The dorling kindersley illustrated family encyclopedia. vol. I. 9780751339291, 0751339296

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ILLUSTRATED

FAMILY

ENCYCLOPEDIA

The Darling Kindersley

ILLUSTRATED

FAMILY

ENCYCLOPEDIA

VOLUME 1 • A-I Aboriginal Australians to India, History of

A DORLING KINDERSLEY BOOK

Senior Editor Jayne Parsons Project Editors Marian Broderick, Gill Cooling, Maggie Crowley, Hazel Egerton, Cynthia O’Neill, Veronica Pennycook, Louise Pritchard, Steve Setford, Jackie Wilson Editors Rachel Beaugie, Nic Kynaston, Sarah Levete, Karen O’Brien, Linda Sonntag

Senior Art Editor Gillian Shaw Project Art Editors Jane Felstead, Martyn Foote, Neville Graham, Jamie Hanson, Christopher Howson, Jill Plank, Floyd Sayers, Jane TetzlafF, Ann Thompson Art Editors Tina Borg, Diane Clouting, Tory Gordon-Harris

DTP Designers Andrew O’Brien, Cordelia Springer Managing Editor Ann Kramer

Managing Art Editor Peter Bailey

Senior DTP Designer Mathew Birch Picture Research Jo Walton, Kate Duncan, Liz Moore DK Picture Library Ola Rudowska, Melanie Simmonds Country pages by VAGEOne-. Bob Gordon, Helen Parker, Thomas Keenes, Sarah Watson, Chris Clark Cartographers Peter Winfield, James Anderson Research Robert Graham, Angela Koo Editorial Assistants Sarah-Louise Reed, Nichola Roberts Production Louise Barratt, Charlotte Traill

First published in Great Britain in 1997. This edition published in Great Britain in 2002 by Dorling Kindersley Limited, 80 Strand, London WG2R ORL Gopyright © 1997, © 2002 Dorling Kindersley Limited, London A Pearson company All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval svstem, or transmitted by any means, electronic, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. A GIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0 7513 3929 6 Golour reproduction by Colourscan, Singapore Printed and bound in Ghina byToppan Printing Go. (Shenzhen) Ltd.

See our complete catalogue at vvww.dk.com

CONTRIBUTORS AND CONSULTANTS Simon Adams BSc MSc Historian and writer

Robin Kerrod FRAS Science writer and consultant

Matthew Robertson Senior invertebrate keeper, Bristol Zoo

Norman Barrett MA Sports writer and consultant

Bruce P. Lenman Professor of Modern History University of St Andrews

Theodore Rowland-Entwistle BA, FRGS Writer and consultant

Nicky Levell Curator Collections History, The Horniman Museum

Noel Simon Member emiritus of the Species Survival Commission of lUCN; original compiler mammalia volume. Red Data Book

Dr Martin R. Bates BSc, PhD Institute of Archaeology University of London David Burnie BSc Science and natural history writer Jack Challoner BSc, ARCS, PGCE Science writer, formerly with the Education Unit, Science Museum, London Julie Childs BSc Zoologist and natural history writer, former Head of Public Affairs, Zoological Society of London Neil Clark BSc Paleontologist, Hunterian Museum and University of Glasgow Paul Collins MA Institute of Archaeology University College, London Dr Gordon Daniels Reader in History, University of Sheffield Veronica Doubleday Lecturer, Historical and Critical Studies, University of Brighton John Farndon Writer and consultant Roger Few BA Author on natural history and the environment Theresa Greenaway BSc, ARCS Botanist and natural history writer Frances Halpin BSc Science consultant and teacher at Royal Russell School

Dr Austen Ivereigh D Phil Lecturer in Latin American History University of Leeds

John E. Llewellyn-Jones BSc Zoologist and botanist; writer and lecturer Miranda MacQuitty BSc, PhD Zoologist and natural history writer

Carole Stott BA, FRAS Astronomy and space writer; formerly Head of the Old Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London

Kevin McRae Writer and consultant

Jonathan Stroud BA Writer and consultant: literature

Haydn Middleton MA Historian and author

Barbara Taylor BSc Environmental scientist and natural history writer

Mark O’Shea BSc, FRGS Curator of Reptiles, West Midland Safari Park; tropical herpetologist and zoologist; natural history author Chris Oxlade BSc Writer and consultant, specializing in science and technology Douglas Palmer BSc, PhD Writer, lecturer, and Open University tutor specializing in palaeobiology Steve Parker BSc Zoologist, science writer and scientific fellow of the Zoological Society Tom Parsons MA Art historian and writer James Pickford BA Writer and electronic editor FT Mastering Richard Platt BA Writer and consultant

Louise Tythacott Writer and consultant Southeast Asia Richard Walker BSc PhD Human biology and natural history writer Marcus Weeks B Mus Composer and writer Philip Wilkinson MA Historian and writer Elizabeth Wyse BA Writer and consultant Dorling Kindersley Cartography in conjunction with leading cartographic consultants, embassies, and consulates

LIST OF MAIN ENTRIES See index for further topics How TO USE THIS ENCYCLOPEDIA

8

A

B

Caves

188

Cave wildufe

189 190

Babylonian empire

103

Cells

104

Celts

191-192

Central America

Aboriginal Australians

11

Badgers, otters, and skunks

Acids and alkalis

12-13 14

Balkan states (formerly known as; 105-107

Central America, history of

193-195 196

15-16

Ballet

108

Charlemagne

197

109-111

ChavIn

198

Advertising and marketing Africa

now Southeast europeJ

17-19

Ball games

Africa, central

20-23

Baltic states

112-113

Chemistry

199-200

Africa, east

24-27

Bangladesh and nepal

114-115

Chess and other board games

201-202

Africa, northwest

28-29

Barbarians

116

Children’s literature

203-205

Africa, southern central

30-32

Bats

117-119

China and talscan

206-208

Africa, west

33-37

Bears

120

China, history of

209-211

African wildlife

38-39 40

Beatles, the

121

Chinese revolution

212

Bees and wasps

122

Christianity

213-214

123

Churches and cathedrals

Airports

41-43 44

Beethoven, ludwg van Beetles

124-125

Cities

215 216

Airships and balloons

45-46

Belgium

126

Climate

217

Alexander the great

47

Benin empire

127

Clothes and fashion

218-220

American civil war

48

Bicycles and motorcycles

128-129

Clouds

221

American revolution

49

Big bang

130

Coal

222

Amphibians

50

Biology

131

Coasts

223

Anglo-Saxons

51

Birds

132-134

Codes and ciphers

224

Animal behaviour

52-53

Birds of prey

135-137

Cold war

225

138

Colour

Antarctica

54-55 56

Black death Black holes

139

Columbus, Christopher

226-227 228

Anteaters, sloths, and armadillos

57

BOLfVAR, simDn

140

Combat sports

229

141-142

Comets and asteroids

230

Africa, history of

Air Aircraft

Animals

Ants and termites

58

Bolivia and Paraguay

Archaeology

59-60

Books

143

Computers

231-232

Architecture

61-63 64

Brain and nervous system

144-145

Confucius

233

Brazil

146-147

Conservation

234-235

65-67 68

Bridges

148

Continents

Bronte sisters

149

Cook, james

236-237 238

69-70 71-73

Bronze age

150

Coral reefs

239

Buddha

151

Crabs and other crustaceans

240-241

152-153

Crafts

242-243

Arctic ocean Argentina, chile, and Uruguay Armifa Arms and armour Art, history of Arfhropods

74

Buddhism

Asia

75-76

Buffalo and other wild cattle

154

Crime and punishment

244

Asia, history of

77-79

Bugs

155

Crocodiles

Asia, central

80-81

Building and construction

156-157

Crows

245 246

Asian wildlife

82-83 84

Butterflies and moths

158-159

Crusades

247

Byzantine empire

160

Crystals and gems

248-249

Curie, marie

250

Cycling

251

Assyrian empire Astrology

85

Astronauts

86

C

Astronomy

87

Caesar, julius

Athletics

88

Camels

162

D

Atlantic ocean

89-90

Cameras

163-164

Dams

252

91 92

Camouflage and colour

165-166

Dance

253-254

Camping and hiking

167-168

Darwin, Charles

255

Australasia and Oceania

93-94

Canada

169-170

Deer and antelopes

Australia

95-96

Canada, history of

171

Denmark

256-257 258

Australia, history of

97-98

Caribbean

172-175

Deserts

259

Australian wildlife

99-100

Caribbean, history of

176

Desert wildlife

260-261

Aztecs

101-102

Carnivorous plants

Design

262

Cars and trucks

177 178-180

DICKFNS, CHARLES

Cartoons and animation

181

Dices i ion

263 264

Castlfs

182-183

Dinosaurs

Cats

184-185

Diseases

265-267 268

Caucasus republics

1R6-187

Disney, walt

269

Atmosphere Atoms and molecules

Jupiter, the largest planet, comparative to the Sun

Sun see SUN AND SOLAR SYSTEM

161

39^-394

Dogs

270-271

Finland

333

Grasses, rushes, and sedges

Drama

272-273

Firf

334

Grasshoppers and crickets

395

Drugs

274-275

First aid

Grassland wildlife

Ducks, geese, and swans

276

Fish

335 336-338

396-397 398

Dyes and paints

277

Fishing industry

Great depression

399

Flags

Great Zimbabwe

E

339 340-341

400

Flies

342

Greece, ancient

401-402

Ears and hearing

278

Flight, animal

343

Greece and Bulgaria

403-404

Earth

279-280

Flight, history of

344

Growth and development

Earthquakes

281

Flightless birds

Gulf states

405 406-408

Earth sciences

282

Flowers

345 346-347

Ecology and ecosystems

283-284

Food

348-349

Gupta empire

409 410

Gymnastics

411-412

Ecuador and peru

285-286

Food webs and chains

350

Edison, thomas

287

Football

Education

288

Force and motion

351 352

Eggs

289-290

Forests

353

Gravity

Guns

H 413

291-293

Fossils

354-355

Health and fitness

294

France

356-357

Heart and circulatory system

414-415

295

358-359

Heat and temperature

416-417

Electricity

France, history of

296

Franklin, benjamin

360

Hedgehogs and other insectivores

418

Electromagnetism

419 420

Egypt, ancient Einstein, albert

297

French revolution

361

Herons, storks, and flamingos

298

362

Hibernation

Elements

Freud, sigmund

299-300

Friction

363

Hinduism

421-422

El FPHANTS

423 424

Electronics

Elizabeth I

301

Frogs and toads

364-365

Hippopotamuses

302

Fruits and seeds

366-367

History

Empires

303-304

Furniture

368-369

Hittites

425

Holocaust

426

Holy land, history of

427 428

Energy Engines and motors

305-306

Etruscans

307

G

Europe

308-309

Galaxies

370

Europe, history of

310-311

Galileo galilei

371

Europe, central

312-314

Gandhi, mohandas

372

European union

315

Garbo, greta

316-317

Gardens

373 374

European wildlife Evolution

318-319

Gases

375

Exploration

320-321

Genetics

376-37'^

322

Eyes and seeing

F

Geology

Holy roman empire Hormones and endocrine system

429

Horse riding

430

Horses

431-432

Hospitals

433

Houses and homes

434-435

Hi'man body

436

Human evolution

437 438

378

Germany

379-380

Germany, history of

381-382

Human rights Hundred years war Hyenas

439 440

Gfronimo

383

Farming

323-325

Giraffes

384

Farming, history of

326

Glaciafion

385-386

Ferns

327

Glass

387

Immune and lymphatic systems

441

Festivals

328

Gods and goddesses

388-38*)

Incas

442-443

Feudalism

329

Goodall, jane

390

India and sri lanka

444-446

Films and film-making

330-332

Governments and politics

391-392

India, history of

447-448

1 Comparative planet sizes Uranus

Neprune

Pluto

see PLANETS

Mars

see Planets

•

Isee Planets

^

I Mercury

see Planets

Venus

see Planets

Jupiter

see Planets

HOW TO USE THIS ENCYCLOPEDIA The following pages will help you get the

most out of your copy of the Dorling Kindersley Illustrated Family Encyclopedia. The encyclopedia consists of three volumes. Volumes 1—2 contain nearly 700 main entries organized alphabetically, from Aboriginal Australians through to Zoos. To find the entry you want, simply turn to the correct letter of the alphabet. MEASUREMENTS AND ABBREVIATIONS Most measurements are supplied in both metric and imperial units. Some of the most common abbreviations

If you cannot find the topic you want, then turn to Volume 3. This volume includes an index and gazetteer for the whole encyclopedia, which will direct you straight to the page you need. In addition. Volume 3 contains hundreds of reference charts, fact boxes, lists, and tables to supplement the information provided on the main entry pages.

THE PAGE LAYOUT

Introduction

The pages in this encyclopedia have been carefully

Clear introductions are the

planned to make each subject as accessible as possible.

starting point for each

Main entries are broken down into a hierarchy of

entry. The introduction

colours are different forms of

information — from a general introduction to more

defines and provides an

light, and that sunlight contains

specific individual topics.

overview of each subject.

In the main entry on COLOUR, the introduction explains that

light of many different colours.

used in the encyclopedia are shown below in bold type.

COLLEGES icr SCHOOLS AN^OLLEGES • COLOMBIA xt SOUTH AMERICA,

°C = degrees Celsius °F = degrees Fahrenheit

Alphabet locators

K = degrees kelvin

Letter flashes help you find your way

mm = millimetre; cm = centimetre

quickly around the encyclopedia.

White light spectrum Passing white light through a transparent triangular block called a prism separates out the different wavelengths of light. The prism

A

WORLD WITHOUT>COLOUR

would

refracts (bends) each wavelength by a different amount, forming a

m = metre; km = kilometre

be dull and unirjspiring. Colour is a

in = inch; ft = foot; yd = yard

form of light. Light is made up of

and violet. Red has the longest wavelength and violet the shortest.

electromagnetic waves of

Here, a convex lens combines the colours back into white light.

band of colours called a white light spectrum, or a visible spectrum. The seven main colours are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo,

Sub-entries

g = gram; kg = kilogram

Sub-entries provide important

oz = ounce; lb = pound ml = millilitre; 1 = litre pt = pint; gal = gallon

varying lengths. The human eve detects

additional information and expand on

these different wavelengths and sees them

points made in the introduction.

as different colours. White light — like that from the Sun — is a mixture of all

sq km (km^) = square kilometre

This sub-entry explains how rainbows

sq ft (ft^)= square foot

are caused by raindrops in the air.

kmh = kilometres per hour

the different wavelengths. Objects look coloured because they give out or reflect only certain wavelengths of light.

mph = miles per hour

Ho\s a rainbow forms

Rainbow

mya = million years ago

Diagrams

BC = before Christ

Clear diagrams help explain complex

If it rains on a sunny day. you may well sec a rainbow if you stand

AD = anno Domini (refers to

processes and scientific concepts.

When white suiiligb< paues thn>ugb a raindrop

Colour and temperature

the raindrop aos like a tiny prism The raindrop

Objects at room temperature emit (give out)

refracts the li^c and splits it up into its separate colours. The colours fui out and emerge as a specinim A rainbow is made up of spectra ftom

with your back to the Sun. A rainbow is a

any date after the birth of Christ)

millions of raindrops

The diagram here shows how a raindrop

b. = born; d. = died; r. = reigned

splits sunlight into its constituent colours.

more energy and

S^enrum

The waves eventually

makes them shorter.

sfiectrum that forms

A rainbow at dawn

long for human eyes to see. Heating an object, such as this steel bar, gives the waves it emits

Sunh^tt

curved white light

c. = circa (about)

electromagnetic waves, but these waves are too

when light is reflected

become short enough

and refracted by

to be seen, and the

raindrops in the st\!

bar begins to glow. As

Seed bar ai EM'C (1.170“F)

the bar’s temperature Difftcticn

l4f^i0mrce

Spectroscope

rises, it glows with

Cone cells

different colours.

Ai the back of the eye

An instrument called a

there are spcdal cdls

spectroscope is used to

called cooes that cnablr humans to see colours

Red hot and white hot

There are three types of

As the sted bar gets hotter, it

by hot substances. Inside

cone, called red green,

emits more and more of the

the s(>ectroscope, a prism

and blue cones Each

visible spccmiro Ai about

or diflfaction grating (a glass slide

type of cone is sensitive

bM'Gll.lZOT'K it is‘red

analyze the light gi'Cn out

Strong chest

through the water

Labels

muscles pull

to break through

help to

scored with fine lines) splits light from a glowing

light wavelengths

the red end of the spectrum.

substance into its component wavelengths.

White light shmulaies

At about 1.530*t: (2 790*D,

the surface.

the “white hoc* bar emits the

all three types of cone

entire white li^t spectrum.

Emission spectrum Each chemical dement gives out a unique range

down the wings.

hoc* and emits light ftom

CO a diflcTcnc range of

Penguin rises

act as rudders.

identify

of light wavdci^;ths when heated. Seen through

Sem^*rty ef

Senstnwuy ef Sensiointyef

rrd cwnes

gnmc emus

blue e^tus

images.

of bright lines on a dark background. This is the

due to its age. To the naked

dement s emisiioD spectrum A compounds

eye. most stars look white, but their true coloun can be seen

cmissioQ spectrum is a combination of spectra

heat loss.

Hot stars The colour of a star gives a

a spectroscope, these wavelengths appear as a set

Huddling reduces

Sceel bar at 1.530 C (2.790°F)

using a telescope. Young scars

from the dements that make up the compound

are hoc and glow with white

BCing penguin

light. Older stars are relatively

I spectrum I of a sodium flame

Sodium flame

Senshivhy of cone cells in the human eye

cool and ^ow red or orange.

A duster of yoon^ stars

Scientific name Aptenodytes Joseph von Fraunhofer

patagonica

The German physicist Joscpih von

Order Sphenisciformes

Fraunhofer (1787-1826) became interested in the narucT of li^t while training

Family Spheniscidae

as a m^or maker and lens polishcil His training enabled

Distribution Islands and ocean north

him to make specnoscopes of gieat precisioa. From

of Antarctica

]q]4-]7. he used them > nuke the first

Habitat Coasts and open sea

sa^cific study of the Suni emission ^icctruro.

Diet Fish and squid emperor penguins carry chicks around on their feet.

Size Length, including tail 95 cm (37.5 in)__

easy. To avoid confusion, manulacturing industries use

cards ro match che colours in dieu work wich chose available fiom p rimers. The designer supplies che [prince r wich che

standard colour-identification systems. The Munsell

cefecencc number of che co our. so the

system b used to specify colours for dyes and pigments.

printec knows exactly what is wanted

It defines a colour by its

Each colour

value (brightness), its chroma (strength),

has a rrfmnce number.

T—

and its hue (position in the spectrum).

T Biography boxes Most main entry pages have

8

Graphic designers use swai ihcs of colour

Describing colours exactly using words alone is not

226

Lifespan About 20 years

Natural history data boxes

Colour matching ^sterns

Munsell colour system

This data box

1

This biography

Headings

The heading Colour

box describes

The topic

matching systems

biography boxes that tell you about

the work of the

headings enable

refers to the way

key people who have contributed to

physicist Joseph

you to see at-a-

designers use reference

facts about the

our knowledge of the subject. The

von Fraunhofer.

glance which

numbers to match the

King Penguin.

encyclopedia also has single-page

subjects are

colours on their work

information about the animals size, diet, habitat,

entries on the life and work of more

covered within

to the colours of

lifespan, distribution, and scientific name.

than 50 major historical figures.

the main entry.

printers' inks.

On the natural history pages, data boxes

gives you key

summarize essential information about a key animal featured in the entry. The box contains

HOW TO USE THIS ENCYCLOPEDIA

Knie

INDEX Volume 3 contains an index and a gazetteer. The index, which comes Brst, lists all the topics mentioned in the encyclopedia and the pages on which they can be found. The gazetteer follows on, with references to help you find all the features included on the maps. • page numbers in bold type (eg Knights and heraldry 495-6) show that the subject is a main A-Z entry in Volumes 1—2. • page numbers in plain type (eg armour 69) send you to sub-entries, text references, and the reference section. • grid references (eg Cremona Italy 475 C3) are letternumber combinations that locate features on maps.

Lr69 Tcuddism 329 Crusades 247, 883 Kni^is of Malta 70 Knights of Si John 247 Knos c«7 Knowledge, epistemology 651 Cniova Romania Cremona Italy 475 C3 CiEs bUni Croatia 105 B4 Crete hUmd Greece *03 El I Crete. Sea of Mediterranean Sea 403 ElO Cnmea Pmimtila Ukraine 727 P Croatia Couniry SE Europe 105 Croione Italv 475 G8

Illustrations

Annotation

Each main entry is

The illustrations are

heavily illustrated with

comprehensively

models, photographs,

annotated to draw

and artworks, adding a

attention to details of

vibrant layer of visual

particular interest and to

information to the page.

explain complex points.

The running head on PRINTING tells you that although there is no main entry on primates, you can find the topic on Monkeys AND other primates.

III

35;=-r =-^§-

Timelines

The Printing timeline stretches

An entry may include

from the printing of the first

a timeline that gives

books in ancient China to the

the dates of key events

computerization of

in the history or

modem printing.

development of the subject.

COLLECTION PAGES There are more than 70 pages of photographic collections, which China, history of

follow main entries and provide a visual guide to the subjea. They are organized under dear headings.

Find out more

On Colour, the Find

The Find Out More lines at

Out More line directs

the end of each entry direct

you to the entry on

Out More line

you to other relevant main

Printing, where there is

sends you to CHINA,

entries in the encyclopedia.

a detailed explanation of

HISTORY OF, which

Printing's Find ^

Using the Find Out More lines

the colour printing

lists ancient Chinese

can help you understand an

process and how printing

inventions,

entry in its wider context.

presses work.

including printing.

The entry on the history of China is followed by a collection page showing Chinese jewellery and ornaments.

9

HOW TO USE THIS ENCYCLOPEDIA

CONTINENT AND COUNTRY PAGES

Country file

KEY TO MAP

The encyclopedia contains entries on all

____

On each country page there is a fact

Lake

International border

the worlds continents and countries,

•

Capital city

•

Major town

box containing key details about the country, such as its population, capital

each containing a detailed map.

Seasonal lake

city, area, currency, political system,

Continent entries focus on the physical geography of the region; country entries provide information about the society

-

Road

River

Railroad

Canal

A

Spot height (feet)

Waterfall

▼

Spot depth (feet)

•

and main language and religion. Other

Minor town

categories of information include: Literacy — the percent^e of people over

and economy of the country. Below is the single-p^e entry on the

International airport

.

15 years old who can read and write. People per doctor — a rough guide to

Netherlands

the availability of medical facilities. Life expectancy — how long an average

The country’s flag appears by its name

person can expect to live.

NTTIALL I* BAU GAMES

Locator map

NETHERLANDS

A small map in the top left-hand corner of the p^e shows you where the region lies within a continent or in relation to the rest of the world.

Map of Nether’iands’position in Europe. The introduction defines the region and. provides an overview to the entry.

A climate digram gives details of

the Netherlands straddles the deltas of five major rivers in northwest Europe. The Dutch people say they created their own country ' ' because they have Fcclaimed about one-third of the land from sea or marshland by enclosing the area with earth barriers, or dikes, and draining the water from it. Despite being one of the most densely populated countries in the world, the Netherlands high living standards. Amsterdam is the official capital, although the government is based at The Hague. Also called Holland,

-fJIiIIIMIIiTT liniiil Aua 37J30 iq k» (14.411 nwki PorvuTioN I5JOO.OOO Maw lANOMCC Dwek Migot RBJCKM C3maa

rainfall levels and temperatures in the country, region, or continent.

Average -

PtoruKiDocnM i

Scale bar.. North

V E T H E R I A~\

Each map has a scale bar that shows

:w.'

how distances on the map relate to

/

£;

_

^

temperature

^ Average winter temperature

JUTBUeV 99%

Single country’s

Physical features

average in capital city

The Neiberlaods u iniinly flai. wch 27 per cent of the land bdow sea Icvd. and proteaed from the sea by natural sand dunes along the coast, and by arrificiaJ dikes. Wida sandy plains cover most of the rest M the country, tailing into a frw low in the eastern and southern pans ^ the country.

Compass points north

Scale bar and compass

Climate

Netherlands eacts

The NeMm* s • W anheUwdwnew nfcrihcB

Average rainfall

Average summer temperature

Average winter temperature

Regional average is

Average rainfall

the average of all capital cities on map

actual miles and kilometers. The compass shows you which direction

Concise explanation of the country’s main physical characteristics.

on the map is north (N).

Grid reference The numbers and letters around

Land use

the map help you find all the

The land-use diagram tells you how

places listed in the index.

much of the the country’s total land area

The index pves Amsterdam’s grid ^ reference as C4, so you can fnd it on the map by locating the third square along (C) and the fourth square down (4).

agriculture, and urban developments

is taken up by, for example, woodland,

such as villages, towns, and cities.

Most of the land in the Netherlands is used for farming.

Population density

Urban/rural split

A population density diagram shows

A small diagram shows the percentage

how many people there are to every

of people living in urban (built-up)

square mile or square kilometer.

areas and rural (country) areas.

'

The Netherlands is a very densely, populated country

REFERENCE PAGES

People, arts, and media

Volume 3 of the Encyclopedia

This strand is crammed full of information

contains an illustrated reference

about television, theatre, music, art,

section with essential facts, figures,

philosophy, architecture, literarure,

and statistical data, divided into the

dance, and much

five main strands described here.

The majority of people in the Netherlands live in urban areas.

PERIODIC TABLE

I AMOaOWN PDOnyUl

iPORT FUMCHMOfMlOB

International world This strand contains a double-page map showing all the countries of the world, and data on the world’s population, economy, and resources.

History The history strand features a timeline of key historical events, stretching from 40,000 BC to the present day, together with the dates of major wars, revolutions, battles, and great leaders.

Living world The centrepiece of this strand is a detailed guide to the classification of

Science A double-page spread on the periodic table is

living things, supported by lists of

supported by key data on the

species in danger, and many other

weather, mathematics, the Earth and the

facts about the natural world.

10

iS

Universe, and measurement conversion tables.

AARDWOLF see HYENAS • ABBASIDS see ISLAMIC EMPIRE

ABORIGINAL AUSTRALIANS The aboriginals settled the Australian continent more than

40,000 years ago. They lived in total isolation from the rest of the world, existing by hunting and gathering. In the

Aboriginal history

Some early peoples New Guinea Indontdan'^ '-Jslands —. 7 ElCua •• BeniSuef*

puez .

El f^inva,

E

G

Y

^

R/ T

^Hurghada

As\ut«’

River Nile

Savannah

At 6,695 km (4,l60 miles)

The southern countries of East Africa contain large areas of savannah

long, the Nile supports the

or grassland scattered with acacia and baobab trees. This region is

Onni

1

ElKharga’

■jldtu

Tropic of Cancer

thousands of people who live

home to much of Africa’s wildlife, including antelopes, giraffes, and

on its fertile banks. The river

zebras, and their predators such as lions and hvenas

'Aswctn

flows north from Lake Victoria to the Mediterranean Sea. 1 ■

Dringola^

S

U

D

— Atb,w.i

The Blue Nile Falls is on an

Port Sudan,*

important branch of the Nile in Ethiopia.

>1

—-'°C^

A • N

V

.rora

'

Klv.rtoum -^ERITREA OmdurmanNorth I .\tassaua

5

p

KHARTOUM^

IV^d-MvcUni

FTTao

6

•* -i i£ef

El Ohetd,*

'

Kilimanjaro

'PilU-

1

Africa’s highest peak at 5,895 m (19,341 ft), the snow-capped Mount Kibo is one of the Kilimanjaro group of three

K di”

volcanoes. The group dominates Arusha National Park

Kurmtif M

CENTRAL) AFRICAlkl

' ‘Dirt WT|t LVwa

V\ju. •

JLEJLLfa'LJjC _

in Tanzania, on the border with Kent a. Steam and fumes

\DDIS AB^A , *•

*"e*t h

Ri1

”■7-200

is the

Medium-range airliner,

Short-range airliner, British Aerospace

Freight transporter aircraft,

Boeing 737-300

Bae 146-RJ85

Boeing in

Rearmounted engines Cabin holds four people.

Single engine Flying boat, Beriev Leisure aircraft. SOCATA TB-20 Trinidad

A-50 Mermaid Osprey can fly like both a helicopter and a plane.

Wings carry armaments such rockets and gu

Radar helicopter. Bell AH-1 Cobra

Passenger helicopter, Sikorsky S-61

Tilt-rotor aircraft, Boeing V-22 Osprey

Sport

Fabric-covered wings andfuselage

Transport helicopter, Boeing CH-4'7 Chinook

Wing of light woven

^

fabric over metal frame

Microlight is a kind of motorized hang-glider, Wheels allow

with a strong frame and

microlight to take

a streamlined fibreglass

'j ^tidcr is like a huge wing with a

Biplane training/leisure aircraft,

off and land like

“tricycle” underneath to

below to hold the pilot.

De Havilland Tiger Moth DH8A

a normal aircraft.

carry the pilot.

43

AIRLINERS see AIRCRAFT

AIRPORTS

Features of an airport Aircraft take off and land on runways, which are linked to the terminal

'

by air than ever before. Whether they are business people off to visit clients or

Today, more people travel

buildings by routes called taxiways. The passengers embark and disembark at the terminal buildings. For the aircraft, the

families going on holiday, all air travellers leave from airports, which range in size from small local facilities to enormous international terminals. A large airport is like

airport has repair workshops, refuelling facilities, and storage hangars.

a city. It contains shops, offices, and hotels, in addition to all the buildings, runways, and taxiways needed to service the aircraft and their passengers. Airport security is always tight, because airports and aircraft have often been the targets of terrorist attacks. Terminal building at Kansai International Airport, Japan Security area and

“Landside” of terminal Access area

Curving roof truss

Passengers enter

Road

provides escalators

terminal from

transport for

to all parts of the

lower level and

passengers

terminal

leave it from

leaving the

building.

upper level.

International

passport checkpoint

Runway

departures .floor

Domestic arrivals

To take the biggest jet aircraft, runways have to be

and departures are

3—4 km (1.8-2.5 miles) long and some 50 m (165 ft)

on middle 2 floors.

wide. They need a specially toughened surface to take the pounding they get when large jets take off or land.

. airport.

‘Airside” of terminal Waiting aircraft

Service area contains boilers, ventilation equipment, and other building services.

An X-ray reveals a gut^

Air traffic control

Security

At the heart of an airport is

Airport security staff are always on their

the control tower, where air

guard, trying to spot terrorists or smugglers.

traffic controllers monitor

Metal detectors and other electronic devices

every moment of an aircraft s

alert staff when a passenger is carrying a gun

arrival and departure. They

or other type of weapon. There are also

make sure that each pilot

“sniffer” dogs that have been trained

follows the correct flight

to detect the scent of

path, that all aircraft land in

explosives or illegal drugs.

the right place, and that there is a safe amount of

X-ray scanner

Air traffic controllers in the control tower

Airport staff use X-ray machines to scan the contents

Radar display screen Airjxirt radar tracks each aircraft as

Passports

of passengers’ luggage. A

time between each take-off

it lands, giving the controllers precise

A person travelling from one

screen on the side of the X-

and landing.

details of its position. All aircraft within

country to another usually carries a

ray machine shows what is

20 to 50 km (12 to 30 miles) of the

passport, an official document that

inside each bag. Different

airport can be tracked by radar and

identifies the owner and their place

materials show up in different

shown on the controllers’ display screens.

of origin. Passports are inspected at

Flight path

colours, enabling items such

international airports.

Air traffic controllers tell pilots when it is safe to land. They guide a pilot to

Radar antenna

a specific path, which the pilot must

sends out beam

then follow as the aircraft descends to

to guide plane

the runway. Navigation aids, such as

on to runway.

EU passport

as guns to be found with ease.

Airports and the environment A large airport can have a devastating impact on the

high-frequency radio beacons, give

local environment. Clearing the land to build an

the pilot accurate bearings.

airport destroys carefully balanced ecosystems, while How an aircraft lands

Fly down and right

the air pollution can harm Antenna sends out beam to

wildlife, and the noise may scare some animals away.

guide planes rate of descent.

Animals

Airport ecosystems Radio waves carry

Since airports cover such vast

information about

areas, birds and animals can also

flight path.

can live in the large green

move into these areas and establish

spaces around

new ecosystems, undisturbed by people.

a big airport.

Dials on flight-deck tell pilot whether plane's course is correct.

44

FIND OUT

MORE

Aircraft

Ecology and ecosystems

Radar and SONAR

Travel

AIRSHIPS

AND

BALLOONS

Airships and balloons are known as

Anatomy of a modern airship

lighter-than-air aircraft because, instead of wings, they use a large envelope, or bag, full of gas or hot air that is lighter than the air in the atmosphere around it. The air

The main part of an airship is its envelope, which

pushes the envelope upwards, just as water pushes a submerged air-filled ball upwards. In 1783, the Montgolfier brothers achieved the first manned flight ever by sending a hot-air balloon over Paris. Balloons fly where the wind blows them; airships have engines and can be steered. Today,

contains bags of helium gas. The gas is slightly pressurized to keep the envelope in shape. A fin and tailplane keep the airship steady as it flies slowly along. The crew travels in a gondola attached to the underside of the envelope. Gas-proofcoated polyester envelope

airships are used for aerial filming and coast-guard patrols, and ballooning is a popular sport.

Elevator flaps

Skyship 500 HL

Automatic hallonet valve

(semirigid airship)

Gondola

Types of airship Practical airships could be built only after the lightweight internal combustion engine had been developed. The earliest airships were “nonrigid” (they are still

The Hindenburg, 1937

Airship disasters

used today). These were followed

Nonrigid airships have a flexible

Rigid airships envelope is built around

by the “rigid” and the less usual

fabric envelope, from which the

a rigid framework. This skeleton contains

“semirigid” types of airship.

load hangs, susjjended by tojjes.

bags of the lifting gas - helium.

Several terrible disasters made people lose trust in airship travel. Airships were usually lost for two reasons: either they were uncontrollable in bad weather; or the highly inflammable hydrogen gas used inside the envelojje exploded. Today, airship pilots use the much safer helium

Balloons Balloons were first used for aerial reconnaissance during the French Revolution, and used again in the American Civil

gas in special nylon envelopes. However, they

War. During

still have to be wary of the weather.

I Wars I and II, balloons were used to spot targets for artillery attacks, and

Ferdinand von Zeppelin

barrage balloons defended

German count Ferdinand von Zcpjjelin

cities against aircraft.

(1838-1917) began exjjerimenting with air travel in 1891. In 1900, he devised the first airship, a 128-m (420-ft) rigid craft named the

Weather and research balloons

Balloon festivals

lb study what is happening in the

Today, ballooning is a popular sport. During

upper reaches of the atmosphere,

the summer, ballooning enthusiasts gather at

pilots send up helium-filled weather

festivals to enjoy the dazzling prospect of dozens of brightly coloured balloons flying

LZl. During World

balloons. These carry instruments

War I, some 100

which measure temperature, wind

together. Some of the balloons are owned by

2^pf)elins were built

speed, and so on, and send their results

companies, and are made in the shapes of

for military use.

to the ground or to satellites by radio.

their products, as a form of advertising.

Flight Hot-air ballooning requires a perfectly clear day with a gentle breeze. Too high a wind puts the balloon at risk on take-off and landing. After take¬ off, a ground crew follows the balloon in a vehicle to recover

I

The balloon is laid on the ground. Burners

hear air to fill the balloon.

2

The balloons envelope expands as the hot air

starts to fill it

3

The expanding balloon becomes buoyant, and crew boards.

rises into the air

keep the balloon afloat.

both it and the crew after landing.

Atmosphere

Feight, HISTORY OF

Galieeo GALIEEI

Gases

Johnson, AM5

Renaissance

Weather FORECASTING

45

Airships and balloons

J

Balloons

I

. .' \

4

Basket

Upside-down balloon, where a false basket

Easter egg envelope is

Golf ball, an uncomplicated,

has been attached to

Faberge egg, the trademark jewel

decorated to celebrate Easter.

yet realistic balloon shajje

the balloon’s top.

of a famous Russian jewellers

Uncle Sam, a

Part of this balloon hangs

lighthearted

below the

symbol of the USA ^

basket.

Red, blue, and yellow panels of this balloon’s envelope represent the exotic plumage of a parrot

Upturned eaves.

Carmen Miranda, a

A “cow jumps over the moon” is a very complicated

Face-shaped balloons are

1940s’ singing star

balloon shape inspired by the famous nursery rhyme.

relatively simple to create.

Modern tractor has its basket hanging where the back axle would be. Japanese temple; the envelope comes complete with authentic upturned eaves and balcony rails.

Drink can, the first

Santa Claus an aerial

NASA rocket, celebrating

Elephant, complete

non-traditional

Christmas decoration

space exploration.

with trunk and a

balloon shape

surprised look!

Airships

46

Spectacular eagle has a

Rupert the Bear,

very complicated and

a favourite fictional

realistically painted

Aerial tours are often run by companies

Modern airships, because of their visibility and size,

character for children

envelope.

that have both airships and balloons.

are often used to advertise products or services.

all over the world

ALBANIA see BALKAN STATES • ALCATRAZ see CRIME AND PUNISHMENT • ALCHEMY see SCIENCE, HISTORY OF

ALEXANDER THE great In less than four years,

a brilliant young

Early life Alexander was born in 356 BC, the

general created the largest empire the world had ever seen. The empire was the creation

son of King Philip 11 of Macedon (r. 359-336 BC). As a young man he went on military campaigns with his

of Alexander the Great of Macedon, a gifted leader who inspired tremendous loyalty from his

father. Alexander won fame for taming a wild black horse called Bucephalus, which stayed with him throughout his

troops. It stretched from Greece in the west to India in

whole life.

the east. Alexanders sudden death at the age of 33 led to the empires collapse, but it lived on in a series of towns that spread Greek culture eastwards. These cities, all

Aristotle Alexander was taught by the Athenian philosopher Aristotle (384—322 BC). Aristotle’s interests ranged from politics

called Alexandria after their founder, opened up a trade between Asia and Europe that survived for centuries.

and morality to biology and literature. He shared his enthusiasm for new ideas with his young pupil.

Alexanders empire

Persia The rich empire of Persia occupied

Greece

When Alexander became king of Macedon in 336

The heartland of

dominated by Persia. In a series of brilliant military campaigns,

Alexander’s empire was

Alexander defeated Persia and created his vast empire.

his home state of

BC,

Greece was

much of modern Iraq, Turkey, and Iran. After Alexander had conquered the area, he tried to unite Macedonia and Persia by encouraging his

Macedon, northern

L

Greece. Before Alexander

generals to

became king, Greece

marry Persians.

was divided into rival

Alexander

city states, and was

Alexandria ad

threatened by the

Caucasum ^

himself married Roxana, a princess from

powerful Persian Empire.

eastern Persia. Alexandria Prophthasia * Alo^andria

Stag comes from

Babylon *

palace at Persepolts.

Terracotta figure of the Greek love goddess. Aphrodite

Egypt In 332 BC, Alexander conquered Egypt and Persian silver stag ornament

was accepted as the new pharaoh. He founded

Macedonian Empire

the city of Alexandria,

Battle of Issus

Eastern empire

in northern Egypt,

In 333 BC, the Macedonian army

By 326 BC, Alexander had marched through

which became the most

overwhelmed the more powerful

Persia and had conquered Afghanistan and

important city of the

Persian army led by Darius III

the Punjab. Although his troops were very loyal

Greek-speaking world.

(r. 336-330 BC) at the batde of

When Alexander died in

Issus, Syria. The Persians were

to him, they refused

323 BC, he was buried

defeated again in 331 BC at

to go further than

in a vast tomb in the

Gaugamela near the River Tigris.

the River Indus.

centre of the city.

After this batde, the Persian capital, Persep)olis, was destroyed and the empire collapsed.

Coin from Indus area

Alexander wears the pharaoh’s crown

Relief of the Batde of Issus

Alexander the great 356 BC Born in Macedon

Death of Alexander In 323

BC

Carved relief

336 BC Succeeds his father to the

shows

Alexander caught a fever

Macedonian throne; quells

Alexander

in the city of Babylon. Although he

rebellions in Greece

leading his

was only 33, he died. This sudden

334 BC Leads his army into Persia

troops.

and defeats a Persian army at the

death meant that Alexander did not

Granicus River

have time to consolidate his rule or

Sarcophagus

even name his successor. Within a

from the royal cemetery of

few years of his death, the huge

Sidon, said to

Macedonian Empire had collapsed.

be the tomb of Alexander.

Alexander’s sarcophagus

333 BC Defeats Darius III at Issus I

331 BC Defeats Darius III again at Gaugamela, completing his conquest of the Persian Empire 326 BC Reaches the Indus, but is forced to turn back by his troops 323 BC Dies of fever in Babylon

FIND OUT

MORE

Asia, HISTORY OF

Egypt, ANCIENT

Greece, ancient

Persian EMPIRES

Philosophy

47

ALGAE see SEAWEEDS AND OTHER ALGAE • ALGERIA see AFRICA. NORTHWEST • ALL MUHAMMAD see COMBAT SPORTS • ALKALIS see ACIDS AND ALKALIS

AMERICAN CIVIL WAR Less than 80 years after independence,

Divided nation

the USA split in two over the issue of

Eleven southern slave states left the Union of states, declaring independence as the Confederacy. Four other

slavery. The richer, industrial northern states had banned slavery, but slaves were used on plantations in the south. When Abraham Lincoln

slave states refused to break away; West Virginia split from the rest of the state and stayed in the Union.

became president in 1860, the southern states, fearing he would ban slavery, seceded from the Union, and established the Confederate States of America. Fighting began in 1861 and lasted for four years. At first the sides were evenly matched, but the strength of the Union wore down the Confederacy, and it surrendered. Slavery was then abolished throughout the country.

First modern war

Slave states in the union

• Washington Confederate Charleston

Union states

Soldiers

The American Civil War was the first recognizably modern war. Railways

Much of the fighting was trench warfare, but troops were also prepared for a pitched battle.

transported men and supplies to the

More than three million people fought in the two opposing armies, most of them as infantrymen (foot soldiers).

battlefield, and iron ships were used for the first time. Commanders talked to each other by field telegraph, and the war was photographed and widely reported in newspapers. Percussion Union soldiers and guns

musket

Gunner Field g\

Merrimack and Monitor

Gettysburg Address

The Confederate ironclad ship Merrimack (renamed Virginia)

Lincoln’s fine speeches helped win the war. In 1863,

fought the Unions vessel Monitoron 9 March 1862. The

he dedicated a cemetery on the site of a battlefield

battle was inconclusive, but marked the first occasion on

in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. In his speech, he hoped

which iron ships had been used in naval warfare.

that “these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new binh of freedom, and that government of the people, bv the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth”.

Appomattox

Abraham Lincoln

r”

On 9 April 1865, at Appomattox, Virginia,

Lincoln was born in Kentucky

the Confederate general Robert E. Lee

in 1809. He was elected to the

surrendered to Union general Ulysses S.

state legislature in 1834, was

Grant. More than 600,000 Americans

elected president in 1860, and

died in the four years of fighting, and

led the Union states to victory

many more were injured.

in the civil war. He was assassinated in 1865.

Signing the surrender documents

Timeline

1862 Confederates win Seven

1864 Ulysses S. Grant

April 1861 After 11 states leave the

Days’ Battle (near Richmond,

becomes Union

Union, war breaks out when

Virginia) and Battle of

commander-in-chief.

Confederate troops fire on the Union

Fredericksburg, Virginia.

garrison at Fort Sumter, South

1864 General

Carolina.

1863 Union wins its first major

Sherman’s Union

battle at Gettysburg;

army marches

1861 Confederates under generals

Emancipation Proclamation

through Georgia,

Jackson and Beauregard win the first

frees slaves.

destroying the state

major battle against Unionists at Bull

capital and weakening Ulysses S. Grant

Run, near Washington.

FIND OUT

MORE 48

American REVOLUTION

Armies

North America, history of

April 1865 Lee’s

jii Civil War cannon

the Confederacy.

Ships and BOATS

Slavery

Confederate army surrenders at Appomattox. Virginia.

May 1865 Last Confederate army surrenders. December 1865 Slavery is banned throughout the USA by the 13th amendment.

United states, history of

Warfare

Washington, GEORGE

AMERICAN FOOTBALL see FOOTBALL

AMERICAN REVOLUTION

Maine (to Massachusetts) New Hampshire

In 1783, A NEW NATION WAS BORN - the United States of America. Its struggle for independence is called the American Revolution. It began in 1775, when 13 American colonies went to war against Britain. Britain governed the colonies and imposed high taxes. The colonists, who were not represented in the British Parliament, resented the taxes. Protests and demonstrations broke out, and the colonists formed a Continental Congress to negotiate with Britain. A skirmish led to war, and in 1776, the American colonists, inspired by ideals of freedom,

Pennsylvania

Virginia Maryland N. Carolina

S. Carolina

declared independence. The British surrendered in 1781, and two years later recognized the new country.

Stamp tax

New York

Georgia

,

”

Thirteen colonies

i-

After the Revolution,

,

Britain’s 13 original colonies

‘

formed the first 13 states of

Lexington and Concord

The colonists set their own

In April 1775, the war began with

taxes. But in 1765, Britain

skirmishes near Lexington and Concord.

introduced a stamp tax on

American patriots forced the British to

legal documents. The angry

withdraw at Lexington. They marched

colonists stated that “taxation

back to Boston under continuous fire.

the new United States.

Thomas Jefferson A planter from Virginia, Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) attended the

without representation is

Paul Revere

tyranny”. They refused

Continental

Paul Revere (1735-1818)

Congress in

to buy British goods.

rode through Massachusetts

1775. He

on the night of 18 April

drafted the

Boston Tea Party

1775, to warn that the

Declaration of

Britain withdrew the stamp tax, but set

British were coming. He was

Independence,

others on glass and tea. Three groups of

part of an anti-British group

reformed the

protesters, dressed as Mohawk Indians,

called the Sons of Liberty.

laws of his native

boarded tea ships in Boston Harbour and threw their cargo into the water.

state, and went on

Colonists pour tea into Boston Revere on horseback

Harbour, in protest at British taxes

diplomatic missions to Europe. He became the third president of the USA in 1801

Cocked hat

Cocked hat

Surrender at Yorktown

and served until 1809.

The fighting lasted until spring l''8I, when the Crossbelt

Cartridge box belt

Knapsack

Red coat

strap

colonists cut the British oft' from their supplies

George Washington

at Ybrktown. They

The commander of the colonial army was

finallv surrendered

Geotge Washington (1732-1799) He was

on 19 October.

an inspiring general, who kept the morale of his troops high

Bayonet

in spite of several

Declaration of Independence Brush for musket lock

Musket.

defeats at the

On 4 July 17''6, the 13 colonies

beginning of the

Brush for

signed the Declaration

war. When France

musket lock

of Independence. This

joined the war

document stated that

on the colonial

“all men are created

side in 1778,

equal...” and its belief

followed bv Spam

Breeches

in “Life, Liberty, and

in 1779, viaory

the Pursuit of Happiness'

was assured.

later inspired the Leather

Washington

French Revolution.

spatterdash

Shoe

Musket American soldier

Revolutionary war

British infantryman

Timeline

1774—75 Continental

1777 British general John

U65 Britain introduces the

Congress. Representatives

Burgoyne (1722-92) forced

stamp tax. Protests break out.

draft a jjetition to Britain

to surrender at Saratoga.

Britain withdraws the stamp

insisting on no taxation

tax, but other taxes remain.

without representation.

The opposing armies

1778 France joins the war on the American side.

The British were well

1773 Boston Tea Party.

1775 Battle of Lexington.

trained but poorly led. Their

Americans, dressed as Mohawks,

Congress takes over

1781 British surrender at

orders came from 4,000 km

dump tea in Boston Harbour

government of the colonies,

Ybrktown.

a vital part in the American

(2,500 miles) away. The

as a protest against heavy taxes.

and appoints Washington

victory. He led his troops

Americans were less well

The war lasted for six years. Washington’s leadership played

Commander-in-Chief

French private soldier

trained and equipped, but

to victories at Brandywine

knew the tettain and had

(1777) and Yorktown (1781).

good leaders.

FIND OUT

MORE

French REVOLUTION

United kingdom, HISTORY OF

United states, Warfare Washington, HISTORY OF GEORGE

49

AMISH see CHRISTIANITY • AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL see HUMAN RIGHTS

AMPHIBIANS

Amphibian features

^ Cold-blooded animals, amphibij nans vr are vertebrates (animals with a backbone) that evolved from fish.

Apart from the caecilians and a few species of salamander, adult amphibians have four legs, each with four or five digits. Most species take to the water to mate and produce their eggs, but some make nests on land, occasionally in burrows in the ground or in moss.

^^ J They are adapted for life on land, but most must return to water in some form to breed. Amphibians undergo a process known as metamorphosis in their development from larvae to adult, hence the Greek origin of their name: amphi meaning “double”; bios meaning “life”. There are three groups of amphibians and more than 3,000 species.

European common frog

Couch’s spadefoot toad

Amphibian groups There are three groups of amphibians: the worm-like caecilians; the tailed amphibians, including newts and salamanders; and the tail-less frogs and toads, probably the most diverse group.

Newts and salamanders

Caecilians Distribution of amphibians

Caecilians are legless, carnivorous amphibians most of which live in the tropics. Some species burrow in the ground; others are aquatic. They have small eyes and ears and sensory tentacles on the head.

Amphibians live everywhere. Desert species survive the driest season by staying underground inside a membranous sac, which they secrete themselves. Some temperate species hibernate in pond mud in the winter.

In temperate regions, frogs are more aquatic than toads, have slimier skin and longer legs. In the tropics, some species of frog and toad are fully aquatic and live in trees or underground.

Skin

Metamorphosis

Amphibian skin is thin and scaleless. It is usually kept moist with mucus to increase its ability to allow oxygen through for skin breathing. Skin can be smooth or rough. It secretes certain chemicals: pheromones can attract potential mates, while poisons deter predators. As they grow, amphibians shed the top layer of skin.

The development from an aquatic larva that breathes through gills, or spiracles, to an air-breathing adult is called metamorphosis. It involves the growth of legs and the loss of the tail in frogs and toads.

White’s tree frogs Colour Amphibians may have skin colours that absorb or reflect heat. Colour also varies with temperature, becoming pale when warm and darker if cold and damp.

Square marked toad

Defence

Mandarin salamander

The bright colours of Colombian poison-dart frogs warn predators of their highly toxic skin. The tadpoles develop their skin poisons as their colours develop. Marine toads secrete a strong toxin through large glands behind the head.

Tree frog

Texture Many frogs and toads have smooth skin covered by mucus. Other amphibians, such as the mandarin salamander and many dry-skinned toads, have raised nodules

Poison-dart tadpoles

Amphibian eggs are laid singly, in clumps, or in strings of clear ‘jelly” called spawn. They have no shell and require a moist environment to survive.

■‘

Tadpoles

Many frogs and toads are camouflaged to avoid detection bv predators. Most have a combination of forest colours and disruptive patterning. Some rainforest species are shaped to look like dead leaves. Great crested newt

Newt egg

Frog spawn

VCamouflaged tree frogs

Camouflage

50

Frogs and toads

The tailed amphibians — newts, salamanders, and the eel-like sirens of North America - live in tropical forests, temperate woods, mountain streams, and lakes. Some have very specialized lifestyles: a few even live in the total darkness of caves.

FIND OUT

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Evolution

Frog tadpole Larvae, or tadpoles, hatch from the eggs. Salamander tadpoles have limbs, but frogs and toads develop these during metamorphosis. Salamander larvae are carnivorous, but most frog and toad tadpoles are herbivorous.

GilU

,

*

Salamander tadpole

Axolotl

Some salamanders may stay as larvae all their life. The axolotl is a form of the Mexican tiger salamander.

Frogs and TOADS

Poisonous ANIMALS

Salamanders AND NEWTS

AMSTERDAM see NETHERLANDS • ANATOMY see HUMAN BODY • ANDORRA see SPAIN • ANGLING see FISHING INDUSTRY

ANGLO-SAXONS

Kingdoms There was always a struggle for supremacy among the

By the

end

of the 8th century,

kingdoms formed by the settlers. Northumbria

Britain’s people, known as the Anglo-Saxons, had created a rich culture, which included masterpieces of jewellery, architecture, and literature. Originally these people had come from northern Germany and southern

Dublin

was the earliest one to

uMerci

dominate under Edwin Saxons

(d. 633). Then it was Mercia’s

Germany

turn under Aethelbald (d. 757)

Wessex

and Offa (d. 796). Finally, Wessex dominated under Alfred the Great. When Vikings from Denmark attacked and occupied northern England, Alfred stopped them from pushing farther south, and the Anglo-Saxons reconquered the north in the 10th century.

Denmark, where they were known as the \ngles, Saxons, and Jutes. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, these tribes travelled to various parts of the Roman Empire, including Gaul, or present-day France, where their influence was short-lived. They travelled to Britain in the 5th century, where they settled, and formed several separate kingdoms. Eventually the kingdom of Wessex became

King Canute the Great By 1016, the Danes ruled all England under the popular Canute (c.995-1035). Canutes sons inherited England, but the Anglo-Saxon Edward the Confessor (c. 1003-1066) regained the country in 1042. He had no children and. when he died, an unsettled England was vulnerable ro conquest bv the Normans. Edward the Confessor

Written records from mainland Europe, such as

Possible image Oj Alfred the Great

St Augustine of Canterbury,

_

converted the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. The creation

Cultural life centred on the

of monasteries meant that

monasteries and on the royal

more people learned to read

court. Alfred the Great gathered scholars and artists around him, and he himself translated many

(C.849-C.899) was an able soldier who defended his kingdom against the Vikings. He loved learning and education, and ans and crafts flourished in his reign. He could not drive the Vikings from northern

and write. Monks produced

England, but most fteople saw him as their

today give insights into the

Saxon, or Old English.

Ruler of Wessex and Mercia Alfred

historical works, such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which

of the Latin classics into Anglo-

Canute the Great

Alfred the Great

In the 7th century, missionaries

the dominant power.

Culture

London

protector. He was the first English king to become a national symbol.

events of the period.

Architecture Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

Anglo-Saxon churches, like the

In the ninth century, Alfred the Great ordered

one at Earls Barton

the Chronicle, a vear-by-year account of the

England, often

history of England. Ir covers the lives of kings

have square towers

and church leaders, military history, and

decorated with

major events, such as the Viking invasions,

Jewelleiy

stone relief. This pattern may be

and was last updated in 1154.

This jewel

based on timber

is inscribed

buildings of the

“Alfred ordered

period, which

(c.673-735) Bede, an English monk and teacher

me to be made”

have all perished.

in Jarrow, wrote A

and may have

History of the

belonged to Alfred the

Decorated manuscripts

En^ish Church and

Great. The inscription

Monks produced quality manuscripts. One monk wrote the work, while a

People, one of the

and animal-head decoration

most important

are finelv worked in gold; the

second illustrated it with figures, such as St Dunstan (c.909-988) kneeling

sources of oui

portrait, perhaps of the king

knowledge of

himself, is made of enamel.

Anglo-Saxon times.

before Jesus, and a third decorated it.

Timeline

802—39 Reign of Egbert of Wessex.

1016 Canute the Great, a Dane, is elected

1042 Anglo-Saxons

450 Angles, Saxons, and Jutes from

I here are many Viking attacks.

king by the British; he rules until 1035.

r^ain power under Edward the Confessor.

northern Germany

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MORE

and Denmark

8'^I-99 Reign of Alfred the

begin to arrive in

Great, famous for law¬

1066 Last Anglo-

England. They

making, translating books

Saxon king, Harold 11,

setde mainlv along

into Old English, and

Anglo-

is killed bv William of

the eastern coasr -

delating the Vikings at

Saxon

Normandv at the

East Anglia.

Edington in 8”’8.

buckle

Battle of Hastings.

Celts

Europe, HISTORY OF

Monasteries

Normans

United kingdom, HISTORY OF

Vikings

51

ANGOLA see AFRICA, SOUTHERN CENTRAL

ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR All animals respond to their surroundings. A cat, for example, will arch its back when threatening a rival, but lower its body when stalking a mouse. Everything that an animal does, and the way in which it does it, makes up its behaviour. An animals behaviour enables it to increase its chances of survival and find a mate so that it can pass on its genes to the next generation. Some behaviours are inbuilt, or instinctive; others

Egg-rolUng Greylag geese nest on the ground. If an egg rolls our of the nest, the female goose automatically reaches out with her neck and pulls the egg back in. By being in the wrong place, the egg acts as a sign stimulus that causes the female to carry out the fixed-action pattern of egg-rolling. Bright spring colours^

are learned during the animal’s lifetime.

Instinctive behaviour

Sign stimulus

Instinct is a term used to describe

these freshwater fish

In the spring, when breed, the male's throat

behaviours that an animal

and belly turn red. If one

performs automatically without

male intrudes into the territory

having to learn them. Instinctive

of another male, its red colour

behaviour is programmed by an

acts as a sign stimulus that produces a fixed-action pattern:

animals genes. It consists of unchanging components called

the occupying fish drives

Web spinning

out the intruder.

fixed-action patterns. The fixed-

Many species of spider, including this

action pattern often begins when

black widow spider, spin webs in order

an animal responds to a feature

ro trap their insect food. Web spinning is purely instinctive. A spider would not

Bright

in its surroundings or on another

have time in its limited life to learn how

colours fade after

animal, called a sign stimulus.

to construct such a complex structure.

the breeding season.

Learned behaviour

Communication

Learning occurs when an animal adapts to

Animals communicate by sending

its surroundings by changing its behaviour.

out signals that are recognized by

By responding to experiences and adapting

other animals and alter their

to changing conditions, an animal increases

behaviour in some way. The

its chances of survival. Learning takes time,

signals can be sights, sounds, or

and animals that are dependent on learned

scents. Communication is used,

Song thrush stags from a perch.

for example, to find a mate,

behaviour have long lives and large brains. Learning tool use ■Some animals learn ro use simple

threaten rivals or enemies, defend

Trial and error learning

“tools” in order to feed. Sea otters,

a territory, warn of danger, or hold

An animal will associate an action it carries out with a

found of! the coast of California.

a group together.

successful result, such as getting food or defeating a rival.

USA, swim on their backs with a

This “reward ” motivates the

stone on their chests on which

Visual signals

animal to alter its behaviour

they smash the shells of clams

Animals may use visual signals as a

to improve the result of

and mussels to get at the juicy

threat or to attract a mate. This pus»

future actions.

contents. Young otters learn

moth caterpillar adopts a warning

tool use from their parents.

posture if threatened by an enemy. An enemy that ignores the warning is rewarded with a stinging squirt of formic acid.

Sound Many animals, including crickets, bullfrogs, peacocks, and whales, use sound to communicate. This male song thrush sings to proclaim his territory, to warn rivals to stay away, and to attract a female.

Insight learning This involves a form of reasoning. Some animals can

Imprinting This is shown by some young animals that make a strong bond with their parent soon after hatching or birth. Young ducklings, for example, stay close to their mother and improve their chances of survival under her protection.

52

solve new problems by drawing on past experiences. Chimpanzees, having learned to extract termites or ants from a nest with a stick, can exploit any shape or size of nest.

Bright colours

Chemicals

add to the

Some animals release chemicals called

^

warning.

pheromones, which, when detected,

;

affect the behaviour of other members

^

, ■ ,= ^

of the same species. Female gypsy moths release pheremones thar attract males from several kilometres awav.

Gypsy moth

ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR

Male is attentive

Courtship

Male is aware

to the female.

that the female

Mating in most mammals and birds takes place

may lash out

only at certain times of the year. Courtship

at him.

describes the behaviour used by male animals to attract a female and mate with her. It informs a potential mate that the intention is breeding and not aggression. During courtship, males usually compete with each other to attract females, advertise that they are ready to mate, and encourage females to be sexually responsive. Females select males by the quality of their courtship display.

Bird of paradise Most birds have fixed courtship

Domestic cats

displavs that ensure they attract a

A female cat comes on heat, or is sexually

mate of the same species. Male birds

responsive, about twice a year. She produces

often have brighter plumage than

scents and calls loudly to attract males.

females, and this is especially true of

Sevetal males may compete for her by

the emperor bird of paradise. Males

fighting. The successful male encourages the

Female is sexually

compete for females by quivering

female by touching her and calling softly.

responsive and rolls

their long feathers and calling loudly.

TC * *

Territorial behaviour

Aggression

Many animals defend their territory to maintain access

Animals show aggression to other members of their species when

to food, water, shelter, and somewhere to reproduce.

competing for food, water, shelter, or mates, Some animals use horns.

Territories can be large or small and held by one

some use teeth or claws, and others kick.

animal or by a group. Birdsong or the marking of

In many cases, animals signal their

territorial boundaries may deter rivals from entering a

aggressive intent. This may defuse

territory and avoid conflict and possible fatal injuries.

the situation and prevent injury.

Fighting bighorn sheep

Inflated

Cats Most cats are solitary and maintain a territory on their own. Cheetahs patrol their

Aggression within a species

territory and mark its

These bighorn sheep use their horns to

boundaries by spraying urine

clash head-on in competition for mates.

on trees and other landmarks.

The winner of the fight gains higher social

The scent warns neighbouring

ranking and more females. Aggression like

cheetahs not to intrude.

this is highly ritualized, and neither male is likely to be injured.

Kittiwakes Like many gull species,

Aggression between species

kirtiwakes nest in colonies on

Animals mav be aggressive towards members

narrow cliff ledges. Each pair

of other species that are threatening or

of birds defends a small

attacking them. Some animals use a threat

territory on the ledge, just

display, often making themselves bigger to

large enough for the female to

deter enemies. This porcupine fish inflates

lay eggs and raise their young.

its body like a balloon and erects its spines.

Konrad Lorenz

Social behaviour

Austrian zoologist Konrad Lorenz

Social animals live in groups. Individuals co-operate to find

(1903-89) pioneered the study of

food, defend themselves, and look after the young. Social

animal behaviour. As part of his work on

groups range from shoals of fish, which are purely

individual and

defensive, to societies of honeybees, where social

group behaviour, Lorenz discovered

organization affects all aspects of an individuals life.

imprinting. Lorenz shared a Nobel Prize in 1973 for his work.

Social insects Within a colony of social insects, such as bees, there are groups that carry out certain

Helping others

Living in large numbers

tasks. In a bee colonv a single queen lays

African wild dogs are social animals

Manv fish species swim close together in

and often help each other. Male

large numbers called shoals. A shoal moves

dogs will look after pups that are

and turns in a co-ordinated manner that

eggs, while sterile female workers look after Section of a bees’ nest

not their own, but were fathered by

mimics a single large living organism.

a brother or close relative. In this

Predators find it difficult to focus on

HND OUT

way they help pups to survive.

one individual within the shoal.

MORE

the young, collect food, and defend the colonv. Male bees fertilize the queen.

_

Birds

Fish

Genetics

Insects

Mammals

Songbirds

53

ANIMALS More than

iMrge eyes enable the leopard to see in dim light.

a million

and a half species of animal have been identified, and there are many millions more yet to be discovered. Animals are living organisms found in nearly all of the

Black leopard The leopard is a mammal. Its well-defined head is equipped with sense organs, including eyes, nose, tongue, and whiskers.

Earths habitats, including the depths of the oceans, the freezing Arctic,

Sharp teeth in the mouth allow the leopard to kill prey and tear off flesh. Muscular legs enable it to walk, run, and pounce. Air is breathed in

and even inside other animals through nostrils. and plants. The animal kingdom is divided into animals without backbones (invertebrates), such as snails and lobsters, and animals

What is an animal? Animals are made up of many cells. Most move actively, and those that are fixed in one place, or sedentary, move their body parts. Animals live by

with backbones (vertebrates), such as frogs and monkeys.

taking food into their bodies. They have sensors and nervous systems that enable them to detect what is

Invertebrates make up 97 per cent of all animal species.

happening around them and respond appropriately. Sponge processed for

Giant land flatworm

Sea anemones

human use

Animal classification Animals are classified into groups according to their similarities and whether they have

T.

common ancestors. There are 35 major groups called phyla (singular phylum). Each phylum is divided into sub-groups. The smallest of these is the species, which contains animals of just one type. Threadworm

Sponges

Cnidarians

The simplest animals are

There are more than 9,000

sponges (phylum Porifera).

species of cnidarians

There are about 5,000 species,

(phylum Cnidaria), most

most of which live in the sea

of which are found in the

Flatworms

Nematodes

attached to rocks and other

sea. They include jellvfish,

These worms (phvlum

Roundworms, or nematodes (phylum

objeers. Water is drawn in

sea anemones, hvdras, and

Platyhelminthes) have a flattened

Nematoda), have a thin, cylindrical

through holes, or pores in the

corals. Cnidarians catch

body with one opening, the mouth,

body that is pointed at both ends.

sponges body wall, and bits of

food using tentacles r :med

on the underside. There are about

Free-living nematodes are found in

food are filtered out and eaten

with stinging threads,

18,500 species including those, such

manv habitats and occur in very large

by the sponges cells.

called nematocysts.

as tapeworms, that are parasites of

numbers in soil. Manv nematodes are

humans and other animals.

Coiled shell protects

Stalked eye

parasites of plants and animals.

the soft body.

Annelids Animals in the phvlum Annelida include earthworms, marine bristleworms such as ragworms, and leeches. There are about 12,000 species,

Molluscs

each of which has a body made up of segments with a

Molluscs (phvlum Mollusca)

mouth at one end and an

form a highlv diverse group o(

Sensory.

anus at the other.

about 50,000 species. These

tentacle

Head and

include snails and slugs,

Echinoderms

mussels and clams, and squids

Arthropods

and octopuses. Thev are soft-

With at least one million

Echinodermata) live in the sea. The

bodied animals that may be

known species, Anhropods

6,500 or so species include sea urchins

protected bv a shell. Most live

(phvlum Arthropoda) are the

and starfish. Most have five parts

in water, but some, such as

largest group of animals. Thev

radiating (rom a central point, hard

snails, are found on land.

include insects, crustaceans

have hard, jointed

(such as crabs), arachnids Cushion star

Sharp teeth to grasp food

(such as spiders), and centipedes.

Chordates There are about ^8,000 species of chordate (phvlum Chordata). Most are vertebrates, such as fish, amphibians, Tail used for movement or / balance is typical of many vertebrates.

54

reptiles, birds, and mammals. Vertebrates Caiman

are the most advanced animals.

extended Arthropods

All echinoderms (phvlum

plates under the skin, and many tube-feet

foot fully

Tarantula

external skeletons.

I

ANIMALS

Animal skeletons The skeleton is a supportive framework

Movement of an

Eel moves by throwing its body into

eel through water

curves that push against the water.

that maintains the shape of an animal and

Moving in water Manv aquatic animals are adapted for movement in water by having streamlined bodies. Mosr fish move by pushing

enables it to move. Most skeletons are hard

their rail fin from side to side. This pushes the water backward

structures, either inside or outside the

Animal movement

animals body, to which muscles are attached.

The ability to move is characteristic of

The skeleton may also protect internal

animals, which move to find food, escape

organs and, in the case of an insects

from predators, and find a mate. The way

external skeleton, prevent the animal

and sideways, and propels the fish forward. Whales move in a similar way, except that the tail moves up and down.

in which an animal moves depends on

from drying out.

its complexity, lifestyle, and where it lives. The wide range of movement

Limbs and head attached

includes swimming through water,

to backbone

walking and creeping on land, and flying or gliding in air. Wings sweep downward to produce forward thrust

Internal skeletons

Feet expand under the

A skeleton found inside the body is

elephant’s

called an endoskeleton. Most

weight as they

vertebrates have a skeleton made of

are put down.

cartilage and bone. Joints between the bones allow the animal to

Movement on land

move. The endoskeleton grows

Animals move on land in a

with the rest of the body.

variety of ways. Many have limbs

Movement in air

External skeletons A hard outer skeleton that covers all or part of the body is called an exoskeleton. An insect s outer cuticle and a snail’s shell are examples of an exoskeleton. An insect’s exoskeleton does

that raise the bodv off the ground, support it, and enable the

Insects, birds, and bats are capable of Young

powered flight using wings. Birds have lightweight, streamlined bodies. Thev use energy to flap their

animal to walk, run, or hop.

chaffinch

The animals move forward bv

in flight

wings, which pushes them forward. As air passes over

pushing the ends of their legs, or feet, backward against the ground.

the wings it creates the lift that keeps the bird in the air.

not grow and musr be shed, or moulrcd, periodically to allow the animal to grow. Earthworm

Animal senses

Hydrostatic skeleton

The main senses are vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch.

The hydrostatic skeleton is an

Animals use their senses to find out what is going on

internal skeleton found in soft-bodied animals such as

around them. A stimulus from outside, such as a sound, is

earthworms. It consists of a

detected by a sense organ, such as the ear. Nerve impulses

fluid-filled core surrounded

from sense organs are interpreted by the animal s brain

hy muscles, and maintains

which “decides” how to respond.

the shape of the worm.

£yes

Dragonfly eyes

Eyes contain sensors thar are

Feeding

sensitive to light. When stimulated they send nerve impulses to the

All animals feed by taking in

brain, which enable it to build up a

food. They use a range of

picture. Insects have compound

feeding strategies and can be

eyes made up of many separate

grouped accordingly. Some

units, or ommatidia.

animals kill and eat others,

Antennae

some graze or browse on plants, others filter food

used to detect odours and may

solely on plants are

detect chemicals called pheromones

called herbivores. Manv use specialized

feeding, or ingestion, food be used by the body.

arthropods such as insects. They are

Animals that feed

particles from water. After is digested so that it can

These are found on the head of

Herbivores

released bv insects to communicate

mouthparts, such as grinding teerh, ro Mormon caterpillar consuming a leaf

with each other. Antennae also

break up rough planr tissues. Plant material

detect vibrations and movements in

is not a rich food source, and most herbivores

the air or in water.

eat a lot to obtain the necessary nutrients.

External ear flaps channel

Carnivores

sounds into the ear.

These n pes of feeders are

Ears

adapted to detect prev animals,

Filter feeders these are animals that feed by

to catch and kill them, and to

Some animals can detect

cut them up to eat them.

sounds with ears. The ear

Thev include cats, eagles, and

converts sounds into nerve

some insects. Dragonflv larvae

impulses that can be interpreted

live in water and they can

bv the animaT.s brain. Animals use sounds to communicate

catch small fish to eat.

sieving food particles from water Dragonfly larva with stickleback

that flows into their body. Many are

Domestic

with each other and to detect

Basenji dog

approaching predators or prey.

sedentary and draw in a current of water. Some whales are filter feeders that eat small animals called krill.

HND OUT

MORE

Amphibians

Ani.mal BEHAVIOl R

Birds

Fish

Flight, ANIMAL

Insects

Mammals

Reptiles

Snails and OTHER MOLLUSCS

55

ANIMATION see CARTOONS AND ANIMATION • ANIMISM see RELIGIONS • ANKARA see TURKEY • ANNELIDS see ANIMALS

ANTARCTICA

Antarctica facts

Physical features

at its heart,

With the south pole

Area 13,900,000 sq km (5,366,790 sq miles)

Antarctica is the world’s windiest, coldest, and most southerly continent. The last region on Earth

Antarctica is almost

Population 4,000 international researchers

entirely covered by a

Number of countries None

vast sheet of ice, in places

Highest point Vinson Massif. 5,140 m (16,863 ft)

to be explored, this huge landmass

It contains 90 per cent of

4.8 km (3 miles) deep.

is not divided into countries, but seven countries

cent of the world’s

claimed territories there. In 1959, however, the Antarctic Treaty suspended those claims and stated that the continent is to be used for peaceful purposes only. Antarctica’s sole inhabitants are

fresh water. The vast Ronne and Ross ice shelves are formed where the ice sheet extends over the ocean.

visiting scientists, working in research stations. C

Average thickness of ice cap 2,450 m (8,000 ft)

the Earths ice, and 80 per

H

.D--ATLANTIC

OCEAN Icebergs

1 ^

Currents beneath Antarctica’s vast

Queen Maurf ^

ice shelves cause giant slabs of ice to break away, the largest of which V'a',

iTniSJ^.

>V" E* jr

Is, I UK)

/UK

may be 200 km (124 miles) long.

if iT I Sea

As these enormous icebergs drift north they slowly break up and

O r

^'

melt. Onlv the top third of an iceberg shows above the water.

■N o

to /.-

A an tar

4

Lapis lazuli Scales weigh pigment

71

ART, HISTORY OF

Bernini

Baroque art The term “Baroque” describes a style

Dramatic

The Italian painter,

facial

sculptor, and architect

expression

Gianlorenzo Bernini

of 17th-century European art. Rome,

(1598-1680) was an

the centre of the Catholic church, was

outstanding influence on Baroque art. He had

its birthplace. During the 16th

an exceptional ability

century, the Christian church split into

to convey great

Roman Catholic and Protestant

Arrow is a

emotion and drama

factions. By the 17th century, the

symbol of

in stone, designed

Catholic church was using art to

Gods

spread its teachings. To appeal to the

to inspire those who saw his work

love

to greater faith. This sculpture

viewer, it promoted a style of art that

depicts the vision

was theatrical and emotional. Painters

of St. Teresa, in which

were encouraged to use light and

an angel pierced her

shade for dramatic contrasts, sculptors

with an arrow.

Caravaggio, The Calling of St. Matthew, c. 1598-99

Light and shade The Italian painter Michelangelo Caravaggio

to show figures in dynamic poses. To

(1573—1610) shows the moment when Christ calls

achieve these effects, artists had to

Bernini, The ecstasy of

develop great technical skills.

St. Teresa, 1652

Matthew to become a disciple. A ray of light illuminates Matthew, but Christ is hidden by shadow.

Romanticism

Change in the 19th century

The early 19th century in

From the mid-19th century, artists broke

Europe is known as the

with the tradition established by earlier

Romantic Age. It was, in part,

generations. Where they were once told

a reaction ro 18th-century arr,

what to depict by patrons, who paid them,

which had emphasized balance

they now produced what they wanted,

Naples

and order. Romantic artists

and then tried to sell their work.

yellow.

Selection of colours from Renoirs palette Lead white

Vermilion

f

%

Emerald green

questioned the place of

Cobalt blue

human beings in the Universe. They stressed the importance Impressionism

of human emotion and the

This school of painting gtew up

imagination, and celebrated

in France in the late 19th

the wild power of nature in

century. Anists such as Camille Pissarro (18.30-1903), Claude

dramatic landscape paintings. Friedrich, Wanderer among the Mists, 1818

Monet (1840-1926), and Auguste Renoir (1841-1919)

A powerful

painted their impressions of a

The lonely universe

landscape,

The Cerman artist Caspar David Friedrich

shrouded in mist,

(1774—1840) was spiritually inspired by

conveys the

natural landscapes. There is an intense

strength and

mysticism to this painting, as a solitary

mystery of nature.

brief moment in time, in particular, the changing effects of sunlight. They were criticized at first, fot viewers exjjected paintings to look more detailed, Camille Pissarro, Place du Theatre Franfais, 1898

figure contemplates the mighty Alps.

Abstract art

Ambroise Vollard

Abstract artists do not represent

The French art dealer Ambroise

During the 20th century, artists explored

objects from the everydav world.

Vollard (1865-1939) made a living

new theories about the world, religion, and

Colour and shape alone suggest

buying, selling, and exhibiting

the mind. They asked the public to

ideas or emotions. In this wav,

modern art. He gave early 20th-

abstract art is like music: neither

century artists unprecedented

confront things that they might wish

describe anything that can be

financial and creative freedom to

to ignore, and explored many different

defined in words, but both can

paint as they wished. Artists such as

styles. After nearly 2,500 years, the grip of Classical art seemed to have been broken.

be expressive and moving. The

Paul Cezanne and Henri Matisse

artists Jackson Pollock (1912-56)

achieved success in Vollard s galleiy

and Mark Rothko (1903-70)

in Paris in the 1900s.

are two of the most famous

Surrealism

abstract painters.

During the 1920s, the Jackson Pollock, The Moon,

fantastical art made by the

Woman cuts the circle, 1943

Surrealists explored theories about the way the brain works.

Modern art

people consciously only used a

Much modern art is

tiny part of their brains, and

specially created to be

that they were unaware of

seen in a museum or

subconscious activity, over

gallery, and not for

which they had no rational

houses, palaces, or

control. The bizarre,

churches as in the past.

dreamlike paintings of

It often prefers to

Surrealists, such as the

baffle, tease, and

Spanish artist Salvador Dali

provoke its audience,

(1904-89), were inspired by these ideas.

72

but have been ver\' influential.

20th-century art

New ideas had suggested that

rather than make its Salvador Dali

i

meaning obvious.

Yoki Terauchi, Air Castle, 1994

ART, HISTORY OF

Art in Africa

Asia

16th-century Mughal manuscript

^rican art has a long tradition, although

Traditionally in Asian art, the symbolic

a lack of written records make its history

meaning behind the subject of a painting,

Vividly

hard to trace. Sculpture and masks are

sculpture, or carving is more important

coloured-

major art forms. Most art seems to have

than the illusion of realism. In China, for

High

been made for religious or ritual

instance, landscape paintings are stylized

level of

purposes. Wood-carving and

to express the ideals of religious thought;

detail _

bronze-casting techniques were

natural harmony, peace, and grace. In

highly developed.

China and Japan, calligraphy was seen as

Briefpoetic

a high form of art. The inscriptions are

description

Sculpture

of the scene

usually of short, poetic situations.

The rich tradition of sculpture in West Africa begins with the pottery

♦-■►strl

figures made by the Nok people

i\

from 500 BC. Around the 13th century AD the Ife of Nigeria began to cast outstanding bronze heads and figures in a highly realistic style. These may haye

Miniatures

influenced sculptures made

During the Mughal Empire (16th-17th

in Benin, Nigeria, from the

centuries), figuratiye miniature painting

I6th to 19th centuries.

flourished in India. These were richly coloured and exceptionally delicate. This

Ife sculpture, 13th century

illustration comes from a contemporary chronicle of the emperor’s exploits.

Masks

T'ang Yin, Dreaming of Immortality in a Thatched Cottage, Ming dynasty

African masks may represent a

Chinese landscape

spirit or ancestor, or be purely decoratiye. Their meaning

In China, the art of

Hokusai

comes from the masquerade

painting deyelop>ed from

Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849)

dance, drama, and music) of which they are a part. Wood,

calligraphy. Landscape

is perhaps the best-known Japanese

artists painted on paper or

printmaker. His famous wood-cuts

beads, iyory, and shells are

silk, using brush and ink.

include landscapes as well as scenes

important materials. This

They did not paint from

of daily life (called ukiyo-e). They are

real life. The flow and

dramaticallv coloured and composed.

capped mask, caryed in a bold, yital style, is from

Wooden mask.

yigour of the brush strokes

Cameroon.

20th century

were more important.

Native American art

The Great Wave of Kawagawa, 1831

Pacific art

Easter Island statues Between AD 400 and 1680.

Sophisticated Native American societies,

the people of Easter Island

such as the Aztec and Maya in Mexico

carved huge heads, up to

and the Inca in Peru, created distinct

12 m (40 ft) high, from yolcanic rock. They

artistic and architectural styles. Nearly

commemorate the diyine

3,000 years ago, nomadic peoples in

ancestors of tribal chiefs.

Contact with European Christian cultures from the 18th century onwards had a destructive effect on ancient local lifestyles in the Pacific islands. Much art has been lost, although some remarkable sculptures

North and South America marked awe¬

have survived, due to their durability.

inspiring “sculptures” on to the land, or

Wood and stone carvings, bark cloth

created vast earthworks whose shapes can

paintings, spirit masks, and

only be seen from high in the air.

intricate body tattoos are among the important

Totem poles

art forms of the

Complex in design, and caryed with great skill, totem poles

Pacific area.

showed the status of many Natiye North American chiefs.

Sand paintings In the Southwest, Natiye North Americans trickled coloured sand and ground stones on to Statues,

a smooth background to create temporary symbolic paintings

Navajo sand painting represents

Easter

with a ritual importance.

figures from Navajo mythology.

Island

Timeline

C.500 BC Lifelike human

30,000 BC Earliest

figurines produced by the

known works of art

Nok in West Africa.

f H1 ■

1

1

produced. 100 BC-AD 300s 30,000-10,000 BC

Roman empire

Warrior,

Cave paintings made

spreads Classical

Greece,

in France.

art around Europe.

520 BC

Africa, O'"

Architecti'rf

II1 ■ 11 Ij1

618-907 T ang

I6th century

19th century

Metal tubes

dynasty, China: great

Mughal dynasty

Photography

are invented

tradition of landscapie

holds power in

invented.

in the

painting develops.

India.

20th century Time of incredible diversity of styles in the visual arts,

WC

- Ml j

1840s.

15th century

17th century

Impressionism

19th-

Beginning of the

Dutch Golden

develops in France.

century oil Jg

Renaissance in Europe.

Age of painting.

It is very influential

paints

Monet

Native A.MER1CANS

Painting and DRAWING

Photography

including Cubism (1907-1920s), abstract

1860s-90s

Picasso

art (1910-50), surrealism

^

(1920s), and Pop Art (mid-1950s).

Renaissance

Sculpture

J

73

ART GALLERIES sec MUSEUMS • ARTERIES see HEART AND CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Asian giant

ARTHROPODS More than one million

Types of arthropod Arthropods vary in size, from minute

species

of arthropod exist, making them kingdom. They live in almost all habitats, from mountain tops to the

legs on each

to outsized sea dwellers several kilograms

body segment

of arthropod — insects, arachnids,

Myriapods

crustaceans, and myriapods. Insects are

Myriapods

the largest group, accounting for almost

^

90 per cent of all arthropods. Large compound

Broad¬ Red-kneed ^

Rigid exoskeletons encase their bodies, but flexible leg joints allow them to move around, and give them their name.

of a fiddler crab

Crustaceans

Arachnids include spiders, scorpions, and

Insects are the most diverse group

Crustaceans include crabs, shrimps,

mites. They have eight legs; scorpions use the

of arthropods. They live in all

and lobsters. Most live in the sea

front pair as claws. Spiders and scorpions are

kinds of land and freshwater

or in freshwater and have five

carnivores that live mainly on land. Spiders

habitats. All adult insects have six

pairs of legs. Lobsters and crabs

often kill their prey with poisonous fangs;

legs, and most have wings - they

have very thick exoskeletons and

scorpions use their venom-filled sting.

are the only arthrojxxls that can fly.

some grow extremely large.

2

Moulting and growth Exoskeletons are fixed in size. In ordet to grow, an arthropod

old one. Moulting is part of a process called “incomplete

Reproduction

The adult has pulled its legs and

,

metamorphosis”. This is where the young, called

chitin.

nymphs, emerge ftom ^gs looking like tiny adults.

Breeding habits are very diverse

most of its body out

among arthropods. Fertilization

of the old skin. It is

may take place inside ot outside

already expanding in

the females body. Normally, eggs

size, now that it is

are laid; some are guarded,

free from its confines.

others are hidden and left alone.

They moult many times before reaching adult size.

Exoskeleton

The young of some arthropods,

In “complete metamorphosis”, the animal changes form as well as size.

The exoskeleton of an

Moulting

arthropod is a tough

grasshopper has

exoskeleton and is

legs. It protects and

starting to wriggle its

supports the muscles

body free, headfirst. Befote this final moult,

and soft organs within

versions of adults called nymphs; look different from the adults.

blood pumps into its wings before

cracked open its old

the eyes, antennae, and

such as garden spiders, are tiny

exoskeleton Adult waits as

An emerging adult

entire body, including

Old, empty

others start life as larvae and

_

I

outer layer covering the

it flies away.

3

Moulting is now complete. The adult rests

Adult is

while its new exoskeleton hardens and its wings unfurl.

the nymph will already

the body and helps

almost

Nymph

have been through

free of the

Its old exoskeleton, now empty

to retain moisture.

on twig

four previous moults.

nymph’s skin.

and brittle, still clings to the twig.

Feeding

Carnivores Many arthropods feed on other

Defence

Stings and pincers

animals. Garden spiders, for

As arthropods are generally small

animal matter, both living and dead. Some

example, feed mainly on insects.

in size, they are the target for a

have pincers to gather food; others use their front legs. Many have cutting and chewing mouthparts, while those that feed on fluids, such as true bugs, have mouths modified for sucking.

Some meat eaters also eat dead animals and are called scavengers.

great many predators. Their hard

Scorpions also use their large

birds and other debris found

suit of armour, provides the first

pincers to catch

on the beach and seabed.

line of defence. Some arthropods,

animals. They

Web spun around wasp

then use their

such as pill millipedes, take a

venom-filled

passive form of defence and roll

stings to

Small aquatic arthropods eat by

up into a ball if danger threatens.

paralyze

filtering food particles from water.

Other arthropods have special stings and pincers. Many ant

Some arthropods, such as chafer beetles,

species have glands on their

eat only plant matter. Adults feed on stems,

abdomens from which they secrete

leaves, and buds, while larvae eat plant roots. Garden spider feeding on a wasp

Field chafer beede

74

to defend themselves against attackers.

exoskeleton, which acts as a tiny

protective weapons*, including

FIND OUT

and stings which they use

Sand crabs scavenge on dead

Herbivores

MORE

Cluster of young garden spiders

Some arthropods have pincers

Arthropods feed on all kinds of plant and arthropods, such as praying mantises,

1 Hard exoskeleton

dragonfly

Insects

^

expands before a new exoskeleton hardens in place of the

of the

bodied chaser

m tarantula

Arachnids

must shed, or moult, this rigid layer. Its body then rapidly

substance

in some sp>ecies. Their bodies

Europiean lobster

segments, and they have distinct heads with antennae or eyes.

Exoskeleton

have more legs than other

eye helps it to catch are long and tubular. They live in the soil or among leaf debris. prey in flight.

from tiny mites to large crabs. Their bodies are divided into

mainly

include millipedes and centipedes. They

arthropods — as many as 200

ocean depths. Arthropods are invertebrates — animals without backbones. They come in many shapes and sizes,

are made

Two pairs of

creatures a fraction of a millimetre long in weight. There are four main types

the largest group in the animal

“v Exoskeletoru

niillip>ecle

Ants and TERMITES

Beetles

Cave WILDLIFE

Crabs and other crustaceans

formic acid to drive off enemies. Flies

Grasshoppers AND crickets

Insects

their

Sting

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE sec INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Physical features

ASIA from the frozen Arctic to the equator, Asia is the world’s largest continent. It is also a continent of extremes, containing the world’s highest point. Mount Everest, as well as its lowest, the Dead Sea. China has the world’s greatest population, while Asia’s largest country, the Russian Federation, extends into Europe. Asia is separated from North America by the Bering Sea, and from Europe by the Caspian Sea, Turkey, and the Ural Mountains. In the southeast, it breaks into a mass of tiny o ^ islands. ^ Stretching

^ernaya Zemlya

Much of Southwest and Central Asia is covered with barren desert, such as the Gobi and Syrian deserts. The Himalayan Mountains separate the bleak north from the fierce heat of the Indian subcontinent and the tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia. Asia has many great rivers, including the Huang He, Mekong, and Indus, flanked by fertile plains and valleys.

Lake Baikal Siberia, the northern region of Asia, has the oldest, deepest, and eighth largest lake in the world. Lake Baikal, which contains more than 20 per cent of the worlds unfrozen fresh water, reaches a depth of 1,637 m (5,371 fr). It covers a total area of 31,468 sq km (12,150 sq miles).

GLORGI^^^,

t

TLB K.E T

?Sti

Himalayas The snow-capped Himalayan Mountains, the highest range in the world, form a massive natural barrier between the Indian subcontinent and northern Asia. They were pushed up millions of years ago when the Indian plate collided with the Eurasian plate.

Island countries Two Southeast Asian nations, Indonesia and the Philippines, have more than 20,000 islands between them. Most were formed by volcanic activity in the ocean, and the region has active volcanoes. Southeast Asia is prone to earthquakes.

Timor

AUSTRALASIA

Asia facts Area 44,680, 718 sq km (17,251,315 sq miles) Population 3,700,700,000

Cross-section through Asia From the Indian Ocean, the land rises to the Vindhya Range in central India descending to the Ganges Plain, watered by the Himalayas. In the east, ,, the mountains drop to the Great Plain of China. Across / the Yellow Sea, the Korean Peninsula juts out near to Japan in the Pacific Ocean. Indian Ocean./^ ,

Number of countries 49 Ganges Plain

Biggest country Russian Federation Smallest country Maldives Highest point Mt. Everest (China/Nepal) 8,848 m (29,029 fr) Lowest point Dead Sea shore (Israel) 400 m (1,312 ft) below sea-level Longest river Yangtze (Chang Jiang) (China) 6,380 km (3,965 miles)

Approximately 6,480 km (4,02"’ miles) from A to B

Biggest lake Caspian Sea 378,400 sq km (146,100 sq miles)

75

ASIA

Climatic zones

Coniferous forest

Tundra

Tundra

In the bitterly cold and

Asia has every kind of climate

treeless tundra region of

and landscape. In the far north,

Mountain

Siberia, the subsoil remains frozen — a condition

Siberia is covered in tundra,

known as piermafrost.

vi^here part of the ground is

With tempieratures of less

permanently frozen. South

than -10°C (14°F) and

of the tundra are coniferous

covered by snow for six to

forests and open grasslands

ten months of the year, the topsoil thaws only briefly

(steppes). Central and

Grassland

in the summer. The tundra

southwest Asia are mostly

has rich mineral resources.

desert and mountains, while Desert

the east has deciduous forests.

Wetland

, Mosses, lichens, and a

Tropical

Tropical rainforests cover much

few flowers appear briefly

rainforest

during the warmer months.

of the south and southeast.

The steppes are the Asian equivalent of the pampas and prairies of the Americas

Taiga The Siberian taiga, which lies to the south of the tundra, is the world s largest coniferous forest. The main trees are spruce, fir, larch, and pine. In the spring, much of the taiga becomes flooded as the

Harsh conditions make trees

Dunes form as sand drift',

stunted and sparse. Ice and snow

in the prevailing wind.

lower reaches of the north¬

Steppes

flowing rivers thaw, while

The wide, open grasslands that cover Mongolia and

their mouths remain

southern Siberia are known as the steppes. Livestock is

frozen. In summer, some

grazed on these broad, treeless plains, which, in places,

ground remains swampv:

merge into semi-desert. The soil is mostly fertile and, with

in winter it freezes.

irrigation, many areas have become productive farmland.

cover the region for half the year.

Temperatures average 21 °C

Trees lose their leaves in

(70°F), with 2.000 mm

winter as a means of protecting

(79 in) of rain per year.

themselves from wind and cold.

Deserts Asia has both hot and cold deserts, as well as many regions of semi-desert where animals can be grazed. Middle Eastern deserts are hot and dry all year, with cold nights. The Gobi and Taklimakan deserts of Central Asia have scorching summers, but are bitterly cold in winter.

Tropical rainforest

Deciduous forest

Wetlands

There are tropical rainforests in India, Southeast Asia, and

Asia has comparativelv few broadleaf

Mangrove swamps are found along many

the Philippines. They flourish on the southern slopes of the

forests of deciduous trees that shed

coasts of southern Asia, from India to the

Himalayas, and in Burma (Myanmar), the Malay Peninsula,

their leaves in winter. They occur

Philippines. The mangrove trees have

and the western part of the island of Irian jaya. Home to

mainly in eastern Asia, including

long, spreading roots, producing a forest

Mangrove roots help

40 per cent of all plant and animal species, the world’s

China, japan, and the Koreas, or

that looks as if it is on stilts. Logging and

stop coast eroding

rainforests are threatened, as people cut down trees for

in cooler upland areas, such as the

pollution are destroying many mangroves

in storms.

the timber industry and to clear space for farming.

People

Resources

Asia contains two-thirds of the

Asia’s natural resources include

world’s population, and the birth

farmland, which provides work for

rate is still rising in many countries.

60 per cent of the people, and the

Most people live in the southern

fishing grounds of the Pacific Ocean

and eastern regions and in the

Minerals include oil and natural gas

fertile river valleys. Many are farmers,

from the Gulf States, as well as

although increasing numbers are

bauxite, coppier, coal, diamonds,

moving into expanding cities in

gold, iron, lead, manganese,

search of work.

mercury, tin, and titanium. Israeli boy

FIND OUT

MORE 76

Asia, HISTORY OF

mountains of Nepal.

Asian WILDLIFE

Vietnamese girl

Climate

Japanese boy

Continents

Deserts

Tuna fish

Forests

Grassland WILDLIFE

Lakes

Mountains AND VALLEYS

Rainforest WILDLIFE

Tundra

ASIA,

HISTORY OF

Asia is the world’s largest continent and the birthplace of the world’s earliest civilizations, such as those of the Sumerians, China, and India. The emergence of these civilizations had a profound impact on history, both ancient and modern, as did the emergence of three major world religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam. Colonial interference affected Asia’s development over the centuries, but after decades of independent growth, today’s Asian economies are booming. There are still conflicts, however, and those in Southeast

Early development Early civilizations in Asia were largely isolated from each other and from the rest of the world by barriers of deserts, mountains, and oceans. Only the Middle East had strong connections with Europe. Therefore, Asian civilizations and cultures developed independently for thousands of

Asia and the Middle East tend to affect world politics.

years. Over time, major civilizations, such as those of India and China, began to affect other Asian countries.

Typically tiled Samarkandian

Central Asia For centuries the only travellers in the inhospitable

roof.

landscape of Central Asia v^ere traders using the Silk Road. In 1398, the Mongolian warrior Timur (13361405) swept down from the steppes and founded a Central Asian empire. Samarkand In 1369, Timur moved his capital to the prosperous city of Samarkand, in modern

Swat,

Uzbekistan. The city experienced a golden

Pakistan

age and became the architectural jewel of

Kushan Empire

Central Asia as Timur and his descendants

In c. 170 BC, a northern Chinese clan, the Yuezhi, moved

built palaces, astronomical observatories,

west to Central Asia. By the 3rd cenmry AD, they had

and Islamic colleges. In the early 1 SOOs,

founded an empire that stretched from eastern Iran to the

nomadic Uzbeks attacked the city.

Ganges in India. The Kushans controlled fertile river valleys and were at the centre of the silk trade. They encouraged Buddhism and religious an, but declined in the 4th century.

Uleg Beg Medrasa, Uzbekistan

Padmasambhava A legendary sage and yoga exp>ert from Swat, modern Pakistan, Padmasambhava

Ancient civilizations

Koguiyo dynasty Bv the 7th century Chinas influence was

The Sumerians of western Asia

I

increasing, and Chinese monks converted

evolved the worlds first civiliza¬

Korea to Buddhism. The Kogurvo rulers

Buddhism. He and his

tion, but it was the early civilizations of

(1st century BC—AD 7th century) encouraged

consort, Yeshe Tsogyal,

India and China that affected Asia the

founded Tibetan

arrived in Tibet in 747, and established the first Buddhist

most. Their religions had special impact:

not only Buddhism but also Chinese script,

Hinduism (the religion of the people of

architecture, and culture.

monastery. TTie sage

India) and Buddhism (founded by

then sp)ent his life

Siddhartha Gautama and one of the three

writing and lecturing on the

the spread of Buddhism. From Korea, the missionaries went to Japan, which adopted

great religions of China) spread over Asia.

Kogyuro openwork cup

Chola dynasty

religion.

From 850-c. 1200, a powerful dynasty known as the Cholas began to dominate much of India. Thev built many Hindu temples and sptead their religion to Sri Lanka. They extended their naval power over the seas of Southeast Asia, and this helped spread Hinduism as far as Sumatra and Bali.

Southeast Asia For 1,000 years, India was the major shaping force of this region, and provided a mould for Southeast Asian culture, art, and religion. Its influence declined after c. 1300.

Siam Over centuries, waves of migrants from the north entered Siam (Thailand), and inter¬ married \s ith the native tribes. In the 13th century, one tribe, the Thais, unified Siam into a single nation with one monarch and one religion — Buddhism.

Sea routes From C.300, Indian traders sailed to Thailand, Malassia, Indonesia, and the Philippines. From the 1200s, Arabian merchants sptead Islam along sea trade routes. From c. 1500, the region also traded with Europe. A Hindu temple in Bali, Indonesia, attests to the Dhow leaving Muscat, Oman

great influence of the Chola dynasty.

77

ASIA, HISTORY OF

Trade and culture

Manchu Dynasty

Asian resistance

Gold-

Chinas Manchu Dynasty (1644-1911) was expansionist,

In the 17th and 18th centuries,

coated

During the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries trade thrived,

and spread its culture by acquiring other territories, such

China, Japan, Korea, and Siam

roof

though some Asian countries were closed to outsiders.

as Mongolia (1697), Tibet (1751), and eastern Turkestan

(Thailand) resisted European

(1760). At home, however, economic conditions worsened.

expansion. China confined

Russia and European countries bought silk, tea, and

European trade to Macao and

porcelain from China. India traded with the world, and

Canton, japan traded only

was famous for its handmade textiles, such as “paisley”,

with Holland at Nagasaki, and Korea remained closed

which was a traditional Indian pattern. During this

to the west. In 1688, a

period. Western powers became increasingly interested

revolution in Siam ended

in annexing Asian territories for trade purposes. Great Game

Yellow lotus is

French attempts to gain

a sacred

influence in Bangkok.

flower. Grand Palace,

During the 1800s, Russia

Bangkok

expanded into Central Asia. The British feared the Russians ■were aiming to take over India, and both sides began to spy on each other. The British called this the Great Game; to the Russians it was known as the Tournament of Shadows. Mountains of Lake Baikal, Russia

A rich womans silk robe, 19th century

Nineteenth-century colonization

Conversion of the Philippines

In the 19th century, European powers colonized

government encouraged Filipinos to become

Paoay church, Ilocos

In the late 1500s, the Spanish colonial

Norte Province, Philippines

Roman Catholics, and gave financial

much of Asia. The British took

support to missionaries. By the

over Burma, Malaya, North

18th century, most Filipinos in

Borneo, and Hong Kong; France

towns and lowland areas had converted to Catholicism.

dominated Indochina; the Dutch

The island of Mindanao,

controlled Indonesia; and Russia

however, embraced

annexed Central Asian provinces.

Islam, which was brought to them by Muslim traders. V'n;

Britain Russia

Netherlands

France

Japan

Golden East

Rama V

As Europe gained in military and industrial strength

Chulalonkorn (1853-

in the 19th century, it expanded, and Asia became

1910) became Rama V,

a rich source of food and raw materials. European

King of Siam, in 1868.

planters developed tea, coffee, and rubber plantations,

He travelled widely

founded tin mines, exploited Asian timber, and

throughout Asia, and

prosptected for gold, silver, and precious stones.

was determined to strengthen his country by a process of modernization. In the 1880s, he created a modern army, civil

Engra'ving of Anglo-Burmese wars, 1824

service, and education

Anglo'Burmese wars

Thailand lost some

system. Although In 1886, Burma lost its independence to Britain after

provinces to Britain

a series of wars. This takeover was strategic rather

and France, it managed

than trade-based; the British wanted to prevent the

Indian tea

French from gaining too much influence in Asia.

Rebellion

Vietnamese mahogany

to preserve its prestige and independence.

The king and queen of Siam

Timeline

c,330 BC Alexander the Great

4000-C.2500 BC The worlds

destroys the Persian Empire.

From the 1850s, there were rebellions

earliest civilization flourishes in

against European interference in Asian

Sumer, western Asia.

affairs. In 1857, the Sepoy Rebellion took place in India, and, in 1900, there was the

c.2500 BC Indus Valley p>eriod, India’s earliest civilization.

Boxer Rebellion in China. Both revolts were protests against western strength and culture. They were crushed by western

138 BC First recorded journey on the Silk Road.

C.50 Buddhism reaches China from India.

1800 BC Shang period: China’s earliest civilization starts to build

206 BC- AD 220 Height of the

its first cities.

Chinese Han Empire.

or colonial government forces. FIND OUT Cover of Le Petit Parisien, 1900, “Death to Foreigners”

78

MORE

Architecture

China, HISTORY OF

Confucius

ASIA, HISTORY OF

Living

World War II

Growth of nationalism

quarters ^

After World War 1, Asian

In 1941—42, Japan occupied Burma,

nationalism (a belief in independence) grew. In

Indochina, and Indonesia. After the

1918, Arab leaders over¬

horrors of occupation, these areas rejected

threw Turkish rule. The desire of Jews to create

all foreign rule. In China, communist

an independent state in

guerrillas resisting the Japanese, gained

Palestine gained support.

popular and political support.

By 1933, 238,000 Jews had settled in Palestine,

Two war veterans on the Death Railway,

and, in 1948, the state of

River Kwai, Thailand, 1990s

Israel was created.

Death Railway Jewish settlers in Palestine, 1930s

During World War II, the Japanese built a railway to

,:? _

link Burma and Thailand to supply Japanese troops in Burma. Many thousands of Asian labourers and

Independence movements After 1945, many Asian countries threw off colonial rule. In 194"', India and Pakistan struggled for and won independence from Britain. In 1948, a Jewish

Western prisoners died from malnutrition, disease, and exhaustion building the 420-km (260-mile) railway, and it became known as the Death Railway.

homeland, Israel, came into being. Indonesia won independence from the Netherlands m 1949, after a four-year batde. France also tried to prevent Vietnamese independence, but was defeated in 1954; the

Dragon economies In the 1980s, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong

These territories all

other French colonies, Laos

Kong, and South Korea used their well-

gained independence since

and Cambodia, became

educated populations and high investment

1939. There were eventually 48

independent in 1954 and

independent countries in post-war Asia.

1953 respeaively.

to become prosperous “dragon” economies. In the 1990s, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia also developed rapidly.

US troops carrying

Communist Asia

wounded soldiers from a "chopper”

In 1949, the communists established the Peoples Republic of China - the world s largest communist state. In 1954, the North Vietnamese created an independent communist state. From the 1960s, communist movements in Indonesia and Malaysia threatened to overthrow existing governments.

Taiwanese factory

Taiwanese exported goods Taiwan traditionally exported agricultural products, such Khe

as sugar, pineapples, and bananas; but by the 1980s it

Sanh,

also exported advanced electronic products, such as

Vietnam

personal computers, televisions, and portable phones.

Middle East conflicts

Timeline

Vietnam War

Since 1948, Arab-lsraeli territorial

From 1954, communist North

Chaim Weizmann

conflict, such as the war of 1973 (when

Vietnam sought to reunite with

Weizmann (1874-1952) was

Egypt and Syria attacked Israel), has

non-communist South Vietnam

born near Pinsk in Belorussia

dominated the .Vliddle East. Thete

by force. Originally a civil war, the

and studied chemistry in

have also been conflicts between Arab

Vietnam War escalated into an

Switzerland. In his youth he

countries, such as the Iran-ltaq wat

international conflia with the

became a passionate Zionist

(1980—88). Although the oil boom

gradual intervention of the United

and eventually was made head

has helped this situation by lessening

States in the 1960s. Following

of the World Zionist

povertv, the situation in the Middle

defeats and heavy casualties, the

Movement. After World War

East temains unstable

USA agreed to withdraw in 1973.

II, Weizmann campaigned for

In 1975, northern forces unified

the creation of Israel, and in

Oil rigs. Middle East

both halves of Vietnam.

1948, became the state of Israel’s first ptesident

1397 Mongols invade India.

c.618-907 Tlie sophisticated T’ang dynasty dominates China.

C.1488 Ming empierors rebuild the

1736-96 Manchu China

1907 Anglo-Russian

Great Wall of China.

prospiers under Empieror

agreement ends the Great

Qianlong.

Game in Central Asia.

C.1750 Cultural and

1949 Chinese Revolution.

1350-1460 Collapse of Khmer Empire,

1211 Mongol warrior Ghengis

1526-1707 Domination

Cambodia.

of Mughals in India.

Khan invades China.

artistic peak in Japan. 1453 Fall of

1600-1614 British,

1300s Silk Road is shut.

Constantinople

French, and Dutch form

1368 Ming dynasty exp>els

Ottoman Empire.

to the Turkish Mongols from China.

FIND OUT

MORE

^

India companies _

Empires

Exploration

Gandhi, MOHANDAS

Toy dog, Thailand, 1926

India, HISTORY OF

1950-53 Korean War. 175"' British take control 1954—75 Vietnam War.

of Bengal, India. 1839—42 First Opium War.

Japan, HISTORY OF

Muhammad

Toy robot, Japan, 1956

Persian EMPIRES

Warfare

79

ASIA,

CENTRAL Mainly arid desert

and

mountainous, Central Asia is made up of five countries. The Silk Road, an ancient trade route between China, the Middle East, and Europe, once passed through the region, boosting the textile industry, and making handwoven rugs from Central Asia

Physical features Much of Central Asia is covered by two hot, dry deserts: the Karakumy and the Kyzyl Kum. The rest is largely rugged

The name Kyzyl Kum means “red sands”.

small area of farmland, w^hich

This desert region lies south of the Aral

has been extended by irrigation.

Sea, between the rivers Syr Daria and Amu

world famous. From 1922 until 1991 the whole area, apart from Afghanistan,

Darya, mostly in Uzbekistan. Few people apart from nomads live here. Much of it is covered by low hills and sandy wasteland.

Tien Shan The literal translation ofTien Shan is “Heavenly Mountains”. This range of ice-capped peaks

was part of the Soviet Union. Under communist rule, the countries were

runs for about 3,000 km (1,864 miles) from eastern Kyrgyzstan into China. The highest point is

partly modernized. Today, however, as independent nations they face an uncertain future. In 2001 Afghanistan was linked to the terrorist attacks of September 11

Kyzyl Kum

mountain chains. There is a

Pobeda Peak, 7,439 m (24,406 ft). Mountain rivers form broad, fertile valleys, which are used for farming.

Karakumskiy Ship Canal The Karakumskiy Ship Canal is being built

in the USA and was devastated by

from the Amu Darya, one of Central Asia’s

US-led reprisal bombings.

It will link the river with the Caspian Sea,

main rivers, across the Karakumy Desert.

1,400 km (870 miles) away.

Regional climate Most of this region is cold in winter and verv hot and dry in summer. Rainfall is uniformly low, which hampers forming. The mountain regions are always cooler than the lowlands, and many of the peaks are permanently covered bv snow and ice

ASIA. CENTRAL

Turkmenistan

Turkmenistan facts

Only nvo per cent

Uzbekistan cent of Uzbekistan

Area 488,100 sq km (188,455 sq miles)

With irrigation, cotton, fruit,

Population 4,500,000 Main languages Turkmen, Russian

wheat, and vegetables are produced. Many people live in nomadic tribes, and there

Capital CITY Tashkent

Capital city Ashgabat

of Turkmenistan’s arid land can be farmed.

Uzbekistan facts

Although 80 per

Major rfi igion Muslim

Area 447,400 sq km

is covered by dry steppe and

(172,741 sq miles)

desert, its areas of fertile land

Population 24,.500,000

and resources of oil, gas,

Main languages Uzbek, Russian

gold, copper, and coal make

Currency Manat

Major religion Muslim

it one of Central Asia’s

is much intertribal tension.

Currency Som

wealthier countries. Fruit,

Turkmenistan is the world’s fifth

Akhal-Teke

silk cocoons, and vegetables

The Tillya-Kari is

An intricate mosaic

largest producer of natural gas.

Known as the

are exported to Moscow.

an Islamic seminary

covers building.

Uzbekistan has the world’s

in Registan Square.

“wind of heaven”, Akhal-Teke race¬ horses have been

largest single gold mine.

bred in the south of the Karakumy Desen for centuries. Fast, hardy, and well suited to the hot, harsh climate, Akhal-Tekes compete in traditional horse races at the Ashgabat hippodrome.

Saddlecloths

Carpets

Cotton

For centuries, Turkmenistan has produced beautiful,

Uzbekistan is the world s

velvetv carpets in deep, toning shades of red, brown,

fourth largest producer

Home to 370,000 people, the ancient city of Samarkand

and maroon. Women hand-knot each carpet using

of cotton. However, the

was once the centre for trade in silk from China. Today,

fine wool from karakul sheep. They make several

irrigation system used to

the manufacture of silk and cotton textiles is still the city’s

sizes, including khali (large), ensi (door rug), as well

water crops has seriously

main industry. Samarkand’s Registan Square contains

as weaving curtains, sacks, bags, and pouches.

depleted the Aral Sea.

some magnificent 14th-century Islamic architecture.

Kyrgyzstan facts

Kyrgyzstan

B

Samarkand

Capital city Bishkek

Dominated by the arid Tian Shan

Area

Tajikistan facts

Tajikistan

Capital CITY Dushanbe

The poorest of

198,500 sq km (76.640 sq miles)

the former Soviet

Area

143,100 sq km (55,251 sq miles)

Population 4,7‘'4,000

republics, Tajikistan has been

Population 6,200.000

mainly rural country. Only

Main language Kyrgvz, Russian

torn by civil war ever since

Main languages Tajik, Uzbek

seven per cent of the land is

Major religion Muslim

independence. The main

Major reugion Muslim

cultivable. Half is used for

Currency Som

conflict is between ethnic

Currency Somoni

mountains, Kyrgyzstan is a

growing fodder for livestock:

Tajiks, who make up about

the rest supports

two-thirds of the population,

vegetables, wheat,

and Uzbeks, who make up

fruit, cotton,

Watermelon

one-quarter. Tajikistan has

and tobacco.

m

rich mineral resources.

Gold

People

Resources

The population of

Gold and mercury are

Kyrgyzstan is made up

mined for expon, as

of 57 per cent Kyrgvz

well as smaller amounts

people. The rest are

of other minerals,

mainly Russians and

including iron ore. tin,

Uzbeks. Many Russians

lead, copper,-zinc, and

are leaving as a result of

bauxite. Kyrgyzstan

Farming

the strong nationalist

also has reserves of oil,

Only about six per cent of Tajikistan is

feelings that have grown

coal, and gas, and its

Uranium

suitable for farming. The main farming areas

in the country since

many rivers and lakes

Tajikistan has 14 per cent of the

are in the northwest, near Khudzhand, and the

the end of Soviet rule.

give it great potential

world’s uranium, used as nuclear fuel.

southwest, south of Dushanbe. Melons, grapes,

Ethnic tension also

for hydroelectric power.

It is a major export, but the end of the

and peaches are grown in fertile soils washed

nuclear arms race has reduced its value.

down from the mountains into the valleys.

exists with the Uzbeks.

Afghanistan

Afghanistan facts

Taliban An Islamic sect called the Taliban took

Capital CITY Kabul

Afghanistan has a long history

power in 1996 and created a hardline

of war. After years of civil strife,

regime which banned many freedoms.

Arf.a 652,090 sq km (251,770 sq miles)

Women suffered heavily under Taliban

Population 26,800.000

Afghanistan was further destroyed by a US-

rule as they were forbidden to receive Main LAnGuaGFA Persian, Pashto

led ‘war on terrorism’ in 2001—02. Pashtuns

an education, hold a job, or show their

are the majority ethnic group. Afghanistan

faces in public. The Taliban fled power

Major religion Muslim

in 2001 during western war reprisals

Currency Afghani

is one of the world’s poorest countries.

FIND OUT

Asia,

MORE

HISTORY OF

Deserts

Farming

for the September 11 terrorist attacks.

Horses

Islam

Mountains

Nuclear

Rocks and

Textiles

Trade and

AND VALLEYS

POWER

MINERALS

AND WEAVING

INDUSTRY

81

ASIAN WILDLIFE the frozen Arctic in the north to the warm Asia stretches from

tropics in the south. Although much of Asia is undulating plain,

Temperate forest wildlife Asian temperate woodlands are rich in species of broadleaved trees. Summers are mild, but winters can be cold, and after the leaves have fallen, there is litde food or shelter. Some animals migrate or hibernate; others, such as the Japanese macaque, are adapted to the cold.

it also boasts the awesome mountain range of the Himalayas. Much of the interior receives little rain, but parts of India hold the world record for annual rainfall. This continent of contrasts provides many

Japanese emperor butterfly Only the male Japanese emperor has an iridescent purple sheen, but both sexes have spotted wings. This pattern breaks up their outline, making it diEicult to sec where they land on sunflecked foliage. Their caterpillars are leaf green, to camouflage them

habitats, each with its own characteristic plants and animals. Many of the world s best known endangered species, such as giant pandas and tigers, live in Asia. But many less publicized, smaller animals

on the leaves of celtis trees, on which they feed.

Japanese macaque Living throughout most of Japan, the Japanese macaque lives in a more northerly climate than

and plants are also threatened by the

any other monkey. In winter it grows a thick coat for protection, and some troops sit in

steady spread of human populations.

Purple

hot springs to avoid the chill of a snowstorm.

iridescence

Roots, buds, and shoots form its winter diet.

of male

Rainforest wildlife

Saltwater crocodile Large reptiles, such as saltwater crocodiles, lie

Asia’s rainforests are warm all year

out on the shores of rainforest rivers in the

round, but they do have short

morning sun to warm up their bodies. Later

dry seasons. They are festooned

on, when the Sun gets too hot, the crocodiles return to the water to cool down.

with lianas and epiphytes. The rainforest provides homes for animals at all levels, from fruit bats in the canopy to tigers on the forest floor.

Bill is used to kill snakes

Long aerial roots

and scorpions.

Striped coat provides

Banyan tree

camouflage in forest.

Some fig trees, such as the

Tiger The tiger spends much of

banyan tree, stan life as a

its day roaming through its

tiny seedling that grows in the

rainforest territory, stalking

crown of another rainforest tree. The banyan tree sends

The papery orange berries

M

Rhinoceros hornbill

and to avoid the heat

H

With its loud call and noisy wingbeats, the

of the day, they cool

aerial roots down to the

lanterns enclose

prey. Tigers love water,

ground, that enmesh

down by basking

and kill the host tree.

in shallow pools.

Grassland wildlife

K

rhinoceros hornbill is a very noticeable

W

rainforest inhabitant. It uses its huge bill with great dexterity to pick fmit and kill prey.

Tawny eagle The tawny eagle nests in shrubs and

Asia has boda tropical savannahs

trees by watercourses. It flies long distances over steppies and semi-arid

and vast plains of temperate steppes,

deserts in search of food. The tawny

with hot, dry summers. However,

eagle is a skilful hunter, but it

grasses and drought-resistant shrubs

increases its chances

do grow there. Large animals have

of getting enough food by feeding

adapted to conserve moisture; smaller

on carrion and

ones shelter in burrows.

stealing other predators’ prty.

Saiga antelope Chinese lantern

Herds of saiga

The Chinese lantern

antelopes migrate south

is a drought-resistant

in winter to escape severe

plant. Its roots spread

weather. They return nonh

deep into the soil to Heavy

are more plentiful. Saigas have a

water. New shoots

snout

mucous-lined sac in the snout

appear each spring,

82

in summer, when the grasses

reach any available

Hooked beak for tearing flesh of prey

that warms inhaled air in

that bear flowers

winter and filters out dust

Eagle has pushed off ground

and edible fruits.

in the hot, dry summer.

to launch itself into the air.

ASIAN WILDLIFE

Hooked beak helps

Mountain wildlife

Himalayan griffon

pidl apart

The Himalayan griffon is a large, aggressive vulture

The steep crags and valleys of the Himalayas

that soars over some of the highest mountain slopes in

provide many refuges for wildlife. Forests on the

search of food. The diet of vultures is almost entirely

prey.

restricted to carrion. The Himalayan griffons powerful

lower slopes give way to high altitude meadows

hooked bill is strong enough to rip open the leathery

and snowfields. Animals of the higher slopes,

hide of a dead yak to feast on the entrails.

such as the yak, are adapted to survive the Sharp spines on head

winters; others migrate to warmer, lower slopes.

and neck provide protection.

Rhododendron

Yak

When in flower, rhododendrons set the mountainside ablaze with a riot _

of colour. Their tiny seeds are readily spread by wind or water.

Domesticated for centuries, the yak is still found living wild in some parts of its mountain range. With its long, shaggy coat, a yak can survive temperatures as low as -40“C (-40“F). It grazes on whatever plants are available, including mosses and lichens, and can use snow as a source of water.

Armoured pricklenape agama This lizard lives in the treetops in mountain forests. Its greeny-brown scales conceal it among twigs and Long toes and claws grip when

leaves. Pricklenape agamas have sharp claws that give them a sure grip, as they

climbing.

run and leap through the branches.

Boreal forest wildlife

Norway spruce

forages for insects in the

Just south of the Arctic tundra is a vast

a characteristic feature of

forest and even up into the

forest of conifer trees. In Asia, this boreal

Northern bat In summer, this hardy bat

■Arctic Circle. To survive the

Narrow-crowned spruces are

the taiga. Snow slides easily from their curved branches

forest is called the taiga. Wildflowers,

winter it hibernates in caves

without breaking them.

or buildings. Its distribution

and animals such as the sable, are

is dictated by the availability

adapted to exploit the brief summers

the western reaches of the

of suitable roost sites.

and withstand the long, harsh winters.

taiga, soon giving way to

Norway spruce grows at

Siberian spruce. The seeds of both trees provide food

Fur for warmth

Sable

for birds and rodents. Thick fur covers the whole body and even the soles of the feet.

Great grey owl To find enough food, including voles, lemmings, and other small rodents, the great grey owl hunts by day as well as night. It may travel fiu to a good source of food, but returns to the dense boreal forest to breed. It chooses a secure nest site in a tree, or may use another large bird’s old nest.

Desert wildlife

Onager

Not all deserts are hot all year round. Temperate deserts, such as the Gobi in Central Asia, have scorching hot summers, but icy cold winters. Nights are cold even in summer, as there is

Mongolian gerbil

Onagers live in small herds in the

Like many small desert animals, these

desen. There is little vegetation

gerbils escape from temperature extremes

here for grazing animals, but the

by digging underground burrows. Living

onager can cope with eating

below ground also helps to conserve bodily

tough desen grasses and straw.

moisture. Gerbils nibble roots, shoots, seeds,

Wolves, although uncommon,

and buds, and drink water if it is available.

are their main predators.

no vegetation to trap the heat. To survive

To defend themselves,

here, animals must be adapted both to the

onagers can run fast

dry environment and extremes of temperature.

sufficient moisture from the early morning dew

for long distances.

on their food.

Almost all-round vision

Bactrian camel

In a drought, they can get

helps them to spot danger.

Few of these desen creatures remain in the wild. A Bactrian camel has a very thick woolly coat to protea it from severe

Pale furfor

cold in winter. Fat stored in two humps on its back enables

canwuflage

it to survive with litde food or water for long periods of time.

in desert

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Bats

Birds of PREY

Buffalo and other WILD CATTLE

Camels

Deer and ANTELOPES

Lions and OTHER WILD CATS

Rats and OTHER RODENTS

Trees

83

ASOKA see MAURYAN EMPIRE • ASSES, WILD see HORSES

ASSYRIAN EMPIRE beside the Tigris river in northern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), developed as

The grand city of ASHUR,

an important trading centre; by 2000 BC, it had become the capital of a great Assyrian kingdom. From 1400 BC, Assyrian armies were marching north and west to secure trade and obtain Extent of the empire

booty and tribute. Feared for their military strength, they soon came to dominate the Near East. Assyrian kings built several capital cities after Ashur, of which Nimrud and Nineveh were the most magnificent. Assyrian civilization and culture, however, were heavily influenced by

The greatest extent of the empire was reached in the 7th century, when the well-equipped soldiers of King Ashurbanipal conquered and held lands from Egypt to Iran. Assyrian governors controlled the provinces. They were expeaed to send taxes

Babylonia to the south, and it was the Babylonians who eventually

back to the Assyrian capital and recruit soldiers

absorbed the Assyrians into their empire.

for the army.

Bronze armour

Army The Assyrian army was the most efficient fighting machine of its time, and its reputation alone was often enough to frighten rebellious states into surrender. At first, the army consisted of native Assyrians, but Tiglath-Pileser III (745—727

BC)

recruited men from other areas of the empire. They were armed with iron helmets, armour, spears, swords, and shields. The Assyrians also used chariots and siege engines (battering rams on wheels), the most

Assyrian official

advanced weapons of the time.

I

King Ashumasirpal II

engine

Stone relief of Assyrians attacking a

(r.883—859 BC)

town on the Euphrates river

Politics

Art and literature

Ashur was overcrowded.

At his coronation, the Assyrian king swore to

Brightly painted, stone-relief carvings,

Nimrud was built in the

expand the empire. The Assyrians believed their

the most spec¬

Nimrud and Nineveh By 900 BC, the city of

9th century BC; Nineveh was constructed in the 7th

tacular of all

god Ashur (after whom the first city was named)

Assyrian art

chose each king, so he had absolute

century BC. These cities were famous for their

power. He appointed all the

forms, decorated

splendid palaces

governors of the various parts of

palace walls from

and temples.

Queens of Assyria

900

Exotic animals

responsible for all the temples.

Some Assyrian queens were

decorated royal

from all over the

The king demonstrated his power

so powerful they became

furniture with

his empire, led the army, and was

empire, such as

and wealth by many ambitious

elephants and lions,

building projects. A network of

filled the wildlife parks and gardens

spies reported to the king on all

that surrounded the

Sammurammat (Semiramis),

Artists

carvings of real or

dominated court for 42 years

mythical animals,

in the 9th century BC. Some

such as sphinxes.

royal jewellery has been

matters within the empire.

city of Nineveh.

legendary. One such,

BC.

found in tombs at Nimrud.

Ivory winged sphinx

Timeline

879 BC Ashumasirpal 11

701 BC Sennacherib

612 BC Median

Sennacherib

2400 BC The city of Ashur

builds a new capital at

leads his army to

and Babylonian armies

Sennacherib (r.704—

dominates trade routes.

Kalhu (Nimrud).

Jerusalem from his new

destroy Nineveh.

681 BC), a strong

609 BC Crown prince

years building

capital at Nineveh.

king, spent many

1900 BC, Assyrians establish

744-727 BC King

trading colonies in Anatolia

Tiglath-Pileser 111

689 BC Sennacherib

Nebuchadnezzar of

Nineveh. He

(modern Turkey).

creates an empire.

destroys Babylon.

Babylon finally defeats

established control

the Assyrians.

over the coast of

1250 BC Kings of Assyria

721-705 BC

664 BC Ashurbanipal

campaign as far as the

Sargpn II builds capital at

attacks and conquers

606 BC The Medcs from

and destroyed

Mediterranean and Babylon.

Khorsabad (Dur-Sharrokin)

Egypt.

Iran sack Nineveh.

Gold earring

the Mediterranean,

Babylon, but he was murdered by

FIND OUT

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Arms and ARMOUR

Asia, HISTORY OF

Babylonian EMPIRE

Hittites

Phoenicians

Sumerians

Warfare

his jealous sons.

r

ASTEROIDS see COMETS AND METEORS

Astrology and astronomy

ASTROLOGY

Aries

The scientific study of stars and planets is known as astronomy. For thousands

For centuries,

people have

of years, astronomy and astrology were

believed that the position of the stars and planets has an influence on human life. The study of this influence is known as astrology. It began about

Taurus

closely linked. From the 17th century onwards, however, leaps in scientific knowledge resulted in astronomy becoming increasingly important, while belief in astrology began to wane.

An early telescopic

4,000 years ago in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and eventually spread throughout the ancient world. In most cultures astrology was regarded as a science, and many rulers even used astrology when making important political decisions. Today, although there is no scientific proof for its accuracy, many people still believe in astrology.

Libra

This line

Casting a horoscope

represents the

To draw up your horoscope, or binh

horizon at the

chart, astrologers need to know the

time of birth.

exact date, time, and place of your birth. They then use careful calculations to plot the Sagittarius

position of the Sun, Moon, and planets. Astrologers claim

Astrological map showing the

that they can interpret the

view of the universe in 1660.

Twelve signs of the zodiac

finished horoscope to reveal your character. The chart is

Celestial spheres

Signs of the zodiac

Ancient astrologers believed that the

Each sign of the zodiac takes its

Universe was a gigantic sphere, with

name from ancient mythology.

divided into 12

Complicated

the Earth at the centre and the stars

Early astrologers chose names

houses, one for

calculations

circling around it. They divided this

to suit the shapes formed by the

sphere into 12 sections, each of which

constellations - the stars that

each zodiac sign.

calculators.

Astrological wheel Chinese astrology features 12 animals, and each represents a different personality type. For example, people born

was named after a constellation of

make up Leo, for example, were

fixed stars - the signs of the zodiac.

thought to resemble a lion.

Fortune telling has given rise to many different forms

an element of randomness. Throwing dice is

to culture. They include crystal ball

are said to be sociable,

gazing, dream interpretation,

way of

palmistry, divination sticks, tarot

The black and white

reading, runes, numerology, and the

bands represent the

/ Ching, an ancient Chinese oracle.

Universe’s balancing Consulting a fortune teller animal sign

in Hong

is linked to one of

Z1 Water

Wood

I Earth

Fire

Many fortune-telling systems use dice, coins, or cards to introduce

of prediction, which vary from culture

forces of yin and yang.

The five elements

Pisces

The role of chance

People’s desire to see into the future

in the year of the Snake confident, and energetic.

Aquarius

making predictions.

%

I Ching coins

Kong

the five elements. Gold

Chinese horoscopes Unlike Western astrology which is Tarot cards

Palmistry

based on the movement of the Sun and planets, Chinese horoscopes are based

Associations

Each person’s palm is unique, with its

Tarot cards are found

Each astrological animal

own distinctive pattern of lines. Palm

worldwide. They can be

on the cycle of the Moon. Each

is associated with a certain

readers believe these markings reveal the

dealt in many different

Chinese year is named after a different

food, colour, and symbol.

owner’s character, past and future. As

ways, and are thought to

animal — the Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit,

The Rat’s symbol is the

well as both palms the palmist

set of balances, its colour

examines the fingers and nails.

Dragon, Snake, Horse, Ram, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, and Pig.

answer specific questions. Palmistry hand

or be a guide to the future.

is black, and it is linked with salty-tasting foods.

FIND OUT

MORE

Astronomy

China, HISTORY OF

Science, history OF

Stars

Sun and SOLAR SYSTEM

85

Living in space

ASTRONAUTS

Daily life for an astronaut includes all the usual things, such as breathing, eating,

More than 350 people have

sleeping, and going to the bathroom. The big difference, however, is living in

travelled into space; 26 on

weightless conditions. Sleeping astronauts

missions to the Moon and the rest in orbit around Earth. For

float around the spacecraft unless tethered down, and using the toilet

journeying into space, astronauts must be

has to be carefully

physically and mentally fit. They must also be trained to prepare them for living and working in the hostile environment of space.

controlled. Astronauts need daily exercise to keep fit in the

Pressure helmet

weightless

MMU

conditions

Spacesuit

To fly free from the spacecraft,

of space.

When astronauts work outside

backpack, the Manned

an astronaut wears a powered

the spacecraft, they need to weat a suit that keeps their

Visor

Cap

body at the correct temperature and protects them from fast-

Communications headset

€4

moving micrometeoroids. The Communications^ _

fot bteathing and be pressutized

input socket Oxygen inlets

atmosphetic pressute in space.

and outlets

was a Russian, Yuri Gagarin (1934-68). His flight on 12 April 1961 took him once around the

strapped to leg.

'

>

about 20 m/s (65 ft/s).

spacecraft, Vostok I, was controlled from

different foods and 20 drinks. The meal tray is strapped down and the food

Water inlet and

^

' IT'

are prepared from 70 Vacuum-

pack

eaten with the hand

Rubber grips stop items

or cudery. Liquids are

floating

sucked from cartons

away.

or tubes.

Pressure glove

Space toilet Astronauts outside the

Ir

spacecraft “go to the toilet” in their spacesuit, where the Extravehicular glove

Wrist clamp

waste materials are collected. Inside the craft, they use a space toilet, making sure they

Apollo 9 spacesuit

one knew how the space flight Gagarins

Meals on the space shuttle

wrapped food

_„ Liquid-cooled

^

Earth and lasted 108 minutes. No would affect a human, so

Space food

arm rests, propel the astronaut at

outlet

because thete is no ait ot

The first person to fly into space

Meal tray

nitrogen thrusters, operated from

undergarment

suit must also provide oxygen

Yuri Gagarin

Manoeuvring Unit (MMU). Mini

are firmly strapped to the seat. The waste is sucked away by

Urine transfer

the toilet and collected in a

connection

secure unit. .Integrated thermal

Snap-on fastening

k

micrometeoroid

. Rubber suction cups

Suction shoes

garment

Staying in one place in

the ground.

a spacecraft can be a problem. Suction-cup shoes allow astronauts to get a better grip.

Working in space

Repair work

Endurance record

Once a satellite is in

Most astronauts spend only a

Each member of a space crew

space it is left to work

few days in space, but some

has specific tasks. These may

on its own. But

stay for months. Russian

occasionally one needs

cosmonaut Sergei Avdcyev

repairing. The cargo

holds the overall endurance

include flying the craft, releasing a satellite into orbit, or

bay of the space

record (748 days). Russian

testing new equipment. The

shutde is equipped

Valeri Poliakov holds the

with a robotic arm,

record for longest single stay

weightless conditions of space mean that astronauts can also

which specially trained

(438 days).

astronauts use to

perform experiments not

recover the satellite.

possible on Earth.

They can then repair

Space animals

the satellite and release

Humans are not the only

it back into orbit.

space travellers; early ones included dogs, rats, and mice. Animals are no longer

Experiments

sent into space alone, but

Astronauts have

flies, ftogs, and tadpoles

carried out many

occasionally accompany

experiments in

human astronauts.

space. These include observing how living

Chimpanzee Ham returned safely from his 1961 flight.

things such as bees are affected by weightlessness.

86

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Exploration

Gravity

Health and FITNESS

Moon

Rockets

Space EXPLORATION

ASTRONOMY

Astronomers’ tools Astronomers collect data from space by

Astronomy is the study of space and everything it contains. It is a subject that has been studied since ancient times when humans used their eyes to gaze out at the stars and planets. Todays astronomers use sophisticated equipment to collect information about space

analysing a range of electromagnetic radiations; light and radio waves as well as other wavelengths such as X-ray, infrared, and ultraviolet. Astronomers use specialized telescopes with various attachments for collecting and studying the data. Telescope

and how the Universe as a whole works.

The finest and most powerful telescopes use one or more mirrors to

Kitt Peak Observatory

The largest optical telescope at Kitt Peak is the 4-m (13-fi) Mayall.

Observatories

collect light from a distant object and form an image.

An astronomers telescopic equipment

Electronic devices or

is housed and used in an observatory.

photographic plates rather than the eye collect the

The atmosphere distorts light and

data. Other attachments,

other radiations from space, so

such as spectroscopes and photometers, help analyse

many observatories are located

light emitted by stars.

at high altitudes.

Hubble Space Cameras and

Space observatory

Telescope

instruments

Telescopes in space

located inside

collect data 24 hours a day and transmit it

\

back to Eanh. The Hubble Space Telescope, launched in 1990, orbits Earth, collecting data from optical and ultraviolet wavelengths.

Solar

Antenna

Optical observatory

Radio observatory

for sending

The world’s biggest optical observatories are on mountain tops, away

Radio waves are largely unaffeaed by the

data__

from city lights and where the atmosphere is clear and dry. The Kitt Peak

atmosphere, so radio telescop)es can be sited

National Observatory, which has 22 major telescopes, is on a 2,100-m

virtually anywhere. The 305-m (1,000-ft)

(6,900-ft) mountain in Arizona, USA. Observatories sited in such

Arccibo radio dish (above) is in a natural

inaccessible places need support services for the astronomers and their

hollow on the island of Pueno Rico It is

equipment, including accommodadon, workshops, and transport.

the world’s largest single radio dish.

Antenna for sending data

[S'

Space probe

Lander

Objects in the Solar System

under

have been studied at close

1

^

hand by space probes.

)

Instruments perform a ‘

Astronomer at work

I

e

panel /

host of investigations,

Observation

including making

Only a fraction of an astronomer’s dme is spent observing. Instead, most of the

detailed images of planets

Solar

and their moons, and

panel

analysing what they are

dau comes from observadons made and

Most astronomets

recorded by other astronomers on big

made of Two identical

specialize in one area

telescopes, or from automatic

Viking probes investigated

of research, such as

equipment on space probes. The

planetary geology,

observations are used to help build

Viking probe

Mars in 1976.

theories or to confirm an established

interplanetary dust,

theory, such as how stars form.

stellar development,

Fred Hoyle

Charge-coupled

galaxy fotmation, or

Data collection

quasars. Whatever the

The CCD, an

device (CCD)

facing 20th-century astronomers.

that records data

can be found in one

from space, can

of two main locations:

collect enough

A major breakthrough was explaining nucleosynthesis — how from the hydrogen inside stars.

to keep an astronomer

observatories.

He also wrote science fiction novels.

busy for years.

Analysis

Timeline

Data can be collected

1609 First use of the

directly on to a

telescope for the

computer and then

systematic study of space.

I863 Analysis of

Uranus doubled the

images and handle

diameter of the known

large amounts of

Solar System

j

1923 Astronomen than the Milky Way.

elements

Computers can process

i

the same

transferred to other 1781 Discovery of

'W

observe galaxies other

starlight shows stars are made of

computers for analysis.

r L

^

chemical elements are produced

data in a few hours

in universities and

(1915-2001) helped to solve some of the most baffling questions

electronic chip

subject, an astronomer

The British astronomer Fred Hoyle

1963 Quasar Supernova

is discovered.

as those

1999 Hubble telescope

on Earth, \

i

Nr

Uranus

Quasar

1987 Supernova

sights 18 other galaxies up

1987A explodes.

to 65 million years away.

information much more quickly than an astronomer.

FIND OUT

MORE

Atmosphere

Galaxies

Space EXPLORATION

Stars

Telescopes

Universe

87

ASTROPHYSICS see PHYSICS

Water jump fot

ATHLETICS

Pole vault

Hammer and discus

Triple jump

Long jump Shot put

steeplechase

takes place

This popular sport

mainly in a stadium where it is divided into two main categories: track and field. Track includes running and hurdling races; field includes jumping and throwing. Some athletics events involve more than one discipline — 10 in the decathlon for men;

High jump

seven in the heptathlon for women. Other events are road and cross-country running. Major competitions are the Olympics and world and continental championships.

Athletics stadium

The lOO-m sprint,

The finish

In an athletics stadium, there

lOO-m hurdles, and

line is in

have a staggered

is a 400-m (437-yd) running

llO-m hurdles are

the same

start which means

track, usually marked with

the only races run

place for

athletes do not start

eight lanes. The field events

in a straight line.

all races.

in a straight line.

Races around bends

take place in special areas on the grass area inside the track.

Athlete stays in the

Track events

Jumping events

air as short a time

There are four jumping

as possible.

Racing takes place on the

events. In the high jump

flat and over hurdles.

and pole vault, the bar is

Competitors in events

gradually raised.

up to 400 m have to stay

Competitors are

in their lane for the

eliminated if they have

whole race. The 800 m is

three consecutive failures.

run in lanes until the

In the long jump and

end of the first bend.

triple jump, competitors

A photo-finish camera

have a set number of

is used to determine

attempts, the best one

final places, and runners

counting. The triple jump

are timed to 0.01 seconds

is a hop, step, and jump.

Hurdling

Pole vault Poles, usually made of fibreglass, may be of any size. The vaulter plants the pole in a sunken box at the end of the run-up before

Athletes have to negotiate 10

Carl Lewis

hurdles in all the races —

Running

In 1984, American Carl Lewis

100 m for women, 110 m for

Races on the track range from

and then straightens as the

(b. 1961) won Olympic golds in

men, and 400 m for men and

100 m to the 25-lap 10,000 m.

vaulter tries to clear the bar

the 100 m, 200 m, 4-by-IOO-m

women. In the 3.000-m

Runners use starting blocks for

feet first, releasing the pole.

relay, and the long jump. He won

steeplechase, runners take four

races from 100 m to 400 m.

five more gold medals in later

hurdles and the water jump

There are two standard relay races:

Long jump

Olympics and

on each full lap. They all use

4 by 100 m and 4 by 400 m, with

Competitors must take off

retained his long-

the same, fixed hurdles

team members passing a baton.

taking off. The pole bends

before the end of a

jump title three

wooden take-off board

times (1988—96),

sunk into the run-up. The

becoming only the second athlete in

jump is measured from the

Throwing events

end of the board to the

history to win four

In the shot put, discus, and hammer, competitors

golds in one event.

throw from special circles. In the javelin, they throw

nearest part of the sand disturbed by the competitor with any part

from behind a curved line at the end of a run-up.

of the body, hands, or legs.

Javelin Javelin distances are measured to where the tip first hits the ground.

Shot

It does not have to stick. Discus

High jump

Shot is a metal sphere weighing 7-26 kg (16 lb) for men and

Most high

4 kg (8.8 lb) for women. It is

jumpers use the Fosbury flop technique,

“put” with one pushing action

which involves turning at Hammer is a metal

The marathon

sphere fixed to a handle

This road race is 42.195 km

by steel wire. Most people

(26.2 miles) long. Some major races

turn three or four times

start and finish in the stadium. It

before releasing the hammer.

derives from the Battle of Marathon

Discus has a metal rim

take-off to pass head first

with a weight at the

and face up over the bar.

centre. Like the hammer,

Competitors are not

the discus is thrown from

allowed to take off from

a cage for safety reasons.

both feet together.

in 490 BC, when a messenger ran to Athens with news of the Athenian victory over the Persians.

88

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Greece, ANCIENT

Health and FITNESS

Human BODY

Olympic GAMES

ChXTNS, Jesse

Sport

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Atlantic Ocean facts Area 82,442,000 sq km (31,831,000 sq miles)

_

^

The ATLANTIC IS THE WORLD’S second biggest ocean, covering about one-fifth of the Earth’s

Average depth 3,(360 m (12,0u0 ft) Greatest depth 8,648 m (28,372 ft)

^^ L surface. It separates the Americas in the west from _ Europe and Africa in the east. The Arctic Ocean lies to the north, and Antarctica to the south. There are several seas around the edges of the Atlantic, including the Baltic and the Mediterranean seas in the east, and the Caribbean Sea in the west. The Atlantic contains some of the world’s richest fishing grounds, but is also the most polluted ocean because of the industry around its shores.

Puerto Rico Trench Length

16,000 km (9,900 miles)

Greatest width 8,000 km (4,900 miles)

Physical features The waters of the Atlantic are never still but move in huge belts of water or currents, such as the Gulf Stream, which affect the worlds climate. The currents can be as warm as 30°C (86°F) or as cold as -2°C (30°F). Many of the islands in the Atlantic are volcanic and lie on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The largest islands are Greenland and Iceland, bordered by the Greenland Sea in the north Atlantic.

Gulf Stream Although the Scilly Isles lie just off the coast of Britain, in the northern Atlantic, winters there are mild due to the influence of the Gulf Stream. This warm current, which flows at about 9 kmh (5.6 mph), starts in the Caribbean Sea, circles the Gulf of Mexico, and then heads north and east. Winds that blow over it pick up heat and raise the temperature of northern Europe, keeping ports free of ice in the winter.

Salmon

Fishing Although Atlantic fish stocks have run low over the past 20 years because of overfishing, salmon fishing is a thriving industry, and salmon hatcheries are increasingly common.

89

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Iceland

Physical features

Iceland facts

Iceland is a land of fire

HHSI The island country of Iceland lies far north in the Atlantic, midway between Europe and North Ametica, and is increasingly important for international

and ice, where steaming hot

Capital cut Reykjavik

volcanic springs bubble up Area

through glaciers. The centre

100,250 sq km (38,707 sq miles)

Population 281 000

consists of uninhabitable plateaus and mountains.

Main IjUMGUAge Icelandic

communications. Its position on the

In the south are farmlands.

Volcanoes

Mid-Atlantic Ridge means it has many

There are many rivers, lakes,

The island of Litde Surtsey is a volcano

volcanoes and is prone to earthquakes.

and spectacular waterfalls.

that rose from the sea close to Iceland

Currency Icelandic krdna

in spring 1965, but disappeared again

Life expectancy 79 years

Iceland has been a tepublic since 1944.

Major religion Christian

the following winter. Mainland Iceland People per doctor 307

has at least 20 active volcanoes that

Climate

Government Multi-party republic

could erupt at any time.

Owing to the Gulf

Adult uteracy 99%

Glaciers

Stream, Iceland’s southern lowlands

Europe’s largest ice-caps cover over

are mild and breezy,

one-tenth of Iceland. The biggest is

and snow is rare.

Vatnajdkull, which covers an area

860 mm

The north is colder,

of 8,133 sq km (3,149 sq miles)

(34 in)

in the southeast of the country.

but less windy.

Geothermal power

Built-up 1%

Every year, thousands of people Barren

Farmland

75%

24%

visit the Blue Lagoon, to swim in this natural pool of healing, geothermal, mineral-rich sea water. Vast resources ensure that

Land use

hydroelectric and geothermal

The Icelandic people live in the more fenile coastal

power stations meet almost all

areas where 11 per cent are employed in farming, mainly

of Iceland’s electricity needs.

raising sheep. Only about one per cent of the land is used

Fishing

for growing crops. No-one lives in the rocky centre.

Iceland relies on exporting fish to pay for all the necessities of modern living, which are imported

Reykjavik

from abroad. Fishing and fish processing are Iceland’s leading

Heated by

industries and employ around

geothermal water

20 per cent of the labour force.

from boreholes, Reykjavik is a clean,

People

modern city, and

The first setders in Iceland arrived from

home to about

Norway in the 9th century. Today, Iceland

100,000 people.

boasts a classless society, and around 80 per

It is a bustling hub

'J

cent of Icelanders own their own home. Most

of culture, industry,

people live in towns where the standard of

commerce, and

living is high, with extensive social security,

government. Brighdy coloured houses in Reykjavik’s old town

Cape Verde The volcanic Cape Verde islands are divided into the Windward and Leeward islands. They lie in the

health services, and free education.

3 per sq km

91%

9%

(8 per sq mile)

Urban

Rural

Cape Verde

Adantic Islands

FACTS

The Atlantic Ocean contains hundreds of

Capital CITY Praia Area 4,030 sq km

islands. Some, such as the British Isles, are part of a continent. Others, like the

Atlantic, off Africa’s west coast. Until

(1,556 sq miles)

1975, they were a Portuguese colony.

Population 428,000

Ascension, Bermuda, St Helena, and

Main IjUmguages

other small islands are the summits of

Poor soil and lack of fresh water mean that Cape Verde needs to import 90 per cent of its food.

Azores and the Canaries, are volcanic.

undersea mountains and volcanic in origin.

Portuguese, Creole Major religion

Falkland Islands

Christian

The Falklands, with

Currency

an area of 11,960 sq

Cape Verde

km (4,617 sq miles), are

escudo

a British dependent territory off the coast of Argentina — which calls them Las Malvinas, and claims ownership. Until oil was found in

Sao Nicolau

j

FIND OUT

MORE 90

Argentina, chile, AND URUGUAY

their waters, most people were sheep farmers.

The island of Sao Nicolau

Climate

in the Windward Islands has

Canary Islands

many Portuguese colonial-style

The Canary Islands off northwest Africa are

buildings. Most of the people

governed as two provinces of Spain. Popular

here are Portuguese-African

with tourists, the seven islands and six islets

Creole. Where they can, they

have a total area of 7,270 sq km (2,807 sq

grow bananas and sugar-cane.

miles), and a population of 1,630,000.

Continents

Energy

Fishing INDUSTRY

Glaciation

Islands

Oceans AND SEAS

Tundra

Volcanoes

ATLANTIS see MYTHS AND LEGENDS

ATMOSPHERE Life on earth

Layers of the atmosphere

could not exist without Earths

The atmosphere is divided into five Satellite

atmosphere. The atmosphere is a colourless, tasteless, odourless blanket of gases that surrounds the Earth. It gives us air to breathe and water to drink. As well as keeping us warm by retaining the Suns heat,

different layers. The composition of gases varies vdthin these layers, as does the temperature which drops in the troposphere, the lowest layer, and rises in the stratosphere above.

it also shields us from the Suns harmful rays. The atmosphere is approximately 700 km (440 miles) deep, but it has no

'N. Exosphere is the outer layer of the atmosphere. Here lighter gases drift into space.

distinct boundary. As it extends into space, it becomes thinner, eventually fading out. Human activity is upsetting

In the thermosphere, gases arc very thin but they absorb ultraviolet light

the atmospheres natural balance, with damaging results.

from the Sun, raising temperatures to 2,000‘C (3,632*F). The

Aurora — lights

Nitrogen 78% Oxygen 21% Argon 0.93%

Composition of the atmosphere

ionosphere (layer within the

in the night sky,

thermosphere) is made of gases

possibly caused by

electrically charged or ionized

charged particles

by the Sun’s light. Radio signals

from the Sun

Earths atmosphere is made mainly

can be bounced off these

striking atoms. —■

ionized gases.

of two gases — nitrogen and oxygen. Space shuttle

It also contains small amounts of

, Meteorites

argon and carbon dioxide, with tiny

Other gases

traces of other gases. The oxygen is

0.04% Pic chart showing the

made primarily by green plants,

composition of the atmosphere.

which maintain the balance of gases.

Stratopause is In the mesosphere, gases are

the boundary

so thin that temperatures

between

drop rapidly with height to

stratosphere

less than -1 lO'C (-166*F),

and

but the air is still thick

mesosphere.

enough to slow

Ozone layer

down meteorites.

The thin layer of ozone gas within the stratosphere protects Stratosphere contains

us by absorbing harmful ultraviolet rays from the Sun. But

19 per cent of the

build-up of man-made gases called chlorofluorocarbons

atmosphere’s gases, but

(CFCs) has depleted the ozone layer, and holes have I

.

.

.

,

1

litdc water vaf)our. It is

Tropopause

Started to appear in it every spring over the poles. _

,

-r

Q

Greenhouse effect Carbon dioxide and other

very calm so airliners fly up here.

troposphere and stratosphere.

'

gases in the atmosphere - Ozone layer

aa like glass in a greenhouse, trapping

shields the Earth

the Sun’s heat. This

from dangerous radiation.

“greenhouse effea” keeps the Earth warm. But human aaivity, such as burning forests and running cars, releases too much carbon dioxide into the air and may cause global warming. Ozone hole over

Some aerosol sprays

Antarctica is shown as violet and pink

use CFC gases.

Sea level

TrofKDsphcre extends about 12 km (7.5 miles) above the ground and is the only layer in which living things can survive naturally.

Oxygen used in

A large amount

burning fossil fuels

Oxygen cycle

/ of oxygen is V

stored in the

It contains 75 per cent of the atmosphere’s gases, water vapour, and clouds. Changes here create the weather.

Gases continually circulate

Oxygen given off by marine plants

between the atmosphere and

James Glaisher

living things. Animals breathe

English meteorologist James Glaisher

in oxygen to help them release

(1809—1903) was one of the many

energy from food, and breathe

balloonists who, during the 19th century, took great risks when they ascended to

out carbon dioxide. Green plants

extraordinary heights to discover more

release oxygen back into the air

about the atmosphere. Glaisher went

and take in carbon dioxide as they absorb energy from the Oxygen

up almost 12 km (7.5 miles) into the trofKDsphere without oxygen or protective clothing. Such research led

Oxygen given off

Sun. Oxygen is also used in the

to the discovery that air becomes

by plants and trees

burning of fossil fuels.

cooler with altitude.

used up by marine animals

Oxygen used up by humans and animals

FIND OUT

MORE

Climate

Forests

Gases

Lungs and breathing

Planets

Pollution

Sun and

Weather

SOLAR SYSTEM

91

ATOMIC CLOCK see TIML

ATOMS AND MOLECULES

Nucleus of carbonatom

12

Tiny particles called atoms

are the basic building blocks

Atomic structure

that make up everything

The centre, or nucleus, of an atom contains particles called protons, which carry a

around us. Forces called bonds effectively “cement” the atoms together.

positive electric charge, and neutrons, which

Isotopes

carry none. Arranged around the nucleus in

All the atoms of an element have the same number of protons in the

layers called shells are negatively charged

A molecule is a cluster of atoms linked by bonds. There are just over a hundred different types of atom, which are themselves made up of even smaller

nucleus, but some atoms, called

particles called electrons. The atom has no

isotopes, have different numbers of

overall charge, because it contains equal

neutrons. For example, the carbon isotope carbon-12 has six protons

numbers of electrons and protons, so the

and six neutrons, but the isotope

positive and negative charges are balanced.

“subatomic” particles, such as protons,

Nucleus

carbon-14 has rwo extra neutrons.

Proton (red) ^ Neutron (green)

Quarks Both neutrons and protons

neutrons, and electrons.

consist of three smaller particles called quarks, sruck together by

Electron shells and valency

tiny particles called gluons. Quarks, in turn, may contain

Atoms can have up to seven shells of electrons.

even smaller particles.

An atom with eight electrons in its outermost

Gluons

Quark

shell is very stable. Bonds form when atoms gain, lose, or share electrons in order to achieve this stable arrangement. An atoms valency is the number of bonds it can form with other atoms. A carbon

When sodium bonds, it loses

atom can

an atom,

form up to

leaving an

four bonds

outer shell of

with other

. Electrons move around the nucleus in paths

eight electrons.

Atom of carbon-12 cut in half

Sodium

Carbon

(3 shells, valency 1)

(2 shells, valency 4)

called Orbits.

Inside a neutron

Covalent bonds

Double bonds Sometimes atoms form

Ionic bonds

A covalent bond fotms when two atoms

When an electron

supplies an electron, and the pair of

transfers from one atom

electrons orbits the nuclei of both atoms,

to another, the atoms

holding the atoms together as a molecule.

covalent bonds by sharing

link up by sharing electrons. Each atom

two pairs of electrons. This is called a double bond. A triple covalent bond forms when atoms share three pairs of electrons.

become charged particles Covalent bonds

called ions. The atom losing

Hydrogen atom

in ammonia

the electron becomes a

'r

l

j

euZlLfilm

molecule (NH3)

Atoms

Oxygen

share four electrons.

molecule (O2)

positively charged ion, and the atom gaining the electron becomes a negatively charged ion. The force of attraction between the ions’ opposite charges is called an ionic bond.

Formation of ionic bonds

Linus Pauling

Nitrogi atom

Scientists use a kind of code called a

The American chemist Linus Pauling

chemical formula to describe a subsrance.

(1901-94) won the 1954 Nobel Prize

The formula uses lerrers and numbers to

for Chemistry for his work on chemical

show which elements are present in the

bonds and the structure of molecules.

substance, and in what proportions.

Fie calculated the energies needed to

bonds with

two oxygen

three hydrogen atoms.

atoms.

Bonds between molecules

formula of CH4, which shows that it

which bonds form, and

are held together by weak bonds called

contains carbon (C) and hydrogen (H),

the distances between

Van der Waal’s forces. Some hydrogen-

of one carbon atom to every four hydrogen

^

or

the

^ I

Methane Carbon

molecule

atom

(CH4)

Covalent bond

containing compounds, such as water, have stronger forces called hydrogen bonds between their molecules. In

Peace Prize for his efforts

Hydrogen atom

\ Double bond links

The molecules of covalent compounds

atoms. He also

f/

Nitrogen

make bonds, the angles at

combined in the ratio

'

♦v

Chemical formula

Methane, for example, has a chemical

92

i

in sodium chloride (NaCl)

to stop the testing of nuclear

water, these bonds form because each oxygen atom in a water molecule is atrracted to hydrogen atoms in two nearby molecules.

Hydrogen bonds between water molecules

weapons. FIND OUT

MORE

Elements

Mixtures and

Nuclear

COMPOUNDS

POWER

Radioactivity

AURORA see MAGNETISM • AUSCHWITZ see HOLOCAUST

AUSTRALASIA and OCEANIA Australia, New Zealand,

Physical features

Papua New Guinea, and the

Australasia and Oceania include a wide range of landscapes,

nearby islands are collectively called Australasia. The wider area known as Oceania also includes the island

from tropical rainforest in northern areas to the arid desert of central Australia. Many islands are volcanic, with sandy

groups of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia and spans a huge area in the South Pacific Ocean.

beaches, high mountains, and a constant threat of earthquakes.

Australia is the largest country and a continent in its own right. Although many Pacific islands were once European colonies, the region now has

Coral islands Many of the thousands of tiny islands in Oceania are the peaks of undersea volcanic mountains that are just breaking the surface of the Pacific Ocean. Reefs of coral, teeming

closer trade links with Asia.

with tropical fish, often build up close to the islands’ sandy shores.

Geysers These occur in New Zealand where hot rock heats water in an underground chamber. As the water boils, a fountain of scalding water and steam shoots 500 m (1,640 ft) into the air.

Pinnacles Desert Tall pinnacles of North

INDIAN OCEAN

limestone rise from the

/.

sand in parts of Australia’s

Tasman Sea

'■t. Xing I

hot, dry Western Desert. South

Tasmania

.\

Cook

rocks have been sculpted

South East

ZEALAND

These unusually shaped

y . ,/

Canttrbury Bight

by the eroding action of plant toots and harsh winds over the last 25,000 years.

Australasia and Oceania facts

Cross-section through Australasia Area 8,508,238 sq km

Australia is a largely

(3,285.048 sq miles)

flat continent, with low

Population 29,700,000

mountains in the southwest and a desert centre. The

Number op coun fries

14

highest mountains are the Great Highest point Mt. Wilhelm (Papua

Dividing Range in the east. The

New Guinea) 4,509 m (14,794 ft)

Pacific Ocean between Australia and New Zealand dips to

Longest river Murray Darling (Australia) 3,750 km (2.330 miles)

5,000 m (16,405 ft). The Southern Alps run down

Biggest lake Lake Eyre (Australia)

New Zealand’s South Island. Approximately 6,300 km (3.915 miles) from A to B

9.583 sq km (3,700 miles)

93

AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA

Climatic zones Wetland-

With a wide range of landscapes and spanning such a vast area, Australasia and Oceania

Desert - Tropical

experience many different climates. Northern

rainforest

Australia and Papua New Guinea are always hot with wet and dry seasons, the east has hot summers and mild winters, and the centre is dry desert. New Zealand is mild and damp. The most westerly of the Pacific islands have a wet, tropical climate.

Scrub'

Small, stunted

Grassland

Mountain

shrubs After rain, flowers

Tropical rainforest

burst into bloom

Steamy tropical rainforest covers most of the Solomon Islands, the mountains of Papua New Guinea, and parts of northern Australia. Often shrouded in mist, these dense, lush forests arc a haven for wildlife and contain more than 600 species of tree. As a measure to protcCT the environment, logging is controlled in Queensland.

Scrub At the edges of the four major deserts that make up the interior of Australia are areas of arid brush where there is litde, often unreliable, rainfall. These areas

Grassland

support coarse grass, scancred shrubs, and low trees.

Australia contains vast areas of dry, open grassland, known as the “outback”. The best grazing land for

Bushes are mostly stunted

cattle and sheep is in Queensland and New South

evergreen, and spiny. Sandstone is worn smooth

Wales. Scarce surface water is supplemented by

and rounded by erosion.

underground water from artesian wells. Lush grassland covers the eastern side of New Zealand’s South Island.

Eucalyptus woods Many kinds of gum tree, also known as eucalyptus, grow in Australia. There is a species of gum tree for virtually every environment, from cold, damp mountain tops to hot, dry inland areas. Gum trees are

Narrow leaves hang

evergreens, with

down to avoid drying

leathery leaves.

out in the hot sun.

Coastal climate

Hot desert

The coastal strip between

The spcaacular red Olgas rocks rise unexpectedly out

Brisbane and Melbourne in

of the arid flat expanse of Australia’s scorching central

southeast Australia is backed

desert. Situated near Uluru (Ayers Rock), this giant mass

to the west by the peaks of

of boulders formed more than 570 million years ago

the Great Dividing Range,

and gradually eroded during the past 130 million years.

including the Australian Alps. Warm breezes blow

Deciduous woodland

in from the Pacific Ocean,

The west coast of New 2^and’s South Island is covered

bringing rain to this green

with deciduous woodland. Here, oak, beech, and hickory

and fertile region. The long, sandy beaches and mild, pleasant

trees thrive in the mild, damp climate. Powerful waves '

Byron Bay,

climate make this the most

create long,

New South

populated region in Australia.

sandy beaches.

Wales

Beech forest in New Zealand’s Fiordland National Park

People

Resources

The earliest inhabitants of Australasia

Land is a major resource for

were the Aboriginals of Australia, and

Australia and New Zealand and is

the Polynesians and Melanesians

used extensively for grazing cattle

from the Pacific islands. White

and sheep, and for growing wheat.

Europeans began colonizing

Australia is rich in minerals and leads

Australia and New Zealand

the world in the production of bauxite

in the late 1700s. Since the

(aluminium ore), diamonds, and lead

1970s, Australia has allowed

ore. The main resources of the

many other peoples to settle

Pacific islands arc fish and

there, including Chinese,

coconut products, such as copra,

Cambodians, and Vietnamese.

coir (rope), and matting. Australian schoolchildren

FIND OUT

MORE 94

Aboriginal AUSTRALIANS

Australian WILDLIFE

Climate

Coral REEFS

Deserts

Earthquakes

Forests

Islands

Pacific OCEAN

Trees

Volcanoes

AUSTRALIA A

COUNTRY

and at the same

time a continent, Australia is an ancient land mass, and the smallest, flattest, and, after Antarctica, the driest continent. It is the worlds sixth largest country yet only 18.9 million people live there, mostly along the

Australia facts Capitat crrY Canberra

Physical features

Area 7,617,930 sq km

The centre of Australia is covered

Population 18,9oo,oo0

(2,941,283 sq miles)

by a vast, flat, arid plain called

Main language English

the outback — one of the hottest

Major religion Christian

places on Earth. Around the

Currency Australian dollar

coast are tropical rainforests,

Life expectancy 79 years

snow-capped mountains, and magnificent beaches.

People per doctor 400 Government Multi-party democracy Adult uteracy 99%

coast as the centre of the country consists of desert or semi-desert — the outback. Australia

Great Barrier Reef Green Island forms part of the Great Barrier

consists of six states and two territories. It has strong trade links with Europe, the USA, and

Reef, which stretches 2,000 km (1,243 miles) along the northeast coast of Australia. Its coral is formed by layer upon layer of tiny anemone-like creatures, making it the largest

Asia and makes significant contributions to international affairs. The population consists of a wide range of ethnic groups, making

living thing on Earth. Thousands of tourists flock to see it each year, attracted by the clear, warm waters and more than 1,500 species of fish. Recent fears that divers and swimmers may be damaging the reef have led to it

Australia a truly multicultural society.

becoming a protected World Hcritj^e Area.

D

H

Uluru (Ayers Rock) This giant block of red sandstone that rises from the desert is more than 2.4 km (1.5 miles) long. Once known as Ayers Rock, Uluru, meaning “great pebble”, is the original name given to it by the Aboriginal people,

01 V

I

STI

5

r

A \ ♦

U i:

V on

R

S \ I

I

1 1

who regard it as sacred.

*

1

R

^ * >-1^

\

A

't"' I

"'I A«'

Great Dividing Range The Great Dividing Range is a series of high plateaus and low mountains that extends down the east of Australia. It shields the arid interior of the country from the rain-bearing clouds that blow in from the Pacific Ocean. In winter, snow covers the higher peaks, and

Canberra

people can ski there.

Founded in the early Desert 47%

20th century, Australia’s

Forest

Wetland I %

5.5%

capital, Canberra, is home to about 300,000 Built-up

people. It is primarily a centre for government

Climate

and has few industries.

Most people live

Official buildings

in the temperate

include Parliament

zones that occur

House, the Australian

within 400 km

0.5% Farmland 7.5% 20°C

\ Grassland 38.5%

629 mm

Land use Most of Australia’s interior is inhospitable desert.

National University, the

(249 miles) of the

National Library, and

coast in the east and

the National Gallery.

southeast, and around Perth in the west. The

of the country, and wheat is grown in the fertile

interior, west, and south are arid. The north

southsvest and southeast. Australia has rich mineral

is hot, humid, and tropical.

deposits, many of which are in the barren interior.

Parhament House

(25 in)

Sheep and cattle are reared in the east and north

95

AUSTRALIA

People

Leisure

Aboriginal people, Australia’s

Australians love the outdoors. Because

first inhabitants, make up

most live near the coast, many people

only about four per cent of

enjoy water sports such as swimming, skin-

the population. The rest are

diving, surfing, and sailing. Cricket is a

of mainly European origin,

popular spectator sport, as are rugby and the unique Australian Football.

descended either from British

V

settlers, or from Europeans who emigrated to Australia

^

after 1945. Recent years have

Multicultural society

also seen an influx of Asians.

Australian society reflects the many different nationalities who have settled in the country. Aboriginal people, English, Irish, and Central and Eastern Europeans have all

2 per sq km (5 per sq mile)

made their mark, and since immigration

Australian Football

restrictions were lifted in 1972 the arrival

One of Australia’s national

of Chinese, Indo-Chinese, and Indonesians

winter sports is Australian

has added new influences. Diverse languages,

Football. It was invented

customs, foods, and festivals combine to

in the 1850s and is based

make Australia a varied and exciring society.

on Gaelic Football. Besides Australia, the

Farming Less than five per

Surfing

only other country where

The crashing waves of Australia’s cast coast attract

it is played is Papua

thousands to try their luck at riding the surf The aptly

New Guinea.

named Surfers’ Paradise, in Queensland, is a fevourite spot.

cent of the labour force are farmers,

Barbecued

Food

yet over half the land

lamb

Traditionally, Australians are a

is used for grazing

nation of meat-eaters. They love

cattle and sheep.

plain foods, such as fried eggs and

Grapes and cereals

grilled steaks that arc cooked on the barbecue But the influx of

are also grown.

people from mainland Europe

Livestock

and Asia has brought a wide range

Beef cattle roam the Australian outback,

of cooking ideas from China,

Grilled

grazing on dry grass and drinking water

Greece, Indonesia, and Italy.

pumpkin

drawn from artesian wells. They are raised on vast cattle stations mainly for their meat. Australia has seven times more

Transport

sheep than people. They produce around one-third of the world’s wool.

With such a huge territory, and the nearest countries so far away from major

Grapes

Cereals

population centres, Australians rely heavily

Although less than four per cent of

The gende climate of parts of southern

the land is suitable for farming cereal

Australia is ideally suited to growing

crops, Australia grows barley, millet,

grapes for winemaking. The Australian

used for short distances in the cities. Trucks

oats, and rice, and ranks highly in world

wine industry has grown by leaps and bounds in

carry most intercity freight by road.

production of wheat. Other crops include

recent years, now producing about 450,000 tonnes

sugar-cane, fruit, and vegetables.

(495,000 tons) of wine a year. Much is exported.

on air transport. Buses, cars, and trains are

Industry Australia has a strong mining industry, and is a major exporter of coal, iron ore, bauxite, lead, gold, copper, and diamonds.

Road train

About 16 per cent of the

Heavy loads are often transported across the outback by road train.

labour force works in

These huge trucks may pull five

manufacturing, and two-

or six trailers over vast distances,

thirds are employed in

on deserted roads.

services such as banks,

Flying Doctor

tourism, and government,

The Royal Flying Doctor Service was founded in

Gold and diamonds

1928 to bring medical

Australia is one of the world’s

help to people living in

top gold producers and

Tourism

lonely homesteads in the

exports more diamonds

The spectacular scenery of the Hamersley Range in

outback. Doctors are based

than any other country.

Western Australia is popular with tourists, mostly from

at special stations where

Most of the diamonds are

Japan, New Zealand, and Southeast Asia. About five

emergency callers can

not gem quality and are used

million visitors visit Australia every year, providing a

contact them by radio and

welcome addition to the country’s foreign earnings.

receive treatment quickly.

to make industrial cutting tools.

FIND OUT

MORE 96

Aboriginal AUSTRALIANS

\ Quartz

Australia, HISTORY OF

Cars AND trucks

Continents

Coral REEFS

Deserts

Farming

Rocks

AND MINERALS

Sports

AUSTRALIA,

history of

For most of the last 40,000 years, Australia was inhabited only by Aboriginal

peoples. The Aboriginals were Asian in origin and created a rich culture based on hunting and food gathering. Their peaceful existence was destroyed by the arrival of Europeans in the late 18 th century. The first settlers were convicts sent from crowded British prisons, but later farmers and miners drawn by the wealth of the country joined them. In 1901, Australia became an independent nation, sending troops to fight in both world wars. Today, it is a multicultural country with a

First inhabitants The first people to inhabit Australia were the ancestors of todays Aboriginals. They reached the country about 40,000 years ago after sailing across the shallow seas that then separated Australia from Asia. As sea-levels rose, they moved inland, using stone axes to clear trees to build shelters of wood and bark.

rich economy and close ties with Asia, America, and Europe. Outrigger canoe from Queensland

Botany Bay

Early sightings In the 17th century, Spanish sailor Luis Vaez de Torres and Dutchman Willem Jansz explored the islands of Asia and the Pacific. Unplanned landings took place as ships were blown off course. In 1642—43 Dutchman Abel Tasman sailed round Australia

-3r;

Early map of Australia

without catching sight of it. He landed on an island he named Van Diemens Land, now called Tasmania.

Convict transportation

In 1770, the British

In 1787. the British

explorer Captain

decided to transport

James Cook sailed

(ship out) convicts to

into an inlet in

Australia. The first

southeastern Australia.

fleet, containing

He named the place

''59 convicts.

Botany Bay and

arrived in Botanv

claimed the entire east

Bay in 1788. A

coast of Australia for

penal settlement

Britain. Joseph Banks,

was established

one of the ship’s naturalists.

^ ^

^ ^^

^ j -i

at nearbv Sydney

sketched and collected hundreds

Cove, in Port Jackson.

of plants, that had never before

Transportation finally

been seen bv Europeans.

came to an end in 1868.

Convicts were often used as servants.

Gold rush

Ned Kelly

The discovery of gold in 1851

Throughout the 19th century,

Some 90 years after the arrival

brought a rush of fortune-hunters.

parts ol Australia were lawless.

of Cook, the major settlements

By 1860. the population had

One of the most notorious

grown from 200,000 in 1840

outlaws, or bushrangers, was Ned

The 19th century were all on the coast, and few

to 1.1 million, and Australian

Kellv (1855—80), who led a gang

people travelled inland. The first

gold accounted for 39 per cent ot

of robbers. The gang killed three

explorers mapped the Murray

the world’s total output.

and Darling rivers in the south¬

Prospectors’ camp, Victoria

east, while others tried to reach the heart of Australia.

policemen in 1878 and robbed ses'eral banks before Kelly was caught and hanged in Melbourne in 1880. His fight against the

Growth

authorities

The colonies prospered in the

made Kelly

Crossing the continent

last years of the 19th century.

a national

The Royal Society of Victoria decided to

Industry grew quickly, especially

folk hero.

send an expedition to cross the continent

in areas such as construction and

from south to north. Irishman Robert

manufacturing. Social policies

O'Hara Burke and Englishman William J

were fores ard-thinking: for

Wills completed the trip in 1861, but died

example, education for all was

Survev-or’s

on the return journey. In Julv 1862 their

an earlv goal; trade unions were

chain used

rival, John Stuart, completed a similar

organized in manv areas.

to measure

journey, unaware that Burke and Wills had

land. 1800s

beaten him to it. He died in the attempt.

Banner for trade union

97

AUSTRALIA, HISTORY OF

Independent nation In the early days, Australia consisted of six separate colonies. Each had its own

Modern Australia

ANZAC forces Anzac

Australian and New Zealand

Monument

forces fought for Britain in

Sydney

the Boer War (1899-1902) in South Africa and in

administration but was subject to the

fought together as the

and mining industries grew in strength, the

Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), making a

In 1901, Australia gained its independence

Korea during the 1950s and Vietnam in the 1960s. In recent years, those ties have

Australia and New

six colonies began to work closely together.

military alliance with the USA. The country sent troops to fight with the Americans in

both world wars. They

sovereignty of Britain. As the agricultural

After World War II, Australia continued its

weakened, and Australia has increasingly turned towards Asia, in particular Japan, for

contribution out of all

from Britain, and a federal government for

proportion to their

trade and investment. Today, Australia is an

the entire country was established with its

size. They

important trading partner with most of the

capital in Melbourne. Today, the federal

suffered

powerful East Asian economies.

huge

capital is at Canberra.

casualties, but the

National symbol

Gallipoli

effort forged

Sydney Opera House,

On 25 April, 1915, ANZAC forces landed at

a strong

with its bold concrete

Gallipoli at the approaches to the Black Sea,

sense of

roofs, has become the

Turkey. Thev hoped to take Constantinople

national

most widelv recognized

identity.

symbol of Australia.

(modern-day Istanbul) and force Germany’s World War I ally, Turkey, out of

HI

the war. The men showed extraordinary courage and

Australian republic?

III

spirit, but the campaign was a disaster. No

In 1992, the prime minister, Paul Keating, said he wanted the country be a republic by the year 2000, with

important gains were

an Australian as the head of state,

made and more than

instead of the British monarch. However,

11,400 ANZAC

a referendum held in 1999 defeated any

troops lost their lives.

such proposals.

Gallipoli memorial

Chinese festival, Svdney

Dominion status When Australia became The

independent in 1901, it

Federation

remained a Dominion ot the British Empire and

Flag was

kept close links with its

hosed on

former ruler. But many

the state flag of

people had few ties to the old “Mother

New South

Country". The threat

~-WaUs.

Multicultural Australia Modern Australia is a multi-racial state with large Chinese and

of Japanese invasion

Greek populations.

during World War II

However, the

led to closer links with

Aboriginals are

the USA as the onK power that could defend Australia.

Federation

fighting a long

Flag

campaign to be included in society and to secure their land rights and

Immigration In 1902, the government passed the

civil liberties.

Immigration Restriction Act to limit Sailing in

Chinese immigration. The act required settlers to speak a

Sydney Harbour

European language, and began a

Sports excellence

White Australia jxilicy that lasted

One wav in which Australia has expressed its national

until the 19'70s. Britons, Greeks, and Italians flooded into Australia in the 1950s and 1960s, but immigration from Asia later increased.

identitv is through sporting activities. There have been notable successes in sports as diverse as cricket and yachting. For example, in 1983 Australia overturned a century of US yachting dominance by winning the America’s Cup. Svdney was chosen as the site of the

Scottish emigrants leave for Australia.

Olympic Games in 2000.

Timeline

1828 Charles Sturt begins

1851 Gold discovered in

Aboriginal

1970s White Australia

c.40,000 BC Aboriginals

to explore Murray and

Victoria and New South

digging sticks

poliev' abolished.

arrive in Australia.

Darling rivers.

Wales. 1993 Aboriginal land

1642-43 Tasman names Van

1860-61 Burke and

1901 Australia becomes

1914—18 60,000 Australians

Diemen’s Land (Tasmania).

Wills cross Australia

self-governing dominion

arc killed fighting for Britain

from south to north.

in the British Empire.

in World War I.

1902 Immigration

1927 Parliament meets for

Restriction Act establishes

the first time in the new

2001 Fierce bush fires

the White Australia jxjlicy.

federal capital of Canberra.

cause immense damage.

2000 Olympic Games held in Sydney

1770 Captain Cook 1868 Britain abolishes

lands at Botany Bay.

the transportation 1788 First British convicts arrive.

98

rights recognized by law.

Wallaby

FIND OUT

Aboriginal

Crime and

MORE

AUSl RALIANS

PUNISHMENT

of convicts.

Cook, james

Exploration

Opera

Prehistoric

PEOPLE

World war i

World war ii

*

AUSTRALIAN WILDLIFE Desert wildlife

by water for more than 30 million year

Australia has been isolated

Australia’s hot, dry, desert interior makes ^ up half the continent. Drought-resistant

resulting in the evolution of many

vegetation, such as porcupine grass H|, and acacias, grow here, providing a

unique animals and plants. Half of all marsupials, such as the koala and kangaroo,

Bi refuge for birds and insects. Many W desert mammals rest in burrows by

live only in Australia, along with the platypus and echidna, the world s only egg-laying

day to avoid the heat.

mammals, or monotremes. Much of

Emu

Australia is desert or scrub. The animals

run at up to 50 kmh (30 mph), although

Emus are large flightless birds that can

they usually walk. They cover large

1

distances in search of grasses, fruit,

I I I

and flowers. They also eat insects. Males incubate the eggs and guard

I'orcupine grass

the young after they hatch.

J

As its name suggests, porcupine

Galah

Strong bill is used to

The galah, or roseate

dig up insects.

cockatoo, is one of the most common parrots in Australia. Large flocks of these birds are found not only in drv areas but also in cities. Galahs eat seeds, leaf buds, and insects.

TTiorny devil

grass is a spinv plant that grows

Spines protect

This lizard s scales are drawn out

in circular tussocks. It is adapted

against

into long spines. When temperatures

to dry desert conditions by

predators.

fall at night, valuable water condenses

having a thick outer covering

on the spines and runs down tiny

(cuticle) to reduce water loss,

grooves towards the mouth.

and by having deep roots to reach water in the soil. Long, strong legs

Grass forms a

Mulgara This carnivorous marsupial (pwuched Mammal) eats insects and small acTtebrates, such as mice and

ulgara eats

refuge for insects,

prey head

lizards, and

Lizard.-

birds.

searches

first.

for ants.

Krards. It bites and shakes ■s prey to kill it. 1 he

'

=uUtfa digs burrows

■1 sand, in

^

which it setters to escape midday

sun.

'

_

_ Canopy provides shelter

Scrub and grassland wildlife

Bottle tree

for animals from the midday heat. ,

These large trees get

^ j

their name from their bottle-shaped trunks.

Covering about a third of Australia,

The swollen trunk stores

scrub and grassland are hot and dry

water that helps the tree

in summer and cooler in winter.

survive periods of

Occasional downpours of rain are

drought. The tree also

^

provides food for many

exploited by plants that rapidlv

animals, including

bloom and produce seeds, and animals,

insects, and shelter for

such as frogs, that emerge to reproduce.

some birds and mammals. Other vegetation common in scrubland

Malice fowl

Short-beaked echidna The short-beaked echidna is an egg-laying mammal •MNd in Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea,

Water ts stored

mound of vegetation and soil

checks mound

wests. If threatened, the

temperature with

echidna rolls into a

p

(nil. or digs down

moving vegetation.

f^gak, and by

eggs.

vegetation

rots, it releases heat that incubates the eggs.

dwarf eucalyptus.

in bulbous

in which the female lavs her

k uses its sticky tongue to extract ma and termites from their

includes dry grasses and

The male mallee fowl builds a

Water-holding frog This frog survives drought by burrowing into the ground, and forming a thin layer of skin around itself to conserve water It also stores water in its bladder.

trunk.

Kultarr This small, mouse-like marsupial is nocturnal. It has large eyes to help it see in the dark, and to catch insects and spiders. It moves by springing off its long hind feet and tail and landing on its front feet. During the dav the kultarr shelters in logs, hollow stumps, and burrows. Kultarr feeding t

tt spider.

99

AUSTRALIAN WILDLIFE

Bright yellow flowers provide food

Temperate forest wildlife

for insects and other animaL.

Silver wattle

The temperate forests of south and east Australia are hot and dry in summer, and cooler and wetter in winter. They are home to birds, such as parrots and kookaburras, marsupials, including the koala, and a variety of reptiles and insects. Many trees found here, such as eucalyptus and mountain ash, are unique to Australia

The silver wattle, also known as mimosa, is a common plant in temperate forests. These trees, with their characteristic silver-grey leaves, can withstand dry periods as well as exploit the wet season.

Male lyrebird

Lyrebird

Kookaburra

sings a loud

The kookaburra is the largest member of the kingfisher family. It is rarely found near water, however, preferring open woodland. Kookaburras swoop down from a tree branch perch to pounce on insects, lizards, snakes, and small birds and mammals. They defend their territory by making loud cackling calls that sound like human laughter.

territorial song,

These ground-living birds use their large clawed feet to turn over stones and break open logs, in search of insects. The male lyrebird has a long tail shaped like a lyre, an ancient musical instrument. He performs courtship dances to attract females by vibrating his rail over his back.

mimicking other birds and animaL.

Flattened tail help platyp

Heavy beak to kill reptiles . and rodents.

Duck-billed platypus

Long tail /

This unusual-looking animal is an egg-laying mammal, or monotreme, that lives near rivers. The platypus feeds underwater on insect larvae and other food found by probing the stream bottom with its sensitive bill. It hunts mainly at night, spending most ol the day in a burrow dug in the stream bank

feathers

Koala Koalas are bear¬ like marsupials that feed on the leaves of eucalyptus trees. They eat mainly at night, spending most of the day resting or sleeping in the fork of a tree.

Koalas spend most —of their time in eucalyptus trees, using their sharp claws and strong legs to climb through the branches.

Tropical rainforest wildlife

Tree kangaroo The tree kangaroo is a marsupial adapted for life in the trees, by having rough paw pads and long claws for gripping. Its diet consists mainly of leaves and bark, but it sometimes descends to the ground to feed on shrubs and seedlings.

Despite occupying only a tiny part of northeastern Australia, the rainforests contain one-third of Australia’s frog and marsupial species, and two-thirds of its butterflies. The wide variety of ferns and trees, such as breadfruit trees, provide shelter and food for these animals, and many birds, bats, and insects.

Trigger plant

Long tail for balancing in the trees.

Rainbow lorikeet These brightly coloured parrots live in screeching flocks of up to 20 birds in the upper rainforest canopy. They feed on pollen, nectar, flowers, seeds, and fruit.

Fangs are I cm (0.5 in) long so they can inject venom deep into their victims.

When a bee lands on a trigger plant flower, the anther - the flowers male part — bends outwards to dust pollen on the bee’s hairy back. When the bee visits another flower the ptollen sticks to the stigma — the female part of the flower, therebv pollinating it.

Taipan The male L brightly coloured

Queen Alexandra’s birdwing Found in New Guinea, this is the largest butterfly in the world. The female is larger than the male and has a wingspan of up to 28 cm (11 in). Queen Alexandra’s birdwing flies in the sunlight of the upper canopy, where it feeds on flower nectar.

FIND OUT

MORE 100

Australia

Birds

Butterflies AND V10THS

This forest snake is active in the earlv morning and evening, and feeds mainly on rats and other small mammals. The taipan is one of the worlds most pwisonous snakes; a bite trom its long fangs is often fetal for humans. Taipans normally retreat and hide when people approach, but they will become aggressive if threatened.

Camouflage AND COLOUR

Flightless BIRDS

Frogs AND TOADS

Brown coloration provides camouflage for taipan.

Kangaroos and OTHER marsupials

Reptiles

Trees

AUSTRIA see SWITZERLAND AND AUSTRIA • AVOGADRO, AMEDO see GASES • AZERBAIJAN see CAUCASUS REPUBLICS

AZTECS

Rise of the Aztecs The Aztecs were one of Tenochtitlan '*

many tribes who invaded

^

A GREAT IMPERIAL the Valley of Mexico soon ^ ■'“■^'Mexico after the collapse of the \ power, the Aztecs came Toltecs in the late 12th to dominate the Valley of Mexico century. They dominated in less than a hundred years. Egged on by bloodthirsty the valley after 1438. gods, they were a warlike people, outstanding for their Human sacrifice military skill and well organized society. By the time When they won a war, the Aztecs killed many prisoners as offerings to their gods. the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes (1485-1547) Aztecs believed that human sacrifices were necessary arrived in 1519, the Aztecs and their allies were rulers in order for the universe to of some 25 million people. continue.

Subject peoples The Aztecs ruled over a network of city states. Subject peoples made regular payments to their Aztec overlords, in the form of maize, cacao, or cotton. As long as this “tribute” was paid, the

Shrine of

Shrine of

Tlaloc, god

Huitzilopochtli,

of rain

god of war

Tenochtitlan

peoples of the Valley of Dish for

Mexico were left to govern

human

A city of canals and

themselves and to keep

heart

their cusroms.

narrow streets, the Aztec Quetzalcoatl's temple 9^

capital was built on an island in Lake Texcoco. It

Aztec society

was linked to the land by

Commoners lived in small mud houses and grew crops

three narrow causeways.

on the marshes. They dressed and ate simply. The

The city was home to

nobles were warriors, tribute collectors, and judges;

200,000 people — four or

they were rewarded for their services with land.

five times larger than any European city of the time.

Chief

Most people lived in small

priest

_

houses in the narrow streets surrounding an

Three boys call

1

area of temples — the

^

out baby’s

Great Precinct.

Great Precinct The centre of Tenochtitlan was dominated by the Great Precinct, surrounded by a wall decorated with huge serpent heads. Inside the enclosure were the temples of the

Customs

leading gods. A skull rack displayed

Aztec customs included an

the heads of countless victims of

elaborate naming ceremony

human sacrifice.

for newborn babies.

Aztecs on the eve of conquest

i-.

School

@

teacher

Conquest of the Aztecs

Montezuma II The emperor Montezuma II

By the early 16th century, the Aztec empire was showing

.

i

(c. 1466-1520) was unsure

In April 1519, Cortes founded Veracruz on the

signs of weakness. Shortly before the arrival of Cortes,

if Cortes was Quetzalcoatl,

coast of the Gulf of Mexico, inside the Aztec

priests and nobles were worried by a series of omens that

and did not repel the Spanish

empire. With his army of 600 men and 16

seemed to forecast Aztec decline. These omens included

when they arrived. Cortes and his small army got as

the rumbling of the volcano Popocatepetl.

far as the capital, and

horses, he advanced towards Tenochtitlan, forging alliances with Aztec enemies. By August 1521,

Montezuma welcomed

the Spanish had occupied Tenochtitlan, after

them there. But the Spanish

laying siege with the help of many local soldiers.

seized the emperor and took him hostage. Montezuma

Defeat by TIaxcala prison, the ^ k

ifc.' .a

Aztec ruler.

5

The growing thirst for human sacrifice led Aztecs to wage constant war on the neighbouring

Quetzalcoad

Quetzalcoatl, the feathered serpent

Tlaxcalans. Four years

The Aztecs believed that the god

before the arrival of

Quetzalcoatl had been driven from

Cortes, the Tlaxcalans

his kingdom and would return to

inflicted a heavy defeat on

begin a golden age. When Cortes

the Aztec armies, greatly

arrived, they thought he was the

weakening the empire.

god. But the noise of Popocatepetl seemed to be an omen of defeat.

Popocatepetl

HND OUT

Central America,

MORE

HISTORY OF

Maya

Mesoamericans

Olmecs

101

102

BABBAGE, CHARLES see COMPUTERS

BABYLONIAN EMPIRE On the EUPHRATES RIVER, 4,000 years ago, an ancient

settlement became the most magnificent city in the Near East. This city was Babylon, and when Hammurabi conquered Mesopotamia, he established his capital there. Over centuries, Babylonian fortunes rose and fell, as the city was invaded by the Hittites, Kassites, and Assyrians. The Assyrians destroyed Babylon in 689 BC. In 612 BC, the Babylonians retaliated by conquering the Assyrians, and again making their city the worlds greatest. Babylonia’s splendour continued after the Persian Empire

The first Babylonian Empire By about 1770 BC, Hammurabi had conquered most of Mesopotamia. Babylon was established as the capital of the south for the duration of the Babylonian Empire.

Kassites Between 1600 and 1190 BC, f)eople called the Kassites I

absorbed it in 539 BC.

ruled Babylonia. They are best known for their boundary stones (kuddurus), which marked property divisions and recorded gifts of land.

King Hammurabi

These were often decorated with divine symbols. After the end of Kassite rule,

Mesopotamia’s wisest king, Hammurabi (r.l792— 1750

BC),

Babylonia fell into a long period of chaos.

followed ancient tradition by issuing Persian Empire

laws to protect his subjects. Using cuneiform

In 539 BC, the Persian king Cyrus 11

script, he had 282 laws carved on a black stone

took over the Babylonian kingdom,

pillar. The empire he founded collapsed in 1595

BC,

and made Mesopotamia pan of his empire. His son Cambvses was usurped

when Hittites from Anatolia looted

by Darius 1, also called “the Great”, under

it. The Kassites from the mountains to the east

whom the empire reached its greatest extent.

of Babylon then invaded and took over.

■ Darius I (522-486) introduced coinage.

Kudduru

Literature and art

Science Babylonia was famous as the home of

The Babylonian Empire was world-famous for its great artistic

scientists and scholars. Babylonian

and literary achievements. Literature such as the legendary epic

astrologers studied the movements of planets and stars, recorded their

of Gilgamesh, a Sumerian hero, was written on clav tablets in

findings on clav tablets, and used

cuneiform. Artistic splendours included terracotta plaques, superb

these to predict the future. Many

sculpture and glassware, and, above all, the lavish and decorative

texts are so detailed that modern astronomers can date ancient events

entrance to the city — the Ishtar Gate and Processional Way.

from them. Ancient Greeks and Romans used the Babylonian .system

The Ishtar Gate, one of Nebuchadnezzar’s

Venus

for naming planets.

most spectacular structures, was made

tablet, Kish Cuneiform script

from clay bricks, which were moulded and brilliantly glazed with colour.

.

Ma^cal spirit

Religion Stepped

, A

battlement

J

Fortified tower

The Babylonians inherited their religion from the Sumerians The)' believed that gods and spirits controlled every aspect of the world. These included Anu, the sky god, who gave birth to some of the most important deities, including Ishtar, goddess of love and war (represented by the planet Venus), and Ea, god of wisdom and fresh water. Ea was the father of Marduk, the god of Babylon, who created the world and made humans bv mixing earth with divine blood.

Nebuchadnezzar After the Babylonian king Nabopolasser defeated the

Dragon,

Assyrian enemy, his son Nebuchadnezzar (r.605-562

symbol of tht

BC) rebuilt the devastated Babylon on a grand scale.

god Marduk

His works included the fabulous Ishtar Gate, and a temple and ziggurat tower. According to Greek tradition, he also built the Hanging Gardens for Bull, symbol of

his homesick wife, and these became one of the Seven

Adad, god of

Wonders of the World. In 596 BC, Nebuchadnezzar

the weather

attacked the kingdom of Judah. Ten years later he returned, sacked Jerusalem, and took the Jews into exile in Babylon. ITiey were not released until the reign of Cyrus 11.

Architecture

Asia, HISTORY OF

Assyrian empire

Hittites

Persian EMPIRES

Science, HISTORY OF

Seven wonders of THE ANCIENT WORLD

Sumerians

Warfare

103

BACH JS see MUSIC • BACON, FRANCIS see SCIENCE, HISTORY OF • BACTERU see PASTEUR LOUIS

BADGERS, OTTERS, and SKUNKS are all members of the weasel family — Mustelidae. Their main

These three groups of animals

characteristics are a long, low-slung body, short legs, and five toes on each foot. They are carnivores, although badgers have a mixed diet. The honey badger is especially fond of honey, as its name suggests. Most mustelids discharge a thick, oily, powerful-smelling fluid

Skull A badger eats meat and plants, and its large canines and broad molar teeth are

called a musk from their anal glands. They use this mostly to send scent messages to other members of the species, usually with their droppings. Long, striped

Short tail

Badgers

ideal for this diet. Its jaw muscles are fixed to a rigid bone on the top of the skull, giving the animal a powerful bite.

Long coarse hairs over

snout

All badgers are thick set with very powerful legs which they use to forage for food and to dig their often extensive burrows. They are nocturnal animals, spending the day underground with others of their social group. There are eight species of true badger, plus the honev

Eurasian badger This is the largest badger and has

unmistakable. Each foot has

the widest distribution. Females

five toes with a kidnev-shaped

giye birth to up to four cubs in

pad behind. The front claws

February. These are weaned at 12

Forepaw

Hind paw

usually leave marks because

weeks, when they can forage

print

print

they are long.

for themselyes.

badger, which is classed in a sub-family of its own.

Paws A Eurasian badger’s track is

Badger setts

Otters

Paws

During the day, badgers liye

Although all otters swim,

These semi-aquatic mustelids occur outside the polar regions in every

underground in a complex

not all haye webbed feet. For

system of tunnels and

example, the European otter

chambers called a sett. A

has a large amount of

main badger sett is easily

webbing. The Asian shon-

continent except Australia.

recognized by the entrances

clawed otter has litde

Some species are exclusively

webbing and uses

sea creatures, some use only

its paws to find food by touch.

fresh water, and others use

&

both sea and fresh water. Most have sleeping dens,

with piles of soil outside.

Fur An otter's coat consists of two layers. A thick under-layer of fine hairs traps air for warmth, and longer, waterproof guard hairs keep the underfur dry.

or holts, on land.

Honey badger The African honey badger,

Asian short-clawed otter

also known as the ratel, has a thick, loose skin. Predators can find it difficult to pierce its skin, and the badger can twist around inside its skin and bite back

Movement With their long back and heavy tail, otters can look clumsy on land. In the water they are graceful swimmers, propelling themselves forward by moying their hindquarters and tail up and down.

Eurasian badger

Skunks

ScitNTiFiC NAME Meles meles

There are 13 species of skunk,

Order Carniyora

which all occur in the Americas.

Family Mustelidae

They are best known for their

Distribution Europe and a wide

ability to squirt a foul-smelling fluid from their anal glands.

Markings

They aim this fluid at the eyes

Skunks haye bold black and white coat

of an enemy, and it can cause

markings. Like the

Otters secrete a

temporary blindness. Skunks

yellow and black

powerful scent.

search for insects and other small

stripes of a wasp,

Spraints

They mark their territory by leaying their droppings,

these warn would-be

animals to eat, mainly at night.

predators of danger.

band across Asia

Habitat Mainly lowland farmland and woodland Diet Worms, insects, birds, and other small animals, fruit, cereals, fungi Size Length: 1 m (3.3 ft)

Lieespan About 7 years

called spraints, which smell of this scent, on high points such as rocks.

104

FIND OUT

MORE

Animal BEHAVIOUR

Lake and river VCaLDLIFE

North American WILDLIFE

Pollution

Weasels and MARTENS

BAHAMAS sec CARIBBEAN • BAHRAIN sec GULF STAl ES • BALANCE see EARS AND HEARING

Formerly known as BALKAN STATES

SOUTHEAST EUROPE Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia

CP

Physical features The western region of Southeast Europe

and Herzegovina, Yugoslavia,

is made up of limestone plateaus and steep mountain ranges separated by forested

Macedonia, and Albania all lie in Southeast Europe. Ruled by

valleys. In the northwest of the region are the flat plains of the River Danube.

Turkey for nearly 500 years, all the countries, with the exception of Albania, were united as Yugoslavia in 1918. It was, however, an uneasy peace, and, in Mountains

1991, Yugoslavia split up as a result of rival ethnic and religious tensions. War broke out, lasting until 1995. Since then, fresh conflicts have occurred and the region is still struggling to recover from war. 1

Mixed forests of deciduous trees and

Regional climate

conifers cover the mountain slopes that

The inland plains and the coastal strip have

dominate the north of the region. The

a temperate continental climate, with hot

Dinaric Alps are barren limestone ranges,

summers and cold winters. Snow falls in

or karst, that rise to about 1,800 m

the mountains in winter.

(5,905 ft) along the Adriatic Sea coast.

> D

C

T R 1 A -

i\A. rska Sobota

Subotk*!

SLOVENIA^

■ % Baftoi

^ .Vles^O ■

V

SomboE TofH’U

Vo },v o d i n a Ugulm

Banju Luka* .

f

Adriatic coast

- « . Gi^.mi.. Dob i 'J

Tuzia

KijX .BOSNIA

The strip of land that runs down the Adriatic coast is

/i

narrow, and in places the

-4 -; Zenicasr i‘ ■•nlcJL

• \ HERZEGOVINA

*

"T

\

\ • t;v»

f

Sibemk^; d

VUGOSLAVIAlf'

mountains of the Dinaric Alps rise steeply from the sea. The landscape is mosdy barren rock,

SARAJEVO'

with sparse vegetation. In winter, snow covets the cliffs, but summers are hot. The coast is

*cJrMk«

prone to the bora, a strong, cold

Mostav

K(>iii)V %a

L Mctko«i
.-K*«

faunas

U

'dac/amf>

wet summets, because of

668 mm (26 in)

their location on the Baltic

« Hrfxln,!

,

> 7

XasskuvsA

• Maladz)K«hEu /rw.L,.i.> Barvwtys ^r-ha MINSK ^ -

--

‘?_ti.Erana\ i,.h\

-

^

Sea. Heavy snow falls during the

^ D'"‘'P■

C.1351 Prague

Millions died. Terrified people fled infected areas and carried the plague with them. In towns the doors of plague carriers were marked with crosses to warn others to keep away. The dead were collected

Black Sea

Dec

Pans Milan

Bonleasrr

1350 1350

June

Constantinople

Genoa* Elareitce

Dec

1349

June

in carts and buried in mass graves. In Europe about one-third of the population died; a similar number

1349

Dec 1348

Plague-free areas

June 1348

Some areas, such as modern-day Poland

probably died in Asia.

and Milan, escaped the plague, but

Dec 1347

the reason for this is still a mystery.

Disease carriers

Effects of the plague

Plague is caused by a bacterium that lives on

The disease was so widespread that many

rodents. The disease was caught by black rats in

left their families and took to the road to

Asia, which then colonized ships to Europe

try to escape death. Some thought the

and spread the disease among people there.

plague was Gods punishment for the sins

An infected person could also pass the

of p>eople, and mercilessly whipped them¬

plague through the air, by coughing.

selves in the streets to show repentance. Labour force By the end of the I4th century, the smaller p>opularion of Europe meant that life was better for those who had survived. Because there were fewer 20M Q

jjeasants, they got higher wages and there was more food to go around. But recurring p>easant rebellions showed that they still had grievances.

Plague bacterium

Flea carriers

Animal carriers

Human carriers

Population decline

The bacterium is called

The plague baaerium lives

The black rat lived in towns

The plague turned into an

When Pope Clement VI asked how

Yersinia pestis, after

in the digestive system of a

and on ships and scavenged in

epidemic so rapidly because

the Swiss biologist

flea, and causes a blockage

food stores and rubbish heaps.

human travellers helped

Alexander Yersin, who

there. When the flea feeds,

Rats carry fleas, and when

spread it. Mongol nomads

discovered it. It is

the blockage makes it

plague-carrying rats died of

and Asian merchants carried

common in wild

vomit the newly eaten

the disease, their fleas searched

it across Asia. The traders of

animals such as held

blood back onto its host,

for other hosts. If these new

the great Italian cities, such as

mice, ground squirrels,

along with plague baaeria,

hosts were people, they, too,

Genoa and Venice, carried it

and marmots.

which then infea the host

caught the plague.

around Europe in their ships.

many people had died from the plague. 8M

he was told at least 20 million vW

people in Europe, and 17 million in Asia. In comparison,

3

around 8 million soldiers

Q

died in World War 1.

o= Black

World

2 million dead

Death War I Lungwort

Dealing with the plague

Mint

Rose

Tombs

Some people tried to fend off the plague by using

During the plague, people

herbal remedies, bleeding by leeches, fumigation, and

faced death every day. Death is often realistically

even bathing in urine. A

shown on 14th-century

14th-century poem,

tombs, where images of

called the Dance

skeletons and decaying corpses are common.

of Death (which states that death comes for people of

Chantries People often left money for

every rank) was

masses to be said for their

often enacted and

souls. These masses were

painted, to remind

said in sp>ecial chaf>els inside churches known as

people that death — and the plague —

Simple lead crosses were placed

chantries. This chantry is

on corpses in mass graves

at Winchester, England.

could strike at any ume.

FIND OUT

MORE

Asia, HISTORY OF

Diseases

Europe, HISTORY OF

Microscopic LIFE

BLACK HOLES much time analysing how stars form and

Astronomers have spent

how they develop. One problem was to explain what happened to a massive star at the end of its life. In 1967, the

A massive star ends its days in an explosion, leaving a very

term “black hole” was used to describe one type of object that is left when a massive star dies.

dense core that then collapses.

Stellar

Four years later, Cygnus X-1 was found, the first candidate for a black hole.

Gravity increases as the core of the

CO

llap se

Massive stars can end their lives in an explosion, called a supernova,

dying star shrinks.

that leaves behind a central core. If Anything trying to

Detecting a black hole

the cores mass is more than that of

escape the gravity must travel almost at the speed of

Black holes appear black because nothing, not even light, can escape from their powerful gravity. Astronomers

three Suns, it becomes a black hole. Gravity forces the core to collapse. As

light, as the core approaches

the core shrinks, its gravity increases.

the size of the event horizon.

cannot detect them directly, but can “see” them because

At a certain point it reaches a critical

of the effect their gravity has on everything around them,

Once the core is smaller than the event

such as gas from a nearby star. The boundary of the

horizon, not even light can escape.

black hole is called the event horizon. Material pulled in

size, that of the event horizon.

The core continues collapsing until it

towards the hole is swirled around by the gravity,

takes up viituallv no space. The star is

forming a disc, before crossing the horizon.

a singularity, a point mass of infinitely

Event horizon

Gravity Black holes have incredibly strong

high density inside a black hole.

gravity which pulls in anything

Close to the black hole, Gas is tom from a

that comes close enough.

the gas glows with heat.

nearby star. ^

\

Anything pulled in

;

beyond the event horizon will be ^

%

squashed to near infinite density and

never escapes.

Entering a black hole

I

At the start of the fall, everything

appears normal.

Accretion disc The material that swirls around a black hole forms a rapidly spinning accretion disc. As the material is pulled closer to

Black holes

the hole, it travels foter and

I As the astronaut

are black because

foter, and becomes very hot

r approaches the hole, he

lig^t or other

from friction. Close to the

starts to be stretched.

radiation can escape, and

hole, the material is so hot it

a hole because nothing that

emits X-rays before crossing the

3

crosses the event horizon can get out

event horizon and disappearing forever.

Light is also stretched to a longer wavelength so

the astronaut appears redder.

Galaxy NGC 4261 in

Inside a black hole

the constellation of Virgo has what

Roger Penrose

Space and time are highly distorted

appears to be a huge

The English mathematician Roger Penrose

inside a black hole. Anyone

(b. 1931) theorizes on the nature of space and

unlucky enough to fall into one

time. He has shown that a massive collapsing

million light years across — swirling

would be stretched to resemble

around a huge black hole.

spaghetti, as gravity pulled

accretion disc - 30

'

Supermassive holes

star inevitably becomes a black hole, and that ■ a pioint, occupying virtually no space, that contains the

more on the feet than the head. An observer watching

Some galaxies have very active centres that

the person fall would also

give out large amounts of energy. An object

see time running slower as

of powerful gravity, such as a supermassive

the person fell towards

black hole, could be the cause of the

the event horizon.

all black holes have a singularity

4

entire mass of the dead Gravity

star. Penrose believes

stretches

the singularity is

the astronaut.

always hidden

Close to the

by an event

hole, he is

horizon.

torn apart.

activity. Such a hole would be a hundred million times more massive than the Sun.

FIND OUT

MORE

Friction

Galaxies

Gravity

Stars

Sun and solar system

Universe

139

BLAKE, WILLIAM see POETRY • BLOOD see HEART AND CIRCULATORY SYSTEM • BOATS see SHIPS AND BOATS

BOLIVAR, sim6n

Early life Bolivar was born into a rich family in Caracas,

the brilliant and charismatic leader who led South America to independence SimOn bolivar was

Venezuela, in 1783. His parents died when he was young, and he was

from 400 years of foreign rule. Together with other generals, he overthrew the Spanish in just 12 years. As president of the federation of Gran

educated by private tutors, such as Simon Rodriguez, a teacher who taught him about European

Colombia, he wanted to rule the whole continent, but this dream came to nothing. To this day, he is still known as

ideas, such as liberty. Bolivar in Europe

“The Liberator”, and one of the South American nations,

In 1799, Bolivar was sent

Bolivia, is named after him.

to Madrid to live with relatives and improve his Bolivar's storms to

Fighting for independence

victory at the Battle of Carabobo

education. While in Europe, Bolivar learned of an attempt in 1806 by Francisco de Miranda to

At the start of the 19th century, all of South

liberate Venezuela from

America, except Brazil and Guiana, was

Spanish rule. The rebellion

under the rule of the Spanish king

failed, but inspired Bolivar

Ferdinand VII. Many South

to fight for independence.

Americans resented this and wanted

Ferdinand VII of Spain

to govern themselves. In response, independence movements broke out all over South America. Bolivar, keen to work in the independence movement, returned to South America and fought the Spanish in Venezuela. First republic In 1810, Ffancisco de Miranda returned from exile in Europe and was made president of the new republic of Venezuela. In 1811, it became

Francisco de Miranda in prison

the first South American

The Liberator From 1811 onwards. Bolivar was the focus of independence

country to declare

movements across South

independence from foreign

America. In 1813, he defeated

Angostura Congress

rule. Bolivar joined the rebel

the Spanish and entered Caracas,

At a congress held at Angostura, now Ciudad Bolivar,

army, but the republic

where he was given the title of

Bolivar was elected president of Venezuela. The

collapsed. He carried on the

“The Liberator”. In 1819, he put

congress also proposed the formation of Gran

struggle, going to Colombia to

together an army of 2,500 men

Colombia, a federation that included present-day

fight the Spanish there.

and marched them across the

Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Panama. Between

continent to Boyaca, Colombia.

1819 and 1822, Bolivar won a series of victories

He won the resulting banle, and

against Spain, confirming the independence of

Colombia gained its independence.

Colombia and Venezuela, and liberating Peru.

Bolivia

Simon Bolivar

In 1825, Bolivar dispatched Sucre to

1783 Born in Caracas, Venezuela.

conquer Alto Peru, in west central South

1799 Sent to Europe.

America, which was still under Spanish

1811 Venezuela declares its

control. Once the Spanish were defeated, the newly

1812 First republic is defeated.

independent

1813 Bolivar enters Caracas as “The

country was

Liberator”, but is soon defeated.

named Bolivia in

1819 Angostura Congress.

honour of the

1819 Bolivar wins Battle of Boyaca

Liberator. By now,

to win Colombian independence.

every South

1821 Bolivar wins Battle of Carabobo

Ecuador and Peru

American state

In 1822, one of Bolivar’s most talented generals, Antonio Jose de Sucre,

except Uruguay

defeated the Spanish at Pichincha to win Ecuador’s independence. Two years later, Bolivar made a deal with the Argentinian liberator Jose de San Martin, whose forces were active in Peru. As a result, Sucre defeated the

independence; Bolivar becomes a military leader.

had won its independence.

to win Venezuelan independence. 1822 Ecuador wins independence. Bolivar’s statue at government

1825 Bolivia named in his honour.

buildings. La Paz, Bolivia

1830 Dies of tuberculosis.

Spanish at Ayacucho, bringing independence to Peru. As a result of Bolivar’s influence, another large area of South America was liberated.

FIND OUT

MORE 140

Central America, HISTORY OF

Napoleon BONAPARTE

South America, HISTORY OF

Spain, HISTORY OF

BOLIVIA AND PARAGUAY Bolivia and Paraguay are the only land¬

Aymara

locked countries in South America. They are

The Aymara are a group of native South Americans

^

also two of the poorest in the continent, reliant on their neighbours for access to the sea. In a bitter war (1932—35) between them over ownership of the Gran Chaco, Bolivia lost, but both countries suffered political turmoil. Under Spanish rule between the 1530s and 1820s,

who have farmed on the Bolivian AJtiplano for hundreds of years, strongly resisting cultural change. With the Quechua, another native group, they make up more than half of Bolivia’s population, but suffer discrimination and do not contribute to politics or the economy. The state has successfully persuaded many Aymara to move into towns.

Bolivia and Paraguay still bear its legacy: Spanish is an official language, and more than 90 per cent of the regions population is Roman Catholic. Many people farm and, in Bolivia, some grow and sell coca for cocaine, a drug that the government has taken steps to banish.

Physical features Aymara farmers, AJtiplano, Bolivia

The AJtiplano dominates the west of Bolivia, while the east is covered by a lowland plain

E

called the Oriente. Paraguay is divided north

F

H

G

to south by the Paraguay River. In the west is the Gran Chaco, a region of grass and scrub;

/

the east is covered in grassy plains and forests,

^

OIH!

and drained by the mighty Parana River.

200

Dm.*

T

A ^

^200

►

'Sanfe^rui? ^

AJtiplano

(•■Ml

s

At about 3,800 m (12,467 ft) above sea-level, the AJtiplano .1

a vast, windswept, almost treeless plateau, lies between two

^t

ranges of the Bolivian Andes. Despite its cold, arid climate,

C

more than half of Bolivia’s population lives here, growing a few crops and rearing animals such as llamas and alpacas.

A

R

G

' cfOtprkom

ll L

PARA £

Pozo Coloradi'

^

.

“Coroner

JNCICJN 1

Gran Chaco The flat, dry plain that covers southeastern Bolivia and northwest Paraguay is called the Gran Chaco.

OvU-rl.i CiudadV

ando de la Ni Sanju* *teuhsU

*liUr

-fttert ncama

Since so few people live in this region of coarse grass, thorny shrubs, and cactus,

^ G

E N

.

\

a wide range of plants

Lake Titicaca

and animals thrives here.

The clear blue waters of Lake Titicaca cover 8.288 sq km (3,200 sq miles)

Regional climate

at a height of 3,810 m (12,500 ft)

Bolivia’s AJtiplano has a cool, crisp, dry climate.

above sea-level, maldng it the highest

The eastern part of the country is warm and

navigable lake in the world. It is the

humid, as is most of Paraguay. The Chaco is

last surviving stretch of an ancient

hot, with 50—100 cm (20—40 in) of rain a year,

inland sea known as Lago Ballivian.

although it often has droughts in winter.

I 890 mm (74 m)

141

BOLIVIA AND PARAGUAY

■

Bolivia

b

Music

Bolivia facts

pBolivian music has Incan, Amazonian,

The highest and most isolated nation

*

in South America, Bolivia is named

Spanish, and African influences. Rural

Capital cities La Paz, Sucre

Aymara orchestras are often composed entirely of panpipes, called chuqui. Other

after Simon Bolivar, who, in the 1800s, led

Area

wars of independence against the Spaniards.

1,098,580 sq km

(414,162 sq miles)

instruments include drums, flutes, and the

Population 8,300.uu0

phututu, made from a cow’s horn.

Despite rich natural resources, exporting is

Main languages Spanish,

difficult because of Bolivia’s position. About

Quechua, Aymara

half the people are Native Americans; the

Major religion Christian

rest are Spanish or of mixed blood.

Currency Boliviano

Maize

Pipes are made

^ H

from a local reed. The longer the reed, the

deeper the sound.

Deforestation Tropical rainforests in Bolivia are being cut down at the rate of 2,000 sq km (772 sq miles) a year, mostly for cattle ranching or growing coca for cocaine. Chemicals used Barley

in the manufacture of cocaine are discharged

La Paz

directly into the rivers of Amazonia, many Tin

Although Sucre is Bolivia’s official capital, the

Crops

of which have high pollution levels that

Bolivian farmers living on the

damage plant and tree life.

country is governed from La Paz, which also

Altiplano grow potatoes, soya beans,

has capital status. At 3,631 m (11,913 ft)

Metal mining

above sea-level. La Paz is the world’s

barley, and wheat for themselves and their

Bolivia is rich in mineral deposits. Its tin mines

highest capital and Bolivia’s largest city,

families. Rice, maize, bananas, and plantains

with a population of about 2,515,000,

lie high in the Andes mountains and it is

are grown in the lowlands. Cash crops include

of whom over half are Native Americans.

the world’s largest producer of tin. It is also a

sugar-cane, cocoa beans, and coffee, although

La Paz has chemical and textile industries,

leading exporter of antimonv and silver. Other

the profits from illegal coca crops gready

mineral deposits include zinc, gold, and lead.

but unemployment is generally high.

exceed all legal farming produce combined.

Paraguay factts

Paraguay The Paraguay River, from which the

Capital city Asuncion

country takes its name, divides the land

Area 406,750 sq km (157,046 sq miles)

in two. To the east lie the fertile hills and plains that

Population 5.500,000

are home to 90 per cent of the people. The vast

Main languages Spanish, Guarani

majority are mestizos, people of mixed European and

Major religion Christian

Native American ancestry, the rest are Guarani or

Currency Guarani

Europeans. To the northwest is the Gran Chaco, large areas of which Paraguay won from Bolivia in the 1930s. Only five per cent of the people live in the Chaco,

Beef

including 10,000

The main industry in Paraguay’s Gran Chaco is cattle ranching.

Mennonites, farmers of

Herds of animals roam the flat grasslands, tended by skilled Paraguayan cowboys called gauchos who round the cattle up

German descent who

on horseback. The forms are called estancias and are some of

retain their culture.

the only buildings in this open landscape.

Itaipu Dam Jesuits

'X ith a reservoir 3,250 sq km (1,255 sq miles) and 220 m (722 ft)

In 1588, Spanish missionaries from the

deep, the Itaipu Dam, on the Parana

Jesuit order of the Roman Catholic Church

River was undertaken as a joint project

arrived in Asuncion, They converted the local

with Brazil. It provides water

Guatani people to Christianity, and taught

for the world’s largest hydroelectric plant

them trades such as weaving. The ^

S

Jesuits built large stone churches.

and generates enough

Maca

electricity to make

Exports

Paraguay self-

Soya-bean flour and cotton

sufficient in energy.

make up around 50 per cent of Paraguay’s exports. The country

The Maca are a small ethnic group

also sells timber from its forests,

who follow a traditional lifestyle in the

Dam generates

Gran Chaco. They make a living from

13,320 megawatts of

vegetable oils, and processed

forming. Maca women also weave bags

electricity — enough to

meat. Leading trading partners include

and cloth for the tourist trade.

supply New York City.

Brazil, Argentina, and the Netherlands.

FIND OUT

MORE 142

BOLfVAR, SIMON

Christianity

Dams

Drugs

Energy

Farming

Music

Native AMERICANS

Rocks and MINERALS

South America, HISTORY OE

Textiles AND WEAVING

BOMBS AND MISSILES see WEAPONS • BONES sec SKELETON

BOOKS From encyclopedias to novels, books are a vital record of human life and achievement. They store the thoughts, beliefs, and experiences of individuals and societies, preserving them after the authors death. There are many kinds of books, from religious works, such as the Qur’an, and non-fiction, such as dictionaries and educational books, to fiction such as plays and stories. The Chinese invented printing

Early Chinese book, made of fragile bamboo strips

Early books The first books were not made of paper. Long before 3000

BC,

m the 9th century; it arrived in Europe during the 15th century. Printing made it possible to mass-produce books, and knowledge

Around 1300

was spread more widely. Today, publishing is a global industry.

bound together with cord.

Artists

the

Sumerians wrote on clay tablets. BC,

the Chinese began

making books from bamboo strips

Making books

pencil roughs

Finished pieces of colour

Much preparation goes into making books

Papyrus

and some take several years to produce.

plants grow by theNiU.

For example, making an encyclopedia

v ... I A

will involve a team of people

artwork

that includes authors, Paper

editors, designers, picture

The ancient Egyptians

researchers, illustrators,

wrote on scrolls made from

photographers, and IT

papyrus, which grew by the River Nile. Later civilizations

experts, as well as printers.

The colour proof before text is added to page

\ Transparencies

Illustration

Author

parchment made from animal

The designer draws a detailed plan,

The author is the first person to

skin. Modern paper was probably

showing the position of each illustration.

start work, researching and writing

invented in China around AD

The artist makes rough sketches, which

the contents of the book. The

150. It was made by pulping flax

are checked, then paints each picture

author advises the designer on

fibres, then flattening and drying

separately. The artwork is photographed,

suitable images for the book and

them in the sun. The Chinese

and carefully positioned on the page using

works closely with the editorial

kept this process a secret for 500

a computer, until the design is perfect.

team throughout the project.

years before they passed it on to the rest of the world.

^ high-quality

The spine of the hook holds The printed colour

image format.

in the Middle East wrote on

the pages in place.

matches the

CD Roms

original artwork as

There is a limit to how big any book

closely as possible.

_

can grow before it becomes too heavy and cumbersome to be practical. Now, modern technology is developing compact alternatives to traditional books. One CD Rom can contain as much text as a shelf

The editor checks

of encyclopedias. Text and pictures from

the authors text

CD Roms can be read and transmitted

for mistakes and

by computer.

adjusts length of text if necessary.

Text

Finished book

The text is edited on a computer screen, and then

At last the book is finished, and fitted with a hard

produced as a page called a proof. The proof is

cover and a protective jacket. It is now ready to sell.

matched with the artwork to make sure that words

An illustrated book may take several years to make,

and images fit exactly, before going to the printer.

although new technology is speeding up this process.

Timeline

Paperbacks A paperback book contains

c. 285 BC Egyptian

the same text as a hardback,

pharaoh Ptolemy I

but has a soft cover. The first

establishes a library

modern paperback books were

at Alexandria, Egypt.

Pictures and text are perfectly integrated.

c. 1440 Johannes Gutenberg

1789 French Revolutionaries

1935 First paperback books

invents the metal type.

proclaim the fundamental

published for mass market

public right to print without

by Penguin in UK.

fear of censorship.

published in London by Penguin, in 1935, priced sixpence. They are far cheaper

AD 300s Books with

HND OUT

MORE

Children’s LITERATURE

Gutenberg Bible

Computers

l'^96 Lithography (a

1980s Electronic books

technique for printing

for the computer published

illustrations) invented.

in CD Rom format.

pages first invented.

than hardbacks, and many more people can buy them.

CD Rom

Drama

Egypt, ANCIENT

Literature

1811 First totally mechanized

1990s Books first

printing press invented, USA.

published on the Internet

Poetry

Printing

Writing

143

BOTANY see BIOLOGY • BOXING see COMBAT SPORTS

BRAIN

AND

NERVOUS SYSTEM

Brain is the body’s

every emotion you feel, and every action you take is a reflection of the nervous system

control and co¬

Every thought you have,

ordination centre. Cranial

at work. At the core of the nervous system are the brain

Cervical

and spinal cord, known as the central nervous system (CNS). The most complex part of the CNS is the brain;

. Brachial

this constantly receives information from the body, processes it, and sends out instructions telling the body what to do. The CNS communicates with every part of the body through an extensive

Spinal cord relays information to and from the brain

network of nerves. The nerves and the CNS are both constructed

and the rest of the body.

from billions of nerve cells called neurons. Radial nerve Sensory neuron

Thoracic

controls the

Nerves

muscles in the arm and hand

Nerves form the “wiring” of the

Lumbar

nervous system. Each nerve consists of Lumbar plexus

a bundle of neurons (nerve cells) held together by a tough outer sheath. Nerves spread out from the brain and

Sacral

Sacral plexus

nerves

spinal cord and branch repeatedly to reach all parts of the body. Most nerves contain sensory neurons that

Nervous system

carry nerve impulses towards the

The nervous system is

CNS, and motor neurons that carry

made up of the CNS and

nerve impulses away from the CNS.

Sciatic nerve controls the

the peripheral nervous

muscles

system, which consists of

in the leg and foot.

the nerves. The peripheral Nerve endings

nervous system has two

At the ends of sensory neurons there are nerve endings called sensory receptors. If

sections: the somatic system

you touch an object, a sensory receptor in

which controls voluntary

the skin is stimulated, nerve impulses

actions, and the autonomic

travel to the brain along the sensory

nervous system which

neuron, and you feel the object. In this way, visually impaired people can “read”

controls automatic

the Braille language with their fingertips.

functions such as heart rate.

Tibial nerve controls the muscles of the calf and foot.

f

''

Neuromuscular junction is

Neurons

Synapse

a synapse between a motor neuron and muscle fibre.

Neurons are long, thin cells

Brain,

automatically pull your hand away without thinking about it. This is a reflex action.

adapted to carry electrical signals called nerve impulses.

Reflex actions If you touch something sharp, you

A sensory neuron carries Association

impulses to the spinal

ensory

There are three types of

cord, where an association

neurons: sensory neurons,

neuron transmits impulses

Motor

to a motor neuron, and

motor neurons, and

the arm muscle contracts.

association neurons. The most numerous are association neurons, which

Axon of

Receptors in hand /

sensory

detect the prick of a

transmit signals from one

pin and send signal

neuron to another and are

to spinal cord.

found only inside the CNS. Synapses Nerve impulses Nerve impulses are the “messages” that travel at high speed along

Neuromuscular junction,

A synapse is a junction

Santiago Ramon y Cajal

between two neurons.

Spanish anatomist Santiago Ramon y

At a svnapse, neurons do

Cajal (1852-1934) pioneered the

not touch. Instead, there

study of the cells that make up the

neurons. Impulses are weak

is a tiny gap. When a

electrical signals that arc generated

nerve impulse reaches a

methods for staining nerve cells

and transmitted by neurons when

synapse it triggers the

so they could be seen clearly

brain and nerves. He developed

they are stimulated. The stimulus

release of chemicals,

under the microscope. His

may come from a sensory nerve

which travel across the

work revolutionized the

ending, or from an adjacent

gap and stimulate

examination of brain tissue.

I Nerve impulse

neuron. Nerve impulses travel in

stimulates muscle

the second neuron to

one direction along the neuron.

fibres to contract.

generate a nerve impulse.

144

BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM

White

Brain

Grey matter

Grey and white matter ELach cerebral hemisphere has two layers. The outer layer, the cerebral cortex, consists of grey

The brain is the body’s control centre. Your brain enables

matter containing cell bodies of neurons that

you to think and to have a personality, and also regulates

form a communication network. The inner layer,

all your body processes. It has three main regions: the

or white matter, consists of nerve fibres that link

forebrain, the cerebellum, and the brain stem. The forebrain

the cerebral conex to the other parts of the brain.

consists of the cerebrum (which is made up of two halves or Right cerebral

hemispheres), the thalamus, hypothalamus, and the limbic

hemisphere

system, which controls emotions and instinctive behaviour.

Section through brain tissue

Thalamus relays

Cerebrum is the

The two cerebral

information about the

site of conscious

hemispheres are joined

senses to the cerebrum.

thought.

by a hand called the

cerebral ■\ hemisphere

Left and right brains The left cerebral hemisphere controls

corpus callosum.

-•- Cerebral

the right side of the body, and the right

Hypothalamus

cerebral hemisphere controls the left

regulates body

side of the body. Although both

the outer

temperature,

hemispheres are used for almost every

layer of the

thirst, and

activity, each hemisphere has its own

cerebral

appetite.

specialist skills. In most people, the left

hemisphere

cortex is

hemisphere is involved in spoken and written language, mathematical ability, and reasoning, while the right hemisphere controls the appreciation of art and music, insight and imagination, and shape recognition.

Brain cells The brain consists of hundreds of

Frontal lobe

billions of nerve cells. Many of these are association neurons that are constandy Pituitary gland

Cerebellum

receiving and transmitung nerve impulses. Any one of these neurons can

co-ordinates

have links to over 1,000 other neurons,

\ Brain stem controls

movement and balance. Spinal cord

essential automatic

producing a complex network. The brain

functions, such as

also contains other nerve cells, called glial

breathing and heart rate.

cells, which hold the neurons in place.

Speech area

Certain areas of the cerebrum are

in right-

Brain waves

involved with particular body functions.

handed

The brain’s neurons are constantly

These areas can be highlighted on a

person

Brain areas

sending out and receiving nerve

hrain map. Motor areas of the brain,

impulses. This process produces

such as the speech and basic movement areas, send out instructions to control

electrical signals that can be

voluntary movement. Sensory areas,

detected using a machine called

such as the hearing, taste, smell, touch,

an electroencephalograph (EEG).

and vision areas, receive information ftom sensory receptors around the body.

Electrodes linked to the EEG can

Sleep and dreams

Association areas, such as the frontal

be attached to a person’s scalp in

As you sleep, you move repeatedly

lobe, deal with thoughts, personality,

Hearing, smell,

and emotions, analyse experiences, and

and taste

give you consciousness and awareness.

between phases of light REM (rapid

order to record the brain’s

eye movement) sleep and phases of Brain stem

electrical activities as a series of

deeper NREM sleep. These shifts can

patterns called brain waves.

be detected using an EEG.

Grey matter relays

Spinal cord The spinal cord relays information

Section of

information between spinal

Pierre Paul Broca

spinal cord

cord and spinal nerves.

French anatomist and surgeon Pierre Paul Broca (1824-80)

between the brain and the rest of the body,

demonstrated that a specific region of the brain controlled a

and is involved in many reflex actions.

particular body function. Broca

It is a flattened cylinder of nervous tissue,

Skull i

found that a small area co¬

about 43 cm (17 in) long and as thick

Phineas

ordinated the muscles in the

as a finger. It runs from the base of

mouth and throat that produce

Personality

the brain to the lower back,

speech. This area is now

The frontal lobe of the brain

surrounded by the backbone.

Gage

_

called Broca’s area, or the speech area.

plays a major role in deciding

Broca made his

personality. This was shown

discovery when

by the case of an American

Spinal nerve ^

worker called Phineas Gage.

relays nerve

White matter

In 1848, an accident sent a

impulses to

carries signals up

metal rod through Gage’s

and from all

cheek and frontal lobe. He

parts of body.

treating a patient

and down spinal

who could not talk after damage to part of his brain.

column.

Spinal ganglion

survived but his personality changed ftom being friendly lo being aggressive.

FIND OUT

MORE

Cells

Eyes and SEEING

Hormones and ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Human BODY

Muscles and MOVEMENT

Skin, hair, AND NAILS

Smell and TASTE

145

BRAND r, VCILLI see EUROBh, HIS 1ORY Ol- • BRAUN, WLRHNER VON see SPACE EXPLORAl ION

a BRAZIL in South America, Brazil is a land

The largest country

of opposites. Watered by the second longest river in the world, the Amazon, it has the world’s largest rainforest, arid deserts in the northeast, and rolling grassland in the south. Crowded cities contrast with remote areas that have never been explored. The country has many well-developed industries and a huge, successful agricultural base, but many people live in poverty. Brazilian

Brazil facts Capital CITY Brasilia

Physical features

Area 8,511,970 sq km (3,286,472 sq miles)

The Amazon Basin and its

Population

forests, some mountainous,

Main language Portuguese

occupy northern Brazil. The southeast is a region of plateaus that vary from sunburnt arid scrublands to rich fields and pastures.

170,000,000

Major religion Christian Currency Real Lief expectancy 68 yeats People per doctor 769 Government Multi-party democracy Adult literacy 85%

Highlands The Brazilian Highlands extend from the Amazon Basin to the coast, rising to 3.000 m (10,000 ft). About 60 per cent of the country is dominated by the plateau, where landscape ranges from tropical forest to dry, rocky desert.

society is a vibrant, diverse mix of cultures.

Amazonian rainforest Around half of Brazil is cloaked in dense rainforest. The River Amazon, 6,448 km (4,007 miles) long, runs through the north of Brazil, giving life to more than 40,000 different species ol plants and animals in the forests.

-rc (25°F) 22°C (72°F) 1,600 mm (63 in)

Climate All except the extreme south of Brazil lies in the tropics, so temperatures are always high. The Amazonian rainforest receives about 4,000 mm (157 in) every year. By contrast, droughts are common in the northeast corner. Farther south, summers are hot and winters can be cold with frosts.

Farmland 10% Desert 29.7%

Wetland 0 5%

Land use Thick forests cover the majority of the land, but are being cleared at an alarming rate to make way for farmland and Brasilia Cathedral

roads. The fertile southeast, especially around Sao Paulo, is permanently farmed. Much of the land is desert

146

BRAZIL

People

Leisure

r,ic Brazilian people have a wide

The mainly Roman Catholic people of Brazil celebrate

rtJiiu*: background, and there

many religious festivals, such as the Rio and Bahia

i.-t: large groups of African,

carnivals. Sports, including football, basketball, and

rumpean, and Asian origin.

water sports along the coast, are the chief leisure

The original inhabitants of

activities for millions of Brazilians. The samba, one of the world’s most popular dances, originated in Brazil.

form only a tiny percentage i the population. Many families ire tight knit, fiercely loyal, and

Rio Carnival

Roman Catholics. The ivufority live in towns clustered ikwg the southeastern coast.

20 per sq km

81%

19%

^2 per sq mile)

Urban

Rural

Known as one of the

Football

world s largest and most

Many Brazilians have a

spectacular festivals, the

passion for football, either

Rio Carnival, in Rio

as players or spectators.

Indian groups

de Janeiro, is held just

The national team has

Some native Brazilians

before Lent every year.

won the World Cup more

still live in the rainforests,

During the carnival,

times than any other team.

following traditional ways

processions of brightly

Its star player, Edson

of life. However, about

decorated floats, and a

Arantes do Nascimento,

14 groups now shelter in

myriad of colourful

known as Pele, was the

Xingu National Park, set

singers, musicians, and

worlds leading player in

up when their forest home

dancers with imaginative

the 1960s and is regarded

was destroyed.

costumes, fill the streets.

by fans as a living legend.

Canie ranch,

Farming

Sao Paulo

Forest products The plants and trees of the Amazonian

Brudl has immense natural resources. About

rainforest have long been used for food,

22 per cent of the labour force works on the

housing, and medicine by the people

'jnd, growing all Brazil’s own food, with a

who live there. Some of these, such as rubber and Brazil nuts, are now known

vast: surplus for export. The best farmland

world-wide. Other lesser-known plants

B around Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo,

are quinine, taken from chinchona bark

»-here water is plentiful and the

and used to treat malaria; ipecacuanha, an ingredient of cough medicines; and

climate is frost-free. About 150

curare, once part of an arrow poison,

million cattle are reared on

now a life-saving muscle

urge ranches in this region

relaxant used in operations.

S3

Orang

Meat production

Soya beans

Coffee

Brazil is one of the worlds largest producers of beef and

leaves and Each berry contains two

berries

veal. Cows graze on the rich, green pastures of central

beans, which are washed,

Brazil. Large areas of tropical rainforest are cleared to

dried, and roasted.

create new cattle ranches, but the soil is soon exhausted and more forest has to be felled.

Transport

Crops Brazil is a leading producer of cocoa beans,

A vast network links Brazil s main

coffee, oranges, and sugar-cane, and one ,_^ \ ^

centres, but of the 1,660,352 km

of the world s largest growers of soya beans and bananas. About 22 per cent of the world s coffee comes from Brazil, and

millions of oranges are picked every year. These crops grow successfully in the warm, Bananas

fertile soils of central and southern Brazil.

(1,031,693 miles) of roads, only nine per cent are paved. Brazil has one of the world’s largest national air networks. Cities with rapid growth, such as Sao Paulo, are expanding their subways.

Industry The manufacturing industry employs about 15 per cent of the Brazilian work-force. Machinery, textiles, cars, food products, industrial chemicals, and footwear are

Steel

“Green” cars

South Americas top steel

About one-third of all Brazil’s cars are run on

the main export products.

Mining

maker, Brazil ranks highly

so-called “green petrol”, or ethanol, which is

Brazil has large mining, oil,

Brazil is a leading producer of gold, manganese, and tin

in world production. This,

made from fermented sugar-cane. Because it

and steel industries, but has

ore. The country is noted for its precious stones, such

and cheap labour, have

produces less carbon monoxide than petrol

as amethysts, diamonds, and topaz, but the quest for

attracted many car makers

when it is burned, it is less harmful to the

mineral wealth has led to much forest destruction.

to invest in the country.

environment and is reducing pollution.

suffered high inflation.

FIND OUT

MORE

Christianity

Crystals AND GEMS

Farming

Festivals

Football

Forests

Native AMERICANS

Rivers

Rocks and MINERALS

South America, HISTORY OF

147

BREATHING sec LUNGS AND BREATHING • BRECHT BERTOLT see DRAMA

Types of bridges

BRIDGES

On a journey, you may see many different shapes and sizes of bridge, but there are really

across rivers and valleys, bridges are some of the most spectacular Curving majestically

structures engineers have ever created. They are also some of the most useful, because bridges can

only a few main types; arch bridges, beam bridges, cantilever bridges, suspension bridges, and cable-stay bridges. The type of bridge used depends on the size of the gap it must span, the landscape, and traffic that will cross it.

speed up journeys by cutting out ferry crossings, long detours, steep hills, and busy junctions. The first bridges were probably tree trunks laid across streams. Wooden beam bridges and stone or brick arches were the main types of bridge from Roman times until the 18th century, when iron

Arch bridge The arch is used to build bridges because it is a strong shape that can bear a lot of weight. To bridge a wide gap, several arches of stone or brick are linked together.

became available to engineers. Most modern bridges are made of steel and concrete, making them both strong and flexible.

Beam bridge In a beam bridge, the central span (or beam) is supported at both ends.

Pylon

The foundations are laid, and the L two pylons arc erected. The

Side span

concrete side spans, which will link the bridge to the shore, are assembled.

Building a bridge

Very long beams are

A cable-stay bridge is a type

would be liable to collapse

of suspension bridge with a

under their own weight.

deck hung from slanting

2

The deck sections are hung from

Cables

Cantilever bridge

cables that are fixed to pylons

A beam fixed at one end

instead of the ground. Once

and stretching out over a

the pylons are in place, the

gap is a cantilever.

the bridge begins to stretch across the river from each shore.

bridge is built outwards in

have several supports, each

both directions from each

with two beams that reach

pylon. This ensures that the

out from either side.

cables attached to the pylons, and A-

impractical, because they

3

The central deck spans are lifted

forces on the pylons balance,

by crane off river barges, welded

so that there is no danger of

into place, and attached to cables.

■f-

Balanced cantilever bridges

Suspension bridge The deck of a suspension bridge hangs from cables

the pylons collapsing.

slung over towers and

Crane-

anchored to the ground at 23 pairs of cables attach

IBM

4

to either side of pylon. When the last deck section is in place, the

bridge is complete. The

Such bridges have spans of up to 1 km (0.62 miles).

Model of the Pont de Normandie

each end of the bridge.

Bridge carries 4 lanes of traffic

Pylon of reinforced concrete

cables transfer the weight of the deck to the pylons.

Piers support side spans

Isambard Kingdom Brunei English engineer Isambard Kingdom

Steel cables are

Brunei (1806-59) was a genius of

coated in plastic to

bridge design.

prevent rusting.

Brunei designed and built two of the earliest suspension bridges. He also planned and built railways and

Foundations of pylo,

several huge

extend 50—60 m

steamships.

(164—197 fi) below ground.

Aqueducts

Timeline

1883 in the usa. New

1932 Australia’s Sydney

Not all bridges carry roads or

200 BC Roman

York’s Brooklyn Bridge is

Harbour Bridge opens, carrying a road and rail

railway tracks. An aqueduct is a

engineers build

the first bridge to be

bridge that carries water. The

arch bridges of

supponed by steel

tracks suspended from a

Romans built aqueducts to supply

stone or wood,

suspension cables,

huge steel arch.

water to the baths and drinking

and aqueducts.

fountains in their cities. More 1779 The first

recent aqueducts carry canals over steep-sided valleys in order to keep the canal level. This avoids having

Aqueduct on the River Dee, Wales

to build long flights of locks.

FIND OUT

MORE 148

Building and CONSTRUCTION

Iron and STEEL

Rivers

1930 Switzerland’s

1998 The Akashi Kaikyo

Salginatobel Bridge is

suspension bridge over

bridge made of cast

constructed of reinforced

Sydney Harbour

iron is built at

concrete (concrete

Bridge, Australia

Ironbridge, England.

strengthened with steel).

Roads

Roman EMPIRE

Ships and BOATS

Trains and RAILWAYS

Japan’s Akashi Strait has the longest main span in the world.

Transport, HISTORY OF

Tunnels

BRITISH EMPIRE see EMPIRES* BROCA, PIERRE PAUL see BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM

BRONTE SISTERS

Haworth parsonage The Bronte sisters were brought up in the small

writers of the 19th century, Charlotte, Anne, and Emily

Three of the finest

Bronte, were brought up in solitude in a small town in northern England. In spite of many difficulties, including being far away from the world of publishing in London, they produced some

town of Haworth in Yorkshire, northern England. Their father was the curate (priest) at the local church, so they lived at the parsonage (clergymans house). It was a grim stone building, with a view over the graveyard. Bronte family Charlotte, Emily, and Anne lived with their father, Patrick Bronte and their brother, Branwell. Their mother,

of the most popular novels of the period.

Maria, died when the children

The books portrayed characters with a new frankness and showed how difficult life could be for women of that era. Their stories still enthral readers of today.

children died in infancy, so the

Education

were young and two other sisters were brought up by their aunt. They had a lonely life. They mixed little with other children and had to make their own entertainment

Manuscripts are still preserved at Haworth

Charlotte and Emily were sent away to Cowan Bridge school. The conditions were

parsonage.

poor and made Charlotte ill. Lowood school, in Jane Eyre, is based on her time there. All three sisters later worked as teachers, or governesses — one of the few jobs then open to educated young women.

Manuscripts and illustrations completed by the Bronte

Poetry manuscript

sisters in their teenage years.

by Charlotte Bronte at around the age of 14 Cowan Bridge school

Angria and Gondal To amuse themselves in the

Novelists

bleak moorland rectory, the

In 1846, the Brontes started to get their works

Jane Eyre

Bronte children invented two

published. They began with a volume of poems, but

Charlotte Bronte’s first

imaginary lands, called Angria

only two copies were sold. In the following two years

novel tells the story of Jane Eyre and her struggle to be

and Gondal. They wrote many

Emily’s Wuthering Heights, Charlotte’s Jane Eyre,

an independent woman in

and Anne’s Agnes Grey were published. At the time

a hostile society. Working

lands, which were peopled

as a governess, she falls in

with heroes and heroines who

It

was not thought proper for the daughters of

love with her employer, Mr

clergymen to write

Rochester, only to discover

fiction, so the sisters used pseudonyms (false names),

stories and poems about these

lived exciting and tragic lives.

terrible secrets in his past.

niTiiERivc iiEicnrs

The novel was considered

Charlotte Bronte

radical in its time.

to keep their identities

1816 Born Yorkshire, England.

secret. Many people Wuthering Heights

bought the books and

Emily Bronte’s novel follows

1822-32 Educated at Cowan Bridge School and Miss Wooler’s School,

wanted to know more

a series of tragic relationships

Roe Head, Yorkshire.

about the authors.

through different generations

1846 Publishes her poems.

and is especially famous for

184"’ Publishes/jne Eyre.

Bell brothers

its depiction of Catherine

TTie Bronte sisters published

and Heathcliff. Set against

1849 Publishes Shirley.

their books under three male

the Yorkshire countryside,

1853 Publishes Villette.

names — Acton, Currer, and Ellis

the novel deals with

Bell, the initials of which

contemporary' issues of social

matched those of the sisters’ own

change and industrialization.

1854 Marries Arthur Nicholls. 1855 Dies.

names. To begin with, even their publishers did not know who the Bell brothers” really were.

FIND OUT

MORE

Books

Christianity

Dickens.

Film and

CHARLES

FILM-MAKING

Litlrature

United kingdom, HISTORY Ol

Writing

149

BRONZE AGE

%(',

Stone wristguard with gold screws ^ Copper dagger blade

In

about

3000 BC, prehistoric

The first metalworkers

people began to use bronze — an alloy of copper and tin — instead of stone, to make weapons and ornaments.

In the early days of the Bronze Age, metalworkers used gold, copper, and bronze for luxury items, or for high-status weapons, such as the dagger in the Barnack grave, England. People still made tools from stone, because stone was harder than bronze.

The dates for this development, which is known as the Bronze Age, vary from culture to culture, but the earliest bronze workers probably lived in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). These people initially used pure gold and copper, which were easy to hammer into shape, before discovering how to make bronze. They were also responsible for developing the world s first civilizations. The Bronze Age was followed by a time when people learned to smelt and shape iron ore to produce stronger tools and weapons. This period is known as the Iron Age.

Pottery beaker for use in the afterlife

The Bamack grave, c.1800 BC Prongs for lifting meat from a cauldron

Flesh hook

Copper

Making bronze

Casting

People learned how to extract metal from ores by heating the rock. The metal could then be used to make useful or decorative objects.

Bronze Age people cast objects by pouring hot, molten bronze into a mould. When the metal had cooled and set, the mould was opened, revealing the finished item. Casting was used to produce decorative items.

This common type of copper ore was fairly easy for people to spot on the ground.

metal was

Bronze axe head

through holes.

Cast pin

Yellow chalcopyrite

The mould

Blue bomite

to the shape of the item.

To extract the metal. Bronze Age people heated the ore to a high temperature. When the metal in the ore reached melting point, they collected it in a round, stone crucible.

Trace of an ingot

Ingots Early metalworkers di.scovered how to add molten tin to copper to make bronze. Liquid bronze was poured into rouna moiiius ana left to set. 1 he blocks ol bronze were called ingots.

1_

Pins

Stone mould

Mould This is one half of a stone mould for casting pins. It was made in Switzerland, c.lOOO BC. To use the mould, the two halves were fastened together, and metal poured in through the holes at the top.

Timeline 3800 BC The earliest known metal objects are produced bv smelting. Copper is the main metal smeiiea in icp)e Yahya, Iran.

Bronze pins like this were cast in the stone mould. The mould used to make this pin was carved to create the delicate panern on the pin-head.

2500 BC Bronze is used in the cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, Indus Valley.

MORE

Bronze

Bronze pendant

Cast pin

3000 Bt Bronze objects are used throughout western Asia, where copper is being combined with tin.

FIND OUT

Danish bronze sword

fastened clothing before buttons were invented

^

Smelting

150

Bronze swords were sometimes cast, although they were stronger when the bronze was beaten into shape. This Danish sword is polished to show the original golden colour of bronze.

poured

was carved

1

Ornate French sword

Molten_-

Ore

1

The royal family of the city of Ur in Mesopotamia used copper for jewellery, as well as for everyday items, such as this flesh hook. They used gold to make beautiful vessels for special occasions.

Greece, AMCIENT

Bronzeware Bronze was prized for its beauty. In Europe, the nobles liked to wear bronze jewellery, such as bangles and pendants, and bronze pins in their clothing. Bronze swords were high-status weapons.

2000 BC Bronze-working comes to the civilizations of the Minoans on Crete and the Msceneans in mainland Greece. These Aegean cultures trade in Europe for copper and tin.

Indus VALiEY CIVILIZATION

Metals

1900 BC Iron Age Stans in western Asian areas such as Turkey. Iran, and Iraq.

Minoans

Shaft-tube axe. Hungary 1800 BC Bronze Age reaches European areas, such as modern Slovakia.

Pottery and CERAMICS

St ONI AGE

800 Bt Early Iron Age Starrs in central Europe.

SlMERIANS

BRUNEI see MALAYSIA AND SINGAPORE • BRUNELLESCHI see ARCHITECTURE

BUDDHA

Early life According to tradition, Siddhartha was born

Buddhism is a world

while his mother,

faith that has changed

Maya, was on her way to visit her parents. She

_

the lives of millions of people. It began in Sakya, ^ small kingdom in northeast India. The founder Buddhism was a prince, called Siddhartha Gautama, but today he is known simply as the Buddha,

died soon afterwards. His father was told that the boy would become either a great ruler or a Buddha. The king was afraid that Siddhartha would leave the court

a title meaning “the enlightened one”. When he was a young man, Siddhartha began a search for an understanding of suffering. By

to become a holy beggar, so confined him to the palace grounds. But eventually he left to

the end of his life he had become the Buddha,

search for the true meaning of suffering.

Siddhartha, later called the Buddha

founded the Buddhist faith and already had many followers.

Maya, mother of the Buddha

Sarnath

Teaching

At Sarnath, near Varanasi, the Buddha preached his first

After experiencing enlightenment, the

sermon to five men who had

Buddha set out to teach others what

Enlightenment When Siddhartha left the palace, the suffering he saw around him made him decide to become a holy man. He spent

previously sought enlightenment

he had learned. Many were converted,

with him. He taught them that

and the Buddha sent them away as

suffering is caused by desire, and

wandering missionaries. Later, the

to end suffering they must give up desire. Sarnath became the

Buddha returned to his fathers court

site of one of the greatest

to teach his own people what he had

Buddhist shrines.

learned. His father

six years depriving himself of food and

was among the first

sleep, and learning about spiritual

to be converted.

matters. Eventually he realized that this made him too weak for deep reflection, so he meditated under a tree. Here he made the breakthrough to an understanding of the truth known as enlightenment. Mara, the demon

Bttddha

Bimbisara Even during his own lifetime, the

Temptations

Buddha commanded so much

While Siddhartha was

respect that many people left

meditating, a demon named

their homes to follow him and

Mara sent his beautiful

form orders of monks and nuns.

daughters to tempt him from

When King Bimbisara gave the Buddha a generous gift of

his chosen path. Mara also whipped up a storm and

land — “the gift of the

hurled thunderbolts at

bamboo grove” — Buddhas

Siddhartha. But the young

followers built the first Buddhist monastery there.

man carried on meditating, unmoved. He meditated for

King Bimbisara

a whole night before understanding the truth,

The Buddha

which he called dharma, and reaching peace, or nirvana,

Earliest records of Buddhas life were

in his heart.

written more than 200 years after he died, so details are hard to verify. Death of Buddha

Pilgrim

The following dates are accepted by

Later life

most authorities.

When the Buddha was 80 years old, he ate some food that had been accidentally poisoned, and died at Kusinagara in India amongst his disciples. Many people came to pay homage to him. His body was cremated and the remaining bones were placed under stone mounds that have since became holy places of pilgrimage for Buddhists.

563 BC Siddhartha Gautama, son of King Suddhodana of the Sakya, born in northca.st India. 533 BC Siddhartha leaves his fathers court to become a holv m.in. 527 BC Siddhartha attains enlightenment, and becomes the Bttddha. 483 BC Buddha dies .it Kitsinag.iia, in Ottdh, India.

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BL'DDHIS.VI

China

India,

HISlORy OF

Mai R5AN F.VIPIRE

iMONAST FRIES

Shrinfs

151

BUDDHISM

Teachings The Buddha taught the Four Noble Truths,

was founded by an Indian nobleman called Gautama Siddhartha in the 6th

The BUDDHIST FAITH

century BC. Gautama, who became known as the Buddha, or the “Awakened One”,

which explain the Buddhist attitude to suffering and how fulfilment can be achieved. The Truths say that suffering is always present in the world; that the human search for pleasure is the source of suffering; that it is possible to be free from these desires by achieving a state called nirvana; and that the way to nirvana is through the Eightfold Path.

told people how to achieve fulfilment. He taught that fulfilment is reached by meditation, wisdom, and correct behaviour in all aspects of life. Buddhists also believe in reincarnation, in other words that a person can be reborn after

Wheel of Law

In each realm, a Buddha-figure

The Eightfold Path

helps the beings

The Path teaches that the way Buddhists

there.

lead their lives should be correct in eight impKjrtant aspects: understanding, thought, speech, action, means of livelihood (work), effort, recollection,

death. The Buddha is revered by his followers,

and meditation. The eight-spoked Wheel

but not worshipped as a god. For this reason. Buddhism exists side-by-side with other religions in many countries. There are probably some 320 million Buddhists worldwide,

of Law shown above represents each of the eight stages of the Path.

Karma Buddhists believe in the law of karma According to this law, good and bad actions result in fitting rewards and punishments, both in this life and in later

although the majority are in Asia.

rebirths. The Wheel of Life is a symbol Three animals

of rebirth. When people die, they are

in the centre are

Rites and ceremonies

reborn into one of its six

symbols of ignorance.

Wheel of Life

realms of existence.

Ceremonies at Buddhist temples are usually simple. They involve reciting extracts from

Offerings The Buddhas

Buddhist scriptures and making offerings

Buddhists regularly make offerings to the Buddha, such

topknot is a sign

as flowers and food. Burning incense or candles and

to the Buddha. A monk may give a

of his princely

scanering petals around the Buddhas statue are ways

sermon. Some Buddhist rituals also involve

wisdom.

of making an offering that also beautifies the temple. The light of the candles is

candle-lit processions and music-making.

the light of the Buddhas great wisdom,

The Buddhist year is enlivened with

and the smoke from incense wafts the

festivals, most of which take place at full Moon. The most famous festival is Wesak, at New Year, which celebrates the birth,

truth of the doctrine towards the devotees. His face has the serene expression of meditation.

Eyes cast down show

enlightenment, and death of the Buddha.

that he is

Hand gestures on a statue of the Buddha

Long ear lobes symbolize his nobility.

meditating. Coloured

Candles

Incense

Lotus flowers

sash is changed for each season.

Meditation Buddhists meditate in order to purify their minds and free themselves from thoughts about material things. In this way they hope to achieve “perfect mindfulness”, one of the stages in the

The Buddha touches

This gesture shows

earth as witness to

the Buddha

his worthiness for

actively turning

Buddhahood.

the Wheel of Law.

E ghtfold Path. One way in which thev meditate is to concentrate on feeling their breath going in and out. This empties the mind of selfish thoughts, making the person calmer and the mind clearer.

The Buddha Statues of the Buddha are kept in temples and homes to inspire Buddhists to live as he did. Buddhists bow before the statue to show their respect. They also carry out the ceremony called “Going for refuge”, in which they recite texts that show their dedication to the Buddha, to his teaching (the Dharma), and to the community of Buddhists (the Sangha).

152

BUDDHISM

Branches of Buddhism

Mahayana

Tibetan Buddhism

This form of Buddhism prevails

A form of Mahayana

From its beginnings in India,

in China, Korea, Japan,

BuddhLsm is found in

Buddhism spread around eastern and

Mongolia. Nepal, and Tibet. A

Tibet. Here, special value is

followers first aim is to become a

placed on the Buddhist

Bodhisattva, an enlightened being

virtues of meditation

the worlds Buddhists still live. There

who does not pass into nirvana

and wisdom. Tibetan

are also Buddhist communities in

but remains in this world in order

Buddhists have their own

Southeast Asia, where the majority of

other parts of Asia, and in the West. Buddhism has two main strands —

Mantra Inside a prayer

to help others to enlightenment.

rituals, such as repeating sacred

Mahayana Buddhists therefore

sayings, or mantras. Since the

place a high value on charity.

Chinese invasion ofTibet in

Mahayana and Theravada — but other

wheel is a mantra that the monk repeats while

the 1950s, few Buddhist Monks are given

forms of Buddhism with distinctive

offering of

features have also developed.

spinning the wheel.

monasteries remain in Tibet Chinese Bodhisattva head

food by locals.

Zen

Theravada

This form of Buddhism

TTiis branch of Buddhism is closest to the

originated in China and spread

teachings of the Buddha himself It is

to Japan in about the 13th

dominant in Southeast Asia (Burma,

century. Zen Buddhists aim to

Cambodia, Laos, Sri Lanka, and Thailand).

Alrrugiving

Theravada Buddhists revere the Buddha and

emphasizes

nature, using everyday actions

do not worship other figures. They aim to

the close

as a means of meditation. Zen

become “perfected saints” by following the

relationship

Buddhists meditate in a way

Eightfold Path and tend to believe that

between

that tries to see beyond logical

people can reach the state of nirvana only

monks and

patterns of thought and

through their own efforts.

lay people.

preconceived ideas.

Monasticism

Sharpening

B

lead a simple life, close to

Alrru howl lid is aho ^ ^ plate.

Sacred texts

Buddhist monasteries began

Buddhism has sacred texts made

when the Buddhas followers built

up of sayings and sermons, many

permanent settlements to live in

of them attributed to the Buddha.

together during the rainy season. Today there are many monks (and

One of the most important books Needle

Razor

Water

of writings is the Dharmapada,

Alms bowl lid

some nuns) who devote their lives

and thread

to explaining the Buddhas teachings

Living as a monk

which forms part of the Pali Canon, the oldest collection

and setting an example by the way

Monks live apan from their

of Buddhist scriptures.

they lead their lives.

families and have few personal

strainer

In Tihetan-style libraries, manuscripts are

piossessions. They rely on gifts

wrapped in cloth and placed between hoards.

for survival, carrying alms bowls Shaven head shows the monk has renounced worldly

The monk’s

vanities.

meditative pose suggests peace

into which people place food. They obey strict rules. They must avoid entertainments in which there is singing or dancing, give up decorative clothes, and eat only at set times.

Alms bowl

Belt or girdle

and stability.

Library in Shey Monastery, Ladakh, India

Temples The religious buildings of Buddhism vary widely

Wat Benchamahophit, in Thailand’s capital,

in their shape and decoration, from Japanese

Bangkok, is known as

pagodas to Thai wats. But all contain

the marble temple.

statues of the Buddha. The statues act as a focus for devotion and Stepped roof symbolize

offerings. People go to the i

stages of spiritual

to carry out acts of private

development.

worship and for special ceremonies.

i

Dalai Lama The Dalai Lama is the spiritual and political

Devotees

leader of Buddhists in Tibet, who believe

gather

that each Dalai Lama is a

with their

reincarnation of the previous

offerings in

one. The present Dalai Lama.

the grounds

Tenzin Gyatso, was born in

of the

1935. In exile since 1959

temple._

following the Chinese takeover, he is still Tibet’s most important leader.

HND OUT

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Asia, history OF

Buddha

China, HISTORY OF

Festivals

Mauryan EMPIRE

Religions

Shrines

Signs and symbols

Thailand AND BURMA

153

Buffalo

and other WILD CATTLE and all other cattle, are members of the family Bovidae.

The five species of buffalo,

They have split, or cloven, hooves, and both sexes have horns which they can use to defend themselves. The animals also gain some protection from living together in herds. Only the anoas are solitary animals. Cattle were among the earliest animals to be domesticated. The Asiatic buffalo, yak, banteng, and gaur all have a domesticated version. Loss of habitat, hunting, and diseases have drastically reduced the world’s wild cattle. No fewer than nine of the eleven species are in danger of extinction.

African buffalo The buffalo is the only species of wild cattle found in Africa. Cape buffalo bulls are up to 1.5 m (5 ft) at the shoulder and weigh more than 816 kg (1,800 lb). Their horns have a span of up to 1.5 m (5 ft) and form a massive helmet, or boss, across the head. A smaller sub¬

Bison

species, the forest buffalo, lives in equatorial forests.

Often wrongly called buffalo, there are two species of bison. The American bison is a grass¬ land animal which appears in two forms — the plains bison and the woods bison. The European bison, or wisent, is a forest dweller. Bison are massive animals standing more than 1.5 m (5 ft) American bison The head, neck, and

tall and weighing more than 910 kg (2,000 lb). Asiatic buffalo

forequarters of the American bison arc covered with long

European bison

There are four species of

hair, which, with the large

The wisent lives in Poland’s

Asiatic buffalo — the water

Endangered tamarau

hump, makes rhe forequarters

Bialowieza Forest. It is taller

buffalo (shown here), the

Confined to the

appear much bigger than the

than the American bison and

lowland and mountain

highlands on the island

hindquarters. The horns are

has a longer, less barrel-like body,

anoa, and the tamarau.

of Mindoro in the

short and curved, and arc

and longer legs. Its hindquarters

The water buffalo occurs

Philippines, this

grown by both sexes.

are also more powerfully built.

in a domestic and a wild

dwarf buffalo has

form, but only a few wild

been relentlessly

herds survive. Its horns are

hunted. Only about

Yak

semi-circular and sweep

100 survive today’.

Largest of the wild

outward and backward.

Oxen The group of wild cattle commonly called oxen contains four species — the yak, the banteng, the gaur, and

cattle, the wild yak lives in herds high up on the Tibetan Plateau in Central Asia. To protect them against the bitterly cold climate, yaks have long, shaggy black hair

the kouprey. Domestic cattle also belong to

reaching almost to the ground, with a thick undercoat.

this group. Most breeds of domestic

Found in Southeast Asia,

from the now-extinct

Java, and Borneo, the

time inhabited the plains and woodlands

from the wild yak, which

Scientific name Symeerus cajfer

is more than 2 m (6.5 ft)

Order Artiodactyla

high at the shoulder, to

154

Distribution Africa, south of the

is no more than "'6 cm

Sahara

(30 in) high.

banteng is a shy animal. Females and young are

U/W yak

a brick-red colour: adult males are black.

of Europe and Asia in great numbers.

Family Bovidae

the mountain anoa, which

Banteng

cattle are descended aurochs, which at one

Cape buffalo

Largest and smallest Wild cattle range in size

FIND OUT

Dfer and

MORE

ANIELOPES

—

M Farming

Habhat Grassland and woodland savannahs, but seldom fer from water Diet Mainly gra.ss, occasionally supplemented with foliage .Sl/L

1.5 m (5 ft) at the shoulder

Lll LSI’AN About 20 vears

Norih Amfricxn WILDLIEE

Sheep and

GOAT s

BUGS

Features of a bug All bugs have specialized mouthparts with cutting implements for piercing, and needle-like sucking tubes held within a

The word bug is often used

protective sheath. Some bugs, such as lantern bugs, have

to describe any crawling insect or a disease-causing

their membranous wings exposed when at test; others have forewings that are partially thickened and used not for flight, but as a protective cover

germ. The true bugs are a group of insects that have long feeding

for the delicate hind wings. False eyes

tubes specially adapted for sucking fluids out of plants and animals. Bugs, such as shield bugs, are often brightly coloured,

Abdomen

and, as a group, they are remarkably varied in shape. There are about 55,000 species of bug, including large solitary insects, such as giant water bugs and cicadas, and tiny creatures, such as scale insects, bedbugs, and aphids. It is the smaller bugs, such as greenfly and leaf hoppers, that create problems for farmers because

Spines on hind legs are used for defence.

of the severe damage they cause to crops.

Reproduction

Feeding

Assassin bugs

Bugs attract a mate in many ways, such as

Bugs use their mouthparts to cut a

prey on other invertebrates, such as

giving off scent, or vibrating the surface of

hole in their food and pierce the soft

Assassin bugs arc carnivores. Most

parts inside. They inject enzymes

bugs can squirt toxic saliva

their loud song, produced by drum-like

and digestive juices through a pair

at would-be predators.

organs on the abdomen. During mating,

of tiny tubes to break down solids

male and female bugs are often

and suck up the resulting fluids. /

In this way, predatory bugs, such as

lay hundreds of eggs. These

assassin bugs, can suck their victims

hatch into nymphs —

dry. Bedbugs are parasites that suck

tiny versions of their

the blood of bitds and mammals,

parents — and moult

including humans. Some bugs

and blackfly, multiply

many times before

feed only on plant juices.

rapidly, because they

reaching adult size.

\phids such as greenfly

millipedes. Some steal prey already caught in spiders’ webs. Assassin

water. Male cicadas attract females with

attached for hours. Females usually

Parthenogenesis

Lantern bug

Feeding tube

can reproduce without

,

>

mating. Females produce

Assassin bug feeding on a cockroach.

a succession of identical

Shield bugs

female offspring from

Shield bugs are found

unfertilized eggs, each

virtually worldwide. They

Leaf hoppers arc herbivores. They

of which later produces

are also called stink bugs,

arc often considered pests as they

more of the same. This

as they can give off a bad

is called parthenogenesis.

smell. Females protect their eggs and young from attack.

Defence

Leaf hoppers

Young shield

cut holes in the leaves of plants, such

bug nymphs being

as cotton plants, to suck out the

guarded by their mother.

Tree hoppers

sap, thereby weakening the plants.

Red-banded leaf hopper

Water bugs Some bugs live in water. Pond skaters

Small bugs face many enemies from ladybirds to birds. To deter would-be attackers, bugs have evolved a range of defences. Some bugs, such as tree hoppers, have developed elaborate camouflage; others,

Tree hoppers camouflage themselves with projections of cuticle that

skim over water on their dainty legs, while water boatmen dart below the

Scientific name Graphocephala coccinea

water using paddle-shaped limbs.

Order Homoptcra

Underwater bugs come to the surface to

Family Cicadcllidae

breathe, or carry around an air bubble.

resemble

Distribution Eastern USA and eastern Canada

thorns.

such as stink bugs, give off bad smells. The larvae

Habitat Meadows and gardens

of spittle bugs, also known as frog hoppers, hide

Diet Plant juices

within a frothy substance called cuckoo spit. Aphids employ ants to protect them by providing

Size Length 8—11 mm (0.4-0.5 in): wingspan 12-16 mm (0.5-0.6 in)

their guardians with a nutritious sugary secretion.

Lifespan Adults: up to 4 months

FIND OUT

MORE

Arthropods

Camouflage AND COLOUR

Farming

Insects

Lake and river WILDLIFE

Parasites

Plants, DEFENCE

155

BUILDING

AND

CONSTRUCTION

is a permanent structure with a roof and four walls. Buildings come in a huge variety of shapes,

The simplest building

Early building Since the beginning of history, people have built shelters to protect themselves from the weather, wild animals, and their enemies. The first buildings were

sizes, and appearances — from skyscrapers and factories to schools, hospitals, houses, and garden

simple, single-storey structures made of materials such as wood, stone, and dried grass and mud. The first large-scale stone constructions were temples for the

sheds. Despite these differences, all buildings have the same basic purpose — to provide a sheltered area in which people can live, work, or store belongings. The

worship of gods and goddesses, and palaces in which powerful leaders lived. About 6,000 years ago, people discovered how to bake clay bricks. In time, engineers developed new building

engineers, surveyors, and construction workers who plan and build these structures also work on other

methods that enabled them to build higher and lighter structures.

Walls are made from mud and

projects, such as roads, bridges, dams, and tunnels.

Anatomy of a building

Ancient tower-house, Sana, Yemen

bricks dried in the Sun’s heat.

Roof

Most buildings have certain features in common, such as walls, a

A roof is a protective covering over a building. Roofing materials

roof, and floors. A large modern building, such as this airport

include thatch, clay tiles, slate, glass,

terminal, also has a strong internal frame. Underneath this are the

and steel. Roofs in wet climates are

solid foundations on which the whole structure rests. The building is equipped with services, such as electricity and water supplies, as well as escalators, stairs, or elevators to give access to different storeys, and fire escapes that enable people to leave the building

shaped to make rainwater run offi in cold countries, they slope steeply to stop snow from building up; and in dry climates, they are often flat. Sloping roofs are held up by supports called roof trusses.

rapidly in the event of an emergency. Roof trusses sit on frame.

Kansai Airport, Japan

i

Roof truss

I

I r

I

Tf

Steel hearns I

:

'

r*

Overhead cutaway of roof

Glass wall lets in a lot of light. Roof is clad with shiny steel panels.

Floor rests on columns, which are part of frame.

Foundations A buildings foundations spread its

Walls and floors

huge load evenly into the ground, stopping the building from sinking under its own

Internal frame

weight. Pile foundations are columns that

The “skeleton” of a large building is its

Foundations extend

stone, or brick - are strong enough to hold up the

underground.

floors, ceilings, and roof trusses. In a larger structure,

rest on hard rock; raft foundations are

internal frame, which supports the roof,

concrete platforms that rest on soft rock.

the walls, and the floors. Frames can be

The foundations form the base on which

made of wood, steel, or reinforced-concrete

the buildings frame is constructed.

columns and beams joined together.

Structural engineers

In a house, the walls — which may be made of wood,

however, the frame supp)orts the buildings weight, and ■ Basement houses service machinery.

the walls simply hang from the frame. The floors in a large modern building are reinforced-concrete slabs.

Surveyors

Long before the construction of a

important in construction

building is underway, structural

work if the completed building is to have vertical

engineers begin working on the design

sides and level walls, and be

of the building with an architect.

structurally safe. Even small

They calculate how strong the

errors in the design or assembly can result in parts

buildings structure needs to be and

not fitting together properly.

draw up detailed plans, usually on a

People called surveyors check

computer. When the building work

the building at every stage of

commences, they make sure that

its construction, using special

everything happens safely, on time, and within the financial budget.

156

Hard hat

Accuracy is extremely

Structural engineer on a building site

Theodolite is an

instruments, such as

instrument that measures

theodolites and spirit levels, to

angles to find distances

take accurate measurements.

lengths, and heights.

BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION

Building sites

Building materials

The different stages in the construction

Some building materials, such as steel, concrete, and

of a large building must always take

bricks, are structural — that is, they make up the basic

place in a certain order, starting with the

structure of the building. Other materials, such as

preparation of the site. Materials and

ceramics and glass, are mainly decorative. Traditional

machinery must arrive just when they

materials, such as stone and wood, have been used

are needed: if they are too early, the site

for many centuries and are often found locally.

may get too crowded; if they are too Building site

late, the building work may be delayed.

materials

Site clearance and excavation The building site must first be cleared, which may

Wooden

involve demolishing other buildings, removing

planks fir

vegetation, and levelling the site. Holes are

scaffolding

Steel girders

excavated (dug) for the foundations and basement.

Foundation laying

Concrete and steel

The next stage is to build the foundations. This

Most modern buildings contain concrete,

involves driving steel beams, called piles, into the

steel, or a combination of both. Concrete

ground, or [x>uring liquid concrete into a deep pit

is a mixture of cement, water, and small

to form a solid base that will support the building.

stones (called aggregate) that hardens like rock when it sets. Steel is iron chat

Frame building

Completed

contains a tiny amount of carbon.

The buildings frame soon rises

building is

Concrete strengthened by steel rods is

from the foundations. The

ready for use.

called reinforced concrete.

Typres of concrete

frame is built either by bolting together steel beams, or by pouring concrete into moulds crossed by steel rods. A shell of metal poles and wooden planks, called scaffolding, is temp)orarily erected around the building so

Wood

that workers can reach all parts.

Bricks

Some houses have floors made of

Blocks of hardened clay, called

Completion

wooden planks and wooden beams

bricks, are laid in rows and

With the frame in place, work starts on

for roof trusses. Scaffolding may

joined together with mortar —

the floors, walls, and roof. Services such

have walkways of wooden planks.

a mixture of cement and sand.

as water and waste pipes, heating and

Local materials

air-conditioning ducts, and electricity and telephone cables are installed on

Many buildings throughout the world are built from materials that

each storey. Finally, the windows are

occur naturally in the surrounding area. These local materials may

inserted, and the interior is decorated

include straw, mud. stone, wood, and even animal dung. They can do just as good a job as modern manufactured materials, which arc usually more expensive and

Equipment

have to be impHjrted from elsewhere.

Some of the tasks on a Thatch is made

building site, such as plastering t

a wall or laying bricks, are

I

done by tradespeople using hand tools. Other tasks, such

Hand tools Each tradesperson involved in

special tools. A bricklayer, for example, uses a trowel to spread

specialized machines.

mortar on to bricks, a plumbline

Backhoe

Straw

to ensure that a wall is vertical,

Together, these machines are

. ^

reeds).

building and construction uses

objects, may require large,

known as construction plant.

grass or

rods

frame or lifting heavy

and a spirit level and a set square Bricklayer’s tools

to check that it is horizontal.

Construction plant

Construction workers

Powerful machines, such as cranes and cement

People from a wide range of trades with many diflferent skills will work on a building before it

mixers, can do jobs in a few minutes that would take manual workers hours or even days.

is finished. These tradespeople include

£ Other machines include pile-drivers to

welders, bricklayers, electricians, carpenters, plasterers, and plumbers.

hammer steel piles into the ground, bulldozers to level building sites,

For safety reasons, construction ^

and excavating diggers. f f

bundles of

\r'“

Metal

as erecting the buildings

of interlaced

workers often wear

Trench-

hard hats and other

digging

protective clothing.

bucket

V

such as goggles.

1 ^_

Hydraulic jacks

^

steady digger.

FIND OUT

MORE

Architecture

Bridges

Churches and CATHEEjRALS

Wide shovel tool scoops

Welder wearing safety

up soil

visor and gloves

Dams

Houses AND HOMES

Iron and STEEL

Roads

Tunnels

157

BULGARIA sec GREECE AND BULGARIA • BURMA sec THAILAND AND BURMA • BURUNDI see AFRICA. CENTRAL

BUTTERFLIES

and

MOTHS

Wing scales Scales on the wings contain coloured pigments. Some scales

Scaly wings and a coiled

feeding

Scales overlap like

produce colours by

the tiles on a roof.

tube set butterflies and moths apart from other insects. Together, they form

reflecting the light.

a single group of about 170,000 species, of which 90 per cent are moths. Both have four stages to their life cycle in which they change from a caterpillar to an adult with wings. They feed on plants, and rely on camouflage, irritating hairs or spines, or _ ^ ,, , ^ ^ ^ ^ z' ^ jront and back wings of poisons in their body for a moth are hooked together. > 1

protection against

/

predators.

\i

Moths bright colouring

y

I /

Zygaenid moth

Moths

Most moths fly at night. They tend to have drab colours, and have a fatter body and longer, narrower wings than butterflies. When resting, moths usually hold their wings open or fold them flat over their back. Swallowtail butterfly

Moth antennae have a large surface area fo\

Butterflies

picking up scents.

In most cases,

Feeding tube

butterflies are more

Adult butterflies and

brightly coloured than

Antennae

moths suck up liquid food,

Insects use their antennae

such as flower nectar,

for smelling, touching, and

moths and have a

through a tube called a

tasting. Butterfly antennae

thinner body. Unlike

proboscis. A few moths

are clubbed; moth antennae

moths, they hold

have no proboscis because

range from single strands to

they do not feed as adults.

feathery branches.

their wings upright when resting. The front and back wings are loosely joined together

Life cycle Butterflies and moths start life as an egg. which hatches

by a lobe on the back

into a caterpillar. This feeds

wing that grips the front

and grows until it turns

wing. Butterflies are

into a pupa. The adult develops inside the pupa.

usually active by day

This process of change is

Pupa protects

rather than by night.

called metamorphosis.

developing adult.

Henry Bates

Butterfly pumps

Defence

blood into its wings to expand

Adult

(1825—92) was a British

To escape from predators,

and stiffen them.

Blue Morpho

naturalist and explorer who

butterflies and moths often

Henry Walter Bates

studied camouflage in animals. He found that some harmless insects look the same as a poisonous insect so that predators

fly away or hide. Some have

Swallowtail butterfly

irritating hairs or spines, or Scientific na,me Papilio palinurus

are poisonous. Bright

Camouflage

Eyespots

colours may warn predators

Many butterflies and

False eyes on the wings

Order Lepidoptera FA.MILY Papilionidae

moths blend in with their

can startle predators or

leave them

that a butterfly or moth is

surroundings at some

stop them from pecking

alone. This is

poisonous. Poisons often

stage of their life cycle.

the real eyes. A damaged

build up in a caterpillar

Camouflaged like this,

wing is not as serious as

they may escape predators.

an injury to the head.

now called Batesian mimicry, after Henry Bates.

from the plant it eats. These then remain in the adult.

Distribution From Burma to the islands of Borneo and the Philippines in Southeast Asia Habitat

Mimicry

I'ropical rainforest

Diet Flower nectar

Some butterflies and moths gain Size Wing span: 9-5 cm (3.75 in)

Wing colour

protection by looking like another

When a butterfly is resting,

species of butterfly or moth. The

only the underside of its

top butterfly shown here is

bunerflies live for only a few weeks

wings shows. This is often

poisonous; the bottom one is not.

or months)

Lifespan Varies (The adults of most

coloured for camouflage. The colours of the upper side help to attract a mate.

158

HND OUT

MORE

Camouflage AND colour

Insects

Flight, ANIMAL

Butterflies

m Brown-veined white •

Orange-barred giant sulphur

Owl butterfly Japanese emperor

Common opal Viceroy

Great spangled fritillary Common blue African giant swallowtail Peacock

Small copper

Blue morpho

Chequered

Cairns

Hewitson’s

skipper

birdwing

blue hairstreak

Moths

159

BYZANTINE EMPIRE

r

In 395, THE GREAT ROMAN EMPIRE split into eastern and

Rome* Constantinopit

XBvzautium)

western sections. The western half — still called the

/

Roman Empire — was centred on Rome. The eastern half became the Byzantine Empire with its centre at Constantinople. The Greek character — in language, customs, and dress — of Constantinople contrasted with Latin Rome. Despite efforts on the part of emperors to reunite the two halves of the old empire, the Byzantine Empire gradually grew away from , Rome. The Roman Empire collapsed in 410, but the Byzantine Empire existed until 1453 when the Ottoman Turks captured it.

Extent of Byzantine Empire, c.565 Because of its fabulous wealth, superb shipbuilding facilities, and strategic piosition between Asia and Europe, the Byzantine Empire was under almost constant siege by its powerful neighbours - Persia, Arabia, Turkey, and some states of the Christian west.

Art and religion Byzantine churches were famous for their interiors, which were lavishly decorated on a

Mosque

By7;antium to Constantinople The ancient Greek port of Byzantium stood on the Golden Horn, a strip of land surrounded by sea on three sides. Constantine the Great (c.274—337) re-designed the city and re-named

it Constantinople in 330

AD.

Soon it was one

of the world s most beautiful cities.

huge scale, with painted icons and intricate mosaic images of Christ, the Virgin, and saints. Icons In the 8th century, the empire was racked by arguments over whether it was idolatrous to worship beautiful religious statues and paintings, known as icons. Finally in 843, it was declared to be legitimate, and their production increased. Later, icons were piortable, and collected by Renaissance artists St Gregory of

Bridge over the Bosporus Strait, linking Asia and Europe

Virgin and Child,

St John Chrysostom

Nazianzus

Great

East versus west

Schism

In 1054, representatives of the Roman and Byzantine

By the 9th century, the Byzantine form of

churches excommunicated each

Christianity was changing from the western,

other. This religious split, or

or Roman, form. Greek had replaced Latin as

schism, destabilized political

the official language, and the Roman pop>e and

links between east and west,

Byzantine patriarch argued over church ritual.

and caused mutual suspicion and hostility.

However, they were united in their fear and

Orthodox priest

hatred of the non-Christian Turks and Arabs. Hagia Sophia The biggest church in the eastern empire, Hagia Sophia was built in only five years (532-37). The Ottomans converted it into a mosque in the l6th century, and today it is a museum. Triptych icon, 12th century

Gilt covering

Fall of Constantinople Constantinople was conquered

Mosaics

twice: once by the west and once by the east. In 1204, it

Byzantine artists pressed

was ransacked by Christians on

cubes of tinted glass, marble,

their way to the Holy Land. In

or precious stones into

1453, Ottoman Turks overran it,

beeswax or lime plaster to

and it became a Muslim stronghold

make a mosaic The artists often decorated the images

Fall of Constantinople, 1453

with gold and silver leaf. Christ Pantokrator, 11th century

Timeline

529-34 Justinian 1

395 Roman Empire

976-1025 Basil 11, known

1096 First Crusade:

introduces his

as “the Bulgar-slayer”,

European army joins

Roman Law Code.

gams more land than any

Byzantine army at

Emperor Justinian I

emperor since Justinian 1.

Constantinople.

Justinian I (t.527-565), expanded the

divided into west (Roman) and east (Byzantine).

empire in the west by conquering 1054 Great Schism:

1204 Fourth Crusaders

867—1056 Empire

Byzantine chutch

sack Constantinople.

reaches its peak.

breaks with the

The Good Shepherd mosaic, 5th century

North Africa, southern Spain, and Italy, while holding off the Persian threat in the east. In addition

Roman church and

1453 Ottoman Turks

Justinian built Hagia Sophia, and

forms the Eastern

capture Constantinople,

his Codex Justinianus, or Roman

Orthodox church

ending the empire.

Law Code, still forms the basis of the legal system in many European countries.

FIND OUT

MORE 160

Christianity HISTORY OF

Ottoman empire

Persian

Roman

empire

EMPIRE

CABOT, JOHN see NORTH AMERICA, HISTORY OF • CACTI see DESERT WILDLIFE

O

Caesar, julius

Early life Caesar was born in Rome in about 100 BC. A member of a rich family, he had a successful

Julius CAESAR was a brilliant general and ruler of

the Roman world. He is one of the most famous, and controversial, figures in history. He transformed the Roman world, expanding Romes territory into Gaul and suppressing many revolts. He was a fine administrator, reforming the Roman calendar and Roman law and bringing strong government to the republic. Caesar was also a great writer and orator. But he could be unscrupulous in pursuit of his own interests, and made many enemies during his career.

militaiy and political career, rising through various offices to become Pontifex Maximus, or high priest, in 64 BC. In 61 BC he became ^

Governor of Further

*

Spain, one of the most

\

important jobs in the Roman republic.

Gallic wars From 58—50

BC,

Caesar waged a series

of wars which led to the incorporation of Gaul (modern France and Belgium) into

Triumvirate In the years leading up to 60

rival

BC,

Pompey

the Roman republic. Caesar displayed

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus

great military ability in the Gallic Wars,

(106—48 BC), known in

and was ruthless with

English as Pompey, was

politicians competed to gain power.

any tribes who tried

a Roman general who

Order was restored when Caesar, the

conquered Palestine and

to resist conquest.

financier Marcus Crassus, and the army

Syria, and did much to get

Caesar recorded his

commander Pompey set up a three-man

rid of opposition to Roman

committee, or triumvirate, to rule Rome. In

rule in Spain and Sicily.

59

BC,

the triumvirate allowed Caesar to be

in his famous

of the triumvirate and he

memoirs of

elected consul, one of the two magistrates

married Caesars daughter,

who held supreme power. As consul, Caesar

he was always Caesar’s rival.

strengthened and reformed the government.

Roman catapult bolts BC,

remained in the country after Pompey’s BC

death. He befriended and lived with Cleopatra, queen of Egj'pt, and helped

and, with the support of the Roman senate (parliament), declared Caesar an enemy of the people. In 49

BC,

Cleopatra Caesar followed Pompey to Egypt and

rivalry between Caesar and

Pompey reached new heights. Pompey became sole consul in 52

the campaign. Roman legionary’s helmet

Pompey the Great

Civil war After the death of Crassus in 53

achievements

Although he was a member

establish her firmly on the throne. When

Caesar crossed the Rubicon,

Caesar returned to Rome in 47 BC,

the river dividing Italy from Gaul, and marched on Rome in triumph.

Cleopatra came with him. After Caesar’s

In 48

death, the Egyptian queen had twin sons

BC

he defeated Pompey. By 45

BC,

Caesar had removed all

with the Roman soldier and politician

opposition, becoming master of the Roman world.

Mark Antony (c.82—30 BC).

Caesar as

Pharsalus

Caesar crosses

Caesar showed his military skills when, in 48 BC, he defeated the much larger army of Pompey near the Greek town of Pharsalus. Caesar’s strategic sense and better location enabled his small force to overwhelm Pompey’s army, which was routed.

Julius Caesar

Pompey himself fled to Eg) pt, where he died.

c 100 BC Born in Rome. 80 BC First military service in

Battle of Pharsalus

Turkey. 60 BC Forms triumvirate with Crassus and Pompev.

Dictator

Assassination Despite his reforms, Caesar’s dictatorial

59 BC Elected consul.

In 45

rule made him enemies in Rome. On

58—50 BC Conquers Gaul.

BC,

Caesar was appointed

15 March 44 BC — the Ides of March —

dictator for life. He reformed the

an enemy of the people.

senate house by rival senators, including

people bv passing new agricultural

Cassius and Brutus. But his svork lived

laws and improving housing. He

on in his great-nephew and adopted

also made the republic more

50 BC Roman senate declares him

Caesar was stabbed to death in the

living conditions of the Roman

49 BC Starts civil war against Pompey.

son, Octavian, who became emperor.

48 BC Defeats Pompey and follows him to Eg)-pt.

secure from its enemies.

Assassination of Caesar

44 BC

Assassinated in the senate in

Rome by rival senators.

FIND OUT

MORE

Armies

France, HISTORY OF

Italy, HISTORY OF

Roman EMPIRE

United Kingdom, HISTORY OF

161

CAGE JOHN sec MUSIC • CALENDARS see 1IME • CAMBODIA see VIETNAM. CAMBODIA, AND LAOS

CAMELS

Features of a camel Camels are the largest of the even-toed mammals, standing up to 2.4 m (8 ft) at the shoulder. They

camels can withstand extreme conditions. There are two main types: the one-humped dromedary, which lives in Well-suited to desert life,

have long legs, and walk at an ambling pace. Camels have a split upper lip, which allows them to eat dry, spiky plants. Their lips and upright heads have given camels a reputation for arrogance.

Africa and Arabia, and is usually domesticated;

In reality this is nonsense. However, camels may

and the two-humped Asian Bactrian, some of which still roam

spit at, or bite, humans if annoyed or frightened. During the mating season, male camels often fight,

wild in the Gobi Desert. Closely related to camels are four animals without humps - llamas, alpacas, guanacos, and vicunas. All six species, called camelids, belong to the

Hump Contrary to popular belief, the camel’s

artiodactyls, a group of herbivorous, even.

^

i^i^l

*11

1

Slit-like nostrils

Long eye

hump is not filled with water, but is a fet Thick fur keeps camel

toed mammals that also includes cattle.

biting their rivals when competing for females.

lashes

store that provides the camel with energy

warm during cold desen

when food is scarce. Because fat is stored

nights, and helps prevent

in the hump, there is less far under the

overheating in the day.

Feet

rest of the skin enabling the camel to

Split

lose heat more easilv in hot conditions

upper lip

Camels’ feet have two toes joined by a web of skin; underneath is a soft, flexible pad that splays out when the camel walks. The camel’s feet are very wide, and this, together with the pad, prevents the camel

Head of dromedary camel

from sinking into soft sand and enables

Eyes and nostrils

it to walk over

Camels have long eyelashes

rough terrain.

that protect their eyes from fierce sandstorms and Long, curved Long legs help

Web of

camel walk

skin

long distances.

Shaggy fur

enable them to see under

neck, allows

difficult conditions. Thev'

camel to

can close rheir slit-like

reach desert

nostrils to reduce rhe

vegetation.

amount of sand and dust blowing up the nose, and

Foot of dromedarv

Ships of the desert

Bactrian

Dromedary

minimize moisture loss

camel

camel

from the nasal cavity.

Water loss

Camels are the only animals that can carry heavy loads long distances in extreme heat and with little water.

Camels can exist for long periods without water,

Nomadic peoples survive in deserts bv using camels

but make up the loss quickly when water is

as pack animals, as well as for meat, milk, and skins.

available. Camels are also adapted to reduce water loss by producing dry faeces and small amounts of syrupy urine. In addition, their body During long periods

Within 10 minutes, cameb can drink

the dav, reducing the need to keep cool bv

without drinking, a camel can lose 40 per cent

sufficient water to

sweating, a process that also causes water loss.

of its body rruus as water.

make up huge losses.

temperature can rise to 40.5°C (104.9°F) during

Salt-laden caravan, Taoudenni, Mali

Alpacas wool may be

Types of camelid

Vicunas are a

Dromedary camel

black, hrnum. nr tnhite

protected species.

Related to camels are two species of

Scientific name

Camelus dromedanus

domesticated camelid, the llama and

Order Artiodactyla

alpaca, and two wild species,

Family Camelidae

the vicuna and guanaco;

Distribltion Domesticated in North

all live in or near the

Africa, Middle East, southwestern V The wool,

Andes mountains in South

milk, and

America. Small herds of

meat of

guanaco feed on grass and

llamas are

shrubs in shrubland and

all used.

savannah up to heights Alpaca

Llama

Vicunas, the smallest of

The highland peoples of Peru

Llamas are used as pack animals to carry

from southern Peru to

the camelids, live in family

and Bolivia breed alpacas for

loads of up to 100 kg (220 lb), at altitudes

southern Argentina.

groups at high altitudes.

their long, soft wool.

of 5,000 m (16,400 ft) over long distances.

FIND OUT

MORE 162

Animad>

Asian WILDLIFE

Deserts

Desert WILDLIFE

Habitat Desert Dil r Anv type of desert vegetation, including thorny twigs and salty plants that other animals avoid Size Head and body length 3 m

Vicuna

of4,250 m (13,900 ft),

Asia; feral populations in Australia

Mammals

(10 ft); shoulder height 2 m (6.5 ft); weight up to 600 kg (1,320 lb) Lifespan

Pigs and PECCARIES

Up to 50 years

South American WILDLIFE

Parts of a camera

Shutter and film speed dial

CAMERAS

The quality of a photograph is controlled by adjusting the film

A

LIGHTPROOF BOX

with a

and shutter speed dials, flash, and aperture scales. This is because

hole or lens at one end, and a strip of light-sensitive film 2t the other, is the basic component of a traditional camera. To take a photograph,

the final image will depend on the type of film in the camera, the amount of light that enters the lens, and the length of time that the film is exposed to light.

the photographer points the camera at an object and presses a button. This button

Self-timer I

35 mm cameras

lever Lens

\ er\" briefly opens a shutter behind the

Shutter and

lens. Light reflected from the object passes through the lens and on to traditional film or a digital chip to produce an image.

film speed dial .

The most popular cameras arc the 35mm, named after the width of the film they use.

Connection

Film rewind

for flash

These cameras are small and easy to manage.

knob,

Thcv often have in-built features, which adjust automatically to variations in light and distance, to ensure that a clear photograph is taken every time.

Shutter release button

Digital cameras

Viewfinder

Digital cameras contain no film. Instead, the image is captured on a photosensitive chip. Photos are

Shutter

displayed instantly on a screen A mirror sends light

on the camera and can be deleted

viewfinder while the

into a computer and printed out.

shutter is closed.

Computer imaging

Images are set

Some cameras can also

S.*KT an image has been

to high or low

record tiny video clips,

aofcd on a digital camera,

from the lens to the

if not liked. Images can be loaded

quality.,

Film

1

Light enters

• can then be fed into a

the lens

#*iputer. From here it As the shutter is

• printed out on photo

released, the mirror

Single-lens reflex camera

or sent over the

slips up allowing the

oitcmet. Special software

Flashes

■kn.-5 the picture to be

A flash provides the extra light

through a single-lens reflex (SLR)

needed for taking pictures after dark,

camera is that of the actual image that

or in dim conditions. The flash is

is recorded on the film. Mirrors in the

Batteries inside

electronically controlled to go off at

viewfinder correa the upside-down

supply power.

the moment the shutter opens.

image sent ftom the lens.

iTiipulated and gives ibc photographer a lot of r*icrol over the image. Digital camera

Unlike other cameras, the view

Lenses

light to reach the film (shown by the dotted line).

Film types Today, plastic film comes in various sizes and speeds,

Different lenses achieve

in a colour or a black and white format, packaged as

different visual effects. A wide-

rolls or plates. The speed, given in ASA/ISO or DIN numbers, indicates how quicklv the film reacts to

angle lens allows more of the

light. A new device, the Electronic Film

scene to appear in a photograph

System, fits into a 35mm camera and holds up to 30 digital images which

than a normal lens. A telephoto

can be transferred to a computer.

room lens can take a close-up shot of a distant object. The fisheye lens distorts images for dramatic effect. These lenses are detachable from the camera.

George Eastman

110mm film

35mm film

Plate film

Timeline

1822 Frenchman

1839 William Fox

1948 American inventor

1980s First digital

An American inventor. George Eastman

4th century BC The

Joseph Niepce takes

Talbot, an Englishman,

Edwin Land developes

cameras prototyped.

'1854—1932), formed the Kodak

“camera obscura” is

the first photograph

invents a process that

the first instant camera,

company. In 1884, he produced the first

developed: it consists of a

on a sheet of pew'ter,

allows photographs to

which is marketed by the

1986 Disposable

roll film and in 1888 the first

darkened room into

coated with bitumen.

be copied

Polaroid Corporation.

camera launched.

box camera, making

which an image is

photography an accessible

projected.

hobby. In 1889, he used

1

clear celluloid film on

1839 Niepces

1895 The Lumiere brothers

1956 A camera that

1992 The jpeg,

colleague, Louis

of France patent their

records onto reel-to-reel

a compressed file

Daguerre, announces

original camera/projector

magnetic videotape,

format lor storing

which the first movie

process for recording

using celluloid film with

rather than plastic film,

digital images, is

pictures were taken.

images on copper.

sprocket holes at the edge.

is invented.

introduced.

FIND OUT

MORE

Colour

Films and FILM-MAKING

Glass

Inventions

Light

Photography

Plastics AND RUBBFR

Television

Video

163

Stills cameras Image projected upside down

Upper lens

Early cameras

is for viewing.

Fox Talbot s camera of

Daguerreotype camera of

Brownie Hawkeye of the

1950s Duaflex was modelled

1835 required exposure

mid-1800s was the first

1940s reflected the new

on the superior twin-lens

times of over an hour.

model sold to the public

use of plastic in design.

cameras of the time.

Shutter and

Shutter release

film speed

button

Kodak Autographic

Ensign of the 1930s, with a

Special of 1918 was an

side viewfinder: was popular

early roll-film camera.

in sports photography.

35mm cameras

Zoom

Image is seen

controlled

here

by motor

Manual SLR camera needs

Automatic SLR camera has

Basic compact camera has

Advanced compacts are

Leica cameras were the

Waist-level viewer attachment

to be locused and wound

an automatic film-loading

a fixed length lens and

often fitted with a zoom

first to use the small-

allows photos to be taken from

on manually.

and wind-on mechanism.

built-in flash.

lens, giving extra flexibility.

format, 35mm film.

waist height.

Medium- and large-format cameras

6 X 4.5 cm camera is

6x6 cm camera produces

Direct vision camera has

6x7 cm camera produces

6x9 cm camera produces

a small, light, medium-

a square image and is used

rangefinder focusing lenses,

a rectangular image ideal

large images that make

uses individual sheets

format camera.

by many professionals.

reducing size and weight.

for landscape photographv.

very clear enlargements.

of film for each image.

Large-format camera

Built in flash

Special cameras Bellows camera allows for a very wide range of image magnifications.

Film exit slot Underwater camera has

Panoramic camera rotates

Polaroid camera produces

Disposable camera is

large easy-to-read dials for

to take a view of up to

Moving bellows along

a finished photo seconds

simple and light, and is

use deep underwater.

360° in one exposure.

track alters magnification

after taking the picture.

used only once.

Movie cameras Debro pavro was an earls movie camera. The handle ssjs turned to start filming.

Cine 8 takes still Technicolor three-

photographs in rapid

strip camera produces good, but expensise films.

Marey’s rifle is

.1

earner;

shaped like a rifle, svith the lens in the barrel.

Camcorders are hand-held video cameras, used by many individuals.

164

Trigger works like

Alatt-box keep^ stray

a shutter release

light out of the lens

CAMEROON see AFRICA. CENTRAL

CAMOUFLAGE and COLOUR rpes of coloration

different colours, shapes, and patterns that help them survive. Some,

Animals have evolved

Coloration falls into two main categories: cryptic and phaneric. Cryptic colours and patterns help an animal to remain concealed, thus

such as birds-of-paradise, are brightly coloured to attract a mate;

helping protect it from enemies, or assisting in the capture of its prey. The factors that cryptic species

others, such as the fire salamander, use colour to advertise that they are poisonous

suppress - colour, movement, and relief — are exaggerated in phaneric species.

to eat. Animals, such as lapwings and polar bears, are camouflaged — coloured

Phaneric coloration makes an animal stand

or patterned — in such a way that they blend with their surroundings.

out. It can include the conspicuous display of brilliant colours,

Camouflage helps animals to hide from predators, but it can also help predators to creep up on their prey.

shapes, and actions, as demonstrated by birds-ofparadise.

hatched lapwings ■ colour

Cryptic coloration

Phaneric coloration

Cryptic coloration is common among birds.

Phaneric coloration used by animals such as

TTie plumage of many desen species blends

macaws and mandrills makes them stand out and

perfectly with the ground colour of their

be noticed. It is used between male and female in courtship displays, between parent and

habitat. Birds of the forest canopy, such as parrots, are frequently green to ■ 'Ur I

young and members of a group for purposes of recognition, between rival males in threat

match the dense foliage in which they

B 5r '

members of the same species are of cryptic colours. Sometimes

displays, and between predators and prey

Red-headed

as warning signals, bluff, or to deflect

gouldian finch

the female or nestlings, which are generally ■AP' ^

attack. Long ear- and head-plumes, fans, elongated tail feathers,

of concealment, may be of

^

cryptic colour, while the male is conspicuously

wattles, and inflatable air sacs are all used to attract attention.

coloured to attract a mate.

Camouflage ^

- concealment to be ti>-e, the colour and of an animals or skin must relate acb to its background,

Disruptive coloration

Mimicry

Irregular patches of conttasting

Mimicry is an extreme form of concealment. It occurs

colours and tones of an

when a relatively defenceless or edible species looks like an

animal’s coat diven attention

aggressive or dangerous species. The mimic not only takes

=>way Eomthesha^ofthe animal, making it harder to

on the appearance of the object it is mimicking, but also

recognize. Tigers and giraffes

completely alien to it. For example, harmless milk snakes

show disruptive coloration.

resemble poisonous coral snakes so that other animals will

adopts its behaviour, assuming characteristics that are

not anack them. The monarch, a poisonous butterfly,

‘ birds colour often Tiger camouflaged in long grass

'-irmonizes with its nesting

Hypolimnm, which is

-T'^tiircments; some ground-

Disguise

-•evnng birds choose a nest site

Cryptic coloration aims to

•

is mimicked by a non-poisonous species, indistinguishable from it.

disguise rather than conceal. The

surroundings of similar colour

Milk snake

combination of colour, form, and

‘ their eggs as an aid to concealment.

posture can produce an almost

.-•>ar and posture can be a highly

exact replica of a commonplace object associated with the habitat

-'^xis-e form of camouflage. The many

Stick insects, for example,

.>3 of concealment include disruptive

spmy

-L»rJtion, disguise, and immobility.

stick insect

Milk snakes have stripes

resemble small twigs, while

of the same colour as

nightjars, when lying down, look

coral snakes, hut in

like stones or wood fragments.

Immobility Effective camouflage is possible only if an animal remains still. Many animals rcaa to danger by freezing.

Assassin bug Many sp>ecies of assassin bugs resemble the

For example, if confronted with

them to get close to their prey without being deteaed, before seizing it and injecting a toxic

with their necks outstretched, and

fluid. One sfjecies of assassin bug, Salyavata

hard to distinguish from their surroundings. Some birds, particularly ground-nesting birds such as nightjars,

a different order.

Assassin bug covered in debris by termites' nest,

insects on which they feed. This enables

danger, reedbuck crouch down by remaining motionless, become

^

variegata, lives in termite nests. It camouflages itself by covering its body in debris, including the bodies of termites, and then enters the nest, unnoticed, to feed on the inhabitants.

Termite

squat down to reduce the shadow they make.

165

CAMOUFLAGE AND COLOUR

Social displays

Signalling Signs and signals help animals to maintain contact,

Social displays take many different forms, from threat

preserve the social hierarchy, and intimidate rivals and enemies. The signals have to be conspicuous

display to courtship and bonding. Both cuttlefish

and unmistakable. The ring-tailed lemurs of

and octopuses can change colour; they darken

Madagascar raise their long black-and-white tails

and flash different colours to intimidate rivals or

to waft scent at their rivals, and to enable all

enemies. The male Uganda kob, a type of antelope,

members of a group to maintain contact. The black rings encircling the cheetahs white-tipped

establishes territorial breeding grounds by displaying

tail enable the cubs to follow their parent, which

along the boundary of his territory. Lowering his

would otherwise be invisible in the long grass.

head, he makes a mock attack with his horns. This

The young of ringed plovers ha\e a white neck-band which helps the parents keep the brood together.

warns rival males to keep out of his territory, while at the same time, induces other females to join his harem.

Strong feathers at the rear, Ring-tailed lemurs signalling with raised tails

attached to muscles, are used to

Courtship Many animals use courtship displays to attract a mate. Tail feathers

The fiddler crab, for example, waycs its outsize claw,

overlap and

the elephant seal inflates its nose, and the

rest on the

grouse spreads its tail and inflates its air

ground

sacs. Among the most impressiye

when

courtship displays are that of the male

relaxed.

Peacock

peacock, which spreads his brilliantly

with tail

coloured tail plumage, and the T^

elaborate rituals of birds-of-

feathers raised

paradise and bowerbirds. These inyolye yibrating the body, fanning feathers, puffing out plumage, decorating nesting areas, and Peacock

calling loudly.

Male calls as he

Peacock starting to

starts to display. ^

erect tail plumage.

Warning signals

Seasonal change

The English naturalist and

Animals use many methods to frighten olT

bear and snowy owl, remain white

explorer, Henry Bates (1825-92)

other animals. Warning colours make prey

spent 11 years exploring the

appear unpalatable to discourage predators.

Red and black

Henry Walter Bates

ffoghopper

Some Arctic animals, such as the polar

Amazon, returning with 8,000

throughout the year; others undergo a seasonal change. In far-northern latitudes, the stoat becomes completely white in

species of previously unknown

Many poisonous and venomous animals do

winter, except for the tip of its tail, which

insects. In 1861, he published a

not need to be camouflaged; they advertise

remains black. In the warmer parts of its

paper on mimicry which made

themselves with bright coloured patterns of

an important contribution to

red, yellow, and black, which are recognized

the theory of natural selection.

habitat, it can retain its russet coloration, become part-coloured, or change to white as needed. This ability to change colour

He suggested that some

warning colours. Skunks’ black and

provides the stoat with effective

harmless insects looked like

white coats warn they can

camouflage throughout the year.

harmful ones to discourage

squirt foul-smelling spray.

predators from attacking them.

False warning

The caterpillar looks

Many animals employ bluff as a

like a small pit viper

means of defence. In birds, this

snake to scare

may take the form of fluffing up

predators.

feathers, spreading wings, and clacking beaks. Many frogs and toads blow themselves up

Stoat with dark summer coat

to make them appear larger; the havskmoth caterpillar looks like a snake to intimidate enemies; and the

Hawkmoth

Australian frilled

caterpillar

lizard erects its frill and hisses loudly to intimidate intruders.

FIND OUT

MORE

Birds

Bugs

Deer and ANTELOPES

Stoat with pale winter coat

Frogs and TOADS

Lions and other WILDCATS

Monkeys and OTHER PRIMATES

Owls and NIGHTJARS

Poisonous ANIMALS

Snakes

Camping

and

hiking

Prevailing winds

One of the most popular types of

holiday, camping offers people the

An ideal campsite

chance to enjoy the great outdoors at close quarters. For many people, their first experience of camping is as children, setting up a tent in their own back yard. But it is also a popular activity with adults, who enjoy getting away from cities to explore the countryside, and perhaps even learning survival 'skills in the wild. Camping offers the ireedom to choose to stay at one ^ampsite through a holiday, or to 'Ct up camp at a different site each night. Whatever the type of ^loliday, it is important to take 'he appropriate clothing, food, and equipment.

Trees provide shelter from

Choosing a campsite

the wind.

Many campers stay on organized

River is a source of

campsites with shared cooking and washing

water for drinking

look for high, level, dry ground on which to pitch a tent. The best campsites are sheltered from the wind,

Making a teepee fire Fires provide warmth and a means of cooking, but they can also be dangerous. Campers must make certain that a fire is permitted, safe, and will not harm their tent or the surroundings. They are esfjecially careful if a strong wind is blowing.

I

The camper gathers the fuel he or she

needs (ranging in size

Keep a torch at the head of the

Unpack things

Living in your tent

only as needed

There is very little room inside a tent, so campers need to be well organized, or they may lose things

sleeping hag..

Ground is level and there is no danger offloading.

and not too close to any rivers or dams. Rk ingredients

and washing.

facilities. Those who prefer to camp “in the wild”

- The head of a

and be uncomfortable. To stop damp seeping in

sleeping bag should

from the soil under a sleeping bag, campers put a

face the door.

waterproof sheet on the ground beneath the tent.

Make sure the fuel is dry..^

Things to take camping

from twigs to branches),

It is better to take only the basic items of equipment

cuts out a square of

camping. These include all the tools needed to set up

turf, and puts a layers of sticks in the hole.

2

a camp, as well as cooking and eating utensils. In addition, campers should take hard-wearing clothes

The camper then

to protect them against all types of weather.

balances four sticks to meet at the top in a teepee shape, making sure the teepee has enough space for tinder inside the sticks

3

Gradually, the camper adds more

sticks, making the teepee as sturdy as possible, and puts some tinder, such as leaves and dry grass, inside. '..tTs fuel Sewing kit

Matches

, Having set light to the tinder, ~I the camper gradually adds tinder, then twigs and pieces of fuel. He or ■< takes care not to

m '■

'cyte allows substancesN to filter in and out of cell.

around the cytoplasm is the cell membrane, which forms the cell’s boundary.

Nucleolus, centre

Cytoplasm

of nucleus Model of a plant cell

Nerve cell

Cellulose cell wall is

Specialized cells

a tough outer jacket

Most plants and animals consist of many

mainly made of cellulose.

cell types, each specialized to perform a

Plasma membrane is

specific task. Neurones are long cells that

selectively permeable

carry nerve impulses around an animals

or semi-permeable and is concerned with

body; guard cells are rigid box-like

/

Mttscle cell

receiving stimuli.

structures filled with fluid. They open and close pores on the surface of plant leaves.

Chloroplast is an organelle present in green plants; it convens

Palisade mesophyll cell

light energy into food

These cells are found in the upper layer of the middle

Vacuole is

\

by photosynthesis.

a clear space

part, or mesophyll, of plant leaves. They are packed

filled with fluid

with chloroplasts, which contain the green pigment chlorophyll that harnesses the energy in sunlight.

Cell division

Palisade mesophyll cell

Cells reproduce by dividing. During cell division the nucleus divides Liver cells

first, followed by the cytoplasm. There are two kinds of cell division:

The human liver has over 500 functions related to controlling the chemical balance of the body. These functions are carried out by cells called hepatocytes. For

mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis produces cells needed for growth and to replace dead cells. Meiosis produces sex cells for reproduction.

instance, some liver cells remove poisons from blood Liver tell

Mitosis

Meiosis

This produces two

This takes place in sex

daughter cells that are identical to the parent cell.

Abnormal cells

The cell's chromosomes

When cells divide inside an organism they do so

(genetic material) make

organs and involves

/

V

(^(Oj

two cell divisions. It makes four sex cells that differ from the

in a controlled way. Sometimes, cells become

copies of themselves.

abnormal and start dividing uncontrollably,

These separate and move

leading to the production of growths called

to opposite ends of the cell

number of chromosomes

tumours. The presence of these abnormal

to form two new nuclei.

TTiese sex cells are called

Mitosis

cells and tumours causes a number of different forms of a disease called cancer.

/I

/\

The cytoplast splits and two new cells are formed

parent cells because they have half the normal

sperm in males and ova Meiosis

in females.

Cancer tumour cell (yellow) being attacked by a T-lymphocyte cell (green).

Chemical

Cells are so small they need to

staining cells

be studied with a microscope.

Marie-Fran^ois Bichat French pathologist Marie-Fran^ois Bichat

Both the light microscope and

(1771-1802) showed that an organ, whether a leaf

the electron microscope have

of a plant or a kidney of an animal, is made of

dyes used for

ilii.

revealed cells’ external and

Staining cells

internal structure. For this study

When cells are seen under a microscope they

tissue, and showed that the same tissues could appear in different organs. His research formed the

cells must be carefully prepared

that reason, they are coloured with chemical

basis of histology - the study of organs and tissues.

to see their details clearly.

stains to pick out details such as the nucleus.

diflerent groups of cells. He called each group a

Biology

190

Studying cells

Genetics

are often transparent, showing litde detail. For

Human body

Microscopes

Microscopic LIFE

Photosynthesis

Plants, reproduction

Reproduction

CELTS the Celts were among Europe’s oldest peoples. The first tribes lived in central European hillforts, but by 400 BC, Proud warriors and skilled metalworkers,

they also dominated the British Isles, Spain, Italy, and France, and even pushed on into western Asia. Unique and decorative Celtic arts spread with their mythology and religion via trade routes, but the Celts showed no interest in building an empire, or even unifying all their territories. By 50

BC,

the mighty

Romans and Germanic peoples had squeezed the Celts into

Celtic world c.200 BC The first phase of Celtic society probably developed around Hallstarr (now in Austria) between 1200 and 750 BC From 500 to 50 BC there was a second phase known as La Tcnc, after its centre in modern France.

Europe’s fringes, where they converted to Christianity. Today, Celtic culture and

Thatched roof

languages survive in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and parts of France and England.

Celtic society Celtic tribes were made up of three main classes: warriors, druids, and farmers. Warfare was an important part of life, so the warriors, armed with Souterrain, or

their sophisticated iron weaponry,

underground passage,

formed an aristocracy. Druids were

used for storage or defence

religious leaders, who often held the power of life and death over other tribe members. Farmers, who reared cattle and cultivated

Celtic hillfort

crops using iron tools, kept the economy

Chalk bedrock

going. Celts lived in fortified camps called hillforts. Though built for defence, hillforts were also places of trade and religious

Celtic horse The horse played a major part in early Celtic warfare and religion. A horse-goddess called Peon was worshipped first by the Celts, bur then also by

worship — some even grew into towns. Each pagan Celtic tribe had its own king,

cavalrymen in the Roman army. There are several chalk figures cut into the rock in former Celtic

and mavbe even its own gods. Skilled

areas. Some resemble the horse figures that

metalworkers probably had high status.

appear on surviving Celtic coins

Druids

Uffington horse England

Ritual

Boudicca

The dtuids left no written records, so their rituals are

Boudicca (d.61 ad) was queen of the

TLie druids were holy men in pagan

shrouded in mystery. Celts worshipped many gods

Iceni, one of Britain’s Celtic tribes.

Celtic society. The earliest record of

and spirits, particularly of trees, rocks, and mountains.

When the Romans conquered Britain

One of the oldest gods, Cernunnos, is known as the

after 43 ad, the Iceni joined

lord of the beasts. He is often portrayed either wearing

forces with them to defeat a

them was made by Julius Caesar, who reported that they acted as judges, led

anders or with homed animals, such as stags. He is

rival tribe. However, the

rituals in forest clearings, and used

also often shown wearing golden tores, and seems to

Romans then seized

represent fertilitv and abundance.

Iceni lands and

golden sickles to cut mistletoe ftom

flogged Boudicca.

sacred oak trees. Druids were skilled

Stags are often shoum

Homed animals symbolize

in herbalism, and kept oral records of

with Cernunnos.^

aggression and vitality.

their tribes histoiy.

A stone bead with three faces is called a triple head.

revolt, desnoy'uig the Roman setdements

Occasionally, they

Cult of the head

at St. Albans, ]

performed human

The human head was very

Colchester,

and animal

important to the pagan

and London.

Celts, as was the number

The Romans finally

“3”. One custom was to cut

wanting to become

defeated the rebels,

the head off a dead enemy,

and Queen Boudicca

druids had to study

hang it from a horse bridle,

killed herself by

then put it on public display.

taking poison

sacrifices. Those

for up to 20 years. Detail from Oak leaves

She led a huge

Gundestnip Cauldron

This mav have been because

rather than risk

the druids believed that a

being captured.

person’s soul was in his head, and had to be mastered.

191

CELTS

Art and decoration

Red glass nlay

Christianity

The Celts were a warlike

During the Roman occupation,

people, but they were gifted

Christianity came to Britain — but failed

craftworkers and artists too.

to take deep root. However one convert,

Celtic metalworkers excelled at

St Patrick, went on to convert pagan

decorated weaponry, jewellery,

Celtic Ireland in the 5th century. After

vessels, and mirrors. After the

this, the Celts adopted the religion with

conversion to Christianity,

gusto and Ireland became a Christian

Celtic monks in the British Isles made illustrated holy books of awesome detail. The Lindisfame Gospels (c.700)

stronghold for the next three centuries. cross

Monks Cclric Christianity was famous for

feature 45 different colours —

the harshness of the monks’ lives,

all made from finely ground

and the enthusiam of their

minerals or v^etable dyes.

devotions. From c.500, monasteries ranged from simple cells for single monks to

Banersea shield

communities the size of towns.

Many of the most beautiful bronze Celtic shields were too thin for use in Curves (made with compasses)

Early Christian church, Ireland

battle, and were purely ornamental. The Battersea shield was probably used

Missionaries

only for military parades. It was found

After Irish Christians set up

XRI is

in the River Thames, London, in 1857.

monasteries in Britain, France,

short for

and northern Italy, they started to

“Christ”.

Banersea shield

Tore

convert the native peoples. The

According to the ancient Greek writer,

monks loved learning and helped to

Strabo, Celts loved to dress in colourful

keep culture alive in Europe, during

clothes and wear jewellery in gold, silver,

the chaos that followed the decline

Greek

or electrum (an alloy of gold and silver):

of the Roman Empire. Irish monks

letter X

“They wear tores around their necks, and

operating from the island of Iona,

bracelets on their arms and wrists,” he

off western Scotland, produced the

wrote. Many gold, bronze, and silver tones

beautiful Book of Kells, c.800.

have been found in Celtic graves.

with its extraordinary illuminated Electrum tore

Greek R

(decorated) lenering.

Tara brooch

Monogram page. Gospel of St Manhew,

Brooches, such as the Tara, date from the

Book of Kells

8th century — the early Christian era in Celtic Ireland. Only 9 ems (3.5 inches) in diameter,

Myths

the Tara brooch is a magnificently detailed piece of jewellery, featuring filigree, gilt chipi-carvings, enamelled

The pagan Celts had a rich oral tradition.

glass, amber, and gold wire.

Their stories included myths about mighty gods, such as the Welsh Bran the Blessed, and the Irish Dagda (Father of All);

Enamel

legends about fearless warrior-heroes, such

Tara brooch

as Cuchulain and King Arthur; and tales of

Sculpture

the “shape-changers” — magical creamres

The boar

Animals and birds often figured in Celtic

was an

from the Underworld. Since the Celts had

sacred, such as pigs or boars, which often apfxar

important

in Celtic legend. The legendary King Arthur

symbol for

no written language, monks later wrote

an and decoration, and cenain animals were

himself was known as “the Boar of Cornwall”.

down the stories for future generations.

the Celts. Bronze boar

Merlin Metalworking

The first wrinen legends of the Welsh wizard. Merlin,

As well as sophisticated iron weapionry and farming tools, skilled Celtic

Sword and

said that he was a Celtic boy whose father was the

metalworkers produced high-status goods for chieftains, and elaborately

shield

devil. At an early age, he found he could foretell the

decorated items for trade throughout Europe. In Gaul (modern France)

Swirling

future. In later stories, he appeared as the wizard and

the smiths even had their own god — a smith-god known as Sucellos.

abstract

mentor of King Arthur of England.

pattern Engraving of the wizard Merlin

Languages Two types of Celtic language

4 Ceann Tra 17 Dun Chaom

continue to be spoken and written today: Brythonic (Breton, Welsh, Cornish) and Gaelic (Irish Scots Gaelic, Manx). They may all be traced Wagon pulled I Chieftains bronze couch, Germany

FIND OUT

MORE 192

Barbarians

by horses

Christianity

Wheel'

: Female

back to a common ancient

figure

Indo-Europiean language.

Europe, HISTORY OF

Ireland, HISTORY OF

Modem Irish

Metal

Myths and LEGENDS

‘Beach"

Religions

CENTRAL AFRICA see AFRICA, CENTRAL • CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC see AFRICA, CFN FRAL

CENTRAL AMERICA make up Central America, a tapering neck of land that connects northern North America to South America. The Pacific Ocean lies to the west, and the Caribbean Sea, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean, lies to the east. The two oceans are connected by the Panama Seven small countries

Canal, a short cut that saves ships months of sailing time. The original peoples of Central America were Native Americans, conquered by the Spaniards in the 1500s. Since gaining independence, these countries have had periods of turbulent politics and unstable economies. Tropical rainforest The hot, tropical climate and high rainfall

Physical features

of Central America’s Caribbean coast gives rise to vast areas of dense rainforest,

Central America has a backbone of ru^ed volcanic

particularly in Belize and Guatemala,

peaks and massive crater lakes that run from

and on Nicaragua’s Mosquito Coast. Economic pressure is forcing people to

Guatemala down to Costa Rica. The Pacific

cut and clear parts of the forest for crops.

coast is flat and fertile, and the eastern lowlands, stretching to the Caribbean Sea, are wild, empty

Sierra Madre

swamps and rainforests, with little cultivation.

The Sierra Madre is the highland region of Guatemala and El Salvador, and is a continuation of the Sierra Madre of Mexico. It includes Tajumulco, an extinct volcano, which, at 4,220 m (13,845 ft), is the highest peak in Central America. Most Guatemalans live in this cooler region.

Cortes

Trujillo

..Sag r.edrn hula

m

de

HONDURAS *

Juticalpa •

Lake Nicaragua Covering an area of 7,925 sq km (3,060 sq miles).

4-road climate types — warm tropical, cold polar, ind mild temperate — include the distance from and the position within a continent. The dimate determines a regions animal ind plant life.

regions around the North Pole are below -60°C (-76°F).

Tropical climate Weather in a tropical climate, such as Brazil, is always warm, often

Oceanic and continental climate zones

with heavy rainfall. Some tropical climates, ,

j

,

such as deserts, are hot

Parrots

and dry; others, such as rain¬ forests, are warm and moist.

Temperate climate - Seattle, USA

Temperate climate

3 rt

u a. E

In mid-latitude (imaginary lines rarallel to the Equator) areas such js the USA, summers are warm,

Tropical climate - Brazil

and winters cool, with regular Monsoons

ram. A Mediterranean climate

These are warm, tropical

■*nth dry summers and warm,

climates with wet and dry

damp winters is a type of

Oceanic and continental climate

temperate climate.

Desert climate

seasons. In India, it is dry

Over a fifth of the world’s

from October to May as

Coastal regions have wet, changeable weather. The

land surface is desert, where

the winds blow out to sea,

summers are cooler and the winters are warmer,

there is typically an annual

and very wet from June to

rainfall of less than 100 mm

September as the monsoon

(4 in). In the tropics, desert

winds blow inland.

because the ocean heats up and cools down more slowly than the land. Places in the continental

temperatures frequently

interior, such as Moscow, have cold winters.

climb above 50°C (122°F).

Mountain climate High altitude causes the air to cool, thus creating a cold climate. Exposed mountain ■ -ps also make mountain climates very wet and windy. Above a certain height called the snow-line, there is always snow.

Global warming

Climate change

Pollution may be warming

Over long periods of time, climate fluctuates. Signs of widespread glaciation, for instance, show that the world was once

and the

much colder. We now live in an interglacial

dioxide, which come from burning

period. Subtle changes in the climates

oil or forest land, may trap so much

weU.

recent past are revealed by such things as variations in the sizes of tree rings. HND OUT

Deserts

trap the Sun’s heat in the Earth’s atmosphere. Rising levels of these

was warm

tree grew

MORE

the world up. Certain gases

Mountains AND valleys

Oceans AND SEAS

Pollution

“greenhouse gases’’, such as carbon

heat that the Earth could warm up by 4°C (7.2“?) over the next 50 years.

Rain

Weather

Weather FORECASTING

Winds

217

CLOCKS AND WATCHES see TIME

CLOTHES

AND

FASHION

either as protection from the weather or for modesty. Yet People have always worn clothes,

Hats In the early and mid-20th century, adults usually wore hats

Sports cap is

in public. The way people dress

now casual

has become less formal since then, and the hat’s importance

everyday wear

as a smart accesssory has declined.

through history, people have also chosen clothes to impress or attract others, or to reflect their job, social status, or religious beliefs. Clothes send out signals about the wearers lifestyle and the type of society they live in: for instance, during the 20th century, the emancipation of women was reflected in

Shirts

the kind of clothes they wore, such as practical trousers

In medieval Eurof>c, shirts were worn beneath a tunic Over the years, more and

Daily wear

Clothing design

more of the shirt was allowed to show, and now

Designers choose the fabric, colour, and

The popular informal outfit

it is regarded as an outer

shape of a garment. Their decisions are

of shirt, jeans, and trainers

garment. Everyday shirts

influenced by the function of the item, and

can be seen in many parts of

who will eventually wear it. A work shirt,

the world, worn by both

for example, must be made from durable

sexes of all ages. This casual

fabric; a high-fashion shirt can be made

outfit is an example of the

from less practical silk or linen.

changing attitudes to clothes

, Sample of fabric

Design Some designers sketch their ideas for a new style onto paper. Others work directly

need to be hard-wearing and easy to put on.

Jeans Bavarian-born retailer Levi Strauss (1829-1902) sold

seen in the 20th century. For

the first blue jeans - Levis

the first time, everyday

— to miners in the 1850s. They have been popular

clothing crossed barriers of

ever since, because they

age, gender, and social class.

are hard-wearing, and

with the fabric, draping it

easily adapted to changes

over a dressmaker’s dummy,

Sample

and pinning it until the right

pattern

in fashion.

shape emerges.

Trainers Pattern

Back

Trainers were originally

Once the design has been decided, it

section

made for tennis or

is translated into pattern pieces, made

basketball players - the

from paper or card. These are used as

rubber soles stopped

a guide for cutting out the fabric. The

Sketched design

them from slipping.

pattern pieces are made in different

Cutting

sizes, and sent to the cutting room.

instructions

They have since become fashionable “street” wear.

Clothing manufacture

Computerized

The clothes manufacturing

control panel

industry is massive, and employs millions of people worldwide. Some designs are exclusive,

Sewing machine To make a stitch, a sewing machine

produced by the great fashion houses. Most clothes however are

Cutting

manufactured in standard sizes

Up to 150 layers of fabric are spread out

and, from cutting to pressing, are mass-produced in factories.

on long tables. The pattern pieces are then laid on top and the material is cut, using either a mechanical knife or a laser.

must loop one thread around another. The latest models are computerized: touching a panel changes the type of stitch. Domestic machines perform about 1,000 stitches a minute; industrial machines are ten times faster.

Sewing

Pressing

The cut pieces are carried to the person

Once the clothes are sewn together, they

whose job it is to match them up for the

are laid on large, flat tables to be pressed.

sewing machinist. Each machinist

Then a final inspection is held to check

picked up by a bobbin hook beneath

joining the top thread as a stitch.

concentrates on a particular part of the

the quality of the finished garment, before

the needle plate.

Both threads are then released

garment, such as the sleeves.

it is sold to a wholesaler.

218

I

As the needle pierces the fabric, it makes a loop of thread, which is

2

The loop is pulled around thread drawn from within the bobbin,

CLOTHES AND FASHION

Traditional clothing

India The most

The clothes worn in some parts of the world combine modern

popular dress for

.restyles and traditions thousands of years old. Traditional national

Indian women is the sari, which is

wostumes often reflect the dress of peasants, whose garments were

usually made

anted to the local climate and the kind of work they performed.

from a length of

HeadscarfElegantly draped

Embroidery

Sports shoes (not traditional)

Canada

Tanzania

South Korea

Vietnam

1 Htit people dress to

The Maasai wear

This traditional silk

The traditional outfit

p*»tect themselves

vivid pieces of cloth

costume is called

of the Dao people, a

against cold weather

called rubeka. Young

hanbok, meaning

hill tribe, is a lamchu:

in northern Canada,

women who are old

“Korean clothing”.

a scarf, skirt, jacket,

■ snows from

enough to marry wear

It is worn on

and hang pen wound

October to May.

special headdresses.

special occasions.

around the legs.

Fashion

Coco Chanel

Following fashion (the changing trends

The French designer Cabrielle “Coco” Chanel (1883-1971) had a powerful influence on

in clothing) was once so expensive that

Parisian and world fashion for almost 60 years.

only the wealthy could afford it. Today,

Her designs stressed simplicity and comfon at a time when clothes tended to be restrictive and

however, advances in manufacturing,

uncomfortable. Many of her innovations are now

and the invention of synthetic fabrics,

fashion classics, such as bell-bottomed trousers,

allow more people to follow fashion.

bobbed hair, and the so-called “little black dress”

Styles have changed faster than ever before, and fashion has become big

Body decoration

business. Shows by fashion houses such

Every culture has practised some form of body

as Dior (France) or Ralph Lauren (USA) attract buyers from all over the world.

decoration, ranging from scarring and tattooing, High-fashion wedding dress

which are permanent, to make-up and body paint, which last for only a few hours. One of

Hats and shoes

the oldest forms of body decoration is jewellery, worn to show wealth and status, for protection

Through the ages, hats and shoes have come

and healing, or for beauty. Examples include

in many styles: hats have ranged from

rings, necklaces, earrings, bracelets, and brooches.

headdresses to berets, shoes from simple leather sandals to chunky platform boots.

Bracelet

Jewellery

1

Chin strap

Beads, berries,

Hard hat

feathers, shells,

Police officers cap

bone, glass, precious stones,

Hats may stand for

People who are especially at risk

and metals have all been used

authority, as with the

of head injuries, such as riders

to make jewellery. Most fashion

police officers’ cap, which

or construction workers, wear

jewellery is made from cheap

is part of their uniform.

hard hats to protect themselves.

materials, such as plastic, because it is only worn for a short time.

Plastic brooch

Shoe

Body painting

Shoes must suit people in different

People paint their faces and bodies to

climates, as well as follow fashions.

mark a religious occasion, celebrate

They are commonly made from

important events in their community, or

durable leather, but rubber, plastic,

ward off illness. Sikh brides, for example,

silk, and canvas are also used.

Thin upper encloses foot

paint ornate, beautiful patterns on their Cross-section of shoe

hands using dye from the henna plant.

Body paint in

FIND OUT

Papua New Guinea

MORE

Dyes and PAINTS

Glass

India and SRI LANKA

Steel shank supports arch of foot

Metals

Plant uses

Textiles and weaving

219

Fashion in the 20th century Orange-blossom headdress

Wide knicker¬ bockers, or “plus-twos'’_

Daywear, typical S-bend

Daywear. narrow,

Lounge suit, single-

Wedding dress, with

silhouette, 1900s

tailored line, 1910s

breasted, 1910s

new, shorter skirt, 1920s

*

Three-piece suit, for

Wool bathing costumes

country wear, 1920s

(knitted one-piece), 1930s

Felt trilby Boxy style, economical with fabric,

Thigh-high

.V';^

hem.

Bias cut fabric clings to the body

Crepe evening dress,

Daywear from World

Suit, in style of French

Mini dress, “Space Age”

“Hippy” fashion,

Day wear,

full-length, 1930s

War II, 1939-45

designer Christian Dior, 1950s

influence, 1960s

1970s

1990s

Underwear, hats, and shoes

Cotton camisole with lace inserts, 1900s

Brassieres from the 1920s and 1930s

Boater, worn on the river

Silk hat on wire¬

Cloche, bell-shaped hat

Bowler, worn

Felt hat, with shallow

Silk hat, with glass

and as informal wear, 1900s

frame base, 1920s

with small brim, 1920s

horse-riding, 1920s

crown, 1930s

berries 1950s

Kid boots.

Boots with

possibly

black and gold

worn for

thread woven

cycling,

into fabric,

early 1900s

220

1960s

Shoes with steel

Reptile-skin shoes,

Lace-up shoes with

Platform soles, high

beading, early1900s

popular in the late 1920s

a wedge sole, 1940

fashion in the 1970s

CLOUDS

Cloud formation Clouds form by the condensation or freezing of water vapour. The

When you look up at the you

way they form depends on their

cloucls. Ill

height and on the speed of upward

temperate or mild climates, there are usually at least a few clouds and, sometimes, cloud cover is total. Clouds are dense

air movement. When pockets of warm air rise rapidly, clouds form

f

masses of water drops or ice crystals so light and small that they float on the air. Clouds form when rising air cools to a point where it can no longer contain its water vapour, and so the vapour

%

in heaped shapes (cumulus). When air rises slowly and evenly over a large area, clouds form in layers (stratus). Making a cumulus The sun-warmed ground creates thermals — rising currents of warm air. The air cools as it rises. Eventually, it becomes so cool that water

»:ondenses. There are three basic forms, or shapes, of cloud — puffy cumulus, layered stratus, and feathery cirrus — but each form can vary to make many

droplets condense and a cloud forms. The cloud continues to build up as long as thethermal continues to supply water vapour. Formation of a cumulus cloud in three stages

different cloud types. The type of cloud depends on how high the air rises, and its temperature.

Cirrus clouds form at high altitude where air is cold and strong.

Cloud types

Luke Howard

There are 10 distinct types of cloud.

A keen amateur meteorologist, but a

Cirrus, cirrostratus, and cirrocumulus

pharmacist by profession,

clouds form 5—11 km (3—7 miles) above

British-born Luke Howard (1772-1864) kept detailed weather diaries. These provided valuable meteorological data, before official records were kept. Howard used Latin names

Cirrostratus is a high level veil of cirrus cloud.

— — — —

sea-level. Altocumulus, altostratus, and nimbostratus clouds form 2—7 km

Altostratus is a thin

(1—4 miles) above sea-level.

watery sheet of cloud

Stratocumulus and stratus form at 2 km

to identify each cloud by shape. His

(1 mile) or under above sea-level.

Cirrocumulus are

classification of clouds is still used today.

Cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds

clouds of ice crystals

form over a wide range of heights.

1^

appearance.

Cloud cover The amount of sunlight reaching the

Qear

with a dappled

ground depends on how much sky is

1

covered by cloud. This is measured in

updraughts, bringing heavy

“oktas” (eighths). One okta means Cloudy

Cumulonimbus is created by strong

thunder

one-eighth of the sky is covered in cloud; two oktas equals two-eighths of

and rain.

cloud cover in the skv, and so on.

Fog and mist

Altocumulus are

When water vapour in the air condenses near the

clouds at

puffs or rolls of

ground it forms fog and mist. “Radiation” fog forms

medium height.

on cold, clear, calm nights, when the ground rapidly loses the heat it has absorbed during the day and

Cumulus are fluffy white

cools the air above to its dew point. “Advection” fog

clouds, often

forms when warm, moist air flows over a surface so

short-lived.

cold that the water vapour in the air condenses. Sea mist When warm moist air flows over cold water, water vapour in the air may condense to form a kind of advection fog called a sea mist. These mists are most common on early summer mornings, when the air is calm. Beachy Head, Sussex, England

FIND OUT

MORE

Atmospheri

Nimbostratus are layers of dark rain clouds

Climate

Rain

Storms

Stratus are cloud layers, often giving long periods of rain.

Weather

Weather

Winds

FORECASTING

221

Piles of dead plant

COAL

material accumulate in

How coal is formed

swampy regions

Coal began to form in swampy forests about 350 million years ago, during the Carboniferous period. Decaying plants were buried under

two hundred million years ago huge trees grew in the warm, humid More than

layers of mud. As heat and pressure increased, plant remains slovsly convened into coal. Today, there are three main grades of coal — lignite,

swamps that covered vast regions of the world. They captured the Sun's energy to

bituminous coal, and anthracite

^ Peat represents an early stage in coal-formation. It is soft,

make their wood. When they died, their

fibrous, and moist, but still gives off heat when burned.

trunks became buried and gradually changed into coal. When we burn coal today, we release the energy the trees captured all those years ago. Because of its origin, coal is called

Lignite, or brown coal, is a low-grade fuel containing up to about 60 per cent carbon, along with plant remains and

a fossil fuel. It was the first fossil fuel to be used by people, and is still today second only

moisture. It is soft and crumbly.

to petroleum in importance for energy production worldwide.

quality fuel, comprising more

Bituminous coal is a better than 80 per cent carbon. It is the most common solid fuel used in industry. It is hard, but dirty to the touch.

Coal mining Almost 5 billion tonnes of coal are mined a year. China and

Anthracite is the highest

the United States mine the most coal, with annual outputs

grade coal, containing more than 90 per cent carbon. It is

exceeding 1.6 billion tonnes. Coal deposits can be up to about

shiny black, clean to touch,

20 m (66 ft) thick, but they average less than 3 m (10 ft). Some

and burns with little smoke.

deposits are found on the surface, but most lie underground, sandwiched between rock layers.

Coal products

Coke This solid, porous

Coal can be processed into

substance is, like coal, an

valuable products, by a

excellent fuel,

method called destructive

which contains

distillation. Coal is heated

more than 80 per

in coke ovens at up to

Collecting coal at a strip mine

Drilling coal in a shaft mine

Strip mining

Shaft mining

cent carbon. It is widely used in industry, mostly in blast

1,300 °C (2,400 °F)

furnaces for making iron. In the furnace, it

without air. A mixture of

also acts as a chemical agent in the iron-

liquid vapours and gases

extraction reaction.

escapes and is then

Coal tar

separated into coal

Coal tar is a black oily liquid

One method of surface, or opencast, mining is

Coal seams deep below the surface

gas, ammonia

that is a rich source of mostly

called strip mining. The coal is excavated in a

are reached by a system of vertical

liquid, and coal tar.

organic chemicals, such as

series of long strips. Any soil above each strip

shafts and horizontal tunnels. The

is used to fill in the trench created when the

coal is dug out by powered coal¬

coal has been removed from a previous strip.

cutters and hydraulic tools.

benzene, phenol, and creosote.

The solid left behind

These can be processed into a

is called coke.

variety of materials including dyes, paints, and drugs.

Power

Domestic fuel

dangerous places

About 25 per cent of the

used in Western homes. Each room was heated

because of the risk of

world’s energy supply is

Mine safety Mines are

rock fells and the

coal-fired power stations,

coal fires, as people

One safety device was

the coal is first pulverized

tend to use other

invented by an English

(powdered) and then

forms of heating. Some cities and

Davy, in 1815. His

burned in a furnace. The

safety lamp was able to

hot gases produced pass

detect dangerous levels

over tubes containing water and turn it into steam. The steam

1

of poison gases. Davy lamp

222

modern homes have

gases, such as methane.

scientist, Humphry

MORE

by open coal fires, and cooking was usually done on a coal-burning stove. Today, few

generated from coal. In

build-up of explosive

HND OUT

Until the mid 1900s, coal was the fuel most

Chemistry

^

J

J

Coal-fired power station, Germany

^

’

towns allow only smokeless fuels to be used for energy.

drives powerful turbogenerators, which produce electricity. The

Burning smokeless fuels

electricity is then transmitted through a national grid network.

keeps pollution low

Dyes and paints

Electricity

Energy

Fire

INDUSTRIAI REVOLUTION

Iron and steel

Oil

Plastics and rubber

COASTS

Evolution of a coast

A COAST IS SIMPLY defined as the boundary between the land and sea — ^ an area that may range from a rocky cliff to a sandy beach. This boundary Is always shifting as the sea continues its relentless assault on the land — waves roll up and down, and tides ebb and flow.

Material worn away from

Waves crash against a shore with great

rocky coasts is pounded by

force, wearing away rocks by pounding

waves into sand and shingle

them with water, and hurling rocks and

and deposited elsewhere as beaches and sandbars - an

stones at them. On high coasts, the

offshore strip of sand or

waves undercut the foot of the slope,

shingle. A spir resembles a

creating a cliff. The model below

sandbar, with one end attached to the land; a tombolo is a spit

shows the gradual effect of waves

that links an island to

and seawater on the coast.

the mainland.

Sea erodes into the cliffs, sculpting patterns of rock,

The action of the sea creates distinctive landforms, such as a cliff, created by eroding (wearing iway) rock; a shore (an area between low tide levels and the highest storm waves); or

Beaches and sandbars

Eroded

such as this arch.

material accumulates at the

Waves eat back

shoreline,

inland, leaving a

forming

wave-cut platform

beaches

which juts out beyond the cliff.

a beach, built up by shore deposits. Wind and rain erosion also contribute

Cliffs are attacked by storms; sea arch roof collapses, leaving a stack; another arch

to the changing aspect of coastlines.

appears behind. Rough seas continue to erode coastline,

-Cliff retreats

spurting through a

further as cks fall.

blowhole, a crack in Storm waves eat

the cliff.

away at cliff base.

worn

Types of coasts

down Cliffface marked with

Coasts vary according to their composition and structure.

crag and gulleys where boulders fall.

Whether the coast is high or low, and made of soft or hard rock, affects whether it has been formed

Coastline

largely as a result of erosion or

has moved

by deposition.

backwards with erosion of cliff.

Wave direction

Bay-head beach This is formed when material eroded from headlands (high

Waves

land jutting into the sea) is

Top spills over; Wave formation

washed into a bay. a coastal

wave breaks.

inlet between the headlands.

The wind whips the seas surface into waves.

the wave

Waves travel across the water, but the water

hits the

in them circulates on the spot. When waves

beach.

or the land sunk, valleys are

reach the shore, the bottom touches the

Waves grow

beach and slows down; the top spills on,

steeper as they

flooded to form narrow inlets, or

approach the shore.

causing the wave to “break”. Coastal protection

Drowned coast Where the sea-level has risen

Water circulates in the

rias. Where the valleys are glacial,

wave in orbital paths.

the inlets are called fjords.

Highland coast

Beach material

Where the sea meets a

When waves strike

Fine sand and silt are usually found lower down a beach; bigger

highland coast, it generally

a beach, they wash

storm waves wash gravel and pebbles higher up. On some

wears away the rocks, creating

sand or pebbles across

beaches, there is a ridge of pebbles, called a storm beach, which

cliffs, small coves, and

the beach at an angle,.

has been flung up beyond the high-tide mark by violent storms.

wave-cut rock platforms.

This repeated process is

Pebbles ^

known as longshore

and

Raised beach Rtver slopes towards new sea level.

Lowland coast sand

drift. Fences or groynes

Broad beaches, salt marshes,

may be built, to slow

Gritty

and estuaries are features of

down such reshaping

sand

lowland coasts.

of the beach.

Coastal fences

FIND OUT

MORE

Caves

Coral REEFS

Glacution

Mountains AND VALLEYS

Oceans AND SEAS

Rocks and MINERALS

Seashore WILDLIFE

223

COCHLEA see EARS AND HEARING • COCKERELL, CHRISTOPHER see FRICTION • COCKPIT see AIRCRAFT

CODES -

CIPHERS

AND

A CODE IS ANY SYSTEM of prearranged symbols, words, or numbers that is used in communication. ^ For example, the flags that are used to send messages at sea are a naval code. We use codes to simplify, organize, and communicate complex information, for instance, in dialling and postal codes, or bar codes that describe goods in a way that machines can read. Not all codes have an everyday use. Ciphers (secret codes) hide the true meaning of a message. Banks use them to keep financial deals

Uses of code Codes make messages quicker to send. They have been used for many reasons. Sailors, for example, used flag codes to communicate for more than 1,000 years. By flying the three flags standing for the letters NKA, a warship could send a message meaning “I have not sighted any vessels since leaving my last port”. A code book carried on every ship translated the codes. Computer codes Special codes are used to program information inside computers, where letters and punctuation marks are

private, and spies or criminals to avoid capture.

represented by binary numbers. Ciphers can also be also used to protect

Ciphers

e-mail (mail sent between computers), so that it can

In a cipher, each letter is represented by a

only be understood by the

dijfFerent letter or symbol. For instance, it is

sender and the addressee.

E-mail can be encrypted so that only the addressee, who holds a secret “key” (a long

easy to encipher a message by jumbling the

number), can read it.

The alphabet in

alphabet, changing C into M and M to C.

Morse code

It is easy to break such a simple cipher, but A

•_

N

Morse code

_•

O _.

The telegraph was invented

impossible to read without the key (a long

B

number that unlocks the meaning).

C

computers can create ciphers that are

in the 19th century; it used

Spies A spy is a secret agent, who collects information

Rotor

for a government or

cylinder

P •.

D

_•

Q --

£

•

R

F

••

S

•I

T

_

quickly over long distances for the first time. The system

G

•.

could not transmit speech, so to communicate operators used an alphabetic code devised by US anist

organization. A spy’s work

H

••

U ••

often involves stealing the

I

••

V

•
XTLDIIFE

Ecoeogy and ecosystems

Rocks and MINERAES

Weather

259

DESERT WILDLIEE

Deserts Many different types of desert exist in different parts of the world. Some are

are known as deserts. Food is scarce, and there is little shelter from the sun and wind. Deserts are among the

The driest places on earth

mountainous and rocky; others are pebbly or full of sand dunes. Some become baking hot by day; others have bitterly cold winters.

most inhospitable of all places in which to live. In spite of this, many remarkable animals survive and even thrive in these hostile surroundings. Birds, mammals, insects, arachnids, amphibians, and reptiles are all represented, together with some equally remarkable plants. Sahara Stretching across North Africa, the Sahara is the greatest of all deserts. It is a vast wilderness of sand and rock, with only scattered palms and bushes to offer shade from the searing daytime sun. Most of the animals that live there find shelter under rocks or in burrows.

Mammals Desert mammals show a remarkable ability to cope with conditions that would be dangerously Oases

hot and dry for most animals. Some, such as

Oases provide reliable sources of drinking water for wildlile in

camels, can tolerate steep rises in their body

the desert. They form in the few places where springs bubble up from underground, or where rainwater from neighbouring

temperature and long periods of dehydration.

mountains collects in hollows.

Others have special means of securing shade, obtaining moisture, finding food, and avoiding danger in the wide-open terrain.

Birds

Pale-coloured fur reflects heat.

Though some desert-dwelling doves and finches forage for seeds, the most well-known

Large erect ears help the

Dwarf hamster

fox to hear the slightest

Only about 8.5 cm (3.3 in)

birds of arid lands are predators. They probe

sound of prey and tell

long, this hamster lives in the

from where it is coming.

vegetation and scour the ground for prey,

deserts of Mongolia, Siberia,

obtaining all the moisture they need from the

and China. It has thick fur,

Fennec fox

which helps to keep it warm

bodies of their victims.

in the bitterly cold winters.

The fennec fox is small with large pointed ears. The large size of the ears helps the fox lose excess heat

Long, bushy tail can

from its body during the heat of the

be curled around the

day. The fox has dense fur, which

body to keep it warm

keeps it warm on cold nights.

during the night.

Bactrian camel Camels are perfectly adapted for life in deserts. Thev can roam about for days without drinking or sweating. The two humps of the Bactrian camel act as fat reserves, off which the animal can live. The

Gila woodpecker

Roadrunner

shaggv coat protects the camel during the

The Gila woodpecker

Roadrunners seldom flv, but

cold winters in Asia’s Gobi Desert.

forages for insects in the

rhev are extremely fast, agile

over when the

deserts of Mexico and the

runners. They often prey on

fat is depleted.

USA. Typically, it hammers

desert snakes, which they

out nest-holes in the stems

subdue with a series of lethal

of large cacti.

stabs from their sharp beaks.

Falcons can spot prey from a

banner falcon

great height.

Red kangaroo

This darting bird of prey

In Australian deserts, red

Kalahari ground squirrel

nests among rocks and cliffs

kangaroos browse on

in the Sahara. It hunts small

bushes. Thev produce dry

eat seeds and other plant material in the Kalahari

These burrowing rodents

birds, which it chases and

dung as a wav of saving

snatches in mid-air or on the

moisture, but still make

Desert of Africa. During

ground. It also prtvs on smaller

regular trips to waterholes

the day, thev hold their

animaLs, such as geibils, lizards,

to replace moisture lost

bushv tails over their

and locusts.

through sweating.

bodies for shade.

260

Humps flop

DESERT WILDLIFE

Reptiles and amphibians

Snake descends vertically

Sand viper

into the sand

The sand viper has perfeaed an efficient way of disappearing on desert dunes. It wri^les down into

Both snakes and lizards are tolerant of dry

the loose sand, becoming buried within seconds. It

climates, and these reptiles are among the

does this to escape danger and to be ready to attack prey.

most common of desert animals. Amphibians are much more in danger of drying out, but a few species do appear on the desert surface, especially after rare bouts of rain. Fringe-toed lizard This lizard forages in sandy deserts. When the surface becomes too hot, it stands on two legs to help keep cool. Projections between its toes spread its weight and stop it from sinking into the sand

Lizard can close its nostrib to prevent sand getting into Smooth scales

its air passsages.

Sandfish The sandfish is a lizard that makes its home on desert sand dunes. It is named after the way it moves

Gila monster

across and through the sand,

The Gila monster is a fearsome lizard.

pushing sideways with its flattened toes as if it were swimming. Like other small lizards, it hunts mainly for insects.

Yucca moth deserts has evolved a close

burrow at dawn to hunt rodents and raid birds’ nests. Fat stored in its thick tail provides nourishment when prey is scarce.

Scorpion

Invertebrates

The yucca moth of American

Large, with a venomous bite, it leaves its

The venom of

Scorpions are among the hardiest of desert invertebrates, able

Few insects and other invertebrates can

relationship with the yucca

strong enough

to tolerate strong sunshine

plant. The moth pollinates the

withstand the full force of the desert Sun.

plant; the yucca flowers give

Those that can have an especially tough,

at night. Armed with strong

shelter to the moth larvae.

waxy covering, or cuticle, that prevents

claws and a lethal sting, they ambush foraging insects such as locusts, as well as spiders

take shelter during the day.

An inhabitant of the deserts

to kill a person.

though they normally hunt

them from drying out. Other invertebrates

Desert cricket

this scorpion is

and other scorpions.

of India and Pakistan, the desert cricket can burv itself quickly in

White spots warn

The scorpion holds

offpredators.

its prey in its large

the sard. It digs a hole directly beneath itself with

Domino beetle

claws.

This domino beede lives in the dry

its star-shaped feet

lands of northern Africa through to

and sinks

the Middle East. During the dav. it

down.

hides under rocks and in holes made by other animals. At night, it emerges to hunt insects and other small prey.

Plants

Desert holly Some desert plants, such as the

Only the hardiest of drought-resistant plants can

desert holly, have dusty-looking

survive all year in the desert. Among these are

leaves. Salt secreted through leaf jx)res forms a fine whitish jx)wder.

cacti and yuccas. Seeds of more fragile plants lie

Cacti

This refleas some of the Sun’s

dormant in the soil. After a rainburst, they sprout and flower before the moisture evaporates.

rays, helping to keep the leaves

Many different kinds of

cool and preventing excessive

cactus grow in American

evafxjration of moisture.

deserts. All store water in their green swollen stems. They do not have leaves,

. Seeds develop after the

and this prevents excess

vine’s flower has been pollinated by insects. A welwitschia plant may live for 1,000

Little snapdragon vine

Each leaf grows up

Rains in the Mexican desert bring the seeds

to 2 m (6.5 ft) long.

years or more.

Welwitschia

moisture loss. Sharp spines

This planr has two ribbon-like leaves

deter animals from biting

that trail across the sand. Each leaf has

the succulent stems.

millions of pores that extract moisture from the sea fogs that sweep the Namib Desert in Africa.

Leaves usually split into several strips.

of snapdragon vines to life. The vines quickly grow, trailing over the soil and curling around other plants. They flower and set new seed before they die as the conditions get dry again.

FIND OUT

MORE

African WILDLIFE

Amphibians

Asian WILDLIFE

Birds

Birds of PREV

Deserts

Insects

Mammals

Plants

Reptiles

261

I

DESIGN

The design process The first stage in the design process is

Originally a design

writing a design brief which details the

was an artist s

functions and features to be achieved in the

first sketch for a work of art; today, design plays a broader role in our

model, or prototype, which is repeatedly

lives. Before any object can be made,

tested and revised as needed. The design

it must be designed. Most things around us have been designed to carry out a particular job. The

process of making numerous small

The designer does a first

or computer. This sketch shows a vacuum cleaner.

Finally, the actual product is made.

This prototype is

I

sketch on a drawing board

amendments is called an iterative process.

design of objects is known as product design. There are also many other areas of design, such as fashion, garden, interior, and graphic design. Changing tastes can result in popular

fv 2

finished object. The designer then does a first sketch. This is translated into a rough

The plastic

Dust collects

casing is very

in this area.

strong and light.

shaped out of hard foam. j

wheels for manoeuvring

design movements, such as art nouveau and Bauhaus.

Product design In order to design an object, the designer

V

has several factors to consider. He or she must select a shape that suits the object s purpose but also consider other factors, such as the material to be used, the cost of

Early prototype

Vacuum cleaner

3

manufacture, the safety and durability of

2

the product, and how it will finally look.

design. The final prototype is handmade and

(protected by copyright law) to prevent

system to pick

Product design usually aims to be both

painted to look identical to the final product.

someone copying an original design.

up dirt.

A scries of prototypes is made out of

Thts vacuum The final product is made to the revised design brief Designs can be patented

different materials to test aspects of the

cleaner uses a unique cyclone

functional and stylish. This bottles shape is

A can's ringpull opening is

easily recognizable.

designed to open easily.

London Underground map

Graphic design

The London Underground map is a brilliant piece of design. By distorting the distances

Graphic designers use words

between stations, it is jxjssiblc to see the entire

and images to communicate a

London Underground at a glance.

strong visual message. We are

Logos are graphic designs

surrounded by graphic

chat aim to communicate a message without words.

design, in magazines and

Companies design logos

books, on posters, on street

to be easily recognized by

Classic design

signs. Designers use letters in

the public. The simple

Some product designs so successfully

different sizes and typefaces,

shape and strong colours

combine functionality with a strong

of the logo shown above

sense of style that they are timeless. The

often with colours and

advertise the Shell Oil

distinctive shape of the Coca-Cola borrie,

patterns, to make an impact.

Company worldwide.

for example, is a classic design that has Coca-Cola

hardly changed since 1915.

bottle Headlamp', and bumpers err are chrome. t.

Walter Gropius

Computer-aided design Large steering wheel \

T T

/

-'

S--fc I

*

TheMGB

Increasingly, much of the design

In 1919, the German architect Walter

is compact

process is carried out on

Gropius (1883-1969) founded the

but stylish.

computer. Using computer-

Bauhaus design school. It taught the

aided design, the designer

importance of functional design and

creates a three-dimensional

of using materials such as steel, glass,

model, such as a car, on screen

and concrete. Bauhaus influenced the

which can then be rotated and

development of the arts. Gropius

viewed from all angles.

(on right) is shown with the French architect, Le Corbusier (1887—1965).

Art Nouveau

This Art

Design movements are

Nouveau

trends in design, some

window in

of which have a lasting

Paris, France,

influence. Art Nouveau

shows typical

Classic cars

was a design movement

decorative

Some classic designs express certain ideals perfectly. The

beginning in Europe in the

curves based

sleek lines of a sports-cars body, such as this MGB, arc

1880s that aimed to make

on organic

intended to suggest speed and freedom. Launched in

ordinary objects, such as

forms.

1962, the MGB became the best-selling single model

buildings, furniture, and

sp)orts car ever, with 512,000 owners worldwide.

jewellery, beautiful.

FIND OUT

MORE 262

Architecture

Art, HISTORY OF

Building and construction

Cars and Clothes and trucks fashion

Furniture Gardens

Painting and drawing

Printing Trade and industry

DE5K TOP PUBLISHING see INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY • DETENTE see COLD WAR • DIAMONDS see GEMS AND CRYSTALS

DICKENS,

Early life

CHARLES

Charles Dickens was born in Portsmouth, England, in 1812. His father was a clerk in the Royal Navy

Charles dickens is one of the greatest writers in

pay office and worked for a time in the royal dockyards in Chatham,

the English language. He was a household name in his own lifetime. His lively descriptions of 19thcentury Britain combine with a superb gift for

Kent, where Charles spent much of his childhood. When his father was imprisoned for debt in Londons Marshalsea Prison, Charles, then aged 12, had to take a series of

depicting people and their eccentricities, a social conscience, and compassion for the problems faced by ordinary people. He brought to the English novel the ability to portray an entire society in one book. His novels are still loved by

menial jobs in factories and offices. He later used these painful experiences in some of his novels.

^ ‘

readers of all ages. Scrooge meets the Ghost of

“Boz”

Christmas Past

a young man, Dickens was a journalist, covering Parliament for the Morning Chronicle. In 1833 he began to write a series of articles, mostly about London life, using the pseudonym

David Copperfield

“Boz”. These were collected together in Sketches

David Copperfield In 1849-50 Dickens wrote David Copperfield a partly

by Boz in 1836. Following their success, he was

autobiograpical novel in which he used his own

commissioned to write some humorous sporting

exp)eriences of an imjxjverished childhood and menial

stories. These appeared in 1836-37 as The

employment to great effect. Of all his books, it was Dickens’ favourite. The novel features Mr Micawber, who

Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club and made

IS

Dickens the most famous writer of his day.

loosely based on Dickens’ father. Always in debt, and

always waiting for “something to turn up’’, Micawber is one of the great characters of English literature.

HOUSEHOLD WORDS.

Household Words From 1850, Dickens edited and

A Christmas Carol

Oliver Twist

contributed first to the magazine

Ebenezer Scrooge, who refused

The story of Oliver tells of a pauper

Household Words, and then, from

to celebrate Christmas, and

child of unknown parentage who was

1859. to All The Year Round He

his impoverished clerk Bob

brought up in a workhouse and dared

used these monthly magszines to

Cratchit make A Christmas

to ask for more food. Oliver Twist was

publish his latest novel in

Carol (published in 1843)

first published as a book in 1838. The

instalments, reaching a far wider

one of Dickens’s most

book was later made into a successful musical and film. The story was the

readership than he would have

fxjpular novels. Scrooge

done by simply publishing a book.

changes his ways when he

first by Dickens to explore the dark

Both magazines featured works by

witnesses a series of visions,

side of London life in the 19th century,

other famous writers of the time,

including his own death and

and the fact that thousands of children

such as Elizabeth Caskell and

the ghosts of Christmas Past,

were living rough on the streets or in

Wilkie Collins. Dickens also

Present, and Future.

inhuman workhou.ses.

included articles about the social problems of his time, such as poor

In a scene from Oliver Twist,

housing and factory accidents.

Olis-er asks for more fxjrridge.

V

Charles Dickfns 1812 Born in Portsmouth,

Dickensian London

England.

Public readings Dickens went on three tours of

1824 Father imprisoned for debt.

In Dickens’s time, London was a rich

Britain and one of America,

1836 Marries Catherine

city at the centre of the biggest empire

reading selections from

Hogarth; publishes Sketches

his novels. He put

by Boz.

the world had ever seen. But many

vast amounts

1836-7 Pickwick Papers

people lived in poverty, making a living

of energy

from whatever work they could find.

into these

1838

Dickens described their suffering, but

readings,

1839 Nicholas Nickleby

adapting

Oliver Twist

1850 David Copperfield

he loved London — its sights, sounds,

his works

and smells feature in all his books.

specially for public

1853

pierformance, and

1857 Little Dorrit

reading aloud all the

Social reforms

parts himself In 1869,

Dickens often sjxjke in public about the plight

he began a fourth

of the poor, the need for educational reform, and

British tour, but his

the importance of good sanitation to remove the

health began to fail,

threat of disease. His spieeches and novels helped

and he died the

to raise awareness of the need for radical reform, and led to many changes in the law.

FIND OUT

MORE

Books

Industrial

1861

Great Expectations

1864

Our Muttuil Friend

1870 Dies and is buried in

following year.

REVOLUTION

1858 First reading tour 1859 A Tale of Two Cities

Westminster Abbey.

London street, 19th century

Empires

Bleak House

Literature

United kingdom, history OF

Writing

263

DICTATORSHIPS see GOVERNMENTS AND POLITICS

DIGESTION

Digestive process The digestive process has four stages: ingestion, digestion,

The body needs the nutrients

13

absorption, and egestion. Ingestion

in food to grow, maintain its

happens when you eat food and is

structure, and provide energy. But the food we eat cannot be used by

followed by digestion. Absorption is the transfer of food molecules into the bloodstream and egestion

the body until it is processed by the digestive system. This is essentially a long

is the removal of waste as faeces. Liver, pancreas, and gall bladder

Mouth

These three organs take part in digestion even

tube, running from mouth to anus. As food passes along the digestive system it is chewed, and crushed, and then broken

Teeth and tongue break food up into small pieces.

they arc not part of the digestive system. The liver produces bile, which is stored in the gall bladder and helps digest fats. The pancreas produces digestive enzymes that are released

down chemically by enzymes. As it passes

into the small intestine.

along the small intestine, food resembles a thin soup, and simple food molecules

Pancreas produces digestive enzymes that are

can be absorbed into the body itself by way of the bloodstream.

released into duodenum

Absorption Simple food molecules are absorbed into the bloodstream

Oesophagus

across the wall of the small

carries food

intestine. Tiny finger-like

from throat to

Swallowing

though, since they have other body functions,

projections called villi (singular:

stomach.

villus) greatly increase the surface

Once food is chewed, the tongue pushes the

area over which food can

ball of food, or bolus, to the back of the

1 Stomach stores

mouth. As it touches the throat, the bolus

be absorbed.

and partiallv

triggers a reflex action and passes into the

digests food.

Liver

oesophagus. A flap called the epiglottis closes the entrance to the trachea

Villus

Blood capillary network

(windpipe) to stop food entering the lungs.

Pyloric sphincter controls flow

Lacteal (part

Epiglottis closes

of food from

of lymphatic

ojf trachea.

stomach into

system)

duodenum. Wall of small-

Colon.

intestine Peristalsis Oesophagus Throat Bolus pushed to

Bolus passes doum

hack of mouth.

oesophagus.

Small intestine is MuscUs / ^

contract

Peristalsis

Bolus

Al

oesophagus squeeze food down

made up of three

Imaging the intestine

intestine

parts - duodenum,

A special liquid is

made up

jejunum, and ileum.

introduced into the large

colon and

Rl./thmic contractions of the muscles in the wall of the

Large

intestine to show clearly its

Wall of/'v. oesophagus

fxjsition and internal

Jejunum

'1

shape. This type of X-ray

to the stomach. This wave-like

enables doctors to detect

movement made by muscle

Muscles

contraction is called peristalsis. It

relax

Bolus

Anus is an opening

also occurs in the small intestine.

William Beaumont The US Army surgeon William

signs of disease inside the large intestine without

in large intestine that \ Rectum

faeces passes through.

Fat droplets

Food and enzymes Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up the

the first to observe how food

conversion of one substance into another.

In 1822, Beaumont treated a

Fats Fats provide the body

Beaumont (1785-1853) was was digested in the stomach.

having to operate.

^ %

with energy. Foods rich in fats include eggs and meat. Fats arc broken

Digestive enzymes speed up the breakdown

down by enzymes in the

patient who had shot himself

of the complex carbohydrates, fats, and

Fatty acids!

in the side and was left with an

proteins that make up most of our food.

Protein

small intestine to form fatty acids.

ojjcning into his stomach. Through

Carbohydrates

Glucose

this opening,

The body’s main fuel, carbo¬

molecules ^

Beaumont was

hydrate, comes in the form of

able to observe

sugars and complex carbohydrates,

the stomachs

which include starch. Enzymes

Starch

movements

break starch\ foods down into

molecule

during digestion

sugars such as glucose.

chain

Proteins

, -

Proteins arc needed for growth and maintaining the body. Protein-rich

^

foods arc meat, fish, and nuts. Proteins arc broken

W Jf ” a Amino acids

down into amino acids.

and to record his findings.

FIND OUT

MORE 264

Chemistry

Food

Hormones and ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Human BODY

Immutmeand lymphatic SYSTEM

Teeth and JAWS

)

DIGITAL SOUND see SOUND RECORDING

DINOSAURS

Iguanodon skull Gideon Mantell, an English doctor, named Iguanodon \x\ 1825, noting the similarity between its

For 150 MILLION years,

teeth and those of the modern iguana. Iguanodon's teeth were

the Triassic Period until end of the Cretaceous

shaped to fit tightly together. They wore down as the dinosaur chewed its food of tough vegetation with

Period, 65 million years ago, dinosaurs lived on Earth.

the help of a hinged jaw.

Their remains have been discovered in every continent including Antarctica. They formed a varied group of land¬ living reptiles. People who study

Iguanodon This was one of the first

prehistoric life, called palaeontologists, divide them into two main groups the Ornithischia and the Saurischia. There were meat-eating and plant-eating dinosaurs

dinosaurs to be discovered. Modem reconstructions give it an outstretched

^

tail and forelimbs that can reach the ground.

Ornithischians Iguanodon foot

The Ornithischia, or bird¬

Lhe feet of Iguanodon had small

hipped dinosaurs, such as

Some dinosaurs, were huge; others were only the size

hooves on the toes instead of

Iguanodon, were all herbivorous.

of chickens.

claws, and would have made

They had a huge number of

recognizable three-toed prints

teeth — Corythosaurus had 2,000

with rounded digits. Iguanodon probably walked on its toes,

— and a hinged upper jaw that

which, therefore, had to be strong

allowed them to chew.

to carry the animals great weight.

Tyrannosaurus tooth Carnivorous dinosaurs had curved, jxjinted teeth. The sharp edges often had serrations, which helped the dinosaurs to slice through skin and meat Palaeontologists still have to be careful when handling these teeth.

Tail was used Long, hollow

for balance.,

tubular crest

Ischium bone

Jk'

Tyrannosaurus skeleton Tyrannosaurus may have hunted as well as scavenged on other dinosaurs. It had a massive

^

skull with powerful jaws, supported by a short, flexible neck. This

I

*

Rounded,

'

¥

^ ^

flexibilirv allowed the

Pubis bone

claws

4

animal to twist its head around to wrench flesh

Skeleton of Parasaurolophus, an ornithischian

from its prey. Toothless

Tyrannosau r us

jaws

Hips

Although not thought to be the largest of the

Dinosaurs fall into one of the two main

carnivorous dinosaurs.

groups, according to the structure of

Long foot bones

Tyrannosaurus was still an

their hip bones. The bird-hipped

suggests

extremelv fearsome

Fossil dung

dinosaurs (ornithischians), such as

Gallimimus

predator. It walked on its

Preserved pieces of dung are called

Parasaurolophus, had a pubis bone in

could run fast.

hind legs with its back

coprolites. They contain the remains

their hip girdle that sloped backward,

level and head raised. It

of what dinosaurs ate, such as bone

parallel to the ischium bone. The lizard¬

could run very fast, its tail

fragments, fish scales, or plant

hipped dinosaurs (saurischians), such as

balancing the weight of its

remains. Scientists can study these to

Gallimimus, had a pubis bone that

Skeleton of Gallimimus,

hugp heavy body.

find out about the diet of dinosaurs.

sloped forward away from the ischium.

a saurischian

265

Breeding

Richard Owen

Dinosaurs laid hard-shelled eggs

Bom in Lancaster, England,

as some reptiles do today. Many

Richard Owen (1804-92) became the Hunterian Professor of the Royal

dinosaurs laid a clutch of eggs in

College of Sutgeons in 1836. As well

a hollowed-out nest in the ground.

as being an anatomist, he was a

Several fossilized nests have been

brilliant jjalaeontologist. He was the

found close together, which suggests that some dinosaurs nested in The first dinosaurs One of the earliest dinosaurs was Eoraptor,

report in 1842. He noted that these

Orodromeus nest

colonies. The chicks developed rapidly

Eoraptor skull

and may have left the nest soon after

meaning “early plunderer”. It was no bigger

first to use the term “dinosaurs”, which means “terrible lizards”, in a

animals had pillar-like legs, rather than the sprawling legs of

hatching. Many were cared for by the

than a large dog and lived 225 million years

modem reptiles, and

parent dinosaur until they were able

ago (mya). As with all the early dinosaurs, it

should be classified separately.

to look after themselves.

was a carnivore and walked on two legs.

Defence

Tuoj iangosaur us

All stegosaurs had a

The flanks and belly of Tuojiangosaurus were

double row of plates

Dinosaurs protected themselves against

vulnerable to attack. Near the tip of its tail

running down their hack.

attack from predators. Different dinosaurs

were four bony spikes. These pointed up and outwards, producing a formidable defence

developed a variety of powerful defences.

when the dinosaur swung its tail. This

For example, Triceratops had horns on its

animal was a type of bird-hipped

head, Euoplocephalus had a tail club, and

dinosaur called a stegosaur. It

Tuojiangosaurus had a spiky tail. Some of these adaptations may have had several

lived in China 157-145 mya.

Tuojiangosaurus

functions, but one of them was likely to have been defence. Scientists cannot say exactly how these animals defended themselves, but it is easy to imagine.

Euoplocephalus had thick

Reconstruction of

hone plates and spikes over

Iguanodon hand

its hack, with a large shoulder spike for added protection.

Iguanodon spike When Iguanodon was first

Dinosaur skin

reconstmeted, its large spike was placed on its beak. It is now known

Occasionally, the skin, or skin

that the spike was on its thumb and

impression, of dinosaurs is

may have been used as a defensive

preserved. From these fossils we

weajxjn against predators. The

can tell that the skin of many

spike could have pierced the belly,

dinosaurs was not smooth, but

throat, or eye of an attacker. The

nodular and rough. This would

dinosaur may also have used it in

have given some protection

fights for status with other

against the claws and teeth of

Iguanodons, and even to

predators. This is the skin

help it feed.

of Polacanthus.

Euoplocephalus

Club was

Euoplocephalus

made out of

This armoured ornithischian had a large bony club

several bones

at the tip of its muscular tail. It could have swimg

fused together.

this with great force, disabling a predator.

Triceratops Dinosaur discoveries

The ceratojjsians, or horned dinosaurs, were ornithischians. Most of them had

Removing dinosaur fossils

brow horns and nose hor.^s. Triceratops, the

from surrounding rock is

largest ceratopsian, had two long horns on

tricky. Some need to be

its brow, a short nose horn, and also a bony

protected in a jacket made

neck frill protecting its neck. Its head took

of plaster or polyurethane

up nearly one-third of its length. It

foam before they are taken

probably used its horns to fend off

to a laboratory. Fossils are

predators, and males used them to

found every year, and each

deter rivals in the herd, mostly by

discovery teaches us more

display, but also bv fighting.

about these extinct animals. Finding dinosaur bones.

Triceratops skull - front view

FIND OUT

MORE 166

Animals

Evolution

Fossils

Prehistoric LIFE

Reptiles

Skeleton

Body butlt for speed

Hypsilophodon was once thought

Stegoceras was a pachycephalosaur.

Stegosaurus was the largest

Euoplocephalus had body

to have lived in trees, but its

and had a thick-domed skull,

stegosaur at 9 m (30 ft) long.

armour and a tail club to

It had large plates along its back.

protect it against attack.

limbs were not built for climbing. Stiff tail helped

Saurischians

with balance.

Deinonychus was a

Gallimimus was shaped

meat cater and may

like an ostrich and was

have hunted in packs

one of the fastest

Toothless beak

running dinosaurs.

Flat, crocodile like jaws_

Dilophosaurus had two high crests on top of its large head

Long neck enabled Barosaurus to reach leaves at Tail was used

N

for balance at speed.

'58Hands could be

Ankle joint

I

used to grasp food.

the top of trees

Long, clawed

Baryonyx had a huge

fingers

30-cm (12-in)-long claw

Longjbot bones increased

on each hand.

the length of the leg.

Whiplash tail used in defence. Anchisaurus may have eaten both meat and plants.

Dagger-like teeth.

Larg hind legs were needed Two clawed Body like

bear the

fingers on

\rchaeoptciyx,

f the body

ght

Small i arms with two-fingered hands

each hand

the first bird

k Compsognathus was small - only 74 cm (2.5 ft) long.

Tyrannosaurus was one of the Herrerasaurus was a carnivore

Barosaurus resembled Diplodocus. It was about

largest known land-living carnivores,

that lived in Argentina 228 mya.

the same size with a shorter tail and longer neck.

weighing up to 6 tonnes.

267

DISEASES

Epidemiology Epidemiology is the study of

Epidemiolo^st

diseases as they affect groups

tests samples in

Just like a machine,

of jjeople. Epidemiologists are

laboratory.

the human body

concerned with why diseases occur in a p>opulation, and

works smoothly and efficiently most of the time. However, it may occasionally

their control and prevention. They have discovered links between disease and diet,

stop operating normally. This may be due to an injury, such as a broken bone, but, more

environmental factors, and lifestyle. Epidemiologists first discovered the link between smoking and lung cancer.

commonly, it is caused by a disease. Diseases occur because the body has been infected by a pathogen (germ), as in the case of influenza or food poisoning, or because of problems arising inside the body, such

Non-infectious diseases If a disease is non-infectious, it is not caused by a pathogen and cannot be passed from one person to another. Noninfectious diseases include circulatory system diseases, such

as heart disease or diabetes. Some diseases can be

as heart attacks, strokes, and cancer, and respiratory

controlled and defeated by the body’s immune system. More serious diseases may need drug treatment or surgery in order to cure them.

diseases, such as bronchitis and emphysema. Nutritional diseases Nutritional diseases arc caused by a lack of a balanced diet, causing a deficiency of \itamins and minerals. A child not getting enough yitamin D may suffer from rickets, where the skeleton does not form properly.

Infectious diseases

Miners may develop lung problems. Rickets may

Infectious diseases are those, such as

leave sufferer

the common cold or pneumonia, that

with bow-legs.

are caused by pathogens that invade the Bacteria are in water, air,

body. The most common pathogens are

Industrial diseases

and soil, as well as many

bacteria and viruses, although some diseases,

Work situations may affect a person’s

plant and animal tissues.

health. Industrial processes can create

such as thrush, are caused by fungi, and

harmful environments or use chemicals

some, such as malaria, by tiny organisms

Bacteria

called protists. They are normally destroyed

Bacteria are single-celled

that cause diseases. Some miners develop a lung disease called pneumoconiosis.

micro-organisms. Most

by the body’s immune

bacteria are not harmful

system. Those that are

Spreading infection

Sanitation

body and produce toxins

Most diseases are acquired from

and viruses that cause disease. If

that cause disease.

other people by skin-to-skin

to humans. Elowever,

not can often be dealt

some multiply inside the

with by drugs.

Bacterial diseases include

Human faeces contain bacteria there is poor sanitation and human waste is discharged into rivets,

contact, breathing in droplets

Chickenpox causes an

typhoid and scarlet fever.

itchy rash that, when

Most can be treated with

when someone sneezes or coughs,

as dysentery or cholera through

drugs called antibiotics.

or by sexual contact without the

contact with polluted water.

scratched, can leave scars.

p)eople mav catch diseases such

use of condoms. Infection can Viruses

also be spread through infected

Viruses are tiny infective particles, not usuallv

food, contaminated water, and

classed as living things. They take over a body

insect bites. Drug users who

cell’s genetic material (DNA) and make copies of themselves that infect other cells. Eluman viral

share needles risk infections of the

Infections include colds,

blood, such as hepatitis and HIV.

measles, and ElIV.

Some mosquitoes

HIV and AIDS

carry strains of

The human immunodeficiency virus, or ElIV,

malaria that

causes AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency

are resistant

Syndrome). HIV infects and destroys the cells

to drugs.

that form jjart of the body’s immune system — the body’s defences against diseases. HIV is

Insects

Keeping rivers clean prevents

transmitted by some bodily fluids, such as blood

Insects such as mosquitoes and fleas feed

diseases that can be

and semen. The system becomes progressively

on human blood and can carry disease. A

caught if people

weaker, and the person becomes infected with

mosquito transmits the malaria micro-organism

drink, wash, or grow

various diseases, known collectively as AIDS.

if it feeds on an infected person’s blood.

food in the water.

Disease prevention is an important part of modern medicine. Diseases can be prevented by better sanitation, immunization, and improving food hygiene. Eating a balanced diet and exercising may also preyent disease.

FIND OUT

MORE 268

Black death

Cells

Bottled water is a way

it

Preventing disease

of assuring water is saft in certain countries.

Syringes that are not properly Pills contain measured

sterilized after use can spread disease.

amounts of drugs.

Curie, marie

Drugs

Human body

Immune AND LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

Pasteur, LOUIS

DISNEY, In 1901,

Early life

WALT

In 1906, Disney’s

A MAN WAS BORN

father Elias bought a

who would change

farm at Marceline,

the face of entertainment. Walt Disney became interested in animation as a schoolboy; by the time

Missouri. This was where young Walt first saw animals at

he was 20 he was making short animated films. But it was his later work that changed the history of the

close quarters. He

cinema. He created a string of cartoon characters which have been favourites ever since — Donald Duck, Goofy, and, above

ever sold was a drawing of

all, Mickey Mouse. Walt Disney also made the first feature-

for which the doctor paid

length animated film. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937), which was followed by many other screen successes.

Disney a nickel.

also became interested in drawing. The first he the local doctor’s stallion,

Earlv animation Disney began to make

Hollywood

Mickey Mouse

animated films in 1920.

Steamboat Willie, the first cartoon

These films featured

Disney moved to

to feature Mickey Mouse, ajjjjeared

characters which were

Hollywood in 1923.

in 1928. This was also the first

made by cutting figures

canoon with sound. Disney himself

out of paper. The

There were no animation studios, so he set up his own. He was soon in the forefront of

supplied Mickey’s voice, and the

figures could be moved

film was an instant success. Mickey

while they were

has since appeared in many other

photographed with

films. He has become the instantly

a hand-cranked

recognizable Disney symbol and

technical innovation,

has appeared on coundess Disney

pioneering the use of

merchandise products.

synchronized sound and the three-colour

Walt Disney with Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck

Technicolor process. Snow White with the seven dwarfs

Snow White In the 1920s, cartoons were normally shown before a full-length live-action film. But in 19.^5, Disney had the idea of producing a full-length cartoon. Snow White and the Seven Dwarjs (1937). Hundreds of animators worked on the film, which was followed by many other fulllength animated features.

Mary Poppins From the 1950s onwards, Disney produced many liveaction films. Some of these, such as the musical fantasy Mary Poppins (1964), aLso included animated sequences.

The Disney Club

Julie Andrews in a scene from Mary Poppins

Walt Disney

Disneyland

Disney was the first US major studio to create locally produced ‘children’s programming such as The Disney Club, and is the only studio to maintain a world-wide

1901

1919 Begins to make animated films.

Born in Chicago. USA.

and characters of his films in

1923 Moves to Hollywood.

production

a recreational park. The result,

1928 Steamboat Willie, featuting

offices. This

Disneyland, opened in 1955

network of

I

For many years, Walt Disney wanted to recreate the sets

network produces more

programmes, which reach over 300 million

1937 Show White and the Seven Dwarfs, the first feature-length

California. This theme park

than 40 weekly Disney

Mickey Mouse.

in Anaheim, near Los Angeles, I

animated film.

is one of the world’s most

1940 Pinocchio.

popular attractions. Other

1940 Fantasia.

parks have since opened: Walt Disney World in Florida and Disneyland ® Paris. Disneyland

Disney Club logo

1942

Eambi.

1955

Disneyland opens.

1964 Mary Poppins. 1966 Walt Disney dies.

FIND OUT

MORE

Cartoons and ANIMATION

Films and FILM-MAKING

Television

269

DJIBOUTI see AFRICA. EAST • DNA see GENETICS

DOGS Dogs have lived with people for more than 12,000 years. They may have started to stay near humans for

Siberian husky

food and warmth. Then people began to train dogs to work for them. They bred certain types of dog for herding and guarding other domestic animals, then for hunting and for companionship. Gradually, different types of

Chihuahua

Sconish terriers

Dog groups

dog developed, but it was not until the end of the 19th century that specific breeds were classified. Today, there are about 200 dog breeds

The people of ancient Egypt and western Asia

throughout the world. They are more varied in their appearance and behaviour than any other

to right) top row: working, sporting, herding;

domestic animal.

were the first to breed distinct types of dog for different purposes. By Roman times, dogs were kept for much the same reasons as they are today. There are six main groups — (from left:

bottom row: companion, terriers, and hounds.

Domestic dogs Borzois have sharp

%r

All breeds of domestic dog,

eyesight and hunt by sight.

r / Dog features

from the Great Dane to the chihuahua, are descended from the wolf and have

%

%

inherited the wolfs instincts. Like wolves, dogs

are pack animals. They treat humans as part of their pack, and can be trained to accept their owner as the

\ The borzoi was bred in Russia in the 13th

pack leader, and to

century and used ^ Long, strong legs and a

follow his or her

first to hunt wolves.

flexible body for speed

commands.

Coats There are three main types of dog coats —

The wolf is designed to

long, short, and wiry. Most breeds have

chase, capture, kill, and

an outer coat of guard hairs and an undercoat of shorter hairs. They moult, or

eat its prey. It is agile,

shed their fur, changing their coat in

with strong legs for

spring and autumn.

Short hair

Long hair

Wire hair

running long distances. Domestic dogs retain

Feet Senses

Dogs walk on their toes

many of the features of

rather than the sole

Dogs have highly developed senses of hearing

a wolf, but through

of their feet. Their

and smell. They use these in communication

paw pads help with

and to track down their prey. The police use

selective breeding now

grip, as do their

dogs to sniff out explosives, criminals, and

exist in many shapes,

claws, which are

drugs. The dogs can see well in the dark and

sizes, and colours.

non-retractable.

arc good at seeing movement in the distance

Reproduction A female dog is pregnant for about nine weeks, then gives birth to several puppies known as a litter. At birth, puppies are blind and deaf Their eyes open at about 10 to 12 days old and they are able to hear at 13 to 17 days old. Teeth start to grow between three and five weeks of age.

270

I

At one week old. a puppy spends most of its time

2

At two weeks old, the puppv takes its first wobbling steps

3

At three weeks old, the puppy may start to eat solid

4

At six weeks old, the puppy no longer feeds from its

sleeping and feeding bv

and begins to explore. Its eyes are

food. At first, its mother will

mother. It can soon be taken

suckling from its mother.

now open and it can hear.

regurgitate meat for it.

away from her to a new home

FIND OUT

MORE

Animals

Animals, behaviour

Cats

Grassland vni DLIFF

Mammals

Police

Wolves and WILD DOGS

Dogs

Great Dane makes an

Mastiff existed in Britain

Boxer is a lively and

Papillon is named after

Pekingese has a flattened

Bulldog is a strong

the French fot “butterfly”.

face, with a broad nose.

but affectionate dog.

Thick, harshtextured coat

\

German shepherd dog is

Dalmatian, used to deter

St Bernard exists in wire-

Miniature poodle, worlds

Cavalier King Charles

Pug has a soft coat

intelligent and enthusiastic.

highwaymen in the 1800s.

and smooth-haired forms.

most popular dog in the 1950s.

spaniel, bred in 1900s.

and a curled tail.

Airedale terrier is the

Border terrier was first

Staffordshire bull terrier

Basset hound is an agile

Dachshunds can be long-.

Whippet was bred in

largest terrier breed

bred for hunting rats

is loyal and devoted

and single-minded hunter

smooth-, or wire-haired.

the 1800s for racing.

Afghan hound needs

Greyhound is

Tail carried

Boston terrier originated in

Smooth fox terrier

Parson Jack Russell terrier

Boston, USA, in the 1800s.

is alert and tireless.

has a mostly white coat.

Rhodesian ridgeback has

Yorkshire terrier is a small

Cairn terrier has a shaggv'.

Australian terrier is

Lurcher; individuals vary

Saluki, fast and agile, was

Irish wolfhound is the

but spirited guard dog.

water-resistant coat.

capable of tackling a snake.

considerably within the breed

once used to hunt gazelles,

tallest dog in the world.

Australian cattle dog

Border collie is an

Old English sheepdog

Pointer is agile, athletic,

English springer spaniel is

Curly-coated retriever is

has great stamina.

outstanding sheepdog.

has a thick, shagg)’ coat.

and needs much exercise

one of the largest spaniels

one of the oldest breeds.

271

DOLPHINS see WHALES AND DOLPHINS • DOMINICA see CENTRAL AMERICA • DOMINICAN REPUBLIC see CARIBBEAN • DOPPLER, CHRISTIAN see SOUND

DRAMA

/

\

Early drama Western drama originated in ancient Greece, where plays were staged to

Drama has been delighting people for at least 2,500 years. A Broadway musical, a play by Shakespeare, and a television soap

■ h \

honour the gods. The Greeks invented two of the most enduring dramatic forms, tragedy and comedy, which were later imitated by the Romans.

opera are all different sorts of drama. What have in common is the presence of actors, who

Classical Greek drama The ancient Greeks held regular drama festivals,

perform a story (the play) in a theatrical setting, to

at which dramatists competed for prizes. Their tragedies were based on characters from Greek

entertain an audience and make them think. Dramatists (writers of drama) use their art to entertain and thrill

mythology. Their comedies ranged in style from uproarious satires to more realistic dramas. Statuette of muse, holding a

their audience or, more seriously, to explore human character and raise questions about the

—

- mask from Greek comedy

Medieval drama

nature and meaning of life.

Western drama went into a decline at the end of the Roman

Renaissance and 17th century

Empire, but revived in the 10th century, with the rise of

The traditions of ancient Greek drama were

Christian religious drama.

revived in Renaissance Italy and spread through

Amateur players produced plays enacting stories from the Bible,

Europe. Many plays were written in verse.

performed over a number of

Drama thrived in the l6th and 17th centuries,

days. The audience watched out

the age of English playwright William Shakespeare

of doors, in market-places and othet public spaces.

(1564—1616) and his contemporaries.

4

Phedre {\G77)-, by Racine

Religious drama, York, England, 13th century

Realism and 20th century

France

Spain

The French dramatist Jean

The 17th century was the

Racine (1639-99) wrote

Golden Age of Spanish

plavs that were heavily

theatre. The Spanish dramatist

influenced bv Greek tragedv

Lope de Vega (1562-1635)

and often based on Greek

wrote some 1,500 plays: his

mythology. Unusually for

plav Fuenteovejuna was one of

From the mid-18th century onwards, drama became increasingly realistic, with playwrights portraying middle-class characters in familiar situations. Theatres were fitted with picture-frame stages and

the time, many featured

the first to deal with ordinary

women in the tide role.

working people. The other

realistic sets. It was fashionable for plays

Another great dramatist of

great Spanish dramatist of

to deliver a direct, moral message. During

the era, Molicre (1622-73),

this time was Pedro Calderon

developed French comedy

de la Barca (1600-81), who

the 20th century, dramatists experimented

with plays that mocked

produced many tragedies

with dialogue and plot structure, in order

the middle classes.

and historical plays.

Types of drama

to challenge “realism” or give dramas a symbolic meaning.

Waiting for Godot

A Doll's House

Realistic drama

(1955), by Irish

The many typ)es of drama include tragedies (serious

writer Samuel

plays that deal with the downfall of a flawed but

Becken (1906-89),

heroic individual) and light-hearted comedies

is a type of modern

(plays with happy endings). Other types include historical plays, thrillers, and musical theatre.

Mother Courage

by Brecht,

is set during the Thirty Years’ War.

(1879), by Ibsen

Dramatists such as Norwegian Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906) and Swede August Strindberg (1849-1912)

drama known as the

produced plays that attacked the narrow

“Theatre of the

social attitudes of their time and sometimes

Absurd”: the plot

shocked audiences with their frankness.

seems to lead nowhere, suggesting

Bertolt Brecht

life has no point.

In his plays, the German writer Bertolt Brecht (1898-1956) put forward serious socialist messages. He constantly reminded his audience that they were watching a plav, to make them think about the socialist ideas in his works, and look more closely at the world outside the theatre.

Broadway A street in New York at the heart of the city’s theatre-going district, Broadway is world famous, and synonymous with the commercial theatre in North America. Broadway productions need a big budget and guaranteed aiHiences, so more experimental plays often appear in theatres “off-Broadway” first, and transfer to a Broadway theatre if successful.

272

DRAMA

-pj

I

.

O Maraja, satirical

broaacasting

Actors

Brazilian soap opera

Anyone with access to a television or radio

The skill of the actors is vital to the

can now enjoy drama every day. Sometimes

success of a drama. Using the right tone

these are productions of works originally

of voice, facial expression, or gesture, an

written for the stage, and adapted. More

actor creates the illusion that the audience

common are dramas specially written for

is watching or listening to real people and

broadcasting. Many of these are run as

events on stage or screen. Many actors

series, so that every week, or even every

study at drama school before becoming

day, people can watch or listen to another

professionals, paid to appear on stage.

episode of their favourite drama. Some Soap operas

forms of television drama have proved

Immcnselv popular, these serialized television dramas usually

especially popular, such as crime stories,

deal with the lives and loves of “ordinary” people. Soap

adventure series, and soap operas.

operas are so-called because they were at first sponsored by commercial companies such as soap manufacturers.

World drama

Chinese opera Traditional Chinese, or Beijing, opera retells stories

Many non-Western cultures have produced

from historical events and

their own, distinct traditions of drama,

Buddhist stories. The action

which draw on local conditions and skills.

comprises arias and recitations, mime, song, and

In Asia, for example, drama draws on local

dance, with music from an

mythology and tales of gods and goddesses.

Drama festivals

At a festival held

Such drama also uses local craft skills to

Drama festivals are held around

each year in

produce striking costumes and masks, and

the worid so that theatre-goers can

Salzburg, Austria,

celebrate the best in aaing and

actors re-enact a

orchestra of traditional instruments, such as the lute, clappers, gongs, and drums.

may be accompanied with music played on traditional instruments.

writing. Plays range from traditional

medieval religious

productions to experimental works

drama.

from new writers. The Edinburgh Farewell My Concubine

Noh masks represent

International Festival, held

is a film about Chinese

five groups: male,

annuallv, is world famous.

opera.

female, old people, the gods, and monsters.

Circuses A circus is a form of

Noh theatre

Ritual drama

entertainment that

In traditional Japanese

In parts of Africa, Asia,

combines a number of

Noh drama, actors wear

and Melanesia, traditional

different skills, such as

elaborate costumes and

dtama forms an important

juggling, acrobatics,

masks, but perfotm on a bare

part of religious ritual. A

clowning, and conjuring.

stage. They move slowly and

high priest or shaman puts

Circuses date from the

make special, meaningful

on a mask and costume

end of the 18th century.

gestures. They chant their lines,

that completely disguises

Animal acts once formed

accompanied by music. Plavs are

him and, as he dances to Noh

performed in groups, the whole

mask

programme lasting an entire day.

pan of circus routines, but

music, people believe that

Papua New Guinea

these are now less popular in

he actually becomes the

Trobrianders: ritual

the West.

spirit he is imitating.

religious drama.

Moscow State Circus

Puppetry

Robert Lepage

Puppetry is a type of drama involving

The Canadian playwright

puppets, figures that seem to come to life

and director Roben Lepage (b. 1957) has achieved world

when a human operator moves them. It is

status for his experimental

one of the oldest types of drama, dating from

work. Giving everyday

at least the 5th century

BC.

One example is

shadow puppetry, which is popular in Southeast

Made

uses thin rods

from

to move the

leather

FIND OUT

MORE

puppet.

Festivals

Fil.ms and film-making

actors, he has taken risks

Asia. A light is used to cast a shadow from the

that, while not always a

puppet onto a translucent viewing screen.

critical success, push back

The puppet then acts out a play.

the boundaries of drama.

Timeline

1580-1642 In

1'’82 Friedrich von Schiller

Late 1800s “Realist”

5th century BC The Greeks

England, the

(1759-1805) stages The

drama develops, exploring

Elizabethan and

Robbers, one of the plays

modern social issues.

Jacobean dramatists

that inspires the German

pioneer tragedy and comedy.

The operator

objects symbolic meaning, and working closely with

11th to 15th centuries AD

revitalize English

Romantic movement in

1960s The “Theatre of

Religious drama becomes

drama.

the 18th century.

the Absurd" subverts the

1600-80 The

c. 1800 In Vietnam, Hat

popular in Europe.

conventions of the theatre

Statue of comic actor

Golden Age of

Boi theatre dramatizes tales

1990s Musicals arc the

from Roman drama

Spanish drama.

of war and suffering.

most popular type of play.

Greece, ANCIENT

Literature

Medieval

Opera

Renaissance

Shakespeare

Theatres

EUROPE

273

DRAWING see PAINTING AND DRAWING • DREAMS see BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM • DREAMTIME see ABORIGINAL AUSTRALIANS

PestU

DRUGS A

History of drugs More than 3,000 years ago, people across the world — especially in China, India, the Middle East, Europe, and North Africa — used

that, when put into the body, alters its normal workings or body chemistry. Natural body hormones, such DRUG IS ANY SUBSTANCE

hundreds of different substances

r

|h

as drugs. They included herbal and mineral extracts, and animal products, such as blood, bile, and urine. Physicians

as insulin, can act as drugs when taken in concentrated form. Medical drugs have many uses. Some, such as cough

mixed these drugs using a pesde and mortar, and often combined their use with magic, superstition, and religion. Modern research has

suppressants, may relieve symptoms; others, such as

discovered that some arc effective.

analgesics, deaden pain; while others, including antibiotics, treat the cause of disease. Drugs may also be taken for non-medical reasons, such as steroids to enhance sports performance and body-building. The abuse of such drugs

How drugs work Drugs change the processes within the cells of the body. Their effectiveness depends on the dose (quantity), and method of administration (or route

may be illegal, and can cause physical harm.

into the body). These routes include: absorption through the skin from a cream or a skin patch;

Types of drugs

injections into a muscle, vein, or under the skin;

Drugs can be grouped by their medical uses or effects. For

inhalation; eye or ear drops; or the oral route, where medication is swallowed as tablets,

example, antibiotics kill bacteria, analgesics deaden pain,

pills, capsules, or liquid.

anti-inflammatories reduce swelling, anti-pyretics lower bodv temperature, and anti-coagulants help to prevent unwanted blood clots. Some drugs, such as aspirin, can be placed in more than one category.

#

Antibiotic These drugs kill or disable germs (harmful microbes) known as bacteria. Most come ftom chemicals made cither by fungi, or by other baaeria. Antibiotic cream

Chewing gum

Suppositories

Pills and tablets

Analgesic Drugs from nature

Painkillers come in two types; narcotics, such as morphine,

Half of modern drugs

codeine, and other opiates originally

originate from plants, fungi,

from the opium poppy; and non¬

\

narcotics, such as paracetamol, which have a different origin.

I

Cytotoxic

animals, or microbes. In ancient times, p)eoplc were unable to separate the aaual drug — the active ingredient — from its source. As

The name means “cell-poisoners”, but cytotoxic drugs

chemistry became more

arc designed to affect only the out-of-control cells in

sophisticated, scientists

tumours and malignancies (cancers), while leaving

identified and purified these ingredients making the drug

normal body cells unharmed. They are one type of anti-cancer drug. They arc very powerful and their doses and uses must be carefully supervised. Syringe containing cytotoxic drugs

I

Tablets and capsules

safer. Some drugs extraaed originally from nature are now made from genetically engineered microbes.

Paul Ehrlich

Witch hazel

Resin

Drug research

Brand name - the name by which

'fhe German scientist Paul Ehdich (1854—1915) dreamed of finding a substance that would act as a “magic bullet”, by destroying invading germs, while

In the laboratory,

manufacturers sell

scientists analvse potential

a drug, e.g. Aspro.

new drugs. They perform

leaving healthy body cells unaffected. He pioneered synthetic drugs (chemical agents made in the laboratory, rather

Generic name - the

tests on the drug to

name bv which the

establish its chemistry, and

active ingredient is

how it affects the body’s

known, e.g. aspirin.

processes. Then they test

than extraaed from

"1

it on tissues and cells in

natural sources). The

Common chemical name — showing the chemical subgroups,

the laboratory, on animals,

first of these was Salvarsan, which was a

Dried parts

e.g. acetvl'Salicylic acid

and finally on human

laboratory-made drug

volunteers in clinical trials.

containing arsenic; it was

Chemical formula lists the atoms and

effective against syphilis and

their numbers in the

related infections. »

274

Drug research laboratory

Aspirin

drug, e.g. C9Hg04.

DRUGS

Prescription Some drugs, known as controlled substances, are only available with a doctor’s permission. A prescription is a written and signed instruction from a doctor that authorizes a pharmacist to dispense a controlled substance. Prescriptions include the name and dosage of the drug, how often the patient must take it, and any other relevant instructions.

Pharmacies The science of drugs is known as pharmacology. Pharmacy refers to both the practice of preparing and dispensing drugs, and the place where this happens. A person qualified in pharmacology is called a pharmacist (or chemist). The dispensing chemist can advise on which drugs to use for minor ailments.

Pharmacist at work

Hospital pharmacy

Non-medical drugs

Drug abuse

Some drugs can be taken for their non_ medicinal effects on the mind and body. These effects may include the stimulation or sedation of the mind, a temporary boost to physical performance in sport, or a feeling of emotional well-being.

This is the improper non-medical use of legal or illegal drugs for physical or psychological reasons. The feelings and mental state experienced by the taker are often very different to that persons acmal behaviour, seen by onlookers. After too much alcohol, a drinker may feel bright and witty, while onlookers see a slurring bore.

Caffeine is found in coffee, tea, and cola

Sedatives These dmgs sedate (slow down) bodily functions, induding physical activity and mental agility. Sedatives can make the user feel relaxed and peaceful for a short time. They include sleeping pills, antihistamines (which suppress allergic reaaions), antidepressants, and alcohol, which is probablv the most widely used non-medical drug in the world.

Customs official arresting a drug trafficker

Stimulants "Chese drugs temporarily stimulate (speed up) bodily functions and mental processes. However, they can cause aftet-effects, such as depression. Stimulants include caffeine, nicotine (in tobacco), and cocaine.

Over-the-counter drugs Over-the-counter drugs are available without a prescription. They can be bought at super¬ markets and pharmacies, and are usually less powerful than prescription drugs- They have fewer side-effects or contra¬ indications (health problems that warn against their use), but they are still open to misuse. Pharmacists are qualified to recommend certain drug preparations, although they cannot di^nose or prescribe treatment.

Tobacco shop Legal drugs The legality of drugs varies greatly all over the world. As well as the drug’s strength and effects, legality often depends on tradition, religion, and availabilitv. One of the most powerful and addictive drugs is alcohol. Alcohol is fully legalized in some countries, partly legalized (for people over 18 or 21) in others, and completely banned in others. Nicotine in the form of cigars, cigarettes, chewing tobacco, and snuff is also legal in most countries. Group therapy session

Jonas Salk Vaccines ate substances that give the body resistance or immunity to certain infecting germs In the 1950s, American microbiologist Jonas Salk (1914-95) developted the first effective vaccine against the crippling disease of polio (poliomyelitis). It spread into worldwide use from 1955 on. From 1960, an oral form of the vaccine, Sabin, gradually replaced the Salk injection.

Timeline

1922 Frederick Banring and others treat diabetes using insulin, a natural body hormone.

1840s Anaesthetics begin to be used during surgery. 1881 Artificial vaccine used against anthrax 1910 Paul Ehrlich introduces chemo¬ therapeutic drugs.

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1936 Treatment of infections improves with the advent of Prontosil, the first sulpha drug. Fresh witch hazel

First aid

Hospitals

Illegal drugs Some drugs are so powerful and dangerous that they are illegal almost everywhere in the world. These include LSD and mescaline (known in some countires as Schedule 1 drugs), amphetamines, cocaine, and narcotics (Schedule II drugs). Supplying these illegal drugs to users has become a vast international business.

1940s Howard Florey and Ernst Chain make penicillin available as an antibiotic. It is used widely in World War II. 1956 Oral contraceptives (birth control pills) are introduced, using the natural female hormones, oestrogen and progestogen.

Medicine

Medicine, HISTORY OF

1967 Fertilitv drugs help couples conceive. 1983 Cyclosporin, an immuno-suppressant, helps prevent rejection of transplanted organs. 1990s AIDS drugs tested. Tablets and capsules

Pasteur, LOUIS

Plant USF^

Dependence and addiction A person may come to depend on addictive drugs in order to function. Addiction - intense craving — is hard to control. If the user stops taking the drug, his or her body undergoes “withdrawal”, which includes symptoms, such as headaches, sweating, hallucinations, and mood swings. People trying to stop using addictive drugs often find support groups are helpful.

275

DRUMS see MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

DUCKS, GEESE, and SWANS 1

spend their life on or near water. They belong to a family of birds called waterfowl and are closely related to each other. They have broad beaks and short legs with webbed feet. They are good swimmers and have waterproof plumage, which keeps them dry and also helps them to float. There are about 160 species of waterfowl in the wild. Some species of duck and goose have been domesticated and are often raised on farms. Khaki Campbell Most ducks, geese, and swans

a domestic duck

Ducks Plumage

Ducks are the smallest and most

Ducks produce a

varied waterfowl. Males are often

waterproof oil from a gland near the base of their tail.

brightly coloured and females are

When they preen their

usually drab, which helps to camouflage

feathers, they spread the oil

them when they are sitting on their eggs.

Webs

Some ducks live in coastal waters, but

stretched open

Webs closed

most live on rivers, lakes, and ponds.

Swimming

over them. This oil is so

A duck’s webbed feet work like

effective that a duck stays

paddles to push it through the water.

dry even when it dives

When it pushes its feet backward, it

beneath the surface.

spreads its toes to stretch out the

Swans The largest waterfowl are swans, with a

Mute swan has

webs between them. When it pulls

A Mandarin duckling

lack knob at the

its feet forward, it closes its toes to

leaves the nest in response

base of its beak

shut the webs, which then offer less

to its mother’s call.

water resistance.

wingspan of up to 2.3 m (7.5 ft). Most of the eight species are white, but the

With its wings

Australian black swan has a black body

held wide, the

and white flight feathers. A swan spends

duckling jumps.

a lot of its time on water. It uses its long

Big feet and

neck to reach plants below the surface.

stubby wings work like parachutes to

Mute swan

slow the

egg is an

duckling’s fall. A tree duckling must jump before it is a day old to find food.

Tree-nesting ducks

Swan egg

\bung swans

Nesting swans

Most ducks nest on the ground but a few

Young swans, or cygnets, stay with

Swans nest on the ground close to the water’s

lay their eggs in holes in trees. Soon after

their parents for a whole year, which

edge. The female incubates the eggs for up to

is a long time for a bird. When they

38 days, and she hisses loudly at anything

develop their adult plumage, their

that comes too close If her warnings are

parents drive them awav

ignored, she attacks. Her powerful beak and

the young have hatched, their mother leaves the nest and calls to them to follow her. The ducklings arc too young to fly, and instead they jump to the ground.

wings make formidable weapons.

Mute swan Scientific name Cygnus olor Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Distribution Western Europe, parts of central Asia; also introduced into othet parts of the world, including North America, Australia, and New Zealand

Unlike most waterfowl, geese usually

Swan takeoff

feed on land. They eat grass, gripping it

Swans can weigh up to 13 kg (28.5 lb), which

The

makes them among the world’s heaviest flying

duckling

in their beaks and pulling it up with a

birds. Swans cannot take off from a standing_

walks

tug. Many geese breed in the tundra of

start. Instead, they have to run across the

away on

the far north. These white-fronted geese,

water to gain enough speed for takeoff.

»

landing

Habitat Lakes and rivers Diet Water plants Size Length: 152 cm (60 in) Lifespan About 20 years

seen here in western Scotland, fly north to Greenland after the winter.

276

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Animal BEHAVIOUR

Birds

Eggs

Farming

Flight, animals

Penguins

Seabirds

DYES AND PAINTS

Early pigments The first materials used as pigments were probably coloured clays, which were mixed with water or animal oils to make paint. Dyes made from plants and animals were later used to

are substances that are used to stain or give colour to a range of objects, from Dyes and paints

colour textiles. Common plant dyes included woad, madder, saffron, and turmeric. Animal sources included cochineal

the fibres of fabrics by means of a chemical reaction. Pigments form the colour in paints. These are held in place using a

3

■! Red skin of onion gives colour

Walnuts

Stinging netde

varnish-like substance called a vehicle, or binder, which also binds the pigment to the surface being painted. Throughout history, people have created colour, first by means of natural

Saffron powder

Root

dyes and pigments, and today by using synthetic ones.

Powder Saffron crocus

Turmeric

Dyes

«

(beetle) and the Murex sea snail.

textiles and paper to buildings and machinery. The substances that give colour to dyes are called dyestuffs, which, when dissolved in water, penetrate

Fabrics can be coloured using a

Some natural dyes still exist, but most used today are

range of dyes

synthetic. These are organic chemicals produced by processing petroleum and coal-tar chemicals such as benzene. Most dyes are used in the textile industry, but are also used in the leather, paper, food, and cosmetics industries. The dyes can be applied to the fibre or fabric using either a direct or indirect process. Wool can by dyed using

The T-shirt on

This T-shirt shows

the left shows how

how the colour has

the dye has faded.

rematned fast.

a mordant dye, but this dve is now avoided in

Colour fastness

Western countries due

Two of the most important properties

to its use of potentially

demanded of a dye by clothes

harmful chemicals.

manufacturers are its abilities to resist

Indirect dyeing

Direct dyeing

being washed out, and not to fade in

In some dyeing processes, a number of steps are needed

In most industrial dyeing processes today, d)Tes can enter the fibre

the light. The colour fastness of a fabric

to dye the fibre. In one process, a chemical called a

and colour it in one step, without the need of a mordant. The dye

also varies according to the dyeing

mordant is first added to the fibre, which is then dyed.

is dissolved in hot water, strained, and then added to the fabric.

process that is used and the type

Tfie mordant molecules fix the dye to the fabric

Sometimes the dye is mixed with salt to help fix the colour.

of material that is being dyed.

Oil paints usually come in tubes so that users can squeeze

Paints

Artists’ paints

out the exact amount of paint needed

Artists use a variety

Paint comes in many colours and can be used as a

of tyjjes of paint to

coating on rigid structures such as houses, bridges, ships,

achieve different effects,

li

and cars. Finer paints are used by artists to produce imaginative and colourful works of art. The pigments used to make the paints may be natural, such as rutile (titanium

including watercolours, oils, and acrylics. The

Jlk

pigments in watercolour paints are mixed with a water solution of gum

dioxide) or synthetic, such as phthalocyanine blue.

arabic, in oils they are mixed in a slow-drying

Industrial paints

oil, such as linseed oil,

Industrial paints are custom-made for specific jobs

while in acrylics the pigments are mixed with

Some paints contain powdered metal and metal oxides, so that the paint can protect exposed structures, such

a synthetic-resin vehicle.

Oil paints

as iron bridges. Paints such as those used on cars are designed to withstand rusting and high temperatures.

William Henry Perkin Domestic paints

British chemist William Henry

Paint-spraying

Most decorating paints arc made

car body

for easy application. Non-drip

Perkin (1838-1907) accidentally produced the first synthetic dye,

paints are jelly-like in the can,

mauve, in 1856. He was

but flow easily when applied.

attempting to make the drug

Emulsion paint uses water as its

quinine from coal-tar chemicals,

vehicle, so splashes can be removed

but instead produced a purple

and brushes easily cleaned.

liquid dye. This was the start of the synthetic dye industry.

Can of non-drip paint and brush

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Chemistry HISTO^ OF

Clothes and FASHION

^

Coal

Colour

Mixtures and CO.MPOUNDS

Monet, CLAUDE

Painting and drawing

Textiles and WEAVING

277

EARS AND HEARING

laa

Anatomy of the ear Mostly concealed within the skull, the ear is divided into three parts. The outer ear consists of the pinna

When a bee buzzes, a soprano sings, or a jumbo jet takes off, each generates invisible vibrations called sound

Temporal

(ear flap) and the auditory canal. The middle ear is

hone

filled with air and contains three tiny bones called ossicles. The inner ear is fluid-filled and contains the

waves that enter the ears, the body’s organs of hearing. The sound waves

Semicircular canal^

cochlea and the semi-

Inner ear

circular canals.

travel deep inside the skull to the part of the ear that does the hearing. Here, sound

_Cochlea

waves are converted into nerve impulses that travel along nerves to the auditory, or hearing, area on each side of the brain. In

Middle ear

the brain, the impulses are interpreted as sounds. The ears can pick up a wide range of

and stapes.

sounds and, with the eyes, they help us to make sense of our surroundings.

Hearing sounds

contains three bones called the ossicles: the malleus, incus,

Auditory canal carries sound into ear and

Pinna

Eustachian tube connects

produces wax that

middle ear to throat to

keeps the ear dust and

equalize air pressure inside

insect free.

and outside the ear.

Eardrum

Air pressure

'Die eardrum, or tympanic

You hear most clearly when the air

Sound waves channelled into the auditory

membrane, is a taut piece of

pressure inside the middle ear is the

canal cause the eardrum and the ossicles

skin that separates the auditory

same as the air pressure outside your

to vibrate. These vibrations travel through

canal from the middle ear.

body. If the air pressure outside changes

When sound waves hit the

suddenly, you may not be able to hear

the fluid-filled cochlea. Inside the

on a plane that is taking off or landing,

a drum and transmits

or if you are travelling on a fast train.

its vibrations to the

vibrations into nerve impulses.

ossicles of the

These are carried by the cochlear

middle ear.

Balance

nerve to the brain.

Ossicles

properly. This can happen if you are a

eardrum, it vibrates like

cochlea, sensory hair cells convert the

Oval

Semicircular

ij)in/lnu}

canals

Stapes Malleus (hammer) .

^

Part of the inner ear helps you to balance. Sensors inside the three

a

semicircular canals detect movements

t

made by the head and the rest of the

Gymnast’s outstretched

body. Sensors inside two adjoining

arms help

chambers, the saccule and utricle, detect Ossicles

whether the body is upright, upside-

The ossicles arc the

down, or in between. Nerve impulses

three smallest bones in the body. The malleus, incus, and stapes

balance.

from the semicircular canals are analysed by the brain to assess the body’s position.

connect the eardrum to

Ampulla

the cochlea by way of

Semicircular canals

the oval window.

The three semicircular canals in each ear are filled with fluid. At the base of each canal is a bulge,

Bartolomeo Eustachio

called an ampulla, which contains sensory hair cells that send impulses

Italian anatomist Bartolomeo Eustachio (1520-74) studied the

Vestibule

to the brain The three canals are

detailed anatomy of the ear, as well

containing

set at 90° to each other, so they can

as other body organs and systems,

saccule and utricle

detect movement in any direction.

while he was a professor in Rome. This

He wrote the first full description

cutaway

of the ears in his book The

Hearing ranges

of the

Examination of the Organ of

The pitch of a sound depends

cochlea

Hearing, published in 1562.

on the frequency of the sound

Included in this was

waves that produced it. High-

shows its 3 chambers.

~ ^ ^

Basilar membrane

Bats' ears can hear very

the first detailed

pitched sounds have a high

description of

frequency, and low-pitched sounds have a low frequency.

Cochlea

the tube that

The cochlea is a long, coiled tube in the inner

links the

Frequency is measured in units

car that is filled with fluid. It is divided by two

middle car

called Hertz (Hz). Our hearing

membranes into three chambers that run

with the throat.

ability decreases as we get older,

lengthways. The middle of these three chambers,

This was later

from 20,000 to 12,000 Hz.

the cochlear chamber, contains the spiral organ of

named the

Corti, which consists of over 20,000 sensory hair

Eustachian tube.

cells that send nerve signals to the brain.

278

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high-pitched sound waves called ultrasound.

20-20,000 Hz

Brain and

Human

NERVOUS SYSTEM

BODY

1,000-120,000 Hz

Music

Sound

EARTH

Structure of the Earth By recording the way vibrations from earthquakes reverberate

We

live on a giant ball of rock

spinning round the Sun,

which we call the Earth. The Earth is one of nine planets in the Solar System and one of the four made of rock. However, the Earth is unique, because it is the only planet in the Solar System — and perhaps even in the Universe — that can support life. The distance of the Earth from the Sun makes it neither very hot like Venus, nor icy cold like Pluto, enabling liquid water to

through the Earth, scientists have discovered that the Earth has an egg-like structure. At its centre is a “yolk” of metal, surrounded by an “egg-white” of soft rock called the mantle, and an outer “shell” of hard rock called the crust.

exist on its surface. The Earth also has an oxygen-rich atmosphere. The Earths crust.—

These two substances — water and oxygen — are the key factors that allow life to flourish on the Earth.

consists of a number of interlocking slabs of rock called tectonic plates.

Solid iron

The Earths

Earths ingredients

structure

Atmosphere is a thin surrounding layer of

Although more than 80 elements

gases about 640 km

(basic substances) occur naturally on

(400 miles) deep.

the Earth, the bulk of the Earth is made of iron (35%), oxygen (28%), magnesium (17%), and silicon (13%). The following elements are present in significant, Molecule of oxygen gas

but small, amounts: nickel (2.7%), sulphur (2.7%), calcium (0.6%),

Magnesium ore (magnesite)

and aluminium (0.6%). Tiny proportions of other elements make up the remainder (0.6%). Investigating Earths composition By taking rock samples from the Earths

-

interior, geologists have been able to understand the Earths chemical make¬ up, Analysis of meteorites — solid pieces from an exploded planet — has led some

Locket

Crust, Earths

geologists to believe that the Eanh may

containing

have formed from the same space debris

crystal of

of which meteorites are made,

outer layer of rock varies in thickness: beneath the oceans, it is

silicon

6-11 km {4—7 miles) thick, but it stretches up to 70 km (43 miles) under mountain ranges.

Nickel ore Mohorovicic discontinuity, or Moho, is the boundary between the crust and the mantle.

Mande is a partially molten layer beneath the crust, extending to a depth of about 2,900 km (1,800 miles) and made largely of a rock called peridotite. Sulphii

Gutenberg discontinuity is the boundary

Chondrite meteorite

crystals

between the mantle and the core.

Meteorites Outer core reaches to a depth of about 4,900 km

Meteorites are natural objects .-s'

(3,050 miles) and is made of molten iron and nickel -

that fall to the Earth from

magnetic metals that give the Earth its magnetic field.

space. They are made of iron, stone, or a mixture of both. The two main types of meteorite are called chondrites and achondrites.

Inner core, like the outer core, is made of iron and nickel, but although temperatures reach 3,700'’C (6,690°F), the pressure is so

Calcium-rich

great that the metal remains solid.

Richard Oldham Bv examining the seismographic recordings of earthquakes, the British geologist Richard Oldham (1858-1936) discovered that earthquakes produce two different kinds of vibration. He called them primary (P) waves and secondary (S) waves. Oldhams analysis revealed that P waves travel more slowlv through the core of the Earth than through the mantle. He concluded

->* •

that Earths core must be liquid, which is partly true.

■

■* -

Aluminium .

ore (bauxite)

Achondrite meteorite

279

EARTH

Satellite image showing

Earth system

Europe, Africa, India, and the Middle East

Planet Earth seems to operate like a vast, complex system made

India

up of various interconnected processes that keep conditions Surface details

stable and suitable for life. The atmospheres unique make up, for

are clearly

example, ensures that the Earth stays at an ideal temperature

visible.

for life, never heating up or cooling down by more than a few degrees. Scientists now realize that the environment must be treated with care, because a change to one part of this complex system may have unpredictable repercussions in other parts.

Africa

Earth from space

Energy regulation

Much of what scientists know

The Earth system exchanges energy with its

about the interrelated parts of

surroundings, but there is no overall gain or

the Earth system comes from

loss of energy. The Earth receives heat, light,

images sent back by satellites.

and other forms of energy directly from the

These images show us that the

Sun. Some of this energy is reflected back by

Earth is roughly spherical and

the clouds, oceans, land, and atmosphere; the

reveal surface features in clear

rest is absorbed and then released back into

detail. Special heat-sensitive infrared photographs show the distribution of

space. The total energy the Earth gives out equals the total energy it receives from the Sun.

vegetation and variations in the Earth’s

Large image is assembled from

Infrared image of temperature variations in

surface temperature.

hundreds of different

the Adantic Ocean off the USA’s eastern coast Yellow: land areas where

satellite photographs.

Biosphere

Green: land areas

Between the atmosphere’s lowest

where vegetation

layers and the ocean floor is a rich

is most dense

diversity of life, from tiny ocean organisms called plankton to the largest trees and animals. Together, these organisms form the biosphere

Infrared

— the living part of the planet.

image of

Satellite images can help scientists

vegetation

understand the complicated links

and plankton

between living things and the Earth.

distribution

Gaia theory

Theories about the Earth

Search for another Earth

There have been many theories about the Earth that may seem

Astronomers have recendy detected signs of

British scientist James

strange to people today, but which were widely believed at the time.

the existence of planets beyond the Solar

Lovelock (b. 1919)

The ancient Egyptians, for example, thought that the Earth was a flat

System. Wobbles in the movements of the

square under a pyramid-shafjed sky, and people in medieval Europe

stars 47 Ursae Majoris, 70 Virginis, and 51

suggests that the Earth and

believed that it was the Sun that revolved around the Earth, and not

Pegasi suggest that they may be orbited by

all the lifeforms upon it

vice versa. Similarly, before

planets — perhaps even ones similar to the

function as if they were a

technology enabled scientists

single living organism. He

to understand more about

.

Hollow Earth

t

theory

Earth. Astronomers have found other stars with solar systems forming around them.

the interior of the Earth,

calls this “organism” Gaia,

people suggested that

The yellow-

after the Greek goddess of

the Earth was hollow.

and-red area may he

fertility. Like any other organism, he says, Gaia is

another solar People assumed

system forming

self-regulating, meaning

the Earth had a

around Beta

Greek statue of

that it will naturally

vast, empty core.

Pictoris. -

Gaia, 450

change its environment to

BC

Hidden lands and

False-colour

oceans, complete with

satellite image

even if humans make the Earth unfit for

plants and animals and

of the star

themselves by polluting it and using up its

warmed by a subterranean

Beta Pictoris,

Sun, were thought to lie

about 30 light

within the centre of the Earth

years away

maintain the right conditions for life —

limited resources.

Timeline

c.4,000 mya The crust

c.4,600 mya The Earth and the other

and mantle separate;

planets form as parts of a vast cloud of

rain begins to fall; the

hot gas and dust circling the Sun begin

atmosphere clears.

to cluster together.

C.440—400 mya Land-based plants and

c. 1,500 mya Protists, such as amoeba, are the

animals become widespread.

first complex living cells;

C.220 mva There is a single, vast land

later, protists join up to form sponges - the first

Gneiss rock

£.

3 goo mya The first

mass, now known as Pangaea, which

multi-celled organisms.

c.4,300 mya The Earth’s crust forms.

organisms are single-celled bacteria.

c.4,200 mya As the Earth cools, gas

c.3,000 mya The atmosphere becomes

variety of complex

bubbles and water vapour rise from the

oxygen-rich as ocean plants absorb

lifeforms develops in the

interior to form a cloudy atmosphere.

sunlight and release oxygen into the air.

Earth’s seas and oceans.

later breaks up into the smaller land

Sponge

masses we today call continents.

C.570 mya A huge

FIND OUT

MORE 280

Atmosphere

Continents

Earth SCIENCES

Elements

Fossils

Geology

c.200-70 mya The era of the dinosaurs. c. 100,000 ya First modern humans appear.

Magnetism

Prehistoric LIEE

Planets

Sun

EARTHQUAKES ,(

Earthquake zones Although earthquakes can occur anywhere, rhey are more frequenr in earthquake zones.

to terrifying and violent movements in the Earth, earthquakes From a gentle ripple

These zones, such as Japan and California, lie near the moving margins of the tectonic plates,

literally rock the world. Earthquakes are tremors in the ground, created by the sudden movement of tectonic plates — huge slabs of rock that make up the Earths crust. The majority of earthquakes are so gentle that no one notices them, but some are so violent they destroy whole cities. An earthquakes effect and intensity are measured on different scales. In earthquakeprone countries, planning minimizes the damage earthquakes cause.

Earthquake zones

called fault lines.

What is an earthquake? Tectonic plates usually slide past each other, but sometimes they get stuck together. The stress on the rocks builds up until they fault (crack). The tectonic plates then jolt past each other, sending shock waves through the ground. These vibrations, known as seismic waves, cause the earth to quake.

Destruction diminishes as

Epicentre

shock waves travel away

The point at which an

from the epicentre,

The Mercalli scale rares an earrhquake

earthquake occurs is known as

recording less on the

Earthquake that

according ro irs effect on a scale of 1-XII;

the focus. Above the focus is

Richter scale.

causes small object

a swinging lighr bulb measures I; extensive

the epicentre - the point on

to fall rates V on

strucrural damage measures XII.

the Earths surface where the

the Mercalli scale

effects of an earthquake are

Eolds form in the

most devastating. The focus

ground as the

may be as much as 700 km

Earth moves. Epicentre

(185 miles) below the epicentre. In 1985, an earthquake in Mexico City, with its epicentre in the Pacific Ocean, left 9,500 people dead. It measured 8.1 on the Richter scale.

Seismometer Seismometers show seismic waves, and measure an earthquakes locadon and intensity on the Richter scale. The height of each line shows the wave’s force. Reading from Kobe, japan

Tsunami These are huge waves precipitated when an earthquake or volcanic eruption shakes the sea floor. Tsunamis roll along the ocean floor as fast as a jet plane. When they reach shallow coastal waters, they rear up into water ridges about 30 m (100 ft) high. Many The Richter scale

tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean, such as the one in Hawaii, 1964 (left).

measures rhe force of an earrhquake on a scale from 1—10. raken from seismograph readings

Earthquake proofing

of the seismic waves. Each figure

Technology cannot prevent earthquakes but it can help

rhan rhar of rhe nexr lowesr figure.

Eorus Shock waves radiate

represents a force 10 rimes grearer

outwards in circles from focus.

limit their damage, particularly in building design. Most loss of life is caused not by the shaking ground, but by

Timeline

1883 Krakaroa Island

1964 Earrhquake

1995 Kobe, cenrral

the collapse of buildings and roads,

1556 Reporrs of an

destroyed bv earrh¬

in Alaska generares a

Japan, is devastated

and fires started by damage to

earthquake in the

quake and rsunami.

rsunami, which causes

by an earthquake.

damage as far away as

region of Shaanxi,

electrical equipment.

California, USA.

China. Almost a

1906 Quake flarrens

million deaths.

San Francisco, USA.

1755 Lisbon, Portugal,

1964 Alaska hir by a

buildings and srrucrures, such as rhis staircase

is destroyed by an

very severe earrhquake,

in California, USA, bend rarher than break

earrhquake and rhe

measuring 9.2 on rhe

1990 In Iran 40,000

Gujarar, India, leaves

during an earthquake. Mounting foundations

subsequenr flood.

Richter scale.

people die in quake.

30,000 people dead.

Building design

absorb some of the earthquake shocks.

200,000 homeless.

1976 Earrhquake in

Pyramid-shap>ed, curved, and fire-resisranr

on rubber also helps

1999 Turkish quake kills 20,000 and makes

China kills 255,000. 2001 Earrhquake in

_

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Building and CONSTRUCTION

Continents

Earth

Geology

Ocean

ELOOR

Radar AND SONAR

281

EARTH SCIENCES

Branches of Earth sciences The term Earth sciences has been used since the

Fossils provide clues to the ages of rocks;

the atmosphere provides clues to tomorrows weather. Amongst others, these elements are studied within the discipline of Earth sciences. This is the study of the planet s physical characteristics, from volcanoes to raindrops. The different branches of Earth

1970s. It covers the range of subjects that were previously bracketed under the term “physical geography”. Although each of the Earth sciences is a distinct study focusing on one aspect of the Earth, each is also a key element of the inter-related study of Earth sciences.

sciences cover all of the Earths dynamic systems, apart from life forms, which are studied within biology. Knowledge about the Earths history and formation also informs us about its needs, which will help ensure the Pebbles

future survival of the planet.

Geology The oldest branch of the Earth

Palaeontology

sciences, geology is the study of the

Fossils, the remains of once living

Earths history, structure, and make¬

organisms preserved in sedimentary

up. Although it centres on rocks

rock, are studied within the btanch of

and the composition of the Earth’s

Earth science called palaeontology.

ctust, geology also relates to the

From fossils, scientists can wotk out the

othet Earth sciences, except for meteorology.

ages of rocks and develop a picture of the history of plant and animal life on Earth over billions of years.

Volcanology The study of volcanoes, and the reasons why they erupt, is Earth sciences cover many

known as volcanology. It may

different areas of study.

Fossil of a

involve volcanologists working

sea creature

close to an erupting volcano. The scientists wear special clothing to protect them from

Geomorphology

gas. heat, and Hying lava bombs. Volcanic

TTie study of landforms

bombs

and the processes that shape them is known as geomotphology. It

Meteorology

includes landfotms

The atmosphere is studied

tanging from mountains

within the discipline of

and valleys to rivers and

Oceanography

Geography

meteorology. This focuses

glaciers, and the effects

The study of the oceans is called

TTiis is the study of the Eanh’s

on the processes that

of different shaping

oceanography. It covers ocean

surface. Human geography looks

make the weather, and

processes upon them,

chemistry, the ocean bed and

at world patterns of human activity;

on weather forecasting.

such as the erosion

curtents (shown above by

physical geography studies the

Climatology is the study

caused by weathering.

satellite), and marine life.

Earth’s physical environment.

of weather patterns.

Surveying the Earth

Earth resources

Earth scientists can learn very little about

The Earth provides all the materials we need for living,

Squid

the Earth from laboratory studies. Instead,

from the food we eat and the water we drink, to the bricks

they must make observations, collect

we use for building. Earth sciences help us to identify the

data, and test their theories in the

location of these resources. They also show what damage

outside world — this may mean climbing

we may be doing to them by exploiting them thoughtlessly.

mountains or braving earthquakes.

Air

Food

Satellite photography has provided a vast

We need air to breathe virtually every second of our

Food is provided by things

new source of data, but most information

lives. However, this vital resource is becoming

living on the Earth’s surface.

continues to come from field work.

increasingly damaged bv human pollution.

These depend on the mineral resources, water,

Tourmaline

Survey equipment

gemstone

Eanh scientists some¬

From metal for cars to nearly everything we

times need to use

f

and air provided by

concrete for buildings,

the Earth.

Water All forms of life are

Energy'

make comes from the

dependent on water.

Ninety per cent of the energy

minerals or chemicals

Patterns of human

we use comes from a finite

equipment helps to

taken from the Earth’s

activity are controlled by

supply of minerals - oil, coal,

monitor the move¬

crust. Gems are another

the need to be near a

and gas — extracted from

ment of earthquakes.

of its rich resources.

source of clean water.

the Earth’s crust.

specific survey equipment. This laser

HND OUT

MORE 282

Minerals

UN

Climate

Earth

Fossils

Geology

Oceans AND seas

Rocks and MINERALS

Volcanoes

i'

Weather

ECHOES see SOUND • ECHOLOCATION see RADAR AND SONAR

ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS

Communities Wildlife communities exist almost everywhere you look, on land, in rivers, and in the oceans. A typical community contains a mixture of plants, various animals that feed on them or hunt one

^

another, and organisms that

No LIVING THING exists in isolation. It interacts with other living things and with its physical

burrow through the soil debris below.

Trees offer shelter fir

surroundings. The study of these relationships is called ecology. Ecologists consider all the organisms that live in one area

animals, and food in the firm of leaves, berries, seeds, and blossom.

Insects feeding on

as an inter-dependent community. All plants and animals rely on, and influence, vital factors in their environment, such as the supply of

flowers help to pollinate them.

nutrients, food, and water. A community and its environment is called an ecosystem.

Habitats The habitat of a species is

, ,

Mice eat seeds,

the surroundings in which

and are hunted by

it lives, including the

bipfer animals.

rocks, soils, water, and plants. Different habitats are suitable for different species and have a certain type of community.

I

a

Dense undergrowth

Most of the tadpoles that

Rotting wood is

Snails feed on the leaves I

As farm grow, they take

provides shelter for

hatch out from the frog

home to frungi and

of plants and are food

nutrients from the soil.

small animals.

spawn will he food for

invertebrates.

for some birds such as

other animals.

thrushes

'Frogs live in both land and water habitats.

Ecosystems An ecosystem contains several different

Biomes

wildlife communities and their habitat.

The biggest ecological units are biomes,

Ecologists use the term to mean all the

such as deserts, rainforests, and lakes, across

complicated interactions that take place

which similar climatic and other conditions

among living and non-living things in an area. The various components of

create similar ecosystems. The plants and

Grassland

animals may differ across a biome, but they

Grassland is normal in places where there is a long

the ecosystem include sunshine, water,

make up the same sort of communities with

dry season. It can support lots of grazing animals,

nutrients in the soil, bacteria, plants,

some preyed on by swift-running

and animals.

the same ecological features.

predators. The savannah of East Aftica is one of the best-known areas of grassland.

Fresh water Rainforests

Lake- and river-dwelling

In hot, humid climates,

communities include

dense fotests develop

floaring or submerged

that ate home to a huge

plants, freshwater plankton, and fish.

Seashores

Deserts

variety of animal life.

Battered by waves and

Cloud-free, dry climates

Tropical rainforests cover

Different species live in

flooded by tides, seashores

create deserts. These are

only 10 per cent of the

different parts of a river or

have few plants other than

home only to plants and

Eatths land surface, but

lake, depending on the

seaweeds. Animals include

animals that are able to

contain more than half

conditions that they

shellfish, rockpool fish,

cope with extremes of

of all animal and

tolerate. This is Bow Lake

and wading birds.

aridity and temperatute.

plant species.

in the Canadian Rockies.

283

ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS

Ecological interactions

Symbi OSIS

The components of an ecosystem interact with

When two species have a close relationship in which

each other in lots of different ways. Rain, for

both benefit, it is called symbiotic. Symbiosis often

example, provides water for plants. Plant growth

involves giving shelter in return for

and decay affect the form and content of soil.

protection or food, and it

Soil provides a home for worms, and worms,

occurs among all kinds

as they move about, change the

of organisms.

structure of the soil. Clownfish Puss moth larva

Clownfish find shelter

cuts and chews

among the stinging tentacles

leaves, using its

of sea anemones, which

jaws.

do not harm them. The fish may lure in other fish for

Shelter

the anemones

The cover and shelter that trees and vegetation

to consume.

provide offer much more security than bare, open ground. In a rainforest, the large trees provide

Food

toucans with shelter from the weather, a place

Clownfish

Perhaps the most obvious way in which living

where they can raise their young in relative safety,

stay where

species affect one another’s lives is by feeding.

and protection from predators.

they are protected.

Most things are food for something else. For Pollen sac

example, caterpillars eat leaves, but are themselves food for animals such as birds. The birds are food

Adaptation

for other animals, and so on up the food chain.

All plants and animals are specially suited to live Transport

^oney

in their particular habitat. How they become

Animals can move around whereas plants

suited, or adapted, is the key to evolution. How

cannot. Plants, therefore, use various -^

and where a species lives, how it gets its food,

methods that ensure animals carry their seeds and pollen, so that a new generation

what it eats, and how it interacts

of plants can develop and grow. Bumblebees carry pollen on their legs.

with others, is known as

Bumblebees

its ecological niche.

collea nectar with their tongue.

Cacti Parasitism

A cacrus has adapred in

Animals, plants, and fungi that live off

many ways ro desert life. For

other living things are called parasites.

example, its leaves have

Nearly all animals and plants are host to

adapted into spines, to prevent

parasites of some kind. A parasitic . Young

water from evaporaring too

relationship exists between a honey fungus

sttnkhom

-^Spines

and a tree. The fungus steals food from the

fungus

protect the

tree, usually harming it in the process.

swollen stem,

easily. When rain does fall, a cacrus srores as much warer as f>ossible in its stem.

Ecological change

Cycles in nature Nature automatically recycles the substances that are

Ecosystems do not always stay the same

vital for life. Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and water are

but may change over time. If an event

constantly being exchanged between the air, the soil,

changes the landscape, for

the oceans, and living things. If substances were not

example, high winds create a

continuously put back into the ecosystems to be used

clearing in a wood,

again, the supply for organisms would soon run out

first grasses and

and life would stop.

herbs grow, Carbon cycles

_

£f

■ ■

then shrubs

between living

—

and non-living

T ^

colonize the plot until

things^

trees take over once again.

The process of change from grassland to woodland is

Land erosion

called succession.

in Madagascar

Human impact People’s actions also change ecosystems and often the impact is so great that nature cannor repair rhe

Water cycle

Carbon cycle

damage. For example, poor farming rechniques

Warer lost by evaporarion from

Organisms release carbon dioxide

somerimes cause so much soil ro be eroded away

planrs. rivers, and seas, forms

inro rhe air. Carbon is also

from the land, that plants cannot get established

clouds in rhe armosphere. This

released when organisms decay,

and the vegetation can never recover.

falls back as rain, runs inro rivers

or when coal is burned. Planrs

and seas, and is soaked up from

absorb carbon from the air, which

rhe soil by rhe roors of planrs.

passes into animals that eat them.

284

FIND OUT

Animal

MORE

BEHAVIOUR

Evolution

Food webs AND CFIAINS

Pollution

Soil

ECOSYSTEMS see ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS

ECUADOR AND PERU Together Ecuador and peru form the

western side of equatorial South America, lying between Colombia to the north, Chile to the south, and Brazil and Bolivia to the east. The dominant influences in the west of the region were the Incas, who ruled until the 1500s, and the conquering Spaniards, who imposed their own culture and language. About 40 per cent of the population are mestizos, who are people of mixed blood resulting from intermarriage between Spaniards and Incas. Many Native Americans still live in remote Amazonian villages.

Physical features Lying on South Americas Pacific Coast, Ecuador and Peru are dominated by the jagged volcanic peaks of the Andes, whose eastern slopes descend to the hot, humid, tropical rainforest and wetlands of the Amazon Basin. To the west is the coastal strip. Peru’s coast is largely arid desert, but Ecuador’s coast is hot, swampy, or forested. Mount Cotopaxi A perfect cone capped with snow, Cotopaxi, 5,897 m (19,345 ft) is the worlds highest active volcano and Ecuador’s second highest peak. It lies in the Andes, which form the backbone of both Ecuador and Peru. Ecuador has 15 major volcanoes, ten of which are active. The whole region is shaken from time to time

Esmer.Udas . - Ibarra I t OLua

by earthquakes, which cause damage to cities.

Santo Comingo de los t plorados • Manta

Latacunga ^Portoviejo*

Montecristi •

Amazon Basin The steamy Amazon Basin occupies the eastern regions of Ecuador and Peru. The forest is not an uninterrupted mass of trees, but contains pockets of grassland and swamps. The headwaters of the Amazon originate in this region. Much of this area is disputed territory awarded to Peru in 1942.

Regional climate Ecuador is hot and

19°C (66°F)

humid along the coast, cool and fresh in the Andes, and hot with

581 mm

heavy rainfall in the

(23 in)

Amazon Basin. Peru has a more mixed climate. The coastal region is dry, and kept cool by the cold waters of the Peru Current. The western part of the Peruvian Andes is fairly dry, but the eastern Andes and tropical Amazonia have heavy rainfall.

Coca The Incas used to chew coca leaves to relieve fatigue and hunger. Today, in remote areas, coca is grown illegally

luiiac* ^

San Tu;

to produce the powerful and dangerous drug

10

o

latJtc liticaca \t more than 170 km (106 miles)

cocaine for supply to

^

c

c

the international drug

/

Mollendo

offering farmers money ,

. >ng. Lake Titicaca is South America’s drgest lake. The Uros people live here on islands that they make from the

11

trade. Governments are

•A

Moque

c

'I

4-

to destroy their coca

Tacna

•J C H

crops and grow bananas,

LE

Picking coca leaves,

cocoa, or coffee instead.

QuiUabamba, Peru

■■tora reed. They also make reed boats

285

ECUADOR AND PERU

Ecuador

People

Ecuador facts

Native Americans make up

_ The third smallest,

25 per cent and mestizos

most densely populated

Capital CITY Quito

more than 50 per cent of

independent country in South

Area 283,560 sq km (109,483 sq miles)

the population. The rest of

America, Ecuador is also one of the

the people are white, black,

Population

or Asian. More than 93 per

Main languages Spanish, Quechua

most geographically varied and

cent of the people are Roman

politically stable. Agriculture and

Catholic, although some

Major religion Christian Currency US dollar

people blend Catholicism

oil dominate the economy. About

12,500,000

with traditional beliefs.

1,000 km (630 miles) off Ecuador’s Pacific coast, the lonely Galapagos

Otavalo market

Islands, famous for their unique

The small town of Otavalo lies high in the Andes, north of the capital Quito.

wildlife, are part of the country.

Local Indians weave brightly coloured ponchos and rugs to sell at the famous

Quechua woman

Otavalo market, which dates from

gathering gladioli

pre-Inca times.

for market

Since the 1970s, oil, piped from the eastern lowlands, has been the mainstay of Ecuador’s economy and accounts for 40 per cent of exports. Other expons are balsa wood, shrimps, processed fish, and textiles. Most goods are exported via Guayaquil, Ecuador’s main port and largest city.

Panama hats Crops

Originally made in the 1800s

Beans, maize, and fjotatoes are the mam crops

in Ecuador, to protect the heads

grown in the Andes. Bananas, cocoa beans,

of travellers, panama hats are

rice, coflFee, oranges, and wheat are cultivated

constructed from the fibres of the

on the coast, mosdy for export. Roses,

Bold rug designs, often with

carnations, gladioli, and statice (sea

an animal theme, are woven

rolled up for packing — a good one

lavender) are grown for markets.

from homespun wool fibre.

will pass through a finger ring.

toquilla plant. A panama can be

Peru facts

Peru

n

Capital

Four hundred years ago,

Area

Peru was at the heart of

cm'

Lima

1,285,220 sq km (496,223 sq miles)

Population 25,700,000

the Inca Empire, ruins of which

Main languages Spanish,

still survive high in the Andes.

Quechua, Aymara

The country has great mineral

Major reugion Christian

resources, yet most Peruvians are Currency Nuevo sol (new sol)

poor farmers, growing potatoes, maize, rice, and cereals for their own use, and cotton and coffee for export. Political terrorism by the Maoist Shining Path group has Machu Picchu

forced military rule in some areas.

Peru’s greatest tourist attraction is the ruined

Fishing

Inca city of Machu Picchu in the Andes. The ruins,

The cold waters

hidden by dense forest vegetation, were discovered in

of the Peru coastal

1911, when American archaeologist Hiram Bingham

current bring rich nutrients

stumbled upon them, almost by accident. The ruins

that attract large numbers of pilchards, sardines, tuna, and other fish,

are made of stone and were built without mortar.

_ ' ^Sardines

making fishing a major industry in Peru. However, every few years, the arrival of the El Nino current raises the temperature of the water driving

People

away the fish and causing great hardship to the fishermen.

About half of

Mining

Peruvians are Native

Railways

American, and one-

Peru is a leading producer

third are mestizo. The

of copper, lead, tungsten,

most populated areas

silver, and zinc and has

are the highlands and

reserves of gold, iron

the coastal plain. Only

ore, and oil. However,

Peru has two unconnected railway networks —

five per cent of people

low world mineral

the Central and Southern Railroads — both of

live in the remote

prices and industrial

which go from the coast to the highlands. A

Amazon Basin areas,

problems have badly

branch of the Central Railroad linking Lima

including 70 Native

affected mining.

and Huancayo in the Andes reaches 4,818 m

American groups. Opencast lead

(15,806 ft) above sea-level, making it the Jivaro man

highest standard-gauge line in the world.

FIND OUT

MORE 286

Farming

Fishing industry

Incas

Native AMERICANS

Oil

mine in the Andes

Pacific OCEAN

Rocks and MINERALS

South America, HISTORY OF

Textiles AND WEAVING

Trains and railways

Volcanoes

EDDINGTON, ARTHUR see SUN AND SOLAR SYSTEM

Edison,

Early life

thomas

Edison was bom in 1847 _ "

One of the greatest inventors

of all time, Thomas

in a small town in Ohio, USA. His teachers thought he was stupid, so his mother taught him herself, inspiring

Alva Edison produced a number of inventions that changed the world - electric lighting, sound recording, and an early form of moving pictures, among many

his interest in science. In 1869, after moving to New York, he improved the “ticker”, a machine for relaying information

others. He had little formal schooling, but he was fascinated by

about the stock market. The machine earned him $40,000.

science. He worked extremely hard, and would spend days, months, or even years experimenting in order to make something work. He often slept fully clothed on

Organ, for experiments on sound

one of his worktables, so that he could start work again first thing in the morning.

Menlo Park In 1876, using the money from his stock

Research work

“ticker”, Edison built an “invention

At Menlo Park,

factory” at Menlo Park, 39 km (24 miles)

Edison would come up with rough ideas

from New York City. This barn-like two-

and sketches. These

storey building was the world s first

would be refined, built, and tested by his

research laboratory, where a staff of

assistants. They often had to

scientists helped Edison to develop his

build inventions again and

ideas into devices that actually worked.

again to find out why they did not work. Edison, when asked about his

In the six years that Edison worked at Menlo Park, he patented more than 400

Bench contains

success, stressed the importance of

Edison

chemicals and

these setbacks. “I failed my way to

watches to see

other scientific

different inventions.

success,” he said.

how strongly the bulb glows.

equipment.

Electric light

filament

Carbon y^UTWfJ

-1

Perhaps Edison’s most important

-i

invention was the electric lightbulb.

1

•

•

Uther mveiitions

Mouthpiece

cylinder

in his lifetime. He helped make

He saw that a bulb with a glowing

the first successful typewriter, a

thread or filament would work,

dictating machine,

using little electricity. It took him

and an improved

thousands of experiments before he

telephone mouthpiece.

discovered that the best material for

Recording

Edison patented 1,093 inventions

He came close to inventing

1

the filament was carbonized cotton thread. British scientist Joseph Swan

radio, and predicted the use of atomic power.

(1828-1914) invented a lightbulb at

Handle to

Edison’s phonograph

turn cylinder

the same time as Edison, and the

Patent drawing for

Phonograph

two men later joined forces.

the lightbulb

The phonograph, a device for recording and playing back sounds,

Carbon

Thomas Edison

was Edison’s favourite

filament

invention. He sketched

1847 Born, Milan, Ohio, USA.

the machine and gave it Swans electric

to an assistant to build. It

lightbulb

-

1869 Improves the “ticker”, for relaying prices on the stock market.

worked, but Edison did not

. Glass bulb

realize this because he had

Recording

poor hearing.

the voice

18'’6 Moves to Menlo Park. 1877 Creates the phonograph. 1877 Invents the carbon microphone,

Kinetoscope

Jti

11

Edison’s electric lightbulb

FIND OUT

MORE

Electricity

Lighting the city

In 1889, Edison invented

Having developed the lightbulb,

the kinetoscope, a

Edison went on to create a

projector with a

complete electric lighting system,

peepshow-type viewer to

powered by a central generator.

go with it. Kinetoscopes

His first power plant opened in

were installed in special

1882, serving 85 satisfied

viewing parlours in the

customers. Soon, whole cities

USA, and customers paid

were lit with electricity.

to watch short films.

Film and filmmaking

Inventions

Physics

Science, history of

for use in telephone mouthpieces. 1879 Patents the electric lightbulb. 1882 Power switched on at the Pearl Street generating station. New York. 1883 Edison and Swan form an electric company. 1889 Invents the kinetoscope. 1931

Dies, aged 84.

Sound RECORDING

Technology

287

EDUCATION

Early education In prehistoric times, elders taught children the survival skills they needed, such as how

For a society to survive

and progress, each

to hunt or make fire. As civilizations

generation must pass its knowledge, skills, and values on to the next. This process is called education. Passing on knowledge is so vital that most countries have

developed and writing was invented, formal institutions of learning — schools — were created so that some people could learn to read and write.

established formal systems of education for teaching children, by sending them to schools and colleges.

The ancient world As happens today, education in the ancient world teflccted the states needs and attitudes. In warlike

Throughout our lives we are also educated informally, by parents, friends, or the media. Education provides society with doctors, teachers, and scientists; gives

Spana, for example, education was geared towards producing good soldiers. Throughout the ancient wotld and medieval Europe, women and the poor did not have the same

industry a capable workforce; and helps maintain law and order by instructing people in social values.

acccess to education enjoyed by the male, ruling classes. Teacher and pupil, RomanoGermanic period

Theories of education

r

Types of education

Some theories state that people learn by practice; others, that pupils must

Different types of education cater for different

work things out themselves in order to

needs. The best-known example is the general

learn; and some suggest that pupils

(5

education that schools and colleges provide, in

learn by following their emotional

subjects such as reading, writing, and arithmetic.

needs and acquiring the skills and knowledge to fulfil them. Most people

Vocational

probably learn in all three ways.

Vocational education prepares people for specific jobs; it is

■I I Beads in number units

available through courses at school, or training at The child learns basic

specific colleges. Skills ot

arithmetic skills by creative

crafts are also passed

play with special, three-

on informallv,

dimensional equipment.

perhaps from parent to child, when a trade

The Montessoti system

Mother

is passed on from one

of education stresses

teaches sewing

that every child wants

skills to children.

generation to the next.

to learn. Children freely

Adult education

choose for themselves what and when to study.

Multiplication board

Adult education is for those who, although not full-time students, choose to continue

Table manners are

Socialization

an asp)ect of their education,

a learnt form of

The first form of education a child

or learn something new.

social behaviour.

The courses keep adults up-to-date, improve job

receives starts from birth, by his or her

prospects, and bring

immediate carers. Known as socialization,

Learning computer skills

it includes not only learning such basic skills as speaking, but also teaches the child

Special needs

how society expects that he or she should

Wealthy nations can affotd to provide some schools

behave. The child learns from instruction,

where education is tailoted

and by imitating others. Socialization also takes place at school, and through

to the special needs of certain children, such as the

^

physically challenged, ot the

cultural influences such as television.

Maria Montessori

Disabled boy learns sailing skills.

Timeline

1524 German priest Martin

1763 Ptussians introduce

1945 World War II ends:

Luther (1483-1546) advocates

compulsory schooling

with the desire to build a

C.3500 BC Sumerians

education be made available for

from the ages of 5 to 13.

invent writing.

all, so that everyone is able to

The Italian educationist Maria Montessori (1870— 1952) developed teaching

highly-gifted.

read the Bible.

methods that encouraged

better world, many countries reform school

1899 US educatot John

systems to make secondary

Dewey(1859-1952)

education available to all.

children to work things

3rd century BC Greek

out fot themselves through

thinker Plato

practical activity, rather

347BC) proposes that

Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Society, an influential

1990s Education is fully

than simply obeying

education should be

argues education should

analysis of the social

recognized as vital to social

run by the state.

prepate children to be adults.

fimetion of education.

and economic growth.

instructions. She developed

(427BC-

1762 French philosopher Jean

publishes School and

her ideas while working with children with learning difficulties.

FIND OUT

MORE 288

Crime

Schools AND COLLEGES

Societies

Trade and INDUSTRY

Writing

EDWARD 1 see CASTLES • EELS see MIGRATION ANIMAL

EGGS

Types of egg Some eggs are so small that they can be seen only under a microscope; others are as big and

Many kinds of animal,

from earthworms

heavy as a coconut. Animals that live in water

and insects to fish and birds, reproduce by laying eggs. An egg is a single living cell complete with a supply of food. After the egg

usually lay jelly-like eggs. Animals that live on land, such as insects, reptiles, and birds, lay eggs with a hard or leathery shell. The shell helps to stop an egg drying out.

is laid, the cell starts to divide, and gradually a young animals body takes shape. When the animal is ready to start life in the world outside, it breaks out of the egg, or hatches. There is a great variety of eggs — large and small, with shells and without. Some animals lay just a few eggs each time and look after them carefully. Others lay thousands or millions of eggs and leave them to develop on their own.

Packages When cockroaches and ptaying mantises

\ Cockroach

lay their eggs, they sutround them

eggpackagi contains

with a special froth. The froth dries

16 eggs.

and hardens, forming a package like a tiny putse. This package protects the eggs, and the female carties it

•'‘'1

around on the end of het abdomen until the eggs are ready to hatch. lr>i

Mermaids’ purses Sharks lay some of the most unusual eggs. Instead of being round, their

Eggs in strings

Leopard geckos egg

eggs can be flat, or even spiral.

Eggs without a shell

The common toad lays

Frogs’ eggs do not have

eggs like those of frogs, but

a shell. Instead, they are

they are laid in strings up

Lizards and many other

surrounded by a layer of

to 3 m (10 ft) long. As the

reptiles have eggs with a

Chalky

jelly. The jelly swells up

female lavs the eggs, she

leathery shell. Unlike

The shell around

with which the

when the eggs are laid,

winds them around

amphibians, reptiles can lay

birds’ eggs is reinforced with a substance

dogfish anchots

forming a floating mass

underwater plants. The

their eggs in dry places,

like chalk. To hatch, most young birds

the eggs to

that can be more than

tadf>oles hatch after about

because the shell helps keep

peck open their shell, but some kick

underwatet

30 cm (12 in) across.

two weeks.

the inside of the egg moist.

their way out.

plants.

Egg development

A bird’s egg is divided into two main areas — the white and the yolk.

Egg clutches

After an egg has been laid, a

The white is made of a substance called albumen It stotes watet and

young animal starts to

Dogfish, which are American robin’s egg

Leathery eggs

small sharks, lay eggs called “mermaids’ purses”.

eggs

Leatherhead’s egg

Development of a bird s egg

These have long tendrils

Some animals, such as queen termites, lay

cushions the developing chick from any sudden jolts. The yolk

a steady stream of eggs, but most animals

contains a store of food, which the chick uses up as it develops.

develop inside it. With some

produce eggs in groups called clutches. The

insects, such as the house¬

number of eggs in a clutch is closely linked

fly, this can take less than a

to their size. For example, a wandering

day, but with birds it may

albatross has very big eggs, but it produces

take more than a month.

only one egg every two years. By contrast,

Eggs develop more quickly

a sunfish has tiny eggs, but it releases

if they are warm, and most

millions each time it breeds.

birds keep their eggs warm by sitting on them. This is

I

When the egg has just been

2

laid, the part that will become

called incubation.

Within a day, cells in the spot start to divide to fotm an

the chick looks like a tiny pale

embrvo. A network of blood

spot. It lies on the uppet surface

vessels fans out over the volk and

of the volk.

supplies the embrvo with food.

3,000,000

Mallee fowl Instead of sitting on its eggs, the Austtalian mallee fowl buties them in a huge compost heap that it makes out of dead leaves. Heat from the giant heap keeps the eggs warm.

FIND OUT

MORE

Anim.\l BEHAVIOLR

3

Three das s after the egg was

4

Common After seven davs, the embrvo

fast. Its eves start to fotm, and

special bag has formed to collect its

tiny buds grow that will soon

waste. In thtee weeks, the chick’s

develop into wings and legs.

development will be complete.

Birds

Fish

pheasant

has become a chick, and a

laid, the embrvo is growing

Frogs \ND TOADS

Insects

Mammals

8-15

Nests and burrovcs

Reptiles

Sharks AND RAYS

289

passerine

Jamaican tody eggs arc almost spherical and have an extremely thin shell. Plains

Glossy ibis eggs are

'

wanderer lays

Black shouldered kite

Willow grouse eggs are

eggs in a grass-

eggs often have marks

Cuira cuckoo eggs are, unusually for cuckoos,

laid on the ground where

lined hollow.

concentrated at one end

incubated by the parents.

they are camouflaged.

not camouflaged.

Limpkin eggs are camouflaged to blen( in with dead leaves of waterside plants. Common guillemot eggs are sharply pointed.

Nacunda nightjar eggs

Prairie chicken lavs up to

Southern cassowary eggs have a grainy

Manila nightjar lays its

Elegant tinamou eggs

have brown blotches.

16 eggs in each clutch.

surface created bv raised bumps.

eggs on bare ground.

have a glossv sheen.

Paradise riflebird eggs have dark

Scarlet minivet

Black-capped

eggs have

mockingth rush's

variable

eggs are mottled

panerns.

with red spots.

streaks that look like brush marks.

Black and yellow grosbeaks eggs have streaks that mav help to

Cetti’s warbler

Bokmakierie

Cape crow eggs have

eggs arc

eggs are blue

a large amount of red

Black-headed weaver eggs

break up

spots or speckles on them.

are laid inside a woven nest

the outline.

reddish-brown

290

with red spots.

EGYPT see AFRICA. EAST

EGYPT,

ANCIENT

3,000-year-old bread

River Nile

found in a tomb

The River Nile was the lifeblood

Pomegranate

of the whole region. Every year the

About 5,000 years ago, the great

river flooded, depositing dark silt

civilization of ancient Egypt grew up

on the banks. This silt made the

on the banks of the River Nile. It lasted virtually unchanged for 3,000 years. During this time the Egyptians built the first large stone buildings, invented one of the earliest forms of writing, and created a cult of the dead unlike anything known in any other culture. This cult involved preserving dead bodies, and burying them

soil fertile and, because of this, most Egyptians lived by the river. When the Nile flooded and work in the fields was impossible, many people helped on the great royal

The Egyptians cultivated wheat and barley, from which they made bread

building projects, such as the

and brewed beer. The hot climate

Great Pyramid at Giza. Mediterranean Sea

also allowed them to grow many different kinds of fruit, including Nile delta

figs, dates, pomegranates, and grapes.

with their possessions. As a result, people today know a great deal about the ancient Egyptians.

Egyptian travelling boat, C.2000 BC

Tilling the soil Egyptian farmers used a

Models of everyday activities,

l^tweight plough pulled

such as tilling the soil, were

bv oxen. The plough had

often found in tombs.

a wooden blade and a push boat

handle so that the farmer

ojfsandbank

could steer it, and was effective enough to cut

a furrow in the light

Sailing boats

Egyptian soil.

The Nile was the main highway of Egypt. Wooden boats carried passengers and heavy cargo up and down the river Water transport

Egyptian farmer,

Extent of

c.2000 BC

floodpla,

was espcciallv useful for heavy loads, such as stones for the pyramids. Egyptian boat-builders were among the first to attach sails to their craft.

Pharaohs

Rameses II

Gods

Ancient Egypt was ruled by kings

Ramescs 11 (r. 1304-1237 BC)

The Egyptians

called pharaohs. The pharaohs had

was famous for his military

believed in many

absolute power, and the Egyptians

campaigns and great building projects. He defended

different gods. Some

believed that they joined the gods

Egypt against the

in the next world when they died.

Hittites, signing a

represented each

For this reason, the Egyptians took

peace treaty with

district of Egypt.

special care when burying their pharaohs, mummifying them and building splendid tombs.

them. His many buildings included the mortuary complex at Thebes on

were local gods, who

Others had more general powers, such as Thoth, the god of wisdom

Anubis,

Ajnun-re,

Osiris, the

Bast,

the god

king of

god of the

the cat

of death

the gods

underworld

goddess

Pharaohs court

the west

A pharaoh was surrounded by officials, high

bank of the

Temples

priests, and ambassadors, all of whom helped

Nile, and

Karnak at Thebes was the greatest of

him run the kingdom. TTic court was also the

the Abu

the Egyptian temples. Temples were

home of entertainers and the women of the royal

Simbel

run by priests, who maintained the

harem. The pharaoh and courtiers lived in great

temple.

building and left offerings for the

luxury. They took pride in their apf)earance,

gods. The most imfwnant temples had

dressing in fine linen. Tlie women used black

large estates and rich treasuries,

eye make-up, and had elaborate hairstyles.

so high priests were very pKJwerftil.

Timeline

2650 BC Step Pyramid

2500s BC Largest

3000 BC Ancient

of Zoser is built at

of the pyramids

Kingdom begins.

Egyptian civili¬

Saqqara. It is the first

is built for

Funerary (funeral)

zation begins: earlv

pvramid and the first

Khufu at Giza.

customs spread

Dvnastic Period.

large-scale stone structure.

2100 BC Middle

from royalty to other classes.

The two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egvpt are united under Narmer.

Saqqara

J J

291

EGYPT, ANCIENT

Mummification Ancient Egyptians believed in life after

Book of the Dead

Making a mummy

This is a scries of prayers, written on papyrus, that were

The Egyptians first removed the

meant to help the dead person travel to the next world.

organs, and dried out the body

death. They thought that people had a

with natron. They filled the bodv with sawdust or dry leaves, then

spirit as well as a body, and that for the

wrapped the body in bandages.

person to live in the next world, the spirit had to be reunited with the body. They

Plate to cover the

Embalming

therefore preserved the body of the dead

cut in the body

tools

person in the form of a mummy. Mummy cases The Egyptians placed the mummy inside a cofFin or case, and put a cover on top. By the time of the Middle Kingdom (c.2100-1550 BC), they used two coffins to give

The Weighing of the Heart

added protection from tomb robbers and animals. The

ceremony where the dead

Thoth, the god of wisdom, writes details of the persons

coffins were decorated with writing, images of the gods,

person is judged by the gods,

actions when alive.

and sacred amulets, or lucky charms.

Dish of natron, a natural salt used to dry out the body.

Unwrapjjed mummy, The body s organs were placed

showing how well

in containers called Canopic jars.

preserved the body is.

Writing

Daily life

Ancient Egyptians developed a complex system of

For most Egyptians, life consisted of hard work in the fields, and

writing, called hieroglyphics, in which simple pictures

on the great building projects. They ate mainly vegetables and

represented objects. Some pictures also stood for letters.

bread, and drank beer. High officials and royal

Ideas that were too

courtiers lived a much more leisurely life. Hieroglyphs and hieratic script

complicated to be

Hieroglyphs were slow to write, so the

shown by one

Egyptians used them mainly for sacred texts

picture were

and tomb carvings. Thev used another, faster

written as groups

script, called hieratic, for business and literary texts. Later, thev insented a thiid

of hieroglyphs.

script, called demotic Hieroglyphs

Hieratic script ^ \ Royal door plate inscribed with the name of Amenhotep.

Work

Rosetta Stone Fot hundteds of years, no one could read

Houses

hieroglyphs. Then, in 1799, a stone slab

Ancient Egyptians built houses ol sun-dried

producing their own food. Others

called the Rosetta Stone was discovered.

mud-bricks. They covered the walls with

were craft workers, making items for

It contained the same text in hieroglyphs,

smooth plaster. Small, high windows let in

the home from wood, pottery, and

demotic, and Greek. Scholars could read

the breeze, but kept out the sun. The house

metal. Their tools, such as saws and

and understand Greek, so they could

pictured above belonged to a royal official,

chisels, were very similar to the hand

work out the meaning of the hieroglyphs.

and had a garden with fiuit trees.

tools used bv craftworkets today.

Most ancient Egyptians worked at

1550 BC New

13'"9-63 BC Reign

1363-52 BC

1304-1237 BC

Kingdom founded.

of Akhenaten. This

Brief reign of

Reign of Rameses 11,

Height of Egyptian

pharaoh, with his

Tutankhamun, who

who builds Abu

civilization.

queen. Nefertiti,

restored the old

Simbel.

encourages realistic

gods but is most

1503-1482 BC Reign

art, and changes

famous for the

of Queen Hatshepsut.

Egyptian teligion by

riches discovered

She sends expeditions

banning all gods

in his tomb.

to the mysterious land

except the sun god.

of Punt to buy incense.

FIND OUT

MORE 292

30 BC Death of Cleopatta VI1; the Romans take over

Nefertiti

Building and CONSTRUCTION

Farming, history of

Gods and GODDESSES

Hittites

Pyramids

Writing

Ancient Egyptian amulets Funerary amulets

Set-square amulets

■I

Steps amulet.

Cartouches,

symbolizing the stairs

containing names

on Osiris's throne.

of the dead.

Rnger amulets were placed on

Winged-heart scarab,

cuts made in the body during

made from faience,

n

Obsidian head-rest amulets.

Rising sun amulet,

Shen amulet,

used by ancient Egyptians

made from cornelian

symbolizing

instead of pillows.

eternity

t • • Scarabs, sacred dung beetles that represented rebirth after death.

embalming.

columns

Wedjat eyes, representing the eye of the god Horus were placed on mummies to protect their health.

Sons of Horus amulets guarded the canopic jars, which held

Djed pillars, amulets representing the backbone of Osiris,

Soul-bird amulet

the vital organs removed from a mummy.

were thought to give the mummy strength after death.

Ushabti figures Aah-mes, a clerk of the

Crown

works in the Temple of

Ceremonial

Amen

beard

Calcite (alabaster)

Egyptians believed that ushabtis came to life to work far

Painted

the mummy in

limestone

\ the afterlife. , This ushabti dates from c. 1500 BC. Rensenb

Pharaoh Seti 1

Heteti

Unnamed ushabti

Mummy with amulets

Pharaoh Merenptah Heart scarab

Ushabti figure

EHRILCH, PAUL see DRUGS

m

EINSTEIN, ALBERT 7o

Early life Einstein was born in Ulm, Germany, and studied in Switzerland

a scientific genius who changed the way we view our universe. In 1905,

Albert EINSTEIN was

me

before graduating from Zurich’s Institute of Technology in 1900. He did not fit in at

he united space and time in one mathematical description. Ten years later he proposed a complete theory of gravity that explained how the universe works, relating mass and energy in

school because he asked many difficult questions, and could get no work until he found a job in the Patent

the famous equation E = mc^. Many people doubted his theories,

Office in Bern in 1902.

but later investigation has since proved Einsteins theories to have been correct. As well as transforming the science of physics, Einsteins work paved the way for the creation of nuclear weapons.

Moving clocks Light beam

Light

sent by device

bounces off

time taken by light, moving at

theory, time measured by

on floor.

mirror on

constant speed, to go along train,

a moving clock will run

acts as one “tick" of the clock.

slower than if measured

, ceding.

1

Train acts as "light clock"— the

According to the special

by a stationary clock. This can be demonstrated by

Special Theory of Relativity

light beams carried on a train travelling at nearly

In the early 1900s, Einstein developed the Special Theory

the speed of light. A

of Relativity. This says that time is relative: it passes

person on the train sees the light travel a short

differently for individuals, depending on how fast or slowly

distance; an observer on

they move. The faster anything travels, the

the platform sees it travel

slower time seems to pass. If one person

further because of the

travels into space close t6 the speed of light

train's movement.

and another stays on Earth, time passes Train has moved still

slower for the person in space. On their return, the person on Earth will be older.

emitted from device on floor

This light

This light represents a

represents a pulsar..

neutron star

Woman sees

Train has moved forward by

further by time light beam

long “tick".

time light beam hits mirror.

hits detector on floor.

General Theory of Relativity

Making waves Scars in a binary pulsar totate

Einstein developed the General Theory of

round each other. As they move, they make waves in space. The

Relativity that explained gravity and the nature These lines The twin stars make a double

represent ^

dent in spacetime.

waves carry energy from the

of space. He explained that as light travels the

stars, causing the stars to slow

peaks and

shortest path through space, when it bends

troughs in

space must be curved. Planets that travel round

rate that a pulsar slows in its

gravitioiul

the Sun are thus following as straight a path as

orbit exactly matches Einstein’s

down as they lose energy. The

theory, though the first pulsar

possible through curved space.

was not discovered until 1968.

Ripples in space Einstein’s theory predicted that objects jiggling around in space - such as two stars in a binary pulsar system — would make ripples in space. These ripples can be detected as gravitational waves. Subsequent experiments have proved Einstein’s theory correct.

Stars rotate anti-clockwise

Mileva Einstein

Neutron star moves

Stars’ piositions change in

Stars continuously

around pulsar.

relation to observer.

swap places.

Einstein married his first wife Mileva, a mathematician and

Albert Einstein

Political life

The bomb

scientist in 1903. They had a daughter and two sons. Mileva

In 1933, Einstein moved

feared that Nazi Germany would

to America to avoid

use nuclear weapons in war, so he

worked closely with her husband and helped with his research,

In the late 1930s, Einstein

wrote to US president Franklin D.

though to what degree she in¬

Nazi persecution as a

fluenced his work is unknown.

Jew, and campaigned

USA to begin constructing atomic

They were divorced in 1919.

for a Jewish state.

weafwns to counter this threat.

Roosevelt in 1939, urging the

1879 Born in Ulm, Germany. 1896-1900 Studies at Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland. 1902-9 Works in Patent Office, Bern, Switzerland. 1905 Obtains doctorate: writes

He realized that his

Special Theory of Relativity.

theories made possible

1914 Moves to Berlin.

the creation of

1915 Writes General Theory of Relativity.

nuclear weapons, but campaigned against such weapons after

1921 Awarded Nobel Prize for Physics.

World War II. In 1952, he was offered the presidency of Israel, but declined the offer.

Explosion of atomic bomb

1933 Moves to the USA. 1952 Offered presidency of Israel.

Mileva and her son Hans Albert

FIND OUT

MORE 294

Nuclear powtr

Physics

Science, history of

World war ii

1955

Dies in Princeton, USA.

BLAST ICITY see SOLIDS • ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE see MEDIEVAL EUROPE

ELECTRICITY A FLASH OF LIGHTNING is striking evidence of the Ammeter measures invisible energy called current from battery. electricity. This

Electric circuit

Electric current

The path around which current electricity

of a circuit form an electric current

Electrons pushed through the wires

The push on the electrons is called

flows is called a circuit. In the circuit

electromotive fotce (e.m.O- Voltage

shown here, electricity from the battery

is a measure of e.m.f. The greater

lights the bulbs. Two bulbs connected one

the voltage, the more current flows

after the other are described as being “in

through the circuit.

series”. Bulbs in separate branches of the

Metal wire.

Insulation

circuit are said to

energy is produced by the movement of electrons — tiny particles

be “in parallel”. Bulbs in series have to share the voltage,

Electrons flow from

so they glow dimly.

found in atoms of matter. Every electron

negative charge to positive. Positive terminal (+)

Battery

A battery is a source

carries an identical negative electric “charge”.

of electric current.

Ammonium chloride

A chemical reaction

paste

between materials in the banety separates

When electric charge builds up in one place, it is called

electrons from their atoms. The battery’s

parallel

e.m.f makes electrons

gets the full

static electricity. If the charge flows from place to place, it

flow out of the

voltage and

negative terminal,

glows brightly.

around a circuit, and back to the

is called current electricity.

positive tetminal.

Static electricity

Generator

Rubbing two materials together can transfer electrons

Most of the electricity used in homes and factories

from one material to the other. A material that loses

is produced by devices called generators. Inside a

electrons gains a positive charge of static electricity, and

generator, coils of wire spin rapidly in a magnetic field. The magnetism moves electrons through the

a material that gains electrons gets a negative charge.

wire, creating an electric current. In this simple version, bar magnets produce the magnetic field. Voltmeter

Coil of wire wrapped

measures voltage

around wooden block

Electricity supply Electric current produced by

of current. Electrical

Bar

Spinning the

genetators in power stations

magnet

coil generates

reaches consumers via cables

connection

a current.

buried underground or carried

Attracting and repelling

Lightning

A positivelv charged balloon attracts

A tremendous charge of

electrons to the surface of nearby hairs,

static electricity builds up

Simple

that it changes direction many

giving them a negative charge. Opposite

inside a storm cloud. A flash

electricity

times each second. A battery

charges attract, so the haits are pulled

of lightning occurs when this

generator

produces direct curtent, which

towards the balloon. Charges of the

charge is suddenlv released as

same type repel (push each other awav).

a fwwerfiil electric current.

Steel is a good conductor.

by tall towers called pvlons. The current alternates, which means

flows in one direction only.

Plastic blocks current.

Circuit breakers

Electricity in the home

cut off the

Separate circuits in the home

electricity if

supply different voltages fot

Conductors

Insulators

the voltage gets

diffetent purposes. An electrical

Cutrent can flow only

Current cannot flow

dangerously high.

appliance takes power from the

through materials called

through insulators.

conductors, whose

The electrons in an

electrons are bound

insulator are bound

circuits through a plug that fits into a wall socket. The sockets

loosely to their atoms

firmly to their atoms

and can be moved easily

and cannot move

through the material.

through the material.

Michael Faraday In 1831, the English scientist Michael Faraday (1791—1867) built the fitst generator after noticing that moving a magnet in and out of a wire coil made a current flow through the wire. Faraday also invented the electric motor and pioneered

Meter records

are linked to the ground outside

how much

Main

electricity is

circuit

consumed.

bv an earth wire. If an electrical fault occuts, the curtent is diverted safely into the ground.

Timeline

1752 American scientist

1831 American

1868 French chemist

500s BC The ancient

and politician Benjamin

physicist Joseph Henrv

Georges Leclanche invents the Leclanche cell,

Greeks discover

Franklin proves that

and English Michael

static electticity

lightning is an electtical

Faraday independently

the foretunner of modem

when they notice

phenomenon.

build “induction

zinc-carbon baneries.

coils” — the first

that amher (fossili7ed tree sap) attracts

\~'99 Italian physicist

small objects if

Charged amber

Alessandro Volta

rubbed with wool

attracting feather

makes the first banery.

electricity generators.

1897 English physicist Joseph John Thomson

Volta’s battery

discovers the electron.

electrolysis (using electricity to break down substances). FIND OUT

MORE

Acids and

Electromagnetism

Energy

Friction

Magnetism

Storms

ALKALIS

295

ELECTROLYSIS see CHEMISTRY • ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM see X-RAYS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

ELECTROMAGNETISM

Connections to battery— Compasses show magnetic field

At the flick of a switch, an invisible force turns the drum of a washing machine 1,600 times every

around coil.. Clamp

second. This force is called electromagnetism. It is a form of magnetism

Solenoid A coil ot current-carrying wire

produced by electricity. When an electric current

forms a type of electromagnet called a solenoid. The magnetic

flows through a wire, it produces a magnetic field around the wire. Making the wire into a

field around the coil is the same as that around an ordinary bar magnet. The field s strength depends on the number of turns

coil increases the strength of the magnetic effect. Winding the coil around an iron bar makes the

in the coil and the amount of current flowing through the wire. Connections

magnetism even stronger. Any device that exerts electromagnetic forces is called an electromagnet.

to battery

Steel paper clip: Steel casing^

Coils of wire^

Spindle

cling to the

Electromagnet

electromagnet.

Most electromagnets Disconnecting

consist of a coil of wire

the battery

wrapped around an iron

Permanent magnets

Iron core •

Terminal

switches off the

bar. When an electric

electromagnets

current flows through

magnetic field.

Scrapyard electromagnet Waste metal is moved around a

the wire, a magnetic

scrapyard by a crane carrying a

field forms around the

huge electromagnet. When the

electromagnet. The

Electric motor

electromagnet is switched on, it picks up metal scraps

magnetism can be

Inside an electric motor are wire coils surrounded by permanent magnets. Electricity flowing through the wire

containing iron. The metal is

switched off by

moved to a different place and

disconnecting the

then dropped by switching off the electromagnet.

electricity supply.

produces a magnetic field around each coil. The magnetism of the coils interacts with the magnetic fields of

Uses of electromagnetism

the permanent magnets. They push

Some electrical appliances contain electric

Portable radio

and pull on each other, making the

motors that use electromagnetism to

coils rotate. This movement is used to

produce movement. But electromagnetism

drive machines such as electric drills.

is also used in many other ways, such as to make sound or detect hidden objects.

Electric drill

Chuck holds

An electric drill can

drill hit

Loudspeaker

Cone vibrates as

quickly make a hole

A loudspeaker contains a

electricity flows

in wood, stone, and

paper or plastic cone that

through coil.

Metal detector

Transformer

even some metals.

vibrates and creates sound

Inside the walk-through arch

Manv electrical devices use a

Inside the body of the

waves in the air around it.

of an airp>ort metal detector are

transformer to alter the voltage

machine, gears

The cone is anached to a

large coils of wire carrying an

of an electrical supply. Inside a

harness the rotation

wire coil surrounded bv a

electric current. Any person

transformer are two wire coils.

of a powerful electric

permanent magnet. The

who walks under the arch

When a varying current flows

motor to drive the

magnetic fields of the

passes through the magnetic

through one coil, it produces a

drill at high speed.

coil and the magnet

field produced by the coils. A

varying magnetic field. This

A cooling fan

interact. This causes the

hidden metal object will affect

field causes an electric current

prevents the drill

coil to move rapidly to and

the strength of the field and

to flow through the second

from overheating.

fro, making the cone vibrate,

trigger an alarm.

coil, but at a different voltage.

Flans Christian Oersted The Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851) discovered electromagnetism in 1820. He placed a compass near a wire

Timeline

I

1821 English

1883 Croatian-born

1799 Italian phvsicist Alessandro

I

scientist Michael

phvsicist Nikola Tesla

Volta insents the battery, which

I

Faraday makes an

allows scientists to experiment

I

electric motor, in

with electric currents.

I

which a current-

carrying an electric current and noticed that the compass needle was deflected and no longer pointed north. Oersted realized that the current

invents the “induction Sturgeon’s electromagnet

motor” - the first practical motor.

carrying wire

1828 English scientist

1820 Oersteds discovery of

rotates

William Sturgeon builds

1885 American

electromagnetism opens the way

the pole of a

the first electromagnet —

engineer William

magnet. It has

a coil of wire around an

Stanley invents the

no practical use.

insulated iron bar.

transformer.

for the deyelopment of the electric

Faraday’s

motor and the electromagnet.

electric motor

HND OUT

Engines AND MOTORS

had produced a magnetic field

the

MORE 296

Electricity

Force and MOTION

Magnetism

Machines

Sound

ELECTRON SHELLS see ATOMS AND MOLECULES • ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION see NAVIGATION

Circuit board

ELECTRONICS

The components for an electronic device, such as a radio, are attached to a circuit

The electronics revolution

is rapidly changing

board, which is a flat base with metal

our world: whether we are at home, at work, or out shopping, we are surrounded by electronic machines and equipment. Electronics involves using devices called components to control electric currents, which are flows of

tracks running along its underside. The components are secured to the tracks using an alloy called solder. The tracks link the components to form a circuit. Inductors are wire coils that produce magnetic fields when

tiny, electrically charged particles of matter called electrons. An electronic circuit is an arrangement of linked

current passes through them, creating a resistance that restricts the flow of current. Variable capacitors

components - such as

can be adjusted to store varying levels of

transistors and diodes — that manipulates current in order to carry out a specific task, such as adding

charge; in radios, they are used to select radio stations.

numbers in a calculator.

Diodes allow electric current to pass through them in one direction only.

Transistors can be used to amplify electrical signals (make

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) glow when current passes through them, and are used to

them stronger) or switch

indicate that a devices fwwer supply is on.

circuits rapidly on and off.

Variable resistors allow the level of current flowing through a

Resistors allow only a fixed amount of

circuit to be

electric current to flow through a circuit

adjusted. Capacitors are Integrated circuits consist

components that store

of a plastic case containing

electric charge; electrolytic capacitors can store more charge than ceramic ones.

William Shockley

a complete circuit etched

us physicist William Shockley

on to a tinv silicon chip.

(1910-89) was pan of a three-man team that invented the transistor in 1947. The transistor made

Semiconductors

Uses of electronics

The element silicon is a type of material

Electronic circuits are either analogue or

called a semiconductor, because it

digital. Analogue circuits deal with

conducts electricity only under certain

continuously varying electric currents,

conditions. The properties of a

such as television and radio signals.

it possible to build tiny

electronic devices.

semiconductor can be altered by adding

Digital circuits process information in

chemical impurities to it in a process

the form of thousands of on-off pulses of

called doping. Doped semiconductors

electric current every second.

Microprocessors Manv electronic devices -

for example, to change channels — makes an LED flash pulses of infrared light to the TV set. The TV

Video-game console

and many other electronic components.

hoard..

Remote control Pressing a button on the remote-control of a TV —

set decodes the pulses and obeys the instruction.

are used to make diodes, transistors,

Pifts connect to circuit

electronic circuits and so develop more compact

Pocket calculator Television controls Liquid crystal display Liquid

including computers - are

crystal

Timer and

controlled by circuits

display

clock controls

called microprocessors, or “silicon chips”. A

Handset with

microprocessor is

control keys ^

Number keypad

made from a single slice of doped semiconductor.

Calculator

The circuit, which may

A calculators digital circuits split

Digital circuits inside the console

contain thousands of

up a calculation into a series of

control the plav. The console sends

Silicon chip sealed

components, can carry out

simple steps, each of which is

an analogue signal to a TV screen,

under metal cover

many complex tasks.

performed at high speed.

which displays a picture of the game.

Computers

Electricity

Elements

Information TECHNOLOGY

Video game console

Metals

Telephones

Telecommunications

Video

297

ELEMENTS

Elements in nature Only a few of the naturally occurring elements can be found in their pure

An element is a substance composed of only one type of

state. Most elements combine, or react, with other elements to form more complex substances called compounds.

atom. Elements are the most basic substances in the Universe and cannot be split into anything simpler. There are

Pure gold can be mined directly from the ground because it is unreactive — that is, it does not

109 elements — 91 of which occur naturally, and

readily form compounds.

18 of which can be made artificially. All life on Earth is based on the element carbon, which is vital to the functioning of living cells. Oxygen is

Quartz rock is a compound of the

the most plentiful element on Earth. It occurs in

Gold

elements silicon

veins in

and oxygen.

quartz rock

Pure gold.

air, water, and even rocks.

Graphite

Allotropes

Groups of elements

Alkali metals

It may seem difficult to believe, but hard,

Just as the members of a human family

Potassium (which is used in

sparkling diamond is made of the same

3

fertilizers) and sodium (which

share the same characteristics, there are

occurs in salt) are both alkali

types of atoms as soft, black graphite.

Diamond and graphite are allotropies of carbon,

“families” of elements that have similar

metals. All the elements in this

meaning that they are different physical forms of the

properties. An elements chemical

group are soft, extremely reactive

same element. Their atoms link up in different ways

metals. They react violently or

to make them look and behave differendv.

properties are determined by the structure of its atoms. Elements in the same group

pencd

even explosively with water to form alkaline solutions.

have similar atomic structures.

, ip/

Calcium gives bones their

Diamond_

Only weak

consists of

bonds hold

carbon atoms

sheets together.

hardness.

Ah \

linked strongly

- Graphite is

d

made up of sheets of

!

carbon atoms

to each other

that can slide

in a rigid

over each

^Hli

framework.

3

3

other easilv.

Artificial elements New elements can be created by bombarding existing elements with

Alkaline-earth metals Calcium and magnesium belong to the

Reaction of potassium in water

high-speed subatomic particles in a

group of elements called the alkaline-earth metals. They are so named because they form alkaline solutions in water, and their

are ofien

Calcium, for example, occurs in sea shells,

Since 1937, scientists have made 18

Iron

red, black,

compounds occur widely in nature.

device called a particle accelerator.

Iron sulphide

Iron compounds

new elements, some of which only

carbide

or brown.

exist for a few millionths of a second.

bones, teeth, milk, and chalk. Magnesium occuts in the substance chlorophyll, which

Iron

plants use to make food by photosynthesis.

oxide

Computer image of a particle accelerator collision

Hydrogen The element hydrogen makes up 90 pier

• *

Coloured

cent of all the maner in the Universe. It

Dmitri Mendeleyev

compounds of iron

was the first element to form when the

In 1869, the Russian chemist

•.

Transition metals

•

Universe was created in the explosion

Dmitri Mendeleyev (1834-1907)

known as the Big Bang. Hydrogen is a

devised a chart called the periodic

The transition metals are a large group of hard,

tasteless, colourless, odourless, non-toxic

table, which classified the 63

dense elements that conduct electticitv and heat

gas. It is the simplest of all the elements,

elements then known into

well, fotm coloured compounds, and some of

with atoms containing just one proton

different groups. He used the

which (iron, coball, and nickel) aie iiiagiietic.

orbited by a single electron. Hydrogen

table to predict the existence of

Other transition metals include copper, gold,

gives acids their acidic propierties.

chromium, titanium, platinum, and tungsten.

AS

three new elements, all of which wete discos ered a few years later.

Noble gases Iodine

Bromine

Chlorine

Multi-coloured street signs often contain noble gases,

Halogens Swimming pools smell the way they do

because each of these gases

because the halogen chlorine is put in the

glows a different colour when

watet to kill germs. Compounds of

electricity flows through it.

fluorine, another halogen, are put in water

Neon, for example, glows

and toothpaste to prevent tooth decay.

red, helium yellow, and argon

The halogens, which also include iodine,

blue. The noble gases are

bromine, and astatine, are all strong-

unreactive non-metals that

smelling, highly reactive non-metals.

rarelv form comprounds.

298

FIND OUT

Acids and

MORE

ALKALIS

Air

Atoms and

MOLECULES

Big Bang

Matter

Metals

Mixtures and

COMPOUNDS

Skeleton

Teeth and JAWS

ELEPHANTS The African and ASIAN

Features of an elephant Everything about an elephant is oversized. Its most

elephants are the

only two living species of a once much larger family that was found on every continent. The African elephant is the largest land mammal, but despite its size and power

conspicuous feature is the long flexible trunk — an elongation of the nose. The huge tusks are overgrown incisor teeth. Besides hearing, the large ears are used as a fan to cool the elephant. They also make the animal appear larger than it really is, and spreading the ears helps intimidate a rival or a potential enemy. Soft fatty cushions on the underside of the feet spread as the elephant walks.

it is a gentle creature. Elephants are highly intelligent, very sociable animals, that live

Tusks A tusk is a specialized type of tooth, growing from either side of the upper

in close family units. The African and Asian elephants are descended from different ancestors; the Asian elephant is more closely related to the mammoth than to the African elephant.

jaw. Tusks are used mainly as tools and weapons. The heaviest pair of tusks ever recorded weighed 102 kg (225 lb) and 109 kg (240 lb). The longest pair measured 3.35 m (11 ft) and 3.5 m (11 ft 5 in) in length.

Skin The skin is very wrinkled. Deep crevices increase the surface area

Tusks

of the skin, and allow greater heat

Teeth

loss. The crevices also help to trap

The elephant has only four

water which then takes longer to

Trunk

teeth, one in each quarter of

evaporate, and helps to keep the

the jaw. Each tooth is about

. — Diamond¬

30 cm (12 in) long. As one

shaped

wears down, another pushes

ridges

elephant cooler for longer.

in from behind. This can happen only six times, after which the supply of teeth is

Pads under

exhausted. Without teeth,

large feet

the elephant can no longer

expand when

eat, so dies of starvation.

trodden on

The elephant uses its trunk to feed

Trunk

Nostrils

Fingers

Located at the tip of the trunk, the elephants

As well as the nostrils, the tip of the

The elephants trunk is highly flexible and

nostrils can be raised high above its head, like

trunk has fleshy “fingers". The African

serves much the same functions as a human

a periscope, and turned in any direction to

species has two opposing fingers, but

pick up traces of scent cartied on the wind.

the Asian elephant has only one which

arm and hand. It combines great strength with delicacy, and is so versatile that it can pluck a single leaf as easily as it can lift a heavy log. Because the

The elephant relies on its sense

it uses to grip against the wide

of smell mote than its other

underside of the trunk. Fingers enable

senses. While swimming, the

the elephant to perform precise

trunk may be lifted above the

movements and pick up

surface of the water, and

elephant has a trunk it does not

very small objects.

used as a snorkel if

need to lower its head while feeding,

the elephant gets out of

thus allowing it to remain alert. The

its depth.

trunk also allows the elephant to reach high above its head to browse on leaves are used to

Fingers of the African

that are out of most other animals’ reach.

hold objects.

elephant trunk

Ivory trade

Types of elephant

The elephants only enemy is humans, who

Asian elephant

kill them for their tusks.

The Asian elephant, found in forests in India and

In recent years, the

south-eastern Asia, has been domesticated for at least

demand for ivory has led

2,500 years. It is used for ceremonial purposes and

to killing on a vast scale.

forestry work. Of the 34,000-56,000 elephants

From 1979 to 1989, the

remaining in Asia, 10,000 are working animals.

numbet of elephants

Small rounded

up with its

The African bush elephant lives in open

ears

trunk.

country and woodland in Africa south of the Sahara. It is larger, with much larger eats and a more concave back than the Asian elephant. Both males and females have tusks. Unlike the Asian elephant, it has never been domesticated.

4m

a3 ft)

in Africa was reduced from

Elephant reaching

African bush elephant

•S

1.3 million to

African forest elephant

609,000.

The forest elephant is a smaller subspecies of the African bush elephant, with smaller, more rounded ears. It does not Ivory is made into carvings and trinkets.

need such large ears to help it keep cool, as it lives in the tropical rainforests of the Congo basin in equatorial Africa. Its tusks are slender and downward pointing.

299

ELEPHANTS

Family group

Herd gathering

The elephants social organization is based upon a group of 10—12 females and their calves, led by a mature female. Harmonious relationships often develop between individual members of the group. Friendships can last for decades as elephants often live for up to 80 years. Elephants show great affection for their young, but discipline is strong, and any lapse of acceptable behaviour is dealt with firmly. Family groups often seek shade during the heat of the day, preferring to feed and drink in the cool of the evening. Elephants browse on leaves and shoots, but they also eat grass. They spend about 18 hours a day feeding, to satisfy their huge appetites.

Separate family groups associate closely with each other. They often live only a few hundred metres apart, constantly coming together and drifting apart again. Occasionally, many family groups congregate in an exceptionally large herd of more than a thousand animals.

Young Females normallv conceive every four years and give birth to a single calf after 22 months’ gestation. This is the longest gestation period of any animal. The newborn calf stands about 84 cm (33 in) high. Other calves from previous matings remain with their mother after the new calf is born. The older calves help to take care of their younger siblings.

Water holes Matriarch

Elephants like to drink every day. They also enjoy bathing and spraying themselves with water. As the dry season advances, food and water become scarce, and they may have to walk up to 80 km (50 miles) between watering and feeding grounds. They also dig holes in some riverbeds to reach water below the surface, thereby providing water for other animals.

Leadership of the family unit rests with the oldest and most experienced female, the matriarch, who is usually the mother or grandmother of the whole group. Each member of the group knows its position in the hierarchy and respects matriarchal authority without question. Secretion shows hull is in musth.

Bulls Only immature bull calves are allowed in the family group; as soon as the bulls reach maturity they are expelled. They live alone or in small bachelor groups. Mature bulls briefly rejoin the herd when any of the cows are ready for mating.

Fighting

Threat displays

Young bulls often have mock battles to test each others strength. They are usually harmless affairs where they clash tusks and grapple with each other’s trunks. Older bulls, especially those in musth, may sometimes fight in defence of territory or to establish dominance

Differences between elephants are generally resolved pieacefiilly. Displeasure is indicated by means of a threat display. This involves head-shaking, ear-spreading, trunk-twirling, and foot-shuffling. If this fails to deter, the elephant may make a full-scale charge. This is a rare event where the elephant covers ground at rapid speed, with its trunk raised and ears outstretched, while trumpeting furiously. Threat charges are rarely carried through; the elephant ^ , ,111 Ears spread usually halts or turns , I I ^ wide to at the last ■ ■ ■, intimidate an enemy

Young bulb sparring

Musth By 25 years of age, bulls come into musth once a year. Musth is a period of a^ressive behaviour where a bull picks fights with other bulls searching I female ready to mate. A thick secretion from the temporal gland indicates he is in musth.

Communication

Rumbling

Touch is an important way of communicating in elephant society. When elephants meet, they greet each other by entwining trunks and touching each others face and body. At rest, they often stand together, head to head. If a young calf misbehaves, its mother may actually use her trunk to smack it. When a calf is frightened, other elephants help to calm it by standing close, and caressing it with their trunks. FIND OUT

MORE 300

, Elephants standing ' face to face and touching each others’ heads and trunks.

African

Animal

Asian

WILDLIFE

BEHAVIOUR

WILDLIFE

Elephants maintain contact by means of rumbling sounds from the throat, back of the nose, and trunk. A sudden cessation of rumbling warns the herd of possible danger. Elephants are also capable of communicating over substantial distances, by low-frequency sounds which humans cannot hear.

AfRKIAN ELEPHANT Scientific name Loxodonta afncana Order Proboscidea Family Elephantidae Distribution Africa south of the Sahara Habitat Open savannahs and woodlands Diet Grasses, leaves, shoots, twigs, and other browse Size Height at shoulder: 4 m (13 ft): weight: 6.1 tonnes (6 tons) Lifespan 70-80 years

Conservation

Ecology and

Grassland

ECOSYSTEMS

WILDLIFE

Mammals

Rainforest WILDLIFE

ELIZABETH I from 1558—1603, a truly remarkable woman governed England. By force of personality and political skill, Queen Elizabeth I united her divided country and presided over a glorious period in the arts and culture. Yet she had to struggle all her life: her mother died when she was only three, her halfsister, Mary, put her in prison and, as an adult, she was a single woman in a world dominated by men. But Elizabeth overcame every adversity, and when she died in 1603, she left England one of the most prosperous and powerful nations in Europe. For 45 YEARS

Elizabeth Is accession to the throne, at the age of 25

Early life Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII (r. 1509—47) and his second wife, Anne Boleyn. She was born in Greenwich Palace on 7 September, 1533. Elizabeths mother was executed for treason when Elizabeth was just three years old. The future queen was imprisoned briefly while her Catholic halfsister Mary was crowned queen. Elizabeth took the throne on 17 November, 1558, after Mary’s death.

Church and State

Spanish Armada

Elizabeths father Henry VIII broke with

As leader of Catholic Europe, Philip II of Spain, husband of

Between 1577 and 1580, in

the Roman Catholic Church in 1534,

Elizabeths half-sister Mary, was a threat to Protestant England

his ship the Golden Hind,

establishing the Protestant Church of

and encouraged plots against the queen. After the execution of

Francis Drake

Francis Drake became the first Englishman to sail

England. Her half-sister Mary I

Mary, Queen of Scots, Philip decided to invade England. In 1588,

around the world. He

(r. 1553-58) tried to return England to

he sent a huge Armada of 130 ships carrying 20,000 soldiers.

delayed preparations for

Catholicism, but Elizabeth introduced the

Harried by English ships, attacked in the English Channel, and

Anglican faith, as a compromise between

wrecked by severe storms, the Armada was forced to return, in

Catholicism and extreme Protestantism.

defeat, to Spain.

the Spanish Armada by attacking the fleet while it was at anchor in Cadiz Harbour in 1587, and plaved an important part in its defeat the following year. He continued to attack Spanish shipping until his death off the coast of Panama in 1596.

William Cecil

Mary, Queen of Scots

Cecil, later Lord Burghley,

Mary was Elizabeth’s heir,

served Flizabeth first as her

but also a Catholic. She

Chief Secretary of State

became the centre of plots

and, after 1572, as Lord

against Elizabeth, notably

Treasurer. He introduced

one led by Mary’s page

many reforms and was an

Anthony Babington.

English fire ship:

Spanish ships

able adviser to the queen.

Flizabeth reluctantly had

are sent to meet

escape towards

He died in 1598, and his

Mary tried and executed

the Spanish fleet.

the North.

son became chief minister

for treason in 1587.

Elizabeth

Virgin Queen

Phoenix emblem

Elizabeth spent her life surrounded by

throughout her life, eager for a

image of herself

stake in her flourishing kingdom,

by adopting

but she played her suitors off

1536 Elizabeth’s mother, Anne Boleyn, executed for treason. 1554

against each other for political gains.

the phoenix as

Virgin Queen, using ir to create a

The “Phoenix

national self-confidence that

1558 Succeeds to rhe throne; appoints William Cecil as Secretary of State and

fuelled a flowering of the arts,

Jewel”, dated

Matthew Parker as

distinguished by William

around 1574,

Archbishop of Canterbury.

Shakespeare, the poet Edmund

shows a bust of Elizabeth, with a reverse

her head of Anglican Church.

Thomas Fallis.

“Phoenix Jewel”

Elizabeth stands

image of the mythical

on a map of

phoenix rising from flames.

her kingdom.

Christianity

1559 Act of Supremacy makes

Spenser, and composers such as The famous

Drama

Houses and HOMES

Elizabeth put under house

arresr by half-sister, Mary.

Elizabeth gloried in her role as the

her emblem.

MORE

Palace near London, England.

foreign monarchs courted Elizabeth

a strong public

FIND OUT

1533 Born in Greenwich

suitors, yet she never married. Powerful

Elizabeth created

I

Reformation

1588 Spanish Armada defeated. 1603 Dies in Richmond Palace.

Shakespeare, WILLIAM

Theatres

Spain, HISTORY OF

United kingdom, HISTORY OF

301

EMBROIDERY sec CRAFTS • EMISSION SPECTRUM see COLOUR

EMPIRES A

Growth of empires

Ottoman sword and scabbard

Empires grow because ruling powers want extra income from trade or taxes, or they

under a single ruler is

LARGE SUPER-STATE

may have territorial ambitions. Sometimes

called an empire. There have been many different empires through history, from the

they may want to spread a religion. Would-be empires always need a strong army.

ancient Roman Empire to the great empire of

Imperial cross

Ottoman Empire

the Incas in Peru. The largest ever was the British Empire. Most empires have an army, to conquer territory and

The Ottoman Turks expanded their empire by military might. At their height in the 17th century, they dominated the Mediterranean

suppress revolts, and a civil service to carry out the day-today running of the empire and collect taxes. No empire lasts for ever — though the effect on the host country may be

coast from prcsent-dav Greece to Tunisia.

Holy Roman Empire Based in Germany, the leaders of this empire saw themselves as heirs to the Roman emperors. The

permanent — and empires perish for many reasons, including internal rebellion, economic decline, or the sheer difficulty of uniting many peoples under one leader.

emperors wanted to wield religious power over all western Christians, and to exert political power over the other Eurofrean rulers, such as the German and Italian princes.

British Empire

Extent of the empire After winning the Napoleonic Wars, and

The largest empire the world has ever

the decline of the older empires of Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands, Britain

seen had its beginnings in the 18th

was clearly one of the worlds strongest

and early 19th centuries, when Britain

countries. As the 19th centuty wore on,

acquired Australia, Canada, and a range of

the already vast British Empire

territories from Honduras to Hong Kong. The

added parts of Africa and South¬ east Asia. By 1918, the empire

“jewel in the crown” of the empire was India,

had reached its peak.

which Britain dominated through the East India

British Empire, 1918

Company. Queen Victoria (r. 1837—1901) took

Victoria Station, Bombay, India

the tide Empress of India in 1876. The British Empire had a lasting influence on its territories - for both good and bad. British-style administration provided a model for local civil servants when territories gained independence. On the other hand, the British exploited local labour forces on a massive scale. Gordon of Khartoum

Public works

Resources of the empire

In 1884, two years after Egypt

The British made the major

became part of the empire.

ki

Britain had limited resources but an exp>anding industry, so the

towns of the empire as

General Chades Gordon

'■

British used their empire as a source of raw materials, and a

similar to British cities as

(1833-85) came to the Sudan

marker for goods. TTie far-flung empire provided raw materials,

possible. They sent British

to aid Egyptians defending

such as cotton, gemstones, and hard wood, and raw materials

engineers and architects all

their g^isons against a local

included tea, rubber, tin, copper, and wool.

over the world to build

revolt. Gordon was cut off in

government headquaners,

%

the city of Khanoum and withstood a 10-month siege,

Timber

but was finallv killed. There was an outcry that

buildings. Former imperial

a relief force

cities, such as Bombay,

had not been sent quickly

still have Victorian-era

enough to save Gordon, and he

Conon

administration and

Emerald

transport centres.

became a hero of the empire.

Timeline

395-1453 Byzantine

1206-1405 Mongols create

1521—1825 Spain builds

509 BC-AD 476 Roman

Empire established in the

an empire, including most

large empire in southern

Empire dominates much of

eastern territory of the

of Asia.

America.

Europe, western Asia, and

Roman Empire. K

1345-1521

1580-1931 British Empire increases in size.

962-1806

Aztec emperors

221-206 BC Qin emperor

Holy Roman

hold power in

unites China.

Empire

Mexico.

dominates central

rule much of India.

Europe.

Imperialism The economic domination of Asia, North America, and

northern Africa.

321-187 BC Mauryans

churches, railway stations, an galleries, and public

States, and Russia from the 1930s Brirish Empire starts to decline. By the

■*

Africa by Europe, the United

Conquistadore's

1940s, territories are

helmet

claiming independence.

17th century is known as modern imperialism. Ancient imperialism peaked with the Roman Empire.

FIND OUT

MORE 302

Byzantine EMPIRE

Holy roman EMPIRE

Islamic

EMPIRE

Ottoman EMPIRE

Persian EMPIRES

Roman EMPIRE

The bear, symbol of Russia, 1888

ENDANGERED SPECIES see CONSERVATION • ENDOCRINE SYSTEM see HORMONES AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

ENERGY We

Weights gain potential energy.

rely on the energy

stored in

food to keep us alive and on the energy locked within fuels to drive our machines and industries. Energy is the ability to make things happen, whether it is moving

When a force moves an object, energy changes

something, heating it up, or changing it in some

from one form to

Her power is how

another and work is the

long it takes her to

way. Energy exists in many different forms,

result. This woman does

do the work.

work as she lifts weights.

including electricity, sound, heat, and light.

The force she applies

Types of energy

When this frog leaps through the air,

All energy is either kinetic or

it has kinetic energy.

potential. Kinetic energy is

converts the kinetic

Power The rate at which

energy of her moving

work is done and

arms into the potential

energy changed from

energy of the raised

one form to another is

the energy of moving objects, while potential energy is

Kinetic energy

called power. Power is

weights. Multiplying the

AJl objects in motion — from

measured in watts (W)

force by the distance

atoms to aircraft - possess

and is calculated by

through which the

kinetic energy. The higher the

dividing the work

object’s speed and the greater its mass,

done by the time

object moves gives the

the more kinetic energy the object has.

taken to do it.

amount of work done.

energy that is stored, ready for use. Energy is measured in units called joules (J). Potential energy

SOOgd.l lb)

An object may gain potential

SOOgd.l lb)

Both bulbs

60 W bulb

peeled oranges

give out the

(incandescent)

1,000 W

energy if its position or condition alters. A bungeejumper standing on top of a

same light.

90 g (3 oz)

15 W bulb

beef

(fluorescent)

bridge has potential energy - that is, the potential to fall back to Earth. When Fluorescent

he jumps, his bungee

bulb uses less

rope gains potential energy as it stretches,

30 g(l oz) butter

because it has the potential to pull him back up again.

Every electrical appliance is

□

-

Chemical energy

given a power rating. If a fan

Foods and fuels contain energy stored within

has a power rating of 100 W,

Efficiency

chemical compounds. This is a type of potential

it shows that the fan converts

Out of every 100 J of electrical energy used bv a 60 W incandescent bulb, only 10 J are

energy called chemical energy. Some foods store

100 J of electrical energy into

potential energy

more energy than others. All the foods above

kinetic energy each second.

changed into light; the rest are lost as heat.

changes to

contain the same amount of energy, but vou would

Similarly, a 1,000 W iron

The bulb has an elFiciencv of 10%. A 15 W

kinetic energy

have to eat 500 g (1.1 lb) of peas to get as much

changes electricity into heat at

fluorescent bulb is 40% efficient. It gives the

as he falls

energy as you would from just 30 g (1 oz) of butter.

the rate of 1,000 J per second.

same light using a quarter of the electricity.

The jumper's

*

electricity. —-

Electrical power

\50 g(1.8 oz) cheese

Energy transfer

Flarvested wheat.

Bread is made

Friction occurs between

from wheat.

brake and wheel.

The Law of Conservation of Energy says that energy is always conserved —

2

.

that is, it can be neither created nor

> -S

destroyed. This law means that when objects gain or lose energy, the energy simply transfers from place to place, or changes into a different form.

1

Tremendous temperatures

James Joule The unit of energy, the joule, is named after

2

When sunlight falls on plants, some of the light

at the Sun’s surface cause

3

Eating plant-based food,

4

such as bread, enables vou

Riding a bicycle changes the chemical energy into

to break down the food. This

kinetic energy. If you brake,

a process called photosv'nthesis.

releases the chemical energy

friction changes this energy

It is stored as chemical energy.

and transfers it to your body

into heat as vou slow down.

it to give out light and other

energy transfers to the plants bv

forms of energy, some of which reach the Earth

the English physicist James Joule (1818-89), who helped to develop the Law of Conservation of Energy. Joule noticed that if he rotated a set of paddles in water, the water soon became warm. He realized that the work

Timeline

184"’ Joule and German physicists

1881 The world’s first

1905 German physicist

Hermann von Helmholtz and

electricity-generating power

Albert Einstein suggests

1829 French physicist

Julius Mever independently

station opens in Surrey UK.

Gustave Coriolis

state the Law of

introduces the term

of turning the paddies changed their kinetic energy into heat, proving that heat is a form of energy.

Conservation of Energy.

“kinetic energy’’. 1853 Scottish

that matter is a form of energy, and vice versa.

1884 Irish engineer

1980s Declining fossil

Charles Persons

luel reserves and pollution bring calls for

1843 James Joule’s

scientist William

invents the

experiments show how

Rankine devises

steam turbine.

heat, work, and power

the concept of

are related.

“potential energy”

machines and industries to be more

Parsons’ turbine

energy efficient.

303

ENERGY

Renewable energy

Power station Most of the energy used in homes, offices, and

Energy that is produced without permanently using

factories is electricity produced by power stations.

up the Earths limited resources is called renewable

Inside a coal- or oil-fired power station, chemical

energy. Apart from biomass fuels, which produce

energy stored within fuel turns into heat energy as

smoke and other fiimes when burned, renewable

Solar p>ower

the fuel burns in a furnace. The heat is used to boil

energy sources are pollution-free, because they

Hectricity produced ftom sunlight

water into steam, which drives turbines linked to

harness the energy of natural phenomena such as

electricity generators. The electricity reaches

winds and waves. As the Earths fossil fuel reserves

to focus sunlight on to water The

consumers via a network of cables called a grid.

are gradually used up, people will have to rely much

water boils into steam, which drives

more on renewable energy sources.

turbines and generators.

is called solar power. A “solar furnace” uses a vast bank of mirrors

Model of a coal-

Boiler house

Fumes from furnace

fired power station

turns water

escape via chimney.

into steam. Coal store

■ Cooling towers turn

Geothermal power

Wind power

Below the Earth’s surftce, water is

A wind turbine is a tall tower

Plant material is called biomass.

turned into steam by geothermal

with propeller-like blades that

Millions of people around the

energy — that is, the energy of

converts the kinetic energy of the

wotld burn peat, wood, animal

hot, molten rocks. By drilling a

wind into electricity. As the wind

dung, and other biomass fuels to

well, this steam can be harnessed

blows, the turbines blades rotate

heat and light their homes, and

Biomass fuels

Connections

The turbine house

to electricity

contains the turbines

steam from the boiler

to drive generators Hectricity

and drive a small generator. A

to cook food. Burning biomass

grid

and generators.

back into water.

produced in this way is called

group of wind turbines is called a

fuels releases chemical energy

geothermal power.

wind farm.

stored within the plant material.

The turbine blades revolve about 3,000 times each minute. The generator uses the motion of the turbine to produce electricity

Turbinegenerator unit in a coal-fired

Hydroelectric power

Wave power

Tidal barrage

A hydroelectric power station

Towers such as the one above

At high and low tides, huge

converts the kinetic energy of

stand in coastal waters and use

amounts of water move up and

Turbine

falling water into electricity. The

the movement of the ocean’s

down river estuaries. A tidal

A turbine is a machine powered by the force of moving liquid or

power station sits under a dam at

waves to produce electricity. As

barrage is a dam across an estuary.

gas. It consists of a set of angled blades mounted on a shaft. In a

the end of a reservoir. Inside the

the waves rise and fall, they

As the tides come in and go out,

power station, jets of high-pressure steam strike the turbine blades

power station, turbines and

push a column of air inside the

some water is allowed to pass

and make them revolve at high speed. The turbine shaft is

generators are driven by water

tower up and down. The to-

through tunnels in the dam. The

connected to an electricity generator. As the shaft spins, it turns an

rushing down with tremendous

and-fto motion of the air turns

tidal flow drives electricity

electromagnet inside the generator, producing an electric current.

force ftom the reservoir above.

a turbine and drives a generator.

generators built into the dam.

power

1 a

station

Fossil fuels

Charles Parsons

World energy use Around 90 per cent of all the energy used comes from

Coal, oil, and natural gas are called fossil

The engineer Charles Parsons

fuels, because they formed underground

(1854—1931) was born in London,

fossil fuels, which give out a lot of

over millions of years from the fossilized

England, of Irish parents. He is best

energy when burned, but release

known for inventing the steam

remains of plants and animals. The Earth

turbine in 1884. Power stations

polluting gases into the air.

has limited supplies of these fuels, which

around the world still use steam

Nuclear power is an

turbines based

alternative to fossil fuels,

cannot be replenished once exhausted.

on Parson’s Petrol, diesel, and

Natural gas is made up

many other fuels are

of methane

made from oil

and small

1

Coal consists

designs. In

chiefly of the

1897. his

but produces dangerous radioactive waste.

element

boat Turbinia

Hydroelectric power

carbon.

became the

is the only form of

amounts of

first to use a

other gases.

steam turbine

renewable energy that

to powet its

is used in any significant

Natural gas

FIND OUT

MORE 304

Coal

propellers. Oil

amount.

HydroeUctric

Coal

Electricity

power 7%

Food

Heat and TEMPERATURE

Light

Nuclear POWER

Oil

Sound

Gas 22% /

Coal 25% I

X-rays and the ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

ENGELS, FRIEDRICH see MARX, KARL • ENGINEERING see TECHNOLOGY

ENGINES

AND

MOTORS

Every machine that moves or has

Early engines

moving parts needs an engine or a motor to make it work. A motor is a machine that converts some form of energy, such as fuel or electricity, into motion. An engine is a form of motor. Engines and motors, both huge and tiny, are everywhere — in vehicles from motor

The first engines were developed in the middle of the 18th century, and were steam powered. During the 19th century, a new form of engine was developed: the internal combustion engine, which was lighter and had more practical uses than its predecessor.

cycles to airliners and railway locomotives, and in appliances around the house, in industrial machines, and in power stations

Early four-cylinder {jetrol engine

Camshaft controls the op>ening and

Sectioned view of a petrol-fuelled

closing of the valves. There are

internal combustion engine

separate camshafts for fuel Distributor feeds a spark of

inlet and exhaust valves.

Modern engines

electricity to each cylinder

Timing belt

at the right moment, to

drives the

Fuel efficiency, plenty of power for

Spark plug

camshaft.

start the fuel burning.

its low weight, and little need for maintenance are the hallmarks of the

Combustion chamber is where fuel burns to

modern car engine. Many engines

Valves let fresh fuel

force the piston down.

have electronic components that

into each cvlinder, and spent gases out.

increase their fuel efficiency further.

Internal combustion engine Most cars are fitted with internal combustion engines - so-called because they combust, or Exterior of internal

burn, fuel inside a cylinder. The power this

combustion engine

combustion produces is

Exhaust manifold channeb waste gases

harnessed by pistons

and heat to exhaust pipe

and used to power the engine. Cylinder and piston Flywheel / and clutch The pistons slide up and down in the

Water

cylinders, providing the

pump pulley Sump reservoir for lubricating oil Dipstick

number of cylinders in Lubricating oil is

an engine varies; there

via the clutch and gearbox.

pumped around the engine,

are usually at least four,

Connecting rods turn the

continuously covering the

and sometimes more.

up-and-down motion of the

moving parts with a thin film

pistons into the circular

of oil that stops them rubbing

motion of the crankshaft.

together and wearing out.

Crankshaft turns the wheels \ Exhaust manifold Crank-

Oil filter

driving force that keeps the engine running. The

How engines work This sequence of diagrams shows what happens in one cylinder of a petrol engine while the engine is running. During the sequence, the piston goes down, up, down, and up again. This is called a four-stroke cycle. The cycle is repeated over and over again — up to 50 times a second when the engine is turning at high speed. In an engine with more

Induction stroke

Compression stroke

Power stroke

Exhaust stroke

than one cylinder, the cylinders

The piston moves down,

The valve closes. The

The spark plug flares

The piston moves up, pushing waste gases out of the

and the inlet valve opens.

piston moves up again,

and ignites the fuel

fire one after the other to

A mixture of fuel and air is

squeezing the fuel and air

which explodes, pushing

cylinder. The exhaust valve

provide continuous power.

sucked into the cylinder.

into the top of the cylinder.

the piston back down.

opens to let exhaust gases out.

305

ENGINES AND MOTORS

Diesel engine

The heated air turns the

Burning fuel heats the air in the

turbine blades at rear.

combustion chamber.

A diesel engine is a four-stroke engine without spark plugs. The engines cylinder has a piston, which rises and falls, squashing the fiiel-and-air mixture in the cylinder into a tiny space. The mixture gets so hot, it explodes.

Using diesels Diesel engines are very fuel-efficient. Air is sucked

They are used for driving electricity

in the front.

genetators, and in vehicles that need

Gas turbine engines

Jet engine

ships, and boats. Many modern cars are

In a gas turbine, burning fuel makes

of turbine called a turbojet or

also fitted with diesel engines.

a stream of hot gas that spins a set

to keep going for long periods without refuelling, such as lorries, taxis, trains, Eight-cylinder diesel truck engine

High-sjjeed aircraft have a typ)e

turbofan. The stream of hot air and gases created in the engine

of turbine blades very fast. A shaft

Steam engine

attached to the turbine drives a

of the back of the engine, pushing

L'ntil the middle of the 1900s,

compressor that sucks air into

the aircraft forwards.

The pistons of a steam engine are moved

most railway locomotises and

up and down in their cylinders by steam

ships were powered bv steam

under high pressure. The pistons are

turns the turbine, then shoots out

Using steam

the engine so the fuel burns.

engines. Steam also drove many earlv trucks and buses.

Turboshafit engine

connected to rods that turn the wheels.

The first steam engines were

Some turbine engines make ship or aircraft

The steam is made outside the cylinders

used for pumping flood water

propellers spin. The spinning turbine turns

by heating water in a coal-fired boiler,

out of mines, and to work

a shaft connected to the propeller. Large

industrial machines.

hovercraft have turboshaft engines to

which is why steam engines are called external combustion engines.

create their air cushion and to drive their Steam leaves train

propellers. Large helicopters also have

via a fiinnel.

turboshaft engines to turn their rotors

SR.N4 ferry hovercraft

Electric motors

Hairdryer

An electric motor produces movement from electricity. Inside it are electromagnets —

Blow

wire coils that become magnets

The electric motor in

when an electric current flows

a hairdryer turns a f^ to blow air that is heated bv hot

through them. The electro¬ magnets are turned on and off

Solar power

Solar panels

Petroleum and coal are fossil

wire coils. A switch adjusts the speed of the motor. The larger the current

in sequence to pull a magnetic

it allows through, the stronger the magnets

shaft around and around.

become, and the faster the motor spins.

Sunlight can be turned into electricity

Motors are used in

by solar panels. These are made from

household appliances.

Turn

fuels, formed from decayed

many photovoltaic cells. The bigger the

prehistoric organisms. They are

area of photovoltaic cells, and the brighter

Suck

processors, have an electric motor that

the sunlight, the larger the electric current

A vacuum cleaner has

moves their working parts. Gears slow

the solar panel will produce.

expensive to produce, and create

Many kitchen gadgets, such as food

a powerful electric motor

the speed of the motor, so the parts turn

harmful gases when they burn.

that turns an air pump. The

slowly. The

Solar energy is energy from

pump sucks air through the

the Sun. It can be used to

machine, where the dust is removed from it. The

heat houses, run air

motor has to generate a

conditioning, and to

lot of power, so it needs

generate electricity to

electricity from the mains to drive it.

power lightweight vehicles. Solar-powered car

James Watt British engineer James Wan (1736-1819) improved the design of steam engines, and produced the first effective I

Vacuum cleaner

Timeline

1815 Bridsh engineer

1876 In Germany,

1894 The Turbinia, the

1st century AD Hero

George Stephenson (1781—

Nikolaus Otto (1832-91)

first ship with a steamturbine engine rather

of Alexandria, a Greek

1848) builds the first steam-

develops the first four-

inventor, makes a novelty

powered locomotive.

stroke petrol engine. It is a

than a piston engine, is

great commercial success.

demonstrated in England.

toy that is turned by steam.

one in 1765. In 1774, he and Manhew Boulton began building steam

Gears 1698 Englishman Thomas

1892 The diesel engine,

1937 The first jet engine

Saverv (c. 1650-1715) builds

used for driving machines,

is demonstrated by the

engines for pumping

the first machine to provide

is patented by German

British jet-power pioneer

water from mines. The

power by using steam.

engineer Rudolph Diesel.

Frank Whittle (b. 1907).

unit of power, the watt, is named after him.

FIND OUT

MORE 306

Aircraft

Cars and

TRUCKS

Electricity

Force and

Industrial

MOTION

REVOLUTION

EQUATORIAL GUINEA see AFRICA. CENTRAL • ERITREA see AFRICA EAST • ETHICS see PHILOSOPHY • ETHIOPIA see AFRICA. EAST

ETRUSCANS

\\driatif Sea Ecriiria

A PIRATE PEOPLE OF MYSTERIOUS ORIGIN, the Etruscans dominated the Mediterranean world from the 8th to the 4th centuries BC and formed a league of 12 city-states in what is

* Orvieto Rome Sardinia V

•^Naples

) Tyrrhenian

C.,

Sea

now modern Tuscany, Italy. Though many of these cities — possibly the first in the area — have been lost over the centuries, superb

\ ''

Mediterranean .Sea SicHy j

painting and statuary remain. Etruscan fortunes, based on trade and conquest, started to decline after c.500 BC when the Romans, who had

Expansion From their base in Etruria, the Etruscans' influence spread between the northern Alps

lived under Etruscan rule for a century, began to absorb their former masters into their own expanding empire.

and Naples. From 616 BC, thcTarquins, an Etruscan dynasty, ruled Rome itself.

Cities of the dead

Bronze sculpture

Rich Etruscans were buried

The best sculptures

Greek god, in

in underground tombs, some

were made in metal,

Etruscan style

Vivid wall paintings haw

of which were carved from

especially bronze. Early

survived in tombs at the

the rock to resemble rooms.

sculptors made copies

These cities of the dead

of imported Syrian or

Offerings to

Tomb frescoes often pictured Musician

ancient cities of Orvieto, Veii, and Tarquinia — some dating to c.600

BC,

contained frescoes, ftimitute,

Phoenician objeas,

and lavish ornaments that tell

but then Greek

us much about daily life.

styles became

Pan, the liveliest

more popular.

Scenes often show dancing, rehgious observances, or the

Statuary

underworld. Etruscan an

Etruscan craftworkers

was influenced by the

made statues of

Greeks in subject matter

terracotta — a

and style, but as the

brownish-red, unglazed, fine pottery.

Etruscan civilization grev

The sculptors were

it developed its own

particularly skilled

bold, colourful, and

at creating realistic

naturalistic style.

human frees and figures, such as those

Wall painting. Tomb of

Etruscan rock-cut tombs,

at the precinct of Apollo

the Leopard, Tarquinia

Sovana

in the city-state of Veii.

Etruscans adopted the letters of the Greek alphabet..

Pirates and traders

Trade

Etruscan jewellers were

Etruscan agriculture, industry, and

especially good goldsmiths,

For centuries Etruscan ships dominated

commerce all flourished in the period

and surviving pieces show

the area of the Mediterranean called the

before the rise of Rome. Mineral deposits

originality and artistry. Much

in the area were a great advantage to the

gold jewellery was made for

Etruscans. Wealthy merchants traded

trade with Greece.

Tyrrhenian Sea. Feared at first as pirates, they later turned to legitimate and

metal products, such as jewellery

prosperous trade with the Phoenicians,

and bronze figurines, as frr away

Semi¬

as Scandinavia and England.

precious

Greeks, and Egyptians. This continued

stones

until they were eclipsed by Rome.

Necklace

Fragment of Flowers

marble

Naturalistic Gold

human features Bronze coin

medallion

Language Though examples of Etruscan writing survive on coins and

Sheep livers

tablets, the language remains a

\ Fruit

and cloud

mystery. All scholars know is

Gold earrings

panerns were

that it was the last survivor of

thought to reflect

those languages sfxjken before

the will of the gods.

Gold wreath hair ornament

City people

Indo-Europ)ean (from which all modern European languages

Relationship with Rome

descend) took over. The first six

The last Etruscan king was overthrown in 510 BC, as

numbers were ntach, zal, thu,

Rome took over the Etmscan cities one by one. Many

league. Ancient walls still surround modem

huth, ci, so, but no one can be

practices, such as predicting the future by studying sheep

Tuscan hill-towns, such as Orvieto. The

certain which of them match

entrails, lived on in the new Roman republic. Leading

the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

Roman families were proud of their Etruscan ancestry.

HND OUT

MORE

Art HISTORY OF

Architecture

No one can be sure exactly which 12

Greece, ANCIENT

walled cities formed the original Etruscan

Italy, history OF

original cities were built haphazardly, and each was dominated by temples.

Metal and metalworking

Religions

Roman EMPIRE

Sculpturl

307

EUROPE

Physical features Europe’s landscapes range from frozen tundra and

The second smallest of

coniferous forests in the north

\ all the continents, Europe

m

to the balmy Mediterranean

nevertheless has the third largest population after Asia and Africa. Rich, fertile soils, a variable but hospitable climate, and abundant natural resources have made it easy for people to live in Europe for thousands of

coast and arid semi-desert of central Spain. The high mountains of the Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, and Urals

Ural Mountains

give way to the low-lying North

The Ural Mountains in Russia separate

European Plain. Rivers provide

Europe from Asia. They stretch 2,400 km

communication and transport.

(1,500 miles) from the Arctic Ocean to the Caspian Sea. The highest mountain is Narodnaya at 1,894 m (6,214 ft).

years, establishing more than 40 nations and much wealth. Shifting

North European Plain The vast, rolling North European Plain extends from southern England, across France and Germany, and into Russia as

land borders and inhabitants of wide ethnic diversity have caused

far as the Urals. Rich in coal, oil, natural gas, and fertile farmland, this is Europe’s most densely populated area.

conflict, but Europe is politically stable and is a major world power.

ARCTIC OCEAN ic^

Faeroe Islands tDfnrrurk)

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Outer Hebrtde*

LMTID ^^I\GDOM

Alps The high Alps dominate western Europe. Stretching 1,500 km (932 miles) from

hm’irm

southern France, through Switzerland, Germany, Italy, Austria, and Southeast Europe, this vast arc of mountains separates northern Europe from the warmer south. The

si

l^editerrnnean Sea

mcmt

E»

L. . «

Ionian Sea

highest point is Mont Blanc in

IEurope FACTS

France at 4,808 m (15,774 ft).

Area

Cross-section through Europe

I Population 704,900,000

Fertile farmland on France’s Atlantic coast rises to the plateau of the Massif Central and the Alps at more than 4,000 m (13,125 ft)

Bay of

above sea-level. It then drops

Biscay

10,400,000 sq km

(4,000,000 sq miles)

Massif Central

j Number OF COUNTRIES 43 Biggest country

Russian Fedetation

Smallest country Vatican City Highest point Ml El’brus 5,633 m

down to the Hungarian

(18,481 ft), Caucasus Mountains

plain before climbing upwards again to

Lowest point Volga Delta 28 m (92 ft)

the Carpathians

below sea-level, Caspian Sea

and down into Longest river Volga

the Black Sea. Approximately 2,400 km (1,500 miles) from A to B

308

Biggest freshwater lake Lake Ladoga

EUROPE

Only shallow-rooted

Climatic zones

Tundra,

Wetland

plants can survive the cold.

Europe’s position and varied landscape greatly affect its climate. Apart from the far north where it is always cold, European winters are generally cool, and summers warm or hot. Europe’s west coast is milder because of the Gulf Stream, which brings warm waters northwards. Mountains, such as the Alps and Pyrenees, form a natural barrier, protecting the south from the rain

Tundra

and cold winds that blow from the north.

Grassland

The extreme north of Europe lies inside the Arctic Circle and has a polar climate. The vegetation there is tundra — treeless plains where much of the subsoil is permanently frozen ground called

Deciduous woodland

permafrost. Only in

Broad-leaved woods and forests

summer does the topsoil

are found in many parts of

thaw and plants flourish.

Europe. The trees, which lose

Taiga

their leaves in winter, include the quick-growing birch and

In Russian, the word

ash, and the slower-growing,

taiga means a marshy

longer-lived beech, chestnut,

forest. The trees in the

maple, plane, and oak. Today,

forests of northern Europe

few ancient wild

are mainly conifers, such

forests survive,

as fir, larch, and pine.

and most

They keep their needle¬

forest trees

like leaves even during

have been

the cold winters when they

planted.

may be covered with snow for many monrhs.

. Beech trees lose their dead

V

Straight trunks provide

leaves in spring when the

timber for making paper,

new buds sprout.

furniture, and boards.

Grasslands Large areas of Europe, such as the central meseta region of Spain and the steppes of southern Russia and southeastern Ukraine, are covered in vast expanses of grassland. Much of this land is used for grazing animals and growing crops. Drought can be a problem in extreme summer temperatures. During the spring the

Many plants have small

Pyrenees

grass is lush and green, but becomes

The Pyrenees form part of

leathery

a vast arc of comparatively

leaves so they

young mountains that

can conserve

stretch almost continuously

water in the

across southern Europe and

summer heat.

join with the Himalayas in Asia. Unlike the ancient

Ice, rain, and

mountains in Britain and

wind make

Garrigue The warm dry hillsides close to the Mediterranean Sea in countries such as

Scandinavia, their shape is

it impossible

still changing because of

for plants to

plate movements beneath

survive on

Spain, Greece, and France are covered

the Earths crust. Mount

the peaks.

with thorny, often aromatic plants and low

Aneto is the highest peak

bushes. On limestone soils this vegetation

at 3,404 m (12,962 ft).

is called garrigue, elsewhere it is maquis.

People

Resources

Most Europeans live in densely

Europe is rich in natural resources. More than

populated towns and cities, many

half the land is used for farming a wide variety

of which lie on the fertile North

of food crops, from cereals, such as wheat,

European Plain. Living standards

barley, and oats, to grapes, olives, citrus fruits,

are generally high compared with

and salad vegetables. Europe mines 40 per cent

other parts of the world, and

of the world’s coal and around 33 per cent of

Europeans benefit from plentiful food

its iron ore. There are also large reserves of oil

and good healthcare. Many countries

and natural gas, and lead.

have sizeable ethnic minorities, usually

zinc, and other metals.

from former colonies. The majority of

Many rivers supply

Europeans are Christian.

hydroelectric power. Fiimish girl

FIND OUT

MORE

Climate

Coal

Continents

Greek boy

Europe, HISTORY OF

French girl

European WILDUFE

Farming

Forests

Mountains AND valleys

309

Europe,

Prehistoric Europe

history of

The first settlers in Europe were primitive hunters who moved around in search of food. Bv about 5000 BC, people learned to farm and settled in

a much more important role in world history than its small population or size would suggest. The Greeks and Romans Europe has played

I*

colonized large parts of North Africa and western Asia, and from the 15th century onwards, European nations established trading empires that spanned the globe.

The Industrial Revolution of the 18th century gave Europe an economic strength which allowed it to dominate world trade, and both World Wars began in Europe. Since 1945, Europe’s global influence has declined, as wealth and military power has shifted to North America and Asia.

villages. Bronze-working, and later iron-working, spread across the continent.

Prehistoric “Venus” figurine from Lespugue, France

Civilizations of Europe After 900

BC,

four civilizations made their

successive mark on Europe. The first were the Greeks, who creared powerful city states. They were followed a century later by the Etruscans in Italy. By 200

BC

the Celts had settled across

Europe. Finally the vast and powerful Roman Empire spanned the continent, reaching irs height in

AD

117. Greek Europe The independent city

Christian Europe

Papacy

states of ancient Greece

As head of the Roman

got most of their wealth

In the 4th century, Christianity became the

Catholic Church, the

official religion of the Roman empire, and

popes had enormous

from trade. Their merchants sailed around

spiritual power. Vast

over the next 700 years the faith spread

the Mediterranean, and founded

landholdings also gave

throughout Europe. With the break-up of the

the popes much

Roman empire by 476 and the lack of any

political power, which

colonies from Spain to the Black

from ancient

powerfiil Greek

Greek temple

led to many conflicts

strong political force after then, Christianity

between the papacy

became the single unifying force across the continent and the church gained great power.

Ionic-style capital

and the leading rulers Papal ring

of Europe.

East and west Attempts by the pope in Rome to establish his jurisdiction over the entire Christian Church were resisted by the Orthodox Churches of eastern Europe, centred around the ancient city of Constantinople. In 1054, this schism (split) became final, leading to a religious division in Christian Europe that survives to this day.

College built around a central quadrangle

Merton College, one of Oxford s earliest colleges

Growth of education

Orthodox icon of the Archangel Gabriel

From its foundation in c.753 BC, the city of Rome graduallv

monasteries and then the universities. The first university

expanded its power until, bv the first century AD, it controlled

in Europe, specializing in medicine, was established at

most of Europe. The Romans gave Europe a network of roads, a

Salerno in southern Italy in the 9th century; others, such

common language (Latin), and a legal system, all of which

as Bologna, Paris, and Oxford, followed later.

survived long after the fall of the empire in the 5th century.

By the 16th centurv, centralized national governments had emerged right across Europe, from Spain in the west to Russia

Religious wars The creation of new, Protestant Churche* in the 16th centurv divided western Europe. Roman Catholic and

in the east. The Holy Roman

Protestant states

Empire had began to break up,

fought for supremacy in a series of bitter

and in countries such as England

wars which lasted

power was concentrated in the

until the middle of

hands of the monarch w ho ruled

the next century.

Overseas empires

Henry IV of France

built up empires. Spain and Portugal colonized Central and South America;

with the support of a parliament,

Basilica in Goa, India

In the 1‘vth centurv, European nations

of Philip II of Spain

compo.sed of members of the

was raised Protestant,

decorates the cover of

aristocracy and church.

but later converted to

Britain, France, and the Netherlands

Catholicism.

colonized North America and the Far fast.

one of his books.

310

Roman Europe

The Church dominated education, at first through the

Nation state

The rojal coat of arms

Latin inscription from a Roman tomb

EUROPE, HISTORY OF

World imperialism

Global economy

The Industrial Revolution began

-31

Diamonds

Nationalism

During the 19th century,

During the 19th centurv, many of the peoples of Europe

European steamships took

struggled to obtain their freedom from outside rulers. In one

in Britain in the mid-1700s, and

raw materials from their

year, 1848, Italians, Germans, Hungarians, Poles, Irish, and

it transformed world politics and

colonies to factories in

others fought for independence or lairer forms of government.

economics. Within a century,

Europe, and shipped out

European nations were strong and Hemp

rich enough to set up colonies

Fighting at Catania, Italy.

industrial cities of Europe

1848

gained vast wealth, but at

all around the world. Only the

T'

United States of America was able to resist European influence.

finished goods to markets abroad. The huge

the expense of poor producers in African and

Cotton

Asian colonies.

World wars Twice in the 20th century, European conflicts led to war on every

Scottish

continent. In 1914, national rivalries resulted in a four-year war

_

that cost 22 million lives. Germany was defeated and dissatisfied

\

•

YOU ARE LEAVING THE AMERICAN SECTOR

with the peace treaty. Again, war broke out in 1939. By the end of that war, in 1945, Europe was exhausted. Two superpowers, the . USA and the Soviet Union, now dominated international affairs.

BU BblE3)f(AETE H3 AMEPHKAHCKOrO CENTOPA

Soldiers’ hats, 1914

VOUS SORTEZ DU SECTEliR AMERICAIN

End of empires World War 1 led to the defeat of four great European empires —

Si VmiSSfll DHIMCWSCHEIISEKM!

Germany, Austro-Hungary, Russia, and Turkey — and weakened both Britain and France. After World War II,

Rival ideologies

Europe’s overseas colonies

Communism was established in Russia

fought successfully for

after 1917 and in Eastern Europe after

independence, with only

1945, while Fascism and Nazism took

France retaining sizeable

hold in Italy. Germany, and Spain in the

overseas possessions.

years up to 1945. By 1990, parliamentary democracy, at first weak in Europe, was

The double-headed eagle

the dominant form of government.

symbol of Germany

Iron Curtain

Modern Europe

After World War II, Russian troops

After World War II, French and German politicians

clear border, known as the Iron Curtain,

worked together to overcome their old hostilities.

emerged between the Russian-dominated

occupied much of Eastern Europe. A

Economic collaboration between the two countries

east and American-dominated west. The border split Germany into two countries.

Checkpoint between two sectors of the city of Berlin

developed into a formal European Union that grew to include many other western European countries.

Willy Brandt

With the collapse of communism and the rise of

Willv Brandt (1913-92) was born in Liibeck

market economies in Eastern Europe, many former

Germany but lived in Norwav during

communist countries lined up to join the EU.

World War II, where he was active ir the Resistance. As Chancellor of West Germans from 1969—"’4,

Collapse of Communism

Brandt worked to improve east-vsest

During the late 1980s, Russia withdrew its militarv and economic support

relations and made treaties vsith

from its communist allies in liastern Europe. Popular protests then

Poland and the USSR. He was

overthrew communism in evers East European nation bv 1900. but by the late 1990s, there was deep unrest in mans East European countries.

Timeline

Bronze statue

C.1250 BC Mveenaean culture

of Roman

flourishes in Greece.

legionaiy

awarded the 19“1 Nobel Peace Prize, Revolution on the streets of Romania

AD 11'' Roman Empire is

Mid-l^OOs Industrial

1940s—80s Europe gives

at its height.

Revolution begins to transform

up most of its colonies.

the European economy 1054 ChrLstiaii Church

195~ EEC is .set up.

f.900 BC Greek citv-states

splits into Orthodox cast

18~1 The map of Europe is

gain power.

and Roman C atholic west.

transformed as Germany and

1989-91 Communism falls.

ItaK' become unified n itions. C.~53 BC Rome is founded. C.2()0 Bt Celts spread across

explore and colonize large-

Europe.

parts of the globe.

FIND OUT

MORE

Celts

1994 Outbreak tifwar in

1500s Fuiopean nations use their navigation skills to

Cold WAR

Empires

Govern Ml NFS

AND I’OiniC S

.Southeast Europe.

1914-18 World War I. Flag of European 1939_45 World War II.

Union

Holy roman EMPIRE

Medieval EUROPE

Gri ece, ANCIENT

2001 Furo is launched.

Roman EMPIRE

World WAR I

World WAR II

311

EUROPE,

CENTRAL

Roman Catholicism In spite of repeated invasions of the area, and half a century of anti-religious communist rule, Roman

Jj Jf\^

X

A

of Europe on the North A European Plain, central Europe consists of four countries: Poland, the Czech Republic, Lying at the heart

Catholicism remains the dominant religion of central Europe. Throughout the region, colourful processions celebrate saints’ days and

4

other religious festivals.

Slovakia, and Hungary. With poor defenses because of the flat terrain, this historically troubled region has often been invaded by neighbouring powers and its country

hfv

borders redrawn. At one time or another, French, Germans, and Russians have all dominated the area. After World War II (1939—45), the countries of central Europe became communist states closely tied to the former Soviet Union. Since their independence in the late 1980s, many have struggled to compete on the world market.

Religious procession, Krakdw, Poland

r c D t • ^ Balt i c S e I y.jgk* •nttian

^

RUSSIAN FEDERATION rrHU-ANIA

• Ko'tzalin

Physical features Most of central Europe lies on the vast North European Plain and is largely flat, rolling ••^«run

farmland, broken by the low Sudeten and Carpathian Mountains in the south. In the north, rivers flow into the Baltic; in the south, they flow into the Danube on its way to the Black Sea.

' ‘ Ckitrc

i\.jll?rz«ch

r,*tOi.hpfva

RvbniE

PR/k'5ikcns arc bred • eggs and meat.

Peacocks arc bred for their exotic plumage.

Ducks are farmed for feathers, eggs, and meat.

Geese arc kept for meat, down, and eggs.

Sheep are bred for milk, meat, skins, and wool.

Red deer are bred for their meat, called venison. Angora goats have a

Jerseys are farmed for ,

coarse undercoat and a

their very rich milk.

curly wool outer coat.

Herefords were first bred in Britain and are now farmed in

Goats are farmed for milk, meat, and wool.

50 countries.

Goats can feed on scrubby

Almost every part

grass and thorny branches.

of a pig can be eaten.

-

Udders

Pigs are versatile feeders.

Ostrich chick; farmed (br meat and feathers.

Saanen goats are bred in Europe for their milk.

Chinchillas, rodents bred for their soft, delicate fur.

Animals bred

to

Pigs are farmed for pork, bacon, other meat products, skins, and bristles.

work

Long

Well¬ muscled Poitou donkeys are the worlds largest

Camels are used as pack animals, and also farmed for wool, milk, hides, and meat.

Heavy horses, used where a farmer has no tractor.

Donkeys carry large loads on little food or water.

Mules are interbred from horses and donkeys.

Elephants are used as draught (pulling) animals in southeast Asia.

325

FARMING, HISTORY of the first farmers began to grow crops and breed animals for food. Before

Ten thousand years ago,

that, nomadic hunter-gatherers fed on berries, plants, and wild beasts they encountered on their travels. With the emergence of farming, however, people were able to produce a reliable food supply, and to settle

Flint sickle in

SL™

tamed wild animals, kept them in herds, and used them for meat, milk, skins, and wool. By contrast, nomadic herders moved their animals constantly in search of new pastures. Neolithic revolution After the New Stone Age, c.8000 BC, (Neolithic) people in western Asia began to grow crops. This type of

permanently in one place, giving rise to the world s earliest civilizations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China. Farming methods continued to evolve slowly until, in the

farming supponed 10 times more , people than hunting and gathering.

Irrigation

18th century, a so-called Agricultural Revolution led to dramatic changes. Since then, farming has become more mechanized and feeds ever greater numbers of people.

Agricultural revolution

wooden handle

Early farmers needed water for their crops. Rivers and artificial canal *

systems played a vital role in the ancient agricultural civilizations of

Rice farming

EgYP^’

Indus Valiev, and China.

Medieval farming

From about 1750, a series of major changes ushered in the era of modern farming. Key developments included large-scale farming, the intensive breeding of livestock, and the improvement of a number of agricultural techniques — such as four-course crop rotation — all of which were first developed in Britain. Goat

Selective breeding Robert Bakewell (1725-95), the fifth Duke of

Farmers in medieval Europe divided the land around their village into three fields. Each family had one 12hectare strip of land in each field. Everyone followed the same threeyear farming cycle: one field was left fallow (unused) each year to restore the soil’s nutrients, and the other two grew barley, oats, rye, or wheat.

Bedford (1765-1802), and other British stock

Enclosures

breeders during the Agricultural Revolution, used selective breeding on their ftrms and estates

From the 1500s, English landowners enclosed

to develop larger, healthier animals, such as cattle, goats,

common land with fences, ditches or hedges, to

sheep, and turkeys, with a higher milk or meat yield.

turn it into private property. As a result, the

Later breeders used the same system to develop animals

co-operative medieval system of farming gave

for a particular purpose. For example, the Camargue bull

way to a system of private ownership where land-

which is bred only for fighting.

owners made all the decisions about what to farm.

Book of Hours, 1416

Crop rotation

t

// y

Charles “Turnip” Townshend

During the Agricultural Revolution, farmers found that if they grew certain crops, such as

A main forerunner of the

turnips, clover, barley, and wheat in

Agriculrural Revolution,

successive years, they did not need to let

Viscount Townshend

the land lie fallow for a year. Root crops,

(1674—1738) retired

such as turnips, improved the soil, and

from a brillianr career in

therefore the qualitv of the next harvest.

Turnips and wheat

pohtics to concentrate on Black Norfolk turkey

New farm machinery Machines, such as the thresher (formulated in 1786 by Scots inventor Andrew Meikle), cased workloads and improved productivity. Flireshcrs, which separated the grain from the straw, became more effective after 1850 when farm workers artached steam engines to power rhem. Straw exits here.

326

farming. He popularized a four-course roration of crops, and pioneered “marling" (using limey clav as fenilizer). His widespread culrivation of the rurnip — as a fodder crop to keep animals fed during the winter earned him his nickname.

Green Revolution In the 1960s, a Green Revolution took place. New “high-yield” crop varieties were developed to increase wheat and rice production, particularly in highly populated countries such as India, and China. Critics claimed this process damaged the environment through overuse of fertilizer and concentrarion on only a few species. Recently farmers have been rediscovering tradirional farming methods and using organic fertilizers and insecticides.

FASCISM see GOVFRNMFNTS AND POI ITICS • FENCING see COMBAT SPORTS • FFRMI, ENRICO see NUCLEAR POWER

FERNS

Male fern Ecrns similar to this male fern, so-called because of its vigorous growth, arc found in woods all

of all the nonflowering, spore-bearing plants are the

The most advanced

around the world. This species has stiff, bright green fronds. Each blade is divided into “leaves” called

ferns and their relatives, known as the

pinnae (singular: pinna),

Pteridophytes, There are about 12,000 species of Pteridophyte, of which about 10,400 are

each of which is further divided into pinnules. A full-grown frond may

Pinna at and.

ferns. The others include horsetails and club mosses. Pteridophytes are vascular The frond continues

reach as much

pinnules

as 150 cm (5 ft) long.

the

plants, that is, plants whose stems contain tissues that transport water and food around the plant internally. They flourish best in warm,

lower parts

ifurl Young frond ^

A developing male fem plant

damp environments, but also grow where it is cool or dry.

Stipe

the

stalk the ft

Ferns “V typical fern plant has underground

Rhizome

stems, or rhizomes, from which grow roots, and leaves called fronds. Upright rhizomes

Root

produce a fern with a short radiating crown of fronds, while long horizontal rhizomes

1

produce a spreading fern. Ferns grow in a

Frond buds develop on

2

the rhizome. Each bud

\ ariety of places, but all have a two-stage

A frond can grow

A male fern produces

^ tall fronds, each on a

' rapidly raoidlv because all al the

produces just one frond. It

cells of the stalk and

scaly stipe. Fertile fronds

life-cycle. The gametophyte is a small,

takes up to three years for

leaflets arc fully formed,

are the last to unfurl, so

short-lived plantlet that produces sex cells.

a bud to develop and a

though very small. They

that the spores are released

\fter fertilization, a female sex cell

frond to start growing.

just have to expand.

in the summer.

grows into a sporophyre, which is the fern plant. Epiphytic ferns An epiphytic fern grows on the bough or trunk of a tree. It takes no nourishment from its host, but

These small plants

The stiff upright stems of horsetails grow

grow on damp ground

in dense patches from underground

clear of the

or on rainforest trees.

stems. Branches are arranged in whorls,

Their creeping stems

although fertile stems often have no

are covered with tiny

branches. Tiny brown leaves grow

leaves arranged in a

in rings around the stems

spiral. Spores are

and branches. Spores are

branch.

^

minerals from rain and debris that become trapped W^T

Horsetails

Fronds hang

obtains moisture and

among its roots.

Club mosses

i

Radiating

carried in modified

borne in cone-like structures

leaves on fertile stems.

on the tip of fertile stems.

The life-cycle of a fern

fronds Pinna

Tree ferns

\

stem

Dry weather causes

Sex organs are

Archegonium

Antheridium

New fem

the sporangum

carried on the

containing

containing

plant — the

to burst at

underside

female

male

sporophyte

a weak spot.

of the

sex celL

sex cells

gametophyte.

Tree ferns have woody, fibrous trunks topped with a crown of fronds. They arc found in all climates, most frequendy in the tropics and

Gametophyte is a

sub-tropics. The tallest Spores

species reaches 20 m (65 fr). Fertile fronds

Water ferns

have sori

Some ferns arc aquatic.

(singular; sorus),

Sporanga

thin geen plantlet.

Sixty-four spores

A spore landing

Male sex cells

develop inside each

on damp soil

swim in a film

The first female sex

Within each sorus

sporangium. The

germinates into a

of soil moisture

cell to be

They either root into

usually on the

arc clusters of

sporangium then

gametophyte. This

to the female sex

fertilized

mud in fresh water, or

lower surface of

sporangia, which

bursts, releasing all

bears male and

cells and then

grows into a

float (fee. This AzoUa

each pinna.

contain the spores.

the spores.

female sex organs.

fertilize them.

fern plant.

species floats. Its tiny roots dangle in the water below a mat of fronds.

HND OUT

MORE

MOS-SES and LIVERWORTS

Plants

Plants, ANATOMY

Plants, REPRODUCTION

Rainforest WILDLIEE

Trees

327

FESTIVALS All over the world,

people set aside special

days each year to enjoy themselves at festivals. These public celebrations are held for many reasons: they may be linked to a community’s religious beliefs, mark the changing seasons, or honour important events in a country’s history.

Calendar festivals

Day of the Dead On I November, Mexicans celebrate the Day of the Dead,

The majority of festivals

to honour people who have died.

are held at the same

Families have picnics by

time each year. Many

the graves of their

religions have adapted the

relatives, decorate the

celebrations of early peoples to

streets with flowers and

Childrens Day

carved skeletons, and

their own ends: the Christian

cat sweets shaped like

Christmas and the Hindu Diwali are

To mark Childrens Day (5 May) in Japan, streamers in the shape of carp

skulls and coffins. Papier-mache skeleton

held around the same time as ancient

are hung out. 1 he strong, energetic fish is

feasts marking the onset of winter.

seen as a good role model for young children.

Harvest festivals

Carnivals

Mardi Gras

Ancient peoples thought that

Originally, carnivals were pagan festivals

carnival is by tradition a last chance for merry-making before

In many Roman Catholic countries

thanking the gods would

to celebrate the rebirth of nature in

ensure a good crop the next

spring. Later, they became associated

year, and people still celebrate

with the Roman Catholic festival of Lent.

Thousands of people enjoy the

the start of Lent, the weeks of fasting that come before Easter.

festivals based on this idea.

The start and duration of the carnival

week-long Mardi Gras carnival in

There are many festivals in

season varies from country to country.

New Orleans, USA, which is

Africa and Papua New

Carnival in Venice

Tuesday”. This refers to Shrove

Guinea that celebrate the

This famous Italian carnival first began in the

Tuesday the day before Lent

yam crop, and the

11 th century. Traditionally, man) revellers

begins, when all the fats in the

Oktoberfest beer festival in

named after the French for “Fat

wear masks. They originally did this to hide

home must be used up. Another

their faces while they behaved outrageously.

spectacular Mardi Gras carnival is

Germany began as thanks

held in Rio dc Janeiro, Brazil. Float

for the crop of hops.

pulled by tractor_

Radishes On Christmas

Mardi Gras float

Eve, townspeople

Caribbean carnival

in Oaxaca, Mexico, celebrate their radish

Carnival in the Caribbean combines African and European traditions; dance,

crop by carving large,

costume, and music are important parts

recently harvested

of African religious beliefs.

radishes into elaborate shapes, which they use to decorate market stalls and restaurants. Food is served on chipped plates, which are saved for the occasion and smashed at the end of the night.

Corn

Modern festivals

Political festivals

Most festivals set up todav mark

Significant political dates are often the cause

non-religious events. The Olympics

for regular celebration. Festivals mark the

celebrate excellence in sports; the

anniversary of a nation’s independence or a

Edinburgh festival in the UK

great leaders birthday: in the USA, there is

promotes the performing arts.

a holiday on George Washingtons birthday.

In England, people often used the last of

May Day

the year’s corn to make

Once a springtime

a figure called a corn

fertility festival.

Mime anist,

dolly. The dolly kept

May 1 is a now a

Edinburgh Festival

public holidav to

the corn spirit alive through the winter,

Roskllde

ensuring another good

Thousands of fans attend

Russia, May Day is

harvest the next year.

this summer rock music

marked with trades

festival in Denmark.

union parades.

honour workers. In

Traditional English corn dolly FIND OUT

MORE 328

Christianity

Film and film making

Food

Hinduism

Sport

Unions, Trade

FEUDALISM In

How feudalism began The great emperor Charlemagne insisted that all his nobles swear

parts of medieval asia

loyalty to him. This bond beween

and Europe, a system arose for organizing society known as feudalism. In the feudal system, the king gave land to powerful

centuries, feudalism spread through

barons, who then gave land and protection

British Isles and Sicily.

lord and warrior began the feudal system. Over the next two France, Germany, northern Italy, the Slav countries, and finally the

to lesser lords, and so on through to the

Mounted warriors

peasants. Each level was then expected to fight to protect its overlords whenever needed. European feudalism started in

Warriors riding horses to war became more common after 950. These warriors were the first knights. They had great prestige, and became an important pan of the feudal system

the late 9th century, and spread all over the continent. Outside Europe, the feudal system operated in Palestine during the Crusades, and also in Japan, where samurai gave military service to their overlords in return for land.

- Derisive image of king with cat, not crown, on his head

The manor Farmland and its ownership was the most important part of

King Although the

the administration centre of the

land, he could

system. The lands surrounding the

rarely afford to keep an army.

Lords and vassals

He was often in

In the European feudal system, the only person who actually owned land was the king. When the king granted land to

manor house were divided into the demesne (for the lord’s own use),

conflict with the

the arable (granted in parcels to the

barons, on whom

peasants), and the meadow lands

he relied for his

a baron, the baron knelt and pledged to be the kings vassal (servant). Lesser lords swore a similar oath to the

feudalism, and the manor was

king owned the

(used by everyone for livestock).

Barons

barons and became their vassals, and peasants swore

The most powerful

allegiance to the lords. Bishops were also the kings

of all the nobles, the batons got their lands

\assals, and held nearly as much power as the batons.

directlv from the king. Because they provided

Feudal counsel

the roval armv, they had

Kings and barons often asked

great power and prestige.

for advice, or counsel, from

Local lords

their vassals when making any important decisions.

Local knights got their land (or

This l4th-centurv French

manor) from the barons. In remm,

manuscript shows Philip VI

thev fought for the barons when

of France judging Robert of

needed. As time went on, local lords

Valois, helped bv the

often paid a tax called scutage (shield

bishops on his right

money) instead of fighting, and the king

hand and the barons

used this money to hire professional soldiers.

on his left.

In peacetime, they farmed and kept order.

Ightham Mote,

The manor house

England

Feudal contract

Peasants

Every manor house had a hall.

The people owed their loyalty

The p)easants, at the bottom of feudal society, got their plots

This acted as the dining and living room for

to the monarch. This “contract”

of land from the local lord of the manor. He allowed them

the family, and also a general reception room

meant that Philip VI could - and

to farm this land; in return, the\’ paid rent in produce and

where the peasants paid their rent. The kitchen

did - tax his subjects heavily to

money. The peasants also contributed several days’ labour

was at one end of the hall, beside a pantry and

finance the Hundred Years War.

on “public” projects such as road- and bridge-building.

bunery (store room for drinks). Buildings in the courtyard outside included workshops and catde-sheds. The whole complex was often

Domesday Book

surrounded by a moat for protection.

William I

The Hall, Ightham Mote

For the feudal system to work well, the ruler needed

The illegitimate son

detailed information about the land and who lived

of Duke Robert I of

on it. William of Normandy, who introduced

Normandy, William

feudalism to Britain, had a complete record made

(c.1028-1087) conquered England in

of all land ownership in England in 1085—86.

1066. He introduced

This became known as the Domesday Book.

the feudal system to the island, and replaced

The book is the most complete record of

Saxon nobles with Norman lords.

land-holding in medieval Europe.

FIND OUT

MORE

Charlemagne

Hundred YEARS VAR

Knghts and HERALDRY

Medieval EUROPE

Normans

Samurai and SHOGUNS

329

FIJI see PACIFIC, SOUTHWEST

FILMS •

AND

FILM-MAKING Pictures

In 1895, THE Lumiere

Pre-production

brothers held the first public film screening, in a

represent each shot.

Film-making begins long before the cameras start to turn. After a studio (a

room below a Parisian cafe. The

film-making company)

black and white images flickered on

agrees to make a movie,

a silent screen, yet the audience was enthralled. The magic of the movies has continued ever since. Technology

a script is prepared, the

developed rapidly: sound arrived in 1927, colour in the 1930s, and todays complex films often involve stunning special effects. Film

The producer

Storyboard

budget drawn up, actors

A producer decides which film to

With one small picture for each

and skilled crew hired,

make, finds the money to finance

shot, a storyboard is important in

and the entire production

it (often millions of jxiunds). and

planning a film and gives an idea

brings together the stars, script,

of what it will look like. Notes

and director.

outline the action and dialogue.

planned to the last detail.

The set

Focus puller has a seat at top of crane to

The set designer uses sketches

adjust the focus on

and modeb to design the set.

the camera leru.

The film scenery, or set, is often purpose-built, to simulate the right atmosphere without the film crew leaving

production is now an international industry, generating great wealth

the studio. An actor who, on screen, seems to swagger into a saloon in the rough Wild West, may, in fact, be in a studio in Bombay,

and employing thousands worldwide.

Hollvwood, or Paris. The set

Casting

decorator finds

It is vital to the success of a movie to cast

props and

(place) actors who suit their parts

decorates set..

Boom holds microphone near actor but out I of shot.

artistically. Audiences have their favourites, so the choice of a Powerful

popular star can turn a promising film

Boom

into a huge

operator

box-office

sits here to position the microphone.

The camera and camera Crane raises the

equipment on set are

camera above

moved by the gnp.

the actors’ heads.

Production

The camera operator

Director’s

sits here to work the

folding chair

camera during shooting.

„ext to camera

When the actors move,

When filming begins, a movie set is crowded with

The director

equipment, and each piece is the responsibility of a

Resjxinsible for the artistic side of the

Screen to view

film-making process, the director is the

the fib

most important person on set. Directors

(sequences of filming), everyone works frantically to

control the action and judge how well

ensure that everything is adjusted exactlv as the

each take brings the script to life. They

make-up have their own staff on hand.

Motion pictures The continuous action on a movie screen is, in fact, an illusion. What we are watching are thousands of still photographs, taken rapidly one after the other. A film camera shoots 24 photographs (frames) every

sound track

consult with experts in each department, such as the director of photography, who is responsible for the way the film looks. Editing

Post-production

table

Separate scenes in a film are shot in whatever order suits the crew. Then the director chooses the best sections, and the film editor links them in the

second, and when the images are

right sequence to tell the story. While

Editing

projected at the same rate, our eyes

working closely with the director and

The editor cuts up the

Music, the actors’ speech, and

merge the pictures together. Over

other technicians, the editor carefully

disjointed sequences of film,

any background sound effects

27 m (90 ft) of film is shot for just one minute of cinema.

aligns the sound track and pictures, and adds the special effects.

330

move the microphone. Loudspeaker plays back

specific member of the crew. Between takes

director wants. Off the set, props, wardrobe, and

grips push the stand to

Sound track

cutting between frames, and

are each recorded separately

splices them together. Cuts are

and then combined to make

viewed at an editing table.

the sound track.

FILMS AND FILM-MAKING

Typ es of films

Babe is a piglet

From the simplest short cartoon film to

who believes he

Charlie Chaplin

is a sheepdog.

One of the best-loved comedians of

a full-length feature with an all-star cast,

the silent screen, Chaplin (1889-1977)

films cover every subject. There have

moved to the US.A from London as a

been notable films on many topics, but

Babe,

some of the most successful movies have

1995

young man. He appeared in over 60 short films and 11 full-length comedies, including City Lights and Modem Times.

been in areas where film can add an extra

Comedy

His characterization of a tramp,

dimension, such as the vivid settings of

The first films were silent, yet the comic

who keeps a sense of humour

antics of the actors made audiences roar

despite great hardship, was based

with laughter. Today, comedies range from

on observation of poor people on

movies, the special effects of science-fiction

biting social commentaries to the gentle

the London streets.

and horror films, or the singing and

humour of an animal film such as Babe.

fantasy and space adventures or western

dancing of American musicals.

Going to the movies

Horror German film makers were the first

Jean-Louis Barrault Arletty

Romance

to realise that audiences like being

By the 1930s, going to the cinema was

Love stories are

frightened: directors were making

popular entertainment, but in the 1950s

always popular. The

horror movies in Germany by

television rook over and the film industry

romantic Les Enfants

1913. By the 1930s, horror had

du Paradis was made

caught on in Hollywood, where it

in German-occupied

has been popular ever since.

France during World

declined. Recently, movie-going has grown popular again. Today, multiplex cinemas

appeared in 1931.

War II: in 1979.

More than 100 films have been

French critics voted

based on the same theme since.

screen many films at the same time, offering audiences a wide choice of pictures.

it the best French Les Enfants du Paradis, 1944

film ever made.

Picture palaces

Boris Karloff as Frankenstein’s monster

Following the arrival of sound in 1927,

Special effects

Eyes, nose,

cinemas were built

and mouth

in most towns in

Anything can happen on film, thanks

operated by

North America,

largely to the special effects department,

motors.

Europe and .Australia. With

a complex and skilled area of film-making

their impressive

Effects may range from animals that seem

architecture, the

to talk, to horrific dripping wounds, or

cinemas of the 1920s and

people appearing to fly through the air.

1930s were ofren called

Make-up

picture

Actors wear make-up to look

Movie models

natural under the bright film

Where it is too costly, dangerous, or

palaces.

lights. Make-up also helps when

impossible to use the real thing, film¬

an actor must look unnatural. A

makers may turn to models. Tiny models

make-up artist can make an actor

stand in for massive spacecraft in science-

-Neon sign

look much older, or use latex

fiction films. A talking animal may be

rubber and lining colours to add

a puppet, or an actor in costume whose

Hype and merchandise

dreadful wounds. In horror and

remote-controlled mask is operated by

The cost of film production means it is vital to make the

science-fiction films, make-up is

a puppeteer. This kind of puppetry is

public eager to see a movie, so that the producers can earn

used to turn people into aliens.

called animatronics.

back their investment and make a good profit. Publicists work hard to sell a film before it opens. They inform

Make-up in Terminator 2

Blue screen

Computers

journalists, and arrange for the

To create the illusion that a character is flying, an actor is

Computers can manipulate images to create extraordinary

actors to appear on television

filmed in front of a blue screen. Wind machines make his

special effects. Programs also allow operators to draw and

talk shows. This process is

clothes flutter, as if air is moving past. An optical printer

animate characters on screen. Changes are much easier to

known as hype. Selling

make here than in

items related to a

then combines the sequence with footage shot from a

'lim

plane, or of a simulated

animation which

movie, such as socks or

space environment. The

has been hand

a mug, is another

printer re-photographs

drawn frame

way of making

images from each film

by frame.

more money.

^

Batman logo

onto a single frame, to Disney’s Toy

blend the two films

Story is a

seamlessly.

Batman

computer¬ - Actor held by wires

merchandise

generated film.

™ & © 1996 DC Comics Disney

Timeline 1895 The Lumiere

1920s Russian director

1927 The Jazz Singer,

Technicolor

1941 US actor-director

1960s Nouvelle Vague

Sergei Eisenstein

made in the US, is

three-strip camera

Orson Welles (1915-85)

(“New Wave”) film-makers

brothers open the

(1898—1948) introduces

the first full-length

releases Citizen Kane; it

in France introduce

first public cinema in

cross-cutting, showing

film with sound.

explores new techniques in

influential new techniques.

Paris, France.

bursts of action one after the other so they seem to

1932 The “three-

1913 By this date,

happen simultaneously.

strip” process is introduced by the

1952 The CinemaScopc

the centre of the US

192" The Academy of

Technicolor

process introduces wide¬

1990s Special effects

film industry.

Motion Picture Arts and

company, and colour

screen cinema.

techniques are advanced.

Hollywood. Calif., is

.Academy Award (Oscar)

© \.M.PA.S w

lighting, dialogue, and the

Sciences is set up; in

films, originally

1929, it honours film¬

developed much earlier,

makers for the first time.

begin to take off.

use of camera lenses.

1980s The VCR allows people to see films at home.

FIND OUT

MORE

Cameras

Cartoons and ANIMATION

Edison, THOMAS

Video

331

Film posters United States

The Gold Rush (USA, 1925), a classic

Raging Bull (USA, 1980) is one of the

Blade Runnet (USA, 1982) porttays

Do the Right Thing (USA, 1989)

silent film, is touching yet very funnv.

most influential films of the 1980s.

a bleak Los Angeles in 2019.

develops from comedy to social comment

Europe

Oceania

Metropolis (Get. 1926) is a distutbing

Pelle the Conqueror (Den/Swe. 1987)

Once Were Warriors (NIZ, 1994): a great

vision of an “ideal” city in the yeat 2000.

won top international awards.

success criticallv and at the box-office.

AMERICA S SO I SMASH HIT COMEDY! C>«A»T

AMVtl

Dowiu

panzerkrei^i.

.PofettiMn" The Battleship Potemkin (USSR, 1925), commissioned by Soviet leadets to put across a powetful political message, is still tefetted to as a mastetpiece of cinema. Four Weddings and a Funeral (UK, 1994)

>Xomen... (Spain, 1988) is a manic farce

The Piano (Aust. 1993), directed and

is a light-hearted, appealing romance.

from talented director Pedro Almodovar.

written by Jane Campion, won three Oscars

Africa

Asia THE iCilEKT CiniU

cm Fumii

■VIA S OnCATCST FUM

Ti*

af

UTTWIT UT

jAMuo-riES Mmurt

msmfwoBLO

332

The Sixth Day (Egypt, 1986), directed bv

Raise the Red Lantern (HK, 1991)

Youssef Chahine, starred actress Daleeda.

looks at a woman’s life in 1920s’ China

FINLAND

Finland facts Capital CITY Helsinki Area 338,130 sq km (130,352 sq miles)

A LAND OF LAKES AND FORESTS, Finland is bordered by Russia to the east, the Baltic Sea to the south, and Sweden and Norway to the west and north. Finland shares government of Lapland, in the Arctic Circle,

Population 5,200.000 Main languages Finnish. Swedish Major religion Christian Currency Euro Life expectancy 77 years

with Sweden and Norway. Finland was ruled by Russia until 1917, and, as a result, Finns have more in common culturally with the east than with their Scandinavian neighbours. A wealthy, liberal nation,

Peopi f per doctor 333 Government Multi-party democracy Adult literacy 99%

Finland was the first European country to give women the vote

Physical features From the air, Finland is a patchwork of lakes, peat bogs, and trees. Forests dominate the land, and water covers about ten per cent of the country. There are some 98,000 islands within the lakes, and 30,000 off the coast. The Arctic north, including part of Lapland, is a bleak area of rocky tundra. Forests Pine, spruce, and birch trees cover 80 per cent of Finland, making it

Lakes and islands

the ninth most forested

Finland has more than 60,000 lakes, mainly

country in the world.

in the southeast, carved out by glaciers in

The forest is most

the last Ice Age. Many islands are scattered

dense just south of

in the lakes and off the warm southwest

the Arctic Circle and is

coast, including 6,000 of the Aland Islands

often covered in snow.

-4rc

Barren 7.5%

(-42°F)

Forest 80%

Built-up -6°C

Wetland

025%

(2rF)

0.5%

618 mm (24 in)

Climate

Farmland

Tundra 1.5%

Finland has short, bright summers and long, cold winters when lakes often freeze up to

BALTIC

Dense forests and a maze of lakes, rivers, and peat bogs mean onlv 11 per cent of Finland’s land can be used for crops or grazing animals. Despite this, larmers produce all

3a

timber industry, and the waters are used for fishing and hvdroelectric power.

Helsinki. Families are close-knit, and most

Raurr.,!

homes have a sauna, or hot, steamy

Turku

relaxation room. Women enjoy equal rights

. Vant^j 5 IV\ eii>p» * •TtWVa SalJ

Kirkniemi

and about 50 per cent pursue a career.

paper mill

HELSINKI

• Mariehamn

A

of the country’s dairy foods. The forests support a valuable

Almost half of the population lives around

Pon*

q ^

1 m (3 ft 3 in) deep. The Arctic north sees midnight sun in its 73-day summer.

People

SEA

^AliirtU

10.25%

Land use

uifoir

B

1 D

Fielsinki Standing on a peninsula and several islands in the Gulf of Finland, the vibrant Cooling off after the sauna

capital of Helsinki has about 770,000 inhabitants.

Farming and industry

Tree-lined avenues and a

Finland produces all of its ovtn food. Most crops

colourful market back onto

are grown in the southwest and on the sunny Aland

a busy harbour. Only half

Islands. The country is a world leader in the production

of the citv’s area has been

of plywood, wood pulp, and paper, and these alone make up 30 per cent of the total exports. Furniture and high-

developed, leaving parkland for the residents to enjoy. The bustling Helsinki harbour

FIND OUT

MORE

Arctic OCEAN

Energy

Europe, HISTORY OF

Fishing INDUSTRY

17 per sq km

6"'%

33°o

tech manufacturing compete in world markets and, with

(44 per sq mile)

Urban

Rural

the service sector, employ the majority of the work-force.

Forests

Glaciation

Lakes

Paper

Scandinavia, HISTORY OF

Trade and INDUSTRY

Winter SPORTS

333

FIRE

Combustion or burning

Flame is a glowing gas,

Fire is the heat and light produced when fuel

produced in burning.

bums. This process is known as combustion. The fuel can be any flammable material (one

Burning out of control

in forests or cities,

that can catch fire). The material must first be heated to a temperature called the

a fire leaves a trail of destruction. Yet life without the benefits of fire is unimaginable. We use fire

ignition temperature; above this, it will burst into flame. As a fire gets hotter, more fuel catches alight,

in power stations, car engines, and kitchens, to provide electricity and transport, or to cook food.

and the flames spread. Gases and vapx)urs bum quickly, liquids and solids take longer to bum.

Early humans realized the value of fire about half a million years ago - perhaps when lightning set a

Making a fire In the past, there were two main methods

tree on fire. Learning to control and use the

of starting a fire: raising the

flames helped them hunt, clear land for farming, survive in colder climates, and eat

temperature until flames appeared, or striking sparks to set light to tinder. Cigarette lighters still start fires by

foods that were inedible when raw. No wonder some religions still worship fire

using the spark of flint on steel.

as a hungry god.

Tinder stored in box.

Lid with candle holder

Welder

Using fire

at work

Bow drills

To make fire do useful work,

Rapidly turning the

the supply of air or fuel must

string of a bow drill

be controlled to keep the flames

causes friction at the tip

burning evenly. Furnaces, cooking

which starts flames.

stoves, and power plants use fire for the heat energy it produces. Heat is not always the main purpose of creating A tinder box contains flint, which makes

fire. In a car engine fuel

sparks when stmek against metal (the steel).

burns explosively. Expanding gases drive the vehicle; the

Matches Invented in 1827, these

heat produced is wasted. A fire piston works

wooden splinters were ripped

Welding

like a bicycle pump:

with chemicals. The chemicals

Many industrial processes rely

compressing air in

were ignited by heat,

on combustion. In the

the tube raises the

generated by mbbing the rip

welders torch, oxygen and

temperature until

against sandpaper. Safety

acetylene gas mix and

the tinder (flammable

matches bum onlv when

produce a flame hot

material) inside

mbbed against a specially

enough to melt steel.

catches alight.

coated strip on the matchbox

Cooking

Fire-engine with

Myths about fire

Many foods must be cooked before

hydraulic platform,

they can be eaten. When food is

used to reach awkward spaces.

heated, chemical changes take

The power and danger of fire made

place that improve its taste and

ancient peoples wonder about its origin.

make it easier to digest. Early

Myths that explain how people learned

people ate raw food until they

to tame flames occur in many separate

discovered cooking.

cultures. Most fire

probably by accident.

myths involve a hero

Some booms are up to 62 m

Cooking

(203 ft) long.

with fire

who brings fire to the world.

Rescue

Prometheus

platform

Fighting fire

In Greek mythology, the chief god, Zeus, hid the

Fires feed on fuel, air, and heat; removing any one of these puts out the flames. Firefighters spray a blaze with water to remove heat and to create a blanket of steam that chokes off the air supply.

Leg for support

334

FIND OUT

MORE

Food

Heat and

TEMPERATURf

secret of fire from mortals (humans) to punish them for a trick that a lesser god, Prometheus, had played on him. But Prometheus snatched a glowing ember from the Sun, and brought fire to the Earth.

Inventions

Light

Prehistoric

PEOPLE

FIRST AID First aid ranges

At the scene Effective first aid — the temporary treatment of injury or illness

from cleaning

while waiting for medical aid

a small wound and covering it with sticking plaster, to dealing with serious injuries at a major disaster. But its main aims are the same: to save life,

— relies on correctly assigning priorities. At an accident, one of the first priorities is to summon the emergency services.

prevent the casualty’s condition from worsening,

Scene of a motorcycle accident

promote healing and recovery, and arrange for expert

Assessing conditions

help at the earliest opportunity. Recently, first aid has advanced greatly due to a better understanding of the body’s needs in

Experienced first aiders know that noisy casualties are not necessarily the most T

hurt. At a multiple accident, they assess quickly the condition of all casualties,

serious injury or disease, improved medical equipment, and mobile communications. It now plays an even more vital role in saving lives, and speeding a casualty’s recovery.

then concentrate available fitst aid on the

-

most setiously injuted. In hospitals, this

/

assessment is known as triage.

A telephone call is

/ /

pressing lightly on

usually the best way

a pulse pointy

to get help. Special

1

telephones are located

\

ABC stands for the body’s three vital needs. “A”

!■ 1

j

Raising the alarm

Two fingers

ABC of first aid

1

in areas such as

\

stands for airway: the airway needs to be open so

motorways, hut calls to

that oxygen-containing air can enter the lungs.

the emergency services are

L. I I J

Spanish public telephone

free on all telephones. Shouting, waving flags,

“B” stands for breathing, by which the body

or firing flares are all alternative methods.

inhales fresh air and expels stale air. “C” stands for the circulation of the blood, which distributes

Further danger

oxygen around the body. When dealing with an

Checking for a pulse

First aiders should never place themselves

unconscious casualty, the first aider must check

The heart pumps blood around the body,

or others in danger. Before treating the

causing a pulse. A first aider can check the

casualty, they should try to make the area

that the casualty has a clear airway, is breathing,

heart is still beating by feeling fot this pulse

safe. Fire, traffic, electricity, and unsafe

and has a pulse that indicates blood circulation.

in arteties located in the neck ot wtist.

structures are some of the hazards that may delay treatment.

Fire extinguisher

First-aid kit In many countries, the law requires workplaces and schools to keep first-aid kits. The contents should be kept in a clean, marked container and Airway

Breathing

Circulation

be re-stocked regularly. Because there is a danger

Inhaled foreign bodies or fluid can

If breathing stops, the first aider may

If a pulse is absent, the first aider

of misusing drugs, the contents of some kits are

block the airway. Bv tipping the head

blow air at rcgulat intervals through

may carry out heart massage

back and straightening the airway, a

the casualty’s mouth into their lungs.

(external chest compression) to try

restricted to sterile wound dressings.

first aidet can look fot blockages.

This is called artificial ventilation.

to stimulate the heart into action.

Safety Bandages and Forceps

Bent leg and arm in fiont

An extended head and neck keeps

of body prevent casualty

the airway open and prevents the

.

sterile dressings

(tweezers)

Recovery position

^ Painkillers

tongue blocking throat.

Eyebath^

^

Recovery position If the casualty is breathing but unconscious, the first aider may gently place

/

Cottonwool

him or her in the

or similar

recovery fxjsition until

absorbents

expert help arrives. However, it is important to remember that a person involved in a bad accident may

Elasticated bandagt

have damage to bones and nerves. First aiders should

for treating sprains

avoid moving the casualty, unless it is vital to save life.

FIND OUT

MORE

Drugs

Hospitals

Medicine

Medicine,

Nightingale,

Plants,

HISTORY OF

FLORENCE

USES OF

335

FISH The first fish appeared in the seas 470 million years ago. Today, more than

Fins

Scales

Most fish have a dorsal fin, paired pectoral

Most fish have a covering of

and pelvic fins, and a tail for movement In

backward-facing scales that help to

some fish, fins have become specialized as

streamline them. Bony fish have

lifting foils, walking legs, suckers for

either flat, oval, or square overlapping

holding on, or poisoned spines

scales, while sharks have tooth-like

for protection.

structures buried in the skin. Dorsalfin

20,000 species have been described, ranging from the great whale shark to the pygmy

Catidal, or tail, fin

goby. Fish live in freshwater streams, rivers, and lakes, and in saltwater seas and oceans. A few, including eels and salmon, migrate from salt to fresh water. Some fish are fierce predators, and because of this many others have evolved a range of methods of defence. Although most fish leave their

Operculum (gill cover)

eggs and young to look after themselves, some species protect their young.

Pectoral fin

European carp

Fish features Fish have a number of features in GUIs

common. They breathe through gills, Swim bladder

Stomach

Swim bladder Bony fish have a swim bladder

Gills

containing air, and they are able to fill and empty it at will. In many bony fish the swim bladder controls up and down in the water.

Heart

Inside a fish

sharks and rays have paired gills in the

side. They have a tail for propulsion,

throat, with openings to the outside

fins for steering, and scales for

known as gill slits. Bony fish have

Flatfish

Fish groups

their sides, half buried and camouflaged in

The fish are divided into three

the sand on the seabed. Like most fish, the

groups: jawless and primitive fish

young develop in eggs. Thev hatch into

(cyclostomes), which include the

normal larval fish that swim “the right wav

lampreys and hagfish; cartilaginous

up” in the plankton.

fish (elasmobranchs), which include 0

17 days old

paired gills at the back of the head,

The larval

the sharks, rays, and ratfish; bony

JL fish has an eye on either

fish (teleosts), which include the

side of its

more familiar fish, such as herring,

head.

cod, plaice, trout, eels, goldfish,

2

sticklebacks, and guppies.

One eye

with one opening covered by a flap

eyes and an obvious mouth with teeth.

Flatfish spend most of their lives lying on

■j

gills for breathing. The

with paired body muscles along each

protection. Their heads contain paired

buoyancy, allowing the fish to move

10 days old

Almost all fish have

and are generally streamlined in shape

of skin known as the operculum.

>

gradually “migrates” to

35 days old

-f ■

V .

the other side

Jawless fish

of the head.

Hagfish and lampreys have

3

funnel-shaped mouths. An adult

Lampreys attach

flatfish lies

themselves to other fish

on one side. Its

with their mouths and

eyes are on top.

rasp awav flesh with their

CartUaginous fish Bony fish These fish are divided into two groups — those with jointed bony fin rays, such as most fresh- and saltwater fish, and those with fleshv fin

teeth. Hagfish are scavengers.

lobes, such as lungfish.

Sharks and rays have large mouths with many teeth in rows that are continually being replaced. Their skeletons are made of cartilage (gristle), instead of bones.

On land

Where fish live

Inhabitants of Indo-Pacific mudflats

There are fish living wherever there is

and mangrove swamps, mudskippers are able to leave the water. They can

water. Some fish live in oceans, the

stay on land for hours, absorbing

largest numbers living in the shallow

oxygen through the mouth

seas of the continental shelf The most

Fresh water

and pharynx. They have

Oceans

Fish live in fast-flowing streams,

eyes on top of their

The oceans provide a range of

slow-moving rivers, ponds, and

brightly coloured fish live on coral

heads for all¬

habitats for fish. Light-producing

lakes, and are suited to their

reefs. Other fish live on muddy,

round vision.

fish live in the deepest ocean

habitat. Some have to be

sandy, or rocky seashores, in estuaries, in rivers and streams, and even in temporary puddles.

336

Mudskippei

trenches, while other fish live near

powerful swimmers or have

hot volcanic vents. Some, such as

suckers for holding on to stones.

sharks, roam the open oceans

Others live in shoals or are

searching for smaller fish to eat.

camouflaged to avoid predators.

FISH

Protection

Colour Fish use colour to warn other

As well as scales, fish use colour, camouflage, or poisonous spines to

fish that they are poisonous.

protect themselves. The spiny puffer fish can take in water or air and

Colour also helps some fish hide from predators. The fish’s

swells up to more than twice its size. Some eels use an electric

colour depends on its lifestyle.

discharge, while other fish live in shoals, making it difficult for a

Cave fish have no colour;

predator to pick out any one individual.

deep-sea fish are black; opensea fish are a silvery colour.

Cutting blade The surgeon fish has a formidable cutting

Camouflage

blade that lies in a groove. This defensive

Some fish look like the plants among which they live. The

structure is a developed scale and is as

triple tail looks like a

sharp as a surgeons scalpel. If

mangrove leaf, and the leafy

attacked, the fish erects the blade

sea-dragon and sargassum fish

and slices its opponent with a blow from its tail.

look like seaweed. The plaice can change colour to match the surrounding seabed.

Cutting blade in a groove in the body

Poison Several fish are poisonous. The weever fishes are extremely Surgeon fish

dangerous. They lie partly buried and camouflaged in sand, waiting for food. The

Surgeon fish’s blade folds

spines on their gill covers and

in when not in use.

dorsal fin can inject poison into anyone who steps on one.

Carnivorous red-bellied

Food

piranhas

Cleaner fish

Many larger fish, including sharks, groupers, pikes, and barracudas, are predators and

Fish called cleaners, such as some wrasses, have “cleaning” stations where they wait for customers.

catch and eat their prey. Most smaller shoal fish feed on plankton, which floats around

The customers allow the

/

cleaners to remove bits of food

ii

and parasites from their skin,

'

in the water. Some fish are bottom feeders,

gills, fins, and even right inside

such as plaice, while others are grazers, such

their mouths

as the parrot fish, which rasps organisms __

from rocks. Piranhas

Angler fish

These South American fish have strong

I

jaws and sharp triangular teeth. A shoal Piranhas find

modified into a fishing line, with

animal to the bone in minutes. They are

detecting vibrations

one of the most feared types of fish, but

in the water.

a lure on the end to attract their Angler

prey. They can swallow fish much

fish with lure

most eat mainly fruit and nuts.

Angler fish usually live in deep water. They have a dorsal fin ray

of carnivorous piranhas can strip an

their food mainly by

Cleaner wrasse at work

larger than themselves.

Sticklebacks

Reproduction

Male sticklebacks make a nest and attract females by doing a zigzag dance. The female

Most bony fish lay eggs in the water, and

lays her eggs in the nest, and the male

these are then fertilized by a males sperm. The

fertilizes them. He then protects

parents usually leave the eggs to their fate, but

the nest from any intruder until the young hatch and are ready

some species protect their young in their

to fend for themselves.

mouths, in pouches, or in nests. Some sharks, such as the dogfish, lay eggs in an egg case,

Male three-spined

while others bear live young.

stickleback

Seahorses

Male stickleback’s

Within 10 seconds

underside turns red in

of mating, the female

the breeding season.

seahorse transfers 200 fertilized eggs into the brood-fX)uch of the male. The male carries

Adult salmon will

them around with him

Salmon

for four weeks until

The Atlantic salmon lays its eggs in upland

leap up waterfalls on their journey

they are ready to hatch.

Stickleback

streams. The young, called parr, live there for three

The male then “gives

eggs

years; then they are called smolt. The smolt swim down¬

birth”, and the young

river to the sea and travel across the Atlantic. At maturity,

seahorses swim away.

the salmon return to spawn in the same stream where they hatched.

FIND OUT

Camouflage

MORE

Lake and river

Marsh and

AND COLOUR

WILDLIFE

SWAMP WILDLIFE

Migration

Ocean

WILDLIFE

Poisonous ANIMALS

upstream to spawn.

Sharks AND RAYS

337

Fish Marine

Blenny lives in shallow water

Royal gramma Esh identiftes itself to a mate with dazzling colours.

and often rests on the bottom.

^ m m m M Zebra pipe Esh hides in eel-grass.

Large black spots look like spots on a panther.

Cuckoo wrasse is a colourful fish that lives in British waters. Red mullet is probably the most important commercial

Panther grouper is

marine fish in the world

a lethal predator like its namesake.

II®

Extremely

'

poisonous fin

I^

Plaice is a flat / Both eyes

fish and can

are on the

change colour to

upper surface.

merge with the seabed Clown triggerfish has a spiny dorsal fin that it

Juvenile lumpsucker

can lock erect like a trigger.

Large free dorsal

Lumpsucker has sucker-like fins for cliitging safely to stones

Lionfish

and rocks in rough seas.

is brightly coloured,

Spinv boxfish has a rigid bodv from which it gets its name.

which warns its enemies that it is deadly poisonous.

Port Jackson shark produces an egg case, or “mermaid’s purse’’, in which the voung develop. John Dory sucks up its food in a tube formed by extendable jaws. Hatchetfish lives ButterEsh is the browny-green seaweedcovered rocks where it lives.

in a freshwater

and has luminescent

from side to side, making it Angelfish are ofien

difficult to sec from the front.

L-arge sensitive \

lights along its sides.

eyes for seeing

hrtghtly coloured.

Freshwater

Bitterling lays its eggs

mussel.

in the deep sea

Blue-ringed angelfish is flattened

well camouflaged among

iMrge eyes for

in the dark Minnows live in shoals for

accurate shooting

protection.

Minnows are small silvery fish that live in clean, fast-flowing, freshwater streams.

Archerfish shoots a jet of water above the surface to capture its insect prey.

Uncoloured guppy, or toothcarp, bears

Neon tetra is a very small,

its young alive, unlike most

Blue-ribbon eel is long and thin,

brightly coloured, tropical

fish, which lav eggs.

allowing it to hide in narrow crevices

fish, often kept in aquaria.

338

FISH FARMING see PACIFIC OCEAN

FISHING INDUSTRY Long before farming began,

people fed themselves

by hunting fish and land animals. Today, the fishing industry continues this hunting tradition. Fishing vessels go to sea from every country with a coastline. Nmall boats, such as the stern trawler, have few crew members, and

Fishing with lines To catch valuable tuna, fishing boats trail a line

r:sh within a days sailing of their home port. The biggest fishing >hips can stay at sea for months, and freeze their catch on board.

as long as 180 km (112 miles, 97 nautical miles). Branching off this line are 200 smaller lines, each ending in a baited hook. This arrangement is known as a drifting longline.

Sea fishing \k)st sea fish live within 50 m (165 ft) ■' the surface. They are concentrated in ''c shallow waters around the coasts of »ntinents. In the past, the supply of sea fish appeared limitless. However, 'itensive fishing in areas that were nee rich in fish, such as the Traps

Grand Banks of North

Bait lures lobsters into this basket¬

\merica, has driven cod and

like “pot”, which rests on the

ocher popular species to the edge of extinction.

seabed in shallow water. Its

'

funnel-shaped entrance makes escape impossible. Fish traps take many different forms: the

Deep-water fishing

Mediterranean tuna trap, for

To catch demersal fish (those

example, is like a maze of

live near the ocean floor),

net corridors anchored to

•ufiing boats sink bag-shaped

the seabed. There are

nets in the water. The fish are

even special aerial traps

"Tipped by towing the net along

for catching flying fish.

ifae bottom (trawling) or drawing

ibe neck of the net closed (seine fishing). The boat then hauls in ifac net to land the catch.

Crew launch the trawl net over the boats stern

Seine fishing

Freshwater fishing

Fur and feather

Only 5 per cent of the wotlds fish catch comes

resemble an

make hook

from freshwater sources, such as rivers and lakes.

r,

r

r-

1

•

>urtace fishing

Net closes like a

However, in non-industrialized nations freshwater

purse, entrapping fish.

fishing with lines and nets is a vital

Weighted net hangs

industry, especially on great lakes

down from floats.

such as those in East Africa’s

Many species of pelagic fish (those that live near the surface)

Rift Valley. In industrialized

swim together in large groups called shoals, and it is these

nations, anglers have to pay

shoals that fishing boats seek. They catch them by enclosing

to fish on the few remaining

the shoal in a purse seine net, which is like a circular curtain. Pulling a line closes the bottom of the

stretches of unpolluted water.

net. preventing the fish from escaping. Double hook

Treble hook

Fly-fishing bait

Weight

Ocean mammals Angling

The oceans are also home to

Fish farming

mammals. Fishing for whales,

Just as farming produces meat

Fishing for sport is known as

the world s largest mammals, has

more efficientlv than hunting,

angling, and is as ancient as

now almost ceased because their

farming fish is more efficient

fishing for food. Anglers fix a

numbers fell so low. The fur of the

than catching them. Fish

hook to a thin line and then

seal makes it a target for hunters,

farms breed fish carefully to

cast it into the water using a

and although few fishing vessels

give good-qualitv stock, and

long, flexible rod. To lure

catch dolphins deliberately, many

protect the voung fish in

fish, anglers bait the hook

dolphins die because they become

ponds or enclosures from

with worms or insects. They

entangled in abandoned nets.

predators. Carp and trout are

mav also use a “flv”. which is

the main freshwater farm fish.

a hook disguised as an insect.

In the past, whaling crews made beautiful carvings out of the bones and teeth of sea mammab.

FIND OUT

MORE

Farming

Fish

Food

Ships and

BOATS

Sport

Whales and

DOLPHINS

339

FISSION see NUCLEAR POWER • FITNESS see HEALTH AND FITNESS • FJORDS see GLACIATION

FLAGS

Parts of a flag

Upper fly canton Cap

Becket

A flag is usually made from brightly coloured fabric and is

of years, people have used flags as emblems, For hundreds

square or rectangular in shape — although more varied shapes, such as streamers, banners, and long, narrow pennons, were

signals, or rallying points. Among the

once popular. It is divided into four quarters (cantons): those near the pole are the hoist, and

earliest flags were those flown in battle, so that soldiers could identify their leader and tell each side apart. The flag has

the others the fly. A special emblem often appears in the upper hoist canton. Flying the flag In Europe, flags are attached to

since developed as a means of communication, used to send

the pole by passing the toggle . • Sleeve

\

through a loop (becket) in another rope (halyard). In the USA, flags have eyelets to which clips are

rapid signals, or as a symbol representing a nation or group.

attached. Inglefleld clips have a quick-release mechanism, and

\

Every country has its own flag, as do many states and most

are popular at sea. Parade flagstaffs are topped with decorative

. Halyard — long

flnials.

rope that runs the

political organizations.

Toggle and

length of the pole. ^

Looped clip

First flags

Uses of flags

Many ancient armies carried standards, carved symbols on the end of a pole. The

Flags communicate across language

Roman standard first introduced cloth

barriers. At sea, the International Code

flags. These hung from horizontal poles,

of Signals is a system of signalling with

to make them easy to carry on horseback.

Homemade flag The fust flag was probably a piece of brightly coloured cloth tied to a stick. A plain red flag spelt danger to early peoples, just as it does today.

becket

flags: the meanings are the same in every language. In both sports and

Golf flags are

politics, flags also send messages

attached to Soccer flags are raised

slender pins to

Finial on

that are understood universally.

to signal when the ball

mark the holes

top of pole

8

has gone out of play.

on a course.

could show

Rallying cries

legion hadgt

Modern flags may be developed to identify

Cloth dyed

political movements, or

Sports flags

for international medical

Flags are used in

or environmental groups.

many sports for

The emblems and colours

marking out the

represent the organizations

area of play or

Plastic

^

with natural

^

ideals: for instance, a white

signalling to

marker

I

earth pigment

1

background stands for

participants.

flags

peace, while olive branches Badge of

Political symbols

symbolize reconciliation.

legion-

A symbol on a national flag can sum up political ideals that would otherwise take many

Pride of a legion

I

The Roman standard

*

words. The former Soviet red flag with its hammer and

was awarded to a military-

The dove on the

sickle symbol represented the

unit only as a reward for

Greenpeace flag,

workers and farmers who took

special endeavour.

a symbol of hope

part in the Russian Revolution.

Semaphore This method of signalling with just two flags is still used at sea. Signallers can spell out a message quicklv, simply by changing the position of their arms. Red and yellow flags are chosen

'Ik"

because they can be seen over long distances.

FIND OUT

MORE 340

Football

Pfapf MOVEMENTS

Roman EMPIRE

Ships AND boats

Signs and SYMBOLS

Soviet UNION

United NATIONS

International Code of Signals Alphabet and single flag messages

A I have a diver down;

B I am taking in, or

D Keep clear of me; I am

E I am altering my course

F I am disabled;

keep well clear at

discharging, or carrying

manoeuvring with

to starboard.

communicate with me.

slow speed.

dangerous goods.

difficulty.

C Yes.

Two-flag messages

G I require a pilot (or, I

H I have a pilot on board.

am hauling nets).

I I am altering my course

J I am on fire and have

K I wish to communicate

to port.

dangerous cargo on board;

with you.

keep well clear of me. DX 1 am sinking.

XL You should stop your

M My vessel is stopped

vessel instantly.

and making no way

report on board as vessel is

through the water.

about to proceed to sea.

N No.

P All persons should

O Man overboard

NG You are in a dangerous position.

I Q My vessel is healthy and

R [No single letter

I require free pratique

meaning]

S My engines are astern,

T Keep clear of me; I am

U You are running into

engaged in pair trawling.

danger.

AC I am abandoning my vessel.

[permission to trade].

I V I require assistance

W I require medical assistance.

X Stop carrying out your

Y I am dragging my

intentions and watch my

anchor

NH You are clear of

Z I require a tug

all dangers.

signals.

Numerals

One

Two

Three

Four

Five

Six

Seven

Eight

Ninf

Zero

341

FLAMINGOS see HERONS, STORKS. AND FLAMINGOS • FLATWORMS see WORMS • FLAVOURS sec SMELL AND TASTE • FLEAS see PARASITES

FLIES

Features of a true fly The body of an adult fly is clearly divided into

They may be pests at times, but flies are remarkable insects. As their name suggests, they have mastered the power of flight. Fast and agile in the air, flies dart about, hover, and make lightning turns. There are about 90,000 different insects that we call

three main parts: the head, thorax, and abdomen. The head bears the sucking mouthparts and a bulging pair of compound eyes, between which sprouts a pair of antennae. Attached to the thorax are the fly’s six legs and its membranous wings. The abdomen contains most of the body organs. Long hairs

flies. About 75,000 of these are true flies, which have only one pair of wings and belong to the insect group Diptera. The remainder form many other

Single pair of wings

groups of insects with two pairs of wings. Unlike most other types of fly, the

Halteres

Antenna

larvae of true flies are completely different from the adults. Often

crane fly

called maggots, they have simple bodies with no legs and are little

Sponge-like mouthparts ^

more than eating machines.

Feeding

Close-up of

Fly larvae feed on foods such as microscopic

mouthparts

Flight stabilizers Mouthparts

organisms, living flesh, plants, and dung.

True flies have a single pair of

The mouthparts

The mouthparts of adult flies are adapted

wings; the hindwings have

of a blowfly end

developed into club-ended stubs

for a liquid diet. They have extendible

in soft spongy

The soles of

called halteres. Halteres act as

tubes to draw fluids into their bodies. The

pads that

the feet have

balancing organs that improve

taste buds

the fly’s flight control and make

on them.

it easier to change direction.

enable them to

feeding habits of flies cause many health

Bluebotde feeding

suck up liquids.

problems worldwide, from stomach upsets to more serious illnesses such as cholera.

Breeding

Mating

Aquatic larvae

Before mating, flies may

Mosquitos and

After mating, female flies

go through elaborate

many other

lay hundreds of eggs on

courtship rituals. Fruit

bloodsucking

flies dance on leaves,

flies lay their

and gnats dance in the

eggs in water. The

Abdomen swollen

Bloodsuckers and predators

with blood.

Bloodsuckers and flies that catch prey have piercing mouthparts that cut holes in their victims. They inject anti¬

a suitable feeding site for

_ , lubt

1

”

clotting agents to keep blood

the larvae, that develop

air. After mating, female

larvae that develop

flowing, or poison to kill the prey.

from the eggs. These

robber flies commonly

float upside-down

Enzymes are also released to help

sites may be in dung,

eat their mates.

break down the body contents.

Nectar and waste feeders Flies that feed on nectar or decaying matter have soft pads on the ends of their sucking mouthparts. that help soak up liquid food. On solid food, flies deposit saliva, then suck up the partly digested juice that results.

Types of fly

Larvae

through a tube

leaves, dead bodies, or

Fly eggs often hatch

anached to

living animals. The larvae

out into larvae on dead

the abdomen,

animals, which they

that pokes above

eat voraciously, and grow

begin to eat. The larvae,

the water. After

into pupae within which

also called maggots,

pupation, the

they change into their

may live longer than

adult emerges

the adult flies into

to fly away.

adult shape and form. Bluebotde larvae

Mavflies

Dragonflies are large

Young mavflies live below

In addition to true flies,

predators. They dart

water. After growing wings,

many other kinds of fly exist

around in seach of other

they leave the water and

insects that they catch

form swarms in the air. The

in flight with their long

adults mate, lay their eggs,

legs. Thev lay their eggs in water.

then die a few hours later.

Caddis flies

Lacewings

that all have two pairs of

a more complicated body

Lacewings often hibernate in

live near water. Their

houses over winter. The adults

larvae live underwater,

true flies — some even look like

and carrv with them a

wingless versions of the adults.

protective case made of plant debris or sand.

W] r

Long

antenna

Scientific name Calliphora

Order Diptera Fa-MILY Calliphoridae Long,

Distribution Europe

thin le^

Adult caddis flies always

structure than the larvae of

larva

erythrocephala

and mayflies. The young that emerge from their eggs have

Mosquito

which they develop.

Bluebottle

Dragonflies

wings, such as dragonflies

on the surface. They breathe

soil, or water, or on

and lars'ae prey on other

FIabitat Fields, meadows, houses, and buildings

Delicate ^ wings

insects such as

decomposing organic matter; adults

k

aphids. Thev

Diet Rotting flesh, faeces, and other

also eat nectar Size Length 10 mm (0.4 in)

are weak fliers.

Dfespan Larvae: 7 days; FIND OUT

MORE 342

pupae: 8-10 davs; adults: unknown Arthropods

Diseases

Eggs

Flight,

ANIMAL

Insects

Marsh and

SWAMP WILDLIFE

Flight, animal

Birds A bird’s wings are an aerofoil shape — curved on top and

of powered flight are birds, bats, and insects. Some

The only animals capable

slightly hollow underneath. As the wings move through

other animals can glide for short distances. Flight is very useful. It helps the animals to find food, escape from predators, and migrate long distances. Flying animals need wings, powerful wing muscles, a streamlined shape, and a lightweight body. They also need to eat lots of food to Between flaps, the bird folds give them the energy to its wings and rests.

Hovering

the air, a difference in air pressure is created above and

Hummingbirds are among the birds that

below, which lifts the bird

hover. They beat their

up into the air. A bird steers

wings in a figure-of-eight

by changing the angle of one

pattern, producing lift on both the upstroke and downstroke

or both wings, twisting its

They can also fly sideways,

wings, and spreading and

straight up and down, backwards,

twisting its tail.

and even upside-down.

flap their wings.

Tail used to steer

Red-tailed minlas have

and change direction

an up-and-down flight.

Minla in flight

Forward flight Most small birds, such as this minla of eastern Asia, fly by flapping their wings up and down. As the wings go down, they push air backwards, moving the bird forwards. As the wings go up, the

Insects

feathers at the wingtips move apart to allow air to slip through.

A small insect, such as a mosquito, flaps its wings 1,000 times a

Gliding albatross

second. Most insects flap about 520 times a second. Dragonflies are the

such as flies, have one pair of wings.

Small birds take off by jumping into the air and flapping

Some large birds rarely flap their wings. Albatrosses

fastest insect fliers, reaching nearly 300 km/h (190 mph). Some insects,

Taking off

Gliding

their wings. They may take off straight from the ground

and other large seabirds glide on strong winds rising

or from a perch. A large, heavy bird, such as a swan,

off the waves Albatrosses can travel for hundreds of

cannor do this. It needs to run along while flapping its

kilometres a day. Large land birds, such as vultures and

wings to create enough lift for take-off.

eagles, float on columns of rising hot air called thermals.

Others, such as bees, have two pairs. Wing is made of an

Bats The only

The bat flexes its arm

Long narrow

bones up and down

I wings are for

to flap its winp.

- fast flight in open areas.

mammals able to fly, Vertical muscle contracts.

Horizontal muscle contracts,

bats are more

moving the wings up

moving the win^ dotvn.

acrobatic than birds. They have four

Wing muscles Insect wings developed from their hard body

large pairs of flight

covering. They are not modified legs, like the wings

muscles and several

of birds or bats. Insects do not have any muscles on

smaller pairs, while birds

the wings. Instead, their wing muscles are inside the thorax, the middle part of the body.

have only two pairs. Each wing consists of skin stretched between four long fingers.

Gliding animals

Flying squirrel Flaps of skin allow a living squirrel

Some animals can glide slowly

to glide up to 100 m (330 fr)

downwards. They have Cockchafer take-off The cockchafer is a beetle with two pairs of wings.

webs or flaps of skin, to slow their fall.

wing cases, which are

They have to be

held out of the way during flight. They give

uses its tail as a rudder, and

The gecko (above) has flaps

has sharp claws to grasp

of skin along the sides of its

the surface on landing.

body and tail. It spreads out

which they spread out

The front wings are hard

the flaps to glide between

FI) ing fish To escape predators, flying fish swim fast along the

able to judge

the beetle some lift when

speeds and

it flies fast. The flexible

distances accurately.

Flying gecko

between trees. The squirrel

developed large fins, or

trees. It has webbed feet to help with steering. Flying fish

surface, then take off and glide for up to 50 m (160 ft), Flying squirrel

with their huge fins held out.

back wings flap up and down to provide the power for flight.

HND OUT

MORE

Aircraft

Animals

Bats

Birds

Flight, history of

Insects

343

Flight, history of Every day, millions of people

Flying machine designed by Leonardo da Vinci in the 15 th century

fly to destinations

all over the world. Planes are a common sight in the skies, but, despite their widespread use, they were first developed only about 90 years

Copying the birds Wings are the pan of an aircraft that provide the upwards

ago. The urge to fly is ancient, but by the start of the 20th

lift needed to keep it in the air. Successful aeroplanes were impossible to build before people understood how wings

century, the only flying machines were hot-air balloons,

worked. Early attempts at flight concentrated on copying

airships, and gliders. World War I stimulated the development of aeroplanes and, by the end of World War II, advances had resulted in jets and rockets.

the flapping action of birds, which proved to be impractical because a humans muscles are far too weak. Many “bird men” were killed trying to fly.

Since then, flight technology has produced

Flyer I climbed to a height of 3 m (10 feet).

supersonic planes and space travel.

First controlled flight The first controlled flight of a powered aeroplane took place on 17 December 1903 in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, USA. The plane. Flyer /, flew 36 m (119 ft) in a flight that lasted under 12 seconds: it is nonetheless perhaps the most famous flight of all time. Flyer / was designed and built by the Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur, after years of experiments with kites and gliders

Wilbur Wright watches

It was powered by a petrol engine they built themselves.

his brother Orville take off.

Warplanes

Amelia Earhart

The military’s interest in the potential of

American aviation pioneer Amelia Earhart (1898-1937)

aeroplanes as weaponry was central to the

set several long-distance flighi

advancement of flight technology. During

records. She was the first woman to fly solo across

World War I (1914—18), warplanes were transformed from being slow and vulnerable to being fast, easily manoeuvrable fighting machines. Huge bomber and fighter planes were made in this period. Protective clothing

Airships

the Atlantic. In 1937, in

Airships are held aloft by a vast gas-filled envelope and

a bid to fly round the

driven forward by engines with propellers. Airships were

world, she disappeared

an important form of passenger and military transport

near New Guinea.

until long-distance aircraft were developed in the 1940s.

Modern age The basis for the modern

worn by World War I pilots included flying

aeroplane first appeared in

helmet, goggles and

the 1920s. It was a

gauntlets.

monoplane (single-winged) aircraft. The wing was made of metal, as was the fuselage. All aircraft had piston engines and propellers until the late 1930s, when a new type of engine, the jet, was invented. Boarding pass

A turbojet engine allows aircraft to fly much faster and more quietly than a propeller engine. Jet aircraft were increasingly used after World War II and became standard for fighter aircraft and for long-distance passenger planes.

Passenger flight

Space flight

Fast, comfortable, and

The first rockets powerful

Built from wood and fabric, biplanes were sturdier

affordable air travel had become

enough to reach space were

than monoplanes, but flying them was linle fun. The

accessible by the 1960s. Today,

built in the late 1950s. Today,

cockpit was open to the cold and wet, and to spits of

millions of passengers fly around

modern launch vehicles and

oil from the engine. Larger fighters had a second

the world in the Boeing 747,

re-usable spacecraft, such as

cockpit for a navigator and gunner. Single-seaters had a

a so-called “jumbo jet” which

the Shuttle, make going into

machine gun that fired through the spinning propeller.

has quiet, turbofan engines.

orbit almost an everyday event.

Biplane World War 1 pilots flew biplane (twin-winged) fighters.

FIND OUT

MORE 344

Aircraft

Airports

Airships and BALLOONS

! Airline ticket

Leonardo

DA VINCI

Space EXPLORATION

Transport, history of

Travel

Warplanes

A. Weapons

Long neck with

FLIGHTLESS BIRDS

sparse feathers

Weak, fanlike

Flying is a very useful way

of moving, but it

wings used in courtship rituaL.

does have drawbacks. It uses a lot of energy, and it is possible only for animals with a light body. During the course of evolution, some birds have given up flight and the problems it brings. Instead, they run, or, as is the case with penguins, they swim; some can move extremely fast. There are about 40 species of flightless birds alive today, including kiwis, emus, and the world s biggest bird, the ostrich. Many more flightless species, including some record-breaking giants, existed in the past, and some of todays species are also in danger of extinction.

Kiwis

Ostrich

These medium-sized birds are found

The ostrich is the world s largest

only in the forests of New Zealand.

bird. It can run at up to 65 kmh Females are slightly

Their wings are only about 5 cm

(40 mph), and uses its speed and

(2 in) long, and their body is covered

stamina to outdistance most of its

with a unique plumage that looks like

enemies. An ostrich’s feet have two

hair. Kiwis are nocturnal and because

toes, and each toe ends in a large

they have poor eyesight, they find

claw. If an ostrich is cornered, it

food mainly by smelling it.

uses these claws as deadly weapons

smaller than males, with brown plumage instead of black.

Young ostriches are guarded by an adult male. Two large

Several families of chicks

clawed toes

to defend itself

gather together, forming

on each foot

a group called a creche.

Hatching The shell of an ostrich egg is thicker than a china mug. but not as hard. The young ostrich breaks out by kicking and pecking at the shell.

I

The chick turns

Sensory, whisker¬

2

its body as it

3

The^hick

Hi Half the shell

tumbles out and

is: in i pieces, and

like feathers at the

pecks and pushes

the chick is almost

will soon start to

base of the beak

at the shell.

free of the egg.

look for food.

Hard “helmet, ’

Rheas escape from

Rheas

danger by

or casque

There are two species of rheas,

running away.

both of which live on the open plains in South

Cassowaries

America. Young rheas have

These large, flighdess

bright stripes, but the adults

birds live in dense

are grayish-brown.

forests in northern Australia and New Guinea. They use their Strong legs

claws as weapons and have been

with large fe

Ostrich

known to kill people. Scientific name Struthio camelus

This egg is shown in proportion to

Order Struthioniformes

Probing beak The kiwi has nostrils at the

Family Struthionidae

35**

tip of its long, curved beak,

Distribution Tropical western and

instead of near its head. It

eastern Africa, and southern Africa

uses its beak to find food Habitat Savannah and semi-desert

on the forest floor.

Diet Fruit, seeds, leaves, small animals

Kiwi egg

Emus

The kiwi’s egg is 13 cm

Found only in Australia, emus are the second largest birds in the world,

(5 in) long, and is a quaner

after the ostrich. Emus live in large flocks and wander long distances in

of the female’s weight.

search of food. They can cause problems on farms by raiding crops.

Size Height up to 2.4 m (8 ft); weight up to 154 kg (340 lb) Lifespan About 30 years

Relative to her body, the female kiwi lays the largest eggs of all birds.

FIND OUT

MORE

Australian WILDLIFE

Birds

Eggs

Flight

Grassland WILDLIFE

Penguins

South amercian WILDLIFE

345

FLOATING see PRESSURE

FLOWERS THE FIRST flowering plants appeared about 120 million years ago. They are now the largest group of plants, and are widespread. Flowers are the advanced reproductive structures of plants. The majority of them are pollinated by the wind or by animals. Over millions of years, flowers and insects have co-evolved to produce some very complex and interesting relationships. Fuchsia flower

Parts of a flower A plants reproduction organs are inside the flowers. Stamens are male and produce pollen. The female organs are called carpels. These

The flower is the

contain ovules, which develop into seeds.

structure that brings about sexual reproduction

A ring of petals attracts pollinators, and

in the plant

sepals protect the flower when in bud.

Pollination

Insect pollination

In order for seeds to develop, a flower has

pollinated by insects.

to be pollinated. Pollen from the stamens

These are anracted to the

Flowers are mosdy

flowers by their petals, a

of a flower of the same species must

scent, and a supply of

stick to the plants stigma. Cross¬

nectar or pollen to eat.

pollination occurs when pollen from

Tobacco plant

The pollen sticks to a

one plant lands on the flowers of another.

Bee at a

If a flower is pollinated by its own pollen,

Narcissus

visiting insect and is carried to another flower.

The colour and scent of a flower attraa insects or other animals.

flower

it is called self-pollination.

Scent and colour

Drops of sugary nectar secreted at the base of the petals provide

Water pollination

Wind pollination

food for the insects, which are

Aquatic plants may have

Some plants rely on wind

dusted with pollen while they drink. Flowers

aerial, submerged, or

to waft their pollen from

are often sweedy scented, but some smell

floating flowers. A few use

one flower to another.

unpleasant, esfjedally those pollinated by flies.

the surface film of water to

Their flowers may have no

carry pollen. The flowers

petals, or just tiny ones.

float in shallow dips. The

They are often arranged in

Insect mimics

pollen slides into these and

catkins with conspicuous

Many orchids have such specialized partnerships

pollinates the flowers.

stamens and stigmas.

that only one type of insect serves as a pollinator. Some orchids look and smell so like a female insect,

Starwort

Hazel catkins and pollen

that males of that species try to mate with them, picking up pollen as

Mammal pollination

Bird pollination

they do so.

Many flowers that

Important mammal

rely on birds to

pollinators include some

pollinate them are red

species of tropical bat and

or orange — colours that

many types of tiny

attract birds. The

Australian possum. They

flowers tend to be

pollinate flowers as they

The bee orchid ^

tubular so chat birds can

feed on nectar and pollen.

can be pollinated

Bee orchid

called pollinia.

Pygmy possum feeding

Hummingbird

heads with sticky pollen.

at a thisde flower

346

on a Banksia flower

Carnivorous

Fruits and

PLANTS

SEEDS

Insects

produced in small clumps

dip their beaks in. Stamens dust the birds’

An orchid's pollen is

Plants

. Part of the

by a bee, but is

flower looks

often self-pollinated

and smelL just

by the wind.

like a bee.

Plant

Plant

ANATOMY

REPRODUCTION

Trees

Winds

— Flowers — Insect-pollinated

Each flower

Um-shaped

Brown lines

contains a

on the petaL

drop of nectar.

_

guides insects to the nectar.

rr Bramble pollinators

Bell heather is pollinated

include beetles and bees.

by short-tongued bees.

K

Primrose flowers appear

Hollow-stemmed asphodel

Red closer has a head

Greater periwinkle is

in the spring.

has hollow stems and leaves,

of tubular flowers.

pollinated by bees.

#

*

Mirror orchid has pollen

Anemone pavonina is

Magnolia flowers have

Corn marigold flowerhead

Fox and cubs has strap-

Bastard balm attracts bees

in clumps called pollinia.

pollinated by insects.

thick. waxy petals.

has many tiny flowers.

shaped ray florets.

with its large petal.

4

Dwarf elder has small

Early dog violet has dark

Wild pansy is pollinated

Foxglove is pollinated by

Thorow-wax has clusters

Marsh cinquefoil has much

flowers clustered together.

veins, which guide insects.

by long-tongued bees.

bumblebees.

of flowers called umbels.

larger sepals than petals.

t /

Red valerian has tiny

Carline thistle has yellow

Honeysuckle has scented

Cornflower has scented

Common rockrose is

Red campion is pollinated

tubular flowers pollinated

flowers surrounded by

flowers which attract

flowers and is pollinated

pollinated bv insects, but

by long-tongued bees and

by moths and butterflies.

stiff, spiny bracts.

honeybees and hawk moths.

by flies and bees.

can be self-pollinating.

also by hoverflies.

PetaL bend back so that birds are

Bird- and mammal-pollinated

Fuchsia is pollinated

Passionflower is pollinated

Silver watde flowers

Nasturtium flowers are

Hibiscus dusts hawk moths

Urn plant flowers are

mostly by birds.

by nectar-drinking birds

attract birds and possums.

pollinated by birds.

and birds with pollen.

surrounded by spiny bracts.

Wind-pollinated Long slender catkins

Broad-leaved pondweed

Greater plantain has

Armenian oak has male

Sand couch has flowers in

Alder has male flowers in

Stinging nettle has catkins

has a dense spike of flowers.

purple anthers.

flowers in yellow catkins.

stalkless spikelets.

long, dangling catkins.

of male or female flowers.

347

FLUKING see WHALES AND DOLPHINS • FLUORESCENCE see LIGHT • FLYWHEEL see MACHINES SIMPLE • FOLK MUSIC see MUSIC

FOOD

Fast food is food that is massprepared and served quickly in

We are what we EAT: our bodies get the energy and nourishment they need from our daily diet. Not having enough of the right

takeaway oudets. The hamburger is a popular last food in many

food, or eating too much of the wrong

western countries.

food, causes ill-health. Food and eating are important in other ways too. Many countries have a distinctive

Jews and Muslims

cuisine (cooking style), which reflects the eating habits of its people and the ingredients available locally. In many industrialized nations, cooking

do not eat pork.

is a hobby as well as a necessary task. Today there is concern about levels of chemicals in food, and many people choose an organic diet Preparing

Frogs legs

Seaweed

Black

Snails

Pork sausages

pudding

What is food? Anything humans can digest counts as food. Worldwide, diets

Processing and preserving

vary widely: food habits are influenced by availability, climate,

Even before they are cooked, most foods

and religious, moral, or social factors. Ideally, a daily diet

must be processed to make them ready for

should include staple, energy-giving carbohydrates, such as rice

cooking: for example, wheat must be

or pasta, plus proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals. In reality,

ground into flour before it can be baked as

Cassava

poverty or warfare make this impossible in many places.

bread. Preserving food allows it to be stored

Many foods are indigestible

for use later; this reduces the risk of

without processing but bitter cassava, the main food in

shortages, and prolongs availability. A food

many tropical areas, is actually

industry has grown up to provide the food

poisonous. Grating, pressing,

we eat, and process, preserve, and package it.

and heating the root removes the deadly cyanide it contains.

Salad

Although some foods, such as salad vegetables and fruit, are delicious when raw, many foods

Food preservation: freezing peas

Preparing food

Viner

need to be cooked first. Cooking makes food tastier and easier to digest. Cooking root vegetables, for instance, makes their starch grains absorb water, swell, and burst, Orange

releasing essential nutrients. Cooking methods

There are many cooking methods,

1

Until frozen peas were

2

invented, the only peas

3

Once at the factory,

such as simmering food in water, Before packaging, the

which heats it to just under lOO'C

peas are assessed for

the peas are washed

most people could eat were

and blanched. They are

dried or tinned. A machine

then carried on a conveyor

vegetables begin to lose

called a viner harvests the peas

to the freezing chamber.

their nutrients as soon as

(2I2°F). Only a few foods, such as

quality and taste. Fresh

when they are sweet enough to

On the way, jets of cold air

they are picked. Because

be frozen. It tumbles them in a

prevent them sticking

these peas have been

drum to remove the pods.

together. In the chamber,

frozen within two and a

These are ploughed back into

the peas are blast-frozen at a

half hours, they are fresher

the field as fertilizer.

temperature of -l8°C (-2°F).

than fresh peas in a shop.

. Steaming fish is a healthy way to cook it

eggs, cook at temperatures lower than this. Grilling or frying in oil heats food to a much higher temperature, cooking it faster.

Hunger and famine Each year, 800 million people cannot

Frozen food

get enough food to lead healthy lives,

Freezing food to preserve it dates from prehistoric times in cold regions. Following the appearance of home electric refrigerators in 1913, frozen vegetables

Chocolate Chocolate is a food

first went on sale in the USA in 1930-

bean. The Aztecs of Mexico enjoyed a chocolate drink, flavoured with chilli.

Peas in

When the Spanish conquered Mexico in

the pod

bars were a luxury until the 20th century.

348

development. Every year in the starvation) occurs when insects, plant diseases, drought, or warfare destroy crops, and a harvest fails.

the 16th century, they introduced the

chocolate from about 1630, but chocolate

Malnutrition in children severely damages their physical and mental developing world, famine (widespread

product derived from the cocoa

drink to Europe. People began to eat solid

despite food surpluses in other parts of the world. Children suffer most.

Frozen vegetables FIND OUT

MORE

Digestion

Farming

Health AND FITNESS

Trade and INDUSTRY

Rice is a staple food for Southern

Wheat is a staple in North America,

Maize (corn) is a staple food in some

Asia and parts of Africa.

Europe, Australia, and parts of Asia.

African, Asian, and American countries.

Starchy roots are a good

Vegetables are an important

Pulses (beans and peas)

Nuts and seeds can be

Fruits are an important

Sugars and honey

source of carbohydrate.

source of vitamins.

are rich in protein.

pressed to make oils.

source of vitamins.

sweeten food

Meat is a major

Fish and shellfish are a

protein source.

low-fat protein source.

^ ^ valuable source of protein.

Milk and milk products provide

Fats and oils

Spices and herbs add

protein and important minerals.

store energy.

flavour to a meal.

Vietnam: spring rolls filled

Morocco: chicken

United States: pork ribs

China: roast duck with

with pork, prawns, noodles

baked with spices

with black-eyed peas

an aromatic seasoning

Parmesan cheese

Yorkshire

Italy: fettucini, a kind of

Thailand: pad that,

Japan: sushi, extremely fresh,

United Kingdom: roast beef

Russia: borscht (beetroot

pasta, in a tomato sauce

Thai fried noodles

raw fish, with rice and seaweed

gravy and roast potatoes

soup) with blinis (pancakes)

349

FOOD WEBS

AND

CHAINS

species in a wildlife community are linked together through the process of feeding. As plants and animals grow and are eaten by others, energy and food substances locked up in their body tissues pass on along a chain. These food chains interlink with one another, and the resulting network is called a food web. The number of different animals and plants in a community is naturally balanced. If the Weaver bird balance is upset it can affect the whole web. The lives of different

Food webs In a simple food chain, a plant is eaten by a herbivore (a plant-eating animal), that in turn is eaten by a carnivore (a meat-eating animal). In nature, food chains are usually longer than this, and they connect with other chains to form a web. The arrows in this diagram show how different plant foods on a typical African savannah are eaten by a range of animals, that, in turn, provide food for various other animals.

Acacia leaves

Elephant dung contents

Decomposers

Producers

Some animals, fiingi, and bacteria feed on dead or waste plant and animal tissue. They turn it back into simple substances, which plants use to grow.

In ecology, plants are called producers. They start the food chain by using the sun’s energy to produce food from simple substances.

Ecologists call each stage in a food chain a trophic level. These levels can be represented as a pyramid. Animals use much of the energy they gain from their food to grow. They also use energv to live, to move about, breed, feed, and avoid their enemies. This means that at each trophic level there is less energy available to the next level.

The number of animals or plants represents the amount of energy available to the next level.

A change in the population of one species affects the population of other species in the food chain. The lemming population in the tundra and Arctic rises and falls on roughly a four-year cycle. When there are lots of lemmings, Arctic foxes, which hunt them, breed more successfully, so their numbers increase too.

Secondary consumers Weasels are secondary consumers because they get energy from the plants through other consumers. There are more weasels in a community than the owls that hunt them.

Primary consumers s.

Mice and voles get energy directly from plants. They use a lot of energy; many are needed to support the weasels.

I

Giant African land snail

Primary producers Energy is stored in plants. It takes a large quantity to support the rodents.

FIND OUT

MORE 350

Consumers

Animals are known as consumers because they get the biological material they need for life from the plants or other animals that they eat or consume.

Population cycles

Trophic pyramids

Top predator The tawny owl at the top of this food chain is known as the top predator. An owl needs to eat many weasels and rodents to meet its energy needs.

_ ^

Animals

African WILDLIFE

Ecology and ECOSYSTEMS

Energy

Eood

Grassland ■VCaLDLlFE

Upsetting the balance When the giant African land snail was taken to Pacific islands, the snails destroyed vegetation because there was nothing to prey on them. Another type of snail was released to eat their eggs, but these began to wipe out the native Partula snail instead.

Photosynthesis

Rainforest WILDLIFE

FOOTBALL

Soccer Soccer is a kicking game played 11 -a-side. The

are among the most popular sports to play and watch. Association football,

The various forms of football

goalkeeper is the only person allowed to handle the ball. The

or soccer, is played in almost every country by men and women. Rugby games are less widespread, but the new professional rugby union is becoming increasingly international.

object is to propel the ball into the oppositions goal with a foot or the head. A game lasts 90

American football, although watched worldwide on television, is played little outside the United States. Other “nationar’games

minutes, with a 15-

include Australian football, played chiefly in the state of Victoria, and Gaelic football, an Irish game.

competitions, an extra

minute interval plus, in some knock-out 15 minutes each way. Soccer pitch

Helmet

Face mask made from unbreakable

Shoulder pads

plastic coated in rubber

Wbrld Cup

American football

The soccer World Cup is as popular as the Olympics. About 170 countries enter

A handling game, American football is played 11 -a-side with limitless

competitions to qualify for the 32 places in the finals, which take place every four years.

substitution from 40 players or more. It is divided into short bursts of action as the attacking team

Pele

advances in a series of “downs”.

Brazilian soccer star Pele (b. 1940) won universal acclaim when he

Points are awarded chiefly for

inspired Brazil to win the

touchdowns and field goals.

World Cup for the first time in 1958. His

V

performances in Brazil’s 1970 triumph have gone down in soccer folklore. In a first-class career he scored 1,281 goals.

Womens soccer In 1991, the first women’s soccer World Cup was held, and women’s soccer was accepted as an Olympic sport in 1996. In many countries, girls now begin playing soccer at school.

American football

Australian football

American football field

Australian football is played

Equipment

18-a-side on a huge oval

I'o withstand the crunching tackles and blocks,

field. Players kick, catch,

players wear extensive protective padding under

and run with the ball

their uniform, the amount and type depending

which must be grounded

on their role. Players wear a number from 1 to

every 10 m (33 ft). A goal, kicked between the inner

99 to identify them.

posts, is worth six points; a behind, kicked inside the

Rugby The rugby codes are

Rugby union

ini-vxcH

rugby union and rugby league. They are

outer posts, scores one point.

This is played 15-a-side with eight forwards, two halfbacks, four three-

Gaelic football

quarters, and one full-back.

This is played 15-a¬

It features scrums (shown

side with a round

handling games featuring

here), line-outs to restart

ball. It is a cross

running, hand-to-hand

play, and tactical kicking.

between soccer and

passing, tackling, and

Tries score five points and

Australian football.

conversions two points.

The ball may be

kicking. Points are scored

kicked, fisted, and

for a try — touching the

Rugby league

ball down over the

Rugby league is played 13-a-side. A

hand. Points arc

tackled player may rise and play the

scored by kicking

ball with his foot. After six successive

the ball between the

opposition goal line, or a

passed hand-to-

goal — kicking the ball

tackles, a team must give up the ball

posts, under the bar

over the cross bar and

to the other team. Tries score four

for three points,

between the posts. The

points, goals one or two.

over for one jwint.

two codes have a slightly different ball and pitch.

FIND OUT Rugby union pitch

MORE

Ball GAMES

Olympic GAMES

Tennis and other RACKET SPORTS

Sport

351

FORCE AND MOTION

Speed and acceleration An object s speed is how far it moves in a period of time. Speed in a particular direction is called

The world is never still - traffic and

velocity. Acceleration is the rate at which an

pedestrians rush along busy streets, clouds race

objects velocity changes.

across the sky, and the Earth turns on its axis

A sprinter who runs 60 metres in 12 seconds has an average speed of 5 m/s.

and whirls around the Sun. Forces make all this motion, or movement, possible. A force is a push or a pull that causes an object to start or stop moving, or to change its speed or direction. When forces combine, they can hold things still or make things balance. The study of the way objects move when forces act upon them is called dynamics.

Combining forces Equal forces acting on an object in opposite directions will have no effect. If the forces are not equal, or if they do not act in opposite directions, they will

The sprinter’s feet

A sprinter’s acceleration is,

: The force exerted

push against the

by the sprinter's feet

greatest during the first few

starting blocks.

propels him forward.

seconds of a race.

combine to give an overall force called the resultant. Pulling forceResultant

Inertia

Gravity pulls a

An objects mass makes it resist a

parachute

Resultant Two tugboats helping an

Greek mathematician and inventor who studied forces and how they could be used by simple machines.

of motion, whether it is moving

air resistance

_

Archimedes (c.287-212 BC) was a

force that tries to change its state

downwards, but Pulling force

Archimedes

Terminal velocity

pushes upwards with

or at rest. This resistance is called

an equal force. There

inertia. The greater an objects

is no resultant, because

He founded statics, discovered why objects float and sink, and worked out the principles behind levers and pulleys.

mass, the more inertia it has. For

ocean liner into port do not pull the forces cancel each ^

example, the same force will

in the direction the ship needs

other out. The parachute

to travel. They pull at an angle

cannot accelerate, so it falls

accelerate a small car more than a

to each other so that the

to the ground at a constant speed,

loaded truck, because the car has

resultant force moves the ship

known as terminal velocity.

straight ahead.

a smaller mass and less inertia.

Newtons laws of motion In 1687, English physicist Sir Isaac

“Flying buttresses

Newton devised three laws to summarize

support the

the principles of force and motion.

walls. Force

Motion

First law An object continues in a state of rest or constant motion unless a force acts upon it. The inline skater in the picture will keep on rolling at

Equilibrium

the same speed until a force, such as

An object is in equilibrium when

Statics

the forces acting upon it balance.

Statics is the study of forces aaing

This set of scales is in equilibrium

on stationary objects in equilibrium.

when two equal masses are placed

It is important in building design,

on the pans, because gravity pulls

because a building will collapse if the

on each pan with the same force.

forces acting upon it do not balance.

friction, acts to stop him.

Momentum When a moving object collides with a stationary one, the result depends upon a quantity called momentum. An objects momentum is calculated by multiplying its mass by its velocity. For example, a heavy bowling ball has more momentum than a light plastic ball moving at the same velocity,

Circular motion

Second law An objects acceleration is equal to the size of the force acting upon it divided by the objects mass. This inline skaters ■

acceleration dep>ends on

because it has a greater mass.

how heavy he is and

A free-moving object will

w

how hard he is pushed.

naturally move in a straight Third law

line. Centripetal force is

For every force there is an

needed for the object to

equal force acting in the

move in a circle. This is a

opposite direction. Forces act in pairs, so when

force that pulls an object The mass of'

towards the centre of a circle,

The hfijter

A pushes B, an

the howling hall

plastic hall has a

equal and opp>osite

constantly changing its

fives it enough

smaller mass and

force acts on A,

direction and stopping it from

momentum to

simply bounces

making both inline

scatter the pins.

off the pins

skaters move apart.

moving off in a straight line.

Friction between the tyres and the

A motorcycle uses centripetal

road provides

force to travel around a bend.

FIND OUT

centripetal jbree.

MORE

352

Friction

Gravity

Machines

Magnetism

FORESTS A

Tropical forest Tropical forests, or

THIRD OF THE WORLD’S

land

surface consists of forest — areas of land covered by dense tree cover. Each forest is an ecosystem — a group of animals and plants interacting with the physical environment and one another. More plants and animals live in forests than in any other environment. Forests differ according to the climate — boreal, temperate, or tropical. They help maintain the Earth’s natural balance; trees absorb and release gases which regulate the climate.

rainforests, tend to thrive in warm and wet climates. The porous soil is generally rich in aluminium and iron. In one hectare there may be more than 200 species of

Canopy of

trees, hundreds of

trees 15 m

birds, mammals,

(50 ft) above

Plants twine

the ground

around

and reptiles, and

branches.

thousands of insects. Understorey contains shrubs and young growth.

Down-angled branches allow

Tropical forest

the trees to shed Tropical forest

Each forest has layers of

the weight of the

vegetation. In a tropical forest

snow in cold Temperate forest Boreal coniferous forest

emergent trees poke through the

climates without

top. Below are the canopy, the

. breaking them.

understorey, and the forest floor. ^— Broad leaves of deciduous trees grow rapidly in summer, Forest floor

and are shed in winter.

is dark with

Temperate forest

little plant growth, hut

^

vegetation

These forests are found

decay

in mild or temperate

enriches the soil..

climates, where

^

winters are cool ^

and summers are warm. The majority of

trees are deciduous, such as oak and beech. Many temperate forests have been

Boreal coniferous forest In cool, northern, or boreal regions, such as

cleared for farmland because the soil beneath is very fertile.

North Asia, there are vast areas of boreal forests, sometimes known as taiga. These dense \ Soil beneath these trees Boreal coniferous forest

is acid and infertile.

forests contain hardy coniferous or evergreen

Afforestation

trees, such as spruce, pine, fir, and larch trees.

More people are becoming aware of the value of forests. In

Deforestation

Southeast Asia, new forest land is

Cattle ranching

Slash and burn

Overgrazing

Huge areas of rainforest in

Nomadic farmers slash and

A shortage of land forces

created with tree-planting

Each year, forest land

Brazil are cut down for cattle-

burn forests for farmland. After

nomadic farmers to stay in

programmes. Some forests

the size of Washington

ranching, which exhausts the

a few years, they move on to

one place. The land is over-

soil within a few years.

allow the .soil to regenerate.

grazed, and the soil dries up.

are now conservation areas.

State, USA is destroyed. Trees are cut down for farmland or timber. De¬ forestation can cause huge environmental problems, disturbing the soil and forest life. Fewer trees to absorb carbon dioxide may also disrupt the climate.

FIND OUT

MORE

Climate

Ecology AND ECOSYSTEMS

Plant USES

Pollution

Rainforest WILDLIFE

Soil

Trees

Woodland WILDLIFE

353

FORT KNOX see MONFY • FORTUNE TFLUNG see ASTROLOGY • FOSSEY, DIAN see MONKEYS AND O EHER PRIMATES • FOSSIL FUELS see ENERGY

FOSSILS

.. >

The remains and traces

.

of past life forms

are called fossils. All living organisms are potential fossils, but only a few are preserved.

Conodont

The most common fossils are those of hard parts of animals and plants. Only rarely is soft tissue

Fossil dating Some fossils, such as graptolites and conodonts, evolved and became extinct

fossilized. Sometimes, trace fossils, such as footprints,

over geologically short f>eriods Graptolite

are found. The study of fossils, called palaeontology, is crucial to our understanding of life.

^

of time. This makes them useful for dating the rocks in

m skeUwn may

Water

Erosion of the rock

deposits

brings the fossils

which they are found.

How a fossil is formed In order for something to fossilize, it must be buried quickly by sediment, such as sand or mud, before it decomposes. Fossils form in a variety of ways, depending on the environment in which the animal or plant lived, and the conditions after it was buried.

1

After death, the soft parts

2

of a Triceratops decompwse

Through time, the bones

3

are buried under thick

4

The layers of sediment turn to rock. They may

Erosion exposes the bones. Palaeontologists

quicklv, leaving just the hard

layers of sediment and harden

be pushed up or folded to

can then collect and study

skeleton and horns.

to form fossils.

form mountains.

the dinosaur remains.

Studying fossils

Coral

Trilobite

Fossil corals are

Trilobites were arthropods

The study of the evolution of

common

that lived in the sea. They

because thev

shed their shells regularly, as

environments and natural communities is

have a hard

modern arthropods do, and

skeleton. Soft-

these shells are often found

limestone contains fossils of different

bodied animals, such

as fossils. Thev are divided

animals, such as trilobites and corals. It

as sea anemones and jelltTish,

into three distinct parts, or

would have lived in the same

lobes, hence the name

an important part of palaeontolog)’. This

shows a community that existed on the seafloor more than 400 million years ago.

Limestone from Much V enlock, England

community, but are unlikely to

“trilobite". A few fossils of

have fossilfted.

soft parts have been found.

Types of fossil Fossils range from microscopic plants and animals to the huge bones of dinosaurs. They can be almost unchanged from the original or replaced bv minerals Amber The fossilized resin of trees, called amber,

'

often contains trapped

Bones

insects and other small

Vertebrate fossils are made of many parts

Trees

and are usually found as single pieces. If

trapped fossils are often

Volcanic ash

Fossilized uees, such as

conditions are right, a skeleton can be

preserved with much detail

This child's body was buried bv

these Lepidodendron trunks

prcser\-ed whole, as in this Diplomysttts,,

volcanic ash at Pompeii, Italy, in

and roots, can be preserved

an ancestor of the modern herring.

animals and plants. The

Fem-des

'ft

AD

79. Ash turns to rock quicklv.

as internal moulds of the

were larger

A buried animal or plant may rot

bark. The inside rots away

than males.

away to leave a hollow, which, if

and is replaced bv sand.

Georges Cuvier

filled with plaster, forms a cast.

A French zoologist, Georges Cuvier (1Z69-1832) realized that the

9U

Ammonite shelL

Petrification

replaced with iron

These monkey-

pyrites, or fooL’gold".

puzzle cones

parts of the body were interrelated. For example,

Concretions

an animal that has hooves is

have been turned

Hard lumps, or concretions,

to stone, or

are often formed around

These molluscs were abundant

petrified. This happiened when

fossils in sediments. This

in the seas of the Mesozoic

silica-rich waters crystallized

concretion reveals the fossil

Era. Their shells were made

within the cells of the cones

shell and mould of a clam.

Ammonites

Jurassic

a herbivore, and must have herbivore’s teeth. He identified a fossil as a marsupial from a jaw.

of the mineral aragonite and were often replaced bv other minerals during fossilization.

FIND OUT

MORE

Arthropods

Dinosaurs

Evolution

Geology

Prehistoric life

Fossils Invertebrates

‘Smr -V

f Lonsdaleia

Trachyphyllia is a Raphidonema is a sponge from the warm waters of the Cretaceous Period.

lived as a colonv

Miocene solitarv coral. Didvmograptus are Ordovician

during the Carboniferous Period,

Lovenia is a heart urchin with a flattened shell.

A stalk attached

graptolitcs. They floated in oceans.

the hrachiopod

Stem made up of

to the sea floor^-

disc-like plates.

.4 \v Archaeogeryon is a deep-water Miocene mud crab

Mesolimulus is a horseshoe crab of

Viviparus is a

Terebratula is a brachiopod,

the Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods.

freshwater snail

also known as a lamp shell.

Lingula is a brachiopod with a thin shell.

Dinierocrinites is a sea lilv, or crinoid, from the Silurian and Devonian Periods.

It has a horseshoe-shaped shell.

Vertebrates

Long hind leg

Eighth lower left tooth

Macrocranion from the Eocene Period resembles a living hedgehog without the spikes. Carcharocles is an

Dapedium is a fish from the shallow seas

extinct shark.

of the late Triassic and Jurassic Periods.

Nostril

Rana is a true frog that first appeared in the Eocene Period.

Raphus is a huge, extinct,

'l Ring of hones

flightless pigeon, commonly

Ichthyosaurus is a sea reptile

known as the dodo

of the Jurassic Period

around the eye

Dagger-like'

DLmetrodon is a mammal¬

teeth

like carnisorous reptile of the Permian Period.

Plants I

Eye socket

Growth rings

Quercus is oak. It

Collenia is an alga

first appeared in

of the Precambrian

the Eocene

and Cambrian

Period.

Periods.

355

FOXES see WOLVES AND WILD DOGS

11 FRANCE

France facts Capital qty Paris

The largest country

in western Europe, France

Area 551.500 sq km (212,930 sq miles) Population 57,800,000

stretches from the Pyrenees in the south to the English Channel in the north. A founder member

Main language French

Major religion Christian

of the European Economic Community (now European Union), France plays a key role in world affairs. It is

Currency Euro Life expectancy 78 years People per doctor 333

a leading industrial nation, although some five per cent of the population works in farming. The first of the modern republics,

GOVTRNMENT Multi-party democracy Adult literacy 99%

France includes Corsica, Guyana, and various islands in the Caribbean and Pacific Ocean.

Physical features Frances landscape varies from

River Seine

undulating fields in the north to

From its source in the east,

sparse hills in the Massif Central,

the River Seine crosses Paris, before winding its

and mountains in the Alps and

wav north to the Atlantic

Pyrenees in the south.

Ocean. France’s river network, which also includes the Loire and the

Corsica

Rhone, is used for transport

With an area of 8,630 sq km (3.350 sq miles),

and for irrigating farmland.

Corsica is the third largest Mediterranean

The Seine n Normandy

covers the slopes of towering granite peaks,

island. Fragrant, thorny scrub called maquis and rich fertile valleys are used to graze sheep and grow vines. The capital is Ajaccio. ^ _ ^^unkerque

3TC

^

^

-//"C

no2°F)

(rF)

Climate 3°C

Northwest

(37°F)

France, Dieppe •

particularly

Rotten-* Amieqb

Brittany, is mild

BjeaUvaiS' #Laon' St.M.*,

'

east has hot summers and stormy winters.

Reims

st.-Brieuc

^Quimper D

(23 in)

but damp. The

•Qafin

^

Brest

mm

Summers in the south are dry and hot, and ....

AferH^or^

^

Rennes

chalot^^ iri Charti*>-*

. NjrA4amp

forest fires are common. In the Pyrenees

f

and Alps, winter snowfalls are heavy,

le Man?

making these ideal areas for skiing.

Belle

3 SL-Nazaire«

Angf’’';

,

Nantes *

-Spinal

fielfv-t

Farmland

’ Strasbourg

Barren I %_

60%

2 *£-olmar

-

'*

' Forest 36%

\1oulins

Built-up 3%

Land use

.Llnno^es Angowleme ^

France’s fertile farmland includes gently

Clermfmt-f'ifoarinJ’ t I' ' Ferrand St.LvtiT!^^ 'Per.Kt.-us ; Chamond# - X.

rolling pastures and fields of wheat and sugar beet in the north, and vineyards and lavender fields in the south. Much of the Massif Central is pasture land for grazing sheep.

,

C ahors •

Paris

#\5ont^^an ^au

The Louvre Museum lies on the fashionable Right Bank of the River Seine, which di\ ides the city.

+.|TbuIoFse ■>(yp|pellior

• farb*-.

The Left Bank is traditionally home to students, artists, and the famous Eifiel Tower. One of the

n

Care,ij^onne*

■

^arbonne

Terpignan

world’s most beautiful and most \ isited capitals, Paris is the cultural and political centre of France.

Mediterr

D

356

The Lous re Museum

FRANCE

People

Leisure

People of French descent make

Football, rugby, cycling, and

up about 94 per cent of the

tennis are all popular sports in

population. Among these are

France, as are horseracing and

several groups who speak their

Formula 1. The French Open

own languages and have strong

is a major international tennis

independence movements.

championship.

These include the Bretons of Brittany in the north, about 500,000 Basques in the Tour de France

Pyrenees, and the Corsicans.

Each year, more than

Ethnic groups

a hundred of

Boules

France’s five million immigrants

the world’s leading professional cyclists

Throughout France, groups of people

include mainly North African Muslims

comjjete in this famous cycle race over

playing houles are a common sight in the

and economic migrants from South

a 3,400-km (2,113-mile) route in 24

town or village square. Boules is France’s

one-day stages.

national game and involves rolling heavy

107 per sq km

75%

25%

and Central Europe. Most live and

(278 per sq mile)

Urban

Rural

work in the cities.

balls at a smaller target ball.

Farming

Food Cantal

The French grow a variety of crops, such

French cuisine is world famous, and words such as cafe, restaurant, pate,

as wheat, barley, sugar beet, and grapes for making wine. About a third of all the

and quiche are common in many Liv

languages. Special French dishes

farmland is pasture for grazing cows and

St.-Nectaire

include bouillabaisse (fish soup),

sheep, which are reared for milk to make

escargots (snails), and Prawn

grenouilles

dairy products, and for meat.

(frogs’ legs).

Cheese France produces more than 365 kinds of cheese, from cow, sheep, and goats’

Slice of

milk. These include St.-Nectaire,

lemon.

Cantal, and Livarot, and the famous Brie, Camembert, and Roquefort. Milk and butter are also important exports.

Wine Cereals

The wines of Bordeaux,

France’s main cereal crop is

Burgundy, Champs^ne, and the

wheat, which grows on large

Rhone valley are sold worldwide,

farms in the north of France

France is the leading producer

where the soil is good.

and controls quality strictly.

Industry

Transport

France has strong chemical, steel,

France boasts the world’s

electronics, and manufacturing

fastest train, the TGV,

industries, and an active aerospace

which can travel at

programme. Nuclear power provides

speeds of up to 300 kmh

three-quarters of the country’s

Car production

(186 mph). A direct service

electricity. Perfume and fashion are

Most French drisers buy

now runs to England via

French cars, such as this

also a major source of income.

Renault Espace. Other makes

the Channel Tunnel.

include Peugeot and Citroen.

N

Perfume

The French car industry ranks

French perfumes, such as

fourth in the world.

H

This tiny independent

Many are made from the fragrant oils extracted from __

Monaco facts

Monaco

Chanel, are world famous.

principality on the Cote

roses, jasmine, and

d’Azur derives its income from

lavender that grow in the

tourism, banking, sales tax, and

southeast of the country.

gambling. It has close ties with France. Tourism

Capital city Monaco Area

1.95 sq km

(0.75 sq miles) Population 32,000 Main language French M ajor religion

The fashionable resorts of the Cote d’Azur in

Grand Casino

southeast France attract

The people of

thousands of tourists

Monaco pay very

every summer. France is

little tax and earn

Christian Currency Euro

now the world’s leading

more per head than

tourist destination,

any other country in the world. The gaming rooms

..attracting 75 million

and roulette wheels of the Grand Casino in Monte

visitors each year.

FIND OUT

Cars and

Clothes

MORE

TRUCKS

AND FASHION

Carlo are ojien to anyone with money to spend.

Cycling

Empires

Europe,

HISTORY OF

European UNION

Farming

France,

Trade and

Trains and

HISTORY OF

INDUSTRY

RAILWAYS

357

FRANCE,

HISTORY OF

in western Europe, France has dominated European history ever

The largest country

since the Franks conquered the country in the 5 th century. Its vast natural wealth and large

Horses heads, carved c. 10,000 BC

Prehistoric France The first inhabitants of France were prolific artists. More than 20,000 vears ago, they adorned caves at Lascaux and elsewhere with lilelike pictures of animals. They also carved likenesses of animal heads from bone, antler, and ro^k.

population have enabled a succession of rulers, such as Charlemagne in the 9th century,

Samian ware bowl

Roman France Between 58 and 51

BC,

a Roman army led by Julius

Louis XIV in the 17th, and Napoleon

Caesar conquered France. The new province of Gaul

in the 19th, to create powerful empires that spanned Europe. Despite three bitter wars with Germany

was one of the richest in the empire. Trade flourished, and the Romans built many roads and bridges. They also introduced growing grapes for wine. Franks

between 1870 and 1945, France emerged as one of the world s superpowers. Today, France is a leading member of the European Union, and one of the wealthiest countries in the world.

In 486, the Franks from Germany routed the last Roman governor of Gaul and took control, gi\ ing France its name. At first the Franks French potters

continurtl with Roman customs, but their

made this type

empire broke up in civil wars. The 8th-centurv

of ware in the

kings Charles Martel, Pepin the Short, and

Roman period.

Charlemagne restored order. ^

i Charlemagne

Renaissance France

Medieval France

Joan of Arc, who fought the

In common with other European rulers, the power

English for independence, was

of the French kings was always limited by the

burnt at the stake in 1431.

strength of local nobles. Despite this weakness,

During the 15th century, the

France became one of the richest countries in

French kings drove out the

Europe during the 11 th century. Major trade fairs

English, and united their

in the Champagne region attracted merchants from

country. They also crushed the

all over Europe, and trade and commerce flourished.

Religious wars

power of the nobles. During

The Reformation split France, with many Catholics

the next centurv, the ideas of

Angevin Empire

becoming Huguenots (Protestants). In 1562, civil war broke

As a result of marriage and war,

out between the two sides; religious toleration was agreed

Henry II of England (r. 1154—89)

by the Edict of Nantes in 1598, but tension remained high.

Erance. New chateaux were

ruled much of western and

In 1685, Louis XIV resoked the Edict, and many

built, and the arts flourished.

northern France. His vast realm was

Huguenots (led to England and Holland.

the Italian Renaissance entered

called the Angevin Empire, after the countv of Anjou. For vears it was a

Golden age

threat to French unification.

The I'^th and 18th centuries were Chateau Gaillard, an Angevin casde

a golden age of the arts. Roval support led to the founding of the Gobelins tajjestrv works in 1602 and the roval

Bourbons

potterv at Sevres in 1756. The

Under the Bourbon kings, France emerged as the

Watteau and Fragonard, dramatists

major power in Europe during the 17th centurv.

such as Racine, Moliere and Corneille,

nobility supported artists such as

the writer Montaigne, creator of the

Habsburg-ruled Spain and Austria - enemies of

essay, and the fable-writer La Fontaine.

France - were defeated, and all power was centralized under the king. Industry and commerce were supported, and France established colonies in North America and India.

Louis XIV During the long reign of Louis XTV (r. 1643—1"'15), the power of the French

Handpainted

r« A)

figures

kings reached its height. Louis beliesed in the divine right of kings to rule, and governed without parliament. He reorganized the army

Palace of Versailles

and expanded French

In order to increase his own power, and reduce that of the

territory. But his lavish

nobility, Louis XIV built this vast new palace outside Paris.

lifesnle left France

Some 36.000 people worked on the building, decorating it

almost bankrupt.

with the best examples o( French art and design. At the centre

Sevres

was the king’s bed chamber, where Louis received guests.

porcelain vase

358

FRANCE, HISTORY OF

Monarchy and empire After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, France had a series of short-lived, weak governments. The restored Bourbon monarchy was overthrown in 1830 and King Louis Philippe lost his throne in 1848. The resulting Second Republic collapsed when its president, Louis-Napoleon (r. 1852—70), became emperor. In spite of these problems, France grew prosperous. I

Revolution of 1848

French Revolution

In Februarv 1848, Parisians rose up

Revolution broke out in 1789. sweeping

t^ainst their ineffectual king, Louis

away the king and nobilin'. A new

Philippe. A republic was set up, with

Franco-Prussian War

National Assembly was set up, and swore

Louis-Napoleon. a nephew of

Although successful at home, Napoleon III was no match lor Bismarck, chancellor of Prussia In

the famous tennis court oath, that they

Bonaparte, as president. Radical

would not disband until France had a

reforms were promised, but in 1852

18^0, rivalry between France and Prussia led to

proper constitution. Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon became emperor.

war, but the French armies were unprepared and

became Emperor in 1804, marking the

were soon defeated. France lost the provinces of

end of the revolutionary period.

Alsace and Lorraine to Germany.

Revolutionaries in Paris, 1848

Charles de Gaulle

Modern France

J’Accuse...!

After the liberation of France

trained as a soldier, rising to

from German occupation in

command an armoured division.

LETTRE AU PRESlDENTl OE LA REPUBLIQUE

1944, a Fourth Republic was

On the fall of France in 1940, he

Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970)

fled to Britain and called on French

Pax EMIliE ZOLA

set up to govern the country.

jjeople to resist German occupation.

Like its predecessor, it was weak

As leader of the

and was brought down by the

Third Republic

J’Accuse, writer Emile 2U)las

unrest caused by the Algerian

pamphlet supporting Drevfus

war in 1958. Charles de Gaulle

The Third Republic (1870—1940) Dreyfus case

was riven with internal disputes and

In October 1894, French armv

conflicts between moderates,

captain Alfred Drevfus was

radicals, socialists, and royalists.

court-martialled for treason, for

French morale during the war.

then set up the Fifth Republic,

In 1958 he became

aiming to restore French

president, leading his

prestige and prosperity.

country until he resigned in 1969.

passing militarv secrets to

Between 1918 and its collapse in

Germany. But a mistake had

1940, there were 44 governments

been made, and a campaign to

and 20 different prime ministers.

free Drevfus began. He was

In 1954, Algeria, one of several African

Yet France stayed one of the leading

cleared in 1906, but the case

countries colonized bv France, demanded

states in Europe, with a worldwide I

Free French, he did much to boost

empire and a strong economy.

Algerian war

split the nation between his

that it be granted its independence.

supprorters and those who refused

This led to conflict with the many European settlers in the country. The French armv

to change the verdict.

supported the settlers in their wish to remain

Vichv France

French and waged a vicious war against the

In 1940, German forces

Algerian rebels. Algeria finally won its

invaded France. French

independence in 1962.

general and right-wing politician Marshal Petain set up a government in

May' 1968

Vichy, central France. This

In May 1968, students demanding

government collaborated

more money for education

with the occupying forces;

demonstrated against high defence

opposition was led from

spending. Riots broke out in Paris

London bv Charles de

and elsewhere, with fighting

Gaulle, leader of the Free

between police and students.

French. Vichv France

A general strike ensued, and de

was occupied by the

Gaulle’s government was weakened

Germans in 1942. Cross of Lorraine

Timeline 58-51 BC Gaul

Flag of the Free French

E\CrCIOPtDIE (present-dav

DU tiokm.mk: 111 S sen NC

,

,

V

After the riots. Paris, Mav 1968

1589 Henrv I\ becomes

1848 After a revolution,

1914—18 France fights Germany

first Bourbon king.

the short-lived Second

in World War 1.

France) becomes part of the

Republic is established

Roman Empire.

1946 Fourth Republic established

1643-1''15 France

AD 486 The Franks take

reaches height of its

1870—“'I Third Republic

power under Louis XIV.

set up.

1'’89 Revolution breaks

1870s Impressionist

after VCorld War II.

control of the country.

1958 De Gaulle takes power and

1337-1453 France and

out in Paris.

Britain fight the Hundred

movement founded bv Claude Monet and other

Years’ War.

Encyclopedic, 1751

introduces Fifth Republic. Claude Monet, Xiaterlilies

1950s-90s France is a leading member of European Union,

French painters.

FIND OUT

Europe,

MORE

French

Germany,

Medieval

Napoleon

Napoleonic

Roman

World

World

HISTORY OF

REVOLITION

HISTORY OF

EUROPE

BONAPARTE

VARS

EV1P1RE

WAR 1

WAR II

359

FRANK ANNE see HOLOCAUST

Franklin,

Early life

benjamin

Benjamin Franklin was born in 1706 in the American port of Boston. He was the son of a

writer, scientist, politician, diplomat, and an author Inventor, printer, publisher,

candle and soap maker, and left school at 10 to help in his father’s business. Later he worked for his half-

of both the US Declaration of Independence and the US Constitution — there was nothing Benjamin Franklin did not turn his hand to. He

brother James, printer and publisher of a newspaper to which Benjamin contributed. After disagreements with James, he left Boston in 1723 to

was born into a poor family, but had a fertile mind very receptive to new ideas. He invented items such as Inventor the lightning conductor and bifocal spectacles, but he is most respected for his contribution to the founding of the USA. Ben// caused by

Franklin was a tireless inventor, using his scientific knowledge to devise a number of inventions that were designed to make human life safer and more comfortable.

lightning.

He is sometimes known as the “wisest

These ranged from bifocal spectacles — combining two lenses of different strength in one frame to correct both close and Lightning rod

American”. Printer

distant vision - to a musical

the lightning rod and an

printing business to his foreman so

energy-saving stove

the popular Poor

that he could devote his life to

still made today.

Richard's Almanac

science. He researched the nature of

between 1732—57, he

electricity, and this work led to him

introduced numerous

fingers gently on the edtres of the classes.

Stove

common-sense sayings

inventing the lightning rod, to

that have since become

protect tall buildings from lightning.

inventions was a practical

part of the American

He also worked out a theory of heat

stove that made use of the

language. He also set up

played by rubbing the

his useful inventions were

In 1748, Franklin handed over his

printer. As publisher of

The armonica was

glass “armonica”. Among

Scientist Franklin prospered as a

work as a printer in Philadelphia.

Among Franklin’s many

heat that would otherwise

an academy that later

absorption and tracked the paths of

have escaped up the chimney.

became the University'

storms across the sky.

Stoves like this were installed in many American houses.

of Pennsylvania.

Lightning In 1752, Franklin

Poor Richard, 1773.

flew a kite in a

'Almanack Fox Che Ynr of Chxtft

thunderstorm to prove that lightning is electrical.

1 73

Electricitv from the

Being the Firft after XEAV YEAR;

thunderclouds

Armonica

flowed down the

In the early l"'60s, Franklin built a musical

string to a metal

instrument made up of a scries of glass bowls, graduated in size and fined one inside

key tied on it near the ground.

another. By rotating a spindle, the edges of the bowls passed through a trough of water.

Sparks flew from

Contact with the musician’s fingenips

the key, showing the presence of

1 By r\ch7Kl

produced a penetrating sound. Composers

the electrical

Franklin experimenting

charge in the sky.

with a kite and lightning

such as Mozan and Beethoven wrote music for this strange device.

Benjamin Franklin

Statesman

l^Ob Born in Boston, USA

During the American Revolution, Franklin was a

1723 Begins work as a printer

member of the committee

1732-57 V\A)\\s\\cs Poor Richard's Almanac

that wrote the Declaration

1752 Conducts famous

of Independence, which he

experiment with lightning

signed in 1776. Later that Constitution

year, he sailed to France to

In 1787, Franklin helped to write

win diplomatic recognition

the new American constitution.

for the new nation. When

Although his proposal for a single¬ chamber congress was rejected, he negotiated a compromise between the different authors which resulted in

360

FIND OUT

American REVOLUTION

of Independence I'^Sl

the war ended, he was one m the peace talks.

Chosen as one of the US

negotiators with Britain 1787 Member of group which draws up US constitution

of the main US negotiators Franklin (left) talks to the French king and queen

the constitution that survives today.

MORE

1776 Helps to draft Declaration

1790 Dies in Philadelphia

(seated, right) and members of their court

Electricity

Eyes and

Governments

SEEING

AND POLITICS

Inventions

Musical

United states.

INSTRUMENTS

HISTORY OF

FREDERICK THE GREAT see GERMANY. HISTORY OF: MEDIEVAL EUROPE

FRENCH REVOLUTION

^iational Assembl

^ GwftfoTfBe* c la Rcv-okicion;

In 1789, REVOLUTION BROKE OUT in France when people rose up against poverty and injustice. The French Revolution swept away the power of the monarchy and ended the traditional social order. When the revolution began, poverty was widespread, the king was unpopular, and people

BastiDc Rrhon;

resented the clergy and nobility. Following the formation of the National Assembly, France was declared a republic, the king was

Revolutionary Paris The key events of the revolution occurred on

executed, and, for a while, terror reigned. In 1799, Napoleon came to power, and the revolution ended.

the streets of Paris. Various political groups sprang up, such as the Jacobin Club, which relied on the Parisian sans culottes for support.

National Assembly

Rights of Man

In 1788, France ran out of money, and King Louis XVI called the

The National Assembly

Storming of

issued the Declaration of

the Bastille

the Rights of Man and the

In 1789, angry demon¬

Estates General, representing clergy.

Citizen, stating that “Men

strators seized the Bastille,

nobility, and middle classes. TJie

are born and remain equal".

a prison that had been a

Womens rights were not

symbol of oppression for

Third Estate formed a National Assembly, seized lands, and drew up a new constimtion.

included, but the ideals

many years. This act

of “liberty, equality, and

sparked a wave of

fraternity” inspired everyone

tebellion. Outside Paris, peasants attacked the country

Fhe bonnet rouge, or red bonnet, symbolized freedom. It looked like the cap worn by freed Roman slaves.

Reign of Terror

Guillotine Named after a French doctor, the

nobility they

By 1792, the revolution was under

guillotine consisted of a wooden

hated.

houses of the

_

threat. There were food shonages,

W

frame, with a sharp blade

royalist uprisings in the countryside,

mounted on it,

Robespierre

and a threat by Prussia to invade

which sliced off

A lawyer by profession,

the victims’

Maximilien Robespierre

and restore the monarchy.

heads. This

(1758-94) was one

killing machine

grew in power, declaring a republic

of the leaders of the

was quicker than

revolution. He headed

and executing the king in 1793.

previous methods

the jacobin Club, and,

of execution, and

by 1793, was leader of

Extremists, known as Jacobins,

They set up the Committee of

was, therefore,

Public Safety, and a reign of terror

the Committee of Public

thought to be

Safety that conducted the

began. Anyone suspected of being

more humane.

an enemy of the revolution was

Reign of Terror. In 1794. he, too, went to the guillotine.

arrested and guillotined. Thousands Sharpened blade

died. By 1794, the leaders of the

fell on victims’

Committee were themselves White was the colour

MakCHK

necks.

1>£.S

MaA SEll.LOlS

kr. jrr-K ttTrMfU'ts rttn^TRKS

executed, and the terror was over.

of the royal family.

Revolutionaries The revolutionaries were men and women from all social classes: lawyers, peasants, workers. Street revolutionaries

"X !]

Red and

were known as saru culottes (without

Marseillaise

blue were

breeches) because they wore striped

From 1792, revolution spread outside

the colours

trousers. Two rival tevolutionaty

French borders. A soldier composed the

groups emerged: the Girondins and

Marseillaise as a revolutionary marching

the more radical Jacobins.

song. Today, it is France’s national anthem.

'^ofParis.

Striped trousers 1788 France bankrupt. Louis XVI

14 July, 1789 Paris mob

1791 The French

1793 Louis XVl executed.

1799

storms the Bastille; French

revolution inspires

Counter-revolution breaks

Napoleon

a slave rebellion

out. Revolutionary war

overthrows

in Haiti.

spreads across Europe.

Revolution begins.

summons Estates General.

27 August, 1789 National Assembly

May 1789 Third Strong leather

1792 National

issues Rights of Man.

National Assembly, Louis XVI

1793—4 Reign of Terror.

Assembly abolishes

Estate forms

shoes

Directory and takes power.

monarchy. France

1798-99 1795 The Direaory, a

Revolution

October 1789 Women

becomes a republic

more moderate board of

inspires

march to Versailles from

and goes to war with

governors, is formed and

uprisings

Paris to demand bread.

Austria and Prussia.

takes power.

in Ireland

American

REVOLUTION

Europe, IF

France, HISTORY OF

Government AND POLITICS

Napoleonic WARS

361

FRESNEL, AUGUSTIN see LIGHT

FREUD,

Early life

SIGMUND

Freud was born into a Jewish family in 1856 in Freiburg (Pribor), in what is now the

people viewed the workings of the human mind as a great

One hundred years ago,

Czech Republic. In 1859 his family moved to Vienna. Freud was a brilliant student, coming top of

mystery. Sigmund Freud helped to make sense of that mystery. Because of his innovative ideas, he is often known as the father of psychiatry. Freud was an Austrian doctor

his class in school for six years. In 1873 he began to study medicine at Vienna, and in 1881 he qualified as a doctor.

who worked in Vienna almost all his life. Fie researched the meaning of dreams, how the unconscious mind works, and how events in our past influence the actions we take. In developing the science of psychoanalysis, he provided insights that have affected every aspect of modern life.

W

a2

j fl }

Psychoanalysis Analy'st’s couch

In 1886, Freud began to specialise in

Much of Freud's work consisted of

neuroses, or nervous diseases. To find out

listening to his patients as they

what was causing his patients’ illnesses,

talked about themselyes. The patient lay on a couch in Freud’s study, and

he used first hypnotism and then free

Freud sat at his desk, surrounded by

association — instructing his patients to say

his collection of ancient Egyptian

whatever came into their head in the belief

statues, listening and taking notes.

that they would reveal the cause of their

This technique, deyised by Freud, is still used widely today. Many of

illness. Freud published his ideas in 1895

Freud’s books are made up largely of

in Studies on Hysteria, the first-ever account

case studies - reports of the psychoanalytic sessions and the

of psychoanalysis — the interpretation and

conclusions Freud drew from them.

treatment of mental disorders. The Psychopathology of

International Psychoanalytical Association

Everyday Life {1904) Chair is made in the shape of a person_

Early in his career, Freud

Carl Gustav Jung

attracted intense hostilirv to

The Swiss psychiatrist CG Jung (18”'5-

his work, but gradually his

0 %

The Interpretation of Dreams (1900)

Freudian slips

Interpretation of dreams

Psychopathology of

Freud belieyed that beneath our

Everyday Life (1904),

In his book The

V

ideas were accepted. In

1961) and Freud lectured together in the USA in 1909. Jung was the first president of the I PA, but

1902, he established a

resigned in 1914

psychoanalytical society in

because he disagreed with

Vienna, and in 1910 he set

Freud about

up the International

the origins of

Psychoanalytical Association (I PA) to promote his ideas.

neurosis. He later created his

conscious mind is a submerged

Freud explained how slips

unconscious that goyerns much of

of the tongue can reveal

Regular I PA meetings and

thought about

our behayiour. Dreams are the way

hidden, unconscious

discussions helped Freud

the mind’s

in which the unconscious comes

wishes. Freud made many

to the surface. He published this

connections between

confirm his theories about

theory in The Interpretation of

what we say and do and

the mind and spread them

Dreams in 1900.

what we actually mean.

to a wider audience.

^

own school of

workings.

Sigmund freud 1856 Born in Freiburg, Moravia.

Later life

Anna Freud In 19.38, Freud moved to

1859 Family moves to \5enna.

In the 1920s, Freud developed a

London, where he died in

1886 Begins work as a specialist in

new theory that the mind is made

exile the following jear.

up of three parts — the id, which

nervous disease.

His work was carried on 1900

by his youngest daughter,

contains impulses, the ego, which

Anna (1895-1982). A

represents reasoning, and the

qualified teacher, she

superego, the self-critical area. He

specialized in child

Psychoanalytical Association. 1923 Has his first operation for

psychiatry. She founded

was developing this theory when

and directed a world-

he left Austria in 1938 because it

famous clinic for child

was occupied by Nazi Germany.

The Interpretation of Dreams.

1910 Sets up International

cancer of the jaw; publishes The Ego and the Id. 1938 Leaves Vienna for London;

therapy in London and

publishes An Outline of

wrote several books.

Psychoanalysis. 1939 Dies in London. FIND OUT

MORE 362

Brain and NERVOUS SYSTEM

Germany, H1STOR3 OF

Hospitals

Medicine

Medicine, HISTORY OE

Reducing friction

FRICTION

If two moving machine parts rub together, friction will eventually damage them. Friction in

Dragging a heavy object

across the floor is

machines generates heat and wastes a great deal

difficult because of friction, a force that opposes motion. Friction occurs between any two surfaces that are in contact, because even seemingly smooth surfaces have microscopic ridges and troughs that make them grip one another. Friction is greater between rough surfaces

of energy. Most methods of reducing friction

than smooth ones. Static friction stops surfaces at rest from moving. Dynamic friction slows down surfaces in motion.

Steel roller

Static friction Friction acts between these two

involve keeping the surfaces apart in some way. l-kg (2-lb) mass

Mass moves smoothly over flat surface.

Gravity makes the mass on the

Rollers

smooth surface overcome

The rollers under this l-kg (2-lb) mass allow it to move smoothly

static friction and slide

over a flat surface. The mass and the surface are not in contact,

down the slope.

so there is no friction between them. If the mass is pushed or

masses and the wooden slope.

pulled, the rollers will roll instead of dragging over the surface.

i

Static friction on the stationary block is great enough to prevent it from moving. The moving block has

Axle passes

Outer ring

through

attaches to

centre.

overcome static friction, but it then produces dynamic friction,

%

which limits

Ball bearing

its speed.

The rougher surface increases the

Smooth surface

force ofstatic friction and prevents the mass from sliding.

Rough surface

Using friction

wheel.

F

Lubrication

A ball bearing is a de\ ice used

Using a fluid such as oil to

to reduce friction between a

make machine parts move

wheel and its axle. As the

more smoothly and reduce

wheel turns, the steel balls in

wear is called lubrication. The

the bearing roll around and

oil coats the surfaces of the

prevent the wheel and axle

mo\ ing parts, preventing them

from rubbing together.

from rubbing together.

Friction can be useful. Without friction, no one would be able Air resistance

to walk or run. Friction helps people’s shoes grip the ground

Dynamic friction between

and stops their feet from sliding out from under them. In the

the air and a moving object

same way, friction enables a vehicle’s tyres to

is called air resistance. Streamlining gives an object,

grip the road. Most brakes use friction

a smooth shape so that air

to slow a vehicle down. Friction

flows more easily around it. Here, smoke trails blown over a

between surfaces always produces

streamlined car show how the air moves over its surface.

heat, and sometimes electricity. The pattern on the soles

Balloon charged

of these shoes is designed

by friction

to create friction to give

Friction and

maximum grip.

electricity Rubbing two objects together can

Disc brakes

produce a charge of static electricity.

Hovercraft

When the rider of this

Friction between a T-shirt and a

A hovercraft overcomes the problem of friction by using high-

motorcycle applies the

balloon will dislodge negatively charged

pressure air as a lubricant. Fans pump air from the atmosphere

brakes, a pad presses against

electrons from the atoms of the shirt.

into a flexible skirt around the craft’s hull. This powerful

the metal disc fixed to the

The electrons transfer to atoms in the

downward jet of air allows the craft to hover over the water,

Brake pad

wheel. The rubbing action of

balloon and give it a negative charge,

reducing friction with the waters surface to a minimum. Large

the pad against the moving

while the shirt becomes positively

propellers on top of the craft move it quickly across the water.

disc produces friction and

charged. Opposite charges attract, so the negatively charged balloon clings to

slows the wheel enough to stop the motorcycle.

the positively charged shirt.

Christopher Cockerell

The brakes glow as the

Friction and heat

Cockerell (1910—99) began working

racing car slows down.

In cold weather people often rub their

on wavs to reduce the friction between

hands together to warm them. Friction

a ship’s hull and the water. His solution

between two surfaces alwavs produces

was to lift the vessel above the water

heat. When a racing car brakes at high

on a cushion of compressed air. In

Disc

In 19‘>3, English engineer Christopher

H

Racing

i

L_ FIND OUT

MORE

Air

Atoms and MOLECULES

Cars and

IRUCKS

speed, the brakes glow red as the

19S9, after making successful models,

energy of the car’s movement is

he produced the world’s first practical

changed into heat.

hovercraft, called the SR-N1.

Elec i ricity

Force and MOTION

Heat and temperature

Machines, SIMPLE

Ships and BOATS

363

FROGS

AND

TOADS

Features of frogs and toads Frogs and toads have porous skin — water and air can pass through it — enabling them to breathe

The croaking sounds of frogs and toads are often heard in spring as they try to attract a mate.

through their skin as well as their lungs. Most have sharp teeth, and can see and hear well. They have four legs, varying in length between species. Frogs

Frogs and toads are amphibians — cold-blooded animals that live both on land and in water. In Europe, they are easy to distinguish — frogs have slimy skins and live

range in size from a few centimetres long to the West African Goliath frog, which is 40 cm (16 in) in length. Some unusual species are the hairy frog — the male grows hair in the breeding season — and

mainly in the water; toads have dry, warty skins and live mainly on land. In the

the Borneo flying frog that glides between trees.

Feeding

Most tadpoles are herbivorous, while

tropics, they are more diverse and harder to tell apart. There are more than 2,600 species of frog and toad, living in most parts of the world where there is fresh water. Their habitats range ftom lakes and marshes,

species. Most species catch insects

to rainforests, mountains, and deserts.

wide mouths and can even eat mice.

adult frogs and toads are insectivorous

>

or carnivorous. Prey includes insects, worms, spiders, fish, other frogs,

X-

or small repriles, depending on with their long stickv tongues. Larger frogs and toads rely on ambush. Giant horned toads and

5%

Warty skin

bullfrogs have powerful jaws and / Sticky tongue is used

Flind legs in

Short legs

Green toad

to catch the worm.

for hopping

Eyes closed

full stretch

for protection Frogs swim by pulling their hind

Feet push off

legs towards their bodies, then

Frog in a streamlined

from the . ground.

kicking them backwards, so

Webbed

position in mid-flight

pushing themselves forwards

.feet

,L_L ,L__

Leaping and swimming Long-legged trogs, such as this iNorthern leopard frog, can jump more than 30 times their own length in a single leap. VCTien swimming, its long webbed

_-

Front legs are

toes help propel it through the water. Shon-legged frogs

held hack

walk, crawl, or do shon hops. Some species, such as spade-

Frogs use

foot frogs, have feet that can burrow into loose earth. Toads

their front legs

Northern

usually have shon legs and can only hop weakly or walk.

like brakes when

leopard frog

Some species, such as the natterjack toad, can run.

they enter the water.

’

long and very powerful

Reproduction

The dark dots

Tiny buds from

develop into

which front leff

• .f • «••••*

Most frogs and toads mate in

Frogs and toads croak to attract mates. Normally, it is the males that croak, using inflatable vocal sacs in the throat. Each

water. The male fertilizes the

Tadpole uses

eggs externally as the female lays them; a few species fertilize eggs

Croaking Back

will grow.

uJpoUs.

The eggs stick together.

species has its own distinctive croak so

its tail to swim.

that the calls of the male only attract

Tail eventually

Life-cycle of a common frog

disappears. —

females of the same species. This avoids

4

others form “mating-balls” of a

I

female and several males. The

Each egg contains a

lives in the water and

grown considerably

receded. The tadpole

are many

eggs develop into tadpoles that

dark centre that will

breathes through

in size. The hind legs

has become a froglet.

similar

live in water and breathe through

become a tadpole.

external gills. Most

have developed. The

It is now ready to

frogs and

Many eggs are infenile

species at this stage

leave the water to

toads.

gills. The tadpoles change into

tadpole now prepares

and die, or are attacked

are herbivorous and

to metamorphose, or

begin its adult life

air-breathing adults with lungs.

by fungus or predators.

feed on plants.

change, into a ftoglet.

— partly on land.

internally. Some bear live young;

Eggs stick together to form frogspawn.

Defence

2 The newlv hatched tadpole

Red belly

3

By 6-9 weeks, the tadpole has

mating between differeni At 12 weeks, the

species in regions

tail has almost

where there

Vocal sac

Northern leopard frog

Tree frogs Tree frogs move with ease within trees. They

Some frogs have poisonous skin that they

have stickv discs on their toes and an opp>osing

Scientific name Rana pipiens

advertise with bright colours. Others such as tree

thumb enabling them to grip most objects, even

OkDER Anura

frogs may secrete bad-tasting sticky substances.

smooth surfaces. Flying frogs are tree frc^s with

Family Ranidae

very large webbed feet that

Many toads, including cane toads, have poison-

Poison dart frog This South American frog is the most poisonous

\ Skin is highly toxic.

bright skin warns predators

Golden

that it is poisonous to eat.

poison dart frog

FIND OUT

364

Amphibians

USA and Canada, as far south as

downwards from

Fire-bellied toad

branch to

Fire-bellied toads in

branch.

New Mexico

Conservation

those far from water, which explains

Europe have drab backs but bright red bellies.

^ Sticky pads

If threatened, the toad

on their toes enable them to grip branches.

flash of colour frightens away predators.

Eggs

\

Habitat Found in most habitats, even

exposes its belly. This

frog in the world. Its

MORE

Distribution Nonhern and western

enable them to glide

secreting glands. Large species, such as horned toads, give painful b

Painted

Red-eyed tree frog

its other name of “meadow frog” Diet Insects Size Length 9—11 cm (3.5—4.5 in) Lifespan Up to 6 years (in captivity)

Lake and

Marsh and

Poisonous

Rainforest

Urban

Woodland

RIVER WILDLIFE

SWA.MP WILDUFE

ANIMALS

WILDLIFE

WILDUFE

WILDLIFE

Asian painted frogs are borrowers that emeige onto

Foam-nesting frogs lay eggs in self-made foam in

Tomato frogs from Madagascar live on land,

the surface at night and inflate themselves if touched.

trees above water, into which the tadpoles drop.

but breed in slow-moving or stagnant water.

Chilean four-eyed frogs have eyespots

Malayan flying frogs cannot

Yellow and black pioison dart frogs

Paradoxical frogs develop from tadpoles

Green and black pioison

on their backs that deter predators.

fly, but glide downwards.

live in cracks in riverside rocks.

twice their length and shrink as they “grow’’.

dart frogs have toxic skin.

Vf'ry wide mouth

Golden mantellas are poisonous fre^ from

African bullfrogs are large, carnivorous frogs tivt

Common frogs are becoming rarer.

Whites tree frogs are

Madagascar. They feed on small invenebrates.

feed on other frogs, reptiles, and even mice and rats.

partly due to the loss of wedand areas.

large Australian frogs.

Asian tree toads have flat digital discs,

Natterjack toads, also called running

Male midwife toads carry their eggs on

Asian homed toads resemble dried leaves,

enabling them to climb riverside trees.

toads, are the rarest toads in Britain

their backs until they hatch into the water.

to escape discovery on the forest floor.

Narrow

Ornate horned toads

Cane toads were

may even eat others

originally from South

used for

of the same

America.

feeding.

species.

fingers

African clawed toads

Ornate horned toads from Argentina are

Cane toads were introduced to Australia to control

Mexican burrowing toads live in dry

are totally aquatic.

large, aggressive toads with huge appetites.

sugar cane pests, but have become pests themselves.

areas, rarely emerging onto the surface.

365

FROST see RAIN

FRUITS

AND

SEEDS

Parts of a fruit In some fruits, the fruit wall, or pericarp, has three distinct

Cherries, tomatoes, and pea pods are all fruits. A fruit is the part of a plant that contains and protects the seeds. A fruit forms after a flower has been

layers — an outer epicarp, a middle mesocarp, and a hard, inner endocarp. These layers are easy to see in fleshy fruits, such as plums, but in other fruits the layers are not so clear. The fleshy part of an apple, for example, is actually formed from the receptacle — the swollen tip of the flower stem.

pollinated. First the petals wither and fall, then the

Remains of

Pedicel

stamen

Seed or pip

(flower stalk)

(surrounded

part of the flower called the ovary swells. This becomes the fruit, containing one or several seeds, which are the

by endocarp)

plant s way of reproducing itself. Inside the fruit, the seeds are supplied with nutrients through tiny stalks

Mesocarp . Raspberries are made ofclusters

connecting them to the fruit wall. As the seeds grow, the fruit ripens. Some fruits are sweet and juicy and may be edible; others are inedible, or even poisonous.

Epicarp

ofdrupelets.

(skin)

Receptacle

Drupelet Cross-section

Raspberry

of a raspberry

How a fruit develops

Parts of a seed

Once a flower has been pollinated and

All seeds contain a tinv embryo and seed leaves called

fertilization has taken place, its ovary

cotyledons, which are full of stored food. These are all

Testa

becomes known as a fruit. This fruit and

enclosed in an outer seed coat, called a testa. The

the tiny seeds within begin to develop

embryo has a minute root called a radicle and a tiny

and grow. Graduall y the fruit enlarges,

stem called a plumule. When the seed germinates, the

and as it matures, its shape, colour, and

food store provides nourishment for the tiny seedling.

Embryo

Cotyledon (seed leaf)

Cross-section of an apple seed

Apple seed

texture also change. When a juicy, edible fruit such as this melon ripens, its flesh becomes very sweet and succulent.

Seed dispersal

Water dispersal Some fruits and seeds float

Plants need to spread their seeds to increase their

Their fruit wall contains

The flower is

chance of survival. Seeds are dispersed by wind,

oil droplets or air to make

brightly coloured

water, and animals. In some plants, parts of the

them buoyant. Coconut

and attracts insects

palm fruits float in the sea

fruit wall or flowerhead also help to spread the

that will pollinate it.

until they are washed

seeds. As the fruit dries, the fruit wall

Coconut growing

up on a beach.

on a beach

splits open and the seeds are scattered.

After pollination, the

Wind dispersal

ovary starts to swell.

%

,

Dispersal by burial

Light fruits and seeds

Seeds are a valuable source of food for

are spread by the wind. The

mammals and birds. Squirrels and

seeds of a columbine are scattered

The flower

other rodents bury acorns and

when the breeze shakes the seed

is no longer

other nuts, then forget to dig

head. Maple tree seeds have papery

needed, so it

them up. These grow into

wings to carry them on the wind.

shriveb up

plants where they were left.

Columbine seed head

Squirrel burying nuts

Animal dispersal

and dies.

Bird dispersal

Redwing

Some seeds are encased

The fruit grows

lirightly coloured orange and red

inside hooked fruits that

larger as it ripens.

berries anract birds, which like to

can easih become trapped

The fruit has ripened

feed on them. The birds swallow

in the fur of mammals.

the berries whole but digest only

They are carried along bv

the fleshy part. The seeds pass out,

the animals and drop off

unharmed, in the bird’s droppings.

later in another place.

Bison with : trapped in fiir

and contains hundreds of seeds deep inside.

Types of fruit

FIND OUT

366

Flowers

thick, fleshy mesocarp and a

layer. They often have

woody endocarp - the stone.

many seeds that each

Fruits such as raspberries are

have a tough seed coat, or testa.

made up of many tiny drupelets. I-,

r

•

Love-in-a-mist

others become woody and

False fruits

hard, or dry and papery,

In most false fruits, the

Dry fruits ofren have

receptacle swells to enclose

lids or seams that open

such as larkspur. False fruits

Food

Plum

mesocarp and endocarp

Pear

Dry fruits

,

the true fruit. Tiny true

to release the ripe seeds.

develop from other flower

fruits may also be fixed to

This capsule has round

parts in addition to the ovar)'.

the surface of the receptacle.

openings called pores.

is a kind

MORE

Drujjcs, or stone fiuits, have a

ovary;-compound fruits have more than one. When ripe,

of berry.

Drupes

Berries have a combined

Simple fruits have a single

some fruits remain succulent;

A melon

Berries

Mammals

Plants

Plants, ANATOMY

Plants, reproduction

Plant uses

-

Rats and OTHER rodents

Succulent fruits Berries

Kiwanes have a spikv rind to

Tomato seeds are covered in

prevent animals from eating

Avocados have a single

Redcurrant seeds

Persimmons are juicy

Grapes each ha\e a tiny stalk

a jelly layer that protects them

them until the seeds are ripe.

large seed and oily flesh.

are spread by birds.

berries with manv seeds.

and grow in large clusters.

while inside an animal’s gut.

it •&>

Melons are a firm-walled

Gooseberry seeds are

Lemons are citrus fruits with

kind of berry called a pepo.

embedded in juicy flesh,

flesh made of juice-filled hairs,

Lychees have a fleshy laver

Rambutans have

Kiwis have black seeds

that grows from the seed stalk.

very hairv skin.

embedded in firm green flesh.

Drupes and drupelets

4

[‘

Peaches have juicy flesh

Cherries have a

Apricots are cultivated

Blackberry fruits

Nectarines are a

Damsons are small plums,

and a single seed protected

single seed inside

fruits that have a single

each consist of many

cultivated variety of peach

Their seeds are spread

inside a woodv stone.

a hard stone.

seed inside a woodv stone,

single-seeded drupelets.

with a smoother skin.

when animals eat the flesh.

^

9

■Mangoes has e a

Greengages are a kind of plum

Loganberries are made up of

Plums have juiev flesh and

Sago palm fruits have a corky

Coconuts are the

large, single seed and sweet flesh,

with green or yellow flesh.

manv single-seeded drupelets,

a single seed inside a stone,

layer that allows them to float,

fruit of a palm tree.

I. Rowan berries are the swollen

Apple flesh is the swollen

Fig fruits are tinv woody

Strawberries consist of

Quinces have

Breadfruits have

tips of the flower stem. They

tip of the flower stem, and

pips contained in a fleshv

a red fleshv receptacle

hard flesh and a

manv fruits in a large,

enclose the real fruit.

the pips are the seeds.

swollen flower stem.

covered in tinv fruits.

seed-filled core.

fleshv flowerhead.

Dry fruits

V ^

# Honesty has a paperv

Dandelion fruits have hairs

Goosegrass fruits have hooks

Sycamore fruits have wings

Larkspur fruits split

Hogweed fruits are papery

fruit and flat seeds.

that help them float in a breeze.

that cling to animals’ fur.

that carry them on the wind.

open to release the seeds,

and contain two seeds.

^0

\

I

laburnum pods split to

Poppv capsules contain

Burdock has a head

Acorns are nuts with a

Sweet chestnuts are

Beech nuts are arranged in

release the hard seeds.

masses of tinv seeds.

of hooked fruits.

tough, woodv fruit wall.

enclosed in a spinv case.

threes inside a rough case.

367

FUNGI see MUSHROOMS AND OTHER FUNGI

FURNITURE

c

^ ^ ‘T ■■

V All these are items of furniture, the movable equipment of a home.

I ,

J

Different cultures have produced very similar furniture. The ancient Egyptians

_

Every day, people sit on chairs, sleep in beds, and eat from tables.

Early furniture

had folding beds, and the Romans had armchairs. The earliest furniture to

^

survive was sealed in Egyptian tombs

The chairs in this Roman sculpture are similar to modem chairs.

Antique furniture

At one time, furniture was handmade, so most

Antiques are objects made

homes contained only basic, functional pieces. A wide range of more affordable furniture became available when production was mechanized in the 19th century. Today, furniture design is largely

more than 100 years ago. Antique furniture was usually handcrafted, using fine materials, in manv different styles. Antiques are frequentlv considered valuable and are highiv prized bv collectors todav.

determined by function, cost, size, and fashion.

Types of furniture

How an armchair is made

Furniture made for use in a home is

Most modern furniture is mass-produced by

designed to be as comfortable as possible.

machine rather than handcrafted. Furniture such as

Choices of shape and fabric let the buyer

sofas and armchairs have machine-made parts that

express personal taste. Office furniture is

are fitted together by hand and then upholstered.

usually plainer and more functional.

This armchair is made from

Upholstery

Furniture is found outdoors in the form of

materials that have been built

A layer of padding called

litter bins, street lamps, and bus stops.

up around a wooden frame.

An 18th-century cabinet

upholstery covers the basic wooden frame of a chair.

Domestic furniture

Upholstery also refers to the

Most homes have

way in which fabric is fitted to

Steel springs

a bed or a futon.

the frame. The top layer of

attached to

Originally

fabric is chosen from a range of

the frame help

created in

colours, patterns, and textures.

spread a

Japan for modern, urban

persons

life, the futon saves space by

weight evenly. The lamp

serving as a bed at night and

head

a sofa during the day.

is easily

Office furniture

adjusted.

Arms are

Modern office furniture,

cushioned

such as this Anglepoise

with foam

lamp, is designed to be practical,

padding and

sturdy, and long-lasting.

a fleece layer.

Cushions are filled with

Upholsterer fits

foam or

the fabric

feathers.

covering securely into position.

Street furniture Despite having similar

Castors are small

functions, street furniture looks

wheels beneath the

very different all over the world.

chair that allow it

Metal springs make

This elaborate public drinking

to be moved easily.

the chair comfortable

fountain is in Paris, France.

Soft furnishings are

William Morris

materials such as rugs,

In furnishing a room, people tty to choose colours, pictures, fabrics, and furniture that go well together. This process is known as interior design.

cushions, and curtains.

The British designer, artist, and

These materials are

socialist William Morris (1834-96)

chosen to make a room

was active in many areas. He was

comfortable and to help

influential in the design

create its overall look

of furniture and fabrics, argued for a return

It began in Europe in the

to handcrafted

16th century, when

Cushions

furniture makers were first

and wall¬

given charge of entire

paper

rooms to decorate as a

borders are

unified whole.

coordinated.

FIND OUT

368

Architecture

and hessian hold the springs in place.

Interior design

MORE

^ Layers of metal mesh

Art HISTORY OF

Crafts

Design

Egypt, ANCIENT

furniture, and founded the Arts and Crafts Movement for design.

Houses and HOMES

Museums

English furniture

Iron candlestand.

Brass candlesticks

Bronze storm lamp.

Gilt gaslight pendant,

late 17th century

early 18th century

early 19th century

mid 19th century

i

I

Carved oak armchair.

Walnut chair,

Beech armchair with

Upholstered chair with beech

C.1620

C.1680

caned seat, c. 1815

and walnut frame, c. 1860

Tables and cabinets

Pine and oak side-table gilded

Mahogany and walnut table

Rosewood side-

Combined games and

Mahogany table in

Maple veneer side-

in Chinese style, c. 1690

on a tripod stand, c. 1 ”^60

table, c. 1800

needlework table, c. 1830

Moorish style, c. 1895

table, late 1930s

Shelves projecting

Painted panels

from hack panel

showing signs of the zodiac

Moorish Open shelf ^

style ~~ decoration

Cupboard with painted - Double

panel set

glazed doors

into door

Queen Anne cabinet on chest,

Mahogany cabinet with inset painted panels and

Oak bookcase with fluted columns,

walnut veneer on a pine frame, c. 1700

decoration, designed by Lewis F Day in 1880

handcrafted in a traditional style, 1993

369

GABON see AFRICA, CFNTRAL • GAGARIN, YUR] see ASTRONAUTS

GALAXIES

Milky Way About 500 billion stars make up the spiral-shaped Milky Way.

A HUNDRED billion galaxies exist in the Universe.

The arms contain young, hot, bright stars; older, dimmer stars make

Each consists of a vast

up the nucleus. A

collection of stars, gas, and dust. They started life

thin halo of old stars surrounds our Galaxy. The Sun is

thousands of million of years ago, slowly forming into distinctive shapes. Each galaxy can contain

in one of the arms, about two-thirds of the way from the centre. It orbits the

billions of stars. Gravity keeps the stars together and keeps the galaxies in clusters

centre of the Galaxy once every 220 million years. The Milky Way is about 100,000 light

Types of galaxies

years wide and 13,000

Most galaxies have a central ball of stars, the

spiral arm

nucleus, and many have a flattened disc coming

in profile

light years across at the central hub.

out of this. Astronomers have classified galaxies into three main types based on these features.

Active galaxies

No one knows why galaxies become a particular

Unusuallv large amounts of energy are emitted

shape. It may be to do with how

from some galaxies. This energv may come from

fast a galaxy spins and how quickly stars form inside.

an object that is visible, such as a quasar, or from

Spiral A hub of older stars is surrounded

an invisible object, such as the lobes of a radio

Elliptical

by a flattened disc with spiral arms

galax\. How the energy is created is uncertain, but

About 60 per cent of

containing younger stars. The shape

galaxies are ball-shaped

of a spiral is described bv the letter S.

collections of old stars.

followed by a letter between a and d

evidence suggests it could be from a supermassive black hole at the centre of the galaxy.

to indicate how tightly wound the

Fhey range in shape from

Quasars

arms are and the size of the hub.

round to flattened ovals. Astronomers describe their

Quasars are the brightest, most distant,

shape with the letter E followed

fastest moving, and youngest objects

by a number between 6 and ^

visible outside the Milky Wav.

— the higher the number, the

Thousands are known, each emitting

flatter the galaxy.

Classification

huge amounts of energy. They are

of galaxies

found at the heart of large galaxies.

bv shape Core,

Radio galaxies SBc

Powerful radio energv is emitted byradio galaxies. The energy comes from lobes at either side of the \isible core, and is detectable

Barred spiral

with radio telescopes.

These galaxies consist

Ccntaurus A is the nearest

Irregular

of a central bar of

actise galaxy: it is 16 million

About 10 per

older stars with arms

light years away.

cent of galaxies

containing younger

arc irregular. I hey

stars coming from

are collections of stars

the ends of the bar.

Galaxies can collide as thev move

with no distinctive shape

Barred spirals are

through space, as is happening

or structure, and do not fit into any of the

described as SB followed

(left) with two galaxies in the

classifications. They are smaller than the

by a letter from a to d to

constellation of Bootes. Such

average galaxy and contain large amounts

indicate how tightly wound

collisions will change the shape of

of gas and dust.

the arms are and the size of the hub.

a galaxy or result in a merger.

Edwin Hubble

Colliding galaxies

.1

Galaxy clusters

Superclusters Clusters of galaxies

In 1923. the American astronomer Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) proved that there are galaxies other than the Milks Wav. The next year he

Galaxies are grouped together

group together into superclusters that

in clusters. The Milky Way

spread across many

belongs to a cluster of about

millions of light years.

classified galaxies according to their shape. He went

30 galaxies called the Local

In turn, hundreds of

on to show that galaxies

Group. The Virgo Gluster

supcrclustcrs group together to

The Stick

(right) contains about 2,500

form huge walls and filaments,

Man contains

are moving away from each other, and so provided proof

such as the Stick Man, which stretch

galaxies, mostly spirals.

for hundreds of millions of light years.

millions of galaxies.

that the Universe is expanding.

FIND OUT

MORE 370

Astronomy

Big bang

Black holes

Gravity

Stars

Universl

GALILEO GALILEI

Early life Galileo was born in Pisa, Italy, in 1564. Alter school he went to the University

Galileo Galilei was one of the greatest astronomers and physicists of all time.

The ITALIAN SCIENTIST

of Pisa to study medicine. I

interested in mathematics and physics, and left

He was the first person to use a telescope to look at the heavens. He started a branch of physics called mechanics, showing that nature obeyed mathematical rules. His belief that science should be based on observation made him one of the first modern scientists. It also led him into trouble, because his views about the Solar System went against

without a degree. By the time he was 25, he was back at the university — as prolessor of mathematics.

Gravity

Moving bodies

Galileo showed that all objects fall at the same speed, no matter what

those held by the Roman Catholic Church.

In the 16th

their weight. Previousl},

century, people

people had believed that heavier objects fell faster.

believed that the

There is a story that

Sun moved around

Telescope

Galileo proved his theory

Earth. Galileo did

In 1609, Galileo heard of the invention of the telescope and

not agree with this,

made one of his own. He used it to look at the heavens and

and developed

made many astronomical discoveries. He noticed that the planet

Copernicus’s

Venus has phases like the Moon. This gave support to the theory

theory of Earth

of Nicolaus Copernicus that the planets went round the Sun.

moving around the Sun.

Replica of Galileos telescope, 1609

bv dropping objects from the leaning tower of Pisa, but this is probably not true. He certainly did an experiment like this, in which objects of different Falling

Coin falls

weights were dropped in

feather

at same

identical jars from which

speed

the air was pumped out.

HTCcad.*'®ao»li

fc* .»i dam qoadratortm niVm rsiifpi-

U

OBSERTAT. SlCrXE « 1 '••b^^urcorCriit^* taninr4t«.c3rc4»licj«w)*>,A m-ihtr* rr . J iwiwywr

Artists impression of the Milky Way

OQO O

But Galileo was more

Planet with Un4rf tmtett* -tmfmmm * jfdUd.mti Dcprcflar»«infupcrinLiiiUccr4un-' tur in^;iicmaculz.(jiuinclanorc» pUprtin ilU mim tafncrTk«nte4^4»nid^iT(ccntrrcmpcrin lur s trnebran ff)q.«on^*‘»*>pn>niincntcninc> indccirciipfu nMtas macuuu conicrmini Iii* cidionSiVclud inMcnbcndis^f^m oblcniiui* mu* ,Rca* dcprril'orcsT aiiunicKfo funi dj^riffn oiacularu ccnrinu&dxtji^ ‘-t>rc»)RrcnigTs»auc afpcrit3*>b intcmtpu.LtjetJiorTcropanniaxime ^ •nu'ulMcm'nct.idco ?c & ante quadrature pnma a in a ur^unda area macula quada>bofca2£ Lunr pb^. ocevpatd TaUf -naiianrurulupra ^.q.iatratngaes ^d« caun^u«,n'Baappo'itJrr^h.rut dckneatioiict.

tuo moons

Planet with ringlike

_ fortnations

Galileo’s drawings of Saturn

Milky Way

Planets and moons

In 1610, Galileo built a telescope that

Through his telescope, Galileo saw what he

could magnify 1,000 times. It enabled

at first thought were two small moons

him to see thousands of stars that no

orbiting the planet Saturn. He drew these

gnonbii«j|iStr^.iTn

human being had ever seen before.

“moons” in his notebooks, but later worked

He trained his new telescope on the

out that they were Saturn’s now-famous

Milky Way and found that it was

rings. He also discovered the four moons

a vast collection of stars, clustered

that orbit the planet Jupiter, and was able

together in groups of various sizes.

to examine the craters on our own Moon

rn t

o ac V

.

i Tcxjmm* ' pri-

mu fE\M

K /

RK

comes from the dark

tiensburg

conifers that clothe its mountain slopes and

m

i lOf

provide timber for the

i,

\

®

Strak

Kiel,

traditional wooden houses. Tourists flock

ft I Sian

‘

North ^ Sea

to the region, attracted

1st CgMia\**(i»

.'^LuF(

Bremeilhav et^

»

*_^mdjert

Schwerin

G

such as Baden-Baden, and Lake Constance,

^

Climate p^^^^BERUIV

I-

Northern and central Germany have mild summers, and cool,

dsnabj^k Hanlojfe^ -T ^^

Vlilnsip/

\

scenery, spa resorts,

which lies nearby.

Wogb^ ^

NeiibrandenbUr

\

. ^ ' Hamburg'

i . ■

‘

by the beauty of the

Wismlsr

• Bnaui^chvNeig

/*

Frankfurt'

HilJeheii??' » SaUgitter GERMANY bessau

^

^ (

_

damp winters. The southern and mountainous areas, such as the Harz Mountains, the Black Forest, and

Cdfjbus

C

Bavaria, have much hotter summers and cold winters with heavy snow.

T^iffmund

563 mm (22 in)

HagenKassel

^

Leipzig

Siegen

Zwickat@ *-Fulda Wiesbader^

— ^

* Cbtr^fz

^^^Offenbach

.p

leinf

Germany has relatively

forest covers almost half the country. Most of the land is C

fertile and is used for growing

Built-up

crops or raising animals.

5.5%

'O.

TrioC AT n 7 MannheinP'^tMdelberg

^

Land use few natural resources, and

k/

A/Iaifiz •_

KarLs Ph

JJ

^

JraukfuPt am Main

, , * brucken'

Barren 0.5% - ‘

- - -

^

•'

Berlin

Niimberg

%

Heilbronn

^ ^Tfgolsfddt ,jpjm

' A

Augsburg

^

in 1990 when the Berlin Wall, built after World War 11 (1939M5) to

A"

^■^Munchi^

Freiburg Breisg

in Berlin symbolizes the reunification of Germany

s Stutteart

o

The Brandenburg Gate

separate East and West, was demolished. Always a thriving centre of art and culture, there are plans to

10

rebuild this grand capital, switzfrla \

Germany’s largest city. M3S'

Brandenburg Gate

379 n

o

GERMANY

People

Leisure

About 92 per cent of the people

The Germans love sports and outdoor

are Germans. Turks make up

activities. Many enjoy hiking and cycling

the largest minority group of

in the countryside, or canoeing and sailing

more than 2,000,000, having

on the lakes and rivers. In winter, skiing

gone to Germany in the 1960s

and skating are popular. Germans also excel

to boost the labour force. Since

at football, tennis, and motor-racing.

1990, many immigrants have arrived from eastern Europe.

Skiing

Some racial discrimination

Snow-covered slopes

Football

has caused social tension.

in the Bavatian Alps

The Getman national

provide Getmans

team has won the Wotld

with plenty of

Cup three times, as well as the Euto ’96 cup against

Society

oppottunities to

German society prides itself on equal

practise theit skiing

the Czech Republic.

oppottunities and a comprehensive social

Childten begin the

Association football, ot

welfare system, with free education and

spott eatly. Many

soccet, is the most populat

healthcate. Getmans are environmentally

people also ttavel to

spott in Getmany both for

13%

awate, and the influence of the Gteen Patty

nearby Ftench and

players and spectators, and

Rural

has led to sttict anti-pollution policies.

Swiss ski tesotts.

there are many clubs.

Farming

Food German people enjoy traditional smoked sausages,

Only three per cent of Germany’s

smoked meats and cheese, sauerkraut (pickled cabbage),

labour force work on the land, yet

and smoked and pickled fish, usually eaten with good,

the country grows about two-thirds

soutdough bread and a glass of cold beer. They also make tasty soups, sweet and savoury dumplings, and

of all the food it needs. Crops include

enjoy afternoon Kaffee und Kuchen, coffee with cakes.

cereals, potatoes, and other vegetables. Lid keeps

Pigs and cattle are reared.

Gherkin ^

x

v

Salami

Grapes

Crops Germany’s chief cereal crops arc barley, oats, rye, and wheat. Sugat beet fot Wheat

refining to produce sugar is also widclv grown. Grapes grow best in the areas bordering the

Dairy

Rhine and Moselle rivers, and

The lush green pastures of Getmany’s Allgau valley, in the Alps, are ideal fot gtazing dairy

are used for producing Germany’s

cattle fot milk, buttet, and cheese.

world-famous white wines.

Industry

Cars

Over the last 50 years, Germany has

Getmany is one of

Transport Germany has an excellent transport system with 14 international airports, major sea

become one of the world’s leading

the wotld’s largest

.

car manufacturers.

industrial nations, and is an important

Volkswagen is an

manufacturer of cars, trucks, electrical

internationally

ports in Hamburg and Bremen, and a highly efficient rail and road network. Canals and rivers, such as the Rhine and Ruhr, carry as much freight as the roads.

renowned make.

goods, ships, and chemicals. The heart

are BMW, Mercedes-

Inland waterways

Benz, and Porsche.

Many of Getmany’s

Othet famous btands

of German industry lies in the Ruhr, once a major coal-producing region.

rivers are linked by canals, like the Danube-Main canal, creating an extensive netwotk that makes

Shipbuilding

long-distance freight

Hamburg, Germany's

ttanspott ptactical.

largest pott on the

FIND OUT

MORE 380

Cars AND TRUCKS

Europe

mouth of the Elbe tivet,

Precision work

Autobahns

has a long tradition of

Electronic devices such as

Getmany has Europe’s

shipbuilding, as has

calculators, computers, and

most elabotate motorway

Bremen on the mouth of

electrical equipment such as

network stretching almost

the River Wcscr. Germany

this dtill, fotm a large part of

11.400 km (7.084 miles),

leads the rest of Europe in

Getmany’s industtial output.

with no speed limit. The

shipbuilding, and ranks

The country also produces

first Autobahn was built in

highly in the wotld.

precision optical equipment

the 1930s fot military use.

Europe, HISTORY OF

European UNION

Farming

Football

Germany, HISTORY OF

Ports and WATERWAYS

Ships AND BOATS

Germany, history of

German tribes In about 370, Huns from Asia swept into Germany, forcing native German tribes to pour

Although there have always been German

into the neighbouring Roman Empire. Within a century, Rome

speakers living in Europe, a single German country did not exist until 1871. For much of its history, Germany consisted of many small kingdoms, duchies, and other states, kept apart by rivalries. Unification was eventually achieved under the diplomatic and military

had collapsed, and Germanic tribes such as the Visigoths and Franks controlled much of western Europe. Brooch made by Germanic Lombard tribe

Medieval Germany In 962, Otto I of Saxony united the

leadership of the north German state of Prussia. German industrial strength allowed

German kingdoms in the Holy Roman Empire. This empire was long-lasting but

the new nation to dominate Europe, but defeat in two world wars left the country divided again. In 1990, Germany reunited, and once more became the major economic power of Europe.

weak, as local rulers fought to protect and increase their own power. Despite this disunity, the country became increasingly rich. By the late 15 th century, German cities such as Augsburg controlled European banking and finance.

Seal of Hamburg

Hanseatic League The cities of

L

.

A.

^ ^

northern Germany worked together to Ulm cathedral

support their trading interests. In 1241, Liibeck

Coming of Christianity

and Hamburg concluded a treaty that led to the growth of

From the 5th century onwards, individual Germans

the Hanseatic League, a trading

became Christian. Some churches, such as Ulm Cathedral,

alliance that dominated commerce

were founded in the early 7th century, but it was not until

in northern Europe. At its height

the mission of St Boniface in the early 8th century that

there were 160 cities in the League,

most of the people converted to Christianity.

Isenheim Altarpiece, by Mathias Griinewald

German Renaissance In the 15th century, the Renaissance spread to Germany. Artists such as Albrecht Diirer (1471—1528) perfected the

Thirty Years’ War

Prussian

In 1618, a revolt broke out

by 1648 Prussian

in the Protestant province

by 1772

technique of the woodcut, Hans Holbein (1498—1543), working mostly in Switzerland and England, produced

'' , Hamburg

of Bohemia against the

superb portraits, and Mathias Griinewald (1480-1528)

rule of the Catholic Habsburgs.

painted religious masterpieces.

-J

•Berlin

11^

War spread through Germany as Protestant princes rebelled against

Peasants’ War

, Cologne

* Prague

• Frankfurt

the Habsburgs. Other nations,

In the l6th century, there was much

notably France and Sweden, entered

Augsburg Munich

tension between Catholics and Protestants

the war on the Protestant side to end

in Germany. In 1524, peasants in

Habsburg domination of Europe.

Prussian lands in Europe

southern Germany exploited the confusion to rise up and demand social

. Inscription says that the

reforms. The revolt was crushed in 1526.

owner ^Fights for God”

Rise of Prussia Prussia was one of the few German states to emerge from the Thirty Years’ War with increased power. Under successive rulers. Prussian territory expanded across most of northern

Treaties of Westphalia

Germany and, bv 1795, also included western Poland.

When the treaties ended the Thirty Years’ War in 1648, German

Peasant rebellion in southern Germany

1

agriculture and commerce were in

Frederick the Great

ruins, and the population had been

Frederick, King of Prussia from

reduced by half The Habsburgs were

1740-86, laid the foundations

seriously weakened by the years of

of later Prussian greatness. An

conflict and Germany was more

inspired military leader, his

disunited than ever before, split into

diplomacy enabled Prussia to

no fewer than 234 states and 51

expand by outwitting Austria

independent cities.

and Russia. At his death, Prussia was Europe’s foremost power.

German rapier of the 1630s

381

GERMANY, HISTORY OF

German unification

Prussian power A strong army gave PrussLi the

Otto von Bismarck

After Napoleons defeat in 1815,

power to deleat France in the

Ono von Bismarck (1815-98)

many Germans wanted to unite as

Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71.

became chief minister of

Prussian strength also enabled the

one nation. A confederation of states was set up, but it was too weak to last. In

Prussia in 1862. In a brilliant series of

newly-united Germans to

diplomatic and military

negotiate a powerful and

1861, Wilhelm I became king of Prussia.

advantageous alliance with

campaigns he removed

Prussia’s strength grew, and the other

Austria-Hungarv and

all foreign influence

Russia in 1881. This gave

from Germany, making

German states agreed to unite with

Germany great influence

Prussia the leading

Prussia. At last, in 1871, Wilhelm was

throughout the Continent.

German state. He was chancellor of Germany

made emperor of a united Germany.

for 19 years.

Prussian armv officers helmet

Imperial Germany

Weimar Germany

Under Wilhelm I and Wilhelm II,

In 1918, following its defeat in

Germany became the leading power in

World War I, Germany became a

Europe. Germany sought its “place in the

republic. A new constitution was

sun” by acquiring colonies in Africa,

agreed in 1919 in the town

China, and the Pacific, but its aggressive

of Weimar, where the

foreign policy led to world war in 1914

National Assembly met

and the collapse of its empire in 1918.

until it moved back to Berlin in 1920. However, Germany was badly affected by economic problems in the 1920s. and by 1932, over 5 million people were unemployed. The Bauhaus School of Art was

The rise of the Nazis

founded in Wiemar 1919. It

Statuette of soldier

The unfavourable terms of the

revolutionized the teaching of art by

peace settlement after World War I,

combining it with the skills of craft.

together with the economic failures of the 1930s, saw Germany crippled by

Factories, Ruhr Valley

Industrialization Between 1870 and 1914, Germany’s population rose

high unemployment and h)perNazi swastika and

Badge of the SS, the

eagle badge

Nazi security force

inflation, and led to a desire for change among the people. Support grew for the

from 33 to 65 million, and its industrial output

Nazis, an extreme nationalist party led bv

quadrupled. The Ruhr Valley became the centre of

Adolf Hitler that took power in 1933.

large iron, coal, steel, and armaments industries. This

The Nazis promised to rebuild Germany’s

industrial power helped Germany to become the most

strength and power. It was Hitler’s

powerful state in Europe by 1914, and helped provide

imperialist ambitions that were one

resources and finances for World War I.

of the causes of World War II.

Modern Germany

Reunification

After World War II, the country was occupied

control over East Germany

by French, British, US, and Russian troops.

weakened. The Berlin Wall,

In the late 1980s, Russian

In 1949, Germany was divided in two, with a

which divided the former capital, was taken down in

communist, Russian-backed state in the east

1989, and free access between

and US-backed capitalist state in the west.

the two countries was

Living conditions in ^X'est Housing complex, East Germany

Germany were much better than in the east.

guaranteed for the first time. By October 1990, the two halves of Germany were politically united once more.

Demolition of the Berlin Wall

Timeline

1618—48 Thirty Years’ War

18"'1-90 Bismarck

1931 German economy crashes:

1939-45

962 Otto I of Saxonv establishes

devastates Germany.

gov erns as chancellor.

prices rise, the currency becomes

Germany fights

worthless, and many suffer

in World War II.

Holv Roman Empire. 1241 Hamburg and

1 ■’40—86 Frederick the

1914—18 Germany

Great rules Prussia.

fights in World War

1949 Germany

I, is defeated, and

divided into East

empire collapses.

and West.

Liibeck combine to form Hanseatic League:

1815-66 German

German trade prospers.

Confederation tries to unite Germany.

1517 German monk Martin Luther begins

1871 Wilhelm I is

Protestant Reformation.

made German emperor.

FIND OUT

MORE 382

Armies

Barbarians

Cold war

Europe, CENTRAL

Europe, HISTORY OF

unemployment.

1919 Weimar Republic

1990 East and

is established.

West Germany

...

reunited as a

Banknote, 1931

France, HISTORY OF

Holocaust

single state.

Holy roman EMPIRE

World WAR I

World ’«AR II

GERONIMO

Early life Geronimo was born in about 1829 in Arizona, southwest

A CENTURY AFTER the native people of North America fought the white settlers to

i ^

stay on their land, one name is remembered above all others. As a fearless warrior, Geronimo had no equals. In his early 20s, he lost his entire family to Mexican raiders, and he determined

USA. He was a member of the Mimbreno Apache

I

tribe, and his Apache name

P

was Goyanthlay. Spaniards

''

called him Geronimo.

Massacre

to fight to the death to safeguard his Apache way of

In 1858, a band of Mexican

life. Only in old age, defeated by the superior arms of the US government, did he surrender, ending his days as a wealthy farmer, revered by people across the USA.

mother, wife, and children.

raiders killed Geronimo's

Geronimo w-as filled with a deep hatred of white people, and decided to spend the rest of his life lighting them.

Native American encampment

Apaches The young warrior

The Apaches lived among the arid

As a young warrior, Geronimo was

mountains and deserts of southwest

trained to shoot, track enemies or wild

USA. Because their land was

animals across the land, map out a new and unfamiliar terrain, and

unsuitable for farming, they earned a

survive for days away from camp.

living hunting and raiding for food.

He also learned the skill of travelling through the countryside over vast

This brought them into conflict

distances without being observed. For

with the many settlers who were

recreation, he took part in Apache

moving into the area from Mexico

games such as the loop-and-pole game

and the eastern USA.

(left), arrow shooting, and wrestling.

Reservations

San Carlos reservation

As European settlers pushed west, Native Americans were

by US forces and marched 400 miles to the San Carlos

In 18”'”' Geronimo and 16 of his warriors were captured

forced into special areas called reservations. The Native Americans were, therefore, excluded from their traditional Sharp metal blade

reservation in Arizona. The new reservation was brutal and corrupt, with suppliers making vast fortunes at the expense of the

lands and prevented from roaming over vast areas as they

native inhabitants. Many resentful

had done before. In response, many tribes broke out and

and half-starved Apaches left the reservation to

raided neighbouring areas.

go on raids.

Bowl of pipe

Ornately carved

Raiding

wooden shaft

US officials tried to reform

Warfare

the San Carlos

Cieronimo was a

reservation, but

skilled warrior who

Geronimo and his followers

many times had to

continued their raiding.

fight for his life.

Overwhelmed bv the

With onlv a small

superior force of the US

group of followers,

Army, Geronimo was forced

he managed to pose

to surrender in 1886.

Geronimo c. 1829 Born in Arizona, USA. early 1850s Raiders kill his family.

a threat to large numbers of US law

Geronimo (far right)

enforcers. His abilitv

before his surrender

late 1850s Accepts Cochise, head of the Chiricahuas, as his leader, and

to move quickly and

marries a Chiricahua wife.

quietly across the

1876 Retreats into the Sierra Madre

land, thus avoiding

Fort Sill

detection, created

After his surrender, Geronimo was sent first

great fear among local

to Florida, then Alabama, and finally', in

mountains and raids both sides of the US—Mexican border. 1877 Confined to the San Carlos

settlers. If he was

1894, to Fort Sill, Oklahoma. He sold native

followed, he and his

American handicrafts, became a farmer,

reservation, but continues to raid

men would split up.

adopted Christianity, and appeared at the

the surrounding lands.

I'heir understanding

1904 St Louis World’s Fair and in President

of the country

Theodore Roosevelt’s inaugural parade in

1894 Confined to Fort Sill

enabled them to

1905. To the end of his life, he hoped to

vanish into the bush.

return to his native southwestern mountains.

Apache tomahavik pipe

HND OUT

MORE

Human RIGHTS

1886 Surrenders: exiled to Florida.

1909 Dies at Fort Sill.

Native Americans

United states, HISTORY OF

383

GHANA see AFRICA. WEST; AFRICA, HISTORY OF • GIBBONS see MONKEYS AND OTHER PRIMATES • GILBERT, WILLIAM see MAGNETISM

GIRAFFES

Browsing

Thick rubbery lips and saliva protect a giraffe’s tongue and

The giraffe’s great height is a specialized adaptation

mouth from thorns.

for browsing the upper branches of trees. Leaves and small twigs form the greater part of the giraffe’s diet.

With its massive

^ /J

f

An adult male gtraffe

It also eats shoots, flowers, fruit, seed pods, even bark,

can stand 5-3 m

neck and long giraffe is the world s

C

but never grass. Many acacias and other trees have

(17.5 ft) h igh.

vicious thorns to discourage browsing, but the giraffe's tongue is well equipped to get past such strong defences.

Drinking

mane

For an animal as tall as the The giraffe's long neck

tallest animal. Despite its ungainly

»

giraffe, drinking presents

has the same number

appearance, it is very graceful. Giraffes live in the savannahs of Africa — grasslands with a few trees and bushes.

special problems. To lower

of vertebrae as other

'

mammals, but they Js »

its head the giraffe has either

H

to bend its knees forward

are larger.

or to extend its forelegs m

out to either side. This awkward posture greatly

Their distribution closely follows that of

F

reduces the animal’s held of vision, leaving

the acacia trees on which they feed. They

it vulnerable to attack.

avoid open grassland because of their feeding habits, but also because their size makes them conspicuous in the open.

Features of a giraffe Massive shoulder blades carry the huge muscles that support the giraffes head and long

There is only one species of giraffe, but eight subspecies, which differ mainly in

neck. Its hind legs are shorter than its forelegs, but the angle

the colour and pattern of their coats.

Herds

Reticulated

TIO

Reticulated

Giraffes usually live in small groups of up to

giraffe

of the back makes them appear

giraffes have

shorter than they really are. By

regular russet-

breaking up its outline against

coloured markings.

its surroundings, a giraffes coat markings help to camouflage it.

about 12 females and their calves. Adult males live apart and visit the herd only for mating. Occasionally, giraffes gather together in large groups of up to 70 animals that

Median Giraffes have

horn,

The horns are covered with

exceptionally

stay together for a few days, or

hairy skin.

Necking Necking is a form of ritualized sparring that determines dominance within a group. It begins with one bull challenging another by

sometimes just a few hours.

*

advancing towards it with its head held high, legs rigid, and neck erect.

Standing still

Homs grow on the

Coat markings

and staring

crown of the head

Giraffe markings range

towards a

above the eyes.

from regular geometric

potential

patterns to irregular

threat acts as

After much preliminary jostling, VIM

one bull swings its head in a huge arc, in an attempt to strike its opponent’s neck with its head.

Large nostriL

fuzzy-edged patterns.

a warning

Old males darken with

sign of

i

age and may become

danger.

J

Giraffe’s neck is very flexible.

Horns Giraffes of both sexes have a pair of short stubby horns, about 30 cm (12 in) in length in an adult male. Some giraffes, such as the reticulated giraffe, have a third (median) horn in the middle. Rothschild’s giraffe also has a small pair of horns behind the ears, for which reason it is often known as the “five-horned giraffe”.

Reticulated giraffe Deep chestnut-

Reticulated giraffe

coloured coat SciENTinCNAME Gtraffa Camelopardalis reticulata Creamy-white or light grey,

Order Artiodactyla Family Giraffidae

markings help

Rothschild’s giraffe

camouflage the okapi.

Distribution Africa south of the Sahara Habitat Savannahs Diet Leaves, shoots, small

Striped legs

flowers, and fruit Size Height: males 5.3 m (17.5 ft); females 4.5 m (15 ft)

Masai giraffe Lifespan 25 years

FIND OUT

MORE 384

African WILDLIFE

Camouflage AND COLOUR

Grassland WILDLIFE

Mammals

Plant defence

Rainforest wildlife

Glaciation

Valley glaciers In high mountain ranges, such as the Alps and the Himalayas, glaciers form in valleys as snow slides from the peaks of the mountains. These are called alpine glaciers. Where these emerge

by ice is called glaciation. All over the world

The shaping of the landscape

there are landscape features that were formed during past ice ages by glaciers, huge moving rivers of ice, and even bigger mounds of

from the mountains, they may cause piedmont glaciers, so called because they spread out in the shape of a foot.

Cirque, the deep

Frost shatters rocky summits

hollow where the

into jagged "horn peaks".

glacier begins.

ice called ice sheets. In cold places, such as the polar regions, glaciers and ice sheets are still present, and glaciation still continues. The landscape created by ice is dramatic. Glaciers carve out deep, trough-like valleys, ice sheets pile up huge quantities of debris, and the icy conditions around can shatter rock into jagged peaks and knife-edge ridges. Thisgiadaiiycawed

Valley glacier, Norway

called Bergsehrund, the deep

How a glacier forms

crack at the head of

Frost-shattered ridges form knife-edges, or aretes.

Glaciers are created when layers of snow are compacted in icy

Glacial erosion

mountain regions to form

Glaciers have immense erosive power.

rivers of ice, which slowly

In some places this works through ^

creep downhill until they

f

melt. The ice on the surface

abrasion; the moving ice acts like sandpaper, scraping away the rock with the huge amount of rock

of the glacier cracks, forming

debris trapped in its base.

deep crevasses, and both the

Sometimes, it simply sweeps

surface and the underside of

away loose rock shattered by the cold. Occasionally, it can

the glacier are covered with

freeze round rocks and literally

debris plucked away from the

picks them up.

valley sides by the sheer weight of the passing ice. Frost-shattered rock falls on to the ice as lateral moraine along the side

Crevasses

fill with

of the glacier.

debris

and

U-shaped valley

Medial moraine — a band

It takes many thousands of

of moraine formed as two glaciers flow together.

years, but over time a glacier

Huge

can carve out a very

quantities of

distinctive, deep, U-shaped

subglacial moraine are

Ice fall, where the tee flours

trough of a valley. If this

swept along underneath

over a step in the valley floor.

reaches the coast and fills with

the glacier.

seawater, it is called a fjord.

Fjords

Debris is swept along /

Holes in the ice fill with

Subglacial streams often

Meltwater lakes fill

beneath the glacier.

debris, which is left behind

leave winding ridges

up behind debris in

when the ice melts.

of debris called eskers

Lateral moraine firms terraces along the valley side.

front of the glacier.

Fjords are steep-sided, narrow coastal inlets, formed where glaciers have ground out deep valleys along existing riverbeds. When the ice

St

Terminal moraine is the band of debris

Traces of glaciation

across the snout

Glaciers carry huge quantities

of a glacier

melted, the valleys were flooded as the sea-level rose. The coast of Norway has many fjords.

of debris, called moraine, which either fall on to the glacier from the mountains above or are swept away from the rock beneath. The moving ice pushes this debris into giant piles, or leaves it scanered over the landscape as the ice melts. Lower end of the glacier suhgLcial moraine.

-'185

GLACIATION

Snow-line

Avalanches

Above a certain height, called the

slopes is often far from

snow-line, the air is so cold that

stable. If the layers are not

The snow cover on steep

well compacted, even a slight

the snow never melts. In the

disturbance - a falling rock,

tropics the snow-line is well over

a skier, or even a shout —

5,000 m (16,000 ft), but comes

can make an entire snowfield

down to 600 m (1,900 ft) in

collapse in an avalanche.

Greenland and is at sea-level at

A powder snow avalanche such as this can produce

the North and South Poles.

shock waves powerful enough to explode building.

Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania

Ice sheets and caps

Formation of an ice cap

Ice sheets are huge layers of ice,

Ice caps form gradually bv

thousands of metres thick, that

accumulation as snow falls,

may cover not just a single valley

stays frozen, and is compacted by the addition of new snow.

but an entire continent. Ice caps

Some ice is lost by

are smaller dome-shaped sheets of

“ablation” (melting and evaporation), but if the ice

ice that cover a mountain. The

is formed faster than it is

sheets of ice over Antarctica and

lost, then the ice cap grows.

I

An ice cap forms when

remains frozen all year.

Greenland are also called ice caps. The ice deep within the polar ice

2

the snow covering a peak

Fresh snowfalls compact

' the I snow beneath,

3

Eventually, the lower layers are compacted

turning it into dense crystals.

into solid opaque ice.

Ice sheets are thousands of

Isolated mountaintops jutting

Glacier moves by sliding

caps first fell as snow many

metres thick, but vary in

through the surface of an ice

over melted ice.

millions of years ago.

extent and depth between

cap are called nunataks.

Rocks under glacier are slowly eroded.

summer and winter, which effects the Earths climate.

Ice fall —

Icebergs

crevasses form

Icebergs are huge chunks of ice that have

where glacier

broken off from the edge of an ice sheet

flows over

or glacier to float in the sea. They are

- steep rock.

generally rounded or block-like in shape. Icebergs float because ice is less dense than water, but it is only a little less dense, so Around

about one-eighth of the iceberg is visible

10,000

above the surface

icebergs a year break away from the glaciers in Greenland.

When Arctic glaciers reach the sea, the tides and waves heave the ice up and down, cracking bits off to float away as icebergs, a process known as calving. Only about 12 per cent of an iceberg is visible above the surface of the ocean.

Icebergs may be broad

Titanic disaster

and tabular (flat). They are often hundreds of kilometres long

It is estimated that the average age of

Because most of an iceberg is hidden

and may last for years before melting.

the ice in an iceberg is 5,000years.

below the surface, it can pose a real hazard to shipping if one drifts across sea lanes In 1912, the luxury liner 7/w/ucsank

Louis Agassiz Swiss-American geologist Louis Agassiz (1807—73)

in the loss of about 1 ,S0O lives.

times in the Earths

had shaped the landscape.

past. Some geologists

In 1836, he noted that

believe they are linked to

glaciers are not static, but

the variations in the

move, and found rocks

energy reaching Earth from the Sun as the Earth wobbles and tilts in

of northern Europe had at one time been covered by ice.

386

There is no doubt that ice

realized that past ice ages

glaciers. He concluded much

FIND OUT

after a collision with an iceberg, resulting

ages have occurred several

that had been scoured bv

MORE

Ice Age

Arctic

Antarctica

its orbit. Others think Shaded areas show the extent of the ice

there may be some other

cover during the last ice age.

trigger for an ice age.

Geology

^ Polar Exploration

Polar WILDLIFE

Rain

Rivers

Tundra

GLAISHER, JAMES see ATMOSPHERE

GLASS

Ancient glass Decorative glass objects have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs dating back to 2500 BC. Alter the invention of the blowpipe in about 100 BC, glass was

Few materials have the same remarkable properties as glass. It is transparent, easy to shape and clean,

made across the ancient world, particularly in Rome. Roman glassware, dating from 1st century AD

does not rot, and resists attack by most chemicals. Glass is also cheap to produce

Types of glass Three main ingredients are used to make glass; pure silica sand, soda ash,

because it is made from sand, one of the most common materials on Earth. When sand is heated with other materials, it turns into a liquid, which,

and lime. These are heated in a furnace to about 1,400 °C (2,500 °F), to produce soda-lime glass. This is the ordinary glass we use to make bottles and windows.

when cooled, solidifies into glass. Although the glass looks crystalline, it still has the structure of a liquid, and is termed a “supercooled” liquid.

Different kinds of glass can be made by adding other ingredients. Lead glass Also called crystal glass, lead glass contains

Working glass Glass is easy to work, but only when it is

Sheet glass

lead oxide, which makes it easy to cut. The

Sheet glass was originally

cut glass exhibits a diamond-like sparkle.

made by drawing a

in a molten state. The most common method of shaping glass is blowing by

ribbon of molten glass

Optical glass

vertically upwards.

Optical lenses are made from pure

However, this caused

glass. A variety of substances, such as

Spectacles

craftworkers or machines. Other methods

distortion. Todav, it is

lead and titanium, are added to give

include pressing molten glass into a mould,

made by floating molten

glass its optical properties.

a traditional technique still used today, and

glass on a bath of molten

Magnifying glass

Heat-resistant glass

tin. This float glass is of

casting it into a mould to make lenses.

Boron oxide is sometimes added in the

and shows no distortion.

glassmaking process to produce heatresistant borosilicate glass.

Glass building

Molten ^as\

Glassblowing

even thickness throughout

Most glassblowing is done

Fibreglass

mechanically, but traditional

Glass may sometimes take the form of fibres,

methods, shown in the following

which are used for lofr insulation, reinforcement

sequence, are still used for making

for plastics, and fibre-optic cables. Fibreglass

special objects.

Stained glass Stained glass is normally used to create decorative windows, using pieces of coloured glass set in a lead framework. Medieval stained glass may seem richer to the eve because it is hill of impurities. Stained-glass window

The bottle shows no signs of the joint between the two halves of the mould.

Bottles ready to be recycled

Recycling glass Glass is an easy material to recycle because it melts readily. It is recycled, not for the purpose of conservation,

2

The glassblower picks up the molten

3

With further blowing, the glass expands

4

but to save energy because the original The glassblower removes the final

glassmaking process requires such high

object from the mould, and smooths

temperatures. In Europe alone, about

glass from the measuring mould on a

and takes its final shape inside the mould.

blowing-iron, then blows air through the

At the same time, rhe rod is spun to stop the

the mouth of the botde bv reheating it

four million tonnes of glass are

iron, to shape the glass and form a parison

objea showing signs of joints from the mould.

in the furnace and shaping it.

recycled each vear.

FIND OUT

MORE

Architecture

Churches

Crystals and GEMS

Eyes and

SEEING

Plastics and RUBBER

Pollution

Rocks and MINERALS

Roman empire

387

GOATS see SHEEP AND GOATS • GODDARD, ROBERT see ROCKETS

GODS

AND

GODDESSES Mother goddess

Since prehistoric times, humans have worshipped

Every culture had a mother goddess, one of the earliest deities, who represented nature and fertility. In ancient

gods and goddesses — spirits

Egypt, she was called Isis and may have been a model

that are believed to control nature and human destinies. The

for the Christian Madonna.

mythology that surrounds them attempts to explain the how and why of life, and account for forces that are beyond human control. The rituals associated with these supernatural beings, or deities, are a powerful force in binding societies together. The variety of gods and goddesses worshipped around the world reflects the diversity and power of human imagination.

Hades and Persephone

Persephone

Durga

In Greek mythology. Hades, god

In Hinduism, Durga is the

of the underworld, abducts

powerful warrior-goddess.

Persephone. She returns to the

She is often represented with

Venus figure

world for six months every year,

a beautiful face and 10 arms,

C.4000 BC

bringing spring and summer.

each one holding a weapon.

Gods Much of what we know of gods and goddesses was passed down by men

Sacrifices

Mountain-top sacrifice The Aztecs offered human sacrifices to the god of the Sun, Tezcadipoca. This deity was the

rather than women, so male gods —

A sacrifice is an offering of an

often gods of war — predominate in

animal, plant, possession, or

usually prisoners of

mythology. Many myths portray the

even a human life, to please or

war, were sacrificed

struggle between good and evil. Some

pacify a deity. In ancient

in his name.

deities are kind and just, while others,

cultures, sacrifices were made

such as the Norse god Loki, commit

to gods and goddesses on

acts of evil and treachery on other

special days or at important

gods or humans. Gods may be

ceremonies. Ancient Romans

most feared of the Aztec gods and thousands,

The Aztecs

of war

carefully chose their victim, who

Wicker man

was accorded great

Roman historians recorded

honours for one

that Celtic tribes in Gaul

year. TTien, on the

depicted either in human form, or as

marked such occasions with a

(France) placed human

day of the sacrifice,

part-human and part-animal.

suovetaurilia, a special sacrifice

sacrifices inside wickerwork

a priest cut open the

involving a bull, a ram, and a

Thor

Aztec warrior and his prisoner

In Norse mythology, Thor was the god of the

pig — the most valuable items

sky, rain, thunder, and farming.

of Roman livestock.

figures, then burnt them

victim’s chest and

alive. Wicker figures are still

offered his heart up

burnt at festivals in Spain.

to Tezcadipoca.

Thor’s hammer, known as Mjollnir, made thunder¬

Oracles

Priests

bolts when the god threw it. Norse gods

The term “oracle” de.scribes

such as Thor and Odin

In many societies, priests are the human

were worshipped in

links between the natural world and the

parts of Scandinavia up

supernatural world of the gods. They are

mouth of a priest. The most

thought to have

famous oracle was at Delphi

until the 12th century.

Thor fighting frost giants

with a deitv though the

in ancient Greece, at a

special, often

temple to the god Apollo. In

magical power,

Greek mvihology, the heroes

and may carry

Oedipus and Heraciiles consulted the oracle, whose

out sacred rites.

replies to questions

Mars was ^

a direct communication

were always ambiguous.

popular in Rome

Priest in traditional costume

Mars Mars, god of war, was said

Priests costume

Shaman s mask

to be the father of Rome’s

Costumes convey authority and

The shamans of Native American tribes wore

founder. Many Roman gods

represent tradition. The priest’s

were equivalent to earlier

costume of the Nkimba people

masks representing a

Greek versions: Mars was

of the Congo, West Africa,

guardian spirit. This

called Ares in Greek myth¬

includes an ornate carved

showed the connection

ology, and Demeter, goddess

wooden mask and a grass net

between the human

of spring, was Persephone.

decorated with feathers.

and spirit worlds.

HND OUT

MORE

Aztecs

Celts

Egypt, ANCIENT

Greece, ancient

Maya

Reugions

Mask “transforms" into eagle head.

Delphi Oracle, Greece

Roman empire

Witches and witchcraft

Ceres is the Roman

Poseidon is the Greek

Silvanus is the god

corn goddess.

god of the sea.

of uncultivated land.

Celtic god of rivers

Apollo is the

Hephaistos is the

Japanese god of

Roman Sun god.

Greek god of fire.

thunder and lightning.

Love and Fertility

War and Death

Venus is the Roman

Aphrodite is the Greek

Juno is the Roman goddess

Ares is the Greek

Serapis is an Eg)-ptian

Osiris is the Egyptian

Antlered Celtic

goddess of love and beauty.

goddess of love and beauty.

of marriage and maternity

god of war.

god of the dead.

god of the underworld,

goddess

389

GOLD COAST see AFRICA, HISTORY OF

GOODALL, JANE

Early life Jane Goodall was bom in London, England, in 1934. As a teenager she dreamed

From i960 to 1995, Jane Goodall spent 35 remarkable years devoted to studying chimpanzees

of studying wildlife in Africa, and the ambition never faded. In 1957. with savings from a summer job

in the wild, and became one of the world s most

as a waitress, she embarked

respected and influential zoologists. She began her painstaking research alone in the middle of the tropical forest in Tanzania, East Africa, and steadily built up one of the foremost centres for field research on primates. Her observations

on a trip to Kenya. There she approached the famous anthropologist Louis Leakey, and told him she wanted to work in Africa. Leakey gave her

_

a job as a secretary.

and those of her colleagues revolutionized our knowledge of chimpanzee behaviour and shed light on our own human ancestry.

Research In spite of Jane Goodalls lack of formal training, Louis Leakey decided to help her realize her dream. In 1960, he raised funds for her to begin a research programme at Gombe, Tanzania. She has been based there ever since. In the 1960s, most primatologists studied captive animals in zoos. Goodalls task \vas different - to gain the confidence of the chimps and study them at close quarters in their natural environment. Goodall with one of the chimps at Gombe

Working methods ft

V.. c*Jb

Communication Goodall was fascinated by the way the chimps used sounds, gestures, and expressions to communicate

lu. ^

Goodall worked bv spending day

»

after day alone in the forest with

mi. ^

g>

/te)

Am

it

f

Vi ^

Wooden

the chimpanzees. Gradually, she

tiJn

won their confidence and they accepted her. She filled her

i/% t

^ ^

Aam*

* ...g

with each other. Every noise

^ C. » \m-l

Mi

^

C

V'g.g.

A»%-^

notebooks with descriptions of the chimpanzees, and wrote freely

%t

of the emotions, personalities,

conveyed a different message, and

and intelligence of the chimps.

gestures and body movements were Toolmaking

also forms ot communication.

One of Goodall’s most startling discoveries was

Displays

that wild chimps are good

Goodall saw how body movements act as

toolmakers. They use

visual displays of emotion and intent. Males

objects as tools, modifying

issue threats to rivals by charging forward with their fur raised, often dragging branches or throwing stones. Early on, Goodall noted that groups of chimps would react to coming rainfall with an agitated “rain dance”.

them to suit their purpose.

In her lonely

She saw chimps stripping

observation posts in

twigs to make probes for

lA

the jungle, Goodall

“fishing” termites from

made careful drawings

their nests, and chewing

of the chimps’ use of

clumps of leaves to make

tools and other Charging

sponges for getting water

behaviour.

display Two of Coodall’s notebooks

r

from shallow pools.

Jane Goodall 193^ Born in London, England.

Conservation

1957 Travels to Kenya and meets

Goodall championed the cause Touch Goodall observed that chimps would often pat, embrace, or kiss as a way of calming

1960 Establishes research station at Gombe, Tanzania.

and campaigned for better

distressed individuals. She also saw them

conditions for captive chimps.

grooming each others fur. This has a

In 1977, she launched the

calming effect and strengthens social bonds.

Louis Leakey.

of chimpanzee conservation

1965 Gains doctorate from Cambridge University. 1971

Jane Goodall Institute for Wildlife Research, Education,

books.

and Conservation in the USA.

19~'7 Founds Jane Goodall

By the late 1990s, it had

Institute.

branches in the UK, Canada, and Tanzania.

Publishes In the Shaelow of

Man, first of several influential

1991 Goodall campaigning (or chimpanzees

Launches international youth

environmental programme, “Roots and Shoots”.

FIND OUT

MORE 390

1995 Receives Hubbard Medal. African WILDLIFE

Conservation

Leakey FAMILY

Monkeys, and OTHER PRIMATES

GORBACHEV, MIKHAIL see COLD WAR • GORILLAS see MONKEYS AND OTHER PRIMATES

GOVERNMENTS

and

POLITI

A GOVERNMENT IS an institution which makes the political decisions about running a country.

The orb symbolizes a monarch’s spiritual authority over his or her subjects.

Governments and politics are individual to each country because they result from that country’s unique history and culture. Yet despite those differences, the systems of government and the issues of political debate are similar everywhere, for they concern how to govern the country best for the benefit of the people.

Types of government There are almost as many types of government as

Russian Imperial crown

there are countries in the world. The three main types

Monarchy

of government are republican, monarchical, and

In a monarchy, the head of the royal family is head of state and is

dictatorial, although these have many variations.

succeeded by his or her closest relative in hereditary succession. In

Anarchists believe that governments are not necessary.

most monarchies, such as Britain or Japan, the monarch has little real power, but in countries such as Morocco, Saudi Arabia, or Jordan, the king holds considerable political power. Prussiar

Republic Dictatorship

Most countries in the world arc

sceptre

republics, that is, where electors vote

Many countries in the world have at one time or

for their head of state as well as for

another been ruled bv dictators, that is, single rulers

their government. The power of

with absolute power. Most dictators gain power

the president ranges from holding

either through a military take-over or bv seizing

orb, and sceptre

real political power, as in the

leadership from an existing ruler, as Saddam

symboltze the

The crown--^ jewels (crown,

USA, to being a symbolic

Hussain did in Iraq in I9"’9. Dictators

monarch’s

figurehead, as in India.

eliminate anv opposition to their rule.

authority.

Democracy

How government works

In a democracy, electors

Each country has its own system of

vote for a government from

government, usually consisting of four

a range of political parties.

separate parts. The executive governs the

There are two main types

country, the legislature makes the laws, the

Judiciary

of democracy; presidential,

civil service carries out those laws, and the

The judiciary makes sure laws are

where voters elect the

judiciary ensures the laws are applied fairly.

to order with a gavel

carried out fairly. Judges sit in judgment in individual cases, and also review the

president who then runs

Presidential

the government and may

As the President of Ireland,

Legislature

improve it. The judiciary is independent

choose the prime minister;

Mary McAleese (b.l95I),

The legislature is the place where laws are made and the

from the executive and legislature to

is the symbolic head of

executive is held to account for its actions in governing.

maintain its neutrality.

the nation. In France and

The legislature is made up of

voters directly elect the

Russia, the president

elected representatives, and

Executive

government of their choice.

chooses the prime minister.

often consists of a lower

The executives role is

house of parliament,

to govern the country.

Old Parliament House,

where laws are made,

In parliamentary

Canberra, Australia

and an upper house,

democracies, the

which keeps a

executive consists of

check on the lower

senior ministers and

and parliamentary, where

operation of the law or suggest changes to

house. The British

the prime minister,

upper house (the

who sit in the Houses

House of Lords) is

of Parliament. In the

unique in mainly

USA, the executive, such as

consisting of

the Secretary of State, Colin Powell

hereditaty, not

(b. 1937), is chosen by the president and

elected, members.

is separate ftom the Houses of Congress.

Parliament House, New Delhi, India

_ Pentagon,

Parliamentary

Civil service

Parliamentary systems exist in both republics and monarchies.

The role of the civil, or public, service is to administer

Parliament is made up of politicians from different political parties.

the country. Once the executive has proposed a law, and

USA

Electors vote for the parry or individual of their choice, and the

the l^islature has passed it, the civil service implements it.

government is drawn from the largest political party in parliament.

Civil servants are non-political and work for whichever

The leader of this party becomes head of government. Most nations

government is in power. Their work ranges from local issues,

in the world are parliamentary democracies.

such as street lighting, to national issues, such as defence.

391

GOVERNMENTS AND POLITICS

Elections

Political parties

Politicians

Political parties are formed

People become politicians for

In a multi-party democracy, every three to

to represent particular

different reasons. Some people

five years voters go to the polls to elect their

political beliefs, such as the

stand for election because they

government, choosing the politicians who will

Socialist Party in France or

believe in serving the public, or

the Christian Democratic

have a particular skill that would

represent them from a list of candidates. Elections

Party in Germany, or to

be useful in government. Others

are an opportunity for politicians to present their

represent particular areas of

stand to represent a particular

ideas for the government of the country, and for

a country, such as the

the electorate to debate and consider matters of

Swedish Christian

Scottish Nationalists, who

the cost of a campaign restricts

wish to see Scotland become

interest and concern to them. In the past,

independent from Britain.

elections were local, personal affairs, in which

Political parties are active at

candidates for office tried to meet each elector in

political viewpoint. In the USA,

French Socialist Party

Democratic Party'

candidates to those with money.

local and national levels in getting their supporters out

person. Today, most electioneering is carried out

to vote and in attracting

by advertising and television.

new voters to their cause.

Voting The electors vote in secret for the candidate of their choice by marking a ballot paper. The ballots are then counted and the winning candidate is elected. In many countries, electors rank candidates in order of preference. A system of proportional representation (PR) then ensures that

US

the candidates with the most

Democratic

preferences are elected.

Convention, 1996

Politics Politics is the organization of political debate and discussion in a country. That debate can take place in a formal setting as in parliament, or informally.

Political beliefs Different political beliefs play a large part in determining how a country is governed. Left-wing ideologies, such

Any subject can be discussed, from

as communism and socialism, favour a large role for the

major issues such as the economy or

state acting on behalf of its citizens, while right-wing

international relations, to local issues

ideologies, such as capitalism, favour individual action

such as the siting of a new road.

and responsibility by citizens. Chamber of the House of Commons, London, UK

Public pressure

Capitalism

Socialism

Capitalism is i

Socialism is

the system in

the system

m

which wealth

in which the

and profit in

economy is

the hands of a

controlled bv

few people drive the country’s

the state for the benefit of the whole

who are concerned about a particular

economy. Capitalism can lead to

community. Countries such as the

issue or event. Apart from elections,

great differences in income between

Netherlands and Sweden aim for a

individuals can bring pressure to bear

rich and poor.

more equal distribution of wealth.

on governments, both by participating

Fascism

Communism

in public protest, such as strikes and

Fascism is the s\ stem of

Communism is the system in

demonstrations, and by joining pressure

government under which

which land and property

total authorin' resides in

are owned by the

the leader of the country,

whole community

particular issues, such as protecting the

who pursues nationalist

and each

environment or civil liberties.

and militarist policies.

person is

Like other far-right

paid according

Everyone can play a part in politics, from full-time politicians to individuals

groups that are set up to campaign for

Protest groups In order to force an issue into the public view, it is sometimes necessarv'

ideologies, fascism glorifies

to their needs and abilities.

the state for providing

China and North Korea are

strong national leadership.

examples of communist countries.

to take direct action. Recently protest groups have achieved success against the siting of nuclear weapons and the proposed building of new roads.

Machiavelli Niccolo Machiavelli (1469—1527) was a civil servant in the Florentine Republic in Italy. He was a realist who observed the

Dove hearing olive branch symbolizes hope.

FIND OUT

MORE 392

Cold WAR

Europe, HISTORY OF

Pressure groups

political chaos of his times and urged

Pressure groups plav an important

governments to pursue practical, realistic

part in focusing attention on issues

politics rather than lofty political ideals.

of public concern. Environmental

In his book The /V/wce (1532), he

pressure groups, such as Greenpeace,

described politics as the art of the possible

raise public awareness on issues of

and pointed out what a government can

pollution or environmental damage

do rather than what it ought to do.

that cross national borders.

Eiropean union

Human

RIGHTS

Lavc

Pf AUF

Unions,

MOVEMENTS

TRADI

United nations

Warfare

Women’s movement

GRAPHIC DFSIGN see DESIGN

GRASSES. RUSHES, and SEDGES of plants are all monocotyledons — flowering

Flowerheads at

These three groups

the top of tall, leafy stems

plants whose seedlings possess a single cotyledon, or seed leaf. In common with many other monocotyledons, grasses, rushes, and sedges have long, narrow leaves with parallel veins. They are all wind-pollinated and, therefore, do not have showy blossoms to attract animals. Instead, they have tiny flowers grouped in spikes or clusters. These produce large amounts of dry pollen. Yorkshire fog

Grasses There are about 9,000 species of grass, including cereal crops such as wheat and Cross-section of

barley. They are the most widespread

sedge flower stem

flowering plants. Grass plants often grow close together to make a turf Each plant

Sedges

has a mass of fibrous roots, leafy shoots,

The sedge family

and flowerheads borne on long stems.

includes true sedges, r-

cottongrasses, club-rushes, and

Male flowers

galingales, totalling

at the top of

about 4,000 species.

the spike have

Unlike grasses,

withered

sedges have leaves

and fallen.

in tufts around the base of the stem.

When these Fruits explode out of the ripe flower spike

Cross-section

leaves are cut

The flower stem is

off, new

usually leafless and

shoots grow

three-angled.

from the base

of rush stem

of the plant.

Rushes

Tillers

: f

%

The reason grasses

The 400 or so

can tolerate the pressures of constant grazing or mowing is that new leafy

species of rush are

shoots arise from buds at ground level. This kind

small to medium-size

of branching is called tillering.

plants. They are found mostly in the

Woody bamboo canes

damper habitats of

have many uses, from kitchen utensils

temperate and

to scaffold poles.

mountain regions. Soil particles are

Rushes have green,

Tightly packed

white, or brown

trapped and held by

female flowers

a network of rootlets

flowers that turn into dry fruits called capsules. Leaves may

Reed mace

Bamboo

Soil binding

About 830 tropical and sub¬

The roots of grass plants growing close together make a densely

Often wrongly called bulrushes, these

tropical species of grass have

be flat like grass

tall plants grow in shallow, slow-moving

tough, woodv stems. These are

interwoven mat. This stabilizes

leaves, or cylindrical.

or still water. There are about 15 species

called bamboos. The tallest species

loose, dry soils and prevents

in their own family. Each plant has a

reaches 35 m (115 ft) tall.

erosion of all kinds of soil.

The stems of all

flower spike made up of densely packed

rushes are circular

flowers. This splits open when ripe,

in cross-section.

releasing a mass of single-seeded fruits.

FIND OUT

MORE

Ecology

Farming

Flowers

Plants

Plants, anatomy

Plants, reproduction

393

Grasses Cocksfoot grass has short, stiff flower spikes.

Stiff. compact flowerhead

/

Timothy

Soft brome

Smooth

Couch grass

Sweet

grass is a

grass is common

meadow grass

is a weed in

vernal grass

Crested dogstail is a

nutritious

on verges and

has graceftil

gardens and

is a pleasant¬

widespread

pasture grass.

wasteground.

flowerheads.

farmland.

smelling grass.

grass.

Branched Spreading

flowerhead

^

flowerhead ^

Closely Delicate

packed flou-rrheads

feathery awns

Needle grass

f

Bermuda grass

has rigid stems

1

is common in

and narrow,

\

in-rolled leaves,

\

\

warm pans of

\ '1

the world

\

Large quaking

Great brome

grass has thin-

grass has been

Tufted hair

stemmed

I

introduced to

flowerheads

/

manv countries

1

1

from the

m

1

tussocks 2 m

\

(6.5 ft) tall.

y

that tremble in | the breeze.

1

Mediterranean.

W

f

1

grows into large

Rushes and sedges Hairy sedge Soft rush is a very common rush of bogs and marshes.

Common

has hairv

sedge spreads

leaves and

on creeping

fruits.

underground

Clusters offlowers

c.

home up the stem

394

Greater

False fox

Woodrush has

tussock sedge

sedge has

Greater pond

fine hairs on

has stiff leaves

sharp-angled

sedge grows

the margins

with finely

triangular

beside rivers

of its leaves.

toothed edges.

stems.

and ponds.

GRASSHOPPERS jj

CRICKETS

AND and

Famous for their athletic leaps

Features of a grasshopper

chirping calls, grasshoppers and crickets W are among the largest and most distinctive of insects. Most are weak fliers and prefer to move by walking or jumping. They live mainly in grasslands

Grasshoppers have long bodies, big heads, large eyes, and downvv^ard-pointing mouthparts. Their long, thickened fore^vings protect delicate hind v^^ings, vi'hich they use mainly for flying. Grasshoppers use rheir powerful, long hind legs for leaping. Bumps

and rainforests, but some live in deserts and caves, and a few wingless species burrow underground. Grasshoppers tend to be active by day, but crickets are out and about after dark; in many parts of the world their

on the hind legs rub against the forewings to make sounds.

Grasshopper . gains height by holding its wings back

Long, strong

Hind legs held

back le^

constant chirps fill the night air,

Grasshoppers may jump up to 0.3 m

out almost

Front legs outstretched over

(1ft) before opening their wings.

straight behind

eyes, ready to touch down

Crickets

Leaping

Eardrum on legs Crickets have a swelling below

Crickets are similar to grasshoppers but differ in some

Propelled forward by snapping their hind legs straight,

key features: their hearing organs are on their legs

grasshoppers can out-jump all other insects. If danger

Grasshopper

threatens or if the grasshopper

poised, ready

wants to move to another

to leap

rather than abdomen; they have longer antennae, sometimes longer than their bodies; and they make sounds by rubbing their wings together.

the knee that consists of a drum-like membrane, called a tympanum, on either side of the leg. This is the cricket’s ear and is sensitive

clump of vegetation, it springs

to sound

into the air, opens and

vibrations.

flutters its wings to prolong the leap, and drops down as

Common field

much as I m (3.3 ft) ahead.

grasshopper

Locust swarms

Cricket’s leg

Reproduction

Most grasshoppers feed on leaves, buds,

its lep rapidly

During mating a male grasshopper

against its winp

life grows, creating the right

or cricket transfers tiny packets of

to generate sounds.

conditions for locusts to breed

sperm to the female to fertilize her

and other parts of plants that they chew with their mouthparts. Crickets have a more varied diet. Many eat plants but also catch and devour other insects — in

in large numbers. Swarms of up to 50 billion set out across

eggs. She then uses a spike-like

the land. They devastate crops

ovipositor to place batches of

and plants, causing famine.

up to 100 eggs at a time

Male has laid a

fact, some bush crickets are dedicated

sperm sac that

Stridulation

is being taken

The rapid rubbing sounds made

caves scavenge on

up by the

by grasshoppers and crickets are

dead and

female.

known as stridulation. To amplify

into the soil or into plant stems and leaves. Tiny

hunters. Crickets that live in houses and

the sounds, crickets rub veins and ridges on both wings together;

nymphs — miniature

grasshoppers rub ridges on their

versions of the parents

legs against a tough vein on

— hatch from the eggs.

their wings. Breeding males

They moult and grow

produce stridulations to attract mates. Sounds are characteristic

many times until they reach adult size.

V

Feeding

Grasshopper rubs

Locusts are grasshoppers. After heavy rains, lush plant

showing eardrum

Bush cricket

of each species and uttered Bush cricket transferring sperm sac

at specific times of the day.

Defence

Bush cricket eating a passhopp!

Great green bush cricket

Common field GRASSHOPPER

Many grasshoppers and crickets are brown or green

Scientific name Chorthippus brunneus

so they are less visible

Order Orthoptera

to predators. Others have brightly coloured

Family Acrididae

hind wings that they flash

Posture

to warn off enemies. Some

Large crickets, called wetas,

have elaborate camouflage, with body parts resembling leaves and plant stems.

Flash coloration

Warning coloration

Distribution Europe

At rest, onlv the outer wings of

This grasshopper eats

Habitat Dry open areas with

have spines on their hind legs.

this grasshopper are exposed. If

poisonous plants and stores

If disturbed, they raise their

disturbed, it flashes its lilac inner

the poisons in its body. Its

hind legs into a threatening

wings to confuse enemies, as the

bright stripes warn predators

fxjsture to frighten predators.

colour disappears when it settles.

that it is unpleasant to eat.

short grass Diet Grass and other low-lying plants SiZF Length; males up to 18 mm (0.7 in); females up to 23 mm (0.9 in)

FIND OUT

MORE

Arthropods

Cave

Camouflage

Grassland

WILDLIFE

AND COIOUR

WII DLIFE

Insects

North American

LIFESPAN 6-7 months

WILDLIFE

395

Grassland wildlife

The world’s major grasslands are shown, marked in green on the map below.

Grasslands sustain more animals than any other type of land habitat. This is

because each species eats a different type,

,

or part, of the grass. In this way, the various species of herbivore can share the same habitat without

Prairies

Eurasian );

America

. ■

competing for food. On the African plains, for example, zebras eat the tops of grasses, wildebeest prefer the middle layers, while Thomsons gazelles graze close to the ground. Tall grasses also provide shelter for myriad insects, and a

Savannahs of Africa

• Pampas

Steppe

q

^

‘ TAT

.

of South America

Australian grasslands

Grasslands

refuge for small animals,

Grasslands cover 25 per cent of the

such as birds and rodents, many

Earths land surface. The worlds principal grasslands are the Eurasian

of which live in burrows

steppe, the savannahs of Africa,

due to the lack of shelter from trees.

Australian grasslands. Grasslands are

the pampas of South America, the prairies of North America, and the areas where it is too dry for many trees to grow, but tough grasses grow in abundance. Grasses can withstand constant grazing by

Giraffes, springboks,

animals, and recover quickly from

and zebras grazing on

damage by fire, flood, or drought.

the African savannah

Long, thin legs

Mammals

Patagonian hare

Grasslands sustain a wide variety of mammals,

help hare run fast.

The Patagonian hare,

Invertebrates Invenebrates are of great

or mara, looks like a

mainly herbivores, often in large numbers. The

hare but is closely

importance in tropical

herbivores support a population of carnivores,

related to the guinea

grasslands. They feed

pig. It lives in burrows

on dead vegetation,

while scavengers, such as hyenas, jackals, and

in groups of 30-40,

vultures, dispose of their remains. Typical

in the Argentinian

grassland mammals include zebras in Africa;

pampas and the stony

prairie dogs and coyotes in North America;

Patagonian desert.

maned wolves in South America; marmots in Eurasia; and kangaroos in Australia.

American bison The most characteristic animal of the Great Plains of North America, the bison once numbered 50-60 million.

Blackbuck Blackbucks are a type of antelope that once roamed the Indian

helping decompose it, and make nutrients available to plants. They also bring subsoil

Dung beetle

to the surface, helping

Dung beetles roll dung

to keep the soil healthy.

By the 1880s, the huge herds had been almost destroved Males have slender, spiralled horns.

grasslands in herds of up to

by hunting. Only 500 remained,

Ant lion

but given protection,

Ant lion larvae build pits in

numbers rose to

sandy soil and wait at the

25,000. The

hunting has reduced their

bison now

dislodge grains of sand. Once

numbers, and there are

live in

alerted, the larva squirts sand

herds of

at its victim, making it slide

in Argentina and Texas, where they have been

holes. The larvae hatch and feed on the dung.

bottom for an ant or spider to

10,000. More recently,

now more blackbucks

^

into balls, which they lay eggs in, and push into

up to 50

into the pit where the ant lion

animals.

seizes it in its powerful jaws.

introduced, than in

Termites

their original

Tropical grasslands are dotted with termite

homeland.

nests, each containing several million of these Huge ears and

insects. Termites are an important food

sense of

source for many animals, especially echidnas,

smell help to locate prey.

numbats, aardvarks, and pangolins.

African wild dog The wild dog lives in packs of up to 12 on the open savannahs of Africa. It employs a very effective method of communal hunting; having singled out an animal, such as a zebra or gazelle, from the herd, a pair of dogs chases it until they are tired, when a fresh pair

396

takes over. Relays of dogs continue in

Queen termites have huge,

Pairs of African wild dogs run down

this way until the prey is exhausted, and

swollen bodies and can lay

animals larger than themselves.

the pack closes in for the kill.

up to 30,000 eggs a day.

GRASSLAND WILDLIFE

Reptiles

Strong jaws and sharp, curved ,

Large claws

Many reptiles live in grasslands where they can

Perentie

teeth help it catch snakes

help It to

Reaching a length of 2 m (7 ft),

rabbits, and birds.

catch prey.

the perentie is the largest of the Australian monitor lizards. It lives in

tolerate the harsh conditions during the dry season.

grasslands and among rocky outcrops

However, when the grass is short it provides little

in deserts. Like other monitors,

cover in which to hide, so reptiles need to be

the perentie is a carnivore with a voracious appetite. It also eats

camouflaged. Many grassland snakes and lizards

carrion. If threatened, it

are dull coloured, with brown or grey mottled

inflates its body, hisses, and

markings that blend into the surroundings.

lashes out with its tail. . The perentie can lash its huge tail

Grass snake

Grass snakes usually lay a

This small, non-

clutch of up to 30^0

vcnomous reptile lives in

eggs in decaying

grasslands close to water.

vegetation.

from side-to-side in self-defence.

Mottled markings break up outline against the grass.

Puff adder

It is a strong swimmer,

Hidden within the grass stems

and catches much of its

of the African savannah lurks

prey, such as fish, frogs,

the slow-moving, dangerous puff

and newts, in water. If

adder. Camouflaged in the

attacked, it releases a bad

grass, it lies in wait for prey.

smell, or feigns death by

It produces a powerful

lying on its back, with

venom for immobilizing

its tongue hanging out.

prey, such as rodents and

Grass snakes hibernate

frogs, and as a means of

in winter, usually in

defence, against mongooses,

holes in the ground.

secretary birds, and eagles.

Birds

Plants

Greater bustard A turkey-sized, ground-dwelling bird

Grasslands support many birds,

with a wing span of up to 2.4 m (8 ft),

among them bustards, guineafowl,

the greater bustard lives in the open

francolins, long-legged seriemas,

grasslands of Asia and southern Europe. It is famous for the male’s spectacular

I

Grasslands sustain numerous types of grass, among the best known are red oat grass in Africa and buffalo grass in America. Which species grow depends on altitude, temperature, soil type, and

and the secretary bird. Many birds

courtship display. He inflates the air

rainfall. Grassland trees often have deep roots to reach water

nest on the ground as there are few

sac on his throat, and twists his back

supplies far below the ground, allowing

trees. The burrowing owl even goes

and tail feathers forwards, transforming

underground and nests in burrows

himself from a drab grey colour into a

them to survive during the dry season. Some trees can store

shimmering white mass.

on the American prairies. Other

water. The baobab tree

birds, such as weaver birds, flock

can store about 9,000 1

in droves to the same isolated tree

(2,400 gal) of water in

to weave their basket-shaped nests.

its huge swollen trunk.

Emu

Acacia tree

The emu is the second largest bird in the

The characteristic tree of Africa’s

world, after the ostrich. It is flightless and

arid and semi-arid grasslands is the

lives on the Australian grasslands, where it

flat-topped umbrella tree. Acacia

feeds on grasses, berries, fruit, and insects.

tortilis. This tree is protected from

Emus live in small, nomadic flocks, moving

grazing animals by sharp thorns,

long distances in search of food and water.

but these do not deter giraffes,

They are powerful runners, covering

which manage to pluck the leaves and

the ground in 2.7 m (9 ft)

blossoms. Acacias produce a mass of

strides, reaching speeds of up

pods that fall to the ground providing

to “iO kmh (.^0 mph) over short

Indian white-backed vulture

food for many animals. Acacias also provide

distances. Males incubate the

Vultures are a group of carrion-eating

welcome shade for the animals of the savannah.

eggs and look after the chicks.

birds of prey. They perform a vital role of scavenging and keeping the environment

Long, shaggy feathers.

clean bv disposing of waste. Indian white-backed vultures hunt, bv soaring on thermal currents from where they Ilf ■ \ Bare

can spot a kill; once sighted, the

skm on

vultures land to feed on the remains.

neck

The sight of vultures spiralling down

Pampas grass

Petals and bracts

The Argentine

are covered with

pampas extends

small hairs.

from the foothiUs of the Andes to

draws other scavengers to the kill.

the Atlantic coast. Many of the grasses that grow there can be up to 2.5 m (8 ft) high.

Anemones When the snow retreats on the Asian steppes, Long legs for running

many wild flowers,

Vulture /

including anemones and

feeding

peonies, grow amidst

on a goat

the sea of grass.

FIND OUT

Ants and

Birds

Buffalo and otfier

Dfer and

Grasses, rushes.

Plants,

Wolves and

MORE

TERMITF-S

OF PREY

WILD CATTLE

ANTELOPES

AND SEDGES

DEFENCE

WILD DOGS

397

GRAVITY

Weight

Apple weighs about 1 N.

The force of gravity acting on an object is called weight. Like all forces,

Without gravity, we would fly off the

weight is expressed in units called

spinning Earth and into space. Gravity is a force of attraction that acts between any

newtons (N). An object’s weight is 1 kg (2.2 lb) of

of 100 g (3.5 oz).

Earths gravity Gravity always acts towards the centre of the Earth, defining

far apart attract each other weakly.

the “downwards”

The force

Centre of gravity

of gravity acting

direction at every point

on the ball is

on the planet’s surface. Gravity pulls a ju^ling ball towards the

Every object consists of

ground, slowing it as it rises, and

tiny particles of matter. Each

speeding it up as it falls. The ball

- Balls slow

of these particles has a small

also pulls on the Earth, but the

down as they

force of gravity acting upon it.

are thrown

Together, the forces act like a

Earth is so massive that the ball’s

upwards.

gravity has no noticeable effect.

single force pulling do^vnv^^ards Moons gravity

at just one point, called the

Balls speed up

centre of gravity. An object

The Moon is smaller and has less mass

as they fall.

than the Earth, so the force of gravity

will balance when it is

is weaker on the Moon. A hammer

Centrel

Supported in line with its

of gravity is directly below

centre of gravity. Balancing is

.

L

on the Moon weighs one-sixth of

Gravity tries to

its weight on the Earth. It takes

pull the balls

l

1.1 seconds for a

downwards

easiest It the obiect has a low

the string, making

hammer to fall I m

>

Centre of gravity.

the object very stable.

a mass

about 10 N.

exert a strong force of gravity. Objects

L-

Apple has

matter weighs

as galaxies or as small as subatomic particles. The strength of the gravity between two objects depends on their masses and the distance between them. Objects with large masses

-r i

measures weight and other forces.

directly related to its mass. On Earth,

two objects. The objects can be as large

■

Newton meter

(3.3 ft) on the Moon, but only 0.44 seconds on

Gravity in space

the Earth.

Gravity is a universal force, because it acts between any two objects, wherever they are in the Earth

Universe. The force that keeps our feet firmly on

Moon

Galaxies A typical galaxy is about

the ground is the same

100,000 light-years across. The

one that holds huge

stars are so massive that gravity

Aristotle

Tides

clusters of stars together

can still act over this huge

The Greek philosopher

Twice each day, the waters

distance, preventing the stars

Aristotle (c.384—322 BC)

of the ocean rise a little

from drifting off into space.

believed that heavy

and then fall back. This

as galaxies. Path of orbit Gravitational force on the Earth

objects fall faster than

movement is called a tide,

lighter ones. Aristode’s

and it is caused by the pull

ideas were accepted

of the Moon’s gravity. The

until the Italian scientist

Sun also influences tides.

Galileo Galilei

NX hen the Earth, Sun, and

Planetary orbits

(1564—1642) showed

Moon are in line, their

Gravity holds the planets of

that gravity pulls all

combined gravity produces

objects to Earth at

tides that are higher than

the same speed.

normal, called spring tides.

the Solar System in orbit around the Sun. Venus and the Earth have similar masses, but because Venus is closer to the Sun than the Earth the force of gravity keeping it in orbit is greater.

Orbital path of Mercury over 4 years

Gravitational force on Venus

General Relativity

Timeline

l^lh century English

1915 Einstein’s Theory

1919 English

4 th century BC Aristotle

physicist Isaac Newton

of General Relativity

astronomer Anhur Eddington (1882-

In 1915, German-born

proposes that stones fall to the

publishes his Law of

describes gravity as a

physicist Albert Einstein

ground simply because they are

Gravitation, perhaps

curvature of space.

published his Theory of

heavy, and that smoke rises

inspired by seeing an

of Einstein’s theory

General Relativity. This

because it is light.

apple fall from a tree.

by observing light,

1944) obtains proof

reaching Earth

theory sees gravity not as a force, but as a curvature of

1604 Italian scientist Galileo

Model showing

space caused bv bodies of

Galilei investigates how

how space curves

matter. In 1919, the theory

objects fall to Earth.

around a planet.

from a distant star, being bent bv the Sun’s gravity.

was used successfully to Orbit shifts over time.

398

explain whv Mercury’s orbit

FIND OUT

gradually varies over time.

MORE

Einstein, ALBERT

Force and MOTION

Matter

Moon

Nevcton, SIR ISAAC

Oceans

AND seas

Great depression

Roaring Twenties Once western economies had recovered from World War I, they entered a period of rapid growth.

' ^

On 24 OCTOBER, 1929, the worlds financial heart — the New York Stock Exchange — stopped beating. Share prices crashed, consumers stopped investing, banks failed, and millions of people lost their jobs. Within a year, a severe

High public confidence, low interest rates, and optimistic investments created a boom in the 1920s. Women enjoyed greater freedom, and most people spent more on leisure and enterrainment than ever before.

economic depression gripped the world, and governments struggled A fashionable 1920s’ “flapper”

to cope with the crisis. Ill-thought-out economic policies led to social unrest and the rise of right-wing authoritarian governments

US magazine front cover, 1926

in Europe. The Great Depression lasted for a decade; it ended when the threat of war resulted in the need for workers to produce armaments.

Wall Street Crash

Soup kitchens Many people lost their

In 1929, after years of rising

life savings after the

share prices, the Stock Exchange

Wall Street Crash, and bankrupt companies

on New Yorks Wall Street saw a

had to lay off their

dramatic crash (fall) in prices.

workers. With no work

The crash bankrupted many

and no social security system, millions of

companies and private citizens.

American families faced poverty' and hunger. Every town opened soup kitchens to provide at least one good meal a day. Bread line. New York, 19.32

Jarrow March By the early 1930s, the effects of the Depression had

In the United States, years of over-farming and drought

spread to Britain, Germany, and the rest of the world.

caused dust storms throughout the mid-western states

Poverty was rife. In 1936. 200 unemployed workers marched 444 km (276 miles) from Jarrow, northeast Jarrow marchers on their way to London

A family in the Texas Dust Bowl, 1938

Dust Bowl during the 1930s. Thousands of farmers, already hit

England, to the capital, London, demanding jobs.

hard by the Depression and suffering desperate

Almost 70 per cent of Jarrow’s workers were out of work.

poverty, were forced to abandon their land to seek work in the fruit farms of California. Eew found it.

Rearmament

New Deal

Their plight was immortalized in John Steinbeck’s

In 1932, FD Roosevelt won the US

classic novel, The Grapes of Wrath (1939).

From the 1930s, world leaders took action to

presidential election against President

combat unemployment: the USAs President Roosevelt started the New Deal to get people

Hoover. He pledged “a new deal for the American pyeople”, establishing agencies to r^ulate business, stan

back to work. However, it was renewed war in

public works programmes, and build

Europe that ended the Depression. Armament

a series of huge hydroelectric power

factories producing aeroplanes and tanks created

plants, such as the Hoover Dam, in order to provide employment.

new jobs and revitalized the world economy.

Franklin D Roosevelt Roosevelt (1882-1945) became Democratic senator for New York in 1910, and Assistant Secretary to the Navy from 1913-1920. In 1921 he developed polio and was paralysed, which confined him to a wheelchair for the rest of his life. He returned to public life in 1928 as governor of New York, and won the 1932 presidential eleaion. He promised “direa, vigorous action^ against the Depression, and won re-eleaion three times. He led the USA to viaory in World War II.

imeline

1933 Hitler comes to power in

'29 VC(all Street Crash.

Germany, with promises to get the country back to work through

-j/Y \vr__iJ ,

Italy’s Fascist leader Benito Mussolini takir^ the salute at a ralh

1931 Britain forms national

1933 Slow recovery begins in USA

government to deal with crisis.

and Europe.

Rise of Fascism

1932 More than I in 4 workers

1939 Outbreak of war in Europe

The Depression caused much tension. Socialists agitated for

unemployed in USA; unemployment

ends Depression as workers are

reform, but some countries looked to right-wing solutions.

in Germany triples to 5.6 million.

employed in armament factories.

Italy had had a Fascist government since 1922; Germany got one in 1933, and Spain in 19.36. Authoritarian governments across Europe quashed dissent from workers and left-wingers

Hoover Dam, Nevada, L'SA

HND OUT

MORE

GFRMAN3, HISTORY OF

United states,

World

HISTORY OF

WAR II

399

GREAT NORTHERN WAR see SCANDINAVIA, HIS'I ORY OF • GREAT WALL OF CHINA see CHINA AND TAIWAN

GREAT ZIMBABWE

Southern Africa

(

archaeological mysteries is the walled city of Great Zimbabwe. This massive granite Zimbabwe — a word literally meaning chief’s court — was begun in the 13th century. By the l4th century, it had become the capital of a vast kingdom that stretched between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers. The people of Great Zimbabwe were mainly farmers, but the city was also the main centre for trade and religion. However, by 1450, Great Zimbabwe had been abandoned for reasons that remain a mystery. Today its ruins stand in modern Zimbabwe, the southern African country named after this remarkable walled structure. One of Africa’s greatest

Roofless oval enclosures.

Great Enclosure

Outside wall was 5 m (16 ft) thick at the base and 9.75 m (32ft) high.

^ Chevron pattern decorated parts of wall.

A German self-taught geo¬ logist, Mauch (1837—75), travelled southern Africa from 1865 to 1872. Durmg his nine months in Great Zimbabwe (1871) he drew diagrams of the ruins and sketched the carved stone and metal objects found there. Much of today’s 1

based on Mauchs diaries.

Great Enclosure, Great Zimbabwe

Ancestor worship

400

Birds

The people of Great Zimbabwe worshipped the spirits of their dead rulers, known as ancestors. In sacrificial rites, they killed calves, and offered the meat to ancestor spirits on beautifully carved soapstone dishes. Thev placed the dishes in sacred places outside the hill complex.

Timeline C.900 Iron Age (Shona) people setde between the Zambezi and the Limpopo rivers in southern Africa. 1100s Trade passing through Great Zimbabwe to Africa’s East Coast increases. 1200s Zimbabwean gold being exported to Asia.

FIND OUT

1 MORE

Rise of Great Zimbabwe Great Zimbabwe’s first city staned as a farming setdement, [xjssibly as early as the 2nd century. As well as rearing and selling catde, its people mined for gold and copper on the Zimbabwe plateau. By the 12th century, long-distance trade based on gold and copper was passing through the city from the east coast of Afiica. As Great Zimbabwe rose in importance and wealth, it was rebuilt in stone and increased in size.

Hill complex

Farming

Karl Mauch

Madagascar

Hill complex

T/je conical tower was 9 m (27 ft) high, and made of solid stone._

Zimbabwean catde

' Sofala Great , L Zimbabwe • *

Masonry incorporates massive boulders

Built of massive granite blocks, the Great Enclosure is a huge dry stone wall that surrounded the city, providing protection for Great Zimbabwe’s people. Inside the enclosure, people lived in circular houses made from daga (a gravel¬ like clay) and roofed with thatch. There were also small oval enclosures — but, like the stone conical tower, their purpose remains a mystery. Near to the enclosure was a hill complex, which was used for religious rituals.

Great Zimbabwe at its height had 10,000 people living in and around it. Most people were farmers in the surrounding areas. They herded catde and grew millet, sorghum, and vegetables, which they sold to the many traders visiting the walled city.

Kilwa

)

Africa, HISTORY OF

Eight carved soapstone birds have been found at Great Zimbabwe. They stood in sacred places on 1-m (3-fr) high soapstone columns. Each of the birds mav represent a royal ancestor, and one of them is now used as the symbol of the modern state of Zimbabwe. Soapstone bird on column

1250 Building in stone begins at Great Zimbabwe. Early l400s Great Enclosure is completed; and Gteat Zimbabwe reaches its greatest extent. 1450 Great Zimbabwe is abandoned, probably because its people leave to look for new and better farmland.

Metals

Mali EMPIRE

The rehgious centre, where the ancestors’ spirits were worshipped, was built on a hill near the Great Enclosure. At the front of the complex, there was a public space where the mambo (ruler) conduCTed sacred rites.

Conical tower A massive and mysterious coneshafied tower stands inside the Great Enclosure. Some archaeologists think it mav be a monument celebrating the power and wealth of the rulers of Great Zimbabwe.

Trade The prosperous trading centre of Great Zimbabwe was situated on one of the trade routes that linked southern Africa to the east coast. Traders from Sofala and Kilwa (in modern Mozambique) obtained gold and copper from Great Zimbabwe to export to Arabia and Asia. Metal exports The people of Great Zimbabwe mined gold, copper, iron, and tin on the Zimbabwe plateau. Cross-shaped ingots were exchanged for trade goods from Asia, such as beads glassware, and ceramics. Copper ingot

Greece, ancient

Mycenaean civilization The Mycenaeans formed the first great mainland Greek civilization (c.27001120 Bf), and were the forerunners

More than 2,500 years ago

one of the worlds most

of classical Greece. These Bronze Age traders and warriors ranged all over

i ^

influential civilizations flowered in mainland Greece. From the 8th until the 2nd centuries BC, Greek writers, thinkers, and artists made a huge contribution to western culture — especially in politics, drama, mythology,

the Mediterranean area from their settlement at Mycenae. The gold mask was once thought to be of Agamemnon, a leader in the legendary Trojan War.

The Parthenon Red marble tiles

architecture, and literature. Greek civilization declined when, after defeating the Persians and

covered the roof.

Coloured frieze

peacefully colonizing much of Europe, they were absorbed into the Roman Empire.

Pol is Ancient Greece was made up of hundreds of separate citystates. Some were hardly bigger than villages, while others were based around great cities, such as Sparta or Athens. Each of these city-states was known as a polis (plural: poleis). Laws, festivals, and government systems varied, and there was often war between rival poleis, despite their common Greek background. The need for land led some poleis to colonize other parts of the Mediterranean between the 8th and 6th centuries

BC,

and in this way ancient Greece expanded.

whne marble

Relief decorated

Temples were built on

columns

the exterior.

stepped platforms.

Athens

Sparta

Macedon

Bvzaniium

Tipi Delphi

■Athens OKmpia

Mvcetiae

Life in Sparta was disciplined and harsh.

From the 6th century BC, Athens was governed by a form of

Sparians trained both girls and bovs to

democracv (rule bv the people), in which all male citizens voted.

excel at sports and feats of endurance.

In the 5th century BC, thanks to its powerful navy, Athens had

To strengthen military power, all the bovs

a maritime empire in the Aegean Sea, and its 250,000-strong

went on to become soldiers. After helping

population enjoyed a golden age of an and culture. After their

Athens defeat the Persians in 480 BC,

triumph against the Persians, the Athenians celebrated by

Sparta conquered Athens in the

building a massive “fortified citadel” - the Acropolis. The

Peloponnesian \Xar (431-404 BC),

Panhenon (447 and 432 BC) was the most important temple

and became master of Greece

in the Acropolis, and was dedicated to Athena.

Ancient Greece, c.4th century BC

Spartan warrior

Clash of the Titans The Greeks believed that the world was originally inhabited bv giants called Titans. Their ruler, Cronos, swallowed

The Legend of Troy Linle of the ancient citv ofTroy (in modern Turkev) remains. Homers Iliadsavs that a Greek armv besieged Trov for 10 years in the

his children alive, so that thev could

late Mveenaean Age (c.l250 BC).

not overthrow him. One son, Zeus,

This became known as the Trojan

I

escaped this fate when his mother gave

War. According to legend, Athena

'

Cronos a clothed stone to swallow

advised the Greeks to smuggle

instead. Zeus grew up in secret, made Cronos vomit up his siblings, defeated the other Titans in battle, and made

their soldiers into the city inside a huge wooden horse, and in this wav thev gained viaoty.

himself king of the gods. Part of a Cronos eating his children

Mount Olympus Ancient Greeks believed that various deities

Oracle at Delphi

Poseidon was

Ancient Greeks consulted the

Zeus's brother

gods for advice or prophecies

and god of

(gods and goddesses) watched over ordinary

at holy places called oracles.

the sea

mortals from a cloud-palace above the highest

The most famous oracle in

mountain in Greece — the snow-capped Mount

trident Model of Trojan Horse

Homer The Greek poet Homer probablv lived

Greece was at Delphi. People

in the 7th or 8th century BC.

went there to ask questions at

Poseidon is

He is believed to be the author

Apollo’s shrine about religious

usually shown

of two of the world’s greatest

known as Olympians. Each Olympian had

or political matters. A high

holding a fish.

epic poems: the Iliad, which

specific responsibilities: Poseidon was in charge

priestess went into a trance to

is about the siege ofTrov,

give Apollo’s answers. Most

and the Odyssey, which

gods had their special shrine, but thev competed

describes the wanderings of

Olympus. The deities who lived there were also

of the sea, Athena of wisdom and the arts, Apollo of music and poetry, and Demeter of

with each other for the best ones. Legend has it

the hero Odvsseus after the

crops. The supreme god was Zeus, lord of sky

that Athena won a competition against Poseidon

Trojan War. According

and earth. Greek cities regarded different deities

over the Parthenon in Athens, the largest citv in

to later writers, Homer

Greece, and he had to move his shrine to Attica.

was blind.

as their special protectors. For example, Athens was devoted to the cult of Athena.

Poseidon, god of the sea

401

GREECE, ANCIENT

Culture

Amphora

Pericles

goddess

Ancient Greek art and science was of the

of the

From 443 BC, Pericles (c.495— 429 BC) was the most important

highest standard, and set the standard for

harvest

politician and general in Athens.

European culture for centuries. “Greece,

A great public speaker and

though conquered,” wrote the Roman

champion of democracy, he

poet Horace, “brought the arts to the

strengthened and expanded the Athenian empire after defeating

uncivilized Latin peoples” (Romans) —

the Persians. He also made

and through them to modern Europe.

Athens the most splendid city in Greece by arranging for the

Sculpture

^ Human

Ancient Greek sculpture was famous for its

figures at

naturalness, beauty, and perfect proportions.

Art

Statues related to all aspects of life, including

Red-figure

religious worship and sport. Those of deities,

painting replaced black-figure

a banquet

Acropolis, a rocky hill overlooking the city.

^

C.530 BC. Most red-figure

such as Ceres, were popular among farmers, and

in

were left at shrines to ensure a good harvest.

vases (amphorae) were made from Athenian clay. Subjects

Drama and architecture

Parthenon and other buildings to be built on the

Language and literature

were usually male, and were

Ancient Greek, like Latin, is known as a

The ancient Greeks learned much from the

often shown banqueting

“classical” language. Many great works of

Egyptians about using stone in their archi¬

or engaged in athletics.

Chiton,

tecture - but their theatres

Greek literamre have survived by authors

or full

were original. In the golden

such as Hesiod and Appolonius (poets),

tunic

age of Athens (400s BC),

Thucydides (a historian),

dramatists, such as

and Plato (a philosopher).

Aeschylus, Sophocles, and

MIKAH

nin

Euripedes wrote tragedies that are still performed.

Greek inscription of thanks to Asclepius, the god of medicine

Epidaurus theatre

The word “alphabet” (used in

TYXH EYXAPtC

In 490 BC, a Persian force

many modem languages, including

THPION

sailed across the Aegean Sea,

English) was formed by joining the

Alphabet

Greek-Persian wars

Battle of Marathon

After 545

BC,

the mighty Persian Empire took

over Greek cities in Ionia, the easternmost

and landed in Attica. On the

first two letters of ancient Greek:

plain of Marathon, against

alpha and beta. The Cyrillic

part of Greek territory. When Athens tried to

all odds, it was heavily

alphabet of eastern Europe also

lend suppon to the cities (499-494

defeated by an army of

grew out of the Greek alphabet.

BC),

the

Athenians and their allies.

Persians invaded mainland Greece, but were

The Athenians built a

driven back at Marathon. Ten years later, an

treasury at Delphi to mark

alliance between Athens, Sparta, and other

this victory, filled it with Persian spoils, and dedicated

Greek cities defeated another massive Persian expedition on land and sea at Salamis.

^^KAI ypEiA

it to Apollo, the god of war.

The Treasury, Delphi

Philip of Macedon Warrior-king Philip II ruled Macedon, a northern state in Greece, from 359 to 336

BC.

A strong king and a great diplomat, Philip made Macedon the dominant power Jason and the Argonauts

in the Greek world. He was

Batde of Salamis

Even today, Greek myths are rewrinen, and made

murdered on the point of

into plays and films. Few tales are as dramatic

a huge force along the shores of the Aegean Sea.

invading Persia, but by then

as the quest by Jason and his ship, the Argo, to steal

As central Greece fell, the Athenians evacuated their

had laid the foundations for

In 480 BC, the Persian emperor Xerxes the Great led

the Golden Fleece of the Sun from a watchful dragon.

city. A smaller Greek fleet then lured the Persians

On their journey, Jason and his crew (including the

into banle in the straits between the mainland and

his son, Alexander, to

hero Herakles) were helped and hindered by many

the island of Salamis — and defeated them decisively.

continue his military feats.

gods, monsters, witches, and giants.

Timeline

510 BC Cleisthenes, an Athenian

c.2700-1120 BC

statesman, introduces

Myceneaen civilization

Peloponnesian War.

leading Greek power.

359—323 BC Reigns of

C.510-366 BC

repel Persian invaders

443-429 BC

Peloponnesian League

at Salamis and Plataea

Pericles dominant

Philip II and his son

in Athens.

Alexander the Great

and Africa.

477 BC Athens and 499—494 BC Revolt against Persia by Ionian Greeks.

560-510 BC Athenian

402

overthrows Sparta as

forms, led by Sparta.

colonize areas in Italy

HND OUT

378-371 BC Thebes

Athens in first

480-479 BC Greeks

c.750-550 BC Greeks

MORE

459 BC Spana defeats

Marathon.

democracy to Athens.

flourishes.

influence spreads.

490 BC Batde of

Detail from amphora

Art HISTORY OF

Alexander THE great

Cities

Etruscans

of Macedon.

Ionian Greeks form

431—404 BC Sparta

Delian League

wins second, or Great,

against Persia.

Peloponnesian 'Xar.

Europe, HISTORY OF

Gods and goddesses

Minoans

Hephaistos, god of fire

Persian EMPIRES

Roman EMPIRE

Socrates

GREECE AND BULGARIA Although

Greece and

Bulgaria share a border, high mountains separate the two countries, making communication difficult. Greece and Bulgaria are quite different. Three-fifths of the Greek mainland is mountainous, and only one-third of the land is cultivated. By contrast, Bulgaria is much more fertile with a strong agricultural tradition. Greece has a strong history of democratic government, while Bulgaria is only just emerging from almost half a century of communist rule. ■•

Physical features

*3 ra -

K'tfcyra

Surrounded by sea on three sides, the country of Greece is made up of the mainland, the Peloponnese peninsula, and more than 2,000 Ai^nnii Lerv

islands. It is a mixture of high mountains, dry, K^alliniaf

dusty plains, and dramatic coastlines. Land¬

Greece has very hot, dry summers and cooler winters. The northern

Ziin/nthos >L

24°C

6°C

(75-'F)

(43'‘F)

mountains have cold

~

Ti'os

ATHENS Pen

Mb Coring Canal

Tmos ^

Mykonos

-25°C (-I3°F)

(iirF)

C ^Chios

bea

Ketitions and

The routines in pairs

and girls, rhythmic gymnastics

synchronized pairs.

(men, women, or mixed),

consists of five individual

Judges award marks for

the trio (women), and

exercises — ribbon, clubs, ball,

difficulty and how well a

fours (men) are like those

hoop, and rope. There are also

routine is performed.

of circus acrobats.

group exercises performed by a team, usually with two different pieces of apparattis.

FIND OUT

MORE

Olympic games

Romania, Ukraine,

Sport

AND MOLDAVIA

411

Jl^ Swings hoop

Lets a side of

around the waist. jLi the hoop drop.

^ Jumps through

^ Carries hoop

^ the hoop.

This move is known

to the side.

Circles the ball

to one side

out behind

Artistic, floor

Legs held together

as a Y-halance

Carries the ball

and straight

3

Spirals to the

/. Rises into

other side

X an arabesque.

Stretching his arms upwards helps the gymnast stand.

Gymnasts generally prefer to

Head

work

tucked

barefoot.

J Gymnast holds balance for two seconds.

2

Springs

Upwards and forwards

Lands on hands

Rolls onto feet and

Kicks up to a handstand, then turns

into a dive

into a dive roll.

and rolls.

comes up to stand.

round by moving his hands.

Artistic, beam

In competition, judges deduct points for wobbly

The beam, used only in

_ Looking ahead

women’s gymnastics, is very

Head up.

difficult. For safety’s sake, a

hack straight

or faulty landings.

gymnast must progress from floor skills, to a low beam, then a practise beam.

The gymnast learns to walk, turn, and sit on a beam first. The gymnast tries to jump as high as possible.

412

Gymnast mounts the

Performs low move,

side or end of the beam.

known as a V-sit.

3

The gymnast

With one step, takes

begin

off from both feet.

jump.

^ She points one leg forward and tucks the other behind.

6

Prepares to land.

7

She keeps a steady balance.

'

HARVEY, WILLIAM see HEART AND CIRCULATORY SYSTEM • HAWAII see PACIFIC OCEAN

HEALTH

AND

FITNESS

What is health? When someone is in good health it means their body is working to its full potential

If a machine is treated with care and given proper maintenance, it is more likely to function efficiently. Similarly, the human body is most

and is not impeded by physical or mental diseases. Peoples health may suffer as they become older, if they eat a poor diet, if they are poor, if they are exposed to pollution, or work in a harmful environment.

likely to function to the best of its ability if it is Outdoor play contributes to the

kept fit and healthy. Health may be defined as the state of being well in body and mind. Fitness is an

healthv development of children.

Maintaining health

indication of how efficiently the body’s muscles, heart, and lungs are working. If people are fit, they can deal with the requirements put upon their

Many people in developed countries are overweight, take little exercise, and eat too much fatty food. This makes them unfit, and often unhealthy. Following a balanced diet

bodies by everyday activities, such as walking and lifting, but also with sudden demands, such as

with plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables and not too much fat, combined with regular exercise, aid better health.

sprinting for a bus. Mental health — the mind’s fitness — is also important for well-being.

Diet A healthy diet consists of the right amounts of protein, carbohydrate,

Stretching side

. Fruit

rat, vitamins, minerals, I eL .T.I and ribre. 1 he energy it . ,., ^ provides should keep the

lateral muscles and abdomen

vegetables r ■■ r are hill of

Fish provides energy, iron, and protein.

body at its ideal weight.

Exercise The human body requires exercise to improve fitness. Exercise makes

Dairy products

Meat is hill

Nuts and fiingi

Pulses, rice, and

provide protein

of protein

contain protein

pasta provide

and fat.

and vitamins,

and minerals.

carbohydrates.

the heart and lungs work more efHcientlv, and

Relaxation

strengthens

Regular relaxation reduces stress

muscles and

tension, increases a sense of well

bones.This

being, and decreases the risk of

helps keep

disease. There are many ways

the body

to relax, including massage,

flexible.

yoga, and meditation. Legs are stretched an exercise

gently to prevent

Yoga lotus

programme

any strain.

position

Mental health Mental health is the fitness of

Public health

Check-ups A doctor carries out a check-up, or

the mind. Problems may be caused

Public health is concerned with the effect environment has upon

by heredity or emotional problems

a population’s health, and how the health of the community can

caused by relationships or lifesty’Ic. Keeping fit, discussing problems,

be improved. Workers in this field are interested in, for example,

physical examination, to make sure that a person is healthy, and to look out for anything that may be wrong. During a check-up, the doctor will ask

and seeking professional help can

good housing, effective sanitation, reducing air pollution, and the

the patient how he or she feels, look

all improve a persons mental

immunization of children and adults against infectious diseases.

at and feel the patient’s body, use a

health. Some people are affected by

stethoscope to listen to breathing and

mental illnesses that have been

Sanitation

caused bv brain disorders.

Sanitation is the provision

the heart, and measure blood pressure. Doctor examines girl’s throat

of clean drinking water, enclosed sewers, and drains. It stops food and water

Immunization protects people

potentially' fatal pathogens

from disease. It involves injecting

(germs) from human waste

them with small amounts of

and helps stop the spread

pathogens of a certain disease.

of disease.

This stimulates the body to produce antibodies

Doctors who look after mental health are called psychiatrists.

FIND OUT

MORE

Immunization

being contaminated bv

Drugs

Poor sanitation in slums

that fight the disease,

in 19th-century England

producing protection.

Food

Human body

Medicine

Societies,

Sport

HUMAN

413

HEARST, WILLIAM RANDOLPH see NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES

HEART AND CIRCULATORY SYSTEM •

. The heart is a fist-sized

muscular pump that

10/ beats non-stop, 24 hours a day, sending blood flB around the body along a massive network of fI tubes called blood vessels. Together, they / %

make up the circulatory system. The

from lungs.

blood from body.

Semilunar valve

Tricuspid valve prevents

stops blood

blood flowing backward

flowing

from right ventricle into

back into right ventricle.

Aorta carries oxygenrich blood from the Superior vena cava

and nutrients from digested food, and carrying away waste. Blood helps defend the body against infection and also distributes

oxygen-rich blood

right atrium.

larger blood vessels divide repeatedly to form smaller vessels, which travel to every cell in the body, supplying them with oxygen from the lungs

Left atrium receives

Right atrium receives oxygen-poor

heart to the bot^

carries blood from upp)er bodv into right atrium.

Pulmonary trunk carries oxygenpoor blood from heart toward lungs.

heat around the body, helping to maintain its temperature.

Septum is wall that separates ventricles. Right atnur

Heart

How the heart beats

The heart consists of two muscular

The wall of the heart is made of cardiac muscle that

pumps, left and right, which lie side by

contracts automatically. The two halves of the heart beat

side. Each pump is divided into a smaller

together to pump blood around the body. Inside the heart, blood passes from the atria (upper chambers) to

upper chamber, or atrium, and a lower Coronary

chamber, or ventricle. The left ventricle has a thicker wall because it has to pump

the ventricles (lower chambers). Valves ensure that blood

artery supplies

cannot flow backwards through the heart. Each heartbeat

heart with

is not a single contraction, but consists of three stages.

blood.

Right

Left

Tricuspid

Bicuspid

atrium

atnum

valve.

valve.

Aorta, \

Right

blood around the body; the thinner-walled

ventricle

right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs.

Pulmonary artery

William Harvey English doctor William Harvey (1578—1657) was the first person to show that blood circulated around the body. Before Harvey, it was thought that blood ebbed and flowed along blood vessels rather like the tide coming

1

During the first stage

2

During the second stage (atrial systole)

(diastole) both the

3

in and going During the third

out. Harvey

stage (ventricular

concluded that

atria and the ventricles

the tricuspid and bicuspid

systole) the ventricles

Heart rate

blood travelled

are relaxed. Blood flows

valves between the atria

contract to push blood

The heart normally beats about 70 times

in one

into and fills both atria.

and the ventricles open.

out of the heart. The

p)er minute. This is your hean rate. It changes

direction only,

The semilunar valves at

Both atria contract and

tricuspid and bicuspid

according to the oxygen demands of the body.

and that it was

the exit points of the

squeeze blood into the

valves close, while the

If you exercise, heart rate increases to pump

ventricles are closed.

ventricles below them.

semilunar valves open.

more oxygen-carrving blood to your muscles.

pumped by the heart.

Blood Blood is a liquid transport system that travels to every cell in the body. It supplies body cells with oxygen and nutrients, and carries away waste products. Blood consists of billions of blood cells floating in a yellowish liquid called plasma. There are three types of blood cells; red blood cells, white blood

Platelets

White blood cells

cells, and platelets. Red blood cells make

Platelets are cell fragments that help

White blood cells defend the body

Red blood cells are packed with

up 99 per cent of all blood cells. A soft

stop blood leaking from injured blood

against infection. There are three main

a red substance called haemoglobin.

vessels. If a blood vessel is damaged,

rvjjes. Granulocytes and monocytes

Haemoglobin picks up oxygen in the

platelets gather at the wound and

engulf invading germs; lymphocytes

lungs and releases it as blood passes

stick to each other to form a plug.

release chemicals that destroy germs.

through other parts of the body.

tissue inside bones called red marrow produces blood cells.

414

Red blood cells

HEART AND CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Jugular vein carries

r ,(

Carotid artery

blood from head

'J'-

supplies head.

towards heart. Subclavian artery Subclavian vein

Axiliary vein

Circulation in the arm

Circulatory system

The blood vessels of the arm

The main blood vessel leaving the

show how the circulatory system works. The brachial

heart, the aorta, divides repeatedly, Aorta is main

Axillary vein

artery leaving ^

heart.

Superior vena cava carries blood from Axillary artery

upper body to

carries blood towards heart.

artery divides into several

sending branches to major body

branches, including the radial

regions. Blood returns to the heart

artery. Veins carrying blood

along veins, which unite to form the

from the hand and wrist unite to form the brachial

superior and inferior venae cavae, the

vein leaving the arm. Axiliary

two major veins which re-enter the

heart.

Pulmonary

artery

heart. A red blood cell takes just one

Pulmonary vein

artery carries

carries blood

blood from

minute to complete its journey around

from lung

heart to lungs.

the circulatory system.

supplies arm with blood Brachial

to heart.

artery Brachial vein

Digital artery supplies fingers

Hepatic portal

Humerus

with blood.

vein carries blood from

I I *

intestine to liver Inferior vena

Femoral

Digital vein

artery

carries blood

supplies leg.

away from fingers.

Lungs

How blood circulates There are, in fact, two parts to

First loop Iliac

the circulatory system. The

Vi

pulmonary circulation carries oxygen-pioor blood from the

Femora] vein

right side of the heart along the

carries blood

pulmonary arteries to the lungs

from leg

and back to the left side of the

towards heart. Saphenous vein

Dorsal arterial arch is a loop in

Right

upper foot.

ventricle

Left ventricle

heart along the pulmonary

Flushing

veins. The systemic circulation

Exercise can cause a reddening of the face

carries oxygen-rich blood from

and body known as flushing. This happens

the left side of the heart along

when, to cool the body down, blood vessels

the aorta to the body, and

near the skin’s surface widen as blood flow

returns oxygen-poor blood to

increases to lose heat from the skin. The

the right side of the heart.

increased blood flow makes the skin redden.

Blood clotting

Blood vessels

When a blood vessel is damaged,

There are three types of blood vessels;

heart. They have thin walls

clotting reduces the loss of blood.

arteries, veins, and capillaries. Arteries

because pressure inside them is

Platelets accumulate at the wound and

divide into smaller vessels called

stick together to form a plug. Red blood

arterioles, which themselves divide

cells are trapped in threads of fibrin to

into a network of capillaries.

form a clot. White blood cells prevent

Blood then passes to

infection beneath a hard outer scab.

venules and veins.

Skin

Fibrin thread

blood cells ^

- Red blood

Tzzziiz:.. Blood vessel

cells Platelet.

\ Platelet

Karl Landsteiner Austrian/American Karl Landsteiner (1868—1943) discovered the existence of blood groups, and made safe blood transfiision a reality. In 1900, Landsteiner showed that red blood cells

I

FIND OUT

prevent blood flowing backwards. Captllary network

Venule

Valve

/

Fibrin

Arteries

Chemicals in the blood and

Arteries carry blood

Vein

damaged cells trigger the

away from the hean.

Thin wall

production of the protein

They have thick,

of vein

fibrin. This forms strands

muscular walls that can

which trap red blood cells

withstand the high pressure

Capillaries Thick

Capillaries are the tiny blood vessels

into a clot. A hard crust,

produced when the heart beats.

wall of

that carry blood between arterioles and

called a scab, forms over the

Arteries usually carry blood that

artery

venules. Th^ supply individual cells with

clot to protect the wound.

is rich in oxygen.

food and oxygen and remove wastes.

Regular blood —

Blood groups

donors are given

People belong to different blood

a donor badge.

Blood compatibility Blood transfusion is the donation of blood by one

groups, depending on the antigens

person to another. People who share the same

(chemicals) in their red blood cells.

blood groups can give

The ABO blood group system has

or receive blood safely

two antigens, A and B. It has

because their blood is

blood from different people

four blood groups: A (carries A

compatible. In an

is mixed. He worked out

antigen); B (carries B antigen);

emergency, however,

system, and was awarded

MORE

low. They contain valves to

may clump together when

the ABO blood group W

Veins carry blood towards the

Scab

White

-

Veins

al a Nobel Prize.

Cells

First AID

people with type O

AB (carries both antigens); and

blood can give blood

O (carries neither).

to any other group.

Health and

Hormones and

Human

FITNESS

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

BODY

Immune and lymphatic system

Lungs and

BREATHING

Medicine

Muscles and

MOVEMENT

415

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Producing heat Heat can be produced in a number of ways, including

In

Greek mythology,

Icarus flew too

100°C (212°F.

by friction, through

3 '^3K): water boils

close to the Sun and plummeted to his death as the Suns heat melted his waxen wings. Heat is a type of energy that can

chemical reactions, and using an electric current.

58°C(136°F. 331 fQ: highest

Drilling

recorded temperature

machine^

on Earthy

indeed melt wax, and many other substances. The temperature of a substance — how hot or cold it is - can be thought of as how much heat energy that substance contains. More precisely, temperature is a measure of the average energy possessed by the moving particles of matter inside the substance.

43.3°C {110.3'‘F 3I6.3K):

.

normal body temperature of a sparrow

Column

Metal

of mercury

indicator

Temperature scale

or alcohol.

\:A

t

37°C(98.4'‘F 31 OK): normal

Just as the scale on a ruler shows

human body

length in centimetres or inches, a

Column

Digital

temperature scale shows temperature

moves

readout

in units called degrees Celsius (C),

temperature,

along

degrees Fahrenheit (F), or kelvin (K).

scale.

Heat-

Mercury

sensitive

Most temperature scales are defined

probe

by two “fixed points”. The Celsius

or alcohol

I

\

well Maximutn'tninimum

Liquid

Heat from friction The American scientist Benjamin Thompson (U53—1814) discovered that friction produces heat. At his weapons factory in Germany, he

1

28.1°C(82.6’’F

scale uses the melting and boiling

301. IK): normal body

points of water as its fixed points.

temperature of echidna

noticed that when a drilling machine bored into a gun barrel, friction between the two objects made the gun barrel extremely hot.

IPi^

Heat and chemical reactions

(spiny anteater)

Digital

bk

Athletes olten use a device called a hot pack to treat a sprained limb.

Thermometers A device that measures temperature is called a thermometer. A liquid thermometer contains a column of mercury or alcohol that expands and contracts as the temperature changes, moving up and down a scale. A maximum and minimum thermometer records the highest and lowest

Absolute zero

The pack contains powdered iron that reacts with oxygen from the air

There is no upper limit to temperature,

when the pack is shaken. The heat

but there is a lower limit, called absolute

from the chemical reaction warms

zero (-273°C -459°E OK), at which atoms

the joint and eases the pain.

and molecules are stationarv. Scientists have managed to achieve temperatures

temperatures over a certain period, using metal indicators that are moved bv a liquid column. A digital thermometer contains a heat-sensitive

within a millionth of a degree ol absolute zero. The studv of how matter behaves at very low temperatures is

electronic probe. The probe produces an electric

known as

current that varies with changes in temperature.

18°C(64°F

Element

291K):

Heat and

normal room temperature

electricity

(water is in its

An electric current

liquid state)

always produces heat. When current flows

cryogenics.

Thermal expansion

feezing point of water

more energy so that they move faster and farther. The particles take up Celsius scale

more room and increase the volume known as thermal [

1

expansion.

toaster, for example,

2^3K):

Heating a substance gives its particles

of the substance. This is

through an electric

0°C(32°F

3

The extra energ) increases the

Refrigerator

size of the particles’ vibrations, making them take up more space.

A refrigerator is a machine

The ball expands and will no

that is used to chill food,

longer pass through the ring.

drinks, and other items. A

Flame

the heat produced

A

raises the temperature of the wire element so that it glows red-hot and toasts bread.

Tube is called a condenser.

Refiigerant absorbs heat fom inside refrigerator and loses it to air outside.

liquid called a refrigerant Ring is

heats hall. Ball passes

moved

through

away

flows through pipes inside the refrigerator. The liquid I absorbs heat from the

ring.

I refrigerator’s contents and evaporates. The vapour is compressed and pumped Hot ball is now

I

too wide to pass This cold metal ball

through ring.

passes easily through the hoop. The ball is a solid object, composed of millions of tightly packed, vibrating particles.

416

into a tube on the outside of the refrigerator. As the vapour passes through the

2

A hot flame heats the ball, giving its particles

more heat energy.

tube, it loses heat to the Pump

surrounding air and condenses back to a liquid.

circulates Rear view of refrigerator

refiigerant.

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Water molecules gain heat from the hot pan and vibrate faster.

Heat conduction

Temperature

When a substance is heated,

Bubbles appear as the

its vibrating particles knock

water molecules use

against neighbouring particles

heat from the flame to

Temperature

outside is

inside is

I8.3°C(65°F).

21.7°C (7rF).

and pass on some of their

break free from each

thermal motion, spreading

other and form steam.

heat throughout the substance This is called conduction. Heat always conducts from a warm substance to a cooler one. The warm air in a room can lose heat

Latent heat

through a window. Heat

Thermal motion

When a liquid is at its boiling

All matter is made up of

point, an input of heat energy will not raise the

moving particles. This

liquids temperature any further. Instead, the extra

movement is called

conducts from the warm Thermometer

air to the window, and

records temperature

then to the cooler air outside.

thermal motion. The

difference across window.

energy enables particles in the liquid to break free

temperature of an object

from each other and form a gas. This energy is called

is a measure of its thermal

Heat conductors

Hot or cold?

latent heat. The energy is released again if the gas

motion. Heating the

Some materials — called conductors —

A marble tile feels colder

object makes its particles

conduct heat better than others. If you

than a carpet at room

vibrate faster and raises

press wax on to the ends of metal and

temperature. Marble is a

its temperature.

plastic spoons in hot water, the wax on

better conductor than

the metal spoon melts first. This is

carpet. Marble takes heat

condenses into a liquid. Latent heat is also absorbed when a solid melts, and released when a liquid freezes.

rapidly away from the

because metal is a better conductor.

Radiation

30.2°C

25.5°C

22.5°C

(86.36°F)

(77.9°F)

(72.5°F)

body, making the marble tile feel much colder to the

All objects give out energy in the

touch than the carpet. The bulb emits

form of infrared rays, which are

visible light rays

similar to X-rays. A hot object, such

and invisible

as a light bulb, gives out a lot of

infrared rays.

infrared rays. These rays will heat

Metal conducts

up any object that absorbs them.

faster than

Dull surfaces absorb infrared

plastic.

rays well, but shiny surfaces reflect them. Infrared rays are Marble tile

invisible, but you can feel their

Carpet

effect. The closer you put your

Heat insulators

hand to a light bulb, the warmer it feels, because the

27°C

42.4°C

(80.6°F)

(108°F)

Poor conductors of heat, such

radiation is more intense. Thermometers measure

as plastics, wood, cork, and

heat radiated by lamp.

air, are known as insulators. Using such materials to

Propagator Seeds sprout and grow more rapidly in warm

reduce heat loss from an

conditions, so thev are often planted in a tiny

object is called insulation.

greenhouse called a propagator. Sunlight passes through the propagator’s plastic cover and warms the seeds and soil, which radiate the heat back out again as infrared ravs. The rays cannot pass through plastic, so the heat is trapped inside and the temperature rises.

When these two jars are filled with water at 80°C (176°F) and left for 15 minutes, the jar covered in bubble wrap retains

Convection

Warmer, less dense

Cooler, more dense

water rises.,

water sinks

the most heat. Bubble

The way heat travels as

wrap (plastic filled with

Uninsulated

Insulated

moving currents through a

pockets of air) is a good

jar

jar

gas or a liquid is called Airtight stopper

convection. If a tank of water is heated from below, the

Hot or cold liquid

warm water at the bottom will rise as it expands and becomes

Vacuum

water above sinks to take its also warms and starts to rise,

FIND OUT

MORE

Electricity

transfer of heat to or from the occur through marter, so the

between double

flask has two walls with a

walls of flask

vacuum between them to prevent conduction. Shiny

place. Soon, this cooler water

called a convection current.

hot or cold bv stopping the liquid. Conduction can only

less dense. The cooler, denser

creating a circulation of water

Vacuum flask A vacuum flask keeps drinks

. Dissolving pMtassium Tank is heated from below.

Energy

Friction

Shiny walls

walls reflect heat radiation,

reflect heat

while the flask is sealed with

radiation.

permanganate crystals show

Gases

Liquids

Matter

an airtight stopper made of a good insulator.

the movement of the water

Metals

Solids

X-RAYS AND THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

417

HEDGEHOGS and other

Hedgehog spines A European hedgehog has about 5,000 spines. These are hairs modified into sharp, stiff tubes. Hedgehogs are born

INSECTIVORES The order Insectivora,

which

Hedgehogs

with their first coat of pale spines flat

Like most insectivores,

within a few hours. At two days

under the skin, but these come through

old. the hedgehogs dark

hedgehogs are nocturnal,

spines start to grow.

solitary animals that associate

means insect-eating, contains

only to mate. Each adult

more than 370 species, including

animal needs its own territory

hedgehogs, moles, shrews, and tenrecs. Most of these mammals, especially the shrews, are highly active and have to eat almost constantly to sustain themselves. They have poor eyesight, but a good sense of smell. They rely on smell to

When threatened, a hedgehog

Each spine is controlled by

spines.

in order to find enough to

muscles in the hedgehog’s skin.

eat. Not all hedgehogs are spiny, but the European and desert hedgehogs have a thick covering of spines on the top of the head and bodv to

Spines normally

protect them against

lie flat over the

find their prey of worms and snails as well as insects. Insectivores have sharp teeth for preying on invertebrates. The hedgehogs

predators such as foxes.

hedgehogs body.

and some tenrecs are protected from

winter when they hibernate.

For extra protection, a hedgehog

European hedgehogs build up a

can roll into a prickly hall.

layer of fat during the summer to sustain them during the

Young hedgehog

predators by spines.

accompany their frt

rnnn

The long snout hears many highly sensitive whiskers which the

Young hedgehogs stay with

hedgehog uses to find its way

their mother until they are

around and also

about seven

to locate food.

weeks old.

A female hedgehog usually has two Utters of young each year. ^Ordinary fur grows on the chest and belly.

Moles

Shrews

Moles live underground in a system of tunnels that they

snout and short legs. They are

These small mammals have a long

dig through the soil. They are well adapted for this existence, having a compact body, short legs, tiny eyes, and no protruding ears. They are active day

Shrews eat up to 130 per cent of their

highly active and need a constant supply of food to keep them alive. Shrews are extremely aggressive and will attack one another if they meet. Many predators avoid

and night, looking for food such as worms,

shrews because of a foul-smelling

insect larvae, and beetles.

secretion that thev can produce from scent glands.

Fur lies in no particular direction, so that the mole

Tenrecs

can push backward or

The 30 species of tenrec live only-

forward through its tunnels. —

on the island of Madagascar. Some swim, some climb, and others live

European hedgehog Scientific name Erinaceus europaeus

Molehills

underground. Some have spines,

Mounds of soil, often called molehills, are

others look more like shrews. They

Order Insectivora

the result of a mole’s tunnelling activities.

have many young. The common

Family Erinaceidae

The mole pushes loose soil to the surface

tenrec mav have 34 in one litter.

up short vertical

Distribltion Europe, east into Russia. Introduced to New

tunnels.

Zealand Habitat Farmland, suburbs,

Mole feet The front paws are broad with large claws, and do the digging. The hind feet are narrower with

woodland, and mountains Diet Beetles, worms, caterpillars, other invertebrates, small mammals, and carrion Size Length: 25 cm (10 in) Lifespan 4-7 years

sharp claws, and are used to push soil to the surface.

418

Animal

BEHAVIOLR

Hibernation

HELICOPTERS see AIRCRAFT • HEPWORTH, BARBARA see SCULPTURE • HERALDRY see KNIGHTS AND HERALDRY

HERONS, STORKS

AND

FLAA4INGOS Herons

Neck is

relatives are distinctive birds, with long, slender legs and a large beak. Most of them eat fish and other water animals, and can wade out into the water to look for food Herons and their

hunched at rest

There are about 60 species

and in flight.

of heron. They live all over the world, except Antarctica and the far north. Most live close to water, and they often nest

without getting their feathers wet. Herons hunt by stealth, and several species have developed

in groups. They usually build their nests out of sticks and reeds in a

remarkable fishing techniques. Flamingos catch their food by straining it

tree or bush.

through fibrous plates in their beak. Although storks have long legs, most of them do not wade, but catch their Black heron fishing

food on land. Many of these birds are sociable animals, living and nesting in large flocks or colonies. This gives them some protection from predators.

The African black heron strides into the water and

Cattle egret

Bittern

This small heron lives

Bitterns live in dense

umbrella. 1 his casts a

near cattle and other

reedbeds where thev are

shadow on the surface,

grazers, and snaps up the

perfectiv camouflaged.

which probably helps the

small animals that they

When threatened, thev

heron to sec any fish

disturb. In recent vears,

point their beak skvward

swimming below.

cattle egret ha\e become

and sway gently. This

one of the world’s most

makes them look like the

widespread birds.

reeds moving in the wind.

raises its wings like an

Fishing Many herons, including the goliath heron, catch fish by wading into the water and then keeping absolutely still with their necks hunched.

Flamingo *

When a fish swims

skull

Green heron

Flamingos Many of the five species

near, the heron

This heron usually

There are 19 species of

This stork

hunts at night when

has one of

manv small animals are

the largest

active. It often perches,

the surface, then suddenly stretches out

of flamingo live in shallow,

stork. Some feed by wading

L

uingspans

legs bent, on a low branch,

salty lakes where little else

into water, but others live

J

of all

readv to pounce on its prey.

survives. They feed with

in quite dry places. The

•?

birds.

their head upside down,

giant African marabou

using their uniquely shaped

stork is a scavenger. It feeds

beak to filter tiny animals

on already dead animals, in

and plants from the water.

crouches down toward

its neck and stabs the fish with its beak.

I

Other herons have developed different fishing techniques.

the same way as vultures, Goliath heron

but it will also eat live prev, such as insects, fish, rats,

Scientific name Ardea gohath

and small birds.

Fishing with bait

Order Ciconiiformes

The North

Family Ardeidae

American green

Nests

heron throws small

White storks migrate long

twigs or pellets into

distances and return to the

the water. It waits

same place in Europe even

for fish to be

year to breed. The\ are

attracted bv this bait

traditionallv encouraged to

and catches them

Colonies

nest on houses because thev

when thev come

Flocks of flamingos can contain more

are supposed to bring luck.

within range.

Distribution Africa, Arabian peninsula, India Habi eat Coasts, lakes, rivers, marshy ground Diet Mainly fish Size Length: 150 cm (59 in) Lifespan About 25 years

than 2 million birds. Thev build mound-like nests with mud that thev scrape up with their beaks.

FIND OUT

MORE

Birds

Birds

OF PREY

Lake and RIVER wildlife

Shorebirds

419

HERSCHEL, WILLIAM see PLANETS

HIBERNATION

Hibernation

Natterer s bat

Rodents, bats, and insectivores are all mammals that hibernate. Their small size

as temperatures drop and food becomes scarce, some animals hibernate to survive the harsh conditions. Hibernation is a resting During winter,

state in which the animal s body temperature falls to just above that of its surroundings,

allows them to cool down and warm up quickly. Some animals eat more in early winter to build up fat stores to use while hibernating; others wake every few weeks to feed on food in their nest. A squirrel shows changes typical of a hibernating

Bats

mammal; its metabolic rate drops to 1 per

Many temperate species of bat

cent of normal, and its body temperature

and its metabolic rate (the rate at which it consumes energy) drops

falls from

(99T) to 4‘’C (39T). When it emerges its body weight will have fallen

dramatically. The animal resumes its active lifestyle in the spring.

by 40 per cent.

hibernate when their insect food disappears. They often hibernate in large numbers and cluster together to conserve warmth. The site where bats hibernate is called a hibernaculum; it may be a cave, mine, tree hollow, or a deserted building.

Hibernation is triggered by shortening day length, a fall in temperature, or by the animal s internal biological clock. Some other animals rest, or remain dormant, to withstand adverse conditions. Hummingbird in nest

Rodents

Birds

Rodents, such as dormice and

Most birds migrate to avoid

woodchucks, form the largest group of

cold winters; a few such as rhe

hibernating mammals. Many smaller rodents

North American poorwill enrer

living in the northern hemisphere hibernate in

a state of torpor and hibernate.

the winter months when the plant material and

Many hummingbirds show a

small animals they feed on are in short supply. Some

form of daily hibernation. At

construct nests in tree hollows or underground in

night, their body temperature

which they curl up, to minimize heat loss, and go into

straw and grass

Dormouse

a deep sleep. Many species wake periodically either to eat, drink, or urinate, to get rid of accumulated waste.

curled up Hibernating dormouse

Dormancy

Diapause

Some large mammals, such as bears and badgers, that

hibernation. Some insects enter diapause

Diapause is the insects’ equivalent of

to surs'ive adverse conditions, such as

live in northern parts of North America and Europe,

cold or lack of food. During diapause, growth and development are susp)ended,

Dormancy differs from hibernation; the animals body

usually at the egg or pupa stage of the life

temperature does not drop significandy, and it can wake

cvcle. For example, if the cabbage white butterfly lays her eggs in late summer,

up quickly if danger threatens. However, this small fall in body temperature, combined with a lack of activity,

Bear feeds on berries to build up fat reserves.

badgers rarely leave their sett. They curl

dormant state, living off fat reserves accumulated in summer and aurumn. Dormancy can last for seven months in Siberia.

420

winter, resuming development in spring.

Bats

Aestivation

Brown bear

state of dormancy,

The brown bear lives in Asia,

shown by animals

North America, and Europ)e.

such as African lungfish,

In summer it builds up fat

during hot, dry summers.

on which it lives in winter. In

Lungfish live in places that

autumn, the bear excavates a

flood in the wet season and

den. lines it with vegetation,

bake in the dry season. As river

and goes into its winter

levels fall, the lungfish digs a

sleep”. Its body temjjerarure

Animal BEHAVIOUR

the pupal stage goes into diapause over

butterfly pupa

Aestivation is a

up in nesting material and go into a

FIND OUT

Cabbage white

produces significant energy savings for the animal.

Badgers live in forests where they dig extensive burrows called setts. In winter,

MORE

cooler conditions without consuming much energy.

go into a resting state, called dormancy, during winter.

European badger

falls, enabling them to survive

Bears

Hedgehogs and OTHER INSECTIVORES

burrow in the mud, ending in a

falls by 5°C (9“F), and its

chamber. The fish curls up in the

metabolic rate drops bv 50

chamber, secretes a protective

per cent. The bear emerges

mucus b^ around itself, and

in spring weighing half

remains there for up to six

what it did in the autumn.

months until the rains come.

Mammals

Migration

Rats and OTHER rodents

V

Lungfish emergng

I

Afncan lungfish

HIEROGLYPHS see EGYPT, ANCIENT

HINDUISM

Hindus know Vishnu

world religions, Hinduism began in India at least 5,000 years ago. Hindus

The oldest of the great

)

Gods

Vishnu

believe in one great power, or supreme god, called Brahman, that exists in everything. They believe in a cycle of death

as the preserver. They

Hindus worship many gods,

believe that when there

each of which represents

is danger to the Earth,

part of Brahman. Some of

Vishnu protects it. His main task is to keep the

the gods can take different

balance between good

forms. Hindus can choose

and evil powers. To do

a favourite god; two of the

this, he has visited the

most popular are Hanuman,

Earth in nine different human and animal

the intelligent monkey-god,

forms, including the

and Lakshmi, the goddess of

lord Rama and the

and rebirth — when we die, our souls live on in another person, animal, or plant. The goal of the Hindu is to live such a good

beauty and wealth. But the

god Krishna.

most important of all is the holy trinity of Vishnu,

Vishnu

Shiva, and Brahma. This group of three makes up

life that the soul breaks this cycle and itself becomes part of Brahman. There are some

Brahman, the supreme god. Shiva Hindus know this god as the destroyer. Shiva destroys things which are no longer needed, but

733 million Hindus, mostly living in Asia.

also allows new things to be created, so he is said to control life and death. He is shown in many forms. As Lord of the Dance, he brings the dance of life to an end so the of life can begin.

Shiva beats a drum to summon

Shiva hears

up a new

a flame as a symbol of destruction.

His left foot is a symbol of liberation. The ring of flames represents the energy

Brahma

of the Universe

As the creator of the Universe, Brahma has four arms to symbolize the four points of the compass. He has four

Shiva dances on the

Ganesha

faces so he can look in

defeated figure of the

Ganesha, the elephant-headed

all directions at the same

demon of ignorance.

god of wisdom and strength, is the son of Shiva and Parvati.

time. These features also These figures

suggest that Brahma

Hindus worship him at the

represent holy

can be in all places

beginning of journeys because he

scriptures.

at all times.

is thought to remove obstacles.

Sacred texts

In the Bhagavad-

the warrior Arjuna's

Hinduism has many sacred books that

god of conquest.

explain the religion and instruct people

He is a warrior

how to lead their lives. The oldest texts

Gita, Krishna drives

Indra is the Vedic

chariot.

and a destroyer of demons.

are four books known as the Vedas. These contain hymns to the gods and texts telling priests how to carry out their duties. At the end of the Vedas are the Upanishads, which are philosophical discussions about religious belief. The Puranas are a series of books discussing and explaining the Vedas. Blue houses in Jodhpur were far Brahmins.

The Laws ofManu provide teachings about everyday life.

Caste system

The epics

Hinduism divides people up into four

Two great epic poems tell stories in

separate groups, or varnas. The four groups

Rig-Veda

which the gods come to Earth. The

are Brahmins (generally priests), Kshatriyas

The oldest and most sacred of the Vedas is the

Mahabharata is probably the longest

(soldiers and rulers), Vaishyas (traders and

Rig-Veda. It contains some 1,000 hymns of

poem ever written. Its 100,000 verses

farmers), and Shudras (servants). These

praise to 33 of the most important of the

tell of Vishnu visiting Earth as Krishna.

broad divisions are split into smaller groups

gods. Like the other Vedas, it was originally

It contains the text known as the

called jatis, or castes. Traditionally, people

composed in around 1200 BC, and passed on

Bhagavad-Gita, the Song of the Lord.

would not have anything to do with castes

by word of mouth. The texts were written

The Ramayana tells a story in which

lower than their own, but nowadays there is

down in Sanskrit in around AD 1400.

Vishnu comes to Earth as lotd Rama.

much more social flexibility.

421

HINDUISM

Festivals

Holi

Sacred cows

The festival of Holi is held for

The white cow is a Hindu symbol

Throughout the Hindu year, festivals

two davs in spring to celebrate

of the soul, and cows are sacted in

celebrate the gods in a variety of ways.

the rescue of Krishna from the

Hinduism. They are allowed to rove

clutches of the demoness

freely, and there are penalties for killing

At Janmashtami, Hindus commemorate

Holika, who was burnt to

a cow. Hindus may drink milk and use

Krishna’s birthday with readings of the

death by Vishnu. After worship

cow dung as fuel, but must not kill

Bhagavad-Gita and gifts of sweets. Divali,

a bonfire is lit to svmbolise

cows for food. The cow’s status is part

good overcoming evil. Dancing

of a wider respect for life and manv

the festival of lights, remembers the story

Hindus are vegetarians.

and processions take place.

of lord Rama’s victory over his enemies Daily traffic in the city of Delhi

and his lamp-lit procession home.

skirts around seated cows.

Pilgrimages Pilgrims come

Going on a pilgrimage to a holv

to bathe in

place is important for many

the River

Hindus. They may go to a

Ganges.

shrine or to a place where one of the gods is said to have appeared on Earth, believing that their prayers are more likely to be answered if said at such a place. A favourite goal for pilgrimage

On the second day of Holi,

is a holy river, particularly the

people of all castes cover each

River Ganges, in north-western

other with coloured powders.

India. Varanasi on the Ganges is India's most sacred citv.

away ones sins.

Incense burner

Shrines

Worship

The household shrine is the focus of dailv Burning incense

worship. It may contain an image of one

Since Hindus believe that god is in

welcomes the

of the principal gods, plus pictures of other

everything, any human activity, done

■ god to his shrine

deities. It may also have a container full

well, can become an act of worship.

of water from the sacred River Ganges.

But Hindus also perform special acts

Although some shrines are elaborately

of worship at least once a day. They

decorated, others may be as simple as a shelf

Kamal

or holy picture in the corner of a room.

may worship in a temple, but the most common place for worship is

^ Shesha the

in the home, in front of a shrine to

serpent

a favourite god. Rituals include

protects

meditation and reciting sacred texts

Before puja (worship) takes place, the image of the god is washed, dried, and anointed with turmeric

Vishnu

or sandalwood powder. Offerings

Vishnu is

and prayers. Hindus light candles,

the matn

Krishna and his half-

make offerings to the gods, and waft

image.

brother Balarama are

incense around the shrine.

Puja

shown with Vishnu.

such as flowers, fruit, and cooked

This scent-shaker

food are made to the god. The

is shaped like the

worshipper stands or sits in front

lotus flower, the

of the shrine, reciting holy texts.

symbol of creation

The temples tall

Yoga All Hindus strive to break the cycle of rebirth (samsara) and merge with Brahman. They believe

towers symbolize

of the temple is

mountains that

sacred

are sacred dwelling

Hindus attend temples on holy days and festivals, and at other times to perform private acts of

places of the gods.

worship. A temple is itself an object of worship

that one way of achieving

because it is believed to be the earthly dwelling place

this state is through

of the gods. At the heart of the temple is the

following the physical and mental disciplines of yoga.

„

shrine room, which contains the

There are different types of

^

yoga, but all aim to attain

sacred image of the god. Around this are rooms in which the

ultimate spiritual enlightenment.

priests live. Entrance halls are used for religious dancing and music.

Images of gods and mythological figures may adorn the temple walls.

Windows represent the ears of the divine body.

FIND OUT

MORE 422

Festivals

Gods and GODDESSES

India, HISTORY OF

Indus valley CIVIUZATION

Literati re

Religions

Shrines

Signs and SYMBOLS

Writing

HIPPARCHUS see STARS • HIPPOCRATES see MEDICINE, HIS TORY OP

HIPPOPOTAMUSES

The common hippo is a very large and aggressive animal, It is the second heaviest land animal after the elephant,

submerged in water, hippopotamuses emerge at dusk to feed Spending the day

Despite its huge size and legs that seem too short for its enormous barrel-like body,

regions of Africa. The common hippo is the third

Skin

it can move at surprising

on nearby grasslands. Well-used pathways lead to their feeding grounds. There are two species of hippo — the common hippo and the pygmy hippo — both of which live in the equatorial

Hippo skin is smooth and almost

speed. Anything coming

hairless except for a few bristles on

between it and the water is

the nose, in the cars, and on the tail. Underneath the skin is a thick layer

liable to be attacked. Hippos

of fat. Pores on the skin exude drops

make a variety of noises

of a thick pink fluid that acts as a

from bellowing to snorting.

sunscreen and a lubricant. The fluid is also thought to disinfect wounds

Scars are usually

largest land animal after the elephant and the white rhino. Common hippos have a huge appetite and can consume vast quantities of grass. In places

sustained bv males during fights.

the result of sparring between adult males.

where they are numerous, they may destroy the vegetation for a considerable distance from the river or lake in which they live, sometimes causing serious soil erosion. School of hippos The common hippo lives in groups of 20-100 animals called schools. A school spends the dav partly submerged in water or wallowing in mud pools. Hippos establish a territory with males around the edge, and females and young in the centre. Males are excluded from the female area except in the breeding season. Any male approaching too close will be attacked bv the females. Eyes, ears, and

Young

Hippos spend up

nostrils appear Males open their

Thirty-four weeks after mating, the female gives birth to a single young.

display their large

Birth normally takes place on land, but

teeth and tusks

to 18 hours a

above the

huge mouths to

day submerged

water surface.

in water.

occasionally in water. The newborn hippo can swim, walk, and run within a few minutes of being born. If a female

Hippo walking

Hippo underwater

temporarily leaves the territory, she puts

Prominant tusks

her calf in the care of another female.

project more

The common hippo, whose name means ‘river horse”, is more at home in water

than 60 cm

on the bottom of a riverbed.

than on land. When submerged it

(24 in) from

can hold its breath and seal its

the gums.

nostrils and ears. Normally, it stays underwater for 3—5 minutes before having

Threat displays

to surface to breathe, but,

Males challenge each other by opening their mouths to

j

if necessary, it can remain

maximum gape. If this fails to deter a rival, they may

j

submerged for considerably

rise up out of the water and try to slash each other

longer. It swims easily and

with their tusks. Ferocious fights often develop

may walk along the bottom

between rival males and may lead to serious injury.

of the riverbed.

Common hippopotamus

Pygmy hippopotamus

Scientific name Hippopotamus

The pygmy hippo is about one-fifth the size of

amphibius

the common hippo. It swims well, but is less

Order Artiodactyla

aquatic than the common hippo. It lives in

Family Hippopotamidae

marshland and swamp forest where it makes Distribution Tropical Africa

tunnel-like tracks through the undergrowth. If

Habitat Rivers, lakes, and estuaries

alarmed it seeks refuge in dense undergrowth. The

Diet Urass and aquatic vegetation —

pvgmy hippo is a shy, nocturnal animal living alone or

up to 45 kg (100 lb) per day

in pairs. It spends most of the day resting and feeds Size Height: 1.52 m (5 ft);

during darkness on swamp plants, fruit, and leaves. FIND OUT

MORE

weight: 4.06 tonnes (4 tons) Lifespan 50 years

African WILDLIFE

Conservation

Lake and river wildlife

Mammals

Marsh and SWAMP wildlife

423 •T /

HIROSHIMA see JAPAN, HISTORY OF

HISTORY is an attempt by people today to understand the lives of people in the past.

The study of history

Parasaurolophus skull, a type of duckbill dinosaur

Historians — the people who study history — look at primary sources — those writings and artefacts that have survived — and try to piece together a realistic picture of life

Prehistory Writing has existed for around 5.500 years. The period before written records is called prehistory. Archaeologists study material evidence, such as bones, fossils, and artefacts, to help

in previous years. But not every piece of historical evidence

them understand prehistoric jjeriods, such as the Stone Age.

survives to the present day, and that which does survive can some¬ times be interpreted in many different ways. As a result, history is a complex and sometimes controversial subject that excites

Records of history All primary sources, whether photographic or written, need careful study, because they

considerable debate among historians and non-historians alike.

may be biased, that is,

lenin

illustrate a subjective

Meroe pvramid,

I

Sudan

Sources of history

(personal) viewpoint. Propaganda

What we know of history is based on

Historical evidence

material evidence, such as buildings,

may be altered to serve political needs.

roads, tools, artworks, and clothes;

The Soviet Union

written evidence, such as books; and

saw a power struggle

oral evidence handed down through

between Josef Stalin

generations. All these sources provide

(1879-1953) and

valuable information about past societies and the people who created them.

Leon Ttotskv (1879— 1940) after the death of Lenin. When Stalin became leader, he had Trotsky removed from all

Material evidence

official photographs.

By piecing together material evidence,

Trotsky appeared in the

historians can discover much about the

original of this photograph.

people of the time. The Bayeux Tapestry is the record of a known historical event - the

Dark Ages

Norman invasion of England (1066). But

Historians often label historical

when historians study it more closely, they

(jeriods, though pieople of the

discover a wealth of information, not just

time may not have agreed with

about the event the tapestry is relating, but

the label. The chaotic pieriod in

about life of the time generally - and even

Europie after the Roman Empire

about the women who made the tapestry.

fell (c.500) is often called the

s T ..»T

Dark Ages, yet in places it was Normans attack the English, Bayeux Tapestry

a time of culture and learning. The Book of Durrow, c.800

Written evidence s

81

rt-tut

** fk S s* w-s * jt, i

i

#->• tk-iknA

^ it ft

Books, diaries, poems, letters,

*

A ♦-

EP Thompson

account books, receipts, state

fll iJr

^ **A.*.^K

documents, and newspajjers are all

Edward Thompson (1924—93)

written evidence and help historians

was an important English social

in their woric. But written evidence

historian. His best-known

needs careful studs, because it is

work. The Making of the

often pjersonal, and has to be

English Working Class

balanced against other accounts or

(1965) studied the

other typ)cs of evidence to gain a

politics and protests of

more rounded picture of past events.

ordinary pieople as opjxised to the history

Chinese letter, written on a scroll

\ The larger the document, the more useful it is to a historian.

of political leaders.

Oral history Many societies know their own history,

Timeline

1800s History established as an

1930s French historians of the

even though they have not written it

c.400s BC Herodotus writes history

academic subject, with the emphasis

Annales school concentrate on

down. In West Africa, storytellers

of the Greek-Persian wars.

on primary sources, rather than

social history.

interpretation.

known as griots record the history of their tribes through lengthy narrative

c.800 Monks begin the

stories set to music. In the

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

1960s Historians focus on people

1960s and 1970s, there was a

1860s Karl Marx (1818-

previously ignored in accounts of

83) argues a view of history

history, such as women.

move towards sociological

1380s Arab historian Ibn

in which economic factors

history, whereby historians

Khaldun writes Kitah al-

determine events.

recorded the stories of people

Ihar, to explain why

previously left out of

civilizations rise and fall.

1992 US historian Frances Fukuyama argues that the fall of

Ammonite, prehistoric material evidence

communism “ended” history.

historical record-making, such as women and the working classes.

424

nND OUT Warrior’s mother, Kenya

MORE

Archaeology

Marx, KARL

Russian REVOLUTION

Seven wonders of THE ancient world

HITLER, ADOLF see WORLD WAR II

HITTITES A WARLIKE PEOPLE, known as the Hittites, flourished from 1600 to 1200 BC, when they had one of the most powerful armies of the ancient world. They settled in Anatolia (central Turkey) around 2000 BC, then established control over the area from their great fonified capital at Hattusas. Gradually, the Hittite kingdom expanded into Syria, where they clashed with Egypt, and the growing might of Assyria. Despite their fearsome reputation, the Hittites were astute politicians, and preferred diplomacy to armed conflict where possible. Eventually, attacks from outside forces, combined with famine, put an end to their empire.

and Anatolia at its height, c. 1300 BC. Teshub was often portrayed holding a weapon. A three-pronged lightning fork

Chariot warfare

Diplomacy

From 2000 BC the introduction of horses, the development of the bit, and strong, spoked wheels transformed the chariot from a humble can pulled by asses, into a dangerous weapon which changed warfare in the Near East. The Hittites were masters of this weapon.

The Hittites favoured diplomatic matrices to secure peace, especially with Egypt. For instance, after the Battle of Kadesh, a Hittite princess was married to a pharaoh. On another occasion, an Egyptian queen, possibly Tutankhamun’s widow, wrote to the Hittite king asking to marry of his sons.

Hittite rulers were supreme commanders of the army (and chief judges and high priests). The greatest king was Suppiluliumas I (r. 1380—1346 BC), who conquered all Syria, between the Euphrates and the sea. Though he took this territory through military might, he kept it by bribing his Egyptian rivals with gold. Many Syrian gods were accepted by the Hittites as leading deities, including Teshub, who symbolized storms and the destruction of war. Ugarit A wealthy trading city on the Mediterranean coast, Ugarit was a main area of conflict between the Hittites and the Egyptians because of its location. It was abandoned in the turmoil that destroyed the Hittite Empire. Archaeologists have uneanhed one of the worlds earliest cuneiform alphabets here.

Battle of Kadesh The worlds earliest battle that can be reconstructed was between the chariots of the Hittite king, Muwatallis, and the Egyptian Rameses 11 at Kadesh in 1286 BC. Chariots continued to be important to ancient armies for over 2000 years.

Head-dress, indicating high status

^

Politics

Rameses II

Art and literature

Food and drink

Hittite myths emphasize divine warfare, and many feature Teshub defeating evil outside forces. In the remains of their hilltop capital at Hattusas (modern Boghazkoy, Turkey), stone reliefs in the city wall show helmeted warriors, and some of the many Hittite gods. Tiny figures, crafted in gold, have been found. These depict kings and gods, and wear the distinctive upturned boots of a mountain people. Timeline

Upturned boots

The main crops were barley and wheat, which were used for making bread and brewing beer. The Hittites also grew fruits, such as apples, figs, and apricots, and they made wine from grapes. Bees produced honey, and farmers raised sheep, oxen, and cattle. Hittite wall relief

Neo-Hittites The Syrian city-states belonging to the empire adopted Hittite hieroglyphics and art. After the collapse of the empire, this influence continued, and the cities became known as the Neo-Hittite states.

1600-1400 BC The first Hittite kingdom is established in Anatolia.

1550 BC The fortified Hittite capital is established at Hattusas.

1595 BC King Mursili I sacks Babylon, but does not remain

C.1460 BC Tudhaliyas II begins conquests that establish last phase of empire.

Hittite warhorse Gold figurine, possibly of a Hittite king

Teshub, the Hittite storm god

Apple

1380-1346 BC Suppiluliumas commands a vast empire stretching from present-day western Turkey to north Syria, Hattusas (modern Boghazkoy) is the main cultural influence in the area.

Fig.®

1299 BC One of the earliest known battles takes place, between Hittite and Egyptian forces, at Kadesh. 1283 BC Peace treaties are signed between Hittites and Egyptians.

HND OUT

Asia,

Assyrian

Babylonian

Egypt,

Persian

MORE

HISTORY OF

EMPIRE

EMPIRE

ANCIENT

EMPIRES

^

1200 BC The growth of the Assyrian Empire, forces invading from the north and west, and famine combine to destroy the Hittite Empire.

Sumerians

425

HIV see DISEASES • HOCKEY see BALL GAMES • HOLl see HINDUISM

HOLOCAUST

Star of David From 1933, the Nazis began to segregate (separate) German Jews from the rest of the population,

1939 and 1945, six million European Jews were systematically murdered by the German Nazi regime. Some were killed in their own towns, but most Between

jews had to wear the vellow Star of David to identify them, and thev were banned from public places. Nazi prop^anda encouraged hatred, and people

died in concentration camps. This mass murder of Jews is known as the Holocaust, after a Biblical term meaning

attacked Jewish shops and homes.

Warsaw Ghetto

“slaughter by fire”. It was a deliberate national

In 1939, Germany invaded

policy established by Adolf Hitler and his Nazi followers to wipe out all traces of Jewish life and

Poland. The capital, Warsaw, was home to half

culture. Jews have been persecuted throughout history, but the Holocaust, which slaughtered

a million Jews, who were

nearly 70% of Europe’s Jews, is history’s worst example of anti-Semitism. Today, people still ask

cut off from the rest), and

rounded up, forced to live in a ghetto (part of the city given starvation rations. In 1943, the Jews made a

how such an atrocity was allowed to happen. Warsaw Ghetto

brave and desperate attempt to fight back, but this

Concentration camps

uprising was mercilessly crushed. By the time

Special concentration

Soviet troops liberated

camps were built by

Warsaw in 1945, only

the Nazis to detain

200 Jews remained alive.

people considered “undesirable”, particularly Jews. From 1941, many camps were set up

«: • C

throughout eastern Europe, including Chelmno, Treblinka, and Auschwitz. These were literally

Auschwitz

death camps, built to achieve Hitlers “final solution”

One of the most feared death camps

of exterminating all European Jews. Thousands of men, women,

was Auschwitz (Oswiecim) in Poland,

and children were led into chambers where they were killed with

w here some 12,000 victims a day were gassed and their bodies cremated It

a cyanide compound, Zyklon B, introduced through vents in the

was this burning in the death camps

walls. Non-Jews were also killed, including gypsies and the disabled.

Main death

V

camps

France

X •

I

Gretce

r

that gave the Holocaust its name.

Deportation European Jews from

Jewish resistance

France to Greece were

Despite the power

Liberation From 1942, news of

rounded up, loaded onto

of the Nazis, the

the death camps began

trains, in cattle cars, and

Jews did resist

to reach the West. It

deported to death camps,

oppression.

was only in 1945,

local people hostile to Jews

During the war,

however, that the full

often helped the Nazis to

there were revolts by

story emerged. When

do this. Up to a thousand

Jews in ghettoes, such

the Allied forces

people were forced into

as Varsaw, and even in the concentration camps,

liberated the camps,

each train, and deprived of

such as Sobibor. Elsewhere, small bands of Jews

they found, to their

food and water. On arrival,

formed partisan groups that fought heroically in

horror, huge mounds

survivors were sent to the

enemv territory, attacking Germans, and destroying

of skeletal jjeople

gas chambers.

military stores and railway tracks.

either dead or dying.

Death camps were in eastern Europe

Timeline

1935 Nuremberg Laws

1941 Hitler, Eichmann.

1945 .Allied forces liberate

1925 Adolf Hitler publishes

declare Jews to be second-

and other leading Nazis

concentration camp in

Mein Kampf{My Struggle).

class German citizens.

announce their “final

Eastern Europe.

his anti-Semitism

9-10 Nov 1938

are set up throughout

(hatred of Jews).

“Kristellnacht” (Night of

Europe for mass slaughter.

and her family fled to Amsterdam, 1962 First tree is

Holland, to escape persecution. In

planted in Israel's

1941, the Nazis invaded Holland, and

Avenue of the

Broken Glass), Germany.

Born in Frankfun, Anne Frank (192945) was a German Jew. In 1933, she

solution”. Death camps

In it, he states

Anne Frank

from July 1942, Anne and her family

1933 Hider becomes

People attack more than

1943 Warsaw Ghetto

Righteous, which

Chancellor and begins the

7000 Jewish shops and

Uprising. Nazis kill or

commemorates non-Jews

were hidden by friends. WTiile in hidii^.

persecution of German Jews.

homes, and 30,000 Jews are

deport more than 56,000

who saved Jewish life

First camp is built at Dachau.

sent to concentration camps.

Jews in four weeks.

during World War II.

she wrote a diary that is now world famous. In August 1944, the family was betrayed and sent to the concentration camps. Anne died in Bergen Belsen camp at the age of 16.

426

FIND OUT

Cold

Europe,

Germany,

MORE

WAR

HISTORY OF

HISTORY OF

Judaism

World WAR II

HOLOGRAMS see LASERS AND HOLOGRAMS

HOLY LAND, history of

The Holy Land This crossroads between

Over the centuries, this VtMUED

region of mountains,

Sea of

Europe, Africa, and Asia

deserts, and marshes has had shifting borders, various conquerors, and many names, including Canaan, Zion,

Galilee

has been conquered by

Israel, Judah, and Palestine. The area is holy to three world religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Jews believe it is the

Babylonians, Persians,

Jordan

Greeks, Romans, Arabs,

River ^

Byzantines, Ottomans, Jericho

and British in turn.

Jerusalem •

Today it includes

Promised Land God gave them, and that Abraham, father of the Jews, settled there in about 1900 BC. The land is holy for Christians

Israel, and parts

Bethlehem Dead Sea,

of Jordan and Syria.

because Jesus Christ lived there; and for Muslims, Jerusalem is sacred as the site of many of Muhammad’s activities. The Bible records mainly Jewish history in this region.

Jericho Excavations show that the walled city of Jericho mav be the oldest settlement in the world. According to the Bible, it was destroyed many times in its history — once bv Joshua, who led the Israelites after the death of Moses.

Holy of holies, inlaid with gold

Jerusalem

Church entrance

Ark of the

Over the centuries Jews, Christians,

Covenant, the

and Muslims have all fought for

holy container

access to holy shrines, such as

of Gods laws

Solomon s Temple. This has caused many wars in one of

Temple was

the world s holiest cities.

built on

Solomons Temple

plarform.

a raised 1 his temple, completed by Phoenician craftsmen in 957 BC, housed the Ark of the Covenant, and was the first permanent Jewish religious centre. In 587 BC, the

Holy Sepulchre Church

Babylonians

In the 12th century. Crusaders rebuilt a

destroyed the first

Christian church on Mount Calvary,

temple. It was rebuilt in 37 BC but

Jerusalem, where Jesus Christ was

destroyed bv the Romans in AD 70. All that remains today is the so-called

‘Cherubim, or

Wailing Wall on the west side.

\ Jachim and Boaz,

sphinxes, flanking

Porch

Model of

crucified. The church contains

the original

Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic,

Solomons Temple

and Armenian chapels. In a grotto

the Ark

the bronze columns

underneath is the empty tomb of Jesus.

Slingshots.

Philistines

David and Goliath Goliath, a huge Philistine

The Philistines were part of a

champion, challenged the Israelites to present

group of warriors also known as

a man for single combat.

the Sea Peoples. In about 1100 BC,

No one dared respond

the Philistines threatened the

until David, a young shepherd, volunteered,

Israelites, who had setded the

.gainst all the odds, he

southern coast of Palestine (in

knocked Goliath out with

modern Israel). The Israelites

one slingshot, and cut off

Dome of the Rock

lived subject to the Philistines

his head. David went on

This massive rock is sacred to Muslims because

for 200 years until the Israelite

Muhammad is said to have risen to heaven from

to become Israel’s greatest king, and made Jerusalem

this spot. It is sacred to Jews because Abraham is

King David (r. 1013—973

said to have prepared his son Isaac for sacrifice here.

managed to subdue them.

Timeline

BC)

religious centre.

1033-1013 BC Reign of

AD 70 Romans destroy the

King Solomon

Saul, first king of Israel.

second Jewish temple at

The son of King David and his

Jerusalem.

wife Bathsheba, Solomon

David and Solomon.

636 Muslim rule begins.

temple at Jerusalem, and a

587 BC Babylonians destroy

1096-1291 European Crusaders

in ancient Israel for making

first Jewish temple, Jerusalem.

fight to control the territory.

profitable foreign alliances, and,

AD 33 Romans crucify Jesus

1948 Declaration of the state

its greatest extent of territory.

Christ in Jerusalem.

of Israel.

Myths present Solomon as very

C.8000 BC. Evidence of human setdement, Jericho.

a great political and

1013-933 BC Reigns of

(r.973-930 BC) built the first

C.1900 BC The patriarch

number of cities. He was famous

Abraham settles in Canaan. c. 1200s BC The Exodus:

during his reign, Israel reached

Moses leads the Israelites out of slavery in Egypt.

Holy Sepulchre Church

wise, but he was actually a rather

FIND OUT

MORE

Architecture

Christianity

Crusades

Islam

Israel

Myths and LEGENDS

harsh and despotic ruler.

427

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE For more than 800

years, most of

central Europe was loosely tied together in the Holy Roman Empire, an attempt to revive the

Emperors were abo

The empire

kings

in 987

of Italy.

old Roman empire, with backing from the Christian Church. It was founded in 962.

The empire From its foundation in 962 until the

After 1273, the Habsburg family

mid-13th century, the Holv Roman Empire included much of

of Austria won the throne and dominated the empire from then

Germany, the Low Countries, Switzerland, Austria, and northern Italy. Over the next

on. The emperors were elected

centuries, it shrank, but it remained dominant in Germany.

by seven German princes and crowned by the Pope in Rome. The emperor had little power, but the title made him political leader of Europe.

Otto I: the hirth of empire In 936, Otto, a descendant of Charlemagne, became king of Germany. He defeated the Magyar invaders at the batde

„,,,

of Lech in 955 and went on to

with enamel plaques

conquer northern Italy. In 962, the Pope crowned him Holy Roman Emperor.

lOth-centurv imperial crown

Habsburgs

The Habsburgs took their name from a castle

Philip I, son of Maximilian,

in Switzerland and held vast estates in

married Juana of Castile

Switzerland, Austria, and southern Germany.

Mary of Burgundy

Struggle for power The emp)eror was the supreme secular

and Aragon in 1496.

(worldly) ruler of Christian Europe; the Pope was its supreme spiritual ruler. The

In 1273, a member of the Habsburg family

two often clashed. In 1076, Pope Gregory

became Rudolf I of Germany and then the

VII deposed Emperor Henry IV. The

Holy Roman Emperor. With a few short

conflict led to a decline in the power of

breaks, the Habsburgs ran the empire until its

the emperors over the next few centuries.

end in 1806. Under their rule, the interests

Charles V

of the empire were secondary to those of increasing Habsburg family power.

Habsburg power in Europe reached its peak in 1519, when Charles V

Maximilian I married Mary of Burgundy

(1500-58) became emperor. He

in 1477 and acquired Burgundy.

acquired vast lands from each of his grandparents, including Spain and

Ornate Renaissance decoration.

its empire in America. Charles kept

Imperial Vienna

this empire together until 1556, when he gave up the throne and

The Habsburg capital was

divided his empire between his

the Austrian city of Vienna.

brother Ferdinand,

It was one of the leading

who became emp)eror on

cities in Europe, with fine

Charles’s death in

churches, palaces, and other

1558, and his

civic buildings. The centre

son Philip, who ruled

of Habsburg power was the

Charles’s brother,

Charles V, son of Philip, inherited

Hofburg Palace, a vast

Ferdinand I, married

Spain through his mother,

Anna and inherited

Juana and the Habsburg lands from

Bohemia and Hungary.

his grandfather Maximilian.

complex including imperial

Spain, Italy, and the Low Countries.

apartments and government offices.

Timeline

1517 Reformation

1556 Charles splits

800 Charlemagne crowned.

under Martin Luther

his empire between

The Schweizertor, a gate to the Hofburg

Maria Theresa

results in a divide

brother Ferdinand

962 Otto, king of Germany, becomes

between German

and son Philip;

first Holy Roman Emperor.

Protestant princes and

Habsburg Austria

the Catholic emperor.

dominates the Holy

In 1740, Emperor Charles VI died, leaving his daughter Maria

1076 Popje overthrows empjeror Henry FV

Theresa on the throne. Prussia

and establishes papal pxswer over empjeror.

Roman empire. 1519 Charles V is

and France disputed her right to inherit the throne and declared

1273 Rudolf I becomes first empjeror

war. Maria was an inspired leader

from the Habsburg family.

Imperial knight

crowned emperor and

1806 Francis II

becomes most powerful

abolishes the Holy

man in Europe.

Roman empire.

and managed to keep her empire together, making Austria into

HND OUT

a powerful, centralized state.

MORE

428

Charlemagne

Christianity

Germany,

HISTORY OF

Reformation

Roman

EMPIRE

HONDURAS see CENTRAL AMERICA • HONG KONG see CHINA AND TAIWAN • HOOKE, ROBERT see MICROSCOPES

Hypothalamus is part of the

HORMONES AND THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

regulates body’s

pituitary gland.,

internal clock. Pituitary gland

Thyroid gland controls body’s Brain

Pineal gland

brain that controls the

Thymus gland

metabolic rate.

stimulates development

The endocrine system

is one of the body’s control

Parathyroid gland regulates caleinm

systems. It consists of endocrine glands that produce chemicals called hormones, and release them into

levels in blood.

II

the bloodstream. The hormones act as chemical messengers and instruct specific areas of the body to carry out certain actions. Hormones usually work slowly and have a long-lasting action, regulating processes such as growth and reproduction.

How a hormone works

Kidney

The blood carries hormones throughout the body, but they only affect certain target cells within target tissues. The hormone

Pancreas

attaches itself to a site on the surface of a target cell. This locking-

releases Testes

on causes changes inside the target cells, which produce the required action. For example, the pancreas releases the hormone insulin in order to reduce levels of glucose molecules in the blood.

hormones

release male

that control

sex hormones.

blood glucose levels. Ovary

Endocrine system

Insulin does this by stimulating the body cells to take in glucose.

releases female sex

The endocrine system consists of Hormone levels Insulin

Hormone levels in the

stimulates

Glucose is

liver to store

^

glucose

blood

in blood.

glucose

m

body. Glands are the same in men and

blood are controlled by

obtained from digesting

a feedback mechanism.

women, except for the reproductive

For example, insulin is

glands. The pea-sized pituitary controls

released from the pancreas

food.

many other glands. Some organs are

in response to increased

linked to the endocrine system because,

levels of glucose. Higher

as well as having other functions, they

levels of insulin will then cause blood glucose levels to return back Glucose in blood

also release hormones. The pancreas,

to normal. The lowered glucose

stimulates pancreas

levels “feed back” to the pancreas,

for example, produces digestive

to release insulin.

which produces less insulin.

enzymes and releases hormones.

Urine test Colour chart

-

Hypothalamus

Pituitary gland

Nerves carry hormones from hypothalamus to

The pituitary gland releases at least

_posterior lobe.

eight hormones. Some affect body

Diabetes

Blood

functions directly, while the remainder

vessels carry

stimulate other endocrine glands to

hormones

Tissues release hormones received from

produce hormones of their own. The

Diabetes is a condition that occurs when blood glucose levels become very high

hormones.

many glands scattered throughout the

hypothalamus.

pituitary gland has two parts, or lobes.

because the pancreas cannot produce

The anterior lobe produces and sends

enough insulin. Doctors can monitor

hormones around the body; the

blood glucose levels bv measuring the

posterior lobe releases hormones

. Posterior lobe

amount of glucose in a urine sample.

produced in the hypothalamus.

Jokichi Takamine

Prolactin

Growth hormone

Japanese chemist jokichi Takamine

Prolactin is a hormone that is

The anterior lobe produces

If you have ever been

(1854-1922) was the first person to

produced by the anterior lobe.

growth hormone, which

frightened and felt your

isolate a pure sample of a hormone. Using extracts of

It stimulates the production

encourages the body to

heart pounding, you have

of milk when a woman

grow. It works by

experienced the effects of adrenaline. It is a hormone

breastfeeds her baby.

stimulating the body’s

When the baby

cells to divide. Although

that helps the body react to

sucks on the

growth hormone affects

danger. When rhe adrenal

that increased

nipple, prolactin

all tissues, its main targets

glands release adrenaline,

blood pressure

is immediately

are bones and skeletal

your breathing and heart

in animals.

released from

muscles. Growth hormone

rate speed up, and blood

This substance

the mother’s

is most active in childhood

flows to your muscles so

piruitary gland.

and adolescence.

you can run from danger.

adrenal glands, he prepared crystals of a substance

j

Adrenaline

was later called adrenaline.

FIND OUT

MORE

Brain and NERVOUS SYSTEM

Digestion

Growth and

Human body

Reproduction

DEVELOPMENT

429

HORNBILLS see KINGFISHERS AND HORNBILLS

HORSE RIDING

Hard hat is essential.

Riding Riders learn how to stan, stop, steer and control the speed of a horse

for leisure and in competitions, which are often described People ride horses

using their hands, legs, and bodyweight. The natural gaits of a horse are the walk, trot, canter, and

as equestrian (from equus, meaning horse). These include show jumping,

gallop.

eventing, and dressage, all of which test the horses ability to jump or perform special movements, and each of which appears in the Olympic programme. Equestrian events also include racing events — flat racing, steeplechasing, and hurdling — where jockeys ride specially bred horses called thoroughbreds. Other riding sports include polo, in which teams of riders compete to score goals. Rider keeps

Rider’s hands move up the reins to allow the horse to

Showjumping

use his head and neck.

This involves riders taking their horses around a set course of jumps which may include artificial gates, a wall, and a water jump. Puissance

Competitors receive

This show jumping

faults if their horse

competition tests the

refuses or knocks down

ability of a horse to

a jump, or exceeds the

jump high fences. Horse draws up

specified time. The

From four to six fences

his hind legs

competitor with the

Horse tucks up

Jumping a

and stretches to

his foreleg.

fewest faults wins.

single pole

clear the jump.

Polo

Racing

This game is plaved

Racing can be flat or over jumps.

four-a-side on a large

Some events such as the English

. Taking off

are jumped, the number being reduced and the height raised for each round.

Dressage In dressage, each competitor

field. Players mounted

guides his or her horse through paces,

on polo ponies use

Grand National — a steeplechase —

mallets to strike a ball

figures, manoeuvres, and halts (stops).

are world famous and attract

into rheir opponents’

Judges award points for the quality of

thousands of spectators and involve

goal. A game consists

the performance. Dressage is a formal

of up to eight seven-

heavy betting on different runners.

minute periods called

sport and riders wear top hat and tails

Horses may have to carry extra

chukkers. Riders usually

or military uniform; it needs a high

weights under the saddle, as

change ponies after

degree of discipline and schooling.

every chukker.

well as the jockey (rider).

Flat racing Horses are raced over distances from 5 hirlongs

(I km) to 2 miles (3 km) or more.

Many countries follow the English tradition of Classic races for three-year-olds, which include

The cross-countrv phase ma\

In three-day eventing,

cover

km (4.3 miles) with

about 30 fixed obstacles of

riders take their horses

all kinds. The course has to

a Derby, and for fillies (young female

through a different

be completed in a set time

horses), an Oaks,

discipline each day to

to avoid time penalties. The

over 1.5 miles

jumps are often spectacular

test all aspects of the

(2.4 km).

English Derby

Cross-country

Eventing

and include water, slipperv

horses abilities.

Grand

Dressage tests a horses

National

obedience and show

jumping

jumping its powers

The main tvpes of jumping races are hurdling,

grass banks, steps, solid walls, and drops.

Mark Todd

for three-year-old horses upwards, and

of recovery. There is

steeplechasing for four-year-olds

also a four-phase

(b. 1956) won the individual three-

upwards. Hurdles are low and may

endurance test

day event gold medal at the 1984

be knocked over; steeplechase fences are larger and include

which includes

ditches and water jumps.

a steeplechase.

A New Zealand eventer, Mark Todd

and 1988 Olympics on the horse Charisma. He was deprived of a third successive gold when his mount broke down on the second dav

FIND OUT

MORE 430

Evolution

Horses

Mammals

Mongol

Olympic

EMPIRE

GAMES

Sport

after scoring well in the dressage.

HORSES

The horse Naturally grazing animals,

All members of the horse

horses in the wild eat

family,

grasses and shrubs. In each

which includes zebras and asses, are social animals. In the wild, they live in family groups which join to form a herd. People first tamed horses about 6,000 years ago, and today

jaw, they have six incisor

there are more than 300 breeds of domestic horse. They can be divided into three groups: heavy horses,

smell to check their food,

light horses, and ponies, which are less than 14.2 hands high (1.47 m or 4.8 ft).

possible danger, their first

teeth for cutting and 12

Dapple

molars for chewing. They rely on their sharp senses to survive, using taste and and hearing and sight to detect danger. If they face Dun

defence is to run away.

Ear positions Horses can move their cars separately to pick up sounds, and the position

Skewbald

of their ears is a good indication of their mood. Ears forward show interest; one ear forward and one back means the horse is not sure; ears back show aggression or fear.

Light bay

Reproduction

Hooves and feet

Colours

A female horse carries

Modern horses have

Originally, the colour of

her young in her

one toe on each foot,

a horse’s coat may have

womb for about 11

protected by a hoof. It

provided camouflage.

months. Within an

has taken 30 million

Today, horses are bred in

hour of its birth, a

years for them to evolve

several colours. In some,

young horse, called

The first horses, which

the legs, mane, and tail are

a foal, will get up and

were the size of small

a different colour from the

dogs, had a pad with

rest of the body. Some

is soon able to run.

Side toe

In the wild, it has to

v,-

keep up with the herd.

four toes on the forefeet

horses have white markings

and three on the hind.

on the face and legs.

Allfeet are off the

Movement Horses can travel using four main patterns of leg movements, called gaits. These are the walk, trot, canter, and gallop. The gallop is rhe fastest, but a horse can gallop onlv short distances. Humans have bred horses to perform other artificial gaits, such as the paso done bv the Peruvian paso, and the

The walk is a four-beat gait.

tolt done by the Icelandic ponv.

The horse moves its le^ in turn.

Horse family

Wild asses

The trot is two-heat. Opposite

In the canter, one leg moves, then

fore and hind legs move together.

a diagonal pair, then the last leg.

The gallop is like the canter, but paired feet go down separately.

Herds

The three species of wild

The horse belongs to the family

ass are the African wild ass,

Members of a herd are close friends.

of mammals called the Equidae.

and the onager and kiang

They communicate using a variety

Also in this family are donkeys, zebras, the wild

of Asia. This kulan is a

of sounds, smells, and body language.

type of onager.

Zebra

Donkey

For example, if a horse is startled, it will

asses of Africa and Asia,

Descended from the African

raise its head and tail, arch its neck, and flare its

Przewalski s wild horse of

wild ass, donkeys have great

nostrils. This alerts the others, which prepare to run.

strength and stamina.

Mongolia, and the recently discovered Riwoche wild

Przewalskis

Feral herds

horse of Tibet.

An ancient breed

These wild horses in Australia,

Zebras

of horse, it has

called brumbies, are described

been reintroduced

as feral. They are domesticated

into the wild.

horses now running wild.

There are three species of zebra, each with 'a different pattern of stripes. Herds of all species live wild in tropical Africa.

FIND OUT

MORE

Evolution

Farming

Grassland

Horse

Transport,

VCILDLIFE

RIDING

HISTORY OE

431

Horses Strong arched neck

Light horses

Irish draught was

Saddlebred is an American

Australian stock horse is

Pinto is also called the

Camargue horses live in

originally used for work

horse with a high action It

an all-rounder, with great

paint horse. It comes in a

semi-wild herds in the

It is extremely hardy and

on small Irish farms.

is a brilliant show horse.

endurance and stamina.

variety of types and sizes.

Rhone delta, France.

easy to keep.

V

V

m

ft

Welsh cob is a bold horse.

loints

mane

Hackney horse is often

Lipizzaner is used in the

Morgan descends from

Andalucian is a Spanish

Tennessee walking horse

Hanoverian is popular in

used in showring harness

Spanish Riding School of

one stallion, named Justin

breed from which the

is good-tempered. It has

Germany for show-

competitions.

Vienna, Austria.

Morgan after his owner.

Lipizzaners deris e

4^-

jumping and dressage.

fffrrf

Appaloosa as a breed was

Quarter horse is claimed

Arab is the oldest breed

Orlov trotter is a tall

Thoroughbred is the

first bred bv the Nez Perce

to be the most popular

and is accepted as the

lightlv built horse. It was

fastest horse breed, with

in North Africa It is one

Indians of North America.

horse in the world.

original source of all breeds.

first bred in Russia.

almost perfect proportions.

of the oldest horse breeds

Ponies

Good sloping

Barb comes from Morocco

Compact body with

shoulders

K

kT n r/ fT

Dartmoor is noted for its

Connemara is fast and a

Exmoor lives on Exmoor

American Shetland is used

Australian pony has an

Welsh mountain pony is

long, low action.

brilliant jumper.

in southwest England.

mostly as a harness pony.

excellent temperament.

hardy as well as beautiful.

Tail set low

Shetland is up to 102 cm

Highland is sure-footed,

Icelandic horse can carry

New Forest pony is a

Fjord comes from Norwat

Falabella is a miniature

(40 in) high, but is strong

strong, and docile. It is

heavy weights, at speed.

friendlv, comfortable

and is descended from

horse, standing up to only

enough to carrv a man.

knots n to be long-lived.

over long distances.

riding pony.

Przewalski’s horse.

'' hh (70 cm/28 in).

Deep, strong neck

High withers

Suffolk punch is very

Cl}desdale originated in

Shire is the heaviest of the

Percheron is a French

Ardennais falls into two

Belgian draught is also

powerful. It was used as an

the Clvde Valley. Scotland,

draught breeds. It is gentle

breed containing a great

types — a lively, light

known as the Brabant. It

all-round farm horse.

in the 18th century.

and easy to handle.

deal of Arab blood.

draught, and a heavy type.

is a ver\ old breed.

432

HOSPITALS

General hospital A general hospital provides medical facilities

Ancient ROME had

special places where sick people

^ could receive medical treatment - the worlds earliest hospitals. Today, hospitals have more responsibilities: patient care, health education, and medical research. Whether general or specialist, most hospitals have wards for in¬

for a large area. Its wards cater for patients with common health problems. More complex cases are referred to a specialist hospital. General hospitals also arrange community services, such as visits by nurses.

patients, clinics for out-patients, operating theatres for surgery, and pharmacies for dispensing drugs. Trained staff, such as doctors and nurses, care for patients using complex equipment, while non¬ medical staff, such as cooks, porters, cleaners, and engineers, are crucial in making the hospital function. In some poorer countries, there may be only one hospital for every million people.

Chart

Hospital beds in a ward

Wards In-patients usually stay in dormitory-type wards. They

Specialist hospitals

are separated into medical and surgical groups of children, men, women, and the elderly. Patients with

Some specialist hospitals focus on groups of

infectious diseases usually stay in isolation rooms.

patients, such as women or children. Others concentrate on groups of diseases, such as eye problems, psychiatric disorders, or neurological (nerve-and-brain) diseases. Teaching hospitals train nurses, doctors, and other medical staff.

^

Childrens hospital Hospitals specializing in the care of sick children use scaled-down

^ ^

^

Flying eve clinic, China

^

equipment, such as surgical

^

instruments, bandages, beds, and

Eye clinics

j 'w'

Ambulance. New York, USA

Ophthalmology - the branch of medicine concerned with eye and sight problems —

Accident and emergency

requires exceptionally detailed and precise

The A&E department receives medical emergencies, such

and there are toys and games.

equipment, and specialist facilities for patients

as accident or hean-attack victims. The patients problem

Parents are able to stay

who mav be temporarily unable to see. Some

is identified and stabilized, after which he or she may

in nearby hospital rooms.

large countries with remote regions, such as

be sent home, or transferred to a suitable general ward.

chairs. Wards are bright and

"

cheerful for the small patients,

«

.

China or Australia, can provide these facilities Childs teddy

in a mobile form — usually a small plane.

Staff

Equipment

Doctors usually work in different

to be mobile - is crucial in hospitals. In an

hospital departments for several years,

emergency, some of the most useful pieces

Modern equipment - especially that modified

to gain general training,

include breathing apparatus (face masks or tubing), long syringes to administer fast-acting

before choosing a

drugs, such as heart stimulants, and fluid

speciality. Nursing staff

products for intravenous infusions (drips).

may also specialize, for example, in paediatrics

Premature

Neo-natal

baby in incubator Forceps and

Fact

syringes

mas.

intensive care unit

Intensive care unit

(children), psychiatry,

In intensive care, expert staff attend gravely ill patients round the clock. Electronic equipment continually monitors

or intensive care. A

their vital processes, such as heartbeat and breathing.

hospitals staff usuallv includes radio¬ graphers, laboratory technicians, physio¬ therapists, and anaesthetists. Nurses Nurses attend to patients’ comfort and daily needs, such as feeding and washing.

Out-patients

They also carry out medical tasks,

Out-patients attend the hospital to undergo i

such as taking and recording pulse rate and body temperature, and

tests or have minor surgery. They do not stay

Drawers

giving edications. Emergency trolley General nurse

Ifind out Stethoscope

1 MUKE

Drugs

First AID

Medicine

433

HOUSES

AND

HOMES

Everyone needs a home,

Overhanging thatched

Wooden poles

roof keeps off rain

support roof.

^

and provides shade.

to

provide comfort and shelter from the weather. It usually takes the form of a permanent house, although some people live in temporary structures, such as tents. Houses differ greatly around the world. They vary in what they are made of, because builders usually use local materials; in their structure, because their features must cope with local weather; and their plan. But they all provide

Early houses From the earliest times, people built their houses out of materials that were available locally. Houses such as this African example have been made for thousands of years and are still built today. A wall of mud bricks is covered Straw woven into matting

bv a thatched roof supported on wooden pillars.

a place for the inhabitants to sleep, eat, and cook. Construction

Inside a house

Modern houses in Europe and North

Water tanks in the attic

America are most commonly made of

store cold water

A modern house includes many parts that are

piped in from

normally hidden from view. Many of these

the water

brick, timber, and concrete. A *

popular building method is to construct an inner wall or “leaf"

are to do with the services — such as

of concrete blocks, which are Wooden

running water, drainage, heating, and

faced with an outer leaf of

roof

more attractive bricks.

electricity — that are provided for the

Wood is used for

occupants. Water tanks are concealed

floors, doors, and

in the roof space, pipes and wiring

roofing supports. Wooden

are hidden behind plaster, and

. Solar panel

floor

drains are dug below ground level. Roof covered with concrete tiles

Inner leaf of concrete blocks

Drainpipes take rainwater from gutter. Outer leaf of bricks Wooden joists support floor.

Window, framed with wood or PVC-

Central¬ heating boiler Wooden front door with porch Rainwater cylinder

Japanese house Traditional Japanese houses have a timber framework. The gaps between the timber . Pipe carries

uprights are filled with wooden panels or

all waste to

sheets of paper to let through some sunlight. The rooms are designed to be

Box containing

covered by a set number of standard-sized

electricity

straw mats called tatami mats.

meter

\ Central\Concrete

heating radiator

foundations

' Insulation cavity

mains drain.

between wall leaves

Roman apartments

Flats and apartments

The ancient Romans were

In towns and cities, where space is

the first to build blocks of

limited and many people want to

apartments. In cities such as Rome and Ostia, rising

live near the centre, the answer is

ground rents and growing

often to build upward, creating

populations encouraged the trend, and many

blocks of flats. This type of home

brick-and-concrete five-

became common in the 19th

or six-storey apartment

century, when cities began to

blocks were built.

Modern apartments

In Ostia, the ancient

common in cities. Each apartment is linked to

From Paris to New York, apartment blocks are

expand quickly, and new devices such as steam cranes made it easier to lift building materials high up.

FIND OUT

MORE 434

Africa,

HISTORY OF

Architecture

Building and

CONSTRUCTION

Cities

Romans built flats

the ground by metal fire escapes to prevent

above street-level shops

residents from being trapped if there is a fire.

Crafts

Furniture

Industrial revolution

Japan

Roman

EMPIRE

Houses and homes Stilts protect occupants

Permanent homes

Thick walls and

from vermin and

few windows keep

floods.

house cool.

Troglodyte houses hollowed

Wooden stilt-house with

Adobe house built from sun-dried

Decorated mud house,

out of rock, eastern Turkey

thatched roof, Malaysia

clay bricks. New Mexico, USA

Saudi Arabia

Turfprovides Stone-built palace ^

insulation.

Small windows help

Sloping roof to

to conserve heat.

shed snow.

Farmhouse covered with turf

Wooden house on stilts,

Wooden log house,

and built into hillside. Iceland

Canada

Switzerland

Wooden log cabin with

Stone conage with thatched

overhanging roof, Wyoming, USA

roof, Donegal, Ireland

Dormer windows

Large roof for storage

provide extra space

Wooden cross¬

on upper floor.

braces add .

strength.

Wood-framed house with

Tall outcrop of /

Summer Palace,

brick panels, Germany

sandstone

Wadi Dahr, Yemen

Dome of

Wooden panels give extra protection against weather.

Wooden house with clapboard panels, USA

Temporary and movable homes

compressei Wooden poles

Thick layer of

snow Tunnel

felt covers the

bound at top

Circular

entrance

entrance.

into a cone

entrance

shape.

Gypsy horse-drawn

Inuit igloo built from blocks

Shepherds cabin wo\en

Yurt made from layers of felt lashed

Tepee made of buffalo hides

caravan, UK

of snow and ice, Canada

from bundles of straw, Spain

to a circular frame, Mongolia

over poles, Arizona, USA

435

HOVERCRAFTS see FRICTION; SHIPJ> AND BOATS • HUAXTECS see MESOAMERICANS • HUBBLE EDWIN see GALAXIES

Female

HUMAN BODY Although we all look

Male

••

Wider

Anatomy

JF

The human body is divided

shoulders

‘ * H' fr Breasts

different, we

are identical in the way our bodies are constructed and function. Each human body is built up from 12 major systems, including the digestive system, skeletal system, and muscular system. These systems interact to produce co-ordinated, active, intelligent humans. The study of the body’s structure is called anatomy. Externally, the only consistent anatomical differences between

^

into the head and neck, the trunk (consisting of the chest, abdomen, and pelvic region), and the arms and the legs. Men and women differ in their external genitals and in the places where fat accumulates (shown in green).

Skeleton The adult skeletal system is

The skeleton is

humans are between males and females.

a framework of

made up of 206 bones. The

hones that

skeleton provides a framework

supports the

that supports the bodv, protects

body.

internal organs, and provides attachment points for muscles. The body is_

From cells to systems

made up from

The end of a

hundreds of

bone is normally

The body’s billions of cells are organized into tissues.

bilTwru of cells.

covered by

Each tissue consists of similar types of cell. One or more

cartilage.

/

types of tissue work together inside an organ, such as a

Ligaments

bone or a lung. Organs are linked together to form a

are strips of tissue that

system that has one or more major roles. Together the systems are collected together to form the body.

hold hones Compact^

together at

bone

joints.

Compact bone

Movable! joints

Circular

between

layers of Spongy

compact

bones make

bone

bone

the skeleton flexible.

Body The skeleton and the other major bodv systems form the

Cell

living human body.

Osteocytes, or bone cells, are

Tissue

spider-shaped cells that make up the tissues that form a

Organ

The body’s systems

Compact bone is one of the

Each bone

do not work in

tissues that makes up a bone.

consists of

isolation, however.

bone. Osteocytes are found

It consists of layers of hard

different tissues.

For example, the

in spaces called lacunae that

bone around a central tube

Compact bone is a bones hard

skeleton is supplied

are scattered about the hard

called the Haversian canal.

outer covering. Spongy bone and

with blood vessels,

matrix (material) found in

This carries blood vessels

bone marrow are tissues found

lymph vessels, and

bone tissue. Their job is to

which supply the osteocytes

inside bones. Cartilage is the

nerves, and requires

maintain the hard matrix.

with food and oxvgen.

slippery tissue found in joints.

muscles to move it

Body systems Each body system contributes to the body’s normal functioning. Together, the body’s

Muscular

Nervous

Circulatory

Digestive

The muscular

The nervous

The circulatory

The digestive

system moves

system controls

and supports

the body’s

the body.

|

system transports material around

activities. It

the bodv. It

consists of the

consists of the

system supplies '’iiXV i

the body with food. It consists

systems are controlled by the nervous and

It consists of

endocrine systems. They enable us to move,

o\er 620 skeletal

brain and spinal

heart, a network of

oesophagus,

talk, and perceive the world, while our

muscles attached

cord, and a

blood vessels, and

stomach, and

to bones.

network of nerves.

the blood.

■ Jl ^

of the mouth,

internal processes run automatically. Integumentary

ts

The integumentary

Urinary

Endocrine

Lymphatic

Reproductive

The urinary

The endocrine

The lymphatic

The reproductive system enables

system supplies

system removes

system regulates

system protects

body’s outer,

the bodv with

waste. It consists

many bodv

the bodv against

protective

oxygen. It

of the two

processes. It

disease. It

I' •

children. Male

covering and

consists of the

kidneys, the

consists of glands

consists of a

I

and female

consists of skin,

nose, throat,

ureters, the bladder,

that make

network of

systems are

hair, and nails.

trachea, and lungs.

and the urethra

hormones.

lymph vessels.

different.

system is the

FIND OUT

MORE 436

Respiratory The respiratory

Brain and NERVOUS SYSTEM

Cells

Growth and DE\TLOPME\T

Heart and CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Human EVOLUTION

Muscles and MOVEMENT

Reproduction

us to produce

Skeleton

Skin, hair, AND nails

HUMAN EVOLUTION

Evolutionary tree The evolutionary sequence from the earliest human ancestors is not a

Much debate has surrounded

straight line, but is instead a “tree”

the evolution of humans. However, most scientists are now agreed that modern humans, Homo

common ancestors

1

Paranthropus

1

3-1 mya

with many dead ends. Because the

\\\

fossil evidence is limited, scientists

1?

Australopithecus 5—2 mya

disagree about how many human species have existed and which

sapiens, are the sole survivors

were ancestors of others. This

of a number of human species that evolved from the common ancestor of humans and apes some six million years ago. Climatic

2—1.5 mya

simple guide to relationships but does not necessarily

^

changes forced our earliest ancestors out of the tropical forests and into open woodlands and

■ •

evolutionary tree provides a

Homo habilis

Homo erectus 1.7 mya — 250,000years ago

^

indicate ancestry,

ih ^ Proconsul climbed trees

grasslands. The challenge of these new habitats resulted in important changes, such as the ability to walk upright and an increase in brain size.

and mostly walked

Homo neanderthalensts

-f

on all fours.

200.000- 35,000years ago

Homo sapiens 100,000years ago

Proconsul Proconsul is the earliest known member of the hominoids the group to which apes and humans belong. It lived in the tropical rainforests of East Africa between 24 and 18 million years ago. Compared to its ancestors. Proconsul had a large brain.

Australopithecines

Projecting

Paranthropines

The Australopithecines are

jaw and

had small

thought to be the earliest hominids

low

brains and

forehead

(human-like people). Although

Paranthropines The Paranthropines were

flattened

strongly built “man-apes”

faces. ^

ape-like, with a small brain and

\ Long arms

projecting jaws, Australopithecus

and short

stood upright and walked on two

legs

that lived in southern and eastern Africa

A

between three and

feet. This is known from its leg

one million years ago.

bones and backbone, and from

They were probably

3.7 million—year—old footprints

descended from the Chimpanzees

found at Laetoli inTanzania.

Australopithecines,

The chimpanzee is our closest living

but were not part of

relative. Chimpanzees and humans share

Lucy

over 98 per cent of their DNA (genetic

the evolutionary pathway

“Luev" is the name given to the most

material). Chimpanzees and gorillas are

that led to modern humans.

complete Australopithecine skeleton yet

known collectively as the African apes.

discovered, found in Ethiopia in 1*^74. It was

About six million years ago, humans

an adult female, 3.18 million years old. I ucy

and African apes split from their

was about 1.35 m

was about l.I m (3 fr 6 in) tall.

common ancestor to evolve separateK.

(4 ft 4 in) in height.

Homo

Flat face and

Homo is the genus, or group of species

slender _jaw

to which modern humans belong. It probably evolved from the

. A male Paranthropus

Homo erectus

Homo sapiens

Homo erectus was the first

Modern humans first evolved in

human to leave Africa and

Africa. Homo sapiens has a large

move to Europe and Asia.

brain, considerable intelligence, and

It had a sloping forehead,

the ability to use language. Humans

flattish face, and a brain

increasingly took control of their

size between 850 and

surroundings as they developed

three and two million years

1100 ml. These humans

agriculture, societies, and technology.

ago, although there is no

exploited more habitats

Australopithecines between

than their ancestors, and

direct evidence for this. Earlv

Homo erectus skull

were the first to use fire.

members of the genus Neanderthals

showed increasing brain size

Neanderthab were the first

and the ability to make tools.

humans to have adapted to life in the cold climates

Homo habilis

of Europe and Asia. They

“Handv man” is the earliest know n

had strong physiques and

species of Homo. It lived in the

large brains. They wore

woodlands and savannahs of Africa.

clothes, made a range of

Homo habilis had a brain size of

tools, and used fire to

650 to 800 ml. It made and

keep warm. They

used simple stone tools, and was

Reconstruction

were rhe first humans

a successful forager and scavenger.

of Homo habilis

to burs- their dead.

FIND OUT

MORE

Archaeology

Bronze

Darwin,

AGE

CHARLES

Evolution

Fossils

Genetics

Neanderthal reconstruction

Human

Leakey

Prehistoric

BODY

FAMIIY

PEOPIF

Skeifton

Stone

AGE

437

HUMAN RIGHTS

What are human rights?

Justice is often symbolized as a blindfolded figure,

Human rights are those rights and

holding a pair of s

privileges which people possess, regardless of the country they live

that as human beings we have certain rights - to say

Most of us believe

^-1

in. Basic human rights include the right to freedom of speech, political liberty, and religious freedom. Some people believe that the right

what we want, to be treated fairly, and not be discriminated against because of

to the necessities of life, such as —

food and clean water, should also be viewed as

our gender, colour, age, religion, sexual orientation, or ethnic group. These and other rights are human rights

basic human rights. These are often lacking in areas of severe poverty

we carry with us wherever we live. In many countries, these rights are written into national law, but in others they are denied. Recently, world attention has focused

Modern human rights

on countries that deny their citizens basic human rights.

The horrors of world war and countless atrocities in

Clean water

the 20th century have led people to believe that the

Despite this, abuses of human rights are still common.

only way to protect human rights is by setting an international standard to which all countries agree.

Bills of Rights

Since 1945, manv international agreements have

Many countries have incorporated a declaration

been signed to protect the rights of oppressed people

of human rights into their constitutions. In

around the world.

France, for example, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen,

Universal Declaration

written in 1789, today forms part of

In 1948, the United Nations passed a Universal Declaration of Human

the constitution of the French Republic.

Rights to serve as “a common

I

The US Bill of Rights The first ten amendments to the US Constitution constitute the US Bill of Rights. It includes the right to freedom of worship, the right to bear arms, and the Fifth Amendment (the right to remain silent to avoid self-incrimination); witnesses took

standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations”. American Eleanor Roosevelt (1884—1962), chair of the UN Commission on Human Rights and widow of a former US president, was the person most responsible for getting the Declaration approved.

this in the 1950s to protect themselves against investigations into “un-American activities”.

Taking the Fifth Amendment, 1950s

Eleanor Roosevelt

Civil rights

Amnesty International

Civil rights are those rights that people

global pressure group, which campaigns for the

Set up in 1961, Amnesty International is a release of people “detained anywhere for their

enjoy in individual countries and that are

beliefs, colour, sex, ethnic origin, language,

protected by law. Civil rights include

or religion”.

basic human rights, as well as political

The European Court ruled

rights such as the freedom to join a trade

(1

^

against

union. Where civil rights are denied,

corporal

popular movements may be formed,

punishment in schools.

committed to repair the injustice.

Amnesty symbol

European Court of Human Rights The European Court, which meets in Strasbourg, Erance, exists to hear human rights cases from the whole of Europe. Individuals can bring cases against their government if they believe their human rights are threatened.

Rigoberta Menchu Guatemalan human rights activist

Freedom of expression

Rigoberta Menchu (b. 1959) has

The right to express vour views

campaigned since she was a

without fear of censorship or

teenager to secure and protect the

persecution, for example, in

rights of the native people in her

speaking against a gosernment. is

Minority rights

As a minority,

country, who have been oppressed

a fundamental human right. But it

The law is often used unfairly against certain

homosexuals have

bv Guatemala’s military rulers.

is denied in some countries, where

groups of people whose culture has minority

had to campaign

Menchu’s own parents and brother

status within their socierv. Ethnic, religious,

for equal civil

were killed bv the security forces.

newspapers and television are heavily censored, and people are

and other minorities have all had to protest

rights in many

not allowed to demonstrate or

in order to receise the rights already

countries.

express their views in public.

enjoyed by the majoritv of the population.

FIND OUT

MORE 438

French REVOLUTION

Peace MOVEMENTS

Slavery

Societies, HUMAN

She was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1992 for her work.

United NATIONS

United states, HISTORY OF

Women’s movement

HUMMINGBIRDS see SWIFTS AND HUMMINGBIRDS

HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR English

In 1337, EDWARD III of England (r. 1327-77) began a bitter war

longbowman

He