Space Fostering Latin American Societies: Developing the Latin American Continent Through Space, Part 3 (Southern Space Studies) 303097958X, 9783030979584

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Southern Space Studies Series Editor: Annette Froehlich

Annette Froehlich   Editor

Space Fostering Latin American Societies Developing the Latin American Continent Through Space, Part 3

Southern Space Studies Series Editor Annette Froehlich

, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South Africa

Associate Editor Dirk Heinzmann, Bundeswehr Command and Staff College, Hamburg, Germany Advisory Editors Josef Aschbacher, European Space Agency, Paris, France Rigobert Bayala, National Observatory of Sustainable Development, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso Carlos Caballero León

, CP Consult, Lima, Peru

Guy Consolmagno, Vatican Observatory, Castel Gandolfo, Vatican City State Juan de Dalmau, International Space University, Illkirch-Graffenstaden, France Driss El Hadani, Royal Center for Remote Sensing of Morocco, Rabat, Morocco El Hadi Gashut, Regional Center For Remote Sensing of North Africa States, Tunis, Tunisia Michelle Hanlon, For All Moonkind, New Canaan, CT, USA Félix Clementino Menicocci, Argentinean Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Buenos Aires, Argentina Sias Mostert, African Association of Remote Sensing of the Environment, Muizenburg, South Africa Val Munsami, South African National Space Agency, Silverton, South Africa Greg Olsen, Entrepreneur-Astronaut, Princeton, NJ, USA Azzedine Oussedik, Algerian Space Agency, Alger, Algeria Xavier Pasco, Fondation pour la Recherche Stratégique, Paris, France Elvira Prado Alegre, Ibero-American Institute of Air and Space Law and Commercial Aviation, Madrid, Spain Alejandro J. Román M., Paraguayan Space Agency, Asunción, Paraguay Fermín Romero Vázquez, Fundacion Acercandote al Universo, Mexico City, Mexico Kai-Uwe Schrogl, International Institute of Space Law, Paris, France Dominique Tilmans, YouSpace, Wellin, Belgium Jean-Jacques Tortora, European Space Policy Institute, Vienna, Austria Robert van Zyl, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Bellville, South Africa

The Southern Space Studies series presents analyses of space trends, market evolutions, policies, strategies and regulations, as well as the related social, economic and political challenges of space-related activities in the Global South, with a particular focus on developing countries in Africa and Latin America. Obtaining inside information from emerging space-faring countries in these regions is pivotal to establish and strengthen efficient and beneficial cooperation mechanisms in the space arena, and to gain a deeper understanding of their rapidly evolving space activities. To this end, the series provides transdisciplinary information for a fruitful development of space activities in relevant countries and cooperation with established space-faring nations. It is, therefore, a reference compilation for space activities in these areas. The volumes of the series are peer-reviewed.

More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/16025

Annette Froehlich Editor

Space Fostering Latin American Societies Developing the Latin American Continent Through Space, Part 3

Editor Annette Froehlich SpaceLab University of Cape Town Rondebosch, South Africa

ISSN 2523-3718 ISSN 2523-3726 (electronic) Southern Space Studies ISBN 978-3-030-97958-4 ISBN 978-3-030-97959-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97959-1 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Contents

What is Brazil Doing to Develop Its Commercial Space Program? . . . . . . Ian Grosner, Adriana Simões, and Marina Stephanie Ramos Huidobro Communication Satellites in South America: A Perspective from Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carlos Caballero León The Development of CubeSats in Latin America and Their Challenges on the Design of Thermal Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jorge Alfredo Ferrer-Pérez, Dafne Gaviria-Arcila, Carlos Romo-Fuentes, Rafael Guadalupe Chávez-Moreno, José Alberto Ramírez-Aguilar, and Marcelo López-Parra Design of Hybrid Coatings by Sol–Gel Process: An Alternative for Aerospace Use in Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Genoveva Hernández-Padrón, Bryanda Guadalupe Reyes-Tesillo, Jevet Emiliano Damixi López-Campos, Jorge Alfredo Ferrer-Pérez, José Mojica-Gómez, and Víctor Manuel Castaño-Meneses Launch Opportunities for Pico Satellites from Developing Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rosalyn Puma-Guzman and Jorge Soliz

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Glass–Ceramic Protective Coating for Satellite System as a Thermal Insulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Rafael Vargas-Bernal, Ana María Arizmendi-Morquecho, Jose Martín Herrera-Ramírez, and Bárbara Bermúdez-Reyes

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What is Brazil Doing to Develop Its Commercial Space Program? Ian Grosner , Adriana Simões, and Marina Stephanie Ramos Huidobro

Abstract Brazil has a long-standing space program, which began in the early 1960s. This chapter intends to analyze the Brazilian space program in order to identify its effectiveness and propose measures that support current and future national space initiatives. Since 2019, several initiatives have been implemented to definitively place the country in the field of emerging space programs. The following initiatives, which will be further explored herein, stand out: the creation of the Brazilian Space Program Development Committee (CDPEB), The Technology Safeguards Agreement (TSA) signed between Brazil and the U.S., the implementation of the Alcântara Space Center (CEA), and the entry of Brazil into the Artemis Accords, among others. In this chapter, we will use current data and applicable essential legislation to demonstrate what Brazil has been doing to advance its space program, especially in the development of commercial space activities, and provide contributions for its improvement.

1 Introduction The exploration of space has been discussed for several decades, with governmental and private initiatives conducting extended studies and launching items into space. The world has already gone through different—and memorable—phases of the aerospace industry, such as the space race, landed missions to the Moon, space stations and space exploration throughout the solar system celestial bodies.

I. Grosner (B) Brazilian Attorney General Office (AGU), Brasília, Brazil A. Simões Mattos Filho, Veiga Filho, Marrey Jr. e Quiroga Advogados, São Paulo, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] M. S. R. Huidobro Brazilian Bar Association (OAB), Santos, São Paulo, Brazil © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Froehlich (ed.), Space Fostering Latin American Societies, Southern Space Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97959-1_1

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In an ever-evolving society, space exploration is one of the keys to the development of new technologies and, to allow such space exploration to be conducted, companies or governments—or both, jointly—have been conducting space programs, which can be defined as organized efforts to accomplish goals related to space. Ever since 1960, aligned with the beginning of the discussions over space exploration, Brazil has its own Space Program. Recently, several initiatives have been conducted and implemented by Brazilian governmental entities to further improve its presence on the world’s space exploration scene, such as the Brazilian Space Program Development Committee (CDPEB), the execution of the Technology Safeguards Agreement (TSA) with the United States, the Artemis Accords and the implementation of the Alcântara Space Center (CEA). Considering the recent trend for space exploration and the changes made to the Brazilian regulatory scenario, this chapter aims to explore key points of the Brazilian Space Program, its latest developments and the steps still needed to be taken for a greater development of space law in Brazil.

2 History of the Alcântara Launch Center (CLA) Although the international projection of the Alcântara Launch Center (CLA) has been strengthened in the past few years, the first steps to reach the current space center date back to the late 1970s, when the former Ministry of Aeronautics requested the reservation of the area for the CLA to the local government, by means of Notice No. 007/GM4/C-033.1 In 1982, the implementation process of the CLA began with the creation of the Implementation Group for the Alcântara Launch Center, in order to manage the creation of the CLA itself.2 The CLA inauguration has been accomplished by the Presidential Decree No. 88,136, of 1983, according to which the aim of the space center was to “execute and support the launching and tracking activities of aerospace devices, as well as to perform tests and experiments of interest to the Ministry of Aeronautics, related to the National Aerospace Development Policy”.3

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Renata Corrêa Ribeiro, “Aliança tecnológica com a China na área espacial: os 30 anos do Programa CBERS (1988–2018)”, p. 82, 2019. Presented as doctoral dissertation in Foreign Affairs at the Brasilia University. https://repositorio.unb.br/bitstream/10482/38674/1/2019_RenataCorr% C3%AAaRibeiro.pdf. (all websites cited in this publication were last accessed and verified on 15 December 2021). 2 Israel de Oliveira Andrade, Rogério Luiz Veríssimo Cruz, Giovanni Roriz Lyra Hillebrand and Matheus Augusto Soares, “O Centro de Lançamento de Alcântara: Abertura para o Mercado Internacional de Satélites e Salvaguardas para a Soberania Nacional”, p. 19, October 2018. http://reposi torio.ipea.gov.br/bitstream/11058/8897/1/td_2423.pdf. 3 Presidential Decree No. 88,136, of 1 March 1983. www2.camara.leg.br/legin/fed/decret/19801987/decreto-88136-1-marco-1983-438606-publicacaooriginal-1-pe.html.

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A few years later, “CLA’s first operation was carried out, in December 1989, when 15 SBAT-70 and 2 SBAT-152 rockets have been launched”.4 Since then, a part of the territory of the city of Alcântara has been declared to be of public utility by the Brazilian Federal Government in 1991, for a future expropriation, seeking to use the area for the operation and logistics of the CLA, as well as the environmental preservation of the region and the resettlement of the population transferred for security reasons.5 Over the following decades, the CLA has changed the economic and social development of the region. The existence of a relevant space center in the country with several geographical advantages may be identified as one of the factors that boosted the production of legal norms on space law, and that resulted in significant achievements to the sector, as it will be demonstrated in the next sections of this chapter. For clarification purposes, it is worth mentioning that the above-mentioned CLA, a Brazilian Air Force unit responsible for the coordination of the site located in the city of Alcântara, differs from the CEA, a project currently under implementation and whose initiatives will be exemplified throughout this chapter.

3 General Space Legislation in Brazil Considering the importance of the space to any country, especially concerning its sovereignty, the Brazilian Federal Constitution, enacted in 5 October 1988, centralizes the matters regarding the Brazilian space policy as an attribution of the Union. As per the Constitution, the Union has the power to explore aerospace navigation, even though such operation may be conducted indirectly-by means of authorization, concession or permit to other entities.6 Moreover, the Union has the exclusive attribution to legislate on matters regarding space law, air law as well as aerospace navigation and defense.7 Despite space law being dealt with at constitutional level, Brazil does not have a general statute on space matters. Instead, the multiple norms regarding the Brazilian space are sparse and produced gradually. Some of the main rules that integrate the Brazilian legal framework on the subject will be explained below.

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Andrade, Cruz, Hillebrand and Soares, “O Centro de Lançamento de Alcântara”, 19. Implementation of the CEA. Brazilian Air Force official website: https://www2.fab.mil.br/cla/ index.php/implantacao2. 6 Brazilian Federal Constitution, of 5 October 1988. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/constituicao/ constituicao.htm. 7 Ibid. 5

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As rightly put by Ian Grosner and others: “(...) Brazil’s national space legislation is scarce, and it lacks a general set of provisions to encompass the basic guidelines for space activities. Brazil is part of four of the UN Treaties: OST (1967); ARRA (1968); LIAB (1972) and REG (1974)”.8 At the international level, Brazil has assumed important commitments by ratifying treaties and/or conventions. Among them, the OST, enacted by the Presidential Decree No. 64,362, of 17 April 1969,9 stands out. Other important conventions have also been ratified by Brazil, such as LIAB and REG, enacted by Presidential Decrees No. 71,989, of 26 March 1973,10 and 5,806, of 19 June 2006,11 respectively. At the domestic level, the efforts of the national institutions at regulating matters regarding space activities are evident. In the 1990s, Law No. 8,854, of 10 February 1994,12 was enacted, creating the Brazilian Space Agency (AEB, in the acronym in Portuguese), a federal civilian autarchy linked to the Presidency of the Republic and endowed with financial and administrative independence. Some of the attributions of the AEB are the (i) execution and update of the National Policy for Development of Space Activities (PNDAE, in the acronym in Portuguese), (ii) elaboration and update of the National Space Activities Program (PNAE, in the acronym in Portuguese), (iii) establishment of dialogues with counterparts in Brazil and abroad, (iv) analysis of proposals and signing of international agreements and partnerships, (v) encouragement of participation of private entities, scientific researches and technological development in space activities, and (vi) establishment of rules and issuance of licenses and permits for space activities.13 In the same year as the creation of the AEB, the Presidential Decree No. 1,332, of 8 December 1994, approved the updated version of the PNDAE, elaborated by the AEB.14 The importance of the matter consists in recognizing, as the PNDAE does, the potentialities of the space technology for the achievement of domestic needs, especially considering the characteristics of Brazil as one of the largest countries around the globe, its demographic concentration on the Brazilian coast, its rainforests and extensive national borders, among other aspects.15 Therefore, the PNDAE states that:

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Ian Grosner, Petrônio Noronha de Souza, Marcia Alvarenga dos Santos and Suyan Cristina Malhadas, “Brazilian National Law in Space. How Important is It?”, paper presented at 72nd International Astronautical Congress (IAC), Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 25–29 October 2021. 9 Presidential Decree No. 64,362, of 17 April 1969. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/decreto/19501969/D64362.html. 10 Presidential Decree No. 71,989, of 26 March 1973. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/decreto/19701979/D71989.html. 11 Presidential Decree No. 5,806, of 19 June 2006. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2004-2006/ 2006/decreto/D5806.htm. 12 Federal Law No. 8,854, of 10 February 1994. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/leis/l8854.htm. 13 Ibid. 14 Presidential Decree No. 1,332, of 8 December 1994. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/decreto/ 1990-1994/d1332.htm. 15 Ibid.

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Brazil’s advances in the space sector need to be consolidated and expanded. It requires completing, maintaining and updating the existing infrastructure, (…) expanding institutional participation in space programs, and creating opportunities for the commercialization of space products and services. Such institutional participation encompasses both the governmental and private sectors and, particularly, the Brazilian industrial park.16

The main goals of the PNDAE may be identified as the (i) establishment of technical-scientific competence in the space sector, seeking autonomy, (ii) development of space systems that make available to Brazil the services and information the country needs or is interested at, and (iii) improvement of the Brazilian productive sector to promote market competitiveness.17 To pursue such goals, the PNDAE also establishes several guidelines concerning, for example, the priority of the solutions for domestic challenges, the careful analysis of governmental investments in the space sector, the international cooperation and the development and diffusion of space applications.18 Besides the creation of the AEB and the elaboration of the PNDAE, the National System for the Development of Space Activities (SINDAE, in the acronym in Portuguese) has been founded by the Presidential Decree No. 1,953, of 10 July 1996, for purposes of the development of national interest-oriented space activities.19 Considering its organizational attributions, SINDAE congregates several institutions related to the development of space activities, such as the AEB as its main body, followed by sector bodies, such as the National Institute for Space Research (INPE, in the acronym in Portuguese).20 Legal representatives of the private sector are allowed as participant bodies and entities, as well as Ministries and Secretariats linked to the Presidency of the Republic and representatives of states and municipalities appointed by the local Executive Power, whenever they are involved with or interested in the issues under discussion.21 As it will be deepened in the following sections of this chapter, the Brazilian legal framework also includes recently-produced norms, such as the Presidential Decree No. 9,839, of 14 June 2019,22 duly amended in 2021, disposing on the Brazilian Space Program Development Committee (CDPEB, in the acronym in Portuguese), and AEB Ordinance No. 698, of 31 August 2021,23 instituting the Brazilian Space Regulation (REB, in the acronym in Portuguese), which establishes standards for the Operator’s License for Space Activities and the Launch Authorization in Brazilian Territory. 16

Ibid. Ibid. 18 Ibid. 19 Presidential Decree No. 1,953, of 10 July 1996. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/decreto/1996/ d1953.htm. 20 Ibid. 21 Ibid. 22 Presidential Decree No. 9,839, of 14 June 2019. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2019-2022/ 2019/Decreto/D9839.htm#art10. 23 AEB Ordinance No. 698, of 31 August 2021. www.gov.br/aeb/pt-br/servicos/licenciamento/por taria-no-698-de-31-de-agosto-de-2021. 17

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4 The Brazilian Space Program Development Committee (CDPEB) The CDPEB is an advisory body to the President of the Republic of Brazil destined to formulate proposals on: (i) the necessary subsidies to enhance the Brazilian Space Program; (ii) the development and use of technologies applicable to the Brazilian Space Sector, in the segments of launching infrastructure, launch vehicles and orbital and suborbital artefacts; and (iii) supervising the execution of the necessary measures to enhance the Brazilian Space Program. It was created by Decree No. 9,279, of 6 February 2018.24 Subsequently, the CDPEB was restructured under Decree No. 9,839, of 14 June 2019,25 modified by Decree No. 10.691, of 3 May 2021.26 The CDPEB is composed of the following members: I II III IV V VI VII VIII

Minister of State of the Institutional Security Office of the Presidency of the Republic, who coordinates it; Minister of State of the Civil House of the Presidency of the Republic; Minister of State for Defense; Minister of State for Foreign Affairs; Minister of State for the Economy; Minister of State for Science, Technology and Innovation; Minister of State for Communications; and Attorney General of the Union.

The CDPEB may invite: (a)

(b)

representatives of other bodies and entities of the Federal Executive Power to participate in its meetings, with voting rights, whenever the matter discussed is related to the competencies falling within the attribution of the invited entity; and private entities, at the request of any of its members, without voting rights.

The CDPEB will meet, on an ordinary basis, once every four months and, on an extraordinary basis, whenever there is a need to discuss an urgent matter that falls within the objectives of the Committee, in both cases, for the call of its Coordinator. The meeting quorum of the CDPEB is an absolute majority of the members. The approval quorum is two-thirds of the members present at the meeting. In addition to the ordinary vote, the Coordinator of the CDPEB will have the casting vote in the event of a tie. 24

Presidential Decree No. 9,279, of 6 February 2018. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato20152018/2018/decreto/D9279.htm 25 Presidential Decree No. 9,839, of 14 June 2019. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2019-2022/ 2019/Decreto/D9839.htm#art10 26 Presidential Decree No. 10,691, of 3 May 2021. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2019-2022/ 2021/Decreto/D10691.htm#art1

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The CDPEB may set up technical groups to prepare studies on: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

the development of launch infrastructure and launch vehicles for orbital and suborbital artefacts; the development of projects aimed at strengthening the national industry aimed at the Brazilian Space Sector; the composition of staff in science and technology careers for the Brazilian Space Sector; public policies, social actions and land issues related to areas of the national territory destined for launching centers installations; and the proposals for establishing legal frameworks for the Brazilian Space Sector.

The technical groups: (a) (b) (c) (d)

will be composed in the form of resolutions of the CDPEB; may have a maximum of five members, appointed from among the bodies; will have a temporary nature and duration not exceeding one year; and will be limited to three operating simultaneously.

The Executive Secretariat of the Brazilian Space Program Development Committee will be exercised by the System Coordination Secretariat of the Institutional Security Office of the Presidency of the Republic. The participation in the CDPEB and technical groups will be considered a relevant unpaid provision of public service. The CDPEB, since its creation, has contributed decisively to a more active and coordinated space governance among the various governmental actors involved. Therefore, since its creation, it has acted on several fronts, including the one aimed at providing conditions for the entire operation of the CEA.

5 Cooperation Agreement No. 01/2020 The Brazilian Air Force (FAB), represented by its Air Force Command (COMAER), and the Brazilian Space Agency (AEB), signed on 5 November 2020, the Cooperation Agreement No. 01/2020, defining attributions and work processes in the implementation phase of the future Alcântara Space Center (CEA), in Maranhão state, Brazil. Signing this Agreement is one of the steps to enable the launch of non-military space vehicles using the CEA.27

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Lieutenant Jonathan Jayme, “FAB and AEB sign agreement related to the Alcântara Space Center: document signed between the Air Force Staff and the Brazilian Space Agency establishes attributions and work processes in the implementation and operation phases of the CEA”, Air Force Agency, 11 May 2020, www.fab.mil.br/noticias/mostra/35736/COOPERA%C3%87%C3%83O% 20-%20FAB%20e%20AEB%20assinam%20acordo%20relacionado%20ao%20Centro%20Espa cial%20de%20Alc%C3%A2ntara

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According to the Agreement, the AEB is competent to carry out initial negotiations with companies, national or foreign, interested in using the goods and services to launch non-military space vehicles using the CEA. The cooperation begins the phase of contact with companies interested in using the facilities in the CEA for activities in the space area. The Agreement establishes the limits of action of each Institution. The AEB does the initial work, takes care of licensing, and delivers the process to COMAER to establish the contracts. Therefore, the obligations of the AEB are to: • coordinate the dissemination, aiming to attract interested parties in operating in the CEA; • coordinate the preparation and implementation of Public Calls for the use of the CEA, based on the parameters predefined by the Air Force Command; • receive operators interested in launching from the CEA and carry out the initial negotiation; • carry out the licensing process; • issue operators license; • issue the release authorization or recognition of authorization issued by another country; • coordinate the process of analyzing the proposals, to start the contractual negotiation; • assist the Air Force Command in the negotiation and contracting process with those interested in using the CEA; • collaborate with accident investigation activities related to space activities at the CEA; and • coordinate the activities of licensing, elaboration and updating of safety standards and inspection of space activities at the CEA. In turn, the following are COMAER/FAB obligations: • Define the parameters to be used by the AEB to prepare the Public Call rules; • Define, through the Department of Aerospace, Science and Technology (DCTA), the availability of using the CEA and inform the AEB; • Participate, as an advisory member with the AEB, in the Public Call process for using the CEA; • Participate, through the DCTA, in the licensing, drafting and updating of safety standards and inspection of space activities at the CEA; • Participate in the process of analyzing the proposals to start the contract negotiation; • Based on the proposal analysis process, define the licensed operator(s) that will initiate the contract negotiation phase; • Coordinate, through the DCTA, the contractual negotiation for the use of the CEA; • Sign, through the DCTA, the CEA usage contract; and • Through the designated Military Organizations, act in the investigation of accidents and incidents that occurred in operations aimed at launching space vehicles at the CEA.

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Fig. 1 Credits: AEB

The term of the Agreement is 36 (thirty-six) months from the date of its signature and may be extended through an Addendum. Accordingly, this Agreement is valid for 36 months, with 24 months for the implementation phase and 12 months for the operation phase. Figure 1) reveals the phases and the obligations for each part:

6 Public Call I and II As a result of Cooperation Agreement No. 01/2020, described above, AEB made public calls to present information related to the operation of launching non-military space vehicles from Brazilian territory.28 The public call has a definition and function delimited by Administrative Law according to its use in Public Administration performance models. Always used to publicize the actions of the Public Administration, it is also used to select, in an impersonal and isonomic manner, proposals and projects for action in partnerships. The Public Call is provided in Law No. 13,243, of 11 January 2016 (Legal Framework of Science, Technology and Innovation)29 and Law No. 13,019, of 31 July 2014 (Regulatory Framework of Civil Society Organizations).30

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Public Call 2. AEB Official website: www.gov.br/aeb/pt-br/programa-espacial-brasileiro/cha mamento-publico-public-call/public-call 29 Federal Law No. 13,243, of 11 January 2016. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2015-2018/ 2016/lei/l13243.htm 30 Federal Law No. 13,019, of 31 July 2014. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2011-2014/2014/ lei/l13019.htm

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The Decree No. 9,283, of 7 February 2018,31 regulation of Law No. 10,973, of 2 December 2004,32 also provides that the public call has the function of reducing the informational deficit and the asymmetry of information of the Administration in the field of innovation, science and technology.

6.1 The I Public Call (2020) The I Public Call was made through Notice AEB No. 02/2020. The legal framework invoked was: Law No. 8,854, of 10 February 1994,33 Decree No. 8,868, of 4 October 2016,34 Decree No. 1,953, of 10 July 1996,35 Law No. 10,973, of 2 December 2004,36 amended by Law No. 13,243, of 11 January 201637 and regulated by Decree No. 9,283, of 7 February 2018,38 and Cooperation Agreement No. 01/2020. The object of the I Public Call was to make available the set of goods and services used to launch non-military space vehicles from areas occupied by the VLS Platform System (SISPLAT), by the Universal Platform and by the Wind Profiler at the Alcântara Launch Center (CLA), as well as from aircraft taking off from Alcântara airport. Fourteen companies signed up for the notice, nine of which presented final proposals that were analyzed by FAB. On 28 April 2021, FAB and AEB announced the result of the I Public Call.39 Four companies selected in the I Public Call to operate the launch of non-military orbital and suborbital space vehicles from the Alcântara Space Center (CEA) have already been announced. Three American companies, Hyperion, Orion AST, and Virgin Orbit, and a Canadian company, C6 Launch, were the winners of the tender, and they are now moving on to the contractual negotiation phase (Figs. 2, 3, 4 and 5). 31 Presidential Decree No. 9,283, of 7 February 2018. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato20152018/2018/decreto/d9283.htm 32 Federal Law No. 10,973, of 2 December 2004. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2004-2006/ 2004/Lei/L10.973.htm 33 Federal Law No. 8,854, of 10 February 1994. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/leis/l8854.htm 34 Presidential Decree No. 8,868, of 4 October 2016. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato20152018/2016/decreto/D8868.htm 35 Presidential Decree No. 1,953, of 10 July 1996. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/decreto/1996/ d1953.htm 36 Federal Law No. 10,973, of 2 December 2004. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2004-2006/ 2004/lei/l10.973.htm 37 Federal Law No. 13,243, of 11 January 2016. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2015-2018/ 2016/Lei/L13243.htm#art2 38 Presidential Decree No. 9,283, of 7 February 2018. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato20152018/2018/decreto/d9283.htm 39 www.gov.br/aeb/pt-br/assuntos/noticias/first-companies-to-launch-non-governmental-lau nches-from-the-alcantara-spaceport-announced

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Fig. 2 The former Sonda IV pad

Fig. 3 The suborbital launchpad (universal launcher)

The four selected companies will operate at the Alcântara Space Center (CEA), which should not be confused with the Alcântara Launch Center (CLA) - the Air Force unit that coordinates the physical base, whereas the CEA is a created entity that virtually manages the means available for granting information, encompasses

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Fig. 4 Airport

Fig. 5 TMI (in the middle of the Preparation and Launch Sector)

the resources obtained by the Barreira do Inferno Center (CLBI), such as the tracking part.40 Below are the aspects that each company will operate:41

40

Alcântara Space Center (CEA) - Perspectives of The Private Segment for Commercial Operations, OAB Santos, October 2021, www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9MRsa3pkHo&t=1860s 41 Planalto, News - Technology: Companies Announced to Participate in Alcântara Center Operations, Presidency of the Republic (gov.br), April 2021, www.gov.br/planalto/pt-br/acompanhe-o-pla nalto/noticias/2021/04/anunciadas-empresas-para-participar-de-operacoes-do-centro-de-alcantara

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• Hyperion-Spaceport Brasil (U.S.), which will operate the VLS platform system; • Orion Ast (U.S.), which will act on the suborbital launcher; • Virgin Orbit (U.S.), which will be responsible for the Alcântara Airport, which forms part of the base; and • C6 Launch (Canada), which will operate the Profiler Area that is also a launch point. Canadian company C6 Launch has as objective the allocation of small payloads (nano satellites and CubeSat) inside its launch vehicle to carry out an orbital flight that will launch the objects to their destination orbit. To achieve its goals, the company bases its action plan through the establishment of partnerships with local companies aiming in the future to acquire national components and technologies for the manufacture of its vehicle in Brazil, in addition it intends to use national labor.42 The American company Virgin Orbit intends to apply its expertise to develop space activities operating from the Alcântara airport, thus, it will have its Aircraft that have high technology at a global level. Its performance will be in the following areas: mobile mission control; trailerized ground support equipment; and Aircraft as a launch platform.43 The American Company Hyperion—Spaceport Brazil aims to develop, operationalize and operate infrastructure for the preparation and launch of satellites and space vehicles in Brazil, in addition to providing commercial spacecraft and space vehicle launch services; finally, it aims to import and export equipment, materials, products, services related to its activities and carry out transport operations.44 The companies justifications reflect in the great advance that the Brazilian Space Program has suffered in recent years, bringing greater security to investors, as well as the privileged characteristics of the country such as wealth in natural resources, structure, specialized professionals and especially the strategic location of its Launch Centers located near the equator line. In general, the aforementioned contributions and the inclusion of CEA in the global market will reflect in benefits for several key sectors in Brazil.

6.2 The II Public Call (2021) The II Public Call was made through Notice AEB No. 07/2021. The legal framework invoked was: Law No. 8,854, of 10 February 1994,45 Decree No. 10,469, of 19 August

42

Alcântara Space Center (CEA) - Perspectives of The Private Segment for Commercial Operations, OAB Santos, October 2021, www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9MRsa3pkHo&t=1860s. 43 Ibid. 44 Ibid. 45 Federal Law No. 8,854, of 10 February 1994. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/leis/l8854.htm

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Fig. 6 Annex I of the Notice AEB No. 07/2021

2020,46 Decree No. 1,953, of 10 July 1996,47 Law No. 10,973, of 2 December 2004,48 amended by Law No. 13,243, of 11 January 201649 and regulated by Decree No. 9,283, of 7 February 2018,50 and Cooperation Agreement No. 01/2020. The object of the II Public Call is to make available Union goods and services for the operationalization of the orbital launch of non-military space vehicles, from area 4, according to the perimeter delimited in the image in Annex I, using the Alcântara Space Center (CEA) (Fig. 6). The II Public Call will target the area of the former Alcântara Cyclone Space (ACS), the Brazil-Ukraine binational joint venture created in 2006. The initiative was officially cancelled on 16 July 2015. In 2018, the Brazilian government sent the Provisional Measure No. 858 to the National Congress to extinguish the binational company. The Provisional Measure was converted into Law No. 13,814, of 17 April 2019.51

46 Presidential Decree No. 10,469, of 19 August 2020. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato20192022/2020/decreto/D10469.htm 47 Presidential Decree No. 1,953, of 10 July 1996. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/decreto/1996/ d1953.htm 48 Federal Law No. 10,973, of 2 December 2004. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2004-2006/ 2004/lei/l10.973.htm 49 Federal Law No. 13,243, of 11 January 2016. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2015-2018/ 2016/Lei/L13243.htm#art2 50 Presidential Decree No. 9,283, of 7 February 2018. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato20152018/2018/decreto/d9283.htm 51 Federal Law No. 13,814, of 17 April 2019. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2019-2022/2019/lei/L13814.htm

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Area 04 of the CEA (Lat: -2.3033, Long: -44,4007) is located in the area of the CLA, a military organization of the FAB. The area comprises several buildings in varying degrees of conservation. The II Public Call was attended by some companies and is currently in progress.52

7 AEB Ordinance No. 698/2021 As previously mentioned, the AEB Ordinance No. 698, of 31 August 2021,53 has instituted the REB, divided in two different parts: while Part 154 deals with the procedures and requirements for the issuance of the Operator’s License for conducting space launch activities from Brazilian territory, Part 255 establishes procedures for the granting of Launch Authorizations by the AEB. Although the recently-published standards are not unprecedented—once they substitute previous norms that have been simultaneously revoked—, major adjustments and updates have been implemented to, among other reasons, bring Brazilian regulation in line with international standards, especially the relevant norms issued by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) of the United States of America. Before explaining the main standards for each procedure established by such new norms, it is important to state their difference in terms of applicability. While the Operator’s License seeks to approve the execution of space activities and launch in Brazil,56 the authorization to conduct the space operation itself from Brazilian territory is only granted by the Launch Authorization, to which the Operator’s License is a prerequisite.57

7.1 Operator’s License The Operator’s License regulation is applicable to legal entities headquartered or with representatives in Brazil seeking to execute space launches and flight trials.58 Considering that such license is valid for five years and renewable successively for equal terms, an operator shall demonstrate its qualification during the application process, which includes legal documents—such as the evidence of (i) head office or 52

Until the closing of this edition. AEB Ordinance No. 698, of 2021. 54 REB Part 01, of 31 August 2021. www.gov.br/aeb/pt-br/servicos/licenciamento/copy_of_REB_ Parte01LicenadeOperadoragosto2021.pdf. 55 REB Part 02, of 31 August 2021. www.gov.br/aeb/pt-br/servicos/licenciamento/copy2_of_REB_ Parte02AutorizaodeLanamentoagosto2021.pdf. 56 REB Part 01, of 2021, p. 4. 57 REB Part 02, of 2021, pp. 6–7. 58 REB Part 01, of 2021, p. 5. 53

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legal representation with powers to receive subpoenas and respond administratively and judicially, and (ii) labor and tax regularity—and technical qualification, provided by means of proof of aptitude for the proposed activities.59 Associated legal entities and consortiums are entitled to apply for the Operator’s License as long as they fulfil additional requirements, such as the signature of a public or private commitment for the constitution of such association or consortium, as well as the appointment of the leader legal entity of the collective body, which will be responsible for complying with the duties related to the license issued, even though joint liability may be admitted.60 The documents necessary for the issuance of the Operator’s License will be subject to the analysis and judgment of the Special Licensing Commission, designated by the President of the AEB and integrated by at least three members.61 Considering that the elaboration of an opinion on the issuance of the Operator’s License is also an attribution of the commission, as soon as the documents are judged and such opinion is issued, the administrative process will be submitted to the President of the AEB, and the license must be granted in up to 30 calendar days following the Special Licensing Commission’s homologation of the technical note.62 Considering the importance of the subject, especially concerning safety matters, the AEB may demand the control, monitoring and inspection of the activities carried out by the licensee while the Operator’s License is still valid, and, to that end, AEB may hire third parties to provide specialized technical services or sign adjustments with public or private bodies or entities.63 Since the inspection activities may entitle the AEB representative to access sensitive information of the licensee, AEB undertakes, in the new standards, to keep the confidential nature of such data, disclosure to third parties being prohibited.64

7.2 Launch Authorization As mentioned above, one of the features of the new standards is the harmonization with internationally-recognized regulations. Especially concerning the Launch Authorization, a specific provision has been added in order to establish that a party in compliance with the FAA 14 CFR Part 450 (namely the Launch and Reentry Licensing Requirements) is also complying with the new Brazilian regulation on the matter, except for some reserved items.65 Therefore, international players already

59

REB Part 01, of 2021, pp. 5–6. REB Part 01, of 2021, pp. 5–7. 61 REB Part 01, of 2021, p. 7. 62 REB Part 01, of 2021, pp. 7–8. 63 REB Part 01, of 2021, p. 8. 64 REB Part 01, of 2021, p. 9. 65 REB Part 02, of 2021, p. 9. 60

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following the relevant FAA guidelines may find it easier to operate in Brazil, making the domestic space sector more attractive. Similarly, to the Operator’s License requirements, the Launch Authorization rules apply to Brazilian legal entities, or entities with representatives in the country, seeking to conduct private space launch operations from Brazilian territory.66 The rules for the Launch Authorization also apply to private operations carried out abroad by Brazilian companies, and do not apply to military launch activities conducted by the Brazilian Armed Forces, under the responsibility of COMAER.67 Although the Launch Authorization is granted for an indefinite term, some important requirements must be fulfilled.68 By way of example, the application for a Launch Authorization requires the prior obtainment of an Operator’s License, and the authorized party must hire an insurance, which shall cover damages caused to third parties and to the infrastructure of the public launch center.69 Thus, in case the parameters required for conducting a duly authorized launch activity are no longer fulfilled or have changed, it is possible to deduce that the Launch Authorization may be removed from its holder or revoked.70 The space launch itself will be controlled, monitored and inspected by the Special Licensing Commission of the AEB, and the commercial information obtained by the public authorities as a result of such attributions must be kept confidential.71 Although some information are considered confidential, the AEB must also keep a public record of the Launch Authorizations issued, as well as a registry for the inscription of specific space objects launched from Brazilian territory.72 Lastly, it is worth mentioning that the new standards bring important provisions on the elaboration of a flight hazard analysis, in order to assess the likelihood of eventual hazards and describe measures to mitigate the foreseeable risks associated with space activities.73 These provisions are particularly relevant, considering that the authorized party operating space launches is responsible for assuring, for example, the public and property safety during a launch or reentry.74 Innospace is an aerospace/defense manufacturing and engineering service providing corporation headquartered in South Korea. As a world leader in hybrid rocket technology, its developing hybrid rocket powered smallsat launchers to provide low-cost, low-latency, and reliable launch services in the rapidly expanding small satmarket. Holding the “Operator’s License” to provide space launches out of the Alcântara Space Center in Brazil, it will commence commercial launches from 2023. 66

REB Part 02, of 2021, p. 7. Ibid. 68 REB Part 02, of 2021, p. 8. 69 REB Part 02, of 2021, p. 7. 70 REB Part 02, of 2021, pp. 8 and 118. 71 REB Part 02, of 2021, pp. 9–10. 72 REB Part 02, of 2021, p. 12. 73 REB Part 02, of 2021, pp. 49–50. 74 REB Part 02, of 2021, p. 118. 67

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Innospace will operate in Brazil through international cooperation with a focus on sharing technology seeking to strengthen ties between Brazil and South Korea, therefore, negotiations have already been initiated by its representatives with the DCTA. The company’s objective is to carry out launches by the CEA through three launchers that the company aims to build, according to updates from its representative, the company already has licenses to operate.75

8 U.S.-Brazil Technology Safeguards Agreement Globalization through its technological advances connects contemporary society in real time regardless of how far away people are. Thus, due to the easy access to communication, the current scenario of International Relations is marked by the strengthening of ties between different cultures, forming new partnerships between Nations in favor of a proactive and collaborative work that aims to benefit both parties. Therefore, it is necessary to use the International Cooperation mechanism, which consists of joining efforts between two or more agents that aim to solve a common problem, or even to structure projects that have the same purpose. The action takes place through the establishment of partnerships and international agreements in various themes that can be applied in different fields, such as State, judicial, investigative, administrative measures, among others that would be difficult to act alone. The Brazilian Government currently has an extremely structured International Cooperation sector within the Ministry of Foreign Affairs that works in the following areas76 : • • • • •

Brazilian Cooperation Agency; Educational Cooperation; Sports Cooperation; Brazilian Humanitarian Cooperation; and Technical Cooperation.

In addition to the relevant action in the fields mentioned above, the mechanism is applied by different national government agencies that work in partnership to implement a State Policy, as is the case of the joint signature of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MRE) and Ministry of State for Defense, in the partnership signed between Brazil and the

75

Alcântara Space Center (CEA) - Perspectives of The Private Segment for Commercial Operations, OAB Santos, October 2021, www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9MRsa3pkHo&t=1860s. 76 Ministry of Foreign Affairs - International Cooperation, June 2021, www.gov.br/mre/pt-br/ass untos/cooperacao-internacional.

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United States of America (U.S.) in the U.S.-Brazil Technology Safeguards Agreement related to the Participation of the United States of America (AST) in Launches from the Alcântara Space Center (CEA).77 The bilateral agreement signed in March 2019 between Brazil, an important strategic player in South America, and the United States of America, one of the great Space-Faring Nations, aims to confirm the commitment to protect the technological data of both countries. Furthermore, it was agreed that the U.S. authorizes Brazil to launch rockets and spacecraft, with peaceful purposes, of any nationality containing American components; in return, Brazil authorizes the use of its Alcântara Space Center as a launching base for space objects from any countries that have American components, following the agreement model used by some States, such as: China, Ukraine, Russia, India and New Zealand.78 According to the Brazilian Government, the partnership will boost the growth of the Brazilian space sector, impacting in axes such as the growth of its national space industry which will generate new jobs, technological cooperation, the production of scientific knowledge and high-level research, as well as the recognition of Brazil as an act player in the space sector. Furthermore, the Government found that79 : In twenty years, it is estimated that, due to the non-approval of the AST, Brazil lost approximately US$ 3.9 billion (approximately R$ 15 billion) in revenues from unrealized launches, considering only 5% of the launches that occurred in the world during this period, in addition to not developing the technological and regional tourism potential. The global space market has been growing continuously and is expected to go from the current US$350 billion a year to reach US$1 trillion a year by 2040. With the approval of the AST, Brazil can enter this market, even with the conservative target of occupying 1% of the global space business volume (US$ 10 billion per year from 2040) and will consolidate Brazil as a strong player in the launch segment. Thus, the country will leverage its entire space program.

Thus, it is evident that Brazil will benefit from the results of the work in different fields, especially the region adjacent to the CEA, which will have a great development due to the growing number of activities in the place; in addition, the advantages will also be extended to the U.S., which will have the best global position for the launch of its space objects, reaffirming the purpose and effects of the partnership through International Cooperation. The Brazil and United States Technology Safeguards Agreement entered into effect in Brazil through Decree No. 10,220, of 5 February 2020, which presents a structure of ten articles, which provide guidelines, technical information, duties and

77

Knowing The Deal of Safeguards Technological Brazil And United States - U.S-Brazil Technology Safeguards Agreement, February 2020, www.gov.br/aeb/pt-br/centrais-de-conteudo/public acoes/acordo-de-salvaguardas-tecnologicas/ast.pdf. 78 Ibid. 79 Knowing The Deal of Safeguards Technological Brazil And United States - U.S-Brazil Technology Safeguards Agreement, February 2020, www.gov.br/aeb/pt-br/centrais-de-conteudo/public acoes/acordo-de-salvaguardas-tecnologicas/ast.pdf.

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obligations on how the partnership and activities should be developed aiming at the best result for both parties.80

9 Artemis Accords—Space Resources—The Hague International Space Resources Governance Working Group The contemporary scenario in which the space sector is inserted is called New Space—Space 4.0 and is a clear reflection of globalization and its products that, with the advancement of technology and industry, allow the development of new space activities, such as the exploration of space resources. According to the European Space Agency (ESA), the periods experienced by the space sector since its formation are divided into four phases and occur in synchrony with the development of the industry sector81 : • Space 1.0—marked by the study of astronomy and astrophysics, which had great contributions from pioneer scientists Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, Robert Goddard and Hermann Oberth; • Space 2.0: Cold War period that gave rise to the famous Space Race and the conquest of the first great feats of the space sector (Sputnik I, Vostok Mission, Apollo Missions, among others); • Space 3.0: formation of the International Space Station (ISS), a period marked by the strong use of the international cooperation instrument; and • Space 4.0: known as the New Space era, where the performance of new actors in the space sector beyond the States is a reality. Here, the work is developed through partnerships and international cooperation between States (Space Agencies and Space Programs), academia, industry/private sector and civil society as a whole for the advancement of technology and space activities. The timeline classifications on the historical evolution of the space sector show its development in a positive way, activities that were previously just ideas with a proposal to be implemented in a distant future scenario, today, show as a reality that is accessible on account of the work developed in cooperation by agents from different sectors. In the words of the space company Thales Alenia located in France, the positive effects of the current situation in the space sphere are clear82 :

80

Presidential Decree No. 10,220, of 5 February 2020 - U.S.-Brazil Technology Safeguards Agreement, www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2019-2022/2020/decreto/D10220.htm. 81 European Space Agency – ESA. What is space 4.0? – Ministerial Council 2016, www.esa.int/ About_Us/Ministerial_Council_2016/What_is_space_4.0 82 Thales Alenia - Space 4.0: Unlocking Value Via The Digital Transformation, June 2020, www. thalesgroup.com/en/worldwide/space/news/space-40-unlocking-value-digital-transformation

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Up to a few short years ago, space was synonymous with government spending: the high costs and risks involved made the sector generally inaccessible to private players. Today, major technology advances and a new entrepreneurial spirit are rapidly shaping a new space economy. We are seeing the emergence of private companies that discern unrivaled commercial opportunities in space exploration and exploitation thanks to disruptive technologies and the data revolution.

Faced with a new space economy, one activity that has been developed at an accelerated level and which was mentioned by the company Thales is the space resources exploration, according to The Hague International Space Resources Governance Working Group,83 the Working Group that was formed by several agents to formulate a specific regulatory framework for the aforementioned activity, space resources and exploration consist of: • Space resource: an extractable and/or recoverable abiotic resource in situ in outer space. According to the understanding of the Working Group, this includes mineral and volatile materials, including water, but excludes (a) satellite orbits; (b) radio spectrum; and (c) energy from the sun except when collected from unique and scarce locations.84 • Space resource activity: an activity conducted in outer space for the purpose of searching for space resources, the recovery of those resources and the extraction of raw mineral or volatile materials therefrom, including the construction and operation of associated extraction, recovery, processing and transportation systems.85 According to Articles 1 and 2 of the OST (1967), an exploration of space including the Moon and other celestial bodies is allowed to all States, provided that they aim at peaceful use for the benefit of all humankind and should foster international cooperation without any type of discrimination; In addition, the activity must take place in accordance with International Law, respecting the classification of the space as “Province of All Mankind”, which gave the space the status of “International Territory” thus not being able to suffer appropriation by proclamation of sovereignty, by use or occupation of any State.86 Another important observation to be made regarding the analysis of the OST guidelines, is that due to the status of International Territory, space must be understood as Global Commons, videlicet, the natural resources present in the space environment are extremely relevant to society, therefore its domain is outside

83

The Hague International Space Resources Governance Working Group, www.universiteitlei den.nl/en/law/institute-of-public-law/institute-of-air-space-law/the-hague-space-resources-govern ance-working-group 84 Building Blocks (BB) – BB 2.1, www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/rechtsgeleer dheid/instituut-voor-publiekrecht/lucht--en-ruimterecht/space-resources/bb-thissrwg--cover.pdf 85 Building Blocks (BB) – BB 2.3, www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/rechtsgeleer dheid/instituut-voor-publiekrecht/lucht--en-ruimterecht/space-resources/bb-thissrwg--cover.pdf. 86 Outer Space Treaty (OST) - 1967, 27 January 1967, www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/ treaties/outerspacetreaty.html.

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national jurisdiction and can be accessed by everyone. Furthermore, this classification includes the understanding that all activities carried out in the global common domain space must be reflected in the Benefit Sharing, reaffirming the consonance with the guidelines and principles of the OST and the United Nations Charter.87 Moreover, The Moon Agreement (1979), one of the five main Space Law Treaties, specifically regulates the exploration activity on the Moon and other Celestial Bodies with its guidelines being in line with the OST Principles. Article 6 of the Agreement directs that the States that take samples of space resources must make these available to other States, emphasizing the logic of Benefit Sharing. Also in this sense, Article 11 classifies the Moon and its Resources as “Common Heritage of Mankind”, thus prohibiting their appropriation by proclamation of sovereignty. In addition, to develop the activity, Article 11 brings in its item 5 the need for States to draw up an International Regime establishing the procedures to make the activity functional according to the objectives listed in item 7 of the same article, and it is noteworthy that item 7.d again mentions the need for the application of Benefit Sharing, mainly aiming at the interests and needs of developing countries.88 However, the States never reached an agreement to form the International Regime proposed by Article 11. Furthermore, the Treaty has only 18 member states, which ranks as the space agreement with the fewest accessions. The justification for low adhesion varies according to the understanding and interest of each State, in the same way, when economic potential of space activities increases the divergence regarding legal interpretations increases too.89 As much as the main Space Treaties mention about space exploration, their guidelines do not address the activity in a specific way, thus leaving several gaps on the theme that once again fosters divergent interpretations. Thus, the United States of America, Luxembourg, the United Arab Emirates and Japan sanctioned national legislation that regulates the development of space resources exploration, encouraging their industries to develop technology that makes the activity viable.90 In the same vein, the University of Leiden in the Netherlands through its International Institute of Air and Space Law, formed The Hague International Space Resources Governance Working Group in 2015, a working group guided by the Global Governance mechanism that was attended by several actors from different branches of the space sector to formulate an international framework called Building Blocks. The framework presents a structure of 20 articles that aim to guide the activity of space resources exploration in line with the main Treaties and Principles of Space

87

Marina Stephanie Ramos Huidobro, International Governance of Space Resources: Regulatory Perspectives (Master’s Degree Dissertation - University Catholic of Santos), 13 October 2021. 88 Moon Agreement - 1979 (Agreement Governing The Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies), 5 december 1979, www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/moonagreement.html 89 Marina Stephanie Ramos Huidobro, International Governance of Space Resources: Regulatory Perspectives (Master’s Degree Dissertation - University Catholic of Santos), 13 October 2021. 90 Ibid.

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Law.91 The acceptance of the material is extremely fruitful generating positive results in the main discussion forums in the space sector and especially in the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS). The space resource exploration is undoubtedly one of the activities that most has driven the space sector inspiring States and agents to launch missions in the coming years, such as the Artemis Mission of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in partnership with other countries through bilateral agreements. The Artemis Mission was named the twin sister of the Apollo Missions and aims to continue the program that took the first man to the Moon in 1969, now in the twenty-first century the goal is to carry out the next Moon landing taking the first woman and first person of color, as well plain practice the space resource exploration activity92 : NASA will land the first woman and first person of color on the Moon, using innovative technologies to explore more of the lunar surface than ever before. We will collaborate with commercial and international partners and establish the first long-term presence on the Moon. Then, we will use what we learn on and around the Moon to take the next giant leap: sending the first astronauts to Mars.

As mentioned, the logic of the program operates through bilateral agreements signed between NASA representing the interests of the United States of America and other States that aim to contribute to the accomplishment of the mission through international cooperation, the program also established some principles grounded in the OST that should guide the activity, they are93 : • Peaceful Exploration: All activities conducted under the Artemis program must be for peaceful purposes; • Transparency: Artemis Accords signatories will conduct their activities in a transparent fashion to avoid confusion and conflicts; • Interoperability: Nations participating in the Artemis program will strive to support interoperable systems to enhance safety and sustainability; • Emergency Assistance: Artemis Accords signatories commit to rendering assistance to personnel in distress; • Registration of Space Objects: Any nation participating in Artemis must be a signatory to the Registration Convention or become a signatory with alacrity; • Release of Scientific Data: Artemis Accords signatories commit to the public release of scientific information, allowing the whole world to join us on the Artemis journey; • Preserving Heritage: Artemis Accords signatories commit to preserving outer space heritage; 91

Building Blocks (BB): www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/rechtsgeleerdheid/ins tituut-voor-publiekrecht/lucht--en-ruimterecht/space-resources/bb-thissrwg--cover.pdf. 92 National Aeronautics and Space Administration – NASA, Artemis Accords, 13 October 2020, www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/ 93 National Aeronautics and Space Administration – NASA. NASA, International Partners Advance Cooperation with First Signings of Artemis Accords, 13 October 2020, www.nasa.gov/press-rel ease/nasa-international-partners-advance-cooperation-with-first-signings-of-artemis-accords

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• Space Resources: Extracting and utilizing space resources is key to safe and sustainable exploration and the Artemis Accords signatories affirm that such activities should be conducted in compliance with the OST (1967); • Deconfliction of Activities: The Artemis Accords nations commit to preventing harmful interference and supporting the principle of due regard, as required by the OST (1967); and • Orbital Debris: Artemis Accords countries commit to planning for the safe disposal of debris. Sharing the interest in developing the space resources exploration and taking the next human being to the Moon, 13 countries have already joined the Artemis Accords, among them Brazil, which in July 2021 joined the cooperation agreement through the signature of the current President of Brazil, Jair Bolsonaro, and the Minister of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), Marcos Pontes. During the partnership celebration ceremony, the State representatives uttered the following words: “Brazil has enormous potential and will show its value now, in this great agreement, in this Artemis project, not just to take a woman into space, but what we can bring from space to apply here on Earth. For us, this date is a big step, it is a source of pride for all of us Brazilians”.94 Brazil was the only country in South America that joined the Artemis Accords so far, its inclusion in the project is extremely relevant as it is a strategic player in this region. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that over the last three years Brazil has invested heavily in its Brazilian Space Program, which has a structure that has a Launch Center-Alcântara Launch Center (CLA) located in an extremely privileged position for the launch of satellites and the Barreira do Inferno Launch Center (CLBI)-and a National Institute for Space Research (INPE) that has developed relevant products for the advancement of the space sector, many through international cooperation with other States.95 Also, aiming to support the development of the country’s national policy, the Federal Government has invested heavily in the space education sector through the granting of scholarships in different academic fields (engineering, law, medicine, astronomy, physics, geology, among others). Thus, in addition to Brazil having superqualified professionals in various areas of the space sector, it has an abundant wealth of natural resources, which helps in the development of activities in the sector, thus being able to contribute positively to the Artemis Mission.96

94

Brazil joins NASA’s initiative that will take the first woman to the Moon: Cooperation with the U.S. agency seeks to bring advances to the Brazilian Space Program and train researchers, 15 June 2021, www.gov.br/planalto/pt-br/acompanhe-o-planalto/noticias/2021/06/brasil-adere-ainiciativa-da-nasa-que-levara-a-primeira-mulher-a-lua 95 Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI) - Brazilian Space Agency: Brazilian Space Program, 4 September 2020, www.gov.br/aeb/pt-br/programa-espacial-brasileiro 96 Ibid.

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In view of all the above, we verify that the activity of space resources exploration is a reality that has been developing at an accelerated level by investment in the space sector through partnership and international cooperation to make the activity a reality. The theme has encouraged actors to develop missions and has gained prominence in the main discussion forums in the space sector, mainly in the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), which in its last meeting at Legal Subcommittee in 2021 decided to form a specific Working Group to debate the theme of Space Resources, consolidating the current scenario of New Space.97

10 Concluding Remarks This chapter addressed the Brazilian Space Policies and their results implemented through the action of its Space Program (PEB). Therefore, the scientific work began its approach reporting on the History of the CLA, followed by the theme of General Space Legislation in Brazil; The Brazilian Space Program Development Committee (CDPEB); Cooperation Agreement No. 01/2020; Public Call I and II; AEB Ordinance No. 698/2021 (Operator’s License/Launch Authorization); U.S.-Brazil Technology Safeguards Agreement; concluding with an approach to the Artemis Accords—Space Resources—The Hague International Space Resources Governance Working Group. Faced with the current space themes, it is observed that recent Brazilian efforts are committed to relevant issues to boost the growth of its space sector, which in turn reflect in the development of the society that is actually dependent on space technology to guide from everyday activities to even its trivial axes. Furthermore, it is evident that Brazil has sought to be inserted in the global space context, since its practices are in line with the foreign initiatives and policies of relevant Space Faring Nations, seeking whenever possible to form alliances and work in cooperation. The Brazilian Government established that space activities comprise a complex dynamic of aggregation and generation of value, including technological innovations that demand specific infrastructure, and deliver products with high added value to society. This process moves other economic chains and generates value in several markets in the space sector.98 Space applications range from the education sector; economy; technological development; navigation; meteorology; communications; environmental data; earth observation and data collection; satellite images for monitoring the traffic, borders and defense sector; agribusiness; research that results in the improvement of safety equipment for firefighters, engineering, nutrition, among others; advances in the medical sector (pressure meter kits, computed tomography, intensive care units,

97

Marina Stephanie Ramos Huidobro, International Governance of Space Resources: Regulatory Perspectives (Master’s Degree Dissertation - University Catholic of Santos), 13 October 2021. 98 Brazilian Space Agency: Brazilian Space Program - Investments, 06 March 2020, www.gov.br/ aeb/pt-br/programa-espacial-brasileiro/investimentos

26

I. Grosner et al.

among others); clean energy sources (solar panels) and several other benefits that add great value to the community as a whole.99 Thus, in addition to directly impacting trivial activities and areas, the Brazilian PEB initiatives are gaining prominence and positive relevance in the main discussion forums about the space sector, as well as serving as a national and regional reference, making clear the Brazilian State’s interest to actively participate in a positive and cooperative way for the progress of the global space sector.

Ian Grosner is an air and space law expert and a Brazilian federal attorney with over 26 years of unique experience in the public sector. He has a master degree (LL.M.) from the University of Leiden (The Netherlands) in Air & Space Law (2017–2018). Since 2019, he has been serving as a coordinator at the Legal Affairs Department of the Executive Office of the President of Brazil. He is the current Vice-President of the Chair of Air and Space Law from the Bar Association of the Federal District in Brazil (OAB/DF). In 2019–2020 he was a member of the Working Group 12 of the Brazilian Commission for Space Activities, which developed a draft bill of the Brazilian national space law. He has created, organized and mediated the 1st and the 2nd Space Law Seminar at Brazilian Bar Association in 2020 and 2021. Also, he gave the 1st space law course at the Superior School of Lawyers in Brasília (Brazil). Since 2021, he has been the correspondent of SpaceWatch.Global for Brazil. He is a founding member of IASSInternational Academy of Space Studies. He is a visiting Professor (Space Law) at the Catholic University of Santos (Brazil). Since 2021, he has been a member of the International Institute of Space Law-IISL. Adriana Simões is a partner at Mattos Filho, Veiga Filho, Marrey Jr. e Quiroga Advogados, based in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. She specializes in aviation law, focusing on contractual and regulatory matters. She has solid experience in commercial contracts, tax and corporate law concerning aviation, as well as a substantial knowledge in the regulation issued by the Brazilian National Civil Aviation Agency (ANAC). Her experience includes drafting purchase and sale agreements for aircraft and aircraft equipment, aircraft financing and leasing in the commercial and business aviation sectors. She is a member of the Aviation Working Group (AWG), the Aviation Law Committee and Space Law Committee of the International Bar Association (IBA), the International Aviation Womens Association (IAWA), as well as the Brazilian Bar Association Aeronautical Law Commission, São Paulo Section (OAB/SP). Marina Stephanie Ramos Huidobro is a Brazilian Lawyer registered at the Brazilian Bar Association (OAB). She holds a Master Degree (LL.M.) in International and Space Law from the Catholic University of Santos (2019–2021). She is currently Member and Directress of Institutional Relations of the Research Group on Space Law and Policy at the Catholic University of Santos, Observer at The Hague International Space Resources Governance Working Group Leiden University, Netherlands (2019) and Observer at the Global Expert Group on Sustainable Lunar Activities (GEGSLA)-Moon Village Association, Vienna—Austria. Authoress of scientific articles, book chapters and a thesis on International Law and Space Law published in Brazil and internationally. Member of the Aeronautical, Airport and Space Law Commission of the Brazilian Bar Association of the Federal District (OAB-DF). Member of the Brazilian Bar Association Aeronautical Law Commission, São Paulo Section (OAB/SP). Member of International Law and Relations Commission of the Brazilian Bar Association of Santos (OAB Santos/SP). Current Chair of the Space Law Commission of the Brazilian Bar Association of Santos (OAB Santos/SP).

99

Ibid.

Communication Satellites in South America: A Perspective from Peru Carlos Caballero León

Abstract Peru entered the space age in 2016 with the launch of the PerúSAT-1 Earth observation satellite. After five years, this program has proven to be successful and has allowed the development of new capabilities in the space domain at the national level. At the same time, the interest is oriented to decide what will be the future investment projects for the development of new space systems. In this sense, the development of a communications satellite appears as the first project of national necessity to be implemented. Therefore, it is interesting to know the experiences of the countries in the region that have developed their own systems to meet national needs. This study reviews the experiences of Argentina, Bolivia, and Brazil, the only countries that currently have communications satellites in South America, whose projects have been conducted with their particularities, similarities, and differences. Likewise, these experiences are compared with the Peruvian situation, to learn lessons that can guide the formulation of the Peruvian project.

1 Introduction In September 2016, Peru entered the space age thanks to the launch of the first Peruvian government satellite. Since then, PerúSAT-1, an optical-type Earth observation satellite, has been successfully used by the Peruvian Space Agency (CONIDA).1 PerúSAT-1 turned out to be a strategic decision. It is the most advanced technology and has been a disruptive solution in the country. It has transformed the procurement of spatial information to public institutions, has given greater power to the government in the framework of international relations and has been extremely profitable.

1

Carlos Caballero, et al., “PerúSAT-1 Earth Observation Systems: 2 Years of Success in Orbit and Preliminary Lessons”, 69th International Astronautical Congress (IAC 2018). C. Caballero León (B) CP Consult, Lima, Peru e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Froehlich (ed.), Space Fostering Latin American Societies, Southern Space Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97959-1_2

27

28

C. Caballero León

In five years of satellite operation, CONIDA has developed important capabilities to fulfill its new responsibility with satisfaction. There is a team of civilian and military officials trained in satellite systems. The National Center for Satellite Image Operations (CNOIS) has been built, to house the ground segment from which missions are planned, their execution is controlled and the state of health of the satellite is supervised. An important team of specialists in the treatment of satellite images has been developed in public institutions, research centers, and universities. International cooperation agreements have been set up with countries that, like Peru, have means in space, to share capacities, information, and experiences. The entry of Peru into this new dimension has aroused, in parallel, a wide interest in the study of national problems that can be solved through the development of future investment projects in space systems. In this sense, one of the issues that has appeared in the first place is the communications satellite. Given the complexity of its territory, Peru has a significant communications deficit at the level of rural localities. Even though in recent years US$2.136 million have been invested in fiber optic network implementation projects, in 2022 there are still 16.180 villages2 that do not have a project to close the connectivity gap. A communications satellite is essential to connect the population in the vast national territory. A system of this type can be strategic for economic development, national defense, and progress across all sectors. Thus, different institutions such as CONIDA and the College of Engineers of Peru have promoted events, the publication of articles and studies to discuss the need for a project to develop a communications satellite. In this framework, the experiences of the countries in the region having a communications satellite have drawn attention. To date, Argentina, Bolivia, and Brazil are the only South American countries that have operational communications satellites.3 So, this article aims to present the communications satellite projects undertaken by these three countries and to compare their situation with that of Peru, to learn lessons that can be used for a Peruvian project.

2

Office of Multiannual Investment Programming, “Gap Indicators: Percentage of Localities with at least one Public Entity without Fixed Internet Access Service Coverage”, Ministry of Transport and Communications, 17 January 2019, http://portal.mtc.gob.pe/estadisticas/inversiones/Indicadoresde-Brechas-2019.pdf. 3 In 2008 Venezuela put its Simón Bolívar or VeneSAT-1 satellite into orbit, at a cost of US$406 million. Despite having an expected lifetime of 15 years, this satellite was deactivated in 2020, due to apparent technical problems.

Communication Satellites in South America …

29

2 Argentina and the Program ARSAT Within the framework of the state policy of universal access to ICTs, the Argentine Satellite Solutions Company (ARSAT)4 has the strategic role of protecting the geostationary positions assigned to its country with nationally manufactured satellites, deploying the Federal Optical Fiber Network (REFEFO), the free of charge Digital Terrestrial Television Platform, and establishing a National Data Center. These four activities carried out synergistically have connectivity as a common factor and are the axes of the Connect 2020–2023 plan announced by President Alberto Fernández in September 2020. Currently, ARSAT, a public limited company with state capital, has 719 employees, issues an annual turnover of US$100 million, operates about 35.000 km of REFEFO, the digital terrestrial TV with 101 digital transmission channels reaching 1,3 million homes, the 4.200 m2 National Data Center with TIER 3 certification, and two communications satellites. To consolidate its growth, ARSAT foresees an investment of US$520 million financed mostly by loans from multilateral organizations.

2.1 Space Business As satellites are the complement to fiber optics to bring the Internet to rural areas that are expensive or difficult to reach by terrestrial means, ARSAT has ventured into the communications satellite business. Thus, the Argentine state company currently operates two satellites. The ARSAT-1 satellite was launched into space in 2014 at a cost of US$280 million, with a capacity of 1.152 MHz. The ARSAT-2 was launched into orbit in 2015 with an investment of US$250 million, with a capacity of 1.584 MHz. The ARSAT-1 and ARSAT-2 are conventional communications satellites, both with a useful life of 15 years, and operate for commercial purposes at 85% and 97% of their capacity, respectively. Sales of its satellite capacity in MHz are distributed 73% to private clients and 27% to state clients. With its satellites, ARSAT provides satellite capacity and TV, Internet, telephony and data services with hemispheric coverage in C band, and coverage in North and South America in Ku band; broadcasting of audio or video to TV or radio stations; occasional satellite use of data, voice or video for companies, mobile operators or governments; launch and early orbit phase (LEOP) services to launch and test geostationary satellites; and Ka band satellite capacity in the Argentine mountain range, through third-party capacity. Table 1 presents information on ARSAT-1 and ARSAT-2.

4

Pablo Tognetti, and Martín Fabris, “ARSAT and the Development of the Communication Satellites Industry in Argentina”, 5 April 2021, presentation at the International Forum Communication Satellites in South America: Experiences from Argentina, Bolivia, and Brazil, Lima, Peru.

30

C. Caballero León

Table 1 General Information on ARSAT-1 and ARSAT-2 ARSAT-1

ARSAT-2

Conventional geostationary communications satellite

Conventional geostationary communications satellite

Manufacturer

INVAP

INVAP

Orbital location

72° W

81° W

Launch vehicle and date

Ariane 5, 16 October 2014

Ariane 5, 29 September 2015

Lifetime

15 years

15 years

Power consumption

3.500 W

3.500 W

Launch weight

3t

3t

Coverage area

South America

North America and South America

Capacity (bandwidth)

1.152 MHz

1.584 MHz

Cost

US$280 million

US$250 million

Transponders

Ku band: 12 × 36 MHz 8 × 54 MHz 4 × 72 MHz

Ku band 12 × 72 MHz Extended Ku band 8 × 36 MHz C band 6 × 72 MHz

Type

Source Own research

2.2 Synergy Between Manufacturer and Satellite Operator ARSAT has created its satellite communications business thanks to the development achieved by the Argentine satellite industry. Indeed, since 1996, Argentina has developed eight satellites, all manufactured in its territory by INVAP,5 the state-owned high-tech industry, as the main contractor, with the participation of institutions from its national science and technology system and technology-based SMEs. In the field of Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites for Earth observation, INVAP has manufactured four satellites SAC B, A, C and D by order of the Argentine Space Agency (CONAE), in collaboration with the USA Space Agency (NASA), and two Argentine Microwave Observation Satellites SAOCOMM 1A and 1B equipped with a synthetic aperture radar, in collaboration with the Italian Space Agency (ASI). In the field of communications Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) satellites, INVAP has manufactured for ARSAT, the already mentioned ARSAT-1 and -2. For its part, ARSAT executes all the operations of its communications satellites, including flight dynamics activities and payload configurations. To do this, they have a team of engineers with more than 20 years of experience in satellite operations, development, implementation, and final validation of products, more than 200.000 h of proven flight experience, from launch, put into orbit, commissioning, GEO

5

INVAP, “ARSAT Satellites”, www.invap.com.ar/es/espacial-y-gobierno/proyectos-espaciales/sat elite-arsat.html.

Communication Satellites in South America …

31

operation, and de-orbiting. The Satellite Control Center (SCC) has its own software developed by ARSAT to support its missions.

2.3 Second Generation Satellite Plan The achievements to date allow ARSAT to increase its commitment to the future and they already plan the development of second-generation satellites. Since 2020, they have started manufacturing the ARSAT SG-1 satellite, which will be followed by the ARSAT SG-2 satellite. The ARSAT SG-1 mission plans to develop a High Throughput Satellite (HTStype) with 40 spots in Ka band and electric propulsion, which will provide Internet services to Argentina with 50 gigabit per second (Gbps) and to Bolivia, Chile, and Paraguay with 20 Gbps. For this, it is planned to deploy up to 200.000 very small aperture terminals (VSATs) in Argentina and 80.000 in Bolivia, Chile, and Paraguay with an estimated basic price of US$50,00 per month. The ARSAT SG-1 satellite is to be launched into space in the second semester of 2023 to come into operation at the beginning of 2024. This project has an estimated investment of US$253 million that considers the satellite and terrestrial control segments, seven ground gateways and 20.000 VSATs for the initial deployment. With a projected internal rate of return (IRR) of 12,5%, the company expects to recover the investment in six years and issue a total billing of US$870 million just for the commercialization of ARSAT SG-1 services, throughout 15 years of its useful life.

2.4 Satellite Communications: A Millionaire Industry In short, ARSAT is a state company that competes with private operators in the field of telecommunications in Argentina. Its business includes the operation of communications satellites, fiber optic networks, data center and digital terrestrial television, complementary products that are integrated horizontally within the company. At the same time, thanks to the Argentine space policy, INVAP produces communications satellites that ARSAT uses for its operation and marketing, with which the country manages to vertically integrate the products of both companies. In this way, Argentina has built a virtuous circle in the millionaire communications satellite industry, which in the case of the future ARSAT SG-1 alone will represent US$870 million in foreign currency that will remain within the national economy, to ensure connectivity of the country, develop world-class engineers and technicians, promote science and technology, and support the growth of a high-tech sector such as the space industry. Table 2 presents information on ARSAT SG-1.

32

C. Caballero León

Table 2 General information on ARSAT SG-1 ARSAT SG-1 project Type

Geostationary communications satellite, HTS multi spot, electrical propulsion

Manufacturer

INVAP

Orbital location 81° W Planned launch

Second Semester 2023

Lifetime

15 years

Launch weight

2t

Coverage area

Argentina (50 Gbps), Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay (20 Gbps)

Capacity

70 Gbps

Planned cost

US$253 million

Source Own research

3 Bolivia and the Tupac Katari-1 The Political Constitution of the Plurinational State of Bolivia adopted in February 2009, in its article 20, establishes that every person has the right, among other basic services, to universal and equitable access to telecommunications. With the aim of offering these services to the excluded rural population, which lives in very small towns with about 100 inhabitants each, the Bolivian Space Agency (ABE) was created in 2010. At the same time, the National Telecommunications Program for Social Inclusion (PRONTIS) was created, an entity in charge of the fund created from the fees imposed on the communications sector to finance rural projects. These projects were executed by the state-owned National Telecommunications Company Entel Bolivia. To have the system that allows small, isolated, remote, and excluded populations to be connected to the service, in December 2010 a contract was signed with China Great Wall Industry Corporation (CGWIC) to produce the Tupac Katari-1 (TKSAT-1)6 communications satellite, at a cost of US$302 million. In 2012, the construction of the Amachuma main ground station in El Alto de La Paz and La Guardia backup station in Santa Cruz de la Sierra began. On 20 December 2013, from the Xichang teleport in China, the TKSAT-1 satellite was launched into space, entering commercial service on 1 April 2014.

6

Iván Zambrana, “Túpac Katari Satellite Program”, 5 April 2021, presentation at the International Forum Communication Satellites in South America: Experiences from Argentina, Bolivia, and Brazil, Lima, Peru.

Communication Satellites in South America …

33

3.1 The TKSAT-1 The TKSAT-1, a conventional-type communications satellite, launched into orbit in 2013, is in the orbital position 87,2° West of the geostationary orbit. The TKSAT-1 has been built on a DFH-4 platform, with a 15-year lifetime. Its payload consisting of five antennas and 30 transponders provides a bandwidth of 1.232 MHz. In C band it has a bandwidth of 56 MHz with coverage throughout South America. In Ku band it covers with 792 MHz the territories of Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela, providing fixed satellite services. Exclusively for Bolivia, in Ku band it provides broadcasting services with 144 MHz and in Ka band with 240 MHz. The services offered by the TKSAT-1 are satellite segment; direct television to the home (DTH) with digital TV services and satellite radio; satellite Internet; transmission of data, images, and videos; cellular backhaul; telehealth services, digital access centers and temporary live broadcasts.

3.2 The Bolivian Space Agency and Its Achievements ABE is a Bolivian strategic public company created to operate the TKSAT-1. In practice, ABE is a highly productive and technological SME, with 60 employees, in charge of the two control stations in Amachuma and La Guardia, and the administrative commercial office in La Paz. It maintains an annual billing level of around US$25 million for the commercialization of satellite services.7 Bolivian law does not grant any preference to the national satellite and, on the contrary, foreign satellites pay less taxes than those paid by TKSAT-1. Despite this, 90% of the space segment currently used in Bolivia comes from its satellite. Likewise, they have achieved universal access to television by transmitting around 30 TV channels via satellite without encryption. So, any citizen anywhere in the country can access the service free of charge through an inexpensive reception kit. On the other hand, ABE claims that the prices of the satellite services offered in Bolivia are the lowest in the Andean region, compared to those found in countries such as Colombia, Ecuador, or Peru, which also puts pressure on foreign providers to lower their prices or, in the extreme, not to enter the Bolivian market due to the presence of TKSAT-1. Given that access to telecommunications is a right established in the Political Constitution and that rural telecommunications are not commercially profitable, the Bolivian State provides the financing for the provision of these services. In this sense, thanks to TKSAT-1, ABE has managed to connect 13.691 localities that concentrate

7

Bolivian Space Agency, “Space Agency raises US$90 million from Túpac Katari satellite services”, www.abe.bo/agencia-espacial-recauda-us-90-millones-servicios-del-satelite-tupackatari/.

34 Table 3 General information on Tupac Katari-1

C. Caballero León Tupac Katari-1 Type

Conventional geostationary communications satellite

Manufacturer

China Great Wall Industry Corporation (CGWIC)

Orbital location

87,2° W

Launch vehicle and date

LM.3BE, 20 December 2013

Lifetime

15 years

Launch weight

5,1 t

Coverage area

South America

Capacity (bandwidth)

1.232 MHz

Cost

US$302 million

Transponders

Ku band 26 × 36 MHz Ka band 2 × 120 MHz C band 2 × 28 MHz

Source Own research

more than 95% of the population. Given that the satellite is only 70% occupied, they estimate that they will be able to serve the remaining 5% of population.

3.3 Lessons Learned ABE asserts that a project of this type is complex due to the number of factors involved. While the TKSAT-1 was easy to implement thanks to the involvement of China space industry, ground infrastructure had a more complicated development. They consider that the political factor was decisive for the success of the project and that intersectoral coordination has been essential to achieve the goals recorded to date. Table 3 presents information on TKSAT-1.

4 Brazil and the SGDC-1 The Geostationary Satellite for Defense and Strategic Communications (SGDC)8 was born within a project that involved different public and private institutions in Brazil: the giant telecommunications company Telebras, the Ministry of Defense, the Ministry of Science, Technology, Innovation and Communications, the Brazilian Space Agency (AEB) and the National Institute for Space Research (INPE). 8

Sebastião do Nascimento Neto, “SGDC Project. Brazilian Experience”, 5 April 2021, presentation at the International Forum Communication Satellites in South America: Experiences from Argentina, Bolivia, and Brazil, Lima, Peru.

Communication Satellites in South America …

35

The SGDC is one of the largest telecommunications projects in Brazil in the last 20 years and aims to provide high-speed Internet to parts of the country where telecommunications companies have no commercial interest or technical capacity to operate, thus promoting digital and social inclusion. Given the enormous size of the project, it was necessary to have an organization with the ability to coordinate the effort between the different institutional actors. For this, in 2012, Visiona Tecnologia Espacial was created, a joint venture between Embraer Defesa & Segurança and Telebras, dedicated to the integration of space systems. In this sense, and to meet the goals of the National Space Activities Program (PNAE) and the Strategic Space Systems Program (PESE), Visiona Tecnologia Espacial was contracted in 2013 to be the main contractor for the SGDC Program.

4.1 The SGDC Program The Geostationary Satellite for Defense and Strategic Communications (SGDC) is a program of the Federal Government that has three main objectives: • Reduce the digital divide in Brazil by providing high-quality Internet services to 100% of the national territory as part of the National Broadband Plan. • Provide sovereign and secure means for strategic communications of the Brazilian Government and Defense. • Acquire critical technologies for the Brazilian space industry, allowing the national industry to assume increasingly important roles in future space programs. Brazil acquired its Geostationary Defense and Strategic Communications Satellite SGDC-1 from Thales Alenia Space of France at a cost of US$455 million. With a lifetime of 18 years, the SGDC-1 was launched into space on 4 May 2017, on the Ariane 5 rocket from the space center in French Guiana. The SGDC-1 is the first satellite fully operated and controlled by the federal administration.9 The SGDC-1 is operated by the Brazilian Air Force and by the state company Telebras. It is located at the 75° West position of the geostationary orbit. The satellite weighs 5,8 t and is 7 m tall. It is currently the only satellite owned by a country in South America with HTS-type technology. It is the first Brazilian satellite designed exclusively for high-speed, high-quality data transmission. With 58 Gbps of capacity, in the Ka band it covers all its national territory and its territorial sea (called the Blue Amazon). It also has the X band, which corresponds to 30% of the satellite capacity, for use in matters of defense and national sovereignty.

9

Telebras, “Geostationary Defense and Strategic Communications Satellite—SGDC”, www.tel ebras.com.br/telebras-sat/conheca-o-sgdc/.

36

C. Caballero León

Given that Telebras operates a 35.000 km fiber optic network at the same time as the communications satellite, Brazil demonstrates that both technologies are complementary. The SGDC-1 Ka band is operated by Telebras to meet private demand, while its X band is operated by the Air Force to exclusively serve the communications of the Brazilian Armed Forces. The satellite is enabling the connection of public schools, hospitals, health units and indigenous communities that did not have this access, thus promoting citizenship awareness, as well as equality and social justice. The goal is to expand the coverage of the satellite serving other social programs, optimizing its service capacity.

4.2 Technology Absorption Program The SGDC project considered the absorption of technologies by the Brazilian teams that worked with Thales Alenia Space teams, the satellite manufacturer. In 2016, the Technology Absorption Program was designed by Visiona with the participation of AEB, INPE, the Ministry of Defense and Telebras. This program covers all the technologies of construction and operation of the SGDC-1. The objective of this program was to train professionals for the control and command of the satellite, as well as to provide technology transfer on topics of interest to the Brazilian satellite industry. The issue of technology transfer is of particular importance to Brazil considering that it has plans to develop its next SGDC-2 satellite. Table 4 presents information on SGDC-1. Table 4 General information on SGDC-1

SGDC-1 Type

Geostationary communications satellite, HTS multi spot

Manufacturer

Thales Alenia Space

Orbital location

73,7° W

Launch vehicle and date

Ariane 5, 4 May 2017

Lifetime

18 years

Power consumption

12.000 W

Launch weight

5,8 t

Coverage area

Brazil, South Atlantic Ocean

Capacity

58 Gbps

Cost

US$455 million

Transponders

Ka band 50 X band 5

Source Own research

Communication Satellites in South America …

Manufacturer: CGWIC 15 years 20 December 2013 US$302 Million 1.232 MHz

37

Túpac Katari-1

Manufacturer: Thales SGDC-1 18 years 4 May 2017 US$455 million 58 Gbps

ARSAT-1

ARSAT-2

Manufacturer: INVAP 15 years 16 October 2014 US$280 million 1.152 MHz

Manufacturer: INVAP 15 years 30 September 2015 US$250 million 1.584 MHz

ARSAT SG-1 Project Manufacturer: INVAP 15 years 2023 US$253 million 70 Gbps

Fig. 1 Countries with communications satellite in South America. Source Own research

The countries currently having an own communications satellite in South America are shown in Fig. 1.

5 Peru and the Lack of an Own Satellite In contrast with Argentina, Bolivia, and Brazil that have developed their communications satellites in South America, Peru does not have an own satellite. To fulfill its needs, Peruvian government contracts satellite communication services with private foreign providers. Peruvian public entities contract satellite communication services independently, according to their priorities and resources. Contracting in this way turns out to be inefficient because it prevents from reaching economies of scale. Until 2020, the effective spending made each year by the Peruvian government, all the public entities included, to pay the contracted satellite communications services, amounts to US$21,7 million. In return, the bandwidth received for the effective spending per year is estimated at 511,158 MHz.10 Nevertheless, the effective spending per year has registered a significant increase in 2021. Indeed, the Peruvian government has contracted, for the first-time, satellite 10

Carlos Caballero León, and Wilfredo Fanola Merino, “Peruvian Government Spending on Satellite Communications. Foundations for a Communications Satellite Project for Peru”, Space Fostering Latin American Societies. Southern Space Studies, ed. Annette Froehlich (Cham: Springer, 2020).

38

C. Caballero León

communications services for 1.316 premises of public institutions in 1.304 population centers in the Amazonas, Loreto, Madre de Dios, and Ucayali regions, in the so-called “Conecta Selva” program. The effective annual spending derived from the “Conecta Selva” contract amounts to US$11,65 million.11 In return, a bandwidth of 200,5 MHz or the equivalent of 658 megabit per second (Mbps) is received, considering a spectral efficiency of 3,5 Bits/Hz in data download and 2,5 Bits/Hz in upload.12 In this sense, the current effective spending per year raises to US$33,35 million with an estimated received bandwidth of 711,658 MHz.13 The amount that Peru spends every year, projected over a period of 15 years,14 raises to a total of US$500,25 million.

6 Comparison of Different Communication Policies Countries adopt different policies to ensure connectivity. Argentina, Bolivia, and Brazil decided to have an own communications satellite. On the other hand, Peru contracts, in an inefficient manner, satellite communications services to private providers. So, it is interesting to assess the results of these different policies. To do this, we can compare the unit cost of Mbps per month resulting from the “Conecta Selva” contract in Peru, with the analog unit cost resulting from the investment made by Brazil to develop the SGDC-1 and the planned investment of Argentina for the ARSAT SG-1 project. For the Peruvian “Conecta Selva” contract, considering US$11,65 million spent in one year for 658 Mbps, the unit cost is: Unit Cost Mbps per month Peru =

US$11, 65 million 658 Mbps 12 months

= US$1.475, 43/Mbps/month

Resulting in a unit cost of US$1.475,43 per Mbps per month for Peru. The Mbps unit cost of SGDC-1 from Brazil results from considering US$455 million spent for 18 years, with a satellite capacity of 58 Gbps: Unit Cost Mbps per month Brazil =

US$455 million 58 Gbps 216 months

= US$36, 31/Mbps/month

The unit cost is US$36,31 per Mbps per month for the Brazilian SGDC-1. 11

Contracting of the “Satellite Internet Access Service for Public Institutions of the Amazon, Loreto, Madre de Dios, and Ucayali Regions - Conecta Selva”, Contract Nº 004-2021-MTC/24, Lima, Peru, 21 May 2021. 12 International Telecommunication Union, Definition of spectrum use and efficiency of a radio system (Geneva: International Telecommunication Union, 2017), 33. 13 Calculations by Carlos Caballero León and Wilfredo Fanola Merino. 14 The regular lifetime of a communications satellite is 15 years.

Communication Satellites in South America …

39

Fig. 2 Unit cost of Mbps per month for Peru, Brazil, and Argentina. Source Carlos Caballero León and Wilfredo Fanola Merino research

Finally, for Argentina and the ARSAT SG-1 project, the unit cost results from calculating US$253 million spent in 15 years, with a capacity of 70 Gbps: Unit Cost Mbps per month Argentina =

US$253 million 70 Gbps 180 months

= US$20, 1/Mbps/month The unit cost per Mbps per month is US$20,1/Mbps for the Argentine ARSAT SG-1 project. The resulting Mbps per month unit costs are shown in Fig. 2. The calculations show that because of the different policies adopted, Peru pays per Mbps per month a rate more than 40 times the unit cost of Brazil and more than 70 times the planned unit cost in the case of the ARSAT SG-1 project of Argentina. The evidence shows that is far more convenient for a country to develop an own communications satellite than contract satellite communications services in the inefficient way that Peru does. This also means that Peru has compelling arguments to seriously consider starting deeper studies on the development of a sovereign communications satellite.

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C. Caballero León

7 Conclusions Currently, Argentina, Bolivia, and Brazil are the only countries in South America to have an own communications satellite. Operated by ARSAT, Argentina has developed the ARSAT-1 and ARSAT-2 conventional communications satellites. The ARSAT SG-1 is an HTS-type project in execution. All the Argentine satellites are constructed in the country by INVAP. Bolivia has the Tupac Katari-1, produced by the Chinese CGWIC space industry. The TKSAT-1 is operated by the Bolivian Space Agency. The SGDC-1 is operated by Telebras and the Brazilian Air Force. The satellite was produced by Thales Alenia Space from France. Peru does not own a communications satellite. To fulfill its satellite communication needs, public entities contract independently services to private providers, in an inefficient manner. Because of the different policies adopted by the countries having or not an own communications satellite, the resulting unit costs of Mbps per month are different. Peru pays a Mbps per month unit cost more than 40 times the unit cost of Brazil and more than 70 times the planned unit cost of the Argentine ARSAT SG-1 project. The evidence shows that is more convenient for a country to develop an own communications satellite than contracting satellite communications services. In this regard, Peru has serious arguments to start studies on the development of a sovereign communications satellite.

Carlos Caballero León Engineer of Aeronautical Constructions from the École Nationale Supérieure d’Ingénieurs de Constructions Aéronautique (ENSICA) of Toulouse, France. Graduate in Aerospace Administration Science from the Peruvian Air Force Officers Academy. Master of Science in Defense and Inter-American Security Sciences from the Inter-American Defense College of Washington DC, USA. Master of Defense and Security Studies of the Americas from the National Academy of Political and Strategic Studies of Chile. Specialist in Maintenance of Radio electronic Systems of the MIG-29 aircraft from the Air Force of Belarus. Peruvian Air Force Electronic Engineer Major General retired. He has served as Visitor Professor in the Faculty of Engineering of the Università degli Studi di Salerno, Italia in 2005, and as Professor in the Faculty of Economic Sciences of the Ricardo Palma University of Lima, Peru in 2016. He has held the positions of Director of the Aeronautical Technological Higher Education Institute (ESOFA), Director of Telematics at Peruvian Air Force, General Director of Material Resources of the Ministry of Defense of Peru, CEO of the Armed Forces Purchasing Agency (ACFFAA), and CEO of the Peruvian Space Agency (CONIDA). Founder of CP Consult.

The Development of CubeSats in Latin America and Their Challenges on the Design of Thermal Control Systems Jorge Alfredo Ferrer-Pérez , Dafne Gaviria-Arcila , Carlos Romo-Fuentes , Rafael Guadalupe Chávez-Moreno , José Alberto Ramírez-Aguilar , and Marcelo López-Parra Abstract From 2011 to 2020, around 1.116 CubeSats between 1,1 and 10 kg were launched around the world. These spacecrafts were used for remote sensing, technology development, communications, and scientific applications. For the case of Mexico, five CubeSats of different sizes were placed in orbit: one 1 U, one 2 U, two 3 U, and one 6 U. In 2022, another CubeSat 1 U called K-OTO is expected to be released from the ISS. K-OTO project is an initiative led by the Advanced Technology Unit (UAT) from UNAM and the Sustainable Development Secretariat (SEDESU) from the Government of the State of Querétaro, Mexico. Among all the systems that are been developed for K-OTO is the Thermal Control System (TCS) that is responsible to maintain the operative temperature range of all the components within the spacecraft. The purpose of this work is to present all the elements that need to be considered to design a thermal control for CubeSat. This information can be used as a TCS guide for the upcoming CubeSat projects in Mexico and Latin America.

J. A. Ferrer-Pérez (B) · D. Gaviria-Arcila · C. Romo-Fuentes · R. G. Chávez-Moreno · J. A. Ramírez-Aguilar · M. López-Parra Advanced Technology Unit, School of Engineering, UNAM, Juriquilla, Querétaro, Mexico e-mail: [email protected] D. Gaviria-Arcila e-mail: [email protected] C. Romo-Fuentes e-mail: [email protected] R. G. Chávez-Moreno e-mail: [email protected] J. A. Ramírez-Aguilar e-mail: [email protected] M. López-Parra e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Froehlich (ed.), Space Fostering Latin American Societies, Southern Space Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97959-1_3

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1 Introduction In recent years, the construction of small satellites for space exploration has been demanding due to their low cost and ease of manufacture. Among those that stand out are nanosatellites called CubeSats, which weigh around 1–10 kg.1 One of the main challenges for the construction of these satellites is the miniaturization of the components and subsystems, including the thermal control system, since all of these are very small and are subject to large variations in temperature.2 The Thermal Control System (TCS) of a satellite is of great relevance since it allows regulating temperature changes due to external heat sources such as radiation from the Sun and other planets, albedo (radiation from the Sun projected on Earth), and the infrared of the Earth. Keeping temperature changes in a satellite regulated guarantees the success of the mission, which is why it is of great importance to design, characterize, manufacture, calibrate and test the thermal control capabilities and characteristics of a satellite. There are two types of thermal control technologies: passive and active. Passive thermal control maintains component temperatures without using powered equipment. Passive systems are typically associated with low cost, volume, weight, and risk, and so are advantageous to spacecraft with limited, mass, volume, and power, like SmallSats and especially CubeSats. Active thermal control methods rely on input power for operation and are more effective in maintaining tighter temperature control for components with stricter temperature requirements or higher heat loads. Typical active thermal devices used on large-scale spacecraft include electrical resistance heaters, cryocoolers, thermoelectric coolers, and fluid loops. The selection of passive or active control elements depends on the CubeSat mission where thermal analysis considerations need to be performed along with the different phases of the space project. Figure 1 presents different activities adapted for the NPR 7123.1C “NASA Systems Engineering Processes and Requirements”.3 In combination with the Thermal analysis handbook as a basis.4 The equivalent phases can be found in ECSS-E-ST-10C “System engineering general requirements” for the case of ECSS Standards.5 It has paramount importance to mention that NPR 7123.1C needs a Life Cycle document to work with. For the case of a small project such as CubeSats, NPR 7120.8 “NASA Research and Technology Program and 1

Bryce and Space Technology, SmallSat by the Numbers, 2021, Bryce and Space Technology. https://brycetech.com/reports, 24 August 2021. 2 NASA, Thermal-control, State-of-the-Art of Small Spacecraft Technology. https://www.nasa.gov/ smallsat-institute/sst-soa/thermal-control, October 2021. 3 NASA, NPR 7123.1C: NASA Systems Engineering Processes and Requirements, NASA Procedural Requirements, https://nodis3.gsfc.nasa.gov/displayDir.cfm?t=NPR&c=7123&s=1B, February 2020. 4 ECSS, ECSS-E-HB-31-03A—Thermal analysis handbook. European Cooperation for Space Standardization, https://ecss.nl/home/ecss-e-hb-31-03a-15november2016/, 15 November 2016. 5 ECSS, ECSS-E-ST-10C Rev.1—System engineering general requirements. European Cooperation for Space Standardization, https://ecss.nl/standard/ecss-e-st-10c-rev-1-system-engineeringgeneral-requirements-15-february-2017/, February 2017.

The Development of CubeSats in Latin America … Phase A Concept and Technology Development

43 Analyse requirements Define TCS concept Perform trade-off Assess TRL of TCS products

TRL: Technology Readiness Level TCS: Thermal Control System

System Requirement Review (SRR)

Define preliminary design of TCS Develop thermal models Perform calculation for worst hot/cold cases Perform and correlate development tests

Phase B Preliminary Design and Technology Completion

Preliminary Design Review (PDR)

Phase C Final Design and Fabrication

Define final design of TCS Update thermal models Perform calculations covering all mission cases

Critical Design Review (CDR)

Adapt thermal models for test configuration Perform test prediction Perform test correlation Update flight thermal models with outcomes of test correlation Perform analysis in support of production activities

Phase D System Assembly, Integration and Test, Launch

Flight Readiness Review (FRR)

Phase E Operations and Sustainment

Adapt thermal models for mission Perform mission prediction (ground & flight) Perform flight correlation Perform analysis in support of operations

Fig. 1 Thermal analysis in the context of a space project

Project Management Requirements” is recommended.6 For large projects, the life cycle needs to be adjusted. CubeSats initiatives need to follow a space project methodology to avoid setbacks and secure the development of the project from the beginning. The “NASA Systems Engineering Handbook” is an excellent reference.7

6

NASA, NPR 7120.8A: NASA Research and Technology Program and Project Management Requirements, NASA Procedural Requirements, https://nodis3.gsfc.nasa.gov/displayDir.cfm?t= NPR&c=7120&s=8A, September 2018. 7 NASA, NASA Systems Engineering Handbook, https://www.nasa.gov/connect/ebooks/nasa-sys tems-engineering-handbook, 27 January 2020.

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Table 1 Chart of the approximate weight of satellites launched into space, according to their category Satellite type

Mass

Animal size comparison

Large

> 1.000 kg

Rhino

Medium

from 500 to 1.000 kg

Buffalo

Mini

from 100 to 350 kg

Lion

Micro

from 10 to 100 kg

Wolf

Nano

from 1 to 10 kg (~ 1 kg per unit)

Raccoon Duck

2 Classification of Satellites A satellite is an artifact formed by electronic circuits and mechanical systems that orbit the earth and other celestial bodies. Satellites can be classified by size as shown in Table 1.8 Satellites can be classified also by their orbit as shown in Table 2.9 Finally, satellites can be classified by their application such as Communications, Remote Sensing, Navigation, Meteorology, Military, and Research and Development.10

2.1 What is a CubeSat? As it was stated before, a CubeSat is a square-shaped miniature satellite (10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm), weighing about 1 kg. A CubeSat can be used alone (1 Unit, 1 U) or in groups of multiple units (maximum 24 Units).11,12 Figure 2 shows different CubeSat sizes launched until August 2021, where 42,5% are 3 U projects, 13,6% are 6 U projects, and 13,2% are 1 U projects.13

8 Canadian Space Agency, How heavy is a satellite?, Canadian Space Agency, https://asc-csa.gc. ca/eng/multimedia/search/Image/Watch/7099?search=cubesat-illustrations, 4 December 2017. 9 ESA, Types of orbits, https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Space_Transportation/Types_of_ orbits, 30 March 2020. 10 Pelton, J.N., Madry, S., Camacho-Lara, S. (Eds.), Handbook of Satellite Applications, Springer International Publishing, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-23386-4, 2017. 11 Cappelletti, C., Battistini, S., Malphrus, B. K. (eds.), CubeSat Handbook: From Mission Design to Operations (1st ed.), Academic Press, https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780128178843/cub esat-handbook, 2021. 12 Canadian Space Agency, What is a CubeSat?, https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/satellites/cubesat/whatis-a-cubesat.asp, 2017. 13 Kulu, E., Nanosats Database Figures, https://www.nanosats.eu/#figures, 20 August 2021.

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Table 2 Type of orbits Orbit type

Characteristics

Geostationary Orbit (GEO)

Altitude of 35.786 km

Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

From 160 to 1.000 km

Medium Earth orbit (MEO)

Between LEO and GEO

Polar Orbit and Sun-Synchronous Orbit (SSO)

Polar orbits are a type of LEO, as they are at low altitudes between 200 and 1.000 km Satellites in SSO, traveling over the polar regions, are synchronous with the Sun. A satellite in a SSO would usually be at an altitude of between 600 and 800 km

Transfer Orbits and Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO)

Transfer Orbits are a special kind of orbit used to get from one orbit to another. Reaching GEO in this way is an example of one of the most common transfer orbits, called GTO

Lagrange Points (L-Points)

L-Points are specific points far out in space where the gravitational fields of Earth and the Sun combine in such a way that spacecraft that orbit them remain stable and can thus be ‘anchored’ relative to Earth. If a spacecraft was launched to other points in space very distant from Earth, they would naturally fall into an orbit around the Sun, and those spacecrafts would soon end up far from Earth, making communication difficult. Instead, spacecraft launched to these special L-points stay fixed and remain close to Earth with minimal effort without going into a different orbit

Fig. 2 Nanosatellite type launched/not launched as 20 August 2021

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2.2 Advantages of CubeSats CubeSats offers advantages (pros) and disadvantages (cons) versus traditional satellites. Pros • • • • •

Fast: can be built within two years. Cost: far less expensive than large satellites. Technology: simple, standard parts available off-the-shelf. Design: a simple design for a short mission; no need to use thermal blankets. Space debris: none as they burn up in the atmosphere upon re-entry.

Cons • Scope: limited due to reduced capacity to carry scientific instruments. • Mission duration: most of them are operational for a period of three to twelve months. Although CubeSat projects are less expensive than traditional large satellites, for the context of the Latin American context, they are complicated to fund. For example, for a 1 U CubeSat, an estimated conservative budget can be around 500.000 USD. This considers all the satellite components, software, preliminary environmental test and ground antenna facilities, clean room, and other expenses. Launch services and certifications test costs need to be included additionally. For a public university, this amount of money is prohibited. Nevertheless, there are International Programs14 such as KiboCube that offer the opportunity to release a 1 U satellite from the ISS for no cost.15 Therefore, it is also desirable that future missions in Latin America consider this kind of support to partially fund future CubeSats projects.

3 CubeSats in the World, Latin America, and Mexico As it is reported, up to August 2021, there have been launched 1.766 nanosatellites, where 1.634 are CubeSats developed by 79 Countries.16 Figure 3 shows by country the number of nanosatellites launched, considering CubeSats, PocketQubes, TubeSats, SunCubes, and ThinSats. For Latin America, 32 nanosatellites were launched as is shown in Table 3.

14 UNOOSA, Access to Space for All, UNITED NATIONS Office for Outer Space Affairs, https:// www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/access2space4all/index.html, 2021. 15 UNOOSA, Satellite Development Track, Access to Space for All, https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/ en/ourwork/access2space4all/SatDev_Track.html, 2021. 16 Kulu, E., Nanosats Database, https://www.nanosats.eu/, 20 August 2021.

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Fig. 3 Nanosatellites launched by country as 20 August 2021

Table 3 Number of nanosatellites launched in Latin America

Country

Number of CubeSats

Brazil

8

Mexico

5

Ecuador

4

Peru

4

Argentina

4

Colombia

2

Guatemala

1

Costa Rica

1

Chile

1

Paraguay

1

Uruguay

1

Total

32

For Mexico, the five nanosatellites’ projects are CubeSats of different sizes. In Table 4 the description of these projects is shown. Note that two of these five spacecrafts were developed for military purposes, two for R&D, and one for remote sensing applications.17 It is pertinent to mention about the projects described above used commercial components instead of developing all the systems locally. Additionally, only AztehSat-1 reported the use of NPR 7123.1C and NPR 7120.8 as a progress guide 17

Kulu, E., Nanosats Database CubeSats Tables, https://airtable.com/shrbfAxhYJ8AbCo0O, 20 August 2021.

Organization

SEDENA

UPAEP

ICN-UNAM

SpaceJLTZ

SEDENA

Name

Painani-I

AztechSat-1

NanoConnect-2 (SAI-1)

D2/AtlaCom-1

Painani-II

Table 4 CubeSats launched by Mexico

August 2021

June, 2021

February 2021

December 2019

August 2019

Year of launch

3U

6U

2U

1U

3U

CubeSat type

Military

Science, Technology and Education

Science, Technology and Education

Science, Technology, and Education

Military

Application

It will carry a low-resolution camera and proposes an S band downlink using frequency hopping technology for the images

Allow youth to train in the capture, analysis, and processing of satellite images, while the first pilot program of its kind in the history of the country will be carried out, to boost agricultural productivity

The NanoConnect-2 aims to test flight computers, their power, monitoring systems and verify that mechanical structures are working properly. Monitoring data will arrive at Ground Station, located on the premises of the Institute of Nuclear Sciences in Ciudad Universitaria

Communicates with the GlobalStar satellite constellation to improve the transit of data to Earth. Promote radio amateur activities such as listening emergency messages in the 439 MHz frequency and processing them via winlink system

Carry a low-resolution camera and proposes a S band downlink using frequency hopping technology for the images

Mission objectives and experiment description

48 J. A. Ferrer-Pérez et al.

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49

of its space project.18 Moreover, no additional information is available about the thermal control system employed. In 2022 it is expected to launch a 1U CubeSat named K’OTO, which means grasshopper in Otomi Language from the State of Querétaro, Mexico.19 The objective of the K’OTO is to develop, integrate and release a CubeSat type nanosatellite from the International Space Station (ISS) for remote sensing low-medium resolution application. This project is following NPR 7123.1C and NPR 7120.8 where multiple subsystems have been developed by different groups of students and professors. Regarding the TCS, analysis has shown that no active control is needed to maintain the operating temperature ranges. The purpose of the next sections is to present the required elements to consider in the development of the TCS.

4 Challenges to Develop Satellite Technologies in Latin America The development of satellite technologies in Latin America has been affected by many factors, one of the main challenges is due to the unaffordable cost that the standard satellites have, and this challenge has been changed since the creation of the CubeSat concept. However, another important aspect to consider on the slowdown in the growth of these technologies in Latin America in comparison to the great satellite developing powers is the lack of creation of space programs during the debt crisis of the 1980s and the IMF mandated structural adjustment programs. This period is called the “lost decade”.20 The “lost decade” is the third of the fourth generation of the creation of space programs in Latin America, which is from 1980 to 2000. Moreover, during the “lost decade” the Latin American countries took a peaceful role without any interest to compete with the U.S.–USSR dominance.21 The “lost decade” is followed by the fourth generation, where it is noticed an evolution of the creation of space programs involving more countries. Figure 4 shows how in the fourth generation there are more and more countries looking for their sovereignty and participation in the space race era. This evolution is observed at the beginning of the twenty-first century due to the change of the political posture in Latin America and the formation of international space cooperation and partnerships.22 These alliances have a huge impact on the development of satellite technologies in the region as well 18

UPAEP, AztechSat-1, https://upaep.mx/aztechsat, 2019. UAT FI-UNAM, Proyecto de Nanosatélite K-OTO, https://www.ingenieria.unam.mx/k-oto/, 2021. 20 Klinger, J.M., A Brief History of Outer Space Cooperation Between Latin America and China, Journal of Latin American Geography 17(2), pp. 46–83, https://doi.org/10.1353/lag.2018.0022, 2018. 21 Smith, P.H., The Latin American Press and the Space Race, Journal of Inter-American Studies, 6(4), pp. 549–572, https://doi.org/10.2307/165004, 1964. 22 Dos-Santos, B.R., Improving EU-Latin American Space Cooperation-Lessons from the Bilateral Experience, European Space Policy Institute, ESPI Perspective Series (35), pp. 1–7, 2010. 19

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Fig. 4 Evolution of creation of space programs in Latin America

as the generation of cooperation programs designed to approach the space for all such as the programs of UNOOSA. In terms of the design of the Thermal Control System (TCS), some of the main challenges in the development of Latin American satellites are the analysis and use of different thermal coatings, as well as the proposal of new methodologies to study the thermal behavior of the satellite. Very little work has been reported about the TCS analysis and proposals in the nanosats of Latin American countries. To mention a few of the data available, the satellite Libertad 2 proposed an in-house code and compare its results versus the use of ESATAN-TMS.23 In addition, during the development of the SUCHAI satellite, there is a proposal of the use of generic algorithms to analyze the TCS using different coatings to implement the most appropriate according to the mission.24 The satellite NEE-01 PEGASUS uses carbon nanotubes, multilayer insulation, and a thermal shield to manage the temperature25 and the K’OTO satellite proposes the use of coatings and embedded panels in the satellite´s faces as a TCS 23

Garzón, A., Villanueva, Y.A., Thermal Analysis of Satellite Libertad 2: a Guide to Cubesat Temperature Prediction, Journal of Aerospace Technology and management, (10), http://dx.doi. org/10.5028/jatm.v10.1011, 2018. 24 Escobar, E., Diaz, M., Zagal, J.C., Evolutionary design of a satellite thermal control system: Real experiments for a CubeSat mission, Applied Thermal Engineering, (105), pp. 490–500, ISSN 1359-4311, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.03.024, 2016. 25 Nader, R., Carbon nanotubes bases thermal distribution and transfer bus system 1U CubeSats and the space environment attenuation manifold shield, 62nd International Astronautical Congress 2011, pp. 1–8, 2011.

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and the use of ANSYS to analyze the thermal behaviour. It is thus of interest to encourage to report the TCS applications used in Latin American satellites as part of sharing lessons learned and best practices to bridge the gap in its development.

5 Satellite Subsystems A satellite is an artifact formed by electronic circuits and mechanical systems that orbits the Earth and other celestial bodies. Satellites can be used for communications services, weather prediction and monitoring, Earth observation, navigation, military applications such as national security, and scientific missions as was stated before. A satellite can be divided into different systems with specific functions that impact its operation. These systems are mechanical structure, propulsion, thermal control, power supply, telemetry-tracking-and-command (TT&C), altitude control and determination system (ACDS), on-board-computer (OBC), and most importantly, the instrumentation corresponding to the payload. These systems are considered depending on the mission of the spacecraft, which means that not all satellites will have all the systems as a rule (Fig. 5). The environmental conditions that satellites must endure during the journey from Earth to space are very diverse and extreme. On Earth, the satellite must withstand

Fig. 5 CubeSat K-OTO explosive diagram showing its systems

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Mechanical structure

Payload

Communications

Propulsion

ACDS

TT&C

Thermal control

OBC

Power and energy supply Interfaces Mechanical Data Thermal Power

Fig. 6 Satellite systems interfaces where telemetry tracking and command (TT&C), on board computer (OBC), altitude control and determination system (ACDS)

severe mechanical, acoustic, and vibration conditions, caused by the rocket’s movements at launch. When the satellite is separated from the rocket, the necessary mechanisms must be in place to ensure the proper deployment of the satellite and various components, such as antennas and solar panels that allow the satellite to function. Finally, once the satellite is in space, it must withstand all the conditions of the space environment: high-energy particles, ultra-high vacuum conditions, extreme temperatures, space debris, micro-meteorites, and dust particles, generating an aggressive and dangerous environment. Inside the satellite, the TCS aims to keep the electronic and mechanical components of a satellite within operational temperature limits. The main criteria for designing the thermal control of satellites are the space environment, the heat dissipated by the equipment onboard the satellite, the distribution of thermal dissipation within the satellite, the operational temperature requirements of all the components, and the configuration of the satellite (geometry, materials, mounting systems, etc.).26 The main modes of heat transfer in the space environment are radiation and conduction.27 Convection is present for the case where vehicles or satellites are at a low altitude ( 1.000 kg • Medium satellites: 500–1.000 kg • Small satellites: < 500 kg – – – – – – –

Minisatellites: 100–500 kg Microsatellites: 10–100 kg Nanosatellites: 1–10 kg Picosatellites: 100 g to 1 kg Femtosatellites: 10–100 g Attosatellites: 1–10 g Zeptosatellites: 0,1–1 g.

1.2 Picosatellite A picosatellite (PicoSat) is defined as a satellite with a maximum mass of 1 kg. Currently many platforms are used for PicoSats, among the most employed are the CubeSats, PocketQubes, TubeSats, SunCubes.2

1.2.1

CubeSats

A CubeSat is a square-shaped miniature satellite, weighing about 1 kg. A CubeSat can be of 1 Unit or groups of multiple units: • • • •

1 U CubeSat is 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm. 2 U CubeSat is 10 cm × 10 cm × 20 cm. 6 U CubeSat is 20 cm × 10 cm × 30 cm. 12 U CubeSat is 20 cm × 20 cm × 30 cm.

1 Kulu Erik, Nanosats Database, 8 August 2021, https://www.nanosats.eu/cubesat, accessed 1 October 2021. 2 Kulu Erik, Nanosats Database, 08 August 2021, https://www.nanosats.eu/cubesat, accessed 1 October 2021.

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Fig. 1 Graphical expression of CubeSats sizes from 1 to 16 U (Kulu Erik, “Nanosats Database”, 8 August 2021, https://www.nanosats.eu/cubesat, accessed 1 October 2021)

Fig. 2 PocketQube (Brian Benchoff, “PocketQubes: even smaller than a CubeSat”, 2 October 2013, https://hackaday.com/2013/10/02/pocketqubes-even-smaller-than-a-cubesat/, accessed 3 October 2021)

Smallest existing CubeSat design is 0,25 U and largest is 27 U (Fig. 1).3

1.2.2

PocketQubes

PocketQube is a square-shaped miniature satellite (cube of 5 × 5 × 5 cm), one eighth the volume of a 1 U CubeSat (see Fig. 2) and can have different configurations:

3

Ibid.

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Fig. 3 TubeSats by Gauss (Kulu Erik, “Nanosats Database”, 8 August 2021, https://www.nanosats. eu/cubesat, accessed 1 October 2021)

• 1p is 5 cm × 5 cm × 5 cm (mass 250 g) • 2p is 5 cm × 5 cm × 10 cm (mass 500 g) • 3p is 5 cm × 5 cm × 15 cm (mass 750 g). There are two types of PocketQubes: MRFOD and CubeSat dispenser compatible.4

1.2.3

TubeSat

TubeSats are tube-shaped satellites with an 8,9 cm diameter, 12,7 cm length and 0,75 kg weight (see Fig. 3). TubeSat have a launch cost comparable to a 1 U CubeSat.5

1.2.4

SunCubes

SunCubes are designed to make satellites even more affordable and are square-shaped miniature satellites with a 3 cm length. 1F SunCube has the size of 3 × 3 × 3 cm and where 3F measures 3 × 3 × 9 cm (see Fig. 4). Goal is to make satellites even more

4

Kulu Erik, Nanosats Database, 08 August 2021, https://www.nanosats.eu/cubesat, accessed 1 October 2021. 5 Ibid.

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Fig. 4 Example of an 1F SunCube (Kulu Erik, “Nanosats Database”, 8 August 2021, https://www. nanosats.eu/cubesat, accessed 1 October 2021)

affordable. A 1 U CubeSat might fit up to 27 single 1F SunCubes.6 First SunCubes will be likely be launched from satellites with other primary missions.

1.3 Launches The launches of PicoSats and small satellites have increased exponentially in recent years due to the low cost of development as well as that of the launch. The projections show that the trend as shown in Fig. 5 will be the same in the coming years. The increase in space projects of small satellites, mainly NanoSats and PicoSats, caused emerging countries to enter the space sector and each year this trend tends to continue (Fig. 6).

1.4 Organizations The new actors in the space field are private companies, such as BLUE ORIGIN, SPACE X, among others, as well as universities and research centers around the world as shown in Fig. 7. Universities and research centers, in emerging countries, are interested in acquiring space-related knowledge in order to be able to venture into new technologies. Due to the development of space projects in these countries, a new generation of professionals is emerging. Many of them created companies dedicated to the development of satellite components as well as to the creation of their own space missions. Consequentially, this contributes to their technological development and, hence, to their general development. 6

Kulu Erik, Nanosats Database, 08 August 2021, https://www.nanosats.eu/cubesat, accessed 1 October 2021.

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Fig. 5 Total NanoSats and CubeSats launched (Kulu Erik, “Nanosats Database”, 8 August 2021, https://www.nanosats.eu/#figures, accessed 3 October 2021)

Fig. 6 All NanoSats and CubeSats by locations (Kulu Erik, “Nanosats Database”, 8 August 2021, https://www.nanosats.eu/#figures, accessed 3 October 2021)

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Fig. 7 All NanoSats and CubeSats by organizations (Kulu Erik, “Nanosats Database”, 8 August 2021, https://www.nanosats.eu/#figures, accessed 4 October 2021)

Figure 7 shows the number of launched and unlaunched projects for NanoSats and PicoSats developed by different entities. Surprisingly, it can be seen that universities and private companies are the ones leading the way in these projects.

2 Research Applications With NanoSats and PicoSats space projects, the technological benefits, that were traditionally exclusively reserved for large companies or space agencies with vast financial resources, have been democratized and became accessible to all companies, universities, and research centers of all types and sizes. Once a NanoSat is developed, tested and ready for operations, it must be placed in orbit. Currently, there are multiple launching options, involving the shared use of government agency rockets, private company launchers, or the establishment of logistic links with the International Space Station (ISS). These options are discussed later. NanoSats and PicoSats occupy relatively small space volumes and have a light weight. These characteristics makes of them easily loadable into a spacecraft. Furthermore, they represent a low-cost solution for emerging space nations.

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2.1 Emerging Space Nations The space sector has recently been witnessing a growth in the nations embracing space activities for the first time. This growth is mainly associated to emerging socio-economic opportunities discovered in the sector. These entities have come to be known as “emerging space nations”.

2.2 Current Launch Opportunities The current opportunities for launch of NanoSats and PicoSats to Low Earth Orbit (LEO) are distributed among the categories of dedicated launch, launch as part of a rideshare agreement (secondary payload) or cluster launch, and by piggyback.

2.2.1

Dedicated Launch

For payloads in the minisatellite and microsatellite class with a higher budget, a number of vehicles are available for dedicated launch. However, the typical specific launch cost of these vehicles is often greater than their medium and intermediate lift counterparts, and the payload may not use up the full capacity of the vehicle. Therefore, the payload operator may not be able to economically justify the use of the launch vehicle. The clear advantage of a dedicated launch however, is that the destination orbit of the payload can be selected to best fit the mission, and the date of launch can be chosen to coincide with the payload development and mission operation schedule. For NanoSats and PicoSats systems in particular those designed and built by educational institutions, the cost of dedicated launch usually far exceeds what can be afforded by the system budget. They are therefore generally restricted to rideshare or piggyback launch.7

2.2.2

Rideshare and Cluster Launch

Rideshare missions are a type of multiple-manifested launch, where a number of similarly sized payloads share a single vehicle, launched to a mutually agreeable orbit. These missions are typically offered by launch service providers, or can be arranged by launch brokers in order to reduce the launch cost of each individual payload.

7

R. Puma-Guzman, J. Soliz, “Launch Management of a Nanosatellite for Bolivia”, in: Annette Froehlich (ed.), Space Fostering Latin American Societies, Developing the Latin American Continent Through Space, Part 2, Springer, 2021, pp. 87–103.

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In the case of rideshare launches, the total payload capacity of the vehicle can be used up, reducing the launch cost for each satellite. However, due to the multiplemanifestation of payloads, the date is subject to the proposed development schedule of all the payloads, and as such, can be affected by delays from multiple sources. The destination orbit will be similarly determined by the satellite operators, likely resulting in a non-optimal inclination and/or altitude for all the payloads.8

2.2.3

Piggyback Launch

A piggyback launch opportunity allows for the launch of a satellite as a secondary payload, using up available excess volume and mass on a commissioned vehicle. The destination orbit and launch schedule is determined by the requirements of the primary payload. In a piggyback mission the deployment of the primary payload will not be compromised by the secondary payload. Additionally, the insurance costs for secondary payloads may require additional cover for damage to the primary payload. If the primary payload is much more valuable than the secondary one(s), then the cost of this insurance may be prohibitive. These costs can be somewhat mitigated by using certified launch adapters, as previously discussed, to isolate the secondary payloads from the launch vehicle and primary payload.9

2.3 Launch Opportunity Opportunity launches are free launches offered by space agencies or private companies in order to collaborate with academic or research projects. The opportunity launches of space agencies such as NASA or ESA, unfortunately, are mostly destined for projects in the United States and countries of the European Union respectively, for this reason the opportunities to get opportunity launches are very few for emerging space countries. It is worth mentioning that most emerging countries do not have their own launchers, so they depend on the help of more developed countries to launch their satellites into space. The opportunity launches are rideshare and piggyback types. These types of launches are mainly made for low weight satellites, such as PicoSats, although there are some free launch options for NanoSats. Organizations that have free launch options are listed below.

8 9

Ibid. Ibid.

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NASA

NASA’s CubeSat Launch Initiative provides opportunities for small satellite payloads built by universities, high schools and non-profit organizations to fly on upcoming launches. Through innovative technology partnerships, NASA provides these CubeSat developers a low-cost pathway to conduct scientific investigations and technology demonstrations in space, thus enabling students, teachers and faculty to obtain hands-on flight hardware development experience.10

2.3.2

United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs Cooperation

The goal of Access to Space for All by the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) is to provide research and orbital opportunities to access space and to ensure that the benefits of space, in particular for sustainable development, are truly accessible to all. Several agreements were found in this purpose.

Avio S.p.A. (Avio)—Accessing Space with VEGA-C Under Access to Space for All, UNOOSA and Avio S.p.A. (Avio) have joined forces at the 74th Session of the UN General Assembly to announce an agreement to cooperate on providing institutions from UN Member States, in particular developing countries, with the opportunity to apply to use, free of charge, satellite slots for 1 U CubeSat or aggregates using a Vega-C rocket as launch vehicle. The mission will be open to all Member States of the UN, and developing countries are particularly encouraged to participate.11

Airbus Defence and Space GmbH—Accessing Space with the ISS Bartolomeo Platform UNOOSA is partnering with Airbus Defence and Space GmbH to offer UN Member States the opportunity to accommodate a payload on the Airbus Bartolomeo external platform on the ISS. The mission will be open to all Member States of the UN, and developing countries are particularly encouraged to participate. The platform will accommodate and operate payloads provided by institutions in the participating countries. This mission is devoted to addressing the UN Sustainable Development Goals.12 10

For more information: https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/home/CubeSats_initiative. For more information: https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/access2space4all/Vega-C/ Vega-C_Round1.html. 12 For more information: https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/access2space4all/Bartolomeo/ Bartolomeo_Round1.html. 11

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Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency—Accessing Space with the ISS Japanese Experiment Module KiboCUBE The UN/Japan Cooperation Programme on CubeSat Deployment from the ISS Japanese Experiment Module (Kibo) KiboCUBE is a programme of the UNOOSA in collaboration with the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), which started in 2015. KiboCUBE is the dedicated collaboration for utilizing the ISS Kibo for the world. KiboCUBE aims to provide educational or research institutions from developing countries of UN membership with opportunities to deploy, from the ISS Kibo, CubeSats which they develop and manufacture. The deployment of CubeSats from ISS is easier than the direct deployment by a launch vehicle thanks to the lower vibration environment during launch.13

2.3.3

Competitions

• The International Astronautics Federation (IAF) offers within a competition the free launch of a CubeSat-type satellite. Although this competition is not held every year it helps non-profit projects to be launched into space. The first prize of the competition is the free launch service, in the bases of the competition it takes into account the benefit that the project generates to emerging countries as well as the planning of the space mission and the fulfillment of the project schedule.14 • ARIANESPACE is launching a contest for satellite projects by space technology startups, labs or universities, in conjunction with the Viva Technology 2021 (VivaTech) innovation show. The winner will get a free launch of their satellite on an ARIANESPACE rideshare mission. The main selection criterion will be the satellite’s mission, which should improve life on Earth or advance human knowledge. ARIANESPACE, the European launch services company, is organizing a contest in conjunction with the VivaTech international innovation show. First prize will be a spot on a rideshare mission operated by ARIANESPACE, to orbit the winning CubeSat-sized satellite.15 • In an effort to encourage more students to enter the aerospace field, United Launch Alliance (ULA) offer free rides to orbit for small satellites built by universities. • ULA, a partnership between the Boeing Co., and Lockheed Martin, provide up to twelve berths on an Atlas 5 rocket for university teams that have CubeSats with experimental payloads. They are used for low-cost experiments or to test new technologies that may end up on larger spacecraft. The two launches slated so far

13

For more information: https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/access2space4all/KiboCUBE/ KiboCUBE_Index.html. 14 For more information: http://gklaunch.ru/en/news/sapienza-university-of-rome-wins-free-1ucubesat-launch. 15 For more information: https://www.arianespace.com/press-release/arianespace-offers-ticketinto-space-startup-or-lab.

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will have berths for up to 24 CubeSats in a special carrier that is located in the second stage of the rocket.16

2.4 Mission Phases and Reviews According to the ECSS standard, a space mission consists of the following phases17 : • • • • • • •

Phase 0—Mission analysis/needs identification Phase A—Feasibility Phase B—Preliminary Definition Phase C—Detailed Definition Phase D—Qualification and Production Phase E—Utilization Phase F—Disposal A typical project life cycle is illustrated in Fig. 8 where the phases mentioned

Fig. 8 Typical project life cycle (European Space Agency, “Space Project Management”, Strasbourg, France 2009) 16

For more information: https://spaceflightnow.com/2015/11/19/ula-says-it-will-launch-some-cub esats-for-free. 17 European Space Agency, Space Project Management, Strasbourg, France, 2009.

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above with their respective revisions are shown. • • • • • • • • • • •

MDR: Mission Definition Review PRR: Preliminary Requirements Review SRR: System Requirements Review PDR: Preliminary Design Review CDR: Critical Design Review QR: Qualification Review AR: Acceptance Review ORR: Operational Readiness Review FRR: Flight Readiness Review LRR: Launch Readiness Review PFAR: Flight Acceptance Review

The reviews ensure that the phases of the space mission are correctly executed. This section will focus on Phase D reviews. This Phase D covers the assembly and laboratory tests valid for the satellite to be accepted for placement in a launcher.18

2.4.1

Phase D Qualification and Production

Major Tasks • Complete qualification testing and associated verification activities. • Complete manufacturing, assembly and testing of flight hardware/software and associated ground support hardware/software. • Complete the interoperability testing between the space and ground segment. • Prepare acceptance data package.19 Associated Reviews There are three project reviews associated with Phase D • The Qualification Review (QR) held during the course of the phase. • The Acceptance Review (AR) held at the end of the phase. The outcome of this review is used to judge the readiness of the product for delivery. • The Operational Readiness Review (ORR), held at the end of the phase.20 2.4.2

Qualification Review

The primary objectives of this Qualification Review (QR) are: 18

European Space Agency, Space Project Management, Strasbourg, France, 2009. Ibid. 20 European Space Agency, Space Project Management, Strasbourg, France, 2009. 19

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• To confirm that the verification process has demonstrated that the design, including margins, meets the applicable requirements. • To verify that the verification record is complete at this and all lower levels in the customer-supplier chain. • To verify the acceptability of all waivers and deviations. Where development encompasses the production of one or several recurring products, the QR is completed by a functional configuration verification during which: • The first article configuration is analyzed from the viewpoint of reproducibility. • The production master files for the series productions are released. • The series production go-ahead file is accepted by the customer.21 2.4.3

Acceptance Review

The primary objectives of this Acceptance Review (AR) are: • To confirm that the verification process has demonstrated that the product is free of workmanship errors and is ready for subsequent operational use. • To verify that the acceptance verification record is complete at this and all lower levels in the customer-supplier chain. • To verify that all deliverable products are available per the approved deliverable items list. • To verify the “as-built” product and its constituent components against the required “as designed” product and its constituent components. • To verify the acceptability of all waivers and deviations. • To verify that the Acceptance Data Package is complete. • To authorize delivery of the product. • To release the certificate of acceptance.22 2.4.4

Operational Readiness Review

The primary objectives of this Operational Readiness Review (ORR) are: • To verify readiness of the operational procedures and their compatibility with the flight system.

21 22

Ibid. Ibid.

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• To verify readiness of the operations teams. • To accept and release the ground segment for operations.23

3 Conclusions Despite launch opportunity problems, the future for developing countries in small satellites is rosy. The change in mentality to the utility of small satellites was by no means a small change. Developing the technology for smaller systems is only the first step to enabling their implementation. Small satellite programmes require that new organizational thinking be put in place. Cultural changes are needed as well, both in the corporate sense and in attitudes of satellite builders. Acquiring launches for projects developed in emerging countries is more important due to the increase in projects. The more developed countries such as space agencies and large companies should collaborate with the less developed countries, to contribute to the technological development of emerging countries. Having more free launches for academic space projects is a necessity to continue with the development of space technology.

Rosalyn Puma-Guzman is an Industrial Engineer and Systems of “Universidad Privada Boliviana” (UPB), Bolivia. She works on Sur Aerospace (space and aeronautics projects company in Bolivia) on the event organization and project management section. She has experience in space outreach events. She worked on the organization of the first CanSat Bolivia Contest and in CubeSat satellite projects for different universities. She is currently working on her final degree project at UPB, concerning space systems, focused on satellite subsystems and the management of space projects. Jorge Soliz is a Mechanical Engineer with a Ph.D. degree in “Aerospace Science and Technology,” and a MSc degree in “Aerospace Engineering” from Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, España. He worked on projects such as Galactic Suite (space hotel), on space mission analysis; UPCSAT 1, first satellite of the Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya (PicoSat, CubeSat 1U); SSETI, “Student Space Exploration and Technology Initiative”, on design and construction of satellites (sponsored by European Space Agency), as well as several research projects in Astrodynamics, and design of Nano and Picosat. Currently, he is professor at Universidad Privada Boliviana (UPB), Bolivia, at the Exact Science Department.

23

Ibid.

Glass–Ceramic Protective Coating for Satellite System as a Thermal Insulator Rafael Vargas-Bernal , Ana María Arizmendi-Morquecho , Jose Martín Herrera-Ramírez , and Bárbara Bermúdez-Reyes

Abstract CubeSat nanosatellite systems are thought to offer an accessible platform for upper atmospheric and low orbit aerospace investigations. They enable the development and testing of the performance of new materials and their production techniques, as well as the design and improvement of structures. Ceramic coatings are used as optical filters and thermal insulators when to apply to some aircraft components. The mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of the substrate are improved by a composed thin glass–ceramic coating reinforced with ceramic nanoparticles. In this chapter, a glass–ceramic coating comprising a SiO2 matrix enhanced with TiO2 nanoparticles is described. This coating was deposited on an experimental 1/3U CubeSat made of Al6061-T6 alloy using the sol–gel process. A meteorological balloon was used to lift the unit to a height of 32.000 m. Before and after the flight, the nanohardness and Young’s modulus of the coating were evaluated, and its morphology was examined using scanning electron microscopy. The absorbance and reflectance of the coating were measured by UV/VIS spectroscopy. The exterior and interior temperatures of the 1/3U CubeSat were also measured, whose difference was an astounding two degrees.

R. Vargas-Bernal Departamento de Ingeniería en Materiales, Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Irapuato, Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico e-mail: [email protected] A. M. Arizmendi-Morquecho Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados, Apodaca, Nuevo León, México e-mail: [email protected] J. M. Herrera-Ramírez Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Laboratorio Nacional de Nanotecnología, Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico e-mail: [email protected] B. Bermúdez-Reyes (B) Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, Mexico e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 A. Froehlich (ed.), Space Fostering Latin American Societies, Southern Space Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97959-1_6

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1 Introduction Thermal Protection Systems (TPS) are used in space missions that require hypersonic atmospheric entry into a planetary system.1 The purpose of such a device is to protect the spacecraft from the atmospheric frictional external heat load that these high temperatures impose. A TPS lowers the transmission of heat into the spacecraft from the hot surroundings and ionized bow shock layer, reducing the temperature restrictions of the payload. It is required to create materials that have a high average reflectance throughout a wide range of wavelengths to develop these systems. Broadband, highly reflective, and dielectric materials with greater optical and thermal properties than their constituents must be used in the design. Glass–ceramic coatings have long been utilized in aerospace and space thermal protection systems, such as re-entry vehicles (e.g., the Space Shuttle Orbiter).2 Other applications include preventing thermal damage to the combustion chamber of engines during operation.3 They protect hypersonic motors against oxidation caused by the heat breakdown of propellants, which produces atomic oxygen, other chemicals, and residues.4 Deposition techniques for these systems include laser ablation, thermal spraying, and radiofrequency (RF) sputtering, among others.5 Ceramic coatings are employed in the above-mentioned applications due to properties such as density and thermal stability of materials, which are subjected to temperatures above 2.000 °C.6 Polymers with optical properties like Kapton, or impact-resistant materials like Kevlar, are utilized for satellite thermal protection.7 Because of their good resistance to high temperature and radiation, ceramics could be a suitable choice for 1

G. Christidis, U. Koch, E. Poloni, E. de Leo, B. Cheng, S.M. Koepfli, A. Dorodnyy, F. Bouville, Y. Fedoryshyn, V. Shklover, and J. Leuthold. Broadband, High-Temperature Stable Reflector for Aeroespace Thermal Radiation Protection, ACS Applied Materials and Interfaces, 2020, 12: pp. 9925–9934. 2 T.E. Steyer. Shaping the Future of Ceramics for Aerospace Applications, International Journal of Applied Ceramic Technology, 2013, 10: pp. 389–394. 3 R.A. Miller. Thermal Barrier Coatings for Aircraft Engines: History and Directions, Journal of Thermal Spray Technology, 1997, 6: p. 35. 4 N.P. Padture. Advanced Structural Ceramics in Aerospace Propulsion, Nature Materials, 15 pp., 2016, 804–809. 5 V. Kumar, K. Balasubramanian. Progress Update on Failure Mechanism of Advanced Thermal Barrier Coating: A Review, Progress in Organic Coatings, 2016, 90: pp. 54–82. 6 A. Jankowiak, J.F. Justin, Ultra-High Temperature Ceramics for Aerospace Applications, In Proceedings of ODAS 2014, Cologne, Germany. 11–13 June 2014. 7 G. Czeremuszkin, M.R. Wertheimer, J. Cerny, J.E. Klemberg-Sapieha, and L. Martinu, PlasmaDeposited Coatings for the Protection of Spacecraft Materials against Atomic Oxygen Erosion, in J. I. Kleiman and R.C. Tennyson (ed.), Protection of Materials and Structures from the Low Earth Orbit Space Environment: Proceedings of ICPMSE-3, Third International Space Conference, held in Toronto, Canada, 25–26 April 1996, Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999, pp. 139–153.

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the thermal protection of satellite systems.8 Screen printing, sol–gel, casting, and other methods are used to apply a ceramic coating. Ceramics have the benefit of being able to be treated as tridimensional solids, coatings, and thin films.9 Structures, coatings, tribology, structural health monitoring, electromagnetic shielding, and shape memory are all applications where polymeric and ceramic materials shine.10 Mechanical, thermal, electrical, chemical, and bio-degradable capabilities are all important in aircraft applications. Chemical properties like as corrosion resistance or passivity are crucial. Aside from reduced weight, aircraft structures must meet mechanical design requirements such as strength, stiffness, fatigue resistance, impact resistance, and scratch resistance. Low solar absorption, low radiation resistance, high thermal emissivity, and tunable electrical conductivity are also advantages. Aerospace components are exposed to a variety of conditions, including changes in humidity and temperature. Jet fuel, deicing fluids, and hydraulic fluids all meet them. Coatings must be able to survive lightning strikes, ultraviolet (UV) exposure, and degradation from 500 miles per hour dust impacts. A primer and a topcoat are commonly used in aeronautical coatings. The primer offers adhesion and corrosion protection to the substrate. For a decent appearance, the topcoat must have a matte finish, flexibility, durability, chemical resistance, corrosion protection, and a consistent color. Glass–ceramics are brittle and easily fractured materials. Ceramics are not appropriate for most aircraft components because they are sensitive to vibration and fatigue. Ceramics, on the other hand, are hard, inert, and stable at greater temperatures. Ceramic materials have been given a lot of thought in terms of stiffness. A ductile phase is introduced to ceramics to avoid fracture and improve fracture strength and toughness. Ceramic materials such as Al2 O3 , TiO2 , SiO2 , ZrO2 can be used to develop applications with multifunctional properties and specifically in coatings operating as dielectric layers, and anti-reflective coatings.11 CubeSats, which were originally designed as student-led initiatives at universities and research institutions, today offer a unique possibility to gain access to space fast and at a low cost.12 CubeSats are conventional, miniature satellites made up of numerous identical pieces measuring as a multitude of one unit (1U) with roughly 11,35 × 10 × 10 cm and 1,33 kg) and consuming very little power (usually less than a few Watts). Hundreds of CubeSats have already been launched to address scientific, educational, technological, and commercial requirements. The creation of lighter and stronger materials suitable for the space environment has been aided by 8

See Footnote 7. C.J. Brinker, G.W. Scherer, Sol–Gel Science: The Physics and Chemistry of Sol–Gel Processing, San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1990, pp. 746–780. 10 V.T. Rathod, J.S. Kumar, and A. Jain, Polymer and ceramic Nanocomposites for Aerospace Applications, Applied Nanoscience, 2017, 7: pp. 519–548. 11 R. Subasri, and K.R.C. Soma Raju, Multifunctional Sol–Gel Nanocomposite Coatings for Aerospace, Energy, and Strategic Applications: Challenges and Perspectives, in Yashwant R. Mahajan and Roy Johnson (ed.), Handbook of Advanced Ceramics and Composites: Defense, Security, Aerospace and Energy Applications, Springer, Cham, Switzerland, 2020, pp. 1413–1442. 12 F. Arneodo, A. Di Giovanni, and P. Marpu, A Review of Requirements for Gamma Radiation Detection in Space using CubeSats, Applied Sciences, 2021, 11: p. 2659. 9

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technological advancements that have resulted in the miniaturization of components. Using CubeSats as a platform gives up new opportunities for low-cost testing of novel satellite sensing and testing systems. CubeSat-type satellite structures provide a low-cost platform for aerospace experiments, such as structural design, payload, materials, communication, antennas, and so on.13 In this research, a glass–ceramic coating to protect satellite systems was developed, which was made using the sol–gel process with the addition of ceramic nanoparticles, with the advantage that no special conditions (high temperature, vacuum, etc.) were needed to obtain a well-controlled thickness and homogeneous coating. Good thermal properties are expected with the use of ceramic nanoparticles. The chapter has been divided as follows: Sect. 1 presents the introduction pointing out the relevance of the development of coatings for satellites such as CubeSats. A brief description of space weather is provided in Sect. 2. In Sect. 3, an introduction to meta-materials, the materials that are the object of study of this application, is presented. The materials and procedures used for the development of these glass–ceramic materials are described in Sect. 4. In Sect. 5 the analysis of the results and their discussion are carried out. Finally, in Sect. 6, the conclusions of this work are presented.

2 Space Weather Space weather is the real-time measurement and analysis of the sun and its interplanetary, magnetosphere, atmosphere, and surface interaction, which has an impact on infrastructure, technology, and society.14 Unfortunately, space weather causes negative effects on Earth’s technological systems, some of which are: radiation dose that degrades microelectronics and materials, unique effects of energetic particles, the electrical charge in insulating materials, and electrostatic discharges.15 The foregoing implies damage and interference to aircraft, satellites, communication systems, terrestrial electrical networks, oil, and gas pipelines, etc. In the case of satellites, they are susceptible to space weather, especially to cosmic radiation, presenting operational anomalies in the communication, navigation, and remote perception systems,16 due to damages in the payload and materials. 13

A. Huang, S. Janson, H. Helvajian, A Mass-Producible Glass/Ceramic Micropropulsion Unit for a Co-Orbiting Satellite Assistant (COSA) Mission, in H. Helvajian and S. Janson (Eds.), Small Satellites: Past, Present and Future, AIAA/The Aerospace Press, 2009, pp. 559–593. 14 Space Weather Impacts on Climate, Space Weather Prediction Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/impacts/space-weather-impacts-climate, (review on 25 October 2021). 15 J.L. Roeder and V.K. Jordanovab, Space Weather Effects and Prediction, in V.K. Jorndanova, R. Ilie and M.W. Chen (ed.), Ring Current Investigations: The Quest for Space Weather Prediction, Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 2020, pp. 245–269. 16 D.N. Baker, Satellite Anomalies due to Space Storms, In I.A. Daglis (ed.), Space Storms and Space Weather Hazards, NATO Science Series (Series II: Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry), Vol. 38, Springer, Dordrecht, 2001, pp. 285–287.

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Table 1 Space weather causes and effects on satellite materials Space weather causes

Effects on satellites materials

Total ionizing doses (TID)

Degradation of microelectronics materials

Displacement damage dose (DDD)

Degradation of optical components materials Degradation of solar cells

Single-event effects (SEE)

Data corruption Noise on images System shut down Electronics components damage

Surface erosion

Degradation of thermal, electric, and optical properties Degradation of structural integrity

Surface charging

Biasing of instruments readings Power drains Physical damage

Internal changing

Biasing of instruments readings Electrical discharge Physical damage

Structure impacts

Structural damage Decompression

Satellite drags

Torques Orbital decay

Therefore, the materials that make up the satellites are subject to the effects of cosmic radiation, as shown in Table 1.17 According to Table 1, most of the materials used in the manufacture of satellite systems degrade and are reflected in the operability. Therefore, materials for space use must have a good tolerance to cosmic radiation and have barriers, cladding, or coatings that protect the entire system from the effects of cosmic radiation.18,19 Table 2 shows some materials resistant to cosmic radiation. Currently, silica in the glass phase is used to embed the circuits of the useful charge.20 It is for this reason that this work deals with a protective coating of a glass matrix resistant to cosmic radiation and thermal changes for a satellite system. 17

Y. Zheng, N.Y. Ganushkina, P. Jiggens, I. Jun, M. Meier, J.I. Minow, T.P. O’Brien, D. Pitchford, Y. Shprits, W.K. Tobiska, M.A. Xapsos, T.B. Guild, J.E. Mazur, and M.M. Kuznetsova, Space Radiation and Plasma Effects on Satellites and Aviation: Quantities and Metrics for Tracking Performance of Space Weather Environment Models, Space Weather, 2019, 17: pp. 1384–1403. 18 E. Poiré, H. Richards, and W. Peruzzini, Materials Exposure in Low Earth Orbit 2 (Meleo 2): An Update, in J.I. Kleiman and R.C. Tennyson (ed.), Protection of Materials and Structures from the Low Earth Orbit Space Environment: Proceedings of ICPMSE-3, Third International Space Conference, held in Toronto, Canada, 25–26 April 1996. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999, pp. 189–201. 19 W.Q. Lohmeyer and K. Cahoy, Space Weather Radiation Effects on Geostationary Satellite Solid-State Power Amplifiers, Space Weather, 2013, 11: pp. 476–488. 20 Y. Liu, and X. Zhang, Metamaterials: A New Frontier of Science and Technology, Chem. Soc. Rev., 2011, 40: pp. 2494–3507.

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Table 2 Materials resistant to cosmic radiation Material

Doses (rad)

Nylon

105 –106

Silver-Teflon

106 –107

Neoprene

106 –107

Natural Caucho

106 –107

Mylar

107 –108

Polyethylene

107 –108

Silicon grease

108 –109

Kapton

109 –1010

Carbon

109 –1010

Optical glass (silica)

5 × 108 to 5 × 1010

Molten glass (silica)

109 –1010

Quartz

109 –1010

Note 1 rad = 100 erg/g (absorbed radiation dose)

Consequently, this work uses a vitreous matrix as a protective coating resistant to cosmic radiation and thermal changes for satellite systems.

3 Meta-Materials Meta-materials are smart materials with a wide range of physical properties that distinguish them from one another, therefore there is no such thing as a definition for them. However, they all have one thing in common: they are artificially created. This means they are manufactured by people and are not found in nature. The extraordinary electromagnetic properties of these materials are due to their structure and arrangement rather than their composition. This is comparable to what happens with graphite, diamond, and graphene, which are all made of carbon but have highly distinct properties due to their individual structures. One of the features that materials can differ in is their refractive index, which can be negative. As a result, these materials are extremely important in optics and electromagnetism. At certain wavelengths, these materials can make objects more visible or invisible. The wavelength of the light determines whether it is UV, infrared (IR), or visible (VIS). For example, if you make a fabric with meta-materials that covers an apple at the visible wavelength, the apple will vanish from view and one will see what’s on the other side. Negative refractive index, sub-diffraction limited imaging, high optical activity in chiral materials, meta-atom interaction, and transformation optics are some of the fascinating phenomena and applications related to metamaterials. Electrical permittivity (ε) and magnetic permeability (μ) are the two fundamental factors in electromagnetism that characterize a medium’s electromagnetic

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Fig. 1 Classification of materials according to their electromagnetic properties

property. Permittivity (permeability) is a physical property that defines how an electric (magnetic) field influences a medium and is affected by it. It is determined by a material’s ability to polarize in response to an electric (magnetic) field. Figure 1 summarizes all conceivable material classes based on electromagnetic properties. The materials in Quadrant I (in the upper right region) have both positive permittivity and permeability, which includes most dielectric materials. Metals, ferroelectric materials, and doped semiconductors in Quadrant II may have negative permittivity at certain frequencies (below the plasma frequency). Quadrant IV includes ferrite materials with negative permeability, although their magnetic response fades rapidly above microwave frequencies. Quadrant III is the most intriguing, as both permittivity and permeability are negative at the same time. There is no such material in nature. Optical meta-materials are materials not occurring naturally with a negative refractive index.21 They are composed of self-assembled elements that are smaller than the wavelength of IR, UV and VIS light and interact with it interestingly. These can be used in super-resolution imaging or cloaking and are difficult to make because they must have a wavelength less than 100 nm or smaller for working with visible wavelengths. In the design of meta-materials that operate as plasmonic waveguides

21

J.B. Pendry, and D. Smith, Reversing Light with Negative Refraction, Physics Today, 2004, 57: pp. 37–43.

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Fig. 2 Uncoated 1/3U CubeSat structure

in the VIS and UV spectral range, ceramic materials such as titanium oxides (TiO2 ) and silicon oxide (SiO2 ) are being used.22,23

4 Materials and Procedures 4.1 First Stage: Conditioning of the CubeSat A experimental CubeSat construction as 1/3U CubeSat (approximately 0,34 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm and 0,4 kg) made of Al6061-T6 alloy was built. This material is considered appropriate for use in aircraft components since it has excellent joining characteristics and good acceptance of coatings. Besides, it combines good workability and high resistance to corrosion, in addition to being widely available. The artificial aging and heat treatment solution (T6) provides the alloy with relatively high strength. As can be observed in Fig. 2, the 1/3U CubeSat was superficially 22

R. Maas, E. Verhagen, J. Parsons, and A. Polman, Negative Refractive Index and Higher-Order Harmonics in Layered Metallodielectric Optical Metamaterials, ACS Photonics, 2014, 1: pp. 670– 676. 23 B. Gholipour, D. Piccinotti, A. Karvounis, K.F. MacDonald, and N.I. Zheludev, Reconfigurable Ultraviolet and High-Energy Visible Dielectric Metamaterials, Nano Letters, 2019, 19: pp. 1643– 1648.

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polished with SiC emery paper up to grit 2.000 and then using a 1-µm diamond paste to get a mirror finishing. The proposed glass–ceramic coating was deposited on Al6061-T6 alloy using a dip-coating sol–gel process. The raw materials used in the coating synthesis were tetraethyl orthosilicate (Sigma Aldrich), ethylic absolute alcohol (Baker), and deionized water in a 4:4:1 ratio, with 5 vol.% HNO3 as a catalyst. As a particulate reinforcing material, 3 wt% of hydrophilic titania (TiO2 ) nanoparticles were added. To achieve a thin and homogeneous layer, the coating was deposited using the dipcoating technique at a removal rate of 0.25 mm/min. The coating was dried at 180 °C and then sintered at 300 °C using a conventional muffle. The absorbance and reflectance of the coating were measured by UV/VIS in the range of 300–700 nm using an Evolution 220 UV–VIS spectrophotometer from Thermo Scientific with an integration sphere ISA 220. The surface morphology and quality of the coating were examined by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) using a JEOL JSM-6510LV microscope; high vacuum and secondary electrons at 10.000× magnifications were used. The hardness and Young’s modulus were determined using a CSM InstrumentsNHT2 Nanoindenter with a Berkovich diamond tip and the Oliver-Pharr method; a load of 5 mN, a loading/unloading rate of 10 mN/min, and a dwell time of 2 s were used.

4.2 Second Stage: Installation of the CubeSat Sensors The temperature of the 1/3U CubeSat was measured using thermistors with a measuring accuracy of 0.5 °C. The sensors were distributed as follows: one placed inside, another suspended in the center, and the other two attached to two of the lateral faces (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 Sensors array with coating on a 1/3 U CubeSat

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4.3 Third Stage: The Flight of the CubeSat The experiment was carried out with a latex meteorological balloon with a load capacity of up to 3 kg; the balloon had a maximum diameter of 12 m before bursting. A conventional radio amateurs system (Automatic Packet Reporting System, APRS) was utilized to track the payload in flight and recover it. The 1/3U CubeSat was placed external to the main load to measure the outside and inside temperatures, causing no interference with other subsequent experiments carried out throughout the flight (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 Before the flight: the main cargo, and the 1/3U CubeSat

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Fig. 5 UV/VIS spectra of SiO2 -TiO2

5 Results and Discussion Before clamping the temperature sensors into the structure, the surface of the SiO2 TiO2 composed coating was characterized to determine its homogeneity and uniformity. The coating seemed translucent at first inspection, giving the entire structure a mirror-like aspect. Figure 5 depicts a graph of the SiO2 -TiO2 coating absorbance and reflectance UV/VIS spectra, which reveal that the silica matrix is transparent in the range of 300– 700 nm, with broadband of 410 and 625 nm corresponding to the TiO2 nanoparticles. According to these results, the coating behaves like a Metamaterial Perfect Absorber (MPA). Fu et al. state that this spectral behavior correlates to a transparent MPA, with the MPA signal increasing as more layers of the coating are applied.24 Figure 6a depicts a micrograph of the coating surface before the flight, which was a homogeneously applied clean surface of Al6061-T6 inclusions visible in the background. However, the coating is not visible in this mode, hence a chemical mapping image (Fig. 6b) was acquired, which illustrates the distribution of the TiO2 nanoparticles in the SiO2 matrix. Figure 6c shows the surface of the coating after peeling off the Kapton tape that held the external sensors during the flight, which is found to be homogeneous and with some Kapton tape residues. Figure 6d shows the corresponding chemical mapping image, which presents TiO2 nanoparticles scattered into the SiO2 matrix, verifying that the coating was homogeneously applied to the Al6061-T6 substrate. The coating has a thickness of 1 µm, Young’s modulus of 24

S.M. Fu, Y.K. Zhong, M.H. Tu, B.R. Chen, and A. Lin, A Fully Functionalized Metamaterial Perfect Absorber with Simple Design and Implementation, Scientific Reports, 2016, 6: p. 36244.

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Fig. 6 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of a the coating surface and b the chemical mapping coating before the flight, and c the coating surface and d the chemical mapping coating after the flight

217.02 GPa, and a nanohardness of 1.72 GPa. Comparing these values with those of the Al6061-T6 substrate (E = 70 GPa, nanohardness = 1.3 GPa), it is evident that the glass–ceramic coating improved the mechanical properties of the system. Osborne et al. found that the application of noncolored or transparent glass– ceramic coatings on aluminum alloys for aerospace applications showed out to be homogeneous and with good adherence to substrates.25 Voevodin et al. discovered that thin non-crystalline coatings with nanoparticle reinforcement act as encapsulating materials on metal substrates with an abrupt interface, stating that this protects the metal from the environment, collisions, and high failure resistance due to laminar

25

J.H. Osborne, K.Y. Blohowiak, S.R. Taylor, C. Hunter, G. Bierwagon, B. Carlson, D. Bernard, and M.S. Donley, Testing and Evaluation of Nonchromated Coating Systems for Aerospace Applications, Progress in Organic Coatings, 2001, 41: pp. 217–225.

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Fig. 7 Temperature versus time graph recorded throughout the flight of 1/3U CubSat

deflections.26 On the other hand, Herrera-Arroyave et al. found that a thin amorphous silica-based ceramic coating (glass) acts mechanically as if it were a part of the metallic substrate.27 . Figure 7 depicts a graph of the temperature as a function of the time, which was acquired throughout the flight the 1/3U CubeSat performed up to 32.000 m. The outdoor sensors recorded a temperature of −59 °C, while the internal sensor recorded a temperature of −57 °C. As a result, the inner part of the system is only 2 °C warmer than the outside environment. This evidence that the developed coating was effective in isolating the system. According to Monteverde et al., ceramics for high-temperature applications are used in aerospace re-entry and hypersonic vehicles, due to their hardness, high emissivity, and resilience to thermal shocks.28 On the other hand, Cao et al. discovered that thin silica coatings have a high coefficient of thermal expansion, good adhesion, 26

A.A. Voevodin, and J.S. Zabinski, Nanocomposite and Nanostructured Tribological Materials for Space Applications, Composite Science and Technology, 2005, 65: pp. 741–748. 27 J.E. Herrera-Arroyave, B. Bermúdez-Reyes, J.A. Ferrer-Pérez, and A. Colín, Cubesat System Structural Design, Proceedings of the 67th International Astronautical Congress, IAC 2016, Guadalajara, Jalisco, 26–30 September 2016. 28 F. Monteverde, A. Bellosi, and L. Scatteia, Processing and Properties of Ultra-High Temperature Ceramics for Space Applications, Materials Science and Engineering A, 2008, 485: pp. 415–421.

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and low porosity, allowing aerospace systems to be isolated from the outside temperature.29 For solar applications, Pettit and Brinker developed silica-based coatings obtained by the sol–gel process, which operate as a thermal barrier coating.30 They discovered that a coating applied on a noncolored or darkened metallic substrate led the temperature to be a few degrees lower than the ambient temperature. One of the advantages of glass–ceramic coatings with TiO2 nanoparticle reinforcement is that they are transparent, have good resistance to impacts, and have chiral optical properties that allow negative refractive indices, characteristic of metamaterials.31 On the other hand, the sol–gel technique is a process that allows the incorporation of functionalized and non-functionalized nanometric ceramic materials, which makes the vitreous matrix versatile for various applications such as coating.32 As they are transparent coatings, the incorporated nanoparticles confer mechanical properties that allow coupling with the mechanical properties of the substrate as armor and electromagnetics shielding.33 According to the above, a composite meta-material (metal-ceramic or ceramic-ceramic, etc.) can transfer mechanical properties through spaces between materials (abrupt interfaces).34 It should be noted that the interface between the SiO2 -TiO2 coating and the substrate is abrupt (the coating encapsulates the substrate), and according to the simulation of the mechanical compression of the coating on the satellite structure, it behaves the same as the substrate. Regarding the application of meta-materials in the space area, they are used as noise attenuators (vibrations), dissipators of variable thermal fluxes to protect the payload (passive thermal systems and circuit embedders) and in stress-assisted corrosion in components subjected to extreme vibrations and environments.35 As for thermal meta-materials type for space, the application can be a cloak (eliminating thermal gradient), concentrator (increasing heat flux), rotator (change of direction of temperature gradient), and camouflage (make one object appear to have another property) and then depend on the material application technique, composition, and thermal 29

X.Q. Cao, R. Vassen, and D. Stoever, Ceramic Materials for Thermal Barrier Coatings, Journal of the European Ceramic Society, 2004, 24: pp. 1–10. 30 R.B. Pettit, and C.J. Brinker, Use of Sol–Gel Thin Films in Solar Energy Applications, Solar Energy Materials, 1986, 14: pp. 269–287. 31 S.C. Warren, M.R. Perkins, A.M. Adams, M. Kamperman, A.A. Burns, H. Arora, E. Herz, T. Suteewong, H. Sai, Z. Li, J. Werner, J. Song, U. Werner-Zwanziger, J.W. Zwanziger, M. Grätzel, F.J. DiSalvo and U. Wiesner, A Silica Sol–Gel Design Strategy for Nanostructured Metallic Materials, Nature Materials, 2012, 11: pp. 460–467. 32 G. Gorni, J.J. Velázquez, J. Mosa, R. Balda, J. Fernández, A. Durán, and Y. Castro, Transparent Glass–Ceramics Produced by Sol–Gel: A Suitable Alternative for Photonic Materials, Materials, 2018, 11(2): p. 212. 33 P.J. Patel, G.A. Gilde, P.G. Dehmer, and J.W. McCauley, “Transparent ceramics for armor and EM window applications,” in Proc. SPIE 4102, Inorganic Optical Materials II, San Diego, CA, United States, 25 October 2000. 34 M. Bayindir, K. Aydin, E. Ozbay, P. Markos, and C.M. Soukoulis, Transmission Properties of Composite Metamaterials, in Free Spacel Applied Physics Letters, 2002, 81(1): pp. 120–122. 35 I. Bashir, and M. Carley, Development of 3D Boundary Element Method for the Simulation of Acoustic Metamaterials/Metasurfaces, in Mean Flow for Aerospace Applications, International Journal of Aeroacoustics, 2020, 19(6–8): pp. 324–346.

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environment conditions (conduction, convection, or radiation).36 According to the results obtained from the experimental suborbital flight that was carried out, the coating was reported as a cloak-type meta-material, due to the small temperature gradient that was recorded.

6 Conclusions A transparent coating based on a glass–ceramic reinforced with TiO2 ceramic nanoparticles was successfully deposited on Al6061-T6 alloy. The coating showed to have a very good performance, which was validated through mechanical and thermal properties before, during, and after the flight of the device. Both Young’s modulus and hardness of the substrate of Al6061-T6 were increased with the application of the coating. The difference in temperature between the exterior and interior of the 1/3U CubeSat structure was found to be 2 °C. This indicates that the developed coating has good thermal performance, especially taking into account that the aluminum substrate used is a good thermal conductor and that there were no other coatings or coloration on the substrate. As a consequence, it has been determined that a glass–ceramic coating reinforced with TiO2 nanoparticles might be employed as a thermal shock protective coating in aerospace applications. However, more testing and improvements to the MPA signal are required to have conclusive results.

7 Future Work As work in the future, it is intended to make multilayer coatings to increase the MPA signal. Wear tests (tribological) will be carried out to know the resistance to friction wear. It is considered to perform vibration, thermal vacuum, and electromagnetic compatibility tests at a payload in which the glass–ceramic coating reinforced with TiO2 nanoparticles is applied to a solid-wall CubeSat-type structure to determine the thermal meta-material could be. Acknowledgements The authors thank Mexican Service Gondola (CSM) that was in charge of the flight and Remtronic Telecominicaciones Company for providing the facilities for the flight in León City. Thanks are also due to the Guanajuato State Amateur Radio Club for its invaluable support for the successful accomplishment of this mission, as well as to the National Space Science and Technology Thematic Network (REDCyTE). They are also grateful to the following people for their technical support in obtaining and characterizing the coating: Dr. Edgar Cruz-Valeriano from CINVESTAV-Qro and Dr. Pedro Pizá Ruiz from CIMAV-Chihuahua.

36 S.R. Sklan, and B. Li, Thermal Metamaterials: Functions and Prospects,e Natl. Sci. Rev., 2018, 5(2): pp. 138–141.

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Dr. Rafael Vargas-Bernal received his D.Sc. in Electronic Engineering from the INAOE, Tonantzintla, Puebla, Mexico, in 2000. He is associate professor in the Materials Engineering Department from Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Irapuato, in Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico. He is a researcher of the National System of Researchers from Mexico with level I. Also, he belongs to the research group called “Advanced Materials Applied to Engineering”. He has been a reviewer in journals for RSC, Elsevier, Wiley, MDPI, Hindawi, and IEEE. He has published 13 articles in indexed journals and 32 chapters in books. His areas of interest are nanomaterials, aerospace materials, composites, and gas sensors. Dr. Ana Arizmendi has a M.Sc. in Commercialization of Science and Technology (CIMAVUniversity of Texas, USA joint program) and a Ph.D. in Sciences in Metallurgical and Ceramic Engineering from CINVESTAV-IPN Mexico. Since 2008 she has been working at Advanced Materials Research Center (CIMAV Monterrey) as a full-time researcher. Her main research lines the design, synthesis, and characterization of metal matrix nanocomposites and nanostructured coatings with emphasis on industrial applications. Her current activities include the development of frontier and applied research projects in Materials Science and Nanotechnology, authorship of scientific papers and the formation of specialized human resources. Dr. Jose Martin Herrera-Ramirez accomplished a B.Sc. in Military Industrial Engineering, an MSc in Metallurgical Engineering and a Ph.D. in Materials Science and Engineering. He worked at General Directorate of Military Industry, holding various positions including the head of the Applied Research Center and Technology Development for the Military Industry. Then he joined Research Center for Advanced Materials as a full-time researcher. He holds the distinction of National Researcher Level II (SNI-CONACYT). His current research focuses mainly on the development of metallic alloys and composites. He has authored around 130 publications and supervised doctoral, master, and bachelor thesis. Dr. Barbara Bermudez-Reyes studied her Ph.D. in Metallurgy Science and Materials Science in IIM-UMSNH. Shue Acomplisher MSc. In Materials Sciences by CINIVESTAV-Qro. She is fulltime research professor at Autonomous University of Baja California. She was General Secretary of the University Space Engineering Consortium-Mexico Chapter for the period 2014–2019 and She is member of Space Science and Technology Network. She has collaborated in projects with Mexican Air Force and has evaluated projects of Mexican Naval Research Institute. She holds the distinction of National Researcher Lever I. Her research line is aerospace materials and structures.