Landscape and Pattern, Parts i and ii: An Archaeological Survey of Samaria 800 B.C.E. - 636 C.E. 9781407388274, 9781407388281, 9780860543954, 9781407345772

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Landscape and Pattern An Archaeological Survey of Samaria 800 B.C.E. 636 C.E.

ShimonDar With a historical commentary by Shimon Applebaum

Part i

BAR International Series 308(i) 1986

B.A.R. 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. -SJ08 (i), 1986: 'Landscape and Pattern: An Archaeological Survey of Samaria, 800 B.C.E. - 636 e.E.', Part i

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407388274 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407388281 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860543954 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407345772 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543954 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

T O M Y P ARENTS M IRIAM A ND G ERSHON L OVERS O F O UR P EOPLE

C ONTENTS P art i A bbreviations.

v iii

A bbreviations o f t he N ames o f R abbinical W orks.

i x

G lossary o f C lassical, H ebrew a nd A rabic T erms.

i x

P reface. C hapter I :

x iii T he A gricultural

1

1 .

T he E arly I ron A ge F armstead.

2

2 .

F arm-types o f t he S econd T emple P eriod.

8

3 .

F arms o f M ilitary S ettlers.

1 2

4 .

T he H istorical S etting o f t he M ilitary F armsteads.

1 5

5 .

F armsteads M orphologically V ariant o wing t o G rowth a nd E xpansion.

1 6

6 .

R ural S ettlement i n T almudic L iterature.

2 1

7 .

F armsteads r esembling R oman V illas:

8 .

C hapter I I:

S tructure a nd R ural Dwellings o f

W estern S amaria - F armhouses.

H irbet

B asatin a nd D eir S am 'an .

2 3

P easant S mallholdings a nd t he R oman V illa.

3 2

F arm B uildings a nd R ural B uildings i n W estern S amaria V illages a nd T ownlets. 1 .

C hapter I II:

3 6

H irbet J eme 'in , av illage o f t he F irst T emple P eriod.

3 6

2 .

H irbet H amad.

3 8

3 .

H irbet K arqush.

4 2

4 .

H irbet N ajar.

4 7

5 .

H irbet e l-Buraq.

5 1

T he R ural F armhouse o f S amaria.

7 7

1 .

T he R ural H omes o f t he E arly I ron A ge.

7 7

2 .

T he V illage H ouses i n t he P eriods o f t he S econd T emple, t he M ishnah a nd t he T almud.

8 0

C ourtyard H ouses a s I ndicators o f S ettlement P opulation .

8 5

3 .

C hapter I V:

T he F ield T owers.

8 8

1 .

AL ist o f t he P rincipal T ower C oncentrations.

8 8

2 .

AH istory o f t he I nvestigation .

9 1

3 .

T he N umber o f T owers o n t he D istribution M ap .

9 2

4 .

T he T ypology o f t he T owers.

9 3

5 .

T he A rchitecture o f t he T owers.

9 4

6 .

F inds f rom t he T owers.

7 .

C hapter V :

T he

F unction

o f

t he

1 07 T owers

i n

t he

R egion 's

A gricultural P attern .

1 09

8 .

T he H istorical S etting o f t he T ower P henomenon .

13

9 .

T he E conomic I mportance o f t he V ine i n G reek a nd H ellenistic C olonisation .

18

1 0. T he t erm ' The K ing's M ountain C ountry ' a nd i ts c onnection w ith t he H ellenistic S ettlement.

19

1. T he F ield-Towers i n t he R oman P eriod.

1 21

1 2. T owers a nd L odges.

1 23

T he R ural R oad S ystem i n W estern S amaria.

1 26

1 .

C onstruction .

1 26

2 .

W ater S ources a long t he R ural R oads.

1 30

3 .

C rossroads.

1 31

4 .

R oadside S hrines.

1 31

5 .

F orts a nd F ortlets o n t he R ural R oads.

1 32

6 .

B oundary S tones.

1 32

7 .

R ural a nd F arm R oads;

8 .

T he R oad N etwork o f Q arawat b ene H assan .

T ower A ccomodation R oads.

1 33 1 34

9 .

T he R oad N etwork o f ' Azun .

1 35

1 0.

R oads A ssociated w ith T owers.

1 37

1.

T he B elt L id A rea a s a n E xample o f al ocal , r egional a nd c ountrywide R oad S ystem .

1 39

T he C ommunications o f W estern S amaria i n t he l ight o f t he R ural R oads.

1 42

T he R ural R oads i n t he L iterature o f t he M ishnah a nd t he T almud.

1 42

T he E conomic a nd A gricultural I mportance o f t he A ncient R oads.

1 44

1 2.

1 3.

1 4.

C hapter V I:

V iticulture a nd W ine P roduction i n W estern S amaria a s r eflected i n t he S urvey.

1 47

1 .

T ypes o f W ine P resses i n W estern S amaria.

1 47

2 .

A t entative t ypology a nd c hronology o f W inepresses i n E retz Y israel.

1 50

3 .

4 .

5 .

T he C haracter o f t he W inepress a s aP ointer t o S ocial a nd E conomic S tructure.

1 51

T he T echnology o f W ine P roduction i n t he l ight o f t he A rchaeological S urvey .

1 53

T he E conomy o f V iticulture a nd W ine P roduction i n E retz Y israel.

1 58

6 .

T ypes o f W ine.

1 61

7 .

S umming u p .

1 63

C hapter V II :

T he O live a nd O live O il i n W estern S amaria a s r eflected i n t he S urvey a nd i n A rchaeological R esearch . . 1 .

T he A rchaeological E vidence - T he T ypology o f O il P resses.

1 65

2 .

T he C hronology o f t he S amarian P resses.

1 80

3 .

T he E stimated Y ields a nd O utput o f O live O il

4 .

C hapter V III:

1 65

i n A ncient S amaria.

1 82

S ummary : T he P lace o f t he O live i n t he R ural E conomy o f S amaria i n A ncient T imes.

1 87

T he A rchaeological E vidence f or t he C ultivation o f C ereals i n W estern S amaria .

1 91

1 .

F inds m ade b y t he S urvey .

1 91

2 .

AR ough C lassification o f A ncient G rain A reas a s e stimated f rom t he l ocation o f T hreshing F loors.

1 93

3 .

G rain S torage.

1 93

4 .

C ereals i n A ncient D iet.

1 95

5 .

T he I mport o f C ereals a nd t he T ransport S ystem

6 . 7 .

o f S amaria.

1 95

C ereal Y ields i n A ncient T imes.

1 96

T he P lace o f G rain i n t he F amily H olding o f W estern S amaria.

C hapter I X : ,

C hapter X :

C hapter X I:

1 97

I rrigated H ill F arming, S tock R earing a nd L imeP roduction i n W estern S amaria.

1 99

1 .

I rrigated H ill F arming .

1 99

2 .

T he A rchaeological E vidence f or S tock R earing i n S amaria.

2 03

3 .

L imekilns i n W estern S amaria.

2 09

4 .

S umming u p .

2 12

E nclosures a nd F orts.

2 13

1 .

E arly I ron A ge F ortifications.

2 13

2 .

F ortifications o f t he H ellenistic P eriod.

2 17

3 .

F ortifications o f t he R oman P eriod.

2 24

Q arawat b ene H assan - t he V illage a nd i ts F ields.

2 30

1 .

B edrock , S oil a nd W ater.

2 30

2 .

S urveys a nd E xcavations.

2 31

3 .

4 . 5 .

6 .

H irbet F irdusi

A n E arly I ron A ge S ettlement a nd

E nclosure.

2 32

Q al'at F irdus - a M anor o f t he H asmonean P eriod.

2 32

D eir a -Darab a nd t he N eCropolis o f Q arawat b ene H assan .

2 34

T he M osque A rea a nd B urj e l-Yaqur .

2 35

7 .

8 .

9 .

1 0.

Q arawat b ene H assan a s ac entre o f R oyal D omain i n t he H asmonean a nd H erodian P eriods.

2 36

T he M ap o f Q arawat b ene H assan - S ite D istribution a nd t he A gricultural T ract.

2 37

T he C onjectured S tructure o f t he A gricultural H olding a t Q arawat b ene H assan .

2 45 2 49

S umming u p .

G eneral C onclusions.

2 50

S himon A pplebaum: T he S ettlement P attern o f W estern S amaria f rom H ellenistic t o B yzantine T imes : AH istorical C ommentary .

2 57

N otes.

2 70

P art i i L ist o f I llustrations:

P hotographs.

L ist o f I llustrations:

M aps a nd P lans.

A bbreviations.

A .J.A,

A merican J ournal o f A rchaeology.

A .N .R .W .

A ufstieg u nd N iedergang d er r ömischen W elt.

A nt.

J osephus, A ntiquities o f t he J ews.

B .A .R .

B ritish A rchaeological R eports.

B .A .S.O.R .

B ulletin o f t he A merican S chool o f O riental R esearch .

B .C.E.

B efore t he C urrent E ra.

B .J.

J osephus, B ellum I udaicum . A nnual o f t he B ritish S chool a t A thens.

C .E.

C urrent E ra.

f n.

f ootnote.

H .E.

E usebius, H istoria E cclesiae.

H eb.

H ebrew p ublication.

I .E.J.

I srael E xploration J ournal.

I .G .

I nscriptiones G raecae.

J .H .S.

J ournal o f H ellenic S tudies.

J .P.O.S.

J ournal o f t he P alestine O riental S ociety.

J .R .S.

J ournal o f R oman S tudies.

N .H.

P liny, N atural H istory .

P .E.Q.

P alestine E xploration Q uarterly.

P . J b.

P alästina J ahrbuch .

S .E.G.

S upplementum E pigraphicum G raecum.

S .E.H .H.W .

M . R ostovtzeff, S ocial a nd E conomic H istory o f t he R oman E mpire.

S .W .P.

C onder , K itchener, S urvey o f W estern P alestine.

Z .D.P.V.

Z eitschrift d es D eutschen P alästina V ereins.

A bbreviations o f t he N ames o f R abbinical W orks. A .Z.

' Avodah Z arah ( Idolatry).

B.

B abylonian T a l mud.

B .B .

B abba B atra.

B .M .

B abba M atzi'a.

B .O.

T ractate o n P roperty . I t

' 11

'B aba Q ama.

D em .

D emai.

A gricultural p roducts n ot c ertainly t ithed.

' Erub,

' Erubin .

J er.

J erusalem T almud.

M .

M ishnah .

M a 'as.) Zish .

M a'aser R ishon .

M ekh .

M ekhilta.

P es.

P esahim .

S hev .

S hevi'it.

T he S abbatical Y ear .

T os.

T osephta.

A dditional r ulings.

S abbath l imits.

T he f irst t ithe.

A n e arly c ompendium o f r uling s . T he f estival o f P assover.

G lossary o f C lassical, H ebrew a nd A rabic T erms. A rcosolium a rcosolia ) . A b urial c hamber w ith a rcuated c eiling , c ut i nto t he w all o f a l arge c hamber o f a r ockcut t omb ; t he c ists i nto w hich t he d ead were l aid, t hough r esembling s arcophagi, w ere q uarried a s a n i ntegral ' p art o f t he r ock . B araita '(Heb.).

A r abbinical r uling n ot i ncluded i n t he M ishnah .

C ubit.

AH ebrew m easUrement p f l ength v arying f rom 4 0-60 c entimetres.

D unam .

A bout 1 /4 a cre.

' Emeq.

A p lain , g enerally s urrounded b y h ill c ountry .

E retz Y israel. ' Erub .

' The l and o f I srael'.

T he e xtension o f t he d istance b eyond w hich i t w as p tähibited t o w alk

o n t he S abbath.

G emarah . A dditional c ommentary o n r abbinical r ulings T almud ( q .v .) . G olel . A c ircular d isc-like s tone r olling i n a s lot , t o at omb c ould b e c losed. H ypogaeum ( pl . g round-level.

w hereby t he e ntrance

h ypogaea ) . A t omb o r s eries o f t ombs c ut

H orvah . ( constructive : H irbet ) . s ite o f a n a ncient s ettlement.

A n a bandoned

e mbodied i n t he

v illage ,

i n t he r ock b elow

f requently o n

t he

J erusalem C orridor , T he . T he s trip o f I srael t erritory c onnecting t he r est o f t he S tate w ith J erusalem , a s d efined b y t he c easefire l ines o f 1 948. K ilaim . K ukh .

P lants w hich m ust n ot b e g rown t ogether. An arrow b urial s haft c ut a t r ightangles t o a t omb c hamber .

M idrash . A l iterary i nterpretative c ommentary o n t he b iblical b ooks o ften c ontaining a necdotes a nd c omments o n c urrent e vents. M ishnah . T he c orpus o f r abbinical r ulings b ased o n b oth t he w ritten a nd o ral L aw , e volved t o a pply t he M osaic c ode t o v arious a spects o f c urrent l ife . R edacted i n t he l ater 2 nd c entury C .E . M ukhtar.

T he h eadman o f a n A rab v illage.

N ahal .

A r iverbed g enerally o nly c arrying water i n winter .

T he A rab

e quivalent i s ' Wadi'. P eah . G leanings , - s trictly , t hat p art o f af ield w hich t he L aw o bliges t he c ultivator t o l eave f or t he p oor a t h arvest t ime. S amarian, S amaritan . T he t erm ' Samarian ' i s u sed a s a s trictly g eographical t erm t o d escribe l ocalities a nd o bjects i n t he r egion . S amaritan i s u sed , w hether a s an oun o r a s a n a djective , i n r espect o nly o f t he S amaritan r eligious c ommunity . S tanding y it . I n a n u nderground t omb , a p it a t t he e ntrance t o a K ukh o r a rcosölium , w hich f acilitated t he l aying o ut o f t he b odies. T almyd . T he b ooks o f r abbinic l egal c ommentary e laborating o n t he r ulings o f t he M ishnah . T here a re t wo t almuds , n amely , t hat c ompleted i n E retz Y israel

i n

t he

e arly

5 th

c entury C .E .

c ompleted i n B abylonia i n c -500 C .E . T ell.

( the J erusalem T almud) ,

t he o ther

( the B abylonian T almud ) .

Am ound c omposed o f s uccessive s trata i n a ncient s ettlement.

T erra r ossa .

I n m ountainous r egions ,

r ed s oil ,

t he r esidue o f l imestone i n

d issolution . T ogephta .

A c orpus o f r ulings b y l ater r abbinical s cholars o f t he M ishnaic

p eriod. W aqf .

( Arabic) .

e stablishment.

P roperty

b elonging

t o

t he

M oslem

e cclesiastical

W adi.

As treambed, g enerally w aterless e xcept i n w inter.

W ell.

T he t omb o f a n A rab s aint.

P reface . T he p resent w ork i s t he p roduct o f a f ield s urvey c arried o ut i n S amaria i n t he y ears 1 971-1981. A c onjunction o f c ircumstances made p ossible t he s urvey , e xcavation a nd s tudy i n a r egicn t ill t hen l ittle t ouched b y t he s pade o f t he a rchaeologist . W hen t he s urvey t eam b egan i ts w ork i n S amaria, w e d iscovered s ites h ardly v isited b y m an s ince t he B yzantine p eriod - s ites t oday h aunted o nly b y s hepherds a nd h erdsmen . I n t he c ourse o f t he s urvey t he a rea h as s uffered p ronounced c hanges . D ozens o f n ew s ettlements h ave b een e rected , h undreds o f k ilometres o f r oad h ave b een b uilt, a nd m echanical e quipment h as b egun t o r eplace t he t raditional c ultivation t ill n ow o perated b y h uman a nd a nimal t raction . T he p resent w ork , t herefore , m ay b e s aid t o r eflect t he r egion 's a ncient l andscape b efore t he n ew a ge i nitiated t he i nexorable d isappearance o f m ost o f i ts a ncient a ntiquities . M any i ndividuals a nd i nstitutions h ave m ade p ossible f ield s urvey , a nd o nly s ome o f t hem c an b e m entioned h ere.

t his

p rolonged

P rofessor S himon A pplebaum w as m y m entor a nd g uide i n t he s tudy o f S amaria 's a grarian h istory , a nd i t w as d ue t o h im t hat t he w ork a ssumed i ts p resent c haracter . H e w as f requently w ith u s i n t he f ield , a nd a ctively s hared t he d irection b oth o f t he s urvey a nd i ts i nvestigations . H is w ide k nowledge o f c lassical c ulture a nd o f t he a grarian h istory o f t he R oman e mpire l ighted o ur w ay t hroughout o ur work . H e h as e arned o ur f urther g ratitude b y h is E nglish t ranslation o f t he p ublished s urvey .

t he

A mong t he m any w ho , a s v olunteer m embers o f t he t eam , p articipated i n s urvey f or s everal y ears , w e m ust m ention M ajor ( res . ) M osheh L evi ,

w hose e xpertise i n A rabic l anguage a nd c ulture g ave u s e ntry i nto n umerous v illages w hich w e v isited f or t he s ake o f e nquiry ; D r . Z eev S afrai o f t he B ar I lan U niversity , w ho m ade a p rofound s tudy o f t he h istory o f t he r egion 's h istory, a nd w as a lso a n i nexhaustible s ource o f t almudic k nowledge ; Y igael T epper , w ho s erved n ot o nly a s c hief l and s urveyor o f t he e xpedition , b ut a lso a s a n a uthority o n a ncient c onstruction , a nalysing n umerous s tructures a nd i nstallations; L ieutenant-Colonel ( res .) A ryeh ' Amit , t o w hose d iligence a nd s tudy a s o ur s pecialist i n a ir p hotography a nd m apping , w e o we m any o f o ur d istribution m aps ; o ur e xtensive u tilisation o f a ir-photographs m ade p ossible a n a ccurate s tudy o f t he a rea , a nd L ieutenantC olonel ' Amit 's e xpertise a mazed u s a ll . S iegelman , D r . Y ohanan M intzker a nd t he l ate S hemuel M ozkowitz a ssisted u s i n p lanning n umerous s ites . T heir d evotion a nd s kill e nabled t he r ecording o f m any s ites a ccess t o w hich w as e xcruciatingly d ifficult . T hey a pplied t hemselves t o t he t ask s ummer

a nd

w inter

p ersonal i nterest .

i n

d ifficult

w eather

c onditions

v oluntarily

a nd

w ith

A ll t hese m erit o ur p rofound t hanks .

M ost o f t he a rchaeological e xcavations w ere c arried o ut u nder t he a uspices o f t he S taff-Officer f or A rchaeology o f t he J udaea a nd S amaria c ommand , w hile m uch v aluable a ssistance w as r endered b y M essrs ' Immanuel D amati a nd Y itzhaq M aggen . W orkers f rom t he v illage o f B alata n ear S hechem f urnished t he l abour t eam ;

t heir f oremen w ere ' Abdul L atif Q aduml ,

J aber

M uhmad a nd A bbu ' Isah . M rs . Y a `el Y israeli o f t he M useum Y israel , J erusalem , M rs . ' Uza Z evulum

o f Museum h a-Aretz i n T el A viv a nd Y oseph P orat o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities a ssisted u s t hroughout i n d ating p ottery y ielded b y s urvey a nd e xcavation , s o e stablishing t he c hronology o f r ecorded s ites. D ani B achar a nd B ernardina L uttinger d rew t he p lans a nd maps h ere r eproduced , b estowing u pon t he w ork i ts f inal g raphic f orm a nd c haracter . T o t hese a nd m any o thers w ho a ided u s w ith l earned c ounsel - o ur h earty t hanks. M any i nstitutions a nd i ndividuals a ssisted u s d uring o ur f ieldwork , p art o f whose r esults were s ubmitted a s a d octorate t o . t he S chool o f A dvanced S tudies o f T el A viv U niversity . T he S ociety f or t he P rotection o f N ature , Q ibbutz A rtzi , B ar I lan U niversity , t he S chool o f A dvanced J ewish S tudies , t he Y izhaq B en-Zvi M emorial I nstitute a nd t he D epartment o f L ocal K nowledge o f t he Q ibbutz M ovement r endered m uch v aluable l ogistic a id t o o ur e xplorations i n t he f ield . O ur p rolonged f ield s tudies a nd t he w riting o f t he p resent w ork o we much t o t he u nderstanding, a ssistance a nd p atience o f my f amily - my c hildren a nd m y w ife L ina . Iw as a way f rom h ome f or l ong p eriods , a nd o nly t hanks t o t heir e ncouragement a nd h elp was i t p ossible t o c omplete t he p roject . M y w ife L im a ided m e i n t he l ast s tages o f w riting a nd p roofing , a nd s pared n o e fforts t o i mpart t o t he t ext i ts p resent f orm . F inally ,

I must t hank t he e ditors a nd s taff o f B AR ,

w ho h ave l aboured

t o p ublish t he s urvey .

S himon D ar

C hapter I T he A gricultural S tructure a nd R ural D wellings o f W estern S amaria - F armhouses.

A ccording t o R . Y ohanan t here were 6 0,000 v illages " from G evat t o A ntipatris". ( Jer . M esillah 1 , l a). O ne o f t he p rincipal a ims o f a n e nquiry i nto t he s ettlement p attern o f w estern S amaria h as b een t o s tudy t he s tructure o f a griculture a nd t he a ssociated r ural d wellings o f t he r egion . W e h ave e ndeavoured , w ith t he a ssistance o f s urveys a nd e xcavations , t o u nderstand t he p hysical c haracter o f t he s aid r ural h abitations , a nd s econdly , h ave a ttempted t o r econstruct t he t ypology a nd c hronology b oth o f t heir a griculture a nd t hat o f t he a ccompanying f armhouses. R ural h abitation s tructure h as n ot b een s ufficiently s tudied i n t his c ountry , a nd a n umber o f s tudies w hich e mbody w ritten s ources , a rchaeological f inds a nd s ocio-economic a nalyses , a re a s y et u npublished . C omparisons w ith c ountries n ear o r d istant a re n ot a lways f ruitful , b ecause t he p hysical a nd s ocial c onditions p revailing i n t his c ountry w ere s o d ifferent . T he a rchitectural a spect o f r ural dwellings i s a n i nteresting a nd i mportant s ubject i n i tself, b ut we h ave r estricted t he a rchitectural d escription i n f avour o f o ur c hief o bject , n amely , a s tudy o f t he t ypology o f t hese r ural b uildings . R ural b uildings i n S amaria f all i nto t wo c hief g roups : f armhouses , a nd v illages o f v arious t ypes . W e d efine a f armhouse a s a s tructure s urrounded b y a c ultivated a rea, t he f ormer u sed b y t he c ultivators f or h abitation a nd h andicrafts . T he f orm a nd c omposition o f s uch f arms a re n ot c onstant , a nd t hey p ersisted t hrough l ong p eriods o f t he c ountry 's

a grarian h istory .

V illages a re m ore d ifficult t o d efine , ( see b elow ) b ut b y av illage w e m ean a s ettlement o f v arying s ize , r anging f rom a f ew s tructures t o d ozens o f d welling u nits a ssociated o rganically w ith t he s urrounding f ields , w here e ach c ultivator h ad h is l and. A s w e s hall s ee , t he d istinction b etween a s mall v illage a nd a l arge o ne i s c onnected w ith t he s ize o f i ts p opulation a nd i ts s ocial o rganisation r ather t han w ith i ts e conomic a nd a gricultural p reoccupation . W e h ere d escribe r epresentative s amples o f a ll t ypes o f r ural s ettlement e ncountered i n t he c ourse o f o ur s urvey a nd e xcavations , b ut S amaria i s a l arge r egion , a nd i t i s as afe a ssumption t hat w e h ave n ot s een e verything.

1

1 .

T he E arly I ron A ge F armstead. O ne o f

t he i nteresting s urprises

e ncountered d uring o ur s urvey o f t he

r ural s tructures o f w estern S amaria w as t he l arge n umber o f E arly I ron A ge I I - I II ( 1000-586 B CE ) s ites . I t w ould s eem t hat i ntensive s ettlement b egan i n many p arts o f t he r egion , a nd e specially i n t he r ocky a reas i t c ontains , o nly i n t hat p eriod . T he I srael e mergency s urvey o f 1 967-8 h ad a lready r ealised t he i nteresting f act t hat a w ide e xpansion o f %s ettlement o ccurred i n t hat p eriod , w hen n umerous s ites w ere e stablished .' O ur o wn a nd o ther s urveys h ave r evealed a s triking p henomenon , n amely t he d istribution o f E arly I ron A ge f armsteads o ver e ntire w estern S amaria f rom Um-Rihan i n t he n orth t o N ahal N attuf i n t he s outh .2 ) W e w ere l ed t o c onjecture t hat t he E arly I ron A ge f armhouse r epresented a c haracteristic m odel o f s ettlement b y k inships ( extended f amilies) o f t he J oseph t ribes . N ot o nly d o we b elieve t hat t he " four-roomed" h ouse d eveloped f rom a n I sraelite i nvention , b ut a lso t hat t he r ural f armhouse w as d eveloped b y f amilies o f t he t ribes o f E phraim a nd M anasseh .

i mproved

a nd

A ccordingly w e s hall n ow d iscuss s everal e xamples o f E arly I ron A ge I I f armsteads s urveyed b y u s i n w estern S amaria.

T he Q oren L iqrana F armstead. T he f arm l ies 2 km . e ast o f K efr T ult, a t C .R . 1 565-1734. T he a rea s u r r o u n d i n g t h e h o u s e i s a b r o a d f l a t s p u r , a n d t h e f a rm s t e a d i s l o c a t e d a t F ig. 1 a p r o m i n e n t p o i n t 3 2 0 m . a b o v e s e a l e v e l . T h i s l ow h i l l a f f o r d s e x c e l l e n t P h. 1 o bservation o ver t he e ntire v icinity . G ood r oads o f a ncient o rigin p ass n earby t o r each K efr T ult , H irbet J emein , 9 amn a nd t he p roximity o f t he s prings a t N ahal Q ana . F our r ockhewn p lastered c isterns w ere r ecorded b elow t he f armstead ; E arly I ron A ge I I a nd m ediaeval p ottery w as p icked u p . T he f armstead c omprises a y ard measuring 2 7.10 x 2 9 .80 m ., d ivided i nto a w estern a rea w ithout s tructures , a nd a nother t o s outh-east i n w hich t he f oundations o f r ooms w ere n oted .

T he w alls o f t he f armyard a nd t he r ooms

w ere 0 .60-0 .80 m . t hick , b uilt o f d ressed l imestone b locks d ry l aid ; s ome s ections o f t hese s urvive t o ah eight o f 1 .60 m . I nside t he c ourtyard n early i n t he c entre o f t he f armstead ,

t he f oundations r emained o f a t ower

measuring 3 .60 x 4 .50 m . T he e ntrance t o t his t ower s urvived i n s itu , i ncluding a j amb c omposed o f a s ingle c omplete b lock . T he e ntrance w as 0 .60 m . w ide . A nother t ower , c ircular i n p lan , w as f ound i n t he n orthe astern c orner o f t he f armstead , o utside t he w alls , b eing b uilt o n t hree s uccessive r ock o ffsets a nd a butting o n t he c orner o f t he f armhouse w ith a s traight j oint . T he d iameter o f t he t ower w as 4 .65 m . a nd i ts w alls w ere 0 .80 m . t hick . T he i nner s quare t ower w e j udged t o h ave p ossessed t wo s toreys , t hus r ising a bove a ll o ther n eighbouring s tructures i n t he y ard . T he f unctions o f t he t wo t owers w ere p robably n ot i dentical ; w hile t he i nternal t ower w as t he o wner 's r esidence a nd a n i nner s trong p oint i n w hich t hey c ould c onfine t hemselves i n a n e mergency , t he e xterior r ound t ower w as p robably a d efensive l ookout i n t ime o f n eed .

S o f ar a s w e k now , t he Q oren

L iqrana f arm i s t he f irst E arly I ron A ge f arm i n S amaria i ncluding b oth a n i nner a nd a n o uter t ower , t o b e e xcavated d uring a n a rchaeological s urvey . W e d iscuss t he f unctions o f f armstead t owers i n d etail i n o ur c hapter o n f ield t owers ( Ch .IV ) . B ut i t i s w orth n oting t hat t he a ppearance o f t owers a s a n o rganic p art o f t he f armstead a t Q oren L iqrana i n w estern S amaria p receded t he a ppearance o f s uch i n t he c lassical w orld . Q uite p ossibly w e o ught

t o

s ee

t he

f armstead

t ower

a s

i nfluences w hich r eached t he w est .

2

o ne

o f

t he v arious

P alestinian

T he R ihan F armstead . T hree f armsteads w ere s urveyed i n n orth-west S amaria , i n t he d istrict o f U m-Rihan . P ottery f inds i n t wo o f t hem i ndicated e stablishment i n t he E arly I ron A ge I I a nd a c ontinuation i nto t he H ellenistic p eriod , w hile p ottery i n t he t hird w as c lassified b y P rofessors R uth A miran a nd E phraim S tern a s b elonging t o t he 6 th a nd 5 th c enturies B CE, i .e . t o t he e arly P ersian p eriod . T he f armstead ( see b elow) a lso y ielded H ellenistic p ottery . N o a rchitectural c hanges s eem t o h ave t aken p lace i n t hese f armhouses t hroughout t he a bove p eriod . F ig. 2 A ll t hree f arms l ie i n d ifficult r ocky a reas , b eing s ited o n h ill-tops P h. 2 o r a t t he e nds o f s purs . F ew r emains s urvived o f t he m ore e asterly f arm ( G .R . 1 658-2097) , a s i nhabitants o f a r ecent s emi-abandoned s ite ( ' borva l l ' ) h ave c leared t he a rea o f s tones , a nd o nly t races o f w alls a nd h igh s tonec learance c airns i ndicate i ts p revious e xistence . T he s econd f arm ( G .R . 2 104-1628) i s s ited o n t he h ighest p oint o f a s pur , a nd i ts e nclosure m easured a pproximately 4 0 x3 0 m . I t w ould a ppear t hat r ooms a nd c hambers f or h abitation a nd h andicrafts h ad a butted u pon t he w alls. T he t hird f armhouse , t oday s ituated i n t he c entre o f t he s ettlement o f R ihan(G .R . 2 085-1625) w as t ested b y e xcavation a nd i ts o verall p lan i s f airly c lear . T he r esidence i s a r ectangle o f 3 0 .60 x 3 8 m . T he o uter w all i s b uilt o f l ocal l imestone p artly t ooled . T he b readth o f t he w alls i s 1 . 301 .50 m . , a nd t hey a re d ry l aid a nd s urvive t o ah eight o f 1 . 001 . . 50 m . T hree r ooms w ere u ncovered a long t he s outh w alls , a pparently p art o f a l engthy r ange s till c overed b y d ebris . T he r ooms w ere s mall ; L ocus 1 06 c overed a n a rea o f 3 x 2 14, a nd i ts f loor w as o f r ammed e arth . T he r oom w as e ntered t hrough a n arrow o pening 0 .50 m . w ide , w hose s tone j amb , i t w ould s eem , a lso s erved t o s upport t he r oof o f t he c hamber . L ocus 1 08 w as a l arger r oom , 1 . 80 x 3 . 70 m . , b ut l ike t he o ther i n s hape . T he l ast r oom e xcavated, L ocus 1 02, m easured 1 .60 x 3 .20 m . T he r ooms o f t he r ange , t herefore , r esembled o ne a nother ; t heir f loors w ere o f r ammed e arth , t he e ntrances w ere n arrow a nd t he w alls b etween t hem w ere b uilt o f u ndressed r ubble . T heoretically 1 0 t o 1 5 r ooms c ould h ave b een b uilt i n t he y ard , b ut t he r emaining a rea w as p erhaps u sed t o a ccommodate t ools a nd l ivestock i n t he o pen a ir . I t l ooks a s i f t here w ere a dditional r ooms a long t he n orthern w all, b ut n o o thers w ere o bserved a long t he e astern a nd w estern w alls. T he f oundations o f a s mall s tructure ( Locus 9 9) 4 .50 x 3 . 1 0 m . , w ere d isclosed a t t he n orth-east c orner o f t he w all s urrounding t he f armyard . T his m ay h ave b een t he b ase o f a s mall l ookout t ower p rojecting b eyond t he w all , b ut a s o nly t he f oundations r emain i t w as d ifficult t o d etermine t he n ature o f t he l ocus m ore c onfidently . T he s urface o f t he f armyard c onsisted o f n atural s tone , r easonably w ell s moothed . W e w ent d own a t L oci 1 04, 1 14 a nd 1 13, a nd f ound m aterial r esembling b aked b ricks s cattered o ver t he y ard . T he m aterial h ad p erhaps b elonged t o o utside s tructures w hich h ad o ccupied t he a rea ; a lternatively i t c ould b e s een a s b urnt m aterial l eft b y c harcoal b urners w ho h ad s elected t he f arm a s t heir w orking a rea . T he F inds . A l arge n umber o f p otsherds w ere f ound d uring t he s urvey a nd l ikewise d uring t he e xcavation . T he e arliest m aterial i s u niform , s tore j ars b eing e specially p rominent . T he s herds o f t he H ellenistic p eriod w ere

3

f ewer t han t hose o f t he P ersian ; a n i ron t ool , ap oint r esembling t hat o f a c hisel , w as f ound i n o ne o f t he r ooms , L ocus 1 02 . E vidently n ear t he U mR ihan w as a l ocal i ron i ndustry . W e a ctually f ound l umps o f i ron s lag n ot f ar f rom t he f arm d uring o ur s urvey o f U m-Rihan . A n i nteresting p arallel t o t he U m-Blhan f arms w as e xcavated b y Y oseph P orat o n t he c oast o f A shdod .3 ) T he e xcavator , i ndeed, h eld t hat t he s tructure was a P ersian f ort, b ut a n e xamination o f t he f inds a nd c onversations with t he e xcavator make i t f easible t o s ee t he s ite a s a f ortified f arm . T he s quare m easures 2 9 x 2 9 m . , a nd t he c entral y ard w as s urrounded b y r ooms b uilt f or h abitation a nd h andicrafts . A gricultural t ools s uch a s f lint o r i ron s ickles a nd t he b lade o f a n i ron h oe w ere c ollected o n t he s ite . O n t he s trength o f a mple f inds t he s tructure c an b e d ated t o t he 5 th c entury B CE.

T he F arms i n t he N ahal B elt ' Arif A rea. 4 ) F ig. 3

A c oncentration o f f ive f arms b eginning i n E arly I ron A ge I I a nd e nding i n t he H ellenistic p eriod w as s elected a t G .R . 1 48158 w ithin t he a rea o f t he T irat Y ehudah q uarries, b etween t he c ooperative v illage o f B areqet a nd R antis.

T he f arms a re s ituated i n t he c atchment a rea o f N ahal B elt ' Arif , o n r ocky s purs a nd p lateaux . P art o f t he c ultivable s oil i s t o b e f ound i n t he v alleys w hich d rain i nto t he N ahal . T he a rea i s h illy , a nd i ts h eight a bove s ea l evel i s 2 15 m . T here a re n o t races o f A rab o ccupation i n t he a rea w orked b y t he a bove f arms , a nd a pparently t he l atter w ere a bandoned i n F ig . 4 a ncient t imes , w hen t he a rea b ecame s imply g razing l and . F arm 1 c onsisted o f af armyard 2 0 x 2 0 m . i n a rea . R emains o f r ooms a nd l arge c hambers c ould b e made o ut a long t he i nterior w alls, d ressed l imestone d ry l aid ,

t he c onstruction b eing o f

a nd t he w alls 6 0-80 c m .

t hick .

A gricultural

i nstallations s uch a s c ircular b asins 3 6 x4 6 c m . i n d iameter , a w ine p ress a nd t he m outh o f a c ave w ere r ecorded i n t he f armyard . F ield w alking a nd t he d etailed s tudy o f a ir p hotographs s howed t hat F arm 1 p ossessed a n a rea o f c ultivable s oil c overing s ome 1 60 d unams ( 16 h ectares) . A t hird o f t he a rea h as e xcellent s oil w hich h ad b een c arefully c leared o f s tones a nd s eems d eep e nough f or f ruit t rees . S ome 2 00 m etres t o n orth o f t he f armhouse , w ithin t he c ultivable a rea , w ere a w ine p ress a nd t he r ockcut b asin ( yam ) o f F ig. 5 a n o il p ress . F arm 2 w as s urrounded b y a l arge y ard 2 5 x 2 5 m . i n a rea , t he w alls b eing c onstructed a s t wo f acings o f d ressed b locks e nclosing a f ill o f s mall s tones .

T he w all w as d ry l aid a nd 1 . 20 m . t hick .

T he t ops o f w alls w ere v isible a long t he e dge o f t he f armyard , b ut t heir f orm c ould n ot b e a scertained w ithout e xcavation . S outh o f t he y ard, s ections o f w alls , r ockcut b asins a nd a r ockcut s inking f or t he b eam o f a n o il p ress w ere d istinguishable .

P robably t his a rea h as b een u sed b y t he

c ultivators f or a gricultural w ork . 2 00 m . n orth o f t he f armhouse , t he r ockcut b asin o f a n o il p ress w as o bserved . E ast o f i t s tood a l arge r ockcut s tock e nclosure m easuring 2 2 x 4 0 m . B uilding s tones f or t he f arm a nd p erhaps f or t he n eighbouring f arms a ppear t o h ave b een q uarried f rom t his a rea . I n a n u nidentified p hase a l imekiln h ad b een d ug i n t he a rea p reviously u sed f or t he c attle p ens a nd t he q uarry . F arm 2 w as s urrounded b y a t ract o f s oil c overing 1 35 d unams , h alf o f w hich w as o f g ood q uality a nd w ell c leared . M ost o f t he t ract e xtended o ver a b road f lat s pur w ith f ew a rtificial t erraces . U nlike F arm 1 t he

4

l and o f 2 e xtended n orthward f rom t he f armstead a nd t he f arm i nstallations w ere o n t he f ringes o f t he c ultivated a rea . F arm 3 w as s ituated o n t he b ottom o f a b road v alley r unning e ast-west . T he

f arm b uilding i s

w ell

p reserved ,

o ccupying

1 5 x 1 5

m .

A n

i nternal

d ivision w as d iscernible a t i ts s outh-western c orner , w hich w as e vidently t he r esidential a rea o f t he f arm . T he b uilding was e xecuted i n h ard d ressed l imestone , d ry l aid . F ig. 6

F arm 3 p ossessed a s ophisticated s ystem o f w ater s torage f or a gricultural p urposes . E ast o f t he f armstead a d am 1 . 60-2 .00 m . i n b readth w as b uilt a cross t he v alley t o c heck t he r unoff f lowing f rom t he e ast . I t w as n ot p reserved t o i ts o riginal h eight w hich w as p robably b etween 1 . 80 a nd 2 .00 m . T he w ater s o s tored w as d istributed a mong p lots s ome 2 0-25 m . b road a nd 8 0-100 m" l ong . T hese p lots , w hich p ossessed t he b est s oil o n t he f arm , e xtended a cross t he v alley a nd w ere s o a ble t o r eceive a ll t he r ainfall a nd r unoff t hey n eeded . T he d am p erformed t he a dditional f unction o f d iverting t he f lood w ater t o l arge s torage c isterns n ear t he f armhouse . I t w ould s eem t hat t hese e nabled c rops g rown o n t he h olding .

t he a uxiliary i rrigation o f

s pecialised

F arm 3 's c ultivated a rea e xtended o ver s ome 1 00 d unams . T he e xcellent s oil , m ost o f w hich w as i n t he v alley , w hich h ad b een t erraced a nd d ammed t o s tore a nd d istribute w ater , o ccupied s ome 2 0 d unams , a f air t ract i f w e c onsider t he d epth o f t he f ertile s oil , t he p ossibilities o f w ater s torage a nd d istribution , a nd t he p roximity o f t hese t o t he f armstead . A mong t he f eatures o bserved i n t he c ultivated a rea o f F arm 3 w ere a r ockcut w ine p ress , a nd t wo l imekilns . F ig. 7

F arm 4 w as s ituated o n t he e astern s lope o f as pur o verlooking a v alley b ottom r unning n orth-south . T he f armstead m easured 2 0 x 2 3 m . , a nd i ts e astern l imit w as s et o bliquely t o t he o ther a xes o f t he e nclosure . T he f armyard s tructures a re b uilt o f r oughly d ressed l imestone b locks d ry l aid , t he w alls b eing 1 . 20 m . t hick . T races o f a n o pening w ere n oticed i n t he e astern e nclosure w all , b ut a l imekiln b uilt o nto t he n orth-eastern b order o f t he f arm e nclosure h indered t he i dentification o f i nternal d ivisions . F arm 4 p ossessed a c ultivated a rea o f s ome 1 00 d unams , o f w hich 4 0 d unams w ere g ood s oil w ell c leared o f s tones a nd, b eing l ocated i n a t erraced v alley , s atisfactorily l evelled . T he a bove a rea ( 4 ) r esembles t hat o f F arm 3 ,

e xcept f or t he a bsence o f t he d am ,

w hile t he v alley i s n arrower ,

h ence

t he p lots a re m ore r estricted . .8

*F arm 5 w as b uilt i n t he c hannel o f N ahal B eit ' Arif , b ut o wing t o t he p aving o f a n a ncient r oad a long t he v alley b ottom , t he f armhouse h ad b een

d amaged a nd r obbed o f i ts m asonry . T he f arm 's i mportance a nd i nterest l ie i n a n a ncient d iversion c anal w hich w e i dentified w ith t he h elp o f a n a irp hotograph . T his c anal d iverted t he f lood w ater o f N ahal B eit 9 irif t o t he f arm 's f ields , w hose a rea w e e stimated a t a pproximately 1 20 d unams . T he c anal , 2 60 m . l ong , h ad b een c ut n ear a m eander o f t he N ahal a nd d irected t he water t o aw ide a rea i n t he v alley . P art o f t he e xcess w ater w as r eceived b y al arge s torage c istern a t t he e nd o f t he c anal. .9

T he f ive f armsteads w hich h ave b een d escribed w ere n ot t he o nly o nes i n t he a rea, a nd w e h ave c ounted o ver 6 0 i n t he t ract b etween B areqet a nd R an ds t o e ast , o ver a n a rea o f 3 5 s q . k m . T here w ere p robably o thers , b ut o nly a m ore m eticulous s urvey c an d iscover t hem .

5

Y israel F inkelstein , w ho h as s urveyed s imilar f arms i n t he ' w est o f t he d istrict , c ites i nteresting d ata o n t heir f orm a nd d istribution ." ) I n h is o pinion , l and s hortage a nd i mproved c onditions o f s ecurity p roduced t he p henomenon u nder d iscussion , n amely t he " Early I ron A ge I I" f arm . T hese f arms c ontinued t o e xist w ithout a ppreciable c hange i n t he P ersian a nd e arly H ellenistic p eriods . T heir e nd w as a ssociated , i n t he v iew o f Z . Y eivin a nd G . E delstein , w Ait h t he H asmonean r evolt a nd t he d isturbance w hich a ffected t he r egion .' A f urther e xplanation m ay p erhaps b e a dded t o t hose o f F inkelstein , Y eivin a nd E delstein . T he a ppearance o f t hese f arms i s n ot r estricted t o t he r egion e ast o f A pheq ; t he p henomenon o ccurs t hroughout w estern S amaria , f rom U n-Rihan i n t he n orth t o N ahal N attuf i n t he s outh . W e b elieve t hat t he b uilders o f t hese f arms w ere n ot r efugees f rom S amaria , a s F inkelstein t hinks , b ut a n o lder c olonisational p henomenon b ound u p w ith t he s ocial a nd e conomic c haracter o f

t he s ettlement

o f

t he

I sraelite

t ribes

( see b elow ) .

T he e nd o f t hese f arms i s s till s hrouded i n m ystery a nd i t i s d ifficult t o a ccept t he a ssumption t hat t hey w ere a ll d estroyed d uring t he H asmonean r ising. I s i t l ikely t hat e ntire western S amaria was i nhabited b y a n a lien p opulation h ostile t o t he H asmoneans t o t he e xtent t hat a ll o f t hem w ere c ompelled t o a bandon t heir f arms w ithout r eturning a t t he e nd o f t he w ar? I ndeed , t he i dea h as b een e xpressed t hat t he m ain s trength o f t he H asmoneans l ay i n t he s upport o f t he H ebrew p easantry .7 ) P robably , o nly f urther i nvestigation a nd s ystematic e xcavation c an f urnish d ata e nabling u s t o u nderstand t he a bove f arm d istribution a s a p henomenon .

T he F armsteads: E conomic S tructure. S omething l ike a p icture a nd s ome f irst c onclusions c an b e o btained f rom t he s urvey a nd e xcavation o f t hese f arms . T hose i nvestigated i n t he n orth a nd s outh o f t he r egion a re s ited i n d ifficult r ocky a reas w here t erra r ossa s oil p redominates . M ost o f t he f armsteads t here p ossessed n o p ermanent water s ources, a nd w ere b ased o n t he s torage o f r ainwater i n r ockcut c isterns. T he t ypical f armhouse c onsisted o f a f armyard 2 0 x 2 0 m . i n a rea ,

( both

s maller a nd l arger e xamples w ere f ound ) , w hile h abitations a nd w orkshops a butted u pon a s ection o f t he s urrounding w alls . C onstruction w as s imple , s ometimes c rude , b ut w ell e xecuted . T here i s n o e vidence o f w ealth o r e xpensive i mports . T he a rchaeological f inds a nd a nalysis o f t he t errain e nable u s t o d educe t hat t he p rincipal b ranches i n w hich t he i nhabitants e ngaged w ere t he c ultivation o f v ines f or w ine a nd o live t rees f or o il , c ereal p roducts a nd a nimal h usbandry ( sheep a nd c attle) . T he p easant o wners o f t hese f arms u nderstood t erracing , a nd m ay h ave b een t he p eople w ho i nvented a nd p erfected i t . T he u tilisation o f r unoff w as a pplied w ith g reat s ophistication , a nd w e h ave o bserved s everal i mpressive d iversion p rojects. I n t he l ight o f t he s urvey o f t he N ahal B elt ' Arif a rea, where f arm d ensity h as f acilitated t he d efinition o f t he c ultivated a rea o f e ach f arm , i t m ay b e s uggested t hat a n a rea o f 1 00150 d unams w as n ormally c ultivated .

6

E ach f armstead p ossessed a s mall u nit o f e xcellent f ertile s oil , a nd a lso l ess f ertile s oils . I t i s o f i nterest t o o bserve t hat w e h ave f ound n o e vidence o f t he c lear m arking o f b oundaries i n t he f arm-areas o f E arly I ron A ge I I . A ll t he i nhabitants o f a g iven f arm may h ave b een s o t horoughly a cquainted w ith t heir b oundaries t hat t here was n o n eed f or p hysical i ndications o n t he t errain . B ut t here i s a nother p ossibility , n amely , t hat t he f armsteads r epresent e xtended o r k inship g roups ( batei-av ), o rganised o n a t ribal b asis, s o t hat t he a reas t o b e marked w ere more e xtensive ( see b elow) . C hronologically , t here w as c ontinuity f rom E arly I ron A ge I I d own t o t he H ellenistic p eriod . T he b asic c haracter o f t he f armstead d id n ot a lter b ut i t i s r easonable t o a ssume t hat c hanges t ook p lace i n t he a gricultural i nstallations , t he a ppropriate c hapters .

a nd w e s hall n ote s uch c hanges i n

T he I sraelite f arm w hich f irst a ppears i n E arly I ron A ge I I w as v ery l ong-lived , a nd a bandonment i n t he H ellenistic p eriod i s c ertainly t o b e c onnected w ith p rofound s ocial a nd e conomic c hanges.

T he S ocial B ackground o f t he I sraelite F armhouse. W hen w e t urn t o s crutinise t he s ocial a nd e conomic b ackground o f t he E arly I ron A ge f armhouse, i t b ecomes c lear t hat t here w as a c lose l ink b etween t he m aterial f inds i n t he f ield a nd t he m ode o f o wnership o f t he s oil i n t he p eriod o f t he F irst T emple . O n t he a uthority o f t he J ubilee Y ear r ecorded i n t he B ook o f L eviticus, C h . 2 5, t he l and a ppears a s t he c ommon p roperty o f t he t ribe o r o f t he f amily . I n t he p eriod o f t he m onarchy a lso, t he a ncient l aw o f t he a ncestral p lot f i lahlat a vot) i s r eflected i n t he s tory o f A hab a nd N aboth t he J ezreelite .° ) T he b iblical f amily i n I srael w as p atriarchal , a nd s ubject t o t he s overeignty o f t he f ather . H is w ives, h is c oncubines a nd h is mother , h is s ons a nd t heir w ives, t heir o ffspring a nd h is u nmarried d aughters a ll b elonged t o t he f amily . H is b rothers a nd s isters t oo , , s o l ong a s t hey w ere m inors , w ere s ubject t o t he f ather o f t he f amily .9 ) S uch p atriarchal k inships a nd f amilies w ho h ad w andered t ogether , a lso s ettled t ogether . T owns a nd t heir s atellite s ettlements w ere s ometimes r egarded a s p atriarchal k inships o r f amilies . W e t hink t hat t he f armhouses j ust d escribed c orrespond t o t he b iblical s ources a nd w ere t he a bodes o f e xtended b iblical f amilies . T he f armhouses s urveyed a re l arge s tructures , w ith s ufficient r ooms t o l odge f amilies o f 2 0-30 s ouls a nd p erhaps m ore . T he f amily h olding , t he p roperty o f t he I sraelite p easant w hich h e p assed o n t o t he s ons o f h is f amily , w as k nown a s a n a huzah , a nd e very p atriarchal k inship o btained o ne ( Num., 2 6 :54) . S ince I sraelite c ustom a nd t he n ature o f t he t errain p revented t he g rowth o f l arge e states i n t he h ill c ountry , t he I sraelite v illage h olding w as m edium t o s mall . I sraelite l aw l aid d own t hat n o l and c ould b e s old i n p erpetuity , a nd i f i t w as s old i t r eturned t o i ts o wners i n t he J ubilee Y ear . 1 0 ) T he t erm s edeh a huzah ( ' the f ield o f t he a huzah ' ) w as o f e conomic a nd s ocial s ignificance a lso i n t he p eriod o f t he M ishnah a nd t he T almud . W e d o n ot , i t i s t rue , k now t he p recise l egal m eaning o f t his d efinition , b ut t he m ention o f t he t erm i n t he M ishnah a nd i n t he J erusalem T almud s hows t hat i t w as

c urrently u sed

i n c ases

i nvolving

c lassification o f a gricultural h oldings.

l anded p roperty a nd

i n t he

1)

W e t hink t hat t he s ize o f t he s oil-unit b elonging t o t he E arly I ron A ge f arm i s a lso m ore a ppropriate t o k inship s ettlement t han t o c olonisation b y s mall f amily n uclei . T he s ize o f t he h oldings i n N ahal B eit ' Arif v aries f rom 1 00 t o 1 50 d unams o f l and , a nd l arge f amilies o f t he s ize d efinable a s

7

p atriarchal k inships w ere n eeded t o w ork t hem . T he a bsence o f c lear d emarcations b etween t he p roperties o f t he E arly I ron A ge f armsteads a lso s trengthens t he c onjecture t hat w e h ave b efore u s s ettlement b y k inships b ound t ogether b y b lood-relationship . A t a l ater s tage i n E arly I ron A ge I I n ucleated I sraelite h amlets a ppear b eside t he f arms, t he h amlets o riginating , w e t hink , i n t he s ettlement f orm o f p atriarchal k inships a nd f amilies . ( See b elow) . T he a ppearance o f d efined t erritories a nd b oundaries i n t he S econd T emple p eriod , t herefore , w e b elieve p oints t o s ocial a nd e conomic c hanges w hich t ook p lace i n t he e conomic s tructure o f t he I sraelite p easantry . T he f armsteads o f t he E arly I ron A ge a re n ot c haracteristic o f S amaria o nly . H undreds o f f arms h ave b een s urveyed i n t he e xpanses o f t he N egev , a nd a f ew w ere e xcavated a nd p ublished a s e arly a s t he ' sixties .1 2 J I n r ecent y ears, c hiefly s ince t he i nitiation o f t he c omprehensive N egev s urvey , m any d ozens o f n ew f arms h ave b een d iscovered . N umerous s ites p reviously d efined a s f orts o f t he E arly I ron A ge, 1 3) a re n ow b eing i nvestigated a fresh a nd c lassified a s r ural s ettlement s ites .1 4) A c ontroversy i s p roceeding a mong N egev r esearchers n ot o nly o n t he d ate o f t he s aid f arms a nd f orts ,

b ut a lso o n t he r easons

f or t heir c onstruction .

S ome s ee t hem a s s ettlement s ites e stablished b y r oyal i nitiative , a nd b uilt t o s erve t he p olitical n eeds o f t he k ingdom o f J udaea . Z . M eshel b elieves r oyal d irection i n t he b uilding o f t he f arms w as s light a nd t hat i nitiative f rom t he c entre i n t he p lanning a nd p erhaps r oyal e xecution o f t he o n A ge I I s ettlement p roject, i s p erceptible o nly a t Q addesh B arnea .1 5) T he c onditions i n S amaria m ay h ave b een d ifferent , b ut w e i ncline t o M eshel 's v iew t hat t he I ron A ge I I c olonisation w as n either c arried o ut b y r oyal o rganisation n or d ictated f rom a bove .

2 .

F arm-types o f t he S econd T emple P eriod.

I n t he c hapter o n E arly I ron A ge f armsteads w e h ave d rawn a ttention t o t he f act t hat t he o ccupation o f m ost o f t hem c ontinued d own t o t he H ellenistic p eriod . F ew , h owever , h ave a s y et b een e xcavated, a nd t he t ransitional s tages f rom o ne p eriod t o t he o ther a re n ot s ufficiently c lear , b ut t he e vidence o f p ottery i n m ost o f t hem s hows a c ontinuity o f m aterial c ulture f rom o ne p eriod t o t he n ext w ithout d ecisive c hanges i n t he b asic p lan o f t he f armstead o r a ny c onsiderable a ddition o f b uildings . F or t his r eason . w e s hall p roceed t o e xamine a nd t o s tudy t he l ater f arm-types o f t he H ellenistic a nd e arly R oman p eriods.

F arm 6 1 i n t he U m-Rihan A rea. F ig. 1 0 Ac omplete f armstead o f t he f irst c entury B CE w as e xcavated b y u s i n t he P h. 3 U m-Rihan a rea . I t i s s ituated t hree k ilometres e ast o f H irbet U m-Rihan ( G .R .

1 669-2107),

a t t he e nd o f a r ocky s pur l ying 3 20 m .

a bove s ea l evel .

T he f armhouse i s s ited a t t he e nd o f t he a ncient a gricultural a rea , w hich c ontains f ield t owers , s tone c learance c airns , t erraces , w inepresses a nd o il-presses ,

a ll d ated i n t he P ersian a nd H ellenistic p eriods .

T he c entral

s ettlement o f t he r egion i n a ncient t imes was H irbet Um-Rihan , a nd t he c ultivated a rea a ppears t o h ave b elonged, i n s ome w ay o r o ther , t o t hat s ettlement .

T he f armhouse i ncludes a c entral y ard ( Locus 8 0 ) a pproximately

1 5 x 1 0 m . i n a rea , a nd a symmetrical i n p lan . T he e ntrance t o i t w as b y a n o pening o n t he e ast . O n e ach s ide o f t he f armyard w ere r anges o f s mall

8

r ooms ; t wo l oci ( 77 a nd 7 8) w ere d ug , t heir e xterior m easurements b eing 3 .50 x7 .50 m . a nd t heir i nterior a reas 2 .20 x 6 .00 m . T here a ppear t o h ave b een t wo r ooms , b ut t he p arty-wall b etween t hem h ad b een r emoved a t s ome s tage . L ocus 7 7 c ould a lso b e e ntered f rom o utside t he y ard , i .e . f rom t he n orth ,

b ut L ocus 7 8 w as e ntered o nly f rom t he y ard i tself .

L ocus 7 3 w as a

s mall r oom 3 .50 x 3 .30 m . o n t he e xterior , a nd r oughly 2 .00 x 2 .00 M . i n t he i nterior ; a s maller r oom 1 .00 x 2 .50 m . w as a ttached t o i t ( Locus 7 4) . T he y ard a nd r ooms w ere b uilt o f h ard t ooled l imestone , d ry l aid , l arge b locks b eing u sed m ore e specially f or t he c orners a nd r oofs . T he s mall d imensions o f t he r ooms m ade i t p ossible t o r oof t hem w ith l ong b road s tone s labs , s ome o f w hich w ere f ound i n t he c ourse o f e xcavation . T he r ooms s eem n ot t o h ave e xceeded a h eight o f 1 .80-2 .00 m . a nd t heir f loors w ere w ithout e xception t he b edrock , r oughly s moothed o ff . L ocus 7 0 was e xposed t o w estward , i ts e xternal m easurements b eing 3 . 10 x 3 .20 m . a nd i ts i nternal a rea 1 . 60 x 1 .60 m . a pproximately . I t a ppears t o h ave p ossessed a s econd s torey , t o j udge f rom t he n umber o f s tones f ound i n t he d ebris . I t c ould b e e ntered b oth f rom t he y ard a nd f rom t he s outh , a nd i t m ay b e s upposed t hat i t h ad s erved a s t he o bservation a nd s ecurity t ower o f t he f arm , s ince i ts i nternal m easurements w ere t oo s mall t o b e u sed f or n ormal h abitation . A

P h. 4

l ater a ddition h ad b een m ade t o t he t ower , v iz . L ocus 7 1: t hat i t h ad b een b uilt l ater w as s hown b y d etails o f c onstruction , v iz , ac learly d iscernible s traight j oint b etween t he e arlier a nd l ater b uilding .

T he F inds . T he p ottery w as v ariegated, i ncluding b owls , c ooking p ots , j ugs , j uglets a nd a mphorae , a s w ell a s a b one w orked i nto a s poon . N o c omplete v essels were f ound, a nd i t a ppears t hat when t he p lace w as e vacuated t he c omplete v essels a nd o ther v aluables w ere t aken a way b y t he i nhabitants . T he p ottery i ndicates t he i st c entury B CE, a nd o nly o ne s olitary g lass v essel s uggests t he t emporary u se o f t he f arm b uildings i n t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods .

T he A gricultural I nstallations. A t rial e xcavation o f t he f arm 's a gricultural i nstallations w as c arried o ut 2 0 m etres e ast o f t he f armhouse . H ere t wo c upmarks a nd a n atural d epression , w idened a nd h ollowed i nto t he r ock , w ere f ound o n a r ocky l evelled s urface r inged b y s tones , a nd c overing a n a rea o f s ome 1 2 x 9 m . T he d epression m easured 1 .50 x 2 .50 m . a nd s eems t o h ave b een o f c onsiderable d epth . C omparison w ith s imilar i nstallations e xcavated i n t he a gricultural a reas o f U m-Rihan , s howed t hat t he c upmarks o f t he a rea w ere u sed f or t he p roduction o f o live o il a nd t he d epression s erved a s a w ine p ress. I t i s r easonable t o s uppose t hat t he i nstallations i n t he s aid a rea n ear t he f arms w ere n either t he o nly o nes , n or w ere t hey t he m ost i mportant , b ut w ere s upplementary t o t he w ine-presses s urveyed i n t he c ultivated a reas . F our well-cleared p lots o f s oil e nclosed b y s traight s tone f ences w ere a ttached t o t he f armstead . T heir s ize w as n ot u niform; t he e asterly overed 8 00 s quare m etres , t he m ore w esterly 2 d unams , 3 .4 d unams a nd 1 . 2 F ig. 1 c d unams r espectively . I t i s a bundantly e vident t hat t his a rea w as c onsidered a s e specially v aluable b y t he i nhabitants o f t he f arm . I t h ad b een well c leared i n d epth a nd t he f ences e nclosing t he p lots h ad b een c arefully b uilt t o ah eight o f am etre o r m ore . W e d o n ot k now t he a rea o f t he e ntire a gricultural h olding o n w hich F arm 6 1 s tood , b ut t here i s n o d oubt t hat t he p lots n ear t he f armhouse w ere o f s pecial e conomic i mportance .

9

F armhouse 6 1 w as n ot a d istinguished o ne a nd c ontained n o i mprovements t o m ake i t m ore c omfortable . I t s eems p robable t hat i t w as t he p roperty o f a f amily f rom H irbet R ihan , w hich h ad d ecided , i n v iew o f i ts d istance f rom t he s ettlement, t o b uild n ear i ts p roperty a nd s o t o s horten t he d aily j ourney t o a nd f rom t he f ield.

T he Q asr e -Lejah F arm . F ig. 1 2 P h. 5

S ome f our k ilometres s outh-east o f Um R ihan we s urveyed o ne o f t he f inest f armsteads i n t he n orth o f t he c ountry . ( G .R . 1 673-2093 ) . T he f arm l ay o n t he s ummit o f a s pur 3 30 m . h igh a nd was s urrounded b y t he t ributaries o f W adi e l'Hasab . M in G anim) r an c lose t o i t .

T he a ncient r oad f rom U m R ihan t o J enin T he f armhouse, whose o utlines r emained

c omplete , r ises i n g iven p laces t o a h eight o f t wo o r t hree m etres . T he f arm e nclosure w as a n o blong m easuring 2 6 .5 x 3 6 m . , a nd t he f arm b uilding a nd i ts h abitations w ere b uilt r ound i t , i n w ell-tooled l imestone b locks r esembling a shlar . T he m asonry w as d ry l aid a nd t he c ourses w ere c losely j ointed . W e s hall d escribe t he f arm 's t he v arious w ings a ccording t o f unction . 1 -2 m ark t he f armstead 's t ower ,

s tructure a nd a ttempt t o c lassify

w hich m easured 9 x 9 m . a t b ase ;

t he

s econd s torey w as s maller - 5 .50 x 5 m . , a nd t he w hole w as p reserved t o a h eight o f t wo o r t hree m etres , b ut i ts o riginal h eight h ad b een a t l east 4 -5 m . T he t ower p ossessed t wo e ntrances , ( 3) o ne b y a f light o f s tairs f rom o utside , a nd t he o ther t hrough t he f armyard f rom a rea 4 . T he t ower w as s ituated i n t he s outh-west c orner o f t he y ard , w here t he i nhabitants c ould e njoy t he w est w ind i n s ummer a nd t he s un i n w inter , T he t wo-storeyed t ower was u sed, a pparently , b y t he owner t he f arm a nd h is f amily , a nd a dditionally , i n a ll p robability , a s a l ookout a nd f or d efense . I n o ur c hapter o n f ield t owers w e t reat a t l ength o f t he t ypes o f t owers a nd t heir p lace i n t he f arms o f t he H ellenistic a nd R oman p eriods . I n a ddition t o t he f ield t owers a nd t hose a lready d escribed i n t he h ouses a nd f armhouses o f w estern S amaria , c an b e c ited a n i nteresting p arallel i n t he ' l arge c ommunal s ettlement o f H irbet Q umran o n t he s hore o f t he D ead S ea .1 6) T he Q umran t ower i s s lightly l arger t han t he t ower o f Q asr e -Lejah , a nd i ts d efensive f unction i s c lear b ecause i t w as l ocated a t t he h ighest p oint o f t he c ommunal s ettlement, which , a s i s w ell k nown , was a ctive i n t he H asmonean p eriods a nd w as a bandoned d uring t he f irst r evolt a gainst R ome . A nother t ower a t H irbet Moraq o n t he western s lopes o f t he H ebron m ountains h as b een e xcavated b y I mmanuel D amati . T he e xcavator d efined t his s ite a s a p alace o f t he l ate H asmonean a nd H erodian p eriods , d estroyed i n t he f irst r ebellion a gainst R ome, b ut t he s ite m ay b e r egarded a s a H ellenistic-Roman v illa b elonging n ear i ts a gricultural p roperties .

t o a w ell-to-do J ewish f amily r esiding

T he t ower , w hich w as n ot c ompletely e ycavated , c overed s ome 7 .50 x 7 .50 m etres , a nd i n t he o pinion o f t he e xcavator p ossessed a s econd s torey . I ts l ocation i s s imilar t o t hat o f t he t ower a t Q asr e -Lejah . A t H irbet e lM oraq a b ath b uilding w as f ound , a nd t his w as t he o nly e xcavated e xample o f s uch k nown t o u s i n ar ural v illa . A t Q asr e -Lejah R oom 5 was s uitably p laced t o b e t he l odging o f a

1 0

m anager, o ne o f w hose d uties would h ave b een t o k eep a n e ye o n p eople l eaving a nd e ntering t he f arm . T he main e ntrance was o n t he w est ( 8), t hrough a n o pening 2 i n . w ide f or b easts o f b urden c arrying a gricultural p roduce i n a nd o ut .

N o a rrangements f or d oors o r o ther m eans o f c losing

e ntrances w ere n oticed , b ut i t m ay b e a ssumed t hat w ooden d oors w ere h ung t o b lock t he main e ntrance w hen n ecessary . A t l east f ive r ooms w ere d istinguished a long t he n orth e nclosure w all ( 9-10) , a nd w e t hink t hat t his w ing l odged t he l abourers w orking o n t he f arm . T he s ocial s tatus o f t he l atter - w hether t hey w ere s laves, t enants o r f amilies o f w age w orkers - i s h ard t o d etermine, b ut t he a bove f ive r ooms c ould h ave h oused a t l east t wenty o r t hirty s ouls . T he e astern w ing c ontained c raft i nstallations a nd s torehouses f or a gricultural p roduce . A c omplete o il-press ( 11), i ncluding a r eception b asin ( yam ) a nd t wo e mplacements f or t he w ooden p ress-beams , w as f ound i n s itu . T he i nterior m easurements o f t he p ress w ere a pproximately 8 x 8 m . ( 64 s q . m . ) a nd i ts i nstallations c an b e r econstructed w ith a lmost c omplete p recision ( see C hap . V II o n o il p resses) . T he r eception b asin i s p reserved i n i ts e ntirety , i ts d iameter b eing 2 .07 m ., i ts h eight 0 .45 m . ; a t i ts c entre i s a s inking f or a v ertical p ivot w ith whose a id t he c rusher r evolved . E ach s ide o f t he r eception b asin w ere e mplacements f or t he s tone s labs h olding t he t imber p ress-beam , w hich w as 5 .60 m . l ong ; f rom i ts e nd h ad b een h ung t runcated c onical s tone w eights w hich w ere f ound i n s itu . E xcavation n ear t he r eception b asin y ielded p ottery o f t he H ellenistic p eriod. •I t w as u ncertain w hether t he s iting o f t he o il-press t o e ast o f t he f arm w as h aphazard , o r w hether t he i ntention o f t he p lanners w as t o s upply t he p ress w ith t he a ppropriate h eat , a s r ecommended b y t he R oman V itruvius .1 7) A f urther f actor p eculiar t o t he c ountry m ay h ave i nfluenced t he l ocation , n amely , t he p revailing w est w ind . W hat i s c ertain i s t hat t he p ress w as p laced a s f ar a s p ossible f rom t he a rea i nhabited b y t he o wners , i n o rder t o s pare

t hem

t he

n oise

a nd

o ppressive

o dours

a ccompanying

t he w ork o f

t he

p ress. S outh o f t he o il-press w ere s everal l arge r ooms s uitable f or s toring p roduce , a nd s ome w hich c ould h ave s erved a s w orkshops . I n a l arge f arm s uch a s Q asr e -Lejah m uch s torage s pace w as n eeded f or w ine , o il a nd g rain , a nd t he e xistence o f t hese b ranches was p roved d uring s urveys a nd e xcavations i n t he a rea , b y t he d iscovery , n ot o nly o f o il-presses , b ut a lso o f w inepresses a nd s ilos . O ne o f t he l arge r ooms was u sed, i n a ll p robability , a s a s toreroom f or a gricultural t ools , a nd d oubtless a lso a s a w orkshop w here t hey c ould b e m ended. T he d istance f rom t he f arm t o t he u rban c entres w as c onsiderable , a nd i t m ay b e

s upposed

t hat

t he o wners

t ook c are

t o a rrange f or t he

r epair a nd

m aintenance o f a rticles o f e quipment f or a f arm l ike Q asr e -Lejah . T he f arm 's w ater-supply c ame e ntirely f rom r ain-water .

W e e xamined a

l arge c ircular w ater c istern w hich h ad b een c ut i n t he r ock o f t he f armyard ( 7) a nd s kilfully p lastered ( 6) . I t w as f illed w ith d ebris a nd s ilt , b ut w as t hree m etres i n d iameter , w hich i mplies t hat i ts d epth w as c onsiderable . O utside s prings

t he y ard t wo o ther w ater c isterns

w hatsoever

i n

t he

e ntire

w ere

n eighbourhood ,

1

a nd

f ound . t he

T here a re n o d istance

t o

t he

n earest v illages i s o ver t hree k ilometres . N orth-east o f t he f armstead i s a n i solated s tone-built s tructure r esembling a w atchtower . N o i nternal d ivision c ould b e d iscerned , b ut e xcellent o bservation w as a fforded f rom i ts r oof o ver t he ' dead ' g round t o n orth-east , n ot o bservable f rom t he i nternal t ower o f t he f arm . F rom t he l atter a s tone-fenced e nclosure c ould b e s een , a nd a w ell-built s tructure a ttached t o i t . T his e nclosure m ay h ave b een u sed f or t he f arm 's s heep a nd c attle , t he b uilding s erving a s t he q uarters o f t hose r esponsible f or t he l ivestock . Q asr e -Lejah i s a g ood e xample o f a S econd T emple f armstead .

A t rial

e xcavation y ielded l ocal-made p ottery o f t he H ellenistic p eriod, a nd a s urvey o f t he i mmediate n eighbourhood p roduced p ottery p robably d atable f rom e arly H ellenistic t o e arly R oman t imes . T he f arm m ay h ave b een b uilt i n t he 3 rd o r 2 nd c entury B CE , a nd e xisted d own t o t he i st c entury C E , b ut m ore e xtensive e xcavation a lone c ould d etermine t he f ull c hronology o f i ts h istory . T hose w ho p lanned a nd b uilt i t d istinguished c learly b etween t hose w ings r anged a long t he w alls o f t he f armyard : t he o wners ' r esidential a rea , t he l abourers ' q uarters a nd t he a rea d evoted t o s torage a nd h andy-crafts . T he s ize o f t he e stablishment i ndicates a m edium o r w ell-to-do l andowner i n p ossession o f t racts o f r ocky s oil which , a s af armer, h e n evertheless u tilised i n a c apable m anner . E vidence o f t he e xploitation o f t he o live , t he v ine, o f c ereals a nd l ivestock was o bserved i n a nd a round t he f arm . P robably c orn-growing w as n ot h is p rincipal b ranch o n t he d ifficult r ocky t errain o f U m-Rihan ; v ery l ikely w ine , o il , w ool-products a nd c heese-making p redominated . I t i s t o b e n oted t hat t he f armstead w as l ocated n ear t he i mportant r oute f rom U m-Rihan t o J enin , t he a ncient ' Ein G anim , a nd t he d istance f rom t he f arm t o t own i s o nly 1 5 k ilometres a s t he c row f lies . T his meant t hat a man a nd a b east o f b urden c ould c arry p roduce t o t he market-town i n ad ay 's j ourney . T he f arm o f Q asr e -Lejah i s a r are a nd e xcellent e xample o f a n a gricultural h olding m anaged b y aw ell-to-do f armer , o f t he c lass k nown t o t he H ebrew s ources a s b a 'alei z ero 'a .1 8 ) H e m ay h ave h ad i nfluence w ith t he r ulers o r h ave a ccumulated l anded p roperty i n o ther w ays , s ince , i n t he H ellenistic a nd H erodian p eriods a n e state w as a w ay o f r ewarding s ervants o f t he r oyal c ourt f or l oyal s ervice .'

3 .

F arms o f M ilitary S ettlers. A n ew a nd i nteresting p henomenon i n t he s tudy o f t he s ettlement p attern

o f w estern S amaria w ere t hose f arms w hich r esemble s mall d efence-posts . T hese farms h ave n ot y et b een t he o bject o f a m ore t horough i nvestigation , b ut a n e xcavation h as b een c arried o ut i n o ne ( Qasr H aramiyyeh) . T hey a ttracted o ur a ttention w hen w e w ere s urveying t he f ield t owers , a nd t hen a ssigned t hem t o t he ' giant ' g roup . T hese f ort-like m ilitary f arms a re d istinguished b y t heir d imensions a nd t heir s tyle o f b uilding . T hey a re b igger t han t he o ther t ypes o f t ower s urveyed b y u s i n w estern S amaria , a nd i n m ost i nstances w ere o bserved t o p ossess i nternal d ivisions , t wo e ntrances a nd t wo s toreys . A ll t he f arms o f t his t ype a re l ocated a t h igh p oints a nd c ommand o bservation a nd v isual c ontact o ver a c onsiderable r ange .

T heir

c lassification a s f arms i s b ased o n t he a gricultural i nstallations r ecorded i n a ssociation w ith t hem a nd i n t heir i mmediate v icinity . F armsteads o f t his t ype w ere s urveyed i n t he a rea o f Q arawat b ene H assan , a t H irbet N ajar , H irbet S ir , H irbet B uraq a nd n ear H irbet T anurah . O ne f arm o f t his t ype i n t he a rea o f Z ahar e -Rujum b etween 9 k ma a nd H irbet S ir w as r ecorded b y t he I srael e mergency s urvey o f 1 967-8 , a nd d escribed a s al arge m ausoleum o f t he B yzantine p eriod . 2°) T hree f arms o f t his t ype r ecorded i n t he p resent s urvey a re h ere d escribed i n g reater d etail .

1 2

Q asr K uah

( 48).

F ig. 1 3 T his f arm i s l ocated a bout a k ilometre w est o f t he c entre o f Q arawat P h. 6 b ene H assan , o n a p rominent h ill 3 68 m . a bove s ea l evel a t G .R . 1 586-1705 . T he h ill a ffords a p anoramic o bservation a nd v isual c ontact w ith i ts s urroundings b oth n ear a nd f ar . T he e nvirons o f t he v illage a t B ene H assan , J ebel ' Abrad , M es-hah , B idiah , S arta , H an s a nd D ein E stia c an b e c learly s een . T he f ort measures 5 .59 x 4 .30 m . a nd i s p reserved t o a h eight o f 3 . 10 m . T he s tructure i s b uilt o f c arefully t ooled b locks l ittle s hort o f t he f inest c lass o f d ressed m asonry . T his i s d ry l aid , t he c ourses b eing w ell f itted . T he w alls a re 6 0-80 c m . t hick . T wo e ntrances w ere n oticed o n t he e ast a nd n orth r espectively ; t he n orthern a perture i s b uilt o f t hree m onoliths c ompletely t ooled , 0 .64 m . w ide a nd 1 . 10 a u h igh , a nd t hree s inkings a re c ut i n t he d oor-jamb f or b olts . O n t he e ast i s a nother e ntrance , l ess w ell p reserved . T he b uilding w as d ivided i nternally b y a n e ast-west w all , a nd t here w ere p robably t hree r ooms , a c orridor a nd t wo i nterior c hambers . T he h eight o f p reservation a nd t he f allen m asonry l ying n ear t he f ort, d emonstrate t he e xistence o f a n u pper s torey . T he i nterior a rea o f t he g roundfloor i s s ome 1 2 s q . n u , s o t hat t ogether w ith t he u pper F ig. 1 4 s torey , a l iving s pace o f 2 4 s q . m . i s a ttained . C lose t o t he b uilding l ies a r ockcut w inepress w hich m easures 2 .60 x 2 .50 n u , i ts c ollecting t ank b eing 1 .00 x 0 .80 m . a nd i ts d epth 1 .20m., s ufficient t o h old s ome 1 ,000 l itres o f u nfermented g rape j uice . T his a rea i s s urrounded b y a f ence o f l arge s tones , a f eature f ound i n c onnection w ith o ther w inepresses i n t he F ig. 1 5 n eighbourhood . A r ockcut water c istern , a pparently d raining b oth t he f armhouse a nd t he t op o f t he h ill , w as s ituated t o e ast o f t he b uilding . I t was o f u nusual f orm, b eing c ompletely c ircular a nd c overed b y s tone s labs .

A r ockcut c hannel l ed r unoff t o t he c istern .

T he f ort s tands i n t he c entre o f 6 .2 d unams ( 0 .6 h ectare) o f wellc leared a nd l evelled s oils . T he t otal a rea d efinable b y a ir p hotographs a s a ttached t o t he f arm w as 4 0 d unams ( 4 h ectares ), a nd e xtended o ver t he r ocky s lop s o f t he h ill o n w hich t he f arm w as b uilt . A s urvey o f t he p ottery f rom t he f ortified b uilding f ound s herds o f t he i st c entury B CE , b ut n othing l ater.

H irbet N ajar F ig. 1 6

( 28).

T his f armhouse i s s ited o n t he s ummit o f a h ill r ising t o 1 68 U4, o ne k ilometre s outh o f H irbet N ajar , a t G .R . 1 511-1689 . T he h ill o n w hich i t s tands i s t he h ighest i n t he a rea ,

w ith e xcellent o bservation t owards K efr

F ig. 1 7 Q asim , H irbet N ajar , B eit A min , S aniryah , M es-hah a nd H irbet a -Romeileh s outhward . T he f armstead i ncludes a c entral f ortified r esidence ( 1), a ncillary b uildings a nd a gricultural i nstallations . T he c entral f ortified b uilding m easures

7 .80 x 6 .80 m . ,

a nd

i s d ivided

i nternally i nto a t

l east

t wo c hambers . I t i s b uilt o f w ell-tooled l imestone b locks, d ry l aid , a nd i s p reserved t o ah eight o f o ne m etre . T he e ntrance i s o n t he e ast , b eing c onstructed o f l arge f ashion .

w ell-fitted b locks . T he d oor c ould b e c losed i n a n i nteresting Ac hannel c ut i n t he s tone d oor-jamb i ndicated a l arge h eavy

t imber b eam w hich h ad b arred t he d oor f rom w ithin . E ast o f t he c entral b uilding w ere t he s tone f oundations o f a n o blong b uilding ( 2) measuring a pproximately 4 .80 x 8 .00 m . T o i ts s outh w ere o bserved

t he

f oundations

o f

a nother

1 3

s tructure

( 3)

c overing

a pproximately

4 .50 x 8 .00 m . ( 1) a nd ( 2) s eem t o h ave b een u sed a s t he r esidence o f t he o wners , s ince t heir q uality w as i mmeasurably s uperior t o t hat o f t he o ther f arm b uildings . S tructure ( 3) m ay h ave b een t he f arm 's c entral s tore-house . T o n orth o f t he f armhouse a t t he e dge o f t he s lope w as a l ivestock e nclosure ( 5) m easuring 1 6 X 8 1 4 , s ufficient f or s everal d ozen s heep . T he f arm w as b ounded o n t he s outh b y a s tone f ence w hich e nclosed t he a rea o f t he v arious a gricultural i nstallations M. T wo r ockcut p lastered c isterns w ere r ecorded i n t he f armyard ( 6) , a lso t he r eception b asin o f a n o il-press ( 7 ), a l arge s tone b asin ( 8) , a nd a n i nstallation c onsisting o f r ockcut c hannels o f u nclear c haracter ( 9) . A r ockcut t omb f ound o n t he h ill-slope c onsisted o f a s haft a nd a rcosalia , a t ype c ommon o n m any s ites i n w estern S amaria ( for d etails s ee t he a ccount o f H irbet B uraq) . T he p ottery f rom t he f arm a nd i ts s urroundings i ndicated t hat t he r emains d ate f rom t he P ersian t o t he R oman p eriods .

Q asr H aramiyyeh T his s tructure i s s ituated 1 .5 km . e ast o f ' Azun , a t G .R . 1 575-1757. T he f armhouse i s o n t he t op o f a h ill a t a n e levation o f 3 16 m ., a nd c ommands p anoramic o bservation t o a r ange o f 1 0 k ilometres . T he f ortified F ig. 1 8 b uilding m easures 8 .50 x 7 .80 m ., i ts w alls b eing 1 . 15 m . t hick , b uilt t o a w idth o f t wo c ourses . T he b uilding 's s tones a re w ell-tooled , a nd t he e ntrances p ossess h andsome marginal d rafted m asonry i n t he H ellenistic s tyle . T he s tructure i s p reserved u p t o 1 .50-2 .00 m . T he l imited e xcavation c arried o ut a t Q asr H aramiyyeh e nabled u s t o e xamine t he c onstruction o f t he b uilding 's a pertures, i ts f loor a nd i ts i nternal d ivisions . T he f ort w as e ntered f rom t he n orth , t hrough a d oor w hose j ambs r emained i n s itu . T he l atter w ere f ounded o n t he n atural r ock , w hich w as a lso t he f loor o f t he b uilding . T he e ast j amb p ossessed f our b olt-holes, a n e xceptional f eature i n a ncient d evices o f t his t ype . T he c orridor g ave a ccess t o t he f ort 's c hamber t hrough t wo d oorways w ith n eat marginal d rafting o f 6 -8 c m . w idth . T hese d oorways t oo c ould b e c losed f rom w ithin , a nd i n p oint o f f act e ach o f t he c hambers c ould b e s eparately l ocked . T he a gricultural i nstallations o f t he f armstead i nclude t he r eception b asin o f a n o il-press , a nd n ear i t w as f ound a c rusher l acking t he s played c entral h ole, p erhaps a f orerunner o f t he l ate i mproved c rusher . T he . e ntrance t o a c ave i s t o b e s een u nder t he s tone f oundation o f w hich t he f ort w as b uilt - p erhaps t he f arm 's s torage r eservoir . T wo t hreshingf loors . were r ecorded t o e ast a nd s outh , e ach e nclosed b y as tone f ence , t he r ock a rea b eing r easonably w ell-smoothed , w hile s igns o f w ear a nd p olish o n t he t hreshing a reas i ndicated p rolonged u se w hich a pparently h ad n ot c eased u ntil r ecent t imes . A n e nclosure f or l ivestock was f ound b etween t he t hreshing f loors , e nclosed b y as tone f ence . R emains o f ar ockcut w inepress w ere p rominent i n t he v icinity , b ut t he t anks w ere c hoked b y e rosion-soil s o t hat i t w as h ard t o a ssess f orm a nd s ize . E xcavation a nd s urvey y ielded H ellenistic p ottery , a nd o ne s olitary m ediaeval f ragment ; i t w ould s eem t hat i n t he O ttoman p eriod t he p lace w as u sed a s ah ighwaymen 's s tronghold , h ence i ts A rab n ame . W e d efined t he b ounds o f Q asr H aramiyyeh a s a s oilu nit o f 7 1 d unams ( 7 .1 h ectares) . T he l and n ear t he f arm h ad b een c leared o f s tones, a nd t he s oil i s f airly d eep . T oday o live t rees, c ereals a nd v arious v egetables a re g rown t here .

1 4

4 .

T he H istorical S etting o f t he M ilitary F armsteads.

T he t erminology u sed i n c onnection w ith t he f arms j ust d escribed, n amely , t he f arms o f m ilitary s ettlers , r equires d iscrimination a nd c areful d efinition . T he t hree e xamples p resented r eflect d istribution o f a ll t he f arms o f t his t ype.

f aithfully t he m anner o f

A ll t he m ilitary f arms a re s ited o n v antage-points p ossessing a ll-round o bservation i n e very d irection , a nd v isual c ontact ( by f ire o r s moke s ignals) . O n o ccasion , a s o ne s tands o n t he h illtop n ear a m ilitary f arm , o ne w onders h ow , a part f rom t hese m ilitary c onsiderations , t he b uilders o f t hese f arms w ere a ble t o t ake a ccount o f a gricultural a nd e conomic a spects a s w ell . A ll t he f armlands o f m ilitary t ype w ere s ituated a s hort d istance f rom e xcellent s oils , b ut i n c ontradiction t o a gricultural l ogic t hey w ere p laced a way f rom g ood l and a nd b uilt o n s ites u nfavourable t o c ultivation , o n t he t ops o f h ill , a s m ilitary v antage-points i n e very r espect . O nly a fter t hey h ad b een e stablished o n a griculturally d ifficult s ites, d id t heir i nhabitants b egin t o a meliorate t he t ract , t o c lear i t o f s tones , t o d eeph oe

t he s oil, a nd t o i nstall a v ariety o f a gricultural d evices .

T he

c entral s tructure o n e very f arm, i mpressively b uilt, was a t owerlike b uilding o f m ilitary s trength . I n s ome o f t hem t he w alls w ere d ouble t o a w idth o f 1 . 15 m . , a nd b uilt o f f ine d ressed m asonry . T he e ntrances a re a dapted t o b e l ocked f rom w ithin , a nd i n e very c ase u sed t imber b ars o f i mpressive s ize . T he b uildings p ossess i nterior d ivisions, i ndicating h uman h abitation . T he c haracter a nd m ethods o f c onstruction r esemble t hose o f t he a gricultural f ield t owers ( see C hap . I V ) i n t he u se o f l ocal s tone , o f l arge b locks s ometimes d ressed i n t he b est s tyle , d ry l aid . I n n o c ase w as b inding m aterial f ound . P robably e ven t he r oofing w as s imilar i n b oth f arms a nd f ield t owers .

B oth u sed l ong s tone s labs l aid a cross t he w alls .

T he u se o f m arginal d rafting , c hiefly a t t he e ntrances , i s n oteworthy . T he w idth o f t he d rafting i s a pproximately 6 -8 c m . , p arallel t o Q al 'at e l-Firdus a nd D eir a -Darab n ear Q arawat b ene H assan , t wo s ites w hose r elation t o t he H ellenistic o r H erodian p eriods i s c ertain . ( See t he d etailed d iscussion o n t he d istribution m ap o f Q arawat b ene H assan ) . T he a gricultural b ranches c onducted b y t he i nhabitants o f t hese f arms c an b e r econstructed f rom t he a gricultural i nstallations f ound d uring t he s urvey a nd b y e xcavation . T heir e vidence t estifies t o t he c ultivation o f t he o live a nd t he v ine , c orn-growing a nd a nimal h usbandry . O ther b ranches m ay b e a ssumed , b ut i t w as n ot a lways p ossible t o d iscover t heir t races o r t o u nderstand t he n ature o f t he i nstallations t hat w e d id f ind , ( e .g . a t N ajar 2 8) .

T he s ize o f t he l and-units a ttached t o t he m ilitary f arms

e xceeds t he a verage o bserved b y u s o n t he v arious d istribution m aps , a nd a reas o f 4 0-70 d unams ( 4-7 h ectares) a re l arge u nits i n t he a ncient a griculture o f t he h ill c ountry o f w est S amaria ; h ence i t i s t o b e c oncluded t hat t he d wellers o f t he m ilitary f armsteads w ere n ot s imple p easants . T he e vidence f ound b y s urvey a nd e xcavation t ells u s e xisted

i n

t he

H ellenistic

a nd

H erodian

p eriods,

t hat

t hese

f arms

b ut u ntil c omprehensive

e xcavations h ave b een c arried o ut , c aution m ust b e e xercised i n d rawing h istorical c onclusions , a nd o nly g uidelines a nd r easonable p ossibilities c an b e s uggested r egarding t heir e xistence a nd d istribution . W e p ropose t o s ee t he f arms h ere d escribed a s t he s ites o f military s ettlers o f t he H ellenistic p eriod , a nd , i n v iew o f t heir s ize , a s b elonging t o o fficers a nd c ommanders .

I n t he p resent s tate o f r esearch w e r efrain f rom l inking t hese

1 5

f arms w ith t he f ield t owers, b ut i t m ay b e a ssumed t hat t here w as a c onnection . I ndeed , o ur a rchaeological e vidence i s a t p resent c learer t han t he h istorical s etting .

5 .

F armsteads M orphologically V ariant o wing t o G rowth a nd E xpansion .

I n t he p revious c hapter f arms o f t he S econd T emple p eriod h ave b een d escribed whose p rofiles c onsisted o f ac entrally n ucleated s tructure, s ometimes w ith t he a ddition o f s ervice b uildings a nd a gricultural i nstallations i n t he f armyard o r n ear t he f armhouse . T wo e xamples w ill n ow b e p resented o f f arms w hich o utgrew t heir p rimary f rame d ue t o p rocesses o f g rowth a nd e xpansion , a nd b ecame s mall v illage s ettlements w ith t he a ncient f arms a t t heir c entres . T hese s ettlements h ave n ot b een e xcavated , a nd o ur k nowledge i s b ased o n s urvey a nd o n t he mapping o f t he s ites . F or t his r eason n ot a ll t he a rchitectural a nd h istorical p rocesses w hich t hey u nderwent a re s ufficiently c lear , a nd o ur t entative r econstructions a re o pen t o d iscussion . T he t wo f arms c oncerned a re s ituated i n a reas f ar r emoved f rom t he m ain r oads , a nd a re l ocated o n h igh c raggy s purs s outh o f t he Q ana g orge . T hanks t o i solated l ocation t he s tructural p reservation o f t hese f arms i s e xcellent , a nd t hey w ere e xamined o n s everal o ccasions i n t he y ears 1 974-1978.

F ig. 1 9 P h. 7

H irbet T afsah . T his s ite i s t hree k ilometres s outh o f F ar 'ata , a t G .R . 1 663-1749 . T he f arm i s b uilt a t t he e nd o f a s pur r ising t o 4 00 m . , s outh o f t he Q ana g orge , k nown i n t his s ector a s W adi ' Ar 'ur . T he s ite h as a g ood c ommand o f t he d eep Q ana r avine, a nd i ts l ocation a ppears n ot t o b e h aphazard . T he e nd o f t he s pur o n w hich i t i s b uilt i s c ut o ff f rom i ts s urroundings b y t wo s hort d eep s treambeds w hich f all i nto t he Q ana g orge , a nd i t would s eem t hat t he f arm was e stablished w ith d ue r egard f or o bservation a nd s ecurity . A ncient r oads p ass c lose t o t he s ite , o ne l inking Z eita w ith F ar 'ata , t he o ther l eading t o D eir E stia , b ut t he Q ana r avine w as t he m ain c entral r oute o f t raffic f rom e ast t o w est , s o t hat t he i nhabitants o f t he f arm w ere n ot c ompletely c ut o ff f rom t he l arge c entres i n t he h ills a nd i n t he S hephelah . I t m ay b e a ssumed , o n t he s trength o f c omparisons w ith s imilar s ites o n t he b anks o f t he S hiloh g orge, t hat b efore t he f arm was e stablished o r c oncomitantly w ith i t , t here e xisted s ome l ocal s tructure w hich p erformed a s ecurity f unction b y c ommanding t he r avine . H irbet T afsah e xtends o ver a n a rea o f a pproximately 1 0 d unams ( 1 h ectare ) . T he o ldest p art ( a ) m easures s ome 4 0 x 4 0 m . , a nd a ppears t o h ave b een t he f irst f armstead , w hich w as e stablished i n t he R oman p eriod . P art o f t he a ncient p hase ( 1 , 2 ) w as i ncorporated i n l ater c onstruction , b ut w hat r emains i n t he a rea s hows t hat t he e arliest p hase was b uilt r ound a n e nclosed c ourt . A M oslem m osque h ad b een b uilt i n t he e arly b lock , p robably a m ediaeval a ddition a ccording t o t he e vidence o f p ottery . T he l ater b lock ( b ) h ad e xpanded b eyond t he l imits

o f

t he

e arly c ourtyard a nd

i ts b uildings s pread e astward a nd n orthward . S urvey a nd p lanning e nabled u s t o d istinguish t en a dditional s tructures o f t he l ater p hase ( 3-13) . T hese b uildings c ontained w all-cupboards a nd s torerooms w ith v aulted c eilings a nd w indows . T his t ype o f c onstruction i s w idespread o n t he R oman a nd B yzantine s ites o f w estern S amaria a nd s imilar b pildings w ere r ecorded i n t he G olan d uring t he e mergency s urvey o f 1 967

1 6

O nly w all-footings a nd n umerous h eaps o f m asonry f allen f rom t he u pper s toreys r emained . T he c onstruction o f t he l ate p hase , e xecuted i n s mall b locks w ith t he u se o f c ement a nd p laster b etween t he c ourses a nd o n t he w alls , s tood i n c ontrast t o t he e arlier p hase . T he s ite 's w ater s upply t ook t wo f orms , n amely r ockcut p lastered u nderground c isterns ( 19), a nd a n o blong m asonry p ool c overed b y as tone r oof w hose r emains w ere v isible i n t he a rea ( 11) . I t w ould s eem t hat t he c isterns d rained p art o f t he a rea o utside t he s ite , b ut t hat t he m asonry p ool r eceived t he r ainwater f rom t he s ite i tself , t hus s erving b oth t o p rotect t he f oundations o f t he b uildings f rom e rosion d own t he s lope , a nd a cting a s a l imit t o t he b uilt-up a rea i n t he d irection o f t he s pur w hence t he a pproach t o i t w as e asiest . I t w ould t herefore s eem t hat i n t he s econd p hase a lso ,

w hen t he r estricted c ourtyard e xpanded a nd

t he s urrounding b uildings w ere e rected , t hought w as t aken a nd a n e ffort m ade t o d efine t he s ite 's b ounds b y a c lear f ence , s o e stablishing a f irm p roprietary b oundary . S outh-west o f t he s ite , w ell b eyond t he d welling a rea , t hree r ockcut h ypogaea w ere r ecorded ; t hese w ere l ater r eused f or a gricultural p urposes , a s s heepfolds . H ence i t w as d ifficult t o d efine t heir p rimary c haracter , b ut i t w as c lear f rom w hat r emained t hat t hey h ad b een t ombs c ontaining r ockcut k ukhim .

C rops a nd A gricultural I nstallations. F ig. 2 0

A c ircular r ockcut c ave ( 18) c ontaining r ecesses a long i ts w alls , m ay h ave s erved a s a n u nderground a gricultural w orkshop . I t w as n ot p ossible t o r econstruct w hat m anner o f i nstallations i t h ad c ontained , b ut a s mall t ank p ointed t o s ome p rocess r equiring w ater . I n al ater p hase , p erhaps i n t he m iddle a ges , t he w orkshop h ad f allen o ut o f u se , a nd t he e ntire c ave b ecame a r eservoir . R emains o f aw inepress , n ow c hoked w ith e rosion s oil , w ere r ecorded o n al evel r ock a rea e ast o f t he s ite . E specially i mpressive w ere t he s ix t hreshing f loors t o n orth a nd s outh o f t he s ettlement , ( 14) ; t hey w ere c ut i n l evelled r ocky a reas a nd s urrounded b y l ow s tone f ences . T he a gricultural t racts o n t he s pur o f H irbet T afsah a re i n f act v ery s uitable f or l arge-scale c orn g rowing . A lthough t he s ite i s s ituated i n a r ocky a rea , t he s oils o f t he s pur f orm a c ontinuous unit, a nd a t t he c ost o f much l abour man was a ble t o c lear t hem o f s tones a nd t o c reate p lots c overing d ozens o f d unams o f s oil i n t he s ite 's v icinity . I t c an b e e stimated t hat t he s ettlement p ossessed h undreds o f d unams o f g ood c ultivable s oil, a nd t he s ix t hreshing f loors t estify t o t he e xtent o f H irbet T afsah 's c orn p roduction" T he p roximity o f t he t hreshing f loors t o t he s ite h as s omething t o t ell u s o f i ts m ethods o f w ork , a nd o f t he p ossibility t hat t he f arm , e ven w hen i t h ad o utgrown i ts i nitial f rame , r emained u nder o ne o wner , w hether a p rivate i ndividual o r t he s tate . T he p aucity o f i nstallations f or w ine p roduction ( one p ress a nd n o m ore ) a nd t he a bsence o f o il-presses , s how t hat t he c orn w as g rown a t H irbet T afsah o n a l arge s cale , a nd t hat c ereals w ere h ere t he c hief a gricultural b ranch . I t i s o f i nterest t hat t he d istrict s till s erved e xtensively a s a n a rea w here c orn w as g rown b y t he n eighbouring v illages i n t he y ears w hen o ur s urvey w as b eing c arried o ut . I n a ntiqu ity t he g rain h arvest c ould h ave b een s tored i n t he s torerooms s o w ell p reserved a t H irbet T afsah . B elow t he s ite i n t he s treambed o f t he Q ana g orge ( G .R . 1 663-1754) w e f ound r emains o f a c heck-dam , m eant t o d irect w ater t o t he c ultivated a reas e ach s ide o f t he s treambed .

I t m ay b e c onsidered p robable t hat t he o wners o f H irbet T afsah

e xploited t he s treambed s oils o f t he Q ana g orge , a nd p erhaps t he b uilding o f t he d am w as t heir work . T he p ractice o f d amming f loodwater i n t he s treambeds w as k nown t o t he c ultivators o f S amaria , u se w as m ade o f d ams a nd d iversion c hannels a t B e lt

1 7

a nd w e h ave s een t hat 9 alf a s e arly a s t he

E arly I ron A ge .

T he H istorical S etting a nd t he A rchaeological E vidence. T he p ottery f rom H irbet T afsah a nd i ts s urroundings i ndicates c ontinuity f rom t he R oman p eriod t hrough t he B yzantine a nd e arly A rab p eriods .

I t m ay

b e a ssumed t hat t he p lace w as e stablished a s a f armstead i n t he R oman e ra ( or p erhaps e arlier ) a nd w as t he p roperty o f a w ell-to-do o wner e njoying t he f avour o f t he r ulers.

A t a l ater s tage i n t he l ate R oman o r B yzantine

p eriod, t he f arm g rew a nd b ecame a s mall v illage . P erhaps d ue t o t he p lace 's importance a s a g rain g rowing a rea, l abourers o r t enants w ere s ettled h ere b y g overnmental c oercion . T he p roximity o f H irbet T afsah t o a r egion c ontaining c rown d omains i n t he H erodian a nd R oman p eriods h ints a t t he p ossibility t hat H irbet T afsah w as o ne o f t he r oyal e states o f w estern S amaria . T his c onjecture f inds s upport t o

f unction

i n

t he

a dministration a nd t radition .2 2)

e arly

Arab

t axation

o f

i n t he f act

p eriod, t hat

a nd

t hat t he s ite c ontinued

i t

p eriod

i s

a ccepted

c ontinued

t he

t hat

t he

B yzantine

C lose p arallels h ave b een f ound i n w estern S amaria a t o ther

s ites s uch a s B eit e l-Habas i n i ts s tructures .2 3)

( I S .R .

1 631-1657) w hich

r esembles H irbet

T afsah

H irbet S hehadah . H irbet S hehadah i s s ituated i n o ne o f t he m ost r ocky a nd i naccessible r e g i o n s o f w e s t e r n S am a r i a . E v e n a t t h e t im e o f w r i t i n g , a l o g g j ourney o n P h. 8 , 9 f oot was n eeded t o r each t he s ite . T he r uin i s 2 .5 km . n orth-west o f Q arawat b ene H assan a s t he c row f lies, o n a l ofty h ill, ( 375 m .) which

F ig. 2 1

p ossesses a g ood c ommand o f i ts s urroundings . j ustly b e c alled a m iniature a cropolis . i solate t he s ite o n a ll s ides, T he r oads t o i t a re f ew;

H irbet S hehadah , i ndeed , m ay

T he Q ana g orge a nd i ts s treambeds

a nd i t i s a ccessible o nly o n t he s outh-east .

f rom D eir E stia a n a ncient t rack a pproaches,

b ecoming a m ere p ath b efore t he r uin , a nd t he m ost c onvenient a pproach i s f rom t he n orth , b y H irbet K efr Q ar 'a , t he Q ana g orge a nd K efr ' h ilt . D espite t he g eographical

p roximity

o f

Q arawat b ene H assan ,

J ebel

'Arad a cts a s a

r eal p hysical b arrier b etween H irbet S hehadah a nd t he s outh . T he r uins o f H irbet S hehadah e xtend o ver a pproximately 3 .6 d unams . T he c entral b uilding , w e t hink t he o ldest , l ies a t t he h ighest p oint o f t he e nclosure ( 1) . I t i s b uilt o f f ine d ressed m asonry , i n p art w ith m arginal d rafting ,

a nd h ere a nd t here h eaders a nd s tretchers a re d iscernible .

T he

b uilding m easures r oughly 8 x 8 m . a nd i s d ivided i nternally i nto t wo . S tructures 2 -4,

w hich t ogether f orm , w ith 1 , a s quarish e nclosure 2 0 x

2 5 H4, c an b e a scribed t o t he a ncient p hase . Two c ave-like c ellars w ere d etected b elow b uildings 1 6-17 . T he b uilding t echnique o f c ellar 1 6 i s r eminiscent o f t hat o f H irbet T afsah c ellars, a nd a pparently w as a s toreroom f or a gricultural p roduce . S tructures 5 -7 o n a l ower

t errace ,

a re s eparate f rom t he u pper e nclosure a nd a re l ocated p erhaps

b elonging

t o

t he

f arm 's

w hen t he u pper e nclosure h ad o utgrown i ts f ramework .

p eriod

o f

e xpansion ,

S outh o f t he c entral

e nclosure a dditional s tructures c ould b e d istinguished ( 8 , 9 , 1, 1 3), p art c onsisting o f a m asonry-vaulted c ellar b uilt a fter t he m anner o f H irbet T afsah . w ere

T hese s tructures a re b uilt o n t he l owest

p ossibly

s ervice

b uildings,

w orkers '

1 8

t errace o f t he

q uarters

a nd

s ite a nd

s torerooms .

T he

s ite 's w ater s upply w as d erived f rom r ainwater c ollected o n t he a cropolis a nd immediately a round i t . A well-plastered masonry p ool ( 10-12) was p reserved i n t he s outh b lock o f b uildings ; o utside t he s ite w ere s everal r ockcut p lastered c isterns ( 15) . T he e ntire s ite was s urrounded b y a p erimeter f ence,

( 18),

which

c learly d emarcated t he b uildings a nd t he e ntire f arm , t he f ence b eing b uilt a s am assive r evetment o f t he l owest t errace . T he e ntrance t o t he s ite ( 14) d eserves p articular n otice ; i t w as c arried o ver a h igh s tone c auseway f or t wo r easons : 1 ) T he r oad c rosses a v alley w hich h as b een c leared o f s tones , a nd a n a rea o f d eep s oil w hich t urns t o m ud i n w inter ;

t he c auseway s olved

t he p roblem c reated b y t hese f actors; 2 ) T he s ite i s l ocated o n a n a cropolis-like h ill , a nd t he s tone c auseway r aised t he d irect r oad t o g round l evel i n f ront o f t he f armstead . T he s tructure i s t hus a f ine e xample o f a n e ngineered r oad a dapted t o t he c ondition o f t he t errain , a ssociated t opography .

s ite.

t he s oil a nd

t he

A n etwork o f p lots o f s oil d ivided b y f ences ( 19) i s s een e ast o f t he T his a rea i s p art o f t he r ichest s oil o n t he f arm . ( See b elow ).

T he A gricultural B ranches o f H irbet S hehadah . F ig. 2 2

T he a gricultural c omplex o f H irbet S hehadah w as s ystematically s urveyed a nd i t b ecame p ossible t o p repare a m ap o f i ts v arious c omponents . W ith t he a id o f t he d istribution o f t he f ield t owers ( see b elow, C h . I V) a nd t he s treambeds d raining f rom W adi ' A m iar , i t w as p ossible t o d elimit t he c omplex , w hich e xtends o ver a n a rea o f a pproximately 4 000 d unams ( 4 s q . k ilometres) . M ost o f t he a rea i s e xtremely r ocky , a nd t he s treambed v alleys a dd t o t he s teepness o f t he r egion . T he a ncient s ettlers c ould c reate p atches o f c ultivable s oil o nly b y e normous l abour i nvolving d eep h oeing , t erracing a nd t he c learing o f s tones . T he r egional s oil i s c omposed o f d ark b rawn t erra r ossa w ell k nown f or i ts f ertility . T here a re n o w ater s ources d erivable f rom s prings i n t he r egion a nd man must q uarry c isterns t o s tore t he r ainwater . T he f armhouse w as b uilt o n a h ill c ommanding a s pur c overing h undreds o f d unams . T his t ract ( 88 o n t he m ap o f S hehadah ) b ecame a u nit o f e xcellent s oil , e ntirely c leared o f s tones a nd s kilfully t erraced , i n w hose c entre w e f ound a c hain o f w ater-cisterns , p robably f or a gricultural u se , e .g . f or a uxiliary i rrigation . T here w ere 4 4 f ield t owers i n S hehadah 's a griculture u nit . A ccording t o o ur t heory , t hese e vidence v ine c ulture a nd p lantations . D espite t he r ockiness o f t he a rea , i nteresting e vidence w as f ound f or c ereal g rowing i n t he r egion . E ast o f S hehadah a t s ite 9 0 , w e s urveyed t hree l arge t hreshing f loors e nclosed b y ac ommon f ence . E ach m easured 1 0-15 m . i n d iameter a nd i t w as a bundantly c lear t hat q uarrying a nd l evelling h ad b een n ecessary t o m ake t hem . E ast o f t hese w as a s ite , e l-Marah , ( 91) w hich w as u nique i n t he s urvey o f w estern S amaria ; t o w it , a n a rea o f t hreshing f loors e xtending o ver s ome f ive d unams ! A ll o f t hem a re e ntirely l evelled a nd e nclosed b y a f ence . S o l arge a n a rea o f t hreshing f loors d emonstrates t he e xtensive s cale o f c orn g rowing a nd p oints t o a c ollective o rganisation o f t hreshing a nd w innowing . A w ell-built r oad l ed f rom t he t hreshing a rea ( 90-91) t hrough t he f ields t owards H irbet S hehadah . T he r oad d oes n ot c ontinue p ast t he t hreshing f loors , a nd w as t herefore p aved e specially t o r each t hem . S outh-west o f H irbet S hehadah a t S ite 9 3, e l M ahpur , a l arge a rea o f s heepfolds , w as s urveyed . A c oncentration o f t his k ind i s u nusual , a nd i n

1 9

o ur s urvey w e n ormally f ound o nly s ingle i solated f olds . T he a bove f olds t herefore a ppear t o i ndicate l arge f locks s upervised b y o ne i ndividual . I t i s a n i nteresting f act t hat t hese f olds w ere b eing u sed b y t he s hepherds o f t he n eighbouring v illages a t t he t ime o f o ur s urvey , a nd t hey t old u s t hat t hey s ojourned h ere f or l engthy p eriods i n t he s ummer w ithout r eturning d aily t o t heir v illages . O live o il p roduction w as a lso p resent a t H irbet S hehadah ; p arts o f a n o live-press w ere e xamined o n t he s lopes o f t he s ite . B ut i t w ould s eem t hat o il p roduction h ere w as n ot e xtensive . Aw inepress w as r ecorded o utside t he s ite 's l imits, n ear t he r oad a pproaching f rom t he e ast . I t w as n ot a l arge p ress, a nd p robably w ine making w as c arried o n o utside t he a rea o f t he s ettlement . I n s um : t he m ost p rominent b ranches a t H irbet S hehadah w ere c orngrowing , w ine p roduction a nd f lock r earing . P robably t he r emaining b ranches w ere o f s econdary i mportance , s ince t heir r emains a re n ot t raceable.

T he H istorical S etting o f t he A rchaeological E vidence. O n t he e vidence o f t he p ottery a nd t he n ature o f c onstruction i t c an b e d educed t hat t he e nclosure w as e stablished i n t he H ellenistic p eriod . T he p lace m ay h ave b egun a s a f ortified f armstead , ( Building 1 ) , o f t he t ype r epresented b y Q asr H aramiyyeh n ear ' Azun . T he h eader a nd s tretcher c onstruction w ith f ine d ressed a nd d rafted b locks , i s c haracteristic H ellenistic s ites i n w estern S amaria , e xamples b eing t he f ort a t H an s Q ala lt F irdusi a t Q arawat b ene H assan . T hanks t o t he i mportance o f p lace , p erhaps b ecause o f i ts e xcellent c ereals , H irbet S hehadah g rew d eveloped i nto a l arge f armstead . T he f irst b uilt-up a rea o utgrew

o f a nd t he a nd i ts

f rame , b ut t hroughout i ts e xistence t he s ite r etained c lear l imits i n t he f orm o f i ts p eripheral f ence . I n i ts l ate s tages, i n t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods, t he a gricultural a reas w ere c ultivated u nder s upervision a s s hown b y t he c oncentration o f t he t hreshing f loors a nd l ivestock e nclosures . T he s ingle r oadway d eliberately p aved f rom t he t hreshing a nd l ivestock a rea, p roves t he c oncentration o f p roduce o n t he s ite . T he r ediscovery o f t he p roprietorship o f H irbet S hehadah , h owever , i nvolves d ifficulties a nd q uestions: W hat w as t he c onnection b etween t he f arm a nd t he t owers i n i ts f ields? I n s o f ar a s w e h ave u nderstood t he b ackground a nd f unction o f t he t owers , t hey i mply m ilitary o r c ivilian c olonisation o f t he H ellenistic p eriod, e ach n ow r epresenting a f amily h olding . T he p ossibility t hat t he t owers o n t he S hehadah l ands r eflect t enant-holdings , i ndeed , s hould n ot b e d ismissed . P ossibly H irbet S hehadah w as o ccupied b y a n o wner o f h igh r ank w ho c ontrolled t he s urrounding a rea , b ut t he t owers o f H irbet S hehadah w ere n ot e xcavated . I f w e m ay r ely o n c omparison w ith o ther d istribution m aps , h owever , t he t owers c eased t o f unction i n t he i st a nd 2 nd c enturies C .E . I n t he s ame p eriod , a pparently t he e ntire a rea p assed i nto t he o wnership o f a n e state w hich c ultivated t hese l ands t hrough t enants w ho d welt o n t he f ringes o f t he f armstead 2 4) . I t i s p ossible t hat b y t hat t ime t he f arm b elonged t o t he R oman g overnment, b eing o perated b y a f armer g eneral ( conductor ) o r b y g overnment o fficials . T he

d istance

k ilometres

a s

b etween

t he c row

H irbet

f lies ,

a nd

S hehadah t he

a nd

t wo f arms

H irbet a re

T afsah

i s

t en

s ituated i n e n a rea

w hich i ncluded r oyal d omains i n t he H erodian a nd R oman p eriods 2 5) . T he p ossibility t hat H irbet S hehadah t oo b ecame a r oyal e state c annot b e e xcluded , a nd t he c oncentration o f a gricultural i nstallations o n i ts l ands s trengthens t he a ssumption .

T he f inal f ate o f H irbet S hehadah i s u nknown .

2 0

I t a ppears t o h ave s uffered d amage i n t he B yzantine p eriod , a nd o wing t o i ts r emoteness a nd i naccessibility w as n ot o ccupied b y t he A rab c onquerors . I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat a t t he t ime o f o ur s urvey t here d welt t here a f amily o f r efugees f rom o ne o f t he n eighbouring v illages . T he e ntire v icinity i s n o l onger p opulated a nd i s g overnment p roperty .

6 .

R ural S ettlement i n T almudic L iterature .

IL S imon b en L aqish w as s tudying t he T orah i n t he g lass w orkshops ( ? ) o f T iberias . T wo w omen i ssued f orth , a nd o ne s aid t o t he o ther : h eavens w e h ave q uitted t hat b ad a tmosphere ! ' H e s houted t o t hem , a re y ou f rom? ' T hey a nswered , ' From M azga% H e s aid : h as o nly t wo d wellings ' ." ( Mid . G en . R abba , 3 4 : 1 5) .

' Thank ' Where

' I k now M azga ; i t W e h ave c ited t his

b rief i ncident a s o f i nterest b ecause i t s hows t hat t here w ere a lso h amlets which p ossessed t heir o wn n ames a nd t heir own l ocal p atriots . A t t he b eginning o f t he c hapter o n t he s tructure o f r ural d wellings w e d ivided t hem i nto t wo m ain g roups : a ) f armsteads , a nd b ) v illages o f v arious t ypes . I n t his c hapter a n a ttempt w ill b e m ade t o d iscover t he p ossible c onnection b etween t he a rchaeological e vidence i n S amaria a nd t he t erminology c urrent a mong s cholars o f t he T almud . T he s ubject i s a w ide o ne a nd d eserves a n i ndependent s tudy , b ut i t l ies b eyond t he s cope o f t he p resent e nquiry , a nd c annot b e t reated h ere i n e xtenso . S crutiny o f t he s ources s hows t hat t he c ountryside o f S amaria w as k nown u nder

t he

g eneral

n ame

o f

' the v illage '

( ha-Kepharin )

a nd

t he

J erusalem

T almud d escribes t he l atter a s t he o riginal d welling p laces o f t he K utim .26) B ut w e l earn f rom T osephta t hat t he t erm ' ayarot r elated s pecifically t o t he a gricultural s ettlements p opulated b y J ews .2 7) A l ively a nd i nteresting p icture o f t he o ppression s uffered b y t he p easants l iving i n t he ' ayarot u nder R ome a nd B yzantium i s t o b e f ound i n M idrash R abba N umbers 3 1:17 : ' but l ike t he h egemons a nd t he d uces a nd e parchs w ho g o o ut t o t he ' ayarot t o r ob a nd p lunder , a nd r eturning , s ay : ' Bring u s t he p oor a nd w e w ill g ive t hem s upport . ' T he f ew e xamples a lready d escribed i nform u s t hat t he r ural s ettlement ( in t he m odern s ense ) w as k nown i n t he p eriod o f t he M ishnah a nd t he T almud b y t he t erms k epharim a nd ' ayarot , t hese b eing p art o f a n o verall t erminology a pplied t o t he s ettlements c ontaining a p opulation w hich l ived p rincipally o n a griculture , i nhabitants .

-w ithout d efinition o f t he s ize o r n umber o f

• t heir

V arious s cholars h ave s ought t o c larify t he t erms k erakh,

' jr a nd

k ephar , a nd t heir p arallels i n t he M ishnah a nd t he T almud . T he f irst e nquiry , t he w ork o f S . K rauss, i s s till a w ell-grounded b asis f or a n i nterpretation o f t hese t erms . 28) k erakh r elated t o t he n on-Jewish a ccepted b y s cholars .

S . K rauss e stablished t hat t he t erm p olis , a nd h is i nterpretation i s s till

H is a ttempts t o d istinguish b etween k ephar a nd

' ayarah , a nd t o c laim t hat t he l atter w as s maller t han t he f ormer , i nvolves d ifficulties a nd d oes n ot s tand u p t o t he t est o f a rchaeological r esearch . K rauss t hought t hat t he t erm q iryah ( or q arta i n A ramaic) a pplied t o a gricultural e states,

p erhaps worked b y t enants .

A n i nteresting n ew

a pproach w as o riginated b y P rofessor S hemuel S afrai i n h is d iscussion o f e J ewish t own i n E retz Y israel i n t he p eriod o f t he M ishnah a nd t he T almud . H e i s o f t he o pinion t hat t he t erm k ephar d oes n ot i ndicate a n e xclusively a gricultural o ccupation , b ut a n a bsence o f a ny p ublic o rganisation a nd a s parse p opulation . T he ' jr o r ' ayarah p ossessed a l arger p opulation t han t he k ephar , a nd w ere c haracterised b y v arious p ublic i nstitutions a nd b y a n e fficient

s ocial o rganisation .

A nother a pproach w as a dopted b y P rofessor

2 1

A pplebaum i n h is i nterpretation o f t he t erms k ephar ,

' ir , ' ayarah a nd q iryah

i n t almudic l iterature . 3°) I n h is v iew t he t erm k ephar m eant a n ucleated s ettlement ; ' ir a pplied o riginally t o t he i solated f armstead , a nalogous t o t he R oman v illa, while ' ayarah a nd q iryah w ere s ettlements l inked t o a l arger c entre a dministratively a nd e conomically , o f t enancy . D r .

s ometimes u nder c onditions

Z eev S afrai h as a dopted t he d efinition t hat t he ' ir o f t he M ish i

1 3

r efers t o t he i solated f arm , a nd b ears a n a ffinity t o t he R oman v illa . I n h is o pinion t he t erm ' ayarah i n t almudic l iterature s tands f or a s ettlement w hich i s s maller t han t he k erakh ( polis ) , b ut l arger t han t he s mall v illage . T he p opulation o f t he ' ayarot c ould v ary f rom a f ew d ozen t o m any t housands ; A rieh b en D avid , i n h is b ook o n t he e conomy o f t he t almudic p eriod ,32) h as a ttempted t o d ivide t he ' ayarot i nto f our g roups a ccording t o t he s ize o f t heir p opulation ; t he k ephar , i n h is c alculations , h eld 4 00-600 s ouls, t he ' ayarot, a ccording t o s ize, f rom 6 00 t o 7 ,500 i nhabitants. V ery f ew w orks h ave s tudied t he k ephar o r t he ' ayarah o f t he M ishnah a nd t he T almud f rom a n a rchaeological p oint o f v iew . T he w ork o f D r . Z eev Y eivin o n t he ' ayarot o f G alilee a nd t he G olan p resents a n i nteresting p icture

w hich

d emands

a dditional

r egional

r esearch .33)

A ccording

t o

h is

s urveys ( no e xcavations h ave b een c arried o ut o n m ost o f t he s ites c oncerned ) t he s ize o f t he ' ayarot f luctuates f rom 1 0 t o 1 00 d unams ( 1-10 h ectares) , t he n umber o f r ooms i n t heir h ouses f rom 3 40 t o o ver 1 ,000 . T he e stimate o f t he t otal p opulation o f t hese s ettlements d epends o n c riteria c oncerning t he n umber o f s ouls i n e ach f amily a nd h ome , a nd a s t hey a re d ebatable t hey w ill b e d iscussed e lsewhere . I f w e t urn t o S amaria a nd e ndeavour t o i dentify t he t erms a pplicable t o t he s ites which h ave b een e xamined i n t heir t almudic c ontexts, w e f ind o urselves u ncertain a s t o t he c orrectness o f o ur i dentifications . I t m ay w ell b e t hat t he f arm o f Q asr e -Lejah i n n orth-western S amaria c orresponded c losely t o t he ' ir d escribed a s s aleable i n t he M ishnah .3 4) " Who s o s ells t he ' ir , h as s old t he h ouse , t he c isterns, t he t renches , a lso t he c ellars , t he b aths a nd t he d ovecots , t he o il-presses a nd t he i rrigated a reas , b ut n ot t he m obilia . A nd w hen h e s aid : ' It a nd a ll w ithin i t ' , e ven i f t here w ere a nimals a nd s laves w ithin i t , t hey h ave a ll b een s old: ' R abban S imon b en G amliel s ays : l o rhoso s ells t he ' ir , h as s old t he s anter2 T he a nalysis o f t his e xtract s hows a n a gricultural f armstead o wned b y o ne p erson , a nd ' including l iving r ooms, water c isterns, ( both i nternal a nd e xternal), a gricultural i nstallations , l ivestock a nd e ven s laves . P ossibly t he s anter i s t o b e u nderstood a s t he f arm-manager w ho l ooked a fter t he f arm o r p ossibly t he c ultivated a rea .3 5) T osephta m akes i t c lear t hat t he ' ir c an b e l eased , a lso b equeathed t o a f reed s lave .3 6 ) I t i s f urther c lear f rom t he t exts t hat t he s ubject i s a d efined a gricultural p roperty c orresponding c losely t o a f arm o f t he t ype r epresented b y Q asr a -Lejah i n S amaria . I n t he o pinion o f A . G ulack i n t he l ight o f t he d ocuments o f R oman S yria a nd o f c ases c oncerning l anded p roperty i n t almudic l iterature , t he ' ir s hel y ahid ( the ' ir o wned b y o ne p erson ) , r epresents a l arge e state . G ulack b elieved t hat s uch e states w ere n ot v ery f requent a mongst t he J ews .3 7 ) H irbet T afsah a nd H irbet S hehadah c orrespond t o t he s ubject t reated i n t he M ishnah u nder t he ' ir o f o ne p erson w hich b ecomes t hat o f m any .38)

T he

r eference m ay b e t o t he f arm w hich h ad o utgrown t he o riginal f rame o f t he c ourtyard f armhouse a nd h ad a dditional b uildings a nd l abourers q uartered i n i ts a rea . I f t his i dentification i s c orrect , i t m ay i ndicate a p eriod i n w hich J ewish a nd S amaritan l abourers c omposed t he l abour f orce o n e states o f

2 2

t his s ort , w hich w ere o n t he i ncrease a nd w ere f avoured b y t he g overnment . T he q uestion o f s tudied .

t he

s ize o f

t he ' ayarot h as

n ot

b een a dequately

T he r abbis a ttempted t o e stablish c riteria a ccording t o t he s ize

o f t he p hysical a rea o f t he s ettlement o r t he n umber o f i ts i nhabitants . T he d ispute b etween R . E li 'ezer a nd R . Y ohanan , w ho d efined a m edium ' ayarah a s o ne whose a rea v aried f rom 2 3 t o 3 1 d unams a pproximately , s hould b e n oted .39) F dmewhere i t i s s tated t hat a s mall ' ir c ould m obilize 5 00 i nfantrymen . I nvestigators

o f

m anpower

a nd

p opulation-structure

i n

t he

c lassical

w orld a ccept t he f ormula t hat a dult m ales c onstituted 2 8-35 p ercent o f t he t otal p opulation .41) I f t hese e stimates a re a pplied t o t he t almudic r ules i n r elation t o t he s mall v illage o f ' Amigo , i ts p opulation n umbered f rom 1 ,430 t o 1 ,785 s ouls . T hese d ata a ppear r easonable , a nd a re c onfirmed b y a rchaeological e vidence . I f f or e xample w e t ake H irbet S hem 'a i n G alilee , e xamined b y Z . Y eivin ,42) w e s ee t hat h e f ound i ts a rea t o b e 1 0 d unams a nd t hat i t p ossessed 3 40 r ooms . A ccording t o h is m ethod , 2 5 p ercent o f t he r ooms m ust b e s ubtracted f or s ervices a nd h andicrafts , h ence 2 50 r ooms r emained f or h abitation . I n h is v iew f ive s ouls a re t o b e r eckoned p er r oom; t herefore H irbet S hem 'a p ossessed

s ome

1 ,250 s ouls .

T his

i s a r easonable n umber a nd ,

w e

t hink ,

e ven s lightly t oo l ow , i f a dditional s toreys a nd f amilies w ith m ore t han f ive members a re t aken i nto a ccount . I n v iew o f t he d ata c ited, t he v illage s ettlements i n S amaria ( see b elow ) a re t o b e c lassified a s s mall , m edium a nd l arge ' ayarot . I t i s o f i nterest t o o bserve t hat a ccording t o t he d ata f rom R oman I taly , m any o f t he ' ayarot o f E retz Y israel m ay b e i ncluded i n t he u rban c ategory , i f o nly i n v iew o f t he s ize o f t heir p opulation . I t e merges f rom t he d ata a dduced b y D uncan-Jones t hat m any o f t he I talian c ities p ossessed 1 ,200-2 ,000 s ouls u nder t he P rincipate .43) I n t he l ight o f t hese a nd o ther d ata, t hose s cholars a re r ight who c laim t hat t he municipal s tatus o f a s ettlement w eo n ot d etermined b y t he s ize o f i ts p opulation , b ut b y o ther c onsiderations.

7 .

/

F armsteads r esembling R oman v illas:

H irbet B asatin a nd D eir S am 'an .

D id E retz Y israel p ossess ' villas ' o f t he t ype a ssociated w ith R oman c ulture? T his i s aq uestion o f s ome i nterest , a nd i t h as n ot b een a nswered s atisfactorily . S tudents o f R oman a griculture a nd e conomy a ccept t he v iew t hat r ural v illas a ppeared w ith t he R oman s ettlement o f v arious p rovinces, r epresenting i n c haracter a nd f orm t he t astes o f t he R oman l anded p roprietor , o r a l ifestyle i nfluenced b y R oman c ivilization .45) o f t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriod a nd t heir s tructures h ave

F armsteads h ardly b een

s tudied o r p ublished i n t his c ountry , a nd o nly a f ew h ave b een e xcavated. I n t his c hapter a n a ttempt w ill b e m ade t o p resent s ituation i n w estern S amaria ,

a p icture o f

t he

w hich m ay h ave s omething t o t each u s o n t he

s ituation i n o ther p arts o f t he c ountry . F or t his p urpose t wo f armsteads h ave b een s elected , n amely H irbet B asatin a nd H irbet D eir S am 'an , w hich w e t hink s uccessfully r epresent t ypes o f f arm o f t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods.

2 3

F ig. 2 3 P h. 1 0

H irbet B asatin .

T his f arm i s l ocated o n t he b ottom o f t he Q ana

s treambed a t G .R . 1 514-1713 . T he s ite i s o ne k ilometre w est o f B elt A min a nd f our k ilometres n orth-west o f K efr Q asim . T his l arge f armhouse i s s ited o n t he n orthern b ank o f t he s treambed , a nd s o f ar a s i s k nown , i s t he o nly e xample o f a f arm b uilt i n t he b ed o f a l arge g orge . T he p lace w as f irst e xamined d uring t he e mergency s urvey o f 1 967-8 , w hen t he s urveyors r ecorded t he l arge faI ZIouse a nd B yzantine p eriods .

a nd i ts p ottery ,

w hich b elonged t o t he R oman

T he f armhouse c overs a n a rea o f 5 3 x 4 5 m .

T he f arm i s s urrounded b y

t hick w all , m any o f i ts s ectors b eing p reserved i n s itu . T he e ntrance w as o n t he w est , t hrough a b road o pening 1 . 50 m . i n w idth . T he s tructures a re b uilt o f t ooled l imestone b locks i nside a nd o ut , w ith a n i ntervening f ill o f r ubble g routed w ith p laster . T he c entral s tructure ( 1) i s 1 0 x 8 m . a nd p reserved t o ah eight o f 2 .5 n u I t p ossessed t wo s toreys a nd a n a dditional r oom 4 .50 x 3 .50 m . o n t he r oof - p erhaps a n o bservation t ower l ooking o ut o ver t he f arm a rea . T he b uilding a ppears t o h ave b een t he r esidence o f t he o wners a nd i ts t hick w alls ( 1 .40-1 .10 n u ) s uggest t hat i t m ay h ave s erved a s a s trong p oint i n which t hey c ould s hut t hemselves i n t ime o f d anger . B uilding 5 l ooks l ike t he owners ' c entral s tructure, b ecause o f i ts i mpressive s ize , 1 4 x 8 14, a nd i ts s eparate p osition ; i t m ay h ave b een t he r esidence o f t he o wner 's f amily . R emains o f a l arge s tructure ( 4 ) a butted o n t he f arm 's e astern w all . I ts t otal a rea c overed 1 7 x 8 m . a nd a d ivision i nto a t l east t hree r ooms c ould b e o bserved w ithin , p erhaps t he s torehouses o f t he f arm , i n w hich t he c rops w ere l aid u p . F our n arrow c hambers ( 12) e xtended a long t he w est w all, t heir o verall d imensions b eing 2 9 x5m ., a nd a pparently t hey h ad p ossessed f urther i nternal d ivisions, w hose a ctual f orm c ould w ith d ifficulty b e e stablished o wing t o f allen m asonry a nd t he v egetation w hich c overed t he f arm b uildings . T he l arge a rea a nd

t he

l ocation o f

t he a bove b uildings n ear t he

o il-press d emonstrate t he e xtensive p roduction a nd m anpower r equired b y t he f arm 's e conomy . T he o il-press ( 2 ) i s t he m ost i mpressive f arm-structure a t H irbet B asatin . I t o ccupies a n a rea o f 9 .50 x 9 .50 m ., a nd a n i nternal d ivision i nto a t l east t wo c hambers c ould b e d istinguished w ithin i t . A s tone t rough l ay a t t he e ntrance , p erhaps u sed b y t he w orkers w hile p ressing t he o il . T he a rea o f t he p ress a t H irbet B asatin i ndicates a n u ndertaking o f s ome s ize , a nd t he p roduction c hamber o f t he o il-press a t H irbet N ajar i s c omparable. S tructure

3 i s

s ituated

s outh

o f

t he

o il-press .

I ts

s hape

i s

p eculiar ; i t c ontains a s mall c ourtyard a nd t wo w ings, e ach a r oom o f a pproximately 5 x 5 .30 m . T he y ard c ontained a c istern a nd a d raw-hole p rotected b y as tone k erb , w hile a nother c istern s tood o utside t he b uilding c lose t o t he w all . T wo c onjectures m ay b e e ntertained a s t o b uilding ( 3 )% f unction . I t m ay h ave b een a w orkshop r equiring a n a mple s upply o f r unning w ater ,

o r ( and t his w e t hink m ore p robable ) t he b uilding w as a b athhouse ,

h ence t he t wo c overed t anks i n i ts p roximity . T he p resence o f b athhouses i n f arms i s e videnced b y t he M ishnah ( B .B. I V, 7 ). T he p resent w riter h as n o i nformation c oncerning a ny b athhouse o f t he R oman p eriod f ound o r e xcavated o n af arm i n t his c ountry , a nd o ur o wn s uggestion r equires a ctual a rchaeological p roof . V ery s trict a ttention w as d evoted t o t he w ater s upply a nd w ater s torage o f t he B asatin f armstead . F our r ockcut c isterns w ere f ound ( 9), a lso a l arge r eservoir ( 6) i n t he

2 4

c entre

o f

t he

f arm .

T he

r eservoir

i s

a n

u nderground

s tructure

a pproximately 6 m etres i n d iameter ; i ts r oof i s s upported b y t wo c olumns l eft b y t he q uarriers . T races o f t hick p laster a re v isible o n t he w alls . T he main water s upply a ppears t o h ave b een d erived f rom r ainwater , b ut p robably t he l arge r eservoir w as f illed w ith t he h elp o f f lood w ater f lowing d own t he Q ana g orge . N o c hannels l eading t o t he f arm w ere f ound , a nd t he r eservoir w as p erhaps f illed b y d rawing a nd t ransporting w ater f rom p ools l eft i n t he g orge i n t imes o f s pate . O ther s tructures a re t o b e o bserved u nder m asonry d 6bris ( 10 , 1 4) a nd i t i s h ard t o k now w hether t hey w ere p art o f t he f arm 's m assive w alls o r i ndependent b uildings . I n t he c entre o f t he f arm, f ragments o f a h eavy b asalt r otary d onkey-mill ( catillus) w ere r ecorded . S . A vitzur h as c alculated t hat s ome 3 -5 c ould b e g round i n a n h our b y m ills o f t his t ype .4 7) I n t he n orth-east

o f

t he

f arm

t here

s eem t o b e l ater t han t he f armstead , i t c ould h ave f unctioned

k ilograms

i s a l imekiln ( 7 ) .

o f

c ereals

T his

w ould

s ince i t i s h ardly t o b e s upposed t hat

s o l ong a s n ormal f arming w as

b eing c arried o n .

P robably t he b uilders o f t he k iln p laced i t i n t he f arm a fter i t h ad c eased t o f unction , s eeing t he l atter a s a s ource o f s tone .

T he A griculture o f t he B asatin F armstead. T he B asatin f arm s tands i n t he s treambed o f t he Q ana g orge a t a p oint w here t he v alley i s o ver 1 00 m . w ide, a nd w here t he g orge m akes a b end . T hese g eographical f acts h ave c reated b road s heets o f p ebbles w hich c onceal b eneath t hem f ertile t erra r ossa s oils o f s ome d epth . T hese v alley s oils c onstituted

t he c ultivated a reas

o f

t he B asatin f arm ,

s ince

t here a re n o

o thers . T he s ame t racts t oday b ear e xtensive c itrus g roves w hich t estify t o t heir f ertility a nd d epth . T he r iver p ebbles d o n ot s eem t o h ave h indered t he f arm 's d evelopment, n or h ave w e o bserved a ny a ttempt t o c lear t he c hannel 's s oil o f s tones . T he s ize o f t he s oil u nit o f t he B asatin f arm i s d ifficult t o a ssess , b ecause n o e vidence o f a n atural o r m anmade b oundary w as f ound . B ut t he c ultivated a rea w ould a ppear t o h ave e xceeded s everal h undred d unams i n t he v icinity . T he l arge o il p ress w ithin t he f armyard s hows t hat t he o live-oil b ranch w as a n i mportant , p erhaps t he p rincipal , c omponent, o f B asatin 's e conomy . I t i s i nteresting t hat n o w inepresses w ere d etected i n t his a rea , a s urprising f act i n v iew o f t he c entral p lace h eld b y t he v ine t hroughout t he r egion s urveyed . I n a n e nvironmental s urvey o f t he s pur t o s outh o f t he f armstead a bove B asatin , s everal t hreshing f loors w ere f ound , - t hat t hey b elonged t o B asatin i s e ntirely s peculative , b ut f airly p robable . I t m ay b e a ssumed , h owever , t hat c orn w as g rown i n t he n eighbourhood ,

o n

t he e vidence o f

t he c atillus

o f

t he

f arm .

T he Q ana g orge c liffs c ontain n umerous c aves , s ome o f w hich a re s till u sed t o s helter f locks . F rom t he p rox imity o f s everal s uch t o t he f arm 's l ands i t m ay b e d educed t hat f lock-rearing w as a mong t he e conomic c omponents o f t he B asatin f arm . F ruit t rees may h ave b een c ultivated o n t he f arm 's l ands , p erhaps i nstead o f t he v ine , w hich h as l eft n o t race i n t he d istrict . T he f arm l ay i n t he s treambed o f t he Q ana g orge, w hich h ad b een b oth a h ighway a nd a f rontier e ver s ince b iblical t imes .4 8) T he f arm , t herefore , m ay h ave o ffered v arious s ervices t o w ayfarers , s uch a s t he s ale o f f ood a nd f ruit , p erhaps e ven l odging f or t he n ight . T his i s ,

o f c ourse , ac onjecture , a nd o nly f urther r esearch o n t he s ite

c an c onfirm o r d isprove i t.

2 5

T he H istorical S etting o f t he B asatin F armstead. T he f armstead o f B asatin i s al arge o ne , a nd p robably e mployed a l abour f orce

o f

s everal

d ozen

h ands .

I ts

a ppear t o i ndicate a s ingle o wner ,

f arm

a nd

a gricultural

i nstallations

w ho c ontrolled t he e ntire f arm a nd t he

c ultivated a rea a round i t . S everal h istorical a llusions m ay b e a pply t o t he e ntire v icinity i n which B asatin was s ituated . r ecords a p lace c alled ' Hirbet B erenike ' i n t his d istrict .49)

t Eken t o T i le S WP A lt 1 , 4

A pplebaum t hink i t a pplied t o d omains o wned b y t he H erodian d ynksty . u / O ur s urvey t eam e nquired a mong t he i nhabitants o f t he r egion c oncerning t l i e p recise l ocation o f t he n ame ' Berenike% a nd i t e merged t hat v arious : ands a ll t he w ay f rom t he s ource o f t he Q ana g orge d own t o M igdal T zedek ( Me-aei Y abba ) w as k nown b y t his n ame . T he p roximity o f H irbet B asatin t o r oyally— o wned

t racts

i nvolves

t he

q uestion

o f

t he

f arm 's

o wnership a nd

t he

p ossibility t hat t he a rea w as p art o f a c rown p roperty w hich p assed f rom g overnment t o g overnment f rom t he H asmonean t o t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods.

H irbet D eir S am 'an . F ig. 2 4

T he f armstead k nown a s D eir S am 'an i s o ne o f t he f inest i n western S amaria ;

a nd

i ts

g eographical

l ocation

a nd

r emoteness

f rom

l ater

p opulation—centres h ave k ept i ts s tructures i n a s tate o f f air p reservation . T he s tone—robbing w hich h as a ffected m any o ther Y israel h as n ot , i ndeed , s pared t he s ite e ntirely ,

s ites i n w estern E retz b ut h as l eft s ufficient

f or a g eneral p icture. T he D eir S am 'an f arm ( G .R . 1 550-1639) i s 2 1 k ilometres e ast o f D eir B alut a nd t hree k ilometres w est o f K efr e —Diq . I t i s l ocated a t a h eight o f 6 0 m . a .s .l . o n t he t op o f a r ocky k arstic s pur o ver a k ilometre l ong f rom e ast t o b eing k nown s outh o f t he t owards t he

w est . T he c hannel o f t he R abba g orge p asses n orth o f t he s pur , i n t his s ector a s W ad i R iphat ( after t he n earby v illage ), a nd s pur i s W adi e l—Mir , a s mall s treambed w hich d rains t he s pur p lain o f D eir B alut . T he D eir S am 'an r egion c omands t he l ines

o f t wo a ncient r oads i nvestigated d uring o ur s urvey . a )

T he

e ast—west

r oads

f rom

M igdal

A pheq

T hese a re:

t hrough D eir

B alut ,

D eir

S aniryah ,

M es—

S am 'an , K efr e —Diq, S alfit, a nd Y asuf t o S chechem . b )

T he n orth—south r oad f rom

U zu n

t hrough K efr T ult ,

h ah a nd a —Luban , c ontinuing t o t he w atershed v ia ' Abbud a nd R amallah . T he s ite w as s urveyed i n 1 873 b y t he S Wp,51) a nd many i naccuracies a ppear o n t he m ap a ccompanying t he s urvey , i ncluding a s upposed c hurch i n t he s outhern b uilding . T he s urveyors f ound o ne c ross, a nd s upposed , o n t he s trength o f

t he c haracter o f t he c onstruction ,

t hat

t he b uilding was

B yzantine . T he I srael e mergency s urveyors o f 1 967-8 d efine D eir S am 'an a s al arge f arm o n a r idge . 52 ) T hey f ound a l intel w ith c ircular c arved r osette , a nd l imestone c olumns , n ot i n s itu , w hile t he p ottery c ollected w as o f t he R oman p eriod . Af resh s urvey w as c arried o ut b y u s o n a nd r ound t he s ite, a nd t he b uildings a nd a gricultural i nstallations n ot p reviously e xamined o r r ecorded w ere m apped .

2 6

T he A ncient E nclosures. A bout 2 00 m .

n orth o f t he D eir S am 'an f arm w e s urveyed t wo e nclosures

o f d efensive c haracter .

T he d istance b etween t hem w as 1 00 m i . , a nd b oth a re

s ituated o n t he s ame c ontour , o n t he u pper p art o f t he s pur . T hey p ossess a v isual c ommand o ver t he S ef R iphat g orge , w here w e f ound t races o f a n F ig . 2 5 a ncient r oad . P h. 1 1

E nclosure 3 5 i s a n o blong ,

l arge u ntooled s tones u p t o

m easuring 4 0 x 1 7 m i . ,

1 .00 x 1 .00 m .

i n s ize ,

d ry l aid .

a nd b uilt o f T he s tones

h ad b een d ressed c asually i n o rder t o f it t hem t o t he a djacent c ourses . T races o f i nternal d ivisions, p erhaps d wellings , w ere d iscerned i nside t he e nclosure. P art o f

t he e nclosure w alls r emained t o a h eight o f 2 .50 m . ,

were 1 .60 x 2 .00 m .

t hick .

T he i nterior y ielded b asalt a nd s andstone

r ubbing s tones, a lso p ottery o f E arly I ron A ge H ellenistic s herds. T he

e nclosure

a ppears

t o h ave

b een e rected

w atch a nd p rotect t he r oad a long t he s treambed . o f

r oad

a long

i mportance

t he

w as

s treambed

a pparently n ot

e nclosure i s o f

a nd t hey

a t

t he

f oot

n eglected

i mpressive s ize ,

i n E arly

I ron A ge

I I ,

t o

W e r ecorded a b uilt s ector

o f

a t

I I a nd a f ew P ersian-

t he

e nclosures,

a l ater

p eriod

a nd

( below ) .

i ts T he

w hile t he t hickness o f i ts w alls a nd i ts

l ocation l eave n o d oubt o f i ts military p urpose a nd i ts c oncern w ith s ecurity . W est o f t he a ncient e nclosure w as a nother ( 34), w hich t ook t he f orm o f a s quare w ith s ides m easuring 2 1 x 2 1 m . I ts w alls w ere 0 .80-1 .00 m . t hick, p reserved t o a h eight o f 1 .50 m . T he e ntrance t o ac ave was v isible i nside t he e nclosure, a nd n earby t wo r ockcut winepresses w ere F ig . 2 6 r ecorded .

T he p ottery f rom t he e nclosure ( 34) d ated i n t he P ersian-

H ellenistic p eriods . T he f unction o f t he l ater e nclosure d id n ot d iffer , a pparently, f rom t hat o f t he o lder o ne; i ts f unction was t o k eep t he a ncient r oad b elow u nder o bservation a nd t o p rotect i t. T he

p roximity

p rolonged h istorical

o f

t he

t wo

c ontinuity ,

e nclosures d uring

t o

w hich

o ne

t he

a nother

c entral

i ndicates

g overnment

a

p aid

a ttention t o t he a rea o f D eir S am 'an a nd t ook t he t rouble t o b uild a nd m aintain t hese s tructures , w hose o bject w as p ublic s ecurity .

T he T owers i n t he A rea o f D eir S am 'an . F ive f ield

t owers w ere

s urveyed

t hem a re t o w est o f t he f armstead ,

o n

t he

s pur

o f

D eir

S am 'an .

Two o f

t wo t o i ts s outh-east a nd o ne t o n orth-

ast . T hey l ie o n t he p eriphery n ot e xceeding 5 00 m . f rom t he f arm . T wo F ig. 2 7 e a re r ound , t he r est s quare . I n c ontrast t o w hat w e h ave f ound i n t he a reas r ound o ther t owers, w e d etected n o b oundaries d efining t he p lot i n t he D eir S am 'an a rea ;

w e m ay p erhaps d educe f rom

t his

t hat

t he t owers b elonged t o

t he a ncient f armstead w hose r emains w ere a bsorbed i nto t he l ater s tructure.

T he F armhouse. F ig. 2 8 P h. 1 2

T he f armstead w as b uilt i n t he f orm o f am ain e nclosure c onsisting o f a c ourtyard

w ith

i nstallations

r ooms

t o n orth

a long o f

i t .

i ts

walls,

a nd

a n

a rea

o f

a gricultural

T he f armhouse m easured 3 9 x 3 7 .50 m . ,

e xterior w all b eing b uilt o f e fficiently d ressed l imestone b locks , f inely d rafted .

i ts

i n p art

T he i nternal w all w as o f u ndressed m asonry c overed w ith a

t hick l ayer o f p laster .

T he d ressed b locks o f t he o uter wall e xhibit

2 7

a lternate c ourses o f h eaders a nd s tretchers ; o n t he s outh p arts o f t his w all r emain t o ah eight o f 3m . ; s ample m easurements o f t he d ressed b locks a re 0 .52 m . x 1 .00 m ;

0 .60 x 0 .81 m ;

a nd 0 .67 x 0 .70 m .

T he c entral b uilding i s s urrounded b y w alls o f d ressed m asonry ( 1 , 1 3 , 7 , 2 2) .

I n i ts c entre , t here a ppears t o h ave b een a c ourtyard s urrounded b y

s tone c olumns . C olumns n ot i n t heir o riginal p ositions w ere a lso f ound i n t he r uin-heaps ( 18), a nd o ne c olumn-base s till p rojects i n s itu . ( 21) . A c oncentration o f c olumns was e xamined i n a s mall s tructure ( 19) w hich a ppears t o b e a l ate a ddition t o t he f arm .

A r ockcut p lastered w ater

c istern o f c ampanulate p rofile ( 20 ) w as l ocated i n t he c ourt ; o f l arge s ize , i t p robably d rained t he b uildings r ound i t ; o ver i ts a perture a s tone s lab b earing a c arved r osette w ithin a c ircle h ad b een l aid, p erhaps a l intel r eused a s ac over . A long t he e ast w all a r ange o f r ooms c an b e d istinguished ( 11, 1 2 , 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 6) , b ut t hey a re n ot w ell p reserved , h ence i t i s d ifficult t o d efine t heir c haracter . A f urther s eries

o f

r ooms w as

s ituated i n t he s outhern w ing

o f

t he

f armhouse ( 6) , a nd h ere w ere a lso a r ockcut p lastered c istern a nd a s tone t rough ( 4 , 5 ) . O ne e ntrance r emained i n s itu ( 3) i n t his w ing , i dentified b y t he S WP t eam a s t he n ave o f a c hurch ; w e f ound n o e vidence t o c onfirm t heir s upposition . T he p ossibility t hat a c hurch o r c hapel w as a dded t o t he f arm i n t he B yzantine p eriod s hould n ot , o f c ourse , b e s ummarily d ismissed , b ut i t h as n ot y et b een f ound o n t he s ite . T he f inely m asoned s outh w all ( 7) w as f ounded o n t he n atural r ock , a nd i ts j oints h ad b een a dapted t o t he s loping r ock s urface . A b reach f ound i n t he w all m ay b e e vidence t hat t he p lace h ad b een c aptured b y m ilitary a ction . N o i nternal d ivision w as n oticed a long t he w estern w all , b ut t he i nterior o f t he f armstead i s n ow c ultivated b y t he A rabs o f D eir B alut, a nd t he t ops o f t he w alls h ave p robably b een d estroyed b y t he p lough . A c oloured t essera w as p icked u p i n t he c ourtyard , a nd a f ragment o f m osaic f loor w as a lso f ound , d isplaying a f oliate g uilloche w ell e xecuted i n s mall t esserae . A t hird w ater c istern ( 23) e xists a long t he n orth w all o utside t he b uilding . I n

s ummarizing

t he

r econstruction

o f

t he

f armstead

o f

D eir

S am 'an ,

t herefore , w e h ave b efore u s t he f ollowing p icture : T he a ncient f armhouse was b uilt i n t he f orm o f a s quare s urrounded b y a f ine wall o f d ressed m asonry , w hose t hickness a nd h eight s erved t o p rotect t he f armhouse T he a rchitectural m embers f ound i n s econdary u se e nabled u s t o r econstruct t he c olonnades w hich s urrounded t he i nner c ourt , w ith a p ortico ( or p orticoes) a long i ts s hort a xis .

S tructures a nd I nstallations o utside t he F arm . S ome o f t he r ock c uttings t o t he s outh ( 8 , 9 ,

1 0) w ere q uarries , a nd o n

t he a nalogy o f s imilar c uttings o n t he o ther s ide o f t he f arm , m ay h ave b een r eadapted a s p ools i n w hich t o s tore w ater . T o t he n orth w ere a r ockcut t hreshing f loor a nd p ools f or w ater s torage. F ig. 2 9

T he t hreshing f loor ( 25) w as r ockcut t o ad iameter o f 1 2 .20 m . a nd w as e ntered d own t wo r ockcut s teps . A s undial h ad b een c arved i n t he t hreshing f loor wall ( see b elow), a nd c hannels l ed f rom t he f loor t o a s ettling

t ank W I

a nd

t hence

t owards a s eries o f c ollecting t anks,

p art

r ockcut, p art b uilt ( 28, 2 9, 3 0, 3 1) . T hey w ere 3 .00 m . d eep a nd c ould a ccumulate a l arge v olume o f w ater . A t omb h ad b een c ut i n t he a rea b etween t he t hreshing f loor a nd t he t anks ;

i t w as o f t he t ype c onsisting o f as haft

2 8

a nd

t wo

a rcosolia .

I ts

l ocation b etween t he

t anks

a nd

t he a gricultural

i nstallations c ame a s a s urprise ; i t m ay b elong t o al ate p hase , w hen p art o f t he l atter h ad f allen o ut o f u se ; a nother p ossibility i s t hat t he t omb p receded t he i nstallations , a nd b elonged t o t he o ldest p hase o f t he f arm ( see b elow) . T ombs o f t his t ype h ave b een f ound b y u s o n m any s ites o f t he R oman e poch a nd a re c ommon i n s ettlements d ated t o t he s econd a nd t hird c enturies o f t he c urrent e ra , b ut t he f arm e xisted a lso i n t he B yzantine p eriod . F urther , t he a rea w hich w e h ave c alled a t hreshing f loor ( 25) m ay h ave b een u sed f or a gricultural p urposes . D r . Z eev S afrai i s o f t he o pinion t hat t he i nstallation i s s uitable f or t he

w orking o f f lax p roducts ,

Y . T epper t hinks i t w as u sed f or t he t reatment o f w ool . d esign o f

t he

s undial c ut

i n t he s ide o f

t he

w hile

B oth t he f orm a nd

t hreshing

f loor

a re

o f

i nterest ; Y igael T epper 5 3 ) b elieves i t b elongs t o t he e quinoxial t ype , i ts d esign i ndicating t hat i t w as u sed t o m easure t he t ime i n t he c ontext o f s ome p articular b ranch , o r o f s ome c raft p eculiar t o D eir S am 'an . I t m ay h ave h elped t o c alculate t he q uantities o f w ater a nd t heir d istribution t o v arious c rops . ( See b elow ) . I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat a s undial h ad b een f ound i n o ne o f t he v illas o f B oscoreali n ear P ompeii ,5 4) w est S amarian s ite o f H irbet H azimeh .2 4 ) A s tructure

w ith

a b arrel-vaulted

f loor a nd t he f arm ( 24) . o ther s tructures o n t he

r oof

s tands

a lso a t t he

b etween t he t hreshing

I ts b uilding c onstruction i s u nlike t hat o f t he s ite , a nd i t e mbodies a n umber o f a rchitectural

m embers t aken f rom t he f arm 's p rincipal b uilding . I t t hus a ppears t o b e a l ate a ddition , p erhaps o f t he p eriod o f A rab r ule , w hen A rab p resence i s p roved b y p ottery .

T he W inepresses a nd t he O il P ress A l arge w inepress ( 33) w as s urveyed e ast o f t he f armhouse . T he a rea o f t he p ress i s c hoked w ith s ilt a nd w as p robably d amaged b y r ockcutting i n a ncient t imes . t he

w all

T he t reading f loor m easured a pproximately 1 0 x 1 3 m"

r etained

r ockcut

d epressions

g rapes p rior t o p ressing . l arge p lant ( 26) a t H irbet

p erhaps

t o m easure

a nd

t he q uantity o f

T he s ize o f t he p ress r esembles t hat o f t he B uraq . A nother s mall w inepress ( 38 ) i s t o b e

f ound b eyond t he a rea o f a gricultural i nstallations e ast o f t he f arm . I ts t reading f loor m easured 1 . 70 x 1 . 70 m" a nd t he c ollecting t ank w as 1 . 30 x 1 . 30 m . ; i t m ay h ave b elonged t o a n e arly p hase o f t he l arge p ress w as q uarried ( 33) . N earby a re r emains

o f a r ockcut o il p ress ( 37) .

p ress f loor i s 4 .50 14, c ontaining a s inking f or b ase f or t he w eight ( h ). T he w eight i tself a pparently h aving b een t hrown f rom t he p ress t o e lsewhere . T wo r ockcut c isterns a ppear t o h ave

h olding ,

b efore t he

T he d iameter o f t he

t he p ress-beam ( a ) a nd a • was f ound o n t he s lope, b e r olled a way f or r euse b een u sed t o c ollect t he

o il ( c-d ) . C istern ( d ) w as f ound t o p ossess a r ockcut o utlet s o d irected a s t o e nable t he f illing o f e arthenware v essels . O utside t he f loor i s a c utting c onnected w ith t he i nstallation , b ut o f u nclear f unction . I t w ould s eem t hat t he i nstallations o f t he o pen-air p ress b elong t o t he f arm 's e arly s tage ,

a nd t hat w hen t he p lace e xpanded t he w ine a nd o live p resses

w ere a bandoned ( 37 , 3 8 ) f or m ore e fficient i nstallations w ithin t he f arm . E ast o f t he g rape t reading f loor a nd t he o il p ress a t hreshing f loor w as e xamined , 7m . i n d iameter , l ike t he o ther t hreshing f loors i n S amaria . I n t he s ame p roximity a re s tone q uarries , f armhouse

q uarried

t he

s tone

a nd a pparently t he b uilders o f t he

c loseby ,

s o

i ntentionally

c reating

a dditional s ystem o f c ollecting t anks a t t he b ottom o f t he q uarries .

a n

T hese

w ere o f i mpressive m easurements , e .g . 1 0 x2 0 m .

T he A griculture o f D eir S am 'an . T he f arm o f D eir S am 'an l ies o n a r ocky s pur w hich p ossesses k arstic f eatures . I n o rder t o c reate c ultivable a reas o f a ny s ort h ere a n i mmense i nvestment o f l abour w as r equired , i ncluding t he q uarrying o f ' boxes ' a mong t he r ocks , i f p lanting a nd s owing w ere t o b e c arried o ut . W e f ound b uilt t erraces a nd r ockcut ' boxes ' a ll a long t he s pur a nd i ts s lopes ; t hese c reated m all p atches o f s oil f or p lanting a nd s owing . T he f arm m ay a lso h ave p ossessed a t ract o n t he f ertile p lain o f D eir B alut, which i s e xcellent f or c ereal c ulture . T he c hief b ranches o f t he f arm c an b e r econstructed f rom o ur s urvey o f i ts a gricultural i nstallations .

T he m ost i mportant b ranches w ould a ppear t o

h ave b een t he g rowing o f v ines a nd w ine p roduction .

V ines c ould b e p lanted

o n t he r ocky t erraces o f t he s pur , a nd t he l arge w inepress ( 33 ) i ndicates p roduction o n a n a mple s cale . O live o il a lso s eems t o h ave b een p roduced , b ut o n a s mall s cale , a nd t he r emains o f o nly o ne p ress w ere f ound i n t he v icinity . T he c entral o il p lant m ay h ave b een i n t he f arm i tself , b ut w e f ound n o e vidence o f s uch .

T he r ockcut t hreshing f loor ( 25) n ear t he

f armstead a nd a nother t o t he e ast t estify t hat c ereals p layed s ome p art i n t he f arm 's e conomy . T hreshing f loor ( 25) c ould h ave s erved s everal a gricultural b ranches , s uch a s t he p roduction o f w ool a nd f lax , i n w hich c ase o nly o ne t hreshing f loor r emained , c hiefly f or h ome c onsumption b y t he o wners a nd l abourers , a nd f or t he d efrayment o f t axes t o t he g overnment .55) N otice s hould b e t aken o f t he l arge q uantities o f r ainwater s tored i n d ozens o f c isterns , r ockcut o r b uilt a bove g round , s cattered a round t he f arm . T hese c ould s tore t housands o f c ubic m etres o f w ater , w hich w ere p robably u tilized f or a uxiliary i rrigation o f t he v ineyards a nd o ther p lantations, a lso f or t he manufacture o f f lax a nd w ool - i f t he i nstallations h ave b een c orrectly i dentified . T he s undial o bserved o n t he w all o f t he t hreshing f loor t estifies t o p lanned l abour a nd a n e conomy w ell c ontrolled a nd a dministered .

T he A rchaeological F inds a nd t he H istorical S etting. E xamination o f

t he p ottery s howed

t hat

t he

f armstead o f

D eir

S am 'an

e xisted i n t he R oman-Byzantine p eriod a nd w as a bandoned i n t he A rab p eriod . P rominent a mong t he R oman-Byzantine m aterial w as p ottery o f t he ' Late R oman ' t ype w ith i ts e xcellent r ed b urnish . A c onsiderable q uantity o f f ragmentary R oman a nd B yzantine g lass w as a lso c ollected . S herds c haracteristic o f t he Omayid a nd A bassid d ynasties w ere a lso n oticed . A nother f ind w as a s mall c ross e ngraved o n a p iece o f w hite l imestone , n ot i n s itu ; t he c ross m easured 1 0 x 1 0 c m ; t he s tone , w hich i n f orm r esembled a l intel , m easured 0 .34 x 0 .40 m . W e d o n ot k now w here t his b elonged ; t he i mpression m ade b y t he n ature a nd t ooling o f t he s tone i s t hat i t w as n ot p art o f a n o riginal s tructural p hase , B yzantine We

b ut a l ate a ddition a t t he e nd o f t he

e poch .

o ffer

h ere

a t entative

s ummary o f

t he

s tructural

T he p icture i s

t he

w as e stablished w hose s imple

s econd a nd

t hird c enturies,

i nstallations a re f ound t o h ave

a f arm

a s

p hases a nd

d evelopment o f t he D eir S am 'an f armstead .

f ollows .

b een s ubsequently a bandoned ( 38 , 3 7) .

3 0

I n T he

r ockcut t omb w ith s haft a nd a rcosolia c an b e a ttributed t o t his p eriod ;

i n

t he s econd p hase i t w as s ituated i n t he m iddle o f a g roup o f a gricultural i nstallations a nd w ater t anks . T he s quare c entral b uilding , w hich c overs 1 ,40 3 s q . m . c an b e a ttributed t o t he e arly p hase . T he s tone a dorned w ith a r osette f ound r eused o ver a w ater-cistern b elongs s tylistically t o t he R oman f armstead , s ince r osette d ecoration i s t o b e f ound i n S amaria o n s ites o f t he H asmonean , H erodian a nd e arly R oman p eriods ( e .g . a t H irbet K arqush , Q arawat b ene H assan , ' Abbud a nd e lsewhere ) . I n t he s econd p hase i n t he B yzantine p eriod , p erhaps i n t he 4 th-5th c entury C .E . , t he f arm w as b uilt a nd r efurbished . T he c onstruction o f t he d efensive wall o f d ressed m asonry , t he e xtension o f t he a gricultural i nstallations a nd t he q uarrying o f n umerous s torage c isterns , a re t o b e a scribed t o t he s ame p hase . T he

l ast

p hase o f

t he f arm 's

e xistence e xtended o ver t he 7 th a nd 8 th

c enturies, a fter t he A rab c onquest, a nd s tructure 2 4, which d iffers a rchitecturally f rom t hose o f t he f ormer s tages, b elonged t o i t. T he q uestion a rises , w hat w ere t he r easons f or t he e stablishment o f t he f arm o f D eir S am 'an , a nd who were t he e stablishers? i solated p henomenon i n t he r egion ,

Was t he p lace a n

o r p art o f a g overnment s cheme ,

a nd f ortified b y t he c entral a uthority? W e a nswers t o t hese q uestions , a t l east i n p art .

s hall

e ndeavour

t o

p lanned s uggest

W e h ave s een t hat t he a rea o f D eir S am 'an w as a lready i mportant i n E arly I ron A ge I I , w hen t he f irst p rotective e nclosure w as e stablished . F rom t hat p eriod o nward d own t o t he H ellenistic a nd e arly R oman p eriods , t wo e nclosures , s treambed .

( 34 , 3 5) w atched t he a rea a nd a lso t he t ributaries o f t he R abba T he r eason f or t heir c onstruction w ould a ppear t o h ave b een

c onnected w ith t he s trategic v alue o f t he a rea , w hen t he D eir S am 'an s pur c ommanded t he e ast-west a nd n orth-south r oad s ystems c onnecting t he h eart o f S amarian m ountains w ith t he c oastal p lain . D eir S am 'an , t ogether w ith o ther s ites s uch a s D eir Q ala 'ah a nd D eir e l-Mir , p ossessed e xcellent P h.13

c ommand o f t his i mportant c rossroads , w hich c ontinued t o o perate i n t he R oman p eriod , a s s hown b y am ilestone f ound r eused i n a n a gricultural f ence a t D eir S am 'an . I t i s o f i nterest t o r emark , t hat t he l ocality was r egarded a s s trategically v aluable d own t o m odern t imes , a nd p resentday m ilitary p lanners v iew t he d istrict a s o ne o f t he v ital p assages f rom t he S hephelah i nto t he m ountains .5 6 ) D eir S am 'an , l ike i ts n ear c ounterpart, D eir Q ala 'ah , a nd i ts o ther p arallel, D eir D aqleh , a l ittle f urther away , a re t he r esults o f g overnmental t hinking a nd t he e ndeavour t o m aintain a m ilitary a nd c ivilian p resence i n t his s ensitive a rea i n o rder t o c ontrol t he p asses a nd t o f urnish a s upply b ase f or f orces c oncentrated f rom a far . A s s tated , D eir S am 'an p ossesses i mpressive w ater r eservoirs ; t hose o f D eir Q ala 'ah a re n ot i nferior . T hese h uge r eservoirs c ould b e u sed b y t he s ettlers i n p eacetime f or v arious a gricultural u ses,

b ut i n t imes o f war c ould s upply l arge

q uantities o f w ater f or f orces c oncentrating i n a n a rea d evoid o f s prings a nd w ells . P rofessor A pplebaum, who v isited t he s ite o f D eir S am'an s everal t imes , c onsidered t hat t he b uilding a nd s iting o f t he d efensive w all p oint t o f ortification o f a n o fficial m ilitary t ype . P rofessor R amsay M cMullen h as s hown c learly t hat m ilitary a nd c ivilian b uilding w ere i nseparable i n t he l ate R oman p eriod ,

a nd t hat e ach g reatly

i nfluenced t he o ther .5 7 ) T he f armstead o f D eir S am 'an c an b e t aken a s a g ood e xample c onfirming h is s tatement.

3 1

A t b oth D eir S am'an a nd D eir Q a Paah s igns w ere f ound o f C hristian i nhabitants .

S everal c rosses a re s till p rominent o n t he w alls a nd l intels

o f D eir Q al 'aah .58) T he t ransition f rom a c lassic R oman v illa t o t he v i Um w ith c hurch a nd m onastery i s w ell k nown t hroughout t he l ate R oman E mpire . ' I n o ur c ase , i t c ould s eem t hat t he c hange w as n ot i ntroduced f or r eligious r easons , b ut a rose f rom a d ecision o n t he p art o f t he c entral g overnment t o p rotect t hese s ites, whose s trategic i mportance was p erceived b y a ll s uccessive r ulers , a nd n ot l east b y t hose o f t he B yzantine p eriod . I t i s a n i nteresting f act t hat t he e arly M oslem a dministration d id n ot n eglect t he p lace . A c onsiderable d ecline , i t i s t rue , i s t raceable o n t he s ite , a nd o nly m inor p arts o f i t w ere o ccupied a nd f ully m aintained . A s t he n ew g overnment c ould n ot o perate t he f arm o n t he b asis o f w ine p roduction , w hich t heir f aith p rohibited , t he s ettlers ' e conomic l ivelihood w as i n a ny c ase t aken f rom t hem . T he p lace w as h eld f or a c ertain t ime f or r easons o f s ecurity , t hen f inally a nd p ermanently a bandoned .

8 .

P easant S mallholdings a nd t he R oman V illa . T he

q uestion

w as

p osed

e arly

i n

t his

c hapter ,

w hether v illas o f

t he

R oman c ultural t ype e xisted i n t his c ountry , a nd a n a ttempt w ill n ow b e m ade t o a nswer t he q uestion . W e h ave p resented t wo f armsteads o f t his t ype i n t he a rea , b ut o thers c annot b e d escribed o wing t o l imitations o f s pace. H irbet

B asatin r eflects ,

i n o ur v iew ,

t he c haracteristic f armstead o f

t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods , a l ocal m ode : w hich d eveloped u nder t he i nfluence o f t raditional f arms o riginating a s e arly a s E arly I ron A ge I I . T he f arms c ontain s igns o f t he w ealth a nd r efinements c haracteristic o f R oman v illas , a nd t heir c onstruction t oo i s a ppropriate t o t he c onditions o f t he c ountry a nd t o i ts l ocal r aw m aterials . T he f arm o f E retz Y israel i n t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods w as w ell a dapted t o t he e conomy o f t he f armstead, a nd c an b e t aken t o r eflect t he e conomy o f t he m edium l andowner. D eir S am 'an r epresents a f arm whose p lanning a nd maintenance w ere d etermined b y t he c entral g overnment . A s a n a gricultural p roject i t i s d ecidedly i mpressive , b ut a ttention t o i ts f ortification w as n ot n eglected • b y i ts p lanners . T he f arm i s e xcellent e vidence f or t he f irm l ink b etween t he s oldier a nd t he f armer , a l ink w hich i n t he c onditions o f t he c ountry p revailed o ver l ong p eriods . D eir S am 'an a nd i ts c ompanions t estify , w e t hink , t o t he e xistence o f h oldings a nd e states o n c rown d omain , e xtending , w ithin t he a rea o f o ur s urvey ,

f rom H aris i n t he e ast t o D eir B alut i n t he

w est . 60 ) E very g overnment c oncerned i tself i n i ts o wn w ay w ith t he e xploitation a nd m aintenance o f t hese d omains , b ut t he p roof o f h istorical c ontinuity a dds f orce t o t he s upposition t hat s uch e states e xisted i n w estern S amaria . T he s tudy o f R oman v illas i n t he v arious p rovinces o f t he R oman E mpire i s a bsorbing a nd e nlightening ,

a nd

t he

i mplications

f or

t he

s ituation

i n

E retz Y israel a re n ot u nequivocal . T his c ountry w as a R oman p rovince , a nd a s s uch w as e xposed t o t he i nfluences a nd l ife-style o f t he c onquerors f rom a broad a nd o f t heir s ervants a t h ome . I n what way w as c ountry l ife a ffected b y t he n ew c ulture? T hese a re s erious q uestions w hich h ave b een r arely p ondered .

3 2

I n

p rovinces

s uch a s

D almatia ,

P annonia ,

G aul a nd B ritain ,

s cholars

h ave d istinguished b etween t he v illas o f I talian s ettlers a nd t he f arms o f t he n atives .61) A pplebaum p oints o ut t hat t here w ere v arious g rades o f r omanisation b etween t he t wo e xtremes , t he p alatial R oman v illa a nd t he i ndigenous n ative f armstead , m ost o f t he v illas b eing p roducts o f t he l abour a nd p rogress o f l ocal e lements ,

w ho h ad a dopted v arious f eatures o f R oman

c ulture . F ully d eveloped v illas w ere p lanned i n am anner p eculiar t o t heir p rovinces; many n ative f arms r etained p ermanent p re-Roman f orms, a nd e xamples a re k nown o f t he d evelopment o f i ndigenous f arms i nto r omanised v illas w hich n evertheless r etained l ocal f eatures . s ome R oman t raits a lso e xisted .

N ucleated v illages w ith

I n I taly i tself n ot a ll t he c ultivators l ived i n v illas ;

p robably t he

c ontrary w as t he c ase - t he g reater p art o f t he r ural p opulation l ived i n s mall s imple f armhouses s ometimes l ittle a bove s ubsistence l evel . J oan F rayn i n h er i nvestigation o f t he I talian s mallholders , c laims t hat t he s mall p easant 's f armhouse w as n o m ore t han o ne s mall i solated b uilding , a nd t hat o nly i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies o f t he p resent e ra d id h omes o f t wo o r t hree r ooms o ccur , a nd t hen o nly o f o ne s torey .6 2 ) A s urvey c arried o ut b y J ones i n t he A ger C apenas o f I taly s howed t hat t he s mallholding p redominated o ver a w ide a rea o f h is s urvey , t he p easants p ossessing a reas o f 5 -10 l ugera ( 12 .5-25 d unams), whose c ultivation was b ased o n t he p roduction o f w ine , o il a nd a f ew h ead o f l ivestock . T he s ettlers w ere m ainly s mall h olders, a nd a rchaeological e vidence i ndicated s ettlement f rom t he p eriod o f A ugustus . 63 ) W hite ,

i n h is w ork o n R oman f arming ,64) c ites d ata o n t he d evelopment

o f t he I talian s mallholder 's f arm f rom a o ne-room dwelling t o t he a gricultural v illa o f t he t ype s een i n t he r egion r ound P ompeii . H e s ees t he d evelopment o f t he f armhouse f rom a s imple s tructure t o a v illa a s a d irect o rganic c ontinuum a nd l ays l ittle s tress o n t he s ocial a nd e conomic d ifferences b etween t he s mall p easant a nd t he l arge e state o wner . T he d esign o f n eighbour . I t l iving r ooms .

t he G reek f armhouse d iffered

f rom

t hat

o f

i ts I talian

w as a s quare o r o blong b uilding , c ontaining w orkshops a nd S ome o f t he f arms a lso i ncorporated d efensive t owers i n

t heir s tructures. T he t ype was w idespread f rom t he b eginning o f t he c lassical p eriod d own t o t he B yzantine e poch .65) W e s ee , t herefore , t hat t he R oman v illa c ulture d id n ot c ompletely r eplace t he s mallholder 's f armhouse , n or d id t he f arm b uildings a nd l iving q uarters d evelop o n t he o ld t raditional m odel t o w hich t he p easants o f t he c onquered p rovinces w ere a ccustomed . T he R oman v illa w as t he p roduct o f a p olitical a nd e conomic s ituation w hich h ad d eveloped i n t he i st c entury b efore t he c urrent e ra . R ostovtzeff, i ndeed, b elieved t hat t he b a e c onditions o f I talian a griculture d id n ot a lter a fter t he c ivil w ar . / L arge e states c ontinued t o g row a t t he e xpense o f s mallholdings , b ut t hese c ontinued t o e xist s ide b y s ide w ith t he e states . •T he a griculture o f

t he

l atter was c onducted o n ac apitalistic b asis, s ome o f t he o wners b eing r esident i n t he t owns , w hile t he m ajority w ere w orked b y s laves , t enants , o r d ay-labourers w ho w ere t he f ormer o wners o f l and w hich t he p roprietors h ad a ppropriated . R ostovtzeff t herefore c lassified t he v illas i nto t hree g roups: a )

E states o f a bsentees, who v isited t hem o nly o ccasionally , a nd

w hich w ere m anaged b y s laves.

3 3

b )

E states m anaged b y t heir o wners w ho w ere p ermanently r esident.

c )

C ommercial e states p roducing w ine a nd o il.

R ostovtzeff

c onsidered

t hat

t he v illas i n t he r egion o f P ompeii w ere

t hose o f l andowners l iving o n t heir e states r ather t han i n t own . T hese v illas p ossessed l ands o f m edium e xtent a nd e ngaged i n t he p roduction o f w ine,

o il a nd c ereals.

I n t he R oman p rovinces

s uch a s G aul,

B elgium,

G ermany a nd S pain , t he v illa b egan t o f lourish u nder A ugustan r ule , i .e . f rom a bout 3 1 B CE o nward , s ince R ome p assed f rom a w ar-economy t o al ong e ra o f p eace, i n which t he s ettlement a nd c olonisation o f t he p rovinces d eveloped s imultaneously .

P ercival c onsiders t hat t he e nergetic p rocess o f

u rbanisation d emanded i ncreased f ood-supplies, a nd t hat a griculture r ose t o meet t he s ituation . 67 ) m arkets

a ccelerated

t he R oman v illa,

T he l ocal p rovincial market a nd t he i mperial

a gricultural

p roduction ,

s o

c ausing

t he a ppearance o f

which marked t he r omanisation o f a p rovince a nd t he

c ultural i ntegration o f t he i ndigenous v illage a nd i ts a griculture i nto t he o rbis R omana . I n t he v arious c ountries o f E urope t he i ndigenous f armhouse b egins t o c hange , a nd m en o f m eans a nd t hose n ear t o n ew g overnment c ircles b egin t o b uild i n t he I talian f ashion ; o tiose c olonnades r eveal c hanged c onceptions a nd e conomic a ffluence e nabling p retentious c onstruction . W hile t here w as n o s eparation o f a nimals a nd m en i n t he l iving s pace o f t he a ncient

f armhouse ,

t he f armhouse o f

t he R oman v illa b ecame l arger a nd

t he s eparation b etween t he a gricultural a nd t he r esidential w ings w here t he o wners l ived, b ecame w ell-defined . P ercival c onsiders t hat t he b uilders o f t he p rovincial v illas were f or t he most p art l ocal i nhabitants, m inority b eing v eterans a nd R oman s ettlers f rom I taly . w hy

t he v illa

z ones

l ay

n ear

p roblematic

f rontier

o nly a

T his w as t he r eason

a reas .

T his

i s

t rue

w here G ermany , a nd p erhaps t he D anube b asin , a re c oncerned , b ut d oes n ot a pply t o B ritain , G aul a nd t he w estern p rovinces . I n t he l ong y ears o f p eace a nd

e conomic

p rosperity b etween 9 8

c ulture o f v illas f lourished i n t he J udaea ,

o n

t he

o ther h and ,

w as

o nly

a nd

1 80 o f

p rovinces

t he c urrent e ra ,

a nd

t he

t heir n umber g rew .

t hen s truggling

t o

r ecover

f rom

t he

r esults o f t he f irst r ebellion a gainst R ome , ( 66-74 C .E . ), a nd p reparing f or t he s econd , which w as f ollowed b y g reater d estruction a nd r uin t han t hat c aused b y t he f irst .6 8 ) I t i s h ard t o i magine t hat R oman s ettlers w ould h ave c ome t o t he c ountry v oluntarily i n a s ituation o f c onstant w arfare a nd v iolence o r h ave b uilt a gricultural v illas i n t he R oman s tyle . t he

W e h ear o f

c onfiscation o f l ands f rom J ews a fter b oth r evolts ,6 9 ) b ut w e h ave n o

e vidence o f v illa b uilding i n s uch a reas . o ther p rovinces, w as d ensely s ettled, ( and f act

E retz Y israel , i n c ontrast t o t his i ncluded S amaria ) , 70 ) _a

w hich w ould n ot h ave m ade i t e asy f or n ew

o wners

a nd

t hose i n g ood

s tanding w ith t he g overnment t o b uild t heir h omes i n d ensely p opulated r ural a reas o pposed t o t he a dministration , - a p opulation , m oreover , t hat l ost n o o pportunity t o t ake u p a rms a gainst i t. S tate d omains were d oubtless c ultivated

b y

o ther

m ethods .7 1)

T he

a bsence

o f

v illa

b uildings ,

i ndeed

w ould n ot p rove t hat t here w ere n o e states i n w estern S amaria - w e h ave f ound p roof o f t heir e xistence b oth i n t he s ources a nd i n t he f ield . T he d evelopment o f t he R oman v illa i n o ther p rovinces w here t he p olitical a nd e conomic

s ituation was

d ifferent,

c orresponded

t o

t he

n ature

o f

t he

o ccupation a nd t he a ttitude o f t he i ndigenous p opulation . I n B ritain , w here t he i nvestigation o f t he v illa h olds a n h onorable p lace i n t he s tudy o f

t he p eriod ,

v illa d evelopment i s k nown t o h ave b een g radual .

S ir I an

R ichmond d ivided t he o rder o f d evelopment o f t he R omano-British v illa i nto f our t he

s tages :7 2 ) w inged

T he

h ouse .

c ottage , A ll

f our

t he t ypes

c orridor h ouse , d iffer

3 4

f rom

t he

t he

c ourtyard h ouse a nd

a utochthonous

B ritish

r ural

h omestead a nd a re

i nfluenced b y R oman c ulture d espite a ll

t he

d ifferences b etween t hem a nd I talian a nd G allic c onstruction . T he R oman v illa i s r ural , a nd l ocated o n t he b est s oils o f t he c ountry . I n R ivet 's o pinion t he v illa-owners o f B ritain w ere o f n ative d erivation , n ot I talian s ettlers . H e b elieves t hat i n B ritain t here w as a s trong a nd i nseparable c onnection b etween t he v illa a nd t he R oman t own , t o t he e xtent t hat

t he c ountry v illa c ould n ot e xist w ithout i t .

A pplebaum c ites

i nteresting d ata o n t he a reas o f l and a ttached t o B ritish v illas .7 3 ) T hose w orking t racts o f 2 50-300 a cres ( 1-1 .2 s q . k m . ) w ere r egarded a s b elonging t o t he l esser c ategory , f or t here w ere v illas w hich o wned 7 50 a cres ( 3 s q . k m . ) . T he t racts o f l and a ttached t o v illas i n F rance a nd B elgium o ften e xtended o ver h undreds o f a cres, g enerally i n f ertile a reas . 74 ) I f w e c ompare t hese d ata w ith t he s ituation i n E retz Y israel , i t c an b e a ssumed t hat t he d evelopment o f t he v illa i n t hat c ountry w as i mpeded n ot o nly b y p olitical a nd s ocial f actors , b ut a lso b y t he c onditions o f t he t errain , w hich r estricted p oss ibilities . C onditions f avourable t o a d evelopment o f t he R oman v illa-culture p robably e xisted i n t he l arger v alleys a nd i n t he m aritime p lain ,7 5) b ut i n t he m ountain a rea a nd n ot l east i n S amaria , t he c onditions o f t he t errain a nd t he s ocial-political s ituation may h ave r estricted t he p ossibilities i n w hich v illas c ould f lourish .

3 5

C hapter I I. F arm B uildings a nd R ural B uildings i n W estern S amaria V illages a nd T ownlets. T he f irst p art o f C hapter I o n t he r ural s tructures o f W estern S amaria h as b een d evoted i n t he main t o a d escription o f t he v arious t ypes o f f armstead f rom p eriod t o p eriod, B yzantine e poch .

f rom t he E arly I ron A ge d own t o t he

W e h ave n oted t he f requency o f f armhouses i n t he a rea , a nd

t hat t hey c onstituted a c entral f actor i n t he s ettlement p attern o f w estern S amaria. I n t his c hapter w e s hall d escribe s elected s ites, c lassifiable a s v illages a nd t ownlets b elonging t o S econd T emple t imes a nd t o t he p eriods o f t he M ishnah a nd t he T almud . W e h ave d iscussed p roblems o f t erminology a nd c lassification ,

q uoting

t he v iews

o f K rauss ,

S .

S afrai ,

A pplebaum

a nd

Z .

S afrai . W e s hall n ow d escribe v illages a nd t ownlets, a lso s ettlements o f s mall a nd m edium s ize , w hich e arned t heir l iving b y a griculture a nd d iffered f rom

t he p olis n ot o nly o n t he s ize o f

t heir p opulations b ut p rimarily i n

t heir s ocial a nd p olitical s tatus . T he v ast m ajority o f t he J ewish n ation l ived i n s uch v illages a nd t ownlets i n a ncient t imes , a nd a n a ttempt w ill b e m ade h ere t o u nderstand a nd t o d elineate t heir f orm .

1 .

k m .

H irbet J eme 'in, a v illage o f t he F irst T emple P eriod.

1)

H irbet J eme 'in ( G .R . 1 752-1569) l ies a t t he e nd o f a r ocky s pur , 1 .5 s outh-east o f K efr ' Azun . T he H irbeh i s b uilt o n t he t op o f a r ound

h illock a t a n e levation o f 3 15 m . a nd o n a s outhward s lope . T he p lace i s n ot marked o n t he maps o r mentioned i n p revious e xplorations, a nd was d iscovered i n t he c ourse o f o ur s urvey .

T he a rea o f t he s ite i s a bout a

F ig. 3 0 h ectare , i ts f orm a t riangle w hose a pex p oints t o t he n orth . T he s ite h as P h. 1 4 f ifteen l arge s tructures, t he m ajority o f t he h ouses c ontaining f our r ooms . T he s ite w as e stablished i n E arly I ron A ge I I, a nd t he p ottery i ndicates a n o ccupation i n t he 8 th a nd 7 th c enturies B .C .E . ; i t w as a bandoned d uring t he H ellenistic p eriod, which h as l eft r emains i n s everal o f t he v illage 's b uildings .

More t han a d ozen f ield

t owers

r ound t he

v illage

c an b e

a ttributed t o t he s ame p eriod , a lso s everal a dditions t o t he h ouses i n t he f orm o f t owers w hich w ere i ncorporated i nto f our-roomed d wellings . ( For a d iscussion o n t hese ,

s ee C hapter T V o n F ield T owers) .

E xcavations w ere c arried o ut

i n f our o f

t he b uildings, a nd t heir

r esults w ill b e r eported i n t he c hapter o n t he d evelopment o f r ural h ouses . E xcavations a nd t he p reparation o f t he s ettlement p lan m ade i t c lear t hat H irbet J eme 'in w as a n o rganised v illage e quipped w ith i nternal a nd e xternal f ortifications, v illage , r ampart . v illage ,

i ncluding a d efensive

wall

w ith

t owers

s urrounding

t he

t he h ouses b eing b uilt i n s uch a w ay a s t o f orm a n o utward-facing A p ublic o il p ress a nd a p ublic w inepress w ere f ound i nside t he a p henomenon

p ointing

t o

a n

e fficient

s ocial

o rganisation .

A

l arge h ouse, 2 0 .00 x 1 2.10 m ., was e xcavated a t t he h ighest p oint i n t he v illage ; i ts a rrangement a nd l ocation f it i t t o b e t he r esidence o f t he ' head ' o f t he v illage ,

o r s uggest t hat i t d ischarged s ome s imilar f unction .

3 6

T he v illage

o f J eme 'in i s

s ituated

i n a r ocky r egion o f p ronouncedly

k arstic c haracter , f ar r emoved f rom a ny s prings . I ts i nhabitants q uarried r ockcut c isterns i n o rder t o s tore r ain-water ; s ome o f t hese w e f ound a mong t he h ouses . t rial

C ultivation t erraces h ad b een c onstructed

d igs

w ere

c arried

o ut

b uilt i n E arly I ron A ge I I , m ethod o f

i n t wo o f

t hem ,

a nd

s till

s urvive ;

a nd i t e merged t hat o ne w as

t he o ther i n t he H ellenistic e ra .

B oth t heir

c onstruction a nd t he a mount o f l abour i nvested w ere i mpressive .

A ctual q uarrying h ad b een e xecuted t o o btain t erraced a reas, a nd i n t his w ay t he a ncient c ultivators a ttained a b asis o n w hich t he t erraces c ould b e c onstructed .

I n t he s econd s tage w alls

s oil l ater d eposited ,

( the

n eeded f or t he e rection o f a r eal b uilding . s ection w as

1 .60 m .

' rises ') w ere b uilt t o s ustain

a nd t hese r equired a m ethod o f c onstruction l ike t hat

b road a nd

W e f ound t hat t he w all i n o ne

1 . 20 m . h igh .

T he w alls c onsisted o f l arge

b locks c arefully j ointed . T he ' tread ' o f t he t errace s o c reated f or s owing a nd p lanting w as s ometimes a s mall o ne , a mounting o nly t o af ew d ozen s quare m etres,

b ut s ometimes e xtended o ver h undreds .

E xamination o f t he t errace-

s oil e xcavated s howed a d epth o f 0 .60 - 0 .80 1 4 , o ther f oreign b odies . s ifted

t he

t erra r ossa

c lean s oil,

which was

p lanting

t rees,

o f

e ntirely f ree o f s tones a nd

T he t errace b uilders, t herefore, a ppear t o h ave e arth

a nd

t hus

w hose

f illed

t hese

t erraces

w ith

e xclusively

s uitable f or f ield-crops a nd a lso f or

r oots

w ere

f ound

t o h ave

s plit

c ut

f rom

c revices

t he

i n t he

r ocks. T he

v illage

n ear

o r

f ar .

A ge ,

p asses

o f H irbet J eme 'in w as

A n a ncient

r oad

o ff

s urroundings E arly

I ron B y

c ould

b e

r eached .

a pparently ,

i ts

t he s ite a nd a p ath l inks t he m ain r oad w ith t he v illage .

t his r oad K efr T ult a nd ' Azun , S hechem ,

n ot

o riginating ,

i n t he

a lso t he e ast-west h ighway t hat l ed t o

H irbet J eme 'in i s

a n e xcellent

e xample

o f

a

s mall v illage f ounded i n t he d ays o f t he F irst T emple , a nd t hanks t o i ts g ood s tate o f p reservation w e w ere a ble t o r econstruct i ts e ntire p lan , a nd t he a gricultural i nstallations which s erved i ts i nhabitants. T he c onstruction a nd s tructure o f t he s ettlement i nform u s o f i ts e fficient i nternal o rganisation a nd i ts c ooperative a ctivity i n t he p rocessing o f a gricultural

p roduce .

T he

v illage ,

w e

t hink ,

w as

t he

h abitation

o f

a n

e xtended f amily-group b elonging t o t he t ribe o f M anasseh , a nd c an s erve a s a f ine e xample o f a ' daughter v illage ' o f t he b iblical p eriod . I t s eems n ot t oo v enturesome t o s uppose t hat H irbet J eme 'in a t i ts f ull c apacity w as t he h ome o f 5 00 t o 6 00 s ouls . T he v illage p roduced w ine amounting

t o t housands o f l itres,

a lso

t housands o f l itres o f o live o il ; s o m uch c ould b e l earnt f rom t he s torage i nstallations which w e l aid b are ( see f or d etails C haps . V I-VII o n t he w ine a nd

o il

i ndustry ) .

C ereals w ere a lso g rown i n t he i mmediate v icinity , s ince a n u nderground s ilo f or t he s torage o f ' head m an ' .

c orn w as

f ound

i n

t he h ouse

( 500)

o f

t he v illage

I t m ay b e r easonably a ssumed t hat f locks o f s heep r ounded o ff

t he a gricultural e conomy o f

t his a ncient v illage .

D espite

o ur e fforts

w e

f ailed t o d efine t he s ize o f t he a gricultural t ract b elonging t o t he v illage o f H irbet J eme 'in , n or w ere w e a ble t o d istinguish a ny f ield d ivisions o r b oundary f ences a ttributable t o t he E arly I ron A ge v illage . T his m ay m ean t hat t he v illage l ands h ad n ot y et b een d ivided u p i nto d efined u nits ,

a nd

t hat t he e xtended f amily which l ived h ere was t he owner o f t he e ntire c ultivable t ract . T he a bsence o f c lear b oundaries i n t his S amarian v illage o f t he E arly I ron A ge p oses n umerous q uestions c oncerning t he o wnership a nd t he m ethod o f l and-allotment p ractised b y t he I sraelite t ribes l iving i n t he r egion , b ut t hat p roblem l ies b eyond t he s cope o f t he p resent s tudy .

3 7

2 .

H irbet H amad. T his

s ite l ies t wo k ilometres n orth o f K efr B eruqin a t G .R .

1 661-1596 .

T he s ettlement i s l ocated a t t he e nd o f a s pur o n a h illock w hich l ooks t owards W adi S usiyeh . T he s pur r eaches a n e levation o f 3 50 m . H irbet H amad w as r ecorded b y t he S .W .P . , which c alls i t e l-Fahehir . 2) O f t he e ntire s ite , t he B ritish s urveyors n oted o nly s ome t ombs o n t he n orth a nd a c olumned b uilding a t i ts s outh e nd , w hich t hey t hought m ight h ave b een a s mall C hristian c hap . s urvey o f t he p lace. 7

Y oseph P orat h as s ince c arried o ut a c omprehensive

I n a ddition t o a d escription o f t he a rchitectural r emains , h e c ollected p ottery f rom t he s ite b elonging t o t he f ollowing p eriods : E arly I ron A ge I a nd I I , P ersian , H ellenistic a nd R oman-Byzantine . O ur o wn s urvey ( see b elow ) a lso c ollected a g ood s election o f s herds o f l ate R oman w are a nd o f t he A rab p eriod. 1 F ig. 3

A d etailed

s urvey was

s ettlement 's s tructure ;

c arried

o ut

w ith

t he

a im

o f

s tudying

t he

t his i ncluded t he mapping o f t he s ite a nd t he

p reparation o f a p lan o f t he a ncient s ettlement . C onstruction o n t he s ite c onsists o f d ressed mansonry , s ome c arefully t ooled . I n s ome o f t he s tructures a l ight c oloured p laster w as u sed b oth a s m ortar a nd t o s hut o ut d amp a nd s ound . D ry m asonry w as u sed i n t he o lder b uildings . M any o f t he w all-tops r emained t o t he h eight o f a m etre ,

a nd i n s ome c ases s urvived t o

o ver t wo m etres . T he r uin e xtends o ver a n a rea o f s ome t wo h ectares , w hich 1 5 d unams ( 1.5 h ectares) a re o ccupied b y b uildings.

o f

T he r emains w ill n ow b e d escribed a ccording t o t he m easurements m ade. 1 . T he f oundations o f a b uilding a pproximately 1.15 b y 1 2 .5 m . , w ere f ound i n t he s outh o f t he s ettlement, a t ad istance o f 2 0 m . f rom t he o utermost b uildings . S everal c olumns o f h ard l imestone l ie i nside t he b uilding , w hose p lan i s s omewhat u nclear . T he S .W .P . i dentified i t a s a 7 th-century C hristian c hapel . W e a re u nable t o c onfirm o r d eny t his i dentification , b ut t he c olumns m ay i ndicate a p ublic s tructure p urposely b uilt o utside t he s ettlement a rea. 2 .

A c ist-grave c ut i n t he r ock .

N ear i t, a f ragmentary g able l id

d ecorated w ith a r osette w ith p etals r adiating u pward , a nd b elow i t a t oothl ike b and. 3 .

A c ircle

i ncised i n t he

r ock ,

t he r emnant o f a n a gricultural

i nstallation o f u nclear c haracter . I ts l ocation n ear t he p ublic b uilding s hows t hat i t w ent o ut o f u se w hen t he l atter w as e rected. P h. 1 5

4 . 4 6 .25

R emains o f al arge b uilding w hose w alls e nclose a n a rea o f 4 1 .25 b y m . ,

s o

f orming

a n

• e nclosure

c overing

1 ,880

s q .m .

P rominent

a re a

l arge c ourtyard a nd a c onstruction o f b uildings a nd l arge r ooms i n t he e astern p art o f t he e nclosure . S ome o f t he r ooms r etain t heir r oofs , w hich a re b arrel-vaulted . B uilding 4 a ppears t o b e a f armhouse o f t he B yzantine p eriod , w hich u tilised a nd i ncorporated o lder s tructures .

I n t he c ourse o f

t he s urvey s traight j oints w ere o bserved b etween e arlier a nd l ater w alls , a lso maladjustments b etween t he o lder walls a nd p art o f t he e nclosure . P laster w as u sed a s m ortar i n t he l ater b uilding , w hile t he o lder b uilding w as w ithout b inding m aterial . S ome o f t he w alls a ttain a h eight o f 2 .60 m . a nd p ossess s mall w indows .

3 8

5 .

R emains

o f a s tructure e vidently b elonging t o t he p hase p receding

t he n earby f armhouse . A pparently t he p eople w ho b uilt t he f arm r eused i ts s tones f or t heir b uilding . 6 . A l ength c isterns. 7 .

o f

wall,

a nd

c lose

t o

i t

o ne

o f

t he s ite 's

r ockcut

A r ockcut c ist-grave o n t he w estern s lope o f t he s ite.

8 . A t hree-roomed b uilding m easuring 1 2 .5 x 1 2 .5 m . , m asonry d ry l aid - a pparently a s torehouse. 1 4,

1 5,

r emains

b uilt o f d ressed

1 6 c onstituted t he a ncient a cropolis o f H irbet H amad .

f orm

a n

i mpressive

s eries

o f

s tructures

b uilt

I ts

p artly o f d ressed

b locks , e xceptional b oth i n t heir f orm a nd l ocation w hen c ompared w ith t he o ther b uildings . T he r ange w as b uilt o n t he n orth-east o f t he h illock , a nd p ossessed a g ood c ommand o ver t he e ntire v icinity o f t he s ite , i ncluding t he r oads a pproaching f rom t he s outh a nd e ast . T he e nclosure c omprises t hree u nits , 1 4 b eing t he h ighest a nd 1 6 t he l owest . 1 5 i s a d efensive t ower l ooking o ut o ver t he w hole c omplex . S tructure 1 4 a ppears t o b e t he m ost i mportant o f t he t hree , a nd w as d ubbed ' the c ommand p ost ' , a s i t o verlooked t ower 1 5, t o which i t h ad a ccess . T he i dentification o f t he a ncient a cropolis r ests o n i ts a rchitecture a nd t he p ottery f ound ,

f or i n t his a rea

w e c ollected s herds r anging f rom E arly I ron A ge I I t o t he H ellenistic p eriod . C onstruction w as m ainly o f w ell-tooled m asonry w ithout m ortar , a nd c omparison w ith s imilar s tructures o n o ther s ites i n w estern S amaria s uch a s H irbet F irdusi , s howed t he b uilding t o b e a ppropriate t o t he s tyle o f E arly I ron A ge I I , w hich c ontinued u naltered u ntil t he H ellenistic p eriod . P h. 1 6

1 9 a nd 2 0 were t he r emains o f t wo s tructures b uilt o n t he e astern f ringe o f t he a ncient e nclosure . I nternal d ivisions c ould w ith d ifficulty b e d istinguished o wing t o d gbris a nd s tone-robbing , b ut d id e xist . G roups 8 , 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 6, 1 9 a nd 2 0 f orm t he E arly I ron A ge a nd H ellenistic e nclosure o f H irbet H amad , m easuring 3 1 x 7 5 m . o ver a t otal a rea o f 2 ,300 s q .m . ; i t o ccupies t he t op o f t he h ill a nd t he e astern s lope . A dditional s tructures a re v isible a t t he c entre o f t he e nclosure, b ut t heir f orm c ould n ot b e a scertained o n a ccount o f f allen m asonry a nd s tone r obbing t o b uild t he l ater

b uildings .

I n t he w est a nd c entre o f t he s ite t he r emains o f s everal s tructures a re t o b e p een , b ut i t w as n ot p ossible t o a scertain t heir p recise p lan . 9 i s ad efensive t ower m easuring 7 .50 x 6 .25 m . ;

w alls b ranch f rom i t t o

n orth-west a nd s outh-west. 1 0 , s ite .

1 a re t he t ops o f w alls b elonging t o s tructures i n t he w est o f t he F our

r ockcut w ater-cisterns

( 12) ,

a ll

p lastered ,

a re

c oncentrated

h ere . I t i s o f i nterest t hat a n o pen s pace i ntervenes b etween t he a ncient e nclosure a nd t he w estern a rea , a nd i t w ould s eem t hat t he w estern s ite c ontained a H erodian-Roman g roup , o f w hich t ower 9 w as t he m ost p rominent r epresentative . T he o ther s tructures o f t his g roup f ell v ictim t o t he B yzantine f armhouse w hich w as b uilt w ith t heir m asonry . T he w estern g roup w as h ard t o d efine,

s ince i t was u ncertain whether i t c onstituted t he

r emains o f a n e nclosure w hich h ad r eplaced t he H ellenistic p redecessor , o r a h amlet l ocated b eside t he ' royal ' e nclosure . T he s econd v iew s eems m ore l ikely , a s i t w ould f ind s upport f rom a nother s ite i n t his r egion ( Bene H assan ) . T he c onjecture t hat a h amlet e xisted i n t he w est p art o f t he s ite

3 9

g ains

s upport

a bandoned

o n

f rom t he

t he

r emains

p eriphery o f

o f

a n o il

t he

p ress

f ound

b uilding a rea .

t hrown o ut a nd

T he

r emains

o f

a

d efensive b oundary-wall ( 12) w ere n oticed t o e ast a nd t o w est o f t he s ite . T ombs . W adi

S everal r ockcut t ombs w ere f ound o n t he n orthern s lope f acing

S usiyeh .

T hey a re o f v arious

t ypes ,

c ist-graves w ith a rcosolia a nd

h ypogaea c ontaining K ukhim . O ne s uch p ossessed a n a rched f açade w ith a n o rnamental c olonette a nd a n iche f or a n o il-lamp . O f i nterest i s t he q uarrying o f

t hese t ombs

i n a n o utcrop w hich p rojects

o ver

t he a rea ,

makes t he i mpression o f h aving b een c ut d eep i nto t he e arth . h ypogaeum ,

which w as

b locked

w ith

e rosion

s oil ,

d isplays

t he

c hannel

w hich t he r olling s tone t hat c losed t he e ntrance h ad b een p lace . e xamined s everal h ypogaea , a s tanding p it

y et

A nother i n

W e a lso

e ach c onsisting o f a c ourt , a c ircular e ntrance ,

( which s erved t o f acilitate t he l aying o ut o f t he d ead ) a nd

r ockcut k ukhim f or b urials .

A t otal

o f a d ozen

t ombs

o r

t omb-complexes

w ere o bserved o n t he s ite, a nd t he n umber a ccords w ith t he s ize o f t he s ettlement. W ater S torage .

T here a re n o

s prings

i n t he

r egion o f H irbet H amad ,

a nd i ts i nhabitants l ived o n r ainwater s tored i n r ockcut c isterns a nd f reestanding r eservoirs . I n a ddition t o f ive c isterns r ecorded o n t he s ite , t here w ere t wo r eservoirs, o ne r ockcut , o ne f reestanding , o n t he n orth s lope . T he c isterns were c ut i n t he r ocky s lope, a nd i n s ome c ases c ompleted with masonry , a ccess t o t hem b eing p rovided d own r ockcut s tairways . O ne o f t he c isterns ( the o ther w as c hoked w ith s ilt) w as t hree metres d eep, a nd c oated w ith a s tiff t hick p laster f rom t op t o b ottom . W hen

i t

f illed

d irected c istern .

u p

t hrough

w ith

r unoff

a c hannel

T here a ppears

i n

f lowing t he

d own t he

w all

t o

s lope ,

a l arge

t he o verflow

p lastered

t o h ave b een a c onnection b y c hannels b etween t he

o pen s torage t anks a nd t he u nderground c isterns o n t he h illslope . e stimate t hat t he c apacity o f t he s torage a mounted t o s everal t housand c ubic m etres . A ncient R oads. 1 .

i nstallations

o f

H irbet

W e H amad

S everal s ectors o f a ncient r oadways w ere s urveyed.

A r oad l eaving B eruqin,

n orth-westerly

w as

u nderground

d irection .

I t

a nd p assing s outh o f H irbet H amad i n a

l ed

t o

M es-hah ,

a nd

a nother

r oad

b ranched

f rom i t t o S arta a nd B idyah . 2 .

T he l ine o f t he i mportant r oadway f rom H an s t o M es-hah l ies n orth

o f H irbet H amad.

P art o f t his r oad h as b een d escribed u nder N o .

I n a ddition t o t he a bove t wo r oads,

1 .

a n arrower i nterior r oad l eads t o

H irbet K arqush n earby , a nd t hence t o W adi S alfit w here t here i s a bundant water . T he i nhabitants o f H amad c ould move e astward, w estward a nd s outhward b y t he r oads d escribed , s uch

a s

t he

S hechem-Samaria

s o r eaching t he

b lock ,

l arge s ettlement c entres

A pheq-Antipatris

a nd

t he m ountains

o f

B ethel a nd J erusalem .

T he A gricultural B ranches. e xtends

s outhward

a nd

e astward

T he a gricultural a rea o f H irbet H amad o ver

a m oderate

r ocky

s pur .

R emains

o f

t erraces , c learance c airns a nd t races o f h uman a ctivity o ver t his r ocky a rea c an b e d iscerned f or a bout a k ilometre .

I t m ay b e s upposed t hat t here w ere

c ultivation p lots b elonging t o H irbet H amad a lso o n t he n orthern s lopes a nd i n t he s treambed o f t he S usiyeh g orge . R emains o f o il p ress i nstallations, s uch a s a r ockcut r eception b asin ,

b ases o f t he p resses a nd a s tone w eight

4 0

w ere f ound i n t he H orvah i tself ,

b ut n ot i n s itu .

w as r ecorded o n t he n orth s lope . w ere a lso n oted .

A nother r eception b asin

R emains o f E arly I ron A ge i nstallations

A l arge l evelled r ock a rea ,

e xists i n t he n orth o f t he s ite ( 18) .

a n a ncient

t hreshing f loor ,

T he a rea o f t he t hreshing f loors

i s

o verlooked b y t he r emains o f s tructure ( 17) w hich f urnished o bservation f rom t he

e dge

o f

t he

s ettlement .

f ringe o f t he v illage , w hich

s upervised

p resence o f

l arge

t hreshing a rea

i s

l ocated o n t he

a n u nusual p henomenon d isclosing a c entral a uthority

t he w ork

t he

T he

o f

t hreshing a nd g athering

i n

t he

c rops .

T he

t hreshing f loors c onfirms t he s upposition t hat h ere o n t he

n orth s ide o f t he s ettlement was a n e nclosure c ontaining s torerooms s upervised b y t he g overnment . T he f loors c an b e a scribed c hronologically t o t he E arly I ron A ge a nd H ellenistic e nclosure , a nd p robably t hey w ere u sed s ubsequently .

Two

l arge

w inepresses

T hey c overed a n a rea o f 4x 4 m . , W e m ay

s um u p

r ound i t : t rees

t he e vidence o f

w ere

e xamined

t hreshed .

t he

p roduction o f

t he

n orth

s lope .

1 .50 x 1 .50 m .

t he a rchaeological r emains o n t he s ite a nd

t he i nhabitants o f H amad g rew v ines

f or

o n

t he c ollecting t anks b eing

o il,

a nd

f or w ine m anufacture ,

l arge q uantities

o f

o live

g rain were

T he t hreshing f loors m ay a lso h ave s erved o ther v illages w hose

g rain w as d estined t o b e s tored i n t he g ranaries o f H amad .

T he H istorical S etting. T he f irst

s ettlement a t H amad w as

f ounded

i n E arly I ron A ge I I ,

a s i s

s hown b y a n e xamination o f t he p ottery , b y c omponents o f a n o il-press a nd a w inepress o f t he s ame p eriod , ( see t he a ppropriate c hapters) a nd b y t he r emains o f s tructures i n t he e ast p art o f t he s ite , w hich a re t ermed " the H ellenistic e nclosure" . I t m ay b e a ssumed t hat a t s ome p hase l ate i n t he E arly I ron A ge , r oyal s torehouses w ere b uilt a t H irbet H amad , i n p art o f w hich t he g rain t hreshed o n t he l arge t hreshing f loors o f t he s ite was s tored .

T he s torage e nclosure m ay h ave d eveloped a nd p ersisted d own t o t he

H ellenistic

p eriod w ithout

m odifications .

a ny c onsiderable o r v isible a rchitectural

T he e nclosure w as a pparently s upervised b y a n o fficial w ho

l ived i n b uilding 1 4, which i s o utstandingly w ell b uilt.

A p easants'

h amlet s tood b eside t he e nclosure , i ts f oundations p rojecting o n t he w est o f t he s ite .

T he s tructures o f t he H ellenistic v illage h ave n ot s urvived i n

t heir e ntirety , b ut t o j udge f rom t he s tore-building ( 8) a nd t he f oundations o f w alls h ere a nd t here i n t he e ast p art o f t he s ite , t hey w ere w ell-built c ourtyard

h ouses .

F arreaching c hanges t ook p lace a t H irbet H amad i n t he H erodian a nd e arly R oman P eriods .

T he o ld s tore-building f ell i nto c omplete d isuse a nd o n t he

w estern p art o f

t he s ite a d efensive t ower w as a dded ( 9 ),

t he b uildings o f

t he a ncient v illage a nd

i ts

w hich d ominated

s urroundings .

L ong s traight

s ectors o f w all s uggest t he c losing o ff o f p art o f t he v illage b y ad efined e nclosure ( private p roperty?), b ut t he e vidence i s n ot s ufficient t o f urnish a f inal c onclusion . I t w ould s eem ,

t herefore ,

t hat H irbet H amad i n t he H erodian a nd R oman

p eriod w as a s mall v illage i nhabited b y a f ew f amilies w hose t ombs w e f ound o n t he n orthern s lope . I t m ight b e s upposed t hat p art o f t he v illage w as o wned b y s ome w ell-to-do o wner w ith i nfluence a t c ourt. •

E xtensive c hanges a lso t ook p lace i n t he B yzantine p eriod .

b ecame a l arge f arm w hose r emains s till s tand . d ecrease i n t he s ite 's a rea , s tructure .

T he v illage

T his i nvolved a s ignificant

a nd c ertainly a c hange i n s ocial a nd e conomic

W e d o n ot k now w hy t hese c hanges

4 1

t ook p lace a t H irbet H amad ,

b ut c ontrary t o t he a ccepted v iew ,

w hich s ees

t he B yzantine p eriod a s t he

p eak o f c olonisation a nd s ettlement e xpansion , t he s ite o f H irbet H amad t estifies t o t he c ontrary , a nd t he B yzantine p eriod m arks a d ecline i n r ural o ccupation.

3 .

H irbet K arqush .

H irbet K arqush i s t wo k ilometres n orth-east o f B eruqin ,

a t G .R .

1 610-

1 661. T he s ite i s s ituated o n a h illock a t t he e nd o f a n e ast-west o rientated s pur , a t a n e levation o f 4 42 m . a bove s ea l evel ; i t c overs 1 4 d unams ( 1.4 h ectares) . S outh-east o f t he a ncient r uins l ies a M oslem % J ai! s hrine c alled J am 'a A rza , w hile 1 50-200 m . e ast o f t he s ettlement i s an ecropolis c ontaining r ockcut h ypogaea . H irbet K arqush i s

1 .5

km .

e ast

o f H irbet H amad,

b oth s ettlements

u tilising t he s ame a ncient r oad-system d escribed i n r elation t o t he l atter . I t s hould b e a dded t hat a b uilt p athway l eads f rom H irbet K arqush t o H irbet e -Ras a nd H irbet M atwi, b oth s ituated o ver t he s treambed o f t he S alfit g orge . H irbet K arqush w as s urveyed b y t he S .W .P . i n 1 873 a nd t he s chematic p lan o f t he s ix i mportant h ypogaea i n t he n ecropolis i s r eproduced i n i ts r eport .4) T he B ritish s urveyors n ote t hat t he f orm a nd o rnamentation o f t he K arqush t ombs w ere r eminiscent o f t he J ewish t ombs o f J erusalem i n t he p eriod o f t he S econd T emple . T hey s aw a f ive-branched c andelabrum r epresented i n t he c entral t omb , b ut i ts t races h ave s ince b een l ost . T he F renchman S avignac p ublished i mpressions o f h is v isit t o t he K arqush n ecropolis , a nd t hought t he t ombs t o b e J ewish , o f a m ixed s tyle e vincing H ellenistic i nfluence .5)

Y oseph P orat s urveyed t he s ite o f K arqush i n

F ig. 3 2 1 968 , f inding p ottery o f E arly I ron A ge I I , P ersian , H ellenistic , B yzantine , p h. 1 7

m ediaeval a nd O ttoman p eriods .6) I n t he c ourse o f a f resh s urvey c arried o ut b y u s o n t he s ite , t he p lan o f t he s ettlement a nd t he s ix c entral t ombs o f t he n ecropolis w ere m apped . I t s hould b e r emarked t hat w e t oo f ound n o p ronouncedly R oman p ottery , a nd t his e vokes q uestions ( see b elow) . T he c onstruction i n K arqush i s n ot u niform , af act p robably t o b e c onnected w ith i ts h istorical s etting a nd w ith t he v arious b uilding p hases w hich a ffected t he s ite . S ome o f t he b uildings a re b uilt o f h ard l imestone w ell t ooled a nd d ry l aid, b ut marginal t ooling was n oticed o n s ome o f t he m asonry . T his s tage o f c onstruction s eems t o h ave b elonged t o a n e arly p eriod . . O ther b uildings a re b uilt o f d ressed l imestone f acings , i nside a nd o ut , w ith af ill o f r ubble a nd p laster m ortar i n b etween . S ections o f t he w alls w ere p reserved t o ah eight o f 2 .00 m . , a nd v aulted c eilings s urvived i n s itu . W e s hall n ow d escribe t he b uildings o f t he s ettlement a s d isclosed b y o ur m easurements. B lock A .

B uilding 1 measured 1 4 x 1 6 m .

Two i nternal c ourts c an b e

d istinguished i n t his u nit , a lso l iving q uarters . T he b uilding w as e ntered t hrough t he w estern c ourt , f rom w hich a nother e ntrance g ave a ccess t o a c ourtyard a nd t he l iving q uarters. G roup 2 m easured 2 0 x 2 2 m .,

a nd s eems t o h ave i ncluded a c entral

c ourtyard s urrounded b y l iving q uarters . I n G roup 3 s tructures a nd c ourtyards a re t o b e s een , b ut t he d ivision i s n ot s ufficiently c lear . E vidently p art o f t he g roup 's b uildings w as b uilt o n o lder f oundations(4) . T hree c ourtyards o r e nclosed a reas w ere f ound i n t he c entre o f B lock A . O ne o f t he c ourts c ontained a w ater c ister r(2l) .

4 2

T he f unction o f t he o ther c ourtyards was n ot c lear t o u s. A rchitecturally e ach c ourt c ould b e t entatively f itted i nto a s eparate b uilding , b ut t he p roximity o f o ne t o t he o ther r aises q uestions r elating t o t he f unction o f B lock A . 1 8

B lock B .

B lock A i s s eparated

f rom B lock B b y a b road s treet ( 19 ) w hich

c rosses t he s ettlement f rom e ast t o w est . T his s treet l ed t o t he m ain e ntrance o f t he v illage , w hose r emains w e n oticed o n t he w est o f t he s ite . G roup 5 c onsists o f t he t ops o f w alls a nd p arts o f b uildings s ituated i n t his q uarter . B uilding

6 p ossesses

a c entral

c ourtyard

a nd

t wo

r esidential

w ings .

T here a re t wo w all-tops w hose p lan w as n ot c larified . W orthy o f m ention w ere G roups 5 a nd 6 , w hich t ogether w ith a dditional s tructures f ormed o ne p lanned b uilding i n t he w estern p art o f t he s ettlement . T he b lock w as b uilt i n s uch a way t hat t he walls o f i ts b uildings a nd c ourtyards f ormed a d efensive r ampart i n t he w est o f t he a rea. 7 was a b uilding measuring a pproximately 7 x 9 m ., a nd i ts v aulted c eiling r emained i n s itu , w hile i ts s hape w as e xceptional . W e a re p erhaps f aced w ith a p ublic b uilding p laced b etween t he t wo q uarters o f t he v illage .

i ts

8 . Ab uilding d ivided i nto f our r ooms , a nd p ossessing t wo e ntrances i n n orthern f ront . T his b uilding t oo i s e xceptional i n i ts p lan , w hich

d iffers f rom t hat o f a ll t he o ther h ouses a t H irbet K arqush , B uilding 7 n ear i t, m ay h ave b een a p ublic e difice. 9 .

A b uilding w ith a s outh c ourt

a nd l iving q uarters

o n

a nd l ike

t he

n orth .

I nternal d ivision o n t he t ransverse a nd l onger a xes c an b e d iscerned . 1 0 .

A n i nteresting e arly s tructure,

l ocated i n t he c entre o f t he

s ettlement ; i ts o blong f orm , 1 0 x 6 m ., i s u nique . S ome o f i ts c arefully d resssed b locks a re v ery l arge, t he walls b eing 1 .18 m ., t hick , a n e xceptional p henomenon a t H irbet K arqush . T he b uilding a ppears t o b e H ellenistic , a nd d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een a c ommon r esidence . 1 1. A s quare s tructure, 1 0 x 1 0 m . a pproximately . I ts w alls a re p lastered , a nd i t m ay b e c onjectured t hat i t w as u sed a s a r eservoir . I t . was c overed b y a r oof c arried o n m asonry a rches . S ome o f t he s pringers o f t he a rches a re s till i n p lace . S tructure 1 r esembles t he s torage c isterns a t D eir S am 'an a nd D eir D aqleh a nd i t m ay b e s upposed t hat i t w as u sed f or w ater s torage . T he A rab v illagers c all i t t he M osque , a nd i t w as p erhaps r eused i n t he M iddle A ges a nd i n t he O ttoman p eriod . N orth o f t he a rea c ontaining s tructure 1 i s a l arge o pen s quare 1 8 x 1 8 m . i n a rea , f ree o f s tructures . I t i s s urrounded o n t he w est b y al ong w all , a nd i s b ounded b y r esidential u nits o n t he n orth-east . 1 2 a nd 1 3 a re f ine c ourtyard b uildings whose s tate o f p reservation e nables a r econstruction o f t heir o riginal p lan . a nnexes b uilt i nto t he l ong a xis o f t he b uilding.

E ach u nit p ossesses

1 4 a nd 1 5 a re r emains o f m uch d amaged g roups. 1 6 .

A f ine r esidential b uilding measuring 1 2 x 1 2 m .

A n i nternal

d ivision i nto f our r ooms c an b e m ade o ut, o ne o f w hich w as p robably a n i nterior c ourt.

4 3

1 7.

A r ectangular s tructure w ith a t ransverse w ing o n t he n orth .

1 8 . A l arge c ourtyard h ouse 1 4 .00 x 1 7 .60 m . A l arge v acant a rea w as p robably t he c ourt, a nd t he l iving q uarters w ere o n t he w est. 2 0.

T he c rusher o f a n o il-press, n ot i n s itu .

2 2.

A n u nderground r eservoir .

2 3 , 2 4 . W orking p arts a nd w eights - n one i n s itu .

o f a n o il-press ,

e .g .

t he v ertical

t rilithons

O bservations o n t he V illage 's S tructure. I n t he c ourse o f p lanning t he r emains o f t he a ncient s ite i t b ecame e vident t hat t here w ere t wo d istinctive b locks : A ) i n t he s outh , a nd B ) i n t he n orth , t he e arlier a pparently o riginating a s ah amlet i n E arly I ron A ge I I . S ome o f t he w all-tops p rojecting i n B lock B w ere t hought t o m ark t he r emains o f t he E arly I ron A ge h amlet . O ver t hem d eveloped i nto a s mall v illage, which r eached i ts f inal f orm i n t he H ellenistic p eriod . I ts h ouses w ere p robably r oomy c ourtyard h ouses , s ome o f w hich r emained i n s itu . B lock A o n t he s outh a ppears t o h ave b een l ater ,

p erhaps d atable i n t he

B yzantine p eriod . T he t hree r esidential g roups w ere m ore c ompactly b uilt a nd t he c losely h uddled c ourtyards , t heir a rrangment , t heir c entral l ocation a nd t heir c rowdedness, e voked o ur i nterest.

T he N ecropolis. F ig. 3 3

S outh-east o f t he s ettlement l ies t he n ecropolis o f K arqush .

T he

h ypogaea a re s cattered o ver a s loping a rea e xtending o ver s ome 1 00 x 5 0 m" ( 5 d unams) . T he s ame r egion c ontains l arge s tone q uarries , s ome o f w hich b ecame o pen w ater r eservoirs ( see b elow) . T he c ourt c ontaining t he s ix p rincipal c entral t ombs i s s ituated o n ab road t errace ;

t he t ombs w ere

d escribed b y t he S .W .P . , a lso b y t he F renchman R . S avignac a t t he b eginning o f t he p resent c entury , w hile d uring t he p resent s urvey t he c ourt a nd i ts t ombs w ere r ecorded i n p lan w ith t he a id o f t he a rchitect D r . Y ohanan M intzker . T he c ourt m easures a pproximately 3 0 x 3 0 m . , a nd h andsome l cu ld l ' F ig. 3 4 t ombs h ave b een c ut i n t he f ace o f t he c liff . T he c entral o rnamental t omb P h. 1 9

i s o f p articular i nterest . T he f açade c onsists o f t wo c olumns c ut o ut o f t he l iving r ock , b ut b oth h ad b een r obbed i n a ncient t imes , a nd o nly t heir p seudo-Hellenistic c apitals r emained i n p lace . T he f lanks t ook t he f orm o f f lat p ilasters c arved i n t he s ame s tyle . T he a rchitrave r etains t races o f c arved o rnamentation i n t he s hape o f a r osette i n t he m iddle a nd t wo r oundels i n t he s ame s tyle , m uch d efaced . O n o ne s ide w ithin t he f ore-structure w as c ut a s tone b ench a nd o n t he o ther t wo a rcosolia .

T he e ntrance t o t he t omb i s a dorned w ith c arved

m otifs o f t he S yro-Phoenician a rchitectural a rt s phere , f ashionable i n t his c ountry i n t he H ellenistic a nd R oman p eriods .7 ) T he B ritish s urveyors o f 1 873 r ecord t hat i n t he c entre o f t he e ntrance a s mall m enorah w ith f ive b ranches h ad b een c arved, b ut i t s eems t o h ave b een d efaced i n t he m eantime. O ver

t he e ntrance t o l eft o f t he c entre ,

w hich h as d isfigured t he o rnamentation .

4 4

i s a n iche ,

t he q uarrying o f

A pparently t he n iche h ad n ot b een

m ade

c ontemporarily w ith t he t omb ,

b ut

i ndicated a c hange f rom J ewish t o

p agan o wnership , w hen a n i dolatrous i mage w as s et u p i n i ts p lace .8 ) A s imilar p henomenon w as f ound i n t he l arge t omb o f D eir a -Darab n ear Q arawat b ene H assan ,

p art o f w hose o rnamentation p arallels

t hat

a t K arqush .

T he

b urial c hamber c omprises t hree k ukhim i n t he c entre , ab ench o n t he o ne s ide a nd a n a rcosolium o n t he o ther . T he o ther t ombs a re a dorned w ith work made t o r esemble t ooled a nd d rafted m asonry a fter t he m anner o f D eir a -Darab n ear Q arawat b ene H assan , a lso with c olonettes which p erhaps s ymbolise t he n ephesh .9)

( Similar

o rnamentation i s t o b e s een a t H irbet H amad n earby ) . S ome o f t he t ombs p ossess s mall s tanding p its, t o f acilitate t he w ork o f t he b urial a nd c are o f t he s epulchre . r ecurs

D r . M intzker t hinks t hat t he measurement o f 5 6 c m .

i n t hese t ombs e ither a s a c omplete u nit o r a s h alf s uch .

o f i nterest i s t hat a n e xternal c ist i s f ound n ear e ach h ypogaeum ,

A p oint a nd w as

p robably c onnected w ith t he p rocess o f i nterment . B eside t he s ix t ombs i n t he c entral c ourt, h ypogaea o ver t he c ourt o r r ound i t .

A ll o f

we d iscovered t en more

t hem w ere o f

b ut o pen c ist g raves a re s cattered a mongst t hem .

O ne o f

t he k ukh t ype ,

t he h ypogaea h ad

b een c onverted t o ac istern , p robably a s ign t hat t he p opulation o f t he v illage h ad d eclined a nd t hat b urial c ustoms h ad c hanged.

T he D ate o f t he T ombs. T he n ecropolis

o f K arqush h ad b een p lundered i n a ncient

t he t ombs were f ound t o h ave b een b roken i nto .

t imes a nd a ll

P ossibly a nalogous i n

o rnamentation a nd s imilarity a re t he t ombs e xcavated i n t he J erusalem a rea . D r . t o

' Amos K loner c onsiders t he

e nd

o f

t he

t hat

t he K arqush n ecropolis

S econd-Temple

p eriod ,10)

b ut

i s

t o b e a ttributed

o rnamental

S econd-Temple

t ombs , w hether i n d ecorative s tyle o r i n t he m anner o f b urial , w ere c ommon i n t he J erusalem a rea i n t he 2 nd c entury B .C .E .1 ) T he K arqush h ypogaea m ay h ave b een b egun a t t he e nd o f t he 2 nd o r a t t he b eginning o f t he i st c entury B .C .E . , a d ate t hat f its t he h istorical s etting o f t he s ite . I t i s o f i nterest t o c orrelate t he n umber o f h ypogaea a nd t he n umber o f d wellingu nits

c ounted

i n t he s ettlement .

T here w ere a pproximately t wenty u nits ,

c orresponding t o t he n umber o f h ypogaea w ith k ukhim a t H irbet K arqush . E ach f amily ,

t hen , a ppears t o h ave p ossessed a h ypogaeum .

T he W ater S upply. T he

r ainwater

s tored

i n

t he

r ockcut

p lastered

s ource u tilised b y t he i nhabitants o f K arqush . t he s ettlement,

c isterns

w as

t he m ain

A part f rom t he c isterns i n

t here was a lso a n a boveground c istern ( 11).

T his was

p erhaps s upplied f rom t he s pring o f W adi S alfit b y a nimal t ransport .

F our

l arge q uarries i n t he n ecropolis a rea ( over 1 0 m . d eep ) w ere e xamined ; a fter t he s tone h ad b een q uarried f or b uilding t hey h ad b een a dapted f or u se a s o pen r eservoirs t o s tore r ainwater . T he q uarries , i ndeed, p ossessed r oom f or t housands o f c ubic m etres o f w ater , a nd t here a re s igns t hat t hey w ere u sed . A s imilar m ethod o f r ainwater s torage i n q uarries c onverted t o o pen r eservoirs H irbet

i s

t o b e f ound o n o ther s ites ,

e l-Buraq .

4 5

p rominent

i n t his

r espect b eing

S everal r eservoirs w ere e xamined o n t he s pur t o n orth-east o f K arqush , t he c ultivated a reas o f t he s ettlement .

O ne o f t hem i s r ockcut ,

i n

i ts w alls

b eing p lastered w ith s trong p laster , a nd i ts r ectangular e ntrance b locked b y l ong s tone s labs . a griculture.

T he w ater f rom h ere s eems

t o h ave b een u sed

f or

T he A gricultural B ranches. T he c omponents o f a n o il-press n ot i n s itu w ere f ound i n t he n orth-west q uarter o f t he s ettlement . T he c rusher o f a nother w as f ound i n B lock B , a nd e vidently a p ress ( or p erhaps t wo ) o nce e xisted i n t he n orth-west o f t he v illage . I t i s o f i nterest t hat n o w inepresses w ere f ound i n t he s ettlement o r i n i ts v icinity . I t m ay h ave b een p ure c hance t hat t he s urvey d id n ot e ncounter t hem , a nd t hey m ay h ave b een h idden o n o ne o f t he r ocky s lopes . T he m ain s oils o f H irbet K arqush l ie o n t he s pur w here t he s ite w as b uilt . T he s pur i s al ong o ne ( some 1 . 5 k m . ) , v ery r ocky a nd a t a f air e levation - 4 50-470 m . a bove s ea l evel . T he w ork o f t he a ncient c ultivators c an b e t raced a long t he e ntire l ength o f t he s pur a nd a long i ts s lopes . T races o f t erracing , s tone c learance a nd t he c reation o f p lots f or p lanting a nd s owing a mong t he s tubborn r ocks , a ccompany t he e xplorer d uring t he l ong w alk o f m ore t han a k ilometre . I t i s o ur b elief t hat K arqush p ossessed a s oil-unit o f 1 ,500-2 ,000 d unams , m ainly a long t he r ockbound s pur.

T he H istorical S etting. K arqush , i n t he t erminology o f t he M ishnaic a nd T almudic p eriods , w as a s mall t ownlet ( 'ayarah). T he p lace o riginated i n E arly I ron A ge I I a nd r eached i ts a cme i n t he p eriods o f t he H asmoneans a nd o f H erod .

T he

s ettlement c omprised s ome t welve c ourtyard h ouses a ccompanying p easant f amilies o f t he t ype k nown i n t he M ishnah a nd T almud a s B a talei b ayit , t hat i s , i ndependent c ultivators o wning s mall a nd m edium h oldings .1 2 ) T hat t he f loruit o f t he s ettlement w as i n t he H asmonean-Herodian e poch , w e l earn f rom t he f amily t omb,complexes a nd t heir o rnamentation , a ll i n t he S econd-Temple s tyle . I f o ur s upposition i s c orrect , a nd t he v illage c ontained t wenty k inships , t he p opulation o f K arqush n umbered a pproximately 6 00 s ouls . T he t ownlet p ossessed a n i nternal o rganisation , a s i s d emonstrated b y i ts p lanned b uildings a nd s ecurity m easures, i ts w ater r eservoirs a nd t he r emains o f i ts p ublic b uildings i n t he c entre o f o ne s ite . T he d welling u nits ! d iffer l ittle a mong t hemselves , e xceeded t he r est i n i ts s tandards .

n or d id w e f ind a ny b uilding t hat I f t here w ere s ocial a nd e conomic

d ifferences a mong t he l ocal i nhabitants, t hey f ound n o e xpression i n o stentatious o r e xceptional c onstruction . T he o nly n oticeable h int o f a m ore c omfortable f amily w as t he o rnamental t omb i n t he c emetery o f K arqush , b ut e ven t his t omb , w hich s tands o ut a l ittle a mong t he o thers , i s n ot s o v ery e xceptional i n s ize o r s plendour , a nd c an b e d efined r ather a s p rimus i nter p ares . C hanges t ook p lace i n t he v illage o f K arqush . T he l ocal p easants m ay h ave b een d riven f rom t heir l and a s a r esult o f t he R oman c onquest , a n e vent m anifested b y t he s canty f inds o f p ottery o f t hat p eriod . W ithout e xcavation i t i s d ifficult t o k now w hether t he s ettlement w as a bandoned f or a b rief p eriod o r f or l onger , b ut t he g ap i s o bservable , i nter a lia, i n a c ontraction o f t he p opulation , a nd t he r eadaptation o f t he S econd-Temple h ypogaea a s w ater-cisterns . A p agan p opulation e ntered K arqush , p erhaps d isplacing t he J ewish i nhabitants,

w ho

w ere

f orced

t o e vacuate i t .

4 6

O ne h int

o f

s uch

w as

t he

s tatue-niche

c ut

o ver t he

e ntrance

t o

t he

c entral t omb o f

t he n ecropolis .

N or d id t he p lace r evert t o i ts o riginal s ize i n t he B yzantine p eriod . P ossibly o nly A rea A w as o ccupied a t t hat t ime , w hile A rea B 's s tructures w ere p artly u tilised . D ifferences i n b uilding-styles a nd q uality were v isible, a nd i n t he c ourse o f t he s urvey w e o bserved h ouses which w e c onsidered t o h ave b een i n u se i n t he B yzantine a nd e arly A rab p eriods . 4 .

H irbet N ajar. T his

1 511. a t

I kwvah '

a n a verage

o ver a n a rea t he

i s

t hree

k ilometres

e ast

o f K efr Q asim ,

a t

G .R .

1 696-

T he a rea c onsists o f c onvenient s purs a nd p lateaux o f l imestone r ock , e levation o f

1 50-160 m .

o f 1 7-20 d unams .

h ill-country

a nd

i ts

a bove s ea l evel .

T he r uins e xtend

D espite t he s ite 's p roximity t o t he e dge o f

e xtraordinary

s tate

o f

p reservation ,

i t

h as

b een s tudied w ith t horoughness a nd i ts p lan w as p reviously u nknown .

n ot T he

I srael e mergency s urvey o f 1 967-8 r ecorded t he n umerous s tructural r emains o f t he s ite , a nd a n o il p ress w ith i ts c omponents i n t he s outh-east o f t he r uin . T he p ottery f ound b y t he s urveyors b elonged t o E arly I ron A ge I I a nd t he R oman-Byzantine p eriod .1 3)

A s

a r esult

d igging c arried o ut i n t he v icinity ,

o f

t omb

r obbery

a nd

i llegal

w e u ndertook a t rial e xcavation o f t he

H irbet N ajar o il p ress i n 1 978 .1 4) A f ull a ccount o f t he p lant a ppears i n t he c hapter o n o live g rowing a nd o il p roduction i n western S amaria . P ottery o f t he H ellenistic-Herodian p eriod w as f ound n ear t he o il p ress.

T he V illage P lan. F ig. 3 5

W ith N ajar ,

a v iew

t o

s tudying

t he

s tructures

o f

t he

w e u ndertook t he m easurement a nd d etailed

s ettlement

s urvey o f

i ts

o f H irbet b uildings .

T he h ouses w ere b uilt o f h ard t ooled l imestone b locks, t heir s ize e xceeding t he n ormal, f or many o f t hem a pproached 0 .60 x 1 .00 m . Most o f t he b uildings p ossessed s olid w alls ,

t heir a verage t hickness v arying f rom 0 .60

t o 0 .80 m . I n s ome o f t he b uildings t he u se o f p laster-mortar b etween t he j oints was n oticed . Many a rchitectural d etails, s uch a s c olumns a nd e ntrances, were o bserved a nd without e xception r ecorded .

T he v illage

s tructures w ere d ivided i nto c learly d istinguishable b locks, B lock A b eing a l arge s tructure m easuring 3 1 .25 x 5 2 .50 u nits . ( 1-5) .

p artly b uilt o f d ressed m asonry . m"

m . ,

d ivided

i nto s everal

s econdary

I t i s l ocated a t t he h ighest p oint i n t he s ettlement a nd T he g roup c overs a pproximately 1 ,640 s q .

a nd o wing t o t he t opographic s tructure o f t he h ill ,

i s n ot s ymmetrical

i n f orm . I ts s iting a nd i mpressive a ppearance l ead u s t o b elieve t hat t his w as t he s pacious r esidence o f s ome well-to-do p erson o f t he R oman o r B yzantine p eriod .

I t would s eem t hat t he b uilding 's o riginal s ection

i ncluded u nits 1 , 2 , 3a nd 5 , a nd t hat s ection 4 w as a dded a t al ater s tage . F ortified w ings c an b e d istinguished o n e ach s ide o f t he

f oundations

o f

t he

f oundations h ave w alls

t owers 1 .25

f or m .

p rotection

w ide,

a nd

t he h ouse ,

h abitation

a nd i t may b e

e vidently

( 1-5) .

s upposed

T he

t hat

b uilding , a nd m ore e specially t he t owers, p ossessed u pper s toreys . a nd m easurements f ailed t o c larify t he i nterior p lan o f t he h ouse ,

t he

S urvey b ut a n

e ntrance c ourt , r esidential w ings a nd p erhaps a n i nternal c ourtyard c ould b e d istinguished .

F ive r ockcut p lastered c isterns a re t o b e f ound i n o r n ear

t he

T his

b uilding .

p rosperous

r esidence

s tands a part f rom t he o ther

b uilding b locks i n t he s ettlement, n or c an t his b e c hance , s ince a pparently t he o wners t ook c are t hat t his s hould b e s o , a nd p revented a ny c onstruction i n i ts p roximity .

I t i s p robable t hat e arlier r emains o f H irbet N ajar a re

t o b e f ound u nder t he R oman-Byzantine b uilding i n B lock A . t he o ilpress o f H irbet N ajar a nd a n earby b uilding ( 8 ) .

4 7

B lock B c ontains T he p ress

i s o ne

o f t he l argest r ecorded b y u s i n S amaria , o ccupying a n a rea o f 1 5 x3 3 m etres a pproximately . M ost o f i ts c omponents r emain i n s itu , a nd w e b elieve w e h ave t hus b een a ble t o r econstruct t he m anner o f o peration o f a l arge p ress o f t he R oman-Byzantine p eriod .

B lock C . T his i s ag roup o f b uildings , p robably o f p ublic c haracter , c omposed o f a l arge c ourtyard s ome 1 6 .25 x 2 0 .00 m" c ontaining r emains o f s tructures a nd i nternal d ivisions ( 29, 3 0) . T he b elief t hat B lock C i s ag roup o f p ublic b uildings i s b ased o n i ts d istinctive a rchitectural f orm , a nd o n i ts l ocation n ear t he c entral s quare a nd t he f ortifications o f t he e astern e ntrance . T he g roup i s u nlike t he o ther d wellings , a nd i ts p roximity t o t he o pen p ublic a reas c onfirms t he i mpression t hat i t w as a p ublic b uilding .

B lock D . T his i s a g roup o f s tructures i n t he s outh-east o f t he s ettlement . T he b lock c ontains n umerous b uildings t hat s tand o ut b ecause o f t heir f ortified f ronts , p erhaps b uilt t o p rotect t he m ain e ntrance t o t he v illage . T he g roup c onsists o f t wo c lear u nits , a s outherly ( 9 , ( 10 , 1) . A n e ntrance t o t he s ettlement i s p lainly

3 1) a nd a n ortherly r ecognisable , b eing

w ell p rotected b y a s eries o f d efensive t owers . E very o ne c oming t hrough t he d efended e ntrance i nto H irbet N ajar w as t horoughly s crutinised f irst . W est o f t he e ntrance w as a v acant a rea u nencumbered b y s tructures , e vidently l eft o n p urpose f or r easons o f s ecurity .

T he r esponsible p eople o f t he

s ettlement d id n ot d epend o n t he d efences o f B lock D o nly a nd e rected a r ound l ookout t ower ( 33) o utside t he b uilding a rea o f t he s ite . B lock D i s e xceptional i n i ts s ize a nd d efenses w hen c ompared w ith t he v illage 's b uilding a rea . I t i s h ard t o i magine t hat a m ediocre t ownlet l ike H irbet N ajar n eeded s o m any f ortifications m erely f or i ts o wn d efense . T hey m ay h ave

s erved

f orces

w hich

c ame

h ither

w hen d anger

t hreatened

o utside t he

s ettlement , w hile i n q uiet t imes t he c ivilian i nhabitants o f t he l ocality a ssumed c harge o f t hem . A nother p ossibility i s t o v iew t he d efenses o f H irbet N ajar a s a c hapter i n t he s tormy h istory o f t he c ountry w hen s mall a nd m edium s ettlements f ound i t n ecessary t o b uild d efences a gainst b rigands a nd b andits ( see b elow) .

B lock E . A g roup o f ( Block F ) . f rom

b uildings

( 13 ,

1 4 ,

1 5) o pposite t he m ain r esidential a rea

T opographically B lock E o verlooks

i t b y a n arrow l ane .

B uilding

1 3

t he

l atter ,

b eing

s eparated

i s w ell b uilt o f d ressed m asonry ,

i ts s outhern p art p ossessing w alls o f p articular t hickness , 1 . 20-1 .50 m . I t a ppears t o h ave p ossessed a n u pper s torey . T he b uilding 's l ocation o n t he e dge o f t he p ublic s quare o f H irbet c haracter a s ap ublic s tructure.

N ajar,

p erhaps

p oints

t o

i ts

B lock F . T his i s t he s ettlement 's p rincipal r esidential a rea, l ying o n t he s outh-west o f t he h ill, a t w hat i s t opographically t he l owest p oint . Q uarter F c ontains a n umber o f c ourtyard h ouses a rchitecturally c onnected

4 8

w ith o ne a nother . T he f ollowing u nits c an b e d istinguished a s i ndependent s tructures w ith n umerous r ooms a nd c ourts : 1 9 , 2 0 , 2 1, 2 2 , 2 3 , 2 4 , 2 5 , 2 6 , 2 7, 2 8. W hen t he b uildings w ere b eing b uilt t he i nhabitants a dapted t heir h ouses t o o ne a nother w ith t he h elp o f p arty w alls . T he p lanned c haracter o f t he q uarter i s d emonstrated b y t he f act t hat i ts e xterior f ront w as c losed b y a w all , w hile d efensive w atch-towers c ould b e s een a t t he c orners ( 16 e 1 7 , 1 8 ) . D efensive w atch-towers a re w ell k nown f rom a ncient s ources .1 5 ) T he M ishnah t estifies t o t his m ethod o f c onstruction w hen i t s peaks o f " a t own w hose r oofs a re i ts w al n 1 6) Z . Y eivin f ound t owerlike s tpKtures a nd s ections o f f ortified w alls a t K urazin , A rbel a nd H irbet S hem 'a.' " A t s everal p oints i n Q uarter F i t was n oticed t hat t he work o f f ortification a nd t he t hickening o f t he w alls w ere a l ater a ddition t o t he e xisting b uildings , a nd i t w as a pparent t hat t he l ocal i nhabitants w ere f orced b y c ircumstances t o f ortify t heir s ettlement . T he f ortifications , t herefore w ere n ot d irected a gainst a l arge o rganised f orce,

b ut were

p erhaps b uilt d uring t he d isturbances i n a p eriod o f a narchy o r d uring t he S amaritan r evolts. ( see b elow ). B lock G w as a n o pen a rea o f 2 5 x 2 5 m . , a nd t he p rosperous r esidence .

b ordering o n p ublic b uildings

T his a ppears t o b e t he p ublic s quare o f t he

t ownlet , w hich t almudic s ources c laimed t o b e c ommunal p roperty .1 8 ) T he s quare w as e ntered t hrough Q uarter E a nd t hrough a nother n arrower o pening o n t he e ast , i n B lock B . T he s quare o f H irbet N ajar w as a f ine e xample o f a p ublic s quare i n a t ownlet o f t his c ountry , a nd p erhaps m ay b e s een a s a r esult o f H ellenistic a nd R oman c ultural i nfluence .1 9 ) A nother s tructure o f p ublic a spect w as a c ircular b uilding , o f w hich o nly t he l owest c ourses r emained , w hich r esembled a g ranary . T he R oman w orld h ad v arious m ethods o f s toring g rain , o ne b eing t he h igh c ircular t ower .2 °) N aturally o ne s uch w as i nsufficient f or a s ettlement l ike H irbet N ajar , a nd i t m ay r easonably b e a ssumed t hat s torerooms f or f oodstuffs a ndd c ereals e xisted i n t he h ouses o f

P h. 2 0

t he v illage .

R oads a nd S treets. F our p rincipal e ntrances t o t he s ettlement w ere o bserved ,

d istributed

o n t he w est, t he s outh a nd t he e ast . O nly o n t he n orth w as n o a pproach t o t he v illage n oticed . E ach g ate w as p rotected a nd w atched f rom t owers o r f rom b uildings w ith f ortified f ronts . H irbet N ajar p ossessed a n etwork o f s treets a nd a lleys , p art o f t hem s till v isible . T he l anes a nd s treets v ary i n w idth f rom 2 .50 t o 3 .00 m . a nd b y t hem a ccess w as p ossible t o a ny c orner o f t he v illage . T he s treets d o n ot r un s traight , p robably b ecause t hey a re t he r esult o f t he v illage 's d evelopment a nd n ot o f p rior p lanning . B oth t hey a nd t he a lleys t ransverse t he s ite f rom e ast t o w est a nd f rom n orth t o s outh . T heir w idth s ufficed f or p edestrians a nd b easts o f b urden , b ut t here a re n o s igns o f t he p assage o f c arts . H irbet N ajar 's c ommunications w ith t he o uter w orld w ere e xcellent a nd f ar s uperior t o t hose u sual i n o ther s ettlements . A n i mportant m ainroad p assed n earby , g oing f rom A ntipartis t hrough K efar Q asim t o M es-hah a nd t hence t o t he h eart o f t he m ountainous a rea . A nother i mportant h ighway r an t hrough t he Q ana g orge , 1 4 k m . a way . S outhward l ay t he r oad w hich m ade f or t he s ettlement o f S irisia , t hen j oining t he i mportant n orth-south r oute f rom a -Lubban t o ' Azun . H irbet N ajar was l inked t o t he main r oads b y p aths

4 9

w hich f ollowed e asy r outes . T he W ater S upply.. H irbet N ajar s ubsisted o n w ater-cisterns a nd l arge r eservoirs . I t s eems t hat e very h ouse h ad o ne c istern o r m ore ; s even s uch w ere e xcavated . I n t he e ast p art o f t he s ettlement t here i s ac oncentration o f c isterns a nd o pen r eservoirs ( 12) . T here a ppear t o h ave b een o ther r eservoirs w hich w e f ailed t o f ind . I n v iew o f t he h igh w ater t able o f t he r egion , i t w ould b e n o s urprise t o d iscover a n a ncient w ell i n o r n ear t he v illage a t s ome f uture t ime. T he C emetery o f H irbet N ajar. S everal d ozen r ockcut t ombs a re t o b e f ound o n ap rominent h ill s ome 3 00 m . n orth-west o f t he v illage . N ajar .

N earby a ll

t he

t ombs

T hey a ppear t o b e t he b urial p lace o f H irbet b elong

t o

t he s haft-type w ith

t wo a rcosolia

e ach s ide . T ombs o f t his f orm a re v ery c ommon i n w estern S amaria , a nd i n o ur o pinion t hey w ere u sed f or a l ong p eriod , f rom t he i st c entury B .C .E . d own t o t he R oman-Byzantine p eriod . T he A gricultural T ract. H irbet N ajar o ccupies a r ocky t errain ,

b ut i s s ituated o n ac omfortable

p lateau p ossessing n umerous l evel a reas . T he r ocky a reas i n t he t ract a re f ew , a nd t he p atches o f c ultivable s oil l arger . T he p redominating s oil o f t he t ract i s o f t he t erra r ossa t ype , b ut r endzina i s f requent .2 1) T he f oundations o f f ield t owers w ere f ound w ithin t he c ultivable a rea o f H irbet N ajar , w hich w e e stimate t o h ave c overed s ome 1 50 - 2 00 h ectares . A ir p hotographs s howed l ong c ultivation s trips w hich h ad s uperseded t he d ivisions w hich c onstituted t he p lots b elonging t o t he t owers . O ur v iew i s t hat t he f ield t owers r epresent t he H ellenistic a nd e arly R oman p hase o f c ultivation , w hile t he l ong c ultivation s trips b elong , a pparently , t o t he l ate R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods . T he b est s oil l ies t o w est a nd s outh o f t he v illage , w here w e n oticed b oth f reestanding a nd r ockcut r eservoirs w hich c ould b e u sed t o w ater i rrigated c ash c rops . W e e stimate t he s ize o f t he b est s oil a rea a t 2 0 - 3 0 h ectares , a nd i ts p roximity t o t he s ettlement w as a n i mportant f actor c ontributing t o i ts h igh e conomic v alue. T wo w inepresses w ere f ound i n t he c ourse o f s urveying t he a rea t o s outh o f t he s ettlement . T hey w ere o f m edium s ize , a nd b elonged t o T ype 1 o f o ur c lassification ( see C hapter V I ) . S ome 7 00 m . s outh-east o f t he v illage a t hreshing f loor w as e xamined , a nd a s heepfold l ay t o s outh-west o f t he s ite . T hree f arm r oads l eft t he s outh p art o f t he s ettlement, d ividing i nto v arious d irections t o r each t he c ultivated a reas . N orthward o ne r oad w as t raced , a lso t wo p aths w hich d elimited r ectangular c ultivation p lots . T he l argest e conomic u ndertaking a t H irbet N ajar w as i ts o il p ress , w hich w e d escribe i n d etail i n t he c hapter o n o lives a nd o live o il i n t he r egion . T he o il p ress a ppears t o h ave b een a c ommunal p roject o wned b y a ll t he c ultivators o f t he s ettlement, a nd i ts o utput a mounted t o s ome t housands o f l itres o f o live o il e very y ear . T he p roduction o f o live o il , i rrigated c rops a nd c ereals t ook f irst p lace i n t he a gricultural e conomy o f t he i nhabitants , w hile v ine-growing a nd w ine-production a ppear t o h ave o ccupied s econd p lace.

5 0

T he H istorical S etting o f H irbet N ajar. H irbet N ajar i s a n e xcellent e xample o f a s mall t o m edium t ownlet o f a t ype c ommon i n S amaria i n t he p eriod o f t he M ishnah a nd T almud . I ts c ourtyard h ouses a re w ell b uilt a nd o f l arge s ize . T he w ell-to-do h ouses a nd p ublic b uildings w ere a dorned w ith d ressed m asonry . T he t ownlet i s d ivided i nto q uarters, a nd c ontained p ublic b uildings,

s quares f or i ts

i nhabitants , a n etwork o f s treets a nd a lleys , a nd a n i mpressive s ystem o f l ocal f ortifications , i ncluding t owers p laced a t p oints o f o bservation o r v ulnerability . T he e xact n umber o f b uildings a nd l iving r ooms i s d ifficult t o e stimate, h ence t he o verall s ize o f t he p opulation c an o nly b e c onjectured . B ut i f w e c onsider t he p hysical a rea o f t he s ettlement , w hich i s 1 .7-2 .0 h ectares, i ts e fficient o rganisation a nd t he e xtent o f i ts d efences , i t m ay b e r easonably s upposed t hat t he p opulation o f H irbet N ajar n umbered b etween 1 ,500-2 ,000 s ouls . S imilar

s ettlements

s uch a s H irbet B elt A min ,

a re

t o b e

f ound

t hroughout

t he

r egion a nd o thers

' Av in Wtmah a nd S arisia a re i ts c lose n eighbours .

T he s urvey s hows t hat s ettlement b egan a t H irbet N ajar i n E arly I ron A ge I I . T he H ellenistic p hase w as r epresented b y t he n umerous f ield t owers i n t he t ownlet 's c ultivated a rea, a nd b y a f ortified f arm o f t he s ame p eriod d escribed i n C hapter I ( Najar 2 8 ) .

T o t he H asmonean o r H arodian p eriod w e

a scribe t he w ell-to-do r esidence , w hich a ppears t o h ave b een p rimus i nter p ares a mong t he h ouses o f t he v illage . W e b elieve t hat t he w ell-to-do r esidence w as t he h ome o f a d istinguished a nd p ropertied f amily a bove t he a verage l evel a t H irbet N ajar , b ut i t w as n ot a f amily p ossessing a n e state n or were t he i nhabitants i ts t enants . W e h ave a lso r emarked t hat t he c ourtyard h ouses o f Q uarter F w ere p leasant a nd r oomy , a nd t heir i nhabitants m ay b e r egarded a s ' householders ' ( ba 'alei b atim ) i n t heir o wn r ight .

T he

s ettlement a chieved i ts f inal f orm i n t he R oman-Byzantine p eriod, a s a t ownlet o f c omfortable c ultivators .

A fter t he S econd R evolt ,

w hen J ewish

l ands i n t he c ountry w ere c onfiscated ,2 2) t he S amaritan a nd p agan p opulation b ecame t he majority .23) T he c elebration o f i dolatrous r ites b eneat h4 )a f amous c arob t ree i s h eard o f a t K efr Q asim, n ear H irbet N ajar .z C hristianity a ppears t o h ave p enetrated t he a rea i n t he B yzantine p eriod , a nd a c ross c arved o n t he r eused l intel o f a h ouse w as f ound b y u s a t ' A zun ' A tumah a bout a k ilometre e ast o f t he v illage . T he f ortification o f H irbet N ajar i s p erhaps t o b e a scribed t o t he p eriod o f c onfusion a nd t o t he m ilitary i nvasions o f t he 3 rd ,

a nd m uch m ore o f t he2 . 5) 411c entury , w hen m any

c ities w ere e ncircled w ith f ortifications a nd w alls . T almudic l iterature c ontains n umerous s ources w itnessing t o i nsecurity a nd d anger t o l ife a nd p roperty i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies . T here a re a lso e xplicit r eferences t o v illagers w ho w ere a fraid t o r emain i n t he f ields , t o t he e rection o f f ortifications a nd t he c rowding o f p opulation i nto d efended s ettlements .2 6 ) I nsecurity w as n ot c onfined t o t his c ountry a t t he t ime . W e h ear o f t he f ortification o f r ural s ettlements t hroughout t he e ast a nd w est o f t he R oman E mpire , a nd o f t he e rection c towers a s o ne o f t he m easures a dopted t o p rotect v illages a nd s mall t owns .

;

5 . H irbet e l-Buraq . T he S tructure o f t he S ettlement a nd i ts C ultivated A rea . H irbet B uraq h as b een s elected h ere a s a n e xample o f a t ownlet o f t he l ate R oman a nd B yzantine p eriod .

T he r emains o f t he s ettlement h ave b een

5 1

p reserved

t o

n umber o f t ogether

s uch

i ts

a n e xtent

b uildings

w ith

i ts

a nd

t hat

w e

w ere a ble

i nstallations ,

a gricultural

t o m easure a c onsiderable

a nd

i nstallations

t o m ap

a nd

i ts

t he

t ownlet 's

h andicrafts

p lan

q uarter .

T he c ultivated t ract o f H irbet B uraq w as e xhaustively s urveyed b oth o n t he g round a nd w ith t he h elp o f a ir p hotography ; ac omparison d rawn b etween t he s ettlement a nd i ts c ultivated a rea , a nd a s eries o f t heoretical c alculations m ade w ith r egard t o t he i ndividual h olding .

W ith t he a id o f a rchaeological

e xcavations, we were a ble t o d etermine t he s ite 's h istory w ith g reater c onfidence. T he f irst p art o f s ettlement

w ith

t he p resent c hapter i s d evoted t o

i ts

h ouses

a nd

i nstallations

a n a ccount o f t he

a nd

t o

a

p roposed

r econstruction o f i ts e ntire s tructure; t he s econd p art d escribes t he a gricultural a rea u nit b y u nit, a nd i nstallation b y i nstallation . F ig. 3 6

H irbet

B uraq

k ilometres

i s

s ituated

i n

t he

c entre

o f

t he a rea

s outh-east o f Q arawat b ene H assan ( G .R .

s urveyed,

2 +

1 618-1681) a nd t wo

k ilometres n orth o f H irbet H amad a nd H irbet K arqush , w hich h ave a lready b een d escribed .

T he s ite l ies b etween S arta a nd H an s ,

s outh o f t he M es-hah-

S hechem r oad . T he a ncient s ettlement e xtends a long t he e nd o f a s pur 4 50 m . a bove s ea l evel, b eing s urrounded o n t hree s ides b y t he d eep s treambed o f W adi

S hu 'eb .

p rotection ,

T he

n atural

c onditions

p rovide

H irbet

B uraq

w ith

a dequate

a nd o nly o n t he n orth-east i s t he s pur l inked w ith t he c entral

p lateau whence a c onvenient r oad r eaches t he s ettlement. T he B ritish S urvey o f W estern P alestine v isited t he s ite i n 1 873, r eported t ombs a nd r eservoirs ,

a nd w as p articularly i mpressed b y t he l arge w inepress n ear t he

s ettlement .2 8) I n 1 968 Y oseph P orat h ouses f or t he f irst t ime. 2 9 )

r esurveyed

t he

s ite ,

d escribing

i ts

P orat a nd t he p resent s urvey f ound p ottery b elonging t o t he f ollowing p eriods : E arly I ron A ge I a nd I I , P ersian , H ellenistic ( in t he f ields o nly ) , l ate R oman a nd B yzantine . P rominent a mong t he l ast g roup w ere s herds o f f ine ware, mainly b owls, o f t he t ype k nown a s ' Late R oman ' . f ragments o f g lass w ere c ollected f rom t he s ite , c entury C .E . 3°) m anufactured

M iss G usti L ehrer t hinks t he g lassware may h ave b een

a t

H irbet

B uraq

o r

i n

i ts

v icinity .

N umerous

f ragments o f r ooftiles w ere f ound s cattered o ver T wo i nteresting f acts e merge f rom t he p ottery f inds: 1 )

N umerous

a nd w ere d ated t o t he 4 th

t he

t esserae

e ntire

a nd

s ettlement .

S igns o f H ellenistic o ccupation h ave b een f ound s o f ar o nly i n t he c ourse

o f

e xcavating t he f ield

t owers ,

b ut n ot

i n t he s ettlement

i tself. 2 )

N o e vidence w as f ound o f t he e arly R oman p eriod i n t he l atter.

I t may b e a ssumed t hat t hese f acts a re n ot f inal, d igging

o n

t he

s ite

may a lter

t he

p icture .

a nd t hat f urther

I n a r escue e xcavation

c onducted o n t he s ite i n 1 978 we e ncountered a c hurch o f t he B yzantine p eriod ,

b ut w e w ere u nable3 1 . , t ) 0 g o d own b elow t he u pper s tratum i n o rder t o

e xamine t he e arlier l evels. T he R oad S ystem . H irbet B uraq i s s ituated s outh o f t he a ncient r oute f rom H an s t o S arta , a r oute o f r egional i mportance .

N ear H irbet B uraq t he r oad i s 3 -5 m etres

b road , a nd s ome e xcellent s tretches o f i t r emain e ven t oday . b ranched f rom

t he H aris-Sarta r oad a nd t he s ettlement

5 2

2 00 m .

A p aved r oute s outh o f t he

r oad .

Am eeting o f a ncient h ighways w as s ituated e ast o f H irbet B uraq , a nd

ap ath l inked t he r egional h ighway w ith t he s ettlement . H an s, B ene H assan a nd B uraq . s ystem .)

( For d etails,

T he h ighway l ed t o

s ee C hap .

V o n t he r oad

F our r oads l eft t he c entre o f H irbet B uraq f or t he f ields r ound a bout ; t hese a gricultural r oads a re w ell b uilt a nd c an b e

c learly

t raced .

T hey

a re s hort , 2 00-1,000 m . i n l ength , a nd t heir p urpose i s c lear , n amely , t hey p rovided t he c ultivator w ith r apid a nd c onvenient c ommunication w ith h is p lot . H irbet B uraq w as n ot l ocated o n t he m ain r oad , a nd o nly o ne r egional h ighway p assed c lose b y .

N evertheless ,

n ear o r d istant n eighbours . c ommunications t hrough H an s , n ear o r f ar .

t he p lace w as n ot c ut o ff f rom i ts

I ts i nhabitants 2 ould m ove b y c onvenient S arta a nd B ene H assan , t o r each a ny c entre

T he S tructure o f t he T ownlet. F ig. 3 7 P h. 2 1

H irbet B uraq i s s ited a t t he e nd o f a s pur , o n a s eries o f f our b road n atural t erraces w hich w ere u tilised b y m an a s a reas o n w hich d wellings c ould b e b uilt .

T he s ettlement c overs a n a rea 2 40 m . ,

l ong ( from n orth t o

s outh ) a nd a pproximately 1 50 m . w ide ( from e ast t o w est ) , t hat i s , s ome 2 5 — 3 0 d unams . N ot a ll t he dwelling q uarters h ave r emained i n s itu, a s a c onsiderable p art o f t hem h as

f allen v ictim

t o

s tone

r obbing o r t o s tone

c learing i n p reparation f or s owing . T he l ower q uarters h ave b een t he c hief s ufferers, a s t he b road c ultivated a reas n ear t hem h ave a ttracted t he p loughs o f t he s urrounding v illagers . H irbet B uraq w as a n u nfortified s ettlement , a nd a l ong w all s urvives o nly o n t he s outh , b ut c ould e qually h ave b een t he f oundation o f ar etaining w all o r ab oundary f ence t owards t he w adi . N orth o f t he d welling q uarter , o n a l arge r ocky a rea 2 80 b y 8 0 t he r ock h ad b een q uarried f or h andicrafts a nd a gricultural p urposes . T he h andicrafts a rea e xtended p arallel w ith t he r esidential a reas , c overing s ome 2 3 d unams . T he s tructure o f t he s ettlement w ill n ow b e d escribed, f ollowing t he m aps p repared w hen t he r emains w ere m easured . T he H ouses. 3 0 .

—A c haracteristic d welling ,

1 0 .50 x 1 9

m .

A n i nternal d ivision

i nto u nits w as o bserved . S ome o f t he i nternal u nits m ay h ave b een e nclosed c ourtyards . T he h ouse , w hich i s o n a s lope , i s b uilt o f d ressed l imestone b locks , d ry l aid . T he w alls a re f aced i nside a nd o ut w ith d ressed b locks , t he s pace b etween t hem b eing f illed w ith r ubble , g iving a n o verall b readth o f 0 .90 m . T he w alls r emain t o ah eight o f f our t o f ive c ourses. S treets a nd A lleys. A b uilt w ith

S anta ,

p ath ( A ) l eads p assing

t he

t o B uraq e dge

o f

f rom t he

t he a rea

r egional d evoted

r oad

l inking H an s

t o

a gricultural

i nstallations ; o n r eaching t he f irst h ouses i t b ecomes a p roper s treet ( B ) , 4—6 m . w ide . T he m ain s treet o f t he v illage i s 2 00 m . l ong , c ontinuing o n a f airly s traight c ourse .

I t i s

l ined o n b oth s ides b y h ouses ,

w alls d etermine i ts d irection . S treet B i s t he m ain s treet o f B uraq , w hich a lleyways b ranch o ff t o t he v arious r esidential q uarters .

w hose f rom

F ig. 3 8 T he C hurch. T he C hurch o f H irbet B uraq s tands a t t he h ighest p oint i n t he n orth—east o f t he s ettlement(43 ) .

P art o f t he b uilding e xposed b y a r escue e xcavation

5 3

i ncluded a h andsome m osaic f loor .

S everal a lleys l ed t o t he b uilding ,

i ts l ocation a ppears t o h ave b een w ell d esigned . b asilical

t ype ,

p ossessing a n ave a nd

a nd

T he c hurch i s o f t he

t wo a isles .32)

P arts o f t he w alls

s urviving i n t he a rea p erhaps p oint t o ac ourtyard a nd c ommunication w ith a n eighbouring b uilding . T he c onstruction i s i n w ell-tooled l imestone m asonry . T he c hurch m easures 1 2 b y 1 8 m . , t he w idth o f t he n ave b eing 5 . 95 m ., o f t he s outhern a isle 2 .40 m ., o f t he n orthern 1 .20 m . D r . Y ohanan M intzker o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities p roposes t o r estore t he e difice a s h aving t en c olumns r anged i n t wo r ows , s ince t he c olumn-base o f o ne s uch w as d isclosed i n s itu .

T he w idth o f t he b ase w as 0 .60 m . ,

i t h eight 0 .35 m . ,

i ts d iameter 0 .50 m . A n umber o f a rchitectural d etails w ere f ound d uring t he e xcavation , i ncluding p arts o f t he c olumns a nd c ornices . T he n ave w as e ntered f rom t he w est , t hrough a n o pening w hose j ambs a nd s ill w ere f ound i n p lace . T he s outh a isle a ppears t o h ave p ossessed a s eparate e ntrance . T he a pse w as i nside t he b uilding , a nd o nly m inor f ragments o f i t r emained . N earby w e f ound p arts o f c urved t iles w hich h ad p robably c overed t he r oof . T he M osaic P avement. P h. 2 2

T he n ave w as a dorned b y a f ine p olychrome m osaic p avement , o nly p art o f which was u ncovered b y t he e xcavations, a nd t hat was d amaged b y l ocal v andalism . T he d esigns i ncluded p lant a nd a nimal motifs a nd v arious g eometric f orms . A c ross w as f ound i n t he c entre o f t he f loor , a nd t o i ts w est , f acing t he d oor , a m edallion c ontaining a G reek i nscription . T he m osaic h ad b een l aid w ith g reat t echnical s kill , t he c olour c omposition c onsisting o f b lack , r ed, white, b lue a nd o range . Among t he a nimals p ortrayed o n t he p avement were b easts o f p rey , s ome w inged, a nd t heir v ictims - a l eopard ,

a t iger ,

a d eer ,

a g azelle a nd a h unting d og .3 3 )

T he

a rtistic w ork was e xcellent, e xecuted w ith s ensitivity a nd g ood t aste . P lant m otifs, e specially a canthus l eaves, s urrounded t he f loor . T he g eometric d esigns i ncluded g uilloches , s traight l ines , r hombs a nd a d ouble m eander . T he a nimals, g eometric d esigns a nd p lants w ere t hose c haracteristic o n mosaic p avements i n t his c ountry i n t he B yzantine p eriod. 3 4) D upin

c onsiders

t hat

h unting

s cenes

w ere

p opular

i n

t he

6 th a nd 7 th

c enturies . W ild a nd t ame a nimals w ere f ound o n a m osaic i n t he c hurch r ecently e xcavated a t H irbet B erakhot i n t he H ebron m ountains . D r . Y oram T safrir a nd Y izhar H irschfeld c onsider t hat t he c hurch b elongs t o t he 5 th 7 th c enturies .3 5 ) T he I nscription . T he G reek i nscription i nscribed i n am edallion w as f ound f acing t he d oor o n t he s ame a xis a s t he c ross . v arying f rom

5 t o 9 c m .

I t c onsists o f s ix l ines,

t he l etters

P rofessor S . A pplebaum ,

w ho r ead t he

i nscription , o bserves t hat i t w as d rafted i n c orrupt G reek .3 6) b rief , a nd r eads: " God , h ave m ercy o n t hy s ervant M arcianus .

T he t ext i s A p rayer t o

t he h oly C yriacus" .

i n h eight .

C yriacus i s a pparently t he s aint t o w hom t he c hurch o f

H irbet B uraq w as d edicated . T he n ames C yriacus a nd M arcianus w ere f requent i n t his c ountry a nd t he n eighbouring l ands i n t he B yzantine p eriod , a nd a t E mmaus t he s tory o f t he r obber C yriacus w ho h eaded a b and o f C hristians , J ews a nd S amaritans, w as w ell k nown . 37 ) Ac hurch o f S t . C yriacus w as e xcavated n ear Q ibbutz M agen ; h ere t oo a c ross l ike t hat a t H irbet B uraq w as f ound .

T he

p ublishers

o f

t he

e xcavation

c onsidered

t hat

t he

c hurch

a t

M agen b elonged t o t he 5 th - 7 th c enturies .3 8 ) A d edication t o a nother C yriacus a ppears o n ar eused l intel o f t he B yzantine p eriod i n t he f ortified

5 4

b uilding a t M igdal A pheq .39)

T he

n ame

M arcianus

i s

a lso

c ommon ,

c hiefly

i n

t hat p eriod , a ppearing i n S yria , T ransjordan a nd i n t hi s c ou n try .40 ) A b ilingual c ameo i nscription f rom N eapolis ( Shechem ) g imre‘ t he f eminine f orm o f t he n ame , - M arciana - a s t hat o f a S amaritan w oman . T he D ate o f t he C hurch .

O n t he s trength o f t he m otifs o f t he m osaic f loor

a nd t he p ottery f rom t he c hurch a nd i ts v icinity , t he c hurch c an b e d ated t o t he

5 th

o r

6 th c entury .

T he c hurch may h ave b een d estroyed i n t he

S amaritan r evolts w hich t ook p lace i n t he r egion i n t hose c enturies . T he B uraq c hurch i s t he f irst o ne f ound i n t his r egion , w hich w as t hought u ntil n ow t o h ave b een t horoughly S amaritan . R emarks o n t he S tructure o f H irbet B uraq . B uraq c an b e c lassified a s a m edium-sized t ownlet o f t he R oman-Byzantine p eriod . T he r esidential a rea e xtends o ver a pproximately 2 5 d unams , a nd t he q uarter d evoted t o h andicrafts a nd a gricultural i nstallations o ver a s imilar a rea . T wenty-five c ourtyard h ouses w ere c ounted i n t he s ettlement , a nd p robably 6 0-70 h ouses a re b uried b y d ebris . W e e stimated t he n umber o f i nhabitants a t 1 ,000 t o 1 ,500 . T he t ownlet c an b e d ivided i nto f ive q uarters, f our b uilt o n t he n atural t erraces o rientated w est t o e ast , a nd t he f ifth t o s outh-west , i n b uilding b lock 6 6-77 . T he q uarters w ere s eparated b y s treets a nd a lleys , m ost o f t hem r anged o n a s traight a xis . T he s ize o f o ne h ouse ( 41) i s e xceptional , p erhaps t he h ouse o f a w ell-to-do o wner , o r e lse a p ublic e difice . T he s mall c hurch ( 43), which n evertheless c ontained a h andsome m osaic, was p laced a t t he h ighest p oint i n t he s ettlement . I t w ould s eem t hat i t b elonged t o t he l atest p hase o f t he s ettlement 's e xistence . A s mall o bservation t ower ( 50 ) i n t he n orth-east o f t he s ettlement , a nd a b oundaryw all o n i ts s outh ( 5-6) m ay h int a t l ocal d efensive a rrangements . T he A rea d evoted t o H andicrafts a nd A gricultural I nstallations. T he a rea o f a gricultural i nstallations e xtends t o t he n orth o f t he s ettlement ,

o ccupying t he e ntire b readth o f a n atural

t errace ( 50 n u ),

s o

e nabling t he c onstruction o f n umerous r ockcut i nstallations . T his a rea i s s eparated f rom t he v illage h ouses b y a s mall c liff a nd a n a verage d istance o f 2 5-50 m . e xists b etween t he l ast h ouses a nd t he r ockcut i nstallations ; t he l atter 's z one was n ot s elected h aphazardly , a nd a part f rom t heir c onvenient t opographical l ocation , t hose t hat b uilt t hem t ook i nto c onsideration t he l ocal w inds , w hich p revented t he o dours a nd n oise f rom r eaching t he h ouses o f t he s ettlement . T he i nstallations w ill n ow b e d escribed i n t heir o rder o f l ocation . 1 .

T hreshing f loor a nd c istern , b oth r ockcut .

r ockcut s emi-circle ,

7 . 60 m .

i n d iameter .

T he c istern i s w ithin a

T hree s tones a re l aid o ver t he

c istern . 2 .

T wo t ombs s ide-by-side ,

a rcosolia .

I t w as 1 . 70 m .

a r ockcut s haft g rave w ith t wo u nderground

i n l ength x 0 .60 m .

i n w idth .

A r ockcut c ist-

g rave l ay o ne m etre n orth o f t he f irst ; i t m easured 1 . 60 n u , i n l ength , a nd 0 .50 m . i n w idth . N ear t hem t wo d ressed s tone b locks m ay h ave b een u sed a s c overs o r a s t ombstones . 4 . t he

A q uarry m easuring 8 x 1 2 m . a nd 1 . 1 )0 - 1 . 50 m . d eep , l ocated a gainst

c liff . 5 .

A c ultivation p lot b uilt a nd c ut i nto t he r ocky a rea .

I t c overed

a pproximately 1 5 x 1 5 n u , a nd m ay o riginally h ave s erved a s a q uarry ,

5 5

b eing

l ater c onverted i nto a c ultivation a rea .

T he p lot w as d elimited o n t he w est

b y a s tone-built k erb 0 .40 - 0 .50 m . h igh , a pparently r epresenting t he d epth o f t he s oil. 6 )

A q uarry a nd

r ockcut

p ool w ithin t he a rea o f a c ultivation p lot .

I t w as 4 x 4 m . i n a rea a nd 1 . 50 m . i n d epth . t he e dge. 7 )

A r ockcut s haft t omb ,

T wo s imple t roughs l ay n ear

w ith t wo a rcosolia ,

a nd 0 .60 m . w ide . R ockcut s teps d escend i nto T here i s a q uarry i n t he a rea . 8 )

A r ockcut c ist g rave ,

m easuring

1 . 70 m .

t he

m easuring 2 .60 m . s haft

f rom

t he

l ong s outh .

l ong b y 0 .60 m . w ide ,

w as

l ocated o n t he e astern f ringe o f t he q uarry . 9 )

T he q uarry w hich b ecame a n a gricultural a rea m easured 1 4 m . x 1 9

m . a nd b ordered o n p lot N o. 5 . 1 0)

Aq uarry a rea c onverted t o a griculture, 8 x 8 m .

1)

A r ockcut s haft t omb w ith t hree a rcosolia , m easuring 1 . 70 m . l ong

b y 0 .70 m . w ide, a nd 1 .50 m . d eep . 1 2)

A d emolished t omb i n t he q uarry a rea - s ubsequently a c ultivated

p lot. F ig. 3 9

1 3) a )

A r ockcut w inepress, o n ar ocky a rea w hich h ad b een w orked s mooth . T he t reading f loor i s 3 .50 m . x 3 .50 m .

i n i ts c entre i s a s quare

0 .80 x 0 .80 m . r ising s ome 8 c m ., o ver t he r ock s urface . T he s quare p ossessed a r ockcut d epression i n t he c entre , 0 .35 m ., d eep ; i n t his t esserae w ere f ound . b )

A c ollecting t ank 1 .50 x 1 .10 m .

I ts v isible d epth i s 0 .70 m .,

b ut c omparison w ith o ther w inepresses w ould m ake t he d epth d ouble . A r ockcut c hannel la ' ) m . l ong , 1 . 12 m . w ide a nd 0 .35 m . d eep , l eads f rom t he t reading f loor t o t he c ollecting t ank . c )

A n a rea w here t he g rapes w ere c oncentrated a nd k ept ,

2 .30 m . x2 . 10

m . i n a rea a nd 0 .40 m . d eep . I n t he c orner was a c ircular c onical d epression , 0 .48 m . i n d iameter a nd 0 .53 m . d eep . P robably t he f irst u nfermented m ust , f lowing o ut u nder t he s tatic p ressure o f t he g rapes , w as c ollected i n t his d epression . d )

A nother a rea f or

t he c oncentration a nd h olding o f t he g rapes ;

i t

w as r ockcut a nd p artly s moothed, a nd l ay p arallel w ith t he t reading f loor . 1 4)

T he b ase o f a s mall s tructure i n t he u pper a rea o f t he s ite ;

i t

m easured 3 .50 m . x 3 .50 m . O ne c ourse o f s tones p rojected a bove t he s oil ; t his w as p erhaps a l ookout t ower g uarding t he a rea o f a gricultural i nstallations. 1 5) b y 0 .70 m .

A r ockcut s haft t omb , w ith t wo a rcosolia ; i t m easured 1 . 70 m . l ong w ide .

I t m ay h ave b een u sed a s a w ater c istern a t s ome s tage .

G rooves a nd s hallow c hannels l ead t o t he t omb e ntrance. 1 6)

T he b ase o f as tructure m easuring 4 .20 m . x 6 .00 m ., s urviving

5 6

o nly t o o ne c ourse ,

t he m asonry b eing d ry l aid w ithout m ortar .

w ere 0 .60 x 0 .60 x 0 .40 i n . T he s tructure m ay h ave t he a rea a nd i ts i nstallations. 1 7)

l odged

T he s tones

t he m anager o f

A s tone t rough s tood c lose t o t he q uarry r eservoirs ( 18-19) .

T he

f ormer m easured 1 .25 i n . x0 .70 i n ., w ith a d epth o f 0 .10 m . 1 8) A q uarry-reservoir , 1 0 m . x 1 0 m . i n a rea , T here a re t races o f s teps i n o ne c orner . F ig. 4 0

1 9)

A q uarry-reservoir ,

1 2 m i .

2 .00 i n . d eep b y 1 . 50 m .

x 1 2 m ., a nd 2 .20 i n .

d eep .

A r ockcut

c hannel l ed t o t he m iddle o f t he c istern f rom t he n orth . C upmarks h ad b een c ut r ound t he w alls o f t he c istern , w hich i s n ow u sed t o s tore r ainwater f or t he f locks b elonging t o t he i nhabitants o f t he n eighbouring v illages.

P h. 2 3

2 0) c liff ,

A r ockcut m easuring

t hreshing

f loor .

1 2 x 1 4 .50 m .

A c ircular

f loor w as

c ut

i nto

t he

t he m aximum d epth o f c utting b eing 1 . 20 m .

T here w as a c ircular c ollecting p oint 1 . 50 m i n d iameter a t t he c entre o f t he t hreshing f loor , w hich i mpinged o n q uarry-reservoir 1 9 , a nd b oth a ppear t o h ave b een p lanned a nd c ut t ogether . 2 1)

A r ockcut

t hreshing

f loor .

A nother

s uch ,

t hough

s maller ,

w as

s ituated n ear 2 0, b eing c ut i n much t he s ame m anner a s t he l arger . m easured 9 x 1 2 i n ., w ith a m aximum d epth o f 0 .50 m . 2 2)

A s haft t omb w ith t wo a rcosolia ,

1 . 60 m .

A q uarried s tone h ad b een l aid o ver t he s haft , t omb 2 3). F ig. 4 1

I t

l ong a nd 0 .60 m .

w ide .

p robably t o c over i t .

( near

2 3) A s haft t omb w ith t wo a rcosolia , 2 . 70 i n . l ong a nd 0 .65 i n . w ide . T he s haft h ad o ne r ockcut s tep t o f acilitate d escent i nto t he a rcosolia . 2 4)

A r ockcut c istern , s outh-east o f t he u pper a rea.

2 5)

A s haft-tomb

w ith

t wo

a rcosolia

n ear

t he

l arge

w inepress

( 26) .

R esembles t omb 2 2-23 . F ig. 4 2 P h. 2 4

2 6)

A r ockcut

w inepress .

T his

i s

p articularly l arge ,

i nto t he r ock a rea t o n orth-west o f t he v illage .

a nd w as

c ut

T he e ntire u nit m easures

6i n . x 9 .50 m . a nd i s c ut d own t o 0 .90 m . I t p ossesses a t reading f loor o f 5 .50 i n . x 6 .00 i n . A d epression 1 .20 x 1 .20 i n . t o c oncentrate t he u nfermented must a nd p ulp was c ut i n t he c entre . F rom t his a r ockcut c hannel l ed t o t he c ollecting t ank . T hree s emicircular n iches 0 .70 c m . i n d iameter a nd d epth , h ad b een c ut i nto t he u pper p art o f t he w all r ound t he t reading f loor ; a l edge 0 .30 i n . c ollecting t anks . T he c entral

t ank c ollecting

w ide s eparated t he t reading f loor f rom t he

t he m ust

m easured

1 . 80 m .

b y 1 . 80 m . ,

a nd

i ts v isible d epth w as 1 .00 i n . , b ut i t w as s topped u p b y e rosion s oil a nd r ocks . A nother c ollecting t ank w as c onnected w ith t he t reading f loor d irectly w ithout a ny c hannel . i n .

d eep ,

b ut

I t m easured 1 . 20 i n .

a lso b locked b y e rosion s oil .

i ncised i n G reek o n t he s ide o f t he p ress .4 2) o f t he p ress w ill b e d iscussed b elow .

5 7

x 1 . 20 m . ,

T he n ame

a nd w as 0 .80

' Dositheos ' h ad b een

T he o peration a nd e fficiency

O bservations o n t he A rea o f A gricultural I nstallations. T he a bove a rea i s e qual i n s ize t o t hat o f t he r esidential a rea o f B uraq , a nd f or t he t wo s uch a reas. T he a rea

o f

f irst t ime i t h as b een p ossible t o m easure a nd c ompare

i nstallations

i s

a r are e xample

o f

t he

p reservation o f a

q uarter d evoted t o c rafts a nd work o f t he R oman-Byzantine p eriod, a nd a nalysis o f t he i nstallations i nforms u s o f t he v ariety o f e conomic o ccupations e ngaged i n b y t he i nhabitants o f t he a ncient t ownlet . T he s aid a rea c ontained t hreshing f loors, w inepresses, r eservoirs, q uarries a nd f ormer q uarries i n a ll s orts o f s econdary u se ; e nclosure, a l arge l imekiln a nd r ockcut t ombs

f urther a l ivestock s cattered among t he

i nstallations. T he t hree r ockcut

t hreshing f loors a re a ccurately m ade a nd e xcellently

e xecuted . T he s iting o f t he t hreshing f loors c onforms t o t he r abbinical r uling t hat a p ermanent t hreshing f loor m ust b e r emoved f ifty c ubits f rom t he f armstead ( or v illage ) . 43 )

C ircular r ockcut t hreshing f loors a re f ound

i n S amaria ( Deir S am 'an ), a nd a lso o n t he C armel ( Hirbet K erakh ) . O ne o f t hem a t B uraq c ontained a w ater c istern , a nd t his p henomenon t oo h as b een r ecorded a t D eir S am 'an a nd i n a R oman v illa i n t he v icinity o f P ompeii .4 4 ) A part f rom t he r ockcut t hreshing f loors n ear t he v illage , o thers a re t o b e f ound i n t he f ields,

( see b elow) .

T he c oncentration o f t hree s uch n ear t he

s ettlement m ay b e c onnected w ith a c hange i n t he B uraq

o wnership o f

t he H irbet

l ands .

T hose n ear t he s ettlement p oint t o ac oncentration o f n umerous t racts b y s ome f actor , s uch a s a n e state o wner , o r e ven t he c hurch , 45) t he t hreshing f loors i n t he f ields, w hose e xistence

w hich r eplaced p oints t o t he

c ultivation o f p rivate h oldings b y i ndividual p easants. T he t hree w inepresses e nable u s t o d istinguish t echnological d evelopment a nd

p arallel

s ocial

c hanges .

T he

s implest

a nd

o ldest

p ress

i s

t he

o ne

n umbered 2 9 . A ccording t o o ur c lassification i t b elongs t o T ype I . ( See C hapter V I o n V inegrowing a nd W ine P roduction ) . T his p ress p ossessed a c apacity o f 6 00 l itres o f must ( unfermented g rape j uice), a nd a ppears t o h ave

b elonged

t o

2 ,000 l itres, a dvanced t ype ,

t he E arly

I ron a nd H ellenistic

p eriods .

a nd was C lass 2 o f o ur c lassification . p ossessing h olding a nd c oncentration a reas

P ress

1 3

h eld

I t i s a more f or g rapes a nd a

d epression i n t he m iddle f or a wooden c rusher . W e h ave s hown i n o ur c hapter o n v ine g rowing a nd w ine p roduction , t hat t his t ype o f p ress w as c ommon i n S amaria f rom t he H ellenistic p eriod o nward . I t m ay b e r easonably s upposed t hat P ress 1 3 o perated c hiefly i n t he R oman p eriod , a nd t ogether w ith o ther p resses c orresponded w ith t he n eeds o f t he g rowing p opulation o f H irbet

B uraq .

T he l arge w inepress ( 26) i s t he most e laborate a nd d eveloped o f t he p resses a t B uraq . I t h as a c apacity o f 5 ,000 l itres o f must , a nd b elongs t o

T ype 3 .

I t

c ould p roduce

t wo v arieties o f

w ine s imultaneously ,

a s

i s

s hown b y t he s eparate c ollecting t anks . I t c ould h ave s erved o ne i ndividual o r a g roup o f c ultivators , a nd e very o ne k new t he q uantity o f g rapes t hat h e h ad b rought t o t he p ress,

a s e videnced b y t he n iches

i n t he

w all o f t he p ress. T he p roductive c apacity o f P ress 2 6 i s v ery i mpressive . f rom v intage t o t reading a nd t he f irst f ermentation ,

5 8

I n o ne c ycle ,

w hich l asted f rom f our

t o f ive d ays , 5 ,000 l itres w ere p roduced . v ine

g rowing

a nd

w ine

p roduction l asted s ome

p roduction ,

f ifty d ays .

W e h ave s hown , i n o ur c hapter o n

t hat

t he

v intage

H ence P ress

s eason

a nd

w ine

2 6 c ould p roduce 4 0 ,000 -

5 0 ,000 l itres o f w ine i n a s eason , a r espectable e conomic a nd c ommercial q uantity i n a ncient t imes a nd e ven t oday . I f w e a dd t o i t t he w inepress i n t he f ields w e s hall b e i n a p osition t o a ppreciate t he p lace o f v ine g rowing a nd w ine p roduction i n t he e conomy o f t he p opulation . T he r emains o f t he t wo o il i tself,

p resses

w ere d iscovered

a nd t here a re s igns o f a t hird .

w ithin

t he v illage

O thers i n t he o pen a ir w ere f ound

w hen t he a gricultural t ract w as s urveyed ( below) . A dditional p resses w ere b uilt w ithin t he s ettlement o utside t he a rea o f a gricultural i nstallations, f or p urely t echnical r easons,

s ince o il p resses n eed r oofed b uildings ,

s uch

a s c ould e asily b e e rected a mong t he v illage b uildings . E ight o il p resses w ere f ound i n t he s ettlement o f U m-Rihan , w hich w as l arger t han B uraq, a nd w here

t he o live o il b ranch h eld a n i mportant ,

i f n ot a c entral p lace .

A

l arge s heep f old ( 63) a nd a d ozen r ockcut o r b uilt c aves " ) i n t he n orth s lope o f B uraq i ndicate t hat i ts p eople o wned g oats a nd s heep , w hile a reas s uitable a s t ract.

p asture h ave

b een i dentified

i n t he

s ettlement 's

a gricultural

A l arge l imekiln s tood o n t he f ringe o f t he i ndustrial a rea .

I t w ould

s eem t o h ave s erved t he e ntire l ocal c ommunity a nd w as s ufficient f or t he l ime c onsumed b y t he v illage 's b uilding a ctivities . T he k iln m ay h ave b een a s ource o f l ivelihood t o o ne o f t he v illage f amilies w hich o perated i t c ommercially . P rominent i n t he a rea o f t he i nstallations w ere i ts q uarries , w hich w ere l ater a dapted f or s econdary u se ; f ive o f t hem w ere f illed w ith s oil

f or a gricultural

c rops .

A s t hese w ere n ear c isterns,

t hey c ould b e

i rrigated a s a n a id t o c ultivation . F our o f t he q uarries h ad b een a dapted t o s erve a s o pen r eservoirs .

I n

t hese t he f irst s tage o f q uarrying i s t raceable, a nd a rrangements f or w ater-storage i n t he s econd s tage c an b e o bserved . T he f our r eservoirs c ould c ollect 1 ,000 c ubic m etres o f w ater . I n t he c ourse o f t he s urvey o f t he s ite w e n oticed t hat e ven n ow t he r ainwater c ontinues t o f low a nd t o f ill s ome o f t he p ools . a rea ,

T here a re t en r ockcut h ypogaea i n t he i nstallation

m ainly s haft-tombs w ith a rcosolia ,

t hough s ome a re c ist-graves .

T he

e xcavation o f t he g raves n ear t he c rafts a rea w as a pparently n o d eterrent t o t he i nhabitants o f B uraq . T here a ppear t o h ave b een a dditional g raves i n t he v icinity ,

s ome o f w hich a re a s y et u ndiscovered a nd s ome o f w hich w ere

d estroyed w hen t he q uarries w ere e xtended . W e d iscuss t he c hronology o f t hese t ombs e lsewhere . T he r emains o f t wo s mall s tructures e xist w ell w ithin t he c rafts a rea, o ne a t t he e nd o f t he t errace, i n ap osition t o c ommand t he e ntire q uarter ( 14) . T his m ay h ave b een a s mall o bservation p ost a nd watch t ower, whose f unction was t o warn t he c ultivators o f a pproaching d anger . f unction ,

A nother s mall t ower ( 50),

p erhaps w ith a s imilar

s tood i n t he n orth-east o f t he b uilt-up a rea .

T he f oundations o f

af urther s tructure ( 16) w ere s uch a s t o s erve t he a dministrative m anager o f t he a gricultural l arge

a n a rea

i nstallations .

r equired

I t w ould b e r easonable t o a ssume t hat s o

c oordination a nd

s upervision ,

a nd

t hat

t he

p eople

e ntrusted w ith s uch d uties w ere q uartered i n t hat s tructure.

W ater-Supply a nd C onsumption . H irbet B uraq h as n o s prings o r o ther s ources o f r unning w ater . water

n eeded

f or

man

a nd

b east

h ad

5 9

t o

b e

c aught

a nd

s tored

A ll t he b y

t he

i nhabitants d uring t he r ainy m onths .

O n t he e vidence o f o ur s urvey o f B uraq

a nd a c omparison with s imilar s ettlements i n t he d istrict,

w e s ubmit

t entative e stimates o f t he a mount o f w ater s tored i n t he s ettlement f or h uman u se . T he a rea o f a gricultural i nstallations c ould a ccumulate 1 ,000 c u .

metres o f r ainwater d irected i nto t he r ockcut r eservoirs .

E very

a ncient h ome e xamined b y u s i n w estern S amaria p ossessed a r ockcut c istern i n i ts p roximity , a nd s ometimes m ore t han o ne , t o s tore r ainwater . T he c apacity o f t he s maller d omestic c isterns w as a bout 3 0 c u . m etres , w hile t he l arger t ook 8 0 c u . m . o r more . We e stimate t he c apacity o f t he a verage c istern a t 5 0 c u . m . T here w ere a t l east 5 0-60 r ockcut c isterns a t H irbet B uraq ,

w ith a c apacity o f 2 ,500 - 3 ,000 C u .

d ispose o f 3 ,500 - 4 ,000 c u .

m .

o f

m .

H ence t he s ettlement c ould

r ainwater .

A l arge n umber o f

c isterns

w ere r ecorded i n t he f ields c lose t o t he s ettlement , s ome o f t he w ater b eing c aught w ith t he a id o f l ong c hannels . T he c isterns a nd r eservoirs i n t he f ields ,

i n o ur o pinion , w ere u tilised m ainly f or a gricultural p urposes ( see

b elow), b ut i t m ay b e s upposed t hat t heir w ater c ould b e u sed f irstly f or t he p eople o f t he v illage . I f s o , t he t otal q uantity o f w ater d isposed o f b y t he i nhabitants o f B uraq w as s ome 5 ,000 c u .

m .

A ccording t o P rofessor

E venari ts e stimate , t he c onsumption o f ah ypothetical f amily i n t he N egev i s 1 8 C u . m . p er y ear , 47 ) t he f amily i ncluding s ix s ouls , t wo c amels , t en s heep o r g oats, a n a ss a nd t wo d ogs . A m an n eeds 1 ,500 l itres o f w ater p er a nnum , a s a ss o r c amel 1 ,000 . t he s ame q uantity .

S heep a nd g oats n eed 5 00 l itres p er y ear , a nd a d og T he h uman c omposition a nd t he d omestic l ivestock

c omponent m ay b e r egarded a s v alid a lso f or t he r egion o f S amaria , i f w e s ubstitute c attle f or c amels . H irbet B uraq, p ossessed , w e t hink , s eventy a gricultural u nits,

e ach i ncluding,

t heoretically,

t hree g enerations

o f

n uclear f amilies l iving i n ac ommon c ourtyard h ouse . 6 0 c u . m . , a t a ny r ate , w ould h ave s ufficed f or t he u nit . 7 0 u nits multiplied b y 6 0 c u . m . p er y ear , m .

a nd

we h ave

s een

t hat

i n

o ur

s ettlement d isposed o f 5 ,000 c u .

a ssessment

m .

C alculating

w e r each t he f igure o f 4 ,200 c u .

o f w ater ,

o f

s torage

c apacity

t he

s o t hat t he b alance c ould b e

u tilised f or v arious o ther p urposes. M odern e stimates o f r ural A rab w ater c onsumption h ardly c ontradict t he a bove

c alculations .

A ccording

t o P rofessor

M .

B raver ,

t he

c onsumption o f

t he t raditional A rab v illage i s t en l itres p er d ay p er i ndividual , i .e . 3 .6 c u . m . p er a nnum . 48) W e m ay s um u p t hat t he q uantities o f w ater w hich t he p eople o f B uraq m anaged t o s tore w ere a dequate f or n ormal n eeds i n a ncient t imes . I n o ur c alculations w e h ave n ot t aken i nto a ccount t he p ossibilities o f c atching t he f lood-water c arried d own W adi S hu 'eb , w hich p asses a t t he f oot

o f

t he v illage ,

a nd

w e

s hould

n ot

n eglect

t he

p robability

t hat

t he

i nhabitants o f B uraq were a lert t o t he l arge q uantities o f f lood-water r esulting f rom t he w inter s pate , a nd m ay h ave e xploited t hem f or t heir n eeds - a s i s i ndeed e videnced b y t he r emains o f d ams r ecorded b y u s i n t he s treambed.

T he C ultivated A rea. T he c ultivated a rea o f H irbet B uraq w as t horoughly e xamined . b y

p rolonged

s cale o f

f ield-walking a nd

u se

o f

d etailed

A ssisted

a ir-photographs

( to

a

1 :3,000), we b elieve t hat we were a ble t o d efine i n d etail t he

t ract b elonging t o B uraq . a lready

t he

a scertained

b ene H assan ,

t he

W e w ere n ot w orking i n a v accuum , l imits

H an s a nd K arqush ,

o f

t he

c ultivated

a reas

w hich b order o n B uraq .

6 0

o f

s ince w e h ad

S arta ,

Q arawat

A ided b y t he m odel d eveloped i n o ur s urvey o f t he f ield t owers a nd t he a ncient r ural r oads,

w e w ere a ble t o l ocate t he c ultivation p lots a nd t he

f arm-units o f t he a ncient i nhabitants .

D uring o ur s urvey t he v illagers o f

E arls were working o nly s mall p lots i n t he a ncient c ultivation a rea o f B uraq . o perated

T hanks t o t he f act t hat t ractors a nd l ike machinery h ad n ot o n t he s aid a rea , t he a ncient p lots a nd b oundaries h ad r emained

u nimpaired , o pen

t o

a nd a c omplete t ownlet w ith i ts a gricultural p attern w as l aid

a rchaeological

a nd

a gricultural

i nvestigation .

T he

r esults

h ere

p roduced a re t he f irst f ruits o f t hese m ethods, u sed a t B uraq.

T he G eological B ackground:

t he S oils.

H irbet B uraq i s s ituated i n ar egion d ominated b y ab edrock o f t he U pper C enomanian - T uronian . 49) B a 'anah ,

S arta ,

T he c ommon r ock f ormations i n t he a rea a re

V eradim a nd ' Aminadav , 50 ) w hich c reate a h ard l imestone a nd

d olomite . K arstic p henomens a re f requent i n t he d istrict, a nd r ockf ragmentated s tretches d ominate . C liffs b order m ost o f t he w adis a nd t he t errain i s c haracterised b y s teep s lopes . T he s oils s o f ormed a re o f t he c lass o f b rown-red t erra r ossa , w hich i s c onsidered t o b e e xtremely f ertile .

W hen t hese s oils a re s ufficiently d eep

t hey a re e xcellent f or p lantations s uch a s

t he o live a nd t he v ine .5 1 )

M odern s oil c lassification d oes n ot f avour t hem ; o f

A griculture ,

s cientists

o f

t he

S oil

a nd

o fficials o f t he M inistry

W ater

I nstitute

a nd

t he

S oil

C onservation D epartment d escribe t hem a s " marginal s oil , o f h eavy g rade w ith s lopes o f o ver 3 5 d egrees , n ot w orth e mendment f or t he p urposes o f e xisting A rab v illage a griculture" . 52) v erdict

d id

n ot

p revent

A s we s hall s ee p resently , t his c rushing

t he a ncient

p easants

o f

B uraq

f rom

w orking e very

p ossible p atch, a nd t o j udge b y t he material f inds, f rom wresting a r espectable l ivelihood f rom s uch s oils . A t t he v ery o utset o f t he s urvey o f B uraq 's c ultivated a rea , w e n oticed t hat e very p atch , e xcepting s ome c liffs , w as c overed w ith t he r emains o f a ncient c ultivation t erraces ; e ven i n a reas whose g radient e xceeded 3 5 d egrees , w e f ound r emains o f a ncient t erracing. W ithin t he c ultivated t ract t here a re r ocky a reas w ith g radients o f a s m uch a s 3 0 - 1 00% .

S uch a reas a re i nconceivable i n m odern a griculture , a nd

e ven t raditional A rab a griculture r esorts t o t hem o nly f or l ack o f a n a lternative , c hiefly f or g razing a nd o ccasionally f or c rops . B ut w e h ave f ound a reas w ith t races o f a ncient c ultivation , f rom 7. 0 - 9 0% .

I t

i s o n t hese t hat

t he

w here t he r ock-cover v aries

t owers

a re g enerally b uilt,

r epresenting, w e t hink , t he a chievments o f a ncient p lantation c ulture.

T he A gricultural M ap . F ig. 4 3

T he f ields o f B uraq r etain t he b oundaries o f t he p lots a nd a gricultural i nstallations i n s itu . I n t he c ourse o f o ur s urvey w e p assed f rom p lot t o p lot,

e xamining t he b oundaries,

t he f ield w alls ,

a nd v arious i nstallations,

m easuring a nd p hotographing e very s ite w ith e vidence o f a ntiquity .

I n s ome

ases w e c onducted m inor e xcavations i n o rder t o e xamine t he c haracter o f P h. 2 5-28 c t he i nstallations, t he d epth o f t he s oil a nd t he a rchaeological p eriod . W e d evoted s pecial a ttention t o t he f ield t owers s cattered a bout B uraq 's c ultivated

a rea .

W e

h ave

e xplained

t heir

f unction

a nd

c haracter

c hapter o n t he s ubject , a nd t here i s n o n eed t o r ecapitulate h ere .

i n

o ur

W e w ould

emark , h owever , t hat i n o ur o pinion t hey p oint t o v iticulture , t o w hich t he F ig. 4 5-48 r

6 1

N umber o f P lot

A reas i n D unams

N umber o f P lot

A rea i n D unams

1 5

3

9 9

3 .5

5 0

3 .5

1 25

6

5 1

7 .5-10

1 28

1 .5 ( +2 d unam p lot w ith l imekiln ).

5 3

1 0-12.5

5 4

3 .5

1 31

5

5 5

3

1 32

2 .5

5 6

3

1 33

3 .5

7 1

5

1 37

6 .5 ( 3 t owers i n o ne p lot).

7 3

6

7 5

5

1 38

5 -7.5

7 8

5

1 39

7 .510

8 2

7 .5

1 40

3

8 3

6 -6.5

1 41

3 .5

8 4

1 2.5-15

1 42

5 -7.5

8 5

4

1 45

1 012.5

8 6

5

1 48

5( approx . a rea a s t his p lot i s n ot d emarcated).

1 0-12.5

2 12

4

6 .5

2 18

5 .5

1 51

7 .5

2 30

5

1 52

7

2 31

3 .5

1 53

2 .5

2 32

3 .5

1 54

1 012.5

2 33

3 .5

1 57

2 .5-3

2 34

6

1 49 1 50

-

6 2

N umber o f P lot

A reas i n D unams

N umber o f P lot

A rea i n D unams

1 58

3 .5

2 35 ( 4x )

1 2.5 ( 5 g rouped t owers i n 4

1 59

3

1 68

3 .5

1 82

1 012.5

6 5 p lots c ontaining

1 92

6

6 9 t owers.

1 95

3 .5

1 96

5 -7.5

1 97

2 .5

1 98

3 .5

2 00

p lots).

1 0 ( 2 t owers i n o ne p lot).

2 01

4

2 02

3

2 03

5

2 04

7 .5

2 07

5

2 09

5

2 11

1 0-12.5 ( possibly 3 d unams).

6 3

3 29.25 d unams.

s oils o f B uraq a re e xcellently a dapted .53) E ach t ower s tands i n a d efined p lot , w hose b oundaries a re m arked b y f ield w alls w hich i n m any c ases a re p reserved t o t he h eight o f a m etre o r m ore . I t s eems p robable t hat t he p lots w ith t owers w ere p art o f t he s oil-allotment o f t he i nhabitants o f B uraq f rom t he H ellenistic p eriod o nward ( See b elow) . I n t he c ourse o f g enerations t here w ere d oubtless c hanges i n t he p opulation a nd o wnership o f t he v illage l ands , b ut t he s oil a llotments , o n e ach o f w hich a t ower w as c entred , h ad p reserved t he f orm o f t he o riginal d istribution . H ence i n t he s uccessful l ocation a nd m easurement o f t he t owers o f t he B uraq t ract , l ay t he k ey t o t he s tructure o f t he a ncient f armer 's a llotment . W e f ollowed t his m ethod , a nd i ts r esults p roved t hemselves i n o ther v illage a reas a s w ell. F ig. 4 4

B esides v ineyards , w e l ocated a reas d evoted t o t he g rowing o f o lives a nd g rain . I f w e w ere l ucky e nough t o d iscover a n o live p ress o r ac learly m arked t hreshing f loor i n t he p lot , i t w as n ot d ifficult t o c lassify t he a rea 's a ncient l and u se . A s t o a reas l acking s uch i nstallations, w e p receeded a ccording t o t he f ollowing r ules : P lots o f t he b est s oil i n t he n earest z one r ound t he v illage w ere c lassified a mong t he o live g rowing u nits ; t his r ule i s s till c ustomary i n t raditional A rab a griculture . T he s ize o f t he o live-growing u nits i s n ot c onstant , b ut t heir p roximity t o t he v illage o il-presses w as i mportant , f or t he n earer t he p lantation t o t he v illage c entre t he more t he a ncient c ultivator s aved i n r espect o f t ransport , w hich w as c ostly , a nd t echnically d ifficult . T he c orn f ields a re f ound o n t he s econd z one o f t he v illage l ands , w here t he p roblem o f d istance w as l ess a cute , a s c orn w as g enerally t hreshed i n t he f ield , o n t he e vidence o f t he a ncient t hreshing f loors which w e f ound t here .

O ther

a reas , n ormally v ery r ocky , a nd f ar r emoved f rom t he v illage c entre , c lassified a s p ublic p roperty f or p urposes o f p asture a nd g eneral u se .

w ere

B esides c lassifying t he s oils w e r ecorded t he i nstallations i n e very p lot - s uch b eing w inepresses , k ilns a nd w ater c isterns . M uch a ttention was d evoted t o r ecording t he r oad-system a nd t he p aths, which were a n i ntegral p art o f t he a gricultural p attern o f B uraq 's c ultivation t ract . I n w hat f ollows w e s hall d escribe t he d etails o f t he a gricultural a rea . T he n umbering r efers t o m aps w hich 1 ) s how d istribution a nd t he a gricultural a rea,

a nd

2 ) s how t he c lassification o f t he s oils a nd t he p lots,

t he

d istribution o f t he t owers a nd t heir v arious i nstallations .

T he V ineyards. A g lance a t

t he t able s howing t he s izes o f

t he t ower a reas a nd t heir

a nalysis r eveals t he p rominence o f s mall p lots f rom o ne t o f ive d unams i n a rea . O ver 6 3 p er c ent o f t he p lots w ith t owers b elong t o t he 1 - 5 d unam g roup . I n t he c hapters o n v ine g rowing , w ine p roduction a nd t he f ield t owers o f S amaria , w e s ubmit p roofs t hat v ineyards w ere s mall i n t he a ncient w orld

b ecause s mall

E xamination o f

p easant

t he m ap

f armers

s howing

c ould

n ot

c ultivate

l arge v ineyards .

t he p atterns o f o ther v illages i n w estern

S amaria c onfirmed t he p icture f ound a t B uraq , n amely , t hat t he v ineyards w ere f airly s mall , a p lot o f o ver 1 5 d unams b eing r egarded a s e xceptional . I n M acedonian v illages o f t he l ate B yzantine p eriod t he a verage s ize o f t he v ineyard w as a pproximately 1 . 5 - 2d unams . A ccording t o e conomic d ocuments p reserved i n t he M acedonian m onasteries , t he s mall p rivate v ineyard w as o f d ecisive e conomic i mportance i n t he B yzantine v illage f armstead .) 4) A n i nteresting p henomenon i s t hat

6 4

t he c oncentrations

o f

f ield

t owers

a re r eached b y g ood a ccommodation r oads, a nd i t l ooks a s i f t ransport b etween t he f ields a nd t he v illage-centres w as r egarded a s o f t he g reatest i mportance ; t his f act i ndicates a m arketing s ystem o rganised a nd f ostered f or t he s ale o f a gricultural p roduce . F urther , i t p robably p oints t o w ell o rganised t rade , p rincipally f or e xport . A pparently t he i nhabitants o f H irbet B uraq e ngaged i n c ommercial w ine p roduction , a s i s p roved b y f inds i n t he s ettlement i tself . P lots 5 4-56 t estify t o t he m easure o f e xpertise a nd a gricultural s ophistication e xercised i n v inegrowing a nd w ine m anufacture i n t he B uraq a rea ; h ere t here w ere s igns t hat a gricultural c rops w ere g rown i n r ockcut t renches a nd i n ' boxes ' i n t he v ery m idst o f t he r ocky a reas . I t w ould s eem t hat t erraces w ere u tilised t o t rain t he v ines o ver t he r ocks , a nd t hat , u nlike t he m odern f armer , t he a ncient c ultivator d id n ot a ttempt t o b attle w ith t he r ocks b ut l earned t o e xploit t hem i n v arious w ays f or h is o wn b enefit . O n t he b asis o f 6 5 t ower-plots f ound i n t he f ields o f B uraq , w e w ould s uggest a m odel o f t he n umber o f a llotments e xistent i n t he s ettlement . I t w ould s eem t hat t he n umber o f t owers i n t he g iven a gricultural a rea c an i nform u s o f t he f i umber o f f amilies c ultivating t hose s ame p lots . I t m ay b e a ssumed t hat B uraq p ossessed 6 0 - 7 3 h oldings , a nd i t i s a n i nteresting f act t hat t his d atum c orresponds t o t he n umber o f h ouses i n t he s ettlement.

W inepresses i n t he F ields .

A part f rom t he w inepresses i n t he s ettlement o r

o n i ts o utskirts , a lready d escribed , f ive p resses w ere f ound i n t he c ourse o f t he s urvey i n t he f ields s urrounding t he s ettlement . M ost o f t hem a re n early u niform i n s hape , c omprising a s quare o r o blong t reading f loor a nd a c orresponding c ollecting t ank . T he p resses h ad g enerally b een c ut o n u niform a reas, t he d epth o f t he t ank u sually e xceeding 1 .00 m . T he t reading f loor h ad b een c ut i n a g radient f alling g ently t o t he t ank , w hile t he t ypical p ress h ad a h ole o r p ipe t hrough w hich t he m ust f lowed i nto i t . A ll t he p resses b elong t o T ype 1 o f o ur c lassification . A ll f ive p resses w ere f ound i n p lots 7 7, 1 01, 1 45, 1 82 a nd 2 35 . T hey s urround t he s ettlement, a nd t he q uestion a rises w hether t heir l ocation w as n ot t he o utcome o f s ome s ort o f a gricultural p lanning .

B esides t he l arge p resses i n

t he s ettlement i tself , t he r est a re c lose t o t ower-concentrations w ithin t he l ands o f B uraq . T hey p erhaps i ndicate a p eriod p rior t o t he R oman B yzantine a ge , a s t hey b elong t o a n a ncient t ype o riginating i n t he E arly I ron A ge , b ut which e xisted a lso i n t he H ellenistic p eriod . T he p resence o f a gricultural i nstallations i n t he f ields i s e vidence , w e t hink , o f f ree i ndependent c ultivators who p rocessed t heir o wn p roduce . T he l arge w inepresses n ear t he s ettlement m ay h int a t a c ommunal o rganisation f or p rocessing t he a gricultural p roduce , o r a t t he e xistence o f e state-owners o f t he R oman o r B yzantine p eriod . I t i s h ard t o r each a d ecision o n t his i mportant s ubject m erely o n t he g rounds o f t he n ature o f t he i nstallation .

T he O live G roves . F ollowing o ur a dopted u r ethod , w e s hall c lassify t he p lots w here o lives w ere g rown o n t he s trength o f o live o il p resses d etected i n t he f ields .

W e c ame t o r ealise t hat t he o live p lantations w ere l ocated

i n t he f irst b elt o f t he v illage l ands , a nd t he a reas s elected f or o lives c onstitute t he f inest i n t he c ultivated t ract . I t w ould s eem t hat t he o live w as o f g reat e conomic i mportance a t H irbet B uraq ;

t his

i s k nown f rom t he

t hree o live p resses f ound i n t he f ields , a nd f rom t he p resses i n t he v illage i tself . T he t otal a rea o f t he p lots p lanted w ith o lives a mounted , i n o ur o pinion , t o 2 30 d unams , b ut t hese w ere t he b est p lots , a nd t he a mount o f l abour i nvested i n t heir p reparation w as o bvious .

6 5

G enerally t he o live

t erraces h ad b eeen t horoughly c leared o f s tones ,

a nd t he ' tread ' o f t errace

o n w hich t he t rees w ere p lanted e xceeded f ive m etres . I n p lots 10 , 1 60 , 1 61, 1 62 a nd 1 63 , t he w idth o f t he t erraces v aried f rom 5 .50 t o 7 .00 m etres , t heir l ength r eaching 2 00 m . T he s lope w as g enerally m oderate , a nd s oil e rosion w as p revented b y b uilding t he t erraces i n t he c orrect d irection . T he a reas o f 2 0 o live p lantations o ut o f t he 2 4 d id n ot e xceed 1 2 .5 d unams , c omposing 8 3 p ercent o f t he t otal a rea . O nly f our p lots v aried f rom 1 5 -3 0 d unams . p asture

P ossibly s ome o f t he a reas w hich w e h ave d efined a s c ommon l and , o r u ndefined u se , w ere p lanted w ith o lives . A s u sual i n a ncient

a griculture , t he o live p lantations w ere i ntercultivated w ith s uch c rops a s c ereals , v egetables a nd o ther p lants .

F ig. 4 9 , P h. 2 9

5 0

T he O il P resses . B uraq .

T hree o il p resses w ere r ecorded i n t he f ields o f H irbet

I n a ctual f act, o nly t heir s tone r eception b asins h ad s urvived .

T hey b elong a ccording t o o ur c lassification ,

t o t ype 5 ,

t hat i s ,

t hey w ere

o pen-air p resses s ituated i n t he f ields . A b asin 2 .40 - 2 .50 m . i n d iameter h ad b eeen c ut i n t he r ock a t t he e nd o f p lot 1 22 , o n t he e dge o f t he c liff . A p ath , a lso r ockcut , s urrounded t he b asin , a pparently f or t he b easts a s t hey t urned t he r evolving c rushers .

T he p ress b elonging t o 1 81 w as f ound a t

t he b ottom o f a r ock s lope , i n a n a rea c ut a nd p repared e specially f or t he p ress . T he c ircumference o f t he r eception b asin w as t wo m etres , a nd i t c ontained a s inking f or t he c rusher-pivot i n i ts c entre . A p ath f or t he b easts , a m etre w ide , h ad b een c ut r ound t he b asin . N orth o f t he v illage , i n p lot 10 , w as a r ockcut r eception b asin c overed b y e rosion s oil . T he v illage i tself r etained , a s a lready m entioned , t he r emains o f t wo o r t hree o il p resses . W e e stimate ( see f or d etail t he c hapter o n o live g rowing a nd o il p roduction ) t hat a s ingle o il-press c ould p rocess a c rop o f 5 0 -7 0 d unams p lanted w ith o lives . I f t he 1 4 o r 1 5 p resses a t B uraq w orked t ogether , o ur e stimate i s c orrect . B ut i f w e a ssume t hat s ome o f t he o pen-air p resses w ere n o l onger w orking i n t he B yzantine p eriod , i t m ust b e s upposed t hat t he v illage i tself p ossessed p lants e quipped w ith s everal s ets o f r eception b asins a nd c rushers , w hich w ere s ufficient f or t he p rocessing .

C orn G rowing A reas. I n t he p roposed d ivision o f

t he c ultivated a rea w e h ave s uggested 4 2

p lots, t otalling 4 27.5 - 4 70 d unams, a s a reas i n w hich c orn w as g rown . T hese f ormed t he s econd a nd t hird b elts s urrounding t he s ettlement , a nd m uch l abour h ad b een i nvested i n t he a melioration o f t heir s oil . D espite d elving a nd s tone-clearing a nd t he b uilding o f t erraces a nd f ences , p lots c ontain n ot a f ew p atches o f r ocks a nd r ocky o utcrops .

t he c orn W e h ave

f urther c lassified m any o f t he s lopes a nd s teeply-graded a reas a s a rable , o n t he a nalogy o f t he a ctual s ituation i n r ecent y ears , c ultivation w as e xploiting s uch a reas f or c ereals . A

w hen t raditional A rab

g lance a t t he a nalytical t able o f t he p lots a ccording t o t heir a reas

i n d unams . ( The t able s hows u s t hat m ost o f t hem b elong t o t he g roup o f 1 -7 .5 d unams , 2 6 p lots c omprising 1 5 .25 p ercent ) . T here a re a reas w hose s ize v aried f rom 7 .5 t o 1 5 d unams ( 9 p lots ), a nd t hree f rom 1 5 - 2 5 d unams . T he a reas o f 8 3 p ercent o f t he p lots d id n ot e xceed 1 5 d unams . T he l arger u nits m ay h ave b een w orked i n ad ifferent f ashion f rom t he s mall o nes , w here t he

p recise

p lots,

d ivision

o r d id

i s

c learly

t hey b elong

r ecognisable .

W ere

t o w ealthy c ultivators?

6 6

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f ormer

A t

c ommunal

p resent

i t

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c i ;

0 C )

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A reas o f A rable . N umber o f P lot

A reas i n D unams

N umber o f P lot

A rea i n D unams

5 .5

1 91

2 7.5-30

1 03

2 0-22.5

2 14

3 .5

1 05

1 517.5

2 15

3 .5

1 06

2

2 16

4

1 07

5

2 17

7 .5-10

1 08

4

2 19

4

1 09

5 .5

2 20

2 .5

11

5 .5

2 21

3

12

1

2 22

2 .5

13

2 .5

2 23

3

14

5 .5

2 24

5 -7.5

15

6

2 25

5 -7.5

16

3

2 26

7 .5-10

17

5

2 27

1 0-12.5

18

1

2 28

1 012.5

19

2

2 29

7 .510

1 21

7 .5-10

1 22

7 5

1 23

4 7.5-5.50

1 24

7 .5

1 44

1 2.515

1 64

5 .5

1 65

1 0-12.5

1 66

4 0-42.5

1 89

2 0-22.5

1 90

1 012.5

7 4

4 2 p lots

6 8

4 70 d unams.

i f b l A P d i t s o r a e o s a c o r

o C e ) I •

L n • N

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C9

d ifficult t o a nswer t his q uestion . T hreshing F loors .

S ix

t hreshing

f loors

w ere

o bserved

i n • the

f ields

o f

H irbet B uraq . T hey w ere b uilt o n ac ommon p rinciple ; t hey w ere r ock a reas o f u p t o 2 0 m etres , s lightly l evelled a nd s ometimes s urrounded b y s tone walls . T hey were n ot l evelled w ith a bsolute p recision , a nd s ometimes e xhibited a c onsiderable s lope . T here w ere t hree f loors i n p lot 1 05 . T his p henomenon o f g rouped f loors w as n oticed i n o ther v illages s uch a s S hehedah , a nd H amad . T hat i n 7 9, which m easured 1 3 x 1 4 metres, w as c ompletely s urrounded b y ah igh s tone w all . T he f loor i n p lot 2 00 w as a ssociated w ith t wo t owers , a p henomenon n ot p eculiar t o B uraq , b ut n oticed a lso i n o ther v illages. T he f loor i n p lot 1 67 w as p laced n ear a n i nternal f ield-way ;

i t s hould

a lso b e r emarked t hat s ome o f t he a ncient t hreshing f loors a re s till u sed b y t he v illagers f or t he s ame p urpose .5 5 )

I rrigated A griculture a nd A uxiliary I rrigation . W e w ere n ot a l ittle s urprised

F ig. 5 1 P h. 3 0

t o d iscover t hat i n t heir f ields t he

a ncient i nhabitants o f B uraq h ad d eveloped a n e fficient s ystem o f i rrigation w hich d rew o n r ainwater c isterns . O nly a fter w e h ad m ade a c loser s tudy o f t he l atter , o f t he l eats , o f t he a rrangements f or c ollecting t he w ater a nd o f t he c ultivation p lots c onnected w ith t hem , d id w e r ealise t hat w e w ere d ealing , n ot o nly w ith a uxiliary i rrigation , b ut w ith a n a ctual s ystem o f f ull h ill i rrigation . S ix r ockcut c isterns w ere r ecorded a t t he e nd o f p lot

1 88,

which

c overs

c ampanulate i n f orm ,

a pproximately

6 0

d unams .

w ith a d iameter o f 4 -5 m .

T he

c isterns

a re

a nd o f c onsiderable d epth ,

a lthough d ue t o e rosion o nly 5 -6 m . w ere v isible . T he c isterns a re w ellp lastered, a nd t heir a pertures were c overed b y l arge s tones which h ad p revented t he p enetration o f s ilt a nd f oreign b odies . d iffered f rom t hose f ound a t v arious p laces i n t he l ocal

T hese c isterns s ettlements a nd

b uilt t o s erve h uman n eeds. T he a gricultural c isterns a re o f l arge c apacity , e ach s ufficient t o h old s ome 2 00 c u . H4 T hey p ossess c ollecting a rrangements i n t he f orm o f l ong c hannels o n t he h illslopes, a nd t heir a pertures , w hich o pen t owards t he c ultivated p lots , w ere p janned s o t hat t heir w ater c ould b e d rawn b y h and o r w ith a s wing-beam ( KnÄ ( , )v ) . I n s ome c isterns w e f ound s lots f or w ooden f rames , a pparently t he r emains o f c ontrivances f or d rawing w ater . R ockcut c hannels r an d own f rom t he c isterns t o-the n earby p lots , n o d oubt t o c arry a uxiliary i rrigation w ater . P lot 1 88 w as b uilt i n ag orge 9 00 m etres l ong a nd w ith a n a verage w idth o f 8 0 m . T ransverse t erraces h ad b een c onstructed d own t he e ntire l ength o f t he v alley , s o f acilitating i rrigation f rom t he c isterns . T he v alley h ad b een d ivided i nto p lots o f 3 0 x2 6 m ; 1 x 3 0 m ; 1 5 x3 4 m . ; a nd 2 4 x 3 4 m . i n a rea . W e c ounted 1 7 s uch p lots l inked t ogether i n a n o rderly a nd s ystematic f ashion . P art o f t he t errace w alls h ad b een b uilt t o ah eight o f 1 . 50 m . , a nd a b readth o f 1 .00 m . , t o e nable g ravitational f low . C isterns f or a gricultural n eeds w ere f ound i n o ther p lots s uch a s 1 80 , 1 22 , 1 67, 1 82 a nd 1 63, a nd t he t otal i rrigable a rea e xceeded 9 0 d unams .

W e s tudied

e vidence o f s uch a uxiliary i rrigation o n o ther s ites i n w estern S amaria , a nd w ill d escribe t hem e lsewhere . C ertain a spects o f a gricultural i rrigation h ave b een s tudied a mong t he m ountains o f J udaea , a nd sp ie f eatures o f i ts i nstallations ,

s cale o f p lots a nd c ultivation a re k nown .

T he r esearches o f D r . Z vi R on ,

u /

w ho h as s tudied t he a ncient s ystems a nd

7 0

c ompared t hem w ith t hose s till o perating i n t he A rab v illages ,

h ave s hown

t hat h ardly a ny c hange h as t aken p lace i n m ethods o f w ork o r i n t he n ature o f t he i nstallations . T raditional A rab i rrigation d oes i ndeed e xploit p erennial s prings, b ut i n a ncient t imes u se was a lso made o f r ainwater c isterns , a s t he M ishnah t estifies .5 7 ) P rofessor Y ehudah F elix h as l ong s tressed t he i mportance o f a uxiliary i rrigation , i ts i nstallations a nd m ethods i n a ncient a griculture , a s r eflected i n J ewish s cholarly s ources .5 8 ) H e i s o f t he o pinion t hat t he c istern w ater w as u tilised m ainly t o i rrigate v egetables , a nd t he i rrigated p lots i n t he A rab v illages a re s till u tilised t o g row t hem f or h ome c onsumption a nd f or t he m arket .

P rofessor S . A vitzur

t hinks t hat t hese v egetables p ossess a n e conomic v alue w ith w hich o nly o live p lantations c an c ompete .5 9 ) T he e conomic v alue o f a w ater-cistern w ould s eem t o h ave b een v ery c onsiderable i n a ncient t imes a lso . A n o rchard w ith a c istern a t N essana , a ccording t o P apyrus 3 2 , w as l eased , l essees r eceived o nly a q uarter o f t he c istern 's w ater .6 0 )

A reas o f u ndefined l and-use.

b ut o ne o f

t he

C ommon l ands.

A reas t otalling o ver 6 00 d unams h ave b een c lassed h ere a s o f u ndefined u se . T hey c omprise c ommonlands , p asture , b uilt-up a reas a nd r oads . T his g roup i ncludes 2 5 c learly d elimited p lots o f a pproximately 2 28 d unams . P lots 7 7-80 c ontained f olds f or s heep a nd c attle ;

t hey c ould a lso h ave b een

u sed f or p rivate o r p ublic p asture . P lot 1 35 h as a k arstic c istern i mproved b y h uman a ction a nd c onverted t o a n o pen r eservoir f or a gricultural u se b y t he i nhabitants o f B uraq .

W e f ound n o e vidence f or t he u se o f t he

r emaining p lots , b ut s ome m ay h ave b een a rable o r o rchards o f v arious t ypes . S ome h undred d unams m ust b e s ubtracted f rom t he t otal a reas f or b uildings , q uarries a nd r oads .

H andicrafts . B esides t he a gricultural b ranches d escribed a bove , t here i s a rchaeological e vidence f or s everal h andicrafts , s uch a s t he p roduction o f l ime a nd s tone-quarrying . T here m ay h ave b een o thers w hich h ave l eft n o t races i n s tone , a nd w hich w e a s y et a re u nable t o d istinguish . S uch c rafts s upplemented a n e conmomy b ased c hiefly o n t he a gricultural b ranches.

L imekilns.

F ig. 5 2

1 „ imekilns w ere r ecognised i n p lots 1 05, 1 71 a nd 1 67, a lso n orth o f t ower-plot 1 28 . T he k ilns a re o f s tandard s hape , b eing p its l ined w ith s tone ( diameter 3 . 6 m . , d epth d own t o 3 m . ) . T he a bove-ground s tructure w as a s tout b ank o f s oil a nd s tones w hich s urrounded t he k iln .

M uch l abour

h ad b een i nvested i n t he c onstruction o f t hese k ilns , s ince t he g reat h eat r equired t o p roduce t he l ime d emanded t hat t he p its b e f aced w ith t hick d ouble-coursed m asonry r evetments . T he l imekilns w ould a ppear t o h ave p ossessed c onsiderable e conomic c ould n ot b e m ade w ithout l ime , v ital c isterns . T he l ime m ay a s t he c omposition a nd d ilution

i mportance , s ince c lay-plaster f or b uilding w hich w as n eeded p rincipally t o p laster t he h ave h ad a dditional a gricultural u ses , s uch o f m aterials t o e xterminate p ests . S ulphur ,

w hich w as u sed a gainst f ruit d iseases , c ould a lso b e d iluted w ith l ime .

Q uarries .

A ncient q uarries were e xamined

H irbet B uraq, s everal

1 ,200 m . f rom t he v illage .

d unams ,

b eing

r ecognisable

b y

7 1

t he

i n t he c liff n orth-east o f

T he q uarry a rea e xtends o ver q uarrying

m ethods

w hereby

t he

U ndefined C ultivated P lots. N umber o f P lot

A rea i n D unans

7 7

1 012.5

7 9

1 0-12.5

8 0

6 5 ( Pasture a rea?)

1 20

2 .5-5

1 26

1

1 27

1 .5

1 34

2

1 35

3( Main w ater r eservoir )

1 36

2

1 46

7 .510

1 47

1 0-12.5

1 55

5 -7.5

1 85

5 .-7.5

1 86

7 .510

1 87

1 0-12.5

1 93

7 .5-10

1 94

2 .5-5

. 1 96

5 -7.5

1 99 .

5 -7.5

2 05

2

2 06

5

2 08

4

2 10

5

2 37

7 .5

2 39

1 2.5

2 5 P lots.

2 28 d unams.

m asons s ought a nd f ound t he c orrect t ype o f s tone .

I n s ome o f t he q uarries

t he q uarrying h ad p enetrated a nd r emoved t he r ock t o a d epth o f 1 5-20 m . , a nd t he w alls o f t he q uarry t estify t o i ntensive u se . I t w ould s eem t hat t his a rea a nd t he q uarries n ear t he s ettlement w ere t he s ource o f b uilding s tone u sed t o b uild t he h ouses a nd t owers o f B uraq . T he a ppearance o f t hese q uarries g ives t he i mpression t hat t hey w ere s upervised b y p rofessionals w ho w orked i n a n o rderly a nd m ethodical f ashion . T his m ay i ndicate c ommunal o wnership o f t he c ommunity 's r esources , b ut w e h ave n o a ctual p roof o f t his . A t a ny r ate i t i s c lear t hat a ll t he c ultivated a reas s urveyed p ossessed , w ithin t he s ettlement t erritories , l arge q uarries f rom w hich b uilding s tone w as d erived . I t m ay a lso b e a ssumed t hat t he q uarries n ear t he S hephelah s old t heir s tone t o s ettlements w hich l acked t he s aid c ommodity .

H irbet B uraq - T he T heoretical S tructure o f a n A gricultural H olding. T hanks t o a r are c ombination o f c hance f actors , a n a ncient

t ownlet w ith i ts h ouses a nd i ts f ields .

t hough a bandoned i n t he B yzantine p eriod , e nabled u s t o s urvey i ts h abitations, i nstallations .

w e w ere a ble t o l ocate A n e ntire s ettlement ,

h ad p reserved i ts

f ramework a nd

i ts s treets a nd i ts a gricultural

T raditional A rab a griculture h ad b arely u tilised t he a reas

o f H irbet B uraq , s o t hat w e w ere a ble t o e xamine t hem p lot b y p lot b efore m odern m achinery r eached t he r egion . B y m eans o f c oordinated p edestrian s urveys , a ir p hotographs a nd a rchaeological e xcavations , w e w ere a ble t o d raw m aps o f t he c ultivated a rea o f B uraq . T he f ield t owers a nd t he r ural r oads h elped u s t o e volve a m odel o f i ndividual a nd p ublic h oldings . O ur m ethod i ndicated t hat H irbet B uraq w as a t ypical m edium-sized S amarian t ownlet , w hose e stimated p opulation w as b etween 1 ,000 a nd 1 ,500 s ouls . T he i nhabitants l ived i n 6 0 o r 7 0 c ourtyard h ouses w hich c omprised t he h oldings o f s everal g enerations . I n o ur o pinion t he c orrelation b etween t he f ield t owers a nd t he s tructures i n t he v illage i s n ot h aphazard , c alculate t he n umber o f h oldings i n t he s ettlement .

a nd h elps u s t o

W e s hall t herefore e ndeavour t o c onstruct a t heoretical

m odel o f

t he

a gricultural h olding i n t he p ossession o f t he c ultivators o f B uraq . A s a p oint o f d eparture w e m ay t ake t he 7 0 f ield t owers , w hich t ogether w ith t he 7 0 c ourtyard h ouses e nable a r econstruction o f t he n umber o f a gricultural h oldings a t B uraq . W e d o n ot c laim t hat t he u nits r emained e qual i n t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriod , a nd i t m ay b e s upposed t hat b oth w ealthy a nd p oor a nd p erhaps a lso w ell-to-do p easants w ere t o b e f ound . B ut t he e xistence o f 7 0 h oldings w as t he b asis o f B uraq 's v illage s tructure . I t m ay h ave o riginated i n t he E arly I ron A ge a nd p ersisted t ill t he H ellenistic p eriod ,

w hose i nfluence o n S amaria h as s till t o b e p roperly a ssessed .

7 3

T he C omposition o f t he A gricultural L and o f B uraq. L and U se.

A rea ( Dunams).

P ercentage o f t he

A rea i n D unams

T otal L and A rea .

o f t he P rivate H olding.

V ineyards

3 60

2 0.2

5 .1

O live G roves

2 30

1 2.9

3 .2

C orn G rowing A reas 4 70

2 6.4

6 .7

5

1 .2

I rrigated A gr. a nd A uxiliary I rrigation

9 0

C ommon l ands

5 28

2 9.6

7 .5

Q uarries, R oads

1 00

5 .6

1 .1

T otal

1 ,780

T otal 2 5

A t f irst s ight t wo f acts s tand o ut : a rea

i s

n ot

l arge ,

a nd a s

a r esult

t he

T he t otal a rea o f c onjectured u nit

t he c ultivated

i s

r ather s mall .

B ut a n e stimation o f t he f acts o n t he g round a nd c omparisons w ith t he f arms o f s mall c ultivators i n t his c ountry a nd i n t he s urrounding c ountries i n a ncient C ereals

t imes , l ead t o t he c onclusion t hat w e h ave h ere a n ormal h olding . c ould b e g rown o n 6 0% , i .e . o n s ome 1 5 d unams o f t he a rea o f t he

e ntire t heoretical h olding o f 2 5 d unams . T he l atter i ncluded t he v ineyard a nd t he o live p lantation i n w hich c orn w as g rown b etween t he t rees . E ven i f w e f ollow t hose s cholars w ho t hink t hat t he c orn y ields w ere l ow i n a ncient t imes , s uch a n a rea c ould s upply a m inimal q uantity o f c ereals p er p erson ( See i n d etail t he C hapter o n c ereals) . G rain m ay h ave b een p urchased f rom o ther v illages i n l ean y ears ,

w hile

g overnment t axes w ere d efrayed w ith t he w ine a nd o il i n w hich H irbet B uraq e xcelled . T o j udge b y t he r emains o f m aterial c ulture s urviving a t B uraq , i ts p eople e njoyed a r easonable s tandard o f l iving , f or t heir c onstruction w as a greeable a nd e ven s pacious , a nd t hey p ossessed e nough t o e rect p ublic b uildings a dorned w ith m osaic p avements . f or w ine , o live t rees f or o il , a nd g rain ,

T hey s uccessfully g rew v ines a nd m aintained i rrigated a reas

w hose p roduce w as i n c onstant d emand . F locks a nd p erhaps c attle w ere g razed a round t he s ettlement . S tone—quarrying a nd l ime f or b uilding c ertainly m ade t heir c ontribution t o t he e conomy . T he c entral b ranch a ppears t o h ave b een w ine , f or t he t wo l arge p resses n ear t he v illage c ould p roduce 7 0 ,000 t o 8 0,000 l itres p er y ear , a nd i f w e a dd t he p resses i n t he f ields, t he a mount w as e ven l arger . T he a ncient i nhabitants o f E retz Y israel l oved w ine, a nd p art o f t he v intage was c onsumed o n t he s pot . B ut i t m ay b e r easonably s upposed t hat m ost o f t he p roduce w as f or s ale , a nd w e b elieve t hat t he w ine w as m arketed t o t he n eighbouring c ountries . W ith t he i ncome o btained

f rom

t he

s ale,

t he

i nhabitants o f

B uraq

c ould

t hus a cquire

n ecessary e xternal c ommodities a nd s o m aintain a f air s tandard o f l iving . T he a rea w hich e njoyed a uxiliary i rrigation m ay h ave s upplied v egetables a nd o ther c rops t o t he i nhabitants , b ut t o j udge f rom i ts s ize , b e

s old

t o

s urpluses c ould

t he v illage which l acked a rrangements f or i rrigation .

7 4

A n

a gricultural s ettlement w hich w as u nable t o s ell i ts s urplus p roduce c ould n ot h ave a fforded t o b uild d ecorative p ublic b uildings l ike t hose a t B uraq . G edalyah A lon 's v iew o n t he c haracter o f t he p easant i n t his c ountry i n t he p eriod o f t he M ishnah a nd t he T almud i s a ccepted b y s cholars .

H e h eld

t hat t he p redominant f igure w as t he s mallholder , w ho w orked h is h olding w ith h is o wn h ands a nd w ith t hose o f h is f amily ,

a nd w hose l ivelihood w as h is

f arm .61) I t i s p robable t hat t his p icture f its s ettlements o f t he t ype o f B uraq . T he f amily h olding , h owever s mall , w as r egarded a s ap ossession a nd a s ymbol , w hich m ust n ever b e g iven u p . T osephtah c laims t hat " no m an i s p ermitted t o s ell t he f ield w hich i s h is h olding a nd p ut t he m oney i n h is p urse t o b uy c attle a nd t ools a nd s laves a nd r ear s heep a nd g oats o r t rade w ith t hem ; a nd i f h e d oes s o, h e b ecomes a p oor man ." 62 ) T he p icture r eflected i n t he a bove p assage i s a p reference f or t he a gricultural h olding a s o pposed t o a ny o ther f orm o f o ccupation , i ncluding t rade . I t m ay r easonably b e a ssumed t hat t he a gricultural h olding f urnished a d ecent l iving t o t he p easant f amily s o l ong a s h e w as n ot g overned b y a f oreign p ower a nd s o l ong a s c onditions d id n ot u ndergo a n e xtreme d eterioration . D irect e vidence f or t he s ize o f t he p easant h olding i n t his c ountry i s s parse ,

b ut f rom i ndirect e vidence i t i s c lear t hat

s ometimes e ven t iny . p ermissibly d ivided,

t he a reas w ere s mall ,

W hen d iscussing t he s ize o f a f ield w hich c ould b e a reas c ited b y t he M ishnah a re a lmost d iminutive ,

a rable p lots o f a pproximately 0 .5 t o o ne d unam a re m entioned, a lso a v ineyard o f 3 92 s q . m . a nd p lots f or g rowing i rrigated v egetables o f 3 2-66 s q . m . 63 ) A S adducee c laimed b efore R . H aninah b ar T ama t hat h e h ad i nherited a B eth S aah ( 784 s q . m .) f rom h is f ather , a nd h is e ntire n eeds w ere d erived f rom t hat s mall p atch .6 4 ) T his s tory , i ndeed , i s t old i n t he c ontext o f w onders c oncerning t he f ertility o f t he l and o f I srael , b ut t he s ize

o f

t he p lot

w as

c ertainly a w ell-known s oil-unit .

I n a nother

s ource ,6 5 )l ikewise i n t he c ontext o f a p arable a nd a n e xample , t he t ale i s t old o f a m an w ho s old a n a rea o f a B eth K ur ( 23 .5 d unams ) a t a l ow p rice , a nd t he p urchaser d eveloped i t b y p lanting i t w ith a v ariety o f g ood c rops t ill t he s eller d ied o f c hagrin . A B eth K ur w as d escribed a s ah olding i n e very s ense , c ontaining k itchen-gardens, f ruit t rees a nd o rchards, t he d evelopment o f w ater s ources , c isterns a lso b eing m entioned . T he c hurch f ather E usebius r elates f rom H egesippus t hat t he t wo g randsons o f J udah , J esus ' b rother , e arned t heir l iving f rom a n a rea o f 3 9 p lethra .6 6) A ll t he e xamples c ite s mall p lots o f t he s ort t o b e f ound i n t he a gricultural a reas o f B uraq . T he h ill-farming o f E retz Y israel w ould s eem t o h ave b een s o i ntensive

a nd

a gricultural

s ophisticated

t hat

e ven

s mall

p atches

w ere

o f

h igh

v alue .

I t i s a n i nteresting f act

t hat i n t he N essana p apyri t he a verage a rea

o f a n a gricultural p lot i s o ne d unam .6 7) A mong t he a reas l eased i n t he B ar K okhba d ocuments o f t he w ilderness o f J udaea , a ppear p arcels o f f ive B atei s aah ( approximately 4 d unams = 1 a cre ) .6 8) T he a rchaeological p roofs f ound a t B uraq w ould s eem t o c orrespond v ery f airly w ith t he w ritten d ocuments i n t his c ountry . A g lance a t t he n eighbouring M editerranean c ountries c onfirms t he b elief t hat t he n ormal p easant h olding w as s mall, a nd s ometimes d iminutive. I n a n i nvestigation i nto t he R oman s mallholder 's f arm , J .M . F rayn 6 9 ) c laims t hat s mall a nd p etty f arms o f n o m ore t han 5 -25 d unams ( 4-24 h ectares) c ontinued t o e xist i n m any p arts o f i mperial I taly . I t i s b elieved t hat a n a rea o f 5 d unams ( 2 i ugera ) w as t hought t o h ave b een t he a ncient R oman h olding o n w hich t he p easant f amily f ound i ts l iving.

7 5

S cholars h ave a lso s tated, i n a s tudy o f t he v illage e conomy o f B yzantine M acedonia , t hat t he s ize o f t he h olding w as d etermined b y t he n umber o f o xen o n t he p easant 's f arm . A f arm p ossessing t wo o xen c ould c ultivate 3 5-36

d unams ,

a f arm

w ith o ne

o x - o nly

2 7 .5

d unams.

A f arm

w ithout a n o x d id n ot o btain m ore t han 1 80 d unams i n l ease . 7°) T hese d ata w ere p resumably b ased o n m any y ears o f e xperience i n m ountainous G reece , a nd t he i nformation m ay b e a pplied t o t his c ountry . I t w ould s eem t hat a n a rea o f 2 0-25 d unams w as c onsidered o ptimal i n r espect o f t he a bility o f t he f armer a nd h is f amily t o w ork i t d iligently , h ence o ur e stimate f or B uraq c an b e r egarded a s c redible . F or c omparison w e m ay r evert t o t he t raditional A rab a griculture o f t oday , q uoting Q armon a nd S hemueli 's s tudy o f t he c ultivated a reas o f H ebron . R esearch c onducted i n t he n ineteens ixties

f ound

t hat

a griculture h eld f irst p lace i n t he t own 's e conomy ,

7 0

p ercent o f i ts p opulation h olding l and . 8 5 p ercent o f t he p roprietors h eld p lots whosg a rea v aried f rom 1 t o 2 0 d unams, w hich f urnished t heir l ivelihood. / 1)

T he H istorical S etting o f H irbet B uraq. A p artial r econstruction o f t he h istory o f B uraq i s p ossible o nly f rom t he a rchaeological m aterial , s ince w e h ave n o o ther s ource f rom w hich t o t hrow l ight o n t he h istory o f t he t ownlet o r i ts n eighbours . T he p lace w ould a ppear t o h ave b een e stablished a s a s mall v illage i n t he E arly I ron A ge , a nd c ontinued t o e xist w ithout v isible u pheavals i n t he P ersian p eriod . T he s ite 's r elative r emoteness f rom S hechem a nd S amaria , ( 19 k m . a s t he c row f lies) ,

e nsured i ts i solation f rom f ocal e vents o ccurring i n t he l arge u rban

c entres o f t he S amarian m ountains . I n t he H ellenistic a nd H asmonean p eriod s ubstantial c hanges t ook p lace a t B uraq . A pparently t here w as o rganised c olonisation i n t he r egion , b oth m ilitary a nd c ivilian , e vidence o f w hich i s a fforded b y t he f ield t owers o f t he

t ownlet .

I n

t he

s ame

p eriod

B uraq ,

w e

b elieve,

a cquired

i ts

a rchitectural c haracter , c onsiderable p arts o f w hich w e h ave b een a ble t o d escribe . T he R oman o ccupation o f t he c ountry a nd t he t wo g reat r ebellions r esulted , i t s eems , i n a g rave d ecline a nd p erhaps e ven i n t he t emporary a bandonment o f B uraq , a s t he s urveys h ave f ound n o p ottery b elonging t o t hat p eriod. L ater ,

p erhaps ,

a fter t he S econd R evolt ,

c ame r ecovery a nd t he p lace

w as r esettled . I t w ould a ppear t hat t here w ere c hanges i n i ts p opulation , o ther e lements b eing a dded t o t he S amaritan i nhabitants . T he n ame D ositheos f ound o n t he wall o f t he l arge w inepress t ells u s o f a p opulation w ith J ewish a nd S amaritan n ames . I n t he l ate R oman a nd B yzantine p eriod C hristianity p enetrated B uraq , a s i s s hown b y t he p lace 's s mall c hurch . T he C hristian p enetration o n t he o ne h and a nd t he a bandonment o f t he v illage o n t he o ther , w ere c onnected w ith t he a ttempt o f t he B yzantine g overnment t o f orce C hristianity u pon t he S amaritans . P rocopius t estifies t hat i n J ustinian 's r eign t his w as d one,, a nd p art o f t he p opulation a ccepted t he n ew r eligion a t l east o utwardly ./ 2 ) T he p easants, a nd p erhaps a lso t he i nhabitants o f B uraq , n ot r econciled t o t he i mperial d ecree , t ook u p a rms a nd f ought t he B yzantines . T ens o f t housands o f t hem f ell i n b attle , a nd many e states h eld b y C hristian o wners r emained w ithout t enants a nd l abourers . B uraq s eems t o h ave b een f inally e vacuated p rior t o t he A rab c onquest,

f or

t he

s urvey f ound

n o e vidence

p eriod.

7 6

r elating

t o

t he

e arliest

A rab

C hapter I II T he R ural F armhouse o f S amaria. Knowledge o f t he f orm a ssumed b y t he r ural dwelling o f S amaria i s l ikely t o c ontribute m uch t o t he s tudy o f t he s ocial a nd e conomic s tructure o f t he a ncient v illage i n E retz Y israel . T he h ouse , i ts u tensils a nd i ts f arm b uildings s hould r eveal t he m ost p rominent r ecognition - m arks o f i ts m aterial c ulture .

P revious c hapters h ave s tudied t he a ppearance a nd

c haracter o f t he f armhouses, t he v illages a nd o f c omplete t ownlets ; t he p urpose o f t he p resent c hapter i s a t entative d ecription o f t he h ome o f t he p easant f amily i n s o f ar a s t his c an b e d educed f rom t he r esults o f a f ield s urvey. T rial e xcavations w ere c arried o ut o n s ome s ites, a nd o ther h ouses w ere e xamined a nd m easured w hen t heir s tate o f p reservation was s uch a s t o m ake t heir p lans c omprehensible .

T he v illage d welling i s a s ubject w orthy o f a

w ider s tudy i n i ts o wn r ight,

a nd may a ssist u s

t o

r econstruct

t he

r ural

l andscape, c hiefly i n t he p eriod o f t he M ishnah a nd t he T almud .

1 ,

T he R ural H omes o f t he E arly I ron A ge. T wo t ypes o f r ural h ouse a re f ound i n E arly I ron A ge S amaria. a )

T he f our-room h ouse.

b )

T he o blong h ouse.

T he f our-room h ouse h as b een t he s ubject o f c omprehensive s tudies ,

b ut

w ithout r eference t o t he r ural l andscape . Y igael S hiloh' ) a nd o thers n ote t hat t he f our-room h ouse was o riginally i nvented a nd d eveloped b y t he I sraelite t ribes, a nd

1 0th

b eing c ommon i n I srael a nd i n J udaea a s e arly a s t he 1th

c enturies

B .C .E .

T his

h ouse

u sed f or f armwork a nd h andicrafts . t he c hambers r ound i t .

h as

a c entral

c ourtyard

w hich w as

T he c ourtyard a dmitted l ight a nd a ir t o

T he m ain r esidential a rea o ccupied t he e ntire r ear

e nd o f t he y ard . A long t he s ides o f t he y ard w ere a reas s eparated f rom i t b y r ows o f p illars a nd c olumns . I n t he c ourse o f t he s urvey o f w estern S amaria w e w ere a ble t o d iscover t he o riginal p rototype o f t he f our-room h ouse, which may b e s uch a s t o i nform u s o f t he b eginning o f t he t ype i n t he r ural l andscape . E ast o f T zur F ig. 5 3

N athan ( G .R .

1 524-1831)

T he b uilding

w e s urveyed a s tructure m easuring

i s b uilt o f

1 5 .40 b y

1 9 .80

t wo o uter r ubble f aces e nclosing a f ill,

t hickness o f t he w alls b eing 1 . 50 m .

14

t he

T hree c hambers c an b e d istinguished ,

i n which t hree l arge s paces a nd o ne s maller were c ounted . T he f ourth s pace , t he y ard , w as o pen t o t he e xterior a nd n o b oundary f ence c ould b e d etected . W e a pparently h ave h ere a f our-room h ouse i n i ts r ural f orm , b uilt

a s

p easant

a s olitary f amily .

h omestead

i n

t he

a gricultural

t ract

o f

a n

I sraelite

A c onsiderable p art o f t he t otal a rea w as o ccupied b y t he

e nclosed y ard which , h owever , w as o pen t o t he n orth . T he y ard m ay h ave b een c losed w hen n ecessary b y a b arricade o f p rickly b ushes o r aw ooden p alisade . T he r emaining c ompartments o f t he h ouse w ere p robably u sed a s l iving s pace , f or s torage , a nd p erhaps f or a ccommodating l ivestock . T he w alls, 1 . 50 m .

7 7

t hick ,

s uggest t hat t he h ouse h ad p ossessed a n u pper s torey .

T he H ouses o f t he J em 'ein V illage. T he v illage a nd i ts i nstallations h ave b een d escribed i n t he c hapter o n t he f arm b uildings a nd dwellings o f S amaria . c haracteristic e xamples o f

B elow we s hall p resent

r ural h ouses e xcavated b y u s i n t he y ears 1 979-

8 1.

G roup 1 00. F ig. 5 4 P h. 3 1

Two c onjoined u nits o f f our-roomed h ouses c omprise ' Group 1 00 ' a t H irbet J em 'ein . t his

v illage ,

T he p henomenon o f t win b uildings o f t his t ype i s c ommon i n a nd

w e

e xcavated

o ther

s imilar e xamples

T he c onstruction i s i n h ard p artly t ooled l imestone . t o a w idth o f o ne f ace o nly , n oticed .

v arying f rom 0 .65 m . t o 0 .80 m .

w ere s trengthened b y l arge s tone s quinches ,

t he

T he w alls

T he c orners o f t he b uilding

w hich l ay a t t he h eight o f

G roup 1 00 a ppears t o h ave b een b uilt a ccording t o o ne p lan ,

a t o ne a nd t he s ame t wo u nits .

i dentical s ocial

t ime .

A p arty-wall ( between L oci

1 06-107)

t he

p erhaps

s eparated

T he r easons f or b uilding a p air o f b uildings w ith a n

a rchitectural

t heories

1 00 .

N o m ortar w as

T he e xterior m easurements o f t he g roup w ere 1 2 x 1 9 m .

o f b oth r emained t o a h eight o f 1 . 00 - 1 .50 m . r oof .

b esides G roup

T he w alls a re b uilt

c ould

p lan a re n ot

a ltogether

b e s uggested .

c lear .

T he s ize o f

B oth t echnical

a nd

t he f amily may h ave

r equired a l arger l iving s pace t han o ne u nit o f f our c ompartments, a nd f rom a t echnical p oint o f v iew i t w as e asier t o b uild t wo i dentical u nits t han o ne l arge o ne . o n t he p lan ) .

B oth h ad e xterior y ards o n t he n orth .

( These d o n ot a ppear

T he E astern B uilding. R ooms a nd c hambers w ere b uilt r ound a l arge c ourtyard ( 102) ,

w hich w as

e ntered f rom t he n orth t hrough a n o pening w hich s urvived i n s itu .

F rom t he

y ard e ight o r n ine r ooms c ould b e e ntered , a rranged i n t hree c ompartments . T heir f loors w ere m ade o f w ell c ompacted g round c halk . T he b edrock h ad b een l evelled i n s ome p laces,

b ut t he b uilders h ad n ot h esitated t o u tilise

n atural d ifferences o f h eight a nd s o t o c reate f loors a t v arying l evels . L öcus

15 w as a s tone-built a rea m easuring

1 . 60 x 2 . 10 m . ,

l arge n umber o f p otsherds o f E arly I ron A ge I I w ere f ound .

o n w hich a

T he p lace m ay

h ave b een u sed a s a s torehouse o r a s aw ork-table. L ocus 16 w as a s olid s tone b ase , a s

t he b ase o f a f light o f

s teps

1 . 80 x 1 . 80 m . ,

t o

w hich m ay h ave s erved

t he u pper s torey o f t he h ouse .

A

s imilar b ase ( 117) w as f ound i n t he p arallel u nit.

T he W estern B uilding. T he western b uilding was h igher t han t he e astern, i ncluding a c entral c ourtyard ( Loci l ongitudinal

a nd

t ransverse

1 08,

w ings .

11) a nd a r ange o f r ooms

A r ubbing

s tone

a nd r emains o f a n o ven w ere f ound i n L oci 11-112 . m ashing a nd p reparing f ood w as

f ound

7 8

i ts b asic p lan

f or g rinding

i n t he c ereals

A l arge s tone b asin f or

i n t he s outh o f t he y ard ( Locus 1 08) .

T he i nterior y ard w ould s eem t o h ave b een u sed f or h andicrafts a nd f or t he p reparation o f f ood f or r esidents o f t he h ouse . T wo c omplete d oors w ith t heir l intels w ere d iscovered i n t he w estern u nit . R ooms 1 04-110 p ossessed s eparate e ntrances f rom t he y ard, a nd t hese w ere f ound i n s itu . T he w estern w ing , L ocus 1 09 , w as a l ong h all s eparated f rom t he y ard b y ar ow o f p illars w hich w ere f ound i n p lace . I t m ay b e a ssumed t hat t his a rea w as u sed t o s table a nimals , o r a s aw orkshop . L ocus 11 i n t he y ard y ielded i ron s lag a nd t he f ragment o f a metal p oint, p erhaps b elonging t o a h oe . T hroughout t he b uilding w ere f ound s tone h ammer-heads a nd b asalt c rushing s tones . T he d iscovery o f i ron s lag i s p erhaps t o b e i nterpreted a s e vidence f or t he l ocal m anufacture o f i ron t ools . I n t he H ellenistic p eriod a c ircular t ower ( 100 ) w as i ncorporated i nto t he E arly I ron A ge b uildings ; t his o ccasioned t he d emolition o f t he p artyw all a nd c aused d amage t o s everal r ooms i n b oth u nits . A c lose e xamination o f

t he p lan o f

t he

t wo p erhaps

i ndicates

a c ommon u se o f t he e ntire

b uilding . T he w orking a nimals m ay h ave b een h oused i n t he w est ( Locus 1 09), a nd h ere many o f t he d aily h andicrafts may h ave b een c arried o n , i ncluding t he p reparation a nd c ooking o f f ood . T he e astern u nit , o n t he o ther h and, w as t he a bode o f t he f amily . B oth u nits h ave m ore t han t en r ooms, a nd e ven i f w e d educt 2 5 p ercent f rom t he a rea f or c rafts a nd s ervices , e nough s pace w ould r emain f or a n e xtended f amily ( beth-av ) o f t hirty o r f orty

s ouls .

t aken i nto a ccount , a nd t he w idth o f t he w alls . G roup

1 00

i s

T he p ossibility o f i s

a s econd

s torey m ust a lso b e

s uggested b y t he t wo s tone b ases ( 116-117) a nd

a t ypical r ural d welling o f t he t ype c ommon i n w estern

S amaria i n E arly I ron A ge b uilding i s a ppropriate t o p easant a nd h is f arm . T he l arge a nd a dequately r oomy

I I . O ur i mpression i s t hat t he f our-room t he r ural l andscape, a nd t o t he n eeds o f t he I sraelite c ultivator w as c apable o f b uilding a h ouse ; h e c ould a lso s tore h is a gricultural

p roduce w ithin i ts s tout w alls . H e c arried o n s ome o f h is d omestic w ork i n t he i nterior c ourt , w hile o ther r ooms w ere u sed a s l iving q uarters b y t he f amily . S ome o f t hese h ad o ne d oor a s t he o nly a ccess t o t he y ard , w hich i ndicates y oung m arried c ouples o r a dult d aughters who h ad l eft t heir p arents ' r oom f or s eparate q uarters b efore t hey w ere m arried . B oth u nits h ad e xternal y ards o n t he n orth o f h erds w ere k ept i n t he o pen a ir .

t he g roup ,

a nd h ere p erhaps f locks o r

A nother g roup w ith t wo u nits o f f our-room h ouses was e xcavated a t H irbet J em 'ein ( 50) . T he e asterly u nit w as e xposed i n i ts e ntirety , a nd o ffered a n i nteresting c omparison w ith G roup 1 00 . G roup 5 0 a lso s eems t o h ave b een b uilt a s o ne u nit p ossessing t wo f our-room s tructures .

A s quare

t ower ( Loci 1 -2) w as b uilt o nto t he w estern h ouse i n t he H ellenistic o r e arly R oman p eriod . A s t he t ower w as e rected w ith s tones t aken f rom t he o ther h ouse , i ts e xact p lan w as h ard t o r econstruct . I n t he e astern u nit a c ourtyard ( Locus 3 ) a nd t hree f lanking w ings c ould b e d iscerned . T he f ormer y ielded i mplements f or r ubbing a nd g rinding, a nd a d eep s tone b asin a rticles i dentical w ith t hose f ound i n G roup 1 00 . T he ' work-table ' w as a l ow s tone w all b uilt i n t he c entre o f t he y ard . S ix r ooms w ere e xposed o n t he f lanks o f t he h ouse . I n c ontrast t o G roup 1 00 , w here t he f loors a re m ade o f g round l imestone , t hose o f 5 0 w ere m ade o f f lat s labs o f r ubble . T he f loors y ielded n umerous p ottery s herds o f E arly I ron A ge I I . G roup 5 0 r esembles 1 00 i n m easurements a nd f orm , a nd t here a ppears t o h ave e xisted a p lan f rom w hich t he i nhabitants o f H irbet J em 'ein c opied t heir f our-room h ouses.

7 9

B uilding 5 00. F ig. 5 5 P h. 3 2

T he

I sraelite v illage

o f H irbet J em 'ein a pparently i ncluded h ouses

w hose p lan d iffered f rom t he f our-room t ype .

O ne o f t hem w as 5 00 , w hich w as

a n o blong m easuring 1 2 .50 x 2 0 m . T he b uilding w as o n t he s ummit o f t he h ill o n w hich t he v illage l ay , a nd c ommanded e xcellent o bservation o ver i ts s urroundings . I t w as b uilt o f h ard t ooled l imestone , d ry l aid . T he w alls w ere b uilt w ith t wo f aces a nd a n i nner f ill, l arge s tones b eing u sed, c hiefly a t t he c orners o f t he h ouse . T he w alls w ere 1 . 40 - 1 . 50 m . t hick a nd w ere p reserved t o a h eight o f 1 . 20 m . B uilding 5 00 w as d ivided i nto t wo , v iz , w orking a reas o n t he n orth a nd l iving r ooms i n t he s outh-east ( Loci 5 20-521) . Two c up-marks, a s tone t rough ( 504) a nd a r ockcut u nderground s ilo ( 527) c ould b e c onnected w ith t he working a reas . T he l atter h ad n ot b een p roperly l evelled ,

a nd t he b edrock h ad b een u tilised i n

w hich t o c ut t he v arious i nstallations . D igging w as n ot c ompleted i n t he w est o f t he h ouse ( Locus 5 28) , a nd i t m ay h ave c ontained a dditional r ooms f or s torage a nd h andicrafts . B uilding 5 00 w as p robably t he h ome o f a n i mportant f amily a nd t he e xistence o f t he c orn-silo s trengthened t his c onjecture.

O bservations o n t he R ural H ouses o f H irbet J em 'ein . T he d ominant v illage h ome a t H irbet J em 'ein i n t he E arly I ron A ge w as t he t wo-grouped f our-roomed h ouse .

T his

t ype w e b elieve w as

t he h ouse o f

t he e xtended k inship ( beth-av ) l iving i n t he F irst T emple p eriod w ithin t he f rame o f as mall v illage w ith o ther s imilar k inships . E ach u nit c omprised a s mall f arm , a nd v illage c ooperation n otwithstanding , e ach k inship w as t he o wner o f a l arge p ermanent w ell-built h ouse . T he s econd t ype o f o blong h ouse d iffered i n p lan f rom t he f our-room b uilding , b ut w ould s eem t o h ave p erformed t he s ame f unction . T he p easants ' d welling o f F irst T emple d ays , w e t hink ,

w as

t he b asis

o f

t he v illage h ome

i n t he

p eriod

o f

t he

S econd

T emple . I t t oo c ontained u nits f or h andicrafts, s torerooms, a reas f or f olding a nimals a nd d wellings f it f or m an . I ts s tructure s hows t hat t he e xtended f amily l ived t ogether , a cting a s o ne e conomic a nd s ocial u nit . T he p easants ' h ouse o f t he F irst T emple c orresponded t o t he t hen p revailing l and-tenure a ccording t o which e ach f amily p ossessed a ' field h olding ' ( Heb .

2 .

S edeh a huzah ) a s i ts a gricultural a nd e conomic p ortion .

T he V illage H ouse i n t he P eriods o f t he S econd T emple, t he M ishnah a nd t he T almud.

T he C ourtyard H ouse. T he

p lace

o f

t he

f our-room h ouse

w as

s ucceeded

i n t he p eriod o f

t he

S econd T emple b y h ouses o f a nother t ype, w hich p ossessed i nternal c ourtyards . I t w as t he o pinion o f P rofessor M . A vi-Yonah a nd P rofessor S hemuel Y eivin t hat f oreign i nfluences p enetrating d uring t he H ellenistic p eriod , s truck r oot i n t he p ublic l ife , e conomy a nd c ommerce o f t he c ountry . C hanges a lso t ook p lace i n p ublic b uilding , b ut p rivate b uilding r etained t he

t radition o f

t he e astern M editerranean ,

a nd h ouses c losed

t o t he

e xterior, w ith i nternal c ourtyards, c ontinued t o b e b uilt .2 ) T his d efinition , a ccepted b y m ost s tudents o f a rchitecture i n t his c ountry , h eld g ood a lso i n r espect o f r ural b uilding .

8 0

T he c ourtyard h ouse ,

o r ,

' the i nward t urning h ouse ' ,3 )

b y a nother d efinition , - t hat o f E hud N etzer i s a h ouse whose r ooms a nd w ings o pen i nto a n

i nner c ourt . T he ' inward t urning ' h ouse a fforded i ts i nhabitants s ecurity , a lso e nclosed p rivacy s afe f rom t he e yes o f s trangers, a nd p ossessed c limatic a dvantages , s uch a s s helter f rom w inds a nd s torms , a nd s hade f rom t he s un . T he i nterior y ard was v ital t o t he ' inward t urning ' h ouse b ecause i t w as t he s ource o f l ight a nd a ir f or t he e ntire b uilding . T he d ispute a mong s cholars

c oncerning t he c ontribution o f H ellenistic

c ulture t o p rivate b uilding i n t his c ountry s till c ontinues . t hinks t hat H ellenistic a rchitecture p ortico ,

r ising t o a n u pper s torey ,

c ontributed

t he

e xternal

K . B eebe c olumned

t o b uildings i n E retz Y israel .4)

B eebe

d oes n ot e xplain t he r easons f or h is s uggestion , a nd t he q uestion a rises w hy t he e xternal c olonnade s hould h ave b een t he r esult o f H ellenistic i nfluence a nd n ot a l ogical l ocal d evelopment .

G . H orowitz, o n t he o ther

h and,

a ttempts t o p rove t hat t he t own o f M arissa w ith i ts H ellenistic p lanning a nd i ts p ublic a nd p rivate h ouses,

d erived i ts p lan f rom t he a ncient C anaanite

a nd I sraelite s tyle .) T he l ast w ord o n t his t heme i t s eems , h as n ot y et b een u ttered . F ew p rivate c ountry d wellings h ave b een e xcavated a s y et , a nd we s hould n ot b e h asty i n p ronouncing o ur v erdict o n H ellenistic i nfluence o n t his c ountry 's

r ural b uilding .

P revious c hapters h ave t aught

u s t hat t ogether w ith t he f ield t owers w e h ave f ound f arm-houses i n which a c ertain H ellenistic i nfluence c an b e r ecognised .

I t s hould b e a ssumed t hat

f oreign i nfluence i s t o b e s ought i n l ocalities w here t here w as f oreign c olonisation , p erhaps i n t hose p arts o f t he m ountainous a rea k nown a s ' the K ing 's

M ountain

C ountry ' .

W e

h ave

n o

c ertain k nowledge

o f

t he

d iffering

s tages whereby t he l ate c ourtyard h ouse was d eveloped, b ut v arious a rchaeological s urveys h ave r ecognised d iffering f orms o f h ouse a nd c ourtyard ,

a nd m ore t han o ne t ype o f c ourtyard h ouse h as

b een f ound .

D r .

Z eev Y eivin i n h is s tudy o f t he s ettlements o f G alilee a nd t he G olan i n t he p eriod o f t he M ishnah a nd t he T almud , r ecords d ifferent t ypes o f h ouses a nd c ourtyards .6 ) H e f ound c ourts p laced b ehind t he h ouses a nd b esides t hem , a t t he f ront , a nd i nside t he h ouses, a lso e xternal a nd i nternal c ourts . I n c ontrast t o t he n early u niform s tructure o f t he F irst T emple h ouse , t hat o f t he l ate s tructure i s n ot s tandard , b eing t he r esult o f l ocal d evelopment a nd a daptation t o t opography a nd c hanging s ocio-economic c onditions . I t w ould s eem t hat m any o f t he d ifferences b etween t he r ural d welling a nd t he n ormal h ouse w ere e ffaced

i n t he B yzantine p eriod .

T osephta h as e vidence

f or t he r elative e ase w ith w hich a n ormal d welling c ould b e c onverted t o a r ural b uilding w ith b yre a nd g ranaries . 7)

T he C ourtyard H ouses o f Q arawat b ene H assan . A s eries o f c ourtyard h ouses w as s urveyed a t H irbet F irdusi , Q arawat b ene H assan ; t hese w e t hink , c onstitute t he t ransition f rom t he f our-room d welling

o f

T emple .

T he a rchaeological f inds i n a nd i mmediately r ound t he h ouses w ere

t he

F irst

T emple

p eriod

t o

t he

r ural

d welling

o f

t he

S econd

m ainly o f t he E arly I ron A ge I I, P ersian a nd H ellenistic p eriods, b ut a pparently s ome o f t he h ouses c ontinued t o b e u sed b y l ocal i nhabitants i n l ater

p eriods

l arge

c ourtyards

a s

w ell . w ith

T he h ouses o f H irbet F irdusi a re d istinguished b y c isterns

f or

r ain

w ater

s torage

T he h ouses a re b uilt o f h ard d ressed l imestone d ry l aid , t heir w alls v aries f rom 0 .60 - 0 .80 m .

8 1

i n

t heir

c entres .

a nd t he w idth o f

G roup 1 . F ig. 5 6 P h. 3 3

T he a rea o f t he g roup i s a pproximately 2 4 x 2 7 m .

T he r ooms a nd h alls

o f t he c entral b uilding ( A ) , w hose a rea i s 9 . 2 x 2 4 m . , a re i n t he n orth , where t he b uilding i s d ivided l ongitudinally a nd t ransversely , b ut t he d ivision i s n ot m arked i n t he p lan . T he d ivision i nto n arrow h alls f acilitated r oofing b y m eans o f f ound i n p lenty i n t he r egion .

s tone s labs , m aterial f or w hich i s t o b e A l arge c ourtyard ( I ) ) , m easuring 2 4 x 2 6

m . a pproximately , c ould f urnish a w ide a rea f or w ork c arried o n i n t he o pen a ir . T o w est a nd s outh w ere a dditional r emains o f r ooms a nd h alls 0 3 - e u sable a s s torerooms o r l iving q uarters . T he c entre o f t he c ourtyard w as o ccupied b y a c istern ( C), s till i n u se t oday . T he s ize o f G roup 1 i ndicates t hat i t w as t he d welling o f a n e xtended f amily , a nd o f d ozens o f t he w orking h ands n eeded t o m aintain s o l arge a n a rea . Q arawat b ene H assan w as t he c heflieu o f t he d istrict, a nd i n t he H ellenistic a nd H erodian p eriods a c onsiderable g overnmental c entre . I t i s n ot s urprising, t herefore , t hat i ts l andowners a nd c ultivators w ere w ell-to-do a nd n eeded l arger r ural d wellings t han u sual . F igs. 5 7

G roups 2 -3 w ere l ess w ell p reserved ,

5 8 i ndicated l arge c ourtyards ,

a nd o nly t he e xterior f ramework

a c entral r esidence a nd w ater c isterns

i n t he

y ard . T he c ourtyard o f G roup 3 w as a dapted t o t he t opographical c onditions o f t he t errain , s o t hat i ts w alls w ere n ot r ectilinear . T he w alls o f t his h ouse 's c ourtyard e xceeded 1 .00 m . i n w idth , m aking a n i mpression o f g reat s trength . T he u se o f l arge b uilding b locks i s v ery c ommon a nd r eminiscent o f E arly I ron A ge I I c onstruction i n w estern S amaria . G roup 5 . F ig. 5 9 P h. 3 4

T he g roup c overs a n a rea o f a pproximately 2 7 x 3 0 m .

O n t he n orth a

s eries o f r ooms a nd o blong o r s quare h alls c an b e d istinguished , a nd t heir d oors a re s till c learly d iscernible . O ne w ing a ppears t o h ave b een r esidential , b ut a nother c ontained s torerooms a nd w orkshops . T he c ourt c ontained a c istern , t he k erb o f w hose d raw-hole i s a n a rchitectural p uteal i n s econdary u se . E ast o f t he c ourt, p arts o f t he wall o f a s mall s tructure a butting o n t he s urrounding f ence c an b e d istinguished . G roups 6 -7.

F ig. 6 0 P h. 3 5

T he s tate o f p reservation o f t hese b uildings i s p oor , t he c oürts a nd h ouses c ould b e r econstructed .

a nd o nly p arts o f

T he b uilding i n G roup 6 w as

a pproximately 1 6 x 9 .4 m . , a nd c an b e c learly r ecognised t o h ave p ossessed t wo w ings a nd a c entral e ntrance . A w ater c istern w as o bserved i n t he Y ard . I n G roup 7 a l engthy o blong b uilding w ith s everal e ntrances c an b e d istinguished . G roups 6 -7 a re s ituated o n t he e dge o f H irbet F irdusi , a nd w ould s eem t o h ave b een d amaged i n a ntiquity , b ut c omparison w ith t he c onstruction a nd q uality o f t he g roups a lready d escribed s hows t hat t hey d id n ot d iffer f rom o ne a nother . W ithout e xcavation i t i s d ifficult t o d raw f ull c onclusions c oncerning t he f orm o f t he c ourtyard h ouses o f Q arawat b ene H assan . B ut c ertain p rominent l ines w hich e nable a n i nitial s ummarisation .

t here a re T he r ural

h omes o f B ene H assan a re f airly l arge a nd u sually o blong i n f orm, a pparently o n a ccount o f t he p roblems c reated b y s tone r oofs . T he c ourtyards a re r oomy a nd a ll c ontain w ater-cisterns . T here i s n o f ixed o rder i n t he l ocation o f t he s tructures i n t he y ard , a nd t he c ontrast t o t he

8 2

f our-room h ouse w ith i ts t hree w ings , a nd t heir e conomic w ings a nd d welling q uarters v ary a g reat d eal .

T he c ourtyard h ouses

o f

B ene H assan r esemble

t he E arly I ron A ge f arms w hich w e s urveyed i n w estern S amaria , a nd w e t hink t hat t hey r epresent a t ransitional s tage o f r ural b uilding f rom t he p eriod o f t he F irst T emple t o t hat o f t he S econd.

T he C ourtyard H ouses o f H irbet B uraq. T he c ourtyard h ouses a t H irbet B uraq d iffer i n c haracter f rom t hose a t Q arawat b ene H assan , i n s o f ar a s t hey a re g enerally o f o blong s hape , a nd a re d ivided i nternally i nto l ongitudinal a nd l ateral w ings . T he c ourtyards a re s mall , c onstituting a n i ntegral p art o f t he b uilding . I n b uilding 3 0 , w hose a rea i s a pproximately 1 0 .5 x 1 9 m . , t he c ourtyard ( Locus 5 ) o ccupies F ig. 6 1

o nly 4 .5 x 6 m ., s ituated t o t he w est o f t he b uilding . c onstruction i s h ere t raceable , p erhaps t he r esult o f

L ater a dditional a g rowing f amily .

B uilding 3 6 , a pproximately 1 0 x 1 4 m . i n a rea , i s d ivided i nto t hree w ings . C ourtyard A t akes u p r oughly h alf t he i nterior a rea o f t he b uilding . A imilar p icture a ppears i n h ouses 5 1-53 , b ut t hey a re l ess w ell-preserved F igs. 6 2 s nd t he e xamination o f t heir i nterior p lan p resented d ifficulties . T he 6 3 a c ourtyard h ouses o f H irbet B uraq h ad p articularly t hick w alls , a nd i t s eems t hat p art o f t he b uildings p ossessed u pper s toreys . H irbet B uraq h ouses P h. 3 6 a ppear t o r epresent a l ater p hase i n t he r ural b uilding o f S amaria , w hen b uilding s pace i n t he t ownlet w as c ontracting, a nd i t w as n ecessary t o r educe b oth t he y ards a nd t he a ctual b uildings a t H irbet B uraq . Many b uildings a re t o b e f ound w hich s tand i ndependently w ithout c ontact w ith t heir n eighbours, b ut w hen t he l ocal p opulation i ncreased t he b uildings b egan t o t ouch o ne a nother , af eature t o b e n oticed q uite c learly a lso a t U m e -Rihan ( below ). I n p revious

c hapters

t he

s ettlements o f H irbet H amad ,

a nd H irbet N ajar h ave b een d escribed . d ominates

a s

t he v illage

h ome

o f

H irbet K arqush

I n a ll t hese t he c ourtyard h ouse

t he p easant

f amily .

T hese h ouses

w ere

b uilt f or t he e xtended f amily , a nd e ven i f s ocial a nd e conomic c hanges t ook p lace i n t he f amily s tructure ( see b elow ), t he c ourtyard r esidence d id n ot l ose i ts b asic p lan . T hese c ourtyard h omes m ight b e l arge a nd r oomy o r s mall , t heir y ards l arge o r r estricted ; t hey m ight b e b uilt i solated o r i n c lose p roximity t o o thers , b ut t he b asic p rinciple o f t he ' inward l ooking ' h ome w as p erpetuated i n t he c ountry 's r ural l andscape i n t he S econd T emple p eriod a nd a fter i t .

T he C ourtyard H ouse a s r ecorded i n t he S ources. ' He who d edicates a h ouse a mong c ourtyard h ouses ' - s o w e r ead i n T osephta ' Arakhin , V , 1 ( Zuckermandel , p . 5 50 ) . I n t almudic a nd m ishnaic s ources c ourtyard h ouses a re m entioned f requently , ar ural a gricultural c haracter . a ttached

t o

t he g round

a nd t heir c ontents i mply

T he M ishnah d istinguishes b etween i nventory

( immobilia )

a nd

s old

t ogether

w ith

t he

c ourtyard ,

s uch a s t he a rrangements f or w ater s torage , -a nd m obilia .8) T he J erusalem T almud h as a f airly d etailed r ecord o f t he a rchitectural s tructure o f a r ural h ouse : 9) T he u pper a nd t he l ower a pertures o f t he h ouse, t he b alcony , t he c ellars a nd t he a ttic , t he r oof o f t he o il-press a nd t he r oof o f t he t ower, t he c haff s tore, t he c attle-byre, t he w oodshed, a nd t he s torehouses f or w ine, o il a nd f ruit . T here f ollows a n i nteresting c ommentary , w hich p roves t hat t here w as n o d ifference b etween c ellars a nd s torerooms u sed t o s tore w ine a nd o il . L ittle a nalysis o f t he t almudic

8 3

s ources

c oncerning h ouse

s tructures h as b een a ttempted s ince t he

t ime o f

K rauss , 1 0 ) a nd i n v iew o f t he c onsiderable i nformation c ollected s ince t hen i n e xcavations a nd s urveys , i t w ould s eem t hat t he b alcony a nd t he a ttic a re e vidence f or t he i nterior d ivisions o f t he h ouse a t s everal l evels,

a

p henomenon s till e xistent i n t raditional A rab b uilding . 1) T he t ower , t he h ighest s tructure, a nd s ometimes t he s trongest d efensible p art o f t he v illage h omestead , h as a lready b een d iscussed . I n c ontrast w ith a ccounts o f r ural b uildings i n E uropean c ountries , t he t ower i n t his c ountry p ossessed a f lat r oof . A s eries o f s torehouses k nown a s o tzarot o r c ellars , w as u sed t o s tore a gricultural p roduce , c hiefly w ine, o il a nd f ruit . T he s torerooms w ere a pparently a n i ntegral p art o f t he r ural h ouse , a nd e re p art a nd p arcel o f t he r esidential u nits , o r a t l east p laced n ear t hem .' 7 T he b yre a nd

t he c haff

s tore s how

t hat

o nly t he c attle w ere r etained

w ithin t he y ard , w hereas t he M ishnah i s p recise o n t he m easurements o f a b yre , w hich a re 2 . 24 x 3 .36 m" a s mall a rea s ufficient f or a c ow o r t wo .1 3 ) T he f locks a ppear t o h ave b een k ept i n t he o pen , a nd w hen t he h erd w as n ot a t p asture f or p rolonged p eriods i t m ay h ave b een k ept i n ac orral o r i n a n o uter y ard o f t he h omestead . T he w oodshed ,

w here t he f irewood s o v ital f or c ooking a nd h eating w as

k ept, was c losely c onnected w ith t he c owhouse . D uring r econnaissance c arried o ut a mong t he v illages o f M ount H ermon a nd B ashan w e f ound t hat t he w oodshed n early a lways c ontained c akes o f d ried o rganic m anure w hich s erved , t ogether w ith w ood , f or h eating a nd k indling .1 4 ) I t i s p robable t hat t he s ource i n t he J erusalem T almud i s d escribing t he t ypical y ard o f a f armer who o wned t he t ype o f c ourtyard h ouse t o b e f ound o n t he v arious s ites s urveyed b y u s i n w estern S amaria . Q uite s mall y ards c ertainly e xisted , s uch a s t hat m easuring t en c ubits r eferred t o i n T osephta ,1 5 ) b ut t his w as p robably e xceptional . T he M ishnah a nd t he T almud i nform u s o f t he s ocial a nd e conomic s tructure o f t he p easant f amily d welling i n a c ourtyard h ouse : t he ' brother p artners ' w ho a te a t t heir f ather 's t able a nd s lept i n t heir o wn h ouses f ind m ention i n c ases c oncerning t he ' eruv .1 6)

W e a lso h ave t he

e xample o f a f ather a nd h is s ons w ho m anage t heir f arm j ointly , a nd l ive i n o ne c ourtyard h ouse ,

b ut e ach g rown-up s on h ad h is o wn h ome ( or r oom) .

T here i s f urther e vidence f or t he j oint w orking o f t he a gricultural p lot a fter t he f ather 's d eath .1 7) c hapter o n t he s haring o f

W e h ave a lready c ommented i n t he p resent p roduce b etween p artners . T he T osephta

a pparently ,1 8 ) p aints a c omplete p icture o f t he e xtended p easant f amily , i n w hich t he c ourtyard h ouse s erved f or h abitation a nd h andicrafts: ' When f ather a nd s ons , w ives a nd d aughters-in-law , s laves a nd s lavewomen , h ave n o h abitation i n t he c ourtyard , t hey n eed n o t eruv . .2 I f a nything i s t o b e l earnt f rom t he s ource a s i t s tands , w e h ave b efore u s t he t ypical r ural e xtended J ewish k inship , d erived f rom t he p eriod o f t he F irst T emple p eriod a nd c ontinuing t o e xist , d espite t he c hanges w hich i t c ertainly u nderwent i n t he R oman a nd p erhaps e ven i n t he B yzantine p eriod .

A c ourtyard h ouse o f

o ne o r o ther o f t he t ypes a lready d escribed w as n eeded t o h ouse s uch a k inship g roup, w hich p robably n umbered s everal d ozen s ouls. T he G reek v illage o f t he l ate B yzantine p eriod w e f ind p ossessed a b ackground w hich p arallels t he m ishnaic a nd t almudic s ources . T here i s e vidence f or f arms e ach o f w hich b elonged t o a f ather a nd f our s ons a nd g randsons who l ived t ogether a nd w orked t he f arm j ointly . A fter t he f ather 's d eath t he f our s ons a re r eferred t o a s h olding s eparate f iscal u nits , b ut t he f arm i s s till w orked i n c ommon .1 9 ) R esearch o n t he f amily i n t he B yzantine v illage h as d istinguished t hree u nits :

8 4

a )

T he s ocio-biological ( The f amily).

b )

T he s ocio-economic ( The h olding).

c )

T he f iscal u nit ( For t axation o nly). S ometimes t he t hree u nits a re i ntegrated, t hen t he c ourtyard h ouse

r epresents t he e conomic a nd f amily h olding s imultaneously . N isan R ubin , i n a n i nteresting s tudy o f J ewish r ules o f m ourning , e xamines t he s tructure o f t he p atriarchal f amily a nd i ts s low d isintegration , o wing t o e conomic a nd s ocial p roblems c aused b y t he R oman c onquest .2 0 ) s tructure p robably l ed t o c hanges s tructure o f t he r ural d welling .

T he c hange i n t he f amily

i n h abitation ,

a nd

i nfluenced

t he

A ccording t o t almudic s ources d own t o t he s econd c entury C .E .,

t he

m ourning r ules a ffected w ide c ircles o f t he k inship , i ncluding t he m embers o f t he e ntire h ousehold . T hese r ules g radually b ecame m ore a nd m ore r estricted , a nd i n t he p eriod o f t he A moraim t hey d evolve p rincipally u pon t he e lementary n uclear f amily , i n t he w ords o f N isan R ubin . A fter t he R oman c onquest , a nd p erhaps a s e arly a s H erod 's t ime , c onfiscation o f l ands i ncreases , a nd m any f amilies t ransfer t o l ife u nder c onditions o f t enancy o wing t o t he l oss o f t heir l and , s o l osing t he a gricultural b asis o f t he k inship 's e xistence i n t he l arge c ourtyard . A s R oman d omination s truck d eeper, t he J ewish p easant was s undered f rom h is s oil a nd t he e xtended f amily s plit i nto n uclear f amilies . S imultaneously c ame a t ransfer f rom t he c ustom o f p aying a b ride-price , t o t he d owry , a t ransition r eflecting c hanges i n t he e conomic s tructure o f t he f amily a nd t he w oman . Aw oman w as v aluable l abour p ower i n a f amily w ith a n a gricultural h olding , h ence t he m ohar w as p aid f or h er ; w hile t he l andless f amily m aintained t he c ustom o f t he d owry . I n N isan R ubin 's o pinion , t his p hase r epresents a t ransition t o a n u rban s ociety , t o a p reoccupation w ith t he h andicrafts r ather t han w ith a griculture.

3 .

C ourtyard H ouses a s I ndicators o f S ettlement P opulation .

T he c ontroversy c oncerning t he s ize o f t he a ncient p opulation o f t his c ountry c ontinues u nabated . S ome s cholars h ave t hought t hat E retz Y israel i n t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods h eld s ix m illion s ouls ; o thers , t hat i t c ontained l ess t han a m illion . Maggen B roshi r ecently s uggested a n e stimate b ased o n t he s ize o f i ts c ities , a ccording t o w hich t he c ountry 's p opulation i n t he B yzantine p eriod d id n ot e xceed a m illion .2 1 ) W e t hink t hat

t he b asis o f a ll e stimates h as

t o b e

t he p opulation o f

t he

i solated

s ettlement , t o b e o btained t hrough t he n umber o f h ouses a nd r ooms i n e ach v illage . I f w e c an s uccessfully a nd a ccurately e stimate t he n umber o f s ouls i n e ach h ouse ,

i t w ill b e e asier t o c alculate t he t otal p opulation o f

e ach v illage a nd t ownlet, s o l ong a s i ts a rea c an b e t raced . I n t he M ishnah w e h ave t he m easurements b oth o f a s mall h omestead a nd o f a l arge o ne , i .e . o f t he r ooms , w hich , i n m odern l anguage , s erved t he n uclear f amily c omposed o f f ather , m other , a nd t heir o ffspri n g .22) O n a c alculation o f o ne c ubit o f 5 6 c m . , t he a rea o f as mall h ouse a ccording t o t he M ishnah , w as 4 .48 b y 3 .36 m etres , i .e . a pproximately 1 5 s q .m" a nd t hat o f a l arge h ouse 4 .48 b y 5 .60 m . , o r a pproximately 2 5 s q .m . T hese m easurements a re c ommon i n t he c ourtyard h ouses o f t his c ountry , a nd h undreds o f u nits o f t his t ype w ere o bserved d uring t he S amaria s urvey . E ach r ural c ourtyard h ouse h ad s everal r ooms , a nd i t s eems h ard t o f ind a h ouse w ith r ooms f ewer t han f ive o r s ix a t l east .

E ach l iving r oom c ould h old f ive o r s ix s ouls , t he n umber

8 5

a ccepted b y s tudents o f a ncient b uilding .2 3 ) D r . Z eev Y eivin w ould a ppear t o b e r ight i n h is e stimates r elating t o t he t ownlets o f G alilee a nd t he G olan , w hen h e m ultiplies t he n umber o f r ooms b y f ive s ouls , m inus 2 5% f or s ervice r ooms a nd c rafts , a nd t hus a ssesses t he s ettlement p opulation . A t H irbet S hem'a, f or e xample, 3 40 r ooms w ere c ounted, b uilt i n s eventeen b locks

o f b uildings .

2 5

p ercent

o f

t hem w ere a ssessed

f or s ervices a nd

h andicrafts , h ence 2 50 r ooms r emained f or h abitation ,2 4) s o t hat t he p lace 's p opulation n umbered s ome 1 ,250 s ouls . T he a rea o f H irbet S hem 'a i s a bout t wenty d unams ( 2 h ectares) , s o t hat o n e ach d unam o f t he b uilding a rea t here l ived a pproximately 1 25 s ouls . I n o ur v iew t hese e stimates a re n ot e xaggerated ,

a nd i n m any c ases t he

e xistence o f a n u pper s torey s hould b e t aken i nto a ccount , w hich c ould h ouse a dditional p eople . T he c onditions a t N essana i n t he N egev a re n ot t hose o f S amaria , a nd b uilding i n t he N egev d iffered i n v arious d etails f rom t hat i n t he n orth o f t he c ountry .2 5 ) B ut c omparisons m ay b e m ade w ith a ncient B yzantine a nd A rab N essana , b ecause o f t he a bundant w ritten d ocuments w hich e nable e stimates o f t he s ize o f t he s ettlement a nd t he n umber o f i ts h ouses . K raemer e stimated t hat N essana p ossessed 1 16 h ouses a nd 1 74 h eads f amilies i n t he y ear 6 89, a nd a p opulation o f 1 ,500 s ouls. 2 6 )

o f

I t m ay b e c oncluded f rom t he a bove t hat t he a verage f amily n umbered 8 .6 s ouls a nd t hat 1 3 s ouls l ived i n e ach h ouse . W e h ave n o e xact k nowledge o f t he s tructure o f t he h ouses a t N essana o r h ow m any r ooms t here w ere i n e ach , b ut Mr . B roshi t hinks t he a rea o f t he s ettlement t o h ave c overed s ome h undred d unams a nd t o h ave p ossessed a p opulation o f 4 ,000 s ouls .2 7) T he d ifferences b etween t he s upposed p opulations o riginate a pparently , i n t he l ack o f p recise c riteria w ith w hich t o d etermine t he p hysical s ize o f t he v illage. W e h ave h ere c ited t wo v iews o n t he s ize o f t he p opulation o f a g iven s ettlement , b ut h ave n ot c ited m ore e xtreme o pinions i n o ne d irection o r t he o ther . T o r eturn t o o ur d eparture p oint,

t hat t he a verage r ural h ouse i n

S amaria c ontained s everal r ooms , a nd i ts p opulation n umbered a pproximately 2 0-30 s ouls . I n a h ouse o f t his t ype s everal g enerations l ived t ogether , a nd i t i s p robable t hat a t l east t hree g enerations c ould c rowd u nder t he c ommon r oof i n t imes o f p eace a nd q uiet : g randparents , s ons a nd d aughters a nd g randchildren . A s w e h ave s een , t hey w ere n ot i n a h urry t o q uit t he k inship a bode e ven o n t he d ivision o f t he a ncestral l ot a mong i ts h eirs, a nd i n m ang a reas c ontinued t o c ultivate i t i n c ommon a s m uch f or a grotechnical a s f or e conomic r equirements a nd c alculations .

S umming u p .

W e h ave e ndeavoured i n t his c hapter t o t race t he d evelopment

o f t he r ural h ouse o f S amaria , t he R oman-Byzantine p eriod .

f rom t he e poch o f t he F irst T emple d own t o I n t he t imes o f t he F irst T emple

r oomed ' h ouse d ominated t he r ural l andscape ;

t he

' four-

i t w as a n o riginal d evelopment

o f t he I sraelite t ribes w hen t hey h ad s ettled o n t he l and . T he f our-roomed h ouse r epresented a f armstead o n as mall s cale , a nd w e t hink t hat i t w as t he d welling o f t he e xtended f amily , o wning a n a ncestral p lot o f s oil w orked a s a s ingle u nit . A rchitectural c hanges i n t he r ural h ouse s tructure o f S amaria o ccurred i n t he p eriod o f t he S econd T emple , w hen t he c ourtyard h ouse a ppeared , d ominated b y a l arge y ard s urrounded b y r esidential a nd a gricultural b uildings f or t he e xtended f amily . p eriods t he c ourtyard h ouse d ecreased i n s ize ,

8 6

I n t he R oman a nd B yzantine s o r eflecting , a pparently ,

t he s ocial p rocesses a ssociated w ith t he b reakup o f

t he k inship ,

t he

e viction o f t he c ultivator f rom h is l and a nd t he i ncrease o f c raftsmen a nd n on-agricultural o ccupations . T owards t he e nd o f t he p eriod t he c ommon y ard s erved a s t he a bode o f n uclear f amilies e ngaged i n v arious t rades . W e h ave e ndeavoured t o s how t hat t he s ize o f t he v arious t ypes o f v illage c an b e b etter e stimated w ith t he h elp o f t he r ural d welling t han b y o ther m ethods.

8 7

C hapter I V. T he F ield T owers. O ne

o f

t he

m ost

i nteresting

S amaria i s t he f ield t ower .

p henomena

i n t he

a gricultural

p attern o f

T he a ssociation o f t hese t owers w ith a ncient

a griculture b ecame c lear t o u s a t a n e arly s tage o f t he e xploration o f t he a rea , b ut s everal y ears ' r esearch w ere n eeded t o k now a nd u nderstand t hem . T he p resent c hapter c onstitutes a n a ttempt t o s ummarise t heir s tudy d own t o t he p resent , a nd t o s uggest r ules f or a n u nderstanding o f t he p henomenon a s a w hole . B y ' field t ower ' w e m ean a m assive s tone s tructure o f s quare , o blong

o r

c ircular

s ettlement .

f orm ,

l ocated

i n

t he

a gricultural

W e d istinguish b etween t he a ncient

w atchtower w hich

s till

f unctions

i n

t raditional

a rea

' tower ' A rab

a nd

s urrounding

a

t he v ineyard

a griculture

( below ) .

I n t he c ourse o f o ur d iscussion w e s hall a lso r efer t o at hird t ype o f t ower which was i ncorporated i n b uildings

a nd

i s k nown

t o u s

c hiefly f rom

l iterture. F ig. 6 4

A s urvey

o f

t he

d istribution

o f

f ield

t owers

p resents

t he

f ollowing

p icture : T he n orthern l imit o f d istribution i s G ilboa , i ts s outh-western l imit t he N ablat s treambed . T he w estern l imit c oincides w ith t he f oothills o f t he m ountains o f M anasseh a nd S amaria a nd t he n orth-south l ine 1 48 o f t he I srael g rid .

T ower c oncentrations h ave a lso b een e xamined i n e astern a nd

n orth-eastern S amaria,

a nd i solated

t owers h ave b een s urveyed i n t he

R amallah r egion , b ut t he l arge a nd s ignificant c oncentration i s i n w estern S amaria , e xtending f rom t he h ills o f U m e l-Fahm i n t he n orth t o N ablat i n t he s outh .

T he a bove a rea c ontains t he d ensest d istribution , l ocated

b etween Um e l-Fahm i n t he n orth a nd N ahal S hiloh i n t he s outh . o blong

e xtending

f rom T ul

K arem

i n t he n orth ,

T his i s a n

R osh h a'Ayin i n t he s outh ,

D eir E stia i n t he e ast, a nd t he f oothills o n t he west .

T he t owers a re

s cattered o ver r ocky a reas o n r ock b elts c omposed a lternately o f h ard r ugged d olomite a nd d ense l imestone o f t he C enomanian-Turonlan p eriods .1 ) T he s tructures a re l ocated i n a reas w hose s oils i s m ainly b rown-red t erra r ossa .

1 .

A L ist o f t he P rincipal D istribution o f T ower C oncentrations.

M t. G ilboa

G rid R eference(s)

B etween H ar S haul, H ar G ibborim a nd A rbunah

1 84214

H ar L apidim

1 86213

H ar B an : Ian

1 98212

E astern S amaria. H irbet I bziq - t he N ebbi H izqin R idge

1 87197

Q asr S heikh ' Azal

1 89195

H irbet J abris R as a -Rabi

1 92195

T ayasir a rea

1 88193

8 8

S outh o f H irbet Y arzah

1 90190

B etween Q asr a -Dollah a nd H irbet K ashdah

1 81191

E ast o f D uma

1 85162

Y asid .

1 79190

W estern S amaria ( from N orth t o S outh ). U M 7eihan

1 62209

U m R ihan ( east)

1 66210

B arta 'ah

1 60208

U m e l-Qutuf

1 55208

B etween Y 'abed a nd K efirat

1 67206

N E o f F erasin

1 61204

B etween H irbet S amarah a nd H irbet ' Aqadah

1 63203

W est o f ' Arabbah

1 67200

H irbet B eit S am 'a

1 58199

S outh o f ' liar

1 60196

N orth o f ' Ajjah

1 68197

W est o f B al'a

1 59193

E ast o f I khtabba

1 57192

T he S hufah a rea

1 57186

I he e -Ras a rea

1 55184

T he K efr S ur a rea

1 56183

T he T zur N athan a rea

1 51183

N orth-west o f K ur

1 60182

T he F alama a rea

1 52180

W est o f J eiyus

1 52178

' Azun a rea

1 55175

T he K efr L aqif a rea

1 58176

T he S hehadah a rea

1 58173

H irbet R as ' Atiyah

1 49173

H irbet R as e -Tirah

1 51174

E ast o f H irbet Z akhur

1 50172

H irbet e lMaduvar

1 51172

H irbet e lAshgar

1 52171

T he S anirya a rea

1 55170

T he Q arawat b ene H assan a rea

1 59170

D eir E stia

1 62171

T he H irbet N ajar a rea

1 50169

T he ' Azun'Atmah a rea

1 52169

T he M es-hah a rea

1 55168

T he B idyah a rea

1 57168

T he S artah a rea

1 58167

T he H irbet e lBuraq a rea

1 60168

T he H irbet S irisia a rea

1 51168

T he a -Zawiah a rea

1 53166

B etween H irbet H amad a nd H irbet K arqush

1 60165

T he H irbet S ejerah a rea

1 67166

I skaka - w est

1 70167

T he H irbet K aspah a rea

1 50166

T he H irbet T e-enah a nd H amam a rea

1 49165

W est o f R aphat

1 55165

T he K efr e -Diq a rea

1 57163

B etween H irbet Z ikhrin a nd H irbet T ukim

1 49163

T he H irbet ' Al a rea

1 49159

T he H irbet D eir ' Arab a rea

1 51157

T he B ethel M ountains T he B eithin a rea

1 72148

S outh o f R aphat

1 67141

2 .

AH istory o f t he I nvestigation . S o

f ar

a s

w e k now ,

t he f irst

s cientific a ccount

o f

t he f ield

t owers

a ppears i n t he writings o f t he B ritish E xploration F und o f W estern P alestine . H ere , i n t he v olume d evoted t o S amaria , C onder a nd K itchener i n t he c ourse o f t heir s urvey d escribe i solated a nd s mall g roups o f t owers f rom M ount G ilboa t o e astern S amaria .2 ) I n t he U m e l-Fahm a rea t he s tructures a re d escribed a s o bservation t owers a nd w atchtowers . S ix o r s even o f t hem a re m entioned i n t he n eighbourhood o f ' Azun , a nd o ne w as m easured , d rawn a nd d escribed i n s ome d etail .3 ) T he E nglish i nvestigators h eld c onflicting v iews o n t he f unction o f t he s aid t owers, a nd t hought , o n t he b asis o f l ocal t raditions, t hat t hey w ere a ncient s tructures, s uperior t o t he A rab w atchtowers which t hey h ad s een i n t he v ineyards . T hey n oted t hat w inepresses w ere s ometimes c ut i n t he r ock n ear t he t owers ,

a nd t hat

t he

l atter 's m ain d istribution w as i n d eserted u ncultivated a reas . T he A rab i nhabitants c laimed t hat t hey b elonged t o a ncient v ineyards . T he E nglish e xplorers a pparently u nderstood t he l ocal e xplanation t o mean t hat t he t owers h ad b een u sed f or o bservation a nd g uard i n t he v ineyards a nd f ields . T he F rench a nd G erman e xplorers o f t he l ate 1 9th a nd e arly 2 0th c enturies a lso e ncountered t he f ield t owers , a nd t heir u sual o pinion w as t hat t hey w ere p rehistoric s tructures , a nd o n t he s trength o f t he l arge s tones w ith w hich t hey were b uilt, d escribed t hem a s megalithic s tructures o r a s d olmens . T he G erman i nvestigator P .E . Mader d escribes a t ower i n t he B eithin a rea4 )- n orth-east o f R amallah a s a p rehistoric m onument . I n 1 927 M ader w rote a n a rticle s ummarising p rehistoric d iscoveries a nd d olmens i n t he w est p art o f t his c ountry ;5 ) h e d escribed n umerous d olmens i n w estern S amaria , a n umber o f w hich w ere i n f act t owers . N ehemiah T zuri , w ho f or m any y ears c onducted a n a rchaeological s urvey o f M ount G ilboa a nd i ts s lopes , d escribes n umerous s ites, w hich h e t erms ' rujumim ' ( stone-clearance c airns) - which a re s imply t he r emains o f t owers .6 ) T zuri n otes a p henomenon k nown i n o ther a reas , n amely , t hat r ockcut w ine p resses , o il p resses a nd c isterns o ccur i n t he v icinity o f t he s aid c airns . H e h eld t he v iew t hat t he l atter w ere b uilt i n a n o rderly r egional s ystem a nd were p lanned a t o ne a nd t he s ame t ime .7 ) I n 1 978, i n o rder t o e xamine t he n ature o f t he G ilboa t owers , w e c arried o ut a s urvey a nd a c ertain a mount o f m easuring ., 8 ) T he t owers m easured a nd e xamined o n H ar L apidim , G ivat H uhit a nd e l-Muntar r esemble t hose o f w estern S amaria b oth i n t heir m easurements a nd t heir s tyle o f b uilding, a nd h ave r ockcut w inepresses i n t heir p roximity . I t s hould f urther b e r emarked t hat T zuri s urveyed many w inepresses w ithout t owers i n t he G ilboa r egion b etween t he N urit r idge a nd G ivat Y onathan ,9 ) w hile i n o ur o wn s urvey w e e xamined n umerous w inepresses i n t he a reas o f P eqo 'ah a nd H ar B ar c ian . T he

t owers

o f

t he G ilboa a rea a re

p oorly p reserved,

b ut t hey a re

s cattered o ver v ast a reas , w hile m any r ockcut w inepresses w ere s urveyed i n t heir p roximity . D espite t he s emi-desert c limate o f n orth-eastern S amaria , t he t ower-builders f ound f avourable c onditions f or a gricultural s ettlement a nd f or t he l argescale p lanting o f o rchards, w hereas t he a rea t oday i s u tilised s olely f or s easonal g razing . 8 a lso e ncountered t owers .

T he I srael e mergency s urvey o f 1 967-

T he t eams l ed b y R am G ofnah a nd Y oseph P orat

n ote t hat t he r emains o f s quare s tructures r esembling s mall t owers a re s cattered o ver w estern S amaria f rom H ar A mir i n t he n orth t o t he M odi 'in a rea i n t he s outh . T hey a re f ound n ear s ettlements o f t he B yzantine p eriod , a nd t wo s tone s arcophagi w ere d iscovered i n o ne o f t hem , ( Site 3 ) a t U m R ihan .

T hey

t herefore

c onsidered

m ausolea o f t he B yzantine p eriod

A

9 1

t hese s tructures

t o

b e

t ombs ,

i .e . ,

A t t he t ime w hen t he p resent l ines w ere b eing w ritten a n a rchaeological s urvey

o f

t he

M anasseh

h ill

c arried o ut b y A dam Z ertal ,

c ountry

o f

n orth-western

w ho f ound c once

S amaria

w as

b eing

Wations o f t ower g roups , m ost

o f w hich a re m arked o n t he d istribution m ap . W e c arried o ut t he a rchaeological s urvey o f w estern S amaria b etween 1 974 a nd 1 981, w ith s pecial e mphasis o n f ield t ower d istribution , e xamining o ver o ne t housand t wo-hundred t owers, a nd t esting f orty-five o f t hem w ith t he s pade . T he s urvey e nabled t he c ompletion o f t welve m aps o f t he i nternal d istribution o f t he v illages o f w estern S amaria .1 2)

3 .

T he N umber o f T owers o n t he D istribution M ap. N ame

N o. o f T owers S urveyed

Q arawat b ene H assan

T owers D ug

1 75

' Azun K efr L aqif H irbet e l- B uraq

2

9 6

1

1 00

1

7 0

2

1 27

1

K efr S ur

9 4

2

T zur N athan

2 6

H irbet S ejerah

5 0

e -Ras

S hufah

1

1 20

S hehadah

4 4

H irbet N ajar

3 0

U m R ihan

3 0

1 5

9 62

4 5

A part

f rom

t he

t ower d istribution m aps ,

c oncentrations o f

t owers w ere

e xamined i n n orthern S amaria i n t he a rea o f Um e l-Qutuf, a nd i n s outhw estern S amaria i n t he H irbet T e-enah a rea , ' Al a nd H irbet D eir ' And ) .

I n a ll ,

s ome

a t H irbet U m e l-Hamam ,

1 ,200 f ield t owers

H irbet

w ere e xamined

a nd p hotographed f rom G ilboa i n t he n orth t o N ahal B eit ' Arif i n t he s outh . O ur m ethod o f w ork w as b ased o n t he f ield s urvey o f v illage a nd s oil-units . W e w ere a ble ,

w ith

t he h elp

o f

d etailed a ir p hotographs

o f

t he

a rea ,

t o

d raught d etailed m aps o f t he t ower d istribution i n e ach g iven r esearch a rea a nd u ltimately t o r ecover m aps o f t he s aid v illages ; t he p resent c hapter s ummarises t he p henomenon a s aw hole .

9 2

4. The Typology of the Towers. We have divided the towers into several classes, their main differentiation being architectural. We have distinguished s_ix groups. 1.

Square towers.

-z.

Very large towers.

3.

Small towers.

4. Underground towers. 5.

Round towers.

6. Exceptional towers. 1. The Square Towers. Most of the field towers belong to this group. Their exterior size varies from 3.00 to 5.00 metres. Their height does not exceed 3.00 m. They possess one door, and no additional construction is to be observed Representative examples of the group are towers on Figs. 65 , 66 within the type. 131, 132 Gilboa, at Um-Rihan (10, 184) and at Qarawat bene Hassan (49, 59, 139). Ph. 37 2. Very Large Towers.

Figs. 67, 69 Figs. 13, 6 8, Ph•. 38, 39, 40 Figs.

This group includes square or rectangular towers whose exterior length generally exceeds 5.00 m., and sometimes attains to 7.00 m. or more. Division into two or more rooms is recognisable in these towers, and a second storey has been observed in several. Some possess two entrances. The building blocks of this group exceed those of all other groups in size (see below). It would seem that this group included towers which were used 68 for other functions besides agriculture; e.g. as fortified farms, or for observation and visual contact with other points. Representatives of the group are e.g. the towers at Hirbet Jam'ein (229), on the 'Azun map; Bene Hassan (48, 57, 94, l); Kefr Laqif (88); Hirbet Buraq (52, 2, 34). Tower 6 7 103 of the 'Azun map (Qasr Haramiyyeh) belongs typologically to this group, 69 but on additional considerations we have devoted to it a distinct discussion.

45 , 70

1. 41 Fig. 45

3.

Small Towers.

This group is composed of round or square towers whose exterior size is in the neighbourhood of 2.00 m., their internal space being so small that a man cannot stand upright· on them. The group is represented by towers at Hirbet Buraq (55, 78) and Kefr Laqif (2). Tower 55 at Hirbet Buraq is so small that a man could not enter it at all. · 4 ·•

'Towers ' • Underground -

This group consists of 'towers', part of whose structure is below ground, so that they remind us of dolmens. They are not uniform in shape, and are doubtfully square or round. Some of the group are built of undressed stones, or their tooling is rough and primary. The group is represented by towers at Kefr Sur (10, 84, 134); Kefr Laqif (103); Hirbet 93

B uraq ( 54) a nd Q arawat b ene H assan ( 51,

5 4);

A rea 6 6 o f t he S hufah m ap

c ontains a c onsiderable g roup o f t hese s mall ' towers ' . 5 .

R ound T owers. T hese a re e xceptional i n t he d istribution o f f ield t owers .

T hey a ppear

t ogether i n t he s ame a reas with o ther t ypes a nd w e e stimate t hat t hey F igs. 7 1, 7 2 7 3

P h. 4 2, 4 3

c onstitute 2 0-30 p ercent o f t he t otal n umber . T hey a re n ot u niform i n s ize a nd v ary f rom 3 .00 t o 7 .00 m . T heir s pecial f eature i s t heir c ircular a rchitectural

6 .

T hey

2 37) ;

h ave

n umerous

K efr L aqif ( 9 ,

1 2) ;

r epresentatives, H irbet B uraq

e .g .

( 54) ;

U m-Riham

Q arawat

b ene

E xceptional T owers. T o t his g roup b elong t owers o f v arying t ypes,

F ig. 7 4 P h. 4 4

s hape .

( 17) ; ' Azun ( 234, H assan ( 64 , 6 7) .

i ndependent

t ypological

S heikh ( e-Ras 3 2)

g rouping

b ecause

t hey a re

w hich d o n ot j ustify a n r are .

A t

t wo s toreys were d istinguishable .

Q asr B int e -

T he s econd i s a -

t ypical , b eing s mall i n m easurement a nd b uilt o n t he b ase o f an ormal s quare t ower. F ig. 7 5 P h. 4 5

A n u nusual w ere

s quare

i nto

t heir

t ypes .

t ype

t owers i nner

w as

( 5 . 0 0

w alls .

F ig. 7 6 P h. 4 6

w as

( G .R .

1 67166) .

c ontinuing

a lso d ifferent

n iches

f rom a ll

t he

T hese b uilt o ther

b ut t he r oof s tood a t

t he r esults b eing a t ower w ith a n u nusually h igh

Q asr M ansurah

( Qarawat

b ene H assan m ap ,

s toreys a re s till p reserved , a nd i ts t he a rchitecture o f t hese s tructures . a rch b uilt

P h. 4 7

r oof

S ejerah

a pproximately )

p arapet .

o f

u pper s torey , F ig. 7 7

T he

a t H irbet

m .

T he w alls r ose t o ah eight o f 3 .00 m . o r m ore ,

a h eight o f a bout 2 .00 m . , u pper

o bserved x 5 .30

6 )

i s

a t ower

i n w hich t wo

i nternal s tructure i s e xceptional i n T he r oof o f t he b uilding r ests o n a n

f inely d ressed v oussoirs .

T here

i s

a lso

a w indow

i n

t he

a v ery u nusual d etail i n t hese b uildings .

T ower 1 21 o n t he Q arawat b ene H assan m ap i s a c ircular s tructure w ith a c ircumference o f 9 .60 m .

a nd a h eight o f 3 .00 m .

I t i s d ivided i nto f our

e qual p arts, a nd a q uarter a ppears t o h ave b een c overed b y am asonry r oof. E xceptional a lso w ere t he d ouble t owers , i .e . n ormal t owers r ound w hich t hicker w alls w ere a dded . T his t hickening h ad a f unctional a im ( below ), a nd F ig. 7 8 t he t ower-builders p aid much a ttention t o t he s ubject . At ower r epresenting P h. 4 8

t his g roup i s t ower 1 o n t he K efr L aqif m ap ( Jebel C arson). T hree t owers w hich w ere d ug a t H irbet J em tein ( the ' Azun m ap ) , h ad b een i ncorporated i nto a bandoned b uildings o f E arly I ron A ge

I I .

I n b uildings

5 0 , 1 00 a nd 1 93 t here a re r eal t owers w hose i ncorporation i nto a bandoned b u i l d in g s f u rn i sh e d t h e d e s ir e d t h i c k e n in g o f t h e w a l l s . A p a rt f rom F ig. 7 9 c hronological c onclusions, t he t owers i ncorporated i nto t he b uildings o f H irbet J em tein a ssisted o ur u nderstanding o f t he w ay t he t owers w ere b uilt . I t would s eem t hat a n umber o f t owers a t H irbet S ejerah a lso were i ncorporated i nto b uildings o f t he E arly I ron A ge ,

b ut o nly e xcavation c an

c onfirm t he m anner o f t heir i ncorporation .

5 . T he A rchitecture o f t he T owers. I n c ontrast

t o t he n oterot

( see

9 4

t he s ection o n t he d ifference b etween

t owers

a nd n oterot ),

t he

t owers

w ere b uilt o f s tones w hich w ere q uarried

e specially f or t he p urpose . T he a verage s tone u sed t o b uild t he t owers i s f airly l arge , a pproximately 0 .40 x 0 .60 x 0 .80 m . , i ts f ace b eing t ooled o n t he o uter s ide . T he t owers w ere b uilt o f d olomite a nd h ard l imestone . W e d id n ot f ind a ny i nstance i n which s oft s tone was u sed . W e s urveyed n umerous q uarries i n t he t ower a reas , f rom w hich s tones h ad b een d ressed f or b uilding . S uch q uarries w ere f ound i n t he a reas o f Q arawat b ene H assan , H irbet e l-Buraq a nd H irbet J em tein ( ' Azun ) , a nd i ndeed i n a ll t he a reas o f t ower d istribution ( see t he d istribution m aps). D r . Y ohanan M intzker o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities i s o f t he o pinion t hat 3 00 o r 4 00 d ays w ork w ere r equired t o b uild o ne a verage t ower . T he e rection o f as ingle t ower n eeded a t rained p rofessional t eam o f an umber o f m en , a lso a uxiliary m eans f or l ifting t he h eavy s tones . T he s tone c ourses w ere d ressed

i n p art ,

a nd a fter

t hey h ad b een l aid ,

s mall

g aps

r emained

b etween t he m asonry . T hese g aps w ere s topped w ith s maller s tones , a ccording t o t heir l evel . T he walls o f t he t ower a re n ot c ompletely s ealed, a nd d espite t heir t hickness s mall c hinks r emained b etween t he c ourses . W e t hink t he r eason f or t his w as n ot c arelessness o r l ack o f s kill i n b uilding ; t he r easons w ere c onnected w ith t he t ower 's f unction . T he t owers a re s ited i n a ll c onditions a nd p lay o f t he t errain a nd i n e very t opographical f ormation : b osses, s purs, s lopes a nd v alleys . A s f ar a s t hey c ould t heir b uilders e ndeavoured t o s elect l evel r ock a reas o n w hich t o b uild . I f t he r ock s urfaces w ere n ot l evel , t he c ourses w ere a djusted b y d ressing t he s tone i n s itu . W e f ound n o c ases o f s urfaces d ressed a nd s moothed b efore t he t ower w as e rected . S ometimes t owers w ere e rected i n c onditions o f s harp g rades , i n which c ase t he f loor w as l evelled b y a n a rtificial f ill o f s oil a nd . stone. I t s hould b e s tated t hat w e f ound n o f ixed r ule i n r elation t o w hich p oint o f t he c ompass t he t owers f aced . T he a verage s ize o f t he s tones i n t he ' square ' g roup w as r oughly 0 .80 x 0 .60 x 0 .40 m .

T he c orner s tones w ere l arger ,

g enerally o ver 1 . 00 m .

T he

l argest s tones i n t he t owers w ere t hose o f t he r oof ( see b elow ) . I n T ower 8 a t Q arawat b ene H assan w e c ounted 1 50 s tones ( including t he r oof-slabs) w ith w hich t he t owers h ad b een b uilt . T he w eight o f t he a verage s tone i n a t ower w as 6 00 - 8 00 k g., t hat o f t he l arge o nes b eing 3 ,000 - 4 ,000 k g.

M ap o f .Qarawat b ene H assan . O uter m easurements o f t he t owers. N umber o f T ower

S ize i n m etres.

4 4

3 .30 x 4 .20

4 9

3 .40 x 3 .90

5 7

4 .90 x 6 .30

5 9

3 .60 x 4 .00

6 0

3 .60 x 3 .60

6 2

4 .00 x 4 .30

9 5

6 4

D iameter 3 .60 m . ( round)

6 6

4 .40 x 4 .70

6 9

D iameter 3 .70 i n . ( round)

7 0

4 .90 x 5 .10

7 1

4 .10 x 5 .10

7 3

4 .40 x 5 .10

8 3

2 .40 x 3 .00

9 6

3 .60 x 3 .90

17

2 .60 x 2 .60

16

2 .90 x 3 .00

1 23

3 .80 x 4 .10

1 25

3 .40 x 3 .80

1 28

3 .80 x 3 .90

1 30

2 .90 x 2 .90

1 31

3 .60 x 3 .70

1 32

3 .10 x 3 .60

1 33

4 .10 x 4 .60

1 35

2 .50 x 2 .90

1 36

3 .80 x 4 .10

1 37

4 .50 x 4 .70

1 39

4 .50 x 4 .50

1 41

3 .40 x 3 .60

1 42

3 .90 x 4 .60

1 43

4 .40 x 4 .80

M ap o f ' Azun N umber o f T ower

S ize i n m etres .

6 1

4 .70 x 4 .90

6 2

3 .70 x 3 .70

6 4

4 .40 x 4 .50

7 3

3 .70 x 3 .80

7 9

3 .90 x 4 .50

8 5

3 .90 x 4 .00

8 7

2 .50 x 3 .20

9 0

4 .15 x 4 .75

1 01

4 .65 x 5 .30

1 04

4 .10 x 5 .00

1 06

2 .50 x 3 .20

1 07

3 .60 x 3 .70

14

4 .60 x 5 .00

17

3 .45 x 3 .10

1 20

3 .80 x 4 .10

1 25

3 .30 x 3 .40

1 31

3 .10 x 3 .60

1 32

5 .10 x 5 .20

1 33

3 .60 x 3 .80

1 34

3 .95 x 4 .08

1 39

4 .00 x 4 .10

1 40

3 .50 x 4 .10

1 42

2 .60 x 3 .10

1 43

3 .30 x 3 .40 ( 4.00)

1 46

3 .80 x 4 .80

1 47

2 .80 x 3 .80

1 48

3 .00 x 3 .10

1 52

3 .30 x 3 .40

1 53

3 .40 x 3 .60

1 94

4 .50 x 5 .50

2 34

3 .00 x 3 .10

9 7

1 61

3 .80 x 3 .80

1 68

3 .40 x 3 .90

1 88

3 .50 x 3 .70

2 02

5 .40 x 6 .80

2 03

3 .40 x 3 .40

2 07

3 .60 x 4 .00

1 56b

3 .95 x 4 .05

1 56a

4 .10 x 5 .20

4 01

3 .10 x 3 .20

1 55

2 .50 x 2.50

4 00

2 .60 x 4 .00

2 29

3 .80 x 7 .20

2 34

3 .10 x 4 .50

2 37

3 .00 x 3 .80

M ap o f K efr L aqif. O uter m easurements o f t he t owers. N umber o f T ower

S ize i n m etres.

2

2 .60 x 3 .60

6

2 .60 x 2 .60

8

4 .30 x 4 .70

9

D iameter 3 .60 m . ( round)

1 2

D iameter 4 .00 m . ( round)

1 5

4 .20 x 4 .65

1 05

3 .70 x 3 .70 x 3 .60 x 3 .85

5 4

3 .60 x 3 .80

6 1

3 .40 x 3 .40

6 2

5 .40 x 6 .00

6 6

3 .70 x 4 .20

6 8

3 .60 x 4 .00

7 6

3 .00 x 3 .50

7 7

4 .80 x 5 .20

8 8

5 .10 x 6 .30

9 3

2 .30 x 3 .10

9 4

3 .60 x 3 .80

1 00

2 .90 x 3 .50

1 04

4 .30 x 4 .30

10

5 .30 x 5 .30

11

3 .70 x 3 .90

12

4 .20 x 4 .80

M ap o f H irbet B uraq . O uter m easurements o f t he t owers. N umber o f T ower.

S ize i n m etres.

5 4

D iameter 4 .80 i n . ( round)

5 5

2 .30 x 2 .30

8 3

3 .20 x 3 .60

5 1

5 .00 x 5 .00

5 0

5 .40 x 6 .00 ( round )

7 3

4 .50 x 4 .50

7 5

3 .70 x 4 .10

" 7 8

2 .70 x 2 .70

9 9

4 .60 x 4 .80

8 2

4 .10 x 4 .50

5 3

6 .60 x 7 .30

M ap o f e -Ras. O uter m easurements o f t he t owers. N umber o f T ower . 1 6

S ize i n m etres. 3 .90 x 4 .10

1 7

2 .80 x 3 .60

1 8

3 .05 x 3 .05

1 9

3 .20 x 3 .20

2 1

3 .60 x 4 .10

2 3

3 .80 x 4 .00

2 4

4 .20 x 5 .40

2 8

3 .85 x 4 .05

2 9

3 .55 x 3 .60

3 0

3 .05 x 3 .10

3 4

3 .05 x 3 .80

3 6

3 .10 x 4 .20

1 69

4 .40 x 4 .45

1 75

3 .30 x 3 .70

1 82

4 .10 x 4 .50

3 04

3 .55 x 3 .80

3 07

3 .80 x 3 .85

3 12

2 .90 x 3 .25

3 17

3 .75 x 4 .10

3 2

3 .70 x 3 .90

' Map o f K efr S ur . O uter m easurements o f t he t owers. N umber o f T ower .

S ize i n m etres.

1

3 .40 x 3 .65

4

3 .70 x 3 .70

1 4

3 .40 x 3 .50

5 2 .

3 .45 x 3 .45

5 3

3 .55 x 3 .75

5 6

3 .45 x 3 .70

1 00

5 7

3 .50 x 3 .50

5 9

4 .45 x 4 .90 ( 5.00)

6 1

3 .60 x 3 .70

6 5

3 .60 x 3 .70

7 0

2 .60 x 3 .10

7 6

3 .20 x 3 .20

7 7

3 .00 x 3 .35

7 9

2 .90 x 2 .60

8 3

5 .10 x 6 .00

8 7

4 .40 x 4 .55

9 0

3 .40 x 4 .50

9 2

5 .70 x 5 .85

9 5

3 .60 x 4 .10

9 6

3 .75 x 3 .90

9 7

3 .70 x 3 .90

1 38

3 .80 x 4 .10

1 45

3 .40 x 3 .40

1 52

3 .00 x 3 .00

6

3 .60 x 4 .30

9

3 .55 x 3 .65

M ap o f -T zur N athan . O uter m easurements o f t he t owers. N umber o f T ower .

S ize i n m etres.

4 6

3 .70 x 4 .10

4 9

3 .70 x 4 .60

10

3 .10 x 3 .10

11

3 .80 x 4 .50

17

3 .90 x 4 .70

1 01

18

2 .90 x 4 .10

M ap o f S hufah . O uter m easurements o f t he t owers. N umber o f T ower .

S ize i n m etres.

2

4 .50 x 5 .10

5

3 .40 x 4 .50

8

2 .00 x 2 .50

1 3

4 .10 x 4 .10

1 4

4 .30 x 4 .30

1 9

3 .10 x 3 .10

2 9

3 .80 x 3 .90

3 1

3 .40 x 3 .45

3 5

6 .30 x 6 .70

5 3

3 .80 x 4 .00

5 9

5 .35 x 4 .90

6 1

3 .80 x 3 .90

6 5

3 .00 x 3 .40

7 3

3 .10 x 3 .20

9 0

3 .45 x 3 .50

9 1

3 .10 x 3 .60

E xamples o f H eights o f T owers. N umber o f T ower .

E xterior H eight.

B ene H assan ( 66)

2 .80 m .

I nternal M easurements.

B ene H assan ( 73)

2 .20 x 2 .40 m .

T wo t owers ( Square g roup ) -

1 .90 m . h eight

B ene H assan ( 1)

3 .70 m .

3 .00 x 3 .00 m .

L arge g roup

H eight 2 .90 i n .

1 02

K efr L aqif ( 1)

2 .30 i n .

1 .90 - 2 .00 i n . h eight

N umber o f T ower .

E xterior H eight.

I nternal M easurements.

4 .10 i n . ( Two-storey )

2 .10 x 2 .30 i n .

E xceptional T ower G roup

e -Ras ( 32) E xceptional T ower G roup

2 .45 m . L ower s torey 1 .30 i n . U pper s torey

T he a verage n umber o f c ourses i n t he s quare t ower-group ( 1 ) v aries f rom 5 -7 s tones i n h eight . T he a verage h eight o f t he t ower i n t his g roup v aries f rom 2 .30 - 2 .80 i n . T he a verage h eight o f o ne c ourse i s 0 .40 m . T he c omplete t ower o f t he ' large ' g roup ( Bene H assan 1 ) h as e ight c ourses . T he a verage m easurement o f o ne c ourse 4 6.25 c m .

E xamples o f T hickness o f W alls. N umber o f T ower .

T hickness o f W all.

S ize o f S tones.

B ene H assan ( 8)

0 .80 i n .

0 .64 x 0 .58 x 1 .03 i n .

S quare T owers

0 .76 x 0 .73 x 1 .42 i n . 0 .50 x 0 .50 x 2 .70 i n . 0 .50 x 0 .50 x 2 .78

B ene H assan ( 1)

M easurements o f s ome

0 .80 m .

o f s tones 0 .55 x 0 .55 x 1 .20 m .

L arge T owers

0 .35 x 0 .60 x 2 .60 i n . 0 .40 x 0 .50 x 1 .10 m . 0 .40 x 0 .50 x 1 .10 i n . 0 .40 x 0 .60 x 1 .80 i n . ' Azun ( 21)

. 0 .85

m .

S quare T owers e -Ras

( 32)

0 .80 i n .

0 .40 x 0 .50 x 1 .20 i n . 0 .40 x 0 .70 x 1 .10 m .

E xceptional T owers

1 03

M easurements o f D oors. N umber o f T ower .

M easurement o f D oor.

B ene H assan ( 1)

0 .70 m . w ide

L arge T owers:

1 .10 m . h igh

B ene H assan ( 64, 6 9) R ound T owers:

0 .60 m . w ide

B ene H assan ( 70)

0 .60 m . w ide

L arge T owers: ' Azun (21)

0 .80 m . w ide

S quare T owers:

0 .90 m . h igh

e —Ras ( 32)

0 .60 m . w ide

E xceptional T owers:

1 .10 m . h igh

S ur ( 9) q uare T owers

1 .10 m . h igh

T owers w ith D oor—jambs C omposed o f D raughted B locks. B ene H assan m ap ( 60, 6 9, 9 4, 9 6) ' Azun m ap ( 90) S ur m ap ( 124) S hufah m ap ( 29)

N umber o f T ower .

L ocation o f d oor(s).

B ene H assan ( 1)

•N orth

B ene H assan ( 6)

S outh

B ene H assan ( 47)

E ast

B ene H assan ( 49)

N orth

B ene H assan ( 57)

N orth a nd e ast ( Large t ower w ith t wo d oors)

B ene H assan ( 58)

N orth

B ene H assan ( 59)

E ast

B ene H assan ( 60)

E ast

1 04

B ene H assan ( 62)

W est ( Exceptional t ower)

B ene H assan ( 66)

E ast

B ene H assan ( 94)

N orth a nd e ast ( Large t ower w ith t wo d oors)

B ene H assan ( 96)

N orth

J ambs, L intels a nd D oorsteps. T he d oors o f t he t owers w ere g enerally b uilt o f t hree t o f ive s tones . T he d oorstep w as c ut i n t he n atural r ock , b ut n ormally i t w as s haped f rom a s tone o f a pproximately l arge s ize . L arge b locks w ere s elected f or t he j ambs a nd l intels , t he

e ntire

a nd a t endency w as n oted t o p refer c omplete s tones f or

d oor-frame .

S ince

t he

d oorway

c onstituted

t he

t ower 's

w eak

p oint , i ts m easurements w ere r estricted . F urther , s tones o f s ufficient h eight a nd b readth w ere s elected t o e nable t he c utting o f a d oor-frame a nd s inkings f or a b olt . T he j ambs a veraged 1 .00 m i . i n h eight m . i n t hickness . T he l intel w as l arge a nd a t l east t wice w idth o f t he d oorway ( 1.20-1.60 m .) . T he s tones o f t he o ften t ooled , a nd i n n ot a f ew c ases m arginal d raughting w as

a nd 0 .50 - 0 .70 a s l ong a s t he d oorways w ere o bserved o n t he

e xterior f ace . T he w idth o f t he m arginal d ressing v aried 1 0 c m . i n w idth , a nd t he d oor , p robably o f w ood , s wung w ithin t his f rame . T o t he l eft o f t he d oorstep ( or i n t he n atural r ock ) a s hallow s ocket w as q uarried , 5 -8 c m . d eep . T he d oors a lways o pened i nward a nd t o t he l eft . O n t he r ight o f t he i nner f rame , ac ircular o r s quare d epression w as c ut p resumably f or a l ock a nd b olt . T he

m asonry

o f

t he d oors

w as

n ot d ressed

i n t he s mall a nd

c ircular

t owers, n or d o t he l atter p ossess a rrangements f or s ockets a nd b olts . T he m anner o f c losing t he t owers i n t hese g roups i s d ifficult t o r econstruct a nd a pparently t heir b uilders s olved t he p roblem i n v arious w ays . A q uarried f ramework a nd a rrangements f or c losing t he d oors w ere n ot a lways o bserved i n t he s quare t owers e ither , a nd i t w ould s eem t hat t here w ere s everal m ethods o f s hutting t hem . N otwithstanding , w e d o n ot t hink t hat t he d ifferences b etween t he t owers w ith s moothly d ressed e ntrances a nd t hose w hich d id n ot d isplay s uch , p ossessed c hronological s ignificance , a nd m ay w ell h ave a risen f rom v arious m ethods o f b uilding .

T he R oofing o f t he T owers. O ne o f

t he d ifficult

p roblems f acing t he t ower b uilders w as t he

c onstruction o f t he r oof . A s t echnological n ecessity d ictated a n e ntirely s tone s tructure , i t w as n ecessary t o s pan t he r oof w ith h eavy s tone r afters . A s urvey o f t he t owers s howed t hat m ost o f t hem h ad b egun t o c ollapse b ecause t he r oofs h ad f allen i nward . T he r oof , t hen , w as t he w eak p oint . I t was c omposed o f s tone r afters i n a ll t owers o f t he s quare o r o blong c ategory . 1 )

W e f ound t wo p rincipal m ethods o f r oofing :

I n t he s mall-medium t owers t he r afters h ad b een l aid f rom w all t o w all ,

c riss-cross . I n o rder t o l imit t he s pan t o b e c overed , t he c ourses o f t he w alls w ere c orbelled i nward , s o c reating o ffsets w hich e nabled t he r afters t o b e l aid l aterally a nd l ongitudinally .

1 05

I n m ost o f t he s quare t owers , t he

i nterior o ffsets , c ommencing f rom t he t hird a nd f ourth c ourse , w ere b uilt o f l onger s tones , w hich t hus r estricted t he s pan t o b e c overed . E xamples o f H assan 7 3

t his m ethod w ere B ene H assan 6 2 a nd 4 9 .

t he r oof was c overed l aterally b y f our s tone

A t H irbet b ene r afters,

e ach

m easuring 0 .25 x 0 .45 x 0 .75 x 2 .30 m . O ver t hem o ne o r t wo c ourses w ere l aid c riss-cross t o s tabilise t hem w ith t heir w eight . I n m any t owers a f rame o f s tabilising s tones w as b uilt t o f orm a p arapet r ound t he t owerr oof , e .g . B ene H assan 4 9 . A n i nteresting m ethod o f r oofing a l arge o blong t ower w as u tilised b y t he b uilders o f H irbet J em 'ein ( 229 o f t he ' A zun m ap ) . T he t ower , w hose l ength w as o ver s even m etres , a nd i ts b readth a pproximately f our m etres , w as d ivided i nto t wo r ooms . P art o f t he c riss-cross r afters w ere l aid o ver t he p ilasters w hich d ivided t he t ower i nto t wo . H ere t he f ifth c ourse , w hich p rojected i nward h alf a m etre , b ore t he m ain w eight o f t he r oof . a dditional

S tone r afters 1 .60 m . i n l ength w ere l aid o ver t hem, a nd a n l ayer o f l arge s tones d esigned f or i nsulation a nd s upport

c ompleted t he r oof s tructure . T he s aid t ower i s p reserved i n i ts e ntirety , o nly t he r oof h aving c ollapsed i nward . 2 )

A s

a s econd

method,

f or

t owers

e xceeding

t he m edium

s ize,

a nd

p rincipally f or t he l arge a nd ' giant ' o nes , t he b uilders u sed o blique s tone r afters C squinche 0 . T he b uilding 's f our c orners w ere t he n atural p oints o n w hich t he o blique r afters c ould b e l aid , t his m ethod d eparted f rom . F our a dditional r afters ; t hese s tabilised t he l ong o blique m . ) . T he r emaining o pening i n t he r oof w as l aterally o r l ongitudinally . h eight ( See B ene H assan ,

a nd o nly i n i solated c ases w as r afters w ere l aid o ver t he f our r afters b elow t hem ( 2 .00 - 3 .00 c losed b y l aying s hort r afters

I n t his w ay t he t ower s tood s even c ourses i n

T ower 5 9) .

T ower 1 a t Q arawat b ene H assan w as r oofed w ith t welve s tone r afters l aid o bliquely . T he l ength o f t he s hortest w as 0 .80 m . , o f t he l ongest 2 . 60 m . T he w idth o f t he r afters v aried f rom 0 .40 - 0 .60 m ., b ut h ere t he o blique r afters d o n ot l ie s ymmetrically , a nd t o a void o verweight i n t he d oor a rea ,

t hey w ere l aid r ather i n t rapeze f ashion .

T he t otal w eight o f

t he r oof-stones h ere a pproached 8 ,000 k g .

T he R oofing o f t he R ound T owers. I n t hese t he r oof w as c overed b y a s ystem d escribable a s t hat o f t he ' Eskimo I gloo ' .

B eginning w ith t he c ourse f rom b elow ,

i nward s o a s t o f orm a s ort o f i nverted s taircase .

t he s tones w ere

s et

T he e ntire u pper p art o f

t he r ound t ower t hus g rew n arrower a nd n arrower , w hile t he r emaining c ircular o pening w as c overed b y t wo o r t hree s tone s labs . W here t he l arger r ound t owers w ere c oncerned w alls w ere b uilt o f

t wo c ourses o f s tones ,

( e .g .

U m R ihan 1 7) ,

t he

t o f orm a s mall i nterior s pace

a nd a n u pper a perture r oofed b y s labs 2 .50 x 1 .50 m . i n l ength . S mall

r ound

a nd

s ubterranean

' towers '

w ere

s ometimes

r oofed

b y

o ne

l arge s tone s lab . I n s ome c ases t he l ength o f t he s labs a ttained 1 . 50 x 2 .50 m ., a nd m ay f or t his r eason h ave b een l ikened t o p rehistoric d olmens.

1 06

F loors. A fter t he e xcavation o f f orty-five t owers h ad b een c ompleted , o btained a f airly u niform p icture o f h ow t hey w ere f loored .

w e h ad

I t h ad b een

s tated a bove t hat t he t ower-builders d id n ot l evel t he r ock-areas o n w hich t he t owers w ere e rected , a nd w ere s o f orced t o s olve t he p roblem o f t he c hanges o f h eight b y a rtificial f ill . T he a verage f loor i s n atural r ock , w hose d epressions w ere f illed w ith r ammed s oil . I n n o i nstance d id w e e ncounter a r egular f looring o f s tone s labs o r o ther a rtificial m aterial . E xceptions w ere t hose t owers w hich w ere i n p rolonged s econdary u se . H ere w e e ncountered v arious a lterations s uch a s t he e limination o f t he d oor s ocket a nd a p artial f looring o f s tone s labs ( Kefr L aqif ; ' A zun 1 56) . I n s ome o f t he t owers, c hiefly i n t he c ircular a nd s mall g roups, n o f ill w hatever c ould b e d istinguished o ver t he f loor . H ere r ocky o utcrops p rojected i nward, a nd t he d ifferences o f h eight i nside t he t owers were e xtremely s harp . F rom w hat h as b een s aid i t b ecomes c lear t hat t he t ower f loors p erformed n o u seful f unction .

S umming u p. T he a verage t ower w as a m assive s tone s tructure w hose s ides v aried f rom 3 .00 t o 4 .00 m . s quare a nd w hose h eight w as a bout 3 m etres . I ts w alls w ere 0 .70 x 0 .80 m . t hick a nd i t w as b uilt o f l arge h ard s tones - o f d olomite a nd d urable l imestone . T he a verage w eight o f a m edium t ower w as 1 00 - 1 50 t ons ! T he t owers w ere b uilt w ithout b inding m aterial , a nd t heir w alls w ere n ot i nsulated . T hey p ossessed o ne s mall e ntrance , w hich c ould b e s hut b y a w ooden d oor . T heir i nterior w as a d ark c hamber , 3 0 p ercent o r m ore o f t he e xterior m easurements o f t he t ower . T here i s n o s ign t hat t he r oof w as u sed , a nd o nly i n t wo c ases d id w e f ind e vidence o f s tairs w hich l ed t o t he r oof ( ' Azun m ap , 7 1-72 ; 1 56a ) . I t w ould s eem t hat t hese s tairs w ere b uilt i n a l ate s tage o f t he t ower 's u se . A pparently t he t ower w as a f unctional s tructure , e ntirely b uilt f or a n a gricultural a nd e conomic p urpose . T he n umber o f e xceptional t owers i s s o s mall t hat n othing c an b e l earnt f rom t hem o f g eneral a pplication .

6 .

F inds f rom t he T owers. T he c onstruction o f t he t owers a nd t he s mall a rea o f t heir i nteriors

p revented t he a ccumulation o f

s trata c ontaining f inds .

A f loor o f n atural

r ock c övered w ith a l ayer o f r ammed s oil i s n ot a n i deal p lace f or t he p reservation o f a rchaeological o bjects . S ome o f t he t owers , m oreover , w ere r eused s ubsequently , a fter t hey w ere b uilt , f or v arious d ifferent p urposes ; t heir o wners h ad c leaned o ut t he r ubbish a nd t he p otsherds a nd s o d eprived u s o f c hronological e vidence . A t t he v ery s tart o f t he s urvey w e a dopted s everal m ethods t o o vercome s ome o f t hese o bstacles : 1 )

A c omprehensive s urvey w as c onducted i n t he a reas r ound t he t owers ;

s ome o f t hese s urveys c overed s ectors a mounting t o t housands o f d unams. 2 )

W e

e xcavated

s olitary

t owers

1 07

s ituated

s ome d ozens

o f k ilometres

d istant f rom o ne a nother. 3 ) W e e xcavated g roups o f t owers e ach i n t he s ame s ector a nd o btained f inds f urnishing c umulative a nd o verlapping e vidence. 4 )

S ome

t owers

w hich w ere

t hus

i n d anger o f d estruction w ere d ismantled

s tone b y s tone d own t o t he f oundations, m ethods a nd t imes o f b uilding.

t hus e nabling u s

t o s tudy t he

T he P ottery . I n T ower 1 a t Q arawat b ene H assan ( the t ower i s k nown a s Q asr A bbu J elaia , a fter t he o wner o f t he l and ) w ere f ound t he r emaining b ody-sherds o f a mphorae

o f

t he

H ellenistic

a nd

e arly

R oman

p eriods .

T he

u pper

s tratum

y ielded A rab s herds i ndicating t hat t he t ower h ad b een u sed a s a s torehouse a nd dwelling i n t he m iddle a ges a nd i n t he r ecent p eriod . S herds o f a mphorae a nd j uglets o f t he H ellenistic a nd H erodian p eriods w ere f ound i n T ower 2 1 a t T he

p ottery f rom

' Azun .

t welve

t owers

a t J ebel

C arson

( the K efr L aqif m ap )

c ould b e c haracterised a s f ollows: a )

M ost o f t he s herds b elonged t o a mphorae o f l ocal m anufacture.

b )

T here w as a s mall a mount o f P ersian a nd ' Persian-Hellenistic' m aterial.

c )

T ower 8 c ontained

t he

s herd

o f

a G reek w ine-amphora

o f e astern t ype ,

d ated t o t he 4 th c entury B .C.E. d )

T he m ain f inds b elonged t o t he

i st a nd 2 nd c enturies C .E .,

i .e .

t o t he

l ast s ignificant p hase i n w hich t he t owers f unctioned. e )

O nly i solated f inds o f t he B yzantine p eriod w ere f ound. Most o f t ha d atable s herds o f T ower 3 2, e -Ras ( Qasr B int e -Sheikh)

b elonged t o t he H ellenistic a nd e arly R oman p eriods. T owers 6 a nd 9 o f t he K efr S ur m ap y ielded a n umber o f b ody-sherds o f a mphorae o f t he i st a nd 2 nd c enturies C .E. I n t he t owers a t H irbet J em iein ( ' Azun m ap ) m ost o f b elonged t o t he 3 rd a nd 2 nd c enturies B .C .E .

t he p ottery f inds

C haracteristic p ottery o f t he

H erodian p eriod o f t he i st c entury B .C .E . a nd o f t he i st a nd 2 nd c enturies C .E . w as a lso i dentified . O nly i n o ne t ower ( 156a ) w ere s herds o f t he 3 rd a nd

4 th

c enturies

C .E .

a rchitectural a lterations

f ound . m ade

T his

t ower

was

e xceptional

t o i t i n t he c ourse o f t ime ,

i n

t he

a nd a scribable

t o t he s ame p eriods a s t he a bove p ottery . T ower 5 4 o f t he H irbet B uraq m ap y ielded i solated s herds o f t he H ellenistic p eriod . A s urvey o f t he t ower s ector o f t he Q arawat B ene H assan m ap ( there w ere 1 70 t owers i n a n a rea o f o ver 1 0 ,000 d unams) f urnished t he f ollowing d ata : a )

M ost o f t he s urface p ottery r ecovered b elonged t o t he p eriod f rom

E arly I ron A ge I I t o t he H erodian . b )

T he f inds b elonging t o t he i st a nd 2 nd c enturies C .E. w ere s canty .

1 08

c )

T here w as h ardly a ny m aterial o f t he B yzantine p eriod.

A s imilar p icture a ppears

i n t he s urvey o f t he H irbet S ur s ector

( ' Azun m ap ) : M ost o f t he p ottery f rom 3 0 t owers e xtends f rom E arly I ron A ge I I t o t he e arly R oman p eriod .

C oins a nd G lassware. I n T ower 1 5 o f K efr L aqif t wo c oins o f t he m id - 4 th c entury C .E . w ere f ound .

T ower 1 a t Q arawat b ene H assan y ielded a M ameluke c oin .

H irbet J em 'ein ( ' Azun ) g ave u s

t wo O ttoman c oins,

A t ower a t

T ower 9 a t K efr S ur ,

t he

f ragment o f ag lass b owl o f t he H erodian p eriod . A t T ower 6 , n ear t he l ast , w e f ound p ieces o f a g lass c up o f t he i st o r 2 nd c entury C .E . F inds a t T ower 1 56b a t J em 'ein ( ' Azun map ) m etal

c osmetic

s tick .

T he

t ower

i ncluded a p iece o f g lass

i ncorporated

i nto

b uilding

b owl a nd a

5 0

a t H irbet

J em 'ein ( ' Azun ) y ielded f ragments o f a g lass d ish o f t he R oman p eriod .

B urials. T he c omplete b urial o f a s keleton o f t he O ttoman p eriod ( the d ate d etermined b y t he a ccompanying o bjects) w as f ound i n T ower 1 o f J ebel C arson ( Kefr L aqif m ap). A c omplete b urial w as f ound i n s itu c lose t o t he s outh w all o f T ower 1 56b a t H irbet J em 'ein .

T he g rave w as d efined b y a s ingle l ine o f s tones,

a nd h ad c learly b een a n a ddition t o t he e xisting t ower .

I nside t he t ower w e

f ound r emains o f t he s kull a nd t eeth o f t wo c orpses . b urials

o utside

t he

t ower

a nd

i nside

i t

b elonged

I n o ur v iew t he

t o a l ate

t ower 's e xistence , p erhaps t o t he 3 rd o r 4 th c entury C .E . a nd c osmetic s tick m ay b elong t o t he b urial .

s tage

o f

t he

T he g lass v essel

S ummary . T he r esults o f e xcavation i n o ver f orty-five t owers i n w estern S amaria , a nd t he s urvey o f t he t ower d istribution , h ave t old u s t hat t he t owers w ere e rected

i n

t he

H ellenistic

p eriod

o n

a n

a gricultural

b asis

b elonging

t o

E arly I ron A ge I I . O ur p resent i nformation i s t hat t he b ulk o f t he p ottery o f t he -H ellenistic p eriod i s o f t he 3 rd t o 2 nd c enturies B .C .E . , w hich s eems t o h ave b een t he p rincipal p eriod i n w hich t he t ower p attern w as p lanned a nd e rected .

T he t owers a pparently a lso f unctioned i n t he H erodian p eriod a nd

i n t he i st a nd 2 nd c enturies . t hose

o f

t he

3 rd

T he p ottery f inds o f l ater p eriods ,

a nd 4 th c enturies,

f it

i n w ith

s uch a s

a rchitecural a lterations

w hich w ere m ade i n v arious t owers a nd w ere n oticed b y u s i n t he c ourse o f e xcavation - e .g . a t t owers 8 , 1 5 a nd 1 05 o f t he K efr L aqif s ector . T he l ack o f s ignificant f inds o f t he l ate B yzantine p eriod i s o f g reat i nterest , a nd h as f ar-reaching i mplications w ith r egard t o t he s ettlement p attern o f w estern S amaria .

T .

T he F unction o f t he T owers i n t he R egion 's A gricultural P attern. T he w ide d istribution o f t he

f unction a nd p urpose .

t owers e vokes

t he q uestion o f

t heir

We h ave f ound t hat much l abour a nd e xpense was

1 09

i nvested

i n t he e rection o f e ach t ower ,

a nd i t i s t o b e a ssumed t hat t he

f inal a im w as t hought t o j ustify t he w eight o f e xpenditure . N either t he c haracter n or t he l ocation o f t he t owers w as s uch a s t o a fford s ecurity . T hey w ere n ot b uilt t o s tand a s iege , n or c ould t hey b e d efended . O nly a f ew p ossess c onditions f or g ood o bservation , a t b est , v isual c ommunication w ith t heir i mmediate s urroundings . T he t owers a re n ot s uited f or h uman h abitation ; most d o n ot p ossess t he p hysical l iving s pace f or a ny r easonable l ength o f t ime . T he w alls a nd r oofs a re n ot s ufficiently i nsulated a gainst w inter c onditions , w hile a t ower 's i nterior w as a lmost c ompletely d ark i f t he d oor w as s hut - i n o ther w ords , i ts c onditions w ere u ncomfortable f or l iving b oth i n s ummer a nd i n w inter . O nly t he ' very l arge ' o r ' exceptional ' t owers w ith e nabling p ermanent h uman h abitation .

t wo s toreys c ontained c onditions T he ' v ery l arge ' t owers a lso p ossess

ap lace f or o bservation f rom t he r oof , a nd t he t wo-storeyed t owers a fford a r easonable p ossibility o f p ermanent h uman r esidence . T he c onjecture t hat t he t owers s erved f or b urial a nd a re t herefore t o b e r egarded a s ' mausolea ' h as n ot s tood u p t o t he t est o f s urvey a nd e xcavation . A ll b urials i n t he t owers a re a ssociated, a pparently , w th h e s econdary u se o f t hese s tructures , a fter t hey h ad l ong c eased t o f ulfil t heir o riginal f unction .

T he T owers a nd W ine P roduction . I t s eems t hat t he o rigin a nd p lanning o f t he t owers w ere c onnected w ith t he w ine i ndustry a nd v ine c ultivation . I n t he c hapter d evoted t o w ine a nd t he v ine , w e d escribe t he t echnological a nd a gricultural s etting o f t he t owers a s t hey f unctioned w ithin t he w ine i ndustry : h ere w e s hall r ecapitulate b riefly t he m ain o bjects o f t heir u se . T he p rocess o f w ine p roduction r equires s pecial c onditions o f f ermentation , a nd h as t o b e c arried o ut i n a p lace where t he t emperature i s s table a nd a s l ow a s p ossible . D arkness i s i mportant f or w ine p roduction , r adiation , w hich h arms t he m ust, h as t o b e p revented.

a nd u ltra-red

A ll t hese c onditions e xist i n t he t owers , a nd t he c onditions o f a ncient t echnology p rovided a r easonable s olution f or t he w ine f ermentation p rocess . I t w ould a ppear t hat b uilding w ithout b inding m aterial a nd t he d eliberate l eaving o f c hinks i n t he w alls , w ere a ssociated w ith f ermentation . C arbon d i-oxide g as m ust e vaporate f rom t he a rea o f f ermentation , o therwise i t e ndangers h uman l ife . T he r oof a nd t hick w alls p rovided t wo i mportant c onditions f or f ermentation : T he r eduction o f t emperature w ithin t he t ower s everal d egrees b elow t hat o utside , a nd t he m aximum p ossible s tabilisation o f t he t emperature .

A t hickening o f t he s outh-eastern w alls w as n oticed i n

n ot a f ew o f t he t owers , p robably t he r esult o f a n a ttempt t o c ounter s olar r adiation a nd t he a dditional w arming o f t he s aid w alls . I n a t est w hich w e c arried o ut i n T ower 1 a t Q arawat b ene H assan w e f ound t hat t he d ifference b etween t he i nterior t emperature o n aw arm s ummer 's d ay a nd t hat o utside ( in t he s un ) w as a bout 1 5 d egrees C elsius, w hile t he f luctuation o f d aily t emperature i nside t he t ower d id n ot e xceed 3 - 5 d egrees C elsius . T he v ery i nstructive i nvestigations o f D r . Z vi R on i nto t he t emperatures o f t he s tone-built A rab

' lodges '

S amaria a re w orth c iting

( melunot)

i n t he

m ountain

i n c omparison .1 3 )

H is

c ountry

c onclusions

o f

J udaea

a nd

a nd

f indings

h ave a n i nteresting c onnection w ith t he t owers . a )

A g reat d ifference e xists b etween t he t emperature a nd t he r elative

h umidity i nside t he l odges, a nd t he o utside t emperature i n t he s ummer m onths.

10

b )

T he t emperature i nside t hem i s l ower t han t hat o utside b y d ay , a nd

t he r elative h umidity i s h igher , w hereas t he o pposite i s t he c ase d uring t he n ight. c ) T he maximum d ifference b etween t he i nterior t emperature a nd t hat o utside m ay a mount t o a s m uch a s 1.5 d egrees C elsius i n J uly . d )

T he f luctuation o f t he t emperature a nd t he r elative h umidity

i nside t he l odges a re m uch m ore u niform , a nd t he c hanges m ore m oderate t han t hose o utside . D espite t he d ifferences b etween t he r ecent ' guard l odges ' a nd t he a ncient t owers, R on 's d ata c an b e a pplied t o t he t owers. A ll t he c onditions r equired f or w ine-fermentation e xisted i n t he l atter .

W hat i s m ore , t he c apacity o f t he t owers c ould b e u tilised t o s tore

t he g rapes t ill t hey w ere s ent t o m arket . T he v intage o f t able g rapes i nvolved a d ifficult p roblem i n a ncient t imes , n amely , h ow t o r educe t he t emperature o f t he g rapes t o p revent t he s talk f rom d rying u p .1 4) I n t raditional A rab a griculture a nd i n t he e arly d ays o f Z ionist w inec ultivation , t he f ollowing r ules w ere o bserved : 4 ;

N o g rape-picking f rom 1 0 t o

t he g rapes w ere s tored f rom 8 t o 2 4 h ours p rior t o m arketing .

c ases t he g rapes w ere d espatched o nly a t n ight, i n t he c ooler h ours.

I n m any 1 5

)

I n modern i nvestigations c arried o ut b y f ood a nd a gricultural e ngineers , i t w as f ound t hat g rapes t end t o l ose w ater i mmediately a fter p icking , o n a ccount o f t heir l arge s urface a rea . T he t emperature a round g rapes k ept i n l ow s hade w as 9°. T o p revent a nd t o r estrict t he d amage c aused b y t he e vaporation o f w ater f rom f ruit ,

i t h as

t o b e s tored i n t he

s hade i n a c ool h umid a tmosphere .1 6 ) H ence t he t owers a lso f urnished a n e xcellent s olution t o t he m arketing p roblem . W e m ay h ave c hanced

u pon e vidence f or v ine-growing i n t wo t owers i n

t he a rea o f o ur s urvey . W e f ound r emains o f v ines , i dentified a s s tocks o f w ild v ine , i n T ower 4 9 a t Q arawat b ene H assan , a nd n ear T ower 6 9 o f t he S hufah map . T oday t hese a reas h ave n either v ineyards n or v ines, a nd a pparently t hese i solated v inestocks a re r elics o f t he p eriod i n w hich t hey g rew o ver e xtensive a reas .

A gricultural I nstallations i n t he T ower A rea. I n

a ddition

t o

t he

w inepresses

w e

f ound

o ther

a gricultural

i nstallations i n t he p lots i n w hich t he t owers s tood . T hese c onsisted o f t he r emains o f o il-presses, ' cup-marks ' c ut i n t he r ock , s heepfolds, t hreshing f loors , l imekilns a nd w ater c isterns ( see t he d istribution m aps f or

f ull

d etails) .

S ome

o f

t he

i nstallations ,

s uch a s

t he

r ockcut

c up-

m arks , l ivestock e nclosures a nd o il-press c omponents w ere f ound n ear t owers , b ut o thers w ere f urther a way ; s uch w ere l imekilns a nd t hreshing f loors . S ometimes a ssemblages o f e conomic a nd a gricultural i nstallations w ere f ound t ogether i n o ne p lot. B ene H assan , T ower 7 3, t wo l ivestock e nclosures, t hreshing f loor. B ene H assan , T ower 8 0 , w inepress , c up-mark , t hreshing f loor , r emains o f o il-presses.

11

B ene H assan , T ower 5 0, l imekiln . T zur N athan , T ower 3 09, o il p ress. S ur , T ower 1 35, w inepress, o il p ress. S hufah, T ower 5 , l imekiln , l ivestock e nclosure . T owers 1 6,

1 8, l ivestock e nclosure o r t hreshing f loor , l imekiln .

S hehadah, T ower 9 1, t wo l ivestock e nclosures a nd t hreshing f loor .

F ig. 8 0 P h. 4 9

O ne

o f

t he m ost

i nteresting

t owers

i s

n ear K arqush .

T he f ollowing

i nstallations w ere r ecorded i n i ts i mmediate s urroundings : 1 .

R emains o f aw ell-built t ower, o f w hich f our c ourses s urvive.

2 .

T wo a reas s urrounded b y s tone f ences, w hich may h ave s erved a s

s heepfolds. 3 .

T wo l arge r ockcut c up-marks.

4 . b y Y .

T oday t hey a re u sed t o g row v egetables.

G ame b oards w hich c ould a lso b e u sed f or r eckoning , a s s uggested T epper .1 7)

5 .

A r ockcut r eception b asin b elonging t o a n o il p ress.

6 .

A c ircular

r ockcut

i nstallation ,

p erhaps

c onnected

w ith a n o il

p ress. 7 .

As mall r ockcut o il p ress.

8 .

A r ockcut w inepress.

9 .

Ac ist g rave.

1 0.

R emains o f a n a rcosolium t omb c onverted t o aw ater c istern .

1 1.

Ap ath a long t he l ine o f a r ocky c liff, o n which t he t ower a nd

r ockcut i nstallations w ere b uilt. T he K arqush

t ower

i s

a n

i nteresting

e xample

o f

a g rouped h ill-farm

o wned b y a n i ndependent c ultivator . I t i s i ndeed u ncertain w hether a ll t he i nstallations f ound i n t he t ower 's p roximity w ere o perated a t o ne a nd t he s ame t ime , b ut t he p ossibility i s n ot t o b e r ejected . F rom t he p oint o f v iew o f t he c alendar o f a gricultural o perations , t here i s n o c ontradiction i n t he c ontinuity r eflected b y a gricultural i nstallations n ear t he t ower , n amely , v ine g rowing a nd o il p roduction , t he m aintenance o f a s mall f lock g razed o n t he f allow a nd t he s tubble, o r o n p lots a lready h arvested ( vineyards,

o rchards) .1 8 )

T he t ower w ould a ppear t o h ave b ecome , i n c ourse o f t ime , t he c entre o f am ixed f arm , a nd i ts e xistence i n t he r emote o pen c ountry w as u tilised f or v arious a gricultural a nd e conomic p urposes . T he l imekilns w ere a lso e xploited t o r ound o ff i ncome ( below ) .

12

W e c annot a void a n a nswer t o t he i nteresting q uestion p osed b y t he s um t otal o f o ur s urvey o f t he a gricultural i nstallations e xisting i n t he t owerp lots , n amely :

H ow d id t owers o perate t heir w ine p roduction w hen t here w ere

n o r ockcut wine-presses i n t heir p roposed , a ll o f t hem t entative .

p roximity?

S everal a nswers

c an b e

a ) T hat a n umber o f t owers o perated o ne p ress i n c ommon , e ven i f i t w as s ome w ay a way . b ) T hat s ome o f t he w inepresses w ere m ade o f o rganic m aterials a nd h ave l eft n o t races. c )

T hat

t he t owers w ere b uilt a s p art o f a g eneral p lan .

S ome o f

t he v ineyards may h ave b een u nsuccessful , h ence r ockcut w inepresses w ere n ot m ade i n t heir p ro c ould

b e

eity .

I n a ny c ase ,

f ive y ears h ad t o p ass b efore c rops

o btained .

T he n earest s olution , w e t hink , l ies i n t he l ast s uggestion , i f w e r ely o n h istorical c onsiderations a nd t he n ature o f t he f ield t ower d istribution i n w estern S amaria . A t ower n ot u sed f or w ine-production c ould b e u seful f or p roducing t able g rapes, o r was a ssociated with o rchards a nd o livep lantations.

8 .

T he H istorical S etting o f t he T ower P henomenon . I n t he c hapter o n t he

e xcavation o f

t owers

w e

l earned

t hat

t hose a t

H irbet J em 'ein w ere i ntimately i ncorporated i nto a v illage o f E arly I ron A ge I I .

W e n oticed a s imilar p henomenon a t H irbet S ejerah ( above ) a nd i n f arms

e ast

o f T irat

Y ehudah .

I n t he q uarry a rea o f T irat Y ehudah ( G .R .

w e s urveyed f ive f arms o riginating i n E arly I ron A ge

I I ,

1 48158)

a nd e nding i n t he

H ellenistic p eriod . 2° ) I n o ne o f t hem w e f ound a t ower which w as b uilt o ver t he r uins o f a n e arlier f armstead , s o r esembling t he t owers e xcavated a t H irbet J em 'ein .

Y israel F inkelstein , who c arried o ut a n e xtensive

s urvey o f t he a rea , e ncountered s imilar e vidence .2 1) I t b ecame c lear f rom t he r esults o f e xcavation c onducted i n t he t owers t hat t he c ommonest f inds w ere o f t he 3 rd t o 2 nd c enturies B .C .E .

o f t he H ellenistic p eriod ,

t here w as c ontinuity d own t o t he i st - 2 nd c enturies C .E . l ater u se o f t he t owers w as

f urnished b y f inds o f

a nd t hat

E vidence o f t he

t he 4 th - 5 th c enturies

C .E. T he s light t races o f t he P ersian p eriod f ound i n s ome o f t he t owers a re t o b e a ttributed , w e t hink , t o t he t raditional u se o f t owers i n t he b iblical p eriod , a nd a t t he b eginning o f t he S econd T emple e poch . I n I saiah 's w ellk nown p arable o f t he v ineyard , t he c onstruction o f a t ower i s m entioned a s p art o f t he o wner 's i nvestment i n p reparing t he v ineyard . H ere , i n o ur o pinion , a t ower a ssociated w ith w ine p roduction i s m eant , n ot a w atchtower t o g uard t he v ineyard . t he l atter a nd

( See b elow ,

t he t owers) .

t he c hapter o n t he d ifference b etween

T he N ew T estament

a lso m entions

a t ower i n

t extual p roximity t o t he q uarrying o f aw inepress . I t f inds

o f

i s

t rue

t hat w e

t he E arly

d o

n ot

k now

I ron A ge h ave

i f

b een

t owers

e xcavated ,

r umours t hat s imilar s tructures h ave b een d ug , o r d escribed i n e xcavation r eports .2 2) w ith t he i ncrease o f s urveys a nd t he s uch t owers w ill b e e xcavated.

13

c ontaining

a rchaeological

b ut t here a re h ints a nd

b ut h ave n ot b een i dentified

I t i s n ot u nlikely , h owever , t hat s tudy o f a ncient a gricultural a reas,

I n

t he

l ight

o f

t he

a bove

o bservations

i t

m ay b e

c oncluded t hat

t ower w as n ot s trange t o t he a gricultural l andscape o f t his c ountry , w ould s eem

t hat i ts

t he

a nd i t

i nvention w as c onnected w ith t he r apid d evelopment o f

v iticulture a nd w ine p roduction i n E arly I ron A ge I I .

B ut i ts c hief

d iffusion a nd d evelopment t ook p lace i n t he H ellenistic p eriod, v iticulture a ttained i ts s cientific b asis a nd I n t he f ollowing c hapters w e s hall e ndeavour

when

a w ide c olonial e xpansion . t o t race t he a ppearance o f

t owers i n G reece i tself a nd i n t he c ountries which b ecame s ubject t o H ellenistic c ulture .

T owers i n G reece a nd i ts I slands. T wo t ypes o f t owers a re k nown i n c lassical H ellenistic G reece . 1 )

T owers c onstituting p art o f t he a gricultural b uilding o f t he

f armstead a nd c onstructed a s s trong l ofty c hambers w ithin t he w alls o f t he h ouse. 2 )

C ircular o r s quare t owers s ituated i n c ultivated f ields.

G reek t ower,

k nown a s

l iterature a s

p art

t he p yrgos,

T he

i s m entioned f requently i n a ncient

o f t he f arm b uildings,

a nd h as b een d iscovered i n

e xcavation t hroughout G reece . ( Below). I n modern r esearch l iterature v arious i nvestigators d iffer o ver t he i nterpretation o f t he t erm p yrgos, a nd o ver t he q uestion whether i t was a n a gricultural s tructure, o r was f or d efence ;

a lso whether i t w as l ocated i n t he s ettlement o r i n t he f ields .2 3 )

T owers a re f requently r eferred t o a s p art o f t he r ural l andscape o f a ncient G reece i n r esearch l iterature o f t he l ate 1 9th a nd t he e arly 2 0th c entury . T he f irst t ravellers a nd s cholars , i ndeed , w ere i n s everal m inds a s t o t heir c haracter , a nd a ll s orts o f s uggestions w ere c urrent c oncerning t heir f unction: O bservation t owers i n t he i nterest o f s ecurity, l ighthouses , s ignal t owers f or d ay a nd n ight c ommunication , h iding-places f rom p irates, a nd s o o n . T he A merican s cholar G . Y oung , w ho r ealised t heir a gricultural c haracter , a ssembled v aluable a rchaeological e vidence y ielded F ig. 8 1 b y e xcavation

i n G reek

t owers,

a nd

p ublished

h is

c onclusions

i n

t wo

s ummarising w orks .2 4) O n a ccount o f t he i mportance o f t he s ubject , a nd t heir c lose p arallels w ith t he t owers i n t his c ountry , w e h ere r eproduce t he d escription o f s everal t owers i n G reece a nd i ts i slands . Y oung d escribes s ix t owers i n t he S union d istrict o f A ttica . 1 .

T he

o f 5 .50 m .;

' Princess

T ower ' .

A c ircular s tructure ,

w ith

t he walls a re a pproximately 1 .00 m . t hick .

a c ircumference I ts e xterior i s

b uilt o f l arge b locks o f l ocal m arble , e ach c onsisting o f o ne s tone , a s lot b eing c ut i n t he s ill t o e nable t he d oor t o o pen i nward . T he l intel, c onsisting o f as ingle s tone , w as f ound c lose t o t he t ower , n ear w hich

i s a

t hreshing f loor . An etwork o f w alls w hose p urpose i s u nknown s urrounds t he t owers , a nd u ncertainty r eigns o n t he c onnection b etween o ne a nd t he o ther . Y oung ,

o n

t he

e vidence o f

t he

p ottery-finds ,

b uilt b etween 4 50 a nd 4 25 B .C .E .

b elieves

t hat

t he

t ower

w as

T he r emaining e vidence s hows t hat i t

f unctioned i n t he 2 nd a nd i st c enturies B .C .E .,

p erhaps a lso i n t he i st

c entury C .E . R emark : T ower" ,

I t

i s

o f

r ecalls

i nterest

t he n ame

t o n ote t hat o f

' Qasr B int

t he n ame o f e -Sheikh ',

t he t ower , ' the

S heikh 's d aughter', a pplied t o T ower 3 2 o n t he e -Ras m ap.

14

" Princess

C astle

o f

t he

T he m ethod o f w all c onstruction a nd t hat o f t he d oor a re p aralleled i n t he t owers o f t his c ountry - t hick w alls, l arge monoliths, t he d oor o f d ressed s tones o f s imilar s ize t o t hose i n o ur t owers , o pening i nward . T he b uilding p eriod a nd f unction o f t he t owers a lso a pproximate t o o urs . 2 .

T he

c ircumference , s chist b locks .

' Cliff

T ower '.

A c ircular

5 .20

i n .

i n

w ith w alls 1 .00 m . t hick . I t i s b uilt o f l ocal m arble a nd A c ircular t hreshing f loor l ies 8 0 i n . f rom t he t ower , w hich

s tands n ear t he r emains o f a f armhouse . w as b uilt i n t he 4 th c entury B .C .E. 3 .

s tructure,

' The G olden P ig T ower ' .

A ccording t o t he p ottery f inds , i t

A r ectangular s tructure m easuring 5 .85 b y

6 .00 m . , b uilt o f m arble b locks a nd l ocal l imestone . T he o uter c ourse i s c omposed o f l arge s tones, t he i nner o f s maller b locks . T he d oor i s p reserved i n s itu , a nd i s 1 . 25 m . w ide .

A c istern o r t omb l ies c lose t o t he

t ower . T o t he n orth o f i t a re r emains o f a f armhouse . b uilt a t t he e nd o f t he 4 th o r i n t he 3 rd c entury B .C .E . 4 .

T he ' Yellow T ower ' i s a n o blong s tructure 4 .10 b y 6 .60 m .

w alls a re 0 .70 m . r ockcut c hannel. R emarks :

T he t ower w as

T he

t hick ; n earby a re t wo p ear-shaped c isterns , j oined b y a T he d ate o f c onstruction w as i n t he 4 th c entury B .C .E.

T o g o b y t he d escription ,

t he t wo ' cisterns ' w ere n ot f or w ater

s torage , a nd s eem t o h ave b een a s ubterranean w inepress o f t he t ype w e h ave d escribed, e .g. n ear t he t owers a t Q arawat b ene H assan . 5 .

T he ' Red T ower ' i s a s tructure 4 .40 b y 4 .35 i n .,

s tones m easuring 0 .60 b y 0 .55 m . s tone w ith a n i nternal f rame .

b uilt o f l arge

T he d oor s ill i s i n p lace , c ut f rom o ne T he a perture i s 1 . 02 i n . w ide . T he j amb

p ossesses s inkings, f or t he b olt a nd h inge o f t he d oor .

T he s trengthening o f t he t ower . A fter t he t ower h ad b een b uilt a nd c ompleted ,

a w all 2 .35 m . b road w as

a dded a long t he e ast w all . Y oung i s o f t he o pinion t hat t his w as t he b ase o f a t able f or washing l ead a nd s ilver o re . T he d ate o f t he t ower i s b etween t he 4 th a nd 2 nd c enturies B .C .E . R emarks : c ountry .

T he T he

' Red T ower ' h as t ower 's

n umerous

m easurements ,

p arallels

t he e ntrance

w ith o f

t he

t owers

t ooled

i n t his

m asonry

w ith

s imilar a rrangements f or c losing , t he w all-thickening o n t he e ast , w hich , i s i n o ur o pinion w as m istaken f or a w ork t able , a ll c onstitute p arallels w ith s uch t owers a s K efr L aqif a nd H irbet J eme 'in , h ouses 5 0 a nd 1 90 . 6 .

T he

' Hilltop T ower ' .

A s quare

s tructure ,

a pproximately 6 .50

b y

6 .50 m . , b uilt o f l arge s chist b locks 0 .70 m . t hick . N earby i s a p lastered c istern f rom w hich a c hannel r uns t o a n u nderground r ockcut c istern u nder t he t ower . Y oung c onsidered t hese t o b e i nstallations c onnected w ith a m etal i ndustry . T he p ottery f ound w as d ated t o t he 5 th a nd 4 th c enturies B. C .E. R emarks :

T he p lastered c istern a nd t he u nderground c istern w ere a w inepress

a nd w ine-cellar w hose c haracter e scaped t he i nvestigators . Y oung e xamined t he f inds i n f orty r ound t owers i n S iphnos , w hich i s a s mall v ery r ocky i sland , u ncultivated w hen h e c arried o ut h is i nvestigation . T he t owers a re

15

b uilt o f o ne o r t wo c ourses o f l arge l ocal s tones ,

a nd t heir m easurements

r esemble t hose i n A ttica , v iz" 4 .00 t o 6 .00 m . d iameter , b ut l arge

t owers

e xceeding

1 0 .00

m .

i n d iameter .

s uch a s w inepresses, o il p resses, t hreshing e xamined i n t he p roximity o f t he t owers .

t here a re a lso

A gricultural

i nstallations

f loors a nd g rindstones , w ere T he d istances b etween t hem,

e stimated b y t he n umber o f m inutes n eeded t o g o f rom o ne t o t he o ther , v aried f rom t wenty t o s everal h undred m etres . R emarks :

T he t owers o f S iphnos a re c lose p arallels w ith t hose f ound i n t his

c ountry . T ower 1 21 a t Q arawat b ene H assan i ncluded i dentical c omponents w ith t hose o n S iphnos, n amely , a n i nterior d evision i nto q uarters , s tairs a nd b uilt—up p assages . T he a bundance o f a gricultural i nstallations c ited b y Y oung n ear t he S iphnos t owers p arallels t he f inds h ere . I t a ppears t hat n o a ttention w as p aid t o t he d istribution o f t he S iphnos s tructures, b ut c ould t hey h ave b een m apped ,

a d istribution r ecalling t hat i n t his c ountry w ould

h ave b een o btained.

T he F unction a nd p eriod o f t he t owers. Y oung 's o pinion was t hat t he G reek t owers were t he o utbuildings o f a gricultural f armsteads u sed t o s tore p roduce a nd a lso f or h abitation . T he t owers s erved c hiefly a s b arns a nd g ranaries . Owing t o G reece 's s hortage o f b uilding t imber , s tone w as u sed a nd t he b uildings w ere b uilt t o a h eight .

Y oung t hought t hat t he g round f loors o f t he t owers w ere u sed t o

s tore o live o il , w ine , a nd a s r ooms i n w hich t he w omen w orked , w hile t he u pper s toreys s erved a s g ranaries a nd l ookouts. T he d iffusion o f t he t owers o n r ocky i slands n ow d eserted ,

p oints t o a d eveloped a griculture i n

a ncient t imes . O n t he t estimony o f t he a rchaeological f inds t he t owers w ere b uilt i n t he 5 th a nd 4 th c enturies B .C .E . , b ut e vidence s hows t hat t hey a lso f unctioned i n t he H ellenistic a nd e arly R oman p eriods .2 5)

T owers i n t he G reek C olonies. O ne o f c lassical

t he i nteresting p henomena o f G reek r ural s ettlement i n t he

a nd H ellenistic

p eriods

i s

t he

t ransmission

o f

f armsteads

w ith

t owers t o n on—Greek c ountries . S uch f arms a re f ound i n A sia M inor , a nd e ven i n d istant C rimea . W e h ave a lready n oted t hat a f arm w ith t owers a ppears i n t he E arly I ron A ge I I i n E retz Y israel. T he e vidence f rom t he C rimean p eninsula i s t he

d iscoveries

s how

a c lose

i mportance o f t he s ubject,

p arallel

w ith

t he m ost e nlightening ,

t hose h ere .

I n v iew

o f

a nd t he

we s hall d escribe s everal f armsteads which

r eflect t he a gricultural c haracter o f G reek s ettlement . 26)

Ap lanned

s ystem o f f arms w ith o rganised a reas o f c ultivation h as b een r evealed o ver a n a rea o f 1 20 ,000 d unams o n t he H eraclean p eninsula . T he a gricultural a rea i s d ivided i nto r ectilinear p lots, s eparated f rom o ne a nother b y s tone f ences a nd s traight r oads . a dmirable t horoughness ,

T he e ntire a rea h ad b een c leared o f s tones w ith

a nd a gricultural

t erraces

R ussian i nvestigators f ound r emains o f f ruit t rees ,

c onstructed i n w hich t he c hiefly o f v ines .

a re o f t he o pinion t hat t hese w ere t he a llotments o f m ilitary s ettlers , w estern s cholars a re n ot c ertain i f t he d efinition i s c orrect .

16

T hey b ut

P echonkin F arm ( 2) . T he

f armhouse

c ontaining

t he

( Following t he o riginal n umbering .) s tands

w ine

p ress

within a n a rea w as

e xcavated ;

a mphorae o f t he 3 rd c entury B .C .E . p eriods w ere a lso f ound.

o f

4 5

d unams .

i t h eld a l arge

T he

b uilding

n umber o f

w ine

A f ew s herds o f t he R oman a nd B yzantine

P echonkin F arm ( 3). T he f armhouse m easured 2 0 .00 b y 1 7 .60 m ;

t he c ultivated a rea c overed 4 5

d unams . T he r oom w here w ine w as p repared c ontained a mphorae o f t he 4 th-2nd c enturies B .C .E . T he R ussian e xcavators c onsidered t hat t he f arm e ngaged m ainly i n w ine-production ;

i t w as a bandoned i n t he i st c entury B .C.E.

P echonkin F arm ( 4). T his w as a f arm b uilding c overing 3 00 s q .m . ; d unams .

T he f armstead p ossessed r ooms

i ts c ultivated a rea w as 3 9

f or t he p roduction a nd

s torage

o f

w ine . A l arge n umber o f p ithoi were f ound s unk i nto t he g round, a nd n umerous w ine a mphorae o f t he 5 th a nd 2 nd c enturies B .C .E . w ere r ecovered . T he m ain f inds w ere o f t he 3 rd-2nd c enturies B .C.E.

T he B orodzin F arm . T his f arm p ossessed a r ound t ower . b elonged t o t he 3 rd-2nd c enturies B .C .E . ,

T he g reater p art o f t he f inds

b ut t here w ere a lso r emains o f t he

R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods.

G rinevich F arm ( 1). F ig. 8 2

G rinevich F arm h ad a t ower a nd i ndoor p ress f or w ine p roduction .

T he

t ower measured 5 .60 x 5 .15 m . a nd was b uilt o f d ressed s tones d ry l aid . T he f inds f rom t he t ower w ere o f 3 rd-2nd c enturies B .C .E . , b ut t he f armhouse i tself y ielded e vidence o f u se i n t he R oman a nd B yzantine a ge .

T hree t owers

o f t he H ellenistic p eriod w ere f ound i n t he n eighbourhood o f G rinevich F arm ( 1),

o ne o f t hem c ontaining a c oncentration o f s ealed w ine-amphorae .

S trzheletski F arm ( 25). T his

f arm

p ossessed

a t ower m easuring 4 .75

s tones m easuring a bout a metre . c ellar f or w ine-making .

x 4 .75

1 4,500 p otsherds w ere f ound ,

b elonged t o w ine a mphorae b earing t he s tamps o f C os, a nd o ther l ocalities.

m . ,

b uilt

o f

l arge

T he f armhouse c ontained a w ine-store a nd a 6 0 p ercent o f w hich

R hodes ,

C hersonnessos

T he f inds w ere o f t he 4 th-2nd c enturies B .C.E.

W inepresses, t owers a nd n umerous H ellenistic w ine a mphorae w ere f ound i n m any

o ther f armsteads.

T hanks

t o t he e xcellent p reservation o f

t he

a gricultural u nits t he R ussian e xplorers c ould a scribe e ach p lot t o a g iven f armhouse a nd c lassify t he a rea b y t he c rops g rown i n i t i n t he p ast. I n F arm 2 6 t he v ineyard c omposed 7 4 p ercent o f t he f arm a rea . f armhouse p ossessed a t ower m easuring 6 .5 x 6 .5 m . ,

17

T he

w ith a w ine-store i n i ts

p roximity .

W ine p resses w ere f ound w ithin t he h ouse i tself , a long w ith m uch

e quipment a nd t wo s tone-built p resses . p ithoi a nd w ine a mphorae o f t he 4 th ,

6 0 p ercent o f t he t otal f inds w ere

2 nd a nd i st c enturies B .C .E .

S trzheletski F arm ( 10). S trzheletski F arm 1 0 c ultivated a n i nclusive a rea o f a pproximately 2 60 d unams , d ivided i nto u nits o f 5 0-55 m . w idth , w hose s oils w as c leared o f s tones a nd w ell t erraced . I ts s urveyors c onsidered t hat t he t erraces w ere b uilt t o p revent e rosion a nd t o a ssist t he c oncentration o f t he h umidity f or t he v ines . T he f arm p ossessed 3 ,500 m . o f s tone f encing t otalling 9 ,000 c ub .

m etres .

C ereals :

5 1 .8% .

V ines :

2 6% .

O rchards

1 7 .2% .

U ncultivated

s oil 1 .8%. S trzheletski F arm ( 11), d ifferent w ay : C ereals : U nclassified : 8 % .

a mounting t o 2 60 d unams, 1 9 .7% .

V ines :

3 9% .

was d ivided u p i n a

O rchards :

T here a re o ther f arms with s maller t racts,

2 1% .

F allow :

1 7% .

b ut t he v ineyards a nd

o rchards i nvariably o ccupy 4 0-50 p ercent o r m ore o f t he t otal a rea .

M odern

i nvestigators r emark t hat t he s ettlement a rea o n t he C rimean p eninsula t oday i s d istinguished f or i ts e xtensive v ine g rowing a reas . T he G reek a nd H ellenistic c olonisation o f t he C rimean p eninsula p resents a n i nteresting p icture o f p lanned c ultivation o f a h igh s tandard , w hose b ranch w as v ine g rowing f or w ine p roduction . T he t ract was d ivided o ut a mong G reek s ettlers ( military c olonists?) a nd was o rganised u nder a n o rderly g overnmental o r r egional a uthority . T he

f armsteads

a nd

t heir

s urroundings

i ncluded

t owers

a nd n umerous

r emains a ssociated w ith t he w ine i ndustry , s uch a s i ndoor w ine p resses , c ellars , s torerooms a nd s ealed a mphorae . C hronologically , m ost o f t he f arms w ere a ctive m ainly f rom t he 4 th t o t he i st c enturies B .C .E . ,

a nd o nly i n a

f ew c ases w as e vidence f ound o f u se i n t he R oman o r B yzantine p eriod . D espite t he g reat d istance b etween t hem, a c omparison b etween t he C rimean d iscoveries a nd t he r esults o f o ur own s urvey i n S amaria i s u navoidable . H ere a s t here , w e f ind a p lanned p attern o f v illage u nits w hose c hief e conomic b ranch w as v ine-growing a nd w ine p roduction , O ur .o pinion i s t hat t he d istribuiton o f t he t owers a nd t heir c lear e conomic a gricultural f unction a re n ot h aphazard , w hether i n t his c ountry o r o utside

i t .

9 .

T he E conomic I mportance o f t he V ine i n G reek a nd H ellenistic

C olonisation . R ostovtzeff h eld t he v iew t hat w ine a nd o live o il w ere a mong t he m ost i mportant c omponents o f G reek e xport i n t he 5 th - 3 rd c enturies B .C .E . A griculture w as p erfected a nd o perated o n s omething l ike a n i ndustrial b asis i n t he c olonies a nd r egions o f G reek s ettlement a nd i nfluence . M uch c apital w as i nvested i n t he p romotion o f e xport c rops , c hiefly o f w ine a nd o live o il .

I n a ll

t he c olonies ,

i ncludine J udaea ,

e vidence

i s

f ound

o f

t rade i n w ine a nd t he o live o il b ranches . 2 i) V arious s cholars , i n f act , b elieve t hat t he e xpansion o f H ellenism a fter A lexander t he G reat c oincided w ith t he d istribution a rea o f t he v ine .2 8) D id H ellenistic J udaea b ecome i ntegrated i nto t he p roduction , m arketing a nd e xport o f w ine? T he a nswer a ppears t o b e t hat i t d id - a nd s ide-by-side w ith t he w ritten s ources w e m ay

1 18

now add the results of archaeological survey in western Samaria. But first let us glance at Judaea's neighbours, and study the methods of Hellenistic econcxnic organisation . Viticulture on the Estate of Apollonius at Philadelphia . In Egypt stress was laid on the extensive planting of vineyards from the very commencement of the Ptolemaic dynasty, and vineyards were planted in every region suitable for them. As an instructive example may serve Apollonius' estates at Philadelphia in the Fayyum.29) The papyri furnish evidence of numerous vineyards, some very large, others of a dunam or a little over. Their owners were Greeks, chiefly soldier settlers, who were closely acquainted with the vine growing branch and with the production of wine, which was a sound economic basis for rooting them in the soil. The Ptolemaic State encouraged vine growing and wine production for several reasons: a) To bind the soldier settler to his land he was granted soil and the means to plant vines. The monetary investment in a vineyard was heavy, and the military settler, anticipating a return for his efforts and his investment, tended his vines with care. b)

The Ptolemaic state derived a large income from taxes on wine .

c) The Ptolemaic government could thus supply part of its consumption from local produce instead of paying for expensive imported wine to be drunk by the Greek settlers. The importance of the wine was taken into account in the economic and social calculations of the Ptolemai.c state; in the first half of the 3rd century B.C.E., when the military settler died, his holding reverted to the crown. Only the ,Rlanting of a vineyard converted the holding to heritabl� The Seleucid dynasty also saw in the vineyard a basic private property.3 ° J branch of its colonial economy. Josephus tells us of two thousand Jewish families from Babylon whom Antiochus III settled in Asia Minor. Each settler received ground on which to plant a vineyard.31) The economic and social situation prevailing in Judaea in the Hellenistic period is not yet sufficiently clear, but scholars agree that the Hellenistic administration u sed methods very similar to those fo llowed in Egypt and Syria. Rostovtzeff thought it probable that cleruchic settlement existed also in Judaea.3 2) The Zenon papyri contain evidence of Ptolemaic states in the country, in which wine production held a respectable place.33) It may not be chance that Jews are mentioned as vintners on Apo llonius' Egyptian Surely the findings of the archaeological survey of western estate.34) Samaria testify to a tradition of Hellenistic rural settlement in the hill country . 10. The term 'The King's Mountain Hellenist1c Settlement .

Country'

and

its Connection with

M any scho lars have dealt with the theme of the 'King's M ountain Country' and its topographical historical and economic setting. S. Klein assumed that the name took its origin in the period of Ptolemaic rule, and thought that the name indicated estates established by the Ptolemaic 119

authorities, 35) and that 'the King's Mountain Country' was not limited to one geographical region, but in course of time included the mountain-areas of Judaea and Ephraim, and minimally, the region from Bethel to 'Gidru' of Klein's analysis of the talmudic material led him to conclude 'Qisarin'. that the term 'King's Mountain Country' was used as a · geographical definition in the Hasmonean, Herodian and early Roman periods. After the destruction of the Temple, the name was referred to in the Aramaic form of 'Tur Malka' and Targum Jonathan equates it with the mountains of Ephraim. The Hasmonean rulers overran parts of 'the King's Mountain Country', and Klein sees as confirmation of this the village of Beth Yannai (Beth Hini­ 'Anin) in northern Samaria, likewise the talmudic story of the numerous townlets owned by Yannai in 'the King's Mountain Country'. After the Ben Koziba revolt, Jewish settlement in 'the King's Mountain Country' dwindled, and gradually became 'a district of Kuthim', hostile and dangerous to Jews, and an area whose oil and wine were prohibited. Owing to the dwindling of Jewish settlements in the 'King's Mountain Country', the Talmud reports a discussion between R. Yohanan and R. Simon, who owned the vineyards in that area. R Yohanan forbids R. Simon to lease his vineyards to non-Jews in the Mountain, whereas Joshua ben Levi perm�t, him to do so, since no more Jewish labourers remained in the region. Finally the 'King's Mountain Country' was exempted from the payment of tithes and the obligations dependent on Jewish territory, and the prohibition to buy oil and wine there was rescinded. Professor Applebaum37 ) thinks that the name 'King's Mountain Country' derives not from the Hellenistic crown lands, a term applied to those lands, estates and villages not included in city territories, but to a more limited area reconquered by the Hasmoneans. The area included western Samaria and northern Judaea (in the narrower sense ) . Dr. z. Safrai's view is that the 'King's Mountain Country' remained a Jewish region down to the time of Ben Kozba. The name appears as a Jewish area in all the talmudic sources down to the revolt, after which its tracts were seized by the Kuthim.38) For this reason Safrai opposes a link between the 'King's Mountain Country' and north-western Samaria, considering that it did not extend beyond the frontiers of Judaea . The Tower Pattern as Evidence for Hellenistic Colonisation in the 'King's Mountain Country' . In previous chapters we have learned that the archaeological evidence derived from excavations in the towers of western Samaria proves that they operated chiefly in the Hellenistic period. We have also produced evidence from near and far, that the field tower pattern in Samaria can be taken as evidence of governmental _colonisation in the Hellenistic period and perhaps assists the identification of the 'King's Mountain Country'. The method and arrangement with which the towers were built indicate a planned government project, although the instructions for its implementation are still unknown. The settlement pattern of the villages with towers, in contrast to those without them, shows that a single planning·agency determined and carried out the division of the fields. The tower pattern in the Samarian hill-country may help us to define the areas of the 'King's Mountain Country'. Evidence for a Hellenistic agricultural project in the territory of Benjamin has recently added to our knowledge. Yitzhaq Maggen has excavated a large agricultural farm at Qalandiyah; its installations 120

i ndicate e xtensive p roduction o f w ine a nd o i1 .39)

O n t he e vidence o f

t he

r ich f inds o f c oins a nd p ottery t he f arm w as b uilt i n t he m iddle o f t he 3 rd c entury

B .C .E .

r ecovered

a nd

C oins t he

f arm

o f

t he

e xisted

P tolemaic d own

t o

a nd

t he

S eleucid

g reat

d ynasties

r ebellion

o f

were

6 6-74

C .E .

a ccording t o s imilar e vidence . C omparison o f t he p ottery f rom t he Q alandiyah f arm w ith t he t ower f inds i n w estern S amaria r eveals a n i dentity o f t ypes a nd f abric .

I t w ould t herefore s eem t hat a n umber o f H ellenistic

e conomic a nd a gricultural p rojects w ere b eing c arried o ut i n t he 3 rd c entury B .C .E"

t hat t heir s urface t races a re e xpressed i n t he f ield t owers p attern ,

w hile J ewish s cholarly l iterature h as p reserved t he n ame o f t he p roject ,

t o

w it, t he ' King 's M ountain C ountry ' . A l ate p assage i n T osephta D emai , I , ( Zuckermandel p . 4 5), w here t he la r iWs M ountain C ountry ' i s m entioned

1 i n

c onnection with t he a gricultural markets o f Y ishuv , Antipatris a nd P atros , 40) m ay s trengthen o ur c onjecture, s ince l arge c oncentrations o f f ield t owers a re t o b e f ound i n p roximity t o t he a bove p laces .

T he F ield T owers a nd t he H asmonean C olonisation o f S amaria . E ven i n t he e arly s tage o f t he S amaria s urvey t he m embers o f t he t eam d id n ot b elieve t hat

t he f ield t owers w ere f or b urial ,

n or d id t hey t hink

t hey w ere t o b e r egarded a s m ausolea .4 1) A t t hat t ime w e d id n ot f ully u nderstand t he t owers, b ut t ended t o r egard t hem a s s tructures c onnected w ith

h ill-farming

a nd

f or d efence a gainst

r aiders

a nd

w ild a nimals .

G radually i t b ecame c lear t hat w e f aced a w ell-planned p roject e xtending o ver wide a reas . When we h ad d ug t he f irst t hree t owers a nd t he c hronological f rame b egan t o b ecome c lear , 42) P rofessor S himon A pplebaum s uggested a h istorical s etting f or t heir a ppearance ; h e t hought t hat t hey c ould b e s een a s r emains o f

t he J ewish s ettlement p roject i n S amaria

o ccasioned b y t he H asmonean c onquest o f t he r egion .

I n 1 45 B .C .E . J onathan

r eceived t he T opharchies o f A phairema , L ydda a nd R amatayyim f rom D emetrius I I ( I M acc . 1: 3 0-37) ; t hough s ettled b y J ews ,

t hese , t ill t hen , h ad b een a ssociated w ith S amaria , a nd t heir t ransfer t o J onathan h as b een i nterpreted

a s a n o fficial a cknowledgement o f a f actual s ituation i n t he a rea .4 3 ) I n t he y ear J ewish X III,

1 08 B .C .E .

c olonisation 2 55-6;

h istorical

2 75;

f rame

J ohanan H yrcanus

w as

c ommenced

2 80)

T his,

i nto w hich

t he

o ver

t ook t he c ity o f

i ts

t hought

e ntire

P rofessor

a ppearance

o f

t he

S amaria ,

t erritory

( Jos .

A pplebaum,

f ield

t ower

a nd A nt . ,

was

w as

t o

t he b e

f itted , b ut t oday i t i s c lear t hat t hey b egan e arlier a nd t hat t he J ewish c olonisers w ere a ble t o u tilise t hose a lready b uilt , a nd c onstruct o thers l ike

t hem .

T he

a rchaeological

o r

w ritten

e vidence

c ontains

n othing

t o

d eter u s f rom t hinking t hat t he t owers w ere u sed b y J ews . O n t he c ontrary , T almudic l iterature h as p reserved t heir m emory a s f ield s tructures u sed b y J ewish c ultivators .

1.

( See b elow) .

T he F ield-Towers i n t he R oman P eriod. T he a rchaeological f inds f rom t he t owers e xcavated i nform u s t hat t heir

a ctivities c ontinued d own t o t he b eginning o f

t he R oman p eriod .

T he v ine

g rowing b ranch i n t he p eriod o f t he P rincipate w as n o l ess i mportant t han i t h ad b een i n t he H ellenistic e poch . H eichelheim c onsidered t hat i n S yria a nd J udaea i t w as b ased o n t he E gyptian m odel o f l arge e states w orked w ith t he a ssistance i ntroduced

o f

i mproved

w ine manufacture .

s mall

t enants . 44)

m ethods

i n

T he R oman a gricultural

t he s pheres o f f ertilisers ,

e xperts

i rrigation a nd

E ven a fter t he c hanges i n g overnment w hich t ook p lace i n

1 21

J udaea f ollowing t he R oman o ccupation ,

t he f ield t owers w ere a ble t o

f unction w ithin t he a gricultural a nd e conomic s ystem o f t he w ine a nd o rchard b ranches . C hanges i n l and o wnership d o n ot s eem t o h ave b rought a bout i mmediate a lterations i n t heir m ethods a nd t echnology . I n p lace o f t he H ellenistic r oyal e states o r t he p easants a nd t enants o f t he H asmon el p eriod, c ame n ew owners o f t he t ype o f H erod a nd h is R oman p atrons . T owers o f o ne s ort o r a nother w ere n ot s trangers t o R oman a griculture . T wos toreyed t owers a re t o b e s een i n t he w all p aintings o f B oscoreale ( 50 -7 9 C .E . ) a s p art a nd p arcel o f t he f arm b uildings ,4 6) a nd s cholars b elieved t hey s erved t o s tore a gricultural p roduce . T hese R oman t owers d o n ot r esemble t he t owers o f S amaria ,

b ut i n e ffect c ontinue t he H ellenistic

t radition d escribed i n p revious c hapters . T ower s tructures i n f arms a nd f ields , o r t owers f ulfilling a d efensive n eed , a re w ell-known t hroughout t he R oman e mpire a nd h ave a ttracted n ot a l ittle a ttention i n c ities , i solated f armsteads a nd a s i ndependent s tructures i n t he f ields . B ut i nvestigators a re i n s everal m inds a s t o t heir f unction , a nd t here i s n o u nity o f o pinion . R amsay M acMullen h as c ompiled i nteresting m aterial o n t heir d iffusion a ll o ver

t he R oman e mpire p a nd h as

r ightly d istinguished v arious

t ypes ,

e ach

w ith i ts o wn f unction .4 7) S ome o f t hese l ocated i n c ities a nd s ettlements w ere f or d efence a nd h ad n o c onnection w ith a gricultural s tructures . T hose l ocated i n f armsteads a nd f ields , h e t hinks w ere l ookouts p lace t o w arn t he a pproach o f e nemies, o r f or s torage a nd h abitation . I n p eriods o f d eteriorating s ecurity , d efense t owers w ere b uilt i n a gricultural a reas , t heir f unction b eing t o w ithstand a ttackers p ending t he a rrival o f r eal m ilitary a ssistance . T he t owers o f S amaria w ere n ot b uilt t o f ulfil t he a bove f unctions , a nd a re o nly i ncluded i n t he t ower f amily b ecause o f t heir e xterior f orm . E xceptions t o t hese a re t he ' very l arge ' t owers , f rom w hich o bservation a nd v isual c ommunication w ere p ossible . W hen w e r evert t o t he R oman p eriod i n t his c ountry , t he p icture r esembles t hat i n o ther d istricts o f t he e mpire . M ost o f t he e vidence a t o ur d isposal , i ndeed , c omes f rom w ritten s ources , b ut a ccords w ell w ith t he a rchaeological e nquiries . D r . Z eev S afrai h as a ssembled t hose t almudic s ources i n w hich t owers a nd o ther f ield s tructures a re m entioned . 48) T heir s tudy r eveals a p icture v ery c lose t o M acMullen 's c onclusions ; t he b urgan a nd t he t ower w ere l ook-outs , o r s erved t o s tore f ood a nd v aluables , o r w ere e ven u sed a s t emporary h abitations . T owers a re t o b e f ound i n l arge s ettlements f or s ecurity d uties , a lso i n a gricultural a reas . O nly i n i solated c ases w as t he t ower a ssociated w ith v inegrowing a nd w ine s torage ( Tmh T erumot , V II , 1 6 - Z uckermandal , p . 3 8) . A t ype o f a gricultural t ower ( resembling t he S amarian ) i s m entioned i n c onnection w ith a r oyal p lantation ( Midr . E x . R abba, I I , 2 ; X X , 2 ) which c ontained a v ineyard o f g reat e conomic v alue, s o t hat t he t ower p ossessed a c lear a gricultural f unction , n either a dequately d escribed n or i n d etail i n t he a bove s ources . Z eev S afrai h as s hown t hat ' The K ing 's P arables ' , i n w hich t he s aid t ower i s mentioned, a re d iscussing a gricultural e states n ot a ctually i n r oyal o wnership . T he

t almudic

s ources

m entioning t he t owers a nd o ther f ield b uildings

b elong t o t he p eriod o f t he M ishnah , c hiefly d own t o t he g eneration o f U shah ( 135-180 C .E . ) .

T his i s n ot ,

i t w ould s eem ,

b y c hance ,

a nd i s i n a greement

w ith o ur o wn c onclusion , t hat t he a ctivity o f t he f ield t owers c eased a fter t he f irst a nd s econd r evolt . T his c essation p ossesses f ar-reaching i mplications f or t he a grarian s tructure o f w estern S amaria , a s i t h ints a t t he r estriction o f t he s mallholders ' e conomy a nd t he s pread o f l arge e states . I t m ay a lso b e c onjectured t hat g overnment a ction w as i nvolved , n or s hould w e d ismiss t he p ossibility t hat a n a lien p opulation i nexperienced

1 22

i n o perating t he t owers e ntered t he r egion a t t his t ime .

1 2. P h. 5 0

T owers a nd L odges . I n t he a gricultural l andscape o f t his c ountry v arious s tructures a re t o

b e f ound which i nform u s t hat i ts c ultivators s pent much o f t heir t ime o utside t heir v illages . S ome o f t hese a re r eferred t o i n b iblical a nd J ewish s cholarly s ources , a nd t heir f actual s urvival i n t raditional A rab a griculture i ndicates t he c ontinuity o f r ural t radition . P rofessor S hemuel A vitzur h as e numerated a mong s uch f ield s tructures t he f ollowing t ypes : T he m elunah ( lodge), t he h ut, a gricultural h uts, h uts f or h abitation , w atch t owers ( noterot ) a nd w atchman 's p osts , t owers a nd ' castles% 49) T he c hief f unction o f t hese s tructures h as b een t o a fford a p lace t o s leep i n s ummer , o bservation a nd g uard b y d ay , ap lace o f w ork f or v arious c raftsmen a nd a lso a ccommodation f or l ivestock .

I mpressive s tone b uildings h ave b een o bserved

i n t he d istrict o f B a 'al H atzor ( 'castles ' a nd t owers i n A vitzur 's t erminology ) w hich r ise t o a h eight o f t wo o r t hree s toreys , a nd p ossess l oopholes a nd l iving q uarters f or e ntire f amilies . T ravellers a nd e xplorers o f t he 1 9th a nd e arly 2 0th c enturies d escribe r ural v illage l ife , m ainly i n s outhern J udaea a nd H ebron , i n t he s eason o f f ruit p icking , a nd t he s ojourn o f

t he v illagers

i n t hese ' lodges ' ( melunot).

D alman t oo

d escribes t he s tructures k nown b y t he t erms ' Qasr ' a nd ' Muntarah% w hich w ere u sed t o s tore t ools , v ictuals a nd f ruit , a lso a s t emporary r esidences f or t he c rop-watcher a nd h is f amily . I t was a lso t he p ractice t o d ry s ummer f ruit o n t he r oof o f s uch w atchmen 's s tructures . 5°) D r . Z vi R on r ecently p ublished a c omprehensive a nd e xtremely i nteresting d iffusion o f ' lodges ' i n t he h ills o f J udaea a nd S amaria .5 1)

s tudy o f t he I n v iew o f

t he c onnection b etween t he f ield s tructures i nvestigated b y Z vi R on a nd o ur o wn s tudy o f t he f ield t owers , w e h ere e numerate t he p arallel a nd d iffering f eatures o f t hese r espective t ypes o f s tructure . H aving e xamined t housands o f ' lodges ' i n t he f ield a nd i nterviewed t heir o wners , D r . R on r eached t he f ollowing c onclusions a s t o t heir f unction a nd c haracter : 1 )

T he

l odges

s erved a s

l iving

q uarters

a nd

f or

t he s torage o f

e quipment i n t he s ummer s eason o f f ruit-picking. 2 )

T he t ypical l odge i s b uilt o f r ubble m asonry ,

t he s tones b eing t he

r esult o f t he c learing o f s tones f rom t he a rea . 3 )

T he l odge w as a s ubstitute f or l iving i n t he ' horvah ' d uring

f ruit-picking, w hen t ime h ad t o b e s pent i n t he f ields. 4 )

T he

l odge

w as

a n e xcellent

s olution f or t he u tilisation o f t he

s tones a ccumulated d uring c learance. 5 )

T here a re h ardly a ny l odges n ear t he v illages,

a nd t heir m ain

d iffusion l ies i n a z one b etween 1 .5 a nd 2 .5 k ilometres f rom e ach v illage . 6 )

T he l odge p lays a n i mportant p art i n t he p rotection o f t he s ummer

f ruit p rior t o m arketing . 7 ) 8 )

T he l odge i s ac haracteristic f eature o f p lantation c ulture . W inepresses f or t he p rocessing o f g rapes f or g rape-honey a re f ound

1 23

n ear s ome o f t he l odges .

T he D ifferences b etween L odges a nd F ield-Towers. A c lose e xamination o f

t he

t ypes

o f

l odges

( we w ould

p refer

t o c all

t hem n oterot , i .e . w atchmen 's p osts) l ocated i n t he v icinity o f a reas w here t owers a re c oncentrated, s hows t hat t here a re s ignificant d ifferences b etween t hem. I n t he l ight o f R on 's c onclusions t here a re a n umber o f d ifferences , w hich d o n ot a llow u s t o s ee t he f ield t owers a s as pecial t ype o f ' lodge ' . W e h ere l ist t he c hief d ifference b etween t he ' lodge ' a nd t he t ypical t ower . 1 )

T he

b uilt

o f

t wo d iffer l arge

f rom

s tones

t he a rchitectural p oint o f v iew .

w hich h ave

b een b oth h ewn

q uarried s pecially t o b uild t he t owers .

a nd

T he l odges ,

T he t owers a re

t ooled .

T hey

w ere

o n t he o ther h and , a re

b uilt e xclusively o f r ubble a nd s tones c leared f rom t he f ields . T he l odges h ave v aulted c eilings, while t he t owers a re f lat-roofed . E very l odge c ontains s tairs i nside o r o utside , f or a scending t o t he r oof , o ne e xception , w e f ound n o s tairs o f a ny t ype i n t he t owers .

w hereas w ith

2 ) T he c hief f unction o f t he l odges w as t o f urnish t he o wner o f t he f ield ( or t he watchman) w ith t emporary l iving q uarters i n t he f urit p icking s eason . F or t his r eason t hey a re e quipped w ith a uxiliary i nstallations t o f acilitate h uman h abitation i nside o r o n t he r oof . R on f ound l odges w hich w ere r eal h omes, c ontaining m ost o f t he c onveniences p ossible i n f ield c onditions . B ut w e f ound t hat t he a verage t ower i s n ot s uch a s t o e nable h abitation o r s ojourn i nside o r o n t he r oof . T here w ere t owers w hose d imensions w ere s o s mall t hat a m an c ould o nly r emain i nside t hem i n a b ending p osition , o r w hich c ould n ot b e e ntered a t a ll. 3 )

T he l odges a re t he r esult o f s tone-clearing , a nd t heir c onstruction w as

a c onvenient

s olution

f or

s uperfluous

s tone .

B y

c ontrast

t here

a re

n o

s igns t hat t he t owers s olved p roblems o f f ield-clearance , w hich w ere s olved i n t he a reas w here t owers w ere g rouped i n o ther w ays , e .g . b y b uilding v ery l arge s tone c airns i n which h undreds o f t ons were c oncentrated . T est e xcavations w ere c arried o ut i n s ome o f t he a ncient c airns , a nd i t b ecame c lear t hat t hey w ere b uilt i n t he s ame p eriod a s t he t owers . T he t almudic s ources h ave n o r eference t o t he u se o f t he t owers f or f ield c learance . 4 )

T he d istribution p attern o f t he t owers d iffers f rom t hat o f t he l odges .

W e f ound n o r elationship b etween t he d istance f rom t he v illage a nd t he n umber o r d ensity o f t he t owers , w hereas R on s howes a c onnection b etween t he d istance f rom t he v illage a nd t he n umber o f l odges . 5 )

M ost o f

t he l odges s tudied b y R on a re r ecent,

m andatory p eriod a nd t he n ineteen-fifties . w ere a lso f airly n ew ,

d ating f rom t he B ritish

T hose e xamined b y u s i n S amaria

h aving b een b uilt i n r ecent g enerations .

W e d id n ot

f ind a s ingle l odge a ssociated w ith a ncient r emains . T umbled d own l odges e xamined b y u s i n t he ' A zun a nd S ebastiyeh a reas y ielded e vidence o f p urely r ecent u se .

T he t owers,

o n t he o ther h and, a re a c reation o f a ncient

t imes , a nd t heir c hronology w as p roved b y o ur e xcavations . A s a gainst

t he d ifferences n oted a bove,

t here a re s everal p oints

i ndicating l ines o f u tilisation c ommon t o b oth t he l odges a nd t he t owers . B oth t he l odges a nd t he t owers c ould f urnish s uitable c onditions f or k eeping i n g ood

c ondition

t he

f ruit

p icked

i n

1 24

t he

p lantations .

B oth

l ower

t he

t emperature b elow

t hat

p revailing

o utside

t hem ,

a nd

c reate h igh h umidity

v ital t o t he m aintenance o f t he f ruit's q uality u ntil i t i s m arketed. I t

m ay

w ell

b e

t hat

t he d istinction w as

p erceived

i n a ncient

t imes

b etween t he t ower a s a n a gricultural a nd i ndustrial i nstallation f or v ine— g rowing a nd v ine c ulture ,

a nd t he l odge a nd w atchman 's h ut whose f unction

w as m erely c ontrol a nd s upervision . t he

e xistence

o f

v ineyards

T he d ifferences m ay h ave a risen f rom

d estined

mainly

f or

t he

w ine

a nd v ineyards whose v arieties w ere d estined f or t he market . s ources

r efer

t o

' the w atch p ost

i n

t he v ineyard '

' the w atchman 's h ut i n t he o rchard ' , ( Sukkah , 8 b) ,

( M .

K ilaim ,

i ndustry, T almudic V ,

3 ),

a nd

t o w hich m ay b e a dded t he

c itation f rom Midrash R . t o L eviticus 3 6:2 . " What i s t his v ine whose g uardian g uards a nd k eeps i t f rom a bove — a s i t i s , s o i s I srael , -" I n a ll t hese e xtracts t he a ncients w ere r eferring t o t he p rotection o f f ruit i n t he v ineyards ,

a nd a ll o f t hem s peak o f w atchmen 's p osts ,

1 25

n ot o f t owers .

C hapter V T he R ural R oad S ystem i n W estern S amaria . S amaria p ossesses a r amified n etwork o f r ural r oads w hich h ave n ot y et b een t he o bject o f p rofound o r s ystematic r esearch . T he p resent c hapter w ill e ndeavour t o d escribe t heir c haracter , s tructure a nd f unction i n t he s ettlement p attern o f t he r egion . E xigencies o f s pace d o n ot p ermit a c omprehensive a ccount o f a ll t he r esults o f o ur s urvey , a nd w e s hall c oncentrate o n a d escription o f s elected e xamples , o n t ypes o f r oad a nd o n g eographical u nits w ithin w hich w e h ave m apped t he e ntire n etwork o f r ural w ays . w hose

T he t erm ' rural r oads ' w as d ecided o n i n t he c ourse o f t he s urvey , o bject w as t o d istinguish b etween t he k nown a ncient m ainroads o f

w estern S amaria a nd a n ew t ype o f a ncient r oad w hich w as d iscovered a s t he s urvey p rogressed . T he t erm i s n ot a p ronouncedly s tructural d efinition , a nd i ncludes v arious t ypes o f r oad w hich , w e t hink , s hared i n c ommon a n a gricultural a nd a n e conomic f unction i n a ncient t imes .

S ome o f t hese w ere

i ncorporated i nto r egional a nd c ountrywide s ystems f rom t he R oman p eriod o nward , a nd a pparently w ere s ubject t o t he s upervision a nd m aintenance o f t he c entral a uthorities . I n t he i nterests o f c onvenient d iscussion a nd a m ethodical a pproach , w e h ave c lassified t he r ural r oads i nto s everal g roups , s uch a s a gricultural r oads a nd a ccommodation r oads l eading t o t owers , a lthough f rom a s tructural p oint o f v iew t here i s n o d ifference b etween t hem a nd r oads i n w estern S amaria ( See b elow ). T he

r ural

r oads

o f

S amaria a re d istinguished

t he

o ther e xisting

b y t heir s implicity a nd

t heir a daptation t o t he t errain . T heir r outes w ere n ot c hosen h aphazardly a nd e vidently m any g enerations o f m en a nd a nimals h ad t rodden t hem b efore t hey r eached t heir f inal o rganised f orm . M uch l abour w as i nvested i n t heir b uilding a nd m aintenance , a nd w hen s ectors o f t hem f ell o ut o f u se , w ere c overed w ith d ense u ndergrowth w hich h id t heir a ncient c ourse .

t hey

1 . C onstruction . I n

t he

c ourse

o f

s urveying

h undreds

o f

a ncient

r oads

i n S amaria ,

w e

g ained t he i mpression t hat m ost o f t he r ural r oads w ere b uilt o ver a ncient P h . 5 1

t racks : T he t ypical r ural r oad i n S amaria h as a n i nner w idth o f 2 -6 m etres , b ut t he m ost f requent w idth v aries f rom 3 t o 4 m . A s t he t errain i s

g enerally r ocky ,

t he n atural

r ock s erved a s

a ctual c ourse w as c leared o f i ts s tones ,

t he

r oad-foundation .

T he

a nd p artly t ool-dressed a s f ar a s

w as n ecessary . K erbs w ere b uilt o n b oth s ides, i n t he f orm o f s tone f ences, v arying i n w idth f rom 0 .50 - 1 .50 m . a nd s ometimes a ttaining a h eight o f 1 .20 m . W here t he r oad c rossed a r ocky a rea, t he k erbs w ere b uilt o ver t he r ock f oundation . I n p laces w here s oil t he l ower c ourses o f t he k erbs w ere g rounded i n e arth .

e xisted e ach s ide , T hey w ere b uilt o f

d ry-laid m asonry , m ainly o f r ubble . I n m any s ectors b elonging t o r oads o f i mportance t hey w ere v ery c arefully b uilt t o aw idth o f t wo p arallel c ourses c omposed o f b locks w ith t ooled b ases , a nd a f ill b etween t hem . S ometimes , w here a s treambed h ad t o b e c rossed , t he m arginal f ence s erved a s t he u pper p art o f a c auseway w hich r einforced t he r oadway a gainst e rosion a nd c ollapse . W e b elieve t hat t he k erbs d ischarged v arious f unctions i n t he r oad-system ,

a nd t hat b esides t heir s tructural r ole t hey a lso p ossessed a n

1 26

e conomic a nd l egal f unction . T he k erbs a ppear t o h ave m arked t he l egal b oLnds o f t he r oadway , a lso t he b ounds o f c onfiscation , w hich m ight c ot b e c ultivated , s ince c ultivation c ould

i njure t he p ublic h ighway a nd t hose t hat u sed i t .

S ince t he r oads

c rossed c ultivated f ields w hich w ere w orked r ight u p t o t he r oad k erbs ,

t he

r oad-builders a nd t he a uthorities w ho m aintained t hem r equired a c lear l egal l imit w hich c ould w ith d ifficulty b e s hifted . T he r oads w ere u sed t o d rive f locks a nd h erds t o p asture , s o t o p revent d amage t o f ields a nd p lantations t he k erbs w ere b uilt h igh , t hus p reventing t he s heep a nd c attle f rom s traying a side a nd d amaging t he c rops. S igns o f r ockcutting t o e ase p assage a nd t o d rain r unoff , w ere o bserved a long v arious s ectors o f t he r oads , a lso s ectors r etaining t races o f p aving , a nd s teps t o f acilitate a scent a nd d escent o n r outes t raversing s teep g radients. C isterns

a nd

r eservoirs

w ere

r ecorded

a long

t he

r ural

r oadways,

p resumably f or t he u se o f w ayfarers b oth c ivilian a nd m ilitary . B eside s ome r oads ,

f orts w ere n oticed ,

w hich d oubtless w ere t o p rotect

a nd s upervise r outes o f military a nd a dministrative i mportance . A n i nteresting p henomenon w as t hat o f t he p resence o f s acred s ites a long t he r oads . T oday t hey a ll h ave M oslem n ames , b ut i t i s p robable t hat m ost o f t hem p receded t he M oslem p eriod a nd p erpetuated a ncient t raditions c onnected w ith s acred b uildings w hich v arious b odies w ere i nterested i n k eeping a ctive a nd p opular . We

r eproduce l ists

o f

r ecorded r oad-sectors , a nd s tructural d etails

w orthy o f d escription . E ach s ector t here d escribed p ossessed s tone k erbs . T o c alculate t he w idth o f t he e ntire r oute , t herefore , 1 -3 m . m ust b e a dded t o t he w idth t o i nclude t he b uilt-up k erbs.

W idth o f R oads. A rea.

G rid-Ref.

I nternal w idth ( without k erbs).

U m-Rihan

1 63210

2 .80-4.00 m .

S ebastiyyeh-Ramin

1 868-1658 t o

3 .00-4.00 m .

1 654-1869 ' Anabta-Deir ' Ousun

1 60191

4 .00 m .

J itt-Kusin

1 66180-167182

3 .00-5.00 m .

K ur-Beit L id

1 59182-162185

2 .50-3.00 m .

B eit L id, S outh o f.

1 61184

8 .00 m .

T zur N athan r .Tirah

1 50183

2 .80-3.20 m .

T zur N athan E ast

1 51183

3 .20 m .

' Azu r-Hirbet S ir

1 55176

4 .00-5.50 m .

1 27

2r oads

H irbet B uraq

1 60168

3 .00-4.00 m .

H aris-Farha

1 64164-164168

2 .00-6.00 m .

Z awiyah-Hirbet N ajar

1 51169-153167

2 .50 m .

K arqush

1 65166

2 .50-3.00 m .

e l-Hammam

1 46165-149165

2 .60-5.00 m .

N ahal ' Arif

1 574-1482

6 .00 m .

N a 'amah-Sapha

1 59148-155146

2 .00-4.00 m .

M igdal A pheq-Hirbet

R ockcut a nd M etalled S ectors. I n m any s ectors o f t he r ural r oadways , r ockcutting , P h. 5 2

s teps a nd - h ere o r

t here - m etalled o r p aved s tretches , w ere o bserved . B ut a s m ost o f r oads w ere f ounded o n b edrock , t he p roblem o f p aving w as m arginal.

t he

R ockcut a nd p ossibly m etalled s ectors w ere d istinguished a long t he r oad f rom S ebastiyyeh t o R amin . T he r ockcutting w as e xecuted o nly i n s ectors w here i t w as n ecessary t o l evel a nd w iden t he r oadway . S tretches o f p aving w ere f ound i n v alleys a nd o n e rosion s oils ; l ocal r ubble w ith s ome t ooling w as u sed f or p aving. O n t he r oute f rom Q otzin t o S ebastiyyeh ( G .R . s ector o f t he r oad w as n oticed .

1 666-1847) a r ockcut

A long a s pur a nd a t t he t op o f t he d escent

v alleyward , t he r oad b uilders h ad c ut b ack t he r ocks , s o c reating a r ockf ree r oute . R ockcut s tretches w ere a lso n oticed a long t he r oad f rom B ara t o ' Anabta ( G .R . 1 61190-160193) . A long a c ertain s ector a r etaining b ank h ad b een b uilt t o ah eight o f 1 .5 m .

( G .R .

1 60191);

n ear I mam ' Ali ( G .R .

1 66183) w e o bserved a meeting p oint; f rom t his p oint r oads r adiated t o S ebastiyyeh , S hechem , J it , B eit L id a nd Q adum . H ere s tretches w ere f ound w hich h ad b een m etalled , r ockcut o r b uilt , t he r oads b eing s ome t hree m etres w ide . p ublic

T he m eeting p oint o f t hese h ighways s eems t o h ave b een a w ellknown c entre , a nd t he s acred s ite t oday b earing t he n ame o f t he M oslem

s aint e l-Imam ' Ali w itnesses t o i ts i mportance . S teps ( 152194) ,

w ere a nd

o bserved

b uilt

S okho ( 153193) ,

a cross

t he

r oad

e vidently a s a m eans

c onnecting H irbet o f p rotecting

S ib

t he r oad

f rom d amage b y e rosion . T he w idth o f t he s ector , w hich w as s lightly l ower t han t he a rea r ound i t, was t hree t o f our m etres . T he g radient f alls w estward , a nd i t s eems t hat t he s teps , b uilt o f d ressed s tones t he w idth o f t he r oad, p revented t he f low o f water f rom d amaging t he f oundation a nd f looding t he r oute . A w ell-built r oad-sector w as n oticed a long t he l ine f rom ' Anabta t o S okho ( 15960-19180 ) ; i t w as s ome f our m etres w ide w ithout t he k erbs , a nd i n s ome p arts o f i t t he r oad w as s upported b y as tone r etaining w all . I n s ome s ectors r ockcut g rooves , p ossibly c art-tracks , w ere o bserved ; t hey w ere 1 0 c m . w ide . T he r oute f rom ' Anabta t o S okho s eems t o h ave b een t he m ainroad f rom S hechem t o C aesarea , a nd i t m ay b e s upposed t hat i t w as u sed b y c arts a nd c hariots.

1 28

A long t he r oad f rom S hufah t o D anaba ( GAL 1 577-1876) a t W adi T e-enim , a c auseway w as o bserved c rossing t he s treambed .

T he r oad r eaches t he c hannel

o f t he s easonal s treambed, a nd c rosses i t b y a s tretch b uilt o f l arge, p artly d ressed b locks . A s t he W adi d oes n ot c arry w ater f or m ost o f t he y ear , t here was n o n eed f or a r eal b ridge, a nd t he f ord i s b uilt o n t he p rinciple o f a n ' Irish b ridge ' , t he s treambed b eing c rossed o n a l ine f ree o f s tones, s o p rotecting t he p edestrian f rom s tumbling . I t i s t o b e a ssumed t hat t he l ocal i nhabitants r efrained f rom f ording t he s treambed i n t imes o f f lood , a nd w aited f or t he w ater l evel t o g o d own . N ot a s ingle r eal b ridge was f ound b y u s d uring o ur s urvey o f w estern S amaria , a nd a pparently t he m ethod o f c rossing t he s treambed i n t he r egion w as t hat j ust d escribed .

S igns

o f c onstruction a nd p aving d esigned

t o f acilitate

c rossing a w adi w ere a lso o bserved a long t he r oad f rom K ur t o B eit L id a t t he c rossing p oint o f t he T in s tream . T he r oad , w hich w as 2 .50-3 m . w ide , a pproaches t he s tream a t am oderate a ngle ; s tone s teps h ad b een b uilt a cross t he r oad , a nd t he s tream w as c rossed a long i ts n atural c hannel , w hich h ad b een c leared o f p rojecting s tones . B eyond t he c rossing t he r oad s lopes u p t o c limb b y a r oute s upported b y a r etaining w all . F ine s ectors o f r ock c utting h ave b een n oted a long t he r oute l eading f rom T zur N athan ( Hirbet Mus Waraf) t owards e -Tirah . A r oad h ad b een p aved o n t he s lope o f a m oderate s pur , t hen a long t he s ide o f av alley ; many r ockcuttings a nd l evelled s ectors w ere w ell p reserved o n t his r oute . A n i nteresting s ector o f am etalled a nd s lab-paved r oad w as s urveyed o n t he l ine f rom K efr L aqif , ( GAL 1 58175 ) t o ' Ein T anur ( 158174) . A v alley f alling i nto t he Q ana g orge w ith i ts s prings , c ontains a r oad f our t o s ix metres w ide ; p aving s tones a re f ound a long l arge s ectors o f i ts r oute . Owing a pparently t o t he i mportance o f t he s prings o f ' Ein T anur, a r oad t hought w orthy b oth o f m etalling a nd p aving w ith l ocal s tone w as b uilt t o r each t hem . A s f ar a s p ossible t he r oad-builders a voided t he c onstruction o f b anks a nd w alls o r w ork i nvolving t he m oving o f e arth o r s tone , w hich n ecessitated l abour a nd much e xpense . O nly i n c ases which l eft n o a lternative w ere b anks t hrown u p a long w hich t he r oads c ould r un . A l arge a nd w ell-built r oad b ank w as f ound i n t he n eighbourhood o f B eit L id ; t his w as s ectioned b y o ur t eam . ( See b elow ) . A nother , f ound n ear H irbet S hehadah ( G .R . 1 58173), was p art o f t he r oad g oing u p t o t he s ite f rom t he e ast . T he s urroundings a re c haracterised b y v alleys w ith d eep c ultivable s oil a nd t he r oad b uilders c onstructed a b ank o f s tones a nd e arth a long w hich t he r oad , 2 -3 m . i n w idth , r an . T wo a ims w ere t hus a chieved ; a ) t he r oad w as m ade i mpervious t o d amage b y w eather , a nd b ) t he a pproach t o t he

s ite l ed u p a m oderate

s lope .

A long

t he

r oad

l eading

o ff

b etween

K ifel H arit a nd H an s t owards F arha , s ectors o f t he r ock h ad b een f requently c ut ,

t he r oadway b uilt u p ,

o r p aving e xecuted .

O ne s uch r ock c utting w as

f ound o n t he d escent t o t he c hannel o f t he S hiloh s treambed ,

( at G .R .

3 P h. 5

1 64165), w hich h ere f orms a s teep n arrow g orge a t t he c rossing p oint . T he r oad b uilders c ut s teps o n t he d escent t o t he s treambed , t he r oute b eing

P h. 5 4

r outes ,

r einforced b y r etaining w alL w here i t c rossed. R ockcut,

s tructured a nd p aved s ectors were f ound o n n umerous o ther

b ut t he e xamples h ere c ited r epresent

t he r ural h ighways o f S amaria.

1 29

a dequately

t he c haracter o f

2 . W ater S ources a long t he R ural R oads. T here w ere f ew c ountry r oads a long w hich n o w ater r eservoirs w ere f ound . G enerally t he

r ockcut p lastered c istern s erved a s

t he p rincipal

r eservoir

f or r ainwater s torage . B esides t hese w e a lso f ound o pen p ools o f v arying c apacities . T he r ain-water w as c aught a nd s tored i n t he f ollowing w ay . T he r oad-builders a vailed t hemselves o f a n umber o f i nteresting s olutions ; s ometimes t he r oute i tself s erved a s a c hannel f or c ollecting a nd d irecting r unoff t o t he c isterns . I n s uch c ases t he s torage c isterns w ere c ut b eside t he r oad i tself , f requently b etween t he f ences b ordering t he r oute . I n m any i nstances r ockcut c hannels i n t he m iddle o f t he w ay , l eading t he r unoff t o t he c isterns , w ere f ound . A l arge g roup o f c isterns a nd r eservoirs , s ome s till i n u se , w ere f ound o n t he r oute f rom ' Anabta t o D eir e l'0usun ( GO R . 1 60191) . O ne o f t hese w as p articularly l arge , ( 15 m . i n d iameter ) , a nd a s ystem o f s trainers t o c heck s toppage b y e rosion s oil h ad b een c ut b etween t he r oadway a nd t he l arge c istern . P h. 5 5

C isterns s till a ctive w ere o bserved o n r oads i n t he v icinity o f Q arawat b ene H assan , F ar 'ata - I matin , H arbata-Bil'in , N 'amah a nd S affa .

P h. 5 6

C ulverts b uilt i nto t he s tone f ences w ere f ound a long a n umber o f r oads . T hey w ere c onstructed i n t he f orm o f s mall s luices r ising t o t he l evel o f t he r oadway . T he w ater d rained f rom t he r oadway i nto c isterns o r o nto t he c ultivated f ields b ordering t he r oute . C omplete u ndamaged c ulverts w ere r ecorded o n t he s ectors b etween J it a nd I mam ' Ali , a lso b etween K iphel H arit a nd F arha , a nd w e s aw o ne s till b eing u sed b y l ocal A rab c ultivators a long t he r oad b etween H irbet Q isariyeh a nd H irbet S usiyeh a t G .R . 1 55165 . T he w ater i nstead o f b eing d irected t o t he a ncient s torage c istern , w as g uided t o t he c ultivated p lots n ear t he r oad . T he c ulverts m ay h ave b een u sed i n t he s ame w ay i n a ntiquity . W ho ,

i t

m ay b e a sked ,

d ug a nd m aintained t he w ater s ources a long t he

r oad? T he a nswer s eems t o b e t hat t hose b odies r esponsible f or r oadb uilding a nd m aintenance w ere a lso r esponsible f or t he c isterns. M . S heq . I , 1 ; Mo 'ed Q at . 1 ,2 c ontain e vidence c oncerning t he J ewish i nstitutions r esponsible f or t he m aintenance o f r oads a nd w ater s upply . T he s ame l iterary s ources d escribe t he s ituation i n t he p eriod o f t he S econd T emple, when r oads were p repared f or p ilgrims g oing u p t o t he g reat f estivals . T osephta B . M . X I , 3 0-31 ( Zuckermandel , p . 3 97) c ites r ulings w hich d iscuss t he c onduct o f w ayfarers a nd t heir r ight t o a vail t hemselves o f p ublic water s upplies s tored i n c isterns, r eservoirs o r c aves . b elow ).

( See

P robably t he w ater a long r oads s upplied n ot o nly m en a nd w omen b ut a lso t he f locks a nd h erds . T he r ural r oads d ischarged a n e conomic a nd a gricultural f unction i n t he d evelopment o f t he l ivestock b ranch , a nd t he a ncient

f armer,

w ith t heir a id,

was

a ble

t o

p rotect

h is

f ields

a nd

p lantations f rom d amage w rought b y l ivestock . A pparently t he h igh k erbs w hich c ompose a n i ntegral p art o f t he s tructure o f t he r ural r oads p revented 7 P h. 5

t he l ivestock f rom s traying f rom t he p lanned c ourse o n i ts w ay t o p asture . T he r eservoirs a long t he r oads c ould w ater t he t hirsty a nimals, a nd t his i s e videnced b y t he s tone t roughs f ound n ear t he c isterns . S ome o f t he r ural r oads a re s till u sed t oday t o d rive s heep a nd c attle t o p asture . T he owners o f c ultivated p lots b ordering o n t he r oads t oday a dd s preads o f t horny p oterium t o t he s tone f ences, t hus f orming a n a dditional v ital b arrier f or p rotection a gainst t he t eeth o f g oats , w hich a re q uite c apable

1 30

o f j umping s tone f ences a nd d estroying s own c rops.

3 . C rossroads. I n s ome p laces w e e ncountered p oints w here r oads m et ; t hat o n t he b order o f t he l ands o f H irbet B uraq ( GAL 1 618-1687) i s t he p lace w here t he r ural r oads o f H an s , B ene H assan a nd H irbet B uraq j oin , a nd t he p oint h ad b ecome a w ide c ircular o pen s pace i ntegral t o t he r oad-plan . A nother r oad c entre i s l ocated e ast o f t he v illage o f B elt L id , P h . 5 8

w here a l arge c oncentration o f

c isterns i s t o b e f ound n ear a p lace w here f ieldways b ifurcate.

4 . R oad s ide S hrines. H undreds o f s acred s ites a re k nown i n t his c ountry ,

9 P h. 5

a nd m ost o f t hem ,

a ccording t o t he r esearches o f T . C ana 'an , a re l ocated a t h igh p oints ,1 ) b ut w e h ave f ound n ot a f ew s ituated b eside a ncient r oads . E l-lmam 'Ali ( GAL 1 66183) i s a M oslem 'w .11! s tructure n ear a n i mportant p oint w here r oads d ivide t o g o t o S hechem, S ebastiyyeh a nd t he c oastal f oothills . T he s tructure i s r emote f rom t he v illages o f t he n eighbourhood a nd i ts s ituation a t a n i mportant j unction a ppears t o b e o f n o c oincidence . I t i s o f i nterest t o n ote t hat t he p rayer-niche i n t he b uilding t urns t owards S hechem . S outh o f t he v illage a t B eit L id ( GAL 1 620-1844 ) a r uined s acred s tone b uilding i s t o b e f ound , a nd n ear i t a l arge r ockcut p ool . A b road v illage r oad p asses c lose b y , b eing p art o f t he r oute t o t he p lain o f W adi S hechem a nd t o S ebastiyyeh . W hen w e e nquired o f t he i nhabitants o f B elt L id w hat t he h oly b uilding s ignified , t hey g ave n o c lear a nswer , a nd m ost c laimed t hat t he p lace w as d eserted a nd w as n ot u sed b y t he p opulation o f t heir v illage . T he t omb o f S heikh ' Alem e l-Huda s tands o n t he r oad b etween Z eita a nd ' Asirat Q abaliyeh a t G .R . 1 68173 . T his p lace t oo i s r emote f rom t he v illages b ut e vidently t he b uilding i s ac ult-place a nd i s s till s uch . N ot f ar f rom t here , o n t he r oad b etween F ara 'tah , T el a nd S hechem , i s R ajal e lA rb 'ain , ah oly s tructure w hich l ooks o ut o ver t he r oad a nd i ts s urroundings ( G .R .

1 68178).

T he t omb o f t he c ommander S heikh J amal a -Din ( GAL

1 52194) i s s ituated

a t am eeting p oint o f t wo i mportant r oads :

a ) C aesarea - Q aqun - H irbet S ib

-S okho - ' Anabta - S ebastiyyeh - S hechem ;

b ) T he i nternational ' Way o f t he

S ea ' .

Moslem t radition , i ndeed, a scribes J amal a -Din t o t he C rusader

p eriod ,2 ) b ut o ur s urvey o f t he p lace m ade i t c lear t he o ld b uilding s tands o n a n a ncient s ite . T he s acred b uilding k nown a s B int Y a laqov i s l ocated n ear t he v illage o f Y irtah ( GAL 1 51189) . I ts a ncient r emains a re i mpressive , b ut t oday i t i s n eglected a nd f orsaken . L ocal t radition a ssociates i t w ith J acob 's w andering a nd t he d eath a nd b urial o f h is d aughter .

I t s hould b e r emarked

t hat t he b uilding s tands c lose t o t he a ncient ' Way o f t he S ea '. W e h ave c ited a r andom s election o f h oly p laces a ncient

r oads .

T his

i s

p robably n ot f ortuitous,

t o b e f ound n ear t he a nd t here m ay b e a

c onnection b etween t he r oads a nd t he p laces o f t raditional s anctity .

T he

p henomenon e xisted a s e arly a s t he b iblical p eriod ,3 ) w hile i n R oman I taly a nd t he p rovinces c omplete c emeteries a nd c ult p laces w ere t o b e f ound a long t he r oads . 4)

T he q uestion ,

w hen w ere t he s acred s ites a long t he r oads o f

1 31

w estern S amaria c onsecrated , a nd w ho w as r esponsible f or t heir c onsecration , i s h ard t o a nswer , b ut i t m ay b e a ssumed t hat t hey p receded M oslem r ule . I n s ome w e f ound a rchaeological e vidence o f t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods . T ombs a nd s acred p laces s erved t he c ultic a nd r eligious n eeds o f t he p opulation , b ut a lmost c ertainly p erformed a f urther d uty a s p laces o f a ssembly ,

r est , a nd s upervision o f t he m ovement o f w ayfarers .

I n c ontrast

t o w hat w as n ormal i n o ther p rovinces o f t he R oman e mpire , w e d id n ot f ind i nns o r d efined c aravanserais a long t he r oads o f t his r egion . S ome o f t he s acred s ites i n w hose v icinity w ater w as t o b e f ound m ay h ave f urnished a n a nswer t o t hese p roblems .

5 . F orts a nd F ortlets o n t he R ural R oads. P h. 6 0

S mall f orts w ere i dentified a long a n umber o f r oads .

O ne c alled S haqif

D anan , i s f ound a t t he c onfluence o f t he Q ana g orge a nd i ts t ributary W adi I brahim ( G .R . 1 6091741) . I t m easures 6 .20 x 5 .50 m . a nd i s p reserved t o a h eight o f a pproximately t wo m etres . T he f ort i s b uilt o f d ressed b locks l aid a s h eaders a nd s tretchers, a nd i s l ocated s ome 4 0 m . a bove t he s treambed , i n a p lace e nabling o bservation o ver t he c onfluence o f t he t wo g orges .

T he r oad f rom D eir E stia

t o K efr L aqif p asses c lose b y ,

a nd i t

l ooks a s i f t he b ed o f t he Q ana g orge w as a lso t he l ine o f a n a ncient r oad . W e r ecorded t he r emains o f a n E arly I ron A ge f ort i n t he s ame p roximity . E ast o f t here , o ver t he b ifurcation o f t he Q ana g orge w ith E l-Hanaq a nd E lMo 'ebah ( G .R . 1 62173), t races w ere f ound o f a s mall f ort c alled Q asr H aramiyyeh . I t measured 5 x 4 m ., a nd s urvives t o a h eight o f f our c ourses , b eing b uilt o f d ressed m asonry d ry l aid . T he p lace c ommands t he r oad f rom D eir E stia t o J insafut. P h. 6 1

A s mall f ort m easuring 4 x 4 m . r emained 1 .80 m . h igh o n t he r oad t o F arha , o verlooking B ir H an s ( G .R . 1 639-1671) . I t i s s ituated 4 0 m . a bove t he s treambed , 2 00 m . w est o f B ir H an s . I t s eems t o h ave k ept a n e ye b oth o n t he r oad a nd o n t he i mportant w ater p oint f urther a long i t . B ir H an s i s a n a ncient w ell , a nd v arious i ndications w itness t he p rolonged u se o f i ts w ater . I t h olds w ater e ven a t m id-summer , a nd i s o f g reat i mportance i n a r ocky a rea n otoriously s hort o f s prings. T he t hree f orts w e h ave m entioned w ere i mprobably u sed a s r eal m ilitary p osts , b ut r ather f or o bservation a nd g uard . I t i s l ikely t hat t here w ere m ilitary b ases n ot f ar a way , w hence p atrols m arched o ut t o p erform s uch d uties . W e d id n ot c onduct e xcavations i n t he s aid f orts , h ence i t i s h ard t o d ate t hem w ith c ertainty , m ost b eing a scribed t o t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods .5 ) I n o ur o pinion n othing p revents u s t hose j ust d escribed o riginated e arlier , e .g .

f rom a ssuming t hat s ome o f i n H ellenistic t imes . W e

s hall a ttempt o t s how l ater t hat t he r oad s ystem i n S amaria o riginated i n t he F irst T emple p eriod , a nd i n t he H ellenistic p eriod t ook o n t he p attern w hich e xisted a nd d eveloped u nder R oman a nd B yzantine r ule . I mpressive r emains o f aH ellenistic f ort c ommanding i nter a lia a c entral r oad j unction , w ere s urveyed a t H an s . o ver B ir H an s m ay h ave

T he r oad f rom H an s t o F arhah a nd t he s mall f ort b e longed a dministratively a nd m ilitarily t o t he

l arger f ort a t H an s.

6 . B oundary S tones. A long s ome o f t he r oads w e f ound i n t he c ourse o f t he s urvey c olumnar a nd s quare s tones w hich b ore n o i nscriptions

1 32

o r s igns .

A ll w ere

t all o r

p rominent .

S ome o f t hem w ere f ound i n s econdary u se i n s tone f ences .

N orth o f K efr Q afin ( 3 .R .

1 58204) o n t he r oute t o B art 'aah o r Y 'abed ,

a

c ylindrical s tone w as f ound 1 .20 m . i n h eight a nd 0 .55 m . i n d iameter. O n a s ector o f t he r oad f rom H irbet S ib t o S okho ( G .R . 1 52194) we n oticed a c ircular s tone i nserted i nto t he r oad-fence . A c ylindrical s tone w as a lso

d iscovered

i n

t he

S ebastiyyeh a rea

i n a r oad-fence n ear H irbet

Vabur a t G .R . 1 654-1869 . T hese s tones d iffer f rom R oman m ilestones , p robably s erved a d ifferent p urpose .

a nd

C ertain l arge u ndressed s tones w ere o bserved a long t he r oads l eading t o t owers ( below) ; t heir e rection d iffered f rom t hat o f t he k erbstones a nd t he s tones f encing c ultivation p lots . T hey w ere w orked i nto a c ircular s hape , b ut h ad b een h ewn , a nd t he l abour i nvested i n t heir c utting a nd e rection a long t he t ower a pproach-roads w as s een t o b e c onsiderable . S uch s tones a re p rominent , f or i nstance , t o t he e ast o f U m-Rihan ( G .R . 1 66210) a nd o n 6 2

t he l ands o f H irbet B uraq ( GAL

1 60168) .

C enturiation w as a R oman m ethod o f l and-division a pplied m ainly , n ot s olely ,

t o l ands a llotted t o d ischarged v eterans .

b ut

G enerally t he r oads

were t he g uidelines f or d ividing a gricultural p roperties, a nd t he mark s tones w ere e rected a long t hem .6 ) R oman d ivisions h ave b een f ound i n t he c ountry r ound E sdraelon , ' Akko a nd n ear T el L achish .7 ) Z . S afrai h as p roved t hat a R oman d ivision e xisted n ear S hechem .8 ) O ur s urvey f ound e vidence o f a n o rganised d ivision o f p roperty , e .g . i n t he D eir B alut a rea ( G .R . 1 52164), a lso i n t he a rea o f e l-Hamam ( G .R . 1 59 1 65) ; h ere t oo t he p arcellation w as c onnected w ith a n o rdered s ystem o f r ural r oads . T he s tone c olumns r anged a long t he r ural r oadways o f w estern S amaria m ay b e r emnants o f a r egional l and-division o f t he H ellenistic a nd R oman p eriods . W e h ave l earned i n t he c hapter o n t he n ature a nd d ate o f t he f ield t owers t hat t hey o riginated i n t he H ellenistic p eriod , a nd t hey m ight h ave s erved m ilitary a nd c ivilian s ettlers e qually . w ar a lso s ettled i n S amaria i n t he R oman p eriod. 9 )

V eterans r eleased f rom

7 . R ural a nd F arm R oads; T ower A ccommodation R oads. I n t he p revious c hapter w e h ave d escribed t he s tructural e ngineering o f t he r oad s ystem w hich w e h ave d efined a s ' rural r oads ' . W e n ow p ass t o d escribe s elected g roups o f r oads which b ecame t he o bject o f r esearch b ecäuse o f t heir f unction . t he v arious t ypes b etween t hem .

o f

r oads ,

I t w as n ot a lways e asy t o d istinguish b etween a nd

i t

i s p robable

t hat

t here w ere o verlaps

V illage R oads. T his t erm i ncludes r oads w hich l ink o ne a ncient S amarian s ettlement w ith a nother .

E very a ncient v illage o r t ownlet w as l inked t o i ts n eighbours b y

a n etwork o f p aths a nd r oads e xhibiting v arying s tandards o f c onstruction , a ccording t o t he s ize o f t he s ettlement a nd i ts i mportance i n a ncient t imes . S uch r oads w ere u tilised b y t he i nhabitants o f t he s ettlements t o g o f rom o ne v illage t o t he o ther , a lso f or t he r equirements o f r egional t rade, e conomy a nd a dministration .

1 33

F arm R oads. T his g roup i ncludes r oads w hose m ain d uty w as t o f acilitate c onvenient a nd r apid c ommunication b etween t he c ultivator a nd h is f ields , a nd t o e nable t he t ransport o f c rops f rom f ield t o m arket . T hese r oads a nd p aths i ssue f rom t he c entres a nd o utskirts o f t he v illages , a nd l ead t o t he f ields r ound t hem . T heir l ength a nd s tructural q uality v ary , a nd t hey w ould s eem t o h ave b een u nder t he l ocal s upervision o f t he S amarian v illages, r esponsibility t hey w ere .

whose

A ccomodation R oads t o F ield T owers. T he p aths a nd r oads s erving t he S amarian t ower p attern w ere a s pecial g roup . T hey c ould i ndeed b e i ncluded i n t he f arm-road c ategory , b ut h ave b een c lassed s eparately o n a ccount o f t heir p lanning a nd o bvious c onnection w ith t he f ield t owers a nd t heir p lots . I n o rder t o d escribe t he m utual i ntegration o f t he s ystem o f r ural r oads , w hether c onnected w ith a griculture o r w ith t he t owers, we h ere d escribe t he r oad s ystem o f t wo s elected s ettlements w hich w ere s tudied i n d etail , n amely , t he n etworks b elonging t o Q arawat b ene H assan a nd ' Azun .

8 .

T he R oad N etwork o f Q arawat b ene H assan . T he v illage o f Q arawat b ene H assan ( G .R .

p oints

i n t he i nvestigation o f

1 59 1 70 ) w as o ne o f o ur f ocal

t he s ettlement

p attern w hich h ad

b egun i n

E arly I ron A ge I I a nd e xisted a lmost w ithout i nterruption d own t o t he p resent d ay . P h. 6 3

T he n etwork o f r ural r oads h as b een w ell p reserved i n t his d istrict a nd o nly i n r ecent y eras h ave m ordern r oads b een p aved t o t he v illage . Q arawat b ene H assan i s l inked t o i ts n eighbours b y ar amified n etwork o f r ural r oads, most o f w hich i ssue f rom t he c entre o f t he v illage o r f rom i ts o utskirts , a nd a n o bserver o f t he a rea f rom a bove w ould s ee t he v illage a s a s tar , f rom w hich r ays r adiated i n a ll d irections. E astward r oads d epart f or D eir E stia a nd H an s , s outhward f or S arta a nd H irbet e l-Buraq ; w estward t hey t urned t owards B idya a nd S aniryah . N orth o f t he v illage s tretches t he s teep m ountainous m assif o f J ebel ' Abrad , w hich a cts ' a s a g enuine p hysical b arrier , s o t hat t he J ebel w as b y-passed b y a r oad w hich , l eaving D eir E stia , m ade f or t he Q ana g orge a nd t hen n orthward t o ' Azun , L aqif a nd Q adum . W ith

t he

h elp

o f

t hese

r oads

c ommunication w as

m aintained w ith t he

l arge c entres t o e ast a nd w est . F rom a s tructural v iew p oint , t he r oads o f Q arawat b ene H assan r epresent t he b est r ural t radition ; t heir w idth v aries f rom t wo t o s ix m etres ; t hey p ossess w ell-built k erbs w hich , r ising t o 1 . 20 r esemble . r eal f ences i n s ome p laces . R etaining w alls w ere b uilt a long e ach s ide o f t he n umerous r avines o n t he r oad t o D eir E stia . C isterns ( some s till i n u se) a re s cattered a long t he s ides o f t he r oads . W e d id n ot

16,

o bserve m etalled s tretches i n t his r egion , a nd a pparently t he n atural r ock f urnished t he n ecessary r oad-foundation . B esides d istrict r oads, t he a gricultural a rea o f t he v illage i s s urrounded b y a c lose n etwork o f l ocal f arm

r oads .

T hese

t oo i ssue f rom

t he c entre o f

t he a ncient v illage a nd

m ake f or a ll t he c ultivated t racts o f t he a gricultural c omplex .

1 34

T he r oads

v ary i n l ength f rom a f ew h undred m etres t o t hree k ilometres ;

t heir a verage

w idth v aries f rom t wo t o t hreee m etres . S tructurally t hese t ypes d o n ot d iffer f rom o ne a nother , e xcept w hen t heir d estination i s p urely l ocal . W e c ounted 1 8 f arm r oads, w ith a n i nclusive l ength o f 3 5 k m . , l eaving t he v illage a nd t hen b ranching o ut i n e very d irection . O nly i n t he n orth-west a rea a re t here t hree r oads i nstead o f f ive , a pparently b ecause h ere w ere t he a reas o f c ommon p asture , h ence t here w as n o n eed f or a c loser n etwork o f t he s ort c haracteristic a mong s mall p rivate p lots . T he c ultivated t ract o f Q arawat b ene H assan i ncludes w ide a reas o f r ocky g round , a nd t he p reparation o f p lots f or p lanting a nd s owing r equired m uch l abour i n t he f orm o f s tone-clearance, b uilding, q uarrying a nd r oad-making . T he e ntrances b uilt a t t he o penings i nto t he c ultivation p lots a re o f s ome i nterest h ere , s ince t hey s how t hat t he a melioration o f t he a rea a nd t he r oad b uilding w ere c arried o ut a t o ne a nd t he s ame t ime . W e s hall s how i n o ur a nalysis o f t he m ap o f Q arawat b ene H assan t hat t h e c ultivated a rea i ncluded s ome t wo-hundred f ield t owers , w hich w e r egard a s i ndicators o f t he v ine g rowing a nd p lantation e conomy o f t he H ellenistic p eriod . T here i s a d ecided c onnection b etween t he f arm r oads a nd t he " tower r oads" ( See b elow ) . O n o ccasion w e g ained t he i mpression t hat t he r oad , o r p art o f i t , h ad b een p lanned t ogether w ith t he c ultivation p lots a long i t . T here a re p aths l inking a ll t he r oads t ogether , a nd o nly r arely i s a l engthy r oad n ot c onnected w ith i ts n eighbour b y a l inking p ath . T he r oad n etwork o f Q arawat b ene H assan s hows t hat t he a ncient l ocal a uthority w as r esponsible f or p art o f t he r oad c omplex o f t he v illage a nd i ts s urroundings ; o nly t hus c an w e u nderstand t he f act t hat t he f arm r oads t erminate a t t he l imits o f t he v illage l ands w ithout c ontinuing i nto t he l ands o f t he n eighbouring v illages . I t w ould s eem t hat a n a ttempt c an b e m ade t o r econstruct t he a gricultural l im i M o f t he a ncient v illage b y m eans o f a n a nalysis o f t he r ural r oad-complex .

v i

W ith t he a id o f s uch a n a nalysis , m oreover , a nd b y e stablishing t he b ounds o f t he v illage 's c ultivated l ands , i nteresting f acts o f t he l ocal a gricultural e conomy c an b e c larified . T he t ime t aken t o w alk f rom t he v illage c entre t o t he d istant f ields w as a n i mportant f actor w hich t he a ncient c ultivator w as b ound t o t ake i nto a ccount w hen m anaging h is a ffairs . A n e xamination o f t he w ork o f f arm r oads a nd p aths l ed u s t o c onclude t hat t he . m aximum l imit o f t ime a nd d istance t raversed b y t he f armer d aily f rom h is v illage t o t he d istant f ield , d id n ot e xceed a r ange o f f our t o f ive k ilometres , t hat i s , a t wo h ours ' w alk t here a nd b ack . I f t he c ultivator 's l and e xceeded t his r ange f or s ome r eason , h e h ad t o d evise v arious m ethods t o b e n earer h is l and , s uch a s t he b uilding o f d istant f armsteads o r v arious s easonal s tructures s uch a s h uts a nd l odges a nd t he l ike , i n w hich h e s ojourned i n b usy s easons i nstead o f r eturning h ome . A s eries o f f arms o f t his t ype w as r ecorded , f or e xample , o n t he w estern l imit o f K efr B al .% ( G .R .

9 .

1 60193) .

T he R oad N etwork o f ' Azun .

A r amified n etwork o f r ural r oads w as s urveyed i n t he v illage a rea o f ' , tu n a ( GAL 1 55175 ) . T his v illage a nd i ts s urroundings i nclude n umerous F ig. 8 3 a rchaeological r emains f rom E arly I ron A ge I I t o t he R oman p eriod , s o i ndicating t he i mportance o f t he p lace . S outh-east o f ' Azun , a t H irbet

1 35

J em 'ein ,

a n I sraelite v illage ( Early I ron A ge I I ) ,

c ompletely p reserved i n

i ts r ocky s urroundings , w as e xcavated . N umerous c oncentrations o f f ield t owers a re t o b e f ound i n t he v icinity o f ' Am in , a nd t rial e xcavations w ere c onducted i n ad ozen o f t hem . I n t he l ight o f t hese i t a gain b ecame c lear t hat s ome o f t he t owers w ere e stablished i n t he H ellenistic p eriod , a nd o thers w ere i ncorporated i nto t he b uildings o f t he E arly I ron A ge v illage . E ast o f t he m odern v illage o f ' I d amn o n G iv 'at e -Ras , r emains o f aR oman f unerary monument were f ound when t he c ountry was u nder J ordanian a dministration . P rofessor R .J . B ull w as o f t he o pinion t hat t his w as t he monument o f ar eleased R oman s oldier who d ied i n t he e arly 3 rd c entury C .E .1 1) T he p lace a ppears t o h ave b een o f c onsiderable military a nd e conomic i mportance , a nd a lthough t he p ottery i n t he t owers c eases i n t he H erodian p eriod, t he R oman a uthorities may h ave e stablished h ere a s ettlement o f r eleased v eterans . ' Azun i s l inked w ith i ts s urroundings b y a s ystem o f a ncient r oads o ver w hose t racks, i n s ome c ases , n ew r oads h ave b een p aved i n r ecent y ears . E astward t he v illage i s c onnected w ith K efr L aqif, s ituated n ear t he a ncient r oute t o S hechem . T o s outh , t here i s c ommunication w ith K efr mit , a nd t o w est w ith H irbet B arsona o n t he r oute t o Q alqilia a nd t he c oastal p lain . A part f rom t hese r oads , w hich l inked o ne v illage w ith a nother , w e s urveyed a dditional f ield r oads o f l ocal a nd a gricultural i mportance . A t otal o f t en r oads w as c ounted r adiating l ike a f an f rom t he ' Azun c entre . T he l ongest s ector d oes n ot e xceed 3 .5 - 4 k m . , a nd t he l ength o f t he e ntire n etwork w ithin t he l ands o f ' A zun i s s ome 3 0 k m . T he w idth o f t he r oads i s n ot u niform , a nd a lters f rom s ector t o s ector , ap henomenon d oubtless t o b e c onnected w ith l ocal n eeds . i s n ot d ifferent f rom t hat o f t he c haracteristic o f a ll t he r ural H irbet S ir r oute , w here i t p asses a nd o f 7m . i ncluding t he k erbs .

T he c onstruction

r oad c omplex o f Q arawat b ene H assan a nd i s r oad c omplexes o f S amaria . T he ' A zunT ower 6 1, h as a n i nternal w idth o f 5 . 70 34 T he i nternal w idth o f r oad-sector 8 2 i s 4

m . w ith t he k erbs 5 .50 m . t he h eight o f t he l atter b eing 1 6 m . A s ector o f R oad 1 00 h as a n i nterior w idth o f 2 .30 m ., w ith t he k erbs, o f 4 .30 m . Most o f t he modern r oad f rom ' Azun t o K efr T ult h as b een l aid o ver t he a ncient l ine . I n o ne s ector t o t he s outh o f W adi ' Isla ( G .R . 1 5531745 ) t he a ncient l ine c an b e s een c ontinuing t o c limb d irectly n orthward , w hile t he m odern h ighway c ommences a s eries o f b ends i n o rder t o r elieve t he s teep a scent . T his s ector c an s till b e s een i n t he g round o n s heet 1 5-17 o f t he 1 :20,000 s cale map o f ' Azun . West o f ' Azun t wo i nternal f ield r oads, i nitially 1 . 60 m . w ide , w iden w estward ( 210-213 ) , p erhaps b ecause o f t he g ood s tone-cleared s oil c lose t o t he v illage , w hich c aused t he r oad-builders t o r estrict t he w idth a s much a s p ossible t o s ave v aluable l and . c ontrast , f ield r oad 2 21 b etween ' Av a r i a nd H irbet B arsona i s 5 - 6 H4

B y w ide

a nd h as n o k erbs . W ith t he a id o f t he r oad n etwork w e w ere a ble t o d etermine t entatively t he b oundary b etween t he l ands o f ' Azun a nd t hose o f H irbet S ir . T he s ector o f R oad 8 2 l eaving ' Azun s tops s uddenly a k ilometre s outh o f H irbet S ir . F rom ' Azun t o t he p oint w here i t s tops t his i s a g ood w ide f ield r oad w ith w ell b uilt k erbs . O nly a fter c lose e xamination w ere w e a ble t o g rasp t hat w e h ad r eached t he a ncient b oundary o f t he t wo v illages o f H irbet S ir o n t he n orth a nd ' Azun o n t he s outh . A lthough i n l ater g enerations a l ink w as c reated b etween t he t wo r oads , e ven t oday t he a ncient s topping p oint c an b e n oticed o n t he g round .

1 36

A r oad l inking H irbet J eme 'in s outh-east o f ' Am in a nd a f armstead o f t he s ame p eriod s ituated a t Q oren L iqrana ( G .R . 1 565-1734 ) i s t o b e t raced a t t he E arly I ron A ge v illage . T he l ine o f t he r oad a ppears t o b elong t o E arly I ron A ge I I, w hen e xtensive s ettlement a ctivity c ommenced i n t he a rea . T here a re n o s ettlements b etween t he E arly I ron A ge I I s ites o f H irbet J eme 'in a nd Q oren L iqrana , h ence i t m ay b e s upposed t hat t he r oad b elongs t o t he p eriod w hen t he I ron A ge s ettlements w ere i n e xistence . 1 0. R oads A ssociated w ith T owers. P rominent a nd p eculiar a mong t he r ural r oad g roup i s t he n etwork o f a ccommodation r oads l eading t o f ield t owers . W e n oted n etworks s o a ssociated i n t he v illage a reas w hose i nner p attern w as s urveyed . T hese r oads , w hich d iffer o nly s lightly i n s tructure f rom t he o ther r ural r oads , a ppear f requently i n t he t ower p attern . W e m arked r oad-complexes a ssociated w ith t owers a nd t heir p lots o n t he v illage m aps o f ' Azun , H irbet S ir , Q arawat b ene H assan , H irbet B uraq , a nd i n f act i n a ll t he a reas o f S amaria w here t he t owers w ere d iffused . I t b ecame c lear t hat t he r oads s erved t he t ower a reas a nd i n f act t hey c an b e r egarded a s p art o f t he a gricultural a nd e conomic s ystem o f t he g overnment w hich p lanned a nd s imultaneously b uilt t hem . T he r oads p roceed f rom a g iven c entre a nd l ead t o t he t ower a reas i n a s trictly m ethodical a nd o rderly m anner . A r oad o n t he K efr S ir m ap p roceeds i n aw esterly d irection , a nd t wo l ines o f f ield t owers ( 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 1 41-8) a re r anged a long a s ector 1 .5 k m . l ong . T he d eployment o f t he t owers s eems t o h ave b een p lanned o n am ap , a nd t he a xis o f t he a gricultural p lots o ccupied b y t he t owers l ies a t a n a ngle o f 9 0 d egrees t o t he r oad . P h . 6 4

B etween t he a rea o f Q asr H aramiyyeh ( site 1 03 ) a nd t owers 11 - 13 , o n t he l i t zun map , as traight r oad s ets o ut e astward, a nd p lots c ontaining t owers a re r anged a long i t . T he l ength o f t he r oad i s 1 .5 k m . a nd t he p lots c ontaining t owers f ace n orth a t a n a ngle o f a pproximately 9 0 d egrees. T he t wo e xamples h ere a dduced r eflect a s ituation w hich a ppears o n t he m aps o f o ther v illages . W e c onducted e xcavations a long s everal s ectors o f t ower r oads i n t he H irbet u m-Rihan a rea ( G .R . 1 636 - 2 101) , a nd w ere a ble t o e xamine t heir s tructure a nd b uild , a lso t he p robable p eriod i n w hich t hey w ere p aved . E ast o f H irbet u m-Rihan l ong s ectors o f t wo n eighbouring r oads w ere s urveyed ; t hese c ontinue s ome 3 . 5 k m . T he d istance b etween t hem i s a pproximately 4 00 - 8 00 m . , b ut i t w as q uite e vident t hat e ach h ad b een p aved i n a d efined a rea a nd a long a d efined c ourse . S everal d ozen f ield t owers w ere r ecorded a nd s urveyed a long t hese r oads. S ix s ectors o f t he n orthern r oad w ere e xcavated i n G .R . 1 665-2098 , f or a n i nclusive l ength o f o ver 5 0 m . T he n orthern r oad c ontinued a long t he s lope o f t he s pur w hich b egins e ast o f H irbet u m-Rihan a nd e nds a t W adi a T he r oad f ollows a u niform c ontour-line , i ts l ocation b eing o n t he u pper t hird o f t he s lope . N atural s crub a nd w oodland c overed m any p arts o f t he r oute , b ut t he r oad c an b e f ollowed a long s ectors h undreds o f m etres l ong .

F ig. 8 4 T he r esults o f t he e xcavations i n s ectors 5 5, 6 2 a nd 1 04 w ere P h. 6 5 e nlightening i n r espect o f t he c onstructional m ethods o f t he r oad b uilders . I t w as c lear t hat t he c ourse d etermined w as a s s traight a s p ossible , w ith a m oderate g radient i n a n e asterly d irection . W hen t he c ourse h ad b een c hosen i t w as c leared o f r ocks a nd t he r oadmakers w ent d own t o b edrock . T he k erbs w ere f ounded o n b edrock ; t hey w ere a s m uch a s am etre b road e ach s ide , a nd 0 .90 m . h igh , c omposed o f t wo o r t hree c ourses o f l arge d ressed

1 37

s tones .

T wo o r

t hree l ayers

o f

r ammed c halk a nd

l ocal

t erra r ossa s oil

w ere l aid o n t he b edrock , t he h eight o f t he f ill b eing a dapted t o t he r equired l evel o f t he r oad , a nd i t s eems t hat i n t his c ase t he ave rage w as b etween 3 0 a nd 4 0 c m . W e f ound n o c onvincing e vidence t hat t he r oad h ad b een p aved w ith s tone s labs , a nd f lat r ubble w hich c ould s erve a s p aving i n a s ector t hat n eeded i t w as n oticed o nly o nce . r oad v aried f rom 1 . 60 t o 2 .80 m" m .

T he i nterior w idth o f t he

a nd w ith t he k erbs t he w idth a veraged 4 .50

I n t he v icinity o f s ector 1 04 t he k erb-footing h ad b een e xcavated t o a d epth o f 1 . 20 m . f rom t he s urface ( apparently t o m aintain t he h eight o f t he r oad l evel) , a nd a r etaining w all 2 m . h igh , p artly u nderground , h ad b een b uilt a long t he s outh m argin . S o i mpressive a k erb-height m ay h ave b een i mperative f or s tructural r easons , f rom t he a rea t o t he s outh . P h. 6 6

p erhaps

f or f ear o f

f loods

o r e rosion

A n o bservation t ower e xcavated b y u s n ear s ector 1 04 p roved t o h ave b een a rchitecturally i ncorporated i nto t he k erb . T his s tructure w as t he f irst o f i ts k ind d ug i n S amaria , a nd s howed t hat t he r ural r oads t oo w ere u nder s urveillance. P ottery s herds w ere f ound i n a ll s ectors e xcavated ,

a nd w ith t heir a id

w e w ere a ble t o d ate t he b uilding o f t he r oad a nd t he t ime o f i ts u se .

T he

e arliest m aterial w as o f t he H ellenistic , t he l atest o f t he R oman p eriod . A pparently t he r oad w as n ot i n u se i n t he l ate B yzantine p eriod . T he f inds m ade d uring t he e xcavation c orrespond w ith t he d ate w hen t he t owers w ere b uilt a nd t he p eriod o f t heir a ctivity . S everal t owers w ere e xamined a long t he e xcavated s ectors o f t he r oad , a nd t he e arliest m aterial f ound i n t hem b elonged t o t he P ersian-Hellenistic e porh . I t w ould s eem t hat t he t ower f inds a nd t hose a long t he e xcavated s ectors a re n ot t o b e d isassociated , a nd t hat t his i s o ne i ntegral e conomic a nd a gricultural c omplex . T he s outhern r oad , n orthern

o ne,

was

s ignificant s ectors ,

w hich r an p arallel w ith ,

s urveyed

b ut

n ot

f rom t ' ke h ill ( 431

d ug .

a nd 5 00 - 8 00 m . I t

m . ) a t G .k .

c ould

b e

J 658-2096 ,

f rom t he

t raced

a long

e astward f or

1 . 5 k m . a t l east . A n umber o f t owers w ere r anged a long i t a lso , s ome i n a n e xcellent s tate o f p reservation . B oundary f ences w ere a lso n oted l ying a t r ightangles t o t he r oad . W hat a re w e

t o m ake o f

t he e ntire p henomenon?

I n o ur v iew t he

e xplanation l ies i n t he h istorical s etting a nd b uilding o f t he t owerc omplex a nd i n i ts e conomic a nd a gricultural f unction . T he c hapter o n t he t owers h as t aught u s t hat t heir s etting a nd c onstruction l ay i n t he H ellenistic p eriod a nd t hat t hey f ind p arallels i n o ther a reas c olonised u nder H ellenistic c ontrol a nd i nfluence . P articularly a ppropriate i s t he e xample o f t he C rimean p eninsula , w here a w ide a rea o f G reek a gricultural c olonisation was s urveyed .1 2)

T here i t b ecame c lear t hat t he e ntire

c ultivated a rea a llotted t o t he G reek c olonists w as g ridded b y r oads i n a f ashion w hich m ight b e c alled p re-Roman c enturiation . I t m ay b e a ssumed t hat t he i nstance e ncountered i n S amaria i s a s imilar p henomenon , v iz , t he p lanning o f w ide a reas f or s ettlement a nd i ntensive a gricultural e xploitation , a g ood r oad-complex b eing t he b asis f or t he d ue m arketing o f p roduce a t t he a ppropriate d estinations . T he m odern e conomist d oes n ot r egard p roduction a s c omplete u nless t he p roduce r eaches i ts d estination a t t he r ight t ime . A c rop h arvested o r g athered i n t he f ields i s s till s een a s i n a s tage o f p roduction , h ence t ransport a nd m arketing a re o f s upreme i mportance f rom a n e conomic p oint o f v iew,

1 38

a nd i n many c ases a re t he

d ecisive f actors .1 3) I t may i ndeed b e a sked, w hether t he r oad s ystem a ssociated w ith t he t owers w as n ot a p rivate u ndertaking o f t he p easant o wners , w ho o rganised t hemselves a nd c arried o ut t he p aving o f t he r oads o ver t heir f ields w ith t heir o wn l abour - b ut i n a ccordance w ith w hat w e h ave l earned i n t he c hapter o n t he n ature a nd d ate o f t he t owers , w e i ncline r ather t o s ee t hem a s ap lanned p roject i nitiated f rom a bove .

1. T he B eit R oad S ystem .

L id

A rea a s a n E xample o f al ocal, r egional a nd c ountrywide

I n o ur p revious c hapters w e h ave d escribed a s election o f r ural r oads s urveyed i n S amaria , e mphasising t he l ocal s ystems s urrounding t he a ncient v illages . W e h ave a lso p ointed t o t he e xistence o f r oad s ystems a ttached t o t he t ower a reas . I n t he p resent c hapter w e h ave s elected a r egional r oad n etwork c ombining r ural a nd a gricultural w ith r egional a nd c ountrywide h ighways .

T he

B eit L id

r egion

o f

S amaria

( G .R .

1 62

1 85)

i ncludes

t hese

c omponents .1 4) B eit L id i tself i s s ome s ix k ilometres s outh-west o f S ebastiyyeh , s ituated o n a r idge l ying a t 4 30 m . , t hus n aturally f ortified a nd p ossessing a n e xcellent c ommand o f i ts s urroundings . T he v illage i s c oncealed f rom t he c hannel o f t he S hechem s treambed ( Wadi e -Sa 'ir ) b y a n orthern r idge c onnected w ith t he v illage b y p athways . Owing t o i ts s trategic l ocation B eit L id h as b een a r egion i n w hich a ll s orts o f r ural r oads m et, b ut t he m ainroads a lso p assed c lose b y , making f or a ll f our p oints o f t he c ompass . T he V alley o f S hechem b ecomes a w ide p lain b etween B eit L id o n t he s outh a nd R amin i n t he n orth , s o f urnishing t he a pproaches t o S ebastiyyeh a nd S hechem, t he k ey-settlements o f t he a rea i n a ncient t imes . T he d istrict i s w ell d efended b y an etwork o f f orts , w hose r emains h ave b een f ound b y s urveys i n t he f ield . A fter a p rolonged e xploration o f t he a rea , w e f elt B eit L id t o b e t he k ey-settlement o f t he r egion , w hich w as q uite r ightly s een b y t he M ishnah a s t he p ass o f L ud, M a 'abarta d e-Lud.

1 5)

B eit L id i s e ncircled b y a r ing-road w ith w hich a n umber o f r oads a re l inked . T o west a r oad l eaves f or t he v illage f rom t he d irection o f S afarin f ollowing t he c rest o f a s pur, b ut n ow c onverted t o a n a sphalt h ighway . E arly I ron A ge I I, P ersian , H erodian , m ediaeval a nd O ttoman p ottery w as f ound b y t he s urvey a t S afarin , a nd i t h as b een p roposed t o s ee h ere t he S epher o f t he S amaria O straca .1 6) B eit L id i s l inked n orthw estward w ith H irbet S amara , a s ettlement o f i mportance w ith r emains o f b uildings w hich a re s till i mpre sive . S urveys c arried o ut h ere f ound l arge b uildings o f d ressed m asonry ;1 7) t he p ottery w as o f E arly I ron A ge I I a nd o f t he P ersian , H ellenistic a nd R oman-Byzantine p eriods . A nother r oad l eads t o K efr L ebed , t hence t o ' Anabta a nd t he S hechem s treambed . T he r oad i s a lmost s traight b etween B eit L id a nd R amin . F inally a r oad c omes f rom t he s outh-west ,

f rom K ur , a p lace o f i mportance w ith p ottery o f E arly I ron

A ge I I . I n v iew o f t he i nteresting c haracter o f t he a bove r oad,

i t i s h ere

d escribed f rom n otes m ade a t t he t ime o f t he s urvey . T he c ourse w as f ound a t K ur b etween t he v illage a nd t he h ill o f S heikh A hmed a -Taban . T hence w e t raced i t t o W adi Y a 'aqub , a nd f rom t here n orthward t he r oad , w hose i nner w idth i s h ere 3 - 4 m . b etween t he b uilt k erbs , c limbs t o t he B eit L id a rea . A p lastered w ater c istern a nd a n o blong p ool w ere f ound a long t he r oute . A t a d istance o f 1 . 5 k m . a s 8 m . ,

s outh o f B eit L id t he w idth o f t he r oad i s a s m uch

d ivided i nto t wo t racks m arked i n t he m iddle b y a r ow o f s tones .

1 39

A r ockcut p ool f or w ater s torage ,

1 5 x 1 5 n u ,

e xisted a k ilometre f rom t he

v illage ; i t l ay c lose t o t he r oad, a nd i s s till i n u se. A n i ndependent r oad l eads f rom t he s outh f rom ' Obeidah t hrough W adi e lH arrubbah t o B eit L id . I t i s o f i nterest t o r emark t hat s ome o f t he n ew m aps i gnore t his a ncient r oute . W e f ound n o d irect c ommunication b etween B elt L id a nd K efr Q adum t o s outh-east , a nd t he r oad f rom t he l atter c rosses t he c entral r oute b etween B elt L id a nd H irbet D alyeh , a s ettlement w ith r emains o f t he B yzantine a nd m ediaeval p eriods . H irbet a -Duweir , s ituated o n t his r oute , w hich l inks B elt L id w ith e l-imam ' All , p ossesses r emains o f s ettlement y ielding E arly I ron A ge I I a nd B yzantine p ottery . A r emarkably e ngineered r oad t urns s outh f rom t he v icinity o f e lIman ' All 's t omb, t owards H irbet ' Asfeh , F ar 'ata a nd I matin . T he w ay t owards t he D eir S haraf a rea d escends n orthward , t hen o ne b ranch t urns , a pparently , t o S ebatiyyeh , a nd t he o ther t o S hechem . A g ood c learly m arked r oad w ent d own n orthe astward f rom B elt L id t hrough W adi e l-Ban , c rossed t he V alley o f S hechem a nd a scended b y H irbet a -Manhis t o S ebastiyyeh .

T he M ain R oute t o S ebastiyyeh a nd S hechem . T he l ine o f a r oad e ast o f B elt L id, c arried o n a c learly m arked a rtificial b ank , a ttracted o ur a ttention i n 1 976 . I t was e ncountered d uring o ur s earch f or t he p ossible r oute u sed b y t he f orces o f Q uinctilius V arus , g overnor o f S yria , i n h is m arch f rom S ebaste t o H an s a nd S affa t o s uppress t he r ebellion i n J udaea . ( See b elow ) . T he r oad , d eparting , a s s tated, e ast o f B elt L id, d escends a v alley b etween t he h ills . A t G .R . 1 636-1848 i s a v alley s ome 2 00 i n . w ide , i n w hich a m ound 1 87 m . l ong i s t o P h. 6 7

b e s een o rientated e ast-west . T he r oad c rosses t he v alley o n t his b ank , a b ranch c ontinuing d own n orth-eastwa 7 , t owards t he S hechem s treambed ( near H irbet B ir e l-Qatran ) , c rossing t he s treambed , a nd g oing u p t o S ebaste p ast H irbet B abariyah . T he o ther b ran ', h owever , t urns e ast t o r each t he S hechem s treambed i n t he a rea o f t he m odern D eir S haraf, a nd t hence c ontinued, a pparently t o S hechem . We

c arried o ut a t rial e xcavation h ere i n

1 978,

w ith t he a im o f

e xamining t he b ank a nd t he r oads o n i t . T he u pper p art o f t he b ank w as s ectioned f rom s ide t o s ide w here i t w as w ell p reserved . I t w as 1 3 m . w ide , a nd s loped i n e ither f lank . I ts m aximum h eight w as 0 .60 m . T he r oad l aid o n i t h ad b een b uilt w hen t he b ank w as m ade , a nd t he t wo c ould b e r egarded a s o ne w ork . P h. 6 8

T he r oad w as d efined b y c learly-marked k erb-stones , g round l evel .

w hich p rojected a t

T he w idth o f t he r oad b etween t he k erbs w as 6 . 10 m .

O n t he

n orth s ide t he k erb s tones w ere b uilt u p i nto a r etaining w all 1 . 10 m . i n w idth , w ith a n i nterior f ill o f s maller s tones . O n t he s outh o f t he b ank o nly o ne l ine o f s tones h ad b een l aid l aterally a s a k erb , s urviving t o a h eight o f 0 .80 m . T he w idth o f t he r oad t ogether w ith t he k erbstones , w as 8 . 10 m .

w here t he s ection w as c ut ,

b ut a w idth o f 8 .50 - 8 .60 m . w as f ound

i n s everal p laces . T he u pper p art o f t he r oad c onsisted o f s mall a nd m edium-sized s tones m ixed w ith l ocal b lack s oil , t here b eing m ore s tones t han e arth . T he f illing c ontained n umerous f lat s tones m easuring f rom 1 5 2 0 c m . , a nd t hey m ay i ndicate d emolished p aving . T he f ill o f s tones a nd •

r ammed s oil v aried f rom 0 .40 t o 0 .60 m . R ed s oil b egan t o r eplace b lack a t 0 .40 m .s ' d epth . T he r oad f oundation w as c omposed o f l arge r ubble b locks , s ome e xtremely h eavy , l aid o n t he v irgin s oil i n a n o rderly f ashion , a nd m uch e ffort

w as r equired t o b reak u p t he f oundation .

1 40

T he k erbstones h ad

b een b uilt a s s tout r etaining w alls w hen t he r oad f oundation w as l aid ,

a nd

a pparently t he s tones p rojected t o a c ertain h eight a bove r oad l evel .

T he

m argins o f t he b ank w ere b uilt o f m edium r ubble b locks , c arefully l aid , s oil h aving b een t ipped o ver t hem a nd r ammed d own . T he w idth o f t he m argins w as a pproximately 1 . 5 m . A f ew l ightly r ibbed r eddish p otsherds w ere f ound i n t he

s ection ,

c enturies C .E . s tructures

b ut n one

t hat

c ould b e d rawn .

w as p icked u p a long t he b ank ,

w ere d iscovered

b eside

i ts

l ine .

P ottery

o f

t he

l st-4th

a nd t he f ootings o f t wo s tone T he m ore w esterly o f

t hese

m easured 4 .50 x 3 .10 m ., t he e asterly 4 .90 x 4 .50 x 4 .10 m ., t he w all l engths b eing u nequal . T hese t wo s tructures m ay h ave b een w atch-towers . T he d ate a t w hich t he m ound a nd i ts r oad w ere b uilt i s d ifficult t o d ecide . T he p ottery f inds d o n ot p ermit a ssured c onclusions , b ut t he H erodian p eriod m ay b e s uggested a s a p ossibility .1 8 ) T he r oad w ould s eem t o h ave b een c onnected w ith H erod 's r ebuilding o f S ebaste, a nd t he b uilding o f a n i mproved r oad s ystem f or t he r evived c ity i s c redible . I t m ay b e s uggested o n t he e vidence o f t he ' Late R oman ' s herds f ound a long t he b ank a nd c lassified b y t he e xcavators o f S ebaste a s w idespread i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies , t hat t he R oman r oad w as i n u se a t t hat p eriod .

T he

R ural

R oad

S ystem

a nd t he m arch o f Q uinctillus V arus f rom S amaria t o

J erusalem . O ne o f t he i nteresting p roofs d emonstrating t hat t he r ural r oad n etwork w as k nown t o t he g overnment a nd w as u sed b y t he m ilitary i n t ime o f n eed , i s t he l ine o f m arch o f t he g overnor V arus f rom S ebaste t o J erusalem ( 6 C .E .). W hen K ing H erod d ied ,

g rave d isorders b roke o ut i n t he c ountry .

T he

p rocurator S abinus a ppealed t o Q uintilius V arus , g overnor o f S yria , I I , 6 6-77 ; A nt . 1 7 : 2 86-291) , w ho s et o ut w ith t wo l egions a nd f our a lae o f c avalry , t he e xpeditionary f orce b eing r einforced b y a uxiliary u nits o f t he c lient k ings o f S yria a nd t he l ands t o e ast o f J udaea . T he f orce n umbered s ome 1 5 ,000 m en o r m ore . t owards H an s a nd S affa ,

T he R oman g overnor m arched s outh f rom S ebaste s o r eaching J erusalem v ia E mmaus . I t a ppears ,

t herefore, t hat t he R oman a rmy u tilised t he s ystem o f r ural r oads o f S amaria , p erhaps w ith t he i ntention o f p unishing o r d eterring t he r ebellious p opulation o f t he r egion . • F ig. 8 6

A p ossible r oute o f V arus ' c ampaign w as e xamined i n t he c ourse o f t he s urvey ; t he l ine i s l argely b ased o n t he r ural r oad h ere d escribed . I t p roceeded f rom S ebaste b y D eir S haraf , w hence a scending t o Q otzin a nd J itt , i t r eached F ar 'ata-Imatin . T his s ector p rovides a m ore c onvenient r oute , b ut i s l onger t han t he r oute t hat r uns f rom S ebaste t o K ur , H ajah a nd F ar 'ata-Imatin . F rom t here t he r oute w ent v ia D eir E stia , H an s , F arha , Q arawat b ene-Zeid, K efr ' Ayin , a nd N ebbi S alah . I n t his s ector t oo a s econdary r oute e xists , w hich l eaves H an s f or B eruqin , D eir ' A sanah , B eit R imah a nd N ebbi S alah . T he w ay t hen c ontinues v ia N izam , B elt I lla , D eir ' Amar , R as K arkar , K efr N a 'ama ,

B il 'iin a nd S affa t o E mmaus .

T he l ength o f t he r oute a s t he c row f lies i s 5 5 k ilometres , g round o ver 7 0 k ilometres . c onsisting o f t housands o f m ost o f t he r oute o n f oot, p ossible a long i ts b easts o f b urden .

e ntire

b ut o n t he

T his i s t wo o r t hree d ays ' m arch f or a n a rmy i nfantry a nd c avalry . W e a ctually t raversed a nd f rom t he l ogistic p oint o f v iew i t i s

l ength

f or m en a nd a nimals ,

1 41

w hether c avalry o r

1 2. T he C ommunications o f W estern S amaria i n t he l ight o f t he S urvey o f t he R ural R oads. T he p hysical s tructure o f S amaria a nd t he i nfluence o f i ts c onfiguration o n i ts p rincipal c ommunications h as b een r ediscussed i n r ecent y ears b y P rofessor Y ehudah Q armon .1 9 ) H is d iscussion a nalyses t he m ain r oad s ystem a nd t he g eographical c onditions o f i ts f ormation , b ut n ot t he r ural r oads , w hich w ere s till u nknown t o t he w ider c ommunity o f s cholars . A s a f irst s umming u p o f o ur s urvey we s hall o ffer s uggestions f or t he f urther e xploration o f t he k nown c ommunication s ystem i n S amaria , a nd m ainly o f w estern S amaria ,

w hich f ar e xceeded a nything p reviously e xpected .

M ost o f

t he r outes which w e d escribe h ave b een e xamined o n f oot i n t he c ourse o f t he s urvey , a nd p arts p hotographs o f t he l ongitudinal r outes , r ea lity t he s ystem

h ave b een c ompleted b y t he s tudy o f d etailed a ir a rea . W e d ivided t he s ystem i nto l atitudinal a nd b ut i n e ffect t his i s a n a rbitrary d ivision , s ince i n i s m ore c omplex o n t he g round . W e h ave d eliberately

o mitted f rom o ur l ist t hose c hief m ainroads w hich a re w ell k nown t o s tudents o f t he r egion 's g eography a nd h istory . T he s tudy o f t he r ural r oads i s n ot y et a t a n e nd , n or h as t he t ime c ome f or a c omprehensive a nd i nclusive s umming u p . f rom t hat a ccepted h itherto . i n t he n ear f uture b e u nknown . I n t he c ourse o f

B ut t he p icture i s d ifferent

S tudents o f t he a ncient r oads o f S amaria w ill

t he b eneficiaries

t he s urvey a nd a t

o f

d ozens

t he

o f n ew r outes h itherto

t ime o f s umming u p i t b ecame

c lear t hat t he r ural n etwork w as b ound u p w ith t he c entral s ystem o f m ainr oads , a nd a pparently t he R oman a uthorities a dopted t he a ncient s ystem , d eveloped i t a nd u sed i t f or t heir o wn n eeds . T he f irst p lain h ints t hat t his w as s o b egan w ith t he d iscovery o f t he f irst m ilestones a long r outes w hich w e h ad c lassified a s r ural r oads . f ound a t t he f oot o f R as e -Tirah ; E . A y

M ore r ecently t wo m ilestones w ere n a nd Y . R oll c onsider t hat t hey

b elong t o t he r oad f rom J affa t o S hechem .

1 3. T he R ural R oads i n t he L iterature o f t he M ishnah a nd t he T almud. " To t he w ay ( mesilah ) Y alqut ,

i bid . ,

s ign 9 07 .

w hich p ossessed I t a ppears

t hat

n o

m ilestones" ,

t he

r ural

D eut . Z uta ,

r oads 2 1)

1 5 :

a long w h e

milestones w ere n ot e rected, w ere w ell k nown t o T almudic s cholars . M oreover m ost o f t he r abbinical r ulings d ealing w ith r oads i n g eneral a re d irected t o r ural r oads o f v arious t ypes .2 3) M .BB . V I, 7 h as a d etailed l ist o f r oad t ypes: a ) 2 .4

T he r oad b elonging t o a n i ndividual ,

w hich w as f our c ubits w ide =

m . b )

T he p ublic r oad, 1 6 c ubits w ide = 9 .6 i n .

c )

T he K ing 's H ighway a nd t he r oad t o a t omb ,

n either o f w hich h as a

p rescribed s cale. B .BB . a )

1 00a c ites r oad-widths o f l esser m easurement.

T he r oad b elonging t o a n i ndividual . . t wo a nd a h alf g emadim,

s ufficient f or t he p assage o f al oaded c amel = 1 .5 m . w ide .

1 42

b )

T he r oad f rom c ity t o c ity - e ight c ubits, = 4 .8 m .

c )

F or

t he K ing 's H ighway w hich h as n o

p rescribed

s cale ,

t he

r eason

g iven i s : ' When t he K ing t respasses u pon a f ence i n o rder t o m ake a w ay f or h imself, n o p rotest c an b e m ade.' I t

w ould

a ppear

t hat

t he d ifference b etween t he M ishnah a nd

B abylonian T almud i s b oth l egal a nd p ractical .

t he

W hile t he M ishnah r efers t o

t he f ull w idth c onfiscated f or t he r oute o n w hich t he r oad h as b een b uilt t he B abylonian T almud u nderstands t his j ust a s i t i s a tated a nd r estricts t he m easurements t o t he p ractical w idth o f t he r oad i tself . T he B abylonian s cholars m ay n o l onger h ave d istinguished b etween t echnical d ifferences a mong t he r oads i n J udaea . R oman l aw l aid d own r igorous r egulations w 1 3 r egard t o t he w idth o f p ublic r oads i n r ural a nd a gricultural a reas . T he p rincipal r oads b etween f arm-properties w ere r egarded a s b elonging t o t he p ublic , a nd t he w idth o f a reas o n w hich s owing w as p rohibited v aried f rom 3 . 5 t o 4 0 m . e ach s ide o f t he r oad ! T he w idth o f t he a gricultural r oads w ithin a R oman f ield d ivision v aried f rom 2 .40 o r 3 .60 t o 6 .00 m" a nd t hese w ere t he a ccepted d istances i n S amaria a lso . T he M ishnah , t herefore e vidently s ubmits t hat t he w idth o f t he e ntire r oute w as r egarded a s a t t he d isposal o f t he p ublic . T he J erusalem T almud c ites t he h alakhah o f R . J onathan i n h is d iscussion o n r oad-paving w hen a f armhouse i s b eing b uilt . I n t his v ersion a pparently t he d uty d evolved u pon t he p ublic t o b uild t he r oads t o a n ew h olding , w hereas t he B abylonian T almud ( B .Q . 8 0b ) s ays t hat t he f armer i s b ound t o b uild t he r oads a t h is o wn e xpense ' in o rder t o e nsure t he r epopulation o f t he c ountry ' .

T he J erusalem v ersion s eems

p referable . T he m aintenance a nd r epair o f r oads w ere t he r esponsibility o f t he J ewish c ommunity i nstitutions . M . S heq . I , 1 ; M o 'ed Q at . a nd T os . S heq . I , 1( Zuckermandel p . 1 73) a ll p rove t hat t he r epair o f r oads a nd water s ources a long t hem was a p ublic r esponsibility a nd t hey c ould b e m ended e ven o n m id-festival d ays . T os . S hev . p p .

I II ,

5 ( Zuckermandel ,

p . 6 4),

a nd S ota I V ,

2 ( Zuckermandel ,

2 98-9) d etail t he w ork t o b e c arried o ut i n t he r epair a nd m aintenance

o f r oads .

T he c ourse h ad t o b e c leared o f s tones; t horns a nd b rambles

w hich h ad c ome u p i n t he r oadway h ad t o b e b urned . T his p roves t hat t he r oads w ere n ot p aved w ith s tones , a nd t hat a ctually t he p reference w as t o a w ay t raversing n atural r ock a nd l ocal s oil . T he w ater p oints a long t he r oads, o f s uch d ecisive i mportance t o man a nd b east a like, w ere a lso r egarded a s t he r esponsibility o f t he p ublic . T he M ishnaic s ources ,

S heq .

I ,

1 , N edarim V ,

5 , a nd T os . B M . X I ,

3 0-31

( Zuckermandel, p . 3 97) t reat o f t he p ublic r esponsibility f or t he w ater p oints, a nd o f t he i ndividual 's r ights a nd d uties i n t heir u se . T he s trict p urity o f t he water w as s een t o b e a v alue o f l egal i mportance . P rofessor S . S afrai h as r esolved a nd i nterpreted a c orrupt t ext d iscussing t he

r oadside w ater s ource .

J er .

S heq .

I ,

4 6a ,

a nd

t he J erusalem

T almud

M o 'ed Q atan I , 8 0b , r efer , h e c onsiders , t o t he r emoval o f l ocks f rom t he water-cisterns s o t hat t hey c ould s erve t he p ilgrims g oing u p t o t he f estivals. 2 5) A n a nalysis o f t he J ewish s ources s hows t hat t he a bove-mentioned r oads p receded t he R oman o ccupation a nd p roves s ystem p rior t o i t.

1 43

t he e xistence o f a r amified r oad

1 4. T he E conomic a nd A gricultural I mportance o f t he A ncient R oads. T he c onnection b etween a gricultural e conomy a nd t he t ransport n etwork i s aw ell-known a nd a ccepted f act i n t he s tudy b oth o f a ntiquity a nd o f m odern t imes. • T he m arketing

o f

p roduce ,

t he c ommunications o f t he f armer w ith h is

f ields a nd h is n eighbours, w ith m arket d ays a nd f airs, a ll r equired a c omplex p attern o f r ural r oads . T he R oman w riter V arro c laimed t hat t he p rofitability o f a f arm w as d etermined b y t he q uality o f i ts r oad c ommunications . 26) T he s tudy o f R oman I taly h as p roved t hat t he d istribution o f f arms eads w as d enser i n p roportion t o t he q uality o f i ts r oad c ommunications .2 7 ) T he v itality o Uhe m arkets a nd f airs d epended o n t he d evelopment o f t heir c ommunications . '" M oreover t he i nfluence o f t he r ural t ransport s ystem o n t he d evelopment o f a griculture a nd o n v illage s tructure w as n ot c onfined t o I taly . P rofessor S . A pplebaum h as e xpressed t he v iew t hat t he r ural r oad-network o f t he a ncient w orld was c los 9 ( c onnected w ith t he d evelopment o f a griculture a nd t he f ield-system . " O thers a re o f t he o pinion t hat t he d evelopment o f t rade a nd a griculture i n t he B ronze A ge b rought a bout t he b uilding o f t he f irst r oads i n t he M editerranean b asin . 3u) B . C hevallier , i n h is s tudy o f R oman h ighways , h olds t hat e conomic l ife p layed a n otable p art i n t he l ife o f a ncient r oads .3 1 ) T he R oman r oads t hroughout t he e mpire c arried f ood f rom t he f ields t o t he c ities , p ottery f rom t he k ilns t o t he c ustomers , r aw m aterials f rom t he m ines a nd m erchandise t o p urchasers a nd p roducers . I n t he c onquered t erritories a nd c olonies t he r oads a ided t he c ollection o f t he a nnona f rom t he c ultivators a nd i ts t ransportation t o t he s tate g ranaries . I n s hort , c laims C hevallier , t he R oman e conomic a nd a gricultural s tructure a nd t he a ccumulation o f w ealth w ere p ossible t hanks t o t he e xistence o f a d eveloped n etwork o f h ighways . I n t he o pinion o f D ilke , t here w as a c lear c onnection b etween t he a gricu evral s ettlement o f I taly a nd h er c olonies , a nd t he l aying o f r ural r oads . T he v illage r oads o ften s erved a s a xes a long w hich a llotments w ere d istributed b y l imitatio , aL atin c oncept r eferring t o t he n etwork o f p aths a nd r oads w hich s eparated t he v arious l and a llotments . T he g reat e mperors i ntervened p ersonally m ore t han o nce t o s ettle t he w idth o f p aths a nd r oads d ividing t hem . 33) A ccording t o D ilke t he r ural r oad-network s een a nd s urveyed i n G reece a nd t he G reek c olonies o f I taly - n etworks i n w hich t he d ivisions o f c ultivated p lots h ave b een o bserved , l ong p receded t he R oman m ethod o f c enturiation . T he l ink b etween t he r ural r oads i n S amaria a nd a gricultural h oldings h as b een s hown i n o ur p revious c hapters i n t he c ourse o f d iscussing t he r oads l eading t o f ield t owers . E very r ural r oad w as i n f act i ntegrated i nto t he a gricultural a nd e conomic c omplex o f t he r egion a nd i ts f eatures , a s t he w ritten s ources d emonstrate . D uring t he d iscussion o n t he s tructure o f t he r ural h ighways , w e h ave r aised t he p roblem o f t he s olidity o f t he b road h igh k erbs w hich f requently a ccompany t he r oads . T he i nclusive h eight o f t he r ockcutting a nd c onstruction o f t he k erbs a long o ne o f t he e xcavated s ectors o f t he r oad e ast o f U m-Rihan a mounts t o 2 . 00 m . I t w ould t herefore a ppear t hat t he f orm o f t he k erbs w as d ictated n ot o nly b y t he s tructural n eed o f p reventing e rosion a nd p rotecting t he r oad-line ; i t a ssisted t he l egal d efinition o f t he r oadway i n a m anner t hat c ould n ot e asily b e i gnored . T he u se o f t he r oads f or d riving f locks a nd h erds t o p asture a nd t he d esire t o p revent d amage t o t he c rops e ach s ide o f t he w ay c ertainly c ontributed t o t he h eightening o f t he k erbs t o t he p oint w here

1 44

m any o f t hem w ere c onverted i nto f ences .

T he s ources c oncerning t he l aws

o f K ilaim , I I , 8 -10 , a nd T os . i bid .? I I , 6 ( Zuckermandel , p . 7 5) i nform u s t hat t he f armer s owed a s f ar a s t he p roximity o f t he r oad , w hich a cted a s a b oundary , a nd b y m eans o f m arking p oints d rew t he e nclosure-lines b etween t he p lots a nd c rops .3 4 ) A bove a ll , a d eveloped n etwork o f r ural r oads w as n ecessary f or t he r apid g athering a nd m arketing o f t he f ield p roduce t o d estinations n ear a nd f ar . V arious f ruit c rops s uch a s f resh g rapes , r ipe f igs a nd v arious s pecies o f f ruits a nd g rains n eeded r apid m arketing a t t he c entres o f s ale . V egetables a lso h ad t o r each t he c onsumers i n f resh c ondition , a nd o nly a d eveloped r ural r oad-system c ould e nsure g athering i n t ime a nd e conomic m arketing t o t he c onsumer p opulation-centres . C lark a nd H aswell b elieve t hat o nly w ith t he h elp o f a d eveloped r oad s ystem

c an a b ackward a griculture g rowing

f or s elf-supply b e t ransformed

i nto a p roducer f or t he m arket .3 5 ) A n u ndeveloped t ransport s ystem c hecks a ll d evelopment a nd r educes t he i ncome t o b e d erived f rom g oods d estined f or m arketing . I n t heir o pinion t he t ransfer o f a t housand k ilograms o f g rain o ver t wenty k ilometres w ill b e u neconomic i n a r egion w ithout a d eveloped r oad s ystem . G eographers w ho s tudy t he t ransport s ystem i n r ural a reas c laim t hat o nly d eveloped r oads c an e r le s pecialisation i n s uccessful m arketable c rops d espite t ransport c osts. I t w ould

t herefore s eem

t hat

t he d eveloped c ommunication o f w estern

S amaria i ndicates t hat t he r egion w as d eveloped a lso f rom t he e conomic a nd a gricultural p oint o f v iew , a nd t hat a c onsiderable p art o f i ts p roduce w as g rown f or s ale i n t he m arkets .

T ransport. H aving

s urveyed

t he

r ural

r oad

n etwork

i n

i ts

s tructural

a nd

g eographical a spects , w e b elieve t hat t he a ss , t he m ule a nd t he c amel w ere t he m eans o f t ransport i n t he m ountainous a rea o f S amaria . S ectors i n w hich c arts d rawn b y a nimals c ould t ravel w ere e ncountered o nly i n i solated c ases , a nd t heir n umber w as s o s mall t hat t hey c annot b e t aken i nto a ccount . P rof . A vitzur 's r esearches h ave s hown t hat a n a ss c an c arry a l oad o f 7 5 k ilograms ; a m ule 1 50 k ilograms , a c amel 2 80-300 k ilograms .3 7) I n t he c ourse o f o ur s urvey i n t he S amarian h ill c ountry w e e ncountered a sses a nd c amels c arrying e ven h eavier l oads , a nd t heir o wners t estified t hat t hey w ere a ctive a nd s tood u p w ell t o t he r ocky m ountain t errain . T he C ode o f T heodosius r estricted t he w eight o f l oads p ermitted t o b e c arried i n R oman c arts ;3 8 ) 2 00-600 p ounds w ere p ermitted i n l ight c arts ; 1 ,000-1,500 p ounds i n h eavy w agons .

D r .

Z eev S afrai h as c alculated t hat i n t he p

od o f t he

M ishnah a nd t he T almud a c art c arried l oads u p t o 5 85 k ilograms . F rom w hat h as b een s aid i t i s c lear t hat t ransport b y b easts o f b urden i s c heaper a nd m ore e fficient i n m ountainous a reas o f t he c ountry , a nd S amaria w as n o e xception . T he s ources t estify t o t he e xistence o f c arts , b ut t hey w ere r estricted t o p lainlands a nd t o s pecial r oads . W e m ay s um u p t hat t he r ural r oads o f S amaria f urnish i nformation o n t he e conomic a nd s ocial s tructure o f t he r egion a nd c ast l ight o n m atters w hich a re i gnored b y t he w ritten s ources. T he m embe , rs o f t he s urvey t eam o f w estern S amaria r eached t he f ollowing c onclusions: 40)

1 45

a )

T he r ural n etwork o f t he r egion i nforms u s o f a n o pen e conomic s tructure

a nd o f e qual e conomic r elations b etween a ll r egional u nits. b ) T here w ere r elations o f e conomic i nterdependence b etween t h u nits. c )

T he n etwork

i ndicates a h igh s tandard o f

i ndividual

l iving a nd a n e conomic a nd

s ocial a bility e qual t o t he m aintenance o f t he r oad s ystem . d )

T here w as s pecialisation i n t he m arketing o f c ertain c rops.

e )

T he r ural e conomy o f t he r egion w as a n o pen r ather t han a p urely

a utarkic e conomy . T he r ural r oads f urther s erved g overnmental a dministration ,

a ssisting

t he c ollection o f t axes a nd t he a nnona , a nd f urnishing r apid a nd c onvenient c ommunication b etween t he v arious c rown d omains . I t m ay b e a ssumed t hat c ommerce a lso made a mple u se o f t he v illage r oads . T hese a lso f acilitated r apid m ilitary m ovement f rom c entre t o c entre , a nd , a s w e h ave s een i n t he c ase o f t he R oman g overnor V arus , t hey w ere u sed e ffectively a nd f orcibly b y t he R aman a uthorities.

1 46

C hapter V I. V iticulture a nd W ine P roduction i n W estern S amaria a s r eflected i n t he S urvey . I n t he c ourse o f t he s urvey w e e xamined s ome 3 00 r ockcut w inepresses . O n t he d istribution m ap o f Q arawat b ene H assan t here w ere 5 0 p resses , o n t hat o f T zur N athan , 2 7 , r ound F alama , 1 5 , a nd 9 a t H irbet B uraq . O nly i n a v ery f ew c ases w ere n one f ound t o b e r ecorded o n t he r ural d istribution m aps . A s t he p henomenon o f r ockcut w inepresses i n t he f ields i nvolves s tudy a nd i nterpretation , t his c hapter w ill b e d evoted t o a n a ccount o f v ine c ultivation i n w estern S amaria a nd i ts i mportance i n t he r egional e conomy . W e

d o n ot

i ntend

t o d eal w ith a ll

t he

t hemes

a ssociated w ith t hese

b ranches , b ut w ill c oncentrate o n s everal p oints w hich c larify a spects o f t he t echnology o f w ine m anufacture , t he f ield i nstallations o f v arious t ypes a ssociated w ith t he i ndustry , a nd t he w ritten s ources w hose m eaning i s m ade c learer b y t he a rchaeological f inds . N umerous c omprehensive s tudies h ave b een d evoted t o J ewish v ine c ultivation o n a ccount o f i ts i mportance i n t he w ritten s ources a nd i n t he a ncient e conomy o f t he c ountry ; i n t his r egard i t s uffices t o m ention t he c hapters w ritten b y S hemuel K rauss , I mmanuel L oew a nd G ustav D alman , w hich c ontain a bundant s ources o n t he s ubject . 1) R abbinical

s ources

c ontain f requent

d iscussions

o n v ine

g rowing

a nd

w ine p roduction , a nd c onsiderable p ortions o f v arious t ractates o f t he M ishnah , t he J erusalem T almud a nd t he T osephta a re d evoted t o t hem .

1 .

T ypes o f W inepresses i n W estern S amaria. T he h undreds o f w inepresses r ecorded i n w estern S amaria w ere d ivided

t ypologically i nto s everal m ain g roups : F ig .

1 4

P h . 6 9

T ype 1 .

T he a rchetype i s Q arawat b ene H assan , T ower 4 8 . I t i s c omposed

o f t wo p arts : a ) o f

T he t reading f loor , m easuring 2 .50 b y 2 .50 m . ,

s urrounded b y a l ine

T he t reading f loor i s c ut i n n atural r ock a nd i s s lightly

' dished' i n t he d irection o f t he r eception t ank . b )

T he r eception t ank m easures 1 .00 x 0 .80 m . a nd 1 .00 m . i n d epth .

T here i s as mall d epression f or d raining a t t he b ottom o f t he t ank . T here i s a r ockcut p ipe b etween t he t reading f loor a nd t he r eceptiont ank i nto w hich t he g rapejuice ( must ) f lowed .

T he c apacity o f t he r ockcut

r eception t ank i s 8 00 l itres . T he p ress h as o ther s econdary t ypes , a nd t he m easurements o f t he c omponents m ay v ary . W e h ave i ncluded i n t his g roup , f or i nstance, p resses w ith c ircular t reading f loors a nd t hose o f l arge m easurement , t he l atter f eature a pplying c hiefly t o t he r eception t anks . A t ank f or s training a nd r esidue i s s ometimes f ound i n f ront o f t he r eception t ank. A l arge p ress o f t his t ype w as e xcavated a nd c leared a t Q arnei S homron

1 47

Kefr L aqif m ap ) ; F ig. 8 7 (

i t i s w ithin t he t erritory o f T ower 1 a t J ebel C arson .

T he t reading f loor m easures 3 .70 x 3 .50 m . , b y d ressed s tones t o ah eight o f 0 .60 m .

a nd i s s urrounded o n t hree s ides T he r eception t ank m easures 1 . 85

b y 1 .45 m . a nd i s 1 .40 m . d eep . I ts c apacity i s a pproximately 3 ,500 l itres . A s mall s tep i s f ound a t t he c orner o f t he p ress t o f acilitate d escent i nto i t . T he r eception t ank s hows s igns o f p laster o n i ts s ides . P h . 7 0

A s imilar ( 'Azun map).

p ress ,

w ithout a s tone f ence ,

w as

c leared n ear T ower 2 29

I t i s o f i nterest t o n ote t hat T ype 1 o f t he p ress j ust

d escribed i s c ommon i n o ther p arts o f t his c ountry , a nd s eems t o h ave b een t he c ommonest t ype f ound b y many a rchaeological s urveys . I n a s upplementary s urvey c arried o ut o n M ount G ilboa t o a cquaint o urselves w ith t he d istribution o f t he f ield t owers,

we f ound s imilar p resses o n t he

S andala s pur , M ount L api e a nd e lsewhere . 2) o bserved o n M ount C armel . / F ig. 8 8

T ype 2 .

T he p rotoytpe i s

P ress 2 52

T he s ame t ype o f p ress w as

o f

t he T zur N athan map .

I t

c onsists o f t hree p arts: a )

A t reading f loor m easuring 4 .00 b y 4 .00 m .

b )

A r eception t ank m easuring 2 . 10 x 1 . 60 m . , t he p robable d epth b eing

1 .30 m . c )

T he t ank 's c apacity w as 4 ,300 l itres. A n a rea f or t he c oncentration a nd h olding o f t he g rapes m easuring

2 .30 b y 2 .20 m ;

i t w as c ut o ver t he t reading f loor ,

a nd s loped ,

t o e nable

t he m ust t o f low t hrough t he t reading f loor i nto t he r eception t ank . T he a ddition o f a n a rea f or c oncentrating a nd k eeping t he g rapes w as c onnected , w e t hink , w ith t he d evelopment o f t he w ine i ndustry a nd t he i ntroduction o f a dditional

v arieties

i nto

t he

r egion .

( See

b elow ,

t he d iscussion i n t he

s ection o n t he t echnology o f t he i ndustry ) . F ig. 8 9

A f urther s ub-type o f t his g roup w as f ound a t H irbet H amad , p ress i nstallations , c haracteristic o f t he E arly I ron A ge , c lose p roximity t o aw inepress o f T ype 2 . T ype 3 .

A p ress r epresenting t his

w ere

w here o il f ound

i n

t ype i s f ound a t H irbet B uraq ( 26 ) .

I t h as a l arge t reading f loor m easuring 6 .00 x 5 .50 m . w hich p ossesses a s quare d epression 1 .20 x 1 .20 m . i n t he m iddle, 0 .50 m . d eep . A c hannel h as b een c ut i n t he r ock , r unning t owards t he c entral r eception t ank . d epression m ight h ave p erformed s everal f unctions : a )

T he

c oncentration

o f

p ulp

( Heb .

g ephet)

a fter

t reading,

T his

t o

f acilitate i ts d isposal. b )

A n

i nstallation

f or

p lacing a w ooden s crew-press

t o s queeze t he

l ast r emaining j uice f rom t he g rapes, t ill t hen t rodden b y f oot. c )

T he r ear w all o f t he t reading f loor p ossesses t hree e lliptical

n iches , e ach m easuring 0 .70 x 0 .70 m . T he m ost r easonable e xplanation o f t heir p urpose w e t hink , i s t hat t hey w ere m ade t o m easure t he q uantity o f g rapes b rought b y c ultivators t o t he p ress a t H irbet B uraq . T his p ress h as t wo r eception t anks , o ne m easuring 1 . 20 m . x 1 . 20 m . ; i ts d epth w as i n t he r egion o f 1 . 50 m . T he c apacity o f t he t wo t anks a mounted t o 5 ,000 l itres o f m ust. P ress 2 6 a t H irbet B uraq was i n o ur o pinion a p ublic i nstallation

1 48

b elonging t o t he v illage p opulation , a nd i ts a rrangements a re a ppropriate t o c ooperative o peration b y t he b ody o f v ine g rowers ,

o r t o t he r eception b y a

l andowner o f p art o f t he v intage f rom e ach t enant f armer . I n c ontrast t o t he o ther p resses a t H irbet B uraq a nd i ts n eighbourhood ( see t he B uraq v illage m ap ), t his p ress i s t he l argest , a nd i s m ore e fficiently a rranged t han a ny o f t he o thers . T wo s orts o f g rapes c an b e p ressed t here , o r t wo t ypes o f w ine p roduced a lmost s imultaneously , w ithout i nterrupting i ts o peration f or t oo l ong a n i nterval - a s e ach o f t he t wo l arge r eception t anks c ould f ill u p i ndependently . T he m easuring n iches i n t he s ide o f t he t reading f loor e nabled t he e xact m easuring o f t he q uantities o f t he g rapes b rought f or p ressing, a nd t he q uantity o f w ine e ach f armer s hould r eceive. F ig . 9 0

A n u nusually l arge p ress o f T ype 3 w as s urveyed i n t he T zur N athan m ap ( 274) . T his h uge p ress , 1 0 .20 x 7 .00 m . , p ossesses m easuring n iches l et i nto i ts s ide, a nd a h uge t reading f loor 3 .60 x 3 .20 m . w ith a s upposed d epth o f 1 . 50 m . T he c apacity o f t he r eception t ank i s 1 7, 1 200 l itres o f must, t he l argest q uantity f ound b y t he s urvey .

R ockcut a reas f or t he

c oncentration a nd h olding o f t he g rapes l ie n ear t he t reading f loor .

F ig . 9 1 P h . 7 1

T ype 4 . A c omplex o f t reading f loors a nd a l arge u nderground c ellar , o f t he t ype f ound a t D eir D aqleh , p erhaps r epresents t he l ast p hase o f t he w ine i ndustry i n S amaria . T he D eir D aqleh e nsemble i ncludes t wo p resses i n c lose p roximity , w ith r eception t anks f or 1 3 ,000 l itres o r m ore o f m ust . A l arge u nderground c ellar w ith a rrangements f or t he r eception o f t he w ine p roduced i n t he p resses i s t o b e f ound n ear t hem . T he D eir D aqleh e nsemble s eems w orthy o f t he t erm " Yeqev" ( Hebrew f or a l arge w ine-producing e nterprise ) i n e very s ense . T he i nterconnection b etween t he c omponents o f t he D eir D aqleh e nsemble w ill b e d iscussed i n t he c hapter o n t he t echnology o f w ine m anufacture .

T ype 5 .

T ill n ow w e h ave d escribed p resses m ost p arts o f w hich a re r ockcut ,

a nd m ost a re s ituated o utside t he v illage b ounds .

T he T ype 5 p resses a re

t hose b uilt i nside t he v illages , s ometimes t ogether w ith o il p resses . T he p rincipal e vidence f or t he e xistence o f t hese p resses i s l iterary , b ut t he s urvey f ound i nstallations which c ould a lso h ave b een u sed f or w ine p roduction .

. M id . G en . R . , 7 1 b c ites ' The w oman w orking i n t he w inepress b ehind t win b eams ', who m ocked L eah d aughter o f L aban . R ashi i nterprets t he w inepress

k nown a s

ma 'atzara-zayara

( Talm .

B ab .

A .Z .,

I V,

6 0a)

a s

a

w inepress w ith a b eam w hich a cts a s t he c rusher . T he R oman w riters o n a griculture a lways d escribe t he w inepress a s i nside a b uilding ,4 )

a nd t his t oo i s t o b e d educed f rom t he d iscoveries i n

R oman v illas a round P ompeii , s uch a s t hat o f B oscoreale .5 ) I n t he s urveys a nd e xcavations c onducted a mong t he o il-presses o f w estern S amaria , e .g . a t H irbet N ajar , ' Azun a nd e lsewhere , w e f ound i nstallations w hose p arallels w ere u sed i n t he G reek w ine i ndustry . G reek s cholars d escribing t he F igs.

t raditional p rocesses o f o il a nd w ine p roduction i n m odern G reece ,

9 2, 9 3

s eries o f wooden p resses, o nly t heir b ases b eing m ade o f s tone .6 ) T he b ases a re v iolin-shaped , a nd w e f ound s imilar o bjects i n a ncient t raditional o il-presses a t H irbet N ajar a nd ' Azun . E vidently w inepresses

c ite a

w ere b uilt w ithin t he v illages i n t his c ountry

1 49

a lso a nd p erhaps p aic o t v intage

s eason .

h e e quipment o f t he o il-presses w as u sed i n t he

T osephta T ehorot ,

X I ,

1 5

( Zuckermandel ,

p . 6 73) .m entions

a n 'w i per w inepress ' w hich w as p ublic p roperty a nd a ' lower w inepress ' w hich w as p rivately o wned . T he r eference m ay b e t o ap ress w ithin a b uilding o r a c ellar .

O ther T ypes o f W inepress. M ish . A .Z ., I V, 8 -12;

V , 1 mentions p rimitive w inepresses made o f

e arthenware , w ood a nd s tone . S hev 'iit , V III , 6 r efers t o s uch b y t heir f ull n ame , Uriva l l% w ith t hese i t w as p ermitted t o p ress g rapes i n t he s abbatical y ear .

I t i s h ard t o s uppose t hat a rchaeological e vidence w ill b e

f ound f or p ress t ypes m ade o f o rganic m aterial o r e arthenware , b ut t hey a ppear t o h ave b een c ommon s ide-by-side w ith t he r ockcut i nstallations .

2 .

AT entative T ypology a nd C hronology o f W inepresses i n E retz Y israel.

I n r ecent y ears s everal i nvestigators h ave a ttempted t o s uggest a d ate a nd a c ourse o f d evelopment f or w inepresses i n t he m ountain a reas o f t he c ountry .

Y izhar H irschfeld ,

f ollowing h is s urvey a nd e xcavations c arried

o ut i n r elation t o p resses i n t he E mmaus d istrict , p roposes a d ivision i nto f our g roups , f rom t he s imple r ockcut p ress r o t he m osaic-paved p ress w ith a b ase c arrying a n a ppliance f or p ressing t he g rape r esidues. 7 ) A s urvey o f p resses w as c onducted i n t he M egiddo-Jenin a rea b y G .W . A hlstrom , w ho d ivided 17 p resses i nto n ine $1 4 / r oups , c hiefly o n t he b asis o f t he g eometrical f orm o f t he p ress c omponents . 6" W hile A hlstrom c ame t o t he c onclusion t hat t he p resses c ould n ot b e d ated b y t heir f orm, Y izhar H irschfeld e ndeavours t o v iew t heir d evelopment a ccording t o f orm , u sing t he n umber o f t heir r ockcut c omponents a nd t he t echnology o f p ressing t he r esidues , a s c hronological p ointers . T hese c onsiderations m ay b e c orrect f or t he E mmaus d istrict i tself , b ut a n e xamination o f t he w ritten s ources a nd o f s imilar p resses i n w estern S amaria m akes i t d ifficult t o a ccept t he m ethod a s a w hole . T he p ressing o f t he r esidues w ith t he h elp o f a r oller w as c ommon i n t he G reek a nd R oman w orld a s a s elf-understood p art o f t he P h . 7 2

h andling o f g rapes .9 ) I nstallations f or p ress b eams w ere f ound i n an umber o f t he p resses e xamined b y u s i n w estern S amaria, e .g . P ress n o . 1 3 a t H irhet B uraq a nd t he p ress a t H irbet H amad, a nd w e f ound n o d ifference b etween t hese a nd n eighbouring p resses l acking t hat a ppliance . T he s crew-press s eems t o h ave b een k nown i n E retz Y israel a s e arly a s t he H ellenistic p eriod , a nd i ts p resence i n p resses o f t he B yzantine p eriod d emonstrates b asically c onservative p rocesses i n v inegrowdng a nd t he w ine i ndustry . 1°)

I t i s e qually i mportant t o a void t he u se o f p laster a nd

t esserae a s d ata f or f l etermining t he d ates o f w inepresses . T he l ength o f t ime d uring w hich p laLrer a nd t esserae w ere u sed i n b uilding i n t his c ountry e xtended o ver c enturies , a nd a n a ttempt a t g reater p recision m ay l ead t o a n e rroneous

c onclusion .

T he U nderground T ank a s p art o f t he W inepress. O ne o f t he i mportar - c omponents i n t he s tructure o f t he p ress w as t he p lace d esigned f or t he f -m entation o f t he w ine . l ittle n otice i n m odern P rchaeologica l

T his d etail h as a ttracted

r esearch , 1)

a nd

i n m any c ases

i s

n ot

m entioned

p resses

n ear

a t

a ll .

I n a s urvey o n t his s ubject w e f ound a n umber o f

w hich r ockcut

c ampanulate

c isterns

c ommonly i dentified a s m eant f or w ater s torage .

w ere

l ocated .

T hey

a re

C isterns o f t his t ype w ere

f ound i n t he Q arawat b ene H assan d istribution m ap , f cr i nstance a t s ites 8 4 , 8 5 a nd 9 0 , a ll n ear r ockcut p resses . 7 3

A s imilar c istern c an a lso b e c learly

s een n ear t he p ress a t H irbet T anurah .

A nother o f t his t ype w as e xcavated

d own t o t he b ottom a t H irbet J em 'ein ( ' Azun m ap ), a nd i t t ranspired t hat i ts c apacity was 3 5,000 l itres o f l iquid . T he a rchaeological e vidence s howed t hat i t h ad b een i n u se i n E arly I ron A ge I I a nd i n t he H ellenistic p eriod . T here a ppears t o b e e vidence i n o ur s ources t hat p art o f t he p rocess o f w ine

p roduction

T erumot , V II , f ound

w as

c arried

o ut

1 5 ( Zuckermandel,

i n a w ine-tank" .

i n

u nderground

t anks .

A ccording

t o T os .

p . 3 8) : " It i s r elated t hat a d ead s nake w as

I n T os .

T ehorot ,

X I ,

1 2-13

( Zuckermandel ,

w e f ind e xplicit e vidence o n t he s tructure o f a w ine t ank :

p .

6 72)

' If s pittle w as

e mitted f rom t he m outh o f o ne s tanding a nd t alking o n t he e dge o f ac istern a nd i t w as d oubtful w hether i t h ad r eached t he t ank o r n ot, w as f or o il , t he d oubt i mplied c ontamination , i f f or w ine ,

i f t he l atter d oubt i mplies

impurity, b ecause t he k erb o f t he t ank a ssimilates i t . '

We h ere f ind

e vidence f or t he s tructure o f t he t ank r ound whose f illing h ole was a c ircular s tone k erb ( hevel h a-bor ) w hich e nabled t anks f or w ine a nd o il t o b e c losed .

S imilar t anks f or s toring t hese p roducts were e xcavated a t

H irbet J em 'ein a nd n ear

' A mu

S ometimes t he t ank i s c alled a w ell ,

a nd t he d escent i nto i t t o c lean

o ut t he g rape p ips a nd t he g rapeskins f avours t he b elief t hat t he r eference i s

n ot

t o

t he

u sual

r eception-tank

u nderground i nstallation ( Tos . M o 'ed Q at"

I I ,

T echnological w ine ,

2 ,

l a

A .Z . ,

m entions

c onsiderations,

o f

V II ,

t he

a w inepress,

t ank a s

i ndeed ,

b ut

4 - Z uckermandel , a p lace w here

r equire a l arge

t o

p .

w ine

t ank

a d eeper

4 71) .

t o

J erus .

f ermented .

f erment

t he

a nd t o s low u p t he p rocess ( See b elow) . A l arge winepress w ith a n u nderground c ellar e xists a t t he J ewish

s ettlement

o f

H irbet

S umaqah o n

t he

C armel ,

n orth-west

o f

t he

s ynagogue .

T he p ress i ncludes a t reading f loor o f a pproximately 5 x 5 m ., a nd a r eception t ank w ith a c apacity o f s ome 9 ,000 l itres o f must . T here i s a lso a s econd t ank , s omewhat s maller, b ut n ow c hoked w ith e rosion s oil a nd t herefore n ot m easurable . t anks

t o

t he u nderground

A s hort r ockcut c hannel l eads f rom t he r eception c ellar ,

w hich i s

a lso

b locked u p .

Y ohanan

b en

Y a laqov o f K efar ' Etzion r ecently c arried o ut a n i nteresting e xperiment , c omparing

t he

r abbinical

s ources

w hich

t reat

o f

v ines

f ield d iscoveries a mong t he H ebron m ountains .1 2) a re s ometimes

i dentical i n t he s ources,

a nd

p resses,

b y

w ith

T he t ank a nd t he c ellar

a nd o nly a n a nalysis

o f t he t exts

a nd a n u nderstanding o f t he t echnological p rocesses o f w ine p roduction c an h elp u s t o d istinguish t hem . s ources ,

T he multitude o f t echnical t erms

s ome o f w hich a re s till i ncomprehensible t o u s t oday ,

i n t he

i nform u s o f

t he w ide d iffusion o f v ine g rowing a nd w ine p roduction a s a b ranch o f t he e conomy , a lso o f t he v ast v ariety o f m ethods a nd a ppliances u sed i n v ine g rowing a nd mainly i n t he w ine p roduction p rocesses .

3 .

T he C haracter

o f

t he

W inepress a s aP ointer t o S ocial a nd E conomic

S tructure. W inepresses c haracter

o f

a re i ndeed ,

c an p erhaps

a ncient

t ell u s s omething o f

a gricultural

s ociety .

t he s ocial a nd e conomic

T echnological

c onsiderations

o f d ecisive w eight w ith r egard t o a gricultural s tructures,

1 51

b ut

t heir d evelopment c annot b e d issassociated f rom t he s ocial s tructure. T ypes

1 -2

c ultivators ,

o f o ur c lassification s how a s ociety

o f

s mall

a nd

m edium

i n w hich e ach w as r esponsible f or h is c rops a nd t he p rocessing

o f h is p roduce .

T his d efinition d oes n ot d etermine i f t hey w ere c ompletely

i ndependent o r s ubject t o r ulers w ho d irected t he t ypes o f c rop a nd t heir c ultivation . B ut t he owners o f t he s mall a nd medium p resses e njoyed c onsiderable i ndependence a nd t heir d ependence o n t he r ulers d id n ot p revent t hem f rom p rocessing t heir p roduce t hemselves . O ne w inepress t o 8 0 d unams w as r ecommended f or t he f arm p roducing w ine a nd o il i n I taly i n t he i mperial p eriod .1 3) W e f ound o ne w inepress i n a t ract o f 4 5 d unams o f v ineyard i n t he c ultivated a rea o f H irbet B uraq, while o n t he d istribution m ap o f Q arawat b ene H assan t here w as o ne w inepress p er a rea o f 6 0 d unams o f v ines . I t w ould a ppear t hat H irbet B uraq a nd Q arawat b ene H assan i ncluded o wners o f v ineyards w ithout i s mentioned i n t heir v ineyards ( Zuckermandel , p . p ick g rapes w ith

t heir o wn p resses , a nd c ommunal p rocessing o f v ine p roduce o ur s ources . M . D em . , V I, 7 s ays: ' Two h ave h arvested ( and t aken g rapes) t o o ne p ress . .. ' T os . A .Z . , V II, 1 4 71) w rites : ' In f ormer t imes t hey s aid t hat o ne m ust n ot a g entile n or t read t hem w ith a J ew w ho e ngages i n ( work

c ausing ) c ontamination ,

b ut o ne

h arvests w ith a g entile a nd t ransports n ew

w ine j ars w ith h im , b ut n ot o ld o nes , a ccording t o t he s aying o f P . M ein ' T he

a bove e vidence ,

t herefore ,

r eports

j oint

o perations

b etween J ews

a nd g entiles i n v inegrowing a nd w ine p roduction . A n umber o f w ine-owners m ay h ave o rganised t hemselves t o q uarry a p ress f or t heir o wn n eeds . T his p henomenon c ould h ave b elonged b oth t o t he p eriod o f t he F irst T emple a nd t o t he i ndependence p eriods o f S econd T emple t imes. W hen c hanges o ccurred i n t he s ocial a nd a grarian r egime i n t he c ountry , a nd l arge e states b egan t o d evelop , i n

t he

c haracter

o f

t he

w hether o f J ews o r f oreigners ,

a gricultural

i nstallations

c hanges

p robably

a lso

o ccurred .1 4) T he s mall p ress i n t he v ineyard o f t he i ndependent p easant b ecame s uperfluous , a nd t he p rocessing o f t he p roduce w as c oncentrated u nder t he a ttentive e ye o f t he l andowner o r h is a gents i n t he v illage o r n ear i t . M . K ilaim, V , 3 -4 s ays: " The p ress i n t he v ineyard s hould b e t en h andbreadths d eep a nd f our w ide - R . E leizer s ays " People s ow s eed i n i t , b ut f ormer s cholars p rohibited t his p ractice ." T he t ractate g oes d iscuss ' the v ine p lanted i n a w ine p ress o r a c left i n t he s oil ' .

o n t o T hese

r ulings a pparently r eflected a s ituation w hen p rivate w inepresses i n t he v ineyards w ere b eing a bandoned , a nd t he p rocessing o f t he p roduce w as b eing c arried o ut i n l arge p resses. P resses

o f T ypes 3 -5 b elonged ,

w e t hink ,

t o t he a bove p eriod .

T hey

a re l arge p resses, c apable o f p roducing t housands o f l itres o f w ine. P ress 2 6 a t H irbet B uraq a nd 2 74 a t T zur N athan i ndicate p roduction o n al arge s cale f ar b eyond t hat u sual i n T ypes 1 -2 . r espective p rocessing .

B oth a re c lose t o t heir

s ettlements, which p oints t o c oncentration a nd c ontrol o f T he ' measuring n iches ' i n t he s ides o f t he p resses m ay h ave

m easured t he q uantities o f g rapes b rought b y e ach c ultivator t o t he o wner o f t he p ress, i n w hose r vice t he n iches w ere . I f s o , t he l arge p resses m ay i ndicate t he e xistence o f e states i n t heir i mmediate v icinity . A n a dditional p ossibility m ay b e s uggested , n amely , t he s elf-organisation o f s mall p lanters t o p rocess t heir a gricultural p roduce i n c ommon , a nd t he c onstruction o f l arge c ommunal i nstallations f or p roduction , s uch a s t he p resses o f T ypes 3 a nd 5 . I k now o f n o w ritten e vidence w hich c onfirms t his c onjecture , b ut t he p ossibility s hould n ot b e r ejected s imply b ecause

1 52

t here i s n o p roof .

I f

s uch a p henomenon e xisted,

t he T ype 5 p resses

o perating w ithin t he s ettlements c ould b e a scribed t o i t . P resses a nd c ellars o f t ype 4 ( as a t D eir D aqleh ) i nform u s o f a nother p hase i n t he e conomic a nd s ocial d evelopment o f E retz Y israel .

O ur v iew i s

t hat w e h ave e vidence f or a g reat e conomic p roject e njoying r oyal o r p ublic a ssistance . T his p hase i s a ppropriate t o t he B yzantine p eriod , w hen t he c ountry e njoyed t he s upport o f g overnmental c apital o n a l arge s cale .1 5 ) T his i s t he o nly p ossible e xplanation f or t he p roximity o f t he D eir D aqleh p roject t o t he r emains o f am onastic e state-centre o f t he B yzantine p eriod . I t i s r easonable t o s uppose t hat t he p resses o f T ypes 3 -4 o perated c ontemporaneously , t he

o ne

b elonging

a nd t o

t hat

t he

t hey

d iffered

p roprietors

o f

i n

r espect

l arge

o f

t heir

e states,

t he

o wnership ,

o ther

t o

t wo

m onasteries o wning l arge a gricultural h oldings a nd w orking o n b ehalf o f t he g overnment a nd w ith i ts e ncouragement a nd e conomic s upport .

T he p roductive

c apacity o f t he w ine p resses o f D eir D aqleh e xceeded a ll t he r est , a s c an b e l earnt f rom t he e xtensive s torage s pace i n t he r ockcut c ellar n ear t he p resses . T heoretically t hey c ould p roduce q uantities e xceeding 1 00,000 l itres, a c ommercial amount s imilar t o t he p roductive c apacity o f t he B oscoreale v illa i n I taly .1 6 )

4 .

T he T echnology o f W ine P roduction i n t he L ight o f t he A rchaeological

S urvey . V arious s cholars r egard wine p roduction a s a n a rt r ather t han a s a s imple t echnological p rocess.

1 7)

O ur s ources m ention s eventy s orts o f w ine, m ention 1 80 .1 9)

T he i mportance o f w ine

1 8

) while R oman s ources

i n t he d iet

o f

t he

M editerranean

p eoples r equires n o f urther d escription , a nd w e m ay a ccept t he a ssumption o f s cholars t hat i t s erved a s o ne o f t he f undamental f ood e lements f or t housands o f y ears . 2° )

A l itre o f w ine c ontains 6 00-1000 c alories ,

a nd i ts

n utritional v alue i s g reat o n a ccount o f i ts o rganic a cidity , a nd i ts s alts t m inerals a nd t race e lements, w hich a re s o i mportant t o t he h uman b ody .2 1) W ine was o f g reat e conomic i mportance i n t he a ncient w orld , a nd c onstituted o ne o f t he p rominent c omponents o f t he e xport t rade i n t he c ountries o f t he M editerranean .2 2)

W ine

p roduction ,

i t

s eems ,

w as

o ne

o f

t he

i nfluential

e conomic b ranches i n t he h ill c ountry o f S amaria. S everal s tages o f t he a ncient p roduction p rocess a re k nown t o u s; v intage,

p ressing, f irst f ermentation ,

f illing a nd

s ealing ,

s torage ,

a geing a nd

p rohibit t reatment o f a ll t hese s tages ; w hich

a re

c onnected

w ith

t he

r efining, d espatch .

s econd f ermentation , L imitations

o f

s pace

w e s hall d iscuss s everal o f t hose

a rchaeological

f inds

i n

S amaria ,

w ith

t he

e conomy o f v inegrowing a nd t he w ine b ranch i n t hat r egion . T he

l ength o f

t he v intage

s eason

i s

e xtremely

i mportant

f or

a n

u nderstanding o f t he p roduction a ppliances, a nd p rincipally o f t he w inepresses . I f w e k new t he e xact l ength o f t he a ncient v intage s eason i n t his c ountry , w e c ould m ake a n a pproximate e stimate o f t he p ress o utput, b ut a s

t his

d atum

i s

l acking ,

a nd

d epends

o n h ow m any v arieties

o f v ine a re

g rown , o n t he d emands o f t he m arket a nd a dditional f actors , w e s hall a ttempt t o r econstruct i t f rom v arious d ata . O n t he e vidence o f

t he wine s pecialist M . D iplano S tefano o f

1 53

t he

m onastery o f D eir C remizan ,

B elt J alah ,

t he v intaee s eason t oday l asts f rom

t he 1 5th o f A ugust t ill t he 1 5th o f S eptember . 23) T he s eason a lso l asts a bout a m onth i n t he m odern w ine v ats o f Z ikhron Y a 'aqov , o n t he t estimony o f t he e xpert, ' Amram S urasky . 24) T he t raditional v intage s eason o f v inegrowing a nd w ine p roduction i n m odern G reece l asts s ix w eeks , f rom t he m iddle o f S eptember t o t he e nd o f O ctober .2 . 5 ) T he R oman a gricultural w riters t estify t hat t he I talian v intage s eason l asted f rom t he b eginning o f S eptember t ill t he f irst f rost , i .e . t wo m onths o r m ore !2 6 ) T he s eason i n o ur o wn c ountry a ppears t o h ave l asted a t l ee' s even w eeks , a ccording t o t he n umerous l ocal v arieties i n o ur o wn d ay . ' L ocal v arieties, writes N . H ochberg, r ipen b etween t he e nd o f J une a nd S eptember . I n ac autious c alculation w e e stimate t he a ctive s eason o f w ine p ressing a t a pproximately 5 0 d ays , l eaving a r easonable t ime-margin f or t he c orrect l ength o f t he a ncient p ressing s eason . T he o utput o f t he a ncient J ewish w inepress t oo c an o nly b e a pproximately e valuated . T he o bservations o f Y ohanan b en Y a 'aqov o f K efar ' Etzion l ed h im t o e stimate t hat a n a dult l abourer i n t he H ebron h ill-country c ould t read 8 00-1,000 k ilograms o f g rapes i n a n 8 -9 h our d ay , m eaning a p roduction o f 5 00-600 l itres o f m ust . I n r elation t o t he d istribution m aps o f H irbet B uraq a nd Q arawat b ene H assan , w e c oncluded t hat t he s ize o f t he v ine-plots v aried f rom 1 .5 t o 1 0 d unams . T his m eant t hat t he o wner o f a v ineyard c ould , w ith t he h elp o f h is f amily a nd t emporary l abourers , c omplete t he p ressing i n a f ew d ays , t hen v acate t he p ress f or o ther o wners o r w ait f or o ther v arieties t o r ipen . T he R oman a gricultural w riters , g rapes .

I n t hat c ase ,

i ndeed ,

s peak

o f

t hree v intages

o f

w ine

o ne p ress c ould b e a dequate f or s everal p artners ,

a

p henomenon which we o bserved w hen s urveying t he a reas o f v ineyards i n w estern S amaria . W e e stimated t hat a p ress o f T ype 1 w as t o b e f ound o n a n a rea o f 4 5-60 d unams o f v ineyard . I n t he m andatory p eriod t he g rape v arieties o f t his c ountry y ielded a n a verage o f 7 50-1,500 k g . p er u nirrigated d unam .2 8 ) H ere , i ndeed , t able g rapes a re r eferred t o , s urviving o n t he l and o f a t raditional A rab c ultivator w ho h ad n ot e xerted h imself u nduly t o f oster v ine-growing . O n t he e vidence o f t he R oman a uthor P liny , a n e xceptionally f ine v ineyard i n I taly y ielded 1 ,450-1,700 l itres o f m ust p er d unam .2 9 ) T his i s a c rop o f s ome t hree t ons o f g rapes p er d unam . C olumella ( 8 , 3 , 3 ) s tates t hat t he m inimal y ield o f a n I talian v ineyard p roducing w ine-grapes v aried f rom 2 106 28 l itres p er d unam . F orbes i s o f t he o pinion t hat a d unam o f v ines i n I taly y ielded 1 ,0002 ,000 l itres o f w ine . 3°)

V ine g rowing i n t he S amarian h ill c ountry a ppears

n ot t o h ave b een i nferior i n q uality o r y ield t o t he I talian . F or t he s ake o f c omparison , t he g rape-yields i n n on-irrigated a reas o f t he H ebron m ountains , w here t here h as b een s pecialisation 3 1) i n t he l ocal v arieties f or m any y ears , I t

a ttain t o 3 ,000-5 ,000 k g . p er d unam .

t herefore

s eems

t hat

t he w ine-yields

i n a n

c ompared w ith t hose i n E retz Y israel i n t he s ame p eriod .

ent I taly c an b e 7

F rom M ust t o W ine. t urning must i nto w ine h as b een l ong f amiliar t o i s t h e r e su l t o f t h e f e rm e n t a t i o n o f s u g a r i n t h e c hemists . 33) W ine y e a s t . Y e a s t s o f t h e t y p e o f s a c h a r om i t e s a r e t o b e g rapes , a ctivated b y t h e s k i n o f t h e g r a p e , a n d w h e n t h e l a t t e r i s c r u s h e d f ound p ermanently i n T he p rocess

o f

1 54

t hey a t

o nce b ecame a ctive .

t ypes o f w ine .

C ertain t ypes o f y east d etermine t he v arious

T he s ame v ariety o f g rape w ill p roduce w ine w ith a d ifferent

t aste i f i t h as b een g rown i n a nother r egion . e xert a n i nfluence o n h ow t he w ine t astes . G rape—sugar

( glucose ) ,

c arbon d ioxide . I n

t he

c ourse

f ermenting ,

T he n atural m icräflora a lso

c reates

e thyl a lcohol

( etanol)

a nd

E very t wo p ercent o f s ugar c reates o ne p ercent o f a lcohol . o f

f ermentation

much h eat

i mpression t hat t he must i s b oiling . w ine f ermentation ,

a s i t k ills

i s

g enerated

w hich p roduces

t he

W armth i s d angerous t o t he p rocess o f

t he y east,

a nd t he p rocess c eases .

T his i s

o ne o f t he d ifficult p roblems w hich t he a ncient c ultivator h ad t o o verecome , a s h e p ossessed n o m eans o f a rtificial r efrigeration . T he w ine i ndustry n eeds g rapes w ith a h igh p ercentage o f E urope g rapes a re r eceived f or t he c ellar w ith p roduces

a l ow

g rape—sugar

i s

p ercentage n aturally

o f

a lcohol .

h igh ,

b eing

I n t his t he

p ercent

c ountry

r esult

c onditions a nd g enerous s olar r adiation . g rapes

1 2

o f

s ugar .

o f s ugar ,

t he

p ercentage

a ppropriate

s ugar !

F rom s uch ,

c ontaining 1 5-18 p ercent o f a lcohol c an b e o btained ;

o f

c limatic

U nirrigated v ineyards

with a s much a s 3 0 p ercent o f

I n w hich

c ontain

s trong w ine

t his w ithstands h eat

e xtremely w ell a nd m any y ears m ust p ass b efore i t t urns s our .

T he c limatic

c onditions i n t he m ountainous r egions o f t his c ountry , t he t ype o f s oil a nd s kilful c ultivation , h ave c reated l ocal v arieties o f f ine s weet w ine a mong t he b est i n t he w orld .3 4) ' Amram S urasky , m anager o f Z ikhron Y a tagov v ats , i s o f t he o pinion t hat E retz Y israel e xcelled m ainly i n i ts v ariety o f r ed w ines .

S trong r ed w ine p ossesses a h igh a lcohol c ontent

( 15 p ercent),

a nd

c an b e k ept f or l ong p eriods i n t he h igh t emperatures o f t his c ountry . T his a dvantage was c ertainly e xploited b y t he a ncient wine p roducer t o e xport h is p roduce t o d istant m arkets .

T he F irst F ermentation . T he

f ermentation

s tage

o f

t he

must

i mportant p rocesses o f wine making . e vidence

o n

w ine

p roduction

h as

a lways

b een

o ne

o f

t he

D espite t he r elative a bundance o f

i n a ncient

t imes

w e h ave

n o

e xact

t echni

W

a ccount o f t he s tages o f f ermentation o r i ts c onversion t o r eal w ine . 7 T he f ermentation p rocess i s o ne o f t he f actors w hich d etermine t he q uality o f t he f inished p roduct . I n t his c ountry t emperatures b etween 2 8 a nd 3 0 d egrees C elsius a re n eeded t o f erment r ed w ine ; b etween 2 0 a nd 2 2 d egrees t o f erment w hite w ine .3 6) T he w ine e xpert o f t he D eir C remizan m onastery t old u s t hat a t emperature b etween 2 6 a nd 3 6 d egrees C elsius w as r egarded a s n ecessary f or r ed w ines . I t i s k nown t hat t he y east c eases t o b e a ctive a t a t emperature c lose t o 4 0 d egrees C elsius , a nd t he m ore t he t emperature r ises, t he m ore t he f ermentation i s a ccelerated s o t hat t he q uality o f t he p roduct d iminishes o wing t o t he e vaporation o f t he e lements o f b ouquet a nd t aste

s o v ital

c ountries,

t o g ood

where

a pproximately ,

n o

t he

wine .

I n c ontrast

a ctivity o f

s uch

d anger

y east

e xists

i n

t o E urope

c eases t his

a t

1 0

a nd

o ther

d egrees

c ountry d uring

t he

c old

C elsius v intage

s eason. Twelve

h ours

a fter

t he

f irst

t reading

o f

t he

g rapes

a nd

t he

a ccumulation o f m ust i n t he t anks, f ermentation r eaches i ts p eak , c ontinuing f rom t wo t o f ive d ays , a ccording t o t emperature , t he m ethod o f p rocessing . I n t he p roduction o f l eft

i n t he

must ,

t o

a dd

t heir

p eculiar

t he v ariety o f g rape a nd r ed w ines t he s kins a re

c olour a nd

t aste

W here w hite w ines a re c oncerfm Mühe p rocess i s d ifferent .

1 55

t o

t he p roduct .

I n s o f ar a s i t

c an b e r econstructed ,

t he f ermentation w as c arried o ut i n a ncient t imes a s

d escribed a bove , i .e . i n t he r eception t ank o f t he p ress , o r i f q uantities were e specially l arge, i n a r ockcut p lastered c istern n ear i t . T echnologically , a r eception t ank i s f ound n ear e very p ress r ecorded i n t he o pen f ield . T his w as n ot t he m ethod i n o ther c ountries s uch a s G reece a nd I taly , w here t here i s n o n ecessary c onnection b etween t he t reading a rea a nd t he i nstallations i n w hich t he m ust i s c ollected . I t w ould a ccordingly s eem t hat i n t his c ountry t he f irst s tage o f f ermentation w as c arried o ut i n t he o pen a ir , i n a r ockcut r eception t ank n ear t he t reading f loor o f t he p ress . O n t he a uthority o f o ur a ncient s ources , f ermentation c ontinued f or t hree d ays . T os . T erum ., V II, 1 5 ( Zuckermandel, p . 3 8) s ays: ' Wine , a s l ong a s i t f erments, d oes n ot d o s o v isibly o r r eveal h ow much i t h as f ermented , a nd t his a pplies f or t hree d ays ." T his w ould s eem t o r efer t o t he

f irst

f ermentation w hich t akes p lace

i n

t he

t ank o f

t he p ress .

T he

r abbis w ere a t o dds a s t o w hen w ine p roduction w as c oncluded a nd t ithes w ere t o b e p aid . ( Bab . B M , V II , 9 2b ) . W as i t a t t he e nd w hen t he w ine f lowed d own t o t he r eception t ank o r, a s R . ' Aqiva t hought, ' when i t b ecame s tatic ' , i .e . w hen t he f roth a nd g rape s kins h ad b een s eparated f rom t he must o r " when t hey b rought u p" , i .e . r emoved t he y east f rom t he w ine j ars ( according t o t he t raditional i nterpretations o f t he M ishnah a nd t he G emarah ) . T he c ompletion o f f ermentation i n t he p ress , a nd t he w ines t ransfer t o w ine—jars i n o rder t o c ontinue i ts p reparation , w ere r egarded b y t he s cholars a s w ork w hich m ight b e d one e ven i n t he m ourning p eriod , s ince t he s toppage o f t he p rocess w ould h ave s poiled t he w ine . ( Jer . M o 'ed Q at . , I I , 1 -2 , 8 1a ) . R . J udah h as r eservations a nd e xplains t hat f ermentation i n t he t ank c an b e s topped o r i ts p ace r educed b y c overing i t w ith a l id , i n h is o wn w ords " teaching i t n ot t o b ecome s our" . •

T he

R oman

c ontinued

a gricultural

f rom

C olumella s peaks t ook p lace f ermented

w riters

t hree t o n ine o f

i n t anks

t hree ,3 8 )

t estify

d ays .

b ut

t hat

t he

f irst

t he

f ermentation

a nd g enerally i n t he o pen f ield,

i n e arthenware v essels

o f

f ermentation

P liny c laims n ine d ays, 37)

w hile t he

s ort

f ound

i n

o r ,

i n t his

while c ountry

R oman must w as

t he

v illa—farm

o f

B oscoreale n ear P ompeii . 39 ) O n t he c ompletion o f t he f ermentation p hase ,

t he w ine w as p urified o f

a ll w aste a nd t ransferred t o t he f inal p rocess o f f ermentation . E vidently a t t his s tage t he w ine w as ' bottled ' i n e arthenware j ars o r s tored i n t he r ockcut u nderground t anks ( yeqavim) a lready d escribed . F rom t hen o n f ermentation w as s lower , a nd v arious r esins , h erbs f or b ouquet a nd t aste , l ime , g ypsum , m arl , o r s alt w ere a dded b y t he e xperts , a ll a ccording t o t he s ort

o f w ines

i ntended . 4°)

T his p rocedure t ogether w ith t he p rimary

f ermentation c ontinued , T osephta s tates, f or s ome f orty d ays ( Ter m . , I V , 8 —Z uckermandel , p . 3 1) ; t he R oman w riter , C ato , c onsidered i t l asted f or 3 0 d ays .4 1) A ccording t o C olumella i t w ent o n f or 2 0-30 d ays , a t t he e nd o f w hich t ime t he w ine h ad t o b e s trained a gain .4 2)

T he C onditions a nd P laces o f S econd F ermentation . T he R omans c onstructed s pecial r ockcut u nderground ' fermenting c ellars ' i n w hich h arsh b ut s trict r ules w ere r igorously o bserved w ith r egard t o t he p roximity o f t rees o r s mells w hich m ight s poil t he t aste o f t he w ine .4 3) T hey w ere c areful t o a dapt t he s tagE3 a nd p eriods o f f ermentation t o t he k inds o f w ine a nd g rapes . T he g rapes a nd w ines o f C ampania p assed t hrough ap rocess i n w hich t he w ere i n t he o pen a ir , w hile i n t he v alley o f t he P o t he w ines f ermented i r a c losed p rotected s ituation . S pecial r egulations

1 56

were o bserved d uring w ork i n t he f ermentation c hambers: c eremonial a nd r eligious c ultic c haracter . w as p roceeding ,

c leaning a nd m aintenance a nd c larification o f t he w ine w ere

c arried o ut . 44)

T hese s tages c ontinued t ill s pring ,

w as

t o

t ransferred

p ottery ) . f or

t he

t hese b ore a

W hile t he l engthier f ermentation

j ars

a nd

s pecial

s torage

w hen t he f inished w ine

v essels

( see

t he

s ection

o n

S everal c onditions a re r ecommended i n t he m odern w ine i ndustry s econd

t emperature

f ermentation

w hen i t

i s

p eriod ;

t aking

i t

p lace .

i s

o bligatory

D arkness

i s

t o

v ery

m aintain a l ow

i mportant ,

a nd

a

c ondition o f s uccessful f ermentation i s t o p revent t he p enetration o f u ltrav iolet r ays .

F ermentation must b e c arried o ut i n l arge t anks ,

i n o rder t o

i ntensify t he l oss o f h eat w hich i s af eature o f t he p rocess , a nd t o p revent t he y east f rom a nnihilation . T he p eriod o f s econd f ermentation l asts s pring , i .e . a pproximately s ix m onths, t hen t he w ine i s r eady f or u se . T he p rocess l asted s ix months i n a ncient t imes, p oured i nto a ir-proof w ine M . T erentius V arro , w ho i s

t ill

t hen t he wine was

j ars a nd w as r eady t o b e d runk o r m arketed .4 5 ) more d raconic t han o thers o n w ine p rocedures ,

l aid d own t hat o nly a fter a y ear w as w ine f it f or d rinking .4 6 ) P liny c laims t hat w ines f ourteen

i mported i nto I taly f rom o verseas

y ears !4 7)

P ossibly h is

s tatement

w ere f it

i s

n ot

f or u se o nly a fter

t o b e

t aken l iterally ,

a nd m ay r ather b e t he e xpression o f ad esire t o p rotect I talian p roduce f rom f oreign i mports.

T owers a nd C aves f or F ermentation . I n t he w arm c limatic c onditions o f E retz Y israel t he g rapes r each t he p lace o f f ermentation a t a t emperature o f 2 8 d egrees C elsius, a nd t he f irst f ermentation t akes p lace i n a t emperature o f a nything u p t o 4 04 6 c) d egrees C elsius , W e

a c ritical p oint i n t he e ntire p rocess o f w ine p roduction .. s aw

i n

t he

p revious

s ection

t hat

0 d ays t o s ix months, l asts f rom 4 arkness , a nd a l ocation t emperature , d c onditions . a ppear t hat

H ow w ere t hese p roblems

s econd

f ermentation ,

w hich

s olved i n a ncient

t imes?

I t w ould

t he a rchaeological f inds i n w estern S amaria f urnish d ata w hich

s olve s ome o f t hem . o ur

t he

r equires o ptimal c onditions o f p rotected f rom o ther e nvironmental

R ockcut c ellars w ere o bserved n ear w inepresses d uring

s urvey o f v ine-growing a reas a nd w ine-making i nstallations .

A s mall

c ave i s f ound , f or i nstance , n ear t he w inepress a t H irbet H amad . A l arge r ockcut c ellar i s s ituated n ear t wo w inepresses a t S ite 6 9 o f t he K efr L aqif map . I n a l ater p hase t he c ellar w as c onverted t o a h ypogaeum . T o t his c ategory c an b e a dded t he y eqev o f D eir D aqleh ,

d escribed i n t he s ection o n

w inepresses. T he

c ellars

e xamined

s econd f ermentation .

m ay

f urnish a g ood

s olution

t o t he p roblems o f

A n o riginal a nd i nteresting s olution o f t his p roblem ,

h owever , w as f ound i n t he f ield t owers w hich w e s urveyed o ver w ide a reas o f S amaria . ( See t he d etailed d iscussion i n t he c hapter o n t his s ubject). T he t owers a re s tone s tructures w hich w e t hink s uccessfully p erformed t he f unction o f ' fermentation c ellars ' i n a ncient H aving

s tudied

t heir

c haracter ,

t imes .

d istribution a nd

m ethod

o f

b uilding ,

a nd h aving e xcavated f orty-five s tructures o f t his t ype , w e b elieve t hat t hey f urnish a n e xcellent s olution f or s ome o f t he p roblems o f t he f ermentation o f w ine a nd i ts p reservation f rom s poiling . T he v arious t ypes o f t owers a re s o b uilt a s t o a fford e very v intner t he a ppropriate c onditions f or p reparing i t :

t hef a fforded m ore u niformity ,

1 57

a l ow t emperature i n t he

v intage s eason ,

a nd s torage r oom f or t he w ine j ars d uring t heir l ong

f ermentation , w hich r equired s pecial a nd u niform c onditians . 49) W e a ssume t hat t he p rinciple o f t he t ower w as a lready k nown i n t he b iblical p eriod , b ut i ts d evelopment a nd d iffusion i n S amaria w ere c onnected w ith t he H ellenistic c ivilian a nd m ilitary c olonisation o f t he r egion . T he H asmoneans may h ave i ncorporated t he t ower p rinciple i nto t he J ewish s ettlement i n t hose s ectors w hich h ad b een l iberated f rom t he r ule o f t he S eleucids a nd t heir a llies . T he c ollapse o f t he t ower s ystem w as a ssociated, w e t hink , w ith t he R oman o ccupation o f J udaea a nd w ith t he e xpulsion o f t he J ewish c ultivator d uring t he f irst a nd s econd r evolts . I n t he l ate R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods t he t owers c eased t o s erve t heir o riginal p urpose , a nd b ecame f ield s tructures f or a ll a nd s undry .

5 .

T he E conomy o f V iticulture a nd W ine P roduction i n E retz Y israel. V iticulture h as a l ong h istory i n t his c ountry a nd h eld a c entral p lace

i n t he c ountry 's

e conomy i n t he b iblical p eriod .

B esides t he B ible m any

a rchaeological d iscoveries t estify t o i ts e comomic i mportance .5 ° ) i t i s s ufficient t o m ention t he S amaria a nd ' Arad O straca , i n w hich w ine o g pies ac entral p lace i n t he c onsignments a nd i n t he d aily l ist o f e dibles. / D uring t he s urvey a nd e xcavations c arried o ut i n t he h ills o f S amaria , e vidence w as f ound f or t he w ine i ndustry a nd v ine g rowing o n s ites w hich o riginated i n t he E arly I ron A ge . ( See e .g . H irbet H amad a nd H irbet J em 'ein ) . W hen w e r each t he H ellenistic p eriod , t here i s a n i ncrease i n t he w ritten s ources w hich t reat o f t he v ine-growing b ranch i n t his c ountry . T he Z enon p apyri f requently m ention ' Syrian w ine ' s ent f rom t his c ountry t o E gypt . T he d ocuments t ell u s t hat t he w ine e xport t o E gypt w as y Jell o rganised , a nd s pecial E gyptian o fficials s upervised t he c onsignments . ' / I n t he l ight o f t he a rchaeological f inds i n S amaria w e b elieve t hat i n t he H ellenistic p eriod r egional v ine g rowing a nd w ine p roduction w ere o rganised b y g overnmental m ethods o n a n u nprecedented s cale . T he f ield t owers , w hich a re c onnected w ith v ine g rowing a nd w ine p roduction , a re e vidence o f t his ( see i n g reater d etail t he c hapter o n t he f ield t owers) . E xcavations c onducted i n f orty-five t owers i ndicated t hat t heir a ctivity c eased i n t he f irst o r s econd r ebellion , a s a lready s tated . I n t he p eriod b etween t hese r evolts , t he e dicts o f D omitian r estricted v ine g rowing i n t he p rovinces . T he r egulations f ormulated b y t he l eaders o f t he J ewish p opulations a fter t he r evolt o f B ar R oziba , i n w hich t he e xport o f w ine , o il a nd g rain w as t emporarily s topped , w ere d oubtless f ormulated u nder f orce o f t emporary n ecessities . 53) E ven t hen p ermission s eems t o h ave b een g ranted a llowing s ome e xport o f w ine . B .B .B , 9 0b s tates : ' The r abbis r uled t hat f ruits f rom E retz Y israel may n ot b e e xported i f t hey a re n ecessary t o m aintain

l ife ,

s uch

a s w ines ,

o il ,

a nd

f ine f lour ;

I L J udah b en B athyra

p ermits w ine b ecause i t d iminishes w anton b ehaviour ; t his p ermission o f R . b en B athyra I I t o e xport w ine ' because i t d iminishes wanton b ehaviour ' ( tiphlah ) , h as c reated d ifficulties a mong t he t raditional c ommentators , w ho d erive t iphlah f rom t aphel , i .e . t he d esire t o r id o neself o f t he n egative i nfluence o f w ine . B ut i n A rabic t he t erm t iphlah h as a d ifferent m eaning , w hich c an b e u nderstood a s a n i nferior s ort o f w ine .5 4) R .

J udah b en B atyra 's w ords a re p erhaps

t o

b e u nderstood a s

i mplying

p ermission t o e xport c ertain v arieties o f w ine o f l esser q uality , t o p revent a n a ccumulation o f u nwanted s tock . c ountry 's

e xport

c ommodities

W ine r egains i ts p roper p lace a mong t he

i n t he

3 rd

1 58

c entury .

G . A lon c onsiders

t hat

w ine a nd o il c onstituted t he c hief

t rade o f

t he c ountry ,

a nd t hat w ine i n

p articular w as s old a t h igh p rices .5 5 ) P rof . D . S perber i s o f t he o pinion t hat t here a re i ndications i n t he s ources t hat v ine c ulture a nd w ine p roduction r ecovered i n t he 4 th c entury , f ollowing t he c rises o f t he 3 rd c entury . %) Y et w e h ave n o a rchaeological e vidence o f c risis i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies , a nd t he a rchaeological s urvey o f S amaria d oes n ot p oint t o a c essation o f s ettlement o r t o d ecline i n t hat p eriod . I n t he B yzantine p eriod t he c ountry e xcels i n t he e xport o f w ine t o E gypt a nd S yria . A vi-Yonah c onsidered t hat t he v inegrowing a reas e xpanded a t t hat t ime a nd t hat t he v ine s pread a ll o ver E retz Y israel , i ncluding t he N egev ; l ocal w ine w as i n d emand o n t he m arkets , a nd i ts e xport g rew .5 7 ) E gyptian p apyri o f t hat t ime c onfirm t he r eceipt o f l arge c onsignments o f w ine G au1 .5 9 )

f rom t his c ountry .5 8 ) W e b elieve t hat t he

I ts w ines w ere a lso s ent t o M erovingian S amarian h ill-country p articipated i n t he

p roduction o f w ine a nd i n t he w ine-trade i n t he B yzantine p eriod , a nd a s w e h ave a lready s hown , m onastery f arms c apable o f h igh w ine p roduction w ere a ctive a t t hat t ime . W e h ave n o a dequate e vidence f or t he e xistence i n S amaria o f s mall p easants e ngaged i n v iticulture , a nd t he c haracter o f t he r ural p opulation a t t hat t ime r equires f urther s tudy . T he S yrian L aw B ook f urnishes i nformation o n t he v ine 's p lace i n t axation i n t he R oman-Byzantine p eriod . O ne i ugerum ( approximately 2 .6 d unams ) o f o live t rees w as r eckoned a s t he e quivalent i n v alue o f av ineyard c overing 5 i ugera , a nd o f 2 0 i ugera o f a rable .6° ) E vidently t his v aluation w as c ommon i n S yria a nd E retz Y israel , a nd i s v alidated i n t almudic s ources .

T he P rices o f W ine . O ne o f

t he d ifficult p roblems i n t he s tudy o f

t he a ncient e conomy i s

t he q uestion o f c ommodity p rices . A s r egards t he s ources a t o ur d isposal , r abbinical s cholars o bserve t hat t he v alue o f w ine w as g enerally h alf t he p rice o f o live o il

( M .

P eah ,

V III,

5 ),

b ut

t he

s ame a s

t he

p rice o f

meat. ") I f we a ccept t he s tatement o f T os. S hevi 'it, V I, 1 7 ( Zuckermandel, p . 7 0), t he p rice o f a j ar o f J udaean W ITT erwas i o ne d inar ( approximately 2 0-24 l itres o f w ine ), w hereas i n B abylonia t he p rice o f a j ar w as 4 d inars . W e a re n ot c ertain i f r eal p rices a re m eant , o r i f w e h ave h ere a f olk c onception o f t he w ord ' dinar ' . P erhaps w e o ught t o u nderstand f rom t his t hat t he p rice o f w ine i n B abylonia w as f our t imes t he p rice i n J udaea .

T he V alue o f V iticulture i n t he L iterature o f t he M ishnah a nd t he T almud. V ery s triking a re t he l arge n umbers o f s ources i n t he M ishnah a nd t he T almud w hich t reat o f e very a spect o f v iticulture a nd w ine p roduction . W e h ave s elected o nly t hose f ew w hich w ill e nable u s t o u nderstand t he p lace a nd i mportance o f t he v ine-growing b ranch i n t he p eriods w hen t he a bove l iterature w as w ritten . M id . L evit . R . 3 0 :1

t ells u s h ow R . Y ohanan a nd R . H iyya b en A bba w ere

w alking f rom T iberias t o T zippori ( Sepphoris) , a nd R . Y ohanan w as d iscussing t he a gricultural p roperty w hich h e h ad s old i n o rder t o l earn T orah . T his p roperty i ncluded a rable , av ineyard a nd a n o live p lantation . T his i s o ne e xample o f m any w hich i nforms u s o f t he t hree c hief b ranches o f f arming i n E retz Y israel.

1 59

M . K ilaim I V ,

1 -2 ;

5 -6 i nforms u s t hat f ive v ines w ere r egarded a s a

l abour u nit i n av ineyard . s ize o f a v ineyard p lot

A B araita i n B . B .B . X II ,

w hich w as u p f or s ale ,

1 2a ,

d ealing w ith t he

r efers t o a n a gricultural

u nit o f t he v ineyard : Symmachus s ays i t c annot b e l ess t han t hree k abin% w hich P rofessor F elix c onsiders t o b e a n a rea o f 3 92 s q . 1 1 .62) I t s hould b e n oted t hat d uring a s urvey o f a ncient v ineyard a reas i n w estern S amaria w e f ound p arcels w hich a ppproached t he a bove s ize ( See t he m ap o f H irbet B uraq f or v ineyard a reas) . T he

s upremacy

o f

t he

v ine

o ver

o ther

c rops

a nd

t he

p rofound

a gricultural s kill a pplied t o t hat b ranch f ind e xpression i n M id . L ev . , R . 3 6b , w here a c ontinuous s eries o f t he t asks i nvolved i s d escribed - t he p reparation o f t he r ocky s oil f or p lanting , t he s election o f v arieties , t he t ypes o f c ultivation a nd t heir f requency , a nd t he f inal c omplete p roduction o f w ine a nd d ried g rapes. I n T os . B .M . V III, 3 ( Zuckermandel, p . 3 87) we r ead o f t he r ights o f w age l abourers d uring t he v intage . T he l easing o f v ineyards w as a lso a n a ccepted m ethod ,

a nd M .B .M . ,

I X ,

1 , s ays: ' Just a s t hey s hare i n t he w ine s o t hey s hare i n t he ( dead) b ranches a nd i n t he p rops , a nd b oth p arties m ust p rovide t he p rops ' . T his s hows t hat t he t ennant r eceived h alf t he g rapes w hile i n E gypt t he t enant o f t he v ineyard r eceived a q uarter o r a t hird . T he d uties o f t he t enant o nly e nded a fter h e h ad t rodden t he g rapes i nto w ine ( Tos . B .M . I X , 1 9 Z uckermandel ,

p . 3 92) .

I n t he G ospels t oo w e r ead o f a l andowner w ho h ad

l eased h is v ineyard t o t enants ( Matth . 2 1:33-40 ) . T he t enant w as b ound t o p repare a mphorae ( Hagigah 2 5h) s eventy d ays b efore t he t reading o f t he g rapes o n t he t reading f loor a nd t he p roduction o f o il i n t he o il p resses . A mong t he s cholars w ere s ome w ho t raded i n w ine a nd o il ,

o ne o f t hem

b eing R . E le 'azar b en ' Azariah ( Tos . A .Z ., I V , 1 , Z uckermandel p . 4 65) w ho e arned h is l iving i n t his t rade a ll h is l ife . W e r ead i n B .Ber . 3 5b : ' Rabba t aught h is p upils t hat i n t he v intage s eason a nd t he s eason o f o livep icking t hey s hould n ot c ome t o s tudy T orah , s o t hat f ood s hould n ot b e s hort f or t he e ntire y ear . '

T he C onsumption o f W ine p er P erson i n A ncient T imes. I n p revious c hapters w e h ave s een t hat w ine w as t he u niversal d rink a nd w as d runk i n c onsiderable q uantities . T he a ttempt t o e stimate i ts d aily o r y early c onsumption p er p erson i s o f s ome i mportance , s ince i t w ould h elp u s t o a scertain t he a mount o f p roduce a ssigned t o l ocal c onsumption a nd t he amount e xported . A f ull a nd d etailed l ist o f t he q uantities o f w ine s upplied t o a gricultural l abourers i n t he f ield ( slaves, t enants?) i s f urnished b y C ato ( 234-149 ( ' after w ine ' ) ,

B .C .E . ) .6 3)

H e o ffers

a pparently i n u nlimited q uantity ,

t he w orkers

i nferior w ine

i n t he f irst t hree m onths

a fter t he v intage . I n t he f ourth m onth e ach w orker r eceives 2 50 c u . c m . o f w ine d aily . I n t he f ifth , s ixth , s eventh a nd e ighth t he w orkers r eceive 5 00 c u . c m . ad ay , o r a n amphora p er month . g iven a n a ddition o f t en l itres p er m an .

O n f estival d ays t hey a re t o b e I n C ato 's o pinion t en a mphorae o f

w ine f or f ield-workers i s n ot e xceptional . I f w e e stimate t he c apacity o f a n a mphora a t 2 2 .5 t o 2 6 l itres, w e a rrive a t ay early q uantity p er p erson o f 2 30-270 l itres o f w ine , a nd o f 3 /4 o f a l itre p er d ay . A s t he R omans, l ike t he o ther p eoples o f t he

1 60

M editerranean b asin ,

w ere

i n t he h abit o f d rinking t heir w ine m ixed w ith

w ater , t he q uantities o f w ine f urnished b y C ato w ere u ndiluted . W e r ead i n T os . B M . I II , 2 7 ( Zuckermandel , p . 3 78) w ith r egard t o t he d egree t o w hich w ine w as d iluted w ith w ater : " Wherever i t i s t he c ustom t o g ive h alf , a t hird o r a q uarter , - l et t his b e d one, f or o ne d oes n ot a lter l ocal c ustoms" . ( Literally : t he c ustom o f t he m edinah ) . A ccording t o v arious s ources

i t

w ould

s eem

t hat

t he

i nhabitants

o f

c ities a nd o ther p eople o f

m eans w ere i n t he h abit o f d rinking l arger q uantities o f w ine d aily . A n I nhabitant o f R ome , f or e xample , w ould d rink n early a l itre .6 4 ) A ccording t o E gyptian p apyri o f t he R oman-Byzantine p eriod, e very R oman s oldier r eceived

a d aily

a nnona m ilitaris .6 5)

r ation

o f

I n o ur d ay ,

o ne

l itre,

which

was

p art

o f

t he

t he c onsumption o f w ine i s l ower t han i n

a ncient t imes . F ive l itres a y ear a re d runk i n I srael, i n F rance 1 2 .5 l itres . C an t he c onsumption b e e stimated f or a ncient J udaea? W e r ead i n M . S hev ., V 7 : " The p otter s ells f ive o il j ars a nd f ifteen w ine j ars, s ince a m an i s a ccustomed t o g et a s m uch o wnerless p roduce ; a nd i f h e g ets m ore i t i s p ermitted .." T he J erusalem T almud , S hev" V , 7 , 3 6a ,6 6 ) i nterprets t he M ishnah a s f ollows : " The p otter s ells : b ut p erhaps w ine m ay b e a ccidentally e xchanged f or o il? R . Y onah s ays : W ine j ars a nd o il j ars c an b e r ecognised , w hether o f w ine o r o il . W ine j ars a nd o il j ars h ave s pecial m arks a nd c annot b e c onfused". A ccording t o t he a bove r ulings ,

t he n ormal p erson w as i n t he h abit o f

o btaining a nd s toring f ive o il j ars a nd 1 5 w ine j ars d uring t he y ear .

I f h e

b rought m ore j ars , h e w as a llowed t o s tore t hem p ost-factum . W ine a nd o il j ars w ere m arked w ith s pecial m arks s o t hat m istakes c ould n ot b e m ade . C alculations

o f t he a mounts o f w ine a ccording t o t he c apacity o f

t he

a mphorae ( 22-25 l itres a pproximately ) , i ndicate t hat a q uantity o f 3 30-375 l itres o f w ine w ere b rought h ome . I f t he q uantities o f a mphorae i n t he a bove r ulings r eflect t he r eal s ituation , a s t hey s eem t o d o , i t m ay b e p ossible t o e stimate t he m inimal a mount o f w ine a nd o il a ccumulated b y a f amily i n i ts h ome e ach y ear . W e s uggest t he f ollowing e stimate : O n t he b asis o f t he a mounts o f w ine c onsumed b y e ach p erson d uring a y ear i n I taly a nd J udaea, a n a rea o f 1 .5-3 d unams o f v ineyard w ould h ave s ufficed t o s upply a f amily ;

6 .

t he r est o f t he y ield w ould h ave b een s old i n t he m arket.

T ypes o f W ine.

' Ben Z oma s ays : W hat d oes a g ood g uest s ay? R emember t he m aster o f t his h ouse f or h is g oodness , f or t he m any s orts o f w ine w hich h e h as s et b efore u s ' . ( Tos . B er„ V II , 2 - Z uckermandel , p . 1 4) . T he J udaean w inei ndustry w as b lessed w ith n umerous t ypes o f w ine ; t his i s o ne o f t he m ost s triking i ndications o f t he w ide e xtent a nd i mportance o f t he b ranch . P liny d evotes l engthy c hapters t o a n a ccount o f w ine i n t he G reek a nd R oman w orld ,

t he a bundant s orts o f

a nd t he u se o f e ach o ne o f t hem .6 7 )

H asda s ays ( B . G itt„ 7 0a) ' there a re s ixty s orts o f w ine ' . P erusal o f t he m ishnaic a nd t almudic s ources r eveals t hat R . H asda w as n ot e xaggerating , a nd m ay e ven h ave f allen s hort i n h is e stimate . A s t he w ine t rade w as i nternational i n h is d ay , w e f ind m any t ypes o f w ine w hich p arallel o ne a nother i n t heir c haracteristics . Ac omparison o f t he w ines o f t he G raeco-Roman w orld , a s w ell a s t hose o f p oints t o a l arge m easure o f i dentification .

1 61

e sopotamia a nd E retz Y israel ,

W e l earn i n t he f ollowing s ources w hich w ere t he p rincipal k inds o f w ine o ffered a s l ibation i n t he T emple :

' From w hence d id t hey b ring t he

w ine? Q erutim a nd H attulim c ome f irst i n t heir q uality o f w ine ; s econd t o t hem a re B eth R immah a nd B eth L ubban i n t he h ill-country , a nd K efar S igmah i n t he v alley . T he w ine f rom a ny c ountry w as v alid , b ut t hey u sed t o b ring i t f rom t hese p laces . T hey m ay n ot b ring i t f rom a m anured f ield o r f rom a n i rrigated f ield o r f rom v ineyards s own w ith s eed b etween t he v ines ; b ut i f t hey d o s o , i t i s v alid . T hey m ay n ot b ring i t f rom s undried g rapes , b ut i f t hey d id s o i t w as v alid . T hey m ay n ot b ring o ld w ine . S o R abbi ; b ut t he s ages d eclared i t v alid . T hey m ay n ot b ring w ine t hat h as b een s weetened o r s moked o r c ooked , a nd i f t hey d id s o i t w as i nvalid . T hey m ay n ot b ring i t ( from g rapes g rown o n ) t relissed v ines b ut o nly f rom v ines g rowing f rom t he g round a nd f rom t ended v ineyards! ( Mishnah, M enahot, V III, 6 ). Y ein a listan i s d efined a s w ine p ressed f rom s undried g rapes i n o rder t o i ncrease t he s ugar c ontent . O ld w ine o f n ot l ess t han a y ear was a n a ccepted d evice a mong t he R oman a gronomists a nd i s r eferred t o i n o ur o wn s ources . ' Sweet w ine ' , c hiefly r ed w ine , c ontained a h igh p ercentage o f s ugar . ' Smoked w ine ' u nderwent a p rocess o f i mprovement a nd ' ageing ' b y means o f s moke . ' Cooked wine ' h ad u ndergone a n a rtificial p rocess o f h eating t o a ccelerate r ipening . A ll t hese t ypes a nd p rocesses a re w ell d escribed i n R oman l iterature ( see e specially P liny , H .N . X IV) . T he q uestion o f t he p laces o f o rigin o f t he f inest w ines g rown f or t he T emple a nd t he a ltar , d esignated a s ' alpha ' , i n M ishnah M enahot V III , 6 , r equires I nvestigation . Q erutin o r Q eruhim

i s i dentified b y s everal s cholars a s Q arawat b ene

H assan ,6 9 )a nd t he s urvey c onfirmed t hat t he r egion w as i n f act a c entre o f t he w ine i ndustry a nd o f v iticulture . A rchaeological f inds a lso c onfirm t hat t he v ineyards a nd t he w ine i ndustry f lourished i n t he S econd T emple p eriod . ( See f or g reater d etail t he d istribution map o f Q arawat b ene H assan ). T os . M en . I X ,

9 -12

( Zuckermandel ,

p .

5 26)

a dds

f urther k inds

o f w ine

n ot m entioned i n t he M ishnah . A n a nalysis

o f

t he e ntire

e xtract c onstitutes a n i mportant l esson o n

t he m anufacture o f w ine i n t his c ountry . A part f rom t he w ines r eferred t o i n t he M ishnah w e r ead o f K ushi ' Bori cr r aisin w ine a nd ' cellar w ine ' -a ll a pparently wines o f l ower g rade . T he n ame ' Boriq ' may b e ap lacename, w hich w e h ave i dentified t entatively w ith H irbet B uraq t o s outh-east o f Q arawat

b ene H assan ;

w ine-making .

t he v illage h as n umerous

t races

o f v inegrowing a nd

( See f or d etails t he m ap o f H irbet B uraq ) .

T he m aking o f w ine f rom r aisins w as a w ell-known p rocess, b ut t he p roduct was n ot r egarded a s o ne o f t he b est g rades . 1 (ushi ' w ine w as p robably s o c alled b ecause o f i ts r ed-black c olour ; t he r eason f or i ts r ejection i s n ot

c lear .

' Cellar w ine ' was

w ine k ept

i n s tore f or a

p rolonged p eriod , a nd n ot a cceptable f or t he a ltar b ecause i ts q uality w as u ncertain . J udah t he P rince r ejects w ine t wo o r t hree y ears o ld w hich h as d eteriorated i n s torage . T he l ist o f r ejected w ines o pens w ith a n a ccount o f s poilt t ypes s uch a s ' the ° L oses , t he m azie a nd t he m egulleh , w inelees a nd t hose w ith a b ad s mell , - t hese a re p robably s pecialists ' d escriptions o f w ines w hich h ad g one b ad f or v arious r easons . T he g rapes

f it

f or

t he a ltar

w ere

1 62

s aid

t o

c ome

f rom

g round-trailed

v ines . I n a ncient t imes , a s n ow , g round-trailed v ines a nd t hose g rown o n r ock w ere r egarded a s p roducing t he b est w ine. / 0) T he

h olding

v intage,

b ack o f g rapes

o n ' holding a reas ' n ear

h as b een d iscussed a bove i n t he

t he p resses

c hapter o n t he

a fter

s tructure o f

w inepresses . T his d elay r aised t he s ugar c ontent i n t he w ine , a nd i n c ertain v arieties c aused a n o utflow o f t he f irst m ust o wing t o t he s tatic p ressure o f t he g rape j uice . P robably t he p rohibition t o h old b ack t he g rapes f rom w hich t he a ltar w ine w as p ressed w as c onnected w ith o pposition t o t he c hanges i ndicated i n t he w ine a s a r esult o f s uch ' holdi n g ' . T he s ame r easons a ppear t o h ave l ibation w ine i n c ellars o r a ttics . t o i nthe c hapter o n w ine t echnology ,

l ed

t o

t he p rohibition t o s tore

' Aging ' i n a n a ttic h as b een r eferred a nd t here s eem t o h ave b een t ypes o f

w ine which f ared b etter when s tored i n w armth a nd s moke t han i n c old c ellars . T he l ast r uling e xplains t hat n ew w ine i s a t l east f orty d ays o ld , a t t he e nd o f t he s econd s tage o f f ermentation . I t s eems t hat a ll t he t ypes o f w ine i n M ishnaic a nd T almudic l iterature h ave n ever b een a ssembled i n o ne c orpus , a nd t he a gronomist A saph C ur , w ho f ound s eventy t ypes i n t he a bove s ources , d ivides t hem i nto p rimary g roups , s uch a s r ed , w hite , s weet a nd r einforced w ines .7 1 ) S ome o f t he l ocal w ines w ere s trong a nd s harp , a nd M . B M" I V , 1 s ays t hat ' strong w ine m ay b e m ixed w ith w eak , s ince t his i mproves i t . ' T os . B M . ,III , 2 6 ( Zuckermandel , p . 3 78) g oes i nto d etail : ' Old w ine m ust n ot b e m ixed w ith n ew , n or o ld w ith o ld , n ot t o s peak o f n ew a nd o ld , o r o ld w ith n ew - n or s trong w ith w eak ' . R . J udah p ermits s trong w ine t o b e m ixed w ith w eak , ' because t his i mproves i t ' . T he s trength o f l ocal w ine i s m entioned i n o ther r ulings , a s i n M . B er" V II , 5 , w hen t he b lessing o n w ine i s b eing d iscussed . T os . B er" I V , 3 ( Zuckermandel , p . 9 ) t erms w ine n ot m ixed w ith w ater a s ' living w ine ' . W e a lso h ave i nstruction c oncerning t he p roportions o f w ine a nd w ater : ' Whenever i t i s c ustomary t o a dd h alf w ater , a t hird o r a q uarter, l et t hem a dd, a nd o ne s hould n ot c hange a l ocal c ustom : T os . N idah ,

I II,

( Tos . B M"

I II ,

2 7 -Z uckermandel ,

1 2 ( Zuckermandel, p . 6 44) s ays:

p . 3 78 ) .

' And f or a s econd

m ixing, t wo p arts w ater t o o ne p art o f S haron w ine '.

7 .

S umming u p. I n t he c ourse o f t he a rchaeological s urvey o f w estern S amaria ,

w hile

s tudying t he s ettlement p attern f rom t he H ellenistic t o t he B yzantine p eriod , w e e ncountered a bundant a rchaeological e vidence o f a ncient v iticulture a nd w ine p roduction . T he r egion s urveyed a ppears t o h ave p ossessed t he g reatest d ensity o f s ettlement , w here r ockcut p resses a nd t races o f af lourishing r egional w ine i ndustry e xisted. I n v iew o f t he g reat e conomic i mportance o f t he v ine-growing b ranch i n w estern S amaria , w e h ave e xplored t he e conomic a nd s ocial s tructure o f t he b ranch i n a ncient t imes ; o n t he s trength o f t he s urvey a nd e xcavations c arried o ut i n t he f ield , w e b elieve t hat v ine-growing a nd t he w ine i ndustry g ained

r apid

m omentum

i n t he p eriod o f

t he

I sraelite m onarchy .

V arious

e vidence i ndicates t hat w ine w as a lready b eing e xported f rom S amaria a t t hat t ime . I n t he H ellenistic p eriod ( which i ncluded t he H asmonean ) v iticulture r eached a n o utstanding r egional p eak o f p rosperity ,

t estified t o b oth b y t he

f ield t owers a nd b y w ritten s ources . D uring

t he

R oman-Byzantine

p eriod

1 63

t he

r egion

s uffered

v arious

u pheavals ,

a nd v ine-growing d oubtless w itnessed n ot a f ew u ps a nd d owns .

N evertheless f ieldwork b ears n o e vidence o f t he a gricultural o r e conomic c risis g enerally a ttributed t o t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies , a nd e vidently t he c hanges i n t he r ural c haracter o f t he p opulation o ccurred l ater . W e h ave d eliberately r efrained f rom d iscussing t he e thnic c hanges w hich a ffected t he r egion , p art o f w hich b ecame e mpty o f i ts J ewish e lement , a nd p assed i nto t he h ands o f S amaritans a nd g entiles . T hese c hanges d id n ot a pparently i nvolve a t ransition t o o ther m ethods o f w ine c ultivation a nd w ine p roduction . W e s tudied t he s tructure a nd d evelopment o f t he p roduction i nstallations i n t he f ield , a lso t he v arious t ypes o f p resses . W e h ave s hown t hat t he c hanges w hich o ccurred i n t he p roductive i nstallations m ay b e s een t o r eflect t he s ocial p rocesses w hich a ffected t he r egion . W e h ave d evoted a c hapter t o t he t echnology o f w ine p roduction , w hich r equired t he s kill a nd s pecialisation o f m any g enerations . I n c ontrast t o t he g enerally a ccepted n otion , w e s ee t hat w ine p roduction d oes n ot e nd w ith t he w inepress , b ut t hat t owards t he p roduction o f d ozens o f t ypes o f w ine f or t he m arket , t he w ay i s l ong a nd c omplicated . T he c hapter o n s torage w as w ritten t o d emonstrate h ow a c onsiderable p art o f t he s urvey 's d iscoveries a nd e xcavations c ould b e a ccessory t o t he w ine i ndustry . T he w ork a s aw hole h as a ttempted t o s how t hat t he e conomic v alue o f t he v ine i n w estern S amaria w as d ecisive f or t he e conomic s tructure o f t he r egion . O nly a s mall p art o f t he w ine p roduced w as l ocally c onsumed , w hile m ost o f i t w as d esigned f or e xport . W e b elieve t hat w ine a nd o live o il w ere t he d ecisive c omponents i n t he r egion 's e conomy . T he l arge n umber o f w ines m entioned i n t he s ources , a nd t he c onnection o f s ome o f t hem w ith s ites i n w estern S amaria , c onfirm t he a rchaeological f indings i n t he f ield , w hich i ndicate t he e xtensive d iffusion o f v iticulture t hroughout t he r egion . W e a ccept t he a ssumption o f m ost s cholars t hat t he w ine i ndustry c ame t o a n e nd w ith t he A rab c onquest a nd t he r eligious o pposition o f t he n ew r ulers t o v ine g rowing a nd w ine . I n t his c ase w estern S amaria m ay s erve a s a n e xample o f h ow t he v ine w as u prooted a nd s carcely l eft a t race . A l arge n umber o f t he s ettlements o f t he r egion w ere a bandoned b y t heir i nhabitants a nd t heir v ines p erished . E ven i f t here r emained l ocal i nhabitants w ho p ossessed t he k nowledge a nd t radition t o g row v ines a nd t o m ake w ine , t hey w ere n ot a llowed t o p ut t hem i nto p ractice . I t w ould s eem t hat m any o f t he i nhabitants o f t he s ites w hich w e s urveyed , a nd which w ere d estroyed i n t he B yzantine p eriod o r a t t he b eginning o f t he A rab p eriod, h ad l ost o ne o f t he m ain s ources o f t heir e conomy a nd w ere f orced t o l eave t he r egion . An ative o f t his c ountry , t he A rab h istorian M uqdasi ,

w ho t oured a reas

o f E retz Y israel i n t he 1 0th c entury , n o l onger k new o f t he c ountry 's w ines . H e n umbers a mong i ts f inest f ruits i ts r aisins a nd i ts g rapes, w hose v arieti r x h ave s urvived d own t o t he p resent t ime a mong t he m ountains o f H ebron .

4)

1 64

C hapter V II T he O live a nd O live O il i n W estern S amaria a s r eflected i n t he S urvey a nd i n A rchaeological R esearch . T he w ide d istribution o f i nstallations f or t he p ressing o f o live o il i n S amaria w as o bvious f rom t he v ery b eginning o f t he a rchaeological s urvey . S ide-by-side w ith v ine g rowing a nd w ine p roduction , o lives a nd o live o il h eld a c entral p lace i n t he a gricultural e conomy o f t he c ountry i n a ncient t imes . B ut w hereas v ine g rowing f or w ine h as v anished c ompletely f rom t he r egional l andscape ( we w ere a ble t o t race a nd r econstruct t he b ranch 's a ncient p osition o nly b y s tudying i ts r ockcut i nstallations) , o lives a nd t heir o il a re s till d ominant i n S amaria . W e l ive i n a n a ge o f f ar-reaching t echnological c hanges i n t he e conomy o f t he A rab f allah , a nd o live g rowing i s a lso c hanging . B ut S amaria h as r etained i ts p rimeval p rocedures o f p lanting a nd o il p roduction d own t o r ecent y ears , a p henomenon which h as m ade i t e asier f or u s t o r econstruct t he a ncient s ituation .

1 .

T he A rchaeological E vidence - t he T ypology o f O il P resses. N ot a ll t he i nstallations u sed f or t he p ressing o f o live o il h ave b een

i nserted o n t he v illage d istribution m aps . W e h ave d rawn a d istinction b etween f amily i nstallations w ith a l imited o utput o f o il a nd i nstallations c apable o f i ndustrial p roduction . W e a ttribute t o t he f irst t ype i n a ll t heir f orms , c up m arks a nd b odedot ( see b elow ) . N o a ncient s ite i n w estern S amaria i s w ithout a t l east s ome i nstallations f or t he p ressing o f o live o il . T he t ypes o f i nstallation f or t his w ork w hich h ave b een s tudied a nd e xamined b y u s i n w estern S amaria a re h ere d escribed.

T ype 1 . F ig. 9 4 P h . 7 4

D epressions a nd ' cup m arks'.

W e a scribe f rom

t o t his g roup c ircular r ockcut h ollows ,

s everal d ozen c entimetres

t o 0 .50 m .

w hose

s ize v aries

i n d iameter a nd d epth .

T hese

i cupmarks ' a re s cattered t hroughout t he c ultivated a reas , a nd a re h ollowed i nto n atural r ock a reas , s ometimes i n i solation a nd s ometimes i n g roups . T hey a re t o b e f ound i n a ll t hose a reas w here w e s urveyed t he r emains o f a ncient c ultivation n ear a ncient s ettlements a nd i n t he o pen f ield . T heir d ispersal a nd d iffusion w ere s uch , t hat w e a ttempted n o p recise s tatistical e xamination , b ut o ur i mpression i s t hat n o s ettled t erritory w as w ithout d ozens o r h undreds o f r ockcut c uptmarks . A pparently m ost o f t he c upmarks a re a gricultural a ppliances c hiefly f or t he p ressing o f o live o il i n t he f ield . A c upmark , o f c ourse , c ould a lso b e u tilised t o p ress o ther f ruit , s uch a s f igs, b ut i ts f unction o f p ressing o live o il o utweighed o ther u ses. T he s implest method o f p roducing o live o il i n s mall q uantities i s a ssociated w ith r ockcut d epressions »

A fter t he o lives h ad b een c rushed

w ith a s tone , t he o il c ould b e o btained i n s everal w ays : a ) b y p lacing t he p ulp i n t he m iddle o f t he d epression ( in a r eceptacle made o f p lant m aterial ) a nd p ressing i t d own w ith s tones ; t he a id o f

b oiling w ater w hich w as

p oured

l AS

b ) b y e xtracting t he o il w ith o ver t he

p ulp .2 )

T he c upmark

c ould a ct b oth a s ar eceptacle a nd a n i mplement i n e ither m ethod . T his d evice , w hich w ould s eem t o b e c hronologically t he o ldest , r emained i n u se e ven a fter i mproved i nstallations w ere p ressing o live o il i n l arge q uantities. T he r abbinical r ulings r egarding t he S abbatical Y ear r efer t o m ethods o f p ressing o live o il i n t he f allow p eriod .3 )

T he b odedoh i s m entioned

e xplicitly a s a f ield c ontrivance i n w hich o live o il c ould l egitimately b e p ressed . O live o il i s s till o btained b y m eans o f t hese c ontrivances i n t he o pen c ountryside o f S amaria - o n t he e vidence o f a ged A rab v illagers , a nd o f a n e ye w itness,

U ri E liaz o f T irat T zevi .

E arly r ipening o lives a re

s elected , a re w armed o ver a f ire a nd c rushed w ith a r ound s tone . T he p ulp i s p ut i nto a w rapping o f o live b ranches , o r i nto a l inen b ag , a nd h eavy s tones a re p laced o n i t . T he o il f lows i nto t he c upmark a nd i n a s hort t ime b read c an b e d ipped i nto i t a nd e aten o n t he s pot. I t

i s

o f

i nterest t o o bserve t hat t he A rab v illagers c all t he r ockcut

c upmarks " Bededah" , a nd t he M ishnaic b odedah a lso a ppears t o h ave r esembled ac upmark . M ovable b odedot w ere f ound d uring t he s urvey , t hat i s , c upmarks a nd a s mall p ressing s urface w orked i nto a s tone w hich h ad b een d etached f rom t he g round . T hese a ppliances c ould b e u sed i ndoors i n t he s ettlements , o r i n a s helter i n t he o live g roves , i n o rder t o o btain p urer o il a nd t o a void d isturbance f rom t he w eather d uring p ressing . A c omplete b odedah w as f ound l ying f ace-downward P h . 7 5

i n o ne o f

t he f ield

t owers ( No . 2 1 o f t he ' Azun m ap) d ug i n 1 974 . A nother was d iscovered d uring ' Ami Mazar 's e xcavation a t ' Ein S amiyeh , i n a o ne-stratum s ite b elonging t o E arly I ron A ge I I .4 ) T he c upmarks n ear t he f ield t owers a re a n i nteresting p henomenon ; i n m any o f t he t owers w ell w orked e xamples w ere o bserved w ith d iameters f rom 0 .30 t o 0 .40 m . A r epresentative l ist o f t owers n ear w hich s uch w ere f ound i s h ere g iven : S hufah m ap, T owers 2 1, 6 1, 7 9, 9 1. ' Azun

"

1 34, 1 58, 2 29.

Q arawat b ene H assan 9 3,

1 00.

W hile t he f ield t owers , w e t hink , s erved t he p rocess o f w ine p roduction , i t-was p ossible t o p ress o live o il i n t heir p roximity f or f amily n eeds a nd i n f allow y ears, a nd o ne a ctivity d id n ot c ontradict t he o ther .

T ype 2 .

C upmarks w ith a s inking f or a b eam .

A m ore a dvanced t ype o f c upmark w as f ound a t v arious s ites i n S amaria , e .g . a t T anurah , i n t he S artah d istrict, a t H irbet H amad a nd a t J em 'ein .

P h . 7 6 •

W e s hall d escribe e xamples a t H irbet H amad, ( G .R . 1 596 - 1 661). F our c upmarks a re h ere c ut i n a r ocky s urface s ome 8 b y 6 m . , o ne c upmark b eing d ouble . T he d iameter o f t he c upmarks i s f rom 0 .60 t o 0 .80 m ., a nd i n s ection t hey a re i nverted c ones , a pproximately 0 .40 - 0 .60 m . d eep . ,I n t he n earby r ock s carp o ver t he l evel o f t he c upmarks , a t ah eight o f,p .60 - 0 .80 m . , c ircular d epressions h ave b een c ut , p erhaps t o h old a w ooden b eam . T he d istandi eb etween t he c upmarks a nd t he d epressions f or t he b eam i s m oderate , a bout 1 .20 - 1 .50 m . Y igael T epper w as t he f irst t o s uggest t he p ossibility t hat w e h ave h ere a s imple a pparatus f or p ressing o il , i n w hich

1 66

aw ooden b eam a nd s tone w eights w ere u sed t o p ress t he c rushed o lives. I t i s i nteresting t hat a w inepress ( see s ection o n v ine g rowing a nd w ine p roduction ) h ad b een c ut i n t he r ock o pposite t he c upmarks .

I t w ould s eem

t hat b oth t hese i nstallations w ere w orking i n o ne a nd t he s ame h istorical p eriod, t hat o f E arly I ron A ge I I. F ig.

9 5

A nother o il p ress ,

w orking o n s imilar p rinciples ,

r escue e xcavation a t H irbet J em 'ein . B uilding

1 93 ,

a nd

i t

l ooks

l ike

( Locus 9 0) .

a p rivate

w as c leared d uring a T he p ress was n ear

i nstallation b elonging

t o

t he

h ouseholder . T his s upposition i s s upported b y t he f act t hat a t H irbet J em 'ein w e e xposed a l arge o ilpress ( below) w hich s erved a ll t he v ineg rowers o f t he v illage . H irbet J em 'ein w as e stablished i n E arly I ron A ge I I , a nd i t i s r easonable t o a ssume t hat a ll a gricultural i nstallations , i ncluding t he p rivate a nd t he p ublic o il p resses, s erved t he l ocal i nhabitants s imultaneously . D avid ' Eitam r ecently s urveyed s everal s ettlements o f E arly I ron A ge I I i n w estern S amaria . H e d emonstrated i n h is r esearch t hat t he c upmark a nd b eam-depression t ype ( which h e c alls a m idrakhah -- H eb . d arokh ' tread ' ) i s c ommon , a nd c haracteristic o f E arly I ron A ge I I s ettlements?) H e f ound d ozens o f i nstallations f or p reparing o live o il i n s ettlements b elonging o nly t o t hat p eriod , m ost o f t hem b ased o n t he r ockcut c upmark a nd a d epression f or t he b eam - c ut o ver t he a xis o f t he f ormer . D espite t he c omparative s hortness o f t he w ooden b eam Idtam 's c alculations s how t hat i t w as p ossible t o e xert a p ressure o f 2 ,000 k g . o r more o n t he c rushed o lives a nd t o o btain 4 .6 t o 6 .00 k g . o f o il i n o ne p ressing . T he a verage c apacity o f t he d epression w as 1 2 .4 l itres . I t w ould t herefore s eem t hat a t echnological i mprovement t ook p lace i n o live o il p resses i n E arly I ron A ge I I , w hen a w ooden b eam c ame i nto u se , w eighted b y s tone w eights i n o rder t o p ress t he c rushed a nd b roken o lives.

T ype 3 .

AP ublic O il P ress i n t he E arly I ron A ge.

kr b lic

o il p ress o f c onsiderable s ize w as e xcavated b y u s a t H irbet

J em 'ein ( G .R . 1 569 - 1 752) . T he s ite i s av illage o f 1 5 t o 2 0 h ouses , s ome o f which a re o f t he ' four r oom ' p lan . T he E arly I ron A ge v illage was e stablished i n t he 8 th - 7 th c enturies B .C .E .,

t hen a bandoned .

I n t he

H ellenistic p eriod s ome o f t he h ouses w ere i n s econdary u se , b ut i n t hat p hase t here was n ot r eal b uilding o n t he s ite . F or t he s ame r eason t he c hrönology o f t he a gricultural i nstallations a ttributable t o E arly I ron A ge I I i s c lear ; t hey b elong m ainly t o t he 8 th a nd 7 th c enturies B .C .E .

T he O il P ress a t L ocus 7 02. F ig . 9 6 P h . 7 7

T he p ress was q uarried t o e ast o f t he b uilding s ite, d oubtless f or e cological r easons . A r ock s urface o f 1 x 1 0 .5 m . s loping m oderately e astward , c onstitutes t he o pen w orking a rea , w hich i s e nclosed b y af ence o f l arge

s tones ,

p artly s urviving

i n s itu .

T wo l arge

r ocks ,

a pparently t he

e ntrance , t o t he p ress , w ere o bserved t o s outh-east o f t he a rea . I n i ts w estern p art was a n atural r ock s carp , 2m . h igh, which a cted b oth a s a f ence a nd a p oint w here t he s inking f or t he p ress b eam c ould b e q uarried . W e s hall e ndeavour t o r econstruct t he w orking o f t his p ress w hich i s , t o t he b est o f o ur k nowledge , t he o nly o ne o f i ts t ype k nown a nd t herefore t he o nly o ne t o h ave b een s tudied s o f ar .

1 A7

a )

C rushing t he o lives

( No. 2 o n t he p lan o f t he p ress).

T his s tage w as a ccomplished i n ac onical s inking 0 .65 m . i n d iameter a nd 0 .60 m . d eep . I ts w alls w ere s mooth a nd e vidently i t h ad b een m ade w ith t he h elp o f as tone p ile o f c orresponding s hape, o perated r otarily . b ) I t

P ressing t he O il. m ay b e a ssumed

t hat

t he p ulp w as

c ollected

i n c ontainers m ade o f

p lant m aterial , o r i n b askets m ade o f g oat 's h air . A h eap o f s uch b askets w as p laced i n a s hallow d epression ( 5 o n p lan ) 0 .30 b y 0 .40 m . i n d iameter a nd 8 - 1 0 c m . i n d epth . T he wooden b eam, whose l ength may b e r econstructed a s 3 .50 m . a nd i ts d iameter a s 0 .20 m . , was s tepped i nto a s inking, which h ad b een q uarried i nto t he w all o f t he r ock-scarp ( 4 o n p lan ) . T he d iameter o f t he s inking w as 0 .24 b y 0 .20 m . a nd 0 .20 m . d eep . T he b eam b egan t o p ress o n t he b askets o f p ulp , a nd t o i ncrease t he p ressure a nd t o a ccelerate t he o il p roduction , s tone w eights w ere h ung a t i ts e nd , a s pecial n otch ( 7 o n p lan ) b eing c ut a t t he e nd o f t he p ress b eam f or t his p urpose. A f ragment o f s tone w eight w ith a t hrough h ole w as f ound o n t he s ite o f t he p ress . T he o il a nd t he s urplus l iquids b egan t o f low i nto t he d epression u nder t he b askets ( 3 o n p lan ) , t he l atter h aving a d iameter a nd d epth o f 0 .40 m ., b ut a s we a re d ealing w ith a p ress w ith a n o utput o f t housands

o f l itres o f o il ,

l arger c ontainers w ere n ecessary t o s tore t he

l iquids b efore t he o il was s eparated f rom t he s urplus f luids . S uch a c ontainer ( 6 o n p lan ) r eceived t he l iquids b y g ravitation f rom d epression 3 . T he t ank i s b elow g round, a nd e ntirely r ockcut ; i t i s p ear-shaped, m easuring 1 m . a t i ts u pper d iameter a nd 0 .90 m . a t t he b ottom ; i ts d epth i s 1 . 25 m . I n t he c entre i s a s mall s ettling h ollow t o t ake w aste m atter . N o s igns o f p laster w ere f ound o n t he w alls o f t he t ank , w hose c apacity i s 2 ,500 l itres . I t w ould s eem t hat t he s eparation o f t he o il f rom t he s urplus f luids was c arried o ut h ere b y s imple b ailing f rom a bove . T he f luids h ad t o b e r emoved b y d ipping a nd p ouring o ver t he f ence o f t he o ilp ress , a nd t he l ocation o f ' Tank 6 ' i s a ppropriate , b eing s ituated a t t he e nd o f t he p ress a rea ,

w here a d ownward s lope w ould h ave f acilitated

t he

r emoval o f t he s urplus l iquids .

A nother P hase o f E xtraction . A r ockcut d epression t o l eft o f t he c rushing s aucer ( 1 o n p lan ) i s c ertainly a lso c onnected w ith t he p rocess o f e xtracting t he o il . T he d iameter o f t he d epression i s 0 .33 m . a nd i ts d epth 0 .40 m . Ag rooved c ircle h as b een c ut r ound i t , 0 .40 m . i n d iameter , t he g roove b eing 1 0 c m . w ide ,

a nd t hree c hannels l ead f rom i t t o t he d epression .

T he l atter s eems

t o h ave s erved d uring a s econdary s tage i n t he e xtraction o f t he o il . W hile t he p rincipal i nstallation , w hich o perated w ith t he a id o f t he b eam , w as e ngaged i n c rushing a l arge q uantity o f o lives , t he w orkers c ould b e p ressing s mall q uantities o f o il w ith t he h elp o f t he r ockcut c ontrivance . 6)

S toring t he O il. T wo u nderground

t anks

w ere q uarried i n t he p ress a rea ( 8 ,

9 o n p lan ) ;

t hey w ere p ear-shaped , e ach w ith a n arrow a perture a bove a nd a rrangements f or c losing i t h ermetically w ith a c ircular l id o f s tone o r w ood . T he t ank

1 68

p ossessed a n u pper d iameter o f 0 .75 m" a l ower d iameter o f d epth o f 1 .50 m . I ts c apacity w as 2 ,000 l itres o f o il.

1 . 75 m .

a nd a

T ank 9 w as l arger , w ith a n u pper d iameter o f 0 .70 m . , a l ower d iameter o f 2 . 10 m . , a nd a d epth o f 1 . 75 m . I ts c apacity w as a bout 3 ,000 l itres o f o il . T he t wo c ould h old 5 ,000 l itres , a l arge a nd e conomically v aluable q uantity i n a ny p eriod . T he s tructure o f t he p ress i s s uch a s t o s how t hat t he p rocessing o f a gricultural p roduce i n t his I sraelite v illage o f t he S amarian h ill-country w as c arried o ut c ommunally . I t i s t rue t hat t he c ultivator w ould h ave b een t echnically a ble t o p ress o il i n a s mall f amily p ress,

b ut a pparently o il e xtraction a nd w ine-

p roduction r equired a h igh s tage o f s ocial o rganisation , a nd p rojects t hat s erved t he w hole p easant c ommunity w ere p referable t o f amily u ndertakings . I t i s d ifficult t o a scertain i n w hat f ashion t he c ultivators e xtracted o il i ndividually , o r w hether t here e xisted a m ethod o f p ressing t he e ntire o live c rop a nd s haring o ut t he o il p roportionately t o t he c ultivator 's p art i n t he y ield . O ne m ay s uppose t hat t ime w as p recious i n t he p ressing s eason a nd t hat a c ommunal p rocess w as q uicker a nd m ore e fficient . B ut n aturally t he m ethod s till c ommon a mong o live p lanters o f t he A rab v illages w as a lso p ossible ; t he o il-press p resses t he o live-yield o f e ach p lanter a nd e ach f allah i s c ertain t hat h is o il i s f iner t han h is n eighbour 's . W hat w as t he f unction o f t he s torage t anks n umbered 8 a nd 9 ?

I t i s h ard

t o a ssume t hat t hey w ere q uarried t o h old t he t otal a ccumulated o il-crop o f t he I sraelite v illage o f H irbet J em 'ein . 5 ,000 l itres o f o il c an b e p roduced f rom a n a rea o f 1 00 - 1 60 d unams o f o lives, a nd e vidently t he v illage p ossessed l arger o live g roves . T he t anks may h ave s tored t he v illage 's t ithe, which w as s ent t o t he r oyal s tores a t t he e nd o f t he s eason .7 ) F urther , h ow l ong d id p resses o f t he H irbet J em 'ein t ype f unction?

A u nanimous a nswer t o t his q uestion c an h ardly b e g iven ,

b ut a

l ate e cho f rom t he t almudic p eriod i s f ound in T os . M enah„ I X , 6 ( Zuckermandel, p . 5 26). T his s ource t ells u s t hat h ighgrade o il f or o fferings , a nd f inely c rushed o ils , w ere n ot g round w ith m illstones , b ut w ere b roken s mall i n m ortars . I t w ould s eem t hat f or c ultic p urposes i n t he S econd T emple p eriod p resses w ere o perated w hich o riginated a nd d eveloped i n t he p eriod o f t he F irst T emple .

T ype 4 .

T he O il P ress w ith G rinding A ppliances.

A t echnological w hen s tone

c rushers

r evolution

t ook

f or g rinding

p lace

t he

i n

o lives

t he w ere

p roduction o f d eveloped

a nd

o live

o il

o perated .

T he i nstallations h ad a l ong w ay t o g o t o r each t heir f inal d evelopment i n t he f orm o f t he r eception b asin a nd t he h ard s tone c ircular c rusher w hich s till o perates t oday . W e k now n othing o f t he c ontinual p rocess o f i mprovements a nd d evelopment f rom t he c upmark a nd t he h ollow r ock d epression , a s t hey a re f ound f or e xample a t H irbet Jem 'ein , d own t o t he f inal p roduct ,

t he v ertical c rusher r otating i n a h orizontal b asin ,

b ut w e

s hall e ndeavour t o f ind a n ecessary i ntermediate p hase. C ircular s tones w ith a l evel s urface s urrounded b y a r ockcut c hannel t o d rain t he l iquids t hrough a n o utlet i nto a r eceptacle b elow , h ave b een f ound i n E arly I ron A ge s trata o n v arious s ites .8 ) ' crushing s urfaces ' o r I sraelite o il p resses .

1 69

T hey a re s ometimes c alled W e t hink t hese s tones w ere

t he p rototype o f t he l ater i mproved r eception b asin . T he o lives

c ould b e c rushed o n t he s tone s urface b y a r oller,

u ltimately a s mall v ertical r evolving c rusher c ould b e d eveloped . 9 7

a nd

F rom a

t echnical p oint o f v iew t he s ame p rimitive r eceiving b asin c ould b e u sed a s a c rushing s urface b y l aying t he h eap o f c rushed o lives o n i t a nd p ressing i t w ith h eavy s tones .

B ut a s w e h ave s een a bove ,

t he m ore e fficient w ooden

b eam w as b eing u sed f or o il e xtraction a s e arly a s t he E arly I ron A ge ,

a nd

w e c an h ardly a ssume a r eversion t o t he s impler m ethods o f e xtraction w ith m ere s tones . A ll t he p rocesses a nd i nstallations d escribed a bove b elong t o E arly I ron A ge I I , w hich w as d istinguished , o n t he e vidence o f t he s urvey , b y r apid a gricultural d evelopment . V illages a nd f arms w ere r ising a nd d eveloping i n m any r ocky a reas o f w estern S amaria a t t he b eginning o f t hat p eriod , a nd t heir i nhabitants w ere e ngaged i n w idespread a melioration o f t he s oil a nd g etting t heir l iving , t heir o il .

T ype 5 .

i nter a lia ,

b y p lanting o lives a nd e xtracting

T he B asin a nd C rusher O live P ress.

I n t he c ourse o f s urvey a nd e xcavation w e e ncountered a t ype o f i ndoor o il p ress

w hose

r otary c rusher .9 ) l ike

s tones

r emains

i ncluded

t he

W e h ave i ncluded

w hether a ttached

t o

t he

s tone

i n t he

r eception b asin ( yam ) n otion o f

b edrock o r

a nd

t he

y am c ircular b asin-

s eparate

f rom

i t .

T heir

a verage d iameter was 2 .00 - 2 .10 m ., b ut l arger o nes a re f ound w ith a d iameter o f 2 .40 m . T hey v ary i n h eight f rom 0 .40 - 0 .80 m ., a nd a ll c ontain i n t he c entre a c ircular s inking f or t he p ivot o f t he c rusher . T he a verage s ize a nd d epth o f t he s inking i s 0 .20 m . T he y am i s s urrounded b y a l ip o f 1 0 t o 2 0 c m . o ver t he b ottom o f t he b asin . I n S amaria t he y am i s m ade o f h ard l imestone , c apable o f w ithstanding t he p ressure o f t he c rusher . O n a ncient s ites i n S amaria n o y am o r c rusher m ade o f b asalt h as b een f ound , t hough t he l atter i s u sed i n t he n orth o f t he c ountry . T he c rusher i s a s tone d isc which r evolved v ertically i n t he y am, p ulverize t he o lives .

i ts f unction b eing t o

C rushers a re more r arely f ound i n s urveys a nd

e xcavations b ecause t hey w ere f requently r eused f or o ther p urposes . I n s ome c ases y am a nd c rusher w ere f ound

t ogether ,

a s a t S hufah ,

s ite

9 3. H ere t he f ormer was 1 .10 m . i n d iameter a nd 0 .26 m . t hick . I t p ossessed a p ivothole m easuring 0 .25 x 0 .15 m . , i n t he c entre o f w hich w as a w ooden p ivot . W e f ound s tone c rushers w ith d iameters o f 1 . 30 t o 1 . 50 m . o n o ur s everal v isits t o t raditional o il p resses w hich h ad s till b een w orking i n t he r ecent g eneration .

I t i s a g eneral a ssumption t hat t he d iameter o f

t he c rusher w as a bout h alf t hat o f t he y am , t he

d iameter .

T he

q uarriers

a nd

i ts t hickness a bout a t hird o f

b uilders

o f

t he

a ncient

i nstallations a dapted t he c rusher t o t he y am w ith m uch c are ,

o il-press

a s b oth h ad t o

f unction a s o ne u nit .

T he h ardness o f t he s tone w as a n i mportant c omponent ,

a nd

n eeded

c oordination

w as

b etween o ne a nd t he o ther ,

s ince i f

t his w as

l acking t he yam c ould b ecome w orn ( e .g . i n t he c ase o f a s oft y am a nd a h ard c rusher ) .

W e c onducted e xcavations

y amstones i n t he f ields . 7 8

o n s everal s ites a nd e xposed o pen-air

A y amstone w hich h ad b een c ut o ut o f t he r ock

w as e xcavated a t Q arnei S homron n ear T ower 1 ( Kefr L aqif m ap ) . q uarried o ut 2 .05

m .

a nd

o f

t he b edrock o n a f airly l evel

i ts h eight 0 .45

m .

T he

s urface .

I t h ad b een

I ts d iameter w as

t hickness a nd d epth o f

t he l ip w hich

s urrounded t he y am w as 0 .10 t o 0 .12 m" a nd t he b asin p ossessed a s inking f or t he w ooden p ivot m easuring 0 .29 x 0 .28 m . , i ts d epth b eing 0 .25 m . A p ath 0 .80 m . wide a nd 0 .20 m . d eep h ad b een q uarried r ound t he y am, t hus c reating a l evel c ircuit 4 .40 m . i n d iameter, f ree o f a ny p rojections,

1 70

e nabling m an a nd b east t o t urn t he c rusher w orking i n t he y am .

T he o live

p ress n ear T ower 1 a t Q arnei S homron i s i n t he c entre o f a n a gricultural e state , v arious f eatures o f w hich w ere e xcavated b y u s - t owers , s tonec learance

c airns,

a gricultural

t erraces

and

a winepress.

T he

a rchaeological f inds d ate t he s ite a s aw hole f rom t he 4 th c entury B .C .E . t o t he i st a nd 2 nd c enturies C .E .

P ottery o f t he t ype k nown a s ' Persian-

H ellenistic ' i s p rominent . S triking i n i ts u nusual c haracter was t he f ragment o f a n e ast-Greek amphora o f t he 4 th c entury B . M . T he o live p ress

a ppears

t o

b elong

t o

a n

a ssemblage

o f

t he

4 th-2nd

c enturies

B . M .

T he y am o f a n o pen-air o live p ress w as a lso c leared a nd m easured i n t he a rea o f t he T zur N athan m ap , S ite 2 74 . T he y am , w hich w as c ut i n t he r ock , w as f ound i n a l evel a rea w ell c leared o f s tones ; n umerous w ater-cisterns a nd a r ockcut 8 F ig. 9

w inepress

w ere

l ocated

i n t he s ame c ultivated t ract .

T he y am 's

d iameter w as 2 .20 m . a nd i ts h eight 0 .50 m . ; i t r esembles t he c ommon t ype i n a ll o ther d etails . B ut i t i s i nteresting t hat a t a c ertain s tage t he y am f ell o ut o f u se c ompletely a nd i ts i mmediate s urroundings w ere t urned o ver t o a s tone-quarry . T he q uarrymen c ame v ery c lose t o t he s ide o f t he y am a nd

c ut

i nto

t he a rea

r ound

i t,

s o

t hat

i t

c ould

n o

l onger

b e

u sed .

A nother o pen-air o live p ress w as e xamined i n t he c ultivated a rea o f H irbet B uraq ( Site 1 81) . I t

s hould b e r emarked

t hat t he y am-stones b elonging t o o pen-air o live

p resses were v ery f requent

i n S amaria .

a gricultural

t ract

o f Q arawat b ene H assan ,

T zur N athan ;

i n t hat o f K efr L aqif ,

C learly m any o thers e scaped u s .

F our were i dentified i n t he f ive i n t he c ultivated a rea o f

H irbet B uraq a nd ' Azun ,

t hree i n e ach .

A g roup n ear f ield t owers c an b e a scribed

t o t he ' yam a nd c rusher ' t ype o f p ress .

Y am s tones b elonging t o o live

p resses w ere e xamined n ear s everal t owers o r i n t heir c learly i dentifiable c ultivation p lots . F ive f ield t owers n ear w hich t here w ere y am s tones b elonging t o o live p resses w ere r ecorded o n t he T zur N athan m ap ; o n t he e R as map t here w ere t hirteen ; o n t he S hufa m ap , s ix , o n t hat o f K efr S ur o nly f our .

T he y amstones o f t hese p resses w ere a ll c ut i n t he l iving r ock a nd

r esembled o ne a nother..

G ood

e xamples

o f

t owers

w ith

r emains

o f

p resses

were t o b e s een a t K arqush ( see t he d escription i n t he c hapter o n F ield T owers) . A y am a nd c rusher w ere f ound t ogether , i n a ddition t o a r ockcut w inepress , n ear T ower 1 35 o n t he K efr S ur m ap . T his i s a r are i nstance o f t he p reservation o f t wo a ssociated c omponents, which e nabled u s t o r econstruct t he o peration o f t he o pen-air o live p ress w ith g reater F ig. 9 9

a ssurance ,

( See b elow) .

o n t he e -Ras map . m ..

A c omplete r ockcut y am w as r ecorded n ear T ower 1 9

I ts d iameter w as 2 . 10 m . a nd i ts h eight o nly 0 .20 - 0 .30

A s mooth r ock s urface n ear t he y am a ppears t o h ave b een u sed a s a w ork

t able w hen t he o il w as b eing p ressed .

T he O peration o f O pen-Air O live P resses R econstructed. T he r emains o f o pen-air o live p resses o f w hich o nly t he y am r emained i n s itu,

h ave b een d escribed .

o peration .

L et u s n ow a ttempt

t o

r econstruct

t heir

T he f ollowing m ain p hases a re i nvolved i n t he p ressing o f o live

o il: a )

T he b reaking u p a nd c rushing o f t he o lives i nto p ulp.

b )

T he p ressing a nd s queezing o f t he p ulp.

c )

T he s eparation o f t he o il f rom t he s urplus f luids.

1 71

1 0

)

I n o ur c ase ,

w e a re c ertain o nly c oncerning t he f irst s tage ,

t hat i s ,

t he

b reaking u p a nd c rushing o f t he o lives , w hich w as d one b y t he c rusher i n t he y am . A s t o s tages b a nd c , w e h ave n o a rchaeological e vidence i n t he f ield , a nd t heir r econstruction c an o nly b e s uggested . I t i s p ossible t hat a fter t he c rushing , t he c rop w as g athered f rom t he f ield a nd t aken t o t he v illage h omes , w here t he s tage o f p ressing a nd s queezing w as c arried o ut . W e d o n ot i ncline t o a ccept t his p ossibility , f or c onsiderations a like t echnical a nd t raditional . W e i ncline t o t he c onjecture t hat a ll t he s teps w ere c arried o ut i n t he s ame p lace , i .e . i n t he a rea o f t he o pen-air o live p ress. I f

t his

w as

s o ,

w hat

a ppliances

d id

t he c ultivators u se t o p ress a nd

s queeze t he o lives w hich h ad b een p reviously c rushed b y t he c rusher a nd t he y am?

W e

h ave

t o

l ook

f or

m ovable

a ppliances

m ade

o f

p erishable m aterial ,

w hich w ere p laced n ear t he o live p ress i n t he f ield . P ossible p arallels a re l ikely t o h ave b een w orking a f ew g enerations a go . T ools o f t raditional G reek a griculture a re a ssembled i n t he B enaki M useum ,

a nd t hey

i nclude o il-pressing i nstallations .1 1 ) T he o lives w ere c rushed i n t he t raditional G reek p resses b y t he y am a nd c rusher , t hen t ransferred t o w ooden p resses w hich w ere u sed f or e xtracting b oth o live o il a nd w ine ; a ll p arts o f t hese c ontrivances w ere m ade o f w ood . O ne o f t hem , o f c onsiderable s ize , m easures 1 . 70 b y 1 . 70 m . , a nd w ith i ts a ssistance a r espectable q uantity o f o live o il c an b e e xtracted . T o f acilitate t he e xtraction o f t he o il, b oiling w ater w as p oured o nto t he p ulp , w hich w as t hen t ransferred t o t he p ress. A n umber

o f

o live

p resses

o f

t he H ellenistic

p eriod w ere

s tudied

i n

G reece a t t he e nd o f t he 1 9th a nd t he b eginning o f t he 2 0th c entury , a nd t heir o peration w as c ompared w ith t hat o f t he t raditional p resses s till w orking c ontemporarily i n G reece a nd t he G reek i slands . T he i nvestigators c onjectured t hat p art o f t he a ncient i nstallations w ere m ade o f w ood , a nd w ere a ble t o c ompare t he t raditional p rocesses a ncient c ontrivances t hey h ad r ecorded. 1 2)

w hich

t hey k new

w ith

t he

W e m ay n ow r evert , t herefore , t o t he o pen-air o live p resses r ecorded i n S amaria , a nd w ill e ndeavour t o r econstruct t he e ntire a ncient p rocess o f e xtraction . T he c ultivator t urns t he c rusher w ith t he a id o f a l ong w ooden b ar . F ig .

1 00

D alman h as a p icture i n h is b ook s howing t he a ctual o peration o f t he y am a nd c rusher i n t he f ield b y a s olitary f allah .1 3) I n c ontrast t o t he p roposed r econstructions, t here i s n o n eed f or t he a xle o f t he c rusher t o b e s tabilised b y a ttachment t o t he r oof o r b y a w ooden f rame e xtending f rom w all t o w all ; i t i s a dequately h eld b y t he w ooden b ar o perated b y t he s ingle w orker . A fter t he o lives h ave b een c rushed c ame t he s tage o f p ressing a nd s queezing . T he o il a nd s urplus f luids w ere s queezed o ut w ith t he a id o f t he w ooden p ress i nto l arge e arthenware v essels . W hen o ne j ar w as f ull , i t w as p ut a side a nd i n as hort t ime t he o il , w hich c ame t o t he t op , c ould b e d rawn o ff . N aturally t he p rocess m ight i nclude a dditional s tages , s uch a s d ipping t he p ulp i nto b oiling w ater , a dditional r efinement a nd s o o n . W hen t he d ay 's w ork e nded t he c ultivator p oured t he o il i nto e arthenware o r s kin c ontainers a nd b rought t hem t o s tore i n t he v illage .

1 72

T he D ate o f t he O pen-Air P resses. O n t he e vidence o f e xcavations c onducted i n t he f ield t owers a nd a mong t he r emains o f a ncient c ultivation , a mongst w hich t he p resses s tudied a bove f igured , i t b ecame p ossible t o p ropose t he p eriod i n w hich t hey w orked .

W e

t hink t hat t he p resses w ere a lready o perating i n t he 4 th a nd 3 rd c enturies B .C .E"

a s

T heir

e videnced

q uarrying

m ay

b y

t he p ottery

p ossibly

b e

f ramework o f t he t ower p attern ,

f ound

o n m any o f

c onnected

w ith

t he

t he e xcavated s ocial

a nd

s ites .

e conomic

a nd t he p resses l ocated i n t he f ield s hould

p erhaps b e r egarded a s p art o f t he a gricultural h oldings o f t he s ettlers o f t he H ellenistic p eriod . ( For d etails s ee t he c hapter o n t he t owers). I nteresting p arallels t o t he y am a nd c rusher a re t o b e f ound i n s ettlements o f t he 5 th a nd 4 th c enturies B .C .E . i n G reece a nd t he G reek i slands . A s tone c rusher w as d iscovered i n a H ellenistic h ouse o f

t he 4 th c entury a t

O lynthus .1 4) A y am a nd c rusher r ecovered i n t he i sland a ttributed t o a p eriod b etween t he m id-5th a nd t he 4 th

o f C hios c an b e c entury B .C .E .1 . ))

I t i s p ossible t hat t he J udaean y am a nd c rusher a re t o b e s een a s t he r esult o f H ellenistic i nfluence o n t he t echnology o f o il p resses, b ut we h ave a lready

mentioned

t hat

a n a dvanced

i ndustry p roducing o live

o il

was

w idespread i n E arly I ron A ge I I i n t his c ountry . T he r ural o il p ress o f H irbet J em 'ein i s o ne e xample o f t he t echnical a bility o f t he v illagers o f S amaria . I t may a ccordingly b e a ssumed t hat t he d evelopment o f t he y am a nd c rusher o ccurred i n t he s ame p eriod , a t t he e nd o f t he I ron A ge i n s everal c ountries w here t he o live g rew - i n t he e astern M editerranean b asin .

T he

c onnecting l ink b etween t he e nd o f t he E arly I ron A ge a nd t he P ersian a nd H ellenistic p eriods i s m issing i n t he a rchaeological i nvestigation o f o live p resses , a nd w hen i t i s f ound a nd s tudied , t he d evelopmental s tages o f t he o live p ress w ill b e b etter u nderstood . A t a c ertain s tage t he o pen-air p resses i n t he f ields w ere a bandoned , a nd t he p ressing o f o live o il w as t ransferred t o t he i nterior o f t he v illage o r

t o

i ts

f ringes .

W e h ave

l earned

f rom

o ur d iscussion o f

t he o pen-air

p resses t hat i n o ne c ase t he y amstone f ell v ictim t o s tone q uarries , a nd t hat t heir a bandonment was d eliberate . T he s etting a nd t ime o f t he p henomenon a re h ard t o r ecover .

I n t he c hapter o n f ield t owers t he f act

was

t o

r emarked

t hat

t hey

c eased

o perate

p roduction i n t he i st a nd 2 nd c entury C .E .

a s

i nstallations

f or w ine

T he a ctivity o f t he o il p resses

n ear t he t owers m ay h ave c eased a t t he s ame t ime .

B ut a lternatively w e m ay

s uppose t hat t he o il p resses n ear t he t owers c eased t o w ork e arlier a nd t hat t he c ultivators p referred t hose l ocated i n c lose p roximity t o t heir v illage . I ndeed, n o s ingle s ite s urveyed b y u s i n western S amaria was without i nstallations f or p ressing o il . A f urther c onjecture m ay b e p ut f orward , n amely ,

t hat

t he

o pen-air o live

p resses

i n

t he

f ields

w ere

a bandoned

i n

f avour o f o ther c rops s uch a s g rapevines . W e h ave a pparent a rchaeological e vidence f or a ll t hese s uggestions , a nd s everal e xamples c an b e t entatively s ubmitted. F ig. 1 01 P h . 7 9

T he e quippage o f a f ragmentary y am , c rusher a nd s tone m ortar w as c leared o n s ite 5 9

o f

w ere a ncient .

t he U m-Rihan a rea . T he p ress

I t

w as

i nstallations

q uite

c lear

t hat

t he

f ractures

l ay c lose t o a n i mpressively l arge

w inepress w ith a l arge t reading f loor o f

6 .25

b y 5 .90

m . ,

a nd

a r eception

t ank w ith a c apacity o f 8 ,000 t o 1 0,000 l itres o f must . I t w ould s eem t hat t he o il p ress 's a ppliances h ad b een s hifted t o m ake r oom f or t he i mpressive w inepress .

P ottery o f t he H ellenistic p eriod w as

f ound

b ut

n ear

t he

p ress

i nstallations,

1 73

t he

r eception

t anks

o f

t he

w ine

p ress c ontained p ottery o f t he i st a nd 2 nd c enturies C .E .

T his m ay b e

e vidence f or a c hange i n c rops , a t at ime w hen w ine w as t aking t he p lace o f o il . B ut i t m ight a lso b e c onjectured t hat t he o wners o f t he t ract h ad m oved t o l ive i n t he v illage o f U m-Rihan i tself , a nd h ad a bandoned t he o live p ress i n t he f ield i n f avour o f m ore a dvanced p resses i n t he s ettlement ( see b elow ).

T ype 6 .

O il P resses i n S ettlements.

W hen t he t echnique o f t he y am a nd c rusher w as w inning i ts p lace , a t s ome d ate a t t he e nd o f t he E arly I ron A ge o r a t

t he b eginning o f

t he P ersian

p eriod, n o o live p ress worthy o f t he n ame c ould b e f ound w hich d id n ot p ossess t hese t wo b asic a ppliances w ithin i ts w alls . B ut i n c ontrast t o t he o pen-air o live p resses i n t he f ield , w here t here i s n o e vidence f or t he m ethod o f p ressing a nd s queezing , i nstallations a re f ound i n s itu i n t he s ettlements t hemselves . E ast o f Um-Rihan a s urvey a nd t rial d ig w ere c onducted i n a n e ntire f armstead c alled Q asr e -Lejah ( G .R . 1 673 - 2 016) . T he f armstead m easured a pproximately 3 0 b y 3 0 m" a nd i ts c entral c ourtyard w as s urrounded b y b uildings f or c rafts, s ervices a nd h abitation . A n i mpressive t ower p rojected a t t he s outh-western c orner , p erhaps t he c lassical p yrgos w hich w as t he o wner 's r esidence . T he n orth-east c orner p ossessed a n o live p ress , m any o f w hose c omponents r emained . T he p ress w as l ocated i n a c hamber 1 b y 1 0 m . , a nd t he e ntrance w as f rom t he f armyard . A y am made o f h ard w ell-tooled l imestone, f our m onolithic b etulot ( the v ertical s tones b etween w hich t he p ress-beam w as i nserted ) a nd s tone w eights s haped l ike t runcated c ones , w ere f ound i n s itu . T he d iameter o f t he y am w as 2 .07 m . ,

i ts h eight 0 .045

m .

T he s inking o f

t he a xle-pivot

m easured

0 .23 b y 0 .23, i ts d epth b eing 0 .45 m . Two p airs o f i mpressive s tone p illars s tood e ach s ide o f t he y am , r egarded b y s ome a s t he b etulot o f t he o live p ress .1 6 ) T heir f unction w as t o h old t he p ress-beam o n a s teady a xis, o r t o a ct a s ab rake o r c atch a t t he f ixed e nd o f t he b eam . A t a d istance o f f our m etres f rom t he a bove p illars t he b eam-weights c ould b e s een , t he f irst p ossessing a t hrough h ole w ith w hich t o h ang t hem o n t he f ree e nd o f t he b eam . T he r est o f t he a ppliances o f t he o live-press w ere b uried i n d ebris , a nd t heir n ature c an o nly b e t entatively r econstructed . W e h ave h ere a n o live p ress i n w hich t he p ressing s tage w as c arried o ut b y a h eavy b eam , t he p ress b eam o f t he H ebrew s ources .' ' I ts l ength c an b e r econstructed , b ut t hat d epends o n o ur u nderstanding o f t he f unction o f t he ' betulot '

p illars .

A ccording

p ress a t T irat Y ehudah ,

t o

t he

p roposed

r econstruction

o f

t he

o live

t he ' betulot ' p illars h eld t he b ase o f t he p ressing

i nstallations a nd t he b askets c ontaining t he o lives .1 8 ) I f w e a ccept t his r econstruction f or Q asr e -Lejah t he l ength o f t he p ress-beam w as f ive m etres o n t he n orth a nd s ix m etres o n t he s outh , t he c alculation o f t he d istances b eing b ased o n t he d istance b etween t he w all i n w hich t he f ixed e nd o f t he b eam w as p lanted a nd t he p oint w here t he s tone w eights w ere p laced . B ut a n a lternative p ossibility e xists , t hat t he s tone p illars a cted a s b ases i n w hich t he b eam w as s ecurely a nchored , a s w as t he c ase i n t he o live p ress a t H irbet N ajar ( below) . I n t hat c ase t he b eams w ere a t l east o ne m etre s horter. I t i s a n i nteresting f act

t hat t he p lanners o f t he p ress p laced i n i t

t wo a ppliances f or p ressing a nd s queezing , o f t he l ong b eam a nd s tone w eights .

w hich o /erated o n t he p rinciple

T his s hows t hat t he o utput o f t he

c rushing a nd p ulping w ith t he y am a nd c rusher w as d ouble t hat o f t wo c ontrivances f or s queezing . I t w ould s eem t hat t he s tage o f p ressing a nd s queezing w as t he s lowest a nd m ost p roblematic i n e very p eriod a nd i n e very

1 74

t ype o f i nstallation . P ottery

o f

t he

l ate

H ellenistic

p eriod

was

f ound

i n

t he

t rial

e xcavation c onducted r ound t he y am o f t he p ress , b ut a s t he e xcavation w as r estricted i n s cope , i t w as h ard t o k now a t t hat s tage w hether t he Q asr e L ejah f armstead w as H ellenistic , a s w ell .

o r w hether i t h ad e xisted i n o ther p eriods

T he O il P resses o f H irbet U m-Rihan. D uring t he p reparation o f a p lan o f t he s ettlement o f H irbet U m-Rihan r emains w ere f ound o f e ight o live p resses ,1 9) b uilt i nside t he s ettlement a nd d ispersed f rom t he n orth t o t he s outh . Y am-stones a nd c rushers w ere f ound b oth i n s itu a nd o therwise , a lso t he s tone p illars k nown a s b etulot . T he c hambers c ontaining t he p resses w ere o f c onsiderable a rea, a s f or F ig.

1 02

P h . 8 0

e xample

t he

c entral

c hamber

o f

P ress

2 5,

w hich w as

a dditional r ooms w hich w ere , i t s eems , a ttached .

1

b y

1 0

m . ,

b esides

T he p ressing a nd s queezing

i n t he p resses o f U m-Rihan w orked w ith t he a id o f ab eam a nd s tone w eights , s o r esembling t he m ethod r ecorded a t t he f armstead o f Q asr e -Lejah . A s urvey o f t he p ottery a t H irbet U m-Rihan i ndicated a p eriod i n t he i st a nd 3 rd c enturies C .E . , y et t o b e c arried o ut.

b ut a m ore e xtensive e xcavation o f t he s ite h as

H irbet U m-Rihan r eveals

t he i nteresting p henomenon o f a c oncentration

o f o live p resses i n t he s ettlement i tself d espite

t he

e cological

p roblems

which t his c ertainly i nvolved . T he r emoval o f t he s urplus f luids a nd o ther w aste , t he n oise a nd t he s mells, w ere u ndoubtedly a s erious n uisance t o t he i nhabitants o f t he n earby h ouses. N evertheless, i t a ppears t hat c onsiderations f avouring t he p ressing o f o live o il i n t he s ettlement i tself p revailed .

V arious

c onjectures

c an

b e

e ntertained

c oncerning

c onsiderations d etermining t he l ocation o f p resses i n t he s ettlement ,

t he s ome

e conomic a nd s ome s ocial. O ne o f

t he

c onjectures

a lready v oiced i s c onnected w ith t he c haracter

a nd d evelopment o f t he s ettlement,

f rom t he s tage w hen t he p opulation t ook

u p i ts h oldings o n t he l and u ntil t he g rowth o f a l arge o rganised v illage w ith a d eveloped s ocial s tructure a nd v arious p ublic i nstitutions . b e s upposed

t hat

I t m ay

t he l and-holders w ere a ttracted t o t he n ucleated v illage ,

w hich a fforded i ts i nhabitants g reater s afety a nd a s ocial a nd c ommunal l ife . I t i s a lso t o b e a ssumed t hat c onsiderations o f e conomic a dvantage r estricted t he n umber o f o live p resses i n t he o pen c ountry , w hen s everal p lanters

c ould s et u p a c ooperative o live p ress o r h ire

t he s ervice o f a n

e xistent p lant. T he o live p icking a nd p ressing s eason c ontinued f or f ifty o r s ixty d ays, a nd i t w as e ssential t o e xploit t he t ime a nd t he e quipment t o t he m aximum p ossible

e xtent .

I t

may

r easonably

b e s upposed

t hat

t he i ndividual

c ultivator w as n ot c apable o f o perating t he p ress f or t wo o r t hree s hifts , w hereas t he p ress o f a m an o f c apital o r o ne t hat w as c ooperatively o wned c ould o perate m any h ours w ithout p ause .

L abourers ,

e ven w omen ,

c ould b e

e mployed i n t he s ettlement 's p resses .2 °) I n s uch c ase t he c ultivator h ad t ime f or o ther k inds o f w ork , w ithout h aving t o b e t ied d own a ll t he t ime b y p icking a nd p ressing .

F rom t he s ocial p oint o f v iew t he p resses o f H irbet

J em 'ein a nd Um-Rihan r esemble o ne a nother . T hey s erved t he p lanters ' c ommunity w hich w as f ederated o n a c ommon b asis f or t he p urpose o f m ore

1 75

e fficient p rocessing o f t he p roduce .

D espite t he t ime-interval o f a

t housand y ears b etween t he t wo t ypes o f o live p ress , e conomic n eeds w ere t he f actors w hich d etermined a s imilarity i n t he o rganisation o f w ork.

T ype 7 .

T he O il P ress a t H irbet N ajar .

I n 1 978 w e c arried o ut a t rial e xcavation t o e xamine a n o live p ress o f F ig.

1 03

n otable

s ize ,

N ajar ( GAL

f irst

r ecorded

1 511 - 1 696) .2 1 )

b y

t he

e mergency

s urvey

o f

1 968 ,

a t

H irbet

T he p ress i s o n t he t op o f a h ill n orth-east

o f t he s ettlement . Owing t o i ts s ize a nd f orm, a nd t he v arious i nstallations w hich w e f ound t here , i t c ould b e c lassed a s a t ype o n i ts T he p ress a ssemblage e xtends o ver a n a rea o f a pproximately 3 3 b y 1 5 b eing c omposed o f u nits o f v arious s izes . T he p ress i s b uilt o f h ard m asoned l imestone b locks , l aid i n t wo f aces w ith a n i ntermediate f ill o f O WL

m .,

P h . 8 1

s maller s tones b etween t hem . T he t hickness o f t he w alls , w hich a re d ry l aid , v aries f rom 0 .50 t o 1 .00 m ., a nd t hey s urvive t o a h eight o f 1 . 00 t o 1 . 50 m . T he p ress i s d ivided i nto s everal u nits , t he f unctions o f s ome o f w hich a re c lear ; f or o thers w e h ave ' reconstructed ' a r easonable f unction . ( 1 ) i s t he c hamber w hich h oused t he p ress a nd o ther w ork i nstallations . T he c entre o f t he r oom i s o ccupied b y a y am o f h ard l imestone ( 3) , 1 . 20 m . i n d iameter a nd 0 .53 m . h igh . I t w as f ound b roken i nto t wo p ieces , a nd i s o f u nusual f orm , a s i t i s w ithout a s inking f or t he c olumn , a nd t he i nner f ace o f t he s tone i s g raded i nto t hree ' s teps ' , 0 .30 m . d eep . T he y am i s m ore l ike a l arge b asin w ith a n i nner d iameter o f 1 . 20 m .

T he r emains o f

t he c rusher w ere n ot f ound i n t he p ress , s o t hat w e c an o nly c onjecture h ow i t w orked . A l ense-shaped c rusher a dapted t o t he i nternal g radation m ay h ave r evolved i n t he y am , b ut t he a bsence o f a s inking f or t he m ain c olumn s hows t hat t his w as a s pecial t ype o f c rusher, which d id n ot n eed t he s upport o f a p ivot . T he c apacity o f t he y am w as 3 00 l itres o r m ore , w hich i s a v ery r espectable q uantity f or o ne b out o f t he c rusher . ( 2) w as a d evice f or h olding t he f ixed e nd o f t he p ress-beam . I t c omprised t hree m onolithic s tones i n t he f orm o f a t rilithon , w hich w as p laced n ear t he w estern w all o f w as 2 .40 m ; t hey 0 .50 m . l ong , i n w as l aid o n t he

t he p ress c hamber . T he h eight o f t he v ertical m onoliths w ere s et o n t he b edrock o f t he c hamber a nd m easured 0 .90 b y b readth a nd t hickness . T he c apstone w as 2 . 10 m . l ong , a nd t op o f t he t wo v ertical m onoliths , t he d istance b etween t he

l atter p air b eing 0 .60 m . T he e ntire t rilithon s tood s ome 0 .30 m . f rom t he w estern w all o f t he c hamber , b ut o n a n a xis s lightly s kewed i n r elation t o t he w all .

T he w eight o f t he t hree m onoliths w as a bout 1 0 t ons .

A t hrough h ole 0 .20 m . • in d iameter h ad b een b ored f rom s ide t o s ide o f t he s outhern m onolith a t ah eight o f 1 . 20 m .

A s imilar h ole e xisted i n t he

n orthern m onolith , b ut d id n ot p ierce t he e ntire s tone . I t s eems t o h ave b een a n a rrangement f or k eeping t he p ress b eam , w hich c ould h ave m oved u p a nd d own , o n a s hort f irm a xis ; t he a rrangement , w hether m ade o f w ood o r p erhaps a s tone o f c ylindrical s hape , p ierced t he ' f ixed ' e nd o f t he p ressb eam f rom s ide t o s ide. S ix m etres e ast o f t he a pparatus f or h olding t he b eam w as a p ear-shaped s tone w eight ( 4) m easuring 1 . 00 b y 0 .90 m . I t k ilograms . T wo t hrough h oles p ierced t he h ead ,

w eighed a bout a t housand p robably f or a ttaching i t

t o t he e nd o f t he b eam . I t w ould b e r easonable t o s uppose t hat t here w ere o ther s maller w eights w hich h ave s ince d isappeared . T he l ength o f t he b eam c an b e

r estored a s 6 .00 t o 6 .50 m . A ccording t o D rachman 's c alculations apable o f t he w eight o f ab eam o f s imilar l ength a pproached 5 00 k g . a nd w a s2 )c

e xerting a p ressure o f 1 0 t ons o r m ore o n t he b askets o f o lives .

1

T he s tronger t he p ressure o n t he o live p ulp ,

t he q uicker t he s queezing

a ction . I n o ur c ountry w e h ave n ot d iscovered a d evice c omparable t o t his , w hether i n s ize o r w eight ( 10), b ut t he m ethod w as c ommon i n n orth A frica i n o live p resses o f t he R oman p eriod .2 3) B esides

t he

p ress

b eam ,

t he

p lant

a t

H irbet N ajar

o perated a s crew-

p ress, w hose b ase , w hich w as o f s tone ( 5), w as f ound i n s itu . D rachman r econstructed a s crew p ress o n t he a uthority o f P liny 's d escription o f t he p arts .2 4)

T his d evice a ppears t o h ave s upplemented t he p ress b eam ,

a nd i t

c ould b e b rought i nto a ction i n o rder t o e xtract a dditional o il, o r f or s maller q uantities o f p ulped o lives . B oth p ressing d evices c ould w ork t ogether ,

p roviding

f urther

p roof

d ifferences b etween t he a ctivity o f

t hat

t here

were

n o

t he b eam a nd t hat o f

c hronological

t he p ress .

T he

t wo c olumn b ases ( 7) a ppear t o s how t hat p art o f t he p ress c hamber was r oofed , a nd i t may b e s upposed t hat p art o f t he c hamber , o f

t he

i nstallations ,

w as

u nroofed .

O ur

d igging

m ainly i n t he a rea

f ailed

d iscover

t he

p ress 's s ump o r t he p ressing a rea o n which t he b askets were l aid,

t o

b ut

c omparison w ith o ther o live p resses w orking o n t he p rinciple o f t he b eam , s uch a s t hat a t T irat Y ehudah i n I srael , S yria ,

a nd t he o live p resses o f B ehio i n

s howed t hat25 _ t ) he b askets w ere p laced i n t he f irst t hird o f t he l ength

o f t he p ress b eam . A l arge o live p ress s uch a s t hat a t H irbet N ajar w as p robably m anaged b y f oremen a nd a manager . l odged t his s taff .

R oom 6 , w ith a n a rea o f 3 b y 3 m .,

c ould h ave

I ts d irect p roximity t o t he p roduction c hamber o n t he

o ne h and, a nd t he i solation p rovided b y t he c olonnade ( 7) o n t he o ther, i ndicate t hat t he r oom w as o f as pecial c haracter . T he r emains o f ad oorway ( 8) f acing t he e xterior o f t he " manager 's r oom" ,

t he o live p ress w ere f ound

i n t he e ast w all o f

a nd f rom i t s upervision c ould b e e xercised o ver t hose

b ringing t he o lives a s t hey e ntered t he p roduction c hamber .

A p assage t wo

m etres w ide ( 9), s uitable f or t he p assage o f a nimals , e nabled t he t ransport o f o lives f rom t he f ield s traight i nto t he s aid c hamber . W e

m ay n ow

t urn t o

t he

r emaining c omponents

o f

t he

o live p ress ,

e ndeavour t o r econstruct t he c ourse o f w ork f rom t he d elivery o f

a nd

t he f ruit

f rom t he f ield t o t he p ress c hamber . A part f rom t he w ide e ntrance ( 9) whose p urpose was p erhaps t he t ransport o f o lives o n b easts o f b urden s traight

t o

t he

p ress ,

t he

l atter c ould

b e

e ntered

t hrough a n o pening a t

( 15) . A l arge o pen c ourtyard ( 16) e nabled e ntry a nd ' i maid i ce f or m en a nd a nimals . R oom 1 3 , w hich m easured 4 b y 3 m" c ould h ave s erved a s ac entre f or r egistration a nd g eneral a dministration . T he b ase o f ah andsome s tone c olumn i n t he m iddle o f t his r oom ( 14) s hows t hat i t w as r oofed .

T he

l intels a nd s tone s ill ( 12) l ed t o a c hamber ( 10) c lose t o t he p ress i nstallations . O ne o f t he d oor-jambs ( 12) p ossessed a t apered h ole, e vidently f or t ethering a b east o f b urden .

T he d oor c ould b e c losed b y a

b olt, whose s inkings w ere v isible i n t he d oor-jambs . C hamber 1 0 was p erhaps u sed f or t he p reparation o f t he o lives f or p rocessing a nd f or t he c oncentration o f w aste w hen t he p ressing a nd s queezing w ere f inished . C hambers 1 7 - 1 8 l ook l ike s tore r ooms ,

p erhaps f or s toring t he o il j ars

c ontaining t he f inished p roduct .

T he P ottery a nd t he D ating o f t he P ress. P otsherds a nd g lass o f t he i st t o 4 th c enturies C .E . , t he

t rial

e xcavation

n ear

t he

y am,

1 77

t he

s tone

w ere f ound d uring

weight

a nd

t he

b eam-

i nstallation .

P ottery o f t he ' late R oman ' t ype ,

w as f ound i n t he p ress a nd i n t he s ettlement .

n otable f or i ts q uantity , T he e xcavators o f S amaria-

S ebaste s tated t hat t hese v essels w ere w idespread c hiefly i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies C .E . , b ut b egan i n t he 2 nd , a nd c ontinued t o a ppear a lso i n t he 5 t h .2 6) I n a ddition t o p ottery o f E arly I ron A ge I I f ound o n t he s ite , w e e ncountered t he b ase o f a t erra s igillata b owl a nd f ragments o f H erodian a mphorae . N o v essels c haracteristic o f t he l ate B yzantine p eriod w ere d iscovered . O n t he e vidence o f t he p ottery f inds, t herefore, w e m ay s uggest a c hronological f rame f or t he o live p ressing e stablishment o f H irbet N ajar . I t w ould a ppear t o h ave b een e stablished a nd w as a lready a t w ork i n t he f irst c entury B .C .E" a nd C hamber 1 i s i ts e arliest n ucleus . T he p ress e xperienced a lteration a nd e xtension d uring t he i st t o 3 rd c enturies, c hamber ( 10 ) , a nd s ubsequently , u nits ( 16) - ( 18) b eing a dded . T he p ress a ppears t o h ave w orked i n t he 4 th t o 5 th c enturies a lso ,

b ut

t he s ettlement h ad s uffered d amage i n o ne o f t he S amaritan r isings a nd t he e stablishment w as f inally a bandoned .

O bservations o n t he N ature o f t he H irbet N ajar P ress. T he p ress e stablishment e xtends o ver a n a rea o f 4 00 s q .

m"

a nd c an b e

v iewed a s a l arge i ndustrial u nit, i n c ontrast t o t he o live p resses p reviously s urveyed . O nly a t ' Ein Q inyah ( G .R . 1 64-148) n orth-west o f R amallah h ave w e m apped a nd s urveyed a p ress r esembling t he H irbet N ajar p lant i n s ize . H irbet N ajar w as a s ettlement o f 8 0 t o 9 0 f amilies , a part f rom t he c entral o live p ress n o o ther p resses w ere d etected.

a nd

T he l ocal c ultivators a ppear t o h ave o perated o ne c ommunal p ress f rom t he f irst, a nd when t he y ields g rew a nd t he q uantity i ncreased, t hey e nlarged t he e xisting p ress . W e h ave a lready s uggested t hat t he c ommunal p ress b elonging t o s everal c ultivators w as p referable f rom t he a gricultural a nd e conomic p oint o f v iew t o t he p rivate p resses . N ajar m ay s erve a s a g ood e xample o f t he a ctivity o f a p easant c ommunity w hich b uilt c ommunal i nstallations f or p rocessing i ts a gricultural p roduce. A n

a nalysis

o f

t he

s ettlement 's

s tructure

o n

t he

g rounds

o f

i ts

a rchaeological r emains , e nables u s t o d educe t he e xistence o f f amilies o r k inships o f s imilar e conomic a nd s ocial c lass . A t t he h ighest p oint o f t he s ettlement , n evertheless , w e f ind o ne r esidential a ssemblage s uperior i n a rea a nd b uilding s tyle t o t he o ther s tructures; t his i s p erhaps t o b e r egarded a s t he p roperty o f t he f ounders o r o f t he w ealthiest l ocal f amily . B ut t he o ther r esidential a ssemblages a re i n n o s ense m odest, a nd t he g eneral p icture o f t he s ettlement 's s tructure i s r ecognisable i n t he u niformity o f i ts b uilding a nd t he m utual s imilarity o f a ll t he u nits . F or t his r eason w e d o n ot t hink t hat t he p ress p lant was t he p roperty o f o ne o f t he w ealthy m en o f t he s ettlement , w hile t he o ther k inships m erely h ired i ts s ervice . T he i mpression i s t hat o f a l arge e fficient p roject c ommon i n s ome w ay o r o ther t o a ll t he p lantation o wners o f t he v illage .

I nstallations a nd O live P resses: O ther T ypes. P roofs o f t he v ariety o f i nstallations f or p ressing o live o il h ave b een f ound o n o ther s ites i n S amaria .

S o f ar w e h ave d escribed p resses i n w hich

t he p ress-beam p ressed t he p ulped o lives w ith t he a id o f s tone w eights o f t runcated c onical s hape , 1 . 00 - 1 . 30 m . , h ung b y r opes a t t he f ree e nd o f

1 78

t he b eam .

S tone w eights o f c ylindrical s hape ,

a pproximately 1 .00 m"

i n d iameter ,

1 . 00 - 1 . 30 m . i n h eight a nd

a re k nown i n l iterature a nd f rom o ther

s ites i n t his c ountry .2 7 ) A l arge n umber o f s uch w eights w ere f ound i n a s urvey o f t he a ncient s ites o n t he f lank o f M ount H ermon , a nd e vidently t his was t he o nly s ettlements . 28)

method a pplied i n t he o live p resses o f t he H ermon T he f unction o f t he c ircular w eights , w hich s ometimes w ere

o f d ifferent s hape , w as w ell e xplained a nd r econstructed b y D rachman .2 9 ) T he w eights c onstituted t he f ixed o r r aisable b ase h olding t he w ooden s crew t hat d rew t he p ress-beam d own w hen i t w as p ressing o n t he b askets . w ith b eams ,

P resses

s crew a nd s tone w eights w ere s till f unctioning i n E retz Y israel

i n t he ' twenties o f

t he p resent c entury . 3°)

T he S amaria s urvey f ound e vidence o f o live p resses f unctioned w ith t he a id o f a s crew a nd weights.

i n w hich t he b eams

A c ylindrical weight

e xists a t t he f arm o f H irbet B asatin , i n t he c hamber c ontaining t he o live p ress . C ircular w eights w ere a lso f ound a t T anurah a nd H amad, i n t he

P h , 8 2

v icinity o f o ther o live p resses . N ot a ll t he t ypes o f p ress w orking i n S amaria a re s ubject t o r estoration , b ut t here i s n o d oubt t hat t he m ethod w hereby

t he

b eam w as

f orced

d own b y a w ooden s crew a nchored

i n

a h eavy

w eight , w as a s w idespread a nd a s p opular a s i n o ther p arts o f t he c ountry .

U nderground O live P resses. E vidence

o f

u nderground

o live p resses

h as

b een o bserved

a t

T ayasir

i n

e astern S amaria a nd o n t he h ill o f t he m ilitary c amp a t K efr Q adum , t he s ite o f t he n ew s ettlement o f Q edumim . •

T he p ress a t T ayasir m ay b e a n a bandoned A rab o live p ress o f t raditional

t ype ,

b ut t he i nstallations p reserved t here ,

s uch a s t he o ak b eam ,

t he y am

a nd t he c rusher , i ndicate a n a ncient u nderground t ype . A l arge o live p ress w as e xcavated o n t he h ill o f Q edumim , p art o f whose e quipment, s uch a s t he c isterns f or o il s torage, h ad b een c ut i n t he r ock b elow g round-level . A ccording t o i nvestigation , F igs.

1 04

t he t estimony o f Y itzhak Maggen , who c arried t he p ottery i n t he p ress w as o f t he R oman p eriod .

o ut

t he

U nderground p resses a re f ound i n o ther a reas o f t he c ountry , c hiefly i n

1 05 t he v icinity o f Marissa 3 1 ) a nd B eth G ovrin . 32) d istrict a re e xceptionally w ell-preserved . T here

i s

T hose i n t he Marissa a s imilarity b etween

t he c rushing d evices i n M arissa a nd t hose i n B ehio .3 3)

T he d ifferences b etween t he C rushing D evices i n E retz Y israel a nd t hose i n I taly. T he d etailed a ccount o f t he p ress i nstallations i n a ncient I taly a nd t he a rchaeological

f inds

f rom

v arious

e xcavations

e nabled

D rachman

t o

r econstruct t he e xact f orm o f t he y am a nd t he c rusher .3 4 ) T he I talian y am w as m ade o f b asalt . I t w as s aucer-shaped w ith s ides t hat s lope i nwards . A c olumn i n i ts c entre r ose s lightly h igher t han t he l ip o f t he s aucer , a nd p ossessed i n i ts c entre a s inking f or a v ertical m etal r od , t he l atter b eing c lamped i nto t he s inking w ith l ead . T he c entral c olumn c arried t wo l enses haped c rushers w hich m oved w ith t he a id o f t he t imber b eam f ixed t o t he p ivot . T he t wo c rushers o f t he I talian y am r ested o n t he c entral c olumn w ithout

t ouching t he s ides o f

t he y am .

A s a ll p arts o f

t he y am

a nd

t he

c rusher w ere a ccurately f itted t o o ne a nother t here was a t heoretical i nterval o f 1 .8 c m . b etween t he t wo c rushers a nd t he walls o f t he y am .

1 79

I nvestigators g ive t wo r easons f or t he p eculiar s tructure o f t he a bove I talian c omponents: 1 ) T he d esire t o a void u ndue f riction b etween t he a reas e xpensive p arts : 2 ) T he o il c ontained i n t he k ernel o f t he I talian o live w as t hought t o s poil t he t aste o f t he r emaining o il . T his l atter p henomenon i s n on—existent i n t he o lives o f t he S yrian a nd E retz Y israel v arieties , a nd a n e nquiry c onducted a mong t he p ress o wners i n S amaria s howed t hat t he p henomenon w as u nknown t o t hem . F or t his r eason t he l ocal c rusher b reaks u p a nd g rinds t he s hells t ogether w ith t he k ernel , n or a re t here a ny u npleasant s ide—effects . H ence i t e merges t hat t he q uality o f t he v ariety d etermined t he t echnological p rocess a nd t he f orm o f t he

i nstallations .

T he y am a nd

t he c rusher i n t his

c ountry p ossessed a

h igher o utput , a nd t he I talian c omponents w ere s maller t han t hose k nown h ere . D rachman m easured y ar nstones i n t he I talian m useums w hose i nternal d iameter v aried f rom 4 5-53 .7 c m ., w hile t hat o f t he c rusher w as i n t he n eighbourhood o f 7 0 c m . A d iameter o f o ne m etre w hich o ccurred i n N aples , w as r egarded a s l arge .3 5) T he I talian y am i s d eeper t han t hose i n t his c ountry , w hich m ay e xplain t he s maller d imensions .

S o f ar a s t he w riter i s

a ware , al ense—shaped c rusher o f t he I talian t ype h as b een f ound o nly i n t he a rea o f M ay 'an B arukh i n U pper G alilee .

2 .

T he C hronology o f t he S amarian P resses. S even

t ypes

o f

o live—press

f ound

d uring

f ield

e xploration

h ave

b een

d escribed h ere . T hey s eem t o c ompose a r eliable c ross—section o f t hose i n t he a rea . W e h ave e ndeavoured t o s uggest a c hronological s etting a nd t he s ocial—economic b ackground o f e ach t ype . W e h ave i ncluded i n T ype ( 1 ) a ll v arieties o f d epressions , c upmarks a nd b odedot , i n w hich o live o il c ould b e p repared f or t he p easant a nd h is f amily . V ery l ikely t hese a re t he m ost a ncient o f t he i nstallations , a nd t heir f irst e mployment c an b e a scribed t o t he p eriod i n w hich m an l earned t o e xtract o il f rom t he o live . D espite t heir a ntiquity , w e h ave s een t hat t hey w ere u sed i n a ll p eriods d own t o m odern t imes a mong t he h ill—villages o f E retz Y israel . T ype ( 2) i ncludes c upmarks a nd a b eam t o p ress t he c rushed o lives. T his m ay b e r egarded a s a t echnological i mprovement , i n w hich t he b eam a nd s tone w eights h elped t o o vercome t he p roblematic p hase o f c onverting t he o live t o o il, i .e . t he p hase o f s queezing a nd w ringing o f t he c rushed o lives . I t h ad b ecome c lear t hat t hese i nstallations w ere c ommon i n E arly I ron A ge I I , b ut i t w ill c ome a s n o s urprise i f t hey t urn o ut t o h ave b egun e arlier , p erhaps i n t he s ettlements o f E arly I ron A ge I . W e h ave i ncluded i n T ype ( 3) t he p ress a t H irbet J em 'ein . T his i s a n a ssemblage o f i nstallations o n a n i ndustrial s cale, i n w hich a ll t he p hases o f o il e xtraction a re f ound c oncentrated i n o ne a rea , f rom c rushing t hrough s queezing a nd w ringing d own t o u nderground s torage t anks w ith a c apacity o f t housands o f l itres .

T he p ress b elonged i n a ll p robability t o t he v illage

i n w hich i t w as s ituated ,

a nd c an b e s een a s a c entral p roject o perated b y

t he e ntire p opulation o f t he p lace . H irbet J em 'ein w as a v illage o f E arly I ron A ge I I , i ts m ain s ettlement b eing i n t he 8 th a nd 7 th c enturies B .C .E . T he o live p ress i s a n e xcellent e xample o f e conomic a nd s ocial c ooperation b y a b ody o f E arly I ron A ge c ultivators , a ssociating t hemselves f or t he c ommunal p rocessing o f a gricultural p roduce . T he c ommunal o peration o f t he w ine c ellars i nforms u s o f ah igh l evel o f s ocial o rganisation a mong t he m ountain t ribes o f t he k ingdom o f I srael . S ociety i n t he v illages o f t he t ype o f H irbet J em 'ein m ay h ave b een

o rganised i n k inships , w hich w ould f urther h ave f acilitated o rganisation f or t he c ommon o peration o f t he a gricultural i nstallation . W e h ave d escribed t he p ress i nstallation o f T ype ( 4 ) i n o rder t he b etter t o u nderstand d evelopment i n t he p ulverizing o f o lives .

W e f ound n o

c omplete c ontrivances o f t his t ype i n o ur s urvey o r e xcavations , b ut i t m ay b e a ssumed t hat t hey e xisted , a lthough n ot y et d iscovered , i n S amaria . I n T ype ( 4 ) w e h ave i ncluded a p rimitive y am o f E arly I ron A ge I I o f t he t ype f ound , e .g . a t S ycaminum . I n c ontrast t o t he a ccepted v iew , w hich s ees t hem a s m ere p ressing c ontrivances a ccompanied b y a b ase o n w hich t o p lace t he b askets ,

w e t hink t hat t he c ircular s tones w ere u sed i n t he p rocess o f

c rushing w ith t he a id o f ah and o perated c rusher , a nd t hat t hey m ay b e s een a s t he b eginning o f t he l ater y am a nd c rusher . I t i s h ard t o s uppose t hat t he i mproved y am a nd c rusher a ppeared i n t his c ountry s uddenly , w ithout b eing p receeded b y t ransitional i nstallations . r equires f urther r esearch , c hiefly b y t he

T his p hase o f d evelopment e xcavation o f p resses i n

s ettlements o f E arly I ron A ge I I a nd I II . W e

h ave

g rouped

w ith

T ype

( 5 )

p resses

w ith y am a nd

c rusher

i n t heir

f inal s tage o f d evelopment . W e a scribe t o t his g roup t he o pen-air p resses s o f requent i n S amaria . E xcavation a nd a rchaeological s urvey e vidence t hat t he p ress w ith y am a nd c rusher was a lready c ommon i n t he 4 th a nd 3 rd c enturies B .C .E .

O n s ome s ites e xamined b y u s i t c an b e p laced a t t he e nd

o f t he P ersian p eriod . D espite t he w idespread a ssumption t hat t he y am a nd c rusher w ere a n i mported H ellenistic i nvention , w e b elieve t hat t he i nstallations a re t he r esult o f l ocal d evelopment . A lthough i nfluences f rom o ne o r o ther c ountry s hould n ot b e d iscounted , o live p lanting a nd o il p roduction h ad v ery d eep r oots i n t his c ountry a nd t he t echnical d evelopment o f p ress i nstallations w as e vidently b ased o n l ocal e xperience a nd k now-how . T he w idespread d iffusion o f o pen-air p resses i n t he f ields t estifies t o t echnological

s implicity

a nd

t he

e conomic

a bility

o f

t he

m ountain

c ultivators t o b uild p resses f or t hemselves n ear t heir o wn p lantations . W e h ave c onjectured t hat t he a bandonment o f o pen-air p resses m ay h ave b een c onnected w ith a c hange i n c rops, o r w ith a t ransfer t o t he n ucleated s ettlement a nd t he p rocessing o f o live p roduce i n l arge p resses o f t he m ore a dvanced t ype s een a t H irbet U m-Rihan i tself . T ype 6 i ncludes p resses i nside v illages . T hese d o n ot r eflect a v ital a dvance f rom a t echnological p oint o f v iew, b ut t hey a re o f l arge d imensions a nd c ould b e o perated c ontinuously i n t hree s hifts , a nd t heir e xistence e vidences s ome s ort o f c ooperation i n t he p rocessing o f t he o lives . W e h ave n oted t hat t he i dea o f t he p ress o n t he m argin o f t he s ettlement w as a lready a t w ork i n E arly I ron A ge I I , s o t hat i ts c ontinued e xistence a nd d evelopment w ere c ertainly b ound u p w ith c orresponding s ocial a nd e conomic c ircumstances . T he

i ncrease o f

s ettlement)

p resses

a t H irbet U m-Rihan

m ay i mply a s ociety o f

i ndependent

( eight

p resses

c ultivators

w ithin

t he

i n w hich e ach

c hose h is o wn p artners t o o perate t he p ress , o r p rocessed h is p roduce b y p aying o ne o f t he p ress-owners i n t he s ettlement . I t i s r easonable t o s uppose t hat t he e xistence o f a n umber o f p resses i n t he s ettlement o r o n i ts m argin m eant a d ivision o f l abour a nd t he a ppearance o f c raftsmen w ho d evoted m uch o f t heir t ime t o o perating t hem . O ur s ources , a s w e h ave s een , a lso s eason .

s peak o f

w age-workers

( men a nd w omen ) w orking i n t he p ressing

T ype 7 i s r epresented b y t he o live p ress a t H irbet N ajar , s een a s a n i ndustrial u ndertaking o n a n i mpressive s cale .

1 81

w hich c an b e T he p ress

w as

a ctive

i n

t he

R oman-Byzantine p eriod ,

a nd

i s

d istinguished

f or i ts

l arge

a rea a nd t he p ower o f i ts i nstallations . I t s erved a ll t he 8 0 o r 9 0 f amilies o f t he s ettlement , a nd d uring t he t rial e xcavation w e s aw t hat i t h ad g rown a nd d eveloped f rom a p rimary n ucleus i nto a l arge c omplex p roject . W e b elieve t hat t he p ress w orked f or a ll t he i nhabitants o f t he s ettlement , a nd i s n ot t o b e r egarded a s t he u ndertaking o f a l andowner o r s ome l ocal m an o f w ealth .

T he p roofs a re b ased o n t he p lan o f t he s ettlement a nd t he

c haracter o f i ts b uildings , w hich r eflect a c ommunity l iving m ore o r l ess a t a n e qual s tandard o f l iving a nd d omicile, w ithout a ny o bvious s ocial p olarisation , a lthough t he p ossibility o f t he e xistence o f e state o wners o r l ocal ' bosses ' o wning t he p ress s hould n ot b e c ompletely d ismissed . M ore s olid p roofs a re n ot a t o ur d isposal , b ut t he e xcavation o f H irbet N ajar m ight r eveal i ts s ecrets i n a c learer l ight .

O ther O live P resses. T he c ultivation o f

t he o live a nd t he e xtraction o f i ts o il w ere o ne o f

t he p rincipal e conomic b ranches i n S amaria . T he v ariety a nd d iffusion o f t he i nstallations d emonstrate i ts v ast e xtent a nd i ts i mportance i n t he r ural l ife o f t he r egion . I t i s n ot s urprising, t herefore, t hat t he p resses a nd c ontrivances v ary f rom d istrict t o d istrict , a nd w ere a dapted , o ne s upposes, t o t he v arieties e xperience o f t he o live-growers .

o f f ruit, t he s oil a nd t he p erennial I n a ddition t o t he o pen-air p resses i n

t he f ields a nd t hose i n t he s ettlements , w e h ave s een t hat t here w ere a lso u nderground p resses . I t i s o f i nterest t o r emark t hat t he t erm o f l ife o f o il p ress i nstallations l asted f or m any g enerations , a nd o nce a c ontrivance s uch a s t he y am a nd c rusher h ad p roved i tself i n p roduction , i t c ontinued i n s ervice f or m odification . T he T emple ,

c enturies

t echnology

o f

a lmost

t he p resses

w ithout

a ny

d eveloped

t he M ishnah a nd t he T almud ,

i n

c onsiderable

t he p eriods

o f

o r

v isible

t he S econd

s erved o live-planters i n t his

c ountry

d own t o t he t wentieth c entury , a nd p rimitive p resses a re s till f ound h ere a nd t here a mong t he m any o live p resses o f S amaria.

3 .

T he E stimated Y ields a nd O utput o f O live O il i n A ncient S amaria . A r econstruction o f t he o utput o f a ncient o il p resses w ould m ake a

s ignificant c ontribution t o t he s tudy o f o il p roduction . B ut w e a re l iving i n ap eriod i n which t he a ncient p rocesses a re c easing t o o perate , a nd e arlier

r esearchers

p aid

n o a ttention

t o

t he o utput

o f

t he p resses

w hich

w ere s till w orking i n t heir t ime . T here i s n o m ention o f q uantities o r p roduction i n t he c omprehensive w orks o f S . K rauss a nd I . L oew o n o lives a nd o live o il .3 6)

I t

i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat G . D alman ,

w ho d escribes i n

t he m ost m eticulous d etail t he i nstallations i n t he A rab v illage o f t his c ountry i n t he ' twenties, c ites n o d ata r egarding p roductivity a nd t he q uantities o f o il e xtracted . A vitzur , h owever , i n h is r esearches o n o ili nstallations i n t he A rab v illages , a ttempts t o r econstruct t he o utput a nd p roduction o f

t he t raditional i nstallations . )

I n t he c ourse o f o ur r esearch i n S amaria , m any o il p lants w ere v isited i n t he A rab v illages , a nd w e t alked t o o wners , o live-growers a nd e xperts o f t he l ocal M inistry o f A griculture , e ndeavouring , w ith t heir a ssistance , t o r econstruct t he o peration o f t he t raditional i nstallations a nd a bove a ll t o a scertain t he q uantities a nd o utput o f t he o il e xtracted.

1 82

T his t ask w as f ar f rom e asy o r s imple f or t wo r esons. a )

A ll

t he

p resses

n ow

employ,

p artly

o r

e ntirely ,

mechanical

e quipment , s ince t he u se o f a nimal p ower h as b een p rohibited b y t he h ealth a uthorities. b )

T here

i s

n o

t raditional p resses , w orkers a nd o wners. c )

r ecording

o f l abour o utput o r o il p roductivity i n t he

a nd w e w ere o bliged t o r ely o n t he

m emories

o f

a ged

W e s ometimes h ad t he i mpression t hat t he d ata f urnished t o u s w ere

l ower t han t hey w ere i n f act, t ax-investigators a cting

a nd a lthough w e e xplained t hat w e w ere n ot

f or g overnment ,

t he p easants ' n atural i nstincts

w ere i nvariably a lerted w hen w e e nquired c oncerning t heir y ields a nd i ncome . T he

o nly

w ay

n otwithstanding , h ill-country . y ears,

t o w as

r econstruct

t he

p ossible

t o c ompare t hem w ith

t he

o utput

o f

a ncient

p resses ,

t raditional p resses

o f

t he

M any o f t he t raditional p rocesses h ave d isappeared i n r ecent

b ut a pparently i t i s p ossible a nd p ermissible t o c ompare p ast

p roductivity w ith t hat o f t he p resent d ay . T he t raditional o il-pressing p rocesses k nown f rom l iterature o r f rom t he a ccounts o f p ress o wners a f ew y ears a go , n o l onger e xist . T hus , f or e xample , t he p ouring o f h ot w ater o nto t he p ulp b efore i t was p laced u nder t he p ress-beam, was c ommon i n S amaria a g eneration a go . Y ohanan b en-Ya 'aqov o f K efar t Etziyon s aw t his o peration i n a t raditional p ress i n t he t own o f H ebron . p rocess , i n

w e

S amaria . T he

k nown i n t he t raditional p resses o f G reece ,

B ut t he s ame n o l onger e xists

u 7

l ast

r esidues

o f

p ressed

o lives

w ere

o nce

p ressed

t hree

t his c ountry ,3 9)

a nd a s l ate a s 1 975 ,

a nd R as K arkar ,

w e s aw a s econd p ressing o f t he r esidue b efore i t was

c onverted t o f uel f or t he o vens .

o n o ur v isit t o t he p resses

t imes i n a t Uzun

I n 1 980 a s econd a nd t hird p ressing

t his k ind w ere n o l onger e ncountered .

o f

T he p rocesses o f d rying o lives a nd

s toring t hem o n t he r oofs o r i n t he y ards o f t he h ouses b efore t hey w ere p ut u nder p ress, h ad a lso d isappeared . T hese c hanges m ake t he r econstruction o f a ncient p rocesses m ore d ifficult, a nd h ave t o b e t aken i nto a ccount.

AR econstruction o f A ncient O il P ress P roductivity . I t i s h eld t hat s ome 7 0 k ilograms o f o lives c an b e p laced o n ay am . c rushing a nd g rinding o f o lives

t o c onvert

t hem i nto ' jelly ' ,

T he

a ccording t o

A vitzur , t akes f rom 3 0 t o 4 5 m inutes . 40) I n t he v illage o f B area i t w as a lso c laimed t hat g rinding t ook a bout 3 0 minutes. T he e xperts o f t he I srael M inistry o f A griculture , o n t he o ther h and e s tated t hat g rinding a nd c rushing

t ook

n o

m ore

t han

1 0

t o

3 0

m inutes . ")

T hose

e ndeavouring

t o

r econstruct t he o peration o f t he a ncient p ress a t T irat Y ehudah , h eld t hat g rinding w p .s b rief , a nd t hat a f ew r evolutions o f t he c rusher i n t he y am s ufficed .4 2)

I f w e a ttempt

a ncient p ress,

t o s um u p t his p hase o f

t he o peration o f

t he

w e must c onclude t hat t he a verage t ime f or g rinding a nd

c rushing 5 0 - 7 0 k g . o f o lives i n t he y am d id n ot e xceed 3 0 m inutes . I t m ay h ave b een l ess w hen a n a nimal w as t urning t he c rusher a nd t he o lives were r iper . p rocess

a nd

P ower p resses t ake a l ittle l ess t ime; t he

s eparation a re m echanical ,

o f o il a re p roduced i n t wenty-four h ours .

1 S : 11

q uantities o f

a s t he s queezing 1 ,700 - 2 ,000 k g .

T he P roductivity o f t he A ncient P ress. O nce

e quipped

w ith

i nformation

g athered

f rom

t raditional

p resses

i n

S amaria , w e m ay a ttempt t o r econstruct t he a verage o perational a bility o f t he a verage a ncient p ress . B y ' average o perational a bility ' w e m ean a n a ssemblage w hich i ncludes t he y am , t he c rusher , t he b eam w ith i ts s tone w eights , a nd t he s imple s eparating c ontrivances . A p ress w orked f or f ive d ays o f 2 4 h ours , i .e . 1 20 h ours p er w eek . I t w orked o nly 1 0 - 1 6 h ours o n F ridays . T he t otal w as t herefore 1 36 h ours p er c apacity p er h our, t herefore, w as 5 0 k g. o f o lives.

w eek .

1 36 h ours p er w eek x 5 0 k g . = 6 ,500 k g . p er w eek .

I ts

p rocessing

A n a verage o f 2 0

p ercent o f o il e xtracted w ould g ive 1 ,360 k g . o f o il p er w eek . I f i t w orked e ight w eeks , t he p ress p roduced 1 0 ,880 k g . o f o il i n t he s eason , a nd i f i t w orked t en w eeks i t p roduced 1 3 ,600 k g . f or t he s eason . E ven i f w e d educt 1 0 r espect.

p ercent

f or s toppages

a nd d efects ,

t he q uantity s till c ommands

S ome c onfirmation o f t he a bove p roductivity e stimate c an b e d erived f rom as urvey o f o live p resses i n G alilee c onducted a t t he b eginning o f t he p resent c entury b y N . V ilboshevitz. 4 3) T he a verage o utput o f o il p er p ress i n t he v illages o f G alilee w as a s f ollows:

V illage

N umber o f P resses

O utput o f O il p er P ress

Y arka

1 8

1.1 t ons

R amah

1

1 8

M 'a-ar

1 2

1 4.5

T zippori

1

9

"

I t w ould s eem t hat d espite p artial m echanisation , t he e quipment a nd t he p resses o f G alilee a t t he b eginning o f t he t wentieth c entury c an b e c ompared w ith t he a ncient p lants s urveyed i n S amaria . A s a gainst t he h igh o utput o f t he p resses o f E retz Y israel t he t raditional G reek p ress c ould p roduce a y early q uantity o f 3 ,000 l itres o f o live o il . ") T he d ifference a pparently w as t o b e f ound i n t he l ow p ercentage o f o il o f t he G reek o lives a s o pposed t o t hat o f t he o lives o f E retz Y israel a nd S yria ( below ) .

Y ields a nd t he P ercentages o f O il i n t he S amarian O live . I n t he c ourse o f o ur e ndeavour t o r econstruct t he o peration o f t he p ress a nd t he s ize o f e xamined t he

s ubject

t he o live g rove o wned b y t he a ncient c ultivator , o f

t he

p roductivity o f

t he

S amarian o live

w e

t rees a nd

t heir p ercentage o f o il . A ccording

t o

C ur ,

S piegel

a nd

G ratch ,4 5 ) t he

r eached b y t he S yrian a nd l ocal s trains :

1 84

4 0 k g .

f ollowing y ields o f

o lives

p er

c an b e

t ree

i n a

w ell

t ended

p lantation

w ith

a uxiliary

i rrigation .

I n

t heir

o pinion

t he

S yrian o live c ontains 3 0-40 p ercent w eight o f o il. A vitzur c laims t he f ollowing y ields :

I n l ean y ears 3 0-50 k g . o f o lives

p er t ree a nd o n g ood y ears 1 00-180 k g . p er t ree .4 6) I n s o f ar a s w e h ave b een a ble t o e xamine t he y ields i n t he f ield , A vitzur 's d ata s eem t o m atch t he s ituation o f t he g roves i n S amaria . B elow a ppears a l ist o f v illages i n w hich w e o btained d ata o n y ields a nd a ccepted p ercentages o f l ocally e xtracted o il . T he d ata w ere o btained i n c onversations w ith o wners o f p lantations a nd p resses . T he q uantities a pply t o u nirrigated g roves , i n w hich e ach i ndividual t ree e njoyed e xcellent a nd d evoted a ttention .

N ame o f V illage

Y ield p er t ree, k g.

S eida

‚A zun

Q arawat b ene H assan

N ormal P ercentage o f o il.

1 00

2 5

5 0-100

3 0

5 0-100

3 0

3 0-80

2 5-30

W e r eceived a verages v arying f rom 3 0 t o 1 20 k g . o f o lives i n d ozens o f o ther v illages v isited , a nd o n a n umber o f o ccasions i mpressive-looking a ncient t rees w ere s hown t o u s w hich h ad b orne 1 50 k g . o f o lives i n g ood y ears. D alman c laimed t hat i n h is t ime a n a dult t ree c ould b ear u p t o 1 20 k g . o f o lives,

f rom w hich 2 5

l itres

o f

o il

c ould b e e xtracted . 47)

H erz

f urnished s imilar d ata i n t he s ame p eriod. 4 8 ) I f w e a ttempt t o s ummarise t he a bove d ata ,

a s ingle t ree i n a w ell-

t ended o live g rove w ould p roduce a n a verage o f 5 0 k g . o r m ore a nnually . f avourable y ears t he y ield r ises , a nd f alls i n l ean y ears .

I n

O n a n a verage e stimate o f a2 0 p ercent e xtraction f rom t his q uantity o f o lives, 1 0 t o 2 0 k g . o f o il c an b e o btained f rom a m ature a dult t ree c onscientiously t ended , d epending o n t he c onditions o f t he y ear . T enney F rank c alculated t hat a s ingle t ree i n R oman I taly p roduced q uantities b etween 4 .5 t o 6k g . o f o live o i1 . 49)

A ccording t o o ur i nvestigators,

l ocal s trains i n E retz Y isreal a nd S yria a re s uperior ,

w hether i n y ields o r

i n t heir p ercentage o f o il, t o t he y ields a nd o il p ercentages o f o live g roves i n G reece a nd S yria . P liny a rgued t he s uperiority o f t he s trains o f S yria a nd E retz Y israel

o ver

t hose

o f

I taly . ")

D ata o n y ields

a nd

p ercentages o f o il e xtracted Aom t hem a re t o b e f ound , t o a ll a ppearance , i n t he M ishnah a nd T almud, ' )b ut a n u nderstanding o f t he s ources a nd t ranslation i nto p resentday m easures c reate d ifficulties o f i nterpretation . F elix i s o f t he o pinion t hat a t ree y ielding 1 7 k g . o f o lives w as c onsidered t o b e f rutiful a nd t he p ercentages o f o il e xtracted f rom a g reen o live v aried f rom 1 2 .5 t o 1 6 p ercent . 52) B oth t he c rops p er t ree a nd t he p ercentage o f o live o il s eem l ow , a nd w e m ay a ccept F elix 's v iew t hat t he r abbinical s ources a re n ot d iscussing a bsolute q uantities b ut t hree g rades o f r ipening e ach w ith r ising s cales o f o il .

1 85

T he

i mportance

a scribed

b y

t he

a ncients

t o

t he

t ending

o f

t he

i ndividual t ree f inds e xpression i n M ishnah P eah , V II , 1 , w here w e r ead t hat i ndividual t rees w ere d istinguished b y n ames a nd t erms , a nd t he p lanters w ere w ell a cquainted w ith t he p hysiological f eatures o f e ach s eparate t ree . F or t his r eason i t i s h ard t o a ccept t he a ssumption t hat t he y ields o f a ncient o live t rees w ere i nferior t o t hose o f t oday . O n t he c ontrary , t he A rab p lantation o wners o f S amaria p ersistently h eld t hat t he o live c rops d epended o n c are o f t he t rees a nd o n t he q uality o f t he c ultivation w hich t hey r eceived . I n o ur e xcursions w e e ncountered o live g roves whose p lanters c laimed t hat t hey w ere ' Roman ' i n o rigin , m eaning t hat t heir r oots w ere e xtremely o ld , t hese b eing f ine f rutiful g roves w hich p roduced t he f inest o il . S uch e xamples w ere t o b e f ound i n t he Q arawat b ene H assan a rea , a t D eir E stia , B idya , a nd i n t he v illages o f t he T ul K arem d istrict . E retz Y israel i s c onsidered t o h ave b een t he p ossible h omeland o f t he c ultivated o live , c ultivation .

a nd S amaria i s o ne o f t he m ost s uitable r egions f or i ts

S ome s cholars h old

t hat

t he a grotechnical m ethods d eveloped

h ere i n t he d ays o f t he S econd T emp e ; t he M ishnah a nd T almud , w ere p assed o n t o G reece , R ome a nd n orth A frica . '

T he P eriodicity o f t he O live. T he

S yrian s train

i s

d istinguished

f or

i ts

many v irtues:

H igh

f ecundity , r ichness i n o il, a daptability t o r ocky a reas a nd p oor s oils . I ts d efects i nclude t he l ength o f t ime i t n eeds t o b ear f ruit a nd t he p eriodicity o f i ts y ields .5 4 ) V arious p ublications r eckon t hat t he a verage o live c rop o ccurs i n e very s econd y ear , a nd n aturally i n s uch c ase t he y ield i s r eckoned a s l ow .5 5) I t i s c laimed , h owever , t hat c are o f t rees r educes t he d anger o f p eriodicity , b ut w e f ound n o s ources w hich s tudy t he s ubject i n r elation t o t he r egion o f S amaria .

H owever , w e r aised t he s ubject i n o ur

m eetings w ith owners o f o live g roves a nd o fficials o f t he M inistry o f A griculture i n t he T ul K arem d istrict , a nd t heir r eplies t aught u s t o r evise o ur t hinking . I n n o c ase d id t hey c laim t hat p eriodicity i s b iennial , o r t hat i t i s a s table a nd c alculable p henomenon . S amarian o live g rowers s peak o f e xceptionally f avourable y ears , o f y ears o f g ood a verages a nd o f l ean y ears , b ut t hey h arvest y ears

o f

t he l ow c rop o lives e ven i n s uch y ears .

b umper c rops

f rom

1 965

t o

1 980 ,

b ut

T here w ere f our

i n t he r emaining y ears

t he

y ields v aried f rom 1 00 p ercent i n g ood y ears t o 3 0-40 p ercent i n b ad o nes ; i n o ther w ords o ver t he l ast f ifteen y ears t here w as n o a bsolute l ack o f y ields o r o f a s ituation j ustifying a c alculated b iennial o live c rop . E vidently t he s tatements o f t he S amarian v illage p lanters m ay a gain b e c ited : Ay oung t ree i n aw ell-cared f or p lantation y ields a n a verage o f 5 0 k g . o f o lives a nnually . T here a re i ndeed t rees w hich p roduce h igher y ields , a nd we h eard m ore t han o nce t hat a g ood t ree y ields a c an o f o live o il ( about 1 7 k g .) .

T he D ensity o f O live T rees i n aD unam . T he p resent d ensity m ay v ary f rom 1 0-25 a veragg,is

1 5-20

p er d unam . 56)

1 5

t rees i n o ne d unam .

p er d unam was

T he

c ommon i n a ncient

I taly .3 /) T he a verage y ield o f o lives p er t ree i n a ncient t imes a ppears t o h ave

1 86

b een 5 0 k g"

a nd

t he a verage o il o btained w as

2 0 p ercent

o f

t he w eight o f

t he o lives . A verage y ields p er d unam t herefore v aried b etween 1 50 k g . o il p er d unam ( 15 t rees) a nd 2 00 k g. o f o il p er d unam ( 20 t rees). A ssuming a p roduction o f a ncient

t imes ,

t he

a ncient

1 0,000-13,000 k g .

o il

p ress

c ould

o f o il

p rocess

t he

o f

i n a s eason i n p roduce

o f

5 0-70

d unams . Q uite i ndependently t he s urvey o f H irbet B uraq s howed t hat t here w ere f ive o il-presses i n 3 30 d unams o f o live t rees ; h ence e ach p ress c ould p rocess 6 6 d unams o f o lives .

I ntercultivation i n O live P lantations. T he

i ntercultivation

o f

i ntensive a griculture . 58)

c rops

i n p lantations

i s

Mishnaic a nd T almudic

e vidence f or t his p ractice i n t he o live g roves .5 9)

o ne

o f

s ources

t he

s igns

o f

f urnish much

T he M ishnaic c oncept o f

t he r ectangular s trips o f g rain b etween t he o lives s hows n ot o nly t hat c ereal g rowing w as c ommon a mong o live t rees , b ut i nforms u s h ow i t w as d one . N ot o nly c ereals b ut a lso v egetables were g rown among t he o lives . T he r abbinical g roup l ed b y S hammai a nd t hat l ed b y H illel , i ndeed , d isputed h ow f ar t he p ractice w as p rofitable , T he a ncient

a nd t o w hat e xtent i t e xisted .6 U)

p ractice o f g rain g rowing a mong o live t rees h as p ersisted

i n t he t raditional A rab e conomy .6 1)

P rofessor S . A vitzur h as o bserved t hat

f requent

p loughing

i n

a ppears

t o b e c onnected w ith t he c ultivation o f c ereals,

v egetables .

w as

c arried

o ut

t he

o live

g roves,

a p ractice

t hat

l egumes

a nd

D uring o ur own o bservations i n S amaria we f ound t hat t he

c ultivation o f c orn b etween t he o lives w as c ommon i n m any S amarian v illages . T he c ultivation o f c ereals o r l eg t imes d epends s olely o n t he a vailability o f t he n ecessary l abour f orce . I n r ecent y ears t hat l abour h as t urned t owards work i n I srael 's

e conomy ,

a nd t he e xtent o f i ntercultivated c rops h as

d ecreased . W hen w e a sked p lantation o wners i f i ntercultivation e xerted a ny c onsiderable e ffect o n t he o live y ields , t heir r eply w as n egative . O n t he o ther h and g rain y ields a re s omewhat s maller i n t he g roves t han i n n ormal f ields . B ut t he p henomenon o f i ntercultivation b ecomes v ery i mportant w hen t he a rea o f t he a ncient c ultivator 's h olding i s d iscussed .

I t b ecomes

c lear t hat a c ertain a rea w as u tilised i ntensively b oth f or p lantations a nd f or c ereals, r equired

l egumes a nd v egetables,

f or

a gricultural

t he

c ultivated

s kill

t old

h im

h ence a s maller a rea o f s oil was

h olding . what

h e

T he c ould

c ultivator 's a nd

c ould

s tandard n ot

d o

o f

w ith

i ntercultivated c rops , a nd h e t ook c are t o o btain g ood y ields f rom h is t rees a nd h is l and a like . I f w e m ay c ompare t he l abour f orce a vailable i n t he v illages o f S amaria t oday a nd t hose a vailable i n a ncient t imes, w e d iscover a n i nteresting p henomenon ;

t he s tandard o f c are d evoted t o t he o live p lantations f alls i n

c orresponding p roportion t o t he n umber o f t hose e ngaged i n o ther b ranches o f v illage a griculture . D uring t he d ecade o f o ur s urvey o f t he v illages o f w estern S amaria w e n oticed t hat

p art

o f

t he

o live

g roves

w ere

b eing

n eglected a nd t hat t he n eglect e xpressed i tself c hiefly i n t he c essation o f t he s owing o f i ntercultivated c rops .

4 .

S ummary :

T he P lace o f

t he O live i n t he R ural E conomy o f S amaria i n

A ncient T imes. " What w ere

t he t ribes d oing?

T hey w ere s ending o il t o E gypt" .

1R 7

( Mid .

L am . R "

V ,

7 ) .

O live o il ,

c ommodity e xports

o f

t herefore ,

E retz Y israel,

w as r egarded a s o ne o f t he i mportant a nd S amaria h eld

a n h onoured

c entral

p lace a mong t he a reas w here o live o il w as p roduced a nd f rom w hich i t w as e xported . I ndeed, we h ear o f t he e xport o f o il f rom t he mountains o f E phraim t o E gypt a s e arly a s t he p eriod o f t he F irst T emple ( Hosea , 1 2:2) . E gypt ,

i ndeed ,

i s

t his c ountry 's o il .

a c onsiderable

a nd

c lose m arket

f or

t he e xport

o f

W e h ave s ubstantial t estimony f or t his f rom t he C hurch

F ather J erome , i n h is c ommentary o n H osea 1 2 :2 : " The o live d oes n ot g row i n E gypt" , h e w rites , " but t he m ost e xpgyfive i s s ent f rom E phraim , w hich i s I n S amaria , t he r ichest l and i n o il" . I n E gypt o il was u sed n ot o nly f or c onsumption b ut a lso t o p ay t he w ages o f w orkers . 63)

A vi-Yonah c onsidered t hat t his c ountry d ispatched o il

n ot o nly t o E gypt, b ut a lso t o P hoenicia . 64) T he t rade i n o il r equired e fficient o rganisation a nd b ig c apital . T he q uality o f t he o il a nd o lives o f E retz Y israel w as k nown a far , a nd P liny w itnesses t o t he i mport o f t he o lives o f t he D ecapolis i nto I taly . 65) A h int o f t he wide e xtent a nd c haracter o f t he o il t rade c omes f rom J osephus , i n h is n arrative c oncerning J ohn o f G ischala ( Gush H alav ; m arketed

i n a ll

t he

B .J .

1 1 ,21,2 ;

5 91-592) .

T he c ountry 's o il w as

l ands where J ewish c ommunities w ho r equired r itually

p ure o il , d welt . I ts i mportance f or t he n ational e conomy w as s o g reat t hat t he s cholars a nd l eaders o f t he c ountry i ncludgA i t a mong t he t hings t hat c ould b e o f p ublic c oncern e ven o n t he S abbath . v i A rchaeological s ources .

f inds

i n

S amaria

c onfirm

t he

p assages

i n t he

w ritten

We h ave s een i n p revious c hapters t hat o live g rowing a nd o il

p roduction e xtended o ver e very s ite e xplored f rom E arly I ron A ge I I d own t o t he

B yzantine

c ompared

w ith

p eriod . t he

O nly

o live

a nd

v ine

g rowing

i ts

p roduce .

a nd

t he

O live

w ine

o il

important e xports, n or i s t here a ny d oubt t hat c ontribution t o t he m ountain e conomy o f S amaria .

i ndustry

w as

c ould

o ne o f

b e

t he m ost

i t made a n h onourable W e h ave f ound t hat t he

a rea n eeded b y t he c ultivator 's f amily f or i ts d omestic s upply o f o il w as n ot

l arge,

a nd

most

o live

t ree a reas

p roduced o il

f or e xport .

c onclusion h as a n umber o f e conomic a nd s ocial i mplications.

T his

We s hall

e ndeavour t o d eal w ith t hese b elow . " Blessed s halt t hou b e i n t he f ield i f t hy p ossessions a re d ivided i nto t hree - a t hird f or g rain, ( B.M .

a t hird f or o lives,

a nd a t hird f or v ines ."

1 07a). T his

s aying

o f

s ignificance v is-à-vis p eriods ,

a s t oday ,

R .

Y ohanan

t he

a nd

h is

a gricultural

c ompanions

l andscape

o f

a cquires

S amaria .

I n

a r eal c ertain

t he s hare o f t he o live e xceeds t hat o f o ther a gricultural

c rops. B efore

d escribing

t he

o live 's

a gricultural h olding o f S amaria ,

s hare

i n

t he

s tructure

o f

t he

a ncient

w e s hall p resent a p arallel p icture f rom a

n umber o f n eighbouring c ountries . T chalenko 's r esearch i nto t he v illages o f t he m ountainous r egion o f n orth S yria i n t he R oman-Byzantine p eriod i s w ellk nown a mong a grarian s tudies .

H ere a re s ome o f h is c onclusions c oncerning

t he o live a nd t he o live o il s ector . 67) S cholars c ite B ehio a s a r epresentative e xample o f av illage w hose e conomy w as b ased o n o live-growing a nd o il p roduction . T hirty-six p resses w ere e xamined i n t he v illage , b ut t he e xpedition b elieved t hat t heir n umber w as a t l east d ouble . T he m ain d evelopment o f t he v illage t ook p lace i n t he 5 th a nd 6 th c enturies C .E . , w as e ntirely b ased o n t he o live .

a nd

T he e xplorers e stimated t hat t he p ermanent

1 22

v illage w as v ery s mall , c onsidering t he a bundance o f o live p resses i n t he v illage a nd i n i ts n ear v icinity . T he s ocial s tructure o f t he p lace , a s r eflected i n t he a rchaeological r emains, w as b ased o n as mall n umber o f r ich l and-owners w ho d welt i n s umptuous r ural v illas , a nd t ogether w ith t he f unctionaries o f t he C hristian c hurch c onstituted t he r uling c lass o f B ehio . B ehind t hem w as a n u ndefined m iddle c lass o f s mall i ndividual c ultivators d ependant o n t he w ealthy l anded p roprietors , a nd l iving i n s mall f armsteads v ery d ifferent f rom t he v illas o f t he w ealthy l andowners . M ost o f t he b uilt-up a rea o f B ehio w as t aken u p b y t he p oor d wellings o f w age l abourers w orking f or t he l andlords . T he v illage w as r einforced i n t he o live p icking s eason b y g angs o f s easonal l abourers w ho w orked i n t he v illages a nd g ot t heir l ivelihood a s d ay-labourers i n o live-picking , h arvesting a nd t hreshing . I n a ddition t o t he c lasses d escribed , t hought T chalenko , m any s mall a nd m edium S yrian c ultivators i n t he R oman-Byzantine p eriod , e arned t heir l iving i n t he o live o il s ector .

T hese w ere o rganised i n c ooperative

o rganisations w orking w ithin t he f rame o f t he s mall v illages , t heir m ain l ivelihood b eing t he p lanting o f o live t rees . T his c onstituted p art o f t he p rocess o f t he s plitting u p o f t he l arge e states o f t he E mpire . A dditional e vidence f or t he i mportance o f t he o live i n t he e conomy o f S yria a nd E retz Y israel i s t o b e r ead i n t he S yrian-Roman L aw B ook ,6 8 )w hich s tates t hat i n t he p eriod o f D iocletian n ew m ethods f or t he a ssessment o f l and t axation w ere e volved . T he n ew t ax-unit w as c alled t he i ugum a nd w as b ased o n t he q uality o f t he s oil a nd t he e conomic v alue o f t he c rops g rown . O ne i ugum w as r eckoned a s t he e quivalent o f 2 0 i ugera ( 50 d unams) o f f irstc lass a rable l and , a s 4 0 i ugera ( 100 d unams ) o f m edium a rable , a nd a s 6 0 i ugera ( 150 d unams) o f p oor a rable . I t w as a lso r uled t hat f ive i ugera o f v ineyard ( 12 .5 d unams ) a nd 2 20 m ature o live t rees o r 4 50 m ountain o live t rees w ere t he e quivalent o f o ne i ugum . A ccording t o o ur e stimate o f t wenty t rees p er d unam , w e s hall f ind t hat a n a rea o f e leven d unams o f m ature o live t rees w as e qual i n e conomic v alue t o a n a rea o f 1 2 .5 d unams o f v ineyard , w hereas a n a rea o f 2 2 .5 d unams o f o live t rees o f s econdary q uality w as e qual i n v alue t o a rable a reas v arying f rom 5 0 t o 1 50 d unams. I t m ay b e a ssumed

t hat

t he

r evenue a uthorities

o f S yria i n t he l ate

R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods w ere w ell a cquainted w ith t he e conomic c onditions o f t heir c ountry a nd f ixed t he i ncome o f o ne d unam o f f irst-class o live t rees a s e quivalent t o 4 .5 d unams o f f irst-class a rable . T here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t hat e conomic c onditions i n E retz Y israel a t t his t ime d iffered f rom t hose i n S yria . T he S yrian-Roman l aw b ook p roves t hat o lives a nd w ine w ere t he p rincipal a gricultural c ommodities i n o ur r egion . F rom a nother q uarter w e k now s omething o f t he o live-growing f arms i n A frica . I n t he r egions o f p resentday T ripolitania i n t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods , n umerous f arms h ad d eveloped , b ased o n o live p lanting a nd t he m anufacture o f o live o il f or e xport .6 9 ) F rom t he s ocial p oint o f v iew t hese r epresent h oldings o f l andowners a nd c apitalists w ho w ere l ooking f or a venues o f i nvestment .

T he o live p resses a re p art a nd p arcel o f t he f arm-

s tructures a nd t he n umber o f i nstallations f or p roducing o il i s f ar f rom n egligible ( four i n o ne f arm , n ine i n a nother ) . T hese f arms w ere w orked b y n umerous t enants a nd l abourers , w hile t he p lantation o wners f igure o n t he m osaic p avements a s c omfortable m en o f i nlfuence . W hittaker c ites t hese f arms a s e xamples a nd p roofs o f e conomic p rosperity b etween t he 3 rd a nd 7 th c enturies , a p eriod t o w hich c rises i n t he a griculture o f t he e mpire a re g enerally a scribed . 7°) T he p icture t o b e d erived f rom t he t wo e xamples

1 89

c ited , i s t hat o f t he o live a nd i ts o il a s am onocultural c rop i n t he h ands o f wealthy l andlords . T his p icture c ontrasts q ualitatively w ith t he s ituation r eflected i n S amaria , w here t he g roves w ere w orked a nd t ended b y s mall a nd m edium c ultivators . T he t heoretical p lace o f o live-growing i n t he c omposition o f t he p easant h olding h as b een s tudied a nd r econstructed f rom t he a gricultural p atterns o f t wo a ncient v illages . A t H irbet B uraq t he i nclusive a rea d evoted t o o lives w as f ound t o b e 2 30 d unams , a n a rea c onstituting 1 3 p ercent o f t he t otal a gricultural a rea o f t he v illage . W e e stimate t hat s ome s eventy f amilies l ived t here , a nd o n a c omprehensive t heoretical d ivision e ach f amily d isposed o f 32 d unams o f o live t rees . T he a reas o f o lives c omposed 1 2 .8 p ercent o f t he t otal h olding o f t he a verage c ultivator a t H irbet B uraq, w hich w as a s mall v illage, a nd m ost o f i ts a gricultural l and i s s ituated i n d ifficult r ocky t racts . T he o live p lots r epresent t he b est c ultivable s oil s uccessfully c leared o f r ock b y t he c ultivators . T he f ive o live p resses f ound i n t he f ields a nd i n t he v illage w ere c apable o f p rocessing t he o live c rops o f a ll i ts c ultivators . ( 46 d unams p er o live p ress) . O live g rowing d id n ot c onstitute t he c hief s ource o f l ivelihood o f t he i nhabitants o f H irbet B uraq . W e b elieve t hat t heir l ivelihood w as b ased o n v ineyards a nd w ine p roduction , a nd o n m arket g ardens i rrigated f rom c isterns . B ut s ixty o live t rees p er f amily c ould s upply t he i nhabitants w ith a ll t he o il t hey n eeded, l eaving a c ertain a mount f or t he m arket. T he o live p lantations o f Q arawat b ene H assan o ccupied a n a rea o f 1 ,990 d unams , o r 2 4 p ercent o f t he c ultivated t ract . T he v illage 's p opulation n umbered 1 74-200 f amilies , e ach o f w hich p ossessed a t heoretical a rea o f 1 01.5

d unams

o f

o lives ,

c omposing

2 5

p ercent o f

t he e ntire f amily h olding .

T he p resent o live g roves o f Q arawat b ene H assan t ake u p t he b est s oil , a nd t his a ppears t o h ave b een t he c ase i n a ncient t imes . T his d atum b ecame c lear t o u s o nly a fter t he c ompletion o f t he a rchaeological s urvey o f w estern S amaria , a nd c onfirms t he m ethod u sed t o c lassify t he s oil p attern o f t he a ncient

v illage .

W e h ave q uoted a s e xamples t wo v illages i n w estern S amaria ,

i n o ne o f

w hich t he t heoretical o live p lantation w as 3 . 2 d unams p er f amily , a nd i n t he o ther 1 0-11 .5 d unams . B oth c ases i nvolve s mall o r m edium ' mixed ' h oldings , w orked b y c ultivators o r m embers o f t heir f amilies. T he o live h eld a r espectable p lace a mong t he a gricultural b ranches o f t he v illage o f Q arawat b ene H assan , a lmost c onforming w ith t he a dvice o f B . Y ohanan ( 3 . 1 4 . 1 07a ) . I t m ay b e a ssumed t hat o live o il , w ine a nd c ereals , whose c ultivation w as p roved b y t he a rchaeological s urvey , f ormed t he p rimary e conomic f oundations o f t he a ncient s ettlement . T hey w ere s upplemented b y o ther e conomic b ranches, w hich v aried t he s ources o f e mployment a nd i ncome .

1 q n

C hapter V III. T he A rchaeological E vidence f or t he C ultivation o f C ereals i n W estern S amaria 1 .

F inds m ade b y t he s urvey . T he a rchaeological p roofs o f c ereal c ultivation i n western S amaria

c onsisted s torage .

i n t he f inding o f t hreshing f loors a nd v arious f orms o f c ornI n t he c ourse o f t he s urvey w e e xamined a nd m easured s ome f ifty

t hreshing

f loors,

which

p roductive d evice ',

a ccurately

r eflect

t he

f orm

o f

' man 's

f irst

o perated n ot b y h is own p ower b ut b y t he p ower o f

a nimals s tronger t han h imself .1 ) T he i mportance o f c ereals i n a ncient d iet i s w ell k nown a nd a ccepted b y s cholars . E very r egion h ad t o g row m ost o f i ts g rain f or s elf-supply ,

b ut t he c ommoner a nd more e xtensive c ereal

c ultivation

h arder

b ecame,

a rchaeologically .

t he T o

p roduce

i nstallations i n t he r ock, e xcavation , d iscover ,

i t

h as

o live

b ecome

t o

a nd

wine,

o il

d emonstrate man

i t

q uarried

a nd t hese c ould b e d iscovered b y s urvey a nd

b ut i nstallations f or c orn g rowing a nd s torage a re d ifficult t o

a nd o nce t hey h ave c eased t o w ork t hey d isappear o r f ade f rom t he

g round . I t was o ur g ood f ortune t o f ind t hat a s ufficient n umber o f t hreshing f loors h ad s urvived i n western S amaria t o p rove t he a ncient c ultivation o f c ereals t hroughout t he r egion .

S uch w ere f ound a nd r ecorded

o n v illage maps - s ix w ere s urveyed o n t he map o f Q arawat b ene H assan , t welve o n t he ' A zun m ap ; f ive o n t hat o f K efr L aqif ; t hree o n t he e -Ras m ap ; s ix o n t he K efr S ur m ap a nd f ifteen o n t he S hufah m ap .

T he f igures s eem t o

b e o nly p artial, a nd t he n umber d iscovered b y t he s urvey i s b ound u p w ith t heir s tate o f p reservation a nd w ith c hanges w hich h ave a ffected t he r egion i n m odern t imes . M any a ncient e xpansion o f t hose A rab v illages

t hreshing f loors h ave v anished w ith w hich a re l ocated o n a ncient s ites ,

t he a nd

w ith t he i ntroduction o f h eavy m echanical i mplements i nto a reas o f a ncient c ereal g rowing . I n a ddition t o t he t hreshing f loors s urveyed i n t he a gricultural a reas o f v arious v illages, we f ound o ther t hreshing f loors o n t he margins o f f armsteads, v illages a nd t ownlets, a nd t hese a re d escribed i n t he a ccounts o f s uch s ites . A r ockcut t hreshing f loor w as f ound a t D eir S am 'an w ith a s u ndial c ut i n o ne o f i ts s ides .

R ockcut e xamples were d iscovered a t

H irbet B uraq n ear t he s ettlement , a nd o ther o rdinary t hreshing f loors w ere l ocated i n t he f ield . A t hreshing f loor a t H irbet H amad w as r ecorded o n t he n orth o f t he s ite , P t. 8 3

w hile i mpressive c oncentrations o f

b een d escribed n ear t he r uins o f

S hehadah a nd T afsah ;

s uch f loors h ave

t hese i ndicate g rain

g rowing o ver a l arge a rea. T he t ypical

t hreshing f loor s urviving i n w estern S amaria c onsists o f a

l evelled a rea c ut i n t he r ock ,

s urrounded b y a s tone f ence .

o f t he f loors v aries f rom 8 t o 2 0 m etres a pproximately , F ig ,

1 06

T he d iameter

ad iameter o f 1 0 t o

1 5 m . b eing t he a verage . A t hreshing f loor i n t he p lot o f T ower No . 9 o n t he K efr S ur m ap m ay b e d escribed a s t ypical . T he p lot c ontains a t ower , a s mall w inepress a nd t he t hreshing f loor. T he l ast was c ut i n a r ocky s urface o n a n a rea 1 1 b y 1 2 m . s urrounded b y a f ence m .

1 .60 m .

t hick a nd

w ide t o t he e ast o f t he f loor .

1 .20 m .

h igh ,

I t was

w ith a n o pening

1 . 20

A s mall w inepress h ad b een c ut o utside

1 91

t he e nclosure .

T he t ower w as c ompletely e xcavated ,

t he f inds d ating f rom

t he i st c entury B .C .E . t o t he i st c entury C .E . T he f loor a ppears t o h ave d ated t o t he s ame p eriod, a nd m ay h ave b elonged t o t he o wner o f t he t ower. W e s hall n ow d escribe s elected t hreshing f loors i n t he c ultivated a reas o f v arious v illages . T wo t hreshing f loors w ere f ound o n t he t op o f ah ill P h . 8 4

( 122) o n t he m ap o f Q arawat b ene H assan . F loors o n h illtops w ere r ecorded i n o ther s uch a reas , a nd t heir l ocation a ppears t o b e c onnected w ith t he d esire t o o btain b reezes f or w innowing a fter t he t hreshing . A s mall f loor o f o nly e ight m etres ' d iameter w as f ound i n t ower-plot 1 25 o f t he Q arawat b ene H assan m ap .

P h . 8 5

T he

s ame p lot a lso c ontained a l imekiln .

T his

i s

t he

s mallest f loor f ound b y t he s urvey , a nd a pparently i t w ould b e i mpossible f or a nimals t o t hresh i n a n a rea . o f l esser d iameter . A t hreshing f loor w as d etected i n t he p lot b elonging t o Q asr H aramiyyeh ( 103) o n t he ' Azun map ; i t was n ext t o a s heep f old, a w inepress a nd a r ockcut o live p ress . A n e xcavation c arried o ut i n t he t ower o f Q asr H aramiyyeh y ielded p ottery c hiefly o f t he H ellenistic p eriod . T he s ite w as c lassified a s t he f arm o f am ilitary s ettler , a nd t he t hreshing f loor s howed t hat c ereal g rowing a lso w as a mong t he f arm 's e conomic b ranches . T hreshing f loor 1 45 o f t he ' Azun m ap i s s ituated o n a h illtop . I ts b ase h ad b een l evelled b y q uarrying , a nd a s urface o btained t hat m easured 2 3 b y 2 0 f 4 I t

P h . 8 6

w as s urrounded b y af ence a bout a m etre i n h eight. T hreshing f loor 1 50 o f t he ' Azun m ap,

1 5 t o 2 0 m .

i n d iameter ,

w as

s urrounded b y a f ence , 1 . 5 I T4 h igh a pproximately , a nd a r ockcut p lastered c istern l ay n ear i t . R ainwater c isterns w ere a lso f ound n ear o ther f loors , a nd e vidently t he o wners u tilised t he r ock s urfaces t o c ollect t he r ainwater f or t heir o wn u se a nd t hat o f t heir l ivestock i n t he h ot s eason o f t hreshing . N ot a ll t he f loors w ere s urrounded b y s tone f ences a nd o n t he ' Azun m ap ( 177) w e r ecorded a n u nfenced f loor . F loors w ere r ecorded o n t he K efr L aqif m ap i n p lots w hich a lso c ontained t owers , l ivestock e nclosures , l imekilns a nd a n o live p ress ( 53 , 5 7, 7 4 , 1 47) . S uch t hreshing f loors a re e vidently t o b e r egarded a s p art o f t he p roduction i nstallations b elonging t o t he o wners o f t he c ultivated p lots . F ig.

1 07

P h . 8 7

O n t he S hufah m ap c lusters o f

t hreshing f loors w ere s urveyed e ast a nd

w est o f t he v illage . T hree w ere n oted o n s ite 4 3 i n a w ell-cleared a rea . T heir d iameter was a bout 1 5 m ., a nd t hey w ere e nclosed b y l ow f ences . A bout

a k ilometre w est

o f

t he c entre o f K efr

S hufah

w e

s urveyed

a nother

c luster o n a h ill ( 56) . S uch a c oncentration o f t hreshing f loors m ay b e what t he J erusalem T almud a nd t he T osefta c all ' the p lace o f t hreshing f loors ' o r ' a h ome

o f

t hreshing

f loors ' .2 )

T hree f loors

a re m entioned i n

D ocument 8 3 f rom N essana ( 7th c entury C .E . ) , a nd v ari9us q uantities o f g rain b elonging t o i nhabitants o f N essana a re l isted .3 ) T he e ditor o f t he d ocument c onsiders t hat s everal t hreshing f loors w ere n eeded i n t imes o f h arvest a nd t hreshing i n o rder t o f acilitate t he work a nd m ake i t m ore e fficient . A ll matters o f r egistration f or t axation a t N essana w ere n egotiated o n t he t hreshing f loors . T his m ethod w as u sual i n l ocalities a nd a t p eriods w hen t he c entral g overnment p laced t ax c ollection o f g rain i n k ind u nder i ts d irect s upervision , a s w as t he p ractice a lso i n H ellenistic 4 ) a nd R oman E gypt a nd i n O ttoman P alestine .3 ) T he w ide d ispersal o f t hreshing f loors i n a reas r emote f rom t he v illages m ay m ean a s ocial a nd e conomic r ggime w ithout d irect s upervision o f t he p easant t hreshing f loors , s o t hat t he t axes w ere c ollected a ccording t o a n a nnual a greement b etween c ultivator a nd g overnment c overing t he e ntire h olding r ather t han e ach c rop a nd b ranch s eparately . T his m ethod w e t hink w as a ppropriate t o ap eriod i n

1 92

which t he r elation b etween c ultivators a nd g overnment w as a r elationship o f mutual t rust a nd r espect , a nd t he c ultivators w ere i ndependent s ubjects o f a g overnment o f t heir o wn n ationality r ather t han o f ac onquering p ower .

T he

H asmonean e poch m ight, f or i nstance, h ave b een c haracterised b y s uch r elationships . T he l ocation o f t he t hreshing f loors i n w estern S amaria i s i n h armony w ith t he t almudic r uling t hat a p ermanent t hreshing f loor m ust b e r emoved f ifty c ubits f rom t he f arm .6) I n n o i nstance d id we f ind a p ermanent t hreshing f loor w ithin a s ettlement , a nd t he f loor g enerally s eems t o h ave b een p laced a t ad istance o f m ore t han f ifty c ubits. 7 )

2 .

A

R ough

C lassification

o f A ncient G rain A reas a s e stimated f rom t he

L ocation o f T hreshing F loors. T he d istribution o f t hreshing f loors a mong t he a gricultural u nits o f t he v arious v illages h elped u s a ncients .

t o u nderstand

t he

l and u tilisation o f

t he

We s tarted f rom t he a ssumption t hat t he t hreshing f loor was

p laced well

within t he a rea o f

a rable,

a nd

t hat

e ven

when

t he

s oil

c lassification d iffered i n a l ater p eriod , i t c learly h ad b een u tilised f or c ereal-growing i n t he p ast . P h . 8 8

R elying o n e xaminations c arried o ut a t d ozens

o f a ncient t hreshing f loors,

i t was p ossible t o p roduce t he f ollowing

p icture . T he b est v illage s oils w ere n ot t hose u sed f or c orn g rowing , b ut t hose w hich c ould b e c lassififed a s t he s econd a nd t hird b est . G enerally t he c orn a reas w ere d istant f rom t he v illage c entres ,

a nd w ere t o b e f ound

i n t he s econd a nd t hird s urrounding z ones . I t w ould s eem t hat t he b est l and w as e armarked f or o live g roves a nd m arket g ardens . T he g rain p lots w ere well c leared o f s tones a nd o bviously t remendous e fforts h ad b een i nvested i n d eep h oeing a nd t he r emoval o f l arge r ocks . N umerous s mall s tones w ere f ound i n t he c orn f ields , a nd e vidently t hose o f t he s ize o f e ggs d id n ot i nterfere w ith g rain c ultivation . T he s ize o f t he a ncient a rable p lots was n ot c onstant, a nd we f ound t hreshing f loors o n p lots o f t hirteen d unams ( Kefr L aqif 1 47) a nd o f 3 5 d unams ( Kefr L aqif 5 7) . P rofessor S . A vitzur h as c alculated t hat t raditional A rab a griculture a c orn-crop o f o ne t o 1 .25 d unams c ould c ompleted

i n a d ay 's

t hreshing ,8 )

a nd

2 20 t o 2 50 k ilograms o f c haff a nd c ould b e o btained. 9 )

1 00

t hat t o

1 50

t o

i n b e

1 80 k ilograms o f g rain ,

1 20 k ilograms o f s traw

f or

f uel

i t i s u nlikely t hat e very c ultivator p ossessed h is o wn t hreshing f loor , a nd t he f loors f ound b y t he s urvey p robably s erved s everal c ultivators .

A

f loor t akes u p v aluable r oom a nd t he j oint u tilisation o f p roduction d evices w as n o n ovelty t o t he p easants o f E retz Y israel .

3 .

G rain S torage. R . H anin ( said ) : " Whoever b uys g rain f or a y ear r isks h is l ife .

b uys g rain f rom t he w holesaler w ill g o i n f ear d ay a nd n ight . g rain f rom t he r etailer h as l ittle p rospect o f l ife a t a ll ."

W hoever

W hoever b uys G len S habb"

V III , 1 , 1a) . T he w itty s aying o f R . H anin w ell e mphasises t he a nxiety o f t he a ncients t o r etain a s upply o f c ereals f or s ubsistence . A s tock o f c ereals f or a n e ntire y ear was r egarded a s t he most d esirable, c ultivator w as o bliged t o f ind c ereals h is f ield . a ble

t o

C ereals w ere k ept

i dentify

s everal

t ypes

f or t he

b oth t o f eed h is f amily a nd t o s ow

i n g ranaries o f v arious

t ypes ,

a nd w e

w hich w ere c ommon i n w estern S amaria .

w ere A

r ockcut u nderground s ilo w as f ound a t H irbet J em `ein i n B uilding 5 00 , L ocus

1 93

5 27 ; i t w as p robably u sed t o s tore t he c ereals o f ak inship w ho d welt t here . T he s ilo h ad b een c ut i n t he h ard r ock a nd i t b ore n o t races o f p laster , b ut c ould b e s ealed t o p revent t he e ntry o f i nsects a nd p ests . T wo t ypes o f s ilos w ere d iscovered a t H irbet T anurah : a )

A n u nderground

water

c istern ,

s ilo ,

w ith

c ut

i n t he r ock a nd b uilt u p i n t he m anner o f a

v arious

c losing

c ontrivances .

b )

A s eries

o f

s torerooms w hich m ay w ell h ave b een g ranaries . W e c onjectured t hat t he c ircular s tructure a t H irbet N ajar ( 32) m ay h ave b een u sed a s a p ublic g ranary - a k no xIb \a nd a ccepted i nstitution t hroughout t he R oman a nd B yzantine e mpires. L arge

'

g ranaries

a nd

s ilos h ave b een d escribed a t

t he s ites o f H irbet

H amad a nd F irdusi , a nd w e h ave v oiced t he c onjecture t hat t hese w ere s tate g ranaries w hich c ould h old a s upply s ufficient f or m any y ears. T he s iting o f g ranaries i n p rivate h ouses i s a m ore d ifficult q uestion , a nd e vidently i t

was p ossible t o s tore c ereals

i n n umerous ways a nd

i nstallations . P rofessor A vitzur t hinks t hat u nderground a nd a bove-ground g ranaries were w idespread i n t his c ountry f rom t he C halcolithic p eriod o nwards . 1) U nderground c hambers i n w hich m aterial c ould b e h oarded f or y ears r esemble w ater c isterns . T hey a re r ockcut a nd p lastered , a nd t heir e ntrances were s ealed w ith masonry a nd p laster t o p revent t he e ntry o f p ests . C orn was a lso s tored i n h ouses, m ainly i n l arge c lay s torage v essels k nown i n A rabic a s H aviah . T osephta c ontains e vidence i nforming u s t hat a lmost a ny r oom c ould b e c onverted i nto a g rain s tore , b ut a m an w ho r ented a h ouse f rom a nother w as p rohibited f rom f ollowing s uch a p ractice .1 2) I t m ay r easonably b e a ssumed t hat e very f armhouse o r r ural h ome p ossessed r ooms s et a side f or c orn s torage, a nd t hese were s elected t o c onform w ith a rchitectural c onsiderations a nd c limatic i nfluences, s uch a s h eat a nd d amp , which a ffected t he h ouse . C orn s torage i s ad ifficult m atter a nd e ven t oday m uch s pecialist e xpertise i s r equired t o a ttend t o s uch . G . R ickman h as e stimated t hat c ereals c reate a p ressure o f 1 2,000 k ilograms p er s quare m etre .1 3) G rain h as t o b e s afeguarded a gainst d amp a nd l ow t emperature a nd a gainst t he d evelopment o f v arious t ypes o f v ermin .

T o r estrict t he

r espiration o f t he g rain which c auses i ts u ltimate d ecay , i t h as t o b e s tored h ermetically i n a c ool d ark p lace . C arbon d i-oxide g iven o ff b y t he g rain w orks a gainst v ermin , a nd a p lastered w ell-sealed u nderground s tore i s e xcellent f or s torage . W e m ay s uppose t hat s ome o f t he u nderground c isterns s urveyed o n v arious s ites w ere u sed t o s tore c orn . P liny p roduces e vidence f rom M editerranean l ands , w here t he p ractice w as t o h old c ereals i n r ockcut s ubterranean c hambers .1 4 ) w idespread i n T hrace , C appadocia ,

T he u nderground m ethod , h e w rites , w as S pain a nd A frica . I n s uitable c onditions

g rain w as p reserved f or f ifty y ears o r m ore , o live k ernels a nd l ime b eing s prinkled o n t he g rain t o p revent t he d evelopment o f v ermin . Modern i nvestigators h ave r ecognized P li r zy 's m ethods a s s ound ,

a nd n ote t heir u se

i n s everal c ountries e ven t oday .1 5) R ickman c onsiders t hat t he g rain i n t he g ranaries c ould h ave b een s tored i n s acks , c ontainers , o r i n h eaps .1 6) T he w alls t hemselves w ould h ave s erved a s c ontainers i n s mall g ranaries ; i n l arge o nes s uch a s t hose a t M asada , b ulky e arthenware s tore j ars w ere u sed . T he g rain s tores f ound i n t he s urvey o f w estern S amaria c onfirm t he d iscovery o f t hreshing f loors a nd t estify t hat c orn g rowing a nd s torage w ere c ommon i n t he r egion .

1 94

4 .

C ereals i n A ncient D iet. T he a ssumption t hat c ereals w ere t he p rincipal c omponent i n t he d iet o f

t he

i nhabitants

s cholars .

o f

M editerranean

c ountries

i s

g enerally

a ccepted

b y

I f t here a re a ny d ifferences o f o pinion , t hey r elate t o t he

q uantity c onsumed p er p erson i n a ncient c arbons a nd c alories i n f ood ,

t imes .

C ereals

s upply

t he c hief

a nd i n s ome c ountries 7 5 t o 8 5 p ercent o f t he

c alories a re d erived f rom c ereals .1 7) 1 00 g rams o f c ereal p ossess a v alue o f 3 50 c alories , a nd 1 0 - 1 4 p ercent o f s tarch , w hereas 1 00 g rams o f b read p ossess a v alue o f 2 60 c alories a nd 8 .7 p ercent o f s tarch . I t

s eems,

t herefore,

t hat

i n

t he

c onditions

o f

t his

c ountry

t he

i mportance o f c ereals i n is d iet w as l ess t han t hat i n o ther c ountries i n t he M editerranean b asin ,1 8) w hile a n a bundance o f v egetables , f ruit , w ine a nd o il made g ood t he e nergy r equirement o f t he a ncient c ultivator a nd h is f amily.

5 .

T he I mport o f C ereals a nd t he T ransport S ystem o f S amaria. D espite o ur

c ereals

b elief

( see b elow),

t hat

S amaria p rovided a ll

t he p ossibility i s n ot

i ts

o wn

r equirements

t o b e d ismissed

i mported i n y ears o f d rought o r d earth i n J udaea .

T osephta

i n

t hat c orn w as h as a n e cho o f

a d ispute b etween J oshua b en P rahyah a nd o ther s cholars , s ince t he f ormer h ad p rohibited t he i mport o f w heat f rom A lexandria o f E gypt, when t he s cholars p ermitted i t .1 9) D uring t he g reat f amine w hich o ccurred u nder H erod ( 25-24 B .C .E .) i t i s r ecorded t hat t he k ing d id n ot s pare money o r e ven h is g old a nd s ilver v essels , w hich h e m elted d own i n o rder t o b uy c orn f or t he p opulation o f J udaea f rom t he g overnor o f E gypt . 2°) T he b rought f rom E gypt b y s ea a nd d istributed b y t he r oyal o fficials .

c orn w as W e h ear

i n a nother s ource o f t he i mport o f c ereals f rom t he d esert , m eaning f rom t he r egions o f T ransjordan , H auran a nd B ashan .2 1) A w ell-developed r oad-system w as n eeded i n t he a ncient w orld t o e nable t he

e xport

a nd

i mport

o f

a gricultural

p roduce,

s ince

t he

e xpense o f

t ransport w as a d ecisive a nd r estricting f actor i n t he m arketing o f h eavy b ulk-produce s uch a s g rain .

I n t he d efective c onditions o f t ransportation

d ue t o p oor r oads o r t heir a bsence ,

t he t ransfer o f a t housand k ilograms o f

g rain b y b easts

o f

T his meant

t he t ransportation o f

t hat

b urden o ver a k ilometre

c ost

1 000 k g .

k ilometres w ould b e d ecidedly u neconomic .2 2)

t he

e quivalent

o f

3 0 k g .

b y b east o f b urden o ver 2 0 I n t he o pinion o f C lark a nd

H aswell, a s l ate a s t he 1 8th c entury a d istance o f 1 5 k ilometres was r egarded a s t he r easonable l imit o f f ood d istribution f rom t he p lace w here i t was g rown o r p roduced , t o i ts p otential m arkets . W e b elieve t hat t he r amified r oad-system o f w estern S amaria e nabled t he i mport a nd e xport o f a gricultural p roduce , a nd t hat i n t imes o f d earth i t w as p ossible t o i mport c orn f rom o ther a reas o f t he c ountry , a nd e ven f rom a broad . W e w ere a ble t o s tate i n o ur c hapter o n t he r ural r oad s ystem o f w estern S amaria , t hat n o a ncient s ettlement

w as w ithout

r oads

t o l ink i t w ith i ts s urroundings a nd

w ith t he r egional a nd c ountrywide n etwork .

I n c ontrast t o o ther p rovinces ,

w here c orn c rops r otted i n t he g ranaries f or l ack o f t he means o f t ransportation a nd c ommunication ,2 3) s uch a s ituation was i mpossible i n S amaria t hanks t o i ts d eveloped s ystem o f c ommunications .

1 95

6 .

C ereal Y ields i n A ncient T imes. O ne o f

t he d ifficult

q uestions

i n t he s tudy o f a ncient a griculture i n

t his c ountry i nvolves t he e ndeavour t o e stimate c ereal y ields . S cholars d iffer o n t his s ubject , a nd t here i s ac onsiderable g ap b etween t he h ighest a nd t he l owest e stimates . A ncient s ources d iscussing c orn y ields g enerally s tate t he m ultiplication o f q uantities s own o n ag iven a rea b ut n ot t he g ross y ields o n s uch a n a rea . S eemingly t he a pproach t o t he s ubject s hould b e i ndirect ; i nstead o f a ttempting t o d etermine t he g ross y ield o f w heat a nd b arley , i t w ould b e b etter t o e xamine t he p ast a bility o f ag iven r egion t o m aintain a nd f eed i ts a ncient p opulation , w hose d iet w e k now i ncluded a f air q uantity o f c ereals .

G . A lon c onsidered t hat c orn w as o ne o f t he c ountry 's

e xports d own t o B en-Koziba 's r ebellion .2 4) P rofessor A vitzur h olds t hat t he c ountry 's w heat e xport a broad w as c ontinuous f rom a ntiquity d own t o t he 1 9th c entury , s ometimes a t t he e xpense o f t he l ocal c onsumer .2 5 )

E ven i f t hese

e stimates a re o ptimal , i t i s c lear t hat t he c ountry g rew s ufficient c ereals i n a ncient t imes t o f eed i ts i nhabitants . P rofessor Y ehudah F elix , w hose w ork i n t he a ncient a griculture o f E retz Y israel w as a m ilestone i n t he s tudy o f t he s ubject ,

d evotes a n i mportant

c hapter o f h is b ook t o c ereals a nd c ereal y ields .2 6) A fter a c larification o f s owing q uotas a nd a reas , h e b elieves t hat i n g ood y ears y ields v aried f rom 1 82-307 k ilograms p er d unam ( approximately 2 0 t o 4 0 b ushels t o t he a cre ) , w hile i n b ad y ears t he v ariation w as b etween 9 1 a nd 1 83 k ilograms p er d unam . ( 10-20 b ushels t o t he a cre ) . H e t hinks t hat t he y ield c ould a ttain t o 8 16 k ilograms p er d unam ( 80 b ushels t he a cre), o n p lots e specially m anured , h oed a nd h and-planted ! I f P rofessor F elix a ssessments a re c orrect , t hey i mply a n i ntensive d eveloped a griculture p roducing y ields w hich w ere n ot f ar b ehind t he a chievements o f m odern c ultivation i n t he S tate o f I srael .

I n t he c ountries o f s outh-eastern A sia , e specially i n C hina , w here

t he m ethod o f p lanting y oung w heat 7 70-800 k g. p er d unam .z 7 ) I t

i s

o f

i nterest

s hoots

i s

p ractised ,

y ields v ary f rom

t o r emark t hat i n t he e arly d ays o f r enewed J ewish

a griculture i n t his c ountry , a n e xperiment w as m ade b y N oah N aphtolsky t o p lant wheat s hoots o n t he C hinese s ystem . N urseries w ere p repared a t K inneret a nd C an S hemuel , s eeds s elected , a nd o nly t he b est y oung p lants p lanted i n e specially m anured a nd c ultivat c Vlazy b eds ' . S himon K ushnir t estified t hat y ields r eached a h undredfold .

/

.I nformation o n h igh w heat y ields i n t he N egev h as b een o btained f rom t he p apyri o f B yzantine N essana .

P apyrus 8 2 h as a l ist o f n amed p lots,

t he

q uantities o f c ereals s own ( wheat a nd b arley ) a nd t he y ields a chieved i n t he s ame y ear . T he w heat p roduced s evenfold , t he b arley e ightfold .2 9 ) I n K raemer 's v iew t he r elation b etween s owing a nd y ields a t N essana w as 1 :5 , b ut P . M ayerson e stimated t hat t he N essana y ields w ere n ot i nferior t o t hose o f H ellenistic-Roman E gypt, a nd w ere s uperior t o t hose o f t he L ebanese v illages e njoying a n a nnual p recipitation o f 6 00 mm . 3°) A ccording t o o ur o wn e stimate, t he y ields o f w heat a nd b arley a t N essana r eached 1 00 k ilograms p er d unam , w hich a re s atisfactory a nd e ven i mpressive c onsidering t he c onditions o f t he r egion . P rofessor M . E venari a nd h is a ssistants , w ho h ave r estored a ncient N abataean a nd B yzantine N egev f armsteads , h ave c arried o ut e xperiments i n t he g rowing o f c ereals i n r econstructed p lots .3 1) A t t he ' Avdat f arm t hey o btained w heat y ields o f 2 00 - 4 40 k g . p er d unam, a nd b arley y ields o f 2 70 - 4 80 k g . p er d unam . T he s own a rea , i t i s t rue , r eceived a melioration i n t he f orm o f m anure , a nd t he p lant v arieties w ere m odern , b ut t he y ields w ere i mpressive a t a ny o dds . P rofessor A vitzur , w ho

1 96

d evoted a n i nteresting m onograph t o c orn g rowing i n t his c ountry , h olds t hat y ields w ere l ower i n a ntiquity , i n t he t hat

r elying f or t his v iew o n t he c ereal y ields

t raditional A rab e conomy o f

e conomy were

b arley . .3 2 )

5 0 60 k g .

t he 1 9th c entury .

t he

d unam

o f

T he y ields u sual i n

wheat

a nd

5 0

- 7 0

k g .

o f

T he c omparison o f t hese l ow y ields w ith t hose o f a ncient t imes

r equires, i n o ur v iew , r eexamination a nd a f resh a ssessment i n t he l ight o f k nowledge a ccumulated i n r ecent y ears . T he i ntensive a griculture o f E retz Y israel i n t he S econd T emple p eriod a nd t hat o f t he M ishnah a nd t he T almud w ere

f ar

s uperior

t o

t hat

o f

t raditional

A rab

a griculture,

whose

c onservative s ocial s tamp i mpaired i ts a bility t o p rogress . I n

o ur

own

d ay

we

a re

w itnessing

a n

i nteresting

e xperiment,

u nprecedented b ecause i t i s b eyond t he a bility o f t he t raditional A rab e conomy t o c arry o ut,

n amely ,

a n e xperiment a imed t o r aise i ts y ields.

I srael i s r endering a ssistance a nd g uidance t o t he A rab c ultivator o f J udaea a nd S amaria a nd t he y ields o f w heat i n S amaria h ave r isen i n ad ecade f rom 1 00 k g . p er d unam t o 1 62 k g . p er d unam ( about 1 7 b ushels t he a cre);

t his

p rogress , m oreover , s till c ontinues .3 3 ) I t s hould b e n oted t hat t his s teep u pward t rend i n t he y ields o f g rain a nd o ther c rops i n S amaria a nd J udaea i s n ot t he r esult o f n ew t echnology , b ut m ainly t he r esult o f i mproved a nd m ore b alanced f arming . T he t raditional p rocesses o f p loughing w ith d raughta nimals a nd s owing a nd h arvesting b y h and, c ontinue t o e xist, b ut s eed s election h as i mproved , a nd t he s election o f l ocal v arieties h as a ccelerated ar ise i n y ields.

7 .

T he P lace o f G rain i n t he F amily H olding o f W estern S amaria. F ormer c hapters h ave s hown t hat

t he g rowing o f c ereals w as w idespread

a nd n ormal i n a ll t he a gricultural a reas o f w estern S amaria .

O wing t o t he

s tructure o f t he a ncient e conomy a nd t he e xcessive c ost o f t ransport , t he c ultivators h ad t o g row h is b asic f oodstuffs i n h is o wn a rea i ndependent o f i mport f rom a d istance .

W e h ave e ndeavoured t o r econstruct w idely d iffused

m odels o f a gricultural h oldings i n t he r egion i n t he c ourse o f s tudying t he s ettlement p attern o f w estern S amaria . W hile a nalysing t he a gricultural u nits o f H irbet B uraq a nd Q arawat b ene H assan , w e h ave a ttempted t o a llot t o e ach

a gricultural

p ercentages,

b ranch

r elying

a t heoretical

c hiefly o n

a rea

measured

i n

d unams

a nd

t he a ncient i nstallations o f p roduction

r evealed b y a rchaeology . A t H irbet B uraq g rain o ccupied 2 6 .4 p ercent o f a s mallholding w hich c overed 2 5 d unams . I n l arger h oldings a t Q arawat b ene H assan ,

i ndeed ,

g rain o ccupied a bout 5 2 p ercent o f t he t heoretical h olding ,

w hich m easured s ome 4 0 d unams . I n p oint o f f act t he a ncient c ultivator c ould g row g rain i n l arge a reas o f h is h olding b y m eans o f i ntercultivation . M ishnaic a nd T almudic b etween

t he

o live

t rees

s ources a nd

g rain p lots b etween t he o lives" 3 4) i ntercultivation 35) a griculture a nd

m ake

v ines .

f requent T he

m ention o f

M ishnah

a lso

a s ac ommon s pectacle .

c ereals g rown

d escribes

" oblong

G rain-growing b y

b etween o lives a nd v ines was a lso u sual i n R oman

r egarded a s n atural a nd e conomically s ound .3 6 )

D uring t he

s ix y ears o f o ur r esearch i n w estern S amaria w e o bserved t hat t he g rowing o f g rains

a nd

l egumes

b etween o live

t rees

was

a widespread

p henomenon .

C onversations with c ultivators a nd e xperts o f t he l ocal o ffices o f t he M inistry

o f

A griculture

i ndicated

t hat

t hey

s aw

f ew

d ifferences

b etween

g rain y ields i n t he o pen f ield a nd t hose o f g rain i ntercultivated i n t he o live g roves . T he o nly r equirement i s a dditional l abour , a nd t his i s t he r eason f or t he d ecrease o f i ntercultivation i n r ecent y ears .

1 97

E vidently

t he

a ncient

c ultivator

c ould

a ssign

5 0 — 7 0 p ercent

o f h is

h olding t o c orn g rowing , a nd t he o live g roves a nd v ineyards w ere u tilised p ermanently f or i ntercultivation . T he a rea a ssigned t o g rain i n d unams , o f c ourse , d epends o n t he s ize o f t he p lot h eld b y t he c ultivator . T he a rea o f t he h olding i n w estern S amaria v aries f rom 2 5 —4 0 d unams a pproximately , h ence t he a rea d evoted t o g rain v aries f rom 1 2 .5 t o 2 8 d unams . A t f irst s ight t hese a reas a ppear s mall , b ut t he s mall p lots y ield p assable o r h igh y ields a nd , w ith i ntensive w orking a nd t he h igh d egree o f a gricultural s kill t hen c ommon i n t he c ountry , c ould f urnish a r espectable l iving t o t he o wners. A mong a ll t hese f actors w e h ave n ot t aken i nto a ccount t he p ractice o f f allow , which was a ccepted i n a ncient a griculture . i nformip w us o f i ts f unction i n t he a gricultural S amaria. '"

1 98

W e h ave n o d ata s mall h olding o f

C hapter I X . I rrigated H ill F arming, S tock R earing a nd L ime P roduction i n W estern S amaria. B esides t he c entral a gricultural b ranches s uch a s o lives , v ines a nd c ereals , w hose e xistence i n w estern S amaria h as b een d emonstrated w ith t he a ssistance o f t he a ncient c ontrivances f or p rocessing t heir p roduce , w e h ave a lso r ecorded r egional a gricultural a nd e conomic b ranches o f s econdary i mportance .

T he g rowing o f v egetables

a nd f ruit

t rees w ith t he h elp o f

a uxiliary i rrigation f rom r ainwater c isterns w as d emonstrated w ith t he a id o f a rchaeological d iscovery a nd a ncient c ultivators . T he

l ivestock b ranch,

i ndicates

e specially

t he h igh s tandards

t he r earing

o f

o f

S amaria 's

s heep a nd g oats,

f urnished t he i nhabitants o f E retz Y israel w ith a t hreefold p roduct , n amely , w ith w ool a nd h ides f or c lothing , w ith m ilk p roduce a nd m eat f or f ood , a nd w ith o rganic m anure f or t heir i ntensive a griculture . A d emonstration o f t he e xistence o f t he f lock-rearing b ranch i n w estern S amaria i s b ased o n a rchaeological e vidence a nd o n m odern c alculations , p astoral t racts a nd t he f locks t hey c ould c arry .

n amely , t he s tudy o f L ime b urning a nd t he

p roduction o f l ime o n a l arge s cale e vidence t he e xploitation o f l imestone , o ne o f t he f ew m inerals t o b e f ound i n a bundance i n t he r egion .

1 .

I rrigated H ill F arming . T he c ountry 's a ncient a griculture r elied p reponderantly o n n atural

p recipitation , b ut i ts c ultivators w ere w ell a cquainted w ith t he a dvantages o f a uxiliary i rrigation , w hich h elped t hem t o g row s elected c rops i n t he r ainless m onths a nd t hroughout t he y ear .

a ccelerated t he g rowth o f o rchard a nd g arden p lants E vidence o f t he u tilisation o f r ainwater a nd r unoff

f or a gricultural p urposes w as f ound o ver t he e ntire a rea c overed b y t he w est S amaria s urvey . T he w ater c ourses a long t he r avines a nd v alleys w ere w ell r egulated ; d ams , s pillways a nd t erraces w ere b uilt i n t hem , a nd t erraces c onstructed b oth a cross t he s treams a nd a long t he f lanks o f t he v alleys t o p revent s oil-erosion a nd t o a ssist t he a bsorption o f r ainwater a nd i ts c onservation i n t he s oil. T he

t errace c ulture o f E retz Y israel p aid g reat a ttention t o t he

h arnessing o f r ainwater a nd r unoff , a nd m odern r esearch h as d emonstrated t he a dvantages o f a ncient m ethods w ith r egard t o s oil c onservation , s oil a mendment a nd t he m aintenance o f a d elicate e cological b alance .' I rrigation h as b een k nown i n t his c ountry s ince a ncient t imes , a nd a ppears t o h ave b een d iffused t hrough m any r egions o f t he c ountry . A rchaeological p roofs o f t he u tilisation o f t he C ihon s pring t o i rrigate c ultivated a reas , w ere r ecently f ound b y Y igael S hiloh i n D avid 's c ity o f J erusalem . c anal w ith o utlets a nd s pillways f or d '

H ere a

t ributing w ater t o t he a ncient p lots

w as d isclosed a long t he Q idron s pring. E vidence

i s

t o b e

f ound

i n E cclesiastes ( 3rd c entury B .C .E .) o f a n

a gricultural d evelopment p roject w hich i ncludes i nter a lia s torage c isterns f or i rrigating g ardens .) T here i s m uch g eneral e vidence f or i rrigation i n t he p eriods o f t he M ishnah a nd T almud , a nd f or t he i rrigation o f p repared

1 99

t racts i n p articular .

P rofessor Y ehudah F elix i n a d etailed d iscussion a nd

a n a nalysis o f t he v arious s ources p resents t he s ubject i n h is b ook o n t he a griculture o f t he M ishnaic a nd T almudic e pochs .4 ) T he a ncient c ultivator w as a ware o f t he a dvantage o f i rrigated a reas i n w hich s ummer a nd w inter c rops c ould b e g rown c ontinuously ,) s ince a n u nirrigated a rea d id n ot ' yield i ts f ruit t hroughout% 6 ) T almudic l iterature c ontains m uch e vidence r egarding w ays o f s ettling t he l easing o f i rrigated t racts , t he f orms a nd r ights o f i rrigation , c ultivation a nd m anuring , a nd t he r entable s ize o f i rrigated p lots ( Below ) . T he r esearches o f D r . Z vi R on a mong t he m ountains o f J udaea a nd H ebron h ave r evealed a pproximately a h undred g roups o f c ontrivances t o u tilize s prings f or i rrigated c ultivation . 7) 8 7 s uch w ere f ound i n t he ' Jerusalem c orridor ' ; t hey i rrigated a n i nclusive a rea o f 6 50 d unams, w hich i s 0 .6 p ercent o f t he t otal a rea o f t erraces w ithin t he r egion . D r . R on f ound b y e xamination t hat m ost o f t he a ncient i nstallations s uch a s t unnels f or d raining o ff e xcess w ater , r eservoirs f or s urplus w ater a nd a queducts l eading t o i rrigated b eds , w ithin t he s ystem o f i rrigation f rom n atural s prings . w ere g enuinely s mall ,

t heir s ize

b eing n ormally

h ad r emained i ntact T he i rrigated p lots

d etermined

b y

t he

w ater

s upply a nd i ts a vailability . D r . R on i s o f t he o pinion t hat t he s ystems h e e xamined w ere i n u se i n t he l ate S econd T emple p eriod . S ephi b en Y oseph r ecently i nvestigated t he s pring i rrigation c omplexes o f t he v illage o f B attir a nd t he s prings i n i ts r avine .8 ) O ne o f t he s prings , ' Ein e l ' Arus , s upplies 1 . 5 c ub . m . o f t he w ater d aily ( a l itre p er m inute ) a nd w ith t he h elp o f t his s mall q uantity a p lot y ielding e xcellent c rops i s i rrigated . T hose g rown o n t he p lots i rrigated f rom t he r avine s prings a re c hiefly m arket v egetables , a nd a t t he e nd o f t he p lots , w hich t he w ater r eaches w ith d ifficulty , a re v arious f ruit t rees s uch a s p ear , q uince , a pple a nd p lum . T he m ethod o f d istributing t he w ater f rom t he r eservoir o f B attir a mong t he owners o f i rrigated p lots, i s b ased o n a m arked m easuring r od , a nd t he m an r esponsible f or t he d istribution m aintains t he q uotas, a s f ixed b y a greement b etween t he u sers, w ith t he g reatest s trictness. A ncient i rrigation s ystems e xist a lso i n w estern S amaria .

M ost o f t hem

h ave n ot b een i nvestigated ; w orthy o f s pecial n otice a re W adi S alfit , w ith i ts r ich p erennial s ources 9 ) w hich s till i rrigate w ide a reas o f m arketg ardens a nd o rchards , a lso t he W adis T awahin a nd Z erqa , w here w e e xamined i nteresting s ystems o f s pring i rrigation . T he s prings o f W adi T awahin ( 159-153 ) i rrigate a v alley o f s ome 8 - 1 0 d unams . T wo a ncient a queducts i ssue f rom t he s pring o f ' Ein S hahriq; r eservoirs a nd p leasant p lots o f o rchard a nd v egetables c an b e o bserved a long t hem . A bandoned

s prings

w ith g rottos

a nd c isterns q uarried i n a ncient t imes

c an b e t raced a t t he f oot o f J amallah a nd a long W adi T awahin . T he i rrigated p lots o f W adi T awahin a re s carcely u tilised a t p resent , b ut o lives , c itrus , a lmonds, d ates , v ines , p oplar s till g row t here . g rown f or t he m arket ,

c arobs , p omegranates , g uavas , a nd t he E uphrates N ear ' Ein S hahriq m int ( M . i ncana ) i s o ccasionally

b ut

m arket g ardening h as

c eased

y ears . C onversations w ith t he i nhabitants m ade v egetables c an b e g rown y early i n W adi T awahin .

i t

e ntirely i n r ecent

c lear

t hat

c rops

o f

I rrigation f rom R ainwater C isterns. I t

c ame

t o u s a s

a s urprise t o d iscover t hat

t here e xist i n S amaria

n umerous r emains o f a rrangements f or i rrigation f rom r ockcut c isterns

2 00

q uarried t o s tore r ainwater .

I n c ontrast

t o t he i rrigation s ystems b ased

o n t he e xploitation o f v arious t ypes o f s prings p roceeding f rom w atertables , c istern i rrigation i s n ot u sual i n t raditional A rab a gricultur, a nd i ts a rrangements h ave n ot b een a rchaeologically i nvestigated . T he a ccount o f t he c ultivated a rea o f H irbet B uraq s howed t hat t here e xisted t here a c omplex o f l arge r ainwater c isterns , r ockcut a nd p lastered , w hich w ere u sed t o i rrigate a l arge i rrigated v alley . T he c isterns , w hich w ere u tilised t o i rrigate w atered p lots , d iffer i n f orm f rom t he n ormal d omestic c isterns , t heir c apacity b eing s everal t imes l arger . A t B uraq r ockcut c anals c an b e o bserved w hich l ed t he c istern—water t o l evelled p lots ; t he r ockcut f oundations o f d rawing a ppliances s et o ver t he c isterns c an a lso b e s een . A n a dditional g roup o f p lots i rrigated f rom c isterns a nd s mall s prings w as e xamined a nd m easured e ast o f T zur N athan GAL 1 515-1820) . A g roup o f t hese s mall s prings f ound i n a n u nnamed v alley F ig . 1 08 ( o f t he A lexander s treambed , w as c alled ' Et a M udandara o n t he m ap , a nd ' Iyun P h . 9 0, D ardara b y t he l ocal s hepherds . 9 1 P h . 8 9

T he

s prings ,

w hich b reak o ut

r ock c utting i n a ncient t imes ,

i n t he v alley b ed ,

h ad b een w idened b y

a nd c onverted t o c ircular v ertical c isterns

i nto which t he s canty water d rained . C isterns a nd p ools h ad b een c ut b etween t he s prings t o s tore t he r ainwater . V arious r ock c uttings o ver t he s ources , c isterns a nd p ools s how t hat t here h ad b een t imber a ppliances w hich f acilitated t he d rawing o f w ater f rom t he d eep c isterns . R ockcut p lastered c anals l inked t he c isterns w ith t he w atered p lots , a nd a pparently i t h ad b een p ossible t o t ransfer w ater f rom t he s prings t o t he c isterns a nd p ools a t a l ower l evel . D ams a nd t erraces t o c heck a nd s pread r unoff h ad b een b uilt f or 2 50 m . a long t he c hannel o f t he s treambed p arallel w ith t he g roup o f s prings a nd c isterns . T he d ams w ere b uilt o f r ubble b locks 2 .00 t o 2 .20 m . t hick a nd a m etre i n h eight . E leven w atered p lots h ad b een l aid o ut e ach s ide o f t he s treambed . T he a reas o f t he p lots w ere a s f ollows : 1° ) N o . o f P lot.

A rea i n D unams.

1

0 .9

2

0 .9

3

0 .6

4

0 .95

5

0 .12

6

0 .48

7

0 .45

8

0 .53

9

0 .28

1 0

1

1

0 .6 6 .81 T otal a rea i n d unams

2 01

T he

p reparation

o f

a n

a rea

o f

a pproximately

s even d unams

m eans

t he

i nvestment o f e normous l abour i n t he q uarrying a nd d eepening o f t he s prings , t he p reparing o f c isterns, r eservoirs, d ams a nd l evelled p arcels . E vidently t he h eavy i nvestment p aid, a nd t he s mall w atered p lots, w ere e conomic a nd p rofitable . T he i rrigated v alley o f T zur N athan w as l inked b y a n a ncient f ield-way w ith H irbet M ush 'araph , a n i mportant s ite w hose n ame w e f ailed t o d iscover . A nother r oad l eads s outhward t o K efr J imal .

T he s oil i n t he w atered

p lots o f T zur N athan c ould b e i rrigated w ith w inter s pate a nd f rom t he s pring s eason t hroughout t he s ummer , c rops c ould b e g rown b y a uxiliary i rrigation a nd m arketed t o t he n eighbouring s ettlements . A part f rom t he w atered a rea o ther c isterns a re t o b e f ound a long t he s treambed , m ethod o f a uxiliary i rrigation w as v ery f requent . T he

M ishnah

a nd

r ainwater c isterns;

t he

T almud

c ontain e vidence o f

a nd t he

i rrigation f rom

' one may n ot i rrigate w ith r ainwater o r w ith t he

c hilon% 1 1 ) O ne o f t he p apyri f ound a t N essana d iscusses t he l easing o f a p lantation o f d ate p alms a nd v ines , a nd m entions a c istern a q uarter o f which w as r ented t ogether w ith t he p lantation .1 3 ) I rrigation f rom r ainwater c isterns w as a lso s ometimes p ractised i n I taly ; a n i rrigation s ystem d eriving i ts w ater f rom c isterns a nd p ools , t he w ater b eing g uided t o f lower b eds g rown f or t he p erfume m arket , w as f ound i n o ne o f t he c ommercial p erfume

g ardens

n ear P ompeii . ")

T he w atered p lots

w ere s mall a nd

s ometimes t iny . T he M ishnah ,1 5) d iscussing t he l imit o f e conomic r entability o f a gricultural a reas , s tates t hat t he m inimal l imit o f t he a rea o f a n i rrigated t ract i s 6 5 b y 3 2 m etres .

S uch a n i rrigated p lot p roperly

c ultivated i s p referred b y o ne o f t he M idrashim o ver a nd a bove a n umber o f l arge h oldings .1 6) I t m ay w ell b e t hat t hese i rrigated p lots w ere u sed m ainly f or v egetable g rowing b ecause v egetables w ere g reatly i n d emand a nd o f h igh d ietetic v alue . A n i rrigated a rea w as s ometimes u sed s ynonymously t o m ean a m arket g arden , t hus i nforming u s o f t he p rincipal c rops g rown w ith t he v aluable

w ater s upply .1 7)

P rofessor F elix h olds

t hat

i rrigated

r ice

w as p robably a lso c ultivated i n w estern S amaria , a nd t hat p onds f illed w ith s oil a nd w ater w ere q uarried f or t hat p urpose .1 8 ) I t i s u sual f or A rab c ultivators who p ractise i rrigation , t o g row f our o r f ive c rops o f v egetables y early ! T he p lots a re c ultivated w ith g reat i ntensity ; o rganic m anure i s g enerously a pplied , a nd t he s trictness o bserved i n k eeping t he p lots f ree o f w eeds i s e xemplary . S ometimes i ntercultivation o f o ne s ort o f v egetable w ith o thers i s p ractised , a nd a nother v egetable i s p lanted o r s own b efore t he p revious c rop i s g athered . A ccording t o S ephi b en Y oseph 's o bservations , t wo o r t hree d ays ' l abour a re i nvested i n ad unam o f i rrigated l and d aily ,

a nd n umerous a dditional h ands a re r ecruited i n s easons o f

p icking .1 9 ) T he y ields a re d espatched t o t he n earby t owns , t hings w ere m uch t he s ame i n a ncient t imes .

a nd p robably

T he D amming o f S treambeds f or C ultivation . D ams b uilt f or a griculture w ere r ecorded b y u s n orth t o t he S hiloh s treambed i n t he s outh .

f rom U m-Rihan i n t he

B y " agricultural d ams" w e m ean

t he b uilding o f s tone w alls a cross t he v alleys a nd r avines , w ith t he a im o f c hecking t he f loodwater a nd d irecting i t b y c anals o r o ther d evices t o t he n earby f ields . s imultaneously ;

T he d am b uilders a ppear t o h ave a chieved s everal a ims t he f loodwater w as d irected t o c ultivated p lots a nd

a bsorbed i nto t he d eeper s trata ,

t he f orce o f t he s tream w as m oderated ,

2 02

a nd

t he d anger o f s oil e rosion d iminished . I n t he

S hufah a rea ( G .R .

1 577-1876)

w e s urveyed t he r emains o f a d am

a nd c hannel i n t he b ed o f W adi N imer , a t ributary m ountain g orge o f t he A lexander r iver . I n a n e specially n arrow r each a d am h ad b een b uilt a cross t he s treambed , a nd a c anal b oth r ockcut a nd b uilt l ed f rom t he d am f or s ome 1 00 m etres . T he d am a nd t he c hannel a re n ow d estroyed , b ut t he f oundations a re c learly v isible, a nd a re b uilt o f l arge s olid u ndressed b locks. T he r emains o f a l arge d am w ere r ecorded a t t he f oot o f H irbet T afsah P h. 9 2

( G .R . 1 663-1754) i n t he Q ana s treambed . T he d am h ad b een b uilt i n a b end o f t he s treambed , a nd i ts w ater a ppears t o h ave b een d iverted t owards a ' fan ' o f s oil f ormed i n t he a rea . S outh-west o f H irbet T e-enah ( G .R . 1 479-1641), i n o ne o f t he S hiloh s treambeds , w e f ound a d am 6 0 m . l ong a nd s ome 6 m etres t hick , p reserved t o a h eight o f 1 . 5 m . I t w as b uilt o f s tone a nd e arth , a nd o f s uch s ize a nd l ocation a s t o f orm a r eservoir o f f loodwater w hich i t d iverted t o t he f ields a round i t . O ne o f t he m ost i nteresting d am-building p rojects w e d iscovered i n t he

egion o f U m-Rihan i n n orth-western S amaria . T en d ams w ere f ound t o h ave F ig. 1 09 r b een b uilt a cross t he e ast-flowing s tream i n t he v alley k nown a s H azriq P h . 9 3 S aqah ( G .R . 1 672-2108) . T he v alley i s a bout 2 50 m . l ong , t he w idth o f t he b ed i s 1 5 m . , a nd t he v ertical i nterval b etween t he h ead a nd t he e nd o f t he v alley s ome 2 5 m . T he t en d ams a re b uilt o ne b ehind t he o ther a t i ntervals o f a pproximately 1 0-15 m . T hey w ere c onstructed o f r ubble d ry l aid t o a w idth a nd h eight o f t wo m etres ,

a nd w ere d rawn a cross t he e ntire w idth o f

t he n arrow v alley t o l engths o f 5 - 1 5 m . p resumably t o r elease s urplus water w hen i t

T hey p ossess s pillways e xceeded a g iven l evel .

R ockcutting was o bserved n ear s ome o f t he d ams, t heir p urpose b eing t o emove o bstructive r ocks f rom t he w ater c ourse . T he r easons f or b uilding F ig. 10 r t hese t en d ams w as n ot o bvious . T he v alley i n w hich t hey w ere e rected P h . 9 4, c ontains n o a ppropriate a reas o f s oil , a nd a pparently t heir m ain f unction 9 5 w as t o w eaken t he f orce o f t he s pate b efore i t r eached t he w ide S aqah s treambed , w here t here a re m ore e xtensive a reas o f s oil w hich w ould h ave j ustified s o e xpensive a nd c omplicated a p roject a s

t he s aid t en b arriers .

T wo s mall g alleries w ere c ut i nto t he r ock o ver t he s treambed , b etween d ams 9 a nd 1 0; t hey may h ave s erved a s s helters f or t he p ersonnel w ho s uperintended t he o peration o f t he d ams i n t imes o f r ainfall a nd f lood .

2 .

T he A rchaeological E vidence f or S tock R earing i n S amaria. T he i mportant p lace h eld b y t he f lock i ndustry i n t he a ncient e conomy

o f t his c ountry i s w ell k nown a nd a ccepted a mong s cholars .

T he a bundance o f

s ources c oncerning t he i mportance o f f locks i n t he p eriod o f t he F irst T emple f urnishes c lear p roof o f t he c entral p lace h eld b y t he b ranch i n t he a gricultural e conomy o f E retz Y israel; i t a ppears t o h ave o ccupied a c entral p osition i n l ater p eriods a lso . B ut w hen w e a ttempt t o e xamine t he s ubject i n t he l ight o f a rchaeological d iscoveries , o bjective d ifficulties a re e ncöuntered w hich p revent u s o btaining a n a uthentic p icture i n ag iven a rea o f r esearch . F lock r earing h as l eft n o s olid a rchaeological e vidence i n t he p ast a nd d oes n ot d o s o a t p resent , a nd i n c ontrast t o s uch b ranches a s t he v ine a nd t he o live , w hose p rocessing r equired r ockcut i nstallations , m ost o f t he i nstallations a ssociated w ith f lock r earing h ave d isappeared . W e h ave n evertheless b een f ortunate e nough t o d iscover a ncient c ultivated

2 03

t racts i n w estern S amaria w hich p reserve a rchaeological r emains w itnessing t o t he i mportance o f f locks

i n t he r egion .

T he f old w hich s heltered t he

f lock d uring i ts s ojourn a t p asture i s t he p rincipal r elic which s till s urvives. W e h ave d efined a s s heepcots c ircular f enced e nclosures w ith a n a verage d iameter o f 1 0 — 1 5 m . t o t he t hreshing f loors

T hey d o n ot c ontain l evelled f loors — i n c ontrast w here l abour w as i nvested i n r ock l evelling ; t he

f olds a re o ften b uilt o n h ill f lanks o r s loping a reas . T hey p ossess f ences b uilt o f u ndressed s tones , o riginally s tanding t o a h eight o f 1— 1 . 50 m" w hich c ould b e h eightened w ith t he h elp o f at horn h edge — a d evice w hich w e l earned t o k now a mong t he p resentday s hepherds o f t he c ountryside . E very f old h as a n o pening i n t he f ence , 1m . t o 1 . 50 m . w ide . F olds w ere f ound i n t he c ultivated a reas o f m ost o f t he r ural d istribution m aps s urveyed . T hey s howed t hat t he f lock r earing b ranch was w ell r ooted i n western S amaria . I n o ther l ocalities , s uch a s n orth o f Q arawat b ene H assan a nd i n t he H irbet S hehadah a rea , w e r ecorded c omplete p astoral c amping a reas , i .e . l arge a reas c ontaining f olds, s ome o f which h ad b een i n r ecent u se . E vidently t hese s ites h ad b een r egularly u sed a s r esting p laces f or f locks w hich d id n ot r eturn t o t heir v illages e ach n ight . A part f rom t he a ncient f olds w e r ecorded m any d ozens o f c aves o n t he f ringes o f s ettlements o r i n c ultivated a reas ,

w hich c ould h ave s erved t o

s helter f locks . A s eries o f c aves o n t he w estern f ringe o f H irbet B uraq p resent a g ood e xample o f s uch a p ossibility . I t m ay b e s upposed t hat m any o f t he a ncient f olds w ere d estroyed a s t ime w ent o n , a nd o nly b y c hance w ere w e a ble t o l ocate s everal d ozen d uring t he s urvey . T he i mportance a nd d iffusion o f t he l ivestock b ranch i n t his c ountry i n t he H ellenistic p eriod f ind

t heir e xpansion i n P apyrus R ainer . 2° )

T his

d ocument i nforms u s t hat t he l ivestock b ranch i n E retz Y israel w as s ubject t o t he s ame m ethods o f t axation a nd a dministration a s i n P tolemaic E gypt , a nd t hat a s trict r egistration o f c attle a nd f locks w as c arried o ut . o wners

o f

f locks

a nd

t heir s hepherds

w ere r egistered b y n ame ,

T he

a nd s evere

p enalties w ere i nflicted o n t hose e vading r egistration o f f locks . D ocuments f rom R oman E gypt t ell u s t hat t he P tolemaic m ethod c ontinued t o e xist , t hat a nnual c ensuses w ere r igorously h eld , a nd a s trict s upervision o f e very h ead w as m aintained i n t he i nterests o f t axation .2 1) G edalyah A lon w as o f t he o pinion t hat t he r earing o f f locks a nd h erds w as a lso w idespread i n J udaea u nder R oman r ule .2 2 ) T he e vidence a dduced b y h im i nforms u s o f l arge f locks a nd r earing o n al arge s cale . G oats a nd s heep s upply m ankind w ith a c onsiderable p art o f i ts n eeds , a s o ur s ources t estify . T he wool a nd h ides o f s heep w ere b asic r aw m aterial f or t he p reparation o f h uman c lothing . S . K rauss d evotes a d etailed c hapter t o t he f unction o f w ool i n t he p reparation o f e xpensive g arments i n t he p eriods o f t he M ishnah a nd t he T almud , a nd d escribes I x d etail t he s tages o f c lothing manufacture f rom s hearing t o w eaving . 2i) W oollen g arments w ere r egarded a s p referable a nd m ore e xpensive t han t hose o f l inen , w hich w as u sed t o m ake s imple e veryday g arb . t he p roduce d erived f rom t he f locks : w ool , m ilk , c heese ,

T osephta d etails m eat a nd w oollen

c lothing b oth w oven a nd s ewn .2 4 ) T he i mportance o f m anure w as n ot i nferior t o t hat o f o ther p roducts , f or t he i ntensive a griculture o f t he M ishnaic a nd t almudic p eriods r equired l arge q uantities o f o rganic m anure t he f ields , p lantations a nd m arket g ardens . I n t he o pinion F elix ,

t o f ertilise o f P rofessor

f ive c ubic m etres o f o rganic manure w ere a pplied p er d unam ,

2 04

a

q uantity

r egarded a s d esirable a lso

d istinguishes c attle:

t wo m ethods

o f

m anuring

a ) T he s preading o n t he f ields e nclosures. b )

i n m odern a griculture .25) w ith

t he

u tilisation

o f

F elix

s heep a nd

o f m anure ' mucked o ut ' f rom t he l ivestock

T he l ivestock was d riven t o t he f ields a nd p enned i n l ight m ovable

e nclosures s o t hat t he d ung t hus c ollected f urnished d irect m anuring .

T he P rohibition o f F lock R earing i n E retz Y israel. O ne o f t he i nteresting q uestions i nvolved i n t he s tudy o f a ncient f lock-rearing i n t his c ountry a rises f rom t he M ishnaic p rohibition t o e ngage i n t his b ranch :

" Slender l ivestock i s n ot

t o b e

r eared i n E retz Y israel ;

b ut i t may b e r eared i n S yria a nd i n t he d eserts ( midbariot) o f E retz Y israel" . 26) T his i s, p rima f acie, a n u nequivocal p rohibition i n t he i nterests o f t he r epopulation o f t he c ountry , s ince t hey ( i .e . t he ' slender l ivestock ') ' destroy s eed a nd u proot p lantations ', a ccording t o A lbeck 's e xplanation . 27 ) T he d eserts o f E retz Y israel a re e xcepted 4 i om p rohibition ; T osephta a dds m aquis t o t he p ermitted p asture l ands . ' D r .

t he

Z eev S afrai h olds t hat t he maquis ( Heb . h orashim) o f T almudic

l iterature r efers d ifficult t o a ccept a ppear t o h ave b een i mply a b elief t hat

t o t he r ocky a reas o f t he h ill c ountry . 29) I t i s t he a bove c ommentators ' i nterpretations o f M ishnah w hich o verinfluenced b y t he r uinous A rab g razing e conomy , a nd t he p rohibition w as e nforced a nd a pplied t hroughout t he

e ntire c ountry . P rofessor M . A vi-Yonah t hought t hat t he p rohibition w as c onnected w ith e vents a fter t he r evolt o f B en K oziba when i ndividuals, w ishing t o a mass r apid f ortunes , b egan t o d esert m ixed a griculture f or f lock r earing t o s atisfy t he d emands o f t he d eveloping a nd p restigious wool i ndustry . A s l arge-scale f lock r earing was i njurious t o f ields a nd p lantations , t he r earing o f ' slender l ivestock ' i n t he c ountry w as f orbidden a ccordingly . 3°) A . G ulack 's v iew w as t hat m any c ultivators w ere a bandoning t heir l and d ue t o t he R oman o ccupation . T he J ewish l eadership t ook a g rave v iew o f t he d esertion o f v illages a nd t he t ransition t o p asture w hich w ere d estroying t he b asis o f J ewish r ural l ife . T his w as t he r eason f or t he p rohibitory r egulations, w hose a im was t o p revent a nd r estrict f lock r earing . G ulack b elieved t hat t he s aid r egulations w ere m odified a s t he r esistance t o R oman r ule g rew w eaker a nd d ied a way .3 1) O ur o wn v iew i s t hat t he J ewish s cholars ' o pposition t o f lock-rearing w as l imited t o a p eriod o f c risis , a nd t hat w hen i t p asses , f locks r esumed t heir r ightful p lace i n t he c ountry 's e conomy . T o j udge f rom t he a rchaeological e vidence i n w estern S amaria , f lock r earing w as o ne o f t he a ccepted b ranches i n t he v illages o f t he r egion .

P asture. I n t he c hapter o n t he r ural r oad s ystem o f w estern S amaria w e p ut f orward t he c onjecture t hat t he s tructure a nd p attern o f t he r oads w ere s uch t hat t hey c ould b e u sed b y f locks a nd h erds w hen p assing f rom o ne g razing g round t o a nother . L ivestock h as t o b e w atched i n a reas o f s own c rops a nd p lantations , a nd p revented f rom i nvading s own f ields ; ar amified a nd s ecure n etwork o f r oads i s t herefore n eeded w hich w ill b e o f s ound s ervice t o t he t ranshumant s tock . S uch e xists i n w estern S amaria , a nd m ay b e r easonably

2 05

s upposed t o h ave f unctioned e fficiently i n a ncient t imes .

I n t he c ourse o f

t he s urvey w e w ere a ble t o s ee t he m odern u se o f f lock m ovement o n t he r ural r oads o f w estern S amaria . S heep a nd c attle w ere h erded o nto t he r oute , a nd t he h igh v erges h elped t o c analise t he l ivestock a nd d irecct i t t o p redetermined p astures . I n s ectors w here t he v erges h ad b een b uilt l ow , s hepherds a nd l andholders b uilt h edges o f p oterium s pinosum l ivestock f rom t respassing o nto s own a reas .

t o p revent

S hemuel K rauss w as o f t he o pinion t hat a ny a rea o f p asture o utside t he v illage w as c alled a m idbar ( desert), 32 ) a nd i f t his i s r ight, w e c an u nderstand w hat w as m eant a nd i nterpret t he r abbinical p rohibitions a s d irected t o t he p rotection o f s own a reas f rom t he i nroads o f f locks , r ather t han a s a n a ll-embracing p rohibition t o r ear f locks .

I n v illages b elonging

t o a ncient M editerranean a griculture p ublic p astures w ere d efined a nd a ll l ocal i nhabitants w ere a llowed t o g raze a c ertain n umber o f s heep a nd c attle o n t hose a reas .3 3 ) P rofessor A vitzur c onsiders t hat t he p ublic g razing l ands w ere minimal, a nd t hat t he l ivestock g razed t he s tubble, t he v ineyards , t he o live g roves o r t he f allow .3 4 ) W hen g razing i s c ontrolled a nd u nder s uitable s upervision , t he d amage w rought b y f locks o n t he s own c an b e r estricted o r p revented . A pparently i n t he p eriod o f t he M ishnah a nd t he T almud a ll n ecessary s teps w ere t aken d amaging t he c rops , a nd f or t his r eason l arge s ettlements , o n p ermanent c amping g rounds i n M ishnah a nd T osephta d istinguish b etween t ypes

t o p revent t he f locks f rom f locks w ere h eld o utside t he d efined g razing a reas . T he o f f lock : " What a re b ayitot?

T he ( flocks) which s pend t he n ight i n t he f armstead . W hat a re t he m idbariot? T hose t hat s pend t he n ight o n t he g round" . 35 ) P ermanent c amping g rounds o f t his t ype w ere f ound i n w estern S amaria , i n t he a reas o f Q arawat b ene H assan , H irbet S hehadah , K efr S ur a nd S hufah . C lusters o f e nclosures a nd t emporary s hepherd-dwellings w ere d istinguished o n t he s ame s ites . N aturally t he s ites w ere r eused b y A rab s hepherds o f t he r egion , w hich i s o f s ome i mportance a s as heep r earing d istrict . T he s hepherds t old u s t hat t hey s pent l ong p eriods i n t he a reas w here t he p ens a re l ocated , a nd o nly r eturned t o t heir v illages a t e xtended i ntervals .

T hey a lso r emain a t

t he c amping s ites i n t he r ainy s eason , s ince t here a re n atural o r a rtificial c aves n earby , i nto w hich t hey g ather t heir f locks . I t i s p ossible t hat t he p astoral a reas r emote f rom t he v illages a nd l ocated o n t he r ockiest m arginal t racts, w ere k nown a s ' deserts a nd maquis ' i n a ncient t imes . T he t erm ' marginal a reas ' i s n ot u sed h ere t o r efer t o d istant p arts o f t he c ountry , b ut t o t he b ounds o f t he r egion o f w estern S amaria , a t d istances o f ad ay o r t wo d ays ' w alk f rom t he m other v illage . W e m ust t ake i nto a ccount t hat t he e ntire r egion w as s ettled i n a ncient t imes a nd t hat t he r oad t o t he J ordan v alley p assed d ozens o f v illages w hich a lso p ossessed f locks . I t m ay b e a ssumed t hat t he v illages o f e astern S amaria c ould c laim f irst r ights t o t he p asture l ands o f t hat r egion a nd o f t he J ordan v alley . M enashe H arel c onsiders t hat t he W ilderness o f J udaea a lone w as t he i deal a rea i n t his c ountry f or t he r earing o f f locks o n a l arge s cale .3 6 ) I ts p ermanent p opulation w as s parse , s o t hat f locks e njoyed p asture l ands a nd w ater i n s ummer , m igrating i n w inter t hrough t he r avines t o p rofit f rom t he e arly f lora o n t he s hores o f t he D ead S ea . r earing o f c attle a nd s heep h eld a n i mportant

I n R oman I taly , w here t he p lace i n t he a gricultural

e conomy , t ranshumance i .e . m igration f rom o ne p astoral a rea t o a nother , w as h ighly d eveloped . P rofessor B runt t hinks t hat I talian t ranshumance w as b ound u p w ith t he r earing o f l arge f locks o f s heep f or w ool , t he a reas o f m igration e xtending t hrough t he A ppenines t o s outh I taly . ) T he w ealthy m en o f R ome e xpelled t he p easantry f rom t he s outhern a rea a nd c leared e xtensive

t racts

f or

t heir

l arge

f locks .

2 06

M ost

o f

t he

I talian s hepherds

w ere s laves, t he

which i n B runt 's o pinion ,

I talian s heep

r earing

c apitalists

r eveals t he s ocial m ethod f rom w hich

b ranch d eveloped .

a nd

t heir

R oman

l arge h erds,

I taly a lso

b eside

t he

s mallholders

f arms,

w hose f locks d id n ot m igrate o ver l ong d istances ,

p ossessed ,

w orking m ixed

b ut s ubsisted

o n

p asture n ear t he p easant f arm . 38 ) T he f locks o f w estern S amaria a ppear t o h ave b elonged t o t he t ype which s pent t he n ight o n t he f arm, i .e . t he b ayatot, g rouped f locks w hich g razed o n t he c ultivators ' h oldings o r o n t he p ublic g rounds o f t he v illage .

A n i nvestigation c onducted b y A vi a nd A yelet

P erbolotzki o n t he r ange o f m igration o f B eduin f locks i n s outh S inai, s howed t hat t he m igration r ange a nd t he g razing t erritories e xtended o ver a r adius o f 2-4 k ilometres f rom t he f lock 's c amping g round . 39 )

S uch r anges

w ere f ound i n most o f t he l and u nits o f t he w est S amarian v illages, h ence m igration o ver l ong d istances w as u nnecessary a nd p erhaps i mpossible . I t w as c lear f rom t he i nformation f urnished b y S ephi b en Y oseph t hat g razing a mong t he v illages o f e astern S amaria was c onducted w ithin t he t erritories o f t he v ilages t hemselves .

T he F lock i n T raditional A rab F arming. P rofessor

A vitzur

h as

c alculated

t hat

t he

v alue

o f

l ivestock

i n

t he

a nnual i ncome o f t he c ountry 's 1 9th c entury a griculture amounted t o 2 5 p ercent .

P lantations

p ercent . 4°) m anure .

c ontributed

1 5

p ercent a nd c ereals a m inimum o f 6 0

T he f lock p rovided i ts o wners w ith meat , m ilk , w ool, h ides a nd T he n umber o f g oats w as d ouble

c onsideration

f or

p asture .

I n

1 920

t hat o f s heep ,

a c ommission o f

a pparently o ut o f

t he

B ritish

m andate

f ound t hat t he A rab v illager 's i ncome f rom o ne h ead o f s heep o r g oat w as t he e quivalent o f t wo d unams o f a rable . D espite t he i mportance o f t he f lock i n t he t raditional A rab e conomy ,

t he m ethods o f g razing a nd t he m aintenance o f

t he p astures w ere r egarded a s a n e conomy o f r uin .") E xcessive g razing a nd t he e conomically u ncontrolled s ize o f t he f locks h ave l ed t o t he d estruction o f

w hole p lant

m ismanagement

a ssociations c aused

b y

i n

t he

n orth

a nd

i n

t he

N egev ,

c reating

c onstant g razing a nd l ow p roduction .4 2)

t he M any

t racts h ave b een s tripped o f t heir f lora, a nd P rofessor Y oav W eisel c alculated t hat a s a r esult t heir t emperature h as r isen b y 6 d egrees ) C elsiu s! '3 S o s teep a r ise i n t he t emperature o f t he s oil e xerts f arr eaching i nfluences u pon b oth v egetation a nd w ater . I sraeli

i nvestigators

a ntagonism b etween f locks n atural m aquis ( brushwood ), d estruction o f

n atural

h ave

l ately

c oncluded

t hat

t here

i s

n o

a ctual

( especially o f b lack g oats) a nd t he e xistence o f a reas o f v egetation o r u ndamaged p asture .

T he

f lora a nd g rave s oil e rosion a re n ot c aused b y t he

g oat , b ut b y t hose t hat manage t hem . 44) C orrect g razing , a melioration o f g razing a reas a nd s upervision o f t he s ize o f f locks, c an c onvert t he f lock b ranch t o a r espectable a nd b eneficial s ource o f l ivelihood . i nteresting t o n ote t hat i n s ome a reas o f s outh S inai, where c onstitute o ne o f t he b asic c omponents o f t he B eduin e conomy , h ave

b een e nacted

g razing . 45)

t o

r egulate

t he p asture l ands a nd

t o

I t i s f locks

i nternal l aws p revent o ver-

T here a re o ver > 0,000 h ead o f s heep o r g oats

i n western

S amaria , b ased m ainly o n l ocal p asture a nd s tubbles ; Z eligman a nd ' 2 atzir b elieve t hat t he n umber o f a nimals c an b e i ncreased b y i mproved m anagement , w ithout h arming o ther b ranches o f f arming . ")

T he S ize o f F locks o n t he A ncient A gricultural H oldings. I t m ay b e r easonably s upposed t hat t he s ize o f f locks i n a ncient t imes

2 07

v aried a g reat d eal .

B ut t his d oes n ot f ree u s f rom a ttempting t o d efine a

h ypothetical f lock a ppropriate t o a n a gricultural h olding i n w estern S amaria . W e m ean a f lock w hich c ould b e s upported o n t he a gricultural a reas o f t he v illage , s ubsisting o n t he l ocal g razing l ands a nd t he c ultivators p lantations , a nd a lso g razing o n t he p ublic p asture l and o f a ny a ncient v illage. D ocuments

p reserved

f rom

M acedonian

v illages

o f

t he

l ate

B yzantine

p eriod m ake i t c lear t hat a v illage f amily p ossessed a n a verage f lock o f n ine g oats a nd s heep .4 7 ) C ases a re i ndeed k nown i n w hich t he n umber o f h ead w as l ess , b ut o n t he o ther h and , t here i s e vidence f or l arge f locks n umbering t wenty h ead . A mong t he t ribe o f J ebeliyyeh i n s outh S inai t he a verage

f lock

i s

1 3 .5

h ead ,

c hiefly

g oats .4 8)

I nvestigators

h ave

f ound

f amilies o wning t wo t o f ive h ead a nd w ell-to-do f amilies w ith 3 0 . I t s hould n ot b e f orgotten t hat t hese f igures b elong t o m odern t imes , b ut t he m ode o f l ife o f t he t ribes o f s outh S inai c ontains m any e lements t hat c an b e s tudied a nd e nable u s t o r econstruct t he p ast . T he T osephta, w hen d iscussing w hat w as p ermitted a nd p rohibited i n t rade w ith h ired v illage s hepherds , m entions f our t o f ive h ead a s t he p ermitted n umber w hich m ight b e p urchased . 49 ) T his f igure may h ave n o r eal i mportance, b ut i t m ay r epresent t he n umber o f h ead r egarded a t t hat t ime a s a n i ndependent s aleable f lock t he s ale o f w hich w ould n ot e voke s uspicion o f r obbery . F or a h ypothetical a ssessment o f t he s ize o f af lock i n t he v illages o f w estern S amaria ,

w e m ust r efer t o a r ecent a nalysis o f t he g razing c apacity

o f t he r egion 's p asture . Z eligman a nd Q atzir h ave made a s tudy o f t he n atural e zing l ands i n t he v arious a dministrative d istricts o f J udaea a nd S amaria.

7

T he f ollowing d ates w ere a ssembled f or t he d istricts o f J enin a nd T ul K arem , w hich c over , f or o ur p urpose, m ost o f t he a reas o f o ur s urvey .

J enin

ml K arem

A rea

6 00,000

5 20,000 d unams

G razing a reas

3 68,000

4 64,000

S heep

3 1,877

1 5,234

h ead

G oats

1 9,175

1 7,461

"

T otal

5 1,052

3 2,695

"

4-5 .2

7 .7 - 1 0.1 d unams.

"

G razing c apability p er u nit o f f lock d unams.

T hese d ata m ake i t p ossible t hat t he 5 ,r azing c apacity o f t he n atural p asture l ands i n t he d istricts o f w estern S amaria w as n ot f ully u tilised i n 1 972,

a nd t hat w ith t he h elp o f v arious i mprovements i t w ould b e p ossible ,

i n t he o pinion o f t he a bove i nvestigators ,

t o e nlarge t he n umber o f h ead i n

t he r egion . Mordekhai W eitz, a n e xpert o f t he P asture a nd C attle D epartment o f t he M inistry o f A griculture , c onsiders t hat t he l ocal e we a nd g oat r equire f ive t o s ix d unams o f n atural p asture ; a c ow - a n a rea o f 3 0

2 08

d unams .51) W eitz i s o f t he o pinion t hat t hese d ata a re a pplicable t o g ood f arming a nd t o w ell-maintained f locks a nd h erds . T he t raditional A rab f arm , w hose s tandard o f p roduction i s l ower , m akes d o w ith s maller a reas . I t i s i nteresting t o n ote C ato 's c laim t hat a n o live p lantation o f 6 00 d unams ( 240 i ugera ) c ould s upport

1 00 s heep p ermanently ,

i .e . .

o ne h ead p er

s ix d unams . 52) T his m eans t hat t he s ize o f t he f lock i n t he a ncient h olding o f w estern S amaria d epended o n t he s ize o f t he a rea a t t he d isposal o f t he f armer , v illage.

d ata .

a nd o n t he e xtent o f t he p ublic p asture l and o wned b y t he

I f w e t ake H irbet B uraq a s a n e xample , w e m ay s uggest t he f ollowing T he s upposed l and-holding o f t he c ultivator w as a bout 2 5 d unams , o n

w hich f our t o f ive h ead c ould b e r eared .

T he p ublic p astures c overed s ome

5 00 d unams , o n w hich 9 0 t o 1 00 h ead h ad t o b e s upported a ccording t o t he e stimated g razing c apacity c ited a bove . B uraq c ontained , i n o ur v iew , 6 0 t o 7 0 h oldings ,

h ence o ne a dditional h ead c ould b e a dded

t o e ach h olding .

I t w ould t herefore s eem t hat t he s upposed f lock o f t he a gricultural h olding a t H irbet B uraq n umbered f ive t o s ix o vids o r i n l ieu , ac ow a nd a n o x . I t m ay b e r easonably a ssumed t hat t he r eal s ituation w as d ifferent , a nd t hat t here w ere c ultivators p ossessing f locks l arger o r s maller t han t he a verage . I f w e t urn t o o ther v illage h oldings , s uch a s Q arawat b ene H assan , ' Azun , S hufah o r s imilar s ettlements , w here t he c ultivated t ract w as l arger a nd t he p ublic p asture l ands w ere more e xtensive, w e f ind t hat t he s ize o f t he s upposed f lock c ould b e d oubled .

3 .

L imekilns i n W estern S amaria. T he

h ill-country

o f

E retz

Y israel

i s

a dorned

w ith

l imekilns ,

w hose

c haracteristic p its a re s till s cattered o ver m any t racts o f w estern S amaria . L ime w as t he m ain c omponent f or t he m anufacture o f t he v arious a dhesive m aterials u sed i n b uilding , p rincipally i n t he c omposition o f p laster , w hich i nsulated t he w ater c isterns s o v ital t o h uman e xistence . ( Below ) . T he n umber o f k ilns e ncountered i n t he s urvey o f S amaria g ave u s p rior n otice t hat t he l ime i ndustry w as o f c onsiderable i mportance i n a ncient t imes , s o w e b egan t o r ecord t hem s ystematically . W e l ist b elow t he n umber o f k ilns r ecorded o n s everal m aps o f t he r ural p attern :

.Q arawat b ene H assan

6k ilns

K efr L aqif

1 0

"

eRas

2 4

"

K efr S ur

1 9

"

T zur N athan

5

S hufah

1 2

" "

T he k ilns a re s cattered t hroughout t he c ultivated a rea ; t heir l ocation a nd d ensity s eem t o h ave b een c onnected w ith r ock s tructure a nd t he s ystem o f o wnership . T here a re a reas w here t he d ensity i s ' so g reat t hat w e f aced t he q uestion w hether t his w as n ot p roduction o n a n i ndustrial s cale .

2 09

F or

e xample ,

i n s outh-west S amaria ,

a n a rea o f t his s ort e xtends a ll t he w ay

f rom M igdal A pheq o n t he w est t o t he R antis a nd D eir B alut a reas o n t he e ast . W e g ained t he i mpression t hat s everal l imekilns w ere t o b e f ound i n e ach s quare k ilometre . T he k ilns o f w estern S amaria a re f airly s tandard i n f orm , v arying o nly i n t heir d iameter a nd d epth . A s a t ypical k iln , o ne n ear T ower 2 3 o n t he d istribution m ap o f e -Ras ,

w ill b e d escribed ;

i t s tands c lose t o t he f ield

t ower . I ts o ver-all d iameter i s 4 .00 m . T he s tone r evetment w alls a re b uilt t o a t hickness o f 1 . 70 m . T he r emainder o f t he d iameter c onsists o f e arth t ipped r ound t he e xterior p eriphery . T he k iln 's v isible d epth i s a pproximately 1 . 70 n u , b ut i ts r eal d epth s eems t o h ave b een 2 .00 - 2 . 50 n u T he t ower n ear t he k iln w as u ndamaged , n or h ad i ts s tones b een u sed a s r aw m aterial t o m ake l ime. T wo c onjectures a re t herefore p ossible: 1 .

T hat t he s tones o f t he t ower w ere n ot s uitable f or l ime b urning .

2 .

T hat t he t ower a nd t he l imekiln w ere c ontemporary a nd w ere p art o f

t he h olding 's e conomy . W e i ncline t o t he s econd c onjecture ,

a s m ost o f t he k ilns s urveyed o n

t he d istribution m aps o f t he v arious v illages a re s ituated i n t ower-plots . T he m anufacture o f l ime , w hether f or p rivate u se o r f or m arketing t o o ther a reas t hat l acked i t , w as e vidently a n a uxiliary b ranch o f t he e conomy , w hose r emains a re c learly v isible i n t he a rea . L imekilns a re d ifficult t o d efine a rchaeologically , a nd o nly t heir p roximity t o t owers o r t o o ther d atable s ites h elped u s t o d ate v arious k ilns b y t he i ndirect m ethod . A t rial e xcavation c onducted i n ak iln a t J ebel C arson n ear K efr L aqif e nabled u s t o u nderstand i ts a rchitectural s tructure, b ut n ot t o d ate i t . T he J ebel C arson k iln i s o f t he u sual t ype , w ith a d iameter o f 4 .00 n u a nd a d epth o f 2 .00 n u T races o f c harcoal a nd a l ayer o f l ime w ere f ound a t t he b ottom o f t he k iln . T he p lot i n w hich t he k iln w as l ocated c ontained , i nter a lia, a f ield t ower, a w inepress, a n o live o ll p ress, a l ivestock e nclosure a nd a t hreshing f loor . T he a rchaeological f inds p ointed t o s ettlement a t t he e nd o f t he P ersian p eriod b ut c hiefly i n t he H ellenistic a nd e arly R oman p eriods . I t w ould s eem t hat t he . l imekiln t oo b elonged t o t he f arm a ssemblage a s a whole ; t he h olding c overed a pproximately 3 0 d unams . E lsewhere w e f ound k ilns b uilt i nto d ated s ites . A k iln a t F arm 4 i n t he N ahal B elt ' Arif a rea h ad b een b uilt i nto t he f arm s tructure, p robably a fter t he l atter h ad f allen o ut o f u se i n E arly I ron A ge I I .

T he

o ld r oad i n t he H irbet ' Al a rea ( G .R . 1 49-159) h ad b een d estroyed b y a l imekiln b uilt i nto t he r oad-bank . T he r oad w as i n u se i n t he R oman p eriod , a nd i t m ust b e a ssumed t hat t he k iln w as o f t he B yzantine p eriod o r e ven l ater . A k iln w as c onstructed i n t he w all s urrounding t he f armstead s ite o f H irbet B asatin , a nd w ould a ppear t o h ave o perated when t he f arm w as a bandoned i n t he A rab e poch . A ll t his d emonstrated t he d ifficulty o f d ating a n i solated l imekiln , a nd i ts p eriod c ould o nly b e s urmised i ndirectly b y i ts

c ontext .

S tructure a nd O peration . T he

l imekiln i s

h as a ltered

l ittle

o ne

o f

t hroughout

t hose u niversal i nstallations w hose o peration t he g enerations .

C ato a dvises

o wner h ow t o b uild a nd o perate a l imekiln o n h is h olding .5 3 )

t he

e state-

H is a ccount

c orresponds e ntirely t o t hat o f t he k ilns r ecorded b y u s i n w estern S amaria . A g roup o f s uch o f t he R oman p eriod h as b een e xcavated n ear I wersheim i n

2 10

G ermany .54) S ix k ilns w hich w ere o perated a s a s ingle b atch b y u nits o f t he R oman l egions p roduced 2 37 t ons o f l ime p er m onth . T he e xcavators c onsidered t hat t he k ilns h ad a ttained a t emperature o f 1 ,050 d egrees C elsius, a nd t he s tone w as h eated t o at emperature o f 6 00 d egrees. T he G erman k ilns d iffered

s omewhat

f rom

t hose

i n t his c ountry ;

t he

s cholars w ho a ttempted t o r econstruct t he f ormer c laimed t hat t he m asonry d ome w as s upported i nside b y t imber s caffolding , a nd t hat t he k ilns w orked i n p airs . I n t his c ountry l ime w as p roduced i n t he k iln t ill t he b eginning o f t he t wentieth c entury . c onsiders

t hat

t he b urning o f

s tone

f or

l ime

t raditional t ype o f P rofessor A vitzur

o riginated

a s

e arly

a s

t he

B ronze A ge .5 5) T he n eed t o i nsulate c isterns a nd r eservoirs m ade t he u se o f p laster c onsisting o f l ime, s and a nd o ther i ngredients, e ssential . I mpressive q uantities o f t hornbush were g athered i n t he m ountains o f J erusalem a nd G alilee i n o rder t o o perate t he t raditional l imekiln ; as mall k iln n eeded 7 00 t o 1 ,000 b undles o f f uel f or a s ingle o peration , which l asted

f rom

t hree

t o s ix d ays ,

w hile a l arge

o ne

r equired 3 ,000

b undles .

Y ohanan b en Y a 'aqov o f t he K efar ' Etzion F ield S chool t ells m e t hat 5 ,000 t o 7 ,000 b undles o f t horn a nd o ther b ushes w ere r equired t o p roduce t wo t ons o f l ime i n t he H ebron h ill c ountry . A motz C ohen , d escribing t he n eighbourhood o f M otza ,

r elates

t hat t he k indling o f k ilns w as h ard w ork ,

o ccasionally

i nvolving s hift-work .5 6 ) I brahim ' Abed e l-Qadr o f B alata n ear S hechem h as t old m e t hat t he k ilns o nly w orked i n s ummer a nd c ould b e o perated f or n o m ore t han t wo m onths o f t he y ear .

T he U ses o f L ime. L ime w as u sed f or n umerous d ifferent p urposes ,

i n a griculture a nd r oad

b uilding , a nd e ven f or i nscribing t ombstones . I t w as t reated a s c urrency , a nd t he M ishnah s tates t hat i ts p rice m ust n ot b e f ixed b efore t he k iln w as e xtinguished .5 7) S . K rauss h as d welt a t l ength o n t he v ariegated u ses o f l ime i n t he b uilding t echniques o f t he M ishnaic a nd T almudic p eriods .5 8)

I t

w as u sed a s t he c hief c omponent o f m ortar a nd l ime , a nd i ts u tilisation i n a ll s tages o f b uilding i s p roved b y t he a bundant s ources t hat r efer t o i t . I n t he s truggle a gainst v ine p ests i n t he n ew J ewish c olonisation i t w as u sual t o d ust t he v ines w ith l ime a nd s ulphur . 59) A s b oth t hese m aterials w ere a t t he d isposal o f t he a ncient v intners, i t m ay b e s upposed t hat t hey t oo u sed t hem f or t he s ame p urpose . J ewil fbtombs w ere m arked w ith l ime t o p revent p riests c ontracting c ontamination . I t w as

/

t he R oman p ractice a nd p art o f t he t echnology o f r oad b uilding

t o p our l arge q uantities o f h ot l ime t o s trengthen t he r oad-bed .6 1) T he d uty o f l imeburning w as o ne o f t he a ngariae ( obliugeory l abour s ervices ) i mposed b y t he a uthorities i n t he l ate R oman p eriod . "' E vidently l ime p roduction w as a n a uxiliary b ranch o f t he e conomy w hose i mportance i n w estern S amaria e xceeded t hat o f t he s ame i ndustry i n o ther p arts o f t he c ountry .

T he d ense d istribution o f l imekilns i n a ll t he

v illage u nits s urveyed, t estifies t hat l ime m anufacture d id n ot i nterfere w ith c ultivation , a nd i n f act s upplemented t he c ultivators ' i ncome . I t m ay b e s upposed t hat m uch o f t he l ime w as e ar-marked f or c onsumption i n h omet erritory , b ut t hat q uantities w ere n eeded f or c ity b uilding o n t he c oast ; r ecent a nalyses o f t he w alls o f A scalon h ave e stablished t hat i ts n umerous p laster l ayers b elonged t o t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods .6 3 )

2 11

4 .

S umming u p . W e h ave h ere e xamined t he a rchaeological f inds c onnected w ith t wo

a gricultural b ranches , n amely a uxiliary h ill-irrigation a nd f lock r earing , a nd a nother c raft , a b ranch o f t he h andicrafts , n amely , l ime p roduction . E ach p ossessed a d ifferent d egree o f i mportance , b ut t heir e xistence a mong t he v illages o f w estern S amaria p roves t hat t hey w ere a n i ntegral p art o f t he r egion 's e conomy . I rrigation f rom r ainwater c isterns w as a n a stonishing d iscovery r elating t o t he c ountry 's a ncient a griculture ; i t d emonstrates s kill a nd a n i ntensive c ultivation o f t he s mall a reas o f l and w hich t he f armers o f t he r egion h ad a t t heir d isposal . F lock r earing i s d ifficult t o p rove a rchaeologically , h ence w e h ave e ndeavoured t o a ssemble a ll d ata w hich i nform u s o f t he e xistence w ithin t he b ounds o f w estern S amaria o f o ne o f t he b asic b ranches o f t he c ountry 's e conomy . A ssessments o f t he a rea 's c apability h ave i nformed u s o f t he c onjecturable s ize o f t he f lock i n t he a ncient f armer 's h olding . T he m inerals o f t he r egion w ere a lso e xploited b y i ts i nhabitants, a nd t he n umerous l imekilns a fford p roof o f l ime m anufacture o n al arge s cale .

2 12

C hapter X E nclosures a nd F orts. A part f rom f arms a nd t ownlets , w e h ave n oticed e nclosures a nd f ortified p laces o f a m ilitary c haracter . T he d istinction b etween a f ortified e nclosure a nd a n ormal s ettlement l ies c hiefly i n i ts u nusual l ocation , t he a ppearance o f d efences a nd o ther r emains w hich a re s uch a s t o d eclare t he d efensive f unction o f t he p lace . W e t erm a s f orts i solated s tructures c ontaining t he a ppropriate c omponents o f f ortification a nd t opographical p osition . W e h ave s urveyed a nd m apped m ost o f t he e nclosures a nd f orts , b ut t he l ocation o f s ome o f t hem i s c onjectural a s t hey w ere b uried u nder e xistent s ettlements , a ncient s trongholds . I n

t he

c hapter

c hronological m ethod , t he o bjects

o nly a f ew

o n

r emains

e nclosures

a nd

t estifying

f orts

t o

w e

t he e xistence o f

h ave

f ollowed

t he

a nd d escribe t he s ites a ccording t o t heir o rigin a nd

d iscovered .

I n c ases w here t here i s a n o verlap w ith s everal

p eriods , a ll a re d escribed . I n c onformity w ith t he a rchaeological s urvey o f w estern S amaria w e d escribe e nclosures a nd f orts f rom E arly I ron A ge I I d own t o t he R oman p eriod . We h ave n ot d iscovered a ny f ortified s ites b elonging t o t he B yzantine p eriod , w hile A rab a nd l ater f ortifications a re b eyond o ur p resent s cope o f i nterest .

1 . E arly I ron A ge F ortifications. F ig .

12 T el Q a 'adah . T he f ortifications o f t his p eriod w ill b e d escribed f rom n orth t o s outh . T el Q a 'adah i s t hree k ilometres s outh-east o f T ul K arem o n a b road p lateau a t G .R . 1 548-1892 . F or s ome u nknown r eason t he s ite d oes n ot a ppear o n i nhabitants.

t he

maps,

a nd

i ts

n ame

was

g iven

t o

u s

b y

t he

l ocal

T he t el m easures s ome 8 t o 1 0 d unams , a nd i ts s ummit i s s urrounded b y a s tone w all p reserved t o a h eight o f b elong m ainly t o E arly I ron A ge I I .

t wo o r t hree m etres . P ottery f inds T here a re n o t races o f s tructures o r

. other f inds o n T el Q a 'adah t o s how t hat t his w as a n ormal s ettlement , a nd t he f orm o f t he e nclosure i ndicates t hat i t was a m ilitary p osition r esembling o thers

f ound b y u s

i n w estern

S amaria .

T he

T el

Q a 'adah

e nclosure o ccupies a n i mportant s trategic p oint i n a h illy t errain w hich c onstitutes a d efensive a rea b etween t he c oastal p lain a nd t he m ountain r egion . T wo a ncient r egional r oads p ass t he s ite , l inking T ul K arem w ith t he B eit L id d istrict t o e astward . T he c onnection b etween t he e nclosure a nd t hese r oads t herefore i s n ot m ere c hance .

hufah . T he v illage o f S hufah i s s ituated o n o ne o f t he m ost p rominent F ig. 1 07 S h ills o f t he l andscape s outh o f T ul K arem ( G .R . 1 579-1869) . T he h ill, w hose a ltitude i s 3 29 m . a bove s ea l evel , f urnishes w ide o bservation o ver

P h . 9 6

c onsiderable

t racts

o f t he p resentday p lain o f H epher a nd s outhern S haron .

T he v illage i s l ocated o n t he s ummit o f a b oss , a nd t he a ncient r emains a re b uried u nder n ew h ouses . A rchaeological s urvey f ound p ottery o f t he f ollowing p eriods :

B ronze A ge T I ,

E arly I ron A ge I I ,

P ersian ,

H ellenistic ,

B yzantine , A rab a nd m ediaeval .'' S hufah i s i dentified w ith t he S hiftan o f t he S amaria o straca, a nd a rchaeological s urvey c onfirms t he p roposed

2 13

i dentification . 2) I n t he c ourse o f a w ide s urvey c onducted i n t he v illage t racts we f ound 1 20 f ield t owers, a n a ncient r oad s ystem, a nd n umerous r emains o f a gricultural i nstallations f irst p resent i n t he E arly I ron A ge . S outh-west o f t he v illage w e s urveyed a l ofty h ill w hich b ears t he n ame o f R as A gra,

which may b e e vidence f or t he e xistence t here o f a n a ncient

f ortress .

I t

i s

p robable

t hat

w hich w atched t he w ide a rea a t

S hufah

w as

a n

E arly

I ron A ge

s tronghold

t he f oot o f t he m ountains o f S amaria .

A n

i mportant r egional h ighway p asses c lose t o S hufah o n i ts w ay t owards Q aqun , a f ortified k eypoint i n t he e astern c atchment a rea o f t he H epher P lain . S hufah c ommands o ther r oads , s outh .

V isual

s uch a s t he w ay t o ' Anabta a nd t o K efr S ur t o

c ommunication

i s

p ossible

b etween

S hufah

a nd T el Q a 'adah ,

a nd g ood r oad l inks o ne w ith t he o ther .

E nclosures a nd F orts i n t he B eit L id A rea. E astward ,

t owards t he r egion o f B eit L id ( G .R .

f orts a nd e nclosures s howed

t ightens .

1 62185) t he n etwork o f

A d etailed s urvey c arried o ut i n t he a rea

t hat B eit L id i s s ituated

i n a n a rea

o f

a ncient

r oads a nd d efiles

which a re v ital t o t he d efence o f S amaria a nd S hechem, b oth i mportant c entres i n t he h eart o f t he m ountains o f E phraim . F our e nclosures a nd f orts w ere r ecorded i n t his v icinity .

T hey o riginated i n E arly I ron A ge I, a nd

s ome o f t hem c ontinued t o d o d uty i n t he m iddle a ges .° T hose i n t he B eit L id a rea f orm a r egional d efense l ine w hose f unction w as t o b lock t he v alley a nd s treambed o f S hechem t o w est ,

s o a cting a s t he f irst

a gainst a n e nemy b reaking i nto t he c entre o f

l ine o f r esistance

t he k ingdom .

T el Q a 'adah a nd

S hufah c ould u ndoubtedly h ave b een i ntegrated i nto t his ustem .

K ur .

T he v illage o f K ur i s t en m iles

s outh-west o f

t he c ity o f S amaria ,

a nd f ive k ilometres s outh-east o f S hufah , a t G .R . 1 59-182 . L ike S hufah , t he v illage i s l ocated o n t he t op o f ah ill 3 90 m . a .s .l . w ith g ood c ommand o ver i ts m ountainous s urroundings . T he B ritish s urvey o f w estern P alestine n otes t he d efensive c haracteristics o f t he v illage a nd t he p resence o f a n a ncient r oad n earby .4 ) Y oseph P orat f ound p ottery o f t he f ollowing p eriods i n t he v illage: E arly I ron A ge I I, P ersian , H ellenistic, B yzantine, m ediaeval a nd O ttoman .5 )

I n as urvey c onducted i n a nd r ound t he v i llage i t

w as f ound t hat K ur c ommands a r egional c rossroads l eading t o B eit L id , K efr 7 P h . 9

S ur a nd ' Azun . b uildings

T he v illage c ontains

w hich

m astery .6 )

s erved a s

f amily

i mpressive

f ortresses

i n

r emains o f m ediaeval

t he s truggle

f or

r egional

A rab i nscriptions a ffixed t o s everal b uildings c onfirm t hat t he

O ttoman g overnment r egarded K ur a s a n i mportant k ey-point a nd l ooked t o i ts f ortification a nd m aintenance .

A lthough w e f ound n o r emains o f a c itadel

o f E arly I ron A ge I I a t K ur , i t m ay b e a ssumed t hat i t d id e xist , a nd t hat t he l ate f ortresses w ere b uilt o ver i t . A s a l ocality c ommanding a b road a rea ,

K ur i s u nrivalled .

T he E nclosure a t Q arnei S hromron . F ig.

13

A njezat a bbu Q arnin a re t wo l ofty h ills 4 41-442 m . h igh , f ive k ilometres e ast o f

' Az ian ( G .R .

S amaria a nd

1 609-1761) .

S hechem ,

a nd

A n a ncient

r oad

r an

t he e nclosure 's c ommand o f

T he r emains o f a n i mpressive r ampart o f e arth a nd

b etween t he h ills

t o

t he r oad i s a bsolute .

s tone

f ive m etres h igh

w ere r ecorded o n t he s outhern h ill , whose a rea i s a pproximately 3 0 d unams . T he e ntire s ummit was s urrounded b y a r ampart, o ver which a wall h ad b een e rected ,

a nd i ts

r emains s till p roject o n t he s urface .

2 14

I n t he s outh

o f t he e nclosure c an b e s een t races o f p roject a bove t he p loughland . t he P ersian-Hellenistic p eriod .

t he a cropolis ,

p art o f w hose w alls

T he p ottery f inds f rom t he e nclosure a re o f T he Q arnei S homron e nclosure i s o ne o f t he

m ost p rominent E arly I ron A ge e nclosures i n w estern S amaria . T he a ncient r oad f rom ' Azun t o S hechem a nd S amaria p assed t he f oot o f t he h ill , a nd t he a ncient r oute h as s urvived a lmost d own t o t he p resent d ay ; an ew b ypass w as p aved o nly i n t he r ecent g eneration .

P h . 9 8

T he F ort o f N ahal Q ana .

S outh o f

Q arnei S homron i n t he Q ana s treambed

( GAL 1 609-1741), w e r ecorded t he r emains o f a n E arly I ron A ge f ort . O nly o ne w all , b uilt o f e specially l arge s tones , h as s urvived . T he f ort w ould s eem t o h ave p rotected t he a ncient r oad a long t he c hannel o f t he Q ana s treambed . T here i s n o w ider o bservation f rom t he a rea i n w hich t he f ort s tands , a nd p robably w e h ave h ere a n E arly I ron A ge r oad-fort . T he N ahal Q ana f ort a nd t he e nclosures a t D eir S am 'an ( below ) c onfirm t he w ellknown f act t hat t he l arge s treambeds w ere u sed a s m ainroads i n t he p eriod o f t he F irst T emple.

T he F ort a t H an s .

T he v illage

o f H an s

i s

s ituated

s ome

1 5 k ilometres

e ast o f K efr Q asim , a nd 1 6 k ilometres s outh-west o f S hechem . T he r emains o f t he f ort w ere d iscovered b y u s o n H irbet a -Tel , a h igh h ill w hich l ooks o ut o ver t he v illage w estward ( GAL 1 638-1691) . T he f ort w alls a ppear t o r epresent t he H ellenistic p hase ( below), b ut t he p ottery f ound o n t he a bandoned s ite i ncludes E arly I ron A ge I I , H ellenistic a nd R oman-Byzantine w ares . T he c hief f inds i n t he i nterior o f t he f ort b elonged t o t he H ellenistic p eriod , s o t hat i t m ay r easonably b e s upposed t hat H irbet a -Tel w as a lready f ortified i n t he E arly I ron A ge , a nd t hat t he H ellenistic f ort i s

b uilt

o n

o lder

f oundations .

S pecialists

i n a ncient

a rchitecture

w ho

v isited t he s ite c onsidered i t d ifficult t o d istinguish b etween E arly I ron A ge and H ellenistic c onstruction, b ut t he p lan o f t he f ort i s c haracteristically

H ellenistic . 7)

T he

H an s

i mportant s trategic p oint , n ear a n a ncient t here a re k nown t o h ave b een r oyal e states .

f ort

c ross-roads ,

i s

l ocated

a t

a n

i n a n a rea w here

T he F irdusi E nclosure a t Q arawat b ene H assan . S ome 6 00 n u n orth o f Q arawat b ene H assan ( GAL 1 59-170 ) w e s urveyed a f ortified e nclosure o f l arge d imensions . T he p lace i s c alled H irbet F irdusi ,

a nd m ost

o f

t he r emains w ithin i t b elong t o t he H ellenistic a nd

H erodian p eriods . ( Below ) . W e f ound E arly I ron A ge p ottery o n t he s ite , a nd i ts f ortification a ppears t o h ave b egan i n t hat p eriod . W e s hall d iscuss

t he f ortification o f Q arawat b ene H assan i n d ue c ourse ,

b ut i t i s

i mportant t o n ote t hat t he e nclosure i s w ell i ntegrated i nto t he E arly I ron A ge s ystem o f f orts a nd e nclosures .

T he F ort a t D eir S am 'an . I n t he ' c hapter o n t he f arm etead o f D eir S am 'an w e d escribed a f ort ( 35) s ited o n t he h igh s lope o verlo .)king t he R ifat s treambed . W e c onjectured t hat t he f ort 's f unction w as t o w atch a nd p rotect t he r oad r unning a long t he b ed o f t he S hiloh g orge.

( Wadi S aridah , W adi H af e l-Mir, W adi R if a t).

2 15

T he E arly I ron A ge F ortification o f W estern S amaria: F unctions a nd P ositions. T he f ort-system o f S amaria a nd i ts v arious p eriods h ave y et t o b e s tudied i n e xtenso .

O ur o wn f ield r esearch s ubmits t he f irst f inds ,

b elong o nly t o p art o f t he a rea .

w hich

I t m ay b e a ssumed t hat t here a re o ther

f orts y et t o b e d iscovered , a nd o nly i nterpretation o f t he d efense m ethod a pplied i n e ach p eriod w ill e nable s cholars t o c omplete t he p icture . O ur c onclusions a re b ased o n t he d ata g athered i n t he a rea , a nd o n a n a nalysis o f t he E arly I ron A ge f ortifications . E xamination o f t he m ap s hows t hat t he l ine o f e nclosures a nd f ortifications d escribed a bove , e xtends f rom t he S hechem s treambed o n t he n orth t o t he S hiloh g orge o n t he s outh . T he f ortified l ine i s s ituated i n t he w estern S amarian h ills , o n t he e dge o f t he mountain s lopes . T he majority o f t he f ortifications a re l ocated a t o bservation p oints w ith a w ide c ommand o ver t heir s urroundings . M ost i mportant , t he l ocal f orts a re p laced o n t he a scents c onnecting t he h eart o f t he m ountain m assif w ith t he c oastal p lain a nd t he S hephelah . P rofess g M . G ihon h olds t hat t he d efense s ystem o f J udaea c onsisted o f t hree l ines : / 1 )

A l ine o f f orts i n t he S hephelah r egion .

2 )

A l ine o n t he p assage f rom t he h ill r egion t o t he h ill-scarp .

3 )

A l ine o n t he m ountain m assif i tself.

S amaria i s n ot i dentical w ith J udaea f rom a g eographical p oint o f v iew , a nd t he d efense l ines o f t he k ingdom o f I srael d iffered f rom t hose o f h er s outhern s ister . N o f ortifications o f t he E arly I ron A ge a re k nown i n t he t ransitional a rea b etween S haron a nd t he h ill c ountry , a nd i t s eems t hat t he f ortifications r ecorded a re t he m ost w esterly o f s uch . T he c onnection b etween t he f ortifications a nd t he a scents f rom t he c oastal r egion t o t he m ountain m assif i s c lear t o a ll .

T he E arly I ron A ge

p eriod o f many a ncient r oads c an b e c onfirmed, i t s eems, b y t he f ortifications d ated t o t hat e ra . F inkelstein a nd G arsiel c oncluded , o n o ther c onsiderations ,

t hat t he r oad f rom K efr Q asim v ia H an s t o M ardeh w as

o f E arly I ron A ge d ate , a nd i t i s i nteresting t o r emark t hat m ost o f t he f ortified a rea s urv5xed o verlaps w ith t he z one s ettled b y t he J oseph t ribes i n w estern S amaria .' ) A nalysing J udaea a nd S amaria f rom a g eopolitical s tandpoint , P rofessor G ihon c ame t o t he c onclusion t hat t he c entre o f t he m assif w as t he a rea o f t he h ighest i mportance f rom a m ilitary a nd n ational p oint o f v iew . 1°) I n t he a rea o f o ur s urvey G ihon f inds r outes f rom t he c oastal p lain t o t he m assif: a )

T ul K arem - S amaria.

b )

' Azun - S hechem .

c )

R antis - G ophna.

I n a ddition t o

t hese

r outes w e

m ay r eckon t he c hannels

t hree p rincipal

o f t he A lexander ,

Q ana a nd S hiloh g orges , w hich w e t hink w ere u sed a s r outes i n t he E arly I ron A ge. B esides

t he e ast-west a scents

t he f ortifications r ecorded s how t hat i n

w estern S amaria t here w ere n orth-south r oads o riginating i n t he E arly I ron A ge . T he l ine o f f ortificat -, ons f rom t he S hechem t o t he S hiloh g orge c ommands n ot o nly t he west-east a scents, b ut a lso t he n orth-south r oad

2 16

sectors surveyed by us, and described in the chapter on the road-system. The modern road Tul Karem-Kefr Sur-'Azun-Deir Balut coincides in greater part with the ancient line of this north-south road. The location of the network of Early Iron Age forts and enclosures enabled co�mand and observation not only of the mainroads� but also of the inte�ediate routes which have been described together with the forts and fortifications. 2.

Fortifications of the Hellenistic Period .

No actual settlement hiatus appears to have existed in Samaria between the Early Iron Age and the Hellenistic period. The chapter on farmhouses has indicated that many of the farms continued to be occupied in the Persian period, nor were there any considerable changes till the Hellenistic age. We believe that this situation applied equally to some of the forts in which Persian pottery was diagnosed, although we still lack the required criteria to distinguish clearly between Earlf Iron Age and Persian, or between Persian and Hellenistic construction. I ) For that reason our account has not devoted a distinct chapter to the Persian epoch, but wherever we have noticed Persian ceramic evidence we have embodied it in the description of the site. Forts and an acropolis-like enclosure of the Hellenistic period have been located; some of the former were built on Early Iron Age sites, and others on new sites which presumably responded to current requirements and to a new conception . Fig . 114 'The Fort at Kefr Sur . Remains of a fort are to be found some 800 metres south of Kefr Sur at G.R. 1569-1834. The fort is located on a low hill north of the road to the village. Its area is 25 x 22 m., surrounded by a stone wall parts of which remain in situ. The construction is of dressed limestone headers and stretchers, dry laid. The interior buildings have been destroyed by recent cultivation, and only the foundations of a strong tower stand out in the south-west of the· area; it measures 6.60 by 2.40 m., and it is interesting to note that it is located to look south-westward to Kefr Sur and to where the north-south highway (Kefr Sur-'Azun) crosses the road from the west, continuing to Sheikh Mush'araf (now Tsur Nathan). In the south-west of the ·fort a breach was observed in the wall, probably the remains of the ancient gateway. Owing to the intensive cultivation of the area it is hard to know if the remains represent an isolated fort or if other structures on the slopes have been demolished. Pottery from the fort included fragments of the Hellenistic and a few of the earlier Roman period. Evidently the latter phase should be ascribed to the period between Herod and the 2nd century C.E. The Kefr Sur fort appears to be a successor of the Early Iron Age stronghold at Kur, the distance from one to the other being only three ·kilometres, but they differ in their topographical siting and their command of the roads. While Kur occupies a high point with an excellent command of its surroundings, Kefr Sur is topographically inferior but possesses an �cellent command of a point where a local north-south and a local east-west road cross. Kefr Sur itself may have been fortified in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, while the fort served merely as a forward post. Kefr Sur is fortified by nature, and a system of field towers ·was recorded round it, which, in our view, points. to colonisation in the Hellenistic period. 217

Another site which probably served as a Hellenistic fortification was Kefr Jemal (G.R. 1 545-18 13) , six kilometres south-west of Kefr Sur, and. 200 m. �.s.l. The top of the hill possesses excellent observation over the vicinity, mainly westward. The village has yielded HelleD;istic pottery, and its command of the east-west and north-south roads apparently did not escape the fort-planners of the Hellenistic period. 'Azun and Qasr Haramiyyeh. 'Azun is a strategic key-point in western Samaria. Its twin hills at G.R. 1554- 1 758 dominate the central north-south route of the region, and one of the important ascents from the coastal plain to the mountains of Shechem and Samaria. The Israeli emergency survey found here a continuum of pottery from Early Iron .Age II down to mediaeval. 12) Our survey detected a well-organised network of towers and cultivated plots round 'Azun. A group of field towers excavated south-east of the village in the.area of Hirbet We Jeme'in, yielded clear Hellenistic strata in most of them. 13) therefore think that 'Azun was settled in the Hellenistic period and was perhaps also a fort whose remains are now to be found on the hill of e-Ras. Evidence of military presence in the Hellenistic period was found east of 'Azun, at Qasr Haramiyyeh. This structure has been described in the chapter on farmhouses, as have the results of the trial excavation conducted on the site. It became clear that Qasr Haramiyyeh was a fortified farm of the Hellenistic period, built to command the road to Samaria and Shechem. It is not the only fortified Hellenistic military settlement zone in western Samaria. The fortified farms represent a new conception of regional control, perhaps the result of systematic development in that period. The Acropolis of Hirbet Firdusi. Fig. 115

One of the most interesting discoveries in western Samaria was near the village of Qarawat bene Hassan, where a fine acropolis-like enclosure was found. 600 m. north of the built-up area of the village: rises a hill, 380 m. a.s.l.; it resembles a table, measuring approximately 300 by 100 m.

The hill is surrounded on the north, east and west by the deep · streambeds of Wadi Abbu-'Amar. An easy approach to the foot of this lofty hill exists only on the south. All the slopes down to the wadi-beds are extremely steep, and attempts to reach the top of the hill from them would have involved much effort and _time. The hill has several names: a-Tel, a- _ Shunah, and Hirbet Firdusi; only the last is mentioned on maps of the region. A detailed survey of the site disclosed that we have here an impressively large military enclosure of about 30 - 35 dunams and a lower Ph. 99. town, part of whose houses are still in good preservation. Pottery of Early Iron Age II down ·to the Hellenistic period was found in the large enclosure, the Hellenistic remains being especially prominent. We called this 'the acropolis' because of its size, and the finds justified the term. The highest area of the hill is surrounded by a rampart and by the lower part of a wall of dressed limestone masonry. In some sectors the wall and bank remairi to a height of approximately 2.50 - 3.00 m. (8 in the map of Ph . 100, ;he site). 101

218

T he A cropolis: S tructures. A n a rea o f s tore b uildings a nd t he f ortified q uarters o f t he c ommandant c an b e m ade o ut i n t he f orm o f t wo c entral b locks , b ut e vidently s ome o f t he s tructures h ave d isappeared i n t he l ast g eneration o wing t o t he c ultivation o f t he a rea b y t he i nhabitants o f B ene H assan a nd t o t he p lanting o f a n o live g rove.

T he S tore B uildings ( 5 ) .

A n a rea o f s ome 1 00 b y 8 0 m . h ad b een f enced o ff

i n t he e ast o f t he e nclosure , a nd a l ong r ow o f s torehouses b uilt o ver a n a rea o f f our t o f ive d unams . T he s tore b uildings w ere l ong a nd t heir w alls s urvived t o a l ength o f 3 0 - 4 0 m . o r s o . A t l east s ix o r s even s uch b uildings c ould b e t raced, d ivided i nternally b y s tone p arty walls . C isterns f or c ollecting r ainwater h ad b een p laced b etween t he w alls o f t he b uildings ( 4). T he f oundations o f s trong t owers ( 3-3) w ere o bserved ,

e ach s ide o f t he

s ite b uildings . T he m ore e asterly t ower w as b uilt a t t he e nd o f t he e nclosure , a nd a part f rom i ts c ommand o f t he s tore-area i t p ossessed g ood o bservation o ver t he e astern s lope . T he w estern t ower i s l arger , a nd c ould h ave b een a n i nner f ort ; i t p ossessed a t l east t wo s toreys . T wo e ngineered p aths a scend f rom t he r esidential a rea t o t he a cropolis ( 6) , b oth e nding a t t he s outh-eastern g atehouse , a nd a pparently t he r esidential a rea c ould b e c ut o ff f rom t he a cropolis .

T he C ommandant's ' Keep ' ( 2). T he f oundations o f al arge s tructure m easuring a pproximately 4 0 b y 4 0 m . a re t o b e s een i n t he c entre o f t he a cropolis . I ts e xterior w alls a re b uilt o f l arge c arefully d ressed m asonry b locks 0 .80 b y 0 .80 m . T he o uter wall was b uilt t o aw idth o f 1 .60 m ., d efense w ork .

a nd w as p robably a n i ntentional

A n e ntrance w as o bserved o n t he n orth s ide o f t he b uilding ,

4 .20 m . w ide ; o ne o f t he d oor j ambs r emained i n s itu . T he i nternal d ivisions o f t he s tructure a re n ot c lear , a nd o nly e xcavation c an d isclose i ts p lan . T o a ll a ppearance t his b uilding w as t he ' keep ' o f t he a cropolis , p erhpas t he r esidence o f t he c ommandant o r c ommanding o fficer . 3 0 m etres w est o f i t was a c olumbarium c ontaining 3 5 r ockhewn l oculi . T he c olumbarium i s a t g round l evel a nd h ad b een c ut o ut o f t he b locks o f n atural r ock l eft a fter q uarrying f or b uilding. T he c hief e ntrance t o t he a cropolis w as o n t he s outh , a nd a butted o n t he c ommandant 's ' keep ' . A r amp o f e arth a nd s tones a pproaching t he g ate a rea f rom t he w est c an b e d istinguished . I t m ay b e a ssumed , i n v iew o f t he w idth o f t he e ntrance a nd t he a rtificial p latform ,

t hat a r eal g ate e xisted

h ere. T he r ainwater a ccumulating i n t he r ockhewn c isterns f urnished t he w ater s upply f or t he d enizens o f t he a cropolis ,

b ut i t w ould a ppear t hat t hose i n

c ommand h ere t ook t he t rouble t o s ecure a n a lternative s upply , n amely , t he u nderground 'spring w hich b reaks o ut i n W adi M ashtahi a bout a k ilometre n orth o f t he a cropolis . A m an-made p ath l eads e astwards f rom t he h ill t o t he s pring , w hich i s k nown a s ' Ein N etaftef . I t r ises w ithin t he m ountain a nd i s n ot v isible o utside i t . H uman l abour h as e nlarged t he a rea o f o utflow a nd c ut t wo s ecret e ntrances i nto t he d epths o f t he m ountain . I t w as n ot d ifficult t o s end b easts o f b urden t o b ring w ater f rom t he s pring t o t he

2 19

a cropolis i n p eacetime. A mong t he m inor f inds f rom t he b uilt-up a rea a ttached t o t he a cropolis a p erutah ( farthing ) o f Y annai A lexander s hould b e n oted ;1 4) i ts o bverse b ore a n a nchor s et i n a c ircle , a nd t he r everse a s tar o f w hich o nly f our r ays w ere v isible . I ts d iameter w as 9 - 1 2 I N a nd i ts w eight 0 .5 g rams . T his i s a c ommon s mall c oin o f Y annai A lexander , s tudies .1 5) t he s urvey ,

well-known i n n umismatic

O wing t o t he t errain a nd t he c limate w e f ound f ew c oins d uring a nd e very c oin-find c ontributes t o s ite c hronology .

T he A cropolis: F unction a nd D ate. T he e nclosure o f H irbet F irdusi a t Q arawat b ene H assan i s a f ortified a rea r esembling a n a cropolis . A n a nalysis o f t he s tructures s hows t hat i ts i mportance d erives f rom i ts a rea a s a d epot , e vidently f or s upplies a nd m ilitary e quipment , p erhaps a lso a s a b ase f or t he c oncentration o f t axes p aid b y t he c ultivators o f t he v icinity . T he p ottery f inds h int t hat t he s ite w as o f s ome i mportance a s e arly a s E arly I ron A ge I I , b ut a pparently o nly i n t he H ellenistic p eriod d id i t b ecome a f ortified e nclosure . P ergamum 1 6) f orms a n i nteresting p arallel t o o ur a cropolis a nd i ts a rea .

T he

s tore-buildings

o f

P ergamum 1 7)

a re

d ated

t o

t he

3 rd

G reek d epot

a nd

2 nd

c enturies B .C .E . , w hen w e b elieve H irbet F irdusi a lso t o h ave b een b uilt . G . R ickman c onsiders t hat t he P ergamum s torehouses w ere u sed a s g ranaries , a nd a nticipated t he t hose o f H irbet i n t his c ountry a reas o f M asada

R oman m ilitary g ranaries , w hich r esembled t hem a nd a lso F irdusi . H irbet F irdusi f inds a m ost i nteresting p arallel i tself , a t M asada i n t he W ilderness o f J udaea . T he d epot h ave b een a rchaeologically e xcavated a nd t heir d escription

i s t o b e f ound i n F lavius J osephus .1 8) J osephus r elates t hat t he M asada s torehouses h eld g rain , o il , w ine , l egumes a nd d ates , a nd t hat t he s upplies r emained i n g ood c ondition f or a c entury . J osephus may h ave b een e xaggerating a s r egards t he t ime , b ut i n t he d esert c limate o f M asada f ood c ould b e c onserved f or l ong p eriods . M asada a nd i ts d epot h ave b een d escribed b y t he j oint e xpedition l ed b y A vi vd , A vi-Yonah , A haroni , G uttman a nd D unaievsky i n t he y ears 1 955-1957 .1 : /) T hey f ound a n umber o f r esemblances b etween t he M asada s torehouses a nd t hose a t P ergamum , s uch a s t he d oors, which f aced n orth , a nd t he i dentity o f t he b uilding a reas o ccupied . T he s tore b uildings a t M asada c overed a n a rea o f 2 ,416 s q . m" t hose o f P ergamum 1 . 756 s q . m . W hen P rofessor Y igael Y adin 's e xpedition e xposed a nd r econstructed t he d epots a t M asada , 2°) J osephus ' d escription w as c onfirmed b y t he e xcavation , w hich a dded v aluable i nformation o n t he m anner o f s torage a nd t he c onstruction o f t he s torehouses . I t w ould s eem t hat m ost o f t he k inds o f f ood a t M asada w ere k ept i n a mphorae , a dapted t o t he t ype o f f ood s tored . O ne o f t he s torehouses w as f ound t o b e c ompletely p lastered w ith g rey p laster , a nd i ts f loor c ontained t hree d epressions . T he e xcavator 's o pinion w as t hat t his s tore b uilding h ad b een u sed f or l iquids ,2 1) b ut i t s eems t o h ave b een u sed a s a g ranary i n w hich t he g rain h ad b een s tacked . T he f unction o f t he a cropolis o f H irbet F irdusi a t Q arawat b ene H assan d iffered l ittle , i t w ould a ppear , f rom t hat o f t he s torehouses a t M asada , w here , a s h as b een s tated , f ood a nd e quipment f or t roops w ere a ccumulated f or m any y ears. W ho b uilt t he a cropolis a t B ene H assan a nd w hy? a n u nequivocal r econstructed .

r eply ,

b ut

a pparently

t he

D uring t he H asmonean r evolt ,

2 20

I t i s d ifficult t o g ive

h istorical

s etting

c an

b e

t he S eleucid g eneral B acchides

f ortified

J udaea

a gainst

t he

r ebels

c ommanded

b y J onathan .22)

T he

p ositions o f t he t hree f ortified s ettlements k nown a s T imnata , F ara 'ton a nd T appuah h ave r oused m uch c ontroversy , a nd s everal i dentifications h ave b een p roposed . T he a rgument h as f ocussed mainly o n t he i dentification o f F ara ‚t on a nd T appuah . W hile A vi-Yonah c onsidered t hat t hey w ere t o b e s ought i n J udaea ,2 3) o thers h ave a rgued t hat t hey a re t o b e f ound i n s outhern S amaria , o n t he f rontier o f J udaea . T he i dentification o f T appuah w ith S heikh A bbu Z ered b etween Y asif a nd I skaka i s a ccepted b y m ost s cholars . 24) D r . Z eev S afrai r ecently s uggested t hat t he F ara 't ei )o f B acchides s hould b e s ought a t K efr F arha s outh o f t he S arida s treambed . T he e vidence f or H ellenistic f ortifications i n s outhern S amaria , ( or , o n a nother v iew , i n n orthern J udaea ), i n a n a rea n ot f ar r emoved f rom Q arawat b ene H assan , i s r elevant a nd i mportant. W e d o n ot

t hink t hat t he a cropolis o f H irbet F irdusi c an b e i dentified

w ith o ne o f B acchides ' f orts , a nd H irbet F irdusi w as p robably b uilt e arlier . P rofessor A pplebaum ,

i n t he c ourse o f av isit t o t he s ite ,

p ut f orward t he

i dea t hat t he a cropolis w as u tilised b y t he H ellenistic g overnment a s a c entral s upply d epöt i n ar ural a rea w hich c ontained n o u rban s ettlements o n t he H ellenistic m odel .

T he F ort a t H an s. F ig.

16

H an s i s f our k ilometres e ast o f Q arawat b ene H assan ; i t w as t herefore a s urprise t o f ind a nother H ellenistic f ortress a t H an s , o n t he s ummit o f a T el . H an s h as b een i ncluded i n t he a ccount o f t he E arly I ron A ge f orts b ecause i t y ielded E arly I ron A ge I I p ottery , b ut i t i s b elieved t hat t he f ort

w hose

r emains

a re

a t

p resent

v isible ,

i s

H ellenistic .

U nlike

t he

f ort, K efr H an s h as b een l ong k nown t o h istorical g eographers i n t his c ountry . F .M . A bel v isited t he v illage i n t he ' r dreteen-twenties 2 6) a nd r econfirmed t he p roposed i dentification o f t he p lace w ith t he ' Arous m entioned b y J osephus i n h is a ccount o f V arus ' m arch i nto J udaea . 27 ) A ccording t o h im t he R oman f orce , a ccompanied b y t he N abataeans , s et o ut f rom

S amaria ,

a nd

m arching

t hrough

' Arous

( Han s) ,

t he

e state

o f

H erod 's

m inister , P tolemy , b urned t he p lace . F rom ' Arous t hey c rossed t he h ills t o S appho ( Saffa ) a nd E mmaus . W e h ave d iscussed t he r oute t aken b y t he R oman a rmy i n o ur c hapter o n r ural r oads , a nd f ound t hat t he R omans u tilised a n i nterior r oad-system w hich s till e xists i n w estern S amaria . M .

A vi-Yonah a ccepted

t he

i dentification

o f

H an s

w ith

t he

' Arous

o f

J osephus, 28) a nd a ccording t o a 1 7th c entury s ourc c ited b y Y esha 'yahu P ress , a s mall J ewish c ommunity t hen e xisted t here .L 9) H ere t he I srael e mergency s urvey r ecovered p ottery o f t he M iddle B ronze A ge I I , E arly W r i P h.

1 02

A ge I , I I , P ersian , H ellenistic , R oman , B yzantine a nd m ediaeval p eriods . I n o ur

r e-examination o f

f ort i s l ocated , a bove

s ea l evel .

t he h ill

o f

a -Tel ,

/

o n w hich t he H ellenistic

w e f ound t hat i ts r uins s tand o n a n atural h illtop 5 20 m . T he e astern s lope ,

t oday p lanted w ith o live g roves ,

i s

e fficiently t erraced , a nd t he u pper t erraces a re p art a nd p arcel o f t he a ncient r uins , a nd p robably w ork w as c arried o ut t o c onsolidate a nd f ortify t he

h illtop . A c omplete s tone s tructure k nown a s J am 'at ' Amer e xists o n t he e astern

s lope , a nd i ts w alls e mbody a ncient m asonry . H irbet a -Tel a nd t he f ort a rea a re c ut o ff f rom t he v illage t o w est b y ar ockcut w all , aw ork o f h uman

2 21

l abour . T oday t he a rea i s f ull o f e rosion s oil a nd e vidence o f b uilding , b ut t he o riginal h eight o f t he w all e xceeded s everal metres . T he c onvenient a pproach t o t he s ummit o f t he r uins i s t hrough t he s mall v illage o f H an s , w hich i s b uilt a long a s ingle s treet r unning e ast—west . A s urvey a mong t he h ouses r evealed n o a bandoned a ncient n ucleus a s i s f requent i n o ther v illages o f t he v icinity , a nd i t l ooks a s i f H an s w as n ever a l arge p opulation c entre. T he h illtop

o f H irbet a —Tel

i s o ccupied b y a M oslem c emetery ,

i n t he

c entre o f w hich i s b uried a W ell c alled S heikh W man . T he r emains o f t he H ellenistic f ort l ie e ast o f t he M oslem c emetery , a nd a p anoramic v iew o ver t he e ntire r egion i s o btained f rom t he W ell 's a rea . T he h ill o f a —Tel i s t he m ost p rominent a nd c ommanding i n t he e ntire d istrict .

T he F ort. T he f ort o f H an s i s a symmetrical i n s hape , m easuring a pproximately 6 0 x P h . 1 03

4 0 m etres .

I ts w alls a ppear t o h ave b een a dapted t o t he i rregular t errain ,

a nd e ach s ide i s s et o n as carp o f t he b edrock .

T he c onstruction i s o f h ard

d ressed l imestone d ry—laid . T he c ourses w ere b uilt i n s tretchers a nd h eaders, a nd t he walls w ere s ome t wo m etres t hick . P arts o f t he w all p reserved o n t he s outh p ossess s ix c ourses r ising t o ah eight o f a bout 2 .50 m . A n o pening i n t he w all w as o bserved o n t he n orth s ide , p erhaps w here t he a ncient g ate h ad b een . T o n orth—west , w here t he w alls f orm a p lanned i ndentation , i s t he b ase o f al arge t ower 8 t o 1 0 m . i n h eight . A ll t he w alls w hich o nce e xisted o n t he i nterior s urface h ave b een d estroyed b y c ultivation , a nd o nly t he w alls w hich c ould b e u tilised t o r etain t he s oil h ave b een l eft i n p lace . T he i nternal d evision o f t he f ort was n ot c larified t herefore , a lthough w all t ops c an b e s een i n s everal p laces .

T he F ortress o f H an s a nd P tolemy o f R hodes. T he h istory o f P tolemy o f R hodes i s c losely b ound u p w ith t he r eign o f P erod a nd h is s ons . J osephus r efers t o h im f requently ; t hanks t o h is s enior s tatus a nd t he t rust a ccorded t o h im b y K ing H erod , h is p osition r emained u nimpaired t hroughout H erod 's r eign , a nd h e r etained h is s enior m inistry e ven a fter t he k ing 's d eath .3 1 ) W hen H erod a scended t he t hrone , h e a ppointed P tolemy t o t he h ighest e comomic p ost i n h is g overnment , a nd h e b ecame .; a ccording t o S chalit , t he r oyal t reasurer a nd k eeper o f t he r oyal s ea1 .3 2) A s w as c ustomary i n t hat p eriod , P tolemy e njoyed e conomic r ewards f or h is s ervice a t c ourt, i n t he f orm o f l anded e states, o ne o f which , a pparently , w as n ear K efr H an s . A fter H erod d ied a nd d isorder b roke o ut i n t he c ountry , S yria ,

Q uinctilius V arus ,

t he g overnor o f

a ttempted t o p ut d own t he i ncipient r evolt .

O n

h is m arch t o J erusalem t hrough S amaria , t he N abataeans , w ho h ad j oined t he R oman e xpeditionary f orce , b urned P tolemy 's H an s e state , s ince h e w as o ne o f t he K ing 's f avourites a nd s enior o fficials . J osephus r elates t hat t he N abataeans H erod .

b urned

h is

T hus J osephus ,

e state

a t

H an s

s imply

b ecause

o f

t heir h atred

o f

w ithout a ny f urther c omment .

T here a re e xcellent m ountain s oils a t H an s a nd i ts v icinity ; t oday t hey a re p lanted w ith t housands o f d unams o f f irst—class o live t rees . A c onvenient

t ract

o f

s oil

e xtends

o ver s everal

2 22

t housand d unams

i n a b road

v alley b etween H an s ,

K ifel-Harit a nd D eir E stia .

T he e state o f P tolemy

m ay w ell h ave c oincided w ith t his a rea .3 3 ) T he f ort o f H an s , w hich H erod n o d oubt i nherited f rom t he H asmonean f amily ,3 4) c ould h ave a cted a s t he e state c entre a nd a s t he q uarters o f al oyal m ilitary u nit i n av illage a rea c ontrolled b y H erod a nd h is r epresentatives . T he f ort i s l ocated a t a n i mportant c rossroads , h alfway a long t he r oads b etween S hechem , S amaria a nd A ntipatris ; t he s aid r oads b eing t hat r unning f rom K efr Q asim v ia 1 Imeq M akhmatat t o S hechem ; t he n orth-south r oad f rom D eir E stia t o n orthern S amaria , a nd t he r oad f rom F arha t o s outhern S amaria a nd t he h ills o f B ethel . T he i mportance o f t he H an s f ort d erived b oth f rom r egional m ilitary c alculations a nd f rom i ts c haracter a s t he c entre o f a r oyal d omain . F our k ilometres w est o f H an s , n ear t he v illage o f Q arawat b ene H assan , i s a n e xtensive n ecropolis

c ontaining

t he

r ockcut

t omb k nown a s

D eir

a -

D arab . ( See f or d etailed d escription t he d istribution m ap o f Q arawat b ene H assan ) . D eir a -Darab i s t he m ost p rominent t omb i n t he r egion , b oth i n a rea a nd o rnamentation ,

i n w hich i t f ollows t he s tyle o f t he l ate S econd

T emple p eriod . T hat t he t omb b elonged t o t he f amily o f P tolemy o f R hodes , w ho m ight h ave c hosen t his p lace a s t he c entre o f h is e states f or r esidence a nd b urial, i s a ttractive, b ut e ntirely c onjectural.

P h .

1 04

F ortifications a t K efr L aqif. W e

m ay

c onclude o ur

s ketch o f

t he H ellenistic

f ortifications

i n o ur

s ector b y d escribing t he r emains a t K efr L aqif, a t G .R . 1 588-1767. W e r ecorded t he r emains o f as tructure l ocally c alled e l-Burj ( the f ort) o n t he t opographically h ighest a rea n orth-east o f t he v illage . A w all s ome t en m etres l ong , t oday r ising t o a h eight o f f our t o f ive m etres , i s a ll t hat r emains o f t he a ncient s tructure . I t i ncorporates c ourses o f d rafted m asonry a nd c reates t he i mpression t hat t he a ncient s tructure w as o f l arge d imensions a nd d ominated i ts s urroundings . N ear i t w e r ecorded a c ellar w ith v aulted r oof b uilt o f d ressed s tone b locks . R ockcut t ombs o f t he t ype c ommon i n t he S econd T emple p eriod e xist o n t he h ill-slope o n w hich t he r emains o f e l-Burj s tand . T he d istrict i nspectors o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities t estify t hat f ine r emains o f t he E arly I ron A x e ,the H ellenistic a nd t he H erodian p eriods h ave b een f ound a t K efr L aqif . -" ) A b eautifully p aved r ockcut r oad l eads f rom t he v illage t o t he g roup o f s prings a t ' Ein T anur i n t he Q ana g orge ( G .R . 1 589-1749) . A ll t he e vidence, t herefore , p oints t o K efr L aqif h aving b een a g overnmental c entre a nd p erhaps e ven a c itadel i n t he H ellenistic p eriod .

I f s o , t he c itadel m ay h ave b een a

s uccessor t o t he e nclosure a t A bbu Q arnin , w hich i s t wo k ilometres t o w est o f t he v illage .

O bservations o n t he H ellenistic F ortifications o f S amaria. D espite

t he

f act

t hat

s omething c an b e l earnt o f

o ur

s urvey

c overed

p art

o nly

o f

S amaria,

t he c haracter o f t he H ellenistic f ortifications

a nd f irst c onclusions d rawn c oncerning t he s ites r ecorded .

I t w ould s eem

t hat s ome o f t he f ortified s ites o f E arly I ron A ge I I a nd t he P ersian p eriod c ontinued t o f unction i n t he H ellenistic p eriod . T his a pplies m ore e specially t o t he e nclosures a nd s ome o f t he f orts w hich p ottery e vidence s hows w ere e stablished i n E arly I ron A ge I I . S ome o f t he f orts w ere n ew , a nd t ook t he p lace o f p revious f ortifications s uch a s K efr S ur . T here w as p robably a c hain o f H ellenistic f orts o f t he s ame t ype a s S ur , L aqif a nd H an s , w hich g uarded t he a scents f rom t he p lain t o t he w atershed ; t heir

l ocation ,

i ndeed ,

f ort b uilding .

s hows t hat

t he l ocal a nd r egional r oad s ystem i nfluenced

I n k ey r egions ,

c hiefly i n t he

r ural a reas

l acking

l arge

t owns, e nclosures w ere b uilt c ontaining s torerooms f or e quipment a nd s upplies i n t ime o f e mergency . T he l arge s torerooms f ound a t H irbet F irdusi a nd H irbet H amad c ould h ave s upplied a c onsiderable f orce i n t ime o f n eed . I n a ddition t o e nclosures w e r ecorded f ortified f arms w hich w e t hink r eflect a s tate o f m ilitary c olonisation i n p arts o f w estern S amaria . W hen t he e ntire d eployment w as o perating u nder o ne c ommand , w estern S amaria b ecame a w ell-fortified z one e qually a ble t o w ithstand l ocal r aids a nd e xternal e nemies . T he f orm o f t his d efensive s ystem a ltered l ittle t hroughout t he H ellenistic p eriod , a nd o nly t he R oman o ccupation b rought a bout f arreaching c hanges.

3 .

F ortifications o f t he R oman P eriod.

S o f ar a s c an b e j udged i n t he l ight o f t he e vidence y ielded b y a rchaeological s urvey , s ubstantial c hanges t ook p lace i n t he R oman p eriod i n t he d efensive a rrangement

o f w estern S amaria .

M ost

o f t he f orts o f t he

p revious p eriods w ere c ompletely a bandoned , a nd i f t hey w ere r eoccupied i t w as f or b rief p eriods . R oman p ottery w as f ound i n t he f ort o f K efr S ur , a nd t he s ite a ppears t o h ave b een o ccupied i n t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c enturies C .E . O n t he o ther h and i t s eems R oman p eriod .

t hat t he f ort o f H aris w as n ot o ccupied i n t he

' Azun y ielded e vidence o f aR oman m ilitary s ite ;

t he t ombstone o f

A ntonius A lexander , aR oman v eteran , w as f ound o n t he e astern a pproaches o f ' Azun , o n e -Ras, a h ill which r ises t o 3 08 m . a bove s ea l eve1 . 36 ) P rofessor R . B ull , w ho p ublished t he i nscription , c onsidered t his w as a v eteran who h ad t erminated h is l ong s ervice i n t he R oman a rmy a nd h ad a pparently s ettled n ear t he f ort w hich u ndoubtedly o ccupied t he h ill . B ull d ated t he ' Azun i nscription t o t he 2 nd - 3 rd c enturies o n t he s trength o f p alaeographical c onsiderations . I n 1 975 , o n o ur v isit t o t he p lace w here t he i nscription w as f ound , a rchitectural d etails o f t he t omb c ould s till b e s een e mbodied i n t he f ences o f t he h ouse n earby . A p ottery s urvey c onducted h ere p roduced f inds r anging f rom t he 2 nd t o t he 4 th c enturies C .E . ' A zun i s l ocated o n o ne o f t he p ronouncedly s trategic p oints i n w estern S amaria , a nd c ontrols a n etwork o f n orth-south a nd e ast-west r outes w hich a re a mong • t he m ost i mportant i n t he r egion . T he h ill o f e -Ras t o t he e ast o f t he v illage o f ' Azun d ominates i ts s urroundings a nd i s a n i deal s ite f or a f ortress a nd a R oman c astellum . c amp o f t he J ordanian a rmy .

U ntil 1 967,

i ndeed ,

i t w as t he s ite o f a

T he r oute f rom Q alqilia t hrough ' A zun t o S amaria a nd S hechem i s o ne o f t he o ldest m ainroads i n w estern S amaria . A long i t w e r ecorded e nclosures a nd f orts o f E arly I ron A ge I I , c ontinuing d own t o t he H ellenistic p eriod . ' Azun i s ak eypoint c ontrolling t he w esterly n orth-south r oad f rom T ul K arem t o K efr S ur , ' Azun , S aniryah , M es-hah a nd o nward . o f t he n etwork o f i nterior r oads w hich s erved a ll s uch a s S ir ,

J eiyus ,

R as a -Tirah ,

H irbet S hehadah ,

' A zun i s a lso a c entre t he s urrounding v illages t he Q ana g orge a nd K efr

L aqif . T he I sraeli e mergency s urvey o f 1 967-8 r ecorded b elonging t ö E arly I ron A ge I I , a lso t o t he H ellenistic ,

p ottery a t ' A zun R oman-Byzantine ,

m ediaeval a nd O ttoman p eriods .3 7) O ur d etailed s urvey , c arried o ut o ver t he c ultivated a rea o f t he v illage , f ound a pproximately a h undred f ield t owers , a ccompanied b y n umerous a nd d iverse a gricultural i nstallations , a lso a c omplex o f o rdered p lots i ndicating s ettlers ' h oldings o f t he H ellenistic p eriod . T he t owers e xcavated b y u s s outh-east o f 9amn y ielded p ottery o f v arious t ypes r anging f rom t he 3 rd t o t he i st c entury B .C .E .38)

H irbet T anurah . T he m ost i nteresting a nd i mportant a rchaeological e vidence f or a R oman F ig.

17 m ilitary p resence i n w estern S amaria w as f ound a t H irbet T anurah . T he s ite i s e xceptionally well p reserved, a nd a fter o ur f irst v isits i n 1 975 i t b ecame c lear t hat w e h ad b efore u s a m ilitary s ite o f t he R oman p eriod a t p resent w ithout p arallel i n t he w est o f t his c ountry . H irbet T anurah i s o ne k ilometre n orth o f S aniryah ,

a nd 4 .5 k ilometres

s outh o f ' Ann , a t G .R . 1 549-1745 . I t w as b uilt o n a s teeply s loped h ill 2 43 m . a bove s ea l evel, s urrounded o n t hree s ides b y d eep v alleys which d rain i nto t he n earby Q ana g orge . C onvenient a pproach i s c onfined t o t he e ast , o ver a s hort s pur d efined b y t he s treambed o f t he Q ana g orge . T he a ncient p ath c limbs t o H irbet T anurah f rom t he w est b y a s eries o f b ends c alculated t o e ase t he c limb a nd t o b reak t he s teep a scent . w as f ound t hat a ny r oad o r c arriage w ay w ent u p t o t he s ite .

N o e vidence

T anurah h as e xcellent c ommand o ver a s ector o f t he w esterly n orth-south r oute b etween Uzun a nd M es-hah . I ts n earness t o t he Q ana g orge m eant t hat n oone p assing a long t he s treambed o f t hat g reat r avine, c ould e scape s urveillance , a nd e vidently T anurah 's l ocation b elonged t o a b roader p lan w hose p urpose w as n ot c onfined t o c ontrol o f t he r oad-system . T anurah m ay b e r egarded a s a s tronghold a nd s trategic e nclosure i n t he h eart o f t he h ill c ountry o f w estern S amaria .

D escription . F ig. P h .

T he I sraeli e mergency s urvey o f

18 1 05

1 967-8 v isited t he s ite a nd w as

i mpressed b y t he q uality a nd p reservation o f i ts b uildings .3 9 ) I n 1 977-8 w e c arried o ut a s urvey a nd m easurement o f T anurah a nd i ts s urroundings , e nabling u s t o p repare a p lan o f t he b uildings . T he c ommonest c onstruction i s o f h ard d ressed l imestone , f orming t wo f aces w ith a n i ntermediate f ill o f r ubble a nd m ortar . S ome o f t he b uildings a re p reserved t o a h eight o f a pproximately 3 .00 m etres . H eader a nd s tretcher c onstruction w as u sed i n s everal ,

t he c haracteristic b locks m easuring 0 .70 b y 0 .52 b y 0 .46 o r 0 .90 b y

0 .54 b y o .47 m . T he s ite 's b uildings w ill n ow b e d escribed a ccording t o t he p lan p repared o n t he s ite. 1 .

T he c entral b lockhouse , m easuring 1 0 .40 b y 8 .70 m .

I ts w alls a re b uilt

o f t wo f acings o f d ressed s tone w ith a n i ntermediate f ill o f r ubble a nd m ortar . T he t otal w idth i s 1 . 17 m . T he e ntrance w as f rom t he n orth , a nd t he b uilding p ossessed a n i nternal d ivision i nto a t l east t hree r ooms. 2 .

T he p rincipal e ntrance i nto T anurah w as f rom t he e ast .

T opographical

o bservation m ade u s a ware t hat t he o nly c onvenient a pproach t o t he s ite w as f rom t he e ast , a nd h ere t he m ain g ate , w hich c ould b e s ecurely b arred , w as s ituated . T wo w atchtowers h ad b een b uilt t o f lank t he e ntrance , w hich w as s ome t hree * metres w ide ; t he n orthern t ower ( 11) m easured 6 .50 b y 4 .50 a nd i ts w alls w ere 0 .50 m . t hick : i t w as n ot b onded i nto t he e astern w all , b ut l ike i ts s outhern c ounterpart, a ppears t o h ave b een a l ater a ddition . T he

s outhern t ower ( 12)

m easured

6 .00 b y 4 .00 m . ,

a nd w as n ot p laced

s ymmetrically i n r elation t o i ts n orthern p artner . T he t wo t owers a re o f i mpressive s ize a nd t heir p sychological e ffect o n t hose p assing b etween t hem

2 25

w ould h ave b een c onsiderable . 3 .

T he w estern e ntrance o f T anurah w as t hrough a s mall g ate 0 .80 m . w ide .

T wo i mpressive m onoliths , 1 .30 b y 0 .80 U6 r espectively , h ad b een s elected a s j ambs , o n o ne o f w hich t races o f ab olt w ere d iscernible . T his e ntrance t oo w as d efended b y a t ower b onded i nto t he w all , b y 5 .00 m etres .

m easuring a pproximately 8 .00

I t i s o f i nterest t o n ote t hat a n o riginal t ransverse a xial t hroughfare e xisted b etween t he e ast a nd w est e ntrances , a p henomenon w hich e xisted i n a ll R oman c amps a nd w as k nown a s t he v ia p rincipalis . 40 ) T he d istance b etween t he e astern a nd t he w estern e ntrances i s 5 6 m . a pproximately , a nd a lthough t he s ite i s b uilt o n t he t op o f ah ill , t he b asic R oman m ilitary p rinciple w as m aintained . I t s hould b e n oted t hat t he l ongitudinal r oad c haracteristic o f R oman c amps i s l acking , h ence t he s ite c annot b e d efined a s ac lassical R oman m ilitary c amp. 4 .

E ntry t o t he s ite f rom t he n orth was o btained b y as tepped a scent

g uarded b y as mall w atch-tower ( 14) m easuring a bout 2 .50 b y 2 .50 m . I n i ts o riginal f orm t he n orthern e ntrance h as n ot s urvived , o wing t o i ts h aving b een b locked i n al ate s tage o f c onstruction . T he e ntrance, w hich w e t ermed ' the w ater g ate ' c ould b e r econstructed , a s i t l ed o ut t o a r ockcut a nd b uilt-up s torage c istern a t t he e nd o f a f light o f s teps ; f rom t his a y ard i nside t he f ort w as r eached ( 61) , t hence b y a s eries o f p assages ( 59 , 5 0 , 6 6 , 6 7) a ccess w as o btained t o t he b arracks a nd t he c entral b lockhouse ( 1 ) . A nother e ntrance a ppears t o h ave e xisted o n t he n orth-west ( 5 ) , a nd t he c entre o f t he s ite w as r eached b y a p assage ( 45) . P assage 5 w as a lso b locked a t al ate s tage o f b uilding. T he s ite w as e ntered f rom t he s outh t hrough e ntrance 6 ,

b uilt b etween

b locks o f s torehouses . T he s outhern e ntrance d ivides t he s torerooms i nto t wo , a nd p assage 2 6 d oes n ot s eem t o h ave l ed d irectly t o t he c entre o f t he s ite. 7 ,

b uilt a s a n e ntrance t o al arge c ave , w as u nder t he e astern w all o f

t he s ite . T he c ave w as f illed w ith d ebris a nd s ilt , b ut a ppears t o h ave b een o f c onsiderable a rea , e xtending u nder s toreroom 6 3 . I t s eems t o h ave b een a c ellar u sed , i nter a lia , t o s tore w ine p roduced o n t he s ite . V arious i ndications o n t he w alls e nabled t he a ssumption t hat t here w as c ommunication b y s teps w ith t he s toreroom a bove i t. 8 -9 w ere c isterns a nd p ools f or t he s torage o f r ainwater .

T he w ater

s upply o f T anurah d epended o n t he a ccumulation o f r ainwater a nd r unoff c ollected i n v arious i nstallations . We f ound t hree r ockcut p lastered c isterns w ithin t he b ounds o f t he s ite, a nd a r ockcut b uilt-up s torage c istern . A dditional r eservoirs a re t o b e f ound o utside t he w alls ; o n t he n orth-west s lope t here i s a c istern s till i n w orking o rder , a nd o n t he e ast , 2 0

m etres f rom t he e ntrance t o t he c ave ,

a s mall b uilt u p w ell p lastered

p ool. T he c entral r eservoir o utside t he a rea o f F ig.

t he s ite l ies n orth-east o f

19 t he ' water r oad ' . T his i s a p ool m easuring 9 .60 b y 9 .00 m . , 5 .00 d eep . I t p ossesses v ery s tout walls, 1 .80 m . t hick , o ver which s everal l ayers o f p laster c ould b e s een .

A f light o f s teps ,

a lternately r ockcut a nd s tone-

l aid, d escends i nto t he p ool f rom g round-level . A c alculation o f t he c apacity o f a ll t he r eservoirs i nside a nd o utside t he s ite s howed t hat T anurah d isposed o f s omething l ike a t housand c ubic m etres o f w ater .

2 26

1 0 .

T he o il p ress i nstallations a re t o b e f ound t o w est o f t he s ite .

T he

) r am h as a d iameter o f t wo m etres a nd a 0 .60 14 e levation . A c ircular s tone b ase h as a lso s urvived , 0 .58 m . i n d iameter , a nd a ppears t o h ave a cted a s a c rusher. O ther o il p resses w ere s urveyed o utside t he w alls o f t he s ite .

P resses

o f t he E arly I ron A ge I I p eriod e xist o n t he n orthern s lope, while t he r ockcut y am o f a n o pen-air p ress l ies t o e ast o f t he s ite . A w inepress a nd r ockcut u nderground w ine c ellar a re l ocated n ear t he e astern e ntrance ( not m arked o n t he map) . T heir p roximity t o t he e ntrance a nd t he s ite i s i nteresting , a nd p robably f acilitated t he t reatment o f t he m ust a nd t he w ine w hen i t w as t aken f or s torage .

T he S torerooms. T he e ntire s outhern a rea o f

t he s ite w as o ccupied b y s torerooms .

T he

c entre o f t he s ite w as s eparated f rom t he s torage a rea b y t hree e nclosed o pen-air c ourts ( 35 , 3 6 , 3 7) a nd a n a lley ( 19) w hich l inked t he e ntire r ange o f s torerooms . T he s torage a rea w as e ntered t hrough n arrow p assages ( 18 , 2 0) w hich c ould e asily b e c losed o ff . H all 1 5 m ay h ave s erved a s l iving q uarters o r a s t he a dministrative o ffice o f t he man i n c harge o f t he s torerooms . T wo t ypes o f s torerooms e xisted a t T anurah . a ) U nderground c ellars w ith p lastered w alls a nd b arrel-vaulted c eilings ; b ) N ormal a boveg round s torerooms , s ome t wo-storeyed . 2 7 a nd 1 6 b elong t o t he f irst t ype , w hile t he r est ( 21-33) a re n ormal . T he p lastered s torerooms p robably a lso h oused l iquids , a s t heir f orm e nabled t hem t o b e h ermetically s ealed .

T he C entral F ort. I n t he c entre o f T anurah t here s tands a s tructure ( 1 ),

t he q uality o f

w hose b uild a nd t he t hickness o f w hose d efences e ndow i t w ith i ndividuality a nd i ndependence . A rchitecturally i t i s s uperior t o a ll t he o ther s tructures i n T anurah , a nd i n p eriod s eems t o h ave p receded a ll o f t hem . I ts w alls a re b uilt o f d ressed m asonry t o a t hickness o f 1 . 17 m . , a nd w e t hink t hat i nitially i t w as a s mall f ort , a nd s ubsequently t he c ommand-post o f t he s ite . D efense b uildings

o f

t he R oman p eriod f ound i n E astern J udaea r ecall

t he T anurah s tructure ( 1) i n p lan . T he I srael e mergency s urvey f ound s everal f ortlets i n t he r egion o f s outh J udaea a nd t he W ilderness o f J udaea w hich r esembled t he T anurah b uilding a rchitecturally . A f ort s urveyed a t e l-Matzqarah ( G .R . 1 948-1531) , m easured 8 .50 b y 6 .50 m" a nd w as s urrounded b y a w alled e nclosure o f 3 2 b y 2 3 m .4 1) A nother R oman f ort a t H irbet e lM ajur ( G .R . 1 532-0998 ) s ituated n ear t he e ast-west r oad c onnecting C armel , Y utta a nd B eth G ovrin , p ossesses a p lan a nd a n i nternal s tructure l ike t hat o f t he f ortlet a t T anurah .4 2 ) I t i s g enerally a ccepted t hat t he f orts a nd r oads i n t he r egion o f s outhern J udaea w ere c onnected w ith t he R oman e ffort t o s tamp o ut t he B en K oziba r evolt . F ortlets r eminiscent o f t he T anurah b uilding h ave a lso b een f ound b y P rofessor G ihon among s ites o f t he N egev l imes . 43) c onservatism o f R oman m ilitary a rchitecture a pparenETT-Thsured u nchangeability o f f ortlets o ver a l engthy p eriod .

T he t he

T he a rea o f t he T anurah f ort i ncluded o pen a reas f ree o f s tructures a nd i nstallations ( 38 , 3 4 ) , o ne p robably u sed f or m ilitary a ctivities s uch a s

2 27

p arades a nd a ssemblies .

T his v acant a rea , h owever ,

i ncludes r emains o f a

m inor b uilding ( west o f H all 6 8) w hich m ight h ave b een a s mall s hrine . W est o f t he b lockhouse , a pparently t he c ommand-post o f t he s ite , t here a re t hree i nteresting c hambers ( 39, 4 0, 4 1), p artly b uilt o f d ressed o r d raughted m asonry , a nd o f s uperior q uality . T hese a re p erhaps t o b e r egarded a s t he r esidence o f t he c omander a nd o fficers o f t he f ortress , a s t heir p roximity t o t he c ommand-post a nd t he s quare s ets t hem a part f rom t he b arrack b locks a nd t he s torerooms.

T he B arracks. S ixteen c lassified a s P h .

1 06

l arger

o r

b arracks

s maller ( 45-68 ),

r ooms a s

i n

t he

n orth

t heir r ooms a re

o f

r anged

t he

s ite

w ere

i n a n o rderly

u niform b lock . A lthough t he T anurah b arracks d o n ot p ossess t he s tructure o f a R oman m ilitary c amp , t hey a re r ecognisably b uilt i n a n o rderly a nd c ontrolled f ashion , a dapted t o t he s mall a rea o f t he h illtop . T o w est a nd e ast o f t he b arrack-area l ong r ooms w ere n oticed , p erhaps s torerooms w hich n eeded a p articularly v igilant g uard , o r n eeded t o b e n ear t he s oldier 's q uarters . T hree s torerooms ( 42-44) w ere t o b e s een i n t he w est o f t he s ite ,

i n t he e ast ,

t hree ( 63 ,

6 9 ,

7 2) .

T hey a but o n t he d efence w all a nd

a re s eparated f rom t he b arracks b y w ide p assages , e ast , a nd 4 5 i n t he w est .

s uch a s 6 7 a nd 7 0 i n t he

T he P ottery . S earch o f

t he

s ite a nd o n t he s lopes r ound

l st-4th c entury C .E . ,

i ncluding i nteresting

i t y ielded s herds o f t he

p arallels

f rom

c istern 3 19

a t

S ycaminum .4 4) T he c ooking p ots a nd a mphorae a t T anurah a re m ade o f w ellf ired p ink c lay .

S ites r ound T anurah . A h ypogaeum w as f ound o n t he s outhern s lope o f t he h ill, u nder t he _b.

1 20 s toreroom a rea ; i t c ontained t hree a rcosolia . T he c ave a ppears t o h ave b een d amaged a nd b roken i nto i n a ncient t imes , a nd n othing w as d iscovered i n i t. A n u nderground s ilo was r ecorded 1 50 m . e ast o f T anurah ;

F ig.

1 21 r ockcut a nd w ell p lastered ;

i ts a rea w as 3 . 25 b y

1 . 80 m . ,

a nd

i t was

t he s tones

u sed t o r oof i t w ere e specially l arge , m easuring 2 .30 b y 0 .75 m" a nd 1 . 40 b y 0 .75 m . T he d epth o f t he s ilo w as n ot d etermined , a s i t w as c hoked w ith e rosion

F

s oil .

1 22 Q asr a bbu ' Udeh . E ast o f T anurah we f ound a c luster o f e xcellent f ield t owers . f inest w as

Q asr a bbu I kkü l ,

a t G .R .

1 5520-19193 ;

i t m easured 7 . 10

b y

T he 4 .60

a nd i ts w alls w ere p reserved t o ah eight o f 2 .60 m . A f ine l arge w inep ress a nd a c istern l ie c lose t o t he t ower . Q asr a bbu 1deh m ay b e g rouped w ith t he ' fortified f arms' d escribed i n t he c hapter i n f arm h ouses. A f ortified e nclosure w as d iscovered 4 00 m . e ast o f T anurah , o n a s pur l eading u p t o t he s ite ; i t m easured 1 0 .50 b y 9 .60 m„ a nd t he w alls w ere

2 2P

F ig.

1 23 p reserved

t o a h eight o f

1 . 50

m .

T he e nclosure i s b uilt o f e xceptionally

l arge s tone ( ' w hich m easured o ver a m etre . A r oom 3 .40 b y 3 .40 m . c ould b e d i ade o ut _ _side t he e nclosure . T he l atter 's s hape i s r eminiscent o f e nclosure 3 4 a t D eir S am 'an , w hich w e a ssigned t o t he H ellenistic a nd e arly R oman p eriod . I t s eems t hat t he p resent e nclosure t oo b elonged t o t he H ellenistic p eriod .

W hat w as H irbet T anurah? H aving d uly d escribed

t he f orm o f

t he s ite a nd t he b uildings i t

c ontained , w e w ere l ed t o r ealise t he r esemblance b etween H irbet T anurah a nd t he c amps a nd

f orts

o f

t he R oman a rmy .

S everal p rinciples ,

s uch a s t he

f our g ates , t he s urrounding d efensive w all , t he a dministrative c ommand p ost , t he s toreroom a reas a nd t he b arracks w ere a ll c ommon b oth t o R oman c amps a nd f orts a nd t o T anurah . W e d o n ot c laim t hat T anurah w as a s tandard R oman m ilitary c amp , b ut t hat i ts b uilders w ere f amiliar w ith t he p rinciples o f R oman m ilitary b uilding . A c loser s crutiny o f R oman a uxiliary m akes o ne t hink t hat T anurah may b e a scribed t o t hat g roup .

f orts I n i ts

l ocation a nd a rea H irbet T anurah c onforms t o t he R oman s trategic c onception w hich r equired f orts a t m ountain p asses a nd a t I nteresting p arallels t o H irbet T anurah a re t o

o ther d ifficult p oints .4 6) b e f ound i n n orth A frica

w here s mall f ortlets w ere o ccupied b y l ocal p easants u nder m ilitary c ontrol , a nd s o c onstituted p arallels t o T anurah .4 7) T he f ortified f arms o f n orth A frica r eached t heir a cme i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies C .E . , a nd w e f ound s ome o f t hem t o b e p arallel , i n p rinciple , t o T anurah .4 8) G oodchild a nd W ard-Perk eN \ h eld t hat t he f ortified f arms w ere p lanned b y R oman m ilitary e ngineers. W e t hink t here i s n o c ontradiction b etween o ur f indings a t T anurah , a nd t he a bove i nterpretation o f t he h istorical s etting w hich b rought a bout i ts c onstruction . T he f irst f ortification a t T anurah, v iz" t he c entral f ortlet , m ay h ave b een b uilt b etween t he f irst a nd s econd r evolt . T he e vidence o f t he p ottery a nd t he a rchitecture d oes n ot c ontradict t his p ossibility . I n t he s econd p hase , p erhaps a s e arly a s t he s econd r evolt , t he a uthorities d ecided t o f ortify T anurah , b ut b arrack a ccommodation s uggests t hat t he g arrison n ever e xceeded s ome 4 0 m en . A s w e h ave s tated , R oman p eriod p ottery c onstituted t he c hief f inds a t H irbet T anurah . I n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies C .E . t he p lace was c onverted f rom a f ortified e nclosure t o a f ortified f armstead , w hose a gricultural a ctivity i ncluded t he p roduction o f o il , w ine , o lives a nd c ereals . P rofessor R . M acMullen h as d emonstrated i n a n i nteresting s tudy t hat t he p ropensity o f s oldiery t o p ractise a griculture n ever d isappeared a nd t his a pplied e qually t o

t roops

o ccupying b arracks a nd f ortresses . 5° ) D espite t he a ttempts o f t he e mperors t o c ombat t he p henomenon , t hinks MacMullen , t he R oman a rmy e ngaged i n d iversified l argescale a gricultural p roduction i n S yria a nd n orth A frica i n t he 3 rd a nd 4 th c enturies C .E . I t i s n ot b eyond p ossibility t hat i n t he s ame p eriod T anurah b ecame a v eteran c olony which p ari p assu w ith i ts a gricultural p reoccupations r emained a lert t o p roblems o f l ocal s ecurity . T he

l ocation o f T anurah a ttracted

t he a ttention o f

m ilitary s ettlers e ven b efore t he R oman p eriod .

p lanners a nd

T he a rchaeological e vidence

o f t he f ortified f arm a t Q asr A bbu Tdeh a nd t he e nclosure t o i ts e ast , s how t hat a s e arly a s t he H ellenistic p eriod i mportance w as a ttached t o T anurah f rom a m ilitary a nd c olonisational p oint o f v iew .

2 29

C hapter X I Q arawat b ene H assan - t he V illage a nd i ts F ields. T he v illage o f Q arawat b ene H assan a nd i ts f ields c ontain o ne o f t he m ost i mportant c oncentrations o f a ncient r emains s urveyed b y u s i n w estern S amaria . T he s ites a re s o w ell p reserved t hat m any o f t hem s erve A rab i nhabitants o f t his s mall v illage e ven t oday . Q arawat b ene H assan h as b een o ccupied f rom t he E arly B ronze A ge d own t o p resent t imes ; e ach e poch h as l eft i mpressive r emains f or l ater g enerations , a nd t hese h ave b ecome p art o f t he a rchaeological l andscape o f t he p lace . I n v iew o f t he p rolific a ncient r emains i n a nd r ound t he v illage , t his c hapter w ill d escribe o nly t he c hief d iscoveries , i n o rder t o f urnish t he r eader w ith s ome n otion o f t he p lace 's t reasures . A c omplete a ccount o f a ll t he s ites r ecorded a nd e xcavated i n t he Q arawat b ene H assan a rea w ould e xceed t he l imit o f t he p resent s tudy , a nd w e h ope t o s ubmit s uch a n a ccount e lsewhere .

1 .

B edrock

S oil a nd W ater.

T he v illage o f Q arawat b ene H assan ( G .R .

1 59-170 ) i s 3 0 k ilometres e ast

o f R osh h a'Ayin a nd 4 0 k ilometres s outh-west o f S hechem .

T he

r oad f rom

K efr Q asim t o S hechem p asses o ne k ilometre s outh o f t he v illage , w hich i s s ituated i n a m ountainous r ocky a rea , a nd t he h eight o f t he h illtops r ound t he v illage v aries f rom 4 00 t o 4 50 m . An etwork o f r oads a nd a ncient p athways c onnects Q arawat b ene H assan w ith t he n eighbouring v illages a nd w ith t he m ainroads o f t he r egion . A d etailed a ccount o f t his n etwork w ill b e f ound i n t he c hapter o n t he r ural r oads o f S amaria . T he v illage w ith i ts a gricultural t ract l ies o n b edrock o f t he U pper C enomanian a nd T uronian , o r o f t he T uronian . T he d ominant f ormations i n t he r egion a re t hose o f B a 'anah ,

S arta , V eradim ,

K efar S haul a nd ' Amina chn J)

T he c ommonest r ocks

i n t he r egion c onsist o f h ard l imestone a nd d olomite ; k arstic p henomena a re w idespread a nd r ocks n umerous . S oil e xamination c arried o ut o n t he v illage l ands s how t hat t he c ommonest s oil i s r ed-brown t erra r ossa , s ometines p oor i n l ime . 2) T he Q arawat b ene H assan a rea c ontains d eep p ockets o f t erra•r ossa s oil , a nd i t w ould a ppear t hat t hey a ided t he a ncient f armers i n t heir c ultivation o f v ines a nd o lives . W e f ound o ne s mall s pring , k nown a s ' Ein N etaftef, i n t he Q arawat b ene H assan a rea ( G .R . 1 598-1721). T he s pring r ises i n t he i nterior o f ah ill, a nd a pparently a ttempts w ere m ade t o e nlarge t he a rea o f f low a nd p onding

i n a ncient

t imes .

T he s pring 's

c oncealment u nder t he m ountain p robably p revented i t b ecoming w idely k nown , a nd e vidently i t s erved t he l ocal i nhabitants i n t imes o f s iege a nd d istress . A part f rom t his s pring , t he l ocal p opulation s ubsisted o n w ater f rom c isterns , a ccumulated b y e very f amily i n t he r ainy w inter s easons . O ne o r more c isterns w ere f ound b y e very a ncient h ouse, - a c ommon p henomenon i n e very v illage o f t he s urrounding a rea . A t t he t ime o f o ur s urvey t he p opulation o f t he A rab v illage w as s ubsisting o n c istern-water , l ike t heir l ocal p redecessors , a nd t his s ource a ppears t o h ave s upplied t he l ocal n eeds a dequately . W e f urther l ocated n umerous c isterns i n t he c ultivated a rea o f Q arawat b ene H assan , a nd t hey s eem t o h ave b een u tilised f or a uxiliary i rrigation . P art o f t he w inter f lood w ater w as e xploited f or a gricultural p urposes , a s i n t he v alley ( 7 ) t o e ast o f t he v illage , w here w e r ecorded a l ong s ystem o f c heck d ams w hich s pread t he water o ver t he l evelled p lots .

A t t he t ime o f o ur s urvey t he p opulation n umbered c lose o n

2 30

8 00 s ouls d ivided i nto t hree k inships , R ayyian . P art

o f

n amely ,

t he M ar 'i ,

t he ' Asi a nd t he

t he l and c ultivated b y t he i nhabitants o f Q arawat b ene H assan

b elongs t o a w ealthy l andlord f rom D eir E stia , A bbu H aglah . A ccording t o t he l ocal m ukhtars a nd e lders t he v illage w as c ontrolled i n p ast t imes b y t he p owerful f eudatories o f K efr H ablah . O ur i mpression i s t hat Q arawat b ene H assan w as u ninhabited o r v ery s parsely i nhabited f or l ong p eriods , a nd t hat t he l ocal p opulation i s t he r esult o f a r enewal a nd g rowth o f t he p lace i n t he 1 9th a nd 2 0th c enturies . I t h as b een owing t o t he v illage 's r emoteness a nd i ts s everance f rom t he modern h ighways, t hat s o many a rchaeological r emains h ave b een p reserved t here d own t o t he p resent.

2 .

S urveys a nd E xcavations. T he a rchaeological r emains a t Q arawat b ene H assan a re s cattered o ver a

t ract m ore t han a k ilometre i n l ength ,

e stimated t o c over s ome 1 50 d unams .

T he p rincipal s ites a re t he n ecropolis w hich , i ncluding t he l arge t omb k nown a s D eir a -Darab , c overs a pproximately 3 0 d unams , t he c entre o f t he R omanB yzantine v illage , u nder t he m odern v illage , c overing s ome 3 0 d unams ; H irbet F irdusi , o ccupying 3 5 d unams , a nd t he a reas o f a -Tel a nd a -Shunah , e xtending o ver s ome 5 0 d unams. T he B ritish s urvey o f W estern P alestine v isited t he v illage a nd s ome o f i ts s ites i n 1 873 . T he s urveyors d escribe t he s plendid t omb o f D eir a D arab ; t he c entre o f B ene H assan , w hich i s a lso k nown b y t he n ame o f S ham e T awil , a nd c ontains a t ower c alled B urj e l-Yaqur ; a lso a nother e difice Q arat F irdus . T he s urveyors f urther d escribe a b uilding i n t he s outh p art o f t he v illage , n ear t he m osque o f S heikh ' Ali e l-Amanat ; t his s tructure i s h alf-buried i n t he g round , a nd i ts v isible p ortion i s l ocally k nown a s ' the p oor? ) D eir a -Darab w as v isited i n 1 910 b y t he F renchman S avignac , w ho a ccepted t he o pinion o f t he B ritish s urvey t hat t his f ine t omb b elonged t o t he S e w id T emple p eriod .4 ) T he I srael e mergency s urvey p lanned Q asr A bbu J elaia ,' ) a n i mpressively c omplete s tone t ower l ater e xcavated b y u s i n a r escue o peration . Y itzhaq b en Z vi i n h is b ook o n t he S amaritans c laims t hat Q arawat b ene H assan c ontained a S amaritan s ynagogue b uilt o r r enovated b y B abba R abba i n t he 4 th c entury .6) W e f ound n o t race o f t his b uilding , n or d id w e d iscover t he S amaritan i nscription s een i n t he v illage b y Z eev V ilnai . I n t he y ears 1 974-77 w e c arried o ut a c omprehensive s urvey o f t he v illage a nd i ts s urroundings,

e xcavated

s everal

s ites,

a nd p lanned s ome o f

t he

m ore

i mportant a mong t hem . 7)

a -Tel: B ronze A ge R emains. A l arge c ave c ut i nto t he s oft c halk a t t he t op o f a -Tel ( 800 m . n orthw est

o f

t he

p resent v illage )

y ielded a n a ccumulation o f E arly B ronze

A ge

p ottery s herds . T he f irst p ermanent s ettlement a t Q arawat b ene H assan a ppears t o h ave b een e stablished i n t hat p eriod , b ut i ts p recise l ocation r emains u ndiscovered . A s mall s imple w inepress w as r ecorded o ver t he c ave a nd a pparently w as a r emnant o f t he f irst s ettlers i n t he r egion .

2 31

3 .

H irbet F irdusi - A n E arly I ron A ge S ettlement a nd E nclosure. T he s ettlement w hich w as f ounded a nd d eveloped a t Q arawat b ene H assan ,

f rom t he E arly I ron A ge t o t he H ellenistic p eriod ,

w as s ituated o n a h ill

o verlooking t he p resent v illage , a nd o n i ts s outhern s lopes . T he c entre o f t he s ite w e e stimated t o h ave e xtended o ver a n a rea o f 3 5 d unams , i n w hich d ozens o f l arge w ell b uilt h ouses c an b e c learly s een ; s ome o f t hese h ave b een d escribed i n t he c hapter o n t he r ural h ouses o f S amaria . A d efended e nclosure a nd a rea o f s torehouses w ere l ocated o n t he h illtop , s howing t hat t he p lace h ad b een u tilised a s a m ilitary b ase a fter t he manner o f a H ellenistic a cropolis ; i t m ay f urther h ave b een t he p lace w here t axes p aid b y t he n eighbouring a rea w ere c oncentrated . A d etailed a ccount o f t his i s t o b e f ound i n t he c hapter o n t he e nclosures a nd f orts o f w estern S amaria . H irbet F irdusi a nd i ts a cropolis i ndicate t hat Q arawat b ene H assan w as a n i mportant r egional c entre i n w hich a dministrative o ffices a nd r oyal d omains w ere l ocated i n t he H ellenistic , H asmonean a nd H erodian p eriods . T he n ame ' Firdus ' i s f requent i n Q arawat b ene H assan a nd i ts n eighbourhood , a nd p erpetuates t he n ame o f K ing H erod a nd h is f amily .8)

T he F ield T owers a t Q arawat b ene H assan a nd i n i ts V icinity . W e h ave d evoted a f ull a ccount t o t he f ield t owers o f Q arawat b ene H assan i n t he c hapter w hich d iscusses t he v illage 's a gricultural t ract ( Below ) . T he t owers r ound t he v illage a re e xceptional b oth i n n umber a nd p reservation . W e s urveyed o ver 1 70 s uch , a nd a pparently t here w ere i n f act a bout t wo h undred . M any o f t hem a re p reserved u p t o r oof-level a nd w e h ad t he o pportunity t o s tudy t heir f ull a rchitectural s tructure . T wo-storeyed t owers, l arge t owers a nd v ery l arge t owers a re a lso f ound i n t he n eighbourhood, a nd w e c onsider t hem t o h ave b een t he f arms o f m ilitary s ettlers i n t he H ellenistic a nd H asmonean p eriods . I n o ne o f t hese - Q asr a bbu J elaia , s ituated i n t he s outh o f t he v illage - w e c arried o ut a n e xcavation w hich p roved t hat t he t ower w as i n u se i n t he H ellenistic a nd e arly R oman p eriods . A M ameluke c oin a nd A rab p ottery s herds s howed t hat t he f ield t owers w ere u sed b y t he l ocal i nhabitants a nd t emporarily b y w ayfarers a lso i n l ater p eriods . T he m ajority o f t he t owers i n t he Q arawat b ene H assan a rea b elong t o t he H ellenistic a nd H erodian p eriods , a nd t heir l ast f loruit f ell i n t he l atter r egion .

. Q al'at F irdus - a M anor o f t he H asmonean a nd H erodian P eriod . F ig. 1 24

I n t he n orth o f Q arawat b ene H assan t here i s a s tone b uilding i n as tate o f c omplete p reservation , w hich b ears t he n ame Q al 'at F irdus, m eaning

P h .

I h mxPs c itadel ' . T he b uilding i s o ne o f t he f inest a nd m ost c omplete a ncient s tructures i n w estern S amaria , a nd i s s till u sed a s t he r esidence o f s everal f amilies o f t he v illage . I t w as m easured a nd p lanned i n d etail b y

1 07 1 08

D r .

Y ohanan

M intzker

o f

t he

epartment

o f

A ntiquities ,

w ho

a nalysed

i ts

c onstruction a nd a rchitecture . /

T he P lan . T here a rg n o o riginal a pertures i n t he e xterior w alls, a nd t he o nly p lace w here t here m ay h ave b een o ne i s a t t he s outh-western c orner , w here t he s tate o f t he o riginal s ections i s p oor . F rom t he f unctional p oint o f v iew , t herefore , t his s torey w as n ot m eant f or r esidence , b ut c ould p ossibly

2 32

h ave b een u sed f or d efence, f or s torage o r a s ap rison. A ccording t o t he o rientation o f t he g ates ,

a ccess w as

p erhaps

t hrough

t he s outh-western r oom, t he o nly r oom which i s n ot v aulted , a nd a ll c oncurred t hat i ts c eiling w as l ate . I t i s i ndeed p ossible t hat t his r oom p ossessed a n e xterior o pening , b ut a s t here i s n o i ndication p roving t his , t he e ntrance t o t he b uilding w as a pparently b y o utside s teps l eading i nto t he m ain s torey , w hence s tairs l ed d own t o t he c ellar . T he h eight o f t he f ill b etween t he c eiling o f t he g round f loor a nd t he p resent r oom-level p ermits t he c onjecture t hat t races r emain o f t he w alls o f t he p rincipal s torey b elow t he l evel o f t he p resent f loor . O n t he a ssumption t hat t he p lan o f t he p rincipal f loor w as b ased o n t he g round f loor , i t may b e s upposed

t hat

t here h ad e xisted a c entral " through" v oid o rientated

e ast-

w est w ith r ooms e ach s ide o f i t . I n t hat c ase , c onsidering t he s tate o f p reservation o f t he walls, t he s teps t o t he u pper r oom would h ave b een u tilised a s as tair-well .

D etails. T he O uter W alls . m .,

T he t hickness o f t he n orth a nd s outh w alls w as 1 . 20

t hat o f t he e ast a nd west walls 1 .35 - 1 .40 m .

T hey w ere t hicker

p robably b ecause t hey w ere d esigned t o r eceive t he o utward t hrust o f t he v aults . T he e xterior f aces o f t he w alls w ere b uilt o f d ressed d oubled rafted m asonry ,

t he w idth o f t he e xterior d rafted m argins b eing 6 - 8 c m .

T he i nterior m argins w ere t ooled o ver t he c orbelling a nd e mphasised b y m ore r efined w orking o ver t he e ntire c orbel a nd b y r ougher t ooling i n t he c entre . T he w idth o f t hese margins i s 5c m .

T he b locks a re p art h eaders, p art

s tretchers . T he e ast f ront i s c haracterised b y t he c onstruction o f t wo c ourses , m ainly h eaders , a lternating w ith a c ourse m ainly o f s tretchers . T he

l ength

o f

t he

s tretchers

i s

a s

much

a s

1 .60

m .

T he

m ost

c haracteristic h eight o f t he c ourses i s 5 6 c m ., a nd t here i s c omplete c oordination b etween t he b locks a nd t he w idth o f t he o riginal j oints 1 - 2 cm.

T he D oors .

T he o uter h eight o f t he d oors A -B i s 1 . 77 c m . ;

t he o uter h eight

o f G , D , E , - 1 . 17 c m . T he j ambs , t he l intels a nd t he s ills p roject 8 - 1 0 c m . ; t hey a re 4 0 -4 5 c m . w ide . B elow t he l intel i s a s lot f or a b olt , 2 3 c m . w ide a nd 2 6 c m . i n v ertical h eight . T he s lot i s p rolonged i nto t he b ody o f t he w all . E xterior w idth o f A

7 6 c m .

•

8 0

"

•

8 6

"

•

7 6

"

•

7 4

"

D oor G a ppears t o h ave b een w idened a t a l ate p eriod , s o t hat t he n ormal d oor i s 7 4 - 8 0 c m . w ide .

T he i nner l intels h ave b een worked i nto t he

s hape o f aG reek ' pi '.(1 1- )

2 33

T he I nterior W alls. T here i s c omplete c oordination b etween t he b locks . c ourses v aries , t he a verage b eing 5 6 c m . e xterior c ourse ) . T he s tones , p art h eaders ,

T he h eight o f t he

t he a verage h eight o f t he p art s tretchers , w ere l aid i n

n o r egular o rder . T he l ength o f t he s tretchers r eaches 1 .25 m . T he l intels a re p articularly l arge - a s much a s 1 .75 m . T he wall i s b uilt mainly o f massive masonry ( to a w idth o f t wo b locks) w ith i nterior c oordination . T he m ost c haracteristic t hickness o f t he w alls i s 1 . 20 m . E xceptional a re t hick .

s ections

o f

t he n orth-south w alls

w hich a re

1 . 14 ,

1 . 11

m .

T he V aulting. F ig. 1 25 P h .

1 09

E xcept f or t he w est c hamber ,

a ll t he v aulting i s b arrel v aulting

e xcellently b uilt o f c losely-fitted d ressed b locks , s et i n c ourses p arallel w ith t he d irection o f t he v aulted p assage . T he b locks a re 2 8 -3 3 c m . , a nd a s m uch a s 7 5 c m . l ong . I n t hose p laces w here t he d oor-lintels a re p art o f t he v aults, t hey a re d ressed a ccordingly . T he c ourses i n e ach v ault c onstitute a n o dd n umber , s o t hat t he k eystone i s t he p rincipal p oint . We e ndeavoured t o d iscover t he d ate o f t he b uilding,

b y d igging a

s ection c lose t o i ts n orth w al1 , 10 b ut w ere f orced t o c ease w ork h alfway b ecause t he i nhabitants f eared a c ollapse ; a s a r esult t he o riginal d epth o f t he f oundations w as n ot e xposed . W e c leared t wo c ourses b elow t he p resent s urface , b ut t he m asonry g oes m uch d eeper . T he c ourses b elow g round l evel a re w ithout m arginal d ressing a nd a re l aid i n a n o rderly m anner w ithout n oticeable r epairs o r a dditions . T he

c haracter

o f

c onstruction a nd

t he a rchaeological

f inds

w ere

s uch

t hat w e m ay r egard Q al 'at F irdus a s t he w ell-to-do d welling o f t he H asmonean a nd H erodian p eriods .

I t m ay h ave s erved t he o wners o f t he r oyal d omain

w hich e xtended o ver t he r egion o f H an s a nd H irbet b ene H assan . D uring t he s urvey t here w ere o ver t hirty s ouls i n t he b uilding , a nd t he g round f loor w as b eing u sed t o s tore c haff . I t m ay r easonably b e s upposed t hat p lace w as a r esidence h ousing s ome d ozen p eople i n a ncient t imes a lso .

5 . F ig.

1 26

t he

D eir a -Darab a nd t he N ecropolis o f Q arawat b ene H assan . T he l arge o rnamental t omb k nown a s D eir a -Darab i s w ell-known a nd t here

i s n o n eed t o d escribe i t a gain i n d etail . A c ourtyard o f 1 5 b y 2 0 m . h as b een c ut i n t he r ock i n f ront o f t he h ypogaeum, w hich c ontains t hree c arefully m asoned b urial c hambers a nd a n a ntechamber . T he f açade i s c rowned b y aD oric f rieze a dorned w ith r osettes s et i n m etopes , a fter t he f ashion o f t he S econd T emple p eriod . T he f açade i s a p ortico e ntirely h ewn f rom t he n atural

r ock ,

f acing

i nto

t he c ourt .

I t w as

a dorned b y t wo c olumns

i n

a ntis , o f w hich o nly o ne s urvives . T he c apitals o f b oth a ntae a nd c olumns a re o f a m ixed C orinthian-lonic s tyle ; t he B ritish s urveyors a nd t heir s uccessors s aw D eir a -Darab a s a r esplendent t omb o f t he S econd T emple e ra w hich r esembled t he m onumental t ombs r ound J erusalem . T he J erusalem t omb w hich m ost r esembles D eir a -Darab i s U m E l'Amad , w hich i s d ated t o t he 2 nd1 st c enturies B .C .E . , o r m ore e xactly t o t he H erodian e poch .1 ) I t s eems t hat D eir a -Darab c an b e a scribed t o t hat p eriod , i .e . t o t he t ime o f t he l ate H asmoneans a nd t he h ouse o f H erod .

2 34

I n 1 972 t he t omb w as c leaned ,

a nd D r . Z eev Y eivin e xpressed t he o pinion

t hat i t w as t o b e a ssigned t o t he r eign o f H erod .1 2) I t w ould n ot b e r ash , t herefore , t o c onnect Q arat F irdus w ith D eir a -Darab , a nd t o s ee t he t wo s ites a s b elonging t o o ne h istorical p eriod . B oth a re s imilar i n a rchitectural s tyle , o ne p robably t he r esidence o f a w ealthy f amily w hich o wned t he l ands i n t he r egion , t he o ther t he r esplendent t omb-plot o f m embers o f t he s ame f amily a fter d eath . I t i s o f i nterest t o n ote t hat t he n umber o f t hose i nterred a t D eir a -Darab w as n ot l arge a nd p erhaps i ndicates t hat t he t omb w as u sed o nly f or a b rief p eriod . I t a ppears t o h ave c eased t o s erve i ts p urpose a fter t he f irst r evolt a gainst R ome , a nd w as r eused o nly i n t he 2 nd t o 3 rd c entury b y p agan i nhabitants, w ho c ut a n iche f or a s tatue i n t he a ntechamber . L ater s till t he c eiling o f t he t omb w as b roken t hrough , a nd t he l ighting a perture b locked , p erhaps i ndicating t hat t he p lace w as u sed f or h uman h abitation . B eside D eir a -Darab , t here a re o ther t ombs i n t he n ecropolis , i ncluding s ome w ith o rnamental f açades a nd r ockcut a ntae .

M ost o f t hem a re c overed

w ith e rosion s oil , a nd o nly t heir t ops a ppear a bove g round . T wo g rouped r ockcut t ombs w ere s urveyed a k ilometre w est o f D eir a -Darab , a nd i t l ooks a s i f t he d evelopment o f a c emetery h ad b een i nitiated h ere , o n as omewhat P h .

1 10

s maller s cale t han i n t he e astern n ecropolis . A s t he r esult o f a r escue e xcavation c arried o ut i n 1 978 i n a s mall k ukh t omb (w . 3 00 ) , a h undred m etres w est o f D eir a -Darab,

t he f ollowing c hronological d ata b ecame

e vident .1 3) P ottery s herds o f t he H ellenistic a nd H erodian p eriods w ere f ound o utside t he t omb , a nd i nside i t p ottery a nd g lassware o f t he i st t o t he 4 th c enturies C .E . S everal c oins o f t he 4 th c entury were a lso d iscovered .1 4) N otable a mong t he f inds w ere a c omplete g lass p latter o f t he i st c entury , l amp,fragments , i ncluding a n e arly R oman l amp a nd S amaritan e xamples o f t he 2 nd t o 3 rd c enturies , a dorned w ith m enorah-figures .1 5) T he f inds t herefore s how t hat t he t omb o riginated a t t he e nd o f t he S econd T emple p eriod , a nd t hat s ubsequently b urials p roceeded c ontinuously t ill t he 4 th c entury .

T he f inds d o n ot t ell u s w ho w ere t he p eople i nterred , a s t he

t omb o riginated a t t he e nd o f t he S econd T emple p eriod , a nd o nly t he l amps w ith t he S amaritan d ecoration h int t hat a S amaritan c ommunity c ontinued t o e xist a t Q arawat b ene H assan , which , i ndeed, B en Z vi b elieved t o h ave p ossessed a s ynagogue . W e d o n ot k now w hy t he t omb c eased t o b e u sed i n t he B yzantine p eriod ; i t m ay h ave b een a r esult o f t he S amaritan r ebellions i n t he r egion , o r b ecause t he l ocal p opulation b egan t o b ury e lsewhere . T he a ncient n ame o f Q arawat b ene H assan i s a t p resent u nknown t o u s , b ut w e c oncur w ith t hose w ho t hink t hat i t w as t he v illage o f Q erutim ,

w hich

p roduced c hoice w ine i n t he p eriod o f t he T emple .1 6) T he n umerous w ine p resses a nd f ield t owers i n t he Q arawat b ene H assan a rea s how t hat w ine p roduction f lourished i n t he l ocality , a nd w ine c ould e asily b e t ransported t hence t o J erusalem .

6 .

T he M osque A rea a nd B urj e l-Yaqur . V ery p rominent a re t he r emains o f al arge b uilding o f d ressed s tone w ith

p ilaster b ases e ach s ide o f B ene H assan ,

t he i nterior ,

c lose

t o t he

c entral m osque o f

w hich i s k nown u nder t he n ame o f S heikh ' Ali e l-Amanat .

T he

B ritish s urveyors n oticed t hese r emains a nd t hought t hat t hey w ere t he f oundations o f a c hurch . T he l ocal p eople c all i t 'M e P ool ' ( el-Bre ldo1) , a s i t w as p robably l ater u sed a s a r eservoir , o r p erhaps w as e rroneously s o i dentified.

2 35

F ig .

1 27

I n 1 975,

a r escue e xcavation w as c onducted h ere 1 7 ) i n v iew o f t he

b uilding o f a n ew m osque o n t he f oundations o f t he o ld o ne, w hich w as P h. 1 11, d estroyed, a ccording t o t he l ocal i nhabitants, i n t he f irst w orld w ar . 12 E xcavation s howed t hat t he m osque h ad p robably b een e rected i n t he A bassid p eriod , a nd w as b uilt o ver t he f oundations o f al arge p ublic b uilding o f t he R oman-Byzantine p eriod . T he c entral h all o f t he a ncient b uilding m easured 1 3 .40 b y 1 2.00 m ., a nd i ts walls w ere p reserved t o a h eight o f 2 .00 m . A dditional w all-tops w ere o bserved u nder t he p robably r emains o f t he R oman-Byzantine p eriod. F ig . P h .

1 28 1 13

A n umber o f a rchitectural

m embers

t hese i ncluded l imestone c olumns ,

f oundations

w ere f ound

b ases ,

d uring

o f

t he

t he

m osque ,

e xcavations ;

c offering a nd c olumn d rums .

t wo c olumn d rums t he G reek l etters a lpha a nd b eta w ere o bserved ,

O n

a lso t he

c olumn d rum n umbering i n t he f orm o f o blique s trokes , e vidently f or t he u se o f t he b uilders . W e a lso n oticed among t he r uins o f t he m osque , a l imestone d oor , o f t he t ype u sed i n t ombs o f t he S econd T emple p eriod . P ottery a nd g lassware f ound i n t he e xcavations o f t he ' Poor a nd t he M osque e xtended f rom t he 4 th t o t he 7 th c entury C .E . G reen-glazed f ragments o f m ediaeval d ate w ere a lso r ecovered , b ut t here w as n o e vidence o f ac hurch o n t he s ite , a nd t he a pses c onjectured b y t he m embers o f t he B ritish s urvey w ere n on-existent . T he m osque a rea s eems t o h ave b een u sed i n t he R omanB yzantine p eriod f or p ublic p urposes, a nd t he s tructures e xposed b y u s d uring t he e xcavations b elonged t o a l arge p ublic b uilding o f s ome p retensions.

B urj e lYaqur . F ig. 1 29 P h . 1 14

1 8)

T his i s a c omplete t ower o f m ediaeval d ate , s ituated n orth o f t he m osque a rea , a nd i s t oday u sed a s t he w orking o il p ress o f t he v illage .

T he t ower

i s 1 6 m . b y 1 1.30 m ., a nd 1 1.60 m . h igh . I t h as t wo s toreys a nd a f lat r oof w hich w as u sed b y t he o wners i n t ime o f n eed . T he t ower i s b uilt o f s tone , t he w alls b eing 2 .20 m . t hick . T he u pper f loors w ere r eached b y s tairs b uilt i nto t he o uter w all . W e a lso d iscovered a s ecret i nterior s taircase b uilt i nside t he e ast w all ; b y i t t he t ower s torey c ould b e r eached w ithout b eing s een f rom o utside . W e d etected a m ediaeval A rab i nscription o n o ne o f t he i nterior w alls ; i t s eems t o h ave r ecorded t he r epairing a nd r econditioning o f t he b uilding . V arious a rchitectural m embers o f t he R oman p eriod a re i ncorporated i n t he f oundations a nd e xterior w alls o f B urj e l-Yaqur ; t his i s p erhaps e vidence o f a n e arlier b uilding w hich h ad s tood o n t he s ite o f t he m ediaeval t ower .

B urj e l-Yaqur a ppears

t o h ave b een a r ural t ower o f t he C rusader e ra ; i t w as r epaired i n t he M ameluke p eriod , a nd c ontinued t o b e u sed b y t he l ocal i nhabitants d own t o m odern t imes .

7 .

Q arawat b ene H assan a s a c entre o f R oyal D omain i n t he H asmonean a nd H erodian P eriods. A n umber o f s ites b etween J eme 'in o n t he e ast a nd t he Q arawat b ene

H assan o n t he west, b ear t he n ame o f K ing H erod . F irdis a nd S heikh A hmed e l-Firdis , e ast o f J eme 'in .

S uch a re S ejerat e lB ut t he m ost i mportant

c oncentration i s i n t he a rea o f Q arawat b ene H assan i tself . W e t hink t hat Q arawat b ene H assan w as t he c entre o f s everal r oyal e states w hose e xistence i n t he a rea i s p roved b y F lavius J osephus , w ho r elates t hat t he e state o f P tolemy o f R hodes , H erod 's m inister , w as a t n earby H an s . I t i s r easonable t o s uppose t hat H erod i nherited t hese e states f rom t he H asmonean d ynasty a nd

2 36

i ts s upporters , a nd a llotted t hem t o h is o wn f ollowers .

T he a rchaeological

e vidence c onfirms t he h istorical s ource , s ince t he H ellenistic a nd H erodian p eriods a re w ell r epresented t hroughout t he a rea o f Q arawat b ene H assan a nd i ts v icinity . A s urvey o f p ottery c arried o ut i n d ozens o f f ield t owers ,

c ultivated

p lots , s tone c learance c airns , f arms a nd v illages , m ade i t c lear t hat t he c ommonest s herds i n t he a rea d ated f rom E arly I ron A ge I I d own t o t he H erodian p eriod ,

a fter w hich a d ecline w as n oticeable ,

t o b e c onnected w ith

t he f irst a nd s econd r evolts .1 9 ) T he e nclosure o f H irbet F irdusi t hat t he p lace w as a c entral l ogistic b ase f or t he e ntire v icinity .

s howed Q al 'at

F irdus a nd D eir a -Darab may h ave s erved t he w ealthy i nhabitents,

a lso

d ominating t he e state a nd i ts c entre a t Q arawat b ene H assan .2 ° ) A l ate e cho o f r oyal l ands i n t he r egion i s p erhaps t o b e h eard i n t he M amelyi p eriod ;

8 .

i n 1 399 t he S ultan B arquq a llotted l ands h ere t o t he M oslem W aqf.

/

T he M ap o f Q arawat b ene H assan - S ite D istribution a nd t he A gricultural T ract.

N ote : T he r egister o f s ites a nd o f t he a gricultural t ract i s n ot c omplete , a nd f or r easons o f s pace o nly p art o f t he p rincipal s ites o f t he r egion a re d escribed . I n v arious c hapters o f t his work , v arious s ites s uch a s t he f ield t owers , t he r oad s ystem , b uildings a nd f ortifications , w hich b elong t o Q arawat b ene H assan , a re d escribed i n g reater d etail . I n t he c ultivated a rea i t i s t he f ield t owers a nd t heir p lots w hich a re p rincipally d escribed , w hereas

f inal

c onclusions

p lantations a nd a rable . b ene H assan , a nd t heir

a re

s ubmitted

o nly

with

r egard

t o

o live

O ver 6 00 p lots w ere m easured o n t he m ap o f Q arawat d etailed d escription e xtends o ver d ozens o f p ages

w hose i nclusion i n t he p resent r egister w ould h ave b een u njustified . I t i s i ntended t o d evote a s eparate i ndependent s tudy t o t he Q arawat b ene H assan m ap ; t his w ill r ecord a ll t he a rchaeological a nd a gricultural d ata a ssembled d uring t he s tudy o f t he r egion .

K ey t o t he M ap . F ig . 1 30 ( 2 )

T he n ecropolis o f Q arawat b ene H assan w as a n a rea c ontaining d ozens o f

r ockcut t ombs s tretching o ver s everal d ozen d unams . T he b est k nown a nd m ost p rominent i s t he l arge t omb k nown a s D eir a -Darab , b ut t here a re a lso s maller t ombs w ith o rnamental f açades. ( 4 )

E l-Qor m .

A l arge t ower o n a c ommanding h illtop .

T his t ower c an b e

c lassified among t he ' very l arge ' g roup a nd r egarded a s t he f arm o f a m ilitary s ettler . T he p lot m easures a pproximately 3 0 d unams . T here a re t wo r ockcut p lastered c isterns i n t he t ower a rea . ( 5 )

H irbet A mir ,

k nown b y t he l ocal p eople a s ' Anir .

T his i s a n e xcellent

p iece o f l and b ordering o n Q arawat b ene H assan o n t he n orth-west . T he c leared a rea i s w ell l evelled . I t c ontains f ive c isterns , s ome s till i n u se . T he b ase o f as tructure , ( 6 )

p erhaps a f ield t ower ,

w as o bserved i n t he p lot .

A n u nusual t ower w ith t wo s toreys , k nown a s Q asr M ansurah .

I t i s 6 .00

m . h igh a nd 4 .80 b y 4 .35 m . a t b ase . T he u pper s torey i ncludes a n a rch o f t en d ressed v onssoirs r esting o n t wo r ubble p ilasters . T he u pper s torey h as a w indow m easuring 1 . 13 b y 0 .70 m . W hite p laster w as t raced o n t he o uter w alls ; t his i s a n e xceptional p henomenon w here t ower c onstruction i s

2 37

c oncerned . ( 7)

T he t ower s tands i n a n o live p lantation o f 6d unams .

A t erraced v alley a bout a k ilometre l ong .

n umerous p lots ,

T he v alley i s d ivided i nto

i ts s oil b eing s ome o f t he b est i n t he Q arawat b ene H assan

t ract . T he a verage w idth o f t he p lots i s 5 0 m . , a nd t hey c ould h ave b een i rrigated f rom t he w inter f loods. T he a rea c overs 1 65 d unams. ( 8)

A c omplete t ower ,

k nown a s Q asr S ebah .

I t m easures 4 x 4 m . ,

3 .70 m . , h igh . A ll s even c ourses r emain f rom f oundation t o r oof . t he s tones w ith w hich i t i s b uilt m easure o ver 2 m . !

a nd i s S ome o f

( 40, 4 1, 4 3) -- r ockcut t ombs i n t he q uarry a rea: ( 40)

A t omb w ith v aulted

e ntrance ;

t he

s econd

c hamber h as

t wo

a rcosolia c ontaining c ists . T here i s a s mall a rcosolium i n a nother w all . T here a re t races o f t hick p laster o ver o ne o f t he a rcosolia . ( 41)

A rcosolium t omb w ith c ist 1 .5 m . l ong.

( 42)

R ockcut w inepress ;

t he t reading f loor i s a symmetrical .

T he p lot

h as a n a rea o f 7d unams . ( 43) ( 44) m . ( 45 )

A t omb w ith s unk a rcosolium , o f o ne c ompartment.

R emains o f a t ower - t hree c ourses s urvive . T he d oor l ooks n orth . R emains o f a t ower ,

o utcrop 2 m . h igh . t he r ock . ( 46)

I t m easures 4 .20 b y 3 .30

T he p lot m easures 6 .8 d unams. s urviving t o f our c ourses .

I t s tands o n a r ock-

N ear i t a re a r ockcut c istern , ac upmark a nd a n iche i n

T he p lot m esures 6 d unams.

R emains o f a t ower i n av ery r ocky a rea .

T he p lot c ontains s teps c ut

i n a ncient t imes; t hey v ary f rom 2 - 6 m . i n b readth . ( 47)

A c ollapsed t ower , b ut t he w estern f ace i s c omplete u p t o s ix c ourses .

T he e ntrance , c omplete , i s t o e ast , a nd t he r oof h as f allen i n . w inepress s urrounded b y a s tone f ence l ies n ear t he t ower .

A r ockcut T he p lot

m easures 8 .2 d unams. ( 48)

A l arge t ower , n early c omplete , o n ah illtop k nown a s Q urnet K uah , 3 68

m . a bove s ea l evel ;

t he t ower i s c alled Q asr K uah .

T he p lot m easures 4 0 .8

d unams. ( 49)

A c omplete t ower ,

a nd n ear i t a w inepress a nd c istern ,

b oth r ockcut .

T he l atter h ad p reviously b een a t omb c ontaining k ukhim . T he t reading f loor o f t he w inepress h ad b een d estroyed , a nd a r ockcut t omb b eneath i t h ad b een c onverted t o a c istern . o f t he t ower .

A nother t omb ( cistern ) w as f ound 1 5 m . n orth-east

T he a rea o f t he p lot w as 2 4.8 d unams.

T he t ower i s k nown a s Q asr ' Anir , m easuring 3 .90 b y 3 .40 m ; i ts f ull h eight i s 3 .30 m . I t i s b uilt t o s even c ourses, t he r oof c onsisting o f s tone r afters , l aid c riss-cross . T he d oor i s b uilt o f t hree w ell t ooled s tones a nd p ossesses s inkings f or a b olt o n t he i nner s ide . i n t he n orth f ace o f t he t ower .

2 38

T he e ntrance i s

1 5 m .

n orth-east o f t he t ower i s a h ypogaeum w ith s ix k ukhim .

I t i s

e ntered b y ac ircular a perture s et i n a s quare f rame , a pparently s o t hat i t c ould b e c losed b y a r olling s tone ( go ner ) . T he b urial c hamber c ontains a s tanding p it a nd t wo k ukhim o n e ach s ide .

O ne o f t hese y ielded t he s herd

o f aH erodian a mphora . A s olitary v ine p lant w as f ound a mong t he r ocks o f t he t ower p lot ; w e m ay h ave h ere a r emnant o f t he a ncient v ineyard w hich w as p lanted i n t he a rea . ( 50 )

T he h ypogaeum w as l ater c onverted t o ac istern .

R emains o f a t ower , ar ockcut t omb , aq uarry a nd a l imekiln .

T he p lot

m easures 1 9.6 d unams. ( 52 ,

5 3 )

S cattered t ombs t o w est o f T ower 4 9 .

O f t he f irst t omb ( 52) ,

o nly

a n a perture c onsisting o f a c ircular e ntrance w ithin a s quare f rame c an b e s een . T he t omb i s r ockcut w ithin a s mall f orecourt . T wo t ombs ( 53 ) a re s et c lose t o o ne a nother . O ne h as s ix k ukhim a nd i ts e ntrance w as o riginally c losed b y ar olling s tone . T his t omb w as c onverted t o ac istern ; i t i s as econd t omb c ontaining a s haft a nd t wo f lanking a rcosolia ; l ater t han t he k ukh t omb . ( 54)

R emains

o f a t ower

c lose t o i t l ooks

i n a r ocky a rea w hich h as b een w ell c leared o f

s tones - t here a re c learance c airns b uilt m ethodically t o c onsiderable d imensions. ( 55)

T he a rea o f t he p lot i s 1 2.4 d unams.

T he b ase o f a t ower o f w hich t hree c ourses r emain .

T he p lot i s

t rapezoidal, a nd c overs 1 5 d unams. ( 56 )

R emains o f a t ower w ith t he d oor i n s itu .

T he p lot i s w ell f enced

a nd c ontains l arge c learance c airns m easuring 3 0 b y 1 0 m " T he p lot i s 9 .2 d unams i n a rea. ( 57)

A l arge c omplete t ower ,

d ivision i s n oticeable . a nd n orth r espectively .

measuring 6 .30

a nd 1 . 5 m .

b y 4 .90 m .

h igh .

A n i nternal

T he t ower h as t wo e ntrances i n s itu , o n t he e ast T he w alls r emain t o a h eight o f s ix c ourses . T he

p lot i s k nown t o t he i nhabitants o f Q arawat b ene H assan a s H alat M arsad a fter t he owner o f t he l and . T o t he west o f t he t ower i s a r ockcut w inepress a nd n ear i t a l arge c istern . T he p lot c overs 1 7 d unams . ( 58)

T he b ase o f at ower .

n orth .

T he

t ower p lot

c ultivation a reas . 9 F ig. 5

( 59)

Two c ourses r emain .

c ontains

T he e ntrance i s o n t he

t erraces a nd c learly i dentifiable a ncient

T he a rea o f t he p lot i s 1 62 . d unams .

A c omplete t ower ,

m easuring 4 .00 b y 3 .60 m .

I t s urvives t o a h eight

o f s even c ourses . T he r oof w as s upported b y o bliquely-laid s tone t ies . e ntrance i s o n t he e ast. T he a rea o f t he p lot i s 1 3.2 d unams. ( 60)

A f allen t ower ,

s tanding .

measuring

j ambs h ave d rafted m argins. ( 61)

3 .60 b y 3 .60

T he e ntrance i s i n t he e ast w all .

m .

F our c ourses

T he

r emain

T wo o f t he s tones b elonging t o

T he p lot m easures 6 d unams.

A p lot c ontaining a r ockcut w inepress ,

t wo c isterns a nd a l imekiln .

T he w inepress h as a t reading f loor m easuring 1 . 90 b y 1 . 80 m . , a nd i s 0 . 10 t o 0 .20

m .

d eep

T he r eception t ank m easures

0 .70

b y 0 .65

m . ,

w ith a v isible

b uilt w ithin r etaining w alls .

I t m easures 2 5

d epth o f 0 .70 m . ( 63)

Ah uge c learance c airn ,

b y 2 0 m ., a nd i s 7m . h igh .

T he p lot m easures 5 .4 d unams.

2 39

( 64)

A r ound t ower , m easuring 3 .90 b y 3 .60 m . i n d iameter .

T he e ntrance i s

0 .60 m . w ide . T he w alls s urvive t o 4- 5 c ourses . S ome o f t he s tone r oof t ies a re s till i n p osition . N ear t he t ower i s ac upmark . T he p lot m easures 9 .2 d unams . ( 65)

T he f oundations o f as quare t ower i n ap lot m easuring 1 5 d unams.

( 66)

A c omplete t ower m easuring 4 .70 b y 4 .40 m ., a nd 2 .80 m . h igh .

e ntrance i s i n t he e ast w all,

a nd b uilt o f d ressed b locks .

p ossesses d rafted m argins . N ear t he w all , m . T he p lot m easures 7 .2 d unams. ( 67)

A r ound t ower r esembling T ower 6 4.

( 68)

R emains o f a r ound t ower ;

T he

O ne s tone

a l arge c upmark 1 .00 m . b y 0 .80

T he a rea o f t he p lot i s 6d unams.

i ts r oof s tones a re i n p osition .

T he p lot

i s 1 0.8 d unams i n a rea . ( 69)

A c omplete r ound t ower ,

w ide. ( 70)

3 .70 m .

i n d iameter .

A l arge t ower , n early c omplete .

I t measures 5 .10 b y 4 .90 m .

e ntrance i s 0 .60 m . w ide . O ne o f t he s tone r oof m . T he a rea o f t he p lot i s 9 .4 d unams. ( 71)

A l arge

t ower,

a lmost c omplete,

p reserved t o ah eight o f f ive c ourses. ( 72)

T he e ntrance i s 0 .60 m .

T he a rea o f t he p lot i s 1.6 d unams.

A n early c omplete t ower ,

T he

t ies m easures 0 .60 b y 2 . 50

m easuring 5 .10 b y 4 .10 m .,

a nd

T he a rea o f t he p lot i s 1 3.8 d unams.

b uilt o f e specially l arge s tones .

M ost o f

t he s tones m easure a bout a m etre , a nd t hey a re v ery s lightly d ressed . T he t ower o verlooks a s treambed, a nd i ts p lot, 7 .6 d unams, i s p artly o n t he d ownward s lope. ( 73 )

A c omplete t ower .

T wo c ourtyards a nd a t hreshing f loor a re a ttached .

T he t ower measures 5 .10 b y 4 .40 m . e xternally , a nd 2 .40 x 2 .20 m . i nside ; t he h eight i s 1 . 90 m . T he r oof c onsists o f f our s tone t ies 2 .30 m . l ong . A s mall n iche 0 .60 x 0 .40 m . , i s c ut i n t he e ast w all i nside t he t ower . T he e ntrance i s b uilt o f t hree w ell t ooled s tones a nd p ossesses a rrangements f or c losing t he d oor f rom i nside . T he s ill i s c ut i nto t he n atural r ock . T here a re s mall y ards e ach s ide o f t he t ower ; t he e asterly o ne c ontains a r ockcut c upmark . d iameter . ( 75 )

t hreshing

f loor

i s a ttached o n t he s outh ,

1 .50 m .

i n

T he p lot m easures 8 .2 d unams .

A l arge t ower ,

i n p lace. ( 76)

A f enced

w hich h as p artly c ollapsed ,

b ut t he d oor a nd r oof a re

T he p lot c ontains a r ockcut w inepress, a nd m easures 1.6 d unams.

A f allen t ower .

T wo o r

t hree

c ourses

a nd

t he

r oof

s tones

s urvive .

T he p lot m easures 7 .4 d unams. ( 77)

A l imekiln i n ac learly t raceable p lot m easuring 8 .4 d unams.

( 78)

T he b ase o f a t ower,

a ttached. ( 79)

p reserved t o t wo c ourses .

A s mall y ard i s

T he p lot m easures 8 .4 d unams.

T he b ase

o f a t ower .

T wo

c ourses

d unams.

2 40

s urvive .

T he

p lot

m easures

92 .

( 80 )

A n early c omplete t ower ,

w hose p lot c ontains a t hreshing f loor a nd a

w inepress . F ive c ourses a re p reserved , a ll o f w ell t ooled s tone . N ear t he t ower i s a r ockcut c upmark ; t he t ower w all i ncorporates a s tone c rusher f rom a n o il p ress , i ndicating s econdary u se a nd l ater r epairs . T he a rea o f t he p lot i s 1 0 .8 d unams . ( 81)

R emains o f al arge t ower n ow d estroyed.

( 82)

R emains

o f a t ower ,

h ave c ollapsed i nward . ( 83 )

A s mall t ower ,

o f

w hich t hree c ourses

3 .00 b y 2 .40 m .

T he i nterior i s s mall ;

t he r oof

T wo c ircular r ockcut w inepresses ,

t hree c ourses

n ear w hich a n u nderground c ave h as T he p lot m easured 8 .4 d unams.

A t ower w ith c ircular r ockcut w inepress i n i ts v icinity .

i n t he w inepress g ave a ccess t o a n u nderground c ave , T he p lot m easured 7 .2 d unams. ( 86)

t ies

T he p lot c overed 1 0 d unams.

b een c ut, p erhaps a s ubstitute f or a t ower . ( 85)

s urvive ;

T he p lot m easured 1 4 .4 d unams .

r emain t o ah eight o f 1 .30 m . ( 84 )

T he p lot m easured 7 .8 d unams.

A n o pening

p erhaps a w ine c ellar .

A n early c omplete t ower b y t he m odern r oad t o H an s .

T he t ower p lot

m easures 9 d unams . ( 87)

A c ollapsed t ower ,

w ith a r ockcut c upmark a nd t rough n ear i t .

T he

t ower p lot ( 8 .2 d unams ) c ontains i mpressively h igh c learance c airns .

M

A l ivestock e nclosure ,

f ence 1 .00 - 1 .50 m . h igh .

2 5 m .

i n d iameter ,

a nd s urrounded b y a s tone

T he e nclosure i s w ithin a p lot c overing 7 .2

d unams. ( 89)

An early c omplete t ower, o f which t hree o r f our c ourses s urvive .

T he i nner c hamber i s c ircular ; ( 90)

A t ower w ith t wo w inepresses a nd a n u nderground c ave .

i s s quare, t he o ther c ircular . ( 91)

t he a rea o f t he p lot i s 5 .6 d unams.

A r uined

t ower ,

O ne w inepress

T he p lot m easures 8 .4 d unams.

t o w hich a f ield-structure w as

a ttached i n a l ater

p hase . N ear t he t ower i s a r ockcut w inepress . T he p lot c overs 7 d unams . ( 92)

A f allen t ower ,

p reserved t o t he t hird c ourse .

T he p lot m easures 8 .2

d unams. ( 93)

A f allen t ower ; t he e ntrance i s i n p lace .

T hree c ourses s urvive .

T he

p lot's a rea i s 4 .8 d unams. ( 94)

A l arge

c omplete t ower .

I ts r oof h as c ollapsed i nwards .

h as t wo e ntrances , o ne o n t he e ast a nd o ne o n t he n orth . o f t he d oor i s t ooled o n t he m argins , 1 0 c m . ( 95) f ence . ( 96)

T he p lot 's a rea i s

T he t ower

O ne o f t he s tones

t he w idth o f t he l atter b eing 7 -9 a nd

1 0 .8 d unams .

A t hreshing f loor 1 5 .50 m . i n d iameter , s urrounded b y al ow s tone T he p lot m easures 0 .4 d unams . A c omplete t ower m easuring 3 .90 x 3 .60 m .

2 41

I t s urvives t o s ix c ourses .

T he e ntrance, which f aces n orth , c onsists o f f ive d ressed b locks . p lot's a rea i s 1 5.6 d unams. ( 97) A c omplete t ower w ith d oor t o w est . t he p lot i s 5 .2 d unams.

I t r esembles n o . 9 6 .

( 98 ) R emains o f a t ower n ear w hich i s a r ockcut c upmark . p lot i s 4 .8 d unams. ( 99) A f allen t ower , d unams. ( 100 )

w ith d oor t o e ast .

R emains o f a t ower r eused ,

T he

T he a rea o f

T he a rea o f t he

T he a rea o f t he p lot i s 6 .2

b ut f or w hat p urpose i s n ot c lear .

T he

p lot c ontains a c istern , aw inepress a nd a c upmark , a ll r ockcut. ( 101)

R emains o f a t ower .

T he p lot c ontains a l arge c learance c airn .

T he

p lot m easures 7 .4 d unams. ( 102) R emains d unams.

o f a t ower ,

a nd a c upmark n ear i t .

T he p lot

m easures

3 .6

( 103) R emains o f a t ower , t he e ntrance t o t he e ast . I n i ts v icinity , c istern . T he p lot, 7 d unams i n a rea, c ontains a l imekiln . ( 104 )

T he r emains o f a l imekiln ,

a

a nd n ear i t t he r emains o f a w inepress .

T he p lot m easures 5 .8 d unams . ( 105)

R emains o f a t ower , w ith a r ockcut w inepress n ear i t .

T he p lot

m easured 5 .8 d unams . ( 106)

A l arge r uined t ower .

D oor t o e ast , a nd n ear i t a p rolonged c upmark

a nd r emains o f aw inepress ( ?). ( 107)

R emains o f a t ower ,

T he p lot c overed 1 0.4 d unams.

n ear w hich a re a l arge w inepress a nd c upmarks .

T he p lot's a rea w as 5 .6 d unams. ( 108)

R emains o f a t ower ,

a nd n ear i t a s heepfold .

T he p lot m easures 4 .4

d unams. ( 109)

R emains o f a t ower ;

t he a ttached p lot, 1 7 d unams, c ontains t wo

w inepresses. ( 110 )

R emains o f a t ower w ith d oor t o e ast .

( 111)

R emains o f a t ower ,

T he p lot m easures 1 6 .2 d unams .

a nd n ear i t a c upmark .

T he p lot m easures

5 .6

d unams. ( 112) ( 113) ( 116)

Ah uge r ockcut c istern , s ituated i n ap lot c overing 1 3.2 d unams. A c omplete t ower w ith d oor t o e ast. T he r emains o f a t ower ,

3 .00 x 2 .90 m . ( 117)

T he p lot c overed 9 .4 d unams.

o f w hich t hree c ourses r emain .

N ear i t i s ac upmark .

T he b ase o f a t ower m easuring 2 .60 x 2 .60 m .

T he p lot m easures

1 6 .4 d unams .

2 42

I t m easures

T he p lot m easures 2 5.2 d unams. T hree c ourses s urvive .

( 119)

R emains o f a t ower i n ap lot m easuring 7 .6 d unams.

( 121)

T he r ound t ower o f Q asr M alfuf ,

t he e ntire n eighbourhood. ( 122)

a c omplete s tone b uilding ,

T wo t hreshing f loors e nclosed b y a f ence ,

o n t he s lopes o f a r ocky

h ill 4 04 m . a bove s ea l evel , s outh-west o f Q arawat b ene H assan . 2 6.2 d unams i n a rea . ( 123 )

A f allen t ower ,

4 . 10 x 3 .80 m . ,

r oof s tones a re i n p osition . ( 125)

T he p lot i s

p reserved u p t o 3 -4 c ourses .

T he

T he p lot m easures 2 2.4 d unams.

A f allen t ower m easuring 3 .80 x 3 .40 m .

s tone r oof t ies h ave f allen i nward. ( 126)

u nique i n

T he p lot c overs 1 9 d unams.

2-3 c ourses s urvive .

T he

T he p lot m easured 1 3 d unams.

R emains o f am uch-damaged t ower .

T he p lot m easured 5 d unams.

( 127) A r ockcut p lastered c istern a nd n ear i t r ockcut c upmarks . m easured 2 .8 d unams.

T he p lot

( 128 ) R emains o f a t ower m easuring 3 .90 x 3 .80 m . T wo o r t hree c ourses s urvive. T he e ntrance i s o n t he n orth . T he p lot w as 5 d unams i n a rea. ( 129)

T he b ase o f a t ower o f which t hree c ourses r emain .

r ockcut c upmark . ( 130)

A n early c omplete t ower , measuring 3 .90 x 2 .90 m .

r emain . ( 131)

T he p lot m easured 8 d unams.

A f allen t ower m easuring 3 . 70 x 3 .60 m .

T he d oor r emains w here i t

T he p lot m easured 1 2.4 d unams.

A n early c omplete t ower , measuring 4 .60 x 4 .10 m ., 5 - 6 c ourses

r emaining. ( 134)

T he r oof h as f allen i nward.

T he

d iameter . ( 135)

y am , o f

a n

o live

N ear i t, a c upmark .

p ress

T he p lot c overed 5 .2 d unams.

c ut i n t he l iving

d unams)

c ontains

R emains o f a t ower ,

c ourses.

1 .70 m .

i n

3 -4 c ourses s urvive .

a t hreshing f loor 8 m .

m easuring 4 . 10 x 3 .80 m . ,

T he r oof s tones h ave f allen i nward.

i n d iameter ,

a nd

a

a nd s urviving t o t hree

T he p lot m easures 2 0 d unams.

( 137)

T he b ase o f a t ower , 4 .70 x 4 .50 m .

( 138)

R emains o f al arge t ower , 4 .00 m . e ach s ide .

c ourses s urvive .

r ock ,

T he p lot m easured 1 2 d unams.

R emains o f a t ower m easuring 2 .90 x 2 .80 m .

T he p lot ( 8 .4 l imekiln . ( 136)

F our c ourses

T he e ntrance, i n s itu , i s o n t he e ast.

h as f allen . ( 132)

N ear i t, a

T he p lot, 5 .2 d unams, c ontains a l imekiln .

T he p lot m easures 1 3 d unams. P arts o f f ive l arge

N earby i t i s aw inepress, c hoked w ith s oil .

T he p lot

m easured 1 5.4 d unams. F ig . 1 32 ( 139)

A c omplete t ower , 4 .50 x 4 .50 m ., a nd 2 .50 m . h igh .

T he p lot, 8 .6

d unams. ( 141)

R emains o f at ower , 3 .60 x 3 .40 m .

( 142)

A f allen t ower ,

4 .60 x 3 .90 m .

2 43

T he p lot - 2 1.8 d unams.

F ive c ourses r emain .

T he r oof s tones

a re i n p osition . T he p lot m easures 1 5.4 d unams. ( 143)

R emains o f a l arge t ower ,

a re c upmarks c lose b y . ( 147)

4 .80 x 4 .20 m .

T wo c ourses s urvive .

Aw inepress a nd c istern , b oth r ockcut. T he p lot - 1 3.8 d unams.

( 148) R emains o f a t ower , d unams.

n earby i t i s a w inepress .

( 149)

R emains o f a t ower , a nd c upmarks n ear i t.

( 150)

R emains o f at ower, i n ar ocky p lot o f 1 9.2 d unams.

( 151) ( 153) ( 154)

T here

T he p lot - 3 3.2 d unams.

( 152)

T he p lot - 1 5 .6

T he p lot - 1 9 d unams.

R emains o f t wo t owers i n ap lot 3 8.8 d unams i n a rea .

A f allen t ower, i n aw ell c leared p lot o f 1 3 d unams. A w ell p reserved

f allen t ower .

T he e ntrance

t o s outh i s i n p lace .

T he p lot - 1 4 .6 d unams . ( 155)

R emains o f at ower i n ac leared p lot o f 2 1.4 d unams.

( 157)

A r ockcut c istern , i n ap lot o f 1 6.8 d unams.

( 158)

T wo r ockcut w inepresses i n ap lot o f 3 5.4 d unams.

( 159)

A t ower i n ap lot o f 2 6.2 d unams.

( 160)

A t ower i n ap lot o f 1 3.6 d unams.

( 161)

A t ower i n ap lot o f 6 .2 d unams.

( 162)

A t ower i n ap lot o f 7 .2 d unams.

( 163)

A t ower i n ap lot o f 9 .2 d unams.

( 164)

A t ower i n ap lot o f 6 .8 d unams.

( 165)

A t ower i n ap lot o f 9d unams.

( 166)

A t ower i n ap lot o f 6d unams.

( 167)

A t ower i n ap lot o f 4 .6 d unams.

( 170)

A t ower i n ap lot o f 2 2 d unams.

( 171)

A t ower i n ap lot o f 2 3.6 d unams.

( 172)

A t ower i n ap lot o f 1.6 d unams.

( 173)

T he y am o f a n o il p ress.

( 174)

A r ockcut w inepress i n a p lot o f 1 9.6 d unams.

( 175)

A t ower i n ap lot o f 6 .2 d unams.

2 44

( 176)

T wo t owers i n ap lot o f 1 4 d unams.

( 177)

A t ower i n ap lot o f 4 .6 d unams.

1 78 t o 2 37 - t ower p lots:

n ot s urveyed.

O lives. N os. 2 50 t o 2 99 - p lots p lanted w ith o live t rees. N os. 3 01 - 3 62 - p lots p lanted w ith o live t rees.

A rable. N os. 4 00 t o 6 44 a re a reas o f a rable .

9 .

T he C onjectured S tructure o f t he A gricultural H olding a t Q arawat b ene H assan . T he i nclusive a rea o f t he p lots m easured o n t he m ap o f B ene H assan i s

a pproximately 8 ,000 d unams . 1 ,500 - 2 ,000 d unams o f p asture m ust b e a dded i n t he a reas o f e -Ras, J ebel ' Abrad a nd a s f ar a s W adi M ajur.

V ineyards. 1 75 f ield t owers were s urveyed i n t he a gricultural t ract o f B ene H assan , a nd i t m ay b e e stimated t hat t here w ere 2 00 i n a ll . O ur h ypothesis i s t hat t he f ield t owers r epresent v ineyards e ach b elonging t o t he h olding o f

a n

i ndividual

g reater d etail r espectively .

c ultivator . i n

t he

O ur

c hapters

c onsiderations o n v iticulture

h ave a nd

b een e xplained t he

f ield

i n

t owers

T he A nalysis o f t he T ower P lots a ccording t o A rea . A rea i n D unams

N o. o f T owers.

N o. o f T owers a s P ercentages ( in t he T ower A ssemblage o f Q arawat b ene H assan ).

5- 0

1 9

1 0.8

7 .5 - 5

4 6

2 6.2

1 0 - 7 .5

4 5

2 5.7

1 5 - 1 0

3 6

2 0.5

2 0 - 1 5

1 6

9 .1

2 5 - 2 0

6

3 .4

2 5 +

7

4

2 45

W e f ind

f rom

t he a bove d ata

t hat

t he

t ower p lots

a nd

t he v ineyards w ere

f airly s mall , a nd o ver 6 0 p ercent o f t hem d o n ot e xceed 1 0 d unams . P lots w ith t owers w hose a rea e xceeded 2 0 d unams a re a r are p henomenon , a nd o n t he m ap o f B ene H assan t hey c onstitute n o m ore t han 7 .4 p ercent. T he i nclusive a rea o f v ines e xtended,

o n o ur e stimate ,

o ver 1 ,778

d unams . O ur c alculations o f t he s ize o f t he a verage p lot a re b ased o n t he 1 79 f ield t owers a ctually e xamined , a nd a s econd c alculation w as m ade o n t he b asis o f t he f igure o f 2 00 f ield t owers , t he s upposed i nclusive n umber o n t he Q arawat b ene H assan map . I t r esults t hat t he s ize o f t he v ineyards v aried f rom 8 .9 t o 1 0 .2 d unams .

T he O live P lantations. O n t he m ap o f t he c ultivated t ract o f Q arawat b ene H assan w e c lassified 16 p lots a s o live p lantations . T he t otal s upposed a rea o f o live t rees e xtended o ver 1 ,991 d unams , i .e . 2 4 .8 p ercent o f t he e ntire c ultivated l and o f B ene H assan . T he a verage a rea o f a n o live p lantation a t B ene H assan i s 1 7 .2 ' d unams , b ut d ivided a mong 1 75 - 2 00 h oldings ; t he s ize o f t he s upposed p lantation v aries f rom 1 0 t o 1.5 d unams p er h olding . T he d ensity o f t he o live t rees , a ccording t o o ur c alculation , w as 1 5 t o 2 0 p er d unam , h ence t he s upposed h olding p ossessed 1 50 t o 2 00 t rees ( on t he a ssumption t hat t here w ere 2 00 h oldings) , o r 1 72 t o 2 30 o live t rees ( if t here w ere 1 75 h oldings) . W e e stimated t hat a n a rea o f 1 . 5 t o 2 d unams w as u tilised f or s upplying o live o il t o t he c ultivator's f amily , w hile t he r est c ould b e m arketed. T he A rable. 3 10

p lots

o f

l and were c lassified a s

s uitable

f or a rable .

T heir

i nclusive a rea w as 4 ,115 d unams , w hich i s 5 1 .9 p ercent o f t he t otal t ract o f l and b elonging t o Q arawat b ene H assan .

T he a verage s ize o f t he a rable p lot

i n t he v illage 's t ract w as 1 3 .4 d unams , a nd o n t he b asis o f 2 00 h oldings , 2 0 .8 d unams , b ut o n t he b asis o f 1 75 h oldings , 219 d unams . W e e stimated t hat c orn w as g rown b y i ntercultivation a mong t he v ines a nd t he o live t rees , a nd i n t he c ase o f Q arawat b ene H assan , t he e ntire q uantity r equired f or s elf-supply c ould b e g rown , l eaving s ome g rain f or m arket . D uring t he y ears s pent o n t he s urvey w e l earned t hat t he p resent i nhabitants o f t he v illage g row t he n ecessary c ereals f or h ome c onsumption , y ields a s s atisfactory .

a nd r egard t heir

G oats, S heep a nd C attle. I n a ddition t o t he t hree b ranches o f v ine g rowing ,

o live o il a nd a rable ,

w e f ound e vidence f or t he e xistence o f h erds o n t he c ultivated l ands o f B ene H assan . T he p ublic p asture l ands , w hich e xtend o ver 1 ,500 - 2 ,000 d unams , a re t o b e f ound i n t he m ountainous a nd r ocky a reas t o n orth o f Q arawat B ene H assan .

H ere w e r ecorded s everal l ivestock e nclosures , a lso l arge c amping

s ites f or t hose f locks a nd h erds w hich s ojourned f or p rolonged p eriods a t p asture .

E ach f amily c ould h ave k ept a f lock o f 1 0 t o 1 5 h ead , a ccording t o

t he s upposed s ize o f t he h olding h eld b y B ene H assan 's c ultivators, a nd a pparently o ne o r t wo h ead o f c attle w ere a lso p art o f t he a ncient h olding . T he i mportance o f f locks a nd h erds i n a ncient a griculture n eed n ot b e l aboured , a nd t hese b ranches w ere s till m ore i mportant f or t he i ntensive c ultivation p ractised i n w estern S amaria .

2 46

O rganic m anure w as m uch n eeded ,

a nd t he s igns o f i ts w ide u se o n t he f ields o f B ene H assan a re r eflected i n t he s catter o f p ottery e ven i n p lots f ar r emoved f r om t he v illage . 22) A nother s upplementary b ranch w hose i mportance a s a s ource o f l ivelihood i n t he a rea o f B ene H assan was e vident, l ay i n t he a ncient s tone-quarries . D ozens o f a ncient q uarries , s ome o f t hem o f n o m ean s ize , a re t o b e f ound i n t he v illage a nd i n i ts c ultivated a rea . I t m ay b e a ssumed t hat t he s tone w as u sed f irst a nd f oremost f or b uilding t he s ettlement , b ut i t w ould s eem t hat p art o f t he p roduction c ould h ave b een m arketed i n t he c oastal p lain . T he b uilding s tone o f t he Q arawat b ene H assan d istrict i s c onsidered t o b e h andsome a nd o f a h igh q uality , a nd n ew q uarries , o pened i n r ecent y ears , p roduce f ine-cut s tone f or m arkets i n I srael a nd J ordan .

1 0.

S umming U p. T he a ncient v illage o f Q arawat b ene H assan p ossessed ,

i n o ur e stimate ,

1 75 t o 2 00 f amily h oldings , w hose s ize w as f rom 3 9 .7 t o 4 5 .6 d unams . T he a rable t ook u p 5 2 t o 5 2 .4 p ercent o f t he t otal h olding , o live p lantations 2 5 t o 2 5 .2 p ercent , w hile v ines o ccupied 2 22 p ercent o f t he c ultivated a rea . B eside t hese c hief b ranches, t he h oldings i ncluded a lso o vicaprids a nd c attle . T he a ssumed s ize o f t he Q arawat b ene H assan h oldings i s d ouble t hat o f H irbet B uraq , w hich s hows t hat t he t racts o f l and w ere n ot u niform i n e very v illage . T he h oldings w ere w orked b y t he f armers ' f amilies , a nd t heir s mall e xtent i ndicates t hat i nitially t hey h ad b een i ndependent f armers . T his d oes n ot c ontradict t he a ssumption t hat r oyal e states e xisted i n t he B ene H assan a rea - c ultivated b y t enants d escended f rom t he f ree ' peasantry ' . T he l atter c ontinued t o c ultivate t heir a ncestral p lots , b ut t he f ruits o f t heir l abour b elonged t o l andowners w ho e njoyed r oyal f avour . I n o ur o pinion J ews l ived a t Q arawat b ene H assan d own t o t he f irst o r s econd

r evolt ,

a fter

w hich

S amaritans

a nd

g entiles

b ecame

t he

m ajority ,

w hile t he J ewish s ettlement d windled . T he a rchaeological e vidence f or t he p resence o f S amaritans a nd g entiles i n t he l ocality d oes n ot p recede t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd c enturies , b ut g reater a ccuracy i s a t p resent d ifficult . A s mall s ettlement p ersisted a t Q arawat b ene H assan a fter t he M oslem c onquest , b ut i ts t races a re t o b e f ound mainly i n t he c entre o f t he v illage, while e vidence i n t he f ields i s e xtremely s lender . T he d ecline a nd p eriodical a bandonment o f t he s ettlement o ccurred , a pparently , i n t he m iddle a ges a nd i n m odern t imes . Q arawat b ene H assan h as n ot y et r ecovered t he s ize o f w ealth -which i t e njoyed i n a ncient t imes . A fter w e h ad c oncluded o ur s tudy o f t he a gricultural t ract o f

Q arawat

b ene H assan , w e r eceived n ew d ata o n t he r egion , t he r esult o f r esearch a nd c lassification b y m embers o f t he I srael M inistry o f A griculture a nd i ts l ocal o ffices . 23) I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat a c onsiderable p art o f o ur d ata c orresponds t o t he r eality o f t he e nvironment , s howing t hat t he m ethods d eveloped i n o ur s tudy o f t he a ncient c ultivated v illage t racts a re r eliable a nd r easonable. H ere a re t he p resentday d ata : T he t otal l and t ract a t Q arawat b ene H assan i s 9 ,750 d unams. T he o live p lantations c over a pproximately 1 ,917 d unams. T he a reas o f p ublic p asture a mount t o 1 ,788 d unams. I rrigated p lots c over 1 90 d unams.

2 47

T he n umber o f f am ilies e ngaged i n a griculture i s 1 45.

G eneral C onclusions. " The l and o f S amaria l ies b etween G alilee a nd J udaea .

I t b egins a t a

v illage c alled G inaea i n t he G reat P lain a nd e nds n ear t he t oparchy o f Wirabim , n or d oes i t d iffer i n c haracter f rom J udaea , a s b oth c ountries p ossess n umerous h ills a nd p lains a nd f avour c ultivation , y ielding a bundant c rops , a lso h aving n umerous t rees t hat b ear f ruit b oth w ild a nd c ultivated . T heir s oil i ndeed i s t hirsty , n ot b eing r ich i n s prings, b ut i t e njoys a bundant r ain . T he r unning s treams h ere a re w onderfully s weet a nd t he w ide a nd e xcellent p asture p roduces a n a bundance o f a nimal m ilk u nparalleled i n o ther c ountries . T he l arge p opulation i s r eliable p roof o f t he f ine q ualities a nd f ertility o f b oth c ountries." J osephus, B .J., I II, 3 , 4 ( 48-50).

T he s ettlement p attern o f w estern S amaria f rom t he H ellenistic t o t he B yzantine p eriod h as b een s tudied w ith t he a id o f a rchaeological f ield r esearch , a nd c ompleted b y p resenting t he p arallel h istorical s etting . C entral b ranches o f t he r egion 's a gricultural e conomy h ave b een s elected a nd b y t heir s ystematic s tudy , a n a ttempt h as b een m ade t o u nderstand t he r ural s ocial s tructure f rom p eriod t o p eriod , a nd i ts c hanges i n t he l ight o f t he t echnological d evelopment o f i ts a gricultural i nstallations . W e a lso h ope t hat w e h ave s ucceeded i n o ur c entral o bject , n amely t he r econstruction o f t he r ural l andscape o f w estern S amaria , w hose c ore c onsisted o f av ariety o f r ural s ettlements r anging f rom t he i solated f armstead t o t he m edium a nd l arge t ownlet . W e h ave f urther a ttempted t o u nderstand a nd t o r econstruct t he s tructure o f t he a ncient p easant h olding, which was t he s ocial a nd e conomic b asis o f S amaria 's a grarian s ociety . A r gsumg o f t he p rincipal c hapters o f t he p resent s tudy f ollows.

T he F ield T owers. W e h ave e xamined m ethodically o ver 1 ,200 f ield t owers ,

a nd c arried o ut

a rchaeological e xcavations i n 4 5 . W e h ave e ndeavoured t o u nderstand t heir t ypology a nd c hronology , a nd c lassified t hem i nto s ix p rincipal g roups . I t b ecame c lear t o u s t hat t hey ,were a ssociated w ith a p lantation c ulture , m ainly w ith v ine g rowing a nd w ine p roduction , w hose i nitial o rigin a ppears t o h ave b een i n F irst T emple t imes, b ut which r eached i ts a cme i n t he H ellenistic a nd H asmonean p eriods . W e h ave v oiced t he c onjecture t hat t he t owers , t ogether w ith t he a gricultural c omplexes s urrounding t hem , w ere a ssociated w ith t he ' Kings M ountain C ountry ' ( Har h a-Melekh ) o f t he H ellenistic a nd H asmonean p eriods , a nd t hat a t o ne s tage t hey r epresented t he H asmonean c olonisation o f w estern S amaria . T he t owers w ere i n u se d own t o t he f irst o r s econd r evolt , b ut a s a r esult o f t he R oman c onquest a nd t he e viction o f t he J ewish c ultivators f rom t heir l ands , p erhaps a s e arly a s P ompey 's t ime ,

t here o ccurred a c essation o f t he t owers ' o riginal a ctivities

a nd t hey b ecame f ield-structures u sed f or a n umber o f p urposes , s ome s erving a s s torehouses e ven t oday .

2 48

F arm B uildings a nd R ural D wellings. O ne o f

t he c entral

t hemes

o f

o ur s tudy h as b een t he s tructure o f t he

r ural h omestead , f rom t he i solated f arm t o t he n ucleated r ural s ettlement c ontaining n umerous p easant d wellings . W e h ave a ttempted t o s tudy a nd u nderstand t he f armhouses a nd f our—room dwellings o f t he F irst T emple p eriod , b ecause t hey w ere t he e arliest i n w estern S amaria , a nd f rom t hem d eveloped t he l ater r ural v ista . W e t hink t hat t he h omesteads o f E arly I ron A ge I I a nd t he f our—roomed h ouses r epresent t he e arliest f orm o f s ettlement o f t he I sraelite p opulation i n w estern S amaria . T his p opulation s ettled i n k inship g roups , w hich r emained t o s ome e xtent t heir f ramework e ven i n t he S econd T emple p eriod . F armhouses o f m edium c ultivators, c omfortable p easants a nd e state o wners , w hose f arms w ere s urprisingly w ell p reserved , a ll o f t he S econd T emple P eriod , w ere s urveyed .

W e h ave f urther e xpressed

t he p robability t hat t he l arge f ortified t owers b elonged t o m ilitary s ettlers i n t he H ellenistic a nd R oman p eriods. V arious t ypes o f f armhouse o f t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods w ere s tudied , s tarting w ith t he f armstead w hich g rew , e xtended a nd b urst i ts o ld a rchitectural f rame , s o b ecoming i n e very s ense a s mall s ettlement , ( e .g . H irbet T afsah )— a nd e nding w ith f arms w hich r esembled R oman v illas . I t i s p robable t hat w e h ave f ound e vidence i n t he r egion t hat s ome o f t he f arms o f t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods w ere s upported b y t he c entral g overnment , a nd t heir s iting i ndicates a p lanned s ystem o f g uard a nd o bservation o ver p asses a nd s trategic a reas i n t he r egion . W e h ave e ndeavoured t o a scertain t he s tructure o f t he a gricultural f arm b ranches f rom p eriod t o p eriod a nd t o d efine t he s ize o f t heir c ultivated a reas . W e h ave s uggested t hat p olitical e conomic a nd s ocial c onditions d id n ot f avour t he d evelopment o f t he R oman v illa c ulture i n t his c ountry , n or i s i t j ust c hance t hat s o f ew b uildings

o f

t he v illa r ustica

t ype

h ave

b een

i nvestigated h ere .

A

p articular p art o f o ur s tudy h as b een d evoted t o s tudying t he v illages a nd t ownlets s cattered o ver m ost o f w estern S amaria . W e h ave r ecorded t he r esults o f s urvey a nd e xcavation , b eginning w ith v illages o f t he F irst T emple p eriod , w hen t he r ural s ociety o f t he I sraelites t ook o rganised f orm i n t his r egion ( its c hief a gricultural b ranches b eing r er .ognisable d own t o t he e nd o f t he B yzantine p eriod), a nd c ontinuing o ur s tudy o f t he r ural s ettlements o f t he S econd T emple p eriod, m ost o f which r ested o n F irst T emple f oundations . W e h ave s tudied t he s tructure o f t he s mall t ownlets e xemplified b y K arqush , w hich p ossessed s ome t wenty c ourtyard h ouses , r epresenting , w e t hink ,

t he h oldings o f i ndependent m edium c ultivators o f t he S econd T emple

p eriod , w ho w ere e xpelled f rom t heir p roperty f ollowing R oman s uppression , s o t hat t heir s mall s ettlement n ever r ecovered . A nother s mall v illage , o f t he t ype o f H irbet H amad , g rew u p r ound a n e nclosure c ontaining s torehouses a nd g ranaries w hich w ere a ctive i n t he I sraelite a nd H ellenistic p eriods , b ut d windled i nto a s imple f arm u nder B yzantine r ule . T his l ast i s a n i nteresting e xample o f t he d ecline o f s ettlement s uffered b y t he r egion o f w estern S amaria i n t he l ate B yzantine e poch , g enerally r egarded a s a p eak p eriod o f p rosperity i n o ther r egions o f t he c ountry . R ural t ownships , w hose p opulations h ave b een e stimated a t 1 ,500 t o 2 ,000 s ouls, a nd a re e xemplified b y H irbet N ajar a nd H irbet B uraq, h ave b een t he o bjects o f a rchitectural a nalysis , a nd t heir p lans , h ouses , s treets , p ublic b uildings a nd m ilitary f ortifications h ave b een s tudied . T he e xcellent s tate o f p reservation o f H irbet B uraq a nd i ts l ands e nabled t he p reparation o f a d etailed p lan o f t he v illage w ith i ts a gricultural i nstallations a nd i ts f ields.

I ts l ands w ere c lassified a ccording

2 49

t o

t he c hief

c rops a nd

s upposed n umber o f h oldings , a nd w e h ave b uilt u p at heoretical s tructure o f t he v illage a nd i ts f ields i n t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods .

N ot l ong

b efore t he w riting o f t his p resent s ummary , w e w ere a ble t o c arry o ut a r escue e xcavation o n t he s ite , a nd i t b ecame c lear t hat t he s tructure o f i ts a gricultural

e conomy a dumbrated

b y

o ur

s urvey w as

c onfirmed

b y o ur

e xcavation a nd e vidence w as f ound o f a c onsiderable n umber o f e conomic a nd a gricultural b ranches o perated b y t he a ncient p easants o f H irbet B uraq . W e f urther s ucceeded i n d ating t he d estruction o f t he v illage , w hich o ccurred d uring t he S amaritan r isings a gainst t he B yzantines a t t he e nd o f t he 5 th a nd t he b eginning o f t he 6 th c entury .

T he R ural R oad S ystem . T he

i ntensive a nd d eveloped a gricultural

e conomy r evealed b y t he

i nvestigation o f w estern S amaria , n eeded a r amified a nd o rderly t ransport s ystem . I n f act a n etwork o f a ncient r ural r oads c overs t he e ntire r egion . T hese w ere s tudied a nd e xcavated a t s ome p oints , a nd t oday w e a re f amiliar w ith t heir e ngineering s tructure , t heir p eriod a nd t he e conomic a nd s ocial i deas o f t hose w ho p lanned a nd e xecuted t hem . I t b ecame c lear t hat t he n etwork p receded t he R oman p eriod a nd w as i n u se i n t he i ndependence p eriod o f t he S econd T emple w hen t he m unicipal a nd r ural s ettlements p resided o ver i ts m aintenance .

P ossibly t he r ural r oads o riginated a s e arly a s t he F irst

T emple p eriod , a s d educible f rom t he s tudy o f t hat e poch . T he r ural r oad s ystem s eems t o h ave b een i ntegrated i nto t he R oman r oad-complex , a nd e vidence o f i ts a ctive u se w as f ound d uring o ur f ield s urveys . T he v illage n etwork t estifies t o t he d eveloped n ature o f t he a gricultural e conomy , s ince i t m ade p ossible s pecialisation i n s uccessful l ocal c rops s uch a s w ine a nd o live o il, a nd a ssisted t he marketing o f p roduce a t n ear a nd d istant m arkets . I t w as o f c onsiderable i mportance f or t he r earing o f s heep a nd c attle , a nd n aturally s erved t he r ulers i n t he c ollecting o f r evenue a nd i ts t ransfer t o t he c entres o f g overnment .

E nclosures a nd F orts. T he

mountains

o f

S amaria

w ere

p art

o f

a t hen

d ensely

p opulated

h eartland, a nd i t may r easonably b e a ssumed t hat e very g overnment h ere • e rected a s ystem o f m ilitary e nclosures a nd f ortifications . A c omplex o f E arly I ron A ge f ortifications , i ncluding h illtop e nclosures a nd f orts p laced a t s trategic k ey p oints , w as s urveyed . T el Q a 'adah , S hufah , t he B eth L id e nclosures , K ur a nd Q arnei S homron , i ndicate a r egional m ilitary c onception w hose m ain p rinciple w as c ommand a nd o bservation o ver t he i mportant a scents f rom t he c oastal p lain t o t he h eart o f t he m ountainous r egion . T he w est S amarian c omplex s eems t o h ave b een p art o f ac hain o f f orts w hich p rotected t he k ingdom o f I srael o n t he e ast a nd w est , b ut t his s ubject h as s till t o b e s tudied f rom a b roader a ngle . I n t he S econd T emple t imes ,

a nd p rincipally i n t he H ellenistic p eriod ,

s ome o f t he a ncient e nclosures w ere e vacuated, n umerous a t k ey p oints .

a nd f orts b ecame m ore

T he f orts o f K efr S ur , H an s a nd L aqif w ere b uilt

a t c rossroads a nd p oints c ommanding t he c ountry a round t hem . T he a cropolis o f H irbet F irdus a t Q arawat b ene H assan , w hich s erved t o a ll a ppearance a s a c entral s upply b ase a nd a f iscal c entre f or t he e ntire r egion , c an b e a scribed t o t he s ame p eriod . T he s torehouses a nd f ortifications o f t hat s ite p lace i t a mong t he i mpressive H ellenistic e nclosures o f E retz Y israel a nd i ts n eighbours .

I n t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods f arreaching c hanges

2 50

t ook p lace

i n t he m ilitary c onception o f

t he r egion 's d efence .

E vidence

w as f ound f or r ural s ettlement i nfluenced b y t he R oman a rmy ; H irbet T anurah i s a n e xample o f s uch i nfluence . W e o bserved l ocal d efence a rrangments i n v illages a nd t ownlets , s uch a s f ortified t owers w hich , a ttached t o h ouses , c onverted t he f ronts o f t he s ettlements t o d efensive w alls . G ood e xamples a re t he f ortifications o f H irbet N ajar a nd U m-Rihan , w hose t owers a re s till v isible a nd p rominent .

T he A gricultural B ranches i n W estern S amaria. T he

p opulation

o f

w estern

S amaria

c onsisted

m ainly

o f

v illagers

a nd

f armers , a nd t he s earch a fter t he p rincipal a gricultural b ranches w as o ne o f t he a ims o f o ur e nquiry . A s t he m ethod w as b ased c hiefly o n a rchaeological r esearch , w e w ere a ble t o d ocument o nly t hose b ranches w hose t races r emained i n s tone a nd whose i nstallations c ould b e r ecorded, e xcavated a nd q uantitatively n umbered . T here m ay h ave b een o ther a gricultural b ranches w hich h ave l eft n o a rchaeological t races , s uch a s b eekeeping a nd p oultry f arming , b ut t heir i mportance w ould a ppear t o h ave b een s econdary , a nd t heir a bsence f rom o ur s urvey h ardly i mpairs t he b asic g eneral p icture . V iticulture a nd w ine p roduction h eld a c entral a nd h onoured p lace i n t he e conomy o f w estern S amaria . W e r ecorded a nd s tudied o ver 3 00 r ockcut w inep resses, a nd t he s ame n umber a pparently a waits i nvestigation a nd d escription . T he p resses w ere c lassified u nder f ive t ypological g roups w ith t he a im o f s uggesting a c hronological o rder o f d evelopment o f t he i nstallations f or t he p roduction o f m ust a nd w ine . T he b asic s tructure o f t he p resses r emained u nchanged f or t housands o f y ears, a nd o nly t he t echnology o f w ine p roduction u nderwent a lterations f rom p eriod t o p eriod . W e h ave e ndeavoured t o s tudy t he m ethods o f w ine m anufacture f rom F irst T emple t imes d own t o t he B yzantine p eriod , a nd t o p ropose s tages i n t he d evelopment o f t he i nstallations o f p roduction . W e r ealised t hat w ine m aking b egins o nly a fter t reading i n t he p ress, a nd t hat e xpertise a nd c ontrivances s uch a s c isterns , s torerooms , t owers a nd c ellars a re n ecessary t o c omplete i t . W e b elieve w e h ave s ucceeded i n p roving t he c onnection b etween v iticulture , w ine p roduction a nd t he d istribution o f t he f ield t owers, whose s hare a rchaeological f inds .

i n w ine p roduction was p roved w ith t he a id o f W e a lso l earned t he p ossible c onnection b etween t he

t ype o f p ress , a nd t he s ocial a nd e conomic r ggime p revailing w hile i t w as w orking . A s mall p ress i n t he v ineyard o f a n a ncient p easant i s n ot l ike t he l arge i mproved p resses f ound o n t he f ringe o f a s ettlement . T he p ress i n t he . vineyard p oints t o t he e xistence o f a n i ndependent f armer m aking h is o wn w ine , w hereas t he l arge p resses m ight m ean t he e xistence o f e stateo wners w ho r eceived t he y ields o f t heir t enants a nd p roduced h uge q uantities o f w ine f or s ale . B ut i t m ight a lso b e s upposed t hat t he l arge p resses i ndicate t he p resence o f l ocal m en o f i nitiative a nd p roperty , n ot n ecessarily e state-owners , w ho o perated c entral a gricultural a s s ervices f or t he b enefit o f t he e ntire p easant c ommunity .

i nstallations

O live g rowing a nd t he e xtraction o f o il h eld a n i mportant p lace i n o ur f ield r esearch , a nd t heir p lace i n t he a ncient e conomy o f w estern S amaria i s b eyond d ispute . W e s tudied t he p rocesses o f o il e xtraction , f rom t he i solated c upmark t o t he p ublic p ress l ike t hat a t H irbet N ajar which o ccupies a n a rea o f a pproximately 4 00 s q . m . T he d ozens o f o il p ress i nstallations s urveyed a nd e xcavated b y u s, w ere c lassified i nto s even g roups , a nd w e h ave e ndeavoured t o r ediscover t heir o peration a nd d ate , f rom t he F irst T emple p eriod d own t o t he B yzantine p eriod . I t b ecame c lear t hat s mall p rivate p resses a nd p ress p lants w ere a t w ork i n t he r egion a s e arly

2 51

a s F irst T emple t imes ,

a lso p ublic p lants s erving a ll t he v illagers .

T he

e xcavation o f a c omplete o il p ress a t H irbet J eme 'in e nabled u s t o r econstruct a ll t he s tages o f t he o peration o f a p ublic p ress o f E arly I ron A ge I I . T he o pen-air p resses , m any o f w hich w ere s urveyed a nd d ug b y u s f rom Um-Rihan i n t he n orth t o H irbet B uraq i n t he s outh , c onstitute a s pecial t ype . T heir t echnology h as n ot t heir p lace i n s ociety e vokes i nterest .

b een

s tudied

s ufficiently ,

a nd

W e t hink t hat t he o pen-air o il p resses a nd t he p rototype w hich p receded t hem w ere a t ransitional s tage f rom t he E arly I ron A ge p ress , w hich w orked o n t he p rinciple o f c rushing t he o lives i n c onical r ockcut d epressions , a nd t he p resses o f t he v ertical y am a nd c rusher t ype , w hose p lants s till o perate t oday . W e h ave d evoted a s pecial c hapter t o r ediscovering t he o utput o f t he a ncient p ress, a n i mportant a nd d ecisive s ubject r elating t o t he e conomic s tructure o f t he a ncient v illage . I t b ecame o bvious t hat a w ide v ariety o f i nstallations u sed t o p ress o live o il e xisted , b eginning w ith t he c upmark i n t he f ield w hich s upplied t he p easant a nd h is f amily w ith t heir f irst o il w hen t hey w ere w orking i n t he f ield , a nd e nding w ith t he p resses b uilt w ithin t he s ettlements a nd o perated f rom t ime t o t ime b y o wners o f c apital o r a ssociations o f p easant o live-growers . W ine a nd o il s eem t o h ave b een t he c hief a gricultural p roducts o f w estern S amaria , a nd w hile a s mall p ortion o f t he p roduce w as u sed f or l ocal c onsumption , t he s urplus w as e armarked f or m arket , a nd w ith i t t he c ultivator p urchased t hose n ecessities w hich h e d id n ot m anufacture , a nd c ommodities w hich h ad t o b e i mported f rom a broad. W ith t he a id o f a rchaeology w e h ave e ndeavoured t o a scertain t he e xtent o f c ereal c ultivation , a nd b y c lassifying t he s oils h ave a ttempted t o r econstruct i ts p lace i n t he s tructure o f t he a gricultural h olding o f t he r egion . T he i mportance o f c orn i n a ncient d iet i s k nown a nd a ccepted b y s cholars, b ut t here a re d ifferences o f o pinion c oncerning t he s ize o f y ields , t he a reas d evoted t o c ereals a nd t he q uantities o f g rain c onsumed p er i ndividual i n a ncient t imes .

W e p roved f rom t he e vidence o f t he

n umerous s ilos t hat c orn w as w idely g rown i n w estern S amaria , a nd t hat t he r ocky c haracter o f t he r egion d id n ot p revent e very v illage f rom g rowing g rain f or i ts o wn c onsumption . O ur d eparture p oint w as t he v iew t hat i n a ncient t imes , t he m arketing o f c orn o ver d istances , a s w ell a s t he c ornt rade , w ere e xtremely d ifficult u ndertakings w hich c ould s ucceed o nly i n t he h ands o f w ell-organised b odies .

O wing t o t he e xpense a nd d ifficulties o f

l and t ransport , e ach r egion h ad t o g row i ts o wn c orn , w ithout r elying o n c ommerce o r i mport f rom a d istance . W e c alculated t hat i t w as p ossible t o g row c orn o n 5 0 - 7 0 p ercent o f t he t otal a rea a t t he d isposal o f t he a ncient f armer , a nd t his a pparently s ufficed t o f eed t he f amily , t o p ay t axes a nd e ven l eft a s urplus f or s ale . W e w ere a ble t o p rove t he e xistence o f o ther b ranches w ith t he h elp o f a rchaeological f inds ;

s uch w ere a nimal h usbandry a nd a uxiliary i rrigation

f or t he g rowing o f l uxury c rops .

S heep r earing a ppears t o h ave b een c ommon

i n e very v illage , a s i s e videnced b y t he n umerous f olds r ecorded i n t he f ields . P ublic p asture l ands m ay b e a ssumed t o h ave e xisted i n e very v illage , a nd t hese , t ogether w ith t he a reas o f t he p rivate h olding , e nabled t he r earing o f s mall a nd medium-sized f locks .

W ith t he h elp o f t he

e stimated p asture c apacity t oday a nd r elying o n t he i nvestigations o f I sraeli s pecialists , w e w ere a ble t o r econstruct t he s ize o f t he a ncient f locks a t t he d isposal o f t he v illager o f w estern S amaria . W ithout i mpairing t he g ood f arming o f t he h ypothetical a ncient h olding , e ach c ultivator c ould r ear a s mall f lock o r h erd a nd e njoy t he s upply o f w ool ,

2 52

m eat,

h ides,

c heese a nd o rganic manure s o i mportant t o t he i ntensive

a griculture o f t he r egion . g reat

d istances

f rom

C ontrary t o b elief ,

t heir v illages,

t he f locks d id n ot w ander

a nd t he p astureland l ay i n t he

t erritory c lose t o t he v illage a nd i n t he p lots where t he c rops w ere g athered . T he d iscovery o f a n i rrigated h ill-farming f ed b y w ater s tored i n r ockcut p lastered c isterns, was a s urprise t o s tudents o f a ncient a griculture . V illages s urveyed p ossessed c omplexes o f c isterns , c anals a nd l evelled p lots i rrigated b y r ainwater c ollected d uring t he w inter . T he p lots w ere s mall, a nd t he a ncient c ultivator s eems t o h ave a scribed i mportance t o a reas w hose s ize d id n ot e xceed a f ew m etres , y et c ould e njoy a uxiliary i rrigation . I mmense t echnical e ffort was i nvested i n t he q uarrying o f l arge c isterns , o f c anals w hich a ccumulated a nd s pread t he w ater , a nd i n t he l evelling o f s mall p lots , b ut t he i rrigation w as e vidently w orthwhile , a nd i rrigated h ill-farming c ould g row v egetables f or h ome u se a nd f or m arket , a nd e ven p erhaps o ther l uxury c rops w hich j ustified t he g reat l abour i nvolved i n m aintaining t hese c omplicated s ystems . I t i s d ifficult

t o a ssess t he p lace o f i rrigated h ill-farming i n t he e conomy o f

t he r egion , b ut t he d istribution o f t he i nstallations i mportance a scribed t o i t b y t he a ncient c ultivators . T he s tudy o f S amaria

makes

i t

t welve

t racts

p ossible

t o

b elonging s ketch

i ndicates

t o a ncient v illages t he

s tructure

o f

t he

i n w estern

t he

t ypical

a gricultural h olding p redominating i n t his mountainous r ockbound r egion . T he a gricultural e conomy o f w estern S amaria w as b ased o n v iticulture a nd w ine p roduction , t he g rowing o f o lives a nd t he e xtraction o f t heir o il , t he c ultivation o f c ereals a nd a nimal h usbandry . A uxiliary b ranches s uch a s l ime manufacture a nd s tone q uarrying w ere a lmost c ertainly among t he r egion 's s ources o f l ivelihood . A griculture w as i ntensive , a nd e xploited e very s lope a nd v alley t o b uild t erraces w hich w ere c onverted t o a rable a nd p lantations o f e very s ize a nd p ossible t ype . C anals a nd p its w ere c ut a mong t he r ocky a reas, a nd i n t hese, v arious v arieties o f f ruit t rees w ere p lanted . E very p atch o f s oil w as e xploited , a nd s harp g radients o r s teep s lopes d id n ot d eter t he c ultivators f rom making t hem p art o f t heir a gricultural e conomy . R ainwater a nd r unoff w ere c ollected a nd s tored ; a ttempts w ere m ade t o s pread s urpluses a mong t he t erraces w hich c onstituted t he m ain s eed-beds i n t he h ill f arming o f w estern S amaria . T he d unams .

f amily l and h olding w as

s mall ,

a pparently n ot

e xceeding

2 5 -4 5

I t w as a h olding d evoted t o m ixed a griculture , w orked b y t he f amily

w ithout t he h elp o f l abourers o r s laves . D espite i ts s mall s ize, i t f urnished a n h onourable l ivelihood t hanks t o i ntensive f arming a nd t he h igh d egree o f a gricultural s kill p ossessed b y t he f armers o f t he r egion . T he q uality o f t he a gricultural i nstallations s urviving i n s itu a nd t he r emains o f t he v illages a nd t heir h andsome r oomy b uildings i ndicate a p leasant a nd r easonable s tandard o f l iving . T he f arming r evealed b y t he s tudy o f w estern S amaria p roduced n ot m erely f or s ubsistence a nd d omestic n eeds , b ut a lso f or t he m arket . W ine a nd o il w ere t he c hief e xport p roducts o f t he r egion . W e b elieve t hat o ver 5 0 p ercent o f t he w ine a nd o il m anufactured r egionally w as f or s ale , a nd t he i ncome s o d erived e nabled a r espectable l iving a nd e ven s ome e xtravagant b uilding , w hich i ndeed c an b e s een i n s itu . T he d ensity o f t he p opulation d id n ot d estroy t he e conomic b asis , b ut , o n t he c ontrary , i ncreased p roduction a nd r endered p ossible a f urther g rowth o f t he v illages a nd t ownlets . T he v illage p opulation o f w estern S amaria w as e stablished a nd g rew i n t he p eriod o f t he F irst T emple . t he

r egion 's

I n t he H ellenistic a nd H asmonean p eriods

p opulation f lourished a nd

2 53

t he

r esults

o f

t his

p rosperity a re

s till o bservable i n t he a rea t oday .

T his p henomenon m ay b e c onnected w ith

t he d evelopment a nd e stablishment o f r oyal d omains o f t he t ype l ater k nown i n o ur s ources a s ' the K ing 's Mountain C ountry ' ( Har h a-melekh). T he r egion c ontinued p rosperous - m ost o f i ts i nhabitants b eing , a pparently , J ews a nd S amaritans , - t ill t he t ime o f P ompey a nd t he f irst a nd s econd r ebellions a gainst R ome . A fter t hese r evolts a nd t he d estruction t hat f ollowed ,

S amaritans a nd a liens

t ook t he p lace o f

t he J ews ,

w ho b ecame a

m inority i n t he r egion , a nd f inally d isappeared c ompletely f rom m ost o f i ts d istricts . E vidently i n t he 3 rd c entury C .E . S amaritan s ettlement e xpanded i n a ll d irections a nd w estern S amaria b ecame t heir s tronghold .

T he r ural

s tructure o f t he S amaritan s ettlements d id n ot d iffer f rom t hat o f t he J ewish r ural p opulation - i ts f ocus w as t he s mall f amily h olding , c ultivated v igorously a nd w ith p raiseworthy i ndustry .

T he method o f h ereditary

t enancy ( arisei b atei a vot) s eems t o h ave b een c ustomary i n t he r egion , a nd t he p easants p aid r ents t o t he l andowners w ithout s ubstantially a ltering t he f arm s tructure o r t he a gricultural b ranches . T he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods r eveal e vidence o f r oyal h olding p oints i n t he c entre o f t he r egion , i n t he f orm o f f ortified f arms , a nd l ater , o f s trongly d efended m onastery f arms . T he c entral g overnment w as t horoughly a ware o f t he o pposition o f t he r egional p easantry , a nd a lthough s ome o f t he S amaritans a dopted C hristianity v oluntarily o r b ecause t hey w ere f orced t o d o s o , t hey d id n ot h esitate t o r aise

t he

a uthorities ,

b anner

o f

r evolt

a nd

t o

t ake

a rms

a gainst

t he

B yzantine

w ho h ad b egun o penly t o p ersecute t hem .

A rchaeological e vidence s howed

t hat many r ural

d estroyed o r a bandoned i n t he 5 th a nd 6 th c enturies ,

s ettlements

e vidently a s a r esult

o f t he S amaritan r evolts, w hich w ere p ut d own i n b lood a nd f ire . t he r ural s ettlements

w ere n ever r esettled ,

7 th c entury f ound t hem i n r uins .

2 54

w ere

S ome o f

a nd t he A rab c onquerors o f t he

S himon A pplebaum T he S ettlement P attern o f W estern S amaria f rom H ellenistic t o B yzantine T imes: A H istorical C ommentary .

T he p eriod s urveyed b y D r . D ar i s a l ong o ne , a nd t he g eographical a rea c oncerned i s c onsiderable . H is a nalysis r aises s ome p roblems a nd e vokes n ot a f ew q uestions . T he a im o f t he p resent c ommentary i s n ot p rimarily t o c riticise, b ut r ather t o f urnish a h istorical b ackground t o h is a rchaeological

c onclusions;

i nevitably ,

h owever,

t he

a pplication

o f

h istorical d etail t o h is d iscoveries m ay p rovoke f urther p roblems. W hile D ar 's s urvey o pens w ith a n e xamination o f E arly I ron A ge I I f arms a nd d wellings i n t he s outh-western c orner o f t he r egion w hich i nterests h im , t his i s c hiefly t o f ind a b asis f or t he r ural s ociety o f l ater p eriods . T his w ork p roves f ruitful , d emonstrating a c ontinuity b etween t he p hysical a nd s ocial s tructure o f r ural l ife i n S amaria i n t he E arly I ron A ge a nd t he H ellenistic p eriod t hat w as t o f ollow . T he m ost i mportant d eduction t hat e merges f rom t he I ron A ge s urvey u ndoubtedly h as b een - t hat i n t he p eriod i mmediately p receding t he c onquests o f A lexander t he G reat, t he s ocial s tructure o f t he r ural p opulation o f S amaria w as t hat o f t he e xtended f amily ( Hebrew b eth a v , t he c lan) , e ach o f w hich o ccupied a s ingle f armstead w hose l and w as p robably c ultivated c ommunally . T he s ame p henomenon w as r evealed i n D ar 's e xcavation o f t he E arly I ron v illage o f H irbet J em 'ein , a nd i t w ould b e n atural t o s uppose t hat s uch a v illage, which was d efended b y w alls , a nd c ontained f ifteen d wellings , m ost o f t hem o f t he ' four-room ' t ype t o b e a ssociated w ith t he e xtended f amily u nit ( so D ar ) r epresented a l ater s tage ( 8th - 7 th c enturies B .C .E . ) i n t he d evelopment o f t he r ural p attern . D ar e stimates i ts p opulation t o h ave b een b etween 5 00 a nd 6 00 s ouls.

n ot

T he t ime o f P ersian r ule i n E retz Y israel w as a d isturbed p eriod , a nd l ess A lexander 's i nvasion o f t he c ountry ( 332 B .C .E .), when t he

r esistance o f T yre a ppears t o h ave a ffected G alilee a nd S amaria , a s i ndicated b y c oin-hoards a t W adi D alyeh , M agiddo , T el e l-Fukhar a nd T el A bbu e l-Hawwam , p ossibly b y o ther i nterruptions a s f ar s outh a s T el e l-Hesi a nd T el J emmeh . 1) W ith t his d isturbance w e s hould c onnect t he S amaritan r ising a gainst A lexander 's g overnor A ndromachus, who was p ut t o d eath b y t he i nsurgents. 2 ) T he p ractical r esult o f A lexander 's r eaction m ay w ell h ave e xercised a c onsiderable a ffect o n c entral S amaria . t heir c ity o f

S homron ( afterwards

T he S amaritans w ere e xpelled f rom

t he R oman S ebaste ) ,

a nd

s ettled a t T S

B alata , n ear t he l ater N eapolis . S homron b ecame a M acedonian c olony ) w hich p resumably t ook o ver t he c ity 's l ands . A c onsiderable p art o f S amaria m ay h ave b ecome r oyal d omain (

p cor iX t i