differentiated tribal unit. The nomadic people eventually become tribal units, but the tribesmen are not necessarily Bedouin or semi-Bedouin. Bedouin settlements in rural, or even urban areas, are beginning to form. So, nomadism is decreasing, but tribalism may continue for centuries. In that context a lot of questions must be raised about the following, in no order: x The advantages, and disadvantages, of the continuity of nomadic and Bedouin settlements. x The dualism in social order within desert communities. x The security problems of desert border regions, such as, smuggling, illegal migration, illegal transportation and the trading of drugs, Hashish and weapons etc. x Planning for health care, education programs, and providing official records as identity cards for desert communities. x The problematic, and successful, establishment of new agrarian, industrial, tourist centers in desert regions. x Survey of the Bedouin knowledge of the Fauna and Flora in desert regions. x Developing the Bedouin handcrafts in the tourism industry. x Documentation of Bedouin arts (songs, dances, rhetoric, dresses, etc. ). x Examining the reflections of tribalism on state institutions, such as, in parliament elections.

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x The impact of tribalism on national projects. 7. The blood enmity or blood feud: Blood enmity occurs between two tribal fighting units, particularly in the stateless societies, or in communities that resist the existence of state judicial systems and insist on the application of customary, or informal "laws". The enmity between tribal units, or blood feud, occurs in the case of the non-acceptance of blood money for settlement of cases of murder, particularly when there is no justification by "honor" reasons. The duration of blood feuds continues when there is an exchange of succession of revenge between the fighting tribal units. x Revenge in some tribal communities, in state societies, is considered a social institution and not a "crime". It is an urgent requirement that the social and economical consequences of this phenomenon are examined, not to mention the security problems that arise from it as a result. x A lot of planned governmental, and non-governmental, efforts have to be brought to people’s attention by the religious preachers, teaching the values of forgiveness, and the urgent fair trial of murder cases, besides achieving concessions between the fighting parties. 8. The Cultural Accumulation: Cultural accumulation is achieved through developing processes, within which more effective cultural devices are added through innovation and creativity. It seems clear, for example, that cultural accumulation has been reflected in the achieved progress in the ways of preparing food; transportation and communication; medication; housing systems and other aspects of culture in human societies in general. x A big question could be raised in developing societies about whether the accumulation of experts, and the continuation of initiated projects, is the prevailing trend, or whether it is the beginning of point zero and ignorance of past efforts in order to be considered pioneering, which only results in the wasting of time and resources. 9. The Cultural Indoctrination: The methods of cultural indoctrination refer to the multi-implantation of the elements of culture within the national character. It is promoted by the contributions of parents, teachers, religious scholars, mass media, politicians, speakers and advocators for dominant economic orientation

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within the society. Cultural indoctrination does not only bring forth achievements within the educational institutions, where the official, as a great part of it is achieved through unofficial means, through automatic daily interactions amongst members of the community. x Because of satellite television channels, internet and globalization, cultural indoctrination is conducted from abroad, so national resistance is not always easy, but it may be far reaching. The question is, how to build a national character which is strong enough to resist cultural innovation, and self destruction. 10. The Cultural Gap and lag: A gap will ensue because of the acceleration of the material side of cultural change, compared to the case in which the traditional backward ways of life still persist in underdeveloped societies, as it is overstated in the driving of a luxury car instead of riding a camel. x Because of cultural contacts through migrant labor, studying abroad, mass media, the movies etc. there are now those who are not satisfied with their national traditions,for example, concerning marital choice, and who advocating for returning to the ancestors ways of life. So called traditional, oriental, or non-western societies, are facing a dilemma. It is who to benefit from the "western" technological products, with conservation of their original own ways of life. x It is urgent that a comprehensive societal debate should be initiated on how to assimilate "western" technological products, without aggression on the original "constants". 11. Cultural Remains: Cultural remains are represented in those practices, or behaviors, that do not seem meaningful, or have a clear goal, in contemporary life. The anthropologists refer to its existence in past ages, where they have their understandable justifications in immemorial cultures, and it has become a remain when more progressive devices are discovered or invented for achieving the goals with which those olden practices, or behaviors, were practicing for. x There are many cultural remains surviving in Egyptian society. It is noticeable in traditional medical practices, superstitions, verbal expressions, feasts etc. Documentation and analysis of those cultural remains in contemporary Egyptian society is very interesting.

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12.Marginal Acculturation: Marginal acculturation implies limited exchange between two cultures. It occurs within the distinct marginal elements, or cultural features, especially when it is confined in some material aspect, such as, in fashion or ornaments, and not necessarily associated with a change in behavior or persisting norms. x It is not easy to classify a specific cultural element as a marginal or essential one. The T shirt, or cap, may be symbolic of a doctrine, or political bias. 13. The National Character: National character represents characteristics that distinguish a particular people from others. There are various elements, or components, of national character that can be traced. They include the physical, cultural and psychological, which is taken into account in international interaction in the areas of war and peace. x For a long time patience, religiosity, the acceptance of a modest standard of living, honoring the aged, careless with impersonal (common) matters, sympathy with the weak, distrusting the rulers promises, maneuver in the face of compulsories, immediate response to help in the face of crises, honoring the responsibility to defend close neighboring community’s especially concerning the protection of women against harassment etc. Stability and the change of these characteristics, in contemporary Egyptian society is an interesting issue. 14. The Subculture: Egyptian society is one of the most contemporary homogeneous societies, although there are "regional traditional practices" as amongst the tribes of the Western desert, Sinai tribes, Siwa and Al Gara oasis, Al Rashaida of Rosetta, the Nubians and Al Wahiya of Al Dakhla and Al Kharga oasis, beside the Alexandrians, the Swiss Canal people, etc. in addition to belonging to Islam and Christianity. Although the mother tongue of all of them is Arabic, and they are of common physical and cultural features, each is known by its traditional dress, songs and dances, special dishes and dialect, but it is not sociopolitically accepted to address them as subcultures, or differentiated minorities. x These "regional traditional practices" enrich the Egyptian human capital, for example, it could be invested in tourism industry, artistic creation, the development of regional and environmental

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small industries, and stylistic creations, but it could also create barriers of social communication within the neighborhood. 15. The Compound Family: The compound family consists of a husband, and two wives or more, and their children. This pattern of family exists in communities that are not dominated by monogamous marriage. Polygamy leads to the emergence of brothers descended from one father, and more than one mother. The compound family also exists in the case of a woman's second marriage when she may be living with the sons fathered by her ex-husband. The polygamous marriage, in Egyptian society, is a revitalization of an older phenomenon. Modernization in Egypt had witnessed a decrease in polygamy, and monogamous marriage had prevailed. Recently, however polygamy is the frequent theme in Egyptian drama, in which it is referred to for more than one reason: the newly acclaimed wealth, the attraction of young women to aged men, the rise in marriage expenses and the increase of spinster women and unmarried men, this is besides the so called fundamentalist appraising of a man’s right to engage in polygamy. x Questions could be raised about: Changing the criteria of marital choice, the effects of marital incompatibility, the effects of polygamy on the socialization of half siblings in a compound family, the effects of polygamous marriage and the big differences between the spouses age in consuming Viagra and Hashish. 16. The Concept of Kinship: “Blood” kinship links between individuals who unite them descend from a common ancestor. This kinship may be patrilineally through a common father, grandfather, etc., or matrilineal by belonging to a common mother and grandmother. Blood kinship is different from other forms of kinship, such as, kinship by intermarriage or an imagined one. The derivative kinship term expresses an un-agnatic, or cognatic, kinship relationship between a person and his sister's son, or daughter, wife's brother or sister, brother's wife or sister's husband and wife's son or daughter. The classificatory kinship term implies an extension in using the descriptive kinship term as a paternal, or maternal, uncle to address not only the father's, or mother's, brother, but also all the father and mother relatives. The addressing by a classificatory kinship term implies mutual feelings and responsibilities between the addressing and the addressed. x The co-residence of kin may exist in Bedouin and rural communities. The relatives live in neighborhoods within the

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village, but this is not a rule or ascribed, and they live in private residential units. x Of course the situation is different in big cities and urban centers. Co-residency may occur according to economic levels, or belonging to the same occupation, as in the case of the "villages" or campuses of university professors, military and police officers, journalists, industrial residence compounds, etc. x The extended family system, especially in Bedouin and rural communities, has provided its members with privileges, such as, a sort of ecological and economic insurance, feudal protection, and prestigious status. x Because of urbanization, industrialization, migration, shortage in housing programs, the emergence and expansion of unplanned residential communities, and increasing of unemployment etc. a lot of changes had occurred in the structure and functions of the Egyptian family concerning the following: * The division of labor among the subsistent, nuclear, extended and compound, family unit. * The decision making and taking in the family. * The impact of education and socio-cultural changes on familial authorities, for example, concerning the marital choice of sons and daughters. * The advantages, and disadvantages, of imposed co-residence in the family home (residence of son's wife and daughter's husband with father, mother, brothers and sisters in-law). * The emergence of illegal, or antireligious, marital problems. * The increasing of sexual harassment cases. * The problem of homeless boys and girls.