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SECTION 1

1

Halley’s Comet A comet is an object that travels around the sun leaving a bright trail behind. For more than two thousand years, the return of Halley's Comet has been observed and recorded on Earth every 76 years. Its 1986 visit, however, was the first time that humans took a close look at its nucleus. One spacecraft went within a few hundred kilometres of the nucleus. Two Soviet craft, Vega 1 and Vega 2, came within 10,000 km of the nucleus on March 6th and March 9th; and the European Space Agency's Giotto space probe passed within 600 km of Halley's Comet on March 14th. Pioneer Venus Orbiter found that the cloud of gases and dust which make up the tail spread over a region about 20,000,000 km across, 15 times larger than the Sun. Scientists also discovered that the comet was losing about ten metres of material from its surface every orbit, suggesting a lifetime of about only 1,000 orbits - in about 100,000 years it will disappear.

Find the words’ meaning travel

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High-Rise In October 1981, newspapers in the USA and the UK reported plans for a 169-storey building in Chicago. If this is built, it will be almost twice as tall as the 384-metre Empire State Building in New York. Since the early days of civilised man, buildings have been getting higher all the time. Today, all large cities have tall buildings, either for use as offices or as flats. These are called high-rise buildings. The tallest of all in fact, are not used for offices or for living, but are special structures for radio and television. For instance, Warsaw Radio Mast in Poland, which is 646 metres tall, is the tallest of such structures. The world's tallest office building is the Sears Tower in Chicago. This has 110 storeys, and reaches a height of 443 metres. 16,700 people work inside the building, and there are more than one hundred lifts for their use. But why do we have high buildings? Is there any real advantage? The most common reason given is that in many cities there is a lack of space. The island of Manhattan, New York City, is a good example of this. Here, office space is very expensive. There is no more land. Buildings have to go up. The same reason is given for high office buildings in Tokyo, London and other large cities of the world. But what about people? Is it really necessary to build high buildings for people to live in? Today, there are many who believe high buildings actually damage people's minds and feelings. These people believe high-rise buildings: -have no advantages, except for their owners and for banks -are not cheap to build -do not help create open space -destroy the landscape -cause crime -are not good for children -are expensive to look after High-rise buildings lower the quality of life. The following reports show this. Report from England, 1967: The higher people live off the ground, the more likely they are to suffer from mental illnesses. Women, because they spend most time at home, suffer most.

Find the words’ meaning build

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Atoms Atoms are the smallest particles of matter that have the properties of the chemical elements - hydrogen, oxygen, iron, and so on. They are so small that it is impossible to see them even with a high-powered microscope. Everything on Earth is made up of atoms in different chemical combinations. Water, for instance, is a compound of two elements, two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. However, some elements, such as gold and diamonds exist uncombined. Ninety-two elements occur naturally. They range from the lightest, hydrogen, to the heaviest, uranium. Each of the elements has been assigned a number - 1 for hydrogen, 8 for oxygen, 29 for copper, and 92 for uranium. They are usually arranged on a chart called the periodic table, which puts elements with the same chemical properties in the same column. Thus, all inert gases, such as helium, appear in one column in the periodic table. The formulation of the atomic theory is one of the great achievements of science. It has enabled us to understand the properties of the elements, the basic building blocks of all matter, so that we know which elements can combine with each other. The science of chemistry is based on our understanding of atoms and their behaviour in interacting with one another. Another science called nuclear physics came into being to study the structure of the atom itself. As scientists investigated the atom, it became apparent that the atom was not a solid piece of matter, but was made up of even smaller particles. The first subatomic particle that scientists identified was the electron, a tiny piece of matter with a negative electric charge. The weight of an electron was very small indeed - approximately one eighteen-hundredth of the weight of a hydrogen atom, the lightest of all the elements. Scientists came to believe that the electrons orbited the nucleus of the atom, in which almost all of the weight of the atom was concentrated. It is now known that electrons revolve around the nucleus at incredibly fast rates of speed. For many years scientists did many different kinds of experiments and all had the same idea about the structure of atoms. However, when they managed to obtain more evidence, they had to modify the atomic theory. There was not just one kind of particle in the nucleus of an atom; there were two. One of these has a positive electric charge and is called a proton. The other is neutral, that is, it has no electric charge. For this reason, it was called a neutron. properties ------------------

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6

Travel And Tourism A report recently prepared for a large international travel service and banking company found out that travel and tourism accounted for almost $ 2 trillion of the sales in 1987, making it the largest source of employment in the world. Personal travel constituted about two thirds of this, leaving the rest for business and government travel. The biggest spenders on personal travel were the US, Japan, Germany, Britain and France; and in most of these developed countries it was the third largest item of household spending after housing and food. Tour operators say the industry is experiencing "a second revolution". In the first, Europe revolutionised travel with the cheap package holiday within the continent, which transformed many Mediterranean economies. More recently, tourists have begun to travel further away. Until the mid-1980's, the market was limited to the rich on the one hand and the backpackers on the other. Rising incomes and expectations have changed all that. Travelers who are tired of the Mediterranean or those who can afford second holidays in the winter expect the package holiday concept to be extended to intercontinental destinations. By chartering 500-seat jumbo jets and booking hotels and apartments in Florida and the Caribbean, tour operators have made formerly luxury tourist spots available to a lower-income market. Although this poses risks which developing countries have not faced before, the benefits are more immediately apparent. The Caribbean Tourist Association estimates that the industry now provides jobs directly or indirectly for 330,000 people in the region. Others put the figure higher. Some estimates put Third World employment in travel and tourism at more than 50 million.

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8

Acupuncture Acupuncture, the method of treating diseases by using needles, is based on the Chinese model of health and disease. In this model, there are three main systems in the body. The first two of these are the circulatory and nervous systems as in the western view but, additionally, there is a sort of energy movement. The Chinese believe that all forms of life are controlled by two basic movements of energy. One is outward moving and the other is inward moving. When an outward movement reaches its limit, it changes direction and starts to move inwards. Similarly, when an inward movement reaches its limit, it changes direction and starts to move outwards. The operation is like a pump, and this constant pumping movement may be seen in almost every form of life – the human heart, for example. Understanding this idea of energy movement is important when looking at the theory behind Chinese Acupuncture. In this theory. there is a life force which consists of inward and outward moving energy in each person. Inward moving energy tends to increase activity and the other produces calm. The health of the body depends on the balance between the two. If this balance is disturbed, diseases occur. The Chinese also discovered that this movement takes place around the body along 26 channels called meridians. Each one of these is connected to a different part of the body and has a different function. Diseases also occur when a meridian is blocked. To help unblock energy channels, doctors place needles in different parts of the body, but to cure the disease the needles have to be placed in the right place and have the right depth. The earliest acupuncture needles were made of stone. These would have been used when the first books were written about acupuncture 4,500 years ago. The Chinese later used needles made of bone and then of different metals such as iron and silver. Today, they are made of steel. The Chinese first believed that the needle itself cured the disease. However, this was before it was discovered that there are certain points along the meridians which are connected to various parts of the body, such as the stomach and the heart. There are over 800 different needle points in the body. The doctor examines the patient and decides which part of his or her body are over-active or under-active; in other words, the doctor finds out where there is too much or too little energy. When the acupuncture points have been found, needles are placed in the skin at various depths. They are then left there for different periods of time, which might be as short as a few seconds. A major recent development has been the use of acupuncture in medical operations. In such cases, it is used instead of anesthetics, in order to take away the pain felt by the patient. In China today, this use of acupuncture is extremely common in both major and minor operations, even operations on the heart. In the East there are nearly three million doctors who regularly use acupuncture. It is taught in several Russian universities. And even in Europe and America there are thousands of doctors who have now learnt how to use acupuncture. The West, however, uses only one part of the technique intensively; that is, the use of needles to relieve pain during operations. 9

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10

Space Tourism Japan's Shimizu Corporation is making plans for the day that there are regular flights into space, not by astronauts, but by tourists and sightseers. Shimizu's space project office prepared the plan for a $28 billion space hotel with the technical guidance of Bell & Trotti of the United States. It is not the first proposal of its kind. Since the first days of space exploration, people have speculated about the possibility of cosmic pleasure trips. In 1967, the founder of the Hilton hotel chain, Barron Hilton, told the American Astronautical Society that he hoped to see the first orbital Hilton in his lifetime. In spite of the advances in technology, Japan's National Space Development Agency is doubtful about the future of space travel. Shimizu, however, is optimistic and is even planning to put a new generation of space planes into operation around the year 2010 to start commercial space travel and tourism. Space planes will replace the current generation of spacecraft. Not only will they be able to take off and land like jets, but they will also have the power to leave the atmosphere altogether. The United States, France, Britain, Germany, Japan and the Soviet Union are all planning hypersonic space planes. There are common features to the designs of space planes; they will use a single booster stage to reach their orbit. They will be totally re-usable and will be propelled to hypersonic speeds by revolutionary engines that can take in oxygen from the atmosphere or on-board supplies. Current generation spacecraft are limited by the vast amount of fuel. It takes about five tones of fuel to put a spacecraft into orbit. But by using a rocket motor that can take in oxygen from the atmosphere, the burden of liquid oxygen can be cut down to the amount that is required when the air becomes too rare . A cost effective and safe aero-space plane will mark a major turning point for the space industry and the birth of space-tourism. Then the first destination for the rich, the fashionable and the adventurous will be the space hotel, a space station in low earth orbit. As the aero-space plane closes in on Tokyo Orbital International, passengers will witness a hotel that looks quite unlike any on Earth because the need to build it piece by piece by assembling a series of prefabricated modules - makes it an odd-shaped structure. Space tourism will not be cheap - estimates of the cost range from tens of thousands to millions of dollars, depending on the trip, timescale and available technology. For instance, technical consultant David Ashford and Dr. Patrick Collins of Imperial College estimate that the cost per seat could fall from $4 million in the space shuttle to $ 10,000 in a'spacebus'. As for whether space-tourism will occur at all, we can draw from the example of air travel. In the past 60 years, the number of people who crossed the Atlantic has grown from a handful of people to some 25 million. Once the new generation of space vehicles under development take to the skies, the prospect of commercial space flights within the next 60 years seems inevitable.

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12

Winds Like all gases, air constantly moves. Masses of air, warm or cool, wet or dry, move across land and sea and bring about weather changes. During this process, one air mass replaces another. When air is heated, it expands. Hot air is less dense than cold air. For this reason, it rises and leaves behind an area of low pressure. Unlike hot air, cold air has a large density. Instead of rising, it presses heavily on the earth's surface. Therefore, it produces an area of high pressure. Since gases always try to move from high to low pressure, winds are caused by the flow of cold air which tries to replace the rising hot air. Why is there such a difference in the temperature of the air at various places on earth? There are two major global air patterns on Earth. One is from the poles towards the equator and the other is from the equator towards the poles. On the earth's surface, the poles are always cold and the equator hot. Cold air comes down from the polar regions. Since the distance from the poles to the equator is so great, the cold air from the poles warms up on the way. Similarly, the hot equatorial air becomes cooler on its way to the poles and this is what causes the difference in temperature. These winds do not blow in the north-south direction, but they are diverted. The rotation of the earth is the cause of this change in direction. These two major global air patterns cover thousands of kilometres. Besides these air patterns, there are smaller cycles which cover hundreds of kilometres. These smaller air patterns form because of smaller changes in temperature. For example, the air above the ground is heated by the ground whereas the air above the sea is colder. As a result, the cool air moves from the sea to the land, forming a 'sea breeze'. During the night, the land is cooler than the sea (since water heats up and cools down more slowly) and the breeze blows from the land to the sea. This wind is called a 'land breeze'. Winds that blow very powerfully can develop into storms, which can turn into hurricanes. Actually, no one knows why some of the storms become hurricanes and others do not. A hurricane forms over tropical seas, it moves, and when it reaches the land or a colder part of the sea, it slowly diminishes, dies out. A hurricane can be 1000 kilometres in diameter. The centre of the hurricane is called the 'eye'. The speed of the wind in a hurricane can range from 150 kph. (kilometres per hour) to 300 kph. All hurricanes originate close to the equator. Hurricanes in the Pacific and Indian Oceans are known as ‘typhoons'. Sometimes storms can also develop into tornadoes. These resemble hurricanes but form over land. Tornadoes can occur anywhere on Earth but are mostly observed over the central United States. A tornado, like a hurricane, is a strong wind spinning and turning around a core. Unlike a hurricane, it contains a partial vacuum. The wind speed of a tornado is about 300 kph., but sometimes it can reach 800 kph. Scientists do not know exactly how tornadoes form. It is thought that when warm moist air meets the cold air from the north, it causes clouds to form and storms to develop. This brings about an uprush of warm air, which is known as a tornado. When a tornado passes over a house, for example, the low pressure at the centre causes the air in the house to expand suddenly and, as a result, the building explodes. 13

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14

Dynamite The use of dynamite has become as much an art as a science. Sixty years ago, dynamiters placed explosives around a building which they wanted to demolish, or destroy. When they blew it up, the environment was covered with pieces of bricks and rocks. This doesn't happen anymore. Today we can control explosions because scientific blasting techniques (new methods of causing an explosion) have been developed in recent years. Nowadays, holes are made in the base of a building and these are filled with enough dynamite to knock out - destroy - the building's supports and make it fall down. Dynamite has become the most efficiently controlled source of releasable energy available. Therefore, it is the most often used explosive. More than a billion pounds of dynamite is exploded by blasting experts annually in the United States, most of it in mines and quarries, i.e. places where stone for building purposes is taken from the ground. Other increasingly important areas in which this explosive is used are construction work (roads, bridges, buildings, etc.), gas and oil-well drilling, recovering iron from sunken ships, and fire-fighting. Controlled explosions are mostly used in areas of dense population. For example, subway construction crews in New York often use dynamite underground without the people above being aware of it. In an explosion, the solid particles inside a dynamite stick are immediately transformed into hot expanding gases, which force and powerfully push aside rocks, steel or anything nearby. One of the examples of blasting with precision occurred in 1944,when engineers built a 13-mile tunnel through a Colorado mountain. Starting on opposite sides of the mountain, they met in the middle with great accuracy — only a one centimeter error at the point where the two parts of the tunnel joined. Another example is Gutzon Borglum's use of dynamite to form the faces of Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln, and Theodore Roosevelt in the rocks at Mount Rushmore, in South Dakota. Many dynamiters claim that precision blasting became an art in July of 1930 at the Saguenay River Power Project, Quebec. A power station had been built, but to provide water for it, they needed to turn the water from the river into another channel. Ordinary methods had failed so Sam Russell, a blasting expert, was asked for advice. He had a brilliant idea. He built a cement block weighing 11,000 tons. He said that he was going to drop it into the river and thus block, or stop, the flowing water. Many people thought he was mad, but Russell calmly put 1,000 pounds of dynamite into holes under the cement block. When the dynamite detonated, the block moved into the right place with a roar that could be heard miles away.

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16

A Land Of Immigrants The USA is a land of immigrants. Between 1815 and 1914, the World witnessed the greatest peaceful migration in its history: 35 million people, mostly Europeans, left their homelands to start new lives in America. Why did these people risk everything by leaving their homes and families to see what the New World had to offer? How had the Old World disappointed them? First, what forced emigrants to make the momentous decision to leave? One major cause of the exodus among European people was the rise in population which led to 'land hunger'. Another was politics. Nationalism brought about increased taxation and the growth of armies, and many young men fled eastern Europe to avoid military service. Also, the failure of the liberal revolutions in Europe caused the departure of hundreds of thousands of refugees. Physical hunger provided another pressing reason. Between 1845 and 1848, the terrible potato famine in Ireland ended in the deaths of one million Irish people and the emigration of a further million who wished to escape starvation. Following the collapse of the economy of southern Italy in the 1860s, hundreds of thousands decided to start afresh in America. In short, people chose to leave their homes for social, economic and religious reasons. As a result, by 1890 among a total population of 63 million, there were about nine million foreign-born Americans. But what were the attractions? First of all, there was the promise of land which was so scarce in Europe. Next, factories were calling out for workers, and pay and working conditions were much better than back home. Men were needed to build the long railroads, and settlers were needed to populate new towns and develop commerce. There was the space for religious communities to practise their faith in peace and comparative isolation. This immigration meant that by around the 1850's Americans of non-English origin had started to. outnumber those of English extraction. As we know, there were losers. To start with, there were those immigrants who were brought to the land by force, the slaves, to be used as a source of cheap labour for the tobacco plantations of the South. Nor should we forget the equally awful fate of the American Indians. By 1860, there were 27 million free whites, four million slaves and a mere 488,000 free blacks. Nowadays, the USA is still seen by millions as the Promised Land. Gone are the days when you could buy US citizenship for one dollar. Yet, even though entry is strictly limited, refugees continue to find freedom and people from poorer countries a better way of life. As always, it remains a magnet to the ambitious and the energetic who are ready to commit themselves to the land that gives them a second chance. immigrant------------------

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18

U.S. Public Schools There are many people in the U.S. today who are not satisfied with the education that their children are receiving in the public schools. They are very worried about a number of developments that are taking place there. However, not all of these people are worried about the same things. In fact, they often do not agree about the problems in public education. One group of people is concerned about the quality of the education which young people are receiving. According to these parents, their children are not learning enough in school, and some researchers agree with them. For example, according to recent studies, the number of high school students who cannot read is increasing not decreasing. Also the number of students who have difficulty with simple mathematics is increasing. Even students who graduate from high school and go to college show a depressing lack of knowledge. In a geography class at a large university, 40% of the students could not find London on a map, 41% could not find Los Angeles, and almost 9% could not find the city where they were attending college. There are a number of possible reasons for the increase in the number of students who are not receiving a good basic education. First, classes are sometimes too large. In some city schools, for example, there are often between forty and fifty students in a class. Then, there are many teachers who do not know enough about the subjects that they are teaching. The college programmes which train future teachers are not always good and do not always attract the top students. But the problems are not always the fault of the teachers or the education system. Often students who do not want to learn behave badly and disturb the classes. As a result, the students who are really interested in their school subjects cannot learn much in these classes. Finally, according to some people, television is also to blame for the lack of success of the public schools. Young people often watch six or more hours of television a day. They do not take time for their homework. They grow to depend on television for entertainment and information, and, therefore, they cannot see any reason for reading in this modern world. All the entertainment and information they want comes from television, not from books. A second group of people is dissatisfied with the public schools for very different reasons. These people usually have very conservative beliefs about life. They do not like the changes which they see every day in American society, and they disagree with many of the ideas which their children hear and read about in school. For example, they are against the sex education classes that some schools give. For them, sex education is not a suitable subject for schools. They also object to schoolbooks that describe the lives of mothers who work outside the home or of parents who are divorced. They do not like history books which criticize the U.S. for mistakes made in the past. They are even against dictionaries that define one or two dirty words. There are, however, many other people who completely disagree with the ideas and actions of these conservatives. "They are trying to limit our freedom. We must protect our children's right to learn about many different ideas," these parents say. Thus, in the U.S. today there is a lot of discussion about very important questions in education. Who will decide school programmes and books? Does the government have the right to decide? 19

Do the school administrators have the right to decide? Can teachers decide? Do only parents have the right to decide the things that their children learn in school? Watch television and read news magazines; you will hear a lot of different answers to these questions. satisfied with ------------------

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20

Food For The Starving The number of people who die as a result of starvation is increasing every day; People don't always die just because they don't eat; they die because they are so weakened from lack of food that they get ill very easily. Very few people die of measles in Great Britain. Measles is just a childhood disease that most of us experience and shake off in a week or two. For those whose bodies are weakened by starvation, however, measles is a killer. And so are hundreds of other diseases. Last year about 30,000,000 people died of such minor diseases. That's the equivalent of the majority of the population of Great Britain. There can be no doubt that if those people had gotten proper food, many of them would still be alive today. Firms in this country are currently spending millions of pounds manufacturing meat. Not meat from cows but completely synthetic, artificial meat. They are making it out of a certain kind of fungus and from other vegetable matter. By adding flavour and other constituents, this 'meat' is said to be indistinguishable from the meat taken from animals. It has the same protein and other beneficial elements that a pound of steak or chicken contains and we are assured that within a few years we will be eating it as readily as we now eat lamb or beef. A large number of us will be extremely hesitant about this synthetic foodstuff and therefore, the firms involved will have to spend many more millions on persuading us, through advertising, that we really need the new food. So, by the time the first vegetable sausage sizzles in our frying pans, millions of pounds will have been spent on the research, manufacture and selling of the new product. If it is true that such meat can be produced, if it is true that it really is as good as the real thing, and if it is going to be cheap, these products should not be directed at those who already have enough food but at those who have none. Let the major firms forget about spending millions trying to persuade us to eat it and use their marvellous new invention to feed the vast mass of the world's population who have never even seen meat. Half a loaf of bread is better than none: synthetic meat is better than an occasional handful of rice. Every year the major agricultural countries of the world produce too much of certain products - the quantity is beyond what is needed or consumed. Milk, vegetables and the like go off quickly as they cannot be efficiently stored. Modern food technology has presented us with the ability to freeze and to dehydrate (or freeze-dry) food. Could we not be sensible and make use of this surplus of products by processing them to give them longer life and flying them out to where they are needed? Those countries which sometimes have too much should make their surplus available in some form to those which have too little. Don't tell me that it would cost too much money. If a tenth of what is spent on advertising, packaging, and distributing food is creamed off and spent on processing it for the starving, we would save a great many lives.

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save ------------------

22

Crimes Every community in the world recognizes certain activities as crimes. Because of this, each has developed its own way of dealing with crimes and has chosen a number of different punishments to match them. So, society identifies crimes, administers justice, and then imposes suitable punishments. It is surprising, however, how much the various societies of the World differ in the areas of crime, justice and punishment. What may be a crime in one country is often perfectly acceptable in another. For example, as you may know, jaywalking, that is, not crossing the road at the proper crossing place, is illegal in areas of the world such as North America, but in other areas, quite legal. As well as deciding what is legal and what is illegal, societies must also decide whether a crime is petty or serious. For example, carrying a gun is a very serious offence in some countries, but a very petty one in others. Similarly, the ways of administering justice differ from country to country. In some countries a person is considered innocent until he is proved guilty, but in others the opposite is true. In other words, in the former it is the job of the authorities to prove that the person has committed a crime whereas in the latter it is the individual's task to prove his innocence. Crimes vary, systems of justice vary, but the greatest variation between countries is in the methods of punishment that they use. For example, a person convicted of theft in some parts of the Middle East might face a severe penalty, whereas the same crime would receive a relatively lenient punishment in some Scandinavian countries. Denmark provides a good example of the more lenient approach to crime and punishment. About half the people sent to prison there go to what is called an 'open prison'. In these prisons, the inmates are allowed to wear their own clothes, provide their own food, bring in their own furniture and have their own radios or television in the cell. They are not locked in their cells at night, although each prisoner is given a key to his own cell and can lock the door at night if he wishes. Most open prisons in Denmark also have special rooms where prisoners can entertain friends, husbands or wives unsupervised, in privacy and comfort, for at least an hour a week. After four weeks in a Danish open prison, a prisoner is normally entitled to a 'holiday'outside the prison. Usually he is allowed out of prison for one weekend every three weeks. Of course, prisoners do not have to leave the prison every three weeks they can save up their weekends away and take a break of up to eight days if they prefer. Prisoners in open prisons in Denmark are also allowed out for a whole range of activities such as buying clothes, visiting the doctor or simply going for a walk with their visitors. If a prisoner needs to leave the prison for educational purposes - attending a course or receiving technical training - then, in certain circumstances, he may be allowed to spend the night outside the prison.

23

community ------------------

the former ------------------

recognize ------------------

the latter ------------------

as ------------------

commit ------------------

deal with ------------------

task ------------------

punishment ------------------

vary------------------

administer------------------

variation ------------------

justice------------------

convicted of ------------------

impose------------------

severe ------------------

suitable ------------------

penalty------------------

acceptable ------------------

relatively ------------------

as ------------------

approach ------------------

proper ------------------

prison ------------------

illegal ------------------

inmate------------------

quite ------------------

allow------------------

As well as ------------------

cell------------------

whether ------------------

although ------------------

carry ------------------

entertain ------------------

serious ------------------

privacy ------------------

offence ------------------

entitle ------------------

differ ------------------

a whole range of ------------------

consider ------------------

visit ------------------

innocent ------------------

visitor------------------

prove ------------------

circumstance------------------

guilty------------------

24

Population Growth It is widely believed that the world's population has exploded because of the improvements in medical science, which has naturally led to improved standards of public health. Infant mortality has been greatly reduced and the average length of life has been extended on a great scale. Demographers, or population statisticians, are less alarmed by the absolute rise in the world population figures than by the increase in the rate of growth. They estimate that it will take only about 30 years for the World population to double. Pessimists expect this soaring growth to continue until the limits of food, space and natural resources are forced. It is not easy to find solutions to problems caused by population growth. In fact, effective action is lacking because of our inability to decide exactly where the problems lie. For example, many millions of people do not have enough to eat, but at the same time we could argue that the world is not over-populated in relation to its food supply at the present time. The total cultivable land is more than 15 billion acres. Using modem agricultural methods, we could produce more than enough food for the present population of about 5 billion. It appears, then, that the world's population could be almost three times as large before there is a serious shortage of food. But it is unlikely that all the cultivable land would be used for food production. If this were done, there would not be any land left to meet man's increasing demand for houses, factories, airports, roads and other facilities. widely ------------------

force------------------

because of ------------------

solution------------------

improvement------------------

effective ------------------

Infant ------------------

lie------------------

reduce------------------

argue ------------------

length of life ------------------

over-populated ------------------

extend------------------

in relation to ------------------

absolute ------------------

cultivable ------------------

figure------------------

appear------------------

growth------------------

shortage ------------------

expect ------------------

unlikely ------------------

soaring ------------------

meet ------------------

continue ------------------

demand ------------------

resource------------------

facilities-----------------25

SECTION 2

26

PASSAGE 1 In modern times, it was perhaps the "gentleman scientists" of the nineteenth century who came closest to a genuinely objective form of scientific research. These privileged amateurs enjoyed a financial independence which most scientists today cannot have, and which enabled them to satisfy their scientific curiosity without the need to please patrons. With the growth of scientific research after World War II, science has become an expensive occupation. Many scientists today look back upon the 1960s as a golden age of modern-day science, when research was mainly funded by the taxpayer, and scientific enquiry was seen by governments to be part of the public good, and worth paying for. Today, the situation is very different. "Academic freedom" is now often little more than an illusion for most scientists working at universities or in publicly-funded research institutes. Moreover, science is now largely dominated by the interests of the industrial world, and hence, hardly deserves the name "science".

1. According to the passage, the major difference between the "gentleman scientists" and present day ones ----. 3. The writer of the passage argues that contemporary scientific research ---

A) has frequently been ignored by governments and universities B) is that the former were free to research as they chose, while the latter are not C) has become a highly controversial issue in university circles D) is not nearly so obvious as some people believe it to be E) the former were less objective in their research methods than the latter are

A) is, to a large extent, controlled by the interests of industry B) finds its best milieu within the universities C) is advancing at an incredibly fast rate D) offers one of the most exciting and stimulating of careers E) is far more concerned with theory than with any practical application

2. The writer points out that in the 1960s --4. The phrase "part of the public good" (line 13) in effect means ----.

A) research activities were largely carried out under the sponsorship of industry B) scientists believed that they were entering upon a golden age C) academic freedom was already a thing of the past D) scientists carried out their research activities at the public expense E) scientific research largely concentrated on meeting the needs of war

A) deserving of a good public B) setting good standards for society C) ensuring a better future for society D) beneficial to society E) recognized by the general public as being good

27

PASSAGE 2 The US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) will soon be testing a controversial theory about the collapse of the World Trade Center towers. According to an analysis by a leading fire safety expert, had the fire-proofing insulation on the towers' steel structures been thicker, the towers would have survived longer and might even have remained standing after they were hit by the hijacked planes. The work is being seized on by lawyers representing victims' families and insurance companies. If confirmed, it could also lead to changes in building codes. NIST is responsible for drawing up the final report on the towers' collapses and recommending if any changes are needed. It is widely accepted that the collapses were caused by the failure of the buildings' steel structure as it was weakened by the heat of the fires. 1. As it is pointed out in the passage, it is commonly recognized that the main cause for the collapse of the twin towers

3. A specialist in fire safety —. A) puts the blame for the collapse of the towers on the thin fire-proofing insulation B) is to blame for negligence as regards the burning of the twin towers C) has been cooperating with the victims' lawyers to start legal procedures D) has been commissioned to prepare a report on the collapse of the towers E) should have been aware of the structural weakness of the towers and given due warning

A) will only be understood after the release of a detailed report by NIST B) can never be established beyond doubt C) was the weakening of the steel structure due to the heat of the fire D) was not so much due to the heat of the fires as to the force of the impact of the hijacked planes E) is of special interest to insurance companies 2. It is clear from the passage that —.

4. If the tower collapse theory concerning the fire-proofing insulation proves to be true, —.

A) the strength or the steel structure of the towers had been questioned when the designs were drawn up B) NIST has already made a thorough study of the collapse of the towers C) the reason for the sudden collapse of the two towers is still under debate D) the structure of the twin towers was in many respects well below standard E) the hijacked planes hit the weakest parts of the twin towers

A) this will have, even so, no direct bearing on the fight against terrorism B) the victims' families will get no compensation C) this will free NIST from all blame D) then lawyers will have no grounds for objections E) then NIST will probably introduce new building Regulations

28

PASSAGE 3 For two decades after World War II, mass production reigned supreme. Mass-production techniques pushed companies into standardized products, long product life cycles, and rigid manufacturing, emphasizing efficiency and low cost over flexibility. Special orders cost more. But today's consumers are very choosy. They want quality, value and products specially tailored to their needs, but always at the lowest possible price. For now mass customization has come to the fore. Mass customization uses information technology to produce and deliver products and services designed to fit the specifications of individual customers. Companies can customize products in quantities as small as one with the same speed and low cost as mass-production methods. Mass-customization systems use information taken from the customer to control the flow of goods.

1. We learn from the passage that mass production---

3. According to the passage, presentday customers---

A) has now regained its previous popularity B) was the leading method of production in the twenty years or so that followed World War II C) can easily be adapted to meet the needs of individual customers D) can be very profitable because of the wide appeal of its goods E) gives priority to quality and longevity in the goods produced but ignores aesthetic qualities

A) are encouraged to buy ready-made goods available in the shops B) are pleased far more easily than customers were in the past C) do not attach much importance to production methods D) specify what they want and insist on getting it E) rarely distinguish between standardized and non-standardized goods 4. The point is made in the passage that mass customization ---

2. We learn from the passage that one of the characteristics of mass production is ---

A) is no more costly and no more timeconsuming than mass production B) is a system that dates back to the end of World War II C) has actually never been as popular as mass production D) is primarily concerned with efficiency but overlooks quality E) does not attach much importance to flexibility

A) the need to please every customer B) a disregard for flexibility C) a disregard for cost-effectiveness D) to take into consideration the specifications given by individual customers E) the rescheduling of production as the need arises

29

PASSAGE 4 The major sciences of the Hellenistic Age were astronomy, mathematics, geography, medicine, and physics. The most renowned of the early Hellenistic astronomers was Aristarchus of Samos (310-230 B.C.), sometimes called the “Hellenistic Copernicus.” His primary accomplishment was his deduction that the Earth and the other planets revolve around the Sun. This view was not accepted by his successors because it conflicted with the teachings of Aristotle and also with the Greek conviction that humanity, and therefore the Earth, must be at the centre of the universe. Later, in the second century A.D., Aristarchus’s fame was overshadowed by that of Ptolemy of Alexandria. Although Ptolemy made few original discoveries, he systematized the works of others. His principal writing, The Almagest, based on the view that all heavenly bodies revolve around the Earth, was handed down to medieval Europe as the classic summary of ancient astronomy.

1. It was Ptolemy of Alexandria who ----. A) adequately summarized in his Almagest Aristarchus’s ideas on astronomy B) was greatly inspired by Aristarchus’s heliocentric view of the universe C) fundamentally shaped the European understanding of astronomy for the Middle Ages D) first studied and explained in The Almagest the movements of all the planets E) contributed extensively to the development of astronomy as a science

3. With his view of the universe, Aristarchus ----. A) opened the way for the study of astronomy as a science B) was only repeating the traditional Greek idea C) did not differ from other Hellenistic astronomers D) had much influence on his contemporaries E) made an unprecedented breakthrough in astronomy

2. In the Hellenistic Age, ----. 4. The Greeks ----. A) Aristotle’s writings and the works of other philosophers were edited and published B) astronomy was the science which received the most attention C) all astronomers held the same views about the Sun and the planets D) astronomy was just one of several sciences to be studied seriously E) it was commonly accepted that Aristarchus’s ideas had mainly derived from Aristotle

A) regarded the Earth as the center of the universe B) were extremely influenced by Aristarchus’s ideas C) were not fully familiar with the teachings of Aristotle D) completely ruled out whatever Ptolemy said about the universe E) knew how the planets revolved around the Sun

30

PASSAGE 5 The most significant political change in eastern Europe during the late 1980s was the collapse of communism in East Germany and the unification of East and West Germany. Although long considered the most prosperous of the Soviet satellite countries, East Germany suffered from severe economic stagnation and environmental degradation. Waves of East Germans registered their discontent with worsening conditions by massive illegal emigration to the West. This exodus together with evidence of widespread official corruption led to the resignation of East Germany’s long-time, hard-line premier, Erich Honecker. His successor, Egon Krenz, promised reforms, but he was nevertheless faced with continuing protests and continuing mass emigration. In the end, on 4 November 1989, the government, in a move that acknowledged its powerlessness to hold its citizens captive, opened its border with Czechoslovakia. This move effectively freed East Germans to travel to the West. In a matter of days, the Berlin Wall, which had been the embodiment of the Cold War, the Iron Curtain, and the division of East from West, was demolished by groups of ordinary citizens. Jubilant crowds from both sides walked through the gaping holes that now permitted men, women, and children to take the few steps that symbolized the return to freedom and a chance for national unity. 1. It is stressed in the passage that the Berlin Wall ----. A) had been built by the East German government in order to prevent any access to West Berlin B) not only divided East and West, but also, more importantly, symbolized the Cold War and the Iron Curtain C) signified both the powerlessness of Honaker’s government and the failure of his economic policies D) would have been demolished even if East Germany had retained communism E) gave rise to a great many ideological controversies between East and West Germany 2. According to the passage, with the collapse of the Berlin Wall, ----. A) the Soviet satellite countries were exposed to Western ideas B) East and West Germany signed a treaty of reunification C) the economic prosperity of East Germany continued to increase D) the East Germans took up their fight against political corruption E) the East German people were, as it were, finally freed from captivity

31

3. It is stated in the passage that East Germany --A) made various attempts to fight corruption in the government, but failed B) had continually tried to be re-unified with West Germany before the fall of the Berlin Wall C) had never regarded communism as an acceptable regime until the 1980s D) faced extremely severe economic and environmental problems in the 1980s E) had a considerable economic and political influence on other east European countries 4. It is made clear in the passage that Honaker’s resignation from the government --A) led to a serious political crisis in the country, which was finally resolved by the intervention of his successor Egon Krenz B) was inevitable because he had failed to carry out the reforms urgently needed to improve the economy and the environment C) was required by his successor Egon Krenz, who was far more popular with the people and took the necessary precautions to stop illegal emigration D) was demanded because, without having consulted his colleagues, he had opened East Germany’s border with Czechoslovakia E) took place as a result of widespread official corruption and the massive illegal emigration to the West of the people of East Germany

PASSAGE 6 The Renaissance originated in Italy for several reasons. The most fundamental reason was that Italy in the later Middle Ages was the most advanced urban society in all of Europe. Unlike aristocrats north of the Alps, Italian aristocrats customarily lived in urban centers rather than in rural castles and consequently became fully involved in urban public affairs. Moreover, since the Italian aristocracy built its palaces in the cities, the aristocratic class was less sharply set off from the class of rich merchants than in other European countries. Hence, whereas in France or Germany most aristocrats lived on the income from their lands while rich town dwellers, called bourgeois in French, gained their living from trade, in Italy so many town-dwelling aristocrats engaged in banking or mercantile enterprises, and so many rich mercantile families imitated the manners of the aristocracy that, by the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the aristocracy and upper bourgeoisie were becoming virtually indistinguishable. For instance, the noted Florentine family of the Medici, which had emerged as a family of physicians (as the name suggests), made its fortune in banking and commerce, and rose into the aristocracy in the fifteenth century. Obviously, social mobility as such brought about a great demand for education in the skills of reading and counting necessary to become a successful merchant, but the richest and most prominent families sought above all to find teachers who would impart to their sons the knowledge and skills necessary in politics and public life.

1. In the period before the Renaissance, A) the aristocrats in Europe were indifferent to the quality of education offered at schools B) the Medici of Florence had been a poor mercantile family with no skills in politics C) France and Germany had many more aristocratic families than Italy D) European banking was completely monopolized by the rich town-dwellers of France E) no other European country had an urban society as advanced as that of Italy

3. Wealthy medieval Italian merchant families ----. A) deliberately avoided any involvement in the political affairs of their cities B) disliked urban centres and preferred to live in their castles built in rural areas C) never took an interest in the political activities of the aristocracy D) were greatly influenced in their habits and way of life by urban aristocrats E) were far more enterprising in trade than their French and German rivals

2. Unlike their French or German counterparts, ----. A) medieval Italian aristocrats lived in cities and mixed with the general public B) Italian merchants in the Renaissance period were also engaged in trade north of the Alps C) distinguished Italian families wished their sons to become successful merchants D) the Medici were actively involved in the politics and diplomatic relations of their time E) the Italian upper bourgeoisie were strongly opposed to social mobility 32

4. It was in Italy that ----. A) what the French called bourgeois had the monopoly on banking B) merchants and aristocrats were clearly set apart C) banking developed much faster than trade D) most aristocrats wanted their sons to learn only the skills associated with politics E) the rise of the Renaissance first took place

PASSAGE 7 The human population continues to grow by more than 75 million people annually. Since the first Earth Day in 1970, emission rates have remained steady at about 1.2 metric tons of carbon per person per year. Unfortunately, the 1997 Kyoto Protocol has had little measurable effect on these per-capita emissions, even in the countries that have agreed to national targets. More than any other factor, population growth drives rising carbon emissions, and the US Census Bureau and United Nations both project that the global population, currently 6.6 billion, will surpass 9 billion before 2050. The implication is that one of the best strategies for reducing future greenhouse gas emissions is population stabilization, as quickly as can be achieved by non-coercive means. 1. It is suggested in the passage that one feasible way of reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the future ----.

D) has been most effective in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions E) has been largely disregarded by the countries that have signed it

A) may be through the control of population growth B) is through the enlargement of the measures included in the 1997 Kyoto Protocol C) will be through the assignment of more responsibility to the United Nations D) can best be found through cooperation among all the countries in the world E) depends to a large extent on the revision of the 1997 Kyoto Protocol

3. It is emphasized in the passage that annual population growth in the world ----. A) can be reduced effectively through the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol B) has the effect of raising the amount of carbon emissions C) plays no role in the increase in greenhouse gas emissions D) is constantly watched by the US Census Bureau so that it can be kept stable E) has alarmed many countries and forced them to take measures to prevent it

2. One understands from the passage that the 1997 Kyoto Protocol ----. A) was originally inspired by the celebration of Earth Day in 1970 B) can be considered a major achievement by the United Nations and the United States C) does contain a set of extremely harsh sanctions on gas emissions

33

4. As claimed in the passage, by 2050, the world’s population will ----. A) increase by more than half B) definitely reach a stable level C) cease to have any effect on gas emissions D) have a much lower growth rate E) decrease by 75 million people per year

PASSAGE 8 Ancient Greece consisted of a number of city-states, of which Athens was one of the greatest. In the fifth century B.C., all citizens native to Athens could both vote and speak in a government assembly; but this, of course did not apply to women and slaves. This system of “direct democracy” was feasible because Athens was a small community. Each individual could be involved, gathering collectively in the public square where decisions on government matters, such as laws and foreign affairs, were made. City administrators were expected to account for their decisions. What counted in ancient Athens was the authority of the community as a whole. This took precedent over the liberty of the individual. The freedom of the individual to make private decisions, such as choosing a religion, was restricted on the grounds that the interests of society were paramount. However, this simple form of democracy had its drawbacks. While subsequent political thinkers praised the concept of direct political involvement, it was recognized that this would be impractical in larger communities. Indeed, societies with populations of thousands or millions would never be able to manage the logistical problem of direct participation. It was, therefore, natural that in modern times there emerged the idea of representative democracy. 1. In ancient Athens, ----. A) women enjoyed the same democratic rights as men and took part in the process of collective decision-making B) what was to the benefit of the community counted more than the personal interests of the individual C)representative democracy was fully practiced although it had certain drawbacks with regard to the process of decisionmaking D)everybody living in the city was required to take part in public assemblies and vote for the election of city administrators E)the authority of city administrators was so great that their decisions on government matters were final

3. Every recognized Athenian male citizen A) had the right of direct involvement in collective decision-making B) attending a public assembly was expected to speak on laws and foreign affairs C) was dissatisfied with the system of direct democracy as practised by a number of city-states in Greece D) had the right to hold whatever religious beliefs he chose to E) believed that representative democracy was more feasible than direct democracy 4. In the passage, attention is drawn to the fact that administrators in ancient Athens ---A) were so powerful that no citizen dared to speak against them in the assembly B) were elected by the members of the public assembly C) were normally held responsible for their decisions of government D) did their best to reconcile the liberties of the individual and the interests of the community E) were biased against direct democracy and advocated representative democrac

2. The system of direct democracy ----. A) fully safeguarded individual liberties while it restricted the authority of the community as a whole B) was so efficient that, with the exception of Athens, every Greek city-state adopted it C) would obviously be unworkable in large communities D) was short-lived as it resulted in so many disagreements E) enabled a number of Greek city-states to resist the interference of Athens in their foreign affairs 34

PASSAGE 9 During the economic depression that affected the whole Western world in the 1930s, with its mass unemployment, poverty and other social ills, governments, for the most part, did nothing. The accepted wisdom was that, given time, the free market would solve its own problems and that government interference would only make things worse. John Maynard Keynes, the British economist who challenged this belief, argued that it was the proper responsibility of governments to prevent both booms and recessions in order to maintain gradual economic growth and permanent full employment. He maintained that this could be done by manipulating taxation, credit and public expenditure. If the economy was growing too fast, then money and, therefore, demand could be taken out of the economy by higher taxes, lower government spending and by making it harder to borrow money. If there was recession and growing unemployment, then the government could put money into the economy through lower taxes, higher public expenditure and easier credit. Thus, demand could be encouraged. If, as a result, there was money in people’s pockets, then more would be spent on goods and more people would be needed to make the goods to fulfill the extra demand, and this would reduce unemployment. 1. According to the Keynesian argument summarized in the passage, in order to bring down unemployment, ----. A) new economic policies would be formulated by the government, so that demand could be curbed B) governments would follow a policy of nonintervention in the economy and allow the problem to be solved through the free market C) the government had to make new loans available for businesses at very high interest rates D) the government would prefer to increase taxation, so that people would spend less E) one of several measures to be introduced by the government would be to encourage an increase in public spending

3. It is pointed out in the passage that, due to the economic depression in the West in the 1930s, --A) most governments curbed public expenditure and changed their system of taxation B) there was unemployment on a very large scale C) the increasing demand for goods had to be prevented through harsh economic policies D) many governments introduced a series of measures to solve social problems E) it was almost impossible for people to borrow money 4. As it is stated in the passage, in the 1930s, ----. A) all governments in the West carefully followed the economic policies proposed by Keynes B) permanent full employment was achieved through an efficient implementation of free market policies C) governments generally felt that the free market was the only way of solving the problems of the depression D) despite high unemployment, people had so much money that the demand for goods could not be controlled E) the British government gave Keynes full responsibility to improve the economy

2. As is clear from the passage, Keynes ---A) differed little from his contemporaries in his economic theories B) had much trust in the free market, which he believed had a positive impact on the economy of the 1930s C) did not think that the economic depression of the 1930s was serious enough to justify government interference D) firmly believed that government intervention in the management of the economy could be necessary E) argued that economic prosperity should not be the prime aim of any government 35

PASSAGE 10 Since the dawn of civilization, the Middle East, a region at the crossroads of Africa, Asia and Europe, has been important to large and small powers alike, from the empires of the East to the imperial powers of the West. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, which transformed maritime travel between Europe and Asia, added to European interest. The region’s other riches also encouraged European intervention and rivalries. This resulted in a series of confrontations between the Ottoman Empire and its European adversaries, and finally in the collapse of the former and the direct or indirect European colonization of large parts of the region in the course of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. But what added to the Middle East’s importance in the twentieth century was oil, which was found in abundance in the Persian Gulf and in parts of North Africa. Moreover, in the strategic context of the Cold War, the region’s geopolitical importance provided an additional reason for the superpowers to increase their role and presence

1. According to the passage, during the Cold War, ----. A) the Middle East was geopolitically so important that the superpowers came to believe that involvement in the area was desirable B) the geopolitical importance of the Middle East was recognized for the first time C) the European powers competed with each other in the Middle East in order to have full control of the oil reserves in the Persian Gulf D) the superpowers not only increased their activities in the Middle East but also formed alliances with the countries of the region E) the superpowers were attracted by the oil of the Middle East more than by its geopolitical position

E) has followed a policy of peace and cooperation with the Middle East 3. It is asserted in the passage that, when the Suez Canal was opened in 1869, ----. A) European powers had already begun to colonize the Middle East on a large scale B) an increasing number of Europeans began to make long journeys through Asia C) the flow of Middle Eastern oil to the West increased steadily D) European powers made a joint effort to get control of the region E) travel by sea between East and West underwent great changes 4. It is pointed out in the passage that, from the nineteenth century onwards, European involvement in the Middle East A) was solely concerned with the security of the Suez Canal B) was strongly resisted by the Ottoman Empire, which thus prevented the colonization of the whole region C) has largely been motivated by the region’s geopolitical importance D) led to various conflicts with the Ottoman Empire and finally ended its presence in the region E) centered only on the Suez Canal and the opening of the sea-route to Asia

2. It is stressed in the passage that, from very early times, every Eastern as well as every Western power ----. A) has ignored the geopolitical position of the Middle East B) has tried to colonize the Middle East and exploit its natural resources C) has maintained its presence in the Middle East on account of its oil D) has regarded the Middle East as having crucial importance 36

PASSAGE 11 In 1914, Europe had built a seemingly stable peace. Through the complex negotiations of great power geopolitics, Europe had settled into two systems of alliance: the Allied Powers which consisted of Britain, France and Russia, and the Central Powers that included Germany, Austria, and Italy. Within this balance of power, the nations of Europe challenged one another for economic, military, and imperial advantage. The rivalry for colonies abroad accompanied a fierce arms race at home, where military leaders assumed that superior technology and larger armies would result in a quick victory in a European war. Indeed, in the prevailing atmosphere of international suspicion, such a war seemed likely to many of Europe’s political and military leaders. Yet none of them predicted that the war would break out so soon. Nor did many expect that the assassination in June 1914 of the Austrian archduke and his wife would spark off that war, which engulfed all of Europe in just over a month’s time. 1. It is suggested in the passage that, when the Austrian archduke and his wife were assassinated in June 1914, ----.

E) it seemed to many politicians that international problems could be solved through negotiations

A) the European balance of power was not affected by this incident, and the European peace was maintained B) the British government immediately began negotiations for an alliance with France and Russia C) Austria turned to Germany and Italy for an alliance and declared war on Britain and France D) most European leaders did not think that this incident would soon lead to a war E) many European leaders believed that this was a plot of the Allied Powers against the Central Powers

3. The writer asserts in the passage that the peace in Europe in 1914 ----. A) was essentially the achievement of political and military leaders B) was maintained efficiently by the Allied Powers C) mainly depended on superior technology and very strong armies D) seemed a lasting one, but it was, in fact, fragile E) was not affected at all by the assassination of the Austrian archduke 4. According to the passage, although Europe had achieved a balance of power by 1914, --. A) Germany, Austria and Italy continued their efforts to build very large armies and began to challenge the Allied Powers B) European leaders encouraged the development of advanced technologies for a comprehensive victory C) this did not prevent the European nations from challenging each other for various advantages D) military leaders strongly argued that larger armies were needed in order to protect the colonies overseas E) political leaders were extremely suspicious of military leaders and, therefore, did their best to prevent a war

2. It is pointed out in the passage that, while the European powers were competing with each other for colonization overseas, ----. A) their main concern was how to benefit from the geopolitical importance of their colonies B) they were also involved in an escalating process of rearmament C) they held the view that technological superiority was essential for the exploitation of their colonies D) they held various negotiations for the prevention of a possible war that would destroy Europe

37

PASSAGE 12 Virologist Robert Webster thinks that the H5N1 strain of the avian influenza virus poses the most serious public health threat since the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918, which killed an estimated 40 million to 100 million people worldwide. Although the H5N1 strain has so far shown no signs that it has acquired the ability to transmit easily from person to person, Webster says that it is only a matter of time before it does. For that to happen, Webster and others believe that a version of the human flu virus, which is easily transmittable between people, and the H5N1 avian virus would have to infect the same mammalian cell at the same time and re-combine their DNA. If H5N1 picks up those genes from the human flu virus that enable it to spread from person to person, Webster says that virtually nobody will have immunity to it, and many deaths may ensue.

1. We see from the passage that although the H5N1 strain of the avian flu virus is not easily transmitted from person to person at present, ----.

3. As we can infer from the passage, virologist Robert Webster thinks that ----. A) most humans are immune to the H5N1 avian influenza strain as it exists at present B) the H5N1 strain is unlikely ever to be transmitted between humans C) the H5N1 strain and the human flu virus could never combine to create a stronger virus D) the avian influenza virus will soon pose a huge threat to humans E) many human deaths could result from a resurgence of the Spanish flu

A) the human flu virus is also not easily transmittable between people B) neither was the Spanish flu virus in 1918 C) it will probably acquire the ability to do so in the near future D) most people already have immunity to it E) it is not a serious public health threat 2. It is clear from the passage that if the human flu virus and the H5N1 strain were to infect the same mammalian cell at the same time, ----. A) the H5N1 strain would probably gain the ability to spread between people B) mammals would become immune to both flu strains C) this could prove dangerous but will almost certainly never happen D) it would pose no danger to the public E) the H5N1 strain would be destroyed

4. According to the passage, 40 to 100 million people worldwide ----. A) transmit flu viruses to other people every year B) have already died from the H5N1 strain C) are currently infected with the H5N1 avian virus D) were threatened by the Spanish flu pandemic E) died from the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918

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PASSAGE 13 Scottish philosopher and historian David Hume emerged as an economist also with the publication of his Political Discourses. The famous Adam Smith was a friend of his and may have been influenced by Hume: they had similar principles, and both were very good at illustrating and supporting these from history. Although Hume did not formulate a complete system of economic theory, as did Smith in his Wealth of Nations, he introduced several of the new ideas around which the “classical economics” of the 18th century was built. His economic philosophy can be understood from his main arguments: that wealth consists not of money but of commodities; that the amount of money in circulation should be kept related to the amount of goods in the market; and that poor nations impoverish the rest because they do not produce enough to be able to take much part in trade. Beyond this, he urged society to welcome the shift from an agricultural to an industrial economy, without which civilization could not be achieved. 1. According to Hume, ----.

3. According to the text, Hume ----.

A) rich nations should produce more to be able to feed their citizens B) rich nations should provide financial help to poorer nations C) poor nations have a negative effect on richer nations D) poverty can be overcome by increasing the production capacity of rich nations E) poor nations can take part in international trade only when rich nations are impoverished

A) was against the ideas on which the “classical economics” of the 18th century was based B) misunderstood the principles that his friend Adam Smith believed in C) was not the only one who excelled at illustrating and supporting his principles from the past D) argued that money in circulation had to be barely related to the amount of goods in the market E) stated that civilization required advances in both agricultural and industrial production

2. According to the text, Adam Smith ----. A) was very much under the influence of Hume B) formulated a complete system of economic theory C) had ideas that conflicted with Hume’s D) was uncertain about Hume’s principles E) had a great effect on Hume

4. Hume’s belief was that poverty was mainly caused by ----. A) the amount of money in circulation B) the scarcity of produced goods C) the abuse of poor nations by rich ones D) the lack of a complete economic theory E) Adam Smith’s poor grasp of economics

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PASSAGE 14 Oil has provided humanity with many benefits, including affordable energy to reduce our workloads and improve our mobility. Because oil is such an important and visible part of our daily lives, and because it is exceptionally open to political manipulations, it often receives an enormous amount of attention. This is especially true whenever its price increases sharply, and experts immediately get to work to diagnose the cause and consequences of the price increase. In fact, the future of oil is not that much different from its past: undoubtedly, oil production and consumption will become cleaner and more efficient, but prices will continue to be volatile, and the oil industry will continue to be blamed for conflicts, corruption, and pollution. And for all the current talk about the end of the oil age, it will remain a vital source of energy as it is now, nearly a century after the first warnings about soaring consumption and limited resources 1. According to the passage, warnings were first given almost a century ago that ----. A) there would be a sharp decline in oil consumption throughout the world as alternative energy resources became available B) there could be serious disruptions of global oil supply in the future owing to political manipulations and conflicts C) the consequences of soaring prices for oil would be extremely unbearable unless new economic measures were put into effect D) oil would cease to be a vital source of energy in the near future because of the growing rate of pollution E) oil consumption would continue to increase enormously and that the resources for oil were not infinite

3. In the passage, ----. A) the writer makes a strong defence of the oil industry and does not consider it to be responsible for any wrongdoing B) the main emphasis has been put on the indispensable uses of oil for man’s comfort and prosperity C) there is much concern expressed about the consequences of current oil consumption in the world D) some hope is expressed about the improvement and increasing efficiency of global energy resources E) much attention has been given to the importance of experts’ work in diagnosing the cause of increasing oil prices 4. As can be understood from the passage, the writer does not believe that, ----.

2. As suggested in the passage, oil ----. A) was so manipulated politically a century ago that its production was often disrupted B) has unfortunately lost its economic value due to the fact that the oil age has come to an end C) has been the major cause of political instability in the world for nearly a century D) has always been a major source of affordable energy and had a positive impact on our lives E) is produced currently in enormous amounts in order to meet the soaring global demand for cleaner energy

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A) in view of limited energy resources, the amount of oil consumed yearly will have to be restricted B) despite volatile oil prices, there will be a noticeable increase in current oil production C) contrary to ongoing discussions today, the age of oil has drawn to a close D) similar to other industries, the oil industry is to be blamed for political manipulations in the World E) like other sources of energy, oil can be regarded as a major cause of environmental pollution

PASSAGE 15 By the early 19th century, the eminent French zoologist Georges Cuvier believed he had found rock-solid evidence for the biblical great flood. While studying the geological strata around Paris, Cuvier found that fossils or sea creatures in one ancient layer of chalk were overlaid by those of land creatures. Then, just as abruptly, the layer above contained sea creatures again, with the top layer showing evidence of a vast and rapid inundation around present-day Paris. Cuvier regarded these sudden changes in the fossil record as evidence for sudden catastrophes which devastated life of Earth, of which the great flood was just the most recent example. Cuvier's discoveries, published in 1812, won support from a large number of eminent scientists such as the geologist Sir James Hall. However, there were a few who were deeply skeptical, pointing out that the evidence of a global flood was far from conclusive. Most skeptical of all were the followers of the Scottish geologist James Hutton. In 1795, he had published a twovolume text based on the view that the slow, steady processes that shape our planet today, such as erosion, were also crucially important in the distant past

2. It is pointed out in the passage that in the course of excavations near Paris, Cuvier--A) slowly came to recognize the geological significance of the biblical great flood B) was particularly surprised that there were chalk formations in the area C) was slow to recognize the geological importance or marine fossils D) grew interested in the fossils of sea creatures only after he came across a second layer E) discovered alternating layers of fossils relating to sea and land creatures 3. It is clear from the passage that CuvierA) adopted an indifferent attitude towards the attacks of his critics B) was greatly influenced by Mutton's theory concerning the Earth's formation C) was particularly interested in marine fossils and concentrated on them for research purposes D) interpreted his fossil discoveries as indications of major catastrophes similar to the great flood E) had devoted years of research to establishing that the biblical great flood had actually occurred 4. As we learn from the passage, Hutton's theory was that---

1. We learn from the passage that many scientists---

A) long-term geological change, such as erosion, had been of paramount importance in the Earth's history B) erosion was the single most important cause of geological change on Earth C) some geological processes, such as erosion, were relatively recent in the history of the Earth D) our planet had been subjected to countless catastrophes in the distant past E) the formation of our planet was the outcome of different processes in different places

A) gave full support to Cuvier's view that the great flood had actually taken place B) were not at all impressed by Cuvier's discoveries in the Paris area C) followed up Cuvier's excavations of marine fossils D) were, like Cuvier, engaged in a search for evidence of the great flood E) ceased to be sceptical of the great flood once Sir James Hall had given his support to Cuvier

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PASSAGE 16 Europe and Japan do not use fueleconomy standards to any significant degree, but instead rely principally on high taxes to reduce gas consumption. Their average tax is more than $2 per gallon, while in the US, federal gas taxes are only 18 cent per gallon and average state taxes 22 cent per gallon. Higher prices at the pump resulting from higher taxes increase consumer demand for cars with better fuel economy. They also encourage consumers to reduce their driving. Research shows that federal taxes on gasoline would have to increase by a bit less than 50$ per gallon to cut gasoline consumption in the US. Although a 50$ increase is a lot compared with the present average total tax of 40$, it would raise retail gas prices to only a little more than $2 per gallon, tax included. This is far below prices in Europe and Japan. Even if federal taxes on gas were doubled, US retail gas prices would still be much below those in other developed nations.

2. According to the passage, the combined federal and state taxes on gas in the US--A) have exceeded those currently in use in Europe B) are so high that they have forced Japanese car manufacturers to change their production strategies C) have become a major public concern D) have suddenly caused fuel prices to rise sharply E) amount too much less than the tax paid in Japan 3. We learn from the passage that one effect of higher taxes on fuel--A) has been a great deal of uneasiness and even anger among consumers B) has been a noticeable drop in car sales everywhere C) has been to draw attention to a much wider range of energy sources D) is an increased demand for vehicles which consume less fuel E) is that Europe's production of fueleconomy vehicles has increased remarkably

1. It is clear from the passage that Japan's strategy to keep fuel consumption down-A) depends largely on the high taxation of fuel B) has been greatly criticized by the public C) has not been as effective as was originally envisaged D) has set an example that Europe is now adopting E) has had no effect upon the country's car production technologies

4. One point stressed in the passage is that fuel prices in the US, --A) which include both federal and state taxes, are expected to rise considerably B) which have been increasing steadily for quite some time now, have almost equaled those in Japan and even Europe C) even if the taxes were to be increased considerably would still be much lower than in other industrialized countries D) which have not risen for a long time, seem likely to remain stable E) where consumers go for cars with better fuel economy, have caused no change in driving habits

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PASSAGE 17 The natives of the Lewis Island know wind -sometimes too well. Every winter the Atlantic gales come blasting across the northern tip of Scotland's Outer Hebrides. The wind hardly slows down even after striking land; in the island's marshy interior, gusts regularly exceed 160kph. Everyone stays indoors but the sheep. Tourists arrive in summer, lured by mild temperatures and unspoiled countryside; even so, there's rarely a calm day. "The weather here is changeable", says Nigel Scott, spokesman for the local government. "But the wind is constant". The brutal climate could finally be Lewis's salvation. The place has been growing poorer and more desolate for generations, as young people seek sunnier prospects elsewhere. But now the energy industry has discovered the storm-swept island. The multinationals AMEC and British Energy are talking about plans to erect some 300 outsize wind turbines across a few thousand hectares of moorland. If the 500 million-pound project goes through, the array will be Europe's largest wind farm, capable of churning out roughly 1 per cent of Britain's total electrical needs and generating some badly needed jobs and cash for the people of Lewis.

2. According to the passage, Lewis Island-

1.We understand from the passage that, in summer, the island of Lewis---

A) this could make the island unattractive to summer visitors B) the idea could spread rapidly to neighbouring islands C) this will open up much needed employment opportunities for the islanders D) it will only function efficiently in the winter months E) the costs will be shared equally by AMEC and British Energy

A) has the climate and conditions favourable to agriculture B) sufferers more than any other island in Scotland's Outer Hebrides from Atlantic gales C) will undergo many important changes unless a wind farm is established there D) may one day be home to Europe's largest wind farm E) has an aging population that regards the wind-farm scheme with distrust 3. If the energy industry carries out the project described in the passage and sets up 300 wind turbines on Lewis, --A) maintenance costs due to the gale force winds could cause financial failure B) the young people will want to leave their much loved island C) there will be a shortage of land for the sheep to graze on D) other windswept coastlines throughout Europe will probably follow süit E) these will provide Britain with roughly of 1 percent of her total electrical needs 4. According to the passage, if the proposed wind farm is set up on Lewis, ---

A) attracts visitors as nature there has remained unspoiled B) enjoys a warm, wind-free climate C) is one of the most attractive of the islands that make up the Outer Hebrides D) has little to offer its inhabitants by way of a living other than fishing E) can offer its inhabitants even less in the way of a livelihood than it can in the winter

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PASSAGE 18 Unlike the older forms of occultism, such as magic and astrology, organized occultism is a modern phenomenon. Few of the various organized occult movements have existed for more than 150 years; some were formed as a belated countermovement to the Enlightenment, when people began to follow rational schools of thought. Today's occult views are based on the idea that there are events within nature, as well as within one's spiritual life, which seem mysterious and cannot be explained by science. Examples include extrasensory perceptions such as telepathy and telekinesis, and haunted places or people. Believers maintain that these phenomena stem from unknown powers that can often be accessed only by some people with special abilities.

2. According to the passage, some of the organized occult movements in the past came into being--A) as a result of various magical and astrological practices B) since people in the past were seriously concerned about their extrasensory perceptions C) because the public was not satisfied with scientific explanations of events in natüre D) due to the assumption that many phenomena in nature were related to man's spiritual life E) in reaction to the rational thinking style that characterized the Enlightenment 3. As we learn from the passage, occult practices in our time--A) are particularly widespread among people who follow rational schools of thought B) have mostly focused on the mysteries of telepathy and telekinesis C) essentially stem from the occult movements of the past D) are concerned with phenomena which are thought to be scientifically inexplicable E) seem to benefit from science in explaining natural phenomena

1. We understand from the passage that adherents of occultism claim that certain people--A) have extraordinary talents that allow them to have contact with the unknown B) practise magic and explain events by means of astrological signs C) were the pioneers of the antiEnlightenment movements in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries D) can tell us what places are haunted and why E) can teach others what extrasensory perceptions are

4. It is implied in the passage that magic and astrology--A) have failed as occult practices in explaining extrasensory perceptions B) are forms of occultism which can be traced back into the past C) lost their significance with the rise of rationalism during the Enlightenment D) did not exist as occult practices prior to the Enlightenment E) have always been used in order to communicate with unknown powers

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PASSAGE 19 Until the giant American energy company Enron collapsed, and its director Kenneth Lay was imprisoned, his life had been a model of the American dream of rising from rags to riches on the strength of merit and hard work. His beginnings were socially and financially very modest. He was born in Tyrone, Missouri, in 1942, as the son of a preacher who was also a parttime salesman, He helped his father make ends meet by cutting grass and delivering papers. His start in the energy industry seemed similarly modest. After obtaining a doctoral degree in economics from the University of Houston, he got his start in the booming Texan oil industry. In 1985 he merged Houston Natural Gas with InterNorth of Nebraska in order to form Enron. As Enron became stronger, Mr Lay turned increasingly to politics and was one of the biggest donors to the Bush-Cheney campaign. After Mr Bush entered the White House, Mr Lay had hopes of a seat in the cabinet, perhaps as energy secretary or even at the Treasury. However, for reasons that remain unclear, Mr Bush overlooked him, so his professional life ended in frustration.

2. It is clear from the passage that the giant American energy company Enron was founded through--A) Kenneth Lay's increasing interest in politics B) Kenneth Lay's dream of rising from rags to riches C) the fact that Kenneth Lay had been imprisoned D) Kenneth Lay's modest beginnings as the son of a preacher and part-time salesman E) the merging of the two companies; Houston Natural Gas and Inter North 3. We understand from the passage that, when Kenneth Lay was a child, he--A) worked as a part-time salesman together with his father B) wanted to become a preacher like his father C) moved with his family from Tyrone, Missouri, to Houston, Texas D) contributed to his family's income by working at part-time jobs E) dreamed of becoming an oil tycoon 4. We can infer from the passage that Kenneth Lay expected Mr Bush to offer him a high position in his administration because Mr Lay---

1. According to the passage, after Mr. Bush was elected president of the US, Kenneth Lay---

A) had contributed a very large amount of money to Mr Bush's presidential campaign B) was an important player in the Texan oil industry C) was frustrated with his political life D) had obtained a high level of education and was therefore quite knowledgeable E) had become very rich through his hard work

A) turned increasingly to politics B) became involved in the Texan oil industry C) was not offered a cabinet seat D) obtained a doctoral degree from the University of Houston E) dissolved Enron, the company he had created

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PASSAGE 20 Immune deficiency, which in fact means an inadequate immune response, may occur for several reasons. For example, it is a side effect of most chemotherapy drugs used to treat cancer. Immune deficiency also occurs naturally. Although the immune system is not functional at birth, infants are protected by antibodies they have received from their mother through the placenta, and infants who breastfeed also receive antibodies from their mother's milk. These antibodies offer protection until the infant's own immune system develops during the first months of life. In rare cases, the immune system fails to develop, leaving the child without immune protection. Exposure to any virus or bacterium can be fatal to these children. Therefore, they are sealed into sterile quarters to isolate them from the microorganisms that are part of the normal world.

2.As one can understand from the passage, the causes of immune deficiency--A) in an infant can be understood easily, as the development of the immune system is yet in its early stage B) can sometimes be traced to a microorganism such as a virus C) are fundamentally linked with chemotherapy, which is used in cancer treatment D) in children can be traced back to the first months after birth E) may vary 3.It is clear from the passage that, at birth, infants--A) have a non-functioning immune system, and so rely on antibodies from their mother's milk for protection against microorganisms B) have a relatively well-developed immune system and are therefore well-protected against viruses or bacteria C) are so exposed to viruses or bacteria that the rate of mortality is usually very high D) hardly need antibodies gained from breastfeeding to protect them against the fatal effects of disease-causing bacteria and viruses E) have a very strong immune system which enables them to cope with viruses

1.According to the passage, the development of a child's immune system-A) is not of vital importance since the child is always protected by various antibodies B) begins in the placenta before birth and is completed at birth C) depends completely on the protective nature of antibodies in the mother's milk D) is only completed a few months after birth E) is closely related to the child's physical development and, hence, takes a very long time

4.It is clearly pointed out in the passage that, occasionally, there may be cases when--A) chemotherapy drugs have no effect whatsoever on the occurrence of immune deficiency B) there occurs a failure in the development of a child's immune system C) even antibodies do not provide protection for the infant in the placenta D) child mortality may not be related to children's exposure to viruses or bacteria E) the mother's milk does not contain antibodies to protect the infant in the first months of life 46

PASSAGE 21 The single most effective step people can take against hypertension is to find out whether they have it. At check-up time, a health-care professional can provide an accurate resting blood pressure reading. Under normal conditions, blood pressure fluctuates continously in response to a variety of factors including such things as talking or shifting position. Some people react emotionally to the procedure, which raises the blood pressure reading. For these reasons, if the resting blood pressure is above normal, the reading should be repeated before confirming the diagnosis of hypertension. Thereafter, the blood pressure should be checked regularly. In general, efforts to reduce high blood pressure focus on weight control, because excess body fat, especially abdominal fat, can precipitate hypertension. Indeed, weight loss alone is one of the most effective nondrug treatments for hypertension. Those who are using drugs to control their blood pressure can often reduce or discontinue the drugs if they lose weight. Even a modest loss of 5 kilograms may significantly lower blood pressure.

2.It is clear from the passage that, before diagnosing hypertension, the health-care professional---

1. According to the passage, weight loss-A) is certainly one way of overcoming hypertension effectively B) can be a very exhausting and boring process for some people C) can most effectively be achieved through the use of certain drugs D) is by itself not effective enough to reduce high blood pressure E) should be taken into consideration only when drug treatment for hypertension has failed

4. According to the passage, if a person with hypertension loses weight, ---

A) must make sure that the patient has no emotional problems B) should advise the patient on the most effective methods of losing weight C) ought to recommend to the patient certain drugs that are effective for weight loss D) should repeat the blood pressure test if the first reading is above normal E) must first deal with excess body fat and bring the blood pressure under control 3. It is pointed out in the passage that, normally, blood pressure--A) should not be regarded as a means to find out about hypertension B) has an irregular pattern in those people who have too much abdominal fat C) fluctuates widely among people who cannot control their emotions D) can be controlled and regulated through repeated readings E) is not stable, but constantly changes due to various reasons

A) other nondrug treatments should be disregarded B) regular blood pressure readings may be discontinued C) every attempt should be made to read the blood pressure accurately D) it may be possible to decrease the dosage of hypertension medication E) effective drugs should be used to reduce abdominal tat in the first place

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PASSAGE 22

2. As is pointed out in the passage, Pluto--

Pluto, which was until recently regarded as the outermost and smallest planet in the solar system, has never been visited by an exploring spacecraft. So little is known about it that it is difficult to classify. Its distance from Earth is so great that the Hubble Space Telescope cannot reveal its surface features. Appropriately named for the Roman god of the underworld, it must be frozen, dark, and dead. Its mean distance from the Sun is 5,900 million kilometers. In fact, it has the most eccentric orbit in the solar system, bringing it at times closer to the Sun than Neptune. Furthermore, there is evidence that Pluto has an atmosphere, containing methane, and a polar ice cap that increases and decreases in size with Pluto's seasons. It is not known to have water. The Hubble Space Telescope's faint-object camera revealed light and dark regions on Pluto, indicating an ice cap at the north pole. It is not known if there is an ice cap at Pluto's south pole.

A) is on the outer edge of the solar system B) has extensive ice caps at both its poles C) was a major god in antiquity, worshipped by the Romans as well as by other peoples D) and Neptune seem to have similar orbits that bring them closer to the Sun E) looks so dark that nothing whatsoever can be observed on it 3. It is stated in the passage that, since Pluto is so far away from Earth, --A) its regions and poles can best be studied through a powerful telescope B) almost nothing is known about even its exterior C) the density of the methane in its atmosphere cannot be measured D) the Hubble Space Telescope clearly shows how completely frozen its surface is E) only some minor explorations have so far been made by means of a spacecraft

1. According to the passage, Pluto's orbit around the Sun---

4. As is stated in the passage, from the data provided by the Hubble Space Telescope about Pluto---

A) takes so long that each of its seasons has a long period B) has not yet been described accurately C) brings it, on occasion, closer than Neptune to the Sun D) follows a pattern which is uniform and stable E) has been studied again and again through the Hubble Space Telescope

A) some scientists have suggested that its exploration ought to be started soon B) one can conclude that it has a climate which is stable and temperate C) it has a dull surface with absolutely no variety D) it is understood that there is an ice cap on its north pole E) one becomes aware of the fact that every planet in the solar system has a similar cycle of seasons

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PASSAGE 23

2. As we learn from the passage, it seems likely that women ----.

Although women have made huge strides in catching up with men in the workplace, a gender gap still persists both in wages and levels of advancement. Commonly cited explanations for this gap range from charges of sex discrimination to claims that women are more sensitive than men to work versus family conflicts and thus less inclined to make sacrifices for their careers. Now, however, two new studies suggest that another factor may be at work: a deeply ingrained difference in the way men and women react to competition that manifests itself even at an early age. Apparently, females tend to be far less responsive to competition than males - a tendency with important implications for women and business. It may hurt women in highly competitive labor markets, for example, and hamper efficient job placement - especially for positions in which competitiveness is not a useful trait.

A) are about to rally against the gender gap in the workplace B) become seriously concerned, at a very early age, about their future careers C) will fight determinedly for their rights in the workplace D) will, due to their passive nature, find it hard to get the promotion they deserve E) have less of the competitive spirit than men do 3. We understand from the passage that, when a choice has to be made between work and family, ----. A) men are less likely, than women to risk their careers B) most career women naturally give precedence to work C) women expect men to give the priority to the family D) it is the women, rather than the men, who find making that choice hard E) neither the men nor the women can readily make up their minds

1. On the whole, according to the passage, women in the workplace ----. A) are content to let the men compete among themselves B) inspire a competitive spirit in men C) receive the treatment they naturally deserve D) have rapidly attained a position approaching that of men E) keep themselves up-to-date with developments in the labor market

4. According to the passage, in working life today, --A) women are preferred for certain jobs that require sensitivity B) there still exists considerable discrimination against women C) men feel they have a right to higher wages and quicker advancement D) family concerns are what drive men to work harder and earn more E) fair competition is to be encouraged while sex discrimination is to be banned

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PASSAGE 24 Leonardo da Vinci is a member of a very small class of "transformative geniuses," not ordinary or common geniuses, who have contributed abundantly to their fields, but rather the ones who have created or defined entire fields. In literature, no one asks, 'Who was the greatest writer?" Honest debate can start at Number Two. Shakespeare, the consensus choice as greatest writer, is a member of this class of transformative geniuses. Similarly, Isaac Newton is recognized as the greatest among scientists and mathematicians; Ludwig van Beethoven, and possibly Bach and Mozart, are the transformative geniuses among composers. The most recent transformative genius the world has seen may have been Albert Einstein, a scientist like Newton - and Time Magazine's "Man of the Century" for the 20m century. In ranking artists, one can start the debate at Number Three - a rank for which Raphael and Rembrandt are candidates, or perhaps one of the great French Impressionists, or the 20th century's most famous artist, Picasso. The ranks of Number One and Number Two, however, are reserved for Leonardo and Michelangelo, taken in either order. These two are far above all other artists. Michelangelo lived a very long lifetime of eighty-nine years, and was productive to the end. Leonardo, on the other hand, lived sixty-seven years, and left behind just a dozen paintings. And only a half of these are incontrovertibly one hundred per cent by him. In contrast, Rembrandt painted hundreds of paintings, 57 of himself alone; van Gogh created nine hundred paintings in a period of nine years. So how can we put Leonardo at the very pinnacle? The answer is really quite simple: his dozen or so paintings include the Number One and the Number Two most famous paintings in the history of art - The Last Supper and Mona Lisa.

1. With the sentence, "Honest debate can start at Number Two", the writer is really saying--A) one cannot expect popular opinion to judge fairly B) people don't always give their honest opinions C) Shakespeare doesn't deserve his position at the head of the list D) the relative merits of writers are very controversial E) there can be no doubt about Number 1; that's definitely Shakespeare's place 2. According to the passage, when it comes to ranking artists, --A) Van Gogh comes very high on the list as a result of the great number of his paintings B) at least six artists have a claim to top place C) it is either Leonardo or Michelangelo who is Number One D) the third place definitely goes to Raphael E) 20th-century ones come low on the list 3. We learn from the passage that, although Leonardo left the world only a dozen or so paintings, --A) these include the world's two best-known paintings B) they are all of remarkably high quality C) he actually painted a great many more D) he knew they would keep his name alive to the end of civilization E) they rightly earned him the undisputed position of the world's Number One artist 4.lt is clear from the passage that Michelangelo--A) richly deserves his Number One position as the best of the artists B) was a far more productive artist than Leonardo C) had a profound influence upon the next generation of painters D) was jealous of the fame of Leonardo and strove to excel him E) has only been recognized as a great artist in recent time

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PASSAGE 25 Thomas Edison began conducting experiments during his childhood. To start with, there were hundreds of unsuccessful experiments but Edison eventually invented and patented 2,500 items, including the electric lamp and phonograph. He was determined to "give laughter and light" to people, but, until he actually managed to do so, most people ridiculed him. Without losing hope, Edison attempted over 1,000 unsuccessful experiments in his efforts to make an electric lamp. When people told him he was wasting his time, energy, and money for nothing, Edison exclaimed, "For nothing! Every time I make an experiment, I get new results. Failures are stepping stones to success." Determined to give people electric lamps, Edison said he'd meet his goal by early 1880. In October, 1879, he created his first electric lamp, and in so doing, received much praise. People realized that Edison's invention was not affected by rain or wind, remaining constant through bad weather. Just as he had hoped, Edison provided people with light and laughter.

2. It is clear from the passage that, once Edison had invented the electric lamp, --A) he lost interest in carrying out experiments B) he admitted that at one point he had very nearly given up the project C) he wasn't at all interested in what people felt about it D) people were particularly impressed by the fact that wind and rain had no damaging effect on it E) he felt discouraged because he had failed to meet the goal he had set himself for the completion of his invention 3. As we understand from the passage, with the phrase, "Failures are stepping stones to success", Edison meant that--A) one should forget one's failures as soon as possible B) one cannot be successful every time C) success and failure are both a matter of chance D) there are two kinds of failure: those that lead to success and those that don't E) the knowledge and experience that one gains from failure contributes to success

1.As we understand from the passage, conducted many unsuccessful experimental trials, ---

4. According to the passage, when Edison was working on an invention, he---.

A) most of which were very expensive and got him into financial difficulties B) but the list of his patented inventions is a long one C) most of which were related to the phonograph D) but the people who knew him encouraged him to keep on trying E) and on many occasions he felt his experiments were pointless

A) was keen to pass on to others the knowledge he was accumulating B) was very secretive about what he was doing C) was not discouraged by the possibility of failure D) avoided friends and detractors alike E) felt embarrassed by periods of no progress

51

PASSAGE 26 Throughout history, eyewitnesses have reported orange glows, fireballs or flashes in the days before and during an earthquake. It was in 1968, however, that the first photographs of "earthquake lights" were taken during a series of earthquakes in Japan. Some showed red streaks across the sky. Others looked like a low blue dawn from a distance. In 1999, floating balls of light in the sky were broadcast on Turkish television, reportedly filmed the night before the devastating earthquake of 7.4 on the Richter scale that killed many thousand people in the Marmara region of Turkey. Mysterious or not, repeated sightings of earthquake lights confirm their existence. It has to be said that earthquake lights are a fairly well-known phenomenon, but we don't know what they mean, or what causes them. Seismologists have struggled for years to find a reliable earthquake predictor. Could the lights hold the key?

2. The passage emphasizes the fact that the Marmara earthquake--A) was televised as it was happening B) was followed by strange lights in the sky C) was indeed a catastrophic one D) greatly puzzled seismologists E) took everyone, seismologists included, by surprise 3. We understand from the passage that the sighting of earthquake lights--A) has led to a great deal of confused and contradictory reporting among seismologists B) first occurred in Japan C) is a fairly recent phenomenon in Japan D) has attracted virtually no scientific attention from seismologists E) goes back a very long way in time 4. It is pointed out in the passage that the photographic recording of earthquake lights---

1. In the passage, the writer wonders whether---

A) was made for the first time less than half a century ago B) was only done with great success during the Marmara earthquake C) is what finally convinced people of their existence D) is widely regarded as a visual deception E) has always been a major concern for seismologists

A) earthquake lights might help in the prediction of earthquakes B) the orange glows supposedly sighted before an earthquake were actually seen C) the photographs taken of earthquake lights in Japan are of any scientific use D) earthquakes cause the lights, or whether the lights cause the earthquakes E) the devastation caused by the Marmara earthquake could have been prevented

52

PASSAGE 27 Indonesia, the rainforests are being destroyed due to the expansion of the palm oil industry. Today, palm oil is grown on an ever more huge scale, providing global commodity markets with vast quantities of cheap vegetable fat. Across the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Borneo, palm oil plantations have so damaged the rainforest that experts expect the extinction of the orangutan in the wild by about 2020, if nothing is done. More than 90 percent of the orangutan’s original habitat is gone, and the remainder is under serious pressure, with the palm oil industry being backed by the Indonesian government even in protected areas where the last orangutans live, for example, in southwest Borneo. The forests on these Islands are also the home of the countless other unique and rare species. Logging operations and plantation activities can increase the risk of serious fires, especially when coupled with unusually dry conditions. A very large fire may lead to further forest loss and increase pressure on neighboring virgin forests by improving access to formerly remote areas. They also cause major public health problems across Indonesia and Malaysia, as the haze of smoke drifts across urbanized areas.

E) Indonesian Islands provide global commodity markets with palm oil cheaper than any other place in the world 2. It can be understood from the passage that--A) palm oil industry is trying to find a better way to produce palm oil to prevent further forest loss B) a combination of factors, including dry climate and Increasing plantation, contributes to the extinction of rare species both in Malaysia and Indonesia C) people living in urbanized areas are supposed to experience less health problems than those who live in remote areas D) the extinction of the orangutans in Indonesia is more likely due to the lack of government effort to protect them E) rare species in Indonesian forests can survive negative conditions caused by palm oil production 3. The passage is mainly about the --A) expansion and the future of palm oil industry on the Indonesian islands B) effects of palm oil plantation on the environment across the Indonesian Islands C) reasons why the Indonesian Islands are convenient for palm oil production D) risk of fire due to palm oil plantation and how it can be harmful to both Indonesia and Malaysia E) government efforts in Indonesia to control the palm oil plantation on the islands

1. According to passage --A) the Indonesian government is trying to stop the palm oil plantation on the islands since it destroys the environment B) the expansion of palm oil industry in Indonesia makes the country richer than others in the region C) low costs of palm oil production has increased the size of the industry, but risking the rainforests D) the Indonesian government has provided special areas to protect the orangutans threatened with extinction

4. The author’s attitude towards palm oil production is --A) favoring B) superficial C) impartial D) tolerant E) disapproving

53

PASSAGE 28 Critics have long argued that Japan’s scientific research whaling is in fact commercial hunting. In March, 2014, the United Nation’s International Court of Justice agreed ordering Japan to stop its hunt off Antarctica. However, the ruling may be the only a temporary setback for Japan. The International Whaling Commission imposed a ban on commercial whaling in 1986, but it allowed the killing of some whales for scientific research. Since then, Japanese whalers have caught 10,710 Antarctic Minke whales in Southern Ocean around Antarctica, where whales are encouraged to breed. Japan claimed the kills were necessary to study recovering populations, but the court said they were excessive. Nevertheless, Japan is likely to continue this practice. Japanese officials say they plan to redesign their research program to align with the commission's rules. "I would bet that whaling will continue as usual, although with some trivial window dressing to make it look like they are complying with the ruling," says whale researcher Phillip Clapham. If Japan, the only nation using the inconsistency in the regulations, submits an acceptable proposal to the commission, the country could resume the practice as soon as possible.

2. The International Whaling Commission’s ban on commercial Whaling in 1986 --A) has helped decrease dramatically the number of whales caught.. B) stopped Japan from hunting whales in Southern Ocean around Antarctica C) has made it possible for places, where whales breed, to become much safer D) has led to considerable progress in scientific research on whale populations. E) excluded certain whales from the scope of the ban 3. Following the promise to redesign their research program, Japanese officials --A) will minimize the use of conventional methods of hunting Minke whales B) may continue to hunt whales commercially in disguise C) can gain substantial support from International organizations for whaling policies D) will comply with the rules set by the International Whaling Commission E) could protect recovering whale populations against commercial hunting 4. What could be the best title for the passage?

1. According to passage, the decision made by the International Court of Justice --A) seems to satisfy whale researcher Phillip Clapham's concerns. B) may lead Japan to hunt whales in places other than Antarctica C) will not be effective in the long term D) contradicts the ban imposed by the international Whaling Commission E) has caused great controversy among critics

A) International Competition for Hunting Whales B) UN's Efforts to Deter Japan from Whaling Hunting C) Unacceptable Whale Hunting by Japan D) Protection of Endangered Whale Species E) Japan's Contribution to Research on Whales

54

PASSAGE 29 A vegetarian is a person who eats no flesh. There are subcategories, such as lactovegetarians and ova-vegetarians, who eat no flesh but who eat some of the products of animals- in these cases, milk and eggs respectively. A vegan, on the other hand, not only refuses flesh, but also abstains from eating and sometimes wearing all animal products. Vegans argue that animal products cannot be separated from animal mistreatment: They point, for instance, to the connections between eating eggs and the keeping of hens in battery cages, and between drinking milk and the breeding and slaughter of veal calves, which are necessary to keep dairy cows in milk. For the same reasons, many vegans also refuse to wear or use products based on animals material such soap, wool and leather. They make the point that it would be considered by a vegetarian unsuitable to be entertained on a leather seat. Other variations are vegetarians who will eat free-range eggs but refuse mils and others who will eat flesh but refuse the flesh of other animals. In spite of problems of definition, there have been several attempts to calculate the extent of vegetarianism in a number of countries, but the data available for countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States are few.

2. According to the passage, lactovegetarians --A) would rather drink milk than eat eggs B) view making animal products equal to mistreatment of animals C) refuse to purchase products containing milk D) do not wear or use any animal products E) eat flesh of certain animals in some cases 3. It is understood from the passage that vegans--A) have made great progress in controlling animal mistreatment B) are the only kind of vegetarians who find it difficult to eat flesh C) are much healthier than lactovegetarians and ova-vegetarians D) are in strong opposition to the consumption of animal products E) can use certain animal products such as soap and leather 4. It can be inferred from the passage that --A) fish is preferred as an alternative by all vegetarians when they refuse to eat any other animal flesh B) animal mistreatment, especially of hens and calves, is a crucial issue discussed by all vegetarians C) all vegetarians hardly eat any animal products except for egg, whether freerange or not D) vegetarianism no longer draws attention in many countries such as the United States E) different types of vegetarians have different approaches towards the concept of vegetarianism

1. According to the information at the end of the passage, which of the following questions can easily be answered? A) What do we mean by vegetarianism in broad terms? B) Why do people become vegetarian? C) Why is it difficult to calculate the extent of vegetarianism? D) Is there an increase in the number of vegetarians across the world? E) Which countries have the highest proportions of vegetarians?. 55

PASSAGE 30 Egypt’s Old Kingdom flourished on the flood-enriched banks of the River Nile. It was an era of prosperity, relative stability, and strong centralized rule. During this period, they, pyramids , were built and Egyptian society worshipped their mighty king, or pharaohs, as 'gods on Earth'. Old Kingdom society was tightly controlled by the powerful pharaoh. Central to life, politics, and religion, which were all closely combined, was the idea that the pharaoh was a semi-divine figure who act. The pharaoh not only oversaw elaborated religious rituals but also headed a vast, highly organized political and administrative bureaucracy. Pharaohs were believed to be earthly representations of the gods and were the upholders of a justice system that aimed to reflect the cosmic order. A pharaoh was also the figure who worked with the gods to ensure that the Nile brought silt-rich annual floods each year, maintaining the Nile valley fertile enough to support the country. Though Egyptians did seem to realize he was a fleshand-blood human, they stood in awe of the sacred power of the pharaoh.

2. It is clearly stated in the passage that pharaohs --A) had to choose between being a political and religious leader B) were believed to be the representatives of heavenly gods C) were thought to come from another World to rule their kingdom D) were far from making use of the fertile Nile valley E) held religious ceremonies along the banks of the River Nile 3. What can be inferred from the passage about Egypt's Old Kingdom? A) Stability was achieved through democratic role despite the relative lack of prosperity B) Stability was negatively affected by the highly powerful position of the pharaohs C) It was difficult for the rulers to combine social, religious and political aspects of life in the Old Kingdom D) The figure of pharaoh was central in designing every aspect of life E) To the pharaohs, religion was less significant than prosperity and centralization in the Old kingdom

1. According to the passage, Egypt's Old Kingdom --A) was a wealthy state with centralized governance headed by pharaohs B) seemed that prosperity and strong centralization were more important than stability C) fell long before the era when the pyramids were built D) ruled during a period when people were free to worship their own gods E) effectively separated religious affairs from political ones

4. The underlined word "upholders" in the passage is closest in meaning to --A) admirers B) speakers C) keepers D) finders E) punishers

56

PASSAGE 31 Beneath a temple thought to mark the location of the Buddha's birth, archaeologists may have discovered the physical roots of the religion: an ancient tree shrine that predates all known Buddhist sites. The archaeological record of Buddhism stretches back to the time of Ashoka, an Indian emperor who enthusiastically embraced the religion in the 3rd century BC and built many temples. The sage known as the Buddha though, probably lived about three centuries earlier. The remains of one of Ashoka's temples lie at Lumbinini in Nepal, which many recognize as the Buddha's birthplace. As part of his conservation work, Robert Coningham at Durham University, excavated below the temple foundations. He found evidence of pre-Ashokan stonework and, below that, signs of a timber structure that was radiocarbon dated to between 800 and 550 BC. When the surrounding soil was examined it was found to contain the remains of ancient tree roots, but was strangely free of the debris usually left by human occupation. This suggests that a tree grew at the centre of the wooden structure, and that the area around it was regularly cleaned, just as Buddhist tree shrines are cleaned today.

C) shown that Ashoka was the first emperor to follow the teachings of Buddhism D) possibly revealed the very first tree shrine in the Buddhist religion E) enabled archaeologists to make a previously unknown link between Ashoka and the Buddha 2. It is clearly stated in the passage that Ashoka —. A) lived during the same period as the Buddha B) knew exactly where the Buddha was buried and built a shrine there C) was a firm believer in the religion that the Buddha founded centuries earlier D) dedicated his time to finding the actual birthplace of the Buddha E) welcomed the Buddha to his empire to spread his religion 3. The unusual thing about the ¡soil around the timber structure was that it was —. A) full of dead organic matter B) examined by previous excavators C) contaminated by radiation D) surrounded by ancient trees E) without any human waste 4. One can understand from the passage that over the centuries, Buddhist tree shrines have been —. A) built away from royal residences B) protected by the warriors of the emperor C) kept hidden under temple foundations D) taken care of in a very similar manner E) constructed of both timber and stone

1. It can be understood from the passage that the excavation below the temple at Lumbinini has -— A) located the remains of an ancient shrine where nothing was thought to exist B) provided little evidence that the Buddha was actually born there

57

PASSAGE 32 The influence of technology on diplomacy can be illustrated by leaked and misunderstood telegrams, which shaped the history in unexpected ways. For example, the 1917 Zimmermann telegram (sent by German foreign minister Arthur Zimmermann to the German Mission in Mexico and intercepted by the British) instructed the German representative to start negotiating Mexico's entrance into World War I as a German ally by offering Mexico control of the US states of New Mexico, Utah and California after the war. The Zimmermann telegram was leaked at a time when the American public were still neutral and not ready to join World War I. It prompted the United States to join the Allied forces. The most illustrative case study of the influence of the telegraph on diplomacy was the 1914 July crisis that led to the beginning of the World War t. Telegraph messages were being sent between St. Petersburg, Berlin, Belgrade, Vienna, Paris and other countries involved in the conflict. However, there was little awareness of how to use the telegraph properly. The Russian czar sent a conciliatory note to Germany, but the German Kaiser had already sent a note that was not conciliatory at all, thus creating communication confusion and mistrust that contributed toward escalation and ultimately war. A new technology coupled with human failure led to an unfortunate outcome.

2. As it is stated in the passage, the 1914 July crisis —. A) was due to the conflict between Russia and Germany although both were capable of using the telegraph effectively B) resulted from a confusion in understanding telegraph messages between the Russian and German heads of state C) caused a breakdown in communication systems due to technical problems with the telegraph system D) led to a general distrust of the telegraph system in the major countries involved in the conflict E) arose because the telegraph messages could not be sent to other capitals such as Paris and Vienna 3. One can understand from the passage that the Germans —. A) could not use diplomacy effectively in the past B) were not skillful in using the telegraph compared with other nations C) resorted to sending telegraph messages to form alliances and other diplomatic relations D) relied on the British to intercept their messages E) were against the development of technology in diplomatic relationships

1. The Zimmermann telegram—. 4. What could be the best title for the passage? A) The Development of the Telegraph B) The Use of Telegraph in World War I C) The Use of Telegraph and Its Various Uses D) The Early Days of the Telegraph E) The Impact of Tele graph on German Diplomacy

A) redefined the relationship between Germany and Russia B) tried to convince the Mexicans that the British were to invade their country C) caused the Mexicans to become suspicious of the United States D) showed Germany's intention to take control of the United States E)provoked the US government into joining the war against Germany 58

PASSAGE 33 2. According to the passage, the diet of the Red Lady —.

The Paleo diet is very popular these days. The Red Lady of El Mirón cave in northern Spain also ate the Paleo diet almost 19,000 years ago. But it was not a trend for her. A close look at the Red Lady's teeth shows that the meat of the hoofed animals, such as red deer and mountain goat, made up about 80 percent of her diet. Fish seems to have made up most of the rest of her diet, if that sounds a little dull, fear not. Meticulous dental analysis reveals she also ate some starchy plant material, most likely to have been seeds, plus mushrooms, although probably in small amounts. Whether mushrooms were eaten for nutrition or for some other purpose is unknown. Could the diet revealed by this unique fossil from northern Spain make you live a longer, healthier life? Although the surviving bones of the Red Lady suggest she was healthy, her age at death was between 35 and 40. That may have counted as middleaged for people who lived in Paleolithic times. Perhaps you had better stick to a balanced diet with five portions of fruit and vegetables a day.

A) was made up of large portions B) was mainly composed of meat C) was followed by a great number of women in Paleolithic times D) involved foods eaten especially for nutrition E) shows that eating meat is important between the ages of 35 and 40 3. It is implied in the passage that the Paleo diet —. A) puts emphasis on strachy plant materials B) leads people to have a diet consisting only of meat C) requires eating all types of food in small portions D) does not have direct effects on living a longer life E) allows people to live as long as the Red Lady 4. The primary purpose of the author is to —.

1. As it is stated in the passage, thanks to dental examinations. —. A) why the Red Lady was not able to live longer than 40 years was known B) what the Red Lady's diet included was revealed C) when the Red Lady lived was brought to light D) why the Red Lady's diet depended heavily on meat was found E) where the Red Lady lived in Spam was disclosed

A) persuade the reader to start the Paleo diet to lead a long life B) give information about the Paleo diet by providing the reader with an example C) criticize the reader for not following the healthy Paleo diet D) warn the reader against the consequences of following the Paleo diet E) explain the reasons why the Red Lady died at such a young age

59

PASSAGE 34 Aromatherapy is the therapeutic use of plantderived, aromatic essential oils to promote physical and psychological wellbeing. Aromatic plants have been utilised for their healing, preservative, and pleasurable qualities throughout recorded history in both the East and West. As early as 1500 BC the ancient Egyptians used waters, oils, incense, resins, and ointments scented with botanicals for their religious ceremonies. There is evidence that the Chinese may have recognised the benefits of herbal and aromatic remedies much earlier than this. The oldest known herbal text, Shen Nung’s Pen Ts’ao (2700-3000 BC) catalogues over 200 botanicals. Ayurveda, a practice of traditional Indian medicine that dates back more than 2500 years, also used aromatic herbs for treatment. The Romans were well known for their use of fragrances. They bathed with botanicals and integrated them into their state and religious rituals. So did the Greeks, with a growing awareness of the medicinal properties of herbs. Greek physician and surgeon Pedanios Dioscorides, whose prominet herbal text De Materia Medica (60 AD) was the standard testbook for Western medicine for 1500 years, wrote extensively on the medicinal value of botanical aromatics.

2. Greek physician and surgeon Pedanios Dioscorides --A) differed from Roman physicians and surgeons in that he recorded his knowledge of curative herbs B) wrote a book on medicine which focused on herbs that could be used for medicinal purpose C) insisted that botanicals had more value in medicine compared to religious ceremonies D) was the first to fully understand and document the medicinal value of botanical aromatics E) drew inspiration from the Romans in his efforts to improve Western medicine 3. The underlined word “prominent” in the passage is closes in the meaning to --A) noteworthy B)equivalent C)prescriptive D)confidential E)consistent 4. The passage is mainly about---

1. It is stated in the passage that aromatherapy --A) is still practised through the use of more than 200 plants listed in Pen Ts’ao B) had been ignored for years until the ancient Egyptians made use of it C) was more highly valued by the Indians than the Chinese and Egyptians D) was possibly used for curative purpose by the Chinese long before the Egyptians E) is described as a form of treatment usually for psychological disorders

A) the pleasurable quality of aromatic plants B) the eminent physicians practising aromatherapy C) the reasons why aromatherapy was used in ancient times D) the medicinal value of aromatherapy E) the civilisations that contributed to the growth of aromatherapy

60

PASSAGE 35 In 2015, it was discovered that liquid water forms on the surface of Mars during its warmest summer days. However, thanks to the low atmospheric pressure, it boils away almost instantly- the boiling point of water on Mars is just 20oC. Water was, therefore, believed to play little or no role in shaping the Martian surface. However, an international team of scientists has shown that even this short-lived boiling water does have a significant geological impact. The researchers, led by Marion Massé from the Laboratory of Planetology and Geodynamics of Nantes, recreated two environments; one inside a former diving decompression chamber at Mars-like pressure, and the other in a cold chamber at terrestrial pressure. When a block of ice melted under “Earth” conditions, water simply soaked into the sand. When a block of ice melted under Mars-like pressure, though, its boiling caused bubbles to be emitted which distributed the sand, leaving a pattern of ridges like the ones seen on the surface of Mars. With saltwater, the effects were more obvious.

2. Why did the researchers recreate two environments? A) They wanted to compare the environment of Earth with the environment of Mars B) They wanted to sea if it was possible to create Mars-like environments C) They wanted to find out if it would be possible to create Earth-like conditions on Mars D) They wanted to investigate if the fast boiling water had an effect on Mars E) They were trying to see if they could stop water from boiling away instantly 3. It is stated in the passage that ice melting under Mars-like pressure--A) created bubbles that were absorbed into the sand and left salt on the surface B) soaked into the sand immediately and left no patterns on the surface C) was similar to ice melting under Earth conditions D) resulted in ridge-like patterns similar to the ones on the surface of Mars E) produced bubbles which had no visible affect on the sand 4. It can be inferred from the passage that --A) the findings of the research make it clear that Mars could be a habitable planet for humans B) scientists need to start working on how to balance the atmospheric pressure on Mars C) Mars has a suitable environment for water to be formed, but is unable to preserve it D) it is possible to create Earth-like environments on Mars E) water formed on Mars towards the end of summer days does not vaporise easily

1. Which of the following is an effect of low atmospheric pressure on Mars? A) Water cannot be formed during the warm summer days of Mars B) The water formed on Mars boils and disappears immediately C) The temperatures fall and so water cannot boil D) The planet becomes too cold for any water to exist E) The summer period is affected less by this

61

PASSAGE 36 2. It is clearly stated in the passage that the Galapagos---

The Galapagos are a fascinating group of volcanic islands lying on the equator in the eastern Pacific Ocean, close to South America. They were created by volcanoes that boiled up from the ocean flor less than 10 million years ago. These islands of bare rocks were gradually colonized by plants and animals some of which have evolved into weird forms that are found nowhere else on Earth. The galapagos were created by a hot spot of volcanic activity which now lies beneath the most western island of Fernandina. All the islands are being carried east by the gradual movement of the ocean flor. This means that in about 26 million years they will crash into South America. While the young islands of the western Galapagos are still volcanically active, the volcanoes on the eastern islands such as San Cristobal and Espanola are extinct. There, volcanic rock has formed fertile soils which support lush vegetation, which in turn provides food even for rare creatures such as tortoises. The volcanic landscape, exciting wildlife and scientific importance of the galapagos have made them a major tourist attraction. Each year, thousands of people travel to the islands, yet, despite this, most of the islands retain the magical quality of a place almost untouched by the contemporary world.

A) have been a central tourist site for its peculiar culture B) have been a very popular tourist destination especially for scientists C) have been virtually unaffected by the modern world D) attract thousands of tourists from South America every year E) magically make people forget about the modern world 3. Which word is closest in meaning to the underlined word “lush” in the passage? A) compact B) barren C) available D) decaying E) abundant 4. Which of the following questions does this passage mostly answer? A) What makes the Galapagos so interesting? B) What is so wonderful about the volcanic landscape of the Galapagos? C) Why do the Galapagos continuously move? D) What plants and animals live on the most western island of Fernandina? E) What is the scientific importance of the Galapagos?

1. It can be understood from the passage that the Galapagos--A) are no longer volcanically active B) hardly have fertile soils to feed creatures C) are bare rocks with no indication of plant or animal life D) will crash into South America in near future E) came to be the home of unique animal species in the course of time

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PASSAGE 37 2. It is pointed out in the passage that in the 1950s, car manufacturers --- .

One day in 1952, John W. Hetrick was driving with his wife and daughter in the front seat when he had to change his direction suddenly and brake quickly to avoid an obstacle. Instinctively, he and his wife put their arms out to protect their daughter in case of a crash. This event inspired him to provide automobiles with airbags to protect people during accidents. Hetrick had been an engineer in the US Navy during World Ward II. He recalled a compressed-air torpedo accidentally turning itself on, causing its canvas cover to shoot up into the air, “quicker than a blink of an eye”. In 1952, Hetrick proposed using compressed air to inflate airbags rapidly during car crashes. He received a patent fort his invention in 1953, but car manufacturers in the 1950s were more interested in style than safety. Later, consumers became more safety conscious and airbag technology improved. The first airbags were optional, but by the 1990s, they had become standard. Although airbags have saved thousands of lives, they are not always sufficient to prevent death and injury during crashes. Travelers must also wear seat belts, and automobiles must have dashboards made of soft materials and steering columns that can absorb energy during impact from car crashes.

A) developed a compressed mechanism which inflated airbags swiftly B) benefited from optional airbags to raise the safety awareness among the customers C) paid more attention to the physical appearance of cars rather than their safety D) started to produce standard airbags in line with the innovations in airbag technology E) were highly concerned with safety requirements imposed on automobile industry 3. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage? A) The injuries and deaths in car accidents can be completely prevented with airbags. B) As soon as Hetrick patented the airbag, it became obligatory for manufacturers to equip cars with airbags. C) The dashboards and steering columns of automobiles should be designed elaborately to increase the efficiency of airbags. D) Travellers are expected to fasten their seat belts which enable the airbags to inflate more quickly. E) Automobile designs are required to manipulate the energy in a crash in order to save people’s lives.

1. It can be understood from the passage that the airbags were --- . A) widely accepted when they were first introduced in 1952 B) invented with the fundamental aim of making cars look more attractive C) manufactured largely in order to improve automobile marketing and increase the sales D) invented by a US engineer while he was launching the canvas cover into the air E) designed to work very fast to provide immediate protection for people

4. Which could be the best title for the passage? A) Advances in the Automobile Industry B) An Alternative Way to Save Lives C) Airbags as a Safety Regulation D) How to Protect Car Accidents with Airbags E) The Advance of Airbag Technology

63

PASSAGE 38 George Manby is most famous for his invention of the Manby Mortar- a device once used to rescue a lot of people from shipwrecks. He is also known as the father of the modern fire extinguisher, which in itself has also saved thousands of lives. Fire extinguishers actually predate Manby’s invention. One of the earliest one was designed in 1723 by Ambrose Godfrey. Godfrey’s device consisted of a fire extinguishing liquid and a chamber of gunpowder. When the attached fuses were lit, the gunpowder exploded and scattered the liquid. They were not widely used, although there is an account of them being used in afire in London in 1729. Manby’s 1818 invention was more efficient. he was inspired to invent a portable fire extinguisher after witnessing firemen’s inability to fight fires on the top floors of buildings because they were difficult to get to. He designed a device containing potassium carbonate with the remaining space taken up by compressed air. When the device was activated, it allowed the air to rush out and spread the potassium carbonate over quite a range. The system could also be used with water, and was potable, allowing firemen to reach otherwise inaccessible areas. Manby’s invention was soon replaced by a newer model. However, the use of compressed air formed the premise for new prototypes, with modern extinguishers using carbon dioxide as the pressurising agent in a similar way.

E) collaborated with Godfrey to invent the fire extinguisher 2. What is the main reason why Manby’s invention in 1818 was more efficient? A) It could use various pressurising agents to scatter the extinguishing liquid. B) It enabled firemen to deal with fires in places that they had previously been unable to reach C) It proved its convenience when it helped to extinguish a fire in London in 1729 D) It contained potassium carbonate which could spread over a large area. E) It could save more lives than Godfrey’s invention could 3. One can understand from the passage that Manby’s fire extinguisher --- . A) was designed with the help of the firemen who wanted to reach inaccessible areas B) was not used as widely as Godfrey’s device when it was first introduced C) was very similar to his another invention called the Manby Mortar D) was appropriate for the use of several pressurising agents to spread the potassium carbonate E) took more time to activate when compared to Godfrey’s device 4. What is the primary purpose of the author? A) To give examples of the pressurising agents used in fire extinguishers B) To make a comparison between Manby’s fire extinguisher and Godfrey’s device C) To inform the reader about the development of the fire extinguisher D) To put emphasis on portable fire extinguishers that help firemen to reach inaccessible areas E) To describe the benefits and limitations of Manby’s fire extinguisher

1. It is clear from the passage that Manby A) was inspired by different types of fire extinguishers while producing his own type B) became famous when he himself rescued a lot of people from a shipwreck C) is regarded as the creator of the fire extinguisher although similar types existed before D) was the first person to use a fire extinguisher in a fire in London in 1729

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PASSAGE 1

PASSAGE 6

PASSAGE 11

1. B

1. E

1. D

2. E

2. A

2. B

3. A

3. D

3. D

4. D

4. E

4. C

PASSAGE 2

PASSAGE 7

PASSAGE 12

1. C

1. A

1. C

2. C

2. E

2. A

3. A

3. B

3. D

4. E

4. A

4. E

PASSAGE 3

PASSAGE 8

PASSAGE 13

1. B

1. B

1.C

2. B

2. C

2. B

3. D

3. A

3. C

4. A

4. C

4. B

PASSAGE 4

PASSAGE 9

PASSAGE 14

1. C

1. E

1. E

2. D

2. D

2. D

3. E

3. B

3. B

4. A

4. C

4. C

PASSAGE 5

PASSAGE 10

PASSAGE 15

1. B

1. A

1. A

2. E

2. D

2. E

3. D

3. E

3. D

4. E

4. D

4. A

65

PASSAGE 16

PASSAGE 21

PASSAGE 26

1. A

1. A

1. A

2. E

2. D

2. C

3. D

3. E

3. E

4. C

4. D

4. A

PASSAGE 17

PASSAGE 22

PASSAGE 27

1. A

1. C

1. C

2. D

2. A

2. D

3. E

3. B

3. B

4. C

4. D

4. E

PASSAGE 18

PASSAGE 23

PASSAGE 28

1. A

1. D

1. C

2. E

2. E

2. E

3. D

3. A

3. B

4. B

4. B

4. C

PASSAGE 19

PASSAGE 24

PASSAGE 29

1. C

1. E

1. C

2. E

2. C

2. A

3. D

3. A

3. D

4. A

4. B

4. E

PASSAGE 20

PASSAGE 25

PASSAGE 30

1. D

1. B

1. A

2. E

2. D

2. B

3. A

3. E

3. D

4. B

4. C

4. C

66

PASSAGE 31

PASSAGE 34

PASSAGE 36

1. D

1. D

1. E

2. C

2. B

2. C

3. E

3. A

3. E

4. D

4. E

4. A

PASSAGE 32

PASSAGE 35

PASSAGE 37

1. E

1. B

1. E

2. B

2. D

2. C

3. C

3. D

3. C

4. E

4. C

4. E

PASSAGE 33

PASSAGE 38

1. B

1. C

2. B

2. B

3. D

3. C

4. B

4. C

67