The dorling kindersley illustrated family encyclopedia. vol. II. 9780751339291, 0751339296

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The Dorling Kindersley

ILLUSTRATED

FAMILY

ENCYCLOPEDIA

VOLUME 2 • I-Z Indian Ocean to Zoos

A DORLING KINDERSLEY BOOK

LONDON, NEW YORK, MUNICH, MELBOURNE AND DELHI Senior Editor Jayne Parsons Project Editors

Senior Art Editor Gillian Shaw Project Art Editors

Marian Broderick, Gill Cooling,

Jane Felstead, Martyn Foote,

Maggie Crowley, Hazel Egerton,

Neville Graham, Jamie Hanson,

Cynthia O’Neill, Veronica Pennycook, Louise Pritchard, Steve Setford, Jackie Wilson Editors Rachel Beaugie, Nic Kynaston, Sarah Levete, Karen O’Brien, Linda Sonntag

Christopher Howson, Jill Plank, Floyd Sayers, Jane Tetzlaff, Ann Thompson Art Editors Tina Borg, Diane Clouting, Tory Gordon-Harris

DTP Designers Andrew O’Brien, Cordelia Springer Managing Editor Ann Kramer

Managing Art Editor Peter Bailey

Senior DTP Designer Mathew Birch Picture Research Jo Walton, Kate Duncan, Liz Moore DK Picture Library Ola Rudowska, Melanie Simmonds Country pages by PAGeOwc : Bob Gordon, Helen Parker, Thomas Keenes, Sarah Watson, Chris Clark Cartographers Peter Winfield, James Anderson Research Robert Graham, Angela Koo Editorial Assistants Sarah-Louise Reed, Nichola Roberts Production Louise Barratt, Charlotte Traill

First published in Great Britain in 1997. This edition published in Great Britain in 2002 by Dorling Kindersley Limited, 80 Strand, London WC2R ORL Copyright © 1997. © 2002 Dorling Kindersley Limited, London A Pearson company All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means, electronic, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0 7513 3929 6 Colour reproduction by Colourscan, Singapore Printed and bound in China by Toppan Printing Co. (Shenzhen) Ltd.

See our complete catalogue at wwvv:.clk.com

LIST OF MAIN ENTRIES See index for further topics How TO USE THIS ENCYCLOPEDIA

VI

I

I Microscopes

L

j Microscopic life

Lake and river wildlife

499-500

Migration, animal

553 554-555 556

Indian ocean

449-450

Lakes

501

Indonesia

451-452

Languages

502

1 Mixtures and compounds

558-559

Industrial revolution

453-454

Lasers and holograms

503

I Monasteries

560

Indus valley civilization

455

Law

504-505

Monet, claude

561

456-457

Leakey family

506

Money

562-564

Insects

458-460

Leonardo da vinci

507

Inventions

461-462

Iran and Iraq

463-464

Ireland

465

Ireland, history of

466

Liquids

514

Information technology

, Light

Minoans

I Mongol empire

557

565

508-509

Mongolia

566

Linnaeus, carolus

510

Mongooses and civets

567

Lions and other wild cats

511-513

Monkeys and other primates i Moon

568-570 571

Iron and steel

467

Literature

515-516

' Mosques

572

Islam

468-469

Lizards

517-518

j Mosses and liverworts

573

Islamic empire

470

Lungs and breathing

519

Islands

471

Island wildlife

472

Israel

473-474

Italy and malta

475-476

Italy, history of

477

J

‘

M Machines, simple

520

Magellan, Ferdinand

521

Magnetism

522

Malaysia and Singapore

523-525

Mali empire

526

478-479

Mammals

527-529

Japan, history of

480-481

Mandela, nelson

530

Jazz

482

Maoris and poltoesians

531

Jellyfish, sea anemones, and sponges

483

Maps and mapping

532

Jesus christ

484

Marsh and swamp wildlife

533-534

Johnson, amy

485

Marx, karl

535

Judaism

486-487

Mathematics

536-537

Matter

538

Mauryan empire

539 540

574 575-576

Mountains and valleys

577

Mountain wildlife

578

Mozart, Wolfgang amadeus

579

Mughal empire

580

Muhammad

581

Muscles and movement

582

1 Museums

Japan

K

Mother teresa

I Motor sports

j Mushrooms and other fungi

583 584-586

Music

587-589

Musical instruments

590-592

Myths and legends

593

N I Napoleon bonaparte I

594

Napoleonic wars

595

Native Americans

596-597 598

Kangaroos and other marsupials

488-489

Maya

Khmer empire

490

Medicine

541-542

Navigation

King, martin luther

491

Medicine, history of

543-545

Nests and burrows

599-600

Kingfishers and hornbills

492

Medieval Europe

546-547

Netherlands

601

Kites

493-494

Meitner, lise

548

Netherlands, history of

602

Knights and heraldry

495-496

Mesoamericans

549

Newspapers and magazines

603 604

Korea south and north

497

Metals

550

Newton, sir isaac

605

Kjblai khan

498

Mexico

551-552

New ZEALAND

606

Power and speed Space shuttle lift-off 28,000 kmh (17,400 mph) srf

Rockets

Human runner 34 kmh (21 mph) see Athletics

Stephensons Rocket 47 kmh (29 mph) see Trains

and

Boeing 747 978 kmh (608 mph) see Aircraft

NfW ZEALAND, HISTORY OF

607

Philippines

630

Rain

698

Nightingale, fiorence

608

Philosophy

631

Rainforest wildlife

699-700

Nocturnal animals

609

Phoenicians

632

Rats and other rodents

701-703

Normans

610

Photography

633

Reformation

704

North America

611-612

Photosynthesis

634

Religions

703-706

North America, history of

613-614

Physics

655

Renaissance

707-708

North American wildliff

613-616

Picasso, pablo

636

Reproduction

709-710

Norway

617

Pigs and peccaries

657

Reptiles

711-712

Nuclear power

618

Pilgrim fathers

658

Rhinoceroses and tapirs

713

Numbers

619

Pirates

659

Rivers

714-715

Planets

660-662

Roads

716

o

Plants

663-664

Robots

717

Ocean floor

620

Plants, anatomy

665-666

Rock and pop

718-719

Oceans and seas

621

Plants, defence

667

Rockets

720-721

Ocean wildlife

622-623

Plants, reproduction

668

Rocks and minerals

722-723

Octopuses and squids

624

Plant uses

669

Roman empire

724-726

Oil

625-626

Plastics and rubber

670

Romania, Ukraine, and moldova

727-728

Olmecs

627

Poetry

671

Russian federation and Kazakhstan

729-731

OlYMPIC GAMES

628

Poisonous animals

672

Russia, history of

732-733

Opera

629

Polar exploration

673

Russian revolution

734

Orchestras

630

Polar wildlife

674-675

Ottoman empire

631

Police

676

Owens, jesse

632

Pollution

677-678

Poltoesia

679-680

Ports and waterways

681

Portugal

682- 683

Portugal, history of

684

Pottery and ceramics

683- 686

Prehistoric life

687-688

Prehistoric people

689

Owls and nightjars

633

P Pacific ocean

634-635

Pacific, southwest

636-637

Painting and drawing

638

Pakistan

639

Pandas and raccoons

640

Pankhurst family

641

Pressure

690

Printing

691-692

Pyramids

693

s Safavid empire

733

Sailing and other water sports

736

Salamanders and newts

737

Samurai and shoguns

738

Satellites

739

Scandinavia, history of

740

Schools and colleges

741

Science

742

Science, history of

743-744

Sculpture

745-746

Seabirds

747

Seals

748

Seashore wildlife

749-730

Paper

642

Parasites

643

Parrots

644

R

Pasteur, louis

643

Rabbits and hares

694

Seaweeds and other algae

751

Peace movements

646

Radar and sonar

693

Seven wonders of the world

752

Penguins

647

Radio

696

Shakespeare, william

753

Persian empires

648-649

Radioacttvity

697

Sharks and rays

734-755

Communication timeline

Sheep and goats

736

SUMEEUANS

813

I

United states, history of

868-869

Ships and boats

737-739

Sun AND SOLAR SYSTEM

814-813

i

Universe

870-871

Shops

760

Sweden

816

Urban wildlife

872

Shorebirds

761

Swifts and hummingbirds

817

Urinary system

873

Shrines

762

Swimming and diving

818

Signs and symbols

763-764

Switzerland and Austria

819-820

Skeleton

763-766

Syria AND JORDAN

821-822

Skin, hair, aSid nails

767

Slavery

768

Smfll and taste

769

Snails and other molluscs

770-771

Snakes

772-773

Societies, human

774-773

Socrates

776

Soil

777

SOLILIS

778

Songbirds

779-780

SONGHAI empire

781

Sound

782

Sound recording

783

South africa

784-783

South Africa, history of

786

T

South America

787-788

South America, history of

789-790 791-792

South America, northern South American wildlifi

793-794

Soviet union

793

V VESALIUS, ANDREAS

874

Video

873

Vietnam, cambodia, and lags

876-877

Technology

823

Vikings

878-879

Teeth and jaws

824

Volcanoes

880-881

Telecommunications

823

Telephones

826-827 828

w

Telescopes

Warfare

882-883

Television

829-830

Warplanes

884

Tennis AND other RACKET sports

831

Warships

883

Textiles and weaving

832

Washington, George

886

Thailand and Burma

833-834

Weapons

887-888

Theatres

833-836

Weasels and martens

889

Time

837-839

Weather

890

Trade and industry

840-841

Weather forecasting

891

Trains and railways

842

Weights and measures

892

Transport, history of

843-844

Whales and dolphins

893-893

Travel

843

Winds

896

Trees

846-848

Winter Sports

897

Truth, sojourner

849

Witches and witchcraft

898

Tundra

830

Wolves and wild dogs

899-900

Tunnels

831

Women’s movement

901

Turkey

832-833

Woodland wildlife

902-903

834-833

Woodpeckers and toucans

904

836

World war

1

903-906

World war

11

907-908

Space exploration

796-797

Spain

798-799

Spain, history of

800

Spiders and scorpions

801-802

Sport

803

Stamps and postal services

804-803

Starfish and sea urchins

806

Stars

807-808

Unions, trade

837

Stone age

809

United kingdom

838-839

Storms

810

United kingdom, history of

860-861

XYZ

Stravinsky, igor

811

United nations

862-863

X-RAYS

911

Submarines

812

United states of America

864-867

Zoos

912

1891 Dial telephones

1919 Airmail

TURTLES AND

TORTOISES

Twain, mark

u

1934 Transistor radio

Worms

909

Writing

1962 Communications satellite

1964 Word processor

1980s Fax machine

HOW TO USE THIS ENCYCLOPEDIA get the most out of your copy of the Darling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia. The encyclopedia consists of three volumes. Volumes 1—2 contain nearly 700 main entries organized alphabetically, from Aboriginal Australians through to Zoos. To find the entry you want, simply turn to the correct letter of the alphabet. The following pages will help you

MEASUREMENTS AND ABBREVIATIONS Most measurements are supplied in both metric and imperial units. Some of the most common abbreviations used in the encyclopedia are shown

If you cannot find the topic you want, then turn to Volume 3. This volume includes an index and gazetteer for the whole encyclopedia, which will direct you straight to the page you need. In addition, Volume 3 contains hundreds of reference charts, fact boxes, lists, and tables to supplement the information provided on the main entry pages.

THE PAGE LAYOUT

Introduction

The pages in this encyclopedia have been carefully

.Clear introductions are the

planned to make each subject as accessible as possible.

starting point for each

Main entries are broken down into a hierarchy of

entry. The introduction

colours are different forms of

information — from a general introduction to more

defines and provides an

light, and that sunlight contains

specific individual topics.

overview of each subject.

In the main entry on COLOUR, the introduction explains that

li^t of many different colours.

below in bold type. ®C = degrees Celsius ®F = degrees Fahrenheit

Alphabet locators

K = degrees kelvin

Letter flashes help you find your way

mm - millimetre; cm - centimetre

quickly around the encyclopedia.

m = metre; km - kilometre in = inch; ft = foot; yd - yard g - gram; kg - kilogr:

Sub-entries

02 = ounce; lb = pound

Sub entries provide important

ml = millilitre; 1 - litre pt = pint; gal = gallon

additional information and expand on points made in the introduction.

sq km (km^) - square kilometre sq ft (ft^)= square foot kmh = kilometres per hour

This sub-entry explains how rainbows are caused by raindrops in the.

A WORLD WITHOUUt^OLOUR would be dull and uninspiring. Colour is a form of light. Light is made up of electromagnetic waves of varying lengths. The human eye detects these different wavelengths and sees them as different colours. White light - like that from the Sun - is a mixture of all the different waveler^hs. Objects look coloured because they give out or reflect only certain wavelengths of light.

White light spectrum Passing white light through a transparent triangular block called a prism separates out the different wavelengths of light. The prism refracts (bends) each wavelength by a different amount, forming a

mph = miles per hour mya = million years ago BC = before Christ AD - anno Domini (refers to any date after the birth of Christ) c. = circa (about) b. = born; d. = died; r. - reigned

Natural history data boxes

VI

I This data box

Biography boxes

The heading Colour

Most main entry pages have

matching systems

biography boxes that tell you about

refers to the way designers use reference

On the natural history pages, data boxes

gives you key

key people who have contributed to

summarize essential information about a key

facts about the

our knowledge of the subject. The

numbers to match the

animal featured in the entry. The box contains

King Penguin.

encyclopedia also has single-page

colours on their work

information about the animals size, diet, habitat,

entries on rhe life and work of more

lifespan, distribution, and scientific name.

than 50 major historical figures.

to the colours of the main entry.

printers' inks.

HO\X TO USE THIS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Knights and hrnldrv 49S-6

INDEX Volume 3 contains an index and a gazetteer. The index. which comes first, lists all the topics mentioned in the encyclopedia and the pages on which they can be found. The gazetteer follows on, with references to help you find all the features included on the maps. • page numbers in

bold

type (eg Knights and heraldry

Knigho of Malta 70 Knosws, Crete 557

Craiova Romarua 727 C7

495-6) show that the subject is a main A—Z entry in Volumes 1—2. • page numbers in plain type (eg armour 69) send you to sub-entries, text references, and the reference section. • grid references (eg Cremona Italy 475 C3) are letternumber combinations that locate features on maps.

Illustrations Each main entry is heavily illustrated with models, photographs, and artworks, adding a vibrant layer of visual information to the page.

Crete lUnJ Greece 403 Ell Crete Sea of MedicetTancaii Sea 403 EIO Croatia Countn SE Europe 105 Ctotone Italy 4*SC8

Annotation This annotation telb you how different colours can be produced by mixing red, green, and blue light.

The illustrations are comprehensively annotated to draw attention to details of particular interest and to explain complex points.

Timelines An entry may include

The Printing timeline stretches! from the printing of the first

a timeline that gives

books in ancient China to the

the dates of kev events

computerization of

in the history or

modem printing.

development of the subject.

COLLECTION PAGES There are more than 70 pages of photographic collections, which .follow main entries and provide a visual guide to the subject. They are organized under clear headings.

Find out more

On Colour, the Find

The Find Out More lines at

Out More line directs

the end of each entry direct

you to the entry on

Out More line

you to other relevant main

Printing, where there is

sends you to China,

entries in the encyclopedia.

a detailed explanation of

HISTORY OF, which

Printing's Find /

Using the Find Out More lines

the colour printing

lists ancient Chinese

can help you understand an

process and how printing

inventions,

entry in its wider context.

presses work.

including printing.

The entry on the history of China is followed by a collection page showing Chinese jewellery and ornaments.

VII

HOW TO USE THIS ENCYCLOPEDIA

CONTINENT AND COUNTRY PAGES

Country file

KEY TO MAP

The encyclopedia concaini encries on all the worlds continents and countries,

-

International border

Lake Seasonal lake

On each country page there is a fact •

Capital city

box containing key details about the

•

Major town

city, area, currency, polirical system,

country, such as its population, capital

each containing a detailed map. Continent entries focus on the physical geography of the region; countjy entries provide information about the society

-

Road

River

•

Minor town

Railroad

Canal

*

Spot height (feet)

International airport

Waterfall

and economy of the country. Below is the siiigle-p^e entry on the

and main language and religion. Other cat^ories of information include; Literacy — the percentage of people over 15 years old who can read and write.

Spot depth (feet)

People per doctor - a rough guide to

Netherlands

the availability of medical facilities. Life expectancy — how long an average The country’s flag appears by its name.

Locator map A small map in the top left-hand corner of the page shows you where the region lies within a continent or in relation to the rest of the world. Map of Netherlands’ position in Europe. The introduction defines the region and provides an overview to the entry.

person can expect to live.

Climate

Netherlands Also cali to holmnd, the Netherlands straddles the deltas of five major rivers in northwestern Europe. The Dutch |>eople say they created their own country because they have enclosed about ;-third of the land from sea. swamps, and marshland with earth dikes, and drained the water from it. Despite being of the most densely populated countries in the world, the lands enjoy.s high living standards. Amsterdam is the oFFicial capital, although the government is based at The Hague.

A climate diagram gives details of

la

-

rainfall levels and temperatures in the country, region, or continent. Average

Average

summer

physical features

winter

temperature

temperature

Single countrys • • I • average in capital city

. ,, rainraU J

Compass points north Average

Average Scale bar

'inter

summer temperature

temperature

Scale bar and compass Each map has a scale bar that shows

Regional average is

how distances on the map relate to

the average of all

actual miles and kilometers. The

capital cities on map

\ Average rainfall

compass shows you which direction on the map is north (N).

Concise explanation of the countrys main physical characteristics.

Grid reference The numbers and letters around

Land use

the map help you find all the

The land-use diagram tells you how

places listed in the index.

much of the the countrys total land area is taken up by, for example, woodland,

The index gives Amsterdam's grid.

agriculture, and urban developments

reference as C4, so you can find it on the

such as villages, towns, and cities.

map by beating the third square along (C) and the fourth square down (4).

Most of the bnd in the Netherbnds is used for farming.

Population density

Urban/rural split

A population density diagram shows

A small diagram shows the percentage

how many people there are to every

of people living in urban (built-up)

square mile or square kilometer.

areas and rural (country) areas.

The Netherlands is a very densely popubted country

REFERENCE PAGES Volume 3 of the Encyclopedia contains an illustrated reference section with essential facts, figures, and statistical data, divided into the five main strands described here.

International world This strand contains a double-page map showing all the countries of the world, and data on the world s population, economy, and resources.

History The history strand features a timeline of key historical events, stretching from 40,000 BC to the present day, together with the dates of major wars, revolutions, battles, and great leaders.

Living world The centerpiece of this strand is a detailed guide to the classification of living things, supported by lists of species in danger, and many other facts about the natural world.

VllI

- The majority of people in the Netherlands live in urban areas.

INDIAN OCEAN

Indian Ocean facts

Physical features

Bounded by africa to the west, Australia and Indonesia to the east, and Asia to the north, the Indian Ocean is the worlds third largest ocean. In the south it merges with the Southern Ocean that extends right around the globe. Unlike the Atlantic and Pacific, it has no natural outlet to the north, although the Suez Canal at the northern tip of the Red Sea links it with the Mediterranean Sea. Monsoon winds bring flooding to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia.

The currents of the Indian

Area 73,426,000 sq km (28,350,000 sq miles) Average depth Greatest depth

spectacularly according

3,890 m (12,762

ft)

7,450 m (24,441

ft),

Java Trench

Ocean change direction

Number of islands

5,000

to the monsoon winds.

Largest island Borneo

Between February and

Smallest country Singapore

March, a strong current

Population

1,000,000

flows southwest along the coast of Somalia, changing direction completely between August and September. In the Bay of Bengal, the current flows clockwise in February, and counter¬ clockwise in August. Ocean islands There are estimated to be more than 5t000 islands in the Indian Ocean. Many, such as

ASIA

Akd. Sen

the Seychelles and the Maldives, are coral

Plateau

1

atolls, where attractive beaches and a warm

Sue/* -

climate attract increasing numbers of tourists.

fO^’ -f

%-

- ^

•Karachi

Tru;iic of 07Ht

Monsoon

Calcutta

During the northern winter, cool, dry winds ^

Ad ATI (Aden) 'r

AFRICA

^ —

•

blow over the ocean from the northeast. However, in summer, the wind direction changes and southwesterly winds blow north from the ocean bringing heavy monsoon rains to coastal areas. Although farmers depend on these rains, they often cause serious flooding.

D^ndra Heotl

SEYCHELLES Christmas I. y fat>a British Indian (AhsI ) 'Vcian “ —^ Territory (UK) c . ‘Cocos tfK-cling) Is ^ ' (Ausl.)

COMOROS Mat^olle (Pr.) C Bvbaomhy

Reiinipn ffi-U , Farafangana

Tmpic ■ I Cap it o^n

•

(Bi^mbay) ^ ^ Bay of Ambinn^en _ ^ ^ ^ Andaman Is. ^ c. Socolro I (Yemen) Lac\:adive Is Nicobar Is. % I/ndifl) (Indio) ■£ ^ C Comorin SRI LANKA ^ MALDIVES

•Mombasa Atdabra

5*-

“■ MAURITIUS

NrllilVi-IC

Madagascar 6

AUSTRALIA

/

ploin

‘Du, “TfemanlT' , Cnpr

INDIAN

Strait of Malacca Lying between the Indonesian island of Sumatra and the

OCEAN

Malay Peninsula, the shallow Strait of Malacca is one of the main trade routes at the eastern end of the Indian Ocean, effectively providing a link with the Pacific Ocean. Melaka in Malaysia and Singapore are the two leading ports.

Croze! Is. (Fr.) Edward Is fSA)

Salt Aieard & ^ Macdonald Is. \Aust )

Around the shores of the Indian Ocean, particularly in India and the Middle East, people extract salt from the sea water. ITiey channel water into shallow enclosures called pans and allow it to evaporate in sunshine,

Cape

leaving crystals of pure salt that can be collected, packaged, and .sAtiicry.lcc^ Shelf

- tmn-d

A

N B

T

c

A

R D

sold. Oceans are salty because minerals dissolved from rocks

C

T E

c

I F

by rivers are washed into them.

A

G

H

Salt panning, Karachi, Pakistan

449

INDIAN OCEAN

■

Maldives

Seychelles

K

Maldives

The Seychelles is an independent

FACTS

The Maldives is a tiny Asian republic in the Indian Ocean, just southwest

African country that sprawls over Capital CITY Male

of Sri Lanka. It consists of 1,190 small coral

Seychelles FACTS Capital CITY Victotia

400,000 sq km (150,000 sq miles) of the Area 300 sq km

islands, only 202 of which are inhabited.

Indian Ocean northeast of Madagascar.

(116 sq miles)

People have lived here for 2,300 years. Today,

Population 286,000

the islanders live from fishing and growing

Of the 115 islands, 32 of them, where the majority of the population live, are formed

Main languages

coconuts. However, tourism is the principal

Dhivehi, Sinhala,

of granite rock, and the rest are low,

source of income on the bigger islands.

Tamil

isolated outcrops of coral.

Area 455 sq km (176 sq miles) Population 79,3u0 Main languages Creole, English, French Major rei igion

Major religion

Wildlife

Muslim

The isolated position

Currency Rufiyaa

Christian Currency Rupee

of the Seychelles has permitted the

Reef protection

evolution of many unique species of plants and

Many of the coral islands

animals, including the coco-de-mer palm, which

in the Indian Ocean have

produces the wotld’s heaviest seed pods, and unique

an average height of just

varieties of orchid, giant tortoise, gecko, chameleon,

1.8 m (6 ft), and are at

and “flying fox” — a type of fruitbat. Several reserves

risk of suffering serious

have been set up to protect this natural heritage.

storm damage, especially

People

during the monsoon season, when waves can break right

Most Seychellois are

over them. To help give some

of mixed African and

protection, many islandets build a

European origin. About 90

stout sea wall around their island

per cent of them live on

to act as a barriet against the water.

the island of Mah^. The people enjoy some of the

Tourism

highest living standards

Maldivians prefer to keep tourists away from the

in Africa. Tea, copra, and

villages where they live, and many of the main

fish are the main exports.

luxury hotels have been built on some of the

Howevet, 90 per cent of

uninhabited islands. The islands are popular

foreign earnings now

with divers, who like to explore the cotal teefs

come from

and their shoals of brightlv coloured tropical fish.

Mauritius

Mauritius

FACTS

Dominated by the peaks of former volcanoes, the African country of

Capital CITY Port Louis

Mauritius lies 2,000 km (1,200 miles) off the southeast coast of Africa. It consists of Mauritius Island itself and a few smaller islands several hundred kilometres to the north. Mauritius is densely populated. More than half the people are Hindu Indians; most

Other islands Most other islands in the Indian Ocean

Area

1,860 sq km

(718 sq miles)

are very small. Of special note are the atolls of the Aldabra group, where giant tortoises still roam in the wild. Christmas

Population

Island, an Australian territory near Java, is

1,200,000

so-called because a British seaman sighted

Main languages

it on Christmas Day in 1643.

English, French, Creole, Hindi,

of the rest are Creoles and Chinese.

Bhojpuri, Chinese Major religions

Sugar

Hindu, Christian,

The main cash crops are tea and cane

Muslim

sugat, which makes up 30 per cent of the country’s exports. Textiles and tourism are

J! «

Currency Rupee

Mayotte

also thriving industries. Mauritius belongs

The French island of Mayotte

to the Indian Ocean

forms part of the Comoros

Commission, which

Reunion

Islands. It covers an area

seeks to promote trade.

The island of Reunion is a self-governing overseas

of 374 sq km (144 sq miles)

department of France. It has an area of 2,510 sq km

and has a population of about

(969 sq miles). Most of the 706,300 people are

142,000. People grow ylang-

French Creoles. The mountains get heavy rainfall.

ylang and vanilla for export.

Fishing Although the fishing industry Molasses

is not as developed in the Indian Ocean as it is in the Atlantic and

Education

North Pacific oceans, the total

Mauritius has a well-educated work-force,

annual catch is about 3,360,000

which raises hopes that it may become an

tonnes (3,703,728 tons). Most of

independent financial centre. The Universitv

Sugar-cane

450

Raw cane juice

FIND OUT

Coral

MORE

REEFS

the fish are caught by shore-based

of Mauritius, founded in 1965, has about

fishermen. There are few areas of

1,800 students. It specializes in research

shallow seas where fish may breed.

on agriculture and sugar technology.

Farming

Fishing industry

Islands

Fishermen on the Maldives

Oceans

AND SEAS

Ports and waterways

Trade and industry

Volcanoes

Winds

H INDONESIA

Indonesia facts Capital arv Jakarta Area 1,904,570 sq km

The largest archipelago

(735,555 sq miles)

in the world, spread over

Population 212,000,000

8,000,000 sq km (3,000,000

Main language Bahasa Indonesia Major religions Muslim, Christian

sq miles) of ocean, Indonesia is

Currency Rupiah

made up of 13,670 islands. The country was a

Life expectancy 66 years

Dutch colony from the 1700s to independence

People per doctor 5,000 Government Multi-party democracy

in 1949. Military rule dominated for more than

Adult uteracy 87%

30 years until public protests forced an end to the General Suharto regime in 1998, leading to

Wetland 3.5% Forest

democratic elections. In 1999 East Timor, a

Farmland 26%

62%

former Portuguese colony annexed by Indonesia in 1975, voted for independence. The ensuing transitional process has been very turbulent.

Built-up

Grassland

2%

6.5%

Tropical rainforest

Land use

Physical features

Lush tropical rainforests cover nearly

Although much of Indonesia’s land is

two-thirds of Indonesia’s land. Tigers

mountainous and forested, rice is grown on

Lying between the Pacific and

and elephants live in the forests of

terraces cut into the hillsides. Animals graze

Indian Oceans, the Indonesian

Sumatra, as well as rare animals such

on the pastures of Irian Jaya. Forestry and

as the Komodo Dragon, a carnivorous

logging are important businesses.

islands are mountainous,

lizard. As many as 100 different tree

volcanic, and forested. There

species can be found in one hectare.

are five main islands: Sumatra,

Logging has destroyed large areas of

Jakarta

rainforest. In 1997 smc^ from forest

The modern metropolis of Jakarta is

fires created a regional health hazard.

Indonesia’s capital and the largest city

Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Irian Jaya, part of New Guinea.

in Southeast Asia, with a population of

Islands

26^C

26°C

10,800,000. A trading centre for 2,000

Krakatoa

As well as the five main

78°F)

(78'^f)

years, it was used by the Dutch as a hub

Indonesia’s position on the

islands there are thousands

join of two of the Earth’s

of smaller ones, and about

places means it is prone to

half are uninhabited. Rich

earthquakes and volcanic

in marine life, the coral

eruptions. Indonesia has

reefs that surround the

Regional climate

400 volcanoes; 100 are

islands are popular with

Tropical monsoons between December

active. Krakatoa, a volcanic

divers. Tourists are drawn

and March bring humidity and heavy

island near Java, had a

to the palm-fringed

rains to Indonesia. Java and the Sunda

major eruption in 1883,

beaches, rainforests,

Islands have a dry season between June

blowing the island apart.

and striking volcanoes.

and September. Mountains are cool.

andaa i'll

for the spice trade. Colonial buildings are overshadowed by tall sl^tscrapers, (70 in)

IJ75

a sign of the growing economy.

Jakartas glittering skyscrapers tower

Sea

over the residential area.

Celebes

Kep. \Naturta^ Se

M W L A ’Jl iS I

PA

A ilanado

Kep.'* Batu

' tiaimah ?i -

m

_ ^ Pekanba m Kep Pontianak^ ^

■* ^r^rmda * Baukpaparii'*

Guff of' Tomni'^

jatlani] Krakatau

ang jy

JAKARTA

r

fl

|

Kep. Sula Towufi

jjr ^ ■’ ^ungpanili^g

Sen

* Panda Sea

N- -_E Yopakauf

Flores See tee Flores FeP- Aloi^

-

Denp^Sr l-e-'ser 5m id h

iumba ^

Nevj Guinea

Yapen^I

Bengkul*

^

Fal.»

Mirttawai ^

-

pin I TUlfOR

Kupang

Zw Kep. Tenimbar Yamdenc

l^tp.

afura Sea

451

INDONESIA

People

Leisure

Indonesia has the world’s fourth

The Indonesians retain many traditions

largest population. About 60

of music, dance, painting, wood- and

per cent of Indonesians live

stone-carving, and textile crafts. Elaborate

on the crowded main island of

puppet theatres are popular in Java.

Java. The majority are Muslims

Badminton is the main international sport. Dancing

descended from the first Malay settlers, but society is diverse, with about 360 ethnic groups

Gong-chimes are struck

Elaborate dance routines,

with a padded hammer.

accompanied by large gamelans, are a

speaking more than 250

feature of life in

different languages.

Java and Bali, and are popular tourist attractions. Colourful

Minangkabau

dance dramas often tell stories derived from

The Minangkabau live in the hills

Gamelan

of central Sumatra. They are Muslims,

Hindu mythology. The

but, unusually, the Minangkabau are

A common form of music in Indonesia is

Ramayana ballet is performed

matriarchal — property and family

xhc gamelan., which contains bowed and wind

by moonlight outside the 9th-

118 per sq km

40%

60%

names descend through the mothers

instruments with gongs, -gong-chimes, drums,

century Hindu Ramayana

(306 per sq mile)

Urban

Rural

line, and women have authority.

and rattles. The orchestra has up to 40 players.

Temple at Yc^akarta.

Farming

Food Rice and the many

About 46 per cent of

unique Indonesian

Indonesia’s labour force works

spices form the basis of all meals.

in farming, which is the main

Fiery hot chillies,

economic activity. As well as

nuts, and coconut

rice, farmers grow cassava, palm

milk are used freely

nuts, maize, sugar-cane, and

in cooking, and are

potatoes on the fertile volcanic

often used to make a sauce, served with meat

soils. Cash crops include coffee,

k J

adapted to contain meat, fish, or vegetables.

Rice

Who drie

/(llp 9

Fried rice

or fish dishes. Fried rice is a popular dish, ea

rubber, and tea.

nutmc

Communications

Spices

Indonesia ranks third in world rice

The islands of Maluku, formerly

production. The country has been

known as the Moluccas, are

self-sufficient since 1984, mainly

Spanning four time zones and separated

due to an intensive rice-planting

by vast expanses of sea, the Indonesian

Indonesia’s famed “Spice Islands”. Nutmeg is the

programme. Farmers are

islands need good communications. A

principal cash crop, and

encouraged to grow many varieties

cardamom, chillies, cumin,

of high-quality rice in irrigated

state shipping company links the islands,

fields or on hillside terraces, some

several of which are also served by air.

cinnamon, coriander, star anise, and ginger are grown.

of which are about 2,000 years old.

Satellite telephones

Oil and gas

on plant

Indonesia was one of

The country’s economic

the first countries in the

backbone since the 1870s,

Industry

world to install satellite

oil and gas make up

communications. Because

one-quarter of export

Indonesia has vast mineral

and domestic earnings.

reserves and ranks highly

Huge gas supplies are

of the difficulties involved in linking so many islands with cables, a satellite

exported in liquid form.

in gold and tin production

telephone system was

Oil output is declining.

worldwide. Manufacturing is

installed. This enables messages to be relayed

being encouraged to diversify

via orbiting satellites.

the country’s economy.

Tourism More than five million tourists flock to Bali, Sumatra, and Java every year. The Balinese have worked hard to promote their

First developed in Java more than 1,000 years ago, batik is

numbers of visitors,

a technique of dyeing cloth. A design is drawn on cotton

who come for the

and painted over with a dye-proof substance, such as hot

beautiful scenery,

wax or rice paste. When the cloth is dipped in dye, the

Indonesia owns more than 2,300 ships, many of

colourful street life,

waxed parts remain white. Batik textile^ are made into

which are used for transporting timber, oil, and gas.

scarves and wrap-around garments called sarongs.

Ports are being expanded to improve trade links.

and golden beaches.

FIND OUT

MORE 452

Asia, HISTORY OF

Batik

island, and enjoy high

Coral REEFS

Dance

Farming

Islam

Music

Oil

Ships AND BOATS

Shipping

Telecommunications

Textiles AND WEAVING

Volcanoes

INDUSTRIAL ENGLAND see UNITED KINGDOM, HISTORY OF

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION More than

200

years ago,

changes took

place in industry that transformed society,

Carding

Water-driven

Reeling and

machines

spinning jrames

winding machines

power from the

separated out

produced

wound the cotton

water wheel to

cotton fibres.

cotton thread.

onto bobbins.

A drive shaft took

machines in

and altered the way goods were made. The changes, which began in Britain in about 1760, are known as the Industrial Revolution. They included the use of water and steam power, the invention of new machinery, increased coal and iron production, the introduction of factories, the growth of towns, and a revolution in transport. Industrialization also created new types of work and new social groups. By 1850, the Industrial Revolution was spreading to the rest of the world.

New technology The textile industry was the first to be mechanized. In the 1700s, new water- or steam-driven machines replaced the old spinning wheels. This change meant that An early 19th-century cotton mill

cloth, particularly cotton, could be produced faster than ever before.

Factories The spinning jenny

A huge water wheel powered

Tubsfor

the machines via a system of

collecting

unguarded cogs and wheels.

cotton.

People used to make goods in their homes,

James Hargreaves, an English weaver, invented the spinning jenry in 1764-1767. Worked by

but the invention of new machinery took

one person, it consisted of a frame and a number

manufacturing into factories. The first

of spindles that spun several threads at once.

factories were cotton mills powered by water wheels, and the factory owners employed huge numbers of people to

The water frame As the name suggests,

operate the machines. Most employees

the water frame was

worked 16 hours a day, six days a week,

a spinning frame

Child labour Factory owners employed children in mills

powered by water. It

and were subjected to harsh discipline.

replaced the spinning

The work was hard and sometimes

jenny, and was used in

dangerous, but, for the first time, workers

delicate machinery. Dangerous conditions

received regular wages.

meant that many children died.

the first factories.

Transport

Ironbridge

A revolution in transport was

was built across the River

stimulated by the need to move

Severn, England.

and mines because they could enter cramped spaces, and their small hands could operate

In 1779, the worlds first iron bridge

raw materials and finished goods cheaply and quickly. From 1760, a network of canals was built to carry coal, iron, and

New industrial towns As industrialism increased, new towns sprang

steel to and from

Severn Gorge

the new industrial

Railways

centres. However,

After the ironmaster Abraham Darby discovered

up around coal mines and factories. Many

by the 1840s, one

how to smelt iron cheaply, using coke rather than

people arrived from the countryside in search

of the greatest

charcoal, the way was clear for the mass production

of work. Living conditions in the new towns

achievements of

were dreadful, with poverty, overcrowding,

the industrial age

Darlington with the port of Stockton, England.

poor sanitation, and illness. After the 1850s,

had appeared -

By the 1870s, there were 25.000 km (15,000

urban conditions began to improve.

the railways.

of iron. The world’s first public railway opened in 1825, linking the coal mines of

“Puffing Billy’

miles) of railway track in Britain alone.

453

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Satin- and lacf-trimmed hat

Social change

Middle classes The middle classes included

The Industrial Revolution

merchants and industrialists.

transformed society. It created

Middle-class men worked

a new social group, the industrial,

as managers and owners in industry, middle-class women

waged, working class. A new army

remained at home, living lives

of industrial workers sprang up,

of enforced idleness. Some of these

including railway workers, dockers,

women, irritated by boredom, worked with the poor and

textile workers, engineers, and

needy, or began to fight for

factory girls. Industrialization also

womens rights.

produced a new, wealthier middle class. The separation of work from Mother-of-

home had profound effects. For the

pearl buttons

first time, and for the middle classes only, the home became a place of peace and leisure.

New products As mass production increased in factories, new goods became available. Cheap cotton clothing was the first product to be made completely by machinery. Soaps, dyes, and iron goods became widespread. However, many of the industrial processes were harmful to the workers’ health.

Iron goods Developments in the iron industry meant that cast iron could be moulded into any shape, from pots and pans to iron bedsteads and machine parts. A factory girls clothing

A middle-class girls dress

Soap

was usually made of delicate

had to be warm and

The growing textile industry

material, such as silk, or had

hard wearing. It was

stimulated a demand for soap

lot of handiwork on it, such

often made of cheap

and bleach. When a process

as a lace collar.

material, such as wool

was invented that turned table salt into baking soda, soap could be mass produced.

Matches The first friction matches were

Popular protest

produced in the 1830s. To make

The early years of the Industrial

the matches, women dipped splinters of wood into white

workers. Social unresr increased

chemical. As the phosphorus ate

as different groups fought for

away the skin of their faces, I

many suffered “phossyjaw".

I

Revolution were hard for the

phosphorus, an inflammable

improvements in working conditions. Some, such as the

Gas lighting

Luddites, attacked the new

Coal provided steam for new

machines that were taking away

machinery, and heated coal produced a combustible

Co-operative movement The followers of this early political and social

their jobs and skills. Trade

movement challenged the competitiveness of the new

(burnable) gas. By 1850, gas

unions, which emerged after

industrial society. They argued instead for co-operation,

lai lamps were common in the streets

1824, sought better working

and a form of socialism, or common ownership. In

of most towns and cities.

Timeline

1761 Bridgewater canal links coal

1709 Abraham Darby uses

1844, the movement established the first co-operative

conditions and workers’ rights.

mines to

coke to smelt iron ore.

shop in Rochdale, Lancashire.

1833 Factory Act bans children under

engine.

nine from working

(1771-1858) was an early

in cotton mills, to

socialist. His book A New View

Manchester. 1789 Steam-powered

allow time for

1733 John Kay develops

loom introduced in

school.

the flying shuttle, which

Britain. 1842 Coal Mines Tradition sp*nn'"gc.1900

Born in Wales, Robert Owen

of Society

argued for

co-operation instead of competition in all levels of

speeds up weaving. 1764-1767 Spinning jenny invented.

Robert Owen

1769 James Watt improves the steam

society. His ideas led to

1830s Industrial

Act bans women and

the first co-operative shop in England, which

Revolution in Belgium

children from mines

sold fresh, cheap food, on a non-profit basis.

and USA under way.

in England.

He also set up one of the first trade unions, and created model working communities in

FIND OUT

MdRE 454

Cities

Clothes AND FASHION

Europe, HISTORY OF

Unions, TRADE

United kingdom, HISTORY OF

Lanark, Scotland, and New Harmony, USA.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION On

the banks

of the Indus River in modern-

Mohenjo-

Mohenjo-Daro

Darp

day Pakistan, one of the world s earliest

Indus Valley cities were planned and A Harappa

civilizations grew and flourished between

C.2700

and

1750

BC.

It was centred on the

Drains carried away the household

Valley

cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, each of which contained up to

40,000

^

people. Large public buildings, built

built on a grid pattern. They had broad main roads and narrow lanes.

Indus

,

waste. All the houses were built around central courtyards. During the day, people

A

lived and worked in these courtyards.

of mud bricks, show that the civilization was prosperous. We know little about the day-to-day life of Indus

The great granary

Valley citizens, except that they traded with

the Indus Valley people

Sumeria and may have practised an early

a bank

Some scholars think that used the granary rather like

form of Hinduism. Their civilization

and rulers of the city.

mysteriously collapsed after 1750 BC;

it was a secure store

of wealth for the merchants

The granary had wooden 46~m

this may have been due to

(150-fT) walls and roofs running rh#. UnrrtV. of thc building.

invasions, or the River Indus changing

The bath-house was one of Mohenjo-Daros

its course.

bluest and most important buildings.

■ Small baths are in buildings

The citadel,

near the bath¬

Mohenjo-Daro

house.

Weights and measures Like most ancient civilizations, the Indus Valley people developed a system

The central bath may have been

of weights and measures. This meant

used for religious purposes, such as

trade became easier, and also that

the ritual cleansing before ceremonies.

goods could be valued for tax purposes.

/ ''•The citadel is the raised area that contains

A stupa, or Buddhist shrine, was built much more

the important public buildings, such as the

recently than the ancient city of Mohenjo-Daro. The original main temple of the Indus Valley

bathhouse and the great granary. The higher

people may be hidden beneath the stupas mound.

ground makes the area easier to defend.

Ancient script

Religion

Crafts

Archaeologists have found stone

Little is known about the Indus

Indus people were skilled potters and

seals in a script unlike any other

religion. The importance of water,

metalworkers. They made fine painted

ancient form of writing. When

shown by the existence of the bath¬

vessels, terracotta statues, and beautiful

long texts are found, scholars

house, has led some scholars to

gold jewellery. They also learned how to

can often decipher them — but

link it with later Hinduism.

blend copper and tin to produce bronze.

the Indus Valley inscriptions are

Various statues have been

very short, so their meaning

found that may represent

remains a mystery.

gods and goddesses.

Unicorn

Terracotta animals, f

^ t

Mohenjo-Daro

Indus script dress

Priests This steatite (soapstone) statue is the most famous object found at MohenjoDaro. It has a serene

Goddess figures

expression that suggests

Most of the statuettes found in the Indus

it might be a statue of a

Gold jewellery, Harappa

Seals

cities have headdresses and jewellery,

priest or one of the Indus

The Indus people used seals to show

showing they were probably goddess figures.

Valley gods.

ownership. Each seal is carved with the image of an animal, such as a unicorn, and an inscription.

RND OUT

MORE

Asia, HISTORY OF

Bronze AGE

Cities

Gupta EMPIRE

Hinduism

Mauryan EMPIRE

455

INFERTILITY sec REPRODUCTION

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY Thanks to information

Programs

technology, you can enjoy

Computers cannot work without programs. A program is a sequence of simple insrructions that tells a computer how to perform a specific task, such as adding up a list of numbers or printing a document. The programs that make a computer work are called software.

the fantasy world of a virtual reality game and make friends with people on the other side of the world via the Internet. Information technology (IT) is the use of computers to handle, store, process, and transmit information. The key to information technology is software; sets of instructions called programs that tell computers what to do. Software can be used to design magazines and forecast the

Programs enable processing of information.

Computer languages A computer can process information only

British mathematician Alan

which are made up of the digits 0 and 1. It is

Turing (1912—54) made

difficult to write a computer'program in this

important advances in

form, so programmers write their instructions

the theory of computers.

in special codes called computer languages.

He was the first to

The computer then translates the instructions

propose that computers

into binary numbers, which it can understand.

might one day be able to “think” - that is,

weather, and may even one day enable

perform a task in an identical way to a human.

computers to think like humans.

I

Alan Turing

when it is in the form of binary numbers,

Software applications

w

The software that controls a computers essential functions

m 'f-t.

is called its operating system. All other software programs are called applications. They include word processing, which helps you to write

Spreadsheet

Computer graphics

Desktop publishing (DTP)

letters and documents, and

A spreadsheet is a software application that

Illustrators can use software to produce

Designers of books, newspapers, and

multimedia, which combines text, pictures, video, music, and animation into one.

computerized images called graphics. Graphics software enables an illustrator to create

on each page, using software called

use spreadsheets to display financial accounts,

entirely new images on-screen, or to alter

desktop publishing. DTP also allows

forecast sales figures, and plan work schedules.

images fed into the computer with a scanner.

editors to correct the text on-screen.

Computer simulation

i

magazines arrange the pictures and text

performs calculations on a table of numbers, such as sums of money or dates. Businesses

Given the correct information and programs, powerful modern computers can simulate real-life situations, such as flying an aircraft, manoeuvring the space shuttle, or exploring the ocean depths. Computer simulation is used for research, education, training, and entertainment.

Virtual reality One form of computer simulation is called virtual reality. A computer creates 3'D images and sounds that seem almost real. Using a headset and a hand-held unit, the user can move around in and interact with this “virtual” world, created by the computer. Virtual reality game Headset makes player feel part of computer-generated scene.

Computer modelling Meteorologists use simulations called computer models to forecast changes in the weather. Using information gathered by weather stations, a computer creates a realistic model of a complex weather pattern, such as a hurricane, and then predicts how it will develop. Many scientists use computer modelling to test their theories.

Tracking sensor detects horizontal and vertical movement and sends this data to the controlling computer.

Virtual reality kit Speaker

INFORMATION TECHNOIOGY

Braille keyboard and special software

Artificial intelligence

Information superhighway The information superhighway is a planned

for visually-impaired i

The ability of a computer to think for itself is called

communications network that will use the optical fibres of the telephone line to bring a huge choice

Artificial Intelligence (AI). Some computers can

of services to people’s homes. Using the latest

already assess their own performance and work out

multimedia software, a special terminal — like a

ways to improve it. However, many people believe

combined television and computer — will allow users

that computers can never be truly intelligent, because

to access the Internet, watch interactive television and movies, play games, listen to music, and even

they can only follow instructions. AI research has so far produced neural networks and speech synthesizers.

do their shopping from their own homes.

Neural networks

AI for disability

One area of research into

Some people with disabilities

artificial intelligence uses

use computers to help them

circuits that work in a similar

communicate. Computers

way to the nerves (neurons)

called speech synthesizers can

in the brain. These circuits,

rect^nize spoken words or

called neural networks, can

produce speech from text typed in. Braille keyboards,

learn to do simple tasks, such

voice recognition, and special

as recognizing human faces. Rollerball

software are all used by

controller

Internet

visually-impaired people.

Face-recognition programme

Keyboard

Internet communication Text, pictures, sound, and other information

The Internet is a global

is sent across the Internet from computer to

network of computers linked

computer in the form of binary digits,

together by the telephone system. Once your computer is

bits. The bits are coded in a type of computer language called a protocol,

Receiving computer

and sent as tiny “packets" of data.

reassembles the packets.

connected to the Internet, you can send and receive electronic

If the route is busy, the

Packets are addressed and sent

packets find another way

to the correct destination via

mail (e-mail), exchange views in

to reach their address.

the Internet.

newsgroups (groups of Internet World Wide Web

users with shared interests), and

Information is stored on

browse information on the

the Internet at linked sites

World Wide Web — a collection

called pages. The pages can be thought of as a web of

of information “pages” held by

information that spans the

museums, governments,

globe. Web pages are viewed

businesses, colleges, universities,

with software called a browser. By clickir^ on a certain part of a

and individuals.

page with a mouse, the user can visit

E-mail

pages holding related information.

Letters typed on a computer can be sent quickly, easily, and cheaply across the Internet using e-mail. Each Internet user has a unique e-mail “address”, so that they can receive mail from other users. Sending

Mail is sent and received through a large computer called a server.

John Von Neumann

E-mail

Modem

Server

The Hungarian-born mathematician

typed into PC is

A modem is a device that

A server is a powerful computer

John Von Neumann (1903—57) was

sent as binary data

converts binary computer

that routes out-going e-mail to the

the first to suggest that the program

to the modem.

data into a varying electrical

correct Internet address, and holds

I

needed to operate a computer should

signal and sends it along the

incoming messages in a “mail box”

be stored in its memory. He also

telephone line.

until the user wishes to open it.

devised a way of making a computer create random numbers — a vital function in many modern

Timeline

1980s ARPANET becomes

software applications.

1960s The US military links up all its

the Internet, as the US military

large computers, forming a network

withdraws from the network,

1990s Use of Internet and

known as ARPANET.

and it is used increasingly by

email becomes widespread.

1985 First CD-ROMs appear.

universities and colleges. 1994 RISC (reduced

Late 1970s Users can now interact with computer data by clicking on icons and

1984 Apple Macintosh

instruction set computing)

windows on the screen with a mouse.

computers, using software

allows for faster microchips.

produced by American Bill 1981 The first IBM personal computers using MS-DOS become available.

RND OUT

MORE

Brain and NERVOUS SY.STEM

Computers

Electronics

Microsoft’s Bill Gates

Numbers

Gates’ Microsoft company,

2001 A web server the size

become increasingly popular.

of a match-head is produced.

Technoi ocy

Telecommunications

457

INGENHOUSZ, JAN sec PHOTOSYNTHESIS • INSECTIVORES sec HEDGEHOGS AND OTHER INSECTIVORFS

INSECTS

Field digger wasp This parasitic wasp paralyzes its

The head carries

The thorax is in three segments and bears

feeding apparatus

the legs and wings.

and sense organs.

prev. Such as a fly, and takes it back to its nest for its grubs to eat.

I

For

their abundance

and

Its paralrang sting is borne on the

diversity, no animals can match the /

Fly

tip of its long abdomen.

1 insects. There may be a million \ species across the world. Insects are

The exoskeleton, or cuticle, of flies, like that of all insects, is fragile and lightweight.

invertebrates and belong to the group called

1 his gives the flies flexibility, but also makes it easier for

arthropods. They are the only arthropods that

predators to pierce them with a bite or sting.

can fly. Many have a complex life cycle. Wherever they exist, they have a huge ecological impact as herbivores, hunters, decomposers, plant pollinators, and disease carriers. They are in turn food for predators, against which they have evolved some remarkable defences.

Breeding Insects normally reproduce by mating, attracting one

The abdomen contains

another first with scents, displays, vibrations, or other

most of the

signals. The male’s sperm is transferred into reproductive

Insect features

organs containing eggs in the female’s abdomen. The

Adult insects have a head, a thorax, and an abdomen,

internal organs.

female lays the fertilized eggs, often burying them in soil,

each composed of segments. They also have six jointed

or attaching them to a surface such as a leaf

legs modified for walking, jumping, digging, or swimming. All parts are enclosed in an exoskeleton.

Mayflies Breeding is all a mayfly does during the last st^e of its life. Adult mayfly

protective

As soon as it turns into an

case for the

adult, it has just a few hours to

other p

find a mate and reproduce Cardinal

before it dies.

beetle

Parent bugs Most adult insects leave their

Eyes

Antennae

Mouthparts

The huge eyes of this

Reaching their

An insects mouthparts

dragonfly, like those

maximum length in

include mandibles

insects are delicate

of most insects,

longhorn beetles, the

(hard jaws), maxillae

membranes supported

antennae of insects

contain hundreds of

young to fend for themselves. Some bugs and earwigs look

Parent

after their young offspring

bug with

and try to protect them.

young

(secondary jaws), and a

Wings Fhe wings of flying

by veins. Most insects

units, each with its

are used to sense the

labium (lower lip) for

have two pairs of

own lens. Tc^ether,

shape and texture of

sucking fluids. This

wings, and in beetles

the units make up

objects and to detect

lacewing has large

one pair is hard.

a composite image.

scents and tastes.

mandibles for biting.

Life cycles Different stages exist in

Complete metamorphosis

the life of an insect

Young butterflies, bees,

between hatching and

flies, and beetles are totally different from

2

A female

a larva, called

3

4

the

their parents. Eggs

undergo a dramatic

1

hatch into larvae. Later,

case a swallowtail

hatches out of the

change called complete

the larvae pupate, when

butterfly, lays an egj

egg and starts to

develops, moulting

into a chrysalis, or

transforms into an

metamorphosis. Other

their tissues reform into

on the leaf of a

feed on the plant

its skin several

pupa. It may secure

adult butterfly and

the shape of an adult.

suitable food plant.

immediately.

times as it does so.

itself to a plant.

adulthood. Some insects

insects start our as

. butterfly, in i this

a caterpillar,

The caterpillar grows and

At last it stops eating and turns

pupal cuticle, the insect

emerges.

wingless nymphs, then grow in steps, moulting their old cuticles before becoming mature adults. Incomplete metamorphosis Though It lives underwater after hatching, a young damselfly, or This adult

nymph, resembles the adult, which

damselfly is

flies. After several “steps”, the final nymph surfaces, breaks out of its

The cuticU splits

cuticle, and unfurls its new wings.

along the back.

458

The adult damselfly gradually breaks free.

Blood is pumped

The adult

about 4.5 cm

into the wings.

reaches its full size.

(1.75 in) long.

j

INSECTS

Habitats

Feeding

Insects abound in most of the world’s

Between them, insects eat virtually all types

wasps nest

of otganic matter. Few plants are safe from

habitats, even the seemingly

occupied deep czwMk In the

inhospitable. Though they reach their

attack bv larvae or adults, and insects play

greatest diversity in the humid tropics,

a major ecological role in breaking down

teeming numbers of them also exist

plant and animal remains. Some insects are

in grassland and woodland, both

specialist feeders, such as many weevils that

among the vegetation and

attack human foodstuffs; others, such as

hidden away under the soil.

cockroaches and bush crickets, eat anything.

Land and air are their true

hordes of cngers than beetles roaches, silt bac droppings floor.

Nectar feeders

domains, but some

The energy-rich nectar

species live in water for

of flowens lures pollinating insects

all or part of their life.

such as butterflies,

Nests

bees, flies, and beetles. As

Many insects make homes

they feed, the insects get

from objects in their heetle

dusted with pollen, which they transfer from flower to flower.

environment. The most accomplished builders are social insects such as wasps, bees, ants,

Hunters

and termites, which

Some in.sects are fierce

build communal

hunters. They have strong

nests. Wasp colonies

jaws for biting or piercing

create beautiful

their prey with poison-

“paper” nests of

filled probes. Some, such

chewed wood pulp.

as mantids, use stealth to snatch passing prey; others

Desem food and ^0 drs places B^Mcs special effort.

actively seek out and chase

The queen wasp

their victims.

egg at

warr m deserts and

the bottom of each cell

Mantid

Vnb beetles dig .^^'Ttjound shelters lanr larsae, which nipply with ampl< - balls of dung

5^3^^

grasps a fly

The small

with Its

entrance controls

front legs.

the temperature and humidity

trom camel or

Wood borers

droppings.

The larvae of insects such Caddis fly

as the furniture beetle

larva

gnaw tunnels through

^ater

timber. They need to eat a

* 'em- insects, such as diving beetles

large amount to get

jad Winter boatmen, spend all their

enough nourishment,

^

fresh water. Many more

because wood is very

there as nymphs or larvae.

indigestible.

Furniture beetle

Tzwling along the bottom

Parasites

« n plants. Caddis fly ^^'ae earn’ their

Parasitic insects eat the living tissue

. «enng of debris

and body fluids of larger animals.

^ protection

Snowfields

They live either on or in their host

JCatnsc enemies.

1 inv wingless insects live in the intense cold and harsh

or, as in this bloodsucking fly,

winds of mountain peaks. Grvloblattids live on minute

land on the skin to feed. As well as

As the ^ . overt ng i mtJe nf leaves ^ • r gether with silk.

fragments of food blown up on the ice from lower

damaging their host directly, they

it makes

altitudes. Anti-freezing substances in their bodv fluids

also pass on diseases such as

case longer.

stop them seizing up in the freezing conditions.

malaria and sleeping sickness.

larva grows

Piercing, sucking mthparts

Weta raises

Defence

its spiny leg.

Both adult insects and dieir young are food for a host of predators, including other insects, ,piders, lizards, birds, and nammals. They are not without their own means ■s defence and escape. Vime actively threaten or ..ounter attack the enemy; others are designed to

Mimicry

Camouflage

Threat

Some insects drive off enemies with

The hoverfly is one of a

A blend of shape and colour

Aggressive postures and

squirts of poison, blows, bites, or

number of insects that avoid

can make an insect

alarming noises can be enough

Attack

stings. Among the most formidable

attack because they look like

extremely difficult to spot in

to ward off enemies. The

weapons are the jaws of soldier ants

more aggressive species.

its natural habitat. Amid

wetas — large cricket-like

like this one from Venezuela.

Because of its similarity to a

dense foliage, the leaf insects

insects of New Zealand — raise

Squadrons of ants attack intruders

wasp, the hoverflv fools many

of tropical forests have

their spiny hindlegs and drop

and often fatally injure them.

predators into leaving it alone.

almost perfect camouflage.

them with a crackling sound.

.2\oid being detected in the first place.

FIND OUT

MORE

Animals

Camouflage AND COLOUR

Ecology and ECOSYSTEMS

Evolution

Flight, ANIMAl

Flowers

Nests and burrows

459

- Insects

. Long spiny jaws

wasps, ants,

Violin beetle

Bumblebee is essential to

lives between layers

plants for

of bracket fungi on

carrying pollen

Indonesian trees.

from one flower Darwins beetle

to another.

probably uses its jaws to

Thm

threaten

veined wings

^

Tarantula hawk Stag beetle

Antennae

wasp lays its

has large

eggs on spiders,

jaws that mav be used in

which it paralyses

battles with other males.

with a sting. Goliath beetle is one of the largest flying insects in the world. Driver ant is often called a “sausage flv’’.

Frog beetle is a species of leaf beetle, named for Its frog-like legs.

Longhorn beetle is

Elm bark beetle tunnels

Jointed leg

named for its long

in elm trees under the

divided

antennae. Its larvae tunnel

bark, and spreads Dutch

through all kinds of wood.

elm disease.

main parts.

Ladybird hibernates

Ground beetle

through the winter,

hunts and kills

often in a group

smaller insects

with ocher ladybirds.

for food.

Butterflies, moths, and flies Hoverfly can hover in the air almost motionless. It

Agaristine

looks like a wasp.

moth from Indonesia flies »

during the day.

Virgin tiger moth distasteful to preda

Jezebel butterfly flies in the mountainous areas of Indonesia.

Adonis blue is a European butterfly of grasslands.

Euchromiid moth from

Crane fly has very

Long '"tails'

Africa has a striped body,

long legs. Its larvae

seen in woods and thickets

distract

but is not as decorative

are sometimes known

in the Americas.

predators.

as some other moths

as “leatherjaekets’.

Ruddy daggerwing can be

Cricket uses its star-shaped feet for burying

Bugs and other insects

.

itself in sand.

Desert cricket picks up vibrations through “ears” on its front legs.

\

^

Assassin bug is a predator chat attacks live animals, such as millipedes. Thread lacewing Stick insect is almost invisible when keeping still on a twig.

460

has streamer-like hind Wings that trail behind it.

d

INTERIOR DESIGN sec FURNITURE • INTERNET sec INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

INVENTIONS An

invention

Early inventions The use of stone tools and weapons, such as bows and

is something created

arrows, in prehistoric times gave

by human effort that did not exist

people greater mastery over their

before. Most are useful to society or

environment. When they settled as farmers, the plough (c.3000

industry, and simplify the way things done. Inventions range from the simple, such

greatly improved crop production.

The wheel is probably the

Around the same time, the wheel

most important invention of

as the safety pin, to the complex, such as the

all time. Today wheels arc found in almost all machines. The first

television. An invention can come from the work

revolutionized transport. The alphabet (c. 1500

wheel was used by potters to help

of an individual or the work of a team. Human

shape clay in Mesopotamia, more

civilization is founded on a host of inventions,

were then fitted to carts,

BC)

was also

a milestone in civilization,

than 5,000 years ago. Wheels revolutionizing transport.

from the stone tools of prehistoric people to

becoming the basis of the written language. Handle ts

Model of

turned to

the robots of today.

Archimedes’

lift water.

Archimedes* screw

Making life easier

BC)

The wheel

screw Water moves up the tube.

In about 200 BC,

/

Greek scientist and

Most peoples lives have been

mathematician,

improved by inventions, particularly

Archimedes (c.287212 BC) invented a

during the 20th century. For example,

water-lifting machine

the development of computers has led to

incorporating a screw-like mechanism. This device is still used in

global communications via the Internet,

irrigation schemes in some countries, and is the

jet engines have provided a faster means

basis of drill bits and kitchen mixers.

of transport across the world, and the tractor has transformed agriculture. In the

Anode hole creates beam of The cathode

home, inventions such as the refrigerator

screen is coated

have made preserving food easier, while

with powder that

the microwave oven has proved

Home

glows when struck

invaluable to those with busy lifestyles.

Many inventions have improved life in

by cathode rays.

the home. For example, the invention

\Cathode

of electrical appliances provided cheap, clean lighting and the power to dev'ices which make cleaning, cooking, and washing easier. Less housework meant women could work outside the home

Science

for the first time.

Many scientific: iinventions provide the foundations of

Scanning coil sweeps

the technologically based

electron beams

society we live in today. For

across screen.

Industry

example, electronics took off

The steam engine and spinning jenny were

after the forerunner of the modern TV receiver tube,

rwo key inventions that set in motion the Industrial

the cathode-ray tube, was

Revolution in the 18th century. Factories improved their productivity following Henry Fords introduction

Electron guns emit beams

in 1913 of the moving assembly line. By the late

that strike red, green, and

medical inventions have

1960s, the development of the microprocessor

blue phosphorous on to

helped to improve diagnosis

u.shered in the modern electronics industry.

screen to give colour picture.

Todays flourishing cereal industry has its

Patents To prevent other people

Some people invent when there is

origins in the inventive mind of US (1852—1943), and the business

their inventions, inventors must register a patent. This

the saying “necessity is the mother

skills of his brother William

gives the inventor the sole

of invention’’. Others invent

Keith (1860-1951). lohn Harvey developed cereals

when they have a sudden flash

such as cornflakes as part

of inspiration, and to make money.

of a vegetarian diet for his patients. His brother founded the Kdlo^ company in 1906 to sell lohns inventions. W. K. Kellogg

copying and profiting by

a need for something, prompting

physician John Harvey Kellogg

HND OUT

and treatment.

Colour television tube

Inventors

Kellogg brothers

MORE

invented in 1892. Also,

right to make and sell the invention. The patent also details why the invention is new and original. Inventors

Today, more inventions are the

have to register patents in

result of organized research by a

as many countries as they

team, rather than by one person.

can afford. Patent for zip fastener

J. H. Kellogg

Edison, THOMAS

Electronics

Food and food INDUSTRY

Industrial revolution

Information technology

Medicine, HISTORY OF

Technology

Transport, hlstory of

461

I

Inventions Home and leisure

Volume control

The tea-maker, invented in 1904, was one of many gadgets that helped save time around the house.

This food mixer from 1918,

Wireless sets transformed entertainment in the 1930s

was driven by an electric motor. Key pad

f-i

Pop-up toasters were first

Electronic calculators

1950s television; the first

introduced in 1926. Ready-sliced

became popular across the

TV was invented by John

bread appeared in 1930.

world by the early 1970s.

Logie Baird in 1926.

Vacuum cleaner dating from

Ballpoint pen.

Personal stereos first

Compact discs were first

Computer games were

Hair dryers were first sold

the early 20th century.

invented in 1938.

went on sale in 1979.

launched in 1982.

played throughout the 1980s.

for personal use in 1920.

Pacemakers, invented in the

Audion valves, invented in

Lasers were developed in the 1960s

1960s, control heartbeats.

1906, amplified radio signals.

for a variety of electronic uses.

462

IRAN AND IRAQ A

REGION OF

Physical features

inhospitable,

rugged mountains and barren,

Mountains dominate the notth,

rocky desert, Iran and Iraq

west, and south of Iran and the east of Iraq. Much of the rest of

both lie within the area

the region is vast, uninhabited desert. Iran’s Caspian Sea

known as the Middle East in southwest Asia.

coast is green and fertile, and

Border disputes and rivalries between these

southern Iraq has marshland.

strongly Muslim countries resulted in a Elburx Mountains

damaging war between 1980 and 1988.

In northern Iran, the Fiburz Mountaim

As with many other Middle Eastern countries,

rise from the Caspian Sea. Wind.s blowing south from the Russian Federation bring

oil has brought great wealth to Iran and

rain to the northern slopes, which are

193 mm (8 in)

covered in forest and farmland. Sheltered

Iraq, enabling them to provide higher living

Regional climate

from the rain-bearing winds, the southern

standards for their people. However, Iraq has

Iran and Iraq have verv hot, drv summers,

side of the mountains is arid and infertile.

but winters are much colder and harsher

The highest point is Mount Damavand

suffered economic hardships as a result of the

in Iran than in Iraq. The regions annual

at 5,671 m (18.605 ft). Snow is common,

rainlall is low, and fresh water is scarce.

and there are ski resorts east of Tehran.

GulfWar (1990-91). Iranian plateau Closed in by the Zagros and Elburz Mountains to

Kurds

the west and north, Iran’s vast central plateau consists

There are about 25 million Kurdish

of two great deserts, the

people. They live in Kurdistan, a

Dasht^e Kavir and the

mountainous region that straddles

Dasht-e Lut. Lying at

the borders ol Turkey, Syria, Iraq,

about 900 m (2,950 ft)

and Iran. Their fight for self-

above sea-level, these

government has been put down

barren, rocky deserts arc

repeatedly with much bloodshed.

uninhabited because of the

Forced to leave Iraq after the Gulf

almost total lack of water.

War, many Kurds became refugees. Iranian Kurds cooking food

ARMEMA

.A2ERBAIJAN

AZERBAIli^-, ^

V Caspian Ictl'I IT

' ,

A

AlMaw^iil T ^

s

•,^rbil

‘>'>‘>3)

Kirkuk • As SulaymanAah

^

^

■

n Desert

% ^

•

■■

••

^

ii7 a i

Kara] *

.

TEHRAN

I

R .

-BakhtarrK

^

"S

s (. ,i

A a

N

Va-hl i Kai^

^

^.I'^hin

iv ^

'

» ^tSaghpad

Ar Ramadi'*

Vv

\

Karb.^a>..4millah

a‘^>

„ ,

„ Jf

Mesopotamia Most of Iraq’s water comes from the River

P I a t € a

AnNa,at ■ v 1 'AEivaz

''

An Naifirlvah

7 •Khorramshahi

Al Ba^rj,%

"Dacian T/i

'KUWAIT f

Euphrates,

•

A

2,753 km

\

■

Shira* *

^ .

(1,700 miles) long

#dhedan * .

Tigris, 1,830 km

A

' Bandar-e Bu'ibtb''*

’’-i •

'V

•Wwrib

^ ^

' -"Tni . Ban*idfr-''’j»hich commemorates the night when Muhammad received the Qur’an from the Angel Gabriel. The Night >t the Journey (Laylat al-Mi’raj) celebrates the night when Muhammad was taken up to heaven. The two most mportant festivals are Id al-Fitr and Id al-Adha. Id al'Adha

This festival takes place

Id al-Fitr

during the twelfth Muslim

The ninth month of the Islamic vear is

month, which is the

Ramadan, the month of fasting. The

pilgrimage month of Dhul-

end of Ramadan is celebrated by Id al-

Hijjah. It marks the sacrifice

Fitr. This festival begins with a light

of Abraham, who was

meal and a meeting at the mosque for

Islamic sects called Sufi rhar

prepared to sacrifice his son

prayers, at which thanks arc given for

developed during the 12th century.

Whirling dervishes Dervishes are members of mystical

a successful fast. After prayers there are

There are various orders of

minute God told him to give

parties, at which people eat special

dervishes, but they are best known

a ram instead. Muslims

cakes and sweets, and exchange

for a praver ritual in which they

Isaac to God, but at the last

traditionally sacrifice a sheep

presents and cards. Before the festival,

perform an ecstatic whirling dance,

or goat and give one-third of

people give money to the poor so that

aiming to induce a trance and a

the meat to the poor.

everyone can join in the celebrations.

direct experience of God.

Daily life l Jam affects the whole of a Muslim’s life — riervday conduct, art, ethics, laws, and ::,.>vernment. The Qur’an gives guidelines for .ifl aspects of life and stresses the importance .

the family. Family members are expected

VO care for one another, and the elderly are

Verses from the Qur'an^

regarded as head of the family. Marriages are wiually arranged. It is traditional for women VO stay at home to look after the house, but .ncreasingly Muslim women go out to work, '-'.omen often cover their head out of doors.

Education

Halal food

Islamic fundamentalists at a protest in Iran, carrying posters of Ayatollah ' Khomeini.

According to the Qur'an, food that Muslims are

Every Muslim must understand the text of

allowed to eat is called halal. Products which

the Qur’an because irs teachings are pan of

come from animals that eat other animals are

everyday life. Education is therefore very

forbidden, as is meat from pigs. Other meats are

important in Islam. Mosques traditionally

halal, when they are slaughtered correctly. All

contain a school where pupils learn to read

fish, fruit, grains, and vegetables are halal too.

the Qur’an in its original Arabic.

Branches of Islam

This Shi'ah standard... bears the names of

Islam has two main branches: Sunni and Shi’ah.

C

God, Muhammad,

After the death of Muhammad, his followers chose

and Ali.

Abu Bakr as their leader. Umar, Uthman, and Ali (Muhammad’s son-in-law) were chosen in turn after

Abu Bakr. But one group of Muslims thought they

Sunni and Shi’ah Sunnis make up the larger of

should be led by Muhammad’s descendants.

the two groups of Muslims.

They broke away, choosing the

Their name derives from an

^

Arabic word meaning “authority".

descendants of Ali as leaders. This break-away group is known as

The Shi’ah Muslims, who make up about 10 per cent of the Islamic

the Shi’ahs, and the group that

Islamic fundamentalism

remained are Sunni Muslims.

' 'me Muslims have turned their backs on the ^ueiice of modern western society in favour of iditional Islamic values. They are known as

^

amic fundamentalists.

FIND OUT

MORE

Crusades

The crescent is associated with special acts of devotion to God.

Festivals

population, live mainly in Iran and Iraq. Their leaders are known as ayatollahs. The two groups have

Holy land, HISTORY OF

Islamic EMPIRE

Mosques

Muhammad

separate theologies, legal systems, and wavs of performing their rituals.

Ottoman EMPIRL

Religions

Signs and symbols

Writing

469

ISLAMIC EMPIRE In the 8th century, Arabian conquerors ruled a massive empire that stretched from Spain to Chinas borders. The Arab rulers had a mission to spread Islam, a religion whose powerful message was of equality, and whose followers are called Muslims. Under Muslim rule, people from many different lands worshipped one God, used a common tongue, and had one holy book. It was a time of great wealth and learning: palaces, mosques, and universities were built in superb Islamic cities, and within them knowledge was pursued by the world s best scientists.

Spread of the empire, c.750 rhe Arab conquest was speedv. Within a century of Muhammad’s death, Arabs had defeated the Persian and much of the Bvzaiitine empires. There were many converts to Islam, but the conquerors also tolerated other religions.

Early dynasties

Capital cities

Damascus

Religious leaders, known as caliphs, ruled the

Muslim cities always have a central

built Baghdad, the Islamic

empire. During the reign of the foutth caliph,

mosque and bazaars (covered

capital was at the ancient city of

Before the Abbasid dynasty

two rival branches of Islam formed - the

markets). The first Muslim capital

Sunni and Shi’ah. After the Umayyad and

was Mecca, Muhammad’s birth-

Abbasid (Sunni) dynasties fell, the Fatimid

place and Islam’s holiest city.

(Shi’ah) dynasty took over, and used separate

In 752, the Abbasids

local rulers to keep order. This ended the idea

founded Baghdad,

of one supreme caliph ruling a single empire.

which, within

Damascus. The Umavyads built a Great Mosque in marble, and decorated it with mosaics.

50 yeats, had

Umayyads and Abbasids

become the

The aristocratic Umayyad caliphs had a luxurious lifestyle. The Abbasid dynasty resented this, and eventually seized

lai^est city

power. Their best-known caliph, Harun al-Rashid (766-

in the world.

809), featured in the famous A Thousand and One Nights. Royal escape, A Thousand and One Nights, 1898 edition

Umayyad mosque, Damascus

Science

Medicine

Astronomers hung their astrolabes

Islamic science brought together many

Greek theories, bur also formulated many of

branches of knowledge. At the college in

their own. They knew, for example, long

from their belts.

Islamic doctors absorbed and followed ancient

before Europeans, that blood circulates around

Baghdad, scholars translated books from

the bodv. They stressed the importance of a

ancient Greece, Persia, and India into

Star map and zodiacal

healthv diet, and understood the healing power of herbs and plants.

Arabic. Scientists observed and

circle

measured the natural world. Mathematicians invented algebra

Ibn Sina

(from the Arabic al-jabr). and

TEe Islamic Empire’s greatest Coriander

the Arabic system of numbers

philosopher and scientist, Ibn Sina (980-1037), was born in

is used worldwide todav.

Bukhara in modem Uzbekistan. He was an exceptionally good

Astronomy

doctor who was known to

Muslims led the world in

Europeans as Avicenna. His

astronomv — they built many

Canon of Medicine is one of

observatories and perfeaed the

the most famous books in

use of the astrolabe. Arabian

medical histoiy'.

nomads used the stars to navigate through the desert.

Timeline

661-750 Umayyad

711-721 Muslifns

632 Muhammad dies.

caliphate (dynasty)

conquer Spain.

Four of his close

rules. They make

companions succeed

Damascus their

him in turn as caliph. AUdade pointer) is

FIND OUT

470

* Circumference is marked off in degrees.

Architecture

Asia, HISTORY OF

Fatimid dvnasr\’

732 Muslim ,

Muslim territories split

advance turned

up and are ruled under

back in France.

separate leaders for the first time.

670-708

at the centre.

MORE

new capital.

909 The (Shi’ah) captures North Africa.

Islamic Empire begins.

(movable

Persian astrolabe

Canon of Medicine, 1400s

Cardamom

634—650 Muslims

Muslims attack

750-880 The

conquer Middle East.

and then

Abbasid dynasty

650 Qur’an is written.

Empires

Islam

1055 Seljuk Turks

conquer

rules the Islamic

begin to control the

N6rth Africa.

empire.

Islamic Empire.

Medicine, HISTORY OF

Muhammad

Persian EMPIRE

Safavid EMPIRE

Science, HISTORY OF

ISLANDS

How a coral island forms Coral polyps are tiny sea creatures that live in colonies in tropical oceans. A coral

Dotted over the oceans of the world

reef is an underwater ridge formed from the

are millions of islands. Some islands are no bigger than rocks, but others are vast land masses — Greenland, for example, covers 2.2 million square kilometres (0.85 million square miles). An island is an area of land smaller than a continent that is surrounded by water. Islands may be created when the sea rises or the land sinks, drowning valleys to leave only the highest ground above sea level. Islands may also form when ocean-floor volcanoes, built up by the lava from successive eruptions, emerge above water.

remains of dead coral. A reef may form around the exposed summit of an underwater volcano. If the volcano sinks, it mav leave behind a ring-shaped island called an atoll.

I

Over time, volcanic eruptions may build an ocean-floor volcano up so high that its summit

emerges above the surface of the water, forming an island. In warm tropical waters, a fringing reef of coral may begin to grow along the shoreline. Volcano summit Coral grows in Layers of lava and ash

shallow waters on ilopcs of

Shoreline

, volcano.

Only tip of volcano is visible.. Reef-top becomes colonized by vegetation.

4

t.ventually, the volcanos

summit is completely submerged, leaving only the coral reef The reef b^ins to form a ring-shaped island called an atoll as it is covered first by sand and then by vegetation.

I Eventually, the

3

movement of the ocean floor may cause the

The volcano goes on sinking, and the

volcano to begin to sink, widening the

coral continues to grow. As the lagoon expands even more, small outcrops of new

Only the very top of the reef

1 between the shore and the reef. At the same time as the volcano’s summit is sinking, the coral

coral appear within the lagoon. In places where

Growing reef stays above the

is living coral; the rest is

the coral is growing particularly rapidly, the

water as the volcano sinks.

made up of coral skeletons.

reef continues rising as new, young coral grows on top of the skeletons of old, dead coral.

tops of the reef begin to drv out.

Volcanic islands

Drowned lands

The Hawaiian Islands are a chain of

Many large islands form when

Eyot Where a large river flows over broad, flat flood plains, the river channel may split up into several smaller channels. If

volcanoes formed above a “hot spot” —

the movement of the Earth’s crust

that is, a place where hot, molten rock

causes the land to sink. This is

burns through the Earth’s crust. The

how Britain became an island,

sediment as sand bars or mudbanks

Hawaiian chain is slowly growing

and how the Isle of Wight was

between the channels. Small islands

longer as the movement of the ocean

separated from mainland Britain.

the river carries a lot of sediment, such as sand or mud, it mav deposit the

called eyots (or aits) form as the sand bars and mudbanks dry out.

floor shifts each volcano along, and a Eyot in the River Seine, France

new volcano erupts over the hot spot.

Satellite image of Isle of Wight, Britain

Island arcs

Archipelago

Where two pieces, or plates, of the

Sea levels rise locallv as land sinks, or

Earth’s crust collide,

globallv as an era of warmer climates

molten rock escapes

melts the polar ice caps and increases

and creates a long

the amount of water in the oceans.

arc of volcanic

When this happens, low-lying coastal

islands. Java, Bali,

lands are drowned. A new coastline i.s

the Philippines, and

formed, fringed with tiny islands that are the summits of former hills and

Japan are all part of

mountains. These island clusters are

the same giant Cyclades Islands form an archipelago

island arc. The islands of Java and Bali

FIND OUT

MORE

Coasts

Continents

Corai REEFS

Earth

Island WILDLIFE

Ocean FLOOR

known as archipelagos.

Rocks and MINERALS

Volcanoes

471

ISLAND WILDLIFE r

Islands

Isolated locations

i

and the lack of large ^ predators, competitors, and disease has allowed the evolution of a unique range of wildlife on many islands. Island habitats vary greatly, from the ice and rock of Greenland to the tropical rainforests of Borneo. Island floras and faunas are fragile ecosystems, easily upset by foreign invaders and m freak weather conditions. Some islands possess unique species found nowhere else (endemics); other remote islands are inhabited by species from otherwise extinct groups (relicts).

Continental islands, such as Borneo, became sepatated from latger land masses. Theit wildlife is similar to that of the mainland. Oceanic islands, such as Fiji, are more remote and are either coral reefs or volcanic

Colonization

in origin. Their flora and fauna are often very

In 1883, a volcanic eruption destroyed

varied. Sulawesi, for example, has wildlife of

all life on the island of Krakatoa. Since

Asian and Australasian origin, as well as an

then the process of recolonization - the

animal unique to the island — the babirusa.

establishment of plants and animals in a new environment — has been studied. Colonizers crossed 40 km (25 miles) of water. First came ferns and a^ae. Then after 40 years there were forests, 29 bird species, two geckos, one python, one monitor lizard, insects, bats, and rats.

Dense vegetation cover provides homes for many animals.

Mammals Large carnivorous mammals are found only on large

~ Moorea,

islands that have a large population of prey. Many

French Polynesia

isolated islands have large herbivorous mammals, that are often unique to that island. Madagascar IS home to lemurs, such as the aye-aye, that live nowhere else in the world, and the anoa

'

dwarf cow lives only on Sulawesi. On very remote islands bars are often the only

^

mammals, because they arrived by flying.

to get bu^ out of bark.

Plants

Seeds are spear-

The fertile volcanic soil

in ground where

shaped and stick

of oceanic islands provides ideal Aye-aye

they Land.

growing conditions for plants.

Red mangrove

Some plants, such as coconut palms, are widely distribured around many

Reptiles

islands, others are unique to specific

Most reptiles are good swimmers

islands. For example,

and easily colonize close islands or

the Canaries are

I i

♦

Colonizing seeds Seeds reach remote islands carried on wind or water currents, and on the feet, or in the guts, of birds. The coconut has a tough

float on driftwood to more distant

home to 500 species

ones. Fijian iguanas are related to

of endemic plants,

those in America; their ancestors

including ancient

Giants and dwarves

are believed to have rafted on

dragon trees;

Different conditions on islands

vegetation across the Pacific.

Madagascar has

compared with the mainland can

Tuataras live on islands off the

seven species ot

tortoises grow large because of

New Zealand coast; they resemble

baobab tree,

the lack of large predators in the

lizards, but they are actually relicts

whereas the African

plant and are ready to

Galapagos Islands. On Chappell

from the far distant past. Relicts are

mainland has only one.

take root where they land.

affect the size of animals. Giant

Island, near Australia, black tiger snakes also grow larger than

I

outer shell which protects the inner kernel during long ocean journeys. The first plant to become established on oceanic islands is often the red mangrove. Its seeds start to germinate before they drop from the parent

ancient animals that survive on

normal. They feed on mutton bird

isolated islands long after their

chicks that exist for a brief period

relatives are extinct elsewhere.

only. The snakes get big as they

Birds

Invertebrates

Many islands are rich in

Invertebrates have colonized

eat many chicks at once to build

many islands.

Larg.

bird life because flight

claws used

enables birds to colonize

up reserves for the rest of the

They arrived

to climb

islands easily. Strong fliers,

year. Island dwarves also

by rafting on

palms

such as frigate birds, are

exist where food or

often the first birds to

vegetation,

and sever

other resources

by flying, or

coconuts.

are limited.

by being carried

arrive. But with no natural predators, many island birds, such as the New

on the wind. Larger species such as the Pacific

FIND OUT

MORE 472

Continents

Robber crab

Guinea cassowary, became

robber crab cannot migrate.

flightless. Introduced species

However, its larvae hatch from eggs laid

pose a threat to these birds which lack a

in the sea and drift on the ocean currents

means of defence or escape. For example,

to colonize islands thousands of miles awav.

feral dogs often kill New Zealand kiwis.

Crabs and other

Flightless

Fruits

CRUSTACEANS

BIRDS

AND SEEDS

Islands

Monkeys and OTHER PRIMATES

Pigs and PECCARIES

Reptiles

ISMAIL 1 sec SAFAVID EMPIRE • ISO I OPES sec AJ OMS AND MOLECUl ES

ISRAEL

[SRAEL FACTS Capital city Jerusalem

lying between the River Jordan and the Mediterranean Sea. Although it is a new nation, founded in 1948 as a homeland for the world s Jews, Israel is also a very old country. Previously called Palestine, it was a home for Arabs for about 1,400 years, before which it was a Jewish land for about 1,700 years. Since 1948, Israel has fought several wars with its Arab neighbours. Despite peace talks begun in 1993, relations in Israel are still very tense between Jews and Palestinians with renewed outbursts of war. Israel is a long, narrow country,

E

C Qir> Shemoi

SYRIA

LEBANO Naharivva •

rniifK,Hi’ights

■

,

Netany

Tel

Herzliyy. D Aviv-Yafo

Ashqeloi^?

Gaza

Vdi le literacy 96%

of Sharon runs along the coast, while inland, parallel to the

i

the west and desert to the east. Negev Desert In Hebrew', the word Negev means “arid land”. Like manv other deserts, the Negev is not completely lacking in life. Much of it is covered bv scrub; when rain comes, it springs into life with a carper of wild flowers. Large areas are now being irrigated for farming.

!■

TiqW,

’

i

Dead Sea The Dead Sea lies between

,.^cho

Israel and its eastern neighbour, Jordan. It is a va.st lake 74 km (46 miles)

Bet Shemm^f

long and I6 km (10 miles) #

^ f QirsatG^t

'Dead

wide. At 400 m (1,300 ft)

•

below sea-level, it is also

Gcjzn ^frh

Be‘er ^e\ c

Holot-

Goxtrnmfnt Multi-party democracy

the Negev Desert to Elat on

^^S’to

•

beautiful beaches, and ancient ruins attract increasing numbers of visitors each year.

42°c

point is Mount Como

Climate

at 2,914 m (9.560 ft).

Southern Italy has hot.

-irc (13^F) 7°C (4‘i°F)

657 mm (26 in)

winters. In the north,

H

^ ^

25'^C (77°F)

dry summers and mild

.iA^lP^gia \

Crc

A

(W8°F)

countty. The highest

Ancona ^

j^eU. dTf*

Extending for about 1,400 km (860 miles) from northwest to southwest Italy and mountains form the backbone of the

i^ARINO

Livorno’

sources of income. Sicily’s warm climate,

across the sea into Sicily, the Apcnnine

Rin'ini ^

'■

Apennines

the summers are cooler, especially in the hills and mountains, Piceno miiJt m

2912

and the winters colder and wetter. The Po Valley tends to be foggy in winter, and snow covers the Alps. The Adriatic coast

j^C^’escara

sufiers from strong, cold winds, such as the bora.

Barren >Ibia

Liolta ai Go- ■

Alghe

Napl A /so/n iI'I-sTliifl* Sorrenb Isola ill Cfipi

Sardinia * .rbatex

5 cultivated or used as pasture for grazing sheep

Tyrrhenian

Iglesi Ci'^ic

on grassy mountain slopes. The most fertile area is the broad, flat Po Valiev in the north of the country. Italy has very few

Sea

mineral resources and imports most of its oil products

Mediterranean Sea

Rome

Trapar" •J’alermo ,.olc *- . Eytrtti ^ ^ s Mars‘1,1 jtf^ f

Founded about 2,500 years ago on seven hills near the River Tiber (Tevere), Rome is one of the finest cities in the

Call •.ris^rta*'' Agrigent^^^

world. Tourists flock to enjov the ancient Roman ruins that sit alongside modern offices,

Ragi,

lashionable shops, and

hole Pelagic (Italy) Lampion^ ,

Mediterranean

Renaissance palaces, all of which are parr of daily life for

Gozo-^VALLETTA

MALTA

the three million inhabitants. Rome is also the home of Italy’s democratic government

Piazza di Spagna

475

ITALY

People

Leisure

Most Italians are Roman

Italy’s three great

Catholics. Italy has few

passions are football, fast

villages celebrate

ethnic minorities and few

cars, and opera. Italians

carnevale, a festival

racial tensions, but there is

also enjoy skiing,

dress in bright

conflict between the wealthy

sailing, and volley¬

costumes and wear

Carnevale Every spring most Italian towns and

in which people

north and poorer south.

ball. Horse-racing is a

In the 19S0s and 1960s, a

popular spectator sport.

masks. The most famous carnevale is held in Venice.

weak economy forced many Italians to find work abroad.

La passeggiata In the earlv evening manv Italians like to take a stroll - passeggiata — in

Family life

the square, or piazza, or through the streets, talking

Most Italians live at home before marriage, and life revolves around the extended familv.

to friends and stopping for

195 per sq km

67%

33%

Several generations ofren live close together,

a cup of coffee or a glass

(905 per sq mile)

Urban

Rural

able to help each other and share

of wine. Covered footpaths called colonnades make

childcare and meals.

a stroll possible even if

Industry

Colosseum, Rome

Italy has few natural

the weather is bad.

resources, but its skilled

Farming

work-force transforms

Italy’s countryside is dotted

imported raw materials

with small family-run farms

into sophisticated

producing a variety of ctops,

Food and drink The two tradirional Italian foods are pizza, with a variety of toppings, and pasta, a type of dough made with flour and water and ser\ed

manufactured goods.

such as cereals, fruit, vegetables,

Major exports include cars,

and vines. Italy is a leading

In the north, where rice and maize

electronic and electrical

producer of olives and olive oil,

are grown, people also eat a rice dish

goods, clothing, shoes, and

with a sauce, often as a first course.

called risotto, and polenta, a savour)'

as well as oranges and lemons.

maize porridge. Meals are eaten with

textiles. Italy is famous for

wine or, in the north, beer.

Tourism

the style and innovation

Italy’s magnificent towns, varied and

of its product design.

scenic countrvside, ancient Roman ruins, buildings, paintings, and sculptures lure millions of tourists each year. Tourism plavs a vital role in the country’s economy.

Design The Italians’ flair for design is particularly obvious in their cars and clothes. The Italy is the world’s largest wine producer.

fashion houses of Milan, Rome, and Florence rival those of Paris, and designer names such as

Shoes made

Grapes grow everywhere, but the best wine,

Benetton, Gucci, and Armani are world famous.

by Gucci

Italian clothes and shoes are widely exported.

Vatican City State

such as Chianti, comes from the north.

Mozzarella

Sicily produces Marsala, a dessert wine.

cheese

^

Pizza napoletana

Malta

San Marino

The Varican City in the centre

Perched in the northern Apennines,

Lving midway between Europe and

of Rome is the world’s smallest

San Marino was founded in the

Africa, the islands of the Maltese I archipelago were ruled by foreign powers

independent state. It is the world centre of

4th century

the Roman Catholic religion, and the Pope

republic. Each year San Marino has a

until independence in 1964. The main

is the head of state.

famous Grand Prix.

income is tourism.

,\D

and is the world’s oldest

Vatican City

San Marino

State facts

FACTS

Malta facts

Capital city None

Capital city

Capital city Valletta

San Marino

city state Area 0.44 sq km

Area 6l sq km

(O.P sq miles)

(24 sq miles)

Population

St. Peter’s Basilica

Italian, Latin

Over 50,000 people can worship in St. Peter’s,

Major religion

which is the largest and most important Chri.stian church in the world.

FIND OUT

MORE 476

Christian Currency Euro

Christianity

Design

(124 sq miles) Population 389.000

Population 26,900

1,000

Main languages

Area 320 sq km

Main language

Tourism San Marino’s main source of income comes from the two-and-a-half million tourists who visit the country each vear.

Europe

Europe, HISTORY OF

Italian Major religion Christian Currency Euro

European UNION

Farming

Main languages

Grand Harbour Valletta's Grand Harbour is a busv modern port. It developed due to its position on the trade route

Maltese, English Major religion Christian Currency Maltese lira

between Africa and Europe.

Festivals

Italy, HISTORY OF

Roman EMPIRE

Volcanoes

ITALY,

End of the Roman empire

HISTORY OF

In the 5th century, Germanic tribes overran the Roman empire. Italy was taken over by the Ostrogoths, many of

whom soon converted to Christianity of the great Roman empire, and adopted Roman customs. Italy has been disunited and divided for most Mausoleum of Theodoric, Ostrogoth of its history. Most of the Italian cities were ruler of 6th-centurv Italv, Ravenna independent of each other, and foreign powers ruled large parts of the country. Some of the Italian city states cities, such as Venice, Florence, and Bologna, became while other European countries, such as Spain and France, powerful in their own right. Because of their wealth, were gradually united during the 14th and 15th centuries, Spanish, German, and French Italy remained a patchwork of small warring states. The south of the country was ruled by Spain, the centre by armies fought for control of the Pope in Rome, and the north consisted of various Italy’s great cities for centuries. rich republics and monarchies. It was not until 1861 that Venice Medici family Italy became a single, united This family took over This coastal cir>' made its wealth from seaborne trade. the Republic of Florence country, free of foreign control. Its galleys carried much of the in 1434 and ruled it Today, Italy is at the forefront eastern Mediterranean trade, for almost 300 years. Florence became one of while* its merchants traded as of the European Union. Europe’s richest cities, for afield as China.

Once the centre

and the Medici family Ruler’s palace, Venice

grew very powerful.

United Italy

Garibaldi

In 1860—61, the previously disunited states of

Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807—82) sailed

Italy came together to form a united country

from Genoa with 1,000 volunteer sol¬

under King Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont.

diers called red shirts. His plan was to

In Mav 1860, the Italian patriot CToscany Papal Rome *

overthrow the kingdom of Naples and

In 1866, the Austrians were thrown out of

States

Sicily, and to unite it with the rest of

Venice, and in 1870 the Pope lost control

Kingd,oni^f

Italv. He then tried to invade Rome, but was prevented from entering the

of his lands around Rome. For the first time

city. He is remembered as one of

in centuries, Italy was free of foreign control.

the Two

the founders of modern Italy.

Sicilies

Cavour Count Cavour (1810—6l), prime minister of Piedinonr from

United 1870

Modern Italy

1852, was a strong believer in Italian unification. Through

United 1860 Unification of Italy

clever diplomacy, he overcame all the potential enemies of

In 1946, Italy voted to become a republic. Despite frequent

unification, and proclaimed a united Italy in March I86l.

changes in government and a weak political leadership, Italy has become one of the leading industrial powers in Europe. The country Is a world leader in fashion and design, producing

Fascism

a range of high-quality goods from household items to sports

In 1922, Benito Mussolini became

Community — now known as the European Union — by

cars. In 1957, Italy helped establish the European Economic organizing the Treaty of Rome. Italv remains a prominent

prime minister of Italy. He was leader

member of the Union.

of the Fascist Party, an anti-socialist Ferrari sports
o fishes were all that Jesus had to feed the five

In order to get his message understood, Jesus often used parables, or stories with a meaning. One of the most famous was the

ud.

parable of the sower, in which Jesus compared his words to the seeds cast by a man sowing corn. Some seed falls on stony ground and withers awav; some falls on good soil, where it flourishes.

Jesus’ work

Apostles

For three years, Jesus preached his message in Palestine. He gathered 12

Seed loas

The 12 apostles ol Jesus were

sowed by

local men who did ordinary jobs,

throwing it

such as fishing and farming.

to the

Miracles

local men to support him; they became

land.

According to the

known as the Apostles, from a Greek

Bible, Jesus used miracles

word meaning a person sent or chosen.

to prove that he could conquer adversity

Jesus declared the need for people to

and suffering. On one famous occasion,

repent of their sins and to believe and

he IS said to have provided enough food for a gathering of 5,000 people, although

follow him. Within three years, his

onlv a few loaves and fishes were available. Sowers bag

preaching, and his ability to heal the sick,

and seed

brought him a considerable following throughout Palestine. His wider group of followers became known as disciples.

John the Baptist

Sermon on the Mount

At the time of Jesus’ birth,

Throughout his minism', Jesus

many Jews, including John

preached sermons to his

the Baptist, Jesus’ cousin,

disciples and the manv people

were expecting the coming

who followed him. The most

of the Messiah. John

famous was the Sermon on the

prepared the way for Jesus,

Mount, in which Jesus

prophesying his coming

summed up the main beliefs of

and baptizing him in the

the Christian religion and told

River Jordan.

his followers how people should lead their lives.

Mary Magdalene

Death

Jesus Christ C.4 BC Born to poor parents in

Mary was one of the most famous of Christs followers.

After three years preaching, Jesus was arrested by

Jesus cured her of “demons”

the Roman authorities who governed Palestine at

(probably a physical illness),

that time. He was tried by the Roman governor

and she accompanied him and helped him in (lalilec. Mary

Bethlehem. C.AD 30 Begins ministry, preaching and healing the sick.

Pontius Pilate, tortured, and crucified. 33 Arrested, tried, and crucified by

witnessed Christ’s crucifixion

Roman authorities in Jerusalem.

and burial. Three days later, • 33 St Paul and other followers of

Christ appeared to Mary, and

Jesus begin to spread the

told her that he was ascending to heaven.

Crucifixion

Christian message; Christians

Jesus was put to death

are persecuted in the Roman

by crucifixion — being nailed to a wooden

Last Supper

cross — a common form

Just before he was arrested, Jesus ate supper with his disciples. He

ol punishment in the

broke bread and drank wine with them, asking them to remember

Roman Empire. His

him and to continue his work. Christians still celebrate the Last Supper in the ceremony of the Mass, or Eucharist, when they share

three days later he rose

bread and wine, believing it to represent Jesus' body and blood.

from the dead.

FIND OUT

MORE 484

followers believe that

Christianity

Churches and CATHEDRALS

Monasteries

Empire. 65-75 St Mark writes his Gospel, the earliest surviving record of the life of Jesus. 313 Christianity receives official tolerance in the Roman Empire.

Religions

Roman empire

JOAN OF ARC see HUNDRED YEARS WAR • JOBS, STEVE see COMPUTERS • JOHN THE BAPTIST see JESUS CHRIST

JOHNSON,

Early life

AMY

Amy Johnson was horn in 1903 in the English port of Hull, where her parents

One of the great pioneers of aviation, Amy Johnson showed that women could succeed in a man’s world. When she learned to fly in June 1929, Amy Johnson became one of the world’s first women pilots. Her flying instructor said she would only be taken seriously as a pilot if she did something remarkable, like fly to Australia. And so, in April 1930, she took off on a 19-day flight half-way round the world. In spite of bad weather, breakdowns, and crash landings, she arrived in Australia. She also landed in the record books: for this and other flights she is remembered as one of the great aviators.

worked in the fishing industry. She went to university and then took a secretarial course. But she did not want one of the office jobs that were open to women in the 1920s.

Learning to fly Johnson overc'ame a great deal of prejudice to learn to fly. Flying was a male occupation and there were few flying clubs that accepted women. But she persevered, and first flew solo in June 1929. At the end of the year, she had gained an aeronautical engineers licence.

Equipment

Flight to Australia

As a solo pilot, Johnst had to take equipment

Amy Johnson covered the 16,000 km

to cover every

from London to Australia in 19 days,

eventuality. She took a flying suit and

landing in Darwin on 24 April 1930. On

helmet, but wore

the way she coped with jungle landings,

khaki shorts for

sandstorms, and damage to the aircraft.

most of the flight. To defend herself, she took a gun. Her first-aid kit doubled as a repair kit for the aircraft!

Gypsy Moth The aeroplane Johnson chose for her flight was a second-hand Gypsy Moth, one of the most

Landing at Darwin

popular small aircraft of the day.

When Johnson took off

She had it fitted with extra-

from London’s Croydon

Johnsons plan was to avoid flying over open sea,

large fuel tanks for long¬

Airport she was unknown

where her chances of survival would be much less

distance flying. Its canvas

if she crashed. She therefore flew southeast over

wings got damaged en

newspapers and radio

mainland Europe and Asia before turning south

route and she mended

began to report on her

them with sticking plaster.

epic flight. By the time she

to fly down the Malay peninsula and hop from

As her flight progressed,

clirtibed down from her

island to island along Indonesia. The final stretch of the flight was the most hazardous, because it involved flying across the exposed Timor Sea.

plane in Darwin, she was

Overnight bag containing

an international heroine.

first-aid and repair equipment

Later life

Amy Johnson

The great flight made Amy

1903 Born in Hull. England.

Johnson world-famous.

1929 Learns to fly at the London Aeroplane Club; makes first solo

The British Daily Mail

flight and gains engineers licence.

newspaper gave her

1230 First woman to fly solo from

£10,000 to go on a

England to Australia.

publicity tour, and she

1933 Flies east to west across the Atlantic with James Mollison.

made many speeches and

Marriage

media appearances around

Johnson married a fellow pilot, James

the world. Songs were

Mollison, and this seemed an ideal

Disappearance

match. They made several long-distance

In 1940, Amy Johnson began work flying planes

written about her and her

1936 Sets new record on return flight from Cape Town to London.

flights together. But the couple were

from factories in Scotland to air force bases in the

amazing flight. However,

not suited. Their marriage soon broke

south of England. In January 1941, a plane she was

Johnson found all this

up and Johnson went back to her solo

piloting from Prestwick, near Glasgow, crashed into

flying career.

the Thames Estuary. Her body was never found.

publicity very strenuous

1940 loins war effort, piloting planes from factories to air force bases. 1941 Dies when plane crashes in Thames Estuary.

and suffered a nervous breakdown as a result.

FIND OUT

MORE

Aircraft

Airports

Exploration

Flight, history of

Women’s MOVEMENT

World war ii

485

JONES, CHUCK sre CARTOONS AND ANIMATION • JORDAN see SYRIA AND JORDAN • JOULE, JAMES see ENERGY

Orig:;ins

JUDAISM

The ancient leaders Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were the first to worship one true God, and are

B1

to teach belief in one God, Judaism emerged in about the 13th century BG. Its followers are ▼ called Jews. At the core of Judaism is the Torah, the sacred text that God, or Yahweh, revealed to the prophet Moses and the ancient Israelites. Because they were chosen to receive this revelation, the Jews look upon themselves as Gods chosen people, with the responsibility of bringing God’s message to the rest of humanity. Jews also look forward to the time when God will send his Messiah, who will usher in an age when all Jews will be united in Israel and God’s rule on Earth will begin. The first of the great world religions

the founding fathers of Judaism. The Bible tells how their descendants, the Israelites, were conquered by the Egyptians and made to work as slaves in Egypt. Moses led the Israelites to freedom, and received the Torah, or written law, from God.

The Ten Commandments On Mount Sinai, God gave Moses the Ten Commandments. This is celebrated todav in the festival of Shavuot (Pentecost), when the story of Moses is read in the synagogue and Jews stav up at night reading the Torah, to show they are readv to receive the word of God again.

Jews around the world

Jerusalem, the capital of

Today, there are some 14.5 million

ancient Jewish kingdom.

Israel, mas the centre of the

Jews worldwide. Most can trace their ancestry to one of two main ethnic Branches of Judaism Orthodox Jews follow closely

groups. Ashkenazi Jews have their origin

the traditional Jewish way of

in central and eastern

life. They include groups such

Europe. Their traditional

as Hasidic Jews (above), who wear traditional clothes and

Israel

everyday language is Yiddish.

The Jews have a long history of living in

study only religious subieas.

The majority of Jews in the

many different countries and suffering

Non-Orthodox, or

USA are Ashkenazi Jews. The

persecution. In 1948, the modern state of

Progressive, Jews have become part of wider society and

Israel was established as a permanent

other group is the Sephardic

adopted western dress, while

Jews, who came originally from

still observing lewish law.

Spain and Portugal.

homeland. Supporters of Israel, who are Shading shows worldwide distribution of Jews.

known as Zionists, hoped that Jews would

Judaism is the sixth largest world religion.

be able to live and worship there peacefully.

. Embroidered mantle

Sacred texts

The scrolls of the Torah

The Jewish Bible is called the

The Hebrew text

Tenakh. It contains 24 books,

ipied out by hand.

written by different authors, which were collected together in the 10th century. The first

€

five books make up the Torah. There are also books

-

of the Prophets and texts such as the Psalms and the Proverbs. A body of writing containing teachings, commentaries on the Bible, and learned debates is A special pointer is

called the Talmud.

used to touch the sacred text.

The ark of the covenant Guidance of God

The Torah scrolls are kepi in rhe

The Torah

ark of the covenant. This is a

This collection of books is at the core

In the Torah, God has revealed teaching

cabinet thar sits behind a curtain

of Judaism. It contains a series of 613

about himself, his purposes, and how he

in the synagogue wall that faces

commandments which are God’s

wishes his people to obey him in every

instructions to the people of Israel.

part of their lives. An important part of

For religious Jews, these instructions

worship is reading the Torah aloud in the

are binding. The Torah scrolls are kept

synagogue. At Simchat Torah, the yearly

symbol associated with

covered by an embroidered mantle

cycle of readings from the Torah comes

the tribe of Judah.

or in a rigid container.

to an end and is begun ^ain.

towards Jerusalem. The original ark of the covenant held the Ten Commandments while the people

Handles support the

The lion is a Jewish

of Israel journeyed from Eg}pt

Torah scroll because it

towards the Promised Land.

is too sacred to touch.

486

JUDAISM

Lulav made of

Holy days and festivals

Succoth The harvest festival of Succoth commemorates the wav

The Jewish year begins in autumn with the New Year

God provided for the Jews as they wandered in the

Festival. Ten days later comes the Day of Atonement, or

wilderness on their way to the Promised Land. Jews weave palm leaves into a lulav and may build festive

Yom Kippur. This is the most solemn event in the

joy called Rejoicing of the Torah, or Simehat Torah.

1-1

II

festivals occur during the year. Many

Lettuce for the foodeatm in

commemorate events in Jewish history,

slavery.

such as the Israelites’ escape from Egypt,

J

huts to symbolize the tents that gave them shelter. Work is restricted and the festival ends with a time of

fastine, and seeking God’s forgiveness. Other ,

.^

*

Jewish calendar; Jews spend the day praying, p

leaves

Shankbone of lamb recalb lambs killed at the first Passover.

Egg symbolizes

the giving of the Ten Commandments Pesach is

to Moses, and the destruction of the

the Hebrew

first and second temples in Jerusalem.

word for Passover.

Pesach

Seder plot,

The spring festival of Passover, or Pesach,

At Succoth, a lulav and a

commemorates the time when the Jews left their

etrog are carried around

captivity in Egypt and returned to Israel, jews

the temple seven times.

believe that God punished the Egyptians by killing Herbs

their firstborn sons, but he passed over the houses

Matzah (unleavened

salt water to

bread)

*

an etrog is a symbol

spring

1 that day jews eat a ritual meal called Seder. Jews drink

A citrus fruit called

represent

of the Israelites. This gives its name to Passover;

of the heart. A decorated cloth

Bitter horseradish represents

covers the matzah

the misery of slavery.

'

remind them

Hanukkah

of the tears ofslavery.

The festival of lights, Hanukkah is an eight-day long midwinter festival that is marked by the lighting of candles. It celebrates the rededication of the temple of Jerusalem after it was recaptured from an enemy army in 164 BC. Like several other festivals in the Jewish religious year Hanukkah reminds jews of God’s faithfulness to his people in the past.

Daily life

Worship

Jewish men

The home and the family are important in

The synagogue is the place for community

prayer.

skull caps at

Judaism, and there are many rules to guide

prayers, readings from the Torah, and for

behaviour. For Orthodox Jews in particular,

learning about the faith. On weekdays there

these rules affect every aspect of daily life,

are prayers for morning, afternoon, and

from getting up in the morning, when the

evening; on the Sabbath and on festivals there

hands are ritually washed, to going to bed

are longer services. When a Jewish boy reaches

at night, when benedictions are said. Other

13, a ceremony in the synagogue

rules concern food and dress.

called Bar Mitzvah marks his

A tefilli contains prayers.,

coming of age.

Menorah, nine-branched candlestick

Rabbis Rabbis were originally

Kosher food

teachers and they devoted

Jews must eat food that is

themselves ro studying the

kosher, or fit to eat. Animals

Torah. Today, rabbis play

that do not have cloven

a leading role in worship and take

hoofs and chew the cud are

spiritual care of their community, like

forbidden, as are birds of

the leaders of other religious faiths.

prey and sea creatures without fins and scales.

Anti-semitism

Animals that Jews eat must have been slaughtered

For centuries, the jews existed without

according to specific rules.

their own state and were often treated as second-class citizens. In some cities,

Sabbath

jews were forced to live in cramped

The weekly day of rest

areas known as ghettos. Pogroms —

from dusk on

organized campaigns of persecution or

Friday to after dark on Saturday — commemorates the way God rested after

killing — are a feature of Jewish history.

the creation. On the Sabbath, Jews dress

The worst example is the Holocaust.

in their best clothes, and do not cook, . A mob assaults a few in front of

work, or use transport. They light the

soldiers in Russia, 1881.

Sabbath candles and attend the synagogue.

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Europe, HISTORY OF

Festivals

Holocaust

Holy land, HISTORY OF

Israel

Jesus CHRIST

Religions

World war n

487

JUDO see COMBAT SPORTS • JUNG, CARL GUSTAV see FREUD, SIGMUND > JUPITER see PLANETS

Kangaroos and other marsupials In AUSTRALIA, NEW GUINEA, and the Americas,

there is a group of mammals that is not found anywhere else in the world. These are the 266 species of marsupials, or pouched mammals. Marsupials include the familiar kangaroos and koala, as well as numbats, bandicoots, wombats, possums, and wallabies from Australia, and the American opossums. In contrast to other mammals, marsupial young undergo little development in their mothers uterus before being born. Instead, female marsupials have a marsupium, or pouch. Strong tail aids into which the young balance when leaping and crawl and complete standing. their development.

Red kangaroo The red kangaroo is the largest of all marsupials. Males are reddish-brown in colour, and may be twice the size of females, which are bluish-grey. They have powerful back legs and long feet adapted for hopping. Like many other marsupials red kangaroos are largely nocturnal, resting by day under the shade of trees, but they are also active on cooler winter day's. They graze mainly on grass, but also feed on the foliage of lowgrowing shrubs, by leaning forwards on their forelimbs and balancing on their tail.

Mob of eastern grey kangaroos feeding

Mobs

Reproduction

Red and grey kangaroos, and wallabies, live in groups called mobs. A mob is a social grouping of

Marsupials differ from other mammals

lO or more individuals, including a mature male,

in the way they reproduce. After a male and female

a few younger males, females, and their young.

mate, the fertilized egg develops in the females uterus for

Sometimes, a larger mob containing hundreds of kangaroos mav' form at a good feeding site.

about 30 day's. The young is then born, but is tiny at birth; for example, a red kangaroo weighing about 27 kg (60 lb)

Boxing

gives birth to a single young weighing just 800 mg (0.03 oz).

Within a mob a male kangaroo may gain control over

The newborn has a mouth and well-developed forelimbs,

one or more females so he can mate with them. Sometimes

but is otherwise like an embryo. It continues to develop in

other males challenge for access to these females. The

its mothers pouch for 6-11 months, feeding on her milk.

competing males stand upright on their hind legs and link forearms in an attempt to push each other to the ground. If this does not resolve the battle for supremacy, they box, hitting each other violently with their

_

forepaws, and kicking out with

Thick stomach

* i

their hind feet,

prevents excessive damage during boxing.

until one of them submits.

Life-cycle of a kangaroo

1

After birth, the blind, naked kangaroo struggles through the fiir

2

The baby kangaroo, or joey, is now about five months old. No

3

After a year, the joey will have left the pouch and be feeding mainly on

longer attached to the teat, the joey

vegetation. It still occasionally sticks its

on its mothers abdomen to reach her

can stick its head out of the pouch, but

head in the pouch to suckle, and some

pouch, and attach itself to her teat.

still depends on ics mother for milk.

joeys return to the pouch if threatened.

Leaps and bounds Kangaroos and small wallabies move in a distinctive manner, using their powerful hind legs and large feet like springs, to hop from one feeding area

Kangaroos may travel at speeds of up

kmh

(31 mph) when leaping.

another. 1 he long tail helps them balance. A kangaroo covers 1—2 m (3—6 ft) with each leap when

Tree kangaroo

moving slowly; this

Close relatives of kangaroos and

increases to 9 m (30 ft)

wallabies, tree kangaroos live in the

when travelling at high

tropical forests of NE Australia and New

speed. Kangaroos

Guinea. Thev have long, strong forelegs,

are incapable

shortened hind feet, and a long tail.

of moving

The}' are good climbers, using their claws

their back

to grip and tail to balance. 1 hey feed on

legs separately

leaves and fruit, and can travel rapidlv

so cannot walk.

from tree to tree in search of food.

488

KANGAROOS AND OTHER MARSUPIALS

Tasmanian devils

Koalas

The largest carnivorous marsupial, the Tasmanian devil resembles a stocky terrier-sized dog. It is

sense of

Koalas live in the tops of trees in eucalyptus woods

smell

in eastern Australia. They feed, breed, and sleep in

used to

found only on the island of Tasmania, off the

hunt for

the trees, rarely descending to the ground. They

coast of Australia. It was probably given the

spend up to 18 hours each day resting and sleeping in

name “devil” because of the eerie

the forks of trees, apparently to save energy. Koalas

whine it makes. The Tasmanian

have an opposable thumb and toe that help them to Powerful

devil shelters by day in

jaws and

wombat holes or hollow logs, coming out at

harp teeth

with their sharp front claws, bringing up their back

are used to

legs in a series of jumps. Females have a single young

eat meat, fur.

night to hunt for food.

grip tree trunks. They climb by grasping the trunk

that leaves its mothers pouch after seven months.

skin, and bones

It catches prey such as snakes, lizards, and

Eucalyptus leaves provide all the food

small mammals,

and water that a

but most of its

koala needs, so

diet consists of carrion.

Virginia opossum

They forage in trees

Opossums are American marsupials

and on the ground for fruit, insects,

that live mainly in South and Central America. The cat-sized Virginia

eggs, and small

opossum is the largest of the 75

vertebrates.

species, and is the only one in North America. It has litters of 10

Young are

or more young, up to three times a year

carried on

in warmer regions. When threatened,

mothers

the Virginia opossum pretends to be dead

A prehensile tail and grasping hands

back for a

(“playing possum”) in order to avoid attack

and feet enable them to climb well. .

few months after they leave the

Numbat

pouch.

The numbat lives in the forests of western Australia; it is the only Australian marsupial fully active in the day. It feeds on ants and termites, turning over old logs in search of their nests. The numbat rips open the nest

It uses

with its front legs, and extracts the insects

its long

with its long, sticky tongue.

snout and foreclaws to root around in the soil for food.

Feeding Koalas have a very specialized diet, eating the leaves of onlv 12 out of 100 species of eucalyptus tree. An adult koala eats about 1 • 1 kg

Long-nosed bandicoot

(2.5 lb) of leaves each day,

Mostly rabbit-sized or smaller, bandicoots are very active,

and can store them in its

night-time foragers that move in a galloping fashion. Like

cheek pouches. Koalas are

other bandicoots, the long-nosed bandicoot uses its strong,

adapted to extract the most

clawed forelegs to dig for insects, other invertebrates, seeds,

out of the leaves, which are

fungi, and juicy plant roots in the soil. Bandicoots breed

not very nutritious, by having

throughout the year. Females have a litter of 2—5 voung,

a very long intestine in which

which develop in their mothers pouch for about 50 days.

the leaves can be fully digested.

Common wombats

Red kangaroo

Burrows are rarely shared, but often form

Common wombats are shy, burrowing marsupials from

Scientific name Macropus rufits

part of a large network.

Order Marsupialia

southeast Australia. They emerge from their burrows at night, covering up to 3 km (2 miles)

Family Macropodidae

Wombats have sharp. strong incisors

in search of roots, grasses, and

Distribution Throughout inland

gnawing

fungi. Wombats lead a solitary

igh tough

life except when they mate.

egetation

• Australia, excluding the extreme north, extreme southwest, and

Burrows Wombats are rapid, powerful diggers.

Females give birth to a single

They use their strong front legs and

young, which stays in the

large claws to dig networks of burrows

pouch for six months. The

up to .30 m (100 ft) in length. By resting in their burrows during the

pouch opens at the rear to

day, wombats keep cool in summer

prevent it filling with earth

and warm in winter. They sometimes

as the wombat burrows.

emerge to sunbathe in small hollows that they scrape out near the burrow.

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Animals

Australian WILDLIFE

Grassland WILDLIFE

Mammals

Nests and BURROWS

east coast Habitat Dry grassland and scrub, often near dense vegetation that can provide shelter; semi-desert regions Diet Grasses and other short plants Size Males: height, up to 2 m (6 ft 6 in); weight 82 kg (180 lb) Lifespan 12-18 years

Nocturnal ANIMALS

Rainforest WILDLIFE

489

KAZAKHSTAN sec RUSSIA AND KAZAKHSTAN • KENNEDY, JOHN F sec UNITED STATES, HISTORY OF • KENYA sec AFRICA, EAST

KHMER EMPIRE

Extent of the empire Angkor, the capital of Khmer culture, was in present-day Cambodia. At the peak of

One of the most important civilizations in

its power, the empire stretched from the South China Sea to the

Southeast Asia, the Khmer Empire was ruled '' from the 9th to the 15th centuries by god-like kings. They glorified themselves and their people by their magnificent building projects. Angkor, the royal capital of the Khmers, was founded in 802 by Jayavarman II. People flocked to the city from all over the region. In the 12th century, Angkor’s masterpiece, Angkor Wat, was built. Shordy afterwards both city and temple were sacked by the Chams, but they were rebuilt by Jayavarman VII within 50 years.

Gulf of Siam (modern Thailand), and included all of what is today Cambodia, eastern Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos. -.^oi Angkor Wat was tise/i as a royal shrine.

The five towers represent Mount Meru - the home of the Hindu gods.

Religion Most Khmer kings were Hindu, therefore many of Angkor Wat’s sculptures are monu¬ ments to Hindu gods. Some of the kings were actually thought Buddhist head, to be god-kings. The Angkor Thom Hindu Suryavarman II believed himself to be an incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu, while his Buddhist son, Jayavarman VII, believed himself to be a reincarnation of the Buddha. Elephants The Khmers, believing that elephants had great religious significance, captured them and trained them for war service and parades. One famous regiment included around 200,000 elephants.

Farming and foodstuffs The Khmers’ success was due to their agricultural sophistication. An advanced system was needed to support the large population.s within the temple-palaces. Engineers built networks of channels, which — apart from containing fish — also irrigated rice fields

^

^

%

and fruit trees in the dry season, so they produced abundant harvests. Because of this,

^

y.

Rice

the empire became the richest in South¬ east Asia.

Outer walls represented ? lount tins at edge of the world, i

’ Grassy areas were once moats.

Angkor Wat Angkor War is the greatest Khmer temple and was the largest religious building in the world for centuries. Built of stone — materials reserved for the gods — it took about 50,000 workers just over 40 years to complete in the reign of Suryavarman II (1113—50). Legend has it that the temple was not built by humans but by the Hindu god Indra, who came to Earth to create it. Reliefs include scenes of Hindu gods, the Khmer people at war, and royal processions.

Decline

Elephants support the Khmer infantry.

Bayon Historical events, life at court, and parades are carved around the walls of the Bavon, the last great Khmer temple built at Angkor. Suryavarman Us son, Javavarman VII, built the Bavon in c.1200 to commemorate a re.5ounding victor)' over the neighbouring Cham people, who had destroyed Angkor in 1177.

Jayavarman VII Temples were

The neighbouring Siamese (Thai) people attacked Angkor in 1431. This, combined with the cost of maintaining the monuments, led to the great city’s decline, and Angkor was abandoned shortly afterwards. Over centuries, jungle vegetation covered the temple, and Angkor became known as the “Lost Capital”. In 1861, it was rediscovered by French naturalist Henri Mouhot.

The heroic Javavarman

carved with

(1181-1219) w'as leader

dancers,

of the Khmers. After the

animals,

destruction of Angkor bi’

and

the Cham people,

birds._-

Javavarman led a successful counter-arcack, and encouraged his people to rebuild Angkor. During hts long life he constructed a new temple, the Bavon, to commemorate his triumphs. The massive stone faces carved on the outside walls of the temples represent Javavarman and are also meant to resemble the Buddha. Javavarman changed the state

Mango

religion from Hinduism to Buddhism. Engraving of the central lower, Angkor Wat. 1875

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Architecture

Asia, HISTORY OF

Buddhism

Hinduism

Farming, HISTORY OF

King, martin luther

Early life Martin Luther King Jr was

In the long fight of black Americans for equal rights, one man stands out for his great commitment to racial equality. Martin Luther King was a Baptist Church minister whose Christian faith informed all his work. He believed in non-violent protest as a way of obtaining change, and led many sit-ins, marches, and voter registration campaigns. King was an inspired speaker, whose words gave hope to millions. His assassination in 1968 dashed m^y of those hopes. ^

born in Atlanta, Georgia, in the southern USA, on 15 January 1929. Kings father was a prominent Baptist minister, inspiring his son to follow him into the church to study theology. King received his doctorate of theology in 1955. Little Rock In 1957, rhe governor of Arkansas refused to admit nine black children to the all-white Little Rock Central High School.

Civil rights movement

President Eisenhower sent 1,000 paratroopers and 10,000 national

Black Americans were given equal rights under the US Constitution,

guardsmen to protect the

but were still treated as second-class citizens in many southern

children as they went to school.

states. Local state laws denied black Americans the right to vote or go to multiracial schools. Black and white people were segregated

“I have a dream”

(kept apart) and even had to sit in different seats on buses. Black

On 28 August 1963. King led

protests led to a growing civil rights

the historic March on

movement in the 1950s and 1960s.

Washington to demand civil

King emerged as the charismatic

rights reform. More than

leader of this movement.

200,000 marchers heard his words: “I have a dream thar one dav this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: ‘We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal ’. Bus boycott

Birmingham jail

On 1 December 1955, Rosa Parks,

King went to jail manv times for his

a hlack woman, refused to give up

beliefs. During a period in jail in

her seat on a bus to a white man in

Birmingham, Alabama, in Spring 1963,

Montgomeiy; Alabama, and was arrested for violating the cirv’s

Sit-ins

segregation law. Black residents, led

A favoured tactic of civil rights campaigners

bv King and Rev Ralph Abernathv.

was to stage sit-in demonstrations in

encouraged a boycott of the city's

segregated restaurants and other public plao

busts that led to their desegregation

In 1960 King was arrested at a segregated lunch counter in an Atlanta department store

he wrote an eloquent letter outlining his philosophy of non-violenr protest. He was inspired in this policy bv the Indian leader Mohandas K. Gandhis non-violence campaign against British rule in India, the movement known as sarvacraha Mevorion to truth).

He was sent to prison, and was onlv released

Malcolm X

after rhe intervention of rhe Democranc presidential candidate. John f Kenne.. ,

Manv black people disagreed with Kings aim of full integration of black and

Martin Luther King

white, preferring to aim tor black separatism. Their leader

1929 Born in Atlanta, Georgia.

was Malcolm X, who was a 1951 Receives Bachelor of Divinity

member of the Black Muslim

degree.

movement led by Elijah

1954 Becomes pastor of Baptist

Muhammad. He later

Church in Montgomery, Alabama.

converted to orthodox Islam, and took up the cause of

I960 President of the Southern

racial unirv’.

Assassination

Christian Leadership Conference;

The last vears of Kings life were marked

sent to prison for his part in a sit-

assassinated

by increasing disputes with more radical

in February

black leaders who disagreed with his

1965

non-violent approach. In April 1968, he

Freedom rides

\isited Memphis, Tennessee to offer

In 1961. black and white civil rights protesters

support to striking city sanitation

defied state segregation laws bv travelling

workers; he w'as assassinated at the motel

together on segregated buses. The government

where he was staving on 4 April. Protest

sent in national guardsmen to protect the

riots broke out in most major US cities.

in in Atlanta. 1963 Spells out his doctrine of non-violent protest; leads march on ^X^ashingTon. 1964 Awarded Nobel Peace Prize. 1968 Assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee.

riders. This led to increased racial tension and activity bv the racist Ku Klux Klan, who carried flaming crosses in marches in southern USA

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Human RIGHTS

Slavery

Societies, HUMAN

United states, HlSrORVOF

491

KINGFISHERS

and

HORNBILLS

The kingfisher family includes some Kingfishers of the world’s most brightly coloured There are about 90 species of kingfisher. A few live in Europe birds. Many kingfishers feed on fish, but and the Americas, but they are forest kingfishers, which include the most common in Africa, Asia, kookaburra, live in dry places and eat and Australia. Kingfishers are fast fliers, and they are often seen insects, snakes, and even small birds. speeding low over the water from Kingfishers hunt by watching for small one perch to another. All Belted kingfisher kingfishers nest in holes. Those animals from a convenient perch, or by This is one of the only two species of kingfisher that live near water peck burrows that live in North America. It makes a loud hovering over water until they see food, in riverbanks, while forest rattling call often when it is flying. It breeds as then diving down to catch it. Hornbills are far north as Alaska, and winters further south, kingfishers nest in ttee-holes. some birds as far south as Panama. bigger and more powerful than kingfishers. The kinffisher carries its prey to a perch and strikes Some feed entirely in the treetops on fruit, it on a branch before The kingfisher but others spend a lot of time on the swallowing it. uses its wings to flap ii its way out ground, feeding on anything of the water. ofth edible they can find. clear membrane covers the eyes underwater

Sharp-edged Grooves in

beak holds

the face

Kookaburra

give good

This Australian bird is the

forward

slippery prey.

Fishing About two-thirds of kingfishers, including this common kingfisher, live near water and feed on fish and other water animals.

world’s largest kingfisher. It is

Water rum off

They catch their food by diving straighr

more than 40 cm (16 in) long

the kingfishers

in, or by hovering and then making an

from beak to tail. It lives in forests

waterproof

and scrub, and is famous for its loud

plumage.

attack. Once they have caught something in their beak, they carry the prey to a

call, which sounds like crazy laughter.

perch or to their burrow.

Hard shield,

Trumpeter hornbill

or casque,

This medium-sized hornbill lives in southern Africa

covers the top

Like most other hornbills, it has a long tail, strong

of the beak.

feet, and a patch of bare skin around its eyes. It also has a loud call that sounds like a mixture between a crying baby and a badly tuned trumpet.

Long, rounded tail with banded feathers.

African ground

—

hornbill

—

Common Kingfisher

r

SciENTlHC NAME Alcedo atthis Order Coraciiformes

Hornbills White-billed pied hornbill

Family Alcedinidae

Thete are nearly 50 species of hornbill, and the largest are more than 1.2 m (4 ft)

Protecting the young

Hornbill beaks

Hornbills nest in tree

A hornbills beak is not as heavy as it

long. These birds get their name from their

looks because it contains lots of air spaces

huge downcurved beaks. They live in the

cavities, and they protect their young in a remarkable

that reduce its weight. The shield, or

way. When the female is

casque, above it is also hollow. The main

about to lay her eggs, she enters the nest and the male

Distribution Europe, North Africa, Asia, and Indonesia Habitat Rivers, streams, canals, and drainage ditches

forests of Africa and Asia. When they fly,

Diet Small fish

function of the casque is probably as an

theit wings make a loud whooshing sound,

Size Length: 16 cm (6-S in)

ornament during courtship.

which can be heard a long way away.

Lifespan About 5 years

makes a mud wall to seal her in. He passes food through a small hole in the wall.

492

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Australian WILDLIFE

Animai BEHAVIOUR

Birds

Nests and BURROWS

Seabirds

Woodpeckers and toucans

KINGSLEY. MARY see EXPI CIRATION • KINKAJOU see PANDAS AND RACCOONS • KIRIBATI see POLYNESIA

KITES

Types of kites There are several basic kite shapes, but for each shape there

was a kite, flown about 3,000 years before people took to the air. A basic kite consists of a frame and covering material. Launched and held in the air by the upward push of the wind currents on its underside, a kite is controlled from the ground by a flying line. Kites have had many uses: the Chinese used them to estimate the position of the enemy in war; in 1752, American scientist Benjamin Franklin hung metal from a kite to prove the electrical nature of lightning. Today, kite flying is both a popular pastime and a competitive sport. The first flying machine

are hundreds of different designs. Most kites can be made cheaply from sticks and paper. Some need a tail to help them fly in a stable position, but tails, ribbons, and colour are used mostly for decoration. Flat kites Simple, flat kites are the oldest design. They are made from a framework of thin sticks tied together, covered with paper or fabric.

Box kites Made of a frame containing squares or triangles of paper or fabric, box kites are stable fliers. They have been used to carry weather forecasting instruments.

Aerofoil kites

Delta kites

Fiistory of kite flying The Chinese were flying kites long before

The wings of a delta are

Made of fabric, an

supported by spars or rods.

aerofoil kite is

The wingspan makes it

the first recorded reference to a wooden bird kite, in 500

BC.

Gradually, kites

inflated by the wind,

fast and ea^ to

giving it shape. Wing¬

manoeuvre, ideal for

shaped inflatable

stunt or fighter kites.

kites have a different

became popular in other Asian countries,

name — parafoils.

such as India, where often they had Stunt kites

religious significance. By rhe time kite

Stunt kites are used for

flying spread to Medieval Europe, the

displays. They can be

Chinese were building kites big

flown singly or stacked

enough to carry people into the air.

together on the same flying lines to create a spectacular kite tram.

An 18th-century Indian painting of kite flying

Making kites

Fiow to fly a kite

Kites can be simple structures made from

Before launching a kite, search for an open

paper and sticks. They

space where there is an even breeze, preferably

are frequently more

a gently sloping hillside where the wind blows

complex, made from

The diamond¬

silk or other light

upward. Avoid buildings and trees (which

shaped Malay

materials. Bright

disturb the wind), roads, electricity pylons,

kite has an

colourful designs are often used

help it stav on a

then launch the kite as shown here.

to adorn kites.

Kite may

angled surface to

and cables. Attach a flying line to the kite,

fall as it gets near ground.

stable course.

Equipment In addition to the actual kite, you need a flying line and a reel to store it on. Flying lines must be strong enough to hold the kite, but light enough to let it fly, such as nylon fishing line. Reels can be simple, Hold reel

or handle shaped to make them easier to hold.

In li^t winds

Stunt kites require strong hand grips.

give gentle tugs

sideways to

on the line.

pay out line

O

quickly.

Keel

Kite festivals In many Asian countries kite festivals are popular. There is

(H

2

As the kite left or right,

catches the

Hand grip

also a serious competitive

wind, release it.

let out more line

Gradually allow

to stabilize it.

out more line to

Add a tail to a

let the kite rise.

very unstable kite.

sport in which fighting kites compete for air space.

FIND OUT

MORE

Air

Electricity

Festivals

Flight, ANIMAL

Flight, HISTORY OF

Franklin, BENJAMIN

Winds

493

494

M ITENS see CATS • KITTIWAKES see AMMALS • KIWTS see FLICiHTLESS BIRDS

KNIGHTS

AND

HERALDRY

Knights were horseback warriors

whose Miniature spur

heyday lasted from the 11th to the 15 th century ’

in Europe. In wartime they formed the nucleus of any rulers army, and in peace they helped to keep

/

\

Rulers paid knights for their services with valuable gifts

local order. During the medieval period, knights rose in status and wealth to form part of an European ruling class. Each knight was expected to lead a Christian life and to obey the Code of Chivalry. They developed a great sense of their own importance, which was reflected in an obsession with heraldry:

Iron stirrup

of land. The people on the j worked for the knights

in return for proteaion. The first knights were sometimes men of humble origin, but in time they became a group of warrior-governors. Etching tells a story

Horseback advances

the formation of distinguishing coats of arms. After 1500, the

Spurs helped mounted knights control their

introduction of new weapons, such as the cannon, and new

horses in batde. Stirrups and high-backed saddles -

military methods meant that the knights’ importance waned.

used to stop knights being throvm - also came into

Code of Chivalry

use between the 8th and

Medieval knights followed the ideals of the Code of Chivalry,

this period the knights’

11 th centuries. During Wooden etched saddle

and demonstrated prowess (bravery, strength, and skill), largesse (generosity), loyalty, piety,

Knights

and courtesy. This code

The knights prime duty was

importance increased.

to fight. After 1300, his armoi

attempted to civilize what

became increasingly elaborate,

was really a primitive

expensive — and heavy. A suit

activity — fighting.

could weigh as much as 25 kgs (55 lbs) and fitted

Courtly love

snugly. One medieval

Minstrels’ talcs, or romances, helped to

poet called the knight

shape the Code of Chivalry, and manv

“a terrible worm in iron cocoon”.

knights believed that romantic love

Christian knight

inspired great deeds — as in the French

Churchmen encour^ed new

Roman de la Rose, and the manv stories

knights to fight non-Christians,

surrounding Britain’s King Arthur.

but never to harm Church property or unarmed people.

Scene from Roman de la Rose, 148”

Tournaments Originally, knights used practice battles to help them train. These turned into a dazzling medieval spectator sport — the tournament —

Small plates on gauntlet gave freedom of movement to the hand.

with teams of opposing knights. Single combat between champions was called a joust, and was fought using various war weapons. Victory often resulted in fame and riches.

Plates above and hdow the knee allowed movement without exposing the hose beneath. The sole was left exposed

Tournament, I5th century

so shoe did not skid.

Heraldry

Art of blazonry

Tournament crowds identified their heroes

experts in blazonry (the recording

From around 1140, heralds were

by their coats of arms, a personal

and regulating the devices used

Squires

in coats of arms). One rule in

Squires were voung men who served

combination of patterns (devices)

blazonry is that where there are

apprenticeships to become knights.

displayed on surcoats, shields, and horse-

two coats of arms, they can be

The word comes from the French

draperies. In live battle, the coat-of-arms

‘quartered”. From 1250, French

escuyer, meaning “shield-carrier”. A

and English heralds kept records,

squire might enter a knight’s service

helped knights tell friend from foe, and enabled the official observers, known as

called rolls. The rolls are used to

14, where he would learn arts of

check the family history.

combat and chivalry, and become a knight at around 21. As a “knight

heralds, to record any great feats. with two coats of arms, quartered

bachelor”, he would look for a heiress to marrv, to finance his career in arms,

FIND OUT

MORE

Arms and ARMOUR

Europe, HISTORY OE

Medieval EUROPE

Normans

Samurai and SHOGUNS

Warfare

Squire at the pel, or practice post

495

Heraldry collection Personal

Pope Sixtus V’s coal

Arm badge worn b\'

of arms, Rome

the sen.'ant of a knight, Frani^ois de Lorraine

Pope Urban VIII s coat of arms, Pope Pius Us coat of

Pope Clement Xs

arms, Tuscany, Italy

coat of arms, Rome

St Peters, Rome

Arms of MaxlmilJian I

Coat of arms of the Medici

(r.l493-I519) of Austria

family, art patrons, Florence

Organizations Shield, or escutcheon,

Scales of justice

Supporters are

Supporters

the most important part

heraldic animals.

of any coat of arms ^

are hawks

f-

Motto Metropolitan Police Force,

Magistrates’ Association

British Broadcasting Company

Roval Society for the Prevention of

Worshipful Company of

London, UK

coat of arms. UK

coat of arms, UK

Cruelty to Animals coat of arms. UK

Spectacle Makers, England, 1629

Geographical

Symbol of the cir\' of Paris

Spanish dish showing arms of Castile and Leon

One of the 17 contrada (district) symbols, Siena, Italy

Swedish “lesser” coat of , The inscription reads

arms is not as ornate as the “greater” coat of arms but it

Coat of arms of the

is still used as the symbol of

modern Czech Republic

Sweden’s royal family.

496

“truth victorious".

Shields and weapons often featured arms. This l5thcenrury wooden shield has the city of Prague arms on it.

KOGURYO DYNASTY see ASIA. HISTORY OF

KOREA,

SOUTH AND NORTH

South and north KOREA

South Korea facts Capital city Seoul

together form a peninsula

Area 99,020 sq km (38,232 sq miles) Population 46,800,000

between the Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan in East

Main IANGUACE Korean

Asia. They were one single country until 1948, when

Major religions Buddhist, Christian

South Korea separated from communist North Korea,

Currency South Korean won Life expectancy 75 years

In 1950, North Korea invaded the south, leading to the Korean War, which devastated South Korea’s economy. In the following years,

People per doctor 769 Government Multi-party democracy Adult literacy 98%

however, South Korea bounced back. In 2000, leaders from the two nations met for the first time since 1953.

Mountains Two ranges of mountains dominate South Korea.

Forest in Soraksan

South Korea

The T’aebaek-Sanmaek

National Park

range runs down the east

At the southern

coast, while the Sobaek-

Forests

tip of the Korean

Sanmaek lies in the south.

More than two-

peninsula, South Korea is one

thirds of South

T’aebaek-Sanmaek

of the most successful of the

Korea is covered in

Mountains

Pacific Rim “tiger” economies.

thick, temperate forest, much of which cloaks the

The country has strong trade

mountain slopes in the east and south.

links with Japan, the USA,

The stunning scenery and blaze of

and, more recently, China.

autumn colour attract many tourists to the country’s national parks.

1,250 mm (49 in)

Climate

D

Seasons are distinct. Winters are very cold Oribftng.^ ^

1 ^US.

and dry while summers are humid with heavy rains. The island of Cheju has a warm climate.

North Korea

Land use Most of South Korea’s farmland lies

Communist North

in the west and south and is under permanent cultivation. There is only

Korea is isolated from

a small amount of pasture land,

the outside world, both politically

mainly on mountain slopes.

and financially. North Korea has People

rich mineral resources, but lacks

More than 99 per cent of the people

the money needed to exploit

are Koreans whose ancestors settled

them. The economy is currently

in Korea thousands of years ago. Family life is central to Korean

^* ^jAmch'tSn ^ ujinir- '•^^nsan ^

society. Women play a traditional PYONGY-^Ni

role, and it is not respectable for

Sea

_ r

married women to work. /

Economy

Chan^^

weak, leading to food shortages. ^

'‘0^

.

*.lns6ng

'

/. '"Ujfjkch-o

0

/

Javan

Once a mainly rural society, in the great reconstruction that

KwnggiInchc

followed the Korean War, South Korea has become highly

Yellow

industrialized. It is

SOUTITKOl

one of the worlds

Collective farming Agriculture is carried out mainly by collective

leading shipbuilders

farms, each run by about 300 families. Floods

and a major producer

wrecked harvests between 1995 and 1996.

of cars and electronics.

North Korea facts Seoul

Capital city Pyongyang

South Korea’s capital since 1394,

Area 120,540 sq km (46,450 sq miles)

Seoul was devastated during the war, but has been rebuilt and expanded.

Population 24,307.000

It is now home to 11,100,000

Main language Korean

people — nearly one-quarter of the

Major religions Traditional beliefs,

total population. The 1988 Olympic

Ch’ondogj'o

Games were held in Seoul.

Currency North Korean won

FIND OUT

MORE

Asia, HISTORY OF

Cities

Farming

Governments AND politics

Ships AND BOATS

Trade and INDUSTRY

497

KOREAN WAR see COLD WAR • KREMLIN sec RUSSIA HISTORY OF

KUBLAI KHAN

Early life Kublai Khan, the grandson of Mongol leader Genghis Khan, was born in 1215. He was educated hv Confucian scholars,

Kublai khan was

one of the most

and established himself as a war leader when a voung man. In 1248, his older

powerful emperors the world has

brother. Mongo, became Khan. Mongo died in 1259, and a fight to succeed

known. As leader of the great

him broke out between Kublai and a

Mongol Empire, he overthrew the

cousin. Kublai won, and in 1260 became Great Khan.

powerful Song dynasty of southern China, placing China under foreign rule for the first time. Under Kublai s rule, China prospered and he developed trade with Europe and the rest of Asia. By the time of his death in 1294, Kublai Khan had truly earned the title of Great Khan, the greatest of the Mongol chieftains. Kamikaze

Conquests

Kublai Khan made two unsuccessfijl attempts to

Kublai Khan’s greatest achievement was the Xanadu •

Khan in 1260, the Mongols controlled

Southeast Asia

1274, was called ofT after a storm forced the Mongols

Camli»uic (Beijing,'

only the patt of China north of the Yellow Rivet. After almost two decades of warfare,

Kublai Khan's army, Indonesian carved relief

invade Japan. The first, in

conquest of China. When he became Great

j

In five separate incursions between 1257—92,

back to port in Korea. The

Mongol forces under Kublai Khan mo^'ed

second, in 1281, ended in

south from China into Burma, northern

disaster when a typhoon,

Thailand, and .Vinam (now northern

Kublai conquered the Song Empire in the

known to the Japanese as the

Vietnam). An expeditionary force of the

south, taking control of the entite country

kamikaze, or divine wind,

Mongol naw even visited the Indonesian

by 1279. The Mongols ruled China until they were driven out in 1368.

V>T

^ /

destroyed the Mongol fleet.

island of Java in 1292-9.3. Although the Mongols did not actually conquer Southeast

\

Fmpire of Kublai Khan

Asia, the area was under their firm control for more than a century.

Yiian dynasty

Communications Kublai Khan encouraged economic

Kublai Khan made many

The Mongols were foreigners, but their rule was

prosperity, and improved

changes to Chinese society.

accepted by most of China. Kublai founded a

communications in his vast empire bv

He reintroduced a proper

building or improving canals, and bv

civil service based on merit

creating roads. He also established

to govern the country,

new ruling dynasty — the Yiians - and encouraged

Social changes

trade by removing restraints on merchants,

regular postal stations for mail. The

recruiting scholars from

formerly subject to heavy taxation. He did much

Mongols controlled the ancient silk

many different nations as

to improve the administration of the country,

route (Silk Road) between Europe

his staff, but excluding

and China, and enabled traders from

and, importantly, built a new imperial capital

Chinese. Many members of the old Chinese civil

Europe to travel

at Cambaluc, now known as Beijing.

safely to China.

service retired. Kublai also prepared a standardized

Covering of mats

code of law, built up the Chinese education system, and developed the use of paper currency.

Single oar Early Chinese

propels boat.

paper banknote Eye for boat to "see” I9th'Century model of

Marco Polo

Xanadu

a Chinese river boat

Kublai Khan built a luxurious palace at Xanadu (modern

The Venetian merchant Marco Polo (1254-1324 ) went to

Arts

Shantou). The IRth-century

China in the 1270s. He staved

Arts and culture

English poet, Samuel Coleridge,

for 17 years, serving as an official

prospered under the

immortalized the palace in a poem

in the civil service. On his return

Yiian dynasty. The

to Europe in 1295, he wrote his

writing of fiction

TraveL^ giving Europeans their

flourished, as did the

first glimpse of the Mongol Empire.

Annam (northern Vietnam).

1275—95 Marco Polo works for Chinese government.

plavs were produced.

1279 Kublai completes conquest

distinctive blue and white

of Song China. ,1^. /'

porcelain, a skill which was

S' 1281

perfected by the potters of

Porcelain vase with dragon motif

Asia, HISTORY OF

Kamikaze destroys Mongol

invasion fleet in Japan.

the Ming dynasty.

498

1257 First Mongol incursion into

1274 First attempt to invade Japan.

Craftworkers made

FIND OUT

1215 Birth of Kublai Khan.

1260 Kublai becomes Great Khan.

theatre, where many new

MORE

Kubla] Khan

China, HISTORY OF

Manuscript of Coleridges

1292-93 Mongol fleet visits Java.

poem, Kubla Khan

1294 Death of Kublai Khan.

Empires

Exploration

Mongoi EMPIRE

Pottery and CERAMICS

KUWAIT sec GULF STATES • KYRGYZSTAN sec ASIA. CENTRAL

LAKE AND RIVER WILDLIFE

Lake contains cold, clear water from mountain streams.

The freshwater

habitats

on land may be tiny in volume compared with the oceans, but the many lakes, ponds, and rivers are home to a huge variety of wildlife. Plants take root in the soft soil and provide food and shelter for many different animals. These include air-breathing animals that enter the water from the surroundings as well as truly aquatic creatures, which spend all their time in the water. Together, they show all manner of adaptations to underwater life, including ways of making shelters and of coping with fast currents or murky conditions.

Lakes and rivers

Wonder Lake near

Along rhe course of a typical river, there is a variety of

Alaska

Mount McKinley,

freshwater habitats. Different water conditions in lakes and rivers - for example, flow rate, depth, turbulence,

Hippos stay in the

clarity, and temperature — suit different wildlife species.

water to keep cool in the hot African sun.

Mammals The otter uses its

Only a few species of

muscular tail for

mammal, such as river

moving and steering

dolphins, spend their whole life in fresh water Many others enter the Otters

water to feed, and are excellent swimmers. The

Sleek-bodied river otters dive in

Beavers

Hippopotamus

steep banks alongside

themselves with their tails and

Beavers use rivers and lakes for

A hippopotamus typically spends the

rivers make good burrow

webbed hind feet. Otters have dense

refuge rather than feeding. They

daytime resting in a lake or river. It

sites for rodents such as

waterproof fur and can close their

build “lodges” for themselves in the

emerges at dusk to graze on the land.

nostrils and ears when swimming.

water from piles of timber that they

Weighing up to 3 tonnes, this heavy

cut from waterside bushes.

animal can dive and swim with At this interactive science museum

York, are distinctive landmarks that have

t Wales, visitors carry out their

been specially built for their purpose.

vn experiments on the exhibits.

A museums role A museum has four main purposes. First, the staff are responsible for acquiring works

original

of art or other artefacts.

quality.

Second, they need to study the collection and, third, ensure it is displayed informatively. The other main purpose of a

Private collections Adam and Eve Expelled from Paradise by

museum or art gallery is to look

the Italian artist Masaccio (1401—28)

after and restore its collection.

Some small private collections reflect the particular interests of their founder. A museum may be set up in a private

Conservation of paintings

Restoration of paintings

Works of art are often very fragile and have

home, such as this collection of over

The restorer removes dirty varnish and fills in

1,000 bells. Some large national

to be looked after carefully. Curators need

areas where the original paint has been lost

museum collections, such as the Prado

to monitor levels of humidity and light to

Nvith paint that matches closely, trying to keep

in Spain, began as private collections

ensure they do not damage the paintings.

as true as possible to the artists intentions.

and were later bequeathed to the public

Art galleries

The main part of the gallery is the Great Rotunda, where

Visitors walk down

Museums that collect and display works

special exhibitions are held

a gentle slope lined

of art are known as art galleries. Some

with works of art.

galleries, such as the Van Gogh Museum in

Visitors get a lift

Amstetdam, the Netherlands, display the

to the top and

work of just one artist. Others, such as the

walk down.

Louvre in Paris, France, which has over five million visitors a year, show a vast tange of art by a variety of artists. Guggenheim Museum, New York, USA

This art gallery was designed by the American architect Frank Lloyd Wri^t (1869-1959). ^

FIND OUT

MORE

Architecture

Art, HISTORY OE

Dyes and PAINTS

Education

Gods and GODDESSF.S

Greece, ancient

Painting AND DRAWING

SCULPI URL

583

MUSHROOMS AND OTHER FUNGI mushrooms Features of a mushroom Mushrooms are the part of a fungus, called the fruiting body, and other types of fungi form a unique that grows above ground. They contain spores, which enable group of organisms of more than 80,000 fungi to reproduce. Spores are produced on the underside of a species. Unlike plants, fungi lack the green mushroom and released from flaps called gills, or hollows called pores. Below the fruiting body lies the mycelium, a network of food-making compound — chlorophyll — so cannot fine threads called Mushroom shrivels and spores make their own food. Instead, they release enzymes hyphae, that are ^re released in inky liquid. that decompose living, dead, or dying organisms usually hidden within a plant, and absorb the nutrients and minerals released. animal, or soil. Fungi range from dull grey mushrooms to brightly coloured toadstools (a name usually given to 4^ more colourful and poisonous fungi). | Neither plant nor animal,

Life-cycle of a mushroom Mushrooms release spores from their gills or pores. These germinate and produce hyphae that divide to form the mycelium. This may lie hidden in wood, plants, or animals for many years. Gradually, the hyphae spread through the wood and absorb nutrients. When conditions are right, normally in the aummn, mushrooms appear on the surface and release more spores. ^

1

Emerging

Hyphae

Spores are released from mushrooms.

2

On germination a single fungal

3

fruiting body

As the fungal

After rain the fruiting

mycelium expands

. body enlarges with

3

5

The shaggy ink-cap has the chara 1 cteristics typical of a

Most fungal fruiting bodies release their spores into the

They contain small food

thread, or hypha,

into its surroundings, it

the rapid uptake of water

mushroom: a stem or stipe, gills

air for distribution, but as the

reserves. Only a few

grows from the

absorbs water and nutrients

and becomes a recognizable

on the underside of a cap, and

ink-cap matures, its cap breaks

spores find rhe right

spore. It divides to

to build up energy to

mushroom, in this case a

a veil that protects the gills as

down to produce a black liquid

conditions to germinate.

form the mycelium.

form the fruiting body.

shaggy ink-cap mushroom.

it pushes up through the soil.

in which the spores float away.

Spore dispersal

Common stinkhorn

Fungal fruiting bodies are diverse

distributed bv insects. Tlie

Stinkhorn spores are fruiting bodv develops below

in shape and colour, but are all

ground in an egg-like stmcture.

designed to disperse spores. Many

When mature, the stem grows

release their spores directly into

rapidly carrying the cap up¬

the air from gills, spines, or pores;

wards. The cap is covered in a slimy, smelly mass

other fungi, including stinkhorns, are

of green spores. Carrion-

eaten by animals, such as pigs and flies,

Puffball exploding

which disperse the spores in their faeces. A few types of fungi, such as the cramp ball, shoot their spores away; puffballs puff out a cloud of spores when hit by a raindrop.

feeders, such as flies and

Spore print

beedes, are attracted by

A spore print is the pattern that spores

the putrid smell. They

make when the cap of a mushroom

eat the slime and disp)

is placed gill-side down on paper.

the spores in their faeces.

Spores are used to help identify fungi.

Types of fungi There are many types of fungi. The spores and mycelium of most species are similar in appearance. The main differences occur between the fruiting bodies which come in many sizes, shapes, and colours.

Sac fungi

Club fungi

Blights

Moulds

Imperfect fungi

Sac fungi, including

Club fungi, such as

Blights, such as potato

Moulds have woolly

Imperfect fungi, such as

morels, cup fungi, and

chicken-of-the-woods and

blight and mildew,

growth and produce

athlete’s foot, ringworm,

reproduce. On this basis, fungi

truffles, produce spores

puffballs, produce spores

produce oospores. Many

zygospores. Pin mould

and thrush, have no sexual

are divided into five groups.

in a special sac, or ascus.

on club-shaped fertile cells.

blights live in water.

often grows on bread.

stage to their life-cycle.

They vary depending on how they

584

MUSHROOMS. TOADSTOOLS AND OTHER FUNGI

Where fungi live Fungi grow wherever orher living, dying, or dead organisms are found on Earrh, mainly in warm, damp conditions.

M

They live in rhe sea, in rivers, hedgerows, and lakes. on mountains, and in caves — in fact, in all habitats. They can grow on

Woods Many fungi live in woods

Fairy ring fungi

fruit, bread, cheese, leather, rotting

and forests, both on the

Meadows

wood, and garden refuse. Warm

forest floor and directly on

Undisturbed grassy meadows are home to many autumn mushrooms. Fairy

the trees. Difterent types

weather after rainfall offers the

of fungi grow in coniferous

rings are circles of mushrooms created

perfect conditions for mycelium to

forests compared to those

when hyphae spread out in all directions

produce a crop of fruiting bodies.

found in deciduous forests.

and sprout a circle of mushroom.s above.

Parasitic fungi

Feeding

Luminous fungi

Parasitic fungi feed on live animals, plants, or fungi. For example, honey

The lamp mushroom of Australia

The majority of fungi live on

fungus is often found growing on apple

America both have luminous caps.

dead organic matter, breaking it

trees. Some fungi, such as blights and

The purpose of the luminescence is

down into a form that they, and

and the Jack O’Lantern of North

still unknown, but their green lights, glowing on the forest floor at

other living things, can absorb.

night, may attract animals, which

These fungi, called saprophytes,

help to disperse their spores.

play a vital role in recycling nutrients in the environment.

rusts, harm their plant hosts, but Dutch Elm disease and oak wilt kill theirs. Aspergillus, a fungal lung disease, attacks birds, and ringworm attacks humans.

Symbiotic fungi

Some fungi live on animal dung;

Many fungi are found in association with

others are predatory and trap soil

certain plants, such as fly agaric and birch

worms. Some fungi even obtain nutrients from paints, petrol, and plastics. There are also parasitic fungi that live on a live host, and symbiotic fungi that live in harmony with their partners.

trees. The hvphae penetrate the plant roots to form a pannership, or mycorrhiza, between the plant and fungus; the fungus saps nutrients from the plant, but helps the plant collect water and minerals from the soil. Lichens are fungi that live with algae; the fungi provide protection while the algae provide the nutrients.

Fly agaric fungus by decaying birch tree

Problem fungi1

Useful fungi

Many fungi cause problems; some are

Many edible forms of fungi are commonly used in cooking, baking,

poisonous if earen, some cause disease,

and brewing. Quorn, a fungal meat substitute, is one of the most

and orhers may cause srrucrural damage ro

recent additions to vegetarians’ larders. The chemical industry also

houses. In rhe 19th cenrury, many people died in France from rhe disease called Sr.

uses fungi to produce many products, including citric, gluconic, and oxalic acids, enzymes for washing powders, and colourful dyes.

Anrhony’s fire after eating bread infected with ergot fungus. Blue moulds, brown rors, and scab cause fruit, such as apples, to rot, while the honey fungus is the most destructive tree parasite, capable of killing whole orchards.

Edible fungi Yeast is a type of fungus used in baking

Many types of fungi are low in food value

to make bread rise, and in brewing to

but are eaten for their flavour. Commonly

turn sugar to alcohol. It is also used to

eaten fungi include chanterelles, oyster

make blood plasma substitutes, extracts

mushrooms, and morels. Truffles grow

high in vitamin B12, and anticoagulants.

underground and are considered a delicacy.

Shaggy ink-cap SciEN \ IFIC NAME Coprinus comatus

Ringworm

Class

Some fungi are poisonous

Dry rot fungus lives on damp

Ringworm is a fungus

Family Coprinaceae

if eaten. The death cap

wood in houses and churches

that attacks the skin,

Poisonous fungi

Dry rot

Homobasidiomycetes

Distribution Australasia, South Africa,

looks harmless enough,

The mycelium rapidly covers

especially childrens scalps.

Penicillium

but 28 g (1 oz) can kill

vast areas of timber and

It often causes hair to fall

Penicillium moulds grow on many

a person in just a few

damp brickwork. It causes

out. A ringworm epidemic

damp substances. They are often used to

hours. Other fungi, such

catastrophic decay and

occurred in the 1940s in

flavour cheese. These fungi also produce

as magic mushrooms,

weakens the beams, which

Britain, causing a serious

antibiotics, such as penicillin, which are

cause hallucinatory effects.

mav eventually collapse.

public health problem.

used to combat bacterial infections.

Europe, North America, Venezuela Habitat Fields, wasteland, lawns, paths Dipt Dead organic material in the soil Size 10-35 cm (4-14 in) high Lifespan Fruiting body present for a few davs from April to November

FIND OUT

MORE

Diseases

Ecology and ECOSYSTEMS

Food

Medicine, HISTORY OF

Microscopic LIFE

Woodland WILDLIFE

585

Mushrooms and other fungi

Common Puffballs grow in

Horn of Plenty fruits in

Fluted Birds Nests disperse

Barometer Eaithstar curls

Yellow Spindles grow

WboUy Milk Caps produce

clusters, mainly in woodland.

clusters in leaf litter or moss.

their spores when rain falls.

up its ravs in drv weather.

in moss-rich meadows.

hot-tasting milk when cut.

Devils Finger was introduced

Yellow Brain Fungus is parasitic

Meadow Coral Fungus grows

to Europe from Australasia.

and grows on hardwood trees.

in grasslands and woodlands.

Chicken-of-the-Woods

Beefsteak Fungus grows on tree

Fly Agaric toadstools

Fine-scaly Honey Fungus

Common Hedgehog has

Cinnabar Brackets grow in

often grows high up in trees.

trunks. It can make oaks hollow.

are highly poisonous

is a deadly tree parasite.

short spines on the underside.

sunny sites on tree trunks.

Jelly Babies have a rubbery texture. H Do I

)86

Cramp Balls forcibly eject their spores

pick wild fungi as many are poisonous.

Orange Caterpillar Fungus

Green Stain produces a stain

Common White Saddles

parasitizes moth larvae or pupae.

inside the wood on which it grows.

grow on woodland soil.

MUSIC

Ancient music Music in ancient civilizations was passed

The urge to make music is ancient, and it is

an essential part of all cultures. Music is thought to be the oldest form humankind has found for expressing its feelings. It can affect emotions, making people dance or cry, or make repetitive work easier to bear. Music is played whenever there is a celebration, from a harvest to a wedding. Essentially, all music is made from sounds called notes organized into patterns of melody, Indian rhythm, and harmony. classical musicians

Melody

The sitar has an

on by listening and tepetition; there was no accurate system of writing it down. Some ancient instruments have been found and, together with pictures and descriptions of diffetent periods, they give us an idea of the kinds of music that people played. Lyre player

Greece The ancient Greeks were very concerned with the arts, especially poetry, dance, and music. The philosopher Pythagoras (c.580-500 BC) analysed music mathematically, explaining the relationships between musical notes and naming the notes

The basis of any song is its

with letters of the alphabet.

nine, or melody, which consists of a series of single notes. Because most wind

China

and stringed musical

Music and philosophy were linked

instruments normally

in ancient China, and philosophers

plav one note at a time,

wrote documents on musics place Lute

the music they play is

in society. Confucius, a philosopher in the 5th century BC, recognized

essentially melodic.

the power of music and

The

recommended it should be under

musician sits

state control. As a result,

on the floor to play.

(elegant music), the music of the

Ragas and talas

ancient style, dominated until the

Indian classical music is based on sets

revolution of 1911.

of notes called ragas and rhythmic

Asian melody

patterns called talas. There are about

Model musician, T’ang dynasty

Melody is important in the traditional

130 ragas in common use. Each is

music of Asia, such as the elegant sounds

associated with a different time of day,

The Middle East

of Japanese woodwind and string

and has its own distinctive mood, such

Music was an important part of

players. The complex chiming sounds of

as happy, sad, or peaceful. The

the cultures of the ancient

the gamelan, a traditional Indonesian

performer, a vocalist or sitar player,

Middle East. Lyres, harps,

Egyptian tomb

orchestra, are made by a huge variety of

chooses a raga and tala and improvises

flutes, and tambourines

gongs, bells, and xylophones, playing

with them. The performer is

were played in

variations on a simple melody.

accompanied by drums.

Mesopotamian rituals

painting, C.1400 BC

in about 2000 BC. Similar

Rhythm

Harmony

Underlying each piece of music

The sound produced when two or more

Egypr 500 years

is the beat, a pattern that divides

notes are played simultaneously is called

later. Musicians

music into units of time. The

instruments appeared in

harmony. Harmonies accompany the

rhythm of a piece of music is

instruments playing the melody and can

determined by how the composer

change the mood of a piece.

has grouped beats together, by the length of each note, and how notes are accented,

.

for entertainment.

Folk music

Polyphony

Traditional music played by non-professional

Most Western classical music is

musicians, especially in rural communities, is known as folk music. Each country has its own

by medieval musicians, this is a harmonic style that combines

folk traditions. There is a huge variety of styles,

African traditions

separate melodies. Italian

often using instruments with a strong local

Complex, exciting rhythms

composer Giovanni Palestrina

association, such as the Scottish bagpipes, or the

are central to the many

(c. 1525—1594) wrote some of

styles of traditional African

the finest polvphonic music.

music. Generally, music is

Russian balalaika. Some professional musicians have taken an interest in folk music, writing Giovanni Palestrina

for group performance. Tuned and untuned drums,

Gospel music

rattles, and handclaps

The rich harmonies and

maintain the rhythm. The

inspirational performances

call-and-response style of

of American gospel choirs

solo singer and chorus is

have become popular

important as well. This was

outside the church, too.

taken by African slaves to

African musicians

religious ceremonies and

.

based on polyphony. Developed African drum

played them in state and

Gospel music has its roots

America, and developed

in a mixture of black

from a simple “field holler”

American and Protestant

into jazz and the blues.

Gospel choir

evangelical styles.

down and recording examples for posterity.

MUSIC

Notation Composers use notation (signs and symbols giving musicians

Key signature shows

Tempo marking

The shape of each

which key the music

shows the speed of

note tells the musician

is in. A key is a system

the music. Andante

how long to play it. ^

of related notes. .

means medium speed.

Bar line marks the end ol a measure. Music is divided into measures, or bars, which show the bear of the piece.

precise instructions as to what they should play) to write down the music they create. Monks in the 9th century AD were the first to use notation, and it was fully developed by 1200. It was the basis of Western art music, as it provided a permanent record of a composers intentions. Scale The position of a note on the horizontal staft lines indicates its pitch (how high or low the note is). Notes are given letter names from A to Ci. They can be arranged in ascending and descending

\ Dynamic markings show how loudly to

Pause I

sequences called scales. These are either

play the music: mf

major, with a bright sound, or minor,

stands for mezzo forte

with a darker, more serious sound.

(medium loud).

Medieval music

J. S. Bach

Until the late 11th century, music mainly took the form of simple melodies. Church music was sung in

The German composer J. S. Bach (1685-1750) was a

unison (everybody singing the same notes); other

very religious man,

music took the form of simple songs. When

who wrote choral

notation developed, composers could write more complex vocal music in several parts. Meanwhile, early European instrumental ^

music was developing, in dances such as the estampie.

Church music as well as some of the finest instrumental music of the Baroque period. His major works include the Brandenburg Concertos.

Gregorian Chant Troubadours

Monasteries were early centres of

Baroque music

music-making. The melodies sung by

In medieval Europe, travelling

monks during the reign of Pope

singers entertained at the

Gregory (r.AD 590-604) are often

aristocratic courts. They sang

Western music between 1600 and 1750

songs of love, accompanied

was ornate, often using several melodies

called Gregorian Chant, or plainsong. Later, other parts were added to these

bv stringed instruments such

chants, providing the first examples of

as viols and harps. The trend

harmony. By the I4th century,

began in France, where the

European composers were writing sophisticated pieces for choirs

singers, or troubadours, were ^

_

highly respected as poets

with several different voices.

and musicians.

together in a style called counterpoint. The system of tonality (where music shifts from one key to another) evolved, allowing composers to write work that explored the moods of major and minor keys.

Renaissance music

Concerts

In about 1471 in Italy, music printing appeared for the first time. Its arrival helped to spread new ''

11/

musical styles through Europe, and encouraged a surge in non-religious music in particular.

Public music-making increased in the 17th century. The first operas appeared around 1600, and orchestras played the first truly public

Musicians and

D'

t,'

courtiers in

-

Renaissance

concerts. George Frideric Handels (1685-1759) Music for the Royal Fireworks had a spectacular performance

Madrigal, arranged so that the parts

St. Marks, Venice

can be read and sung by four

Venice, Italy was at the heart of Renaissance thinking, a mixture of

people seated around a table.

the Church and secular society.

Madrigals

Andrea Gabrieli (c. 1510-1586)

Madrigals are pieces of music for several

Court of Burgundy

unaccompanied singers. They developed

During the I4rh and 15th centuries, Burgundy in

in l4th'Century Italy, but became popular

eastern France became an influential centre for all the.

to be performed in the cathedral

through Europe in the I6th century.

arts, including music. The composers Guillaume Dufav

of St. Mark. Their compositions

Generally about love, madrigals were the

(c.l400—1474) and Josquin des Prez (1440-1521) taught

explored the contrasting sounds

first choral music to be written for

there, among others. Josquin is known for music that

made by different groups of

performance in the home.

expressed emotions more directly than earlier styles.

musicians or singers.

and his nephew Giovanni (c.l557— 1612) wrote exciting new music

Interior of St. Marks, Venice

588

w

MUSIC

Classical music

Nationalism Romantic music was largely created

Late in the 18th century, composers reacted against the complex

by composers from Germany and

style of Baroque music and developed a simpler style. This is

Austria. Its traditions did not always suit composers elsewhere who wanted

known as Classical music, although the term “classical” is often

to express their own national

used loosely for any serious or art music.

character. Nationalist composers, such

Composers include the Austrians Haydn

as the Norwegian Edvard Gri^ (1843-1907) used folk tunes in their

(1732-1809) and Mozart (1756-1791),

music to produce works that summed

and the German Beethoven

up the nature of their own countries.

(1770-1827). Music was written in forms such as the symphony, and

Romantic music

sonatas for the newly

This dramatic style of music emerged

invented piano.

during rhe 19th century. Although composers continued to use Qassical forms,

Beethoven

such as the symphony and sonata, the

Patronage

composition

During this period, rich nobles

mood of Romantic music was more intense,

often became patrons to composers.

emotional, and individual. Composers also

Prince Paul Esterhazy employed

wrote programme music, which depicted

Haydn as director of music at his palace in Hungary; the composer

scenes and stories, using the increased

wrote much of his music here.

range of sounds available from the new instruments in the orchestra.

The symphony

Symphony

was the main

A symphony is a work usually in

form of

four sections, or movements. Each

The waltz

Classical

movement is different in character,

This romantic dance first gained

orchestral

and the music changes from one

popularity in the 19th century. When it

key to another within the

first appeared it was considered shocking,

movements, changing the mood.

because the dancers stood so close together.

Franz Liszt

Twentieth century

Recitals of piano music were popular entertainment in rhe

By 1900, tonality (the use of keys) was stretched to its limits.

Romantic era. The Hungarian

Revolutionary new styles appeared that moved away from traditional

composer and pianist Franz Liszt (1811—86) gained practically

melody and harmony. Russian composer Igor Stravinsky (1882—1971)

superstar status for his dazzling

used jagged rhythms that shocked the

Arnold

musical establishment. Some composers,

recitals of his own music, such as the Hungarian Rhapsodies. Liszt

Schoenberg

such as John Cage, introduced random

was an innovative and brilliant

elements into their music.

composer. He invented the form of the symphonic poem, which tells a story through music.

Debussy and Schoenberg Among the pioneers of early 20th-century music were the composers Claude Debussy (1862-1918)

New notation

and Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951). Debussy

John Cage

Much late-2Uth century music,

The immensely influential US composer

experimented with unusual sounds and

especially for electronic instruments,

John Cage (1912-1992) wrote music that

harmonies in his impressionist pieces, such as

cannot be written down in the

experimented with noise and chance

Prelude a Paprh-midi d’un faune. Schoenberg

traditional way. Some composers have

events, making the listener think again

wrote music that was atonal, with no feeling of

developed forms of graphic notation

about what music really is. In his highly

key, as in the Five Piano Pieces.

to represent these new sounds.

innovative works. Cage suggested that all sounds, musical or non¬

Broadcasting

musical, are of equal

The invention of the radio

interest. For instance,

and gramophone brought

the famous piece

professional music into the

Imaginary Landscape

home for the first time. Sales

No. 4 was written

of recordings helped finance

for 12 radios,

musicians, and broadcasting

tuned at random.

companies often Transistor radio, 1940s

Timeline

commissioned new works for their orchestras to perform.

Extract, “Caressing Dernity” © Natasha Barrett 1994

c.1450 Guillaume

c.1600 The first concertos,

1824 Beethovens

1912 Schoenberg

Dufay writes the mass

using contrasting groups of

Ninth Symphony

composes a set of;

4'33'', four minutes and 33

Se la face ay pale,

musicians, are published in

marks the end of

Pierrot Lunaire, in

seconds of silence.

monks Leonin and

which includes

Italy.

the Classical

which he

Peotin compose the

elements of both the

period, developing

abandons all

first properly

medieval and the new

1741 Handel completes

the symphony

sense of tonality

polyphonic music,

Renaissance styles.

The Messiah, a setting to

form so that it

c. 1200 The French

based on traditional plainsong melodies.

FIND OUT

MORE

Medieval stone carving of musician Beethoven, LUDWIG VAN

Dance

Jazz

music of religious texts

expresses intense

20th-century

known as oratorio.

human emotions.

recording

Mozart, WOLFGANG AMADEUS

Musical INSTRUMENTS

Opera

1952 John Cage composes

0

1993 French composer Pierre Boulez (b. 1925) explores computers in art music with a piece

called ... explosantefixe.

Orchestra

Rock AND POP

Sound

589

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS By producing the sounds we call notes, musical instruments make music to enrich our lives. There are many different instruments throughout the world. Most of them can be grouped into four main families, depending on how they make sound: percussion, wind (including brass and woodwind), strings, and keyboard. Until the relatively recent development of electronic music, all musical instruments were based on these types.

Brass instruments Brass instruments ate long tubes with a mouthpiece, bent into coils to make them easier to handle. Most have valves which can be pressed down to open up mote of the tube, producing different notes. With their loud, triumphant sound, brass instruments are well suited to outdoor events and grand occasions.

Percussion Percussion instruments are played by being shaken or struck. The first percussion were probably sticks and bones, banged together to accompany people while they sang. Today the huge variety of instruments ranges from drums to rattles or the triangle. Some, such as the xylophone, can be tuned to produce a definite musical note; others emphasize a rhvthm.

How they work Brass players produce sound by making their closed lips vibrate in the instruments mouthpiece. By altering the tension of the lips, the player makes different notes, and can use the valves to produce a complete scale.

Drums Drums are found worldwide. They are especially important in traditional African music, which is rhythmically complex and exciting. Longest section of tubing opened.

Wooden percussion Gong and bells

I'he short, dry sound of wooden percussion, a feature of South American

Metal percussion instruments produce long,

dance mu.sic, is produced by the claves,

sustained sounds. 1 hese vary from crashing

castanets, maracas, and

cymbals to the exquisite sound of gongs and

wood blocks.

bells produced by Indonesian gamelans.

Third valve pressed.

Early brass

Woodwind instruments

The first brass instruments

Any woodwind instrument is basically a hollow tube, with an arrangement of holes and keys. Blowing into the tube makes a column of air inside vibrate, and so give out a sound. The musician uses the keys or holes to make the column of air longer or shorter, changing the pitch of the note. The woodwind family includes the flute, pipe, whistle, recorder, clarinet, saxophone, oboe, and bassoon.

590

How they work

Early woodwind

Blowing across a bottletop

Once, all woodwind

|1

were made from conch

Q

shells and animal horns. During the Renaissance, the sackbut

(an early trombone), the cornett (a wooden trumpet), and the serpent (a bass cornett) appeared. Apart from the trombone, these instruments disappeared in the early 1800s, but have been revived.

Serpent

makes a note in the same

instruments were

Shofar

way as the panpipes and

made of wood, bur

The shofer is an unusual

flute are played. Some

today they are often

instrument made from a

woodwinds, such as the

made from metal or

rams horn; it produces

clarinet or oboe, have a

plastic. The sounds

drawn-out, sobbing

mouthpiece with a reed (a

produced by early

sounds. It is played

thin piece of cane). This

woodwind include

on important Jewish

vibrates when the player

the loud shawm, the

public and religious

blows into it; the tube of

buzzing crumhorn,

occasions, such i

the instrument modifies

and the low notes

Yom Kippur, the Day

the sound produced.

of the racket.

of Atonement.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

Stringed instruments

How they work

Antonio Stradivari

When a string is made to vibrate, the

The huge family of stringed instruments can be

sound is amplified by the body of the

divided into two main groups by the way they are

instrument. The length, thickness, and

1737) is perhaps the best-known and

normally played. Most stringed instruments,

tension of the string all affect the pitch

greatest violin-maker of all time. He

of the notes produced.

learnt his craft in Italy, placing his

1

own label on a violin for the first time

including the guitar, harp, lute, and sitar, are plucked with the fingers or a plectrum. Instruments

Italian Antonio Stradivari (1644—

in 1666. The violins and cellos he

Moving a finger up

made between 1700 and 1715 are

the string shortens

such as the violin and its relatives are usually played by drawing a horsehair bow over the strings to make them vibrate. Many cultures have their own

the length that vibrates,

considered the finest in the world,

making the note higher.

and some are still being played.

2

versions of both plucked and bowed instruments.

Strings differ in thickness - thicker,

Plucked strings

heavier strings produ
eople

of natural resources.

live in the suburbs, surrounded by forests and lakes.

Built-up

Forest

North Sea oil and gas

47.5%

are exported globally, and 99 per cent of its

Barren

own electriciry needs are

24.5% Farmland 9%

met bv hydroelectricirv.

Tundra i

Despite being the world’s largest salmon

Land use

supplier, Norway has

As only nine per cent of Norway’s land

to import much of its

can be farmed, livestock formers combine

food. Shipbuilding is

it with forestry. Like its neighbour Finland, the nation uses its rivers for hydroelectricirv.

FIND OUT

MORE

Coasts

Dams

important and there is Oil rig, Stavanger

Energy

El'ROpe, HISTORY OF

a large merchant fleet.

Fishing INDUSTRY

Glaciation

Aker Port and City Hall

Mountains AND VALLEYS

Oil

Scandinavia, HISTORY OF

Winter SPORTS

617

NOSE AND MOL TH see SMELL AND TASTE

NUCLEAR POWER

Fission reactor The heart of a fission reactor is a tough steel

At the centre oe every atom

container called a core. A continuous series of nuclear fission reactions, called a

is a tiny powerhouse called a nucleus. Strong forces hold particles called protons and neutrons together inside the nucleus. In nuclear reactions, atomic nuclei split apart (fission) or join together (fusion), rearranging the forces between the particles and releasing huge amounts of energy called nuclear power. A nuclear power station harnesses the energy from controlled nuclear reactions in a reactor to generate electricity.

chain reaction, occurs inside the core and produces intense heat. A circulating fluid called a coolant takes heat from the core to steam generators. The steam generators use the heat to convert water into jets of high-pressure steam. The steam jets drive turbine engines linked to electricity generators. Pipes carry high-pressure steam to turbines outside the reactor.

Pumps circulate coolant around the core.

Fusion reaction The joining together of two atomic nuclei is called nuclear fusion. Only light elements — those with few protons and neutrons in

Fission reaction When the nucleus of an atom splits apart it is

their nuclei — can take part in nuclear fusion reactions. At very high temperatures,

called nuclear fission. Some heavy elements have unstable nuclei that can be made to split

two hydrogen nuclei smash together and

by bombarding them with neutrons. As the

form a heavier helium nucleus, releasing

nuclei split, they release energy

energy and expelling a neutron. Fusion reactions occur in the Sun and other stars.

Uramum-235 ^

and more neutrons, which may

nucleus

strike other nuclei and start a chain reaction. Nuclear fuel rods

/ hebum-4 forms.

Nucleus of

Fast breeder A reactor that makes,

Nucleus of

hydrogen-2

or '‘breeds”, fuel for

Most hiel rods consist

itself is called a ^t

of pellets or bars of the

breeder. During the

isotope uranium-235

chain reaction, some of

held in an alloy casing.

the uranium changes

Nucleus of,

Uranium-235 has 235

into plutonium, which

hydrogen-3

protons and neutrons in

can also be used as a

the nuclei of its atoms.

nuclear fuel.

Nuclear hazards Fusion reactor The waste from nuclear fuel is

Scieniists have not yet made a practical ftjsion

dangerously radioactive, so it must be

reactor. This ring-

dumped at sea or buried safely

shaped experimental

underground. Nuclear weapons tests

reactor is called a torus.

and accidents at reactors can cause

It heats hydrogen gas to millions of degrees

long-term health hazards by releasing

so that atomic nuclei can fuse together.

Experimental fusion reactor

Enrico Fermi The Italian-born nuclear physicist Enrico Fermi (1901—1954) left Italy i 1938 to live and work in the U.SA. In 1942, he builr the

University of Chicago. Using this reactor, Fermi

m

Radioactive waste container

Nuclear weapons test

Timeline

1938 German chemis'

1942 In the USA, Enrico Fermi

2986 An explosion at the

1911 Ernest

Otto Hahn and

achieves the first chain reaction.

reactor in Chernobyl, radioactive material.

Russia, releases clouds of

Rutherfi^rd, a New

Austrian phvsicist

Zealand-born

Lise Meitner disco\

1945 Nuclear bombs destroy

physicist, proposes

nuclear fission.

Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagaiaki.

1991 In England, the JET

contains a small,

1939 German-born physicist

dense core called

Hans Bethe discovers that

1954 Russia's Obninsk reactor is

project achieves the first

a nucleus.

nuclear fusion powers the Sun

the first to generate electricity.

controlled fusion reaction.

that each atom

first nuclear reactor in a disused squash court at the

radioactive material into the air.

(Joint European Torus)

achieved the first nuclear fission chain reaction.

FIND OUT

MORE 618

Atoms and MOLECULES

Einstein, ALBERT

Energy

Matter

Meitner, LISE

Radioactivity

NUCLEAR WEAPONS see WEAPONS

NUMBERS

Counting Using numbers to find out how many items

“Five, four, tfiree, two, one ... lift off.” is the countdown we hear before a rocket launch. It is natural for people to count, and we use numbers to do so. The simplest way to represent a number is as a series of marks, or tallies, with each tally representing one item. However, it is difficult to write down or read a very large number if it is represented as a collection of tallies. Our own number system, which represents numbers using the digits 0 to 9, enables us to write, read, and manipulate large numbers easily. Arithmetic is the use of numbers in calculations.

Types of numbers numbers to count items such

must use a part of a whole number, called a fracrion, to

numbers we use to count (1, 2, 3, 4, and so on) are called counting, or natural, numbers.

Turnstiles in the Paris Metro

Negative numbers are less than zero. Percentages are

~2~f'3,'0O

fractions of 100, so

■75

^075=75^^

Decimal numbers show values less than whole numbers

ICP=10Mk\O=^100O

as digits to the ri^t of a decimal point: 0.75, for example, is

0'75=75k/(J''

seven-tenths-andfive-hundredths. ■ Scientific notation

11^

is a way of writing very large or small

for

numbers using

example, is equal to 3 divided

Powers show how many times a

powers of 10. In

100^2

by 4 (three-quarters).

number is multiplied by itself. For

per cent (%) is

the same as

Fractions are amounts expressed /

as cakes. However, if only a part of a cake is present, we

count the passengers using the trains. The

as one number divided by another. The fraction

We usually use whole

there are in a certain place is called counting. The turnstiles at a train station, for example,

Ug >000 =3

scientific notation0.75 is written as 7.5 X 10 '.

example, 10 multiplied by itself 3 times is 10 to the power of 3, or 10^.

Prime numbers arc whole numbers that

count it. Other types of Logarithms (logs) show the power to which a number

can be divided

number prove equally useful

must be raised to obtain another number. For example, the

Chalkboard showing different

exactly only by 1

in different situations.

log of raising 10 to 1,000 is 3, because 10 x 10 x lO = 1,000.

types of numbers

and by themselves.

The tablet records figures for crop yields.

Number systems

Equations

In a place-value number system, the value

An equation is two groups of symbols

of a digit in a written number depends on

and numbers separated by an equals

its position. In the number 22, the 2 on

sign (=). The numbers and symbols

the left is worth ten times more than the

on either side of the sign must be

2 on the right. We use a system based on

equal in value, just as the weights in

the number 10, but any number can be

the pans of a balance must be equal

used as the base for a place-value system.

for the pans to balance. This means

The ancient Babylonians, for example,

that if you add a number to one side

used a system based on the number 60.

of an equation, you must add the Equations always balance

same number to the other side.

Binary system

These h^t bulbs represent the binary number i know as 13. In binary form, the number 13 becomes 1101 (8 + 4 + 0 + 1).

The binary system is a

Arithemetical symbols

place-value number

The symbols + (add/plus), - (subtract/minus), x

John Napier

system based on the

(multiply), and

John Napier (1550-1617), a

number 2. The positions

ways in which numbers can be used in calculations.

of the digits in a binarv

These symbols are used in equations. For example,

many important discoveries about

number represent, from

the equation 2 + 3- 15-3 is read as: “Two plus

numbers. Napier is most famous

right to left. Is, 2s, 4s, 8s,

three equals fifteen divided by three”.

for inventing logarithms, which

(divide) represent the four main

16s, and so on. All binary numbers are made up of

Add means to find

Multiply means to make

the digits 0 and 1.

the sum of two

something a number of

numbers.

times larger.

logarithms to

became common because we first learn to count

solve problems

using our ten fingers and thumbs. Digits in denary numbers represent, from right to left. Is, 10s, 100s,

Subtract means to

1,000s, and so on. A cars odometer records the

take one number

distance a car travels using a denary counter.

HND OUT

MORE

■ a

mathematicians have used

The denary (base 10) system, or decimal system,

than the wheel to its lefi.

make complex calculations much simpler. Many and scientists

Denary system

Each wheel turns 10 times faster

Scottish mathematician, made

/

away from another.

Computers

and to devise Divide means to find ^

new theories.

out how many times one number goes into another.

Informa riON TECHNOLOGY

Mathematics

Science

Weights and measures

619

OCEAN FLOOR

The world s ocean floor

Sonar mapping

Arctic Ocean

Scientists known as oceanographers make maps of the ocean floor

Far beneath the waves are the mountains, canyons, plains, and valleys that make up the ocean floor. This underwater landscape, which is home to as fantastic a diversity of wild creatures as any continent, covers more than 60 per cent of the Earths surface. New features are continually being added to the ocean floor as molten rock wells up from the Earths hot interior through gaps in the Earths crust. Once formed, these features change very little, because they soon become covered by protective layers made up of the remains of dead sea creatures that sink to the ocean bottom.

using sonar (SOund Navigation And Ranging) instruments, which send out pulses of sound that bounce off the seabed and return as echoes. The echoes are used to produce a picture of the ocean floor. Atlantic Ocean

Southern Ocean

Ocean floor survey A survey of the ocean floor uses sonar instruments to reveal the general landscape of the seabed. To see certain features in more detail, oceanographers send down camera sleds carrying video and still cameras and powerful lights to pierce the darkness. Sonar image of mud flows on seabed

Submarine landscape The ocean floor is really the entire seabed below the low-tide mark, but when people refer to the ocean floor, they usually mean the ocean-basin floor. This is the part of the seabed that lies beyond the continental shelf. Most of the ocean-basin floor is more than 2,000 m (6,500 ft) under the

Continental shelf is the

Features of the ocean floor

water. It is largely flat, but dotted with huge mountains called seamounts.

gently sloping area between the edge of a continent and

Mid-ocean ridge

Deep ocean trench, formed where one

the deep ocean. ^

(vap in ocean floor).

section of the seabed dips beneath another

Continental crust

the smooth sea floor covered with a thick

I

% largely the rerhains of sea creatures

Hydrothermal vents

Goods from the ocean floor

Down on the ocean floor are strange,

Marie Tharp American oceanographer

chimney-like structures that gush dark

The seabed is rich in valuable materials, and many

Marie Tharp (b.l920)

clouds of sulphur-rich hot tvater from

people are trying to find ways of exttacting them.

collated the results of a

the Earths interior. These structures

large number of surveys

are called hydrothermal vents, or

Already 20 per cent of the worlds oil comes from

“black smokers”. The warm water

beneath the seabed, extracted by oil rigs floating

picture of the world s

around these vents provides a home

on the surface. The rocks of the ocean floor also

ocean floor. Her

contain important deposits of diamonds, tin,

painstaking work

for huge quantiries of marine life.

gold, and billions of tonnes of manganese nodules Mussels and clams up

to build up a complete

revealed the existence of

(rocky lumps rich in metals). Even the mud on

long chains of undersea mountains, now known

the ocean floor contains silver, copper, and zinc.

as mid-ocean ridges.

Unpolished diamond

to 30 cm

crystals

(1ft) tong

Tube-worm tentacles up to 3 m (10 ft) long

i20

FIND OUT

MORE

Continents

Radar and SONAR

Volcanoes

OCEANS

AND

SEAS

Ocean depths The deepest places on Earth arc ocean trenches,

From space, planet earth appears blue because the majority of its surface is covered by oceans and seas. There are five great oceans: the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans, which all merge into the Southern Ocean around Antarctica, and the Arctic Ocean. Seas, such as the Mediterranean, Baltic, and Red Seas, are smaller expanses of water, often surrounded by land and connected to the oceans by narrow straits. The waters of the seas and oceans are constantly on the move, driven by the wind and the tides, and by powerful currents coursing through the ocean depths. Arctic Ocean is covered

Mediterranean Sea was an

by a thick sheet of

ocean before shrinking to its

ice for most of

present size.

the year.

where the ocean floor plunges so steeply that the waters above could easily swallow Mount Everest. The first vessel to explore the deep ocean was a cast-iron sphere built in 1930 bv the American Otis Barton. The Frenchman Jacques Cousteau made great advances in the 1960s with his “diving saucer” submersibles.

Oceans and ocean currents All the worlds great oceans are interlinked, forming a continuous expanse of water. Prevailing winds

NORTH

disturb this water and cause surface

AMERI«:.A

currents — large flows of water rhat travel thousands of kilometres. At a deeper level, differences in the waters temperature and salinity cause vast

Pacific Ocean

deep-water currents to circulate. Indian

J

Alvin ^

subtnarine:

xmo m (12.mft)

Ocean

Sea water

SOUTH

Sea “water" is only 96.5 per

AMERICA Indian

\ Atlantic

Ocean,

Ocean is

is dissolved mineral salts. The salt

growing larger

content, or salinity, of oceans and

Soutliem Ocean

with its warm

f

tropical waters,

as Europe

is home to a

and North

rich variety of

Southern Ocean

Pacific Ocean covers

marine life.

surrounds Antarctica.

one-third of Earth.

America drift slowly apart.

cent of water; most of the rest

seas is highest in shallow tropical waters, where water quickly

7**^

I

evaporates, and lowest in polar regions, where melting ice dilutes the concentration of salts.

Ocean zones

Continental shelf

Sublittoral zone;

(edge of continent)

surface down to

180-1,800 m

180 m (590 ft)

(590-5.900 ft)

Scientists divide the waters of

_Sea water

Bathyal zone:

the oceans into different zones, according to their depth beneath the surface. The relatively light, warm sublittoral zone is where most fish live. Few creatures live in the bleak abyssal zone above the deep ocean floor because it is

Continental slope (between

always icy cold and pitch black, and the water pressure is intense.

continent and

Abyssal zone: below

^ Abyssal plain

deep ocean)

1,800 m (5.900 ft)

(ocean floor)

Tides

™

Tidal range

The sea rises and floods on to the

Moon

The difference between the waters

Salts in 1 kg (2.2 lb) of sea water

height at high and

shore twice each day, and then

low tide is called the

ebbs away again. These daily

tidal range. This is

changes in sea-level are called

usually between 2-.5m(7-]0ft)at

high and low tides. The strong

places on the open

gravitational pull between the

coast. In some river

Earth, Moon, and Sun stretches

mouths and bavs, the

the Earth into an oval, making the

tidal range may be as

oceans bulge up on either side of the

great as 17 m (56 ft).

Eatth. As the Earth rotates, these bulges move across the globe, causing tides. FIND OUT

MORE

Continents

Earth SCIENCES

River mouth at Gravitational pull

high and low tide

Energy

621

OCEANIA see AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA

OCEAN WILDLIFE

Oceans The ocean can be divided into zones. The surface is a hard place to live, being exposed to the Sun and the

^

The ocean covers rwo-thirds of the waves. The sunlit watets just below the surface are ^ p Earths surface. This vast body of water where life is most abundant. Below that light begins to fade until, by 1,000 m (3,280 ft), there is no light at all. ' is home to a great variety of plants and animals. On the ocean floor, there are underwater mountain ranges, plains covered with clays and mud-like oozes, deep trenches, and submerged mountains called sea mounts. Animals live in all of these regions and in all depths of the ocean. Generally, food i is scarce in the deep sea because there is no light for photosynthesis, which enables plant growth. Plants are restricted to the sunlit waters near the surface, where they either drift in the sea or float, anchored to the seabed. Ocean Most ocean animals. I A rich variety of marine I Reptiles such as I such as fish, breathe turtles have to animals live on coral wildlife is at its richest in the warm, by absorbing oxygen come to the surface reef, from giant clams shallow waters of coral reefs. from the water. to breathe air. to bristly coloured fish.

Plants

Mammals

Nostrils on the upper

Large eyes adjust

The largest plants in the oceans are the

Several groups of mammals have

part of the snout

to seeing both in

seaweeds and sea grasses. The most abundant

colonized the ocean. The most

ocean plantlife ate the microscopic organisms,

well-adapted to ocean life are the

air and water. Whiskers are sensitive to

such as diatoms, which drift in the sea. These

whales and dolphins, which have

are called phytoplankton. Phytoplankton get

lost their hind limbs and use

vibrations in

their food through photosynthesis and fotm

their tails to swim instead.

the water.

the basis of the ocean food chain.

Whales and dolphins give

touch and

birth at sea, unlike seals and walruses, which breed on shore.

Skin goes red

Sea lions

when the

These superb swimmers use mainly

walrus is

their front flippers to “row” through

hot._

the water. They can also walk on land. Male sea lions are much larger than females. In the breeding season, males have a territory where they keep guard

Sargassum weed

Sea grasses

Thi-S seaweed is not anchored

Sea grasses grow in shallow

over a group of females.

to the seabed. It floats free in

coastal waters. They are

tangled mars in the calm

among only a few flowering

Sperm whale

waters of the Sargas,so Sea in

plants that live in sea water.

The deepest diver of all mammals, the

the northwestern Atlantic.

They have proper roots that

Walrus

sperm whale can go down even deeper

Animals like this sargassum

absorb nutrients and help

Walruses live in the icy waters of the far

than 1,000 m (3,280 ft). In its head is

crab live among the seaweed.

anchor them to the seabed.

north, where they feed mostly on shellfish on the seabed. Thev haul out on ice floes and along the coast. Walruses

Plankton

have thick blubber fo keep them warm.

Tiny animals that drift in

Both males and females have tusks.

the sea are known as zooplankton. These

Humpback whale

animals feed on the

Humpbacks often break through the

phytoplankton. Some of

surface of the water, called breaching.

the animals spend all their

This mav be a signal to other

lives as plankton; others

humpbacks, and perhaps a method

are the young stages of

of stunning shoals ot fish. It mav also

animals such as crabs.

dislodge irritating skin parasites.

622

the spermaceti organ

a huge

mass of oily, waxy tissues which may help to regulate the whales buoyancy.

OCEAN WILDLIFE

Broad front

Reptiles

Invertebrates

Once, huge reptiles such as ichthyosaurs

Life first evolved and diversified

lived in the ocean. Today there are only a

into different forms in the sea.

few groups of ocean-dwelling reptiles.

There are more major groups, or

Sea turtles and snakes live in warm

phyla, of animals in the sea than

Flattened shell

waters. Turtles return to

on land. One phylum is the

land to lay eggs; most

vertebrates. All the others are

sea snakes give birth

invertebrates, or animals

to live young in

without backbones.

With their long legs, sea spiders look like land

the water.

Invertebrates are found in all

spiders, but thev are not related. Sea spiders

Sea spiders

belong to a group called pycnogomds, which

parts of the ocean from the

have members that live on the shore all the

surface to the deep sea.

way down to the deep sea, like this one. Eyes around the of the shell

Sea turtles Sensory

Sea turtles swim using their front limbs to “fly” through the water. They use their back limbs as

The green turtle is an

rudders. They have a less-domed shell than land

endangered species.

tortoises, and so are more streamlined. Most sea turtles are meat eaters, feeding on animals such as jellyfish and sponges. The green

Queen scallop

turtle grazes on sea grasses.

One of manv clams that live in the ocean, scallops are unusual because they swim bv

Peacock worms

Sea snakes have flattened tails with

jet propulsion. Most clams use a single foot

Of the many worms on

which they propel themselves

to move, or are anchored to a rock Clams

the seabed, peacock worms

through the water. They are some

are bivalve molluscs, which have a shell with

of the most venomous snakes in the

two matching halves, called valves.

Sea snakes

are among the most beautiful. The fan-like crown filters particles of

world. Fortunately for people, they

food from the current.

have small mouths better adapted for biting fish than humans.

Portuguese-man-of-war

The>' can be retracted into

A gas-filled balloon keeps the man-of-war at

the tube in a split second

the surface. The animal is composed of many

if a hungry fish .swims by.

individuals devoted to different tasks, such as

Fish

feeding and reproduction. The long trailing

About one-third of the 25,000 species of fish

Glass-rope sponge

tentacles have particularly fierce stings.

, Dorsal fin

Sponges filter food from the

live in the ocean, including members of all

water. They have skeletons

three main groups of fish — the jawless fish,

composed of needle-like silica

cartilaginous fish, and bony fish. Some fish

spicules. In the glass sponge, the skeleton has developed into long

live in open waters, from the surface to the

glassy strands that anchor

deep. Others live on the seabed where

the sponge to the soft

they may hide in holes and crevices,

seabed in deep water.

or in the sand. Spinner shark A sleek predator, the spinner shark lives in warm offshore waters. It sometimes spins around, which may cause confusion in a shoal of fish, an individual easier to catch Mouth beneath snout

Ray Most ravs live close to the bottom

Angler fish

of the sea, where many

Hatchet fish

feed on shellfish,

These fish live in

crushing them with

the twilight zone of

their flattened teeth.

An inhabitant of the dark depths of the ocean, this angler This model

fish has a lure to attract prey

the ocean where a little light

TTiev are cartilaginous

of a female

close to its large mouth. With

filters down Irom the surface. Thev have rows

fish related to sharks.

angler fish

of light-producing organs on their bellies and

They swim through the

shows it with

Stomach can

tails, which make them harder to see from

water bv undulating

its mouth open

stretch to

below against the little light that there is.

their wing-like side fins.

ready for a meal.

twice the size.

FIND OUT

MORE

Ocean FIOOR

Prehistoric LIFE

Seals

Seaweeds and OTHER ALGAE

its wide gape and stretchy

Sharks and RAYS

stomach, the angler fish can take in prey twice its size, making the most of the food available.

Turtles and TORTOISES

Whales and DOLPHINS

62.5

OCTOPUSES

AND

SQUIDS

Streamlined, torpedoshaped body

/

Together with cuttlefishes and

nautiluses, octopuses and squids belong to a group of molluscs called cephalopods. They live in the sea, floating or moving through the water by jet propulsion, or crawling along the seabed. Cephalopods have a well-developed Tentacles are nervous system and brain. Many can the equivalent to the foot of change colour rapidly for camouflage, to other molluscs confuse predators, or to attract a mate.

Cephalopod features Cephalopod means “head¬

Squids As well as eight arms, squids have two

footed ones”: all have a head surrounded by tentacles. The eyes are prominent and often complex. Cephalopods breathe through gills. They have beak¬

retractile tentacles. These have suckers, often with horny rings for gripping prey. Squids have a horny shell inside the body, called a pen. They have

like jaws and a ribbon-like,

two side fins that they

toothed tongue called a radula.

use as stabilizers.

Bag-like body can be reduced in size to squeeze through small spaces

Octopuses The most familiar octopuses live in Suckers can

shallow water among rocks and coral reefs, but there are also deep sea kinds. Octopuses

both taste

have a bag-like body with eight arms that they

and feel

use to crawl along the seabed and to hold prey.

Arms can be

Movement

regenerated

Octopuses use their arms to crawl. To make

if torn off

a quick escape, they squirt water through a funnel and jet off with their arms trailing behind. Squids use jet propulsion more, to dart back and forth. Over short distances, squids are among the fastest sea creatures, reaching up to 32 km/h (20 mph). Cross-section of

Defence

Cuttlefishes spend much

nautilus shell

of the time resting

The soft-bodied cepahalopods are vulnerable to attack. Many octopuses hide away in holes during the day, coming out only at night to find food. Squids often rise to the surface water at night, when Buoyancy control

there is less chance of being attacked by daytime predators, such as seabirds. Colour change Like octopuses, cuttlefishes can turn

As a chambered nautilus grows,

Decoys

it adds a chamber to its .shell.

Squirting ink out of its funnel,

The new chamber is filled with

■♦r this cuttlefish may confuse an

fluid that is gradually absorbed

attacker. Cuttlefishes, squids, and

and replaced by gas. The

octopuses all produce ink from

chambers keep the nautilus

lighter or darker to

sacs inside their body. Some deep-

centrally buoyant, so it does not

match the background

sea squids produce luminous ink.

have to expend energy swimming

by contracting or

to stop itself sinking.

Hovering By undulating their side fins, cuttlefishes hover in mid-water. They have a shell called a cuttlebone inside their body that helps to regulate their buoyancy.

expanding bags of pigment in their skin.

Common octopus

Some cephalopods turn vivid colours when irritated or when

Scientific name Octopus vulgaris

threatening an attacker.

Order Octopoda Family Octopodidae Distribution Atlantic Ocean,

Bites

Cuttlefish becomes lighter

Cephalopods use their beak¬

Jet propulsion

like jaws to bite their prey and to

All cephalopods can move by jet

defend themselves. After taking a bite, some inject toxic

propulsion. Squids usually jet off

saliva to subdue their prey. The saliva of the blue-ringed

backward. They take water into

octopus can be strong enough to kill a person.

the body cavity and expel it through a funnel near their head.

HND OUT

MORE 624

Camouflage

They move the position of the Snails and OTHER MOLLUSCS

funnel to change direction.

Mediterranean and Caribbean seas FiABiTAT Rocky seabed in coastal waters Diet Shellfish, such as crabs, and fish Size Arm span on average 60—90 cm (23-35 in) long Lifespan Males up to 15 years

OERSTED, HANS CHRISTIAN see ELEC I'ROMAGNETISM

OIL

Oil reservoirs Most oil is found underground, but some mav seep to the surface, sometimes creating

huge lakes. Examples are Deep down in the earth, trapped by layers Guanoco Lake in Venezuela of rock, lie pools of the thick, black liquid called and Pitch Lake in Trinidad. The liquid in these lakes is oil. 'It is a fossil fuel, produced from decayed thick because light substances in the oil have evaporated. animal and plant life that lived in the seas millions An oil reservoir of years ago. Properly termed petroleum, oil has become a vital commodity in the world. Once refined, it is the Oil exploration source of petrol, kerosene, and diesel fuels. It also Oil prospectors search for areas that may contain oil and yields petrochemicals that are used to make a variety take measurements with instruments such as gravity meters of products, including perfumes and plastics. Close and magnetometers (to measure local magnetism). They carry out seismic surveys that reveal the underground rock to oil reserves there are often deposits of natural gas, structure. If they locate possible rock formations with which are also produced by the bacterial breakdown deposits of oil, they then drill an exploratory well. of ancient marine life.

Seismic surveying

Drilling

Land wells

Oil geologists often search for oil reserves by carrying out a

When oil is struck, the

seismic survey. This involves sending shock waves into the

Oil is extracted through boreholes

original borehole must

ground and recording their echoes which may locate likely

drilled into the ground. Drilling

be developed into a

reserves. Some geologists also use remote-sensing satellites

working well. If the oil

that can spot details of rock formations in the ground.

takes place from a rig, notable for

flows naturally to the

its tall tower called a derrick.

surface under pressure,

Beneath the derrick a rotary table

the borehole steel casing is capped and

turns the drill pipes, which are

fitted with valves. If

added one by one as the hole

not. pumps are

deepens. A toothed drill bit at

installed to force the oil to the surface.

the end of the bottom pipe cuts through the rock as it rotates.

Geologists conduct a seismic survey on a glacier in Spitsbergen, Norway.

Oil production well

The derrick provides

Sea wells

support for the drilling

When oil is struck offshore, the borehole is

equipment.

temporarily capped and the production rig moves in. A production platform is installed from which more boreholes are drilled close to the original strike. Finally machinery is fitted, ready to extract oil from the seabed.

Transporting oil Generators are

Two main methods are used to transport

needed to generate

oil from the oil fields to the refineries. Oil

the rigs power for

is usually carried across land by means of a

everything from

pipeline — for example, the United States

pumping oil ashore The drill floor

Oil rig at sea

to heating the crew

has about 300,000 km (200,000 miles) of

quarters.

oil pipelines. Tankers are used to carry oil

contains the pipes

cargoes across the oceans.

and valves that regulate the incoming flow of oil from the producing wells.

The helideck provides space for helicopters to land.

Tankers Tankers are among the biggest ships afloat, and may carry more than 500,000 tonnes of oil. For safety, the crude oil cargo is carried in a series of separate tanks to prevent it surging, which would otherwise capsize the ship.

Pollution Oil can cause damage to the environment. Oil pipelines may burst and Oil wells

pollute the land, and

are used to

Lifeboat is

force the oil

lowered in an

up CO the

emergency.

surface. Two

tankers may collide with other vessels or run aground, spilling their cargp into the sea. Beaches

of the wells

A steel

become dirty, and

are used for

framework

wildlife is threatened.

gas injection.

supports the rig beneath

Burning oil releases

the sea.

poisonous fiimes

625

InHI

OIL

Refining

Cracking After distillation,

Crude oil is a complex

cracking is the most

mixture of hydrocarbons

important refining

and in this form it is of limited

process. This chemical reaction breaks down

use. However, oil is easily

heavy oil fraaions into

processed, or refined, into a

lighter compounds,

host of useful products. The

to make useful

major process in an oil refinery

products such as petrol. Another

is distillation, which splits up

product of cracking

the oil into different sets,

is ethene, the starting point for many

called fractions, of hydrocarbons.

plastics and

efinery at Antwerp, Belgi

solvents.

Oil products The initial distillation

Collection of perfumes

^

process in an oil refinery produces the most familiar

»

oil products, such as kerosene and diesel oil. Cracking and polymerization (building up light fractions) yield a variety of

Ethanol

chemicals, called petrochemicals. These have

This is the intoxicating substance found

become the lifeblood of the chemical industry,

in alcoholic drinks such as beer, wines, and spirits. In industry ethanol is used

Oil nations Oil deposits are not distributed evenly around the world.

and are the main compounds used for making

as a solvent, or dissolving substance, in

products such as as plastics and ethanol.

the manufacture of products such as

The largest deposits are found in the Middle East, the

paints, perfumes, and dyes.

United States, and the countries of the former Soviet Union. Saudi Arabia is the biggest oil producer, with

Plastics

an output of about 8 million barrels a day, about a fifth

Plastics are used throughout the

of the world total.

modern world. Thev are used

Middle

in a variety of products from

United

clothing to household Items.

States ^

, East

Three of the most important are polvrhene, polwinvl chloride (both derived from ethene), and nylon.

Kerosene

Petrol

Kerosene is an oil fraction

Of all oil products, petrol is

which contains heavier

the most valuable, because

hydrocarbons than petrol. It

it powers most car engines.

has a higher boiling point and

Petrol is a mixture of light

so vaporizes less readily. Its

hydrocarbons which turn

main use is as fuel for aircraft

easily to vapour. It contains

jet engines. In the home,

additives to make it burn

kerosene is used in portable

evenly, including, in leaded

heaters, and was once used in

petrol, lead tetraethyl.

oil lamps. In industry, it is a

- North Afric Other oil reserves

icipal oil reserves

OPEC Iwelve oil nations from the Middle East, -South America, and Africa belong to the Organization of

Petrol is also used for

valuable solvent for paints.

making some plastics.

Kerosene lamp

Petrol pump

Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). It wa-s set up in 1960 to safeguard members’ interests against

Natural gas

what they .saw as exploitation by Western countries.

Gas impurities

Liquid gas The butane and propane

fraces of other gases are found in natural

Natural gas formed millions of years

found in natural gas can

gas as well as hydrocarbons. These include

ago beneath the sea. It is called natural

be liquified easily under

carbon dioxide, sulphur compounds, and

gas to distinguish it from manufactured

pressure. In this form

helium. These gases

gases such as coal gas. Like oil

it is sold as bottled gas,

may be present in

such as that found in

siiificient quantities

natural gas is a mixture of

camping stoves and

for industrial use.

hydrocarbons. It contains

cigarette lighters. Natural

For example,

gas is often liquified b)*

sulphur can be

refrigeration in order to

used to make

and ethane. Major gas-

transport it in tankers.

sulphuric acid, while

producing countries

In this form the gas

helium is used to fill

include Russia,

takes up less space.

balloons and airships

the United States,

Camping stove fuelled

Balloons filled with

Canada, and Indonesia.

by liquid gas

helium gas

methane, butane, propane,

HND OUT

MORE 626

Airships and BALLOONS

Coal

Cars and TRUCKS

Chemistry

Gases

Geology

Gulf SlATES

Plastics and RUBBER

Rocks and MINERALS

Soviet union

OLMECS >1

Around

1300 bc, in the

swampy lowlands of the jl Gulf of Mexico, one J people began to stand out from the rest: the Olmecs. Because they lived mainly from farming, not hunting, they started to live a settled lifestyle. This enabled them to build towns and create a new kind of civilization. In their major towns, they built ceremonial centres with public buildings, temples, and massive stone sculptures of their rulers. Because of these achievements, Olmec culture is considered one of the first great civilizations of America. They worshipped a jaguar god, and so were known as the “People of the Jaguar”.

Olmec centres The Olmec ceremonial centres were sacred places, with pyramid temples, vast stone heads, and

La Venta

decorated monuments. TTie biggest

This was the largest Olmec

ceremonial centres included those

centre, in the modern Mexican state of Veracruz,

at San Lorenzo and La Venta.

It was built on a small , \Jl Venta

Stone relief showing

island in coastal mangrove swamps. At its heart were pyramids, altars, long

Olmec ruler.

circular mounds, rows of Olmec empire

stone columns, and tombs.

Head (5 ft) tall and ghs over 20 tonnes. Distinctive royal headdress

Coiossal head known as “El Rey”, the king

Colossal heads The most famous of all Olmec monuments are colossal sculptured heads made of basalt, a dark volcanic rock. These heads represented actual people, probably Olmec rulers. Each head bears a head-dress with its own distinctive emblem, a symbol which identified the persons rank and family line.

Worship

Art

Many early American

The fitst Olmec artists produced small statues in

societies believed that

clay. The Olmecs were well known for their human

when the world was

figures, often with the faces of newborn babies.

created, a tace of part-

Later they mastered stone carving. They produced

human, part-jaguar

a wide range of work, from massive stone heads

beings was born. In

and carved reliefs to small sculptures and jewellery,

Olmec civilization, these

using materials such as jade, serpentine (a green or

beings were identified

brown mineral), and basalt.

with the ptiest-leaders. The spirit of the jaguar god was thought to live in the priests, giving them strength and agility, and Jaguar spirit 1 his ceremonial stone axe was carried by an Olmec priest in

making them Masters of People, just as the jaguar

Stone figures This group of jade and granite figures and tall ceremonial axes was

religious ceremonies. It is

was Master of Animals.

carved with the image of the

There were other gods,

temple. It probably represented a

including a rattlesnake.

group of leaders or priests.

spirit of the jaguar ^d.

left as an offering in an Olmec

Food

jade masks 1 he Olmecs were fascinated by

The staple food of the Olmecs was maize, which they used to

Jade necklace Green stones were valued more

the human face and many of their

than any other in ancient

sculptures are stone masks.

Central America. Jade in particular was favoured by the

make porridge, or baked into

Jade fish

Sometimes these masks were

pancakes. Olmec farmers also

Fish were popular in coastal

portraits of real people, such as

rich as a material for jewellery.

regions and near rivers.

ball game players, rulers, or

This necklace, with its central

cultivated vegetables such as beans and squashes, and the

human head, would have been

They could be caught with

nobles. Other masks showed the

nets, hooks, or harpoons.

faces of figures from the stories in

prized by a member of the

Olmec mythology.

Olmec nobility.

tomato was popular To vary this diet of vegetables, the Olmecs ate the meat of deer and rabbits.

FIND OUT

MORE

Central America, HISTORY OF

Gods and GODDESSES

Maya

627

o

OLYMPIC GAMES The modern Olympic games, held every

four years, are the world s greatest festival of sporting competition. First held in 1896, they were inspired by the ancient Greek Olympics, which lasted for 1,000 years. Thousands of athletes, representing most countries in the world, assemble in a selected city to compete in more than 20 different sports. There are separate Winter Olympics for sports on ice and snow, and Paralympics for the disabled. Atlanta opening These games are also held every four years. ceremony, 1996

Opening ceremony Olympic venues

At the opening ceremony, each country’s athletes march

Olympic sports

The flame

Date

Venue

teams with hundreds of

1896

Athens, Greece

competitors, others with onlv

1900

Paris, France

Athletics has always been the major

one or two. The host city puts

1004

St Louis, USA

Olympic attraction, but other sports,

on a spectacular show.

1908

Before every Games, a flame is lit from the rays

into the stadium in turn, some

ol the Sun at the site of the ancienr Olympics in

such as swimming, gymnastics, and

Greece. The flame is transferred by a torch relay

show jumping, also have huge

Medals

to the Olympic Stadium,

television audiences. Team games,

Gold medals are awarded for

where it burns for the

such as soccer and hockey, are also

duration of the Games. In

first place, silver for second, and bronze for third. All members of

1996, the boxer

popular. The Games were originally

successful teams receive a medal

Muhammad Ali was the

for amateurs only, but professionals

provided they have taken part in

final torch bearer.

are now allowed to participate.

at least one match or heat.

Pierre de Coubertin

London, England

1912

Stockholm, Sweden

1920

Antwerp, Belgium

1924

Paris. France

1928

Amsterdam, Holland

1932

Los Angeles, USA

1936

Berlin, Germany

1948

London, England

1952

Helsinki, Finland

1956

Melbourne, Australia

1960

Rome, Italy

1964

Tokyo,japan

1968

Mexico City, Mexico

French scholar Pierre de

1972

Coubertin (1863-1937)

19*^6

Montreal, Canada

pioneered the modern

1980

Moscow, USSR

Munich, West Germany

Olympics. Inspired in the

1984

Los Angeles, USA

1870s by the excavation of

1988

Seoul, South Korea

ancient Olympia, he founded

1996 gold

1992

Barcelona, Spain

the International Olympic

medal

1996

Atlanta, USA

Committee, the governing body of the Games, in 1894.

2000

Sydney, Australia

2004

Athens, Greece

1996 1996 medal

Winter Olympics

1 Gold medals

The first separate Winter Olympics were staged in 1924 at Chamonix in France. Figure

bronze

/w some sports, both losing semi-

medal

finalists receive a bronze medal.

The Olympic rings

are made of

Five interlinking rings are the symbol of the

silver with a

Olympic Games. They appear on the Olympic

gold coating.

flag on a white background and were designed to

skating had been included in the summer

represent the coming together of the five “parts of

schedule in 1908 and ice hockey was included

the world” involved in the Olympic Movejtient when

in 1920. The Winter Olympics were held in

the flag was adopted in 1914.

the same year as the main Olympics until 1992 but, as from 1994, in Lillehammer, Norway, they are now held midway between

Paralympic events

Paralympics

There are events in the Paralvmpics for

Immediately after the main Olympics,

the summer Games.

competitors in

a parallel set of games called the

The ice sports are figure and speed skating, and ice hockey. On snow, there is downhill and cross-country skiing and ski-jumping. Freestyle skiing events have recently been added. Sled sports are bobsleigh and tobogganing. The start of a downhill race

HND OUT

MORE 628

wheelchairs, for the

Paralympics is staged for people who

Winter events

Athletics

blind or partially sighted, for amputees,

have physical disabilities. The events

and for those with

take place at the the same venues as

cerebral palsy.

the Olympics. They have been held

Seventeen sports are

every four years since 1960. Sport for

staged, including athletics, swimming,

the disabled was pioneered by Dr

archen', basketball,

Ludwig Guttman, who used it in

ind tennis.

the treatment of soldiers who had

Tanni Grey, winner of

been disabled during World War II.

gold in 1992 and 1996

Combat SPORTS

Gymnastics

Horse riding

Sport

Swimming and diving

Winter sports

OPERA opera is a musical drama in which singers act out a story, accompanied by an orchestra. Typically, an opera includes passages of sung dialogue, known as recitative, which move the plot along; solo songs called arias, that allow major characters to express their feelings; and scenes that feature a rousing chorus. The earliest operas appeared in Italy and were based on stories from classical mythology. Later, operas also dealt with political and historical subjects.

An

(f) Jenny Lind Major singers Operatic soloists can become internationally famous, jenny Lind (1820-87) was known as the Swedish Nightingale. The Italian tenor Luciano Pavarotti (b.l935) and the New Zealand soprano Kiri Te Kanawa (b.l944) are stars worldwide. Libretto for Cosi Fan Tutti, by Mozart

Voices In an opera company the leading female soloist, or prima donna, is usually a

Libretto

soprano, the highest female voice; the

The text of an opera is called

leading man often has a high tenor voice.

the libretto. It may be adapted from a play or novel, or written

Singers with lower voices, such as the

specially for the composer. Only

female contralto or the bass (male), may

occasionally does the composer

also appear as soloists.

write both libretto and music.

Types of opera

Staging an opera

There are many different forms of opera.

It takes an enotmous numbet of people to stage an

In 18th-century Italy, opetas were in the

opera and make it an exciting musical and dtamatic

style of opera seria (serious opera) or opera

spectacle. In addition to the singers and orchestra,

huffa (comic opera). Composers worked

designers and backstage staff are needed to take care of

within or around the traditions of these

the spectaculat sets, costumes, and lighting. A directot

different styles to arrive at new forms -

works closely with the conductor to match the dtama

for example, the serious opetas of German

with the music.

composer Richard Wagner (1813-83) are Famous opera houses

called music dramas.

Ornate interior of

Early operas were staged in theatres, but

Grand opera

opera house

soon buildings were made specifically for

Grand opera, featuring

opera. Now, most major cities have opera

large choruses, elaborate

houses which can put on the most lavish

scores, and spectacular sets,

productions. Among the best known are

first developed in IQth-

\ Boxes

century France.

Covent Garden, London; La Scala, Milan; and The Metropolitan, New York.

Musicals Light, small-scale operas developed into the musicals

Giuseppe Verdi

of Jerome Kern (1885-1945)

The Italian composer

and others in the 1920s,

Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901)

weaving songs and dance

wrote 27 operas. However, an

around a modern storv.

early opera &iled so badly that he almost gave up! Instead, he went on to write

William Tell:

La Traviata, Ai'da, and his

grand operas are lavishly

masterpiece Oteilo, written

staged.

when he was over 70.

Timeline

1637 In Italy, public

West Side

1607 La Farola

opera house opens.

Story; in

d'Orfeo, by Claudio

MORE

1937 Lulu, by Alban

by US composer

Berg (1885-1935), is

George Gershwin

performed.Written in

1876 Richard Wagner

Monteverdi

1"'91 Wolfgang

as The Ring of the

(1898-1937), with

an experimental,

was made of

(1567 1643), one of

Amadeus Mozarts

Nibelttng, and sets up

music influenced by

harsh-sounding style,

this 1950s’

the first real operas,

The Magic Flute is

the Bayreuth Festival

jazz elements, opens

the music suits the

musical.

is performed in Italy.

first performed.

for his work.

in Boston, USA.

violent, tragic story.

1961, a film

FIND OUT

1935 Porgy and Bess,

finishes the major series of operas known

Films and

FILM-MAKING

Jazz

Mozart,

WOLFGANG AMADEUS

Music

Musical

Orchestra

Sound

Theatres

INSTRUMENTS

629

OPTICS sec NEWTON, ISAAC • ORAL HISTORY sec HISTORY • ORANGUTANS see MONKEYS AND OTHER PRIMATES Beginnings

ORCHESTRAS

Classical orchestras first appeared in Europe during the 17th century. Thev consisted of about 25 string players, usually with a harpsichord

of an orchestra in concert is one of the great thrills of classical music. An orchestra is a group of musicians playing together under the direction of a conductor. The players perform specially composed music that combines 18th-century orchestra specific instruments to achieve a balanced, total sound. The stringed instruments (violin, viola, cello, and Sections The orchestra is divided into double bass) are the basis of every orchestra, four sections by type of instrument: strings, woodwind, but orchestral music often includes wind and brass, and percussion. percussion instruments also. The glorious sound

accompaniment. By the mid-18th century, wind instruments and kettledrums were also included. Through the 19th century, orchestras grew very rapidly: composers were able to write symphonies for more than a hundred players. This gaye a wider range of different sounds.

Symphony orchestra The number and type of instruments in an orchestra

Concerto

depends on the style of music

Many concerts include a piece called a

being played. Symphonies are

concerto, featuring a solo musician

written for a full range of

accompanied by the orchestra. Concertos for piano, vjojin, and cello are most

musical instruments. Many

popular, but they haye been written

new instruments have

for almost eyery instrument.

appeared since the first Leader

orchestras, particularly in

The principal violinist, known

the wind and percus,sion

as the leader, sits nearest the conductor. In the first

sections; modern

orchestras, there was no

orchestras include

conductor, and the leader

most of them. Louder

beat time. Today

instruments are placed

the leader is a deputy conductor who helps with

to the back; quieter

the man^ement of the

instruments are in front.

Layout of modern symphony orchestra

Conductors stand

An orchestra usually

orchestra, and sometimes

contains about 90 musicians.

plays solo parts in concerts.

Chamber orchestra

Conductor

Some pieces need an orchestra of only

The conductors role is to draw the best

about 25 players. Such a group is known as

possible performance of a piece of music

a chamber orchestra. There are only a few

from the orchestra. Standing on a raised

Thomas Beecham .Sir Thomas Beecham (18^9-1961) was a •

performers for each part. They often play

platform, he or she beats

early music on authentic instruments.

time, and interprets the mood

British orchestra] and operatic conductor. He was a popular figure who used his own fortune to

of the music with

Chamber music Classical music written for verv small groups of

gestures and facial

in,struments is called chamber music. Such pieces

expressions.

promote music, by financing performances of new works, and founding orchestras and

are usually written for between three and eight

opera companies.

musicians, with one player for each part; a

Conductors expression

popular combination is the string quartet,

tells the violinists to

which has two violins, a viola, and a cello.

play with delicacy.

Band A group of musicians that play wind and percussion

Beating time

instruments only, with¬

The conductors baton traces patterns

out a strings section, is

through the air, indicating the tempo

normally known as a

of the music to the orchestra.

band. Military and marching brass bands are suited to playing outdoors at sports events and ceremonies; dance bands have been popular since ^

the Renaissance. Rock and pop groups are also

Beats per bar: baton movements

FIND OUT

MORE 6.50

Bai let

Beethoven, LUDWIG VAN

Jazz

Mozarl, WOLFGANG AMADEUS

sometimes called bands.

Music

Musical INSTRUMENTS

Opera

Rock AND POP

THEATRF.S

ORES see METALS • OSTRICH sec FI IGHTLESS BIRDS • OTTERS see BADGERS, OTTERS. AND SKUNKS • OTTO I see HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

OTTOMAN EMPIRE HI

, Budapest

3

were originally a nomadic tribe of r! Asiatic horsemen with a fearsome reputation. From the l ' l4th to the 17th centuries, these devout Muslim warriors ' : fil carved out an empire spanning Greece, the Balkans, North Africa, western Asia, and the Middle East. The empires great success was largely due to its custom of rewarding its people for their talent rather than their noble birth. After 1600, the empire went into a decline, due in part to corruption at the sultans court. Even so, it staggered on, known as the Sick Man of Europe, until treaties after World War I dismantled it. The sultanate was abolished in 1922. The ottoman TURKS

N

Sea battle of Lepanto

Expansion of empire The Ottoman Empire evolved in several stages from a small base in Anatolia (in modern Turkey). In the l4th century, Ottomans expanded into the Balkans; after 1453, their fleet was dominant in the eastern Mediterranean; by the 16th century, with the conquest of Syria, Egyph ^nd Hungary, the Ottoman Empire was poised to take over the western w orld.

Sultanate

State and religion

House of Islam

The Ottoman sovereigns and

To the Ottomans, the world was

religious leaders were known as

split between the House of

sulrans. Many of the earlier sultans

sultans, inspired by their Muslim faith, felt they had a duty to

Islam, where there was Muslim

were men of humble origins, who

convert their neighbours to Islam, and therefore expanded the

government and law, and the

gained power through ability

House of War, which was

rather than noble birth. This

A fierce religious fervour drove Ottoman expansion. The

empire through conquest. Gazis, or frontier-fighters, called

inhabited by infidels (non-

themselves “the instrument of God’s religion".

policy was one ol

Muslims). According to Muslim

the empires great

holy law, the Jihad (struggle)

strengths, until the

Steel blade inlaid with verse

between the two Houses had to

by the Ottoman poet Nejati

continue until the House ol

hereditary, and some

Islam finally triumphed.

sultans proved lazv' and

sultanate became

corrupt.

Sultan Ahmed I as Ottoman court dagger, I6th century

Warfare

Topkapi Palace

During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman Empire was

In 1453, Sultan Muhammad II

constantly at war. As the cavalry (Sipahis) and inlantry (Janissaries)

(1451—81) renamed Constantinople

conquered each new stretch of land,

Istanbul. He built the magnificent

the sultan shared it between them.

Topkapi Palace, whose gracious

This system encouraged the

courtyards and arcades can still

soldiers to extend the frontiers.

“

be seen today. Royal salon, Topkapi Palace

Janissaries and dervishes Janissaries were the crack infantrymen of the Ottoman armies. The>’ usually staned life as non-Turkish Christian bovs from southeastern

Janissary, 16th century

Timeline

By 1550, a \idnerable western Europe was tom between warring Protestants and Catholics, and

training, where they converted to Islam. If thev

open to sea attack from the Ottomans. However,

showed talent in battle, thev were well rewarded.

in 15"^ 1. a rare Christian coalition between

This system of meritocracy, or rewarding

Spain, Venice, Genoa, and the Papacy drove

talent, meant that the sultan could rely

off the Ottoman advance at a battle in the

on the Janissaries' total lov’alty.

Mediterranean. This ended Ottoman expansion.

1463 Ottomans

1529 Failed siege of ViennaL.

defeat Viennese.

A.

1516-17 Onomans conquer Eg)^t

1453 Capture of

and Syria.

Constantinople marks end of Byzantine

1526 Battle of

Empire. The city is

Mohacs leads to

renamed Istanbul.

Conquest of most of Hungary.

15”’l Ottoman defeat at Lepanto.

a

1363 Early Ottoman conquests in Europe.

Battle of Lepanto

Europe. Demshes — Ottoman holy men — recruited them and sent them to Istanbul for

1

IL

k

Suleiman the Magnificent The greatest sultan of all was Suleiman I

>

overthrown and

14 million subjects. Suleiman was

replaced by

also a poet and a patron of the arts.

Muhammed V.

Under Suleiman's rule, the empire’s

1922 Sultanate is

and his advance into Europe was

abolished, preparing

haired only by the failure of a sie^

1683 Another failed

* >

X r^

lands reached their greatest extent,

Sixteenth-century

the wav for a new

of Vienna in 1529. The Ottomans

Janissaries

Turkish republic.

continued as a major sea power for another 50 vears.

FIND OUT

MORE

Architecture

Feudalism

Islam

Islamic empire

Persian EMPIRES

Warfare

^

(r.l520-(S6), called the Lawgiver by his

1600 Empire begins decline.

siege of Vienna.

i

1909 The last traditional sultan, Abdul-Hamid 11, is

r.

^

OWEN, RICHARD see DINOSAURS • OWEN. ROBERT see INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Owens, jesse

Early life Jesse Owens was born in 1913 on a farm in Oakville, in the southern state of Alabama,

Of all the athletes who have performed at the Olympics over the years, few have made more of an impression than Jesse Owens, the young, black American who won four gold medals at the 1936 games in Berlin. Nazi leader Adolf Hitler wanted to use the games to demonstrate his theories about the supremacy of the Aryan race, but Owens showed that such ideas are nonsense. The crowd adored him, for he was a true athlete, whose speed and agility won him admirers wherever he raced.

USA. His grandparents were slaves, his parents sharecroppers (tenant farmers). Like many poor black families at this time, his parents were forced to leave the land to find work in the northern cities of the USA. The Owens family settled in (Cleveland, Ohio. It was at his high school in Cleveland that Jesse Owens’ remarkable talent for athletics was


PACIFIC OCEAN

Islands

Military bases Several Pacific islands are

The thousands of islands in the

used as military bases,

Pacific are scattered over a vast

especially by the USA.

area. They are home to about

American bases include Midway, a naval base north

five million people, whose one

of Hawaii, Guam, a naval

great shared resource is the sea.

base in the western Pacific, Wake, an air base, and

Some islands are mountainous

Johnston atoll, once used

and volcanic in origin, while the

for nuclear tests and now

lower islands are mostly coral

i dump for toxic gases and

atolls. Most islands are clustered

other chemical

in the southwest Pacific. Others,

weapons.

such as Easter Island and

US naval base on Guam

Coral islands

Hawaii, are more isolated —

The warm waters of the southern Pacific provide ideal

thousands of kilometres from

conditions for corals, which flourish there. Thousands of the Pacific islands are atolls, coral reefs sitting on the

their neighbours.

rims of the sunken craters of old volcanoes. Most of the Pacific’s coral islands are tinv.

Hawaii " ~

The islands of the US stare of Hawaii are not part of the ’’Ring of Fire”, but hot spot volcanoes that form where m^ma wells up through weak points in the seabed. As the Earth’s tectonic plates

Bird sanctuaries

move, these volcanoes form new islands.

Manv thousands of Pacific islands, such as the US territories of Baker,

Hawaii’s two active volcanoes constandy erupt, causing fountains of lava to shoot into the air.

Howland, and larvis islands, are uninhabited by people, but are sanctuaries for millions of seabirds. Birds such as the Greater Frigate Bird return to the same islands every year to rear their young.

Tropical storms

Resources

Trade winds constandy

The Pacific’s greatest resource is its stock

blow across the Pacific, from

of fish and other seafood. Parts of the

Husk,

northeast and southeast of the

seabed are covered in small black lumps

Equator. The trade winds are

called manganese nodules that contain

responsible for the violent

many minerals and can be used to make

tropical storms called either

paints, batteries, and steel.

Coconuts

Flesh

willy-willies in Australia or typhoons, from taifung, which

Fish farming

,

means “great wind" in Chinese.

Farming fish, often called

^

aquaculture, has been

'Cl,^

practised in the Pacific

Pacific trade

the Pacific. The milky

Korea farm seaweed as

liquid in a coconut is an

mussels. The endangered giant clam, which grows

Large container ships transport

up to 1 m (3.3 ft), is now

.

important drink; its flesh can be eaten fresh or dried as copra, which yields oil.

bred in the southern Pacific.

cargoes between the countries

(Ticonut palms flourish the tropical islands of

''

well as fish, ovsters, and

shipping routes cross the Pacific.

Coconuts along the shores of all

'

for centuries. China and

Nearly half the world’s major

t; ,

The tough outer fibre can be woven to make ropes

of the Pacific Rim, which is the

Fishing

and matting for floors.

Nearly half the world’s fish are

name given to the countries

caught in Pacific waters. Most

on the shores of the ocean.

of the fish live close to land, particularly along the Asian coasts. During an El Nino, weather changes make them desert the South American coast.

Skipjack

Shipping Huge supertankers and giant bulk carriers carry oil and other raw materials, such as iron ore and copper, from as far north

Tourism

as Alaska to countries of the Pacific Rim,

The tourist trade is developing

such as Japan, North America, Australia,

slowly in the Pacific, because of

and countries of eastern Asia.

the long distances to travel and the shortage of modern hotels.

Container ports

Fiji, Tahiti, American Samoa, and

Like manv Pacific ports, the harbour at

Hawaii are the fastest-growing

Hong Kong has been specially designed

centres. Islands such as the

to load and unload large numbers of huge

Galapagos Islands fear tourism

container ships that arrive every day from

will damage the environment.

all over the world.

FIND OUT

MORE

Continents

CORAl REEFS

Fishing INDUSTRY

Islands

Polynesia

Volcanoes

Winds

635

PACIFIC,

SOUTHWEST

The islands of the southwest

Pacific are divided into Micronesia and Melanesia, which includes the eastern part of the island of New Guinea called Papua New Guinea. There are few large towns on the small islands. Most people live in villages and practise subsistence farming, which means they grow just enough food to support themselves. The chief exports are coconut products, bananas, cocoa beans, and cane sugar.

Physical features Some southwest Pacific islands are low-lying and easily flooded in stormy weather, while others are volcanic. Several islands have volcanic, black sand. Papua New Guinea is highly mountainous and covered in tropical forest. Volcanoes Manv of the mountainous islands of Micronesia and Melanesia are volcanic. Some island countries, like Vanuatu, have active volcanoes, likely to erupt at any time. Others are the nms of extinct volcanic craters, ringed with coral atolls. The combination of volcanic ash and coral results in poor soils.

Coconuts Even where soils are poor, coconut palms manage to survive and are one of the most successful kinds of tree on the Pacific islands. Washed up on the shore, they succeed in sprouting even in salt water and can thrive in areas with very little fresh water. The Pacific islanders drv the coconut meat to make copra, which thev can eat. The husk is used to make matting.

Regional climate Melanesia and

^

27°C

4^

(64^F)

Micronesia have warm weather all vear round. Rainfall varies, but the islands all have a wet and a drv season.

1 819 mm (72 in)

PAtlJA NEW GUINEA

Languages More than one-third of the world's languages are spoken in the southwest Pacific. Most are spoken in Melanesia, some 7S0 of them in Papua New Guinea, home to 1,000 different

HONIAF^^

tribes. Micronesians have around 13 main langu^es,

ISLANDS

c

Papua New Guinea eastern half of New Guinea island,

and there are several

VANLATU— ^ Bank. ■ V V N,

Papua New Guinea consists of the plus over 600 islands of the Bismarck

*

dialects. 1 L

ft)RT-VllA

New Caledonia^ -

^ X. .

Archipelago and surrounding waters. The mainland consists of high mountains, divided by swampy river

Papua New

valleys, and is cloaked with

Guinea facts

tropical forest.

Capital city Port Moresby Area 462,840 sq km

People and languages

(1 "^8,700 sq miles)

Cut off from each other and from the outside world, each of the groups living in Papua’s mountain vill^es has developed very different customs and langua^s. Great tensions exist between highland peoples who live

Sr; Mining

by hunter-gathering. Bv contrast,

Papua New Guinea ranks highly in world gold

the people in the lowland, coastal

production and also has natural gas reserves. In

areas have frequent contact with

recent years, copper mining has led to ecological

the rest of the world.

problems including pollution and landslides.

636

Population 4,800,000 Main languages Pidgin English, Motu, Papuan, "'50 native languages Major religions Christian traditional beliefs Currency Kina

PACIFIC, SOUTHWEST

Micronesia

Marshall Islands

Micronesia

B

The Federated States of

Independent since 1990, this

FACTS

country, consists of five islands,

Micronesia consist of more

Capital cm

Palikir

Marshall Islands facts Capital city Majuro

29 atolls, and 1,150 small islets. People

than 600 islands stretching over

Ae

the leaves.

stems, or trunk of a plant

The roots take in water from the soil. _ _

FIND OUT

MORE 654

T Air

~ Water is pulled up the plant.

photosynthesis.

in tubes called x\lem.

He followed up the

These are made of non¬

discovery bv Joseph Priestley

living cells with reinforced

(1733-1804) that plants give

walls. Sugars formed in the

off oxvgen, and later published a work on

leaves are dissolved in cell

gas exchange in plants. He showed that the green

sap and are carried to all

part of plants rake in carbon dioxide and release

parts of the plant in living

oxvgen when sunlight falls on them. He also

cells called phloem.

showed that the opposite happens in the dark.

Food webs VND CHAINS

Gases

Light

Plants

Plants, ANATOMY

Plants, REPRODUCTION

PHYSICS

Classical physics Before the 20th century, physics was limited to the study of electricity and

From the smallest subatomic

magnetism, force and motion, and

particles to the largest galaxies in

light and waves. The accurate theories

the night sky — these extremes

of that time are today collectively called classical physics. Classical physics began

illustrate the broad scope of physics,

in the I6th century with the study of

which is the study of matter and energy. Physics

the flight paths of cannonballs.

is really a central or general science, because it tries to discover the basic laws that govern how

Modern physics

the Universe works. It can be used to explain

Electromagnetic radiation, nuclear reactions, chaos, and relativity are all

concepts in chemistry, astronomy, biology, or

studied in modern physics. Chaos

any other science. One of the main tools of the

tries to understand complex systems,

physicist is mathematics. Using mathematics, a

such as the weather, where behaviour seems to be unpredictable. Chaos

physicist can analyse the results of an

can be used to generate complex

experiment to prove or disprove a theory.

computerized images called fractals.

Experimental physics

Computer-generated fractal

The ticker-tape

The ticker-tape

machine makes a

is attached to

Interpreting the results

dot on the tape 50

the back of the

After the experiment, the tape is cut

times each second. ^

trolley.

into strips of nvo dots. Each strip shows how far the trolley moved in one-nventy-fifth of a second. The

A physicist who tests theories

strips are laid side by side to

in a laboratory is called an

form a graph. The graphs straight line proves that the

experimental physicist.

trolley accelerated down

For example, a physicist

the slope at a

investigating force and motion

constant rate.

might carry out the experiment shown here to test a theory

Graph of results

that a trolley moving down a slope accelerates at a constant The steeper the slope,

The trolley accelerates down

rate. The results may or may not support the theory.

the slope, pulling the ticker-

the greater the trolleys

tape through the machine.

acceleration.

Branches of physics

Medical physics

Geophysics

Using the methods of physics to

A geophysicist studies the physical

Physics examines the behaviour of matter

help diagnose and treat illness is

processes that take place on and

called medical phvsics. One of the

within the Earth, including rock

and energy, which, together with empty

formation, the Earths m^nerism.

best known tools of the medical

space, make up the entire Universe. For this

physicist is the CAT scanner,

and volcanoes. Devices called

reason, the theories and methods of physics

which uses X-rays to give 3-D

seismographs help geophysicists to

can be used in any area of scientific study.

images of body organs and tissues.

_

record and predict earthquakes.

Biophysics

Particle physics

Astrophysics

A biophysicist studies the physical

Matter is made up of more than

The study of the planets, stars, and

processes and changes that occur in

200 different types of particle,

galaxies that make up the Universe

living things and the way thev

including electrons, protons, and

is called astrophysics. It makes use

respond to stimuli such as heat and

quarks. Machines called bubble

of data collected by telescopes.

light. Electron microscopes allow

chambers and particle accelerators

Cosmology is the part of

Particle tracks i

allow physicists to study these tiny

astrophysics that attempts to

bubble chamber

particles and discover new ones.

explain how the Universe began.

biophysicists to see objects too tiny

electron microscope

telescopes to detect.

Physical change

Timeline

1600 English philosopher

1843 James Joule, an English

1905 German physicist

C.400 BC Greek philosopher

Francis Bacon argues that

physicist, explains the nature

Albert Einstein publishes his

Democritus teaches that all

scientific theories must be

of energy.

Special Theory of Relativity,

change if it gains or loses energy. An

matter is made iip of tinv

proven by experiment. This is

ice lolly melts in the sun because it

particles called atoms.

known as scientific method-

Matter may undergo a physical

gains heat energy.

which stares that matter can be changed into energy.

1895 Modern physics is born when German physicist

4th century BC Greek

1680-1'^ 10 Englishman

Wilhelm Rontgen discovers

1990s and beyond Physicists

Physical changes

philosophers, such as

Isaac Newton lays the

X-ravs. Classical physics

look for a single “Unified

are reversible.

Aristotle, state that the

foundations of physics with

cannot explain Rontgens

The ice lolly can be

world must be explained

his work on gravity, light,

discovery, so scientists start

existing theories and thus

by logical reasoning.

and mathematics.

to work on new theories.

explain the whole Universe.

cooled in a freezer, until it re-freezes.

FIND OUT

MORE

Atoms and MOLECULES

Einstein, albert

Energy

Matter

Theory” that will link all the

Mathematics

Newton, SIR ISAAC

655

PICASSO,

Early life

PABLO

Born in Malaga, Spain, in 1881, Picasso learned to draw before he could speak. He

painter of the

Unchallenged as the greatest

IH

hated school, and never learned to write well. He often

twentieth century, Pablo Picasso is also known

helped his father, a painter, in his studio. When Pablo

for his sculpture, drawings, and graphics. In all,

was 13, his father ^ve up painting and gave

he produced some 20,000 works. He was one of

his brushes to Pablo to

the inventors of the Cubist style of art, and often

continue the tradition.

shocked the public with his strange, powerful

Colours

pictures. His work entirely changed our ideas

Soon after Picasso arrived in Paris in

about art. For Picasso, what he saw with his eyes

of blue, a colour he used to depict human

1901, he began to paint entirely in shades misery. In this “Blue” period, he painted

was often only a starting point from which he

mainly beggars and other social outcasts. Later, in his “Rose” period, he portrayed

began to paint. His works can be seen in galleries

circus performers.

all over the world, and are widely reproduced. Picassos palette

Cubism

Les Demoiselles d’Avignon

Ballets Russes

The painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon is seen by

After his Blue and Rose

many as the starting point of many forms of

periods, Picasso invented Cubism. He created images

modern art, including Cubism. Picasso worked on it

Between 1917 and 1924, Picasso worked for the Ballets

for months before he would show it to his friends.

Russes, the Russian ballet company based in Paris and run

Almost all of them were horrified by the distorted

out of shapes such as cubes

by Sergei Diaghilev (1872—1929). The Ballets Russes

lines of the figures and the angular features of the

and cones. He showed

womens faces. Picasso refused to sell the painting

dominated ballet in the early 20th century, and used the

objects as if seen from many

and kept it hidden from public view for manv years.

greatest talents of the age as choreographers, dancers, and

different angles, so that he

designers. Composers such as Igor Stravinsky (1882—1971)

could show many aspects

and Erik Satie (1866-1925) provided the music. Picasso

of the same object at once.

designed stunning sets for ballets such as Parade, Le Tricorne, and Pulcinella.

Parade The ballet Parade was first performed in 1917. The music bv Satie included the sounds of typewriters. The first-night audience hissed the ballet, bui applauded Picassos curtain. He also designed Cubist-style The Blind Mam Meal,

backdrops and costumes

Les Demoiselles

for the ballet.

1903, detail, (Blue period) d'Avignon, 190'^

Guernica

Later work

In 1936, the Spanish Civil War broke out. The following

Picasso experienced great hardship

year, Picasso painted Guernica. It shows the artist’s horror

during the 1940s; his art became

at the bombing of the defenceless town by Fascists. It uses

harsh and sombre, often depicting

the image of the bullfight to depict the horror of war.

monsters. He also repainted old

Curtain for the ballet Parade, designed by Picasso

Pablo Picasso

master paintings in his own style.

1881 Born. Malaga, Spain 1900 Arrives in Paris, where he meets many of the most important modern artists 1901—04 Blue period 1906-07 Rose period

Scene from the film Mystere Picasso 1907 Completes Les Demoiselles d'Avignon; the Cubist movement * is born

_

1917 Begins to work as designer for the Ballets Russes 1930s Produces his most important sculptures 1937 Paints Guernica

-MS.

I940s Experiments with different types of prints \ Mother with dead child

FIND OUT

MORE 656

' Horse, usually a

Absence of

symbol of power, here

colour suits the

symbolizes terror.

stark theme.

Art, HISTORY OF

Ballet

Music

1973 Dies in Moi^ins, France

Pottery and CERAMICS

Sculpture

Spain, HISTORY OF

PIGS AND PECCARIES A

LONG, MUSCULAR SNOUT

Wild boars The wild boar — the direct ancestor of the domestic pig is more widely distributed than any

ending in a round,

other land mammal. It lives on every continent

flat disc is the pig’s most distinctive feature. It is

except Antarctica. The wild boar is a powerful

used to root around in the soil for food. Other

animal with a heavy body, short legs, and thick skin that enable it to crash through thick

features include tusks which are used as weapons.

undergrowth. Its straight tail is used to swat

The males of some species have large tusks, sometimes of a

flies and also gives an indication of its mood.

strange shape. There are 14 species of pig, ranging in size from

Herds

the pygmy hog to the giant forest hog. Peccaries are related

their young in herds up to 50

Female wild boars live with strong. They all share feeding,

to pigs but are found only in South and Central America. Breeding Pigs produce lots of young, which is one of the

Feeding

resting, and wallowing sites.

Wild boars, like all other pigs, use their long

They wallow in mud pools to

muscular snouts and their strong sense of smell

cool down and for protection

to root in the ground for food. They are most

from insects. Males live alone

active at dawn or dusk when they may be heard

except in the macing season.

grunting as they forage. Wild boars are omnivores,

reasons they were domesticated. Male wild boars mate after the age of about 4 years; females mate from the age of 18 months onwards. Males join the herd for macing during the winter months.

and will feed on almost anything including roots,

Kneeling on

fungi, leaves, fruit, and even small animals.

front legs to

They are particularly fond of wild garlic.

feed.

Despite their thick skin, males are often injured during fights to determine who will mate with a female. After 115 days’ gestation, a litter of 4-8, but sometimes up to 12 piglets, is born.

Types of wild pig

Almost hairless skin

Babirusa

Den

Warthogs

Warthogs live in underground dens

Warthogs live on African

that they take over from other animals, usually aardvarks. When

Restricted to Sulawesi and other

savannahs south of the Sahara,

Indonesian islands, the babirusa

where they feed on grass, leaves,

invariably entering backwards, to

fruit, and roots. They have poor

present their tusks to any intruder.

lives in rainforests along the banks of rivers and lakes.

alarmed, they enter their dens,

It is a strong swimmer and

eyesight but a good sense of smell

feeds on water plants. The

and hearing, and sharp tusks that

male has antler-like tusks.

Warthog outside den

can cause serious injury. Warthc^ Coarse

Giant forest hog

live in family groups of a male,

hair

The giant forest hog is the largest

^Curved semi¬ circular tusks

member of the pig family. It has

female, and their young. Old males may live alone. Warthogs

very coarse black-brown hair and a large swelling beneath

Protruberances, or 'warts”, on

move distinctively — trotting with

each eye. It lives in Africa,

face protect eyes from injury.

their tails carried stiffly erect.

making its home within dense vegetation close to water.

Peccaries

Wild boar

About the size of a hare, the pygmy

There are three types of peccaries: the collared,

Scientific name Sus scrofa

hog is nocturnal and very shy. It

white-lipped, and Chacoan. All have a small tail

Order Artiodactyla

was believed to be extinct until

and upper tusks that grow down instead

Family Suidae

Round body

Pygmy hog

it was rediscovered in 1972,

of up. The white-lipped

on a tea plantation in Assam,

_

Collared peccary

Distribution Continental Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia,

India. It lives in a belt of swampy

and Chacoan peccaries

jungle at the foot of the Himalayas.

live in large herds. If

and Java. Introduced to North

danger threatens they

America and New Zealand

Red river hog

White crest

The red river hog of West

along back

eastwards as far as Japan, Sumatra,

stand together to present

Habitat Woodland and forest

Africa is the most strikingly

a row of gnashing tusks.

Diet Short succulent grasses, roots.

coloured of all pigs. It has a

The collared peccary lives

rusty-orange body, black and white markings on its face,

in small herds and feeds

long ear tassles, and a white

on fruit, tubers, berries,

crest running along its spine.

and small vertebrates.

FIND OUT

MORE

African WILDLIFE

Asian wildlife

European WII DLIFF

Farming

Grassland WILDLIFF

fruit, fiingi, and other plant material Size Height at shoulder; lOO cm (40 in); weight: up to 180 kg (400 lb) Lifespan Up to 18 years

Mammals

North American WILDI IFF

South American WILDLIFE

Woodland WILDLIFE

657

PILGRIM FATHERS

The voyage of the Mayflower The Pilgrims set sail from Plymouth, England

On 21 NOVEMBER 1620, a small ship anchored in

'

on 16 September 1620. After a stormy crossing of the Atlantic, they sighted Cape Cod on

the sheltered bay behind Cape Cod, on the east

19 November. They then spent several weeks

coast of America. The ship, the Mayflower,

looking for a suitable place on the coast to land

contained 35 religious dissenters who wished to start a new life in America so that they could worship the way they

and settle. On 16 December they finally entered Plymouth Harbour. They began to build their first house on Christmas Day.

pleased. Sailing with them were 67 other emigrants. Together the voyagers are known as the Pilgrim Fathers. It was their pilgrimage across the ocean that created the first successful European colony in North America. They called their settlement Plymouth, in what is now Massachusetts. Wampanoag people

Separatists and Puritans A third of the passengers of the Mayflower

New England and the Wampanoag

were Separatists. They rejected the pomp

The area that the Pilgrims first settled became

and ceremony of the Church of England

known as “New England”. Members of the

and wished to practise their own, simpler

Wampanoag tribe already lived here.

form of worship. They dressed in plain

Fortunately, one of them spoke English and,

clothes and disapproved of frivolity and

with him acting as a translator, the Wampanoags

idleness. Later, Puritans (members of the

helped the colonists plant crops and hunt for

Church of England who wanted to simplify

food. Without their aid the Pilgrims would not

its worship) also came to New England.

have survived their first year in the new land.

Mayflower

Pilgrim settlement The first houses that the Pilgrims constructed were

The 180-tonne Mayflower was originally built to carry

built of roughly cut planks of wood from the local forest. The roofs were coated with bark to keep the

wine and other cai^oes, not people, and was cramped and

rain and snow out. Ever)' Pilgrim had to work hard

uncomfortable. Living quarters for each of the 102

to help clear the site and plane the crops necessary

passengers were no bigger than a single bed. Many of the

for their survival. Religious services were held in the open until a church was constructed.

Pilgrims were unprepared for their new life, taking plenty of books and pairs of shoes but no fishing lines or ploughs. Neither did they take any livestock, such as cows or sheep, to provide food and clothing for their new life.

Thanksgiving

One passenger died and a baby was born on the voyage. However, many did not

ij

survive the first winter in America.

1 |

After a year in America, the

—

Flag of England

Pilgrims celebrated their first successful harvest with a thanksgiving feast. Among the guests were 100 members of the Wampanoag tribe. The celebrations went on for several days. Among the foods the Pilgrims probablv ate were

Harvard University

pumpkin pie, pecan and

The oldest university in

apple pies, and roast wild rufkev. The first national

Roast turkey

was named after John

proclaimed in 1789. It

Harvard, a Puritan who

became a national

emigrated to America

holidav in 1863.

and left his fortune to Apple pie

Timeline

December 1620 The

1629^0 20,000

Pilgrims land and

Puritans flee religious

Pilgrims set out from

establish a settlement

persecution in

Plvmouth, England.

at Plymouth, Massachusetts.

658

the university.

September 1620 The

England; they settle in Massachusetts and the surrounding areas.

November 1620 The

North America, HISTORY OF

America was founded by the colonists in 1636. It

Thank^iving Day was

Pilgrims draw up the

1621 Colonists sign

Mayflower Compact,

peace treaty with

1691 Plvmouth

an agreement about

local Wampanoag

becomes part of

how they will govern

tribe; the peace lasts

Massachusetts

themselves.

for 50 years.

Bay Colony.

Religions

Schools and COLLEGES

United states, HISTORY OF

Washington, GEORGE

PINE MARTEN see EUROPEAN WILDLIFE • PIRANHAS see LAKE AND RIVER WILDLIFE

PIRATES

Jolly Roger To scare their victims into surrender, 18thcentujy pirate ships flew flags that carried symbols of death. The skull and crossbones

On the world’s oceans,

robbers have

design, called the Jolly Roger, is the best known, but many pirate captains designed

a special name: pirates. Piracy began

their own emblems. This flag belonged to the English pirate captain. Jack Rackham (d.l720).

soon after mariners first sailed the f

> world’s waters, and pirates have threatened

Pirate hunting grounds

shipping ever since. In the days of sailing ships, these

Pirates lurked in places where they could be sure

dangerous criminals piloted the fastest vessels. They

of finding vessels with rich cargoes; on traditional

swooped on defenceless ships, stealing their valuable cargo

shipping lanes, or where straits and narrows forced ships to sail close to the shore. Pirates considered

Some pirate gangs sank the ship and killed the crew to

charts, maps, and surveys - especially of the areas

hide their crimes. The most famous pirates attacked ships

around the Caribbean — to be valuable booty.

in the Caribbean three centuries ago. Story writers glamorized their exciting lives in tales and legends, but overlooked their savagery and greed. Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea has a long history of piracy. Pirates were attacking rich Greek and Roman ships 2,500 years ago. In

The name came

the 16th century, Maltese corsairs

from the figure

(Christian pirates)

“fi ” on the coin.

clashed with Barbary corsairs (Muslim

Spanish Main

pirates) from

The Caribbean was one of the richest-ever pirate hunting

North Africa.

grounds. In the 1500s. tales of Spanish treasure vessels loaded with gold lured generarions of pirates, or buccaneers as they were known, to make their fortune. Pieces of eight and gold doubloons

Blackbeard The English pirate Edward Teach (d.l7l8),

Treasure

known as Blackbeard, plundered

After raiding the ships hold,

shipping off Americas coast in the 18th century. Heavily armed and with

pirates robbed the passengers. There were especially rich

long, thin candles smoking in his

pickings on ships plving the

hair and beard, he terrified many crews into

Indian Ocean because all

Garnet fan holder

Women pirates / In a ship’s crew, women J had an independence / ' that society denied

Thoi^h his piratical career lasted barely two

India or China used this

years, Blackbeard earned a frightening

route. However, since pirates

reputation on the shores of Virginia and

were often starving or sick,

Carolina. According to legend he left

Jewel

many valued food, medicine,

fabulous buried treasure but it remains

necklace

and clothes more than riches.

undiscovered to this day.

Modern piracy

Privateers

Most modern piracy takes place in die South

From the 1500s to the 1700s,

China Sea. The pirates usually attack merchant

warring nations relied on legal

vessels, but in the 1980s refugees fleeing Vietnam with a few possessions became the

and licensed pirates, known as

them on land, and some

privateers, to supplement

became pirates. Irish

their navies. Their job was to

pirate Anne Bonney

submission without even firing a shot.

merchant vessels bound for

targets of brutal piracy.

plunder enemy shipping.

(d.l720) plundered Caribbean ships, in the 18th

Sir Francis Drake English admiral Drake (c. 1540-96) became a national hero fighting Spain

century, and became

as a privateer. His drum, it is claimed,

famous for her courage

still beats when England is in danger.

Drakes drum, 1596

and fighting skill. FIND OUT Anne Bonney

MORE

Arms and ARMOUR

Exploration

Flags

Money

Ships and BOATS

United kingdom, HISTORY OF

659

a

PLAGUE see BLACK DEATH

Rocky planets

PLANETS

The four inner planets, in increasing order from the Sun, are Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. Each is a

The nine planets

of the Solar System have

much in common. Each follows an elliptical

ball of rock but each has a unique surface. Only two of them. Earth and Mars, have moons. The smallest and most distant of all the Solar System planets is Pluto. It

orbit around the Sun and each was created

is also a ball of rock but, because of its great distance

from gas and dust left over after the Sun was

from the Sun, it is an icy world. It is very unlike its neighbours, the gas giants, and something of a mystery.

formed. But the planets range enormously in size and structure. The four inner ones, including Earth, are spheres of rock. They are tiny compared with the four

Mercury

gas giants. These planets appear to be spheres of gas but

Closest to the Sun, second smallest, and the fastest moving planet is Mercury - it zips around the

solids and liquids lurk below their thick atmospheres.

Sun in 88 days. It is a lifeless and dry

The most distant planet, Pluto, is a tiny sphere of rock.

world covered with craters. Deep below the surface is a large core of iron. The

Venus

Radar images were used

planet’s gravity is too weak to hold on to

to create this global view

an atmosphere and so heat is lost at

Sunlight on the cloud tops makes Venus

of Venus’s surface.

night. Differences between day and night

shine brightly in Earths sky. As it moves

temperatures can be 600°C (1,080°F).

it appears to go through phases similar to those of the Moon. The dense clouds trap

Only a third of Mercury’s surface has been mapped from

the Sun’s heat to make it the hottest of

space, hy Manner lO 'm 1974—75-

the planets. The acid clouds and unbearable pressure make it doubly

Cratered world

inhospitable. Beneath the clouds are

Most of Mercury’s craters were formed

volcanic plains of hot desert covering

3.5 billion years ago when meteorites bombarded the planet. The craters

about two-thirds of the planet.

range in size from 1 m (3.3 ft) to

Beneath

Surface

the clouds

temperature

Radar equipment on board

more than 1,000 km (600 miles) in diameter. Here a younger crater (centre), abour 12 km (7.5 miles) across, sits inside an older one.

spacecraft have “seen” through Venus’s clouds. The most successful craft, Magellan, mapped

^ Continent of

per cent

Africa

of its surface in the 1990s, About

Earth Largest of the four inner planets.

two days of mapping were used to produce this picture of Maat Mons,

Indian

the largest shield volcano on Venus.

Ocean

Earth is the only Solar System planet to support life and to have water in abundance. Earth has changed enormously since it

Mars

was created 4.6 billion years ago. vapour

The most Earth-like of the

IS clouds

planets. Mars is a little over half Earth’s size and has polar ice caps.

T

Its red colour comes from the

more than 70 per

Water covers

cent of Earth’s surface.

iron-rich rock and dust which

It has developed an atmosphere and gone through climatic and sttuctural change. Internal heat currents push the land masses by up to 7 cm (3 in) a year.

covers much of the planet. About 40 per cent of the surface

Clyde Tombaugh

is rock desert. Its most dramatic

The American Clyde Tombaugh (1906—97) was part of a team at

feature is the enormous canyons.

the Lowell Observatory in Arizona,

Valles Marineris is 4,500 km

searching for a planet believed to

(2,800 miles) long and up to

be disturbing the orbital motions

7 km (4.5 miles) deep.

of Uranus and Neptune. On 18 February 1930 he discovered

Pluto Olympus Mons Volcanic activity has changed Mars’s surface in the past. There are two

Tombaugh spent eight years looking

Planitia and the Tharsis Region

large asteroid. No spacecraft have visited

for another

which includes Olympus Mons, the

Pluto, but astronomers have built up a

biggest volcano in the Solar System. At 26.4 km (16.4 miles), it is three times higher than Earth’s tallest mountain. Mount Everest,

660

freezing world, more like a moon than a

orbit of Uranus.

planet. Some astronomers believe it is a

main volcanic areas: the Elysium '

This rock and ice planet is a dark and

Pluto but it was too small to affect the

picture of it from observations. The clearest image of Pluto and its moon was taken by the Hubble Space Telescope in 1990.

planet, but

PLANETS

Gas planets There are four gas planets. From the Sun, and

Ganymede is the

lo has a brilliant

Galilean moons

brightest of the

orange and red

Jupiter’s four largest moons are

moons. Its icy

surface caused by

named after the Italian astronomer

crust has craters

sulphur compounds

in order of size, they are Jupiter, Saturn,

who discovered them, Galileo

and long parallel

ejected by its active

Uranus, and Neptune. They are the biggest

Galilei. They are, in order of size,

grooves.

volcanoes.

Ganymede, Callisto, lo, and

planets, the giants of the Solar System. All that

Europa. Ganvmede is the largest

is visible is their gas exterior. They each have a

moon in the Solar System and is

deep and dense atmosphere which is why they

bigger than the planets Pluto and

are called gas planets, but that is only part of

Mercury. Jupiter’s other 12 moons

Europa has an icy crust with no mountains and few craters. Streaks and

are tiny in comparison, most are

the story. Immediately below the gas layer is

cracks crisscross the

only tens of kilometres across.

surface.

liquid and at each of their hearts is a rocky core. All four have rings and many moons.

Belts and zones Jupiter’s fast spin produces powerful wind systems which divide the atmosphere into bands. The bands

Jupiter

are made up of belts and zones running parallel to the equator. The red-brown belts are gases

Sometimes called the king

descending and the white-yellow zones are

of the planets, Jupiter is the

gases rising. The spots, ovals, and streaks in the cloud tops are weather disturbances

biggest and most massive

produced where belts and zones meet.

planet and has 16 moons. It has a rocky core 10—20 times as massive as Earth. Above this is metallic and then liquid hydrogen, topped by about 1,000 km (600 miles) of atmosphere, 86 per cent of which is hydrogen and 14 per cent helium. Jupiter’s narrow

Great Red Spot

ring system, discovered in 1979,

One storm in Jupiter’s upper clouds, the Red Spot.

Great Red Spot, has been observed for

consists of three rings of dust

well over 300 years. Over time it has

particles. If it had been 50 times

changed colour and size. At its big^st, it was Trace amounts of

more massive, its core would

about three times Earth’s diameter. It is an area

phosphorus in the

have been hot enough to fuse

of high pressure, above and colder than the

atmosphere give the

surrounding atmosphere. This gigantic storm

hydrogen, and Jupiter would

clouds their red colour.

have developed into a star.

South Polar Region

rotates above the atmosphere, completing one anticlockwise turn every few days.

The equator bulges because of

Saturn

the planet’s rapid rotation.

. Cassini division

The second largest and sixth planet from the Sun is Saturn. Like Jupiter, it is made chiefly of hydrogen surrounding a rocky core. Its bands are less obvious and contain fewer features, apart from white spots caused by weather storms. Its mass is so spread out that it has the lowest density of all the planets. Saturn has an extensive ring system and 20 moons, more than any other planet.

Galileo described the rings as Saturn’s “cars” when he first observed them in 1610. Their ring-like nature was not explained until 1656.

Titan

Giovanni Cassini

Ring system

More than half of Saturn’s moons

There are several gaps in Saturn’s rings.

Surrounding Saturn are thousands of

are small and irregular in shape.

The largest is the Cassini division,

ringlets made of billions of ice-covered

The largest by far is Titan which

named after its discoverer, the French

rock and dust particles. Together they

is just bigger than Mercury. It is

astronomer Giovanni Cassini (1625—

one of three Solar System moons

I “712). He was a skilful observer, and

range in size from a few thousandths of a

with atmospheres. Titan is a

discovered four of Saturn’s moons. His

centimetre to a few metres across. This

sphere of rock and ice surrounded

observations of Mars also helped

enhanced image taken by the Voyager 2

by a thick mantle of nitrogen.

establish the distances in the Solar System

probe reveals many of the individual

make seven main rings. The particles

ringlets in the system.

661

PLANETS

Uranus

Miranda Uranus has 15 dark moons of rock and ice, 10

This planet was discovered in 1781.

Clouds of frozen methane ice are the only features

Twice as far from the Sun as Saturn, it

i

visible on Uranus

is difficult to observe from Earth. The

of them discovered bv Xi^ager 2. Miranda, the fifth largest, was discovered from Earth but a space probe was needed to reveal its complex surface. It has a jumbled mix of features

first close-up views came in 1986 from

including plains, cliffs, and deep

the probe Voyager 2. The atmosphere

canvons. At somerime in its past

is predominantly hydrogen but

Miranda may have been

methane in the upper clouds gives

knocked apart and then reassembled itself.

Uranus its distinctive blue-green colour. It has a ring system and

Rings of Uranus

15 moons.

The Uranian ring system was discovered in 19’^'^ from Earth. When Uranus moved in front of a star, the star disappeared and then reappeared as each ring blocked the stars light. There are 11 rings, each Axis 98°/^ '

one dark and narrow and

from the

made of lumps of rock

vertical

roughly 1 m (3.3 ft) in size.

William Herschel

Sideways planet Uranus is far

Uranus is tilted on its axis as it orbits the Sun. This

from the Sun

tilt makes the planet appear to be on its side with its

and a cold planet.

moons and rings circling the top and bottom of the

The temperature at the

planet. No one knows why the Uranian system is like

cloud tops is -2I0°C ('378“F).

this — perhaps it is the result of a collision.

Uranus was discovered by William Herschel (1738-1822). an English amateur astronomer, when observing from his garden in Bath, UK. He became almost instantly

Neptune

Voyager fly-bys Two identical probes. Voyagers I

scientific circles. He was a

Like Uranus, Neptune is a cold and distant

and 2, were launched in 1977 to the four gas giants. They both

world. It is similar in size and is also blue-

travelled to Jupiter and Saturn, revealing new tiny moons, closelarger moons, and the Voyager 1 then moved off

most influential astronomers of his time.

Other visible features are white clouds and a dark spot. Neptune was discovered in

toward the edge of the Solar

1846, but its dark rings - two broad and

System, but V)yager 2 travelled to Uranus in 1986 and

Great Dark Spot

two narrow — and six of irs eight moons

Neptune in 1989. At ^

made his own high-qualirv stars, clusters, and nebulae made him one of the

are just visible in its cloud-top surface.

complexity of Saturn’s rings.

^

very gifted observer who telescopes. His later work or I double

green because of methane gas in its hydrogen-rich atmosphere. Belts and zones

ups of the planets and their j

famous and accepted into

were discovered by Voyaver 2

these two planets it

in 1989.

discovered new rings and a total Communications

\

of 16 moons.

Great Dark Spot

Magnetic-

Neptune is the windiest

sensor on

place in the Solar System.

extendible boom

•.

Wind speeds of up to

\.

2.200 kmh (I,3'’0 mph) have been recorded. The winds whiz around the planet in a westerly direction — the opposite direction to the planets spin. The Great Dark Spot is a huge storm with ferocious winds. It is an oval area of high pressure measuring about 12,000 km (7,500 miles) across.

Triton

Neptune looks blue because

Neptune’s largest moon is Triton, the coldest place in the Solar System at an icy -235“C (-39UF). Triton has a thin

Neptune is

atmosphere, mainly of nitrogen, and is one of only three

made of ice and

moons known to have an atmosphere. The surface changes

liquid below the thick

as volcanoes throw out nitrogen and black dust which

atmosphere. In the

streaks the cracked and wrinkled surface.

centre lies a rockv c

FIND OUT

MORE 662

Atmosphere

Comets and ASTEROIDS

methane in the upper atmosphere absorbs red light and reflects blue.

Small Dark Spot, an anticyclone storm

Earth

Earthquakes

Galileo GALILEI

Moon

Newton, SIR ISAAC

Space EXPI ORATION

Sun AND SOI AR SYSTEM

Volcanoes

PLANTS

Spore-bearing plants Algae, mosses, ferns, and their relatives all reproduce by means

There are about 500,000 species of

of spores. These are tiny and are

plant, divided into spore-bearing plants

produced inside the sporangia in

and seed-bearing plants. They are food

enormous quantities that look like

for many animals and are fundamental for life on Earth. Plants vary in size from

fine dust. Each spore contains a minute amount of essential genetic material in a tough coat.

microscopic algae, to huge sequoia trees more than 8 m (26 ft) across their Moss

trunk. Most plants contain a

{Bryum species)

green pigment called chlorophyll, which traps the energy in sunlight. The plants \ Pinna

use this energy to make their

(leaflet)

. Leaf

own food in a process called photosynthesis. Plants strui

le to

Frond of male fern

survive in places where it is very cold, very dry, or very dark

Seed-bearing plants Conifers, or gymnosperms,

Mosses and liverworts

Ferns

The simplest plants are algae.

Mosses and most liverworts have

These are the most-advanced spore¬

They do not have leaves, stems,

simple stems and small, thin leaves.

bearing plants. Water and nutrients

Algae

or roots. Algae thrive in a moist

Some liverworts are flat and look

are carried around the plant. Many

or wet environment. Many are

like seaweed. They live mostly in

ferns grow well in cool, dry places,

tinv, single-celled plants, but

mild, damp regions, but some

but the largest ones are found in

some seaweeds can be huge.

survive in rhe worlds coldest places.

the hot, damp tropics.

and flowering plants, or angiosperms, reproduce by Angiosperms

seeds. Each seed contains an

.•\nglosperms are the flowering plants.

embryo and a food supply,

Thcv have seeds that develop inside a

and is encased by a seed coat.

ripened ovarv, called a fruit. There are at

A germinating seed is nourished

least 250,000 kinds of angiosperm, including most of our food plants.

by the food reserves until it can start to make its own food.

Seeds develop on scales inside cones

Gymnosperms Gymnosperms are plants that have cones instead of flowers. Their seeds develop inside

Cotyledons

female cones. Most gymnosperms are trees or shrubs. The cones are not as varied as flowers, but

Flowering plants have either

thev can be brightly coloured and attractive.

one or two cotyledons (seed leaves). Monocotyledons (one seed leaf) have floral

Oldest plant

parts in multiples of three. Dicotyledons (two seed leaves)

Bristlecone pines in Utah,

have floral parts usually in

Nevada, and Colorado, USA, are

multiples of four or five.

the oldest living plants. Some of these trees are more than 5,000

V

Seed leaf of a

years old. Scientists study the

monocotyledon

width of growth rings in the wood of dead trees to see how the worlds climate has changed.

Seed leaves ofa

Plant lifespans

dicotyledon

/i

Leaves of a monocotyledon are parallel-veined.

Lea Leaves ofa dice dicotyledon net-veined.

FIND OUT

MORE

Ferns

Perennials live longer

Plants with non-woody stems

than two years. Some

(herbaceous plants) have a short

die down in aurumn and re-grow from a

life-cvcle. Some grow from seed

Annuals

to mature plant in a few weeks,

germinate,

living rootstock the

dying when their seeds are shed.

grow, have

following spring.

Woodv plants grow more slowly.

flowers and

Trees may be more than 20 years

seeds, and die

old before they have seeds, but

within one year.

thev may produce them for

Purple

hundreds of years.

monkshood

Flowers

Fruits AND SEEDS

Mosses and LD'ERWORTS

Photosynthesis

Plants, ANATOMY

Plants, REPRODUCTION

Trees

663

- Plants Dicotyledons Flowers at dusk.

up in

,>

Water-lily is an aquatic perennial

Common evening primrose

Honesty has flowers that

with floating leaves and flowers.

grows in disturbed soil.

turn into papery fruits.

4

{airy leaves

7'

Michaelmas daisy is a tall, stiff

Hottentot fig is a trailing

Himalayan balsam has fruits

Common mallow is a sturdy perennial

Marsh marigold grows by

perennial with clusters of flowers.

perennial with fleshy leaves.

that explode when ripe.

of meadows, roadsides, and hedgebanks.

ponds and in marshes.

Slightly fleshy leaves^

Sea pea is a spreading plant that

Spring gentian is a perennial

Ragged robin grows in wet

Wild pansy is a small plant

Bogbean is an aquatic plant

grows high on shingly beaches.

often seen in mountain meadows.

grassland and hedgerows.

that is often a garden weed.

that emerges above the water.

Flowers turn into red berries.

All parts ofthe plant are

✓

poisonous. X

Meadow cranesbill is a hairy

Monks hood is a perennial

Bittersweet is a scrambling

Sea kale is a coastal plant with

perennial with deeply lobed

found in damp woodlands.

plant of ditches and hedgerows.

thick, grey-green, waxy leaves.

Bell heather is a low-growing evergreen shrub that grows on dry heaths and moors.

leaves and large mauve flowers.

Monocotyledons Star-shaped

Waxy flowers

flowers

Stiff spiny leaves

f

Large yellow flowers open in early summer.

Star-of-Bethlehem has leaves that

Orchid: this is a rainforest

Urn plant has small flowers

Flowering rush roots in mud

Yellow flag grows in large

appear before the flower spike.

orchid with fragrant flowers.

surrounded bv spiny bracts.

at the bottom of ponds

dense clumps in wet ground.

664

f

PLANTS, ANATOMY

Magnified ■I I

ml

Ifii

Flowers

The large vein running along the called a midrib,

j

\etwork of finer veins Simple leaf

Flowerhead before it opens

Leaves A plant makes most food in its green leaves. Leaves are usually thin and flai so they expose a large surface area to the Sun to collect energy. A network of veins supports the leaf and carries water, sugars, and dissolved minerals.

A thistle has

flowerhead

prickles as a form of defer.

The leaf is covered

^ Corky

Compound leaf

centre ofthe leaf is

maple stem

L

petiole.

A flower is made up of sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. These are arranged in whorls on the tip of the flower stalk. Flowers contain the M reproductive organs of the plant.

Compound/

view of a

.

^

The stalk is called the

THE ANATOMY OF most plants consists of roots, stems, leaves, and reproductive organs, which, in flowering plants, are in the flowers. Some plants have a woody stem which lets them grow taller. Shrubs have woody stems that branch at ground level. Trees have one woody stem called a trunk. Herbaceous plants, such as wild flowers, have a nonwoody stem. They die at the end of the ^ growing season. Some plants die back, but store food, which they use to ^ sprout again next year. ^

with a waxy layer to prevent it

When a tendril touches

drying out. __^

another stem, the tip coils around it.

Xylem Ui Otems

phloem Tendrils are

A plant’s stem supports its leaves, flowers, and fruits. It contains xylem and phloem, called vascular tissues, which carry water and sugars around the plant.

sensitive to touch.

Tendrils Weak-Stemmed plants, such as this gourd plant, often have modified leaves called tendrils, which twine around other plants for support.

L Onion

Stem tissues have

bulb

Some parts of a plant are swollen with reserves of starches or sugars. This stored food is used the next growing season by sprouting shoots.

reinforced cell walls Roots spread

that give strength and

out to hold

rigidity, but allow the

the plant in

,

plant to bend.

the ground. ^

Bulbs An onion bulb is a swollen bud. It is made up of layers of fleshy scales which

Roots

■

A plant is anchored in the ground by its roots. Older roots are thick and woody, with a waterproof, corky outer layer. The youngest roots take up water and dissolved minerals from the soil. These enter the root through fine root hairs found just behind each root tip.

thistle Primary

contain the stored food.

The root is

root

part of the

Ginger

Sweet

rhizome

potato

plant’s

Breathing roots

transport system and

All parts of a plant need to

tuber

breathe, including the roots. I

1

contains

Trees that grow in swamps,

xylem and

such as mangroves, have

phloem tissues.

roots that are exposed above the water. These are called pneumatophores.

Rhizomes

Tubers

The ginger rhizome is a

Stem tubers, such as sweet

swollen underground stem

potatoes, are the swollen

that grows horizontally.

tips of underground stems.

FIND OUT

MORE

Carnivorous PLANTS

Root tip,

The roots have lenticels

Cells

Desert WILDLIFE

Ferns

Magnified view

where the

(large pores) through which

of the developing

root grows

oxygen from the air can enter.

root of a cabbage

Flowers

Fruits AND SEEDS

Mosses and LIVERWORTS

Photosynthesis

Son

665

Plant leaves Leaves can have

Dicotyledons

a blunt or pointed tip.

Asarabacca has a

Black bindweed has a

Hemlock has a

simple, kidney-shaped

simple, arrow-shaped

compound leaf with

(reniform) leaf.

(sagittate) leaf

(lanceolate) leaf

many riny leaflets.

ipathulate, leaf

Leaves grow in whorls of 3 to 5.

Himalayan balsam has a

Balm has a simple, ovate

Dusky cranesbill has a

Slender thistle has a

Chequer bloom has a

Croton has a simple leaf

simple, elliptical leaf with

leaf with rounded teeth,

simple leaf with spreading

simple, elliptical leaf with

simple leaf with lobes

Its shape is described A wooden garden

layer of metal which cools

shed is the base.

New materials

and hardens between the

\ The sculptor

A number of contemporary sculptors

etches a fine

have experimented with a variety of new

pattern in

materials, such as plastics, concrete, and

the wax.

core and the mould.

4

even junk. Some sculptors have also set out to challenge conventional attitudes create their work. TTie sculpture above, for example, is made from everyday objects that are instantly recognizable.

Barbara Hepworth TTie British sculptor Barbara

When the metal has cooled, the sculptor

towards art by using everyday objects to

breaks open the mould Core

I

The core of the sculpture

2

is roughly built up out of

Mould

to reveal the sculpture.

The wax-covered core is

Its surface is polished to

covered with a tough,

create shine and depth.

clay, made from soil and

heat-resistant plaster to form

water. It is covered with a

a mould. Holes are left at

thin layer of wax, which the

the top and bottom of the

head of the (fueen ^

sculptor carves to add detail.

mould. It is ready to fire.

Mother of Benin

The finished replica

Hepworth (1903-75) was one of a group of influential European artists who sculpted traditional materials in a new way. Their aim was to allow the natural properties

Figures

Modern sculpture

TTiis sculpture of two figures rising

In widening the range of

up out of the grass

of a material to dictate the sculptures final form.

materials they work with,

represents growth

Hepworths works

sculptors have moved away

and the forces of

were carved out

from the traditional processes.

of wood or

nature. It is made from concrete and

Modern sculptors are now

Abstract sculptures

is displayed outside

bronze, and

able to focus more on

Sculptures which do not

where, over time,

were normally

expressing their artistic ideas

represent things realistically arc

weather will age it.

stone or cast in

abstract

than on the technical skills

sculptures.

of making a sculpture. FIND OUT

MORE

Africa, HISTORY OF

Architecture

Art, HISTORY

or

Benin EMPIRE

abstracts. Thi.s abstract sculpture Pixel Lunch is made

Two Standing Figures

from plastic lunchboxes.

by Federico Assler

Churches and cathedrals

Museums

Painting AND DRAWING

Pottery and CERAMICS

RFNAI.S.SANCE

^45

Sculpture

Egyptian cat goddess,

Bronze equestrian statue

Benin bronze cast

Viking lOth'Centun

Bronze bust of a

cast in bronze c.600 BT

of English king William III

of kings head, Africa

silver' figure of a horseman

pug dog, France

Carved sculpture

Nigerian wood carving

Native North American

Carved wooden angel, from

Nigerian soapstone €:arving

Native North American

Sierra Leone figures,

of a European missionary

wooden totem pole

a medieval church, UK

of ancestor figures

carved clay figurine

carved in wood

Demon and a Lady of Rank, 13th

Three Graces by Antonio

Plaster cast sculpture, by

Mother and Child, in marble,

century, from a cathedral, France

Canova, 1813

Barbara Hepworth, 1943

by Henry Moore, 1932

746

SEA ANEMONES see JELLYFISH, SEA ANEMONES, AND SPONGES

SEABIRDS

Northern gannet This powerfully built seabird lives in the North Atlantic. It catches fish, such as herrings and mackerel, by diving head first into the

bIRDS THAT SPEND A LARGE part ot / 3

-

water and scooping up a fish in its beak. Its head, beak, and body are

their lives out to sea are called seabirds.

streamlined to reduce the impact as the bird slams into

^ There are about 300 species, belonging ^ to 20 different families. They vary in size and shape and also in the way they catch their food. Some seabirds feed by flying close to the surface of the water and snatching their prey. Others plunge beneath the waves and use their wings or feet to swim. Seabirds sometimes wander huge distances over the open ocean, but all have to return to land to breed.

. Wings are folde

the water from a height of

back when the

up to 30 m (100 ft).

gannet plunges into the sea. Gannets are stron fliers, alternately

Feathers

flapping and

Like other water birds,

gliding.

^

seabirds cover their feathers with a special oil to keep them

waterproof This oil is made by a and near the base of the tail.

Salt glands Seawater is salty, and a seabirds food contains lots of salt. TTiis is disposed of through glands in the beak. The glands produce salty water that trickles out through the tip of the beak. Front-facing eyes

It takes five annual

Tf ^

Seabird features

Feet

Seabirds share many features that help them to cope with

moults before young

All seabirds have

gannets grow the all-

webs of skin between

white adult plumage.

f

their toes. This enables

life near salt-water. These include waterproof feathers,

them to paddle through

webbed feet, and glands that get rid of surplus salt in

the water. The gannet uses

the body. Most seabirds are good swimmers, but many

its webbed feet to help it take off after a dive.

species rarely settle on the surface of the water.

Feeding Seabirds live on a wide variety of food, from fish, squid, and jellyfish, to small scraps

Webbed feet

Gulls have a

floating on the surface of

long hooked

the water. They use a range

beak.

Cormorant drying

of feeding techniques

TTie cormorant does not have fully

according to the food they

waterproof feathers so they absorb water.

are catching. Some rarel

TTiis reduces buoyancy, allowing the bird

catch their own food, bi

Surface feeders

The brown pelican is one^

steal it from other birds.

mr

of the biggest aerial divers.

Albatrosses, gulls, and storm-

to dive deeply for fish. After feeding, it has to spread its wings out to dry.

petrels are surfece feeders. Albatrosses and gulls usually

Surface divers

V

snatch food out of the water while

Guillemots, puffins,

Frigate birds soar

V

flying, but storm petrels patter

and cormorants

over the sea on

Food thieves

1

over rhe water on their feet.

swim on the surface,

their long narrow

I

but dive under to

wings, but hardly

T

Largest and smdlest

\

Tile wandering albatross is

>

the largest seabird. It is about

Aerial divers

pursue their food.

ever land on the water.'

Pelicans, gannets, and terns plunge into

Guillemots swim

They chase other

the water from the air. They have a

underwater using

birds and force them

buoyant body and do not dive deep, but

their wings.

to drop their food.

quickly bob up to the surface.

Nesting

jjap-

1.35 m (53 in) long with a

^

wingspan of up to 3.3 m (11 ft). TTie smallest seabird is the least storm petrel which is about 15 cm (6 in) long.

Northern gannet

Land can be a strange and unfamiliar

Scientific name

Sula bassana

place to many seabirds. Some spend Ori^FR Pelecaniformes

several years at sea before they visit

Famiiy

land to breed. To protect their eggs Ledge-nesters

and chicks, most seabirds nest in large groups in places that land-based

Ground-nesters

Cliff-nesters

Guillemots lay their

Pufijns dig cliff-top

Kirtiwakes nest in huge

eggs on bare ledges.

burrows. TTie females lay a

colonies on cliffs. Each

The eggs are pointed at

burrows, but many others lay their

single egg and the chicks

pair makes a nest out of

one end so that they

eggs high up on cliff ledges.

spend more than six weeks

seaweed and raises two

roll in a circle and not

underground.

to three young.

off the ledge.

predators cannot reach. Some nest in

Sulidae

Distribution

North Atlantic

FlABiTAT Inshore waters and the open sea

Diet Size

Fish Length, including tail:

91cm

(36 in) _

Lifespan About 20 years FIND OUT

MORE

Birds

Eggs

Flight, ANIMAL

Ocean wildlife

Penguins

Shorebirds

747

SEALS

Eared seal skeleton

body and four flippers, seals are suited to life in the water. They come on land to rest, Large vertebrae in the neck mate, and give birth. There are two support powerful muscles for main groups of seals — true seals and eared seals. swimming. Together with the walrus they belong to the order Pinnipedia, meaning “wing foot”. Seals live all over Thickened skin under the world but are most common in the Arctic and the flippers gives extra Antarctic where there is plenty of food. They grip on land. have been hunted for their fur and blubber for hundreds of years, and are now threatened Thick layers of fatty by pollution of the oceans. With a streamlined

Eared seals have a visible

. On land, eared seals can lifl their body clear of the ground.

blubber under the skin Californian sea lion

Eared seals True seal

The rwo groups of eared seals — sea lions and

skeleton

fur seals — are more agile on land than the true seals. They can bring their back flippers forward and turn their front flippers outward

Seals eat a variety of food.

Nails grip

to walk. The main difference between the two

the ground.

groups is that fur seals have a thick underfur.

True seals

True seal swimming True seals use their back

The front limbs of a true

flippers to push themselves

seal are smaller than the seals teeth grip L

slippery prey.

through the water. They press their front flippers

back limbs and cannot

against their sides to keep

support the seal’s weight.

their body streamlined.

True seals move Diet

awkwardly on land but are

Seals are meat-eaters. They

Eared seal swimming

perfectly adapted for life

An eared seal swims rather

take squid, octopus, crabs,

in the water. Before diving

like a penguin, using its

lobsters, shrimps, and

deeply for food, they

front flippers to move

shellfish. The leopard seal

empty their lungs, and

eat mostly fish, but also

through the water. Sea lions are more powerful

is a fierce hunter of seal pups and penguins, but

can stay underwater for

swimmers than fur seals,

also eats shrimp-like krill.

more than 30 minutes.

and dive deeper.

Grey seal

Elephant seals

mriLu I

Male elephant seals are much larger

than females. They make loud calls

Scientific name

through their trunk-like noses to defend

Order

Pinnipedia

FamiIY

Phocidae

their own group, or harem, of females.

Sub-Family Seal colony

Walrus

Breeding

Found in the Arctic Ocean,

and Baltic Sea

arrive to give birth. Males then mate with females i

than seals, and most closely

sites, such as rocky

their territory.

>

octopuses, and lobsters Size Length, up to 3 m (10 ft);

The upper canine teeth of

Im

walruses are Jong tusks. TTie

!

long

fighting, and hauling themselves out of the water.

748

males are larger than females

places to breed are rare,

Lifespan

so space is often limited.

Males 31 years;

females 46 years

(3.3fi) animals use these for display,

> i)

Tusks

up to

Ocean, coming on land to

Diet Mainly fish, some sandcels,

islands, to breed because from predators. Safe

\Tusks

Habitat

mate and give birth

they cannot escape easily '

Western North

Atlantic, Eastern North Atlantic,

fight for territory, then the females

Seals choose isolated

related to eared seals. They

Monachinae

Distribution

Fur seals gather to breed. Males

near land, walruses are larger

live in groups all year round.

Halichoerus^pus

FIND OUT

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Mammals

Migration

Ocean WILDLIFE

Polar WILDLIFE

Whales and DOLPHINS

SEA URCHINS see STARFISH AND SEA URCHINS • SEAS see OCEANS AND SEAS

Storm waves can pound the

SEASHORE WILDLIFE

seashore, dislodging animals and ribbing awav seaweeds.

strip of land around the coast where the land meets the sea. In most places, the tide moves in and out, uncovering the shore twice during every 24 hours. During spring tides, at new and full moon, the tides reach furthest up the shore and lowest down the shore. Various animals and plants live at different levels on the shore, called zones, according to how well they tolerate being exposed to air or covered by sea water.

s

The seashore is the narrow

Rock pools low on 1

Seashores

^ The line of washed-

Zonation is most clear on

up debris is called

rocky shores, where plants

the strand line.

Rock pools hi^ on /

the shore are regularly

the shore have less life

replenished by the tide

because they suffer

and contain a rich

greater variation in

variety of seashore life.

temperature and salinity.

and animals live on the surface. Animals cling to Sandy shore

rocks or are attached, like

There are few clues that animals

barnacles. Seaweeds are

live on sandy shores because

anchored by holdfasts. On

Plants

they stav buried in the sand

A variety of plants that can tolerate salt

exposed coasts, zonation is

until the tide comes in. Often,

spray grow in the splash zone — the area

less distinct because spray

the remains of animals, such as shells and the skeletons, or tests,

extends higher up the shore.

of sea urchins, are washed up.

that gets sprayed by the waves but does not get covered by the tide. Seaweeds grow from the upper shore to the lower shore,

Molluscs

and into deeper water where there is

Dog whelk Common inhabitants of the middle shore, dog

enough light. In some parts of the world,

All molluscs have a soft body

whelks are predators that feed mainlv on

sea grasses also grow on the lower shore.

surrounded by tissue called the mantle.

barnacles and mussels. TTiey drill a hole

This secretes the shell of molluscs that

in the shell to get at the flesh. If

Encrusting algae

the rock surface dries out,

have one. Many kinds of mollusc live

thev lose their grip and

Some red seaweeds

on the seashore. Most of those on rocky

roll down to damper

have chalky tissues.

shores crawl around. Most molluscs on

parts of the shore.

sandy shores stay buried in the sand.

a

m.

They grow as a crust in rock pools, on boulders, and

Single foot of

even on shells,

limpet, seen

such as limpets.

from underneath

Tell ins 'I hese clams live buried in the

a^

sand on the middle shore and

^

the shell,

- Red lithothamnion seaweed

in shallow water. TTiey feed

Seaweed

when the tide is in by extending

4

one of a pair of tube-like siphons

The largest seaweeds are the brown

over the surface to vacuum up debris.

ones like wracks and kelps. This channelled wrack grows on the upper shore. Red and green

Mussels

seaweeds are smaller and more

Mussels anchor their shells to rocks with

delicate, often growing in rock

strong strands called byssus threads. Tiny

pools and on the lower shore.

mussels can move aroifnd on

_

their one foot, but the)'

Lichens

soon attach themselves to other mussel

Sea slugs

Orange, grey, and black

shells.

This sea slug gets its name of

patches on the rocks on

Limpets

sea lemon because it looks

the upper shore are

A limpets large muscular foot

rather like a lemon. Lacking a

lichens. These are made

allows it to cling tightly to the

shell, sea slugs are delicate

up of algal cells growing

creatures that usually live

in a network of fungal

away and to deter predators. When

below low tide. The sea lemon

tissue. Lichens are

covered bv the tide, limpets crawl

comes on to rocky shores in

tolerant to both salt

around grazing algae from the rock.

the summer to lav its eggs.

spray and dry conditions.

rocks, both to avoid being washed

749

SEASHORE WILDLIFE

Crustaceans Narrow pincer for

There is a great variety of crustaceans, most of

slicing fUsh.

which live in the sea. They have a hard outer skeleton, jointed limbs, and two pairs of antennae in front of the mouth. Many crawl, and some swim, while barnacles spend their adult life stuck to surfaces such as rocks.

legs end in pincers.

Hermit crabs

for crushing

Most hermit crabs use a

shellfish.

Second two pairs

Lobsters

of legs end in claws.

Occasionallv, lobsters are found in rock pools on the

Sea slaters

sea snail s shell to protect their soft abdomen. This

lower shore. This one has

These relatives of woodlice live

colourful hermit crab

in damp places on the upper

lives on coral reefs. It is

shore, where there is enough

become a home for barnacles, another type of crustacean. Most barnacles settle on

found at low tide

moisture for them to breathe

rocks but space is limited so

hunting among the

through their gills. They

some settle on shells. These

corals and in rocky crevices for food.

Echinoderms This group of spiny-skinned sea creatures includes starfish and sea urchins, some of which live on the lower shore under rocks and seaweeds, and in rock pools. Most echinoderms have a five-rayed body plan. They all have tiny tube-feet filled with sea water and connected to canals inside their body.

\

7

^

Bloody

Henry starfish

come out from crevices at

ones will lose their home

night to feed on rotting seaweed.

when the lobster moults.

Sand dollars

Sea potato

Sand dollars are sea

TTe sea potato is a sea urchin. It

urchins that are

uses the broader, flatter spines on

flattened in shape.

its lower surface to dig itself down

When alive, they are

into the sand. It takes in sand,

covered in tinv spines.

feeding on the film of nutritious

They live on the surface of the sand,

material coating the grains.

often in warm waters. Bare shells are sometimes washed up on the beach.

Starfish

Sea urchins

These starfish live on the lower part

Like all sea urchins, the common sea

of rocky shores and in deeper water.

urchin has a mouth on its underside.

They have a double row of tube-feet

It has five strong teeth with which it

on the underside of each arm. T~he

scrapes off seaweeds and animals,

tube-feet are tipped with suckers so

such as sea mats, from rocks and

the starfish can cling to the rocks.

the long stems of kelps. Tubefeet

Worms With their long wriggly bodies, worms look similar to each other, but there are many Sea mouse

different groups, which are not all closely

With its b^

related. Among the worm groups that

flat body, this

live on the seashore are the peanut

brisdeworm does

worms that do not have body segments,

not look much like a worm. The sea mouse lives below

and the bristleworms that do have The body has more

Ragworms

than 100 segments.

These bristleworms live under rocks

low tide but can be washed ashore.

bodv segments and brisdes.

The bristles protect it from predators as it crawls through the

and clumps of seaweed. They crawl

sand feeding on dead animals.

using their paddle-like legs, and swim by passing wave-like motions toward the head.

worm This bizarre bristleworm lives in a papery burrow it constructs in muddy sand on the lower shore and in deeper water. It beats its fan-shaped paddles back

Peanut worms

and forth to draw water

Some peanut worms look like peanut seeds when

into the burrow from which it takes in oxygen.

the front part of the body is retracted into the

Food particles in the watet

thicker trunk. The mouth is surrounded bv a ring

are trapped in a mucus net

of tentacles Peanut worms burrow in sand or

that the worm then eats.

FIND OUT

MORE 750

Crabs and CRUSTACEANS

mud, from the shore to the deep sea.

Jellyfish, sea ANEMONES, AND SPONGES

Beadlet anemones

Breadcrumb sponge

Sea turtle

These anemones unfurl

Most sponges live in the

Female turdes come ashore at

their stinging tentacles

sea from the shore to the

night to lay eggs in the sand.

when covered bv water.

deep sea. This sponge

Green turtles usually return to

The anemones use their

grows under rocks on the

the beach where they hatched

tentacles to catch small

lower shore. Sponges are

They lay about 100 eggs at a

prey and push it into

simple animals that usually

time, laying up to five times

their mouths.

grow attached to surfaces.

during the breeding season.

Ocean WILDLIEE

Snails and OTHER MOLLUSCS

Stareish and SEA URCHINS

Turtles and TORTOISES

SEAWEEDS

Algae are the simplest of all the plants. They they live in water or moist places. Algae range in size from minute, single-celled species to seaweeds that can be several metres long. In common with more advanced plants, all algae contain the green pigment chlorophyll.They also contain other pigments that mask the chlorophyll, so algae can be red, purple, or brown, as well as green.

green, red, and

sunlight. Little sunlight penetrates depths greater than 15 m (50 ft), so most seaweeds grow in shallow waters around shores or reefs. Seaweeds provide food for tiny creatures, most of which fdter dead particles from the water.

Wrack

Spirogyra These are thread-like green algae. They are

wracks. They are tough,

found as a tangled

Floats

slippery plants. Many of

mass in ponds. The

Some species

them can survive for long

ones shown here are

of wrack and kelp

magnified 56 times.

periods out of water.

have fronds with conspicuous air

Holdfast

bladders. These ensure

The holdfast is frequently a

Green seaweeds

that the fronds stay at

many-branched structure that

Less than 10 per cent of the

the surface of the sea,

does just what its name

Green seaweeds are smallto medium-sized plants,

seaweed

plants, seaweeds need

brown seaweeds

the kelps, gulfweed, and

green algae are seaweeds.

Green

s

other photosynthetic

Selection of

Brown seaweeds

wrack

Marine algae are better known as seaweeds. Like

These seaweeds include

Channelled

Seaweeds

AND OTHER ALGAE

often with very thin, delicate

Micrasterias

where the light is

suggests - it clings to rocks

This algae is just

brightest, even when

no matter how much it is

visible to the naked

the sea is rough.

pounded by the waves.

eve. It belongs to a

fronds. Some, such as the

femily of green algae

sea lettuce, are used as food

whose single cells are

Parts of a seaweed

in some parts of the world.

almost divided in

Seaweeds have no roots, leaves, flowers, or

Red seaweeds

waterside mosses.

thallus. It is divided into a holdfast

Ereshwater algae

The stalk may be very short — just a few

two by a “waist”. It is

seeds. The seaweed plant body is called a

found among damp,

(hapteron), a stalk (stipe), and a frond.

The seaweeds in this group get their red colour from a pigment called phycoerythrin. Red seaweeds are smallto medium-sized plants. Maerl

Some of them are made

seaweed

r^d by a chalky secretion.

millimetres long — or, occasionally, many

Many freshwater algae can be seen

metres long. In the sea, seaweeds float

clearly only under a microscope. They

gracefully, but they cannot support

consist of just one or a few cells, or a

themselves if taken out of the water.

long, thin line of cells.

Lifecycle of a brown seaweed

Oogomum

Male and female receptacles

Giant kelp

1

ptacles are

Separate male and female reproductive

This seaweed lives in much deeper water than other

patches, called receptacles,

seaweeds and can grow to more than 60 m (197 ft) long.

develop at the tip of fronds.

conceptacles, which contain

Male celb come to fertilize

Male

3

female cell

Female sex cells The oogonia split to

4

Male sex cells are attracted to a

release female sex cells.

the sex organs — antheridia

Male sex cells swim into

female cell to fertilize ii

(male) and oogonia (female).

the water through pores.

by means of chemicals.

Attached to the seabed, each plant produces a long stipe that can grow more than a metre in one day to reach light. Sea otters love to float among the fronds.

FIND OUT

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Lake and river WILDLIFE

Ocean WILDLIFE

Photosynthesis

Plants

751

SEDGES see GRASSES, RUSHES, AND SEDGES • SEEDS see FRUITS AND SEEDS • SEEING see EYES AND SEEING • SENEGAL see AFRICA, WEST

SEVEN WONDERS of Tiffi ANCIENT WORLD

w

Lpnesus

^iympia« ^ Halicarnassus Babylon

In ancient creek and roman times, 2,500 years ago, as people became more interested in the world outside their villages, writers began to celebrate the greatest technological achievements of the age. These writers included the Greeks Herodotus and Antipater, and the buildings and statues they wrote about became known as the Seven Wonders of the World. The wonders Statue of Zet ranged from the Pyramids of Giza in Egypt to the Colossus, a statue that towered over the harbour at Rhodes. They showed what the stonemasons, architects, sculptors, metalworkers, and engineers of the ancient world could achieve with the simple tools at their disposal.

The wonders were located around the Mediterranean Sea.

Statue of Zeus In 456 BC, the sculptor Phidias built a 13-m (43ft) ivoiy-and-gold statue of Zeus, holding a figure of the goddess of victory. A temple was built around the statue at Olympia, Greece, home of the original Olympic Games. In

AD 394,

the statue was

moved to Constantinople (Istanbul), but later destroyed.

Temple of Artemis

Pharos of Alexandria

This temple w'as originally built in c.560 BC,

This great lighthouse was planned in the reign of

sancmary for Anemis, goddess of hunting,

Ptolemy I of Egypt and completed by c.280

chastity, and childbirth. The temple was

in the Greek cits’ of Ephesus (Turkey), as a

BC,

destroyed ty the Ostrogoths in AD 263.

on the island of Pharos just outside Alexandria in Egypt. The light from its fire was visible up

52 by 112 m (170 by 366 ft)

to 50 km (30 miles) away. It was so famous that it became the model for many later lighthouses. I n 796, the Pharos was damaged by an earthquake, but the foundations can still be seen.

Mausoleum at Halicarnassus The tomb of the Persian governor Mausolos was built in Halicarnassus, in present-day Turkey, in the 4th century BC. It was famous for its size and

Colossus of Rhodes

lavish carved decoration. The Mausoleum was damaged in an earthquake in the 13th

This huge statue of the Greek

century and was later demolished.

sun-god Helios stood near the harbour on the island of

Hanging Gardens

Rhodes, Greece. Standing at

The Babylonian kir^ Nebuchadnezzar II, built

33 rn (110 ft), and made of cast

these shady, lush gardens in the 7th century BC

bronze sections supported on

to remind his queen, Amytis, of her native home,

an iron framework, it was the

Persia. It was a masterpiece of engineering, with

largest statue ol its time. Sadly,

small streams flowir^ alor^ the terraces, brir^ing

an earthquake toppled the

water to the plants and trees that grew there.

Colossus in c.225 BC-only 65 ^

years after it was built to commemorate

j

the end of a seven-year siege.

Herodotus Great Pyramid

Known as the Father of History, the

The Pyramids of Giza in

Greek writer Herodotus (c.484— 425 BC)

Egypt are rhe only

was born in Halicarnassus, western Asia. He described several of the wonders,

survivors of the Seven Wonders of rhe

particularly the pyramids, in his book.

■

World, and are also the oldest, rhere are three: the

The Histories. He also wrote about

- Ancient Egyptians built

the Walls of Babvlon, which some lists

Base kept

Great Pyramid was built as his

their pyramids from

tower above

tomb by Pharaoh Khufu in

the centre outward.

sea level.

included, instead of the Pharos of Alexandria.

C.2560 BC. The others were built for two of his successors, Khafre

Each side measured 230 m

and Menkaure, and are smaller.

(755 ft) at the base.

752

FIND OUT

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Alexander THE GREAT

Babylonian EMPIRE

Greece, ANCIENT

Holy land. HISTORY OE

Pyramids

StXUAL INTERCOURSE see REPROEIUCTION • SEYCHELLES see INDIAN OCEAN

Shakespeare, william William Shakespeare was probably the greatest playwright who has ever lived. In spite of this, few facts ^ _ are known about his life. Contemporaries who wrote about him G described him as a good-looking man who liked a quiet life. Thirty-seven of his plays have survived, although he may have written more that have been lost. He wrote mostly in unrhymed verse, though he also used prose. He was a very successful playwright and actor, and was eventually able to buy a large house in Shakespeare’s birthpl: his English home town, Stratford-upon-Avon. He retired there for the very last few years of Wooden canopy over stage his life, and died in 1616. The ENGLISH WRITER

Globe Theatre

Early life Shakespeare was born in 1 ^64 at Stratford-uponAvon, England. His father was a local businessman. Shakespeare probably went to the town grammar school, where he would have had a strict schooling.

Thatched roof

First Folio

From 1592, Shakespeare worked as an actor and writer

Shakespeare did not

in London. He joined a company called the Lord

publish his plays — he wanted to keep the

Chamberlain’s Men. In 1599, he and

scripts for his

six associates became owners of the

company. After his death, his friends

Globe Theatre near the River

John Hemminges

Thames. This became the

and Henry Condell

company’s base, and many of

collected the plays and

his plays were produced there.

published them in 1623 in a book known

The Globe no longer survives; this

as the First Folio.

is one possible reconstruction. .

Shakespeare’s works

Structure /

Portrait of

of oak

Shakespeare on title

beams

page ^First Folio

William Shakespeare wrote his plays with the actors of his company in mind. As well as comedies (featuring famous comic actor Will

William Shakespeare

Kempe) and tragedies (for leading tragedian 1564 Born. Stratford-upon-Avon.

Richard Burble), he wrote a whole series of

1582 Marries Anne Hathaway.

plays, such as Henry V and Richard III, about

1592 Writes his first plays in London

English history. He was one of the most

for the Lord Chamberlains Men.

versatile writers of his time.

1593— 94 Plague epidemic force.s theatres to close; Shakespeare writes

Richard III

poems such as Venus and Adonis.

Sonnets Shakespeare wrote 154 fourteen-line poems SHAKE-SPEARES SONNETS Nrw tifciftnjiMiii

called sonnets. Some of these are addressed to

Comedies

1594- 99 Writes comedies and histories.

Shakespeare’s comedies are

1599 Globe Theatre built.

a young man, others to a woman with dark

love stories with amusing twists.

hair, now known as the “dark lady” of the

They are still among his most

sonnets. It is not known for certain who

popular works. They include A

these two people actually were.

Midsummer Nights Dream, Twelfth

1603 Lord Chamberlain’s Men gain the support of King James I; they become the Kira’s Men. 1600-08 Produces many of the great

Night, and As You Like It. Title page of the first edition of the sonnets

Jester in Twelfth Night

tragedies. 1616 Dies in Stratford-upon-Avon.

FIND OUT

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Drama

Elizabeth i

Poetry

Theatres

United kingdom, HISTORY OF

753

SHARKS

AND

RAYS

Pointed snout makes the shark

Nostrils take in

are cartilaginous fish, which means they have skeletons made of rubbery gristle, not bone. They have separate gill openings and lack the flap, or operculum, . which covers the gills of bony fish. Sharks have ' a reputation for being fast, fierce predators, but some of them, along with most rays, swim slowly along the seabed looking for fish, crabs, and other small creatures to eat. Some filter plankton in the open sea; Only a few are dangerous to people. All sharks and rays

Dorsal fin

Gill

prevtnts

slits

water and detect

more streamlined

substances, such as

for slipping through

bloodfrom prey.

the water..

shark from rolling over.

When the front teeth wear out, they are replaced by new ones in a row behind.

Great white shark An awesome predator, the great white shark is Pectoral fin

feared by most people, but it rarely attacks humans. It often cruises around seal

Types of shark

colonies looking for prey. It usually attacks its victim from

Leopard shark

Leopard shark

below and allows the blood to drain away before finally devouring the prey.

There are about 375 species of

This shark grows to 1.75 m (5.7 ft) lor^. It

shark, most of which live in the sea.

spends much of its time cruising

The bull shark is also found in rivers

close to the bottom and eats shellfish from the seabed.

and lakes. Sharks have their pectoral fins attached to the side of their body, behind or below the gill slits.

Nurse shark

Rays

At 3 m (10 ft) long,

Including the skates, sawfish, and guitarfish, there are 456 known

the nurse shark is a slow swimmer and often rests on the

Port

species of ray. All have wing-like

seabed. It is fairlv

Jackson

pectoral fins joined to the head

docile and can

and gill slits on the underside of

be approached by divers.

shark

Port Jackson shark This horn .shark is named after a harbour in Australia. It grows up to 1.5 m (5 ft) long.

the flattened body. Many rays spend their lives on or close to the seabed, where they are camouflaged by the pattern on their upper sides. The largest rays, the mantas, swim in the open sea.

3es of ray Blue spotted ray Thresher shark

This ray lives in the Red Sea and warm waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It usually swims

Threshers use their Blue spotted ray

in shallow waters.

tails to stun prey. The tails long as their bodies,

Pectoral fin

Guitarfish

up to 2.‘S m (8 ft).

There are about 50 species of guitarfish. They have a flattened body and a broad tail, making them look a bit like guitars. Most guitarfish live in warm seas, although some swim into estuaries and fresh water.

754

Angel shark These sharks hide in sand on the seabed, then lunge forward to grab passir^ prey.

sharks and rays

Swimming • Leopard shark belongs

Sharks and rays do not have swim-bladders for buoyancy,

Dogfish

to the smooth dogfish

as do bony fish. Some sharks have a large oil-rich liver

As a dogfish swims, an S-shaped wave

shark family.

passes down irs body towards its tail

which makes them more buoyant, but most have

which then provides most of the

to keep swimming to avoid sinking. Sharks

forward propulsion. Water flowing

swim by beating their tail from side to

over the stiff pectoral fins generates lift.

side, while most rays propel themselves with their pectoral fins.

Spotted ray This ray swims by

Electric ray

undulatir^ its pectoral fins. Waves pass along from the

Electric current is discharged

front to the back of the fins.

from organ at base of

The ray’s tail is too thin to

pectoral fin.

provide much propulsion.

Spotted ray

Electric ray The electric ray propels itself forward by sweeping its broad tail from side to side. Undulations passing

Feeding

Port Jackson shark's jaws,

All sharks and rays are predators. The fastest sharks, such as makes

and crushing back teeth .

with pointed front teeth

in waves along the edges

and the great white, chase and kill fish and other prey. The

of its pectoral fin^also

sluggish sharks, such as nurse sharks and swell sharks, lie in wait

help it to swim. All

for victims on the seabed or feed on slow-moving prey, such as

electric rays produce electricity and can

clams. Most rays eat shellfish buried in the sand or mud, but

discharge over 300 volts.

manta rays eat plankton, which they filter out of the water.

Teeth The shape of a shark’s teeth gives a" clue as to what it eats Sharp curved teeth grip fish; serrated teeth cut flesh; a fused row of flattened teeth crush shellfish.

Whale shark

Largest and smallest Electrosense

The largest shark, also the largest fish, is the

Gill rakers

Sharks can detect small

whale shark, which reaches lengths of at least

Inside the basking shark’s huge

Sawfish “saw”

amounts of electricity

12 m (39 ft). Like other ocean giants, it strains

mouth are gill arches lined with

Sawfish are types of ray that have

food out of the water using gill rakers, however,

rows of bristles called gill rakers.

a row of teeth on each side of a

generated by their prey.

long snout. The sawfish uses its

They pick up signals via

it also eats quite large fish. The lantern sharks

The rakers create a sieve through

pores on their snout. They

are the smallest sharks.

which water is strained before it

“saw” to probe the mud for prey,

also appear to navigate by

They grow to less then

flows out through the gill slits.

such as molluscs and crustaceans.

detecting changes in their

20 cm (8 in) long.

Tiny animals called plankton,

electric field in relation to the Earth’s magnetic field.

Reproduction In both sharks and rays, the male passes sperm directly

Lantern shark

Dogfish hatching

2

A dogfish

of its egg case, it

embryo takes

by slashing at them with it as it swims through a shoal.

When the young dogfish breaks out

1

It may also use its saw to kill fish

drifting in the water, are caught in the rakers and then swallowed.

Live birth A lemon shark pup is born tail-first. Inside its mother, it

looks like a small version of its parents.

into the female with an

was nourished bv blood passing through a placenta, like a human baby. This is unusual.

organ called a clasper, so the

Most pups develop from large

eggs are fertilized inside her.

yolky eggs inside the mother.

Most sharks and rays Great white shark

give birth to live young, but some, such as

Scientific name Carclmrodon

dogfish, lay eggs with horny cases. Compared to

3

bony fish, some of which lay

carchartas The dogfish swims free and

millions of eggs at a time,

must fend for itself

sharks and rays produce

immediately. It will

relatively few eggs or young at a time — from one to 300.

Order Lamniformes Subclass Elasmobranchii Class Chondrichthyes

soon start to feed

DisTRIBI TION All oceans

on small prey.

Diet Fish, seals, dolphins, and whale carcasses

FIND OUT

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Eggs

Fish

Ocean WILDLIFE

Polar WILDLIFE

Reproduction

Whales and DOLPHINS

Size Up to 6 m (19.5 ft) long

755

SHEEP

AND

GOATS

Features of sheep and goats Sheep and goats are agile creatures whose cloven, or split, hooves allow them to scramble over the craggiest of rocks.

With their thick coats and

They have keen eyesight, good hearing, and coats of wool

the ability to tackle rough terrain, or hair. All rams (males) have horns. Goats have beards, and the males give off a pungent smell; sheep are beardless. sheep and goats can survive under Sheep graze on grass: goats browse mainly on shrubs. Both harsh conditions, ranging from animals regurgitate their food and chew the cud. mountain cold to desert heat. Sheep and goats are Bighorn sheep closely related and belong to a group of Bighorns live in the Rocky Mountains of North Corkscrew horns America. They take their name from the large horns mammals' that also includes antelopes of the rams. The horns grow backwards, then curve Types of horn around to point The males of all wild and cattle. There are many types Rams’horns can forwards to eye sheep and goats have reach 91 cm (36 in) level in the curved horns. Females of sheep and goat. They live in in length older animals. of some species, such western North America, northern as barbary sheep and Goats' foreheads Woolly ibex, also have horns. Africa, Europe, and Asia, curve outward Sheeps spending the summer at high foreheads curve inward altitude, descending to the foothills and valleys in winter. Himalayan ibex of both

Beard

sexes have large, heavy. gnarled horns

Markhor Markhors live in the Hindu Kush and nearby hooves

mountains in Afghanistan. Males and females have beards and manes that run along the chest, throat, neck, and back. The males corkscrew horns may reach a length of 1.6^ m (5 ft “S in) alor^ the curve.

Mouflon, Europe’s only wild

Reproduction Female sheep and goats mature by 2 years; males by 3—4 years. Mature males live apart from the females, but rejoin the herd in the rutting season

Huge

sheep, have spiral horns

horns,

with tips pointing inwards.

herds of females and young. Old rams are solitary and live apart for most of the vear. Young rams form separate bachelor groups. Sheep and

to find a mate. In spring, after 5—7 months’

goats feed in the early morning and

gestation, females give birth to one kid, or

evening and rest amor^ rocks during

sometimes twins. The young can walk almost at

the heat of the day. The herds are

once and follow their mother, who protects them.

w

Family groups Most sheep and goats live in small

Ram rears and will charge head

4

extremely wary; several females act

Argali, the largest of all

as guards and either stamp or give a

sheep, may have horns

warning whistle if danger threatens.

Family group of chamois

up to 1.83 m (6 ft) long.

Fighting During the breeding season, males frequently fight to establish dominance. They kick and

Female

paw with their forelegs, then charge head on. They often rise up on their hind legs,

danger.

V

lowering their heads at the last moment to meet with a skull- splitting crash, that can

Bharal. or blue sheep, from

leave them dazed. Rams may also strike each

central Asia, have horns that

other from the side.

curve backwards and inwards.

Dense white fur for warmth

Adaptation to habitat

nrs

in the mountains

Most sheep and goats are exceptionally hardy and live

Rocky

Bighorn sheep

Mountain goats

SCEENTEHC NAME Ovis canadensis

in highland regions. Agile species, such as the chamois,

Order Artiodactyla

have special hooves that grip rock and cushion the shock

Family Bovidae

of heav)' landings, enabling them to move

Distribution North America, from British Columbia to Mexico

easily over sheer rock faces. Rocky Mountain

Habitat Craggy, often precipitous slopes

goats can negotiate the steepest of inclines

extending above the timber line

with ease, and can jump down vertical

Diet Primarily grazes on grass, but also

rock walls onto narrow ledges. The ability

eats berries, lichen, and bark in winter,

to thrive in harsh conditions makes sheep

and shoots and spruce in summer

and goats suitable for domestication.

Size Male — he^ht at shoulder: 1.06 m (3.5 ft): weight: up to 136 1^ (300 Ib)

FIND OUT

MORE 756

Lifespan Up to 15 years Animals

Deer and ANTELOPES

European WILDLIEE

Farming

Mammals

Mountain VHLDLIEE

North American WILDLIEL

SHINTO sec RtLIGIONS

SHIPS

AND

BOATS

Types of ships and boats There are many different types of ships and boats. Most are designed to carry out a specific function,

Throughout history ships and boats

such as fishing, carrying goods and people, fighting, or

have provided an important means of transport. Early boats were simple, made from hollowed-out logs or bundles of reeds, but over the years the design of ships and boats improved as nations began to trade and fight for supremacy at sea. Although there are similarities between a boat and a ship, a boat is in fact much smaller and lighter. It is usually a single-decked craft propelled by either a sail, a pair of oars, or an outboard motor. A ship, however, is a large ocean-going vessel, powered by many engines. Unlike a boat, it can carry large cargoes and passengers across the seas.

leisure. As a result, there are differences in the shape of the hull, the size of the engine, and the equipment that is carried on board. Sport and leisure boats

yy..

Boats used for pleasure are designed for a variety of purposes, such as racing and cruising. Thev range in size from l^htweight jet skis to large luxury motor cruisers and vachts.

Fishing boats Fishing boats are sturdy vessels designed to withstand rough seas. Various types of boats are used to catch different sorts of fish. A trawler, for example, is equipped to catch deep-sea fish. Today, most fishing boats are motorized.

Service vessels Working boats have a variety of uses. For example, a tug tows larger ships in and out of harbours. In Arctic countries,

Cruise liners

icebreakers are used to crush through

How ships float

Cruise liners are large ships that carry

the ice and clear a path for other ships.

A ships hull pushes

travellers around the world. A liner is

through water, and

similar to a luxury hotel on water, and

the water pushes

is a popular form of travel with many

back on the ship

holidaymakers. Before long-distance air

upthrust. The up-

A

Warships Warships are operated by the world s navies to patrol the seas and oceans. The largest is the aircraft carrier. Frigates protect aircraft carriers

travel became common in the 1960s,

thrust balances the

passenger liners, such as the Queen Mary,

weight of the ship

upthrust from water

were the only way for most people to

and keeps it afloat.

pushing upwards

—

and search for enemy submarines.

—

Captain

travel between the continents.

The captain of a ship is responsfole for the safety of the

Entertainment deck

Sections of a liner

IC-.

passer^ets and crew on board.

The inside of a liner is divided into decks,

From the control room, the

separating the sleeping areas from the rest of

captain maintains contact

the ship. All outdoor activities take place on

with other ships in the

the upper decks, while entertainment rooms

surrounding waters and

and cabins are located on the lower decks.

with onshore control centres.

Crew's quarters

Passenger cabins

Communications aerial ^

Recreation area Jbr members

Lifeboat

Hull shapes Ships and boats have different hulls that make the vessel more

Stabilizer

^ Disembarkation pontoon

I Promenade deck

Keeled yacht

Cargo ship

Speedboat

Catamaran

A yacht has a rounded hull

In the middle of a cargo .ship,

T he shape of a speedboats

A catamaran has two separate

to help control the boat in

the hull is as large as possible

hull helps keep air between

hulls, joined together with

strong winds. The keel is

so that it can contain heavy

the boat and the water. As the

strong crossbeams. This

filled with a heavy ballast,

loads. The hull is more V-

boat speeds up, the hull starts

shape is very stable because

to skim across the water.

it is so wide.

efficient at moving through the

such as concrete,

shaped towards the bow,

water and carrying cargo. The

to stop the

and rounder

shape also determines how far

yacht tipping

at the stern.

over too for.

the vessel sinks into the water, or how stable it is against rolling.

Flat V-shape

757

SHIPS AND BOATS

Engines

Sailing yacht

Engines provide the power to push a ship or boat through the

Sailing yachts use wind for

water. They normally turn one or more propellers under the stern

propulsion. They do not have

of the vessel. The propellers bite into the water, forcing the ship

to have the wind behind them

~Shroud to

along. Most ships burn diesel to produce gas or steam to turn the

they can travel in almost any

turbine engines. Some ships use nuclear energy. An outboard

direction by adjusting the

motor usually powers leisure boats.

position of their sails. Most

support mast

modern sailing boats have

Engine room Situated on the lower decks of a ship,

two sails, arranged in a

the engine room houses all the engines

“Bermuda” rig. Most

and electricity generators needed to

yachts also have an

make the ship function. Regular

rMttM40EX

engine, in addition to

maintenance checks ensure that all the

the sails.

equipment is in order and safe to use. Many engine rooms on large ships are

Yacht identification

controlled by computers.

Outboard motor engine Small boats are often powered by an out¬ board engine attached to the stern. A throtde is used to start up the

ship engineer checking machinery

engine, and the boat is steered using the tiller.

On the bridge

Radar

The main control room

9

T

of a ship is called a bridge.

'

Engine

Located on the upper

Boom

^

^controls

deck, towards the front of the vessel, it has large windows to give good all-round visibility. It

> ThrottU

houses the ships steenr^ and navigational instruments, such as

Wheel to

radar, as well as controls

Fibreglass-reinforced

control rudder

for the engine room.

Shipbuilding Building a large ship is a major engineering project, requiring hundreds of expert workers. Although the basic structure of ships has not changed since the first wooden ships were built,

plastic hull.

AW

Passenger services Despite the growth of airlines, ships still carry thousands of passengers to their chosen destinations. Modern passenger ships include ferries, hovercrafts, and hydrofoils. New designs mean that ships are faster, safer, more economical to maintain, and more environmentally friendly.

materials such as steel and plastic are now used. Today, many ships are built in sections, which are then fastened together.

I

The first part of a ship to be built is the the keel, followed by the

stern and hull. Scaffolding is used to support the hull and keel so they will not tip over. The ship is usually built on a metal slipway.

2

Hovercraft

Hydrofoil

A hovercraft reduces water resistance by

All boats are slowed down by the

Once the structure of the ship is

riding just above the surface on a cushion

resistance of the water on their hulls.

complete, the upper decks of the

of air. The cushion is made by large fans

Hydrofoils have wing-like foils under

hull start to take shape. Skilled

blowing air under the hovercraft. The air

workers start to work on the rest of the

is held in place by a flexible “skirt”. The

lift the hull completely out of the water,

ship. The ship is then launched as an

hovercraft is pushed along by propellers

and the boat skims across the surface.

empty shell, where it is equipped for a

in the air. Hovercraft can travel on to

This allows the hydrofoil to travel much

lifetime at sea.

land for loading and unloading.

faster than other boats.

FIND OUT

MORE 758

Engines & MOTORS

Fishing INDUSTRY

[RON AND STEEL

Plastics and RUBBER

Ports & ■WATERWAYS

Radar

Sailing

the hull. As the boat speeds up, the foils

Submarines

Transport HISTORY OF

Ships and boats Merchant ships

Tramp steamers are cargo-vessels

Oil tankers are specially constructed

Liberty ships were mass-produced steel cargo ships.

with no fixed route.

to carry vast quantities of oil.

They were made by the USA durir^ World War II.

\ Container ships are designed to stow and

Cruise liners do not take goods vehicles, and are

Roll-on-roll-off ferries allow lorries and passenger

transport large goods containers efficiently.

equipped with passenger entertainments and facilities.

cars to drive straight on and off without unloading.

Fighting ships Flight deck

Torpedo tube

A

Torpedo boats are swift, small warships

Aircraft carriers are huge warships with large landir^

Minesweepers drag the water to remove

that carry torpedoes and other weapons.

platforms to allow aircraft to take off and land.

undersea mines.

Utility craft and fishing vessels

SHIVA see HINDUISM • SHOCKLEY. WILLIAM see ELECTRONICS • SHOFAR see MUSICAL IN.STRUMENTS • SHOGUNS see SAMURAI AND SHOGUNS

SHOPS

h

Buildings devoted to buying and selling, shops allow customers to buy small amounts of what they need. They are the end of a chain that sees products travel from a manufacturer to a consumer, and shopping is a vital part of any national economy. Historically, shops such as butchers and bakers stocked only one sort of product. Today, shopping is big business; global chain stores sell a variety Customers can also buy from ‘online shops’ on the Internet and have the goods delivered.

Butchers shop in ancient Rome

Early shops Early nomadic peoples traded goods wherever they wandered. Shops began when people first settled in towns and were common by 3000 BC. They did not replace outdoor trading at (airs and in markets. The huge 16th-centur\' market at Tlaltelolco, Mexico astonished Spaniards who came to conquer the Aztec empire.

Supermarkets A supermarket is a self-service food store. The first was opened in 1916 in Memphis,

Shopping centres

Tennessee, USA. The invention ol the

Increasingly, many different goods are sold

shopping trolley in 1937 allowed shoppers to buy more than they could carry, and

under one roof. Department stores are large shops, each department specializing in a

ensured the success of the supermarket.

different kind of good. The first opened

By the 1950s, supermarkets were widely popular in the USA, and had spread

in Paris, France, in 1865. Shopping malls began in 19th-

throughout Europe.

merchandise

century Europe as arcades

Breakfast cereal

linking city-centre streets. The

packaging

first modern-style mall opened in Kansas, USA, in the 1920s.

Department stores Some department stores are renowned around the world for the

F. W. Woolworth

variety of luxurious goods they offer, and have become tourist

US tvcoon Frank Winfield

attractions. They include

Woolworth (1852-1919)

Bloomingdales in New York, USA;

Food in supermarkets is

made his lortune from

GUM in Moscow, I^ssia; Au Bon

generally pre-packaged,

discount shops that priced

Marche, in Paris, Prance; and

for speed and convenience,

everything at either 5C or IOC.

Harrods in London, UK.

to keep food fresh, and

The company

to identifiv ingredients.

Packaging

he set up

Malls

1879 now

As well as shops, a mall may

has 9,000

Bar codes

contain banks, cinemas, offices,

branches

A bar code identifies the

and restaurants. The covered

around

contents of a package. A

shopping trolley ISBN 0-7513-6034-1

computer at the check-out scans

streets of a mall are traffic-free. They are often built in out-of-

the code, adds the items price

world.

town sites, accessible onlv by car,

to the bill, and orders more

Shopping mall,

so that builders must include

product from the manuf^mrer

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

adequate parking spaces.

when stock is low.

Markets

^

780751"360349'> Bar code

Shopping from

Mail order and online shopping

home in the

Catalogue shopping is especially useful

Malls may offer economy and convenience,

1930s

for disabled people, and those in remote areas. The British Army

but they lack the character of traditional

and Naw Cooperative Society

markets everywhere in the world, where people

printed the first catalogue

gather to buy and sell goods.

in 1872, and the Sears

I Fresh

Roebuck catalc^ue began in

vegetables y'

the United States in 1894. TV shopping channels and

Selling spices in a Moroccan souk

760

Souks and bazaars

Floating market

The roof of a souk (Arab

In Venice, Italv, where

market place) shades shoppers

rivers are the quickest

from the burning sun. Some

transport routes, water¬

are vast: the Grand Bazaar

borne shops are as

in Istanbul covers an area

convenient as malls are

the size of 700 tennis courts.

to the car driver.

buying over the Internet offer a more versatile and modern version of the mail

I

order catalogue.

nND OUT

MORE

Advertising AND MARKETING

Money

Trade and INDUSTRY

^ Side-facing

SHOREBIRDS

Shorebird features

eyes for all¬ round

Shorebirds have specialized beaks for reaching a

vision

particular food. Some swim to find food, but

Also known as

most wade through water or walk

waders, shorebirds belong to 12 closely related families. There are about 200 species, all with long legs and slender beaks with which they probe for food in wet sand, soft ground, or mud. Some use their beaks to hammer open shells; others pull up worms or catch swimming animals. Many waders live on the shore, but others are found in a wide range of damp places, from riverbanks and woods to waterlogged hillsides.

over the ground on theii long legs. They have good eyesight for watching out for danger.

is used to

Eurasian

smash open

Oystercatcher

shells.

Oystercatchers Like most shorebirds, an ovstercatcher lavs camouflaged eggs directly on the ground. If a predator approaches, a parent bird tries to lure it awav from the eggs.

Hammering beak

Feeding

Some oystercatchers have a bladclike tip to their beaks, which they

Shorebirds eat a wide range of

""

/C

animals, from clams and snails

use to hammer open shells or prise them apart. Others have a

to worms and shrimps. Many

pointed beak and eat worms.

s Oystercatcher hammers shells with the blunt end of its beak.

shorebirds live on creatures that

Sweeping beak

are normally hidden in mud or

An avocet sweeps its unique

cloudy water. The birds can

upturned beak from side to side,

.. Slender, upturned be.ik

just below the water’s surface.

catch these without being able 9

to see them, because they can

When the beak touches suitable prev, the avocet snaps it shut,

feel for them with the sensitive

trapping the animal inside.

tip of their beaks.

An avocet holds its beak /

Probing beak

open while looking for food

The curlew uses its curved beak

Curlew

to probe deep into mud and

Jacanas ar

damp grass. It can collect worms

also called

and molluscs that are beyond A curlews beak is up to 19 cm (7.5 m) long

the reach of other birds.

Shield above

i

Riverbank waders

Inland waders

base of the beak

The blacksmith plover lives

Waders are found in many places inland. They live where the ground is

Jacanas These waders live

to water. It gets its

damp enough for them to search for

name from its alarm call,

food, and where there are safe places for

which sounds like a

them to nest and raise their chicks.

mainly in the tropics, on

in southern Africa, and usually stays close

blacksmith hammering a piece of metal.

ponds and lakes with floating plants. Their weight is spread over their huge toes,

Oystercatcher

allowing them to walk on plants without sinking Scientific name Haematopus V. Long legs

ostralegus Okoer Charadriiformes Family Haematopodidae

Grey phalarope

Slender toes

In most bird species, the

with long claws

Woodland waders

Marshland waders

Woodcocks are .shv

Northern lapwings are

DistRIBU I ION Europe, Asia, Africa

woodland bird.s. They

common in marshes

Habitat Rocky and muddy coasts

feed mainly after dark,

and grassland in Asia

males are more brightly

when they probe the

and Europe. They are

coloured than the females

ground for worms. Their

acrobatic fliers, and rhe

Size Length: 43 cm (17 in)

In waders called

plumage provides them

males do aerial displays

Lifespan About 5 years

phalaropes, things

with superb camouflage.

in the breeding season.

Diet Molluscs, worms

are the other way around. The females are brighter, and the males raise the young.

nND OUT

MORE

BiRDb

Ducks, geese AND SWANS

Herons, storks AND ELAMINGOS

Marsh and SWAMP WILDLIFE

Seabirds

761

SHRINES I

A SHRINE IS A SACRED PEACE dedicated to the memory of a person or event, or to a spirit god. Shrines range from tiny roadside structures housing pictures or statues to huge, richly decorated churches or temples. Sometimes special rocks, trees, or springs are also venerated as shrines. People visit shrines to pray and give offerings, hoping for good health or fertility.

Prayer flags flutter in the

Buddhist shrines

wind at a Buddhist shrine

The Buddhist faith has many shrines and places

in Tibet.

of pilgrimage. These range from large and elaborate temples, adorned with statues of the Buddha, to simple hilltop sites. Some shrines are linked to the Buddha;

Decoration shows

others are associated with Bodhisattvas, outstanding

Jesus calling his

people who help others along the Buddhist path of

disciples

enlightenment. Flags often fly at Buddhist shrines. A prayer is written on each flag, so that the words can waft towards heaven as the flag flutters in the wind.

Spirits of nature Many of the standing

Many traditional

stones in Brittany,

religions worship nature

France are aligned

spirits, which reside in

in long avenues.

sacred trees, springs, or rocks. When a shaman (priest) performs holy rituals at these shrines, his followers believe he actually becomes the nature spirit. Well dressing In some parts of England, ancient wells are decorated

Fertility stones

once a year with Christian

Ancient standing stones of northern Europe

designs of seeds, flowers,

are often placed so the Sun rises over them on

and other narural materials.

Midsummers Dav. They were probably erected

They are often dressed at

bv people who wanted the Sun to ripen their

midsummer, indicating that

crops. Women still visit the stones, hoping the

the custom has survived

stones will help them conceive.

from pagan times.

A well in Derbyshire, England, with traditional decoration

A home-made shrine

Small shrines

in a Chinese kitchen

In many countries people build small shrines wherever they want to pray or feel close to God at a spot with a beautiful view, beside the road, and in the home. Such shrines are treated with great reverence, and decorated with pictures and flowers. Roadside shrines Small shrines bv the side of the road are

A Greek roadside

common throughout Greece; they often

shrine looks like a tiny temple.

commemorate the life of a local person, or mark a spot where

Pilgrimages

Santiago de Compostela

Making a pilgrimage,

been a popular pilgrim

a journey to a shrine,

in northern Spain has destination with

someone died. They sometimes contain a statue or picmre.

Household shrines Many Chinese houses contain a small home-made

Christians for centuries.

is important in many

shrine dedicated to one of the traditional Chinese

religions. Pilgrims hope

gods or to the family’s ancestors. The shrine may be made of wood and decorated with coloured cloth and

their journey will bring

beads. It opens to reveal a little statue of the deity.

them closer to God.

The family pravs and makes offerings to their house¬ hold shrine, especially when they have problems or

Cockle shelly symbol of St James

FIND OUT

MORE 762

Art, HISTORY OF

are making important decisions about their lives.

Buddhism

Christianity

Hinduism

Islam

Prehistoric PEOPLE

Religions

Sculpture

SIAM see ASIA, HISTORY OF • SICILY see ITALY • SIERRA LEONE see AFRICA WEST • SIGN LANGUAGES see LANGUAGES

SIGNS

AND

SYMBOLS

Luck Some people believe that certain

and you will probably see a sign or a symbol nearby. Both are means X * % of communication, but in different ways. A sign is an object, gesture, or idea that points to something else, giving information clearly and quickly. A road sign, for example, advises drivers of conditions ahead; a trade mark guides shoppers to a product. A symbol is less direct; it usually represents something other than its image, to convey a hidden, deeper meaning. Look up from this book,

symbols bring good luck. The eye is a common example. Portuguese fishermen paint eyes on their boats for luck; Chinese sailors believe a ship will lose its way without eyes to see. In the Mediterranean, people carry glass magic eye charms to turn away the intentions of evil-wishers. Magic eye charm

Trade marks Manufacturers may mark the products they make with symbols called trade marks. A trade mark links a company’s reputation to

Picture signs help

Information signs Signs must be concise and easy to understand, even

to

overcome language

a product. The trade mark may be the main

barriers in an

difference between competing products, so

international airport.

companies protect trade

car park'

for people who do not read or speak the language. For immediate impact, the most important

"Arroplane

information signs avoid words. An

departures"^

"Mens, womens,

marks fiercely.

"This

Brandnames

exclamation mark in a triangle spells “Danger!” in

The best known brand in the world is probably

'

Coca-Cola. Its distinaive

any language.

symbol has become as much a symbol of

Arrows

American culture as of the

Signs work only

drink Itself. The trademark

when everybody

was created by a bookkeeper

agrees on their meaning,.

who worked for the Pemberton

To most people, the sharp

Chemical Company, which

end of the arrow sign

invented Coca-Cola.

Hallmarks

points the direction, just as a real arrow fired from

Hallmarks are tiny signs and symbols,

a bow leads to its target.

stamped into gold and silver items to show

Officially

the purity of the metal. In some countries,

tested in . London

they are required by law. In the USA the symbols are not used: instead, the words “coin” or “sterling” are stamped into silver. Some hallmarks and their meanings

Seals and belonging

Seals and badges

Signs and symbols act as a focus to

wax, which governments once fixed

unite people who belong to the same

to documents to prove they were

Made

country, family, or organization, or

genuine. The image represented an

in UR

shuttle crew members

Seals are raised images, pressed into

who share the same beliefs. Some symbols have had the same meaning

Makers mark

designed this

aspect of the organization. Modern seals and badges often continue ffiis tradition.

for centuries; others are modern,

Shopboards

reflecting changes in society.

Until street numbers began in the 18th century, shops hung

AIDS ribbon

out signs so customers could

The folded, pinned red ribbon

find them. Roman taverns, for

represents the fight against the

example, hung out a bush to

disease AIDS. The wearer shows

signal they sold wine. Some

support for sufferers, and for

British public houses are still

research to find a cure for the disease.

called the Bush, continuing State seal of Florida, USA

the ancient tradition.

camp badge

Religious symbols A symbol mav act as a focus

Symbolism

for religious rituals. The symbol may stand for god, or

Artists, writers, and

may itself be holy. The Sikh

' musicians use symbolism to

religious community has five The red ribbon a

subtly introduce a theme or an idea in

outward symbols.

their work, without actually showing it. For instance, western authors sometimes use bats to

symbol ofthe fight against AIDS

Kangha (comb) Kara (steel bangle)

The bat may

since 1991 Kirpan

FIND OUT

MORE

However, symbolic meanings are not necessarily the same worldwide. In China, the bat symbol

ieath

(sword)

rhree of the five Sikh symbol

symbolize darkness, chaos, or impending doom.

Advertising AND MARKETING

represents good luck and happiness.

Codes and CIPHERS

Flags

Language

Shops

763

Signs and symbols Religious signs and symbols

Om, a sacred syllable

Swastika, an emblem of

Star of Da>id, the main

The sacred lamb, a Christian

in the Hindu faith

the Hindu deity Vishnu

symbol ol Judaism

symbol for Jesus Christ

The octopus is sometimes

Crocodile tears are

The frog is associated with

The camel, which kneels to

The bald eagle is a

The whale is a symbol

a symbol of fickleness.

a sign of hypocrisy.

healing and wealth in China

receive a load, symbolizes humilir\'

national US symbol.

of death and rebirth.

Warning and prohibitive signs

A line through a red circle indicates that a certain action is not allowed.

Radioactive

Toxic/poisonous

No cycling

No smoking

Not suitable for drinking

A triangle is a warning sign.

A red circle is a warning sign.

General information

Tourist information

Disabled access

Weather symbols

Thunderstorm

764

Fog

Rainbow

Drizzle

Hail

Rain

Windspeed 18—22 knots

Mens toilets

Astronomical symbols

International symbols used by meteorologists

Wind calm

Womens toilets

Telephone

Snow

V 0 D $ 9 cf ^ \ ^ ^ £ Showers

Cumulonimbus cloud, anvil top

Sun

Jupiter

Moon

Saturn

Mercury

Uranus

Venus

Neptune

Mars

Pluto

SIKHISM see RELIGIONS • SIKORSKY. IGOR IVAN sec AIRC RAFT • SINGAPORE see MALAYSIA AND SINGAPORE

SKELETON

Ancient bones If a person dies and is buried, the body tissues gradually break down and then disappear. However, the hard mineral

and supported by a framework of bones called the skeleton. An adult skeleton consists The body is shaped

salts that make up the bones remain and can retain their original shape for several thousands of years. The existence of ancient skeletons enables archaeologists to gather information about early people.

Cranium surrounds

Backbone

and protects the skull. Skull consists of the cranium and the facial bones. Vertebra is one of the bones that make up the backbone. . Clavicle (collar bone)

Sternum (breastbone) Humerus

The backbone, or vertebral column, is the body’s main support structure. It consists of short bones called vertebrae. A backbone has 24 separate vertebrae and nine vertebrae that are fused together. Between the separate vertebrae are joints that are slightly movable, which make the backbone strong but flexible. Pads between the vertebrae called intervertebral discs are made of cartilage tissue. These discs cushion the vertebrae against jolts.

(upper arm hone, Sacrum

Movement The skeleton is a flexible framework because bones meet at joints where they can move in relation to one another. Muscles are attached to the bones across joints so that when a muscle contracts, movement occurs. The body can perform a wide range of movements. .

Backbone (vertebral column) Pelvic girdle

Radius

Pelvis is

is made up of

narrow.

two hip bones joined at the front and at the sacrum.

wrist Arm movements help the body balance and move faster during running.

Pelvis is

Pelvic inlet

broad

wider in

and shallow

(thighbone)

Phalanx is

The pelvis is the bonv girdle that links the legs to

is one of five

is the largest

one of 14

the backbone, and supports the abdominal organs.

palm bones ii

bone in the

finger bones

the hand.

bodv.

(phalanges)

together form the pelvic girdle, along with the

in the hand.

sacrum and coccyx, the bones that make up the

before pushing

It is made up of the two hip bones, or coxae, that

down and back

end of the backbone. In the centre of the pelvis is

for next stride.

an opening called the pelvic inlet. Male and female pelvises are different shapes.

Leg straightens at knee, as the

Patella

foot pushes

(kneecap

against ground

Flexion is a movement

protects

to propel

that reduces the angle

knee joii

body forwards.

females for giving birth.

Male and female pelvises

Femur Metacarpal

Leg bends at knee^

Female pelvis

i

of a joint. This

,

skeleton flexes, or leg and the right arm.

_

surgery. X-rays are a type of

Metatarsal is

^

radiation that passes

one of five

bends, the left

through the body’s soft

bones forming

Jf

the arch and

Imaging bones Doctors use X-rays to look inside a patients body for signs of damage or disease, without

Fibula

tissue but not through bone. An X-ray machine

ball of the foot.

produces a negative Extension is a movement

Phalanx is

that increases the angle of

one of l4

a joint. This skeleton

toe bones

photograph called a radiograph, in which . Tarsal is

extends, or straightens,

(phalanges)

one ot seven

the right leg

in the foot.

ankle bones.

only the bones show up. False-colour radiograph of a broken arm bone y'

and the left arm.

765

SKELETON

Bones

Haversian canal is a

Bones are made of a hard, living, self-repairing tissue that is supplied

Structure of compact bone

Blood vessel supplies

space that runs down

bone cells with oxygen

the centre of the

and food.

osteon, carrying

with blood vessels and nerves. Bone consists of widely spaced

blood vessels

osteocytes (bone cells) and the matrix that lies between them. The

Lamella is one of

matrix is made up of fibres of collagen, which give bone its flexibility,

the tubes of bone

and mineral salts, mainly calcium phosphate, which give bone its

surrounding a

and nerves.

^

Haversian canal.

strength. Surrounding all bone is a layer of hard, compact bone. Within the compact bone is a layer of lighter spong\' bone. The spaces within spongy bone are frequently filled with red marrow. Rfd marrow is the site of red and white cell production.

Bone marrow

Spongy bone

Compact bone

Bone marrow is a jelly-like material

Spongy bone is a “honeycomb”

Compact bone forms the outer part

found inside bones. Red bone

layer that lies beneath compact

of bone. After teeth enamel, compact

marrow inside the hip, skull, collar

bone. It forms a light but strong

bone is the hardest material in the

bones, sternum, and backbones is

framework that reduces the hones

bodv. It is made up of parallel

up of tinv bony tubes called lamellae arranged in

the site of blood cell production.

weight but not its strength.

cylinders called osteons.

circular layers around a central Haversian canal.

An osteon is a small piece of compact bone made

Joints

Giovanni Ingrassias Giovanni Ingrassias (1510-80) was

Joints occur where bones meet. The majority

one of the first doctors to study in

of joints move freely, and are known

Edge of frontal bone

detail the structure of bones. He

as synovial joints. They make the skeleton

forms suture with

was a physician and anatomy

flexible, so that when muscles pull on

edge of parietal bone

professor in Naples until 1563, when he returned to Palermo in

bones, a part of the body moves. There

his native Sicily. Among his

are several different types of synovial

achievements, Ingrassias

Skull

joint, each of which allows a different

discovered the stapes

The skull is made up of

range of movements. These include ball

22 bones, 21 of which are held together bv immovable

and socket, saddle, and hinge joints.

joints called sutures. Onlv the mandible (lower jaw) is

Ball and socket

freelv movable. In a suture,

This joint consists of a

the edges of bones fir rightlv

ball-shaped head that fits

together and are prevented

into a cup-shaped socket.

Skull is "exploded” to

from moving, as this would

It is the most flexible

show component parts.

damage the brain.

(stirrup), the innermost of the tiny ossicles in the ear and the smallest bone in the bodv.

type of joint and allows movement in most

Bone fractures

directions. It occurs in the hip joint and in the

A fracture, or break, happens when a bone is exposed

shoulder joint.

to a sudden force that it cannot withstand. There are

Saddle

two types of fracture. In simple or closed fractures,

In a saddle joint, the end

the broken bone ends remain below the skin; whereas

of each bone is saddleshaped. This allows

in compound or open fractures, they stick out

■ movement forwards and

through the skin and often cause damage to

backwards, from side to

Spongy bone forms

side, and, in a limited

surrounding tissues. Fractured bones

Movement i

way, round and round.

mend themselves.

tiuo planes

There is a saddle joint at

f-vii

between broken ends.

Casts

the base of the thumb.

A casr is used to immobilize

Hinge

a limb so that the broken

In a hinge joint, the

ends of a bone are lined up

cylindrical surface of one

in the right position.

bone fits into the curved

A cast is applied by

surface of the other, so

wrapping wet bandages

the bones can only be

impregnated with

Joint allows

moved up and down.

plaster of Paris or plastic

movement in

Hinge joints are found in

around a limb. When

one plane.

the elbow and knee.

dry, the plaster hardens.

FIND OUT

MORE 766

Fossils

Growth and DEVELOPMENT

Human BODY

Human EVOLUTION

Medicinl

Medicine, HISTORY OL

Muscles and MOVEMENT

Teeth AND JAWS

X-rays and the ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

SKIING see WINTER SPORTS

SKIN, HAIR, AND NAILS of your body is a protective

Covering the outside

Epidermis is the outer

layer that consists of your skin, hair, and nails. Skin

part of the skin, which

is the body’s largest organ and it has several functions. It waterproofs the

protects the Sebaceous gland

dermis.

produces an oil called sebum,

body and forms a barrier against

which lubricates

bacteria, viruses, and the harmful effects of

skin and hair.

sunlight. Skin also contains sensors that detect pressure, pain, heat, and cold, enabling you to feel your surroundings. Nails and hair are extensions of the skin.

Skin Skin consists of two layers: the epidermis and the dermis. The epidermis is the thin, but tough, outer protective part of the skin. It has a number of layers. The inner,

Blood vessels supply skin with ox}'gen and food.

thicker dermis contains sensory nerve endings,

Sweat pore releases sweat

blood vessels, hair

on the skin's surface.

follicles, and sweat glands.

I

Epidermis The upper layer of epidermis

Pigmentation

Temperature control

consists of dead cells packed with

C ells in the epidermis make

Skin helps the body maintain an

a tough protein called keratin, that

a pigment called melanin,

even temperature of about 37®C

are constantly being worn away

which protects the bod}'

(98.6°F). If your body gets too

and replaced. Cells in the lower

against damage by strong

hot, glands release sweat and

epidermis divide and push new cells

sunlight. People with darker

blood vessels widen to give off

towards the surface to replace the

skin produce more melanin

heat. To cool the body, blood

lost ones. As they move upwards,

than those with lighter skin.

vessels get narrower.

these cells fill with keratin.

Root of

Skin

nail^

fold

Cuticle is the

Naiu appear

rim of the

pink because

skin fold.

blood

'N

pillaries bebw them show through

-v

Nails

Hair

Nails are hard coverings

Millions of hairs cover your body.

that protect the ends of

There are two types of hair. Fine

fingers and toes. Cells in

vellus hair grows over most of the

the root of the nail divide

body. Thicker terminal hair grows

constantly, pushing the nail

on the scalp, and makes up the

forward over the nail bed.

eyebrows and eyelashes. Hairs

Finger-nails grow at a rate

grow out of pits in the skin called

of about 5 mm (0.2 inches)

follicles. Hairs on your head grow

each month, but toenails

about 1 cm (0.4 inch) a month.

grow more slowly. Lunula No two people, not even

Nail structure

iNail p rotects

identical twins, share the

Nails are made of the tough

sensitive skin

same fingerprints. ^

Hair structure

protein, keratin. The nails are colourless but appear pink

Fingerprints

The shaft of a hair consists of

because they rest on a bed

The undersides of your fingers are

three layers. The cuticle forms

served by blood vessels. They

covered with tiny epidermal ridges

overlapping scales on the surface

Types of hair

grow from active skin cells

that, together with a sticky film of

of the hair. Below the cuticle, the

^X^ether the hairs on your head are

under skin folds at their base

sweat and natural oils, help you to

cortex forms the main part of

straight, wavy, or curly depends on the shape

and sides. An opaque crescent

grip objects. When you touch an

the shaft and the medulla is the

of the hair follicles they grow from. Round

called the lunula at the base of

object, some of the film sticks to

tough core. Cells in the follicle

follicles produce straight hair; oval follicles

each nail contains many of

the object so that you leave

divide and push upwards to form

produce curly hair; and curved follicles

these active cells.

behind a fingerprint.

the shaft of the hair.

produce wavy hair.

FIND OUT

MORE

Crime and PUNISHMENT

Diseases

Genetics

Growth and development

Heat

Human body

Human EVOLUTION

Muscles and MOVEMENT

Skeleton

767

SLAVERY

Ancient world Slavery in ancient times reached its height in the Greek world and

The practice of slavery,

the ownership of one person by

Roman Empire. Slaves made most of the goods,

another, goes back to ancient times, when the Sumerians,

and worked in the home and on farms. They had

Egyptians, Romans, and Greeks kept slaves. From the 15th

few rights, but some gained

century a huge slave trade developed, when Europeans began

freedom, and even high social status.

selling captured Africans for profit, and shipping them across the sea to work in European colonies. This trade in humans lasted until the 19th century, and greatly affected African and American cultures. Today, slavery is illegal, although it still exists in some parts of the world.

Slave trade The Portuguese began the Afro-European slave trade in about 1440, bur it reached its height under the English, who shipped vast numbers of Africans across the Atlantic to work as slaves on cotton and tobacco plantations in their American colonies. More than 7 million Africans were transported from Africa to lives of Markets

misery in the Americas. The trade

In the Americas, traders auctioned Africans

brought huge profits to European and

to plantation owners at slave markets. To

Traders

African traders, and devastated

from English ports and

African kingdoms. It also changed the population of the Americas; by 1800, half of Brazil’s

exchanged goods for Africans who had been captured and marched to the coast. Slaves were branded like cattle, and

i

•

at*

•

•

traders and buvers, Africans were no longer

•

population was African in origin,

shipped to the Americas.

Slave ships Between 1701 and 1810, more than a million Africans died from suffocation, disease, or starvation on the journey across the Atlantic, which could take up to 10 weeks. Slaves were chained to prevent them from jumping overboard, because the loss of a slave meant a loss of profit. i ana tf were kept . .^nt of the boat, and Model of the English

Slaves survived on ^e, maize,

girls at the back; most slaves were

slave ship Brookes

yams, pubes, and cassava

between 16 and 45 years old.

Plantation slavery

Abolitionists From the late 18th century, there were

Slaves worked long hours on cotton plantations in the

English and American movements to

southern United States, or they worked indoors cooking

abolish slavery. Uncle Toms Cabin (1851) by the writer Harriet Beecher Stowe was

and cleaning. They lived in huts, and slept on floor mats.

an anti-slavery novel. In 1833, Britain

The black people had no rights: they were the property

ended its slave trade, but slavery continued

of the plantation owners. Because of this oppression,

in the United States, particularly yi the

more than 250 slave revolts took place.

south, until after the Civil War in 1865-

Timeline

1619 First shipload of African

1833 British abolish

73—71 BC Spartacus

slaves arrives in Virginia.

their slave trade.

leads revolt of slaves in the Roman Empire.

1780-86 Some US stares pass

After the defeat of the

manumission (freedom from

1857 Dred Scon

slave revolt, 6,000

slavery) acts.

case: Supreme

are crucified.

Court in the 1831 Nat Turner leads slave

1100s Arab traders send

uprising, Virginia, USA. All

West African slaves to

involved are hanged. Slave

Asia and Arabia.

codes prohibit literacy.

^ ♦

1863 Emancipation

Harrier Tubman

Proclamation frees

Bom into slavery in Maiyland,

slaves in southern

USA, Harriet Tubman

states of the USA

(c.1820-1913) escaped in 1849. She then helped some 300 slaves to freedom

1948 Declaration of

on a secret escape route from the South to the North,

USA rules

Human Rights from

that African-

the United Nations

Americans are

prohibits slavery and

Railway. During the

not citizens.

trade in slaves.

Civil War, Tubman

known as the Underground

worked for the North nND OUT

MORE 768

Africa, HISTORY OF

American CIVIL WAR

Caribbean, HISTORI OF

Egypt, ancient

Greece, ancient

Human rights

Roman empire

as a nurse and spy.

SLEEP sec BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM • SLOVAKIA see EUROPE CENTRAL • SLOVENIA see BALKAN STATES

SMELL AND TASTE

Nose and mouth The smelling part of the nose is the nasal cavity, which is divided into two halves, each served by

The air that we breathe in, and the food

one nostril. Smell receptors are found in the upper

that we eat, contain chemicals that can be

part of each nasal cavity. Taste receptors are found

detected by our senses of smell

inside the mouth, on the surface of the tongue, and in the lining of the mouth cavity.

and taste. Both senses depend on

.

chemoreceptors, which are sensors that react to the presence of certain chemicals by sending nerve impulses to the brain. Chemoreceptors in the nose detect smells, or odours, while those on the tongue detect tastes. Smell and taste work together. Your sense of smell is about 20,000 times more sensitive than your sense of taste. Olfactory membrane

Smell

contains smell

Your sense of smell operates when you breathe in through your nose. Chemicals carried

Nasal cavity

by the air dissolve in the layer Smell receptors

of mucus covering the olfactory Olfactory hairs

Smells are detected by tiny hair-like

membrane. The dissolved

line nasal cavity.

projections called cilia located at the

chemicals cause the olfactory

end of the olfactory cells. There are

Olfactory membrane

cells to send nerve impulses to

The moist olfactory membrane covers an

the olfactory lobes. From here,

area the size of a postage stamp in the upper

about 20 million olfactory cells in the nose and about 20 cilia project from each cell. Smell receptors on the cilia

the nerve impulses are carried

react to specific chemicals. 1 his

contains chemoreceptors called olfactory

to the brain, where they are

mechanism enables you to distinguish

cells which detect odours.

interpreted as smells.

between thousands of different odours.

part of each nasal cavity. The membrane

Taste

Tongi

Sense of smell

Epi^ottis

Our sense of smell is poor

Your tongue can detect only four basic

compared to that of some other animals. Dogs, for

tastes: sweet, salt, sour, and bitter. The

example, have an olfactory

tongue is divided into different taste areas,

membrane ten times more

each containing taste buds that are sensitive

extensive than a humans. This enables them

to one of these tastes. There are over 10,000 ^

microscopic taste buds on the tongue, and

to detect much

* weaker smells, and

these are located on or between tiny

a wider range of

projections called papillae.

odours, than humans can. Dogs can be trained to sniff out drugs or explosives.

Edges of tongue detect sour flavours such

Detecting flavours

as lemons.

Your senses of smell and taste work together to enable you to detect many flavours. For Tip of tongue Sweet

Tongue papillae

example, when you eat food, information from

senses sweet

the chemoreceptors in your nose and mouth is

tastes such as

processed by your brain so that you can sense

sugar.

the flavour of the food. Some people use their

Taste buds

very good senses of smell and taste to make a

Your tongue is not smooth.

Each taste bud contains a cluster of

living as, for example, wine tasters

Its upper surface is covered by

chemoreceptors (taste cells). When food is

and perfume blenders.

papillae which make the tongue

chewed, chemicals dissolve in saliva, and

rough so it can grip and move

pass into the taste bud through the taste pore.

food during chewing. Papillae

The chemicals stimulate taste hairs on the

also allow you to lick food such

chemoreceptor cells. These send impulses

as ice cream. Taste buds are

along nerve fibres to the brains taste area

found in pores on and between some of the papillae.

HND OUT

MORE

where the impulses are interpreted as salt, sour, sweet, or bitter tastes.

Nerve fibi

Brain and NERVOUS SYSTEM

Chemistry

Digestion

Food

The durian is a_ very unusual fruit. It has a revolting

^ «A

smell but a

j

delicious taste.

^

Fruits and SEEDS

Human BODY

Teeth AND JAWS

769

SMOG see AIR • SMOKE SIGNALS see CODES AND CIPHERS

SNAILS ^

'

AND OTHER MOLLUSCS

These soft-bodied

Gastropods

Snail

animals all have a single

Snails and slugs belong to a group called

and drying out, and are coloured to

muscular “foot”, a gut,

gastropods. All gastropods move on a flat,

blend in with their environment.

Shells protect snails from enemies

Snails have a mouth with a radula

muscular foot, and are equipped with

and a mantle cavity. Most produce a protective calcium-based shell, but in

(tongue), and two pairs of tentacles,

tentacles and a rasping mouthpart called a

rhe longer of which has simple eyes.

radula. Most have a protective shell. Marine

They are hermaphrodite (that is, thev contain both male and female

snails have gills. Many freshwater and land

some species this has been reduced or lost

reproductive organs). They lay large

snails have adapted their gUls to form lungs.

altogether. The 80,000 or so living snails

eggs in warm, damp soil that hatch into young snails.

and mollusc species are divided up into

Shells normally coil in a right-handed spiral.,

bivalve, cephalopod, chiton, gastropod, and tusk shell groups which have colonized almost all areas of the world.

Emerging from shell O 'n /* special1 Ikind of ^^ twisting kno known as

I

The snail’s body is curled up inside the shell, sealed with

a layer of mucus for protection,

* emerge last, and the

torsion, the snail’s head

eyes become visible. The

emerges first from the

snail’s muscular foot

shell, followed by the tail.

now lie flat on the ground.

Giant African snail Foot produces slime.

Slug

Cone shell The beautiful but deadly cones are well adapted

Slugs are snails with no shell, or a very tiny

for catching and killing their food. Thev attack

one. Without the protection that a shell can offer, slugs rely on their slime, which is

their prey — usually small fish — with a single

sticky and offensive to predators. Some

poison-filled tooth. Fish are swallowed whole;

snails are carnivorous, but most land¬

humans usually survive - though in I960

living slugs are herbivores.

adult male died within two hours.

Bivalves

Chiton

Scallop The beautifully coloured scallop swims

Chitons, also known as coat-ofrmail shells,

Bivalves (meaning rwo-shelled) include

bv rapidly opening and closing its

are small molluscs with eight flattened shell

clams, mussels, and cockles. Bivalves that

hinged valves. Scallops have a fringe

plates held together by a protective leathery

of tentacles round the edge of the shell.

girdle. A chitons internal structures are

dive underwater have gills for breathing and

This is interspersed with tiny light-

simple, and it lives off algae. Chitons range

a foot, like the gastropods. Some bivalves

sensitive eyes that can detect moving

in size from 2 mm (0.1 in) to 30 ems

cement themselves to rocks using thin

objects. Its main predator is the starfish.

(12 in), and live on rocky shores.

thteads called byssus strands. Most bivalves

Jointed shell plates

Oyster

have two tubes, or siphons. One takes in

The oyster is one of the best-known bivalves.

water and food, and the other expels waste.

An ovster lays up to 50 million eggs in a single spawning season, but in its natural

Bivalves such as the giant Pacific clam can

environment only a few reach adulthood.

grow to more than 1.2 m (4 ft) across.

A popular foodstuff, oysters are cultivated commercially in marine oyster beds in

Black-lipped oyster

America, Australia, Asia, and Europe.

Cephalopods

Giant African snail

Tusk shells The marine bivalves known

Scientific name

Cephalopods are also molluscs, but their “foot” has

as tusks are so-called because

evolved into a set of tentacles on the animals head.

they look like elephant’s tusks.

Order

The broad end of the tusk is

SUPEREAMILY

Cephalopods swim by pushing jets of water

buried in sandy mud, and

through a fonnel under the body. Some produce a cloud of ink as a protective device. The largest-evet recorded cephalopod was a 20-metre (65-ft) squid.

Africa, America,

and Asia

the animal. The narrow end,

Habitat

where respiration takes place,

Forests, gardens, and

cultivation

projects into the water. Tusks search for food with slender

Diet

retraaable tentacles, and

Plants

Size Shell can grow up to 15 cm

some live at great depths.

Tentacles!

Achatinacea

Distribution

contains the head and foot of

Achatina achatina

Sigmurethra

(5.9 in) long

Cloud of ink HND OUT Cuttlefish releasing ink

770

MORE

Lifespan Ocean LIFF

Seashore WILDLIFE

Urban WILDLIFE

25 years

(in captivity)

Snails and other molluscs !.

Brown-lipped snails live mainly

Garden snails need co remain moist to survive. In dry conditions

Apple snails are used in aquariums

on chalk downlaiid.

the\' seal themselves inside their shells to hibernate.

to keep the glass clean.

Whelks are sea snails that live

Bubble shells appear to

just below the tideline.

“fly" through the water.

CilL absorb oxygen

Pond snails can live i

Dog whelks are carnivorous

very stagnant water.

and live on barnacles.

from sea water.^

Common periwinkles move on a

Lettuce slugs are brightly

Sea slugs> or nudibranchs as they are

Slugs are molluscs without shells. They tend

muscular "foot” like the land snail

coloured and taste unpleasant.

also known, live in rock pools.

to be more drab in colour than sea slugs.

Bivalves

Giant clams live on coral reefs

Spiny oysters are also known as

Queen scallops have two

Oysters live in the sea, buried

and have soft, colourful mantles.

chrysanthemum shells because

perfectlv matched shell halves,

in sand or attached to rocks.

they resemble the flower.

that are connected bv a hinge.

Barnacles often grow on the shells.

Green mussels use rough threads called byssus to attach themselves to rocks.

Cephalopods and other molluscs To swim, an octopus

Eye is similar to a

Tentacles grasp food

takes water into its

human eye.

as It floats by.

The beak-like jaw has

Squid have a tube¬

a poisonous bite.

like internal shell,

body cavity and forces it out through a funnel.

Squid, among the most common animals in the ocean, swim in shoals. Sperm whales feed on them

Octopuses feed mainly on shellfish. Their name comes

Nautiluses live in the deep

Cuttlefish have a hard internal shell

from their eight tentacles.

waters of the South Pacific

instead of an external shell.

771

SNAKES

Features of a snake

Forked tongue The snake’s tongue is a

Snakes are legless reptiles, but boas and

Snakes are long,

pythons have remnants of hind legs called

scaly, legless

spurs. Snakes are covered in an outer skin

highly sensitive organ of taste, smell, and touch. It is used to find prey or a mate, to detea a threat, and

reptiles. There are about 3,000

that they shed as they grow, often in one

to follow trails. The tongue

species of snake, 600 of which are

piece. They have no eyelids, but a spectacle

collects scent particles that

called a brille, covers the eyes. They lack

venomous. Snakes are found on all continents except Antarctica, and also in the

ears and are deaf, but can sense vibrations.

are analysed in the toof of the mouth in a structure called the Jacobson’s organ.

Snakes have smooth, muscular,

Pacific and Indian Oceans. They are believed to

streamlined

have evolved from lizards that lost the use of

bodies.

their legs. Snakes are successful predators — some, such as mambas, kill their victims with a venomous bite; others, like pythons, suffocate their prey to death. Snakes are feared around the world as they cause up to 100,000 human deaths every year.

■— Scales are thickenings

Waglers temple pitviper

Heat sensitive pits

of skin made

Boas, pythons, and pitvipers have thermo-

mainly of

sensory receptors to locate warm-blooded

the substance keratin. The

prey. In pythons and boas they form a series

heat from other animals.

Movement

of slits in the lip scales but pitvipers have a

number and

single large pit between the nostril and the

arrangement

eve. These receptors are very sensitive and

of scales vary

enable tree boas to capture bats on the wing.

between species.

Feeding

Fangs and venom When a snake, such as a rattlesnake, bites

Most snakes move on land or in water using a twisting

No snakes are herbivores; some kill their prev bv biting

motion, but heavy snakes

and injecting venom, while many non-venomous snakes

such as large anacondas move in straight lines.

its prey, venom is injected through hollow teeth called fangs. Venom kills prev by affecting the nervous system, muscles, heart,

kill their prey by constriction. Most snakes feed on frogs,

Some desert vipers move

lizards, small mammals, and birds. Some also eat termites,

diagonally across loose

crabs, and birds’ eggs. King cobras eat mainly other snakes.

or blood. It also starts off the process of digestion. Spitting cobras primarily use venom Fangs of a

for defence, causing intense pain or blindness.

rattlesnake

sand by moving sideways, or “sidewinding”, leaving j-shaped tracks marking the points of contact.

2

Killing by constriction

I

Reproduction Most snakes, such as cobras and pythons, lav eggs. They normally bury the eggs in totting vegetation or soil and leave them to incubate. King cobras build a nest that they guard; pythons coil around and incubate their eggs. A few snakes, such as boas, give birth to live young.

The coils tighten until the pre\- cannot breath

The boa constrictor uses its sharp teeth to

and it suffocates. When the prey is dead, the boa

grasp its prey, in this case, a rat. Once the

starts to devour its meal. The two halves of the lower

The boas skin stretches as it swallows its prey. A muscular windpipe enables

rat is secure within its mouth, the boa wraps

jaw are not conneaed so they can articulate (expand)

Huge meals such as pigs or deer, eaten

its powerful coils around the victims bodv.

to swallow pre\' much wider than the the boa's head.

by large pythons, last for many months.

Slender body coils around branch.

Habitat

Prehensile tail

Snakes live in most habitats, including deserts, rainforests, temperate forests, swamps, savannahs, cultivated land, estuaries, rivers, and even oceans. They do not live in areas of high altitude or latitude, Red-tailed racer

where it is too cold. Most snakes live on land. They

Scientific name Gonyosoma

range from snakes such as

Ornate

desert vipers, with rough

OK’ing snake

^

scales that help them grip

^ater snakes

Tree snakes

and move along the ground,

Sea snakes and sea kraits have

Prehensile tails and ridged

to burrowing blindsnakes with

tails for swimnung huge distances. Sea kraits can move

bellv scales give tree snakes

I

I

I

I,

,

smooth sc^es that allow them Green tree python guarding eggs

3

a snake to breathe during swallowing.

^cliffs;

to slip easily through the earth,

sea snakes are helpless on land.

extra grip when climbing trees. Strong vertebrae allow them to bridge wide gaps.

oxycephalum ORDER Squamata Family Colubridae Distribution Southeast Asia, from Thailand to Indonesia and the Philippines Habitat Rainforests Diet Rodents and birds Size Length 1.75 m (5 ft)

772

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Dt^hRF

MORE

WILDLIFE

Eggs

Lizards

Mongooses AND civets

Poisonous animals

Rainforest WILDLIFE

Reptiles

Woodland WILDLIFE

Snakes — Invertebrate eaters

This snake hunts for its prey

These snakes

at night

burrow into leaf litter or forest topsoil.

Small head and smooth scales help this snake to burrou Ringed snail-eating snakes live in trees. They

Ground snakes have tinv mouths and feed

Black-banded snakes are mildlv venomous

Smooth green snakes from North

are experts at pulling snails out of their shells.

mainly on earthworms and insect larvae.

They are thought to eat only tropical centipedes.

America feed on insects and spiders.

Vertebrate eaters Milk snakes are often confused with deadly coral snakes as they have the same colour bands.

African egg-eating snakes have no teeth. They swallow bird eggs whole and cough up the shell.

\

k 1

upturned snout for

f

burrowing in leaf

This snake has an

litter for food.

H

Green anacondas, the largest, heaviest, and strongest snakes in

Common milk snakes from North and Central America

Giant Madagascan hognose snakes are

the world, feed on waterbirds, caimans, and sometimes humans

feed on small mammals, lizards, and other snakes.

robust snakes capable of killing large rodents.

Bones in the neck spread

Brown saddles (wide irregul

out to form the hood.

markings) act as camouflage in woodlands.

. This snake has patterns that vary from Mottled skin

bands to saddles

for camouflage Gaboon vipers from Africa are huge

Monocled cobras are from Thailand.

Copperheads live in woodlands in North America,

Grey-banded king snakes from the deserts of

and can capture rats from ambush.

They are highly venomous and eat rats.

The)’ use their heat-sensitive pits to locate mice.

Western Texas, USA, hunt for lizards at night.

Thick, muscular body allows python to squeeze and suffocate large animals to death.

If threatened. this snake can ooze blood¬ stained liquid Jaws can expand

from tts cloaca

to swalhw prey

Cornsnakes are common around houses in

Western long-nosed snakes of North

southeastern USA, where thcv hunt for mice.

America feed on lizards md their eggs.

banded, but others Californian king snakes eat small mammals

Burmese rock pythons are powerful snakes capable of

and other snakes, including rattlesnakes.

killing large animals, such as deer and pigs, by constriction.

773

SNOOKER see BALL GAMES • SNOW see RAIN

SOCIETIES, Since prehistory,

r-.. W

The study of people

HUMAN

Both anthropology and sociology are social sciences that study the origins and

and in every culture, humans

development of human societies and

have organized themselves into groups, or

customs. They have revealed universal

communities, and have established “rules” of

features of human societies and explained the emergence of important differences.

living. A society is the name we give to the customs and organization of such a community. Certain

Sociologists

things are found in every society, such as the family, kinship,

collect data

the division of work by gender or age, marriage, the sharing

social

to study

of food, and the idea of ownership. But the customs that

behaviour,

govern behaviour at work, in the home, and in other social

crowded

whether in cities or

institutions and organizations vary greatly worldwide.

rural communities.

Families

Extended families

The family is a basic social unit and exists in every

Families share out responsibilities,

culture. Most of us are born into one and first learn

such as bringing up children,

Anthropologists examine

providing food, and performing

about the wider world through it. Later, we may start

domestic tasks. Many societies

a family of our own. Nuclear and extended families are

have a wide concept of the family

perhaps the two best-known family types, but family

group, with duties extending over

structures vary widely between, and within, societies as they are affected by such things as increasing divorce

Sociology

Anth topology'

several generations, who all live together. This npe of family is

Sociology’ is concerned with

humanity in terms of

how human beings behave in

evolution and development.

groups: how they organize

They also study the

themselves, and how one

customs, religions, and laws

group relates to another.

of a specific people at a

Sociologists mav try to

given time, and consider the

develop solutions to social

differences between cultures.

problems, such as crime.

often found in small, traditional communities, where shared

and changing social attitudes.

property and kinship ties form

A

Nuclear families

a common bond.

As well as their parents^

The term “nuclear family” usually refers

aunts, uncles, and grandparents care

to a core family of just two parents

Extended

for young children.

and their children. It is the most

family of four

widespread family type in

generations Adult children

industrialized nations, although today, single-parent families are also becoming more common. One type of

People are

family structure pnancially dependent than before

Nuclear

and can

family

choose to live alone.

Households

Singl

A household refers to the people who live under one roof. Single-person

household

households are becoming more common as indhiduals either choose to live alone, or find themselves on their own.

Kinship is the recognition of blood

Where people live

Cities

brother a raksha of coloured

or family ties between individuals. It

The jobs and available resources

cities, and this proportion is

threads.

IS the binding force in families,

determine where people live. In early

increasing. These large, crowded

Sister gives

Kinship

clans, or tribes; some societies have strict rules governing kin relations.

Half the worlds people live in

societies, people lived in hunter-gatherer communities of 80 to 150 people. As wotk patterns changed and populations grew, societies adapted in diffetent ways.

settlements offer the most job opportunites. Although the rise of cities has brought benefits, it has also created health problems, overcrowding, and pollution.

Shortage of housing is a problem in cities; high-rise blocks are one solution to lack of space.

Nomads Where food, water, and grazing were scarce, people could not build fixed settlements, but moved their animals between grazing areas. Peoples who still live this nomadic Bedouin tent in the desert

774

lifestyle include the Bedouin in North Africa

Block of high-rise

and the Mongols of the Asian Steppes.

flats in Moscow, Russia

SOCIETIES, HUMAN

Brahmans (priests) are the highest Hindu

Race and gender

Social stratification

Within a society, a persons status may be

caste and have great

Sociologists have shown that all societies

social prestige.

are stratified: they are divided into diffetent

affected by the ethnic group they belong to, or whether

strata, ot layets. Stratification may be based

they are a man or a woman.

on various factors, such as caste, class, gender,

They may earn less, and not be able to own property, or

race, or even age. As a result of the

even do certain jobs. During

layering, some people will have

the 20th century, racism and sexism were challenged.

greater advantages or status than

— for example, by civil rights

others, and this often leads to

groups and the womens

divisions in society.

Black woman worker

movement. Some anti¬ discrimination laws were also passed.

Residents

Caste

at a home

This is an ancient social

for the

hierarchy which still exists

elderly

Female plumber (traditionally a male job)

among Hindus in India, li is inherited and fixed. There are four main levels, with the Brahmans supreme, and 36 lower levels, members of which are seen as inferior.

Class

Age roles

People are said to belong

Depending on their age,

to a social class depending

society gives people

on the property they own or

different status. Youth is

their occupation. There may

generally seen as an advantage;

be some movement between

old people mav be discriminated

classes; education helps people

against or venerated, depending

improve their class status.

on the culture in which they live.

Some people receive

Ceremonies and rites

^ ^

In every society, people come together to mark or celebrate certain occasions or events

■

• T

Margaret Mead

their 21st

Pioneering and outspoken

birthday a symbol ' -

^ ^

of their entry

:

into adulthood.

US anthropologist Margaret Mead (1901—78) studied social behaviour in Samoa,

that are meaningful to the larger community.

New Guinea, and Bali,

Such ceremonies are shared events, which may

writing on rites of passage

involve traditional words, music, or dance, or

and child-rearing. She also

include special ritual actions or costumes. The

analysed US society and was an early advocate of womens rights.

ceremonies linked to birth, marriage, and death often have a symbolic meaning: they mark the different phases in an individual s status in society.

Work

Marriage

Gifts are given

When a man and woman marry,

celebration

they make a formal commitment to spend their lives together; they

Birth

agree to share their property and

Birth, when a new member arrives in a

set up a new household; and

community, is marked in different ways.

People spend most of their lives working, producing goods or services to support

their families are also linked

In Christian ceremonies, a baby’s head is

themselves and their

to each other. This great change

dipped in, or touched with, water. Male Jewish

families and to create

in social status is celebrated in

infants are circumcised eight days after birth.

wealth for their

wedding ceremonies worldwide,

In western countries, an individual's 18th or

often of a religious nature.

21 St birthday is celebrated as a time when he or she becomes an adult, or “comes of age”

Mourners wear veils

community. People also work for social status, intellectual

made of rouvh hessian

satisfaction, or company. Leisure Hindu wedding ceremony

In western societies, work tends

Death

for a set amount of time. Time

Death, when a loved and

away from work is sometimes

to happen in a certain place,

known as leisure time. During

valued member leaves a community forever, is marked

this time, people may choose

by rituals in most societies. In

enjoyable activities, such as

China, for example, Taoist

sport. In some countries, leisure

mourners at funerals

is big business. In less wealthy

traditionally cover themselves to

societies, less time may be

.show their respect for the dead.

FIND OUT

MORE

Crime

available for leisure.

Taoist mourners

Education

Festivals

Governments

Human rights

Law

Philosophy

Police

Religion

Women’s movement

775

SOCRATES

Early life Socrates was born in Athens. Greece, in 469 BC. Ver)' little is known about

The GREEK thinker

Socrates, who lived 2,400

his background, but it is thought that his mother

years ago, was one of the most important people

was a midwife and his father, Sophroniscus, was a

in the history of philosophy. He wrote no books,

stonemason and sculptor.

and we know little about the events of his life, but

As a voung man, Socrates probably followed his

Socrates still has a strong influence on western thought. He

fathers trade. He later served in the Athenian

believed strongly that philosophy should concern itself with

army as a hoplite (foot

the conduct of everyday life, not with abstract ideas. He

soldier), before turning to

valued human intelligence, reason, and open discussion,

middle years.

philosophy during his

and, through his teachings, showed people

Philosophy of Socrates

how to live a good and virtuous life.

Socrates believed that philosophy should be applied to the events of daily life. To lead a good life, we must, therefore,

Later life of Socrates

understand what virtue means. According to Socrates, “virtue

In his middle age, Socrates studied the teachings of other great

is knowledge”. He, therefore, stressed the importance of self-

thinkers, developed a philosophy of his own, and debated

knowledge, and told his pupils to question every statement to

regularly with other philosophers. Most of what we know about

test its truth.

his philosophy comes from the

Raphaels painring

writings of two of his pupils,

Greek philosophers

The School of

assemble fc

Athens

the philosophet Plato and the

discussions

historian Xenophon. Plato’s dialogues Plato (c.428—347 BC) wrote a series of books called dialogues, in which he sets out the arguments of Socrates in the form of conversations with other thinkers. Plato records that the oracle of Delphi considered Socrates to be the wisest man in Greece. Socrates was puzzled by this acclaim, until he realized that, while other people claimed to be intelli^nt without acknowledging their ignorance, he at least recognized his own ignorance.

Socratic method Socrates' philosophical method was known as dialectic. When Greek

Xenophon Unlike Plato, who

philosophers gathered for discussions,

describes the philosophy of Socrates, Xenophon (c.430-354 BC), in books, such as his Memoirs and

Socrates pretended ignorance of the

Anabasis, draws a more practical picture. In his book Oeconomicus, for example, Xenophon describes a discussion between Socrates and another man about

subject under discussion. He then asked a series of questions about each

rNOuei’CAYTON

statement to find out if it was true. By questioning every assumption made in a statement, Socrates believed it was

“Know thy'Self”

possible to arrive at the truth.

Socrates belie3'ed that a full understanding of himself and his own beliefs was essential to help him comment on the outside world,

managing a household

and find a wav of living that was best for others. The importance of self-questioning

and a farm.

in philosophy began with Socrates.

Socrates 469 BC Born in Athens, Greece.

C.420

BC Socrates marries

Xanthippe.

Trial of Socrates

399 BC Put on trial and sentenced to death in Athens.

During his life, Socrates made enemies because of his teaching. In 399

BC,

387 BC Plato founds the Academy -

he

the world's first formal

was brought to trial on a charge of

philosophical school — to carry

“introducing strange gods” — in other

on Socrates’ work

words subversion — and for corrupting

Note Little is known of the life

the young. He was found guilty and

of Socrates, although the

sentenced to death by drinking hemlock,

development of his philosophy

a deadly poison. His death is tecotded in

was well described bv his pupils, particularlv Plato and Xenophon.

Plato’s dialogue, Phaedo, and in a painting. Death of Socrates, by the 18th-century Ftench artist Jacques-Louis David.

776

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MORE

Greece, ANCIENT

Philosophy

Religions

Societies, HUMAN

Writing

SOFTWARE see INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

SOIL

Soil profile Soils develop from a layer of loose Much of the

weathered rock fragments, called

world s

a regolith. Chemicals released by

land surface is covered in

rotting organic matter — anything

decaying matter — soil. Soil

derived from plants or animals — slowly transform the regolith into

is a layer of weathered rock

soil. As this happens, the soil

fragments, rotting plants, and animals that

forms distinct horizons, or layers.

coats the ground everywhere, except for

Humus

deserts, polar regions, steep slopes, and

The top coat is a thin dark layer of humus —

artificial environments. Although soil is

maintaining the balance of minerals and

rotting organic matter. Humus is crucial to nutrients needed for plant growth.

made from decaying material, it is far from A horizon

dead; it is a living, ever-changing system. Tiny

Topsoil

gaps in the soil are filled with water or air, in

The topsoil, or A horizon, is the uppermost layer of soil. This is where plants grow and

which live myriad bacteria, algae, and fungi.

creatures burrow. It is usually rich in both humus and minerals.

These micro-organisms speed up the process of decay, making the soil a good home for

B horizon

plant roots, insects, worms, and other creatures.

Subsoil The subsoil, or B horizon, contains more weathered rock fragments than organic matter.

Soil type

It is poor in humus but rich in minerals, leached (washed down) from above.

A soil’s texture, or average grain size, varies with the nature of the bedrock beneath. Soils are divided into three main types,

C horizon

accotding to their texture — clay, sandy, and loamy. However, C horizon

there are many other soil types, which depend on climate,

Weathered rock fragments with little or no

vegetation, and landscape. Soils are also classified by their

organic content make up the C horizon.

acidity, or pH. They need to have the right pH to be fertile. D horizon

Clay soils Bedrock

In clay soil, most grains are fine clay or silt (medium-sized grains). Fine grains

Beneath the soil is the D horizon. This is

often stick together in clumps. When

usually solid, weathered “parent” rock. It can

dry, the soil is hard and likely to crack. When wet, it is sticky and waterlo^ed.

Loam

also be the loose material deposited in huge

Loams are the best soils for

quantities by rivers, glaciers, and wind.

plant growth. Loams are a

•

Sand

Sandy soils

mixture of clay, silt, and

Sandy soils contain coarse sand-sized

sand, which make them

Life in the soil

grains. Sandy soils are well-aerated,

fertile and easy to work.

The soil provides the conditions for giving life

wann, and are easy to work or dig.

to plants but is itself teeming with life, from

However, they can be very dry, and

Peat

their nutrients are quickly washed out.

All soils contain rotting

Earthworms play a vital role in improving the

organic matter, but peat is

soils texture by passing it through their digestive

Chalky soils

made of nothing else. Its

tracts and excreting it as worm casts.

Chalky soils are thin and stony, and

dark brown mass consists of

drain water quickly. Their high pH

rotten plants. Gardeners may

content makes them very alkaline

add peat to other soils to

and therefore not very fertile.

boost their organic content.

ants and termites to earthworms and rodents.

Erosion Damaged soil is infertile and unable to support plant or animal life. Erosion, a natural weathering process in which rain and wind erode soil from the land, can

Lessivage

Soil creep

In wet areas, clay

On steep slopes,

particles may be

soil often creeps

washed through the

slowly downhill

cause such damage.

soil, coating the

over the years. Hill¬

Human activity,

grains beneath and

side trees show the

such as over¬

dampening the soil.

soil’s movement.

farming, can also cause .soil damage.

Earthworms improve soil ferrilitv: their burrowing mixes and aerates the soil.

crust, as water evaporates from the surface of the soil

FIND OUT

MORE

Forests

Microscopic LIFE

Plants

Rocks and MINERALS

Worms

777

SOLAR SYSTEM see SUN AND SOLAR SYSTEM

SOLIDS C

Properties of solids Solid materials are often described in terms of their strength, elasticity, and hardness, and how easily

i,

The phrase “solid as a rock” makes US

they can be shaped. Such properties help scientists,

*'

think of something that is very hard and rigid.

engineers, architects, and designers decide how

But rock is only one example of a solid, and

best to use the matetials,

some solids are weaker or more flexible than others. A solid is any piece of matter that has a definite

and choose the most

'

suitable material for a particular task.

shape and volume, and does not flow like a liquid or a gas. When a solid gets hot, it may turn into a liquid: the heat of

Nail scratches slate.

a volcano can turn even the

Hardness Dragging a nail across a slate makes scratch marks on the surface of

hardest rock into liquid lava.

the slate, but leaves the nail unmarked. This is because the nail is harder than the slate The ability of a material to resist scratching is called hardness. The particles in the iron nail are bound together

Solid structure

more rigidlv and tightlv than those in the slate. Polystyrene breaks

Inside a solid, tiny particles of matter called

immediately under

atoms or molecules are packed together in

the same weight.

orderly patterns, like bricks in a wall. The particles are “cemented” firmly in place by forces called chemical bonds. Solid particles Although solid particles are held close to their neighbours and cannot move away, the\’ vibrate around fixed positions.

Strength

Melting

A strip of polvsnrene breaks more easily than a similar strip of balsa

When heated, a bar of chocolate turns into

a material is its abilitv to resist forces that act upon it. The more

wood because the balsa wood is a stronger material. The strength of powerful the forces between the particles in the material, the greater

a tunny liquid. The change of a solid to a

is its strength. Steel and concrete are extremely strong materials,

liquid is called melting. Heating a solid

which is whv the)' are widely used in building and construction.

gives its particles energy and makes them vibrate more vigorously. At a temperature

ElasticiU'

called the melting point, the particles are

When you pull a spring and then let it

rrr

go, it leaps back to its original size.

able to bteak free from their fixed positions,

Elasticity is the ability of a material to

and the substance flows as a liquid.

regain its size and shape after being

Steel

stretched or squeezed. Most materials are

spring

elastic only up to a certain point, called the elastic limit. If too much force is applied, the material reaches its elastic

SubJimation

limit and will nor regain irs shape.

VClien heated, most solid substances will first melt to form a hquid, and then boil to form a gas. However, a few solids, such as iodine crystals and dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide), transform directly from a solid to a gas as thev get warmer. This chan^ is called sublimation.

Crystalline solids

William Henry Bragg

Many solids, especially rocks, minerals, and metals, have

The English physicist William Henry Bragg

crystalline structures. This means that thev are made up of crystals, which are geometrically shaped pieces of solid matter with smooth surfaces, straight edges, and symmetrical corners. The atoms in crystal are arranged in a regular,

•

very ductile.

crystal, it makes a panern

Plasticity

of dots on photographic

this panern that

film. This panern

squeezed. A material that can be reshaped permanently when force

determines the

shows how the

is applied to it is said to be plastic. Most metals are plastic, but

shape of the crystal.

atoms are arranged

considerable force is needed to reshape them. A ductile metal is

inside the crystal.

one that can be drawn out into fine wire. A metal that can be beaten or rolled out into thin sheets is said to be malleable.

Sulphur crystals

FIND OUT

MORE 778

Atoms and MOLECULES

_Copper is

of X-ravs passes through a

Modelling clav will not return to its original shape once it has been

repeating pattern. It is 4

(1862-1942) and his son William Lawrence Bragg (1890-1971) discovered that if a beam

Building and CONSTRUCTION

Crystals AND GEMS

Gases

Liquids

Matter

Metals

Rocks and minerals

Volcanoes

SOFTWARE see INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY • SONAR see RADAR AND SONAR

Small head with

SONGBIRDS bird

Almost half the world’s

species are songbirds — a name given to the passerines, or perching birds. There are more than 4,000 species and they are found all over the world. The males of most species sing loudly during their courtship season, although some can only croak harshly. Females usually do not sing. Songbirds feed on insects or seeds according to the shape of their beak. Most are blind and helpl ess when they hatch. toe is larger and stronger than front toes.

Lungs

Songbird features Songbirds are very varied, but most are Perching feel

quite small with a compact body and a small beak. They have small feet with four slender toes on each. Their toes lock around twigs or branches which enables the birds to perch, even when they are asleep. The male and female of a species sometimes look identical.

Gouldian finches

A songbirds feet have

Syrinx

These brilliantly coloured

three toes pointing

The svrinx is a songbird's

seed-eaters from northern

forward, and one

voice-box. It is located at

Australia are typical songbirds.

pointing backward.

the base of its windpipe,

They spend most of their time

When the bird rests its

or trachea. It has thin

in tall grasses or bushes, but

weight on its feet, its toes

walls that vibrate to

come to the ground to drink.

automatically close.

make complex sounds.

Seed-eaters Seed-eaters, such as bullfinches, crossbills, and goldfinches, specialize in feeding at different types of plant. They have beaks shaped to extract the seeds and crack them

Beaks and diet The shape of a songbird s beak provides important clues to what it eats. For example, those with short, stubby beaks usually feed on seeds. Those with long, narrow beaks feed on insects, or on a range of food. Insect¬

open. Many of these birds

eating songbirds often migrate to warm places

also eat berries and buds,

when winter approaches because insects are

and occasionally insects.

hard to find in cold weather.

Using tools The woodpecker finch from the Galap^os Islands is one of the few animals

! Cross-tipped beak extracts

Cones

Syrinx Lungs

in the world that uses

Insect-eaters Insect-eaters usually feed on their

tools, it picks up cactus spines and then uses them

own. They use their beaks either

to prise insects out of

to probe into crevices for hidden

cracks in the bark of trees.

insects, or to catch living insects in midair. Some

The spotted

eat their food on the

flycatcher darts out

wing, but others take it

from a perch to

back to a perch.

catch passing insects

Starling

Spotted flycatcher

. Slender beak can reach into teasel flowerheads to extract the seeds.

A starlings sharp, straight beak probes

Feeding underwater

grass-covered ground.

One of the few songbirds

General feeders

that ventures into water is

Nectar-eaters

Starlings, thrushes, and crows are

the dipper. It jumps into

Only a few songbirds feed on nectar, but their beaks are

all songbirds that have a varied

fast-flowing streams and

specially adapted for reaching inside flowers. Sunbirds,

diet. They leed on a mixture

walks or swims beneath

which live in Africa and southern Asia, have slender

of seeds, worms, and insects,

the surface, picking up

beaks with a downward curve. They suck up the

and sometimes on the remains

insect grubs in its beak

liquid food using their tongue like a straw.

of dead animals.

from the riverbed.

779

SONGBIRDS

Establishing territories

Song thrush

Territories change every year as male birds fight for space in which to feed and breed. If food is abundant, robin territories are small.

j

If food is scarce, or if there are few males,

/\ 'f. ^

each one claims a

Robin

UBH

territories

\ Each colour represents a particular robin.

Warning call Attracting a mate

A songbirds song is particular to the

When a m^e robin has drawn a female into his

species. It is recognized by members i

territory, he often gives her presents of food. This

of the species, but ignored by other

is called courtship feeding. By doing this, the male

birds. The song thrush's song is made

encourages the female to mate and lay eggs.

up of clear phrases that are repeated.

Raising young

Feeding a family

Most songbirds are expert

Nest-building

Most songbird nestlings are

nest-builders. They make their

Songbirds usually make

completely helpless when they

nests above the ground, usually

cup-shaped nests. They

hatch. They rely on their parents to feed them and to

collect twigs, leaves,

in trees or dense vegetation.

and other materials and

keep them warm until they

During the breeding season,

press them into shape

develop feathers. In mosi

the adults are kept extremely

with their breasts.

busy building nests and feeding the young. Once their first

^HE

species, the male and female

Some species finish

share the task of finding food

their nests with a

and bringing it to the chicks

smooth lining of mud.

nestlings are ready to look after themselves, many female

in the nest. Feather tract

Flight feathers

Flight feathers almost

on the back

on the wmgs

fully formed

songbirds lay another clutch of eggs. Some species may raise

j

up to five families a year. Hatching The blue tit is a typical small songbird. It lays between six and 12 eggs, and the female starts to

I

incubate the ^gs immediately

At the age of just four days,

after the last one has been laid.

the nestlings are still naked,

The eggs hatch after about two

2

Bv six days, the nestlings’

3

At nine days, the nestlings’

4

At 13 days, the nestlings are almost fully fledged.

flight feathers are starting

feathers are beginning to

weeks, and during the following

and their eyes have not fully

grow. They form in special

to emerge from their tube-like

They will leave the nest in

two weeks, the nestlings grow and

formed. They beg noisilv when

patches called feather tracts.

sheaths. Sho

another four or five days, and

their parents approach the nest

Some of these are on the body,

beginnin^, to cover the rest of

will follow their parents as

with food.

and some along the wings.

the nestlings’ bodies.

they learn how to feed.

develop their feathers, or fledge.

feathers are

Types of songbird

Gouldian finch

Scientific NAME Chloebiagouldiae Order Passeriformes Family Estrildidae Distribution Tropical northern Australia House sparrows are

Blue-faced honeyeaier

Ni^tingales are known

originally from Africa and

has a harsh call. This large

for their song, which can

Asia. This small songbird

Australian bird feeds on

be heard during the dav

now lives all over the world.

insects, fruit, and nectar.

and night.

Habitat Open woodland, grassland, and scrub Diet Seeds of grasses and other plants Size Length from the tip of the beak to the end of the tail:

4^ ^ IS a common

yr

birds. Thev eat mainly seeds, and feed in flocks that are sometimes

the American tropics and subtropics, but the Scarlet tanager lives as far north

sh.irplv pointed beaks.

9 cm (3.5 in) long.

as Canada.

Lifespan About 5 years Migration Non-migrant Plumage Females are slightly paler

more than one million strong. In one and a half billion of these birds.

Kinglets are among the smallest songbirds. The

780

probably the world’s most abundant

the whole of Africa there are at least

Ciolden-crowned kinglet is

North American

13 cm (5 in)

These small African songbirds are

Tanagers usually live in

family of songbirds with

bird. It belongs to a

Red-billed queleas

FIND OUT

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Ammal BEHAVIOUR

Nest Dome of grass, usually in a hollow in the ground

Birds

Eggs

Nests and BURROWS

SONGHAI EMPIRE One of the largest

empires of 16th-century

West Africa was that of the Songhai. Tradition has

Trade to and

it that the Songhai kingdom was founded in the

Jrom India and China

7th century by al-Yaman, a Christian, but in the 11th century, its rulers converted to Islam. In the l4th century, the Mali Empire ruled the Songhai kingdom, but in 1464 a warrior-king named Sonni Ali

Boundaries of the empire The Songhai Empire, which flourished from 1464

rose up and conquered the Mali capital of Tombouctou, making

to 1591, initially occupied the same area as the

Songhai independent once more. The Songhai Empire then continued to grow in wealth and power until internal divisions coupled with

previous West African empire of the Mali. Gao was the capital of the Songhai, and from here they expanded further eastwards, invading the territories of the Hausa states in modern northern Nigeria.

a Moroccan invasion brought the empire to an end in 1591.

Songhai rulers

Trans-Saharan trade

The two greatest Songhai rulers were Sonni

From trade centres in the

Ali (1464—1492) and the statesman Askia

Songhai Empire, such as

Muhammad (1493—1528). After Sonni

the oasis town of Walata,

Ali founded the Songhai Empire by a

goods travelled across the

series of conquests, Muhammad

Sahara Desert in camel

consolidated and expanded it.

trains to countries in North Africa, especially

Askia Muhammad

Morocco, Algeria, and Libya.

When Sonni Ali died in 1492, his son, Sonni Baare, succeeded him. However Baare was a

From there, they could go by

weak ruler and Askia Muhammad, a former

ship to Europe, Arabia, and China, River Nigei

general in Sonni Ali s army, overthrew him in 1493. Muhammad expanded the empire to

Trade goods

River Niger

its greatest extent by controlling trade routes

Africa has always been rich in natural

The River Niger crossed rhe Songhai Empire

to North Africa. He founded an efficient

resources, such as copper, salt, and gold. The

from east to west. It was crucial to the success

Songhai

administration and protected all he had gained

Son^ai based their empire on their gold

of the empire, as it had been in the 12th to

ruler

with a standing army and a fleet of war canoes.

trade with Arabia and Europ>e. Songhai

15th centuries when the Mali Empire was

Mythical

Religion and education

merchants also traded other home-grown

dominant. Merchants had fleets of canoes

goods, such as figs, dates, kola nuts (a

to transport goods between different trading

stimulant), and ivoiy. In return they bought

centres along the River Niger, such as Djenne,

ceramics, silk, beads, and cowrie shells.

Tombouctou, and Gao.

Songhai boasted great scholars, including Ahmad Baba (b.l556), who wrote more than 50 books on Islamic tradition and a huge dictionary. The empires most important religious and educational centre was Tombouctou. Tombouctou Known as the “holy town” of the Sudan, Tombouctou had three

Gold

great mosques: the Jingereber, the Sidi Yahya, and the Sankore, Ivoiy

which contained many superb copies of the Qur’an. It also had a university and 180 schools.

Page from a 16th-century Qur’an

Trade goods

Decline of empire

Timeline

1493 Civil war; Sonni Baare

1588 Civil war erupts as

1464 Sonni Ali conquers

is overthrown by the Muslim

Askia’s descendants fight

Moroccans wanted to control the source

Tombouctou, the former

Askia Muhammad.

over the succession.

of West African gold. In 1591, Ahmad

centre of the Mall Empire.

al-Mansur (1578—1603), the Sultan of Morocco, sent a powerful army to

1473 Sonni Ali conquers

which they ruled for more than 100

Mecca pilgrimage.

the trading town of Djenne. 1528 Askia

f

1492 Sonni Baare, Sonni

Muhammad is

|

All’s son, refuses to convert

deposed by his

to Islam.

eldest son Musa.

conquer the Songhai Empire. The Moroccans conquered Tombouctou,

1591 The Moroccan

1496 Askia Muhammad’s

I

army defeat the Songhai army at the Battle of Tbndibi, near Gao. Cowrie shells

years. Shortly afterwards, Morocco absorbed the rest of the empire.

FIND OUT

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Africa, HISTORY OF

Mali EMPIRE

Money

Trade and INDUSTRY

781

SOTO, HERNANDO DE see NORTH AMERICA. HISTORY OF

SOUND

Sound waves Our ears detect sound travelling through the air as vibrations called sound waves. As this

From the roar

of city traffic

tuning fork vibrates, its prongs move outwards and squeeze the air around them, creating

to the quiet rustle of the wind

high-pressure areas called compressions. As the

in the trees, the world is full

prongs move back, the air expands and creates

of sounds. A sound is a form

low-pressure areas called rarefactions. These pressure vibrations spread out

of energy produced by vibrating

from their source as sound waves.

objects, such as a persons vocal cords or

Rarefactions

a drum. When sound travels through a

The air molecules

material such as air, molecules in the

spread apart, giving

material vibrate and bump into other

density and pressure

the air a lower than normal.

molecules, passing on their energy. Sound cannot travel in a vacuum.

Echoes Sound can reflect oflF hard surfaces and return to its source as an echo. If you stand some distance away from a wall and shout or clap, you may hear an echo a short while later. The farther from the wall you stand,

Oscilloscope displays

the longer the echo takes to reach

waveform on screen

Waveforms

, you. Most of the sounds we hear “ are a mixture of the original sound and echoes from nearby objects.

The shape of a sound wave as displayed on the screen of

Oscilloscope

an oscilloscope is called its waveform. The peaks and

A sound wave cannot be seen, but a

troughs of the waveform correspond to the areas of high

device called an oscilloscope can be

pressure and low pressure in the sound wave. Sounds are

used ro give a visual representation of

defined by their frequency and amplitude. The frequency

the sound wave. The sound waves

Frequency and pitch

of a sound wave travelling through the air is the number

pressure changes are displayed as a

of pressure changes per second. The amplitude is the size

wavy line on the oscilloscopes screen.

The pitch of a sound (whether it is high or low) depends

of the pressure changes.

on its frequency. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz) —

-

'-

’

1 Hz is one vibration per second. The lowest-pitched -

sound audible by most people has a frequency of

ynL/nL/nc

about 40 Hz, and the highest has a

U \J/A\j

n .n A-A

J \J \J \J V

frequency of around 20,000 Hz. Display

Sonic

Soft sounds have a

Loud sounds have a

Low-pitched sounds

High-pitched sounds

small amplitude and

large amplitude, and

have a low frequency,

have a high frequency,

waveforms showing

their waveforms show

which means that

so there are more

little difference

a greater difference

there are fewer sound

sound waves per

between areas of high

between high- and

waves per second and

second and they are

and low pressure.

low-pressure areas.

they are farther apart.

closer together.

tape measure . Beams emerge

Second harmonic

Loudness The louder a sound is, the more energy its sound

Christian Doppler

waves carry. Loudness is measured in decibels

The pitch of a sound from a moving

Ultrasound

(dB). Sounds of 0 dB are just

source, such as the siren of a speeding fire

from here.

Sound with a frequency above the

audible to the human c

Harmonics

range of human hearing is called

while sounds of 130 dB ^

Most sounds are made by objects

ultrasound. This sonic tape

that vibrate at several different

measure sends out beams of

frequencies at once. The sound

ultrasound that bounce off an

consists of one main frequency, called

object and return to the device.

the fundamental, mixed with several

The time the sound takes to return

higher frequencies called harmonics.

reveals the distance to the object.

engine, changes from high to low as the Headset

Listening to loud music

this effect in 1842. He

on a personal stereo for

showed that it is caused by the wav sound

too long can damage

waves bunch up ahead

vour hearing. Although

of the moving object

the stereo is not

Speed of sound through ait. This is tar slower than the speed of light, which is why lightning is seen before

\

and spread out behind

very powerful,

Sound travels at about 330 m/s (1.080 ft/s)

object passes vou. Tbe Austrian physicist Christian Doppler (1803-S3) explained

or more cause pain.

it, changing the

almost all the sound goes directly into the cars, creating high

thunder is heard. The time lapse between a

levels of sound

lightning flash and a thunderclap tells vou

energy inside the c

how far away a storm is — that is, about 1 km (0.6 mile) away for everv 3 seconds that pass.

HND OUT

MORE 782

Ears and HEARING

Energy

Musical INSTRUMENTS

Sound RECORDING

SOUND RECORDING Compact discs

Recording studio Sound recordings are often made in a recording studio,

(CDs) enable us to listen to the past.

which normally consists of two

The information stored on the disc allows a CD-player

adjoining rooms. In one room,

to recreate sounds made at another time and in another

people make music, sing, or speak. The sounds of the

place. Sound consists of vibrations that travel as waves of

different voices and instruments

varying air pressure. A microphone makes a copy of these vibrations as

are converted to electrical signals

an electrical sound signal, which can be stored in a number of different

by microphones, and each is recorded separately. The separate

ways, including on CDs, magnetic tape, and vinyl records. The stored

signals are then added together

signal may be a direct representation of

again in the control room.

Recording studio

the original sound (analogue recording), or it may be translated into electronic pulses (digital recording). Mixer takes the signals from the tape and the - Diaphragm

microphones and "mixes them together to produce the desired sound.

Wire coil ^ Magnet

Microphone A microphone contains a wire coil attached to a thin sheet called a diaphragm. Sound waves cause the diaphragm and coil to vibrate within the force field of a magnet. This movement produces a fluctuating electric current, called an analogue sound signal, that copies the vibrations in the sound waves.

Recording formats Analogue formats store sound as wavy grooves or varying

Digital sound In digital recording, the analogue sound

magnetic patterns that copy

signal produced by a microphone is

the changes in the analogue

measured, or 'sampled”, thousands

sound signal. Digital formats

of times every second. These

store the binary-code

measurements, which are in the form

MP3 player The MP3 was launched in the 1990s as a high quality digital file format for storing music. MP3

Compact discs, or CDs, (digital) are metal and

files, created on a computer, are very small and

plastic disks that store

can be transferred over the Internet or saved

sound as tinv pits on

onto a portable music device, called an MP3 player. The MP3 player can hold several hours’

a spiral track.

worth of music that can be updated regularly. Magnetic tape (analogue) records

|

of numbers, are then converted into

information of a digital sound

sound as changing

I

binary code — that is, into a series of

signal as magnetic patterns or

patterns in magtietic

■

on-off pulses of electricity. This is

a series of tiny holes.

known as a digital sound signal. Electrical copy of sound wave

Samples

6 4 2

particles on a plastic tape.

Vinyl records

Digital audio tape, or

(analogue)

DAT, works like magnetic

record the

tape, but stores sound

vibrations of

information digitally.

sound waves aj

record shape |

undulations in

Minidiscs (digital) store

Portable

of sound wave I

a spiral groove

sound signals as a spiral

MP3

cut into a vinyl disk.

pattern on a magnetic disk.

plaver

--as numbers. *

Emile Berliner German-bom Emile

Timeline

1887 Berliner invents the

1948 The first vinvl disks £

1980s Compact discs

gramophone.

produced.

become the main medium

18"’6 The microphone is

for sound recording.

Berliner (1851-1929)

invented bv Scottish-born

1898 Danish inventor

1964 The cassette tape

invented the gramophone,

Alexander Graham Bell, who

Valdemar Poulsen makes

becomes available.

which could replay sound

uses it in the first telephone.

magnetic recordings of

recorded on flat discs. He

sound on to steel piano wire.

also devised a method of

1877 Thomas Edison, an

reproducing hundreds of

American inventor, makes

1887 Magnetic tape is used

these discs from a single

the first sound recording -

to record .sound.

master copy.

the words ‘Mary had a little lamb” — on to tin foil.

FIND OUT

MORE

Edison, THOMAS

Electromagnetism

Lasers and HOLOGRAMS

Poulsens telegrapho

Music

Sound

1992 The Sony Corporation of Japan

A Teiecommunications

introduces the minidisc. 2001 Internet site Napster IS banned from swapping MP3 files for free because it infringes artists' copyright.

Telephones

Video

783

SOUTH AFRICA Lying at the southern tip

South Africa facts Capital cities Pretoria, Cape Town, Bloemfontein

of the African continent,

Area l ,221,040 sq km (471,443 sq miles)

South Africa is bordered by both the Atlantic and

Population 40,400,000

Indian Oceans. Two small, independent countries,

Main languages Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, North Sotho, South Sotho,

Lesotho and Swaziland, are enclaves within South

Swazi, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, Xhosa, Zulu

Africa and depend on it heavily. Racism dominated politics for many

Major religion Christian

years, and from 1948, the white minority ruled the land and enforced

Currency Rand

apartheid, a system of racial segregation. In 1994, the country held

Life expectancy 54 years People per DOCTOR 1,667

its first multiracial elections and, with the end of apartheid. Nelson

Government Multi-party democracy

Mandela became South Africa’s first black president, ruling until 1999.

Physical features

Drakensberg

Built-Up Forest

0.5%.

10%^

South Africa is a land of

Adult literacy 85%

The dramatic Drakensberg,

Grassland

\

^^^50%

or Dragon Mountains, are a vast range located

contrasts. The steep cliffs

in the southeast of South

of the Great Escarpment

Africa and Lesotho. They

separate the flat-topped

Desert .

plateau hills from the low-

12.5%

lying, sandy coastal regions.

- \

rise out of the eastern rim of the high plateau

Farmland

land to form a steep

27%

Land use

escarpment. The highest

The arid Namib and

Although much of the country is hi^

peak measures 3,482 m

Kalahari deserts to the

ground, the majority is used for grazing

(11,424 ft) above sea-level,

livestock and growing crops, including sugar,

at Thabana Ntlenyana,

northwest contrast with the lush forests of the northeast.

maize, and cereals. South Africa has vast

formerly known as

mineral resources, such as gold and coal.

Champagne Casde.

Climate Generally. South Africa’s climate is warm, sunny, and dry. The cast receives about three times as much the north and western desert regions. Winters are short, between June and August, and mild, although the Drakensberg and Cape mountains often have snow. The Cape Province has hot, dry summers from October to April.

Three capital cities South Africa has three capital cities. Most important is Pretoria, the centre of administration. The government is based in Cape Town, which is situated at the foot of Table Mountain, and the lawcourts are in Bloemfontein.

-eATE-tewf

-_

>

^

'*Port [ Elizabeth

1

I N ^ '

1

I

Jo\l Hope

1

784

^

E

F

G

H

I

J

‘

Cape Town and Table Mountain

SOUTH AFRICA

Leisure

People Most South Africans are

Many South Africans are sports

black and belong to the Zulu

lovers, especially of outdoor

or Xhosa groups. About ten per

games such as cricket, rugby,

cent are Coloureds, of mixed

and football. Since the end

race, and the remainder are

of apartheid, the country has

whites, of British origin, or

rejoined international events.

Afrikaners of Dutch origin.

Housepainting

Efforts are being made to create harmony between the races,

a

1

36 per sq km (93 per sq mile)

55% Urban

45% Rural

Rugby

Ndebele women of the

South Africa’s national

Transvaal are known for their

Townships

sport, Rugby Union

brightly decorated homes.

Under apartheid, black South Africans

football, is widely

had to live in purpose-built townships,

played and watched.

the paint, passing on their

and most still live there. Soweto, near

In 1995, South Africa

skills to younger girls. Older

Johannesburg, is a complex of 29 towns

hosted its first Rugby

wall patterns are geometric,

with a total estimated population of two

World Cup, won by

but modern symbols such as

million. Houses range from luxury to

its own international

aeroplanes and cars are now

shacks, and many people queue for water.

team, the Springboks.

portrayed in the designs.

Every spring, women renew

Farming

Industry

A warm climate

The South African economy

and fertile soils

is founded on its mineral

mean that South

wealth. The iron and steel

Africa can grow

industries are important,

nearly all its food, as well as a surplus for

Ljn,

but manufacturing, mainly

'

export. Farming accounts for seven per cent of the

*

in Durban, Johannesburg,

Lemon

Cape Town, and Pretoria,

Orange

Citrus fruits Lemons, limes, and oranges grow well

now forms the largest sector

country’s economic activity.

in tropical regions of South Africa, as do

in the economy.

Maize, wheat, fruit, and

apples and pears, grown for export in the

tobacco are leading crops.

Cape area. A successful fruit juice industry

Diamond mines

has grown up in South Africa.

sprawl over large areas.

Vineyards South African wines,

Gold

made in the western

South Africa leads

and southern Cape, have

the world in the

been made in the region

^'

Mining

production of gold.

known world-wide for

One of South Africa’s main employers, the

Its Johannesburg

their quality and fiavour.

mining industry forms the backbone of the

mines provide about 30 per cent of

Stellenbosch is a major

country’s economy. There are vast reserves of

the world total, and most is used in

wine-making centre.

diamonds, manganese, chromium, and lead.

jewelleiy and electronics.

Lesotho

Lesotho ^

since 1662, and are

Lesotho is a tiny, mountainous monarchy surrounded by South

Africa, on which it depends for work. Farming animals is the main activity for 86 per cent of the people. A new hydroelectric project is being developed, which will create energy. Women dig a road by hand

Swaziland

Swaziland

FACTS

Krugerrand

FACTS

Bordered by South Africa and Capital city Maseru Area 30,350 sq km (11,718 sq miles) Population

Mozambique, Swaziland is a small

Main languages English, Sesotho

The country’s mineral resources include 40 per cent of the work-force. Citrus fruit

Area 17,360 sq km (6,703 sq miles) Population 1,000,000 Main languages

and pineapples are grown in plantations, and sugar-cane is the main export crop.

Major rei igion

Mbabane

kingdom perched on a series of plateaus. bauxite and diamonds. Farming employs

2,200,000

Capital city

Siswati, English Major religions

Christian

Chrisrian, traditional beliefs

Currency Loti

Currency Lilangeni

Women Swazis

Many women endure

FIND OUT

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Ball GAMES

Crystals and gems

Deserts

hardship and undertake

Most of the people are

labour in the community,

Swazis, who follow a

because three-quarters

traditional clan lifestyle.

of the men leave their

The clans settle in rural,

homes to work in South

scattered homesteads, run

African mines. Women

bv a chief and his mother

in Lesotho have Africa’s

Swazis have a rich history

highest literacy rate.

of poetry and folk-tales.

Farming

Grassland WILDLIFE

Mandela, NELSON

Mountains AND VALLEYS

Rocks and MINERALS

South Africa, HISTORY OF

785

SOUTH AFRICA,

history of

From C.IOO, south africa was increasingly populated by

Bantu-speaking farmers. In the 1600s, Dutch settlers founded farms in Cape Colony, forcing African farmers off the land. British settlers followed the Dutch, and both groups clashed with the black majority, particularly the Zulus. By the 1800s, the British and the Dutch — now called Boers — were competing with each other to control South African wealth. By 1950, an all-white government was in power, which deprived black South Africans of the vote. In 1991 this policy was reversed, and democratic elections took place in 1994.

Headrest

Bantu Two thousand years ago, Iron-Age Bantu¬ speaking farmers from the northeast settled South Africa’s east coast and the savannah areas of the Transvaal. They were the ancestors of most of South Africa's black population. Today, most people speak some form of Bantu dialect.

ShieUi

European settlers

Great Trek

made of

In 1806, British settlers seized

In 1651, Dutch farmers founded

oxhide

the Cape Colony from the

settlements in the Cape Colony.

Boers. To escape British

The settlers were called Boers (from

control, the Boers migrated inland in large numbers. This

the Dutch for “farmers”), and

became known as the Great

their descendents today are called

Trek (1836-45). The Boers

Afrikaners. From 1795, as Dutch

then formed two independent republics - the Orange Free

power faded, the British started to

State and the Transvaal.

control more South African land.

Rest stop for a Boer family

Anglo-Boer Wars From 1880, the British attempted to take control of the Boer republics. Thev failed in the first Boer War (1880) but, after the

Zulus By 1818, a Zulu chief named Chaka (d. 1828) had formed an empire called

discovery of gold and diamonds

Zululand in northeastern Natal. His

in the Transvaal in 1886, thev redoubled their efforts. A second bloody war in 1899 finally led

well-organized irnpis (warriors) fought both the Boers and the British. Irnpis were

to a Boer surrender in 1902.

fierce and strictly disciplined: they could travel up to 64 km (40 miles) a day on foot,

Boer War commemorative fan

Union of South Africa

New South Africa In 1990, after spending 28 years

In 1910, British and Boer minorities

in prison, one of the ANC’s

formed the Union of South Africa,

leaders. Nelson Mandela, was released. He immediately met

with the British in charge. There

President FW de Klerk to

followed decades ol repression

discuss political change in

of South Africa’s non-whites. Apartheid Under the Apartheid (separateness) Policy of

African National Congress

South Africa. Following their

The African National Congress,

talks, apartheid was abolished

or ANC (founded in 1912). was

and the first free, multiracial

the onlv political parrv' that

elections took place. For the first

1948. all South Africans were classified according

represented the interests of black

time. ‘Asians’, “Blacks’, and

to race. Black South Africans lost the right to

South Africans. Its main aim was

“Coloureds' gained full voting

vote, own land, travel, or work wirhour piermits.

wiN

Asian and “coloured” South African.s were allowed to vote, but not to use the same facilities as white South Africans. Whites reserved for themselves the best housing, jobs, and schools.

Non-whites’ post office entrance

the abolition of apartheid. South

rights. The country elected

Africa’s gusernment outlawed

Nelson Mandela president of a

the ANC. hut finally accepted

new, democratic South Africa.

its legality in 1990, just before Election queue, Katlehong

Nelson Mandela's release.

Timeline

1948 National Party (NP)

Biko (1946-77) was an opponent

1852 Boers create their

is elected to government and

imposes economic sanctions

of apartheid who founded South

Independent republics.

passes Apartheid Policy. It

on South Africa.

Steve Biko

1970s World community

establishes poor residential

Africa’s Students Organisation (SASO) and co-founded Black

1910 Union of South Africa

areas called Homelands for

1990 ANC deputy Nelson

Consciousness. In 1977, he was

formed, including Cape

black majority.

Mandela released from prison.

arrested and beaten unconscious

Province, Natal, Orange

by police. Six days later he died;

Free State, and Transvaal.

1976 Police fire on a student

1991 Apartheid is abolished.

march in Soweto: widespread

his death caused international outcry. No one was charged with

1931 South Africa gains

his murder, but investigations into

independence.

Goatskin apron

protest demonstrations

1994 First non-raclal general

follow.

election is held.

it were re-opened in 1997. HND OUT

MORE 786

Africa, HISTORY OF

Empires

Exploration

Government AND POL1TIC.S

Mandela, NELSON

Physical features

SOUTH AMERICA

Landscapes in South America range from the volcanic peaks

South America ranks only fifth in population. Its 12 independent countries were once colonies of European powers, particularly Spain and Portugal, whose languages, culture, and religion have greatly influenced the region. Many South Americans are farmers who grow their own food. Threeend, quarters of the continents population live in large, overcrowded cities, often in squalid conditions, v'" Many countries suffer —huge foreign debts. The fourth largest continent,

of the Andes to the lush, tropical forests of the Amazon Basin in the east and centre. Further south are the rolling grasslands of the Chaco and Pampas. In the west is the hot, dry Atacama Desert; the cold Patagonian desert lies in the extreme south.

Andes Stretching 8,000 km (4,970 miles) down South Americas Pacific coast from Venezuela to Chile, the Andes form the longest mountain chain in the world. The peaks are volcanic and subject to earthquakes. The highest point is Aconcagua in Argentina at 6,960 m (22,835 ft).

Amazon Patagonia Constant gales sweep the bleak southern plateau of Patagonia. With no more than

The world s longest river, the Amazon stretches 6,500 km (4,040 miles); ships can navigate approximately 3,700 km (2,300 miles). The mouth of the Amazon, where it joins the Atlantic Ocean, is 150 km (90 miles) wide. It

25 cm (10 in) ot

is estimated that about 99t000 litres (20,900

rain a year, much

gallons) of water flow out each second.

of Patagonia is cold desert, or semidesert with scant, grey vegetation of scrub and tussock grass. A few sheep are reared in the north.

South America facts Area 18,589,118 sq km (7,177,259 sq miles) Population 385,000,000 NUIVfBER OF INDEPENDENT COUNTRIES 12

Cross-section through South America From the Pacific coast, the land rises steeply to the Andes, which separate into two parallel chains divided by a dry, grassy plateau called the Altiplano. East of the Andes is the steamy, forested Amazon Basin. In the east, the plateau of the Guiana Highlands rises, then drops to the Atlantic.

Biggest country Brazil Smallest country Surinam Highest point Aconcagua (Chile) 6,960 m (22,835 ft) Lowest point Salinas Grandes (Argentina) 40 m (131 ft) below sea-level Longest river Amazon (Peru/Colombia/Brazil) B|GGE!j1 freshwater l\ke Lake Titicaca (Bolivia/Peru) 8,288 sq km (3,200 sq miles)

787

SOUTH AMERICA

La Gran Sabana,

Climatic zones

Venezuela

The tropical rainforest that occupies the Amazon river basin is intensely hot, humid, and wet all year. It has an average temperature of 21‘’C (70°F) and an annual rainfall of more than 2,000 mm (79 in). Much of the south of the continent has hot summers and Grassland

cool winters, and there are wide

Temperate grassland

grasslands with some semi-arid

covers vast areas of South

areas. In the Andes, the climate

America, such as the Pampas of Argentina and the Gran Chaco of Paraguay and Bolivia. In the north, close to the Equator, tropical

becomes cooler and drier

grassland, or llanos, covers Venezuela’s La Gran Sabana in the Guiana

towards the peaks, which are

Highlands, the Brazilian Highlands, and the Mato Grosso plateau.

snow-capped all the time. Tropical rainforest Dense, impenetrable rainforest crossed only by rivers covers the vast Amazon Basin in northern South America. This region contains about 30 per cent of the world’s remaining forest and holds 20 per cent of the world’s fresh water. The Amazon and its many tributaries drain 40 per cent of South America \ Cone

— an area of 7,000,000 sq km (2,702,700 sq miles). Beneath the canopy are climbing plants called

Diy woodland

lianas and epiphytes,

In northeastern Brazil, down into Paraguay, central Chile,

which attach themselves

and northern Argentina, there are large areas of dry, open

to the branches.

woodland and savannah. The vegetation here includes trees such as the Chilean pine and shrubs such as ulmo, whose evergreen leaves thrive during long periods without water.

Small cacti grow in Columns of eroded rock stick up from the bare Atacama desert. Very few plants can live here.

The forest in southern

the hot sun along the

Brazil extends down

coastlines.

to the Atlantic coast __

Deciduous rainforest Mediterranean scrubland

Parts of southern Brazil and northern

Chile’s Central Valley has a warm.

Uruguay are covered in deciduous

Mediterranean-type climate with hot,

rainforest. Unlike the equatorial

dry summers and mild, damp winters.

Amazonian rainforest, where rain

Hot and cold deserts

falls almost all year round, these

South America has two deserts — the cold Patagonian desert

forests have a distinct dry season

in Argentina, and the hot Atacama Desert, the world’s driest,

when many of the trees lose their

clifrs. This region is famous for its fine

in northern Chile. The Atacama runs for about 965 km

leaves. There are fewer species of

wines, produced from grapes grown on

(600 miles) along the coast. Rain has not fallen on some

trees here than in the tropical forests.

Small, thorny shrubs, stunted trees, cacti, and tough grass cover coastal

the rich, fertile soils, watered by the

parts of the Atacama for hundreds of years.

melting snows of the Andes.

People

Resources

Only two per cent of the population are

Rich volcanic soil provides some of the

descended from the Native Americans who

best farmland in the world, yielding

settled in South America thousands of years

wheat, maize, fruit, coffee, and tomatoes

before Europeans arrived. The majority are

and potatoes, which originated in South

mestizos — of mixed American and European

America. The rainforests are a treasure

descent, and South Americans, who

trove of medicinal and other valuable

descend from Africans who either escaped

plants. The continent is rich in minerals,

from slave ships in the Caribbean, or

especially oil, natural gas, gold, copper, Argentinian

worked plantations on the mainland.

tin, and precious stones. Emerald

boy

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Continents

Deserts

Orange

Desert WILDLIFE

Grassland WILDLIFE

Mountains AND VALLEYS

Native AMERICANS

Rainforest WILDUFE

South American WILDLIFE

SOUTH AMERICA, was the home of many Native American civilizations until the first Europeans arrived in the 1520s. From that time on, Spanish and Portuguese conquerors took over, claiming the entire continent and its people, and ruling there for 300 years. In the early 19th century, the area won its independence, but the new South American countries were poor and unstable. Today, the nations of South America have a vibrant culture that includes local, European, and African elements. South America

history of Early civilizations The Native Americans were ancient peoples, whose civilizations flourished for thousands of years, particularly in the Andes Mountains. At the time of the European conquest, much of South America formed part of the most important of these civilizations - the Inca Empire of Peru. Inca pot in the shape of a human face

Quest for silver In 1545, the world’s largest silver deposits were discovered at Potosi, Bolivia. Silver was carried in great quantities to Seville, Spain, and it fuelled both European and transatlantic trade. However, conditions in the mines were terrible: four out of five Native American workers died in the first year of mining.

Spanish rule

Silver mine, Potosi

After the conquests of Francisco Pizarro (1475—1541) and other Spanish conquistadores, much of South America was ruled from Spain. Later, the Spanish kings

Bolivian silver

Native peoples The native peoples of South America suffered

sent officials called viceroys to govern the area, raise

terribly from the con¬

taxes, and run the courts. In the I8th century,

quest. They had very

the Viceroyalty of New

poor resistance to the diseases intro¬

Granada ruled what are

duced from Europe,

now Colombia, Ecuador,

and were badly treat¬

Panama, and Venezuela.

ed by the conquerors. The population of South

El Dorado

America dropped from

Rumours were rife among the early

16 million to about 4 million

Spanish explorers that beyond the

in the hundred years after the

Andes lived a people so rich in gold that

conquerors arrived in the l6th century.

the king covered himself in gold dust every year. This Man of Gold — “El Dorado” - was never found, but the legend spurred on many Spanish

Bartolome de las Casas

adventurers in their quest for gold.

Dominican friar Bartolome de las Casas (1474—1566) argued that the Spanish conquest was illegal,

Catholic church

and that Native Americans were free. He campaigned against their mistreatment by Spanish

Native temples and religious statues were nearly all

settlers, and laws were enacted to

destroyed during the Conquest. Most people were

protect the native peoples. But

converted to Roman Catholicism, although many continued to hold on to traditional beliels. Churches were built in the Spanish style, but were often

the laws were often not observed, Scene from the

and came too late for many.

film. The Mission

adorned with native-style works of art. Jesuit missionary

Churches In order to protect the Native

Jesuit missions

Americans from exploitation by

The Roman Catholic order known

Portuguese setders, the Jesuits built

as the Society of Jesus, or the

their missions, with their Baroque-

Jesuits, founded missions ii

style churches, in the jungle, thus

Paraguay among the

isolating themselves from the

Guarani and Tapes

outside world.

peoples. By the mid-18th century, there were 30 missions. They were farming villages in which the land and

Many of

animals were owned by

these Jesuit

the people as a whole.

churches

In the 1770s, the Jesuits

were simple

were expelled from Spanish and Portuguese

building

territories, and thousands of Native Americans enslaved or killed.

789

SOUTH AMERICA. HISTORY OF

Bernardo O’Hi^jns

Independence

Spanish

O'Hi^ins (1778-1842) was the son of an

colonies

In the early 1800s, the French

British^ Dutcht and

I

Charles IV, with Joseph Bonaparte

Irishman who was governor of Chile. He became governor himself in 1814, but was

French colonies

invaded Spain and replaced the king,

removed by the Spaniards for his

-

republican beliefe. He fought for Chiles independence and. in 18l7,

(1768—1844), brother of the emperor Napoleon. At first, the

became the

^

Portuguese colony

country’s first

Colonies remained loyal to Charles IV,

head of state.

but soon independence movements began in South America. The campaign for independence was led by “creoles”, Spaniards born in South America, the most important of whom was Simon Bolivar. He hope for a united continent, but the different populations could not agree, and South

Santiago

America divided into many different nations.

• San Fernando- *

Jose de San Martin General Jose de San Martin (1778-1850) was born

Brazil

in Argentina, where he led the movement that brought independence from Spain to the colony in 1816. He then

During the Napoleonic Wars, the king of

marched to Chile, where he defeated the Spanish and

Portugal, John VI, fled to Brazil and ruled

restored the patriot leader Bernardo O’Higgins. In 1821, he

from there. The country became rich, but

went to Peru, took Lima, and declared Peru independent.

is,'

the threat of revolution took the king back to Portugal. His son, Dom Pedro, declared Brazil independent in 1822.

|

Modern South America

Rubber The rubber tree grows

In the 19th century, the new nations

naturally in South

of South America relied on income

America. There was an

from growing crops such as coffee.

increasing demand for rubber in the 19th and

In the world depression of the 1930s,

early 20th centuries, and

there was a sudden drop in demand

plantations were set up ii

for these products. Factories were set up, and thousands of people came to

Brazil. In 1900-14 there was a ‘rubber boom”, when many' plantation owners made

the cities to work there. Most South

large fortunes. Demand

Latex (sap) is tapped from the

Americans still live in cities today.

slackened in the 1930s.

trees and left to harden.

The twin

Brasilia

Slavery

towers of

In I960, the capital of Brazil

There were no large settled native populations in

Brasilia's

Jb

’ed from Rio de

Brazil, so the Portuguese colonists brought slaves

Confess

Janeiro to the new citv of

from West Africa to work on plantations and in

Building

Brasilia, with its purpose-built

mines. Runaway' slaves formed settlements known

government offices, national

as quilombos: the most famous was at Palmares,

museum, and university'.

^

where several thousand runaway slaves lived in towns and villages.

Eva Peron Born in poverty, Eva (“Evita”)

Chile

Duarte (1919-52) was a radio

In 1970, Salvador Allende (1908-73) was elected

Juan Peron, who became

president of Chile. He

Argentine president in 1946.

was a Marxist and

In 1833, British settlers occupied a group of islands

Adored by the poor of her

Falklands War

pursued socialist policies.

in the South Atlantic named the "Falkland Islands”.

country, she ensured

He died in a military

Argentina disputed British sovereignty and invaded

Perons re-election in 1952,

coup, led bv Augusto

the islands in 1982. Britain sent troops to recover

but died of cancer in the

Pinochet (b.l915) who

the islands, and Argentina surrendered, but the

became head of state.

disagreement continued into the 1990s.

same y'ear.

L

Timeline

1530s Portuguese

900—1476 Chancay

settlers arrive in

culture develops

Brazil.

1767 Spanish king

1825 The struggle for

1955 Military coup in

under Pizarro,

Charles III expels the

independence ends with

Argentina ousts Juan Peron.

conquer the Incas.

Jesuits fi'om Spain and

the creation of the i

1532 The Spaniards,

on the west coast 1530S-1560 Spain completes 1438-1532 The

the conquest of

powerful Inca

most of South

civilization flourishes

America.

in Peru and the surrounding area.

FIND OUT

MORE

state of Bolivia.

its colonies.

of South America.

790

British troops arriving in the Falldands

actress. She married politician

Chancay figurine

BOLfVAR, SIMON

Central America, HISTORY OF

1976-82 Thousands of Argentinians disappear,

1717 Spain sets up the Viceroyalty of

1808 South

New Granada to

American

govern most of South

colonies begi

America, except for

to mount

1900-14 Rubber boom in Brazil.

probable victims of the military rulers’ death squads. 1982 Britain and Argentina

the Portuguese

Opera House,

at war after Argentina invades

colonv of Brazil.

Manaus, Brazil

the Falkland Islands.

ChavTn

Exploration

Incas

Portugal, HISTORY OF

Religions

Spain, HISTORY OF

SOUTH AMERICA, northern is made up of the four countries of Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, and Surinam, and one colony — French Guiana. The people in the region are ethnically mixed. Most are mestizos, of Native American and European origin. Along the coast are small settlements of black Africans, descendants of slaves who were brought in by colonial masters to work the plantations of sugar-cane and coffee. Polarization of rich and poor, overcrowded cities, and trade in illegal drugs are a problem in most of the countries, many of which have a reputation for violence. Northern south America

Shanty towns Manv South American countries have young, rapidly growing population.s. with most people living in the towns and cities of the north. Unable to find adequate housing, many end up living in rough barrios (shanty towns), around modern city centres. Services such as running water and sanitation are poor.

Physical features The Andes dominate western Colombia and Venezuela. Lush lowlands surround Lake Maracaibo and the plain of the River Orinoco. Dense tropical rainforests cover much of the interior of Surinam and Guyana, both of which have a marshy coastal strip. Northern Andes Angel Falls

The northern Andes are divided into three ranges by the valleys of

The spectacular Angel Falls on the River Churiin in

the rivers Cauca and Magdalena. Most

eastern Venezuela are the worlds highest at 980 m

Colombians and many Venezuelans live

(3,215 ft). The longest unbroken drop is 807 m

on the lower slopes of the mountains.

(2,648 ft). Thousands of tourists visit the falls each year.

7.090 mm (279 in)

Regional climate D

lx)wlands in northern South America are

H

mostiv hot and humid, but the Maracaibo coast is hot and dry. Temperatures in the Andes are much lower.

C~cr rihirrirn -S e n C (I r i b b

.adcMtj

K

J

L

TRI.MDAD & TOBAGO

1 sf

1

AT L A N T 1 C OCEAN

Rainforest Dense tropical rainforests cover the southern regions of Colombia and Venezuela and most of Surinam, Guyana, and French Guiana. Untouched by modern life, isolated groups of Native Americans still live in some of the most inaccessible areas.

791

SOUTH AMERICA, NORTHERN

Colombia

Cumbia The cumbia is the most popular dance

Divided from north to south

along Colombia’s Caribbean coast. It is

by the Andes, Colombia has

a blend of the regions Spanish, Native American, and African influences. Men

coastlines on both the Caribbean and

in white, and women with long skirts,

the Pacific. The country is economically

n. M.

but trade in illegal drugs poses a serious problem. With help from the USA, the government is waging a constant war against the "drug baron,s”. Colombian folk dancing

Area 1,138,910 sq km (439,733 sq miles) Population 42,300,000

dance to flute music and drums.

one of the strongest in South America,

Colombia facts Capital CITY Bogota

41 per sq km

74%

26%

(105 per sq mile)

Urban

Rural

Main languages Major religion Currency

}

Land use

Grassland ^

Founded by the Spanish in 1538,

16%

Wetla. .1%

Colombia’s capital and largest city,

Christian

Peso

Life expectancy 71

years

People per doctor 909 Government

Bogota

Spanish, Native

American languages, English Creole

Multi-party democracy

Adult literacy 92%

Colombia’s lush fertile lowlands enable a wide range of crops to be grown all year round. Rainforest

Bogota, lies 2,610 m (8,560 ft) up

Farming

covers the east.

in the Andes. Home to 6,700,000

Colombia is one of the

people, it is the country’s industrial, financial, and commercial centre.

Built-up -

world’s largest producers

0.5%

of coffee, which is grown on thousands of small

Mineral resources

farms. Other leading crops

Colombia produces

Modern buildings in Bogota

include sugar-cane, rice,

about 60 per cent of

maize, plantains, bananas,

the world’s emeralds. It

soighum, cotton, and cut

also has large reserves

flowers. Farmers raise

of gold and coal. The

cattle, vicunas, pigs, and

recent discovery of oil

sheep. Farming accounts

allows Colombia to be

for more than half of the

self-sufficient in energy.

country’s export earnings.

Oil and minerals

Venezuela

Venezuela ranks highly in world oil production, which provides

Drained by the River Orinoco,

80 per cent of export earnings.

Venezuela’s vast central plain is

Venezuela facts Capital CITY Caracas

The richest reserves are to be

Area

grazed by five million cattle. Despite its

found along the River Orinoco.

Population

oil wealth and fertile lands, the country

Emphasis on the oil industry,

has been plagued by corruption, which

however, has held back the

led to crisis in the late 1990s, and a large

912,050 sq km (352,l43 sq miles) 24,200,000

Main language

Spanish

development of the rest of the

Major religion

Christian

economy. Venezuela also has

Currency

devaluation of currency. Venezuelans in

large reserves of coal, diamonds,

urban areas have suffered as a result.

bauxite, gold, and iron ore.

Guyana

Bolivar

Georgetown The Dutch were the first

Apart from a narrow coastal

Europeans to settle in

strip, where most people live,

Guyana, and the capital, Georgetown, still has old

Guyana is covered by rainforest. Its

wooden Dutch buildings.

economy is based on bauxite, gold, rice,

The city sits on the bank

and sugar. Half the population descends

of the River Demerara. It has wide streets, botanical

from Asians and 38 per cent from

gardens, and a university.

African slaves, both of whom the British

Guyana facts Capital CITY Area

Population

861,000

Main language Major religions

English Christian, Hindu,

Muslim

Currency

brought to work the sugar plantations.

Georgetown

2i4,790 sq km (83,000 sq miles)

Guyana dollar

St George’s Cathedral

Surinam

Surinam

French Guiana

FACTS

South America’s only

Bauxite and

remaining colony,

Capital city

—• aluminium, produced

French Guiana has been

Paramaribo

with hydroelectric power, are

Area

Surinam’s main exports. In

an overseas department of France since 1946.

163,270 sq km

It covers 91,000 sq km

(63,039 sq miles)

recent years, civil unrest has

(35,000 sq miles), and

Population 4i7,000

damaged the economy and

has a population of

Main language

about one-third of the people

Fishing

of this former Dutch colony

Sea fish, particularly shrimps, are among

have moved, in search of

Surinam’s chief exports. They are caught

about 157,000. The

Dutch

European Space Agency has its rocket-launching

Major religions

site there.

Christian, Hindu

in the coastal waters of the Atlantic

work, to the Netherlands.

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MORE 792

Crystals AND GEMS

Ocean, which washes the Surinam coast.

Dance

Empires

Farming

Currency

Fishing industry

Guilder

Native AMERICANS

Ariane rocket

Oil

South America, HISTORY OF

expS^tion

SOUTH AMERICAN WILDLIFE habitats include tropical forests of the north, grasslands of the centre and south, tributaries of the River Amazon, the Andes mountains in the west, deserts fringing the west coast, and the wetlands of Brazil. South America is rich in wildlife, much of it found in the rainforests. The ^ distinctive animals of South America, including anteaters, sloths, opossums, and New World monkeys, evolved when South America was separate from North America and isolated from the rest of the world.

Rainforest wildlife

South America’s

South Americas rainforests, including that of the Amazon basin (the largest rainforest in the world), contain a huge diversity of wildlife; many species are yet to be classified. The humid climate encourages rapid plant growth. Trees provide homes and food for insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Hoatzin

Two-toed sloth

Relatives of cuckoos, these birds live in small

The sloth spends most of its life upside-

flocks in trees bordering streams and swamps.

down in the trees, descending to the ground

Hoatzins are poor fliers that glide from tree to wo hooked claws

occasionally to defecate. It moves slowly along branches to find leaves to feed on.

Margay These small cats are perfectly adapted Hard-

for life in the trees. They grip onto branches

walled

with their claws and, unlike other cats, can run

fruits contain , nuts.

\ Sloths

down tree trunks head first. Margays are solitary

hang from

hunters that stalk prey such as tree frogs, lizards,

branches by their

birds, and small monkeys. The margays coat provides camoufl^e in the dim forest light.

Margays spend most of their time in trees. Pectoral fin.

Brazil nut tree

long, curved claws.

Hatchet fish

The brazil nut tree is one of many species of tree found in

These small fish are one of many species of

the Amazon tropical forest. The tree reaches a height of

fish that live in the rivers that flow through

more than 45 m (150 ft). It produces hard-shelled fruits

the rainforest. The hatchet fish leq^s from the river and beats its long pectoral fins

that fall to the ground and break open to reveal 8—24 hard shelled nuts, or seeds, arranged like the segments of an orange.

noisily like wings, to “fly” for short distances

The canopy of the brazil nut, and neighbouring trees is

above the water. It catches insects and Very deep body

home for many species of insects, birds, and mammals.

crustaceans on, or above, the rivers surface.

Surinam toad

Wetland wildlife

This toad lives in slow-moving tropical streams. It forages in mud for invenebrates,

There are two major areas of wetland in South

which it senses through touch organs on its

America. Many streams flow into the huge River

fingers. The female lays e^s which the male

Amazon and flood the tropical forest floor. The

presses into the skin on the females back. The e^s hatch into tadpoles and develop

streams are rich in animals, which feed on forest

under the skin, protected from predators.

products that fall into the water. The Pantanal in

Later the pouch opens and the young emerge.

southern Brazil is the world’s largest wetland. It is an important habitat for water birds such as spoonbills. Giant otter Roseate spoonbill

This large, powerful otter lives

Roseate spoonbills live i

in tropical lagoons and shallow

marshes, lagoons, coastal :al waters, and mangrove creeks. They find food while wading, by sweeping their spoon-shaped bills from side

Streamlined body, flat tail,

Eggs are covered in

and webbed feet help

skin pockets on

the otter swim.

female’s back

creeks. It catches catfish and other fish, which it clasps in its front paws and eats head first. It also eats mammals and water birds, and animals caught on land.

to side through the water, and grasping any small crustaceans, fish, or plants they come into contact with. Spoonbills nest in small colonies in trees or reeds. Webbed feet used for

Vacate caiman Caimans are related to alligators. They live in swamps, or on the banks of slow-moving

Wood stork These large, long-legged wading birds live in flocks

rivers and backwaters with muddy bottoms.

in wooded marshes and

Caimans are strong swimmers and feed on

swamps, near pools. They rest

fish, crustaceans, and other animals caught in the water. They also catch water birds and small mammals, pulling them under water

water.

and nest together in trees. Wood storks feed by standing in water, sometimes up to the belly, and

to drown them, before eating them. Female

moving their large, open bill from

caiman lay their eggs in nests, which they

side to side. When they encounter

build and guard themselves.

wading ir

prey, such as fish, frogs, ( crustaceans, they snap

Caiman has sharp teeth jbr crushing prey

their bills tightly shut.

793

SOUTH AMERICAN WILDLIFE

Mountain wildlife

Andean condor The Andean condor is the world’

The Andes form a spine that runs down the

largest bird of prey with a wingspan of more than 3 m (10 ft). Condors feed

western side of South America. The western

mainly on carrion, but also attack animals

side of the Andes has low rainfall and little

that are old or wounded, and take eggs from

wildlife; the eastern slopes have humid forests

sea bird colonies on the Peruvian coast.

V Condors

and a greater diversity ot species. Mountain animals,

soar for hours at high

such as the vicuna, are adapted for life at high altitudes,

altitude, above mountain

Dense fur for warmth in the mountains.

The vicuna's

Vicuna

moveable toe

The vicuna is the smallest member of the camel family. Small

pads help it

herds of vicuna graze on grasses in the high altitude grasslands of

walk easily

the central Andes between 3,800-5,000 m (12,500-16.500 ft).

over all types

Once hunted ro near crxtincrion for its wool and meat.

summits searching for food

Spectacled bear The spectacled bear is the only species of bear

Vicunas

found in South America. It lives in the humid

have very

forests and grasslands of the northern

of terrain.

Andes. The spectacled bear gets its name from the pale circles of fur around some of the individuals’ eyes. An adult male ghs up to 180 kg (286 lb); females are about half this size. It is a good climber, and will climb trees in search of fruit and other v^etation. It also eats insects and carrion, and sometimes deer and vicuna.

Lesser rhea

Grassland wildlife

Giant anteater

This large flightless bird feeds among

Living in grasslands and open

the tall grasses and shrubs on roots, plant

woodlands, the giant anteater

Grassland and scrub cover much of central, eastern,

seeds, insects, and other small animals. It

feeds almost exclusivelv on ants

and southern South America. The best known

ncfsts in a hollow in R}?eas can nm at

the ground; the

speeds of up to 50 kmh

and termites. It has a long, flexible snout and an acute sense

area is the pampas of Argentina and Uruguay,

eggs, laid by

of smell for detecting food. It

now used for farming. Plants that grow there

several females,

uses its powerful front legs and

include grasses, sedges, and shrubs. In the west, the

(30mph).

are incubated

large claws to open a termite or

and guarded by

ant nest, then flicks its 60 cm

just one male.

(2 ft) long stickv tongue into the nest about 150 times per minute, to extract its food.

grasslands are hot and dry; in the east, they are wetter.

Hooked beak

Crested caracara This ground-dwelling member of the f^con fimilv uses its long toes and claws to turn over stones and scratch the ground, in search of prey, as well as for

Maned wolf

grasping prev. The crested

Maned wolves hunt at night bv

caracara catches insects, frogs,

stalking pre\' and then pouncing

lizards, snakes, \'oung birds, and

Long legs for

small mammals. It also flies low

alking through

over grasslands in search of carrion

Desert wildlife

the longgr,

on it. Their prev includes rabbits, rodents, armadillos, reptiles, and insects, as well as eggs and fruit.

Cardon The cardon is a caaus found in Monte, a

South Americas main deserts are the Patagonian

region of desert east of the Andes mountains in

Desert in Argentina, and the Atacama in Peru

Argentina. Cacti are flowering plants adapted for surviving in hot. dr>' areas. The cardon has an

and Chile. The Atacama is the driest desert on

extensive shallow root system which gathers water

Earth, but sea mists from the Pacific provide

rapidly whenever it rains. Scarce water is stored

some moismre within a “fog zone’’, allowing some

within the ribbed, expandable stem. The cactus provides food and shelter for desert animals.

wildlife such as cacti, lizards, and rodents to survive. Chilean racer

Spotted monitor tegu

This snake is found

This is one of several

southern fringes of

species of lizard found

the Atacama Desert,

in the fog zone of the

50ufhward.s into the

Atacama Desert and in

drier parts of Chile, from

dry regions on the western

sea-level up to 1,500 m

slopes of the Andes. It

(5,000 ft) into the Andes.

forages for prey, including

The Chilean racer hunt

insects and smaller lizards,

for prev’ by dav, feeding

during the day, and stores

mainly on lizards. It

food reserves, in the form

may climb into scrub

of fat, in its tail. It grows

when looking for its prev.

to 50 cm (20 in) in length.

FIND OUT

MORE 794

ANTtATEKb, SLUFHS AND ARMADILLOS

Birds of PREY

Camels

Crocodiles

Snakes

WOIVES AND OTHER WILD DOGS

SOUTH KOREA see KOREA SOUTH AND NORTH

SOVIET UNION the chaos of the 1917 Russian Revolution, the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), or Soviet Union, was the worlds first communist country. During its 75-year history, the Soviet Union became one of the worlds most powerful states, playing a leading role in world politics and achieving huge technological advances. But the Soviet Union failed to deliver prosperity or liberty to its subjects. Efforts to reform the communist system failed, and the republics finally split up in 1991. Born out of

Soviet state

s

The Soviet Union was made up of several republics, which were governed bv councils or soviets. Every aspect of Soviet life was rigorously controlled by the state. Industrv and agriculture were taken over by the state, the press was censored, and cultural life was directed towards the glorification of the communist svstem. A vast Propaganda

Five-Year Plans During the 1920s and 1930s, vSovier

poster showing

leader Joseph Stalin produced a scries

Soviet workers

of long-term plans to steer the country's

secret police force (known as the KGB) kept control of the population and removed all dissent.

economy. Known as Five-Year Plans, thev covered areas such as heavy industry, agriculture,

Joseph Stalin

manufactured goods, defence,

Stalin (I879-I9S3) was born in the

and arms production.

Russian state of Georgia. A communist from an early age, he seized control of the party in 1923, and took over the Soviet Union in 1924. He held absolute

USSR at war

power, torturing and killing opponents

On 22 June 1941, 79

dictatorship is now known as “Stalinism”.

and dissidents. This type of ruthless

German divisions invaded the Soviet Union, to bring it

show trials

into the war on the same

In the 1930!i, Stalin

side as Britain and, later, the USA. Although the Germans soon occupied huge tracts of

removed opposition to

Siege of Leningrad

Consequences of war

his rule in a series of

In September 1941, German

Much of the western half of the

show trials. Dissideni leaders were shot or

forces surrounded Leningrad.

country was destroyed in the war

western Soviet Union, they

1 he city held out for 900

and more than 20 million people

imprisoned, and

failed to capture Moscow

days, until supplies finally

lost their lives. To stop this

hundreds of thousands

before winter set in and were

arrived in January 1944.

happening again, Soviet troops

of Soviet citizens were condemned to forced

heavily defeated at Stalingrad

Bombardment, hunger, and

occupied much of Eastern Europe

cold caused the deaths of

after 1945, setting up a buffer

Show trial of Stalins

labour in Siberia or

in January 1943.

thousands of citizens.

zone of communist governments.

opponents, Moscow

the Arctic lands.

Perestroika

Superpower

In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of the USSR.

The USSR emerged from World War II as a

He began to reform the

superpower. It competed with the USA in scientific

communist svstem through

and military affairs, using its first nuclear weapon

perestroika (restructuring) and introduced glasnost (openness).

in 1949. Direct armed conflict between the two

Gorbachev resigned in 1991

sides did not break out in the so-called Gold War,

after an attempted coup.

bur the Soviets supported nations such as Vietnam, in conflicts with the USA.

Timeline

Mikhail Gorbachev

1928 First Five-Year Plan.

1956 New leader Nikita Khrushchev denounces excesses of Stalin’s rule.

1917 Russan Revolution, under leaders such as Tfotslw,

1941^5 USSR fights in

establishes communism.

World War II sustaining

1964 Khrushchev replaced by

horrendous losses.

Leonid Brezhnev.

Space race

1918-20 Russian Red

In 1957, the USSR became the first nation to

Army wins civil war.

launch an artificial satellite into space, and sent the first astronaut - Yuri Gagann - into space in

1924 Stalin takes over after

1961. Soviet space successes promoted a massive

revolutionary leader

space race with the USA.

Vladimir 1 Lenin dies.

FIND OUT

MORE

Cold war

Europe, HISTORY OF

Marx, KARI

1945 Russian troops

1985 Mikhail Gorbachev becomes

occupy much of Eastern

leader and begins reforms.

Europe. 1953 Death of Stalin.

Governments AND POLITICS

Revolutionary leader Leon

1991 Gorbachev resigns and the

Trotskj' (1879-1940)

USSR breaks up.

Russia, HISTORY OF

Russian REVOLUTION

World war ii

795

SPACE EXPLORATION

Galileo's )Oiirncyi 1989 launched from space ^iAt\c Atlantis, 1989—1992 circled Earth and Venus to gain momentum; 1995 reached Jupiter.

1957 with the launch of the first satellite. Since then astronauts and robots have journeyed from Earth to explore space at first hand. Twelve astronauts have landed on the Moon. Many more have studied space while orbiting Earth. Spacecraft equipped with robotic equipment have visited all the planets except Pluto, many moons, two comets, and two asteroids. The space age began in

Jupiter

Gravity assist A space probe can flv by a planet to reach its target planet. It uses the planets gravity field to change direction

Space probes

Radioactive

and speed. The Galileo probe used this

. power source

technique to reach Jupiter: it passed by Earth twice and Venus once to gain

Robotic spacecraft have

speed, before heading toward Jupiter.

been used since 1959 to make long- distance journeys to the planets and their moons. The

Galileo probe

first flew by their targets; orbiters

This was the last great space probe of the

and landers came later. The real

20th century, and the first to investigate the atmosphere of a giant planet by

work starts when the craft reaches

sending a mini-probe into it. As Galileo

its target. Equipment switches

approached Jupiter in July 1995, a smaller

on and collects data, which is

probe separated from the main craft, or

transmitted to Earth for analysis.

orbiter. Both reached Jupiter in December 1995. The small probe descended into the planets thick atmosphere of hydrogen, helium, and other gases. It collected data

Fly-by probes

for 57 minutes before it stopped working.

Some probes simply fly by a planet. At a preplanned distance, the instruments switch on and start to

Heatshield /

The Gz/r/fo orbiter was

record data. Once the

protects the

designed to orbit Jupiter

probe has passed

atmosphere probe.

and its moons 11 times and send data back to

the planet, they

Earth for about two years.

switch off again. Mariner 10 The only space probe to visit Mercury, Mariner 10 was also the first to go to more than one planet. Between 1974 and 1975, it flew by Venus once and Mercury three times.

Orbiters

Landers

when some space probes reach their target, they

Probes put into orbit round a

follow a preset route which puts them into orbit

planet may release a smaller probe

around the planet. The orbiter may stay in orbit

to land on the planet. Landers have

forever. It will transmit data back to Earth until it

touched down on Venus, Mars, and

is shut down or stops working.

the Moon. The data they collect is

Magellan probe Giotto

In 1990, the Magellan space

Ten instruments on Giotto

probe entered into orbit about

investigated Halleys Comet

\fenus. Its radar equipment

transmitted to the orbiter and from there to Earth. Viking lander

n 1986. The probe flew within

“saw” through the planets’

In July and September 1976, two Viking probes

600 km (400 miles) of the nucleus

clouds to produce detailed

parachuted onto the surface of Mars. They took

maps of the surface. Magellan

pictures of the landscape and carried out a series

completed six surveys before

of experiments. Tests of the soil to establish any

Wernher von Braun

being destroyed as it plunged

signs of life on the planet were inconclusive.

Born in Germany, Wernher von

into the planet’s atmosphere.

^rLI j Viktng lander

Braun (1912-77) developed the V2 rocket in 1942. He later

Venus s surface

became an American citizen,

Magellan mapped

and developed rockets for the

almost 99 per cent of

USA. His Saturn Vrocket

Venus’s surface. Impact

took astronauts to the

craters, canyons, lava

Moon in the 1960s. In

flows, and volcanoes

the early 1970s, he was

were revealed. This

in charge of planning NASA’s future in space.

Magellan image shows the highland area called Ishtar Terra.

796

Magellan

Antenna Cameras.

SPACE EXPLORATION

Space stations

On the Moon

A permanent spacecraft in orbit round Earth can act as a

Twelve American astronauts landed

base for astronauts to live and work in, and as a station

Vf/V space

for beginning journeys into space. Russia and the USA

Soyuz

at six sites on the Moon between explored on foot, the later ones in a

A team of about 18 nations is

Lunar Roving Vehicle. They set up

working together to build a space station he 21st century.

Central module: Main living and working area is 13 m (40 ft) long. Maximum crew

s

1969 and 1972. The first crews

have both launched space stations.

and carried out experiments and brought back about 380 kg (840 lb) of Moon rock and dust. Lunokhod

Lunar module

Mir

The Russians landed the Lunokhod I

The Apolb /2 capsule

The most successful space

and 2 robotic explorers on the Moon in

carried two astronauts to

station is the Russian craft

1970 and 1973. They

the Moon’s surface on

A//r, which has been orbiting

travelled over

19 November 1969. They

Earth since 1986. It is made

the lunar surface

walked to the Surveyor 3

of modules which were added

taking photo¬

spacecraft which had

at different dates. Spacecraft

graphs and

landed in 1967 and

carrying crew and supplies

carrying out

retrieved material from the

for the station dock with it.

experiments.

craft for analysis.

Astronauts can stay on board for days, weeks, or months. Kvant 2 service /

Space missions

to five modules

module

Solar array (USA)

Space journeys are planned years in I advance. An international team works to

Alpha

produce a probe to carry out agreed

Space station Alpha is

tasks. Some are part of a series, such as

roughly the size of a football pitch. Different countries are

the Apollo lunar missions. Others, such

responsible for different parts.

as Cassini, are single missions.

Russia is providing the core module,

Science power

and the other parts will be added, piece

platform

by piece, in space. The American space shuttle, or its replacement VentureStary will ferry people and supplies between Earth and Alpha, The goal is to make

(international)

Alpha

Mobile

space

servicing

station

the station as self-supporting as possible.

system

There will be living, work, service, and

(Canada)

Energy block

transport areas.

Service module, including life support and utilities

Cassini

(Russia) Laboratory (USA)

(USA)

When the Cassini probe, scheduled for launch in 1997, reaches Saturn in 2004, it will make 23 fly-bys in a fourvear smdv of the planet, its atmosphere, rings, and some

Crew transfer vehicle (USA)

of its moons. A smaller probe, Huygetis, will separate

Aleksei Leonov

from the main craft and head for the largest moon,

In 1965, the Russian cosmonaut

Titan. It will make a three-hour descent through

Aleksei Leonov (b. 1934)

the thick atmosphere to Titan’s surface.

became the first person to “walk’ in space.

Earths messages

On his second

Space probes carry

space trip, in Skylab

mess^es from Earth in

1975, his Soyuz

The only' American space station, Skylab,

case aliens ever find

spacecraft docked

was used by three teams of visiting

with an American

astronauts between May 1973 and February

Apolb craft to

1974. They carried out experiments in the

make the first ever

laboratory and used it as an observatory for

international

looking out to space and down to Earth. In

space dock.

them. Plaques and discs on board the probes identify Earth and its

19*79, it burned up in Earths atmosphere.

life forms with maps,

The plaque on Pioneers 10

pictures, and, in more

and 11 that identified

recent craft, sounds.

Earth and its inhabitants.

Timeline

1966 Luna 9 makes the

1973 Pioneer 10 flies

1987 Astronauts on

first successful landing

by Jupiter, the first

Mir start the first

1962 Mariner 2

of a craft on the Moon.

craft to cross the

permanent manned

asteroid belt and reach

space station.

flies by Venus, the first

1971 Salyut I, the first

spacecraft to planet.

FIND OUT

MORE

Venus

Astronauts

Comets AND ASTEROIDS

is repaired. First detailed im^es of outer space objects sent back to Earth

one of the giant planets. 1989 Voyager 2 flies bv

1998 Lunar Prospector

1986 Giotto takes the first

Neptune, three years

discovers ice on the

images of the nucleus of a comet

after it flies by Uranus.

surface of the Moon,

space station, is launched.

visit another

1993 Hubble Space Telescope

Exploration

Moon

Planets

Rockets

Satellites

Sun and solar SYSTEM

Telescopes

Universe

797

SPAIN

Spain facts CAniAL CITY Madrid

Separated from the rest of Europe by the Pyrenees in the north, and from Africa by the Strait of Gibraltar to the south, Spain shares the Iberian peninsula with Portugal. Spain is the fourth largest country in Europe and, on average, also one of the highest. Once reliant on farming and fishing for its income, Spain has experienced rapid economic growth since becoming a member of the European Union in 1986. Today, it is a major industrial nation with a large agricultural sector and a booming tourist trade.

Area 504.''83 sq km (194.900 sq milesj PoriLATiON 39.664.000 Main lanc.uace.s .Spanish, Catalan, Galician, Basque Major RFilGION Christian Ci'RRENO Euro Life EX1»ECTANCY ”8 years People rtR D(KiOR 238 Gov’ERNMFNT Multi-parrv democracy Adl LT Lll FRAC V 98%

Balearic Islands Majorca, Minorca, and Ibiza

Physical features

are the largest of the Balearic

Spain is a land of contrasts with mountains in the north, centre,

the Mediterranean, and have

and south, an arid plateau, the meseta, at the centre, green valleys

a total area of 3,011 sq km

Islands. 1 hey lie to the east in

(1,933 sq miles); “’00.000

in the northwest, and warm plains on the Mediterranean coast.

people live there. The islands, which are governed by Spain,

^ -20°C (120°F) 25°C

are &mous for wine, fishing,

(-6°F) ''

and tourism. Thousands of holidavmakers visit each vear.

5°C

r''°F)

Pyrenees

419 mm Built-up

(rin)

Separating Spain from France are the imposing Pvrences. This

Climate

Land use

The mesfta has hot. and summers,

mountain range runs from the

•spain has verv lew natural resources, including

Mediterranean to the Atlantic

but in winter snow blizzards are

water. With the help of irrigation, half ol the

coast and contains many peaks

common. The coast and Balearic

land is used for growing crops, such as ceieals.

more than 3,000 m (9,842 ft)

I.slands have periods of drought in

olives, cirrus fruits, and grapes. About one-fifrh

high. It is a wild area, wheie

summer, and mild, damp winters.

IS pasture lor grazing animals, mainlv sheep.

bears and wolves srjll roam.

A

B

D

'

Bnif Fern.: ACoruria *

Awle. ^

Cijon cSantander-^ . ofBlbCny -

-

Nce ^ • Uogrofit)

i»a Badalona Barcelona

Me.seta

Tarragona

The v.ist. drv plateau known as the mc'^eta covers most of Menorca -

^

Miillorta

Balearic l8 sq km

it has few resources. Divorce is illegal. Fourism

I I

Car manufacturing

Main iam.lac.ls

Sandv beaches, beautiful cities, and

Spain tanks highly in world car pioductioii.

Landscape

guaranteed sun attract ahoui *18 million

Howevci, following the dimist- ol onee-

Andorra is a country

visitors a vear. louiism tmplo)s ten pei

hinious national m,ikes such as the

of mountains and valless

cent of rhe work-torce. and is a major

Hispano-Suiza and the I’egjso, it i.s

that attnict large numbers

source ol income. The Costa Blanca

resiiicied to manuljciunng foreign, ears

of\isitors to ski and

on the southwest coast is popular with

under licence. Thi.s Seat is being producetl

sightsee. Diit>’-trce goods

British and Geiman holidaymakers.

in Spain k»r the Ir.ilian company Fiai.

draw summer shoppers.

FIND OUT

Car.s and

MORE

TRUCKS

(JURIST lANITT

Dancl

ti roit

El'ropi,

EuroI’EAN

HI.STORY Ol

I'MOM

Earming

Eestisais

(181 sq mile*.) Pori lAi ION 66,800

Caialan. Spanish MaJ(»R RflK.lON Christian I

Cl'RRlNO turo

I

ADILI IlTFRAfV 'Wo

Eootbail

Spain HISIORYOF

799

SPAIN,

Roman Spain

HISTORY OF

In 133 BC, the Romans conquered Spain. They united the country and

For much of its history, Spain has been

brought peace, prosperity, and,

ruled by foreign powers. Greeks, Romans, Visigoths, and Moors all left their mark on the country. In 1492, Spain was finally united. It became powerful, and acquired a vast empire in the Americas. However, the effort of holding this huge empire together weakened Spain — by 1700, the country was exhausted. The ailing monarchy was finally overthrown in 1931, and, after a vicious civil war, a Fascist government under General Franco took power. The monarchy was restored in 1975.

later, Christianity. Roman rule lasted for more than 500 years until Germanic invaders overran the country in the 5th century.

Moorish Spain In 711, Moors (Muslims from north Africa) invaded Spain, driving the Christian rulers into the mountains of the north. For 700 years, the Moors ruled much of Spain. They introduced Islam, but allowed Jews and Christians to worship freely. They were known for their scholarship and fine buildings.

Ceiling at the Moorish palace of the Alhambra, Granada

King Ferdinand of Aragon

Isabella of Castile

Ferdinand and Isabella In 1479, the two main Christian kingdoms of Spain were united when Ferdinand of Aragon married Isabella of Castile. Bv 1492, the Moors were expelled from Spain, and the Christian ‘reconquest” was complete. Spain was a single Ferdinand and Isabella and their armv Cleansing of the Temple by El Greco

Civil War 1936—39

Golden Age

In 1936, civil war began between the Nationalists, whose

country for the first time since the Romans.

Republican soldiers

leaders included army officers and who supported Fascist In the 16th and early 17th centuries, Spain was one of the most powerful countries in Europe, controlling much of Italy and the Netherlands, as well as a vast American empire. Gold and silver from

political policies, and the Republicans, who wanted to curb army power and to return a socialist government. Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany backed the Nationalists, and after three years of fighting and one million

EXP^';^

deaths. Nationalist leader Juan Carlos

Francisco Franco seized power.

Franco died in 1975 and

mines of the Americas flooded

power passed to Juan

into the country, creating

Basques

huge wealth. Artists such as El

The Basques of northern Spain are a distinct

Greco, Murillo, and Velasquez made Spain one of the artistic

®

centres of Europe.

1

Carlos (b. 1938), grandson of the last Spanish king.

people with their own language and culture.

Under his rule, Spain

In 1936, they sided with the Republicans. In

became a multi-party

response, German bombers supporting Franco

democracy, reaching

attacked the town of Guernica, killing many.

world prominence with events, such as Expo 92.

Philip II

Philip II (1527-98) ruled Spain, southern Italy, and

Timeline

1492 Moors expelled; Columbus

the Netherlands from 1556. Son of Charles V, Holy

201—133 BC Romans rule Spain.

sails the Atlantic, beginning

leads to a Fascist

Spains American empire.

dictatorship by

Roman Emperor, he continued his ather s war against France, and drew England into the

General Franco

1936-39 Civil War

General Franco.

AD 300 Spain becomes 1556-98 Reign of Philip II.

Christian.

1975 Franco dies and

conflict. A revolt by the Dutch after 1568 weakened

711 Moors invade Spain and

1808—14 Napoleon’s armies

is succeeded by King

his rule and led him to send

establish Islamic rule.

seize Spain.

Juan Carlos.

an ill-fated armada to invade England in 1588. His chief success was the

1479 Kingdoms of Aragon and

1816-28 Spain loses empire in

1986 Spain joins

Castile are united.

South and Central America.

European Union.

conquest of Portugal in 1580. FIND OUT

MORE 800

Central America, HISTORY OF

Columbus, CHRISTOPHER

Holy roman EMPIRE

South America, HISTORY OF

SPEECH see LANGUAGES

SPIDERS

AND

SCORPIONS

With their long legs

Features of a spider

Fangs Between the pedipalps

and silent movements, of all spiders lie hollow called chelicerae. spiders can approach prey fangs They are connected to a venom gland that ^ T *' without warning. Likewise, pumps venom into prev, scorpions give little notice before they when the spider bites its victim, sting. However, only a few species of Irritant hairs_ may be kicked at spider and scorpion are dangerous to predators. humans. Spiders and scorpions are arachnids — a group of mainly solitary, carnivorous, land¬ living invertebrates. Included in the group are 30,500 species of mites and ticks, and 4,500 species of harvestmen, or daddy-longlegs. Red-kneed tarantula

There are 40,000 species of spider. All have four pairs of legs, their span ranging from 2 mm (0.8 in) in tiny money spiders to 30 cm (12 in) in huge goliath spiders. They lack antennae, but frontal appendages called pedipalps are used as Opisthoson.

sense organs, and, in males, to transfer sperm. Spiders’ bodies are made up of the fused head and thorax, or cephalothorax, and the abdomen, or opisthosoma. Most spiders have 4, 6, or 8 eyes.

Spinnerets Three pairs of tiny organs called spinnerets lie at the base of the 4th leg

opisthosoma. They produce silh for making webs and cocoons. The silk is made from protein. It is very elastic, and stronger than steel wire

Spinnerets I

of the same thickness.

Silk and webs Feeding

Spiders spin silken webs to catch their prey. Each strand

Spiders are carnivores and kill prey such

of a web may be made of

as insects. Most trap their victims in webs;

several strands of silk. Some

some, such as wolf spiders, hunt for prey.

spiders make messy webs

Spiders cannot eat solid food. They

called cobwebs. Trap-door

inject venom to paralyse the prey, and

I

spiders lay silk trip lines near their burrows and strike if prey touches one.

enzymes to dissolve its internal organs. Once prey is liquefied, the spider sucks the

Spinning a web

Silk is also used to make cocoons, or spun into nets

The spider makes a

to drop on prey, and wrap

Y-^haped srructure of

2

The spider has now

3

4

The spider now

spun a spiral of nonsticky web. It uses this

concentric spirals of

fluids from its victim, leaving a crumpled Having finished

now waits in the

up food. Money spiders

silk, then spins the radii,

spiral as a platform to

special sticky silk, which

middle of its web to

use silk as a parachure.

or spokes, of the web.

spin the sticky spirals.

it will use to trap prey.

catch its first meal.

Cocoons

Reproduction

Many spiders, such as black widows, wrap their eggs in

A female spider may mistake a male for prey as he approaches her

silk cocoons to protect

to mate. To prevent this, male orb-web spiders pluck at the edge of

them while they develop.

the web in a specific way; other spiders present the female with

This keeps the eggs

gifts of food, or tie her up with silk while mating. Despite taking

together and prevents them

precautions, the male is still often eaten by

drying out. The spiderlings

i_

r

1

r

external skeleton, in the case of an insect.

spinning, the spider

spins dense

*1

1

1

the remale aher mating has taken place. D

r

Black widow

hatch out of the eggs and cut

with cocoons

their way out of the cocoons.

•.

Wolf spider eating a fly

Defence Spiders have a range of defences:

Scorpions

Reproduction

many hide to avoid enemies; others

Most scorpions live in warm regions,

stings and pincers. They grasp each other’s

disguise themselves as ants. Some tarantulas flick irritant hairs at

Scorpions mate with care because of their

hiding in crevices or below rocks by

Red-kneed tarantula Scientific name Brachypelma smithii

claws and perform a ritual, called the scorpion dance. The male pulls the female forwards to

Order Araneae

attackers to blind them. Australian

day. They are carnivorous and emerge

guide her over a packet

Family Theraphosidae

red-backs have bright colours to

at night to hunt their mainly insect

of sperm until it slots

Distribution Mexico

prey. Scorpions use their pincers and

into her genital pore.

warn that they arc venomous — but

1

\

Raised

if attacked they,

I

m

legs in

and funnel-webs,

L

inject venom into

■

M d^ence

M

posture.

their enemies.

especially in areas of rocky ground

both to kill prey and for

covered by thick vegetation Diet Large insects, other spiders,

defence. Some, including

small reptiles, and occasionally

fat-tailed scorpions, can kill

Sydney funnel web spider

FIaBitat Dry srubland and woodland,

the venomous sting in their tail,

Fang

small mammals

humans. There are 2,100

Size Legspan: up to 16 cm (6.3 in)

species of scorpion; the largest is 18 cm (7 in) long. FIND OUT

MORE

Lifespan Males live for 7—8 years; Imperial scorpion

Arthropods

Cave WILDIIFE

fi)r two weeks.

Desert WILDLIFE

females live for 20-30 years

Marsh and SWAMP WILDLIFE

Poisonous ANIMALS

801

Spinnerets

Banana spiders arc cnmmon in

House spiders ire often

Crab spiders can camouflage

the tropics and ohen get into fruit

found in baths, or scuctli

themselves to match the colour

cargoes, to be transported elsewhere

across floors ind ceilings

of the flowers on which they sit

Cave spiders spin tangled

Carden spiders build

webs, then wait tor an

round webs and often

insect to trap itself.

hide at the edge.

Short, strong Irgs M

Jumping spiders creep

\

“

up on their prey, then pounce on top of it.

Wandering spiders hunt down

Irritant

Funnel-web spiders

hairs are

have deadly yenom

flicked at attickers.

that can kill a human Cardinal spiders have good

their prey and kill it with an

evesighi and can see prev

extremely powerful venom.

more than I m (3.3 ft) away.

Red-lcgged tarantulas ru-sh tiom their burrows at great

Raft spiders

sperd to catch passing prev.

have pale bands down their Sides.

Spiky outer -• cuticle deters Spinnerets ^_

predators. Chilean rose taraniulas livi

Frap-door spiders build

Spiny-bellied orb weavers

Raft spiders live bv the waters

Red-rumped tarantulas have

in burrows with silk trip wi

burrows with hinged lids where

live among the flowers and

edge and detect ripples caused

poor eyesight and .spend most

spreading out from them.

ihe\ lurk to tiap their prev.

leaves of mangrove trees

bv prey moving on its surface.

of their life underground.

ions Curved sting

Jointed tail

Marbled scorpions live in leaf litter in Australian forests.

V Yellow Desert scorpioii.s have Imperial scorpions have massive pincers that they use to rip their prey apait.

802

Huge pincers

small pincers, but a powerful venom to kill their prev.

colour to camouflage a^^ainst the sand.

SPORT

Sport today Sport is a thriving industry, with billions of pounds poured into it every year by television companies,

people have taken part in sport, either for recreation or for the thrill of competition. In ancient Greece, for example, men regularly visited gymnasiums to relax and to keep fit; some also participated in the more formal ancient Olympics. Today, there is an impressive range of sports to choose from, including activities as diverse as athletics, archery, and horse riding. Sports can be enjoyed for their own sake, as leisure or health pursuits, or at a competitive level. Since ancient times,

Types of sport

Athletics

Most sports can be classified

one of the most popular

sponsors, and the public. People pay to watch major events, and also buy sports equipment for their own use. There is now a growing concern for health and fitness and new trends in sport are always emerging.

Athletics is probably

under one or more of the following categories: air, athletic,

group.s of sport. It includes

Professi onal i sm

running, hurdling, jumping,

Top sports stars, such as US tennis plavcr Venus

watch events such as

and throwing. Running

Williams, can earn a huge amount of money.

this international in Hong Kong, China.

' Thousands of people

ball, combat, equestrian, racket,

may range from jogging

With so much money in sport, even the main

target, water, wheel, and winter

for health and fitness to

stronghold of amateurism - the Olympics -

more gruelling cross¬

now allows professionals to take part.

sports. These categories can be

country events.

Running for fiin

further divided into individual

Sponsorship

and/or team sports, and

Winter sports

Companies sponsor teams, individuals,

contact or non-contact sports.

Although many sports are

and competitions. They pay to

played in winter, those

promote their products on clothing

known specifically as winter

and around stadiums at kev matches.

sports are performed on ice and snow, such as skiing,

International soccer match

snowboarding, or ice hockey. Skating can be enjoved all year on indoor ice-rinks.

Inline skating

V

Inline skating evolved from rollerskating during the 1980s. Inline skates

Snowboarding

allow high speeds and complex tricks. Although this sport is also called Mountain biking

Inline skating

“rollerblading’ that is in

Motor sports

Cycling

fact the trademarked

People can take part in motor racing sports

Cycling is very popular around the world. It

name of just one

at various levels. In grand prix racing,

is a great way to keep fit. as well as a cheap

manufacturer

sponsors’ money and a large back-up team

^nd non-polluting means of transport.

of inline skates.

are needed to support the competitors.

“Mountain bikes’, first designed for offroad cycling, are now common in cities too.

Racket sports Sports played w'ith rackets need hand-eye

Gymnastics

co-ordination. Many people play tennis,

Young people can excel at the

Rhythmic

badminton, squash, and table tennis for

gymnastics

recreation. At the highest level, the games

highest level in this sport. It combines agilitv, grace, and

require great skill, fitness, and stamina.

physical discipline. Rhythmic g)mnastics combines elegance with entertaining juggling skills.

Horse riding

Judo

Combat sports Water sports

Ball games

evoKed from fight-to-the-death

Water prosides the means

Controlling a ball with a

contests in ancient times, but the

for gentle activity or

hand, toot, stick, or bat is

rules of sports such as judo, karate,

vigorous exercise. People

a satisfying experience. Ball

and wrestling are designed

enjov sailing and rowing

games include team sports,

to pre\ent injury and reward

in boats, and swimming,

such as soccer and basket¬

skill. Boxing is controversial

which is enjoved in indoor

ball, and individual sports,

because its aim is to inflict

pools as well as outdoors.

such as golf.

damage on the opponent.

RND OUT

MORE

Athletics

Ball GAMES

Combat SPORTS

Cycling

Gymnastics

Riding can be an exhilarating pastime,

V

Many of today’s combat sports

i-

enhanced by the necessary understanding between horse and rider. Young people enjoy competing in gymkhanas, and top-class show jumping and eventing are thrilling spectator sports.

v. Tacking up for riding

Horse RIDING

Motor SPORTS

Swimming AND DIVING

Tennis and other RACKET SPORTS

Winter SPORTS

803

SRI L\NKA see INDIA AND SRI LANKA • STALIN, JOSEPH see SOVIET UNION

STAMPS AND POSTAL SERVICES Every day, millions ol people send and

Postal services

receive mail. The sender frxes a postage stamp to the envelope or package to show that he or she has prepaid the cost of postage, then mails the item at the post office or a post box, confident that it will reach its final destination. Every country operates a postal service. It remains a vital means of national and international communication, despite the growth of electronic systems, such as e-mail and the fax machine.

Services to collect and deliver mail have existed since ancient times. A major reform came with postage stamps, used regularly around the world from 1840. Previously, the recipient had paid on delivery for his or her mail; from then on, the sender paid in advance for postage by attaching a stamp. Today, the cost of postage is determined by the weight, destination, and priority of a letter. Mail is first collected from a post box, and taken to a central sorting office.

Sorting

Philately 20'V;

At the sorting office a worker marks mail with phosphor

Philately (stamp collecting) began in the 1840s.

dots, according to the postcode

As there were very few stamps in existence, early

on the address. The dots are

philatelists collected many of the same sort, and

read by an automatic sorting

stuck them on walls or furniture for decoration.

machine, which sorts post into

Today, a stamp album may include different

priority and non-priority mail, before cancelling every stamp

stamps from every nation of the world. Because

so that it cannot be reused.

governments often use stamp designs to mark

Sorting office Transporting airmail

special political events, or to honour individuals, stamp collections can be interesting documents

Delivery

of social history, reflecting social attitudes and

Mail is transported by

priorities in different nations.

road, rail, or air, as quickly as possible. To speed the process, some rail carriages are also sorting offices. The mailsacks are then taken to the sorting office near their destination, sorted according to area, and delivered.

Phosphor dots are

The postmark

read by the sorting

shows the

machine; such

date and

machines sort mail

time of

eight times faster

posting

than by hand.

Phosphor dots Protective sheet keeps

Stamp collections

stamp collection clean

Some of the equipment a The name of the

colleaor mav need is shown

issuing country

here. Most important, when

appears on every

beginning a collection, are the

postage stamp,

stamp album and starter pack

apart from thos

many changes there and experimented with

he served as a delegate from Virginia to the

new crops. In 1759, he married Martha Custis,

Continental Congresses held to organize the 13 colonies’ struggle against the British.

a wealthy widow, and entered Virginia politics.

When the Revolutionary War broke out in

Throughout Washington’s life. Mount Vernon

1775, the Congress appointed Washington

was a welcome retreat, and he retired there

commander-in-chief of the colonial army.

at the end of htS hie.

Delegates at the Continental Congress

Commander-in-chief When war broke out in 1775, Washington took over a disorganized, ill-equipped army incapable of beating the professional, well-equipped British. Despite interference from Congress, he turned the colonial troops into an efficient force, able to outwit and defeat the British in 1781. Vyiey Forge Trenton

The American army spent the winter of 1777—

In the first two years of the war, American troops

78 in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. The winter

were outmanoeuvred by the British. On 25

was severe and food and clothing were scarce,

December 1776, Washington and his troops

but despite desertions and the threat of mutiny,

crossed the ice-bound Delaware River near Trenton,

Washington showed his grit and determination,

New Jersey. They captured the surprised British

holding his army together. In the spring, the

army the next day at the Battle of Trenton.

army emerged well-prepared for battle.

George Washington

President of the United States

1732 Born in Virginia.

After American independence was assured in 1783,

1743 On the death of his father, goes

Washington withdrew from politics. But conflicts

to live with his brother Lawrence.

between the states led to him taking a leading role.

1754-59 Fights in the British Army

In 1787, he presided over the convention which drafted

against the French.

the constitution, and in 1789 was unanimously elected

1759 Enters Virginia politics.

president of the new country. He served two four-year

1774—75 Delegate at two Continental

terms before retiring in 1797.

Congresses. 1775 Appointed commander-in-chief

Whiskey Rebellion Thomas Jefferson

In 1794, rioting broke out against the imposition

The author of the American Constitution, Thomas

of a national tax on alcoholic drink. The American

Jefferson (1743-1826) became secretary of state

government tried to enforce the law, but in the end

under Washington and led the Democratic-

Washington was forced to use troops. This, and other

Republicans, who favoured individual and state

troubles, meant that Washington decided against

rights. Washington tried to keep aloof from party

running for a third term as president.

politics but favoured the Federalists, who wanted

of Colonial forces. 1783 USA wins independence from Britain. 1789-97 Serves two terms as President of the USA. 1799 Dies at Mount Vernon.

a stronger national state. Party conflias caused many problems during Washington’s presidency.

FIND OUT

MORE 886

American REVOLUTION

Governments AND POLITICS

Law

United States, HISTORY OF

WATERWAYS see PORTS AND WATERWAYS • WAVES see COASTS • WATERSPORTS see SAILING AND OTHER WATERSPORTS

WEAPONS

Early weapons Early warriors fought with

Strength and skill decide the winner in a fight without weapons, but in armed combat, j ^ the fighter with the better killing tool may win. Ever since people began to compete for land or food, warriors have sought weapons of increasing power. Changing technology supplied them: metals were used to make swords; nuclear power was first used in bombs. This arms race has now led to weapons so powerful that a nation that used them might win the war, but would destroy everything in the conquered lands.

clubs and short blades. Lances and spears kept the enemy farther away: missiles such as the boomerang allowed warriors to attack anyone within throwing distance. To launch missiles further still, fighters used slingshots or bows.

The crossbow,

Blade could be stone, bronze, or iron.

a fxjwerful weapon The dagger* used in hand-to-hand

used in medieval

fighting, was one of the first weapons.

warfare.

Gunpowder The most far-reaching development in weapons technology came in the

How an AP mine works When someone treads on an AP mine

14th century, with the invention of

Seemingly harmless objects or areas can be unexpectedly

firearms. TTiese weapons were

deadly. Guerilla fighters may capture or wound enemies

powered by gunpowder, an explosive. Although feeble at first, firearms were

Gunpowder

Booby traps with trip wires or spike-filled holes. Most modern traps

soon capable of firing missiles great

rely on explosives. Buried anti-tank mines explode

distances. Battles could be fought at

when vehicles crush them; smaller anti-personnel

long range, instead of lace-to-face.

the pressure sets off a process that detonates an explosive charge. The force of the explosion travels upwards, causing terrible injuries. Such mines 2 designed to maim rather than kill, as a wounded person needs more care than a dead one, draining enemy resources.

(AP) mines blast people treading on them. Aircraft can drop hugp

Nikolaus von Dreyse German gunsmith Dreyse (1787—1867) designed a more effective weapon for the battlefield: a rifle that fired twice as fast as earlier guns. Troops loaded bullets near the trigger so they could shoot lying down, safe from enemy fire. The Prussian army began using the gun in 1840.

Bombs and missiles A bomb is a container filled with explosive material and a detonator to make it explode. The explosion causes a lethal blast, scattering

Mine victims, Kurdistan, 1993

deadly bits of the bomb casing far

Mass destruction

and wide. Missiles are weapons that are propelled towards a target;

The mosr powerful weapons can

they allow a warring nation to

destroy a city or poison the land of a

destroy an enemy nation without

whole nation. These weapons are so

risking the life of a single soldier.

dangerous that there are international treaties which aim to outlaw their use in war, or at least reduce their numbers. Nuclear weapons testing, 1995

Nuclear weapons In an atomic bomb, a sugar-cube-size piece of

Aerial bombing in World

Smart bomb approaches target.

War I: bombs were originally

uranium has the same destructive power as a block

dropped by hand.

of conventional explosive as big as a house.

Gravit}'^ bombs

Chemical weapons

Dropped from aircraft, gravity

Chemical and biological weapons spread poisons or

Smart bombs

bombs contain high exlosive.

“Smart” bombs are missiles in which a warhead

Most explode when they hit

is guided directly to its target by a laser¬

the ground. Modern types may

aiming device or on-board computer map.

divide into many “bomblets”

Some contain video cameras in their noses.

to blast a wider area.

FIND OUT

MORE

Arms and ARMOUR

Guns

Hundred YEARS WAR

pidemic diseases, so they kill or injure the enemy without damaging property. Casualties die slowly, overwhelming an enemy’s medical facilities.

Nuclear POWER

Peace MOVEMENTS

Warfare

World war I

World WAR II

887

\'W

Bow could shoot arrow

\Bow was about as tall as the archer.

English longbow and arrow

2-^0 m (890feet)

Metal mace, for attacking armour

Storage space for cloth patches, to ensure that bullets

888

Firearms

Switch for automatic or \~automatic firing

WEASELS AND MARTENS

Young weasels Weasels breed in the spring, producing litters

mammals, weasels and martens are some of the most efficient hunters. They have a fierce reputation and, on their own, can kill prey much larger than themselves. With their excellent senses of smell, hearing, and sight, they track down their prey, then pounce, and kill it with a lethal bite. Different species occupy habitats from the polar regions to the tropics. Some live in trees, others in burrows or among rocks or tree roots. Small and slender

of up to eight young. The baby weasels stay in the safety of the den in the first weeks of life, rnd are looked after by the female alone. After about two months, the young begin to hunt for themselves.

Common weasel One of the most widespread weasels is the common weasel. It weaves through the undergrowth searching for small rodents, such as mice and voles, and is small and lithe enough to pursue them into their burrows. Males may be

Weasels

twice as big as females so they chase larger prey down

Stoats, polecats, minks, weasels,

larger burrows. Each weasel

and ferrets are all types of weasel.

has its ow'ji territory, which may cover several hectares.

They have long, sinuous bodies, long necks, and short legs. Mostly

All weasels stand up on their

nocturnal hunters, they can move

back legs to look around.

extremely fast and run, climb, and swim after their prev.

Short legs allow the Weaseb are particularly good at hearing high-

Weasels have a flexible spine

pitched sounds, such as

and strong back muscles.

a mouse squeaking.

Stoat The stoat, seen here tracking

Martens

Wolverine

has a black tip to its tail and is

There are eight species of marten inhabiting

wolverine weighs up to 25 kg (55 lb). It

a little bigger than the weasel.

forests in Europe, Asia, Canada, and Alaska.

its prey by scent, looks similar to the common weasel, but it

It can tackle prey as large as a

Least weasel skull

hare. In the northern, colder

The least weasel is the

A giant among weasels and martens, the

They are larger than weasels, and their slightly

parts of its range, the stoats

smallest carnivore in the

longer limbs make them better climbers. They

coat turns white in winter to

world, only 17.5 cm (6.8

readily catch prey in trees, though they also

camouflage it against the snow.

in long). Its strong )aws

It is then known as ermine.

and sharp stabbing teeth are typical of all weasels.

is powerful enough to kill and eat a reindeer. Ii

hunt on the ground, taking squirrels, birds. eggs, insects, and plant food such as berries.

Polecats are

Zorilla Widespread in Africa, the zorillas vivid stripes act as a warning to laiger predators not to attack. If the warning is ignored, the zorilla will raise its tail and spray a noxious fluid at the attacker.

Polecats Common Weasel

Like most weasels, polecats are versatile hunters, eating rodents, rabbits, frt^s, birds, and lizards. They patrol their territory at night, marking it with their scent.

Minks These weasels are good swimmers, helped by their partly webbed feet. They usually live

Fisher

Pine marten

Scientific name Mustela nivalis

An extremely agile climber,

Despite its name, the fisher

the pine marten is able to

feeds largely on the flesh of

run and leap along branches.

birds and small mammals

Family Mustelidae Distribution Europe, most of Asia,

It has a bushy tail that helps

such as rabbits. It is known

with balance, and long claws

for its ability to kill

and large paws that grip the

porcupines, whose spines it

bark. It is the largest

avoids bv attacking the

Eurasian marten.

unprotected face and belly.

Order Carnivora

northwest Africa Diet Rodents, moles, rabbits, birds Size Length 21-29 cm (8-11.5 in)

by rivers, lakes, and marshes, taking their prey of fish, frogs, and birds from the water.

FIND OUT

MORE

Animal BEHAVIOUR

Badgers, otters, AND SKUNKS

Food webs AND CHAINS

Mammals

880

WEATHER

Highs These are caused bv blocks of denser air in the upper atmosphere. The density of

fog, frost, and sunshine the air makes it heavy, which creates a high pressure region are all signs of the constant shifting of the With very little water vapour in it, a high creates a clear and lowest level of the atmosphere. This continual cloudless day. change is what we call the weather. The weather changes in four Depressions and fronts The atmosphere often forms into blocks of air, or air masses, over High-level main ways: its movement, which can cirrus clouds an area where conditions are similar. A front is the boundary bring winds; its temperature, which can precede the between two air masses. Where a warm and cold air mass meet, warm front. cause anything from frosts to heat waves; lighter air rises up over the cold, creating a low pressure zone, or depression. This brings / its moisture content, which can bring ^ • j 1 Clouds form as the rising ^ storms as it develops . ^ - — moist, warm air condenses. rain and fog; and its pressure, which can and drifts eastwards. cause anything from cloudless days to fierce storms. The average weather in one particular area is known as the climate. Wind, rain, snow,

Some of the moisture in the cloud-tops turns to ice. ^

High-level winds blow the cloud-tops

Formation of a depression

Warm front

into wedge shapes.

In a depression, the front often breaks into two — a warm front and a cold front. As the depression passes, the warm front is usually ahead of the cold. The warm air slides gently up over the cold, bringing gentle, steady rain.

1

A polar front is where

Cold front

warm, tropical air meets

After the warm front has passed, there is generally a brief pause.

cold, polar air.

The cold air then drives sharply Strong winds nd heavy clouds occur along the cold front.

under the warm, forcing it upwards and creating huge clouds that bring heavy rain and thunderstorms.

Air pressure

Air temperature

Humidity

The force of molecules (groups of atoms) moving in the air creates air pressure. The more molecules are in motion, the greater the pressure. Warm air expands, making it less dense and reducing pressure. Cold air contracts, raising pressure. Pressure variations cause changes in the weather.

Air temperature largely depends on the Sun’s heat. Air temperatures are highest in the tropics, where the Sun is strongest. Meteorologists place thermo¬ meters in the shade, when measuring air temperatures, to get an overall picture.

Humidity is the moisture content of clouds. Moisture is present as vapour in the air almost all of the time, but is invisible. When the air gets cold, however, , the vapour condenses to water drops, forming clouds, fog, or even rain.

Barometer Barometers measure air pressure and show changes in pressure on a dial. A dramatic f^l in pressure usually means that a storm is on its way. Aneroid barometer

Isobars Air pressure is measured in millibars and is shown on weather maps bv isobars (lines). \

Each isobar links points of equal pressure. The closer together the isobars are, the sharper the difference in air pressure. Weather map showing isobars

HND OUT

MORE I_

890

Air

Atmosphere

2

A depression begins i form, where warm ai

bulges over the cold air.

3

Cold air chases under the warm air and the front splits

into two — warm and cold fronts.

Double-ended thermometer Wet and dry

records the daily maximum and

hygrometer uses

minimum

a scale to show

temperatures.

humidity.

Climate

Clouds

Rain

Storms

4

The cold front may lift the warm front off the ground,

to form an occluded front.

Time

WEATHER FORECASTING Weather stations

makers,

From farmers to ice-cream

different communities, businesses, and

Ships at sea, city roofs, and mountain-

individuals want to know what the weather is likely to be. Weather forecasting is the prediction of weather conditions over an area, either for days (shortrange) or for months (long-range). Every three hours, 10,000 weather stations world-wide simultaneously record observations

tops all provide sites for the world s weather stations. Most stations are equipped with thermometers and hygrometers to show temperature and humidity, anemometers to record wind speed, rain gauges to collect rainfall, and mercury barometers to monitor changes in air pressure.

of weather conditions. These data, called synoptic values, feed Stevenson screen

huge computers in the 13 main weather centres of the World

Air temperature readings

Meteorological Organization. Meteorologists — people who

are taken in the shade. A white box. called a

study the weather — produce weather forecasts based on the

Stevenson screen, shields

computers’ calculations plus satellite and radar images.

sunlight. Ventilation slats

thermometers from direa keep air flowing freelv.

Weather charts

Swirl of cloud indicates

Some of the first weather

British Isles.

Images are taken from

a severe storm over the

Radiosondes are filled

hundreds of miles

with helium.

j above ground level.

forecasts were printed in

Dark grey

the London Daily News

cloud shows

in 1848. These reports

heavy rain.

IL

were crude and very short-term compared to todays sophisticated

YC^ather balloon

predictions. Technology Colours show

now enables satellite

that it is

images of the weather to

generally

be taken from high above

warmer

the Earth. A computer

inland than

Every dav around the world, at noon and midnight GMT (Greenwich Mean Time), balloons, known as radiosondes, are launched into the atmosphere to measure conditions such as air pressure, temperature, and humidity at heights up to 20 km (12 miles).

on the coast.

applies different colours to the map to indicate variations in temperature, humidity, clouds, and atmospheric pres;

Patchy

Weather planes

cloud cover

These provide detailed information about conditions high in the atmosphere, especially around storms. Weather

Colour spectrum shows

planes are equipped with a range of monitoring devices

temperatures^ with red

to record anything from the ice content of clouds to the

denoting the hottest

presence of gases.

and violet the coolest.

Ocean ts

Weather satellites

dark blue to Orange and red

reflect cool

tintmg indicates

temperature.

very hot weather.

The first weather satellite, launched by the USA in I960,

Satellite image of Europe and North Africa taken in 1997

orbited 850 lun miles) abcrcc the Nonh

Lewis Richardson

and South polo. In die

Natural weather forecasters

1970s. geosanonarr

British mathematician Lewis Richardson (1881-1953)

Natural signs are still used to help forecast the weather.

devised a system called

Many plants and animals react to moisture changes in

numerical forecasting. This

the air, and so may indicate

system foreca.st the weather, by feeding millions of

that rain is coming.

into giant

travel up to 401000 km (25,000 mles) j«arr. A depression tverAe

limp in

Radar

moist air.

United Kinrdom

Radar (which stands for

simultaneous measurements of atmospheric conditions

satellites woe made m

Closed pine cone

Wool shrinks and

scales warn of

curls up in dry i

Radio Detection And Ranging) signals reflect off water present in the air, such as snow and rain. Radar can be used to generate computer images of depressions and other systems to give a clear indication of where rain is falling, and how much.

HND OUT

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Airships and BALLOONS

Atmosphere

Coviputers

Radar AND SONAR

Satellites

Trees

S91

WEAVING see TEXTILES AND WEAVING

WEIGHTS

AND

MEASURES

the cubit was the main unit used to measure length. It was based on the distance from a persons elbow to his or her fingertips. Because different people have arms of different size, it eventually became necessary for the Egyptians to define a standard length for the cubit, so that the cubit was the same throughout the country. In the same way, our modern systems of measurement, such as the metric and imperial or customary systems, are based on standard units. mem The quantities we measure include length, area, volume, weight, and mass. 4^

Measuring space

In ancient EGYPT,

N

When we measure length, area, or volume, we are measuring space. Length is the amount of linear space between two points. Area is a measurement of the two-dimensional space of a surface such as a wall. Volume is the amount of three-dimensional space occupied by a solid object or an amount of liquid or gas. Length and distance All de%’ices designed to measure length or distance measure space along a line. The word length is used when measuring how long an objecr is; distance refers to the space between two places. Units of length or distance include the foot (ft), metre (m), mile (mi), and kilometre (km).

Measuring weight

Area

We usually describe an objects “weight” in grams and

cover a wall, it is important to know

To ensure you buy enough paint to the area of the wall you are gong to

kilograms, or pounds and ounces. However, these are

paint. Area is measured in square

really units of mass — that is, the amount of matter in an

units, such as square metres (m^) or

object. In science, weight refers to the force of gravity

square feet (ft^). Land areas are

pulling an object downwards. Scientists measure weight

usually measured in different units,

in different units, such as newtons and poundals.

such as hectares (ha) or acres (ac).

Digital scales Flour.

Simple balance

Volume

Weights

Scales and balances

The combined yolume

To weigh things accurately, we must use

of the bricks equals the

scales or a balance. Digital scales use electronic

volume of the water.

0.641 of water

Solid volume is measured in cubic units, such as cubic centimetres (cm^) or cubic

privEX

components to find the weight of an object. A

inches (in^). Capacity units, such as litres (1) or

balance consists of two linked pans. The object to

pints (pt), measure liquid

be weighed is placed in one pan, and standard

volume. Gas volume is measured

weights are added to the other. The two pans will .T, . , 1 ,, a I Ten bricks, each 64 cm^ volume

balance when they are carrying the same weight.

Standard units Today, there are two major systems of standard units. The metric system, which is decimal, is the most common and is used by scientists world-wide. Some countries, such as the USA, use the older imperial or customary

Metric system

Imperial system

in either cubic units or capacity units. ^

Non-Standard units

Units in the metric system include the

The inch (in), foot (ft), ounce (oz),

Parts of the body were

centimetre (cm), metre (m), gram (g),

pound (lb), pint (pt), and acre (ac) are

once used as measuring

kilogram (kg), litre (1), and hectare (ha).

all imperial units. Unlike metric units,

units. The hand, for

Prefixes such as milli- and kilo- denote

which are all based on the number 10.

example, was used to find

smaller or larger units. For example, one-

imperial units do not all have the same

the height of horses. Such

thousandth of a metre is a millimetre (mm),

number base: a foot is divided into 12

units were non-standard,

and 1,000 metres is one kilometre (km).

inches, but a pound contains 16 ounces.

because peoples bodies are never the same. A

system. In other countries,

horse could be 18 hands

such as the UK, people use

high to one person, but

the metric and imperial

only 16 to another. The

systems side by side.

hand has now been standardized to a length of exaedy

Thread

10 cm

(length):

(3.94 in).

*

^

A hand ^ was 4 nde. fingers wide.

HND OUT

MORE 892

Dyes and PAINTS

Egypt, LNOENT

Food

Gravity

Horses

Mathematics

Matter

Numbers

Science

WEIMAR GERMANY see GERMANY, HISTORY OF • WEST AFRICA see AFRICA, WEST • WEST INDIES see COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER

WHALES AND DOLPHINS

Whales body encrusted with barnacles

Gray Whale

Baleen whales The baleen, or whalebone, whales are the giants of the ocean. They feed by swimming through a shoal of shrimplike krill with their mouths wide open. When they close their mouths, the water is forced out through the baleen plates suspended r

from their upper jaws, leaving the krill trapped on the inside. Adult blue whales can swallow a huge

quantity of krill in a single mouthful. Teeth

Powerful

A whales teeth are all the

jaws

same shape. A killer whale has stout, conical teeth that curve backwards.

Baleen Plates of baleen are made from keratin. This is the same material that makes up human hair.

Toothed whales

.

Dolphins, porpoises, sperm whales, beaked whales, and the killer whale are Gray whale

all species of toothed whale. The

A baleen whale, the gray

unusual narwhal and beluga also belong

whale teeds on crustaceans living on the seabed. It uses

to this group. The toothed whales have

its snout to stir up sediment Aerial view of a whale “blowing”

which it strains through short baleen plates. Each

Blowholes

year, the California gray

In the course of evolution,

whale migrates from its

the nostrils of almost all the

feeding grounds in the

whales have moved to the top

Arctic Ocean to its calving

of the head. 1 his makes it

lagoons in southern

possible for the animals to breathe

California and Mexico.

as many as 260 teeth or as few as a The baleen of right whales grows longer

single pair. The whales use their teeth to catch and hold, but not to chew,

than that of

their prey which includes fish and squid.

other whales.

Instead, they swallow their food whole.

Killer whale A powerful and ruthless

A narwhal’s tusk is a

A tusk can grow to

Until 17th century

predator, the killer whale

without having to expose their

greatly enlarged left

2. ”75 m (9 ft) long.

tusk was thought

eats mainly fish, penguins,

body above the surface of the

upper incisor tooth.

to be unicorn horn

and seals. It is particularly efficient when hunting for

water. Toothed whales have one

food as a pack. Even a

blowhole; baleen whales have two.

large whale stands little

When a whale surfaces, it “spouts” by blowing moist air out through its blowhole. Then it

chance against a pack of

Vlale narwhals have a long spiral-shaped tusk growing from

killer whales.

the upper jaw. The narwhals onlv other tooth rarel) grows

breathes in. closes its blowhole, and submerges again.

Narwhal

Narwhal skull and tusk

bevond the gums. Narwhals are found onlv in Arctic waters where they live in herds of about 12 individuals.

Porpoising

The entire i

Dolphins are renowned for their ability to make

comes out of the water.

spectacular leaps out of the water. This is called porpoising, but, strangely enough,

Common dolphin

Dolphins and porpoises

porpoises do not leap.

Found in warm and temperate s

Both dolphins and porpoises are toothed

the common dolphin sometimes

whales. They eat fish, cuttlefish, and squid.

gathers in schools of several hundred. It feeds on fish and is itself often caught in nets. As a

Delphi)

result, its numbers have declined.

at high speed.

Most dolphins are larger than porpoises, which have rounder bodies and foreheads.

893

V'HALEs AND DOLPHINS

Threats

Fluking A whales tail is horizontal

The great whales have few natural enemies

and flattened. It provides

other than the killer whale. Smaller whales are

the whale with its means of propulsion and generates

at risk from sharks. Whales are still hunted by

enormous power. Before

humans, and many species are on the verge of

beginning a deep dive, some whales lift their tail flukes

extinction. Even dolphins and porpoises are

into the air to help them get

killed. A great number of whales are caught

into position for a steep

in fishing nets and drown.

descent. This is called fluking. The way a whale

Beaching

flukes helps in its identiflcation. Some, such

These pilot whales have become stranded on a beach in

as this sperm whale, bring

Tasmania. Australia. No one is sure why whales do this.

their tails high into the air

One theory is that they rely on the Earths magnetic field to

so that the underside can be

orientate themselves, and sometimes become confused, as,

seen. Others keep the flukes

for example, during a magnetic storm. Some people think

turned down.

pollution of the seas weakens the whale.s’ resistance to disease.

Whiskers are used to find food on the riverbed

- Toothed whales use

Sirenians

echolocation to find prey.

The four species Echolocation

of Sirenians — three

Ibothed whales have developed an extremely sophisticated sense of hearing. Like bats, whales

manatee and one

use a system of echolocation to detect other

dugong — are, like the

things in the water. They emit an almost non¬

whales, aquatic mammals.

stop stream of “clicks” that cannot be detected by the human ear. The clicks are reflected off

Often called sea cows, they are

nearby objects and picked up bv the whales'

all herbivorous, feeding mainly

receiving apparatus.

on sea grasses. Manatees live in tropical coastal waters on either side of the Atlantic, entering large rivers and estuaries and rarely venturing into the open

West Indian manatee

sea. The dugong lives around the edges of the Indian and western Pacific oceans.

Schools Most whales live in communities. They associate

Throat grooves allow

in groups, called schools when referring to

the mouth to expand

dolphins, or pods when referring to larger

whale

toothed whales such as these killer

Bv far the largest animal the world

whales. The groups vary in

has ever seen, the blue whale grows up to 32 m (105 ft) long and weighs

size from a male, several

up to 160 tonnes. Its tongue alone

females, and their calves,

weighs 4 tonnes - almost as much as

to thousands as

a full-grown elephant. It can grow this size only becaue its huge bulk is

sometimes happens

supported bv water. Blue whales live

with pilot whales.

mainlv in cold waters and open seas, distributed patchilv worldwide.

Mother and calf stay close to each other.

Largest and smallest

Breeding

Gray whale

whales usually give birth to one

Scientific name

calf after a gestation period of

The blue whale is the ]arge.st of the

10-12 months. When the calf is

Cetaceans. The smallest is the vaquita,

born, the female guides it to the

also called the Gulf of California harbour

surface so that it can take its first

porpoise. An adult is about 1.2-1.5 rn (4-5 ft) long. Large numbers have been caught in fishing nets, but it is seldom

great care of her calf, which may

quarter of the body length.

seen in the wild and is believed to be rare

suckle from her for several years.

FIND OUT

894

Bats

Mammals

Migration

Order

Cetacea

Family

Eschrichtiidae

Distribution

Pacific coasts of

North America and Asia

breath. A mother whale takes

Flukes are up to a

MORE

Eschrkhtius

robustus

Ocean WILDLIFE

Polar WILDLIFE

Habitat Diet

Shallow coastal waters

Crustaceans

Seals

Sharks and rays

Whales and dolphins

WHEEL see INVENTIONS; TRANSPORT. HISTORY OF • WILD CATS see LIONS AND OTHER WILD CATS • WILDLIFE PARKS see ZOOS • WIND POWER see ENERGY

Esd

Air rising over warm areas creates a

WINDS

return air flow at high altitude to mplete the air circuit,

Wind generation Low pressure areas are created

^Warm air rises

where the Sun warms the

is rarely Earths surface. High pressure still. When air moves in a areas are created where the air is cooler. The extra pressure in continuous stream, it these zones, (anticyclones, or becomes wind. Winds are highs) pushes air towards low pressure zones (depressions, or caused by air moving from areas of high lows). At ground level, low-level pressure to areas of low pressure. Rising air does Area of low pressure \ Cold air under winds blow from high to low; high pressure as air is warmed by not exert great force, thereby creating an area of reflection of the Sun. moires to an area higher up, winds spread out of lower pressure. above low pressure areas. low pressure. Sinking air exerts more force, thereby Local winds creating an area of high pressure. Dramatic pressure Some winds onlv blow in certain differences generate strong winds, such as hurricanes. places and at particular times, such as North Americas Chinook. The strength of winds is measured from 0 to 12 on the Cattlemen in the Rockv Mountains like the Chinook as this warm, dry Beaufort scale. Winds are part of a global circulation wind rapidly removes snow cover. pattern, that keeps temperature patterns in balance. Approach of strong winds The air around us

Night land breeze

Prevailing winds

Land and sea breezes

Air sinks over cool land,

Winds are described by the direction from which

and is drawn seawards.

they blow. A wind blowing from west to east is

The land heats up

Air rises over warm sea.

called a westerly, or west wind. In most places, the

faster than the sea, so

wind usually blows from one direction most of

warm air rises over the

the time. This is known as the prevailing wind.

land during the day as it is warmed by the Sun. At certain times of year, this can create a sea breeze, which is a gentle breeze blowing in to the land off the

Northeasterly trade winds

cold sea. At night, the land cools faster

Hadley cell

than the sea, reversing the air flow. This creates a land breeze,

Southeasterly trade winds

that blows out to sea. easterly polar winds

Hadley cells

Land warms quickly.

Coriolis effect

Prevailing winds are the ground- The Earths rotation stops winds level part of huge cells of

Katabatic winds form

Anabatic winds form in

in mountains, as cool

vallevs, as warm air rises

air sinks at night

during the day.

Up-valley

from blowing straight from high

Mountain winds

circulating air. For every wind at

to low pressure areas. Instead, it

ground level, there is a turning

deflects winds sideways. This is

Mountains often generate their own local winds

high-level wind. The cell in the

known as the Coriolis effect. In

At night, cool air flows down into valleys, creating

tropics is called a Hadley cell,

the northern hemisphere, winds

katabatic winds. In the day, sun-warmed air rises

after English meteorologist

are deflected to the right, and in

out of the vallevs, creating anabatic winds.

George Hadley (1685-1''68).

the southern to the left.

Down-valley wind

Jet streams

1

A Rossby wave

Rossby wave

develops as a

Between the westerly

At high altitudes, there are

winds and the polar

narrow rivers of air that roar

easterlies, a jet stream runs eastwards. It meanders

steadily around the world at

around the world in four

speeds of 370 kmh (230 mph)

to six giant waves, called

or more. This photograph

Rossbv waves, that form

2

The Coriolis effect makes

3

Caught i i the loops, warm 1

major bend forms

the wave deeper

and cold air

in the polar front

and more

may detach to

of the stream.

pronounced.

form cyclones.

Warm

Cold a

Wave deepens^

Air is trapped^

cyclonic storms below.

shows a jet stream high over the Sahara in Egypt.

RND OUT

MORE 896

Air

Atmosphere

Coastlines

Energy

Kites

Mountains 'VND VALLEYS

Oceans AND SEAS

Sailing and other watersports

Ships and boats

Weather

WINTER OLYMPICS see OLYMPIC GAMES

Alpine

WINTER SPORTS ■ '

boot

The term winter sports refers to sports

Mittens

that take place on snow and ice. Keen competition has grown up around them, and the Winter Olympics are held every four years. There are two main types of skiing: Alpine skiing, which features downhill and slalom racing; and Nordic skiing, which is a cross-country sport that also includes ski jumping. A new type of skiing, freestyle, is about performance rather than speed. In sled racing, riders hurtle down special runs. Skating includes figures, ice hockey, and racing.

w

11

Skiing

ff

Ski bindings

Alpine racing is about speed and technique; Nordic more about stamina. The two disciplines use . different equipment. Alpine skis are wider and heavier than Nordic skis, and the boots are attached to the skis with safety bindings. Nordic boots are like trainers, and the heel lifts free with each stride.

Nordic racing

ski jumping

Cross-country courses

In ski jumping,

Alpine racing

have no steep slopes or

competitors take off

In downhill racing,

sharp turns. Races

I

from the end of a

skiers take the fastest

range from 5 to 50 km

chute on a ski tower.

(3 to 30 miles), with

They aim to fly

skiers starting at

\

gracefully, perfectly balanced and still in the air, before landing

line down a set route, taking off

30-second intervals.

into the air where

Placings are decided on

necessary. In slaloms, skiers weave

time. There are relays,

smoothly. Judges award

combined events, and the

points for style as well as

Ski poles

in and out of pairs of

Skis

;s, or “gates”. Both

biathlon, which includes

distance jumped.

decided on time.

shooting at targets.

Sled racing

Speed skating

Skating

(436-yd) track with rwo skaters

Figure skating takes place on

sled racing, but for major

an indoor ice rink. There are

competitions, special steep,

four events — men’s and

and four to six

women’s singles, mixed pairs,

skaters jockey

twisty runs are made from ice

Short-track racer

Long-track racing is held on a 400-i

Any snowy slope is a site for

and snow. The art is to shift the

and ice dancing. Long-track

bodyweight to make the sled go

speed skating usually takes

the fastest way down, letting

place outdoors, and skaters

separate lanes. There are no lanes in short-track racing,

for position around a tight

*

oval track.

gravity do the work. Riders go

race against the clock. Short-track

one at a a time, and the winner

is held indoors, with elimination

is the one with the lowest total

heats. Ice hockey, on indoor

time from up to four runs.

ice rinks, is a major sport

^

in North America and

^

Skater is allowed to touch the ice

Racers lean right ovee.

parts of Europe.

with a hand.

on the tight turns.

Sonja Henie Luge

A Norwegian figure skater,

I he luge is a one- or two-person

Sonja Henie (1912—69)

toboggan with no brakes or

turned professional in 1936,

and, in pairs, lifts. Judges

steering. The riders, or sliders, use

after winning three Olympic

award marks out of six for

programmes to music, featuring spins, jumps,

their legs and shoulders to guide

Toboggan

gold medals and 10 world

artistic impression and for

the vehicle. The luge is ridden face

The skeleton toboggan is so-called because it has

championships. With her

technical merit. Ice dancing

up, in a sitting or lying position.

no structure above the runners. The rider lies face

theatrical performances and

is less athletic, with more

down, uses toe pieces for braking, and .steers bv

short skirts, she revolutionized

emphasis placed on

shifting weight. The only major competitions are

the sport. She toured

on the Cresta Run at St Morit2 in Switzerland.

Bobsleigh

interpretation of the music.

the USA with her own ice show,

Two- or four-man bobs have metal runners, steering, and brakes. In

became an

a four, the two middle men

American

help to guide the bob by shifting

citizen, and

their weight on turns. A brake

made several

man uses the brakes only for

films.

Ice hockey Ice hockey is played six-aside with substitutes allowed at any time. The object is to propel a hard disc, the puck, into the opposition s goal. There

correcting skids or for stopping.

ire three 20-minute FIND OUT

MORE

periods. Players serve time Ball games

Health and FITNESS

Motor SPORTS

Olympic GAMES

Sport

penalties for foul play.

89V

WITCHES

AND

WITCHCRAFT

The belief in witches — people with supernatural

powers — is ancient and universal. No one knows whether witches do actually have special powers, but from the earliest times, people in all cultures have believed that some men and women can use rituals, spells, and other magical means to influence events for good or evil. Definitions of witchcraft vary, but it is always associated with magic. Uniquely, however, in Europe from the 15th to the 18th centuries, witchcraft was associated with devil worship, and was punishable by death.

/A\

I

Familiars

Magic

Identifying witches was difficult,

medieval people believed that true

to influence events. Belief in magic

witches could fly - usually on a

^

and African societies, witch doaors and shamans still use herbs and rituals for healing.

}

St John's Wort

European witch hunts from the 12th century, the Christian church redefined witchcraft as heresy, or treason against God. Witches were described as evil

was really a demon in disguise.

devil-worshippers, and the Church set up

Torture

massive witch hunts in which anyone

Suspected witches were

suspected of witchcraft was rounded up,

savagely tortured in order to make them confess and

considered to be sacred and is

also to name accomplices.

practised by specially skilled people.

in herbal cures. Latin American

by a “familiar”, such as a cat, which

religion. In some culmres, magic is

Carving of African shaman

women, skilled Today, in many

broomstick - and were accompanied

prehistoric cave paintings — and it

B^^H

acruallv village wise

In early medieval Europe, belief in witches

use supernatural or natural forces

either as a superstition or as a

meaning wise one, and, in medieval Europe, many so-called witches were

was a natural parr of everyday life. However,

W

continues today in many cultures,

religions and healing. The word “witch” comes from the Anglo-Saxon, wicca,

as any member of society. However,

Magic, or sorcery, is the attempt to

magic spells has been found in

Healing Witchcraft has always been linked with natural

because they looked exacdy the same

I

has a long history — evidence of

Foxglove

tried, and often executed. The witch hunts lasted some 300 years, and at least 300,000 innocent people, mostly women, were put

Methods of torture included whipping, branding with

to death. Historians have put forward

red-hot irons, stretching

various reasons for the witch hunts. These

on the rack, thumbscrews, and the gouging out of eyes,

included a general persecution of women,

people confessed to almost ai lydiing

and the rise of medical science.

just to stop the torture.

Witch burning Proving witchcraft was a difficult matter, and various tests were devised. One of these was throwing a bound person into water. If she was guilty, she floated; if innocent, she sank. Death was the usual penalty for witchcraft, particularly

'

burning at the stake, on

Witch trials

the grounds that this

Persecution of supposed witches reached its height between

punishment mirrored

1580 and 1660, when trials occurred throughout western

the fires of hell. Many

Europe. As hysteria mounted, thousands were brought

thousands were put to death

before Church and civil courts. Anyone old, alone, or

this way, including Joan of Arc,

eccentric could be accused, including elderly women, villagt

the French heroine who was

midwives, and herbalists. Their persecution was fuelled by

accused of being a witch by the

gossip and rumours, which were used as evidence in court.

English and burned at the stake

MALEEVS

Malleus Maleficarum

Halloween

Salem trials

In i486, two Dominican

The earliesr English serders took

Originally a Celtic festival for the dead,

monks, Heinrich Kramer and

their fear of witches to the

Halloween falls on 31 October. It was oi

Jacob Sprenger, published

American colonies. In 1692,

believed that on this n^ht,

the Malleus Maleficarum

a series of notorious wtch

witches and warlocks

(Hammer of the Witches).

trials took place in Salem,

flew abroad, and

This book included the

Massachusetts. In all, 27 people

popes definition of witches

were tried and convicted; of these,

to keep spirits

as “anti-Christian”, and set

19 were hanged, and one man was

away. Trick-or-

out rules for identifying,

pressed to death with stones. The

treating has

prosecuting, and punishing

trials were later condemned, and

replaced witches’

Witches. The book quickly

the convictions overturned.

pranks today.

bonfires were lit

spread throughout Europe, and was used as the essential witch-hunter’s reference.

898

HND OUT

MORE

Crime and PUNISHMENT

Europe, HISTORY OF

Hundred YEARS WAR

Religions

WOLLSTONECRAFT, MARY see WOMEN’S MOVEMENT

WOLVES AND WILD DOGS ^ The family CAXIDAE, the dog family, contains about 34 species, which can be divided into three main groups. The lupine (meaning jrJ wolf-like) group contains wolves, jackals, ^ the coyote, wild dogs, and domestic dogs, many of which hunt in packs. The second group contains the vulpine (meaning fox-like) foxes. The third group contains the south J American foxes, or zorros. Canids are mainly carnivorous. Alert, hardy mammals, they are able to catch and kill animals as large as, or larger than, themselves. They can travel long distances without tiring, keeping up a steady trot on long legs and large paws.

Foxes There are about nine ywT" fox, of which the red tm m and most widespread. Tks owes its success to its adaptability. It is able to Amu*, oqii well in towns and in nual .SEm. t do not form packs, but fiiraiHR' in small family groups.

Wolves There are two species of wolf — the grey wolf and the

Thick short underjur

red wolf The red wolf is an endangered species and the

and long outer

grey wolf is nearly extinct in much of its former range.

"guard" hairs insulate

Wolves are social animals that hve in packs led by a top male and female. The pack mark the boundary of their

ears, and tail to match

the wolf against

hearing, eyesight, and

their habitat. ^

freezing temperatures,

sense of smell.

^

/'

territory with urine and howl to

Wolves have pale underpants with darker fur on the boefys The wolf has excellent

/

other they

are \ Long lep wnM hind feet and fhe > Most of the adults in a pack go on

'• In the snow, each wolf

hunting trips.

walks in the leaders tracks.

Carnassials

Raccoon dog with a white coat

.

Hunting The most specialized pack hunters arc the African hunting dogs. They hunt as an organized team, but they often lose a kill to stronger predators. Human persecution and introduced diseases have reduced their numbers drastically. Red fox cubs do not forage

Jackab Member of the

form

with the adults until they a

pairs for

about 12 weeks old.

fox species--

The African wild dog, the dhole, and the

Scientific name Vtdpes vu!pa

dingo are known as wild dogs, often hunting in packs over huge areas. The maned wolf, the bush dog, and the raccoon

Order Carnivora

Jackals

Learning skills

The four species ot jackal arc

Cubs will not survive into

Family Canidae

closely related to wolves. As with

adulthood unless they learn

Distribution North America.

dog are distantly related canids. The

most canids, they have two sharp

to kill and defend themselves.

raccoon dog is a timid, solitary creature

carnassial teeth used for cutting

They learn these skills through

that lives in dense undetgrowth feeding on

meat. These arc situated where the

playing, chasing, and pouncing

Eurasia, North Africa, Ausmfca Habitat Everywhere except door^

jaws exert greatest force. Their

upon each other. Social canids

Diet Meat, insects, and fruit

fruit, insects, and small animals. It stays

long pointed canine teeth are

may learn hunting skills from

Size Length: about 110 cm (4« i

underground in harsh winter weather.

for gripping and killing prey.

the adults in their pack.

FIND OUT

MORE

Animal BEHAVIOUR

African WILDLIFE

Desert WILDLIFE

Dogs

Hyenas

Mammals

I iFFSPAN 3 vMr

Timeline

1893 New Zealand women are the

Silver wattle, the Womens Day emblem

Simone de Beauvoir French philosopher, Simone de

first to gain the vote.

Beauvoir (1908-86), was a major

1830s Anti-slavery campaign stimulates growth of womens movement, USA.

1968 Women workers at Ford, UK,

figure in modern feminism. In 1949, she wrote Le Deuxiime Sexe

strike for equal pay,

(The Second Sex), in which she drew

1848 First-ever womens r’^hts

on history, art, literature, and

convention, Seneca Falls, USA

1970 Australian Germaine Greer writes The Female Eunuch it calls for

psychology to show how men had

1869 Susan B Anthony and Elizabeth

womens liberation.

consistently denied womens identity Her book was very influential, and

(Dady Stanton form National Woman Suffrage Association, USA

WSPU enamel badge

1975 Equal rights laws passed, UK.

de Beauvoir herself campaigned actively for womens rights.

HND OUT

MORE

French REVOLUTION

History

Human RIGHTS

Pankhurst FAMILY

Truth, SOJOURNER

901

WOODLAND WILDLIFE t:

ers of the woodland

Woods are usually described as having five

In temperate regions, wherever rain often falls, woodland is the natural form of vegetation. In some areas, just a single species of tree occurs. Elsewhere, there is a mixture of needle-leaved conifers, broad¬ leaved trees, evergreens that keep their leaves all year, and deciduous trees that shed leaves in winter. Some woods are quite open to the sky; in others, tree crowns mingle to create a closed canopy. All woodlands are rich habitats for wildlife — there are few large animals, such as boars, but there are insects galore, and the birds that feed on them fill the habitat with their song. Field layer

layers, each with its own characteristic vegetation and wildlife. A natural woodland, therefore, offers a rich mix of living spaces for wildlife, both across the habitat within clearings and streams, and in the layers that exist from the treetops down to the ground. Canopy The canopy consists of the crowns of the tallest trees. Branches and twigs

Canopy

sprout a luxuriant layer of greenery that traps most of the incoming sunlight. Here, well above ground level, the canopy provides protection from most predators for insects, birds, and tree-climbing mammals, such as squirrels.

Shrub layer Beneath the canopy grow woody plants, including shrubs Field

and bushes that never reach great height, such as hazel and hawthorn, and young trees yet to grow to maturity. They form an

Leaf

often densely foliaged layer, which provides

litter

nest sites for birds and plentiful insect food.

Wildflowers, ferns, mosses, and other

Leaf litter

low-growing vegetation grow on the

The slow decay of fallen leaves creates a

Plants take root in soil that is richly supplied

They can tolerate shade because so

ground and are called the field layer.

layer of leaf litter on the ground. Mixed

with nutrients from decaying leaf lf*^“'

much sunlight is trapped by the trees

with fallen twigs, nuts, and berries, the

above. Moles tunnel through soil, 2

above. These plants provide food for'

litter harbours its own wildlife community.

other mammals make their burrow

insects and snails and cover for small

Millipedes and beetles live here and supply

here. Soil also provides food for

animals, such as rodents and weasels.

food for foraging mammals, ground birds, and lizards.

beetle larvae and earthworms.

Mammals

Birds

Green woodpecker

Seldom seen because of their secretive

Woodland birdlife is wonderfully

hammering rapidly into

diverse. There are ground

tree trunks with their

or nocturnal habits, woodland

I

mammals betray their presence in

foragers, such as pheasants, berry-

Chipmunk

various ways — in the rustle of leaves

Woodpeckers are famous for

]

feeding

made by a mouse in the undergrowth,

woodpecker climbs trunks to dig insect

Eastern chipmunk

treetops, and menacing birds of

CO a fox’s burrow, or in a track of hoof

This chipmunk from North

prey that twist and turn among

Many mammals forage or hunt on the

America moves easily through the layers of a woodland. It climbs

the branches as they swoop for

among the branches, forages for

the kill. Summer is the busiest

woodland floor; others climb into the

seeds and nuts on the woodland

time; when autumn comes,

trees to find food and shelter.

floor, and makes its home in a burrow in the soil.

larvae out of the bark, but it also forages on the ground where it breaks into ants’ nests to feast on the

leaves fall, woodland life is at a

occupants.

low ebb, and many birds migrate Roe deer Foliage from the field layer up to the lower

Roe deer within

shrub layer provides food for the shy roe deer,

deep folia^

Common nightjar

to warmer climates far away.

The common nightjar visits temperate woodlands to breed in summer, but

which lives either alone or in small groups.

Dappled

Unable to climb or burrow, deer rely on their

brown

keen senses, inconspicuous colouring, and

feathers help

speed to avoid danger. When alarmed, the white hairs on the roe

conceal the

at night chasing moths. By day, it rests on branches or on the ground, camouflaged by its mottled plumage.

Badger at entrance to burrow

migrates to Africa in winter. It lives at the edge of forests, and in more open woods where it darts through the air

owl by day.

deers rump fluff out. Well-'

European badger

camouflaged

Extensive family burrows, or “setts”, dug

nightjar

out with strong claws, are the hallmark of European badgers. Each sett has a series of underground chambers, a network of tunnels, and several entrances from the woodland floor. Badgers emerge at night to rifle through leaf litter in search of worms, grubs, fruit, and nuts.

902

nests. The green

blackbirds, songsters in the

in the fresh earth around the entrance prints made by deer across fresh snow.

sharp beaks to excavate

eaters of the shrub layer, such as

4

Tawny owl The tawnv owl hunts at night. It rests in the canopy and scans the ground for prey — its hugp eyes and sensitive ears alert for the slightest movement from a shrew or rodent. Then, with a silent, agile swoop, the owl pounces on its victim.

WOODLAND WILDLIFE

Amphibians Although amphibians

Reptiles

usually live in or near water, many species find

Most woodlands are inhabited by

the humid conditions they

lizards and snakes. Many of them make their home on the ground, among the leaf litter beneath logs and rocks, or in hollow tree trunks; others climb into the shrubs above

Anole lizard

need in woodlands — both

With their long toe pads for

near streams and in the

gripping branches, anoles are

cool shade beneath a

among the most adept tree-climbers

to hunt for insects and birds.The world’s most northern woods are too cold for

of all lizards. The green anole of

mature canopy. Toads and

North American tree

North America hunts for insects

salamanders spend much

Tree frogs live in warmer areas of

and spiders among foliage, where

all but a few species of reptile

of their lives crawling

its body colour provides effective

that spend the winter

they snap up insects and spiders

through damp leaf litter

camouflage. When the lizard scurries down a trunk or crosses the

in hibernation.

woodland across the world, wlior

woodland floor, however, it chants to a brown colour within seconds.

Rat snake

among the leaves of trees. They ham loose belly skin and sucker-like idc

and undergrowth, snatching

discs enabling them to climb vertical

invertebrates to feed on.

surfaces. Tree frogs camouflage

A few species of frog are

themselves by changing their skin

adapted for foraging up

colour to match their surroundings.

into the trees themselves.

Living in the woodlands of North America, the rat snake preys on small mammals, birds, and

Spotted salamander

lizards. In many areas, the cold winter weather

Salamanders are numerous in the

forces the snake into hibernation. Concealing itself

damp mountain woods of the

deep in leaf liner or in a hollow log, the snake enters

The rat snake can grow up

a state of dormancy that can last several months.

to 2.5 m (8 ft) in Ungth.

Tongue

eastern USA. The sponed salamander spends most of its time hidden within leaf litter and soil, hunting for invertebrates such as

Insects

worms and slugs. Instead of being

During spring, when eggs have hatched and any

which acts as a warning to any

overwintering larvae or adults have emerged

predator that it is poisonous to eat.

camouflaged, it is brightly coloured

from dormancy, a woodland is alive with insects. From the sunlit canopy to the perpetual darkness of the soil layer, insects are busy gathering nectar, hunting each other,

Tree wasp

Stag beetle