Lazarillo de Tormes: A Graphic Novel 9781487529390

Citation preview

Lazarillo de Tormes

See my website to learn more about the process of researching and creating the adaptation of Lazarillo as a graphic novel: https://www.ryerson.ca/~lazarillographic/index-eng.html. See also the trailer: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6JDfXgudbKY.

Lazarillo de Tormes a graphic novel

Written and Adapted as a Graphic Novel by Enriqueta Zafra Illustrated by Jesús Mora

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO PRESS toronto buffalo london

© University of Toronto Press 2021 Toronto Buffalo London utorontopress.com Printed in Canada

ISBN 978-1-4875-2937-6 (cloth) ISBN 978-1-4875-2938-3 (paper)

ISBN 978-1-4875-2940-6 (EPUB) ISBN 978-1-4875-2939-0 (PDF)

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Title: Lazarillo de Tormes : a graphic novel / written and adapted as a graphic novel by Enriqueta Zafra ; illustrated by Jesus Mora. Other titles: Graphic novelization of (work): Lazarillo de Tormes. Names: Zafra, Enriqueta, 1973– author. | Mora, Jesus, 1971– illustrator. Series: Toronto Iberic ; 62. Description: Series statement: Toronto Iberic series ; 62 | Includes bibliographical references. Identifiers: Canadiana (print) 20210144386 | Canadiana (ebook) 20210144394 | ISBN 9781487529383 (softcover) | ISBN 9781487529376 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781487529406 (EPUB) | ISBN 9781487529390 (PDF) Subjects: LCGFT: Graphic novels. | LCGFT: Graphic novel adaptations. Classification: LCC PN6733.Z34 L39 2021 | DDC 741.5/971 – dc23 University of Toronto Press acknowledges the financial assistance to its publishing program of the Canada Council for the Arts and the Ontario Arts Council, an agency of the Government of Ontario.

For Paul, who inspires me to explore. For Iris and Simon, because they are the future and they love reading graphic novels.

Contents Acknowledgments

ix

Introduction

xi

1553

1

A Brief Note on the English Translation

3

Four Editions

5

The “Case” in Question

6

Chapter One

7

Prohibitorum 11 Characters Implicated in Lazarillo’s Editorial History

12

1599

33

Chapter Two

39

2019

55

Chapter Three

67

Chapter Four

97

Chapter Five

99

Chapter Six

103

Chapter Seven

107

Bibliography

123

Acknowledgments I would like to express my gratitude to the Office of the Associate Dean of Arts, Research and Graduate Studies at Ryerson University for supporting this venture through the Accelerator Grant and the Special Research Grant. Without everyone’s support and encouragement at the Office of the Associate Dean of Arts this project would not have been possible. I have also been fortunate to count on the support of the Work Study Research Assistant Program and to work with four formidable research assistants – Krystyne Kontos, Jennifer Doan, Daniela Sosa-Roque, and especially Victoria Gómez. Each one of them has played an important role in developing the website and recording the interviews that document this project. I am also particularly grateful to my colleague and friend, Professor Felipe Ruan, who shared his passion for the history of the censored Lazarillo and encouraged me to follow my heart with this venture. Most importantly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the illustrator and artist, Jesús Mora, whose talent brings to life all the subtleties of Lazarillo’s life story. From the beginning, Mora captured my vision and ideas into illustrations with great mastery and sensitivity. Not only that, his fresh approach to the story of Lazarillo together with his passion, vision, and work ethic made this project truly special. I am especially grateful for the helpful and encouraging words by the anonymous readers to whom the University of Toronto Press sent my original manuscript for evaluation. Their comments are the kind of letter I keep for a rainy day. I also want to thank Suzanne Rancourt, senior humanities editor of the University of Toronto Press, and Robert Davidson, Toronto Iberic co-editor, for their interest in this project from the beginning. To all of them, thank you.

Introduction Of all the classics of Spanish literature, Lazarillo de Tormes (1554) is credited with founding a literary genre, the picaresque novel, from the Spanish word pícaro, meaning “rogue.” In novels of this type, the adventures of the pícaro expose injustice while amusing the reader. This extensive genre includes not only the work of Spanish authors like Mateo Alemán’s Guzmán de Alfarache (1599), Quevedo’s El Buscón (1626), and Cervantes’s Rinconete and Cortadillo (1613), El coloquio de los perros (1613), and even characters like Maese Pedro in Don Quixote (1605), but also the work of international authors like Henry Fielding’s Tom Jones and Mark Twains’s Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884). Furthermore, themes of the “anti-hero” are particularly relevant to today’s reader, given the parallels that can be drawn between our Lázaro and, for example, Rich Terfry’s Wicked and Weird: The Amazing Tales of Buck 65 (2015). However, while Lazarillo is still read in its original form, I believe that this graphic novel adaptation offers a new source of information to the modern reader.1 To begin with, it provides not only the context in which this novel appeared, but also the history of the book and its circulation in the sixteenth century and beyond, giving the reader a complete and immersive experience of the adventures and misadventures of the ultimate picaresque hero. The Lazarillo graphic adaptation is based not only on the “original” four 1554 versions of the book,2 but also on the 1573 censored Lazarillo prepared by the humanist and court bureaucrat Juan López de

1 Rob Davis’s graphic novel adaptation of Don Quixote (2011) was a great source of inspiration. The enormous success of Davis’s adaptation demonstrates that there is an interest in reading graphic novels of the classics today. Some of the comments that readers posted on blogs were that it was less threatening to approach these well-known but little read classics in a medium that felt more comfortable for them. Another recent and interesting adaptation to the graphic novel form is Don Quijote of La Mancha (2018) by Ilan Stavans. See also El Buscón en las Indias (2019) by Alain Ayroles and Juanjo Guarnido. 2 The editio princeps, or first printed copy, of Lazarillo is lost. Modern editions are based on the four versions from 1554 that have been preserved. The last one was found in 1992 in Barcarrota (Extremadura, Spain) and the whole quite surreal finding is documented in the graphic novel. The press release illustrated in the graphic novel is based on the actual newspaper clipping that documents the finding; see the actual picture here: http://labibliotecamunicipaldebarcarrota.blogspot. com/2015/12/hoy-hace-20-anos.html. See also this video for a description of the books found (eleven in total) and references to the main characters who were part of this story: Francisco de Peñaranda, the doctor and the original owner of the books, who hid them behind a wall in the sixteenth century; the actual owner of the house; and the worker who discovered the books: https://www

Velasco.3 He, along with the Inquisitor Fernando de Valdés and his successors Diego de Espinosa and Gaspar de Quiroga, plays a significant part in the storyline.4 In this regard, our visual interpretation, carefully documented by research on the history of the book, offers a glimpse into what caused these censors, humanists, and bureaucrats to consider this seemingly harmless book so dangerous. For one thing, this not-so-serious story about a nobody managed to attract the attention of powerful readers, printers, booksellers, and writers, as well as the inquisitors and the king’s entourage. You can find all these characters in the graphic novel: for example, the bookseller and printer, Juan Berrillo, who saw the potential for profit in publishing the censored version of Lazarillo in 1599 by riding the wave of the commercial success of Guzmán de Alfarache (1599).5 His 1599 edition is possibly the most-read edition of Lazarillo and most likely the one that authors like Francisco de Quevedo and Miguel de Cervantes read or reread with renewed interest because of the sensation that Mateo Alemán, who probably read the 1573 edition,6 had caused with his bestseller, Guzmán de Alfarache. Indeed, writers read Lazarillo very carefully. It’s for this reason that Miguel de Cervantes is featured in this graphic novel: he is, after all, the ultimate reader. There is no one better than Cervantes to offer a literary opinion of the “new” genre, since Cervantes is known for repurposing and appropriating literary genres (Byzantine novels, romances of chivalry, the pastoral, and the picaresque novels) and reworking them into his original creations. In our graphic novel we imagine how Cervantes could have read Lazarillo and what his “reader response” to it might have been. For example, one of the issues that Cervantes might have had with Lazarillo was its use of the first-person narrative. As Peter Dunn points out, “Cervantes did not write first-person narrative except within a third-person frame. The picaresque did not gain his fervent participation ... Yet, without  Lazarillo and the others he would not have written Rinconete y Cortadillo at all, nor the Coloquio, nor La ilustre fregona as we now have it.”7 Furthermore, Cervantes’s interpretation of the picaresque always includes dialogue, which in theory excludes his works, such as Rinconete y Cortadillo and Coloquio de los perros, from being true examples of the picaresque. Even the “solitary” task of writing the prologue to Don Quixote incorporates the dialogue form by including the presence of a “friend” who advises him on how to successfully complete it. It is for this reason that Cervantes’s presence in the graphic novel and the way he expresses his opinion about Lazarillo is illustrated in the same way: by sharing his thoughts through conversation with a “friend.” It is only in dialogue that his creativity flourishes. For the

3

4

5

6

7

.youtube.com/watch?v=lNWilDyRln4. For more information on Francisco de Peñaranda, see El secreto de los Peñaranda (2004) by Fernando Serrano Mangas. With the 1559 inquisitorial ban on the 1554 Lazarillo, López de Velasco’s 1573 censored edition became the most readily available version of the book in Spain until the abolition of the Inquisition in 1834. This edition prepared by Velasco is as important to literary history as the four 1554 versions since none of them are the original or editio princeps. There are two copies of Velasco’s 1573 edition: one in the Spanish National Library in Madrid (Biblioteca Nacional BNM, R/1034) and another in the British Library (C.183.c.15). Valdés is responsible for banning Lazarillo and placing it on the Inquisition’s Index of Forbidden Books in 1559. His successor, Diego de Espinosa, is probably the one who decided, fourteen years after the prohibition, to prepare a censored version. This was probably because the books continued to be read in pirate editions. Espinosa died in 1572 without seeing the project finished. It was Gaspar de Quiroga, the next inquisitor, who saw the project come to fruition. Berrillo commissioned three editions of Lazarillo in 1599. Two of them are stand-alone editions and one is published, interestingly, with a conduct manual, El Galateo español by Lucas Gracián Dantisco. The number of editions in one year is a clear indication that Berrillo’s instinct was right. Lazarillo clearly enjoyed a renewed success in 1599. See Prof. Felipe Ruan’s website for more on the subject: https://www.arcalazarillo.org/1599. Modern editions of the censored Lazarillo castigado start in 1967 (by José María Caso Gónzalez). The next one, by Gonzalo Santonja, appeared in 2000 and was deficient because of its discrepancies with Velasco’s 1573 edition. There is a very promising edition about to be published by Reyes Coll-Tellechea. Dunn, “Cervantes De/Re-Constructs the Picaresque,” 123.

xii · Introduction

same reason, we imagine that he would have liked Lazarillo to have had a companion, someone to talk to and share his experiences with. In my adaptation, Cervantes suggests this idea to his friend: that Lazarillo’s travelling companion should be none other than his half-brother, Zaide’s son. He, the son of a Black man and a slave, who as a baby didn’t see any physical resemblance with his father, would have had an interesting perspective on the world. Furthermore, the powerful (the inquisitors Fernando Valdés, Diego de Espinosa, and Gaspar de Quiroga, and King Philip II’s entourage) make up another set of characters integrated into the graphic novel. Lazarillo had collided head-on with the interests of very influential men because the book’s protagonist was blaming those same agents of power within Spanish society at the time for his sins (stealing, lying) and shameful circumstances (living as a cuckold). Lazarillo’s author’s arrogance could not be tolerated,8 hence the necessity to silence and “castigate” not only the protagonist but the text itself with a censored version. For example, when Lazarillo explains Zaide’s crimes, which he describes in detail, he also mentions the reasons he had to commit them: “... they found out that Zaide was stealing about half the oats used for the cattle. He also rescued firewood, curry combs, aprons, horse sheets, and blankets. When there was nothing left to steal, he would take the shoes off the horses’ feet. All this he would give to my mother to sell for her to raise my little brother.” Immediately after this, Lázaro compares Zaide’s theft with that of the privileged members of society, thus absolving his stepfather of any sin: “Let us not marvel that a priest or a friar robs his flock to support his vices or those of his peers when love leads a poor slave to act this way.” This part of the text is removed by López de Velasco. By censoring it, Zaide is not compared to other “good thieves,” who although more privileged than he is, are equally moved by love and necessity and, therefore, he is left alone in his punishment. Moreover, Lázaro goes further in his defense of Zaide, since “priest” and “friars” are not only committing a crime but a sin, since they are breaking the sacred vow of celibacy. The reader of this graphic novel can review all the instances in which Lazarillo is censored and determine how most of them are done for the same reason: to protect the powerful. Furthermore, the graphic novel opens the door to discussion in the teaching of Lazarillo by suggesting possibilities rooted in critical research. To name a few, the opening page presents the author in shadow: Who was he? (Was he Diego de Mendoza, as Mercedes Agulló y Cobo suggests, or was he Alfonso de Valdés, as others propose?) The year 1553 also appears by the feet of the anonymous author, and some might think it’s a mistake ... wasn’t Lazarillo written in 1554? This is another prompt for discussion, a suggestion making reference to the lost editio princeps, possibly from 1553 but maybe earlier. What about the recipient of Lázaro’s story, the slippery “Your Excellency”? Who wanted to know about Lazarillo’s sexual arrangements and why? Again, in this case we open the door to discussion by suggesting current theories such as the research carried out by Rosa Navarro Durán, who in her 2016 edition of Lazarillo posits the argument that “Your Excellency” was a woman, probably a powerful woman who might have gone to confession with the archbishop and who was worried that her “secrets” might be in peril if her confessor were to share them while in bed with someone.9 In the graphic novel there are also references to the early English translations: the lost 1576 edition and the 1586 edition translated by David Rowlands, who used as his references

8 Much has been written on Lazarillo’s authorship (Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, Alfonso de Valdés, Luis Vives, and Fray Juan de Ortega are some of the candidates). A simple search will offer many articles and books on the subject. I will not enter into this controversy; that’s why “my author” does not show his face. Interested readers must read the work on the subject by Mercedes Agulló y Cobo and Rosa Navarro Durán. 9 Navarro Durán in Valdés, La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, 30–2.

Introduction · xiii

the 1560 French translation and the 1554 Spanish Antwerp edition. As Beatriz Rodríguez Rodríguez points out, the common practice for Elizabethan translators was to anglicize the target text by providing the translator’s own viewpoint. Protestant propaganda was also present in English translations and it was common to use French versions as intermediary texts with the Spanish originals. For our graphic novel edition, we have found the modern translation by Ilan Stavans (2016) as well as the revised translation by Michael Alpert for Penguin Books (2003) to be very useful. They both offer very approachable and smooth translations without losing the text’s Spanish flavour. Only translations like these guarantee that this “sparkling, subversive, hand grenade of a book finds its way into the hands of many college undergraduates.”10 We hope this graphic novel follows in these footsteps and serves as a contemporary visual companion to this truly explosive text. In addition, our edition seeks to bring the modern reader into the context of the novel by taking into account current interpretations: “A renewed effort to study the work [Lazarillo] must rigorously observe the historical context, and thus fix our attention to at least four key but distinct periods: (1)  Lazarillo’s composition, prior to 1554; (2) Lazarillo’s circulation as a printed text 1554–73; (3) Lazarillo’s prohibition 1559–73; and (4) Lazarillo’s republication as a censored text from 1573 on alone or in combination with other works.”11 This graphic novel, the first of its kind to date, not only historically contextualizes the 1554 publication, the 1559 prohibition by the Inquisition, and the production of the 1573 censored edition, but also contributes to current studies since, apart from references in modern editions of Lazarillo de Tormes (1554) and a few studies of varying depth and scope, it is not until recent years that the censored version, Lazarillo castigado (1573), has received some critical attention. This critical attention has come mostly from Augustín Redondo, in “Censura, literatura y transgresión en la época de Felipe II: El Lazarillo castigado de 1573;” Reyes Coll-Tellechea, in “The Spanish Inquisition and the Battle for Lazarillo: 1554, 1555, 1573” included in The Lazarillo Phenomenon; and Felipe Ruan in “Historia editorial, censura y difusión del Lazarillo de Tormes en los albores del siglo XVII.”12 Our edition, Lazarillo: A Graphic Novel, therefore fills a significant lacuna in the editorial and reception history of Lazarillo de Tormes by offering a visual context of a story that is yet to be told. This story shows us, as Coll-Tellechea points out, that “Literary texts are social artifacts embedded in a web of dynamic relations, which are subjected to the vagaries of history.”13 The need for a critical edition and an understanding of the significance of Lazarillo castigado is most evident when one considers that Juan López de Velasco’s expurgated edition was, as we mentioned earlier, the only one readily available to readers in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Far from being a textual “aberration” that has largely been ignored by traditional scholarship, Juan López de Velasco’s Lazarillo castigado is in fact a significant part of the multifaceted textual and cultural history of Lazarillo de Tormes and of that work’s relationship to other contemporary literary texts. In the absence of extant specific inquisitorial instructions on the censoring of Lazarillo, the importance of the 1573 expurgation is reconstructed in the graphic novel through recent investigations about the role played by the censor Juan López de Velasco, his place in the interlocking church and state bureaucracies, and in the patronage networks at the royal court in Madrid.14 The new research on Velasco raises noteworthy issues on the relationship between church and state bureaucracies, and most

10 https://www.stevedonoghue.com/review-archives/book-review-the-norton-critical-lazarillo-de-tormes. 11 Coll-Tellechea and McDaniel, eds., The Lazarillo Phenomenon, 14 12 Felipe Ruan has developed a website devoted to sharing research on the study and teaching of Lazarillo: https://www .arcalazarillo.org/. 13 Coll-Tellechea and McDaniel, eds., The Lazarillo Phenomenon, 75. 14 Ruan, “Literary History,” 283.

xiv · Introduction

importantly, their intervention in the production, circulation, and reception of cultural works. In this respect, our depiction of Juan López de Velasco also relies on studies such as Mercedes Agulló y Cobo’s A vueltas con el autor del Lazarillo and Reyes Coll-Tellechea’s Lazarillo Castigado: Historia de un olvido (1559–1573–1844). We posit that the censor Juan López de Velasco was keenly aware of his role as cultural actor and mediator, was cognizant of political forces and of the literary market, and ultimately saw his role as that of a literary “editor.”15 Our graphic novel reconstructs his editorial input in an interactive way so that the reader is able to witness the reasons behind his decisions, his networks and alliances, and his entrepreneurial approach to the export of his version to the American market.16 Furthermore, the only illustrated editions of Lazarillo available are addressed to young readers, and apart from comics (El Lazarillo de Tormes by Chiqui de la Fuente, 1986) and other illustrated editions of varying degrees of merit (Lazarillo de Tormes by Enrique Lorenzo, 2008; El Lazarillo de Tormes contado a los niños by Rosa Navarro Durán and Francesc Rovira, 2015; El Lazarillo de Tormes para niños by Nuria Ochoa and Cristina Picazo, 2007), to my knowledge, there is no graphic novel to date addressed to an adult audience that takes into account recent scholarship on the history of the text. I believe that this Lazarillo’s graphic adaptation will offer the modern reader a more complete experience of the adventures and misadventures of the ultimate picaresque anti-hero and the history of a book that set a precedent in literary history. Moreover, with this edition of Lazarillo in graphic novel format, the reader will learn about the historical background of this publishing endeavour, thus laying the groundwork to critically understand the original in an interactive and entertaining way. Truly a Lazarillo for the twenty-first century.

15 Maybe more than an editor, he thought of himself as an “angel” doing God’s work. In the graphic novel you can find small illustrations of angels writing, probably censoring books (mostly beside the inquisitors and the censor). These angels were inserted as illustrations in the Inquisition’s Index of Forbidden Books and I thought to include them in the graphic novel as a reference and reminder of how the inquisitors wanted to represent themselves. 16 The letter from López de Velasco requesting the privilege to export his censored edition to America is my translation from the original. The original can be found in the General Archive of the Indies in Seville (In Libros de Peticiones [1572–94] de Juan de Ledesma, escribano de Cámara de Gobernación del Consejo de Indias: Indiferente 1084, L.1, f. 476v.)

Introduction · xv

No one will know my name... this will make a better story. yes, lázaro will be the author and with the help of a scribe he will write about his case.

not only heroes make a good story... I will be content if everyone can enjoy this book and see how a real man lives surrounded by uncertain fortune, dangers, and adversities.

I’m already imagining the speculation this little book will arouse... but it’s better like this: writing my name is too dangerous and besides, the format of this book lends itself to it. Definitely, this story will be anonymous... it is more convenient for all of us.

Moreover, I believe that things worthy of attention shouldn’t be left unheard and unseen, buried in the grave of oblivion. Some reader might find them agreeable and those ready to pay more than passing attention will be rewarded.

2

A brief note on the English translation Reader, here is Lazarillo translated from the Spanish into English… in case you want to know, this book was first translated into English in 1576 but this translation is lost. The earliest one available is from 1586, translated by David Rowlands, who used two texts: the French translation from 1560 and the Spanish uncensored version published in Antwerp in 1554.

The English loved it! This was Mostly because the content of the novel was a gift to Protestant propaganda attacking the Roman Church. English readers liked to read of corruption in the Spanish Church, incompetence of military officials, and chaos in industrial life in general! But it is also true that they liked it for many other reasons… We just have to think that Lazarillo was a literary predecessor to Henry Fielding’s Tom Jones, Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn, Charles Dickens’s Oliver, and all the many anti-heroes and underdogs that came much later...

er ov el th B HO

ife w e th

And now... I should explain my case...

the cuckold

Since Your Excellency has written asking to know about my case, I thought it best to begin not in the middle but at the beginning, so as to offer a full picture of myself

and so those of nobler origins will realize how equally limited they are, since fortune was as partial to them as to the rest of us, and how much more accomplished are those who have fortune against them, for their aptitude and strength will bring them to a safer harbour. 6

First Chapter Your Excellency should know, first of all, that my name is Lázaro de Tormes, son of Tomé González and Antona Pérez, originally from Tejares, a village in Salamanca.

I was born on the River Tormes, which is why I have this name.

When I was eight years old,

and confessed, Denying nothing.

My father was caught stealing from the sacks belonging to the mill. he was arrested.

He was prosecuted and exiled by the law.

In those years, there was a campaign against the Moors and my father took part in it. He was a mule driver for a gentleman who went on the campaign.

His life ended when he and his gentleman were killed. My widowed mother opted to approach some good patrons and thus came to live in the city.

She began to cook for students...

There she met a black man. He would sometimes come to our house and leave in the morning. 8

...and to wash clothes for the stable boys, so she hung about the stables quite a bit.

At the beginning, I was afraid of him because of his colour. But when I realized that his arrival meant better food, i started to like him. He always brought bread, meat, and firewood to warm us up during the winter.

Fr0m conversing so amicably with him, my mother gave birth to a very pretty brown-skinned boy, whom I juggled in my arms, taking care of him with much love.

I remember my stepfather playing with the boy one day, and the little one saw that my mother and I were white, and he wasn’t. THe boy would run away, afraid of his father. The moment he reached my mother, he would say:

Seeing that, I thought... There must be many in this world who run away from others because they don’t see themselves!

Mommy, the bogeyman!

Son of a bitch!

9

The relationship between my mother and Zaide, which was his name, came to the ears of everyone, and at the stables they found out that Zaide was stealing about half the oats used for the cattle.

He also rescued firewood, curry combs, aprons, horse sheets, and blankets. When there was nothing left to steal, he would take the shoes off the horses’ feet. All this he would give to my mother to sell for her to raise my little brother.

Let us not marvel that a priest or a friar robs his flock to support his vices or those of his peers when love leads a poor slave to act this way.

10

THIS CONVERSATION POSSIBLY TOOK PLACE SOMETIME BEFORE THE PUBLICATION OF THE CENSORED VERSION. Even though the book was included in the Index of Forbidden Books, people still continue reading it. I’m of the opinion that the book imitates the reality of our Spain with such finesse that keeping it forbidden in its entirety is going to be difficult, if not impossible.

Yes, of course... this silly book can be a threat if we don’t take the right measures. Valdés, my predecessor, already did but these weren’t sufficient. We should study other alternatives...

You came very well recommended by my friend, Juan de Ovando, and the Council of the Indies. No doubt you are the man for the job.

Then, it’s settled... I leave the censoring of this book in your able and loyal hands. Let’s finish once and for all with such a daring story and let Lazarillo condemn himself...

I’m of the same opinion, Your Excellency, let Lazarillo bite the bait...and die by opening his mouth!

Ha, ha, ha...Well said, Velasco. You make me think of the terrible Second Part of Lazarillo in which that impertinent character turns himself into a Fish. What a daring tuna fish he is! Nevertheless, let’s punish the original Lazarillo by publishing it censored and most importantly, devoid of its original message.

11

Characters implicated in the ins and outs of Lazarillo’s editorial history (Years 1559-1573)

Fernando Valdés (1483–1568) Inquisitor General (1546–1566) Responsible for Lazarillo’s prohibition and inclusion in the Index of Forbidden Books in 1559. During those fourteen years (1559-1573) Lazarillo is presumably out of circulation in Spain.

Diego de Espinosa (1513–1572) Inquisitor General (1567–1572) It’s very probable that it was under his rule as Inquisitor that the decision to publish Lazarillo’s censored version was taken. It is also possible that he was in close contact with the censor, Juan López de Velasco, during the process. Espinosa was one of Philip II’s confidants. At his death, the King is known to have said: “Here lies buried the best of my ministers.” Gaspar de Quiroga (1512-1594) succeeded him as Inquisitor General (1573-1594) but at this point, the project to publish Lazarillo in a censored version was well underway.

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Benito Arias Montano (1527–1598) Spanish theologian In 1566 he was appointed the King’s Chaplain and his secret adviser in Flanders and Portugal. Upon returning to Spain, he was in charge of organizing the library of The Royal Site of San Lorenzo del Escorial, the King’s residence. He was also appointed as the chief editor of The Antwerp Polyglot Bible, better known as the King’s Bible; he also directed the compilation of the Indices of Forbidden Books in the Low Countries. He was responsible for taking Lazarillo out of this Index in 1571 with the intention of partially censoring it. It was very probable that his advice was taken into consideration when the censored version of Lazarillo was published in Spain.

Juan López de Velasco (1530–1598) Chronicler-Cosmographer In 1565 he was working as information gatherer for the Council of the Indies; in 1571 he was appointed as Chronicler-Cosmographer by the same Council, which was under the direction of Juan de Ovando y Godoy. In 1572 López de Velasco was designated The King’s Cosmographer and in 1573 he was also selected as the censor of some of the literary works previously prohibited by the Inquisition. This partial censorship allowed the circulation of books like Lazarillo de Tormes, Propaladia by Torres Naharro, and the works of Cristóbal de Castillejo. López de Velasco was also commissioned by the King to write The Geography and Description of the Indies. Given the wealth of information this work provided, the King prohibited its publication and ordered the six existing manuscripts to be held under lock and key and to be available only to the members of the Council of the Indies. In 1591, López de Velasco, while still serving as Cosmographer, received the honor of being appointed as the King’s Secretary.

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Philip II (1527–1598) King of Spain (1556-1598) He was a very religious and austere man, perfectly prepared for the work of governing the vast empire to which he devoted all his energies. Philip II of Spain, also know as the “Prudent King,” was responsible for modernizing the administration of the Hispanic Monarchy. He developed a centralized bureaucracy and personally supervised all matters of State. During his forty-year reign, Philip II governed the world’s greatest empire, described at the time as twenty times bigger than the Roman Empire. His kingdom was governed following the model of a centralized administration managed by councils and royal secretaries. He used the services of the Tribunal of the Inquisition frequently. It is very probable that the decision to examine and officially censor Lazarillo was reviewed by a group of individuals which almost certainly included Espinosa, Ovando, López de Velasco, and Arias Montano.

Juan de Ovando y Godoy (1514–1575) Spanish lawyer and president of the Council of the Indies (1571–1574)

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Ovando y Godoy was also the trusted adviser to the King and members of the Inquisition. López de Velasco was the King’s protégé and right-hand man. Ovando was behind the meticulous procedure by which the Council of the Indies was gathering information, so much so that he was responsible for changing the methods and organization of the geographical studies of the New World. It was thanks to his support that López de Velasco composed in 1569 the Recompilations of the Laws and Provisions of the Indies. During the reorganization of the Council of the Indies undertaken by Ovando, López de Velasco was appointed to the newly created position of Chronicler-Cosmographer. López de Velasco’s instructions were to give a clear account of the new lands in order to systemize all the information. Ovando had an important influence on The Book for the Spiritual and Temporal Governing of the Indies. He remained throughout his life the King’s and the Inquisition’s adviser in many matters.

Seville, Council of the Indies Your Excellency Diego de Espinosa, Inquisitor General, I am writing to Your Excellency not only as an adviser but also as a friend in order for Your Excellency to consider the censoring of the book entitled Lazarillo. I have been in conversations regarding this matter with our mutual friend, Don Benito Arias Montano, and we have come to the conclusion that the book of this picaro deserves to be published only after it is given a good purge. We need to do this in a very subtle way so the reading public will not be aware that by purging it we will also be taking away its very essence. This editing job can only be carried out by expert hands for which I recommend Juan López de Velasco, a man who deserves my total trust and who I am sure will not be a disappointment to any of us.

Your loyal servant and friend,

Juan de Ovando

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Royal Palace of El Escorial, fi fth day of August, 1573 Royal Licence for the Printing of La Propaladía i and Lazarillo I, King Philip, by the grace of God and of the Spanish Empire, have been informed that you, Juan López de Velasco, have been commissioned by the Holy Inquisition to correct and emend the book of Lazarillo. You are requesting from me, the King, that given the service you have provided, you or whoever you deem appropriate be permitted to print this book in our Kingdom. As King I hereby grant you, Juan López de Velasco, permission to print said book. I decree that a fi ne of three hundred Aragonese florins be paid by whomever, other than you, prints Lazarillo in my Kingdom. Moreover, all the print plates and books already printed will be confi scated. I give testimony to this on the fi fth day of August in the year of our Lord 1573. I, the King

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BACK TO THE STORY Like I was saying… all the accusations against Zaide were proved… and then more because they threatened me to make me talk. since I was just a boy and was terrified, I testified and even described how I sold a blacksmith some horseshoes when my mother asked me to.

My poor stepfather was whipped and basted in boiling oil. My mother was put on trial, which resulted not only in the usual punishment of a hundred lashes, but also in her being forbidden to enter the stables, and worst of all, to never have Zaide in her house.

My poor mother made an effort and obeyed the court. To avoid danger as well as gossip, she became a servant at the Solana Inn. There, suffering a thousand indignities, my little brother was raised until he learned how to walk and I became a lad.

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At that time, a blind man came to stay at the inn. Hoping I could be of use to him on the road,

he asked my mother if he could take me and she agreed.

I embrace you not just as a boy but as a son!

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I beg you to treat my son well and take good care of him since he is an orphan.

Son, I know I won’t see you again. Try to be good and may God guide you. I have raised you as best I could. Now I have found you a good master. Find your worth.

And this is how I began serving and guiding my new old master… We left Salamanca and reached the bridge. There is an animal stone there that almost looks like a bull. Lázaro, put your ear close to the bull. You will hear a loud noise inside it.

You are dumb! You must learn. The blind man’s boy must know more than the devil himself.

I did it. When he felt I had my head next to the stone,

he gave me such a blow that my head crashed against it. The pain from the goring lasted more than three days.

At that moment I felt as if I had suddenly woken up from a stupor.

I said under my breath: “He tells the truth. I must be alert because I am alone; I need to figure out how to survive on my own.” We began travelling, and in just a few days he taught me thieves’ slang… I can’t give you gold or silver; but I’ll teach you lessons for life.

He did indeed. After God, he taught me how to live, and because he was blind, he gave me light and prepared me for the path. 19

I must tell these childish stories to Your Excellency to show the virtue of men who know how to rise from the lowest levels and how those on top often fall because of vice.

He knew a hundred blessings, and in the church and with a humble and devout expression, he recited them in a lower voice, making the place resonate with his chant.

Now, getting back to the blind man and to further tell Your Excellency about my affairs, you must know that in this world there has never been anyone more astute and cunning.

Beyond this, he had a thousand ways to steal money from people. He knew prayers for diverse purposes: for women who couldn’t get pregnant, for women giving birth, for wives stuck in bad marriages, and for those eager to recover their husbands’ love. In short, he knew how to deal with all types of evils.

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As a result, the entire world sought him, especially women who believed everything he told them.

He earned more in a month than what a hundred blind men earn in an entire year.

Even with all the money he collected, I never knew a meaner, stingier man.This is true because I almost died of hunger with him.

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For all his knowledge and experience, I found ways not only to survive but to take advantage of him.

To do so I had to be sly so as to get the best of what was going on. But not always… I will tell Your Excellency some of the stories so that you can get the idea.

This one shows you my early fondness for wine… During our meals, the blind man used to put a jug of wine next to him. Shrewdly, I would grab it and drink without him noticing before I gave it back. This trick lasted a short time. Soon he would lift it and realize it was lighter.

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To keep his wine safe, he never let it go from his hands again.

But I had a trick… I introduced a long rye straw into the mouth of the jug, sucking the wine at night.

Clever as he was, he sensed what I was doing and placed the wine between his legs and covered its top with his hands.

I had gotten used to the wine and would die for it. Realizing my straw was of little use,

I decided to make a little hole at the base of the jug so it would make a jet of wine. I delicately covered the hole with a wax plug.

While we ate our meals, I used to pretend I was cold and crawl between the blind man’s legs to get warm.

When the heat from the little fire we had going melted the wax, the wine poured out like a fountain. I placed myself in such a way so that no drop was ever lost. 23

When the poor man was ready to drink, he found nothing in the jug. He didn’t have a clue what had happened.

He touched the jug all over until he finally discovered the trick but pretended he hadn’t.

The next day, I was sitting in the usual position with my face turned to heaven and my eyes closed to better receive those sweet drops.

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The blind man realized this was the perfect time to take his revenge, and from high above, with all his might...

...he let the jug fall right on my face.

Such was the little tap that I was knocked out.

Pieces of the broken jug got encrusted in my face and my teeth were broken...

...I haven’t got any to this day.

I didn’t like the blind man from that moment on. He used the wine to wash my cuts and said, smiling:

You never know, Lázaro: what makes you sick also heals you and makes you healthy again.

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To show Your Excellency the extent of this blind man’s ingenuity, I will tell you another story, which will make clear how astute he was…

It happened that upon arriving at a place during the grape harvest, Lázaro, now I want to be fair with you. Both of us should eat from this bunch of grapes. You take a grape and then I’ll take one, but you must promise that you won’t take more than one grape at a time.

a grape picker gave my master a bunch of grapes in lieu of alms. And then we started… he was on his second pick, when the traitor changed his mind and started to take two grapes at a time.

When I saw this, I went to three at a time.

Once the bunch was finished, he shook his head and said: Lázaro, you fooled me. I swear to God you’ve been eating the grapes three at a time.

No, I didn’t… What makes you think that?

Do you know when I knew? When I started eating two and you said nothing. 26

I have many more stories to tell about the blind man… but I’ll finish with this last one as my farewell and graduation from my first master.

We were staying at an inn. there the blind man gave me a piece of sausage to grill for him. When I had cooked the sausage, he told me to go and get some wine from the tavern. Lying on the floor next to the fire was a long, thin, rotten turnip… Since we were there alone, the devil and the smell of the sausage made a thief of me! While the blind man was taking the money out of his bag, I took the sausage, replacing it with the turnip. My master took hold of the spit and started to turn it over the fire.

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When I came back, I found him with a turnip between two slices of bread, not yet having tasted it.

I went for the wine and wolfed the sausage.

As soon as he did, instead of finding the sausage, he was shocked to find the rotten turnip.

Agitated, he said:

What’s this, Lazarillo?

He stood up, seized me by the head, and smelled me from top to bottom. Then, he opened my mouth and inserted his nose in it, so much that he reached my throat with the tip of his nose.

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What do I know? Didn’t I just come back from getting the wine?

In fear, and given the brevity of the time I had to digest the black sausage, unsettled as it still was in my stomach, I felt the need to return everything back to my master.

I’m sure he wouldn’t have left me alive if people hadn’t come when they heard all the commotion.

To be honest, I waste more wine washing this boy in a year than I drink. Lázaro, I must say that you should be more grateful for the wine than you are to your father because wine has brought you life not only once but a thousand times.

I tell you that if there’s anyone in this world who should be thankful for wine, it should be you.

As Your Excellency will see, the blind man’s prophecy did not prove wrong… 29

A few days later, a day in which it had rained heavily and everything was quite wet, he told me… Lázaro, it doesn’t look as if it will stop raining soon. Let’s find an inn now.

On our way back, we needed to cross a gully that was overflowing.

Tío, the water is very wide. I can see a place to cross it without getting wet. We can jump where it’s narrower without getting wet.

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Take me THERE.

I took him straight in front of the stone mast in the main square.

the poor blind man charged like a billy goat, though not before taking a few steps back to gain momentum.

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The sound was very loud and he fell on his back, half dead, his head split open.

How come you smelled the sausage but not the post?

I left him in the hands of others coming to his rescue and started trotting until I reached the gates of the town. I never found out what God did to him, nor did I try to. 32

A VERY IMPORTANT YEAR FOR LAZARILLO

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THE COMMERCIAL SUCCESS OF the censorED LAZArILLO DIDN’T REALLY HAPPEN UNTIL 1599, THE YEAR IN WHICH el Guzmán de Alfarache WAS PUBLISHED. IN THIS MOMENT, THE castigado - HOW THE CENSORED VERSION OF LAZARILLO WAS KNOWN to THE PUBLIC - ACQUIRED NEW LIFE... PARTLY THANKS TO THE WIT AND GOOD EYE OF BOOKSELLErS SUCH AS JUAN BERRILLO, A MAN FROM MADRID WHOm WE WILL GET TO KNOW IN A FEW MOMENTS.

Miguel de Cervantes

IT IS QUITE PROBABLE THAT HIGH-CALIBRE AUTHORS LIKE Miguel de Cervantes READ THE censorED VERSION OF LAZARILLO, SINCE IT WAS THE ONLY ONE LEGALLY AVAILABLE UNTIL THE DISAPPEARANCE OF THE INQUISITION. 34

What a book! It deals with such well-written, entertaining truth that there is no fiction that can compare with it. What a groundbreaking renewal for literature!

I have no doubt this book is going to generate a great deal of talk, not to mention ink…

Dear friend, what a pleasure to see you and with such good company in your hands.

I was starting to feel sorry for myself for not being able to share the experience of such wonderful reading.

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You are right, this book is very refreshing! I have already read it twice… this Lázaro spares no one in his story. Since I came back from Antwerp I can’t stop thinking about it. I also read the sequel after I read the original.

What? The one I’m reading is the censored version. You may be in danger if someone finds out, dear friend.

Anyway, if you don’t mind, I would love to check out your copy when you have a chance.

I am preparing my new book, a story like no other, which if I say so myself, is very ingenious. Reading both Lazarillos would be a great help for my creative process.

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That would be my pleasure, my dear friend Cervantes… I am already dying to read this ingenious book that you are talking about.

But tell me, What did you think about the picaro’s story?

I thought it was extremely original with a lot of potential. For example, the end of the story is open-ended…

You know what… ...that is to say that the picaro’s story doesn’t end even though the book is over.

It would have been wonderful if Lázaro’s little brother, the son of Zaide, the black slave, had wandered around with Lázaro.

Ha, Ha, Ha… Yes, the son of a bitch!

What Spain those two would have been able to describe! 37

Second Chapter How Lázaro SettleD Down with a Priest and What Happened to Him

Boy, Do you know how to help during Mass? The next day I went to a place called Maqueda, where for my sins I came across a priest who, seeing how I was begging for alms, asked me…

Yes, sir. I learned it from my previous master.

I went from bad to worse! I say this because in contrast to this man, the blind man was like Alexander the Great.

He had a very old chest which was securely locked; he kept the key tied around his neck. As soon as he brought any piece of the bread offerings from the church, he would lock it up.

There wasn’t anything to eat anywhere in the house. Only a string of onions of which I had one every four days.

I was literally dying of hunger…

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but Not him, as you will see. On Saturdays, people eat sheep’s head. He would send me to buy one and he cooked it and ate the eyes and tongue and neck and brain and the meat on the jawbones.

Once he was done he gave me the bones, and said…

Here, eat and be merry. The world is yours. You live better than the Pope himself!

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After three weeks, I was so thin I hardly stood on my feet.

Look, boy, priests have to be very temperate in their eating and drinking habits and so I don’t make a pig of myself like others do.

But the bastard lied miserably because whenever we prayed at funerals, he ate not even like a pig, but like a wolf, and drank even more.

Truth be told, I also ate a lot during those occasions. I prayed to God so that each day another person would die.

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In all the time I spent with the priest, almost six months, only twenty people died, and these I believe I killed myself, or, I would say, they died under my watch. For when God saw how close I was to my own slow and painful death, I think He preferred to kill them and keep me alive.

I often thought of leaving that mean master, but I didn’t for two reasons: one was that I didn’t trust my legs because they were so weak with hunger. The other was that if my first master kept me hungry, and this one brought me so close to death… How would the next one be?

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While I was in this awful plight… a tinker came to the door just by chance.

R of things…d! r r KE l kinds oooor

IN TII

w al I fix say the just

I have lost the key to the chest and I’m afraid my master will be angry and beat me.

Hey, here…

The innocent and angelic tinker began to try one after another… Please, look around in case you have one that fits.

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I have no money to give you for the key. But take your payment in bread.

He left very happily,

leaving me even happier…

I didn’t touch anything at that moment so the priest wouldn’t notice.

The next two days I opened my bread paradise and ate… 45

but on the third day my tormentor started counting the loaves of bread, moving them around, recounting them again.

If this chest weren’t so secure, I would swear some bread has disappeared. To be safe, I will count them again; nine, there are nine and a bit left.

God have mercy! I thought my death was near. To console myself, I opened the chest and saw the bread. I worshipped what I saw… but all I could do was kiss the loaves and eat some crumbs

from the loaf that was already started. I was dying a terrible death. Such was my agony that I didn’t do anything but comtemplate the bread.

Then, I had an idea, a small trick, so small that it took the shape of a little mouse.

Yes, your Excellency. Hunger turned me into a mouse… and to make the priest believe it, I started making crumbs and eating them. I felt Somewhat satisfied.

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Lázaro! Look at the disgrace! We have mice in the house!

Thank God, I was lucky that day… because when we sat down to eat, the bastard gave me more bread than he usually did.

Eat this. Mice are clean.

But I ran out of luck when the bastard nailed down all the holes of the old chest.

Necessity is the best teacher. One night, while my master was asleep, I decided to break parts of the chest with a knife I had found...

He didn’t leave a single hole big enough for a mosquito!

What to make of this? This house never had mice until now!

He was telling the truth. Mice don’t usually come where there is no food. 47

In just a few days…and nights...we had the poor chest in such a state that it was unrecognizable.

This was good for me because now I could add some cheese to the bread!

What could have taken the cheese off the trap and not have been caught?

I think, Lázaro, that I will use a mousetrap. I will ask our good neighbours for some cheese to better attract them.

The next day, the bread was gnawed and the cheese had been eaten too… but still no mouse.

I don’t think this is a mouse. I remember once seeing a snake in your house. Since it’s long, even if the trap catches it, it can easily escape. That must be it.

That must be the cause, no doubt… My master was quite upset. From then on he wouldn’t sleep as soundly as before. Any noise could wake him up, thinking it was the snake, and he would quickly get to his feet and grab a club he had handy. 48

Lázaro, Didn’t you hear or feel anything last night? Watch out because it might go in your bed; snakes are cold and are always looking for warmth.

I’m scared! May God protect me so it doesn’t bite me.

The snake (or whatever it was) wouldn’t dare gnaw the chest at night.

But during the day, while he was in church, I would make my raid.

I was afraid that at some point he would find the key I kept under the staw. I concluded that the safest place to protect it was to put the key inside my mouth.

Out of bad luck, one night while I was sleeping with the key in my mouth, which made me whistle, my master heard it.

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He stood up… certain that the snake was in the straw near my body. He raised the club and with all his might, he delivered such a crack on my head that I was knocked unconscious.

What’s this, Lázaro? I feel blood… I’ll go find some light.

I have found both the mouse and the snake!

In three days, I came back to my senses and found myself in my straw bed. My head was wrapped in bandages and covered with creams and ointments.

What’s this?

I have finally hunted the mice and the snakes that were destroying me.

Since he has come back to himself, God must not make a great deal of it.

Fifteen days later, with the help of my neighbours, I was on my feet. They, although feeling sorry for me, started to retell my adventures and laugh at them.

Once I was out of danger, but still hungry, my master took me by the hand and threw me out the door onto the street. He said:

Then making the sign of the cross, as if I had been possessed by the devil, he went back into the house and closed the door.

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Lázaro, from now on you’re on your own. Look for another master and God be with you. I don’t want such a diligent servant in my company. You clearly had been a blinD man’s helper.

Lazarillo’s editorial history is particularly interesting because of all the transformations and adversities

that are suffered not only by the picaro but also by the book itself.

As we all know, there are four known editions of the 1554 Lazarillo.

It’s probable that an editio princeps from 1553 or even from 1520 exists,

Almost certainly these were not the first.

but it has not been found yet.

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The Medina del Campo edition appeared only in 1992, found behind a wall in a house undergoing renovations in Barcarrota, in the province of Extremadura.

Don’t laugh, it’s true. The book had been behind a wall for centuries. Which only goes to prove how dangerous it was to own such a book, not to mention the power that the prohibition by the Inquisition had over the circulation of the text.

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What’s this? It looks like books inside a vase wrapped with straw around them or something like that. I almost broke them…

Books…? I wish we found gold or something like that… Put them aside and let’s keep working. We’ll tell the owners when they come by later.

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Can you take a look at these books?

I think they might be valuable since somebody took such pains to hide them away so carefully.

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I was cleaning out when I came across them again.

They thought they were a rare curiosity and gave them to me as a memento. This was three years ago…

labourers found them behind a wall at my uncle’s house when they were renovating it.

Wow, this sounds like an Indiana Jones film...

... or that movie with Johnny Depp. I can’t remember the title,

but it was based on a book by Arturo PérezReverte.

Well, I can’t remember right now.

Let me take a look first...

I can show it to some of my colleagues, see what they think.

But… this is

Lazarillo de Tormes!

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Well, the adventure continues… In 1559 Lazarillo is included in the inquisition’s Index of Forbidden Books on the order of the Inquisitor, Fernando de Valdés.

This prohibition makes Lazarillo a forbidden book for fourteen years until its censored version is reinstated in 1573. At this time, the book is known as the “Chastised” or “Castigated” Lazarillo. Note that “castigado” in Spanish is the word you use to punish a misbehaving child.

No doubt this censored edition is what was available during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. There were other versions available, of course, but these were part of private collections, like the one found behind a wall.

We can’t forget that the 1573 edition is the “official” version that made it to the New World.

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Here we can see a reproduction of the letter that the censor, López de Velasco, wrote asking for permission to export the book to America.

August 1573

To Whom It May Concern at the Council of the Indies, From your humble servant, Juan López de Velasco, I request the privilege to send to the Indies the books that I have corrected and emended by the command of the Holy Inquisition: La Propaladia and Lazarillo. These books are both excellent examples of the elegance of our language and since they are now emended, there is no inconvenience, but on the contrary, their reading is only honest entertainment. Juan López de Velasco

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The year 1599, when Guzmán de Alfarache is published, is also important. This is when Lazarillo reaches bestseller status.

Don’t get confused… the editorial success of Lazarillo is tied to Guzmán de Alfarache’s exceptional success. That is, the success of a book had an effect on another book of similar style and this gives birth to a genre… Yes, the famous genre of the picaresque novel!

Mateo Alemán

Smart booksellers, like Juan Berrillo in Madrid, who were able to anticipate sales,

orchestrated an astute marketing and publicity campaign that allowed them to cash in on the success. 63

In sum, the 1573 Lazarillo was the version that was readily available in the Spain of our celebrated Cervantes, Quevedo, and Mateo Alemán. It wasn’t until 1834 with the official abolition of the Inquisition that the original Lazarillo was published again uncensored.

As I was saying… in 1834, after comparing different versions, literary critics came up with the “original.” It was decided then that the matter had been corrected and that “poetic justice” had been done.

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Truth be told, the “original” Lazarillo doesn’t really exist since there is no known first edition. The one we read today is the result of a collage of the versions that were available outside of Spain, which were unaffected by the prohibition.

But we can’t forget the censored version… forgetting manipulation and abuse by the established powers makes us vulnerable. Not to mention that it also absolves the real perpetrators of the picaro’s misery.

We need to understand that in the censored version, Lazarillo is singled out for his actions.

It is the pointing of a finger at the entire society that created him that saves the authentic Lazarillo.

To say the same thing differently… it’s the idea in “I’m a rebel,” that 70’s song by Jeanette:

I am rebellious because the world has made me so because no one has treated me with love because nobody has ever wanted to hear me I am rebellious because always for no reason everyone denied me everything that I asked and gave me only misunderstanding…

You probably don’t know that song,

but jokes aside…

We need to learn about the editorial history and the adversities of Lazarillo. only then we’ll be able to fight back, in this case in a literary sense of the word, against those who think that they can censor ideas.

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Third Chapter And so I arrived at the city of Toledo,

where little by little and with the help of generous people, my wound healed after fifteen days.

But, once I recovered...

...the alms also ceased to come to my aid. Wandering one day, God put me in the path of a squire.

he was reasonably dressed, his hair neat, his demeanour that of a distinguished man.

Boy, are you looking for a master?

Well, come on. The Almighty, in his kindness, has allowed me to find you.

Yes, sir.

I followed him, thanking God for what I had just heard. From his manner and dress, he seemed to be the type of man I was looking for.

It was the morning when I met my third master. He took me around most of the city with him.

We passed through the plazas where bread and other provisions were sold.

I thought that he would buy some right there…

Maybe he doesn’t like this merchandise. He will probably want to buy it in some other place. 68

We wandered around until it was eleven o’clock.

I watched him attend Mass in a very devout way.

He then went into the Cathedral and I followed him.

I was sure this new master had probably purchased provisions already and that the meal would be ready for us at home.

AND ONCE IT ALL FINISHED, WE left THE CHURCH. Finally, we came to a house.

The entrance was so dark and dismal it frightened anyone entering it.

Inside there was a small patio and large, well-kept rooms. 69

Boy, are your hands clean?

Then help me brush and fold my cloak. YES, SIR.

WHERE ARE YOU FROM?

Still, I lied as best as i could, telling him only the good parts of my story and silencing the bad ones, since it was more convenient.

HOW DID YOU ARRIVE in TOLEDO?

I thought it would be better to set the table ready and place food on it. All I had seen in the house were walls without a single chair, or a stool, or a table, or even a chest… It looked as if I were in an enchanted house. Boy, have you eaten?

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No sir, it wasn’t eight yet when I met Your Excellency.

Your Excellency may just imagine that when I heard this, I was about to collapse, not so much of hunger but of realizing the type of adverse fortune that awaited me.

I thought of all my past sufferings and started to cry for my bad luck and approaching death. I feared that if the priest had been a mean old bastard, destiny brought me to someone worse.

Yet I hid my feelings as best I could.

Sir, I am a boy who doesn’t need to worry too much about eating. All the masters I’ve had up until now have praised me in this regard.

That’s a virtue; only pigs stuff themselves, but decent people eat with moderation.

“Oh, I get it!” I told myself. “To hell with the virtue my masters find in hunger!”

Then I took out a piece of bread that I had left and started to eat it.

Wait, boy. What are you eating?

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There were three pieces. He took the biggest and the best.

I swear this looks like good bread. Where did you find it? Has it been baked with clean hands? I don’t know that, but it tastes fine to me.

Taking it to his mouth, he started to bite it as forcefully as I did.

Delicious bread.

I ate as fast as I could since I understood that if I didn’t, he would help himself to all that was left.

When we concluded, my master began to brush off some small crumbs that had fallen on his clothes. Later, he got up to get an old jug. After he drank, he shared it with me.

... Refraining, I said:

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Sir, I don’t drink wine.

It’s water, you can drink it.

I drank some water, but not much because thirst wasn’t my main trouble.

That’s all we did, with me answering his questions in the best way possible. Later in the evening, he asked me to help him prepare his bed.

Once the bed was made and night was upon us, he said:

Lázaro, it’s late and from here to the plaza it’s a long walk.

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Besides, there are lots of thieves in this city at this time. Let’s go along as we are until tomorrow and God shall provide for us.

Sir, you should not worry about me. I know how to go to bed with an empty stomach. I can do it even more than one night, if necessary.

You’ll have a long and healthy life, As there’s no better way to reach old age than to eat less.

If that’s the way, I will never die because I have always followed that rule. I lay down, not tossing around so as not to wake him up...

... but begging God to do away with me once and for all. 74

When morning came, we got up.

Ah, boy, if you only knew what a fine weapon this is! I wouldn’t sell it for all the gold in the world.

I could cut straight through a ball of wool with it.

And I, with my teeth, would cut a four pound loaf of bread even though my teeth are not made of steel. Lázaro, while I’m at Mass, look after the house. Make the bed and fetch a jug of water from the river. Lock the door so nothing goes missing...

and put the key in the crack so I can get in when I return.

75

He walked up the street with such swagger and pride that a stranger seeing him would think he was a close relative of the Count of Arcos.

Bless you, sir!

Who would think that such a fine gentleman stayed all night and day with hardly a bite to eat, only a not very clean crumb his servant Lázaro gave him?

Oh God, and how many of these men do you spread throughout the world, suffering pains to protect their so-called honour!

I made the miserable bed

76

and took the jug

to the river.

There, I saw my master in a garden, having an animated conversation with two women. Apparently they were of the type that is usually present in that place. These women have the habit of going to refresh themselves and have lunch, without taking provisions, confident there will always be someone ready to offer them what they want.

HE WAS TELLING THEM SWEET NOTHINGS THAT Ovid WROTE.

When they saw he was tender,

they weren’t ashamed to ask for lunch on the usual terms.

Feeling his pocket as cold as he was hot, his face lost its colour. He stuttered, offering them all sorts of worthless excuses.

The well-instructed women sensed his hunger and gave up on him. 77

Meanwhile, I ate a few cabbage stumps and without being seen by my master, I returned to the house. I thought of sweeping the floor but couldn’t find anything to do it with.

I waited to see if my master would return with something to eat.

By two o’clock, he hadn’t returned and my hunger was killing me. I locked the door and placed the key where he asked me to.

78

With a low and sickly voice, I begged for bread.

Since I learned it from a great teacher, the blind man, and I was such an accomplished disciple, By four o’clock I already had not only a full stomach but also full pockets.

I headed back to the house. As I passed a tripe shop, I asked one of the women to have mercy on mE, and she gave me a piece of cow’s foot as well as some boiled tripe.

When I got home, my master was back already. As I came in, he walked towards me.

Where are you coming from, Lázaro?

Sir, I stayed here until two. When I saw that Your Excellency wasn’t coming, I wandered around the city, asking people for charity. They gave me this.

79

Well, I was waiting for you to come for lunch. When I didn’t see you, I ate on my own. You are an honest man because it’s better to beg in God’s name than to steal.

I only ask that people don’t find out you live with me. I wish to protect my honour, although I shouldn’t worry too much since I’m hardly known in this town.

But… eat, you sinner. God willing, soon we’ll find ourselves not needing much. Although I should say nothing has gone well since I moved into this house.

It must be a curse because anyone who lives in a cursed house has bad luck and pays for it with unhappiness.

This undoubtedly is one of those. I promise you that we won’t be here by the end of the month.

80

I began to dine by biting into the tripe and the bread. I noticed that he couldn’t take his eyes off my food.

May God have mercy on me as much as I had on him, because I felt what he felt, and I had often gone through the same thing myself, and still do. God wanted to fulfil my wish as well as his, because no sooner had I started eating, than my master said: I tell you, Lázaro, you’re graceful while you eat. I’ve never seen anything like it. Anyone who sees you eat can’t help but feel hungry.

I wondered how to share with him, but I thought he wouldn’t accept my invitation.

Yes, sir. This is the most delicious treat in the world.

That must be your hunger speaking.

Yes, sir. Try, you’ll see how good it is. Cow’s foot?

81

I TELL YOU THIS IS THE BEST BITE I HAVE EVER HAD AND THERE IS NOTHING IN THE WORLD THAT CAN COMPARE TO IT.

God, it tastes as if I hadn’t eaten anything all day.

We were like this for eight to ten days. AS HE LEFT EVERY MORNING WITH THAT JOLLY WALK,

I kept thinking about my disastrous life. Having escaped ruinous masters and seeking betterment, I had stumbled upon someone who not only didn’t support me, but whom I had to support instead.

Still, I was fond of him. Because, having gone through his belongings, 82

I was sure he didn’t have a single coin in his possession, nor had HE had one in a long time.

This man is poor; no one gives what he hasn’t got. He is not like the stingy blind man and the misbegotten priest, who, in the name of God, kept me hungry. I was right to hate them and this one I’m right to feel compassion for. as God is my witness: when I come across any of those gentlemen today proudly displaying their demeanour as they walk, I feel the same pity thinking of how my master suffered.

I was only unhappy with him a litle bit. I wished he had been less presumptuous. He needed to fantasize less and pay more attention to his practical needs.

But it seems that this is the well-kept rule among people of his type: with nothing in his pocket, he was all about appearances.

83

My bad fortune, which never quite ceased, brought an end to my already precarious living conditions.

It turns out that the city council decided to throw out all poor people who weren’t from the town.

Those who stayed would be punished with the whip. The law took its course. I became very frightened and didn’t go begging anymore. We didn’t even have a bite of food for two or three days.

At least I got a couple of things to eat from our neighbours, two cotton weavers. It certainly helped me regain some strength.

84

Still I didn’t feel pity for myself as I did for my poor master. He didn’t eat so much as a bite of bread in eight days.

Knowing this and seeing him come down the street at noon, his head high, his skinny body leaner than a thoroughbred greyhound, made me sad!

85

Lázaro, this house is cursed. It’s dark, sad, and miserable. As long as we stay here, we’ll suffer.

One day, I don’t know how, my master happened to come across a real. He came back with it, looking as joyful as if he had found a great treasure.

Here, Lázaro. God has begun to alleviate our misery. Go down to the market and buy some bread, wine, and meat. I have also rented another place!

86

We’ll leave as soon as the month is over.

Ever since I got here, I haven’t had a single drop of wine,

nor a bite of meat, nor a good night’s rest.

Go right along, hurry up, and let’s eat today like counts.

I took the real and a jug and was on my way down the street, in the direction of the market, happy and content.

Thinking of the best way to spenD the money, I suddenly stumbled upon a dead man.

Yet it’s my fortune that any pleasure that comes to me must be accompanied by misfortune and this was the case in this instance.

He was being carried down the street by lots of people and a priest.

87

I pressed myself against the wall in order to allow them to walk. Once the corpse went by, a woman, probably the man’s widow, followed crying and screaming.

Oh dear husband, where are they taking you? To the sad and accursed house, to the dark and gloomy house where no one ever eats or drinks!

Oh, darn! They are taking this dead man to my house! I turned around and, leaving the procession behind, ran as fast as I could until I reached the house.

What’s this, boy? Why are you screaming? Why did you close the door? How so?

Oh, sir, Come here. They are bringing you a dead man!

88

Yes, sir. A woman was saying “Dear husband, where are they taking you? To the sad and accursed house, to the dark and gloomy house where no one ever eats or drinks!”

The procession passed by with the dead man and I was still saying I wouldn’t open the door to them.

Ha, Ha, Ha… Truth is, Lázaro, you’re right in thinking what you thought.

Just let them turn the corner, sir.

But since they just passed us by, open the door and go buy us food.

Finally my master came up to the street door of the house. He opened it and pushed me out.

Although we ate well that day, I didn’t savour the food. In fact, I had been so terrified that it took me three days to regain my colour.

My master roared with laughter every time he remembered the episode.

89

That’s how I spent the time with my third master, who was a poor squire. In all those days, I was filled with curiosity about what he was really doing in this city, since I knew he wasn’t from these parts. At last my wish was granted. One day, after eating reasonably well and being happy, he told me his whole life story.

Lázaro, I’m from Old Castile. I left my native land because I refused to take my hat off first to a knight, my neighbour, to defend my honour.

Sir, but if he was a knight, as you say, shouldn’t you have taken your hat off first, given that he had done the same to you?

It’s true. He was from a higher station. And it’s also true that he took his hat off to me. But all the times I took mine off first, Don’t you think that he could have taken the initiative at least once?

That’s not a terrible offence, especially since he was higher in status.

90

You’re just a boy, and you don’t understand the point of honour. But you must know that’s all that decent men have left today.

A squire owes nothing to anybody except God and the King!

In any case, I’m not so poor that I haven’t got a few houses back home. They’re falling down and are in a terrible state, but if they weren’t they’d be worth a small fortune.

I’ve also got a dovecote, which would give me more than two hundred pigeons every year if it weren’t in ruins.

91

But really, I came to this city hoping to find a good position with men of responsibility, but unfortunately things didn’t work out.

I could be a great adviser. By God, if I were with a great nobleman, I would serve him well...

because I could tell him lies as well as anyone else and flatter him all the time, even if this could hurt him in the long run.

I’d laugh at his jokes even if they weren’t the best in the world. I would never say anything that might annoy him even though it would be for his own good.

92

I would find ways to meddle in other people’s affairs so as to tell him their stories and do other such things, which are done these days and are esteemed by today’s gentlemen, who don’t want to see virtuous men in their households.

While we were at this, a man and an old woman came through the door. The man asked my master for the house rent and the old woman wanted the payment for the bed.

Sir, we came to collect our money.

But he left and never showed up again.

Can you please come back in the afternoon? I will go to the market to change some money.

Night came and he still wasn’t there.

93

I was afraid of staying alone in the house. So I went over to the neighbours, told them the whole story, and slept there.

In the morning the creditors came back again.

We haven’t seen him. Here is his servant and the key to the door.

I haven’t seen him since he went to change the money. He had tricked me, too.

The creditors came back with a constable and a notary.

Boy, Where are your master’s belongings, his coffers, furniture, and valuables?

I don’t know. 94

Boy, you’re under arrest unless you say where your master’s goods are located.

Sirs, according to what my master told me, he has a fine estate with some houses in ruins on it and a broken-down dovecote. Back home, in Old Castile.

That’s good. Even if they are not worth a lot, they’ll cover part of this debt. What part of the city?

Ha, Ha… you are a funny boy! Creditors, you must consider yourselves paid already with this boy’s account. Old Castile… the poor kid is clueless.

Sirs, he is an innocent boy. In fact, we have fed him most of the time because he had nothing to eat while he was living next door.

When they saw I was innocent, they let me go. This led to a terrible dispute that made a lot of noise. That’s how I was let go by my poor third master. Normally, masters are the ones abandoned by their servants. In my case, it was the other way around: my master left me and ran away.

95

Fourth Chapter

How Lázaro Settled Down with a Friar of the Order of Mercy and What Happened to Him

I had to find a fourth master. This one was a friar of the Order of Mercy. The women next door

recommended me to him. They were like family to him, so much that they called him uncle. But although they were very close,

I’m pretty sure their closeness was not family related.

He was an enemy of singing in choirs and being in the monastery.

He loved eating out and wandering around, spending time visiting people. In fact, I believe he wore out more shoes than all the others in the monastery put together.

He gave me the first shoes I ever went through in my life.

The pair didn’t last me more than eight days and I couldn’t take the running around any more.

For this and for other little things I’d rather not mention, I left him.

Fifth Chapter

This part needs to be censored for sure!

How Lázaro Settled down with a Seller of Indulgences and the Things That Happened to Him

I was with this fifth master almost four months. Although I was fed well, I also suffered a lot during this time.

These indulgences will bring you God’s forgiveness, guaranteed. They’ll eat this up, trust me!

You’re lying!

as God is my witness. I’m not lying.

100

You speak with the spirit of the damned!

One for me, too.

I was only a boy, Yet my master and the constable’s trick impressed me very much. I asked myself: “How many others like these two are out there scamming innocent people?”

101

Sixth Chapter How Lázaro Settled Down with a Chaplain, and What Happened While He Was with Him

Boy, Would you like to make a good living and stop serving other masters?

What would I need to do?

Sell water around town. I will give you a donkey and four jars of water. I’ll get a percentage of your earnings but on Saturdays you can keep all the profit for yourself.

104

I did so well at this trade that with the profits I made in four years, I had enough to dress myself in very decent second-hand clothes.

As soon as I saw myself dressed up so well, I didn’t want to work for anyone any longer. Here is your donkey and your water and find another to work for you.

105

Seventh Chapter How Lázaro Settled Down with a Constable and What Happened to Him

I settled down with a constable but this occupation seemed very dangerous to me and I lasted a very short time with him.

As I was thinking about how to settle down, it pleased God to elighten me and put me on the way to a fruitful path. With the help of friends and gentlemen, all my hardships and struggles were compensated for by getting a job in the government.

108

To this day I have such a job! My duty is to make announcements and cry out the wines sold in this town. I also accompany criminals being punished and publicly announce their misdeeds. To put it in plain terms, I’m a town crier.

“Husbands who prostitute their wives shall receive the same punishment as pimps…

…which is, for the first time, public shaming and ten years of forced labour in the galleys of the King our lord, and the second time, a hundred lashes and a sentence of life in the galleys.”

109

Wine, wine, who wants great wine from the Archbishop of San Salvador!

I do my job very well, and To such an extent that the Archbishop of San Salvador, a friend and servant of Your Excellency, witnessing my ability and manners in crying out wines, made arrangements for me to marry one of his maids.

Lázaro, my friend, I think it’s about time you get married.

110

Do you like my maid, Aldonza? I can see how you look at her.

Yes, I like her very much, sir. Your advice is enough for me to say yes, since this can only be beneficial to me.

Very good, Lázaro, she is a good woman.

111

And so I married her. To this day I don’t regret it. She has a good nature and is dutiful and responsible. I also count on the help and support of the Archbishop.

He arranged for us to rent a house next to his. And nearly every Sunday and holidays we eat in his house.

But evil tongues, that we are never short of and never will be, make life impossible for us.

112

Saying this and that and the other: that my wife goes and makes his bed and cooks his dinner. They are not wrong about this, it’s true we both serve him. there is no shame in that.

113

One day, when the three of us were together having dinner, my lord the Archbishop told me:

Lázaro de Tormes, nobody who pays attention to this type of gossip can be happy; I say this because I wouldn’t be surprised if somebody, seeing your wife enter my house...

I want you to know that she comes in and leaves with her honour intact, and yours is too.

Sir, I made up my mind a long time ago to keep in with respectable people, like my mother taught me.

114

Don’t pay attention to what others say. Only think about your own affairs, I mean, what’s best for you.

To be honest, some of my friends had advised me against marrying her.

They had proven to me that before our marriage, she gave birth three times. I speak with reverence to Your Honour because she is here.

The Devil will take me away if that’s true! I curse anyone who says such a lie!

115

Don’t cry, I never believed such gossip. I shouldn’t have said anything. I can’t stand seeing you like this.

I swear I will never raise the issue again. I know all this is a lie and I would be content to allow you to come and go, day and night, since I know you will be true to me always.

116

You can be sure of that, Lázaro.

And you, Aldonza, don’t cry. we all know that you are an honest woman.

So knowing that, we all reached an understanding.

117

To this day, no one has heard us speak about the situation again. Whenever anybody wants to say something about her, I stop them.

Especially if you want to make trouble between me and my wife, whom I love more than anything else in the world, even more than myself.

Look, if you’re my friend, know that I don’t want to hear about it, since friends aren’t made to upset you.

God has blessed me by putting her by my side, more than I deserve.

If anyone says the opposite, I’ll kill him.

I swear on the Sacred Host itself that she is as good a woman as any in Toledo.

As a result nobody says anything and there is peace at home.

That was the same year as our victorious Emperor entered this famous city of Toledo and held his Courts here, amid celebrations, as Your Excellency no doubt has heard.

119

At that time I was at the height of my good fortune.

120

The End

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124 · Bibliography

Toronto Iberic Co-editors: Robert Davidson (Toronto) and Frederick A. de Armas (Chicago) Editorial board: Josiah Blackmore (Harvard); Marina Brownlee (Princeton); Anthony J. Cascardi (Berkeley); Justin Crumbaugh (Mt Holyoke); Emily Francomano (Georgetown); Jordana Mendelson (NYU); Joan Ramon Resina (Stanford); Enrique García Santo-Tomás (U Michigan); H. Rosi Song (Durham); Kathleen Vernon (SUNY Stony Brook) 1. Anthony J. Cascardi, Cervantes, Literature, and the Discourse of Politics 2. Jessica A. Boon, The Mystical Science of the Soul: Medieval Cognition in Bernardino de Laredo’s Recollection Method 3. Susan Byrne, Law and History in Cervantes’ Don Quixote 4. Mary E. Barnard and Frederick A. de Armas (eds), Objects of Culture in the Literature of Imperial Spain 5. Nil Santiáñez, Topographies of Fascism: Habitus, Space, and Writing in Twentieth-Century Spain 6. Nelson Orringer, Lorca in Tune with Falla: Literary and Musical Interludes 7. Ana M. Gómez-Bravo, Textual Agency: Writing Culture and Social Networks in Fifteenth-Century Spain 8. Javier Irigoyen-García, The Spanish Arcadia: Sheep Herding, Pastoral Discourse, and Ethnicity in Early Modern Spain 9. Stephanie Sieburth, Survival Songs: Conchita Piquer’s Coplas and Franco’s Regime of Terror 10. Christine Arkinstall, Spanish Female Writers and the Freethinking Press, 1879–1926 11. Margaret Boyle, Unruly Women: Performance, Penitence, and Punishment in Early Modern Spain 12. Evelina Gužauskyte· , Christopher Columbus’s Naming in the diarios of the Four Voyages (1492–1504): A Discourse of Negotiation 13. Mary E. Barnard, Garcilaso de la Vega and the Material Culture of Renaissance Europe 14. William Viestenz, By the Grace of God: Francoist Spain and the Sacred Roots of Political Imagination 15. Michael Scham, Lector Ludens: The Representation of Games and Play in Cervantes 16. Stephen Rupp, Heroic Forms: Cervantes and the Literature of War 17. Enrique Fernandez, Anxieties of Interiority and Dissection in Early Modern Spain 18. Susan Byrne, Ficino in Spain

19. Patricia M. Keller, Ghostly Landscapes: Film, Photography, and the Aesthetics of Haunting in Contemporary Spanish Culture 20. Carolyn A. Nadeau, Food Matters: Alonso Quijano’s Diet and the Discourse of Food in Early Modern Spain 21. Cristian Berco, From Body to Community: Venereal Disease and Society in Baroque Spain 22. Elizabeth R. Wright, The Epic of Juan Latino: Dilemmas of Race and Religion in Renaissance Spain 23. Ryan D. Giles, Inscribed Power: Amulets and Magic in Early Spanish Literature 24. Jorge Pérez, Confessional Cinema: Religion, Film, and Modernity in Spain’s Development Years, 1960–1975 25. Joan Ramon Resina, Josep Pla: Seeing the World in the Form of Articles 26. Javier Irigoyen-García, “Moors Dressed as Moors”: Clothing, Social Distinction, and Ethnicity in Early Modern Iberia 27. Jean Dangler, Edging toward Iberia 28. Ryan D. Giles and Steven Wagschal (eds), Beyond Sight: Engaging the Senses in Iberian Literatures and Cultures, 1200–1750 29. Silvia Bermúdez, Rocking the Boat: Migration and Race in Contemporary Spanish Music 30. Hilaire Kallendorf, Ambiguous Antidotes: Virtue as Vaccine for Vice in Early Modern Spain 31. Leslie Harkema, Spanish Modernism and the Poetics of Youth: From Miguel de Unamuno to La Joven Literatura 32. Benjamin Fraser, Cognitive Disability Aesthetics: Visual Culture, Disability Representations, and the (In)Visibility of Cognitive Difference 33. Robert Patrick Newcomb, Iberianism and Crisis: Spain and Portugal at the Turn of the Twentieth Century 34. Sara J. Brenneis, Spaniards in Mauthausen: Representations of a Nazi Concentration Camp, 1940-2015 35. Silvia Bermúdez and Roberta Johnson (eds), A New History of Iberian Feminisms 36. Steven Wagschal, Minding Animals in the Old and New Worlds: A Cognitive Historical Analysis 37. Heather Bamford, Cultures of the Fragment: Uses of the Iberian Manuscript, 1100–1600 38. Enrique García Santo-Tomás (ed), Science on Stage in Early Modern Spain 39. Marina Brownlee (ed), Cervantes’ Persiles and the Travails of Romance 40. Sarah Thomas, Inhabiting the In-Between: Childhood and Cinema in Spain’s Long Transition 41. David A. Wacks, Medieval Iberian Crusade Fiction and the Mediterranean World 42. Rosilie Hernández, Immaculate Conceptions: The Power of the Religious Imagination in Early Modern Spain 43. Mary Coffey and Margot Versteeg (eds), Imagined Truths: Realism in Modern Spanish Literature and Culture 44. Diana Aramburu, Resisting Invisibility: Detecting the Female Body in Spanish Crime Fiction 45. Samuel Amago and Matthew J. Marr (eds), Consequential Art: Comics Culture in Contemporary Spain 46. Richard P. Kinkade, Dawn of a Dynasty: The Life and Times of Infante Manuel of Castile 47. Jill Robbins, Poetry and Crisis: Cultural Politics and Citizenship in the Wake of the Madrid Bombings 48. Ana María Laguna and John Beusterien (eds), Goodbye Eros: Recasting Forms and Norms of Love in the Age of Cervantes 49. Sara J. Brenneis and Gina Herrmann (eds), Spain, World War II, and the Holocaust: History and Representation 50. Francisco Fernández de Alba, Sex, Drugs, and Fashion in 1970s Madrid 51. Daniel Aguirre-Oteiza, This Ghostly Poetry: Reading Spanish Republican Exiles between Literary History and Poetic Memory

52. Lara Anderson, Control and Resistance: Food Discourse in Franco Spain 53. Faith Harden, Arms and Letters: Military Life Writing in Early Modern Spain 54. Erin Alice Cowling, Tania de Miguel Magro, Mina García Jordán, and Glenda Y. Nieto-Cuebas (eds), Social Justice in Spanish Golden Age Theatre 55. Paul Michael Johnson, Affective Geographies: Cervantes, Emotion, and the Literary Mediterranean 56. Justin Crumbaugh and Nil Santiáñez (eds), Spanish Fascist Writing: An Anthology 57. Margaret E. Boyle and Sarah E. Owens (eds), Health and Healing in the Early Modern Iberian World: A Gendered Perspective 58. Leticia Álvarez-Recio (ed), Iberian Chivalric Romance: Translations and Cultural Transmission in Early Modern England 59. Henry Berlin, Alone Together: Poetics of the Passions in Late Medieval Iberia 60. Adrian Shubert, The Sword of Luchana: Baldomero Espartero and the Making of Modern Spain, 1793–1879 61. Jorge Pérez, Fashioning Spanish Cinema: Costume, Identity, and Stardom 62. Enriqueta Zafra, Lazarillo de Tormes: A Graphic Novel