Iran: Iron Age I 9780860541561, 9781407326900

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Iran: Iron Age I I.N.Medvedskaya Translated from the Russian by

S. Pavlovich

BAR International Series I 2 6 1982

B.A.R.

B.A.R., 122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, B.Sc., �LA., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R.-S126,

1982:

«J I.N.Medvedskay

'Iran: Iron Age I'

a, 1982

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860541561 paperback ISBN 9781407326900 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541561 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The pub l ishers t hank t he G rea t Br i ta in-U .S . S. R . Assoc ia t ion f or ag rant e nab l ing t hem t o c omm iss ion t he t rans la t ion o f t h is work.

I n Memory o f Roman Gh irshman

CONTENTS

P age I n troduction Chap ter I Bas ic P rob lems i n t he S tudy o f t he E ar ly I ron Age i n I ran

1

1 . I nforma tion f rom wr i tten s ources

1

2 . Two s tages i n t he h istory o f t he a ccumu la tion a nd s tudy o f I ron Age ma ter ia l

3

3 . Modern s chemes o f c hrono log ica l d iv is ions o f t he Ear ly I ron Age

1 2

Chapter I P o ttery 1 . C lass if ica t ion o f I ron Age I p o ttery

1 6

2 . The l oca l n a ture o f c eramic c omp lexes

2 8

3 . The n a ture o f t he l inks b e tween c eram ic a ssemb lages

3 5

4 . The p rob lem o f c ont inu i ty o f t he c eramic t rad i t ion i n t he I ron Age I p er iod a nd t he L a te Bronze Age

3 8

Chap ter I I Bur ia l R i tes

5 2

1 . Descr ipt ion o f t he bur ia l r i tes i n t he I ron Age I p er iod

5 2

2 . The c on tinu i ty o f bur ia l r i tes a nd t he p rob lem o f e xtramura l c eme ter ies

6 4

Chapter I V Meta l I nven tory Daggers Axes Arrowheads C onc lus ion

6 8 6 8 8 1 8 3 9 6

Append ix I

1 01

Appendix I

1 13

L ist o f Abbrev ia tions

1 18

B ib l iography

1 19

T ab les I t o I V

1 32

F igures

1 40

I NTRODUCTION Cons iderab le a ttent ion h as b een d evoted t o t he s tudy o f E ar ly I ron Age s i tes i n t he a rchaeo logy o f I ran i n p ost war y ears. App l ied e xcavat i ons o f c emeter ies a nd s ett lements o f t h is p er iod h ave b een c arr ied o ut t o s tudy t he o r ig ins o f t he c u l ture o f t he I ran ian ( i .e. I ran ian-speak ing) t r ibes. A most i mpor tant p art o f t h is p rob lem i s t he r evea l ing o f t he I ran ian ma ter ia l c u lture a nd d eterm ina t ion o f t he t ime o f i t s a ppearance o n t he I ran ian p la teau. Current Western a rchaeo log ica l l i tera ture t akes t he v iew t ha t t he a brupt c hanges i n t he ma ter ia l c u l ture o f t he I ran ian p la teau i n t he l ast quar ter o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. were b rought a bout by t he a ppearance h ere o f I ran ian t r ibes: t he p o ttery t rad i t ion was d isturbed--pa inted ware was r ep laced by g rey-b lack burn ished ware; b ur ia l r i tes c hanged--the c ustom o f bury ing t he d ead under h ouse f l oors d isappeared, a nd e xtramura l c eme ter ies a ppeared; t he " an ima l" s ty le i n a rt s pread. The c onc lus ions o f l i ngu ists a re o f p r imary i mportance a s r egards t he t ime a nd p a ths o f t he I ran ians ' emergence o n t he p la teau, but l i ngu ists d o n ot h ave r e l iab le d a ta wh ich c ou ld p inpo int t he I ran ians ' emergence i n t he a rea o f i n terest t o u s e ar l ier t han t he 9 th c entury B .C. Researchers o f a rt s i tes a na lys ing a ccumu la ted ma ter ia l i n r everse i .e. f rom l a te, d ef in ite ly I ran ian s i tes t o e ar l ier o nes--have l i kew ise n o t y et b een a b le t o d iscover e v idence o f t he I ran ians ' a ppearance o n t he p la teau b efore t he 9 th-8 th c entur ies B .C. Consequent ly, a rchaeo log ists d iffer s ubstant ia l ly i n t he ir c onc lus ions f rom l i ngu ists a nd a rt h istor ians o n t he q uest ion o f t he t ime o f t he I ran ians ' emergence o n t he p la teau. I t i s o bv ious t heref ore t ha t t he g enera l p icture o f t he e ar ly h istory o f I ran a nd t he t ime t o wh ich t he k ey e vent o f t he p er iod, t he a rr iva l o f t he I ran ians o n t he p la teau, i s r e la ted, t he l ast quar ter o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. o r t he 9 th-8th c entur ies B .C. ,d epends d irect ly o n as ource a na lys is o f t he a rchaeo log ica l d a ta a nd t he ir i nterpreta t ion. Desp ite t he f act t ha t t he ma ter ia l c u l ture o f t he l ast quarter o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. i n I ran s eems t o g ive a rchaeo log ists a b as is f or mak ing s uch c ruc ia l h istor ica l c onc lus ions, a c omprehens ive a na lys is o f i t h as n ot y et b een a ccomp l ished. T . Cuy ler Young a nd R . Dyson t ry t o s how t he un i ty o f t he I ran ian t r ibes ' c u l ture t hrough c er ta in a na logous c hanges i n ware a nd t he s im i lar i ty o f a number o f i t s f ea tures w ith in t h is p er iod but d o n ot s ub ject i t t o af u l l t ypo log ica l a na lys is. O ther c a tegor ies o f a rt ic les h ave b een t ota l ly unresearched i n t h is way . There h as b een n o d eta i led r esearch i n to bur ia l r i tes ( changes w ere mere ly n oted). F ina l ly i t r ema ins unc lear p rec ise ly wha t f ea tures o f t he c u l ture o f t he a nc ient I ran ians were t he b as is o f ah istor ica l ly a ttested I ran ian c u l ture o f t he Med ian a nd Achaemen id t ime ( grey-b lack ware d isappeared t owards t he b eg inn ing o f t h is p er iod). The a im o f t h is work i s t o a na lyse t he s ources o f a rchaeo log ica l d a ta a nd o n t ha t b as is t o t ry t o p rov ide a g enera l d escr ipt ion a nd i nterpreta t ion o f t he ma ter ia l c u l ture o f I ran i n t he l ast quar ter o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. ( Iron Age i ).

CHAPTER I BASIC PROBLEMS I N THE STUDY OF THE EARLY I RON AGE I N I RAN

1 .

I nforma t ion f rom w r i tten s ources

Cune iform s ources, p r imar i ly A ssyr ian a nd Urart ian, c onta in i nf ormat ion wh ich make i t p oss ib le t o d eterm ine t he e thn ic c ompos i t ion o f w estern a nd s outhern I ran ma in ly i n t he p er iod a f ter t he 9 th c entury B .C. However , i t c an b e c on jectured t ha t t he p icture d er ived f rom A ssyr ian s ources i n t he 9 th c entury a lso r ef lects t he e thn ic s i tua t ion a t l east a t t he e nd o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C. F or t he s outh o f I ran a dd it iona l i nforma t ion —and f or a c ons iderab ly e ar l ier p er iod a t t ha t--can b e o bta ined f rbm E lam i te i nscr ipt ions. The p opu la t ion o f I ran a t t he t urn o f t he 2 nd t o i st m i l lenn ium B .C. was h igh ly v ar ied e thn ica l ly . The Gut i a nd Lu l lub i, o n whose l anguages t here i s v ery l i tt le d a ta , a pparent ly p redom ina ted i n t he a rea f rom L ake Urm ia t o t he upper r eaches o f t he D iya la. A c ons iderab le p art o f n orth west I ran ( inc lud ing t he Urm ia r eg ion) was o ccup ied by Hurr ians, who were l i ngu ist ica l ly r e la ted t o t he Urart ians a nd who e v ident ly p layed a g rea t p art i n t he f orma t ion a nd h istory o f t he k ingdom o f Manna i . Kass i tes s eemed t o h ave p redom ina ted i n t he upper r eaches o f t he D iya la a nd Karkheh. The who le o f t he s outh west ( Khuz istan) was o ccup ied by E lam ites. The l i ngu ist ic a ff i l ia t ion o f t he i nhabi tan ts o f t he Casp ian a rea--Casp ians a nd Cadus ians--has n ot b een p rec ise ly e stab l ished f or t h is p er iod a l though f or t he Achaemen id p er iod t he f act t ha t t hey s poke I ran ian c an b e p ostu la ted ( see b ib l iography n os. 1 35; 1 36 1 1 ; 2 7 : 7 ). • Assyr ian s ources e stab l ished t he a ppearance o f t he I ran ian e thnos o n t he I ran ian p la teau f rom t he b eg inn ing o f t he 9 th c entury B .C. A t t ha t t ime--the p er iod when Assyr ia was g row ing s tronger--m i l itary c amp a igns by Assyr ian t roops t o t he e ast, i n t he a rea o f western I ran, were b ecom ing r egu lar. A ssyr ian i nscr ipt ions wh ich d escr ibe t he c ampa igns e very y ear ment ion a n throponyms a nd t oponyms c haracter is ing b oth t he l anguages o f t he l oca l ( autochton ic) p opu la t ion a nd t he g radua l s pread o f t he I ran ian-speak ing s tra tum. However i t must b e b orne i n m ind t ha t t he Assyr ian i nscr ipt ions d ate t he I ran ians t o p rec ise ly t he 9 th c entury a s t hese a reas b ecome w e l l known t o t he Assyr ians t hemse lves o n ly f rom t h is t ime. Th is d oes n o t p rec lude t he p oss ib i l i ty o f a n e ar l ier e mergence o f t he I ran ian e thnos o n t he p la teau. E luc ida t ing t he l a tter i s c omp l ica ted by t he d iff icu lty o f d ec ipher ing t oponyms a nd a nthroponyms e xpressed i n Assyr ian c une iform i nscr ipt ions. The quest ion o f t he I ran ian o r ig in o f t h is o r t ha t n ame I s o f p r imary s ign if icance i n t he h istory o f t he I ran ian t r ibes a nd a c hrono logy a nd d irect ion o f t he ir m igra t ion. Thus, f or e xamp le, I . M . Dyakonov h as s uggested t ha t f or t he 9 th-7 th c entur ies i n t he west o f I ran t here a re n o r e l iab le I ran ian n ames a nd t ha t I ran ian Azarba i jan a nd Kurd istan r ema ined Hurr ian-Lu l lub ian-Gut ian l ingu ist ica l ly a nd o n ly t he a rea o f p resent-day T ehran a nd E sfahan were a lready c ons iderab ly o ccup ied by a n I ran ian l i ngu ist ic e lemen t ( b ib l iography n o . 1 1, p . 1 51). Hence, t he p ostu la ted m igra t ion o f t he I ran ians f rom e ast t o w est. 1

E . A . Grantovsk i i i s o f t he o ppos i te o p in ion. An a na lys is c arr ied o ut by h im h as made i t p oss ib le t o i dent ify a number o f I ran ian a nthroponyms a nd t oponyms a s e ar ly a s t he i nscr ipt ions o f K ing Assurnas irap l i I a bout t he c ampa ign o f 8 81-880 B .C. i n Z amua, f ormer ly a ttr ibuted t o n onI ran ian l anguages ( b ib l iography n o. 7 , p .119-126 ). Rev ised work e nab led h im t o c onc lude t ha t t he I ran ian-speak ing p opu la t ion was a lready w ides pread i n I ran i n t he 9 th-8 th c en tur ies B .C., a l though o ne c an s peak o f t he c omp lete p redom inance o f t he I ran ian e thn ic e lement i n many p arts o f w est I ran o n ly i n r espect o f t he s econd h a lf o f t he 8 th c entury B .C. ( b ib l iography n o . 7 , p . 3 34). E . A . Grantovsk i i 's c onc lus ions p rov ide t he b as is f or s uggest ion t ha t w i th in I ran, t he I ran ian t r ibes m igra ted f rom t he n or th-west i n as outher ly a nd s outh-easter ly d irect ion . O f l a te I . M . Dyakonov h as b een p art ly i n a greement w i th E . A . G rantovsk i i 's c onc lus ions. A tten t ion s hou ld b e d rawn t o t he f act t ha t c onc lus ions f rom a n a na lys is o f n ames i n A ssyr ian t exts, wh ich a re o f d ec is ive s ign if icance i n many h istor ica l works i n s o lv ing t he q uest ion o f t he west I ran ian t r ibes ' m igra tory p a ths, make i t p oss ib le t o d eterm ine t he d irect ion o f movemen ts o n ly w ith in I ran i t se lf . A f ter t ha t l og ica l a ssumpt ions c an b e made a bout t he Caucasus o r C entra l As ia a s p oss ib le a reas t hrough wh ich t he I ran ians c ou ld h ave p assed a ccord ing t o t he a uthor 's v iew o n t he ir movemen t i n I ran. But t he pure ly l ingu ist ic p roofs o n t he q uest ion o f t he t ime a nd p a ths o f t he I ran ians ' e mergence o n t he p la teau a re . o bv ious ly i nadequa te a nd, a s ar u le, a re e as i ly o pen t o d oubt ( b ib l iography n o . 7 , p p . 1 5 , 1 7) a nd s o l i ngu ists h ave b een c ompe l led i n t he ir t heses t o s eek a dd i t iona l a rguments f rom o ther s c ient ists. Tha t i s why, s ince t he 3 0s i n t h is c entury, a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l h as b egun t o b e w ide ly u sed t o s o lve t hese quest ions ( F. Ken ig , F . A l the im, V . I . Abaev). I t was t aken f or g ranted t ha t t he a renaeo log ica l ma ter ia l e stab l ish ing a brupt c hanges c ou ld r evea l t he ma ter ia l c u lture o f t he n ew e thnos a nd t ha t t he s pread o f t h is c u l ture wou ld c orrespond ing ly h e lp t o t race b o th t he d irec t ion o f m igra t ion o f e thnos a nd i t s c entre. However, t he a rchaeo log ica l works t hemse lves o n t h is p rob lem d epend i n t he ir p rem ises o n t he c onc lus ions o f l i ngu ist ics a nd wr i tten h istory. R . M . Gh irshman 's works h ave g iven l i ngu ists p roof o f t he m igra t ion o f t he I ran ians t hrough t he Caucasus, but h e h imse lf c oord ina ted h is c onc lus ions w ith F . Koen ig 's t heses. Th is d ependence l ed t o a l l c hanges i n t he c u l ture o f I ran a t t he e nd o f t he 2 nd a nd b eg inn ing o f t he i st m i l lenn ium B .C. b e ing l i nked u l t ima te ly w i th t he a rr iva l o f t he I ran ian t r ibes. Th is a pproach t o a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l i s f ormu la ted most c lear ly a nd s ound ly i n t he works o f T . Cuy ler Y oung a nd R . Dyson. Thus t he mutua l d ependence o f l i ngu ist ics a nd a rchaeo logy i n s o lv ing t he e xtreme ly i mportant p rob lem o f t he s ett lemen t o f t he I ran ians a nd t he d eve lopment o f t he un ique I ran ian c u l ture o n t he I ran ian p la teau was o n t he o ne h and a s t imu lus f or t he d eve lopmen t o f t he a rchaeo logy o f t he E ar ly I ron Age a nd, o n t he o ther, g ave r ise t o ac er ta in v iewpo in t i n r esearch o n ma ter ia l c u lture wh ich h ad t he d anger o f c onc lus ions wh ich w ere o ver s imp l if ied . The h istor iograph ic s ec t ion w i l l a ttempt t o t race t he e mergence a nd d eve lopmen t o f t hese s pec if ic f ea tures o f I ran ian a rcha eo logy o f t he E ar ly I ron Age.

2

2 . Two s tages i n t he h istory o f t he a ccumu la t ion a nd s tudy o f I ron Age ma ter ia l i n I ran The h istory o f t he a ccumu la t ion a nd s tudy o f I ran 's I ron Age ma ter ia l c an b e d iv ided i nto t wo s tages. The f i rst i nc ludes t he t ime up t o t he m idf i f t ies, t o 1 957 t o b e p rec ise. Th is was a l ong p er iod o f a ccumu la t ion o f ma ter ia l, wh ich g rew s pontaneous ly t hanks t o t he a ct iv i ty o f i nd iv idua l a rchaeo log ists. Th is s ma l l number o f s tead i ly r esearched e xcava tions o f i nd iv idua l s i tes was a imed a t r evea l ing t he i n terna l c u ltura l c on tinu i ty a nd c hrono logy o f l eve ls. L arge s urface s urveys o f s i tes w ere t he n orm a t t h is s tage , p ar t icu lar ly p re-war. There was a s y e t n o s ystema tisa tion o f ma ter ia l a nd n o b as is f or w ork ing o u t p er iod isa tion. The r esearch o f R . M . Gh irshman s tood o u t a t t h is s tage. Even a t t ha t t ime, i n t he t hir t ies, h e s tressed t he s pec ia l s ign if icance o f I ron Age s i tes a nd p rov ided t hem w ith a n h istor ica l i nterpreta t ion, a ttr ibu t ing t he S ia lk B c emetery t o t he c u l ture o f t he I ran ians. These c onc lus ions o f R . M . Gh irshman p layed a g rea t p art i n s o lv ing q uest ions o f t he h istory o f t he I ran ians a nd t he I ndoE uropean p eop les a s a who le. They were o ne o f t he r easons f or t he c onc entra ted a ttent ion t ha t h as b een d evoted t o I ron Age s i tes i n t he s econd s tage o f t he s tudy o f t he I ron Age. The s econd s tage b egan i n 1 957 a nd l asted unt i l r ecent ly. On t he who le t h is was a t ime o f p lanned e xcava t ion i n wh ich e nt ire r eg ions w ere i nvest igated i n as pec ia l p rogramme ( e.g . t he " Hasan lu p ro ject"). A l arge p art o f t hese p rogrammes was d evoted t o t he s tudy o f I ron Age s i tes . The p lanned e xcava t ions o f c emeter ies a nd s ett lements a t t h is t ime were c onn ected w i th t he n eed t o s tudy t he p rob lem o f f orma t ion o f a un ique ly I ran ian h istory a nd c u l ture. I ts most i mpor tant p ar t was t he r eve la t ion o f t he ma ter ia l c u l ture o f t he I ran ians a nd t he t ime o f i ts a ppearance o n t he I ran ian p la teau. A t t he p resent t ime t he s tudy o f t he I ron Age p er iod i n I ran a s a who le i s c ons idered f in ished. I t h as i t s own p er iod isa t ion a nd , i s c ons idered t he e stab l ished t ime o f t he a ppearance a nd t he c harac ter o f t he mater ia l c u l ture o f t he I ran ians. F irst P er iod: B efore 1 930 F rance a lone h ad t he r ight t o c arry o ut a rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ion i n I ran. I n 1 930 t h is r ight was a bbroga ted a nd, b y t he " law o n a nt iqu it ies", I ran ian t err i tory was ppen t o s cho lar ly e xped it i ons o f a l l c ountr ies o n c ond it ion t ha t h a lf o f t he f inds w en t t o I ran. Archa eo log ica l i nvest iga t ions o f t he I ran ian p la teau p roper b egan i n 1 931 s ince t he works i n S usa, wh ich b egan a s l ong a go a s 1 897, were e ssent ia l ly a n i nvest igat ion o f Mesopo tamian c u l ture. I n 1 931-32 a n Amer ican a rchaeol og ica l t eam o rgan ised d igs i n t he n orth e ast o f I ran i n T epe H issar a nd Turang Tepe ( F ig . 1 , map). I n 1 933 a Swed ish e xped it ion worked i n t he s ame r eg ion i n S hah T epe. These s i tes d o n o t c onta in E ar ly I ron Age l eve ls but t hey s hou ld b e ment ioned, f i rst ly b ecause t hey a re s o f ar t he o n ly c ont inua l ly i nvest iga ted s i tes i n t ha t a rea. I n a dd i t ion, t hese s i tes h ave a s pec ia l p lace i n c onnect ion w i th g rey-b lack I ron Age ware a nd t he d irect ion o f t he m igra t ion o f t he I ran ian t r ibes a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C. ( see b e low). I n 1 931 t he L ouvre o rgan ised a n e xped i t ion t o Tepe G iyan where e xcav a t ions were c arr ied o ut f or t wo s easons. S tar t ing i n 1 933 a nother e xped it i on o f t he L ouvre 's worked f our s easons a t Tepe S ia lk i n Kashan i n t he w estern p art o f t he I ran ian p la teau. Bo th e xped it ions were l ed by R . F . G . Gh irshman ( in 1 931 when t he e xcava t ions i n G iyan were r un by G . C on teneau).

3

T epe G iyan was t he f i rst s i te wh ich h ad s epara te I ron Age l eve ls i n c u l tura l s equence w i th o ther e pochs 1 A c ons iderab le p art o f t he T epe was t aken up w i th a n ecropo l is whose g raves w ent d own 9 .5 m f rom t he p eak o f t he mound. The c emetery h ad e x isted f or 2 000 y ears w i thout as imu l taneous ly f unct iona l s ett lement. Throughout t ha t t ime t he g raves w ere o n ly p i ts. I n R . M . Gh irshman 's o p in ion, t he r ema ins o f h ouses o n t he t wo u pper l eve ls a re n o t c ontemporary w ith t he g raves. They d estroyed t hem, a nd t he upper g raves i n t he ir t urn were dug i n g round wh ich f i l led i n a bandoned dwe l l ings ( b ib. n o . 7 8, pp. 7 , 8 0). The c r i ter ion f or d e l inea t ing l eve ls was t he c hange i n p o ttery f orms a nd methods o f p rocess ing a nd d ecora t ing t he p ottery s urfaces . Not h av ing a t h is d isp osa l c ompara t ive mater ia l w i th in I ran, R . M . Gh irshman u sed t he s ystem o f d irect a na log ies w i th t he f ew i mpor ted a rt ic les f or d a t ing t he l eve ls. The u pper l eve l 1( wh ich i n modern p er iod isa t ion b e longs t o I ron Age I ) was g iven a n a bso lute o f 1 400-1100 B .C. f rom t he f o l low ing a na log ies: ( 1) 2 K irkuk-sty le c y l inder s ea ls ( c. 1 450); ( 2) 2 o rnaments w ith a na log ies i n S usa , i n t he S hush inak t emp le ( 12 th c en tury); ( 3) a b ronze d agger s im i lar t o t he d aggers o f L ur istan w i th i nscr ipt ions f rom t he 1 2 th c entury B .C. The p resence o f i ron o b jects d eterm ine t he upper d a te . Apar t f rom t ha t, R .M. Gh irshman p o inted o ut t he s im i lar i t ies b etween t he g rey-b lack ware o f l eve l 1a nd t he ware o f H issar a nd Turang Tepe. He c ompared t he p a inted ware o f s ome g raves ( nos . 3a nd 5 2) w ith t he ware f ound i n t he mounta ins o f Lur istan, a nd d ist ingu ished t he p ar t icu lar Lur istan s ty le wh ich h e d a ted t o t he I ron Age f rom t he f inds o f i ron a r t if acts i n g rave 3 ( b ib. n o . 7 8 ,p p . 7 5 , 7 7-78). I n T epe S ia lk t wo c emeter ies wh ich w ere f ound o uts ide Tepe b e longed t o t he I ron Age ( b ib. n o . 1 00). R . M . Gh irshman d a ted t he e ar l ier c emet ery , A 3t o t he 1 2 th-llth c en tur ies B .C. : i t was c harac ter ised by p i t bur ia l r i tes, g rey-b lack ware a nd t he a bsence o f i ron a r t ifacts. No l eve l c ont emporary w ith i t was f ound o n t he T epe. The o ther c emetery, B , wh ich h e d a ted t o t he 1 0 th t o t he b eg inn ing o f t he 8 th c entur ies B .C., d iffered g rea t ly f rom t he f i rst p r imar i ly i n i t s v iv id, p a inted ware a nd a lso i n t he c onstruct ion o f t he g raves--stone t ombs w i th a g ab led r oof o f s labs--and t he p resence o f i ron a r t ifacts. Th is c emetery was s ome d istance f rom t he f i rst a nd h ad c ontemporary l eve ls o n t he c i tade l o f t he s outhern mound. Th is s equent ia l n a ture o f t he c emeter ies a l lowed h im t o d a te t he ma ter ia l a t G iyan. S ince, c hrono log ica l ly, t he d ifference b etween t he t wo c emet er ies was n o t more t han a f ew d ecades, i n R . M . Gh irsham 's o p in ion, a nd t ak ing i nto c ons idera t ion t he a brupt c hanges i n c u lture, h e c onc luded t ha t n ew i nhab itants h ad a rr ived. Know ing t ha t wr i tten s ources put t he a ppearance o f t he I ran ians a t t ha t t ime ( 9 th c en tury), R . M . Gh irshman i dent if ied t he S ia lk B c u l ture w ith t hem. Re ly ing o n a number o f a na log ies w i th t he Caucasus, h e put t he p a th o f t he I ran ians t hrough t he Caucasus ( b ib. n o. 1 00, pp. 9 5 , 1 04-106). A f ter t he S econd Wor ld War, R . M . Gh irshman e xcava ted t he s oc a l led " Pers ian-Achaemen id v i l lage" i n S usa ( b ib. n o . 1 06). On t he b as is o f ma ter ia ls f rom h is e xcava t ions b o th b efore a nd a f ter t he war, a nd a lso t he ma ter ia l f rom P ersepo l is a nd P asargadae, h e h ad p rophes ised t he s ubsequent m igra t ion o f t he I ran ians i ns ide I ran . He p ut t he ir movement a cross t he Caucasus, n or th w est I ran a nd o n i nto t he Z agros. The f ina l s tage o f t he ir p a th was F ars--the c entre o f t he f uture Achaemen id s ta te ( b ib. n o . 1 04, pp. 7 4-76). However, R . M . Gh irshman t hought t ha t t he m igra t ion a cross t he Caucasus was n ot t he o n ly o ne. I n works pub l ished i n 1 954 a nd 1 964 h e a l lows o f a no ther p oss ib i l ity--the m igrat ion f rom t he n or th e ast ( b ib. n o . 1 01, pp. 3 -5 ; n o . 1 02, p p. 7 0-71). Recent ly i t h as b een s ubstant ia l ly more p rec ise. He n ow d ifferent iates b etween w es tern a nd e astern I ran ians : t he f i rst —the M edes a nd P ers ians 4

a rr ived i n w estern I ran t hrough t he Caucasus a t t he e nd o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium ( Iron Age I ) ; t he s econd —the f uture G irkan ians, P arth ians, Bactr ians, Aryans, Khorezm ians a nd S ogd ians —hav ing s k irted t he Casp ian S ea t o t he n or th a rr ived i n e ast I ran l ater, a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he i st m i l lenn ium ( Iron Age I o r e ven I ron Age I I). He c a l ls t he p opu la t ion o f S ia lk B I ran ians p roper ; a s f or t he b earers o f S ia lk A c u lture, h e p refers t o c a l l t hem " nouveaux venus" ( b ib. n o . 1 03, p p. 4 5-47,62). True, i n h is e ar ly w orks, h e more o r l ess c a l led t hem I ndo-Iran ians ( b ib. n o . 1 02 p . 5 , map). Thus R . M . Gh irshman h as p rov ided a p laus ib le p icture o f t he e ar ly h istory o f t he I ran ians wh ich a grees w ith t he d ata o f t he wr i tten s ources. I t h as t aken a lmost a quarter o f ac entury t o a ccumu la te n ew ma ter ia l a nd put f orward a n ew hypo thes is a bout I ran ian c u lture, t he t ime o f i t s e mergence a nd t he I ran ians ' m igra t ion p a ths. About 1 929 t o 1 930 un ique a rt ifacts o f b ronze wh ich b ecame known a s " Lur istan b ronzes", b egan t o a ppear o n t he a nt iquar ian market i n I ran a nd Western Europe. These i nc luded h arness t rapp ings, weapons, o rnam ents a nd v o t ive a nd r i tua l i t ems. A l l t hese a rt ic les c ame f rom l oo ted g raves i n t he n orthern p ar t o f Lur istan .A. Godard, who v is i ted t hese p laces i n 1 931 pub l ished t he f i rst work o n t hese o b jec ts, c ou ld n ot f or a n umber o f r easons d o a ny e xcava t ions a nd c onf ined h imse lf t o mak ing e nqu ir ies a bout t hese g raves ( b ib. n os. 1 07, 1 67, p . 9 2). I n o rder t o g et more p rec ise i nformat ion a bout t he c emeter ies o f L ur istan, a n e xped it ion f rom t he Amer ican I nst i tute o f P ers ian Ar t a nd A rchaeo logy l ed by E . S chmidt b egan work. Work was c arr ied o u t i n t he Rum ishkan a nd S a imarreh r iver v a l leys i n 1 934-1935 a nd i n 1 937-1938. Apar t f rom g raves w i th Lur istan b ronzes ( Kha tun Ban) h e made a n i mpor tant d iscovery i n Surkhi Dum ( b ib. n o. 1 87, p p. 2 05-216). The i nvest iga t ions o f A . S te in i n west I ran i n 1 935-36 were o f v ery g rea t s ign if icance ( b ib. n o. 1 89). I n Lur istan h e made a n umber o f t rave l l ing i nvest iga t ions, c o l lected many f inds a nd c arr ied o ut a n umber o f e xcavat i ons a t s ett lemen ts. I n Azarba i jan h e d iscovered a nd e xcava ted t he s e tt lements o f Hasan lu a nd D inkha Tepe . I n t he l a tter h e e xcava ted g raves o f t he e nd o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium ( accord ing t o modern p er iod isat i on R . Dyson d a tes t hem t o t he t ime o f Hasan lu V I; Habur ware). But A . S . S te in d id n ot f ind a ny g rey-b lack ware, t ha t i s o f I ron Age I p er iod l eve l . I n Hasan lu h e d ug a t rench t hrough t he n or thern s lope o f t he mound a nd r evea led s evera l g raves o f t he Hasan lu I V p er iod ( accord ing t o modern p er iod isa t ion ). The s ign if icance o f h is work i s t hat h e c o l lec ted a v ast a moun t o f ma ter ia l wh ich makes i t p oss ible t o c arry ou t ab road c ompara t ive a na lys is p art icu lar ly n ow t ha t a rchaeol og ica l p er iod isa t ion h as b een d eve loped , t o wh ich t h is mater ia l c ont r ibutes . He a lso d iscovered a nd b egan i nvest iga t ions i nto s ett lements where t he e xcava t ions l a ter t urned o ut t o b e a qua l ita t ive ly n ew s tage i n t he d eve lopment o f t he a rchaeo logy o f t he E ar ly I ron Age i n I ran . F o l lowing t he r e la t ive ly i n tens ive a rchaeo log ica l a ct iv ity i n t he t h irt ies, t here was a marked d ec l ine dur ing t he S econd Wor ld War a nd i n p ost-war y ears. Ment ion s hou ld b e made a t l east o f t he e xcava t ions o f Burton Brown i n A z zarba i jan a t Geoy Tepe ( see l i st 1 948), wh ich h ad l eve ls b e long ing t o t he I ron Age ( Iron Age I a nd I) ( b ib. n o. 7 3). The o rgan isa t ion o f I ran 's a rchaeo log ica l s erv ice, whose r epresent a t ives h ave a s ar u le b egun t o t ake p art i n a l l e xped it ions, c an b e d es cr ibed a s ap os i t ive phenomenon o f t h is p er iod. True, a t f i rst i t s work w as n ot v ery p roduc t ive a nd was n ot d one a t as uff ic ient ly s cho lar ly l eve l . I n 1 947 i t o rgan ised e xcava t ions a t Hasan lu Tepe under t he d irect ion o f M . Rad a nd A . Hak im i . The r esu l ts o f t h is work a re pub l ished i n P ers ian. 5

Unfortuna te ly i t i s d iff icu lt t o make u se o f t he ma ter ia ls ma in ly b ecause t hey d o n o t c onta in p rec ise s tra t igraphy a nd d istr ibut ion o f f inds i n t he l eve ls ( b ib. n o . 1 75, pp. 8 7-103). I n 1 950 M . R ad a nd A . Hak im i c arr ied o ut s ome s ma l l e xcavat ions a t Gan j Tepe n ear Hurv in, where t hey d isc overed g raves w ith g rey-black ware ( b ib. n o. 1 74). I n 1 954 L . Vanden B erghe worked o n t he s ame t epe. He e xcava ted f ourteen g raves w ith s im i lar bur ia l i nven tor ies a nd g rey-b lack ware ( Iron Age I ) ( bib. n o . 2 05). S econd P er iod: Th is s tarted i n 1 957 when R . Dyson b egan many y ears o f e xcava t ions a t Hasan lu T epe i n A zarba i jan . J ust a s S ia lk B was t he s tart ing p o int o f t he f i rst p er iod, s o t he e xcavat ions a t Hasan lu i n many ways d eterm ined t he r esu l ts o f s tudy o f I ran 's I ron Age i n t he s econd p er iod. The e xcava t ions a t Hasan lu were p art o f av ast p rogramme o f s tudy o f t he who le o f A zarba i jan ( the s o-ca l led " Hasan lu p ro ject"). I ts o vera l l t ask was t o s tudy t he l i tt le-known p re- a nd p ro toh istor ic p er iod o f A zarba i jan. R esearch i nto t he E ar ly I ron Age was a n e ssent ia l p art o f t ha t p ro ject b ecause a n i mpor tant t ask o f t he p ro ject was t o e luc idate t he a rchaeo log ica l s i tua t ion wh ich p receded t he f i rst a ppearance o f t he Medes a nd P ers ians i n Western I ran a nd t o r evea l t he a rchaeo log ica l c u lt ure c ontemporary w i th t he ir emergence a nd wh ich c ou ld b e l inked w ith t hem ( b ib. n o. 9 0, p . 4 13). The ma in s i te c hosen was Hasan lu, where e xcava t ions r evea led t en s uccess ive p er iods o f l i fe f rom c . 6 000 B .C. t o t he p er iod o f I s lam. C era m ic t ypo logy was t he b as is o f d a t ing t he p er iods. The p er iods Hasan lu V , I V a nd I I b e long t o t he E ar ly I ron Age ( see Append ix I ). Revea l ing t he s equence a t o ne s i te was n o n ew t h ing f or I ran ian a rchaeo log ists. Wha t was n ew f or t h is s tage o f s cho larsh ip was t he f act t hat a who le s er ies o f o ther s ett lements i n Azarba i jan was e xcav a ted i n o rder t o c onf irm t he s equence o f t he l eve ls and s omet imes a lso t o f i l l i n g ap s. Excavat ion i n D inkha T epe i n 1 966 a nd 1 968 r e inforce t he c ont inu ity o f t he Hasan lu I V t o V l eve ls ( Iron Age I a nd I ), i n wh ich g rey-b lack ware r ep laced t he t rad i t ion o f t he p a inted p er iods o f Hasan lu V I a nd D inkha I V. I nvest iga t ions i n Agrab Tepe a nd Z iw iyeh ( Kurd istan) e xpanded know ledge o f t he Hasan lu I I p er iods ( Iron Age I I). As p art o f t he " Hasan lu p ro ject", i n 1 961 T . Cuy ler Young undertook a s ur face s urvey o f s i tes i n e aste rn Lur istan a nd Kurd istan. The r esu lts o f t he e xcava t ion a re most c ur ious. Of 1 53 s i tes marked o n t he map o n ly 2 1 ( inc lud ing G iyan) were f ound t o c onta in G iyan It ype ware a nd o n ly 8 f ound t o c onta in ware o f t he Hasan lu I I p er iod. The s urvey s howed t ha t g rey-b lack ware d id n o t p enetr a .te a l l r eg ions, a nd c er ta in f orms c harac ter ist ic o f G iyan I ( pedesta l-based g ob lets) w ere n o t f ound a t a l l i n s ur face c o l lect ions ( b ib. n o . 2 21, pp. 2 28-239). D . S tronach b egan work i n P asargadae a lmost a t t he s ame t ime a s t he work o n t he " Hasan lu p ro ject" was b e ing c arr ied o ut. H is i mmed ia te a im was t o s tudy t he c u lture o f t he e ar ly Achaemen id t ime, but a t t he s ame t ime h e managed t o e xp la in wha t h ad p receded t ha t p er iod. Ano ther i mportant f actor i n t he c ho ice o f P asargadae was t he f act t hat F ars was t he f ina l p o int wh ich t he I ran ians r eached. A t f i rst D . S tronach was o f R . M . Gh irshman 's o p in ion o n t he m igra t ion o f t he I ran ians i ns ide I ran ( b ib. n o . 1 91, p .20) f rom t he Z agros t o Khuz istan ( the " Achaemen id v i l lage" i n Susa a nd Mas j idi S u le iman) a nd t hen t o F ars. L a ter h e c hanged h is o p in ion . The e xcava t ions i n Z endani S u le iman y ie lded ma ter ia l wh ich p ar t ly f i l led i n t he g ap b etween t he Hasan lu I V a nd I I p er iods a nd a t t he s ame t ime p rov ided i nforma t ion o n t he I ron Age i n Kurd istan ( b ib. n o. 1 37,

p .4 0). 6

Qu i te a l o t o f ma ter ia l o n t he E ar ly I ron Age h ad a lready b een a cc umu la ted by t he b eg inn ing o f t he s ixt ies. I t was n ecessary t o s ynthes ise i ta nd make s ense o f i t . One o f t he r esearchers who d id t ha t was T . Cuy ler Y oung . On t he b as is o f h is s tudy o f I ran ' sp o ttery ( c. 1 500-500 B . C.), h e d ifferent ia ted c eram ic h or izons a nd s ynchron ised t he r e l ics i ns ide t hem. H e was e spec ia l ly i nterested i n t he p rob lem o f I ran ian m igra t ion o nto t he p la teau. A s ar esu lt o f h is i nvest iga t ions h e s ucceeded i n l i nk ing t ha t h istor ica l phenomenon w ith c oncrete a rchaeo log ica l d a ta . The e ssence o f h is hypothes is--accord ing t o wh ich t he d istr ibut ion o f g rey-b lack ware i s l i nked w i th t he m igra t ion o f t he I ran ian t r ibes--w i l l b e s et o ut i n S ect ion 3o f t h is c hapter. The e nd r esu l t o f h is i nvest iga t ions was p roof t ha t t he I ran ians h ad m igra ted f rom n orth-east I ran t o t he west, t o t he Z agros, a s e ar ly a s t he l ast quar ter o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium. The j o int e ffor ts o f a number o f r esearchers p roduced a t hree-part p er iod isa t ion o f t he E ar ly I ron Age. When t h is work h ad b een d one i t b ecame c lear t ha t f resh i nvest iga t ions w ere n eeded t o f i l l t he n umerous g aps b o th i n t he g eograph ica l l im i ts o f t he o ut l ined t err i tory a nd i n t he p er iod isa t ion i t se lf . There was v ir tua l ly n o i nformat ion f rom western L ur istan a nd t he t err i tory o f a nc ient Med ia . I n c entra l I ran t here w ere o n ly a f ew s i tes. Apar t f rom t ha t t here was a s hor tage o f I ron Age I I ma ter ia l . A n ew p rogramme o f r esearch b egan. Among t he f irst e xcava t ions f rom t he n ew p ro ject were T . Cuy ler Young 's i n God in Tepe i n Med ia ( Kurd istan), wh ich h e d iscovered dur ing t he 1 961 e xcava t ion, c arr ied o ut under t he " Hasan lu p ro ject". The God in Tepe e xcava t ions were p ar t o f av ast p rogramme o f f i e ld i nvest iga t ion wh ich a imed t o e stab l ish t he h istor ica l a nd e co log ica l d eve lopment o f as ing le s ystem o f v a l leys i n western I ran. No s tructura l r ema ins o f t he I ron Age Ip er iod were f ound a nd o n ly t hree g raves w ere d iscovered. A f or t if ied s trongho ld w ith t owers, wh ich h ad c o lumned h a l ls a nd s tores, b e longs t o t he God in I p er iod ( Iron Age I I) ( b ib. n os. 2 20 ; 2 21 a nd 2 24). The s econd s i te o n t he t err itory Med ia was Nushi J an Tepe, wh ich w as e xcava ted o ver f ive s easons ( 1967-77) by D . S tronach. Apar t f rom t he g enera l t asks o f I ran ian a rchaeo logy, h e t urned t o t he Med ian s i te b ecause o f h is p rev ious i nvest iga t ions i n P asargadae. I n s tudy ing t he e ar ly Achaemen id p er iod i n P asargadae h e was l ook ing f or wha t c ou ld h ave p receded t ha t p er iod i n I ron Age I I, p r imar i ly where t he Achaemen id 's p redecessors —the Medes--had l i ved. The r esu l ts o f t he e xcava t ions were b eyond a l l e xpecta t ions . Nushi J an Tepe i s a un ique s i te i n t erms o f i t s p reserva t ion. No t o n ly m inor s tructures, but a lso t he C entra l T emp le ( wa l ls u p t o 8m h igh), t he O ld Western Bu i ld ing , F or t a nd t he Co lumned Ha l l ( b ib. n o . 1 92, pp. 1 -11, f ig . 1 , 1 ) b e longed t o t he Med ian p er iod o f t h is s ett lemen t ( 750-6 0 0 B .C .). Both s i tes h ave t he s ame g enera l p r inc ip les o f a rch i tectura l p lann ing a nd c onstruct iona l methods. C erta in f eatures o f t he s tructures l i nk t hem w i th Hasan lu I V ( an a ntechamber b efore a c o lumned h a l l, a s ta ircase t o t he f irst f l oor, a l arge h ear th i n f ron t o f af ixed t hrone, b enches d own t he l eng th o f t he h a l l) ( b ib. n o. 2 22, p p. 4 8-57). On t he o ther h and, t he p lan o f . t he f orts i nd ica tes t he o bv ious l ink w i th t he a rch i tectura l t rad it ion o f Assyr ia, wh ich d oes n o t a ppear t o h ave i nf luenced Hasan lu I V a nd wh ich c ou ld h ave t aken p lace o n ly i n t he p er iod o f t he i ntens if ied m i l i tary c on tac ts w i th A ssyr ia i n t he V IIIth c entury B .C. ( b ib. n o. 1 93, p . 1 2). There a re a lso o ther d ifferences wh ich w i l l b e d ea lt w i th l a ter . S tudy o f Nush i- J an e nab led D . S tronach t o e stab l ish d ef in i te p ara l le ls i n Med ian a nd A chaemen id a rch i tecture a nd t o s how t he ir c ont inu i ty .

7

Dur ing h is r esearch, D . S tronach c hanged t he v iew wh ich h e h ad o r ig ina l ly s hared w i th R . M . Gh irshman o n t he I ran ians ' m igrat ion f rom Khuz istan t o F ars. The p o int i s t ha t R . M . Gh irshman, when a rgu ing t he movement o f t he I ran ians a cross Khuz istan, r e l ied o n as im i lar ity i n p ottery b e tween t he e ar l iest l eve l 1o f t he P ers ian-Achaemen id v i l lage a nd t he ware o f S ia lk B a nd G iyan I , a nd put t he t ime o f t he f ounda t ion o f t he s ett lement a t t he e nd o f t he 8 th t o t he b eg inn ing o f t he 7 th c entury B .C. ( b ib. n o . 1 06, p p . 5 4-56, 59 -62)* . Tha t d a te was c onf irmed by T . Cuy ler Y oung , who n o ted i n a dd i t ion t ha t t he c u lture a t l eve l I was a l a ter v ar ian t o f t he S ia lk B c u l ture ( b ib. n o . 2 19, p . 2 7). D . S tronach p o in ted o ut t he i ncons istency i n t hese a n log ies a nd a rgued t ha t t he l eve l I ware i s d a ted l a ter a nd n ot e ar l ier t han t he e nd o f t he 7 th c en tury B .C. A t t he s ame t ime h e c ons idered Mas jidi Su le iman a nd Bard i N ishandeh t o b e y ounger t han p rev iously t hought ( b ib. n o . 1 90, pp. 2 40-241, 2 44-246). The h istor ica l c onc lus ion i s t ha t t he P ers ians e n tered F ars d irectly f rom t he n orth ( or t he e ast) a nd w en t t o Khuz istan f rom F ars. There was n o a rchaeo log ica l r esearch i n L ur istan f or a l ong t ime a f ter t he war . I n 1 963-1964 a Dan ish a rchaeo log ica l e xped i t ion under Me ldgaard T . a nd Thrane H . was work ing i n P ish-i Kuh i n Lur istan . Excava t ions a nd i nvest iga t ions were c arr ied o ut i n t he Hu la i lan a nd De lfan v a l leys. The ma in a tten t ion was c oncentra ted o n Tepe Guran ( b ib. n o . 1 49 , p p. 9 7-133). I ron Age l eve ls were i dent if ied o n t h is s i te; t he ir d a t ing i s d ebatab le a nd w i l l b e e xam ined i n Append ix I . I n 1 966-1969 a Br it ish a rchaeo log ica l e xped i t ion l ed by C . Goff c arr ied o ut i nvest iga t ions i n t he De lfan v a l ley a t t he E ar ly I ron Age c i ty o f B aba J an T epe . C . Goff s et o ut t hree phases o f e x istence a t t he s i te, t he e ar l iest b e ing phase 3 b e long ing t o t he I X-VIIIth c entur ies B .C. The bu i ld ings a t t ha t t ime were s i tua ted o n t he c entra l ( 9th c entury) a nd e astern ( 8th c entury) mounds. One o f t he e ar l iest bu i ld ing o f t he c en tra l mound i s t he s o-ca l led Manor 2 . A t i t s c en tre was a l ong r ectangu lar c our tyard w ith t wo n arrow r ooms a long t he l ong s ides. E ight p rotrud ing t owers were f ound a t t he c orners a nd t he c entre o f e ach s ide. One o f t hem h ad b een t urned i nto a n e n trance p or t ico. L a ter t he c ourtyard w as c overed i n a nd t urned i nto a c entra l h a l l, a nd t he p ro ject ing t owers a nd i nterven ing a reas were r ep lanned a s n ew r ooms ( Manor 1 ). C . Goff t h inks t ha t t h is r ebu i ld ing may h ave b een c aused by a n i ntens if icat ion o f Assyr ian a ggress ion, s ince a bu i ld ing w i th p ro ject ing t owers c onven ien t f or c ontro l o f t he s urround ing p la in was e xtreme ly vu lnerab le t o Assyr ian b atter ing r ams a nd t unne l l ing ( b ib. n o . 1 09, p . 1 19 ). The F ort o n t he e astern mound h as a s im i lar p lan i n p r inc ip le. The F or t and Manor 1 a re s im i lar t o t he Hasan lu V-IV bu i ld ings ( the l inks b etween t he l a tter h ave r ecent ly b een p o inted o ut by R . Dyson--b ib. n o . 8 4, pp. 1 56, 1 64 ). The c ommon f ea tures o f t he a rch i tectura l p lann ing o f b o th s i tes a re: a c en tra l c o lumned h a l l f l anked o n t hree s ides by l i v ing a ccommodat ion w ith a n a n te r oom i n f ront a nd a s ta irwe l l a nd p or t ico . I n T . Cuy ler Young 's o p in ion, t h is p lan g oes b ack t o t he Greek a nd Anato l ian megaron ; h e a lso p o in ted t o p oss ib le l i nks w i th t he b i t-h i lan i a rch i tec ture -i n n or thern S yr ia ( b ib. n o. 2 22, p p. 60 -71). I t i s i nterest ing t ha t t he p lan o f Manor 2 , f rom wh ich Manor 1 a nd t he F ort d eve loped, i s , i n C . Goff ' so p in ion, v ery s im i lar t o t he t rad i t iona l t ype o f bu i ld ing o f t he M idd le E ast ( b ib. n o . 1 09 , p . 19). I t i s p oss ib le t o s ee d ef in i te p ara l le ls b etween i t a nd t he p lan o f t he bu i ld ing i n Kord lar Tepe ( b ib. n o . 1 38, pp .174-177,f ig . 2 ). C . Goff t h inks t ha t t here i s n o t o n ly a d irect i nf luence o f Hasan lu I V *

R . Dyson, a pparen t ly e rroneous ly, pu ts t he d a te a t t he e nd o f t he 7 th c en tury B . C. i ns tead o f Gh irshman 's d a te ( b ib. n o . 8 8, p . 2 05). 8

a rch itecture o n t he bu i ld ings o f t he E ast mound but t ha t t here i s a p oss ib le p ara l le l d eve lopment. Thus, t he a rch itecture o f Baba J an I I g oes b ack t o e ar l ier s i tes b o th i ns ide I ran a nd t he West . R . Dyson b e l ieves t ha t t he a rch i tectura l t rad it ion o f Hasan lu V e merged i n I ran i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C . i n e stab l ished f orm. I ts a pp earance i s l i nked w ith o ther i nnova t ions i n t ha t p er iod, p r imar i ly t he e mergence o f t he t rad i t ion o f g rey-b lack ware. H e d oes n ot n ame t he p eop le r espons ib le f or t hese c hanges, but, a ccord ing t o t he hypothes is t ha t t he I ran ians b rought t he t rad i t ion o f g rey-b lack ware, i t h as t o b e a ssumed t ha t t he n ew a rch i tectura l t rad i t ion was a lso b rought by t hem. I n t he s ame w ork R . Dyson d emonstrates t hat i t h as n o th ing i n c ommon w i th t he a rch i tectura l t rad i t ion o f H issar I I a nd C entra l As ia a nd c ons equent ly c ou ld n o t h ave b een b rought f rom t he E ast ( b ib. n o. 8 4, p p . 1 55-156, 1 66, 1 67). The quest ion r ema ins whether t he a rch i tectura l t rad it ion o f Hasan lu V t o I V was I ran ian o r n on-Iran ian; i n o ther words, d id t he I ran ians a dopt i ti n s i tu o r d id t hey b r ing i t w i th t hem? An i mportant p lace i n s o lv ing t h is q uest ion b e longs t o t he a rch i tecture o f Baba J an I I, wh ich, a s C . G off 's works h ave s hown, o ccup ied a n i ntermed iate p os it ion b etween Hasan lu I V a nd t he l a ter s i tes, i nc lud ing t he Med ian s i tes G od in I a ndNushi J an . The l i nks b etween Baba J an I I a nd Hasan lu V t o I V h ave a lrea dy b een d escr ibed . C . G off n o tes t wo f ea tures o f Manor I a nd t he F ort-t he c o lumned h a l l a nd t he c on jectured c lerestorey--as i mportant e lemen ts o f I ran ian a rch itectura l t rad i t ion wh ich a re a n i na l ienab le p art o f A chaem en id p a lace a rch itecture ( b ib. n o . 1 09 , pp. 1 19-120). C . Goff c onj e ctures w ith g rea t r eserva t ion t ha t t he p lan o f t he Nush-i J an t emp le c ou ld h ave b een i nf luenced by t he p lan o f t he Baba J an p a inted r oom b u i l t o n t o t he F or t ( b ib. n o . 1 09 , p . 1 25). S he t h inks t ha t t he c u lture o f Baba J an I I was most p robab ly Med ian a nd r ef lects I ran ian p ene tra t ion i nto t he Z agros a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 9 th c entury B .C. ( b ib. n o . 1 08 , p . 9 2). The l i nk w ith Med ian bu i ld ings c an b e t raced i n a number o f o ther e lements: t he u se o f s ta ircases a round a c entra l p i l lar s i tuated i n a n terooms, o r a l though n ot i n f ront o f h a l ls ( Nushi J an -Temp le a nd F or t), a c entra l h ear th i n f ront o f af ixed t hrone a nd b enches a long t he w a l ls i n t he h a l l ( God in Tepe). But i f t he l i nk i s e stab l ished b etween t he Med ian s i te o f Baba J an I I a nd t he I ran ian s i tes o f s ubsequent p er iods, t hen t o whom i n t ha t c ase i s o ne t o a ttr ibute t he a rch itectura l t rad it ion o f Hasan lu I V-V, whose g ener ic l i nk w i th Baba J an I I ( except Manor 2 ) i s d emonstra ted qu i te c onv inc ing ly by C . G off? I s i t a lso t o b e c ons ide red I ran ian? C erta in o bserva t ions wh ich, i t s eems, may t hrow a d ifferent l ight o n t he e xam ined ma ter ia l p rec lude a p os i t ive a nswer t o t h is quest ion. We h ave e xam ined t wo g roups o f s i tes: Hasan lu-- Baba J an a nd God in-- Nushi J an. The f ormer i s a n a rch i tectura l c omp lex W hose- c en tre i s a ha l l w i th a d jacent l iv jng quarters bu i l t a round i t . I n Hasan lu I V we s ee many r epe t it ions o f t h is a rch i tectura l c omp lex . T . Cuy ler Y oung b e l ieved t ha t t he Hasan lu I V c i tade l was i nhab ited by t he l oca l r u ler o f t he S o lduz v a l ley a nd _ c orrespond ing ly e xp la ined t he purpose o f e ach t hree Burned Bu i ld ings d iscovered u p t o t ha t t ime a s ' i n tended f or c iv ic a nd r e l ig ious c eremon ies a nd a s l i v ing quar ters f or t he r u ler h imse lf ( b ib. n o . 2 22, pp. 5 7-59). S ix o f t hem a re n ow known a nd t hey a re a l l e ssent ia l ly t he s ame i n p lan . I nterpret ing t hem i n t he s ame way i s d iff icu lt. The s econd g roup i s ac omp lex o f o n ly pub l ic bu i ld ings, e ach o f wh ich i s un ique —a bu i ld ing w ith a mu lt i-co lumned h a l l n ot f l anked by quarters, a t emp le a nd a f or t. Thus, t he d ifferences b e tween t he t wo g roups a re v ery s ubstan t ia l: ( 1) t he i tems o f t he a rch i tectura l c omp lex a re d ifferen t i n b oth c ases . Whereas i n t he f irst c ase i t i s quite hypothetica l t o e stab l ish d ifferent purposes f or bu i ld ings 9

which are identical in plan, in the second case the different architecture of the buildings itself suggests their purpose. ( 2) ·The conceptual differ­ ence between the two types of settlement is manifest: in the first case it is a city which is habited (if only by the aristocracy), and in the second it is a concentration of public buildings which are not inhabited. It is precisely the latter which is a characteristic feature of Iranian cities of the Achaemenid time, such as Persepolis or the special "sacred quarters" erected on high platforms in \ilasjud-i Suleiman. The link be­ tween the two groups can be traced only in the similarity of individual elements of buildings which are different in plan. Nushi Jan and Godin II 1. are characterised by the appearance of new types of buildings. They are · a fort, whose appearance, in the opinion of researchers, is linked with '.Assyrian influence; a new type of temple, even the hall is different in having a greater number of columns, which makes it possible to see in it the pre­ decessor of the Apadana. All this gives one grounds for thinking that it was at precisely these sites that a synthesis took place at that time of different architectural traditions (including the utilisation of the local, earlier tradition of the first group) and that the principles of Median architecture and planning were laid down. These principles accorded with the concepts of the new Iranian population and remained essentially unchanged right up to the Achaemenid time. Hence it follows that the Iranians did not bring with them an established architectural tradition but synthesised it in situ at that stage of their development when the need arose. All the above does not essentially refute C. Goff's opinion on Baba Jan III being Median. On the contrary, it shows the gradual nature of this process, which ended and too� shape only in the architecture of Nush-i Jan and Godin Tepe II. Thus, C. Goff's works have successfully revealed continuity of the development of architectural planning within a single site and have filled the gaps of the material of Iron Age II-III of north-west Iran, clearly linking a number of crucial sites: Hasanlu, Baba Jan Tepe, Godin and Nush-i Jan Tepe. The westernmost part of Luristan, Pusht-i Kuh began to be system­ atically investigated from 1965. From the start of the work through to the present day the Belgian archaeological expedition has been headed by L. Vanden Berghe and only cemeteries are being investigated. A ·large amount of factual material formed the basis of the archaeological dating according to which the cemeteries of Luristan are divided into seven periods covering the time from the middle of the third millennium B. C. to the middle of the first millennium B. C. Period V corresponds to Iron Age I. Some of the burials in the cemeteries at Bard-i Bal, Pa-yi Kal Shurabah, Awazah, Kutal-i Gulgul and Sartang belonged to it. L. Vanden Berghe dates them to the end of the period ( 1100-900 B. C. ). Period VI (Iron Age II): cemeteries of Bard-i Bal, Kutal-i Gulgul and Darvand (sector B). The Tattulban cemetery dates from the transitional period from Iron Age II to Iron Age III. Period VII (Iron Age III)--the ceme-· teries belong only to:- the beginning of this period: War Kabud, Sar Kabud, Chavar, Tadjarian, Karkhai and Shalah Shuri (bib. no. 204). Creating a period system for the cemeteries has helped solve one of the most important tasks of this expedition--that of the origin and dating of the Luristan ·,Bronzes. For the first time in the course of scientific excavations of cemeteries, a large quantity of bronze items was found. The expedition managed to differentiate between what were Luristan Bronzes proper, i.e. articles unknown outside Luristan, and what were 10

s imp ly a r t ifactsfound o r made i n Lur istan. The l a tter a re a lso f ound f ar o uts ide i t . I f t he l a tter a re d a ted f rom t he b eg inn ing o f t he 3 rd m i l lenn ium B .C., t hen t he " typ ica l b ronzes" a re o n ly t hose b eg inn ing w i th t he 1 2th c entury B .C. a nd up t o t he ir p eak b etween t he 9 th a nd 7 th c entur ies B .C. ( b ib. n o . 2 02, pp. 7 1-75). Wh i le t he ma in works c on t inued t o c oncentra te o n a reas o f t he c ountry wh ich h ad a lready b ecome t rad i t iona l i n a rchaeo log ica l r esearch, i n t he s ixt ies a n i nterest b egan t o b e s hown i n ar eg ion wh ich was n ew i n t h is r espect--the a rea n ear t he Casp ian. I n 1 961 t he I ran ian a rchaeo log ica l s erv ice d ec ided t o c arry o ut i t s own i nvest iga t ions i nto t he who le o f t he c oun try w ith t he a im o f c omp i l ing a n a rchaeo log ica l map. The f i rst a rea t o b e s tud ied was n or thern I ran, s ince i t was t here t ha t, f rom t he f i f t ies, i lega l c ommerc ia l e xcava t ion h ad b ecome p reva lent ( the Am lash a nt iqu i t ies). I n G i lan p rov ince t he a rchaeo log ists were l ucky e nough t o d iscover t he Mar l ik c emetery i ntact, where t he e xcavat ions were h eaded by E . 0 . N egahban. The c emetery y ie lded a v ast a mount o f ma ter ia l, i nc lud ing c y l inder s ea ls, b ronze w eapons, b ronze a nd p o ttery f igur ines o f p eop le a nd a n ima ls, a nd a mass o fg o ld a r tefacts. Unfor tuna te ly, t he . pub l ica t ion o f t h is ma ter ia l d oes n o t c orrespond t o t he modern n orms o f pub l ish ing o f a rchaeo log ica l c omp lexes ( D ib. n o. 1 65). I t i s d iff icu l t t o r es tore r e l iab le g rave c omp lexes s ince t he ma ter ia ls h ave b een pub l ished i n a n uncoord ina ted way . P o ttery h as b een v ir tua l ly unpub l ished, wh ich makes d a t ing t ha t much more d iff i cu lt. The a uthor i dent if ies t hree t ypes o f s tone g raves i n wh ich, i n h is o p in ion, p eop le o f d ifferent s oc ia l s ta t ions h ad b een bur ied. However, t he p oss ib i l i ty o f ac hrono log ica l d ifference i n t hese t ypes o f g raves s hou ld n o t b e r u led o ut. I n d at ing t he c emetery t o t he e nd o f t he 2 nd a nd b eg inn ing o f t he i st m i l lenn ium B .C. ,E . 0 . . Negahban r e l ies o n t he d a te o f t he c y l inder s ea l s uggested by J . Cameron ( b ib. n o. 1 65, p . 3 8). But i t must b e s a id t hat t he c emetery c onta ined o b jects wh ich w ere d ef in i te ly n ot a l l o lder t han t he 9 th c entury B .C. ,i nc lud ing t he s ea ls ( b ib. n o . 1 66 app. 8 9- 9 4) . Tha t t he c eme tery b e longed t o I ran ians i s n ot d ispu ted by r esearchers. N egahban t h inks t ha t t he c entre o f t he " Mar l ik k ingdom ' " was i n Mar l ik. L a ter , under p ressure f rom t he ir western n e ighbours ( the Urar t ians o r t he Assyr ians), t he I ran ians l ef t f or t he S ia lk a nd Lur istan a rea . T . Cuy ler Young b e l ieves t ha t t he c entre o f t h is c u lture was o r ig ina l ly i n n or th e ast I ran; but g radua l ly t h is c u l ture moved west a nd e nded up i n S ia lk, a nd o ne o f t he g roups r eached Ma l ik ( b ib. n o . 2 23) . What r ema ins d eba tab le i s t he quest ion o f t he o r ig in o f t he p roducts o f Mar l ik a rt. E . P orada s uggests o n t he b as is o f s ty l ist ic a na lys is t ha t t hey w ere p roduced a t d ifferent t imes a nd i n d ifferent c entres f rom E lam t o A zarba i jan ( b ib. n o. 1 72, p p. 9 0-104). E . 0 . Negahban c ons iders t ha t t hey w ere l oca l ly p roduced . I n b r ief , t he y ie ld f rom t he s i te h as r a ised more quest ions t han c an a s y et b e a nswered a nd i t w i l l o bv ious ly h ave t o b e i nvest iga ted f urther. The e xcava t ions c arr ied o ut by A . Hak im i i n 1 967 i n Ka luraz ( Gi lan) a nd a n umber o f o ther s i tes r evea led a c u lture s im i lar t o t ha t o f Mar l ik . But unfor tunate ly t here i s n o t e ven a p re l im inary a ccount a part f rom n otes i n p er iod ica ls ( b ib. n o. 1 79, pp. 1 76-19 4 ). A J apanese e xped it ion w orked i n G i lan i n 1 96 0 a nd 1 96 4 . Among t he s i tes i t i nvest iga ted w ere t he c emeter ies a t Gha lekuti a nd L asu lkan . The ma ter ia l d iffers f rom t ha t f ound a t Mar l ik a nd Ka luraz i n h av ing n o o rnamen ts made o f p rec ious m eta ls, t oreu t ic a r t ic les. The b ronze weapons a re d ifferen t. The " pre-Achaemen id" d a te p roposed by t he a uthors i s o bv ious ly u nsa t isfac tory a nd r equ ires f ur ther c lar if ica tion ( b ib. n os. 7 7 , pp.25-28; 1 1

8 0). The s im i lar i ty o f s ome f orms o f i ron weapons i n Gha lekut i t o t hose i n t he Transcaucasus a nd S ia lk B g ives M . N . P ogrebova g rounds f or d a t ing t he Gha lekut i n ecropo l is t o t he 9 th-8th c entur ies B .C. ( b ib. n o. 3 3, pp. 1 58-160). A l l t hese e xcava t ions h ave r evea led a n ew, v ar ied a nd g raph ic a spect o f t he I ron Age c u lture i n t he n orth o f I ran . But t he s tudy o f i t h as o n ly j ust b egun a nd t he r esu lts a re d iff icu l t t o p red ict. I n 1 969-71 t he b ig c emetery o f Gheytaryeh n ear T ehran was e xcava ted. I t i s c haracter ised by g rey-b lack ware o f t he E ar ly I ron Age. The d irector o f t he e xcava t ion, Kambahch F ard, f u l ly s har ing T . Cuy ler Young 's hypot hes is, d a tes t he c emetery t o t he I ron Age I -II p er iod a nd d escr ibes i t a ccord ing ly ( b ib. n o. 1 22). Thus, t he work c arr ied o ut i n I ran i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he s ixt ies a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he s event ies h as s upp lemented a nd c lar if ied t he d a t ing o f t he p er iods o f t he I ron Age p roposed by R . Dyson a nd T . Cuy ler Young i n 1 965-1967 ma in ly f or t he p er iods o f I ron Age The h istor ic a l i nterpreta t ion o f t he p er iods o f t he I ron Age I II r ema ins s tab le; s ome c hanges c oncern o n ly I ron Age I I ( the works o f D . S tronach). The E ar ly I ron Age o f I ran h as n ot b een t he s ub ject o f s pec ia l i nvest iga t ion by S ov ie t a rchaeo log ists. The ma ter ia ls o f t ha t t ime h ave u sua l ly b een u sed i n c onnect ion w i th s tud ies o f c ont iguous a reas. An e xcept ion t o s ome e xtent i s a monograph by M . N . P ogrebova o n c ommon e lements i n t he ma ter ia l c u l ture o f I ran a nd t he Transcaucasus a t t he e nd o f t he 2 nd a nd b eg inn ing o f t he i st m i l lenn ium B .C. The a im o f t ha t w ork i s t o r evea l a reas w i th t he c losest p opu la tion c ontacts, wh ich c ou ld h e lp t race t he p robab le p a ths o f m igra t ion o f i nd iv idua l t r iba l g roups, i nc lud ing I ran ian o nes ( b ib. n o . 3 3). I n c ommon w i th a number o f o ther S ov ie t a rchaeo log ists, M . N . P ogrebova i s s cep t ica l a bout t he hypo thes is o f g rey-b lack ware o f t he e nd o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C . b e long ing t o I ran ian t r ibes ( b ib. n os . 3 3, pp . 1 5-16; 1 5 , p . 5 4 ; 2 1, pp . 1 921 94). 3 .

Modern s chemes o f c hrono log ica l d iv is ion o f t he E ar ly I ron Age

The E ar ly I ron Age i n I ran s pans t he t ime f rom t he l ast t h ird o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. t o t he p er iod o f t he f orma t ion o f t he e ar ly I ran ian s ta tes. I ts d iv is ion i nto t hree p er iods was d eve loped i n t he s ixt ies i n t he works o f R . Dyson, T . Cuy ler Young a nd L . Vanden Berghe a nd was t he r esu l t o f al ong a ccumu la t ion o f ma ter ia l ( b ib. n o. 8 8, pp. 1 93-217; 2 19 , pp . 5 3-85; 2 23, pp. 1 1-34 ; 2 01, p p . 4 1-46). The p er iod I ron Age I was a pprox ima te ly 1 300/1250-1000 B .C.; I ron Age I -10008 00/750 B .C.; a nd I ron Age 1 1-750-550 B .C. T . Cuy ler Young made t he b as is o f h is r esearch t he t ypo log ica l c hange i n t he p ottery o f t he s tra t if ied s ett lement , Hasan lu. The p ottery o f a number o f s i tes o f c entra l-nor th western a nd w estern I ran ( S ia lk, G iyan, Geoy T epe, t he h oards f rom t he a rea o f Khurv in;Chandar, Z endani S u le iman P asargadae a nd Z iw iyeh) was a dd i t iona l c ompara t ive ma ter ia l. The c hrono log ica l l im its o f t he ma ter ia l h e e xam ined a re 1 500-500 B .C. As a r esu lt o f t he i nvest iga t ion h e c omp i led a g enera l s cheme o f p ottery d eve lopmen t wh ich a lso e nab led h im t o d ifferen t ia te t he t hree ma in p er iods. E ach i s c haracter ised by a d ef in i te p ottery t echn ique, d ifferent f orms o f v esse ls a nd d ifferent ways o f e xter ior d ecora t ion. T . Cuy ler Young c a l led t hese p er iods c eram ic h or izons: Ii s t he H or izon o f t he E ar ly Western Grey Ware ( 1300/1250-1000 B .C.); I i s t he Hor izon o r Group 1 2

o f t he L ate Western Grey Ware ( 1000-800 B . C.); a nd I I t he L a te Western Buff Ware Hor izon ( 759/700-550 B .C.). The f irst h or izon c orr esponds t o L eve l Hasan lu V , G iyan 14 -3 , S ia lk V , Geoy T epe B a nd Khorv in-Chandar . When t he p o ttery o f t he Hasan lu V L eve l a nd s i tes c ontemporary w ith i t w ere c ompared w ith t he p ottery o f t he p reced ing p er iod, t he L a te Bronze Age —the b reak w ith p o ttery t rad it ion was o bv ious t o t he i nvest iga tor . Whereas t he p ottery o f t he p reced ing l eve ls was p a inted ( tha t t rad i t ion g oes r ight b ack t o t he 2 nd a nd 3 rd m i l lenn ia B .C .), t he Hasan lu V l eve l a nd t he s i tes c ontemporary w i th i t a re c haracter ised by t he a ppearance o f g rey-b lack w are a nd buff ware, t he l a tter b e ing f ound i n c ompara t ive ly s ma l l quant it ies . T . Cuy ler Young d escr ibed t he f i rst h or izon a s ap er iod o f c ons iderab le c u l tura l un i ty wh ich i s a ttested, a par t f rom t he g enera l p o ttery t echn ique, b y t he s im i lar f orms o f v esse ls , t he most c haracter ist ic o f wh ich a re : ( 1) v esse ls w i th u nbr idged p our ing s pouts--teapo ts; ( 2) p edesta l-base g ob lets w i th h and les; ( 3) c ups w ith h and les . A l l t hese f orms, i n Cuy ler Young ' so p in ion, a re n ew f or t ha t h or izon .* P attern burn ish ing i s o f ten u sed a s d ecora t ion ( mo t if o f ab and o f c ross-ha tch ing o n t he s hou lders o f t he v esse l). There i s v ery , l i tt le p a inted ware — i t i s ma in ly buff ware w ith p a int ing i n b rown t ones, wh ich i s r egarded a s a v est ige o f t he p reced ing p er iod . The un i ty o f t he h or izon i s e stab l ished o n t he b as is o f " typo log ica l c eramic p ara l le ls" b etween a l l t he s i tes e numera ted. The n ext h or izon, t o wh ich L eve l Hasan lu I V, Geoy Tepe A , S ia lk B a nd G iyan I - c orrespond, i s c haracter ised by t he d eve lopment o f t he s ame g rey-b lack wares. Th is p ropos it ion i s b ased o n t he p ostu la ted s im il ar i ty o f L eve ls Hasan lu V a nd I V a nd t he c ont inu i ty o f t he p o ttery d eve lo pment o f t he G iyan I . However, T . Cuy ler Young n o tes a t t he s ame t ime t ha t t he un if ied h or izon d iv ides i nto l oca l g roups a nd t here c omes a p er iod o f " cons iderab le c eram ic d ivers i ty i n Western I ran." P a inted ware c omp lete ly d isappears i n Hasan lu I V, a nd s ome n ew f orms a ppear . I n t h is p er iod t here i s af l ower ing o f p a inted ware i n S ia lk B a nd i n Lur is tan ( the " Lur istan" s ty le). I ron o b jects b ecome w idespread . The t h ird p er iod —buff ware — is i dent if ied a t t he n orthern s i tes o f Hasan lu I I, Z iw iyeh, Z endani S u le iman a nd i n t he s outh i n t he A chaemen id v i l lage a t S usa, a nd P ersepo l is/Pasargadae. Hasan lu i s t he o n ly s tra t if ied s i te i n wh ich t h is h or izön i s e s ab l ished . The l eve ls o f t h is h or izon a t Hasan lu f o l low t he p er iod o f d eso lat ion wh ich, i n t he o p in ion o f a rchaeo log is ts, may h ave l asted a t l east 1 50 y ears a f ter t he d estruct ion a nd r u in o f t he bu i ld ings i n t he Hasan lu I V l eve l . Th is h or izon i s c hara cter ised by t he d isappearance o f g rey-b lack ware. Monochrome buff ware, s omet imes w ith p a inted o r i nc ised d ecora t ions ( hang ing t r iang les *T . Cuy ler Young d oes n ot f ormu la te t h is p ropos i t ion a s s uch a nywhere. R egard ing t he Hasan lu V l eve l h e n ames o n ly t he g ob lets wh ich c haracter ise t he p ottery o f t ha t l eve l . However, t eapots a re a lso n ew f or t ha t l eve l, wh ich i s c lear ly o ut o f c ontext. F or G iyan I h e n o tes t ha t t he g ob lets h ere c an b e r egarded a s ad irect d eve lopment o f t he v esse ls o f G iyan I l eve l . Descr ibing t he e nt ire h or izon a s a who le, h e p o ints o ut t ha t t he t eapo ts a nd g ob lets a s we l l a s t he d es ign burn ish l ink t he h or izon w ith t he H issar I I B -C c omp lex (1 900-1800 B . C .). However, i t must b e n o ted t hat o n ly o ne f ragment o f at eapo t h as b een f ound a t Hasan lu i tse lf ( b ib. n o .

2 19 , p .

5 7 ;

8 6, p .

3 6). 1 3

l ef t b lank , f i l led i n s o l id o r c ross-ha tched) b ecomes t he n orm. A number o f n ew p ottery f orms a ppear . Most o f t he p o ttery f orms a nd f ea tures o f t he p ottery o f Hasan lu I V d o n o t c arry o n i nto p er iod I I. However, i n t he o p in ion o f T . Cuy ler Young, t he ma ter ia l o f Hasan lu when c omp ared w i th t hat o f o ther s i tes a ttests n o t t o ag enera l c u ltura l b reak b etween l eve ls I V a nd I , b ut r a ther a g radua l ( desp ite t he b reak o f a t l east 1 50 y ears —I. M .) c u l tura l c hange . The o r ig in o f t he " Achaemen id" ware i n I ran i n i t s t urn " l ie i n t he I ron I I p er iod, a nd n o b reak i n t he r ecord marks t he t rans it ion f rom p re- o r p roto-h istor ic t imes t o t he h istor ic a ge o f Cyrus a nd h is s uccessors", a l though Cuy ler Young d oes a dm it t ha t t h is v iew may b e d isputed ( b ib . n o . 2 19 , p . 5 9 ; 2 23, pp. 2 7-29). I t must b e s tressed t ha t T . Cuy ler Young d en ies t he c u ltura l c on t inu i ty b etween t he s i tes o f t he Bronze Age a nd I ron Age I . The ma in a rgument i s t he a brupt r ep lacement o f t he t rad i t ion o f p a inted ware, wh ich c haract er ised t he ma ter ia l c u l ture o f t he I ran ian p lateau i n t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C., by g rey-b lack monochrome ware. On t he b as is o f at horough s tudy o f t he s tra t igraphy o f Hasan lu a nd ma ter ia l f rom c ontemporary I ran ian s i tes, R . Dyson c ame t o s im i lar c onc lus ions s imu l taneous ly w ith T . Cuy ler Young o n t he e x istence o f t hree p er iods i n t he d eve lopment o f t he ma ter ia l c u lture o f t ha t t ime. He mere ly r ep laced t he unw ie ldy d ef in i t ions " ceram ic h or izons" w ith t he p er iods I ron Age I , I a nd I I r espect ive ly ( b ib. n o. 8 8, p . 2 11 , Tab le 2 ). T . Cuy ler Young a greed w i th t he s ubst i tut ion. A s trong o b ject ion wh ich B . Dyson made t o t he p roposed s cheme was t he d a t ing o f t he S ia lk B c emetery, wh ich h e s uggested was I ron Age I I a nd n ot I ron Age I , a s p roposed by T . Cuy ler Young ( b ib. n o . 8 8, p p. 2 00-201, 2 07-208). I n t ha t c ase t here i s ad ifferent e va lua t ion o f t he t ime o f t he emergence o f p a inted ware, R . Dyson d a tes t o I ron Age I o n ly t hose s i tes wh ich d o n ot c onta in p a inted ware, n ame ly, Hasan lu I V, Z endan ( ear ly), Geoy Tepe A , a nd s ome o f t he g raves o f Mar l ik. L ike T . Cuy ler Y oung, R . Dyson a dvoc ated t he i dea o f a n a brupt c hange i n t he c u lture o f I ron Age I c ompared w ith t he L a te Bronze Age. On t he b as is o f ma ter ia l f rom c emeter ies, L . Vanden B erghe s ing les o ut f ive f ea tures wh ich c haracter ise t he d ifferences b etween t he E ar ly I ron Age a nd t he p reced ing p er iod. He w r i tes : 1 . A t t hat t ime t he d ead were n o l onger bur ied under h ouse f l oors. E xtramura l c emeter ies b egan t o a ppear, s i tua ted s ome d istance f rom t he s ett lemen t, t he l a tter b ecom ing af or t if ied p opu la t ion c entre. 2 . I n t he ma in t he g raves were u sua l ly s tone ( except Khurv in). 3 . A l arge p ar t o f t he bur ia l i nventory c ompr ises p ottery wh ich d iffers s harp ly f rom t ha t o f t he p reced ing p er iod. I t i s n o l onger p a inted but g rey-b lack. Vesse ls w i th s pouts a re t he c haracteri st ic f orm. 4 . Apart f rom p ottery, t he g raves c onta in many meta l a rt ic les, a t f irst ( Iron Age I -I. M .) t hese a re b ronze a r tefacts. 5 . Th is p er iod i s c haracter ised by t he a ppearance o f t he a n ima l s ty le ( vesse ls i n t he f orm o f a n ima ls, d eta i ls o f h ouseho ld a rt ic les —bib. n o . 2 01, p p. 4 1-42). H ence, t he d iv is ion o f t he I ron Age i n I ran i n to t hree p er iods h as b een a ccepted by a l l r eseai ichers s tudy ing p re-Achaemen id I ran. There a re d ifferences o n s ome a spects o f d a t ing t he s i tes o f t he p er iod I ron Age II I. R egard ing I ron Age I t o I , a l l t he r esearchers a re unan imous. They s tress o n t he o ne h and t he a brupt r ep lacement o f t he ma ter ia l c u lture i n t he I ron Age I p er iod ( rep lacement o f p a inted ware by g rey-b lack), a nd, o n t he o ther, t hey b e l ieved t ha t t he c u lture o f I ron Age I i s t he c ont inua t ion o f t he d eve lopment o f t he c u lture o f I ron Age I . C oord ina t ing a rchaeo log ica l d a ta w i th d a ta i n wr itten s ources, T . Cuy ler Young a ttr ibuted t hese 1 4

c hanges i n c u lture t o t he a rr iva l o f an ew p opu la t ion--the I ran ians. But h e put t he t ime o f t he ir a ppearance f our hundred y ears e ar l ier t han was s et i n t he wr i tten s ources p rec ise ly b ecause i n t he 1 0 th-9 th c en tur ies B .C. t he a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l d id n o t s how a ny c hanges wh ich i nd icated t he a ppearance o f an ew i nf i ltra tor . I t i s n ow a ccepted t ha t g rey-b lack ware i s c ons idered a n i nd ica tor o f t he a ppearance o f t he I ran ian e thnos. When l ook ing f or a p oss ib le r eg ion f or t he o r ig ina l d istr ibut ion o f g rey-b lack ware, T . Cuy ler Young l a id p ar t icu lar s tress o n t he s im i lar i ty b etween c er ta in f orms o f t he ware ( teapo ts), t he c o lour, a nd t he methods o f d ecorat ing t he s urface o f v esse ls w i th burn ish i n t he s i te a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C. a nd t he p er iod o f I ron Age I . Th is a pp l ies p r imar i ly t o H issar I I B -C i n Gurgan. I n h is o p in ion, moreover, t he l i nks a re g rea te st w i th t he I ron Age I s i tes wh ich a re most c lose ly s i tua ted t o H issar , i .e. Khurv in-Chandar a nd t he S ia lk A c emetery. Thus, i t was p ostu la ted t hat t he I ndo-Iran ians w ere p resent t o t he e ast o f Khurv in-Chandar a s e ar ly a s t he b eg inn ing o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium, a nd t ha t t hey s ubsequent ly m igra ted t o t he w est o f I ran a t t he e nd o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium. The Gurgan s i tes p er ished o r were a bandoned n ot l a ter t han 1 800 B .C. a nd, c onsequent ly, t here i s ac hrono log ica l b reak o f a t l east 5 00 y ears b etween t hem a nd t he I ron Age I s i tes. Neverthe less, T . Cuy ler Young h as j o ined t hese t wo p o ints, b e l iev ing t ha t t he m iss ing l ink, i nd icat ing t h is movement, e x ists but h as n o t y et b een d iscovered ( b ib. n o. 2 23, p . 2 7). To r educe t h is c hrono log ica l b reak a nd s ubstant ia te t he d irect ion o f movement, h e put a n e ar l ier d ate o n t he e as tern s i tes o f I ron Age I ( Khurv in-Chandar a nd S ia lk A ) ( b ib. n o. 2 23, p . 2 7). S ummar is ing , o ne c an s ay : ( 1) by t he b eg inn ing o f t he s event ies t he I ron Age s i tes h ad b een i nvest iga ted o ver a c ons iderab le p ar t o f t he n orthwest a nd western I ran. The e ast a nd s outh-east r ema in r e la t ive ly unexp lored i n t h is r espect. But i t i s h ard t o i mag ine a n I ron Age c u lture b e ing d iscovered t here wh ich i s c lose t o t he o ne i n quest ion, s ince t he d eser ts o f t he c entre o f t he p la teau were a n a tura l b arr ier b etween t hese t wo p arts o f I ran; ( 2) t he I ron Age h as b een d iv ided i nto a rchaeo log ica l p er iods b ased o n t he t ypo logy o f t he ware; ( 3) o f t he t hree p er iods t he most i mpor tan t i s I ron Age I s ince t ha t was t he f orma t ive o ne f or t he e nt ire I ron Age. There w ere s o many i mportant c hanges i n I ran 's ma ter ia l c u lture t hen t ha t t he I ran ians ' a rr iva l o n t he p la teau i s l i nked w i th p rec ise ly t ha t p er iod. The I ran ians a re r egarded a s t he b earers o f g rey-b lack ware. True, R . M . Gh irshman p referred t o c a l l t hem " nouveaux v enus" a nd r egarded t he I ran ians a s t he b earers o f t he " S ia lk B " t ype o f p a inted ware . Correspond ing ly, a ccord ing t o h is d at ing, t he ir a rr iva l s hou ld b e d a ted t o I ron Age I , a nd a ccord ing t o R . Dyson 's d a t ing o f t ha t s i te —Iron Age I I ( b ib. n o . 1 03, p . 4 7). The d eba te a bout where t hey c ame f rom a nd h ow t hey m igrated r ema ins unreso lved d ef in i t ive ly, a lt hough l a te ly t he l i nk b etween t h is c u lture a nd H issar I I-C a nd c onseq uent ly t he p oss ib i l i ty o f a n e astern p a th h as b een quest ioned ( b ib. n o . 8 4 , pp . 1 55, 1 66-167; 1 03, p . 4 8 .

1 5

CHAPTER I POTTERY

A t p resent t here i s n o t ypo log ica l c lass if ica t ion o f I ron Age I p ottery. U sua l ly t he p ottery i s c ons idered a s ac omp lex w i th in e ach i nd iv idua l s i te a lone. I t i s t hen f ur ther s tud ied by c ompar ing i nd iv idua l f orms w i th p ott ery f rom o ther s i tes. But s ince t here i s n o t ypo logy o f p o ttery, t hese c ompar isons a re v ery a rb itrary. An e xamp le o f t h is c an b e s een i n T . Cuy ler Young 's s ummary t ab le a rgu ing t he un i ty o f t he c eram ic h or izon o f t he I ron Age I p er iod ( b ib. n o . 2 19 , F ig . 1 1, p .73 ) . I t w i l l b e e xam ined f ur ther i n t h is c hapter. I n i tse lf h is work i s t he o n ly r esearch i n wh ich a n a ttempt h as b een made t o l ook a t t he p o ttery o f I ran a s ac hrono log ica l c omp lex f or e ach o f t he t hree p er iods c hosen by h im. A p os i t ive a spect o f t h is work i s p r imar i ly t he p er iod isa t ion a nd t he s ynchron isa t ion o f t he s i tes w ith in t he p er iods, wh ich h e d id o n t he b as is o f t he s tudy o f t he p o ttery. T . Cuy ler Young d id n o t s ee i t a s h is t ask t o make a c ompehens ive a na lys is o f t he p ottery, p ar ticu lar ly t hat o f I ron Age I . H is a im was t o p rove t he c u ltura l un i ty o f t ha t p er iod. To t ha t e nd h e c hose a number o f f ea tures o f p ottery wh ich i n h is v iew most v iv id ly c haracter ise i t s c hrono log ica l a nd c u ltura l un i ty. These f ea tures a re t he c o lours a nd method o f d ecorat ing p ottery a nd t he number o f f orms ( see Chapter I , S ect ion 3 ). I n a dd it ion, T . Cuy ler Young d ist ingu ished ware a ccord ing t o t he n a ture o f t he p aste o n t he b as is o f a n a na lys is o f t he Hasan lu ware.* T . Cuy ler Young s tud ied t he p ottery p r imar i ly f rom t he p o int o f v iew o f s im i lar i t ies a nd d id n o t p ay a ttent ion t o d ifferences wh ich wou ld h ave b een due t o l oca l v ar ia t ions. He t ook n o a ccount o f t he q uant itat ive c orr e la t ion o f t he p o ttery h e was c ompar ing, wh ich was n o t t he s ame a t d iff eren t s i tes. I n r e ject ing t he c ont inu i ty w i th t he p reced ing p er iod, h e under-est ima ted t he r o le p layed i n f orm ing t he I ron Age I c eram ic c omp lex by t he p ottery o f t he Bronze Age i n I ran a nd n e ighbour ing a reas. A l l t hese s hortcom ings must b e t aken i nto a ccount. 1 .

C lass if icat ion o f I ron Age I ware

Unpa inted ware o f t wo c o lours--grey-b lack a nd buff-is c haracteri s t ic o f t he I ron Age I p er iod. The f ir ing was d one a t ah igh t empera ture w i th s ubsequent s moke-b lacken ing b l ister ing t o p roduce a b lack c o loured ware. Th is c o lour i s p redom inant a t most o f t he s i tes: S ia lk A-82% , Khurv in-80% , Hasan lu-40% , D inkha I I-71% , G iyan 1 -23% . There i s n o o bserved c orre lat ion b etween t he c o lour a nd t he f orms o f t he p ottery . Unfortuna te ly T . - Cuy ler Young d oes n o t r evea l s pec if ic f ea tures o f t he p aste o f e ach g roup c hosen . He mere ly c a l ls t hem " coarse ware, c ommon ware, f ine ware". Pub l ica t ions g enera l ly a dm i t t echn o log ica l d escr ipt ion ( paste i nc lus ions). I n h is work t hese f ea tures a re n o t un iversa l f or a l l t he s i tes h e e xam ined. I n S ia lk V h e d ifferent iated t he p ottery o n ly a ccord ing t o t he s urface c o lour. G iyan I-I i s c haracter ised by p a inted a nd monochromed ware. The monochrome w are i s s ubd iv ided b o th a ccord ing t o t he c ompos it ion o f t he p aste a nd t he c o lour o f t he s l ip ( b ib. n o . 2 19 p p. 5 3-68). I n s ome, t h is f ea ture d id n o t p lay a s ubstant ia l r o le i n t he d escr ipt i on o f t he I ron Age I " ceram ic h or izon". 1 6

I n West Lur istan t he g rey-b lack ware i s unknown; i t h as p enetra ted s ome but n o t a l l a reas o f E ast L ur istan. Decora t ion c ons ists o f f lut ing , a pp l iqués, p atterned b urn ish ing a nd i n i nd iv idua l c ases, p a int ing. I n t erms o f f orm t echn ique, t he I ron Age I p o ttery i s d iv ided i nto whee l-made a nd h and-made. However , t he p ercentage o f t he l a tter i s l ow: i n S ia lk--two h and-made v esse ls, wh ich i s 1 .8% o f t he e nt ire p o ttery. I n Yan ik T epe i n t he L ake U rm ia a rea o n ly t wo g raves a re k nown a nd b o th c onta ined o n ly h and-made ware ( 8 v esse ls). One v esse l i s known f rom God in T epe a nd t wo f rom Geoy T epe. Hand-made ware p redom inates i n Kord lar T epe. Thus, e xc lud ing t he l a tter, where, a s y et, i t i s d iff icu lt t o make a c a lcu la t ion, h and-made ware c ompr ises a bout 3 % o f t he t ota l r ecorded ware. i s n ot c lass if ied i n t h is work.

I n v iew o f i t s s ma l l p ercentage, i t

S cheme o f t ypo log ica l c lass if ica t ion o f p ottery ( f ig . 2 ) A l l t he p o ttery o f t he p er iod under e xam ina t ion, w i th a v ery s ma l l e xcept ion, c omes f rom bur ia l c omp lexes. Therefore t he v esse ls a re who le a s ar u le, wh ich f ac i l ita tes c lass if ica t ion. I n a l l, 3 96 whee l-made v esse ls h ave b een t aken i nto c ons idera t ion f rom pub l ica t ions .* The f orm o f t he v esse l i s t he b as is o f t he c lass if ica t ion. I ts v ar iety h as n ecess i ta ted t he a dopt ion o f at hree-stage c lass if ica t ion. The v esse ls a re d iv ided i nto c a tegor ies a ccord ing t o t he most g enera l o ut l ines. The c ategory I i s t he e xcept ion: i t i s b ased o n t he p resence o f as pout. E ach c a tegory i s s ubd iv ided i nto g roups a ccord ing t o t he e lements wh ich d eterm ine t he c haracter ist ic f ea tures o f t he v esse ls: t he p resence o r a bsence o f h and les o r f eet. Fur ther d iv is ion i nto t ypes i s d eterm ined b y t he f orm o f t he b ody. The t erm " sub-type" i s u sed t o i nd ica te v ar ia nts w i th in a t ype. Accord ing t o t he s cheme, a l l t he p o ttery o f t he I ron Age I p er iod i s d iv ided i nto e ight c a tegor ies: I - d eep v esse ls w ith l ong n arrow n ecks a nd f a t b od ies jar-shaped , 5 0 e xamp les ( 12.6%); I - d eep v esse ls w i th f at b od ies a nd a b road s hort n eck, w i th a s pout -spouted v esse ls, 3 6 e xamp les ( 9%); I I -s ha l low v esse ls w i th a v ery w ide n eck--bow l-shaped, 9 6 e xamp les ( 24.2%); I V -d eep v esse ls o f c losed f orm w ith v ary ing d egrees o f f at b od ies a nd a s epara te n eck--pot-shaped, 5 7 e xamp les ( 14.2%); V - s ma l l b road-necked v esse ls o f v ary ing p rof i les -cups, 8 1 e xamp les ( 20 .4%); V I -d eep v esse ls o f l ong p roport ions w i th a f a t b ody a nd l ong n eck, o n at a l l p edesta l-gob lets, 5 3 e xamp les ( 13 .3%) V II - d eep v esse ls o f l ong p roport ions w i th c oncave s ides--Ist ikhans, 1 1 e xamp les ( 2 .7%) ; V III - c up l ike v esse ls o n at a l l p edesta l-vases, 3e xamp les ( 0 .7%). Ten v esse ls o f r are f orms a re n ot i nc luded i n t he c lass if ica t ion, 2 .5% . The f i rst c ategory o f v esse ls i s d iv ided i nto t hree g roups : ( a) s ing le-hand led j ars ( 23 ) 4; '( b) h and le less j ars ( 25), a nd ( c) h and le less j ars o n t hree f eet--tr ipods ( 2). Th is number d oes n ot i nc lude t he p ottery f rom West L ur istan. I ts s imp le f orms d o n o t y et l end t hemse lves t o d iv is ion b e tween I ron Age I a nd I . B ecause t he g raves were r eused l a ter , t he c omp lexes h ave b een d isturbed . O ther f inds c an b e d iv ided ( e.g. weapons), but f or p ottery L . Vanden B erge a t b est s ing les o ut c haracter ist ic f orms f or t h is o r t ha t p er iod. A l l p ottery i s b e igeb rown a nd t he f orms a re s imp le. Th is c lass if ica t ion w i l l l i st o n ly t he i ndisputab le a na log ies w i th West L ur istan i n t h is p er iod. **

Number o f v esse ls i n b rackets. 1 7

The s econd c a tegory i s a lso d iv ided i nto t hree g roups: ( a) v esse ls w ith a n unbr idged s pout j o ined t o t he b ody o f t he v esse l--teapots ( 27) , ( b) v esse ls w i th a t ubu lar s pout j o ined t o t he b ody o f t he v esse l a nd w i th ab asket h and le ( 5), ( c) v esse ls w ith a s ma l l c hutel ike s pout a t t he r im-" sauc iäres" ( 4). The t h ird c ategory h as f our g roups: ( a) b ow ls w i thout h and les ( 68), ( b) b ow ls w i th a h and le ( 17), ( c) t r ipods ( 9), ( d) f l a t-bottomed b ow ls w i th a p ro ject ion a t t he r im i n t he f orm o f a mouff lon 's h ead ( 2). The f our th c a tegory: ( a) f l a t-bottomed p o ts w ithout h and les ( 45), ( b) t r ipods ( 1), ( c) f l a t-bottomed p ots w i th t wo h and les--"kra ters" ( 11). The f i f th c a tegory : h and les ( 13).

( a) s ing le-hand led c ups ( 68),

The s ixth c a tegory: w i thout a h and le ( 25).

( a) g ob lets w i th a h and le ( 28),

The s eventh c a tegory: w ith a h and le ( 1). The e ighth c ategory: ac losed t op ( 1).

( b) c ups w i thout ( b) g ob lets

( a) h and le less i s t ikhans ( 10),

( b) i s t ikhans

( a) v ases w i th a n o pen t op ( 2), v ases w ith

The v esse ls i n c a tegory I ( a) d iv ide i nto f our t ypes i n t erms o f b ody f orm: I( a) 1 Vesse ls w i th a s pher ica l b ody. The d iameter o f t he b ase i n most c ases i s e qua l t o o r g rea ter t han t he d iameter o f t he r im; a l ong f unne l-shaped n eck w i th a f langed r im. S teep s hou lders. The t op e nd o f t he h and le i s j o ined we l l b e low t he r im, t he l ower e nd t o t he s hou lder . The c o lour i s g rey-b lack a nd r ed. He ight b etween 1 5-27 cm; o ne j ug was 9 .5 c m--Khurv in ( 10) ( for more d eta i ls s ee Append ix I). I( a) l ' A v ar iant o f t h is t ype i s t he j ar w ith t he s tra ight n eck. The t op e nd o f t he h and le i s j o ined t o t he e dge o f t he r im. The c o lour i s g reyb lack a nd buff ; h e ight f rom 1 1-29 .8 cm. One o f t hem i s d ecora ted o n t he s hou lders w i th a z ig-zag i nc is ion--Khurv in ( 3). I( a)2 A j ar wh ich h as a b ody w i th t he g rea test w idth i n t he t op t h ird. The d iameter o f t he b ase i n c ons iderab ly l arger t han t ha t o f t he r im. A l l w i th a f unne l-shaped n eck a nd s teep s hou lders. The t op e nd o f t he h and le i s j o ined b e low t he f l anged r im; t he l ower e nd t o t he s hou lder. One j ar h as s lop ing s hou lders due t o t he l oca t ion o f t he g rea test b ody d iameter t owards t he m idd le o f t he h e ight ( grave 1 0/2). A l l t he v esse ls a re g reyb lack; h e ight b etween 1 8-28 c m, o ne i s 9c m--Khurv in ( 5). I( a) 3 J ars w i th a b icon ica l b ody. The d iameter o f t he b ase i s g rea ter t han t ha t o f t he f l anged r im. The n eck i s l ong a nd f unne l-shaped. The s hou lders a re s loped. The t op e nd o f t he h and le i s j o ined b e low t he r im, t he b ottom t o t he upper p art o f t he b ody. I n t he o n ly e xamp le f rom G iyan t he h and le i s i nc l ined upwards a nd n o t o utwards a s i s u sua l ly t he c ase. A l l t he v esse ls a re g rey-b lack; t he h e ight i s b etween 1 5-23 cm; t wo f rom S ia lk A , o ne f rom G iyan I . I( a) 4 J ars w i th a s pher ica l b ody. The d iameter o f t he b ase i s s ma ll er t han f ha t o f t he r im. The n eck i s s hort a nd s tra ight, t he r im a dded. S hou lders i nc l ined. Hand le j o ined t o t he s hou lder . Bead ing o r ad rawn l i ne a t t he b ase o f t he n eck. Co lour g rey-b lack a nd r ed; h e ight 2 1 c mS ia lk A ( 2). I( a) 4 ' A v esse l f rom Hasan lu V c an b e c ond i t iona l ly c lassed under t h is t ype, a l though i t d iffers i n s ize ( he ight 1 3 .7 cm), a nd a dded b ase a nd a f unne l-shaped n eck w i th a f l anged r im. Co lour g rey. 1 8

There a re e ight t ypes o f v esse ls i n t he f i rst c a tegory ( Group

b ).

I( b) 1 J ars w i th a s pher ica l b ody. The d iameter o f t he b ase i s g rea ter t han t hat o f t he r im. Narrow n eck o r l ong, c y l indr ica l ( Giyan) o r s hort, f unne l-shaped ( Hasan lu). An a dded r im. S teep s hou lders. Co lour g rey a nd b rown. H e ight b etween 1 8-22.5 c m--Giyan I , Hasan lu V ( 2). I( b) 2 J ars w i th a b ody h av ing i t s g rea test d iameter i n t he t op t h ird. However, t he j ars wh ich s hare t h is f ea ture d iffer b oth i n s ize a nd p rop or t ions o f t he b ody. A v esse l f rom G iyan ( grave 1 7) h as more e longa ted p roport ions, o thers h ave a f a tter b ody. The n ecks o n a l l a re l ong a nd n arrow, but o ne j ar ( Giyan, g rave 2 6) h as a n eck wh ich w idens a brupt ly where i t j o ins t he b ody. Co lour i s g rey a nd c ream; 2 j ars a re p a inted ( D inkha, G iyan g rave 2 6). He ight 7 .5, 1 2 .7 a nd 2 0 .5 cm. D inkha I I, G iyan I ( 3). I( b) 3 Bo tt le-shaped v esse ls w ith a lmost s tra ight s ides. The d iameter o f h e b ase i s g rea ter t han t ha t o f t he r im. A n arrow l ong n eck w ith a d rawn-out a dded r im. Co lour g rey-b lack, p a ttern o f b urn ished d ecora tion i n t he f orm o f ab and o f c ross-hatch ing o n t he s hou lder; o n a nother, i n t he f orm o f d rawn c irc les a t t he b ase o f t he n eck; h e ight b etween 2 2-23 cm. S ia lk A ( 3). I( b) 4 Sma l l j ars w i th a b ody i n t he s hape o f af l a ttened s phere. Base d iame ter i s e qua l t o r im d iameter; l ong n eck. I n o ne c ase t he r im i s a dded, i n t he o ther i t i s f langed. Co lour i s g rey-b lack; h e ight 5 a nd 9 cm--Sia lk ( 2), I( b) 5 A j ar w i th a n e gg-shaped b ody. Base d iameter i s s ma l ler t han r im d iameter. S hort w ide n eck w i th s p layed r im. Co lour g rey-b lack; h e ight 1 9.8 c m--Khurv in ( 1). I( b) 6 A j ar w ith a p ear-shaped b ody. Base d iameter i s g rea ter t han r im d iameter; t he b ase i s a dded. The n eck i s l ong a nd t he s hou lders i nc l ined. Co lour i s buff ; h e ight 1 8 c m--Giyan I ( 1), I( b) 7 J ars w i th a b icon ica l b ody. The l i ne o f t he b end i n t he b ody v ar ies —ei ther i n t he upper p art o f t he b ody o r i n t he m idd le. The r im d iameter i s g reater t han o r e qua l t o t he b ase d iameter. The n eck i s l ong a nd w ide, b ent i nwards o r s tra ight i n p rof i le w ith a s p layed o u t r im. The c learest f orm o f t h is t ype i s a t D inkha Tepe I I, where e xcept f or o ne i t em, a l l a re g rey a nd b etween 1 6 a nd 2 1 cm h igh. ( 8). S imi lar v esse ls a re known i n G iyan I --of t hem t hree a re r ed ,one g rey w i th a h e ight f rom 1 2 t o 1 6 cm. I( b) 8 A j ar w i th a s wo l len r ound b ody a nd a n a dded b ase. S lop ing s hou lders, s hort n eck f unne l-shaped w ith a c hamfered r im. Open e nded b ead ing o n t he s hou lders. Brown c o loured. He ight 1 7.5 cm G iyan ( 1). Group ( c) i n t he f i rst c a tegory h as t wo s ma l l j ugs o n t hree f eet. One ' o f t hem--1 ( c) 1 --has a f lattened s pher ica l b ody ( S ia lk A , h e ight 8 c m, g rey-b lack), t he o ther--I ( c) 2 -- h as a p ear-shaped b ody ( Giyan I , h e ight 8 cm, r ed). I ( a) Group ( a) o f t he s econd c a tegory o f v esse ls ( teapots) i s s ubd iv ided i nto t ypes a ccord ing t o t he s hape o f t he b ody t o n o purpose s ince t hey a re a l l s im i lar. As a r u le t he h e ight i s l ess t han t he b ody d iameter. On ly t wo t eapots f rom S ia lk A a re a n e xcept ion--the ir h e ight i s e qua l t o o r s l ight ly l arger t han t he b ody d iameter. The l argest b ody d iameter i s u sua l ly i n t he upper p art. The t eapo t i s s ubd iv ided i nto f our t ypes a ccord ing t o t he f orm o f t he s pout, a l l t he f ea tures b e ing a ccompan iments t o t he ma in o ne. The s pout i s i n t wo p arts--a l ower, 1 9

e nc losed, c y l indr ica l p art j o ined d irect ly t o t he b ody, a nd t he e nd p ar t i n t he f orm o f a n o pen t rough. I ( a) 1 T eapots where t he e nc losed p ar t o f t he s pout b ends s moo th ly t hrough 4 30 i nto a l ong h or izonta l t rough wh ich i s o n t he s ame l eve l a s t he r im. The b ase o f t he t rough h as a s ma l l h or izonta l l ug . I n s ome e xamp les t h is l ug i s s haped i nto a v ert ica l b ird 's h ead. A l l t eapo ts o f t h is t ype h ave al ooped h and le. The n eck h as e i ther a n a dded r im o r af l anged r im. He ight 1 1-16 c m; a l l g rey-b lack--Khurv in ( 9). I ( a) 1 ' A s imp l if ied v ar iant o f t h is t ype i s t he t eapo t f rom Ghey taryeh, where t he e nc losed p art i s i n t he f orm o f ac y l inder wh ich meets a t 4 5° at rough wh ich i s s horter t han i n t he ma in t ype a nd wh ich d oes n o t h ave al ug a t i t s b ase. I nstead o f ah and le, i t h as a m in ia ture h or izonta l ly p ierced knob. H e ight 1 9 c m, c o lour unspec if ied. I ( a) 2 The s pout o nt h is t ype o ft eapo t i s a t a n a ng le o f 6 0 d egrees . Both p arts o f t he s pout a re o n t he s ame l ine, i n o ther words o ne c an s ay t ha t t he s pout c ons ists o f o n ly a c y l inder whose upper p ar ts i s c ut o ff a t a n a ng le. Where t he e nc losed p art e nters t he t rough, t here i s al ug . These t eapots a re d ifferent i n t ha t t hey h ave a l onger b ody, a n a dded n eck a nd a h and le wh ich i s j o ined a t t he t op t o t he r im a nd wh ich r ises h igher t han t he r im. Co lour i s g rey-b lack, h e ight 1 5, 1 7 cm —Sia lk A ( 2). I ( a) 3 I n t eapots o f t h is t ype t he l ong c y l indr ica l p art o f t he s pou t i s v er t ica l o r s omet imes s l ight ly i nc l ined t owards t he b ody a nd h as bu lges a t i t s b ase. The l ong n arrow t rough i s b en t upwards a l i tt le a nd i s a t a n o btuse a ng le t o t he c y l indr ica l p ar t a nd h igher t han t he r im l eve l. There i s ar ib a t t he j o in b etween t he t wo p ar ts. There i s n o h and le. I n o ne e xamp le t he n eck i s l ong, w ith a f langed r im, i n t he o ther t he r im i s a dded. ( One v esse l i s ar econstruct ion.) Co lour unspec if ied, h e ight o f o ne i s 1 5 cm, t he o ther i s unspec if ied--Ghey taryeh ( 2). I ( a) 4 The s pout o f t h is t ype o f t eapo t i s as hor t a nd c losed s ect ion, al arge p art o f wh ich i s o ccup ied by a s harp l ug a t t he b ase, a nd a b road s hort t rough s i tua ted h or izonta l ly a nd o n t he s ame l eve l a s t he r im, e xcept f or t he e xamp le f rom Geoy Tepe, i n wh ich t he t rough i s c ons iderab ly h igher t han t he r im. Th is t ype i s c haracter ised by a l ong , s tra ight n eck w i th a f langed r im. S omet imes t here i s o n ly a r im w ithout a n eck. The D inkha Tepe t eapo ts h ave a s ty l ised " eye" o r h orn mo t if i n r e l ief i nstead o f h and les; o ne h as a h o le. I n Haf tavan T epe a nd T epe Guran t he t eap ots h ave a h and le. I n D inkha Tepe t hey were s omet imes d ecora ted w ith v ert ica l b ead ing . Co lour i s g rey-b lack a nd buff , h e ight v ar ies b etween 1 2 a nd 2 0 cm--D inkha I I, Geoy T epe , Haf tavan, Guran ( 13). A l l f our t ypes o f t eapots c ome f rom e xcava t ions. I n a dd it ion t o t hem, t here a re a lso many unc lass if ied t eapots i n p r iva te c o l lec t ions. The ma in f eature d at ing t hem t o t he I ron Age I p er iod i s af ree-stand ing s pout. I n I r s in Age I, j udg ing by s trat if ied f inds, t he s pout was a lso j o ined t o t he r im w i th a h or izonta l b r idge ( b ib. n o . 8 8 ) . T eapots o f t ypes I ( a) 1a nd I ( a) 4 c an b e f ound i n t he Ma lek i c o l lect ion, wh ich c omes f rom Rhurv in r eg ion. I n t he t ype I ( a) 1 t eapo ts, t he s pout a nd b irdhead l ug a re s omet imes f öund i n hypertroph ied d imens ions ( see 2 05 Tab le I V/ 1 6, 1 8--type I ( a) 4 ; Tab le I I-type I ( a) 1 ). Group ( b) o f t he s econd c a tegory o f v esse ls i s s ma l l, b e ing r epresen ted by o n ly o ne t ype.* * I t i s c ons idered t ha t t h is f orm i s c haracter ist ic o f I ron Age I . However, i t c an b e a rgued t ha t i t e merged a s e ar ly a s I ron Age I( b ib. n o . 2 5 , 2 0

I ( b) 1 P ot-shaped v esse ls w i th a s pher ica l b ody. The b ase i s f l a t, s omet imes a dded, i t s d iameter e qua l t o o r s l ight ly s ma l ler t han t hat o f t he r im. The n eck i s a dded. A c y l indr ica l , upward f ac ing s pout i s j o ined t o t he s hou lder. A b ow l-shaped h and le o n t he s ame p lane a s t he s pout i s j o ined t o t he o ppos ite e dge o f t he r im. S ome e xamp les a lso h ave a s ma l l s ide-hand le ( D inkha I I). Co lour i s g rey-b lack a nd buff ; h e ight b etween 9 -24 c m--Dinkha I I, Khurv in , Geytaryeh ( 5). Group ( c) o f t h is c a tegory h as t wo t ypes o f v esse ls. I ( c) 1 P o ts haped v esse ls w ith a s pher ica l b ody o r o ne wh ich w idens i n t he t op t h ird. Base d iameter i s s ma l ler t han r im d iameter. The n eck i s l ong , w iden ing t owards t he f l anged r im. The l ong t roughl ike s pout l eaves t he r im a t a n upward a ng le. The h and le i s j o ined t o t he n eck a nd t he s hou lder. Co lour i s g rey-b lack a nd buff ; h e ight 1 0-12 c m--Sia lk A , Khurv in ( 2). S im i lar v esse ls a re f ound i n West L ur istan i n Bard i Ba l c emtery ( b ib. n o. 2 09, f ig . 1 9/10). I ( c) 2 Vesse ls w ith a b ody a pproach ing t he b icon ica l. Base d iameter i s s ma l ler -t han t he f l anged r im d iameter. The l oop o f t he h and le i s i nc l ined upwards. The s hort t roughl ike s pout i s j o ined t o t he r im a nd p o ints s harp ly upwards. A p ink c o lour; h e ight 1 4 .6 cm -Giyan ( 2). Group ( a) o f t h is t h ird c a tegory o f v esse ls i s d iv ided i nto s ix t ypes. I I ( a) 1 Vesse ls i n wh ich t he b ody h as a s harp o r r ounded b end i n t he t he upper p art. The b ase d iameter i s s ma l ler t han t he r im d iame ter. I n most c ases t here i s a n a dded s ub-base. The r im d iameter i s e qua l t o o r g rea ter t han t ha t o f t he b ody. The h e ight o f t he b ody i s h a lf t he r im d iameter. Th is t ype c an b e c a l led a v ase. Co lour i s buff ; h e ight b etween 3 -10 .5 cm, w i th a r im d iameter f rom 1 2-23.7 c m--Giyan ( 6), Hasan lu ( 1). I I ( a) 1 ' The l arge b road-based v ases w i th a we l l-def ined b ody b end a re a v ar iant o f t h is t ype. The d iameter o f t he f la t b ottom i s s ma l ler t han t ha t o f t he r im, wh ich i n i t s t urn i s a lways s ma l ler t han t he b ody d iameter. Co lour i s l ight g rey a nd buff , t he l a tter p redom ina t ing . He ight i s 8 -12 .5 cm w i th a r im d iameter o f 2 2-29 cm ( most o f t he v esse ls a re f rom G eoy Tepe f rom o ne l eve l ; t hey a re f ragmented a nd t he h e ight i s p ar t ia l ly r estored)--Geoy Tepe ( 7), D inkha I I ( 3). ( The b as is f or mak ing t h is as ub-type i s t he l arger d imens ions, t he n eck wh ich i s b ent i nwards, a nd t he a bsence o f as ub-base. I t i s i nc luded i n t h is t ype b ecause o f t he ma in f eature--the b ent b ody.) I I ( a) 1 " Tha t f ea ture puts s ma l l b ow ls w ith a v ert ica l n eck, s l ight ly i nward b ent i n p rof i le, a nd s teep ly s lop ing s tra ight s ides, i nto t h is t ype t oo. The d iameter o f t he f l a t i ntegra l b ase i s a lways s ma l ler t han t he r im d iameter, wh ich i s e qua l t o t he g rea test b ody d iame ter . Co lour i s g rey, l ess o f ten buff ; h e ight i s 5 .5-7 c m w i th a r im d iameter o f 1 11 8 cm —Giyan I ( 7). I I ( a) 2 Deep v esse ls i n wh ich t he upper s ect ion o f t he b ody h as a s l ight b-u lge a nd t he l ower p art, c onverse ly, i s s harp ly b ent i nwards. The b ase i s f l a t a nd s ma l l i n d iameter . The r im i s r o l led o ver. S omet imes t he d iv is ion b etween t he t wo p ar ts o f t he b ody i s emphas ised by a f urrow o r b ead ing. C o lour i s g rey-b lack, o ne i s buff . He ight i s 1 9-30 c m; t hree e xamp les a re 8 -11.5 c m, r im d iameter i s 2 7-40 cm o r 1 2-18 cm r espect ive ly--S ia lk A ( 12). I I ( a) 3 Deep b ow ls w ith s tra ight d iverg ing s ides, s omet imes c onc ave i n t h jlower p ar t. The d iameter o f t he a dded b ase i s s ma l ler t han t ha t o f t he r im. Ha lf way up t he s ides o r s l ight ly n earer t o t he r im, w ith a f ew e xcept ions, t here i s af urrow o r b ead ing . The l a tter s omet imes h as t hree l ugs p ierced h a lfway. The r im o r t he b ase i s s ome t imes 2 1

e mphas ised w i th b ead ing . I dent ica l i n f orm, t he v esse ls a re d iv ided a ccord ing t o s ize: t he h e igh t o f s ome i s 4 .5-12 c m w ith a r im d iameter o f 7 .5-23 c m; o thers a re 1 6-32 c m h igh w i th a r im d iameter up t o 4 0 c m. Co lour i s g rey-b lack, e xcept f or o ne buff o ne ( grave XV, t he v esse l i s s omewha t d ifferent f rom t he e n t ire s er ies)--Sia lk A ( 14). I I ( a) 4 D ish-type v esse ls ( worm b ow ls) w ith s lop ing, s l igh t ly b u lg ing s ides a nd a f langed r im. The b ase i s f l at o r more o f ten i n t he f orm o f as ub-base . The i nner s urface o f most o f t hem h as a s ma l l mode l led r idge e nc los ing h o les. S omet imes o n ly t he h o les a re p resen t w ithout t he a pp l iqué. The c o lour i s g rey-b lack a nd buff . He ight i s f rom 6 .5-10 c m w ith a r im d iameter o f 2 4-35 cm —D inkha I I ( 5). I I ( a) 5 D ish-type v esse ls w i th s l ight ly i nward ly b ent s ides, s omet imes o n a-s ub-base. F langed r im. C o lour buff , i n o ne c ase g rey. H e ight f rom 2 -9 c m w i th a r im d iameter o f 2 1-35 cm ( an e xcept ion i s 3 .8 c m h igh w i th a r im d iameter o f 1 2.5 c m)--Giyan ( 7), Geoy Tepe, g rave K ( 1). Group ( b) h as t hree t ypes o f b ow ls: I I ( b) 1 , I I ( b) 1 ' s ha l low b ow ls w i th w ide s l ight ly bu lg ing s ides . F la t b ottom-. The f l anged r im h as a h or izonta l h and le. Co lour i s g reyb lack a nd buff . I n t hese v esse ls i t i s p oss ib le t o d ist ingu ish a c orre lat ion b etween t he h e ight , r im d iameter a nd b ase d iameter o f 1 :2 :1 ; ( I II ( b) 1 ' ) 1 :3 :2 ( 1.5). I n t he f i rst c ase t he h e ight v ar ies f rom 8 -10 c m w i th a —r im d iameter o f 1 5-20 c m ( in o ne c ase t he h e ight i s 5 .7 c m, d iameter 1 3.5 c m). I n I I ( b) 1 ' t he h e ight i s 9 -10 cm w ith a d iameter o f 2 7-32 c m--Khurv in ( I II ( b) 1 ) :77; ( I II ( b) 1 ' )--8. I I ( b) 2 Deep v esse ls w ith a lmost v ert ica l s tra ight s ides. The d ia meter o f t he f l a t b ase i s e qua l t o t he h e ight o f t he v esse l a nd s l ight ly s ma l ler t han t he f langed r im d iameter . One v esse l h as a h or izonta l h and le o n t he r im a nd a r am f igur ine o n t he o ther s ide ( hand le?). The o ther v esse l h as a h and le j o ined v er t ica l ly t o t he r im a nd a b are ly f ormed t roughl i ke s pout. Co lour i s buff ; h e ight 9 .4-9 .6 cm w i th a r im d iameter o f 1 2 .5 a nd 1 4 .5 cm--Khurv in ( 2). I I ( b) 3 Vasel ike v esse ls i n wh ich t he b ody i s b ent i n t he upper p ar t. The d iameter o f t he b ase o r s ub-base i s s ma l ler t han t ha t o f t he r im. The r im d iameter i s e qua l t o o r s ma l ler t han t he b ody d iameter. The h and le i s j o ined e i ther t o t he upper p art o f t he b ody o r t o i t s f a ttest p ar t. The c o lour i s buff a nd g rey . The h e ight i s b etween 9 -12 c m w i th ar im d iameter o f 2 0-27 cm--Giyan ( 2), Hasan lu ( 1) ,* The t r ipods, g roup ( c), a re i n t wo t ypes. I I ( c) 1 Vasel ike d eep v esse ls w i th a bu lg ing b ody a nd a r im i n t he f orm o f o ne o r t wo b ead ings. The b ase i s r ounded. The f eet a re f a t a nd w iden a t t he e nd. Co lour i s g rey-b lack ( one i s p ink). He ight i s b etween 1 0-11 c m w i th a r im d iameter o f 1 1-18 cm--S ia lk ( 6). I I ( c) 2 These t r ipods, e xcept f or t he r ounded b ase, a re s im i lar t o t he b ow ls o f t ype I l ( a) 4 f rom D inkha Tepe. The c o lour i s g rey a nd buff ; h e ight a bout 8 c m w i th a r im d iameter o f 2 2-29 cm--D inkha I I ( 3). I I ( d) Bow l-shaped v esse ls w i th a l ug i n t he f orm o f a mouff lon 's h ead. Th is t ype h as b een f ound i n t he s ing le e xamp les i n I ran. I I ( d) 1 Bow ls w i th w iden ing,s l i t; nt ly b u lg ing s ides a nd a f langed r im. The S ase i s a dded. The b ow l f rom G iyan h as a s hor t l ug j o ined o n a nd a r ounded p rotrus ion under t he mouff lon 's h ead o n t he s ide o f t he *

Th is i s t he p redom inan t t ype o f b ow l i n H asan lu; h as n o t b een pub l ished. 2 2

t he ma ter ia l

b ow l. On t he e xamp le f rom S ia lk t he mouff lon 's h ead, o f e longa ted f orm, i s j o ined t o t he e dge o f t he r im. S im i lar v esse ls were f ound i n t he T ehran r eg ion i n Gheytaryeh c emetery ( no t p ub l ished) a nd i n t he Khurv in a rea ( Ma lek i c o l lect ion). The pub l ished e f camp les a re g rey-b lack i n c o lour, 1 8 c m h igh, 3 1 c m i n d iameter ; a nd 5 .5 c m h igh, 2 0.5 c m i n d ia meter--Giyan I ( 1); S ia lk A ( 1). I n t he f ourth c a tegory o f v esse ls, Group ( a) i s d iv ided i n to n ine t ypes: I V ( a) 1 P ot w i th a v ery b u lg ing b ody w ith t he h e ight. The b ase d iameter i s e i ther g reater t han t he r im d iameter . The n eck i s s hor t, w ith i t s b ase o r o n t he s hou lders t here a re s omet imes i s g rey-b lack. H e ight i s 1 8 -4 0 cm S ia lk A ( 9).

t he d iameter c lose t o o r s l ight ly s ma l ler a n a dded r im, a nd o n f urrows. The c o lour

I V ( a) 2 P o ts w i th t he g rea test bu lge i n t he b ody d iameter i n t he l ower t h ird. The- b end i n s ome c ases was marked a nd t he s ub-base p ar t was c bncave i n p rof i le. The b ase d iameter i s s ma l ler t han ( in o ne c ase e qua l t o) t he r im d iameter . The n eck i s s hor t, t he s hou lders s lop ing , a nd t he r im a dded. The s hou lders o f s ome v esse ls f rom G iyan I a re d ecorat ed w ith a pp l ique b ead ing w i th t he e nds f orm ing d ropped l oops i ns ide wh ich t here a re knobs. The c o lour i s buff ; h e ight 1 6-20 c m--Giyan I ( 4), S ia lk A ( 1) f ragment, g rey-b lack , I V ( a)2 ' Var ian ts o f t h is t ype a re v esse ls w i th t he b ody i n t he f orm o f as phere t runca ted o n t wo s ides. The t rans i t ion t o t he b ase p art i s s harp ly marked, t he l a tter b e ing c oncave i n p rof i le. The b ase d iameter i s s ma l ler o r s l ight ly b igger t han t he r im d iameter . The s hou lders s lope o r a re s l ight ly c oncave. The n eck i s s tra ight o r c oncave i n p rof i le. The c o lour i s buff ; h e ight 2 0 c m--Giyan I ( 2). I V ( a) 3 Broad-based p ots i n j ar f orm w i th s l ight ly bu lg ing s ides. The f langed r im i s s harp ly b ent o ver. Co lour i s buff ; h e ight 1 9-20 c m, t wo v esse ls a re f ragmen ted, f rom o ne l eve l i n G eoy T epe, g rave K a nd t renches ( 3). I V ( a) 4 P ots o f l ong p ropor t ions w i th a s l ight ly bu lg ing b ody. The s ub-base d iameter i s s ma l ler t han t he r im d iameter . The s hou lders a re s lop ing a nd d ecora ted w i th a pp l ique b ead ing w i th d ropped e dge. Co lour i s buff , h e ight 1 3-20 c m--Giyan ( 3). I V ( a) 5 Vesse ls w ith a s pher ica l b ody. Un i ted o n ly i n o ne f ea ture, t he f orm o rt he b ody, t hey d iffer i n t he f orm o f t he n eck, t he p resence o f a n a dded s ub-base, s omet imes r ing-formed, a nd t he p resence o f b ead ing ( G iyan), a pp l ique6s, p a int ing , a nd p a ttern burn ished d ecorat ion. Co lour i s g rey-b lack b uff ; h e ight f rom 6 -20 c m--Hasan lu V , G eoy Tepe, G iyan I , Khurv in, S ia lk A ( 15). I V ( a) 6 Vesse ls w ith a b icon ica l b ody. The b ase d iameter i s s ma l ler o r e qua l t o t he r im d iameter. The b ase i s f la t o r i n t he f orm o f as ubb ase. The n eck w idens i nto s lop ing s hou lders wh ich a re d ecora ted w i th b ead ing . The c o lour i s g rey a nd buff ; h e ight 1 0-20 c m--Giyan I ( 4 ). I V ( a) 7 Vesse ls w i th a p ear-shaped b ody. The b ase d iameter i s s ma l ler t han t he r im d iameter. There i s aw ide n eck wh ich g en t ly w idens i nto s lop ing s hou lders. The r im i s c ut a skew f rom t he o uts ide. C o lour i s g rey-b lack a nd buff ; S ia lk A ( 1), G iyan I ( 1). I V ( a) 8 Vesse ls w i th a b ody whose g rea tes t e xpanse i s i n t he upper t h ird. The b ase d iame ter i s s ma l ler t han t he r im d iameter. There i s a s hor t n eck w i th a b ent o ver r im. Co lour buff ; h e ight 6 ,23 cm--Giyan I (2 ) . 2 3

I V ( b) 1 Group ( b) o f t he f ourth c a tegory i s r epresented by a s ing le t r ipod o f r are p o t-shape. The j ar-shaped b ody h as a b road mouth a nd a b ent-over f langed r im t he d iameter o f t he f la t i ntegra l b ase i s sma l ler t han t he d iameter o f t he r im. On t he s ides t here a re p a irs o f p ierced l ugs a nd a bove t hem p a irs o f t hree h o les. The t r ipod f eet a re l ong a nd s l ight ly b en t o utwards. Co lour i s g rey-b lack; h e ight 1 5 c m--S ia lk A ( 1). Group ( c) o f t he f ourth c a tegory c ompr ises p o t-shaped v esse ls w i th t wo h and les, s ome o f wh ich R . M . Gh irshman c a l ls k ra ters. Th is l i tera l d escr ipt ion c an b e r eta ined. I V ( c) 1 A c haracter ist ic f ea ture i s t he d iv is ion o f t he b ody i n to t wo a lmost e qua l h a lves, t he l ower i n t he f orm o f at runca ted c one w i th s l igh t ly bu lg ing s ides, a nd t he upper p art w i th a s ma l ler v o lume. The s ub-base d iameter i s s ma l ler t han t he r im d iameter. The h and le i s j o ined o n j ust a bove t he j o in b etween t he t wo p ar ts. Co lour i s b uff , h e ight 9 -12 cm-G iyan I ( 4). I V ( c) 1 ' More o pen, l ess p rof i led f orms a re a v ar iety o f t hese v esse ls. The b ase d iameter i s s ma l ler t han t he r im d iameter . The h and les a re l oc a ted a pprox ima te ly al eve l w ith t he g rea test b ody w idth. Co lour i s buff i n Lur istan a nd S ia lk, g rey i n God in T epe. H e ight f rom 7 .5-16 c m-G iyan I ( 3), God in Tepe ( 1), S ia lk A ( 1). I V ( c) 1 " A v ar ia t ion o f s ub-type I V ( c) 1 i s av esse l f rom S ia lk A o f e longa ted f i rm w i th a l ong, g en t ly p rof i led ni ck a nd s l ight ly bu lg ing b ody . L arge f igur ine h and les o ccupy t he who le o f t he n eck. Co lour i s buff ; h e ight 1 8 c m--Sia lk A ( 1). I V ( c) 2 A p o t w ith a s pher ica l b ody. The b ase d iameter i s e qua l t o t he r im d ia-meter . The s hort n eck h as a b ent-over r im. The s hou lders h ave l ugs ( ?)-hand les. Co lour i s g rey-b lack; H e ight 1 4 .5 cm--Khurv in ( 1) . Group ( a) o f t he f i f th c a tegory o f v esse ls i s d iv ided i nto t wo s ub-groups: c ups w i th bu lg ing o r s tra ight s ides, a nd o nes w ith c omp lex p rof i les. The l a tter a re e xtreme ly v ar ied i n f orm a nd d iff icu l t t o c lass ify. ✓ ( a) 1 Cups o f s qua t p roport ions w ith s l ight ly bu lg ing s ides. The ir h e ight i s l ess t han t he o pen ing d iameter. The b ase i s f l a t a nd w ide, i n o ne c ase t here i s as ub-base ( Sia lk A ), i t s d iameter i s s ma l ler t han t ha t o f t he r im. A l oop h and le i s j o ined t o t he upper p ar t o f t he b ody, s omet imes o ccupy ing t he who le o f t he s ide s urface. C o lour i s g rey-b lack a nd buff ; h e ight b etween 7 -19 cm--Sia lk A ( 1), G iyan I ( 1), Geoy Tepe ( 3). I n t he l a tter t hey were f ound b o th i n t he bur ia l a nd i n t he l eve l. V ( a) 1 ' Var iants o f t h is t ype a re c ups o f s im i lar f orm but w ith ap edesta l-base. Co lour i s g rey-b lack; h e ight 3 .5 a nd 6 cm —S ia lk A ( 2) . ✓ ( a) 2 Ta l l n arrow v ases w i th s tra ight o r s l ight ly bu lg ing s ides. The d iameter o f t he f l at b o ttom i s a lmost t w ice t he d iameter o f t he r im. The s ma l l h and le i s j o ined t o t he upper p ar t o f t he b ody. C o lour i s g rey-ye l low a nd buff ; h e ight f rom 6 -11.5 c m--S ia lk ( 2), Khurv in ( 1). Cups o f c omp lex p rO f i le ✓ ( a) 3 S harp ly p rof i led c ups w i th a b ody whose g rea test e xpanse i s i n t he upper t h ird. The d iameter o f t he f la t b o ttom i s a lmost h a lf t he d ia meter o f t he f l anged r im. The t a l l f unne l-shaped n eck p asses a brupt ly i nto s teep s hou lders. The h and le i s j o ined o n b e low t he e dge o f t he r im a nd o nto t he s hou lders. The c o lour i s o n ly g rey-b lack; t he h e ight i s g rea ter t han t he r im d iameter a nd v ar ies f rom 7 -10 .7 c m--Khurv in ( 8).

2 4

✓ ( a) 3 ' Var iants o f t hese a re c ups wh ich a re s im i lar i n f orm bu t w i th as horter n eck. The ir h e ight i s s ma l ler t han t he r im d iameter , w i th in 6 .5-8.5 cm. Co lour i s g rey-b lack--Khurv in ( 4). ✓ ( a) 4 Cups s moo th ly p rof i led w ith t he g rea test b ody d iameter i n t he l ower p arr , which a lso c ontr ibutes t o t he g enera l s moothness o f t he c ontours A d ist inct ive f ea ture i s t he s ma l l d iameter p edesta l-base wh ich i s s omet imes p rof i led. The h and le i s j o ined a t t he t op e nd e i ther t o t he b ase o f t he n eck o r al i tt le h igher, a nd t he l ower t o t he most bu lbous p ar t o f t he b ody. The v esse ls a re d ecora ted w i th burn ished d ecora t ion, p a int a nd f urrows. The c o lour i s g rey-b lack; h e ight b etween 1 0-13.5 c m--S ia lk A ( 5). An i ntermed ia te t ype b e tween 3 a nd 4 i s ac up f rom Hasan lu V wh ich h as b ody a nd hyper troph ied n eck a s i n t ype 3 but a p edesta l a s i n t ype 4 . Co lour i s g rey-b lack; h e ight 9 c m. V ( a) 5 A v ague ly p rof i led c up o f e longa ted p ropor t ions w ith a s l ight ly bulg ing b ody. The d iameter o f t he f l a t b ase o r s ub-base i s s ma l ler--somet imes h a lf—that o f t he r im. The n eck i s l ong a nd s l ight ly c oncave. There i s af l anged r im. The t op e nd o f t he h and le i s j o ined t o t he e dge o f t he r im, t he l ower t o t he b ase o f t he n eck. The c o lour i s b uff ; o n ly o ne i s g rey ( S ia lk); h e ight f rom 8 -13.5 c m ( one i s 3 .8 c m)--Sia lk A ( 4), G iyan I ( 9 ). ✓ ( a) 6 Cups o f e longa ted p roport ions w ith a r ound bu lg ing b ody. The d iameter o f t he b ase o r s ub-base i s s ma l ler t han t hat o f t he f langed r im. The n eck i s s hort c ompared t o t ype V ( a) 5 , w i th a c oncave p rof i le, ' r are ly s tra ight o r c onvex. The b ottom e nd o f t he h and le i s j o ined o n b e low t he b ase o f t he n eck, t he t op e nd t o t he e dge o r b e low t he r im. The c o lour i s g rey a nd b uff ; t he h e ight b etween 7 -10 c m--Giyan I ( 3), S ia lk A ( 5), Hasan lu ( 1). ✓ ( a) 7 Cups w i th a s pher ica l b ody. The d iameter o f t he b ase o r s ubb ase i s c ons iderab ly s ma l ler t han t ha t o f t he f langed r im. The n eck i s s hor t a nd c oncave i n p rof i le. The t op e nd o f t he h and le i s j o ined e i ther b e low t he r im o r t o i t s e dge, t he b ottom e nd t o t he b ody. The l oop o f t he h and le i s s omet imes h igher t han t he r im, a nd o ccas iona l ly t here i s ak nob a t t he t op o f t he l oop. The c o lour i s g rey-b lack a nd b uff ; h e ight f rom 6 -14.5 cm--Sia lk A ( 4), G iyan I ( 3). ✓ ( a) 7 ' Var iants o f t h is t ype a re c ups w i th a n a dded n eck. The s ubb ase d iameter i s s ma l ler t han t he r im d iameter . The l oop o f t he h and le r ises a bove t he e dge o f t he r im. Co lour i s buff ; h e ight 8 .5-10 c m--Giyan ( 3). ✓ ( a) 8 Cups w i th s tra ight A-shaped s ides wh ich b end a brupt ly i nto a b ase s ect ion. The d iameter o f t he a dded b ase i s s ma l ler t han t ha t o f t he s l ight ly c onvex r im. The l ong h and le i s j o ined a t t he t op e nd t o t he r im a nd a t t he b ottom t o t he b end i n t he b ody. Co lour i s buff ; h e ight 1 3 .5 cm —Giyan I (U. ✓ ( a) 9 Mugs wh ich a re p ear-shaped i n f orm w ith t he b u lge a t t he l ower e nd-o f t he b ody. The d iameter o f t he b ase o r s ub-base i s s ma l ler t han t ha t o f t he r im. The n eck i s l ong , i n o ne c ase c onvex, w iden ing s moo th ly i nto t he b ody. The s ma l l h and le i s j o ined t o t he n eck b e low t he e dge o f t he r im. The c o lour i s g rey-b lack; h e ight i s a pparent ly a bou t 1 2 cm* -S ia lk A ( 3). ✓ ( a) 1 0 A s l ight ly p rof i led c up o f o pen f orm. The d iameter o f t he b ase i s 2 .5 t imes sma l ler t han t he d iameter o f t he r im. The c o lour i s buf f ; h e ight 1 1 cm--S ia lk ( 1). * E xcept i n o ne c ase , t he d raw ings g ive wha t a re a pparent ly m istaken s ca les ( 100 , p la tes XL, 4 750 ; XL I, 4 89 ; XL IV, 60 3). 2 5

✓ ( a) 1 1 A s harp-based c up ( hand-made?) w i th a s hort n eck a nd c onvex r i m . The l oop-shaped h and le i s j o ined t o t he e dge o f t he r im, r is ing a bove i t ; t he o ther e nd t o t he b end i n t he b ody. Co lour i s g rey ; h e ight 6 .2 c m--Haf tavan Tepe ( 1). ✓ ( a) 1 2 Cups w i th a b icon ica l b ody a nd a s tra ight n eck. The d iamet er o f t he b ase i s s ma l ler t han t ha t o f t he r im. The h and le, j o ined a t t he t op t o t he e dge o f t he r im, r ises a bove i t . The c o lour i s buff ; h e ight 7 .5-9cm--Giyan I ( 2). Group ( b) o f t he f i f th c a tegory o f v esse ls i s r epresented by t wo t ypes o f c ups wh ich c an b e c a l led " dr ink ing b ow ls" ( p iy la). ✓ ( b) 1 V esse l o f as em i-spher ica l f orm o n ah o l low p edesta l s omet imes p rof i led. C o lour g rey-b lack; h e ight 6 .5-8 .5 c m--S ia lk A ( 7). ✓ ( b) 2 Vesse ls o f a na logous f orm, f l at-based o r w ith a n a dded b ase. Co lour g rey-b lack a nd b uff ; h e ight a bout 5 -6 c m--Sia lk A ( 4), G iyan I ( 1), G eoy T epe ( 1). I n t he v esse ls o f t he s ixth c a tegory Group ( a) c ompr ises f our t ypes . F irst i t s hou ld b e ment ioned t ha t o ne-hand led g ob lets o f " c lass ica l" f orm h ave a c lear ly d e l inea ted d iv is ion i nto t hree p ar ts: ab u lg ing b ody, l ong n eck —somet imes t w ice t ha t o f t he b ody--and a s ma l l p edesta l. The h and le i s u sua l ly c ons iderab ly b e low t he e dge o f t he r im, a pprox ima te ly h a lfway up t he v esse l . The a verage h e ight o f t he g ob lets i s 1 5-20 c m. Cups a nd mugs u sua l ly d o n o t e xceed 1 1-12 cm a nd d o n o t have s uch a l ong n eck, wh ich c an a lso b e u sed t o t e l l t hem a part s ince s omet imes t he f orms o f g ob lets a nd c ups a re s im i lar. V I ( a) 1 Gob lets o f c lass ica l f orm w i th a n a brupt t rans it ion f rom t he b ody t o t he n eck. The b ody i s s pher ica l a nd s l ight ly f l a ttened ( e l l ipso id) s omet imes w i th a b end i n t he upper p ar t. The n eck u sua l ly h as d iverg ing s tra ight s ides a nd r im; o ccas iona l ly t he s ides a re c oncave i n p rof i le. The l eng th o f t he n eck i s e qua l o r s l ight ly more t han t he b ody h e ight. The t rans i t ion f rom t he b ody t o t he n eck c an b e emphas ised by b ead ing o r a n i nc ised l ine ( Hasan lu, D inkha Tepe o n ly a l ine). I n Gheytaryeh t he b ody was d ecora ted w ith f lut ing . The p edesta l was h o l low, o ccas iona l ly w ith a n e xaggera ted s tem. The h and le was j o ined o n t o t he m idd le o f t he n eck a nd u p t o t he g rea test w idth o f t he b ody d iameter . Co lour i s g reyb lack. Buff i s f ound o n ly i n G iyan. He ight i s f rom 1 6-21 cm; a f ew a re 1 3 c m--S ia lk A ( 1) ,G iyan I ( 4), God in Tepe ( 1), Gheytaryeh ( 3 pub l ished), D inkha ( 3 pub l ished), Hasan lu V ( 3 pub l ished). V I ( a) 2 Gob lets w i th a s l ight ly bu lg ing b ody. The s tra ight n eck i s much l onger t han t he b ody. There i s al ong h o l low p edesta l. The c o lour i s g rey-b lack; h e ight 1 7 a nd 2 1 c m--Geoy Tepe ( 1), D inkha I I ( 1), G iyan I ( 1). V I ( a) 2 ' A g ob let f rom S ia lk A w i th h igh s l ight ly c oncave s ides c an b e p ut i n t h is t ype c ond it iona l ly. The b ody i s n o t s eparate. The s ides merge i nto t he b ase i n t he f orm o f ab road s ub-base wh ich d eepens al i tt le a t t he b o ttom , . The h and le i s j o ined o n h igher t han u sua l, t he upper e nd j ust b e low t he e dge o f t he r im. The c o lour i s buff ; h e igh t 1 6 c m. V I ( a) 3 Smooth-prof i led g ob lets w ith a n e longa ted r ound ( eggs haped) b ody w i th a l ong n eck. The h e ight o f t he b ody i s g rea ter t han t ha t o f t he n eck . The p edesta l c ompr ises a s hor t s tem a nd a d isc-shaped b ase. The t rans i t ion f rom t he b ody t o t he p edesta l i s emphas ised i n o ne 2 6

e xamp le w i th b ead ing . G iyan ( 3).

Co lour i s g rey-b lack a nd buff ;

h e ight 1 5-20 c m--

V I ( a) 3 ' Var iants o f t h is t ype a re t he s l ight ly p rof i led g ob lets o n a s ub-base ( w i thout a s tem). Co lour i s g rey a nd buff ; h e ight 1 6-18 cm-G iyan ( 2), God in T epe ( 2). Cond i t iona l ly a j ar-gob let f rom Yan ik T epe c an b e put i n t h is t ype. h as a f la t a dded b ase a nd a l arge h and le j o ined a lmost t o t he v ery r im. The c o lour i s g rey-b lack; h e ight 1 3 cm.

I t

V I ( a) 4 A s ing le g ob let f rom G iyan i s o f as pec ia l f orm. I t i s f ormed o f t wo t runca ted c ones. The l ower o ne i s s ma l l w ith s l ight ly bu lg ing s ides; t he upper o ne h as s tra ight s ides d iverg ing d ownwards ( shor t n eck). The r im i s s l ight ly c onvex. There i s as ma l l d isc-shaped s ub-base. The h and le h as a l ug o n t op o f t he l oop. Co lour i s r ed; h e ight 1 5.5 c m. Group ( b) o f t he s ixth c a tegory o f v esse ls was f ound o n ly i n G iyan a nd i s d iv ided i nto t wo t ypes. V I ( b) 1 Gob lets wh ich a re S -shaped i n p rof i le w i th a c lear t rans i t ion f rom a bu lg ing b ody t o ac oncave l ong n eck. The p edesta l h as a d iscs haped b ase, s omet imes p rof i led. The c o lour i s g rey-b lack a nd buff ; h e ight f rom 1 3-22 c m--(12). V I ( b) 1 ' One v esse l o f t h is t ype i s d ifferen t i n t ha t i t s u pper p art l ooks a s i f i t p lanted o n t op o f t he l ower p ot. The j o in i s marked by s harp-edged b ead ing . Co lour i s buff , p a inted; h e ight 1 2 cm. V I ( b) 2 Smooth-prof i led v esse ls w ith e longa ted-round b od ies. Body h eight i s g rea ter t han n eck l eng th. The p edesta l c ons ists o f as hor t s tem a nd a b road, s omet imes p rof i led b ase [ These v esse ls a re v ery s im il ar t o t ype V I ( a) 3 e xcept w i thout h and les]. Co lour buff ( one i s g rey); h e ight 1 4-23 cm--(i1). V I ( b) 2 ' Vesse ls w i th t he g rea test b ody d iameter i n t he l ower p art; w ithout p edesta l . C ond i t iona l ly b e long t o t he g ob let t ype. C o lour i s buff ; h e ight 1 4-15.4 c m-- (3 ) . Group ( a) o f t he s eventh c a tegory h as t wo t ypes o f i s t ikhans. V II ( a) 1 An i s t ikhan w i th c oncave s ides. The d iameter o f t he f l at b ase i s sma l ler t han t ha t o f t he f l anged r im. C o lour i s g rey-b lack; h e ight 9 cm--S ia lk A ( 1). V II ( a) 2 I st ikhans w ith c oncave s ides wh ich h ave a s harp b end i n t he b ase p ari. W ith o ne e xcept ion t hey a l l h ave a s ub-base whose d iameter i s s ma l ler t han t ha t o f t he r ims. Co lour i s g rey a nd buff ; t he h e ight f rom 9 -10 cm--S ia lk A ( 1), G iyan I ( 2), Hasan lu V ( 4).* Group ( b)of t he s eventh c a tegory h as o n ly o ne v esse l . V II ( b) 1 b ase i s sma l le r f orm, i s j o ined b lack; h e ight

An i s t ikhan w i th c oncave s ides. The d iameter o f t he f la t t han t ha t o f t he f langed r im. The h and le, o f z oomorph ic o nto t he l ower h a lf o f t he i s t ikhan. The c o lour i s g rey1 8 - cm--Giyan I ( 1).

Group ( a) o f t he e ighth c a tegory o f v esse ls; V III ( a) 1 Vases w ith a n i nturned f l anged r im. I n o ne c ase t here i s al ong p edesta l o n as hort b ase, i n t he o ther a l arger p edesta l o n a * Putt ing t hese t ypes i n Hasan lu V l eve l i s o pen t o d oubt; t here a re i nd ica t ions t ha t t hey • were f ound i n l eve l Hasan lu V I ( b ib. n o. 1 17, p . 1 48; 8 6, p . 3 6). 2 7

l arger b ase. ( Pedesta l s ect ions a re n o t p rov ided .) h e ight 1 0 a nd 1 5.6 c m--Giyan I ( 2).

Co lour i s buff ;

V III ( a) 2 A v ase o f c losed f orm w i th t he g rea test b ody d iameter i n t he upper p ar t. The p edesta l c ons ists o f as tem d ecorated w ith b ead ing a nd a s ma l l b ase. The n arrow, s hort n eck h as a c onvex r im a nd b ead ing a t i t s b ase. Co lour i s buff ; h e ight 1 0 cm--Giyan I ( 1). 2 .

The l oca l n a ture o f c eram ic c omp lexes

L et u s s ummar ise t he r esu lts a ccord ing t o t he d istr ibut ion o f t he p ottery t ypes i n t he s i tes o f I ran. Ca tegory 1 I( a) 1 Khurv in

9

I( a) 1. Khurv in

3

I( a) 2 Khurv in

5

I( a) 3 S ia lk

2

I( a) 3 G iyan

1

I( a) 4 S ia lk

2

I( a) 4 ' Hasan lu

1

D ist ingu ished by h av ing a f unne l-shaped n eck, t he p resence o f as ub-base a nd s ma l ler s ize.

I( b) 1 G iyan

1

D ifferent iated by t he f orm o f t he n eck a nd t he c o lour o f t he v esse l .

I( b) 1 Hasan lu

1

D ifferent ia ted by t he f orm o f t he n eck a nd t he c o lour o f t he v esse l.

I( b) 2 G iyan

2

T emporary c a tegor isa t ion o f at ype.

I( b) 2 D inkha

1

Temporary c a tegor isa t ion o f at ype.

I( b) 3 S ia lk

3

I( b) 4 S ia lk

2

I( b) 5 Khurv in

1

I( b) 6 G iyan

1

I( b) 7 D inkha

8

C lass ica l f orm o f t he t ype.

I( b) 7 G iyan

4

D ist ingu ished by s ma l ler d imens ions a nd l ess c lear ly d ef ined f orm.

I( b) 8 G iyan

1

I( c) 1 G iyan

1

I( c) 1 S ia lk

1

The v esse ls a re d ist ingu ished by h av ing a s tra ight n eck.

The v esse ls a re d ist ingu ished by t he f orm o f t he h and le.

Ca tegory 2 I ( a) 1 Khurv in

9

I ( a)

1

I ( a)

Gheytaryeh 2S ia lk

2 2 8

G heytaryeh D inkha

I (a ) 4 I ( b)

1

2 1 0

( par t ia l p ub l ica t ion ) ( par t ia l p ub l ica t ion )

T epe G uran

1

Haf tavan Te pe

1

G eoy T epe

1

D inkha

2

W ith a s ide h and le o r l ug

K hurv in

1

W ithou t as ide h and le

G hey taryeh

2

W ithout a s ide h and le ( par t ia l p ub l ica t ion )

K hurv in

1

S ia lk

1

G iyan

2

Hasan lu

2

f at ype a tegor isa t ion o Temporary c

G iyan

8

a tegor isat ion o T emporary c f at ype

G eoy T epe

7

f at ype T emporary c ategor isa t ion o

D inkha

3

Temporary c a tegor isat ion o f at ype

G iyan

7

C a tegory I I

S ia lk

1 2

S ia lk

1 4

D inkha

5

G eoy T epe

2

G iyan

7

G eoy T epe

1

Khurv in

1 5

Khurv in

2

S ia lk

6

D inkha

3

S ia lk

1

S im i lar v esse ls a re f ound i n t he Ghey taryeh c e me tery a nd t he Ma lek i c o l lect ion f ro m Khurv in

I I (d ) 1

S im i lar v esse ls a re f ound i n t he Ghey taryeh

G iyan

c e metery a nd t he Ma lek i c o l lect ion f ro m Khurv in C a tegory I V I V ( a ) 1

S ia lk

9

I V (a ) 2

G iyan

4 2 9

I V (a ) 2

S ia lk

1

D ist ingu ished b y sma l l s ize

I V (a ) 2 '

G iyan

2

I V (a ) 3

Geoy T epe

3

I V (a ) 4

G iyan

3

I V (a ) 5

S ia lk

3

I V (a ) 5

Hasan lu

2

I V (a ) 5

Khurv in

1

I V (a ) 5

Geoy T epe

1

I V (a ) 6

G iyan

4

I V (a ) 7

S ia lk

1

I V (a ) 7

G iyan

1

I V (a ) 8

G iyan

2

I V (b ) 1

S ia lk

1

I V (c ) 1

G iyan

4

I V (c ) 1 '

G iyan

3

I V (c )1 '

God in Tepe

1

I V(c)1 '

S ia lk

1

I V (c ) 1 "

S ia lk

1

I V (c ) 2

Khurv in

1

V (a ) 1

G eoy Tepe

3

V (a ) 1

G iyan

1

V (a ) 1

S ia lk

1

V (a ) 1 '

S ia lk

2

D ist ingu ished b y t he p resence o f ap edesta l

V (a ) 2

S ia lk

2

D if ferences i n d e ta i ls

V (a ) 2

Khurv in

1

D if ferences i n d eta i ls

V (a ) 3

Khurv in

8

V (a ) 3 '

Khurv in

4

V (a ) 4

S ia lk

5

V (a ) 3 -4

Hasan lu

1

V (a ) 5

G iyan

9

T e mporary c a tegor isa t ion o f at ype

V (a ) 5

S ia lk

4

Te mporary c a tegor isat ion o f at ype

V (a ) 6

S ia lk

5

T e mporary c a tegor isat ion o f at ype

Temporary c a tegor isa t ion o f at ype

Temporary c a tegor isa t ion o f a t ype

D ist ingu ished b y p resence o f s ub-base

Ca tegory V D if ferences i n d eta i ls

3 0

V (a ) 6

G iyan

3

a tegor isa t ion o f at ype Te mporary c

V (a ) 6

Hasan lu

1

a tegor isa t ion o f at ype T e mporary c

V (a ) 7

S ia lk

4

a tegor isa t ion o f at ype T e mporary c

V (a ) 7

G iyan

3

a tegor isa t ion o f at ype T e mporary c

V (a ) 7 '

G iyan

3

V (a ) 8

G iyan

1

V (a ) 9

S ia lk

3

V (a ) 1 0

S ia lk

1

V (a ) 1 1

H af tavan T epe

1

V (a ) 1 2

G iyan

2

V (b ) 1

S ia lk

7

V (b ) 2

S ia lk

4

V (b ) 2

G iyan

1

Absence o f s ub-base

V (b ) 2

G eoy Tepe

1

Absence o f s ub-base

V I(a ) 1

Hasan lu

3

V I( a ) 1

D inkha

3

V I (a ) 1

G iyan

4

V I( a ) 1

Gheytaryeh

3

V I(a ) 1

S ia lk

1

V I( a ) 1

G od in Tepe

1

V I(a ) 2

D inkha

1

V I (a ) 2

G eoy T epe

1

V I( a ) 2

G iyan

1

V I( a ) 2 '

S ia lk

1

V I( a ) 3

G iyan

3

V I(a ) 3 '

G iyan

2

V I (a ) 3 '

God in Tepe

2

V I( a ) 3 '

Yan ik Tepe

1

V I( a ) 4

G iyan

1

V I( b ) 1

G iyan

V I( b ) 1 '

G iyan

V I( b ) 2

G iyan

V I(b )

G iyan

C a tegory V I

2'

Temporary c a tegor isat ion i n t h is s ub-type

1 2 1 1 1 3

T emporary c ategor isa t ion o f s ub-type 3 1

C a tegory V I I V I I(a ) 1

S ia lk

1

V II (a ) 2

Hasan lu

4

V I I (a ) 2

G iyan

2

V I I (a ) 2

S ia lk

1

V I I(b ) 1

G iyan

1

D ist ingu ished b y t he a bsence o f as ub-base

C a tegory V I I I V I I I (a ) 1

G iyan

2

V I I I (a ) 2

G iyan

1

O f t he 6 7 t ypes a nd 1 8 s ub-types l i sted a bove 4 2 t ypes a nd 1 3 s ub-types a re p o t tery o f wh ich e ach t ype i s r epresen ted a t o n ly o ne s i te . ma in ing 2 5 t ypes -7 a re c a tegor ised c ond it iona l ly .

O f t he r e-

T ha t means t ha t t he v esse ls

i nc luded i n t ha t t ype h ave o ne f ea ture i n c o m mon , u sua l ly t he b ody f or m , i t s p ropor t ions , e tc . b u t t hey d if fer p r i mar i ly i n d i mens ions , n eck a nd s hou lder f or m , a nd d if feren t d eta i ls . a re e ssen t ia l ly d if feren t .

A s ar esu lt , d esp ite b ody s im i lar ity , t he v esse ls

T he c a tegor isa t ion o f c ond it iona l t ypes i s j ust if ied

s ince o therw ise t he n u mber o f t ypes wou ld o n ly i ncrease , c o mp l ica t ing a n a lr eady u nw ie ldy c lass if ica t ion .

The r e ma in ing 1 8 t ypes i nc lude s im ilar b u t n o t

a na logous p o t tery f ro m d if feren t s i tes , a l though i n p r inc ip le t here a re n o i dent ica l f orms. None o f t he p o ttery o f t h is p er iod h as d eve loped s tandards. I t i s a lways d ifferent i n d eta i ls. S o t he a bove l i st o f t ypes -42 o u t o f 6 7 —a t tests t o t he l oca l n a ture o fp o t tery c o mp lexes o n t he I ran ian p lateau i n t he I ron Age Ip er iod .

When c o mpar ing

g roups o f p ot tery f inds o f t h is t ime , o ne s hou ld t ake a ccoun t o f t he q uan ta t ive ly d om inant, p reva i l ing f orms o f e ach i nd iv idua l s i te a nd a lso t he c o l lect ion o f v esse ls i t se lf i n t he c emetery c omp lexes. K hurv in c e metery ( 1 4 g raves , 6 1 v esse ls i n 1 3 g raves ) T he f o l low ing were f ound i n e ach o f t hese g raves : a nd a c up . o u t o f 1 3 ) ;

at eapo t , aj ar , ab ow l

I n h a lf t he g raves t he c o l lect ions c o mpr ised 1 -3 v esse ls ( 6 g raves 3g raves h ad 4 -5 v esse ls e ach ; 4h ad 7 -9 e ach . 1 2% were i nd iv idua l

f orms . The d om inant f orms were : ( 1) t eapots I(a) 1 --16%; ( 2) j ars I (a)1 a nd 8 (a) 2-26% ; ( 3) b ow ls I I(b) 1 a nd I I(b) 2-2696 ; ( 4) c ups V (a) —20% ( f ig . 3 ). Ana logous ma ter ia l C omes f rom s ic g raves e xcava ted by M . Rad a nd A . Hak im i . S ia lk A c e metery ( 15 g raves , 1 10 v esse ls ) U n l ike i n K hurv in , t he c o l lect ion i n e ach g rave i s n ot s tandard ;

p o ts ( i n

8o f 1 5 g raves ) , v ases ( i n 9o f 1 5 g raves ) , c ups ( i n 1 2 o f 1 5 g raves ) , d r ink ing b ow ls ( i n 7o f 1 5 g raves ) , t r ipods ( i n 6o f 1 5 g raves ) . was 1 2-16 v esse ls e ach; i n 6g raves 4 -8 v esse ls ;

I n 5g raves t he c o l lect ion

i n 3g raves 2 -3 v esse ls .

O n a verage i n S ia lk A t he c o l lect ions i n e ach g rave a re l arger i n q uan t ity ( tw ice a s much ) a nd t hey d o n o t c o inc ide i n t er ms o f c o mpos i t ion . f or ms a re ;

( 1 ) p o ts I V (a ) 1 , I V (a ) 5 , I V (a ) 7 , 8 -13% ;

I I(a ) 3-23% ;

T he d om inan t

( 2 ) v ases ( I I I(a ) 2a nd

( 3 ) c ups V (a ) 1 , V (a ) 1 ', V (a )2 , V (a ) 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 9 , 1 0- 1 2 4 .5%

a nd d r i n k ing b ow ls V (b ) 1a nd V (b ) 2 -10% ; 6 % ( f ig . 3 ). 3 2

( 4 ) t r ipods I I (c ) 1a nd I V ( b ) 1—

G iyan I c emetery ( 52 g raves, 1 36 v esse ls) U sua l ly 2 -3 v esse ls p er g rave, s omet imes 4 -5, n ever more t han 5 . Dom inant f orms a re : ( 1) p ots I V(a)2, I V(a)2 ' ,I V(a)4 , I V(a)5,6,7 ,81 8% ; k raters--5% ; t o ta l 2 3% : ( 2) g ob lets V I(a) 1 , V IC a) 2 , 3 , -3, 7 4 18 % ; V I(b)--19% , t o ta l 2 7% ; ( 3) b ow ls I I(a) i 17 F ,5 , I I( d) 7 - 1 5- . 4 96 -; c ups ( V(a)1, 2 , 6 , 7 , 7 ' , 8 , 1 2, V (b) 2 --17% -( F ig . j ). D inkha Tepe I I c emetery

( 33 g raves, 8 0 v esse ls; pub l ished ma ter ia l o n 1 7 g raves, 4 1 v esse ls)

U sua l ly 2 -3 v esse ls p er g rave, o ne v esse l p er g rave i n 5c ases, 4 v esse ls i n 2c ases. L ead ing f orms: ( 1) h and le less j ars I (b) 7 ( 9 o ut o f 4 1-2 0% ; ( 2) b ow ls I I(a) 4 a nd s imi lar f orms o f t r ipods I I(c) 2 ---2 0% ; ( 3) t eapots I ( a) 4 f ound i n 1 6 g raves o f 3 3, i .e. e very o ther g rave h ad a t eapot * -20% -( out o f 8 0 v esse ls) ( F ig . 3 ). On ly 4 g ob lets a re r ecorded a nd i t i s n o t c lear whe ther t here a re a ny more. The d irector o f t he e xcavat ions wr i tes t ha t n ot o ne g rave c onta ined a t eapot, a g ob let a nd b ow l t ogether — ad iagnost ic f orm o f I ron Age I . On ly i n o ne c ase d oes s uch a c o inc idence o ccur ( VII, g rave 2 ) ( b ib. n o. 1 62, f ig. 3 ). Not c ount ing t he c emeter ies o f western Lur istan, a l l t hese pub l ished c emeter ies i nd isputab ly b e long t o t he I ron Age I p er iod. Apar t f rom t he p art ia l ly a nd who l ly e xcava ted c emeter ies, t here i s a lso a number o f i so lated g raves. The ir s ign if icance l i es i n t he f act t ha t t hey s upp lement t he i nforma t ion o n t hese a reas wh ich a re r epresen ted by b as ic s i tes. Thus i n A zarba i jan ( represented by t he D inkha I I c emetery) we know o f t he c omp lexes o f g rave K i n G eoy T epe , g rave 7i n Haf tavan V , Ha j j i F irus ( on ly a d escr ipt ion), Hasan lu V , g rave A -6 i n Yan ik T epe a nd Kord lar Tepe. On t he who le t hese ma ter ia ls c onf irm t he d om inant t ypes o f t he p ottery i n t h is a rea . The p o ttery o f t he l ast t wo s i tes a ttests t o t he u se o f h and-made ware h ere . Apart f rom t ha t, i t i s p oss ib le t hrough t his ma ter ia l t o t race —as y et c on jectura l ly —chrono log ica l c orr e lat ion b etween g ob lets a nd t eapo ts. The mater ia l f rom t he Hasan lu V c emetery l ike t ha t f rom t he s ett lement i t se lf , h as n ot b een pub l ished a nd t herefore p o ttery c o l lect ions c an b e o n ly p ar t ia l ly r estored o n t he b as is o f d ifferent r eferences i n t he l i tera ture. R . Dyson p o ints o ut t ha t t he most w idespread f orms i n t he Hasan lu V g raves w ere b ow ls w ith a h or izonta l h and le a nd p edesta l-base g oblets ( F ig . 3 ). There a re n o t eapots w i th unbr idged s pouts i n t he b ur ia ls; o n ly o ne f ragment h as b een f ound a t t he s ett lement ( bib. n o . 8 6, p . 3 6, f ig . 3 , 1 , 8 ). I n a no ther work R . Dyson l i sted t he f o l lowing c o l lect ion: ap edesta l-base g ob let, a d eep b ow l, a nd s torage v esse ls ( bib. n o . 8 8 , p . 1 96). T eapots a re a lso a bsent i n t he t hree g raves o f G od in Tepe a nd i n t he g raves n ear B i jar ( b ib. n o. 2 20, Tab le 2 5 ; n o . 1 95, p . 8 8), a l though t here a re g ob lets i n t he g raves. True, t eapo ts h ave b een f ound i n s ome o f t he c o l lect ions o f t he g raves o f D inkha T epe, H a j j i F irus, Haf tavan T epe a nd Geoy T epe ( see l i st) ( b ib. n o. 1 61, f ig . 1 5-17; n o . 1 62, p .49 ; n o. 6 8, f ig . 8 /1; n o . 7 5, f ig . 2 ). However t he f o l low ing f ac t -s hou ld b e n o ted : i n g rave K f o f Geoy T epe B p er iod t he g ob lets a nd t eapo ts h ave b een f ound t o b e o f d ifferent t imes. There w ere 1 2 bur ia ls i n t ha t g rave, s epara ted by l ayers o f e ar th, a nd 9 v ess e ls h ave b een f ound. F our o f t hem were a t t he b ottom w ith a g ob let a mong t hem; t he r es t w ere i n t he upper l eve ls, t he t eapot b e ing w i th t he v ery l ast bur ia l. These t wo f orms a re n ot f ound t ogether ( from p ub l ished d ata) i n D inkha Tepe, e xcept f or o ne e xamp le, a nd i n Haf tavan *

I n Khurv in t here i s at eapot i n e very g rave, s omet imes t wo i n e ach.

3 3

Tepe. Tak ing i n to a ccoun t t he d a ta f rom G iyan I , where t here were n o t eapots, t he g enes is o f g ob lets b e ing t raced f rom p er iod G iyan I, a nd f rom g rave K , i t i s p oss ib le t o make p re l im inary a ssumpt ions a bout t he d ifferen t t imes o f t hese f orms o f v esse ls a nd bur ia ls, e ven i f i n a l l l ike l ih ood t hey a re a l l f rom I ron Age I . But a part f rom t ha t, i t s hou ld a lso b e r emembered t ha t t he t eapo ts f rom Nor th Wes t I ran may n o t h ave b een a c ons tant c omponent o f I ron Age I p o ttery. I n I raq i Ad jam i t here i s a dd it iona l i nforma t ion o n ly f or t he n or thern r eg ion ( represen ted by t he Khurv in c emetery), i .e. t he mater ia l f rom t he Gheytareh c emetery , where a s pec ia l k ind o f t eapot was f ound a nd where t eapo ts a nd g ob lets w ere f ound t ogether. The l a tter a re unknown i n t he Khurv in c emetery . The a dd i t iona l d a ta f or L ur istan ( Eastern), r epresented by G iyan I c emetery , i s n eg l ig ib le. I n T epe Guran, Phase I V ( da ted by t he e xcav a tor t o 1 0 6 /10 7 -107/108 B .C. b ut wh ich s hou ld b e d ated I ron Age I : s ee Append ix I , p .101), t here i s at eapo t ( I 1(a) 4 ) which i s s im i lar t o t he A zarba i jan o ne. Tha t i s t he o n ly s uch f ind f or t ha t p er iod i n L ur is tan. C erta in f orms k nown i n G iyan I a re r epresented i n w estern Lur istan ( I I c , I V c ). But, a s h as a lready b een ment ioned, western Lur istan i s d ifferent i n n o t h av ing a ny g rey-b lack ware a nd i n t he i nd iv is ib i l i ty o f t he c eram ic a ssemb lages o f t he I ron Age I a nd I p er iods. The a bove a na lys is o f p ottery c omp lexes a ttes ts t o t he f act t hat i n e ach a rea t he d om inant p o ttery f orms, p ottery c o l lect ions, a nd t he quant i ty o f p ottery i n e ach g rave a re d ifferent. C er ta in c ategor ies may c o inc ide, but w ith in t hem t he t ypes, p ar t icu lar ly t he d om inant o nes, d o n o t c o inc ide . I n a dd it ion, i t h as b een p oss ib le t o i den t ify t he v ery l oca l f ea tures o f p o ttery f or e ach a rea wh ich a re unknown o uts ide t ha t a rea . Khurv in: o f t he f our ma in c a tegor ies, s ing le-hand led j ars a re n owhere more p reva lent, a nd t he Khurv in a re r are ly f ound e lsewhere. These t ypes o f t eapo ts a re unknown a nywhere e lse e xcept i n D inkha T epe where t h is c a tegory i s , i f n o t t he d om inant o ne, t hen a p reva i l ing o ne ( there a re t eapo ts i n h a lf t he g raves a nd n ot i n e very s ing le o ne a s i n Khurv in). Two o ther c a tegor ies, b oth b ow ls a nd t eapots, a l though b e ing t he ma in o nes a t o ther s i tes, d o n o t i nc lude t he Khurv in t ypes , wh ich a re unknown t here . The c haracter ist ic d eta i ls o f t he Khurv in v esse l a lone a re a h or izonta l h and le a t t he e dge o f t he b ow l r im, a t endency t o a ttach v ert ica l h and les c ons iderab ly b e low t he r im ( on j ars a nd c ups), a nd t he p redom inance o f f unne l-shaped n ecks. S ia lk A : t he f our ma in c a tegor ies a re a lso t he ma in o nes a t an umber o f o ther s i tes, but t he t ypes o f most o f t he c ategor ies a re f ound o n ly h ere, n ame ly: o f t he b ow l-shaped v esse ls--vases a nd t r ipods; o f t he c ups —p iya ls a nd s evera l t ypes o f c ups; o f t he p ot-shaped v esse ls — o ne t ype o f p o t. A c haracter ist ic f ea ture o f S ia lk A i s t he s harp c onc ave s hape a t t he b ase p art o f t he v asel ike b ow ls. G iyan I : o f t he f our c a tegor ies o f p ottery, g ob lets a re t he ma in o ne o n ly i n G iyan, p ar t icu lar ly i n h and less g ob le ts, wh ich a re n ot f ound a nywhere e lse. R . Dyson p o ints o ut t ha t g ob le ts a re t he ma in c a tegory i n Hasan lu V . The t hree r ema in ing c a tegor ies i n G iyan a re t he mä in o nes i n S ia lk, o f wh ich t he c losest s im i lar i ty i s s hown by t he c ups a nd s omet imes t he p o ts, a l though t he l a tter c a tegory h as i t s own d ist inct ive f ea ture i n G iyan : p o ts w i th a c oncave b ase p ar t a nd k ra ters. The l a tter a re s ing le i n o ther a reas. The t ypes o f b ow ls f ound i n G iyan a re n ot f ound i n o ther a reas. A c haracter ist ic f ea ture o f t he p ottery i n G iyan i s t he a pp l ique o pen-ended b ead ing o n t he s hou lders o f p ot-shaped v esse ls . 3 4

D inkha Tepe I I: a l l t hree ma in c a tegor ies a re a lso t he ma in o nes a t o ther s i tes. But, un l ike t hose a t Khurv in, t he j ars d o n ot h ave h and les; t he o n ly t ype o f b ow l a t D inkha T epe i s a lso r epresented i n A zarba i jan, i n Geoy Tepe, a nd t he c haracter ist ic f ea ture o f o n ly t h is r eg ion i s t he worm b ow ls. The o n ly t ype o f t eapot i s c haracter ist ic o f A zarba i jan a lone. S o,the l oca l n a ture o f t he p o ttery c omp lexes o f I ron Age Ii s a ttested by: ( 1) 4 2 t ypes o ut o f 6 7 a re r epresented a t s ing le s i tes e ach; ( 2) t he t ypes o f t he d om inant p o ttery f orms, t he p ottery c o l lect ions a nd t he quant ity o f p o ttery i n t he g rave d iffer a ccord ing t o t he s i te. However, t he r evea led l oca l n a ture o f p o ttery c omp lexes s t i l l c anno t t ota l ly r efute T . Cuy ler Young 's t hes is a bout t he un i ty o f t he " ceram ic h or izon" o f I ron Age I . Accord ing t o h is hypo thes is, i t c an b e a ssumed t hat t he n ew c u lture c ou ld h ave i mposed i t se lf i n e ach o f t he a reas o nt o t he l oca l c eram ic t rad it ion . Centres o f t he n ew c u lture c ou ld h ave f ormed, g radua l ly s pread ing n ew f ea tures ( true, t he g radua lness o f t he p rocess c on trad icts t he r ap id r ep lacement o f t he c eram ic t rad i t ion p ostu la ted by Young). S o an ecessary p art o f t h is i nvest iga t ion i s t he r eve lat ion o f t he n ature o f t he l i nks b etween t he c eram ic c omp lexes. 3 .

The na ture o f t he l i nks b etween t he c eram ic a ssemb lages o f I ron Age I .

I t was n oted a bove t ha t 1 8 t ypes o f p o ttery l ink t he d ifferen t s i tes [ I(a) 3 , I (b)1, I (b) 7 , I (c) 1 , I(a) 4 , I(b) 1 , I(c) 1 , I I(a) 4 I 1(a) 5 , I I(d) 1 , I V(a) 2 , I V(a) 7 , I V(c) 1 ' , —V (a) 1 , —V (a) 2 , V (b) 2 , V I(a)1 —, V I(a) 2 ,— V I(a) 3 '7 V II(a) S omei imes t hr s l i nk i si c o inc id ence o f t he ma in c a tegor ies a nd t ypes w i th in t hem, a nd s ome t imes t he ma in c ategory o f o ne s i te i s r epresented by s ing le e xamp les a t a no ther. Rare f orms a re s ome t imes e ncountered a t s i tes wh ich a re a c ons iderab le d istance a par t. I n o ther words, t here d ef in i te ly a re s ome k inds o f l i nks a nd i nter-re la tions wh ich o vershadow l oca l d ifferences. Before g o ing o n t o a ppra ise t hese l i nks, a n a ttempt must b e made t o t race t he ir d irect ion a nd t o s how a pparent ly d ifferent s i tua t ions. F or e xamp le, i f t he movement o f t hese l inks i s t raced i n o n ly o ne d irect ion, t hen i t c an b e s upposed t ha t t here i s s ome s ort o f s ource e xert ing a c onstant c u ltura l i nf luence. That c ou ld a lso a ttest t o t he a ppearance o f an ew c u l ture b roaden ing t he s phere o f i t s i nf luence. I f t he d irect ion o f t hese l i nks i s s hown by t he a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l t o b e r andom ( i .e. g o ing f rom o ne p o int i n d ifferent d irect ions, i nterre lated, a nd s o o n), t hen o bv ious ly t he i dea o f t he p resence o f o ne c ommon s ource ( mean ing i n t h is c ase t he p oss ib le m igra t ions o f an ew e thnos r ep lac ing t he e x ist ing c u l ture h ere) w i l l h ave t o b e a bandoned. Na tura l ly, i n t h is s i tuat ion o ne s hou ld n ot r u le o ut g radua l p enetrat ion o f n ew t r ibes wh ich a bsorb l oca l c u l ture i n many ways a nd t herefore wh ich d o n o t l ead t o f undamen ta l a nd e ven mores o a brupt c hanges i n i t , when e lements o f t he n ew c u lture a re n o t y et d ist inct ly r evea led i n t he g enera l s tra tum o f t he l oca l c u l ture. The d irect ion o f l i nks i s t raced by t wo methods. I f ad ifferent t ype a ppears e ar l ier i n p o int A t han i t d oes i n p o int B , t hen t he d irec t ion i s s a id t o b e f rom A t o B . The s ame d irect ion i s s a id t o b e t he c ase i f t ha t f orm i s t he d om inant o ne i n p o int A a nd e ncountered o n ly i n t he o dd e xamp le i n p o int B . I t i s p oss ib le t o a ttempt t o r evea l t he n a ture o f t he c eram ic l i nks b etween t he I ron Age I s i tes a nd t he ir d irect ion i n t he e xamp le o f t he s e lect ion o f T . Cuy ler Y oung 's t ab le, i n wh ich h e s et o ut t he p o ttery o f ma in s i tes f or t he p er iod o f i nterest t o u s. Tha t t ab le i s h is ma in a rgument f or t he un i ty o f t he " hor izon o f t he E ar ly Western Grey Ware". The t ab le 3 5

i s t extua l ; c o lumns a re h eaded w i th t he n ames o f t he I ron Age I s i tes, a nd t he d escr ipt ions o f t he s im i lar p ottery f ound a t t hese s i tes a re e ntered i n r ows d own t he s ide ( b ib. n o . 2 19 , f ig. 1 1). F or v isua l purposes, t he d escr ipt ions i n t he t ab le h ave h ere b een r ep laced w i th d raw ings o f t he p ottery ( f ig . 4 ). I t must b e n o ted f irst o f a l l t ha t T . Cuy ler Young 's t ab le i s n o t c lear : c erta in f orms a re e ntered s evera l t imes ( cf . S ia lk, r ows 1 , 2a nd 1 7v esse l n o. 6 71a). S omet imes t ypo log ica l ly d ifferen t f orms a re c ompared ( cf . r ows 1 , 5 , 1 3, 1 7). The p r inc ip le o f d iv id ing c erta in f orms i nto d ifferent r ows i s n o t c lear ( cf . r ows 1 , 1 7 a nd p art ly 2 ). Rows 4 , 9a nd 1 0 s hou ld b e e xc luded f rom t he t ab le s ince t hey c ompare mater ia l n ot f rom c ontemporary s i tes. Row 4 I st ikhans ( Ca tegory V II). Th is f orm w as b rought i nto western I ran f rom n or th S yr ia a nd Mesopo tam ia, where i t e x isted a s e ar ly a s t he f i rst h a lf o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. I n I ran t h is f orm was known a s e ar ly a s t he b eg inn ing o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium a nd a s l a te a s Hasan lu V I, Haf tavan V IB, God in I I, D inkha T epe I V, G iyan I ( bib. n o. 8 6, p . 3 6 ; n o. 7 0 , p . 1 59, Tab le I Vf ; n o. 1 17 p . 1 48, F ig . 1 /13). These i s t ikhans c ont inued t o b e u sed i n s ma l l numbers i n t he I ron Age I p er iod ( Giyan I , S ia lk A , B i jar, God in, Haf tavan V ) ( bib. n d. 1 95 , p . 8 8; n o. 6 9, p . 1 64). Ana lys ing t h is f orm i t i s p oss ib le t o s peak o f c ont inu ing Bronze Age c ontacts L i etween w est I ran a nd c ontiguous c ountr ies a nd a bout t he c ont inu ity o f t he c u lture wh ich c ont inued t o d eve lop i n western I ran. But t h is f orm s hou ld n ot b e r egarded a s p art o f a" hor izon" o f g rey ware b e long ing , i n T . Cuy ler Young 's o p in ion, t o t he I ran ians. Th is f orm was b rought i n f rom o uts ide f rom c u ltures wh ich a re known n ot t o h ave h ad a ny c onnect ion w ith t hem. The movement o f t h is f orm i s t raced i n a west t o e ast d irect ion , a s a ttested by t he d iscovery o f o ne s uch v esse l i n S ia lk V ( grave V ). Row 9 The s ame a pp l ies t o t he v esse ls o f t he f ourth c a tegory ( IV(a) 5 ) w i th p a inted h or izon ta l b ands, wh ich s pread f rom n or th Syr ia a nd Mesopotam ia a s e ar ly a s t he p reced ing p er iod ( Hasan lu V I) ( bib. n o. 8 6, p . 3 6 ; n o . 1 17 , p . 1 75). The d irect ion o f t he l i nks i s t he s ame a s f or t he v esse ls i n r ow 4 . Row 1 0 Bow ls w i th p a inted p a tterns o n t he r im ( 111(a) 1 ). They a lready e x isted a t t he e nd o f t he Bronze Age i n G iyan I-I a nd h ave a lso b een f ound i n t he Hasan lu V p er iod, when, a s i s known, p a inted ware i s s t i l l f ound i n s ma l l q uant it ies i n t ha t p er iod b ow ls o f s im i lar f orm a lso e x isted w ithout p a int ( Giyan I , Graves 2 0, 2 2), i .e. t h is i s ac ase o f t he p reserva t ion o f t he v esse l f orm w i th t he l oss o f t he p a int. Another g roup o f l i nks i s d istr ibuted i n p a irs i n t he t ab le, ma in ly b etween t err itor ia l ly c lose s i tes. F or e xamp le, Rows 6 -7 . New d ata f or D inkha T epe a re a dded p rec ise ly h ere. Row 1 3 I nd iv idua l s pouted v esse ls f rom G iyan I a nd S ia lk A ( I I(c) 1 a nd 2 ) r epresent t wo d ifferent v ar iants o f s im i lar purpose v esse ls. But ag ra ter s im i lar i ty i s e stab l ished b etween v esse ls f rom S ia lk A a nd s im i lar v esse ls f rom- L . Vanden B erghe ' s 'e xcava t ions i n Khurv in ( Grave 2) . Row 1 6 ( IV(a) 1 a nd 2 ) Typo log ica l ly d ifferent f orms o f p ots a re c ompared. The v esse ls f rom G iyan I a re c haracter ised by a c oncave b ase . I n S ia lk A t h is f ea ture i s f ound o n o n ly o ne v esse l i n Grave 1 ( 438), but i t d iffers f rom S ia lk ( IV(A) 1 ) a nd G iyan ( IV(a) 2 ) i n t he s ma l l b ase ( f ig . 4 -r ight). I n S ia lk A t h is f ea ture, i n l ess e mphat ic f orm, i s c hara cter ist ic o f I I(a) 2 v esse ls. The d irect ion o f t he l inks a ccord ing t o 3 6

t h is f ea ture i n t h is c ase i s west t o e ast. Rows 1 8 a nd 2 0 i nc lude r are f orms o f v esse ls. Type I I(d) 1 -bow ls w i th a mouf f lon h ead l ug a re a t p resent known i n t he Ma lek i c o l lect ion a nd Gheytaryeh c o l lect ion a part f rom S ia lk A a nd G iyan I ( b ib. n o. 2 05, T ab le 1 0/53; n o. 2 5 , D iagram 1 ). Ghey taryeh s eems t o h ave a l arge n umber. I f s o, t hen t h is a rea c an b e a ssumed t o t he c entre o f t he ir d issem inat ion, a l though a n a na logous f orm i n t he Transcaucasus c i ted by R . M . Gh irshman s hou ld b e b orne i n m ind ( bib. n o. 1 00, p . 1 4). Type I (c) 1 -narrow n ecked b o tt les o n t hree f eet a re known f rom o n ly t wo e xamp les. — They i nd ica te d ef in i te l i nks b etween G iyan a nd S ia lk wh ich c an b e t raced i n a number o f o ther f orms. Rows 2 1, 2 2 a nd 2 3 ( Types I I(a) 3 , I I(c) 1 a nd V (b) 2 ) a re t he d omi nant f orms i n S ia lk A , a ccord ing t o d a ta f rom T . Cuy ler Young ' s c o l lect ion, a re f ound i n Khurv in-Chandar. But t hey a re unknown i n t he c emetery o f Khurv in a nd Gheytareh. The d irect ion o f l inks i s a ssumed t o b e f rom s outh t o n or th, f rom S ia lk t o t he Khurv in a rea . Before mov ing o n t o a na lyse Rows 1 , 2a nd 1 7 w i th d iagnost ic f orms o f t he I ron Age I p er iod, d ata c an b e a dded o n t ypes o f v esse ls n o t ment i oned i n t he t ab le. Type I V(c) 1 , k ra ters, i s af orm wh ich i s c haracter ist i c o f G iyan t hroughout t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. I n t he I ron Age I p er iod i nd iv idua l e xamp les w ith t wo h and les a re known i n S ia lk A a nd G od in Tepe. The d irect ion o f t he l inks i s f rom G iyan t o t he e ast a nd n orth-east. Of t he who le t ab le, o n ly t he c ups, g ob lets a nd t eapots g o r ight a cross t he r ows, wh ich, a t f i rs t g lance, s hows t he ir l ink ing r o les i n t he g rey w are " hor izon". Rows 1 a nd 1 7 Cups ( Category V ). The most s tr ik ing t h ing i s t ha t t here i s n o c lear, d eve loped ( trad i t iona l?) f orm o f c up. Rather, o ne c an s peak o f t he s pread a t t h is t ime o f m in iature d r ink ing ( ?) v esse ls a mong wh ich i t i s d iff icu lt t o e stab l ish a ny s im i lar ity. I t s hou ld b e n oted t ha t t hey a re s pread uneven ly a cross I ran. They a re f ound most ly i n G iyan a nd S ia lk. I n Khurv in t here i s o ne t ype; n one a t a l l i n D inkha T epe, a nd t he o dd o ne a t o ther s i tes i n A zarba i jan. Cups w ere known l ong b efore t he I ron Age I p er iod ( see s ect ion 4 o f t h is c hapter). Row 2 Gob lets ( Ca tegory V I). Th is f orm i s t he d om inant o ne i n G iyan, i t s o r ig in, moreover , b e ing l i nked w i th t he p reced ing p er iod G iyan I . On ly t wo g ob lets a re known i n S ia lk A , t he t h ird v esse l wh ich i s c a l led a g ob let ( Grave 1 4) s hou ld b e r egarded a s ac up; t here a re n one i n t he Khurv in c emetery. I n t h is r eg ion t hey a re f ound i n t he Gheytareh c emetery i n t he Ma lek i c o l lect ion. R . Dyson p o ints o ut g ob lets o f t he d om inan t f orm i n Hasan lu V . I n A zarba i jan t hey a re f ound i n a l l t he known b ur ia l c omp lexes, a l though t he a bsence o f f u l l p ub l ica t ions makes i t i mposs ib le t o g et a p ercen tage f or t he c orre lat ion o f f orms. Thus, a d is tr ibut ion o f g ob lets i n t he e ast a nd t he w est i s n o t t he s ame. They o bv ious ly p redom ina te i n t he w est. The movement o f t h is f orm e v ident ly w ent f rom L ur istan ( Giyan, where t hey a ppeared e ar l ier) t o t he n or th, i nto Azarba i jan, a nd t o t he e ast i nto t he a rea o f Khurv in-Gheytaryeh a nd S ia lk. Row 3 T eapots ( Category I). Th is i s t he d om inant f orm i n t he Khurv in c emetery; t hey a re known i n t he Ma lek i c o l lect ion, i n Chandar a nd i n Gheytaryeh. I n S ia lk A t here a re o n ly t wo e xamp les o f t hem; i n G iyan I t here a re n one(Grave 5 2 d oes n o t b e long t o t h is p er iod, s ee Append ix I ); t here i s o ne e xamp le i n Tepe Guran. There a re n one i n 3 7

Hasan lu e xcept o ne f ragment i n t he s ett lement. I n D inkha I I c emetery t hey a re f ound i n e very o ther g rave. I t h as a lready b een ment ioned a bove t hat g ob lets a nd t eapo ts a re n o t f ound t ogether i n A zarba i jan a nd c onsequent ly t hat t hey may b e c hrono log ica l ly s epara te w i th in I ron Age I . Thus, t he Khurv in-Gheytaryeh a rea i s p robab ly where t hey w ere most w idespread. I n A zarba i jan t hey a ppear s l ight ly l a ter t han t he g ob lets a nd a re p oss ib ly n ot a n o b l iga tory c omponent o f bur ia l v esse ls t here. The d irect ion o f t he l inks i s f rom Khurv in-Gheytaryeh t o t he s outh, S ia lk, a nd t o t he w est, A zarba i jan. I f o ne c ons iders t he d ifferent t imes o f a ppearance o f t eapots a nd g ob lets o n o ne t err i tory, t he r andom d irect ion o f l i nks a nd t he uneven d istr ibut ion o f t hese v esse ls i n c omp lexes, t hen t he ir b e long ing t o o ne c u ltura l ly n ew " ceram ic h or izon" i s d oubtfu l. The e xam ined " ceram ic l i nks" a re c lear ly d iv ided i nto t hree g roups The f i rst i nd icated c onstant c ontacts b etween t he western s i tes o f I ran a nd t he c u l ture o f N . S yr ia a nd Mesopotam ia, c ontacts wh ich b egan a s f ar b ack a s t he Bronze Age. S o t he p resence o f t h is p o ttery i n a" hor izon" o f g rey ware i nd ica tes n o t t he s pread o f t he n ew c eram ic t rad i t ion o f I ran ian t r ibes but, o n t he c ontrary, t hat t he f ormat ion o f al oca l c u lture i n w est I ran t ook p lace under a d ef in i te S yr ian-Mesopotam ian i nf luence a nd t ha t t he c u ltura l l i nks w ere o f t rad it iona l w estern o r ientat ion. The s econd g roup o f " ceram ic l inks" i s b etween s i tes wh ich a re g eograph ica l ly c lose t o o ne a nother s o t hey c an s carce ly b e r egarded a s a n a rgument i n f avour o f t he un i ty o f a" hor izon" . The t h ird g roup c oncerns l i nks b etween s i tes w ith r egard t o t he mos t w idespread f orms-gob lets a nd t eapots, wh ich d iagnose t he I ron Age I p er iod. But, a s h as b een s hown a bove, t hey c annot b e long t o o ne c u l ture. Thus, T . Cuy ler Young 's i nterpretat ion o f t he t ab le d oes n ot c orrespond t o t he r evea led e ssence o f t he " ceram ic l i nks". They d o n ot r ef lect t he un i ty o f a" ceram ic h or izon" a nd d o n ot mark t he m igra t ion i n I ran o f t he b earers o f s ome un i ted c eram ic t rad it ion wh ich i s n ew t o t h is a rea. Tha t f actor, l i ke t he l oca l n a ture o f t he c eram ic c omp lexes, r efutes t he t hes is o f t he un i ty o f t he c u l ture o n t he o ne h and a nd o n s ubstant ia l c hanges i n i t dur ing I ron Age Io n t he o ther. The a bove a na lys is o f t he p ottery h as made i t p oss ib le t o c on jecture t ha t t he a ppearance o f g rey-b lack w are a nd t he a ppearance o f t he I ran ians w ere t wo i ndependent phenomena. The c auses o f t he a ppearance o f g rey-b lack ware s hou ld b e s ought i n s i tu, i n t he r oo ts o f t he l oca l c u lture o r t he c u ltures o f a d jacent a reas. The c hange i n t he o utward a ppearance o f t he p ottery i s p r imar i ly a c hange i n t he t echno logy o f t he p roduct ion. But were t he c hanges i n t he mater ia l c u lture a s p rofound a s a ppears a t f i rst g lance? A l l t h is c ompe ls o ne t o t ake a nother l ook a t t he a rchaeo log ica l d ata a nd p r imar i ly t o d oubt t he q uest ion o f ab reak i n c u ltura l c ont inu i ty w ith t he p rev ious p er iod. 4 .

The p rob lem o f t he c ont inu i ty o f t he c eram ic t rad it ion o f t he I ron Age I p er iod a nd t he L a te Bronze Age

When a rgu ing t hat t he g rey ware o f t he I ron Age I p er iod b e longed t o an ew p opu la t ion, T. Cuy ler Young s tressed t he a brupt c hange i n c eram ic t rad i t ion a nd t he a bsence o f c u ltura l c ont inu i ty b etween t he s i tes o f t he L ate Bronze Age a nd t hose w i th g rey-b lack ware o f t he I ron Age I p er iod. He d rew p ar t icu lar a ttent ion t o t he c hange i n t he c o lour o f t he p ottery f rom t he l ight t o g rey-b lack a nd t he d isappearance o f t he t rad it ion o f p a int ing i t s s urface. However, i f o ne l ooks a t t he p ottery f rom s i tes w i th l eve ls o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. ( they a re f ound o n ly i n w est a nd n orth-west 3 8

I ran ; a nd i n t he n or th e ast, i n H issar, t he l eve ls a re o n ly o f t he b eg inn ing o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium a nd n ot l a ter t han 1 800 B .C.), o ne s ees t hat unpa inted g rey ware was p resent i n a l l l eve ls, s omet imes f orm ing ac ons iderab le p ercentage o f t he c ontent. I n G iyan, a ccord ing t o I . L . S tankev ich 's c a lcu la t ions, t he g rey ware was d istr ibuted a s f o l lows : G iyan I V -25 .6% ; G iyan 1 1-19 .8% ; G iyan 1-55.5% ; G iyan 1 I-I-15% ; G iyan 14-28% ; G iyan 13-16.6% ; G iyan 12-12 .7% ( b ib. n o . 4 3, p . 1 7). I f t he t hree l a tter s ub p er iods a re c ounted a s o ne p er iod, t hen t h is ware c ompr ises 2 3% . I n D inkha I V ( the l eve l p recedes I ron Age I ) C . Ham l in h as c ounted t here t o b e 1 0% g rey w are . S he n o tes t hat t he n eg l ig ib le q uan t i ty o f t h is ware i n L eve l I V n everthe less s ign if ies t ha t i t s p roduct ion was n o t a n i nnova t ion i n t he I ron Age I p er iod. A s herd w ith p a tterned burn ishi ng was f ound a mong t h is p ottery, wh ich a lso p o ints t o t he emergence o f t h is c haracter ist ic f ea ture o f I ron Age I p o ttery e ven i n t he p reced ing p er iod ( bib. n o. 1 17 , p . 1 28 f ig. X IV i ). I n Geoy T epe h and-made burn ished ware g rey-b lack c o lour i s k nown i n P er iod K , t he e nd o f wh ich c o inc ides w i th t he Hasanh i V II p er iod. The a ppearance o f t h is p o ttery i s r egarded a s ar esu lt o f t he s pread o f t he Yan ik ( Kuro-Azax) c u l ture o f t he T ranscaucasus . I t d iffers f rom t he l ess c oarse g rey-b lack ware o f t h is t ime i n Gurgan ( b ib. n o . 7 3, p . 3 6; n o . 8 9 , pp. 6 99-700). There i s v ery l i tt le s uch p o ttery i n t he n ext p er iod, G , but i t d oes n ot d isappear a l together ( b ib. n o . 7 3, p . 6 6, c ata logue n o. 1 52 , 3 27). I n P er iod D-C, wh ich p recedes t he I ron Age I p er iod, g rey ware v esse ls, i nc lud ing whee l-made o nes, a ppear a t t he s ame t ime a s p a inted ware. I n God in T epe I I ( second m i l lenn ium B .C.) t here i s g rey-b lack ware, i n s ome g raves i t c ompr ises h a lf t he t ota l number o f v esse ls, s ome o f wh ich a re s omet imes d ecora ted w i th a p a tterned burn ish ( b ib. n o. 2 20, p p. 1 6-19 , D iagram 3 0, Grave B—of 9 v esse ls 5 a re l ight g rey; D iagrams 3 2-33, o f 1 6 v esse ls 8 a re g rey-b lack; D iagram 3 3/4—pa ttern burn ish ing). I n t he n orth-east, i n Gurgan, t he p ercentage o f g rey-b lack a t t he e nd o f t he t h ird-beg inn ing o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. i s t he g rea test. H issar I C-35% , IA-56% , IB -77% ( I. L . S tankev ich 's c a lcu lat ions). H issar I IA6 7% , I IB -87% , I IC -61% . I . L . S tankev ich n o tes t hat t h is p o ttery g radua l ly i ncreases i n q uant i ty dur ing p er iods IA-IIB, wh ich d oes n ot c o inc ide w ith t he p er iod o f t he s trongest c hanges i n c eram ic f orms ( per iod I IA-IIIB) ( b ib. n o. 4 3 , p . 7 2). S hah Tepe 1 1-83 .8% , 1-88.5% . R . Dyson, l ook ing a t t he g rey ware o f A zarba i jan i n t he Hasan lu V I p er iod p o ints t o i t s s tr ik ing s imi lar i ty w i th t he H issar ware o n t he o ne h and, a nd t he M inyan ware o n t he o ther ( b ib. n o. 8 9 , p . 7 03) [ I t must b e n oted t hat t he c reators o f M inyan ware a re i dent if ied by r es earchers w ith t he f i rst b earers o f Greek S peech i n t he P e loponnese.] A l l t hese f acts a ttest t o t he c ont inuous e x istence o f g rey a nd a lso g reyb lack ware t hroughout t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. Therefore t he s harp i ncrease i n i t s quant i ty i n t he I ron Age I c anno t b e c ons idered s udden, a nd, what i s more i mportant, i t was n ot b rought f rom o uts ide. Thus i t i s n ot t he s udden a ppearance o f g rey-b lack ware wh ich d ist ingu ishes t he I ron Age I p er iod b ut r ather t he c ons iderab le a bandonment o f t he t rad it ion o f p a int ing l ight ware . But l e t u s t ry t o t race when t ha t p rocess b egan. A number o f s i tes h ave b oth p a inted a nd monochrome ( most o f ten buff) u npa inted ware i n t he l eve ls p reced ing t he I ron Age I p er iod, t he f orm s ome t imes b e ing i dent ica l i n b oth v ers ions , I n D inkha I V c haracter ist ic

3 9

f orms o f t he s o-ca l led Habur p a inted ware a re a lso f ound unpa inted ( b ib. n o . 1 61 p . 1 95 ; n o. 1 17 p . 1 26). The s ame i s t he c ase i n Geoy Tepe D -C, G iyan I , i n Haf tavan Tepe a nd i n God in T epe I I ( b ib. n o . 8 9 , p . 7 037 06). * R . Dyson, p o int ing o ut t he s im i lar ity b etween t he p ottery o f D inkha T epe a nd Geoy Tepe D -C a nd t he u se o f i dent ica l f orms o f p a inted a nd unpa inted v esse ls, c omes t o t wo o ppos ite c onc lus ions: " the who le s i tua t ion s uggests t hat t he p o lychrome c u lture o f n orth-west A zarba i jan was a lready i n c ontact w ith a Hasan lu V -type c u lture i n t he m idd le o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium [ in wh ich c ase Hasan lu V must b e o lder t han s upposed; l i kew ise t he who le I ron Age I p er iod —I. M .] wh ich h as y et t o b e l oca ted, o r e lse p erhaps i mp l ies t ha t t he Hasan lu V burn ished g rey ware a ssemb lage g rew o ut o f t he D-C m ixed p o lychrome a nd p la in ware a ssemb lage t hrough t he l oss o f p o lychrome d ecora t ion " ( b ib. n o . 8 9, P . 7 06). A l l t h is g ives g rounds f or c ons ider ing t ha t t he p rocess o f t he a band onment o f p a int ing , wh ich b egan a t t he e nd o f t he Bronze Age, was c lose t o c omp let ion i n t he I ron Age I p er iod. But t h is t rad i t ion d id n o t d ie o ut a l together : i n t he I ron Age I p er iod t he v ery n eg l ig ib le p ercenta ge o f p a inted ware i s r egarded a s av est ige o f t he p reced ing p er iod, a nd i n t he f o l low ing p er iod ( i f S ia lk B b e longs t o I ron Age I), a nd t he b eg inn ing o f I ron Age I I, t he t rad it ion o f p a inted ware r e-emerges o n t he I ran ian p la teau ( Sia lk B , Yan ik T epe). The g rey-b lack ware d isa ppears a nd g ives way t o t he r ed a nd p a inted ware . Now i t i s n ecessary t o t race t he g enes is o f t he d om inant f orms o f p o ttery i n t he I ron Age I p er iod . G iyan Tepe O f t he f our d om inant f orms i n G iyan I , t hree a re s im i lar t o v esse ls i n G iyan I ( F ig . 5 ): ( 1) Monochrome b ow ls ( I II(a) 1 ") — G iyan I , Grave 7 8 a nd 6 8; ( I II(a) 1 )-Giyan I, Grave 6 5 ; -

v ases

( 2) Gob lets w i thout h and les ( VI(b) ) —pass i nto L eve l Iw i thout c hang ing. I n b o th c ases t here a re monochrome a nd p a inted v ar iants. The g raves o f t he L eve l I , where t hese v esse ls w ere f ound, a re d ated by T . Cuy ler Young t o t he t rans i t iona l p er iod I-I ( Grave 6 6, 6 7 , 6 9). I n t h is c ase i t makes n o d ifference s ince i t i s o bv ious t ha t g ob lets w i thout h and les a pp ear e ar l ier t han t he ma in L eve l I . I t h as a lready b een s uggested a bove t ha t t here i s ag enet ic l i nk b etween t hese v esse ls a nd o ne-hand led g ob lets wh ich a re a d iagnos t ic f orm o f t he I ron Age I p er iod. Bo th f orms c oex ist i n t he G iyan I l eve l, o f ten i n t he s ame c omp lexes; ( 3) The o ther d iagnost ic f orm o f t he I ron Age I p er iod a nd t he d om inant f orm o f G iyan I a re c ups. I n L eve ls G iyan I a nd II-IV t here a re s evera l c ups wh ich c an b e c ons idered p ro to types o f t he G iyan I p er iod c ups ( Graves 1 12/IV ; 8 5, 8 4, 8 3/111; 7 7, 75 /11 ). W ith t he e xcept ion o f L eve l I V t hey a re a l l s im i lar n ot o n ly i n f orm but a lso i n t he method o f a ttach ing t he h and le t o t he e dge o f t he r im. I n S ia lk A t he h and le i s a s ar u le a ttached b e low t he e dge o f t he r im. Apart f rom t he e ar ly l eve ls o f G iyan, Bronze Age c ups h ave b een f ound i n G eoy Tepe K , i n t he g raves o f t he m idd le o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B . C. i n Baba J an Tepe i n God in Tepe ( b ib. n o . 7 3, F ig . 9 , 1 0, 1 2 ; n o . 1 10, F ig. 1 1 ; n o . 2 20, D iagram 20 -23), i n t he l a tter i t b e ing t he most w idespread f orm. I t i s l i ke ly t ha t i n t he p er iod i mmed ia te ly p reced ing I ron Age I , c ups I n G iyan I--gob lets w ithout h and les ( Graves 6 6, 69 ), c ups ( Grave 7 5). I n Haf tavan V IB, A-ist ikhans ( b ib. n o . 7 0 , p ; 1 60 , F ig . 6 ). I n God in I I-ist ikhans, c ups a nd v ases ( b ib. n o . 2 20 , F ig . 2 1-23).

were qu ite w idespread i n t he a rea o f e ast L ur istan a nd t he a rea b orderi ng i t , t he Kurd istan ( God in T epe). Thus, w ith t wo o f t he t hree d iagnost ic f orms o f I ron Age I i t i s p oss ib le t o s uggest l oca l p ro totypes, i nc lud ing i n G iyan. Apart f rom t ha t, i n G iyan I t here a re s urv iv ing f orms o f " kra ters" ( type I V(c) 1 ). W ith t he e xcept ion o f G iyan I , v esse ls w ith t wo h and les a re o n t he who le n ot c haracter ist ic o f t he I ron Age I p er iod. Unpa inted i s t ikhans ( VII(a) 2 , 3 ), wh ich a ppeared e ar l ier, a nd wh ich a re c onnected w ith t he i nf luence o f T iabur ware, c on t inue t o e x ist i n G iyan I . They h ave a lready b een r eferred t o ( see p age 3 6). The s harp ly d ef ined b icon ica l s hape o f s ome v esse ls o f G iyan I a lso p robab ly c omes f rom p er iod I ( Graves 7 3, 7 5). As a r esu lt i t c an b e s a id t hat t here i s ad ef in i te g enet ic l i nk b etween t he p ottery o f G iyan I a nd I a nd t here a re n o d ata o n s harp c hanges. Geoy Tepe ( F ig . 6 ). A c haracter ist ic f orm o f p er iod B w ere v ases ( I II(a) 1 ) wh ich b ecame w idespread f rom phase D o f p er iod D-C ( b ib. n o. 7 3, F ig . 1 9-24, 2 7, 3 0, 3 1). They a re f ound i n p la in a nd p a inted v ar iants i n b oth p er iods. There a re unpa inted v ases i n D inkha I I. Vases w ith s tra ight, g ent ly d iverg ing s ides w ere w idespread i n p hase C o f p er iod D -C ( b ib. n o . 7 3, F ig . 3 0, 3 2). I t c anno t b e r u led o ut t ha t t he ir p rototypes w ere v ases w i th l ess s lop ing s ides o f phase D ( b ib. n o. 7 3, F ig . 2 2/237 , 1 18). I n p er iod B t here was a f ur ther t ypo log ica l d ev e lopment o f t h is f orm: a c rescent-shaped r idge a nd t wo h o les a ppeared o n t he i nner s urface ( I II(a) 4 ). I n t he I ron Age I p er iod t hese b ow ls were w idespread i n A zarba i jan ( D inkha I I, Hasan lu V , a nd t here i s a r eference t o b ow ls w i th r idges i ns ide t hem i n Haf tavan V ). P ots ( IV(a) 3 a nd I V(a) 5 ) were known i n p er iod D-C ( b ib. n o . 7 3, F ig. 3 0/934, 2 577 87). Thus, w i th t he e xcept ion o f t hree d iagnost ic f orms o f t he I ron Age I p er iod known i n Grave K , a l l t he o ther t ypes o f p ottery a re n ot n ew a nd t he ir d eve lopment c an b e t raced f rom t he p rev ious p er iod. The s imi lar ity o f t he p ottery i n D inkha I I a nd Geoy Tepe B h as b een ment ioned many t imes b efore; s ince t he ma ter ia l f rom D inkha I V i s v irtua l ly unpub l ished, r eference h as t o b e made t o t he mater ia l o f Geoy Tepe. O f t he t hree ma in f orms i n D inkha I I, t wo h ave a l i nk w i th t he p o ttery o f t he p reced ing p er iod; t he j ars ( I(b) 7 ) w ith D inkha I V a nd Geoy T epe D-C ( bib. n o. 1 17, F ig.1/11; n o. 7 3, F ig. 2 0/768, 2 0/797, 8 02, 2 1/67 ; n o . 1 61 p . 1 95 photo 2 2). These v esse ls w ere s ma l ler i n e ar l ier t imes . The b ow ls ( III(a) 4 ) a re s im i lar t o t hose i n G eoy Tepe a nd c ome f rom f orms o f t he p reced ing t imes. The v ases ( I II(a) 1 ) a re l i nked w i th t hose i n D inkha I V ( bib. n o . 1 17, F ig . I V/38A, 3 5E) a nd G eoy Tepe D-C. Haf tavan T epe , Very f ew o f t he I ron Age Ima ter ia ls h ave b een publ i shed. But i n c onnect ion w ith t he i ssue o f t he o r ig in o f t he p o ttery o f t h is p er iod, t he mater ia ls o f p er iod V I-B ( 1900-1600 B .C.) a re o f i nterest. Th is p ottery i s r e lated t o t he Kuro- Arax c u lture, wh ich i n I ran i s c a l led t he Yan ik c u lture. A w idespread f orm o f p o ttery o f p er iod V I-B a re t he p a inted a nd p la in i st ikhans, b o th I ron Age I t ypes ( VII(a) 1 a nd 2 w ere a lso f ound i n Haf tavan). Most o f t he i s t ikhans a re undecora ted . - One e xamp le i s b lack burn ished w ith a h and le. They w ere a lso known l a ter, i n p er iod V I-A. C . Burney s uggests t ha t t hey o r ig inated f rom t he c y l inder v esse ls 4 1

o f t he e ar ly Transcaucas ian p er iod o f Yan ik Tepe i n t ha t t hey were s ubsequent ly a dopted i nto t he r eperto ire o f Habur p ottery i n D inkha Tepe ( bib. n o. 7 0, p . 1 59). I f t hat i s s o, t he o r ig in o f t h is f orm i n Habur p ottery i s unc lear,* Most r esearchers r ecogn ise t he emergence o f i s t ikhans i n I ran under t he i nf luence o f t he l a tter.

S imi lar i s t ikhans

made o f meta l were w idespread a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. ( bib. n o. 1 17, p . 1 48 n o. 1 3;

2 03 P . 2 7

Tab le 7 ).

I t c annot b e

r u led o ut t hat t he c eramic f orm a ppeared a s ac opy o f t he meta l f orm i ndependent ly i n d ifferent p laces. Of t he t hree d iagnost ic f orms o f I ron Age I , p rototypes f rom t his v ery t err itory a re known f or t wo o f t hem —gob lets a nd c ups. Consequent ly i t s hou ld n ot b e t hought t hat t hey a ppeared o n ly i n t he I ron Age I p er iod a s p art o f t he n ew c u lture o f ap opu lat ion n ew ly a rr ived h ere. There . are n o p ro totypes i n t he i mmed iate ly p reced ing p er iod o f t he t h ird t ype —teapots. S ince c ons iderab le s ign if icance i s a ttached t o t h is f orm i n c onn ect ion w ith I ran ian c u lture, s pec ia l a ttent ion must b e d evoted t o i t . A s h as b een s hown, f our t ypes o f t eapot w ith a t wo-part s pout were w idespread i n I ran i n I ron Age I , a l though n ot e ven ly. I n a ddit ion, t here a re b asket-hand led v esse ls w ith c y l indr ica l s pouts. No s uch v esse ls were known i n I ran i n t he p er iod i mmediate ly p receding t h is . They were known o n ly i n s i tes s epara ted f rom t he I ron Age I s i tes by a t l east f ive hundred y ears a nd i n e ar l ier s i tes i n I ran i n t he t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C. However, a c ompar ison o f t hem s hows a f undamenta l d ifference i n t he s pout a rrangement. I n t he e ar ly p er iod s pouts were o f t he c y l indr ica l t ype. On ly i n t he H issar I I-C a nd S hah T epe I a re t here t wo p art s pouts t ogether w ith s tr ict ly c y l indr ica l o nes. However , t o e stab l ish h ow j ust if ied i s ad irect c ompar ison b etween t hese t wo f orms which a re s eparated by s uch a l arge i nterva l o f t ime, i t i s n ecessary t o t urn t o t he o lder mater ia ls o f o ther p arts o f t he Anc ient E ast a nd t ry t o e stab l ish where, when a nd what k inds o f v esse ls w i th a s ide s pout e x isted. Crete Teapots a ppeared h ere i n t he E ar ly M inoan I p er iod ( henceforth EMII), t he d ate o f wh ich v ar ies f rom a uthor t o a uthor f rom 2 800 t o 2 200 B .C. ( b ib. n o. 1 31, 3 4; 2 13 p . 3 13; 3 0 p . 1 4 Tab le 2 ). P ottery o f Crete i n t h is p er iod i nd icates c ont inu ity w ith t he p reced ing p er iod, wh ich i s a ttested i n p art icu lar by t he t rad ition o f g rey monochrome ware c om ing f rom t he EMI s ty le. However t he c omp lex —or a s i t i s s omet imes c a l led, f antast ic—form o f t eapots i s unknown i n t he p reced ing p er iod a nd n obody h as p art icu lar ly s pec ia l ised i n i ts o r ig in. On ly A . E . Evans has s uggested t ha t t he t eapots c opy Egypt ian meta l mode ls ( b ib. n o. 9 3 p . 8 0 F ig. 4 8a ; 6 1 p . 1 , 5 , 8n os. 3 436, 3 426, 3 445). The t eapots o f t he EMII p er iod a re v ery s im i lar. The b ody i s u sua l ly bu lg ing a t t he t op a nd f lat-based o r o n as egmented-cone b ase. The t wop art s pout c ons ists o f as hort c overed a nd d eep ly t roughed p art, wh ich i s o f ten h igher t han t he r im. A l l t he t eapots h ave h and les. The v esse ls a re p a inted. S im i lar i n f orm a re t he s tone t eapots w idespread i n b oth t h is a nd t he s ubsequent p -e r iod EMIII ( 2200-1900 B .C.) ( bib. n o. 6 7, Tab les 4 , 9a nd 5 ). E ssent ia l ly t he t eapots d o n ot c hange i n EMIII e i ther, a l though o n s ome e xamp les t he e xaggerated ly l ong t rough-part o f t he s pout b ec omes s horter ( b ib. n o. 1 31, p . 4 1) ( F ig. 7 , 1 -7). To a ssert t hat t h is f orm was a dopted f rom E ar ly Dynast ic Egypt i s e xtreme ly d iff icu lt, s ince t ypo log ica l ly t h is h as n ot a s y et b een c onf i rmed. I n Egypt i t se lf v esse ls w ith a s ide s pout a ppeared i n t he Gerzean p er iod ( second h a lf o f t he f ourth m i l lenn ium), t he s pouts were *f or l i terature o n t he s pread o f i s tikhans i n t he west, s ee b ib. n o. 1 17, pp. 1 47-160, n os. 1 2, 1 31. 4 2

o n ly o f o ne-part, a nd t he ir a ppearance i n t urn i s l i nked t o Mesopo tam ia , where, a s w i l l b e s hown b e low, t he t wo-part f orm o f s pout was unknown. The o n ly t h ing t hat c ou ld h ave b een p ostu lated a s a dopted was t he i dea o f t he a rrangement o f t he s pout o n t he b ody o f t he v esse l . But, a s we s ha l l s ee l a ter, t h is a rrangement i t se lf , b rought a bout by e veryday o r c u ltura l n ecess ity, e x isted t hroughout t he Anc ient E ast. I t i s p rec ise ly t he i ndependent o r ig in wh ich e xp la ins t he d ifferent f orms o f b od ies a nd s pouts. And s ince a s y et t here a re n o d a ta o n whether a s im i lar f orm e x isted s omewhere e lse a t a n e ar l ier t ime, t hen i t i s n a tura l t o t h ink t ha t i t emerged i n Crete ( the v esse ls w i th t he t wo-part f orm o f s pout). I n A . L acy ' s •o p in ion, t eapots o f p a inted f orm w ere a lready unknown i n Crete i n t he M idd le M inoan p er iod ( MM). They g ave way t o v esse ls w ith as hort t roughl ike s pout o n t he r im, wh ich a ppeared a s e ar ly a s t he e nd o f EM I I, but wh ich w ere most w idespread i n t he M idd le M inoan p er iod, t ha t i s f rom t he b eg inn ing o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. ( bib. n o . 1 31, p . 4 1). However, a ccord ing t o o ther d ata , t eapots w ere a lso e ncountered i n t he MMI-II p er iod. A t t ha t t ime t eapots p a inted i n t he " Kamares s ty le" b ecame w idespread i n MMII. I n s ma l l quant it ies t h is s ty le o f p a int ing ( bib. 2 25 p . 2 19 F ig. 2 77, p . 2 35 F ig . d , p . 2 45 F ig. 3 37 ; 3 0 p . 1 7; 1 31 p . 5 6) was known o n v esse ls o f t he MM I p er iod ( F ig . 7 /6). But t hey w ere p robab ly a f orm wh ich was s t i l l n o t v ery w idespread a d A . L acy i s qu ite r ight, wh ich i s c onf irmed by t he f o l low ing i nd irect d a ta. I n E ar ly M inoan t ime Crete 's i nf luence d id n o t e xtend t o o ther t err itor ies; i t i s b e l ieved t hat Crete i tse lf was i nf luenced by o ther c ountr ies, p art i cu lar ly Egypt ( b ib. n o . 1 23 pp. 1 7-18). Teapots w i th a t wo-part s pout a re unknown o uts ide C rete i n t he E ar ly M inoan p er iod. Teapots w ith s uch as pout b e long o n ly t o t he e nd o f t ha t p er iod; t hey h ave b een f ound i n t wo p laces a c ons iderab le d istance f rom Crete— in c entra l Anato l ia ( Ku ltepe Karum I) a nd i n I ran ( H issar I IC). More w i l l b e s a id a bout t hese v ess e ls l ater. The s i tua t ion c hanges i n t he MMII. Tha t was t he t ime o f t he s tart o f t he s o-ca l led f i rst e xpans ion o f Aegean t rade ( b ib. n o. 1 23 p p. 1 7-18). F or t he f i rst t ime M inoan p ottery s pread f ar a nd w ide, i nc lud ing t he " Kamares s ty le". I t b egan t o b e i m ita ted i n t he Near E ast a nd i n Egypt. But o n ly v esse ls w i th a r im s pout w ere i m i tated ( bib. n o. 1 23 p p , . 1 7-18; 1 83 pp. 6 2-63 F ig. 5 0 ; 6 3 p . 6 4 F ig . 5 3). There a re n o t eap ots o f E ar ly M inoan f orm. Thus i t c an b e c ons idered t ha t t eapo ts w ent o ut o f u se i n Crete b efore t he b eg inn ing o f t he f i rst e xpans ion o f Aegean t rade a nd b efore t he s pread o f t he " Kamares s ty le", t ha t i s, b efore t he b eg inn ing o f MMII. And t hroughout t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C . n o t eapots o f t h is f orm a re e nc ountered i n Crete. Ma in land Greece a nd t he Cyc lades Basket-hand led t eapo ts w ith a s ide c y l indr ica l s pout b ecame w ides pread i n ma in land Greece i n t he E ar ly H e l lad ic p er iod ( EH). The e ar l iest e xamp les o f s uch v esse ls c ame f rom Z ygour ies a nd b e longed t o t he l ast phase o f t he EH p er iod ( turn o f t he t h ird-second m i l lenn ium t o 1 900 B .C.) ( bib. n o. 6 3 F ig. 8 9, 1 15) ( F ig . 7 /8, 9 ). A lthough i t i s b e l ieved t ha t ma in land Greece h ad c lose c ontacts w i th Crete a nd t he Cyc lades i n t he EH p er iod ( b ib. n o. 1 31 p . 1 44), n everthe less t he t eap ots w i th t he t wo-part s pout wh ich a re w idespread i n Crete a re unknown i n Greece. And i n Crete t he Greek f orm i s f ound v ery r are ly a nd o n ly b eg inn ing i n t he m idd le o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C., b e ing e v ident ly a Greek i mport, s ince i n Greece t hey e x isted t hroughout t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C . ( b ib. n o . 2 11 p . 1 67) (F ig . 7 /10 , 1 2 ,1 3) . The a ppearance 4 3

i n Greece o f v esse ls w i th a c y l indr ica l s pout a nd a b asket h and le i s l i nked w ith Western Ana to l ia . The c losest p ara l le ls t o t he v esse ls f rom Z ygour ies were f ound i n Troy V , where t hey h ad a lready b een known f rom Troy I ( b ib. n o . 6 2, p . 2 27; 1 50 p p. 7 4-75)(F ig. 7 /14-16). An i nterest ing e xamp le was f ound i n t he Cyc lades i n Phy lakop i ( end o f t he M idd le Cyc lad ic P er iod I I i .e. 1 900-1600 B .C.). I t i s a hybr id o f t he v esse ls j ust d escr ibed a nd v esse ls w i th a t rough s pout a t t he r im, wh ich, under Crete ' si nf luence, s pread t hroughout t he A egean wor ld a nd Western As ia ( b ib. n o . 6 0 F ig . 9 1)(F ig . 7 /11). Ana to l ia Vesse ls w ith a s ide s pout a ppeared i n Anato l ia a bout t he m idd le o f t he t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C. a nd e x isted t hroughout t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. ( the ir s ubsequent h istory i s n o t e xam ined h ere). They were t he d om inant p o ttery f orm ( b ib. n o . 1 52, p . 2 6) a nd most h ave f ea tures p ecu l iar t o Ana to l ia. The c u l tura l un iqueness o f d ifferent r eg ions a nd t he c oncom itant d iff icu l ty o f e stab l ish ing c ontemporane in ty a re c haract er ist ic o f Ana to l ia . Therefore, l eav ing a s ide l oca l a nd c hrono log ica l f eatures, wh ich i n p art icu lar a ffected t he mu l t ip l ic i ty o f s pouted t eapot v ar iet ies, wh ich l ed t o ar e la t ive ly v ast t ypo log ica l g rada t ion, l et u s dwe l l o n o n ly t he g enera l f ea tures c haracter is ing t h is f orm o f p o ttery i n Ana to l ia. I f i n Crete t he t eapo ts w ere t ypo log ica l ly h omogeneous t hroughout t he t ime o f t he ir e x istence, i n Ana to l ia t hey w ere d ifferent a lmost f rom t he b eg inn ing p r imar i ly i n t he l arge v ar iety o f b ody f orms, wh ich i n f act w as t he r eason f or d ifferent t erm ino logy b e ing u sed, wh ich w i l l n o t b e t aken i nto a ccount i n t h is work. On ly t eapots w ith a b asket h and le a re e xam ined s eparate ly. Th is d ivers i ty c an b e s een w i th in o ne s i te a nd o ne l eve l. A l l s pouts a re o ne-part a nd e nc losed a l though n ot a lways s tr ict ly c y l indr ica l. Th is d ef in it ion s hou ld b e t aken c ond it iona l ly s ince t he s pout t apers, but t he d ef in i t ion i nd ica tes a n e nc losed f orm. As e ar ly a s t he t urn o f t he t h ird-second m i l lenn ium B .C. ,i n a dd i t ion t o s imp le c y l indr ica l s pouts t here a ppeared c y l indr ica l s pouts w i th a l ug a t t he e nd but w ithout at rough i ns ide ( F igs. 7 /26). Th is f ea ture o f t he c entra l Anato l ian s i tes i s r eta ined t hroughout t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. ( F ig . 7 /31, 3 5-38). True, i t i s p oss ib le t o s ee t races o f e xper iments w i th o ther f orms o f s pouts a t t hese s i tes. F or i nstance, o ne t eapot f rom Bogazköy ( F ig . 7 /25) h as a s pout w ith a n e n larged l ug t ogether w i th a t rough, wh ich e ssent ia l ly t ransf orms t he s pout i nto a t wo-part o ne, a l though c ompared w i th c onvent iona l t wo-part s pouts t he t rough i s v ery s hort ( bib. n o . 1 67 F ig . 3 5/360). I n L eve l I -B o f Ku ltepe c ontemporary w i th i t ( 1850-1800 B .C.) t here a re z oomorph ic e ssent ia l ly t wo-part s pouts s ince t he e nd p art, a l though e nc losed, i s i n t he s hape o f a n a n ima l h ead a nd i s s i tua ted a t a n a ng le t o t he c y l indr ica l p art ( b ib. n o . 1 68 Tab. 3 1/1 ,3) ( F ig . 7 /30). S im i lar s pouts have b een f ound i n s ma l l quant i t ies i n Tarsus i n t he L ate Bronze Age l eve l ( 1650-1450 B .C.) ( bib. n o. 1 12, p . 1 95, F ig . 3 09/1034). I n Ku ltepe I ( 2000-1900 B .C.) t eapo ts w ere f ound w ith g enu ine t wo-par t s pouts o ne w ith a hypert roph ied t rough p art ( F ig . 7 /29 , 3 2). I t s hou ld b e n oted t hat i n Ku ltepe t he t eapot f orms d iffer i n t erms o f t echn ique a nd f orm i n e ach l eve l ( b ib. n o . 1 68, p . 1 11). And t he v esse ls w ith a t wo-par t s pout f ound i n t he L eve l I h ave n o t b een f ound i n o ther l eve ls. Th is f orm s eems t o b e a lso unknown i n t he o ther s i tes o f Ana to l ia . The i mpress ion o ne g ets i s t ha t t he t wo-part f orm o f s pout a ppeared h ere i ndependent ly o f t he ma in t rad i t ion o f t he c y l indr ica l o ne-part s pout a nd d id n ot manage t o r ep lace i t . I t i s d iff icu lt t o p ut f orward a ny k ind o f t heory e xcept t o r em ind t he r eader t ha t t he t rad i t ion o f t wo-part s pouts e x isted a t t h is t ime o n ly i n

4 4

Crete. Yet a nother v ar iant o f t he c y l indr ica l s pout i s t he s pout w i th t he h or izonta l ly c ut t ip. Th is d eta i l s eems t o b e c haracter ist ic o f t he s i tes o f s outh-west a nd s ou th Ana to l ia ( Beycesu ltan a nd Tarsus) ( F ig . 7 /17, 2 0). Teapo ts w ith a c y l indr ica l s pout a re s omet imes c haracter ised by h av ing t he h and le n o t i n t he s ame p lane a s t he s pout but a t 9 0° t o i t . Th is i s f ound b o th i n t he s i tes o f t he m id t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C. ( Tarsus) ( F ig . 7 /40) a nd i n t he s i tes o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. ( Beycesu ltan, Kusura) ( bib. n o . 1 12 F ig . 2 46/229 ; 1 32 Tab le 8 /7 ; 1 32 Tab le 3 4/1), ( F ig . 7 /21). On t he who le, a l l t he v ar iants o f s pouts ment ioned a bo ve e xcept t he t wo-par t o nes, s urv ive t o t he e nd o f t he Bronze Age i n Ana to l ia. But, a t t he e nd o f t ha t p er iod ,vesse ls wh ich c ou ld h ave b een d irect ly l inked w ith t he a ppearance o f t eapots w ith a t wo-part s pout i n I ron Age I I ran w ere unknown. The s econd v ar iety o f s pouted v esse ls i n Ana to l ia were, a s h as a lready b een p o inted o ut, b asket-hand led t eapots w ith a c y l indr ica l s pout. They a ppeared i n t he m idd le o f t he t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C. ( Troy I , Tarsus i n t he E ar ly B ronze Age I I) a nd e x isted t hroughout t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. ( F ig . 7 /14 , 4 0 , 2 4 , 4 1, 4 3). T rue, s ome o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium v esse ls d o n o t h ave a c y l indr ica l s pout but a t rough o ne , wh ich a ppeared under t he i nf luence o f C retan-M inoan v esse ls, a s d es cr ibed a bove ( F ig . 7 /22, 2 3 , 3 3). One v esse l h as a t wo-part s pout ( F ig . 7 /34). The r est o f t he Anc ient E ast knew o n ly t he c y l indr ica l f orm o f s pout ( the L evant c oast, Mesopotam ia a nd E lam). The L evant Coast I n P a lest ine v esse ls w ith a c y l indr ica l s pout ( jars) were known a s e ar ly a s t he P roto-urban p er iod ( 3400-3000 B .C.) i n J er icho , Meg iddo, Te l l en -Nasbeh i n t he E ar ly Bronze Age ( bib. n o . 1 25 F ig . 1 4/14-15 ; b ib. n o . 1 15 p . 1 36-147 Tab le 5 , 9 ; b ib. n o. 2 12 Tab le 1 3/225) ( F ig . 7 /45 , 4 6). But t eapo ts a s s uch b ecame most w idespread a nd t he c hara cter ist ic f orm o f p ottery i n ar e lat ive ly s hort s pace o f t ime ( 2100-1900 B .C.), wh ich a pp l ies t o t he ma ter ia l f rom t he g raves i n J er icho, Te l l Ad j ju l ( cemeter ies 1 500, 1 00-200), Duwe ir ( Lach ish I V), Te l l Be it M irs im ( Leve ls I -H), Meg iddo ( shaf t g raves), Barqa i ( bib. n o. 1 25 p . 1 80-185 ; b ib. n o . 1 26 p . 5 73 F ig . 2 0; b ib. n o. 1 27 p . 5 0 F ig . 9 /11; b ib. n o . 1 99 Tab le 6 6-67 ; b ib. n o. 1 15 Tab le 3 3/10, 3 1/3, 2 5/6; b ib. n o. 1 14 F ig . 3 ), ( F ig. 7 /47 - 5 0). Th is p er iod, i dent if ied a nd d escr ibed med ia te E ar ly B ronze —M idd le B ronze Age a n a brupt b reak i n t he p reced ing c u lture by t he i ncurs ion o f S em i t ic n omads ( b ib.

by K . K enyon a s t he I nter( EB-MB), i s c haracter ised by o f P a lest ine a nd was c aused n o . 1 26 pp. 5 67-568).

The t eapo ts o f t h is t ime d o n ot h ave a v ar iety o f f orms. As a r u le t hey h ave a p ear-shaped b ody w ith a n a dded, f a ir ly l ong n eck a nd a w ide f l a t b ase. A c haracter ist ic d eta i l o f t hese t eapo ts i s t he b ow-shaped r idge l inking t he h igh ly r a ised c y l indr ica l s pout a nd t he n eck ( F ig . 7 /50). A s im i lar d eta i l i s f ound o n t eapots f rom Ur i n t he Uba id p er iod ( F ig . 7 / 6 1) a nd o n av esse l f rom P hy lakop i ( b ib. n o. 2 26, 1 16). A f ter 1 900 B .C. a ccord ing t o K . Kenyon 's p er iod iza t ion, t eapo ts c omp lete ly d isappeared. A f ter a b r ief i nterva l i n t he MBII ( 17 th c entury B .C.) a nd l a ter, s o-ca l led f eed ing b ott les a re f ound f a ir ly r are ly ( Meg iddo, L ach ish, G ibeon) ( bib. n o . 1 15 Tab le 4 1/28, 1 6; b ib. n o. 1 41 Tab le 34 /5 , 5 9/9 ; b ib. n o. 1 99 Tab le 8 2/932, 9 36; b ib. n o. 1 73 F ig . 6 1, 6 ) ( F ig. 7 /51-52). These were s ma l l b road-necked v esse ls w i th a n a dded b ase a nd b ig h and le. 4 5

The c y l indr ica l f orm o f s pout a lso e x isted i n meta l v esse ls ( Byb los, modern L ebanon) ( b ib. n o . 1 54 Tab le CXI/746 a nd CXII). These v esse ls a re d ated t o t he 1 8th c entury B .C. ( b ib. n o. 5 8 pp. 3 8-46). Mater ia ls f rom Syr ia a nd a reas f arther e ast ( Ti ! Bars ib) a ttest t o t he a ppearance o f s pouted v esse ls i n t he t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C. a lso ( the Amuk va l ley, Phase G , a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C., T i l Bars ib i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C.) ( bib. n o. 6 6 pp. 5 16-518 F ig. 2 19/9; b ib. n o. 1 97 F ig. 3 0; b ib. n o. 1 43 pp. 3 283 39) ( F ig. 7 /53-59). Accord ing t o t he Amuk Va l ley d ata t hey went o ut o f u se a t t he t ime o f t he t h ird-second m i l lenn ium B .C. ( Phase J ) ( b ib. n o. 6 6 p . 5 21, 5 23). On t he t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C. v esse ls a bsence o f h and les, a d ownward b ent s pout, t he v ar iety o f b ody f orms ( jars, p ots a nd j ugs) —a l l t hese f eatures, a s w i l l b e s hown b e low, l ink t h is a rea w ith Mesopotam ia. Basket h and led t eapots a re f ound i n P a lest ine a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C. ( Te l l e n-Nasbeh) a nd l a ter ( Ti l Bars ib) ( bib. n o. 2 12 Table 1 0/145, 1 47; b ib. n o. 1 97 F ig. 3 0) ( F ig. 7 /55). Mesopotam ia a nd E lam I n t he a rea o f a nc ient Mesopotam ia a nd t he c u ltura l ly a d jacent E lam as ide s pout o n v esse ls was known a s e ar ly a s t he f ourth m i l lenn ium B .C. I t e xisted t hroughout t he f ourth-th ird m i l lenn ia v irtua l ly unchanged a nd was a lways o n ly a n e nc losed c y l indr ica l f orm. The s pout was u sed o n a l arge v ar iety o f wares-jars, p ots, a nd l arge s torage v esse ls ( bib. n o. 9 2, I V, V I, X , J emdet Nasr l i st; b ib. n o. 1 18 pp. 2 01-213). A l l s pouted v esse ls a lways l acked s ide h and les. Among t hem t here were a lso v esse ls wh ich i n s ize a nd f orm were s imi lar t o t eapots. The e ar l iest o f t hem c ame f rom Ur o f t he Uba id p er iod ( f irst h a lf o f t he f ourth m i l lenn ium B .C.) ( F ig. 7 /60-66). They were u sua l ly s pher ica l, s l ight ly f lattened i n f orm w ith a r ounded b ase a nd w ith o r w ithout a l ong, s tra ight o r f unne l-shaped n eck. One e xamp le o f at eapot h as a b r idged s pout, wh ich h as b een ment ioned a bove i n c onnect ion w ith P a lest ine, a nd a n a dded f lat b ase. The s pouts a re o f var ious f orms a nd s izes; a t t h is t ime t here a re a lready d ownward b ent s pouts ( N ippur, Warka). Th is f ea ture o f t he Mesopotamian v esse ls was s ing led o ut i n p art icu lar by G . Ch i lde, who b e l ieved t hat t hey h ave t he ir own l ong h istory i n p rec ise ly t h is a rea a nd who p o inted t o t he i nf luence o f Mesopotam ia o n t he ir a ppearance i n P a lest ine a nd Egypt ( bur ia l c omp lexes f rom t he L ate Gerzean p er iod) ( bib. n o. 5 5 p . 1 22, 1 28, 2 04 ; b ib. n o. 1 24 p . 8 , 2 6, F ig . 3 ). J udg ing by pub l ished mater ia l, t hroughout t he t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C. t eapots o ccup ied a n eg l ig ib le p lace among o ther s pouted v esse ls. Basketh and led t eapots w ere a lso known o n t h is t err itory. The e ar l iest o f t hem b e long t o t he Uba id p er iod ( Ur), t he l a test c ome f rom t he J emdet Nasr p a lace ( an e ponymous p er iod t hrough 3 200-2900 B .C.) ( F ig . 7 /64, 6 5, 7 3). Both h ave a t ypo log ica l s im i lar ity w ith t he v esse ls f rom Troy a nd ma in land Greece, but t hey a re s eparated by a bout 5 00 y ears. A t t he b eg inn ing o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. s pouted v esse ls went o ut o f u se. The v ar iety o f p ottery d ecreased a nd i ts i ns ign if icant f orms c hanged l i tt le t hroughout t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C., c eas ing t o b e d at ing mater ia l ( bib. n o. 2 17 pp. 9 7-100). A s im i lar s i tuat ion o bta ins i n E lam, a lso, where s pouted v esse ls a ppear i n t he e ar l iest p er iod, Susa I ( mid -fourth m i l lenn ium B .C.) a nd e xist w i tho ut a b reak i n t he f ourth-th ird m i l lenn ium B .C. The l a test i s e ncountered i n Susa i n t he p er iod o f t he Avan dynasty ( 2550-2120 B .C.) a nd S imask i

4 6

( 2100-1895/60). L a ter, j ust a s i n Mesopotam ia , v esse ls w i th a c y l indr ica l s pout a re n o l onger f ound ( F ig. 7 /83-87). I ran I n I ran t he s ide s pout o n v esse ls a ppears i n t he f our th m i l lenn ium B .C. ( S ia lk I I, T epe Yahya V , I V-B) ( b ib. n o. 9 9 Tab le I X IX/135, I XVIII/177; b ib. n o . 1 34 p . 8 4 ; b ib. n o . 4 1 p p. 2 82-283), c ont inued t o e x ist t hroughout t he t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C. ( Tepe Ma lyan, J a lyan, Yahya , S handad, S hahr i-Sokhta , H issar I , S hah T epe IB, Tureng T epe) a nd d isappear a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C . ( H issar I IC, S hah Tepe IA). W ith t he e xcept ion o f t he o ne p er iod o f H issar I IC, t he s pout i s a lways o f ao ne-part c y l indr ica l f orm, wh ich s uggests a c ommon t rad i t ion w i th t he Mesopotam ian-E lam c irc le o f c u ltures ( F ig . 7 /88-109). The c u ltura l i nf luence o f E lam i s t raced by r esearchers t hroughout t he c oast l ine o f t he P ers ian Gu lf . I n t he o p in ion o f C . L amberg-Kar lovsky t he Kerman Oas is ( Tepe Yahya , I b l is, S handad) was p art o f t he E lam f ederat ion ( b ib. n o . 1 34 pp. 8 0-81). The l i nks b etween S ia lk I I-IV a nd E lam h ave o f ten b een p o inted o ut ( bib. n o . 8 7 p . 2 25-227, 2 37). F ar ther e ast, i n Bampur, t he s o le s pouted v esse l ( Bampur I-th ird m i l lenn ium) i s r egarded a s a un ique f ind. The l inks w ith E lam h ere h ave a lready b ecome t enuous ( b ib. n o . 7 5 p . 2 84 F ig . 2 1/125). I n I nd ia v esse ls w ith a s ide s pout a re known b oth a t s i tes o f t he Harappa c u lture a nd a t s i tes i n c entra l a nd s outhern I nd ia i n t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. S ome r esearchers l i nk t he a ppearance o f t hese v esse ls d irect ly w i th I ran ( H. D . S anka l ia), o thers i ns ist o n t he ir l oca l o r ig in a nd d eve lopment ( Shchetenko) ( bib. n o. 5 7 p p. 1 00-128 Tab le I). I n Lur istan R . Dyson l i nks t he e mergence o f t he p a inted t rad i t ion o f G iyan I V-III w i th t he i nf luence o f S usa D ( b ib. n o. 8 9 p . 6 92). However, u n l ike i n t he s outhern a reas o f I ran, v esse ls w ith a s ide s pout a re f ound h ere i n s o l i tary e xamp les ( Grave 9 , D jamsh id i, Grave 1 06, G iyan I V) ( b ib. n o . 7 8 Table 3 1, 7 7 ; b ib. n o. 8 9 p . 6 93), a nd a lso E . Herzfe ld 's r efere nce t o h is f inds o f av esse l i dent ica l t o t ha t f rom S usa I ( b ib. n o. 1 20 p . 7 0) ( F ig. 7 /85). I n I ran ian A zarba i jan a nd Kurd istan v esse ls w i th a s ide s pout s eem t o b e unknown i n t he f ourth-second m i l lenn ia B .C. - ( before t he I ron Age Ip er iod). Nor a re t hey t o b e f ound i n s urround ing a reas; i n t he C aucasus a nd t he Transcaucasus t h is f orm i s unknown b efore t he b eg inn ing o f t he f i rst m i l lenn ium B .C. a nd i t s a ppearance i s l inked w ith t he I ran ian f orms o f t he I ron Age I ; i n c entra l Anato l ia t hey a ppeared a t t he e nd o f t he t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C.; t he c urrent ly e x ist ing mater ia l f rom E astern Ana to l ia d oes n ot y et make i t p oss ib le t o make j udgements o n t h is i ssue. Absence o f s pouted v esse ls c an b e e xp la ined by t he f act t ha t l inks w ith Mesopo tam ia i n t h is a rea o f I ran were e stab l ished n o t l ong b efore t he e nd o f t he f ourth m i l lenn ium B .C . ( the God in T epe V p er iod, 3 200-3000 B .C.). A t t hat t ime, God in Tepe, i n t he o p in ion o f i t s r esearchers, was p robab ly t he b ase o f t he S us ian t raders c ontro l l ing a nd s afeguard ing f rade a long t he Khorasan r oad. L azur i te c ou ld h ave b een t he u lt imate t rade. The d epar ture o f t he Sus ian t raders f rom God in T epe a t t he e nd o f t h is p er iod was p robab ly c aused by t he i ncurs ion o f t he b earers o f t he Yan ik c u lture i nto t h is a rea, wh ich d isturbed t h is t rade a rtery. However , E lam ' s i nterest i n t he r oad t o t he e ast was r eta ined a nd i t b egan t o s et up n ew, more p ermanent l i nks t hrough S ia lk a nd t he s outh-east a reas, where T epe Yahya was o ne b ase ( b ib. n o . 2 14, p . 1 , 1 4-15). Th is hypothes is i s c onf irmed by ma ter ia ls f rom e xcava t ions i n 4 7

t he s outhern r eg ions a nd i n p art icu lar by t he s pread o f s pouted v esse ls. As f or t he s i tes o f Gurgan, t he quest ion p r imar i ly o f t he t ime o f t he d em ise o r d ec imat ion o f t he s ett lements a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. r ema ins d ebatab le. The question o f t he o r ig in o f g reyb lack ware a lso r ema ins unso lved. I t must b e n oted t ha t r esearchers i n one way o r a no ther l inked i t s a ppearance a s e ar ly a s H issar IA w i th t he g rey-b lack Uruk ware ( bib. n o. 5 9 p . 2 36-237). H issar IA i s d a ted t o t he b eg inn ing o f t he t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C. Bu t a n e ar l ier d at ing i s n o t t o b e r u led o ut i n v iew o f t he s uggested o lder d a te f or H issar I B-C a nd S ia lk I I ( bib. n o. 8 1 p . 2 60-263). I t i s p rec ise ly f rom t hat t ime t ha t c y l inder-spouted v esse ls a ppeared i n H issar I 1A, c ont inu ing t hrough t o H issar IC. Apart f rom v esse ls w ith a c y l indr ica l s pout, v esse ls w ith o ther v ar ie t ies o f s pouts were a lso f ound i n H issar I IC. They i nc lude v esse ls w ith a l arge t hrough-r immed s pout ( b ib. n o. 1 86 Tab le CXVI-H699). They were known i n I ran a s e ar ly a s S ia lk I V, where t here a re d irect a na log ies w ith Susa C ( b ib. n o. 9 9 Tab le I XXXVIII/53; b ib. 5 5 d iag ram 7 5/8). Bronze v esse ls o f s im i lar f orm a re known i n Shandad ( th ird m i l lenn ium B .C.) a nd i n Lur istan ( bib. n o. 1 16 Tab le 2 0; b ib. n o. 1 29 Tab le 6 -7, t he t ext r efers t o t ab les II-IV). Another var iety i s a meta l a nd s tone v esse l o f H issar I IC. These v esse ls h ave a v ery l ong c y l indr ica l p art wh ich i n s ome i nstances e nds i n a n o pen t rough. A s im i lar meta l t eapot, but w ithout a we l l-def ined t rough, i s known f rom t he Astrabad t reasure ( bib. n o. 1 78). A s im i lar f orm o f s pout w ith a l ong c y l indr ica l p art i s known i n Mesopotam ia, i n E r idu ( bib. n o. 1 40 Tab le V II, I I ( type 1 5) ) . The c lay v esse ls w ith a t wo-part s pout c ons ist ing o f a s hort-un l ike meta l v esse ls- c y l indr ica l p art a nd a n o pen p ar t i n t he f orm o f an arrow l ong t rough, o ne e nd o f wh ich i s a ttached t o t he r im, a re a f orm e xc lus ive t o H issar I IC a nd a re unknown a t o ther c ontemporary s i tes o f Gurgan . They a re d ecorated w ith burn ished o rnamentat ion ; t he h e ight o f t he v esse ls i s f rom 8 t o 1 4 cm ( F ig. 7 /103, 1 04). These t eapots i n f act s erved a s t he b as is f or e stab l ish ing l inks b etween H issar I IC a nd t he I ron Age I p er iod ( F ig. 7 /110-113). L et u s n o te, h owever, t ha t a d irect c ompar ison b etween t he H issar v esse ls a nd a ny o f t he f our t ypes o f t eapots f rom t he I ron Age I p er iod i s i mposs ib le. I t i s a nother t ype, whose p r inc ipa l f ea ture i s a n a ttempt t o a ttach t he t rough t o t he r im o r n eck o f t he v esse l. Th is f ea ture, unknown o n I ron Age I t eapots, a ppears i n I ron Age I. I t c an p robab ly b e r egarded a s a c onstruct ive d eve lopment o f t he I ron Age I t ypes; i t was b rought a bout by t he n eed t o s trengthen s pouts, wh ich s ometimes r eached c ons iderab le p roportions. I t c annot b e r u led o ut t ha t i t i s p rec ise ly t he f rag i l ity o f t he t wo-par t c eram ic s pouts wh ich e xp la ins why i n H issar M c meta l v esse ls h ave a l ong c y l indr ica l p art a nd c eram ic o nes a s hort p art. H issar I nc i s d a ted by t he most a ccepted d a tings n ow t o a pprox imate ly t he f i rst c entur ies o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. I n t hat p er iod v esse ls w ith a t wo-part s pout were known o n ly i n Crete a nd Ana to l ia ; i n Ku ltepe I t hey a re l inked w i th H issar I IC o n ly by t he p r inc ipa l o f t he s pout a rrangement. I t i s d iff icu lt t o s ay wha t c aused t he s im i lar i ty : c onvergence o f d eve lopment o r d eeper l inks. M . E . Ma l lowan, p o int ing t o t he s imi lar ity i n t he v esse ls f rom Ku ltepe a nd H issar, s ees a p oss ib le l i nk b etween t hese t owns. I n h is o p in ion, i t c ou ld h ave b een b ased o n t he f act t hat H issar I IC was t he c rossroads i n t he t rans it t rade b e tween t he e ast a nd t he west ( b ib. n o. 1 42 pp. 1 19-122). Whatever t he c ase, t he f o l lowing f acts a re o f i mportance t o u s i n t h is c ase: i n Crete, t eapots w ith t wo-part spouts went o ut o f u se a t t he b eg inning o f t he 4 8

s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. ; i n Ku l tepe, t hey w ere known o n ly i n t he p er iod I ( 2000-1900 B .C.) a nd were n o t f ur ther d eve loped. I n I ran t hey d id n ot e xtend b eyond H issar I IC a nd d isappeared w i th t he d estruct ion o r d esol a t ion, a s V . I . S ar ian id i b e l ieves ( b ib. n o. 4 0 p . 1 70), o f t he Gurgan s i tes. I n C entra l As ia, i n Turkmen ia, v esse ls w i th a c y l indr ica l s pout b ecame w idespread i n t he p er iod o f Namazga I I a nd r esearchers .l ink i t s a ppearance w i th I ran ian i nf luence ( b ib. n o. 5 1 p . 4 6 d iag . 18 /2 ) . The ir e x istance i n t he p reced ing p er iod ( NMZ I) i s a s y et p roE i lem -a t ic b ecause o f t he s hor tage o f mater ia l ( on ly o ne v esse l w i th a b roken o ff s pout i s known) ( b ib . no . 5 4 p . 1 8 d iag . 3 /8). Throughout t he t h irds econd m i l lenn ia B .C. ( NMZ I I-IV) o n ly v esse ls w i th a c y l indr ica l s pout a re known ( b ib. n o . 3 9 p . 1 07 d iag . 1 1/2, p . 9 8 d iag . 2 /15; b ib. n o. 2 3 p . 1 63 d iag . 3 7/7 , 9 , 4 1/5). The a ppearance o f t he t wo-par t f orm o f s pout a t t he e nd o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. ( Sumbar) ( b ib. n o . 5 3 p . 1 1, 3 1) was g overned by i t s b road s pread i n I ran i n t he I ron Age I p er iod. Vesse ls w i th a c y l indr ica l s pout h ave a lso b een d iscovered i n n orthe rn A fgan istan. The d a t ing o f t he s i tes o f t he Dash l i o as is i s a s y et p re l im inary—second h a lf o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. —on t he b as is o f r ad iocarbon d a t ing ( b ib. n o. 3 8, p . 8 3). As y et s uch a f orm o f s pout i s unknown o uts ide t he a bove t err i tor ies. The e xam ined mater ia l a l lows t he f o l lowing c onc lus ions t o b e d rawn: ( 1) t hroughout t he v ast t err i tory o f t he Anc ient E ast a nd Med iterranean o ver t he s pace o f o ver 2 000 y ears t here were t hree r eg ions w i th d iffere nt t rad i t ions o f s ide s pout a rrangements ( F ig . 8 ). One c overed M esopotam ia, wh ich i nc luded i n t he s phere o f i t s t rad i t ion t he L evant c oas t, E lam a nd I ran. I t e merged i n t he f ourth m i l lenn ium B .C. a nd d isappeared a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C . The s econd r eg ion i nc luded Crete, where t he t rad i t ion o f s ide s pouts emerged f rom t he t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C. a nd d isappeared a bout t he s ame t ime a s t he t rad it ion o f t he f i rst r eg ion. The s pout a rrangement i s f undam enta l ly d ist inct ive— i t i s i n t wo p ar ts w i th a n o pen t rough s pout. The t h ird r eg ion—Ana to l ia—occup ies a s pec ia l p os i t ion. The t rad i t ion o f s ide s pouts, wh ich e merged i n t he t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C ., d id n ot c ease, a s i t d id i n t he f i rst t wo c ases, a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C ., but c ont inued t o e x ist t hroughout t hat m i l lenn ium. Wherea s i n t he f i rst r eg ions t here was a s tab le f orm o f s pout, a t rad it ion i n t he s tr ict s ense o f t he word, i n Ana to l ia, a l though t he o r ig ina l f orm w as c y l indr ica l, t here was a k ind o f p rocess t hroughout t ha t t ime wh ich p roduced d ifferent v ar iat ions o f s pouts. I n o ne o f t hese s tages ( Ku ltepe I ) t here a ppeared t he " c lass ica l" t wo-part f orm o f s pouts, wh ich, h owever, was n ot f ur ther d eve loped i n Ana to l ia . I t r ema ins unc lear wha t was b eh ind t he a ppearance i n t wo s epara te a reas ( Ku ltepe a nd H issar) o f v esse ls w i th a t wo-part s pout when t he t rad i t ion o f o ne-part s pouts e x isted t here. Was t h is a c o inc idence o r r ea l ly a r ef lect ion o f t he l inks s uggested by M . E . Ma l lowan. Apparent ly s ome s ort o f l i nks w ith C rete c annot b e r u led o ut e i ther . B asket-hand led t eapo ts o ccupy a s pec ia l p lace. They e x ist e verywhere, i n n o s pec if ic r eg ions. Appear ing s porad ica l ly i n f ourth-th ird m i l lenn ia B .C . i n t he f i rst r eg ion, t hey t hen a ppear i n t he t h ird r eg ion i n t he m idd le o f t he t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C. , where t hey a re t hen c ont inuous ly f ound t hroughout t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C . Then t hey p enetra te ma in land Greece a nd p robab ly i nsp ire t he a ppearance o f s im il ar v esse ls i n I ran i n t he I ron Age I p er iod, a l though s evera l s uch v esse ls h ave b een f ound i n I ran a t s i tes a t t he e nd o f t he t h ird t o t he b eg inn ing o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. 4 9

( 2) I t i s p erfect ly o bv ious t ha t r eg iona l t rad it ions e x isted among d ifferent c u ltures. No a ttent ion h as b een p a id t o l oca l d ifferences w i th in e ach r eg ion i n t h is work s ince i t was i mportant t o s how t ha t t he f orm o f s ide s pout i t se lf i s n o t a n e thn ic f eature. The s t imu lus f or i t s s pread was n ot e thn ic m igrat ion but d ifferent c ontacts o f n e ighbour ing a reas ( e.g . Mesopo tam ia-E lam-Iran), a nd wha t i s s ign if icant i s t he f act t ha t, a l though t he s pread i n I ran o f v esse ls w i th a s ide s pout w as c onnected w ith E lam i nf luence, t he f ormat ion o f s uch a v esse l i n e ach a rea was s ubord ina te t o t he l oca l c eram ic t rad i t ion ( pa int ing , burn ish ing , e tc.). Consequent ly, what was i mpor ted w as n o t v esse ls t hemse lves but o n ly t he i dea o f t he ir f orm. ( 3) I t h as b een s a id a bove t ha t r esearchers i nto t he I ron Age I c u lture i n I ran b e l ieved t ha t t h is was t he e stab l ished c u lture o f t he I ran ian e thnos a nd t hat i n I ran i t s p recursor was t he c u lture l oca l ised i n Gurgan ( H issar, S hah T epe, Turang T epe), wh ich b e longed t o t he I ndo-Aryans who c ame t here f rom o uts ide. The g rey-b lack c o lour o f t he p ottery, a nd t he t ea p o ts a re t wo i nd ica tors a ttest ing t o t he k insh ip o f t hese c u ltures. However, r esearch i nto t h is f orm h as s hown t ha t t he v esse ls w i th a c y l indr ica l s pout i n S hah T epe, Turang T epe a nd H issar c ame i nto t he r eg ion a s a n a nc ient t rad i t ion wh ich e x isted t hroughout I ran a nd i n Gurgan c ont inuous ly t hrough t he t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C. , a nd i t c ou ld n ot h ave c ome f rom o uts ide s ince b eyond t hat t err i tory t h is f orm o f p ottery was a s y et c omp lete ly unknown. The d isappearance o f t h is f orm e verywhere a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. makes i t i mposs ib le f or t here t o h ave b een a l ink w i th l a ter s i tes. T he i nc lus ion o f s i tes i n Gurgan a s p art o f t he Mesopo tam ian t rad it ion o f v esse ls w i th a s ide s pout c an h e lp t o g ive a d ifferent v iew o f t he q ues t ion o f t he o r ig in o f g rey-b lack ware i n Gurgan, p art icu lar ly i f t he w idespread u se o f Uruk g rey-b lack ware i s t aken a s t he s phere o f t h is t rad i t ion. ( 4) There r ema ins t he quest ion o f t he a ppearance o f t eapots w i th a t wo-part s pout i n I ron Age I i n I ran. The r esearch wh ich h as b een c arr ied o ut d oes n ot p rov ide a n unamb iguous a nswer. There was n o s uch f orm i n I ran i n t he p er iod i mmed ia te ly b efore. I t c annot b e r u led o ut t hat t h is f orm may h ave emerged s pontaneous ly, a s i t o nce d id i n Crete. P erhaps Anato l ia managed t o p lay s ome r o le—that was t he o n ly a rea where t he s pouted v esse ls h ad e x isted r ight up t o t hat p er iod. R esearch h as s hown t hat t he s o-ca l led t eapo ts a re n ot s pec if ic t o I ran ian c u lture a nd i n a l l p robab i l i ty a re n o t a n e thn ic f eature a t a l l , a nd t hat t hey w ere unknown i n t hose a reas f rom where t he I ran ian t r ibes c ou ld h ave c ome. A l l t h is t aken t ogether c asts d oubt o n c erta in d irect l inks e stab l ished b etween t he s i tes o f Gurgan a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. a nd t he s i tes o f t he I ron Age I p er iod, a nd o n t he h istor ica l c onc lus ions bu i lt upon t ha t b as is . Thus, i t c an b e s ta ted t hat most o f t he c eram ic f orms a t t he s i tes o f w est a nd n orth—west I ran i n t he I ron Age I p er iod c ome f rom p o t tery o f t he p reced ing p er iod, i nc lud ing t he t wo d iagnost ic f orms—gob lets a nd c ups. The t h ird f orm—teapo ts—a lthough unknown a t s i tes o f t he i mmed iate ly p reced ing p er iod, i s p art o f t he Anc ient E astern t rad i t ion o f v esse ls w ith a s ide s pout wh ich was unknown i n t hose r eg ions f rom where t he I ran ians c ou ld h ave c ome. S umm ing up, i t i s p oss ib le t o c onc lude t he f o l low ing : i n t he I ron Age I p er iod t here was n o un if ied " Ear ly Western Grey Ware h or izon" . Th is i s p roved, o n t he o ne h and, by t he l oca l n ature o f t hese c eram ic 5 0

c omp lexes a nd, o n t he o ther, by a n a na lys is o f t he e x is t ing c eram ic l i nk. F urthermore, t he ques t ion o f t he c ont inu i ty o f t he c eram ic c omp lexes f rom t he I ron Age I p er iod c an b e r eso lved p os it ive ly. There a re n o g rounds f or t h ink ing t ha t g ob lets, t eapots a nd c ups a re a s pec if ic f ea ture o f t he p ottery o f t he I ran ians a rr iv ing w i th t hem o n t he I ran ian p la teau , o r t hat t he I ran ians t hemse lves a re t he b earers o f t he t rad it ion o f g reyb lack ware p roduct ion.

5 1

CHAPTER 3 BURIAL R ITES

1 .

Character ist ics o f t he I ron Age I bur ia l r i tes

The bur ia l r i tes o f t he p opu lat ion o f I ran i n t he I ron Age I p er iod h ave s o f ar n o t b een t he s ub ject o f s pec ia l r esearch. Neverthe less, works i n t he l ast 1 0-15 y ears h ave s ugges ted t ha t t here w ere s ign if icant c hanges i n t he bur ia l r i tes o f t h is p er iod. Th is p roposa l i s b ased s o le ly o n t he f o l low ing : f i rst, i t i s c ons idered t hat t he d ead w ere n o l onger bur ied u nder h ouse f loors ; p roper c emeter ies a t s ome d istance f rom t he s ett lements were n ow bu i lt, s ing le i nhuma t ions i n a n e xtramura l c eme tery r ep lace i ntramura l mu lt ip le bur ia ls. S econd, t he g raves o f t h is p er iod, e xcept Khurv in, i n t he words o f L . Vanden B erge, h ave t he a ppearance o f mega l ith ic c onstruct ions o r s tone t ombs. A l l t hese c hanges a re e xp la ined by t he a rr iva l o f an ew e thnos o n t he I ran ian p la teau ( bib. n o . 2 01, p p.

4 1-42;

1 62, pp.

5 2-53).

However, t hese c onc lus ions a re n ot b ased o n a d eta i led s tudy o f t he bur ia l r i tes o ver t he who le o f I ran. Therefore t he f i rst t ask o f t h is c hapter i s t o d escr ibe, s ystemat ise a nd a na lyse a l l t he d ata o n bur ia l r i tes . I t i s a dv isab le, where p oss ib le, t o l ook a t t he bur ia l r i tes o f t he p reced ing p er iod t ogether w i th t he mater ia l o f t he I ron Age I p er iod s o a s t o g et a n i dea o f what t he t hes is o n ac hange i n t hose r i tes c ou ld b e b ased o n. I n t h is work bur ia l r i tes a re a na lysed a ccord ing t o f our ma in c hara cter ist ics: ( 1) Topography o f g raves ( the l ocat ion o f t he g raves i n r e la t ion t o t he s ett lement); ( 2) t he t ype o f g rave c onstruct ion; ( 3) t he p os it ion o f t he c orpses ( pose a nd o r ienta t ion); ( 4) g rave g oods-i ts c ompos it ion, l oca t ion i n t he g rave, a nd f unct iona l p urpose ( for v esse ls). D inkha Tepe I I ( Tab le 1 ) A l arge number o f t he g raves a re c oncen tra ted i n t he n or thern p ar t o f t he t own-s i te ( 27); * a part f rom t hem g raves were a lso f ound i n t he s outhern ( 1) a nd s outh-western ( 5) p arts. The d ead w ere bur ied i n i nd iv idua l g raves w ith n o marks, wh ich i nc lude t he f o l low ing t ypes : ( 1) s imp le i nhuma t ions i n p i ts ( 23), ( 2) mud-br ick t ombs ( 10), ( 3) u rn bur ia ls ( the ir number c annot b e c a lcur a ted). I nforma tion o n t he -f orm a nd d imens ions o f t he p i t i s n ot p rov ided. The s econd t ype a re a lso p i ts wh ich h ave b een l ined e i ther a long o ne s ide w ith a wa l l o f h or izont a l ly l a id c rude b r icks ( 4 i nstances) o r w ith t hree wa l ls, e xcept ing , a s ar u le, t he e astern s ide . The t h ird t ype b e longs c ond it iona l ly t o t h is p er iod s ince n e ither , l ow p os i t ion o f b ur ia ls n or t he g rave g oods p rov ides s uff ic ient g rounds f or t h is ( b ib. n o . 1 62 p . 7 5). Most o f t hem b e long t o t he I ron Age I p er iod o n t he b as is o f c er ta in d iagnost ic f orms, e .g . b r idge-spout t eapots. But c erta in v esse ls, e .g . j ars, c an b e long t o b o th p er iods. I n a dd it ion, s ome i nstances o f u rn bur ia ls h ave b een d iscovered i n t hose v ery q uarters where t here w ere o ther I ron Age I bur ia ls. An i nd irec t c onf irma t ion o f t he p oss ib i l ity o f d a t ing s ome u rn bur ia ls t o t he I ron Age I p er iod c an a lso b e s een i n t he f act t ha t t hey w ere known i n t he p reced ing L ate Bronze Age P er iod. *

Numbered g raves i n b rackets. 5 2

0 . W . Muscare l la i n t he s ame a rea a nd i t must b e n oted t ha t a du l t b ones a re v ery

w r ites t ha t men , women a nd c h i ldren were bur ied a pparent ly g iven t he s ame bur ia l r i tes. However, c h i ldren w ere c ustomar i ly bur ied i n u rns whereas r are ly f ound i n t hem ( b ib. n o . 1 62 pp. 3 7, 7 5).

The d ead were u sua l ly b ur ied i n af l exed p os i t ion. * B ecause o f i ncomp lete p ub l ica t ion, i t i s d iff icu lt t o d eterm ine wh ich d egree o f f l ex ion p redom ina ted. A l l t hree h ave b een r ecorded . The d ead w ere p laced o n t he ir r ight o r l ef t s ide, t he h ead i n v ar ious p os i t ions b ut p redom inan t ly a l igned i n an orther ly o r s outher ly d irection. D iagram 1 .

Or ientat ion o f t he h ead i n 3 1 bur ia ls :

5

1

1 4 L ef t-s ided b ody p os it ion p redom ina tes w ith a n or ther ly o r ienta t ion, a nd r ight-s ided w i th a s outher ly o r ien ta t ion. Ev ident ly t here was a t endency t o p os it ion t he f ace t owards t he e ast. I t must b e s a id , h owever , t ha t o ver a t h ird o f t he f l exed b ur ia ls w ere f ound l y ing o n t he ir b acks. Usua l ly, h owever, t he f ace, a rms a nd b ent k nees were a l igned t owards o ne s ide wh ich makes i t p oss ib le t o s uggest t ha t t he o r ig ina l p os it ion was o n o ne s ide w ith s ubsequent f a l l ing o nto t he b ack a s ar esu lt o f t he d is integrat i on o f t he b ind ings.** The a rms were u sua l ly f l exed b efore t he f ace, c hest, o r p e lv is; i n o ne i ns tance a f l exed c orpse h ad t he a rms s tretched o ut d own t he b ody. Three e xtended b ur ia ls a re a n e xcept ion. They were d iscovered n o t i n t he n or thern p ar t o f t he t own-s i te, where most o f t he bur ia ls were c oncentrat ed , but i n t he s outh-west ( Trench V II ( 1 , 2 ) a nd I X ( 1) ) . Grave V II 2i s c ons idered t o b e t he e ar l iest g rave of t he I ron Age -I p er iod. The o n ly j o int d iscovery o f ag ob let a nd t eapot was made t here ( b ib. n o . 1 62 p p. 3 8-40). U sua l ly t wo o r t hree v esse ls w ere p ut i ns ide a g rave. The max imum number was f our i n t wo c ases; f ive g raves h ad o ne v esse l e ach. The c o l lect ion c ons isted o f ab ow l-p latter o n wh ich e d ib le meat was p laced ( bones h ave b een f ound), a j ar a nd a t eapo t. S omet imes, i nstead o f a t eapo t a g ob let was pu t i nto t he g rave. There was n o e stab l ished p lace f or p utt ing t he v esse ls e i ther a t t he f eet o r t he h ead. I t i s c ur ious t hat d aggers w ere f ound n o t o n ab e lt a s p art o f t he a ppare l but b eh ind t he h ead, s omet imes i n av esse l l i kew ise p laced b eh ind t he h ead. A Three d egrees o f f l ex ion w ere c ons idered when d escr ibing b ur ia ls: s evere ( 1)--the knees d rawn up t o t he c hest f orm ing a n a cute a ng le b e tween t he s p ine a nd t h igh b ones; m ed ium ( 2)--where t he t h igh b ones a re a t r ight a ng les t o t he s p ine; a nd s l ight ( 3) — where t he t h igh b ones a re a t a n o btuse a ng le t o t he s p ine. **

I n Tab le 1 t he r estored p os i t ion o n o ne s ide i s quer ied i n b racke ts.

5 3

s pear h as b een f ound a t t he f eet, w ith t he p o int d own a nd t he s haf t c onsequent ly h av ing b een p laced d own t he l ength o f t he b ody. I nforma t ion o n t he b ur ia l r i tes o f t he p reced ing p er iod ( Dinkha I V) I n 1 966, a mong t he h ouses o n t he n or thern e nd o f t he s e tt lement w ere f ound t wo c o l lect ive b ur ia ls i n s tone c ists c overed w ith l arge s labs ( bib. n o . 1 61 p . 1 95). * The t h ird c is t, wh ich was e xcava ted by A . S te in a nd was c overed by t wo s labs, c on ta ined a s ing le c rouched c orpse o f ay oung man ( b ib. n o . 1 81 p p. 3 74-375, f ig . 1 04).** R. Dyson i s a pparent ly i n e rror when h e wr ites t ha t a l l t hree c ists were c o l lect ive ( b ib. n o . 8 8 p . 7 04).

i s v ery l im i ted.

I n a dd i t ion t o s tone g raves t here were a lso s imp le i nhuma t ions w i th i nd iv idua l, o f ten c h i ld, bur ia ls. I n t wo i nstances A . S te in p o ints o u t t ha t t he g rave c hamber was l ined w i th c rude b r icks measur ing 3 0 x 3 0 x 1 0 cm ( bib. n o . 1 81 p . 3 73; b ib. n o . 1 61 p . 1 95). A . S te in a lso ment ions bur ia ls i n a n u rn 6 2 .5 cm h igh a nd 3 2.5 c m i n d iameter a t t he mouth . The v esse l was f ound o n t he s ame l eve l a s ap i t bur ia l, which g ave h im t he g rounds f or s ynchron is ing t hem ( bib. n o . 1 81 p . 3 74, 3 76). I t w i l l b e r eca l led t hat s ince h e d id n o t d iscover a l eve l w ith bur ia ls o f al a ter t ime ( Chapter 1 h ere), n obody h ad a ny d oubts a bout t h is s ynchron isa t ion. Thus, f or t he p er iod D inkha I V t hree t ypes o f bur ia l c onstruct ions a re r ecorded; t he e ist, t he p i t, a nd u rn b ur ia ls . C is ts c onta in i nd iv idua l a nd mu lt ip le b ur ia ls, t he o thers o n ly i nd iv idua l o nes . There i s v ery l i tt le mater ia l, a nd t he d a ta c oncern ing bur ia ls a nd i nventory c anno t b e c ons idered when c ompared w ith t he D inkha I I p er iod. O f t he t hree t ypes o f bur ia l c onstruct ions, bur ia ls i n c ists h ave n ot y et b een f ound i n t he D inkha I I p er iod. The t wo o thers a re known. Graves w ith a b r ick l i n ing a re a pparent ly n ew o nes. However, t he u se o f b r icks i n t he d es ign o f D inkha I V g raves makes i t p oss ib le t o p ostu la te s ome k ind o f l i nk b etween t hese t ypes o f g raves. G eoy Tepe B ( Tab le I). The o n ly bur ia l o f t he I ron Age I p er iod , known a s Grave K a nd s i tuated o n t he s lope o f t he mound, i s ac ist a l igned n orth-east s outhw est. The wa l ls a re 1 .9 m , 1 .8 m , 1 .2 m a nd 1 .28 m l ong. The u pper p art o f t he l ong wa l ls h as l edges o n wh ich f our s lab c overs a re l a id , b e ing f rom 0 .88 t o 1 .0 m i n w idth. The g rave c onta ined 1 2 bur ia ls s eparated by l ayers o f e arth. The p os i t ion o f most o f t he s ke letons i s n o t c lear. J udg ing by s ome o f t he b ones, most o f t hem were i n af l exed p os it ion. The s ku l ls were d iscovered i n t he s outh-west a nd n or th-east e nds o f t he g rave . The d ead w ere bur ied w i th in t he I ron Age I p er iod. F our s tone g raves o r iented west-east a re k nown i n t he p reced ing D -C p er iod. True, t he wa l ls i n t hese g raves a re c omb inat ion o nes— p art v ert ica l s labs a nd p art c ist t ype a s i n Grave K . Two o f t hem h ad p a irs a nd t he o thers iind iv idua l bur ia ls. O f c ourse t here i s n ot e nough c omparat ive mater ia l. However, c ons ider ing t he s im i lar ity i n t he a rrangemen t o f t he s tone g raves a nd r eca l l ing t he l i nk b etween t he c eram ic f orms f or t wo p er iods, i t i s n atura l t o s uppose a g radua l c u ltura l d eve lopment r a ther t han a brup t c hanges. I n t h is work c ists a re u sed t o mean g rave p its whose s ides a re l i ned w ith h or izonta l r ows o f l a id s tones o r f ragments o f s labs. Tombs were a lso p its but h ad wa l ls l i ned w ith v er t ica l ly s tand ing s labs o r l arge s tones. **

Grave V III, 1 -55 X 0 .81 m , d epth 1 .05 m . 5 4

Or ientat ion w est t o e ast.

God in T epe ( Tab le I) On ly t hree g raves f ound i n t he s outhern p ar t o f t he Outer Town a re d a ted t o t he I ron Age I p er iod. They were s i tuated o n as ma l l mound a mong g raves o f t he p reced ing God in I I p er iod. A l l t he bur ia ls were p laced i n s imp le p i ts. They w ere s ing le, t he b od ies w ere f l exed ( second d egree) l y ing e i ther o n i t s r ight ( 1 i nstance) o r l ef t s ides t he h ead t o t he west. The a rms a re f o lded o n t he c hest. The b ur ia ls were o f a du lts, a l though Grave 1 0 c onta ined a w oman w ith a n ewborn i nfant. The g rave g oods c ons isted o f g ob lets, a nd o ne g rave a lso h ad t wo h and-made p o ts. The f ormer were put a t t he h ead, t he p o ts o n al eve l w i th t he a bdomen. Apar t f rom c lay v esse ls t here w ere a lso b ronze o nes. There were n o i tems a t t he f eet. One d agger was p laced b efore t he c hest. I n t he p reced ing God in I I p er iod t he b ur ia ls w ere c arr ied o ut i n t wo t ypes o f g raves: i n p i ts a nd c ists. A l l t he bur ia ls w ere s ing le, f l exed ( f irst a nd s econd d egree), l y ing e i ther o n t he ir r ight o r l ef t s ides w ith n o spec ia l o r ienta t ion. The i t ems w ere a s ar u le p laced a round t he h ead but were a lso s omet imes f ound by t he f ee t. The g raves w ere s i tuat ed o n t he C itade l a nd i n v ar ious p arts o f Outer Town, i nc lud ing i n t he s outhern p art t ogether w ith t he I ron Age I g roup g raves. Compar ing t he t wo p er iods, i t c an b e n oted t hat t here a re n o o bv ious s harp d iff erences i n t he bur ia l r i tes. C ists d isappear, but s imp le p i ts c ont inue t o e x ist a nd t he t opography o f t he g raves i s i dent ica l. P it bur ia ls o f t he I ron Age I a re a lso known a t a number o f s i tes i n A zarba i jan ( Tab le I). The mater ia ls o f Hasan lu V a nd Ha j j i F irus h ave n o t b een pub l ished: t he ma ter ia ls f rom t he I ron Age I p er iod i n Kord lar T epe h ave s o f ar b een p oor ly c ons idered, But i t s eems t ha t t hey h ave bur ia ls a round s ome o f wh ich a re s omet imes b r ick r ema ins. G raves h ave b een f ound among t he wa l l r ema ins. I n Yan ik T epe t here a re a lso s igns t hat s ome o f t he p i ts w ere l i ned w ith b r icks ( bib. n o. 7 1 p . 1 46 Tab. XL II). T epe

G iyan ( Tab le I I).

A l arge p art o f t he T epe i s o ccup ied by a c emetery. I t was f ound i n t he c entra l p art o f t he mound w ith a s ma l l d isp lacement t o t he w est ( see Append ix, p . 1 08). The bur ia ls were c arr ied o ut t hroughout t he t h ird-beg inn ing o f t he f i rst m i l lenn ium B .C. A l l t he g raves ( 52) o f t he G iyan I p er iod * a re w i thout s urface i nd ica tors a nd a re o n ly p it t ype . A l l t he bur ia ls a re s ing le, f l exed ( f irst a nd s econd d egree). The d ead were bur ied o n t he r ight o r l ef t s ide but p redom inant ly o n t he l ef t ( 32 a nd 1 5). Or ienta t ion was t o a l l p o ints o f t he c ompass, p redom inant ly t o t he n or th w i th d ef lect ions t o t he w est a nd t he e ast. D iagram 2 .

Or ienta t ion o f t he h ead ( 45 c ons idered)

8 9 5

5

3

3 Graves 7 -51, 5 3-59 w ere c ons idered, numbers 60 -6 3 , wh ich T . Cuy ler Young a ttr ibutes t o t he t rans it iona l p er iod, w ere n o t c ons idered. I f t hey a re c ons idered , t hen a s f ar a s h ead o r ienta t ion i s c oncerned n o th ing i s c hanged, but t he o r ientat ion o f t he f ace e ast a nd w est w i l l b e a lmost i dent ica l .

I n t he n or ther ly o r ienta t ion a nd p redom inant ly l ef t-s ided p os it ion, t here i s as l ight t endency t o p lace t he c orpse f ac ing e as t ( see D iagram 3 ), a lt hough i t i s d iff icu lt t o d etermine wh ich o f t he t hree f actors was t he d omi nant o ne. D iagram 3 Head a l ignment

NE

NW

S

SE

SW

L ef t s ide

2 0,21, 2 6,40, 5 3

7 ,34, 3 5,36, 5 5

1 5 ,27 , 3 2,43 , 4 6,48, 5 1,54

5 6,57 8 ,17, 2 4,30

3 8

1 6,28, 5 0

1 1 ,49

R ight s ide

2 2,44, 5 8

1 0 ,23, 3 3 ,47

4 5

3 9

1 8,59

3 7,41

4 2

9

D iagram 4 Or ientat ion o f t he f ace ( 42 c ons idered)

7 2

5

7

8

3

5

The p os it ion o f t he a rms v ar ies: a bdomen o r a long t he b ody.

o n t he c hest, a round t he f ace, o n t he

Ch i ldren a nd a du lts w ere bur ied a ccord ing t o t he s ame r i tes. U sua l ly 2 -3 v esse ls w ere p laced i ns ide a g rave, l ess o f ten 4 -5, a nd r are ly o n ly 1 ; n ever more t han 5 . Number o f v esse ls p er g rave Number o f g raves

1 2 3 4 5 41 5 1 3 6 8

The c o l lect ion o f v esse ls u sua l ly i nc ludes a b ow l-p la tter o n wh ich m ea t was p laced, p ot-type v esse ls, c ups w i th h and les, a nd g ob lets. The p os i t ion o f t he v esse ls i n t he g rave i s s hown o n d iagram 5 ( the f igures a re t he g rave r eference numbers):

5 6

D iagram 5

A round t he h ead

Bow ls 7 ,10,16,22 3 5 ,38 1 , 49 5 0 ,55 ,59 ( 61),(63) 2

P ots 7 ,16,18,20 2 0,21,22 ,23 2 4,34,35 ,41 4 7 ,50,54,59

Cups 1 0,24,37 4 3,55,58 ( 63)

Gob lets 1 0,17 ,22,27 ,28 3 3,35,37,38,40 4 1,42,42,43,46 4 6,47,47,48,51 5 5 ,58 ,59 ,(6 0, 6 0,60,60,62,63, 6 1 ,61,62,62,62).

A round t he f eet

1 7,20,21 ,28,8,9,10,15 3 1 ,43,46 1 7,31,32, 3 9,57

8 ,9,10,15 1 8,21,24, 2 8,32 ,39 4 2,42,49 5 0

1 0,20,36,38,43 5 1,57,57

A round t he a rms

2 6,53

3 3,44,53

4 4

A round t he p e lv is

3 4,59

R emarks: 1 . I n numbers 3 5 a nd 3 8 t he b as ins c overed t he h ead. 2 . I n b rackets a re t he r eference numbers o f t he g raves wh ich T . Cuy ler Y oung a ttr ibutes t o t he t rans i t iona l G iyan I-I p er iod.

D iagram 6 I NE

NW

S

I No

I 6 5,6 8 ,6 9 7 5 ,7 8

I I

II No

I

I No I I 8 3

G iyan

S E

SW

W

7 2

I No

I No

I No

I No

II 9 3

I I 1 01

I I No

I I 8 7 , 9 2

I I 9 0,94, 1 00

I I No

I 7 1 ,7 3 7 7 I I 8 4

I No I I 8 9

I No

I I 66 67 7 4 I I II 8 8, 9 1, 9 7 , 9 8 9 9

I L ef t s ide

I 7 9 , 8 0

9 5

R ight s ide

7 6 I I 8 5

I

II No

I No -I i i No

There was n o s pec if ic p os i t ion i n t he g rave f or t he v esse ls; h owever, i t w as p referred t o put t he b ow ls, p o ts a nd g ob lets a t t he h ead, a nd c ups a t t he f eet. There was l i kew ise n o c onstant p lace f or d aggers: t hey were f ound b eh ind t he h ead ( Grave 1 0), i n f ront o f t he f ace ( Grave 3 9), o n t he r igh t h and ( Graves 2 2, 2 6) o r under t he r ight h and ( Grave 3 3); a longs ide t he l ef t a rm a nd s hou lder ( Graves 5 8, 3 7). I n t wo g raves ( 33 a nd 3 9) i t was e stab l ished t ha t t here h ad b een d e l iberate b reakage o f w eapons ( daggers). I n t he p reced ing t wo p er iods, a s h as a lready b een s a id, t he bur ia ls w ere c arr ied o ut i n t he s ame p lace a nd a lso i n p i ts dug o ut o f t he e arth. I n p er iods I-III t he s ame d egree o f f l exing o f i nd iv idua l bur ia ls i s n o ted. The d ifference i s t he p redom inance o f western, n orth-western a nd s outh-western o r ientat ion o f t he h ead w ith t he a bsence o f a n e astern, s outh-eastern a nd f or p er iod I a lso a n or th-eastern o r ientat ion ( d iagram 6 ). P os it ion ing o n t he l ef t o r r ight s ide i s a pprox ima te ly i dent ica l . The o r ien ta t ion o f t he f ace i s i n a l l d irect ions. The number o f v esse ls i n a g rave i s g rea ter a s ar u le: i n G iyan I I p er iod--4-9 , c ompared w i th f rom 2 -9 ( in o ne c ase up t o 1 1) i n G iyan I p er iod. West L ur istan S ett lements h ave n o t b een d iscovered h ere. Cemeter ies a re u sua l ly s i tua ted on f lat l and n ot f ar f rom a r iver. S omet imes t here a re t races o f c emetery wa l ls ( Bard i Ba l). The g raves a re n ow under a t h ick l ayer o f s o i l , b ut i n a nt iqu i ty t hey a pparent ly h ad s urface f ea tures. S omet imes i t i s p oss ib le t o s ee i n ap lan t he r egu lar i ty o f t he r anks o f c lose ly s i tuated g raves a nd, i n a dd it ion , I ron Age I g raves w ere r e-used i n t he s ubsequent I ron Age I-III p er iods. Tha t f actor makes i t d iff icu lt t o d a te t he I ron Age Ic omp lexes, p art icu lar ly t he p ottery. Da t ing t he g rave c onstruct ions t o t he I ron Age I p er iod i s f ac i l ita ted by numerous b ronze a rt ic les, wh ich w i l l b e e xam ined e spec ia l ly i n Chapter 4 . B ard i Ba l c emetery - t he g raves o f a l l t hree p er iods a re s i tuated s equent ia l ly i n ar e la t ive ly s ma l l a rea ( 23 x 3 0 m ). 7 2 g raves h ave b een uncovered, o f wh ich t he I ron Age I g raves i nc lude s evera l t ypes : ( 1) c ys ts, where t he s hort wa l l i s s omet imes made o f av ert ica l s lab, o r " door" a s L . Vanden Berghe c a l ls i t ; ( 2) s tone t ombs, whose wa l ls a re f aced w ith v ert ica l ly s tand ing n arrow s tones ; ( 3) e arthen p its wh ich were b ounded a t t he e dge by a r ow o f s tones, o f ten n ot c overed w ith s labs. The i nterna l d imens ions o f t he g raves a re 0 .75-1.85 x 0 .5-1.2 m w i th a d epth o f 0 .4-0.8 m . L arge g raves s omet imes h ad s ma l l o nes o f t he c ist o r p it t ype a dded o nto t hem. Ch i ldren w ere bur ied i n t hem. J udg ing by t he pub l ished c rosss ect ions, t hey were c onstructed o n t he g round s urface ( bib. n o. 2 09 F ig. 6 ). The o r ienta t ion o f t he g raves v ar ies but n orth-west--south-east p redomi na tes ( 30 o ut o f 7 2). * S eventeen g raves were a pprox ima te ly o n a n e astwes t a x is w ith a d ef lect ion n or thwest-southwest, t we lve g raves n or ths outh ; t he r ema in ing g raves were r ound. The bur ia ls were i nd iv idua l o r, i n af ew c ases, i n p a irs. But b ecause o f t he s ubsequent s ub-bur ia ls, i t i s i mposs ib le t o e stab l ish e ither t he p ose a nd t he o r ientat ion o f t he bur ia ls, o r t he p os it ion o f t he g rave g oods. The l a tter c ons ist o f b ronze weapons, whett ing s tones w i th c haracter ist ic b ronze r am-shaped h and les, t he s o-ca l led " Lur istan b ronzes", f ine o rnaments a nd s ea ls. M icro l iths a re a p art icu lar f eature o f t he i nventory. The p ottery i s l ight b rown, ma in ly e nc losed f orms. Vesse ls o n a n a dded, * They h ave t o b e c a lcu la ted o ut o f 7 2 s ince i t i s n o t c lear wh ich g raves w ere bu i l t i n t he I ron Age I-III p er iod. Da ta o n t he I ron Age I g raves were n o t e n tered i n t he t ab le f or t he s ame r eason. 5 7

s ma l l s ub-base w ith a r ound b ody ( he ight a bou t 1 0 cm) a re t he c haract er ist ic f orms —sauce b oa ts, j ars w i th t wo h and les o n t he s hou lders a nd s ing le-hand led j ars. I t i s o bv ious t ha t an t h is ware i s f or d r ink ing a nd s tor ing l i qu ids. There a re n o s ha l low v esse ls o f o pen ' f orms. The Shurabah c emetery - The o n ly unloo ted g rave i s as tone t omb, t hree wa l ls o f wh ich--exc lud ing t he e astern o ne--are f aced w ith v er t ica l s labs. The g rave i s o r iented e ast-west a nd t he e xterna l d imens ions a re 1 .6 x 1 .2 m w i th a d epth o f 0 .8 m . There were p robab ly f our c orpses i n t he g rave. The o r ig ina l p os i t ion o f o n ly t he l ast o f t hem h as b een e stab l ished —f lexed ( second d egree) o n i t s r ight s ide, h ead t o t he s outh, f ace t o t he e as t. I n t he g rave w ere f ound 3 3 v esse ls, s ome o f wh ich a re h and-made. Most o f t he v esse ls a re s ma l l, d eep v asel ike a nd j ar f orms; s ome o f t he v esse ls h ave a r ound b ody, a n a dded n eck, a s ma l l s ub-base; a nd a lso j ars , o ne b asket-hand led t eapo t w i th s pout, f our r ims a nd o ne c up w ith ah and le. A l l t hese v esse ls were made f or s tor ing a nd c onsum ing l i qu ids. I n a dd it ion, t he g rave c onta ined t wo b ronze d aggers. P a-y i Ka l c emetery - Twe lve g raves h ave b een f ound, most o r iented s outh-west n orth . -east; 1 1 a re c ists w i th a " door" a nd o ne i s as tone t omb w i th wa l ls o f n arrow s tones ( types 1 , 2 Bard i Ba l). The g raves w ere c overed w ith o ne o r t wo s labs. The f orm o f t he g raves i s r ectangu lar , l ess o f ten w i th r ounded c orners. The e xterna l d imens ions a re 1 .4-2.3 x 0 .8-1.4 m , i nterna l 1 .15-1 .75 x 0 .4-0.9 m ; t he d epth 0 .6-0.9 m ( b ib. n o . 2 09 p . 5 5-56). The bur ia ls a re s ing le, s omet imes i n p a irs. The o r ien tat ion a nd p ose o f t he bur ia ls c annot b e e stab l ished b ecause o f t he p oor p reserva t ion. The i nventory c ons ists o f p ottery, b ronze a rt ic les ( 1 d agger, o rnaments) a nd i ron o rnaments, f oss i l ised s he l ls a nd m icro l i ths. The n umber o f v esse ls p er g rave i s n ot c onstant--from o ne t o f i f teen. Number o f v esse ls i n g rave Number o f g raves

1 2 4 5 9 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 3 3 1 1

1 5 1

The f orms o f t he v esse ls a re s im i lar t o t he p o ttery i n t he c emeter ies wh ich h ave b een d escr ibed. The f unct ion o f i t i s t he s ame — l iqu id s torage a nd c onsumpt ion. Kuta li Gu lgu l c emetery - ( b ib. n o. 2 06 pp. 1 6-29). I t has b een l ooted; 1 7 g raves h ave b een f ound, o f wh ich 7 b e long t o I ron Age I a nd 9 t o t rans i t iona l I ron Age I -II p er iod. The g raves a re t he o ne t ype s tone t ombs whose wa l ls a re c onstructed o f s labs a nd, o n t op, p ar t ia l ly o r h or izonta l ly l a id s lab f ragments. The g raves a re r ectangu lar i n f orm w ith d imens ions 1 .9-2.2 x 0 .8-1.2 m w i th a d epth o f 0 .7 t o 0 .85 m , o r iented n orthwest-southeast. I n L . Vanden Berghe 's o p in ion t he l arge s labs o n t he s outh e ast s ide s erve a s t he " door". The bur ia ls w ere s ing le , s omet imes p a irs. S ome o f t he g raves were r e-used i n t he I ron Age I-I I p er iod; t hese l a ter bur ia ls c overed t he e ar l ier o nes o r a re f ound a t t he s outh-east s ide by t he " door". There a re n o d a ta o n t he bur ia ls. I n t he pub l ished Grave 4 t here were s eventeen v esse ls, 2 b ronze d aggers, a n a rrow h ead a nd b ronze o rnaments . A l l t he v esse ls a re f or l iqu id s torage a nd c onsumpt ion ( teapo ts w i th r im s pouts, s ma l l j ars w i th t wo e ars, v esse ls w i th a r ound b ody o n as ub-base). S ummar is ing t he bur ia l r i tes o f West Lur istan, i t s hou ld b e n o ted : ( 1) t he most w idespread f orm o f g rave was t he c ist a nd t he t omb w i th

5 8

wa l ls o f s labs o r n arrow s tones. Apart f rom t ha t, i n Bard i Ba l, t here were a lso p i ts s urrounded by s tones. The c ommon f eature o f t hese g raves a re t he s o-ca l led " doors". The o r ienta t ion o f t he g raves w ith in a nd b et ween c emeter ies i s n o t c onstant; ( 2) t he g rave g oods i n t he c emeter ies a re f undamenta l ly t he s ame: b ronze w eapons o f s pec if ic f orms, o rnaments, buff ware f or l i qu id s torage a nd c onsumpt ion. West Lur istan i s d ifferent s ince ( l ike E ast L ur istan) i t i s n ot p ar t o f t he a rea o f t he s pread o f g rey-b lack ware a nd s ett lements a re unknown t here. Unfortuna te ly, t he c emeter ies o f t he p reced ing t ime h ave n o t y et b een r esearched. On ly o ne g rave ( a c yst) i s k nown; i t d a tes f rom t he L a te B ronze Age ( 1600-1300 B .C.) ( b ib. n o . 2 07 pp; 3 4-35). The e xcava tor n o tes t he g enera l c rudeness o f c onstruct ion. There a re n o d a ta o n t he b ur ia ls. I n t he p o ttery t here a re many f ea tures c ommon w ith t he H abur ware a nd i t s c ont inu ity w ith t he I ron Age I ware i s n oted, p art icu lar ly v esse ls w i th a r ound b ody o n a n a dded s ub-base . T epe S ia lk, c emetery A ( Tab le I V) i s l oca ted o uts ide t he T epe, b ounded o n o ne s ide by t he modern v i l lage a ndon t he o ther by c u l t iva ted f i e lds. Obv ious ly a l arge n umber o f t he g raves h ave p er ished. A l l f i f teen b ur ia ls were i n p its w i thout a ny s urface f eatures. The bur ia ls w ere s ing le e xcept f or o ne p a ir where t he b ones o f o ne h ad b een moved a s ide. I t i s p oss ib le t ha t al ater g rave h ad d isturbed a n e ar l ier o ne. The bur ia ls a re s l ight ly f l exed ( th ird d egree) a nd a re ma in ly o r iented t owards t he n or th w ith d ev iat ions t o t he w est a nd e ast. D iagram 7 :

Or ienta t ion o f t he h ead:

2

8

2

2

E ight bur ia ls were l y ing o n t he ir l ef t s ide ( poss ib ly 9 ); r ight, t wo o f wh ich a re d eba tab le.

s ix o n t he ir

D iagram 8 : Or ienta t ion o f t he f ace ( quer ied f igures i nd icate t hat t he f ace was t urned up a t t he s ame t ime):

2 ? 2t i -I/

4 1+1 V

I ? The o r ientat ion o f t he f ace t owards t he e as t s eems t o p redomina te. The p os i t ion o f t he a rms i s n ot c onstant: f o lded i n f ront o f t he f ace o r c hes t, d rawn o ut a longs ide t he b ody, o r f o lded o n t he a bdomen. The number o f v esse ls i n e ach g rave v ar ies f rom 2 t o 1 7 ; h as n one. Number o f v esse ls i n g rave: Number o f g raves :

2 3 4 6 8 1 2 1 3 1 6 1 7 1 2 4 1 1 2 1 1 1 5 9

o ne g rave

I n 8g raves t he v esse ls h ad b een p laced a round t he h ead ; when t here a re a l o t o f t hem, t hey a re p laced a round t he s hou lders a nd c hest. I n t hree c ases t he v esse ls a re a t t he f eet; i n t hree i n b oth a reas. There i s n o s tandard s et o f v esse ls h ere a s t here i s i n D inkha T epe f or e xamp le. The ma in f orms o f p o ttery a s d escr ibed i n Chapter 2 a re p resent; t here a re p ots i n 8o f t he 1 4 g raves, v ases i n 9o f 1 4, c ups a nd mugs i n 1 2, d r ink ing b ow ls i n 7 , t r ipods i n 6 . The a bsence o f b ow l-p latters a nd t he p resence o f al arge number o f d r ink ing v esse ls a nd l arge p ots i s s tr ik ing. There a re n o d aggers i n t hese g raves . Arrow-heads a nd s pear-heads a re l a id p o int ing t o t he h ead n ear t he h ands a nd f ee t. I n a dd it ion, meta l s ick les were a lso f ound i n t he g raves; R . M . Gh irshman d oes n o t i nd ica te t he ir l oca t ion o r d escr ibe t hem. There a re n o g raves o f t he p reced ing p er iod i n S ia lk. Khurv in c emetery ( Tab le I) i s s i tuated o n an a tura l r ise; n o s ett lement h as b een d iscovered. F ourteen g raves h ave b een e xcavated but, u nfortunate ly, t here a re n o p lans a nd t he o r ien ta t ion a nd d egree o f f l ex ion o f bur ia ls i s unknown . L . Vanden Berghe n o tes o n ly t ha t a l l t he g raves a re o va l p its w i thout c over ing a nd w i thout s urface f eatures. The p i t d imens ions a re 1 .6-2.3 x 0 .5-1.4 m ; d epth 0 .5-0 .7 m . The bur ia ls a re f l exed o n t he ir s ides, w ithout a f ixed o r ienta t ion. The number o f v esse ls i n 1 3 g raves ( one h as n one) v ar ies f rom 1 t o 9 • Number o f v esse ls i n g rave: Number o f g raves:

1 2 3 5 7 8 9 1 1 4 2 1 2 1

The ma in f orms o f p o ttery a nd s tandard s ets o f v esse ls a re t eapots , b ow ls a nd c ups. The v esse ls w ere put a round t he h ead a s ar u le; t he b ow ls a nd c ups h ad b ones a nd e d ib le meat.

By t he h ead

By t he f eet

T eapots

Bow ls

Cups

J ars

I nd iv idua l f orms

1 ,2,5 ,8, 9 ,9,11, 1 2,12, 1 4

1 ,2 ,8, 8 ,9 ,11, 1 2,14, 1 4

1 ,4,5,8, 8 ,9,9 ,11, 1 1,11,12, 1 4

1 ,2,5 , 6 ,6,7 , 8 ,9 ,9 , 9 ,11 , 1 4

6 ,8,11,11

4 ,9,12

1 ,4,12 1 2

8

R emarks : t he f igures i nd ica te t he r eference numbers o f t he g raves; i n Grave 1 2 t he v esse ls were p laced a long t he b ody; i n Graves 1 0 a nd 1 3 t he p os i t ion i s n o t i nd ica ted. W ith t he e xception o f o ne b ronze d agger a nd a n a rrow-head, p laced a round t he h ead, a nd s ma l l o rnaments, n o o ther i t ems h ave b een f ound h ere . No g raves o f t he i mmed iate ly p reced ing p er iod h ave b een f ound h ere. Ghey taryeh c emetery ( Tab le I) i s o n l eve l g round; t here i s n o s e t t lement. The c emetery h as 3 50 s imp le i nhumat ions . Bur ia ls a re i nd iv idua l , s omet imes a mo ther w ith a c h i ld. The d ead w ere b ur ied i n af lexed p os i-

6 0

t i on ( th ird d egree) o n t he r ight o r l ef t s ide w ith n o f ixed o r ien ta t ions. One a rm i s under t he h ead ( the r ight o ne l y ing o n t he r ight s ide a nd v ice v ersa), t he o ther f o lded o n t he p e lv is . The g rave g oods c ons ist o f p ottery a nd a f ew b ronze a rtefacts: k n ives, s pearheads a nd a rrowheads, m irrors, s ma l l o rnaments . I n a dd it i on t here a re i nd iv idua l g o ld o rnaments. The r ema ins o f e d ib le meat wh ich was p laced i n t he v esse ls was f ound i n t he g raves. On a verage 6 -7 v esse ls w ere put i nto t he g raves. J udg ing by t he f ew pub l ished c omp lexes, t he c o l lect ion o f v esse ls c ons isted o f t eapots, g ob lets a nd d ishes a nd s ma l l v esse ls wh ich w ere p laced a t t he f eet a nd a round t he h ead. S omet imes l arge d ishes h ave s ma l ler o nes s tacked o n t op ( bib. n o . 2 5 p . 1 69-175). Mar l ik c emetery h as a s pec ia l p lace a mong t he a rchaeo log ica l s i tes o f t he E ar ly I ron Age i n I ran. On t he o ne h and, i t h as y ie lded a n e xt reme ly r ich a nd v ar ied i nven tory : t oreu t ic o b jects, s ea ls, a nd p o ttery f igur ines wh ich a re a n e normous s ource o f i nformat ion. But o n t he o ther h and, t he c omp lexes a re uncer ta in a nd o n ly f ew o f p o ttery s pec imens a re publ ished . The d a t ing o f t he c emetery t o t he I ron Age I p er iod i s m ore t han p roblema t ica l . There a re a n umber o f i mported i t ems ( Assyr ian s ea ls a nd v esse ls) wh ich c annot b e d a ted e ar l ier t han t he n inth c entury B .C . I t must b e s tressed t hat i f s ome o f t hese g raves d o b e long t o I ron Age I t hen t hey h ave a w ea lth o f i nventory i n p rest ige a rt ic le, a s w e l l a s t he l arger d imens ions o f t he s epu lchres, wh ich a re unusua l f or t ha t e poch. E . N egahban c a l ls t he s epu lchres r oya l o nes a nd d ist ingu ishes t hree t ypes : ( 1) a r e la t ive ly r are o ne--c ists o f i rregu lar f orm whose w a l ls c ons ist o f s ma l l s labs, t he i nterst ices f i l led w i th c lay, w ith a pprox im a te ly 3 x 5 m ; ( 2) s ma l ler, r ectangu lar c ists, o ne s ide u sua l ly a pso ida l . The wa l ls a re c overed w ith a r ed p laster. I n t he e xcava tor 's o p in ion, when t he b ody a nd i nventory h ad b een p laced i n t he g rave, i t was a l l c overed w ith a l ayer o f s o i l o f b rown ish-red c o lour t o ad epth o f 2 0-30 c m. The wa l ls w ere made o f s labs o f t he s ame r ed c o lour, b rought f rom t he u pper r eaches o f t he r iver 4 km f rom t he bur ia l s i te. I n t he l ight o f a l l t h is, t he a uthor b e l ieves t ha t t he r ed c o lour p layed a s pec ia l r o le i n t he b ur ia l r i tua l . J udg ing by t he c ompos it ion o f t he i nventory, E . Nagahban c ons iders t hat t hey w ere g raves o f q ueens a nd r oya l c h i ldren; ( 3) s quare c ists 3 x 3 m a nd a bout 2 m d eep. The s tones w ere l a id most c arefu l ly. I t i s s uggested t hat t h is i s t he e ar l iest t ype o f g rave. Among t he bur ia ls o f t he f irst t ype w ere f ound t hree g raves n o t a ssoc ia ted w i th human b ur ia ls measur ing 1 x 2 m c onta in ing h orse t eeth w ith b its i n s i tu. There i s n o a dd it iona l i nforma t ion o n t he o r ientat ion a nd p ose o f t he b od ies , p os i t ion o f t he i nventory a nd s o f orth. The mater ia l wh ich h as b een e xam ined makes i t p oss ib le t o d raw t he f o l low ing o bservat ions a nd c onc lus ions. Bur ia l r i tes i n t he I ron Age I p er iod v ary a g reat d ea l a s man ifested i n t he f o l low ing f our a spects. ( 1) Extramura l c emeter ies wh ich f orm a g raveyard o r n ecropo l is a re f ound n o t t hroug 'hout I ran . They h ave b een d iscovered i n Lur istan, i n C entra l I ran ( Sia lk) a nd i n t he n orthern p ar t o f C entra l I ran ( Khurv in, Gheytaryeh). What i s c haracter is t ic o f n orth-west I ran i s a n a ccumu lat i on o f g raves i n i nd iv idua l s ca ttered p lo ts o n t he e dges o f as ett lement. On ly t h is t ype o f " pseudo-cemeter ies" i s c orre la ted w i th c ontemporary s et t lements ( Hasan lu V ). S ett lements c ontemporary w ith e x tramura l n ecropo l ises h ave s o f ar n ot b een d iscovered . Tepe G iyan o ccup ies a n u ncerta in p os it ion i n t h is c lear d iv is ion o f c emeter ies i nto t wo t ypes. On t he o ne h and, a n a rt if ic ia l mound w i th n eg l ig ib le but n everthe less The d a ta h ave n ot b een p ub l ished, s o i t i s i mposs ib le t o a scerta in t he p redom inant o r ien tat ion. There i s ar eference t o t he f ace b e ing o r iented t owards t he e ast ( b ib. n o . 2 16 I . 6 0).

a rch i tectura l r ema ins i nd ica tes t he s econd t ype, but t he o bv ious p red om inance o f g raves a nd t he l ong u t i l isat ion o f t ha t mound f or bur ia ls s uggests a n e xtramura l c emetery. ( 2) Cemetery s tructures v ary g reat ly. They i nc lude t he f o l low ing t ypes: c ists, t ombs w i th s lab c over ings, e arthen p its, s omet imes c overed w i th s labs, mud-br ick g raves, u rn bur ia ls. Among t hem c ou ld b e t he hybr id t ypes--p its b ounded by a r ow o f b r icks o r s tones. Whereas o n ly p it bur ia ls a re c haracter ist ic o f Centra l a nd NorthC entra l I ran, i n n orthwest I ran, i n a dd it ion t o p i t g raves t here w ere bur ia ls i n c ists, u rn a nd b r ick g raves. S tone g raves p redom inate i n Lur istan ( c ists a nd t ombs, t he l a tter f ound o n ly h ere) a nd t here a re f ew p it g raves ( not i n a l l s i tes). The o r ienta t ion o f t he g raves i s n o t c onstant; i n many c emeter ies t he o r ientat ion i s t o a l l f our p o ints o f t he c ompass. I f at endency t owards ad om inant o r ientat ion c an j ust if iab ly b e s een, t hen i n L ur istan o ne c an a ssume a p redom inance o f an orth-west - s outh-east o r ientat ion, a nd n or th-south f or S ia lk a nd D inkha T epe. But h ere t he i ncomp leteness o f t he p ub l ica t ions must b e t aken i nto ' account. ( In Khurv in, Hasan lu a nd Gheytaryeh t he o r ientat ion i s c omp lete ly unknown.) ( 3) The f l exed f orm o f bur ia l p reva i ls t hroughout I ran i n t h is p er iod. On ly i n D inkha Tepe h ave t hree e xtended bur ia ls b een d iscovered . The d om inant o ne i s t he med ium f l exed p os it ion ( second d egree) c lose ly f o l lowed by t he f irst d egree. The t h ird d egree ( s l ight) o f f l ex ing i s c haracter ist ic o f S ia lk a nd Gheytaryeh; t he d ata f or Khurv in a re u nknown. The o r ienta t ion o f t he h ead i n most c emeter ies h as b een f ound t owards a l l f our p o ints o f t he c ompass, but i n D inkha , G iyan a nd S ia lk t he n or th o r ienta t ion p redominates. The p os i t ion o f t he s ke leton i s b oth o n t he r ight a nd o n t he l ef t s ide, but t he l atter i s f ound more f requent ly. S omet imes t here i s a marked t endency t o put t he d ead f ac ing e ast; t h is i s p art icu lar ly e v ident i n D inkha I I a nd G iyan. I t must b e n oted t hat t he t rend t owards t he E ast a pparent ly p layed s ome k ind o f r o le i n t he bur ia l r i tes. Apart f rom t he e astern o r ienta t ion o f t he f ace, i n D inkha T epe t he b r ick g raves w ere o pened t o t he e as t. Unfortunate ly t here i s n o s ex-age d ef in i t ion, wh ich makes i t i mposs ib le t o c orre late t he s ex, p ose, i nventory e tc. ( 4) The bur ia l i nventory o f t h is p er iod c ons ists o f p ottery, s ma l l b ronze o rnaments, b eads, b ronze w eapons a nd, r are ly, t oo ls, a nd v ery r are ly, g o ld a nd s i lver o rnaments, b ronze v esse ls a nd s ea ls. The n umber o f v esse ls i n t he g rave v ar ies w i th in e ach c emetery a nd f rom r eg ion t o r eg ion. I n t he n orth-west i t i s u sua l t o f ind 2 -3 v esse ls w ith a max imum o f 5 -6 i n e ach g rave; t he s ame g oes f or G iyan. I n S ia lk-Khurv inGheytaryeh i t v ar ies f rom 1 t o 1 7 ; i n Gheytaryeh i t a verages 6 -7 . I n West L ur is tan i t i s d iff icu l t t o e stab l ish a n a verage quant i ty o f v esse ls b ecause o f t he r e-use o f t he g raves a nd b ecause o f t he a bsence o f s tr ic t c r i ter ia f or d iv id ing t he p o ttery i n to I ron Age I a nd I ron Age I. J udgi ng by t he d a ta f rom t he c emeter ies o f Kuta li Gu lgu l a nd P a-y i K a i , i t v ar ies f rom 1 t o 1 7. I n S ia lk a nd Khurv in t here was a n o bv ious t endency t o put t he v esse ls a round t he h ead, a nd where t here w ere many, a round t he s hou lders a nd c hest. I n w est L ur istan i t s p os it ion h as n o t b een e stab l ished. I n o ne i nstance, when t he D irector o f e xcava t ions b e l ieves t he g rave g oods t o b e i n s i tu, i t l ooks l i ke a c haot ic j umb le i n t he c orner o f t he g rave. I n t he n or th-west r eg ion t he l oca t ion i s b o th a round t he h ead a nd t he f eet. 6 2

The f unct iona l purpose o f t he v esse ls i s n ot i dent ica l f rom r eg ion t o r eg ion. Thus, i n A zarba i jan, i n D inkha T epe, where t he c o l lect ion o f v esse ls i s most s tandard, i t was meant f or s tor ing l i qu id f ood--the j ar, f or d r inking--the t eapot o r g ob let, a nd f or mea t--d ishes. The s ame purp ose i s a lso c haracter is t ic o f G iyan, a l though t here a c o l lect ion o f v esse ls i s m ore v ar ied. F or t he c emeter ies o f West Lur istan a nd S ia lk t he a bsence o f s ha l low v esse ls--bow ls-is c haracter ist ic a nd f inds o f mea t-bones i s n o t r ecorded. The c o l lect ion o f v esse ls i nc ludes o n ly v esse ls f or t he s torage a nd c onsumpt ion o f l i qu ids. I n Khurv in a nd Gheytaryeh t he c o l lect ion o f v esse ls i nc luded b oth b ow l-p latters a nd b road-necked c ups w i th h and les i n wh ich mea t w as f ound , a nd v esse ls f or d r ink ing a nd s tor ing l i qu id . I t i s c ur ious t ha t mea t w as a lso f ound i n c ups; p erhaps i t was a meat s oup? W ithout mak ing f ar-reach ing c onc lus ions, i t i s p oss ib le t o p ostu la te ar e lat ionsh ip b etween t he c o l lect ion o f v esse ls a nd bur ia l f ood. The d istr ibut ion o f t he b ronze i nventory, e xc lud ing b ronze o rnaments ( r ings, b race lets, p ins, e arr ings) i s e xtreme ly u neven. The ma in q uant i ty o f f inds o f w eapons, i mp lements a nd v esse ls i s c oncentra ted i n L ur istan. Daggers w i l l b e d ea lt w i th s pec ia l ly ( Chapter 4 ), h ere l e t u s m en t ion t hat t he L ur is tan t ypes o f d aggers a nd a xes a re unknown o uts ide I ran. Daggers h ave a lso b een f ound i n D inkha T epe a nd b e long t o t he s imp lest t ype o f t anged d aggers. They a re a lso known i n t he Casp ian, but t hey a re d ifferent t ypes t here. I n S ia lk d aggers a re u nknown, but s ick les h ave b een f ound . The f inds o f a rt ic les c onnected w ith p roduct ion a re, a s G . Ch i lde n otes, e xtreme ly r are a t a l l t imes. Bronze v esse ls a re a lso known i n A zarba i jan i n s ma l l quant it ies ( D inkha T epe). F inds , a re sma l l w ere n ot r arer f or

o f g o ld a rt ic les o f t hat t ime a re e xtreme ly r are. Usua l ly t hey o rnaments, ma in ly e arr ings. I t i s i nterest ing t ha t g o ld o b jects f ound i n Lur is tan; i nstead s i lver o nes were. S i lver i s e ven t hat t ime t han g o ld.

F ew s ea ls w ere f ound. They a re made f rom i nexpens ive mater ia ls. I n t he o pin ion o f s ome r esearchers, t hey c ou ld h ave s erved a s a mu lets. Mater ia l f or mak ing b eads was i dent ica l t hroughout t he a rea. Usua l ly i t was c arne l ian, g lassl ike p aste, s he l ls, c opper o r b one. On ly l azur ite was l im ited t o t he s outhern p art o f I ran ( Giyan, S ia lk) a nd f inds o f s oc a l led " Egypt ian b lue" h ave b een made o n ly i n A zarba i jan ( D inkha T epe, God in Tepe). Desp ite a l l t he v ar ie ty o f g rave g oods, i t i s s tr ik ing t ha t t here i s n o p roperty d ifferent ia t ion o f t hose bur ied. There i s n o marked d iv is ion i n to r ich a nd p oor bur ia ls. Th is d oes n o t a t a l l mean t ha t t here was n o s oc ia l s tra t if ica t ion a mong t he p opu lat ion. But a t ac erta in s tage o f d eve lopment a nd under c erta in c ond it ions i t c ou ld n o t h ave b een r ef lec ted i n t he bur ia l r i tes. I ndeed, what c r i ter ia o f wea l th i nventory c ou ld b e a pp l ied t o e ach o f t he c emeter ies e xam ined? A g rea ter number o f v esse ls w i th a l l o ther c haracter ist ics b e ing e qua l? But t h is c ou ld b e e xp la ined b y o ther f actors: a ge, s ex, s tatus i n t he h ome ( housew ife/ mo ther o r u nmarr ied d aughter). By t he p resence o f b ronze a rt ic les? But t he mater ia l e xam ined s howed t hat t he ir p resence o r a bsence was more l ike ly a l oca l f ea ture o f e ach a rea. I n S ia lk, Khurv in a nd Gheytaryeh t here a re v irtua l ly n o b ronze w eapons , whereas t here a re many i n L ur istan. S ea ls o f p rec ious ma ter ia ls c ou ld h ave b een a s ign o f wea lth, but t he s ea ls o f i nexpens ive m a ter ia ls wh ich w ere d iscovered i n t he g raves o f t he I ron Age I p er iod s erved e i ther a s a mu lets o r d e term ined t he n a ture o f a ct iv i ty o f t he ir o wner i n h is l i fet ime. I n L . S . K le in 's o p in ion, a s ign o f w ea lth c ou ld h ave b een t he l arge number o f i dent ica l a rt ic les i n t he g rave, f or e xamp le, 1 0 b ronze aw ls. That d oes n o t a pp ly h ere. Thus, 6 3

ac haracter ist ic f ea ture o f t he bur ia l i nventory , a s p ar t o f t he bur ia l r i tes o f t h is p er iod, i s i t s r e lat ive h omogene i ty. Th is f actor c an b e r egarded a s a dd i t iona l e v idence a ga inst t he a lready d oubtfu l d at ing o f Mar l ik, o therw ise t he l a tter must b e r egarded a s a un ique phenomenon. S o t he ma ter ia l wh ich h as b een e xam ined c an p erhaps e qua l ly s how b o th t he s im il ar i ty a nd t he d ifference i n bur ia l r i tes i n d ifferent p ar ts o f I ran i n t he p er iod under i nvest igat ion. I t d oes n ot s how a s c lear ly a s p ottery, t he a bsence o f a un if ied ma ter ia l c u l ture a nd i t s l oca l f ea tures.* E ach o f t he f our a spects c ompr is ing t he c haracter ist ics o f t he bur ia l r i tes c ou ld b e r egarded i n t wo ways. Grave c onstruc t ions : t here a re p it bur ia ls t hroughou t t he t err i tory. But i n a number o f a reas, l oca l f eatures a re s uper imposed : s tone c ists p redom inate i n West Lur istan, a nd b r ick g raves a nd v esse ls i n A zarba i jan. The f l exed b ur ia ls a re u biqu itous, i f n ot s o p reva lent i n A zarba i jan, but t he o u tstretched c orpse p os i t ion i s a lso f ound. I n S ia lk a nd Gheytareh t here i s as l ight d egree o f f l ex ing, i n t he f ormer t h is i s a lmos t a n o utstretched p os i t ion w ith t he knees drawn up , a nd i n o ther p laces t here i s modera te f l ex ing . Where t he d egree o f f l ex ing i s s l ight, t he p os i t ion o f t he a rms i s l ess b ent ( in S ia lk) t han i n o ther p laces . But t hen t here i s ag enera l t endency t o h ave a n or ther ly o r ientat ion o f t he h ead a nd t he f ace f ac ing e ast. The bur ia l i nventory d iffers b oth i n t he a r t ic les t hemse lves ( pr imar i ly t he p ottery a nd w eapons) a nd t he number, l oca t ion purpose, e tc. But i n g enera l t here i s n o d ifferent iat ion a s t o p roper ty ; t here a re n o r ich a nd p oor bur ia ls. There i s ac lear d ifferent ia t ion i n t he a reas o n ly o f t he t ypes o f c eme ter ies t hemse lves: e xtramura l c emeter ies a nd " pseudo-ceme ter ies" . Th is was t he s o le f ea ture wh ich was c onsidered by r esearchers when d ec id ing t he quest ion o f t he a ppearance o f an ew c u l ture i n t he I ron Age I p er iod. I t was c ons idered t ha t e xtramura l c eme ter ies a ppeared t ogether w i th t he I ran ians . Natura l ly, when l ooking a t t h is i mportant p rob lem i t i s n ecessary t o l ook a t t he p reced ing t ime . I t i s n ecessary t o t ry t o t race t he c on t inu i ty o f bur ia l r i tes a nd e lucida te whether t here were a ny s er ious c hanges i n i t d ur ing t he t rans it ion t o t he I ron I p er iod . I n a dd it ion, a nother a im o f t h is work i s t o quest ion whether i t i s j ust if iab le t o make a d irect l ink w i th a ny p ar t icu lar e thnos, o f t he p rocess o f r ep lacemen t i n tramura l c eme ter ies by e xtramura l o nes. 2 .

C on t inu i ty o f Bur ia l R ites a nd t he p rob lem r e la ted t o e xtramura l c emeter ies

The Bronze Age ma ter ia ls o f west a nd n or th-west I ran e xam ined a bove s how t he c ont inu i ty a nd g radua l d eve lopment o f b ur ia l r i tes dur ing t he t rans i t ion t o t he I ron Age I p er iod. Unfortuna te ly, t here a re n ot many o f t hem a nd i t i s n ot a lways p oss ib le t o t race t h is c ont inu i ty i n a l l a spects c ompr is ing t he c haracter ist ics o f t he bur ia l r i tes. O f t he t hree t ypes o f bur ia l c onstruc t ions a t D inkha I V, t wo were known i n p er iod I I ( s imp le i nhuma t ions i n p i ts a nd u rn bur ia ls). C ists, wh ich h ave n ot b een f ound i n D inkha I I, a re known i n t h is p er iod i n Geoy T epe B , j ust a s mu lt ip le bur ia ls a re u nknown i n t he f ormer a nd known i n t he l a tter . Therefore t hese d ifferences c an b e r egarded n o t o n ly a s c hrono log ica l d ifferences b etween t he D inkha I VIII p er iods but p oss ib ly a lso a s ac onsequence o f sma l l e xcavat i ons. The u se o f b r ick i n c ons truct ing g raves i n t he D inkha I I p er iod c an b e r egarded a s af urther d eve lopment o f t h is f eature, known i n t he D inkha I V p er iod. The d ata f rom G eoy T epe B g ive o ne r eason t o s uppose t hat t here i s c ont inu i ty i n t he bur ia l r i tes r a ther t han s harp c hanges. I n God in T epe, H owever i t must b e b orne i n m ind t ha t e ven i f t he l oca t ion o f r i tes w ere o bv ious —tha t c ou ld s t i l l n o t r efu te t he p resence o f a un if ied e thnos ( e .g . s evera l v ar ian ts o f b ur ia l r i tes e x isted a mong h istor ica l ly a ttested I ran ians).

i n b oth p er iods under e xam inat ion, t he bur ia ls i n p i ts a re n ot f undament a l ly d ifferent i n t he f our f eatures. The a bsence o f c ists c an b e e xp la ined i n t he s ame way a s i n D inkha I I. I n G iyan t here a re d ifferences o n t he t hird f eature--there was a p redom inance i n t he Bronze Age o f t he western o r ientation o f t he h ead, a lthough t he n orthern o r ientat ion c haracter ist ic o f t he I ron Age I p er iod i s a lso known. There i s ac hange i n t he number o f v esse ls i n t he g rave : t here a re f ewer o f t hem i n t he I ron Age I p er iod. Neverthe less t he bur ia ls s t i l l t ake p lace o n t he s ame s pot o f t he l and, i n s imp le p its, l ikew ise i n af l exed p os i t ion w ith o r ientat ions t o a l l p o ints o f t he c ompass a nd t he c ont inu ity o f a number o f f orms o f p ottery was e xamined a bove. Therefore t he d ifferences n oted s hou ld b e r egarded a s t he r esu lt o f g radua l c hanges due t o i nterna l d eve lopment. A l l t hat c an b e s a id a bout Lur istan i s t hat f or s evera l m i l lenn ia t he s tone g rave was t he p redominant f orm o f bur ia l c onstruct ion. I r epeat, t he mater ia l a ttest ing t o t he c ontinu i ty o f t hese r i tes a re f ew, but t here a re e ven f ewer t o p rove t he o ppos ite--sharp c hanges. I n t a lk ing a bout t hese c hanges, r esearchers h ave r e l ied n ot o n a na lys is o f t he c oncrete f eatures o f t he r i tes but r ather h ad i n m ind c hanges o f t he more g enera l n a ture —the a ppearance o f a n e xtramura l c emetery a nd t he d isappearance o f t he c ustom o f bury ing t he d ead b enea th f l oors o f dwe l l ings. The t opography o f t he g raves i n D inkha IIV, God in II a nd a number o f o ther s i tes makes i t n ecessary t o l ook a t t he quest ion o f t he e xtramura l c emetery. Researchers b e l ieve t hat i n t he I ron Age I p er iod t here was a lready a n e xtramura l c emetery i n D inkha Tepe ( b ib. no . 1 61, p . 1 95). Tha t i mp l ies t hat t he d ead were bur ied o uts ide t he s ettlements a nd t hat c onsequent ly t here was a n ot ion a bout a c ity o f t he dead. However, t he t opography o f t he g raves c lear ly d oes not f avour t hat t hes is. No a rch itectura l r ema ins o f t he D inkha I I p er iod have b een d iscovered a nd t herefore i t i s i mposs ible t o t a lk o f a" c ity o f t he d ead". Of c ourse, i t c an b e a ssumed t ha t t he s ett lement c ou ld h ave e x isted s omewhere o n a n unexcavated p art o f t he Tepe, but s uch a n a ssumpt ion i s n ot p roven, s t i l l l ess s o s ince i t i s i mposs ib le t o a ssume t here were g raves t here. A s ubs tant ia l o b ject ion t o t h is t hes is i s a lso t he f act t hat i n t he n ext p er iod, D inkha I ( Iron Age I) t he c emetery a nd t he dwe l l ings e xisted o n t he s ame a rea —the northern e nd o f t he mound ( b ib. no . 1 62 pp. 5 4-55). That d oes n ot mean t hat t hey were c ontemporary; t he bur ia ls were made o n a bandoned p lots ( bib. n o . 1 62 p . 5 5) but i n a ny c ase n ot o uts ide t he c i ty wa l ls. Here, t oo, among t he g raves, t here were p ottery k i lns. The e xcavator b e l ieves t ha t t h is i n f act p roves t hat t he p lace was s ome d istance away f rom t he dwe l l ings. However, on t he t err itory o f t he n ecropo l is, t he c i ty o f t he d ead, t here was n o l ink w ith t he p roduct ive a ct iv ity o f l iv ing p eop le. I n b r ief , i f t he c ustom o f bur ia ls i n an ecropo l is i s n ot o bserved i n t he D inkha I p er iod, a nd i ts c u ltura l c ont inu i ty w ith p er iod I I i s n ot d isputed, t hen c onsequent ly we d o n ot have a ny h ard d ata f or t he l atter e i ther a bout t he emergence o f a s eparate c emetery i n t he I ron Age I p er iod. Apart f rom t hat, t here i s a n o bv ious s im i lar ity i n t he t opography o f t he g raves o f t he D inkha I I p er iod a nd t he p reced ing D inkha I V p er iod. I t i s as imi lar s i tuat ion w ith t he t opography o f t he God in Tepe g raves. No s tructura l r ema ins o f t he I ron Age I p er iod h ave b een f ound h ere. I n t he p reced ing p er iod, God in II, i t was t he p ract ice t o bury t he d ead o n waste g round i n v ar ious p arts o f t he s ett lement. T . Cuy ler Young, h av ing s tud ied God in Tepe, r emarked a p ropos t he p er iod I I bur ia l: " ...The ev idence f rom a l l t he p er iod I I bur ia ls, b e t hey f rom t he c emetery [ apparent ly t he s outhern mound--I. M .] o r t he Upper C itade l, p o ints t o a c ons istent p ract ice o f e xtra-mura l bur ia l i n t h is p er iod". However, t here f o l lows a r emark wh ich c ontrad icts t h is c onc lus ion. T . Cuy ler Young wr ites: " The g raves o n t he Upper C itade l, h owever, i nd icate t he bur ia ls

i n P er iod I I w ere by n o means s tr ict ly c onf ined t o a we l l-de l ineated c emetery f u l ly o uts ide t he a rea o f P er iod I I o ccupat ion, f or o ne s uspects t hat t hese g raves must h ave b een dug r e lat ive ly c lose t o ac ontemporary P er iod I I o ccupat ion s omewhere o n t he C itade l mound". ( b ib. n o. 2 20 p . 2 2). But e ven i f t ha t r emark i s d iscounted, t he c ontrad ict ion i s i nherent i n T . Cuy ler Young 's v ery p ropos i t ion t hat i n God in T epe a n e xtramura l c emetery h ad e merged a s e ar ly a s t he God in I I p er iod. I f t ha t i s s o, t hen h ow c an t ha t f eature b e r egarded a s an ew phenomenon i n t he I ron Age I p er iod? I t i s o bv ious t hat t hese " pseudo-cemeter ies" o f t he I ron Age I p er iod a re n ot e v idence o f ac lear n o t ion o f ac i ty o f t he d ead a nd c onsequent ly o f t he e mergence o f t he n ecropo l is i n t ha t p er iod. " Ci t ies o f t he d ead" in t he ir pure f orm a re known i n t he S ia lk a nd Tehran r eg ion. But s i tes o f t he i mmed iate ly p reced ing t ime a re unknown t here a nd c onsequent ly we c anno t c onf irm t ha t n ecopo l ises a ppeared p rec ise ly i n t he I ron Age I p er iod. A l l t he more s o s ince c eme ter ies e x isted i n s outhern a nd s outh-eastern I ran b ack i n t he t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C. We r efer t o t he c emeter ies o f T epe J a lyan a nd S hahr i-Sokhta ( b ib. n o. 1 53, p . 2 2; 1 69 p . 1 87 .* I n west L ur istan n ecropo l ises were known c ont inuous ly f or s evera l m i l lenn ia . C lose ly l i nked w i th t he p rocess o f e vo lu t ion o f e xtramura l c emeter ies, i n t he o p in ion o f r esearchers, i s t he d isappearance o f t he c ustom o f buryi ng t he d ead under t he f l oors o f h ouses, i .e. i n t he I ron Age I p er iod s uch bur ia ls were n o l onger p ract ised . However, t h is s i tuat ion must b e r egarded a s a n e rror o r f a l lacy. Th is c ustom i s n o t r ecorded a nywhere a t s ett lements i n t he p reced ing p er iod. I n t hose c ases where bur ia ls under h ouse f l oors a re ment ioned, i t t urns o ut t hat t he h ouses were bu i l t o n t he s i te o f p rev ious bur ia ls. Thus, i n Baba J an T epe B ronze Age g raves w ere f ound under t he f l oor o f a n I ron Age I p er iod h ouse, i n o ne c ase e ven under t he b ases o f t he c o lumns o f t he h ouse ( B ib. n o . 1 10 , p . 2 6, 2 9 ). Th is c ustom i s c ons idered c haracter ist ic o f t he Turang T epe I A p er iod ( th ird m i l lenn ium B .C.) a nd S ia lk I ( f if th m i l lenn ium B .C.). W itho ut e ven dwe l l ing o n t he j ust if ica t ion f or t h is a ssert ion, i t c an b e s a id t ha t t h is c ustom h as n o b ear ing wha tsoever o n t he B ronze Age. And, c onsequent ly, t here c an b e n o quest ion o f i t s r ep lacement by s ome o ther c ustom . The p ract ice o f bury ing t he d ead i n dwe l l ings, wh ich emerged i n t he P a laeo l ith ic Age, i n G . Ch i ld & s o p in ion, b egan t o b e s upp lanted i n t he Cha lco l ith ic Age by t he p ract ice o f bur ia l o uts ide t he s ett lement o r o n a bandoned p lots i n i t . And i t s hou ld b e c ons idered t hat t he o r ig ina l r eason was hygen ic a nd t ha t i t l a ter a cqu ired a r e l ig ious e xp lana t ion. Th is phenomenon was n o t ub iqu i tous but t he t endency was o bv ious ly t here a nd i n c erta in i nstances, a s G . Ch i 1de wr i tes, i t was a cce lerated by l eg is la t ion, a s was t he c ase i n Rome. He c i tes e xamp les o f t h is c ustom l ast ing r ight i nto P arth ian t imes ( b ib. n o . 7 6 p . 1 5). But o n t he who le h e f inds t h is t rend o ver a w ide a rea . Therefore , t o l ink t he r ep lacement o f t hese c ustoms w i th a s pec if ic p eop le i s s carce ly p oss ib le . Th is i s a phenomenon o f aw ider n a ture. Ev ident ly a v est ige o f t he r i te o f bur ia l under h ouse f loors i n t he e ar ly s tages o f t he d eve lopment o f human s oc iety c an b e s een i n t he c ustom o f The S hahr i-Sokhta c emetery s hou ld b e c ons idered a n e xtramura l c emetery e ven t hough i t was f ound o n t he s ame mound a s t he s ett lement. I t i s s i tuated o n t he s lope o f t he mound, a nd t hroughout t he t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C. , when i t was f unct ion ing, t he s ett lement d id n ot c over i t o r a pproach c lose t o i t . N o p ottery was d iscovered o n t he s urface , wh ich d ist ingu ishes t he s urface o f t he s ett lement, a nd n o g raves h ave b een f ound a mong t he h ouses . 6 6

bury ing i nfants under dwe l l ing f loors a nd i n c erta in r i tes c onnected w i th c h i ldbirth ( bib. n o. 1 9). The d ata f rom t he e xcavat ions o f Tepe Gawra a re s ignif icant i n t h is r espect. About f ive hundred bur ia ls, wh ich o n t he who le i s an eg l ig ib le p ercentage c ons ider ing t he s ize o f t he s ett lement a nd p opu la t ion l i v ing a t t he t ime, w ere d iscovered i n as ett lement i n t he X IXI X l eve ls ( last t h ird o f t he f ourth-th ird m i l lenn ium B .C.). But o f 3 93 d eterm inab le bur ia ls, 3 19 w ere c h i ld bur ia ls ( 80% ). The a uthor j ust ly s upposes t hat t he bu lk o f t he a du lt p opu lat ion was bur ied o uts ide t he s ett lement. I n t he V II-I l eve ls ( second m i l lenn ium B .C.) n o bur ia ls h ave b een f ound i n s ett lements a t a l l. Apparent ly t he p ract ice o f bury ing a du lts o uts ide t he c onf ines o f t he s ett lement d id n ot b eg in s udden ly. Thus, i n t he XVIII-XVII l eve ls 3 8 g raves h ave b een f ound o f wh ich 2 1 a re o f a du lts ( bib. n o. 1 98 p p. 1 21-122). I n C entra l As ia n o E neo l ith ic Age bur ia ls h ave b een f ound i n t he s ma l l s ett lements wh ich w ere i nhabi ted o nce a nd wh ich h ave b een f u l ly e xcavated ( Dash ly j i, Y a langach a nd Yass i Tepe). Th is g ives I . N . Kh lop in g rounds f or b e l iev ing t hat t he a ncient l andowners d id n ot p ract ice t he c ustom o f bury ing t he ir d eceased d irect ly under h ouse f l oors. On ly where t here was a n u nf in ished p ro ject l ef t o n t he upper p art o f t he T epe c ou ld t he f ree s pace b e u t i l ised a s at r iba l n ecropo l is ( b ib. n o. 5 2 pp. 1 99-200). I n t hese c ases t he l a ter l ayers c ou ld c over e ar l ier b ur ia ls. And i n a rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions, i naccura te r ecord ing c ou ld d istort r ea l ity a nd g ive r ise t o n ot ions a bout a r i te wh ich i n f act d id n ot e x ist. Thus, t he n ot ion a ccepted i n l i terature t hat i n I ran i n t he I ron Age I p er iod t here w as a r ep lacement o f t he bur ia l r i te, i .e. t he d isappearance o f t he c ustom o f under-f loor bur ia l a s ac onsequence o f c emeter ies b e ing made e xtramura l, c anno t b e a ccepted . Three b as ic c onc lus ions s temm ing f rom t h is work s erve a s t he b as is f or t h is d educt ion : f i rst ly, a na lys is o f t he b ur ia l r i tes o f t he I ron Age I p er iod a nd t he p reced ing p er iod, t he L ate B ronze Age, s hows t o ag reater e xtent t he c ont inu i ty a nd g radua l d eve lopment o f t h is r i te r a ther t han i t s a brupt r ep lacement; s econd ly, o n t he e ve o f t he I ron Age I p er iod i n I ran n o e v idence h as b een f ound o f b ur ia l under a dwe l l inghouse f l oor . C onsequent ly, t here i s n o c onn ect ion b etween t h is c ustom a nd t he p rocess o f e vo lvement o f c emeter ies e xtramura l; t h ird ly, i n t he s phere o f g rey ware c u l ture t wo t ypes o f c e rheter ies a re d ist ingu ished : t he n ecropo l is p er s e o f t he S ia lk t ype , a nd " pseudo-cemeter ies" o n t he p er iphery o f t he s ett lement a nd o n a band oned p lots w i th in i t . There i s d irect p roof t ha t t hey e merged o n ly i n t he I ron Age I p er iod. But t he t opography o f t he I ron Age I " pseudoc emeter ies" c o inc ides w i th t ha t o f t he c emeter ies o f t he p reced ing t ime, a nd i n a reas where t here a re n ecropo l ises, s i tes o f t he i mmed ia te ly p rec ed ing t ime a re s imp ly u nknown, wh ich by i t se lf d oes n o t p rec lude t he ir e x istence i n t he e ar l ier . As f ar a s t he q uest ion o f g enera l p r inc ip les i n t he d eve lopment o f b ur ia l r i tes i s c oncerned, p art icu lar ly t he q uest ion a s t o why e xtramura l c emeter ies a ppeared, t hat i s as ub ject f or s pec ia l r esearch. Obv ious ly i t s hou ld b e i nvest iga ted w i th in t he f ramework o f e luc ida t ing t he g enera l t rends o f t he d eve lopment o f bur ia l r i tes i n t he Anc ient E ast. G . _ Ch i ld& s work i s i nterest ing i n t ha t i t e mbraces t he e nt ire h istory o f t he O ld Wor ld, but a s ar esu l t t h is b road s cope o f mater ia l l eads t o t he l oss o f t he f ea tures o f e nt ire r eg ions. B efore s uch r esearch i s d one, i t i s i mposs ib le s er ious ly t o r a ise t he q uest ion o f whether t he p rocess o f e xtramura l c emeter ies i s s ub ject t o t he g enera l p r inc ip les o f t he d eve lopment o f t he r i te i n t he Anc ient E ast a nd i s a c onsequence o f d eve lopment a t ap art icu lar s tage o r whether t here e merg ence c an b e l i nked w i th t he i nf luence o r a ppearance o f ac erta in e thnos. Cer ta in o bservat ions made a bove s eem t o s uggest t he f ormer , but i t i s t oo e ar ly t o c onf irm t h is. 6 7

CHAPTER 4 METAL I NVENTORY

I n t he I ron Age I p er iod a l l u t i l i tar ian meta l a rt ic les w ere manufactured i n b ronze. I ron was u sed o n ly f or a f ew o rnaments. A l l t he bronze a rt ic les a ccess ib le f or s tudy ( publ ished) c ome f rom c emeter ies o r f rom o ther s i tes d iscovered dur ing a rchaeo log ica l works. Apart f rom t hem, museums a nd p r ivate c o l lect ions h ave many b ronze a rt ic les f ound a ccidenta l ly o r i n t he c ourse o f l oot ing i n v ar ious p arts o f I ran. They i nc lude d aggers, a xes, a rrow a nd s pear h eads. Dat ing t hese a rt ic les wou ld have b een more c omp l ic ated were i t n ot f or t he numerous i nscr ipt ions w ith r u lers ' n ames, wh ich d eterm ined t he d a te o f t hese a rt ic les t o t he l ast t wo c entur ies o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. I t i s c ur ious t hat s o f ar n ot o ne i nscr ibed a rt ic le h as b een f ound i n ag rave c omp lex. I n t hose c ases where t he p lace o f a n a cc identa l f ind o f i nscr ibed a rt ic les i s known, i t i s a lways w ith in Lur istan. Much a ttent ion h as b een d evoted t o t he o r ig in o f t he i nscr ibed b ronzes. R . M . Gh irshman b e l ieved t hat t hey c ome f rom Baby lon ian a nd E lam ite t emples l ooted by t he C immer ians ( bib. n o. 9 7 p . 1 75). And i ndeed h e f ound s ome i n t he t emp le o f T choga Z anbi l i n E lam. I n P . Ca lmeyer 's o pin ion, wh ich d oes n ot a ccord w ith R . M . Gh irshman 's hypothes is, t he e nvoys o f t he Baby lon ian a nd E lamite r u lers, s tr iv ing t o i ncrease t he ir i nf luence i n Lur istan, p resented g if ts t o t he l oca l l eaders, s upp ly ing t hese a rt ic les w ith i nscr iptions i ns ide Lur istan i tse lf ( bib. n o. 7 4 p . 1 72). I t i s p oss ible t hat i nscr ibed b ronzes b e longed t o Lur istan mercenar ies s erv ing t he Babyl on ian a nd E lam ite k ings ( bib. n o. 2 , p . 2 9). The d ate o f t he a rt ic les a nd a rchaeo log ica l c omp lexes i s d eterm ined b oth by t he c omp lex i tse lf a nd t o ac ons iderable e xtent by a na log ies w ith i nscr ibed a rt ic les. However, t h is method o f d at ing i s n ot p oss ib le f or a l l r eg ions. I n p art icu lar, t his c onc erns t he Ta l ish b ronzes, where t he a rchaeo log ica l c omp lexes a re e i ther uncer ta in o r n ot e as i ly d ated a nd where t here a re n o a na logous i nscr ibed a rtic les. Even n ow t heir d ate i s a pproximate. I n t hat c ase i t i s n ecessary t o t ry t o f ind o ther c r iter ia f or d ates, wh ich w i l l b e d one i n t he a ppropr iate s ect ion o f t h is c hapter. 1 .

Daggers

I n I ran, f inds o f d aggers o f t he I ron Age I p er iod a re ma in ly c onnected w ith Lur istan a nd Ta l ish. I n a dd it ion t hey h ave b een f ound i n Khuz istan, A zarba i jan a nd t he Caspian a rea n ext t o Ta l ish; t he o r ig in o f t he d aggers i n t he Ma lek i c o l lection i s l i nked w ith Khurv in. A l l t he I ron Age p er iod I d aggers a re d iv ided i nto t wo c lasses--those w i th a t ang a nd t hose w ith f langes. The f ormer b e long t o t he s imp lest t ype, whose f orm c hanged l i tt le t hroughout t he e nt ire p er iod o f t he u se o f b ronze a s a mater ia l. S o i t i s i mposs ib le t o d ate c hance f inds, a nd t here a re 2 5 e xamp les i n I ron Age I c omp lexes. The s econd c lass o f d aggers i s d ifferent iated by t he f orm o f t he h i lt. I n Lur istan 6 9 e xamp les h ave b een c ounted ( inc lud ing t hose whose Lur istan o r ig in i s quer ied i n t he c ata logues). I n Khuz istan ( Tchoga Z anbi l) t here a re 8 e xamp les, i n A zarba i jan ( Hasan lu V-VI)--4 e xamp les, i n Kurd istan ( God in Tepe)--1 e xamp le. I n t he Casp ian a nd Ta l ish a rea 4 3 e xamp les h ave b een c ounted 6 8

a mong wh ich s ome o f t he Ta l ish t ype d aggers h ave n ot b een r ecorded, a nd i n Khurv in -2 e xamp les . I n a l l, 1 27 d aggers a re known a nd t hey a re e xam ined i n t h is work. Apart f rom t hat, a bout t hree d ozen b ronze a nd b imeta l l ic d aggers b e long ing t o t he I ron Age I p er iod h ave b een u sed. Much a ttent ion h as b een p a id i n s pec ia l ist l i tera ture t o f l ange-h i lted d aggers. As a r u le, t hey h ave b een e xam ined a ga inst a b road b ackground o f c ompara t ive ma ter ia l t hroughout Western A s ia . Ment ion must b e made o f t he s er ies o f a rt ic les by R . Maxwe l l-Hys lop, t he works o f P . Ca lmeyer , P . R . Moorey a nd R . Hutch inson ( bib. n o . 1 45 ; 1 44; 1 47 ; 1 48; 7 4; 1 55; 1 21). I n R . Maxwe l l-Hys lop 's work o n t he w est As ian d aggers o f t he t h ird t o f i rst m i l lenn ium B .C., I ran ian d aggers a re c lass if ied t ogether w i th s imi lar d aggers f rom o ther a reas. I n t he c ases o f i nterest t o u s, t he t ypes a re v ery g enera l a nd d o n ot t ake a ccount o f c erta in f ea tures wh ich make up t he p ecu l iar i t ies o f t he d aggers f rom d ifferent a reas. Tha t c lass if icat ion m et t he a im o f R . Maxwe l l-Hys lop 's work--to s how t he g enera l n a ture a nd t he d irect ion o f t he d eve lopment o f t h is f orm o f weapon i n t he Anc ient E ast. However, t he d ifferent a ims o f t h is work d emand a more d eta i led c lass if icat ion. I t s hou ld r evea l t he s im i lar ity a nd d ifferences o f t he d aggers b oth w ith in I ran i tse lf a nd t he ir d ifferences f rom t he West As ian o nes. I t s hou ld h e lp t o r evea l t he t ypo log ica l f eatures a nd g enera l p r inc ip les o f c onstruct ion o f d aggers wh ich make i t p oss ib le t o b e more a ccurate a bout dubious d at ings, a s f or e xamp le, o f t he Ta l ish d aggers. The upper d ate o f t he b ronze d aggers r ema ins dubious. There i s a n o p in ion t hat t hey c ont inued t o e x ist i n t he I ron Age I p er iod ( bib. n o . 8 6 p . 4 2). I t i s n ecessary t o t ry t o s ub-d iv ide t he d aggers o f t h is p er iod. The bas is f or c lass ify ing f l ange-h i lted d aggers i s t he f orm o f t he h i lt. I n o rder t o s horten t he d escr ipt ion o f t he c lass if icat ion, i t i s n ecessary t o e mp loy s pecia l ist t erm ino logy. The h i lt o f t he d agger c ons ists o f t hree p arts: t he g r ip, t he p omme l, t he b ase o f t he g r ip o r r icasso, wh ich i nc ludes t he upper p art o f t he b lade. On c erta in Ta l ish d aggers t he b ase o f t he h i lt f orms t he g uard f or t he h and. A s pec ia l c ross s hape d es igned f or t h is purpose i s n ot y et known a t t ha t t ime. There was a n arrow r ec ess o n e ither s ide o f t he f l at h i lt, wh ich h e ld a n i n lay o f a no ther ma ter ia l. S omet imes t he r ecess s pread o ut o n b oth s ides i n t he l ower p art o f t he h i lt, f orm ing s o-ca l led w ings. Most o f t he d aggers were c ast i n o ne p iece. But R . Maxwe l l-Hys lop ' sr esearches h ave r evea led t ha t a number o f d agg ers were made w ith t he t echn ique o f " cast ing o n" a b ronze h i l t o nto t he t ang o f t he d agger. The e ssence o f t h is t echn ique i s t hat a t anged d agger i s c as t a nd, a f ter t he b urr was r emoved a nd a f ter p o l ish ing e tc., t he t ang was s meared w i th a c lay c ompound. A mou ld was made f or t he u pper p art o f t he b lade a nd t he t ang , i nto wh ich t he meta l was p oured. S ome r esearchers b e l ieve t ha t t he h i lt was made f rom a wax mode l. Ana lyses h ave s hown t hat t he h i lt a nd b lade were made f rom d ifferent meta l .* Type I ( F ig.

9 /8 , 9 )

Daggers c ast i n o ne p iece. The f orm o f t he b lade v ar ies f rom l ong a nd n arrow w i th-stra ight e dges t o c omparat ive ly s hort o nes b roaden ing a t t he b ase. S ome o f t hem h ave a f lattened r ib; i n most c ases h owever t he b lade i n l ent icu lar. The h i lt w i th t he f lange h as a f an-shaped a lmost f l at p omme l. The g r ip o f t he h i lt i s n arrow, b roaden ing d ownwards A t wo-stage manufactur ing p rocess f or d aggers i s known i n t he B lack S ea a rea i n t he L ate B ronze Age. True, i t h as n ot b een made c lear whether t h is was t he t echn ique o f " cast ing o n" t o t he t ang o r whether t he t wo p arts were r iveted t ogether ( b ib. n o . 5 6, p p. 1 9-22). 6 9

f rom b e low t he p omme l; t he b ase o f t he h i lt h as t wo r ecesses. I ts b ase i s i n t he f orm o f an arrow r icasso, wh ich Moorey c a l ls a g uard o n s uch e xamp les. One d agger ( bib. n o. 7 4 , d iagram 6 1) h as a dd i t iona l r ivets, o ne o n t he p omme l t he o ther o ver t he r ecesses. Most o f t he d aggers h ave c une iforms i nscr ipt ions under t he r icasso . E ight d aggers w ere c ons idered, a l l c hance f inds. f rom 3 1.5 t o 3 6.2 cm.

Average l eng th i s

Type J a The d ist inct ive f eatures o f t h is s ub-type a re t he t wo a cute a ng les o f p rotrus ions a bove t he r ecesses. One e xamp le 4 5 cm l ong i s known; i t was f ound o uts ide a c omp lex ( the F orough i c o l lect ion). There i s ac une if orm i nscr ipt ion ( bib. n o . 7 4 p . 6 0 . H T ab le 2 /3) ( F ig . 9 /10). I t i s t rad it iona l ly h e ld t ha t a l l t he d aggers o f t h is t ype were f ound i n Lur is tan. But a l l t he f inds w ere c hance o nes a nd n one h as y et b een f ound i ns ide a rchaeo log ica l c omp lexes. Outs ide L ur istan t here a re t wo d aggers but t hey d iffer f rom t he e nt ire s er ies: t hey w ere f ound i n A zarba i jan i n Hasan lu I V ( Iron Age I). They a re d ifferent i n h av ing a s quare r icasso a nd b e ing s ma l ler; o ne o f t hem i s i ron ( F ig . 9 /7 ) . The b as is f or d a t ing t he d aggers o f t he f irs t t ype i s t he n ames o f t he k ings o f t he Kass ite dynasty a nd t he s econd I s in d ynasty ( s ix n ames) o f t he 1 2th-llth c entur ies B .C.* One d agger b ears t he name o f K ing Dar ius, but a uthent ic i ty f or t h is d agger i s d ub ious ( bib. n o. 6 4 p . 3 ). R . Dyson a nd a f ter h im M . Moorey s uggest t ha t t hese d aggers l asted unt i l t he e nd o f t he n inth c entury B .C. The j ust if ica t ion f or t h is i s t he d iscovery i n 1 958 o f t he t wo a bove-ment ioned d aggers f rom t he b urned b u i ld ing Io f t he Hasan lu I V p er iod ( bib. n o . 8 6 p . 4 2 d iagram 2 /2, 3 ). However i t must b e n o ted t ha t d esp i te t he d eta i led d escr ipt ion o f t he t hree p eop le who p er ished c arry ing o ut t he t reasures f rom t he b urn ing bu i ld ing , i t r ema ins unc lear whether t hese d aggers were t he p ersona l w eapons o f t he men who d ied o r whether t hey w ere p art o f t he t reasures b e ing c arr ied o ut a nd wh ich h ad b een s tored f or a l ong t ime . I f t he l a tter, t hen t he d a te o f t he d aggers i s e ar l ier t han t he 9 th c entury B .C., n ear ly t he 1 1th. Thus t he s pec ia l c ircumstances o f t he d iscovery o f t hese d aggers i n Hasan lu I V d o n o t s erve a s p roof o f t he l ong e x is tence o f t h is t ype. Type I

( F ig . 9 /11,12)

Daggers c ast i n o ne p iece. The f orm o f t he b lade i s s im i lar t o Type I . The f l anged h i lt h as a r e la t ive ly s hort g r ip wh ich b roadens d ownwards a nd b ecomes a c lear ly d ef ined r icasso o f e longated s hape. Most o f t he d aggers h ave s l ight ly c oncave e dges t o t he r icasso f orm ing t eeth o n a l l f our c orners . The p omme l i s s im i lar t o t ype I , b ut t here a re e xamp les w ith a s carce ly d ef ined p omme l ( th is f ea ture i s c ombined w ith s tra ight e dges t o t he r icasso). Most o f t he d aggers h ave a dd it iona l r ivets. An e xtra d ifference b etween t hese t wo t ypes i s t he b readth o f t he b lade b ase: i n Type I i t i s b roader t han t he h i lt b ase, w i th t he e xcept ion o f t he t wo A zarba i jan d aggers, a nd i n Type I i t i s t he s ame b readth a s t he r icasso. S o t he d aggers f rom Hasan lu c an b e c ons idered a hybr id o f t ypes f rom I a nd I. The l eng th o f t he d aggers i s f rom 3 3 t o 4 5 cm. E ight d aggers were c ons idered, o f wh ich 2 w ere f rom t he Lur istan c omp lexes ( Pa-y i Ka l c emetery a nd B i t S orgh S pr ing). The r ema inder a re c hance f inds f rom Lur istan. Two o f t hem h ave c une iform i nscr ipt ions c onta in ing t he n ames o f k ings. *

A l l t he d a tes a re c i ted a f ter I . I . B ikerman ( bib. n o . 4 ). 7 0

Type Ia ( F ig . 9 /13) Th is v ar iant d iffers i n h av ing a t oothed g r ip o n t he h i lt. I n t hree c ases t here a re t wo p rotrus ions under t he p omme l a nd t wo under t he r icasso. I n o ne, t hey a re o n ly u nder t he p omme ls. The l ength i s f rom 3 3 t o 4 5 .5 cm. One o f t he d aggers h as a c une iform i nscr ipt ion. Two c ome f rom t he bur ia l c omp lexes o f L ur istan ( Tepe Guran Grave 4 , a nd Kuta l-i Gu lgu l, Grave A-9). Two a re c hance f inds i n Lur istan. The b as is f or d a t ing t he d aggers o f t ype I i s t he n ame o f K ing Marduk-Nad in Ahhe ( 1100-1083 B .C. ‚ second I s in d ynasty). The s econd i nscr ipt ion i s undated ( name o f t he s cr ibe). Apart f rom t hat, o ne d agger f rom P a-y i Ka i was f ound i n ag rave d ated by L . Vanden B erghe t o t he I ron Age I p er iod. The b as is f or t hat d ate i s p ar t ly t he d agger i t se lf , wh ich t he a uthor c ompares w i th a n i nscr ibed s er ies o f d aggers ( Types I II). But i n a dd it ion, a ccount s hou ld a lso b e t aken o f t he f act t hat i ron w eapons w ere a lready u sed i n t he s ubsequent p er iods. Th is i s c onf irmed by a f ind i n Grave 1 0 o f Bard i Ba i o f 3i ron d aggers. They a re a f ur ther d eve lopment o f Type ha. The c omp lex i s d a ted t o t he I ron Age I p er iod ( bib. n o. 2 09 pp. 1 7-22, f ig . 8 ). That p er iod s aw t he d isappearance o f t he c haracter ist ic b ronze a xes w i th f our b utt s p ikes wh ich w ere c ommon ly f ound i n t he I ron Age I g raves b o th w i th d aggers o f Type I a nd I ia, a nd Type I I. Wha t i s d ebatab le i s t he d a t ing o f Grave 4 i n Tepe Guran, which t he e xcava tor p uts a t 8 00-750 B .C. ( see t he r eda ting o f Tepe Guran, Append ix 1 p .108). R . Dyson d ates t he d aggers f rom B i t S orgh S pr ing t o t he I ron Age I ( b ib. n o . 8 6, p . 3 4), w i th in wh ich s hou ld b e i nc luded t he who le s er ies o f Type I . Type I I ( F ig . 9 /14). Daggers c ast i n o ne p iece. The b lades a re n arrow, w ith a lmost p ara l le l e dges. They h ave m idr ibs wh ich a re b road a t t he t op ( the who le b read th o f t he b lade) a nd b ecome n arrow b e low. The h i lt h as a f lange. The n arrow g r ip b roadens s l ight ly t owards t he r icasso, p ass ing s moo th ly i nto t he b lade. The r icasso h as w ings—the b roadest p art o f t he d agger. The ma in f eature o f t h is t ype i s t he s moothn ess o f c ontours. Except ions a re r are f or t he Lur istan e xamp les ( b ib. n o. 1 63 Tab le X III/27a ; 7 8 , Grave 1 0 ; 1 49 F ig . 3 1); a nd t he d aggers o f Khuzistan ( Tchoga Z anbi l) a re c haracter ised by a s harp t rans i t ion t o t he r icasso, wh ich i s s omet imes b roader t han t he b ase o f t he b lade ( b ib. n o . 1 05 Tab le XCIII) ( F ig. 9 /1-3). The l eng th o f t he d aggers i s f rom 2 7 .5 t o 4 1.3 cm. One o f t hem h as a c une iform i nscr ipt ion. Th irty-seven e xamp les were c ons idered ( i t i s p oss ib le t hat 5 o ther d aggers, f rom Kuta li Gu lgu l, a lso b e long t o t h is t ype—b ib. n o . 2 06 p . 2 5 , 2 2. They h ave p robab ly h ad t he ir w ings b roken o ff a nd a re t empora r i ly c lass if ied under s ubtype I Ia w i thout w ings). A l l but f ive c ome f rom c omp lexes. E ight a re f rom Khuz istan, 2 f rom A zarba i jan, a nd t he r est f rom Lur istan. The Azarba ijan d aggers ( one i s f rom Hasan lu V ) a re d ist ingu ished by 2 r ecesses a bove t he r icasso a s o n Type I ; t hey c an t herefore b e c ons idered hybr ids o f Types I a nd I I ( F ig . 9 /4 ,5). Type l i la. Daggers o f s im i lar s mooth f eatures, but w i thout w ings. The r icasso i s e ssent ia l ly a bsent, s ince i t i s n ot s eparate. But i t c anno t b e r u led o ut t hat o n s ome e xamp les t he w ings h ave n ot b een p reserved; i n t ha t c ase, t his i s a n a r t if ic ia l s ubd iv is ion. D imens ions a re known o n ly f or a d agger f rom t he F orough i c o l lect ion w i th t he n ame o f K ing Nebuchadn ezzar I ( 1126-1105 B .C.) -42.5 cm ( F ig . 9 /15 ). Apart f rom t hat, t here a re t he a bove-ment ioned 5 d aggers f rom t he c emetery o f Kuta l-i Gu lgu l.

7 1

Type l i la1 . A d agger s im i lar i n f orm but w i th a more o ut-turned p omme l a nd t wo p rotrus ions b e low i t . The d agger h as a n i nscr ipt ion wh ich r efers t o t he n ame o f s ome p ersonage. The l eng th i s 3 1.7 cm. I t i s i n t he F orough i c o l lect ion a nd c omes f rom Lur istan ( F ig. 9 /16). Type I Ib. Th is s ubtype i s c haracter ised by a n a brupt t rans i t ion f rom a " w inged" r icasso t o an arrow g r ip o n t he h i lt. The s pot where t hey j o in i s u sua l ly e mphas ised by a r ib. The p omme l i s d iv ided i nto t wo s em ic ircu lar " ears". The h i lt was e ncrusted i n t wo ways: s tone i n lay o n t he f l a t g r ip, w ith f l anges a nd a dd i t iona l r ivets, where t he b ronze b ase t ook t he f orm o f t he h i lt i n Type I I d aggers ( e.g . t he a lready ment ioned d agger f rom Grave 1 0 i n G iyan—w i th a r ecess a t t he j o in b etween t he r icasso a nd t he g r ip ( b ib. n o . 1 63 Tab. X III/27a); t he s econd method o f o rnamenta t ion was d irect i m i tat ions e nt ire ly i n b ronze o f ab ronze f l ange-h i lted d agger w i th i t s b one h i lt p lates i n p lace, t he h i lt c as t i n i m ita t ion o f a n i n la id f l anged h i lt ( daggers f rom g rave 6 8 o f Bard i Ba l a nd f rom T choga Z anbi l) ( F ig . 9 /17, 1 8, 1 9). Th is c ont inu i ty i s d emonst rated by Nage l ( bib. n o. 1 63 Tab le XVIII) ( F ig. 1 0). Thus Type I I i s p robab ly t he b as is o f t he Type I Ib d aggers w i th s tone o r o rgan ic i n lay. On ly t he b ronze i m i ta t ion i n lay d ist ingu ishes t hem a nd p rov ides g rounds f or t he " b" s ubd iv is ion. The l ength o f t h is t ype o f d agger i s f rom 3 0.5 t o 4 6.2 cm. 1 0 d aggers were c ons idered: 3 o f t hem w ere f ound i n c omp lexes ( 2 i n Lur istan a nd 1i n Khuzistan). The r est w ere c hance f inds i n L ur istan. The b as is f or t he d a t ing o f t he who le s er ies i s : ( 1) a n i nscr ipt ion o n a Type I I d agger w i th t he n ame o f Marduk Nad in Ahhe ( 1100-1083 B . C.) a nd t he n ame o f Nebuchadnezzar I ( 1126-1105 B .C.) o n a Type I Ia d agger; ( 2) mater ia ls f rom I ron Age I p er iod c omp lexes w i th c ont iguous f inds o f Types I I a nd I d aggers. Types I I a nd I Ib c an b e c ons idered c ontemporary o n t he b as is t ha t d aggers w i th b ronze i m itat ion i n lay h ave b een f ound i n c omp lexes t ogether w ith o ther I ron Age I d aggers ( Bard i Ba l, Kute li Gu lgu l a nd T choga Z anbi l). I n a dd it ion, i t c annot b e r u led o ut t hat Type I I d aggers l ost t he ir i n lays a nd c onsequent ly w ere o r ig ina l ly Type I Ib. Type I V ( F ig . 9 /20). Daggers c as t i n o ne p iece . The b lade o f t aper ing t r iangu lar f orm w ith s quare s hou lders . S quare s hou lders p red om ina te but i n 2i nstances ( in Mar l ik) t hey a re u pturned, a nd i n 2 o thers d ownturned a nd r ounded. A l l t he b lades h ave a n arrow r ib i n r e l ief d own t he m idd le. The f langed h i lt h as a s tra ight g r ip, w iden ing s l ight ly where i t b ecomes a f an-shaped p omme l. S omet imes t he f lange d oes n o t r each t he b ase o f t he h i lt; i n s uch c ases t here a re s omet imes r ivets ( bib. n o. 1 60, F ig. 6 3/4, 5 6/10). The upper p art o f t he b lade h as a p enannu lar r ib i n r e l ief g r ipp ing t he m idr ib b etween i t s o pen e nds . I t i s u sua l ly c as t a t t he s ame t ime a s t he b lade a nd h i lt. But R . Maxwe l lHys lop ' sr esearches h ave s hown t ha t i t was s omet imes " cast o n" s epara te ly-c losed-crescent t ype ( bib. n o . 1 47p. 5 2 f ig . 1 /15 ; 1 44 Tab le X II _ /3). The l eng th o f t he d aggers f rom t he P ers ian Ta l ish i s f rom 3 4 t o 4 6.5 cm , f rom t he Russ ian Ta l ish--24 .8 t o 4 3 .3 cm. 1 7 e xamp les were c ons idered ; o f t hem 4 w ere c hance f inds, 5 f rom t he Russ ian Ta l ish, 6 f rom t he P ers ian Ta l ish a nd 2 f rom Mar l ik. Type I Va ( F ig . 9 /22,23). Daggers w ith a s im i lar f orm o f b lade a nd a p enannu lar r ib o n i t , b ut w ith a c y l indr ica l h i lt wh ich h as t ransverse r ibs, f rom o ne t o t hree . The h i l t was manufactured i n 2 ways . The f la t h i l t w ith s ca l loped f langes, when f i tted w ith a n i n lay f rom a nother ma ter ia l, was t urned i nto a c y l indr ica l h i lt w i th r ibs. I n o ther c ases, t he h i lt was made by " cast ing o n" t o at anged d agger a nd i m i ta ted a r ibbed h i lt w i th i n lay. 7 2

The l eng th i s f rom 2 8-38 cm. S ix e xamp les w ere c ons idered, i nc lud ing ag o ld o ne. The o r ig in o f 3o f t hem i s c onnected w i th t he Casp ian a rea ( 2 a re f rom Ka lardash t, 1 f rom Ver i) 2 f rom L ur istan ( quer ied), a nd t he o r ig in o f t he s ixth i s u nknown ( b ib. n o . 1 79 F ig . 1 6 , 1 1 ; 1 07 Tab le V II/ 1 3 , 1 4 ; 1 47 Tab le X II/1, XXXIX/3). Type I Val ( F ig . 9 /21). Daggers o f t h is s ubtype l ook s im i lar t o Types I V a nd I Va but a re f undamenta l ly d ifferent. The c rescent i s f ound n o t o n t he b ase o f t he b lade but i s t he c ont inua t ion a nd b ase o f t he h i lt a nd i s f ormed by f langes. Th is f l at c rescent l ocated b etween t he b lade a nd t he g r ip o f t he h i lt i s as tructura l p art o f t he d agger. Two e xamp les w ere c ons idered, f rom p r iva te c o l lect ions. One i s 3 3 cm l ong . The b as is f or d at ing t he e nt ire s er ies w i l l b e e xamined b e low t ogether w i th Type V . Type V ( F ig . 9 /24, 2 5 , 2 6). Daggers w i th a mass ive b lade wh ich h as s tra ight o r s l ight ly c oncave e dges a s ar esu lt o f f requent s harpen ing . The s hou lders a re s quare. Down t he m idd le o f t he b lade i s ar ib i n r el i ef . The h i lt h as a n arrow g r ip w i th t ransverse r ibs, a nd, a s i n Type I Va, was made i n t wo ways: w ith i n lays o r i m i ta t ions i n b ronze. R . Maxwe l l-Hys lop b e l ieves t hat t he d agger f rom L ah i jan ( F ig. 9 /25) was a n i ntermed iate f orm b etween d aggers w i th a r ibbed h i l t c ast led o n a nd a f l anged h i lt. On ly t he r ecesses f or t he i n lays r ema in o n t he l a tter ( bib. n o. 1 44 Tab le XXXVII/1). The b ase o f t he h i lt was c ast led o n t o t he s hou lders o f t he b lade, wh ich g ave g rea t s treng th a t t he j o in. The g uard w as d ecorated w i th h or izonta l g rooves o r i nc is ions, i n o ne c ase t he g uard h as p rotrus ions a long t he e dges ( F ig. 9 /26). The p omme ls c ome i n av ar iety o f f orms: mushroom s haped w ith a c entra l b ead ing , f an-shaped f la t o nes o n f lange-h i lts. The l eng th i s f rom 2 4 t o 4 6.8 cm. I n 2e xamp les t he l eng th i s 5 3.2 a nd 8 2 cm a nd t hey a re c a l led s words. 1 2 e xamp les were c ons idered; 5c ame f rom c omp lexes ( Mar l ik, t he Russ ian Ta l ish) ( b ib. n o . 1 65 photo 1 23, 4 7 , 5 0 ; 1 60 F ig . 5 6/9 , 6 2/7 ); i n t he c ase o f f our , t he p lace o f t he ir d iscovery i s i nd ica ted —Resht, L ah i jan ( b ib. n o . 1 44 Tab le 3 7 /1-2), a nd p oss ib ly Am lash ( bib. n o. 2 01 n o. 2 75) a nd 3 unrecorded f inds ( bib. n o . 1 63 Tab le V/10; 1 55 F ig. 1 4/54, 5 5). Type Va ( F ig . 9 /27). The f orma l d ist ingu ish ing f ea ture o f t h is s ubtype i s t he a bsence o f r ibb ing o n t he h i lt. A l l t he d aggers a re c ast i n o ne p iece w i th a f l at h i lt a nd f langes ( there a re n o " cast led o n" h i lts). I n s ome c ases t he f langes c ome r ight up t o t he g uard, i n o thers t he r ecess f or i n lay o ccup ies o n ly t he m idd le p art o f t he g r ip, s omet imes t here a re r ivets i n t he c entre o f t he g r ip. The f orm o f t he g uard a nd b lade i s s imi lar t o t ype V . The p omme ls a re f lat, f an-shaped, e ar-shaped ( w i th r idges r unn ing a cross t he b ack o f t he p omme l) a nd mushroom-shaped. The l ast 2 a re f ound o n ly i n Chagou la-Derre. The l eng th i s f rom 2 9 t o 4 3.5 cm; t he s word i s 5 9 .3 cm. N ine e xamp les w ere c ons idered, o f wh ich 7c ame f rom t he Russ ian-Pers ian Ta l ish ( b ib. n o. 1 57 F ig. 4 59 , 4 61, 4 62, 4 37 ; 1 60 F ig. 6 2/8, 6 3/2, 3 ), o ne i s i n t he Ma lek i c o l lect ion ( Khurv in) ( b ib. n o . 2 05 Tab le 3 4/226), a nd o ne s word i s f rom Mar l ik ( b ib. n o. 1 65 G rave XVIIB). The Type I V-V d aggers were f ound i n c omp lexes where ( w i th t he e xcept ion o f Chagou la-Derre) n o i ron o b jects h ave b een f ound. The t err itor ia l d istr ibut ion o f t he f ive t ypes d escr ibed s hows t hat Types I -III a re ma in ly c haracter ist ic o f Lur istan a nd Types I V-V o f t he C asp ian a reas o f I ran. A lthough s tructura l ly s im i lar i n t erms o f t he a rrangement o f t he h i lts, t he Ta l ish d aggers a re d ifferent i n h av ing a

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mass ive b lade w i th a c lear ly d ef ined r ib, a nd s hou lders wh ich f orm t he g uard. Apart f rom t ha t, Type I V h as a c haracter ist ic f ea ture i n t he c irc le o n t he b lade, a nd Type V h as a s quare h i lt b ase o n t he s hou lders . Th is makes i t p oss ib le t o s uppose t hat t hey h ad a c ommon o r ig in a nd t hen d eve loped i n i so la t ion. Dat ing t he Ta lysh d aggers i s c ons iderably more d iff icu lt t han d a t ing t he Lur istan o nes, where t here a re i nscr ipt ions a nd d a t ing c omp lexes. The ma ter ia ls f rom t he e xcavat ions i n t he Russ ian-Pers ian Ta lysh h ave b een pub l ished by t he Morgan b rothers i n s uch a way t hat i t i s d iff icu l t t o r e late t he d aggers t o s pec if ic c omp lexes, p art icu lar ly p ottery c omp lexes. The i mprec ise d a t ing o f Mar l ik h as o f ten b een ment ioned. C . S chaeffer d a tes t he g roups o f d o lmens a t Agha-Ev lar a nd Hassan Z am in i o n t he b as is o f t he d a t ing o f K irkuk-sty le s ea ls ( 1450-1350 B .C.) ( bib. n o. 1 82 pp. 4 08-413). I n Agha Ev lar t he s ea ls c ome f rom Do lmen 1 a nd t he d aggers f rom Do lmen 2 . I t i s h ard t o s ay h ow c ontemporary t he mak ing o f t he s ea ls was w ith t hat o f t he d aggers. The f ormer u sua l ly h ad a l ong l i fe. The g o ld v esse l f rom t he burnt h ouse i n Hasan lu I V, o n wh ich a re d epicted Type I V-V d aggers, i s d a ted by E . P orada t o b etween t he 1 3th a nd 1 1th c entur ies B .C. ( b ib. n o. 1 71 p . 1 79). T o t ry t o b e more p recise i n t he a bso lute d a t ing o f t he Ta lysh d aggers, i t i s n ecessary t o dwe l l o n 3f eatures a nd t o e luc idate : ( 1) t he c hronol og ica l c orre la t ion b etween Types I V a nd V , ( 2) wha t t ypes o f d aggers r ep laced t hem a nd when, ( 3) a nd t he c hrono log ica l c orre lat ion b etween t he l ine o f d eve lopment o f t he d aggers o f Lur istan a nd t hose o f t he Caspian. ( 1) The s imu l taneous e x istence o f d aggers o f Types I V a nd V i s a ttested by t he ir j o int d iscovery i n Do lmen 2 i n Agha Ev lar ( b ib. n o. 1 57 F ig. 4 37 , 6 38).* The ir s imu ltaneous e x istence i s a lso a ttested by t he ir b e ing f ound w i th in t he s ame c emetery i n c omp lexes c onta in ing o n ly a b ronze i nventory a nd, i n a dd i t ion, by t he d ep ict ion o f b o th t ypes o n t he g o ld v esse l f rom Hasan lu. ( 2) Two t ypes o f d aggers ( VI a nd V II) a re e ncountered i n t he g rave c omp lexes o f Ta lysh, wh ich C . S chaeffer puts a L t he l ater s tage i n h er R . Maxwe l l-Hys lop t r ied o n t he b as is o f a n a na lys is o f t he t echn ique o f c ast ing d aggers t o f ind o ut t he i nterna l e vo lut ion a nd c hrono logy o f Type I V d aggers. S he s uggests t hat t he d eve lopment was f rom Type I V t o I Va, wh ich i m ita ted o rgan ic i nserts ( b ib. n o. 1 47 p p. 1 51-52). I n h er o p in ion, t he t echn ique o f " cast l ing" t he h i l t o nto a b ronze b lade p roba bly emerged o n ly a f ter t he i ntroduct ion o f i ron. Th is i s e xp la ined b y t he f act t ha t t he f l anges o n i ron h i lts a re d iff icu lt t o make a nd t ha t i t was t herefore p referab le a s i n t he p as t t o make t hem o ut o f b ronze ( b ib. n o. 1 47 p . 5 3). I t f o l lows f rom t h is t hat Type I Va s hou ld b e d ated l a ter t han Type I V. However t h is i s c ontrad icted by t he i dent ica l c ond i t ions o f f inds o f Types I V a nd I Va a nd t heir b e ing f ound t ogether w ith Type V . But t he ma in o b ject ion i s t hat b imeta l l ic d aggers ( for wh ich t h is t echn ique was i nvented, a ccord ing t o R . Maxwe l l-Hys lop) h ave a c omp lete ly d ifferent f orm o f h i lt ( Types V I-VII). I t i s l og ica l ly d iff icu lt t o e xp la in why, i f t rad i t iona l ly t he h i lt was made w i th a f l ange, wh ich i s d iff icu l t t o make i n i ron, o n ly i m i tat ion f l anges were made a nd n o t r ea l o nes dur ing t he c ast ing. I t i s a no ther matter i f 2t echn iques e x isted t ogether: i n o ne c ase t he i n lay was p erhaps o ut o f v a luab le mater ia ls wh ich c ou ld h ave g iven t he d agger a d ress a ppearance; i n t he o ther, t he weapon l ooked s imp ler a nd was e as ier t o make.

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c lass if icat ion a nd whose ma in f eature i s t he a bundance o f i ron a rtefacts. U sua l ly t hey a re b imeta l l ic: t he b lade i s i ron a nd t he h i lt b ronze. S omet imes t he d agger i s b ronze o n t he o uts ide but a na lys is e stab l ishes t ha t t he p omme l h as b een p ut o n t op o f a n i ron s hank ( bib. n o. 1 55 p . 7 9 , F ig . 1 5/58 , 1 6/59). These d aggers r ep lace t he Types I V-V i n t he Casp ian a rea . Type V I. Th is i s c haracter ised by a " co tton-ree l" p omme l. I t d if fers i n t he d imens ions o f t he u pper a nd l ower d isc a nd t he m idd le s ect ion, wh ich c an b e c y l indr ica l o r c on ica l. The r icasso p robab ly h ad a c rescent f rom a p rev ious t ime o n i ts b ase wh ich h ad n ow b ecome g reat ly t ransf ormed. I t i s e i ther a c rescent w i th a s tra ight l ower e dge a nd 2 c rosss ect ions, o r a n a cute a ng le f igure w i th o pen e nds ( F ig. 9 /28). On t he i ron d agger f rom Chagou la-Derre t h is i s a n o pen b ronze c rescent ( F ig . 9 /29). A b as is f or d at ing t hese d aggers c an b e t he f ibu la f rom Grave 1 4 i n Am lash d ated t o 8 50-800 B .C. Moorey d ates t h is t ype t o t he 1 0th-9 th c entur ies B .C. Type V II ( F ig. 9 /30). B imeta l l ic d aggers wh ich a re c haracter ised b y a n " ear" p omme l, a s tra ight g r ip a nd a d ouble-pronged b ase f or t he b ronze h i lt. The b as is f or t hat d ate ( Iron Age I) i s t he d iscovery o f s uch a d agger i n t he Hasan lu I V l ayer ( bib. n o. 2 15 p . 1 26 T ab le Xl l ic) a nd i dent ica l c ond it ions o f f inds w i th Type V I d aggers. B . A . Kuf t in a nd M . N . P ogrebova b e l ieve t hat t he " ear" p omme l f orm c omes f rom t he L ur istan d aggers ( Type I Ib) ( bib. 1 7 p . 6 4; 3 5 p . 2 8-29). However, i n t he a rea o f Mugan i n ext t o Ta l ish ( South-east S ov iet A zarba i jan) t here a re b ronze d aggers o f t h is t ype f rom wh ich t he b imeta l l ic d aggers b e ing e xam ined may b e d escended ( b ib. n o. 1 0 t ab le I , V I; 2 4 Table I/1). I n Mugan i b ronze d aggers w i th a n " ear" p omme l a re f ound t ogether w ith Type V d aggers ( Kh ishkedere) o uts ide t he c omp lex a l though a pparent ly c ontemporary s ince t here a re n o b imeta l l ic o nes a mong t hem ( b ib. n o. 2 4, p . 7 6 Tab le I , I). Bronze d aggers o f Type V II a re unknown i n Ta l ish Can t h is b e e v idence o f t he movement o f t h is t ype f rom t he more n or ther ly a rea o f Mugan i, s outhwards t o t he I ran ian Casp ian a nd t he Hasan lu a rea? Th is t ype o f d agger h as n o f l anges a nd i s i n many d eta i ls d ifferent f rom t he L ur istan d aggers, wh ich M . N . P ogrebova h as o f ten emphas ised, p o int ing t o t he " imposs ibi l i ty o f s imp le d er ivat ion o f f orm". E ssent ia l ly Type I Ib i s unknown o uts ide Lur istan, a s, i nc identa l ly , a re t he r ema ini ng Types I -II. The d aggers f ound i n A zarba i jan ( Hasan lu), b e long t o n e i ther o f t hem but a re a hybr id o f d ifferent e lements. As f or t he f ans haped f orm o f p omme l , M . N . P ogrebova b e l ieves i t was qu i te w idespread i n w estern As ia, wh ich i s a ttested by t he d iscover ies o f f an-shaped b one d iscs i n Byb los ( bib. n o. 3 5 pp. 2 5-26). Tak ing i nto a ccount t he d iffere nces b etween t he L ur istan a nd t he T ranscaucas ian d azgers a nd t he n ature o f t he ir d istr ibut ion i n Mugan i-Ta l ish , A zarba i jan, i t i s e v ident t hat t he p oss ibi l ity t hat t hey w ere d er ived f rom Lur istan s hou ld b e r u led o ut a nd t hat t he ir g enera l o r ig in i n w estern As ia a nd f urther i ndependent d eve lopment i n e ach o f t hese r eg ions b e p ostu lated. The p oss ibi l i ty o f s uch a c ourse w i l l b e d iscussed b e low. I n a dd i t ion t o t he Type V I d agger , Grave 1 4 i n Am lash a lso y ie lded u n ique t ypes o f b ronze weapons r em in iscent o f t he h arpoon f rom S h irS h ir. Researchers u sua l ly c a l l t hem d aggers ( Type V III). The b lade h as c oncave e dges i n t he upper p art, wh ich b ecome s harp s p ikes o n e i ther s ide o f as hor t t ang . They a re d ated by t he f ibu la t o t he 9 th c entury B .C. ( F ig . 9 /31). Th is t ype i s w ide ly r epresented .i n t he Gha let ent i Ic emetery i n Da i laman, whose numerous Transcaucas ian p ara l le ls m ake i t p oss ib le t o d ate i t t o t he 9 th-8th c entur ies B .C. ( b ib. n o. 3 3, p p. 1 58-160, 7 0-71). 7 5

Thus i t i s o bv ious t ha t t he d agger t ypes I V-V a re r ep laced i n t he Casp ian a rea by Types V I-VIII a f ter t he t urn o f t he 2 nd ist m i l lenn ium B .C. ( 3) The c hrono log ica l c orre la t ion b etween t he Type I V-V d aggers a nd t he Lur istan d aggers c an b e p ostu lated o n t he b as is t hat a n i dent ica l method o f c opy ing e ncrusted h i l ts was u sed by t he method o f " cast ing" t he meta l o n t o t he t ang ( for Types n ib, I Va a nd V ). I n Lur istan Types I -III a re r ep laced i n t he I ron Age I p er iod by i ron a nd b imeta l l ic d aggers a nd s ome o f t hem a ttest t o t he c ont inu i ty o f t he d eve lopment o f t ypes ( Type Ia). I n Ta l ish c omp lexes w ith b ronze d aggers ( Types I V-V) a re r ep laced by c omp lexes w ith b imeta l l ic d aggers o f Types V I-VIII, a nd a lso t here i s t he s pread o f s ome Transcaucas ian t ypes o f d aggers ( b ib. n o. 3 3, p . 7 0). There a re n o r e l iab le d ata o n t he t rans i t ion o f t he L ur is tan b ronze d aggers i n t he I ron Age I p er iod. R . Dyson 's e v idence, wh ich h as b een men t ioned a bove, i s o n i t s own, a nd d oes n o t h ave a d irect b ear ing o n Lur istan. Apart f rom t he f act t hat t he d aggers f rom t he burned b u i ld ing c ou ld h ave b een p art o f t he t reasure s tore a nd c onsequent ly b e o lder t han t he Hasan lu I V p er iod, i n Hasan lu I V i tse lf Type V II d aggers h ave b een f ound. A s f or Ta l ish, t he c hange i n t he d agger t ypes t here p robab ly t ook p lace a pprox ima te ly a c entury l a ter t han i n Lur istan . F irst ly, t here i s t he d a t ing o f Types V I-VIII o n t he b as is o f t he 9 th c entury B .C. f ibu la. The Type Va d aggers f rom Chagou laD erre w ere f ound t ogether w i th i ron o b jects. The d aggers f rom Ka lard asht, o ver t he e nt ire c omp lex, c anno t b e d ated e ar l ier t han t he I ron Age I p er iod . The uncer ta in d a t ing o f Mar l ik l i kew ise d oes n o t e xc lude I ron Age I . An i nd irect c onf irma t ion o f t he e x istence o f Type I V d aggers e ven i n t he I ron Age I p er iod s erves t o d a te t he K edabek c omp lex t o t he 9 th-8 th c entur ies B .C. ( Sov iet A zarba i jan). A Type I V d agger w as f ound t here ( bib . n o . 3 4 p p. 6 0-67 ) ( F ig . 1 1/6). The a ppearance o f Type I V-V d aggers must b e l i nked w i th t he I ron Age I p er iod. C . S chaeffer ' sd ate s eems t oo l ow. The Lur istan a nd Ta l ish d aggers b e long t o o ne c lass o f d aggers w i th f l anges. I n t he o p in ion o f r esearchers, t he o r ig in o f t hese d aggers i s c onn ected w i th t he S yro-Pa lest in ian r eg ion. I t was p rec ise ly t here t hat d aggers w i th a " rud imentary" r icasso a nd e lements o f af l ange a ppeared i n t he M idd le Bronze Age. L eav ing a s ide t he d ebateab le quest ion o f who i nvented t he f l ange t o r e inforce t he i n lay ( the H ixos, o r d id i t a ppear i n S yr ia under M inoan o r Egypt ian i nf luence—b ib. n o . 1 21 p . 1 70 ; 1 45 pp. 3 4-36, 7 2; 1 80 p . 1 7), l et u s n ote o n ly t hat t he r o le o f t he f l ange was f undamenta l ly d ifferent a t t he i n i t ia l s tage o f d eve lopment f rom wha t i t was u lt imate ly. The West As ian d aggers o f t he b eg inn ing o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C.(Gibeon, Mycenae, Ras S hamra) e ssent ia l ly h ave n o h i lt, o n ly a s ma l l b road t ang . W i th t he a id o f r ivets, a h i lt o f d ifferent mater ia l was j o ined a t t he s hou lders a nd t he b oss o f t he b lade. The f l anges a t t he s hou lders s erved t o f asten o n t he h i lt, b e ing t hus s truct ura l ly e ssent ia l. I n t he d aggers o f t he s econd h a lf o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C. t he h i lt was c ast a t t he s ame t ime a s t he b lade. The f langes a re n ow o n ly a ux i l iary, r eta in ing t he i n lays o n t he b ronze h i lt. I t i s b e l ieved t hat d aggers w i th e lements o f af l ange s oon d eve loped i nto d aggers w i th a f u l l f l anged h i lt, a nd t he l a tter r ema ined a maz ing ly a l ike i n t he East a nd t he West ( bib. n o. 1 55 p . 7 2). I ndeed, a l though most Type I d aggers a re c onnected w i th Lur istan Researchers d o n o t d ifferent ia te b etween Types I a nd I. A ccord ing t o t he p roposed c lass if ica t ion, a l l t he a na log ies made by R . Maxwe l lHys lop c orrespond o n ly t o Type I . There s eem t o b e n o Type I a na log ies west o f L ur istan. 7 6

d aggers c ontemporary w i th t hem, s im i lar o nes i n f orm h ave b een f ound i n S yr ia ( Hama I ). Daggers c lose t o t ype I I h ave a lso b een f ound i n S yr ia i n Ras Shamra , a nd a re d ated t here t o t he 1 4th c entury B .C. ( bib. n o. 1 74 p .20, F ig . 1 35a ; F ig. 1 3/p). However i t must b e b orne i n m ind t ha t t he S yro-Pa lest in ian r eg ion i s c haracter ised by i ts own s pec if ic f orms o f d aggers w i th a f l anged h i lt. They a re d aggers w i th a c oncave h i lt b ase wh ich i s c ons iderab ly w ider t han t he b lade b ase ( bib. n o. 3 6 p . 1 4 D iag. 4/ 15 -16), a nd t he s o-ca l led " horn" d aggers wh ich p oss ib ly emerged under A egean i nf luence ( b ib. 1 45 p . 3 4; 1 82 F ig. 4 5"u"). Where t he b lade j o ins t he h i lt t hey h ave p ro truberances, wh ich a re s omet imes a lmost h or iz onta l, f orm ing a c rossl ike s hape. Th is f ea ture, l i ke b oth d aggers, i s u nknown i n I ran. Thus, w i th a c ommon p r inc ip le o f h i lt a rrangement a s ab as is, d aggers d eve loped i n d ifferent a reas i nto d ifferent t ypes w i th a c erta in s et o f f ea tures e ach o f wh ich i nd iv idua l ly c ou ld b e e ncountered o ver a w ider a rea. S uch t ypes c an b e c a l led " f ina l" s ince t he i dea wh ich e merged i n o ne c entre ( the S yro-Pa lest in ian) s pread r ad ia l ly i nto d ifferent a reas a nd d eve loped i ndependent ly. I n Lur istan t he " f ina l" t ypes ( I-III) were f ormed t owards t he 1 2th c entury B .C. Contacts w i th t he S yro-Pa lest in ian a rea c ou ld h ave b een e ffected by i t ineran t s m iths t rave l l ing d own t he t rade r outes e astwards t o s outhern I ran ( bib. n o. 1 45 p . 3 7); a nd t hen, a cross Khuzistan, t he i deas o r r eady-made s amp les c ou ld h ave e nded up i n L ur istan. I n Khuzis tan t he d aggers ( Type I I) a re d ated t o t he 1 3th c entury B .C. a nd s ome o f t hem s t i l l r evea l t he i nf luence o f S yro-Pa lest in ian d aggers w i th a c onc ave h i lt b ase b roader t han t he b lade b ase ( bib. 1 05 Tab le XCII/73, 7 7). They a re f ur ther d eve loped i n Lur istan ( Types I , I Ib). I n t he I ron Age I p er iod n o f undamenta l ly n ew t ypes emerged; t he u se o f t he s ame f orms c ont inued e xcept t hat a n ew mater ia l a ppeared-i ron. F or t he Ta l ish " f ina l" t ypes i t i s d iff icu lt t o f ind g ener ica l ly e ar l ier f orms i n Wes tern As ia e xcept f or t he t ypo log ica l ly c ommon f orm o f h i lt. A ttempts h ave b een made t o e luc idate t he o r ig ins o f t he c rescent o n t he Type I V d aggers. Their s ources h ave b een t raced i n d aggers w i th c atches o n t he u pper p art o f t he b lade f ound i n t he r oya l n ecropo l is i n Ur ( bib. n o. 2 9 p . 1 33). But t here a re n ot e nough i ntermed iate f orms s how ing t he g radua l t rans it ion f rom t he " open-crescent" t ype t o t he " c losed-crescent" t ype t o p rove t h is hypo thes is . R . Dyson s uggested ar everse e vo lut ion f rom t he " c losed-crescent" t o c rescent, but w ith in t he I ron Age I -II p er iods . He b e l ieved t hat t he pure ly d ecora t ive e lement was r ep laced b y af unct iona l ly j ust if ied o ne wh ich r e inforced t he e dges o f t he b lade ( b ib. n o . 8 6 p . 4 2). S uch a s equence i s s carce ly p oss ible; t he e vo lut ion o f a rt ic les u sua l ly s hows d eve lopment f rom a f unct iona l ly j ust if ied e lement t o a n unnecessary a nd f orgotten t rad it ion wh ich i s r eproduced o ut o f h ab i t. Two d iscover ies a re i nterest ing i n c onnect ion w i th t he o r ig in o f t he T a l ish d aggers. One i s t he d agger f rom Do lmen 2 i n Agha-Ev lar. Two d aggers f rom t h is d o lmen, Types I V-V, h ave a lready b een ment ioned. The t h ird, wh ich i s t he o ne i n quest ion, i s d iff icu lt t o a ttr ibute t o a ny o f t he f ive t ypes ( bib. n o. 1 57 F ig . 6 36). The r ib o n t he b lade d oes n ot g o a s f ar a s t he b ase o f t he b lade but b ecomes b roader a nd f l attens i nto t he b lade. The s tra ight g r ip a nd t he s ma l l f an-shaped p omme l a re c ustomary f or Ta l ish t ypes, but t he a bsence o f ag uard a nd t he b roadeni ng b ase o f t he h i lt c ompe l o ne t o s eek a s im i lar ity i n t he Lur istan a nd West As ian d aggers. I t i s n ot t o b e r u led o ut t hat t h is d agger b ears t races o f t he f orm o r ig ina l ly a dopted f rom West As ia. The o ther d isc overy wh ich i s i nteres t ing i n t h is c onnect ion i s ad agger w i th a c rescent a t t he b ase o f t he b lade wh ich c omes f rom S yr ia a nd i s d ated t o t he 1 6th 7 7

c entury B .C. ( bib. n o. 6 5 , n o . 8 00). I t i s n o t c lear f rom t he r econstruct ion o f t he d agger whether t here a re f langes a nd i t i s n ot c lear whether t he h i lt was b roken o ff o r whether i t i s i n t he f orm o f ap rotruberance, wh ich was c haracter ist ic o f d aggers i n t h is a rea a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C. S o t h is e lement was a pparent ly known i n t h is r eg ion but f or s ome r eason b ecame most p opu lar i n t he s outhern Casp ian. The d aggers f rom Hasan lu a re hybr ids o f v ar ious e lements p resent i nd iv idua l ly o n e ach o f t he t hree t ypes o f L ur istan d aggers. Th is f act s uggests t hat t he ir emergence i n A zarba i jan w as n ot d irect ly c onnected w ith Lur istan but i s ac onsequence o f t hat r ad ia l d is tr ibut ion f rom t he S yro-Pa lest in ian r eg ion a nd t hat s ubsequent i so lated d eve lopment. The l a tter i s c onf irmed by t he d ifference i n t he Ta l ish a nd Lur istan d aggers a nd t he l ack o f i nf luence o f e i ther r eg ion o n t he o ther. I n c onnect ion w i th t he q uest ion o f t he r ad ia l d istr ibut ion o f d aggers w ith f l anges, i t i s n ecessary t o dwe l l o n t he q uest ion o f t he ir emergence i n t he Caucasus. M . N . P ogrebova h as r esearched a s er ies o f f langed d aggers f ound i n v ar ious p arts o f t he Caucasus a nd f ound t he c losest a na log ies t o t hem i n I ron Age I Lur istan. Thus, s he s ubstant iated t he p ropos i t ion t hat t here w ere c lose c ontacts b etween L ur istan a nd t he Caucasus a s e ar ly a s t hat p er iod ( b ib. n o. 3 6 p p. 1-18). A t f irst g lance, t he Caucas ian d aggers d o i ndeed s eem t o b ear a n o bv ious s im i lar ity t o t he Lur istan d aggers ( F ig . 1 1, 1 -5 , 7 -9). However, o n c loser e xam inat ion i t t urns o ut t hat i t i s i mposs ible t o f ind d irect a na log ies. They c anno t b e c ompared t o Type I d aggers s ince t hat t ype i s c haracter ised by a h i lt g r ip wh ich w idens d ownwards a nd r ecesses a bove t he r icasso. Type I I i s d ist ingu ished by i ts s moothness o f c ontours i n g enera l a nd o f t he t rans i t ion f rom t he h i lt g r ip t o t he r icasso. I n t he Caucas ian d aggers t h is t rans i t ion i s a brupt, a nd t hat i s t he o n ly t h ing wh ich l i nks t hem w ith Type I . But most o f t he Type I d aggers a re c haracteri zed by a t oothed r icasso, a n o pen p omme l, a l ens-shaped b lade i n c rosss ect ion o r aw e l l-def ined r ib wh ich s tarts w e l l b e low t he r icasso. A l l t hese a re a bsent i n t he Caucas ian d aggers, wh ich a re c haracter ised by a f l attened unopen p omme l, a r ight a ng led r icasso a nd a c entra l r ib i n r e l ief o r i n o ut l ine. A s im i lar ity c an b e s een b etween t he Caucas ian d aggers a nd t hose f rom T choga Z anbi l a nd Ras S hamra, f rom wh ich t he Khuzistan d aggers a re o bv ious ly d escended. The d ifference i s t he a bsence o f w ings o n t he r icasso, a l though M . N . P ogrebova wr i tes t hat t hey a re p resent o n a number o f Caucas ian e xamp les. M . N . P ogrebova h as p o inted o ut t he s im i lar i ty b etween t he S yro-Pa lest in ian a nd t he Caucas ian d aggers but h as n oted t hat t here a re f ew a na log ies w i th t hem t here i n t he Caucasus ( bib. n o. 3 6 p . 1 4), a l though t here a re a lso f ew o f t hem i n Lur istan. Thus, w e a ga in h ave t he p resence o f a number o f s im i lar e lements wh ich t ogether c reate a s eparate t ype o f d agger. O f c ourse, i t i s i mposs ib le c ategor ica l ly t o d eny d irect c u ltura l l i nks b etween Lur istan a nd t he Caucasus a t t he e nd o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C., but a number o f f actors a re e v idence i n f avour o f t he S yro-Pa lest in ian o r ig ins o f t he Caucasus d aggers w i th a f ramework h i l t. F irst, t hroughout t he 3 rd-2nd m i l lenn ia B .C., t he meta l a rtefacts f rom t he A rmen ian up lands, t he L ake Van r eg ion, a nd t he w estern p art o f t he T ranscaucasus w ere l inked w ith As ia M inor a nd S yr ia ; o n ly i n t he 1 2th c entury B .C., a f ter t he f a l l o f t he H itt i te K ingdom, d id t he West As ian i nf luence o n t he c u lture o f t he Transcaucasus wane ( bib. n o. 3 2 pp. 1 0-11 ; 1 8 p p. 3 6-37). F or t he Hurr ian s ea ls B . B . P iotrovsk i i t races a p ath i nto t he Transcaucasus f rom n orthern Syr ia v ia t he u pper Euphrates a nd n orth o f L ake Van. S econd ly, d aggers w ith a f l anged h i lt a ppeared i n t he C aucasus a s e ar ly 7 8

a s t he 1 7th-16th c entur ies B .C. ( F ig. 1 1/11). I n t he o lder g roup f rom t he Art ik c emetery, s words h ave b een f ound w i th t he s ame h i lt t ogether w i th Hurr ian-M itann ian s ea ls a nd g lass d iv id ing b eads ( of Mycenaean o r Nus ian o r ig ins) ‚ wh ich d a tes t hem t o t he 1 4th-13th c entur ies B .C. ( F ig. 1 1/10) ( bib. n o. 4 9 p p. 1 14-115, 1 58). Thus, t h is c lass o f d aggers emerged l ong b efore t hey emerged i n I ran. I t i s c ur ious t hat t here a re n o d aggers w i th a f ramework h i lt i n Ar t ik i n t he 1 2th-ll th c entur ies B. C.; i nstead t here a re d aggers w ith a t rumpet s haped h i lt. They a re ak ind o f mod if icat ion o f d aggers w i th a f ramework h i lt a nd b ecame w ides pread i n t he Caucasus a t t he e nd o f t he 2 nd a nd b eg inn ing o f t he i st m i l lenn ia B .C. S ince a l l t he Caucas ian d aggers w i th a f ramework h i lt u sed by M . N . P ogrebova i n h er work a re c hance f inds, s hou ld t hey n ot b e d ated t o b efore t he 1 2th c entury B .C.? However, t h is quest ion i s a lready t he s ub ject o f s pec ia l r esearch wh ich h as n o d irect b ear ing o n t h is work. Th ird ly, i t i s n ecessary t o t ake i nto a ccount t he s omewhat i so lated n ature o f L ur istan f rom t he n orthern a nd NE t err i tor ies i n t he I ron Age Ip er iod. Th is mus t e xp la in t he d ifferences i n p ottery a nd bur ia l r i tes a nd t he h igh d eve lopments o f t he b ronze-cast ing i ndustry ( the L ur istan b ronzes). I n a dd it ion, i t must b e s tressed o nce more t hat t he Lur is tan d aggers d id n o t s pread o uts ide Lur istan t owards t he Caucasus. M . N . P ogrebova 's work g roups a l l t he d a ta wh ich i n h er o p in ion s ubstant iate c lose a nd c onstant l inks b etween t he I ran ian a nd Transc aucas ian r eg ions a t t he e nd o f t he 2 nd a nd b eg inn ing o f t he i st m i l lenn ium B .C. ( bib. n o. 3 3 p . 1 66, 1 68 -173). However, t he d a ta c i ted i n h er work p rove t he i nd ispu tab i l i ty o f t h is a ssert ion o n ly f or t he b eg inn ing o f t he i st m i l lenn ium B .C. I n t hese c ases c oncern ing l inks a t t he e nd o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C. ,i t i s qu i te o bv ious t ha t t h is d a te i s t he c onsequence o f t he i nd iv idua l d a t ing o f t hose s i tes o n wh ich t he a uthor r e l ied. Th is c oncerns t he Khurv in Ma lek i c o l lect ion a nd t he c emeter ies o f Mar l ik, Ka lardasht a nd Ka luraz ( Iron Age I -II) ( b ib. n o. 3 3 p . 1 48, 1 49). When t he a uthor u ses d a ta f rom s i tes wh ich a re s ubd iv ided i nto p er iods, i t t urns o ut t ha t t he b est a na log ies b etween t he t wo r eg ions c an b e f ound i n I ron Age I s i tes ( Hasan lu I V, S ia lk B ). F or t he I ron Age I p er iod t hese l inks a re b ased ma in ly o n a na log ies b etween t he b ronze weapons o f I ran a nd t he T ranscaucasus, t he d eba tab i l i ty o f wh ich h as j us t b een s hown. As f or t he p o ttery, t he f ew p ara l le ls wh ich a re c i ted f or I ron Age I s i tes a re n ot a lways v a l id . Th is p r imar i ly c oncerns t he Type V Ia g ob lets, o f wh ich M . N . P ogrebova s ees a na log ies i n t he j ars f rom t he c emeter ies o f Kedabek a nd Kara-Bu lak ( b ib. n o . 3 3 p p. 8 6-88 Tab le XV I/5,6). However , a l l t hree c haracter ist ic f ea tures o f t he g ob lets ( long n eck, t he l oca t ion o f t he h and le i n t he m idd le o f t he b ody, a nd a p edesta l, s ee a bove, p . 2 6) a re a bsen t o n t he v esse ls ment ioned. Bow ls w ith a r am ' sh ead ( I IId) were i ndeed known i n t he I ron Age p er iod, but a lso i n t he s ubsequen t o ne ( S ia lk B ). M . N . P ogrebova j ust ly n o tes t ha t t here a re n o g rounds f or l ink ing t he o r ig in o f t he Transcaucas ian t r ipods w ith a s pec if ic t err i tory , s ince t hey were w idespread i n t he E ast, i nc ludi ng I ran. I t c ou ld b e a dded t ha t t h is a lso a pp l ies t o t he Type Ib t eapo ts a nd t he " kernos" V esse ls, t he d istr ibut ion o f wh ich i n t he Transcaucasus, l i ke t ha t o f d aggers, c ou ld h ave o ccurred i ndependent ly o f I ran. M . N . P ogrebova ' s work d oes n o t p roduce n ew f acts i n s upport o f c lose l i nks b etween Lur istan a nd t he Transcaucasus i n t he I ron Age I p er iod wh ich c ou ld r efute t he t hes is a bout t he r ad ia l s pread o f d aggers a nd t he ir s ubsequent i so lated d eve lopment. The quest ion o f Caucas ian-Lur istan c ontacts i n t he I ron Age I p er iod r ema ins o pen i n t he meant ime unt i l b etter p roof i s p roduced. 7 9

Thus, I ran ian f lange-h i l ted d aggers a re l i nked by t he ir o r ig in w ith t he L evant. However, g iven t he b as ic g enera l p r inc ip le o f t he a rrangement o f t he h i lt, i n v ar ious p arts o f West A s ia , d aggers d eve loped i nto i ndependent t ypes w ith a d ef in ite s et o f f ea tures wh ich, i nd iv idua l ly c ou ld b e e ncountered o ver a w ider a rea. The L ur istan a nd t he Casp ian d aggers a re l oca l v ar iants o f t he West As ian f l anged d aggers. The t ime t hey e x isted i n I ran was t he I ron Age I p er iod. The c ommon f eatures o f t hese a nd o ther d aggers a re t he r esu lt o f t he ir c ommon o r ig in. The d ifferences a re t he c onsequence o f t he ir s ubsequent d eve lopment. The s pread o f d aggers ( or o n ly t he c ustom o f h i lt a rrangement) f rom t he S yro-Pa lestin ian r eg ion was r ad ia l w i thout a ny s ubsequent mutua l i nf luee nce o r i nher i tance. The l inks b etween t he Caucasus a nd Lur istan i n t he I ron Age I a ccord ing t o t he d ata o f t he ma ter ia l r esearched i s f a ir ly p rob lema t ica l. These l inks b ecame more d ef in i te i n t he f o l low ing p er iod . The d istr ibut ion o f f langed d aggers i n I ran, p redom inant ly i nto i t s wes tern a reas, d eterm ines t he western d irect ion o f c u ltura l l inks. Apart f rom t he d escr ibed d aggers o f t he I ron Age Ic omp lexes, t here a re a lso t anged d aggers. Type I X ( F ig . 1 2/1-7). Tanged d aggers c as t i n o ne p iece. The b lades a re n arrow w i th g radua l ly t aper ing e dges. The s hou lders a re s tra ight, a t a n a ng le, s omet imes r ounded. The t angs a re n arrow w i th o ne r ivet, i n o ne c ase w i th 2 ( Giyan). The b lade i s l ens-shaped i n c rosss ect ion; r ibb ing i s r are ( Giyan, Ta l ish). The l ength i s 1 8-24 cm. Sma l l d aggers 1 6 c m i n l eng th a re u sua l ly c a l led kn ives, a l though t he l a tter a re a s ing le-edged i nstrument. S ome d aggers f rom G iyan r each 3 0 c m i n l eng th. They h ave b een f ound i n Azarbai jan ( D inkha-Tepe), i n Lur istan ( Giyan, Bard ii Ba l, Guran) a nd i n t he s outhern Casp ian ( Ta l ish, Mar l ik a nd Khurv in). Type I Xa . The d ist ingu ish ing f ea ture o f t hese d aggers i s t he p resence o f 2o pen ings f or r ivets o n t he s hou lders a nd o ne o n t he s hort t ang . The d agger f rom Agha-Ev lar h as a w ider upper p ar t o f t he b lade w i th r ounded s hou lders a nd a s eparate e dge; t he l a tter i s a lso c haract er ist ic o f a nother Ta l ish d agger f rom M istan. The d imens ions a re 4 4.3 cm ( Agha-Ev lar) a nd 2 0.4 cm ( M istan) ( F ig . 1 2/8). The d a t ing o f t he Type I X d aggers i s d eterm ined by t he mater ia l f rom c omp lexes. Th is i s t he s imp lest f orm o f d aggers; i t was w idespread i n t ime a nd g eograph ica l ly. I n I ran t hey were known a s e ar ly a s i n t he 4 th-3rd m i l lenn ia B .C. s i tes ( H issar I c, S ia lk I I-IV). I n Western As ia t hey a ppeared i n t he 3 rd m i l lenn ium B .C. Researchers b e l ieve t ha t t hey s pread f rom I ran a long r iver v a l leys i n t he J emdet Nasr p er iod o r e ar l ier ( b ib. n o . 1 45 p . 3 ). I n Ana to l ia t h is t ype a ppeared i n t he Troy Ip er iod. I n t he 3 rd m i l lenn ium B .C. t h is t ype o f d agger was f ound o ver a n e normous t err i tory. I t i s t hought t ha t t h is i s t he r esu lt no t o n ly o f l i nks b etween meta l lurg ica l c entres a nd t he m igra t ion o f s m iths ( b ib. n o. 1 54 p . 4 ) but a lso t he s imp l ic i ty o f t he f orm i t se lf . I n I ran t hese d aggers e x isted t hroughout t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C. a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he i st m i l lenn ium B .C. Then t hey c ont inued t o b e made, but o ut o f i ron. Daggers w i th h o les f or r ivets o n t he s hou lders a nd t he t ang w ere w idespread i n Western As ia a nd t he Aegean wor ld i n t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C. The ir o r ig in i s l i nked w i th S umer o f t he 3 rd m i l lenn ium B .C. ( b ib. n o. 1 45 p . 8 ). The a ppearance o f s uch d aggers i n Ta l ish o nce a ga in emphas ises t he l ink b etween t h is r eg ion a nd Wes tern As ia .

8 0

2 .

Axes

I n t he I ron Age I p er iod a xes w ere w idespread i n Lur istan a nd i n t he s outhern Casp ian a rea , i n G i lan. They i nc lude 2 t ypes o f s p ike-butted a xes a nd o ne t ype o f c omb ina t ion weapon-too l: t he a dze-axe ( F ig . 1 3). Type I Axes w i th a r e la t ive ly l ong s haf t t ube . They h ave a l ong b lade c urv ing d ownwards, wh ich i s n arrow a t t he s haf t a nd t aper ing o ut t owards t he e dge. The c utt ing e dge i s s tra ight o r s l igh t ly c onvex. The u pper e dge o f t he b lade i s o n al i ne w i th t he s haf t h o le o r p ro jects b eyond i t . The l ower e dge i s s moo th ly o r s harp ly c urved. A c haracter ist ic f ea ture o f t hese a xes a re t he f our s p ikes o n t he butt, wh ich a re r hombo ida l o r t aper ing i n f orm. U sua l ly t hey a re i n p ara l le l a nd j o ined w i th a b r idgep iece. On und iscovered e xamp les t he s p ikes r ad ia te f rom t he butt. On t he l a tter t he s p ikes c ontinue i n t he f orm o f r ibs. Most o f t he a xes a re d ecorated : t he s p ikes a re i n t he f orm o f z oomorph ic o r a nthropomorph ic h eads. The b lade i s made t o l ook a s i f i t c omes o ut o f t he maw o f a n a n ima l a nd t he b lade i t se lf i s e ngraved w i th o rnamentat ion o r a n i nscr ipt ion. S even e xamp les h ave b een f ound i n t he g raves o f Western L ur istan ( Bard i Ba l, Kuta li Gu lgu l), J . Deshayes ' c a ta logue l i sts 5 3 e xamp les f or Lur istan. The l eng th o f t he a xes i s w ith in 1 7 t o 2 2 cm ( bib. n o . 2 06; 2 09 ; 8 2). Th is f orm o f a xe i s unknown o uts ide Lur istan, e xcept f or t he a xe f rom T choga Z anb i l ( Kuz istan), but t he f orm o f t he b lade i n t ha t o ne i s n ot a s e xaggera ted ( b ib. n o . 1 05 Tab le XXXVI/248). Two i nscr ibed a xes f rom t he F orough i c o l lect ion w i th t he n ame o f k ing Nebuchadnezzar o f t he 2 nd d ynasty o f I s in ( 1126-1105 B .C.) a nd t he n ame o f t he E lam i te k ing S h i lkhak-Inshush inak ( 1150-1120 B .C.), a nd t he n ame o f t he Anshan r u ler Untash Ga la o n a n a xe f rom T choga Z anb i l ( c. 1 250 B .C.), a nd a lso t he d iscovery o f t hese a xes i n I ron Age I c o —m p lexes i n Lur istan t ogether w i th L ur istan t ype d aggers a re t he b as is f or t he d a te o f t hese a xes. A l l t h is d eterm ines t he d a te a s t he 1 2th1 0 th c entur ies B .C. f or Lur istan a nd t he 1 3 th c entury B .C. f or Khuz istan. Moorey s uggests a S yro-Pa lest in ian o r ig in f or a xes o f t h is t ype o n t he b as is o f f inds i n Beth-Shan a nd Ras S hamra, where t hey a re d a ted t o t he 1 5th a nd 1 4th c entur ies B .C. The o r ig in o f a xes i n t h is a rea i s i n t urn l inked w ith E lam a nd Mesopotam ia o f t he 3 rd m i l lenn ium B .C., where t he p icks h ave 3 -4 s p ikes o n t he butt ( bib. n o. 1 55 p p. 4 9-51 F ig . 1 0/33-34). The g enera l s hape o f t hese a xes i s un l ike t hose o f Lur istan, a l though a l l t he e lements a re p resent. I n Moorey 's o p in ion, t h is f orm was i mpor ted f rom Syr ia t hrough E lam. The l i nks b etween S yr ia, s outhern Mesopo tam ia a nd t he Z agros, wh ich a lways e x isted a long t he Euphra tes, were i ntens if i ed a f ter t he d ownfa l l o f t he M idd le Assyr ian e mp ire under T igathp i leser I( 1115-1077 B .C.) ( b ib. n o. 1 55, p . 5 0). On c om ing i nto Lur istan, t he s pike-butted a xes c hange a g reat d ea l. The f orm o f t he a xes b ecomes p retent ious a nd o f ten i mposs ib le f or p ract ica l u se ( the c utt ing e dge i s d ropped d own t o s uch a n e xtent t ha t i t i s i mposs ib le t o c hop w i th i t ). There a re f ew d a ta o n t h is t ype l ast ing i nto t he b eg inn ing o f t he i s t m i l lenn ium B .C. I n Assyr ia, s p ike-butted a xes a re d ep icted o n s ma l l b one p la tes f rom t he 9 th-8 th c entur ies B .C. ( b ib. n o . 1 55 p . 5 1). J . Deshayes d a tes a n a xe w i th s p ikes i n t he f orm o f human h eads w ear ing t a l l h ats t o t he b eg inn ing o f t he i st m i l lenn ium B .C. o n t he b as is t ha t t hese h ats a re " Med ian" ( b ib. n o. 8 2 p . 4 41).

8 1

Type I Axes w i th a n arrow, l ong t r iangu lar b lade p ara l le l w i th t he butt. The b ase o f t he b lade i s a lmost s tra ight; t he c utt ing e dge t apers f rom t he c entre t o t he e dges. The butt, a t t he c entre o f t he b lade b ase, h as 5 t o 8 -9 r ibs wh ich a re c ont inued i n t he f orm o f s p ikes. A t o ne e nd o f t he c utt ing e dge t here i s ah o le o r n otch ( loop). The l eng th o f t he c utt ing e dge i s u p t o 3 5 cm. F our a xes a re known: o ne f rom Mar l ik, a no ther f rom t he Khurv in c o l lect ion o f Ma lek i a nd 2 f rom t he c o l lect ion i n t he Ashmo lean Museum. On ly t he Mar l ik a xe, f ound i n ac omp lex t ogether w i th Type V a nd Va s words ( Grave XVIIB) c an s erve a s ab as is f or d a t ing t hem ( b ib. n o . 1 65 n o. 1 25 ; 2 05 Tab le XXXVI/247 ; 1 55 F ig . 9 /25, 1 0/26). Th is t ype i s unknown o uts ide t he s outhern C asp ian a rea a nd c an t heref ore b e c ons idered l oca l. On ly t he s p ikes o n t he butt c an p o int t o a w eak g ener ic l i nk w i th, o r i nf luence by, t he S yro-Pa lest in ian a xes. The i nf luence o f L ur istan c an e v ident ly b e e xc luded s ince t here i s n o i nstance o f mutua l p enetra t ion o f t ypes. Rather, a s i n t he c ase o f t he d aggers, t he w es tern i nf luence was i ndependent, a nd l ed t o t he c rea t ion o f t h is o r ig ina l f orm. Th is t ype h as a s trange c utt ing e dge. I t i s n e i ther s tra ight n or c onvex but h as s tra ight e dges t aper ing away f rom t he c entre. Cons equent ly, t he mean f orce wou ld h ave b een o n ly o n i t s c entra l p art. Ev id en t ly t hese a xes, l ike t hose f rom Lur istan, h ad n o p ract ica l a pp l icat ion. Type I I An a dze-axe w i th a p ro ject ing butt. The b lade o f t he a dze a nd t he upper e dge o f t he a xe-b lade a re i n l ine. The s l ight ly c onvex c utt ing e dge o f t he a xe d rops d own a l i tt le. The l ower e dge o f t he b lade i s s tra ight. The c utt ing e dge o f t he a dze i s c onvex. There i s o n ly o ne e xamp le f rom Mar l ik a nd a c hance f ind f rom Am lash ( bib. n o. 1 65 n o. 1 24 ; 8 2 Nos. 4 054-4057). Moorey c ons iders t he Mar l ik a xe t o b e t he b as is f or d at ing t he l a tter ( b ib. n o . 1 55 p . 6 4). J . Deshayes b e l ieves t hat t his f orm i s d escended f rom t he b eg inn ing o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C. ( bib. n o. 8 2 pp. 4 45-446). J udg ing by t he d a ta o f J . Deshayes, a dze-axes w i th a p ro ject ing butt a re unknown i n t he E ast a nd s hou ld b e r egarded a s as pec if ic f orm o f I ran ian o r ig in. The e ar l iest o f t hem b e long t o t he t ime o f H issar I I B -C. Apart f rom H issar, t hey h ave b een f ound i n t he Astrabad t reasure a nd i n S hah-Tepe ( min ia ture c op ies). To t he e ast o f I ran t h .ey h ave b een f ound i n Mohen jo Daro ( turn o f t he 3 rd-2nd m i l lenn ia B .C.), i n t he n or thw est p art o f t he Kapet Dag ( au l Dayna), a nd i n t he C entra l Kyzy lkum ( Lyav lyakan). E . E . Kuzm iha c ons iders t hese a xes t o b e a n i mport f rom I ran, wh ich was t he c entre o f t he ir p roduct ion a t t he t urn o f t he 3 rd a nd 2 nd m i l lenn ia B .C. ( b ib. n o. 1 6 p . 1 4; 5 pp. 1 26-131 D iag . 5 ). I n I ron Age I i n I ran t hese a xes w ere f ound i n t he G i lan r eg ion, h av ing t hus moved f rom t he e ast, f rom Gurgan, t o t he w est. One a xe f rom Assyr ia i n t he t ime o f S ha lmaneser I ( 1031-1020 B .C.) b e longs t o t h is t ime ( b ib. n o . 8 2 n os. 1 005-1006, Tab le 2 227). I n t he I ron Age I p er iod ( or t he b eg inn ing o f I ron Age I I) t hey were known i n S ia lk B , a nd i n I ron Age I I i n Lur istan ( War Kabud).

8 2

I t i s c ur ious t hat a dze-axes w ithout a p ro ject ing butt, wh ich w ere s pread o ver a w ider t err i tory, i n t he Danube a rea, t he Aegean wor ld a nd Centra l As ia, h ave n ot y et b een f ound i n I ran. Thus, t he t rad it ion o f s p ike-butted a xes c omes f rom t he S yro-Pa lest in ian r eg ion, wh ich i s e v idence o f t he w es tern o r ientat ion o f c u ltura l t rad i t ions. The ir d eve lopment i n I ran was i n a l l p robabi l i ty c onf ined t o L ur is tan a nd G i lan, wh ich c onf irms, a s i n t he c ase o f d aggers, t he i dea o f t he r ad ia l s pread o f e xamp les o r i deas o f meta l a rtefacts f rom o ne c entre. Adze-axes a re a s pec if ic I ran ian f orm. The movement o f t h is f orm a t t he t urn o f t he 3 rd a nd 2 nd m i l lenn ia B .C. f rom Gurgan e v ident ly went e astwards ( Centra l As ia a nd I nd ia), westwards a t t he e nd o f t he s econd m i ll enn ium B .C. ( Gi lan a nd Assyr ia) a nd s outhwards l ater ( Lur istan a nd S ia lk ) . 3 .

Arrowheads

A l l I ron Age I a rrowheads a re b ronze, t anged a nd d oub le-edged. Not many o f t hem a re known; o n ly s o l i tary e xamp les a re f ound i n g raves. They c ome f rom b oth d ated c omp lexes a nd f rom c o l lect ions wh ich d o n ot h ave p recise d a tes. Therefore t he c lass if ica t ion o f a rrows w i l l b e b ased o n ly o n r e lat ive ly i nd isputab le c omp lexes o f t he I ron Age I p er iod, n ame ly : S ia lk A , c emeter ies o f Western Lur istan, B i t S orgh S pr ing , Khurv in a nd s ome Ta l ish c omp lexes a nd T choga Z anb i l . The a rrowheads f rom Mar l ik, t he Ma lek i c o l lect ion f rom Khurv in, Tangi Hamam lan a nd a number o f o ther s i tes c an b e d ated n ot o n ly t o t he I ron Age Ibut a lso I ron Age I ; t hey a re n ot i nc luded i n t he c lass if ica t ion but w i l l b e d iscussed b e low. The f orm o f t he b lade i s t he b as is o f ac lass if ica t ion ( F ig . 1 4 , I ran). Type I Arrowheads w ith a t aper ing f orm o f b lade, a t t he ir w idest i n t he l ower p art; a n e xcept ion i s a n a rrowhead f rom T choga Z anb i l, where t he w idest p art i s i n t he m idd le o f t he b lade ( b ib. n o . 1 05 Tab le XCIII/207 ). The r ib v e in g oes t hrough t he who le b lade. F ive a rrowheads c ome f rom T choga Z anbi l ( bib. n o. 1 05 Tab le XCIII/ 2 04-207, 2 10). One e ach f rom Khurv in ( b ib. n o . 2 05 p . 6 ), S hurabah ( b ib. n o. 2 08 d iagram 1 1/39), a nd Bard i Ba l ( bib. n o. 2 09 5 /7). The a rrowheads d iffer i n s ize. The Lur istan o nes a re b igger ( 13 cm w i th a b lade o f 8 cm) a nd t he Khuz istan o nes a re s ma l ler ( the b lade i s f rom 3 .2 t o 4 .4 cm). Type I Arrow-heads w i th a t r iangu lar f orm o f b lade; s ub-types .

t hey i nc lude s evera l

Ia. The b lade h as s tra ight e dges wh ich j o in t he t ang a t a n o btuse a ng le ( lancet s haped). The t ang i s s moo th o r b e low t he j unct ion o f t he b lade a nd t ang t here i s as harp d ecrease i n t he t h ickness o f t he t ang : S ia lk A-9 e xamp les ( b ib. n o . 1 00 Tab le XXXIX, XL III), Bard i Ba l--2 e xamp les ( b ib. n o . 2 09 F ig . 1 1/46, 4 7 ), T choga Z anb i l--3 e xamp les ( b ib. n o . 1 05 Tab le XCI1 I/208 ,209 ,211), Kuta li Gu lgu l--5 e xamp les ( b ib. n o . 2 02 Tab le XXII/2). W ith a r est: B it S orgh S pr ing--2 e xamp les ( b ib. n o . 8 6 F ig . 1 /1,2), Bard i Ba l ( Grave 64 ) -2 e xamp les ( b ib. n o . 2 09 p . 2 9 F ig . 1 5/6 7 ) , Nam in ( Ta l ish)--1 e xamp le ( b ib. n o . 1 58 F ig . 2 03/2). H I D. The b lade h as s tra ight o r s l ight ly c onvex e dges wh ich j o in t he t ang a t ar ight a ng le: V er i ( Ta l ish)--2 e xamp les ( bib. n o . 1 58 F ig . 2 02/ 1 2 ,13), Agha-Ev lar -1 e xamp le ( 157 F ig . 6 09 ), Bard i Ba l ( Grave 67 1e xamp le ( bib. n o . 2 09 F ig. 1 7 /8), Kuta li Gu lgu l -2 e xamp les ( b ib. n o . 2 02 Tab le XXII/2). 8 3

Ic. A n arrow b lade w ith s harp b arbs: B i t S orgh S pr ing -1 e xamp le ( bib. n o . 8 6 F ig . 1 /3), Kuta li Gu lgu l--2 e xamp les ( bib. n o . 2 02 Tab le XV II/2), Agha-Ev lar--1 e xamp le ( b ib. n o . 1 57 F ig . 6 11), Ghey taryeh-2e xamp les ( bib. n o. 2 5 d iagram 2 ). Type I I Arrowheads w i th a n arrow l eafl ike b lade a nd r est: Agha-Ev lar-2e xamp les ( bib. n o . 1 57 F ig . 6 10, 6 17), Bard i Ba l ( Grave 6 7)--1 e xamp le ( bib. n o . 2 09 F ig . 1 7/7). Type I V Arrowheads w i th l ong b arbs, i nc lud ing " w inged" o nes. The f orm o ft he b lade i s a cute-ang led: . Agha-Ev lar--1 e xamp le ( bib. n o . 1 57 F ig . 6 21), Nam in--1 e xamp le ( bib. n o. 1 58 F ig . 2 03), Ver i--1 e xamp le ( bib. n o . 1 58 F ig . 2 02/11), Gheytaryeh--1 e xamp le ( bib. n o. 2 5 d iagram 2 ), Kuta li Gu lgu l--1 e xamp le ( bib. n o . 2 02 Tab le XXII/2). I n B i t S orgh S pr ing a " w inged" a rrowhead h as b een c a l led a s pearhead, b ut d imens ions a re n o t i nd ica ted ( bib. n o. 8 6 F ig . 1 /6). Type V L eaf-type a rrowheads w ith a s harp ly t aper ing b lade. The w idest p art o f t he b lade i s i n t he m idd le n earer t o t he t ip . A s i t n arrows, t he b lade t urns i nto a mass ive 4 -s ided r est wh ich i n i t s t urn b ecomes a s lender t ang . A long t he who le l ength o f t he b lade, t here i s ar ib w ith c une iform i nscr ipt ions o f t he n ames o f Baby lon ian r u lers o f t he t enth c entury B .C. A l l t he a rrowheads c ome f rom t he L ur istan c o l lect ion o f F orough i, wh ich c on ta ins 3 2 e xamp les, o f wh ich n o l ess t han 1 2 h ave i nscr ipt ions ( bib. n o . 9 7 Tab les XXV I-XXIX). F rom Ta l ish ( Ver i) t here a re f ive f la t h eads t r iangu lar i n o ut l ine w i th af l at t ang . The ir d a te i s n ot c lear, p oss ib ly e ar l ier t han I ron Age I ( b ib. n o . 1 58 F ig . 2 02/6-10). The s ame t ypes o f a rrowheads c ont inued t o 1 3 . u sed i n t he I ron Age I p er iod: S ia lk B ( types I , Ia), G iyan ( types I , I I), Darvand ( types I I, V ). Comp lexes w ith a n I ron Age I -II d ate r evea l t he s ame t ypes: Mar l ik ( I Ia , l ie, I V), Tangi Hamam lan ( I, Ia, J Ib, I lc, . f lat h eads), Khurv in, t he Ma lek i c o l lect ion ( I , Ia , l ie, I I). The d ist inct ive t h ing a bout I ron Age I i s t ha t i ron a rrowheads were i ntroduced. They most ly r epea t t ypes I a nd Ia . The t ype Ia b lade i n a number o f i nstances b ecomes a c lear r hombo id f orm ( S ia lk B , War Kabud, Haf tavan Tepe). I n S ia lk B b o th b ronze ( type Ia) a nd i ron a rrowheads h ave b een f ound i n s ome g raves ( Graves 3 , 1 5). A t Hasan lu I V i ron l eaf-type a rrowheads p redom ina te ( af ter Type I ), but, a s R . Dyson r emarks, t hey d o n o t b reak t he l i ne o f d eve lopment o f a rrowheads ( b ib. n o . 8 6 p . 4 3). On ly i ron a rrowheads a re known i n Lur istan o f t he I ron Age I I p er iod: S ha lah S hun i ( I ,III), Ta ttu lban I ( I,IIa), War Kabud(I,IIa). F rom a l l o f t h is i t c an b e c onc luded t ha t b ronze a rrowheads o f t he I ron Age I -II p er iods -a re n o t f undamenta l ly d ifferent f rom o ne a nother a nd t hat, b eg inn ing i n I ron Age I , t hey a re s upp lanted by i ron o nes. Moorey b e l ieves t hat t he a rrowheads o f b oth p er iods a re n ot d ifferent ia ted t err i tor ia l ly e i ther . On t he who le t h is i s c orrec t but i t s hou ld b e n oted t ha t a rrow h eads w i th a d roop ing b arb a nd " w ings" p redom ina te i n t he n orthern a reas (Ta l ish, Khurv in a nd Mar l ik). And Type Ia i s d istr ibuted e ven ly i n a l l a reas.

8 4

Socket arrowheads are unknown for these two periods. Arrowheads were unknown in Iran for the preceding period, which makes it harder to solve the question of their origin. Only two arrowheads from Hissar IIIC are known; they are double-edged, tanged with the blade in the form of a rhomboid in one case, and like Type Ila in the other. But this form is so simple that to consider the Hissar arrowheads prototypes of the Iron Age I arrowheads is hardly reasonable. The arrowheads from Grave 11 in Guran should be dated to the second mil­ lennium B. C . period, in terms of blade form where they are close to types Ila and IIb, but in terms of dimensions they are more likely to be spearheads. Let us turn to the materials of Western Asia where metal arrowheads were known as early as the first centuries of the second millennium B.C. (Fig. 14). There are not many finds. In Palestine bronze arrowheads appeared in the Middle Bronze Age (MBII) and existed throughout the second millennium B.C. , being replaced by iron ones at the turn of the second-first millennia B.C. On the basis of the stratigraphy of the Megiddo settlement it is possible to trace their development throughout the second millennium B.C. (bib. no. 127 Tab le 174-1 76 ). Throughout this time arrowheads were only tanged and double-edged. In Level X ( 1650-1550 B.C.) there appears a rib on the blade of the arrowheads to reinforce the striking power of the arrow. The earliest arrowheads (Level XII 1750-1 700 B.C.) had a leaf-type blade (elliptical), which was also retained later. In levels X and IX ( 1550-1479 B.C.) examples of the acute-angled form of blade were already known. In Level VII (not later than 1200 B.C.) they become a clearly defined triangular form. On some arrowheads the lower. end of the edges is developed, but arrow­ heads with drooping barbs do not appear. The line of development of arrowheads traced in Megiddo is supple­ mented by finds at other sites in Palestine. In the large group of tanged arrowheads in Grave 419 of Tell Adjjul (Gaza), apart from the predominant leaf-type form of blade, there is also the rhorribofd form. Some of them have a stem where the blade joins the tang (bib. no. 79 Table III). Both forms of blade are characteristic of level VIII in Megiddo, but the latter do not have a stem and therefore the arrowheads from grave 419 are prob­ ably later than Level VIII and slightly earlier than or contemporary with Level VII (earlier because there are no arrowheads with a triangular blade, present in Level VII, but then they are rare in this region). Close in form and time are the arrowheads from the graves of the Late Bronze Age (LB) Duweir II-III (1450-1350, 1350-1200 B.C.) (bib. no. 199 p. 79 Table 25). The dating of the graves with arrowheads is based on independent material (ornamentation, scarabs with the names of Pharaohs, and pottery). The form of the blade is leaf-type and rhomboid with and without a stem. Similar arrows come from the Amman temple (1400-13 00 B.C.) (bib. no. 119 Table XXXV B). • The latest in this line of development are the arrowheads found in the El Khadr hoard. They attest to a number of technical improvements: they have a heavy, thickened point which is rhomboid in cross-section, and a massive stem. These arrowheads date from about 1100 B.C. according to the inscriptions on the spearheads from the same hoard. Th� forms of these spearheads are almost analogous with those of the • Level VIII in Megiddo has two dates: 1479-1350 and 1350-1200 B. C., the latter being for the two levels of VIII-VII (bib. no. 141 p. 5; 199, p. 6 7). On the basis of a comparison of arrow complexes from Adjjul, Duweir, Levels VIII-VII of Megiddo and Amman, it seems that level VIII should indeed be given a later date but not as late as 1200 B.C. It does not have arrowheads of such developed form as those in Du weir and Adjjul. A provisional date for Level VIII can be suggested within 1400-1300 B.C., which is contemporary with Amman with its analogous arrowheads.

arrowheads, differing only by being larger (bib. no. 79 diagram 2). Both bear a striking similarity to the arrowheads ( Type V) in the Foroughi collection, even up to the identical location of the engraved inscriptions on the rim of the arrowhead. Similar ones are found in Palestine and in Syria (bib. no. 79 p. 19, 22-23). Similar arrowheads come from the Nuzi II houses (Iraq), which are dated to the end of the 15th and beginning of the 14th centuries B. C. (bib. 1:0. 18� p. 473). • An exception to this vast region is Hama (Syria); where m Period I ( 1200-1075 B.C.) arrowheads are known which have dropped barbs and also a triangular blade joining the tang at right angles (bib. no. 177 pp. 122-123). This exception should evidently be explained by its proximity to Anatolia, where this form was more common. Iron arrowheads were known in this region in the 1 lth-9th centuries B.C. (bib. no. 141 Table 176; 177 pp. 122-123). In Anatolia arrowheads have sometimes appeared dating from the third millennium B.C. (Tarsus), but they became widespread beginning with the Bronze Age ( 17th century B.C.). Right from the start they were only tanged double-edged ones. Beginning with the LBII ( 14501100 B.C. ) the characteristic form becomes the triangular form of blade with dropped barbs (bib. no. 112 p. 283). This picture, which is re­ presented by the Tarsus material, is confirmed by data, few though they are, from other sites in Anatolia: Bogazkoy III (1265-1200 B.C.), Kusura, Beycesultan (c. 1340-1250 B.C.) and Alaca Hiiyilk (bib. no. 182 Fig. 183/ 27, 35 (for dating of the Level see: 151 p. 66); 132 p. 41 Fig. 19/2-4; 139 Fig. 21/10-11 (for dating of the Level see: 151 p. 55) 1�8 Table LXXXV). The arrowheads from Alaca Hilyuk date from the entire Hittite period, although analogous with them are examples found mainly in Tarsus of the LBII period. Two socket arrowheads of asymmetrical-rhomboid form with a spike on the butt have been discovered on the same level as tanged bronze arrow­ heads in Tarsus in the Early Iron Age level (c. 1100-850 B.C.) (bib. no. 113 Table 174/10-11). Such arrowheads are known in the Black Sea area, where they are dated to the end of the 8th and first half of the 7th centuries B. C. (bib. no. 13 p. 105; 45 pp. 45-46). Such an early ap­ .pearance of them in this level is amazing and therefore demands that further attention be paid to their discovery in the levels. The catalogue of finds does not describe where precisely and under what conditions they were found (in other instances it is indicated in the hearth, under a wall, etc.) All that is indicated is that they were found at markers 15.40 and 15.20:-15.30 (bib. no. 113 p. 35, 373). The levels of the floors of structural remains of the period are at markers 16. 40 to 15. 25. This alone shows that if the arrowheads were indeed connected with this build­ ing period, then it was with its very end. Finds of arrowheads which are similar in form belong to the next period, the Middle Iron Age (c. 850-700 B. C.). The floors of the building horizons of this level begin from mark 15.20, i.e. they partially coincide with the upper level of the preceding period. This is explained by the very poor preservation of the lower level. Since there is no indication of these arrowheads being covered over by a :"wall, floor or hearth, it cannot be ruled out that they got there from the upper level. In any case, they can hardly be dated much earlier than the Middle Iron Age. Greater accuracy about the date of their appearance is connected with the dating of such arrowheads in the Black Sea region. In the middle of the 9th century B.C. iron arrowheads appeared at Tarsus (bib. no.· 113 p. 365 ). * A more precise dating of Level II has been kindly reported to the author by Dr. N . B . Y ankovskaya. 86

I n c onc lud ing t he b r ief s urvey o f t he a rrowheads o f I ran, Western A s ia a nd As ia M inor , t he ma in t h ing t hat c haracter ises t h is t ype o f w eapon must b e s tressed . I n t h is a rea t here was o n ly t he t anged f orm o f f i tt ing t he a rrowhead t o t he s haf t. S ocket s pears a re known i n t h is a rea . And a l though i t i s c ustomar i ly a ccepted t ha t t hey u sua l ly i nf luenced t he f orm o f t he f i tt ing o n a rrowheads, t hat d id n ot t ake p lace h ere .* The e vo lut i on o f a rrowheads was s lugg ish i n t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. C ross a nd M i l ik were r ight when t hey s a id t ha t t he f orm o f t he b lade, b e ing v ery s imp le, i s n o t ac r i ter ion f or c hrono log ica l d ifferences ( bib. n o. 7 9 p . 1 6). On ly t owards t he e nd o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. w ere t echn ica l i mprovemen ts n oted. Am o rph ic f orms o f b lade were p art ly i f n o t c omp lete ly r ep laced by i mproved o nes ( E l Khadr, Hama a nd t he s i tes i n Ana to l ia). But a lready a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he f i rst m i l lenn ium B .C. b ronze a rrowheads w ere r ep laced by i ron o nes, wh ich a s ar u le c op ied more o r l ess s imp le f orms o f b ronze o nes . Th is i s p art icu lar ly e v ident i n I ran, S yr ia a nd P a lest ine. The Tarsus ma ter ia ls s uggest t hat t he p icture was more c omp lex i n Anato l ia . Bronze was n ot s upp lanted by i ron t here. ' r anged a rrowh eads i n b oth v ar iants c oex isted unt i l t he s ixth c entury B .C.; moreover t he s ocket " pre-Scyth ian" a rrowheads a ppeared t here e ar ly. The f undamenta l d ifferences b etween t he a nc ient e astern t rad i t ion, w i th i t s p redom inant ly t anged f orm o f f i tt ing, a nd t he t rad it ion o f t he s teppes o f Euras ia , w here t he d om inant f orm —and t he o n ly o ne i n t he B lack S ea a nd Vo lga a reas —was t he s ocket f i tt ing , a re p erfect ly o bv ious. S ocket a rrowheads b egan a ppear ing a t a bout t he m idd le o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. among t he Andronovo t r ibes ( b ib. n o . 1 , p . 3 8 Tab le 2 ). I n t he e astern p art o f t he Euras ian s teppes t he t anged f orm o f f i tt ing a ppeared a t t he s ame t ime a s t he s ocket f i tt ing, but i n t he s econd m i ll enn ium B .C. t he f ormer was n ot numerous ( b ib. n o . 1 , p . 3 8). On ly i n C entra l A s ia a nd Kazakhstan a f ter t he t urn o f t he s econd-f irst m i l lenn ia B .C. d id t anged a rrowheads b ecome t he d eterm in ing f orm o f p re-Scyth ian s et o f a rrow. But i n t he 6 th c entury B .C. t hey w ere s upp lanted by t he S cyth ian s ocket a rrowheads ( bib. n o. 2 6 p p. 7 6-89). A d ist inct ive f ea ture o f Euras ian a rrowheads f rom t he momen t t hey a ppeared was t he we l ld ef ined f orm o f t he b lade, t he s ocket a nd t he f i tt ing, wh ich makes i t p oss ib le t o d ev ise a f a ir ly d eta i led c lass if ica t ion f or a rrowheads a s e ar ly a s t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C. I n Western As ia , a s h as a lready b een ment ioned, t he amorph ic f orm o f t he b lade was a p oor c hrono log ica l c r iter ion. Conseq uent ly, t he f i rst d ifference b etween t he i ndependent ly emerged t rad i t ions a re t he f orms o f t he f i tt ing a nd t he v ary ing d egrees o f a rrowhead d eve lopm ent. The l a tter c an p robab ly b e e xp la ined by t he d ifferent s ign if icance o f t h is t ype o f weapon a nd t he n eed f or i t i n i t s d eve lopment i n t hese r eg ions. I n t he e vent w e h ave more t han e nough e v idence o f t he f undam enta l d ifference b etween t he o rgan isa t ion o f t roops i n t he s ta tes o f t he Anc ient E ast a nd o f t he s teppes. Char io ts w ere o f p r imary s ign if icance i n t he f ormer; t he c ava lry a t b est p layed a n a ux i l iary r o le a nd t he b ow w as by n o means a ma jor weapon. I n t he s teppes, h owever, t he ma in r o le w as p layed by t he c ava lry, a nd t he ma in f orm o f d efens ive weapon was t he b ow. Hence t he d ifferent n eeds t o i mprove t h is t ype o f weapon. The s econd d ifference i s t hat, a t t ha t t ime, wh i le i n Western As ia b ronze a rrowheads b egan t o b e r ep laced a nd, i n s ome c ases, were r ep laced by i ron o nes a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he f i rst m i l lenn ium B .C., i n t he E uras ian s teppes b ronze a rrowheads a ch ieved t he ir max imum d istr ibut ion a nd v ar iety o f f orms .* I t i s p rec ise ly h ere t ha t t h is f orm o f w eapons S ee b e low f or s o l itary f inds o f s ocket a rrowheads i n Western A s ia i n t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. *d i

I ron a rrowheads a ppeared a mong t he S cyth ians a t t he e nd o f t he 7 th c entury B .C. but s upp lanted b ronze o nes n o e ar l ier t han t he 3 rd c entury B .C. I ron a ppeared e ven l ater a mong t he S auroma ts a nd t he M id-As ia t ic n omads.

r eached i t s p eak o f d eve lopment, wh ich d id n ot f a i l t o h ave a n e ffect o n h istor ica l e vents. Under t he i nf luence o f s uch o bv ious e ffect iveness o f t he " Scyth ian" b ronze a rrows, e vo lut ion i s d isturbed . I n Western A s ia a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he f i rst m i l lenn ium B .C., b ronze a rrowheads a ga in c ome i nto u se but t h is t ime " Scyth ian" f orms. Th is c hrono log ica l l ack o f c orrespondence i n t he u se o f b ronze a nd i ron a lso a ttests t o t he i ndependent d eve lopment o f t wo t rad i t ions i n t he Anc ient E ast a nd i n t he s teppes o f Euras ia r ight up t o S cyth ian t ime, when t he i nteract ion b etween t hese t rad it ions b egan t o o ccur .* I t must b e n oted t ha t d esp i te t he w ide d istr ibut ion o f S cyth ian t ypes o f a rrowheads i n Western As ia , t hey d id n o t s upp lan t t he l oca l t rad i t ion . They were n o t a dopted by t he l oca l p opu la t ion but s pread t ogether w i th r epresenta t ives o f t he Euras ian s teppes. S ubstant ia t ing t h is c onc lus ion i s n o t ad irect c oncern o f t h is work; h owever t he quest ion o f t he i ntera ct ion b etween t he t wo t rad i t ions i s s o i mpor tant t ha t i t s eems n ecessary t o d iscuss i t h ere i n g rea ter d eta i l.

The i nteract ion b etween t he t wo t rad it ions b eg ins w ith t he C immer ianS cyth ian p er iod, when " Scy th ian" t ype s ocket a rrowheads s pread o ver Western As ia . The a ppearance o f t he s ocket f orm o f f i tt ing h ere i s c ert a in ly c onnected w ith Euras ian i nf luence. Th is i s p roved f i rst o f a l l b y t he who le a bove-ment ioned t rad i t iona l n a ture o f t he s ocket f i tt ing i n t he n orthern r eg ion, t he quant ita t ive p redom inance a nd t he i mportant r o le wh ich t h is t ype o f weapon p layed, j udg ing by t he r esearched s i tes, i n t he s teppes o f Euras ia . However, t h is c onc lus ion i s c ontrad icted by t he v iew o f a number o f s cho lars who a dm it t he p oss ib i l i ty o f t he o ppos i te —the i nf luence o f W est A s ian, p art icu lar ly P ers ian, weapons o n t he emergence i n S cyth ia o f s ocketed t r i lobe a rrowheads ( b ib. n o . 4 2 p p. 4 4-45; 2 8 p . 1 9 ; 6p . 1 96). L et u s t ry t o b e more p rec ise o n t h is p ropos i t ion o n t he b as is o f t he c hronol og ica l c orre la t ion b etween t he t r i lobe a rrowheads o f b o th r eg ions. The mater ia l c overed by T . S u l im irsk i s hows t hat i n W est A s ia f inds o f t hree-f langed a rrowheads b e long ma in ly t o t he e nd l f t he 7 th c entury * The r evea led i so la ted n a ture a nd i ndependence o f t he d eve lopment o f t he t wo t rad it ions s hows t he i mposs ib i l i ty o f mak ing d irect c omp ar isons b etween t hese r eg ions i n o rder t o e stab l ish t he c hrono logy a nd o r ig ins o f p art icu lar t ypes o f Euras ian a rrowheads i n t he B ronze Age. These c ompar isons a re made o n t he s treng th o f t he p reva lent n o t ions o f t he o r ig ins o f many t ypes o f weapons h av ing b egun i n t he Anc ient E ast. However, t he s ma l l number o f s ocket a rrowheads i n t he Near E ast makes o ne q uest ion t he p oss ib i l i ty o f t he ir h av ing i nf luenced t he Euras ian o nes . E ssent ia l ly o n ly o ne s ocket a rrowhead o f t he f i rst h a lf o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. i s known : f rom Gaza ( southern P a lest ine) ( b ib. n o . 1 82 F ig . 1 25/34). The h eads f rom Ras S hamra a re i n r ea l ity v o t ive s pearheads, a nd t he e xamp le f rom Moch los ( Crete) i s d a ted by H . G . Buchho lz t o 1 400-1200 B .C., who a dm i ts i t s d ependence o n n orth Ba lkan a nd s outhern Russ ian p ro to types ( bib. n o . 1p . 3 7 ). I t i s h ard ly p oss ible t o l i nk t he s o le a rrowhead f rom Gaza w i th t he a ppearance o f s ocket a rrowheads o ver t he v ast t err i tory o f t he Euras ian s teppes . I t i s more l og ica l t o s uggest t ha t t h is was a n a ttempt, o n t he b as is o f s ocke t s pearheads, known i n t he Near E ast, t o c rea te a rrowheads. But t h is e xper iment went n o f ur ther a nd t he t anged f orm o f f i t t ing b ecame t he s o le o ne t hroughout t he a rea . 8 8

B.C. and later. The finds in Gerar date from 930-600 B.C. However, T. Sulimirski, on the basis of the typological similarity between all the discovered arrowheads, believes that they are all contemporary and be­ long to the end of that period, and that they turned up in earlier levels because of rubbish pits (bib. no. 193 p. �97). • In Egypt they date from the 6 th-5th centuries B.C.; in Greece--the beginning of the 5th century B.C. In Iran in the first half of the first millennium B .C. socket trilobe arrowheads have been found at 8 sites: Sialk, Zendan-i Suleiman, Hasanlu, Ziwiyeh, Baba Jan Tepe, Susa and Persepolis. Sialk--two examples: one of leaf form, the other triangular with taper­ ing barbs. They were found on the surface not far from Sialk B cemetery and consequently are not linked with this date. Their probable date is the 4th-3rd centuries B.C. (bib. no. 100 Table VCII/17-18; 96 p. 46) (Fig. 15/9). Baba Jan Tepe-one arrowhead of rhomboid form found in the brick fill under a construction of the 6 th century B.C. (bib. no. 111 p. 158; 108, Fig. 14/23) (Fig. 15/7). Hasanlu-one arrowhead, not published. Found in a mud brick (in)fill of Period IIIB (6 50-6 00 B.C.) (bib. no. 88 p. 207) and consequently dated by the time of destruction, that is, the turn of the 7th-6th centuries B.C. Ziwiyeh--several arrowheads. One, found by R. Dyson, without separate barbs, is leaf or rhomboid in form (corrosion makes it difficult to tell) (bib. no. 83 pp. 36-37). Three arrowheads, published by R. M. Ghirshman, without separate barbs but with spikes on the projecting socket, is dated to Hasanlu IIIB (bib. no. 106 p. 65 Table XXIV /4). Here too were found two double-bladed arrowheads--one of leaf form, the other with blades bevelled at the base (Fig. 15/ 6). Zendan-i Suleiman--two leaf-shaped arrowheads have been published, one of which R. Dyson dates to c. 600 B.C. (bib. no. 88 p. ?07). This arrowhead was found in an infill. The other was discovered on the floor of a house belonging to Period II (710-620/610 B.C.) and the arrow­ head itself, in the author's opinion, is dated to the second quarter of the 7th century B.C. (bib. no. 210 Table 43/7; 164 pp. 775-777, Fig. 77/c) (Fig. 15 /4). The Persian Village at Susa-29 arrowheads were found in three levels (15, 9 and 5 examples respectively). They are all of one type with a leaf-shaped or rhomboid head and a spikeless projecting socket. R. M. Ghirshman dated the levels to the 7th-6th centuries B.C. (not excluding even the end of the 8th), the 6th-5th, the 5th and part of the 4th centuries B.C. (bib. no. 106 pp. 31-32 Table XLIII-XLIV). T. Cuyler Young also kept to these dates. However, D. Stronach recently redated all of the levels: Level I-the end of the 7th-5th, and Levels II and III, after a brief interval, to the middle of the 3rd century B .C. (1?ib. no. 190 p. 240, 244) (Fig. 15/1-3). Amlash (Grave 9)--2 of three arrowheads with a rhomboid blade have been published. The date is not certain (bib. no. 179 p. 190 Fig. 26/g, h) (Fig. 15/5). The rest of the grave inventory, except for five spearheads without a precise date, have not been published. • The report on Western Asian material drawn up by T. Sulimirskiy is still quite comprehensive]. 89

P ersepo l is -about 4 ,000 a rrowheads h ave b een f ound i n t he p a lace t reasury bu i lt i n t he 5 th c entury B .C. O f 3 ,858 b ronze e xamp les r ecorded by E . S chm idt, 3 ,787 h ave a l eaf-shaped a nd r hombo id h ead ( b ib. n o . 1 84 p . 9 9 Tab le I X, 7 6) ( F ig . 1 5/9a, b ). Apar t f rom t he t r i lobate o nes a lr eady ment ioned, t here were 2 2 t r i-b laded a rrowheads w i th s harpened b arbs ( F ig . 1 5/8), 1 2 d oub le-b laded o nes, 4 r are f orm a rrowheads, a nd 3 3 t anged o nes. A l l t he I ran ian t r i loba te a rrowheads a re d a ted n ot e ar l ier t han t he e nd o f t he 7 th c entury B .C. Reference i s o f ten made t o t he e ar ly d a te o f t he t r i loba te a rrowheads f rom Nadi A l i I. H owever, i n d at ing t hem t o t he 8 th c entury B .C., R . M . Gh irshman h ad i n m ind o n ly t ha t L eve l I was l a ter t han S ia lk B ( 10 th-9 th c en tur ies B .C.), a nd h e p o inted o ut t he s outhern Russ ian o r ig in o f t hese a rrowheads. S ince t he d at ing o f S ia lk B v ar ies a ccord ing t o d ifferent a uthors w i th in t he 1 0 th-6th c entur ies B .C., i t i s h ard ly p oss ib le t o c ons ider t he d a te o f Nadi A l l a s und isputed ( bib. n o . 9 8 P . 2 0 ; 9 6 p . 4 6-49 ; f or a l a ter d a te f or Nadi A l l I s ee 2 2 p . 4 6 , 6 0). The e xam ined mater ia l c annot s erve a s j ust if ica t ion f or a n e ar l ier d a te f or t he West A s ian a rrowheads b ecause i n S cyth ia t he t r i loba te a rrowheads b ecame c ommonp lace i n q u iver c o l lect ions a s e ar ly a s t he s econd h a lf o r e nd o f t he 7 th c entury B .C. ( the f i rst c hrono log ica l g roup o f S cyth ian a rrowheads i dent if ied by A . I . Me lyukova) ( bib. n o . 2 8 p p. 1 8-19). I n p re-Scyth ian t ime t hey a re known o n ly i n af ew s i tes. * A ccord ing t o A . I . Me lyukova t he f i rst c hrono log ica l g roup ( to t he m id-6th c entury B .C.) c ommon ly i nc luded n o t o n ly t he t hree-f langed but a lso d oub lee dged a rrowheads w ith a n o va l o r l aure lleaf h ead. Doub le-edged a rrowh eads w ith a r hombo id h ead were more c haracter ist ic o f p re-Scyth ian t ime. I n c omp lexes o f t he s econd h a lf o f t he 7 th-6th c entur ies B .C. t hey a re u sua l ly f ound i n o n ly o ne o r t wo e xamp les. An e xcept ion i s t he Z habo t ino c omp lex, wh ich i s t he l a test f or t he e ponymous s tage. R ecent ly t here h as b een a t endency t o make t he Z habot ino s tage c . 5 0 y ears o lder a nd p ut i t p ar t ly i n t he p re-Scy th ian t ime ( bib. n o . 1 2 5 . 2 2). Conseq uent ly, t he t r i loba te a rrowheads o f t h is p er iod s hou ld a l l t he more b e d a ted e ar l ier t han t he West As ian o nes. A c hange i n t ypes o f a rrowheads t akes p lace i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he 6 th c entury B .C. i n t he B lack S ea a rea. The a rrowheads w i th s harpened b arbs, wh ich a ppear a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 6 th c entury B .C. , s upp lanted t he t wo ma in t ypes o f t he f irst c hrono log ica l g roup w i thout d eve loped b arbs, w i th a l aure lleaf a nd s harpleaf f orm o f b lade ( b ib. n o . 2 8 p . 1 9 , 2 1). A t t he s ame t ime t here i s ac hange i n qu iver c o l lect ions i n C entra l As ia . There t hree-f langed s ocketed a rrowheads o f t he S cyth ian t ype, i nc lud ing t hose w i th s harpened b arbs a nd w i th a p ro ject ing a nd h idden s ocket, b ecame w idespread ( bib. n o . 2 6 pp. 8 8-89). I n Western As ia b ronze a rrowheads o f t he s o-ca l led a rcha ic S cy th ian t ype, b e long ing t o ar e la t ive ly s hort p er iod o f t ime--the 7 th-6th c entur ies B .C.--are e ncoun tered i n ar e la t ive ly c ompact a rea , e xc lud ing Egypt a nd t he Med i terranean . Th is a rea i s c oncentra ted a round r eg ions where t he S cyth ians a nd a lso t he C im rner ians were d irect ly a ct ive. I t i s p rec ise ly Yendzha , Be logradets ( Bu lgar ia), Nosachevsk iy a nd Obryvsk iy kurgans--c. 7 50-650 B .C. ,Kurgan 3 76 a t Konstan t inovka v i l lage ( an i ron a rrowhead)--the f i rst h a lf o f t he 7 th c entury B .C. ( bib. n o. 4 4, p . 1 35 ; 4 5 , p . 4 9) ,

9 0

t he l a tter who may h ave u sed t he d oub le-edged r hombo id a rrowheads. They w ere n o l onger c haracter is tic o f S cyth ian a rrows i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he 7 th a nd t he f irs t h a lf o f t he 6 th c entur ies B .C. One o f T . S u l im irsk i t s c onc lus ions r egard ing t he e ar l iest a ppearance o f C immer ian a rrows i n t he " Phryg ian" l ands i s c onf irmed by t he ir a bsence i n t he e ast, i n I ran ( b ib. 1 94, P . 3 08). I n t h is c onnect ion i t s hou ld b e n oted t ha t B . B . P io trovsky i s r ight a bout t he i dent ica l n a ture o f t he t hree a rrowheads f rom Mouc i-Yer i a nd S hay tan Tag ( Caucasus), t wo o f wh ich a re d oub le-b laded a nd r hombo id i n f orm, a nd o ne b e ing a t hree-f langed , l eaf-shaped h ead, a nd t he t hree wh ich J . Morgan a pparent ly e rroneous ly s a id c ame f rom Ta l ish ( bib. n o. 3 1 p . 2 47 ; 1 59 p . 1 00 F igs . 5 8-60; 1 58 p . 2 91 F ig . 2 84). On t he who le, f ew a rrowheads o f t he 6 th-5 th c entur ies B .C. a re known but t hose t ha t a re h ave b een f ound o ver a w ide a rea, i nc lud ing Greece a nd Egypt. The c hange i n a rrowheads t ypes wh ich t ook p lace i n t he Euras ian s teppes i n t he 6 th c entury B .C. a lso h ad i ts e ffect h ere. Th is i s a ttested by t he t r i loba te s ocketed a rrowheads w i th s harpened b arbs a nd i n Baby lon, A l-M ina ( Leve l I I 4 30-375 B .C.), Carchem ish, T e l l Defeneh ( Tan ish), Memph is a nd a number o f o ther p laces ment ioned by T . S u l imi rsk i . I ran i s a n e xcept ion : a s l a te a s t he 5 th a nd b eg inn ing o f t he 4 th c en tur ies B .C. t r i loba te a rrowheads o f t he Archa ic S cyth ian t ype ( w i thout b arbs) c ont inue t o b e u sed. Th is i s d emonstrated by t he ma ter ia ls o f t he P ers ian V i l lage, where s ing le t ype t r i loba te a rrowheads o f r homb o id a nd l eaf-shaped c onf igura t ion were d iscovered i n t hree l eve ls ( from t he e nd o f t he 7 th t o t he 3 rd c entur ies B .C. i nc lus ive). I n P ersepo l is t hey c ompr ise 3 ,787 o f 3 ,8 58 e xamp les. A p oss ib le e xp lana t ion o f t h is a t f i rst g lance s trange i ncons istency i s g iven b e low. D ep ict ions o f P ers ian a nd Med ian g uards a nd a r istocracy o ccupy a c ons iderab le p ropor t ion o f t he P ersepo l is r e l iefs c reated b etween 5 204 50 B .C. The c loth ing a nd a rms o f t he g uards a re marked ly d ifferent. The M edes a re a lways i n k af tans a nd l ong t rousers, w ith a r ound d omed h a t w ith a ttached r ibbon, a nd l aced s hoes, a s ma l l " Scyth ian" b ow o ver t he l ef t h ip, a n Ak inak o ver t he r ight, a nd a s pear i n o ne h and. S omet imes t he Medes a re p or trayed o n ly w ith a s pear a nd Ak inak . There a re n o qu ivers p or trayed . The P ers ians wear a nutted t iara , f l ow ing c andys, a nd s hoes w ith t hree s traps, a l arge Western-As ian b ow o ver t he l ef t s hou lder a nd a c overed q u iver ( b ib. n o . 4 8 p . 3 1 d iagram 1 /4). A d agger, un l ike t he M ed ian A t inak, was worn i n t he b e lt ( tha t a t a ny r a te was h ow i t was worn by t he P ers ian n ob i l ity s ome t imes p or trayed f ace o n; t h is i s n o t v is ib le o n g uards d ep icted i n p rof i le). S omet imes t he P ers ians h ave o n ly a s pear a nd a s h ie ld, wh ich i s u sua l ly c omb ined w i th p or traya ls o f M edes w i th a s pear a nd Ak inak. The P ers ian g uards o n t he r e l ief f rom t he P a lace o f Dar ius I i n S usa ( c. 4 90 B .C.) a re s im i lar ly a rmed ( bib. n o . 2 18 p . 4 64) . The c lo th ing o f t he n obi l ity d oes n o t d iffer f rom t ha t o f t he g uards e xc ept t hat t he Mede-s a re s omet imes s hown wear ing a l ong t opcoa t w ith empty s leeves o ver t he ir k af tans. The n ob i l i ty i s a rmed o n ly w i th d aggers a nd b ows, t he P ers ian n ob i l i ty, l ike t he Medes, h av ing a S cyth ian a nd n ot Wes t As ian t ype o f b ow. Horsemen a re n ot d ep icted o n t he r e l iefs f rom P ersepo l is a nd S usa . I t i s a cknow ledged t hat t he Medes a dopted t he " Scyth ian" b ow b efore t he P ers ians. The Med ian K ing Cyaxares ( 625-585 B .C.) g ave h is s ons t o t he S cyth ians t o b e t aught i n t he a r t o f a rchery ( Herodotus, I , 7 3). 9 1

I t i s a lso known t ha t Cyaxares was t he f i rst t o d iv ide t he As ian t roops i nto b att le d etachments a ccord ing t o t ypes o f w eapons--spear t hrowers, a rchers, c ava lry ( Herodotus, I , 1 03). " The r eforms wh ich were c arr ied o ut a t t he e nd o f t he 8 th-7 th c entur ies B .C. i n t he A ssyr ian, Uar t ian a nd most c on t inuous ly i n t he Med ian a rm ies were a imed a t i ncreas ing t he c ont ingence o f al i ght ly a rmed c ava lry, p r imar i ly a rchers." ( bib. n o . 4 7 p . 6 4). P ortraya ls o f p re-Achaemen id Med ians a re n o t known. The K izkapan t omb, wh ich u sed t o b e d a ted t o t he 7 th-6th c entur ies B .C. a nd whose r e l iefs w ere c ons idered t o b e t he e ar l iest d ep ict ions o f Med ians a nd t he " Scyth ians" b ow, a re n ow d a ted t o t he 4 th-3rd o r e ven 3 rd-2nd c entur ies B .C. ( b ib. 9 5 p . 3 7; 2 0, p p. 1 121 13). Therefore a t b es t t hese d ep ict ions c an c onf irm t he c ont inu i ty o f c anon ica l mode ls c rea ted by A chaemen id a r t. Apart f rom t he Achaemen id r e l iefs, d ep ict ions o f Med ians a re a lso known o n ar hyton f rom E rebunu ( horseman) a nd a s ea l f rom Arshames ( sa trapy o f Egypt i n 4 28-408 B .C.) ( b ib. n o . 3 , d iagrams 1 -4 ; 1 56 p . 1 49 F ig . 8 ). On t he s ea l t he Med ian i s p ortrayed e xact ly a s o n t he e xamp le f rom P ersepo l is. The P ers ians a t f i rs t d id n ot h ave a c ava lry ( mounted a rchers). Th is p robab ly e xp la ins Herodotus ' r eport o f Cyrus I 's t error o f t he Lyd ian c ava lry i n h is b a tt le w ith t he Lyd ian K ing Croesus i n 5 46 B .C. ( Herodotus I , 8 0), a nd a lso Herodo tus ' d escr ipt ion o f Cyrus I I sb a tt le w ith t he Massagetae i n 5 30 B .C.: " At f i rst...the t wo o ppos ing s ides, f ac ing e ach o ther, s hot a rrows a t e ach o thers f rom a far. Then, h av ing u sed u p t he ir a rrows, t hey e ngaged i n h and-to-hand f ight ing w i th d aggers a nd s pears" ( Herodo tus, I , 2 14). Th is d oes n ot mean t ha t t he P ers ians c ou ld n ot h ave b een mounted a rchers. They were t aught t o r ide a nd s hoo t f rom c h i ldhood ( Herodotus, I , 1 36). Dar ius I ( 521-486 B .C.) r epor ts o f h imse lf i n t he i nscr ipt ion o n t he t omb i n Naqshi Rustam: " I am a g ood b owman b oth o n f oot a nd o n h orseback". But f rom wha t k ind o f b ow d id h e s hoot? The r e l ief o n t h is t omb, c o ins a nd s ea ls s how Dar ius I w ith a b ow o f s egmented f orm ( bib. n o . 1 85 Tab le 1 9 ; 1 76 F ig . 5 1 ; 8 0 Tab le XXI/177 , F ig . 7 ; 4 8 p . 3 1). The c anon ica l p or traya l o f ak ing w i th t he s ame k ind o f b ow i s r epea ted o n wa l l t ombs o f s ubsequen t k ings i n Naqshi Rustam. I t i s p robab le t ha t t he " Scyth ian" b ow was a lready known t o t he P ers ians under Dar ius I ( i t i s d ep icted o n t he r e l iefs a t P ersepo l is but o n ly b orne by t he n ob i l i ty a nd n o t t he g uards). Thus t he p o int i s t ha t o n ly t he Med ians i n t he a rmy w ere a rmed w i th " Scyth ian" b ows a nd t he a rrows w i th t he l ight b ronze S cyth ian-type a rrowh eads n ecessary t o g o w i th t hem. I t i s p rec ise ly t he Med ians, o n ap ar w i th t he Centra l As ian n omads, who f ormed t he n uc leus o f t he P ers ian c ava lry. P ers ians f ormed t he nuc leus o f t he i nfantry ( b ib. n o. 9 p . 2 30). The w eapons c ou ld p robab ly b e m ixed i n ac ampa ign. Descr ibing t he a rmy o f Xerxes ( at t he b eg inn ing o f t he 5 th c entury B .C.), Herodotus makes e ssen t ia l ly n o d ist inct ion b etween t he c loth ing a nd a rms o f t he Med ian a nd P ers ian f oot a rchers a nd mounted a rchers, a l though h e d oes n ote t ha t b oth w ere a rmed w i th Med ian a nd n o t P ers ian w eapons ( Herodotus V II, 6 2). But i n t h is i nstance wha t i s more i mportan t i s t he e v idence o f t he P ers ians t hemse lves, who s tressed t h is " idea l" d ifference o n t he r e l iefs, s ea ls a nd s o o n. Consequent ly, t he numerous t r i loba te a rrowheads f ound i n P ersepo l is a re i n p o int o f f act Med ian. Hav ing a dopted t hem f rom t he S cyth ians i n t he 7 th c entury B .C., t he Med ians c ont inued t o u se t hem i n t he 5 th-4 th c entur ies B .C. w ithout i mprov ing o r c hang ing t hem. I n t he Euras ian s teppes, a s h as a lready b een s a id, b ronze a rrowheads c hanged s ubstant ia l ly a t t h is t ime. 9 2

The s i tua t ion was d ifferent i n t he r est o f Western As ia. Accord ing t o Herodo tus, t he S cyth ians, h av ing c omp leted t he ir r avag ing i nvas ion o f S yr ia a t t he e nd o f t he 7 th c en tury B .C., r eached t he b orders o f Egypt. They were met by P haraoh P samt ik I , who, w i th t he a id o f g if ts, p ersuaded t he S cy th ians n o t t o g o a ny f ur ther i nto Egypt ( Herodo tus I , 1 05). C onsequen t ly, t here were n o S cyth ians i n Egypt. Never the less, e xcavat i ons o f E gypt ian t owns h ave r evea led a l arge number o f " Scyth ian" t ype a rrowheads wh ich a re d a ted t o t he 6 th-5 th c entur ies B .C. Whose w ere t hey? They b e longed p r imar i ly t o t hose who u sed t he s ma l l S cy th ian b ow. A s f ar a s i s c urren t ly known, i t d id n ot s pread t o Egypt. F . P etr ie b e l ieved t ha t t he a rrowheads c ou ld h ave b e longed t o I on ian a nd Kar ian m ercener ies who e ntered Egypt ian s erv ice i n g rea t numbers a round t he 6 th c en tury B .C. ( b ib. n o . 1 94 p . 3 05). The Greeks i ndeed a dopted t he S cy th ian b ow i n t he 6 th c en tury B .C. a nd b ecame i t s ma in d istr ibutors i n t he Wes t ( b ib. n o . 1 76 p p. 1 41-142). However, Greek a rrows, a s B . B . P io trovsky h as n o ted, d iffer f rom t he S cy th ian o nes i n Western As ia ( b ib. h o . 3 1 p . 2 39). T . S u l im irsk i h as s uggested t hat t he Greek mercener ies i n Egypt a lso i nc luded S cy th ian warr iors, f ind ing c onf irma t ion o f t h is i n t he numerous f ind ings o f t erracotta f igur ines o f h orsemen w ith p o inted h a ts wh ich were a ccompan ied by f ind ing o f " Scy th ian" a rrowheads ( b ib. n o . 1 94 p . 3 05). These f igur ines h ave a lso b een d iscovered i n o ther p ar ts o f western As ia a par t f rom Egypt, o f ten w i th t he a rrowheads under d isc uss ion . An o p in ion c urrent i n l i tera ture i s t ha t t hese a re d ep ict ions o f E uras ian n omads. However , t here a re n o a dequa te g rounds f or t h is. They c ou ld n o t h ave b een t he w ork o f t he S cyth ians t hemse lves o r t he C en tra l A s ian S akas, s ince n omads d id n ot p ract ise t he p last ic a r ts. The p oss ib i l ity o f d ep ict ions o f n omads b e ing d one by t he i nhab i tan ts o f Western A s ia c ou ld o n ly b e e nter ta ined i f t he a ppearance o f t he n omads a nd t he ir d ep ict ion w ere s imu ltaneous. But t he t erracotta f igur ines o f h orsemen w ere known h ere l ong b efore t he a ppearance o f n omad ic Euras ians f rom t he s teppes . ( b ib. n o . 1 13 Tab le 1 60/69, 7 0, 8 0). They c ont inue t o b e made t hroughou t t he f i rst m i l lenn ium B .C. I t i s p rec ise ly t he West As ian t rad it ion d ep ict ing b earded h orsemen wh ich i nsp ired t he ir emergence i n C entra l A s ia i n t he f irst c entur ies B .C. ( b ib. n o. 3 7 p . 2 50). C onsequent ly, t h is t empt ing c ompar ison i s o bv ious ly n ot a cceptab le. The p resence o f " Scyth ian" a rrowheads i n Egypt a nd o ther a reas o f W estern A s ia i n t he p er iod when t he S cy th ians l ef t t he h istor ica l a rena n ever the less d emand e xp lana t ion. I n ab r ief s pace o f t ime, b etween 5 50 a nd 5 12 B .C., t he Achaemen id s tate w as c reated o ver a n e normous a rea o f t he Anc ient E ast, i n As ia M inor a nd C en tra l As ia t o Egypt a nd t he I ndus v a l ley. Troops were d ep loyed i n t he n ew ly c onquered c oun tr ies i n o rder t o p revent upr is ings. They were e i ther m i l i tary g arr isons ( in Egypt, c onquered i n 5 55 B .C. ,t he b iggest g arr ison was i n Memph is), o r m i l i tary s ett lemen ts where t he s o ld iers h ad s ma l lho ld ings ( in Egypt t he b est known i s E lphant ine m i l i tary c o lony) ( b ib. n o . 9 , p .236). C o lon ies were a lso c rea ted i n Baby lon ia ( b ib. n o. 8 , p . 3 0-32). The c ompos i t ion o f t he P ers ian g arr isons was v ar ied, but a s ar u le t here w ere n o r epresenta t ives o f t he l oca l p opu la t ion i n t hem. The g arr ison u sua l ly h ad a C entra l A s ian t roop c ont ingent: Khorezm ians, Bactr ians a nd S akas. The l atter p rov ided t he Achaemen ids w ith a c ons ide rab le n umber o f moun ted a rchers a ccustomed t o ac onstant m i l i tary l i fe ( b ib. n o . 9 , p . 2 29 , 2 36). M . A . Dandamayev h as s hown t ha t i n B abyl on ian d ocuments o f t he 6 th-5th c entur ies B .C. t he t erm C immer ians ( Gimm irr i) i s u sed t o mean t he C entra l A s ian S akas t r ibes o f t he Haumav arga a nd T igrahaudä ( b ib. n o . 8p . 3 2, 3 9). A lthough Dar ius i nc luded B lack S ea S cyth ians i n t he l i st o f p eop les who were h is v assa ls, t ha t was

9 3

o n ly a f orma l i nc lus ion a nd i n X erxes ' i nscr ipt ions t hey a re n o l onger m ent ioned. I t i s p robable t ha t s ome S cyth ians d id s ett le i n Western As ia , b ut t hey s hou ld h ave b een a ss im i lated by t h is t ime ( bib. n o. 1 1 p . 2 92). A t l east t hey h ad n o p art i n t he m i l i tary a ffa irs o f t he A chaemen id a rmy. A l l t h is i s g rounds f or s uggest ing t ha t b ronze a rrowheads o f t he s econd h a lf o f t he 6 th-5th c entur ies B .C. f ound i n Western A s ia b e longed t o C entra l As ian s o ld iers who s erved i n A chaemen id g arr isons. W i th t he 4 th c entury B .C. a g reat p ropor t ion o f t he P ers ian a rmy was made up o f Greek m ercener ies. The i nteract ion b etween t he t wo t rad i t ions wh ich b egan a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he f i rst m i l lenn ium B .C. i n Western As ia d id n ot l ead t o t he s uppress ion o f o ne by t he o ther . The Euras ian-type b ronze a rrowheads d id n o t s upp lant t he l oca l t ypes o f i ron a rrowheads. On t he c on trary, t hey were f ound t og ether e verywhere* . I t i s p rec ise ly t h is c omb ina t ion a nd t he r e la t ive r ar i ty o f f inds ( even i f o ne c ons iders t he ir i ncomp lete p reserva t ion, s ince t hey a re u sua l ly f ound n ot i n bur ia l g rounds a s i n S cyth ia , but i n s ett lements) a nd a lso t he ir t err i tor ia l d istr ibut ion t ha t a l lows o ne t o s uggest t he f o l low ing : b ronze a rrowheads w ere n o t a dopted by t he l oca l p opu la t ion but s pread t ogether w i th r epresen ta t ives o f t he E uras ian s teppes e * At f i rst t hese w ere t he C immer ians a nd S cyth ians; l a ter—representa t ives o f t he C entra l As ian p eop les who s erved i n t he Achaemen id a rmy. The e xc ept ion i s I ran, where t he Med ians a dopted f rom t he S cyth ians b o th t he b ow a nd t he b ronze a rrowheads. But e v ident ly t h is v ery a dopt ion l ed t o t he f act t hat s ubsequent ly t hey w ere n ot s ub jec t t o t he g enera l p r inc ip les o f a rrowhead d eve lopment wh ich t ook p lace i n t he Euras ian s teppes. *

*

*

*

*

Return ing t o t he I ran ian a rrowheads o f t he I ron Age I p er iod, i t s hou ld b e s tressed o nce a ga in t ha t I ran was p ar t o f a n a rea w ith a s ing le a nc ient E astern t rad i t ion o f t he d eve lopment o f t h is t ype o f weapon . I t f ocused o n i t s t err itory b oth t he g enera l p r inc ip les p ecu l iar t o t ha t t rad it ion a nd t he l oca l f ea tures o f t he i nd iv idua l r eg ions ( the f orm o f t he b lade w i th d ropped b arbs, c haracter ist ic o n ly o f Ana to l ia s ubsequent ly a ppeared i n t he n orthern r eg ions o f I ran). I n t h is p er iod I ran was i so lated f rom t he i nf luence o f t he Euras ian t rad i t ion. Th is c onc lus ion i s i mportan t i f i t i s t o b e b orne i n m ind t hat t he I ran ian n omads, h orsemen a nd c onquerers, a nd t he ir i ncurs ion, e ven i n s ma l l numbers, mus t h ave h ad a n i nf luence o n a rms. The i ncurs ion o f t he S cy th ians i s a n e xamp le o f t h is. N one o f t he I ran ian weapons o f t he I ron Age I p er iod e xam ined a bove r evea ls a ny s uch t races. *

*

*

*

*

The ma in c a tegor ies o f a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l o f t he I ron Age Ip er iod h ave n ow b een a na lysed. Apar t f rom p ottery, we h ave i nvest igated c ateg or ies o f t he most numerous a r t ic les, a na lys ing wh ich h as made i t p oss ib le * Carcham ish, Te l l e n-Nasbeh, N imrud, Tarsus, Kaya l idere, T oprak Ka le, a nd o ther ]. **

D iscover ies o f c ast mou lds d o n ot s ubstant ia te l oca l p roduct ion o f t hese a rrows, s ince t hey c ou ld h ave b een t ransported i n m i l i tary s upp ly t ra ins t o r ep len ish e xhausted a rrow s tocks]

9 4

t o d raw c erta in c onc lus ions a bout t he d irect ion o f c u ltura l l inks a nd t he n a ture o f t he ir s pread o ver t he t err i tory o f I ran. Apar t f rom s uch i tems, i n t he c omp lexes o f t h is p er iod we c ome a cross i nd iv idua l a r t ic les where a na lys is c anno t d iv ide s uch d emonstrab le r esu lts p rec ise ly b ecause o f t he s ma l l number o f s uch a r t ic les. They a re t he s pearheads a nd d artheads, p redom inant ly t anged, s ick les ( on ly i n S ia lk A ), b ronze v esse ls, a nd t anged kn ives o f s imp le f orm. T o a vo id o ver load ing t he t ext t hese a rt ic les h ave n o t b een s pec ia l ly e xam ined . However, f or t he g enera l c onc lus ions o f t he w ork i t i s i mportant t o p o int o ut t ha t n ot o ne o f s uch a rt ic les i nd ica tes a n or thern d irect ion o f t he l i nks. By t he ir o r ig in most o f t hem a re c onnected w i th t he t err i tory o f W estern As ia. As f or t he v ar ious o rnaments a nd p ieces o f j ewe l lery, t here w ere r e lat ive ly f ew a t t ha t t ime, a nd h av ing l i sted t hem i n t he s ummary t ab le o f b ur ia l i nventory, I c ons idered i t unnecessary t o e xam ine t hem e spec ia l ly i n t h is work. They a re s tud ied a t g reater l eng th i n R . Maxwe l l Hys lop 's monograph ( b ib. n o . 1 46) o n t he j ewe l lery a r t o f Western As ia i n t he 3 rdm id ist m i l lenn ia B .C. Thanks t o t h is g rea t s pat ia l a nd c hrono log ica l s cope, i t i s p oss ib le t o s ee h ow l ong a nd w idespread j ewe l lery t echn iques, e lements o f p or traya l a nd c erta in mode ls o f o rnaments s urv ived. The t echn ique o f m i l l ing ‚ ornaments o f f our s p ira ls a nd moon-shaped p endants k nown i n t he s i tes o f I ron Age I I ran, were known a s l ong a go a s t he t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C. i n Mesopo tam ia a nd s urv ived t hroughout t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. i n t he j ewe l lery o f E lam a nd Assyr ia . I t i s w ith t he a r tef acts o f t hese c ountr ies a s ar u le t ha t t he I ran ian p ieces o f j ewe l lery a re c ompared. The more s outhern s i tes b e ing c ompared w i th E lam ( Sia lk A , G iyan), whereas Hasan lu, Mar l ik a nd Khurv in ( co l lect ion) a re c ompared w i th Assyr ia ( b ib. n o . 1 26 pp. 1 85-194). Thus, t he r esu lts o f R . Maxwe l lHys lop 's r esearch c onf irmed t he g enera l c haracter ist ics o f t he c u lture o f I ran i n t he I ron Age I p er iod.

9 5

CONCLUSION

The r esearch was undertaken i n o rder t o p rov ide a g enera l d escr ipt ion o f t he a rchaeo log ica l mater ia l o f t he I ron Age Ip er iod i n I ran. Th is was n ecessary f i rst o f a l l b ecause t hat p er iod o pens t he I ron Age i n I ran a nd, a ccord ing t o a number o f r esearchers, a ttests t o s harp c hanges i n c u lture b rought a bout by t he a rr iva l o f I ran ian t r ibes. However, r esearch o n t he p ottery a lone c asts d oubt o n t he t wo ma jor t enets o f t he hypothes is a ccording t o wh ich t he Grey-Black Ware h or izon o f p ottery i n t he I ron Age I p er iod was i dent if ied w ith t he I ran ian t r ibes. Name ly, t he un ity o f t h is h or izon ( by un ity i s meant t he c ommon c haract er o f t he c u lture o f t he I ran ian e thnos) a nd t he b reak i n c ontinu ity w i th t he c u lture o f t he p reced ing e poch—the L ate Bronze Age ( wh ich, a ccordi ng t o t h is hypothes is, p roved t he a rr iva l o f t he n ew e thnos). Research i nto o ther mater ia ls r e inforced t hese d oubts. Two ma in c onc lus ions s temmed f rom t he mater ia l s et o ut a bove. F irst ly, t he a bsence o f a un ity i n t he mater ia l c u lture o f I ran i n t he I ron Age I p er iod. Th is c onc lus ion i s b ased f i rst ly o n a na lys is o f t he " ceramic" h or izon d emonstra t ing n ot t he un i ty but t he d ivers ity o f t he c eram ic c omp lexes. F irst o f a l l i t i s i nd icat ive t hat t he p ercentage c orr e lat ion o f t he Grey-Black Ware b oth w ith in t he r eg ions ( e.g. i n A zarba i jan, Hasan lu 4 0% , a nd i n D inkha-Tepe 7 1%) a nd b etween t hem: Lur istan was e ssent ia l ly n ot p art o f t he z one o f t h is d istr ibut ion ( Western Lur istan d id n ot know i t a t a l l; i n E astern Lur istan e xcavat ions s howed a v ery s ma l l amount o f i t , i n G iyan I i t r eaches 2 3%); t he c entra l r eg ion y ie lds t he max imum c orre lat ion-80% ; t here a re n o f igures f or t he Casp ian a l though i t was p robab ly i n t he z one o f i ts s pread ( f inds h ave b een made i n Am lash, Ardeb i l a nd Mar l ik a nd i t i s mentioned i n i nventor ies f rom •Ta l ish). I n e ach r eg ion a nd a t e ach s i te t he l ead ing f orms o f p ottery, t he ir c ombinat ion a nd quant i ty a re d ifferent. The " ceram ic" l i nks wh ich, i n T . Cuy ler Young 's o p in ion, wou ld a ttest t o t he un ity o f t he c eram ic h or izon, h ave o n c loser e xam inat ion b roken d own i nto t hree g roups wh ich d o n ot h ave a ny un ity wha tsoever. The f i rst g roup s hows t he c onstant c ontacts b etween t he w estern r eg ions o f I ran a nd t he c u ltures o f t he n eighbour ing c ountr ies. The s econd e stab l ishes l inks o n ly b etween t err itor ia l ly c losed s i tes. The t h ird g roup s hows l inks b etween t he most w idespread f orms-g ob lets a nd t eapots. These l inks c annot, h owever, b e i nd icat ive o f b e long ing t o o ne o r o ther c u lture s ince g oblets a nd t eapots a re d istr ibuted unequa l ly among t he s i tes, b e ing t he l ead ing f orms i n d ifferent a reas o f I ran. I n Azarba i jan, where, a t f irst g lance, t hey s eem t o b e w idespread, t hey e xc lude o ne a no ther i n t he c omp lexes, wh ich i s p robab ly a r esu lt o f t he ir a rr iva l t here a t d ifferent t imes. A s tudy o f t he t eapots, wh ich were c ons idered a s pec if ic f orm o f c u lture o f t he I ran ians, s howed t hat t hat o p in ion was unfounded. Thus, t here a re n o g rounds f or i so lat ing a un if ied " ceramic" h or izon. The bur ia l r i tes ( topography o f g raves, t ypes o f c onstruct ion, o r ientat ion a nd c lothes o f t he d ead, i nventory) a re f a ir ly l oca l ised. I n t he a rea wh ich h as b een l inked w ith t he I ran ian c u lture o f g rey-b lack ware, t here a re t wo t ypes o f c emeter ies : p roper ly e xtramura l c emeter ies f orm ing a g rave-

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y ard, f or wh ich c ontemporary s ett lements a re n ot known a nd whose r i tes d iffer f rom r eg ion t o r eg ion ( Lur istan, C entra l I ran, t he Casp ian), a nd g roups o f g raves o n waste p lo ts o f s ett lements a nd n o t c oncentrated i n o ne p lace ( Azarba i jan). Those who l ef t e xtramura l c emeter ies o bv ious ly h ad a n o t ion o f ad ef in i te p lo t o f l and ( perhaps s anct if ied by s ome r e l ig ious i deas) where t hey h ad t o bury t he ir f e l low t r ibesmen. F or t hem t h is was i ndeed a c i ty o f t he d ead—a n ecropo l is. F or t he p eop le who l ived i n t he s ame s ett lem ent f rom g enerat ion t o g enera t ion i t was e v ident ly i mpor tant f or a f e l low t r ibesman t o s tay i n t hat s e tt lement e ven a f ter d ea th, s omewhere n ear where h e u sed t o l ive. They d id n o t s ing le o ut a s pec ia l p lo t o f l and a nd t herefore t he l a ter c onstruct ions c overed e ar l ier bur ia ls. Those f ea tures wh ich a re c ommon t o t he bur ia l r i tes o f t he who le o f t he t err i tory o f I ran under e xam ina t ion ( p i t g raves, f l exed p os i t ion o f c orpse, a t endency t owards a n orther ly o r ienta t ion) c annot b e s at isfactor i ly e xp la ined j ust by t he u n i ty o f t he c u lture o f t he I ran ian e thnos. I ndeed, f or t he e nd o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C. ,j ust a s f or t he who le o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C. ,p i t g raves a nd t he f l exed c orpse p os it ion were t oo w idespread, but b oth i n t he E as t a nd i n Euras ia i t c an b e c onnected w i th o ne e thnos. I n t he f i rst m i l lenn ium B .C. t he d ead b egan t o b e bur ied more o f ten e xtended . A s f or t he n or thern o r ienta t ion, t here i s s o f ar n o p roof t o l ink t h is p henomenon w ith t he I ran ians. Thus, t here a re n ot s uff ic ient g rounds f or d ist ingu ish ing a un if ied s et o f bur ia l r i tes i n t he t err i tory o f I ran i n t he I ron Age I p er iod l e t a lone l ink ing i t w i th a d ef in i te e thnos. The r eg iona l d istr ibut ion o f t he Bronze a rtefacts, w i th t he e xcept ion o f s ma l l o rnaments, i s uneven a nd i s ma in ly l i nked w i th t he Casp ian a nd L ur istan. I n o ther r eg ions meta l a rt ic les a re f ound i n s o l i tary e xamp les a nd a re n ot v ery s ign if icant. Th is i s p art icu lar ly e v ident i n t he e xamp les o f d aggers a nd a xes. By t he ir o r ig in t hey a re c onnected w ith t he S yroP a lest in ian r eg ion a nd, o n e nter ing I ran, w ere f urther d eve loped i n i so lat i on . As a r esu lt t he Ta l ish a nd Lur istan d aggers, b e long ing t o o ne c lass o f d aggers w i th f langes, e ssent ia l ly d iffer f rom o ne a no ther . S p ike-butted a xes d eve loped i n as im i lar way . Arrowheads, f ew d iscover ies o f wh ich h ave b een made, a re d is tr ibuted r e lat ive ly e ven ly o ver I ran. I t i s d iff ic u l t t o d ist ingu ish l oca l t ypes. I t i s p oss ib le o n ly t o p o int o ut t ha t t he t ypes o f a rrowheads w ith d ropped b arbs p redom ina te i n t he n or thern r eg ions o f I ran. I ran was p ar t o f t he t err i tory w i th a s ing le West As ian t rad it ion w ith a rrowhead d eve lopment wh ich d iffered f rom t he t rad i t ion o f t he Euras ian s teppes. Th is was a r ef lect ion o f t he c ard ina l d ifference b etween t he s tructure o f t he t roops i n b oth r eg ions. The r evea led i so lat i on o f t he t wo t rad i t ions p rec ludes t he p oss ib i l i ty o f t he Euras ian s teppes h av ing i nf luenced t he d eve lopment o f t h is t ype o f w eapon i n I ran, i f o ne b ears i n m ind t ha t t he I ran ian t r ibes w ent f rom t here o nto t he I ran ian p la teau. F or t he l ast quarter o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C. t he c haracter o f t he ma ter ia l c u lture o f p art o f t he p lateau under e xam ina t ion was i n many r espects d etermined by t he c u ltura l l inks w i th t he w estern r eg ions, wh ich h ad b een e stab l ished i n t he p reced ing a ge. Lur istan 's l inks were made t hrough E lam, wh ich i n t he o p in ion o f c erta in r esearchers i nc luded Lur istan a s a n i ntegra l p art ( b ib. n o . 5 0 pp. 1 6-17). I t i s f rom t here t ha t t he Mesopotam ian p la ins g o t m inera ls, bu i ld ing s tone a nd p rec ious ma ter ia ls. I n p art icu lar e xamp les o f West As ian weapons g ot t o Lur istan t hrough E lam. The t rad i t iona l n ature o f t hese l inks e v ident ly e xp la ins t he i ns ign if icance o f Lur istan 's c ontacts w ith o ther p arts o f I ran, p art icu lar ly w ith t he n orth a nd n ortheas t. Grey-b lack ware a nd t hat c haracter ist ic f orm o f v esse l, t he t eapot, s carce ly p enetrated Lur istan; t he c haracter ist ic 9 7

b ronze weapons a nd t he " Lur istan b ronzes" d id n ot s pread o ut f rom L ur is tan. S ome l i nks w i th t he s outhern p art o f t he c entra l r eg ion o f I ran ( the o f t-noted l inks b etween S ia lk a nd G iyan) a nd w i th Mesopotam ia ( jewe l lery, h ema t i te s ea ls e tc.) w ere p robab ly e ffected t hrough L ur is tan . There a re n o s uch d ata f or t he c emeter ies a t G eytaryeh a nd Khurv in . The Casp ian a rea 's l inks w ith t he w est c ou ld h ave b een e ffected a long t he upper r eaches o f t he T igr is a nd t he s outhern s hore o f L ake U rm ia . That i s t he r oute wh ich B . B . P io trovsky s uggests f or t he Hurr ian s ea ls f ound i n t he Do lmens o f Ta l ish a nd n ow d iscovered i n Mar l ik ( bib. n o . 3 2 p . 1 1). As f or t he I ran ian-Trans Caucas ian l i nks , t hey h ave b een i nd isputi b ly e stab l ished i n a rchaeo log ica l mater ia l f rom t he b eg inn ing o f t he f i rst m i l lenn ium B .C. ,t ha t p er iod b e ing c haracter ised by a n orth-south d irect ion o f t hose l inks. F or t he l ast quarter o f t he s econd m i l lenn ium B .C. t hese l i nks a re qu i te p rob lema t ica l. Thus, t he r evea led l oca l n a ture o f t he mater ia l c u lture o f I ran i n I ron Age I p er iod a nd t he w estern d irect ion o f c u l tura l l inks d o n ot make i t p oss ib le t o l i nk i t w i th t he c u l ture o f t he I ran ians. The s econd c onc lus ion i s t ha t t here i s ac ont inu ity i n t he d eve lopment o f t he c u lture o f t he I ron Age I p er iod w i th t he p reced ing Bronze Age. F irst o f a l l t he g rey-b lack ware d oes n o t a ppear i n t he I ron Age I s i tes s udden ly. I t was known i n I ran a nd b eyond t hroughout t he s econd m i ll enn ium B .C. The I ron Age I p er iod i s d ist ingu ished n ot by t he s uddenn ess o f t he a ppearance o f g rey-b lack ware but by t he c ons iderab le a bandonment o f t he c ustom o f p a int ing l ight ware . But t ha t p rocess h ad a lready b egun i n t he Bronze Age, a nd was mere ly c omp leted i n t he I ron Age I p er iod, a l though n o t c onc lus ive ly. Most o f t he c eram ic f orms o f W estern a nd n orthwestern I ran i n t he I ron Age I p er iod c ome f rom t hose p reced ing a ge. O f t he t hree d iagnost ic f orms o f t he I ron Age I p er iod, p rototypes f or t wo—gob lets a nd c ups—are known o n t h is v ery t err i tory . Consequent ly, i t c annot b e c ons idered t hat t hey a ppeared o n ly i n t he I ron Age I p er iod a s p art o f t he n ew I ran ian c u lture. T eapots, f or wh ich t here w ere n o p rototypes i n I ran i n t he i mmed ia te ly p reced ing p er iod, a re n ever the less a t rad i t iona l West As ian a nd E ast Med i terranean f orm wh ich was known t here s ince t he 4 th-3rd m i l lenn ia B .C. I n I ran v esse ls w ith a c y l indr ica l s pout w ere known f rom t he 3 rd m i l lenn ium B .C. a nd t he ir a ppearance t here i s c onnected w i th t he s pread o f t he t rad it ion o f t he Mesopotam ian-E lam ite r eg ion, a s , i nc identa l ly, p robab ly a lso was t he s pread o f g rey-b lack ware o f t he Uruk p er iod. And a l though r esearch d oes n o t p rov ide a c onc lus ive a nswer t o t he quest ion o f where t eapots w i th a t wop art s pout c ame f rom when t hey a ppeared i n I ran i n t he I ron Age I p er iod, i t s hows d ef in i te ly t ha t t hey d id n o t c ome f rom t hose p laces where t he I ran ians c ou ld h ave c ome f rom. The t rad i t ion o f mak ing s pouted v esse ls d id n ot e x ist i n t he a rea t o t he n orth o f I ran. The w idespread n ot ion i n l i tera ture t ha t bur ia l r i tes c hanged a t t he e nd o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C. ( the a bandonment o f bury ing t he d ead under dwe l l ing-house f l oors a nd t he s epara t ion o f c emeter ies f rom s ett lements) c annot b e a ccepted. F irst ly, t here i s n o e v idence f or t he c ustom o f under-f loor bur ia l a nywhere o n t he e ve o f I ron Age I i n I ran; s econd ly, t here were n o a brupt c hanges i n r i tes a t t he t urn o f t he t wo e pochs; t h ird ly, t here i s n o d irect e v idence t ha t e xtramura l c emeter ies a ppeared o n ly i n I ron Age I p er iod .

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Research i nto a l l t he mater ia l h as n ot c onf irmed t he p rev ious ly h e ld n ot ion t ha t t here was a n " archaeo log ica l r evo lut ion" i n t he I ron Age I p er iod wh ich r ef lected t he a ppearance o f t he n ew e thnos o n t he p la teau. I t c an n ow b e c ons idered i nd isputab le t hat t he ma ter ia l c u l ture o f I ran i n t hat p er iod was, f i rst ly, n ot un if ied o ver t he t err i tory under i nvest iga t ion; s econd ly, i t s hows t he d eve lopment o f t he p reced ing c u ltura l t rad i t ions; t h ird ly, wh ich i s v ery s ign if icant, i t i s c haracter ised by t he s ame d irect ion o f c ontacts—on ly t hat o f t he western r eg ions o f western A s ia . I t r epresents ac ong lomera te o f e lements o f d ifferen t o r ig in wh ich emerged o n t he b as is o f i nteract ion b etween l oca l t rad i t ions, d ifferent i nf luences a nd l inks. As y et t here a re n o g rounds f or s peak ing o f ac u ltura l a nd e thn ic c ommon c haracter f or t h is t ime. Apart f rom t hese c onc lus ions, t here i s a nother f actor wh ich, f rom t he p o int o f v iew o f method, r efutes t he hypothes is a bout t he I ran ian o r ig in o f t he g rey-b lack ware. Th is i s t he l ong s ince n o ted l im i tat ion o f t he method o f d ist ingu ish ing e thnol ingu ist ic g roups f rom o ne " ethn ic is ing" f eature: a rchaeo log ica l c omp lexes wh i le r evea l ing a s imi lar i ty i n o ne o r e ven t wo " ethn ic is ing" f eatures, c an d iffer marked ly f rom e ach o ther i n a l l o ther r espects. As a r esu l t o f putt ing " ethn ic is ing" c a tegor ies o f i t ems a ga inst a l l o ther mater ia l, t he v ery p ercept ion o f ac u lture a s a s tab le c omp lex r ef lect ing t he who le a ggrega te o f ma ter ia l d a ta a nd i deol og ica l n ot ions d isappears. U lt ima te ly, t h is g enera tes t he o ddest n o t ions a bout t he m igra t ions o f p opu la t ions t o t hose g eograph ica l a reas where t hese c ategor ies o f t h ings h ave b een f ound ( bib. n o. 1 4 p p. 2 48-250). Overcom ing t he weakness o f t h is method, G . Ch i lde h as s uggested t ha t o n ly t hat t ype wh ich i s c omb ined w ith a number o f o ther f ea tures w ith in t he c onf ines o f ac erta in a rchaeo log ica l c u l ture a nd o n ly c onnected w i th i t c an b e c ons idered " ethn ic is ing" ( or " d iagnost ic c a tegor ies") ( bib. n o. 7 7 c hapters V II-VIII, p . 1 15-116). Another a spect o f t he d iff icu lty o f s o lv ing t h is p rob lem ( instead o f t he s imp l ist ic i dent if ica t ion o f p ots-:peop le) h as r ecent ly b een p o inted o ut by C . Kramer u s ing t he e xamp le o f t he we l lk nown Habur ware a ttr ibuted t o t he Hurr ians. The c omp lex s et o f s oc ia l, e conom ic a nd p o l i t ica l i nteract ion wh ich p romoted t he t empora l a nd s pa t ia l s pread o f t h is t ype o f a rtefacts i n t he M idd le E ast d oes n o t a l low i t t o b e a ttr ibuted t o t he c erta in e thn ic g roup, wh ich, a ccord ing t o C . Kramer, i s as imp l if ica t ion a nd a n un informa t ive a nd un just if ied a nswer t o t he e x ist ing f acts ( bib. n o . 1 29 pp. 9 1-112). Here i t s hou ld b e r e i terated t ha t o n ly t he a rchaeo log ica l d ata g ave g rounds f or putt ing a n e ar l ier d a te o n t he a rr iva l o f t he I ran ians o n t he p lateau, by 3 00-400 y ears c ompared w i th t he wr i tten s ources a nd w i th t he r esu lt o f i nvest igat ions o f a rt r e l ics. Hence t he s pec ia l i nterest a nd a tten t ion t o t he c onc lus ions o f t he a rchaeo log ists. However , t he a bove w ork g ives g rounds f or r e ject ing--unt i l n ew ma ter ia l t urns up--the s o le p iece o f e v idence i n f avour o f s uch a n e ar ly emergence o f t he I ran ian t r ibes o n t he p la teau. Consequent ly, i t i s n o t a quest ion o f whether t here c ou ld h ave b een I ran ians o n t he p la teau a t t he e nd o f t he 2 nd m i ll enn ium B .C. b ut whether we y et h ave e v idence f or t ha t.

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The g enera l a spect o f t he ma ter ia l c u l ture o f t he I ran ian t r ibes a t t he m oment o f t he ir a ppearance o n t he p lateau r ema ins unc lear. I f t he Anc ient I ran ians c ame o nto t he p la teau g radua l ly, a s t he l ingu ists b e l ieve, t hen i t

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i s d iff icu l t t o e xpect a brupt c hanges i n c u ltura l t rad it ions r ef lected i n t he a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia ls, a s h as b een t hought i n c onnect ion w ith t he s pread o f g rey-b lack ware. The f orma t ion o f I ran ian c u l ture p roper o n t he t err it ory o f I ran was a l eng thy p rocess . I t was t he s ynthes is o f l oca l t rad it ions, t he i nf luences o f t he west A s ian c iv i l isat ions a nd t he c u lture o f t he n ew t r ibes . I t i s d iff icu lt t o r evea l t he i n it ia l s tage o f t h is p rocess f rom a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l . Obv ious ly i n f uture o ne w i l l h ave t o r efra in f rom s eek ing c hanges o f a" g loba l" n a ture i n t he ma ter ia l c u lture o f t he t r ibes who p opu la ted t he I ran ian p la teau i n t ha t p er iod. The m ethod o f l ook ing f or i nd iv idua l e lements o f ac u lture i n r etrospec t —from t he l a te a nd d ef in ite ly I ran ian s i tes t o t he e ar l ier o nes--w i l l p robab ly h ave t o b e i mproved. I t i s n ow b ecom ing i ncreas ing ly o bv ious t ha t t he I ron Age I s i tes n eed s uch r esearch. Qu i te a part f rom t he f act t ha t t he I ran ians ' p resence a t t ha t t ime i s a ttested i n wr i tten s ources, c erta in c hanges a re o bserved i n t he mater ia l c u l ture wh ich d emand c lose a ttent ion. Un l ike i n t he p reced ing p er iod, many r ich bur ia ls w i th a g reat quant i ty o f w eapons, g o ld a nd s i lver a rtefacts a nd t oreut ic ware h ave b een f ound f or t h is p er iod. S tudy o f t hem r evea l c er ta in e lements wh ich c an b e l inked more d ef in i te ly w i th t he I ran ians a nd t he ir a r t o f al a ter t ime ( b ib. n o . 2 0 p p. 2 0-30). The l i nks w ith t he Transcaucasus a re b ecom ing o bv ious. I n p art icu lar i t i s n ecessary t o r eca l l t he p ara l le ls e stab l ished by R . M . Gh irshman b etween t he bur ia l c onstruct ions o f S ia lk B a nd t he Do lmens o f t he T ransc aucasus. As b efore, t here i s s pec ia l i nterest i n t he p a in ted ware o f t he " Lur istan" s ty le a nd p art icu lar ly t ha t o f S ia lk B . The p ara l le ls b etween t he p a inted i mages f rom t he S ia lk B ware a nd t he i mages o n t he g o ld v ess e ls o f t he Casp ian a rea, i nc lud ing Ma l ik, d emand f ur ther s tudy. Among t hem, r esearchers a re p art icu lar ly a ttracted t o t he d ep ict ions o f h orses, t he c u lt o f wh ich a mong t he I ran ians h as l a te ly b een t he s ub ject o f many works. I t i s h igh ly p oss ib le t ha t S ia lk B i s t he f i rst s i te wh ich h as g iven r esearchers t he mater ia l t o s o lve t he quest ion o f t he n ature o f t he c u l ture a nd t ime o f a rr iva l o f t he I ran ians o nto t he p la teau— in t he l ight o f n ew r esearch i t w i l l a ga in b ecome a k ey s i te. But a l l t h is i s t o ac ons iderab le e xten t t he t ask o f t he f uture.

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APPENDIX I CATALOGUE OF I RON AGE I S ITES I N I RAN

A zarba i jan Geoy Tepe Excavat ions o f t he t epe i n August-September 1 948, l asting s ix w eeks, were c arr ied o ut by T . Burton-Brown. The s i te i s s i tuated w est o f L ake Urmia n ear t he t own o f Reza ' iyeh i n t he v a l ley o f t he s ame n ame. The mound measures 4 55 ( NS) x 6 00 ( EW) metres a t i t s b ase a nd i s 2 4 .5 m h igh a t t he f oot o f t he mounds. I n t he s outh west c orner a b rook c uts t hrough i t . A r e la t ive ly s ma l l a rea h as r ema ined f ree f rom modern b u i ld ings; 8t renches w ere dug o n t h is a rea, n o t o ne o f wh ich r eached t he v irg in s o i l. Trench I ( 9 .6 x 8 .5 m ) was a lmost o n t he v ery p eak o f t he mound a nd dug t o ad epth o f 1 3 .1 m . Trench I ( 6.1 x 8 .2 , d epth 2 .2 m ) was l ower d own t he s lope. Trench I I ( 8 .5 x 5 .8 , d epth 6 .5 m ) w as i n t he n orthwest c orner o f t he s ett lement. Trench I V ( 11.6 x 8 , d epth 6 .7 m ) was i n n orth e nd o f t he mound. Trench V ( 6.8 x 5 .8 m ) was a d jacent t o t rench I I. Trench V I ( 10.7 x 8 , d epth 1 .1 m ). Trench V II ( 5 .8 x 3 .6, d epth 3 .4 m ) was s i tuated o n t he n orthern s lope o f t he mound. T rench V III ( 5.2 x 5 , d epth 7 m) was o n t he s outh s lope. T . Burton Brown r evea led t he c ont inu i ty o f t he c u ltura l l eve ls, t he l ower o f wh ich b e long t o t he 3 rd m i l lenn ium B .C. a nd t he upper o nes t o t he I ron Age ( Iron Age I -II). The l eve ls a re marked a lphabet ica l ly f rom t op t o b ottom. L eve l B , f ound i n Trenches I , I, I V a nd V III, b e longs t o t he I ron Age I p er iod. Neg l ig ib le a rch itectura l r ema ins were f ound i n Trench I . The f oundations o f a bu i ld ing were t raced: i t was made o f o ne c ourse o f s tones a nd t he wa l l was bu i lt o f mud-br icks 1 .7 m t hick. The a uthor s uggests t hat i t was d efens ive. The most g raph ic f ind was a g rave d isc overed i n Trench V III, known i n l i terature a s Grave K ( Tab le I). Publ i cat ions: ( bib. n o. 7 3). Br ief d escr iptions o f a l l t he l eve ls: ( bib. 2 07, p . 1 17). D inkha Tepe was d iscovered i n 1 936 by A . S tein who e xcavated i t f or s ix d ays. I n 1 966 a nd 1 968 more e xcavat ions were c arr ied o ut under t he " Hasan lu" p ro ject. They were c arr ied o ut by t he Un ivers ity Museum o f P ennsy lvan ia Un ivers i ty a nd The Metropo l itan Museum o f Art ( New York) a nd were h eaded by R . Dyson a nd 0 . W . Muscare l la a s c o-d irectors. The s ett lement i s i n Ushnu v a l ley 2 4 km west o f Hasan lu i n t he S o lduz v a l ley. There i s n o n atura l b arr ier b etween t hese va l leys. The I ran ianI raq i b order p asses a long t he mounta ins 1 6 km west o f D inkha Tepe; t hat i s where t he f amous Ke l-i S h in P ass i s l ocated. The mound i s 2 0 m h igh a nd a bout 4 00 m i n d iameter. The Gadar R iver f lows a t i ts base , d estroy ing t he s teep n orthern f ace o f t he mound. The s outhern f ace i s g ent le. A t t he western e nd o f t he mound t here w as a modern v i l lage.

1 01

A . S te in d ug t renches a t t he n orthern e dge o f t he t own-s i te a nd, j udg ing by pho tographs a nd h is a ccount, h e a lso worked i n t he s ect ion o f t he f ace b e ing d estroyed by t he r iver, t hough c u l tura l l eve ls c ou ld b e s een. He e xcava ted g raves w i th " Habur" t ype ware, wh ich i n modern p er iod isa t ion b e longed t o t he t ime Hasan lu V I, a nd w i th g rey-b lack ware o f t he Hasan lu I V t ype. I n 1 966 f our t renches t en m eters s quare, w ere l a id ,wh ich r evea led I ron Age I -II g raves a t t he n or thern e dge o f t he mound. I n 1 968 t he e nt ire a rea o f t he Tepe was d iv ided i nto a g r id o f 1 00 x 1 00 m s quares w i th a lphabet ica l r eferences a nd t hese w ere t hen s ubd iv ided when n ecessary i n to t en-meter e xcava t ion s quares . Excava t ions o f t he 1 00 m 2 a reas i n a l l p arts o f t he t own s i te w ere c arr ied o ut a nd t renches o f v ar ious s izes w ere a lso dug . Tha t s eason 's e xcava t ions r evea led ma in ly Bronze Age l eve l a nd I ron Age I c onstruct ions; n o r ema ins o f I ron Age I I w ere f ound. The p lan o f t he s ett lements a nd dwe l l ings was n ot r ev ea led. The r evea led g raves were t he i t ems o f ma in s ign if icance. Accepted d es igna t ion o f l eve ls : D inkha I ( Is lam), D inkha I ( Iron Age I), D inkha I I ( Iron Age I ), D inkha I V ( La te Bronze Age). D inkha I I 3 3 g raves b e long t o t h is p er iod, 2 7 o f t hem c oncentra ted o n t he n orth e nd o f t he mound, 5 a t t he s outh w est e nd a nd 1 a t t he s outh e nd ( Tab le I ). P ub l ica t ions: ( bib. n o. 1 89 p p. 3 67-376 ; 1 61 ; 1 62). Ha j j i F irus

i s aN eo l ith ic s i te s evera l k i lometres s outheast o f Hasan lu.

I n 1 968 o ne I ron Age I p er iod bur ia l was d iscovered. The g rave c onta ined a l l t he c lass ic d iagnost ic p ottery o f t he p er iod: a t r ioge les s pou ted v esse l, a worm b ow l, a nd a g ob le t ( unpub l ished) ( Tab le 1). P ub l ica t ion : b ib. n o . 1 62 p . 4 9). Hasan lu I n 1 934 c ommerc ia l e xcava t ions w ere c arr ied o ut under t he c ontro l o f t he M in istry o f Educat ion i n I ran. I n 1 936 i t was i nvest iga ted by A . S . S te in. I n 1 947 e xcava t ions w ere c arr ied o ut a t t he t epe by Archaeo log ica l S erv ice o f I ran d irected by M . Rad a nd A . Hak im i. I n 1 956 b egan t he many y ears o f e xcavat ions by t he Amer ican e xped it ions ( Un iv ers i ty Museum o f P ennsy lvan ia Un ivers i ty), t he Archaeo log ica l S erv ice o f I ran a nd, f rom 1 959 , t he Metropo l i tan Museum o f Art. These e xcavat ions w ere p art o f t he " Hasan lu P ro ject" a nd c ont inued i n 1 957-1960, 1 964, 1 970, 1 972, 1 974. They w ere d irected b y R . Dyson w i th Co-D irectors V . E . Crawford ( 1959-1969) a nd 0 . W . Muscare l la ( 1969-1970). The s ett lement i s 5 0 km s outhwest o f L ake Urm ia i n t he S o lduz v a l ley. The s ett lement c ons ists o f t wo p arts: The C itade l o n t he c entra l m ound 2 5 m h igh a nd 2 00 m i n d iameter, a nd t he s o-ca l led " Outer Town" s urroundi ng t he C itade l, 6 00 m i n d iameter . A t t he f oot o f t he " Outer Town" o n t he e ast a nd n orth s ides i s dug t he d ra inage c hanne l f rom t he R iver Gadar. The o ld c ourse o f t he c hanne l c an b e s een a t t he s outh a nd s outh w es t s ide o f t he c i tade l. The d ata o f t he 1 934 e xcava t ions h ave n o t b een pub l ished. A . S te in dug o ne t rench i n t he n orth s lope a t t he b ase o f t he c i tade l a nd a no ther a t t he n orth e dge o f t he " Outer Town". He worked t hree d ays o n t he f i rst ( I-VII). On ly unpa inted g rey-b lack a nd b uff ware ( type Hasan lu I V) was d iscovered h ere. A lso h ere, a t ad epth o f 3 .6 c m, were d iscovered t he r ema ins o f ap ottery k i ln w i th 7unpa in ted v esse ls o f t he s ame p er iod . Human b ones w ere a lso f ound i n t he t rench but w i thout v is ib le t races o f bur ia l. E leven bur ia ls were f ound i n t he o ther t rench. O f t hem t here was o n ly 1 c h i ld bur ia l i n av esse l. Most o f t he r ema inder b e longed t o t he Hasan lu I V p er iod ( character ist ic f orm o f p ottery—teapots w i th a n b r idged s pout); 1 bur ia l w ith a g ob let was e v ident ly o f Hasan lu V p er iod. The g raves w ere f ound i n al eve l i n wh ich s tructura l r ema ins were e ncoun tered.

I ron o rnaments s omet imes f ound i n t he bur ia ls . The p lanned e xcava t ions o f t he f i f t ies a nd s ixt ies a l lowed r esearchers, o n t he b as is o f t he c hanges i n t he f orm o f t he p ottery a nd methods o f d ecora t ing i t t o r evea l t he c ont inu ity o f t en c u ltura l l eve ls f rom t he 6 th m i l lenn ium B .C. t o t he M idd le Ages. However, t he d a ta w ere pub l ished s e lect ive ly. The p er iod s tud ied i n g rea test d eta i l was Hasan lu I V ( Iron Age I). A lmost t he e n t ire a rea o f t he c i tade l was o pened up a nd t he p lan r evea led. The"Outer Town" was e xcava ted by means o f t renches. Hasan lu V The g raves o pened up a t t he n orth e nd o f t he " Outer Town" b e longed t o t h is p er iod. The c omp lexes h ave n ot b een publ ished e xcept f or a f ew v esse ls. On t he C i tade l f ive ( poss ib ly s ix) bu i ld ings h ave b een r evea led wh ich w ere u sua l ly b eneath t he r ema ins o f t he p er iod I V. The m ost f u l ly e xcava ted bu i ld ing was i n t he n orth-west c orner o f t he C i tade l . I t c ons isted o f al arge c entra l Ha l l ( 9 x 1 1 m ) w i th a s urround ing b ench a nd b ack p latform. The Ha l l was f l anked by s tore r ooms. I n t he c entre w as a s l ight ly r a ised b r ick h ear th ( 1 .6 5 x 1 .30 m ) s urrounded by a l ow w a l l . I n f ront o f i t w as a s ma l l s tone p avement. No t f ar f rom i t w ere d isc overed t wo l arge s tones wh ich s erved a s t he p l inths f or wooden c o lumns; o n ly t he c oat ing o f t he ir f aces h as b een p reserved . B etween t he c o lumns w as a l ow b r ick wa l l o r b ench. The wa l ls a nd t he f loor were c overed w ith a wh ite c oa t ing . A s tone s lab h ad b een p ut o n t he t hresho ld o f t he w ide d oorway. I n f ront o f t he h a l l, j udg ing by t he r ema ins o f t he wa l ls, t here w as a n a nteroom ( 8 .85 m x 2 .6 m ). I ts wa l ls were c oated i n r ed o chre . A r oom ( 2 .6 x 2 .6 m ) w ith a s p ira l s ta ircase a round t he c entra l p i l lar was b e ing r econstructed t o t he l ef t o f t he e ntrance i nto t he h a l l . A s a who le, t he d imens ions o f t he b u i ld ings, t he ir p lan, c onstruct iona l t echn ique a nd c er ta in d eta i ls ( the a nteroom w i th t he s uggested s ta ircase, t he c entra l h a l l w i th b enches a nd t he p latform by t he wa l l, t he r a ised h earth, a nd t he c o lumns) c an a l l b e c ons idered t he d irect p ro to type o f Bu i ld ing I I i n Hasan lu I V ( bib. n o . 8 4 , p . 1 64 ). There i s n o o vera l l pub l ica t ion o f t he d ata . There i s as er ies o f a rt ic les a nd r emarks i n v ar ious pub l ica t ions. F or t he r eports o n t he H asan lu V p er iod s ee ( bib. n o. 8 4; 8 5 ; 8 6; 8 8; 2 19 ; 2 23). Haf tavan T epe was i nvest igated d ur ing t he 1 958, 1 959 a nd 1 962 e xped it i ons. The e xcavat ions t here were s tarted i n 1 968 under t he " Hasan lu P ro ject" a nd c ont inued i n 1 969 , 1 971, 1 973 a nd 1 975 under t he d irect ion o f C . Burney. The e xcava t ions were o rgan ised by t he Un ivers i ty o f Manchester a nd s ubs id ised by t he Br i t ish Academy, t he Ca louste Gu lbenk ian F oundat ion t he Russe l l Trust a nd A shmo lean Museum. The T epe i s 1 5 km west o f t he n orthern e nd o f L ake U rm ia i n t he m idd le o f as ma l l but w e l l i rr iga ted a nd e xtreme ly f ert i le v a l ley. The m ound, measur ing 5 50 m ( EW) x 4 00 m ( NS), a ccord ing t o o ther d a ta 6 00 x 5 00 m ( b ib. n o . 2 16 p . 6 5), f orms t he s o-ca l led " lower t own". The C i tade l r ises a t t he c entre; i t s d imens ions, j udg ing by t he p lan, a re a pprox ima te ly 1 10 x 1 00 m . Between 1 962 a nd 1 968 t he mound s uffered a g reat d ea l, p art icu lar ly i t s s outhern a nd western e dge a s ar esu lt o f t he a ct iv i ty o f t he l oca l i nh abi tants, who c arted a way e arth t o t he ir f i e lds. The e xcava t ions w ere c arr ied o ut by t renches 4 -5 m w ide a nd s quare d igs o f 1 0 x 1 0 m . They r evea led t he c on tinu i ty o f c u ltura l p er iods f rom t he e nd o f t he t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C. t o t he S assan id e poch. Haf tavan V b e longs t o t he I ron Age I p er iod. The r ema ins o f a bu i ld ing a nd a n 1 03

e conom ic e xtens ion w ere r evea led o n t he w est s ide o f t he " lower t own" ( Excava t ion PQ, 2 7x 1 2 m ). I t m easures 8 x 6 .5 m). The wa l ls a re m ade o f s tones s et i n mud-mortar a nd t he ir w id th v ar ies f rom 6 0 t o 8 0 cm . T rue, f rom t he a ccount, i t i s n ot c lear whether t he wa l ls t hemse lves were o f s tone o r o n ly t he f oundat ions; t here i s t he o ccas iona l r eference t o a wa l l o f mud b r ick ( bib. n o. 6 9 p . 1 62). A s heep p en h ad b een a dded t o t he n orth wa l l o f t he bu i ld ing . I ts wa l ls w ere o f y e l low b r ick. The d oorway was l i ned w i th s tones. There h ave b een f ew f inds. Two o bs id ian a rrowheads, o ne w i th a t ang , a nd o ne b one n eed le. P ottery was f ound i ns ide t he bu i ld ing a nd t he p en: l arge s torage v esse ls, med ium s ize p a inted v esse ls ( the p a in ted d ecora t ion was d ark b rown wavy l i nes o n ar ed b ackground). Grey b urni shed Hasan lu V t ype ware was f ound a t t he t hresho lds o f t he bu i ld ing . There a re n o d raw ings o f p o ttery . I n t he a uthor ' so p in ion " The r e la t ive ly s ma l l p ercentage o f t yp ica l ly I ron I g rey wares , c ompared w i th t he r ed wares c ont inu ing t he o lder t rad i t ion o f Haf tavan V IA, t end t o c onf irm t he p rev ious i mpress ion t ha t t he s i te was o n ly p art ia l ly o ccup ied i n t he I ron I p er iod" ( bib. n o . 6 9 , p . 1 64 ). The o n ly bur ia l o f t h is p er iod was f ound i n t he e astern p art o f t he " l ower t own" ( Trench J /I, Bur ia l 7 )1 ( Tab le I) P ub l ica t ions: ( b ib. n o . 6 8;

6 9 ;

7 0).

The Yan ik T epe was i nvest iga ted dur ing a s urvey o f s i tes c arr ied o ut i n 1 958-1959 . Excava t ions were c arr ied o ut by C . Burney i n 1 960-1962 under t he " Hasan lu P ro ject". They were o rgan ised a nd s ubs id ised b y Un ivers i ty o f Manchester a nd p ar t ly by t he Br it ish A cademy. Yan ik T epe i s 3 2 km s outh west o f Tabr iz, t o t he e ast o f L ake Urm ia a nd a bout 5 km west o f Khosrawshah t own. The mound c overs a n a rea o f a bout 2 0 a cres ( 8 h ectares, j udg ing by t he p lan 3 25 x 3 50 m ), i s 1 6.5 m h igh a nd h as g ent le s lopes. The a rea i n wh ich Yan ik T epe i s l oca ted i s n ow p oor ly i rr iga ted, but i n a nt iqu i ty t hey w ere s pr ings n earby. • The D irector o f t he e xcavat ions b e l ieves t hat t he t epe was f ormed a s ar esu lt o f t he g radua l f us ion o f t hree mounds—the r ema ins o f t hree s ett lements wh ich h ad b een i nhab i ted f rom t he 6 th m i l lenn ium B .C. t o t he S assan id e poch. The d istr ibut ion o f s urface p o ttery s hows t ha t t here was a s ett lement i n t he Cha lco l i th ic Age o n t he w est s ide o f t he t epe; n earby was a s ett lement o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C.; g raves o f t he e nd o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C. h ave b een d iscovered o n t he s outhwes t s lopes; a nd a s ett lement o f t he i st m i l lenn ium B .C. was s i tua ted o n t he e ast s ide o f t he mound. C . Burney b e l ieves t ha t t he s e tt lement was a bandoned i n t he m idd le o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C. a nd t he g raves o f t he e nd o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C. were l ef t by t he i nhabi tants o f t he s ma l l s e tt lemen t n earby. However , i t must b e n oted t ha t t he s ett lement i t se lf h as n o t b een e xcavated v ery much,and i t c annot b e r u led o ut t ha t t he p laces o f h ab it at ion i n t hat e poch h ave s imp ly n ot b een d iscovered. The c emetery o f t ha t t ime h as b een p art ly d estroyed. S evera l bur ia ls i n p i ts, s ome t imes l ined w i th b r icks ( i t i s n ot c lear whether t he e dges o f t he p i t o r t he w a l ls w ere made o f c lay b r icks a s i n D inkha Tepe), h ave b een d iscovered. On ly o ne g rave, A6 ( Tab le I), h as b een pub l ished. A f ema le bur ia l ( PP 1) , wh ich t he a uthor d a tes t o c . 1 000 B .C., h as b een d iscov -e red a t t he o ppos i te e nd o t t he s ect iorr o t Trench P . A l l t ha t i s p rov ided i s a 1 .

The I ron Age I b ur ia l was f ound a t t he w estern e nd o f t he t own. 1 04

l ower

d escr ipt ion o f t he i nventory, wh ich c ons isted o f t hree h and-shaped v esse ls ( one i s p a inted w i th wavy s tr ipes), t wo b ronze p ins a nd a b ead ( bib. n o. 7 2 p p. 6 0-61). P ub l ica t ions:

( bib. n o . 7 1; 7 2).

Kord lar T epe was d iscovered dur ing t he 1 971 e xped i t ion. Excava t ions w ere c arr ied o ut i n 1 972-1974 a nd 1 976 by t he I ns t i tute o f Anc ient H istory o f t he Un ivers i ty o f I nnsbruck under A . L ipper t. The s i te i s west o f L ake Urm ia, b etween i t a nd Reza ' iyeh t own, 1 3 km f rom t he s ett lement o n ap la in. The r ound f l a t-topped mound w i th i t s s teep s ides h as b een p ar t ly s po i led by t he p easan ts c art ing away s o i l. The d iameter o f t he mound i s 25 m , h e igh t 1 6 m . I t was e xcavated i n ag r id p attern o f 1 0 x 1 0 m s quares w i th b au lks b etween t he s quares. The s ett lement e x is ted f rom t he f ourth m i l lenn ium t o t he E ar ly I ron Age. On ly t he upper l eve ls o f Hasan lu V a nd I V p er iod h ave b een e xcav ated. F ort if ied h ouse ( area a pprox imate ly 2 0m 2 ) b e longs t o t he e ar ly p er iod I V; i n t he c entre o f i t was a s quare h a l l ( 8 x 8m ). A t t he c orners o f t he b u i ld ing t here were p rem ises i n t he f orm o f p ro ject ing t owers, b etween wh ich o n t he e ast a nd w est s ides w ere r ooms. The wa l ls w ere o f s quare mud b r icks ( approx imate ly 3 9 x 3 9 cm) o n as tone b ase. I nterna l ly t he wa l ls w ere c overed w i th a mu lt i-co loured p laster. I n t he c entre o f t he h a l l t here i s ah earth a nd a long t he wa l ls c lay b enches. There was a p la tform made o f t hree l ayers o f b r icks, w ith a c y l indr ica l s haf t f or a c o lumn-beam, i n t he c entre o f t he h a l l n o t f ar f rom t he h earth. T he d a te o f t he b ui ld ing i s n ot g iven, but j udg ing by t he p ottery f ound i ns ide i t , i t may b e long t o t he I ron Age I p er iod. The bur ia ls were f ound i n t he s ame e xcavat ions wh ich r evea l t he r em a ins o f a wa l l . S ome o f t he g raves h ave n o i nventory, a f ew, by a na logy w ith t he ma ter ia l f rom t he g raves o f Haf tavan Tepe, b e long t o at ime c orr espond ing t o I ron Age I . The bur ia l w ithout a n i nventory i s a ttr ibuted t o t he I ron Age I p er iod o n t he b as is o f t he g rea test d epth o f d epos i t ion. A round t he p it t here w ere t he r ema ins o f b r icks. Hand-shaped p o ttery p redom ina tes. I t i s monochrome, unpa inted a nd s omet imes burn ished; o n ly a f ew v esse ls h ave a g ood f i r ing . The c o lour i s g rey a nd buff . The f orms a re n o t s ign if icant o n t he who le, but more c haracter ist ic p ottery h as b een f ound i n t he p rem ises o f t he bu i ld ing : t yp ica l i s t he g rey a nd b lack s l ipped ware. Here s ome p edesta l-based g ob lets a nd c ups, a s w e l l a s t wo s pher ica l-shaped r ibbed v esse ls w i th s hort-beaked s pouts a nd s ma l l h and les, a nd a w ide b ow l w ith a h o l low, c one-shaped p ierced f oot c an b e ment ioned ( b ib. n o . 1 30 Tab le V II, V III, X , X III; 1 38 p p. 1 74-177 ). Kurd istan B i jar . A g roup o f d estroyed c ist g raves was d iscovered i n n or thw est I ran n orth o f B i jar t own dur ing t he 1 971 e xped i t ion. The d escr ipt ion s ays t ha t t hey were c onstructed o ut o f mass ive s labs a nd f i e ld s tones. The d imens ions o f t he c hambers measured a bout 2 x 1 .5 m , a nd t hey w ere c overed w ith 's labs o n t op. A p edesta l-based g ob let a nd i s t ikhan t yp ica l o f t he I ron Age I p er iod were f ound i n o ne c hamber. The ma ter ia l h as n o t b een p ub l ished; t here i s ag enera l d escr ipt ion ( b ib. n o . 1 95). God in T epe was d iscovered i n 1 961 dur ing a n e xped it ion i n t he " Hasan lu P ro ject" under t he o vera l l d irect ion o f R . Dyson. T . Cuy ler Young c arr ied o ut e xcava tions t here i n 1 965, 1 967 , 1 969 , 1 971 a nd 1 973 under t he " God in P ro ject". The e xcava t ions were o rgan ised a nd s ubs id ised by t he Un ivers i ty o f Toronto , t he Roya l Ontar io Museum a nd t he A rchaeo log ica l 1 05

S erv ice o f I ran. The s ett lement i s o n t he s outh b ank o f t he n or th-eas t b ranch o f t he R iver Gamas Ab, wh ich r are ly h as wa ter f or more t han f i f ty d ays a y ear . God in Tepe o ccup ied a s tra teg ic p os i t ion o n t he Grea t Khorasan Road, t he most i mportant e ast-west r oute i n I ran. I n a nt iqu i ty God in Tepe was p robab ly a h a lt ing p lace o n t he r oad t o Kangavar . The a rea o f t he t epe i s a bout 1 4-15 h a ( 360 x 6 00 m i n p lan) a nd t he o vera l l h e ight f rom t he s urround ing p la in i s 3 0 m . The mound i s e longa ted i n f orm a nd o r iented s outh-west — n orth-east. I ts g enera l c onf igura t ion i s a3 -stepped p yram id w ith a g ent le s outh s ide a nd a s teep n or th s ide . A t t he b ase i s t he Outer T own, wh ich r ises t o ah e ight o f 6m . I t i s p art ia l ly s po i lt by s ma l l c onstruct ions, a Mus l im c emetery, a r oad a nd p its d ug f or f ert i l iser . The C i tade l r ises a bove t he Outer Town by 1 5 m a nd i s i n t he n orthern p art o f t he mound. The Upper C itade l r ises 9 m a t t he n orthern e nd o f t he C i tade l . The e xcava t ions w ere c arr ied o ut o n ag r id p a ttern o f 1 0 x 10 m s quares w i th 1 m w ide b au lks i n b etween. The ma in e xcava t ion o f 7 00 m 2 a nd 1 m d eep was c arr ied o ut o n t he upper c i tade l ( the a rea o f t he e xcava t ion a t t he b ottom was 6 00 m 2 ) . S even p er iods c over ing a p er iod f rom t he m idd le o f t he 6 th m i l lenn ium B .C. t o t he f i rst m i l lenn ium B .C. were r evea led a t t he t epe. No I ron Age Is ett lements were d iscovered a nd t herefore t here i s n o n ame c orrespond ing t o i t i n t he p er iod isa t ion o f God in T epe. Three I ron Age I g raves w ere d isc overed o n as ma l l r ise a t t he s outhern e nd o f t he Outer Town, wh ich w ere a mong God in I I g raves ( 2nd m i l lenn ium B .C.) ( Tab le I). Pub l ica t ion : ( bib. n o. 2 20). L ur istan A number o f c emeter ies o f d ifferent e pochs h ave b een d iscovered i n Western Lur istan ( Pusht-i Kuh a rea) by a Be lg ian a rchaeo log ica l m iss ion h eaded by L . Vanden Berghe. S ome o f t hem b e long t o t he I ron Age. A s ar u le, o ne c emetery i nc ludes g raves o f t he I ron Age I -II p er iods, t he l a ter bur ia ls b e ing I ron Age I g raves. Bard i Ba l c emetery was e xcava ted i n 1 970. I t i s 5 4 km s outh-east o f I l am t own o n t he b ank o f t he R iver Garab. The c emetery was r evea led o n a n a rea o f 3 0 x 2 3 m . I t h ad n o s urface f eatures a nd h ad b een c overed w i th f lood d epos its. I t i s p oss ib le t hat s ome o f t he g raves a re under t he r oad t o I l am. 7 2 g raves h ave b een r evea led, 1 5 o f wh ich h ad b een p lundered. The g raves b e longed t o t he I ron Age I -III p er iods. Bur ia ls i n t wo t ypes o f c ists a nd p its b e long t o t he f i rst p er iod. The ware i s o n ly buff a nd u np a inted. The b ronze i nventory c ons ists o f d aggers ( Types I , a nd I I), a xes ( Type I ), h and les f rom whetstones i n t he f orm o f as tone s heep, h era ld ic d ep ict ions o f as heep o r g oat, o pen b race lets w ith s ty l ized a n ima l h eads a t t he e nds. P ub l ica t ion:

( bib. n o . 2 09).

S hurabah c emetery was i nvest iga ted i n 1 969. I t i s n ear t he v i l lage o f P ayravand 1 8 km w es t o f Hars in t own o n t he b ank o f t he R iver Gamas iab. The c emetery h as b een d estroyed by t h ieves; t he o n ly un loo ted g rave h as b een s tud ied. I t i s as tone t omb w i thout a n e astern wa l l. There were a t l east 4 bur ia ls i n i t . 3 3 buff v esse ls were d iscovered i n i t . The b ronze i nventory c ons ists o f 2d aggers ( Type I I), 1 a rrowhead, 2 p ins w i th h eads i n t he f orm o f a bunch o f g rapes, 2 s ma l l n eed les, 2 b race lets, a s ignet r ing a nd 1 0 m icro l i ths.

1 06

P ubl icat ion :

( bib. n o. 2 08).

P a-y i Ka i c emetery i s 6 km n orth o f S h inar Bash i . I t was e xcava ted i n 1 969-70, when 1 2 g raves i n a l l w ere r evea led. They were s im i lar t o t he B ard i Ba i c ysts. The p reservat ion o f t he b ones was p oor. The ware was b uf f , w i th t wo p a inted v esse ls. The b ronze i nventory c ons ists o f ad agger ( Type I) a nd b ronze o rnaments. Sma l l i ron o rnaments were f ound i n 6 g raves. There were m icro l i ths i n v ir tua l ly a l l t he g raves. P ub l icat ion:

( bib. n o . 2 09).

Kuta li Gu lgu l c eme tery was e xcavated i n 1 972.

I t i s s outh-east o f t he

t own o f I lam. 2 The c emetery wh ich h ad b een c overed by a l ayer o f e arth w as r evea led by a b road t rench. A pho tograph s hows 1 1 g raves: s tone t ombs c overed by s labs. The pho tograph o f t wo o f t he g raves ( A4 , A6) s hows p o ttery s im i lar t o t he I ron Age I p o ttery o f Bard i Ba l a nd P a-y i K a i . Bronze o b jects w ere f ound i n t hese s ame g raves; d aggers ( Type I I, Ia), a n a xe ( Type I ), a rrowheads, b race lets, p ins a nd b adges. Pub l icat ion o f pho tographs : ( bib. n o. 2 02). Tepe Guran was d iscovered by t he 1 962 e xped it ion. Excava t ions w ere c arr ied o ut t here i n 1 963 by a Dan ish a rchaeo log ica l m iss ion under J . M e ldgaard. T epe i s i n t he f ert i le v a l ley o f Hu la i lan ( P ishi Kuh) i rr iga ted b y t he R iver S a imarrah. The mound i s o va l i n f orm a nd o r iented n or th-east. J udg ing by t he p lan i t i s 6 5 x 1 00 m a nd i s a t l east 8 m h igh. Apart f rom a s ma l l t rench i n 1 962, t hree e xcava t ions were c arr ied o ut i n 1 963, o ne a t t he p eak ( GI), a no ther a t t he s outhern e nd ( GII) a nd t he t h ird a t t he n orth e nd ( GIII). I n t he o p in ion o f t he d irector o f t he e xcavat ions t he mound h ad b een f ormed o n t he r ema ins o f a Neo l ith ic s ett lement, wh ich was a ga in s ett led o n ly i n t he l a te Bronze Age. The s econd p er iod l asted a bout 6 00 y ears ( 1300-700 B .C.) a nd c ons is ted o f f our phases. However i t s eems t he d a t ing o f t hese phases h as b een put f ar t oo r ecent. A b r ief d escr ipt ion o f t he ma ter ia l i n e ach phase i s g iven b e low t ogether w i th t he d ate p roposed by t he e xcava tor, a nd t he g rounds f or r eda t ing t hem w i l l b e e xam ined. Phase I ( 1200 ± 1 20 y ears B .C.). The s ett lement a t t h is t ime was a t t he s outhern f oot o f t he mound ( Trench G II). The c emetery was o n t op o f t he mound ( Trench G I, Graves 9 , 1 5 a nd p robab ly 1 1). The i nhumat ions w ere i n p its, c overed w i th s labs, w i thout a ny f ixed o r ientat ion. The ware i s whee l-made, p a inted, a nd c ons ists o f v asel ike a nd j arl ike t r ipods, j ars a nd p ots w ith s pher ica l b od ies. The unpa inted ware c ons ists o f b ow ls a nd v esse ls w i th d oub le h and les. The d ecora t ion i s i n t he f orm o f t r ia ng les w ith t he p o int u p, c heckerboard p a tterns, a nd h or izonta l c ha ins o f r hombo ids. I n Grave 1 1 were f ound 2 b ronze mugs w ith c oncave s ides a nd a l arge h and le, t anged d aggers a nd t wo a rrowheads. There i s s imi lar p ottery i n G iyan I I, D jamsh id i ( Grave 1 0), Bad Hora ( Grave I I) a nd Kamter lan I . These i t ems c over a t ime s pan o f 2 1001 700 B .C. ( b ib. n o . 7 8 Table 7 7, 7 8, 8 2; 1 70 p . 1 22 F igs. 4 -7). A s im i lar b ronze mug h as b een f ound i n Ka l leh N isar c emetery ( 2000-1600 B .C.); t hey were w idespread i n t he I s in-Larsa a nd O ld Baby lon ian p er iods ( bib. n o. 2 03 , p . 2 7, Tab le 7 ).

2 The mater ia l h as n o t b een pub l ished; o n wh ich t he d escr ipt ion i s b ased 1 07

t here a re o n ly a f ew pho tographs

R . Dyson n oted t he s im i lar ity b etween t he P hase I ma ter ia l a nd t hat o f G iyan I I; h owever, h e d id n o t r ev ise i t s d a te, b e l iev ing t ha t i t w as j ust if ied by t he l ong p ers istence o f t he t rad it ion G iyan I I ( b ib. n o . 8 9 p . 7 10). However, i t i s i mposs ib le t o a gree w i th h im s ince t he d at ing o f t he s ubsequent phases c ontrad icts t he d ate o f P hase I , e spec ia l ly i n t he c ase o f P hase I V. Phase I ( 1100-1000 B .C.) Character ist ic o f t h is phase a re t a l l monoc hrome c igar-shaped v esse ls o n as ub-base wh ich a re v ery s im i lar t o t he g ob lets o f t he G iyan I p er iod ( 1700-1300 B .C.). Phase I I ( 1000-850 B .C.)

The ma ter ia ls h ave n o t b een pub l ished.

There i s av ague ment ion t ha t t here was s ome k ind o f i nterva l a f ter P hase I I a nd b efore Phase I V. P hase I V ( 850-750 B .C.) The d estruct ion o f t he bu i ld ings i n a c onf lagra t ion i s l i nked w i th t h is phase. A t eapo t ( Type I ( a) 4 ) w as f ound o n t he f l oor o f o ne o f t hese b u i ld ings. S im i lar t eapots a re known i n D inkha I I, Haf tavan Tepe V a nd G eoy T epe B . I n f act t hey d e term ine t he d ate o f t h is phase o f t he p er iods a s I ron Age I . The i mposs ib i l i ty o f s uch a l a te d ate i s a lso a ttested by t he f act t ha t ag rave ( Grave 4 ) h ad b een d ug i nto t he r u ins o f t he h ouse where t he t eapot h ad b een f ound a nd t he i nventory o f t ha t g rave l i kew ise c anno t h ave a l a te d a te . A b ronze d agger ( Type Ia), 2 b ronze v esse ls, o ne o f t hem a t eapo t w i th unbr idged s pout, a p ine-cone a pp l iqué a t i t s b ase w ere f ound i n i t . The d ate o f t he g rave c annot b e l a ter t han t he 1 0 th c entury B .C. There must h ave b een s ome i nterva l o f t ime b etween t he d estruct ion o f t he h ouses a nd t he t ime o f bur ia l 4 . Thus, t he most p robab le d a tes o f t he phases a re t he f o l low ing . Phase I w ith in t he f irst h a lf o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C.; Phases I-III t he m idd le o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C. b efore t he s tart o f I ron Age I p er iod; a nd Phase I V--the I ron Age I p er iod. Pub l ica t ion :

( b ib. n o. 1 49).

T epe G iyan was d iscovered by Herzfe ld i n 1 928. I n 1 931-32 t he L ouvre o rgan ised e xcava t ions wh ich were h eaded by G . C onteneau ( 1931) a nd R . Gh irshman ( 1932). The s ett lement i s 1 0 km s outhwest o f N ihavend . The mound h as s uffered a s ar esu lt o f s o i l b e ing c arted away i nto n e ighbour ing f i e lds. Th is e v iden t ly e xp la ins t he d ifference i n t he measurements o f t he t epe a ccord ing t o t he p lan. 2 85 x 1 40 m a nd t he d a ta o f t he e xcavators, 3 50 x 1 50 m . The h e ight o f t he t epe i s 1 9 m . The e xcava t ions were c oncentra ted a lmost i n t he c en tre o f t he mound a nd s l ight ly t o t he n orth. Three t renches were dug , merg ing i nto o ne e xc ava t ion : Trench A ( 15 x 2 0 m ), Trench B ( 26 x 2 0 m ) a nd Trench C ( 15 x 2 6 m ). A t ad epth o f 1 9 m t he e xcava t ions t ouched v irg in s o i l . 1 22 g raves were d iscovered i n t he e xcavat ion a t v ar ious d epths ; 1 19 o f t hem were a t ad epth o f 0t o 9 .5 m . I n a dd i t ion, t he r ema ins o f s evera l c onstruct ions were a lso f ound, t he upper o nes a t al eve l o f 3 -4 m , t he n ext a t 5 -6 m a nd t he l ower o nes a t ad epth o f 1 3-14 m . On t he b as is o f as ty l ist ic a na lys is o f t he p ottery, f ive p er iods were d ist ingu ished c over ing a t ime s pan f rom t he 4 th t o t he b eg inn ing o f t he f i rst m i l lenn ium B .C. I n t h is work Graves 7 -51 a nd 5 3-59 , f ound a t ad epth o f 1 .9-3.7 m , b e long t o t he I ron Age Ip er iod. The d at ing o f t hese g raves i s d ebatab le a nd w i l l b e e xamined b e low. I n a dd it ion t o t he p ottery, s ome b ronze a rt ic les were f ound, i nc lud ing Type I I d aggers. S tructure I b e longs t o t h is p er iod. Graves 1 -28 w ere f ound a bove i t ,

1 08

n umbers 2 9-32 o n al eve l w ith i ts t op, a nd 3 3-61 o n al eve l w i th i ts b ase. I n t he f i rst pub l ica t ion o f t he G iyan f inds, R . M . Gh irshman d a ted t he G iyan I l eve l t o 1 400-1100 B .C., a ttr ibut ing Graves 1 -63 t o i t ( bib. n o. 7 8, p . 8 0). " Sty l is t ic" a na lys is o f t he p ottery was t he b as is f or d ist ingu ish ing t he p er iod. The p o ttery o f t h is p er iod i s c haracter ised ma in ly by t he a bsence o f p a int ing ( except f or t he p ottery o f Grave 6 0-63 a nd 1 -6). T . Cuy ler Y oung d ated G iyan I t o 1 250/1200-750/700 B .C., a t tr ibut ing o n ly t he f i rs t 5 9 g raves t o i t . G raves 6 0-63, i n wh ich t here w ere p a inted v esse ls, h e a ttr ibuted t o t he t rans it ion p er iod I-1 ( 13001 250/1200 B .C.). T . Cuy ler Young d iv ided t he G iyan I p er iod i nto f our s tages a ccord ing t o s tra t igraph ica l f ea tures, c orre lat ing t he p os i t ion o f t he g raves w i th t ha t o f s tructure I ( bib. n o . 2 19 p p. 6 2-68). Wha t d id t h is d iv is ion r esu lt i n a nd h ow j ust if ied i s i t ? T . Cuy ler Y oung h imse lf c ou ld n o t p rec ise ly d ef ine t he c hrono log ica l f ramework o f S tage 13 a nd c omb ined i t w i th S tage a ttr ibut ing i t t o t he Hasan lu V t ime ( Iron Age I ) ( b ib. n o . 2 19 p . 6 6). He d a tes S tage 12 a s 1 050/9508 50/800 , a nd c onsequen t ly puts i t i n t he I ron Age I p er iod. However, T . Cuy ler Young r e l ies t oo h eav i ly o n s tra t igraph ica l d a ta a nd undere st ima tes t he d a te o f t he p ottery i tse lf . Thus, Grave 5 2, wh ich, i n t erms o f t he p o ttery s ty le, i s o bv ious ly un l ike t he o ther g raves f ound a t t he s ame d epth, i s p ut i n S tage 14 ,a l though i t c lear ly b e longs t o a much l a ter t ime. Grave 5 2 was o n t he s lope o f t he mound, a l i tt le away f rom t he o ther g raves. Therefore, i n d at ing i t p reference s hou ld b e s hown t owards t he p ottery a nd n ot t he s tra t igraphy. The p o ttery o f t h is bur ia l b e longs t o t he c haracter istic " Lur istan s ty le" a nd s hou ld b e put i n t he 8 th-7 th c entur ies B .C. The s ame a pp l ies t o Grave 6 , t oo ( Stage 12 a ccord ing t o Y oung), i n wh ich t he p a inted ware i s a lso i n t he " Lur istan s ty le". I n o ur v iew a l l t hree s tages a re c u ltura l ly un if ied a nd b e long t o t he I ron Age I p er iod, i .e. i t i s a quest ion o f mak ing S tage 12 o lder. The g rounds f or t h is c onc lus ion i s t he un i ty o f t he p ottery S tages II +, 3 , 2 : ( 1) l arge p otl ike r ibbed v esse ls h ave b een f ound i n 14 ( Graves 3 1, 5 7 , 5 8), i n 13 ( Graves 2 4, 2 5), i n 12 ( Graves 9 , 1 0); ( 2) Kee l-type b ow ls i n 14 ( Graves 3 3, 3 5 , 4 9 , 5 0), i n 12 ( Graves 7 , 1 7); ( 3) c ups w i th h and les o f d ifferent v ar iat ions were f ound a mong t he ma ter ia l o f a l l t hree s tages; ( 4) g ob lets o n as ub-base w ith o r w ithout a h and le were f ound i n I ( Graves 3 3, 3 5, 3 6, 3 7, 3 8, 4 1, 4 7, 4 8, 4 6, 5 1, 5 7, 5 8, 5 9), i n 13 ( Graves 2 2, 2 7) a nd i n 12 ( Graves 1 0, 1 9); ( 5) p o t-shaped w ide-necked v esse ls i n 14 ( Graves 5 9 , 3 2), i n 13 ( Grave 2 3), a nd i n 12 ( Graves 1 5 , 1 6, 1 2). T . Cuy ler Young d oes n ot d eny l inks b etween s tage 12 a nd t he p reced ing s tages but h e c ons iders t he l i nks b etween t he p ottery o f G iyan 12 a nd t ha t o f S ia lk B c emetery t o b e more s ubstant ia l. He puts t he l a tter i n t he I ron Age I p er iod ( bib. n o. 2 19, p p. 6 8, 8 3 F ig . 1 3). These l inks a re l im ited t o t he r e la t ive s im i lar i ty b etween t wo h and less j ars f rom Graves 1 7 a nd 1 8 a nd t he j ars f rom Grave 6 6 i n S ia lk B . But t hese c anno t b e c ompared, a s T . Cuy ler Young h ad d one, s ince t he f orms a re d ifferent. The j ar f rom G rave 1 8 h as a s pher ica l b ody a nd a s tra ight n eck; t he j ar f rom Grave 1 7 h as a b ody wh ich w idens t owards t he s hou lders a nd a s tra ight n eck w iden ing s l ight ly t owards t he r im. Both t he j ars f rom Grave 6 6 i n S ia lk B h ave a f unne l-shaped n eck, t he b ody o f o ne ( b) i s p ear-shaped a nd w idens t owards t he b ase ( i t h as f luted d ecorat ion), a nd t he b ody o f t he o ther ( d) i s b a l ll ike w i th s lop ing s hou lders; t hey a re t h icker t han t he o nes f rom G iyan. There i s ag reater s im i lar i ty b etween t he o ne-hand led j ars f rom Grave 1 6 i n G iyan I a nd t hose f rom Graves 2 1 a nd 3 1 i n S ia lk B .

1 09

'

However . t h is s imi lar i ty c anno t b e g rounds f or s uch a c ons iderab ly l a ter d a te f or t he g raves o f S tage 12 . The upper d a te o f t he g raves o f S tage 12 i s d eterm ined by t he b ronze d agger f rom Grave 1 0 ( Type I I). The a bove a ttes ts t o t he c u ltura l un i ty o f S tages 14 , 3 , 2 , wh ich b e long o n ly t o t he I ron Age I p er iod, a nd t o i t s b e ing unwarranted t o d ist ingu ish t hese s tages. T . Cuy ler Young 's i so lat ion o f S tage I1, whose ma ter ia l c u lture d iffered c ons iderab ly f rom t he p reced ing o ne, was more j ust if ied. Th is i s ar eason f or c ons ider ing t ha t t here i s ac hrono log ica l a nd c u ltura l b reak b etween t hem. Th is i s a ttested p r imar i ly by t he w ide u se o f I ron a nd r e-emergence o f p a inted ware. The d a te o f G iyan I1,j udg ing by t he 3 -ho led c heek p ieces a nd r ings f or b r id le s traps f ound i n Grave 3 c anno t b e e ar l ier t han t he m idd le o f t he 8 th c entury B .C., a nd t herefore R . M . Gh irshman 's s uggested d ate f or t he upper g raves ( not l a ter t han 1 100 B .C.) c anno t i ndeed b e a ny l onger a ccepted . R . Dyson d ates t he p a inted ware i n t he " Lur istan s ty le" t o t he t ime ( ?) 7 00-600 B .C., a nd T . Cuy ler Young 8 50/800-750/700 B .C. Th is w are i s ag raph ic f ea ture o f L eve l I I i n Baba J an Tepe, wh ich C . Goff n ow d a tes t o t he 9 th-8th c entur ies B .C. ( b ib. n o. 1 08 p . 2 9 , 4 1-42); i n h er e ar l ier works i t was d ated t o t he 8 th c entury w i th a n eg l ig ib le d eepen ing i nto t he 9 th c entury. I n t he Baba J an I p er iod ( 7 th c entury B .C.) t h is ware was g radua l ly s upp lanted by monochrome, whee l-made ware o f t he Nushi J an t ype. I n e i ther c ase, t here i s ac hrono log ica l b reak b etween S tage a nd t he p reced ing o ne. T . Cuy ler Young e v ident ly wanted t o f i l l i t by e xtend ing t he d at ing o f S tage 12 ,a l though h e d id n ot s ucceed i n d o ing s o c omp lete ly s ince t he b reak i s marked i n h is f ina l s cheme ( bib. n o . 2 19 p . 8 3 F ig . 1 4). S o, Graves 7 -59 b e long t o t he ma in G iyan I p er iod ( Iron Age I ), a nd Graves 1 -6 a nd 5 2 t o S tage I '. B it S orgh S pr ing i s n ot f ar f rom Kermanshah o n t he r oad t o Hamadan. A c yst g rave was d iscovered by c hance by U .S. a rmy o ff icers n ear t h is p lace. There a re n o d escr ipt ions o f i t . I t y ie lded a c o l lect ion o f b ronze a rt ic les : 2d aggers ( Types I , I I) wh ich s erve a s t he b as is f or d a t ing t he g rave t o t he I ron Age I p er iod, a nd 6 a rrowheads. Pub l icat ion :

( b ib. n o . 8 6).

I raq i ' Agam i T epe S ia lk. A t t he b eg inn ing o f 1 933 v esse ls i n t he f orm o f t eapo ts w i th p a int ings o f a n ima ls a ppear o n t he a nt iquar ian market o f T ehran. I t b ecame o bv ious t hat t hey c ame f rom S ia lk. That s ame a utumn p erm iss ion was g ranted f or e xcavat ions , wh ich were c arr ied o u t i n 1 933, 1 934 a nd 1 937. They were o rgan ised by t he L ouvre a nd were d irected by R . M . Gh irshman. T epe S ia lk i s 3 km s outh-west o f Kashan. The s ett lement c ons ists o f t wo mounds 6 00 m a part. They were s ett led i n t he c ourse o f t he 5 th-3rd m i l lenn ium B .C. ( Sia lk I -IV). Tha t was f o l lowed by a l ong p er iod o f d eso la t ion, wh ich l ef t Cemetery A s i tua ted o n t he p la in s outh o f t he s outhern mound. 1 5 s imp le i nhuma t ions w ithout s urface f ea tures w ere e xcava ted ( Tab le I V). Pub l ica t ion :

( b ib. n o . 1 00).

Gheytaryeh c emetery was d iscovered a cc identa l ly dur ing t he bu i ld ing works . I n 1 969-71 work was d one o n i t by t he I ran ian Archaeo log ica l Exped it ion d irected by Kambahch F ard. The c emetery i s o n t he o utsk ir ts o f Tehran. The g raves

h ave n o s urface f eatures; 1 10

t herefore t he e xcavat ions

w ere c arr ied o ut by 5 x 5 m t renches. 3 50 g raves were f ound. p robab ly b e long t o t he I ron Age I p er iod. P ubl ica t ions :

S ome o f t hem

( bib. n o. 2 5 , 1 22).

Khurv in. Ar t ic les f rom l ooted t ombs i n t he a rea o f Khurv in b egan t o a ppear o n t he a nt iquar ian markets o f Tehran i n 1 948. I n 1 950 t he Archaeo log ica l S erv ice o f I ran o rgan ised e xp lora tory e xcava t ions i n t h is a rea under t he d irect ion o f M . Rad a nd A . Hak im i, who worked f or n ine d ays . I n 1 954 L . Vanden Berghe worked h ere f or 1 0 d ays. The n ame Khurv in i s p rov is iona l s ince t he e xcavat ions w ere c arr ied o ut a t Gan ji T epe n ear t he v i l lage o f Khurv in, wh ich i s 8 0 km n orth w est o f T ehran. Th is t epe i s t he b iggest i n t he n e ighbourhood, but i t s d imens ions a re n ot g iven i n t he l i tera ture. The p lan wh ich i s g iven i n L . Vanden Berghe 's work, puts i t d imens ions a t 1 000 x 1 000 m , wh ich i s i mposs ib le f or a n a rt if i c ia l mound. M . Rad a nd A . Hak im i dug t hree t renches i n t he e as tern p art o f t he mound a nd d iscovered s ix g raves . L . Vanden B erghe a lso d ug 3 t renches, o ne n ext t o a1 950 t rench, a nd t he o thers i n t he s outhern a nd n or th-eastern p ar t o f t he mound, a nd d iscovered 1 4 g raves. He ment ions t hat a t ad epth o f 2 metres t he t rench t ouched r ock, wh ich t ogether w i th t he d imens ions o f t he t epe g ives g rounds f or b e l iev ing t ha t i t i s an a tura l mound. The f inds o f t he f i rst e xcava t ions a re v ir tua l ly unpub l ished, but f rom s evera l photographs a nd c i ted a na log ies i t i s p oss ib le t o c onc lude t hat t he p o ttery f rom t he 6 g raves f ound i n 1 950 i s s im i lar t o t hat f ound i n t he 1 954 e xcava t ion. The d a t ing o f t he Khurv in c emetery i s d ebatab le, a nd t heref ore a dd it iona l f acts a re g iven b e low o n t he b as is o f wh ich i t i s a ttr ibuted t o t he I ron Age I p er iod i n t h is work. L . Vanden Berghe d ated Khurv in c emetery, t ogether w i th t he ma ter ia ls f rom p r ivate c o l lect ions wh ich h ave c ome f rom i lega l e xcava t ions i n t h is a rea , t o at ime b etween 1 300 a nd 9 00 B .C., a l though h e c ons idered a more p robab le d ate f or t he c emetery t o b e t he 1 1th c entury B .C. ( bib. n o. 2 05 p p. 4 44 5). There a re n o p edesta l g ob lets a nd c ups i n Khurv in c emetery, a nd p a ttern burn ish ing , c haracter ist ic o f t he I ron Age I i s n o t r epresented t here. Th is i n f act g ave R . Dyson c ause t o r eda te t hese g raves . H e d a ted t hem t o t he I ron Age I I t ime f i rst ly o n t he g rounds t ha t t he t eapo ts f rom Grave 1 2 w ith a z oomorph ic h ead o n t he s pout w ere s im i lar i n f orm t o t he p a inted ware f rom S ia lk B c emetery a nd Grave 5 2 i n G iyan I , where I ron Age I I p a inted ware h ave b een f ound a nd s econd ly o n t he g rounds t ha t t he b ow ls w ith a h or izonta l h and le f rom Khurv in were s im i lar t o t he I ron Age I I b ow ls f rom Hasan lu I IB a nd f rom G rave 2 i n G iyan I ( b ib. n o . 8 8 p . 1 95, 2 06). H owever, s uch a l a te d a te f or t he Khurv in c emetery i s c ontrad icted by a number o f f acts, p r imar i ly t he f act t ha t t he I ron Age I I p er iod i s c haracter ised by t he d isappearance o f g rey ware a nd t he p red om inance o f r ed a nd p a inted ware . The ware f rom Khurv in, h owever, w ith a f ew e xcept ions, i s g rey-b lack a nd t here i s n o p a inted ware. Unp a inted t eapo ts w ith z oomorph ic h eads w ere f ound a t Khurv in t ogether w i th t eapo ts w ith unbr idged s pouts, wh ich a re c haracter ist ic o f I ron Age I . R . Dyson ' sc ompar ison w i th t he b ow ls was un just if ied , s ince i n r ea l i ty o n ly t he f orm a nd t he m ethod o f a ttach ing t he h and le a re s im i lar , whereas t he f orm o f t he b ody o f t he b ow ls a re d ifferent; i n Khurv in t he s ides a re s tra ight a nd d ivergent; i n Grave 2 G iyan t he s ides a re b ent a nd i n Hasan lu I IB t he b ody i s a lmos t s em i-spher ica l w i th a c onvex e dge ( b ib. n o. 8 8 Table XXXVIII). Apar t f rom t ha t t he I ron Age I I p er iod i s c hara cter ised by t he w ide u se o f i ron, y et t he f ew w eapons f ound i n Khurv in were o n ly b ronze. A p ot-shaped s pouted v esse l f rom Grave 2 i n Khurv in i s s im i lar t o av esse l f rom Grave 1 5 i n S ia lk A ( b ib. n o. 1 00 Tab les X ,VII, 1 11

6 77a). A v esse l w ith a c y l indr ica l s pout a nd a b asket-type h and le f rom Grave 8 i n Khurv in i s s im i lar t o v esse ls f rom Gheytareh c emetery, where t hey were f ound t ogether w i th t eapo ts w ith p edesta l g oblets o f t he I ron Age I p er iod ( b ib. n o . 2 5 D iagrams 3 , 4 ). Thus t here a re more d a ta f or d a t ing t he Khurv in g raves t o t he I ron Age I p er iod. Another t epe a lmost t ouches Gan ji Tepe t o t he s outh—Siah. Traces o f i lega l e xcavat ions c an b e s een o n i t s e astern s ides. A ccord ing t o t he l oca l i nhabi tants, many g o ld a rt ic les w ere f ound h ere. I n 1 950 much ware was c o l lected f rom i t s s urface wh ich i n t he words o f M . Rad a nd A . Hak im i was s im i lar t o t ha t o f S ia lk A . P ubl ica t ion:

( bib. n o. 2 05 ;

1 74).

1 12

APPENDIX I D ISTRIBUTION OF TYPES OF VESSEL ON I RON AGE I S ITES

I (a)1 .

Khurv in-in g raves :

6 /2,3 ; 7 /1 ; 9 /1,2 ; 1 4/5; b ib. n o . 2 05.

1 1/3 ;

1 2/6 ;

1 3/4 :

I (a)1 '.

Khurv in in g raves :

4 /2 ;

5 /3 ;

1 2/5 ;

I (a)2 .

Khurv in in g raves :

1 /5; 2 05 .

8 /3 ;

9 /3 ;

I (a)3.

S ia lk Ain g raves: G iyan I -in g raves:

1 /441 ; 1 1/451b; b ib. n o . 1 00 . 1 6/1 ; b ib. n o . 7 8.

I (a)4 .

S ia lk A-in g raves :

I V/455 ;

I (a)4 '.

Hasan lu V --

b ib. n o . 2 19, f ig . 8 /5.

I (b)1.

G iyan Iin g rave : Hasan lu V-

1 8/2; b ib. n o . 7 8 . b ib. n o. 2 19, f ig . 8 .7.

I (b)2 .

G iyan Iin g raves : 1 7/2; 2 6/3; b ib. n o. 7 8 . D inkha I Iin g rave : B9a, bur . 2 5/420 ; b ib. n o. 1 62.

I (b)3.

S ia lk A -in g raves:

V /475 ; 1 00 .

I (b)4.

S ia lk Ain g raves :

X IV/663 ;

I (b)5.

Khurv in -in g rave :

I /3;

I (b)6 .

G iyan Iin g rave :

4 7/4 ;

I (b)7.

D inkha

I (b)8.

G iyan I -in g rave :

1 0/6;

I (c)1 .

G iyan I -in g rave : S ia lk Ain g rave:

2 6/1 ; b ib. n o. 7 8. XV/673 ; b ib. n o . 1 00.

I (a)1.

Khurv in in g raves :

1 /1 ; 5 /1; 8 /5 : 9 /5 ,6; 1 4/2; b ib. n o . 2 05.

I (a)1 '.

Gheytaryeh in g rave: b ib. n o. 1 22, f ig . 9( on t he t op ).

I (a)2.

S ia lk Ain g raves :

I (a)3.

Gheytaryeh in g raves:

I (a)4.

D inkha I I-in g raves : B9a bur. 1 5/334 ; 1 7/337; 2 4/936; 2 6/922; 2 7/921; B9b bur. 1 1/89 : 1 6/269; BlOb, bur. 1 0/234; V II, bur. 1 /933; 2 /237; b ib. n o . 1 62. Haf tavan in g rave : J .1 bur . 7 ; b ib. n o. 6 8, f ig. 8 /1 . Geoy T epe-in g rave: K ; b ib. n o . 7 3, f ig . 3 2/37. Guran in g rave : b ib. n o. 1 49, f ig . 2 4.

b ib. n o . 2 05. 1 0/2 ;

X I/605b;

1 3/1 ;

b ib. n o.

b ib. n o . 1 00 .

V III.503a ; XV/677b;

X III/660b;

b ib. n o.

b ib. n o . 1 00 .

b ib. n o . 2 05. b ib. n o. 7 8.

g ravesÄ TII, bur . 1 /938 ; B9a, bur. 1 7.903 ; 1 9/952; 2 3/974; B9b, bur. 1 1/83; 1 2/86 ; 1 6/949; B10b, bur . 1 0.939 ; b ib. n o. 1 62 . G iyan Iin g raves : 8 .1; 1 6/3; 2 3/1 ; 5 9/1; b ib. n o . 7 8.

V/478 :

b ib. n o . 7 8 .

X III/660a ;

1 1/1;

1 2/3,4;

b ib. n o. 1 00.

b ib. n o . 1 22, f ig . 9 , 1 1 .

1 13

II(b)l.

Dinkha III-in graves: B8e, bur. 7/937; B9a, bur. 26/792; bib. no. 162.

II(b)l.

Khurvin--in grave: 8/8; bib. no. 205. Gheytaryeh-in grave: bib. no. 1�2, foto p. 67.

II(c)l.

Khurvin-in grave: Sialk A-in grave:

2/3; bib. no. 205. XV/677a; bib. no. 100.

II(c)2.

Giyan I-in grave:

39/4,5; bib. no. 78.

III(a)l.

Giyan I-in graves:

10/5; 20/3; 22/3; 25/-; 52/11; 59/5; bib. no. 78. bib. no. 219, fig. 8/6.

III(a)l'.

Hasanlu V· Geoy Tepe--in trenches: VIIl-347, 1008, 1015, 1003, 1014, 336; IV--238, bib. no. 7.l.· Dinkha III--in graves: B9a, bur. 19/�l;\ 24/866; B9b, bur. 11/85; bib. no� 162.

III(a)2.

-in graves: 7 /3; 17./4; 34/2; 35/4; 49/2; 50/3; 59/2;, .,:.'bib. no. 78. Sialk A--in graves: I/�, 435, 443; III/453c; V/482a; V/482b; VI/496b; VI/498b; IX. 523b; X/531; XIV/666b; XV/474c. bib. no. 100.

III(a)3.

Sialk A-in graves:

III(a)4.

Dinkha III-in graves: VII, bur. 1/882; B8e, bur. 7/891; 17/893; 26/881; 27/889; bib. no. 162. Geoy Tepe-in grave: K/2,22; bib. no. 73.

III(a)5.

Giyan I-in graves:

IIl(b)l.

Khurvin-in graves: 8/7; 9/4; 10/1; 12/2; 13/2,3; 14/4; bib. no. 205.

III(b)l'.

Khurvin-in graves: 1/2; 2/1; 4/1; 8/ 6; 9/9; 11/8; 12/7; 14/1; bib. no. 205.

III(b)2.

Khurvin-in graves: 6/1; 11/2; bib. no. 205.

III(b)3.

Giyan I--in graves: Hasanlu VSialk A-in graves:

III(a)l".

III(c)l. IIl(c)2. III(d)l.

V/470, 474, 479, 480a, 480b; VI/496a, 498a, 490; XIIl/658a,b; XIV/667a,b; XV/474b,d; bib. no. 100.

19/4; 26/7; 28/3; 38/4; 43/6; 46/3; 55/3; bib. no. 78. Geoy Tepe--in grave: K I 478; bib. no. 73.

16/2; 21/3; bib. no. 78. bib. no. 219, fig. 8/8 I/ 430; III/453a; VIII. 503b; X I 532, 533; XIl/609; bib. no. 100.

Dinkha III-in graves: B9a, bur. 19/982; B9b, bur. 16/359; 12/88; bib. no. 162. I/440; bib. no. 100. Sialk A-il) grave: 31/2; bib. no. 78. Giyan I--fo grave:

IV(a)1.

Sialk A--in graves:

IV(a)2.

Sialk A --in grave: Giyan I-in graves:

V/48lb,c; VI/497; VIII/504a; XIII/ 659a,b; XIV/665a,b; XY/672; bib. no. 100. I/438; bib. no. 100. 9/1; 31/1; 34/1; 57/1; bib. no. 78. 114

I V(a)2 '.

G iyan I -in g raves:

I V(a)3.

G eoy Tepe -in g rave: K/16; t rench 1-916/225; 5 20/663; b ib. n o . 7 3 .

I V(a)4.

G iyan Iin g raves :

2 4/-;

I V(a)5.

G iyan Iin g raves:

Khurv in in g rave : Hasan lu VGeoy Tepe -trench :

7 /1; 1 7/3; 18 /1 ; 2 0/1 ; 22 /1 ; 4 1/-; 4 7/1 ; 5 4/2; b ib. n o . 7 8. V/473b; X I/604; XY/677c; b ib. n o . 1 00 . 8 /4; b ib. n o . 2 05. b ib. n o. 2 19, f ig . 8 /3,4. I V-510/651; b ib. n o. 7 3.

I V(a)6.

G iyan Iin g raves :

2 0/2;

I V(a)7.

G iyan Iin g rave: S ia lk Ain g rave :

1 5/1; b ib. n o. 7 8. X I/605; b ib. n o. 1 00 .

I V(a)8.

G iyan Iin g raves :

12 /1 ; 32 /1 ; b ib. n o . 7 8.

I V(b)1.

S ia lk A-in graves :

V I/492 ;

I V(c)1.

G iyan Iin g raves :

2 0/4;

I V(c)1 '.

G iyan Iin g raves : 3 1/3; 3 6 /3; 5 8/1; b ib. n o. 7 8. S ia lk Ain g rave: X II /6 11; b ib. n o. 1 00. God in Tepe in g rave ; 0 , bur. 1 0.205; b ib. n o . 2 20 .

I V(c)1".

S ia lk Ain g rave:

X II/608;

I V(c)2.

Khurv in in g rave :

1 1/4;

V (a)1.

Geoy Tepe in g rave : K/18,33; t rench V III -620/1004; n o. 7 3. G iyan Iin g rave : 4 3/3; b ib. n o . 7 8. S ia lk Ain g rave: I 1 1/453b; b ib. n o. 1 00.

V (a)1 '.

S ia lk A-in g raves:

II/453d ;

V (a)2.

S ia lk Ain g raves : Khurv inin g rave :

I V/454; X IV/664b; b ib. n o . 1 00. 14 /3 ; b ib. n o. 2 05.

V (a)3.

Khurv inin g raves :

V (a)3 '.

Khurv inin g raves :

2 /2; 4 /3 ; 5 /2; 8 /1,2; 1 1/5 ,6 ,7 ; b ib. n o. 2 05. 1 /4; 9 /7 , 8; 12 /1 ; b ib .n o. 2 05.

V (a)4.

S ia lk A -in g raves:

1 /436 ; 1/450 ; V I.495; X IV/668 ; b ib. n o. 1 00.

V (a)3-4.

Hasan lu V-

b ib. n o. 2 19, f ig. 8 /9.

V (a)5 .

S ia lk A-in g raves:

1 /433; V I/488; V III/504b; X III/610; b ib. n o. 1 00 . 8 /2 ; 2 8/2 ; 3 3/2; 3 3/1; 3 7/4; 4 2/2; 4 9/1; 5 0/2; b ib. I D. 7 8.

S ia lk A -in g raves :

G iyan I -in g raves : V (a)6.

G iyan _I in g raves: S ia lk A-in g raves : Hasan lu V-

V (a)7 .

S ia lk Ain g raves : G iyan I -in g raves:

3 9/1;

5 0/1;

2 5/-;

2 1/2;

b ib. n o. 7 8.

2 6/4;

3 5/3;

t rench I V-

b ib. n o . 7 8.

5 9/4;

b ib. n o. 7 8.

b ib. n o. 1 00 .

3 5/2;

3 8/6 ;

5 4/1;

b ib. n o . 7 8.

b ib. n o. 1 00.

b ib. n o. 2 05.

V /481a ;

b ib.

b ib. n o. 1 00.

I X/ 5 22;

1 8/3; 4 2/3; 5 3/2; b ib. n o . 7 8. X/529 ; 5 30a ; X IV/664a ; XV/671a,b; b ib. n o. 1 00. b ib. n o . 2 19, f ig . 8 /2. V I/491,494b; X /530b; X IV/670; no . 1 00. 9 /2; 2 4/-; 4 4/-; b ib. n o . 7 8 .

1 15

b ib.

V (a)7 '.

G iyan Iin g raves :

1 5/2;

2 1/1;

5 8/3;

V (a)8.

G iyan Iin g rave:

3 9/2;

b ib. n o .

V (a)9.

S ia lk Ain g raves :

V/473a ; 1 00.

V (a)10.

S ia lk A --in g rave :

V/477;

V (a)11.

Haf tavan Tepe in g rave : 8 /7.

V (a)12 .

G iyan I -in g raves :

1 0/4;

V (b)1.

S ia lk Ain t g aves : ,r

1 /439,445 ; 6 66a,669 ;

V (b)2 .

S ia lk A -in g raves :

J .1

bur .

1 2/2;

7 8.

7 8.

V I/489 ; b ib. n o .

b ib. n o.

X I/603;

b ib. n o .

1 00. 7 ;

b ib. n o.

b ib. n o.

I/451a ; XV/671c;

6 8, f ig .

7 8.

X III/657b; X IV/ b ib. n o. 1 00 .

I I/453e; V I/494a ; X III/657a ; 6 74a ; b ib. n o . 1 00. G iyan Iin g rave: 4 3/4; b ib. n o . 7 8. Geoy Tepe in g rave: K /402; b ib. n o . 7 3.

XV/

V I(a)1.

1 0/3; 2 7/1; 4 2/1; 4 7/5; b ib. n o . 7 8 S ia lk A-in g rave: I X/523a ; b ib. n o. 1 00. God in Tepe in g rave: 0 , bur . 8 /19 9; b ib. n o. 2 20. Ghey taryeh -in g raves : b ib. n o. 1 22, f ig . 9 , 1 1; 2 5, f ig . I /IVb. D inkha I Iin g raves: B9a, bur . 1 9/717; 2 5/696; B 9b, bur. 1 2/87; b ib. n o . 1 62. Hasan lu V2 19, f ig . 8 /1,10; 1 61, f oto 1 8 .

V I(a)2.

Geoy Tepe in g rave: K /38; b ib. n o. 7 3. D inkha I Iin g rave: V II, bur. 2 /229; b ib. n o. 1 62. G iyan I-in g rave : 2 2/2; b ib. n o . 7 8. S ia lk A-in g rave : 1 /442 ; b ib. n o . 1 00. G iyan Iin g raves: 4 6/2; 5 8/4; 5 9/3; b ib. n o. 7 8.

V I(a)2 '. V I(a)3. V I(a)3 '.

G iyan I -in g raves :

God in Tepe in g raves :I V I, bur . 3 /132 ; 0 , bur. b ib. n o . 2 20. G iyan I -in g raves : 3 3/2; 3 5/5; b ib. n o. 7 8.

V I(a)3(?). Yan ik Tepe in g rave: A6/29;

b ib. n o.

7 1.

V I(a)4.

G iyan I-in g rave :

2 0/5;

V I(b)1.

G iyan I-in g raves:

3 5/1; 3 6/1; 4 2/4; 4 3/2; n o. 7 8.

V I(b)1 '.

G iyan I -in g rave:

4 3/1;

V I(b)2.

G iyan I -in g raves:

1 0/2; 1 9/1,2,3 ; 3 8/1,2,3; 4 6/1 ; 4 7/2,3 ; 4 8/-; b ib. n o . 7 8.

V I(b)2 1.

G iyan Iin g raves :

3 7/3;

V II(a )1.

S ia lk Ain g rave:

1 /437;

V II(a)2.

G iyan I -in g raves: 3 0/-; 4 9.3; b ib. n o. 7 8. S ia lk Ain g rave: V/472; b ib. n o . 1 00. H asan lu V in g raves : b ib. n o . 2 19, f ig . 8 /11,12,13,14.

V II(b)1.

G iyan I-in g rave:

2 8/1;

1 16

b ib. n o .

1 0/204 ;

37 /1 , 2; 5 1/1,2;

b ib. n o.

4 4/-;

n o.

4 0/-; 4 1/-; 5 7/2,3; b ib.

7 8.

5 5/1;

b ib. n o .

b ib.

7 8.

b ib. n o.

7 8.

1 00.

7 8.

V III(a)1.

G iyan I -in g raves:

7 /2;

V II(a)2.

G iyan I— in g rave:

2 6/2;

4 8/-;

b ib. n o .

b ib. n o .

7 8 .

7 8.

ABBREVIATIONS

ADAJ AJA AMI AS ASPR BAH BASOR BM BMMA CAH EW I A

Annua l o f t he Department o f Ant iqu i ties o f J ordan The Amer ican J ourna l o f Archaeo logy Archäo log ische M i tte i lungen a us I ran Ana to l ian S tud ies Amer ican S choo l o f P reh istor ic Research B ib l ioth ' eque a rcheo log ique e t H istor ique Bu l let in o f t he Amer ican S choo ls o f Or ienta l Research B ib l ioth ' eca Mesopotam ica Bu l letin o f t he Metropo l itan Museum o f Art Cambr idge Anc ient H istory E ast a nd West I ran ica Ant igua

I PEK J NES MDAI MJ O IP ROM WVDOG

J ahrbuch f ür P rah istor ische E thnograph ische Kunst J ourna l o f Near Eastern S tud ies Memo ires d e l a De l eat ion a rcheo log ique e n I ran Museum J ourna l Or ienta l I nst itute Pub l icat ions Roya l Ontar io Museum W issenschaf t l iche Ver6ffent l ichund d er Deutschen Or ient Gese l lschaf t

Cn k lcoK

B 4 1 4

-

BeCT S : 11 1 1 (

c o } cpage r az i t

z peB i leä E cTop l az

-r ocyAape rBe fead i E c i rop l a T iecKa f t i t y3eä K C V IA

K pan sme c ooöfp lu a s i a l icTETT ra a pxeoxon tu a

K C I 4B IK

K panu ae c ood i ge f la K y / IbTyp i i

K C I 43

K panue c ooue i iz z acTaT ra an iorpae ku n

T H ICTIVryea l icTopag

. N 4 aTepna inao i e

N I NA

-M aTepaan z zz ew le i r z oBa k in s i n o a pxeanoraz C CCP

C A

-C oBeTc E ca sa a pxeozora i i

C A I 4 C 3

C BQ I Z a pxeanorkmec iuu

V ICTOt IHRKOB

-C oBeTcxa s i an iorpa cp as t

T p .CarY

T py ju i C amapKag gcKoro r ocy j zapcTBenaoro y E tasepczTeTa

i O TAK3

K I KE IO-Typ i tme f icKaa Ä pxeonon a t iecKa s i X M L IR S I •

1 18

k o m t r a e l t cHa a

3 Ecue-

Z OTEPAT YPA HA PECHOM R SURE I . A Ba l iecoBa H .A . HB onpocy o 40H9OBHX c Tpexax C TeHHUX n nemä l l 9 HOXX 40H3 1 1 .- " MaTepHaAU H O a pxe mormx Y 3 ( 5eKmoTa f ian.Tp .CarY , H oBaR c ep i n s i ,sun .270 ,I975 ,CamapKa f ig. 2 . AJ IK I I IKH B. A. , Hy pO l IKKH

r . H . h o B aH

J u r repaTypa H O x yp I ncTa f icK v im

d po inam .- C A .1 972 ,1. 3 . A paKezm i E .H . I t iag c epeöp s i f lux mgem ak 1 4 3 3 pedy f ix .- C A ,1 971 ,1 . 4 . B uKepma i i 3 . X po t ioAoras Ä pe mero m apa .M .,1976 . 5 . B mHorpggoB A .B .,Hy nmmHa C A ,I970, 6 . B opo neBa

J Ime ib lue c b opmu Y 1 9 ä RBARRaHa .-

2 .

M . I .

Ä va ir s i um ze. Y cagm 5a I T uc sp iezeTaa g o H .9. B

g pe mem X opesme.M .,I973. 7 . P pa i lToEcK a 3 .A . P aHHRE k i cTop re l m pa l icKmx n nemä f i f l epegHek Amm .M .,1970 . 8 . Z a f igamaeB M .A . Z aH l ib le B aB l i no f icKax g oKyme f iToB Y I-Y B B . Ä O H .3. oc aKax 9 . Z AHgamaeB M .A ., Z yKo l im i

B . r .

Hy ALTypa 4 9 KOHOMOKa g pe mero

I O.T u t c 4ap3gge H .M . 3 xeme i r r i l a pxeo i lorw lecKo l l K ym,T yPh lÄ pe eä M yra m.

" i /3BeCTXR A H A sepöaggxa f icKog C CP",I946 ,Bun .4 ,M 9 .

I I . ÄI D P IROHOB M. M. M cTop i n s iM j ig i. OT g pe me it uox E peme l l g o K oHua Y I B ea g o H .3..M .. 1 1 .,1956 . 1 2. J AA LZHCRai l B .A . OT HOCETeA l pHaR x poHonorm i l p am iecK lecxxx K ypr a l loB d accee la p . TA CMäH .- C A ,1973 ,3 . 1 3 . Aum icKan B .A . P am iec imecK le K ypra l iu ( J acce ib ia p .TRomm i i . H oeB ,I975. 1 4 . H i lade

r . c .

B onpoc o C OOTHOWeH JE 4 a pex mora l lecKoe KTI LTypu

3 THOCa B c oBpemenHok 3 apydea l iok x xTepaType .-CA ,I959 ,3 .

1 9

5 . H y3LmmHa E .E . H B onpocy o 4 ) opmmpoBaHmx K yALTypHoro R om me l = m orm .ALHmKa H xepaA .- H CZA .Bun .142 ,I975 . 1 6 . H y3Emm i la E .E . M eTaAAm L iecKme M WAMA 3 A lmmTa m ö poH3oBoro B eKa

B

C pegHe i i i A 3 1 41 1 .- C AZ .Bun .

B4-9 .1966.

7 . H ydn 'H B .A .Apxe mormmec ue p acKonKm 1 8 . H y mapeBa H .X . ü dmeH m T oproBAH

B

B

T pmaxeTm .Töo i lmcm ,I94I .

s aKaBKa3Le

B

z peBHocTm .-

H CZA .B En .I38 ,I973 . 1 9.

J I V ITBMHCK 1 4 1 4

B .A . 0 ÄpCBHOCTIA w oro c pegHea3maTcKoro o öu l la i l .-

H C 1 43 .T .XXX ,E J58 . 2 0. ä yKoHm l i

3 . r .

1 4C UCCTBO

Ä peBHero

2 1 . M a imeAb l uTam A .M . / pe i J .Ha :/ de Khurvin .

T i stanbul

L .

, 1 964.

Vanden Berghe - 03.

1 965

. L a ngcropole

, 4 .

2 2 . M accoH B .M . Ä peBHese megexL x lecKaH K yAzTypa M aprzaHht- M ZA , 7 3 ,M .-Z .,I959 . 2 3 . M accoH B .M . P acuBeT m y nar g oK K yALTypu 3 emzeze m p eB l o ro-3an aza .- L j pezHun 2 4 . M axmyzoB

e . P .

A305 1 B

3 noxy K amHH

d poH3u .M .-ä .,I966.

H oBue a pxeo f lor i ngecKme z aHHue o g peBHe l a Kw ILType

T a i lu u la m M yraHm. -"Z3BecTmn .A H A 3epd.CUP ,cepmE m cTopmm ,e moc4mm ,npaBa" .I970 , 1 i g 2 . 2 5 .

M ezBggcKaH Z. H. MO ITALE UR z eAe3Horo B eKa

Ha l ea p r le

- HOB I a lk HaMETHMK

C A .1977 ,I.

2 3 . M ezBezeKa s i Z .H . h eKoTopue B onpocu x poHozorm i n KOHel lHHHOB

2 7 .

MeAV IK2 1 1 1 1BMAX

c Tpez

p a me-

Opeg l iek A n ti l

dp0H3OBNX

Ha-

H a3axcTaHa.- C A .I972 ,3 .

r .A .HeKoTopue B onpocu m cTopmm m aHeücKoro u apcTBa . -

4 4Z ,I949 ,I . 2 3 . i v i e Jn oxoBa

B oopy ? KeHme c l u i4oB .-CAZ ,k in .Ä 1 -4 ,M . ,1 964 .

2 9. I V i epnepT H .H .0 z ypmcTaHcK mx M a3u .-

3xeme wrax

H ua .B un .1 08 ,1966 . 1 20

B

maze m 3 C ocHoB e '

3 0. M oHra e A .ä . A pxe morm s i 3 ana Ho

Ipon i, E po moBu l l

e J xe3-

H 3 1.

H MO Tp0B CK le D .E . B aHcKoe g apcTBo .M .,1959 .

3 2 . H moTpoBc lu nk

B .E . ,BcTyn o Tem pHa i l C T aT I DR K Kure: ÄI JKOHOB

Y papTcK i ne n mcbma ig oKymeHTu .M .-ä .,1963. 3 3. H orpedoBa M .H . 1 / paH

S a m ma3Le

Bp aHHem a exe3Hom B eKe.M .,

1 977 . 3 4 . H orpedoBa M .H . K i d i iKaA n epegHea3maTcKoro T ona R 3 l i eZadeKC IW 1 10 m or pu lL iuma B C eBepHom

T pygu 1 1M .Bun .37 ,1960.

3 5 . H orpedoBa M .H . h eKoTopue d p opmu 3 aKaBKascKoro o pyam s i p aHHemi lecKoro B pemeHm .- H CZA .Bun .89 ,1962 . 3 6 . H orpedoBa M .h . h ec im inKo z paHcxxx

K AH SW IOB H a K a mase .-HCZA .

B un .1 03 ,1965 . 3 7 . H yrage f iKoBa

r .A . o ö wo k ' r pynne n enHux T eppaKoToBux c Ta Ty 9-

T OK T oxapucTaxa .- B c d. " hoBoe B C O B eTCK 02 a pxeonorm e.M ., 1 965. 3 8 . C apaaHggo B .M . M cczegoBa lu an H aMATHRKOB Ä a in u l icKoro o au lca .Ä peBHAR E aKTpmn .M .,I976. 3 9 . C apma l imgm B .L M aTep 2 taxbHa s i Kp ILTypa m a l ioro T yp meir acTaBa B n ep s dog p aHHek 40H3N . -H epBodu muä T ypKmeHocTax . A wxaöag , 1 976 . 4 0. C ap i la t iggm B .Z . H orpedeHm s i r zccap W . H oBue m aTep i nanu m H aÖ J N OZeH I JA . -V I CTOpe l H paHCRO IO r ocygapcTBa 1 Kp ILTypu .M ., 1 971. 4 1. C apxa mgm B .1 4 . / Pen .f ia :/ c .c . a t T epe-Yahya .

- CA. 1 972,

I .

1 21

T amberg-Karlovs e.

Excavations

4 2. amp 1°B K . .B oopyze l ime c aBpomaToB .-M 1 71 .10I ,M .,I96I. 4 3 . C Tax i ceBmg A .ä . C onocTa mef f i ne K epam i ngecKmx K OM MeKCOB H aMETHAKOB

T HC. Ä O H .3. - C A .1 970 ,3 .

4 4. T epe l iox im i A .A . H i nmmep leuu .K i neB ,I976 . 4 5 .

T oHgeBa

r . 0 ga l e i nk ax H i lHeWHAX

Y IT (9 1 4 HU , M W1 0 BU , Ä0öP pao

oc eBepo-BucTo lu io l l B oxrap i nm B X I-YI B B ,zo H .3. - " Ctudia T hracica".

1 975 ,

I .

4 6 .3 r iudep Ä . H epcen uL.M .,I977 . 4 7 . X a3aHoB A .M . 0 1 1epK i i i B OeHHOPO z e J la c apmaToB .M .,197I. X a3aH0 1 3 A .M . C zoa l lue x ym e Bpa3 lecK i nx c Tene2

l pana B C K 40-

c apmaTc u l o 3 loxy .- B c d. M aTepoa m p l iaA R yALTypa s apozoB C pezH e i l A 3 1 4 1 4 i nH a3axcTa f ia .M .,I966 . 4 9 . X a l laTp i i i i T .C . Z peBHAA K yzETypa W mpa l ia . E peBaH ,I975. 5 0. ) (mu B . r ocyÄapoTBo 3 Aam .M .,I977. 5 1 . X i lon im Z .H . B epx f ix2 C AOl r i n oceze l iz a

K CAAMH ,Bun .

7 6 ,1959. 5 2 . X zo lu n l i Z .H . Ä am i luzz l n-gene K a l leau r rogec lue s emze ,gezzgu 1 EH oro

1 0T AK3 . T. X.I9 6 I.

5 3 . XA OHMH A.H. Ä pe moc u t g ozw iu C yM npa .- " i laMATHMKX T yp f l e mc Ta l ia". I( 15 ),1973. 5 4 . XA OHKH 4 . t 1 . H aMATHMEM p a3BoToro w iewu r ra f ü ro-BocTo ln io r i C AM , Eun . E, 3-8 ,1 1 . 1 1 1 . , 1 1 ,1969. 5 5 . gaügA r . Ä pe meg um2 BO CTOK B c BeTe H OEUX p acRonoK .M .,I956 . 5 6 . g ep l ia mB Z .T. 0 T aK B a3NBaemom H aBep l umm X 3 H pacHoman l jgoro v iaga n owwel i Ö pOH3u .

-H CZA .Bu n .103 ,1965 .

5 7 . r 4 eTeaRo A .R . Ä pe memm i le s e mezex i D l iec ime Rp ILTypu Z eRa m .A ., 1 968 . 1 22

B IBL IOGRAPHY

5 8 . A lbr ight, W . F . The E ighteenth-century P r inces o f Byb los a nd t he Chrono logy o f M idd le Bronze. BASOR. Vo l. 1 76, 1 964. 5 9 . Arne, T . J .

Excavat ions a t S hah Tepe, I ran.

S tochho lm, 1 945.

6 0. A tk inson, T . D . Excavat ions a t Phy lakop i i n Me los. The S oc iety f or t he P romo t ion o f He l len ic S tud ies. S upp lementary p aper. N4, 1 904. 6 1. v on B iss ing, F . W . Cata logue G enera l d es Ant iqu i t ies Egypt iennes du Musee d u Ca ire, Meta l lgefasse. V ienne, 1 961. 6 2 .

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1 23

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2 03. Vanden Berghe, L . Excava t ions i n Lur istan. Ka l leh N isar. " Bu l let in o f t he As ia I nst itute o f P ah lav i Un ivers ity". N 3 , S h iraz, 1 973 . 2 04. Vanden Berghe, L . L a c hrono log ie d e l a c iv i l isa t ion d es b ronzes du Pushti Kuh, Lur istan. " Proceed ings o f t he i st Annua l S ympos ium o f Archaeo log ica l Research i n I ran". I ran Bastan Museum, 1 972. 2 05. Vanden Berge, L .

L a n dcropo le d e Khurv in.

2 06. Vanden Berghe, L . L a n . ecropo le N 6 5, 1 973. 2 07 . Vanden Berghe, L . N 6 3, 1 973.

I stanbu l , 1 964.

d e Kuta li Gu lgu l.

L e Lur istan l 'Age du Bronze.

" Archeo log ia".

" Archeo log ia"

2 08. Vanden Berghe, L . Recherches Archgo log iques d ans l e Lur istan. C inqu ieme c ampagne: 1 969. P rospect ions d ans l e Pushti Küh Centra l. I A Vo l. I X, 1 972. 2 09 . Vanden B erghe, L . Recherches Archeo log iques d ans l e Lur istan. S ix ieme c ampagne: 1 970. F ou i l les a Bard i Ba l e t aP ä-y i Ka i. P rospect ions d ans l e d istr ict d 'A ivän. I A. Vo l. X , 1 973. 2 10. Von d er Osten H . H ., Naumann, R . F orschungen". Bd I , 1 961.

Takhti S u le iman.

2 11. Wace, A . J . B . Chamber Tombs o f Mycenae. 8 2. L ondon, 1 932. 2 12. Wamp ler, J . C . T e l l e n-Nasbeh. New Haven, 1 947 .

Vo l. I.

" Teheraner

" Archaeo log ia".

The P ottery.

Vo l.

Berke ley-

2 13. We inberg , S . S . The Re lat ive Chrono logy o f t he Aegean i n t he S tone a nd E ar ly Bronze Age. I n Chrono log ies i n O ld Wor ld Archaeo logy . Ch icago, 1 965. 2 14. We iss, H . a nd Cuy ler Young , T . The Merchants o f S usa God in V a nd P lateau-Low land Re lat ions i n t he L a te F ourth M i l lenn ium B .C. " Iran". Vo l. X III, 1 975. 2 15 . Weyer, C . A P ers ian Puzz le. " Exped i t ion". Vo l. 1 2, 1 962. 2 16. W i jnen, M . 1 974.

A Bronze Sword f rom Teheran.

Excava t ions i n I ran, 1 967-1972.

1 29

" Pers ica", V I, 1 972-

2 17. Woo ley, L . 2 18. Yad in, Y .

Ur Excavat ions.

Vo l. I I.

L ondon, 1 965.

The Art o f Warfare i n B ib l ica l L ands.

L ondon, 1 963.

2 19. Young , T . Cuy ler , J r. A Comparat ive Ceram ic Chrono logy f or Wes tern I ran, 1 500-500 B .C. " Iran". Vo l. I I, 1 965. 2 20. Young , T . Cuy ler , J r. Excavat ions a t God in Tepe: R eport. ROM Vo l. 1 7, 1 969. 2 21. Young , T . Cuy ler, J r. XXV, N 4 , 1 966. 2 22. Young , T .Cuy ler, J r. 1 966. 2 23 . Young , T . Cuy ler, J r. " Iran". Vo l. V , 1 967.

F irst P rogress

S urvey i n Western I ran, 1 961.

J NES Vo l.

The Arch i tecture o f Hasan lu I V;IA

Vo l. 6 ,

The I ran ian M igra t ion i nto t he Z agros.

2 24. Young, T . Cuy ler, J r. L ev ine L . D . Excavat ions o f t he God in P ro ject. S econd P rogress R eport. ROM, 2 6, 1 974. 2 25 .

Z ervos, C .

L 'Art d e l a Crete.

P ar is, 1 957.

2 26. Z ervos, C . L 'Art d es Cyc lades d e d ebut ä l a f in d e l ' Age du B ronze . P ar is, 1 957.

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