Space Fostering African Societies: Developing the African Continent Through Space, Part 5 (Southern Space Studies) 3031367464, 9783031367465

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Southern Space Studies Series Editor: Annette Froehlich

Annette Froehlich   Editor

Space Fostering African Societies Developing the African Continent Through Space, Part 5

Southern Space Studies Series Editor Annette Froehlich, SpaceLab, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South Africa Associate Editor Dirk Heinzmann, Bundeswehr Command and Staff College, Hamburg, Germany Advisory Editors Josef Aschbacher, European Space Agency, Paris, France Rigobert Bayala, National Observatory of Sustainable Development, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso Carlos Caballero León, CP Consult, Lima, Peru Guy Consolmagno, Vatican Observatory, Castel Gandolfo, Vatican City State Juan de Dalmau, International Space University, Illkirch-Graffenstaden, France Driss El Hadani, Royal Center for Remote Sensing of Morocco, Rabat, Morocco El Hadi Gashut, Regional Center for Remote Sensing of North Africa States, Tunis, Tunisia Ian Grosner, Brazilian Space Agency, Brasília/DF, Brazil Michelle Hanlon, For All Moonkind, New Canaan, CT, USA Ayomide A. Jide-Omole, Blog “More to Space Than Air?”, Lagos, Nigeria Torsten Kriening, SpaceWatch.Global GmbH, Berlin, Germany Félix Clementino Menicocci, Argentinean Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Buenos Aires, Argentina Sias Mostert, African Association of Remote Sensing of the Environment, Muizenburg, South Africa Val Munsami, African Space Leadership Institute, Pretoria, South Africa Greg Olsen, Entrepreneur-Astronaut, Princeton, NJ, USA Temidayo Oniosun, Space in Africa, Lagos, Nigeria Xavier Pasco, Fondation pour la Recherche Stratégique, Paris, France Elvira Prado Alegre, Ibero-American Institute of Air and Space Law and Commercial Aviation, Madrid, Spain Fermín Romero Vázquez, Fundacion Acercandote al Universo, Mexico City, Mexico Kai-Uwe Schrogl, International Institute of Space Law, Paris, France Robert van Zyl, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Bellville, South Africa

The Southern Space Studies series presents analyses of space trends, market evolutions, policies, strategies and regulations, as well as the related social, economic and political challenges of space-related activities in the Global South, with a particular focus on developing countries in Africa and Latin America. Obtaining inside information from emerging space-faring countries in these regions is pivotal to establish and strengthen efficient and beneficial cooperation mechanisms in the space arena, and to gain a deeper understanding of their rapidly evolving space activities. To this end, the series provides transdisciplinary information for a fruitful development of space activities in relevant countries and cooperation with established space-faring nations. It is, therefore, a reference compilation for space activities in these areas. The volumes of the series are peer-reviewed.

Annette Froehlich Editor

Space Fostering African Societies Developing the African Continent Through Space, Part 5

Editor Annette Froehlich SpaceLab University of Cape Town Rondebosch, South Africa

ISSN 2523-3718 ISSN 2523-3726 (electronic) Southern Space Studies ISBN 978-3-031-36746-5 ISBN 978-3-031-36747-2 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-36747-2 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Contents

Much ADO on Africa’s Integration Agenda: Evaluating the Nigerian Space Policy Vis-à-vis the African Outer Space Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adeife Ayomide Jide-Omole Africa’s Impact Cratering History and Meteorite Record: Implications for Planetary and Space Science Studies on the Continent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marian Selorm Sapah

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17

The Namibian Multi-wavelength Observatory—Towards Sustained Astronomy in Namibia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Michael Backes, Riaan Steenkamp, Eli Kasai, and Kenneth K. Matengu

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South Africa’s Role in Promoting Development in Africa Through Its Outer Space Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anél Ferreira-Snyman

45

Use of SAR Imagery for Oil Spill Detection and Mapping in Angola . . . . . Luciano Lupedia, Atanilson Cachinjumba, Joao Junior, Alexandra Lissouba, Taiwo Tejumola, and Zolana Joao Preliminary Design of a South African Liquid Rocket Engine Testing Platform for Academic Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nicolas Ringas

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Much ADO on Africa’s Integration Agenda: Evaluating the Nigerian Space Policy Vis-à-vis the African Outer Space Strategy Adeife Ayomide Jide-Omole

Abstract

For most of Africa’s history, she has experienced development without sustainability due to a variety of factors, including population growth trends that outpace technology. To allay this challenge, the African Union in 2015 established the Africa Outer Space Strategy as a flagship project in its Agenda 2063. The strategy aims to strengthen Africa’s use of outer space to bolster economic development across relative fields. However, while awaiting its establishment, Member States such as Nigeria have continued to develop their national space programs to mitigate current development challenges. In furtherance with the international obligations under the Outer Space Treaty, this chapter gives an insight into Nigeria’s space policy and examines the import of Nigeria’s accession to the Artemis Accords. Against this backdrop, it considers Nigeria’s commitment to the African Outer Space Strategy. Further on it also gives some recommendations and finally draws some conclusions as to how other African Nations can learn from Nigeria’s legislative efforts to ensuring “Space capabilities is an essential tool for socio-economic development and enhancement of the quality of life of its peoples”—Evaluating the Nigerian Space Policy vis-à-vis the African Outer Space Strategy.

1

Introduction

One of the central discussions arising out of Africa as early as the twentieth century was the direction in which social, political and economic integration could be attained across the continent. By making a compelling case for integration, the

A. A. Jide-Omole (B) Faculty of Law, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. Froehlich (ed.), Space Fostering African Societies, Southern Space Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-36747-2_1

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effects of implementation were to yield efficiency gains by exploiting economy of scale.1

1.1

The African Union Agenda and Space

To ensure better integration and operability, the African Union (AU) adopted the Agenda 2063 in 20152 including 15 flagship projects which refer to key programmes and initiatives which have been identified as key to accelerating Africa’s economic growth and development.3 Besides being the strategic framework for the socio-economic transformation of the continent within a fifty-year period, it is Africa’s blueprint and master plan for transformation into the global powerhouse of the future.4 Agenda 2063 encapsulates not only Africa’s aspirations for the future but also prioritizes inclusive social and economic development, continental and regional integration, democratic governance, and peace and security amongst other issues aimed at (re)positioning Africa as a dominant player in the global arena.5 Africa continues to face the challenges of climate change, natural and humanmade disasters and environmental degradation, which have had a negative impact on agricultural production, economic productivity and socio-economic infrastructure. Thus, the goals of Agenda 2063 require focusing on solving Africa’s current development issues and challenges, particularly with regard to its economic pillars of agriculture, natural and water resources, energy, digital infrastructure. Additionally, Agenda 2063 builds on, and seeks to accelerate the implementation of past and existing continental initiatives for growth and sustainable development, including the Lagos Plan of Action, the Abuja Treaty, the Minimum Integration Program, the Program for Infrastructure Development in

1

Ayomide A. Jide-Omole, The Regulation of State Subsidies: A Prerequisite for Attaining Fair Competition in the African Open Skies Project, (Leiden: LLM Thesis, 2020), p. 31. 2 The genesis of Agenda 2063 was the realisation by African leaders that there was a need to refocus and reprioritize Africa’s agenda from the struggle against apartheid and the attainment of political independence for the continent which had been the focus of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), the precursor of the African Union; and instead to prioritize inclusive social and economic development, continental and regional integration, democratic governance and peace and security amongst other issues aimed at repositioning Africa to becoming a dominant player in the global arena. 3 African Union, “Flagship Projects of Agenda 2063”, 12 March 2023, www.au.int/en/agenda 2063/flagship-projects, (all websites cited in this publication were last accessed and verified on 3 April 2023. 4 TRALAC, “African Union Agenda 2063”, 13 December 2018, www.tralac.org/resources/our-res ources/14352-african-union-agenda-2063.html. 5 Agenda 2063 also identifies key activities to be undertaken in its 10-year implementation plans which will ensure that Agenda 2063 delivers both quantitative and qualitative transformational outcomes for Africa’s people.

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Africa (PIDA),6 the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program (CAADP),7 the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), Regional Plans and Program and National Plans.8 Through Agenda 2063, it is anticipated that citizens of AU Member States would be able to travel freely without passports or visas between African states,9 and of particular interest to this discourse is its continental framework to develop a common African strategy for the use of outer-space technology. Flagship Project 11 is the Africa Outer Space Strategy which aims to strengthen Africa’s use of outer space to bolster its development. Outer space is of critical importance to the development of Africa in all fields: agriculture, disaster management, remote sensing, climate forecast, banking and finance, as well as defense and security.10 However, questions have been raised about the African strategy. This pertains to the AU Space Policy and its calls of uniformity of national space policies despite the difference in level of development and priority between Member States. Owing to the spread of development in national space programs, industry practitioners have held that the pragmatic challenge is to bring together the proposed initiatives to create synergistic and complementary programs to promote collective actions in favor of Africa’s development. This will ultimately allow the continent to become a global space player without diluting the national and continental programs.11 Likewise, over the past two decades, the African space ecosystem has seen rapid growth. Initially driven by a few nations on the back of military programmes, the Newspace landscape has evolved to include several dedicated national space agencies across the continent. This include regional entities collaborating with foreign agencies on the use of space-derived geospatial data; nations launching their own space programmes and

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The overall goal of PIDA is to promote socio-economic development and poverty reduction in Africa through improved access to integrated regional and continental infrastructure networks and services. 7 The CAADP is Africa’s policy framework for agricultural transformation, wealth creation, food security and nutrition, economic growth and prosperity for all. 8 TRALAC, “African Union Agenda 2063”, 13 December 2018, www.tralac.org/resources/our-res ources/14352-african-union-agenda-2063.html. 9 This is to be realized by Agenda 4 on the creation of the African Passport and Freedom of Movement. 10 African Union, “About Education, Science, Technology and Innovation (ESTI)”, 12 March 2023, https://au.int/en/esti. 11 Adigun Ade Abiodun, “Trends in the Global Arena—Impact on Africa and Africa’s response”, Space Policy 28 (2012), p. 283.

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satellites; universities and research institutes with distinguished academics in disciplines relevant to space science and technology; as well as private space entities providing services both locally and globally.12 African governments are increasingly seeing the potential of space services and applications and are allocating more funds to their space programmes at an increasing rate. Similarly, they have defined (or are in the midst of defining) national space programmes, and several are party to space treaties of the United Nations (15 in the Outer Space Treaty, and 14 in the Rescue Agreement).13 This is despite the fact that few African countries have a space programme or national agency, and even fewer hold the capability to manufacture, launch, or operate space assets.

1.2

The African Outer Space Flagship Programme

The African Outer Space Flagship Programme was formalized in January 2016 when the AU Heads of State and Government adopted the African Space Policy and Strategy, and further adopted the Statute of the African Space Agency as an organ of the Union in 2018. The Assembly decided on Republic of Egypt as the host of the African Space Agency in February 2019, after considering the report of a High-Level Panel appointed by the Chairperson to assess the candidate countries. In 2022, the Assembly adopted the proposal on Structural and Financial implications of the African Space Agency authorizing the Commission to operationalize the Agency in three phases beginning in 2023.14 Is there an obligation to coordinate national space policies with the plans of the African Union? The 4th objective of the AU Space Policy is the establishment of an organizational framework by Member States to coordinate all African activities and space to achieve the policy objectives in an efficient and cost effective manner. Accordingly, the inauguration of the African Space Agency (AfSA) on 25 January 2023 heralded a decades long push for a continental agency to direct space affairs within Africa. The AfSA is expected to implement the African Space Policy and Strategy, which addresses the private sector nominally under Objective 3: Developing the regional market, and more specifically in the sub-objective of “promoting public–private partnerships.”15

12

Kwaku Sumah, “Can the African Space Agency Enable a Commercial Space Market?”, SpaceHubs, 22 March 2023, https://spacehubs-africa.cdn.ampproject.org/c/s/spacehubs.africa/insight/ 2023/2/africa-joins-the-global-space-race?format=amp. 13 United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, “Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies”, https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html. 14 African Union, “Signature of the Host Agreement for the African Space Agency”, in Cairo, 24 January 2023”, https://au.int/en/pressreleases/20230124/signature-host-agreement-african-spaceagency-cairo-24-january-2023. 15 African Union, “African Space Policy, Towards Social, Political and Economic Integration. Second Ordinary Session for the Specialized Technical Committee Meeting on Education, Science and

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Africa’s increasing awareness on the use and benefits of space technologies for development and economic growth is one that can be observed through growing governmental recognition of space activities in national and regional strategic plans. The succeeding section examines the national space policy of Nigeria. With the increasing interest of African States in space exploration, this article will first analyze the Nigerian framework based upon activities conducted through remote sensing and telecommunications platforms. It will go into the functions of the National Space Agency vis-à-vis Nigeria’s strategic 25-year road map and its focus areas. Further, it will analyze Nigeria’s bilateral and multilateral relations which are needed or helpful in promoting its international cooperation for the attainment of its vision. Upon analyzing the Act governing space activities in Nigeria, the paper will make some recommendations to improve the Act in a bid to engage private actors and African States; and finally, it will draw some concluding remarks.

2

Nigeria—Outer Space Exploration and Development

The establishment of the National Space Research and Development Agency in 1999 and the Government’s approval of the National Space Policy in 2001 marked the turning point in Nigeria’s space ambitions16 as it became the second leading spacefaring nation from the developing world,17 and the second Country in Africa to enact a national law addressing the role of private actors in its space industry.18 The National Space Research and Development Act which formally establishes the Agency (NASRDA), and empowers the National Space Council as the regulatory and supervisory entity for space activities in Nigeria was adopted.19 The Act applies to all space activities within Nigeria by both citizens and non-citizens.20 With the vision to “Attain space capabilities as an essential tool to improve the quality of life of its people,”21 Nigeria, after acceding to the Outer Space Treaty on 14 November 1967 started using satellite-based infrastructure. Thus to advance its economy before it made its technological aspirations known to the

Technology”, 21–23 October 2017, Cairo, Egypt, https://au.int/sites/default/files/newsevents/wor kingdocuments/33178-wd-african_space_policy_-_st20444_e_original.pdf. 16 O. Tella, “Space as a Fulcrum of Nigeria’s External Relations and Regional Hegemony”, Space Policy Journal 2018. 17 F.G. von der Dunk, “The Second African National Space Law: The Nigerian NASRDA Act and the Draft Regulations on Licensing and Supervision”, Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law, 2017. 18 Ibid. 19 The National Space Council authorizes licenses for all space activities in Nigeria. License condition under this Act includes permitting inspection and testing of the licensee’s facilities and equipment. 20 L. de Guoyon Matignon, “The Nigerian Space Program”, www.spacelegalissues.com/the-nig erian-space-program/. 21 Further reading, http://nasrda.gov.ng/.

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Economic Community of Africa at an inter-governmental meeting in Addis Ababa in 1976 which would later lead to the setting up of a National Committee on Space applications in 1987.22 Nigeria who is a member of UNCOPOUS, ITU and UNIDROIT is also party to all the Space Treaties except the Moon Agreement; it has its national law mainly structured upon the international obligations under the Outer Space Treaty, the Liability Convention and the Registration Convention.23 It is also notable that some of the Provisions contained in the UK Space Industry Act24 were adopted by the Legislation.25 Similarly, the Act grants the Council power to grant licenses to “Any person or Corporate body for activities relating to the repository of satellite data over Nigeria’s territory, and collaborations and consultation in space data related matter”26 upon the recommendation of the Agency.27 License is issued on the condition that the licensee provides information to the Council concerning the “Nature, conduct, location and results of the licensee’s activities.”28 An advance approval of the Council must be obtained for any intended deviation from orbital parameters and it is obligatory to inform the Council immediately of any unintended deviation.29 Allied enactments to the Space Act are Nigerian domestic statutes applicable to insurance, communication, intellectual property, database protection, registration of companies, exports controls, firearms and national Geo-information.30 Nigeria’s vision of achieving “Continental leadership in science and technology through the development of competence and capabilities in selected fields of science and technology”31 is linked with its objective of “Making space research

22

Tare Brisibe, “Law and Regulation of Activities Related to Outer Space in Nigeria”, Space Policy 55, ZLW (2006). 23 The Rescue Agreement and its substantive regime may become relevant once private manned spaceflight activities in Nigeria becomes feasible. 24 Space Industry Act, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (1986). 25 Kofo Olabalu, “Space Law in Nigeria—A Call for the Review of NASRDA Act”, OAL Journal, 2009. 26 L. de Guoyon Matignon, “The Nigerian Space Program”, www.spacelegalissues.com/the-nig erian-space-program/. 27 “No license shall be granted unless the Council is satisfied that the activities by the license—will not jeopardize public health, the safety of persons or property; shall be consistent with the international obligations of the Country; and shall not impair its national security.”, see also, NASRDA Act, S. 9(2). 28 NASRDA Act, S. 9. 29 Ibid. See also O.N. John, “National Space Law and Regulation in Africa: A Case Study of Nigeria and South Africa”, Beijing Space Sustainability Conference, 2012. 30 W. Momoh, “An Overview of Nigerian Space Activity and Space Law”, African Skies Journal 104, (2008). 31 L. Adetoro and O. Aro, “Nigerian Space Programs”, Journal of the National Space Research and Development Agency 2018, p. 22.

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and development activities part of the overall strategies for sustainable national development,”32 all of which are embodied in the Domestic legislation of 2010.33 The NASRDA Act is divided into six parts and 37 sections which include the Transfer of Ownership in Space or Space Object Control, Liability and insurance, Authorization and Licensing, Regulation of Space objects launch and return and the maintenance of a national registry. The most important parts to Nigeria’s international obligations are its Part One, Part Two and Part Three which formally establishes the agency and the National Space Council (NSC) and further provides for the remuneration, and tenure of office of Council members amongst other allied matters provision; gives the Agency its functions while establishing the power of the National Space Council and mandates the register of Space objects. Parts Four to Six provides for the Staff of the agency, the Director General’s duties, tenure and qualification; funding of the agency and allied financial issues and contains miscellaneous provisions on pre-action notice requirement, the Agency’s power to acquire property, make Regulations respectively.34

2.1

Authorization and Supervision of Space Activities in Nigeria

The Nigerian space program is managed by the National Space Research and Development Agency (NASRDA) which was originally established as a small research institution on 5 May 1999.35 In 2010, by the implementation of the Act, the Agency was formally established to coordinate the activities of all other agencies involved in Nigeria’s space science and technology pursuits.36 Some of the functions of NASRDA as provided for in the Act include “developing satellite technology for various applications and operationalizing indigenous space system for providing space services, and being the government agency charged with the responsibility of building and launching satellites”, “promoting the coordination of space application programs for the purpose of optimizing resources and developing space technologies of direct relevance to national objectives.” It also includes “encouraging capacity building in space science technology development and management, thereby strengthening the human resources development required for the implementation of space programs”, and “reviewing the

32

NASRDA Act, S. 9. R. A. Boroffice, “The Nigerian Space Program: An Update”, African skies Journal 12, (2008). 34 Kofo Olabalu, “Space Law in Nigeria—A Call for the Review of NASRDA Act”, OAL Journal, 2009. 35 Pursuant to a Federal Executive Council (FEC hereinafter) Conclusion (EC4 (99)1039, approval was granted to establish the National Space Research and Development Agency (NASRDA). 36 O. Tella, “Space as a Fulcrum of Nigeria’s External Relations and Regional Hegemony”, Space Policy Journal 2018, p. 48. 33

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national policy on space, including long-range goals, and developing a strategy for national space issues.”37 Prior to the establishment of NASRDA, some space centers and projects already existed.38 These are the National Centre for Remote Sensing in Jos, Nigeria, and the Centre for Space Science and Technology Education affiliated to the United Nations, located at the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife.39 Currently, the Agency oversees the six Activities Centers40 which are saddled with unique responsibilities directly relevant to the mission statement41 of NASRDA.42 They are the: 1. Centre for Satellite Technology Development (CSTD), Abuja; with the mandate to undertake satellite manufacture and space missions; 2. Centre for Space Transport and Propulsion (CSTP), Lagos State; with the mandate to manufacture rockets and develop launch facilities; 3. Centre for Basic Space Science and Astronomy (CBSSA), Enugu State; with the mandate to carry out research and development in space environment; 4. Centre for Space Science Technology Education (CSSTE), Osun State; with the mandate to undertake capacity building in all areas of Space science and Technology; 5. National Centre for Remote Sensing, Jos, with the mandate to carry out research and development in areas of Earth Observation and Remote Sensing; and 6. Centre for Geodesy and Geodynamics, Toro; with the mandate to carry out research and development in areas of crustal movement.43 In 2003, Nigeria’s mission to be a service provider was realized through the launch of NigeriaSat-1 in September.44 Presently, the country is developing its space capabilities while also considering the implementation of her space transportation and propulsion system.45

37

NASRDA Act, S.6, see also, www.spacelegalissues.com/the-nigerian-space-program/. Tare Brisibe, “Law and Regulation of Activities Related to Outer Space in Nigeria”, Space Policy 55, ZLW (2006). 39 Tare Brisibe, “Outer Space Activities and Intellectual Property Protection in Nigeria”, Journal of Space Law 32, (2006). 40 http://nasrda.gov.ng/en/. 41 “Nigeria shall vigorously pursue the attainment of space capabilities as an essential tool for its socio-economic development and the enhancement of the quality of life of its people.” 42 L. Adetoro and O. Aro, “Nigerian Space Programs”, Journal of the National Space Research and Development Agency 2018, p. 22. 43 http://nasrda.gov.ng/en/. 44 Ibid. 45 L. Adetoro, “Report on Post Launch campaign of Nigeria communication satellite”, 2007. 38

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The current focus of the space program involves development in Earth observation and communication satellites. Consequently, Nigeria has launched five satellites: NigeriaSat-1, NigeriaSat-2, NigeriaSat-X, NigComSat-1, and NigComSat1R.46 To achieve its goals, NASRDA has recognized the importance of capacity building and international collaboration.47 It is actively engaged in space research and development such as; the training of Nigerian scientists and engineers on the design and building of all subsystems of the NigeriaSat-1 spacecraft. It is also focused on orbit maintenance and housekeeping of ground control station; know how technology transfers (KHTT) training on communication satellite design; global monitoring of disaster using the Disaster Monitoring constellation satellite; Telemedicine, e-government and e-conference application services.48 The Federal Government in 2006 approved the 25-year strategic roadmap for space research and development in Nigeria. Some of the major benchmarks of the roadmap were as follows49 : Year

Goal

Achieved

2011

NigeriaSat-2, NigeriaSat-X

Yes

2015

Training Nigerian astronauts

No

2018

Developing and building domestic satellites

Yes

2025

Development of a rocketry propulsion system

On schedule

2026

Spin-off of allied industries—electronics, software

In plan

2028

Large scale commercialization of space technology and know-how

Policy review

2030

Launch of Nigerian satellites from a Nigerian launch pad

In plan

Following the successes of most of the strategic plan, Nigeria has become more ambitious domestically and internationally.50 Invariably, this means the legal framework needs to be upgraded to remain compliant with Nigeria’s obligations under international law and to allow for prevailing technologies. Although the private sector is currently not involved in commercial space activities in Nigeria, the government has set up a space economic development model which involves a ‘public–private partnership’ of short, medium, and long-term plans.51

46

http://nasrda.gov.ng/en/. F.D. Chizea, Space Technology Development in Nigeria, Conference Material at the United Nations/ South Africa Symposium on Basic Space Technology, “Small Satellite Missions for Scientific and Technological Advancement”, Stellenbosch, South Africa. 11–15 December 2017. 48 Ibid. 49 O. Tella, “Space as a Fulcrum of Nigeria’s External Relations and Regional Hegemony”, Space Policy Journal 2018. 50 P. Okeke, A Brief Review of the Origin and Propagation of Basic Space Science and Technology Programmes in Nigeria, 15 African Skies (2011). 51 http://nasrda.gov.ng/en/. 47

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Within the short-term plan, the government is responsible for all investments in space technology development. In the medium-term, the government is to implement the partial commercialization of NASRDA’s products and services developed during the short-term economic plan. Finally, in the long-term plan, the government seeks to partner with the private sector to fully implement the partnership framework for the space program.52 Notably, an explicit function of the Agency is now to “Develop national strategies for the exploitation of outer space and make these part of the overall national development strategies, and implement strategies for promoting private sector participation in the space industry.”53 Nigeria has entered into binding obligations through contracts, bilateral agreements, and Memoranda of Understanding with various entities, both governmental and nongovernmental to strengthen its space strategy.54 Through the NASRDA, Nigeria’s collaboration with UK-based Surrey Satellite Technology led to the launch of NigeriaSat-1, an Earth observation satellite that is part of the Disaster Monitoring Constellation project (DMC).55 Also, its collaboration with China led to the manufacture and in-orbit delivery of a communications satellite known as NigComSat-1which was launched on 13 May 2007.56 Although, it failed in-orbit barely a year after as a result of nondeployment of the satellite’s solar panels, Nigeria and China further entered a replacement deal which resulted in the launch of a second communications satellite NigComSat-1R which was launched in 2011 as a replacement for the failed NigComSat-1.57 The Center for Basic Space Science has signed joint agreements with institutions in Japan, South Africa and the United States of America (US) on astronomy, astrophysics, and climate studies. While the Center for Geodesy and Geodynamics has established satellite laser range and baseline interferometry agreements with US based institutions.58 In Africa, Nigeria established the African Resource Management (ARM) satellite constellation project with South Africa, Kenya, and Algeria in 2009.59 It is

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NASRDA Act, S. 9. Ibid. 54 For instance, China, UK and Russia, also, France has shown interest in collaborating with Nigeria. 55 www.sstl.co.uk/media-hub/featured/the-disaster-monitoring-constellation. 56 Ibid. 57 Ibid. 58 L. Adetoro and O. Aro, “Nigerian Space Programs”, Journal of the National Space Research and Development Agency 2018, p. 22. 59 Ibid. 53

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also a member of the African Leadership Conference on Space Science and Technology for Sustainable Development (ALC) which creates a forum where technical know-how and capacity to enhance space technology can be shared.60 Nigeria is a significant regional player in UN activities relating to space technology. It participates actively in the UNCOPUOS and the Group on Earth observation, Legal and Scientific and Technical Sub-committees. It also bagged an African Award in 2009 during the AU summit in Addis-Ababa for the deployment of telemedicine to accelerate the achievement of MDG’s goals.61 Clearly, Nigeria’s cooperation with some of the major space-faring nations has given it an advantage over other African states as it has been able to carve a niche using space diplomacy. For African states desirous of enhancing their space programs, they can take a few notes from Nigeria’s playbook.

2.2

The Artemis Accords Advantage

Established in 2020 among eight founding signatories, the Artemis Accords are a non-binding set of principles which proffers a set of rules regarding space exploration and the economic development of other worlds.62 Grounded in the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, the document sets out ten core principles which were “designed to guide international participation in the Artemis program for sustainable exploration and use of the Moon: peaceful purposes, transparency, interoperability, emergency assistance, registration of space objects, release of scientific data, preserving outer space heritage, space resources, deconfliction of space activities, and orbital debris.”63 The Accords specifically apply to governments, not the commercial sector, and only to civil activities, not national security. In addition, signatories commit to principles to guide their civil space activities, including the public release of scientific data, responsible debris mitigation, registration of space objects, and the establishment and implementation of interoperability standards.64 Nigeria, as evidenced in its 25-year strategic roadmap for space research and development is dedicated to the development and training of Nigerian astronauts and in December 2022, she became the 23rd signatory to the Artemis Accords65

60

Gbenga Oduntan, “Geospatial Sciences and Space Law: Legal Aspects of Earth Observation, Remote Sensing and Geoscientific Ground Investigations in Africa”, Geosciences Articles 34 (2019). 61 Ibid. 62 Jennifer Littlejohn, “Celebrating Two Years of the Artemis Accords”, Dipnote, 13 October 2022, www.state.gov/artemis_at_two. 63 Ibid. 64 US Department of State, “Nigeria and Rwanda: First African Nations Sign the Artemis Accords”, www.state.gov/nigeria-and-rwanda-first-african-nations-sign-the-artemis-accords/. 65 The Artemis Accords were signed by Minister of Communications and Digital Economy Isa Ali Ibrahim on behalf of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.

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which makes her a partner in the effort to return astronauts to the Moon and eventually to Mars.66 Since 2015, NASRDA has created a practical mandate aligned with Nigeria’s current needs, which includes “the implicit objective to aid in the socioeconomic development of the Nigerian people through investment in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education and Earth observation technology.”67 Likewise, Nigeria intends to utilize these future technologies to help fight climate change, aid in agriculture, oppose terrorist groups as Boko Haram, and combat the issue of piracy in the Gulf of Guinea.”68 Thus, another advantage of this Accords to Nigeria’s Outer Space Strategy, amongst other things, is the benefits to its nascent space entrepreneurship. By joining the Artemis Accords, Nigeria has positioned to become more attractive to international investment in its space sector which will contribute to achieving its laid out plans in its newly-developed mandate.69 Additionally, by being parties to the Artemis Accords, it has joined the same space alliance as the US, France, Japan who are the major space-faring nations. It has also shown herself to be serious about using space to develop it countries’ economies and eventually, directly participate in exploration of the Moon, Mars and beyond. However, this brings to the forefront questions surrounding Nigeria’s technological and economic dependence on foreign countries. For example, in 2018, Nigeria agreed to give a $550 million equity stake in the state-owned satellite operator NigComSat to the Chinese satellite company China Great Wall, to manufacture two communications satellites to be launched by China two years after the final agreement is signed.70 There is also a controversy over the fact that the China Great Wall company owns close to 50% equity in the Nigerian government-owned satellite operator.71 This article is of the opinion that from Nigeria’s antecedents, there is a need to create strategic autonomy, technology sovereignty and to protect its economy and political decisions from foreign influences.

66

Mark R. Whittington, “Why did Nigeria and Rwanda Sign NASA’s Artemis Accords?”, https:/ /thehill.com/opinion/international/3786847-why-did-nigeria-and-rwanda-sign-nasas-artemis-acc ords/. 67 Ibid. 68 Ibid. 69 Ibid. 70 Tyler Way, “Challenges and Opportunities of Nigeria’s Space Program”, https://aerospace.csis. org/challenges-and-opportunities-of-nigerias-space-policy/. 71 Ibid.

Much ADO on Africa’s Integration Agenda: Evaluating the Nigerian Space …

3

13

Evaluating the Nigerian Space Policy Vis-à-vis the African Outer Space Strategy

Outer space exploration has traditionally been frequently criticized for being a waste of money, particularly with the presence of more immediate concerns. This chapter avers that Africa’s access to space is not a matter of luxury.72 Space plays a pivotal role in addressing socio-economic challenges which threatens the regional integration agenda of the continent. This includes the provision of credible and sustainable solutions to the problems of security, health and other highlighted plans as identified in the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals.73 The African Outer Space Strategy calls for a strategic framework for developing and operationalizing continental-level space initiatives. Also, it clearly spells out the strategic goals and objectives of a long-term collective space vision for the continent. This Nigeria has considered in its 2015 Draft Regulations on licensing and supervision of space activities. The requirements for issuing a license as set out in Section 9 of the Act are also reviewed through the draft Regulations.74 To this end, the Regulation provided an expanded definition on “Space activity” to include “The operation, guidance, and re-entry of space objects into, in and from outer space and other activities essential for the launch, operation, guidance and re-entry of space objects into, in and from outer space.”75 Subsequent on the Draft Regulation, Nigeria joined the likes of Australia,76 Kazakhstan77 and Denmark78 to explicitly define “Outer space” as “Anything

72

African Union, “African Union Flagship Projects”, www.au.int/en/agenda2063/flagship-pro jects. 73 Chris Giles, “Africa Leaps Forward into Space Technology”, CNN, 16 May 2018, www.cnn. com/2017/08/10/africa/africa-space-race/index.html. 74 Draft Regulations S. 5(2) resp. 7(2), for instance, the licensee is now explicitly required to comply with applicable ITU rules on frequency allocations and orbital positions. 75 Draft Regulations S. 43, 3rd para. 76 See S. 8, 16th, 21st, 33rd and 35th bullets, an Act about space activities, and for related purposes (hereafter Australian Space Activities Act), No. 123 of 1998, assented to 21 December 1998; National Space Legislation of the World, Vol. I (2001), at 197; as amended by the Space Activities Amendment Act, an Act to amend the Space Activities Act 1998, No. 100 of 2002, assented to 10 November 2002, www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/num_act/saaa2002247/, which substituted “Outer space” in the four clauses referred to with “an area beyond the distance of 100 km above mean sea level.” 77 See Art. 1(6), Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Space Activities, of 6 January 2012, 2012 No. 528-IV, www.unoosa.org/pdf/spacelaw/national/kazakhstan/528-IV_2012-01-06E.pdf, defining “outer space” as “a space extending beyond the airspace at an altitude of more than one hundred kilometers above the sea level.” 78 See S. 4(4), Law on activities in outer space (Lov om aktiviteter i det ydre rum), Passed by Parliament with the third treatment, 3 May 2016; Parliament Gazette, 2015–17, No. L 128, defining outer space with reference to this altitude.

14

A. A. Jide-Omole

beyond 100 km above sea level” and the launch of a space object as launching it “Into an area beyond the distance of 100 km above sea level.”79 Bearing in mind that Nigeria’s approach to a public–private partnership economic model is still at its developing stage, it is safe to assume that it is due to this consideration that the Nigerian approach to third-party liability claims, as a result of space activities by a licensed operator, seems to be a rather generous one as the limits imposed are generally at the low end of the scale when compared to some major other spacefaring nations. Nigeria has committed to strategies that will embed its space exploration within the ecosystem of other existing industrial sectors. Thus, her space policy feeds into other national economic policies, social development policies, national security policies and foreign policies, among other policy frameworks. Inarguably, the Draft Regulations which are still progressing through the legislative process has a comprehensive guideline80 as it already provides considerable details on the general approach that Nigeria takes with regards to the implementation of its international obligations under the four classic space Treaties and in line with the African Outer Space Strategy.81

4

General Conclusion

As one reflects on the variety of space activities addressed in the African Outer Space Strategy, one singular message needs to be emphasized, which is that the value of any space programme is its beneficial impact on the well-being of the country’s citizens. Simply stated, a nation’s space policy program or strategy should address a significant amount of the basic needs of the people, including employment opportunities or poverty concerns.82 Africa needs to create innovative alliances that is responsive to the social, economic, political and environmental needs of the continent, as well as being globally competitive. Vis-à-vis its regional commitments, the Nigerian Government by recognizing that as long as space technology remains one of the most advanced technical fields of human endeavor, has remained relevant in its niche of space activities as it

79

F.G. Von der Dunk, “International space law”, Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law, 2017. 80 Recognition was given by the United Nations Legal and Technical Sub-committee and the African Union in 2016. 81 Ayomide A. Jide-Omole, Space Law and Policy in Nigeria (Leiden: 2020). 82 Adigun Ade Abiodun, “Trends in the Global Arena—Impact on Africa and Africa’s response” Space Policy 28 (2012), p. 283.

Much ADO on Africa’s Integration Agenda: Evaluating the Nigerian Space …

15

implements its space programs as a catalyst for the socio-economic growth of its Nation.83 To this end, Nigeria’s investment in small satellites has helped it to leapfrog its space ambitions on an international plane.84 Clearly, by the contribution of its space programs to Africa, Nigeria has become an important space-faring nation that could potentially offer space-inspired solutions to Africa’s problems.85 This paper submits that the most progressive contribution of the Nigerian legislation may very well lie in its proposed reference to a 100-km altitude line as presenting the lower boundary of outer space which joins the ongoing debate about the definition and delimitation of outer space. In addition, its participation in the Artemis Accords is also a forward thinking endeavor particularly for space entrepreneurs and for creating a socio-political climate where international partnership with major space-faring nations can be leveraged upon. Even though the Nigerian legislation balances its different interests in its outer space operations to its international commitments, there is a need to review some aspects of the legislation to fuel its aspirations to make its space endeavors economically viable. However, this might not be an issue in the long run, as the 2015 Draft Regulation on Licensing and supervision of Space Activities which seeks to enunciate the Legislation and cure the lacunae is currently reaching the last stage of the legislative process.86 The African Space Agency and its acceleration to serve as a panacea for Africa’s challenged development is no doubt a right step in the right direction. The continent through the strategy creates a blueprint that evidences their commitment to transparent, safe, and sustainable space exploration and will also promote the beneficial use of space for all of humanity. Africa’s increasing awareness on the use and benefits of space technologies for development and economic growth is one that can be observed through growing governmental recognition of space activities in national and regional strategic plans for example, Kenya Space Agency Strategic Plan 2020–2025, and Zimbabwe’s Vision 2030.87

83

F.G. von der Dunk, “The Second African National Space Law: The Nigerian NASRDA Act and the Draft Regulations on Licensing and Supervision”, Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law, 2017. 84 http://nasrda.gov.ng/en/. 85 O. Tella, “Space as a Fulcrum of Nigeria’s External Relations and Regional Hegemony”, Space Policy Journal 2018. 86 F.G. von der Dunk, “The Second African National Space Law: The Nigerian NASRDA Act and the Draft Regulations on Licensing and Supervision”, Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law, 2017. 87 I. Marboe, “National Space Legislation”, in Outer Space in Society, Politics and Law, eds. C. Brunner & A. Soucek, p. 439, 2011.

16

A. A. Jide-Omole

This paper acknowledges that the African Space Policy is not an end in itself, rather, an overarching framework that informs the development of the African space sector, essentially the means that will direct and inform regional economic integration. Hence, it is not enough that there is an increasing awareness on the use and benefits of space technologies, it is also paramount that Africa’s space activities connect with its peoples. This is because for many in society, particularly the lowincome groups, the benefit of space to daily life is hard to see. Africa needs to curate more innovative strategies that will draw the jobs, the gains and the benefits associated with any space programme on Earth, particularly in Africa where they affect people’s lives. In conclusion, space technology is not achieved through optimism but viable national strategies. Africa needs to invest more in space capacity, skills and facilities and demonstrate the capabilities as they develop them. Industry drives policy and resources can be found in and out of the continent and leveraging on these resources is the best African tailored solution.

Ayomide Adeife Jide-Omole is a Nigerian lawyer specializing in aviation and space law. She obtained a Master’s in Air and Space law from Leiden University in the Netherlands in 2020 and currently serves as the Co-General Counsel for the Space Generation Advisory Council (SGAC). She is the convener of the vlog “More to Space than Air,” which is a successful YouTube vlog consisting of interviews with top industry practitioners who speak on their space interests to inspire the next generation of space practitioners.

Africa’s Impact Cratering History and Meteorite Record: Implications for Planetary and Space Science Studies on the Continent Marian Selorm Sapah

Abstract

This article assessed the status of Planetary and Space Science in Africa through literature, and makes recommendations on some ways it can be better advanced using Africa’s Impact cratering history and Meteorite record. The author is of the view that, even though Planetary and Space Science is emerging in Africa with a recent surge in activities, it is still underdeveloped. This is largely due to a lack of interest and investment in the field. Africa has a rich Impact cratering history and Meteorite record that can be used as a tool to create interest in, promote and develop Planetary and Space Science in Africa through research and education. To improve the level of formal Planetary and Space Science education in Africa, the author recommends the following with emphasis on the incorporation and use of the Impact cratering history and Meteorite record of Africa: (1) introduce Planetary and Space Science degree programs in Colleges of Education, (2) introduce Planetary and Space Science as a subject in the Senior High School curriculum, (3) improve the Planetary and Space Science content in the Primary and High School curriculum. To train the next generation of Planetary and Space Science professionals requires more African universities to offer degree programs in Planetary and Space Science. To help increase Planetary and Space Science awareness and literacy in Africa, the Planetary and Space Science workforce in Africa should collaborate with other relevant stakeholders to promote Planetary and Space Science through outreach.

M. S. Sapah (B) Department of Earth Science, University of Ghana, Legon-Accra, Ghana e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 A. Froehlich (ed.), Space Fostering African Societies, Southern Space Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-36747-2_2

17

18

1

M. S. Sapah

Introduction

Africa has a very good Impact cratering history and Meteorite recovery record that can be used to promote and develop Planetary and Space Science Studies on the continent. This will lead to the needed visibility for Africa in global Planetary and Space Science endeavors. Africa has the potential to be prominent in Planetary and Space Science, but, Africa’s visibility in the global Planetary and Space Science field is low.1 This may be due to a general lack of interest in and awareness of Planetary and Space Science and its benefits. There has been a recent surge in interest and promotion of Space science activities in Africa,2 especially towards sustainable development on the continent. The world is changing globally with Planetary and Space Science studies taking a front role in areas such as exploration, the development of Technology, the search for natural resources etc. The continent of Africa needs to rise to the occasion to contribute its quota to the global endeavors of Planetary and Space Science studies. This can be achieved by pooling together the continents resources (human, infrastructure, funds etc.) in this direction. African countries such as South Africa, Morocco and Senegal, standout in the promotion and development of Planetary and Space Science activities on the continent. There are also joint efforts to coordinate resources to facilitate the development and promotion of PSS activities on the continent.3 Harnessing the Impact cratering history and Meteorite recovery record will contribute immensely to the promotion and development of Planetary and Space Science in Africa. Planetary and Space Science covers a wide range of Solar system research and exploration. It is the branch of science that investigates the origin and evolution of the Solar system through the physical, geological, chemical, and biological processes that drive it. Planetary and Space Science combines laboratory and space experiments, remote observations, environmental simulations, and modelling to study the surfaces and atmospheres of terrestrial planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and extra-terrestrial materials. This is a highly interdisciplinary field encompassing many disciplines including Cosmochemistry, Astronomy, Planetary geology, Atmospheric sciences, Robotics, Aerospace research, and more. Planetary and Space Science research is important for global development, and its benefits to humanity are many and expanding. Space exploration has now become a truly global event. For many years, space science and technology has helped humanity solve Earth’s problems, providing solutions that change the way we approach climate change, food security, global health, humanitarian aid, and more. Space

1

Baratoux, D., Chennaoui-Aoudjehane, H., Gibson, R., Lamali, A., Reimold, W.U., Sapah, M.S., ... and Abdeen, M. M., “The state of planetary and space sciences in Africa”, EOS, (2017a), http:/ /dx.doi.org/10.1029/2017EO07593. 2 Froehlich, A., “Space Activities in Africa”, in Space Fostering African Societies: Southern Space Studies, ed. Froehlich, A. (Cham. Springer 2022), https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-12511-9_6. 3 Baratoux, D., Chennaoui-Aoudjehane, H., Gibson, R., Lamali, A., Reimold, W.U., Sapah, M.S., ... and Koeoberl, C., “Africa Initiative for Planetary and Space Sciences” EOS, (2017b), https://doi. org/10.1029/2017EO075935.

Africa’s Impact Cratering History and Meteorite Record: Implications …

19

science and technology are integral for advancing our sustainable development goals and increasing the well-being and quality of people’s lives. Economic development, social development and environmental protection form the pillars of sustainable development.4 Planetary and Space Science research provides great insight into exploration, innovation and technology. Planetary and Space Science is important for understanding the universe and our place in it, understanding our planet relative to other planets, advancing technology, studying the environment, atmosphere and climate, and searching for natural resources. The study of Impact craters and Meteorites play an important role in advancing our understanding of space and provides answers for some of these questions. An impact crater is formed when the surface of a planet is excavated as a result of the impact of an extraterrestrial object such as a meteorite or an asteroid. This fundamental surface process of planetary evolution has resulted in a terrestrial impact record representing the bombardment history of the Earth. The role of impact cratering as a planetary process and surface-modifying agent on solid bodies in the Solar System has been studied.5 ,6 ,7 Also, the role of impact cratering in the evolution and extinction of life have been discussed.8 ,9 ,10 Impacts are not just a thing of the distant past. The Earth and other planets in our Solar system still experience impacts.11 For Earth, they pose a considerable danger to the environment and life as demonstrated by the Tunguska 1908,12 Carancas

4

United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, “Benefits of Space: Sustainable Development”, (2023), www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/benefits-of-space/sustainable-development.html, [all websites cited in this publication were last assessed 29 March, 2023]. 5 Grieve, R.A., Cintala, M.J., and Therriault, A.M., “Large-scale impacts and the evolution of the Earth’s crust: The early years”, in Processes on the Early Earth, eds. Wolf Uwe Reimold, Roger L. Gibson (Geological Society of America 2006), 405, https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE405(02). 6 Koeberl, C., “Impact processes on the early Earth”, Elements 2, no. 4, (2006): 211–216. 7 Reimold, W.U., and Jourdan, F., “Impact!-Bolides, craters, and catastrophes”, Elements 8, no.1, (2012):19–24. 8 Westall, F., de Vries, S. T., Nijman, W., Rouchon, V., Orberger, B., Pearson, V., ... and Severine, A., (2006). “The 3.466 Ga Kitty’s Gap Chert, an early Archean microbial ecosystem”, in Processes on the Early Earth, eds. Wolf Uwe Reimold, Roger L. Gibson (Geological Society of America 2006), 405, https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE405(07). 9 Schopf, J. W., “The first billion years: When did life emerge?” Elements 2, no. 4, (2006): 229– 233. 10 Schulte, P., Alegret, L., Arenillas, I., Arz, J. A., Barton, P. J., Bown, P. R., ... and Willumsen, P. S., “The Chicxulub asteroid impact and mass extinction at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary”, Science 327, no. 5970, (2010): 1214–1218. 11 Boslough, M.B., Crawford, D.A., Robinson, A.C., and Trucano, T.G., “Watching for fireballs on Jupiter”. Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 75, no. 27, (1994): 305–310. 12 Napier, B., and Asher, D., “The Tunguska impact event and beyond”, Astronomy and Geophysics 50, no. 1, (2009): 1–18.

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2007,13 and Chelyabinsk 201314 impact events. On a more positive note, terrestrial impact craters have also been recognized as hosts of mineral and energy resource deposits.15 Energy resources such as oil, gas, coal, uranium, mercury, copper, nickel and hydropower resources have been identified and exploited from impact craters. Major mineral deposits associated with craters include, Au, Fe, Ni, Pb, Zn, Cu and other platinum group element (PGE) deposits. Meteorites are the remaining bits and pieces of objects in space such as asteroids that impact the Earth. Meteorites come in all shapes and sizes. Many studies are carried out in an effort to answer questions related to how and when the Solar system formed. Meteorites play an important role in answering these questions. A range of complex processes occurred during the formation and evolution of the Solar system. Evidence of such processes is recorded in Meteorites. As such, through the study of Meteorites we gain information regarding the stages of Solar system development, age and composition of the Solar system, geologic history of the Earth and moon as well as the history of life on Earth. Sampling our Solar system is a huge and difficult task. Compared to space missions that deliver extraterrestrial samples for scientific studies, the study of Meteorites found on Earth is one of the cheapest and easiest ways to carry out scientific research on extraterrestrial rocks. This makes Meteorites a precious and well sort after commodity and every Meteorite find important. Apart from their scientific importance, Meteorites have economic, cultural and socio-economic importance as well.

2

Impact Craters in Africa

To date, the Earth Impact Database lists 190 confirmed Impact structures around the world, of which 20 are spread across the continent of Africa. They include four (4) in Algeria, four (4) in South Africa, two (2) each in Chad, Libya and Mauritania, and one (1) each in Botswana, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt, Ghana, Morocco and Namibia (Table 1).16 ,17 These Impact craters were confirmed by their morphology, evidence of shock metamorphism, impact melt and chemical evidence of the presence of extraterrestrial materials such as the

13

Kenkmann, T., Artemieva, N.A., Wünnemann, K., Poelchau, M.H., Elbeshausen, D., and Prado, H.N.D., “The Carancas meteorite impact crater, Peru: Geologic surveying and modeling of crater formation and atmospheric passage”, Meteoritics & Planetary Science 44, no. 7, (2009): 985–1000. 14 Boroviˇ cka, J., Spurný, P., Brown, P., Wiegert, P., Kalenda, P., Clark, D., and Shrbený, L., “The trajectory, structure and origin of the Chelyabinsk asteroidal impactor”, Nature 503, no. 7475, (2013): 235–237. 15 James, S., Chandran, S.R., Santosh, M., Pradeepkumar, A.P., Praveen, M.N., and Sajinkumar, K.S., “Meteorite impact craters as hotspots for mineral resources and energy fuels: a global review”, Energy Geoscience 3, no. 2, (2022): 136–146. 16 Reimold, W.U., and Koeberl, C., “Impact structures in Africa: A review”, Journal of African Earth Sciences 93, (2014): 57–175. 17 The Planetary and Space Science Center, “Earth Impact Database”, www.passc.net/EarthImpa ctDatabase/New%20website_05-2018/Africa.html.

Africa’s Impact Cratering History and Meteorite Record: Implications …

21

meteoritic component of the impacting object, extraterrestrials minerals. Images in Fig. 1 show some of these impact craters. The known sizes (diameter) of the Africa Impact craters range between 45 m to ≥250 km, and their ages are between 0.220 ± 0.052Ma to 2023 ± 4Ma.18 The main bolide types identified for six (6) of these craters are Chondrite and Iron type bolides. Four (4) of these Impact craters have so far been recognized as hosts of mineral and water resources i.e., the Bosumtwi impact crater in Ghana is a water reservoir, the Morokweng Impact crater in South Africa hosts a Ni ore deposit, the Tswaing Impact crater in South Africa is known for its Trona and Salt deposits and the Vredefort Impact crater also in South Africa hosts Au and U deposits.19 Apart from the confirmed Impact craters, there are forty-nine (49) proposed but not yet confirmed structures in Africa. Twenty-two (22) other proposed structures have already been debunked.

3

Africa’s Meteorite Record

Meteorites are known to fall everywhere on the Earth’s surface however, their recovery remains a difficult task since majority of meteorites fall into the oceans, and under forest and vegetation cover. Meteorites are easier to find in deserts than in places with topography, vegetation, and other rocks. Meteorite recovery is in two ways, “Falls” and “Finds”. Falls are Meteorites observed to fall in real time, tracked and recovered immediately (within days) afterwards. Finds are Meteorites that have longer terrestrial residence time (several weeks to hundreds of years) and are searched for or randomly found. Even though all meteorites are precious and important, Falls are considered more pristine because, they are not considered to have been contaminated by terrestrial surface processes due to their fast recovery times. The global inventory of Meteorites is curated by the Meteoritical Society in the Meteoritical Bulletin Database.20 Africa has an inventory of about 14,000 meteorites,21 ,22 which forms about 21% of the total global Meteorite inventory. One hundred and fifty-eight (158) of these are known Meteorite Falls.23 The classification of African Meteorite,24 showed that the population includes all types of meteorites known. About 99% of Africa’s Meteorites were found in Saharan Africa. Where the Saharan Africa

18

Reimold, “Impact structures in Africa: A review”. James, Meteorite impact craters as hotspots for mineral resources and energy fuels: a global review. 20 Meteoritical Society, Meteoritical Bulletin Database, www.lpi.usra.edu/meteor/metbull.php. 21 Ouknine, L., Khiri, F., Ibhi, A., Heikal, M.T.S., Saint-Gerant, T., and Medjkane, M., “Insight into African meteorite finds: Typology, mass distribution and weathering process”, Journal of African Earth Sciences 158, (2019): 103551. 22 Korotev R. L. (2021), “Meteorite statistics”, Earth and Planetary Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, https://sites.wustl.edu/meteoritesite/items/some-meteorite-statistics/. 23 Khiri, F., Ibhi, A., Saint-Gerant, T., Medjkane, M., and Ouknine, L., “Meteorite falls in Africa”, Journal of African Earth Sciences 134, (2017): 644–657. 24 Oukinne, Insights into African meteorites finds: typology, mass and weathering process. 19

Country

Morrocco

Algeria

Chad

Mauritania

Ghana

Libya

Chad

South Africa

Egypt

Botswana

DRCongo

South Africa

Libya

Algeria

Namibia

Algeria

Crater name

Agoudal

Amguid

Aorounga

Aouelloul

Bosumtwi

B.P. Structure

Gweni-Fada

Kalkkop

Kamil

Kgagodi

Luizi

Morokweng

Oasis

Ouarkziz

Roter Kamm

Talemzane

E 24° 20' E 21° 45' E 24° 26' 05'

N 25° 19'

25'

S 32° 43'

01'

E 28° 00' E 23° 32' E 24° 24' W 7° 33' 18'

E 16° E 4° 2'

S 10° 10'

28'

N 24° 35'

N 29° 0'

46'

N 33° 19'

S 27°

S 26°

E 27° 35'

S 22° 29'

N 22°

E 26°

W 1° 25'

N 6° 30'

N 17°

W 12° 41'

E 19°

N 20° 15'

N 19°

E 4° 23'

N 26° 5' 15'

W 5° 30'

N 31° 59'

6'

Longitude

Latitude

1.75

2.5

3.5

18

70

17

3.5

0.045

0.64

14

2

10.5

0.39

16

0.45

–

Diameter (km)