Plant Exploitation on Epipalaeolithic and Early Neolithic Sites in the Levant 9781841711904, 9781407353388

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Plant Exploitation on Epipalaeolithic and Early Neolithic Sites in the Levant

Sue Colledge

BAR International Series 986 2001

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 986

Plant Exploitation on Epipalaeolithic and Early Neolithic Sites in the Levant © Sue Colledge and the Publisher 2001 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841711904 paperback ISBN 9781407353388 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841711904 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2001. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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Plant Exploitation on Epipalaeolithic and Early Neolithic Sites in the Levant

T ab le o fC on ten t s P ref ace

i

L i s to fT ab les

i i

L i s to fF igu res

i v

L i s to fP la te s

v i

I

T he L evan t

1

H

A rchaeobo tan ica lI n terpre ta t ion

1 8

I I

T he A rchaeo logy o ft he S i te s

2 5

I V

S amp l ing , R e tr ieva la nd A na ly s i so ft he P lan t Ma ter ia l s

6 0

V

Overa l lS amp le C harac ter i s t ic s : E xp lora t ion o ft he Ef ec t so ft he ' Forma t ion P roces se s '

9 7

V I

P re sence o fT axa : F ood P lan t s ,F ounder C rop s a nd t he S pread o fA gr icu l ture

1 43

V I I

T axonom ic C ompo s i t ion o ft he S amp le s : How t he L andscape a nd i t sR e sour ce sw ere E xp lo i ted

1 83

S ummary

2 24

Append ix 1 : I den t i f ica t ion c r i ter ia f or t he n on -cerea lt axa

2 25

Append ix 2 : D e scr ip t ions o ft he p arenchyma tous t i s sue s

2 33

R ef erence s

2 46

V I I I

i

P ref ace

e xp lo i ta t ion o f p l an t r e sou rce s f r om a w ide r p e r spec t ive , p r ima r i ly w i th r e f e renc et or e su l t sf r om t h et e nJ o rdan ian a nd f i ve S y r ian s i t e s ,b u ta l so i n c lud ing t h o se f r om o t he rs i te si n t h e L evan t . T he s i gn if icanc e o f t h e f i nd s o fc e rea l a nd l e gume c r op s f r om t h e J o rdan ian s i te s w a s a s s e s sed w i th in t h e c on tex t o ft h e o r ig in s a nd s p read o fa g r icu l tu re i nt h e N ea rE a s t .

T he p r ac t ica l e l emen t o f t h e r e se a r ch d e sc r ibed i n t h i s monog raph i n vo lved t h e a na ly s i s o fc ha r red p l an t r ema in s r e cove red f r om t e n s i t e s i n t h e c en t ra l , e a s t -c en t ra l a nd s ou the rn L evan t( i . e .J o rdan ) . T he s i t e sa r ed a ted t ot h eL a te E p ipa laeo l i th ic , N a tuf i an , P re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic A , P r e P o t te ry N eo l i th ic B , a nd L a te N eo l i th ic p e r iod s , a nd a r e l o ca ted i nt h e Med i te r ranean w ood land a nd t h e a r id s t eppe a nd d e se r tr e g ion s . T he i n ten t ion sw e r et oi d en t if yt h ep l an t s p e c ie s r e p re sen ted b y t h e s e ed s , f r u i t s a nd n u t she l l ( e tc . ) f o und i nt h e s amp le s t a ken f r om t h e s i t e s , t oe va lua te t h e p o ten t ia lu se so ft h ep l an t sa nd i np a r t icu la rt os ugge s tt h o se t h a t w e re p o s s ib le s ou rc e s o f f o od . Af u r the r a im o ft h e r e sea rch w a st oe va lua te t h ee x ten to fe xp lo i ta t ion o ft h ew i ld a nd d ome s t ic p l an t r e sou rce s , a nd t h e p o s s ib le d i e ta ry c on t r ibu t ion m ade b yb o th a td if e ren tt i me sa nd i nd if e ren t l o ca t ion s . I n a n a t temp t t o a s se s s t h e d eg re e o f r e p re sen ta t ivene s s o f t h e a r chaeobo tan ica l a s semb lage s , a na ly se s w e re u nde r taken t o i n ve s t iga te t h e t a phonom ic p roce s se s a f ec t ing t h e d epo s i t ion a nd p re se rva t ion o f c ha r red p l an tm a te r ia l . T he a im o ft h i sp a r to ft h es t udy w a s t oa pp ra i se t h e s u i tab i l i ty o fu s ing a r chaeobo tan ica l d a ta t o a dd re s s m any o f t h e q ue s t ion s c once rn ing p l an t -ba sed s ub s i s tenc eo ne a r ly s i t e s .

C hap te r 1 ( The L evan t ) p r e sen t s t h e g eog raph ic a l , e nv i ronmen ta l a nd a r chaeo log ica l b ackg round f o r t h e L evan t , a nd d ef ine st h ef r amewo rk f o rt h es t udy . I nc hap te r 2( Ar chaeobo tan ica l I n terp r e ta t ion ) , t h e w ay s i n w h ich a r chaeobo tan ica l d a ta c an b ei n te rp re ted a r ed i s cu s sed . T he a r chaeo log ica l b a ckg round o ft h eJ o rdan ian a nd S y r ian s i t e s i sd e sc r ibed i nc hap te r 3( The A r chaeo logy o ft h eS i te s ) . I n c hap te r 4( Samp l ing , R e t r ieva l a nd A na ly s i s o ft h e P lan t Ma ter ia l s ) , t h e m e thod s o fs amp l ing , r e t r ieva l a nd a na ly s i s o f t h e a r cha eobo tan ica l m a te r ia l s a r e s umma r i sed . Q ua l i ta t ive a nd q uan t i ta t ive r e su l t sa r ep r e sen t ed i nc hap te r s 5 , 6a nd 7 . T he r e su l t s a nd i mp l ica t ion s o ft h ea na ly se so f t h es t a te o fp r e s e rva t ion o ft h ep l an tr ema in sa tt h ed if e ren t s i t e s a r e d e s c r ib ed i n c hap te r 5 ( Ove ra l l S amp l e C ha rac te r i s t i c s : E xp lora t ion o ft h e Ef ec t so ft h eF orma t ion P roce s se s ) . I nc hap te r 6( P r e sence o fT axa : F ood P lan t s , F ound er C rop sa nd t h eS p r ead o fA gr icu l tu r e ) ,p o s s ib le u s e s o ft h et a xa r e p re sen ted a tt h es i t e sa r ep ropo sed ,t h ew i ld a nd c u l t iva ted p l an t f o od s a r e d e sc r ib ed a nd t h e s i gn if icanc e o f t h ep r e sence o fd ome s t ic s p e c ie si sa s se s sed w i th r e f e rence t o d o cumen ted e v idence f o r t h e e vo lu t ion a nd s p read o ft h e f o unde r c r op s . S t a t i s t ica l m e thod s a r eu sed t oc ompa re a nd c on t ra s tt h et a xonom ic c ompo s i t ion o ft h ea s semb lage sf r om t h e J o rdan ian a nd S y r ian s i te s i n c hap te r 7( Ta xonom i c C ompo s i t ion o ft h e S amp le s : H ow t h e L and scape a nd i t s r e sou r ce sw er eE xp lo i ted )a nd t h ei mp l ica t ion so ft h er e su l t s i n t e rm s o f h ow t h e w i ld a nd d ome s t ic r e sou rce s i n t h e s u r round ing l a nd m ay h ave b een u sed a r ed e sc r ib ed . Ab r ie f s umma ry o ft h es t udy i sg i ven i nc hap te r8 .

I tw a s n o t t h e i n ten t ion t h a t t h is s t udy s hou ld i n c lude a c omp rehen s ive s u rvey o ft h et h eo r ie sr e la t ing t ot h e o r ig in s o fa g r icu l tu re , w h ich h ave b een s umma r i sed a nd r e v iewed e x ten s ive ly e l sewhe re . H oweve r , t h e a ims o ft h e r e sea rch r e po r ted i nt h is monog raph w e re f o rmu la ted i na c co rdanc e w i th t h e se g l oba l e xp lana t ion s f o r t h e e me rgence o f a g r icu l tu re , m any o fw h ich h ave b een e xp lo red mo re f u l ly w i th in t h e f r amewo rk o ft h e e vo lu t ion a nd d eve lopmen t o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l c u l tu ra l c omp lexe s i n t h e L evan t . O b je c t ive s w e re s e t f o r e a ch o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l p e r iod s . F o r e xamp le , f o rt h eN a tuf ia n ,t h e se i n c luded a n a s se s smen t o f t h e r ange a nd d eg ree o f u se o f w i ld p l an t r e sou rce s . A na ly se so fp l an tr ema ins r e cove red f r om b o th N a tuf ian a nd N eo l i th ic s i t e s c omp r i sed a d e ta i led e xam ina t ion o f t h e ' weed ' f l o ra s a s so c ia ted w i th w i ld a nd d ome s t ic c e rea l s i n o rde r t o i n ve s t iga te h ow a nd t o w ha t e x ten t l a nd w a s m anaged , i . e . f o rt h ec u l t iva t ion o fc r op s . C ompa r i son sw e re m ade o f t h e c r op s p ec ie s r e p re sen ted a tt h e s i te s f o r t h e d u ra t ion o ft h e N eo l i th ic p e r iod , a nd i np ar t icu la r o ft h o se f o und o nt h es i t e si nt h ew ood land a nd s t epp ic r e g ion s .

T he r e sea rch , w h ich f o rm s t h e b a s i s o f t h i s s t udy , w a s u nde r taken w h i le I w a s ap o s tg radua te s t uden t a t t h e U n ive r s i ty o f S hef f i e ld i nt h e D epa r tmen t o fA rchaeo logy a nd P reh is to ry , w he re m y s upe rv iso r sw e re D r G lyn i sJ o ne s a nd D r M ichae l C ha r le s . D rR u s sA dam s , D rA l ison B e t t s , D rB r ian B y rd ,D rP h i l l ip E dwa rd s ,D rA nd rew G a r ra rd a nd D rI a nK u i j te n t ru s ted m ew i th t h ea r chaeobo tan ica lm a te r ia l f r om t h e i rs i t e sa nd Ia mg r a tef u lt ot h em f o rt h i s . T he re a r e m any w hom Iw ou ld w i sh t o t h ank f o r t h e i r h e lp a nd e ncou ragemen tw i th t h i sw o rk ( t he l i s ti st o ol o ng t op r e s en t h e re ) ; D r M ichae l C ha r le s , D r J ame s C ono l ly , P ro f e s so r R ob in D enne l l , D r P h i l l ip E dwa rd s , D r A nd rew G a r ra rd , P rof e s so r D av id H a r r i s , D r J on H a the r , P ro f e s so r G o rdon H i l lman a nd D rG lyn i sJ one sa l ld e se rve s p ec ia lm en t ion .

T he r e su l t so ft h ea r chaeobo tan ica la na ly se so ft h eJ o rdan ian s amp le sw e re c ompa red w i th t ho se o ff i v es i te sl o ca ted i nt h e n o r the rn a nd c en t ra l L evan t ( i . e . S y r ia ) . T he se s i te s w e re c on s ide red s u i tab le f o r c ompa r i son b e cau se t h ey c ove red a s im i la r t ime r a nge a nd h ad p roduc ed v e ry r i ch s amp le s o f c ha r red p l an t r ema in s , w h ich h ave b e en w e l l d o cumen ted ( v an Z e i s t a nd B akke rH ee re s 1 9 82 , 1 9 84a , 1 984b ) . T he o b je c t ive , t h e ref o re , w a s t o r e v iew t h e e v idenc e f o r t h e 1

L i s to fT ab le s 3 . 1 4 . 1 4 . 2 4 . 3 4 . 4 4 . 5 4 . 6 4 . 7 5 . 1 5 . 2 6 . 1 6 . 2 6 . 3 6 . 4 6 . 5 6 . 6 6 . 7 6 . 8 6 . 9 6 . 10 6 . 11 6 . 12 6 . 13 6 . 14 6 . 15 6 . 16

R ad ioca rbon d a te so ft h es i t e s F lo ta t ion s amp le a nd ' c ha rcoa l 'v o lume s Wad iF idan C : T r i t i cum s pp . —f r ee t h re sh ing r a ch i si n te rnode t y pe s H ord eum s pp . —f u r row c ha rac te r i s t ic s H ord eum s pp . —s ymme t ry o ra s ymme t ry o fd ome s t ic type g ra in s H ord eum s pp . —r a ch i si n te rnode t y pe s E co log ica l c ode so ft h ew i ldPwe ed 't a x ai nt h eJ o rdan i an a nd S y r ian s amp le s E conom ic c ode sf o rt h eJ o rdan i an a nd S y r ian t a xa N umbe r so fi t ems ,c ha rcoa ld en s i t ie s , i n d ice so fp r e se rva t ion , f r agmen ta t ion a nd d i ve r s i ty f o rt h eJ o rdan ian s amp le s S pea rm a n 's r a nk c o r re la t ion c o ef f i c ien t L i s to ft a xa r e p re sen ted i nt h e Wad ia l -Hammeh 2 7s amp le s L i s to ft a xa r e p re sen ted i nt h eI r aq e d -Dubb s amp le s L i s to ft a xa r e p re sen ted i nt h e Wad ie l J i la t 6s amp le s L i s to ft a xa r e p re sen ted i nt h e Wad ie l J i la t 7s amp le s P re sence o fc e rea l si nt h e Wad ie l J i la t 7a nd Wad i e l J i la t 1 3s amp le s L i s to ft a xa r e p re sen ted i nt h e Wad ie l J i la t 1 3s amp le s L i s to ft a xa r e p re sen ted i nt h eD huw e i la s amp le s L i s to ft a xa r e p re sen ted i nt h eA z raq 3 1 s amp le s L i s to ft a xa r e p re sen ted i nt h eB e idha s amp le s L i s to ft a xa r e p re sen ted i nt h ep l a s te ri mp re s s ions f r om B e idha L i s to ft a xa r e p re sen ted i nt h e Wad iF i dan A s amp le s L i s to ft a xa r e p re sen ted i nt h e Wad iF i dan C s amp le s P re senc eo ft a xa i nt h eJ o rdan i an s amp le s P re sence o ft a xa i nt h eS y r ian s amp le s J o rdan ian s amp le sw i th p a renchyma tou st i s sue s I d en t if ica t ion so ft h ep a renchyma tou st i s sue s

1 1

3 8 6 9 7 7 7 8 7 8 7 9 8 1 8 5 1 07 1 1 1 52 1 53 1 55 1 56 1 62 1 63 1 68 1 69 1 70 1 70 1 7 1 1 72 1 73 1 74 1 75 1 76

L i s to fF igur e s 1 . 1 1 . 2 1 . 3 1 . 4 3 . 1 3 . 2 3 . 3 3 . 4 3 . 5 3 . 6 3 . 7 3 . 8 3 . 9 3 . 10 3 . 11 3 . 12 3 . 13 3 . 14 3 . 15 3 . 16 3 . 17 3 . 18 3 . 19 3 . 20 4 . 1 4 . 2 4 . 3 4 . 4 4 . 5 4 . 6 4 . 7 4 . 8 5 . 1 5 . 2 5 . 3 5 . 4 5 . 5 5 . 6 5 . 7 5 . 8 5 . 9 5 . 10 5 . 11 5 . 12 5 . 13 5 . 14 5 . 15 5 . 16

Map o ft h eL evan t 1 4 G eo log ica lm ap o ft h eL evan t 1 5 Map o ft h eL evan ts how ing p hy togeog raph ica lr e g ion s 1 6 S umma ry o ft h eH u la p o l len d i ag ram 1 7 Map o fJ o rdan s how ing t h el o ca t ion o ft h ea r chaeo log ica ls i t e s 4 0 R ad io ca rbon d a te so ft h eJ o rdan ian s i te s 4 1 P l an sa nd s e c t ion so ft h ee xcava t ion a t Wad ia l -Hammeh 2 7 4 2 P l an o ft h ee xcava t ion i nt h ec ave s he l te ro fI r aq e d -Dubb 4 3 Map o ft h el ow e r Wad ie l J i la ta r ea ,s how ing t h el o ca t ion so f Wad ie l J i la t6 , 7a nd 1 3 4 4 P l an a nd s e c t ions o ft h ee xcava t ion a t Wad ie l -J i la t6 4 5 P l an so ft h ee xcava t ion a t Wad ie l -J i la t7 4 6 P l an so ft h ee xcava t ion a t Wad ie l J i la t 1 3 4 7 Map s how ing t h el o ca t ion o fD huw e i la w i th in t h es y s tem o f' k i te 'w a l l s ,a nd p l an o ft h ee xcava t ion 4 8 P l an o ft h ee xcava t ions a tA z r aq 3 1 4 9 P lan so ft h ee xcava t ion sa tB e idha ,p ha se A l e ve l s 5 0 P l an so ft h ee xcava t ion sa tB e idha ,p ha se s Ba nd C l e ve l s 5 1 Map o ft h e Wad i F i dan s how ing t h el o ca t ion o fs i te s Aa nd C 5 2 P l an so ft h et r enche sa tt h es i te so f Wad iF i dan A a nd C 5 3 Map o fS y r ia s how ing t h el o ca t ion o ft h ea r chaeo log ica ls i te s 5 4 R ad ioca rbon d a te so ft h eS y r ian s i te s 5 Map s how ing t h el o ca t ion o fT e l l Mu reyb i to nt h eE uph ra te s ,a nd p l an o ft h ee xcava t ion s 5 6 Map o ft h eD ama scu sB a s in s how ing t h el o ca t ion so fT e l lA swad ,T e l lG ho ra if ea nd T e l lR amad 5 7 P l an so ft h ee xcava t ion sa tt h es i te so fT e l lA swad ,T e l lG ho ra if ea nd T e l lR amad 5 8 Map s how ing t h el o ca t ion o fT e l l R a s S ha tn ra ,a nd p l an o ft h ee xcava t ion s 5 9 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h et h ickne s sa nd b r ead th m ea su remen t so ft h ew hea tg r a in si nt h eJ o rdan ian s amp le s 9 2 S c a t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h et h ickne s sa nd b r ead th m ea su remen t so ft h eT r i t i cum b oeo t icum g r a in si n t h eJ o rdan ian s amp le sw i th t h o se i d en t if ied i nt h eS y r ian s amp le sa nd t h o se o ft h e mode rn p opu la t ion s 9 2 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h et h ickne s sa nd b r ead th mea su remen t so ft h e T r i t icum m onococcum g r a ins i nt h e J o rdan ian s amp le sw i th t h o se i d en t if ied i nt h eS y r ian s amp le sa nd t h o se o ft h e mode rn p opu la t ions 9 3 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h et h ickne s sa nd b r ead th m ea su remen t so ft h e T r i t i cum d i coccum g ra in si nt h e J o rdan ian s amp le sw i th t h o se i d en t if ied i nt h eS y r ian s amp le s 9 3 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h et h ickne s sa nd b r ead th m ea su remen t so ft h ef r ee t h re sh ing w hea tg r a in si nt h e J o rdan ian s amp le sw i th t h o se i d en t if ied i nt h eS y r ian s amp le s 9 4 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h et h ickne s sa nd b r ead th m ea su remen t so ft h eb a r ley g ra in si nt h eJ o rdan ian s amp le s 9 4 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h et h ickne s sa nd b r ead th m ea su remen t so ft h eH ord eum s pon taneum g ra in s i nt h eJ o rdan ian s amp le sw i th t h o se i d en t if ied i nt h eS y r ian s amp le s 9 5 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h et h ickne s sa nd b r ead th m ea su remen t so ft h eH ord eum s a t ivum g r a in si nt h e J o rdan ian s amp le sw i th t h o se i d en t if ied i nt h eS y r ian s amp le s 9 5 F requency h i s tog ram ss how ing t h ec ha rcoa ld en s i t ie so ft h es amp le sf r om t h eJ o rdan ian s i te s 12 F requency h i s tog ram ss how ing t h en umb e r so fi t ems p e rl i t re i nt h es amp le sf r om t h eJ o rdan ian s i te s 1 3 B a rc ha r t ss how ing t h ep r e se rva t ion i n d ic e so ft h es amp le sf r om t h eJ o rdan ian s i te s 14 B a rc ha r t ss how ing t h ef r agmen ta t ion i n d ic e so ft h es amp le sf r om t h eJ o rdan ian s i te s 16 F requency h i s tog rams s how ing t h en umb e r so ft a xa i nt h es amp le sf r om t h eJ o rdan ian s i t e s 18 F requency h i s tog ram ss how ing t h ed i ve r s i ty i n d ice so ft h es amp le sf r om t h eJ o rdan ian s i te s 1 20 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h ec ha rcoa ld en s i t ie si nt h es amp le sf r om Wad ia l -Hanuneh 2 7 1 2 2 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h en umbe r so fi t ems p e rl i t re i nt h es amp le sf r om Wad ia l -Hanuneh 2 7 1 22 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h ec ha rcoa ld en s i t ie si nt h es amp le sf r om I r aq e d -Dubb 1 2 3 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h en umbe r so fi t ems p e rl i t re i nt h es amp le sf r om I r aq e d -Dubb 1 2 3 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ionsh ip b e tween c ha rcoa ld en s i t ie sa nd n umbe r so fi t em sp e rl i t re i nt h es amp le sf r om I r aq e d -Dubb 1 24 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h ec ha rcoa ld ens i t ie si nt h es amp le sf r om Wad ie l J i la t6 1 25 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h en umbe r so fi t em sp e rl i t re i nt h es amp le sf r om Wad ie l -J i la t6 1 2 5 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e twe en c ha rcoa ld en s i t ie sa nd n umbe r so fi t ems p e r l i t re i nt h es amp le sf r om Wad i e l J i la t6 1 26 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h ec ha rcoa ld en s i t ie si nt h es amp le sf r om Wad ie l J i la t 7( t renche s Aa nd C , s qua re s 1 4 ) 1 27 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h en umbe r so fi t em sp e rl i t re i nt h es amp le sf r om Wad ie l J i la t 7( t renche s Aa nd B , i v

s qua re s5 8 ) 1 27 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h ec ha rcoa ld en s i t ie si nt h es amp le sf r om Wad ie l J i la t 7( t rench B ,s qu a re s5 8 ) 1 28 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e twe en c ha rcoa ld en s i t ie sa nd n umbe r so fi t ems p e rl i t re i nt h es amp le sf r om Wad ie l J i la t7 1 29 5 . 19 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h ec ha r coa ld ens i t ie si nt h es amp le sf r om Wad ie l J i la t 1 3( e a r ly E LN ) 1 30 5 . 20 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h en umbe r so fi t em sp e rl i t re i nt h es amp le sf r om Wad ie l J i la t 1 3( e a r ly ,m idd le a nd l a te E LN ) 1 30 5 . 21 B a rc h a r ts how ing t h ec ha rcoa ld en s i t ie si nt h es amp le sf r om Wad ie l J i la t 1 3( m idd le a nd l a te E LN ) 1 3 1 5 . 22 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tw e en c ha rcoa ld en s i t ie sa nd n umbe r so fi t em sp e rl i t re i n t h es amp le sf r om Wad ie l J i la t 1 3 1 32 5 . 23 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tw een p r e se rva t ion i n d ic e sa nd n umb e r so fi t em sp e rl i t re i n t h es amp le sf r om Wad ie l J i la t 1 3 1 32 5 . 24 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tw e en f r agmen ta t ion i n d ice sa nd n umbe r so fi t em sp e rl i t re i n t h es amp le sf r om Wad ie l J i la t 1 3 1 32 5 . 25 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h ec ha r coa ld en s i t ie si nt h es amp le sf r om A raq 3 1 ( s qua re 1 ) 1 33 5 . 26 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h ec ha rcoa ld en s i t ie si nt h es amp le sf r om A z raq 3 1 ( t r enche sA , Ba nd C ) 1 3 3 5 . 27 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h en umbe r so fi t ems p e rl i t re i nt h es amp le sf r om A z raq 3 1 ( s qu a re 1 ) 1 34 5 . 28 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e twe en p re se rva t ion i n d ice sa nd n umbe r so fi t ems p e rl i t re i n t h es amp le sf r om A z raq 3 1 1 35 5 . 29 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ionsh ip b e tw een d i ve r s i ty i n d ic e sa nd n umb e r so fi t em sp e rl i t re i nt h e s amp le sf r om A z raq 3 1 1 35 5 . 30 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h ec ha r coa ld en s i t ie si nt h es amp le sf r om Wad iF idan A a nd C 1 36 5 . 31 B a rc h ar ts how ing t h en umbe r so fi t ems p e rl i t re i nt h es amp le sf r om Wad iF idan A a nd C 1 36 5 . 32 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h e mean c ha rcoa ld en s i t ie sf o rt h eJ o rdan ian s i te s 1 37 5 . 33 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h e me an n umbe r so fi t em sp e rl i t re f o rt h eJ o rdan ian s i te s 1 37 5 . 34 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e twe en m ean c ha rcoa ld en s i t ie sa nd m ean n umbe r so f i t em sp e rl i t re f o rt h eJ o rdan ian s i te s 1 38 5 . 35 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ionsh ip b e tw een m ean p re se rva t ion i n d ice sa nd m ean n umbe r so fi t ems p e r l i t re f o rt h eJ o rdan ian s i te s 1 38 5 . 36 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tw e en n umbe r so ft a xa a nd n umbe r ss amp le sf o rt h e J o rdan ian s i te s 1 38 5 . 37 B a rc h a r ts how ing t h en umbe r so fi t ems p e rl i t re i nt h es amp le sf r om t h eS y r ian s i te s 1 39 5 . 38 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h em ean n umb e r so fi t em sp e rl i t re f o re a ch p ha se a tt h eS y r ian s i te s 1 4 1 5 . 39 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tw een n umbe r so ft a xa a nd n umbe r so fs amp le sf o r t h eS y r ian s i te s 1 4 1 5 . 40 F requency h i s tog rams s how ing t h en umbe r so fi t em sp e rl i t re i nt h es amp le sf r om t h eS y r ian s i te s 1 42 6 . 1 C ompa r i son b e tween t h ed i ve r s i ty i n d ice so fP PNB /ea r ly L a t eN eo l i th ic s i te si nt h ew ood land ( Wad iF idan A a nd C )a nd s t eppe -de se r t( Wad iJ i la t 7a nd 1 3 )r e g ion s . 1 77 7 . 1 C o r re spondence a na ly s i sp l o to ft h eS y r ian a nd J o rdan i an s amp le s( a l lt a xa i n c luded ) 1 92 7 . 2 C o r re spondence a na ly s i sp l o to ft h et a xa i nt h eS y r ian a nd J o rd an ian s amp le s( a l lt a xa i n c luded ) 1 9 3 7 . 3 C o r re spondence a na ly s i sp l o to ft h eS y r ian a nd J o rdan i an s amp le sa f t e rt a xa c omb ina t ions h ave b een m ade 1 94 7 . 4 C o r re spondence a na ly s i sp l o to ft h eS y r ian a nd J o rdan ian s amp le s , a f t e rt a xa o ccu r r ing i n< 10% o f s amp le sh ave b e en o m i t ted 1 95 7 . 5 C o r re spondenc ea na ly s i sp l o to ft h eS y r ian a nd J o rdan ian s amp le s ,a f t e rs amp le sw i th < 30 i t em s h ave b een o m i t ted 1 95 7 . 6 C o r re spondence a na ly s i sp l o to ft h eS y r ian s amp le sa f te rt a xa o c cu r r ing i n< 10% o ft h es amp le s h ave b een o m i t ted 1 96 7 . 7 ,7 .8 C o r re spondenc ea na ly s i sp l o t s( o fs amp le sa nd t a xa )f o rt h ew i ldrw eed ' t a xa i nt h eS y r ian s amp le s , a f t e rt a xa i n< 10% o ft h es amp le sh ave b een o m i t ted 1 97 7 . 9 ,7 . 10 C o r re spondence a na ly s i sp l o t s( o fs amp le sa nd t a xa )f o rt h ec e rea lt a xa i nt h eS y r ian s amp le s , a f t e r t a xa i n< 10% o ft h es amp le sh ave b een o m i t ted 1 98 7 . 11 C o r re spond ence a na ly s is p l o to ft h eJ o rdan ian s amp le sa f t e rt a xa o c cu r r ing i n< 10% o ft h es amp le s h ave b een o m i t ted ( w i th d e ta i l ) 1 99 7 . 12 C o r re spondenc ea na ly s i sp l o to ft h eJ o rdan ian s amp le sf o rt h ew i ld / 'w e ed ' t a xa , a f t e rt a xa i n < 10% o ft h es amp le sh ave b een o m i t ted 2 00 7 . 13 C o r re spondenc ea na ly s i sp l o to ft h ew i ldrweed ' t a xa i nt h eJ o rdan ian s amp le s , a f t e rt a xa i n 1 0% o ft h es amp le sh ave b een o m i t t ed ( w i th d e ta i l ) 2 0 1 7 . 14 ,7 .15 C o r re spondenc ea na ly s i sp l o t s( o fs amp le sa nd t a xa )f o rt h ec e rea lt a xa i nt h eJ o rdan ian s amp le s , a f te rt a xa i n< 10% o ft h es amp le sh av eb een o m i t ted 2 02 5 . 17 5 . 18

7 . 16 ,7 .17 C o r re spond ence a na ly s i sp l o to ft h eE p ipa laeo l i th ic s amp le sf o rw i ld / 'weed ' t a xa , a f t e rt a xa i n< 10% o ft h es amp le sh ave b een o m i t ted ,a nd e qu iva len tp i ec ha r tp l o ts how ing e co log ica lc a tego r ie s 7 . 18 ,7 .19 C o r re spondence a na ly s i sp l o to ft h eP re P o t te ry N eo l i th ic A s amp le sf o rw i ldrweed ' t a xa , a f te rt a xa i n< 10% o ft h es amp le sh ave b een o m i t ted ,a nd e qu iva len tp i ec ha r tp lo ts how ing e co log ica lc a tego r ie s 7 . 20 C o r re spondence a na ly s i sp l o to ft h eP re P o t te ry N eo l i th ic B s amp le sf o rw i ld / 'w eed 't a xa , a f t e rt a xa i n< 10% o ft h es amp le sh av eb een o m i t ted 7 . 2 1 ,7 .22 C o r re spondenc ea na ly s i sp l o to ft h eS y r ian P re P o t te ry N eo l i th ic B s amp le sf o rw i ld / 'w eed ' t a xa ,a f t e rt a xa i n< 10% o ft h es amp le sh ave b een om i t ted ,a nd e qu iva len tp i ec ha r tp lo ts how ing e co log ica lc a tego r ie s 7 . 23 C o r re spondence a na ly s i sp l o to ft h eJ o rdan ian P re P o t te ry N eo l i th ic B s amp le sf o rw i ld / 'weed ' t a xa , a f t e rt a xa i n< 10% o ft h es amp le sh ave b een o m i t ted 7 . 24 ,7 .25 C o r re spondence a na ly s i sp l o to ft h eJ o rdan ian P re P o t te ry N eo l i th ic B s amp le se xc lud ing A z raq 3 1 ,f o r w i ld / 'w eed 't a xa ,a f t e rt a xa i n< 10% o ft h es amp le sh ave b een o m i t ted ,a nd e qu iva len tp i ec ha r tp l o t s how ing e co log ica lc a tego r ie s 7 . 26 ,7 .27 C o r re spondence a na ly s i sp l o to ft h eS y r ian P o t te ry N eo l i th ic ( a nd H a laf ian )s amp le sf o rw i ld / 'w eed 't a xa ,a f t e r t a xa i n< 10% o ft h es amp le sh ave b een o m i t ted ,a nd e qu iva len tp i ec ha r tp l o ts how ing e co log ica lc a tego r ie s 7 . 28 ,7 .29 C o r re spondence a na ly s i sp l o to ft h eJ o rdan ian F ina lP PNB /La te N eo l i th ic s amp le sf o rw i ld / 'w eed ' t a xa , a f t e rt a xa i n< 10% o ft h es amp le sh ave b een o m i t ted ,a nd e qu iva len tp i ec ha r tp l o ts how ing e co log ic a lc a tego r ie s 7 . 30 ,7 .31 C o r re spond ence a na ly s i sp l o to ft h eT e l l Mu reyb i ts amp le sf o rw i ld / 'w eed 't a xa ,a f t e rt a xa i n< 10% o f t h es amp le sh ave b een o m i t ted ,a nd e qu iva len tp i ec ha r tp l o ts how ing e co log ica lc a tego r ie s 7 . 32 ,7 .33 C o r re spondence a na ly s i sp l o to ft h eT e l lA swad s amp le sf o rw i ld / 'weed ' t a xa , a f te rt a xa i n< 10% o f t h es amp le sh ave b een o m i t ted ,a nd e qu iva len tp i ec ha r tp l o ts how ing e co log ica l c a tego r ie s 7 . 34 ,7 .35 C o r re spondence a na ly s i sp l o to ft h eT e l lG ho ra ie s amp le sf o rw i ld / 'w e ed 't a xa ,a f t e rt a xa i n< 10% o f t h es amp le sh ave b een o m i t ted ,a nd e qu iva len tp i ec ha r tp l o ts how ing e co log ica l c a tego r ie s 7 . 36 ,7 .37 C o r re spond ence a na ly s i sp l o to ft h eT e l lR amad s amp le sf o rw i ldrweed ' t a xa ,a f t e rt a xa i n< 10% o f t h es amp le sh ave b e en o m i t ted ( f o rt h e 1a nd 3 rd p r inc ipa la xe s ) , a nd e qu iva len tp i ec ha r tp l o ts how ing e co log ic a lc a tego r ie s 7 . 38 ,7 .39 C o r re spond ence a na ly s i sp l o to ft h eT e l lR a sS ham ra s amp le sf o rw i ld / 'w eed ' t a xa ,a f t e rt a xa i n< 10% o f t h es amp le sh ave b een o m i t ted ,a nd e qu iva len tp i ec har tp l o ts how ing e co log ica lc a tego r ie s 7 . 40 ,7 .4 1 C o r re spondenc ea na ly s i sp l o to ft h e Wad ie l J i la t 7s amp le sf o rw i ldrw eed 't a xa , a f te rt a xa i n< 10% o f t h es amp le sh ave b een o m i t ted ,a nd e qu iva len tp i ec ha r tp l o ts how ing e co log ica lc a tego r ie s 7 . 42 ,7 .43 C o r re spond enc ea na ly s i sp l o to ft h e Wad ie l J i la t 1 3s amp le sf o rw i ld / 'w eed ' t a xa ,a f t e rt a xa i n< 10% o f t h es amp le sh ave b een o m i t ted ,a nd e qu iva len tp i ec ha r tp l o ts how ing e co log ica l c a tego r ie s 7 . 44 ,7 .45 C o r re spondence a na ly s i sp l o to ft h es amp le sf r om t h eD ama scu sB a s in s i te sf o rw i ldrweed ' t a xa ,a f t e r t a x ai n< 10% o ft h es amp le sh ave b een o m i t ted ,a nd e qu iva len tp i ec ha r tp l o ts how ing e co log ica lc a t ego r ie s 7 . 46 ,7 .47 C o r re spondenc ea na ly s i sp l o to ft he s amp le sf r om t h e Wad i e l J i la ts i te sf o rw i ld / 'weed ' t a xa , a f t e rt a xa i n< 10% o ft h es amp le sh ave b een o m i t ted ( f o rt h e2 nd a nd 3 rd p r inc ipa l a xe s ) , a nd e qu iva len t p i ec ha r tp l o ts how ing e co log ica lc a tego r ie s 7 . 48 ,7 .49 P i ec ha r tp l o t sf o rT e l l Mu reyb i ta nd T e l lA swad s amp le sf o rw i ldrweed ' t a xa s how ing e conom ic c a tego r ie s 7 . 50 ,7 .51 P i ec ha r tp l o t sf o rT e l lG ho ra if 6a nd T e l l R amad s amp le sf o rw i ld / 'we ed ' t a xa s how ing e conom ic c a tego r ie s 7 . 52 P i ec ha r tp l o tf o rT e l lR a sS ha tn ra s amp le sf o rw i ld / 'weed ' t a xa s how ing e conom ic c a tego r ie s 7 . 53 ,7 .54 P i ec ha r tp l o t sf o r Wad ie l J i la t 7a nd Wad i e l J i la t 1 3s amp le sf o rw i ld / 'weed ' t a xa s how ing e conom ic c a tego r ie s

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t h eJ i la ts i te s —s p ec imen l a t h eJ i la ts i te s —s pec imen l b t h eJ i la ts i te s —s pe c imen l c t h eJ i la ts i te s —s pe c imen 2 t h eJ i la ts i te s —s p e c imens 3 a ,3 b t h eJ i la ts i te s —s p e c imen 4 t h eJ i la ts i te s —s p ec imen 5 t h eJ i la ts i te s —s p ec imen s6 ,7 A z raq 3 1 ,e xam ined b yH a the r

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t h e a r e a o fL ake T ib e r ia s , i ti sb o rde red b y v o lcan ic l a va f l ow s , w h ich s t re tch f r om J e be l e d -D ruz , i ns ou the rn S y r ia , s ou th -ea s twa rd sa c ro s st oS aud ia A rab ia . W i th t h ee x cep t ion o ft h el a nd a r ound t h eD ead S e a , w h ich i sc ompo sed l a rge ly o f s a l ine d epo s i t s d e r iv ed f r om t h e a nc ien t L ak e L i san f o rma t ion ,t h e re a r ef e r t i le ,a luv ia ls o i l sb o rde r ing t h er i ve r s w i th in t h e R if tV a l ley . I nt h en o r th , t h e l a nd t ot h ee a s t o f t h e R if t V a l ley i s d om ina ted b y t h e A n t i -Lebanon Moun ta in s . T he e a s te rn f a ce so ft h e s e moun ta in ss l ope d own t o t h e S y r ian D e se r t , w h ich i sc ompo sed o f E o cene a nd M iocene c a lca reou s d epo s i t s . I n t h e s o u th , t h e T ran s jo rdan ian P l a teau l i e s t ot h e e a s t o ft h e R if t V a l ley . T he p l a teau r i se s t ot h e n o r th a nd s o u th , w he re i tr e ache s h e igh t so fc .1 , 200m a nd c .1 , 700m r e spe c t ive ly , a nd i nt h e e a s t , i t m e rge s i n to t h e S y r ian a nd A rab ian d e se r t s . C a lca reou sh ammada s , g r an i te s a nd N ub ian s a nd s tone f o rm t h e s u b s t ra ta o f t h e p l a teau ( Zoha ry 1 973 , 9 ) . S o i l d ev e lopmen t i si mpeded i nt h es t eppe a nd d e se r tr e g ion s o f t h eL evan t :

T he a r ea o fs t udy i st h eL evan t ,m o r es p ec if ica l ly t h ea r ea t o t h e e a s t o ft h e Med i te r ranean s e a , b ounded i nt h en o r th b y t h e T au ru s moun ta in s , i nt h e n o r th -ea s t b y t h e E uph ra te s R iv e r , a nd i n t h e s o u th a nd s o u th -ea s t b y t h e N egev a nd A rab ian d e se r t s ( f igu r e 1 . 1) . T he a r chaeo log ica l s i t e s a r e s i tua ted w i th in t h ep r e sen t d ay p o l i t ica l b ounda r ie s o fS y r ia a nd J o rdan . F o re a se o fr e f e renc e ,t h eL evan ti sd i v ided i n to n o r th , c en t ra l , e a s t -cen t ra l , a nd s o u th , a nd t h e se r e g ion s i n c lud en o r the rn S y r ia , s ou the rn S y r ia a nd n o r the rn J o rdan , t h e e a s te rn T ran s jo rdan ian p l a teau , a nd s ou the rn J o rdan , r e spec t ive ly .

T opography ,G eo logy ,S o i l s T he L evan t i sd om ina ted b y f o u r l o ng i tud ina l , n o r th sou th t r end ing t o pog raph ica l f e a tu re s , e a ch o fw h ich h a sd if e ren t g eomo rpho log ica l , e daph ic , c l ima t ic , a nd v ege ta t iona l c ha rac te r is t ic s . F rom w e s tt oe a s tt h e se c omp r i se :t h ec oa s ta l p l a in , t h ew e s te rn h i l l a nd moun ta in r a nge , t h eR if tV a l ley , a nd t h ee a s te rn moun ta in sa nd p l a teau s( Zoha ry 1 973 ,4 10 ) . I nt h en o r th ( i . e . i nS y r ia a nd L ebanon ) ,t h e se l a ndf o rm sa r e l e s sc l ea r ly d ef ined . H e re , t h ec o a s ta lp l a in i so n ly p a r t ia l ly d eve loped a nd i np l ace s t h e m oun ta in s s l ope d own t ot h e M ed i te r ranean S ea . F u r the r s ou th ( i . e . i nI s rae l ) , t h ep l a in b r oaden so u ta nd i tr e ache s am ax imum w id th o fc .6 0km i n t h eN egev . I ti sc ove red a tv a r iou sp l ace sa l ong i t sl e ng th b y l i gh t s a ndy -ca lca reou s a nd a l luv ia l s o i ls , a nd mob i le s a nd d une s( Zoha ry 1 973 ,4 0 -51 ; 1 962 , 1 0 19 ; f i gu re 1 . 2 ) . I nt h e n o r th ,t h eh i gh land sb o rde r ing t h ec o a s ta lp l a in c omp r i se t wo r a nge s , t h e A n sa r iy eh a nd L ebanon moun ta in s , t h e f o rme r b e ing n o r the rnmo s t . T he L ebanon Moun ta in s r un s o u thwa rd s t o t h e S i na i p l a teau a nd t h i s h igh g r ound , r e f e r red t ob yZ oha ry a st h e ' b ackbone o fw e s te rn P a le s t ine ' , i sc u t b y t wo v a l ley s , t h e E sd rae lon a nd B ee r sheva P l a in s . T he h i ghe s t p o in t s o ft h ew e s te rn h i l l a nd m oun ta in r a nge s a r e i nt h e L ebanon Moun ta in s , w he re t h ep eak s r e ach o ve r 3 , 000m . T he h i gh land s b o rde r ing t h e R if t V a l ley a r e c ompo sed o f J u ra s s ic a nd C re tac eou s l i me s tone a nd s a nd s tone f o rma t ion s . T he l i me s tone s a nd d o lom i te s o ft h e U ppe r C re taceou s s t ra ta g i ve r i se t ot h e f e r t i le ' t e r ra r o s sa ' s o i l s . T he R if tv a l ley i sl e s sc on t inuou si nt h en o r th t h an i n t h e s ou th . F rom t h e Amuk p l a in i nn o r the rn S y r ia , i tr uns s o u thwa rd s a l ong s ide t h e O ron te s V a l ley , a c ro s st h eH or n s H ama p l a in t ot h eB eq 'a V a l ley ,b eyond w h ich i tf o rm sp a r t o ft h e L i tan i R ive r . F u r the r s ou th , t h eR if tV a l ley i n c lude s t h eR ive rJ o rdan ,t h eD ead S ea ,t h e Wad iA raba a nd t h eG u lf o fA qaba . T he J o rdan V a l ley i st h el owe s td ep re s s ion o ft h e e a r th 's s u rf ace a nd a tt h e D ead S e a i tr e a che s ad ep th o f 3 96m b e low s e a l e v e l . I nt h ee x t reme s o u th ,t h eR if tV a l ley i n c i se s t h rough t h e N ubo -A rab ian c r y s ta l l ine b l ock , w h ich c on s i s t s o fi g neou sr o ck s o ve r la in b yN ub ian S and s tone . I n

" I n e x t reme d e se r t s , s u rf ace s o i l s c anno t b e e s tab l i shed b ecau se o fs h ee t e r o s ion , d ue t ot h ea b sence o f ac on t inuou s v ege ta t ion c ove r . T o r ren t ia l s how e r s a r e a no the r f a c to r i mped ing s o i l f o rma t ion ; h ence , t h ep r edom inance o fs t ony , p ebb ly a nd g r ave l ly s u rf ac ec ove ri nd e se r t s ." ( Zoha ry 1 973 , 4 3 )

C l ima te A Med i te r ranean c l ima te , c ha rac te r is ed b y m i ld , r a iny w in te r sa nd l o ng , d r ya nd h o ts umme r s ,p r edom ina te si nt h e L evan t( Zoha ry 1 973 ,2 2 -28 ) . Z oha ry d e sc r ibe sf i v ec l ima t ic v a r ian t s f o r t h e r e g ion . T he E uMed i te r ranean v a r ian t c ha ra c te r i se st h ec oa s ta l a r ea s a nd t h ew e s te rn s l ope so ft h e m oun ta in r a nge sa nd p l a teau s ,r a inf a l li nt h e se r e g ion sr a nge s f r om c .3 50 1 ,000mm p e r a nnum . T he s em i -con t inen ta l v a r ian t i st y p ica l o ft h e i n te r io r p l a in s a nd p l a teau s , a nd i n t h e se a r ea s t h e w in te r s a r em o re s e ve re a nd r a inf a l l i sl e s s , b e twe en c .2 00 100mm p e ra nnum . I nt h en o r the rn L evan t , t h e c oo l tempe ra te moun ta in v a r ian t i sc ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h e L ebanon , A n t i -Lebanon a nd A nsa r iyeh m oun ta in s , a nd i s m a rked b y v e ry s e ve re w in te r s w i th h eavy r a in s . I n t h e s o u the rn L evan t , t h e S aha ran a nd x e ro t rop ica l v a r ian t s p r edom ina te i nt h es ou the rn N egev a nd s o u the rn E dom ,a nd i nt h eJ o rdan -A raba V a l ley , r e spe c t ive ly . B o th c l ima te sa r e c ha rac te r i sed b y l ow a nd i regu la r r a inf a l l , b e tw e en c .5 0 1 50mm p e ra nnum . I nr e g ion sw i th ax e ro t rop ica lc l ima te , t h ew in te r sa r ew a rm a nd t h es umme r sa r ee x t reme ly h o t .

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s t udy . T he c l a s s Q ue rce tea c a l l ip r in i c omp r i se s a l t h e E uMed i te r ranean v ege ta t ion t y pe s . L i s t s o f t h e d om inan t s p ec ie s i nt h ef o re s t s a nd m aqu i sa r eg i ven b yZ oha ry ( i b id , 1 3 5 ) ,a nd t h e s ei n c lud e :t h eA leppo p i ne ( P inu sh a l epen s i se v e rg reen ) s e v e ra l s p e c ie s o f o ak ( Quercu s c a l l ip r ino s e v e rg reen ; Q ue r cu s i t habu r en s i s -d ec iduou s ) , s e v e ra l s p ec ie s o f p i s tach io ( P i s tac ia p a lae s t ina - d e c iduou s ; P i s tac ia l e n t i scu s -e v e rg re en ) ; c a rob ( Cera ton ia s i l iqua e v e rg reen ) a nd h aw tho rn ( C ra taegu s a za ro lu s -d e c iduou s ) . Maqu i sr e qu i re sa tl e a s tc .4 00 -300mm o fr a inf a l lp e ra nnum f o ri t se s tab l i shmen t ,a nd i ti st r an s i t iona lb e twe en t h ef o re s t a nd s t eppe z one s . T he v ege ta t ion i n t h e m aqu i s z one i s d om ina ted b yl ow t r ee s a nd s h rub s , o fw h ich a pp rox ima te ly h a lf t h et r e es p e c ie sa r ee ve rg re en ( Zoha ry 1 962 ,8 3 ) . A tt h e e a s te rn a nd s o u the rn m a rg in s o ft h e Med i te r ranean r e g ion , t h e re i s ad e c l ine i nt h e n umbe r s o fa r bo rea l s p e c ie s a s a r e su l to f ad e c r ea se i nr a inf a l l( Zoha ry 1 973 , 1 7 ) . T he d wa rf s h rub c ommun i t ie s ( b a tha s a nd g a r igue s ) d ev e lop i nt h e se a r ea s w he re t h e a r bo rea l c ov e r h a s b een d enud ed o r h a s f a i led t o d ev e lop , a nd t h ey d om ina te t h e u ncu l t iva ted Med i te r rane an m oun ta in a nd h i l l c oun t ry ( i b id , 5 32 ) . T he l owe rr a inf a l ll i m i tf o re s tab l i shmen to fb a tha v ege ta t ion i sc . 3 50 -250mm p e r a nnum . T he se c ommun i t ie s a r e i n c luded w i th in t h eo r d e ro ft h eS a rcopo te r ie ta l ia s p ino s i( o ft h ec l a s s Q ue r ce tea c a l l ip r in i ; i b id , 1 37 ) . T he v ege ta t ion c on s i s t s o f l ow g row ing p e renn ia l s h rub s a nd h e rb s , a nd m any w in te r a nd s umme r a nnua l s . A lmo s t a l l t h e t a xa a r e h e l iophy te s , r e qu i r ing l i t t le m o i s tu re f o rt h e i rg row th . O ft h ea s so c ia t ion s i nt h eo r de rS a rcopo te r ie ta l ia s p ino s i ,Z oha ry c ommen t s :

V ege ta t ion -P hy togeograph ica lR eg ion s W i th r e f e rence t ot h e v ege ta t ion o ft h eM idd le E a s t Z oha ry s t a te s : "Mo i s tu r e i st h e mo s t d e c i s iv e e co log ica l f a c to r i nt h e a r ea u nde rr e v iew ." ( Zoha ry 1 973 , 1 6 ) H en o te st h a tt h ea moun to fr a inf a l li sc r i t ica li nd e te rm in ing t h ec ompo s i t ion o ft h ev ege ta t ion ,a nd t h a tt h i si sp a r t icu la r ly s oi nm a rg ina lc ond i t ion s( i b id , 1 7 ) . T he d eg re eo fr e gu la r i ty o fd i s t r ibu t ion o fr a in t h roughou t t h e s e a son s a l so h a s a n a f f ec t o n t h e n a tu re o ft h e f l o ra . T empe ra tu re , h ow eve r , i s l e s s e f e c t ive i n d e te rm in ing t h e c ha rac te r o f p l an t c ommun i t ie s ,a sa r el i gh t ,a i rc u r ren t s ,a i rh um id i ty a nd d ew ( i b id , 1 8 ) . Z oha ry d ef ine s f o u r p hy togeog raph ica l r e g ion s f o rt h eL evan t ine a r ea o ft h eM idd le E a s t( f igu re 1 . 3 ) . T he se r e g ion s a r e c l o se ly r e la ted t o c l ima t ic z one s , a nd t h e v ege ta t ion o fe a ch h a s ad i s t inc tc ompo s i t ion : " P lan t -geog raph ica l a nd a l so , n o d oub t , z oo -geog raph ica l r e g ion s a r e d i s t ingu i shed b y as e r ie s o fd i agno s t ic ma rke r s . S ome o f t h e se ma rke r s d e l inea te , o t he r s c ha rac te r ize t h e r e g ion u nde rr e v iew ." ( Zoha ry 1 973 ,7 8 ) T he f o u rp hy togeog raph ica lr e g ion si nt h eL evan t ine a r ea a r e t h e Med i te r ranean , t h e I r ano -Tu ran ian , t h e S aha ro -A rab ian a nd t h e S udan ian . T he Med i te r ranean r e g ion c o r re spond s w i th a r ea s i n t h e E uMed i te r ranean c l ima t ic z one . T he I rmo -Tu ran ian r e g ion i sc o inc iden ta lw i th i n land a r ea st h a t h ave a s em i -con t inen ta l c l ima te . T he o t he r t wo p hy togeog raph ica l r e g ion s , n ame ly t h e S aha ro -A rab ian a nd t h e S udan ian , o ccu r i nt h e s ou the rn L evan t . T he f o rme r r e g ion c o r re spond s w i th t h e S aha ran c l ima t ic z one , i nt h e s ou th a nd s ou th e a s t o fJ o rdan , a nd t h e l a t te r i sm an if e s t i n t h e Wad iA raba ,w he re ax e ro t rop ica lc l ima te p r edom ina te s . I n t h e f o l low ing d e sc r ip t ion s , e mpha s i s i s p l aced o n v ege ta t iona l c ha rac te r i s t ic s o ft h e Med i te r ranean a nd I r ano T u ran ian p hy togeog raph ica l r e g ion s . T he S aha ro -A rab ian a nd S udan ian r e g ions a r em a rg ina lt ot h ea r ea so fs t udy .F o r t h e d e sc r ip t ion s o ft h e p l an t c ommun i t ie s Z oha ry u se s t h e m e thod s a nd c oncep t s f o l low ed b y B raun -B lanque t ( Zoha ry 1 962 ,7 9 ,c i t ing B raun -B lanqu e t 1 951) .

" Syngene t ica l ly , m o s t o f t h e f o l low ing a s soc ia t ion s c on s t i tu te s h o r t l ived o r l o ng la s t ing s t age s i n t h e s u c ce s s iona l s e re s l e ad ing t ov a r iou s a r bo rea l c l imaxe s . I n o t he r w o rd s , a bandoned f i e ld s o r o t he rw i se v a ca ted a r ea s e xpo sed t or e v eg e ta t ion w i th in t h e E uMed i te r rane an z one a r e , a f t e r e a r l ie r e pheme ra l s t age s , o ccup ied b y t h e S a rcopo te r ie ta l ia a s soc ia t ion s ." ( Zoha ry 1 973 ,5 34 ) Z oha ry i n c lud e s ab e l t o fs em i s teppe v ege ta t ion w i th in t h e Med i te r ranean r e g ion . T h i s b e l t b o rde r s t h e w e s te rn a nd n o r the rn m a rg in s o f t h e I r ano -Tu ran ian r e g ion . T he v ege ta t ion o f t h e s em i -s t eppe i s i n c luded i n t h e o r de r B a l lo te ta l ia u ndu la tae ( o ft h ec l a s sQ ue rce tea c a l l ip r in i ;i b id , 1 37 ) . I ti sc ompo sed m a in ly o fd wa rf s h rub s ,t o ge the rw i th m any a nnua l s . V e s t ige so fs t eppe f o re s tc an b ef o und w i th in t h i sm a rg ina lb e l t , i nt h e f o rm o fw ide ly s c a t te red t r e e s ,a nd t h e se i n c lud e : h aw tho rn ( C ra taegu s a ron ia ) , a lmond ( Amygda lu s k o r sch in sk i i ) , o ak ( Que rcu s i t habu r en s i s ) a nd p i s tach io ( P i s tac ia a t lan t ica ;Z oha ry 1 940 ) . I nS y r ia ,Z oha ry d e sc r ib e st h e s eo c cu r rence sa sf o l low s :

T he Med i terranean P hy togeograph ica lR eg ion T he c l ima te i nt h e Med i te r ranean p hy togeog raph ic r e g ion i s s u ch t h a tp l an tg row th i sp o s s ib le a l ly ea rr ound . An a r row b e l t o fl a nd , c omp r i s ing t h ec oa s ta l p l a in a nd t h eb o rde r ing moun ta in a nd h i l l r a nge s , f a l l sw i th in t h i sr e g ion . T he s o i l t y pe s o ft h e a r ea a r ed i ve r se , a nd t h em o s t c ommon a r et h e t e r ra r o s sa s o i l s ,r e ndz ina s( d e r ived f r om t h es of tc a lca reou s r o ck s ) a nd s a ndy s o i l s ( Zoha ry 1 973 , 5 00 ) . T he r e g ion i s d i v ided i n to t wo a l t i tud ina l s t o rey s : t h e E u - a nd O ro Med i te r ranean ( i b id , 1 3 1 , 5 00 ) . T he E uMed i te r ranean c omp r i se st h ennoph i lou s , m a in ly e v e rg reen f o re s t s , m aqu i s , a nd d wa rf s h rub c ommun i t ie s( t he b a tha sa nd g a r igue s ) ,a nd t h e O ro -Med i te r rane an i n c lude s t h e m on tane z one o fs ub a l p ine f o re s t a nd s h rub s . T he O ro -Med i te r rane an r e g ion e ncompa s se st h eh ighe ra l t i tude so ft h eS y r ian a nd L ebane se moun ta in sa nd , c on sequen t ly , i so fl i t t le s i gn if i c ance i nt h is

" Of t h e a r bo rea l v ege ta t ion , s i ng le s h rub s o r s t and s a r e w ide ly s c a t te red o n t h e e a s te rn s l ope s o ft h e A n t i -Lebanon a nd i t se a s te rn s pu r s . T hey a r et h ev e s t ige s o fa ne x t reme ly x e r ic s t eppe f o re s tw h ich w a so nc ef a r mo re c ommon i nt h i s a r ea ." ( Zoha ry 1 973 , 1 47 ) Z oha ry n o te st h a tm any I r ano -Tu ran ian s p e c ie sp ene t ra te i n to t h i ss em i s teppe v ege ta t ion z one ( i b id ,5 4 1) .

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r a e tam i e ncompa s se s t h e v eg e ta t ion g r ow ing o n s and s ; a nd t h e c l a s s S uaed e t ea d e se r ta c omp r i se s h a lophy t ic p l an t s f ound i nt h e Wad iA raba a nd D ead S ea a r ea s .

T he I r ano -Turan ian P hy togeograph ica lR eg ion T h e c l ima te o ft h e I r ano -Tu ran ian p hy tog eog raph ica l r eg ion i ss u ch t h a t t h e r e a r e t wo s e a son s o fr e s t i nt h e p l an t l i f e o f t h e a r ea , o n e d u r ing t h e h o t , d r y s umm e r s a nd a s e cond d u r ing t h e c o ld , s e v e r e w in te r s ( Zoha ry 1 973 , 8 7 ) . T h i s r eg ion a l so e xpe r ienc e s e x t r em e d i u rna l v a r ia t ion s i n t emp e r a tu r e . Mo s to ft h eS y r ian D e se r ta nd l a rg ea r ea so ft h e n o r th e rn T ran s jo rdan ian P la t eau f a l l w i th in t h e I r ano T u ran ian r eg ion . T h e p oo r ly d ev e loped , s ha l low s o i l s i n t h e se a r ea s i n c lud e t h e g r ey s t epp e a nd l o e s s ic s o i l s ( Zoha ry 1 962 , 8 0 ) . T h e s t eppe s a nd s em i -d e se r t s ( i . e . t h e ' r a in d e s e r t s ' ) o ft h e N ea r E a s t a r e t y p ica l o ft h e I r ano -Tu ran ian p hy tog eogr aph ica l r e g ion ( i b id , 1 28 -9 ) . T h e s e a r e a r ea s w i thou t t r ee s a nd w i th a s p a r s e v ege ta t ion c ove r o f d wa r f s h rub s a nd h e rb s . T h e c l a s s A r tem i s ie t ea h e rba e -a lba e m e sop o tam ica c omp r i s e s t h e e n t i r e v eg e ta t ion o ft h e I r ano T ur an ian r eg ion . Wo rmwood ( A r t em is ia s p . ) i st h e mo s t c ommon p l an to ft h es t epp e sa nd s em i -d e s e r t s .Z oha ry ( 1 973 , 1 68 ) l i s t st h em o s tf r equen ts p e c ie s i nt h e c l a s s A r t em i s ie t ea a nd t h e s e i n c lud e : N oa ea m uc rona ta , R eaumur ia h i r te l la , H e l ia n themum v en to sum , H ehan themum v e s icar ium , C onvo lvu lus o l e if o l ius , A s t raga lus s anc tus , E ch inop s p o ly c e rus , P oa s i na ica , C a r ex p achy s tyhs , P hagna lon r up es t r e , E rod ium h i r tum , S co r zonera p s eud o lana ta a nd S t ipa b a rba ta . T he b ounda r ie s b e tween t h e I r ano -Tu ran ian a nd t h e n e ighbou r ing p hy togeog raph ica l r eg ion s a r e i nd i s t in c ti np l a ce s . Z oha ry d e s c r ib e st h em ig ra t ion o fp l an t s a c ro s sb ounda r ie si nm a rg ina le nv i ronm en t s( h e r eh eu s e st h e t e rm ' d e s er t ' i n aw id e rs en se t oe ncompa s s s t epp ic a r ea s a s w e l l ) :

T he S udan ian P hy togeograph ica lR eg ion T h e s ou ther n e x ten t o f t h e Wad i A raba f a l l s w i th in t h e S udan ian p hy togeog raph ica l r eg ion . T h e v eg e ta t ion i nt h i s r e g ion i sc onf ined l a rg e ly t o t r op ica l o a se s . Two c l a s se s c on s t i tu te t h e v eg e ta t ion o f t h e S ud an ian r eg ion ( Zoha ry 1 973 ,2 52 ) . T h eA ca c ie tea i n c lud e sp l an tc ommun i t ie si nt h e o a s e s i n t h e Wad i A raba . T he H a r nmad e tea s a l ico rn icae c omp r i se s v eg e ta t ion g row ing i n h o t w ad i s w i th s ha l low s andy /g rav e l ly s o i l s , a nd o n t h e c r y s tal in e r o ck s i n t h e s ou th er ne x t r eme so ft h eR if tV a l ley .

P a laeoenv ironmen ta lR econ s truc t ion

" I ti saw e l l -known f a c tt h a tt h e r ei sas t eady e bb ing o fp l an t s f r om m a rg ina l t ol e s s m a rg ina l h ab i ta t s w he r eve r t h e n a t iv e v eg e ta t ion i sa f e c ted b y m an . Med i t e r r anean d i s t r ic t s t h a t b o rd e r u pon d e se r t a r e g o rg ed w i th d e se r t ümn ig ran t s , ' wa i t ing ' e v e rywhe r e f o r man -mad e v acua i n n on -d e se r t h ab i ta t s . W i th t h e r e hab i l i ta t ion o ft h e p r ima ry v ege ta t ion , t h e s e a l ien s a r e p u shed b a ck t o t h e i r p r ev iou s h ab i ta t s . H owev e r ,w h e r em an i si nc on t ro lo ft h eh ab i ta t , d e s e r tp l an t s may a s sume ap e rman en tf o o tho ld w i th in m o r eh um id a r ea s ." ( Zoha ry 1 962 , 1 3 1 )

T h e t ime s p an c ov e red i nt h e s t ud y i sa pp rox ima te ly 1 ,000 y ea r s ,b e tween c .1 7 ,000 t o6 , 000 B P . T h i sp e r iod c ov e r st h e P l en ig lac ia l ,L a te G lac ia l a nd P o s t G la c ia l s t ag e s o ft h e L a te P l e i s tocen e a nd E a r ly H o locen e . I c e s h ee t s c ov e red e x t en s ive a r ea s o ft h e n o r ther n h em i sphe r e f o r t h e d u ra t ion o ft h eP l en ig lac ia l( b ef o re c .1 5 ,000 B P ) . I nt h eL a t eG la c ia l ( c . 1 5 ,000 -1 0 ,000 B P ) , t h e i c eb egan t or e t r ea t , a nd b y t h e P o s t G lac ia l ( a f t e rc .1 0 ,000 B P ) , c ond i t ion sw e r e s im i la rt o t h o s eo ft h ep r e sen td ay . Du r ing t h eg r adua lw a rm ing p ha se , a f t e r t h e i c e s h ee t s h ad b egun t o r e t r ea t n o r thwa rd s , t h e r e w e r e p e r iod ic f l uc tua t ion s i n t emp e r a tu r e . I n n o r th e rn E u rope , t h e se c l ima t ic o s c i l la t ion s a r e w e l l a t t e s t ed b y p a lyno log ica l , s ed imen to log ica l a nd f o s s i l c o leop te ran e v id en ce ( P enn ing ton 1 974 ) . B e tween c .1 2 ,000 a nd 1 ,000 B P , t h e r ew e r et wo i n t e r s tad ia l s ,t h eB o l l ing a nd t h eA l le rod , w h en t empe ra tu r e s r o se r ap id ly . T he se w e r e p r ec ed ed a nd s u cceed ed b y ma rked ly c o ld e r p ha s e s , t h e O ld e r a nd Y oung e r D rya s e p i sod e s , w hen t h e g l a c ie r s a dv an ced s ou thwa rd s a g a in . T he s ev e r e c ond i t ion s o f t h e Y ounge r D rya s l a s ted u n t i lc .1 0 ,000 B Pa nd , a f t e rt h i sp e r iod , d u r ing t h e B o r ea l p ha s e s o f t h e E a r ly H o locen e , t h e c l ima te a m e l io ra ted . T he s e c l ima t ic c hange s w e r e m an i f e s t w o r ldw id e .

The S aharo -A rab ian P hy togeograph ica lR eg ion T he d e s e r t s i n t h e s ou th a nd e a s t o f t h e T ran s jo rdan ian p la t eau f a l w i th in t h i s r eg ion . H anuna c la s , s a l in e s a nd s and d un e f o rma t ion s a r e t y p ica l s ub s t ra te s i n t h e se a r ea s . T h e f l o r ao ft h e S aha ro -A r ab ian p hy tog eog raph ica lr e g ion i sv er y p oo r . Z oha ry s t a t e st h a tb o th c l ima t ic a nd e daph ic c ond i t ion s r e s t r ic t p l an t g r ow th ( Zoha ry 1 97 3 , 9 3 ) , D rough t r e s i s tan t x e rophy t ic s h rub s a nd h e rb s , a nd s ho r t l iv ed a nnua l s c on s t i tu t e t h e v eg e ta t ion i n t h e d e se r t a r ea s . D u r ing t h e s umm e rm on th s ,t h e r ei sn o c on t inuou sv eg e ta t ion c ove r , t h e p l an t s a r e d if u se ly s c a t t e r ed a nd a r ea s o f b a r e g r ound b e tw een t h e p l an t s a r e l a rg e ( Zoha ry 1 97 3 , 4 08 c i t ing B e rg 1 950 ) . D u r ing t h e s p r ing , w h en mo s t o f t h e r a in f al s , a nnua l s f l ou r i sh i n t h e s ha l low d ep r e s s ion s i n t h e d e se r t s ur f ac e s , w he r e w a t e r g a the r s . T h r ee c l a s se s c omp r is e t h e v ege ta t ion o ft h e S aha ro -A rab ian r e g ion ( Zoha ry 1 973 , 2 24 , 2 27 ) . T h e c l a s s A naba se tea i n c lud e s t h e p l an t c ommun i t ie s o ft h eh a tmnada s , r eg s a nd c ha lky h i l l s ; t h e c l a s s R e tam e t ea

I nt h eL evan t ,t h e r ea r ef ew s ou r c e so fe v id en ce o nw h ich t o b a s e p a la eoc l ima t ic r e con s truc t ion s . T h e r e i s ad ea r th o f w a t e r logg ed s ed im en t s a nd , c on sequ en t ly , o n ly t wo p a lyno log ica l s t ud ie s h ave b een u nd e r tak en : i n t h e H u la B a s in ( p a r to ft h e R if tV a l ley i nn o r th er nI s r a e l ; B a ruch a nd B o t tema 1 991 , 1 -20 ) , a nd i n t h e G hab V a l ley ( n o r th er n S y r ia ;N ik lew sk ia nd v an Z e i s t 1 970 , 7 37 -754 ;v an Z e i s ta nd Wo ld r ing 1 980 , 11125 ) . A 1 6m c o r e w a s t a k en f r om t h e w a t e r logg ed s ed imen t s i nt h e m a r she s s u r round ing t h e l a k e w i th in t h e H u la B a s in . F ou r r a d ioca rbon d a te s h av e b e en o b ta ined , a nd t wo b rack e t t h e e n t i r e c o re b e twe en t h e d a t e s o f c . 9 , 000 a nd 1 7 ,000 B P . B a ruch a nd B o t tema h ave d i v id ed t h e i r d i ag r am i n to f ou r s e c t ion s o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e p ropo r t ion s o fa r bo r ea l p o l len i nt h e s p ec t ra ( f igu r e 1 . 4 ) . I n t h e l ow e s t s e c t ion , d a ted b e tw een c .1 7 ,000 a nd 1 3 ,000 B P ( s p ec t r a 1 14 o n t h e d i ag ram ) , t h e a r bo r ea l p o l len l e v e ls g r adua l ly r i se , a nd t h i s h a s b een i n te rp r e ted a s ac o ld , d r y p ha s e , w hen f o r e s t c ov e r w a s l im i t ed a nd e x t en s ive a r ea s 3

w e r e c ove r ed b y s t eppe a nd d e se r t p l an t s . F rom c . 1 5 ,000 B P( c o r r e spond ing t os p ec t rum 8 ) ,t h ea u tho r sn o t et h a t mo r e h um id c ond i t ion sm u s th ave d eve lop ed , c au s ing e xpan s ion o f f o r e s t c ove r . I nt h e s e cond s e c t ion o ft h e d i ag ram ( s pec t r a 1 5 -21 ) , d a t ed b e tw een c .1 3 ,000 a nd 1 ,500 B P , t h ea r bo r ea l p olen v a lu e s s how a d rama t ic i n c r ea s e , a nd B a ruch a nd B o t t ema c onc lud e t h a t t h i s w a s ap e r iod w hen t h e r e w a s a m a rk ed i n c r ea s ei nh um id i ty wh ich a l low ed f o r c on s id e rab le g row th o ft h e f o r e s t s . A t t h i s t ime , t empe ra tu r e s mu s t h av e r i s en a nd p r ec ip i ta t ion i n c rea sed . I nt h en ex ts e c t ion ( s pec t ra 2 2 -36 ) , d a t ed b e twe en c .1 ,500 a nd 1 0 ,500 B P , t h ea rbo rea l p o l len l e v e l s d ec r ea se , a nd t h i s h a s b e en i n t e rp r e ted a s a p e r iod w h en t h e c l ima te d e te r io ra ted , c au s ing t h e f o r e s t s t o c on t r a c t . I nt h ef i na l s e c t ion o ft h e d i ag ram ( s p ec t r a 3 7 -50 ) , d a ted f r om t h e H o lo cen e /P le i s toc en e b ounda ry , t h e r e a r e f l u c tua t ion s i n t h e a r bo r ea l p o l len v a lue s . I n i t ia l ly , t h e v a lue s a r e s im i la rt ot h o se i nt h e l owe s tp a r t o ft h e d i ag ram , a nd t h e a u tho r s s t a t e t h a t a tt h i s t im e , c ond i t ion s mu s t h av e b een a sh a r sh a st h ey w e r ei nt h ee a r l ie s tp ha se . T owa rd st h e t op o ft h ed i ag r am ,t h ea r bo r ea lp o l len i n c rea se sa ga in , a nd a t t h i s s t ag et h ef o r e s t s mu s th ave b ecome r e e s tab l i shed a st h e c l ima te i mp roved . B a ruch a nd B o t t ema n o t e t h a t t h e a rbo r ea l p o l len w a s d om ina ted b y t h a t o f d ec iduou s o ak s , w i th s ome e ve rg r e en o ak i nt h e u pp e rl e ve l s o ft h ed i ag ram . T h en on -a rbo r ea lp o l len w a s d om ina ted b y g r a s se s , b u tw i th r e la t ive ly h igh p ropor t ion s o f s t eppe a nd d e s e r t t am i nt h e l owe s t p ha s e . T he se p a laeo c l ima t ic r e con s t ruc t ion s c o r r e spond w e l lw i th t h o se d ef ined f o rn o r the rn E u rop e . T h e l owe s t s e c t ion o f t h e H u la d i ag ram c o r r e spond s w i th t h e P l en ig la c ia l , t h e s e cond c ove r s t h e i n i t ia l s t age s o ft h e L a t e G lac ia l , t h e t h i rd i n c lud e s t h e Y oung e r D rya s e p i sod e , a nd t h e f i na l s e c t ion c o inc id e s w i th t h e E a r ly H o lo cene P o s t G lac ia lp ha se . T he p a lyno log ica l r e su l t s f r om t h e G hab V a l ley , i nn o r the rn S yr ia ,a r ed if e r en t . T h ec l ima t ic t r end sd on o tc o r r e la te w i th t h o s e o u t l ined a bove . T h e c o r e s f r om t h i s a r ea a r e p oo r ly d a ted a nd i th a s b een s ugg e s ted t h a t e r ro r s i nd a t ing a r e t h e r e a son f o rt h e l a ck o fs ynch rony w i th t h e c l ima t ic p ha se s i n t h e s ou th e rn L evan t ( Ba ruch a nd B o t tema 1 991 , 1 7 ; Moo r e a nd H ilman 1 992 , 4 89 ) . I th a s a l so b e en s ugg e s ted t h a t a p o s s ib le r e a son f o r t h e d i sp a r i ty w a s a n a c t ua l d if e r ence i n c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s b e tw een t h e n o r th e rn a nd s ou th er n L evan t d u r ing t h e L a t e G la c ia l ( Ba ruch a nd B o t tema 1 991 , 1 7 ; B o t tema 1 995 , 8 90 ) . F o rt h i s r e a son , B o t t ema p ropo s e s t h a t p o l len s equ enc e s f o rt h e L a te G lac ia l a nd H o locen e c an o n ly b ec o r r e la t ed o v e rs ho r td i s tanc e s( Bo t t ema 1 995 ,8 90 ) . R e su l t s f r om s ed imen to log ica l s t ud ie s u nd e r tak en i n t h e N eg ev D e se r t i n I s rae l a r e i n a g re em en t w i th t h e c l ima t ic c hang e sd ef ined b yt h er e su l t sf r om t h eH u la p o l len d i ag ram . P ha se s o f p edog ene s i s h ave b een i d en t if ied i n d e se r t s ed imen t s d a t ing t o b e twe en c . 1 4 ,000 a nd 1 ,000 B P ( Maga r i tz 1 986 , 26 ; G oodf r iend a nd Mag a r i tz 1 988 , 1 46 ) . T hu s p rov ing t h a t d u r ing t h i s t im e , e qu iva len t t o t h e L a t e G la c ia li n t e r s tad ia le p i sod e s , t h e re w a s s uf i c ien t mo i s tu r et o a l low f o rs o i ld ev e lopmen t . I n as t udy o fl a nd s n a i l su s ed a s i nd ica to r so fd e s e r tm ig ra t ion , Maga r i t z a nd H e l le rd ef ine a n a r id p e r iod b e tw een c .1 ,000 a nd 1 0 ,500 B P , c o inc id en ta l w i th t h e Y oung e r D rya s ( Maga r i t z a nd H e l le r 1 980 , 1 60 ) .

S im i la r ly , c ha r coa l a na ly s e s f r om f i v e t e rm ina l P l e i s to cen e s i te s i nt h e C en t ra l N eg ev p r ov id ed e v id en c e f o r ad ry s p e l l f r om c .1 ,000 B P u n t i l c .1 0 ,000 B P ( Ba r u ch a nd G o r ing Mo r r i s 1 997 , 2 57 -258 ) . T h e se r e su l t s a r e s uppo r ted b y t h e w o rk o f Ma c tunb e ra nd H ead ( 1 991 , 1 70 )w ho c onc lud et h a t , d u r ing ad r y p e r iod , s ome t i me a f t e r c .1 ,000 BP , t h e l e v e l o fa n c ien t L ak e L i san f e l l , c au s ing c on s id e r ab le i n c i s ion o f t h e w ad i s b o rd e r ing t h e R i f t V a l ley ( s ee c hap te r 3 ) . R o s s igno l -S t r ick ( 1 995 , 9 13 )h a s s hown , h oweve r , t h a tt h e r e i s ad i sc r ep ancy b e twe en t h el a nd -ba sed 1 4 Ca nd ma r ine d a t e s f o r t h e Y oung e rD rya s e p i sode . S h e s ugg e s t st h a t t h e l a nd b a sed d a t e s a r e " t oo o l d , p e rhap s b ecau s e o f g eo log ica l c on tam ina t ion o ft h e m a t e r ia lb yo l d e r c a rb on " . T he p r e c i s e d a t ing o f t h e p i vo ta l c hang e s i n c l ima t e m u s t , t h e r e f o r e , r ema in s om ewha tu n ce r ta in . I ts e em sa ppa r en tt h a tt h ec l ima t ic c hang e sw h ich t o ok p l a ce d u r ing t h e L a t e G la c ia l w ou ld h ave c au s ed s h if t s i n t h e b ounda r ie sb e twe en t h ew ood land , s t epp ea nd d e ser tr eg ion s . T h e se w ou ld p r obab ly h av eb een mo s t d r ama t ic a tt h ed e s e r t m a rg in s : " Thu s t h e r e a pp ea r s t ob e ac onnec t ion b e twe en t empe ra t e z on ew a rm ing e v en t sa nd s o u thwa rd s h if t si nt h e p o s i t ion o f t h en o r ther nb ounda ry o ft h ed e se r tb e l ti nt h e M idd le E a s t ." ( Good f r iend a nd Maga r i t z 1 9 88 , 1 46 ) S im i la r ly , d u r ing m o r eh um id p ha se s , t h e r ew ou ld h ave b een as ou th e rn a nd e a s t er n e x ten s ion o f t h e Med i te r ran ean w ood land r e g ion . H i l lman h a s s umma r i sed t h ev a r ia t ion s i n t h e c ompo s i t ion o ft h ev eg e ta t ion t h a to ccu r red a s ar e su l to f t h e L a te G lac ia l c l ima t ic c hang e s i nt h e L evan t ( H ilman i n Moo re 2 000 , 7 6 -84 ) . H i s r e con s t ru c t ion s a r e b a sed o n s t ud ie s o f t h e p r e sen t d ay v eg e ta t ion i n t h e r eg ion , o n c l ima t ic r e co rd s , o n g eo log i ca l a nd t opog r aph ic d a ta a nd o n r e c en t s e t t lem en t p a t ter n s ( e t c . ; i b id , 4 9 -51) . H e h a s c on c lud ed t h a t a t c . 1 ,500 B P , t h e O ak -Rosaceae p a rk w ood land w ou ld h av e b e en a s c l o se a s 1 5km s ou th o fL a t e E p ipa la eo l it h ic s i t e o fA bu H u r ey ra , w h ich i st oday s i tua ted i n t h e I r ano -Tu r an ian r e g ion ( i b id , 3 28 329 ) . S eed s a nd f r u i t sr e cov e r ed f r om e a r ly o ccupa t ion l a ye r sw e re o fs p ec ie s c ommon t o t h i s v eg e ta t ion z on e , t h u s p r ov id ing f u r th e r e v id en ce o f t h e mo r e s ou th er n /ea s t e rn e xpan s ion o f w ood land ( a nd o ft h e b o rd e r ing s t epp e f o r e s t ) a tt h i s t ime ( Moo r e a nd H i l lman 1 992 , 4 86 ; H ilman i n Moo re 2 000 , 3 29 -330 ) . T h i s i s s uppo r t ed b y f i nd s o f w ood c ha r coa l i d en t if ied a s t h a t o f s t epp e f o r e s t t r ee s p e c ie s , wh ich h ave b een f ound o na r chaeo log ica l s i te s d a ted t ot h e L a te G la c ia l p e r iod ( i . e . E p ipa la eo l i th i c a nd P r e -Po t t e ry N eo l it h ic ) , l o ca ted i np r e s en td ay s t epp ic a r ea s (W ilcox 1 991 , 1 20 121 ) .

A rchaeo log ica lB ackground T h i s s t udy e n compa s se s t h e d u r a t ion o ft h e E p ipa laeo l i th ic , P r e -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic a nd P o t t e ry N eo l i th i c c u l tu ra l e n t i t ie s i n t h e L evan t . O n t h e b a s i s o f r e la t iv e a nd a b so lu te c h rono log ie s , t e chno typo log ica l a nd g eog raph ica l c l a s s i f ica t ion s , t h e se h ave b een s ubd iv id ed i n to t h e K ebar an a nd r e la ted ( c . 2 0 ,000 -1 4 ,500 B P ) , G eom e t r ic K eba ran a nd 4

r e la ted ( c . 1 4 ,500 — 1 2 ,800 / 12 ,500 B P ) , Mu shab ian ( c . 1 4 ,000 -1 ,700 B P ) , N a tuf ian ( c . 1 2 ,800 / 1 2 ,500 -1 0 ,500 B P ) , H a r i f ian ( c . 1 0 ,700 -1 0 ,000 B P ) , K h iam ian a nd r e la t ed ( c . 1 0 ,500 -1 0 ,200 B P ) , S u l tan ian /P r e -Po t t e ry N eo l i th ic A ( c . 1 0 ,200 -9 , 500 /9 ,300 B P ) , P r e -P o t t e ry N eo l i th ic B ( c . 9 , 500 /9 ,300 -8 , 000 B P ) , F ina l P r e -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic B /P r e P o t te ry N eo l i th ic C / ea r ly L a t e N eo l i th ic ( c . 8 , 000 — 7 , 500 B P ; t h e l a s t -named a r e c on t empo r a ry a r chaeo log ica l e n t i t ie s i nt h ec en t ra l a nd s ou the rn , a nd e a s t -c en t ra lL evan t ) , a nd t h e P o t te ry N eo l i th ic / la t e r L a te N eo l i th ic ( c . 8 , 000 /7 ,500 — 7 , 000 /6 ,500 B P ) c omp lexe s ' . I nt h e f o l low ing a c coun t s o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l c omp lexe s , a r t ef a c t s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e p o s s ib le p ro cu r emen t a nd p roce s s ing o ff ood a r e d e sc r ib ed , b u to t h e ra sp e c t so ft h e ma te r ia lc u l tu r ea r ed ea l tw i th i nl e s s d e ta i l .

T he A r chaeo log ica l Cu l tura lE n t i t ie s T he K ebaran a nd c on temporary t r ad i t ion s( c .2 0 ,000 1 4 ,500 BP ) T h e K eba ran i st h e b e s t k nown o f t h e e a r ly E p ip aeo l i th ic t r ad i t ion s , a nd i s d i s t r ibu ted m a in ly i n t h e Med i t e r ran ean v eg e ta t ion z on e ( Ba r -Yo sef a nd B e lf e r C oh en 1 989b , 4 57 4 62 ) . S i t e sa r el o ca t ed i nt h eu p land a nd l ow land a r ea sa nd i t i st h ough tt h a t t h e r e w a s s e a son a l m ov em en t b e tween t h e se s e t t lem en t s . T he s i ze s r ang e f r om c .2 5m 2 a nd u pt o4 00m 2 ( i b id . 4 57 ) , t h o se s i t e s s i tua t ed a th i ghe r a l t i tud e s , w h ich w e r e p r obab ly o ccup ied d u r ing t h e s umm e r , a r e s m a l le r . V e ry f ew s i te s a r ek nown f r om t h i sp e r iod i nt h e N eg ev a nd S i na i a nd t h i s c ou ld w e l l b e b ecau s e o f t h e c o ld , d r y c ond i t ion s d u r ing t h e P l en ig lac ia l . H owev e r , an umb e r o f s i t e s h av e b een f ound i n s ou th e rn a nd e a s t er n J o rdan , a l though t h e l i t h ic i n du s t r ie s d i f f e rf r om t h e c l a s s ic K eba r an ( H en ry 1 995 ; B y rd 1 998 ) . A r ch i t ec tu r e i sr a r e o n e a r ly E p ipa la eo l i th ic s i t e s , b u t c i r cu la r p i t h u t s c on s t ruc t ed f r om o r g an ic m a te r ia ls h av e b een f o und a tO ha lo I . C h ipp ed s t on e i n du s t r ie s a r e c ha r ac t e r i s ed b y t h e p rodu c t ion o f b l ad e le t t o o l s f r om s i ng le p l a t f o rm c o r e s . A f ew e a r ly E p ip a laeo l i th ic s i t e s c on ta in s ma l l a s semb lag e s o f g r ound s ton e t o o l s , i n c lud ing d e ep v e s se l s /mor ta r s , a nd d e l ibe r a t e ly f a sh ion ed p e s t le s a ppea r ed f o r t h e f i r s t t im e d u r ing t h i s p e r iod ( W r igh t 1 99 1 , 2) . R ed S ea s h e l l s h av e b een f ound o n d i s tan ti n land s i t e s d a t ing t ot h i s p e r iod , t h u s p r ov ing t h a t t h e r e w a s l ong d i s tan c e c on ta c t b e tw een e a r ly E p ipa la eo l i th ic g roup s ( Ba r -Yo s ef a nd B e l f e r C oh en 1 989b , 4 61 ) . T he G eome tr ic K ebaran a nd c on temporary t r ad i t ion s( c . 1 4 ,500 —1 2 ,800 /12 ,500 BP ) T h e G eome t r ic K eb a ran a nd r e la t ed t r ad i t ion s d eve lop ed f r om t h e e a r l ie rE p ipa la eo l i th ic e n t i t ie s . S i te s o ft h i s p e r iod h av e aw id e r g eog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion , a nd i ti st h ough t t h a t m o r e f a vou rab le c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s e nab led s e t t lem en t i n t h ed r ie rr eg ion so ft h eL evan t( H en r y 1 989 , 1 75 ) . T h es i t e s o ft h i s p e r iod a r e r e la t ive ly s ma l l , s im i la ri ns i ze t ot h o se o f t h e K eba r an a nd c on t empo r a ry t r ad i t ion s , a nd t h ey r a ng e i n a r ea f r om b e tween c . 1 5m2 a nd 6 00m2 ( Ba r -Yo sef a nd I nt h i ss t udy , ' BP ' r e f e r st or a d io ca rbon y ea r sa nd ' c a l .B P ' r e f e r st oc a l ib r a ted y ea r s . 5

B e lf e r -Coh en 1 989b , 4 63 ) . A sw i th t h e p r eced ing c omp lex , ad i cho tomy i n s i te t y p e s h a s b een n o ted b e tween h i gh land a nd l ow land a r ea si nt h e Med i te r rane an z on e ,w h ich h a sb een i n t e rp r e ted a st h ed if e r enc e b e tween s e a sona l e ncampm en t s ( H en ry 1 989 , 1 67 ) . A r ch i t ec tu r er ema in sr a r eo ns i t e so ft h i s p e r iod . T h e c h ipp ed s t on ea s s emb lag e s a r ec ha ra c t e r i sed b y h i gh f r equ enc ie s o f g eom e t r ic m ic ro l i th s f a sh ion ed f r om b l ad e s a nd b l ad e le t s ( Ba r -Yo sef a nd B e lf e r C ohen 1 989b , 4 62 -3 ) . T he r ei s ,h owev e r , g r ea tv a r iab il i ty i nt h et o o lk i t si n t h e d i f f e r en ta r e a s o ft h e L evan t . O nt h eb a s i s o fv a r ia t ion s i nt h e c h ipped s t on e t o o l s , H en ry h a s d e f in ed f ou r ' i ndu s t ry l e v e l v a r ian t s ' i nt h e c omp lex a nd t h e s e , h e s t a te s , d i sp lay d if e r en t , b u t o ve r lapp ing , g eog raph ic a nd t empo ra l r ang e s ( H en ry 1 989 , 1 53 155 ) . Sma l ln umbe r so fg round s ton et o o l s a r e f ound o n G eom e t r ic K eba ran a nd r e la ted s i t e s i n t h e w ood land a nd a r id r e g ion s . H and s ton e s , g r ind ing s l ab s , m o r ta r s a nd p e s t le s a r e c ommon t o o l t y p e s . O nt h e s i te s i n t h e a r id r eg ion s , t h e a s semb lag e s a r e d om ina ted b y a nv i l s a nd p ound e r s (W r igh t 1 991 , 2 3 , 2 8 ) . A s i nt h e p r eced ing p e r iod ,t h e r ei se v id enc eo fl o ng d i s tan ce e xchang eo fm a r ine s h e l l s . T he Mu shab ian C omp lex ( c . 1 4 ,000 -1 ,700 BP ) T h e Mu shab ian C omp lex w a s c on t empo ra ry w i th t h e G eom e t r ic K eba ran a nd E a r ly N a tu f ian ( Ba r -Yo s ef a nd B e lf e r C oh en 1 98b , 4 64 ) . T h e g eog raph ic d i s t r ibu t ion o f Mu shab ian s i te s e x tend s o ve r mo s t o ft h e a r id z one o ft h e s ou ther n L evan t , f r om t h e Med i te r r an ean c oa s t , a c ro s s t h e N eg ev a nd S ina i , a nd i n to t h e moun ta in s o fs ou ther nJ o rdan ( H en ry 1 989 , 1 25 ) . Sma l l Mu shab ian s i te sa r e c .1 00 -200m2 i n s i ze a nd t h e a r ea s o f t h e l a rg e s e t t lemen t s r e a ch u p t o 1 , 000m2 ( i b id , 1 43 ) . A s w i th t h e t wo p r eced ing c u l tu ra l e n t i t ie s , s i t e s i ze s a nd l o ca t ion s a r e i n d ica t ive o f s e a sona l m ovemen t s o fg roup s b e twe en u p land a nd l ow land r eg ion s . T h e r e i s l i t t le a r ch i tec tu ra l e v id en ce a t t h es e s i t e s . T he c h ipped s t one a s s emb lag e s a r e v e ry d if e r en t f r om t h o se o f t h e G eom e t r ic K eba ran . T h e u s e o f t h e r n ic robu r in t e chn ique ' t o p roduce m ic ro l i th s i s t h e mo s t d i agno s t ic f e a tu r e o f t h e Mu shab ian i n du s t r ie s ( Ba r -Yo s ef a nd B e l f e r C oh en 1 989b , 4 64 ) . H en ry h a s d ef ined t h r e e g eog raph ica l g roup s w i th in t h e Mu shab ian C omp lex b a sed o n t h e d if e ren ce si nt o o lt y p e s ( 1 989 , 1 26 138 ) . G round s ton et o o l s a r er a r eo n Mu shab ian s i t e s . T he N a tu f ian C omp lex ( c . 1 2 ,800 / 12 ,500 -1 0 ,500 BP ) T h eN a tuf ian d eve loped f r om t h e G eom e t r ic K eba ran G roup i nt h e Med i te r ranean z on eo ft h ec en t ra la nd s ou the rn L evan t a nd l a t e r s p read o u twa rd s t o t h e n o r th a nd s ou th ( Hen ry 1 989 , 1 79 ) . N a tuf ian s i t e s a r e f ound t h roughou tt h e L evan t , f r om t h e m idd le E uph ra t e s i n t h e n o r th t o t h e N eg ev H igh land s i nt h e s ou th , a nd a c ro s s t h e J o rdan ian p l a teau i n t h e e a s t . T h i s p e r iod h a s b een d i v id ed i n to a n e a r ly ( c . 1 2 ,800 / 12 ,500 - 1 ,250 B P ) a nd a l a t e p ha s e ( c . 1 ,250 1 0 ,500 B P ) . S i t e s i ze s v a ry c on s id e rab ly , a s d o e s t h e a ppa ren t d eg r ee o fi n t en s i ty i nvo lved i nb u i ld ing s t ruc tu r e s . B a r -Yo sef a nd B e lf e r C ohen ( 1 989b , 4 68 ) d ef in e t h re e s i ze r a ng e s f o r N a tuf ian s i t e s , t h e s ma l le s t a r e b e tween c . 1 5 1 00m2, t h e m ed ium r a ng e i n c lud e s s e t t lemen t s o f c .4 00 5 00m2,a nd t h e l a rg e s ta r eo ve r 1 , 000m2.H en ry ( 1 989 , 2 18 ) n o t e s t h a tt h e l a rg e s i t e s c an c ove ra r ea s o fc .7 , 000m2. O n

t h e l a rg e r s i t e s i n t h e s ou the rn L evan t , s em i sub te r ranean , c i r cu la r a nd c u rv i l inea r s t ru c tu r e s w e re b u i l t o fu nmod if i ed s t one sa nd i nt h en o r th , c l ay a nd p o s s ib ly t imb e rr e p la ced t h e s t one ( i b id , 2 12 ) . T he d if e r ence s i ns i te t y p e s h a sp romp ted t h en o t ion o f' b a s e ' a nd ' t r an s i to ry ' c amp s ( Ba r -Yo s ef 1 981 , 3 99 ) . T he ' b a s e ' c amp s , w i th mo r e s ub s tan t ia l a r ch i te c tu r e , h av e b een i n t e rp r e t ed a s p e rmanen t o r s em i -p e rmanen t s e t t lemen t s w h ich w e r e s upp l ied b y t h e r e sou rce s a pp rop r ia ted i nt h e s e a sona l a nd mo r e e pheme ra l ' t r an s i to ry c amp s ' . T he s e i n t e rp r e ta t ion s a r e q u e s t ion ed b y s e ve ra l s cho la r s . B y rd ( 1 989 , 1 74 ) s t a t e s t h a t t h e r e la t ion sh ip s b e tw een t h e t wo s i t e t y p es h av e y e t t o b e p roved c onc lu s ive ly . E dwa rd s ( 1 989 , 1 992 ) q ue s t ion s w he th e r t h e d eg r e e o fp e rman en ce o fs e t t lemen tc an b e m ea su r ed , a nd i s s c ep t ica l a bou tt h em e thod su sed t oi n ve s t iga t es ed en t i sm o n N a tuf ian s i t e s .

h and s tone s o r p e s t le s d om ina t e t h e a s s emb lag e s (W r ig h t 1 993 ,9 6 ) . T he Kh iam ian a nd c on temporary t rad i t ion s( c . 1 0 ,500 1 0 ,200 BP ) T h eK h iam ian i s ap oo r ly k nown t r an s i t iona l e n t i ty f ound i n t h e s ou the rn L evan t , b e tween t h e L a te N a tuf ian a nd f u l ly d eve lop ed t r ad i t ion s o f t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic ( Ba r -Yo sef a nd B e lf e r C oh en 1 9 89b , 4 77 ) . T h e s e t t lemen t s a r e l o ca ted a t l ow e l eva t ion s i nt h e ' c o r e ' Med i t e r r anean w ood land z on e , n ea rt op e rman en tw a t e rs ou r c e s , a nd y ea rr ound o c cupa t ion i sc on s id e red ap o s s ib i l i ty ( H en ry 1 989 , 2 25 ) . T h e s i ze s o f K h iam ian s i te sr a ng e f r om b e tw een c .1 , 000m2 a nd 3 , 000m2 ( i b id , 2 25 ) . A r ch i t ec tu r e i sp oo r ly d ef ined o n t h e se s i t e s . N eo l i th ic c h ipp ed s t on e a s s emb lag e s a r e c a tego r i sed o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e p r ed om inan t p ro jec t i le p o in t t y pe s t h ey c on ta in ( Ba r -Yo sef 1 989 , 5 9 ) , a nd t h e K h iam ian p o in t c ha r ac te r i s e s t h e t o o l k i t s o ft h i s p e r iod . T h e r e a r e l ow e r f r equ enc ie s o f m ic ro l i th so nK h iam ian s i t e s t h an o n t h o s e o ft h ep r eced ing L a t e N a tuf i an , a nd t h e p rodu c t ion o f ' b lank ' t o o l t yp e s i s o r ien ted mo r e t owa rd s t h e m anu f a c tu re o fb l ade s a nd f l ak e s ( Ba r -Yo sef a nd B e l f e r C oh en 1 989b , 4 77 ) . A spha l t h a f t ed s i ck le b l ad e s h av e b een f ound i n Kh iam i an c on tex t s . T h e g round s ton ea r t e f ac t so ft h i sp e r iod a r es im i la rt ot h o se o ft h e N a tuf ian ( H en ry 1 989 , 25 ) .

T h e N a tuf ian c h ipped s t on e a s semb lag e s a r e d om ina ted b y g eom e t r ic m ic ro l i th s , o f w h ich hma te s c on s t i tu t e t h e mo s t c ommon c ompon en t ( Hen ry 1 989 , 1 85 ) . B y rd ( 1 989 ) a nd O l szew sk i ( 1 988 ) h av e e ach u nd e r tak en c l u s te r a na ly se s o n c o l le c t ion s o ft o o l s f r om N a tuf ian s i te s i nt h e L evan t . B o th c onc lud ed t h a t t h e r e w e r e r eg iona l v a r ian t s i nt h e N a tuf ian t o o l k i t s a nd t h a t t h e se m a t ched d if e r en t e nv i ronm en t s o r , m o re s p ec if i ca l ly , t h e e xp lo i tab le r e sou r ce s o f t ho se e nv i ronmen t s . T h e m a t e r ia l c u l tu r e o ft h e N a tu f ian i sf a r r i che r ,b o th i nq uan t i ty a nd q ual i ty ,t h an t h a to ft h ep r eced ing E p ip a la eo l i th ic c omp lexe s . D u r ing t h i s p e r iod t h e r e a r e much h igh e rp e rc en tage so fs i te sw i th g round s tone t o o l s , a nd t h e r e i s a p o s i t ive c o r r e la t ion b e tween a bundanc e o f g round s tone a nd a r ch i t ec tu r e (W r igh t 1 991 , 3 1 ) . S i te s i nt h e Med i te r ranean w ood land r eg ion h ave t h el a rg e s ta s s emb lag e s a nd h e r e , p o r tab le m o r ta r s a nd l a rge p e s t le s a r e t h e mo s t c ommon t o o l t y p e s . B ed ro ck m o r ta r s , p o r tab le g r ind ing s l ab s o r q ue rn s a r e f ound mo r e f r equen t ly o n L a te N a tuf ian s i t e s ( i b id , 3 1 ) . E labo ra te ly c a rved s t one a nd b on e a r te f ac t s a r ec ommon o nt h el a rg e rs i te s ,a nd H en ry c omm en t s : "W i th t h e N a tuf i an , w e s e e t h e f i r s t e x t en s iv e e v id ence o f d eco ra t ive a nd a r t i s t ic e xp re s s ion s i nt h e m a t e r ia l c u l tu r e o f t h eL evan t ." ( H en ry 1 989 , 2 02 ) A s i nt h e e a r l ie r E p ipa laeo l i th ic , t h e r e i se v id enc e f o r l o ng d i s tanc e e x chang e d u r ing t h e N a tuf ian , t h i s i n c lud e s m a r in e s he l l sf r om t h e Med i t e r ranean a nd t h e R ed S ea , a nd t h e f i r s t t r ace s o f A na to l ian o b s id ian ( Hen ry 1 989 , 2 05 ; B a r -Yo sef a nd B e lf e rC ohen 1 989b ,4 70 ) . T he H a r if ian C omp lex ( c . 1 0 ,700 -1 0 ,000 BP ) T he H a r if ian C omp lex i s ar eg iona l d eve lopm en to ft h e L a t e N a tuf ian i nt h e N eg ev , a nd i ti st h ough t t oh av e e vo lved i n r e spon se t oc l ima t ic d e t e r io ra t ion ( Hen ry 1 989 , 1 85 ) . T he r e i s as e a sona lp a t te rn t ot h eH a r i f ian s e t t lem en t s . T he c h ipp ed s t on e i ndu s t ry r e f le c t s ad ev e lopmen t o f i mp roved h un t ing m e thod s i nt h e a r id z one . T he i n du s t ry i ss im i la r t ot h a t o f t h e L a te N a t uf ian , w i th a d om inance o f l u na te s , a nd i t i n c lud e s an ew p ro je c t i le t y p e , t h e H a nf p o in t ( Ba r -Yo se f 1 981 , 5 61 ) . T h e H a r if ian g round s ton e t o o l s a r e a l so s im i la r t o t h o se o f t h e L a t e N a tuf ian ; b ed rock c upma rk s a nd

6

T he S u l tan ian /Pr e -Po t tery N eo l i th ic A C omp lex ( c . 1 0 ,200 -9 , 500 /9 ,300 BP ) T he s i te s d a t ing t ot h i s p e r iod a r e l o ca t ed a l ong t h e p r e s en t d ay b ounda r i e s b e tw een t h e Med i te r ranean a nd I r ano T u r an ian v eg e ta t ion z one s ( Ba r -Yo sef a nd B e lf e r C oh en 1 989b , 4 84 ) . N oP PNA s i t e sh ave b e en f o und i nt h e e a s t e rn s t epp e -d e se r tr e g ion o ft h es ou the rn L evan t . T h es i ze so ft h e s i t e sv a ry , b u ta r e mo s t ly l a rg e rt h an t ho s e o ft h eK h ianü an . T h e l a rg e s t s e t t lemen t s d a ted t o t h i s p e r iod ( e .g . T e l l Mu r eyb i t , T e l l A swad a nd J e r icho ) c ov e r a r ea s o fb e tw e en 5 . 0 -2 .5 h ec ta r e s , w he r ea s s om e o f t h e s ma l le r s i te s o n ly r e a ch 0 . 5 -0 .2 h e c ta re s i n s i ze ( i b id , 4 82 ) . Mud b r ick w a s u s ed f o r t h e f i r s t t ime d u r ing t h i s p e r iod t o b u i ld s em i s ub t e rr anean , r o und o r o va l s t ru c tu r e s ( i b id , 4 79 ) . T h e c h ipp ed s t on e i n du s t ry i sb a sed mo r e o n t h e p r oduc t ion o f b l ad e s t h an b l ad e le t s , a nd t h e Kh iam ian p o in t i s t h e d i agno s t ic p ro jec t i le p o in t i n t h e t o o l k i t s ( i b id , 4 80 -48 1 ) . Wr igh t ( 1 993 , 9 7 ) n o t e s t h a t c .7 0% o f P PNA s i te s h av e g round s ton e t o o l s , a n i n c r ea se o f c . 2 0% f r om t h e L a t e N a tuf ian . T h e m o s t n o tab le f e a tu re s o f t h e g r ound s ton e a s semb lag e s o f t h i s p e r iod a r e t h e g r ea t e r f r equ enc ie s o f g r ind ing s l ab s /quer n s a nd t h e f i r s t a pp ea ran c e o f p o l i sh ed a xe s . T he g r ound s ton e t o o l s l a ck d eco ra t ion a nd a pp ea r , t h e r ef o r e , t oh av e h ad am o r e u t i l i ta r ian f unc t ion t h an t h o s e o f t h e p r ec ed ing p e r iod s ( i b id , 9 7 ) . T h e p r e senc e o f g round s tone c o r r e la te s w i th a r ch i tec tu r e o n S u l tan ian /PPNA s i te s , a nd W r igh t n o te s t h a t t o o l s a r e o f t en f o und p l a c ed w i th in s t ruc tu r e s ( i b id , 9 9 ) . C a rved h uman , a nd e sp e c ia l ly f ema le , f i gu r in e s a pp ea r o n s i t e s d a ted t ot h i s p e r iod ( Ba r Y o se fa nd B e l f e r C oh en 1 989b , 4 83 ) . T h e r e i se v iden c ef o r l o ng d i s tanc e c on tac t b e tween A na to l ia , t h e Med i te r ran ean a nd t h eR ed S ea a tt h i st im e .

T he P r e -Po t tery N eo l i th ic B C omp lex ( c .9 , 500 /9 ,300 8 , 000 BP ) T h eP r e -Po t t e ry N eo l i th ic B C omp lex e vo lv ed i n i t ia l ly i nt h e n o r th e rn L evan t ( Ro l lef son 1 989 , 1 68 ) . S i t e s o ft h i s p e r iod a r e u b iqu i tou s i n t h e L evan t . R ec tangu la r s t ruc tu r e s w e r e b u i l tf o rt h ef i r s tt ime d u r ing t h i sp e r iod . H ow ev e r , t h i sf o rm o n ly a pp ea red i n t h e f e r t i le a r ea s o f t h e Med i te r ranean r e g ion , a nd c i r cu la r s t ruc tu r e s c on t inued t ob e b u i l t i nt h e a r id z on e . T he s i ze s o fs e t t lem en t s v a r ied b e tween t h e t wo a r ea s . T ho s ei nt h e Med i t e r r an ean r eg ion w e r el a rg e ra nd i n t h i sa r ea , s i t e sr e ach ed s i ze so fu pt oc .1 2h ec ta r e s ( e .g . ' A in G h aza l , B a s ta ; B a r -Yo sef a nd B e lf e r -Coh en 1 989a , 6 1 ) . R o l lef son ( 1 989 , 1 70 ) c omm en t s t h a t t h e a r ch i t e c tu r e b ecom e s m o r e c omp lex d u r ing t h e P PNB . Many b u i ld ing s o n s i t e s i nt h e Med i t e r r an ean r e g ion w e r e s t on e -bu i l t a nd i n s om e , t h e r e w a s e v id ence f o r t wo s t o r ey s . T h e w a l l s a nd f l oo r s o f b u i ld ing s w e r e o f t en p l a s t e r ed , a nd t h e r e w e r e i n t e rna l f i x tu r e s a nd c omp a r tmen t s , p o s s ib ly f o r s t o rag e p u rpo s e s . T he r ei se v id en ce f o ri n c r ea s ed e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h e s t eppe -d e s e r t r eg ion s a t t h i s t im e . T h e s t ruc tu r e s o n s e t t l emen t si nt h es e a r ea s t e nd ed t ob e l e s s s ub s tan t ia l , w i th l e s s c omp lex g round p l an s t h an t h o s e i nt h e Med i te r ranean r e g ion a nd , o n t h i s b a s i s , t h ey h av e b een i n te rp r e t ed a s s e a sona l e ncampmen t s ( Ga r ra rd e ta l1 994 , 1 06 ; B e t t s 1 989 , 1 4 9 ) . B a r -Yo sef h a s s umma r i s ed t h e c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s o ft h e P PNB c h ipp ed s t on e i n du s t r ie s , a nd t h e n ov e l d eve lopm en t s d u r ing t h i s p e r iod i n c lud e t h e u s e o f h ea t t r ea tm en t o f t h e f l in t si no rd e rt of a c i l i ta te p r e s su re f l ak ing ( Ba r -Yos e f 1 981 , 5 62 -564 ) . J e r icho , B yb lo s a nd Amuq p o in t s a r e t h e m o s t c ommon p ro je c t i le p o in t s , a nd o ft h es i ck le b l ade s , e l onga ted t y p e s , o f ten w i th ac oa r se t a ng , a r e t h e m o s t c ommon . T he f r equency o f o ccu r r ence o f g r ound s tone i s c on s i s ten t t h roughou t t h e P PNB , a nd i ti sc ha rac t e r i s ed b y ag r ea t d i v e r s i ty o ft o o l t y p e s a nd r aw m a t e r ia l s ( W r igh t 1 993 , 9 9 ) . G r ind ing s t on e s /quer n sa r e c ommon o n P PNB s i te s . W r igh t n o t e st h a tf i ne m a rb le a nd a l aba s t e rv e s s e l sa r ef o und o nL a te P PNB s i te si nt h en o r ther nL evan t , s h ec omm en t s :

T he F ina lP r e -Po t tery N eo l i th ic B /Pr e -Po t tery N eo l i th ic C /ea r ly L a te N eo l i th i cC omp lexe s( c en tra l ,s ou thern ,a nd e a s t cen tra lL evan t ;c .8 , 000 7 , 500 BP ) T he n a tu r e o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l c omp lexe s a tt h i s t im e i s m o r e ar e f lec t ion o f r e g iona l a dap t ion s t o r e sou rc e s a nd e nv i ronmen t . R o l lef son ( 1 992 , 1 25 )c on s id e r st h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a t mu ch s ma l le r ' h am le t s ized c ommun i t ie s ' w e r e e s tab l i shed i n n ew a r ea s i n t h e Med i te r ranean r eg ion o f c en t ra la nd s ou the rn L evan td u r ing t h i s t ime . T he r e i sl i t t le a r cha eo log ica l e v id ence f o r t h e s e s i t e s . T h e F i na l P PNB /PPNC c omp lexe s a r e o n ly m an i f e s t i nc e r t a in o ft h e l a rg e rs i te si nt h e Med i t e r r an ean r eg ion : " A f te r 6 , 000 B .C . w e h ave e v id en ce o f p e rman en t s e t t lem en t s o n ly a tT e l l R amad i nt h e D ama scu s B a s in ( d e C on t en son 1 985 ) , ' A in G h aza l , Wad i S hu 'e ib ( S immon se ta l 1 989 ) a nd p o s s ib ly a tB a s ta a nd t h e p eop le l i v ing a tt h e se l o ca t ion s mu s th av e r e p r e sen t ed o n ly as mal f r ac t ion o ft h e t o ta l r eg iona l p opu la t ion o f t h e l a t e s e ven th m i l lenn ium ." ( Ro l lef son 1 992 , 1 24 ) A t ' Mn G haza l , t h e r e i s n o a pp a r en t e v iden ce f o r i n t e r rup t ion si nh ab i ta t ion s u cce s s ion b e tw een t h eP PNB a nd P PNC ( Ro l lef son 1 993 , 3 4 ) . T he r ea r e ,h oweve r , d i f f e r ence s i n l i t h ic t e chno logy a nd t y po logy , a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l s t y le s b e tw een t h e t wo p e r iod s . F l ak e s d om ina t e t h e P PNC l i th ic a s semb lag e s , a s o ppo sed t o b l ad e s a nd b l ad e le t s . Two d i s t inc ta r ch i t ec tu ra l s t y le sa r ee v id en ta t' Mn G haza l d u r ing t h e P PNC . T he r e a r e s imp le , s i ng le r oom h ab i ta t ion s t ruc tu r e s a nd a l so mo r e c omp lex , a nd mo r e s ub s tan t ia l c on s t ru c t ion s , k nown a s ' c o r r ido r b u i ld ing s ' , w h ich R o l le f son h a s i n t e rp r e t ed a sb e ing s t o r ag eb unk e r s ( i b id . 3 6 3 7 ) . T he r e i s al ow i n c id ence o f g round s tone t o o l s i nt h e P PNC . T he r e w a s s e t t lemen t t h roughou t t h e e a s t e rn s t epp e -d e se r t r e g ion i n J o rdan d u r ing t h i s p e r iod . T he a r chaeo log ica l e n t i t ie s i nt h e a r id z on e b e long t ot h e e a r ly L a t e N eo l i th ic c u l tu ra lc omp lex :

" Po s s ib ly t h et h in s t on eb ow l so ft h en o r th e rn L evan t in e s i te s w e r e p a r t o f ag radua l t e chno log ica l d ev e lopm en t i nv e s se l p r oduc t ion , w h ich c u lm ina ted i nt h e u s e o fp l a s t e r v e s se l s ( La t e P PNB ; R o l lef son 1 990 ) a nd u l t ima t e ly c e ram ic s ( La t e N eo l i th ic ;c f . C auv in 1 974b ) ." ( W r igh t 1 993 , 9 )

" S tud ie s o f t h e a r ch i tec tu r e a nd m a t e r ia l c u l tu r e o f t h e s t epp ic p opu la t ion s s ugg e s t s l o ca l c on t inu i ty , b u t t h e r e a r e a l so f e a tu r e s w h ich a r e c l o s e ly c ompa rab le w i th f i nd s f r om v i l lag e sl y ing t ot h ew e s t ." ( Ga r ra rd e ta l1 994 , 1 06 )

T h e P PNB h a s b een s ubd iv id ed i n to f ou r p ha se s : e a r ly , m idd le , l a t e a nd f i na l ( / PPNC ) . R o l le f son ( 1 989 , 1 69 ) c a l l s t h e M idd le P PNB t h e ' c la s s ic P PNB ' , d u r ing t h i s p ha se n um e rou ss i te sw e r ef o und ed i nt h ec en t ra lL evan ta nd i nt h e s o u ther n L evan t , p e rmanen t ' a g r icu l t u ra l v i lag e s ' w e r e e s tab l i sh ed f o rt h e f i r s tt im e . D u r ing t h e L a t e P PNB , t h e r e w a sc on s id e rab le d i s rup t ion a tt h e s e s e t t lemen t s . Many s i te s w e r e a bandoned s ho r t ly a f t e r t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e L a te P PNB a nd n ew s e t t lemen t s w e r e l o ca t ed i n p r ev iou s ly u no ccup ied l o ca t ion s ( Ro l le f son 1 989 , 1 69 ) . Many o ft h e r e c en t ly e s tab l i shed s i t e sa nd a l so t h o s es u ch a s' A in G haza l , w h ich s u rv ived f r om t h e M idd le P PNB , i n c r ea sed i n s i ze d u r ing t h e L a t e P PNB . T he r e w e r e f ewe r c hang e s i nt h e n o r th e rn L evan t .

T h e t y p e s o f s i t e s i n t h i s a r ea v a ry g r ea t ly . G roup s o f i n sub s tan t ia l s t on e b u i l t , c i r cu la r o ro va l , s em i sub te r ranean s t ru c tu r e s , o f t en l o ca t ed n ea rt os ou r ce s o fw a t e r , h av e b e en i n t e rp r e ted a s s e a sona l e ncampm en t s ( Ga r ra rd e t a l 1 994 , 1 06 ) . T h e m ob i l i ty o ft h e i n hab i tan t s o ft h e se s i t e s w ou ld h av e b een v i ta l i n o rd e r f o r t h em t o e xp lo i t ar a ng e o f r e sou rc e s( Bet s 1 992 , 11 ) . Wr igh tn o t e s ad ec rea s ing t r end i n t h e i mpo r tanc e o f ' f ood p roc e s s ing ' t o o l s ( w i th t h e e x cep t ion o fv e s se l s ) o nt h e s e s i te s ( W r igh t 1 993 , 1 05 ) . S h e c on c lud e s t h a t t h e l a ck o f g round s ton e i si nd ica t ive o f t h e g r ea t e rm ob i l i ty o ft h ep opu la t ion su s ing t h e se s i t e s .

7

t h e re w a s ar e l iance o n w i ld p l an t a nd a n ima l f o od s a nd , mo reove r , t h a t t h e s e a sona l a va i lab i l i ty o f t h e se r e sou rce s d i c ta ted t h e movemen t o fg roup sb e tween s e t t lemen t s . W i ld c e rea ls , f r u i t s a nd o t he r p o ten t ia l ly e d ib le w i ld p l an t s w e re f ound a tt h e K eba ran s i te o fO ha lo I , o n t h e s ho re s o fL ake G a l i lee i n I s rae l , d a ted t o 1 9 ,000 B P ( K is lev e ta l 1 992 ) . L a rge n umbe r s o fc ha r red g ra ins a nd r a ch is i n te rnode s o f w i ld b a r ley w e re r e cove red f r om o ccupa t ion l e v e l sa tt h es i te . G ra in s a nd c haf fo fw i ld e mme r w e re a l so p re sen t , t o ge the r w i ld l e n t i ls . A t al a te r d a te , i n t he N a tuf ian p e r iod ( o r e qu iva len t c u l tu re s i nt he n o r the rn L evan t ) , w i ld b a r ley w a s f ound a tH ayon im C ave , i n We s te rn G a l i lee ( Hopf a nd B a r Y o sef 1 987 ) a nd a tT e l l Mu reyb i t , i n n o r ther n S y r ia ( v an Z e is t a nd B akke rHee re s 1 984a ) . F ind so fw i ld e i nko rn h ave b een r eco rded f r om T e l l Mu reyb i t a nd T e l l A bu H u rey ra ( i n n o r the rn S y r ia ;H i l lman e ta l1 989 ; H i l lman i n Moo re 2 000 ) , w i ld r ye w a s a l so i d en t if ied a tt h e l a t te r s i te . A t t h e se s i te s , e d ib le l e gume s w e re p re sen t i nt he a s semb lage s o fc ha r red r ema in s , i n c lud ing w i ld l e n t i l ( a t Mu reyb i t a nd A bu H u rey ra ) , b i t te r v e tch ( a t A bu H u rey ra ) a nd w i ld p ea ( a t Mu reyb i t ) . W i ld f l ax w a s i d en t if ied a t Mu reyb i t . B a sed o n mo rpho log ica l c r i te r ia ( i . e . t h e l a rge s i ze o f t h e g ra ins ) , H i l lman h a s i d en t if ied a f ew g ra ins o fd ome s t ic r y e i nt h e L a te E p ipa laeo l i th ic o c cupa t ion l e ve ls a t A bu H u rey ra ( H i l lman i n Moo re 2 000 , 3 79 ; H i l lman e ta l2 00 1) . T he se f i nd s r ep re sen tt h ee a r l ie s t e v idence o fd ome s t ic c r op s i nt h e N ea r E a s t .

T he P o t tery N eo l i th ic C omp lexe sa nd l a ter L a te N eo l i th ic i nt he a r id z one ( c . 8 ,000 —7 , 000 BP n or thern L evan t ; c . 7 , 500 -6 , 500 BP s ou thern L evan t ) A t t h is t ime , t h e re w a sg rea te rc on t inu i ty w i th t h ep reced ing P PNB t r ad i t ions i nt he n o r the rn L evan t . T he mo s ti mpo r tan t i nnova t ion w a st h ed eve lopmen t o ft he a r to f mak ing p o t te ry . Moo re ( 1985 , 5 0 ) s t a te st h a tt h i sp robab ly e vo lved i ns eve ra l l o ca l i t ie s a s ar e sponse t o t he n eed f o r mo re v e rsa t i le c on ta ine r s . T he m a jo r i ty o fP o t te ry N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t sa r e l o ca ted a tl ow e l eva t ions ,o np o ten t ia l ly a r ab le l a nd a nd c l o se t ow a te r ( Moo re 1 985 , 5 2 ) . B u i ld ing s t y le s w e re s im i la r t o t ho se o f t h e P PNB . I n t h e s ou the rn L evan t , p o t te ry f i r s t a ppea red o n s i te s o ft h e Y a rmuk ian c u l tu ra l c omp lex . T he g eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o fY a rmuk ian s i te s i sr e s t r ic ted t o a n e a s t -we s tb and o fl a nd a c ro s sI s rae la nd J o rdan , s t re tch ing f r om t h e c oa s ta l p l a in t o t h e T rans jo rdan ian P la teau , a nd b e tween t h e Y a rmuk R ive r i nt h en o r th a nd t h eD ead S ea i n t h e s ou th ( Gophe r a nd G ophna 1 993 , 3 15 ) . G ophe r a nd G ophna c ommen t t ha t t h e Y a rmuk ian s i te s r ef lec t t h e e s tab l ishmen t o fn ew s e t t lemen t p a t te rns a f t e r t h e h ia tu s a t t h ee nd o ft h e P PNB : " A round t h em id -e igh th m i l lenn ium B P , o r al i t t le e a r l ie r , a n ew v i l lage s y s tem i se v iden t w i th t h e a ppea rance o f t h e Y armuk ian . P o t te ry , ah igh ly v i s ib le i n nova t ion , may b e a l o ca l d eve lopmen t b a sed o n p rev ious ly k nown t e chno log ie s o r a n i n f luenc e f r om n e ighbou r ing p opu la t ion s t h rough s e conda ry d i f f u s ion a dop ted b y a ny o ne o f many p o s s ib le mechan i sms . H oweve r , t h en ew i n ven to ry o ft h eY a rmuk ian i mage ry i su n ique a nd s ugge s t s n ew p e rcep t ions b a sed o n s oc ia l r e a l ignmen t , an ew a t t i tude t o h uman a nd n a tu ra l r e sou rce s , . ." ( Gophe ra nd G ophna 1 993 , 3 45 -346 )

P re -Po t tery N eo l i th ic A D ome s t ic c rop s h ave b een f o und o n L evan t ine s i t e s d a ted t o t h e S u l tan ian /PPNA p e r iod s , a r chaeozoo log ica l e v idence , h oweve r , i nd ica te s t ha t d u r ing t h is t ime , t h e re w a s a c on t inued r e l iance o n w i ld g ame .

A rch i tec tu ra l s t y le s a r e v a r ied o n t h e se s i te s , a nd b o th c i rcu la r a nd r e c t i l inea r s t ruc tu re s a r e p re sen t ( i b id . 3 11) . D en t icu la te s i ck le b l ade s , b i f ac ia l k n ive s a nd p ro to tabu la r s c rape r s a r e i n nova t ive f l i n t t oo l t y pe s i n t h e Y a rmuk ian ( i b id , 3 09 ) . T he c e ram ic s i n c lude b ow ls , c ha l ice s , p l a t te r b a s ins , a nd j a r s ( i b id . 3 11) . T he n e two rk o f e xchange t h roughou t t he L evan t c on t inued i n t h e P o t te ry N eo l i th ic p e r iod .

Z oha ry n ame s e i gh t f ounde r c rop s o fN eo l i th ic a g r icu l tu re ( Zohar y 1 992 , 8 2 ; 1 996 , 1 43 144 ) . T h re e c e rea ls : e mme r w hea t ( T r i t icum t u rg idum s ub sp . d i coccum ) , b a r ley ( Hord eum v u lga re ) , a nd e i nko rn w hea t ( T r i t icum m onococcum ) ,a r ei n c luded i nt h e l i s t ,a nd t h eo r de ri nw h ich t hey a r ec i ted h e re i s , a cco rd ing t oZ oha ry , t h eo rde ro ft h e i r i mpo r tance a sc r op sa tt h e i n cep t ion o fa g r icu l tu re . H es t a te s t ha t t h e d ome s t ica t ion o fo t he r p l an t s pec ie s w a s c oncu r ren t w i th ( o r a t" j u s t as ho r t t ime l a te r" t han ) t h a t o ft h e c e rea ls , a nd h e n ame s af u r the r f i ve t a xa w h ich p l ayed a n i mpo r tan t r o le i ne a r ly a g r icu l tu re ,t he se a r e : l e n t i l( Len sc u l ina r i s ) ,p ea ( P i sum s a t i vum ) , c h ickpea ( C icer a r ie t inum ) , b i t te r v e tch ( V ic ia e r v i l ia )a nd f l ax ( L inum u s i ta t i s s imum ) . H es t a te sa l so t ha t t h e se f i v e s pe c ie s w e re l e s s c ommon ( i n t e rms o f t h e n umbe r s o f f i nd s ) t han t h e c e rea l s o n e a r ly a g ra r ian s i te s . Z oha ry ( 1996 , 1 999 ) f a vou r s t h e t heo ry o fs i ng le , o ra t mo s t v e ry f ew , d ome s t ica t ion e ven ts . H e a rgue s f o r t h is o n t h e b a s i s o f : ( i ) t h e p re sence o fp a t te rns i nd ica t ive o ff ounde r e f ec t s i n t h e c u l t iva ted g ene p oo l ; ( i ) t h e f a c t t ha t o ft h e many p o ten t ia l a nce s to r s , o n ly o ne w i ld p rogen i to r h a sb e en i d en t if ied f o r e a ch d ome s t ic s pec ie s ; ( i i ) t he f a c tt ha t o ft h e many g ene s w h ich c ou ld b e r e spons ib le f o r t h e mu ta t ions w h ich g ive r i s et ot h e mo rpho log ica l c ha rac te r is t ic sd ef in ing t he d ome s t ic s p ec ie s ( e .g . t h e t ough r a ch is i nc e rea ls ) , t h e e v idence i st h a t t h e s ame g ene i n e ach t a xon w a s i n vo lved t h roughou t . I ns uppo r t o ft h et heo ry , h es t a te s :

T he S ubs is tence E conomy o ft he A r chaeo log ica l C omp lexe s i n r ecen t y ea r s , t he re h ave b een s eve ra l e xce l len t , c omp rehens ive r ev iew s o f t h e p l an t -ba sed s ub s is tence e conom ie s o n e a r ly s i te s i nt h e N ea r E a s t ( e .g . Z oha ry a nd H opf 2 000 ;G a r ra rd 1 999 ; W i l lcox 1 999 ;B u t le r 1 998 ;M i l le r 1 99 1, 1 992 ) . Wha t f o l low s i s me re ly a s umma ry o f t h e e v idenc e f r om s i te s i n t h e L evan t , w h ich i s c ons ide red p e r t inen tt ot h is s t udy . E p ipa laeo l i th ic V e ry f ew s i te s d a ted t ob ef o re c .1 0 ,000 B P h ave p roduced r ema ins o fp lan t ma te r ia l ( i . e . s e ed s , f r u i t s a nd o t he r e d ib le p l an tp a r t s ,r a the rt han w ood f r om t r ee so rs h rub s ) . E v idence f r om a r chaeozoo log ica l a nd a r chaeobo tan ica l s t ud ie s i n d ica te s t h a t f o r t h e d u ra t ion o ft h e E p ipa laeo l i th ic p e r iod , 8

" I no t h e rw o rd s , s oon a f t e rt h ef i r s tn on sha t t e r ing a nd e a s i ly g e rm ina t ing c e r ea l s , p u l se s a nd f l ax a pp ea r ed , t h e i r s up e r io r p e r f o rmance u nd e r c u l t iva t ion b e came d e c i s iv e , a nd t h e r e w a s n o n e ed f o r r e p ea ted d ome s t ica t ion o f t h e w i ld p r og en i to r s ." ( Zoh a ry 1 996 , 1 56 )

e v id ence o fm o r et h an o n e d ome s t ica t ion e ven t ( wh e r ea s f o r t h eo th e rc r op st h ee v id en ce i sl e s sc l ea r ) . I mp r e s s ion s o f d om e s t ic e i nko rn s p ik e le t s w e r e f o und i n mudb r ick f r om P PNA l e v e l sa tJ e r icho . H opf d e s c r ib e st h e se a sf o l low s :

T h ee a r l ie s tf i nd so fd ome s t ic e mm e rw h ea ta r ef r om t h es i te o f T e l l A swad , i n t h e D ama scu s B a s in ( v an Z e i s t a nd B akk e rHe e r e s 1 982 ) , w i th s l igh t ly l a te r f i nd s a tJ e r icho , i n t h e J o rdan V a l ley ( Hop f 1 983 ) . T h e w i ld a n ce s to r o f d ome s t ic e mm e r ( t e t rap lo id T r i t icum t u rg id um sp . d i coccum )i sT .t u rg icum s pp . d i cocco id es . Z oha ry a nd H op f h av e d e sc r ibed t h e n a tu r a l r ang e o f t h i s w i ld s pec ie s a s f o l low s :

" Fu r the rmo r et h ee i nko rn s p ik e le t sr e t r iev ed f r om mudb r ick s o fP PNA a nd P PNB h ou se s , t o g e the rw i th t h o s e o fe nune r , g i v e t h e b e s t e v id en ce t h a t b o th h u l led whea t s p ec ie s w e r e p r e s en t , a nd h ad b e en c u l t iva t ed o n t h e s i te a s e a r ly a s t h e P PNA , e ven t h ough t h e r e a r e n o c a rbon ized e i nkor n g r a in s a nd o n ly v e ry s c a rc er e co rd so fe nun e ra nd b a r ley d u r ing t h e p e r iod ." ( Hop f1 983 , 5 81 )

"W i ld e mm e r , 7 ' .t u rg id um s pp . d i cocco id e s ( Kö rn . ) T he ! ! . [ s yn . Td i cocco id es ( Kö rn . )A a ron sl ,i smo r er e s t r ic ted i ni t s d i s t r ibu t ion a nd mo r e c onf ined i n i t s e co logy t h an w i ld e i nko rn . I t s r a nge c ov e r s I s ra e l , J o rdan , s ou th -w e s t S y r ia , L ebanon , s ou th ea s t er nT u rk ey , n o r th I r aq , a nd w e s t I r an . I t i sm o s tw id e sp r ead i nt h ec a tchm en ta r ea o ft h eu pp e rJ o rdan V a l ley ." ( Zoha ry a nd H op f2 000 ,4 )

Z oha ry m ak e s n o r e f e r en ce t ot h e se e a r ly f i nd s o fd om e s t ic e i nko rn a tJ e r icho i nh i s 1 992 p ap e rb u t , i nr e la t ion t ot h o se d a ted t ot h el a t e rP PNB p e r iod , h e c ommen t s t h a tt h ey mu s t h av eb een i mpo r ted t ot h e s i t e b ecau se t h e r eg ion i sb eyond t h e n a tur a l r a ng e o ft h e w i ld s p ec ie s ( Zoha ry 1 992 , 8 3 ; s e e a l so V a lkoun e ta l 1 998 ) . Z oha ry a nd H opf h av e d e sc r ibed t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fw i ld e i nko rn a sf o l low s :

T h el o ca t ion so ft h ee a r ly f i nd so fd ome s t ic e mme rw hea ta r e c on cu r r en tw i th t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e w i ld s p ec ie s a nd t h u s l e nd s uppo r tt ot h e l i k e l ihood o fd om e s t ica t ion o ft h e c e r ea l i nt h i sa r e ao ft h eL evan t( s e ea l so V a lkoun e ta l1 998 ) .

"W i ld e i nko rn i sw id e ly d i s t r ibu ted o ve r We s te rn A s ia a nd p ene t ra te sa l so i n to t h es ou the rn B a lk an s( Ha r lan a nd Z oha ry 1 966 ; Z oha ry 1 969 ) . I t s d i s t r ibu t ion c en t r e l i e s i nt h e N ea r E a s t a r c , i . e . n o r the rn S y r ia , s ou th e rn T u rk ey , n or the rn I r aq a nd a d jacen tI r an , a sw e l la ss ome p a r t s o fw e s te rn A na to l ia . I n t h e se a r e a s , w i ld e i nko rn i sm a s s iv e ly d i s t r ibu t ed a s a c omponen t o fo ak p a rk f o r e s t s a nd s t epp e l ik e f o rma t ion s ." ( Zoha ry a nd H op f2 000 ,3 5 )

T h e w i ld a nc e s to r o f d ome s t ic b a r ley i sH ord eum v u lga r e s pp . s pon taneum 2,a nd t h i s s p ec ie s g r ow s i nt h e o ak -p i s tac ia w ood land s o f t h e Med i t e r ran ean v eg e ta t ion z on e . Z oha ry ( s en io r ) n o t ed i t s p r e senc e i n s e v e ra l a s so c ia t ion s i n Med i te r r anean m aqu i s typ e v eg e ta t ion ( Zoha ry 1 973 , 5 24 , 5 42 , 5 45 ; s e e a l so V a lkoun e ta l 1 998 ) . Z oha ry a nd H op f h av ed e sc r ib ed i t sg eog raph ic r ang ea sf o l low s :

T he a u tho r s a pp ea r t o c oncu r w i th t h e c onc lu s ion s o f t h e w o rk o fH eun e ta l( 1 997 ) , w ho u nd e r took DNA s t ud ie s o n p opu la t ion s o fc u l t iva ted a nd w i ld e i nko rn i no rd e r t of i nd t h e l o ca t ion f r om w h ich t h ed ome s t ic c r op e vo lved , a nd t h ey s ugg e s t t h a tt h ep l a ce o fo r ig in w a s i nt h eK a racadag r eg ion o fs ou th ea s t e rn T u rk ey ( Zoha ry a nd H op f 2 000 , 3 6 , c i t ing H e im e t a l 1 997 ) . T he r e su l t s o f t h i s g ene t ic r e sea rch , h oweve r ,i sq u e s t ion ed b ys e v e ra ls c ho la r s .

"W i ld b a r ley o ccup ie s b o th p r im a ry h ab i ta t s a nd s eg e ta l , m an -mad e h ab i ta t s . I t s d i s t r ibu t ion c en t r e l i e s i nt h e ' f e r t i le c r e sc en t ' , s t af f ing f r om I s rae l a nd J o rdan i nt h e s ou th -we s t , s t r e t ch ing n o r th t owa rd s s ou th T u rk ey a nd b end ing s ou th e a s t t owa rd s I r aq i K u rd i s tan a nd s o u th -we s t I r an . I n t h i s a r ea , w i ld s pon taneum b a r ley i sc on t inuou s ly a nd m a s s ive ly d i s t r ibu ted . I tc on s t i tu t e sa n i mpo r t an ta nnua l c ompon en t o f o p en h e rbaceou sf o rma t ion s ,a nd i ti sp a r t icu la r ly c ommon i n t h e s umme r -d ry d e c iduou s o ak p a rk f o r e s t b e l t , e a s t , n o r th , a nd w e s to ft h eS y r ian d e s e r ta nd t h eE uph r a t e sb a s in ,a nd o n t h e s l op e sf a c ing t h e J o rdan R if t V a l ley ." ( Zoha ry a nd H op f 2 000 ,6 5 )

T h e r ea r ef i nd so fl e gume so nL evan t ine P PNA s i te s . L en t i l s w e r e r e cove red f r om A swad , J e r icho , N e t iv H agdud ( i n t h e J o rdan V a l ley ; K i s lev 1 997 ) , Mu r eyb i ta nd J e rf a l -Ah rna r ( i n n o r the rn S y r ia ; W i l lcox 1 996 ) . P ea a nd b i t te r v e tch w e r e a l so f ound a t A swad , Mu r eyb i t a nd J e r f a l -Ahma r , a nd c h ickp ea w a s i d en t if ied a tJ e r icho . T he se s p ec ie s a r e a l so r e co rd ed o n s i te s o f t h i s d a te b eyond t h e L evan t ( Ga r r a rd 1 999 , 7 4 -76 ) . T h e i d en t if ica t ion o f w i ld v er sus d om e s t ic l e gume s p ec ie si se x t r eme ly p rob lema t ic . B u t le r( 1 998 , 12 ) c ommen t s t h a t t h e g r a in l e gume s w h ich w e r e t a k en i n to c u l t iva t ion " of t en c anno t b e s ep a ra ted f r om t h e i r w i ld p rogen i to r so rs ome t ime sf r om c l o s er e la t ive s " . T h es t a tu so f t h e s ee a r ly f i nd s mu s t ,t h e r ef o r e ,r ema in u nc e r ta in .

D om e s t ic b a r ley h a sb een r e co rd ed b y H op fi nP PNA l e ve l s a tJ e r icho . F ind s f r om o t h e r s i t e s o ft h i s p e r iod a r e mo r e e qu ivoca l , a nd a u tho r s e xp r e s s d oub t a bou t b e ing a b le t o i d en t if y , w i th a ny c e r ta in ty , t h e w i ld o r d ome s t ic s t a tu s o f b a r ley g r a in s ( s e e c h ap t e r 4 f o r a d i s cu s s ion o f t h e p rob lema t ic n a tu r e o fi d en t if ica t ion o fw i ld v e r sus d ome s t ic H o rd eum s pp . ) . I nh i s 1 999 p ap e r , Z oha ry s t a t e s t h a tb a r ley i st h e o n ly f ound e r c r op f o r w h ich t h e r e i su nequ ivoca l

2

W i ld l e n t i l a nd p ea h ave aw id e d i s t r ibu t ion t h roughou t t h e Med i te r r anean a nd S ou th We s t A s ia ( La c l iz in sky 1 989 ) . W i ld c h ickp ea a nd b i t t e r v e t ch , h owev e r , h av e m o r e r e s t r ic ted n a tu ra l r ang e s , c on f in ed m a in ly t o s ou th e a s t e rn T u rk ey ( i b id ) .

A bb rev ia t ed s p ec ie sn ame sa r eu s ed e l s ewh e r ei nt h et e x t . 9

T he r e i se v id en ce f o r t h e c on t inu ed e xp lo i ta t ion o f l e n t i l , p ea , b i t te r v e tch a nd c h ickpea o n m any s i te s d u r ing t h i s p ha se . A tY i f tah 'e l , o ve ro n e m i ll ion l e n t i l sw e r ef o und i na s i ng le c on tex t , t h u s i n d ica t ing t h a t t h e l e gum e w a s b e ing c u l t iva t ed ( Ga rf ink e le ta l1 988 ; s e eB u t le r 1 998 , 10 ) . F l ax w a sf ound o nm any s i te sd a ted t ot h eM idd le P PNB . B eyond t h e L evan t in e r e g ion , t h e r e i se v id ence f o r u s e o fd om e s t i c c r op s a tt h e s i t e s o fc ayönu ( v an Z e is t a nd d e R o l le r 1 99 11 992 ) , C af e r H öyük ( d e Mou l in s 1 994 , 1 997 ) , C an H a s an ( H i l lman 1 972 , 1 978 ) ,A s i ld iH öy i ik ( v an Z e i s ta nd d eR o l le r 1 995 ) a nd H a c i la r ( H e lba ek 1 970 ) , a nd a t s e v e ra l s i t e s f u r th e re a s t ,i nI r aq a nd i r an .

P re -Po t tery N eo l i th ic B T he f i r s td ome s t ic a n ima l sa ppea red i nt h eL evan td u r ing t h e P r e -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic B p e r iod . U n t i l r e cen t ly , i t w a s t hough tt h a tg oa t sw e r ed ome s t ica ted b y9 , 000 B P( i . e . i nt h e M idd le P PNB ) a nd t h a t s heep w e r e d om e s t ica ted s l igh t ly l a te r ,b ya bou t8 , 500 B P( i . e . i nt h eL a t eP PNB ; G a r ra rd e ta l 1 996 ; H o rw i tz e ta l 1 999 ) . R e sea r ch u nd e r tak en b y Wa s s e ( 2001 ) , h oweve r , i n d ica te s t h a t d ome s t ic g oa t s w e r e p r e sen t o n L evan t ine s i t e s e ven e a r l ie r , b y t h e m id 1 0t h m i l lenn ium BP3 ( i . e . i n t h e E a r ly P PNB ) . T he r e w a s ar el iance o n c u l t iva ted c r op s t h roughou t t h i s p e r iod , a l though t h e r e i s e v idence f o rc on t inued u se o fs upp lem en ta ry w i ld r e sou r ce s . D om e s t ic c e rea l s a nd l e gum e sh av eb een i d en t if i ed o nm any o f t h e l a rg e P PNB a g r icu l tu ra l s e t t lem en t s i n t h e Med i te r ranean w ood land r eg ion o ft h eL evan t , a sw e l l a so n s ma l le rs i t e si nt h es t epp e .

L a te a nd F ina lP r e -Po t tery N eo l i th ic B /Pr e -Po t t ery N eo l i th ic C / ear ly L a te N eo l i th ic Many o ft h el a rg ea g r icu l tu r a ls e t t lemen t sw e r ea b andoned i n t h e L a t e P PNB . J e r icho , B e idha a nd T el A swad w e r e n o l o ng e r o ccup ied d u r ing t h i s p ha se . S i t e s w e r e f o und ed i n n ew a r ea s o ft h e L evan t a tt h i s t im e , i n c lud ing t h e s i t e s o f T e l lB ouq ra s ,T el e sS i nn a nd T el R a s S hamr a , i nt h en o r th , a nd T e l l R amad a nd B a s ta , i nc en t r a l a nd s ou th e rn L ev an t , r e sp ec t iv e ly . F o rt h e s i t e s w h ich h ad c on t inu ed o c cupa t ion d u r ing t h i s p ha s e , n am e ly ' Mn G haza l , T el A bu H u r ey ra , H a lu la a nd N aha l H ema r , t h e l i s t o f p l an t s e xp lo i t ed r ema ined r e la t iv e ly u n chang ed . A t T e l l G ho ra i f i , e i nko rn , f r ee t h r e sh ing w h ea ta nd n ak ed b a r ley w e r e a dd ed t ot h e l i s t o fd ome s t ic c r op s i nt h e L a t e P PNB . D om e s t i c e mme rw a s i d en t if i ed a tm any o ft h e n ew ly e s tab l i shed s i t e s , i n c lud ing B ouq ra s ( v an Z e i s t a nd Wa t e rbo lk -van R oo i jen 1 985 ) , T e l l e sS inn ( v an Z e i s t 1 979 ) ,R a s S hamr a( v an Z e i s ta nd B akk e rH ee r e s 1 984b ) , R amad ( v an Z e i s t a nd B akke rH ee r e s 1 982 ) a nd a t B a s ta ( N eef 1 987 ) . D ome s t ic e i nkor n a nd f r e e t h r e sh ing w h ea tw e re r e co rded a tB ouq ra s ,R amad a nd B a s ta . D u r ing t h e F ina l P PNB , t h e r e w a s e v id en ce f o r t h e u s e o f d om e s t ic e nun e r , e i nko rn , f r ee t h r e sh ing w h ea t a nd n ak ed b a r ley a t t h e s i t e o f E l K owm , i n t h e S y r ian d e se r t ( d e Mou l in s 1 994 , 1 997 ) . D om e s t ic h u l led b a r ley w a s p r e s en t o na l lt h en amed s i t e s . L en t i l ,p ea , c h ickpea ,b i t t e rv e tch a nd f l ax w e r ea l so f o und o nm any s i te so ft h i sp e r iod . T he r ew a s e v id en c e f o r t h e c on t inu ed u se o f d om e s t ic c r op s o n s i t e s b eyond t h eL evan t in er eg ion a tt h i st ime .

E ar ly P r e -Po t tery N eo l i th ic B O n ly a f ew E a r ly P PNB s i t e s h av e b e en e x cava t ed i n t h e L evan t a nd t h e a r cha eobo tan ica l e v id en ce f o r t h i s p ha s e i s e qua l ly s p a r se . A t T e l l A swad a nd J e r icho , t h e r e w a s c on t inu ed u se o fd ome s t ic c e r ea l s , b u t a to t h e r s i t e s i nt h e r eg ion f r om wh ich p l an t r ema in s w e r e r e cove r ed , o n ly w i ld r e sou r ce s h ave b een i d en t if ied . R e cen t e v id enc e f r om C yp ru s , h oweve r , i n d ica te s t h a t a tt h i s t im e , d ome s t ic c r op s h ad a l r eady b een e xpo r t ed f r om t h e L evan t ine m a in land t o s i te si nt h es ou th o ft h ei s land ( P e l t enbu rg e ta l ,2 000 ,2 001 ) . M idd le P r e -Po t tery N eol i th ic B L a rg e a g r icu l tu ra l s e t t lemen t s w e r e f o und ed i n c en t ra l a nd s ou ther n L evan t d u r ing t h e M idd le P PNB . T he r e i sa n i n c r ea s e i nt h e a moun t o fe v id ence f o r t h e u se o fd om e s t ic c r op si nt h i sp ha se a nd m o s tn o tab ly i nt h em o r ea nd r e g ion s . T he r ang e o fc r op t y pe s a l so i n c rea se s a tt h i s t im e . I nt h e M idd le P PNB , t h e r e w e r e f i nd s o f d ome s t ic emm e r a tt h e s i te s o fT e l l A bu H u r ey ra ( d e Mou l in s 1 994 ; d e Mou l in s i n Moo re , 2 000 ) ,H a lu la ( i nn o r the rn S y r ia ; W il cox 1 996 ) , T el A swad , T e l l G ho ra if d( i nt h e D ama scu sB a s in ;v an Z e i s ta nd B akk e r H ee r e s 1 982 ) , ' A in G haza l ( i n J o rdan , D ona ld son 1 985 , 1 986 ) , N aha l H ema r c ave ( i n I s ra e l ; K i s lev 1 988 ) , J e r icho a nd B e idha ( i n s ou the rn J o rdan ; H e lbaek 1 966 ) . D ome s t ic e i nkor n w a s i d en t if i ed a t A bu H u r ey ra , A swad , J e r icho a nd ' A in G haza l . T h e e a rl i e s t r e co rd s o f f r e e t h r e sh ing w hea t s a r e f r om t h i s p ha s e , a tt h e s i t e s o f A bu H u rey ra , H a lu la a nd A swad . D om e s t ic h u l led b a r ley w a s p re sen ta ta l l t h e n amed s i t e s . T he e a r l ie s tr e co rd s o fn ak ed b a r ley a l so c ome f r om t h e M idd le P PNB , f r om t h e s i t e s o f A swad a nd B e idha . H opf d i sm i s se s t h e f ew f i nd s o fn ak ed b a r ley g ra in si nt h ee a r ly l e ve l sa tJ e r icho ,a nd s ugg e s t s :

P o t tery N eo l i th ic M ixed f a rm ing s y s t em s ( e .g . w i th c r op s a nd l i v e s tock ) w e r e e s tab l i shed o n P o t te ry N eo l i th ic s e t t lem en t s t h roughou t t h e L evan t . T h e r e i se v id en ce f o r t h e c u l t iva t ion o f d om e s t ic c e r ea l sa nd p u l se so nm any s i te s , i n c lud ing T e l lR a s S ham r a , B yb lo s ( Dunand 1 973 ) , T e l l J uda idah ( H e lba ek 1 960 ) , T e l l A bu H u r ey ra a nd T e l l R amad i n t h e n o r th e rn a nd c en t ra l L evan t ,a nd i nt h es ou the rn L evan tf r om t h e Y a rmuk ian s i t e s o fJ e be l A bu T hawwab ( Neef 1 988a ) a nd ' A in R ahub ( N e ef 1 988b ) , a nd f r om J e r icho . B yt h i st im e , a g r icu l tu ra lv i l lag e s w e r ew id e sp r e ad i nm any a r ea sb eyond t h eb ounda r ie so ft h e L evan t .

" . . . t h ey may r a th e r b e k e rna l s f r om a n u n su cc e s sfu l mu ta t ion ,a l lt h em o r e a st h ey l a y am id s tt h r e sh ing r emnan t s w i th n o rma l ly d eve lop ed i n temod e s o fh u l led b a r ley ." (Hop f 1 983 , 5 84 )

E v id en ce f o rd ome s t ic c ap r ine sa tt h i st im ea l so c ome s f r om s i te si nC yp ru s( f o rr e f e r ence ss e eP e l t enbu rg e ta l 2 001 ) . 3

1 0

" Howev e r , s u ch f i nd sd on o tn ece s sa r i ly d a t e t h eb eg inn ing s o f c u l t iva t ion ; t h ey m e r e ly d a t e t h e c omp le t ion o f t h e e n su ing p ro ce s s o f c u l t iva t ion . I f w e a r e t o d a t e t h e b eg inn ing so f' c u l t iva t ion ' ,w e mu s tt a k et h e e a r l ie s td a t ef o r t h e e m e rg ence o f o s ten s ib ly d ome s t ica ted f o rm s ( c u r r en t ly c a . 8 , 800 BC -c a l ib ra t ed ) a nd a dd t oi tt h a t b l ock o ft im e r e qu i r ed t o a ch iev e f u l l d om e s t ica t ion o nce t h e c r op w a s u nd e rc u l t iva t ion . T h i sw e h av e t e rmed t h e p e r iod o f ' p r e d ome s t ica t ion 'c u l t iva t ion ." ( H i l lman a nd D av ie s 1 992 , 1 2 1 )

E vo lu t ion a nd D eve lopmen to ft he A rchaeo log ica lC omp lexe s Many o f t h e c ha ra c te r i s t ic s o f t h e N a tuf i an ' c u l tu r e ' , i n c lud ing t h e a r tef a c t s , a r ch i te c tu r e a nd s e t t lem en t p a t t e rn s , w e r e s o d if e r en t f r om e a r l ie r t r ad i t ion s t h a t i t w a s c on s id e r ed t oh av er e p r e s en ted ar e vo lu t iona ry b r eak f r om i t s E p ipa la eo l i th ic p r ed ec e s so r s , r a th e r t h an t h e c u lm ina t ion o f g radua l e vo lu t iona ry c hang e ( a l though t h i s i sn ow d i spu ted b ym any s cho la r s ,c f .K aufman , 1 992 ) . I th a sb een s ugge s ted t ha tt h e se d if e r enc e sw e r ee i the rd i r e c t ly o ri n d i r ec t ly r e la ted t o a n i n c r ea sed r e l ianc e o n w i ld p l an t f o od s ( i n p a r t icu la r s e ed f o od s ) ,a nd t ot h ea dop t ion o fn ew s ub s i s t ence s t ra teg ie s t o d ea l w i th t h e se r e sou r ce s ( H i l lman i n Moo r e 2 000 ; H i l lman e ta l2 00 1 ; H en ry 1 989 ; B y rn e 1 987 ; McCon i s ton a nd H o le 1 991 ) . F o re xamp le , t h e g r ound s ton e t e chno logy , c on s id e r ed t ob e h igh ly r ef in ed i nt h e N a tu f ian , w a s t h ough t t oh av eb een u s ed l a rg e ly f o rp roc e s s ing p l an t sf ood s , a nd t h e p e rman en ce o r s em i -p e rman en ce o f s e t t lem en t a tN a tuf ian b a se c amp sw a sd e emed t oh av eb e en t h er e a son f o r ,o rc au s e o f , t h e ' i n t en s if i ca t ion 'o fp rocu r em en to fp l an tr e sou rc e s 4.

N on -dom e s t ica t ion c u l t iva t ion u s e s t e chn ique s w h ich H i l lman a nd D av ie s s t a t e w il n o t l e ad t ot h e e vo lu t ion o f d om e s t ic f o rm s . T hey c a lcu la t ed t h a t d om e s t ica t ion w ou ld h av e b een r ap id , i . e . b e tw een 2 0 -200 y ea r s , a nd t h e l i k e l ihood ,t h e r ef o r e , o fb e ing a b le t od e t ec te v id enc ef o rt h i s p roc e s st a k ing p l ac e i ns i tu i sm in ima l ( H i l lman a nd D av ie s 1 992 , 1 44 ) . I ti s l i k e ly t h a t d ev e lopm en t s t h a t t o ok p l a ce d u r ing t h e N a tuf i an w e r e i nf luen t ia l i nt h e s u cceed ing e a r ly N eo l i th ic p e r iod , w h en t h e f u l l s u i t e o f d om e s t ic c e r ea l s ( i . e . t h e f ound e r c r op s ) e vo lved i n t h e L evan t . K h iam ian s i te s a r e l o ca ted n ea rt os ou r ce s o fw a t e r a nd i th a sb een a rgu ed t h a t e a r ly a t temp t s a t c u l t iva t ion w ou ld h ave b een m o r e s u cce s sf u l i ns u ch a r ea s ( Shef f a t t 1 980 ; v an Z e i s t 1 988 , 6 2 ; B a r -Yo s ef a nd K i s lev 1 989 , 6 35 ) . G ophe r ( 1 989 , 8 1 ) c on s id e r s t h a t t h e e a r ly P r e -Po t t e ry N eo l i th ic o ft h e L evan t c an b e v i ew ed a s as i ng le c u l tu ra l s y s t em , i n w h ich t h e e xchang e a nd movemen t o f m a t e r ia l s ( e .g . s p ec if i c t o o l t y pe s , e xo t ic s , e t c . ) , a l ong w i th i d ea s , o ccu r red o v e r w id e g eog raph ic d i s tance s . W i th in t h i sf r amewo rk o fa l l ian ce s , i t w ou ld h av eb e en p o s s ib le f o rt h e k now ledg e a nd t e chn ique s r e qu i r ed f o r t h e s u cc e s s f u l c u l t iva t ion o f c r op s t o b e d i s sem ina ted o u twa rd s f r om t h e a r ea w he r e t h e f i r s t a g r icu l tu r a ls e t t lemen t sw e r ef ound ed , i nw ha tB a r -Yo sef a nd B e lf e r C oh en ( 1 989b , 4 84 ) r e f e r t o a s t h e ' L evan t in e C o r r ido r ' , ab e l t s t re t ch ing f r om t h e M idd le E uph r a te s t h rough t h e J o rdan V a l ley a nd i n to s ou ther n J o rdan ' . B a r Y o sef ( 1 989 , 5 8 ) s t a t e st h a tt h e i n te ra c t ion b e tw een t h e e a r ly f a rm ing c ommun i t ie s a nd c on t empo ra ry h un te r -ga the r e r g roup s i n t h e m a rg ina l a r ea s w ou ld h av e c on t inued f o r s e v e ra l m i l lenn ia . B y rd ( 1 992 , 5 0 ) a rgue s t h a t t h e g roup s m o s t l i k e ly t o a dop t a g r icu l tu r e a s am ean s o f s ub s i s ten ce w ou ld h av e b een t h o se i nl o g i s t ica l ly o rgan i sed s e t t lem en t s w i th in a r ea s s u i tab le f o r c u l t iva t ion . H e a l so s t a t e s t h a t i n i t ia l ly , t h e c u l t iva ted p roduc t s w ou ld p robab ly h ave r e p r e s en ted o n ly a s ma l l p a r t o f t h e c on t r ibu t ion t o a n e conomy b a sed o nt h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f aw id ev a r ie ty o fw i ld p l an t sa nd a n ima l s .

T he L a t e G lac ia l f l u c t ua t ion s i n c l ima t e , w h ich b rough t a bou t s i gn i f ican t a l t e r a t ion s i n t h e c ompo s i t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e n a tu r a l v eg e ta t ion c ove r t h roughou t t h e L evan t , a r e c ommon ly c on s id e r ed t oh ave b een t h e s t imu lu s f o rt h ed ev e lopmen ta lc hang e sm an i f e s ti nt h eN a t uf ian . I ti s c on s id e r ed l i k e ly t h a t d if e r en t s ub s i s ten ce s t ra t eg ie s w e r e a dop ted t oc op e w i th a n a bundan ce o fp l an t r e sou rc e s w h en t h e c l ima t e i mp roved d u r ing t h e E a r ly N a tuf ian . I ti sa l so t hough tp o s s ib le t h a tc hang e s o ccu r r ed a t al a t e r s t ag e w h en t h e c o ld a nd d r y c ond i t ion s o f t h e Y oung e r D rya s p red om ina ted a nd c au sed r e s t r ic ted a c ce s s t o t h o se s am e r e sou rc e s . T h en ec e s s i ty t om a in t a in o ri n c r ea s ey i e ld so ft h e w i ld p l an tf o od s ( e .g . w i ld c e rea l s ) , w h ich h ad b e com e l e s s a va i lab le , i st h ough tt oh ave b een as t rong e nough i n cen t iv e t o h av e i n i t ia t ed s om e f o rm o f m anag em en t o f t h e w i ld s t and s( i . e . c u l t iva t ion ;H i l lman i n Moo r e2 000 ;H i l lman e ta l 2 00 1 ; Moo r ea nd H i l lman 1 992 ;H en ry 1 989 ) . H i l lman a nd D av ie s s t a t e t h a t p r io r t o t h e e vo lu t ion o f d om e s t ic c e r ea l s , t h e r e w ou ld h av e b e en a p e r iod o f ' p r e d om e s t i ca t ion ' , o r i n s om e i n s tan c e s ' n on -d om e s t ica t ion ' c u l t iva t ion , o ft h ew i ld s p e c ie s . W i th r e f e r en c e t ot h e e a r ly d om e s t ica t e s , t h ey c omm en t :

4 I t s h ou ld b e m en t ioned t h a t m any o f t h e h ypo th e se s c onc e rn ing t h e N a tuf i an ' c u l tu re ' a r e b a s ed o n a s sump t ion s u n sub s t an t ia ted b y f a c tua l e v id en c e . T h e p e rmanen ce o r s em i -pe rmanence o fs e t t lem en ta tt h eN a tuf ian ' b a se ' c amp s i st h ough t b y s om e s c ho la r s t o b e u nv e r if iab le . E dwa rd s ( 1989 ) a r gue s t h a t i t m ay b e i mpo s s ib le t o r e cogn i se s ed en t i sm o n a r chaeo log ica l s i te s b e cau se , a sh e c ommen t s , " i t i sa n u n r e so lv ed s e d imen to log i ca l d i lemma " . Wr igh t ( 1991 ) s t a t e s t h a ti tc anno tb e a s sum ed t h a tt h e g r ound s ton e t oo l s f ound o n N a tuf ian s i te s w e r e n ec e s sa r i ly u s ed f o r p roc e s s ing p l an t f o od s o r , l i k ew i s e , t h a t t h e a bundan ce r ef le c t sa ni n c r ea sed r e l ianc eo nt h e s er e sou r ce s .

H i l lman a nd D av ie s ( 1 992 , 1 4 1 ) s ugg e s t t h a t t h e s p r ead o f a g r icu l tu r e t o n ew l o ca t ion s m ay n o t a lway s h av e b een s u cce s sf u l . T h ey s t a t et h a ti ni n s tance sw he r et h e s e ed s t o ck s o f d om e s t ica te s w e r e g i v en t o f a rme r s p ra c t i s ing n on -

I n ar e c en t p ap e r , P e l tenbu rg s ugg es t s t h a t , t o d a t e , t h e r e h a s b een t o o n a r row a f o cu s o n t h e s i t e s i n t h e s o c aled ' L evan t in e c o r r ido r ' . H e d i spu t e s t h e i n teg r i ty o f t h e c o r r ido r ,i nt h el i gh to ft h ef a c tt h a tt h ea r cha eo log ica lr e co rd o u t s id et h i sa r ea i ss op oo r ly k nown ( P e l t enbu rg e ta l2 001 ) . 5

1

i n teg ra t ion w h ich t h e r e m ay h ave b een b e tween t h e p opu la t ion sa td if e r en tt im e sa nd a td if e r en t l o ca t ion s ; t h a t t h e r e w a s c on t a c t h a s b e en p roved b y t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v id ence . B a i rd ( 1 993 ) s ugg e s t st h a te l em en t s o fP PNB a nd L a te N eo l i th ic a r ch i te c tu r e a nd m a te r ia l c u l tu re , e . g . r aw m a te r ia l sa nd t o o lt e chno log ie s , i n d ica te s u ch l i nk s .

d om e s t ica t ion c u l t iva t ion , o rt oh un te r -ga th e r e r s w i thou t t h e r equ i s i t e k now ledg e o fc u l t iva t ion t e chn iqu e s o rt e chno logy , t h i s w ou ld h av e r e su l t ed i nf a i lu r e t om a in ta in t h e d ome s t ic s t ra in s . T h e e s tab l i shmen t o ft h e l a rg e f a rm ing s e t t lem en t s d u r ing t h eP PNB i st e s t imony o ft h ew id e sp read a dop t ion o f as ub s i s tence s y s tem b a sed o n d ome s t ic c r op s . A l though i n t h e e a r l ie s t p ha s e o f t h i s p e r iod t h e s ub s i s t enc e b a s e w a s h a rd ly d if e r en tf r om t h a t o ft h e p r ec ed ing S u l tan ian /PPNA , b y t h e L a te P PNB a m ixed f a rm ing e conomy h ad b e en e s tab l i sh ed t h roughou tt h eL evan t . T h en e two rk o fe xchang e t h roughou t t h e a r ea a pp a r en t ly i n t en s if i ed d u r ing t h i s t ime . R o l lef son ( 1987 , 2 9 ) a r gue s f o r t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f t h r ee r eg iona l c en t r e s d u r ing t h e l a t e r P r e -Po t t e ry N eo l i th ic , a nd t h e se w e r e i nS y r ia , i nP a le s t in e a nd t h e J o rdan V a l ley , a nd i nh igh land J o rdan :

Ag r icu l tu ra l p r a c t ice s i n t en s if i ed d u r ing t h e P PNB p e r iod . T he a bandonm en t o f s i te s d u r ing t h e L a t e P PNB h a s b e en l i nk ed w i th p o s s ib le m i smanag emen t a nd o v eru se o f t h e c u l t ivab le l a nd a r ound t h e s e t t lem en t s . K öh le r -Ro l lef son a rgue s t h a t t h e l o ca t ion o f m any o f t h e P PNB a g r icu l tu ra l v i l lag e s a tt h e b ounda r ie s b e tween v eg e ta t iona l z one s w a s i n i t ia l ly a dvan tag eou s , e nab l ing e xp lo i ta t ion o f ar ang e o f r e sou r ce s , b u t t h a t e ven tua l ly t h e ma rg ina l i t y o ft h e s e t t ing s w a st h ec au s eo ft h e i ru l t ima t ed em i se :

" Neve r the le s s ,t h e s ep o s tu la ted r eg iona lc u l tu re sd id n o te x i s t i n i s o la t ion a nd d eve lop i nd epend en t ly o f o t he r g eog raph ica l ly b ound g roup s . D i r e c t a nd i n d i r ec t c ommun ica t ion a c ro s s r eg iona l b ound a r ie s o c cu r r ed t h roughou tt h eP PNB p e r iod b ym ean so fw h ich b o th o b jec t s a nd i d ea s w e r e e xchanged i n m any d i r ec t ion s . T h e l a rg e r s i te s i n e ach r e g ion , s u ch a s ` A in G haz a l , s e rved a s f o ca l p o in t s f o r t h e d eve lopmen t o f l o ca l i n nova t ion s a nd a s c en t r e s f o rt h e d if u s ion o fn ew c onc ep t s a nd t e chno log ie s ." ( Ro l lef son 1 987 ,2 9 )

" In t h e l o ng t e rm , h ow ev e r , t h e r e w a s a l so a c r uc ia l d i sadvan tag ea s soc ia ted w i th s u ch l o ca t ion s . T he p rox im i ty t o m a rg ina l i s ohye t e s r e nd e r ed t h e s e s i t e s p a r t icu l a r ly v u lne rab le t oe v en m ino rc l ima t ic f l uc tua t ion sa nd t oh uman m i smanag emen to ft h ev eg e ta t ion ." ( Köh l e r -Ro l lef son 1 992 , 1 2 ) A l te rna t ive t h eo r ie s f o r t h e c o l lap se o fs o m any o ft h e L a te P PNB s e t t lem en t s i n c lud e s o c ia l p r e s su r e s a nd t h e b r eakdown o fs y s t em so fa u tho r i ty :

A t t h i s t ime t h e r e w a s e xpan s ion o f a g r icu l tu r e ( o r a g r icu l tu ra lp rodu c t s ) i n to t h e mo r ea r id a r ea s o ft h e L evan t . B y rd ( 1 992 , 5 ) a rgu e s t h a t , i nt h e n o r th er nL evan t , a ts i t e s s uch a sE lK owm a nd B ouq ra s , t h e r e w a sc o lon i sa t ion o ft h e n ew t e r r i to r ie s b y s ed en ta ry a g r icu l tu r a l i s t s . T h e e xa c t e x ten t a nd n a tu r e o f t h e c on tac t s b e tween p opu la t ion s i n hab i t ing s i t e s i n t h e Med i t e r ran ean w ood land z on e a nd s t eppe -d e se r t a r ea s o f t h e s ou the rn L evan t t h roughou t t h e P PNB a nd L a t e N eo l i th ic p e r iod s a r e u nknown . T h e p r e s enc eo fd om e s t ic c r op s o n s i te s i nt h e a r id r eg ion d u r ing t h eP PNB i su nd i spu t ed . T h i sr a i se sq ue s t ion sa bou th ow t h e c r op s w e r e i n t roduc ed t o t h e s t epp e , a nd w he th e r o r n o t c u l t iva t ion w a s p o s s ib le a tt h a t t ime i nt h e a r ea . T h e i s sue s a r e d eba ted b y m any s cho la r s ( By rd 1 992 ; B a i rd 1 993 ; Ma r t in 1 994 ; G a r r a rd e t a l 1 996 ) , a nd t h e c on s en su s o f o p in ion s e em s t ob e t h a t t h e r e w a s as y s t em o fc on ta c t a nd e xchang e o f a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t s b e twe en t h e p e rmanen t s e t t lem en t s i nt h e w e s t a nd t h e mob i le c ommun i t ie s i nt h e e a s t er np a r t o fs ou the rn J o rdan . I ti sa l so c on s id e r ed l i k e ly t h a tt h e s e i nd ig enou sm ob i le g roup sf anned t h e a r id r e g ion s . B e t t s s t r e s s e s t h e s i g n if i cance o fa l l ian ce s i nr e lat ion t ot h e s p r ead o fa g r icu l tu r ea tt h i st im e :

t h e a b andonmen t o f L PPNB a gg r ega te v i l lag e c ommun i t ie sa l ong t h e J o rdan ian H igh land sc an b e s e en a sa f a i led e xp e r im en t i nb a lan c ing a n t iqua ted s y s t em s o fs ha r ed s o c ia l p owe r w i th t h e n e ed f o r d eve lop ing n ew m ean s o f o rgan i s ing a nd d i r ec t ing i n c rea s ing ly l a rge u rban c ommun i t ie s w i th c omp e t ing H ou se l e ad e r s ." ( Ku i j t 2 000 , 9 8 ) . .. ..

I nt h ec a se o ft h e s i te o f' A in G haza l , i nt h e c en t ra l L evan t , t h e c omb in ed o v e rg r az ing b y d ome s t i c g oa t s a nd t h e i n ten s iv eu se o fc u l t iva ted l a nd w a st hough tt oh ave b rough t a bou t t h e c hang e s w h ich o ccu r r ed d u r ing t h e F ina l P PNB /PPNC p ha s e : " Th en a tu r eo fP PNC ' A in G ha za la l te red c on s ide rab ly a nd i t i sp o s s ib le t h a t ad if e r en t s e t t lemen t t y p e h ad eme rg ed : a ' f lu c tua t ing ' p opu la t ion c en t r e t h a t a c commoda ted a n i n c r ea s ed r el ian c e o n p a s to r al i sm ." ( Ro l le f son a nd K öh le r R o l lef son 1 989 ,8 5 ) T h e r e a son , i ti st h ough t , f o r t h e s u rv iva l o f ' A in G ha za l , w h en s om any o ft h eo t he rf ann ing v ilag e sw e re a bandon ed , w a st h e s e a sona lu s e o ft h ea d jacen t s t epp e -d e se r t r eg ion s o f t h e s ou ther n L evan t f o r g r az ing d om e s t ic a n ima l s , t hu s r educ ing t h e s t r e s s o n t h e l a nd a r ound t h e s i te ( Köh le r R o l le f son 1 992 , 1 4 ) . I ta pp e a r s , t h e r ef o r e , t h a t p a s to ra l i sm w a s i n t roduced i n to t h e s t epp e -de ser t r e g ion s o f t h e e a s t c en t ra lL evan ta tt h i st im e .

" I fc on tac t w a s m ad e o n ar egu la r b a s i s f o r c o -op e ra t ion o r e xchang ep u rpo s e s ,t h a ti si fas o c ia lm echan i sm d i de x i s tf o r r e c ip ro c i ty a mong s ma l l b and s , t h en s u ch a m e chan i sm w ou ld h ave p rov id ed a v eh ic le f o r t h e e xchang e a nd d if u s ion o fi d ea s a c ro s s e nv i ronmen ta l i n t e r f ac e s a nd m ay h av ep l ayed a ni mpo r tan tr o le i nt h ei n t rodu c t ion o fd ome s t ic c e r ea l sa nd s heep /goa ti n to t h ea r ea ." ( Be t t s 1 989 , 1 5 3 )

Moo r e ( 1 985 , 5 4 ) n o te s t h a t amo r e p rodu c t ive a g r icu l tu ra l a nd h e rd ing e c onomy d ev e loped i n t h e P o t te ry N eo l i th ic p e r iod i no rd e rt os uppo r tg r ea te rd en s it ie so fp opu la t ion . H e

T h e r e la t ion sh ip s b e twe en t h e a r id a nd m o i s t z on e s o f t h e s ou the rn L evan tc anno tb e d ef ined i nt e rm s o ft h e d eg r e e o f 1 2

a rgue s t h a t t h e d e l ica te b a lance o f s imp le a g r icu l tu r e c omb ined w i th ac on t inued r el ianc eo nw i ld r e sou rce s , w h ich h ad p rov id ed f o r t h e n eed s o f t h e P r e -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic p opu la t ion s , w a s n o l onge r f e a s ib le d u r ing t h e P o t te ry N eo l i th ic : " The s o lu t ion a dop ted w a st ot u rn t o amo re in ten s ive s y s tem o fa r ab le f a rm ing a nd s t ock ra is ing . T h i s c ou ld b e p u r sued m o s t p roduc t ive ly o n t h e w e l l -wa te red s o i l s o f t h e f o res t z on e , a l though i td id r e qu i re e x ten s ive l a nd c l ea rance . T hu s an umbe r o fi n te r re la ted p roce s se s c on t r ibu ted t ot h e m a jo r a d ju s tmen t b o th i ne conomy a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f s e t t lemen t s t h a tw es e ei nN eo l i th ic 3[ Po t te ry N eo l i th ic ] ." ( Moo re 1 985 , 5 2 -53 )

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R e tr ieva lo ft he p lan t ma ter ia l Wa te rf l o ta t ion w a st h em e thod u sed t os epa ra te t h ec ha r r ed p l an tr ema in sf r om t h e m ine ra l m a t r ix o ft h e s amp le s . T h e s amp le s f r om t h e Wad i e l J i la t a nd A z r aq s i t e s w e r e p roce s s ed i n af l o ta t ion m a ch ine . S imp le b uck e t f l o ta t ion w a su s ed t or e cove rt h eb o tan ica l m a te r ia lo nt h e o t h e r s i t e s ( Dhuw e i la , I r aq e d -Dubb , B e idha , Wad ia l -Hammeh 2 7a nd Wad i F idan A a nd C ) , w he r e s amp l ing a nd r e cove ry w e r e u nd e r tak en o n as ma l le r s c a le . T he v o lume s o f s ed imen t s f l oa ted w e r e r e co rd ed f o r e i gh t o ft h e t e n s i t e s ( t ab le 4 . 1 ) . T he r e w a s n o i n f o rma t ion o n s amp le s i ze s f r om D huw e i la a nd B e idha .

I n i t ia ls cann ing o ft he f l o t s T he f l o t s w e r e s c anned a nd c ho s en f o r f u r th e r s t udy o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e q uan t i t ie s o f s e ed s t h ey c on ta in ed . R e la t iv e a bundance s w e r e c ompa red w i th in r a the r t h an b e tween s i t e s . F o r t h e e a r l ie r s i te s , l ow e r t h r e sho ld s w e r e s e t a nd s o , f o r e xamp le , f o r t h e E p ip a la eo l i th ic s i te s o f Wad i e l J i la t 6a nd Wad i a l -Hanun eh 2 7 , s amp le s w e r e i n c lud ed i ft h e r e w e r e a ny i d en t if iab le i t em s p r e sen t . L ik ew i se , f o r t h e s i t e s o f B e idha , D huw e i la a nd A z raq 3 1 ( P r e -Po t t e ry N eo l i th ic a nd L a t e N eo l i th i c ) , f r om w h ich o n ly v e ry s ma l l f l o t s w e r e r e cove r ed , s amp le s w e r e s e lec t ed i f t h ey c on ta ined a ny i d en t if iab le r ema in s . F o r t h e P r e -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic a nd L a t e N eo l i th ic s i te s o fI r aq e d -Dubb , Wad i e l J i la t 7 , Wad i F i dan A , Wad i F idan C a nd Wad i e l J i la t 1 3 , al ow e r l im i t o fo n e h und r ed s e ed s w a s s e t . O n e h und r ed a nd f o r ty -f ive s amp l e s w e r e s e le c ted f o r f u r the r s t udy o u t o f at o ta l o f 3 20 ( 1 4 s amp le sf r om Wad ia l -Hammeh 2 7 , 1 3f r om I r aq e d -Dubb , 1 0 f r om Wad i e l J i la t 6 ,2 5 f r om Wad i e l J i la t 7 ,2 8 f r om Wad i e l J i la t 1 3 , 7f r om D huw e i la , 3 0 f r om A z r aq 3 1 , 9f r om B e idha , 4f r om Wad iF idan A a nd 5f r om Wad iF idan C ) .

T h e e x cava t ed d epo s i t s f r om t h e Wad i e l J i la t a nd A z raq s i te sw e r e s c r eened t h rough a0 . 5cm m e sh p r io rt of l o ta t ion , t o r e cove r f l in t t o o l s a nd o t h e r s mal a r te f a c t s . U nf o r tuna t e ly i tw a s n o t p o s s ib le t o m on i to r whe the r t h i s a dve r se ly a f ec ted t h e p r e se rva t ion o ft h e c ha r red r ema in s . L ik ew i se , n o a s se s smen t w a s m ad e o ft h e p o s s ib le d amag e t o t h e r ema in s c au sed b y t h e f l o ta t ion o f d ry d epo s i t s . E xp e r im en t sh av e s hown t h a tc ha r red s e ed s a r e mo r e l i k e ly t o f r agmen t i fs ed imen t s a r e a l lowed t o d ry o u t b ef o r e f l o ta t ion , a s ar e su l t o f t h e s u r f a ce t e n s ion f o r ce s o f t h e w a t e r a c t ing u pon t h e f r ag i le c ha r coa l s t ru c tu r e s (Wagn e r 1 988 ,2 3 ) .

I nt h i s s t ud y ' c ha r coa l ' r e f e r s t oa l l c ha r r ed p l an t m a t e r ia l s a nd n o te x c lu s iv e ly t ob u rn tt r ee o rs h rub w ood .

T he p l an tr ema in sw e r er e cove r ed o n l nun a nd 3 00µm m e sh s i eve sa ta lt h es i te se xcep tf o r Wad i a l -Hanuneh 2 7 , wh e r e 6 0

B akk e rHe e r e s 1 984a , 1 77 ) . O n e b a sk e t f u l ( c . 1 3 l i t r e s ) o f d epo s i t w a s t a k en p e r s amp le f r om t h e A swad We s t t r ench , a nd t wo b a sk e t fu l s ( c . 2 6 l i t re s ) p e r s amp le w e r e t a k en f r om t h e A swad E a s t t r en ch ( v an Z e i s t a nd B akk e rHee r e s 1 982 , 1 81 ) . A t T e l l G ho ra if d , t h e s amp le s w e re o ne b a sk e t fu l i n v o lum e ( i b id , 1 82 ) . F o r t h e s i te o fT e l l R amad , t h e a c tua l v o lum e s o f s amp le s w e r e n o t r e co rd ed b u t t h e a u tho r s e s t ima ted t h em t oh ave b e en f r om b e tween 1 0 t o2 0 l i t r e s i n s i ze ( i b id , 1 76 177 ) . A tT e l lR a s S ham r a ,o ne o rt wo b a sk e t s ( c . 1 2 l i t r e s e a ch ) o fs ed im en t s w e r e s amp led ( v an Z e i s t a nd B akk e rHee r e s 1 984b , 1 57 ) .

S or t ing t he f l o t s I d en t if iab le p l an t r ema in s , b o th w ho l e a nd f r agmen ta ry , w e r e e x t ra c t ed f r om t h e c oa r s e f l o a t s , a nd t h e s e i n c lud ed s e ed s /g ra in s , c e r ea l c haf f , f r u i t s , n u t sh el a nd f r agmen t s o f p a r en chyma tou s t i s sue ( e t c . ) . Wood c ha r coa l w a s n o t e x t ra c ted a tt h i ss t ag e . O n ce s o r t ing w a sc omp le t ed , s im i la r s p ec im en s i n t h e s am e s amp le s w e r e c ompa red a nd p rov i s iona l s p ec i e s , g enu s , f am i ly o r ' t yp e ' n ame s w e r e a s s igned . T h e s pec im en s w e r e p u t i n to l a b e l led t ub e s a nd s t o r ed i ns amp le / s i t e o rd e r . L i s t sw e r e c omp i led b u ta tt h i s s t ag eo n ly af ew t a xa c ou ld b eg i v en s p e c ie sn am e s .

S or t ing t he f l o t s a nd i den t if ica t ion o ft he f ru i t s a nd s e ed s

T h e f i n e f l o t s w e r e s o r ted o n ce a l t h e c oa r s e f l o t s f r om a s i t e h ad b een e xam in ed . B ecau s e o f t h e t im e c on sum ing n a tu r e o fp roc e s s ing t h ef i n e f l o t s , i n mo s t c a s e s o n ly s ma l l p rop o r t ion sw e r e s o r ted . Ar i f f le b ox w a su sed t od i v id et h e f l o t s d own t ov o lum e s o fc .5 cm3,w h ich w a s c on s id e red a m anageab le s i ze f o r s o r t ing ( g iv en t h e t im e l im i ta t ion i mpo sed d u r ing t h e s t udy ; t h i s v o lume w a s n eve r s ma l le r t h an 1/ 6 4 o ft h e t o ta l f i ne f l o t ) . P r el im ina ry i d en t if ica t ion s w e r e m ad e a nd t h e s p ec im en s w e r e c oun ted a nd p u t i n to l a beled t ub e s ( bu tk ep ts epa ra te ly f r om t h e i t em s i d en t if ied i nt h ec oa r se f l o t s ) . I no rd e rt od e t e rm in ew h e th e ra dd i t iona l f i ne f l o t s hou ld b e s o r t ed , c omp a r i son s w e r e m ad e o f t h e p e rc en tag eo fe ach t a xon i nt h ec oa r s ef l o t sa l on ea nd i nt h e c oa r s e a nd f i ne f l o t s c omb ined . Mo r e o ft h e f i n e f l o t w a s e xam in ed i f ,a f te r t h e i n i t ia l f r ac t ion , t h e r e w a s am a rked e f ec to nt h ep e rc en tag e ( i . e . i fi td if e r ed s i gn if i can t ly f r om t h e e qu iva len t p e rc en tag e f o r t h e c oa r se f l o t ) a nd i ft h e f r ac t ion a l r eady s o r t ed w a ss ma l l( i . e .l e s st h an 98) .

T he a u tho r s s e lec ted r i ch s amp le s f o r t h e i r a na ly s e s . T he c ho ice o fs amp le s w a s d ep end en t o n as ub jec t ive a s se s smen t o ft h en umb e r s o fs e ed s t h ey c on ta ined . F o rt h e s i t e s o fT e l l A swad , T e l l G ho r a if d , a nd T e l l R amad , t h e f o l low ing s t a t emen ta bou ts amp le s e lec t ion w a sr e co rd ed : " Thu s i ft h e f l o ta t ion r e s idu e [ f l o t ] o f as amp le f r om a p a r t icu la rd ep th w a sv e ry s ma l lo ri faf i r s ti n sp ec t ion s howed t h a t i tw a s v e ry p oo r i n s e ed s o r o fp oo r p r e se rva t ion , t h i s s amp le w a s r e jec t ed a nd a no th e r f r om a bou t t h e s am e d ep th w a s c ho sen f o r e xam ina t ion ." ( v an Z e i s t a nd B akk e rH ee re s 1 982 , 1 77 178 ) At o ta lo f6 5 s amp le sw e r e s o r t ed f r om T el Mu r eyb i t ( s ix o f t h e6 5 s amp le sw e r ee xc luded f o rt h ep u rpo se so ft h er e s ea rch i nt h i s s t udy b ecau s e t h ey w e r e h and -p ick ed ) . T h e a u tho r s e xam in ed 3 0 s amp l e s f r om T e l l A swad , 3 5 f r om T e l l G ho ra i f e , 4 7f r om T el R amad a nd 7 4f r om T el R a s S ham ra .

T he S yr ian S amp le s

I d en t if i ca t ion s o ft h e c ha r r ed p l an t r ema in s w e r e m ad e a f t e r c ompa r i son w i th mod er nr e f e r enc es p ec imen s . T he f o l low ing c ommen t s w e r e m ad e a b ou t t h e r ema in s f r om t h e D ama scu s B a s in s i t e sa nd T el Mu r eyb i t :

S amp l ing o n s i te F o r t h e S y r ian s i t e s o f T el Mu r eyb i t , T e l l A swad , T e l l G ho r a if d , T e l l R amad a nd T e l l R a s S ham ra , t h e a r chaeobo tan ica l s amp le s w e r e c o l le c ted f r om c l eaned , e xpo sed s e c t ion s i n t h e e xcava t ed t r enche s ( s e e p r ev iou s c hap te rf o rd e ta i l s ) . C on t ex t sf o rw h ich t h e r ew a s e v id en ce o fb u rn ing w e r eg i v en p r io r i ty . F o re xamp le , a tT el R amad v an Z e i s ta nd B akk e rH ee r e sr e co rd ed t h ef o l low ing :

" Fo r i d en t if i ca t ion s as e ed r e f e r ence c o l lec t ion o f N ea r E a s t e rn s p ec ie s w a s a va i lab le . I n s p i t e o fi t s r a the r m od e s t s i ze , t h i s r e f e r en ce c o l lec t ion p e rm i t ted t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f m o s t o ft h e c ha r r ed s e ed t y p e s , a l though n o t u sua l ly t ot h e s p ec ie sl e v e l ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akk e rHe e r e s 1 982 , 1 74 )

" F ina l ly s amp le s w e r e t a k en f r om t h e M4NE q uand r an t w h ich w a s e xcava ted i n1 965 . H e r es amp le sw e r e c o l lec t ed f r om a shy p l ac e s w h ich b ecam e v i s ib le o n e xpo sed s u rf a ce s ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akk e rHe e r e s 1 982 , 1 76 )

" Som e t im e s p oo r p r e se rva t ion p r ev en t ed t h e i d en t if i ca t ion , b u t v a r iou s t y p e s c ou ld n o t b e d e t e rm ined b ecau se n o m a tch ing r e f e r en ce m a t e r ia l w a s a va i lab le " . ( v an Z e i s t a nd B akk e rH ee r e s 1 984a , 1 79 )

R e tr ieva lo ft he p lan t ma ter ia l

T he n umb e r s o fs e ed s a nd f r u i t s p e r 1 0 l i t r e s o fd epo s i t w e re c a lcu la ted b y t h e a u tho r s f o r t h e s amp le s f r om T e l l A swad , T e l l G ho ra if d , T el R amad ( v an Z e i s t a nd B akk e rH e e re s 1 982 , 2 35 ) a nd T e l l R a s S ham r a ( v an Z e i s t a nd B akk e r H ee r e s 1 984b , 1 65 ) .

R e t r ieva l o ft h e p l an t r ema in s wa s u nd e r tak en i nt h e f i e ld a nd b u ck e t f l o ta t ion w a s u sed t o r e cove r t h e c ha r r ed m a te r ia l . T h e r e w a s n o m en t ion i n t h e a r cha eobo tan ica l r e po r t s t h a t a ny s y s t ema t ic a pp roa ch w a s f olowed b y t h e e x cava to r s w i th r e g a rd t o s amp le s i ze s . R e co rd s o f t h e v o lume s o fd epo s i tf l oa ted w e r e n o ta lway s k ep t , a nd w hen t h ey w e r e i tw a s i n t e rm s o f t h e n umb e r s o f b uck e t s o r b a sk e t f u l s p roce s sed . A t T e l l Mu r eyb i t , t h e r e a r e o n ly r e co rd s o f v o lume s o f s amp le s t a k en d u r ing t h e 1 967 e xcava t ion s e a son , a nd t h e se w e r e n o t ed a s b e ing a pp rox ima t e ly o ne b u ck e tf u l ( c . 1 0 l i t r e s , v an Z e i s t a nd 6 1

I den t if ica t ion o ft he Charred R ema in s f r om t he J ordan ian S i te s C ompar i son w i th t he p l an t r ema ins f r om t he S yr ian s i te s When s pec ie s /gene ra / type sw e re f ound t ob ec ommon t ob o th J o rdan ian a nd S y r i an s i te s , c ompa r i son sw e re mad ew i th t h e d e sc r ip t ion s a nd l i ne d raw ing s r e co rd ed b y v an Z e i s t a nd B akke rHee re s ( 1982 , 1 984a , 1 984b ) . D e sc r ip t ion s o ft h e S y r ian s pe c imen s h av e b een q uo ted i nt h i s c hap te r a nd i n a ppend ix 1 . T he re w e re d i sc repanc ie s i n i d en t if ica t ion b e tween t h et wo s e t s o fs i te s , f o r e xamp le , c e r ta in t a xa w e re a ma lgama ted b y v an Z e i s t a nd B akke rH ee re s w h ich w e re t r ea ted s e pa ra te ly b yt h ea u tho r , a nd v i ce v e r sa . Many mo re i d en t if ica t ion s w e re t a ken t os pec ie s l e ve l b y v an Z e i s t a nd B akke rHee re st h an w e re a t temp ted b yt h ea u tho r .

I n i t ia lc a tegor i sa t ion T he n ex ts t age i nt h ei d en t if i ca t ion p roce s si n vo lved a ni n te r s i te c ompa r i son o f t a xa , t o e n su re t h a t t h e re w a s o v e ra l l c on s i s tency . F o r t h i s p u rpo se , t h e l a be l led t u be s c on ta in ing t h e s pec imen s w e re r e -a r ranged i n o rde r o f f am i ly /genu s / spec ie s( a so ppo sed t os amp le / s i te o rde r ) . E ach s e ed ( e tc . ) w a s r e -exam ined a nd s im i la r s p ec imen s f r om d if e ren t s i te s w e re c ompa red a l ong s ide e a ch o t he r t oc he ck t h e c a tego r i sa t ion s . T he p r io r i ty w a s t o e n su re t h a t s e ed s ( e tc . )w e re p u ti n to u n ique c a tego r ie s .

c an b e m ade a va i lab le f o r c on su l ta t ion o n r e que s t . B r ief d e sc r ip t ive n o t e s w e re m ade o n a l l t h e t a xa ( s ee f o l low ing s e c t ion s a nd a ppend ix 1 ) . C e r ta in s p e c imen s w e re p ho tog raphed f o r r e f e rence p u rpo se s ( p la te 4 . 1 , s e e a l so a ppend ix 1 ) .

I den t if i ca t ion o ft he c er ea l s A l l c e rea l g r a in s ( a nd f r agmen t s o fg ra in s ) w e re mea su red a nd d r awn . E a ch s pe c imen w a s i lu s t ra ted i nf o u rv i ew s : i n c ro s s s e c t ion , l a te ra l ly , d o r sa l ly a nd v en t ra l ly2,a nd a ny n o tab le f e a tu re s w e re r e co rded . I d en t if i ca t ion s w e re m ad e a f t e rc ompa r i son w i th moder nr e f e rence m a te r ia l . T he s c ope o ft h e se i d en t if i ca t ion si si n ev i tab ly r e s t r ic ted b yt h ef a c tt h a t t h ey a r eb a s ed o n ly o no u rk now ledge o ft h e mo rpho log ie so f p re sen t d ay c e rea l s , a nd s ot h e s uf f ix ' t ype ' h a s b een a dded t oa l lt h es p ec ie sn ame sb yw ay o f ar em ind e ro ft h ei n he r en t l im i ta t ion s( l ik ew i se , ' t ype ' i sa s sumed i na l lt h et a b le s ) . F o r p oo r ly p re se rv ed g r a in s , t h e p ref ix ' c f . ' w a s a dded t ot h e s pec ie sn ame s . T r i t icum s pp . T he t h ickne s s a nd b r ead th o f a l l t h e w hea t g ra in s w e re c ompa red ( f igu re 4 . 1) . T he s c a t te rg r am p l o t s howed ac l ea r d i s t inc t ion b e twe en t h e g r a in s o f T r i t i cum b oeo t icum a nd t ho se o f t h e o t he r w hea t s p ec ie s . T he re w a s a l so s ome s epa ra t ion o f t h e g ra in s o f T r i t icum m onococcum a nd T r i t icum d i coc cum o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r b r e ad th ( s e e a l so P e l tenbu rg e ta l2 00 1 ,4 3 -44 ) .

I fp rov i s iona l s p ec ie s n ame s h ad b e en a s s igned t h ey w e re c hecked w he re p o s s ib le b y c omp a r i son w i th mode rn r e f e renc e ma te r ia l . Mo re a c cu ra te i d en t if i ca t ions w e re a l so a t temp ted f o rc e r ta in t a xa w h ich w e re i n i t ia l ly a s s igned o n ly g ene r ic n ame sa nd i ft h ee co log ica lp ref e rence so fa ny o ft h e s pe c ie s w i th in t h e g ene ra w e re t hough tt ob e i n teg ra l t ot h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e a r chaeobo tan ica l a s semb lage . W i th r e f e rence t ot h ee co log ica ln o te si nt h eF lora P a lae s t ina ( t ex t v o lume s 1 4 , Z oha ry 1 966 , 1 972 ; F e inb run -Do than 1 978 , 1 986 ) , s pec ie s w e re c ons ide red , f o r e xamp le , i f t h ey i nhab i ted c u l t iva ted , f a l low ,g razed o ri r iga ted f i e ld s ,i ft h ey g rew n ea rw a s te p l ace so rn ea rs i te so fh ab i ta t ion ,a nd i ft h ey r e qu i red p a r t icu la rs o i lt y pe sf o rt he i rg row th . T he p o ten t ia l f o r f u r the r i d en t if ica t ion w a s , h ow ev e r , l im i ted b y t h e a cce s s ib i l i ty o f moder n r e f e rence ma te r ia l w i th w h ich t o c ompa re t h e a nc ien t s pe c imen s . S eve ra l r e f e rence c o l lec t ion s o f mode rn s e ed s w e re mad e a va i lab le t o t h e a u tho r . T he c o l le c t ion b e long ing t oP rof e s so r G .C . H i l lman a tt h eI n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy ( Un iv e r s i ty C o l lege L ondon ) , t h ec o l lec t ion c omp i led b yC . P a lme rf o rt h eB r i t ish I n s t i tu te i n Amman ( J o rdan ) a nd t h ec o l lec t ion i nt h eD epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy a nd P reh i s to ry a tt h e U n iv e r s i ty o f S hef f i e ld w e re a l l r e f e r red t oi nt h es t udy . I den t if ica t ion w a sp o s s ib le o n ly i fmode rn r e f e renc es p ec imen so ft h ec omp le te r ange o f s pec ie s i n ag enu s w a s a va i lab le . I ft h e s e ed s o f c e r ta in s pec ie s w e re a b sen t f r om t h e c o l le c t ion s i tw a s n o tp o s s ib le e i the r t oc on s ide r o rd i scoun t t h em a sl i k e ly c and ida te s . I n p rac t ice , v e ry f ew t a xa w e re c onf i rmed a s , o r e l eva ted t o , s pec ie s i d en t if ica t ion s , a nd t h i s w a s d ue t o t h e i n comp le tene s so ft h e mode rn r e f e rence c o l le c t ion s . A l lt h e s pec imen s i d en t if ied b y t h e a u tho r h av e b e en a r ch ived a nd

T r i t icum b oeo t icum t ype ( w i ld e inkorn t ype ) T he s pe c imen s( o n ly o ne w ho le g ra in w a sf o und )a s s ig ned t o T r i t icum b oeo t i cum t y pe w e re n o t ic eab ly s ma l le r t h an t h e o t he r w hea t g r a in s . B o th o ne g ra ined ( s sp . a eg i lopo id e s , h e reaf t e r r e f e r red t oa s 1 9 a nd t wo g ra ined ( s sp . t h aoud a r , h e reaf t e rr e f e r red t oa s2 9w i ld e i nko rn w e r ei d en t if ied . T he l g s pe c imen s w e re mu ch mo re l a te ra l ly c omp re s sed t h an t ho se o ft h e 2 gt y pe . O n t h et wo 1 ga p ica l f r agmen t s i tw a s p o s s ib le t o s e e t h e c u rv ed /convex v en t ra l s u rf ace s o f t h e g ra in s . O n t h e w ho le 2 gg ra in a nd f r agmen t s , t h e v en t ra l s u rf ace s w e re s t ra igh t o r o n ly s l igh t ly c u rved . T he d o r sa l s u r f a ce s o fb o th l ga nd 2 gt y pe s w e re r ounded . T he a p ica l a nd e mb ryo f r agmen t sw e re a t tenua ted w hen v i ew ed l a te ra l ly a nd d o r so -v en t ra l ly . V an Z e i s ta nd B akke rHe e re s mak et h e f o l low ing o b se rva t ion sa bou tt h eT e l l Mu reyb i ts p ec imen s : " t h e f e a tu re s c ha ra c te r i s t ic o f t h e o ne -g ra ined s p . a eg i lopo id e s :a ne x t reme l a te ra lc omp re s s ion a nd ad i s t inc t ly c u rved v en t ra ls i de ." " I n Mu reyb i tw i ld e i nko rn g r a in s , t he d o r sa l a nd t h ev en t ra l s i d e s a r e l o ng i tud ina l ly a lmo s t s t ra igh t o r o n ly s l igh t ly c u rved . A si se v iden tf r om t h ei ndex v a lue s ,o na v e rag e ,t h e t h ickne s si ss l igh t ly g r ea te rt h an t he b r ead th . T he f u r row o n t h e v en t ra l s i de c an b e n a r row a s w e l l a s o pen . I n t wo g ra ined w i ld e i nko rn , t h e t wo c a ryop se s i no ne s p ik e le t a r e n o t w ho l ly i d en t ic a l ." ( v an Z e i s t a nd B akke rHe e re s 1 9 84a , 1 84 , 1 86 ) I ti st h ei n ten t ion t h a tt h e se i lu s t ra t ion sw i l lb ep ub l i shed a t al a te rd a te . 2

6 2

T he t h ickne s sa nd b r ead th o ft h ew i ld e i nkom t y p eg r a in a nd f r agmen t s w e r e c omp a r ed w i th t h o s eo fa nc ien t2 gT r i t icum b oeo t icum g r a in s f r om t h e s i t e s o fT e l l Mu r eyb i t a nd T e l l R am ad ( t h ed if e ren tm in imum ,a v e r age a nd m ax imum s i ze s r e co rd ed f o r t h e se s i t e s r e f e r t o t h e m ea su r emen t s o f s p ec imen st a k en f r om d if e ren t s amp le s ) , a nd w i th t h o se o f m od em l ga nd 2 g g r a in s , w h ich h ad b e en d ehu sk ed a nd c ha r r ed a t2 30 °C ( f igu r e 4 . 2 ) . T h e t h ickn e s s a nd b r ead th s c a t t e rg ram p l o t s how ed t h a t t h e a n c ien t w i ld e i nko rn t y p e g r a in s f r om t h e J o rdan ian s i t e s w e r e s ma l le r t h an t h e a v e r ag es i ze sr e co rd ed f o rt h e S y r ian s p ec im en s . T hey w e r e a l so m u ch s ma l le rt h an t h em od em s p ec im en s .

T he d o r sa l s u r f ace s w e r e e ven ly r ound ed , w i thou t ad o r sa l r i dg e , a nd i nl a te ra l v i ew t h ey w e r e f l a t o rs l igh t ly c u rv ed . T h e c r o s s s e c t ion s o f t h e t wo s p ec imen s w e r e n o t iceab ly m o r er o und ed t h an t h o se o ft h ed ome s t ic s p e c ie s . T r i t icum d ococcum t ype ( d ome s t ic e mmer t ype ) Mo s t o f t h e s p ec imen s i d en t if i ed a s d ome s t ic e r nm e r t y p e w e r e w ho le g r a in s f r om t wo g r a ined ( 2 g ) s p ike le t s . T he g r a in sw e r e m o r er o und ed t h an t h o se o f2 ge i nko rn a nd w e r e l e s s a t tenua ted a tt h e a p ice s a nd e mb ryo s . Wh en v i ewed l a t e ra l ly ,t h ev en t ra ls u r f ace sw e r ef l a to r ,o ns ome s p ec im en s , s l igh t ly c oncav e . I nt h e s ame v i ew , t h e d o r sa l s u r f ac e s w e r e r o und ed a nd t h em ax imum w id th o ft h eg r a in sw a sj u s ta bov e t h e e mb ryo . I nc r o s s s e c t ion , t h e g r a in s s h owed s ymm e t ry a bou t t h e d o r sa l r i dge , w h ich i n m o s t c a se s w a s n o t p r om inen t . G ra in s f r om 2 gs p ik e le t s o fe i nkom a nd e mme r h av e v e ry s im i la r o v e ra l l m o rpho log ie s a nd b o th m ay h ave b een m i s id en t if i ed .

T r i t icum b oeo t icum /S eca le mon tanum ( w i ld e i nkorn /w i ld r ye ) O n ea p ica lf r agmen to f ag r a in w a sf o und t h a tc ou ld n o tb e i d en t if i ed t oe i the r w i ld e i nkom o r w i ld r y e . T he d o r sa l r i dg eo nt h ef r agmen tw a sd i s t inc ta nd s ymm e t r ica l . T r i t icum monococcum t ype ( dome s t ic e i nkorn t ype ) Who le g r a in s a nd f r agm en t s o fb o th o n e g r a in ed ( 1 g ) a nd t wo g r a in ed ( 2) d ome s t ic e i nkom t y p e s w e r e f o und i nt h e s amp le s . A s w i th t h e w i ld s p ec ie s , t h e l gs p e c im en s w e r e n o t ic eab ly l a te ra l ly c omp r e s sed a nd t h e v en t r a l s u rf a ce s w e r e c onv ex . T h e w ho le g r a in s c l ea r ly s h owed c u rv ed d o r sa ls u rf a ce s ,w i th t h e' h igh e s t 'p o in ta pp rox ima t e ly a tt h e m id -po in t a l ong t h e l e ng th o ft h e g r a in . T h e d o r sa l r i dg e s w e r e p r om inen t , r unn ing a s ymme t r ica l ly d own t h e g r a in s . T he g r a in s f r om 1 ga nd 28 s p ik e le t s w e r e a t t enua ted a tt h e e mb ryo a nd a p ica l e nd s w hen v i ew ed l a te r a l ly a nd d o r so v en t r aly . O nt h e2 gw ho le g r a in sa nd f r agmen t st h ev en t ra l s u r f a ce s w e r e e i the r f l a t o r s l igh t ly c on cav e . T he c r o s s s e c t ion s o ft h e 2 gs p ec imen s s h owed t h e a s ymme t ry o ft h e d o r sa l r i dg e s . V an Z e i s t a nd B akk e rH ee r e s m ak e t h e f o l low ing c ommen t sa bou tt h ee i nkom t h ey i d en t if i ed :

T he t h ickne s sa nd b r ead th o ft h ed ome s t ic c ann e rt y pe g r a in s a nd f r agmen t s w e r e c omp a r ed w i th t h o s e f r om t h e s i t e s o f T e l lR a s S ha m a , T e l lR amad , T e l l A swad a nd T e l l G ho r a ie ( f igu r e 4 . 4 ) . T he t h ickne s s a nd b r ead th s c a t te rg ram p l o t s how ed t h a tt h ea nc ien t J o rdan ian s p ec imen s w e r e s im i la ri n s i ze t ot h ea ve r ag em ea su r emen t so ft h eS y r ian g r a in s . T r i t icum c f . monococcum/d icoc cum ( dome s t ic e i nkorn / e mmer t ype ) T h i sc a t ego ry i n c lud ed g r a in sf o rw h ich i tw a s i mpo s s ib le t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween t h et wo s p ec ie s . A' l owe r ' c l a s s if i ca t ion o f T r i t icum s pp . ' i nd e te rm ina te g l ume w h ea t g a in s ' , w a s a s s igned t o b ad ly p r e se rved s p ec imen s f o r w h ich i tw a s i mpo s s ib le e ven t os ugg e s ts p ec ie si d en t if i ca t ion s ,m e r e ly t h a t t h ey w e r eg l um ew hea t s . T r i t icum monococcum /7 ' r i t icum d i coccum —g l ume s , s p ike le tf o rk s I ti sp o s s ib le t oi d en t if y g l um e b a se s a nd s p ik e l e t f o rk s t o s p ec ie s u s ing c r i t e r ia w h ich a r e n ow w e l l e s tab l i shed f o r d i s t ingu i sh ing b e twe en t h e c haf f o f d i p lo id a nd t e t rap lo id g l um ew hea t s( H i l lman a nd J one sp e r s .comm . ;J a com e t 1 987 , 4 9 -51 ) . T he m o s t u se fu l f e a tu r e s f o r s e pa r a t ing e i nko rn a nd e mm e rs p ik e le tf o rk s w e r e : t h ew id th o ft h e a b sc i s s ion s c a r s ( g r ea te rr e la t iv ew id th i ne i nko rn ) ;t h ep o s i t ion o fi n s e r t ion o f t h eg l ume b a se s ( a t ag r ea t e rd i s tance f r om t h eu ppe rs u r f ac e o ft h ea b sc i s s ion s c a ri ne mme r ) ;t h ep r om in en c e o ft h ea ng le o f t h e p r ima ry k ee l o n t h e g l ume s ( a ng led ' f orwa rd ' i n e i nko rn , ' o u twa rd ' i n e mme r ) ; t h e p r om in en c e o f t h e s e conda ry k ee l o n t h e g l ume s ( n o t a sp r om in en t i ne mme r ) ; t h e p r e s enc e o fn e rve s o n t h e o u t e r s u r f a c e s o f t h e g l ume s ( n on e i ne i nkom ) ; a nd t h e a ng le o ft h e o u t e r s u rf a ce s o ft h e g l ume s ( wh en v i ewed f r om a bove t h e f a c e s a r e p a ra l le l i n e i nkom ,a ta na ng le i ne mm e r ) . Many o ft h e c h af ff r agm en t s w e r ep oo r ly p r e s e rved , f o re xamp le , t h eg l ume s w e re b rok en o fl ow d own , a nd s o m any o ft h e d i agno s t ic f e a tu r e s w e r e n o te x tan t . T h e s e s p ec im en sw e r e a s s igned t ot h e c a t ego r ie s T r i t ic um m onococcum /d icoccum g l um e b a se s a nd s p ik e le t f o rk s .

" I ne i nkom w hea t , u sualy o ne g r a in d ev e lop s i n as p ik e le t . T he g r a in s a r e l a te ra l ly c omp r e s s ed , w i th l o ng i tud ina l ly c u rv ed v en t ra la nd d o r sa l s i d e s . I na dd i t ion , e i nko rn w hea t g r a in sw h ich h ave d ev e lop ed i nt wo s eeded s p ik e le t sm ay b e e xp e c t ed . T he v en t ra l s i d eo ft h e se g r a in si sn o tc u rv ed b u t s t ra igh t a nd f l a t a s i n e mme r g r a in s . T hey c an b e d i s t ingu i sh ed f r om e mm e r w hea t g r a in s b y t h e i r g r ea t s l end e rn e s s a nd b y t h e i r m o re p o in t ed u pp e r a nd l owe r e nd s ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akk e rHe e re s 1 982 , 1 9 0 ) T he t h ickn e s s a nd b r ead th o fd ome s t ic e i nkom t y p e g r a in s a nd f r agmen t s w e r e c ompa red w i th t h o se o f1 gg r a in s f r om T e l l R amad a nd T el A swad , a nd w i th t h o se o fm od e rn 1 g a nd 2 g g r a in s w h ich h ad b e en d ehu sk ed a nd c ha r r ed a t 2 30 °C ( f igu r e 4 . 3 ) . T h et h ickne s sa nd b r ead th p l o t s h owed t h a tt h ea nc ien t J o rdan ian s p e c imen sw e r e s im i la ri ns i ze t o a ve r ag e m ea su rem en t s o f b o th t h e a n c ien t S y r ian a nd m od e rn g r a in s . T r i t icum c f .d i cocco id e s( w i ld e mmer t ype ) O n e w ho le g r a in a nd o n e a p ica l f r agm en t w e r e t e n ta t iv e ly i d en t if i ed a s T r i t icum c f . d i cocco id es t y p e . Wh en v i ewed d o r so -v en t ra l ly ,t h es i d e so ft h eg r a in sa pp ea r ed t ob ea lmo s t s t r a igh ta nd i nt h i sv i ew , t h ea p ice sw e r eb l un to rt r unca t ed . 6 3

T r i t icum s pp . —f r ee t hr e sh ing whea t Two w ho le g r a in sa nd o ne e mb ryo f r agmen t w e r e i d en t if i ed a s f r ee t h r e sh ing w hea t s . S p ec ie s i d en t if ica t ion s w e r e n o t a t temp t ed . T h e g r a in s w e r e mo r e r ound ed t h a t t h o se a t t r ibu t ed t ot h e g l ume whea t s pec ie s . E xam ina t ion o ft h e s hap e o ft h e e mb ryo e nd s , i np a r t icu la ri nd o r sa lv i ew , w a s a n a i d t od i s t ingu i sh ing t h e f r e e t h r e sh ing f r om t h e g l um e w hea t g ra in s . T he t wo ' c he ek s ' a t t h e e mb ryo m ad e a d i s t inc t , r ound ed ' W ' s hape . V an Z e i s t a nd B akk e rHee r e s o b s e rved t h ef o l low ing o ft h e S y r ian g r a in s :

Ho rd eum ( Bar ley ) I d en t if i ca t ion o fw i ld a nd d ome s t ic b a r ley s pec ies h a s b e en w id e ly a cknow ledg ed a mong s t a r cha eobo tan i s t s a s b e ing p ro lema t ic a nd t h e J o rdan ian s pec imen s w e r e n o e x cep t ion . T he t h ickne s s a nd b read th o f a l l t h e g r a in s a nd f r agm en t s w e r e m ea su r ed a nd t h e s e w e r e p l o t ted o n as c a t t e rg r am ( f igu r e4 . 6 ) . O nt h eb a s i so fs i ze , t h eg r a in sw e r ea s s ign ed t o t h e w i ld s p e c ie s i ft h ey w e r e l e s s t h an 1 . 4nun t h ick a nd 2 . 2nun b r oad ,a nd t h ed ome s t ic s t a tu s w a s a tr ibu ted t ot h o se g ra in sw h ich w e r eg re a t e rt h an 1 . 0mm t h ick a nd 2 . 2mm b r oad ( s e ea l so P e l t enbu rg e ta l2 001 , 4 5 -46 ) . T h e re w a s o bv iou s ly g r ea t s c op e f o r m i s id en t if i ca t ion . A s v an Z e i s t a nd B akk e rH ee r e s a pp rop r ia t e ly c ommen ted f o r t h e b a r ley f r om T e l l A s v vad ,T e l lG hor a ie a nd T el R amad :

" I nn ak ed w hea tt h eg r ea te s tb r ead th i su sua l ly f ound i nt h e l ow e r p a r t o f t h e k ema l , b u t n ak ed whea t g ra in s w i th t h e g r ea t e s tb r ead th i nt h em idd le o c cu rl i k ew i se . . . . .The a pex o f t h e g r a in s i so f t en t r un ca ted round ed , b u t o t h e r k ema l s a l so s how amo r e g r ad ua l ly t a pe r ing u ppe rp a r t . T h e d o r sa l s i de i si nc r o s s -se c t ion u sua l ly mo re r ound ed t h an i ne mme r w hea t ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akk e rHee re s 1 982 , 1% )

" Th e g r a in s a r e s ep a ra ted i n to t wo c a t ego r ie s : mo r e o r l e s s d i s t in c t w i ld b a r ley t y p e k ema l s a nd o t he r s w h ich a r e p r edom in an t ly H o rd eum d i s t ichum b u t w h ich m ay i n c lud e s om e H ord eum s pon taneum ." ( v an Z e i s t a nd B akk e rH e e r e s 1 982 ,2 04 )

T he t h ickn e s sa nd b r ead th o ft h ef r ee t h r e sh ing w h ea tg ra in s w e r ec omp a r ed w i th t h o se o fg ra in s f r om T e l l R amad , T e l l A swad a nd T e l l G hor a ie ( f igu r e 4 . 5 ) . T he t h ickne s s a nd b r ead th s c a t te rgr am p l o t s howed t h a t t h e a nc ien t J o rdan ian g r a in s w e r e s im i la ri ns i ze t ot h e a v e rage m ea su r emen t s o f t h e S y r ian s p ec im en s .

Ho rd eum s pon taneum t yp e( w i ld b ar ley t ype ) T h e w i ld t y p e g r a in s w e r e r e la t ive ly n a r row a nd t h in . T h e g ro s s m o rpho logy o f t h e g r a in s w a s t y p ica l o f t h a t o f t h e H ord eum g enu s , t h ey w e r e d o r so -ven t ra l ly c omp re s sed , t h e a p ica la nd e mb ryo e nd sw e r eb lun to rt r un ca ted ( i na lv i ew s ) , a nd t h ef u r row st e nd ed t ob ew id ea nd s h a l low ( t ab le 4 . 3 ) . A s n o t ed b yv an Z e i s ta nd B akk e rHee r e s :

T r i t icum s pp . —f r e et hre sh ing whea tr ach i s T he m o rpho logy o ft h e r a ch i s o ft h e f r ee t h r e sh ing w hea t s c an b e ag r ea t e ra i dt oi d en t if i ca t ion t h an t h a t o ft h e g ra in s . H i l lman h a sd e sc r ib ed c r i te r ia t h a tc ou ld b eu sed t os epa ra t e t e t rap lo id f r om h exap lo id f r ee t h r e sh ing whea t r a ch i se s , b u t h a s s t r e s sed t h a t t h e se a r e r e l iab le o n ly f o r p opu la t ion s e xh ib i t ing e x t r em e m o rpho log ica l f o rm s ( s ee Z oha ry 2 000 , 3 4 f i gu r e 8 b ) . T h e d i agno s t ic f e a tu r e s i n c lud e t h e s hap e o f t h e r a ch i s i n temod e , t h e p o s i t ion o ft h e g l um e b r eak a tt h e r a ch i s n od e , t h e s hap e o ft h e n od e b e low t h e p o in t o ft h e g l um ei n se r t ion , a nd t h ep r e senc e o ra b s en ce o fl i n e s o nt h e o u te rf a c eo ft h ei n temod e . T he r a ch i si n temod et y p e sf r om Wad i F idan s i te C a r e r e co rd ed ( t ab le 4 . 2 ) . T yp e 1w a s i d en t if ied a sh exap lo id w hea tr a ch i s . T he r a ch i s i n t e rnod e s i nt h i s c a tego ry h ad c u rv ed s i d e s , t h e r e w e r e n o v e s t ig e s o f g l um e s a dh e r ing a tt h e r a ch i s n od e s , a nd t h e r e w a s o n ly a s l igh tb u lg ej u s tb e low t h ep o in t so fi n s e r t ion . T yp e s 2a nd 3s e emed t o b ea r f e a tu r e s w h ich w e r e c ommon t o b o th t e t rap lo id a nd h exap lo id r a ch i se s . T he s hap e o ft h e r a ch i s i n temod e s i nt yp e 2w e r ec ha ra c te r i s t ic o ft e t r ap lo id w hea t s , t h ey w e r e s t ra igh t s i d ed a nd t r apezo ida l , b u t u n l ik e t h e r a ch i se s i n t h i s p l o id y l e ve l , t h e re w a s n o e v id ence o f g lum e s s t il a t tach ed a tt h e n ode s . T yp e 3i n temod e s w e r e t y p ica l o ft h eh exap lo id r a ch i s s hape a nd u n l ik et h er a ch i se s i nt h i s p l o idy l e ve l , t h e re w e r e r ema in s o fg lume s a dhe r ing a t t h e n od e s . T yp e s 2 a nd 3 r a ch i s i n temod e s w e r e c ompa red w i th t h o s e f ound a t t h e s i te o f T e l l R amad ( i l lu s t ra t ed i nv an Z e i s ta nd B akk e rHee r e s 1 982 , 2 00 ) , a nd t h ey s e emed t ob es im i la ri nt h ea mb igu i ty o ft h e i rf e a tu r e s . T he r a ch is r ema in s h av e b een g roup ed t oge th e r i n t h e c a tego ry ' f r ee t h r e sh ing wh ea t —r a ch i si n temod e s ' .

" H ord eum s pon taneum g r a in s a r e c ha rac t e r i sed b y t h e r a th e r f l a td o r sa ls i d ea nd b yt h es ma l lt h ickn e s s . T hey a r ev e ry t h in a tt h e a p ex a si sp a r t icu la r ly c l ea r i nt h e l a te ra l v i ew ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akk e rH ee r e s 1 984a , 1 86 187 ) T he t h ickn e s sa nd b r ead th o ft h ew i ld b a r ley t y pe g ra in sw e r e c omp a r ed w i th t h o se o fH o rd eum s pon taneum g r a in sf r om t h e s i t e o fT e l l Mu r eyb i t ( f igu r e 4 . 7 ) . T h e t h ick ne s s a nd b r ead th s c a t t e rg ram p l o t s how ed t h a t t h e a nc ien t J o rdan ian g r a in s w e r es ma l le rt h an t h ea v e rag es i ze so ft h eS y r ian s pec im en s . Ho rd eum s a t i vum t ype ( dome s t ic b ar ley t ype ) T h e g r a in s a nd f r agm en t s w h ich w e r e i d en t if ied a s d om e s t ic t y p e b a r ley w e r e m o r e r ound ed t h an t h o s e o ft h e w i ld t y p e , a nd t h ef u r row st e nd ed t ob e n a r rowe r ( t ab le 4 . 3 ) . T h e g r a in s u r f ac e s b o r e t h e i mp r e s s ion s o ft h e e nve lop ing l emma s a nd p a lea s a nd t h e s h ap e s o ft h e g r a in s w e r e a ngu la r , d u e t ot h e c on s t r ic t ion o f t h e h u sk s . O ne g r a in ( W J13 B a /b 2 1c ) , h ow eve r , w a s mu ch mo r e r ound ed a nd b o r e n o s i gn s o ft h e l emma o rp a lea ,a nd i tw a si d en t if ied a sn ak ed b a r ley . G r a in s w e r er e co rd ed a c co rd ing t ot h e i r s ymme t ry ( 's t ra igh t ' g r a in s ) o r a s ymm e t r y ( ' tw i s ted ' g r a in s ) , i n o rd e r t o e s tab l i sh t h e p r e s en ce o f2 row o r6 row b a r ley ( on a2 row b a r ley e a ra l t h e g r a in sa r e ' s t ra igh t ' , o n a6 row e a r t h e m ed ian g r a in si n t h e s p ik e le ta r e ' s t ra igh t ' a nd t h e l a te ra l g r a in s a r e ' t w i s t ed' , t a b le 4 . 4 ) . F o r t h e m a jo r i ty o f g ra in s i tw a s i mpo s s ib l e t o mak e ad ec i s ion a bou ts hap eb ecau se o fp oo rp r e se rva t ion a nd s ot h e se w e r er e co rded i na ni n d e te rm ina t ec a tego ry .

6 4

d i s t inc t ion . T yp e sa , ba nd cs howed ' c lean ' a b sc i s s ion s c a r s , o n ly t y p e aw a se n t i re ,t y p e s ba nd cw e r eb rok en a tt h et op o r b a se o ft h ei n t e rnod e , r e sp ec t iv e ly . T ype dw a s b a sa l r a ch i s , j o in t ed o r s i ng le , a nd t y pe e i n c lud ed p oo r ly p r e se rved i n t er node s . T yp e s f , ga nd h w e r e a l l s i ng le , b rok en r a ch i s f r agmen t s w h ich h ad p a r t s o f t h e b a se o f t h e u pp e r r a ch i s i n te rnod e s a t ta ched . T yp e fw a s i d en t if i ed a s 2 row b a r ley r a ch i s a nd t y p e gw a s i d en t if i ed a s 6 row r a ch i s ; t h e se d i s t inc t ion s w e r e mad e w i th r e f e r enc e t o t h e w id th o f t h e u pp e r s u r f a ce s o f t h e i n t e rnod e s ( i . e . 6 row b e ing b road e r t h an 2 row ) . F o r t y p e h , t h e p oo r p r e se rva t ion o f t h e i n ter nod e sp r ev en ted d i s t in c t ion b e tw een t h e2 row a nd 6 row t y p e s .

T h et h ick n e s sa nd b r ead th o ft h ed ome s t ic b a r ley t yp eg r a in s w e r e c ompa r ed w i th t h o se o fH ord eum d i s t ichum f r om T e l l R amad a nd T el A swad ( f igu r e 4 . 8 ) . T he t h ickn e s s a nd b re ad th s c a t te rg ram p l o t s howed t h a t am a jo r i ty o f t h e a n c ien tJ o rdan ian g r a in sw a s s ma l l e r t h an t h e a ve rag e s i ze s o ft h eS y r ian s p ec imen s . Ho rd eum r ach i si n ternode s T he r a ch i s o f w i ld b a r ley i sb r i t t le a nd i td i sa r t icu la t e s s pon tan eou s ly when t h e e a ri sr i p e . T h er a ch i so fd om e s t ic b a r ley i s n on -b r i t t le a nd o n ly b r eak s wh en t h e e a r i s t h r e sh ed . A f te r d i sa r t icu la t ion , t h e w i ld b a r ley i n ter node s a r ee n t i r ew i th ' c lean ' a b sc i s s ion s c a r s , s how ing n o s i gn s o f t e a r ing a tt h e p o in t o fd i sa r t icu la t ion . When t h e d om e s t ic b a r ley e a ri st h r e shed t h e r a ch i s d o e s n o t b r eak ' c lean ly ' a t t h ej o in t sb e tween t h e i n te rnode s , b u t s ot h a tt h eb a sa l p a r t o ft h e u pp e r i n te rnod e s egmen t r ema in s a dh e r ing t o l ow e r s egmen t( o f ten w i th s e v e ra li n te rnod e sa t tached ) . S o u n l ik e t h ew i ld r a ch i s , t h ed om e s t ic i n t er n ode sd on o th av e ' c lean ' a b s c i s s ion s c a r sa nd a r eu sua l ly n o te n t i r e , i . e . t h e b a se s a r e b rok en . U nf or tuna te ly , t h e r ea r ee x cep t ion st ot h e r u le a nd , i np a r t i cu la r , f o r p r e -ag ra r ian a nd e a r ly a g r a r ian s i t e s , t h e r e s e em t ob e a be r ran t w i ld a nd d om e s t ic e a r s . A t t h e s i t e o f T e l l A swad ( whe r e b o th w i ld a nd d ome s t ic 2 row b a r ley w a sf o und ) ,v an Z e i s ta nd B akk e rH ee r e s ( 1982 , 2 04 )n o t ed t h a tt h e r ew a s ad i sc r ep ancy b e tw een t h ep ropo r t ion so fw i ld t yp e i n t e rnode s t o w i ld b a r ley g ra in s , i . e . t h e n umbe r s o f w i ld t y p e i n t er nod e s w e r e f a r g r ea t e r t h an t h e e qu iva l en t n umbe r s o f w i ld g r a in s , a nd mo r e c l o s e ly ma t ched t h e n umb e r s o f d ome s t ic g ra in s . O n e p o s s ib le e xp lana t ion g iv en b yt h e a u tho r sw a s t h a tb a r ley w a s a ta ni n te rmed ia te s t ag ei nt h ed eve lopmen tf r om aw i ld t o ad om e s t ic t y p e , i . e . s o t h a t m o rpho log ica l ly d ome s t ic g r a in s m igh t b e e xp ec t ed t og r ow o n e a r s w i th b r i t t le o rs em i -b r i t t le r a ch i s e s . I ft h i s w e r e t h e c a se , t h e a u tho r s s t a ted , t h en t h e w i ld t yp e r a ch i s i d en t if i ed a tt h e s i te m ay w e l l h av e d e r ived f r om H ord eum d i s t ichum e a r s t h a t w e r e n o t y e t f u l ly t o ugh . A t t h e E p ip a la eo l i th ic s i te o f O ha lo I , K i s lev ( 1 992 , 1 62 163 ) n o ted t h a ts i ng le r a ch i si n t er node sw e r ef ound w h ich h ad t h e b a sa l p a r t o f t h e n ex t i n t er nod e a dh e r ing . H e s t a ted t h a t t h e se i n t e rnod e t y p e s h ad p r ev iou s ly b een w rong ly a t t r ibu t ed t ot h e d ome s t ic s p ec ie s ( o n ly w i ld b a r ley g r a in s w e r ei d en t if i ed a tt h e s i te )a nd c on c lud ed t h ey d e r iv ed f r om w i ld p l an t s , o nt h eb a s i s o fe v id enc e w h ich h ad s hown t h a t i n a n y w i ld p opu la t ion , t h i s t y pe o f i n te rnod e c on s i t i tu ted a bou t 1 0% o f t h e t o ta l . H owev e r , s ub sequen t m od em e xp e r im en t sh ave s hown t h a t amuch s ma l le rp e r cen tag e ( 2 3% ) o ft h e e a r s o fw i ld b a r ley p opu la t ion s w ou ld h ave t h i s ' d om e s t ic typ e ' r a ch i s , i ft h re sh ed o n ce d r y ( Zoha ry 1 992 , 8 5 ) . E q ua l ly l i k e ly i st h a t w i ld s t and s , i fh a rve s ted w hen s t i l lu n r ip e ,c ou ld g i ve r i s et or a ch i si n t er nod e s wh ich w ou ld m im ic d ome s t ic f o rm s ( H i lhnan p e r s .comm . ) . T h e r e i s o bv iou s ly g r ea t d i sc r epancy a nd d i s t in c t ion b e tw een w i ld a nd d om e s t ic b a r ley , b a s ed o n t h e m o rpho logy o f r a ch i s i n t e rnod e s ,w ou ld a pp ea r ,t h e r ef o r e ,t ob ep rob lema t ic .

Ho rd eum/E lymus t ype T h e g r a in s a nd f r agmen t s i n t h i s c a tego ry b o r e f e a tu re s c ommon t o b o th g ene ra T h e s p ec im en s w e r e s im i la r i n s hap e t ob a r ley g r a in sb u t w e r e much mo r e r ound ed i nc r o s s s e c t ion . T h eu s eo f' t yp e ' i nt h i s i n s tan ce r e f e r r ed t ot h e f a c t t h a t a l though t h e s e ed s r e semb led H ord eum a nd E lymus , o t he rg ene r ac ou ld n o tb ee x c lud ed .

I den t if ica t ion o ft he o ther t axa ( i .e .n on -c erea l ) T he c r i t e r ia f o r i d en t if i ca t ion o ft h e s e ed s ( e tc . ) o ft h e o t he r t a xa f o und i nt h e J o rdan ian s amp le sa r e r e co rd ed i na pp end ix 1 . I den t if ica t ion o ft he c harred p arenchyma tous t i s sue s I tw a sn o tt h ei n t en t ion t h a tt h ep r e sen ts t udy s hou ld i n c lud ea c omp r eh en s iv es u rv ey o fp a r enchyma tou st i s sue sf ound i nt h e s amp le s f r om t h e J o rdan ian s i t e s . T he a im o ft h e r e sea r ch w a sm e r e ly t oe s tab l i sh w he the ra ny v eg e ta t ive s t o rag eo rgan s w e r ep r e sen ti nt h eo ccupa t ion d epo s i t s . F ragmen t s o f p a r enchyma tou s t i s se s w e r e e x t r a c ted d u r ing t h e i n i t ia l s o r t ing o f t h e p l an t m a te r ia l . T he se w e r e d i s t ingu i shab le f r om w ood c ha r coa l b y t h e c e l lu la r s t ru c tu r e o ft h et i s sue sa nd , mo s tn o t iceab ly , t h ey l a ck ed c l ea r ly v i s ib le p a ra l le l v e s se l s . T he s e cond s t ag e i n t h e s o r t ing o f t h e se r ema in s i n vo lv ed r e -exam ina t ion o f e ach f r agmen t u nd e r a l i gh t m ic ro scop e a t mu ch h i gh e r m agn if i ca t ion s ( x 5 0 ) , i n o rd e r t o c hoo se s p ec im en s wh ich w e r e l i k e ly t o b e i d en t if iab le . I d en t if i ca t ion o fv ege ta t iv e o rgan s i sb a s ed o n t h e mo rpho logy o ft h e c on s t i tuen t e l emen t s o f t h e v a s cu la r t i s sue . T he c ho ice o f s p ec im en s w a s m ad e a cco rd ing t o w h e the ra ny v a s cu la rs t rand sc ou ld b e s e en o nt h es u r f ac e so f t h e f r agm en t s . When v i ew ed a th igh magn if i ca t ion s u nd e ra l i gh t m ic ro scop e , i t w a s p o s s ib le t o m ak e p rov i s iona l i d en t if i ca t ion s o f s ome o f t h e s p ec im en s , f o r e xamp le , w h e th e r t h e f r agm en t s d e r iv ed f r om monoco ty ledonou s o r d i co ty ledonou s p l an t s a nd , i n s ome c a s e s , w he the r t h e v ege ta t iv eo rgan r ep re sen t ed w a s at u be r , ar h i zom e , ar o o t o r as wo l len s t em . T he h i gh e r m agn if ica t ion s mad e p o s s ib le b y s c ann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scopy w e r e n ece s sa ry i no rd e r t oe nab le m o r e a c cu ra te d e sc r ip t ion s o ft h e i n te rna l c e l lu la r m o rpho log ie s o f t h e s e lec ted s p e c imen s . S cann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scopy i s e xp en s iv ei nt e rm so ft ime a nd money a nd w i th in t h ec onf in e s

T h e r a ch i s i n te rnod e t y pe s f o r t h e J o rdan ian s i t e s a r e r e co rd ed i nt a b le 4 . 5 . T ype s a , ba nd cw e r e i d en t if i ed a s w i ld b a r l ey , t y p e s f , ga nd h w e r e i d en t if i ed a s d om e s t ic b a r ley , a nd f o r t y p e s da nd ei tw a s n o t p o s s ib le t om ak e a 6 5

t wo w hea t g r a in s ) a nd t h e a v e rag e w e igh t o fo ne g ra in w a s c a lcu la ted ( 0 .009g ) . T he w e igh t s o f t h e c e r ea l f r agm en t s w e r e d i v ided b y t h e w e igh t o f o n e g r a in t o c a lcu la te t h e n umbe r s o fw ho le g r a in e qu iva len t s . A p ica l o re mb ryo e nd s o fg r a s ss e ed sw e r ec oun ted a sf o rw hea ta nd b a r ley . P is tac ia s p . n u t sh e l l f r agm en t s w e r e c onv e r t ed t o who le n u t e qu iva len t s o nt h eb a s i so fw e igh t . T h e w e igh to ft h re e n u t s ( mod er n c ha r r ed s p ec imen s o f s im i la r d imen s ion s t o t h e a n c ien t s p ec im en s ) w a s f o und t ob e 0 . 07g . P r unus s p . a nd Amygda lus s p .f r u i ts t on ef r agmen t sw e r e ,l i k ew i s e , c onv e r t ed t ow ho le e qu iva len t s o n t h e b a s i s o fw e igh t . T he w e igh t o f t wo mod e rn c h a r r ed s t one s o f as pec ie s o fP runus s im i la ri n s i ze a nd s h el t h i ckne s s t ot h e a n c ien t s p ec imen s w a s 0 . 15g , a nd t h e w e igh t o f o n e s t on e ( mod er n a nd c ha r red ) o f a n a pp rop r ia te ly s i zed s p ec ie s o f Amygda lus w a s 0 . 3g . F o r t h e r ema in ing t a xa o n ly f r agmen t st h a tw e r e g r ea te rt h an h a l ft h e s i ze o ft h ee n t i r es e ed ( e t c . )w e r ec oun ted .

o f t h i s s t udy i tw a s o n ly p o s s ib le t o s ubm i t as mal p ropo r t ion o f t h e p a r enchyma tou s c ha r coa l s f o r s u ch d e ta i led a na ly s i s . S of r om t h o s eb e t t e rp r e s er ved f r agm en t s w i th v i s ib le v a scu la rs t rand s , af u r the rs e lec t ion w a sm ad et o i n c lud e a tl e a s t o ne s p ec imen f r om e a ch o f t h e t y p e s o f v ege ta t iv eo rgan sr ep r e sen ted . F o r s p ec im en s w h e r e t h e v a scu la r t i s sue w a s n o t p e rp end icu la r ( o r a pp rox ima te ly s o ) t o as u r f a ce , i tw a s n ec e s sa ry t ob r eak t h ef r agmen t si ns u ch aw ay a st oe xpo s e t h ee nd so ft h ev e s se l s . I fs l igh tp re s su r ew a se x e r ted t ot h e t i po f as c a lp e lb l ad e , p o s i t ioned c a r ef u l ly o nt h e s p e c im en , ac l ean b r eak w i th t h e m in imum o f f r agm en ta t ion w a s o b ta ined . T h e n ew ly e xpo sed s u rf ace s w e r e a l so f r e e f r om t h e d u s t a nd d eb r i s t h a t c oa t ed t h e o u t e r l a ye r s o f t h e f r agmen t s . T h ef r agmen t sw e r e moun t ed o nS EM s t ub sw i th d oub le s id ed s t i cky t a p e . T he s p ec im en sw e r er a re ly g r ea t e r t h an 5 mm a c ro s s( max imum d im en s ion )a nd s ot h eh e igh to f t h e u pp e r s u r f ac e s a bove t h e s t ub n ev e r e xceed ed t h e r e comm ended m ax imum s i ze o f s amp le s u i tab le f o r t h e v acuum c hamb e r o f t h e e l ec tron m ic ro scop e . T h e s pec imen sw e r es pu t t e r coa t ed w i th g o ld t o ad ep th o fa bou t 3 0nm a nd l i ne so fs i lv e rd ag w e r e p a in t ed o nf r om t h eb a se o ft h ef r agmen t st ot h e e dg e o ft h e s t ub , t oe n su r e a d equa t e c onduc t iv i ty .

T h e t o ta l n umb e r s o f i t em s ( s eed s , n u t s , f r u i t s t one s , c h af f e l em en t s , e t c . ) w e r e c oun ted f o r e ach s amp l e . T he t o ta l n umbe r o f i t em s p e r l i t r e o f e x cava t ed d epo s i t w a s a l so c a lcu la ted f o re a ch s amp le ( t ab le 4 . 1 ) .

P re serva t ion i nd ice s I nd iv idua l s e ed s o f a l l t a xa ( e xcep t F icus s p . a nd n u t sh e l l f r agmen t s ) w e r e a s s igned ap r e s e rva t ion i n d ex . An ume r ica l v a lue , o n as c a le o f0 3 ( 0=v e ry b ad , 1 =poo r , 2 =f a i r , 3 =good ) w a s a s s ign ed a c co rd ing t o t h e s u rv iva l o f c e r ta in mo rpho log ica l f e a tu r e s , e . g . t e s ta s cu lp tu r ing ( e tc . ) . A n a v e rag e p r e se rva t ion i n d ex w a s c a lcu la ted f o r e ach s amp le . A v e rage p r e se rva t ion i nd ic e s w e r e a l so c a lcu la ted f o r e a ch s i t e( b y ' a v e rag ing 't h ei n d ic e so fs amp le sf r om t h es i te s ) .

Two s c ann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro s cope s , a C amb r idg e S t e reo scan 6 00 a nd aP h i l l ip s 5 00 , w e r e u sed i nt h e s t udy a nd t h e se w e r e m ad e a va i lab le b y t h e D ep a r tmen t o f Ma te r ia l s S c ien ce a t t h e Un ive r s i ty o f S heff ie ld . T h e o pe ra t ing v o l tag e s u sed f o r s c ann ing t h e s amp le s w e r e b e tween 2 5KV a nd 1 2KV . F o r e ach s p e c im en a s m any p ho tog r aph sw e r et ak en ( a tl ow a nd h igh magn if i ca t ion s ) a s w e r e r equ i r ed t o r e co rd a d equa te ly t h e a r rang emen t o f v a scu la r t i s sue w i th in t h e p a ren chyma . T he h ighe s t m agn if i ca t ion u s ed w a s x 1000 , b u t i tw a s f ound t h a t t h e mo s t a pp rop r ia t e m agn if ica t ion f o r s c ann ing t h e s p ec imen s w a s x 250 . A s m any a s p o s s ib le o f t h e mo rpho log ica l f e a tu r e s , u se f u l f o r i d en t if i ca t ion o f t h e t i s sue s , w e r e e xam ined a nd d e sc r ib ed .

T h e r ea r eo bv iou sp i t f a l l sw i th t h i ss y s t em o fa s s e s smen t . F o r e xamp le , n o a l lowan c e s c an b e m ad e f o r t h e f a c t t h a t w h en s e ed s ( a nd o t h e rp l an t p a r t s ) o fd if e r en t s p ec ie s a r e e xpo s ed t o t h e s am e i n ten s i ty o f b u rn ing , t h e r e su l tan t d i s to r t ion /d e s t r uc t ion i sn o t u n if o rm ( Boa rdman a nd J on e s 1 990 ; W i l son 1 984 ) . S o s ome t a xa w ou ld a lw ay s h av el owe r p r e se rva t ion i n d ic e s b y c ompa r i son , a nd o t h e r s h ighe r . A p r epond e rance i n as amp le o ft a xa w h ich s u rv iv e e i the rv e ry w e l l o rv e ry p oo r ly w i l l i n t roduce v a r ia t ion i n to t h e o v e ra l l i nd ex f o r t h e s amp le , wh ich i su n re la ted t oe x te rna l f a c to r s . I n t h i s s t udy , t h e r e f o r e , p r e se rva t ion i n d ic e s w e r e c a lcu la ted w i th a nd w i thou t s c o re s f o r l a rge l e gum e s ( at a xon w h ich d o e s n o tu sua l ly c ha r ' we l l ' ) a nd c ompa r i son sw e re mad e . I f t h e i n d ic e s w e r e b e t t e r w i thou t t h e l a rg e l e g ume s , t h e s e v a lu e s w e r e c on s id e r ed t ob e amo r e a c cu r a t e a s se s smen t o f t h eo ve ra l ls t a t eo fp r e s er va t ion o ft h ep l an tr ema in s .

F o rt h es t udy ,f r agmen t so fp a r en chyma w e r ee x t ra c ted f r om at o ta l o f s i x ty s amp le s a nd f o r ty o f t h e s pec im en s w e r e e xam ined u s ing s c ann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scopy . P ho tog raph s a nd w r i t ten d e sc r ip t ive r e co rd sw e r ep rodu ced o ft h ei n te rna l a na tom ie so fe a ch s p ec im en e xam ined , a nd t h e se w e re u sed t oa i di d en t if i ca t ion o ft h ev eg e ta t ive o rgan s( a pp end ix 2 ) .

Quan t if ica t ion o ft he R ema in s

V a r ia t ion s i np r e s e rva t ion i n d ice s a nd n umb e r s o f i t em s p e r l i t r e w e r e i n v e s t iga t ed i n o rd e r t o e va lua t e t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een p r e s e r va t ion a nd t h e q uan t i t ie s o fp l an t r ema in s i n t h es amp le s .

C oun t ing t axa Who le i t em s ( s eed s , f r u i t s t on e s , n u t s , c haf fe l em en t s , e t c . ) a nd ' who le i t em e qu iva len t s ' w e r es c o r ed i nt h el i s t so ft a xa . ' Who le i t em e qu iva len t s ' w e r e c a lcu la t ed a s f o l low s . T h e n umb e r o fe i th e r a p ica l o re mb ryo f r agmen t s o fw hea t a nd b a r ley ( wh ichev e r w a s t h e l a rg e s t ) w e r e c oun ted a s w ho le g r a in s f o r e ach s amp le . I nd e te rm ina te c e r ea l f r agmen t s w e re c onve r ted t ow ho le g r a in e qu iva len t s o n t h e b a s i s o f w e igh t . T en a n c ien t g r a in s w e r e w e ighed ( e igh tb a r ley a nd

F ragmen ta t ion i nd ice s Who le s e ed s a nd f r agmen t s o f s e ed w e r e c oun ted f o r e a ch s amp le . T h e f r agm en ta t ion i n d ic e s w e r e t h e r a t io s o f t h e n umb e r s o ff r agm en t s t ot h e n umb e r s o fw ho le s eed s . T h e i nd ic e sw e r e c a l cu la t ed f o re a ch s amp le a nd f o r e ach s i t e ( b y 6 6

' a v e rag ing ' t h e i n d ic e s o f s amp le s f r om t h e s i te s ) . A f r agm en ta t ion i n d ex o f 0m ean tt h e r e w e r e n o f r agmen t s i n t h e s amp le s , i n d ic e s o fl e s s t h a t o n e o r e qua l t o o ne w e r e t a k en t oi n d ica t el ow f r agmen ta t ion ,i n d ic e sg r ea te rt h an o n e a nd l e s s t h an f i v e w e r e t a k en t o i n d ica te mod e ra t e ly h igh f r agm en ta t ion , a nd i n d ice s o f o v e r f i v e w e re t a k en t o i n d ica t eh igh f r agm en ta t ion .

t o ta lo f2 60 t a xa h ad b een i d en t if i ed . I tw a s o bv iou st h a ta ny ' m an ipu la t ion ' o f t h e d a ta w ou ld r e qu i r e mu l t iva r ia t e s t a t i s t ica lt e chn iqu e si no rd e rt oc ompa r et h ea r chaeobo tan ica l m a t e r ia l f r om t h ed if e r en t s i t e s . W i th r e g a rd t o mu l t iva r ia t e t e chn iqu e s ,L ang en o t e s : " R edundan cy o fi n f o rma t ion i ss umma r i sed , n o i s e i sr edu ced , o u t l ie r s c an b e i d en t if ied a nd r e la t ion s a r e b rough t t ol i gh t ." ( Lang e 1 990 ,4 1 )

T he r e w e r e s im i la rp rob lem s w i th t h i s m e thod a s w i th t h a t f o r t h e m ea su r e o fp r e se rva t ion , f o r e xamp le , l ong , s l end e r c e r ea l g r a in s ( a nd a ny o th e r s im i la r ly s haped s e ed s ) a r e much m o r e l i k e ly t ob r eak w hen s ub jec t ed t oa ny f o rm o f a t t r i t ion t h an s ma l l , m o r e c ompac ts e ed s ( e .g . C henopod ium s pp . ) . S ot h a ta ny s amp le sw i th l a rg en umb e r so fc e rea l s , o r s im i la r ly s hap ed s e ed s , w ou ld h av e h i gh e r f r agmen ta t ion i n d ic e st h an t h o se d om ina ted b yc ompa c ts e ed s , e v en t h ough t h ee x t e rna l f o rc e sa c t ing o na l l t h e s amp le s m ay h av eb e en t h e s ame . I n t h i s s t udy , t h e r ef o r e , f r agm en ta t ion i n d ice s w e r e c a lcu la ted w i th a nd w i thou t t h e s c o r e s f o r c e rea l s , t o e va lua t e t h i s e f f ec t . I ft h e i n d ic e s o f t h e s amp le s w e r e h i gh e rw i th t h e c e r ea l s , t h ev a lue s w i thou t w e r e c on s id e r ed t ob e m o r er e p r e sen ta t ive o ft h e d eg r ee o ff r agmen ta t ion o f t h ep l an tr ema in s .

C o r re spond enc e a na ly s i s ( h e rea f t e rd eno t ed CA ) w a s c ho sen a s t h e mu l t iva r ia t e t e chn ique t o u se o n t h e d a ta . T h i s s t a t i s t ica lm e thod i sc on s id e red i d ea l ly s u i t ed t od ea l ing w i th d a ta o ft h ea bundance typ e , a nd s ow a sa pp l icab le t ot h ed a ta s e ti nq u e s t ion : " Th e c o r r e spond ence a na ly s i s i s amu l t iva r ia te t e chn ique t h a t c an h and le a bundance d a ta , a nd g r aph ica l ly r e la t e a ny c omb ina t ion o f c l u s t e r ing a nd s e r ia t ion i n t h e m a t e r ia l ." ( Ho i land N ie l sen 1 988 , 3 7 ) Many s t a t i s t ica l a na ly se s a r e a pp l icab le o n ly t od a ta w i th a n o rma ld i s t r ibu t ion , wh ich d a ta o ft h ea bundan ce typ e s e ldom h a s . CA , h owev e r , m ak e s n o a s sump t ion s c once rn ing t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fv a r iab le s i nt h ed a ta s e t ( Lang e 1 990 , 4 2 ) . O f i mpo r tan c e t o t h e p r e sen t s t udy w a s t h e f a c t t h a t CA i s s ymme t r ica l w i th r ega rd t ou n i t s a nd v a r iab le s , i . e . t h ey a r e a na ly sed i nt h e s ame mu lt id imen s iona l s p a c ea nd c an t h u sb e s hown i n t h e s ame p l o t s ( l io i land N e i ls en 1 988 , 3 7 ) . A s L ang e s t a te s , t h e g r aph ica l r ep r e sen ta t ion o ft h e o u tpu t f r om CA s how st h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween u n i t sa nd v a r iab le s :

V a r ia t ion si nf r agmen ta t ion i nd ice sa nd n umbe ro fi t em sp e r l i t r e w e re i n v e s t iga t ed i no rd e r t oe va lua t e t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een f r agmen ta t ion a nd t h eq uan t i t ie so fp l an tr ema in si n t h es amp le s .

T axa d iver s i ty i nd ice s T h e n umb e r s o f d if e r en t t a xa r e p r e s en t ed i ne ach s amp le w e r e c oun t ed . T h e m ea su r e s o f t a xa d i v e r s i ty w e r e c a lcu la ted u s ing t h eS hannon -W iene ri n d ex H :

" I n g r aph ica l f o rm t h e r e su l t s o f aC o r r e spond en ce A na ly s i s b r ing o u t t h e p o s i t ion o f e a ch s amp le r e la t iv e t o a l l o t he r s amp le sa nd t oa l lt h es p ec ie s , a nd o fe a ch s p e c ie s r e la t ive t o a l l o t he r s p e c ie s a nd t o a l t h e s amp le s i n t h e a na ly s i s ." ( Lang e 1 990 ,4 3 )

H =p i ( log p ' ) Whe r e pi st h e p ropo r t ion o fs e ed s o ft h e i t h t a xon i nt h e s amp le . T h e i nd ex H e qua l s 0w h en t h e s amp le c on ta in s o n ly o ne t a xon , a nd i ti n c r ea se s w i th t h e n umbe r o f t a xa . T h e S hannon -W ien e ri n d ex a l so a low s m ea su r emen t o ft h e ' e venne s s ' o ft h e t a xa -abundance d i s t r ibu t ion i n as amp le . T he i n d ex H d e c r ea s e sw hen o ne o rm o r et a xa a r ed om inan t , a nd i ti sa t am ax imum w hen a l t h e t a xa a r e e qua l ly a bundan t( Lang e 1 990 ,6 6 -67 ) .

CA m ak e s u se o f o thogona l r eg r e s s ion a ppl i ed t o ap o in t s c a t t e r( Mad sen 1 988 , 1 ) . T h ec ompu te rp r og ramm eu sed t o u nd e r tak e CA o n t h e d a ta w a s CANOCO , d ev i sed b y T e r B raak ( 1 988 ) , a nd t h e p rog r amm e u sed t o p l o t t h e o u tpu t f r om t h e a na ly se s w a s CANODRAW ( Sm i laue r 1 992 ) . T h e d a ta f i l e o n w h ich CA w a s u nd e r tak en c omp r i sed a m a t r ix w i th s amp le si nr ow sa nd ' r aw ' c oun t so ft a x ai nc o lumn s .

V a r ia t ion so ft a xa d i v e r s i ty i nd ice sa nd n umb e ro fi t em sp e r l i t r e w e r e i n v e s t iga ted i no rd e r t oe va lua te t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een t a xa d i v e r s i ty a nd t h eq uan t i t ie s o fp l an tr ema in si n t h es amp le s .

C a tegor i sa t ion o ft he t axa I n te rp r e ta t ion o ft h er e su l t s o ft h e CA r e qu i r ed t h e p l an tt a xa t ob ec a tego r i s ed i n to e co log ica la nd e conom ic g r oup s . T h e u nce r ta in ty a bou t t h e d e r iva t ion o f t h e p l an t t a xa i n a r chaeobo tan ica l s amp le s i mpo se s l im i t a t ion s o n a ny p a laeoeco log ica l i n te rp r e ta t ion s . K u s t e r s t a t e s t h a t i t i s p o s s ib le o n ly t oc a tego r i se t h e t a x a i nt e rm s o f' Fo rma t ion s ' ( t h e h ighe s t l e v e l i n t h e p hy to soc io log ica l s y s tem ) , f o r e xamp le , f o r e s t p l an t s , c r op w e ed s a nd g r a s s land s p ec ie s , w i th t h e a im o f r e con s t ruc t ing t h e c ompo s i t ion o f t h e v ege ta t ion a tt h e t ime o fo ccupa t ion o f as i t e ( Ku s te r 1 99 1 , 1 9 ) . B eh r ea nd J a come ta r ei na g r e em en ta nd c ommen t :

C orre la t ion s b e tween t he v ar iab le s C o r r e la t ion s b e twe en c ha r coa l d en s i t ie s , p re s e rva t ion i n d ic e s , f r agm en ta t ion i n d ice s d i ve r s i ty i n d ice s a nd t h e n umb e r so fi d en t if i ab l e i t em s p e rl i t r e w e r e m ea su r ed u s ing S p ea rman 's r a nk c o r r e la t ion c oe f i c i en t ( s e e F l e tche r a nd L ock 1 991 , 10 ) .

S ta t i s t ica lm e thod s Al a rg eb ody o fd a ta w a sc omp i led , c omp r i s ing 3 90 s amp le s f r om t h et e nJ o rdan ian a nd f i ve S y r ian s i te sa nd i n wh ich a 6 7

". . t h ef u r th e ro ne r e ach e sb a ck i nt ime , t h e h i gh e rw i l lb e t h e h i e ra r ch ica l l e v e l i np l an t s o c io logy t h a t c an s e r ve f o r c ompa r i son ." ( Beh r ea nd J a com e t 1 991 , 8 3 ) I nt h i ss t ud y ,t h e r e f o r e , o n ly ab road ( i . e . n on r ig id ,i b id 8 3 ) e co log ica l c l a s s if i ca t ion w a s a pp l ied . T h e t a xa f r om t h e J o rdan ian a nd S y r ian s i te s w e r e c a t ego r i sed i n to f i ve e co log ica l g roup s ( w i th a s i x th g r oup c omp r i s ing m i s ce l laneou s o rr a r et a xa , a nd as ev en th g roup c omp r i s ing t a xa w i th c a tho l ic o r u nknown h ab i ta t p r ef e r en ce s ; t h e s e w e r e o bv iou s ly l e s s i n f o rma t ive a nd w e r e n o t , t h e r e f o r e , c on s id e r ed i n t h e a na ly se s ) . T he f i v e e co log ica l g r oup s w e r e : Med i t e r ran ean m aqu i s , Med i t e r r an ean b a tha , f i e ld s ( c omp r i s ing e u seg e ta l s ) , w e t -g round a nd s t epp e -d e se r t3. T h et a xa w e r ec l a s s if i ed a c co rd ing t ot h ee co log ica ln o t e si n t h e F lora P a laes t ina ( t ex t v o lume s : Z oha ry 1 966 , 1 972 ; F e inb run -Do than 1 978 , 1 986 ) a nd i n t h e F lora o fS y r ia , P a l es t ine a nd S i na i ( Po s t 1 932 , 1 933 ) . I nm any c a se s , t h e e co log ica l n o t e s r e co rd ed b y t h e a u tho r s o ft h e f l o ra s w e r e s p a r se a nd l a ck ed s uf ic ien t d e sc r ip t iv e d e ta i l s , t h i s l im i ted t h ea ccu ra cy w i th w h ich c a tego r i sa t ion sc ou ld b em ad e . F o r t h o se t a xa t h a t w e r e i d en t if i ed t o g en e r ic l e v e l o n ly , t h e p r edom inan t e co log ica l p r e f e r ence s o f t h e s p ec ie s i n t h e g ene r a w e r e u sed i nt h e c l a s s if i ca t ion s . T ab le 4 . 6 l i s t s t h e t a xa w i th t h e i re co log ica l ' c od e s ' . T h ep l an tt a xa w e r e c l a s s if i ed i n to f ou r g r oup sa cco rd ing t o t h e i r p o s s ib le u s e s ( w i th a f i f th g r oup c omp r i s ing t a xa w ho s e u se w a su nknown ; T own send a nd G u e s t 1 966 , 1 968 , 1 974 , 1 980 , 1 982 ; Mu s i l 1 928 ; B a i ley a nd D an in 1 981 ; C row f oo ta nd B a ld en sp e rg e r 1 9 32 ;K a r im a nd Q u raan 1 986 ; Z oha ry 1 982 ) . T h e g r oup s c omp r i sed t h e p l an t p a r t s t h a t c ou ld b e u sed f o r h uman c on sump t ion : s e ed s , f r u i t s , l e ave s /f l e shy p a r t s a nd r oo t s . T ab le 4 . 7 l i s t s t h e t a xa w i th t h e i re conom ic ' c od e s ' .

Maqu i si st r an s i t iona lb e twe en f o r e s ta nd s t epp ez one sa nd i s d om ina ted b y l ow t r ee s a nd s h rub s , o f wh ich a pp rox ima t e ly h a l f ' t h e t r ee s p ec ie s a r e e v e rg r e en ( Zoha ry 1 962 , 8 3 ) . B a tha r e f e r st od wa rf s h rub c ommun i t ie s w h e r e t h ea r bo r ea lc ove rh a sb een d enud ed o rh a sf a i led t od eve lop ( Zohar y 1 973 , 5 32 ) . T he ' f i e ld ' c l a s s if i ca t ion i n c lud ed t a xa t h a t h ave b een d e s igna t ed a s o b l iga to ry s eg e ta l s . T h e s t epp e s a nd d e se r t s o ft h i s p a r t o ft h e N ea rE a s t a r e t y p ica l o f t h e I r ano -Tu ran ian p hy tog eog raph ica l r eg ion ( Zoha ry 1 962 , 1 28 -9 ) . T hey a r ea r ea sw i thou tt r e e sa nd w i th as pa r se v ege ta t ion c ove ro fd wa r fs h rub sa nd h e rb s . 3

6 8

T ab le 4 . 1F l o ta t ion s amp le a nd ' c ha r coa l 'v o lum e s .

C on tex tn umb er

C har coa l

V o lume

Charcoa l

F lo tv o lume

v o lume

f l oa ted

d en s i ty

N umber o f

( cm)

( cm)

( l i tre s )

( cm3/ l )

I Di t em s

Wad ia l -I lan imeh 2 7

( 3D )

D 33

I t em sp er l i tre ( 2D )

0 . 2

7 0 .3

0 . 003

7 1

1 . 0 1

D 34 a

1 . 1

3 29 .3

0 . 003

7 83

2 . 38

D 34 b

1 . 5

3 77 .4

0 . 004

7 25

1 . 92

D 34 c

1 . 5

1 62 .8

0 . 009

102

6 .77

0 . 3

2 9 .6

0 . 010

1 92

6 .49

0 . 4

3 7 .0

0 . 011

3 08

8 . 32

1

0 .4 1

D 34 d D 51 I n-6 1

1 006 .4

F21

0 . 1

2 6 .6

0 . 004

F2 2

0 . 1

4 4 .4

0 . 002

F23

0 . 2

1 40 .6

0 . 001

2 4

0 . 17

F23 i

1 . 8

2 59 .0

0 . 007

1 9

0 . 07

9

0 . 20

F26

0 . 4

7 4 .0

0 . 005

1

0 . 01

F27

0 . 7

4 4 .4

0 . 0 16

2

0 . 05

( n=6 ]

5 89 .0

I raq e d -Dubb C 10 / 15 4 1

( 2D )

( 2D )

1 0 .0

9 . 0

1 . 0

9 . 00

E l0 /5 2 6

3 5 .0

2 4 .5

9 . 0

2 . 72

E 10 /5 2 9

6 5 .0

3 2 .5

9 . 0

3 . 6 1

E 10 /9 1

2 83 .0

2 83 .0

1 0 .0

2 8 .30

2 78

E 10 /9 3

13 .0

13 .0

3 . 5

3 2 .29

13

3 2 .29

E 10 /9 7

2 27 .0

2 27 .0

8 . 0

2 8 .38

2 34

2 9 .25

E 10 /9 8

4 80 .0

4 80 .0

1 0 .0

4 8 .00

4 47

4 4 .70

E 10 /9 9

5 10 .0

4 95 .0

1 0 .0

4 9 .50

1 047

1 04 .70

D 10 /6 1 5

7 5 .0

6 7 .5

1 0 .0

6 . 75

D 10 /7 2 2

2 2 .0

2 2 .0

1 . 5

1 4 .67

D 10 /7 2 3

2 7 .80

2 0 .0

2 0 .0

1 . 5

1 3 .33

D 10 /8 4

2 70 .0

2 70 .0

7 . 5

3 6 .00

2 97

3 9 .60

D 10 /8 6

7 5 .0

7 5 .0

3 . 0

2 5 .00

3 9

1 3 .00

D 10 /8 1 0

1 30 .0

19 .0

7 . 5

1 5 .87

D 10 /8 1 8

1 65 .0

1 65 .0

6 . 0

2 7 .50

6 5

1 0 .83

D 10 / 10 2

2 20 .0

2 12 .0

7 . 5

2 8 .27

2 74

3 6 .53

D 10 /11 1 7

1 65 .0

1 32 .0

1 0 .0

1 3 .20

1 98

1 9 .80

D 10 / 11 1 9

5 0 .0

5 0 .0

8 . 0

6 . 25

8 2

1 0 .25

D 10 /13 2 8

6 0 .0

4 8 .0

4 . 0

1 2 .00

D 10 / 14 3 0

7 5 .0

6 7 .5

5 . 0

1 3 .50

1 35

2 7 .00

D 10 / 14 3 1

10 .0

8 8 .0

1 2 .0

7 . 33

9 1

7 . 58

D 11 / 13 2

3 5 .0

2 4 .5

1 2 .0

2 . 04

D 11 / 11 2 5

1 35 .0

1 08 .0

2 . 0

5 4 .00

D 11 / 13 2 4

8 5 .0

5 9 .5

9 . 0

6 . 61

D 11 / 14 4 2

1 3 .0

1 .7

1 . 0

1 .70 9 . 75

D 11 /14 5 0

6 5 .0

5 8 .5

6 . 0

D 11 / 15 3 3

1 00 .0

6 0 .0

9 . 0

6 . 67

D 11 / 15 5 3

1 7 .0

1 5 .3

1 . 0

1 5 .30

D 12 /2 2 7

3 5 .0

2 8 .0

4 . 0

7 . 00

D 12 /2 5 1

8 0 .0

7 2 .0

2 . 0

3 6 .00

D 12 /2 5 2

1 0 .0

9 . 0

1 . 0

9 . 00

D 12 /4 3 6

3 0 .0

2 1 .0

4 . 0

5 . 25

[ 2 32 1 1

1 95 .0

6 9

C on tex tn umber

F lo tv o lum e ( cm3)

V o lum e

v o lum e

f l oa ted

d ens i ty

( cm ' )

( l i tr e s )

( cm3/ 1)

Wad ie l -J i la t6 11 C

Charcoa l

C harcoa l

N umber o f I Di t em s

( 2D ) 5 0 .0

2 . 5

4 0 .0

0 . 06 0 . 49

11 D

9 0 .0

1 8 .0

3 7 .0

11 E

10 .0

3 3 .0

2 3 .0

1 . 43

12 B

3 0 .0

7 . 0

3 2 .0

0 . 22

I t em sp er l i tre ( 2D )

13A

2 0 .0

1 .0

7 . 0

1 . 57

14 A

7 . 0

0 .7

1 3 .0

0 . 05

15 A

2 1 .0

8 . 4

3 0 .0

0 . 28

17 A

5 2 .0

5 . 2

2 8 .0

0 . 19

3 6

1 . 29

17 B

3 2 .0

2 8 .8

3 5 .0

0 . 82

1 20

3 .43

1 8A

2 0 .0

1 2 .0

2 2 .5

0 . 53

15

5 . 11

11 0A

8 . 0

6 . 4

2 5 .0

0 . 26

1 4

0 . 56

21 C

6 0 .0

1 2 .0

2 8 .0

0 . 43

21 D

6 0 .0

1 4 .0

5 0 .0

0 . 28

2l E

1 . 0

0 . 3

2 . 5

0 . 12

22 A

1 0 .0

5 . 0

2 5 .0

0 . 20

22 B

8 0 .0

2 4 .0

4 0 .0

0 . 60

23A

2 . 0

1 . 2

5 . 0

0 . 24

24A

1 0 .0

1 . 0

8 . 0

0 . 13

25A

1 .5

3 . 0

1 5 .0

0 . 20

27 A

5 0 .0

2 . 0

2 7 .0

0 . 07

27B

9 . 0

4 . 4

2 5 .0

0 . 18

27 C

8 . 0

3 . 2

5 . 0

0 . 64

29A

3 1 .0

3 . 8

3 0 .0

0 . 13

29B

5 . 0

0 . 5

3 7 .5

0 . 01

31 C

9 0 .0

7 . 5

5 0 .0

0 . 15

31 D

6 0 .0

6 . 0

4 1 .0

0 . 15

32 A

8 0 .0

2 4 .0

2 3 .0

1 . 04

32 B

1 20 .0

2 4 .0

5 7 .0

0 . 42

34A

3 . 0

1 . 2

1 2 .5

0 . 10

35 A

3 0 .0

1 2 .0

3 5 .0

0 . 34

35B

2 . 0

1 . 8

7 . 5

0 . 24

37 A

1 02 .0

1 0 .2

4 0 .0

0 . 26

41 C

1 50 .0

1 0 .5

5 0 .0

0 . 21

41 D

8 0 .0

1 4 .5

3 2 .5

0 . 45

4l E

4 0 .0

4 . 0

2 0 .0

0 . 20

4 2A

7 .0

1 . 3

7 . 0

0 . 19

4 2B

1 25 .0

2 1 .5

5 3 .0

0 . 41 0 . 15

44A

5 . 0

1 . 5

1 0 .0

45A

9 0 .0

4 5 .0

4 5 .0

1 . 00

47 A

7 9 .0

2 0 .7

4 0 .0

0 . 52

49 C

4 0 .0

4 . 0

8 0 .0

0 . 05

41 0A

4 . 0

3 . 1

7 . 5

0 . 41

[ n-42 ]

1 201 .5

7 0

2 2 2

0 . 07 0 . 88

7

1 . 40

5

0 . 13

1 3

0 . 33

1 0

1 . 33

C on tex tn umber

Ho tv o lume ( cm3)

Char coa l

V o lume

C har coa l

v o lume

f l oa ted

d en s i ty

( l i tre s )

( cm3/ 1)

( cm3)

Wad ie l -J i la t 7( s q 1 4 ,5 -8 ) 14 8

N umber o f I Di t em s

( 2D ) 15 .0

5 3 .0

2 2 .5

17 A

1 00 .0

4 0 .0

2 0 .0

2 . 00

1 9A

17 .0

9 3 .6

2 5 .0

3 . 74

I t em sp er l i tre ( 2D )

2 . 36

19 A / 1 3

6 5 .0

5 8 .5

2 0 .0

2 . 93

19 B

1 25 .0

1 06 .0

2 5 .0

4 . 24

24 B

1 20 .0

4 8 .0

3 2 .5

1 . 48

26 A

2 5 .0

2 . 0

3 . 0

0 . 67

29 A

4 5 .0

2 7 .0

1 0 .0

2 . 70

29 B

1 20 .0

9 6 .0

3 0 .0

3 . 20

37 A

1 00 .0

6 0 .0

2 8 .0

2 . 14

39A

1 05 .0

5 2 .5

2 7 .0

1 . 94

39 1 3

1 60 .0

1 28 .0

4 0 .0

3 . 20

49A

3 5 .0

2 1 .0

7 . 0

3 . 00

49 1 3

8 7 .0

6 0 .9

2 0 .0

3 . 05

3 7

0 . 93

52 3A

9 3 .0

5 7 .4

1 0 .0

5 . 74

1 4

1 . 40

52 7A

4 40 .0

3 45 .0

3 4 .0

1 0 .15

2 55

7 . 50

52 8A

5 7 .0

4 8 .6

5 . 0

9 .72

4 5

9 . 00

52 9A

3 10 .0

2 53 .0

2 1 .0

1 2 .05

6 5

3 . 10

61 7B

2 37 .0

3 7 .4

2 5 .0

1 . 50

62 5A

2 10 .0

1 39 .5

1 5 .0

9 . 30

62 7A

7 00 .0

6 19 .0

7 2 .0

8 . 60

1 27

1 . 76

62 8A

4 20 .0

3 82 .0

3 3 .0

1 .58

2 69

8 . 15

72 3A

2 50 .0

1 00 .0

4 5 .0

2 . 22

72 7A

7 60 .0

6 45 .5

6 2 .0

1 0 .41

3 00

4 . 84

72 8A

1 080 .0

1 042 .0

5 8 .0

1 7 .97

3 29

5 . 67

73 0A

1 02 .0

9 8 .5

7 . 5

1 3 .13

81 8B

8 0 .0

4 8 .0

1 0 .0

4 . 80

3 1

3 . 10

82 5A

1 55 .0

13 .0

1 7 .0

6 . 65

3 9

2 . 29

82 7A

6 55 .0

5 63 .5

5 2 .5

1 0 .73

1 75

3 . 33

82 8A

8 45 .0

7 89 .0

6 1 .0

1 2 .93

5 70

9 . 34

[ n=30 1

8 38 .0

Wad ie l -J i la t7 A 6 a

( 2D ) 9 7 .0

6 1 .6

6 7 .5

0 . 9 1 0 . 23

7 a

1 8 .0

2 . 6

1 .3

8 a

3 7 .0

2 3 .0

1 3 .5

1 . 70

2 9a

7 2 .0

4 3 .2

4 9 .5

0 . 87

( 2D )

3 4a

125 .0

4 8 .3

138 .5

0 . 04

2 70

0 . 24

3 4b

4 54 .0

3 14 .7

3 69 .0

0 . 85

2 56

0 . 69

3 5a

1 98 .0

1 08 .0

1 62 .0

0 . 67

9 6

0 . 59

3 6a

5 5 .0

2 9 .0

3 6 .0

0 . 81

17

0 .70

Wad ie l -J i la t7 A /b 1 7a

3 5 .0

1 3 .0

1 8 .0

0 .72

2 0a

2 0 .0

4 . 0

1 8 .0

0 . 22

2 5a

2 55 .0

1 47 .8

1 66 .5

0 . 89

I n=11 1

2 049 .8

7 1

Con tex tn umber

F lo tv o lume ( cm3)

C har coa l

V o lume

C harcoa l

v o lum e

f l oa ted

d ens i ty

( l i tre s )

( cm3/ 1)

( cm3)

Wad ie l -J i la t7 B 1 3a

Numb er o f I Di t em s

( 2D ) 9 5 .0

1 4 .0

2 0 .3

I t em sp er l i tre ( 2D )

0 .69

2 7a

1 3 .0

9 . 4

4 . 5

2 . 09

3 2a

2 18 .0

1 80 .5

6 7 .5

2 . 67

1 23

1 . 82

3 3a

3 78 .0

1 96 .0

1 30 .5

1 . 50

5 0

0 . 38

3 6a

3 78 .0

2 78 .9

1 30 .5

2 . 14

1 63

1 . 25

3 6b

2 15 .0

1 76 .0

1 26 .0

1 . 40

1 42

1 . 13

3 9a

1 330 .0

8 96 .5

3 69 .0

2 .43

3 86

1 . 05

4 0b

3 50 .0

2 21 .0

1 08 .0

2 .05

9 0

0 . 83

4 1a

6 25 .0

3 75 .0

1 80 .0

2 . 08

1 99

1 . 11

4 3a

1 36 .0

8 5 .5

8 1 .0

1 . 06

6 2

0 .77

4 6a

2 75 .0

2 32 .5

4 5 .0

5 . 17

> 41 ]

1 2623

Wad ie l -J i la t7 C 2 a

3 5 .0

3 . 5

3 6 .0

0 . 10

3 a

1 05 .0

4 6 .5

5 8 .5

0 .79

6 a1

6 0 .0

3 0 .0

7 2 .0

0 .42

i

7 5 .0

3 4 .0

7 2 .0

0 .47

i

4 0 .0

1 6 .0

3 6 .0

0 .44

I v

3 5 .0

1 4 .5

6 3 .0

0 . 23

7 0 .0

3 8 .0

6 0 .0

0 . 63

6 5 .0

4 1 .0

8 1 .0

0 . 51

v i i

5 5 .0

2 9 .0

7 8 .8

0 . 37

v i i i

1 40 .0

8 4 .0

9 6 .8

0 . 87

v v i

i x

1 40 .0

7 0 .0

12 .5

0 . 62

x

1 20 .0

4 8 .0

7 2 .0

0 . 67

x i

1 00 .0

4 0 .0

4 0 .5

0 . 99

x i i

1 45 .0

4 9 .0

5 4 .0

0 . 91

x i i i

1 20 .0

4 8 .0

4 5 .0

1 . 07

1

1 5 .0

9 . 5

9 . 0

1 . 06

[ n= 16

9 87 .0

Wad ie l -J i la t1 3A

( 2D )

3 b

1 5 .0

1 . 5

4 9 .5

0 . 03

5 a

6 5 .0

2 8 .5

2 7 .0

1 . 06

1 5a

8 0 .0

2 5 .0

7 2 .0

0 . 35 0 . 67

1 6a

1 68 .0

8 8 .0

1 30 .5

1 6b

8 5 .0

4 9 .0

7 6 .5

0 . 64

1 8a

5 5 .0

1 .0

6 3 .0

0 . 17

1 9

3 . 5

0 .4

4 . 5

0 . 09

2 0a

8 5 .0

1 0 .5

7 2 .0

0 . 15

2 0b

4 5 .0

7 . 0

3 6 .0

0 . 19 0 .45

2 1a

2 05 .0

7 7 .0

1 7 1 .0

2 1b

5 7 .0

1 5 .0

3 6 .0

0 .42

2 3a

5 0 .0

1 9 .0

3 6 .0

0 . 53

2 4

4 . 0

1 . 2

4 . 5

0 . 27

2 5a

6 0 .0

3 6 .0

7 6 .5

0 . 47

[ n=14 ]

8 55 .0

7 2

C on tex tn umber

C har coa l

V o lum e

Charcoa l

Ho tv o lume

v o lume

f l oa ted

d en s i ty

N umber o f

I t em sp er

( cm)

( cm)

( l i tre s )

( cm3/ I )

I Di t ems

l i tr e

1 34 .0

7 6 .4

4 5 .0

1 . 70

2 9 .0

2 0 .3

2 7 .0

0 .75

5 0 .0

1 3 .0

2 7 .0

0 . 48

Wad ie l -J i la t1 3B 3 8b i 3 8b i 4 0a

( 2D )

( 2D )

1 34

4 . 96

4 6a

2 0 .0

1 0 .0

9 . 0

1 . 11

6 5a

1 00 .0

9 7 .5

9 . 0

1 0 .83

6 9a v

8 5 .0

5 4 .5

4 0 .5

1 . 35

1 85

4 . 57

6 9a i x

6 0 .0

5 1 .0

2 7 .0

1 . 89

2 44

9 . 04

0 . 31

6 9b v i

2 . 0

1 . 4

4 . 5

6 9b i x

1 8 .0

1 6 .2

9 . 0

1 . 80

7 1a v

5 5 .0

4 2 .0

2 7 .0

1 . 56

3 63

1 3 .44

7 1a v i

3 2 .0

2 8 .8

9 . 0

3 . 20

1 30

1 4 .44

7 1a i x

3 6 .0

3 2 .4

1 3 .5

2 .40

1 25

9 . 26

7 1b v

8 0 .0

4 8 .0

3 1 .5

1 . 52

4 61

1 4 .63

7 2

7 . 0

5 . 6

4 . 5

1 . 24

7 3a v i i

1 4 .0

1 .2

4 . 5

2 . 49

3 99

8 8 .67

7 7a v i i

8 0 .0

7 2 .0

1 8 .0

4 . 00

1 2122

6 73 .44

7 7a i x

1 25 .0

1 05 .0

5 8 .5

1 . 79

8 0

1 40 .0

1 36 .0

9 . 0

1 5 .11 1 . 33

1 418

1 57 .56

8 1

5 . 0

3 . 0

2 . 3

9 4a

1 4 .0

1 .2

6 . 8

1 . 66

1 03

5 . 0

0 . 3

3 . 0

0 . 08

1 05a

3 0 .0

2 7 .0

9 . 0

3 . 00

1 06a

2 3 .0

1 8 .4

9 . 0

2 . 04

a la

2 60 .0

1 22 .0

1 5 .8

7 . 75

1 7 .0

4 . 8

4 . 5

1 . 07

4 8 .0

2 3 .1

2 4 .8

0 . 93

a l7b i a l7b i a 21c

2 9 .0

1 5 .5

2 0 .3

0 .77

a 3la

4 5 .0

2 4 .5

1 8 .0

1 . 36

a /b2la

5 2 .0

1 8 .6

3 1 .5

0 . 59

1 32

4 . 19

a / 1 321c

3 5 .0

1 6 .5

3 6 .0

0 . 46

7 1

1 . 97

b 21c

5 0 .0

2 8 .0

4 5 .0

0 . 62

1 61

3 . 58

0 . 31 5 8

3 . 22

b 23a

6 . 0

1 . 4

4 . 5

b 23b

4 8 .0

3 8 .0

1 8 .0

2 . 11

b 38a

2 4 .0

9 . 6

2 7 .0

0 . 36

[ n=34 ]

6 48 .8

7 3

Con tex t munber

F lo tv o lume ( cm3)

Charcoa l

Vo lume

Char coa l

v o lum e

f l oa ted

d en s i ty

( l i tre s )

( cm3/ 1)

( cm3)

Wad ie l -J i la t1 3C

Number o f I Di t em s

( 2D )

I t em sp er l i tre ( 2D )

3 b

1 00 .0

1 2 .0

1 8 .0

0 . 67

1 0

2 70 .0

2 4 .0

3 6 .0

0 . 67

1 2

1 20 .0

4 . 5

2 2 .5

0 . 20

1 4c

6 0 .0

1 6 .8

1 8 .0

0 . 93

1 8

9 5 .0

9 . 5

1 8 .0

0 . 53

2 2

5 5 .0

4 2 .0

1 5 .8

2 . 67

2 4

8 8 .0

4 9 .1

1 8 .0

2 . 73

3 1a

7 0 .0

3 5 .0

3 1 .5

1 . 11

3 3a

1 5 .0

5 . 5

9 . 0

0 . 61

3 6

6 5 .0

1 0 .8

9 . 0

1 . 19

3 9a

2 7 .0

2 0 .7

1 8 .0

1 . 15

3 9c i

2 35 .0

1 05 .7

9 4 .5

1 . 12

1 74

1 . 84

3 9c l i

2 05 .0

1 56 .0

1 03 .5

1 . 51

2 18

2 . 11

4 3a

3 0 .0

1 8 .0

9 . 0

2 . 00

5 0a

1 6 .0

1 4 .8

9 . 0

1 . 64

5 3a

10 .0

1 00 .0

5 8 .5

1 . 71

6 14

1 0 .50

5 3b

1 35 .0

4 9 .0

5 8 .5

0 . 84

5 6c i

1 40 .0

9 1 .8

7 2 .0

1 . 27

9 8

1 . 36

3 0 .0

2 0 .5

1 8 .0

1 . 14

5 9a

6 3 .0

4 8 .3

5 8 .5

0 . 83

6 0a

1 05 .0

1 6 .0

4 9 .5

0 . 32

6 1a

6 5 .0

2 0 .5

2 9 .3

0 . 70

6 2a

4 0 .0

2 8 .0

1 8 .0

1 . 56

6 5a

7 5 .0

7 0 .0

1 3 .5

5 . 19

6 6b v i

3 25 .0

2 92 .5

7 2 .0

4 . 06

6 12

8 . 50

7 0a

9 0 .0

7 9 .5

5 4 .0

1 . 47

1 85

3 .43

7 0b v i

4 45 .0

4 04 .0

17 .0

3 . 45

1 866

1 5 .95

7 2v i i i

9 15 .0

9 15 .0

1 8 .0

5 0 .83

7 5a i v

1 76 .0

1 65 .8

1 .3

1 4 .74

3 10

2 7 .56

7 6a i v

1 62 .0

1 43 .2

5 4 .0

2 . 65

3 09

5 . 72

3 8 .0

3 0 .4

1 8 .0

1 . 69

7 9a i v

7 5 .0

6 0 .5

2 7 .0

2 . 24

8 0v i

3 0 .0

2 4 .0

4 . 5

5 . 33

8 1

1 8 .00

8 2a v i

3 74 .0

3 43 .1

1 08 .0

3 . 18

2 706

2 5 .06

5 7a

7 9a i

8 6i v

1 0 .0

8 . 0

4 . 5

1 . 78

9 1v i

9 6 .0

8 1 .8

1 8 .0

4 . 54

3 61

2 0 .06

9 3a v i i /xv i i i

9 5 .0

7 6 .5

2 7 .0

2 . 83

7 04

2 6 .07

9 4v i

9 9 .0

8 5 .2

1 8 .0

4 .73

8 15

4 5 .28

9 5a v i

9 10 .0

9 01 .0

1 8 .0

5 0 .06

[ n 39 1

1 374 .8

7 4

C on tex tn umber

F lo tv o lume ( cm)

Charcoa l

V o lum e

Char coa l

v o lume

f l oa ted

d en s i ty

( l i tre s )

( cm3/ 1)

( cm3)

A zraq 3 1 ( s q 1 -4 )

N umber o f I Di t ems

( 2D )

12 B

5 . 0

4 . 0

4 5 .0

0 . 09

13 A

0 . 5

0 . 5

2 5 .0

0 . 02

I t em sp er l i tre ( 2D )

1 4

3 . 0

2 . 7

1 5 .0

0 . 18

6

0 .40

14 A

2 . 0

1 . 8

2 0 .0

0 . 09

3

0 . 15

15 A

5 . 0

4 . 0

2 5 .0

0 . 16

16 A

0 . 5

0 . 4

5 . 0

0 . 08

17

2 6

1 . 04

1

0 . 20

0 . 5

0 . 1

1 0 .0

0 . 01

1

0 . 10

11 0

2 . 0

0 . 2

2 0 .0

0 . 01

2

0 . 10

11 2

1 . 5

0 . 6

3 0 .0

0 . 02

4

0 . 13

23 A

2 . 0

1 . 4

2 0 .0

0 . 07

1

0 . 05

24 A

0 . 5

0 . 4

2 0 .0

0 . 02

1

0 . 05

25 A

3 . 5

2 . 8

2 0 .0

0 . 14

2

0 . 10

2 .9

2 0 .0

2 . 0

3 5 .0

0 . 06

2

0 . 06

21 2

3 . 0

0 . 9

3 0 .0

0 . 03

1

0 . 03

21 3

2 . 0

0 . 8

3 0 .0

0 . 03

2

0 . 07

32 A

1 0 .0

1 . 0

3 0 .0

0 . 03

1

0 . 03

32 B

5 . 0

4 . 0

4 0 .0

0 . 10

0 .40

34

1 . 0

0 . 8

1 0 .0

0 . 08

34 A

1 . 0

0 . 6

1 5 .0

0 . 04

35

0 . 5

0 . 5

5 . 0

0 . 09

36

1 . 0

0 . 6

5 . 0

0 . 12

2

36A

5 . 0

4 . 0

2 0 .0

0 . 20

2

2 0 .0

1 4 .0

6 0 .0

0 . 23

1 0 .0

6 . 0

2 5 .0

0 . 24 0 . 24

37 31 2

3 9

0 . 10 0 . 65

5

0 . 20

0 . 10

4 2B

1 5 .0

1 2 .0

5 0 .0

4 3A

4 0 .0

4 0 .0

3 0 .0

1 . 33

3

44

1 0 .0

1 0 .0

1 2 .5

0 . 80

2

0 . 16

44A

5 . 0

5 . 0

1 0 .0

0 . 50

5

0 . 50

4

0 .40

46

5 . 0

2 . 5

1 0 .0

0 . 25

4 6A

1 0 .0

1 0 .0

3 0 .0

0 . 33

2 9

0 . 97

4 7

0 . 5

0 . 5

1 5 .0

0 . 03

1 6

1 . 07

41 1

3 3 .0

4 . 8

5 5 .0

0 . 09

4 0

0 .73

4 12

1 . 0

0 . 7

2 0 .0

0 . 04

1 3

0 . 65

75 2B

1 . 0

0 . 1

1 0 .0

0 . 01

75 5B

5 . 0

0 . 5

4 0 .0

0 . 0 1

1 35 1

8 42 .5

A zraq 3 1A 4 a

1 0 .0

6 . 0

3 6 .0

0 . 17

4 b

1 .0

8 . 3

4 5 .0

0 . 18

5 1 3

1 3 .0

1 0 .2

3 6 .0

0 . 28

6 a

3 . 0

0 . 6

3 6 .0

0 . 02

1 0a

9 . 0

6 . 7

3 6 .0

0 . 19

I i5 ]

1 89 .0

7 5

C on tex tn umber

F lo tv o lum e ( cm)

A zr a

Char coa l

V o lume

Ch arcoa l

v o lume

f l oa ted

d ens i ty

( l i tr e s )

( cm3/ 1)

( cm3)

l

N umber o f I Di t em s

( 2D )

8 a

4 . 0

0 . 4

3 6 .0

0 . 01

9 a

4 . 0

0 .4

5 8 .5

0 . 01 0 . 06

1 3a

1 0 .0

2 . 0

3 6 .0

1 9a /b

4 . 0

0 . 4

5 6 .3

0 . 0 1

2 3a

5 . 0

0 . 5

3 6 .0

0 . 01

[5 ]

I t em sp er l i tr e ( 2D )

2 22 .8

A zraq 3 1C 1 0a

5 . 0

1 . 7

9 . 0

0 . 19

1 2a

6 . 0

1 . 2

1 8 .0

0 . 07

1 2b

1 8 .0

1 . 1

2 0 .3

0 . 05

1 3a

4 . 0

0 . 4

1 8 .0

0 . 02

1 6a

2 2 .0

2 . 0

2 9 .3

0 . 07

1 8a

1 9 .0

1 . 4

2 7 .0

0 . 05

( n-6 1

1 21 .5

Wad iF idan A

( 2D )

( 2D )

0 06 /004

2 7 .0

2 4 .6

3 . 0

8 . 20

5 9

1 9 .67

0 07 /004

2 7 .0

2 5 .8

3 . 0

8 . 60

8 6

2 8 .67

1 60

2 9 .09

4 . 40

0 07 /010

4 5 .0

4 1 .7

5 . 5

7 . 58

0 07 /017

1 90 .0

1 7 1 .0

4 . 0

4 2 .75

0 07 /019

1 07 .0

1 02 .8

5 . 0

2 0 .56

2 2

I n=5 )

2 0 .5

Wad iF idan C 0 01 /007

3 . 0

2 . 7

0 . 8

3 . 60

2 7

3 6 .00

0 01 /008

2 9 .0

2 7 .6

2 . 5

1 .04

6 6

2 6 .40

0 01 /007 i

1 4 .0

1 2 .6

0 . 5

2 5 .20

7 5

1 50 .00

0 01 /007 i

4 9 .0

4 9 .0

1 . 5

3 2 .67

2 248

1 498 .67

0 01 /007 i

4 3 .0

4 3 .0

1 . 0

4 3 .00

5 43

5 43 .00

I n=5 1

6 3

7 6

T ab le 4 . 2 Wad iF idan C : T r i t icum s pp . -f r e et h r e sh ing r a ch i si n t e rnod et y p e s . 1

2

S amp le n umber s

3

Number so fi t em si d en t if i ed :

C O01 /017 i I C ]

C 001 /017 f i 1

4 4

2 08

2 4

[ C ]

3

9

[ F ]

4

1 2

[ C ]

1 3

C O0 1 /0 17 i l

[ C ] -i t em ss o r ted f r om c oa r se f l o t s [ F ] -i t em ss o r ted f r om f i ne f l o t s

7 7

T ab le 4 . 3H ord eum s pp . -f u r row c ha ra c t e r i s t i c s . F urrow t ype s n arrow +

n arrow +

w ide +

w ide +

s ha l low

d eep

s ha l low

d eep

i nd i s t inc t

w i ld type g ra in s

1 7

4

3 5

2 2

7

d ome s t ic type g ra ins

4 0

2 3

2 0

3 0

8

n arrow

% o ft o ta ln umber o fg ra in sw i th : s ha l low

f urrow s

w ide f urrow s

f urrow s

d eep f urrow s

i )

w i ld type g rah i s

2 7

7 3

6 7

3 3

i )

d ome s t ic type g ra in s

5 6

4 4

5 3

4 7

T ab le 4 . 4H ord eum s pp . -s ymme t ry o ra s ymme t ry o fd om e s t i c t yp eg ra in s . Gra in s : a symme tr ic

s ymme tr ic

I nde term ina te

Wad ie l -J i la t7 52 7A

2

62 7A

3

1

62 8A

1

2

72 7A

2

82 8A

2

1

Ab25a B 32a

1 1

1

B 4la

1

Wad ie l -J i la t1 3 B ab21a

1

B ab21c

1

B b21c

2 1

B b23b C80 v i

1 1

C91 v i

A zraq 3 1 44

1

0 01 /017 I i

1

Wad iF idan C

7 8

N I

N

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V Overa l lS amp le C harac t er i s t ic s : E xp lora t ion o ft h e Ef ec t so ft h e ' Forma t ion P roce s se s '

T h i s c h ap te r d e sc r ibe s h ow t h e q ua l i ta t iv e a nd q uan t i ta t iv e d a ta w e r e u sed t o e xp lo r e t h e e f ec t s o f t h e ' f o rma t ion p ro c e s s e s ' o nt h ea s semb lag e so fc ha r r ed p l an tr ema in sf r om t h ed if e r en ts i t e s . I tw a sc on s id e r ed t h a ti n t ra -a nd i n t e r s i t e c omp a r i son o f c ha r coa l d en s i t ie s , n umb e r s o f i d en t if iab le r ema in s , p r e se rva t ion , f r agm en ta t ion , a nd t a xa d i v e r s i ty w ou ld p r ov ide i n f o rma t ion o nt h e ' d epo s i t iona l h i s to r ie s ' o f t h e s amp le s a nd a l so a ni n d ica t ion o ft h e r e la t ive d eg r ee o f r ep r e s en ta t iven e s so fp l an t ma t e r ia l sc on ta ined w i th in t h em . F o r e x amp le , c ha r coa l d en s i t ie s a r e a n i mpo r tan t i nd ex o f t h er a t e sa nd c i r cum s tanc e so fd epo s i t ion ,a sM i l le rs t a te s : " D en s i t i e so fb o tan ica lm a te r ia li so n eo ft h e mo s ti mpo r tan t a nd b a s ic m ea su r e s o f i n te rp re t ing d epo s i t iona l a nd p r e s e rva t iona lv a r iab il i ty ." ( M i l le r 1 988 ,8 3 ) J one sa l so c omm en t so nt h er e levanc eo fr e co rd ing d en s i t ie s wh en a na ly s ing a r cha eobo tan ica ls amp le s : " Den s i ty p a r t ly r e f le c t sr a te o fd epo s i t ion a nd s oc an h e lp t o d i s t ingu i sh m a te r ia ld i s ca rd ed a l la to nc ef r om t h a td i sca rd ed p i ec em ea l o ve r ap e r iod o f t im e a nd m ix ed w i th o t h e r r e fu s e ." ( J one s 1 991 ,6 6 ) W i th r e g a rd t om ea su r e s o fp r e s e rv a t ion a nd f r agmen ta t ion J on e ss t a t e s : " Th e s ev a r iab le sm ay b eu s ed b o th a s am ean so fi d en t if y ing c i r cum s tan ce so fc ha r r ing a nd d epo s i t ion a nd a sa ni nd ex o f t h eb i a s e si n t roduced b yt h e se p ro ce s se s ." ( J one s 1 991 ,6 6 ) I n t h i s s t udy , p r e se rva t ion a nd f r agmen ta t ion i nd ic e s w e r e u s ed i n c on jun c t ion w i th t a xa d i v e r s i ty i n d ice s t o a s s e s s w h e th e rt h e r e w a s al i k e l ihood t h a td if e r en t ia l p r e s e rva t ion h ad r e su l t ed i nt h ee l im ina t ion o fc e r ta in t a xa . F o re xamp le , i n i n s tance s w he r e p oo r p r e se rva t ion a nd /o r h igh f r agm en ta t ion m igh t h av e r e su l ted i nt h e l o s s o ft h e mo r e f r ag i le p l an tt a xa . I tw a sr a r e ly p o s s ib le t os ugg e s tw i th a ny c e r ta in ty whe th e r v a r i a t ion s i nt h e d if e r en t a t t r ibu te sw e r e ar e su l t o ff a c to r s t h a ta f ec ted t h e o v e ral c ompo s i t ion o ft h e a s semb lage s a t t h e t i m e o fu t i l i sa t ion o ft h e p l an tr e sou r c e s , o ra f terwa rd s , o n c e t h e r ema in s w e r e b u r ied w i th in t h e o ccupa t ion d epo s i t s . F o re xamp le ,l ow d en s i t ie so fc ha r coa li n as amp le c ou ld b et h er e su l to ft h ei n f requ en tu se o ff i r eo n as i te b u t , e qu a l ly , c ou ld r e f le c t t h e d i lu t ion o r m ix ing o f c ha r r ed r em a in s a f te r t h ey h ad b e en d i spo s ed o f . I nt h e f o l low ing a c coun t s , t h e m o s t l i k e ly a l te rna t ive e xp lan a t ion s f o r v a r ia t ion s i n d en s i ty , p r e se rva t ion , f r agmen ta t ion a nd

d i v e r s i ty a r e g i v en a nd w h e r e p o s s ib le , t h e s e a r e c i t ed i n c on junc t ion w i th r e levan ta r chaeo log ica le v id ence .

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2 . 29

6 . 65

1 6

0 . 9

1 . 0

4 . 3

4 . 2

0 . 871

52 3A

1 . 40

5 . 74

2 . 0

2 . 0

1 . 0

3 . 5

0 . 681

81 8B

3 . 10

0 . 8

0 . 9

3 .0

3 . 0

4 . 80

7 1 0

1 . 50 R ange s : E PPNB

1 . 40 -9 .34

0 . 565 0 . 565 -

1 7 .97

7 -47

0 . 8 -2 .0

0 . 9 -2 .0

1 . 0 -4 .3

1 . 4 -4 .2

1 . 249

A /b25a

0 .70

0 . 89

2 3

1 . 3

1 . 3

1 . 6

1 . 9

0 . 821

A 34a

0 . 24

0 . 04

2 7

1 . 7

1 . 7

2 .4

3 . 1

0 . 876

A 34b

0 . 69

0 . 85

2 8

1 . 6

1 . 6

1 . 6

2 . 2

0 .753

A 35a

0 . 59

0 . 67

1

1 . 0

1 . 0

4 . 5

4 . 5

0 . 581 0 . 581 -

R ange s : e a r ly MPPNB

m idd le MPPNB

0 . 24 -0 .70

0 . 04 1 .70

1 -28

1 . 0 -1 .7

1 . 0 1 .7

1 . 6 -4 .5

1 . 9 -4 .5

0 . 876

B 39a

1 . 05

2 . 43

3 1

1 . 3

1 . 6

2 .7

3 . 0

0 . 858

B 36a

1 . 25

2 . 14

2 9

0 . 8

1 . 4

4 .4

4 . 7

1 . 026

B 36b

1 . 13

1 . 40

2 1

1 . 4

1 . 8

1 . 9

3 . 0

0 . 854

B 40b

0 . 83

2 . 05

1 7

0 . 6

1 . 1

2 . 3

3 . 0

0 . 826

B 4la

1 . 11

2 . 08

2 5

0 . 7

1 . 3

2 . 4

2 .7

0 . 867

B 43a

0 .77

1 . 06

1

0 . 5

0 . 8

1 . 3

2 . 0

0 . 520

B 33a

0 . 38

1 . 50

2 0

0 . 6

0 . 9

6 . 8

6 . 7

1 . 023

I 3 32a

1 . 82

2 . 67

2 6

0 .7

1 . 1

2 . 1

2 . 6

1 . 112 0 . 520 -

R ange s :

0 . 38 -1 .82

0 . 69 -5 .17

1 -31

0 . 5 1 .4

0 . 8 1 .8

1 . 3 -6 .8

2 . 0 -6 .7

1 . 112

Wad ie l -Ji la t1 3 e a r ly ELN

R ange s :

B 105a

1 57 .56

3 . 00

2 7

2 . 2

2 . 2

1 . 4

1 . 4

0 . 670

B 77a v i i

6 73 .44

4 . 00

2 2

1 . 6

1 . 6

3 . 8

3 . 9

0 .421

C82a v i

2 5 .06

3 . 18

4 3

1 . 7

1 . 7

0 . 6

0 . 6

1 . 070

C 9 1 v i

2 0 .06

4 . 54

2 5

1 . 0

1 . 0

0 . 5

0 . 5

0 . 864

C93a v ääv i i i

0 . 933

2 6 .07

2 . 83

3 3

1 . 6

1 . 6

0 . 8

0 . 9

B 7la v

1 3 .44

1 . 56

2 3

1 . 3

1 . 3

0 . 6

0 . 7

0 .722

B 7la v i

1 4 .44

3 . 20

2 3

1 . 4

1 . 4

0 . 5

0 . 5

0 . 963

B 7la i x

9 . 26

2 . 40

2 3

0 . 9

0 . 9

2 . 2

2 . 3

0 . 97 1

B 7lb v

1 4 .63

1 . 52

1 8

0 . 9

0 . 9

4 . 6

5 . 0

0 . 669

C ' 70a

3 .43

1 . 47

2 4

1 . 2

1 . 2

1 . 4

2 . 0

0 . 922

C 70b v i

1 5 .95

3 . 45

4 7

1 . 7

1 . 7

0 . 6

0 . 6

1 . 128

C 76a i v

5 . 72

2 . 65

1 9

0 . 8

0 . 8

0 . 8

0 . 8

0 . 854 0 . 443

B 73a v i l

8 8 .67

2 . 49

2 1

2 . 8

2 . 8

0 . 5

1 . 1

C 75a I v

2 7 .56

1 4 .74

2 4

1 . 3

1 . 3

0 . 5

0 . 5

1 . 048

C 56c i

1 . 36

1 . 27

2 0

1 . 1

1 . 1

1 . 0

2 . 0

0 . 859

I 3 69a v

4 . 57

1 . 35

2 0

1 . 9

1 . 9

0 . 9

1 . 0

0 . 836

B 69a i x

9 . 04

1 . 89

2 0

1 . 3

1 . 4

1 . 5

1 . 8

0 . 720

C 66b v i

8 . 50

4 . 06

2 4

1 . 5

1 . 5

0 . 3

0 . 3

1 . 36 -

0 . 09 -

6 73 .44

5 0 .05

1 08

1 . 032 0 . 421 -

1 8 -47

0 . 8 -2 .8

0 . 8 -2 .8

0 . 3 -4 .6

0 . 3 -5 .0

1 . 128

L

C on tex t n umber

2

[ s amp le si no rde ro f

i

d e c re a s i ng d ep th ] Wad ie l -J i la t1 3 m idd le E LN

B 38b i

4 . 96

0 . 75

1 3

0 . 8

0 . 8

1 . 0

1 . 3

0 . 696

C80 v i

1 8 .00

5 . 33

2 4

1 . 8

1 . 8

0 . 6

0 . 6

1 . 0 19

C 94 v i

4 5 .28

4 .73

4 1

1 . 8

1 . 8

0 . 4

0 . 4

4 . 96 -

0 . 03 -

1 8 .00

5 0 .83

R ange s : l a te ELN

1 3 -4 1

0 . 8 1 .8

0 . 8 -1 .8

0 .4 -1 .0

0 . 4 1 .3

1 . 102

B a /b2la

4 . 19

0 . 59

1 3

2 . 0

2 . 0

0 . 6

0 . 6

0 . 697

B a /b21c

1 . 97

0 . 46

1 7

0 . 9

0 . 9

3 . 0

1 4 .0

1 . 006

B b21c

3 . 58

0 . 62

1 8

0 . 9

0 . 9

1 . 0

2 . 2

0 . 837

B b23b

3 . 22

2 . 11

1

1 . 0

1 . 0

0 . 6

2 . 1

0 .817

C 53a

1 0 .50

1 . 7 1

2 7

1 . 8

1 . 8

1 . 0

1 . 4

0 . 554

1 . 84

1 . 12

1 6

1 . 2

1 . 2

0 . 7

0 . 8

0 . 571

2 . 11

1 . 51

2 7

1 . 4

1 . 8

0 . 8

1 . 6

C 39 c1 C 39c i f

1 . 84 R ange s :

A zraq 3 1

0 . 904 0 . 554 -

1 0 .50

0 . 20 -7 .75

21 3

0 . 07

0 . 03

1

11 3

0 . 10

n eg

2

41 2

0 . 65

0 . 04

5

1 -27

0 . 9 -2 .0

0 . 9 -2 .0

0 . 0

0 . 6 -3 .0

0 . 8 14 .0

1 . 006

6 . 0

6 . 0

0 .000

1 . 0

1 . 0

0 . 301

0 . 6

1 . 2

1 . 2

1 . 2

0 . 598

1 . 0

0 . 5

0 . 5

0 .458

5 . 0

5 . 0

0 . 000

31 2

0 . 20

0 . 24

3

1 . 0

21 2

0 . 03

0 . 03

1

0 . 0

11 2

0 . 13

0 . 02

4

0 . 4

1 . 0

1 . 0

1 . 0

0 . 602

41

0 .73

0 . 09

0 .7

1 . 0

0 . 6

0 . 6

0 .79 1

11 0

0 . 10

0 . 01

2

0 . 0

2 . 0

2 . 0

0 . 301

2 .9

0 . 06

0 . 06

2

1 . 0

0 . 0

0 , 0

0 . 000 0 .469

1 0

1 . 0

4 7

1 . 07

0 . 03

5

0 . 7

1 . 1

0 . 5

0 . 5

37

0 . 65

0 . 23

7

1 . 3

1 . 9

0 . 5

0 . 5

0 .407

27

0 . 10

n eg

1

0 . 0

0 , 0

0 . 000

17

0 .000

0 . 10

0 . 01

46A

0 . 97

0 . 33

4 6

0 .40

0 . 25

36 A

0 . 10

1

1 . 0

1 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 9

1 . 4

0 . 4

0 . 5

0 . 843

3

1 . 0

1 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 .477

0 . 20

2

2 . 0

2 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 301

2 . 0

2 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

1 0

36

0 .40

0 . 12

2

16 A

0 . 20

0 . 08

1

25A

0 . 10

0 . 14

2

0 . 3

1 . 0

3 . 0

3 . 0

15 A

1 . 04

0 . 16

9

0 . 5

1 . 3

1 . 3

1 . 3

0 . 804

44A

0 . 50

0 . 50

4

1 . 0

1 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 3

0 . 579

0 . 301 0 . 000 0 . 30 1

4 4

0 . 16

0 . 80

2

1 . 0

1 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 30 1

24 A

0 . 05

0 . 02

1

1 . 0

1 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 000

14 A

0 . 15

0 . 09

3

1 . 0

1 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 477

14

0 . 40

0 . 18

3

2 . 0

2 . 0

0 . 0

1 . 0

0 .452

0 . 10

1 . 33

2

0 . 5

1 . 0

1 . 0

1 . 0

0 . 477

23 A

0 . 05

0 . 07

1

1 . 0

0 . 000

32 A

0 . 03

0 . 03

1

1 . 0

1 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 .000

12 A

0 . 05

n eg

1

0 . 000

1 1

0 . 10

n eg

1

0 . 000

4 3A

R ange s :

1 . 102 0 .696 -

0 . 03 -1 .07 0 . 01 -1 .33

1 09

1 10

0 -2 .0

1 . 0 -2 .0

0 -6 .0

0 6 .0

0 -0 .843

Con tex t

. g

" 1 2

n umber [ s amp l e si no rde ro f

Ii

d ec re a s ing d ep th ]

a e . )

2

5 ,› . f j "

tm i

Dbuwe i la P PNB

212 4

6

0 . 2

0 . 2

1 . 0

2 . 0

0 .638

212 8

5

1 . 5

1 . 5

0 . 2

0 . 2

0 .642

213 3

6

1 . 1

1 . 4

0 .7

0 . 7

0 .678

212 5

6

1 . 0

1 . 0

1 2 .0

1 2 .0

0 .646

2 11

3

0 . 8

0 . 8

4 . 0

4 . 0

0 .477 0 .477 -

R ange s : L a te N eo l i th ic

3 -6

0 . 2 1 .5

0 . 2 1 .5

0 . 2 12 .0

0 . 2 -12 .0

0 .678

1 0

1 . 2

1 . 2

2 . 9

2 . 9

0 .882

5

1 . 4

1 . 4

6 . 0

6 . 0

0 .614

3

0 . 0

1 40 .0

1 40 .0

0 . 108

5

0 . 2

5 . 0

5 . 0

0 .439

1 2

5

0 . 2

6 . 0

7 . 0

0 .613

1 8

7

0 . 8

1 . 0

1 . 3

1 . 3

0 . 565

0 . 0

0 . 0

411 8 4 214

B e idha

8 1

1 9

5

2 0

4

2 1

2

2 2

1

2 3

3

R ange s :

Wad iF idan A

4 .40

2 0 .56

A007 /010

2 9 .09

7 . 58

A007 /004

2 8 .67

8 . 60

A006 /004

1 9 .67

8 . 20

7 . 5

0 .472

4 . 0

0 . 359 0 . 196 0 .000

1 . 0

0 .413

0 -0 .8

0 1 .0

1 . 3 140 .0

1 . 6

1 . 8

0 . 3

1

0 . 4

1 . 5

7 13

0 . 4 1 .6

1 . 3 140 .0

0 0 .613

4 . 0

0 . 661

0 . 3

0 . 523

6 . 0

7 . 0

0 . 598

1 . 5 -1 .8

0 . 3 -6 .0

0 . 3 -7 .0

8 1 3 7

0 . 332 0 . 332 -

4 . 40 -

7 . 58 -

2 9 .09

4 2 .75

CO01 /007 1

1 50 .00

2 5 .20

1 0

3 . 0

0 . 0

0 . 0

0 .465

CO01 /007 i

1 498 .67

3 2 .67

2 8

1 . 2

1 . 2

2 4 .5

1 2 .8

0 . 398

CO01 /007 H i

5 43 .00

4 3 .00

2 1

1 . 5

1 . 5

1 2 .5

1 0 .7

0 . 569

CO01 /008

2 6 .40

1 .04

6

1 . 0

1 . 0

CO01 /007

3 6 .00

3 . 60

4

R ange s : Wad iF idan C

7 . 5 4 . 0

1 . 0

1 7

A007 /019

1 . 0

R ange s :

2 6 .40 -

3 . 60 -

1 498 .67

4 3 .00

0 . 661

0 .417 0 . 263 0 . 263 -

4 -28

1 . 2 -3 .0

1 . 2 1 .5

0 24 .5

0 12 .8

0 . 569

Mean v a lue sf or a l ls i te s[ f o rs o r ted s amp le so n ly ] Wad ia l I l tunmeh 2 7

2 . 32

0 . 006

1 9

0 . 7

1 . 2

1 . 7

2 . 1

0 . 243

I raq e d -Dubb

3 1 .03

2 6 .42

4 3

1 . 2

1 . 6

0 . 9

1 . 4

0 . 857

Wad ie l -J i la t6

1 . 45

0 . 39

1 7

0 . 9

0 . 6

0 . 6

0 . 6

0 . 574

Wad ie l -J i la t7

2 . 84

5 . 69

7 5

1 . 2

1 . 4

2 . 3

2 . 8

0 . 884

4 3 .37

2 . 80

8 2

1 . 4

1 . 4

1 . 2

1 . 9

0 . 833

1 8

1 . 0

1 . 1

3 . 8

4 . 0

0 . 654

2 5

0 . 9

1 . 2

0 . 9

1 . 0

0 . 308

1 0

0 . 4

0 . 8

2 7 .3

2 7 .5

0 . 352

Wad ie l -J i la t1 3 Dhuwe l la A zraq 3 1

0 . 29

B e idha

0 . 17 -

Wad iF idan A

2 0 .46

1 .24

2 0

1 . 0

1 . 7

3 . 2

3 . 8

0 . 529

Wad iF idan C

4 50 .81

2 3 .10

3 1

1 . 9

1 . 4

9 . 5

6 . 1

0 . 422

10

T ab l e5 . 2S pea rman ' sr ank c o r r e la t ion c o ef f i c ien t .

I . , . . . i a . E li

Wad ia l -Hammeh 2 7

+ 0 .19

l i 12 , 1 s ' . i l

Ei e

4 , . z . z .. I

aI t

1, : s . C 'm . I p 1 . 2i

0 .35

0 .32

. t , .

i

k

+ 0 .43

1 x ;

ji ä

I 1 .z ei i L e5 . 4 .J z 1a N . . c x «. e , "

. 93

.

. 3

0 .01

e i1 i

0i . + 0 .54

( 1 ! D :0 .96 F :0 .7 1

I raq e d -Dubb

+ 0 .91

+ 0 .51

+ 0 .45

+ 0 .35

+ 0 .18

+ 0 .42

I :+ 0 .42 I :0 .36 e x mu r : 0 .37

Wad ie l -J i la t6

+ 0 .68

0 .30

0 .30

+ 0 .35

+ 0 .35

+ 0 .33

+ 0 .07

Wad ie l -J ih t t7

+ 0 .92

+ 0 .14

+ 0 .19

0 .30

0 .31

+ 0 .31

s q 1 4 :0 .52 s q5 -8 : 0 .94 A /C : 0 .03 B :0 .34

Wad ie l -J i la t1 3

+ 0 .77

+ 0 .43

+ 0 .49

0 .23

0 .38

+ 0 .06

e ELN :0 .05 mELN : + 0 .38 1 ELN : + 0 .13

A zr aq 3 1

+ 0 .23

+ 0 .44

+ 0 .06

+ 0 .11

+ 0 .10

+ 0 .84

s q 1 4 : + 0 .20 A :0 .20 B /C : + 0 .16

Wad iF idan A

1 0 .80 ]

Wad iF idan C

+ 0 .50

A l lS i te s

+ 0 .74

-

+ 0 .7 1

+ 0 .88

N umb er su nder l ined -s i gn i f ican tc orre la t ion a t9 5% c on f idence l e ve l [ Numb er si nb rack e t s ] -b a sed o nl e s st han 5s amp le s

11

[ 0 .80 ]

[ + 1 .0 ]

[ + 1 .0 ]

0 .20

+ 0 .57

+ 0 .62

+ 0 .31

I r aq e d-D ubb

Wad i a l -Ham meh 2 7 1 00

s o

9 0 -

a o-

8 0

%o fs amp les

%o fs amp les

1 00

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0 -

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

2 0-

2 0

1 0 -

1 0 0

0 0 -4 .99 5 -9 .99

1 0 -

1 5 -

2 0 -

2 5 -

3 0 -

3 5 -

4 0 -

4 5 -

5 0 -

1 4 .99

1 9 .99

2 4 .99

2 9 .99

3 4 .99

3 9 _99

4 4 .99

4 9 .99

5 4 .99

0 -4 .99 5 -9 .99

1 0 -

1 5 -

2 0 -

2 5 -

3 0 -

3 5 -

4 0 -

4 5 -

5 0 -

1 4 .99

1 9 .99

2 4 .99

2 9 .99

3 4 .99

3 9 .99

4 4 .99

4 9 .99

5 4 .99

c ha rcoa l d ens i t ies cm 3/ I

c ha rcoa l d ens i t ies cm 3/ I

Wad i e l -J i la t7 1 00

s o

s o

a o

a o

7 0 -

%o fs amp les

' ) / 0o fs amp les

Wad ie l -J i la t 6 1 00

6 0 • 5 0 4 0 3 0 2 0

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0 2 0 1 0

1 0

0

0 0 -4 .99 5 -9 .99

1 0 -

1 5 -

2 0 -

2 5 -

3 0 -

3 5 -

4 0 -

4 5 -

5 0 -

1 4 .99

1 9 .99

2 4 .99

2 9 .99

3 4 .99

3 9 .99

4 4 .99

4 9 .99

5 4 .99

0 -4 .99 5 -9 .99

1 0 -

1 5 -

2 0 -

2 5 -

3 0 -

3 5 -

4 0 -

4 5 -

5 0 -

1 4 .99

1 9 .99

2 4 .99

2 9 .99

3 4 .99

3 9 .99

4 4 .99

4 9 .99

5 4 .99

c ha rcoa l d ens i t ies cm 3/ I

c ha rcoa l d ens i t ies cm 3/ I

A zraq 3 1 1 00

9 0

9 0

8 0

8 0

%o fs amp les

%o fs amp les

Wad i e l -J i la t 1 3 1 00

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

2 0

2 0

1 0

1 0

0

0 0 -4 .99 5 -9 .99

1 0 -

1 5 -

2 0 -

1 4 .99

1 9 .99

2 4 .99

2 5 -

3 0 -

2 9 .99 3 4 .99

3 5 -

4 0 -

4 5 -

5 0 -

3 9 .99

4 4 .99

4 9 .99

5 4 .99

0 -4 .99 5 -9 .99

1 0 -

1 5 -

2 0 -

2 5 -

3 0 -

3 5 -

4 0 -

4 5 -

5 0 -

1 4 .99

1 9 .99

2 4 .99

2 9 .99

3 4 .99

3 9 .99

4 4 .99

4 9 .99

5 4 .99

c harcoa l d ens i t ies cm 3/ I

c harcoa l d ens i t ies cm 3/ I

Wad i R dan A

Wad i R dan C 1 00

9 0 -

9 0 -

8 0 -

8 0 -

%o fs amp les

%o fs amp les

1 00

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

2 0 -

2 0

1 0 -

1 0

0

0 0 -4 .99 5 -9 .99

1 0 -

1 5 -

2 0 -

1 4 .99

1 9 .99

2 4 .99

2 5 -

3 0 -

2 9 .99 3 4 .99

3 5 -

4 0 -

4 5 -

5 0 -

3 9 .99

4 4 .99

4 9 .99

5 4 .99

0 -4 .99 5 -9 .99

c harcoa l d ens i t ies cm 3/ I

1 0 -

1 5 -

2 0 -

2 5 -

3 0 -

3 5 -

4 0 -

4 5 -

5 0 -

1 4 .99

1 9 .99

2 4 .99

2 9 .99

3 4 .99

3 9 .99

4 4 .99

4 9 .99

5 4 .99

c harcoa l d ens i t ies cm 3/ 1

F igure 5 . 1 F requency h i s tog ram ss how ing t h ec ha rcoa l d en s i t ie so ft h es amp le sf r om t h eJ o rdan ian s i te s . 12

I r aq e d-Dubb

1 00

1 00

9 0

9 0

8 0

8 0

7 0

7 0

' Y eo fs amp les

%o fs amp les

Wad i a l -Ham meh 2 7

6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

2 0

2 0

1 0

1 0

0 99

1 9

2 62 1 3 3 3%4 0 -4 8 5 0 .9 30 669 7 0 -79 ( 04 38 B I M 10 0 .

1 9

1%

1 16 12 9 le

1 40 . 1e

1 19 1 29

1 4 9

13 3

0-9

1 59

l e

2 3,2 9 3 639 4 949 5 69 30 10 3 7 0 .79 9 343 39 3 -9 3 1 01 11 0 - 12 9

1 9

n u mber o fi t ems p er l i t re

1 0 9

1 39

1 49

1 59

Wad i e l -J i la t 7

1 00

1 00

9 0

9 0

8 0

8 0 •

7 0

%o fs amp les

%o fs amp les

13 3 . 1 49 19 ) -

1 2 9

n u mber o fi t ems p er l i t re

Wad i e l -J i la t 6

6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

2 0

2 0

1 0 -

1 0 -

0

0

9

1 9

2 62 9 3 0 -39 4 0 49 9 659 9 69 37 0 -79 E G / 39 9 69 3 1%

1 9 12 0 .

1 39 1 49

19 3 .

1 9

1 09

1 19 1 2 9

1 39

1%

1 49

99

1 9

2 92 3 3 03 3 4649 5 0 -59 9 69 3 7 0 -7 9 9 3 -89 9 69 3 1 00

1 9

1 0 3

n u mber o fi t ems p er l i t re

119 13 1 1 3 3 .

1 46 1%

1 19 1 29

1 49

1 39

1 59

n u mber o fi t ems p e rl i t re

A zraq 3 1

Wad i e l J I la t 1 3 1 00

1 00

9 0 -

s o

8 0 -

a o

7 0

%o fs amp les

%o fs amp les

19

6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0 2 0

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0 2 0

1 0

1 0

0 0 -9

1,

2 0-

3 0-

4 0-

5 0-

9 0-

7 0-

9 0-

9 0 •

1 00 -

1 /0 -

1 20 -

1 30 -

1 40 -

1 90 -

8 70 -

1 9

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 9

1 5

7 9

9 9

9 9

1 99

1 19

1 72

1 29

.9

1 59

4 79

0

, 0 -9

n u mber o f i t e ms p er l i t re

.

1 0 -

2 0 -29 3 0 -39 4 0 -49 5 0 -59 8 0 -89 7 0 -79 8 0 -89 2 0 -99 1 00 -

19

1 09

1 1 0 - 12 0 1 19

1 30 -

1 40 -

15 0 -

1 39

1 49

1 59

1 29

n u mber o fi t e ms p er l i t re

Wad i F i dan A

Wad i R dan C

1 00 9 0

7 0

%o fs amp les

%o fs amp les

8 0

6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 -9

1 0 19

2 0 -29 3 0 -39 4 0 -49 5 0 -59 6 0 -89 7 0 -79 8 0 -89 9 0 -99

10 0 -

1 10 .

12 9 -

13 0 -

14 0 -

15 0 -

1 09

1 19

1 29

1 39

1 49

1 59

0 9

1 0 ,9 2 0-1

3 0-39 4 D•49 5 0-59

. C 1.69 7 0-79

9 0-09 9 0-99

1 00

1 /0 -

1 7 1,

1 30 -

1 49

1 50

5 40 -

1 490

1 09

1 19

1 29

1 39

1 49

1 59

5 49

1 499

n u mber o f i t e ms p er l i t re

n u mber o fi t ems p er l i t re

F igure 5 . 2 F requency h i s tog ram s s how ing t h en umber so fi t em sp e rl i t re i nt h es amp le sf r om t h e J o rdan ian s i tes .

13

WH 2 7 -w i thou t l egu mes

I r aq e d -Dubb -w i thou t l egu mes

1 00

%o fs amp les

%o fs amp les

8 0 6 0 4 0 2 0 0 0 =bad

1 =poo r

2 = fa i r

3 = good

0 =bad

p reserva t ion i ndex

2 = fa i r

3 =good

p reserva t ion i ndex

Wad ie l -J i la t 7 -w i thou t l egu mes

Wad i e l -J i la t6 1 00

1 00 8 0

%o fs amp les

8 0 -

%o fs amp les

1moo r

6 0 4 0 2 0-

6 0

a o2 0 -

0 0 =bad

1moo r

2 = fa i r

3 = good

0 4 Dad

1moo r

2 = fa i r

3 = good

p reserva t ion I ndex

p reserva t ion I ndex

C hu we l la -w i thou t l egu mes

%o fs amp les

%o fs amp les

Wad i e l -J i la t 1 3 -w i thou t l egu mes

04,a d

1 =poo r

2 = fa i r

0 4 : lad

3 = good

lmoo r

2 = fa i r

p reserva t ion i ndex

p reserva t ion i ndex

F igure 5 . 3B a rc ha r t ss how ing t h ep re se rva t ion i nd ice so ft h es amp le sf r om t h eJ o rdan ian s i te s .

14

3 = good

A zraq 3 1 -w i thou t l egu mes

B e idha -w i thou t l egu mes

1 o

1 00 8 0 %o fs amp les

%o fs amp les

a o6 0 4 0 2 0

0 =bad

1 =poo r

2 = fa i r

6 0 4 0 2 0

3 = good

0 =bad

p reserva t ion i ndex

2 = fa i r

3good

p reserva t ion i ndex

Wad i F i dan C

Wad i F i dan A -w i thou t l egu mes 1 00

1 00

8 0

6 0 4 0 2 0 -

0 =bad

I

1 =poo r

24a i r

%o fs amp les

8 0%o fs amp les

1 =poo r

3 ood

6 0 4 0 2 0

0 =bad

1 =poo r

2 = fa i r

p reserva t ion i ndex

p reserva t ion i ndex

F igure 5 . 3 ( c on td .)

15

3 --g ood

Wad ia l -Ham meh 2 7 -w i thou t c erea ls

I r aq e d-Dubb -w i thou tc erea ls

1 00 9 0

1 00 9 0

,

a o

7 0 -

%o fs amp les

%o fs amp les

a o6 0 S O 4 0 3 0 2 0 1 0

7 0 6 0 5 4 0 o -

3 0 2 0

1 11

1 0

0

0 0 =none

= low

1, l ow

c 5emoder e re

> 5=h egh

0 0,ve r yn lgh

0 =none

f rag men ta t ion i ndex

s o

9 0

8 0

a o-

%o fs amp les

%o fs amp les

1 00

7 0 . 6 0 5 0 4 0

AL B

0 0 =none

ow

< 1 = low

1low

> 1 • ,5 =modor

e

. 5.h f il

1 0 0= y e ry

h Igh

Wad i e l -J i la t 7 -w i thou t c erea ls

Wad i e l -J i la t6

0

I

f r ag men ta t ion i ndex

1 00

2 0

‹ 1 = I ow

-

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0 2 0 1 0 . 0

a , . K 54 7 1 , 3 1 '8 .

g h

> 1 O O ,er y hgh

0none

1= low

> 1 , 5.nroer

g h

> 1 0 0 ,e r yh .nn

f r ag men ta t ion i ndex

f rag men ta t ion i ndex

D huwe l la -w i thou t c erea ls

Wad i e l -J i la t 1 3 -w i thou t c erea ls 1 00 9 0

-

%o fs amp les

%o fs amp les

a o7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0 2 0 1 0 -

0 =none

z l OW

1= low

> 1 < • 5=rnaae r e te

,5 =h igh

0 =none

100=Ye r yh igh

5 1= low

> 1

I i

,5 =rnoc ler

a te

>= 10 g h

f r agmen ta t ion i ndex

f r ag men ta t ion i ndex

F igure 5 . 4B a rc ha r t ss how ing t h ef r agmen ta t ion i nd ice so ft h e s amp le sf r om t h eJ o rdan ian s i te s .

16

> 1 0 0=ve r yh Igh

A zraq 3 1 -w i thou tc erea ls

B e idha -w i thou tc erea ls 1 00 9 0 -

%o fs amp les

%o fs amp les

a o 7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0 2 0 1 0 0 < 1

C .none

I O w

1 . 1 .

> 1 « 5=mode ra te

> 5=h ig h

> 10 0>ye ry h i gh

0 =none

< 1 . 1o e v

1= IOW

> 1 < 5= ro ode ra te

> 5= t hg h

f r agmen ta t ion i ndex

f r agmen ta t ion i ndex

Wad i R dan A -w i thou tc erea ls

Wad i R dan C

> 1 0 0= ye r yh igh

1 00 9 0 -

' Y oo fs amp les

%o fs amp les

8 0 7 0 6 0 -

s o4 0 3 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 =none

II < 1= 1o w

1. 1o w

> 1 < 5=mode ra te

> 5>h ig h

10 0= re ty g h

0 =none

f r agmen ta t ion i ndex

< 1 = I OW

1= Ic e i

> 1 . 5 "g rode r

e

> 5. 1 0, 1

f r agmen ta t ion i ndex

F igure 5 . 4 ( c on td . )

17

> 1 0 0=Ye ry h igh

I r aq e d-Dubb 1 00

s o

9 0

a o

8 0

%o fs amp les

%o fs amp les

Wad i a l -Ham meh 2 7 1 00

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

2 0

2 0

1 0

1 0

0

0 0 -5

6 -11

1 2 -17

1 8 -23

2 4 -29

3 0 -35

3 6 -41

4 2 -47

0 -5

6 -11

2 4 -29

3 0 -35

3 6 -41

4 2 -47

3 6 -41

4 2 -47

3 6 -41

4 2 -47

Wad i e l -J i la t 7

Wad i e l -J i la t 6 1 00

1 00

s o

9 0

a o

%o fs amp les

8 0

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

2 0

2 0

1 0

1 0

0

0 0 -5

6 -11

1 2 -17

1 8 -23

2 4 -29

3 0 -35

3 6 -41

4 2 -47

0 -5

6 -11

n u mber o ft axa p er s amp le

1 2 -17

1 8 -23

2 4 -29

3 0 -35

n u mber o ft axa p er s amp le D huwe i la

Wad i e i -J i la t 1 3 1 00

1 o

s o

s o

a o-

a o

%o fs amp les

c / 1 0o fs amp les

1 8 -23

n u mber o ft axa p er s amp le

n u mber o ft axa p er s amp le

%o fs amp les

1 2 -17

7 0 6 0 5 04 0 3 0

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

2 0-

2 0

1 0

1 0 0 0 -5

6 -11

1 2 -17

1 8 -23

2 4 -29

3 0 -35

3 6 -41

4 2 -47

0 -5

6 -11

1 2 -17

1 8 -23

2 4 -29

3 0 -35

n u mber o ft axa p er s amp le

n u mber o ft axa p er s amp le

F igure 5 . 5F requency h i s tog ram ss how ing t h en umbe r so ft axa i nt h es amp le sf r om t h eJ o rdan ian s i te s .

18

A zraq 3 1

B e idha 1 00

9 0

9 0

8 0

8 0

7 0

%o fs amp les

%o fs amp les

1 00

6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

2 0

2 0

1 0

1 0

0

0 0 -5

6 -11

1 2 -17

1 8 -23

2 4 -29

3 0 -35

3 6 -41

4 2 -47

0 -5

6 -11

n u mber o ft axa p er s amp le

1 8 -23

2 4 -29

3 0 -35

3 6 -41

4 2 -47

3 6 -41

4 2 -47

n u mber o ft axa p er s amp le Wad i F i dan C

Wad i H dan A 1 00

1 00

s o

9 0

a o

a o

%o fs amp les

%o fs amp les

1 2 -17

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

2 0

2 0

1 0

1 0 0

0 0 -5

6 -11

1 2 -17

1 8 -23

2 4 -29

3 0 -35

3 6 -41

4 2 -47

0 -5

6 -11

1 2 -17

1 8 -23

2 4 -29

3 0 -35

n u mber o ft axa p er s amp le

n u mber o ft axa p er s amp le

F igure 5 . 5 ( c on td .)

19

I r aq e d -Dubb 1 00

s o

s o

a o

a o

7 0

%o fs amp les

%o fs amp les

Wad ia l -Ham meh 2 7 1 00

6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

7 0

e o 5 0 4 0 3 0

2 0

2 0

1 0

1 0

0

0 0 .0 .100 0 .101.

02 01.

0 .301-

04 01.

06 01-

0 .601.

07 01.

0 .901-

0 .901.

1 .001.

11 01-

1 .201.

0 .0 .100 0 1 01.

0 .201.

0 .301-

04 01.

0 .601-

0 .601.

0 .701.

0 .601-

0 .901.

10 01.

1 .101.

1 .20 1-

0 .200

0 .300

0 .400

0 .600

0 .600

0 .700

0 .000

0 .900

1 .000

1 .100

1 .200

1 .300

0 .200

03 00

0 .400

0 .600

0 .600

07 00

00 00

0 .900

1 .000

11 00

1 .200

1 .300

d ivers i ty i ndex

d ivers i ty i ndex

Wad ie i -J i la t6

Wad ie i -J i la t7 1 00

9 0

9 0

a o

a o

%o fs amp les

1 00

7 0 6 0 5 0 •4 0 3 0

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

2 0

2 0

1 0

1 0 0 0 .0 .10a 0 f ol.

a2 0,

03 01-

04 01.

06 01.

06 01-

07 01-

0e a,

oo ol.

Loot.

I mi.

M -

0 .0 1 00 0 .101-

0 .20 1-

0 .301.

04 01.

06 01.

0 .60 1.

0 .701-

0 .601.

09 01.

1 .001.

t1 01-

1 .201.

O2 00

03 00

04 00

0 .600

06 00

07 00

0 .600

09 00

1 .000

11 00

12 00

13 00

02 00

1300

0 .400

0 .500

06 00

0 .700

09 00

0 .900

10 00

1 . 100

1 .200

1 .300

d ivers i ty i ndex

d ivers i ty i ndex

D huwe l la 1 00

s o

s o

a o

a o

%o fs amp les

%o fs amp les

Wad ie i -J i la t 1 3 1 00

7 0 6 0

s o a o 3 0

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

2 0

2 0

1 0

1 0

0 0 .0 .100 0 1 01-

02 01.

03 01-

04 01.

06 01.

06 01-

07 01.

09 01-

0901.

10 01•

1t ot.

t ,00t.

0 .0 .100 0 .101.

02 01.

0 .301.

04 01-

05 01.

0 .601.

07 01.

06 01.

09 01.

1 .001

11 01-

12 01.

0 .200

03 00

04 00

0 .600

06 00

07 00

0 .900

09 00

10 00

11 00

12 00

1 .300

02 00

0 .300

04 00

0S OO

06 00

07 00

0B OO

09 00

10 00

11 00

12 00

13 00

d ivers i ty i ndex

d ivers i ty i ndex

F igure 5 . 6F r equency h i s tog r ams s how ing t h ed i ve r s i ty i nd ic e so ft h es amp le sf r om t h eJ o rdan ian s i te s .

1 20

B e idha 1 00

9 0

9 0

8 0

8 0

%o fs amp les

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

7 0

s o s o 4 0 3 0

2 0

2 0

1 0

1 0 0 -0 .100 0 .101-

0 ,201.

0 .301.

0 .401.

0 .501-

0 .601.

0 ,701.

0 .601.

0 .901.

1 .001.

1 .101-

1 .201•

0 .0 1 00 0 .101.

0 .201-

a3 01.

0 .401.

06 01.

0 .601.

0 .701.

0 .001.

09 01.

1 .001.

11 01-

1 .201.

0 .200

0 .300

0 .400

0 .600

0 .600

0 .700

0 .800

0 .900

1 .000

11 00

12 00

1 .300

0 .200

03 00

04 00

06 00

06 00

07 00

0 .800

09 00

1 .000

11 00

12 00

13 00

d ivers i ty i ndex

d ivers i ty i ndex

Wad i R dan A

Wad i R dan C

1 00 -

1 00

9 0 -

9 0

8 0 -

8 0

%o fs amp les

% o fs a mp les

%o fs amp les

A zr aq 3 1 1 00

7 0 -

4 0 3 0 -

7 0 6 0 5 0 4 0 3 0

2 0 -

2 0

1 0 -

1 0 0

0 -0 1 00 0 1 01.

02 01-

03 01-

04 01-

0 .601.

06 01.

0 .701.

0 .801.

09 01.

10 01-

11 01=

12 01.

0 .0 1 00 0 .101.

02 01-

03 01-

04 01-

0 .601-

0 .601.

07 01.

0 .601-

0 .901-

1 .001.

1 .101.

1 .201.

02 00

03 00

04 00

06 00

06 00

07 00

06 00

09 00

1 .000

11 00

12 00

13 00

0 .200

0 ,300

04 00

0 .500

0 .600

07 00

0 .800

0 .900

10 00

1 .100

1 .200

13 00

d ivers i ty i ndex

d ivers i ty i ndex

F igur e5 . 6( c on td . )

1 2 1

1 .0

c ha rcoa ld ens i ty cm

3 1 1

09 08 -

t rench D

t rench F

0 .7 0 .6 0 .5 0 .4 03 0 .2 0 . 1 0 .0

D51

03

03

03

D3

4 d

4 c

4 b

4 a

D33

F27

F26

F23 1

F23

F22

F21

s amp les >d ecreas ing d ep th

F igure 5 . 7B a rc ha r ts how ing t h ec ha rcoa ld en s i t ie si nt h es amp le sf r om Wad ia l -Hammeh 2 7 .

1 6 .0 1 4 .0 1 20 1 0 .0

a )

80

o

6 .0

. 0

4 .0 2 .0 0 .0 D51

03

D3

D3

03

4 d

4 c

4 b

4 a

033

F27

F26

F23 1

F23

F22

F21

s amp les >d ecreas ing d ep th

F igure 5 . 8B a rc har ts how ing t h en umber so fi t em sp e rl i t re i nt h e s amp le sf r om Wad ia l -Hanuneh 2 7 .

s truc ture 1

m an

0

z

c >

l f W3 A psuap p eoo n t io

e x tra -mura l

D 10 /819

0 10 /11 1 9 0 10 111 1 7

s amp les >d ecreas ing d ep th

D 10 /102

D 10 114 3 1

e x tra -mura l

F igure 5 . 9B a rc ha r ts how ing t h ec ha rcoa ld en s i t ie si nt h es amp le sf r om I r aq e d -Dubb . [ v e r t i ca ls t r iped b a r sr e f e rt oL a te N a tu f ian s amp le s ]

s amp les >d ec reas ing d ep th

s t ruc ture I

' 7 E

° Z •

0

e -

a i i u l

1 23

o p

Jad

swap j oJ ac i wou

6 0 .0

c harcoa ld ens i ty cm 3 1

5 0 .0 -

4 0 .0 -

3 0 .0 -

+-

+

2 0 .0 -

1 0 .0 -

0 .0 2 0

4 0

8 0

6 0

1 00

1 20

n u mber o fi t e ms p er l i t re

F igure 5 . 11 S ca t t e rg ram p lo ts how ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tw e en c ha r coa ld en s i t ie sa nd n umb e r so fi t em sp e rl i t r ei nt h e s amp l e sf r om I r aq e d -Dubb _

1 24

C 3 3 9 )

t h W3

A gsuap l eowe ip

1 10

4 10

18A

1T A

s amp les >d ec reas ing d ep th

0

0

wp iJ ed swam p J aqwnu

1 25

F igure 5 . 13 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h en umb e r so fi t em sp e rl i t r ei nt h es amp le sf r om Wad ie l J i la t6 .

s amp les >d ec reas ing d ep th

F igure 5 . 12 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h ec ha r coa ld en s i t ie si nt h es amp le sf r om Wad ie lJ i la t6 .

C 1 2 c e

0 . 9 0 . 8 -

c ha rcoa ld ens i ty cm 1

0 . 7 0 . 6 0 . 5 0 . 4 0 . 3 +

+

0 . 2 0 . 1 0 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

n umber o fi t e ms p er l i t re

F igure 5 . 14 S ca t t e rgr am p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween c ha rcoa ld en s i t ie sa nd n umb e r so fi t em sp e rl i t r ei nt h e s amp le sf r om Wad ie l J i la t6 .

1 26

t r )

i

6

w o Apsuap w oo mpo

c i

e ar ly MPPNB

s amp les >d ecreas ing d ep th

‚ ' T

s amp les >d ecreas ing d ep th

1 z 2 . a s — a ) 2

a i m Jad s wap io Jaq wnu

1 27

m id MPPNB

F igure 5 . 16 B a rc ha r t s how ing t h en umbe r s o fi t em sp er l i t re i nt h e s amp les f r om Wad i e l -J i la t 7( t renches A a nd B , s qua re s 5 -8 )

e ar ly MPPNB

F igure 5 . 15 B a rc ha r t s how ing t h ec ha rcoa l d en s i t ies i nt h e s amp les f r om Wad i e lJ i la t 7( t renches A a nd C . s qua res 1-4 )

t r enches A a nd C

c o c 0

o o

o

o ( 6

o

0

0 O

t o

0 t o

i k wo i tmuap

0.

c ‘ i

0

0 o

s amp les >d ec reas ing d ep th

e ar ly MPPNB

F igure 5 . 17 B a rc ha r ts h ow ing t h ec ha r coa ld en s i t ie si nt h es amp le sf r om Wad ie l J i la t 7( t r ench B ,s qua r e s5 8 )

e a r ly MPPNB

2

1 28

8 25A

625A

m idd le MPPNB

2 0 .0 1 8 .0 1 6 .0 , 9 1 4 .0 -

E ( . 3 •

1 2

. 0

t r i

•1 0 . 0 • o

8 . 0 -

• L I

6 . 0 4 . 0 2 . 0 0 . 0 2

4

6

8

1 0

n umber o fi t ems p er l i t re

F igure 5 . 18 S ca t t e rg fam p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tw een c ha r coa ld en s i t i e sa nd n umb e r so fi t em sp e rl i t r ei nt h e s amp le sf r om Wad ie l J i la t7 .

1 29

0 C D

0

C . 4

6 l b

Ilar .

1 3 11*.

0 /•nr

C 10.

C IObv 1

C leät

A25•

A lec

s amp les >d ecreas ing d ep th

( 1 71ar

e a r ly E a r ly L a te N eo l i th ic

A200

au J ed swaN i o Jaq

1 30

wnu

F igure 5 . 20 B a rc h a r ts h ow ing t h en umb e r so fi t em sp e rl i t re i nt h es amp le sf r om Wad ie l J i la t 1 3( e a r ly , m idd le a nd l a te E LN ) .

s amp les >d ecreas ing d ep th

e ar ly , m idd le a nd l a te E ar ly L a te N eo l i th ic

F igure 5 . 19 B a rc ha r ts h ow ing t h ec ha r coa ld en s i t ie si nt h es amp le sf r om Wad ie l J i la t 1 3( e a r ly E LN ) .

I h W3 M isuap woo n t io

0

m idd le E LN

.17 .

.b 2la

.2 1c

( .1b 21c

.2 1,c

s amp les >d ecreas ing d ep th

7.

m idd le a nd l a te E ar ly L a te N eo l i th ic

F igure 5 . 21 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h ec ha r coa ld en s i t ie si nt h es amp le sf r om Wad ie l J i la t 1 3( m idd le a nd l a t eE LN ) .

I h W3 M i me )l eoa ie t io

1 31

1 6 .0

c harcoa ld ens i ty cm e l

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n umber o fI t ems p er l i t re ( l oga r i thm ic s ca le )

F igure 5 . 22 S ca t t e rg ram p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tw een c ha r coa ld en s i t ie sa nd n umb e r so fi t em sp e rl i t r ei nt h e s amp le sf r om Wad ie l J i la t 1 3 .

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F igure 5 . 23 S ca t t e rg r am p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tw een p r e se rva t ion i n d ice sa nd n umb e r so fi t em sp e rl i t r ei nt h e s amp le sf r om Wad ie l J i la t 1 3 .

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n umber o fi t e ms p er l i t re ( l oga r i thm ic s ca le )

F igur e5 . 24 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tw een f r agm en ta t ion i n d ice sa nd n umb e r so fi t em sp e rl i t r ei nt h e s amp le sf r om Wad ie l J i la t 1 3 .

1 32

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F igure 2 6B a rc ha r ts how ing t h ec ha r coa ld en s i t ie si nt h es amp le sf r om A z raq 3 1 ( t r enche sA , Ba nd C ) .

t r enches B and C

F igure 2 5B a rc ha r ts how ing t h ec ha r coa ld en s i t ie si nt h es amp le sf r om A z r aq 3 1 ( s qua r e 1 ) .

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F igure 5 . 27 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h en umb e r so fi t em sp e rl i t r e i nt h e s amp le sf r om A zr aq 3 1 ( s qua re 1 ) .

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F igure 5 . 28 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tw een p r e se rva t ion i n d ice sa nd n umb e r so fi t em sp e rl i t r ei nt h e s amp le sf r om A zr aq 3 1 .

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F igure 5 . 29 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tw e en d i v e r s i ty i nd ice sa nd n umb e r so fi t em sp e rl i t r ei nt h e s amp le sf r om A zr aq 3 1 .

1 35

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F igure 5 . 30 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h ec ha rcoa l d en s i t ie si nt h e s amp le s f r om Wad i F idan A a nd C .

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F igure 5 . 31 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h en umb e r so fi t em sp e rl i t re i nt h es amp le sf r om Wad i F id an A a nd C .

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F igure 5 . 32 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h em ean c ha r coa ld en s i t ie sf o rt h eJ o rdan ian s i te s .

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F igure 5 . 33 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h em ean n umb e r so fi t em sp e rl i t r ef o rt h eJ o rdan ian s i te s .

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n umber o fi t ems p er l i t re ( l oga r i thm ic s ca le )

F igure s5 . 34 S ca t t e rg ram p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween m ean c ha rcoa ld en s i t ie sa nd m ean n umb e r so fi t em sp e rl i t r e f o rt h eJ o rdan ian s i t e s . 2 WFC

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n umber o fi t ems p er l i t re ( l oga r i thm ic s ca le )

F igure 5 . 35 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween p r e se rva t ion i n d i c e sa nd m ean n umb e r so fi t em sp e rl i t r ef o r t h eJ o rdan ian s i te s . 3 5 -

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F igure 5 . 36 S ca t te rg ram p l o ts how ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween n umb e r so ft a xa a nd n umb e r so fs amp le sf o rt h eJ o rdan ian s i t e s . 1 38

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F igure 5 . 37 B a rc ha r t ss how ing t h en umb e r so fi t em sp e rl i t r ei nt h es amp le sf r om t h e S y r ian s i te s .

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F igure 5 . 38 B a rc ha r ts how ing t h em ean n umbe r so fi t em sp e rl i t re f o re ach p ha se a tt h e S y r ian s i te s .

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F igure 5 . 39 S ca t te rg ram p lo ts how ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween n umb er so ft axa a nd n umbe r so fs amp le sf o rt h e S yr ian s i te s .

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1 79

n u mber o fI Di t e ms p er l i t re

n u mber o fI Di t e ms p er l i t re

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T e l l R as S ham r a P Na nd H a la f ian ( ha tched )

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n u mber o fI D i te ms p er l i t re

F igure 5 . 40 F requency h i s tog ram ss how ing t h en umb e r so fi t em sp e rl i t re i nt h es amp le s f r om t h e S y r ian s i t e s . 1 42

V I P re sence o fT axa :F ood P lan t s ,F ounder C rop sa nd t he S pread o f A gr icu l ture

e i nko rn . I tm u s tb ea s sumed ,t h e ref o re ,t h a ta tI r aq e d -Dubb t h e c e rea l w a s g row ing i n s e conda ry h ab i ta t s . O n a d i s t r ibu t ion m ap , Z oha ry a nd H opf s how i s o la ted s t and s o f ' w e edy ' f o rm s o ft h e s p ec ie s a sf a r s ou th a ss ou the rn S y r ia a nd L ebanon ( Zoh a ry a nd H opf 2 000 , 3 7 : map 1 ) . T hey m ade t h e f o l low ing c ommen t s a bou tt h e o c cu r renc e s o ft h e w i ld c e rea lb eyond i t sn a tu ra lr a nge :

I nt h i s c hap te r , t h e s amp le s f r om t h eJ o rd an ian a nd S y r ian s i t e s a r e a s se s sed w i th r e spe c t t o e v idence f o r t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o ff o od p l an tr e sou rc e s . I n ve s t iga t ion s o fo v e ra l l p re se rva t ion h av e e mpha s i sed t h e p a r t t h a t t h e f o rma t ion p roce s se s m ay h ave p l ay ed i n t h e r e su l tan tc ompo s i t ion o ft h ea s semb lage so fc ha r red r ema in s f o und o n t h e s i te s . T he f o r tu i tou s n a tu re o ft h e s e e v en t s m ak e s i ti mpo s s ib le t od e te rm ine h ow , a nd t ow ha t e x ten t , t h e o r ig ina l s u i te s o f p l an t r e sou rce s m ay h ave b een mod if ied . A s ac ons equence o ft h i s , t h e l i m i ta t ion so n a ny i n te rp re ta t ion s o f s amp le s o f c h a r red p l an t r ema in s a r e o bv iou s ly g r ea t . T he d i scu s s ion s i nt h e f o l low ing s e c t ion s t a ke d u e a ccoun t o f t h e i n he ren t i n adequacy o f t h e a r cha eobo tan ica lr e co rd a s ab a s i sf o ra dd re s s ing m any o ft h e q ue s t ion s c once rn ing p l an t -ba sed s u b s is tenc e e c onom ie s o n e a r ly s i te s .

" Fa r the r a way f r om i t s d i s t r ibu t ion c en t re , w i ld e i nko rn i s r e s t r ic ted m a in ly t os e ge ta l o rs e conda ry h ab i ta t s , i . e . s i te s w h ich w e re v e ry p robab ly n o t a va i lab le b ef o re t h e o pen ing u p o ft h e se a r ea st oa g r icu l tu ra la c t iv i ty ." ( Zoh a ry a nd H opf 2 000 ,3 6 )

T he J ordan ian S i te s Wad ia l -Hammeh 2 7 At o ta l o fn ine te en t a xa w e re i d en t i f ied i nt h es amp le sf r om Wad i a l -Hammeh 2 7 . T he t am w e re a l l r e p re sen ta t iv e o f w i ld p l an t s ( t ab le 6 . 1) . W i ld b a r ley t y pe ( H ord eum s pon taneum t y pe )g r a in sa nd r a ch i si n te rnode f r agmen t sw e re i d en t if i ed i nt h re es amp le s . Wad ia l -Ha rnmeh 2 7l i e sw i th in t h en a tu ra l d i s t r ibu t ion r ange o ft h ew i ld c e rea l . O the rp l an t t a xa f o und i nt h es amp le sa t Wad ia l -Hammeh 2 7w e re a l so c ommon i nt h e Med i te r ranean v eg e ta t ion z one ,P i s ta c ia t r ee s a r e c ommon c omponen t s o f t h e w ood land s a nd m any A eg i lop s s p ec ie s g r ow i n d eg rad ed b a tha , a l ong w i th t h e s ma l l seeded l e gume s ,a nd i n c lud ing w i ld l e n t i ls ( L en ss pp . ) . S ev e ra lo ft h et a xa i d en t if ied i nt h es amp le si n hab i td i s tu rbed g round ( t he t e rm ' w eed ' m ay b e i n app rop r ia te i n t h i s c on tex t ) , i n c lud ing L o l ium , B ug lo s so id e s a r ven s i s , Ma /va a nd Ma tr ica r ia . T he g r a in s a nd s e ed s o ft h e w i ld b a r ley , g r a s se s a nd s ma l l l e gume s w ou ld h ave b een i mpo r tan t s o u rce so ff o od . T he f r u i t s a nd r e s in o fP i s tac ia m ay h ave b een c o l lec ted f o r u s e . B o th t h el e ave sa nd s e ed s o f Ma /va a r ee d ib le a nd t h e se c ou ld h av eb e en c o l lec ted i ns p r ing . T he f r u i t so fP i s tac ia w ou ld h ave r i pened i ne a r ly s umme r .

I raq e d -Dubb A t o ta l o f f o r ty th re e t a xa w e r e r e p re sen ted i n t h e p l an t r ema in s f r om I r aq e d -Dubb . T he se i n c luded w i ld a nd d ome s t ic c e rea l s , f r u i t s a nd p u l se s ( t ab le 6 . 2 ) . A w i ld e i nko rn t y pe g r a in ( T r i t icum b oeo t i cum t y pe )w a s i d en t if i ed i nt h e P PNA p i t i ns t ruc tu re I . T h eu ppe rJ o rdan V a l ley i s b eyond t h e b ounda r ie s o f t h e n a tu ra l d i s t r ibu t ion o fw i ld 1 4 3

T he e xcava to r n o ted t h a t m any o ft h e c on tex t s s amp led a t I r aq e d -Dubb c on ta ined d e r ived m a te r ia l , f o r e xamp le , c e r ta in L a te N a tuf i an c on tex t sc on ta ined P PNA a r tef ac t s ,a nd v i ce v er sa . T he p r e senc e o fd ome s t ic g l ume w hea tc haf fi n s amp le s d a ted t o t h e L a te N a tuf i an , t h e ref o re , mu s t b e r e ga rded w i th e x t reme c au t ion . L a te N a tuf ian c on tex t s u nd e rnea th s t ruc tu re I w e re b e low P PNA l a y e r s t h a t c on ta ined h i gh d en s i t ie s o f c ha r red m a te r ia l , a nd c on tam ina t ion w i th p l an t m a te r ia l f r om a bove w ou ld h ave b een l i ke ly . S im i la r ly , i nt h ee x t ramu ra l a r ea st h e re w ou ld a l so h ave b e en m ix ing o fo c cupa t ion d eb r i s . I tw a s n o t p o s s ib le t oi d en t if yt h e s p ike le t f o rk s a nd g l ume b a se s o f t h e d ome s t ic g l ume w hea t s f o und i n t h e P PNA s amp le s a s e i the r e i nko rn ( T r i t icum m onococcum t y pe ) o r e mme r ( T r i t i cum d i coccum t y pe ; p l a te 6 . 1) . I tw ou ld s e em u n l ike ly , h ow eve r ,t h a td ome s t ic e i nko rn w ou ld o ccu r s of a r s o u th o fi t s p o s s ib le p l ace o fo r ig in a ts u ch a n e a r ly d a te . I r aq e d -Dubb l i e sa tt h ec en t re o ft h ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ew i ld p rogen i to r o fd ome s t ic e mme r , a nd s ot h e p re sence o ft h i s c e rea l ,r a the rt h an e i nko rn ,w ou ld s e em mo re p robab le . W i ld b a r ley t y pe ( H ord eum s pon taneum t y pe ) g r a in s a nd r a ch i s i n te rnode f r agmen t sw e re i d en t if i ed i nL a te N a tuf ian c on tex t s a tI r aq e d -Dubb . T he s i t e l i e s w i th in t h e n a tu ra l r a nge o ft h e w i ld c e rea l . D ome s t ic b a r ley t y pe ( H ord eum s a t i vum t y pe )g r a in sw e re i d en t if i ed f r om o ne L a te N a tuf ian c on tex t a tI r aq e d -Dubb . T he s e mu s t b er e ga rded w i th t h e s ame a moun t o fs c ep t ic i sm a st h e e a r ly f i nd s o fd ome s t ic w hea t s . T he L a te N a tuf ian c on t ex t i nw h ich t h e d ome s t ic b a r ley t y pe g r a in s w e re f o und w a s ab u r ia l p i t , w he re t h e l i ke l ihood o fm ixed d epo s i t sw ou ld h av eb een g r ea t . G ra in s o fb o th w i ld a nd d ome s t ic b a r ley t y pe s w e re i d en t if i ed i n P PNA c on tex t s .

I tw a sn o tp o s s ib le t oa s ce r ta in w he the rt h el e gume sf o und a t I r aq e d -Dubb w e re w i ld o r d ome s t ic s p e c ie s . T he t a xon V i c ia s p . -c f .f aba t y pe ' w a s i d en t if i ed o nt h eb a s i s o ft h e l a rge s i ze a nd t h ea ngu la r' s hou lde r s ' o ft h ec o ty ledon s ,a nd t h e e x t reme f l a tne s s o ft h e s e ed ( Ann B u t le r p e r s . c omm . , w ho a l so s t a ted t h a t t h e s p ec imen s s how ed n o s im i la r i ty t o V i c ia n a rbonen s i s ) . T he w i ld p l an tt a xa r e p re sen ted i nb o th L a te N a tuf ian a nd P PNA c on tex t s a t I r aq e d -Dubb w e re d om ina ted b y t h o se w h ich f a vou red h ab i ta t s i n Med i te r r anean m aqu is a nd b a tha . P i s ta c ia a nd Amygda lu s a r e c ommon i n t h e Med i te r ranean w ood land s , A eg i lop s , A vena ,C e ra s t ium ,G yp soph i la ,L inum ,G a l ium ,a nd m any o f t h e s ma l l s e eded l e gume s g r ow i nt h e Med i te r ranean b a tha , o ri nt h eu nde r s to rey o ft h em o re w ooded a r ea s . S eve ra lt a xa c l a s s if ied a s' f i e ld w e ed s ' w e re i d en t if i ed i nP PNA c on tex t s , t h e se i n c luded t h eg r a s se sH ord eum ,L o l ium ,a nd P ha la r i s . Ar ange o fp l an t f o od sw a sr e p re sen ted i nt h es amp le sf r om I r aq e d -Dubb . T he w i ld a nd d ome s t ic c e rea l s , g ra s se s a nd l e gume s w ou ld h av e p rov ided e d ib le s e ed s . T ree f r u i t s a nd n u t s a l so c ou ld h ave b een g a the red f o r u s e . T he r o o t s o f G yp soph i la a r e e d ib le , a s a r e t h e f l e shy l e av e s o f m any m embe r so ft h eC ruc if e rae f am i ly ,w h ich a r ee a ten r aw . O i l s a nd r e s in sm ay h av eb een e x t rac ted f r om t h es e ed sa nd f r u i t s o fL inum a nd P i s tac ia . O the rt a xa m ay h ave b e en r e cogn i sed f o r t h e i r m ed ic ina l q ua l i t ie s , f o r e xamp le , t h e l e av e s a nd r oo t s o f G a l ium . T he w ood f r om t h e t r e e s w ou ld h av e p rov ided av a luab le s o u rce o ff u e l . S eed s a nd l e ave sw ou ld h ave b een c o l lec ted e a r ly i nt h e y ea r a nd t h e c e rea l sw ou ld a l so h av e b een h a rve s ted d u r ing t h e s p r ing mon th s . T ree f r u i t s a nd n u t s w ou ld h av e b e en g a the red l a te r i nt h ey e a r . T he a lmond s w ou ld h ave r e ached m a tu r i ty i nl a te s umme r . T he f i g h a s ac omp lex f r u i t ing c y c le a nd i tc an p rodu ce s e ve ra lc r op sp e ry e a r ,f r om l a te s p r ing u n t i la u tumn ( Zoha ry 1 995 ,3 66 -370 ) .

Wad ie l-J i la t6 At o ta l o fs e ven teen t a xa w e re r e p re sen ted i nt h e s amp le s f r om Wad i e l J i la t 6 . A l l t h e r ema in s d e r ived f r om w i ld p l an t s( t ab le 6 . 3 ) . T he h i ghe s tn umbe r so fs e ed sw e re t h o se o ft h e C henopod iac eae f am i ly . T he p e renn ia l s h rub s p e c ie s i n t h i s f am i ly a r e c ommon i ns t eppe -de se r t e nv i ronmen t s . O the r t a xa r e p re sen ted i n t h e s amp le s w ou ld a l so h av e i n hab i ted t h e se a r ea s , i n c lud ing s p ec ie s o fS t ipa , A tr ip lex , a nd V erba scum . T he p rox im i ty o fw a te r w a s i n d ica ted b y t h e p re sence i n t h e s amp le s o f s e ed s o f t h e C ype raceae f am i ly ( s edge s ) . S e ed s o f g r a s se s a nd s p ec ie s o f b o th C henopod iaceae a nd C ype raceae m ay h av e b een h a rve s ted f o r h uman c on sump t ion . T he y oung l e av e s o fA tr ip lex a r e e d ib le , a nd t h e f l e shy p a r t s a nd r o o t s o f V e rba scum h ave m ed ic ina l p rope r t ie s , a l l m ay h ave b een c o l le c ted f o r u s ea t t h e s i te . T he p e renn ia l , w oody c henopod s a r e u sed a s a s ou rce o ff u e l i nt h es t eppe . S edge sm ay h av eb een b r ough t t o t h e s i t e i n o r de r t o m ake u se o f t h e i r f i b rou s s t em s . H a rve s t ing o ft h e s e ed s w ou ld h av e t a ken p l ace d u r ing t h e s p r ing o r , f o rt h el a te f l ow e r ing p e renn ia l c henopod s , i nt h e a u tumn .

Wad ie l-J i la t7 At o ta l o f s e ven ty -f ive t a xa w e re r e p re sen ted i n t h e p l an t 1 44

r ema in s a t Wad i e l -J i la t 7 . I nt h e s amp le s f r om t h e E a r ly P PNB p ha s e ,t h e re w a s at o ta lo ft h i r ty -n ine t a xa ,a nd f o rt h e e a r ly a nd m idd le M idd le P PNB p ha se s t h e r ew e re t o ta l s o f s i x ty -e igh t a nd f o r ty -f ou r t a xa , r e spec t ive ly . T he p l an t r ema in s i n c luded w i ld a nd d ome s t ic c e r ea l s , f r u i t s , p u l se s a nd al a rge r a nge o fw i ld t a xa ( t ab le 6 . 4 ) . W i ld e i nko rn t y pe ( T . b oeo t i cum t y pe )g r a in sw e re i d en t if i ed i nM idd le P PNB c on tex t s . T he a r ea i sw e l l o u t s ide t h a t i n w h ich w i ld e i nko rn o ccu r s n a tu ra l ly . A t Wad i e l -J i la t 7 , t h e ref o re , t h e w i ld c e rea l m u s t h ave o ccu r red i ns e conda ry h ab i ta t s , p e rhap s g row ing w i th t h e d ome s t ic c r op s o n c u l t iva ted l a nd . G ra in so fw i ld b a r ley t y p e ( H . s pon taneum t y pe )w e re f o und i ns amp le sf r om a l lt h re ep ha se sa tt h es i t e . T he J i la tr eg ion i sa tt h ee a s te rn m a rg ins o ft h en a tu ra lr a nge o fw i ld b a r ley . W i th r e f e renc et oi t sd i s t r ibu t ion ,Z oha ry a nd H opf s t a ted : " F rom h e re , H v u lga r e s u b sp . s pon taneum s p i l l s o ve r t h e d r ie r s t eppe s a nd s em i -de se r t s . I n t h e N ea r E a s te rn c oun t r ie s , w i ld b a r ley a l so o c cup ie s aw ho le a r ray o f s e conda ry h ab i ta t s , i . e . o pened -up Med i t e r ranean m aqu i s , a bandoned f i e ld s , a nd r o ad s ide s . I t a l so i n f e s t s c e rea l c u l t iva t ion a nd f r u i t t r ee p l an ta t ions ." ( Zoha ry a nd H opf 2 000 ,6 5 -67 ) I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e w i ld b a r ley c ou ld h ave b e en g r owi ng e i the r i nn a tu ra l s t and s i nt h e s t eppe o ri nc u l t iva ted f i e ld s . T ab le 6 . 5 s how s t h e p re s enc e o fw i ld a nd d ome s t ic c e rea l g r a in sa nd c haf fi d en t if ied i ns amp le s f r om t h et h re ep ha se s o fo c cupa t ion a tt h es i te . W i ld a nd d ome s t ic b a r ley t y pe s( H . s pon taneum a nd H s a t ivum t y pe s ) w e re t h e m o s t a bundan t c e rea l s i n t h e s amp le s f r om t h e e a r l ie s t p ha se , t h e E a r ly P PNB . I nt h ee a r ly M idd le P PNB ,w i ld a nd d ome s t ic w hea t a nd b a r ley w e re p r e sen t . I nt h e s amp le s f r om t h i s p ha se , w h ich c on ta ined b o th g r a in s a nd c haf fo fd ome s t ic g l ume w hea t s ( b o th e i nko rn a nd e mme rt y pe s , 7 ' .m onococcum a nd T .d i coccum t y pe s ) , t h en umb e r so fg ra in sw e re h i ghe rt h an t h en umb e r so fg l ume b a se sa nd s p ike le tf o rk s( a sc a lcu la ted i nt h e a pp rop r ia t e r a t io s ) . W i ld a nd d ome s t ic e i nko rn a nd b a r ley t y pe s w e r e i d en t if i ed i n t h e m idd le M idd le P PNB p ha se . T he n umbe r s o f c e rea l i t ems w e re l ow . I tw a s i mpo s s ib le t oa s c e r ta in w he the rt h el e gume si d en t if i ed i nt h e s amp le s w e re w i ld o r d ome s t ic s p ec ie s a nd , a pa r t f r om t h e s ma l ll e gume s ,t h en umbe r sw e re v e ry l ow . T he w i ld p l an t s r e p re sen ted i nt h e s amp le s f r om a l t h re e P PNB p ha se sa t Wad ie l -J i la t 7w e re d om ina ted b yt a xa t h a t a r e c ommon i ns t eppe -de se r te nv i ronmen t s . I nt h e s amp le s f r om t h e e a r ly M idd le P PNB p ha se , t h e r e w e re m o re t a xa t h a t w e re c a t ego r i sed a s ' f i e ld w eed s ' t h an i n t h e o t he r p ha se s . I nt h i s p ha se , t h e re w e re a l so s e ed s o f as p ec ie s o f t h eC ype racea ef am i ly , i n d ica t iv eo fw e tg r ound i np rox im i ty t ot h es i t e . P i s ta c ia t r ee sh av eb een r e co rded g r ow ing i nt h e Wad i B u tm ( H ems ley a nd G eo rge 1 966 , 4 3 ) , s ome 1 5km e a s t o f Wad i e l J i la t , a nd a tt h e e a s te rnmo s t e x ten t o ft h e i r p r e sen t -day r a ng e . T he p r e sence o f P i s tac ia n u t le t s i n s amp le s f r om Wad i e l J i la t 7s ugge s t s t h a t t r e e s ( a nd p o s s ib ly t h ea s so c ia ted s t eppe -f o re s t )w e re n ea rby d u r ing t h e P re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic p e r iod . T he g ra ins a nd s e ed s o ft h e

" Edaph ica l ly , w i ld e i nko rn s how s ad ef in i te afm i ty t o b asa l t ic s o i l s , ma r l s , c l ay s a nd l ime s tone s ." ( Zoha ry a nd H opf 2 000 ,3 6 )

c e rea l s , g ra s se s a nd s ma l l l e gume s , t h e l e av e s o f Ma I va , C appa r i s , C en tau r ea , E rod ium a nd A t r ip lex , a nd t h e t r e e f r u i t sw ou ld h ave p rov ided s ou rce so ff o od . R oo t so fs e ve ra l o ft h e t a xa r ep re sen ted a tt h e s i te a r e e d ib le , e . g . E rod ium ; s ome h ave m ed ic ina l p rope r t ie s , e . g G a l ium ; a nd s ome c an b eu sed f o rd y e ing ,e . g .A rneb ia . T he d r ied w oody ,p e renn ia l c henopod sw ou ld h av eb e en av a luab le s ou rc eo ff u e l f o rt h e f i re s . Mo s t o ft h e e d ib le t a xa w ou ld h av e b e en c o l le c ted e a r ly i nt he y ea r . T he c e rea l s , i fg rown l o ca l ly , w ou ld h av e b een h a rv e s ted i nt h es p r ing mon th s , t r ee f r u i t sw ou ld r i pen i n t h e s umme r a nd t h e p e renn ia l c henopod s w ou ld f l owe r a nd s e ed i nt h ea u tumn .

I t i s p o s s ib le , t h e ref o re , t ha t t he re w e re s t and s o f w i ld e i nko rn g row ing o nt h eb a sa l to ft h eh a r ra ,t o ge the rw i th w i ld b a r ley , wh ich c an t o le ra t e t h e d r ie r h ab i ta t s i ns t eppe s a nd d e se r t s . T he s amp le sf r om b o th p e r iod s a tD huwe i la c on ta ined p l an t t a xa t ha t g row i n s t eppe -de se r t e nv i ronmen t s , i n c lud ing s pec ie s o f A rneb ia , A tr ip lex , E rod ium , a nd S t ipa . T he p re s ence o f s e ed s o f S c i rpu s i n t h e L a te N eo l i th ic i s i n d ica t iv eo ft h ep rox im i ty o fw a te rt ot h es i te . T he s e ed so f t h ew i ld c e rea l s , g ra s se s a nd s ma l ll e gume sc ou ld h av eb e en h a rv e s ted f o r c on sump t ion . T he r o o t s o f E rod ium a nd A rneb ia , a nd t h ee d ib le l e av e s o fA tr ip lex a nd E rod ium m ay a l so h ave b een r e cogn i sed f o r t he i r u se f u l p rope r t ie s a nd b rough t t o t h e s i te . Mo s t o f t he t a xa c ou ld h av e b een c o l lec ted i nt h es p r ing .

Wad ie l-J i la t 1 3 At o ta l o f e i gh ty two t a xa w e r e r e p re sen ted i n t h e p l an t r ema in s a t Wad i e l -J i la t 1 3 . S even ty -s ev en t a xa w e re r e p re se n ted i nt h ee a r ly p ha se ,f o r ty -f ive i nt h em idd le p ha se a nd f o r ty -f ou r i nt h e l a te p ha se . T he se i n c luded w i ld a nd d ome s t ic c e rea l s , f r u i t s , p u l se s a nd m any w i ld t a xa ( t ab le 6 . 6 ) .

A zraq 3 1

W i ld a nd d ome s t ic w hea t a nd b a r ley t y pe s( T b oeo t icum , T m onococcum , T .d i coccum , H s pon taneum , a nd H . s a t ivum t y pe s )w e re i d en t if ied i nt h es amp le s f r om t h ee a r ly a nd l a te p ha se s( t ab le 6 . 5 ) . I nb o th p ha se s ,t h en umb e r so f ga in sa nd c haf fi t em sw e re l ow . S p ike le tf r agmen t so fd ome s t ic g lume w hea t sa nd r a ch i s i n te rnod ef r agmen t so fw i ld a nd d ome s t ic b a r ley w e re f o und w i th t h e g r a in s o f t h e c e re a l s . I n t h e m idd le p ha se ,w i ld a nd d ome s t ic b a r ley w e re t h eo n ly c e rea l s p r e sen ti nt h es amp le s .

At o ta l o ft w en ty -f ive t a xa w e re r ep re sen t ed i nt h e s amp le s f r om Az raq 3 1 . T he se i n c luded d ome s t ic c e rea l s ,p u l se sa nd s e v e ra l w i ld t a xa ( t ab le 6 . 8 ) . Af r ee t h re sh ing w hea t g r a in a nd r a ch i s i n ter node w e re f o und i n as amp le f r om l e v e l 4 w i th in s qua re 1 . D ome s t ic b a r ley t y pe ( H . s a t t vum t y pe ) g ra in s a nd i n te rnode s w e re i d en t if ied i n s eve ra l c on tex t s . S eed so fl a rge l e gume sw e re p re sen t i n many o ft h es amp le s f r om t he l ow e r l e ve l s o fs qua re 1 . T he a s semb lage s w e r e d om ina ted b y s e ed s o f s pe c ie s o f t h e C ype raceae f am i l y ( s edge s ) , w h ich f a vou r w e t h ab i ta t s . T axa t h a t g row i n s t eppe -de se r t e nv i ronmen t s w e re a l so r e p re sen ted i n t h e s amp le s . T he s e dge s c ou ld h ave b e en e xp lo i ted f o r t h e i r s e ed s o r f o r t h e i r f i b rou s s t em s . S e ed s a nd g ra in s w ou ld h av eb een h a rve s ted i nt h es p r ing .

A t Wad ie l J i la t 1 3 ,a sa t Wad ie l J i la t7 ,t h e re w e re v e ry f ew l e gume s , a nd i tw a s i mpo s s ib le t oi d en t if yt h e se t os pe c ie s . T he w i ld p l an tr ema in si na l lt h re ep ha se sw e r ed om ina ted b y t a xa f a vou r ing s t eppe -de s e r t e nv i ronmen t s . S c ir pu s s e ed s w e re i d en t if ied i nt h ee a r ly E LN , i n d ica t iv eo ft h ep rox im i ty o fw a t e r . ' F ie ld w e ed s ' w e re p r e s en t i n s amp le s f r om a l l t h re e p ha se s , a s w e re t h e r ema in s o fP i s ta c ia , a nd P runu s f r u i t s . T he t wo s i te so f Wad ie l J i la t 1 3a nd 7h ad many t a xa i n c ommon a nd t h e e conom ic u s e s a nd s e a sona l i ty o ft h e se h ave b e en d e s c r ibed i nt he p re v iou ss e c t ion .

B e idha A t o ta l o ft e n t a xa w e re r e p re sen ted i n t h e c ha r red p l an t r ema in s f r om B e idha . T he se w e re a ugmen ted b y t h e e v id ence f r om p l an t i mp re s s ion s f ound i nt he b u rn t p l a s te r ( t ab le s6 . 9 ,6 . 10 ) .

Dhuwe i la A t o ta l o f e i gh teen t a xa w e re i d en t if ied i n t h e s amp le s a t D huw e i la . T he re w e re f o u r t een t a xa i nt h eP PNB s amp le s , a nd t w e lve i n t h e L a te N eo l i th ic . T he t a xa w e re a l l r e p re sen ta t ive o f w i ld p l an t s ( t ab le 6 . 7 ; C o l ledge i n B e t t s 1 998 , 1 8 5 189 ) .

T he g ra in s a nd c haf f o f d ome s t ic g l ume w hea t s w e re i d en t if ied a t B e idha ( p la te 6 . 2 ) . H e lbaek ( 1966 , 6 2 ) i d en t if ied t h e i mp r in t s o fe mme r ( T . d i coccum ) g ra in s a nd c haf fi nc l ay l ump sf r om t h es i te . H en o ted ad i spa r i ty i ns i ze b e twe en t h es p ike le t sa nd g ra in s :

W i ld e i nko rn t y pe ( T b oeo t icum t y pe ) a nd w i ld b a r ley t y pe ( H s pon taneum t y pe )g ra in sw e r ei d en t if ied i ns amp le sf r om t h eP PNB p ha se o fo ccupa t ion a tt h es i te . T he e a s te rn s t eppe i sw e l l o u t s ide t h e n a tu ra l r a ng e s f o r b o th w i ld c e rea l s , h ow ev e rt h e i rp re sence i ns e conda ry h ab i ta t sm ay h av eb een l e s s l i k e ly b ecau se t h e re w a s n oe v idenc e f o rt h ec u l t iva t ion o fd ome s t ic c e rea l s a tt h e s i te . W i ld e i nko rn c an g row o n a r ang eo fs o i lt y pe s ,a sZ oha ry a nd H opf h av ec ommen ted :

" Some o ft h e s p ike le t sa r ea lmo s t a sl a rge a nd c oa r se a st h e w i ld f o rm w h i le o t he r s a r e r a the r s ma l l e v en f o r d ome s t ica ted Emme r" ( H e lbaek 1 966 ,6 2 )

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A l though o n ly t e n ta t ive i d en t if ica t ion so fe i nko rn ( i . e . Tc f . m onococcum ) h ave b e en made i n t h i s s t udy , i ti sp o s s ib le t h a tt h es ma l le rg ra in sa nd s p ike le t so ft h i ss pe c ie sw e re w ha t H e lbaek h ad o b se rved . H e p ref e r red t o c on s id e r t h a t t h e d if e rence s i ns i ze w e re r e p re sen ta t ive o f" p lan t so n as t ag e o fg ene t ica lt r an s i t ion" ( i b id ) .

T he i mp re s s ion s i n t h e b aked p l a s te r i n c luded w ho le s p ike le t s o f2 row b a r ley a nd g ra in s o fn aked b a r ley ( p la te 6 . 3 ) . I mp r in t s o f c e rea l c haf f w e re n ume rou s , t h e se c omp r ised g lume b a se s a nd s p ike le t f o rk s , a s w e l l a s t h e h eav ie r p ar t s , f o r e xamp le , t h e b a sa l r a ch i ss egmen t s , c u lm n ode s a nd b a sa l c u lm f r agmen t s . O f t h e f ew w i ld t a xa i d en t if ied i nt h es amp le sa tB e idha ,t h e re w a s ad om inanc eo f t ho se t h a t f a vou r h ab i ta t s i nt he Med i te r rane an r eg ion . F o r e xamp le , t wo g ra s s s pec ie s i d en t if i ed i n t h e p l a s t e r i mp r e s s ion s ( p la te 6 . 4 ) , A eg i lop s s pe l to id e s a nd H o rd eum b u lbo sum , w h ich g row i n c l ea r ing s i n o ak w ood land ( Townsend e ta l 1 968 , 1 87 , 2 45 ) . T he re w e re a l so i mp r in t s o f O nob rych i s c r i s ta -ga l l i s e ed p od s ( p la te 6 . 4 ) , a nd t h i s s pec ie s f a vou r sd ry h i l ls ide sa nd d eg raded s t eppe ( Town send a nd G ue s t 1 974 , 4 78 ) . F icu s s ycamoru s w a s r e co rded b y H e lbaek a sg row ing n e a rt h es i te ( H e lbaek 1 966 ,6 5 ) ,a nd t h e f i gn u t le t sc ou ld h ave d e r ived f r om t h i ss pe c ie s . T he c e rea l s a nd l e gume s w ou ld h av e p rov id ed a s ou rc e o ff o od . T he ' b u lb s ' o fH ord eum b u lbo sum a r ea l so e a ten : " . . a nd b o th c h i ld ren a nd a du l t s c hew t h e b u lb i l s a nd s u ck t h e i rj u ic e ." ( Townsend e ta l ,2 46 ) T he p l an t sc ou ld h ave b een c o l lec ted f r om s p r ing t h rough t o l a te s umme r . T he c e rea l sw ou ld h ave b e en h a rve s ted i nt h e s p r ing .

Wad iF idan A At o ta l o ft w en ty t a xa w e re r ep re sen ted i nt h es amp le sf r om Wad iF idan A . T he p l an tr ema in sw e re d om ina ted b yc e re a l s ( t ab le 6 . 11) . G ra in s o fd ome s t ic e i nko rn ( T . m onococcum )a nd e mme r( T d i coccum ) t y pe s w e re i d en t if ied i n t wo c on tex t s . A l l t h e s amp le sw e r ed om ina ted b yh igh p ropo r t ion so fg lume w hea t c haf f( g lume b a se sa nd s p ike le t f o rk s ) . G ra ins a nd c haf fo f d ome s t ic a nd w i ld b a r ley ( H . s pon taneum , H s a t ivum )t y pe s w e re a l so i d en t if ied i nt h es amp le s . T he r a ch i si n te rnode so f b a r ley w e re m o re a bundan t t h an t h e g r a in s . T he w i ld t a xa r ep re sen ted i nt h es amp le s a t Wad i F idan A a r ec ommon i n t h e Med i te r ranean w ood land s . T he c e rea l c r op sw ou ld h ave b e en h a rve s ted i nt h es p r ing .

w e re f o und i nt h i s c on tex t , a l l h ad b een b u rned . T he w i ld p l an t t a xa r e p re sen ted a t Wad i F idan C w e re d om ina t ed b y t ho se t h a t g row i nt h e w ood ed a r ea s o ft h e Med i te r ranean r eg ion . S ev e ra l g r a s se sw e re i d en t if ied i nt h es amp le sf r om c on tex t 0 0 1 /0 17 , i n c lud ing L o l ium , ap o s s ib le ' f ie ld w e ed ' . S eed so fE ch inar ia /S e ta r ia w e re f ound i nt wo o ft h es amp le s ( i ,i ) . T he se s p e c ie s f a vou rw e th ab i ta t s , a nd p o s s ib ly g r ew a tt h e e dge so ft h ew ad i . T he w hea t a nd b a r ley w ou ld h ave b e en h a rve s ted i nt h es p r ing .

S ummary T ab le 6 . 13 s umma r i se st h ef i nd so fc e rea l , l e gume , f r u i ta nd o i l p l an t s f o und i nt h e d if e ren t p ha se s o fo ccupa t ion a tt h e J o rdan ian s i te s . W i ld w hea t w a s i d en t if i ed i n P PNA , i n M idd le , L a te a nd F ina l P PNB , a nd i ne a r ly L a te N eo l i th ic c on tex t s . W i ld b a r ley w a sp re sen ti nN a tuf ian l e v e l sa t Wad i a l -Ha tnmeh 2 7 ,a nd a l so i nP PNB ( a l lp ha s e s )a nd e a r ly L a te N eo l i th ic s amp le sf r om s e ve ra ls i te s . D ome s t ic g l ume w hea t s w e re r e co rded i n P PNA s amp le s f r om I r aq e d -Dubb , i nE a r ly a nd M idd le P PNB s amp l e sf r om Wad i e l -J i la t 7 ,i nL a te a nd F ina l P PNB s amp le s f r om Wad i F idan A a nd C , a nd i ne a r ly L a te N eo l i th ic s amp le s f r om Wad i e l J i la t 1 3 . F ree t h re sh ing w he a t s w e re i d en t if i ed a t A z raq 3 1 a nd Wad i F idan C , i n L a te a nd F ina l P PNB c on tex t sr e spe c t iv e ly . D ome s t ic h u l led b a r ley ( 2 row /6 row ) w a s p re sen t o n s i te s d a ted t ot h e P PNA , P PNB ( a l l p ha se s ) a nd e a r ly L a te N eo l i th ic p e r iod s . N aked b a r ley w a sf o und a t B e idha i nM idd le P PNB c on tex t s a nd a t Wad i e l -J i la t 1 3 i n e a r ly L a te N eo l i th ic c on tex t s . L en t i ls w e re i d en t if i ed i n N a tu f ian , P PNA , E a r ly a nd F ina l P PNB , a nd e a r ly L a te N eo l i th ic s amp le s f r om s e ve ra l s i te s . B i t te r v e t ch w a s p re sen ti nM idd le P PNB l e v e l sa t Wad ie l J i la t 7a nd B e idha . C h ickpea w a s i d en t if ied i nM idd le P PNB c on tex t s a t Wad i e l J i la t7 . P i s ta ch io a nd f i gw e re i d en t if i ed o ns i te sd a ted t o t h e P PNA , P PNB ( a l l p ha s e s ) a nd e a r ly L a te N eo l i th ic p e r iod s . T he f o rme r w a s a l so f o und i nN a tuf ian c on tex t s . A lmond w a s p r e sen t i n P PNA s amp le s a t I r aq e d -Dubb . P l um ( / che r ry )w a s f o und i ne a r ly L a te N eo l i th ic c on t ex t sa t Wad ie l J i la t 1 3 . F l ax w a si d en t if ied a tI r aq e d -Dubb .

T he S yr ian S i te s

Wad iF idan C At o ta l o ft h i r ty -one t a xa w e re r ep re sen ted i nt h e s amp le s f r om Wad i F i dan C . T he p l an tr ema in sw e re d om ina ted b y c e rea l s( t ab le 6 . 12 ) .

T ab le 6 . 14 s umma r i se st h ef i nd so fc e rea l , l e gume , f r u i ta nd o i l p l an t s i d en t if ied i nt h e d if e ren t p ha se so fo ccupa t ion a t t h eS y r ian s i te s .

W i ld e i nko rn ( T b oeo t i cum ) t y pe g r a in s w e re i d en t if ied i n t wo o f t h e s amp le s f r om Wad i F idan C ( 0 0 1/0 17 i,i ) . D ome s t ic e i nko rn ( T . m onococcum ) t y pe g ra in s w e re i d en t if ied i nt h e s ame t wo s amp le s . A l l t h e s amp le s f r om Wad i F idan C w e re d om ina ted b y h igh n umbe r s o fg l ume w he a t c haf f T he re w e re h igh n umbe r s o f f r ee t h re sh ing w hea tr a ch i si n te rnode si nt h es amp le sf r om c on tex t0 0 1 /0 17 . O ne f r e e t h re sh ing t y pe g ra in w a s a l so i d en t if ied i n t h i s c on t ex t . W i ld a nd d ome s t ic b a r ley ( H s pon taneum , H s a t i vum ) t y pe s w e re f o und i nt he s ame t h ree s amp le s a nd , a ga in , t h e c haf fw a s mo re a bundan tt h an t h e g ra in s . Sma l l i n se c t ivo re ( e .g . m ic e ) f a ece s a nd f r agmen t s o fb e e t le e l y t ra

W i ld w hea t w a s i d en t if ied i n N a tuf ian , P PNA a nd E a r ly P PNB c on tex t sa tT e l l Mu reyb i t ,a nd i nL a t ea nd F ina lP PNB c on t ex t s a tT e l l R amad . W i ld b a r ley w a s r e co rded i n a l l p ha se s a t Mu reyb i t , h ow ev e r , v an Z e is t a nd B akke rHee re s e xp re s ss ome d oub ta bou ti t si d en t if ica t ion :

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" Con sequen t ly ,i ti sa s sumed h e re ,t hough w i th s ome r e se rve , t h a t t h e Mu reyb i t b a r ley i so ft h e mo rpho log ica l ly -d ef ined w i ld s p e c ie s . I tc anno tb ec omp le te ly r u led o u tt ha tt h e re i s a l so s ome H d i s t ichum ." ( v an Z e i s t a nd B akke rH ee re s 1 984a , 1 87 )

L ikew i s e , f o r t h e a l l t h e D ama scu s B a s in s i te s , t h e b a r ley i d en t if i ca t ion sa r ee qu ivoca l : " A t A sw ad b r i t t le typ e [ w i ld ] i n te rnode f r agmen t s a r e d om inan t . A t R amad n on -b r i t t le [ d ome s t ic ] i n te rnode s a r e mo re n ume rou s t h an t h o se o ft h eb r i t t le type . F o rG ho ra if e t h e re a r e t o o f ew i n ter nod e f r agmen t s t o a l low a ny c onc lu s ion s a s t o t h e p ropo r t ion s T he re a r e s ome d if e rence s i n t h e d imen s ion s o ft h e h u l led b a r ley g ra in s b e tw e en t h e s amp le s , b u t t h e i n dex v a lue s h a rd ly d if e r . Mo reov e r t h e d if e rence s i n s i z e a r e n o t s y s tema t ic . A l thoug h o n a v e rag e , t h eA swad b a r ley i ss ma l le rt han t h a t o fR amad ,t h e d imen s ion s o ft h eg r a in sa tA swad We s t 1 . 60 c onf o rm t ot ho s e i nR amad C 8 3 . 35 . I ts e em si mpo s s ib le t o d raw a ny c onc lu s ion t h an t h a t s i ze d if e rence s mu s t h ave b een d u et ol o ca l c ond i t ion s ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rH ee r e s 1 982 ,2 04 ) D ome s t ic g l ume w hea t s w e re p r e sen t o n s i te s d a ted t ot h e P PNA , P PNB ( a l l p ha s e s ) , P o t te ry N eo l i th ic a nd H a laf ian p e r iod s . T he f i nd s o f d ome s t ic e mme r i n e a r ly l e ve l s a t Mu rey b i t w e re c on s ide red w i th s ome d eg ree o fu nce r ta in ty b yt h ea u tho r s : " One s omewha tb a t te red g ra in f r om Mb 1 967 , I -200 c m . , i s mo s t l i ke ly o fT .d i coccum a nd d ef in i te ly ad ome s t ic w hea t t y pe . As p ike le tf o rk ( Mb 1 967 ,I 115cm . )i si d en t ica lt ot h e T d i coccum type s p ike le t f o rk s r e cove red f r om o t he r s i te s . T he Mu r eyb i t s p ike le t f o rk i sc e r ta in ly n o t o f aw i ld w hea t . B o th f i nd s o fh u l led d ome s t ic w hea t r ema in s a r e s omewha t p uzz l ing ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rH ee re s 1 984a , 1 86 ) F ree t h re sh ing w hea t w a s i d en t if ied i n M idd le , L a te a nd F ina l P PNB c on tex t s a tT e l l A swad , T e l l G ho ra if e a nd T e l l R amad , a nd i n P o t te ry N eo l i th ic a nd H a laf ian c on tex t s a t T e l lR a sS ham ra . T he f r e et h re sh ing w hea tg ra in f ound i na P PNA c on tex ta t Mu reyb i tw a st h ough tt oh av ed e r ived f r om l a te rl e v e l s( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rH e e re s 1 984a , 1 86 ) . D ome s t ic h u l led b a r ley w a s r e co rded a t R a s S ham ra , a l though t h e a u tho r s e xp re s s u nce r ta in ty a bou t t h e i d en t if i c a t ion so ft h es p ec imen s : "Many g ra in s a r e c o r roded , d ef o rmed , s wo l len ( puf f ed ) o r b roken , w h ich h ampe red f u r the r i d en t if ica t ion . Mo s t l i ke ly t h e R a s S ham ra b a r ley i sa l l o ft h eh u l led [ d ome s t ic ] t y pe ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rHee re s 1 984b , 1 59 ) T he o ne f i nd o f6 row h u l led b a r ley f r om Mu reyb i tp ha se I I ( PPNA ) w a s c on s ide red t o b e c on tam ina t ion f r om l a te r l e ve l s : " Ah u l led b a r ley g ra in f r om Mb 1 967 , I4 0 -50 c m . ,h a sb e en a t t r ibu ted t od ome s t ic H . v u lga r eL .e mend . L am . A l though t h eg r a in ( 4 .9 x2 . 6 x2 . 3 mm . )i sn o tt w i s ted ,i t ss hape p o in t s t o6 row ed b a r ley . T h i sg ra in m ay b e al a t e ri n t ru s ion i nt h e L a te P a laeo l i th ic l e v e l s ( c f . t h e n aked w hea t k e rne l ) ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rHe e r e s 1 984a , 1 87 )

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N aked b a r ley w a s i d en t if ied i nM idd le a nd L a t ec on tex t s a t A sw ad a nd G ho ra if e , a nd i n F ina l P PNB a nd P o t te ry N eo l i th ic c on tex t sa tR amad . L en t i l sa nd p ea sw e re f o und i n a l l p e r iod s , f r om t h e N a tuf ian t ot h eH a laf ian . B i t te r v e tch w a s p re sen t i n P PNA c on tex t s a t Mu reyb i t a nd A swad , i n M idd le a nd L a te P PNB c on tex t sa tG ho ra if ea nd R amad ,a nd i nP o t te ry N eo l i th ic c on tex t s a tR amad . I n mo s t i n s tanc e s , d i s t inc t ion s b e twe en t h e w i ld v e r su s d ome s t ic s t a tu s o ft h e l e gume s w e re u nc e r ta in . V an Z e i s t a nd B akk e rH ee r e s c ommen ted t h a tt h es e ed so ft h el e gume sf o und i nt h eP PNA ( a nd l a te r ) c on tex t s a tA swad w e re a l l r e la t ive ly s ma l l a nd w e re l i ke ly ,t h e ref o re ,t ob et h ew i ld s pec ie s : " l t i ss e lf e v iden t t h a t t h e re i sn o s t r ic t e v idence o f t h e c u l t iva t ion o fl e n t i l s a tA swad . I tc anno t b e r u led o u t t h a t l e n t i lt h a tw a sc o l lec ted i nt h ew i ld i sc once rned h e r e . I nt h i s c onne c t ion i ts hou ld b em en t ioned t h a tt h eD ama scu sB a s in l i e s w i th in t h e d i s t r ibu t ion a r ea o fL en s o r ien ta l i s ( Zoha ry a nd H op f 1 973 ) ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rH e e re s 1 982 ,2 08 ) O n t h e b a s i s o ft h e l a rge r s i ze o ft h e l e n t i l s a tR amad ( i n P PNB a nd l a te r p e r iod s ) t h e a u tho r s c onc luded t h a t t h ey w e re t h e d ome s t ic s pec ie s ( v an Z e i s t a nd B akke rHee re s 1 982 , 2 08 ) . T he s i ze o ft h e c h ickpea s w a s a l so u sed a sa c r i te r ion f o rd i s t ingu i sh ing w i ld f r om d ome s t ic s pe c ie s : " I fc h ick -pea c u l t iva t ion r e su l ted i na n i n c rea s ei ns e ed s i ze , t h e G ho ra if e s pe c imen s w ou ld r e p re sen t a mo re p r im i t ive t y pe t han t ho se a tR amad . A l though t h e r a the r f ew c h ick p ea sa tR amad a r en of i rm e v idenc eo ft h ec u l t iva t ion o ft h i s s p e c ie s , i t i s a s sumed t h a t t h e d ome s t ic f o rm , C i cer a r i e t inum L . , i sc onc e rned . T he s t a tu so ft h eG ho ra if ec h ick p ea si s mo re u nce r ta in ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rH ee re s 1 982 , 2 09 ) Many f r u i t t r ee s w e r e r ep r e sen ted i n t h e r ema in s f r om a l l p e r iod s a tt h e S y r ian s i te s . P i s tach io a nd f i g w e re t h e mo s t c ommon . H aw tho rn w a si d en t if ied i nM idd le ,L a te a nd F ina l P PNB p ha se s ,a nd i nP o t te ry N eo l i th ic a nd H a laf ian c on tex t s f r om R amad a nd R a sS ham ra . A lmond w a sf o und i nP PNA c on tex t sa tA swad , i nt h eL a te a nd F ina lP PNB ,a nd P o t te ry N eo l i th ic l e ve l s a tR amad , a nd i nt h e P o t te ry N eo l i th ic a nd H a laf ian l e ve l s a tR a s S ham ra . B lackb e r r ie s , g rape s a nd p ea r s w e re p re sen t i n P PNB c on tex t s a t A swad a nd R a s S ham ra . F lax w a s p re sen t i n s amp le s f r om s e v e ra l s i te s , i n c lud ing t ho s e d a ted t o t h e N a tuf ian , P PNB , P o t te ry N eo l i th ic a nd H a laf ian p e r iod s . O l ive s t one sw e re i d en t if ied i na l l p ha se s a tR a s S hamra . T he ma jo r i ty o fs amp le s f r om t h eS y r ian s i te s ,w i th t h ee xc ep t ion o fs amp le sf r om p ha se s I a nd I a t Mu reyb i t( Na tuf ian a nd K h iam ian ) , f r om p ha se Ia t G ho ra if e( M idd le P PNB ) a nd f r om p ha se V c a tR a s S ham ra ( La te P PNB ) , w e re d om ina ted b y c e rea l r ema in s . I n t h e s amp le s f r om Mu reyb i tp ha s e s I I a nd I V( PPNA a nd E a r ly P PNB ) , t h e re w e r e o n ly g ra in s p re sen t , b u t i na l l t h e o t he r c e rea l r i ch s amp le s b o th g r a in s a nd c haf fw e re a bundan t . F rom t h e c ompo s i t ion o ft h e w eed f l o ra a tt h e S y r ian s i te s , t h e a u tho r s c onc luded t ha t t h e c e rea l c r op s w e re a u tumn s own . T he a u tho r s s t a ted t h a t t h e c r op s w e re o bv iou s ly b r ough t t ot he s i te s f o r p repa ra t ion a nd c on sump t ion ( v an

r ef l e c t ion o ft h er a nge o ft a xa u s ed ) . P oo rp r e se rva t ion w a s s ugge s ted a s ap o s s ib le e xp lana t ion f o rt h e l ow n umb e r s o f t a xa a t Wad i e l -J i la t 6a nd Wad i a l -H ammeh 2 7 . T he t a xa d i ve r s i ty i n d ice s f o r t h e s amp le s f r om I r aq e d -Dubb w e re h igh , a nd t h i s h a s b e en i n te rp re ted a s ar ef le c t ion o f e xp lo i ta t ion o f ag r ea t r a ng e o fp l an t r e sou rc e s . I tw ou ld s e em m o s tl i ke ly i nt h eN a tuf i an p e r iod ( a nd p o s s ib ly a l so i n t h es u cceed ing P PNA p e r iod )a tI r aq e d -Dubb t h a tt h em any a nd v a r ied w i ld r e sou rce s o ft h e Med i te r r anean w ood land w ou ld h ave b e en h a rve s ted b yt h ei n hab i tan t so ft h es i t e .

Z e i s t a nd B akke rH e e re s 1 982 , 2 33 ) . T hey s a id t h a t t h e re c ou ld b e n o d oub t t h a t t h e f r u i t s w e re a l so c o l lec ted p u rpo s e ly a nd t a ken t ot h es i t e s( i b id ,2 33 ) . O ft h eo t he rw i ld t a xa t h ey c ommen ted : " One m ay s a f e ly a s sume t h a ts ome o ft h ew i ld p l an ts p ec ie s d emon s t ra ted f o r t h e s i te s u nde r d i scus s ion w e re e xp lo i ted f o r f o od , f o r m ed ic ina l p u rpo se s , a s k i tchen h e rb s , a nd s o o n I ns t eppe a r ea s v a r iou sp e renn ia lw oody p l an t s , s o c a l led d wa rf s h rub s , s u ch a s N oaea , A r tem i s ia a nd A s t raga lu sa r ec o l lec ted f o rf u e l . . . O ne c ou ld i mag ine t h a t a l so a nnua lp l an t sf r om t h es t eppe a nd f i e ld sw e r ec o l le c ted f o rf u e l ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rH ee re s 1 982 ,2 34 ,2 47 )

C on tr ibu t ion st ot he D ie t : T he U se o f Wi ld a nd D ome s t ic P lan t s S eeds ,f r u i t s ,n ut sa nd l e af yf oods Wha t f o l low s i s as umma ry o ft h e p l an t f o od s t h a t w ou ld h av e b e en a va i lab le a te a ch o ft h e s i te s . Whe re o n ly s e eds h av eb e en r e cove red ,t h eo t he rp l an tp a r t sa r em e re ly c i ted a s p o ten t ia l s ou rc e s o ff o od , t h e re b e ing n o d i re c t e v idenc e o f t h e i rc o l lec t ion f o rc on sump t ion . F o rt h eE p ipa laeo l i th ic s i te si nJ o rdan ,t h e re w a se v idence f o r t h eu s e o fw i ld p l an tr e sou rce s . A t Wad ie l J i la t6 ,s e ed so f s p e c ie so ft h eC henopod iac eae a nd C ype rac eae f am i l ie sm ay h av e b e en g a the red d e l ib e ra te ly f o r f o od . L eaf y f o od sm ay a l so h ave b een u s ed , f o r e xamp le , t ho se c o l lec ted f r om s p e c ie so fA tr ip l ex a nd V e rba scum . A tt h eN a tuf i an s i te so f Wad ia l -Hammeh 2 7a nd I r aq e d -Dubb ,t h eg r a in sa nd s e ed s o fw i ld c e rea l sa nd l e gume sw ou ld h ave p rov ided s o u rce so f f o od . A tt h e se s i t e s ,t h e re w a se v idence f o rt h ec o l lec t ion o f f r u i t sa nd n u t s . P i s tac ia n u t le t sw e re f o und o nb o th s i te sa nd a tI r aq e d -Dubb ,F i cu sa nd Amygda lu sw e re a l so p r e s en t . A t Wad i a l -H ammeh 2 7 , t h e l e ave s o fs pec ie s o f Ma /va m ay h ave b e en c on sumed a nd a tI r aq e d -Dubb ,t h ef l e shy p a r t so f m embe r s o ft h e C ru c if e rae f am i ly m ay h ave b e en c o l lec ted a s s a lad p l an t s . L i num p l an t s m ay h ave b e en g a the red f o r t h e i ro i l sa tI r aq e d -Dubb . T he re w e re v e ry l ow d en s i t ie s o fc ha rcoa l i ns amp le s f r om t h es i t e so f Wad ie l J i la t 6a nd Wad ia l -Hammeh 2 7 . I ft h e se v a lu e sa r ei n te rp re ted a s am ea su re o ft h ef r equency o fu s eo f f i r e ,t h en t h e re i se v idence o n ly o fl ow leve lu s ea tt h e s et wo s i te s . A cco rd ing t oS t ah l 's t h eo ry ,i nw h ich s h es ugge s t st h a t s ol o ng a sd i e t s w e re v a r ied , t h e n eed f o r d e tox if i ca t ion b y c ook ing w ou ld n o t b e n ec e ssa ry ( c onve rs e ly , i ft h e re w a s s p ec ia l i sa t ion a nd s t o rage o fp l an t f o od s t h e re w ou ld b e a g r ea t e rn eed f o rt h e i rp r epa ra t ion p r io rt oc on sump t ion ;S t ah l 1 9 84 ) , t h is m ay i n d ica te t h a tt h e re w a s av a r ied p l an t -ba sed d i e t a tt h e t wo s i t e s , w i th n o s p ec ia l i sa t ion o rs t o rage . T he h i gh c ha rcoa l d ens i t ie s a tI r aq e d -Dubb i n d ica te t h a t t h e re w a s f r equen t u s e o ff i re s . S o , a c co rd ing t oh e r t h eo ry , t h is w ou ld m ean t h a tt h e re m igh th ave b een o n ly r e s t r ic ted u s eo f al i m i ted n umb e ro fp l an t f o od s . T he t a xa d i v e r s i ty i n d ice s f o r t h e t h ree s i t e s , h ow eve r , a ppea r t o c on t rad ic t t h e se c onc lu s ion s( b ea r ing i nm ind ,a ss t a ted i nc hap te r5 ,t h a tt h e m ea su re s o f d i v e r s i ty m ay n o t a lway s b e a n a c cu ra te 1 48

I nt h eP re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic A l e ve l sa tI r aq e d -Dubb ,t h e re w a s e v idence f o r t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f w i ld a nd d ome s t ic r e sou rc e s . G ra in so fw i ld a nd d ome s t ic c e rea l sw e re p r e sen t , t o ge the rw i th t h es e ed so fl e n t i l sa nd o t he rl a rge l e gume s . A s i nt h es amp le s f r om t h e e a rl i e r o ccupa t ion a tt h es i t e ,t h e re w a se v idenc ef o rt h ee xp lo i ta t ion o ff r u i t sa nd n u t s ,a nd o t he r w i ld p l an t s , w h ich m ay h av ep rov ided s ou rce s o ff o od . O n t h e m a jo r i ty o ft h e J o rdan ian l a te r P re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic B s i te s i nb o th t h e Med i te r ranean w ood land a nd a r id r e g ion s , t h e re w a se v id enc ef o rt h ee xp lo i ta t ion o fd ome s t ic a nd w i ld p l an t r e sou rce s . D huw e i la w a s e xcep t iona l a nd o n ly w i ld p l an t s , i n c lud ing w i ld c e rea l s , w e re i d en t if ied i nt h e P PNB l e v e l s . T he g r a in s o fd ome s t ic c e rea l s f o und a tt h e s i t e so f B e idha a nd Wad iF i dan A ,i nt h ew ood land r e g ion ,a nd a tt h e s i te s o f Wad i e l J i la t 7a nd A z raq 3 1 , i nt h e a r id r e g ion , w ou ld h ave b e en v a luab le s o u rce so ff o od . T he e d ib le s e ed s o fl a rge l e gume s ,i n c lud ing l e n t i l s ,c h ickpe aa nd b i t te rv e t ch , w e re a l so f o und o n s i te si nb o th a r ea s . T he f r u i t so fP i s ta c ia a nd F i cu sw e re e xp lo i ted a tB e idha , Wad iF i dan A ,a nd Wad i e l J i la t 7 . O the r w i ld r e sou rce s a va i lab le a t t h e se s i t e s i n c luded t h e ' b u lb s ' o fH ord eum b u lbo sum a tB e idha , a nd t h el e av e s /f le shy p a r t so fC appa r i s , E rod ium a nd A t r ip l ex a t Wad ie l J i la t7 .A tt h el a t te rn amed s i te , the r o o t so fE rod ium m ay a l so h ave b e en c o l le c ted f o rc on sump t ion . O n t h e F ina l P PNB s i te o f Wad i F idan C , i nt h ew ood land z one ,a nd o nt h eL a te N eo l i th ic s i te o f Wad ie l J i la t1 3 ,i nt h e s t eppe , t h e re w a s a l so e v id ence f o r t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f d ome s t ic a nd w i ld p l an t r e sou rc e s . D ome s t ic c e rea l s w e re f o und o n b o th s i t e s . L en t i l s a nd o t he r l a rge l e gume s w e re f o und a t Wad ie l J i la t 1 3 ,a sw e re s e ve ra lw i ld s p e c ie sw ho se l e ave s a nd r oo t s c ou ld b e c on sumed . P i s tac ia a nd F i cu s f r u i t s w e re c o l le c ted a tb o th s i t e s , a nd P runu st r e e sa t Wad i J i la t 1 3 w ou ld h ave p rov id ed p l en t if u l h a rve s t s i nt h e l a te s umme r . T he u s e o fw i ld p l an t r e sou rc e s c on t inued t h roughou t t h e P PNB a nd L a t eN eo l i th ic p e r iod s o n t h e J o rdan ian s i t e s i n b o th t h ew ood land a nd t h ea r id s t eppe -de se r t r e g ion s . T he c ont r ibu t ion t ot h e d i e t m ade b y d ome s t ic a nd w i ld c r op s m ay h av ev a r ied a td if e ren tt i me sa nd i nd if e ren tl o ca t ion s . T he l ow c ha rcoa ld en s i t ie so nt h es i te si nt h ea r id z one w ou ld t e nd t oi n d ica te l ow leve lu s eo ff i re sa nd ,i na dhe rence w i th S t ah l 's t h eo ry , ad ep endence o n ad i v e r se r a nge o fp l an t f o od s . T h i sm ay h av ei n c lud ed e xp lo i ta t ion o f aw id er a nge o fw i ld p l an t r e sou r ce s , w i th l i t t le s pe c ia l i sa t ion o rr e l ianc e o n s t ap le f o od s . T he c on t r ibu t ion t ot h e d i e t m ade b y t h e w i ld p l an t f o od s , t h e ref o re , m ay h ave b e en s i gn if i can t . O n t h e s i t e s i nt h e Med i te r ranean w ood land r e g ion , w h ich h ad

h i gh d en s i t ie s o f c ha rcoa l ( t he e x c ep t ion b e ing B e idha , w he re u nu sua l p r e se rva t iona l c i rcum s tance s a r e c i ted a sa n e xp lana t ion f o r t h e l ow v a lue s ) , t h e re may h ave b e en a d ependence o n a mo re l i m i ted r ang e o fp l an t f o od s . T he p l an tr ema ins a t Wad i F idan A , Wad i F idan C a nd B e idha w e re d om ina ted b yc e r ea ls ( e v idenc ea tt h el a s tn amed s i te i s b a sed o nt h a to ft h ei mp re s s ion si nb u rn tp l a s te r ) , a nd t h e se m ay h av eb e en s t ap le s i nt h ed i e t . T he c on t r ibu t ion o fw i ld p l an tr e so u rc e s a tt h e se s i te sm ay h ave b een l e s si mpo r tan t . F o rt h e se s i t e s , i ta ppe a r st h a tt h er e su l t so ft h ec omp a r i son o f t a xa d i ve r s i ty a r e i n a g re emen t w i th t h e c onc lu s ion s d e r ived f r om t h e a na ly s is o fc ha r co a l d en s i t ie s ( f igu re 6 . 1) . Wad i F i dan A a nd C c l ea r ly h av e mu ch l ow e r d i ve r s i ty i n d ice s t h an Wad i e l -J i la t 7a nd 1 3 , s uppo r t ing t h e t h eo ry t h a tt h e r ew e re f ew e rp l an tt a xa e xp lo i ted a tt h e se s i t e s . A t T e l l Mu r eyb i t , t h e re w a s ad ep endence s o le ly o n w i ld r e sou rc e s f r om t h e N a tuf ian t h roug h t o t h e P re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic B . A t t h e o t he r S y r ian s i t e s f o r t h e P re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic , P o t te ry N eo l i th ic a nd H a laf ian p e r iod s , t h e re w a s c on t inu ed e xp lo i ta t ion o fw i ld r e so u rce s t o ge the r w i th t h e u s eo fd ome s t ic c r op s p e c ie s . T he w i ld p l an tf o od si n c luded f r u i t s a nd n u t s , a nd p o s s ib ly a l so l e ave s a nd r oo t s . T he e x ten t o fe xp lo i ta t ion o ft h e d if e re n t w i ld p l an t f o od t y pe s m ay h av ev a r ied a te a ch s i te . I tc ou ld b ea r gued f o rt h es i te s i n t h e a r id r e g ion s o f S y r ia ( n ame ly T e l l Mu reyb i t , T e l l G ho ra if 6a nd T e l lA swad ) ,a sf o rt h o se i ne qu iva len ta r ea si n t h es ou the rn L evan t ,t h a tt h el ow l e v e l so fc ha r red r ema in si n t h ed epo s i t sw e re ar e f lec t ion o ft h eu s eo f ag r ea te rd i ve r s i ty o fp l an t f o od s . F o r t h e se s i t e s , t h e c on t r ibu t ion o fw i ld r e sou rce st ot h ed i e t may h ave b e en s i gn if ican t .

R oo t sa nd t uber s

d i co ty ledonou s p l an t s i n c luded p o s s ib le i d en t if i ca t ion s o f C ruc if e rae a nd R heum p a la e s t inum r o o t sa t Wad i e l -J i la t 7 , r o o t s o f S cor zonera j uda ica a t Wad i e l -J i la t 1 3 , a nd t h e s wo l len s t em o fC i s tanche t u bu lo sa a tD huwe i la . A l lt h e se t a xa c ou ld h ave b een e xp lo i ted a ss ou rc e so ff o od a nd e a ten e i the r r aw o r c ooked . T hey w ou ld h av e b een a va i lab le a t t i me s o ft h ey ea rw hen o t he rp l an tf o od sm ay n o th av eb e en a c ce s s ib le ,i . e . d u r ing w in te ra nd e a r ly s p r ing . E v idenc e o ft h e p o ten t ia l c on t r ibu t ion o fr o o t s , t u be r s , a nd r h izome st ot h e d i e t l e nd s f u r the r s uppo r t t ot h e s ugge s t ion t h a tt h ep l an t -ba sed s ub s i s tence e conom ie so ft h es i te si nt h e a r id r e g ion s o ft h e s ou the rn L evan tm ay h ave b e en d i v e r se , i n c lud ing t h eu s eo f aw id er a nge o fp l an tf o od t y pe s . T he re a r e v e ry f ew r e co rd s o ff i nd s o fp a renchyma tou s t i s sue s o n o t he r e a r ly s i t e s i n t h e N ea r E a s t . D e Mou l in s r e co rded f r agmen t s , s ome o fw h ich c ou ld b e i d en t if i ed t ot h eg enu s C yp e ru s , i ns amp le s f r om N eo l i t h ic l e v e l s a tA bu H u rey ra , ( d e Mou l in s 1 997 , 3 9 ) . A t C an H a s san , t h e r ema in s t h e e d ib le s t o rage o rgan s o fT ypha s p . ,A r rhena therum s p . , a nd C ype ru s s p . w e re i d en t if i ed i nL a te P r e -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic B l e v e l s ( Ha the r p e r s . c omm . ) . A t C a ta l H i lyük , c ha r red S c irpu sm a r i t imu st u b e r sw e re t h ough tt oh ave b een as ou rce o ff o od (Wo l l s tone c ro f tp e r s .c omm . ) . N ow t h a tt h e re a r ek ey s a nd r e f e renc ec o l le c t ion st oa i dt h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f p a renchyma tou s t i s sue s , a nd n ow t h a t a r chaeobo tan i s t s a r ea w a re t h a tt h e se t y pe so ff o od sm ay b e r e cogn i sab le ,t h en umbe r so ff i nd sa r eb ound t oi n c rea se . A n i n ev i tab le c ons equenc ew il b et h er e -eva lua t ion o ft h ep l an t b a sed s ub s is tenc e e c onom ie s o fm any s i t e s t h roughou t t h e N ea rE a s t .

S ea sona l i ty o fP lan tE xp lo i ta t ion

S amp le sf r om a l lt h es i te si nt h eA z raq B a s in ( Wad i e l J i la t 7 ,D huw e i la , A z raq 3 1 a nd Wad i e l - Ma t 1 3 ) c on ta ined t h e c ha r red r ema ins o fv ege ta t ive s t o r age o rgan s ( t ab le 6 . 15 ) . T he p a renchyma tou s t i s sue s w e r e f o und i n o ccupa t ion d epo s i t s r a ng ing i nd a te f r om t h eE a r ly P PNB t ot h e E a r ly L a te N eo l i th ic p e r iod s ' . I d en t if i ca t ion o ft h e p a renchyma tou s t i s sue s t ot h e f am i ly , g enu s o rs p ec ie s l e v e l w a sr a re ly p o s s ib le , a nd t h is w a sd ue i np a r tt ot h el a ck o fa dequa te mod e rn c ompa ra t ive r e f e rence m a te r ia la nd a l so t ot h ep oo rq ua l i ty o ft h ea nc ien ts pe c imen s ( a ppend ix 2 ) . I tw a sp o s s ib le ,h ow ev e r ,t oi d en t if yt h er ange o ft y pe so fv ege ta t iv e s t o rage o r gan sw h ich w e re p r e sen t o n t h ef o u rs i t e si nt h eA z raq B a s in ( t ab le 6 . 16 ) . T he se i n c luded s wo l len s t ems , r h izome s , t u b e r s a nd r oo t s f r om m ono co ty ledonou s a nd d i co ty ledonou sp l an t s . T he r a nge o f s t o rage o r gan sr e p r e sen ted i nt h e P PNB a nd L a te N eo l i th ic p e r iod s i s s im i la r . C ype race ae t u be r s w e re t e n ta t iv e ly i d en t if ied a t Wad i e l J i la t 7a nd Wad i e l -J i la t 1 3 . S eed so f s p e c ie s o f t h i s f am i ly w e re f o und a t b o th s i te s , t h u s c onf i rm ing t h e p r e sence o f s e dge s i n t h e v i c in i ty . T he 'S pec imen sf r om t h es i te so fD huw e i la , A z raq 3 1 a nd f r om t h e e a r ly e xcava t ion s a t Wad i e l J i la t 7w e re e xam ined p r ev iou s ly b yH a the r ( Ha the r i nB e t t s 1 998 , 1 8 9 ; H a the r i n G a r ra rd e ta l 1 994 ) . S umma r ie s o fh i s w o rk a r e g i v en i n a ppend ix 2 . 1 49

P l an t -ba sed s e a sona l i ty s t ud ie s o ft h e J o rdan ian s i te s w e re l a rge ly i n conc lu s ive . T he p r ed ic t ion s w e re b a sed o n t h e s e a sona l i ty o f t a xa r e p re s en ted b y s e ed s , f r u i t s tone s a nd n u t she l l a nd , w i th f ew e x cep t ion s , t h e se w ou ld h ave b een h a rve s tab le r e sou rce so n ly f o r al i m i ted p e r iod e a ch y ea r ,i . e . d u r ing s p r ing , s umme r a nd e a r ly a u tumn . T he e xp lo i ta t ion o fo t he r p l an t p a r t s s u ch a s l e av e s , b ud s a nd f l owe r s w a s s ugge s ted a nd t h e u s e o ft h e se r e sou rc e s d u r ing l a te w in te r a nd e a r ly s p r ing w ou ld h av e e x tended t h e t ime p e r iod f o r w h ich o c cupa t ion a t as i te c ou ld b e i n f e r red . T he re w a s , h owev e r , n o d i rec t e v idence t h a t t h e se p l an t t y pe s w e re c o l lec ted a nd , c on sequen t ly , t h ey f o rm n o b a s is f o r t h e s e a sona l i ty p r ed ic t ion sm ad e i nt h is s t udy . O nt h em a jo r i ty o fs i te s , t h e re w a s a n a b sence o f e v idenc e f o r e xp lo i tab le r e sou rc e s f o r t h e p e r iod c ove r ing l a te a u tumn , w in te r a nd e a r ly s p r ing . T he a mb igu i ty o ft h i s ' a b sence ' , w h ich c ou ld h ave b een ar ef lec t ion e i the r o ft h e a c tua l n on -ex i s tence o f t a xa , o ro ft h el a ck o fp r e se rva t ion o ft a xa , i n ev i tab ly m ean t t h a tt h er e su l t so ft h es e a sona l i ty s t ud ie sw e re i n sub s tan t ia l . F o r t h e s e a sona l ly o c cup ied s i te s i n t h e Med i te r ranean r e g ion , s p r ing a nd e a r ly s umme r o c cupa t ion i si n d ica ted a t Wad ia l -Hammeh 2 7 ,a nd s p r ing a nd l a te s umme ro ccupa t ion i si n d ica ted a tI r aq e d -Dubb . T he s e ed s o f s e v e ra l e a r ly f l owe r ing a nnua l s p ec ie s , w h ich w ou ld r i pen i n t h e l a te

s p r ing , p rov ide e v idence f o r o ccupa t ion e a r ly i nt he y ea r a t b o th s i te s . T he n u t le t s o f P i s tac ia , w h ich a r e r eady f o r h a rve s t i n t he m idd le o f t he y e a r , p rov ide e v idence f o r s umme r o ccupa t ion a t Wad i a l -Hammeh 2 7 , a nd n u t she l l o f Amygda lu s , w h ich w ou ld r each ma tu r i ty i n l a te s umme r , p rov ide se v idence f o r o ccupa t ion d u r ing t h is t ime o ft h ey ea r a t I r aq e d -Dubb . T he s e ed s o f s ome s pec ie s o f a u tumn f l owe r ing c henopod s p rov ide s ou rce s o f f ood w hen t h ey r each m a tu r i ty i n t he l a te a u tumn o r e a r ly w in te r . T he i r p re senc e o n t he a r id z one s i te s o f Wad i e l -J i la t 6 , Wad i e l J i la t 7a nd Wad i e l -J i la t 1 3 , may b e i nd ica t ive , t he ref o re , o f o ccupa t ion l a te i nt he y ea r . T he se s i te sa l so h ave e v idence o f s e ed s o fa nnua l s pec ie st ha tw ou ld h ave b een c o l lec ted i nt he s p r ing , t h e reby p rov id ing e v idence f o r o ccupa t ion e a r ly i n t h e y ea r . I ft he d ome s t ic c rop s f ound a t Wad i e l -J i la t 7a nd Wad i e l J i la t 1 3 w e re g rown l o ca l ly , t h ey t oo w ou ld h ave b een h a rve s ted i nt he s p r ing . T he v ege ta t iv e s t o rage o rgan s r e co rded o n t he s i te s w ou ld h ave b een u sed i nt h e w in te r o r e a r ly s p r ing , b ef o re t he g row th o f t he p lan t s d ep le ted t h e c a rbohyd ra te r e se rve s i nt he r oo t s a nd t ube r s . Al a te w in te r e a r ly s p r ing o c cupa t ion i s ,t he ref o re ,p red ic ted f o rt he se s i te s . T h i s i sc on s is ten t w i th t h e e v idence f r om t he f a una l s t ud ie s b ased o nb i r th ing p a t te rn so fn ew b o rn a n ima ls ( e .g . g aze l le ) . Ma r t in ( 1994 , 2 000 ) h a s p ropo sed t ha t Wad i J i la t 6w ou ld h ave b een o ccup ied i nt he s p r ing ,w hen h un t ing w a sp o s s ib le a nd s im i la r ly a t Wad i Ma t 1 3 ,t ha t s p r ing a nd e a r ly s umme r w ou ld h ave b een t ime sw hen h e rd s w e re w i th in r each o ft h e s i te . T he e v idence f r om Wad ie l -J i la t 7w a sl e s sc l ea r ,b u to n t he b as i s o fc u l l p a t te rn s Ma r t in s ugge s ted t he p o s s ib i l i ty o f h un t ing b e tween F eb rua ry a nd J une . T he r ange o f p lan t r ema ins f ound a t Dhuwe i la i s i nd ica t ive o f e xp lo i ta t ion d u r ing t h es p r ing . O fn o te a tt h is s i te ,w a sa n a b sence o ft h e a u tumn f l owe r ing t axa , w h ich w e re p re sen t i nt he J i la t s i te s . O n t he b a s is o fg aze l le c u l l p a t te rns , Ma r t in s ugge s t s t ha t h un t ing w ou ld h ave t aken p l ace a tD huwe i la i ns p r ing /ea r ly s umme r a nd p o s s ib ly a l so i na u tumn Jw in te r( Ma r t in i nB et s 1 998 , 1 75 ) . W i th t he e xcep t ion o ft he L a te E p ipa laeo l i th ic p ha se a tT e l l Mu reyb i t ,t he S y r ian s i te sw e re a l lp e rmanen ts e t t lemen t s ,f o r w h ich o ccupa t ion t h roughou tt he y ea rw a sc ons ide red l i ke ly . Y ea r round o ccupa t ion h a s b een s ugge s ted b y H i l lman f o r t he L a te E p ipa laeo l i th ic o ccupa t ion a tT e l lA bu H u rey ra , a nd t h i s p red ic t ion w a sb a sed o n as im i la rr ange o fp lan tt axa t o t ha t f ound i n s amp le s o f t he s ame d a te a t T e l l Mu reyb i t ( H i l lman e ta l 1 989 ,2 6 1-264 ; H i l lman i n Moo re 2 000 , 3 67 ) .

T he D eve lopmen ta nd S pread o f A gr icu l ture i nt he L evan t ' Pre -domes t ica t ion ' u se o fc erea l sa nd l e gume s A s s t a ted i nc hap te r 1 ,t h eN a tuf ian p e r iod i sc ons ide red t o h ave b een a s i gn if ican t d eve lopmen ta l s t age i nt he c on t ro l a nd managemen t o fw i ld c r op s , p roces se sw h ich c u lm ina ted i nt he e vo lu t ion o fd ome s t ic c e rea ls a nd l e gume s a nd t ot h e e ven tua l f ounda t ion o f c r op -ba sed a p icu l tu re i n t he N ea r E a s t . T he p re sence o f w i ld b a r ley a nd w i ld l e n t i l a t t h e N a tuf ian s i te s o f Wad i a l -Hammeh 2 7 a nd I r aq e d -Dubb

1 50

p rov ide i mpo r tan t a dd i t iona l e v idence f o r t he u s e o fw i ld c e rea ls a nd l e gume sa tt h i st ime . I t i s q ue s t ionab le w he the r t h e a s semb lage s o f c ha r red r ema ins f o und o n ama jo r i ty o fE p ipa laeo l i th ic s i te sc ou ld b e i n te rp re ted a s b e ing i nd ica t ive o f i n ten s ive e xp lo i t a t ion o f p lan tr e sou rce s .

E v idence f o rt he ' f ounder c rop ' s pec ie s T he e a r l ie s t e v idence f o r t he f o unde r c r op s i nt h e L evan t i s o ns i te si nt he Med i te r ranean r eg ion o ft h eJ o rdan V a l ley a nd s ou the rn S y r ia . T he d ome s t ic g lume w hea t c haf f a nd d ome s t ic b a r ley g ra ins a tI r aq e d -Dubb make a s i gn if ican t c on t r ibu t ion t oo u rk now ledge o ft he e a r ly u se o fc e rea l c r ops i n t h e L evan t . T he r ad ioca rbon d a te o f 9 , 950+ / -50 B P i s e a r l ie r t h an t h e l owe s t o c cupa t ion l e ve l s a tT e l l A swad , t he s i te f r om w h ich , t od a te , t h e e a r l ie s t d ome s t ica te s h ave b een r e co rded ( e xc lud ing t he f i nd s o fd ome s t ic r y e , w h ich i sn o t i n c luded i nZ oha ry 's l i s t o ff ounde rc rop s , i nE p ipa laeo l i th ic l e ve l s a t A bu H u rey ra ) . R ad ioca rbon d a te s i n t h e L a te P le i s tocene /Ea r ly H o lo cene a r e , h ow eve r , l i ke ly t o b e e r roneou s , a sB ecke ra nd K rome rp o in to u t : " The se r ad io ca rbon v a r ia t ion s c au se p rob lems f o r t h e E a r ly H o locene c h rono logy . O ne h a s t o t a ke i n to c ons ide ra t ion t ha t ar ad ioca rbon a ge o f 1 0 ,000 B P w h ich i st h e t r an s i t ion b e tween t he L a te G lac ia l a nd H o locene c h ronozone s , h a sn o p rec ise a ge v a lue w i th in ab l ock o ft ime t ha tl a s t sf o ra tl e a s t 2 50 y ea r s , a nd p robab ly f o r mo re t han 3 00 t o 4 00 y ea r s . Du r ing t h e m idd le P re -Bo rea l , r ad io ca rbon d a t ing s o f9 500 9 600 a ga in c ov e r ac a lenda ry ea rr ange o f4 00 y ea r s ." ( 199 1 , 2 4 ) I t w ou ld b e i n app rop r ia te , t he ref o re , t o a t tach g rea t s i gn if icance t ot h er e la t ive d a te s o ff i nd s o fd ome s t ic c e rea l s o n t h eP PNA s i te s . T he e xp lo i ta t ion o f w i ld c e rea ls c on t inued i n t he e a r ly N eo l i th ic a tT e l l Mu reyb i t a nd i ti st hough t t ha t t h i s m igh t h ave b een a n i n s tance when ' non -dome s t ica t ion ' c u l t iva t ion w a s p rac t ised , r e su l t ing i n t h e ma in tenance o f t h e w i ld s pe c ie s ( s ee c hap te r 7 ;C o l ledge 1 998 , i np re ss ; H ar r is 1 990 , 1 8 -19 ; H ansen 1 99 1 , 1 72 ) .

T he s pread o fa gr icu l ture i nt he L evant T he f i nd s o f d ome s t ic g lume w hea ts a nd b a r ley i n E a r ly P PNB l e ve ls a t Wad i e l J i la t 7a r e s i gn if ican t b e cau se t h ey p rov ide e v idence f o rt he e a r ly d i spe r sa l o fc r op si n to t h ea r id z one o ft he s ou the rn L evan t . T he t en ta t ive i d en t if ica t ion o f e i nko rn a t Wad i e l -J i la t 7i s i n t r igu ing , g iven t h a t t h e l o ca t ion o ft h e s i te i ss o f a r s ou th o ft he p red ic ted o r ig in o f t he s pec ie s , i n s ou th e a s te rn T u rkey ( s ee c hap te r 1 ) . T he c rop w a s r e co rded i nP PNA l e v e l s a tJ e r icho a nd s ot h e re i s s uppo r t ing e v idence f o r i th av ing r e ached t h e s ou the rn L evan t i nt h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic . B a sa l c u lm f r agmen t s , c u lm n ode s a nd H ord eum r a ch i s i n te rnode s w e re r e co rded f r om t h e E a r ly P PNB a t Wad i e l -J i la t 7 , a nd t he se f i nd s may i nd ica te l o ca l c u l t iva t ion o f c e rea ls . G a r ra rd ( 1996 , 2 15 ) r e co rd st ha tt he re i so ppo r tun i s t ic c u l t iva t ion i nt h ed ra inage c hanne ls u p s t ream f r om t he J i la t a re a t oday , a nd h e

c omm en t s t h a t i fr a inf a l l w a s a dequa te i n t h e N eo l i th ic p e r iod i tm ay h ave b een p o s s ib le t og row t h e c e rea l s a tt h e s i te . T he a dd i t iona l f i nd s o f e i nko rn f r om Wad i e l -J i la t 7a nd B e idh a i nt h e M idd le P PNB a r e i mpo r tan t b e cau se t h ey a r e t e s t imony o fi t s u se i nt h e s ou the rn L evan t . Emme r w hea t w a sa l so f o und o n b o th s i te s . T he p re senc eo ft h i s c e rea l a t Wad i e l J i la t 7p rov ide s e v idenc e o f i t s s p read i n to t h e s t eppe . B a sa l c u lm f r agmen t s , c u lm n ode s a nd H ord eum r a ch is i n t e rnode sw e re f o und i nM idd le P PNB c on t ex t sa tt h e s i te a nd , a si nt h ep reced ing p ha se ,t h e se m ay i nd ica te l o ca l c u l t iv a t ion o fc e rea l s . C onf i rma t ion o ft h e i d en t if ica t ion o f n ak ed b a r ley a tB e idha i si mpo r tan t ; p re senc eo ft h e s pe c ie s a t t h e s i t e p rov ide s e v idenc e f o r i t s u se i n t h e s ou the rn L evan t d u r ing t h e M idd le P PNB . T he o n ly o t he r u nequ ivo ca l f i nd o fn aked b a r ley i nt h e L evan t a tt h i s t ime w a sf r om T e l l A swad . T he t e n ta t iv ei d en t if ica t ion so fb i t te r v e tch a t Wad i e l J i la t 7a nd B e idha a r e s i gn if ican t a nd a r e t e s t imony o fi t s u se i nt h e s ou the rn L evan t . C h ickpea w a s a l so f o und a t Wad i e l J i la t 7 . B o th l e gume sh ad p rev iou s ly b een r e co rded f r om s i te s f u r the r n o r th , i n t h e D ama scu s B a s in a nd E uph ra te sV a l ley ,d u r ing t h eM idd le P PNB . T he f i nd s o f d ome s t ic e mme r a nd e i nko rn a t t h e n ew ly e s tab l i shed L a te P PNB s i te o f Wad i F i dan A p rov ide e v id en ce f o rt he c on t inued c u l t iva t ion o ft h e se c e rea l s i nt h e s ou the rn L evan t , a t at ime w hen many o f t h e l a rge a g r icu l tu ra ls e t t lemen t si nt h ec o re Med i te r ranean a r ea sw e re a bandoned . T he p re sence o ff r e et h re sh ing w hea t a tA z raq 3 1 i ss i gn if ican t a nd i sc onf i rma t ion o fi t s u s e i nt h e a r id r e g ion o ft h e s ou the rn L evan t . T he e a r l ie s t r e co rd o ft h i s t a xon i si nt h e M idd le P PNB a nd b y t h e L a t e P PNB i tw a s p re s en to nm any s i te si nt h ec en t ra la nd n o r the rn L evan t ,a nd a l so f r om t h e s i te o fB a s ta , i nt h e s ou the rn L evan t . R a ch i s i n te rnod e s o ff r e e t h re sh ing w hea t w e re i d en t if ied a tA z raq 3 1 a nd l o ca lc u l t iva t ion o ft h ec e rea li s ,t h e r e f o re ,c on s id e red ap o s s ib i l i ty . D ome s t ic e mme r , e i nko rn , f r e e t h re sh ing w hea t a nd h u l led b a r ley w e re i d en t if ied a t Wad i F idan C i n t h e F i na l P re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic B p e r iod . T he f i nd s o f d ome s t ic e mme r , e i nko rn , h u l led a nd n aked b a r ley a t Wad i e l -J i la t 1 3 a r e i mpo r tan t , a nd a r e e v idenc e e i the r f o r t h e s p re ad o fa g r icu l tu re o ro fa g r icu l t u ra lp roduc t si n to t h ea r id r e g ion d u r ing t h e L a te N eo l i th ic p e r iod . B a sa l c u lm f r agmen t s , c u lm n ode sa nd H ord eum r a ch i si n te rnode sw e re f o und a tt h es i te a nd , a sa tt h ee a r l ie rs i te o f Wad i e l J i la t 7 , t h e s e m ay b e a n i nd ica t ion o f l o ca l c u l t iva t ion o f c e rea l c r op s .

C on tac ta nd e xchange w i th t he a r id z one s i te s i nt he s ou thern L evan t T he r e w a s an e two rk o f e xchange t h roughou t t h e L evan t d u r ing t h eN eo l i th ic p e r iod . A ss t a ted i nc hap te r 1 ,o b s id ian w a s t r an spo r ted f r om A na to l ia , i n t h e n o r th , a nd Med i te r ranean a nd R ed S ea s he l l sw e re b rough t i nf r om t h e w e s t a nd s ou th . T he g ood s t r aded v i a t h e se a l l ianc e n e two rk sw ou ld h ave i n c luded a g r icu l tu ra lp roduc t sa nd t h i s s y s tem o f ' c on tac t a nd e xchange ' i st hough t t o h ave b een h ow c e rea l s a nd l i ve s to ck w e re i n t rodu ced i n to t h e s t eppe d e se r tr e g ion so ft h es ou the rn L evan t . T he a r chaeobo tan ica l 1 5 1

r e co rd f o r t h e P re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic B a nd L a te N eo l i th ic p e r iod s c an p rov ide o n ly t e nuou s e v idence f o r a ny c on tac t b e tween d if e ren ta r ea si nt h eL ev an t . T he f i nd so fd ome s t ic g l ume w hea t s i nE a r ly P PNB l e ve l sa t Wad i e l -J i la t 7w ou ld t e nd t os ugge s t al i nk w i th t h en o r th a nd /o rw e s ta tt h i st ime . S im i la r ly , f o r t h e s uc ceed ing M idd le P PNB p ha se , t h e p re sence o fb i t te rv e tch a nd c h ickpea m ay b ea ni n d ica t ion o f c on tac tw i th s i te sf u r the rt ot h en o r th . D u r ing t h eL a te P PNB p e r iod , t h e f i nd s o ff r ee t h re sh ing w hea t a t Az raq 3 1 w ou ld a l so s ugge s t an o r the rn l i nk ,b e cau se o ft h ee a r l ie rr e co rd so f t h i s t a xon o n s i te s i n t h e D ama scu s B a s in a nd E uph ra te s V a l ley . B a i rd c ommen t s o n t h ep o s s ib i l i ty o fc on tac t sw i th s i te sf u r the rn o r th a tt h i st ime ( Ba i rd 1 993 ) . H es ugge s t st h a t t h e s pa l l d r i l l s a nd o b s id ian t o o l s f o und a t A z raq 3 1 a r e s im i la rt ot ho se f o und a tT e l lB ouq ra sa nd E lK o v vm .

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3 7

3 71

3 7 aJ 8 5

3 75

4 1 1 1 r i

'

5 8

3 97

F igure s7 . 36 a nd 7 . 37 C o r re spondenc ea na ly s is p l o to ft h eT e l l R amad s amp le sf o rw i ld i `weed ' t a xa , a f te rt a xa i n< 10% o ft h e s amp le sh ave b een o m i t ted ( f o rt he 1 a nd 3 rd p r inc ipa l a xe s ) , a nd e qu iva len tp i ec ha r tp lo t s how ing e co log ica l c a tego r ie s . 2 14

s it e c lasses L a t eP PN I 3 PN H a laf ian

0 x

0 .1

0

+ 0 .2

E l

E I E I 0

B a th* Maqu is F ie lds We t S t eppe -Deser t

+ 0 .2

055

F igures 7 .38 a nd 7 .39 C o r re spondence a na ly s i sp lo to ft h eT e l l R a s S hamra s amp le s f o rv i ldPweed ' t a xa , a f t e rt a xa i n< 10% o ft h es amp le sh ave b een o m i t ted , a nd e qu iva len tp i ec ha r tp lo ts how ing e co log ica l c a tego r ie s .

2 15

te c la sses l yP PNRA P PNB A

A

A A

1 .Ch

A

+ 2 .0

A

a 'mmo. 8 . 1.••

B a t I ta Ma qu is F i e lds j7 a35a S teppe -Deser t C a th o l ine

j 7b4la j7 b40b

+ 2 .0 j7 529a j7 528a j7 62

2 a j7 727a j7 827a j7 b33a

2 8a j7 728a

F igure s7 . 40 a nd 7 . 41 C o r re spondenc ea na ly s i sp l o to ft h e Wad ie l J i la t 7s amp le sf o rw i ld / 'w eed 't a xa ,a f t e rt a xa i n< 10% o f t h es amp le sh av eb een o m i t ted ,a nd e qu iva len tp i ec ha r tp l o ts how ing e co log ica lc a tego r ie s . 2 16

S i te c la sses e ar ly E LN+ m id U N 4 _ l a t eE LN x

K r i

2 .0

+ 4 .0 *

• Batha

Maqu is F i e lds ee i t eppe -Deser t Ad t . S C a th o l i c !?

j1 3c66b

j 13b69v

j 13c56c

j ltaL li Er r

7 1v

+ 4 .0

j1 3b21a

+We b 3 c82a

j 13c75a

1

F igures 7 . 42 a nd 7 . 43 C o r re spondence a na ly s is p l o to ft h e Wad i e l -J i la t 1 3s amp le sf o rw i ldf w eed ' t a xa , a f te rt a xa i n< 10% o ft h es amp le sh ave b een o m i t ted ,a nd e qu iva len tp i ec ha r tp l o ts how ing e co log ica l c a tego r ie s . 2 17

S ite c la sses P PNA

0

e ar ly P PNB A m id P PNB A l a t e PPNB f i nP PNB 9 i e PN E i

2 .0

l o f r

of t

4 .

+ 2 .0

A .

0 A2 K >

M

e r

11 14

B a tha Maqu i s F i e lds We t

3 11

S t eppe -Deser t C a th o l i c '?

0 4

3 10

3 00 3 50

g9 306

7 3 7

3 57

3 12

4 ;

— V; 4 , 1-7

n iv e ,

3 44

.m om

y e _' Af f b

3 05

I ke

4 4 : 4, 5 ;•

>4 >e » • 4

1 1 11.F

—

51. 47

•: 4 4: : _ t 4 iet " ,

2 .0

14 .

+ 2 .0

:4 4 & •, ›

1 4 1 1 44 4 1 . 4 1 1 >

F igures 7 .44 a nd 7 .45 C o r re spondence a na ly s is p lo t o ft h es amp le s f r om t h eD ama scu s B a s in s i te s f o r w i ldPweed ' t axa , a f t e r

t a xa i n< 10% o ft h es amp le sh ave b een o m i t ted , a nd e qu iva len tp i ec ha r tp lo t s how ing e co log ica l c a tego r ie s .

2 18

s ite c la sses E p ipa l PPNB

0

ELN

A

0

0 0

0

4 .5

+ 4 .5

B a tha Maqu is F i e lds We t 1 004 1 • • •• • 1 1 1. 1 1 1•

8

S t eppe -Deser t C a tho l i c '?

4 .5

+ 4 .5

I

0 . 56

F igure s7 .46 a nd 7 .47 C o r re spondence a na ly s is p lo t o ft he s amp le sf r om t he Wad ie l -J i la ts i te sf o rw i ldPweed ' t axa , a f te rt a xa i n< 10% o ft he s amp le s h ave b een o m i t ted ( f o rt he 2 "a nd 3 r dp r inc ipa la xe s ) , a nd e qu iva len tp i ec har tp lo ts how ing e co log ica l c a tego r ie s .

2 19

S eeds Fu it s •

1 93

F leshy p ar t s R oot s Unknown

2 00 1 80 9 9

1 79

2

1 63 1 59

1 6119

1 78

1 . 57

2 01 6„

1 1

2 .0

0 1 84

0 3

1 55

7 4 8

1 48 1 52

1 53

1 50

c ‘ i

1 5

S eeds F ru i t s F l eshy p ar t s R oot s

a s12

U nknown

a s3

a s4

a s13 a s18 a si9

+ 3 .0

— 2 .0 a s 1 2 9 5 as 1 ,5 a sz/

2 a s2 1 1

a s8 a s24

a s23

F igures 7 .48 a nd 7 . 49 P i ec ha r tp lo t s f o rT e l l Mu reyb i t ( t op ) a nd T e l l A swad ( bo t tom ) s amp le s f o rw i ldPweed ' t a xa s how ing e conom ic c a tego r ie s .

2 20

S eed s F ru i t s F leshy p ar t s R oot s U nknown

+ 4 .0

g h7

h 9

S eed s F ru i t s F l eshy p ar t s R oot s U nknown

1 .5

3 87

F igure s7 . 50 a nd 7 .5 1 P i ec ha r tp lo t sf o rT e l l G ho ra lf ( t op ) a nd T e l l R amad ( bo t tom ) s amp le sf o rw i ld / 'weed ' t a xa s how ing e conom ic c a tego r ie s .

2 21

S eeds F ru i t s F leshy p ar t s R oot s U nknown

0 06

8 f . i 0 a : 1 1 7 3 + 0 .2

— 0 .1 0 64

0 40 0 55

F igure s 7 .52 P i ec har tp lo t f o rT e l l R as S ham ra s amp le s f o r w i ld / 'weed ' t a xa s how ing e conom ic c a tego r ie s .

2 22

S eeds F ru i t s F leshy P ar t s j7 a35a R oo t s U rd r a town j7 523a

j7 527

j 7b41a j7 b40b

j7 8

j 73

j7 b

+ 2 .0 j7 529a

j7 528a

2 a j727a

•i • r e -e , — W•l e :e= A . •• -

j7 827a j7 b33a

2 8a j7 728a

S eeds F ru it s F l eshy p ar t s R oo ts U / L IMO V V I 1

2 .0

+ 4 .0

j 13c75a

F igures 7 .53 a nd 7 .54 P i ec har tp lo t s f o r Wad i e l J i la t 7( t op ) a nd Wad i e l J i la t 1 3 ( bo t tom ) s amp le s f o rw i ld[weed t a xa s how ing e conom ic c a tego r ie s .

2 23

I V S ummary

I tw a sp o s s ib le t od r aw t e n ta t ive c onc lu s ion s a bou tt h ep l an t e xp lo i ta t ive a c t iv i t ie s c a r r ied o u ta te ach o ft h es i te ss t ud ied , n o tw i th s tand ing t h e f a c t t h a t t h e q uan t i ty a nd q ua l i ty o f c ha r red p l an tr ema ins v a r ied g r ea t ly . W i ld a nd d ome s t ic p l an t f o od s w e re i d en t if i ed f r om s e ed s / g ra in s , c haf f , f r u i t s a nd n u t she l l ( e tc . ) i nt h e s amp le s t a ken f r om t h e d if e ren t s i te s . T he i d en t if ica t ion o f v ege ta t iv e s t o rage o rgan s f r om f r agmen t s o f p a renchyma tou s t i s sue s f o und o n s e ve ra l o ft h eJ o rdan ian s i te s h a sh e lped t of i l l t h e g ap l e f tb yt h e ' m i s s ing f o od s ' a nd h a s t hu s g one s ome w ay t owa rd s r e d re s s ing t h e i mba lance o f i n te rp re ta t ion s o f a r chaeobo tan ica l s t ud ie s b a sed l a rge ly o n f i nd s o fs e ed s . I t w a s s ugge s ted o n s i te s i n t h e a r id r eg ion o ft h e s ou the rn L evan t t h a t e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h e se t y pe s o fp l an t f o od s m ay h ave b een s i gn if ican t a nd t h a t t o ge the r w i th o t he r w i ld r e sou rc e s , m ay h av e b e en v i ta l s upp lemen t s t od i e t s , w h ich c omp r i sed , i np a r t , d ome s t ic c e rea l s a nd p u l se s . A s mo re s t ud ie s i n c lud e t h e e xam ina t ion a nd i d en t if ica t ion o f t h e r ema in so fv ege ta t iv es t o rage o rgan s ,a nd a st h ep re se rva t ion b i a se s a s so c ia ted w i th t h e se p l an t t y pe s a r e b e t te r u nde r s tood , t h e re i s b ound t o b e ar e a s se s smen t o f t h e s ub s i s tenc e e c onom ie s o f many o ft h ee a r ly s i te s i nt h eN ea r E a s t . T h i sw i l li n ev i tab ly c on t r ibu te t oo u rk now ledge o ft h e p a r t t h a t w i ld p l an t r e sou rce s p l ay ed i nt h e i n i t ia l s t age s o f t h ea dop t ion a nd s p read o fd ome s t ic c r op s . C ompa r i son o ft h e o v e ra l l s t a te o fp r e se rva t ion o ft h e p l an t ma te r ia l s w i th in a nd b e tw een t h e s i te s e nab led a pp ra i sa l o f h ow , a nd t ow ha t e x ten t , t h e f o rma t ion p roce s se s m ay h ave a f ec ted t h e n umbe r a nd r ange o ft a xa r ep re sen ted i n t h e s amp le s . I tw a s s hown t h a t d en s i ty may b e d ue , a tl e a s t i n p a r t , t ot h et y pe o fs ub s i s tence b a se a nd , t h e ref o re , may b ea u sef u l s upp lemen t t o t h e t r ad i t iona l s t udy o fp l an t mac ro r ema in s . T he p r e se rva t ion b i a se s o f a r chaeobo tan ica l m a te r ia l a nd t h e f a c t t h a tt h e s ub s i s tence e conom ie st e nd t o b e r e la ted t o s e t t lemen t t y pe a nd l o ca t ion r e la t ive t o p hy togeog raph ica l r eg ion , make i td if i cu l t t ob e c onc lu s iv e a bou t t h e e xac t c au se o ft h e v a r ia t ion s . H ow eve r , a s mo re s t ud ie s a r e u nde r taken a nd mo re r ef ined m e thod s o f a s se s s ing c ha rco a lc on ten ta r ed ev i sed ,t h e re i sb ound t ob ea c oncom i tan th i ghe rr e so lu t ion o fd ef in i t ion t ot h ep a t te rn ing w i th in a nd b e tw e en s i te s . T h i sw i l l e nab le c onf i rma t ion ( o r o t he rw i se )o ft h er e su l t so ft h i sv e ry l im i ted s t udy .

g ood s a nd t e chno log ie s / techn ique s , i n c lud ing ' a g r icu l tu ra l ' p roduc t sa nd t h ek now ledge t os u s ta in t h em i nn ew l o ca t ion s . T o r e pea t w ha t w a s s a id i n t h e p rev iou s c hap te r , t h e d i scove ry , d e sp i te t h e d i s rup t iv e f o rma t ion p ro c e s se s a c t ing u pon t h e c ha r red p l an t r ema in s , t ha t t h e d if e ren t s i te s , p e r iod s a nd p ha se s w e re c ha rac te r ised b yr ep l ica t e s amp le s w i th a d i s t inc t t a xonom ic c ompo s i t ion ( i . e . h ad r e ta ined a h igh d eg ree o f i n teg r i ty ) w a s u nexpec ted . B y u s ing mu l t iva r ia te s t a t i s t ic s , p a t te rn s i n t h e d a ta w e r e d ef ined , w h ich e nab led i n te rp re ta t ion st ob e made i nt e rm so ft h eu s e o ft h e l a nd scape a nd i t s r e sou rce s a td if e ren t t i me s a nd i n d if e ren t l o ca t ion s . P re - o rn on -dome s t ica t ion c u l t iva t ion o f w i ld c e rea l s w a s s ugge s ted f o r N a tuf ian a nd e a r ly N eo l i th ic s i te s w he re f i e ld w eed s w e re i d en t if ied . I tw a s c on s ide red l i ke ly t h a t t h e p r e sence o fw e t lov ing t a xa o n s e v e ra l o ft h e s i te s w a s e v idence o f c u l t iva t ion o n l a nd w i th h igh g roundwa te r . I tw a s a l so p o s s ib le t op ropo se t h a t t h e d a ta i n d ica ted a ni n c rea se i ni n ten s i ty o fl a nd u se a tt h el a te rs i te s , b yw h ich t ime c r op -ba sed a g r icu l tu re w a sw e l l e s tab l i shed i n t h eL evan t . A l though t h er e sea rch d e sc r ibed i nt h i s monog raph i sb yn o m ean s c onc lu s iv e i n a l l a spec t s , a nd i so n ly a s ma l l ( b u t o p t im i s t ic ) c on t r ibu t ion t o t h e s t udy o f q uan t i ta t iv e a r chaeobo tany , Ih ope t h a t i th a s g one s ome w ay t owa rd s e s tab l i sh ing s u i tab le e mp i r ica lm e thod so fa na ly s ing t h ed a ta a nd , i ns od o ing , may h e lp t or e so lve af ew o ft h ed i lemma s w e , a s a r chaeobo tan i s t s , f a ce w hen w e t a ke c ha rge o f s amp le so fc ha r red p l an tr ema in s .

B ya s se s s ing t h er e p re sen ta t ion o fc r op p l an t si nt h es amp le s f r om t h e s i te s , i tw a s p o s s ib le t o s ugge s t t h a t b y t h e e a r ly P PNB t h e re w a s d i spe r sa l f r om t h e a r ea s i n w h ich t h e d ome s t ic s p e c ie s o r ig ina ted ( now s uppo r ted b y r e cen t e v idence f r om C yp ru s ) , i n to t h e a r id r e g ion s o ft h eL evan t . T en ta t iv e i n f e renc e s c ou ld b e made a bou tp o s s ib le l i nk s v i a a l l iance s t h a t w ou ld h ave e nab led c on tac t a nd e xchange o f 2 24

Gram ineae :

. 5 c e t e

e

c i . a . 5 . e t e u

r i a . 5 .

t e

2 25

c f .E ch inoch loa /S e ta r ia s p .

E ch inar ia s p .

" Do r so -ven t r a l ly c omp r e s s ed g r a in s ,e l ip t ic i no u t l ine . T he v en t ra ls i de i sf l a tw i th an a r row

d e scr ip t ion sg iven b yv an Z e i s ta nd B akkerHeere s

1 982 , 1 984a , 1 984b )

l i nea rh i lum d o e sn o tr e ach t h ea p ex o ft h ef r u i t . V a r iou sc a ryop s e sh ave ag l o s sy s u rf ac e . T he a r chaeo log ica lB romu s f r u i t sv a ry q u i te m a rked ly i ns i z ea nd s h ap e ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd

" The f r u i t so fE ch inoch loa a r eb r oad ly e l ip t ic t oe l ip t ic i no u t l in e( L :B i n dex 16 156 ) . T h ev en t ra ls i de i sf l a t ,w h e re a st h ed o r sa ls i d ei sd omed . T he r a d i c le s h ie ld e x t end so v e r

c r o s ss e c t ion t h es e ed sw e r er o unded .

H e e r e s 1 984a , 1 88 , 1 89 )

s i de . T h er a d ic le s h ie ld e x t end so ve r 1 / 2t o3 / 5o ft h ed o r sa ls i de ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke r-

bou t3 / 4t h ed o r s a ls i de ." g ene ra . T he s e ed sw e r es ma l l , 1 . 0mm w ide a nd 0 . 75mm w ide ,a nd w e r eo va l i ns h ape ,w i th a S e tar ia t y p e . T he c a ryop s e so ft h i st y p ea r em o re s l ende rt h an t h o s eo fE ch inochka .T h e s l igh t ly p o in ted a p ic e s . O nt h ed o r sa ls u rf ace st h er a d ic le s h ie ld sw e r el a rg e ,a lmo s t2 / 3 a s " f r u i t sa r ee l ip t i ci no u t l ine ( L :B 1 45 -2 10 ) ,w i t hf l a tv en t ra ls i de a nd s l igh t ly d omed d o r sa l l o ng a st h es e ed sa nd o nt h ev en t ra ls u rf ac e st h es ma l lp un c t a te h i lum sw e r ei n d i s t inc t . I n

T he s e ed si nt h i sc a tego ry r e semb led b o th E ch inoch loa a nd S e tar ia a nd t h ep oo r p r e s e r va t ion o ft h es p e c imen sp r ec luded t h ep o s s ib i l i ty o fd i s t ingu i sh ing b e twe en t h et wo

as ma l lp unc ta t eh i lum o nt h ed o r sa ls u rf ac e .

" Sma l l ,s qua tf r u i t s ,p o in ted a tt h el owe re nd a nd r ound ed t runca ted a tt h ea p ica le nd . T h e r a d ic le s h ie ld e x t end so ve ra bou t 1 / 2o ft h ed o r sa l s i d e ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rHe e re s 0 . 5mm w ide . T he a p ic a le nd w a st r un ca te a nd t h ee mb ryo e nd w a st a p e red . T he m o s t 982 ,2 2 1) n o t ic eab le f e a tu re w a st h el a rge r a d ic le s h ie ld w h ich w a s2 / 3 a sl o ng a st h es e ed . T he r ew a s 1

O n ly o ne s e ed w a si d en t if i ed a sE ch inar ia . T he s e ed w a sv e ry s ma l l ,0 . 75mm l o ng a nd

s h iny .

g r a in sw e re f l a t tened d o r so -ven t ra l ly . O nt h ev en t ra ls u rf ac e so ft y p e cg r a in s ,t h el o ng c e l l s r unn ing p a r a l le lt ot h es i de so ft h eg r a in sw e r ec l ea r ly v i s ib le . T he g r a in sw e r es l igh t ly

s p ec imen sw e r ev e ry l o ng a nd n a r row ,t h el e ng th e xc eed ed 4 . 0mm a nd ,a sw i th t y pe b ,t h e

4 . 5mm l o ng a nd w e r ef l a t tene dd o r so -ven t ra l ly ,a nd c l o se ly r e s emb led t h eB romu s d an thon ia e t y p ei l u s t ra ted b yv an Z e i s ta nd B akke rHee re s( 1982 ,2 18 ) . T yp ec

B akke rHe e re s 1 982 ,2 19 )

l e s sf l a tt oh o l low ( c hanne l led ) . P o in ted b a sa le nd w i th ar a the rs ma l l ,n a r row e mb ryo . T he

s u r f ac e sw e re o f ten v i s ib le ,r a d ia t ing o u tt ot h ee dge o ft h eg r a in f r om t h ee nd o ft h ef u r row . T h re ed i s t inc tm o rpho log ic a lt y pe sw e re i d en t if i ed i nt h es amp le s . T ype ag r a in sw e re 2 . 0 2 . 5mm l o ng a nd w e re m o r er o unded i nc r o s ss e c t ion t h an t h et y pe ba nd cg r a in s ;t h e

r a d ia t ing c e l l sa tt h ea p ice sw e r em o s tn o t ic eab le i nt h i st y p e . T yp e bg r a in sw e r e4 . 0 -

" F la tf r u i t s ;t h ed o r sa ls i de i su sua l ly d omed i nc r o s s se c t ion ,t h ev en t r a ls i de f r om m o re o r

T h ev en t ra ls u r f ace sw e r es l igh t ly c on cave ,a nd t h ec e l lp a t t er n sa tt h ea p ic e so nt h e se

a nd B akke rHe e r e s 1 982 ,2 19 )

w a l lo ft h eo a tc a ryop s e si sh a i ry ,s ugge s t ing ak i nd o fs t r ia t es u r f ace p a t t e rn ) ." ( v an Z e i s t

e nd sa t as h o r td i s tanc ef r om t h ea p ex ." " Pa r t icu la r ly o nt h ed o r sa ls i de ,r ema in so ft h el o ng h a i r sa r es ome t ime ss t i l lp r e se rved ( t he

T he g r a in si d en t if ied t ot h i sg enu sw e r el o ng a nd n a r row ,a nd d o r so -ven t ra l ly c omp re s sed .

l o ng a nd 2 . 0mm w ide .

s amp le s :t h es ma l le rw e r e3 . 0mm l o ng a nd 0 . 75 1 .0mm w id e ,a nd t h el a rg e rw e re 5 . 0mm

en t ra l ly s omewha tc omp r e s sed . E sp ec ia l ly i nt h el owe rp a r to ft h eg r a in ,a tb o th s i de sa i tw a sp o s s ib le t os e et h ei mp r e s s ion so ff i ne h a i r s . Two s i z e so fg r a in sw e r ei d en t if ied i nt h e v l a te ra lk e e l i sp r e sen ti ft h eg r a in i sn o tt o os wo l len . T he h i lum i nt h en a r row v en t ra lg r oove

Ca ryop se se l ip t ic t oo b long i no u t l ine . T he g r e a te s tw id th i si nt h em idd le o ft h eg r a in , T he g r a in so fAvena w e r el o ng a nd n a r row ,a nd t a p e r ed t or o unded a p ica la nd e mb ryo e nd s . " n ly s l igh t ly t a pe r ing t ow a rd st h er o unded a p ica la nd b a sa le nd s . T h ef r u i t sa r ed o r so T he v en t ra l f u r row sw e re n a r row a nd s h a l low a nd ,o nt h ed o r s a ls u rf a c e so fs ome s p e c imen s , o

r oove ;t h ed o r s a ls i d ei sd omed . R ound ed a p ica la nd b a sa le nd s ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rs u rf ace sa nd e ven ly r o unded d o r sa ls u rf ace s . P a r t icu la r ly n o t ic eab le w e r et h er o unded a p ica l g H e e re s 1 982 ,2 19 ) e nd so ft h es p e c imen s . T h eg r a in sw e r e3 . 5 -4 .0mm l o ng a nd 1 . 5mm w id e .

T he g r a in sa nd f r agmen t si d en t if i ed a sA eg i lops s p . w e r ec ha r ac t e r i sed b yf l a tv en t r a l

n o te sc omp i led b yt he a u thor

Append ix 1I d en t if ica t ion c r i te r ia f o rt h en on -ce rea lt a xa ( and c ompa r ison sw i th v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rHee re s

I _ . . _

Hord eum s p .

E remopyrum s p .

E l ymu s t yp e

E m , . .

I )

. 2

2 26

P ha lat i s a pp .

d i .

e . G I

G ram inea e -t ype 1

. e t

n o te sc omp i led b yt h ea u thor d e scr ip t ion sg i v en b yv an Z e i s ta nd B akkerHeere s

r a the rf l a tf r u i t s ,w i th t r un ca ted u ppe re nd . T he d o r s a ls i de s how s am ed ian r i dge ."

( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rHe e re s 1 982 ,2 21)

1" Ob long ,

t h ed o r sa ls i de ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rHee r e s 1 982 ,2 21)

l ow e re nd s . T he a pex i sr ound ed t ot r unca t ed . I nm any s pe c imen sp a r t so ft h er ough

i np a r t icu la r ,t h i sw a so bv iou sa tt h ee dg e so ft h eg r a in so nt h ev en t r a ls u r f ac e s . T he v en t ra l

n ov en t ra lg roove . Ah i lum c anno tb eo b s e rved i nt h ec a rbon ized g r a in s . T h er a d ic le s h ie ld

a bou t2 / 3 o ft h el e ng th o ft h eg r a in f r om t h ee mb ryo e nd .

w e r ev i s ib le a tt h ee dge so ft h eg r a in so nt h ev en t ra ls u r f ace s . T he v en t ra lf u r row se x t ended

t h an 0 . 5mm w ide ,a nd t h ey w e r eo va l i ns h ap e ,w i th t h eg r ea te s tw id th a bove t h ee mb ryo . T he a p ice sw e r er ounded a nd t h ee mb ryo e nd sw e re p o in ted . I mp re s s ion so ft h el emma s

I Two g r a in sw e r ea s s igned t ot h i sg r a s st y p e . T h eg r a in sw e r es ma l l , 1 . 25mm l o ng a nd l e s s

w a sa t t emp ted .

s p e c imen sa s s igned t ot h i sg enu sw a sp oo ra nd n of u r the rc a tego r i sa t ion ,o nt h eb a s i so fs i z e ,

b r e ad th s( d iame te r s )o ft h eg r a in sr anged f r om 0 . 5mm t o1 . 25mm P re s e r va t ion o ft h e

w e r ei n d i s t in c ta nd i nl a te r a lv i ew t h ee mb ryo e nd so ft h eg ra in sw e re ' c h i s e l 's haped . T he

T he g r a in si d en t if ied t ot h i sg enu sw e re r ough ly c y l ind r ica li ns hap e . T he v en t ra lf u r row s

1 . 00mm w ide ( i nl a t e ra lv i ew ) ,t yp e bg r a in sw e re 1 . 25mm l o ng a nd 0 . 5mm w ide ( i nl a t e r a l v i ew ) ,a nd t y p e cg r a in sw e re 2 . 0mm l o ng a nd 1 . 25mm w ide ( i nl a te ra lv i ew ) .

I T he g r a in sw e r ed i v ided i nt ot h re es i ze c a tego r ie s . T yp e ag r a in sw e re 1 . 75mm l o ng a nd

H e e re s 1 982 ,2 22 -223 )

sr e la t ive ly l a rge ,e x t end ing o v e r 1 / 4t o1 / 3 o ft h ed o r sa ls i de ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke re mb ryo e nd s . T he l e ng th so ft h er a d ic le s h ie ld sw e r ea pp rox ima t e ly 1 / 2a sl o ng a st h eg r a in . i

" La t e r a l ly c omp re s sed f r u i t s ,w i th l o ng i t ud ina l ly c u rved v en t ra la nd d o r sa ls i d e s . T he r ei s

c omp r e s sed . I nl a te ra lv i ew t h eg r a in sw e r eo va ls h aped ,w i th s l igh t ly p o in t ed a p ice sa nd

2 22 )

G ra in sa nd f r agmen t so fP ha la r i s s p .w e re e a s i ly i d en t if iab le b e c au se t h ey w e r el a te r a l ly

i ns hape ,t h ey w e re l e s st h an 2 . 0mm l o ng a nd 1 . 5mm w ide .

w ide ,t h el e ng th so ft y pe bg r a in se xc eeded 2 . 0mm ,a nd t y pe cw e r es ma l le ra nd m o r es qua t

T he g r a in sw e r es epa ra ted i n to t h re es i z ec a tego r ie s . T yp e aw e re 2 . 0mm l o ng a nd 1 . 0mm

s u rf ac e sw e re f l a t tened ,w i th i n d is t in c tf u r row s ,a nd t h ed o r sa ls ur f a c e sw e re e v en ly r ounded . e nve lop ing b r ac t s( f ine ly p ap i l lo se )a r es t i l lp r e se rv ed ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rH ee r e s 1 982 ,

s i de . T he g r e a te s tw id th i si nt h em idd le o ft h eg r a in ,s l igh t ly t a pe r ing t owa rd st h eu ppe ra nd

t ot h ed o r sa ls u rf ac e s . Wh en t h el emma sw e re n o te x t an tt h ei mp r e s s ion so ft h em w e r e ,a nd

T he g r a in sa s s igned t oL o l ium s p .w e r er e cogn i sab le b yt h er ema in so ft h el emma sa dh e r ing " Do r so -ven t ra l ly c omp r e s s ed c a ryop se sw i th f l a tv en t r a ls i de a nd m o r eo rl e s sd omed d o r sa l

l e ng th sd i dn o te xc e ed 3 . 0mm

s ma l le rt h an t h ed omes t ic a nd w i ld g r a in s . T he g ra in sw e r en ow ide rt h an 1 . 0mm a nd t h e

T he s hap e so fg r a in so fw eed b a r ley w e r et yp i ca lo ft h eH ord eum g enu s ,b u tw e re m uch

w e r ev i s ib le a tt h ee dge so ft h ev en t r a ls u rf ac e so ft h eg r a in s .

a nd 0 . 75mm w ide ;t h ey w e re s l igh t ly w ide ra bove t h ee mb ryo s . I mp re s s ion so ft h el emma s

T he g r a in sa nd f r agmen t sa s s igned t ot h i sg enu sw e r ee a s i ly i d en t if iab le b yt h ea ng led d o r s a l " Lanc eo la t ef r u i t s ;t h eg r ea te s tw id th i si nt h el owe rh a lf o ft h eg r a in ,s l igh t ly t a p e r ing r i dge s ,w h ich w e r em o s tp rom inen ta tt h eb a s e so ft h eg r a in s . T he g r a in sw e r e3 . 0 inm l o ng t ow a rd st h er ounded a p ex . C ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h i sg r a s sf r u i tt y pe i st h el o ng i tud ina lk e e lo n

p o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h eg ra in sd e r iv ed f r om a no the rg enu sa nd s ot h es uf f ix ' t yp e ' w a sa dded .

t h ey c ou ld n o tb ea s s igned t ot h eg enu sw i th a ny c e r ta in ty . I tw a sn o tp o s s ib le t oe xc lude t h e

e nd s . I nc r o s ss e c t ion t h eg r a in sw e r er ounded . T he g r a in sr e s emb led t h o s eo fE l ymu s b u t

b u tw e re m uch s ma l le r . T hey w e r el o ng ,n a r row g r a in sw i th t r un ca t ea p ice sa nd e mb ryo

T he g r a in si nt h i sc a tego ry r e s emb led t h o se o ft h eH ord eum /E lymu s t yp e( d e sc r ibed a bov e ) ,

t ype 2

2 27

I O ther t axa :

S n ee ies X

G ram ineae -t v n e4 . .

G ram ineae -t yp e3

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n o te sc omp i led b yt he a u thor

" The l a t e r a l ly c omp r e s sed s e ed sa r ea lmo s tc i rcu la ri no u t l ine . Ac ha ra c t e r i s t ic f e a tu re i st h e

d e scr ip t ion sg iven b yv an Z e i s ta nd B akkerHeere s

l i near if o l ia , a nd B ug lo s so id e sa r ven s i s .

A rn eb ia a nd o ne s pe c ie so fB ug lo s so id e s w e re i d en t if i ed :A rneb ia d ecumben s ,A rneb ia

d i s t inc t ive a nd s oi tw a sp o s s ib le t oi d en t if ys p e c imen st ot h es p ec ie sl e ve l . Two s p ec ie so f

s u rf ac et e x tu re so ft h et e s ta sa nd t h es h ape so ft h es e ed so fA rneb ia a nd B ug los so id e s a r e

b een e xpo sed t of i r e ,w e re n o tc on s ide r ed b e caus et h ey c ou ld h ave b een c on tam inan t s ) . T h e

t h o s es e ed sw h ich h ad c ha r red g r ey s e ed c oa t sa nd w h ich w e re f o und t oc on ta in c ha r r ed e mb ryo sw e r ec oun ted i nt h ea na ly s e s( s e ed sw h ich s howed n os i g n so fc ha r r ing ,i . e . h ad n o t

Many s i l iceou ss e ed so ft h eB o rag inac eae f am i ly w e r er e cove r ed f r om t h es amp le s . O n ly

t h en u t so ft h i sg enu s .

f r agmen t si tw a sp o s s ib le t os e ep a r to ft h ec i r cu la rb a sa la p e r tu re w h ich i sac ha rac te r is t i co f

S ma l l f r agmen t so ft h in n u t sh e l lw e r ea s s igned t ot h ec a tego r yo fP i s tac ia s p . O ns ome

r i dg e sr unn ing a r ound a nd a c ro s st h es e ed s .

t h es e ed st h e re w e r er ow so ft ub e r c le sa nd o nt h ef l a t ,c i r cu la rs u rf a ce st h e r ew e re c u rved

u rf ace p a t t e rn : c oncen t r ic r i dg e so nt h es i de f a ce sa nd r ow so fp ap i l lae o nt h eg r ea t e rp a r to f d i s t inc t ive s u r f ac ep a t te rn so ft h es e ed c oa t sm ade t h em e a s i ly r e cogn is ab le . O nt h es p ine so fs t h ed o r sa ls u r f ace ." ( van Z e i s ta nd B akke rHe e r e s 1 982 ,2 10 )

T h er ough ly c i r cu la rs e ed so fA i zoon w e re v e ry s ma l l ,l e s st h an 1 . 0 .mm i nd i ame te r . T he

o ft h es p ec ie s . S eve ra ls pe c imen sw e r ee xam ined u nde r as c ann ing e l e c t ron m ic ro scop ea nd p ho tog raph ss how d i s t inc t ive c e l lp a t te rn si nt h eo u te rl a ye r so ft h eg r a in s( p la te 4 . 1) .

i n d ica t ing i n comp le t ec ha r r ing )a nd s oi tw a se a sy t od i s t ingu i sh e ven t h es ma l le s tf r agmen t s

w e re l a t e r a l ly c omp re s sed . T h eo u t e rl a ye r so ft h eg r a in sw e re t i nged r e d( po s s ib ly

l a t e r a la pp endag e sw h ich w e r et h ough tt ob et h ep r om in en tn e rve so ft h ep a lea s . T h eg ra in s

b a s e s . T he s ef r agmen t sb o r et h ev e s t ige so ft h ea dhe ren th u sks . O nm any t h e re w e re t wo

w ho le s p e c im en so fs p e c ie sX ,a nd m o s tc ommon ly t h eg r a in sw e re b roken j u s ta bov et h e

S pe c ie s Xw a s ag r a s sb u ts of a ri th a sn o tb e en p o s s ib le t os ugge s ta ny s pe c ie so rg enu s i d en t if ica t ion f o rt h et a xon . T h ew id th o ft h eg r a in sw a sl e s st h an 1 . 0mm T he r ew e re n o

t h es u r f ace so ft h eg r a in s .

a nd t h ee mb ryo e nd st a pe red t o ap o in t . Ac e l lp a t t e rn c on s i s t ing o ff i ne t ub e rc le sc ove red

t h er a d ic le s h ie ld se x t end ed f o ra tl e a s t 1 / 2t h el e ng th o ft h eg r a in s . T he a p ice sw e r er ounded

T he g r a in so ft h i st y p ew e r el a te ra l ly c omp r e s sed . T he d imen s ion sw e re 1 . 75nun b y0 . 5nun

i n d i s t inc t .

T he re w e r eo n ly t wo g r a in si nt h i sc a t ego ry . T he g r a in sw e r e 1 . 0mm l o ng a nd 0 . 5mm w ide a nd w e r eo va li ns hap ew i th p o in t ed a p ic e sa nd e mb ryo e nd s . T he v e tr a lf u r row sw e r e

o ft h eg r a in s .

r e s emb l ing s ma l lc i rcu la rd ep re s s ion si nl o ng i tud ina lr ow sw e r ev i s ib le o nt h eo u t e rs u rf ace s

t h ee mb ryo . T he re w e re s ma l lp unc t a te h i lum so nt h ev en t ra ls u rf ac e s . C e l lp a t t e rn s

l o ng a nd l e s st h an 0 . 5mm w ide ,a nd t h ey w e r eo va l i ns h ape ,w i th t h eg r e a te s tw id th a bove

S i xg r a in sf r om as i ng le s i t ew e r ec a tego r i s ed a sg ra s st yp e2 . T he g r a in sw e r es ma l l , 1 . 0mm

He l lo t rop lum s p .

e t . .

d i m

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I .

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2

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2 28

" S l igh t ly c omp re s s ed n u t le t s ,o va te i no u t l in e ,w i th r i dged m a rg in i nt h eu pp e rp a r to ft h e f r u i t . S u rf ace i regu la r ly w r ink led . Ac ha rac te r i s t ic f e a t u r ei st h ep ro t rud ing h i lum ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rHe e re s 1 982 ,2 12 )

T he t e s ta sw e r es l igh t ly w r ink led a nd t h ef l a t te rs u rf ace o ft h es e ed sh ad af i ne ,r i dg ed

b o rd e r . O nt h i ss i de o ft h es e ed a tt h eo u te rr im t h e r ew a s as i ng le ,s ma l lc i rcu la rp ro t ru s ion

N aked ,s p i r a l led e mb ryo sw h ich c ou ld h ave d e r ived f r om c e r t a in s p ec ie so ft h ef am i ly

I ncumb en tC ruc if erae

S ing le ' l oop ' C henopod iacea e /

C appa r i s e m 1 -

d i v i s ion )f r om t h ec o ty ledon s . O nm any s pe c imen st h et e s ta sw e r ea b sen t .

p o in ta lmo s tu pt ot h eo ppo s i te e dg e . T h es p l i ts e pa r a ted t h er a d ic le ( n a r row e s tl i mb o ft h e

c a tego ry . T h es hape so ft h es e ed sw e r eo bova te w i th as p l i tr unn ing a symme t r ica l ly f r om t h e

s haped s e ed ss ha r ed b yt h et wo f am i l ie sC henopod iac eae a nd C ruc if e ra ew e r ep u ti n to t h i s

P oo r ly p r e se r ved s pe c imen sf o rw h ich i tw a sn o tp o s s ib le t od e t e rm ine b e tw e en s im i la r ly

2 14 )

" La te ra l ly c omp re s sed f r u i t s ,o bova te i no u t l in e ,w i th ab road r ad ic le t i p . Ac ha rac te r is t ic s haped . T he ' b e ak 'o ft h e' c omma 'w a st h ep ro je c t ion o ft h er a d ic le t i po u tf r om t h eb ody o f f e a t u r eo fSua eda i sas ma l lb u td i s t inc tp ro tube ran ce i nt h ei n cu r va t ion b e twe en t h er a d ic le t h es e ed s . Af i ne ,u n if o rm p a t t e rn o fi s od iame t r ic c e l l sc ov e r ed t h es u r f a ce so ft h es e ed s t i pa nd t h em ed ian p a r to ft h ef r u i t . S u r f a ce g l o s s sy ." ( van Z e i s ta nd B akke rH ee r e s 1 982 ,

T h es e ed sa s s igned t ot h i sg enu sw e re s ma l l( l e s st h an 1 . 0mm a c ro s s ) ,s h iny a nd ' c omma '

A t r ip l ex s e ed w i th in .

p a t t e rn o ff i ne r i dge s . O ns ome s p ec imen sw h ich w e r eb roken i tw a sp o s s ib le t os e et h es h iny

b r ac t sw e r ea pp rox ima te ly t r iangu la ri ns hap ea nd t h e i rs u rf a ce sw e r ec ove red i n ar e t icu la t e

t h es e ed s . I ns ev e r a ls amp le st h e re w e r ep a i r so fb r ac t sw h ich e nc lo se dA t r ip / ex s e e d s . T he

c ove red t h ef l a ts u rf ace so ft h es e ed s . T he r a d ic le se x tended a round t h ef u l lc i r cumf e r ence o f

" F la tf r u i t s ,m o r eo rl e s sc i rcu la ri no u t l ine ,w i th ad i s t inc tr ad ic le t i p . S u rf ac es moo th . G r ea t e s td i ame te r : 0 . 8mm t o0 . 9mm" ( van Z e is ta nd B akke rHee r e s 1 982 ,2 14 )

T he t e s t a sh ad as h iny a pp ea r an ce . An on rad ia l ly a l igned p a t te rn o fi s od iame t r i cc e l l s

C henop idaceou ss e ed s ,h ad b e en p r e se rved ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rHee r e s 1 982 ,2 13 )

T he s e ed so fA t r ip l ex w e re r ough ly c i rcu la ri no u t l ine a nd i no ne p l ane t h ey w e r ef l a t tened .

m ed ium s i zed l e gume s( H i l lman p e r s .c omm ) .

e mb ryo m o rpho logy d i s t ingu i shed t h e s es e ed sf r om o t he rs im i la r ly s h aped s e ed s ,e . g .

p o s s ib le t os e et h es p i ra le mb ryo su nde rnea th . T he c ha ra c te r i s t ic so fh i lum p o s i t ion a nd

u nequa lc o i l ing o ft h ee mb ryo sw i th in . O ns p e c imen sw he r et h et e s ta sh ad b r oken i tw a s

s ma l lh o le h i lum a tt h et i p . T he s e ed sw e r es l igh t ly a symme t r ic i nt h e i rr oundne s sd ue t ot h e r a the rs e r iou s ly d ef o rmed . S ome t ime so n ly t h e' i nne rs e ed ' ,w h ich r em ind so n eo f

o ft h ec omma w a st h er a d ic le a nd ,o nt h eb e t t e rp r e se r ved s p e c imen s , i tw a sp o s s ib le t os e ea w edge shap ed ) . T he c ur ved r a d ic le i sap rom inen tf e a tu r e . Mo s to ft h es e ed sh ad b e en

T he s e ed so fC appa r i s w e r e ap l ump ' c omma 's hap e ,a bou t1 5nun i nd i ame te r . T he ' b eak ' " The s e ed sa r eo bova te i no u t l ine ;s i d e -v iew t a pe r ing f r om t h et op t ot h eb a se ( mo re o rl e s s

t h es e ed s . T he s e ed sw e r el e s st h an 1 . 0mm i ns i ze a nd t h ey w e re ' c omma ' s h ap ed .

van Z e i s ta nd B akke rHe e re s 1 982 ,2 14 ) p a t te rn o ft h et e s ta s . T he r ew e r ec onc en t r ic r ow so fs ma l lt ub e r c le sc ove r ing t h es u rf ac e so f (

A sw i th t h ep r ev iou sg enu st h es e ed so fC era s t ium w e r ea l so r e cogn i sab le b yt h es u rf ac e

" Se ed so va t e -cunea t ei no u t l in e( t ap e r ing f r om a pex t ob a se ) . P ap i l lae i nc on cen t r ic r ow s ."

o b long ,s l igh t ly d omed v e r rucae ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rHe e r e s 1 982 ,2 13 -214 )

t e s ta s . Ap a t t e r no fl ow ,s qua r i sh r i dge sr ad ia ted o u tf r om t h ei n den ta t ion o nt h es i de o ft h e

s e ed s . T he s e ed sw e re l e s st h an I . 0mm i nd i ame te ra nd w e r es ymme t r ic a l ly r e n if o rm i n s h ape .

" One s ma l lk i dn ey shaped s e e dh a sb een a t t r ibu ted t oA rena r ia .O nt h es u rf ac e ap a t t e rn o f

T he s ma l lr ounded s e ed so ft h i sg enu sw e r er e cogn isab le b yt h es u rf ac es c u lp tu r ing o ft h e

( h i lum ) .

[ d e scr ip t ion sg i v en b yv an Z e i s ta nd B akkerHeere s

n o te sc omp i led b yt he a u thor

T he a symme t ry o ft h e s es ma l ls e ed s( max imum d imen s ion l e s st h an 2 . 0mm )w a sn o tab le .

henopod iac eae o rf r om C appar i s s e ed sw e r eg roup ed i n to t h i sc a t ego ry . S p ira le mbryo C henopod iaceae/ C

S uaeda s p .

e t

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0 . .

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, e ts ` , . )

2 29

C ruc if erae —t yp e s aa nd c

A l y s sum s p .

C ompo s i tae -t yp eX

I

C en taurea s pp . —l a rge t yp e s

C en taurea s pp .— s ma l lt yp e s

C a r thamu s s p .

' f ru i t 't yp e

C henopod iaceae

e t

n o te sc omp i led b yt h ea u thor

d e scr ip t ion sg i v en b yv an Z e i s ta nd B akk erHeere s

v en t ra l ly c omp re s s ed . T he t wo t y pe sw e re d if e ren ts i ze s : t y p e aw a s0 . 75 1 .0mm l o ng a nd 0 . 5nun w ide ,a nd t y pe cw a s 1 . 25mm l o ng a nd 1 . 0mm w ide .

i no u t l ine ,w i th r a d ic le t i p sp ro t rud ing b eyond t h eb ody o ft h es e ed s ,a nd w e re d o r so -

Two d i s t in c ts e ed t y pe sw e r ei d en t if ied a sm emb e r so ft h eC ruc if e rae f am i ly . B o th w e r eo va l

s l ig h t ly f r om t h eb ody o ft h es e ed s .

l o ng a nd 0 . 75nun w id e ,a nd w e r ed o r so -ven t ra l ly f l a t t ened . T he r ad ic le t i pe x tended o u t

T h r ee s e ed sw e r ei d en t if ied a sA ly s sum s p . T he s e ed sw e r eo va l i no u t l in e ,o n ly 1 . 25mm

t r an sve r se r i dge s .

F ragmen t so fl o ng ,n a r row C ompo s i ta es e ed sw e re f o und . T he s e ed sw e r ec ove red i nf i ne ,

a t tachmen ts c a r sw e re a no bv iou sf e a t u re .

v an Z e is ta nd B akke rHe e re s 1 984a , 1 8 1183 ) r ough ly c i r cu la ri nc r o s ss e c t ion . T he i n den ta t ion sa tt h eb a se o ft h es e e d sw e re l a rge a nd t h e (

" Of t h el a rg eC en tau rea t yp ef r u i tt h eo u te rf r u i tw a l lh ad d i sapp ea red a l toge the r . T he r u i t sa r eo b long i no u t l ine ,m o re o rl e s sl a t e r a l ly c omp r e s sed ,w i th r ounded u pp e ra nd l owe r a nd d e s c r ip t ion so fs p e c imen sf r om T e l l Mu reyb i t( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rHe e r e s 1 984a , 1 8 1 -f e nd s . A tt h eb a s eo ft h ef r u i t al a rg ei n d en ta t ion ,c r e s cen t shaped i nl a t e r a lv i ew ,i sp r e s en t ." 1 83 ) . T he s e ed sw e r eo va li no u t l ine ,4 . 5 -5 .0mm l o ng a nd 2 . 5 -3 .0mm w ide ,a nd w e r e

T he s e ed sa s s igned t ot h el a rge C en taur ea c a tego ry a l so m a t ch ed e xac t ly t h ei l u s t r a t ion s

Mu r eyb i t .

m a t ched t h es p e c imen i l u s t ra ted a nd d e s c r ib ed b yv an Z e i s ta nd B akke rHe e r e sf r om T e l l

e xagge ra ted a nd g ave t h ea ppe a ranc eo fb e ing h ooked . T h es e ed si nt h i sc a tego ry e xac t ly

On ly o ne s p e c imen o ft h es ma l lC en taur ea t y pe w a sf o und . O bova t ei no u t l ine T he s e ed si d en t if ied a ss ma l lC en taur ea w e re o va l i nc r o s ss e c t ion a nd r ough ly t r i angu la ri n" 2 .0x0 .9mm ) ,t r unc a ted a tt h ea pex a nd t a p e r ed a tt h eb as e . T he re i sas ma l l ,b u td i s t inc t o u t l ine ,t h ey w e r e 1 . 5 -2 .0mm l o ng a nd 0 . 7 1 .0mm w ide . T he p appu sr i ng w a so va la nd i t ( i n den ta t ion ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rHee re s 1 984a , 1 82 183 ) w a sp r e s e r ved o na l t h es pe c imen s . T he i n den ta t ion a tt h eb a s eo fs ome o ft h es e ed sw a s

B akke rHe e re sf r om T e l lA swad ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rHee r e s 1 982 ,2 16 ) .

C ar thamu s d i dn o tr e s emb le t h es pe c imen o ft h es ame g enu si l u s t r a ted b yv an Z e i s ta nd

b a s eo ft h es e ed sa nd w i th in t h i st h e re w a s ac i r cu la ra t t achmen ts c a r . T he s e ed si d en t if ied a s

o u t l in ea nd w e re 4 . 0 -4 .5 inm l o ng a nd 2 . 5nun w ide . T h e re w a s as ma l li n den ta t ion a tt h e

T h es pe c imen sa s s igned t oC a r thamu s s p .w e re n o tab le b e caus eo ft h ed i s t in c tp appu sr im s a tt h et o p so ft h es e ed s . T h er im sw e re q uad rangu la r . T he s e ed sw e re r ough ly t r i angu la ri n

o nt h es i de )i n d ica t ing t h a tt h es e ed w a sh o r izon ta l ly o r ien ta t ed w i th in t h eo va ry .

T h i sc a t ego ry r e f e r st os e ed so fC henopod ia ceae w h ich h ad a l lo rp a r to ft h eo va ry w a l ls t i l l a dhe r ing . T he s es p e c imen sh ad r emnan t so ft h es t y le a t tached t ot h ef l a ts u r f ac e( r a the rt h an

C henopod ia c eae a nd C r uc if e r ae ( H i l lman p e r s .c omm ) .

t h e' l oop ' . T he l a t te rf e a tu r ed i s t ingu i she st h es im i la r ly s h ap ed s e ed so ft h ef am i l ie s

s e et h a tt h ed i v i s ion b e twe en t h et wo c o ty ledon se x tended o n ly h a lf w ay a l ong t h el e ng th o f

B e t te rp r e s e r ved s e ed sw h ich c ou ld b ea s s igned w i th c e r ta in ty t ot h es i ng le ' l oop ' C henopod iaceae g roup w e re p u ti n to t h i sc a tego ry . O nt h e se s pe c imen si tw a sp o s s ib le t o

u

C yp eraceae —t ype sc , da nd x

S c i rpus s pp . —t ype s aa nd b

2 e t . . . . . .

a t . e

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t ype s

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e

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c i .

c i .

n o te sc omp i led b yt h ea u thor

( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rHee r e s 1 982 ,2 28 )

s i de i sd om ed . O nt h es u rf ac e ar e t icu la t ep a t te rn ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rHe e r e s 1 982 , 2 23 )

r e cogn i sab le . T he s i ze o ft h ea t tachmen ts c a ro nt h ef l a t tened s u r f ac ew a sl a rge . T he s e ed s

m ea su red 2 . 0mm b y 1 . 0 1 .5 inm .

d ome s t ic s t a t u sf o rt h ef ew s p e c imen s .

T he re w e r eo n ly af ew l e n t i ls e ed si nt h es amp le s . T he s e ed sr a ng ed i ns i ze f r om 4 . 0mm t o 1 . 5mm i nd i ame te r . N oa t temp tw a sm ade t oc l a s s if yo nt h i sb a s i so rt os ugg e s tw i ld o r

t h i so ne s p ec imen .

' b eak 'w e r es t i l lv i s ib le . I tw a sn o tp o s s ib le t od i s ce rn b e twe en w i ld o rd ome s t ic s t a tu sf o r

s u rf ac ew a sw r ink led . A l though t h es e ed w a sp oo r ly p r e se rved t h ev e s t ige so f ap r o t r ud ing

O n ly o ne s p e c imen w a st e n ta t ive ly i d en t if ied t ot h i sg enu s . T he s e ed w a sa ngu la ra nd i t s

f o ri d en t if i ca t ion .

s p e c ie sf r om t h ew i ld ( Bu t le r 1 989 ) . S eed s i z eh a sb e en c on s ide red a nu n sa t i sf ac to ry b a s i s

NB :L egume s e ed sb ea rn oo bv iou sf e a tu r e sw h ich a l low f o rd i s t inc t ion o ft h ed ome s t ic

" F ru i t so bova te i no u t l ine . T he h i la rs c a rc ove r s 1 / 2t o2 / 3o ft h ev en t ra ls i de . T he d o r s a l

T h er e t icu la te p a t t er no fl ow r i dg e so nt h er ounded s u rf ace so ft h e s es e ed sm ade t h em e a s i ly

' awn s ' . T h i sc a tego ry r e f e r st os ma l lf r agmen t so ft h es p i ra l led ' awn ' .

T he r i p es e ed so fE rod ium a nd G eran ium a r ed i sp e r sed i n ac a tapu l t l ike a c t ion b yt w i s t ing

t h es ma l ls e ed sw e re 2 . 0 -2 .25nun l o ng a nd 0 . 75mm w id e .

r ad ic le b e low t h et e s ta . T he l a rg eE rod ium s e ed sw e r e3 . 0mm l o ng a nd 1 . 25mm w ide ,a nd

s ma l lr i dge ,r unn ing a lmo s tt h ee n t i re l e ng th o ft h es e ed s ,a nd t h i sm a rked t h ep o s i t ion o ft h e

b roade ra tt h et o pa nd w e r et a p e red a tt h eb a se . O na l lt h es p e c imen si tw a sp o s s ib le t os e ea

T h es e ed si d en t if i ed a sE rod ium w e r er o ugh ly c y l ind r i ca li ns hap e . T he s e ed sw e r es l igh t ly

1 . 5mm .

e i the rs i de o ft h el i p ,t h e r ew e re t wo s ma l lc i r cu la rh o le s . T he d i ame t e ro ft h ef r u i t sw a s

" B ic onvex f r u i t s ,a lmo s tc i r cu la ri no u t l ine ,s ha rp ( s l igh t ly w ing ed )m a rg in . A c ha ra c te r i s t ic f e a tu r ea r et wo r ounded h o le sa tt h eb a s eo ft h ef r u i t . T h es u rf ace i sr ough ."

T he f r u i t so fs pe c ie so ft h i sg enus w e r ee a s i ly r e cogn i sab le . T hey w e r eb ic onvex i ns h ape w i th ap ronounc ed l i pr unn ing a r ound t h ec i rcumf e renc e . A tt h eb a s eo ft h ef r u i t s ,a nd o n

i nc r o s ss e c t ion a nd w a s 1 . 75mm l o ng a nd 1 . 25 m w id e .

l o ng a nd 1 . 0mm w ide ,t y ped m e a su red 2 . 0mm l o ng a nd 1 . 5mm w ide . T yp e xw a st r igona l

o va li no u t l ine a nd b o th s i de so ft h es e ed sw e r eg en t ly r ounded . T yp e cm e a su red 1 . 5mm

a nd dw e r es im i la ri ns h ape a nd w e r ep o s s ib ly s e ed so ft h eg enu sC ar ex . T hey w e r er ough ly

T h ree d i f f e ren ts e ed t y pe sw e re i d en t if ied a sb e long ing t ot h ef am i ly C yp e race ae . T yp e sc

t h ey w e re 1 . 25mm l o ng a nd 1 . 0mm w ide .

m a r i t imu s . T he s e ed sw e r e 1 . 75mm l o ng a nd 1 . 25mm w ide . T ype bs e ed sw e r es im i la r ,

i sm o r eo rl e s sf l a t ,w h i le t h ed o r sa ls i d ei sr oof shaped w i th ar ound ed m ed ian r i dg e . T he s ur f ac eo ft h es e ed si su sua l ly g l o s sy ." ( v an Z e is ta nd B akke rHee re s 1 982 ,2 17 )

' "S c i rpu sm a r i t imu s . N u t le t so bova te i no u t l in e ,t ap e r ing t ow a rd st h eb a se . T he v en t ra ls i d e

n o to bv iou s ly a ngu la ri nc r o s ss e c t ion ) . T yp e as e ed sr e semb led t h o se o fS c i rpu s

s hape so ft h et wo s e ed t yp e sa s s igned t ot h eg enu sS c i rpu s w e r es im i la r . T hey w e r e

d e scr ip t ion sg i v en b yv an Z e i s ta nd B akkerHeere s

o bova te i no u t l in ea nd o n es i de o ft h es e ed w a sf l a t ,t h eo t he rw a sr o unded ( t he s e ed sw e r e

[ T h e

t h ough t h ey h ad b een b u rned . T he s e ed sm ea su r ed 1 . 75mm b y 1 . 0mm .

h ad b e en e xpo se dt of i r e . T he s e ed c oa t sw e r es t i l lg l o s s ya nd c omp le t e ly s moo th e ven

T he t r igona ls e ed so fS choenus n ig r i can s w e r es l ig h t ly g r ey i nc o lou r , i n d ica t ing t h a tt h ey

V ida c f .e r v i l ia

a

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" A lmo s tg l obu la rs e ed s ,s omewha ti regu la r ly s h aped . C ha rac t e r i s t ic o ft h ec a rbon i z ed s e ed s

( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rHe e re s 1 9846 , 1 63 )

N oa t t emp tw a sm ad et od e t e rm ine t h ew i ld o rd ome s t ic s t a tu so fo n ly t wo s p e c imen s .

Two s e ed sw e r ei d en t if ied a sL inum s p . T hey w e re o va li no u t l ine ,w i th as l igh ti n den ta t ion a tt h ea p ex ,a nd w e r ef l a ti nc r o s ss e c t ion . T he s e ed sw e r e2 . 75mm l o ng a nd 1 . 5mm w id e .

a nd d e s c r ibe db yv an Z e i s ta nd B akke rHe e r e s ) .

a nd 1 . 5mm w ide .T hey m o s tc l os e ly r e semb led t h es e ed so ft h eg enu sB e l l eva l ia ( i l lu s t ra ted

t e s ta s .T yp e ds e ed sw e re s phe r ica lw i th v e ry s moo th t e s ta s . T he s es e ed sw e re 2 . 0mm l o ng

s e ed sw e r et i ny ,o n ly 1 . 0mm i nd i ame te r ,a nd t h e re w e r en od i s t ingu i sh ing f e a t u r e so nt h e

p a t t e rn o nt h et e s ta s . T he s i z eo ft h e s es e ed sw a s3 . 0mm l o ng a nd 2 . 0mm w ide . T yp ec

1 . 5mm w ide . T yp e bs e ed sw e r em o r ee ven ly s phe r ica l i ns h ap ew i th as ha l low r e t icu la te

s l igh t ly i regu la ri ns hap ea nd h ad w r ink led o rr i dged t e s ta s . T hey w e r e 1 . 5mm t o ng a nd

e i s ta nd B akke rHe e r e s 1 982 ,2 27 ) r ow so fc e l ls r a d ia t ing o u tf r om t h ec en t r a lf u r row t ot h ee dg eo ft h es e ed . T yp e as e ed sw e re Z

sah o le w h ich i ns ome s p e c imen sr un sf r om t h ea p ex t ot h eb a se . I no t he rs e ed st h er ema in s a pe r tu re a tt h et o po ft h es e ed s . T he c y l ind r ica lf u r row l e ad ing f r om t h ea p e r tu r ew a sv i s ib le i o ft h ee mb ryo a r ev i s ib le i nt h eh o le . T he s moo th s e ed w a l lh a sm o s t ly d i sapp ea red ." ( v an o nt h eb roken f r agmen t s . T h i sw a st h ee mb ryo c av i ty . O nf r agmen t si tw a sp o s s ib le t os e e

T he w ho le s p ec imen si d en t if ied t ot h i sf am i ly w e re r e cogn i sab le b e cau s eo ft h ec i r cu la r

e l eva ted b eyond t h e' sma l ll e gume ' c a t ego ry .

S p ec ie si d en t if ica t ion i sr a r e ly p o s s ib le a nd i su sua l ly o n ly a ch ieved w hen s e ed sp o s s e s s d i s t inc t ive t e s ta s c u lp tu r ing . Mo s to ft h es e ed sw e r ep oo r ly p r e se r ved a nd n one c ou ld b e

a nd T r igone l la , w h ich a r es im i la ri ns hap ea nd s i z ea nd c anno te a s i ly b ed i s t ing u i shed .

T h i sc a t ego ry i n c luded s e ed sf r om t h eg ene ra A s t raga lu s , Med icago , Me / / lo tu s , T r if o l ium

w ide .

s ma l l ,r ound h i lum b enea th t h et i po ft h er a d ic le . T he s e ed w a s2 . 0mm l o ng a nd 1 . 5mm

w a sn oo bv ious ' b e ak 'p r e sen t ,u n l ike m any o t he rm ed ium s i z ed l e gume s . T he r ew a sa

r ound ed i nc r o s ss e c t ion . T h er ad ic le w a sa dp re s s ed a g a in s tt h eb ody o ft h es e ed a nd s ot h e r e

As i ng le s e ed w a sa s s ig ned t ot h i sc a tego ry . T h es e ed w a sr ough ly o va l i no u t l ine a nd

d imen s ion sw e r e2 . 0mm l o ng a nd 2 . 0mm t h ick .

" C re s c en t shaped s e ed s . T he s ma l le l ip t i ch i lum i sf o und i nt h em idd le o ft h eo u te rs i de ."

t h ep rom inen tr i dg e sa nd g r oov e so nt h es e ed s u rf ac e ." ( v an Z e i s ta nd B akke rHe e re s 1 982 ,

w r ink led t e s ta . T he s e ed sw e re 2 . 0mm l o ng a nd 1 . 75mm w ide .

O n ly o ne s e ed w a st e n ta t ive ly i d en t if i ed t ot h eg enu sS corp iu ru s . T he s e ed w a sc r e s cen t s hap ed . V e s t ige so f as ma l lh i lum w e re v i s ib le o nt h es p ine o ft h es e ed . T he s e ed

" La t e r a l ly c omp r e s sed s e ed s ,o va t et oa lmo s tc i r cu la ri no u t l in e . Ac on sp icuou sf e a tu r ea r e

c on s id e r ed p o s s ib le . T h ed i s t in c tm o rpho log ic a lf e a t u re w h ich t h e s es e ed sp o s s e s sed w a sa

H e e r e s 1 982 ,2 09 )

T h es e ed so ft h i ss p ec ie sw e re t h eo n ly s ma l l l e gume sf o rw h ich i d en t if ica t ion w a s

v i s ib le .

w e r er e la t ive ly t h ick ,c .0 . 75mm ,a nd i nt h e s es p e c imen st h es h r iv e l led c o ty ledon sw e re

l o ng a nd 2 . 0mm w id e . Wh e r et h es e ed sw e re b roken i tw a sp o s s ib le t os e et h a tt h et e s ta s

T he s es e ed sw e re r e n if o rm i no u t l ine a nd w e r ef l a t t ened i nc r o s ss e c t ion ,t h ey w e re 3 . 0mm

w hen v i ewed b o th l a t e r a l ly a nd d o r sa l ly .

d e scr ip t ion sg i ven b yv an Z e i s ta nd B akk erHeere s " B i t te rv e tch s e e d sa r ed i s t ingu i shed f r om t h o s eo fo t he rv e t che s( V i c ia s pp . )b yt h e i rs hap e : o b l ique ly p y ram ida l ,w i th at r iangu la rb a se a nd ar ounded a pex ." ( van Z e is ta nd B akke r-

n o te sc omp i led b yt h ea u thor

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Append ix 2 D e s cr ip t ions o ft he P ar enchyma tous T i s sue s S pec imen s l a , l ba nd l c( p la te s2 A / 1 ,2 A /2 ,2 A /3 ) S pec imen l a w a s f r om Wad i e l J i la t 7 A ( Ea r ly P PNB c on tex t 2 9a ) , s pe c imen s l b a nd l cw e re f r om Wad i e l -J i la t 1 3A a nd B ( e a r ly a nd l a te E LN c on tex t s 2 5 a nd 2 1c , r e spe c t ive ly ) . T he t h re e f r agmen t s a ppea red t ob e d e r ived f r om t h e s ame t a xon . P ho tog raph s2 A / la , 2 A /2a a nd 2 A /3a s how t h e w ho le f r agmen t s . N o e x te rna l s u rf ace s o f t h e s t o rage o rgan s w e re v i s ib le . T he s u rf a ce s o f t h e t h ree s pec imen sw e re r e la t iv e ly c l ean a nd f r e ef r om d u s tp a r t ic le s . T he m ax imum d imen s ions w e re c . 2 . 5mm , 3 . 5mm a nd 2 . 5mm f o r l a , l b a nd l cr e spec t iv e ly . T he mo s t n o t iceab le f e a tu re s o ft h e se t h ree s p ec imen s w e re t h e l a rge c av i t ie s o n t he i r s u rf ac e s . P ho tog raph 2 A / 1 eo f s pe c imen l a s how s p a renchyma c e l l s . T he s i ze r ange w a s c .4 0 -50 1 .un , t h e i r s hape w a s r ound t o o vo id a nd t h ey a ppea red t oh ave t h in w a l l s . O n p ho tog raph 2 A /3b o f l c t h e p a r enchyma c e l l s w e re c o l lap sed a tt h e ma rg in s o ft h e c en t ra l l a rge c av i ty . E l sewhe re o n t h e s p ec imen s , t h e p a renchyma a ppea red ' g la s sy ' , a nd t h e c e l l w a l l s w e re a r t i f ic ia l ly t h ickened a s a r e su l to fc ha r r ing . I n te rce l lu la rs pac e sw e re p r e sen ta nd n one o f t h e p ho tog raphs s how e v idence o f a ny c e l l c on ten t s . T he r ew e re v a scu la r s t rand sr unn ing t h rough t h ef r agmen t s . I tw a s d if i cu l t t o a s ce r ta in t h e c onf igu ra t ion o ft h e se w i th r e spe c t t o t h e g round t i s sue . I ta ppea red t h a t t h e x y lem v e s se l s w e re c l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e l a rge c av i t ie s ( pho tog raph s 2 A / lc , 2 A /2b , 2 A /2 f ) a nd i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t he se w e re t h e v e s t ige s o fc o l lap sed p h loem . H a the r s t a ted t ha tp h lo em n eve rs u rv ive sc ha r r ing w e l l : " Cav i t ie s i nt i s sue c au sed b y t h e a c tua l d e s t ruc t ion o fc e l l s a r e n o t c ommon i n a t i s sue c ompo sed e n t i re ly o f p a renchyma , b u t a r e mo re c ommon i nt h e v a scu la r t i s sue s , p a r t icu la r ly t h e p h loem Whe rea s p h lo em c ommon ly d e te r io ra te s i ti s l e s s c ommon t o f i nd d e s t ruc t ion o f t h e w ho le v a scu la r t r ac t , mo re o f t en t h an n o t s ome e l emen t s o f t he x y lem w i l lr ema in i n tac t ." ( Ha the r 1 988 , 1 5 1) T he d i ame te r o ft h e x y lem v e s se l s r anged i ns i ze f r om c . 1 0µm t oc .2 0p .m , a nd t h ey h ad r e t icu la te ly t h ickened w a l ls ( pho tog raph s 2 A / 1d , 2 A J2c , 2 A J2d , 2 A /2e , 2 A /3d ) . O n s pec imen l at h e re w e r e l a rge ' p unc tu red ' c e l l s . P ho tog raph 2 A / 1 fs how st h e c i rcu la r a pe r tu re s i nt h e se c e l l s . I tw a sn o t p o s s ib le t oe s tab l i sh w he the rt h i sf e a tu re w a si n he ren tt ot h e c e l lu la ra na tomy o ft h es t o rage o rgan s . T he se t h ree s pec imen s w e re i d en t if ied a sf r agmen t s o fs t em o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e r e la t iv e p o s i t ion s o f b o th a r tef ac tua l c av i t ie sa nd v a scu la rt i s sue s . S pec imen 2( p la te 2 A /4 ) S pec imen 2 w a s f r om e a r ly M idd le P PNB c on tex t 4 0b a t Wad i e l J i la t 7 B . P ho tog raph 2 A /4a s how s o n ly p a r t o ft h e f r agmen t . T he s pec imen w a s r e la t ive ly w e l l p r e se rved , b u t a l l t h e p ho tog raph s s how d u s t p a r t ic le s a dhe r ing t o t h e t i s su e s . T he re w e re n o e x te rna l s u rf ac e s v i s ib le o n t h e f r agmen t . T he l a rge rp ar to ft h i s f r agmen tw a sc ompo sed o f 2 33

p a renchyma c e l l s . T he c e l l s i ze sr a nged f r om c .3 0µm t oc . 5 0pm ( p ho tog raph 2 A /4e ) ,t h ey w e re r ound t oo vo id i ns hape a nd t h ec e l lw a l l sw e re t h in . I n te rce l lu la rs pace sw e r ev i s ib le o nt h es pe c imen . T he re w e re n oc e l lc on ten t s . P ho tog raph 2 A J4b s how s p a r t o f as i ng le v a scu la r s t rand w i th in t h e g round t i s sue . I tw a s i mpo s s ib le t od e sc r ibe t h e o rgan i sa t ion o f t h e v a scu la r t i s sue i n t h e s pec imen . T he d i ame te ro ft h ex y lem v e s se l sr anged i ns i z ef r om c .2 0pm t o c .9 0p .m ( pho tog raph s 2 A /4c , 2 A /4d ) . T he c e l l w a l l s h ad r e t icu la te t h icken ing . ' Be low ' t h e x y lem v e s se ls ( a s t h e f r agmen t w a s o r ien t a ted i np ho tog raph 2 A /4b ) t h e re w a s a z one o fc o l lap sed c e l l s t h a t c ou ld h av e b een t h e v e s t ige s o f t h ep h loem . T he s p ec imen w a s i d en t if ied a s h av ing d e r ived f r om a d i co ty ledonou sr oo to nt h eb a s i st h a tt h ev e s se l so ft h ex y lem s e emed t o r ad ia te o u t f r om a c en t ra l p o in t r a the r t h an f o rm ing d i sc re te v a scu la r b und le s . C u t le r d e sc r ibed t h e i n te rna l mo rpho logy o fr oo t s : " The c en t re o ft h er oo tm ay b e made u pe n t i re ly o fx y lem i n t h ed i co ty ledon , o ri nt h e monoco ty ledon so rd i co ty ledon s , i t m ay c on ta in ag round t i s sue c ompo sed o fp a renchyma w i th t h in o r t h ickened w a l l s , s ome t ime s t e rmed p i th ." ( Cu t le r 1 985 , 5 4 ) T he a na tomy o f t h e s p e c imen r e semb led t h a t o f R heum p a lae s t inum , a s d e sc r ibed a nd i lu s t ra ted b y H a the r ( 1 993 , 3 2 -33 ) . T h i s s pec ie so fR heum g row si ns t eppe sa nd d e se r t s . Z oha ry r e co rded i t s p r e sence i n a n A r tem i s ia h e rba a l ba a l l iance ( Zoha ry 1 973 , 4 75 ) a nd a l so n o ted t h a t s t em s a nd r oo t s o ft h e s pe c ie sp a lae s t inum a r e e a ten b yb edou in t o day i b id ,6 13 ) . S pec imen s3 aa nd 3 b( p la te 2 A 15 ) T he t wo f r agmen t s w e re f r om Wad i e l J i la t 7 A l a te M idd le P PNB c on tex t 3 6a . T hey p o s s ib ly d e r iv ed f r om t h e s ame t a xon a nd s o a r e d e sc r ibed a nd i lu s t ra ted t o ge the r h e re . P ho tog raph s 2 A /5a a nd 2 A /5c s how t h e e n t i re s p e c imen s , a nd t h e i r max imum d imen s ion s i n t h e se v i ew s w e re c . 2 . 8 tn in a nd 3 . 0mm , f o r a a nd b r e spe c t ive ly . T he p r e se rva t ion o ft h e s pe c imen s w a s g ood a nd t h e i r s u rf ace s w e re c l ean . N o e x te rna l s u rf ace s o ft h e s t o rage o rgan w e re e x tan t . F ragmen t3 ah ad v a scu la rs t rand sr unn ing a c ro s si t ss u rf ac e . P ho tog raph s 2 A /5a a nd 2 A /5b s how al o ng i tud ina l v i ew o f t h e v e s se l s . l t w a s i mpo s s ib le t o a s ce r ta in t h e e xac t c onf igu ra t ion o ft h e v a r iou s t i s sue s i nt h e f r agmen t . T he p a renchyma c e l l sr anged i ns i ze f r om c .3 0µm t o5 0µm ,t h ey w e re r ounded a nd t h in w a l led ( p ho tog raph 2 A /5b ) . I n te rc e l lu la r s pace sw e re v i s ib le a nd t h e c e l ls w e re e mp ty o f a ny c on ten t s . T he d i ame te r s o f t h e x y lem v e s s e l s w e re m ea su red f r om t h e l o ng i tud ina l s e c t ion , a nd t h ey w e re c . 2 0p in . T he p a t te rn o fx y lem v e s se l t h icken ing c ou ld n o t b e a s c e r ta ined . T he c e l lu la ro rgan i sa t ion w a se v en l e s sc l ea ro n f r agmen t3 b .

I tw a s c onc luded t h a tt h ef r agmen t sp robab ly d e r iv ed f r om a r h izome o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e p r e sence o fv a scu la r b und le s i n p a ra l le l o r ien ta t ion , w i th r e la t ive ly r ounded p a renchyma c e l l s . S pec imen 4( p la te 2 A /6 ) S pec imen 4w a sf r om e a r ly E a r ly L a te N eo l i th ic c on tex t6 9a a t Wad i e l J i la t 1 3B . P ho tog raph 2 A /6a s how s t h e e n t i re f r agmen t , m oun ted o n ac onv ex o u te r s u rf ace , a nd i n t h i s v i ew i t s m ax imum d imen s ion w a s c .2 . 8mm . T he f r agmen t w a sr e la t iv e ly w e l lp r e se rved ,b u tt he re w a s ac oa t ing o fd u s t o n a l l s u rf a ce s . T he v i ew o ft h e f r agmen t i n p ho tog raph 2 A /6a s how s i t sc oncav e , h o l lowed -ou t i n te r io r . T he t i s sue s a tt h ec en t r eo ft h es p e c imen h ad d i s in teg ra ted . T he o r ig ina l s hape o ft h e e n t i re s t o rage o rgan w ou ld h ave b e en r ough ly s phe r ica l . T he p a renchyma c e l l s a r e s hown i np ho tog raph s 2 A /6e a nd 2 A /6E T he c e l l sw e re o vo id t op o lygona l i ns hape , a l though i n t h e v i ew s i lu s t ra ted t h ey w e re s omewha t c omp re s sed . T he s i ze sr a nged f r om c .1 0µm t oc .2 0µm i nd i ame te r , a nd t he c e l l w a l l s w e re t h in . T he re w e re s p ace s b e tween t h e c e l l s . P ho tog raph s 2 A /6a a nd 2 A /6b s how s e ve ra l v a scu la r s t rand s r unn ing o u t f r om t h e i n te r io r o ft h e s pec imen , a nd t hey f o rmed ac oncen t r ic p a t te rn j u s ti n s ide t h eo u te re dge o f t he f r agmen t . A n e n t i re v a scu la r s t rand w a s s hown i n p ho tog raph 2 A /6c . T h i s v i ew s how s x y lem v e s se l s o f b e tw een c .1 0µm a nd c .1 5µm i n d i ame te r , s u r rounded b y t h ick w a l led f i b re s . T he re w a s a n a r ea o fc o l lap sed t i s sue ' b e low ' t h e x y lem , a nd t h i s may h ave b een t h e p h lo em . I n p ho tog raph 2 A /6d t h ef i b re sa r ec l ea r ly s hown . T he c onf igu ra t ion o ft h e x y lem , p h loem a nd f i b re s i n t h e s pe c imen w e re t y p ica l o f monoco ty ledonou s b i co l la te ra l v a scu la rb und le s . O nt h i sb a s i s ,s pec imen 4w a si d en t if ied a s b e ing d e r iv ed f r om m ono co ty ledonou s s t em t i s sue , a nd p o s s ib ly f r om at u be ro f am embe ro ft h ef am i ly C ype raceae . S pec imen 5( p la te 2 A /7 ) T h i s s pec imen w a s f r om e a r ly E a r ly L a te N eo l i th ic c on tex t 1 05a a t Wad i e l J i la t 1 3B . P ho tog raph 2 A /7a s how s t h e e n t i re f r agmen t f r om ' a bove ' ( l ook ing d own o n t h e c r o s s s e c t ion o ft h eo rgan ) ,w i th ac onvex , e x te rna ls u rf ace v i s ib le . T he max imum d imen s ion o ft h es pe c imen i nt h i sv i ew w a sc . 1 . 8mm . T he p r e se rva t ion w a sf a i r ly g ood a l though much o f t h e g round t i s sue w a s ' g la s sy ' i n a ppea rance d ue t o t h e a dve r se e f e c t s o f c ha r r ing . T he e p ide rma l l a y e r s o f t h e s t o rage o rgan w e re n o tc l ea r ,a nd h ad p robab ly b een c ru shed , o rh ad c o l lap sed d u r ing h ea t ing . P ho tog raph 2 A /7b s how sa l a y e r ' e x f o l ia t ing ' f r om t h eo u te rs u rf ac e . P ho tog raph 2 A /7a s how s ar ad ia t ing p a t te rn o fp a renchyma c e l l s . T he se c e l l s a r e i lu s t ra ted i n l o ng i tud ina l a nd c r o s s s e c t ion s i n p ho tog raph s 2 A /7d a nd 2 A /7e , a nd t h ey m ea su red c .2 0 3 0µm i nd i ame te r . I tw a sn o tp o s s ib le t od e sc r ibe a ny o t he r c ha rac te r i s t ic so ft h e se c e l l s . N ov a scu la rt i s sue w a s v i s ib le . T he c en t re o f t h e s t o rage o rgan w a s m i s s ing a nd i ft h e v a scu la rt i s sue h ad b een c oncen t ra ted h e re a ny e v id ence o fi t w ou ld h av eb e en l o s t . S pe c imen

5 w a s

i d en t if ied a s b e ing d e r ived

f r om

a 2 34

d i co ty ledonou s r oo t b y v i r tue o ft he r ad ia t ing n a tu re o ft h e t i s sue s a nd t h e r a the r r e c tangu la r s hape o ft h e p a renchyma c e l l s . T he o u te r p a r t o f t h e f r agmen t i sd e r ived f r om d e te r io ra ted p h lo em w h i le t h e i n ne r , b e t te r p re se rv ed p a renchyma , i st h a t o fx y lem . T he s pe c imen r e semb led t h a t o fS cor zone ra j uda ica ,a sd e sc r ibed a nd i lu s t ra ted b yH a the r ( 1 993 , 9 8 -99 ) . Z oha ry r e co rded t h i s s pe c ie s i n s e v e ra l s t eppe /de se r t a s so c ia t ion s ( Zoha ry 1 973 , 4 74 ,4 75 , 4 77 ) a nd h e a l so n o ted t h a t t h e r oo t s o f s pec ie s o f S cor zone ra a r e e a ten f r e sh o rr o a s ted ( i b id ,6 13 ) . S pec imen s 6a nd 7( p la te 2 A /8 ) S pec imen s 6a nd 7 w e re f r om m idd le a nd l a te E a r ly L a te N eo l i th ic c on tex t s 9 4 a nd 3 9c a t Wad i e l J i la t 1 3C . T he s pe c imens w e re n o t t hough t t od e r ive f r om t h e s ame t a xon , b u t s ha red t h es ame o ve ra l la na tom ica lc ha rac te r sa nd s oa r e d e sc r ib ed t o ge the rh e re . P ho tog raph s2 A /8a a nd 2A /8d s how e n t i re f r agmen t s o f b o th ( i n c ro s s s e c t ion ) a nd t h e i r m ax imum d imen s ions w e re c .3 . 0 mm . T he c r o s s s e c t ion o f s p e c imen 6 w a s r ough ly c i rcu la r . T he o u te r l a y e r s o f s p ec imen 7w e re e r oded . T he p re se rva t ion o ft h is s p e c imen w a sp oo r . I tw a sn o tp o s s ib le t od e sc r ib et h eg round t i s sue o fs p e c imen 6b ecau se t h e p ho tog raph ic r e co rd s w e re i n adequa t e . T he o ve ra l l mo rpho logy o ft h ef r agmen tw a sc l ea ri np ho tog raph 2 A /8a ; i th ad a p a t te rn o f r ad ia t ing c av i t ie s i n te r io r t o a c i rcu la r c av i ty , w h ich w a s c oncen t r ic w i th i t s o u te r e dge . H a the rc ommen ted o nt h i sa r rangemen to fc av i t ie si nc ha r red s t o rage o rgan s : " I n m any c ha r red l ap r oo t s ' s e pa ra te a r ea sa r ea ppa ren t : a n o u te rr e g ion e x te rna l t ot h ec amb ium a nd a n i n te rna lr e g ion b e low t h e c amb ium . T he r oo t s o fd if e ren t s p ec ie s v a ry i n s t ru c tu re a nd o ne o ft h e se r e g ions may b e l a rge r t h an t h e o t he r . I nt r an sv e r se s e c t ion t e n s ion f r ac tu re sa nd v e s ic le s i n t h e o u te r r e g ion h ave t h e i r l o ng a x i s t angen t ia l ly ( p e r ic l ina l ly ) o r ien ta ted . T hey may b eo n ly af ew c e l l sw ide o r t h ey m ay s p read a c ro s s t h e e n t i re c i rcumf e renc e o ft h e r oo t . S u ch f r ac tu re s a r e c ommon b e tw een t h e o u te r a nd i n ne rr e g ion so ft h er oo ta l ong t h el i ne o ft h ec amb ium ." "When v e s ic le s o r t e n s ion f r ac tu re s o ccu r i n te rna l ly t ot h e c amb ium t h ey o f t en r ad ia te o u tf r om t h ec en t ra l l ong a x i so f t h e r oo t . O n c omp re s s ion a nd c ha r r ing t h e p a renchyma b e tween t h ec av i t ie si so f t en r e duced t os o l id c a rbon ." " Cav i t ie s o ft h e s ame t y pe o c cu r i n o rgan s o t he r t h an t h e f l e shy s e conda ry r oo t s d e sc r ib ed a bove . I n s ma l l , m o r e o r l e s s s phe r ica l t u be r s s u ch a s L a thy ru s l i n if o l iu s a nd C onopod ium m a ju s t a ngen t ia l ly o r ien ta ted f r ac tu re s a nd v e s ic le s o ccu r i n t h e o u te rmo s t t i s sue s , a nd a dd i t iona l c av i t ie s r ad ia te o u t f r om a c en t re p o in t w i th in t he t u b e r ." ( Ha the r 1 988 , 1 48 149 ) T he r ad ia t ing p a t te rn o fc av i t ie sw a sa l so v i s ib le o ns p e c imen 7( p ho tog raph 2 A /8d ) . I tw a s n o t p o s s ib le t o i d en t if y t h e t y pe o f v ege ta t ive s t o rage o rgans f r om w h ich t h e s e s p e c imen sd e r ived .

S ummary o fH a ther 's ( e ar l ier ) Work H a the r i d en t if ied f r agmen t s o f m any v ege ta t ive s t o rage o rgan s i nt h e s amp le s f r om s qua r e s 5 8 a t Wad i e l J i la t 7 ( M idd le P PNB ) . T he s e i n c luded p o s s ib le C ype raceae t u be r s ( f rom c on tex t s 62 8 A ; 82 7 A ) , a nd C ruc if e rae r oo t s ( f rom c on tex t 82 8 A ; G a r ra rd e ta l1 994 , 1 04 ) . T he r ema in sf r om L a te P PNB Anaq 3 1 w e re l e s sw e l lp re se rved a nd f o r much o ft h ep a renchyma tou st i s sue H a the rc ommen ted : " A l l [ r ef e r r ing t os amp le sf r om n i ne o ft h ec on tex t s ] o ft h e se f r agmen t sh ave i nc ommon t h e i rb a s ic c ompo s i t ion -ah igh ly v e s i cu la rt i s sue d e r ived f r om p a renchyma c ha r red w h i le i na f r e sh s t a te ." ( Ha the r ,u npub l i shed ) H e w a s u nab le t om ake a ny i d en t if ica t ion s b e cau se o ft h e p oo r p r e se rva t ion o f t h e s p ec imen s . O f i n te re s t i n t h e s amp le s f r om A z raq 3 1 w e re e xamp le s o f c ha r red l e af f r agmen t s a nd s po re s ( pho tog raph s 2 A /9 a e ) . O ft h e l e af f r agmen t sH a the rc ommen ted : " Two f r agmen t so fc ha r red l e af a pp rox ima te ly 1 50pm t h ick . A ne p ide rma l s u rf ace w i th s imp le h a i r si sw e l lp re se rved . A s e c t ion t h rough t h e l e af s how s p oo r ly p re se rved v a scu la r t i s su e a nd d e te r io ra ted i n te rna l s t ruc tu re ." ( H a the r , u npub l i shed ) P ho tog raph s 2 A /9 f h s how am a s s o fc ha r red s po re s , a nd H a the rd e sc r ibed t h es p ec imen a sf o l low s : " Th i s f r agmen t o f c ha rcoa l i sr ough ly 5 00 pun a c ro s s a nd r ounded . I ti sc ompo sed o fm any t i gh t ly p acked s phe r ica l b od ie ss ome o fw h ich h av ec o l lap sed . E ach i sa pp rox ima te ly 5 µm a c ro s s . T he r e i s n o o t he r t y pe o f t i s sue i n t h i s f r agmen t ." ( Ha the r ,u npub l ished ) A t D huw e i la , f r om b o th L a te P PNB a nd L a te N eo l i th ic c on t ex t s , H a the r f o und p a renchyma tou s t i s sue s w h ich h e i d en t if i ed a s h av ing d e r ived f r om t h e s wo l len s t em o f C i s tanche t u bu lo sa ( O robancheacea e ; H a the r i nB e t t s 1 998 , 1 89 ) . T h i s i s ap a ra s i t ic p l an t w h ich c an b e e a ten r oa s ted ( Ba i ley a nd D an in 1 981 , 1 54 ) .

2 35

P la te 2 A / 1 —s pec imen l a a ) w ho le f r agmen t( s ca le b a r =4 00µm ) b ) d e ta i lo fs pec imen l a , s how ing l a rge c av i t ie s( s ca le b a r =2 00µm ) c ) d e ta i lo fs pec imen l a , s how ing p o s i t ion o fx y lem v e s se l si nr e la t ion t ot h ec av i t ie s( s ca le b a r =1 00µm ) d ) d e ta i lo fs p ec imen l a , s how ing t h er e t icu la te ly t h ickened w a l l so ft h ex y lem v e s se l s( s ca le b a r =2 0p .m ) e )

d e ta i lo fs pec imen l a , s how ing p a renchyma c e l ls ( s ca le b a r =2 00µm ) d e ta i lo fs p ec imen l a ,s how ing t h e' p unc tu red ' c e l l s( s ca le b a r =4 0 1 . 4m )

P la te 2 A /2 —s pec imen l b a ) w ho le f r agmen t b ) f ) d e ta i l o fs p ec imen l b , s how ing p o s i t ion o fx y lem v e s se l si nr e la t ion t ot h ec av i t ie s( s ca le b a r s =2 00µm ) c ) -e )d e ta i lo fs pec imen l b ,s how ing t h er e t icu la te ly t h ickened w a l l so ft h ex y lem v e s se l s( s ca le b a r s —4 0pm ,4 0µm ,2 0pm ) P la te 2 A /3 —s pec imen l c a ) w ho le f r agmen t b ) d e ta i lo fs pe c imen l c ,s how ing c o l lap sed p a renchyma c e l l sa tt h e ma rg in so ft h el a rge c en t ra lc av i ty ( s ca le b a r =2 00 p m ) c ) d ) d e ta i l o fs p ec imen l cs how ing t h ex y lem v e s se l sw i th r e t icu la te ly t h ickened w a l l s( s ca le b a r s =1 00µm ,4 0pm ) P la te 2 A /4 —s pec imen 2 a ) b ) d e ta i l o fs pec imen 2 ,s how ing p a r to f av a scu la rs t rand w i th in t h eg round t i s sue ( s ca le b a r s =2 00µm , 1 00µm ) c ) d ) d e ta i lo fs pe c imen 2 ,s how ing x y lem v e s se l sw i th r e t icu la te ly t h ickened w a l l s( s ca le b a r s =4 0µm ,2 0 1 .un ) e ) d e ta i lo fs pec imen 2 ,s how ing p a renchyma c e l l s( s ca le b a r =4 0µm ) P la te 2 A /5 —s pec imen s3 a ,3 b a ) 3 a —w ho le f r agmen t , s how ing v a s cu la rs t rand sr unn ing a c ro s st h es u rf ace ( s ca le b a r =4 00µm ) b ) d e ta i l o f3 a , s how ing v a scu la rs t rand ( s ca le b a r =1 00µm ) c ) 3 b —w ho le f r agmen t( s ca le b a r =4 00pm ) d ) e ) d e ta i lo fs pe c imen 3 b , s how ing c e l l s( s ca le b a r s =1 00µm ,4 0 1 .un ) P la te 2 A /6 —s pec imen 4 a ) w ho le f r agmen t ,m oun ted o n c onv ex o u te rs u rf ace ( s ca le b a r =4 00µm ) b ) d e ta i l o fs pe c imen 4 ,s how ing v a scu la rs t rand s( s ca le b a r =1 00µm ) c ) d ) d e ta i l o fs pec imen 4 ,s how ing v a scu la rs t rand sw i th x y lem v e s se l ss u r rounded b yt h ick w a l led f i b re s( s ca le b a r s =2 0p .m ) e ) f ) d e ta i lo fs p ec imen 4 ,s how ing p a renchyma c e l l s( s ca le b a r s =4 0µm ,2 0µm ) P la te 2 A7 —s pec imen 5 a ) w ho le f r agmen t ,s how ing c onvex o u te rs u rf ace ( s ca le b a r =2 00pm ) b ) d e ta i lo fe x te rna ls u rf ace o fs p ec imen 5 ,s how ing a n ' e xf o l ia t ing ' o u te rl a y e r( s ca le b a r =2 00pm ) c ) d e ta i lo fs p ec imen 5 ,s how ing i n te rna ls u rf ace s( s ca le b a r =2 00µm ) d ) e ) d e ta i lo fs pec imen 5 ,s how ing p a r enchyma c e l l si nl o ng i tud ina lv i ew a nd i nc r o s ss e c t ion ( s ca le b a r s =4 0µm ) P la te 2 A /8 —s pec imen s6 , 7 a ) 6—w ho le f r agmen t , s how ing p a t te rn o fr ad ia t ing c av i t ie s( s ca le b a r =4 00pm ) b ) c ) d e ta i lo fs p e c imen 6 ,s how ing g round t i s sue ( s ca le b a r s =2 00pm ,2 0µm ) d ) 7—w ho le f r agmen t , s how ing p a t te rn o fr ad ia t ing c av i t ie s( s ca le b a r =4 00pm ) e ) f ) d e ta i lo fs pe c imen 7 ,s how ing g round t i s sue ( s ca le b a r s =2 00pm ) P la te 2 A /9 —Ba ther 's s pec imen sf r om A zraq 3 1 a ) b ) l e af h a i r so ns u rf a ce o ff r agmen ts hown i nc )( s ca le b a r s =2 5µm , 5 p r n ) c ) d ) l e af f r agmen ta nd d e ta i lo ns u rf ac e( s ca le b a r s =1 50µm ,7 5µm ) e ) l e af f r agmen t( s ca le b a r =1 50µm ) 0 -h ) ma s so fc ha r red s po re s( s ca le b a r s =1 00pm , 5 0pm , 5 µm )

2 36

P la te 2A /1

a

C

f

e

2 37

P la te 2A /2

a

2 38

P la te 2A /3

a

2 39

P la te 2 A /4

a

c

e

2 40

P la te 2 A /5

a

b

c

d

e

2 41

P la te 2 A /6

a

C

e

f

2 42

P la te 2 A /7

a

2 43

P la te 2 A /8

a

c

d

e

f

2 44

P la te 2A /9

a

C

e

g

2 45

R ef erence s A dams ,R .B . 1 99 1 T he Wad iF idan p ro jec t ,J o rdan , 1 989 . L evan t XX I I I , 1 8 1183 . A dams ,R .B . u npub . Wad iF idan p ro je c t 1 990 . ( u npub l i shed r e po r to nt h e 1 990 s e a son o fe x cava t ion ) A l -E saw i ,D .M . 1 985 V ege ta t ion i nJ o rd an . I n : A . H ad id i( e d )S tud ie si nt h eH i s tory a nd A rchaeo log yo fJ ordan I . D epa r tmen to fA n t iqu i t ie so fJ o rdan ,4 5 -57 . B a i ley , C .a nd D an in ,A . 1 981 B edou in p l an tu t i l iza t ion i nS i na ia nd t h eN egev .E conom ic B o tany 3 5 ( 2 ) , 1 45 -162 . B a i rd ,D . 1 993 N eo l i th ic c h ipped s t one a s semb lage sf rom t h eA z raq B a s in ,J o rdan a nd t h es i gn if i cance o ft h eN eo l i th ic o ft h e a r id z one so ft h eL evan t . U npub l i shed P hD t h e s i s ,E d inbu rgh U n ive r s i ty . B a i rd ,D . ,G a r ra rd ,A . , Ma r t in ,L .a nd Wr igh t ,K . 1 992 P reh i s to r ic e nv i ronmen ta nd s e t t lemen ti nt h eA z iaq B a s in :a ni n te r im r epo r to nt h e 1 989 e xcava t ion s e a son .L evan t XX IV , 1 31 . B a ly ,D . a nd T u sh ingham ,A .D . 1 97 1 A t la so ft h eB ib l ica l W or ld . U SA : T he Wo r ld P ub l i sh ing C ompany . B a r t ram ,L .E . ,K ro l l , E .M . a nd B unn ,H .T . 1 99 1 V a r iab i l i ty i nc amp s t ruc tu re a nd b one r e f u se p a t te rn ing a tK ua S an h un te r g a the re rc amp s . I n : E .M . K ro l la nd T .D . P r ic e( e d s ) T he i n te rp re ta t ion o fa r chaeo log ica ls pa t ia lp a t tern ing .N ew Y o rk : P l enum , 7 7 148 . B a ruch ,U . a nd B o t tema , S . 1 99 1 P a lyno log ica le v idence f o rc l ima t ic c hange si nt h eL evan tc a . 1 7 ,000 -9 ,000 B .P . I n :0 .B a r Y o sef a nd F .V a l la ( e d s ) T he N a tuf ian C u l tu r ei nt h eL evan t . I n te rna t iona l Monog raph si nP reh i s to ry ,A rchaeo log ica l S e r ie s 1 ,A nn A rbo r ,M ichegan , 1 -20 . B a ruch ,U . a nd G o r ing -Mo r r i s ,N . 1 997 T he a r bo rea lv ege ta t ion o ft h eC en t ra lN egev H igh land s , I s rae l , a tt h ee nd o ft h e P l e i s toc ene : e v idence f r om a r chaeo log ica lc ha r red w ood r ema in s . V eg e ta t ion H i s to ry a nd A r chaeobo tany 6 ,2 49 -259 . B a r -Yo sef , 0 . 1 981 T he E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic c omp lexe si nt h es ou the rn L evan t . I n : J .C auv in a nd P .S an lav i l le ( e d s )P r jh i s to i r e d uL evan t . C o l loque sI n te rna t ionaux d u CRNS 5 98 ,P a r i s ,3 89 -408 . B a r -Yo sef , 0 . 1 989 T he P PNA i nt h eL evan t -A no ve rv iew .P a ljor ien t 1 5( 1 ) ,5 7 -63 . B a r -Yo sef , 0 . a nd B e lf e r -Cohen ,A . 1 989a T he L evan t ine ` PPNB ' i n te rac t ion s phe re . I n : I .H e r shkov i tz ( e d )P eop le a nd c u l tu r e i nc hang e . BAR ( I n t S e r ) 5 08 ( i ) , 5 9 -72 . B a r -Yo sef , 0 . a nd B e lf e r -Cohen ,A . 1 989b T he o r ig in so fs e den t i sm a nd f a rm ing c ommun i t ie si nt h eL evan t .J ou rna lo f W or ld P reh i s to ry 3 ( 4 ) ,4 47 -498 . B a r -Yo sef , 0 . a nd B e lf e r -Cohen ,A . 1 992 F rom f o rag ing t of a rm ing i nt h e Med i te r ranean L evan t . I n : A .B . G ebaue ra nd T . D oug la sP r ice ( e d s ) T ran s i t ion st oa g r icu l tu r ei np r eh i s to ry . Monog raph si n Wo r ld A rchaeo logy 4 . Mad i son , W i scon s in : P reh i s to ry P re s s ,2 1 -48 . B a r -Yo sef , 0 . a nd K i s lev ,M .E . 1 989 E a r ly f a rm ing c ommun i t ie si nt h eJ o rdan V a l ley . I n : D .R . H a r r i sa nd G .C . H i l lman ( e d s )F o rag ing a nd F a rm ing . L ondon : U nw in H yman , 6 32 -642 . B ecke r , B .a nd K rome r ,B . 1 99 1 D end roch rono logy a nd r ad ioca rbon c a l ib ra t ion o ft h ee a r ly H o locene . I n :N . B a r ton ,A . R obe r t sa nd D . R o e( e d s ) T he L a te G lac ia li nn or th w e s tE u rope :H uman a d ap t ion a nd e n v i ronmen ta lc hang ea tt h ee nd o f t h eP le i s tocene . CBA R e sea rch R epo r t7 7 ,2 2 -24 . B eh re ,K -E . a nd S .J a come t . 1 99 1 . T he e co log ica li n te rp re ta t ion o fa r chaeobo tan ica ld a ta . I n : W .v an Z e i s t , K . Wa sy l ikowa a nd K -E . B eh re ( e d s )P rog r e s si nO ld W or ld p a laeoe thnobo tany . R o t te rdam :A .A . B a lkema , 8 1 108 . B e t t s ,A .V .G . 1 987 T he h un te r 's p e r spe c t iv e : 7 t hm i l lenn ium BC r o ck c a rv ing sf r om e a s te rn J o rdan . W or ld A r chaeo log y 1 9 ( 2 ) , 2 14 -225 . B e t t s ,A .V .G . 1 988 T he B lack D e se r tS u rv ey : p r eh i s to r ic s i te sa nd s ub s i s tenc es t ra teg ie si ne a s te rn J o rdan . I n :A .N .G a r ra rd a nd H .G . G ebe l ( e d s ) T he P reh i s tory o fJ ordan . BAR ( I n tS e r )3 96 ( i ) ,3 69 -39 1 . 2 46

B e t t s ,A . 1 988 E xcava t ion sa tD huw e i la ,E a s te rn J o rdan : ap r e l im ina ry r e po r t .L evan t XX , 7 2 1 . B e t t s ,A . 1 989 T he P re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic B p e r iod i nE a s te rn J o rdan .P a ljor ien t 1 5( 1 ) , 1 47 -153 . B e t t s ,A . 1 992 E a s te rn J o rd an : e conom ic c ho ice sa nd s i te l o ca t ion i nt h eN eo l i th ic p e r iod s . I n : A . H ad id i( e d )S t ud ie si nt h e A r chaeo log ya nd H i s tor yo fJ ordan I V .D epa r tmen to fA n t iqu i t ie sJ o rdan , 11-114 . B e t t s ,A .V .G . 1 998 T he Ha r ra a nd t h eH amad . E xca va t ion sa nd E xp lora t ion si nE a s tern J ordan . V o lume 1 .S hef f i e ld : S he f f ie ld A cadem ic P re s s . B inf o rd ,L .R . 1 968 P o s t -P le i s to cene a dap t ion s . I n : S .R . B inf o rd a nd L .R . B inf o rd ( e d s )N ew P e r spec t ive s i nA r chaeo logy . C h icago : A ld ine P re s s ,3 13 -341 . B inf o rd ,L .R . 1 983 I nP u r su i to ft h eP a s t . GDR : T hame sa nd H ud son . B oa rdman , S .a nd J one s ,G . 1 990 E xpe r imen t so nt h ee f ec t so fc ha r r ing o nc e rea lp l an tc omponen t s .J ou rna lo f A r chaeo log ica lS c ience 1 7 , 1 11 . B o t t ema ,S . 1 984 T he c ompo s i t ion o f mode rn c ha r red s e ed a s semb lage s .I n :W .v an Z e i s ta nd W .A .C a spa r ie ( e d s )P lan t sa nd A nc ien t Man . R o t te rdam : A .A . B a lkema ,2 07 -2 12 . B o t t ema , S . 1 995 T he Y ounge rD rya si nt h eE a s te rn Med i te r ranean . Q ua terna ry S c ience R ev iew s 1 4( 9 ) , 83 -89 1 . B un t ing ,A .H . 1 960 . S ome r e f lec t ions o nt h ee co logy o fw eed s . I n : J . L . H a rpe r( e d ) T he b i o logy o fw eed s . L ondon : B l a ckw e l l , 1 -26 B u t le r ,A . 1 989 C ryp t ic a na tom ica lc ha rac te r sa se v idence o fe a r ly c u l t iva t ion i nt h eg ra in l e gume s( p u l se s ) . I n : D .R . H a r r i s a nd G .C . H i l lman ( e d s )F orag ing a nd F a rm ing . L ondon : U nv v in H yman ,3 90 -407 . B u t le r ,A . 1 998 G ra in L egume s : e v idenc eo ft h e se i mpo r tan ta nc ien tf o od r e sou rce sf r om e a r ly p r e -ag ra r ian a nd a g ra r ian s i te s i ns ou thw e s tA s ia . I n : A .B . D aman ia ,J .V a lkoun , G . W i l lcox a nd C .O . Q ua l se t( e d s ) T he o r ig in so fa g r i cu l tu r ea nd c rop d ome s t ica t ion . I CARDA : A leppo , S y r ia , 1 02 117 . B y rd ,B .F . 1 989 T he N a tuf ian E ncampmen ta tB e idha . J u t land A rchaeo log ica lS oc ie ty P ub l ica t ion s XX I I I :l .A a rhu s :A a rhu s U n ive r s i ty P re s s . B y rd ,B .F . 1 989 T he N a tuf ian : S e t t lemen tv a r iab i l i ty a nd e conom ic a dap t ion si nt h eL evan ta tt h ee nd o ft h eP l e i s to cene . J ou rna lo fW or ld P r eh i s to ry 3( 2 ) , 1 59 -197 . B y rd ,B .F . 1 992 T he d i spe r sa lo ff o od p roduc t ion a c ro s st h eL evan t . I n :A .B .G ebaue ra nd T .D oug la sP r ice ( e d s ) T ran s i t ion s t oa g r icu l tu re i np r eh i s to ry . Monog raph si n Wo r ld A rchaeo logy 4 . Mad i son , W i scon s in : P reh i s to ry P re s s ,4 9 -6 1 . B y rd ,B .F . 1 994 P ub l ic a nd p r iva te ,d ome s t ic a nd c o rpo ra te :t h ee me rgenc eo ft h eS ou thw e s tA s ian v i l lage . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 9( 4 ) ,6 39 -666 . B y rd ,B .F . 1 998 S pann ing t h eg ap b e tw een t h eU ppe rP a leo l i th ic a nd t h eN a tuf ian : t h ee a r ly a nd m idd le E p ipa leo l i th ic . I n : D .O . H en ry ( e d ) T he p r eh i s tor ic a r chaeo lo gy o fJ ordan . O xf o rd : A rchaeop re s s , 6 4 -82 . B y rd ,B .F . a nd G a r ra rd ,A .N . 1 990 T he L a s tG lac ia l Max imum i nt h eJ o rdan ian d e se r t .I n :C .G amb le a nd 0 .S of f e r( e d s )T he W or ld a t1 8 ,000 B P . V o lume 2 .L ondon : U nw in H yman , 7 8 -92 . B y rne ,R . 1 987 C l ima t ic c hange a nd t h eo r ig in so fa p icu l tu re . I n : L . Manzan i l la ( e d )S tud ie si nt h eN eo l i th ic a nd u rban r e vo lu t ion s : T he V .G ord on C h i ld eC o l loqu ium , Mex i co , 1 986 . BAR ( I n tS e r )3 49 ,2 1-34 . C auv in ,J . 1 977 L e sf o u i l le sd e Mu reyb e t( 1 97 11974 )e tl e u rs i gn if icance p ou rl e so r ig ine sd el as e den ta r i sa t ion a uP ro che O r ien t . Ame r i can S choo lo fO r i en ta lR e sea r ch 4 4 , 1 9 -47 . C ha r le s ,M .P 1 989 A g r icu l tu r ei nl ow land Me sopo tam ia i nt h eL a te U ruk /Dyna s t i cp e r iod . U npub l i shed P hD t h e s i s , U n iv e r s i ty C o l lege L ondon .

2 47

C o l ledge ,S .M . 1 998 . I d en t if y ing p re -dome s t ica t ion c u l t iva t ion u s ing mu l t iv a r ia t ea na ly s i s . I n :A .B .D aman ia ,J .V a lkoun ,G . W i l lcox a nd C .O . Q ua l se t( ed s ) T he o r ig in so fa g r icu l tu r ea nd c rop d ome s t i ca t ion . I CARDA : A leppo , S y r ia , 1 2 1-131 . C o l ledge ,S .M . i np re s s I d en t if y ing p r e -dome s t ica t ion c u l t iva t ion i nt h ea r cha eobo tan ica lr e co rd u s ing mu l t iv a r ia te a na ly s i s : p re sen t ing t h ec a se f o rq uan t if ica t ion . I n :R .C appe r sa nd U . B a ruch ( e d s ) T he t r an s i t ion f rom f orag ing t of a rm ing i n S ou thw e s tA s ia . B e r l in : e xo r ien te . C row f oo t ,G .M . a nd B a ldenspe rge r ,L . 1 932 F rom C eda rt oH y s sop : AS tud yi nt h eF o lk lor eo fP lan t si nP a l e s t ine . L ondon : S he ldon P re s s . C u t le r ,D .F . 1 985 A pp l ied P lan tA na tomy . L ondon : L ongman . D enne l l ,R .W . 1 976 T he e conom ic i mpo r tance o fp l an tr e sou rce sr e p re sen ted o na r chaeo log ica ls i te s .J ou rna lo f A r chaeo log ica lS c ience 3 ,2 29 -247 . D ona ld son ,M .L . 1 985 T he p l an tr ema in s . I n : G .O . R o l lef son e ta l , E xcava t ion a tt h eP re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic B v i l lage o f' A in G haza l( J o rdan ) 1 983 .M i t te i lung en D er D eu t schen O r ien tG e se l l schaf t 17 ,9 6 104 . D ona ld son ,M .L . 1 986 S ub s i s tence v a r ia t ion a nd a g r icu l tu re i nt h ee a r ly L evan t ine N eo l i th ic .U npub l ished p ape r ,p re sen ted a t t h e5 1s tA nnua l Mee t ing o ft h eS o c ie ty f o r Ame r ican A rchaeo logy ,N ew O r lean s . D unand ,M . 1 973 F ou i l le sd eB yb lo s . ( v o lume 5 )P a r i s : A d r ien Ma i sonneuv e . E dwa rd s ,P .C . 1 987 L a te P le i s tocene o ccupa t ion i nt h e W ad ia l -H ammeh ,J o rd an V a l l ey .U npub l ished P hD t h e s i s ,U n iv e r s i ty o fS ydney ,D epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy . E dwa rd s ,P .C . 1 989 P rob lem so fr e cogn iz ing t h ee a r l ie s ts ed en t i sm :t h eN a tuf i an e xamp le .J ou rna lo fMed i t e r ranean A rchaeo log y 2( 1 ) , 5 48 . E dwa rd s ,P .C . 1 99 1 Wad i H ammeh 2 7 : a ne a r ly N a tuf ian s i te a tP e l la ,J o rd an . I n : 0 . B a r -Yo sef a nd F .R . V a l la ( e d s ) T he N a tuf ian C u l tu r ei nt h eL evan t . I n te rna t iona l Monog raph si nP reh is to ry ,A rchaeo log ica l S e r ie s 1 , Ann A rbo r ,M ichegan , 1 23 148 . E dwa rd s ,P .C . 1 992 D emog raph ic i s sue si nP l e i s to cene p reh i s to ry : ap e r spec t ive f r om Wad ia l -Hammeh . I n : A .H ad id i( e d ) S tud ie si nt h eA r chaeo logy a nd H i s to ry o fJ ordan I V . D epa r tmen to fA n t iqu i t ie so fJ o rdan ,4 7 -51 . F e inb run -Do than ,N . 1 978 F lora P a lae s t ina . V o lume 3 ,T ex t . J e ru sa lem : T he I s rae lA cademy o fS c ience sa nd H uman i t ie s . F e inb run -Do than ,N . 1 986 F lora P a lae s t ina . V o lume 4 ,T ex t . J e ru sa lem : T he I s rae lA cademy o fS c ience sa nd H uman i t ie s . F i e ld ,J . 1 989 A ppend ix A . G eo log ica ls e t t ing a tB e idha . I n : B .B y rd T he Na tu f ian E ncampmen ta tB e idha .J u t land A rchaeo log ica lS o c ie ty P ub l ica t ion s XX I I I :l . A a rhu s : A a rhu sU n ive r s i ty P r e s s , 8 6 -90 . F i she r ,J .W . a nd S t r ick land ,H .0 1 99 1 Dw e l l ing sa nd f i rep lace s :k ey st oE f eP ygmy c amp s i te s t ruc tu re . I n : C .S . G amb le a nd W .A . B o i sm ie r( e d s )E thnoa rchaeo log i ca la pproache st om ob i l ec amp s i te s . I n te rna t iona l Monog raphs i nP r eh is to ry , E thnoa rchaeo log ica l S e r ie s 1 ,A nn A rbo r ,M ichegan ,2 15 -236 . F l e tche r , M . a nd L o ck ,G .R . 1 991 D igg ing N umbe r s . O xf o rd U n ive r s i ty C omm i t tee f o rA rchaeo logy , Monog raph 3 3 . G a rf inke l ,Y . ,K i s lev ,M .E . a nd Z oha ry ,D . 1 988 L en t i li nt h eP re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic B Y if t ah 'e l : a dd i t iona le v idence f o ri t s e a r ly d ome s t ica t ion .I s rae lJ ou rna lo fB o tany 3 7 ,4 9 -51 . G a r ra rd ,A . 1 999 C ha r t ing t h ee me rgence o fc e rea la nd p u l se d ome s t ica t ion i nS ou th -we s tA s ia . E nv i ronmen ta lA rcha eo logy 4 ,6 7 -86 . G a r ra rd ,A . ,H a rvey , P . ,H ive rne l ,F .a nd B y rd ,B . 1 985 T he e nv i ronmen ta lh i s to ry o ft h eA z raq B a s in . I n : A .H ad id i ( c d ) S tud ie si nt h eH i s tor ya nd A rchaeo log yo fJ ordan I .D epa r tmen to fA n t iqu i t ie so fJ o rdan , 1 09 115 . G a r ra rd ,A . ,B y rd ,B .a nd B e t t s ,A . 1 986 P reh i s to r ic e nv i ronmen ta nd s e t t lemen ti nt h eA z raq B a s in : a ni n t e r im r epo r to nt h e 1 984 e x cava t ion s e a son .L evan tX 'V I I I , 5 24 . 2 48

G a r ra rd ,A . ,B e t t s ,A . , B y rd ,B .a nd H un t ,C . 1 987 P reh i s to r ic e nv i ronmen ta nd s e t t lemen ti nt h eA z raq B a s in : a n i n te r im r e po r to nt h e 1 985 e xcava t ion s e a son .L evan tX IX , 5 25 . G a r ra rd ,A . ,B e t t s ,B . ,B y rd , B .a nd H un t , C . 1 988 S umma ry o fp a laeoenv i ronmen ta la nd p r eh i s to r ic i n v e s t iga t ion si nt h e A z raq B a s in . I n : A .N . G a r ra rd a nd H .G . G ebe l( e d s ) T he P reh i s tor yo fJ ordan . BAR ( h i tS e r )3 96 ( i ) ,3 11-337 . G a r ra rd ,A . ,C o l ledge ,S . ,H un t ,C .a nd Mon tague ,R . 1 988 E nv i ronmen ta nd s ub s i s tenc ed u r ing t h el a te P l e i s to cene a nd e a r ly H o locene i nt h eA z raq B a s in .P a ljor ien t 1 4( 2 ) ,4 0 -49 . G a r ra rd ,A .N . a nd B y rd ,B .F . 1 992 N ew d imen s ion st ot h eE p ipa laeo l i th ic o ft h e Wad ie l J i la ti nc en t ra lJ o rdan .P a lio r ien t 1 8 ( 1 ) ,4 7 -62 . G a r r a rd ,A . ,B a i rd ,D . ,C o l ledge ,S . , Ma r t in ,L .a nd Wr igh t ,K . 1 994 P reh i s to r ic e nv i ronmen ta nd s e t t lemen ti nt h eA z raq B a s in : a n i n te r im r e po r to nt h e 1 987 a nd 1 988 e xcava t ion s e a son s .L evan t XXV I , 7 3 109 . G a r r a rd ,A . ,C o l ledg e , S .a nd Ma r t in ,L . 1 996 T he e me rgence o fc r op c u l t iva t ion a nd c ap r ine h e rd ing i nt h e' Ma rg ina lZ one ' o ft h es ou the rn L evan t . I nD .R . H a r r i s( e d ) T he o r ig in sa nd s p r ead o fa g r i cu l tu r ea nd p a s to ra l i sm i nE u ra s ia . L ondon : UCL P re s s ,2 04 -226 G oodf r iend , G .A . a nd Maga r i tz ,M . 1 988 P a la eo so l sa nd l a te P l e i s to cene r a inf a l lf l uc tua t ion si nt h eN egev D e se r t .N a tu r e 32 , 1 44 146 . G ophe r ,A . 1 989 D if f u s ion p roc e s si nt h eP re -po t te ry N eo l i th ic L evan t : T he c a se o ft h eH e lwan P o in t . I n : I .H e r shkov i tz ( e d ) P eop le a nd c u l tu r ei nc hang e . BAR ( I n tS e r )5 08 ( i ) ,9 1 105 . G ophe r ,A . a nd G ophna ,R . 1 993 C u l tu re so ft h ee i gh th a nd s e ven th m i l lenn ia B Pi nt h es ou the rn L evan t : ar ev iew f o rt h e 1 990 's .J ou rna lo fW or ld P reh i s to ry 7( 3 ) ,2 97 -353 . G o re ck i , P .P . 1 99 1 H o r t icu l tu ra l i s t sa sh un te r -ga the re r s :r o ck s he l te ru sage i nP apua N ew G u inea .I n :C .S .G amb le a nd W .A . B o i sm ie r( e d s )E thnoar chaeo log i ca la pp roa che st om ob i l ec amp s i te s . I n te rna t iona l Monog raph si nP reh i s to ry , E thnoa rchaeo log ic a l S e r ie s 1 ,A nn A rbo r ,M ichegan ,2 37 -262 . H an s en ,J .M . 1 99 1 T he P a laeoe thnobo tany o fF ranch th iC a ve . ( Exca va t ion sa tF ranch th iC a ve , G r eece .T .W . J a cob sen ( e d ) , F a sc ic le 7 )B loom ing ton & I nd ianapo l is : I nd iana U n ive r s i ty P re s s . H a r lan ,J .R . 1 992 . C rop s & Man . Mad i son , U SA : Ame r ican S oc ie ty o fA g ronomy , I n c . ,C rop S c ience S o c ie ty o f Ame r ica , I n c . ( 2 nd e d i t ion ) . H a r r i s ,D .R . 1 977 A l te rna t ive p a thway st ow a rd a g r icu l tu re . I nC .A . R e ed ( e d )O r ig in so fA g r i cu l tu r e . T he H ague : Mou ton , 1 79 -243 . H a r r i s , D .R . 1 989 A ne vo lu t iona ry c on t inuum o fp eop le -p lan ti n te ra c t ion . I n : D .R . H a r r i sa nd G .C . H i l lman ( e d s )F o rag ing a nd F a rm ing . L ondon : U nw in H yman , 1 -26 . H a r r i s ,D .R . 1 990 S e t t l ing d own a nd b r eak ing g r ound : R e th ink ing t h eN eo l i th ic R evo lu t ion . T waa lf d eK roon -V oord rach t . Ams te rdam . H a r r i s ,D .R . 1 996a . I n t roduc t ion :t h eme sa nd c oncep t si nt h es t udy o fe a r ly a g r icu l tu re . I n : D .R . H a r r i s( e d ) T he o r ig in sa nd s p r ead o fa g r i cu l tu r ea nd p a s to ra l i sm i nE u ra s ia . L ondon : UCL P re s s , 1 9 . H a r r i s ,D .R . 1 996b . D ome s t ica to ry r e la t ion sh ip so fp eop le ,p l an t sa nd a n ima l s . I n : R . E l len a nd K . F uku i( e d s )R ed ef in ing n a tu re : e co logy , c u l ture a nd d ome s t i ca t ion . O x f o rd : B e rg ,4 37 -463 . H a the r ,J . 1 988 T he m orpho log i ca la nd a na tom i ca li n terp re ta t ion a nd i d en t i f i ca t ion o fc ha r r ed v eg e ta t ive p a renchyma tou s p lan tr ema in s .U npub l ished P hD t h e s i s ,L ondon U n ive r s i ty . H a the r ,J . 1 993 A na r chaeobo tan i ca lg u id et or oo ta nd t u be ri d en t i f ica t ion . V o lume 1 ,E u rope a nd S ou th W e s tA s ia . O xbow Monog raph 2 8 . H a the r ,J .2 000 A r chaeo log ica lp a renchyma . L ondon : A rche type P ub l ica t ion s . 2 49

H e lbaek ,H . 1 960 C e rea l sa nd w eed g ra s se si nP ha se A . I n : R . J . B ra idwood a nd L .S . B ra idwood ( e d s )E xca va t ion si nt h e P la in o fA n t ioch . U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago O r ien ta lI n s t i tu te P ub l ica t ion s6 1 . H e lbaek ,H . 1 966 A ppend ix A . P re P o t te ry N eo l i th ic f a rm ing a tB e idha . I n : D . K i rkb r id eF iv es e a son sa tt h eP r eP o t te ry N eo l i th ic v i l lage o fB e idha i nJ o rdan .P a le s t ine E xp lora t ion Q ua r ter ly 9 8 ,6 1 -66 . H e lbaek ,H . 1 969 P l an tc o l lec t ing ,d ry f a rm ing a nd i r iga t ion a g r icu l tu re i np r eh i s to r ic D eh L u ran .I n :F .H o le ,K .V .F l anne ry a nd J .A .N ee ly ( e d s )P reh i s tory a nd h uman e co logy o ft h eD eh L u ran P la in . Memo i r so ft h e Mu seum o fA n th ropo logy , U n iv e r s i ty o fM ich igan I :A nn A rbo r ,3 82 -426 . H e lbaek ,H . 1 970 T he p l an th u sband ry o fH ac i la r . I n : J . Me l laa r t( e d )E xcava t ion sa tH ac i la r( Vo lume 1 ) .E d inbu rgh : E d inbu rgh U n iv e r s i ty P re s s , 1 89 -244 . H em s ley ,J .H . a nd G eo rge , M . 1 966 T he A z raq N a t iona lP a rk , J ord an D raf t Managemen tP lan .N a tu re C on se rvancy , I BP C onse rva t ion o fT e r re s t r ia l C ommun i t ie s :L ondon . H en ry , D .O . 1 98 1 A na na ly s i so ft h es e t t lemen tp a t te rn sa nd a dap t iv es t ra teg ie so ft h eN a tuf ian . I n : J .C auv in a nd P . S an lav i l le ( e d s )P ra i s to i re d uL evan t . C o l loque sI n te rna t ionaux d ue CNRS 5 98 ,P a r i s : CNRS ,4 21-432 . H en ry , D .O . 1 989 F rom f orag ing t oa g r i cu l tur e . P h i lade lph ia ,U SA : U n ive r s i ty o fP enn sy lvan ia P re s s . H en ry ,D .O . 1 995 P r eh i s tor ic c u l tura le co lo gy a nd e vo lu t ion : i n s igh t sf rom S ou thern J ordan . N ew Y o rk : P l enum P re s s . H eun , M . , S chäf e r -P reg l ,R . ,K lawan ,D . ,C a s tagna ,R . ,A cc e rb i , M . ,B o rgh i ,B .a nd S a lam in i ,F . 1 997 S i te o fe i nko rn d ome s t ica t ion i d en t if ied b y DNA f i nge rp r in t ing . S c i ence 2 78 , 1 3 12 1314 . H i l lman ,G .C . 1 972 P l an tr ema in s . i n : D .H . F rench ,G .C . H i l lman , S .P ayne a nd R . J . P ayne ,E xcava t ion sa tC an H a san 1 1 969 1970 , i n :E .S . H igg s( e d )P aper si nE conom i cP reh i s tory . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s , 1 82 188 . H i l lman ,G .C . 1 978 O nt h eo r ig in o fd ome s t ic r y e —S eca l ec erea le :t h ef i nd sf r om a ce ram ic C an H a san I Ii nT u rkey . A na to l ian S tud i e s2 8 , 1 57 174 . H i l lman ,G .C . 1 984 I n te rp re ta t ion o fa r chaeo log ica lp l an tr ema in s : T he a pp l ic a t ion o fe t hnog raph ic mode l sf r om T u rkey . I n : W . v an Z e i s ta nd W .A C a spa r ie ( e d s )P lan t sa nd A nc ien t Man . R o t te rdam : A .A . B a lkema , 1 4 1 . H i l lman ,G .C . 1 989 L a te P a laeo l i th ic p l an tf o od sf r om Wad iK ubban iy ei nU ppe rE gyp t : d i e ta ry d i ve r s i ty , i n f an tw e en ing , a nd s e a sona l i ty i n ar i ve r ine e nv i ronmen t . I n : D .R . H a r r i sa nd G .C . H i l lman ( e d s )F orag ing a nd F a rm ing . L ondon : U nw in H yman ,2 07 -239 . H i l lman ,G .C . 1 99 1 . P hy to so c io logy a nd a nc ien tw eed f l o ra s :t a k ing a ccoun to ft a phonomy a nd c hange si nc u l t iva t ion me thod s . I n :D .R . H a r r i sa nd K .D . T homa s( e d s ) Mod e l l ing e co log ica lc hang e . I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy ,U n ive r s i ty C o l lege L ondon : A rche type P ub l ica t ion s ,2 7 -40 . G .C . u npub . T he Wad iJ i la ts e quence . ( unpub l ished f i e ld n o te s made d u r ing s u rvey si n1 985 / 1986 ) H i lhnan ,G .C . ,C o l ledge , S .M . a nd H a r r i s ,D .R . 1 989 P l an t -f ood e conomy d u r ing t h eE p ipa laeo l i th ic p e r iod a tT e l lA bu H u rey ra , S y r ia : d i e t a ry d i v e r s i ty , s e a sona l i ty ,a nd mode so fe xp lo i ta t ion . I n :D .R . H a r r i sa nd G .C . H i l lman ( e d s )F orag ing a nd F a rm ing .L ondon : U nw in H yman ,2 40 -268 . H i l lman ,G .C . a nd D av ie s ,M .S . 1 992 D ome s t ica t ion r a te i nw i ld w hea t sa nd b a r ley u nde rp r im i t ive c u l t iva t ion : p re l im ina ry r e su l t sa nd a r chaeo log ica li mp l ica t ions o ff i e ld mea su remen t so fs e lec t ion c o ef f i c ien t . I n : P .A nde r son -Ge rf aud ( e d ) P rjh i s to i r ed el ' ag r i cu l tu r e : n ou ve l le sa pproche se xpO r imen ta le se te t hnog raph ique s . Monog raph ie d u CRA 6 ,6 d CNRS , 13 158 . H i l lman ,G .C . ,H edge s ,R . , Moo re ,A . ,C o l ledge , S .a nd P e t t i t t , P . 2 00 1 N ew e v id ence o fL a te G lac ia lc e rea lc u l t iva t ion a t A bu H u rey ra o nt h eE uph ra te s . T he H o locene 1 (4 ) , 3 83 -393 . H o i lund N ie lsen ,K . 1 988 C o r re spondenc ea na ly s i sa pp l ied t oh oa rd sa nd g rav e so ft h eG e rman ic I r on A ge . I n : T . Mad s en ( e d ) Mu l t iva r ia te A r chaeo logy . J u t land A rchaeo log ica lS o c ie ty P ub l ica t ion s XX I ,A a rhu sU n ive r s i ty P re s s ,3 7 -54 .

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H og M . 1 983 J e r icho p l an tr ema in s .( Append ix B )I n :K .M .K enyon a nd T .A .H o l land ( e d s )E xca va t ion sa tJ er icho , V o lume 5 ,T he p o t tery p ha se so ft h e T e l la nd o t he rf i nd s . L ondon : B r i t i sh S choo lo fA rchaeo logy i nJ e ru sa lem , 5 76 -621 . H opf ,M . a nd B a r -Yo sef ,0 . 1 987 P l an tr ema in sf r om H ayon im C ave ,w e s te rn G a l i lee .P a lgvr ien t 1 3( 1 ) , 17 120 . H o rw i tz , L .K . ,T che rnov , E . , D u co s ,P . ,B e cke r ,C . ,v on d en D r ie sch ,A . , Ma r t in ,L .a nd G a r ra rd ,A . 1 999 A n ima l d ome s t ica t ion i nt h es ou the rn L evan t . P aMo r ien t2 5 ( 2 ) ,6 3 -80 . I b anez ,J . J . ,G onzä lez ,J . E . ,P a lomo ,A . a nd F e r re r ,A . 1 998 P re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic A a nd P re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic B l i t h ic a g r icu l tu ra lt o o l so nt h eM idd le E uph ra te s :t h es i te so fT e l l Mu reyb i ta nd T e l lH a lu la . I n :A .B . D aman ia ,J .V a lkoun ,G . W i l lcox a nd C .O . Q ua l se t( e d s ) T he o r ig in so fa gr i cu l tu re a nd c r op d ome s t i ca t ion . I CARDA :A leppo , S y r ia , 1 32 144 . J a come t , S . 1 987 P räh i s tor i sche G e t r e id ef und e . B o tan i sche sI n s t i tu td e rU n ive r s i tä tA b te i lung P f lanzen sy s tema t ik u nd G eobo tan ik ,B a se l . J one s ,G . 1 99 1 N ume r ica la na ly s i si na r chaeobo tany . I n : W . v an Z e i s t ,K . Wa sy l ikowa a nd K .E .B eh re ( e d s )P rog r e s si nO ld W or ld P a laeoe thno -bo tany . R o t te rdam : A .A .B a lkema ,6 3 -80 . K a r im ,F .M . a nd Q u raan , S .A . 1 986 Med i c ina lP lan t so fJ ordan . Y annouk U n iv e r s i ty , I r b id ,J o rdan . K au fman ,D . 1 992 H un te r -ga the re r so ft h eL ev an t ine E p ipa la eo l i th ic : T he s o c io log ica lo r ig in so fs e den t i sm .J ou rna lo f M ed i te r ranean A r chaeo log y 5( 2 ) , 1 65 -20 1 . K i rkb r ide ,D . 1 966 F i ve s e a son sa tt h eP re P o t te ry N eo l i th ic v i l lage o fB e idha i nJ o rdan .P a le s t ine E xp lo ra t ion Q ua r te r ly 9 8 , 8 72 . K i rkb r ide ,D . 1 985 T he e nv i ronmen to ft h eP e t ra r eg ion d u r ing t h eP re P o t te ry N eo l i th ic . I n : A . H ad id i ( e d )S tud ie si nt h e H i s to ry a nd A r chaeo logy o fJ ordan I .D epa r tmen to fA n t iqu i t ie so fJ o rdan , 17 124 . K i s lev ,M .E . 1 985 E a r ly N eo l i th ic h o r sebean f r om Y if tah 'e l , I s rae l .S c ience 2 28 , 3 19 -320 . K i s lev ,M .E . 1 988 N aha l H ema rC av e , d e s s ica ted p l an tr ema in s : A n i n te r im r e po r t .A t iquo t 1 8 , 7 6 -8 1 . K i s lev ,M .E . 1 997 E a r ly a g r icu l tu re a nd p a leo e co logy o fN e t iv H agdud . I n : 0 . B a r -Yo sef a nd A . G ophe r( e d s )A ne a r ly N eo l i th i c V i l lag ei nt h eJ ordan V a l ley ( Ame r ican S choo lo fP reh i s to r ic R e sea rch B u l le t in 4 3 ) .C amb r idge , U SA : H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty , P eabody Mu seum o fA rchaeo logy a nd E thno logy ,2 09 -236 . K i s lev ,M .E . , B a r -Yo sef , 0 . a nd G ophe r ,A . 1 986 E a r ly N eo l i th ic d ome s t ica ted a nd w i ld b a r ley f r om t h eN e t iv H agdud r e g ion i nt h eJ o rdan V a l ley .I s ra e lJ ou rna lo fB o tany 3 5 , 1 97 -20 1 . K i s lev ,M .E . ,N ade l ,D .a nd C a rm i ,I .1 992 E p ipa laeo l i th ic ( 19 ,000 B P )c e rea la nd f r u i td i e ta tO ha lo I ,S ea o fG a l i le e ,I s rae l . R ev iew o fP a laeobo tany a nd P a lyno log y7 3 , 1 6 1-166 . K öh le r -Ro l lef son ,I .1 988 T he a f te rma th o ft h eL evan t ine N eo l i th ic r e vo lu t ion i nt h el i gh to fe c o log ica la nd e t hnog raph ic e v idenc e .P a ljor i en t 1 4( 1 ) , 8 7 -93 . K öh le r -Ro l lef son , I .1 992 A mode lf o rt h ed ev e lopmen to fN omad ic p a s to ra l i sm o nt h eT ran s jo rdan ian P l a teau . I n : 0 . B a r Y o sef a nd A . K hazanov ( e d s )P a s tora l i sm i nt h eL evan t . Monog raph si n Wo r ld A rchaeo logy n o . 1 0 . Mad ison , W i scon s in : P r eh i s to ry P re s s , 1 18 . K u i j t , I .2 000 P eop le a nd s pace i ne a r ly a g r icu l tu ra lv i l lage s : e xp lo r ing d a i ly l i ve s ,c ommun i ty s i ze ,a nd a r ch i te c tu re i nt h e L a te P re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic . J ou rna lo fA n th ropo log ica lA r chaeo logy 1 9 , 7 5 102 . K u i j t , I .i np r ep . A r ch i tec tu re , s t ra t ig raphy ,a nd c h rono logy o ft h eP re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic A a nd L a te N a tuf ian p e r iod o c cupa t ion so fI r aq e d -Dubb ,J o rdan . J ou rna lo fF ie ld A r chaeo logy . K u i j t , I . , Mab ry ,J .a nd P a lumbo ,G . 1 99 1 E a r ly N eo l i th ic u se o fu p land a r ea so f Wad ie l -Yab i s :p r e l im ina ry e v idenc ef r om t h ee xcava t ion so f' I raq e d -Dubb ,J o rdan .P a l jor ien t 1 7( 1 ) ,9 9 108 .

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K u s te r ,H . 1 991 . P hy to so c io logy a nd a r cha eobo tany . I n : D .R .H a r r i sa nd K .D . T homa s( e d s ) Mod e l l ing e co log i ca lc hang e . I n s t i tu te o fA rcha eo logy ,U n ive r s i ty C o l lege L ondon :A rche type P ub l ica t ion s , 1 7 -26 . L ad iz in sky ,G . 1 989 O r ig in a nd d ome s t ica t ion o ft h eS ou thw e s tA s ian g ra in l e gume s .I n :D .R .H a r r i sa nd G .C .H i l lman ( e d s ) F orag ing a nd F a rm ing . L ondon :U nw in H yman ,3 74 -389 . L ange ,A .G . 1 990 D eH o rden N ea rW i jk B i jD uu r s tede ( P lan tr ema in sf r om an a t ive s e t t lemen ta tt h eR oman F ron t ie r :A n ume r ica la pp roach ) ,N ed e r la r u i se O ud hed en . 1 3 ,K romme R i jn P ro jek t3 , ROB , Ame r sf oo r t . L ev i S a la ,I .1 996 A S tud yo fM icro scop i cP o l i sh o nF l in tI mp lemen t s . BAR ( I n tS e r )6 29 . L imb rey , S . 1 975 . S o i ls c ience i na r chaeo logy . L ondon :A cadem ic P re s s . Mab ry ,J . ,P a lumbo ,G .a nd K u i j t ,I .1 988 T he 1 987 Wad ie l -Yab i ss u rvey .A nnua lo ft h eD epa r tmen to fA n t iqu i t ie so fJ o rd an 3 2 ,2 75 -305 . Mab ry ,J .a nd P a lumbo ,G . 1 992 E nv i ronmen ta l ,e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica lc on s t ra in t so na nc ien ts e t t lemen tp a t te rn si nt h e Wad i e l -Yab i sr eg ion . I n : A . H ad id i( e d )S t ud ie si nt h eH i s tor ya nd A r chaeo logy o fJ ordan I V . D epa r tmen to fA n t iqu i t ie so f J o rdan , Amman ,6 7 -72 . Mac tunbe r ,P .G . a nd H ead ,M .J . 1 99 1 I mp l ica t ion so ft h e Wad ia l -Hammeh s e qu ence sf o rt h et e rm ina ld ry ing o fL ake L i san , J o rdan .P a laeog eog raphy , P a laeoc l ima to logy , P a la eoeco logy 8 4 , 1 63 -173 . Mad sen ,T . 1 988 Mu l t iva r ia te s t a t i s t ic sa nd a r chaeo logy . I n : T . Mad sen ( e d ) Mu l t iva r ia te A r chaeo logy . J u t land A rchaeo log ica lS o c ie ty P ub l ica t ion s XX I ,A a rhu sU n iv e r s i ty P re s s , 7 27 . Maga r i tz ,M . a nd H e l le r ,J . 1 980 A d e se r tm ig ra t ion i n d ica to r —o xygen i s o top ic c ompo s i t ion o fl a nd s na i l s h e l l s . P a laeog eography , P a laeoc l ima to logy , P a iaeoeco logy 3 2 , 1 53 162 . Maga r i tz ,M . 1 986 E nv i ronmen ta lc hange sr e co rded i nt h eU ppe rP l e i s toc ene a l ong t h ed e se r tb ounda ry , S ou the rn I s rae l . P a laeogeog raphy , P a laeoc l ima to logy , P a laeoeco log y5 3 ,2 13 -229 . Ma r t in ,L . 1 994 Hun t ing a nd h erd ing i n as em i -a r id r eg ion : a na r chaeo log ica la nd e t ho log i ca ls t ud yo ft h ef auna lr ema in s f rom t h eE p ipa laeo l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic o fE a s tern J ord an . U npub l i shed P hD t h e s i s , S hef f i e ld U n ive r s i ty . Ma r t in ,L . 2 000 Mamma lr ema in sf r om t h ee a s te rn J o rd an ian N eo l i t h ic , a nd t h en a tu re o fc ap r ine h e rd ing i nt h es t eppe . P aMor ien t2 5 ( 2 ) , 8 7 104 . McCo r r i s ton ,J .a nd H o le ,F . 1 99 1 T he e co logy o fs e a sona ls t re s sa nd t h eo r ig in so fa g r icu l tu re i nt h eN ea rE a s t . Ame r i can A n th ropo log i s t9 3 ( 1 ) ,4 6 -69 . M i l le r ,N .F . 1 984 T he u s eo fd ung a sf u e l :a ne t hnog raph ic e xamp le a nd a na r cha eo log ica la pp l ica t ion .P aMor ien t 1 0( 2 ) ,7 1 7 9 . M i l le r ,N .F . 1 988 R a t io si np a leo e thnobo tan ica la na ly s i s . I n :C .A .H a sdo rf a nd V .S . P oppe r( e d s )C ur ren tP a l eoe thnobo tany . C h icago :U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P re s s ,7 2 -85 . M i l le r ,N .F . 1 99 1 T he N ea rE a s t . I n : W .v an Z e is t ,K . Wa sy l ikowa a nd K .E . B eh re ( e d s )P rog r e s s i nO ld W o r ld P a laeoe thnobo ta r r y . R o t te rdam :A .A . B a lkema , 1 33 160 . M i l le r ,N .F . 1 992 T he o r ig in so fp l an tc u l t iva t ion i nt h eN ea rE a s t . I n : C .W . C owan a nd P . J . Wa t son ( e d s ) T he O r ig in so f A g r icu l tu re . A nI n te rna t iona lP e r spec t ive . Wa sh ing ton : Sm i th son ian , 3 9 -58 . Moo re ,A .M .T . 1 982 A g r icu l tu ra lo r ig in si nt h eN ea rE a s t : A mode lf o rt h e 1 980 's . W or ld A r chaeo log y 1 4 ,2 24 -236 . Moo re ,A .M .T . 1 985 T he d eve lopmen to fN eo l i th ic s o c ie t ie si nt h eN ea rE a s t .A d vance s i nW or ld A rchaeo logy 4 ,1 69 . Moo re ,A .M .T . a nd H i l lman , G .C . 1 992 T he P l e i s toc ene t oH o lo cene t r an s i t ion a nd h uman e conomy i ns ou thwe s tA s ia : T he i mpac to ft h eY ounge rD rya s . Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 5 7( 3 ) ,4 82 -494 .

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Moo re ,A .M . T . ,H i l lman , G .C . a nd L egge ,A .J . 2 000 V i l lag eo nt h eE uph ra te s :f rom f orag ing t of a rm ing a tA bu Hu r ey ra . O xf o rd U n ive r s i ty P re s s : Mad i son ,N ew Y o rk . d e Mou l in s ,D 1 993 L e sr e s te sd ep l an te sc a rbon i s6e sd eC af e rH öyük . C ah ie r sd el ' Euph ra t e 7 ,E d i t ion sR eche rche s u rl e s C iv i l i sa t ion s ,P a r i s , 1 9 1 -234 . d e Mou l in s ,D 1 994 A g r icu l tu ra lc hang e sa tP r e -Po t te ly N eo l i th i c BE uphra te sa nd s t eppe s i t e si nn or thea s tS y r ia a nd s ou th e a s te rn T u rk ey . U npub l i shed P hD t h e s i s ,U n ive r s i ty C o l lege L ondon . d e Mou l in s ,D . 1 997 A g r icu l tura lc hang e sa tE uphra te sa nd S t eppe S i te si nt h em id 81 ht ot h e1 5dim i l lenn ium B .C . BAR ( I n t S e r )6 83 . Mu s i l ,A . 1 928 T he m anne r sa nd c u s tom so ft h e Rwa la B edou in s . Amer ican G eog raph i cS oc ie ty N ew Y o rk . N e e f .R . 1 987 P a laeoe thnobo tany . I n : H .J .N i s sen e ta lR epo r to nt h ef i r s tt wo s e a son so fe x cava t ion sa tB a s ta .A nnua lo ft h e D epa r tmen to fA n t iqu i t ie so fJ ordan XXX I , 7 9 119 . N e e f R . 1 988a T he F l o ra lR ema in s . I n :Z .A . K af af i ,J eb e lA bu T hawwab : AP o t t e ry N eo l i th ic V i l lage i nN o r th J o rdan , i n : A .N . G a r ra rd a nd H .G . G ebe l( e d s ) T he P reh i s tory o fJ ordan . BAR ( h i tS e r )3 96 ( i ) ,4 66 . N e e f ,R . 1 988b N o te o nt h eY a rmouk ian p l an tr ema in s . I n : M . Muhe i sen e ta lE xcava t ion sa t' AM R ahub , aF ina lN a tu f ian a nd Y a rmouk ian s i te n ea rI r b id ( 1 985 ) . I n :A .N .G a r ra rd a nd H .G .G ebe l( e d s )T he P reh i s to ry o fJo rdan . BAR ( M tS e r )3 96 ( i ) ,4 97 . N e sb i t t , M .a nd S amue l ,D . 1 996 F rom s t ap le c r op t oe x t inc t ion? T he a r chaeo logy a nd h i s to ry o ft h eh u l led w hea t s . h i : S . P adu lo s i ,K . H amme ra nd J .H e l le r( e d s )H u l led w hea t s . P romo t ing t h ec on se rva t ion a nd u s eo fu nde ru t i l ized a nd n ege lec ted c r op s .4 . P roceed ing so ft h eF i r s tI n te rna t iona l Wo rk shop o n H u l led Whea t s ,2 1 -22 J u ly 1 995 , C a s te lv e cch io P a sco l i ,T u scany ,I t a ly . I n te rna t iona lP l an tG ene t ic R e sou rce sI n s t i tu te , R ome ,I t a ly ,4 1100 . N ik lew i sk i ,J .a nd v an Z e i s t ,W . 1 970 A l a te Q ua te rna ry p o l len d i ag ram f r om n o r thw e s te rn S y r ia .A c ta B o tan i ca N ee r land ica 1 9( 5 ) , 7 37 -754 . N oy ,T . ,H igg s ,E .S . a nd L egge , A .J . 1 973 R e cen te xcava t ion sa tN aha lO ren , I s rae l .P roceed ing so ft h eP r eh i s tor ic S oc ie ty 3 9 , 7 5 -99 . O 'Conne l l ,J . F . , H awke s ,K . a nd B lu r ton Jone s ,N .G . 1 99 1 D i s t r ibu t ion o fr e f u se -p roduc ing a c t iv i t ie sa tH azda r e s iden t ia l b a se -camp s : i mp l ica t ion sf o ra na ly se so fa r chaeo log ica ls i te s t ruc tu re . I n : E .M . K ro l la nd T .D . P r ic e( e d s ) T he i n te rpr e ta t ion o fa r chaeo log ica ls pa t ia lp a t te rn ing . N ew Y o rk : P l enum ,6 1 -77 . O l sz ew sk i ,D . 1 988 T he n o r th S y r ian E p ipa laeo l i th ic a nd i t sr e la t ionsh ip t ot h eN a tuf ian C omp lex .L evan t2 0 , 1 27 137 . P a lumbo ,G . , Mab ry ,J .a nd K u i j t , I .1 990 T he Wad ie l -Yab i ss u rvey r e po r to nt h e 1 989 f i e ld s e a son .A nnua lo ft h e D epa r tmen to fA n t iqu i t ie so fJ ordan 3 4 ,9 5 118 . P e l t enbu rg ,E . ,C o l ledge , S . ,C rof t ,P . ,J a ck son ,A . , McCa r tney ,C .a nd Mu r ray ,M .A . 2 000 Ag ro -pa s to ra l i s tc o lon i sa t ion o f C yp ru si nt h e 1 0t hm i l lenn ium B P : i n i t ia la s se s smen t s . A n t iqu i ty 7 4 , 8 44 -853 . P e l tenbu rg ,E . , C o l ledge , S . ,C rof t , P . ,J a ck son ,A . , McCa r tney ,C .a nd Mu r ray , M A 2 00 1 N eo l i th ic d i spe r sa l sf r om t h e L evan t ine C o r r ido r : aMed i te r ranean p e r spec t ive .L evan t XXX I I ' , 3 5 -64 . P enn ing ton ,W . 1 974 T he H i s to ry o ft h eB r i t i sh V eg e ta t ion . rd E d i t ion ,L ondon : E ng l i sh U n ive r s i ty P re s s . P e rk in s ,D . 1 966 A ppend ix B .T he f a una f r om Madamagh a nd B e idha . I n : D . K i rkb r id e ,F i v es e a son sa tt h eP re P o t te ry N eo l i th ic v i l lage o fB e idha i nJ o rdan . P a le s t ine E xp lora t ion Q ua r te r ly 9 8 , 6 6 -67 . P o s t ,G .E . 1 932 / 1933 F lo ra o fS y r ia , P a le s t ine a nd S ina i . V o lume s I& I ,B e i ru t : Ame r ican P re s s . R a ik e s ,R .L . 1 966 A ppend ix C .B e idha p r eh i s to r ic c l ima te a nd w a te rs upp ly . I n :D .K i rkb r id e ,F iv es e a son sa tt h eP re P o t te ry N eo l i th ic v i l lage o fB e idha i nJ o rdan .P a l e s t ine E xp lora t ion Q ua r ter ly 9 8 ,6 8 -72 .

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R a ike s , T .D . 1 980 N o te so n s ome N eo l i th ic a nd l a te rs i te si n Wad iA raba a nd t h eD ead S e aV a l ley .L evan tX I I ,4 0 -60 . R a ike s , T . 1 985 T he c ha rac te ro ft h e Wad iA raba . I n : A . H ad id i( e d )S t ud ie s i nt h eH i s tor ya nd A r chaeo log yo fJ ordan I . D epa r tmen to fA n t iqu i t ie so fJ o rdan ,9 5 10 1 . R icha rd son ,J . E . 1 997 A na na ly s i so ft h ef a una la s semb lage sf r om t wo P re -Po t t e ry N eo l i th ic s i te si nt h e Wad iF i dan ,J o rdan . I n : H .G . G eb e l ,Z .K af af ia nd G .O . R o l lef son ( e d s ) T he P reh i s to ry o fJ ord an , I LP er spec t ive sf rom 1 997 . S t ud ie si nE a r ly N ea rE a s te rn P roduc t ion , S ub s i s tenc ea nd E nv i ronmen t4 . B e r l in : e xo r ien te ,4 97 -510 . R o l lef son ,G .O . 1 987 L oca la nd e x te rna lr e la t ion si nt h eL ev an t ine P PN p e r iod : ' A in G haza l( J o rdan )a s ar e g iona lc en t re .I n : A . H ad id i( e d )S tud ie si nt h eA r chaeo lo gy a nd H i s tory o fJ or d an I I . D epa r tmen to fA n t iqu i t ie so fJ o rdan ,2 9 -32 . R o l lef son , G .O . 1 989 T he L a te A ce ram ic N eo l i th ic o ft h eL evan t : As y n the s i s . P a ljor ien t 1 5( 1 ) , 1 68 173 . R o l lef son , G .O . 1 992 N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen tp a t te r si nn o r the rn J o rdan a nd P a le s t ine . I n : A . H ad id i( e d )S tud ie si nt h e A r chaeo logy a nd H i s tory o fJ ordan I V . D epa r tmen to fA n t iqu i t ie so fJ o rdan , 1 2 3 127 . R o l lef son ,G .O . a nd K öh le r -Ro l lef son ,I . 1 989 T he c o l lap se o fE a r ly N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen ti nt h eS ou the rn L evan t . I n : I . H e r shkov i tz ( e d )P eop le a nd c u l tu r ei nc hang e . BAR ( I n tS e r ) , 5 08 ( i ) , 7 3 -90 . R o sen ,A .M . 1 986 C i t ie so fC lay -T he G eoa rchaeo lo gy o fT e l l s . C h icago : U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P re s s . R o s s igno l -S t r ick ,M . 1 995 S ea land c o r re la t ion o fp o l len r e co rd si nt h eE a s te rn Med i te r ranean f o rt h eg l ac ia l in t e rg lac ia l t r an s i t ion : b i o s t ra t ig raphy v e r su sr a d iome t r ic t ime sca le . Q ua terna r yS c ience R e v iew s 1 4( 9 ) , 8 93 -9 15 . S ch if f e r ,M .B . 1 987 F orma t ion P roce s se so ft h eA r chaeo log ica lR eco rd . A lbuque rque : U n ive r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P re s s . S he r ra t t ,A . 1 980 Wa te r , s o i la nd s e a sona l i ty i ne a r ly c e rea lc u l t iva t ion . W or ld A r chaeo logy 1 ( 3 ) , 3 13 -330 . S imm s , S .R . 1 988 T he a r chaeo log ica l s t ruc tu re o f ab edou in c amp .J ou rna lo fA r chaeo log i ca lS c ience 1 5 , 1 97 -2 11 . Sm i laue r ,P . 1 992 C ANODRA W v er s ion 3 . 0 , u ser ' sg u id e . M ic rocompu te rP ow e r , I t haca ,N ew Y o rk , U SA . S t ah l ,A .B . 1 984 H om in id d i e ta ry s e lec t ion b ef o re f i re . C u r r en tA n th ropo logy 2 5 ( 2 ) , 1 5 1168 . T e rB raak ,C . J .F . 1 988 C anoco -aFOR N ew Y o rk ,U SA .

p rog ram f or c anon ica lc ommun i ty , v er s ion 2 . 1 .M ic rocompu te rP owe r ,I t ha ca ,

T own send ,C .C . a nd G ue s t ,E . 1 966 F lo ra o fI r aq . V o lume I ,M in i s t ry o f Ag r icu l tu re , I r aq . T own send ,C .C . ,G ue s t ,E .a nd A l iA l -Raw i 1 968 F lora o fI r aq . V o lume I X ,M in i s t ry o f Ag r icu l tu re , I r aq . T own send ,C .C . a nd G ue s t ,E . 1 974 F lora o fI r aq . V o lume I I ,M in i s t ry o fA g r icu l tu re , I r aq . T own send ,C .C . a nd G ue s t ,E . 1 980 F lora o fI r aq . V o lume I V ,M in i s t ry o f Ag r icu l tu re ,I r aq . T own send ,C .C . a nd G ue s t ,E . 1 985 F lora o fI r aq . V o lume V I I I ,M in i s t ry o fA g r icu l tu re , I r aq . U nge r -H am i l ton ,R . 1 989 T he E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic S ou the rn L evan ta nd t h eo r ig in so fc u l t iva t ion . C u r ren tA n th ropo logy 3 0( 1 ) , 8 8 103 . V a lkoun ,J . ,G i le s Wa ine s ,J .a nd K onopka ,J . 1 998 C u r ren tg eog raph ica ld i s t r ibu t ion a nd h ab i ta to fw i ld w he a t sa nd b a r ley . I n : I n : A .B . D aman ia ,J .V a lkoun ,G . W i l lcox a nd C .O . Q ua l se t( e d s ) T he o r ig in so fa g r i cu l tu r ea nd c rop d ome s t ica t ion . I CARDA : A leppo , S y r ia ,2 93 -299 . v an Z e i s t , W . 1 972 P a laeobo tan ica lr e su l t so ft h e 1 970 s e a son a tç ayönü , T u rk ey .H e l in ium 1 2 , 3 19 . v an Z e i s t , W . 1 979 /80 E xamen d e sg r a ine sd eT e l le sS inn .A na to l i ca 7 ,5 -59 . v an Z e is t , W . 1 988 S ome a spec t so fe a r ly p l an th u sband ry i nt h eN e a rE a s t .A na to l ica 1 5 , 5 0 -67 . 2 54

v an Z e i s t ,W . a nd B akke rH ee re s ,J .A .H . 1 979 S ome e conom ic a nd e co log ica la spec t so ft h ep l an th u sband ry o fT e l lA swad . P aMo r ien t5 ,1 6 1169 . v an Z e i s t ,W . a nd Wo ld r ing ,H . 1 980 H o lo cene v ege ta t ion a nd c l ima te o fn o r thw e s te rn S y r ia .P a laeoh i s to r ia XX I I , 1 1125 . v an Z e i s t , W . a nd B akke rH ee re s ,J .A .H . 1 982 A rchaeobo tan ica l S t ud ie si nt h eL evan t 1 .N eo l i th ic s i te si nt h eD ama scu s B a s in :A swad ,G ho ra if da nd R amad .P a laeoh i s tor ia 2 4 , 1 65 -256 . v an Z e i s t ,W . a nd B akke rH ee re s ,J .A .H . 1 984a A rchaeobo tan ica l S t ud ie si nt h eL evan t3 .L a te -Pa laeo l i th ic Mu reyb i t . P a laeoh i s tor ia 2 6 , 1 7 1199 . v an Z e i s t , W . a nd B akke rH ee re s ,J .A .H . 1 984b A rchaeobo tan ica lS t ud ie si nt h eL evan t2 .N eo l i th ic a nd H a laf l e ve l sa nd R a s S ham ra . P a laeoh i s tor ia 2 6 , 1 5 1170 . v an Z e i s t ,W . a nd Wa te rbo lk -van R oo i jen ,W . , 1 985 T he p a la eobo tany o fT e l lB ouq ra s ,e a s te rn S y r ia .P aMor ien t 1 ( 2 ) , 1 37 1 4 1 . v an Z e i s t ,W . ,a nd d eR o l le r ,G .J . 1 99 1-92 T he p l an th u sband ry o fA ce ram ic C ayönü , S ET u rkey .P a laeoh i s tor ia 3/34 ,6 5 9 6 . v an Z e i s t , W . a nd d eR o l le r ,G .J . 1 995 P l an tr ema in sf r om A s ik l iH öyük , ap re -po t te ry N eo l i th ic s i te i nC en t ra lA na to l ia . V eg e ta t ion H i s tor ya nd A r chaeobo tany 4 ,1 79 185 . d eV r ie s ,H .L . a nd B a rend sen ,G .W . 1 954 Mea su remen t so fa ge b yt h eC a rbon 14 t e chn iqu e .N a tu r e 1 74 , 138 114 1 . Wagne r ,G .E . 1 989 C ompa rab i l i ty a mong r e cove ry t e chn ique s . I n : C .A . H a s to rf a nd V .S . P oppe r( e d s ) C u r r en t P a l eoe thnobo tany . C h icago : T he U n iv e r s i ty o fC h icago P re s s : C h icago , 1 7 -35 . Wa s s e ,A . 2 00 1 T he w i ld g oa t so fL ebanon : e v idence f o re a r ly d ome s t ica t ion . L e van t XXX I I I ,2 1 -33 . Wa t son ,P . J . 1 983 A n o te o nt h eJ a rmo p l an tr ema in s . I n : L .S . B ra idwood ,R . J . B ra idwood ,B .H owe ,C .A . R eed a nd P . J . Wa t son ( e d s )P r eh i s tor ic A r chaeo lo gy A long t h eZ ag ro sF lank s . O r ien ta lP ub l ica t ion s ,v o lume 1 05 , C h icago , 5 0 1-503 . W i l lcox ,G . 1 99 1 E xp lo i ta t ion d e se s pe ce sl i gneu se sa uP roche -O r ien t :d onnie sa n th raco log ique s .P aMor ien t1 7( 2 ) , 17 126 . W i l lcox ,G . 1 992 A ppend ix 7 .P re l im ina ry r e po r to nt h ep l an tr ema in sf r om P e l la . I n :A . McN ico l le ta l( e d s )P e l la i nJ ordan 2 .M ed i te r ranean A rchaeo logy S upp lemen t2 .S ydney : Med i ta rch ,2 53 -256 . W i l lcox ,G . 1 996 E v idence f o rp l an te xp lo i ta t ion a nd v ege ta t ion h i s to ry f r om t h re eE a r ly N eo l i th ic p r e -po t t e ry s i te so nt h e E uph ra te s( Sy r ia ) . V eg e ta t ion H i s to ry a nd A r chaeobo tany 5 ,1 43 152 . W i l lcox ,G .H . 1 998 . A rchaeobo tan ica le v idence f o rt h eb eg inn ing so fa g r icu l tu re i ns ou thw e s tA s ia . I n :A .B . D aman ia ,J . V a lkoun , G . W i l lcox a nd C .O . Q ua lse t( e d s ) T he o r ig in so fa g r icu l tu r ea nd c rop d ome s t i ca t ion . A leppo , S y r ia : I CARDA , 2 5 -38 . W i l lcox ,G . 1 999 A g ra r ian c hange a nd t h eb eg inn ing so fc u l t iva t ion i nt h eN ea rE a s t : e v idence f r om w i ld p rogen i to r s , e xpe r imen ta lc u l t iva t ion a nd a r chaeobo tan ica l d a ta . I n : C .G o sden a nd J .H a the r ( e d s )T he P r eh i s to ry o fF ood A ppe t i te s f or C hang e . L ondon :R ou t ledge ,4 78 -500 . W i l son ,D .G . 1 984 T he c a rbon isa t ion o fw e ed s e ed sa nd t h e i rr e p re sen ta t ion i n mac rof o s s i la s semb lage s .I n :W .v an Z e i s ta nd W .A . C a spa r ie ( e d s )P lan t sa nd A nc ien t Man . R o t te rdam : A .A . B a lkema ,2 0 1-206 . Wood ,W .R _ , L ee J ohnson ,D . 1 978 A s u rv ey o fd i s tu rbance p roce s se si na r chaeo log ica lf o rma t ion . Ad vance si n A r chaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heor y 1 ,3 15 -38 1 . W r igh t ,K . I . 1 99 1 T he o r ig in sa nd d eve lopmen to fg round s t one a s semb lage si nL a te P l e i s to cene S ou thwe s tA s ia .P aMo r ien t 1 7( 1 ) , 1 9 -45 . W r igh t ,K . I . 1 993 E a r ly H o locene g round s tone a s semb lage si nt h eL evan t .L evan t XXV , 9 3 111 .

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Z oha ry ,D . 1 989 D ome s t ica t ion o ft h eS ou thw e s tA s ian N eo l i th ic c r op a s semb lage o fc e rea l s ,p u l se s ,a nd f l ax : t h ee v id ence f r om t h el i v ing p l an t s . I n : D .R . H a r r i sa nd G .C . H i l lman ( e d s )F orag ing a nd F a rm ing . L ondon : U nw in H yman ,3 58 -373 . Z oha ry ,D . 1 992 D ome s t ica t ion o ft h eN eo l i th ic N e a rE a s te rn c r op a s semb lage .I n : P .A nde r son -Ge rf aud ( e d )P ra i s to i r ed e I ' ag r i cu l tu r e : n ou ve l le sa pp roche se xp& imen ta le se te t hnograph ique s . Monog raph ie d u CRA 6 , d CNRS , 8 1 -86 . Z oha ry , D . 1 995 F ig . I n : J . Sma r t ta nd N .W . S immond s( e d s )E vo lu t ion o fc r op p lan t s . H a r low ,E s s ex : L ongman ,3 66 -370 . Z oha ry ,D . 1 996 T he mode o fd ome s t ica t ion o ft h ef o und e rc r op so fS ou thw e s tA s ian a g r icu l tu re . I n :H a r r i s ,D .R . ( e d ) T he O r ig in sa nd S p r ead o fAg r i cu l tu r ea nd P a s tora l i sm i nE ura s ia . L ondon : UCL P re s sL td . , 1 42 158 . Z oha ry , D . 1 999 Monophy le t ic v s .p o lyphy le t ic o r ig in o ft h ec r op so nw h ich a g r icu l tu re w a sf o unded i nt h eN ea rE a s t . G ene t ic R e sou r ce sa nd C rop E vo lu t ion 4 6( 2 ) , 1 33 142 . Z oha ry ,D . a nd H opf ,M . 2 000 D ome s t ica t ion o fP lan t si nt h eO ld W or ld 3 ' 'E d i t ion , O x f o rd : O xf o rd U n ive r s i ty P re s s . Z oha ry ,M . 1 940 F o re s t sa nd f o re s tr emnan t so fP i s tac ia a t lan t i ca D e sf . i nP a le s t ine a nd S y r ia .P a le s t ine J ou rna lo fB o tany ( R ehovo tS e r ie s )3 ,1 58 16 1 . Z oha ry , M . 1 962 P lan tL if eo fP a le s t ine .N ew Y o rk : R ona ld P re s s . Z oha ry ,M . 1 966 F lora P a lae s t ina . V o lume 1 ,T ex t . J e ru sa lem : T he I s rae lA cademy o fS c ience sa nd H uman i t ie s . Z oha ry ,M 1 972 F lo ra P a lae s t ina . V o lume 2 ,T ex t . J e ru sa lem : T he I s ra e lA cad emy o fS c ience sa nd H uman i t ie s . Z oha ry ,M . 1 973 G eobo tan i ca lF ounda t ion so ft h eM idd le E a s t . V o lume s Ia nd I , Ams te rdam : G u s tav F i sche rV e r lag . Z oha ry ,M . 1 982 P lan t so ft h eB ib l e . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n iv e r s i ty P re s s .

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