Different Iron Ages: Studies on the Iron Age in Temperate Europe 9780860547792, 9781407349060

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Different Iron Ages Studies on the Iron Age in Temperate Europe

Edited by

J. D. Hill and C. G. Cumberpatch

BAR International Series 602 1995

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 602 Different Iron Ages © The editors and contributors severally and the Publisher 1995 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860547792 paperback ISBN 9781407349060 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860547792 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Tempvs Reparatvm in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1995. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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D if f e ren t I r on A ges : S tud ies o n t h e I r on Age i nT empe ra te E u rope

C on ten t s C .G . C umbe rpa tch & J .D . H i l l

I n t roduc t ion

1

P .S . We l l s

T he L a Une P e r iod i nG e rmany

7

T .H jo rungda l

T he E a r ly I r on A ge i n We s te rn N o rway : Ag ende rc r i t ica lp e r spec t ive

2 3

E .H am i l ton

Wa sT he re E ve r aR om an C onque s t?

3 7

J .D . H i l l

H ow S hou ld We Unde r s tand I r on A ge S oc ie t ie s a nd h i l lfo r t s? A c on tex tua ls t udy f r om S ou ther nB r i ta in

4 5

C .G . C umbe rpa tch

P roduc t ion a nd S oc ie ty i nt h eL a te rI r on Age o fB ohem ia a nd Mo rav ia

6 7

H . P a rz inge r

T he B eg inn ing o fL a Une C u l tu re i nC en t ra lE u rope

9 5

R . G ebha rd

T he ' Ce l t ic ' O pp idum o f Manch ing a nd I t sE xchange S y s tem

11

P .B run

O pp ida a nd S oc ia l' Comp lex if ica t ion 'i nF rance

1 21

G . F e r re l l

S pace a nd S oc ie ty : N ew p e r spec t ive so nt h eI r on A ge o fN o r th -Ea s tE ng land

1 29

P .v an d en B roeke

I r on A ge S ea S a l tT rade i nt h eL owe rR h ine a r ea

1 49

M . K öh le r

U nde r s tand ing t h eO sc i l la t ing N a tu r eo fH i l lfo r t S e t t lemen ti nH a l ls ta t tT hu r ing ia

1 63

J . Web s te r

T ran s la t ion a nd S ub jec t ion : I n te rp re ta t ion a nd t h eC e l t ic G od s

1 75

R . H ing ley

T he I r on A ge i nA t lan t ic S co t land : S ea rch ing f o rt h e m ean ing o ft h es ubs tan t ia lh ou se

1 85

C .G . C umbe rpa tch

S e t t lemen ta nd E conomy i nL a te I r on A ge S lovak ia , S ou the rn P o land a nd T ran s -Danub ian H unga ry

1 95

I n troduc t ion

I n troduc t ion C h r i sC umbe rpa tch & J DH i l l

T h i s v o lume i si n tended t op rov ide n ew p e r spec t ive s o n , a nd ma te r ia l c once rn ing s ome o f t h e b a s ic i s sue s w h ich c onf ron t t h e s t udy o f L a te r P reh i s tory i n T empe ra te E u rope . Much h a s b een w r i t ten i nr e cen ty ea r s a bou tI r on Age s oc ie t ie s : D id t h ey o rd id t h ey n o ta ch ieve t h el e ve lo f s t a te o rgan i sa t ion? How a pp l icab le a r e n o t ion s o f t h e ' Ce l t s ' t o t h e r ea l i t ie s o f I r on A ge E u rope? Doe s t h e e x i s tence o fO pp ida i nd ica te a n u rban i sed s oc ie ty? D oe s c o inage i mp ly amoneyed e conomy? Wha tw a st h ei mpa c t o f c on tac t a nd e xchange w i th t h e Med i te r ranean /Roman wo r ld s? e t c . A l a rge n umbe r o f e d i ted v o lumes a nd i nd iv idua l s t ud ies h ave b een p ub l ished o ve r t h e l a s t t e n y ea r s wh ich a dd re ss t hese i s sue s ( e .g . Audouze & B uchenschu tz 1 989 ; B a r re t t e t a l 1 989 ; B in t l if f 1 984 ; B run 1 987 ; C hamp ion & Megaw 1 985 ; C o l l is 1 984 .a&b ; C rum ley & Ma rqua rd t 1 987 ; C un l if f e 1 988 ; G ib son & G e se low i tz 1 988 ; S hchuk in 1 989 ; We l ls 1 987 , 1 990 e t c . ) . A tt h e s ame t ime t h e re h ave b een ag row ing n umbe r o f s cho la r s c r i t ica l o f many o f t h e b a s ic a s sump t ion s a r t icu la ted i nt h e s t udy o fo u rp e r iod , i n c lud ing t h e n o t ion o fc o re a nd p e r iphe ry , t h e c on t inued u nc r i t ica l d i scu s s ion s o ft h e ' Ce l t s ' a nd t h eu nde r ly ing E u rocen t r ic i sm /p re sen t i s t n a tu re o f o ur i n te rp re ta t ions ( e .g . C hamp ion 1 987 ; C umberpa tch & H i l l 1 993 ; G osden 1 985 ; H i l l 1 993 ; F i tzpa t r ick 1 991 ; Me r r iman 1 987 ; R ow land s 1 987 ; T ay lo r 1 991 ; Woo lf 1 990 , 1 993a ,b&c e t c . ) . T he c on t r ibu to r s t ot h i s v o lume o f f e r ar ange o fd i f f e ren t p e r spec t ive s a nd a pp roache s t o t h e s t udy o f I r on A ge s oc ie t ie s a nd t o c ons ide r t hese i s sue s . T he ma te r ia l p resen ted c ove r s aw ide g eog raph ica l r ange i n c lud ing Norway , G ermany , P o land , Hunga ry , S lovak ia , L uxembou rg , T he C zech R epub l ic , B r i ta in , H o l land a nd F rance . I n t h e l ong p rocess o f a s semb l ing t h e b ook , w e s pec if ica l ly s ough t c on t r ibu t ion s d evo ted t ot h e l a te r I r on Age ( La T ene ) p e r iod , b u t n o t o n t h e e a r l ie r ( Ha l l s ta t t ) p e r iod o r o n t he q ues t ion o f R oman i sa t ion , a s b o th s ub jec t s h ave b een c ove red i n r e cen t p ub l ica t ion s ( e .g S o ren sen & T homa s 1 988 ; B lagg & M i l le t t 1 990 , B rand t & S lof s t ra 1 983 , R oyman s 1 990 e t c . ) . We h ad h oped t o h ave c on t r ibu t ion s c ove r ing p a r t s o fE u rope n o t g ene ra l ly d i scussed i n t he Ang lo -Ame r ican l i te ra tu re ; h oweve r , u nfo r tuna te ly , s eve ra l o f t he p rom i sed p ape r s d id n o t f i na l ly ma te r ia l i se . A tl e a s to ne o ft h e se h a sa ppea red e l se whe re ( Sa la c 1 993 ) . I ti sn o t o u ri n t en t ion h e re t oa t t emp t as u rvey o rc r i t ique o fr e cen t s t ud ie s o ft h e E u ropean I r on Age , n o rt oo f f e r o u ro wn p rog ramma t ic s t a t emen t s a bou t h ow t h e E u ropean I r on Age o ugh t t ob e s t ud ied . R a the r , t h i s s ho r t i n t roduc t ion h opes t oa c t a s ag u ide a r ound t h e c on ten t s o ft h i s b ook . T he b u lk o ft h e p ape r s i nt h i s v o lume c ove r t h e l a te rP r e R oman I r on A ge o rL a T ene p e r iod i nn on - Med i te r ranean E u rope ( c .500BC t o AD 1 ) . P e ter We l ls p rov ide s a n i mpo r tan t o ve rv iew o ft h e ma in f e a tu re s o ft h i s p e r iod i n C en t ra lE u rope t h rough s urvey o fr e cen tr e se4 rch o nt h eL a T ene p e r iod i nG e rmany . S umma r i s ing much w o rk w h ich i sl a rge ly u nknown t oE ng l ish -speak ing a ud ience s , P e te r d i scusse s h ow G e rman s cho la r s a r e a pp roach ing s uch

t o p ic s a st h eH a l l s ta t t -La T ene t r an s i t ion , t h e eme rgence o f L aT ene a r t , O pp ida , t h e i mpa c to fR ome e t c . A s s uch h i s p ape ro f f e r s ag ood i n t roduc t ion t ot h e v o lume a s awho le . T he g ene ra l h i s to r ica l s equence s a nd ma jor r e sea rch q ue s t ion s P e te r o u t l ine s f o r G e rmany , a r e a l so r e levan t t o much o ft h e r e s to fT empe ra t eE u rope . T he b eg inn ing s o f t h e L a T ene p e r iod a r e a dd re ssed b y H errmann P arz inger , i n ap ape r w h ich s how s t ha t t h e a t ten t ion t oa r tef ac t d e ta i l s , t y po logy a nd c h rono logy t ha t c ha rac te r i se st h eG e rman a pp roa che st oa r chaeo logy a r en o t a s s t e r i le a s many i nA ng lo -Ame r ican a r chaeo logy h ave o f ten a s se r ted . C ons ide r ing t he ma ter ia l i n d e ta i l , H e r rmann s hows t ha t t h e s imu l taneou s a ppea rance o f d if e ren te l emen t so fe a r ly L aT ene s t y le a nd t h e i rc on tex t s c anno ts uppo r ta r gumen t s t h a tt h es p read o ft h i s ma te r ia li s e v idence f o r t h e m ig ra t ion o f t h e ' Ce l t s ' . C ons ider ing s eve ra l s pec if ic e l emen t s , s uch a s a r t is t ic mo t if s , t h e s wo rd , b e l t h ook s , h e a r gue s f o r t h e e x i s tence o f w e s te rn a nd e a s te rn z one s o f E a r ly L a T ene c u l tu re emerg ing s imu l taneou s ly f r om e a r l ie r H a l l s ta t t t r ad i t ion s i nC en t ra l E u rope a nd d raw ing o n d i f f e ren t p re -ex i s t ing T ran sa lp ine c onnec t ion s . A t t h e o t he r e nd o ft h e L a T ene p e r iod , J ane Webs ter 's p ape r i st h e o n ly c on t r ibu t ion s pec if ica l ly t oc on s ide r t h e i mpa c t o fR oman C onque s t a nd R oman i sa t ion o n No r th w e s tE u ropean s oc ie t ie s . J ane c on s ide r s t h e i n terpre ta t io w h ich l i e s a tt h eh ea r to ft h eG raeco -Roman a r t icu la t ion o f a l ien r e l ig ion , q ue s t ion ing a s sump t ion s t ha t t h is w a s a r e f lec t ion o f ab en ign , Emp i re -w ide r e l ig iou s t o le rance . L ike o the r B r i t ish c on t r ibu t ions , J ane 's work s e t s a r chaeo logy a nd a nc ien t h i s to ry w i th in b roade r d eba te s i n t h e s oc ia l s c ience s i nve s t iga t ing t h e p owe r a symme t r ie s t h a t s t ruc tu re I mpe r ia l i s t w r i t ing o n i t s ' O the r s ' . T h i s i s t oa r gue t h a t i n t erpr e ta t io c on s t i tu ted ac o lon ia l d i scou r se , a nd a ss uch w ro te , a nd w a su nde rw r i t ten b y ,u nequa lp owe r s t ruc tu r e s . T h i sh a sp rofound i mp l ica t ion s f o ro u rr e l iance o n R oman e p ig raphy a s ag u ide t ot h e C e l t ic g od s a nd f o r t r ad i t iona l a pp roache s t oP re -Roman ' Ce l t ic ' r e l ig ion a nd c u s tom s w h ich r e ly o n b ackwa rd p ro jec t ions f r om t h e R oman p e r iod . T he p rob lem s o f w o rk ing i n ap ro to -h i s to r ic p e r iod a r e a dd re ssed b y E l izabe th Ha m i l ton . E l izabe th u se s ma te r ia l f r om t h e F i r s t C en tu r ie s BC /AD i n t he G rand D uchy o f L uxembou rg t o i nves t iga te t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween h i s to ry a nd a r chaeo logy . E l izabe th p o ses u s t h e q ue s t ion : w a s t h e re aR oman C onque s t? T h is i st oa sk o f w ha tt h ea r cha eo log ica lr e co rd i se v idence f o r . C on s ide r ing s e t t lemen t sa nd c eme te r ie sa r ound T r ie r ,E l izabe th s ugge s t s t h a tt h e re a r ef ew i n d ica t ion si nt h ea r chaeo log ica l r e co rd t o i nd ica te t h a t t h e R oman c onque s t o ccu r red when i td id . T h i s i sn o t t oa r gue t h a t a n i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e ma te r ia l r e co rd f o r t h is r eg ion c lOOBC -AD200 wh ich i gno re s t h e k nown h i s to r ica l r eco rd w ou ld b e c or rec t . R a the r , E l izabe th ' s a im i st od emon s t ra te t ha t a r chaeo logy c anno t b eu sed t ow r i te h i s to ry , i nt h es en se o f an a r ra t ive a ccoun t o ft h ep reh i s to r ic p a s t .

1

I n t roduc t ion T he ma jo r i ty o ft h e c on t r ibu t ion s a dd re s s o ne o r mo re o f t h ree i n te r re la ted i s sue s c en t ra lt or e cen ta pp roache st ot h e E u ropean L a te rI r on A ge ;

b y t he p resence o f a r tefac t s wh ich o r ig ina ted many h und red s o fk i lome t re s a way -b o th f r om t h e Med i te r ranean w o r ld a nd p a r t s o fC en t ra l a nd N o r ther nE u rope .

1 . T he o rgan isa t ion a nd i mpo r tance o f E xchange a nd P roduc t ion

B o th R ichard G ebhard 's a nd Chr is Cumberpa tch 's c on t r ibu t ions p rov ide q uan t i ta t ive e v idence t o a s ses s t h e s ca le a nd i mpo r tance o fl o ng d i s tance e xchange w i th R ome a nd t h e Med i t te rannean . Wh i le s uch ma ter ia l d oe s a ppea r t ob ec oncen t ra ted o n O pp ida i nb o th t h e c a se o f Manch ing a nd s i te s i nB ohem ia , i ti sc l ea rf r om t h e se p ape r s t h a tt h e ' c oncen t ra t ion ' o fs uch o b jec t s w a s v e ry s ma l l . T he s ca le o f s uch c on tac t s w i th t h e Med i te r ranean Wor ld w a s c on s ide rab ly l owe r t han i nc on tempo ra ry a r ea s f u r the r t o t h e w e s t , r a is ing q ues t ion s a bou t t h e c en t ra l r o le o f ten c l a imed f o r Med i t e r ranean e xchange i nT empe ra te E u ropean S oc ie t ie s ( c f . Woo lf 1 993b ) .

2 .T he f unc t ion o fO pp ida /H i l lfo r t s /Cen t ra l S i te s 3 .T he n a tu re o fI r on A ge S oc ia l O rgan i sa t ion Two d i f f e ren t a pp roache s a r e e v iden t i nt h e se p ape r s t o c ons ider ing e xchange a nd p roduc t ion . T he f i r s t c oncen t ra te s o n t h e a c tua l e v idence f o r c r a f t o ri ndu s t r ia l p roduc t ion a nd t r ac ing t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f s pec if ic o b jec t s /p roduc t s . T he s e cond i sc once rned f a r mo re w i th p lac ing s uch e v idence w i th in t h eb roade rs e t t ing so fo ve ra l l mode l so fp roduc t ion a nd c on sump t ion .

Ap i c tu re o fl ow l e ve l s o fl o ng d i s tance e xchange a nd c r a f t s pec ia l isa t ion e me rge s f o r t h e L a te H a l l s ta t t /Ea r l ie r L a nne p e r iod o f S ou the rn E ng land i n JD H i l l 's p ape r . T h is may b e as im i la r s i tua t ion t oo the r p a r t s o f B r i ta in , a s G i l l F erre l l i mp l ie s f o r No r th E a s t E ng land a nd R ichard H ing ley f o r N o r the rn S co t land . L ike Cu mberpa tch s t ud ies o f C en t ra l E u rope , JD H i l l h a s t r ied t o c ompa re e v idence f o r c raf t p roduc t ion a nd e xchange , a l ong w i th a g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ie s a c ro ss aw ide r ange o fs i tes i n We ssex , s ugge s t ing as i tua t ion whe re a l l f a rm s tead sa nd h am le t sw e r el a rge ly s e lf -suf f i c ien t .

P e ter v an d en B roeke f o cuse s o n as i ng le p roduc t , s umma r i s ing t h e e v idence f o r c hange s i nt h e p roduc t ion , d i s t r ibu t ion , a nd u se o f s ea s a l t f r om t h e We s te rn N e the r land st h roughou tt h eh on A ge . P e t e ra pp roache sh i s d a ta o n as e r ie s o fd i f f e ren tl e ve l s , f r om d e ta i led s t ud ie s o f t he l o ca t ion o f s a l t c on ta ine r s o n s e t t lemen t s , t o t h e b roade r p i c tu re o f i n te r -r eg iona l d i s t r ibu t ion p a t te rn s . L ong d i s tance e xchange o fs a l tf r om t h eN o r th S ea c oa s tt o t he R h ine land i n t h e H a l l s ta t t p e r iod c on t rac ted i n t h e M idd le I r on A ge a s i n land m ine ra l s a l t s ou rces w e re i n c rea s ing ly e xp lo i ted . P e te re xp l ic i t ly d i scu s se s t h e l i nk s b e tween e xchange a nd s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion , q ue s t ion ing r ecen t s ugge s t ions t ha t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f s a l t w a s c on t ro l led b y , a nd w a s as ou r ce o fp owe rf o r ,I r on A ge e l i te g roup s ( Royman s 1 991) . H e a rgue s t h a t t h e ma te r ia l b ene f i t so fs a l tp roduc t ion a nd e xchange w e re p robab ly l ow f o r b o th t h e e l i te g roup s i n t h e h in te r land a nd s a l t p roduc ing c oa s ta lr e s iden t s .

Howeve r , JD H i l l a nd G i l l F erre l l o f fe r ad i f f e ren t p e r spec t ive o n p roduc t ion , t h a t move s a way f r om s imp ly d ocumen t ing t he l oca t ion o f c ra f t a c t iv i t ies a nd t he d i s t r ibu t ion o fc r a f tp roduc t s . B o th u se Ma rx i s tn o t ion s o f p roduc t ion , s i tua ted w i th in a n e xp l ic i t ly c on tex tua l f r amewo rk , t o move b eyond t h e se q ue s t ions a nd e xam ine c r a f tp roduc t ion i ni t s w ide r s e t t ing o ft h e r ep roduc t ion o f s oc ie ty . S uch a pp roache s h ave b een u sed t oi n te rp re tI r on Age s oc ie t ies b efo re ( e .g . H ing ley 1 984 , G osden 1 989 ) , a nd i n p a r t c ome o u t o f a c r i t ique o f S t ruc tura l Ma rx is t /Co re -Pe r iphe ry a pp roache s ( s ee Gosden 1 985 , Woo lf 1 990 ) . B o th a u tho r s u se t h e n o t ion o f a' mode o f p roduc t ion ' a s aw ay t ot h ink t h rough t h e i n sepa rab le l i nk s b e tween ' c raf t ' a nd ' s ubs i s tence ' p roduc t ion , e xchange , b io log ica l r ep roduc t ion , s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion , c u l tu re , r i tua l e t c . T hey s ee s oc ia l f o rm s a nd c u l tu ra l s e t t ing s a s b o th p roduced a nd b e ing r eproduced b y t he se a c t iv i t ie s , a nd r e cogn i se t h a tt h es pa t ia l o rgan i sa t ion o fd i f f e r en ts oc ie t ie s p layed a k ey p a r t i n t h e ir c on s t i tu t ion . D raw ing f r om o the r a spec t s o f t h e s ame d eba te s , Chr is Cumberpa tch s t re sse s s im i la rc once rn s b y e mpha s i s ing t h e n eed f o rI r on A ge s cho la r s t ou nde r s tand t h er e cen tp o s t -Po lany i d eba te s i n a n th ropo logy /a rchaeo logy a bou t e xchange a nd s oc ia l r ep roduc t ion ( e .g . G rego ry 1 982 , B a r re t t 1 988 , B rad ley & E dmonds 1 992 ) . S im i la r ly , Tove H jorunda l e mpha s i se s h ow e conom ic p roduc t ion c anno t b e s epa ra ted o f f i n an ea t b ox f r om t h e r e p roduc t ion o fp eop le a nd o f c u l ture . T ove a rgues t ha t t he c on t ra s t b e tween p a r t ic ipa t ing i nl o ng d i s tance e xchanges a so ppo sed t oa n empha s i s o n l o ca l p roduc t ion /exchange i s t horough ly e mbedded i ni d eo logy a nd g ende rr e la t ion s .

I n h i s t wo p ape r s Chr is C umberpa tch c on s ide r s t h e a va i lab le a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r p roduc t ion a nd e xchange i n aw ide a r ea s t re tch ing f r om t he C zech R epub l ic t oH unga ry a nd S ou the rn P o land . S umma r i s ing t h e d e ta i led c on t r ibu t ion r e sea rche r si nt h e se c oun t r ie s a r e mak ing t oo u ru nde r s tand ing o fL a te rh on A ge e conom ic a n .d s oc ia l p roce s se s , h e u se s t h is e v idence t o c on te s t c u r ren ti n te rp r e ta t ion so ft h eo r gan i sa t ion o fp roduc t ion a nd e xchange . C h r is i s p a r t icu la r ly c once rned w i th t h e l oca t ion s o f c r a f t / indu s t r ia l p roduc t ion i n t h e se a r ea s , s how ing t h a t i nt h o se r e g ion s w i th O pp ida s u ch a c t iv i t ie s w e re n o t s imp ly c onf ined t o t he se s i te s . R a the r h e s ugge s t s t h a t c r a f tp roduc t ion t o ok p l ace o n mo s t f ann ing s e t t lemen t s a c ro s s C en t ra l E u rope , a nd i ti si nt h i s c on tex t t ha t t h e p roduc t ion a nd e xchange a c t iv i t ie s a s a s soc ia ted w i th t h eO pp ida a nd o t he rc en t ra l s i te s mu s tb ec on s ide red . T he m echan ic s o ft h e se e xchange s a r e a l so d i scu ssed w i th t he i mpo r tance o fp ack a n ima l a s w e l l a sr i ve r t r an spo r t b e ing s t r e s sed . Ruper t G ebhard a l so s e t s t h e f unc t ion o fO pp ida w i th in t h e d i scu s s ion o fc r a f t / indu s t r ia l p roduc t ion a nd e xchange . H i s c on t r ibu t ion s umma r i se s t h e e xhau s t ive s t ud ie s o n t h e ma te r ia le xcava t ed f r om t h e s i t e w h ich h a s b ecome c en t ra l t o d i scu ss ion s o f O pp ida -Manch ing . T he se a na lyse s r evea l ac omp lex p i c tu re o fe xchange i nc e ram ic s , g l a s s , me ta lwo rk , c o inage a nd r aw m a te r ia l s . T he s ca le o f t h e e xchange s y s tem o fw h ich Manch ing w a s p a r t i sr evea led

T he l i nk b e tween e xchange /produc t ion a nd s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion i sc l ea r i n t h e w ay t h a t d i scus s ions o f t h e f orme r a re o f ten i nex t r icab ly i n ter tw ined w i th t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o fI r on Age ' c en t ra l s i tes ' , b e t h ey h i l lfor t s , O pp ida o r ' Z emp l in types s i te s ' e t c . Ruper t Gebhard 's

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I n t roduc t ion p ape rs e ek st ou nde r s tand t h er o le o f Manch ing t h rough t h e d e ta i led i nves t iga t ion o f t h e e x ten t a nd s ca le o f i t s e xchange l i nk s . T h i s e mpha s i se s t h e p r ima ry r o le o ft h i s O pp idum a s as i te c on t ro l l ing e xchange . P a ra l le l t o Woo lf s( 1 993a ) e mpha s i s , C umberpa tch 's , H i l l 's a nd F erre l l 's c on t r ibu t ion s a l l s t res s t h a t t h e e xa c t r o le o f c en t ra l s i te s c an o n ly b e u nde r s tood i nt h e o ve ra l l c on tex t o ft h e w ho le s e t t lemen t s y s tem s o fw h ich t h ey a r e ap a r t . T he se ' b o t tom u p ' a pp roache s s t re s s t ha t c en t ra l s i te s c anno t b e u nde r s tood b y s t udy ing t h e c en t ra l s i te s a l one . Cumberpa tch d e sc r ibe s t h e c omp lex i ty o f s e t t lemen t o rgan i sa t ion a nd t h el o ca t ion o fe conom ic p rac t ice s i nt h e L a te r I r on A ge o f We s te rn H unga ry , S ou the rn P o land , S lovak ia a nd t h e C zech R epub l ic . O pp ida , o n ly f ound i n t h e w e s t e rn -mo s t o fh i s s t udy a r ea s , a r e s hown n o t t ob e t h e e xc lu s ive c en t re s f o rp roduc t ion o re xchange , a st h ey a r e o f ten c ha rac te r i sed . H i s d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e r eg ion s f u r the r t o t he e a s t s ugge s t s t h e e x is tence o f b a s ic s im i la r i t ie s i ns ub s i s tence a nd e conom ic s y s tem s t ot ho se f ound i nB ohem ia , r a i s ing t h e q ue s t ion s a st ow hy c en t ra l s i te s o n ly d eve loped i ns ome r eg ion s a nd w hy d i f f e rence s e x i s t b e tween ' Opp ida ' a nd o t he r ' C en t ra l S i te s ' s uch a s Z emp l in ,T aban -Ge l le r thegy a nd L ip tov ska Ma ra .

a nd t h e g radua l r educ t ion i nt h e i mpo r tance o fk insh ip i n u n ify ing s oc ie ty . T ha t t h e I r on A ge r ep re sen t s ap e r iod when k in sh ip c ea sed t o b e t he d om inan t s t ruc tu r ing p r inc ip le i n s oc ie ty h a s a l so b een r ecen t ly a rgued b y K r is t ian sen ( 1991) , H i l l ( t h is v o lume ) , S ha rp les ( 1991) a nd G o sden ( 1 989 ) . P a tr ice 's a pp roach t ou nde r s tand ing s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion a nd c hange t h rough a' h igh l e ve l ' mode l o fs oc ia l s ys tem s i sv ery d i f f e ren t c ompa red t o t h e ' l ow l e ve l ' c on tex tua l ' i n te rp re ta t ion s a dvoca ted b y G i l l F erre l l , R ichard H ing ley , Tove H jorunda l a nd JD H i l l . T he i r a pp roache s s e ek t ou nde r s tand s pec if ic I r on Age s oc ie t ie s t h rough c l o se a t t en t ion t ot h ed e ta i lo ft h ea r chaeo logy a nd i n te rp re ta t ion s a bou t h ow s oc ie t ie s a r e c ons t i tu ted d e r ived f r om r e cen ts oc ia l t h eo ry . W i th in B r i t i sh a r chaeo logy , t h e i mpor tance o f c on tex tua l a pp roaches c r i t ica l o f g rand u n ive r sa l i s ing s oc ia l i n te rp re ta t ion s h ave b ecome c en t ra l . a nd a r e b e ing i n c rea s ing ly d rawn o n i nI r on Age s t ud ie s ( e .g . Woo lf 1 993a&b ) . I np a r t icu la r , n ew u nde r s tand ing s o ft h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e s pa t ia l a nd t h e s oc ia l h ave b een i mpo r tan t t o much r e cen t w o rk w i th in B r i t i sh I r on Age s t ud ies ( e .g . F os te r 1 989 ; H ing ley 1 984 , 1 990 , P a rker -Pea r son f or thcom ing ; c . f . T herkorn 1 987 ) . R ichard H ing ley , G i l l F erre l l a nd JD H i l l a l l empha s i se t h e c en t ra l r o le o f s pa t ia l o rgan i sa t ion i n t h e r ep roduc t ion o fs oc ie ty , s e e ing s pace a st h e s e t t ing t h rough wh ich t h e d ay to -day a c t iv i t ie s , -wh ich i n c lude c ra f t p roduc t ion a nd e xchange -t ook p l ace a nd w e re s t ruc tu red . A s s uch , d i f f e rence s i nt h eo rgan i sa t ion o fs e t t lemen t s , t h e u se o f t h e l a nd scape e t c . p o in t t or ea l d i f f e rences i n t h e n a tu re o fe ven n e ighbou r ing I r on A ge s oc ie t ie s . R ichard H ing ley 's p ape r f ocuse s o n t h e s t udy o f i nd iv idua l h ou se s i nN or thern S co t land i n as t udy w h ich s t re sses t h a t t h e f o rm a nd o rgan isa t ion o f I r on Age h ouse s p layed a n a c t ive r o le b o th i nt h er e p roduc t ion o ft h eb a s ic s t ruc tu r ing p r inc ip le s d r awn o n i nt h e c ons t i tu t ion o fs oc ie ty b u t a l so i n t h e a c t ive a t temp t s b y i nd iv idua l s o r h ou seho ld s t o c ons t ruc t /cha l lenge r e la t ions o f p owe r . T he i n te rna l o rgan isa t ion o f s e t t lemen t s i s a l so c ons ide red b y G i l l F erre l l , w ho se p ape ra l so c on s ide r s t h e w ide ro rgan i sa t ion o f t h e I r on A ge l a nd scape , u s ing s t a t i s t ica l mea su res i n s ub t le a nd n ew w ays t o i n terp re t t he r e su l t s o f a r chaeo log ica l s u rveys . T h is a pp roach h a s c ons ide rab le p o ten t ia l f o r t h e s t udy o f s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s a cros s I r on A ge E u rope .

JD H i l l a pp l ie s as im i la r a pproach t o t h e h i l lfo r t s o f S ou the rn E ng land , q ue s t ion ing t h e i ra s sumed f unc t ion s a s c en t ra l p l ace s f o r p roduc t ion , e xchange a nd p owe r , b y s e t t ing t h em w i th in t h e i r b roade r l o ca l c on tex t . H e a l so a r gue s t h a th i l lfo r t sw e re n o ta l l t h e s ame t y pe s o fs i te s , a s u sua l ly a s sumed . R a the r , t h ey w e re t h e l o ca t ion s f o r a w ide r a nge o fd i f f e r en t a c t iv i t ie s n o tf ound o n f a rm s tead s a nd h am le t s . A s s uch , h i l lfo r t s s hou ld b e s een a s c omp lemen t ing , r a the r t h an p o l i t ica l ly o r e conom ica l ly d om ina t ing , o the r s e t t lemen t s . G i l l F erre l l s ugge s t s s ome th ing s im i la r f o r t h e N o r th E a s t o fE ng land , w he re t h e re a r e v e ry f ew h i l lfo r t s ; t h ose t h a t d o e x i s t d o n o t f i t i n to t h e s e t t lemen t s y s tem s o f t h e a r ea s w he re t h ey a r e f ound . Michea l Köh ler c on s ide r s C en t ra l G e rman h i l lfo r t s , a r gu ing t h a t t h e se w e re p r ima r i ly d en se h i l l top s e t t lemen t s o ccup ied i nt ime s o fu n r e s t . H e s ugge s t s t h a t t h ec yc l ica lp a t te rn o fh i l lfo r to ccupa t ion a nd a bandonmen t i n L a te r P reh is tor ic C en t ra l E u rope i se v idence f o r a n o sc i l la t ing p roce s s b e tween t ime s o f p eacefu l , l ow land s e t t lemen t a nd p opu la t ion g row th , f o l lowed b y t h ose o f u n re s ta nd h i l l top s e t t lemen t . O bv iou s ly a l l t h e se a pp roache s t o uch o n t h e i s sue o f t h e s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion o fL a te rP reh i s to r ic S oc ie t ie s , a l though e xp l ic i td i scu ss ion s o ft h e n a tu re o fs o c ie ty a nd l o ng te rm s oc ia lp roce s se sa r er a re h e r e ,a si no t he rs t ud ie so ft h eI r on A ge . An umbe r o fc on t ra s t ing p e r spec t ive s a r e o f f e red . Michea l Köh ler 's a pp roach i st om ode l ma thema t ica l ly l ong t e rm p roce sse s o fs e t t lemen t c hange a nd p opu la t ion g row th . P a tr ice B run o f f e r s ab road rang ing g ene ra l mode l f o r s oc ia l e vo lu t ion i n L a T ene E u rope , s ee ing O pp ida a ss i gn s o fi n c rea sed s oc ia l ' c omp lex if ica t ion ' a nd t he a dop t ion o f a s t a te o rgan isa t ion . P a tr ice 's i n te rp r e ta t ion c on s ide r s t h ei n te ra c t ion s b e tween t h e s oc io k in sh ip , e conom ic , p o l i t ica l a nd i d eo log ica l s ub sy s tem s o f I r on A ge s oc ie t ie s . H e s ugge s t s c hanges o ccur red f i r s t w i th in t h e i deo log ica l s ubsys tem d u r ing t h e L a T ene p e r iod , w h ich i nt ur nh ad c on sequence s f i r s t i nc hang ing t h e e conom ic p roduc t ion , a nd t h en i np roduc ing a t r end t owa rd s s t reng then ing t h e m ean s o f p o l i t ica l c on t ro l i n t ho se s o c ie t ies . T he c umu la t ive r e su l t o f t h e se c hange s w a s t h ed eve lopmen to fs t a te f o rm s o fs oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion ,

T ove H jorunda l 's g ende r -cr i t ica l a pp roach e xp l ic i t ly q ues t ions f unc t iona l is t a nd e vo lu t iona ry a pproache s , e spec ia l ly t he c oncep t o f t he ' c h iefdom ' , f or t he a nd rocen t r ic n a tu re o ft h e i ra s sump t ion s . I n ap ape rw h ich h opefu l ly w i l l mo re w ide ly c a l l a t ten t ion t ot h ei mpo r tance eme rgence o f f em in i s t /gende r -c r i t ica l a pp roache s w i th in S cand inav ian a rchaeo logy , Tove s hows b o th t h e s i gn if icance o f s t udy ing g ender r e la t ions i n L a ter P reh is to ry ( c .f . A rno ld 1 991 ; D omma snes 1 992 ; S o ren sen 1 992 ) , a nd o f f e r s n ew p e r spec t ives o n a t temp t s t o r e con s t ruc ts oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion t h rough mo r tuary e v idence . T he p ape r c ons ide r s t h e r o le o f w omen i n e conom ic p roduc t ion a nd b io log ica l / s oc ia l / s ymbo l ic r ep roduc t ion . T he e mpha s i s o n t h e l o ca l g ende r r e la t ion sh ip s r e focu se s a t ten t ion o n t h e c onnec t ions b e tween l o ca l a nd b roade r i n te r reg iona l a ccoun t s o ft h e p e r iod . B u t a bove a l l , t h i s p ape r c ha l lenge s u s t op l ace g ende r r e la t ion s a s ac en t ra l c on s ide ra t ion i na l li n te rp re ta t ion so fh on A ge s oc ie t ie s .

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I n t roduc t ion B ib l iography A rno ld , B . 1 991 . T he d epo sed p r ince s s o fV ix : T he n eed f o ra ne ngende red E u ropean p reh i s to ry . I nD . Wa lde & N . Wi l lows ( ed s . ) ,T he A rchaeo logy o fG ende r , C a lga ry ,T he A rchaeo log ica lA ssoc ia t ion o ft h e Un ive r s i ty o f C a lga ry , p p366 -374 . Audouze , F .&B uchen schu tz , 0 . 1 989 . V i l le s , V i l lages e tC ampagne s d el ' Eu rope C e l t ique .P a r i s , H ache t te . B a r re t t ,J .1 988 . F ie ld s o fd i scou r se ; R econs t i tu t ing as oc ia l a r chaeo logy . C r i t ique o fA n th ropo logy 7 ,p p5 -16 . B a r re t t , J . ,F i tzpa t r ick , A . &I . Mac innes ( ed s . ) 1 989 . B a rba r ian sa nd R oman si nN or th - We s tE u rope . Oxfo rd ,B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epor t s( I n terna t iona l S e r ie s4 71) , p p27 -54 . B in t l if f , J .1 984 . I r on Age E u rope i nt h ec on tex t o fs oc ia l e vo lu t ion f r om t h eB ronze A ge t oH is tor ic t ime s . I nJ .B in t l if f , ( ed . ) 1 984 . E u ropean S oc ia lE vo lu t ion . B radfo rd ,T he U n ive r s i ty , p p157 -226 . B lagg ,T . &M i l le t t , M . ( ed s . ) 1 990 . T he E a r ly R oman Emp i re i nt h e Wes t . O x fo rd , O xbow B ook s . B rad ley R . &E dmond s ,M . 1 993 . I n terp re t ing t h eA xe T rade . C amb r idge , T h eU n ive r s i ty P r e ss . B rand t , R . &S lof s t ra , J .( ed s . ) 1 983 . R oman a nd N a t ive i nt h eL ow C oun tr ie s . O xfo rd , B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica l R epor t s ( I n te rna t iona l S e r ies 1 84 ) . B run , P . 1 987 . P r inces e tP r ince sse s d el aC e l t ique .L ap rem ie ra ge d uf e re nE u rope 8 50 -450 a y . J -C . P a r i s , E d i t ion s E n-a nce . C hamp ion , T .1 987 . T he E u ropean I r on Age : A s se ss ing t h e s t a te o ft h e a r t . S co t t ish A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew 4 ,p p98 -107 . C hamp ion , T . & Megaw , V . ( ed s . ) 1 985 . S e t t lemen ta nd S oc ie ty : A spec t s o f We s tE u ropean P reh i s tory i nt h eF i r s t M i l lenn ium BC . L e ices te r , T he Un ive r s i ty P re ss , p p9 -22 . C o l l i s ,J .1 984a . Opp ida : T he e a r l ies tt wons n or th o ft h eA lp s . S heff ie ld , T he D epar tmen to fA rchaeo logy & P reh i s tory . C o l l i s ,J .1 984b . T he E u ropean I r on Age . L ondon , B a t sfo rd . C rum ley , C . & Ma rqua rd t ,W . ( ed s . ) 1 987 . R eg iona l D ynam ic s : B u rgund ian L and scape s i nH i s tor ica lP e r spec t ive , S an D iego . C un l if f e , B . 1 988 . G reek s . R oman sa nd B a rba r ians : S phe re s o fi n te rac t ion .L ondon , B a t sfo rd . C umbe rpa tch , C . &H i l l ,J D . 1 993 . Vo lv iendo ap en sa rl aE dad d e l H ie r ro . T raba jo s d eP reh i s tor ia 5 0 , p p127 -137 . Domma sne s ,L . 1 992 . Two d ecade so f women i np reh i s to ry a nd i na r chaeo logy i nN o rway .N orweg ian A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew 2 5 , p pl-14 . F i tzpa t r ick , AF . 1 991 . ' Ce l t ic ( I ron Age ) R e l ig ion ' -T rad i t iona l a nd T ime le s s? . S co t t ish A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew 8 , p p123 -128 . F o s te r , SM . 1 989 . T ransfo rma t ion i ns oc ia l s pace : t h e I r on Age o fO rkney a nd C a i thne ss . S co t t ish A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew 6 ,p p34 -55 . G ib son , D . &G ese low i tz , M . ( ed s . ) 1 988 . T r ibe a nd P o l i ty i nL a te P reh is to r ic E u rope . N ew Yo rk , P lenum P re ss . G o sden , C . 1 985 . G if t s a nd k in i ne a r ly I r on Age E u rope . Man 2 0 , p p475 -493 . Go sden , C . 1 989 . D eb t , p roduc t ion a nd p reh i s tory . J ou rna l o fA n th ropo log ica lA rchaeo logy 8 ,p p355 -387 . G rego ry ,C . 1 982 . G if t s a nd C ommod i t ie s . L ondon , A cadem ic P re s s . H i l l ,J D . 1 993 . C an w er e cogn i se ad i f f e ren tE u ropean p a s t? A c on t ra s t ive a r chaeo logy o fL a te rP reh is tor ic s e t t lemen t s i n S ou thern E ng land . J ourna l o fE u ropean A rchaeo logy 1 ,p p57 -75 . H ing ley , R . 1 984 . T owa rd s S oc ia l Ana lys is i nA rchaeo logy : C e l t ic S oc ie ty i nt h eI r on A ge o ft h eU ppe rT hame s V a l ley . I n BW . C un l if f e , . &D . M i le s ( ed s . ) . A spec t s o ft h eI r on Age i nC en t ra l S ou thern B r i ta in . O xfo rd , O xfo rd Un ive r s i ty C omm i t tee f o rA rchaeo logy Monog raph 2 ,p p72 -88 . H ing ley , R . 1 990 . Dome s t ic o rgan i sa t ion a nd g ende rr e la t ion si nI r on Age a nd R omano -B r i t i sh h ouseho ld s . I nR . S am son ( ed . )T he S oc ia lA rchaeo logy o f House s .E d inbu rgh , T he Un ive r s i ty P re s s ,p p125 -149 . K r is t ian sen , K . 1 991 . Ch iefdom s , s t a te s , a nd s ys tem s o fs oc ia l e vo lu t ion . I nT .E a r le ( ed . ) C h iefdom s : P owe r , E conomy , a nd I deo logy . C amb r idge ,T he Un ive r s i ty P re ss ,p p16 -43 . Me r r iman ,N . 1 987 . Va lue a nd mo t iva t ion i np reh is to ry : T he e v idence f o r ' Ce l t ic ' s p i r i t . I nI .Hodde r( e d . )T he A rchaeo logy o fC on tex tua l Mean ing s . C amb r idge ,T he Un ive r s i ty P r e s s , p p111 -116 . P a rke r -Pea r son , M . ( f or thcom ing ) . F ood , f e r t i l i ty a nd f r on td oo r s i nt h e f i r s tm i l lenn ium BC . I nT . C hamp ion & J .C o l l i s ( ed s . )R ecen tT rend si nB r i t i sh I r on Age A rchaeo logy . S heff ie ld ,D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy a nd P reh i s to ry . R a ls ton , I .1 988 . C en t ra l G au l a tt h eR oman C onque s t : c oncep t ion s a nd m isconcep t ion s . A n t iqu i ty 2 37 , p p786 -794 . R ow land s , M . 1 987 . ' Eu rope i np reh is to ry ' : au n ique f o rm o fp r im i t ive c ap i ta l i sm? C u l tu re a nd H is tory 1 ,6 3 -78 . R oyman s , N . 1 990 . T r iba l S oc ie t ie s i n No r thern G au l : A n a n th ropo log ica l p e r spec t ive . Am s te rdam , C ingu la 1 2 . R oymans , N . 1 991 . L a te U rnf ie ld s oc ie t ie s i nt he No r thwe s tE u ropean P la in a nd t h ee xpand ing n e two rk so fC en t ra l E u ropean Ha l ls ta t tg roups . i nN . R oyman s &F .T heuw s ( ed s . ) . I mage s o ft h eP a s t : S tud ie s o n A nc ien tS oc ie t ie s i n Nor thwes te rn E u rope . Am s te rdam , U n ive r s i te tv an Am s te rdam ( S tud ie si np r e -en p ro toh i s to r ie 7 ) ,p p9 -90 . S a la c ,V . 1 993 . P roduc t ion a nd e xchange d ur ing t h eL aT ene p e r iod i nB ohem ia . J our na lo fE u ropean A rchaeo logy 1 ( 2 ) , p p73 -100 . S ha rp le s , N . 1 991 . Wa r fa re i nt h e l i on Age o f We ssex . S co t t ish A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew 8 , pp79 -89 . S hchu l c in , MB . 1 989 . R ome a nd t h eB a rba r ian s i nC en t ra l a nd E a s te rn E u rope . i s tC en tu ry BC -i s tC en tu ry AD . Oxfo rd , B r i t ish A rchaeo log ica l R epor t s ( I n terna t iona l S e r ie s 5 42 2 vo ls ) . S o ren sen , MLS . 1 992 . G ende ra r chaeo logy a nd S cand inav ian B ronze A ge s t ud ie s . No rweg ian A rchaeo lo2 ica l R ev iew 2 5 , p p31-50 .

4

I n t roduc t ion S o ren sen , MLS . &T homa s , R . ( ed s . ) 1 988 T he B ronze A ge I ron Age T ran s i t ion i nE u rope . O xfo rd , BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 4 83 . T ay lo r , T . 1 991 . C e l t ic A r t . S co t t ish A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew 8 ,p p129 -132 . T he rko rn ,L . 1 987 .T he i n te r re la t ion sh ip s o fm a te r ia l s a nd m ean ing s : S om e s ugge s t ion s o nh ou s ing c once rn si nt h eh on A ge o f Noo rd -Ho l land .I nI .H odde r( e d . ) , T he A rchaeo logy o fC on tex tua l Mean ing s . C amb r idge ,T he Un ive r s i ty P re ss , p p102 -110 . We l l s , P . 1 987 . F a rm s , V i l lages a nd C i t ie s . C omme r ce a nd u rban o r ig in s i nl a te P reh i s to r ic E u rop e . I t haka , C o rne l l U n ive r s i ty P re s s . We l l s ,P .1 990 . h on A ge t empe ra te E u rope : S ome c u r ren tr e sea rch i s sue s .J ourna l o f Wo r ld P reh i s to ry 4 (4 ) ,p p437 -476 . Woo lf , G . 1 990 . Wo r ld -sy s tem a na ly s i s a nd t h eR oman e mp i re .J ourna l o fR oman A rchaeo logy 3 ,p p44 -58 . Woo lf ,G . 1 993a . R e th ink ing t h eO pp ida .O xfo rd J ou rna lo fA r chaeo logy 1 2 (2 ) ,p p223 -233 . Woo lf ,G . 1 993b .T he s oc ia ls i gn if icance o ft r ade i nL a te I r on Age E u rope . I nC . S ca r re & F .H ea ly ( e d s . ) .T rade a nd E xchange i nP reh i s to r ic E u rope . O xfo rd , O xbow B ook s , p p2 11 -218 . Woo lf , G . 1 993c .E u ropean s oc ia l d eve lopmen ta nd R oman i mpe r ia l i sm . I nP .B run , S .v an d e rL eeuw & C . Wh i t take r ( e d s . ) F ron t ire sD 'Emp i re : N a tu re e ts i gn if ica t ion d e s f r on t ir e sr oma ine s .N emou r s , M6mo i r se d u Mu se d e P r6h i s to i re d ' I le -de -F rance N o5 ,p p13 -20 .

5

P e ter WELLS

T he L a Une P er iod i n Germany P e te rS . We l l s D epa r tmen to f An th ropo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fM inne so ta , 2 15 F o rd H al , 2 24 C hu r ch S t ree tS E , M inneapol i s , MN 5 5455 , USA . Abs trac t O ngo ing r e sea r ch o nt h eL aT ene P e r iod i nG e rmany i sc hang ing o u ru nd e r s tand ing o ft h eL a t eh on A ge i n t empe ra te E u rope . R ecen ta pp roa che s t oo rnamen ta nd t y po logy f o cu so nt h es o c ia la nd h i s to r ica lc on tex t s i nw h i ch t h eo b je c t sw e re u s ed . T hey o f f e rn ew p e r spe c t ive s o nt h ed eve lopmen to fC e l t ic a r ti nt h eE a r ly L a T ene P e r iod , a nd o n t h e a ppea rance o f n ew f o rms o f m e ta l o b je c t s a nd b u r ia l p rac t ice s i ns ou the rn G e rmany d u r ing t h e f i na l c en tu ry BC . R e su l t so f many s e t t lemen te xcava t ion s s how i n te ra c t ion b e tween c ommun i t ie s , b o th l o ca l a nd i n te r reg iona l , t oh ave b een w ide sp read . A na ly se s o f r e cen t ly e xcava ted c eme te r ie s h ave l e d t of i ne r c h rono log ie s f o r t h e c omp lex L a te L a T ene P e r iod , a nd d end roch rono logy c on t r ibu te s t ot h ee s tab l i shmen to fa b so lu t ed a te s . R i tua ls i te so fd i f f e ren tk ind sh ave r e ce ived c on s ide rab le a t ten t ion ,a nd t h ey c an b eu nde r s tood w i th in t h ef r amewo rk o fh i s to r ica lc hange sa tt h ee nd o ft h eh on A ge . D i f f e ren ts ou r ce so fi n fo rma t ion c an b ei n teg ra t ed t oe xam ine t h ec omp lex a nd f a r r each ing c hange sw h ich t o ok p la ce d u r ing t h e f i na l p ha se o ft h e L a T ene P e r iod , w hen R omans a nd G e rman s a ppea red i nC e l t ic t empe ra te E u rope .

I n troduc t ion My p u rpose i nt h i sp ape ri st od i s cu s sr e cen tr e sea r ch i n to t h e L a T ene P e r iod i n G e rmany . A g rea t a moun t o f e xcava t ion a sw el a sn ew a na ly se s a nd i n te rp r e ta t ion s o f e x i s t ing c o l lec t ion s h ave t a ken p l a ce i n t h e p a s t t h ree d ecade s . My t r ea tmen t h e re m u s t b e h i gh ly s e le c t ive . I s ha l l f o cu s o n s eve ra l t o p ic s o fr e sea r ch t h a t h ave b road i mp l i ca t ion s f o r a l l o ft empe ra t e E u rope , a nd t r y t os how h ow t h ink ing a bou tt h em h a sc hanged a s ar e su l to fr e cen t w o rk . My e mpha s i s i so n s ou ther n G e rmany , w he re my o wn w o rk h a sb een s i tua ted ,a nd o nt h el a t te rh a lf o ft h eL a T ene P e r iod . T he b i b l iog raphy i ss e lec t ive ; w o rk s c i ted w il l e ad t h ei n te r e s ted r e ade rt ot h ew ide rl i t e ra tu re o ne a ch s ub je c t . T oa vo id c onfu s ion , Iu se t h eG e rman t y po log ica lt e rm sf o r s eve ra lk i nd s o fo b jec t s , s i nce n og ood E ng l i sh e qu iva len t e x i s t s . E xamp le s a r e t h e g eschwe if te f i bu la a nd t h e S t abgür t e lhaken a nd L ochgü r t e lhak en ,b ronze o b jec t st h a t c ha ra c te r ize t h ep ha se L aT ene D 2i ns ou ther nG e rmany . T h ree m a in t r end s c an b e r e cogn is ed i nr e cen t r e sea r ch . F i r s t , mo re e v idence f o r i n te ra c t ion b e tween g roup s h a s b een i d en t if ied a nd a na lysed . T h i s a pp l ie s t ob o th l o ng d i s tance i n te rac t ion , f o r e xamp le b e tween p eop le s o f G e rmany a nd t h o se o ft h e Med i t e r r an ean w o r ld a nd b e tween g roup s i n s ou the rn a nd n o r the rn G e rmany , a nd l o ca l i n te rac t ion , b e tween c en t re s a nd s ma l le r c ommun i t ie s a round t h em . S e cond , f i ne r c h rono log ica l d i s t inc t ions e nab le i n ve s t iga to r s t o s t udy c hange i n a n e ve r m o re p rec i se f a sh ion . T he r ef inemen t o ft h e c h rono logy o ft h e P e r iod s L a T ene C a nd D h a s p l ayed am a jo r r o le i no u r u nde r s tand ing o ft h eo r ig in s ,g row th ,a nd e nd o ft h eo pp ida a nd o ft h ep rob lem o fm ovemen t so fg roup s ( `Ge rman s '? ) f r om n o r ther ni n to c en t ra l E u rop e . T he d eve lopmen to fa m a s te r s e quence o f d end ro ch rono log ica l d a te s ( Ho l l s te in 1 980 )h a sg r ea t ly a i ded t h ee s tab l i shmen to f af r amewo rk o f a b so lu te c h rono logy . T h i rd , n ew a t ten t ion h a s b een d evo ted t o q ue s t ions o t he r t h an t h ose o f t ypo logy , c h rono logy , a nd e conomy -s pe c if i ca l ly t oa r t a nd r i tua l .

T he r o le o fa r ta nd d eco ra t ion i nt h ee xp r e s s ion o fd i f f e r en t k i nd so fi n fo rma t ion ,s u ch a ss o c ia la nd e t hn ic i d en t i ty ,h a s b een e xam ined ,a sw el a st h er e la t ionsh ip b e tween a r ta nd r e l ig ion . A rchaeo log ica l r ema in s o f a ppa ren t ly r i tua l n a tu re ,i n c lud ing b u r ied h oa rd s ,d epo s i t si nw e tp l a ce s ,a nd r e c tangu la r e nc lo su re s , h ave a t t rac ted g rea te r r e sea rch a t ten t ion .

Geography T he g eog r aphy o fG e rmany i sv a r ied ,a nd f o ru nde r s tand ing o ft h eL a t e h on A ge , at h ree fo ld d iv i s ion o ft h e l a nd scape i n to s ou thern , c en t ra l , a nd n o r ther n r eg ion s i s u se fu l . S ou ther nG e rmany ,t h el a nd s cape s ou th o ft h e Ma in R ive r , i sd om ina ted b y t h eR h ine o nt h ew e s ta nd b y t h eD anube , w h ich f l ows f r om w e s t t o e a s t t h rough i t . S ou the rn G e rmany i sm a in ly h ily c oun t ry , w i th h i gh moun ta in s i n s ou the rn B ava r ia ,l owe r moun ta in si nt h eB la ck F o re s ta nd t h e B ava r ian F o re s t , a nd l ow , r o l l ing h i l l s o ve r much o f t h el a nd s cap e . T he m idd le r eg ion , b e tween t he Ma in a nd t he No r th E u ropean P la in , i sk nown a st h e c en t ra l u p land s , w i th t h e R h ine r unn ing f r om s ou th t on o r th t h rough t h e w e s tp a r t . I t sn o r the rn a nd e a s t e rn r e g ion sa r ed ra ined b ys t reams t h a t j o in t h e Wese r a nd E lbe r i ve r s y s tems w h ich f l ow n o r thwa rd i n to t h eN o r th S ea . N o r the rn G e rmany i sp a r to ft h e No r th E u ropean P la in . I t i sf l a ta nd d om ina ted b y s a ndy s o i l s a nd , e spec ia l ly a l ong t h eN o r th S ea a nd B a l t ic c oa s t s , ma r she s . I nc u l tu ra l d eve lopmen t , n o r the rn a nd s ou the rn G e rmany w e re d i s t inc t f r om o ne a no the r t h roughou t t h e I r on A ge , t hough a r chaeo log ica l e v idence a t te s t s t o i n c rea s ing i n te ra c t ion f r om t h e M idd le L aT ene P e r iod o n . I nm any r e spec t s , t h e c en t ra lr e g ion c an b e v i ewed a s at r an s i t iona l z one . T h i s r eg ion i sp a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan t f o r s t udy o f c hange sa tt h ee nd o ft h eL aT ene P e r iod a nd o fq ue s t ion s s u r round ing i d en t if ica t ion o f' C e l t s 'a nd ' Ge rman s . '

7

P e t er WELLS Chrono logy

c hambe r s , w he e led v eh ic le s , g o ld r i ng j ewe l lery , o rna t e w eapons , a nd l u xu ry i mpo r t s f r om t h e Med i te r ranean w o r ld , e spec ia l ly b ronze v e sse l s c onnec ted w i th t h e c onsump t ion o f w ine . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e twe en L a t e H a l l s ta t ta nd E a r ly L aT ene d eve lopmen t si sc omp lex a nd s t i l l n o t w e l l u nde r s tood , d e sp i te much d i s cu s s ion ( Pau l i 1 978 a nd F rey 1 991 p rov ide g ood s umma r ie s o f t h e i s sue s ) . N ew p e r spe c t ive so nE a r ly L aT ene a r ta nd o n t h e q ue s t ion o f C e l t ic o r ig in s s hed s ome l i gh t o n t h e p rob lems .

T he c h rono logy f o rs ou the rn a nd c en t ra lG e rmany i sb a sed o nt h ef ou r -pha se s cheme , w i th p ha se sd e s igna ted L aT ene A , B , C , a nd D , d eve loped i n 1 911 b y P au l R e inecke ( 1 965 ) . T he m os t s i gn if ican t r e f inemen t o f R e inecke ' s s cheme h a s b een I C räme r 's ( 1962 ) i d en t if ica t ion o f s ubd iv i s ion so fL aT ene C i n to C l a nd C 2 ,a nd o fL aT ene Di n to D 1 , D 2 , a nd D 3 . App rox ima te a bso lu te d a te s f o r t h e s t a r to fe a ch o ft h e p ha se s a r e a sf o l low s ( s ee K räme r 1 985 ,J ockenhöve l 1 990a ,2 61) : L aT ene A L aT ene B 1 L aT ene B 2 L aT ene C l L aT ene C 2 L aT ene D 1 L aT ene D 2 L aT ene D 3

E ar ly L a T ene a r t a nd t he o r ig ins o f t he C e l t s I n c on t ra s t t os ome e a r l ie r s t ud ie s , r e cen t a pp roa che s t o E a r ly L a T ene a r t e mpha s i se l o ca l d eve lopmen t o f i t s s pe c ia l f e a tu r e s ,r a the rt h an s ou r ce so fp a r t icu la r mo t i f s i n t h ea r ta nd d e s ign o f Med i t e r ran ean s o c ie t i e s( e .g .F r ey a nd S chwappach 1 973 , d e W i lde 1 976 ) . T he n ew s t y le m ay h ave o r ig ina ted a round 4 80 -470 BC . i n t h e M idd le R h ine land ,s pe c if icaly i nt h eH un s r i ick -E i f e lr e g ion ,w he r e m any o f t h e e a r l ie s t a nd m o s t d i s t inc t ive e xamp le s h ave b een r e cove red , a nd w he re t h e g r ea te s t c oncen t ra t ion o f E t ru scan a nd G reek i mpo r t s o f t h i s p e r iod o ccu r s ( Pau l i 1 978 ) . Many o ft h e mo s td i s t in c t ive e a r ly e xamp le so ft h e n ew s t y le h ave c ome f r om e xcep t iona l ly r i ch b u r ia l s ; t h e s oc ia l c on tex t o f t h e n ew a r t h a s b een a s ub je c t o f p rodu c t ive r e s ea r ch ( P au l i 1 978 ,L ene rz -de W i lde 1 980 ) .

4 50 BC 3 75 BC 3 10 BC 2 50 BC 1 85 BC 1 25 BC 6 0 BC 1 5 BC ( a lso s t a r t o fR oman P e r iod )

T he se d a t e s h ave b een w o rked o u to n t h eb a s i s o fG reek , E t ru scan , a nd R oman i mpo r t s i n c on tex t s i n t empe ra te E u rope ; a r tef a c t l i nk s w i th o b jec t s i n Med i te r ranean c on tex t s , p a r t icu la r ly i nn o r the rn I t a ly ; a nd , mo s tr e cen t ly , d end ro ch rono log ica ld e t e rm ina t ion s . D if f e ren ti n ve s t iga to r s s ugge s t s l igh t ly d i f f e ren t s t a r t ing a nd e nd ing d a te s f o r t h e p ha se s , a nd t h e re i sr eg iona l v a r ia t ion w i th in G e rmany . T he d a te s g i ven a bove r ep re sen t ag ene ra l i sed c h rono logy f o rs ou the rn a nd c en t ra lG e rmany a s aw ho le .

I nh e rs t ud ie so fd e s ign ,L ene r z -d eW i lde ( 1 977 )h a ss hown t h a t much E a r ly L a T ene a r t u t i l i se s c i r c le p a t te rn s c on s truc ted t h rough u se o fc omp lex g eome t ry , e mp loy ing b o th s pec ia l i sed k now ledge a nd d ra f t ing i n s tr umen t s . T he f i na lp roduc t s , i n c lud ing c i r cu la rb roo che sa nd o rnamen ta l p l aque s , o f ten d o n o t d i sp lay t h e c on s t ru c t ion t e chn ique s t h a t w en t i n to t h e i rd e s ign . K now ledge o ft h e m e thod s t o p roduce s uch o b je c t s m ay h ave b een i n ten t iona l ly k ep t s e c r e tf r om t h eu n in i t ia ted .

F o r n o r ther n G e rmany , t h e b a s ic s equence f o r t h e p re R oman I r on A ge w a s e s tab l i shed b y G u s tav S chwan te s i n 1 911 ( d i scu s s ion i nH ä s s le r 1 991 , 1 95 -196 ) . O n t h eb a s i s o f ur n c eme t e r ies i n n o r th -ea s te rn L owe r S axony , h e d ef ined a ne a r ly p ha se c a l led J a s to r f , am idd le p ha se c a l led R ipdo r f , a nd a f i na l p ha se c a l led S eedo r f . S chwan te s d i v ided t h eJ a s to r fa nd S eedo r fp ha se si n to s ub -pha se s ,a nd l a t e rr e sea r che r sf u r the rr ef ined t h es equence . A pp rox ima t e d a t e sa r e :

E ar ly L a Une

P au l i ( 1 978 ,4 70 -473 )a pp l ie sL ene r z -de W i lde ' sr e su l t st o q ue s t ion s o ft h eo r ig in sa nd d eve lopmen to ft h en ew s t y le , t h e s o c ia l c hange s a ppa ren t d u r ing t h e f i f th c en tu ry BC . , a nd t h eb eg inn ing s o ft h e p eop le k nown a s' C e l t s ' . Many o ft h e mo s td i s t inc t ive e xamp le s o ft h en ew s t y le o ccu ri n r i ch m en 's b u r ia l s o f t h e M idd le R h ine land , a nd P au l i i n te rp re t s t h e s t y le a s am a te r ia l e xp re s s ion o f i d en t i ty a mong memb e r s o f an ew e l i t e g roup . T he i n te rp re ta t ion h a sb o th as o c ia la nd a ne t hn ic d imens ion .

T he e a r l ie s t p ha se o f L a T ene , Ai nR e inecke 's s cheme , r e p re sen t s i nm any r e spe c t s c on t inu i ty w i th H al s ta t t Do f t h eE a r ly I r on A ge . L aT ene A i s mo s tc l e a r ly r ep re sen ted i nr i ch b u r ia l sc oncen t ra ted i nt h eM idd le R h ine r eg ion a nd i na n th ropomo rph ic a nd z oomo rph ic f i bu lae t h a ta r e m o re w ide sp read . T he ma in d i s t inc t ion b e tween L aT ene A a nd t h e p reced ing H a l ls ta t t t r ad i t ion i s i n t h e s t y le o f o r namen t , w i th f l o ra l a nd c u rv i l inea rt h eme s r ep la c ing t h e s t r ic t g eome t r i c p a t te rn s o f t h e E a r ly I r on A ge , a nd w i th a bundan t u s e o f h igh ly s t y l i sed a n th ropomo rph ic a nd z oomo rph ic m o t if s , e spec ia l ly o n f i bu lae b u t o n o t he r m e ta lwo rk a s w e l l ( d i scu s s ion i n F rey 1 991) . Y e t t h e r i ch ly o u tf i t t ed b ur ia ls i n w h ich E a r ly L a T ene a r t a nd d e s ign o ccu ra r es t r ik ing ly s im i la rt ow ea l thy L a te H a l l s ta t t b u r ia ls . B o th s e t s o f g rave s i n c lude w ooden b u r ia l

D u r ing t h ef i r s th a lf o ft h ef i f th c en tu ry BC . ,a ne l i te g roup e me rged i nt h e w e s ter nM idd le R h ine land ,r e p re sen ted b y t h e r i ch g rave s c on ta in ing w ooden c hambe r s , g o ld o rnamen t s , o rna te w eapon ry , Med i te r ranean l uxu ry i mpo r t s ,w hee l ed v eh ic le s ,a nd o t he rs p e c ia la c cou t remen t s . I r on m ay h ave b een t h es ou r ce o fw ea l th t h a ts uppo r ted t h e l i f e s ty le r ep re sen ted ( D r iehau s 1 965 , S ch ind le r 1 968 ) . P aul is ugge s t s t h a tt h ee me rg ing e l i te g r oup d eve lop ed t h e n ew s t y le o fo r namen ta s am ean st od i s t ingu i sh i t se l ff r om t h e r e s t o f s o c ie ty . T he f a c t t h a t t h e n ew s t y le i sl a rge ly r e s t r ic ted t o e l i te c on tex t s f o r ac oup le o f g ene ra t ion s s uppo r t s t h i s mode l o f s oc ia l e xc lu s ivene ss . A f te r 4 00 BC . , w i th t h eb eg inn ing o ft h e n ew t r ad i t ion o ff l a t -g rave i n huma t ion c eme te r ie s ,t h es t y le s p read t h roughou ts o c ie ty .

J a s to r f 6 00 -300 BC R ipdo r f 3 00 -120 BC S e edo r f 1 20 -00 BC

8

P e ter WELLS N euenbu rg a tt h en o r the rn e dge o ft h eB la ck F o re s t( J ensen 1 981 ) . T hu s ac omp lex p a t te rn i se me rg ing , w i th e v idence f o r many s ma l l c ommun i t ie s m anu fa c tu r ing aw ide r a nge o f g ood s , b u t a l so f o r c en t re s w he re s uch p roduc t ion w a s c oncen t r a t ed .

A t a bou t t h e s ame t ime t h a tt he L a Une s t y le a ppea red i n t h eM idd le R h ine land , t h e n ame ' C e l t s ' w a sf i r s tm ent ioned b y G reek w r i te r s . P au l i ( 1978 , 1 980 , 1 985 ) s ugge s t s t h a t t h e s t y le w a s a dop ted a s as i gn o f i d en t i ty b y t h i s n ew ly s e lf -cons c ious p eop le i n t empe ra te E urope . T h i s c oncern w i th i d en t i ty may h ave d eve loped a s ar e su l t o f g row ing i n te ra c t ion s b e tween t h e g roup s i nt empe ra te E u rope a nd

Midd le L a T ene

s oc ie t ie so ft h e Med i te r ranean w o r ld . P aul i ' s t h e s i s a pp l ie s mode rn c oncep t s o f e t hn ic i den t i ty a nd i t s e xp re s s ion t h rough u se o f ma ter ia l s i gns t o t h i s i n te r re la ted s e t o f p rob lems -o r ig in so ft h en ew a r t , s oc ia lc hange sd u r ing t h e f i f th a nd f ou r th c en tu r ie s BC . , a nd o r ig ins o f t h e p eop le c a l led ' C e l t s ' .

F o r t h e t i me b e tween t h e s t a r t o ft h e f ou r th a nd t h em idd le o ft h e s e cond c en tu ry BC . ,r i ch g r ave s s uch a st ho se o fL a nne A i nt h e M idd le R h ine land , a nd t h e Med i te r ranean i mpor t s i nt h em , a r e r a re ( t he g rave a t Wa lda lge she im i s o ne o f t he e xcep t ions ) . I n s ou thern G ermany , t he d om inan t b u r ia l p rac t ice w a s i n huma t ion i n f l a t g rave s , w i th m en o f ten a ccompan ied b y i r on w eapons , e spe c ia l ly s wo rd s a nd s pea r s , a nd w omen o u t f i t ted w i th b ronze r i ng j ewe l le ry , f i bu lae , a nd b ead s . T he c eme ter y a tN eb r ingen ( K räme r 1 964 ) i sr ep re sen ta t ive f o r L a nne B , t h a t a t Manch ing -S te inb ich l ( K räme r 1 985 ) f o r L a Une C . I n n or the rn G e rmany , c r ema t ion r ema ined t h e n o rm f r om t h e L a te B ronze A ge t ot h e e nd o f t h e p re -Roman h on A ge , w i th r eg iona l v a r ia t ion s i ns pec if i c p r a c t ice s ( Vo ig t 1 988 ) . Ana lys i s o fg rave g ood sa nd o fc r ema t ion r ema in s a tl a rge c eme te r ie s , s uch a s t h ose a t B lankenfe lde n ea r B e r l in ( He i l igendor f f a nd P au lu s 1 965 ) a nd a tJ evens ted t a nd T immendo r fi nS ch le sw ig -Ho l s te in ( H ing s t , H umme l , a nd

I n terac t ion a nd e conomy d ur ing t he E ar ly L a U ne R e cen tr e sea rch h a s s hown t h a t many mo re c ommun i t ie si n s ou the rn G e rmany w e re e ngaged , d i rec t ly o ri nd i rec t ly , i n i n te ra c t ion w i th Med i te r ranean p eop le s a tt h is t ime t h an h ad b een t hough t , a nd t h a t manuf ac tur ing a c t iv i ty w a s mo re d eve loped a nd w ide sp read . E a r l ie r l i te ra tu re ( e .g . D r iehaus 1 965 ) , e mpha s ised t h e c oncen t ra ted e v idence o f Med i ter ranean ma te r ia l f r om t he M idd le R h ine land . H oweve r , a ccumu la t ing n ew d a ta n ece ss i ta te ar e v i s ion o f i d ea s a bou t t h e c ha rac te r o f t h e c on tac t a nd i t s i mpac t i n t emp e ra t eE u rope .

S chu tkow sk i 1 990 ) p rov ide s aw ea l th o fi n forma t ion a bou t ma ter ia l c u l tu re , s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion , c on tac t s w i th o t he r

F o r e xamp le , as e t t lemen t s pann ing t h e L a te H a l l s ta t t a nd E a r ly L a Une P e r iod h a sb een d i scove red a s soc ia ted w i th t h e r i ch L a te H a l l s ta t t b u r ia l a t H o chdo r f n ea r S tu t tga r t ( B ie l 1 990 , 1 991) . I na dd i t ion t os unken -f loo rh u t s , r ound

r eg ions ,a nd d emog raph ic s t ruc tu re o ft h e c ommun i t ie s . I n g ene ra l , g rave s i nt h e n o r th w e re mo re mode s t ly o u t f i t ted w i th g ood s t h an t h o se i nt h e s ou th .

s t o rage p i t s , a nd f ence s , t h e s e t t lemen t c on ta ined a l a rge t imb e r -f rame h ouse 1 4 b y 1 0 m i ns i ze . I r on t o o l s , d eb r i s

Grow ing s outh -north i nterac t ion d ur ing t he Midd le L a Une B eg inn ing d u r ing e a r ly L a nne B a nd c on t inu ing t h roughou tt h eM idd le L a Une P e r iod t h e re i se v idence f o r

f r om b ronze c a s t ing ,a nd s p ind le w ho r l s a nd l o om w e igh t s a t tes t t o c raf t a c t iv i ty . Mos t s i gn if ican t h a s b een t h e r e cove ry o f A t t ic r ed -f igu re s he rd s o n t h e s e t t lemen t , r e f le c t ing i n te rac t ion w i th t h e Med i te r ranean w o r ld d u r ing t h eE a r ly L a The P e r iod .

g row ing i n te rac t ion b e tween c ommun i t ie s i n s ou the rn , c en t ra l , a nd n o r the rn G e rmany ( H . S eye r 1 988 , P e sche l 1 989 ) . T he i n te rac t ions a r ea ppa ren ti nt h ep re sence o fL a nne -s ty le o b jec t s , a ppa ren t ly manu f ac tu red i nt h e s ou th , o n s i te s i nc en t ra l a nd n or the rn G e rmany . T hey i n c lude

A t t h e E a r ly L a Une f o r t if ied h i l l top s e t t lemen t o n t h e E h renbu rg i n n o r thern B ava r ia , A be Is ( 1992 ) r epo r t s r e covery o f as e r ie s o f o b jec ts o f Med i te r ranean o r ig in .

b ronze j ewe l le ry s uch a sf i bu lae ( Hä s s le r 1 991 ,2 15 ) , g l a s s b race le t s( Lappe 1 979 ) ,a nd p o t te ry ,b o th w hee l -made w a re s a nd c e ram ics o fg r aph i t e -c lay m ix . S e t t lemen t s a t Nö r t en -

T hey i n c lude ac e ram ic v e r s ion o f t h e S chnabe lkanne , a f r agmen ta ry g l a s sv e sse lo fG re ek o r ig in , a nd h and le sf r om s i tu lae ,p e rhaps f r om n o r ther nI t a ly . Many

s e t t lemen ts ,

l i ke

Hochdorf ,

w ere

Ha rdenbe rg ( Radda tz 1 981 , H e ege 1 987 ) a nd J ühnde (Wo l lkopf 1 986 ) i n L owe r S axony a nd G ro ssfahne r i n T hu r ing ia ( Ba r the l 1 984 ) , f o r e xamp le , y i e ld p o t te ry t h a t

o ccup ied

c on t inuou s ly f r om t h eL a te Ha l l s ta t tP er iod i n to t h e E a r ly L a The P e r iod , a nd a s t r ik ing ly l a rge p ropo r t ion y i e ld e v idence f o r o n -s i te p roduc t ion o f i r on , p o t tery , t e x t i le s , a nd b ronze o rnamen t s , s ugge s t ing t h a t many c ommun i t ie s w e re p roduc ing t h e se g ood sf o rt h e i ro wn n eed s ,r a the rt h an r e ly ing o n c en t re s o f p roduc t ion . O the r r e cen t e xamp le s i n c lude S i eben l inden i nB aden - Wü r t tembe rg ( Re im 1 990 ) a nd N iede re r lbach i n L owe r B ava r ia ( Koch 1 987 ) . H oweve r , c en t res o f p roduc t ion a l so e x is ted . T he S t e in sbu rg n ea rR ömh i ld i nT hu r ing ia w a s ac en t re o fi r on a nd b ronze wo rk ing , w he re f i bu lae w e re manu fac tu red ( Pes che l 1 989 , 1 33 ) . C en t re s o f i r on p roduc t ion a r e w e l l

i nd ica te s l i nk s w i th t h e s ou th . As pec ia l r o le w a s p l ayed b y t h e s e t t lemen t o n t h e P ip insbu rg , n ea r O s te rode i nt h e Ha rz Moun ta in s . D u r ing t h e l a te r p a r t o f t h e M idd le L a T ène P e r iod , c onnec t ion s w i th s ou thern G e rmany a nd t h e o pp ida a r e e spec ia l ly a ppa ren t i n t h e i r on t oo l s a nd i n f o rms o fc e ram ic v e sse l s ( C lau s a nd S ch lü te r 1 975 , 2 62 ) , a s w e l l a si nt h e s t r uc tu re o ft h e w a l l s y s tem ( op . c i t . 2 71 f i g . 1 5 ) . Co inage I nd igenou sc o inage i nt empe ra te E u rope ,c ommon ly k nown a s ' C e l t ic ' c o inage ,b egan d u r ing t h es e cond h a l fo ft h et h i rd c en tury BC . ( Po lenz 1 982 , K elne r 1 990 ) . I tw a s mode l led o n t h e G reek s t a te r , a nd m ay h ave d eve loped a f te r C e l t ic

d ocumen ted ,e spe c ia l ly i nt h e w e s te rn M idd le R h ine r e g ion ( Sch ind le r 1 968 ) , b u t e l sewhe re a s w e l l , f o r e xamp le a t

9

P e ter WELLS L a te L a Une

m e r cena r ie sr e tu rn ing f r om s e r v ice i nG reek a rm ie sb rough t t h ep ro to type s h ome w i th t h em ( Mann spe rge r 1 981 ) . T he G reek g o ld c o in sw e re e qu iva len tt oo ne m on th ' ss a la ry f o r as o ld ie r . I nt empe ra te E u rope t h e g o ld c o in s mo s t l i ke ly d id n o tp l ay t h er o le o f money ,b u ts e rved a st r ea su re t ob e u sed f o r s pe c ia l p u rpose s . S i lve ra nd b ronze c o inage d i d n o t c ome i n to c ommon u se u n t i l a f te r t h e m idd le o f t h e s e cond c en tu ry BC . ( s e e b e low ) , a nd i ti so n ly a f t e r t h e a ppea rance o f c o inage i nt h o se m e ta l s t h a t c o ins c an b e c on s id e r ed af o rm o f money .

T he L a te L aT ene P e r iod ,d a ted n ow f r om a bou t 1 25 BC .t o t h e t i me o f C hr i s t ( f o r r e cen t d i scus s ion o f t h e a b so lu te c h rono logy s ee K räme r 1 985 ; M iron 1 986 , 1 989 ; J ockenhöve l 1 990a ) , w a s at ime o f p ro found c hange i n s ou the rn , c en t ra l , a nd n o r thern G e rmany . I n t h e c h rono log ica l s equence s f o r a l l o f t h e r eg ions , t h e re i sa t y po log ica l b r eak a round 1 30 -120 BC . I n s ou the rn a nd c en t ra lG e rmany ,b u r ia lp rac t ice s s h if ted f r om i n huma t ion w i th s ub s tan t ia lg r ave g ood s ,t oc r ema t ion ,o f ten w i th v e ry f ew g ood s . I n mo s t o fG e rmany s ou th o ft h e Ma in , v e ry f ew g r ave s a r ek nown f r om t h e L a te L aT ene p e r iod , a nd t h o se r e f le c t d i ve r se b u r ia l p rac t ice s a nd a ccompany ing g ood s( K räme r 1 985 ) . I nt h er eg ion a l ong a nd j u s tn o r th o f t h e Ma in ,a nd t ot h ew e s ta round T r ie r ,c r ema t ion r e p laced i n huma t ion ,b u tg r ave g ood s w e re s t i l l i n c luded i nb u r ia l s . C eme te r ie s i n t h i s a r ea b e tween s ou ther n a nd c en t ra l G e rmany , s u ch a s B ad Nauhe im ( Schönbe rge r 1 952 ) , D ie tzenbach ( Po lenz 1 971 ) , Ho ra th ( M i ron 1 986 ) , a nd Wede ra th ( Haf fne r 1 989 ) , a re i mpor tan t f o r o ur u nde r s tand ing o ft h ec h rono logy o ft h ee nd o ft h eL aT ene P e r iod a nd o f c hang ing p a t te rns o f s oc ia l s t ruc tu re a nd b u r ia lr i tua l . I nb o th s ou ther na nd n o r ther nG e rmany , t h eL a te L aT ene P e r iod , e spe c ia l ly t h e l a t te r p a r t o f i t , i sm a rked b y a r e appea rance o f t h e p rac t ice o f o u t f i t t ing s ome b u r ia l s s ub s tan t ia l ly mo re r i ch ly t h an o t he r s . L ike t h er i ch g rave s o ft h eL a te H a l l s ta t ta nd E a r ly L a T ene P e r iod s , t h e se a r e c ha r ac te r i sed b y s uch g ood s a s me ta l v e s se l s , w hee led v eh ic le s , a nd i mpo r t s f r om t h e Med i te r ranean w o r ld ( Wer ne r 1 978 , H a f fne r a nd J oach im 1 984 ) . E xamp le s i n c lude r i ch women 's g raves a t Düh ren i n B aden Wü r t temb e rg ( F i s che r 1 981 ) a nd P lö tz in n ea rP o t sdam ( R . S eye r 1 988 , 2 17 . 2 20 f i g . 5 9 ) , a nd r i ch m en ' s g rave s a t N euw ied 2i nt h eR h ine land ( J oa ch im 1 973 ) a nd a tH u sby i n S ch le sw ig -Ho ls te in ( Radda tz 1 967 ) . I n n o r the rn G e rmany ,m any g r ave sf r om t h ee nd o ft h eL aT ene P e r iod a r e o u tf i t t ed w i th b ronze v e s se ls made i nt h e s ou th , a nd i n c lu s ion o fw eapon ry b ecame ac ommon p r a c t ice i np a r t s o fn o r the r nG e rmany a sw e l l ,i n many c a se s i n vo lv ing i r on s wo rd sm ad ei ns ou the rn G e rmany ,o r mode l led c l o se ly o n s ou the rn p ro to type s ( Pe sche l 1 977 , F rey 1 986 , S chu l tze 1 986 ) .F o re xamp le ,i nt h ec eme te ry a tH a r se f e ld i nL owe r S axony , a tl e a s t 1 0 g rave s c on ta ined b ronze c au ld ron s o r b a s in s ,a nd m any i n c luded i r on w eapon sa nd o t he r . B ronze c au ld ron sw e r ep l a ced i ns eve ra lo ft h eg rave sa tH ammoo r i nS ch le sw ig -Ho l s te in , b u t w i thou t t h e o t he r l a v i sh g ood s ( Redl i ch 1 9 80 ) .

Emergence o f t he o pp ida S ome o ft h es ou th G e rman o pp ida h ad a l r eady d eve loped b y t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e s e cond c en tu ry BC . ( Gebha rd 1 991 ) , t h ough m any o ft h em w e re n o te s tab l i shed u n t i ll a te i nt h a t c en tu ry o re ven a s l a te a s t h e m idd le o ft h e f i na l c en tu ry BC . ( F ische r 1 988 ) . Wi l l ' s ( 1 987 ) s t udy o ft h ea mpho ra e f r om Manch ing s ugge s t s t h a t s e t t lemen t w a s a l ready e ngaged i nl o ng -d i s tance t r ade w i th I t a ly b yt h es t a r to ft h e s e cond c en tu ry BC . T he m o s te x ten s ive o pp idum r e sea rch i nE u rope h a s b een c a r r ied o u t a t Manch ing , w he re e xcava t ion s s i nce 1 955 h ave e xpo sed s ome 1 00 ,000 s qua r em e te r so ft h es e t t lemen t s u r f a ce . T he s e t t lemen tp l an sa nd a bundan tf i nd sp ubl i shed m ake Manch ing t h es t anda rd w i th w h ich a l lo t he ro pp idum r e sea r ch i sc ompa red . S tud ie s o fs pa t ia l p a t te rn ing o n t h e e xcava ted a r ea s a t Manch ing r e vea l s i gn if ican tf e a tu re s o f t h e s e t t lemen t . S chube r t ( 1983 ) h a s r e cons t ruc ted b u i ld ing s i n t h e c en t ra l p a r t o f t h e s e t t lemen t , s ome o f w h ich w e re e x t reme ly l a rge , a si n d ica ted b yt h ep o s tho le s . S chube r t h a s i d en t if ied p ubl i c b u i ld ing s o fp robab le r i tua l c ha ra c t e r , a sw e l la se x ten s ive w o rk shop s . I nh i s s t udy o f d i s t r ibu t ion s o ft o o l s a nd i n du s t r ia l d eb r i s ,J a cob i ( 1 974a ) w a s a b le t oi d en t ify manu f a c tu r ing a c t iv i t ie s a tp a r t i cu la r l o ca t ion sw i th in t h es e t t lemen t . T hrough s t udy o f d i s t r ibu t ion s o f c h rono log ica l ly d i agno s t ic c a tego r ie s o f o b jec t s , s uch a s f i bu lae a nd p a in ted p o t te ry , S töck l i ( 1 974 ) h a s b een a b le t o s how w h ich p a r t so ft h es e t t lemen tw e re b u i l tu pd u r ing L aT ene Ca nd w h ich f i r s t i n L a T ene D . F rom h e r a na ly s i s o f t ype s a nd l o ca t ion s o fi r on w eapon s a nd t o o l s o n t h e s i t e , S i eve r s ( 1989 ) h a s a rgued p e r sua s ive ly t h a t t h e " g rea t b a t t le" , r ep resen ted b y h und r ed s o fh uman s ke le ton s a nd d amaged w eapons , t ook p l a ce a r ound 1 30 o r 1 20 BC . ( Ea r l ie r s ugge s t ion s p l aced t h is b a t t le a t 1 5 BC . , a tt h e t ime o ft h eR oman c onque s to ft h er e g ion ; a nd a r ound t h e m idd le o f t h e f i na l c en tu ry B C . , t h e a ppa r en t t i me o ft h e a bandonmen t o ft h e Manch ing s e t t lemen t . ) A cco rd ing t o h e r s t udy , a f te r t h i s c a ta s t roph ic e ven t , t h e s i te w a s a bandoned f o r at ime , t h en r e se t t led a nd r e bu i l t o n a d i f f e r en tp l an . T h i s n ew d a t ing o ft h eb a t t le h a s i mpo r tan t i mpl i ca t ion sf o ro u ru nde r s tand ing o ft h ee nd o ft h eo pp ida , t h eq ue s t ion o ft h ei mm ig ra t ion o fp eop le s f r om t h e n o r th , a nd t h es t y l i s t ic c hange sa s so c ia t ed w i th t h eL aT ene C -D t r an s i t ion ( s ee b e low ) . L ange ( 1 983 ) a nd H ahn ( 1 992 ) , r epo r t ing o n r e su l t s o f a na ly se s o f t h e h uman s ke le ta l m a te r ia l f r om Manch ing , r a i se i mpo r tan t q ue s t ion s a bou t p o s s ib le r i tua le xp lana t ion sf o rt h ep a t te rn so b se rved .

Opp ida i n t he L a te L a T ene P er iod T hough s ome o f t h e o pp ida -mo s t n o tab ly Manch ing w e re e s tab l i shed e a r l ie r , t h eL a te L a T ene P e r iod w a s t h e t i me o fg r ea t e s ta c t iv i ty a tt h eo pp ida . I nG e rmany , s ome 2 7s i te sh ave b e en i d en t if ied a so pp ida ( Schaa f fa nd T ay lo r 1 975 ) . N oo t he rs i t eh a sb een r e sea r ched a se x ten s ive ly a s Manch ing , b u t i mpo r tan t i n fo rma t ion h a s r e su l ted f r om r e cen t e xcava t ion s a t many o f t h e o pp ida , i n c lud ing A l tenbu rg ( F ische r 1 975 , Mau te 1 991 ) , Amönebu rg ( We i s shaa r 1 984 ) , B re isach ( Bende r , D ehn , S t o rk 1 976 ) , H e ide t ränk ( Mü l le r -Ka rpe a nd Mü l le r -Ka rpe 1 977 ) , K e lhe im ( Her rmann 1 975 , We l ls 1 987 , E tze l 1 990 ) ,

1 0

P e ter WELLS S ome i nve s t iga to r s c l a ss ify s uch s i te s w i th t h e o pp ida , o t he r s d o n o t . S i zeab le u nfo r t if ied s e t t lemen t s h ave b een e xcava t ed i nt h ec en t ra lr eg ion s ,f o re xamp le a tL au ren zbe rg a nd L ohn n ea r E schwe i le r i n t h e M idd le R h ine land ( J oach im 1 980 , 1 991a ) . T he se y i e lded l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f i r on w eapons a nd t oo l s f o r av a r ie ty o f manu fac tu r ing p roce s se s , a s w e l l a s e v idence o f i r on p roduc t ion . A t t h e l ow land f o r t if ied s e t t lemen t o f N iede r z ie r n ea r B onn , a h oa rd w a s f ound t h a tc on ta ined t wo g o ld n e ck r ing s , ag o ld b race le t , 2 6 C e lt ic g o ld c o ins o f t he R egenbogenschi isse lchen t ype , a nd 2 0 g o ld s t a te r s ( J oa ch im 1 991b ) .

S ta f f e lbe rg ( Ende r 1 987 , Abe Is 1 988 ) , S t e insbu rg ( Pe sche l 1 982 ) , a nd Z a r ten -Ta rodunum ( Dehn , Wagne r , Webe r 1 987 ; Webe r 1 989 ) . T he n ew r e sea rch i s s how ing t h a t t h ough t h eo pp ida a s ag roup s ha re i mpo r tan tf e a tu re s ,t h ey o f ten v a r ied c ons ide rab ly i n i n terna l o rgan isa t ion a nd e conom ic a c t iv i ty . P e rhap s t h e mo s ti mpor tan td i s t inc t ion i st h a tb e tween o pp ida t h a th oused l a rge a nd e conom ica l ly a c t ive s e t t lemen t s , s u ch a s Manch ing , a nd t ho se t h a t w e re v i r tua l ly e mp ty o fs e t t lemen ta nd a ppa ren t ly s e rved m a in ly a sr e fuge s i nt ime s o fd ange r , s uch a sZ a r ten -Ta rodunum ( Webe r 1 989 ) . A tZ a r t en , f i nd so fc ha r ac t e r is t ic p o t te r ya nd o fi r on s p ike s t y p ica lo ft h e murus G a l l icus s t ruc tu re a t te s t t o h uman p re sence d u r ing t h e L a te L a Une P e r iod , b u t e xcava t ion h a sr evea led n o s ub s tan t ia l s e t t lemen td epo s i t s . B u t 1 000 m e a s to ft h ef o r t if ied s i te w a sa n e x tens ive o pen

I nn o r thern G e rmany , s ma l ls e t t lemen t sw e re c ha r ac te r i s t ic , a nd l a rge ro ne s t h a tm igh tb ec a l led v i l lage s d id n o ta ppea r u n t i l t he v ery e nd o f t h e p re -Roman I r on A ge ( Hä ss le r 1 991 , 1 99 -207 ) . T he p o s t -f ramed t h ree -a i s led h ous e w a s c ommon i n c oa s ta l r eg ions , w i th p a r t o f t h e s t ruc tu re o ccup ied b y h umans , i nd ica t ed b y ah ea r th a nd h ab i ta t ion r ema ins , a nd p a r t b y l i ve s tock , ma rked b y s t a l l p a r t i t ions . E xamp le s a r e t h e e x tens ive ly e xcava t ed s e t t lemen t s o f F eddersen Wie rde a nd F löge ln i n L owe r S axony ( Z immermann 1 988 ) , a nd s e t t lemen t s a ts eve ra l s i te s o n

s e t t lemen t o ft h e s ame p e r iod t h a th a s y i e lded c o in s , g la ss b ra ce le t s , p o t te ry , a nd i mpo r ted R oman a mpho rae o f D re s se l 1 At ype ( Dehn , Wagne r ,a nd Webe r 1 987 ) . F o r t h ose o pp ida t h a ti n c luded s i zeab le s e t t lemen t s , r e cen t e xcava t ion w o rk i nd ica te s t ha t t he a r ea s e nc lo sed b y t h e w a l l s w e re n o t u n iform ly o ccup ied . T he f i r s t p ha se o f e xcava t ion s a t Manch ing ( 1955 -1961 ) e xp lo red t h e c en t ra l p a r t o f t h e s i te a nd r evea led i n tens ive o ccupa t iona l a nd i ndu s t r ia l a c t iv i ty t h e re . B u t mo re r e cen t e xcava t ions c a r r ied o u tt ot h en o r th a nd s ou th o ft h ec en t re s how a r ea s t h a tw e re mo re s pa r se ly i n hab i ted ,w i thou tt h ee v idence f o r i n du s t r ia la c t iv i ty a nd c omme rce t h a tc ha rac te r ize t h ec en t re

t h e No r th S ea i s land o f Am rum o f f t h e w e s t c oa s t o f J u t land ( H ing s t 1 987 ) . L a te L a T ene c o inage

( Ma ie r 1 986 ) . As im i la rd i f f e ren t ia t ion b e twe en ab u i l t -up c o re a r ea a nd s pa r se ly o ccup ied o u t sk ir t s i se me rg ing t h rough o ngo ing r e sea r ch a tK e lhe im (We l ls 1 991 ) . E xcava t ion o fs mal ,u nfo r t if ied s e t t lemen t s o ft h eL a te L a T ene P e r iod i sc hang ing o u r u nde r s tand ing o ft h e c u l tu ra l l a nd s cape a nd o ft h er o le o f t h e o pp ida . T he s e t t lemen t o f B e r ch ing -Po l lan ten i n B ava r ia , f o r e xamp le , y i e lded 7 9 c o in s ,n ume rou sf i bu lae ,g la s so rnamen t s , a nd c a tegor ie so f p o t te ry s im i la r t ot h os e a t Manch ing , a s w e l l a s e v idence f o r m anufac tur ing i n d if feren t ma te r ia ls ( F ische r ,

A n i mpo r tan t c hange h a s t a ken p l ace i nt h e r e cove ry o f c o in sd ur ing t h ep a s tt wo d ecade s ,a ss c r een ing ( s e iv ing ) o f s o i l o n s e t t lemen t s i te s h a s b ecome a r egu la r p rac t ice . S ince t h is c hange , s ma l l c o ins o f b ronze a nd s i lve r , t y p ica l ly t a rn ished a nd d i f f icu l tt os e e ,h ave b e en r e cove r ed i nq uan t i t ies , b o th o n o pp idum s e t t lemen t s a nd o n s ma l le r o ne s . I ti sn ow a ppa ren t t h a tb y t h e s t a r t o fL a nne D , a t h re e -me ta l c o inage s y s tem w a s i nu se a tt h eo pp ida ( S t eue r 1 987 , K e l lne r 1 990 ) . T h is n ew e v idence s ugge s t s t h a t o rgan isa t ion o f c omme rce a t t h e o pp ida a nd i n t h e l a nd scape s a round t h em w a s s ub s tan t ia l ly d i f fe ren t f r om

R ieckhof f -Pau l i , a nd S p ind le r 1 984 ; K e l lne r 1 990 ) .

t h a ti ne a r l ie rt ime s .

A

d eco ra t ive l y nchp in f ound a tB e rch ing -Po l lan ten , f r om a n o r na te w hee led v eh ic le , r a ise sq ues t ions a bou tt h e s t a tu s o f m embe r s o f t h a t c ommun i ty a nd a bou t t he r o le t h a t t h e c ommun i ty p l ayed i n manufac tu r ing p re s t ige g ood sf o r t h e l a rge r s oc ie ty ( Sp ind le r 1 983 ) . I n h i s s t udy o f t h e s e t t lemen t o f A l tendo rf n ea r B ambe rg , S töck l i ( 1979a ) n o te s s t rong s im i la r i t ie s w i th t he p o t tery a t Manch ing . S u rf ace f i nds f r om a s e t t lemen t a t S töf f l ing , n ea r T rauns te in , i n c lude 3 50 c o ins , as i lve r i ngo t , 2 4 f i bu lae , a nd a w ide r ange o f o the r o b je c t s ( I r l inge r 1 990 ) . A s e v idence a ccumu la te s f r om t h e s ma l le r s e t t lemen t s , i ti s b ecom ing a ppa ren t t h a t t h e ma te r ia l c u l tu re o f t h e s ma l l s e t t lemen t s a nd t h e o pp ida w a s v e ry s im i la r . C on t inu ing s t udy o ft h ec onne c t ion sb e tween t h ese d i f fe ren tc a tegor ie s o f s i te s w i l l h e lp u s b e t te r t o u nde r s tand e conom ic a nd s o c ia lc on f igu ra t ion si nL a te L a Une E u rope .

Wh i le mo s t s e t t lemen tc o in f i nd s a r eo fs i lve r a nd b ronze , n ume rous h oa rd s o f g o ld a nd o f s i lve r c o in s h ave b een f ound . T he c on tex t s i nw h ich s i lve r a nd b ronze c o in s a r e r e cove red ( e .g .O ve rbeck a nd Wel s 1 99 1 ) s ugge s tt h a tt h ey w e re s ma l l -va lue c hange , u sed i ne ve ryday l i f e , a tl e a s tb y s ome membe r s o f t h e s o c ie ty , f o r m ino r t r ansac t ion s , a nd o cca s iona l ly l o s t . T he h oa rd s , r ep re sen t ing c on s ide rab le v a lue , r equ i re a d i f f e ren t i n te rp re ta t ion . E xamp le s o f r e cen t ly -found h oa rd s i n c lude o ne f r om Wa l le r sdo r f i n L owe r B ava r ia , c on ta in ing 3 66 g o ld c o in s ( Ke l lne r 1 989 ) , a nd o ne f r om H ohenf e l s i nt h e Obe rpfa lz , c omp r i s ing 3 39 g o ld c o in s ( Ke l lne r 1 990 , 1 96 ) . T yp ica l ly , t h e c o ins i n s uch h oa rd sa r ei nn ew c ond i t ion ,a nd t h eg rea tm a jo r i ty a r e l o ca l ly -m in ted , t hough o f ten a f ew a r e f r om e l sewhe re . S ome i nve s t iga to r s i n t e rp re t h oa rd s o ft h is k i nd a st r ea su re s t o red f o r s a f ekeep ing , e spec ia l ly i nt h ec on tex to ft h rea t s o f v io lence a nd p lunder , o t he r s i n terp re t t h em a s r i tua l d epo s i t s ( s ee b e low ) .

I n t h e c en t ra l r eg ion s o f G e rmany , n o r th o f t h e Ma in , h i l l top f o r t if ied s i te s s uch a s t he Amöneburg a nd t h e S t e in sbu rg r e semb le t h e s ou th G e rman o pp ida i n s ome r e spec t s , b u t w e re s ma l ler a nd , a cco rd ing t o p re sen t e v idence , p e rhap s n o ta s a c t ive i nm anufac tu r ing a c t iv i ty .

1

P e ter WELLS p e r iod , r a the r t h an a t t r ibu t ing f o re ign o b je c t s t o t h e se s pec if ic g roups , p a r t icu la r ly s i nce mos t o f t he a r chaeo log i ca le v idence p o in t s t on o r thwa rd movemen to f o b jec t s ( po t t e ry , c o in s , g l a s s b race le t s , b ronze v e s se l s , s wo rd s ) ,r a th e rt h an s ou thwa rd .

I n terac t ion b e tween s ou th a nd n or th E v idence a t te s t ing t o i n te rac t ion b e tween t h e d i f f e ren t r eg ion s o f G e rmany i n c rea se s d u r ing t h e L a te L a l ine P e r iod . I n t h e n o r th , g r aph i te -c lay p o t te ry , w hee l -made v e s se l s , C e l t ic c o in s ( Be rge r 1 985 ) , g l a s s b ra ce le t s( Lapp e 1 979 ) , a nd b ronze v e s se l s i nd ica te i n te ra c t ion w i th t h e l a nd scap e o f t h e o pp ida , t o t h e s ou th . T he se g ood s a r e f ound p a r t icu la r ly a bundan t ly i n t h e c en t ra l l a nd s o f H e s sen , L owe r S axony , a nd T hu r ing ia ( Kau fmann 1 984 ; K au fmann a nd F le i sche r 1 986 ; P e sche l 1 989 ) ,b u t a l so t o s ome e x ten t f u r the r n o r th . T he p o t te ry , g l a s s , a nd c o in s may r e su l t f r om c a sua l c on ta c t s b e tween t r ave l le r s , m e rchan t s , a nd p o l i t ica l e m i s sa r ie s ,b u tf o rb ronze v e s se l s a nd i r on s wo rd so t he ri n te rp re ta t ion sh ave b een s ugge s t ed .

R i tua l s i tes T h roughou t G e rmany , t h e re i s e v idence f o r i n cr ea sed i n ve s tmen to fe f fo r ta nd r e sou rce s i nr i tua l a c t iv i ty d u r ing t h e L a te L a l ine P e r iod . I n s ou the rn G e rmany , t h e r e c tangu la r e nc lo su re s ( V iereck schan zen ) a ppea rw i th L a l ine D l . E a r ly i n te rp re ta t ion s o ft h e se e nc lo su re sv a r ied , b u te xcava t ion sc ondu c ted s i nce t h e 1 960 sp rov ide e v idence t h a t a l low s u s t oi n te rp re t t h em a s r i tua l s i te s . S chwa rz ( 1 975 ) a nd B i t t e l ( 1 981 ) d i s cus s s uch i n te rp re ta t ions i n l i gh t o fb o th t h e a r chaeo logy a nd C la ss ica l r e f e r ence s t o C e l t ic r i tua l p l a ce s . T he e nc lo su re s a r e c ha rac te r i sed b y d i t che s a nd b ank s i n s ide t h em , w i th a n e n t rance o n o ne s i de . L eng ths o f t h e s i des r ange f r om 6 0 t o 1 40 m . P o s tho le s o f as ub s tan t ia lr e c tangu la rb u i ld ing o f ten o ccu r i n ac o rne r .S ome o ft h ee xcava ted e nc lo su re sh ave r e vea led d eep p i t s i nt h em ; o ne a tH o lzhausen h ad t h re e p i t s , t h e d eepe s t 3 md eep ( S chwa r z 1 975 ) . A tF elba ch -Schm id en , t h e 2 0 -me t e r -deep p i t c on ta ined a r a nge o f o b jec t s , s t ra t ig raph ic e v idence o fl o ng a nd s y s tema t ic f i l ing ,a nd a t t h e b o t tom w ooden s cu lp tu re s o fd ee r a nd g oa t s ( P lan ck 1 985 ) . P i t s i n s eve ra l e nc losu res , i n c lud ing o ne a t H o lzhau sen , c on ta ined w ooden p o le s s e t u p r igh t a tt h e i r b o t tom s . R ema in so fa n ima l sa nd o fa sh a nd c ha rcoa lf r om f i re s h ave b een f ound i n many p i t s . T he e nc lo su re s r ep re sen t t h e e a r l ie s t c l ea r e v idence o f s t anda rd ised s t ruc tu r e s e r e c ted f o rt h ep u rpo se o fr i tua l a c t iv i ty i nI r on A ge E u rope . T he a c t o fc on s t ruc t ing s a c red s pa ce i nt h e l a nd scape s e ems t or ef l ec t an ew a t t i tude t owa rd t h en a tu ra l w o r ld a nd t owa rd e xp re s s ion o ft h er e la t ion b e tween s o c ie ty a nd n a tu re . I n s tead o fc onduc t ing t h e i rr i tua l se xc lu s ive ly i nt h en a tu r a l l a nd scape , L a te I r on A ge c en t ra l E u ropean s t r an s f o rmed p a r t so ft h el a nd scape t oc on s t r uc ts a c r ed s p a ce s f o rt h e i rp u rpo se s .

I nh e r s t udy o fb ronze v e s se l s made i ns ou the rn G e rmany a nd u sed a s u rn s i nc eme te r ie s i nt h e r e g ion a r ound t h e l owe rE lbe R ive r , R ed l ich ( 1980 ) s ugge s t s t h a tt h ev e s se l s m ay h ave b een o b ta ined a sb oo ty i nr a id so nC e l t i cl a nd st o t he s ou th , o r a cqu i red t h rough m e rcena ry s e rv ice i n c onf l ic t s b e tween s ou the rn g roups . I n a dd i t ion t o t h e ' Ce l t ic ' v e s se l s manu fa c tu red a tt h e o pp ida ( Ba chmann 1 990 , 6 49 -657 ) , w e a l so n eed t ot a ke a c coun t o fR oman b ronze v e s se l s t ha t w e re i mpo r ted , b o th i n to t h e C e l t ic l a nd s o f s ou the rn G e rmany a nd a l so i n to c en t ra l a nd n o r ther n l a nd s a l ready d u r ing t h e p r e -Roman I r on A ge ( Kunow 1 983 ) . I nt h eL a te L al ine p e r iod ,a nd e sp ec ia l ly d u r ing t h e s e cond h a l fo f t h e f i na l c en tu ry BC . , t h e re i s c on s ide rab le e v idence f o rt h ea r r iva lo fC e l t ic w eapon sf r om s ou the rn G e rmany i n to t h en o r th ( F rey 1 986 ) , t h ough i ti s n o ta lway se a sy t od i s t ingu i sh s ou the rn i mpo r t sf r om l o ca l v e r s ion so fL a t eL aT ene s ty le w eapon s . T he re i sa l so e v idence f o rt h e se s ou th -no r th i n t e ra c t ion si n s ou the rn G e rmany , b u t i ti sn o t a s a bundan t . K räme r ( 1950 , 1 961 ) i n te rp re t s b ronze j ewe l le ry o f n o r the rn c ha rac t e r f ound o n t h e Manch ing s e t t lemen t a s p e r sona l o rnamen t so fw omen f r om n o r the rn G e rmany ,p e rhap se l i t e i nd iv idua l sw ho c ame t o Manch ing a sb r ide si nt h ec on tex t o f p o l i t ica l a l l iances , ap rac t ice n o ted i n a nc ien t t e x t s . F rom L angenau i n B aden - Wü r t tembe rg , R e im ( 1 979 ) r epo r t st h ed i scove ry o f ah oa rd o fc o in sa nd f ou rf i bu la eo f t ype s c ommon i n t h e S aa le r eg ion o f n o r th -cen t ra l G e rmany . H and -made p o t te ry , f i bu la f o rms s u ch a sR e i tz T yp e J ,a nd S tabg i ir te lhaken a nd L ochgür te lhaken i n s ou the rn G e rmany a l l p o in t t owa rd n o r ther nr e g ion s , a nd o fc ou r se t h ea dop t ion o ft h en ew c r ema t ion b u r ia lp r a c t ice c an b ea s so c ia t ed w i th t r ad i t ion si nt h en o r th .

As e cond c a tego ry o fr i tua l s i te , w h ich o ve r lap s w i th t h e e nc lo su re s ( s ome o ft h ed eep s ha f t s i nt h ee nc lo su re sm ay h ave o nce s e rved a s w e l l s -P lanck 1 985 ) i s t h e w e t d epo s i t . I ns ou the rn G e rmany , m e ta l o b je c t ss uch a si r on s wo rd s a nd b ronze v e s se l s f r om t h e L a l ine P e r iod a r e f r equen t ly f ound d epo s i ted i nr i ve r s , s t reams , a nd l a ke s ( Z imme rmann 1 970 , T o rb rügge 1 971) . T he G reek g eog raphe r S t rabo ( IV ,1 ,13 ) r e f e r s t o p r ec ious m e ta l s d epo s i ted b o th i ne nc lo su re s a nd i nb od ie s o f w a te r b y a C e l t ic p eop le i nG au l . I nn o r the rn G e rmany , d epo s i t s o f m e ta l v e s se l s , r i ng s , p o t te ry , a nd wooden i mp lemen t s a r e c ommon i nb og sa nd i np ond s ( Hä s s le r 1 991 ,2 33 ) . Many h uman b od ie s t h a t h ave b een r e cove r ed i n t h e b og s o f n o r the rn E u rope d a t e f r om t h i s p e r iod ( D ie ck 1 972 ) , a nd t h ey w e re p robab ly d epo s i ted i nt h ec on tex to fr i tua l sa nd b e l ief s r e la ted t o t h ose i n vo lved i n t h e d epo s i t ion o f i n an ima te o b je c t s . Am a jo rc u l ts i te u sed f r om t h e e nd o f t h e E a r ly I r on A ge t h rough t h e M ig ra t ion P e r iod w a s s i tua ted a tO b e rdo r la i nT hu r ing ia . Du r ing t h e L a l ine P e r iod , d i f f e ren t k ind s o f s t ruc tu re s m ade o f w ood ,

A cco rd ing t ot h e c u r ren t c h rono logy , t h e t r an s i t ion i nt h e t y po logy b e tween L aT ene C a nd D ,r ough ly 1 30 -120 BC . ( Ha f f ne r 1 979 ) , i sa bou t t h e t ime w hen t h e C imb r i a nd T eu ton i l e f t t h e i r h ome land s i n n o r the rn E u rope a nd m ig ra t ed s ou thwa rd ,a cco rd ing t ot h et e x tua ls ou r ce s( Todd 1 992 ) . Much d i scus s ion i n t h e l i t e r a tu re h a s s ugge s ted c onnec t ion s b e tween t h e se m ig r a t ion s a nd t h e i n c rea s ing a r chaeo log ica le v idence f o rs ou th -no r th c on ta c t . I nl i gh to f t h e c omp lex i t ies o f c onnec t ing a r chaeo log ica l ly a nd h i s tor ica l ly d ocumen ted c hange s , i ti sb e s t t o v i ew t h e movemen t s o ft h e C imb r i a nd T eu tone s a sp a r to f am uch l a rge r p henomenon o f i n c rea s ing i n t e ra c t ion d u r ing t h i s

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P e t er WELLS i n c lud ing f i gu re s ,w e re s e tu pa tt h ee dge o ft h ep ond t h e re ( Behm -B lancke 1 989 ) .

o ccupa t ion a t Manch ing a f te r t h e m idd le o f t h e f i na l c en tu ry BC . ( Ch r i s t le in 1 964 , 1 982 ) . N ow , a st h e r e su l t o fe x ten s ive s t udy o ft h e m a t e r ia l sr e cove red a t Manch ing a nd c h rono log ica lc ompa r i son w i th d a ta f r om e l sewhe re ,i t i sa ppa ren tt h a tt h e Manch ing o ccupa t ion e nded w e l lb e fo re 1 5 BC . , p robab ly s ome t ime b efo re t h e m idd le o f t h e c en tu ry . ( A l ready i nh i sr e po r to f1 962 ,K räme rn o ted t h a t t h e Manch ing s e t t lemen te nded w i th L aT ene D 1 , t h ough D 2a nd D 3w e re r e p re sen t ed e l sewhe r ei ns ou the rn B ava r ia [ 1 962 , 3 06 f i g . U . )

A t h i rd c a tego ry o f r i tua l s i te , o ve r lapp ing w i th w e t d epos i t s b ecau se t h ey f r equen t ly o ccu r i n w e t p lace s , h oa rd s . H oa rd sa r en o tc ommon i nt h eE a r ly l i on A ge ,n o r i n t h e e a r l ie r p a r t o f t h e L a T ene P e r iod , b u t t h ey a r e c ommon d u r ing t h e l a t te r h a l fo ft h e s e cond a nd t h e f i na l c en tu ry BC . Two ma in k inds o f h oa rd s c an b e d i s t ingu i shed , t h o se c on ta in ing i r on a nd b ronze ,a nd t h ose c on ta in ing g o ld a nd s i lve r . Hoa rd s s uch a s t h o se f r om K appe l i nS ou thwe s t G e rmany ( F ische r 1 959 ) , K ö rne r i n S axony ( Goe tze 1 900 ) , a nd A l tenbu rg i nn o r ther nH e s sen ( F ied le r a nd H end le r 1 984 ) c on ta in i r on t o o l s , i n c lud ing t h o se f o ra g r icu l tu re a nd k i t chen u s e ; b ronze v e s se l s ; a nd h o r se a nd w agon g ea r . S uch h oa rd sh ave b e en i n t e rp re t ed a ss m i th s 's t o re so fs c rap me ta l ,b u tR ybovä a nd Mo tykovä ( 1983 ) a rgue p e r sua s ive ly f o r ar i tua l i n te rp re ta t ion , i n t e rms o f o f f e r ing s o f o b jec t s r ep re sen t ing d i f f e ren t c a tego r ie s o f e conom ic a nd c u l tu ra l a c t iv i ty , p a r t icu la r ly c once rn ing f e r t i l i ty ( a g r icu l tu ra li mp lemen t s )a nd n u r tu r ing ( c ook ing i mp lemen t s ) .

T he c r i t ica li s sue i nt h ed a t ing o ft h ee nd o f Manch ing a nd o f o t he r L a te L a T ene s e t t lemen t s i st h e d ef in i t ion a nd d a t ing o fp ha se D 2 . K räme r ( 1 962 ) d ef ined p ha se D 2 o n t h e b a s i s o f as ma l l n umbe r o f L a te L a T ene c r ema t ion g r ave s i ns ou ther n B ava r ia t h a tc on t a ined o b jec t s t h a t d o n o to ccu ra t Manch ing a nd t h a to ccu re l sewhe r ei nc on t ex t s l a te rt h an t h e f i na l p ha se ( D 1 ) o f Manch ing . T he o b jec t s i n c lude t h eB e l t z T ype Ja nd g eschwe if te f i bu lae , a nd t h e b e l th ook sc a l led S t abg i i r t e lhak en a nd L ochgür t e lhaken . I n as t udy o ft h e c h rono logy o ft h i s p ha s e , C h r i s t le in ( 1 964 ) e xam ine sg r ave g roup sa tt h ec eme te ry o fG ro s s rom s t ed ti n T hu r ing ia ( P e sche l 1 968 ) , w h ich b egan a r ound t h em idd le o f t h e f i na l c en tu ry BC . , w he re t h e p ha se t o w h ich t h e g e s chw e if te f i bu la b e long s i sp a r t i cu la r ly w e l lr e p re sen t ed . H e i d en t if ie s i nG ro s s rom s ted t a n e a r l ie t g roup o fg rave s c ha ra c te r i sed b y g eschwe if te f i bu lae w i th l a nce t shaped f oo t , t wo -edged s wo rd s , s h ie ld b o sse s w i th ap ro t rud ing s ha f t , a nd f u nne l shaped u r n s ; a nd as l igh t ly l a te r g roup w i th g eschwe if te f i bu lae w i th n a r row f oo t , c on ica l s h ie ld b o sse s , o ne -edged s wo rd s , a nd h igh , r ounded u rns . A b so lu te d a te s h e w o rk s o u t o n t h e b a s i s o f R oman i mpo r t sa nd h i s to r ica lc h rono logy f o rR oman s i t e sn o r th o f t h e A lp s . H e a r r ive s a t at i me a round t h e m idd le o f t h e f i na lc en tu ry BC . f o rt h es t a r to ft h eg e schw e i f te f i bu lae a t G ro s s roms ted t ( a nd t h u s a l so t h e t e rm inu s a n t e q uem f o r t h e e nd o f Manch ing ) . I nh i s r e cen t s t udy o ft h e f i bu lae f r om Manch ing , G ebha rd ( 1991) r eache s as im i la r c onc lu s ion .

H oa rd so fg o ld a nd s i lve ra r eo ft wo m a in t y pe s ,t h o se t h a t c on ta in o n ly c o in s , a nd t h o se t h a tc on ta in c o in sa nd r i ng s . G o ld c o in h oa rd s , o fw h ich an umbe r h ave b een f ound i n B ava r ia ( Ke l lne r 1 990 ) , a r e i n te rp re ted i n t wo d i f f e ren t w ay s ,a sh i dden t r ea su re a nd a sv o t ive d epo s i t s . T ho se w ho f a vo rt h ei n te rp re ta t ion a st r ea su r eo f ten c i t et h ei n cu r s ion s b yp eop le sf r om t h en o r th i nt h ef i na lc en tu ry BC . ,r e f e r red t oi nt h e t e x tua l s ou r ce s , w h i le t h o se f a vou r ing t h e v o t ive i n te rp re ta t ion d raw o n C la ss ica l s ou rce s c oncer n ing o f f e r ing s made b y C e l t ic p eop les . F o rh oa rd s t h a tc on ta in c o in s a nd r i ng s , s u ch a s t h a t f r om N iede r z ie r n ea r B onn , s t rong a r gumen t s f o rr i tua l i n t e rp re ta t ion h ave b een made b yF u rge r -Gun t i( 1 982 ) . T he e nd o f t he o pp ida T he p rob lems a s so c ia ted w i th t h e e nd o f t h e o pp ida , t h e c onques t o f t empe ra te E u rope b y t h e R oman s , a nd t h e i d en t if ica t ion o fC e l t ic a nd G e rman ic p eop le s i nt h e f i na l c en tu ry BC . ,a r ei n ex t r icab ly i n te r tw ined . U n t i lr e cen t ly ,i t w a s g ene ra l ly a s sumed t h a t t h e o pp ida i nG e rmany w e re o ccup ied u pt ot h eR oman c onque s t ,w hen t h o se w i th in t h e c onque red t e r r i to r ie sf e l l ,j u s ta so pp ida i nG au ls u ccumbed t ot h eR oman s . I nh i sa ccoun to ft h e G a l l ic c ampa ign s o f 5 8 -50 BC . , C ae sa r d e scr ibe s i n c ons ide rab le d e ta i l t h e c ha ra c te ro ft h eo pp ida w e s to ft h eR h ine a nd t h en a tu re o f t h e t r iba l r e s i s tance t o h i s e f fo r t s ( Dehn 1 951 ) . I tw a s a s sumed t h a ts im i la re ven t st o ok p lace e a s to ft h eR h ine i n 1 5 BC . , a tt h e t ime o ft h e c onque s to ft h e l a nd s s ou th o f t h eD anube b yT ibe r iu sa nd D ru su s . T he e nd o f Manch ing . When , d u r ing t h e e a r ly e xcava t ion s a t Manch ing , 1 955 1 96 1 , s ke le ta l r ema ins o f h und red s o fh uman i n d iv idua l s a nd d amaged i r on w eapon s w e r e f ound o n t h e s e t t lemen t ( K räme r 1 958 ) , i tw a s t hough t t h a t t h ese r e su l ted f r om b a t t le b e tween o ccupan t s a nd R oman s . D oub t g r ew o ve r t h ey ea r s , h oweve r ,a st h e Manch ing e xcava t ion st u rned u p n o c l ea r e v idence e i the r o f l o s t R oman w eapons o r o f

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C hrono logy o f L a T ene D 1 , D 2 , a nd D 3 a nd t he e nd o f o ther o pp ida i n G ermany . T he r e la t ive c h rono logy o ft h e s ubpha se s o fL aT ene D i s b a sed p r inc ipa l ly o n g r ave g roup s i n s ou ther n B ava r ia ( K räme r 1 962 , 1 985 ; C h r i s t le in 1 982 ) , i n t h e T r ie r a r ea ( Haf fne r 1 974 , 1 979 ; M i ron 1 986 , 1 989 ) , i n c en t ra l G e rmany ,e spe c ia l ly a tG ro s s roms ted t( Fe sche ! 1 968 ) ,a nd i n A lp ine n o r the rn I t a ly (We rne r 1 978 ) . T he mo s t c ha rac te r i s t ic t ype f o r D 1 i s t he N auhe im f i bu la , a bundan t ly r e p re sen ted i n b o th b u r ia l a nd s e t t lemen t c on tex t s . F o r S ou thwe s t G e rmany , F i sche r ( 1 988 , 2 37 ) p ropose s as ubd iv i s ion o f D 1 , w i th D ia b eg inn ing w i th t h ea ppea rance o ft h eN auhe im f i bu la ,a nd D lb w i th t h a to f t h e S chüsse l ( ' bow l -shaped ' ) a nd K noten ( ' knobbed ' ) ( A lmg r en T ype 6 5 ) f i bu la e . C ha rac te r i s t ic f o r D 2 i st h e g e schwe if t e f i bu la w i th as ma l lk nob o n t h eb ow . F o rt h e T r ie r a r ea , M i ron ( 1 989 , 2 24 ) s ubd iv ide s D 2 i n to D 2a , m a rked b y f i bu lae o f M idd le L a T ene c on s t ruc t ion , a nd D 2b , b y t h e S chü sse l f i bu la , b u t i ti sn o t c l ea r w he the r t h i sf i ne d i s t inc t ion a pp l ie se l sewhe re .

P e ter WELLS Abso lu te d a t ing o f D 1 a nd D 2 d epend s u pon d end ro ch rono log ica ld e t e rm ina t ion s a nd a s soc ia t ion s w i th i mpo r t s n o r th o f t h e A lp s a nd w i th d a ted g r ave g roup s s ou th o ft h em ( We rne r 1 978 ) . T he Z ih lB r idge a tC o rnaux n ea rN euchä te li nS w i tze r land ,a s soc ia t ed w i th D 1 m a t e r ia l , w a s b u i l to fw ood f e l led i n 1 20 -116 BC . Wood f r om t h e s ha f t i n t h e r e c tangu la r e nc lo su re a tF e l lbach -Schm iden n ea r S tu t tga r t w a s f e l led i n 1 23 BC . ; t h e s ha f t c on ta ined m a te r ia l c ha rac te r i s t ic o fD 1 , i n c lud ing aN auhe im f i bu la . F o rD 2 ,a b so lu te d a te sa r eb a sed l a rge ly o nt h ef ou rg r ave s a t G oeb l ingen -No spe l t i n L uxembou rg , t h a t c on ta ined a bundan tR oman o b je c t s( Ha f fne r 1 974 ;M i ron 1 986 , 1 57 . ) ( Fo r at h o rough d i scu s s ion o ft h ea b so lu t ed a t ing o fD 1 a nd D 2 , s e eM i ron 1 986 , 1 5 1 -159 . )

Mün s te rbe rg ( F i sche r 1 988 , 2 39 ) . T he s ame s i tua t ion i s a ppa r en t a tB a se l ( i n Sw i t ze r land ) , w he re t h e G a s fab r ik o pen s e t t lemen t e nded a round t h e m idd le o f t h e f i na l c en tu ry BC . , w hen t h e o pp idum o n B a se l -Müns te rhüge l b egan ( F is che r 1 988 ,2 36 -237 ) . L ike t h eo pen s e t t lemen t s o fB r e i sach a nd B a se l ,a nd t h eo pp ida o fH e ideng raben a nd F in s t e r loh r , o t he r o pen s e t t lemen t s , i n c lud ing t ho se a t Z a r t en ,H ü f ingen ,a nd K on s tanz ,a ppea rt oe nd w i th t h ee nd o fL aT ene D 1 ,a round t h em idd le o ft h ef i na lc en tu ry BC . ( F i s che r 1 988 ,2 40 , 2 41) . S e t t lemen t c hanges n or th o f t he Ma in . N o r th o ft h e Ma in , many s e t t lemen t s a ppea rt oh ave b een a bandoned a b rup t ly a tt h e e nd o fL a T ene D 1 ( F rey a nd L aumann 1 978 ) , i n c lud ing s ome o ft h eo pp ida s uch a st h e H e ide t ränk ( J o ckenhöve l 1 990b ) . O the ro pp ida , i n c lud ing t h eD ün sbe rg ( Laumann 1 984 ,J o ckenhöve l 1 990 c )a nd t h e Amönebu rg ( Gensen 1 990 ) c on t inued t ob e o ccup ied i n to L aT ene D 2 .

O n t h e b a s i s o f t h e c eme te r ie s a r ound T r ie r a nd t h e r i ch b u r ia l s a tG oeb l ingen -No spe l t , H a f fne r ( 1 974 ) d ef ine s L a T ene D 2f o rt h a tr e g ion ( d e s igna t ed ' Ho r izon 5 't h e r e ) ,w i th ar a nge o ff i bu la , w eapon ,a nd c e ram ic t y pe s . T he f i bu lae , i np a r t icu la r , p rov ide c onnec t ions w i th o t he r r e g ion s o f t empe ra te E u rope . H el i nk s t h i sp ha s ew i th S chönbe rge r ' s ' e nd o f t h e L a te L a T ene ' g rave s a tB ad N auhe im a nd r e cogn i se s t h i s a s aw ide sp read p henomenon -ap hase b e tween t h e c ha rac te r i s t ic D 1 i n ven to r ie s a nd t h ee a r l ie s t G a l lo -Roman g rave g roup s ( p .68 ) . H a f f ne r s ugge s t s a s t a r t ing d a te f o rG a l lo -Roman m a t e r ia l sa r ound 2 0 -15 BC . o n t h e b a s i s o f a s so c ia t ion s a th i s to r ica l ly -da ted R oman s i te s ( p .69 ) , t h u s p rov id ing a n e nd d a te f o r D 2 t h e r e . H e s ugge s t s t e n ta t ive ly a s t a r t ing d a te f o r D 2 a r ound m id c en tu ry .

S e t t lemen tc hange s a r ea ppa ren ta l so i nn o r ther nG e rmany a r ound t h em idd le o ft h ef i na lc en tu ry BC . I nt h en o r ther n R h ine land r eg ion , at e ndency t owa rd l a rge rs i t e si sa ppa ren t ( J oa ch im 1 991a ) . An umbe ro fs i zeab le s e t t lemen t s i nt h e N or th S ea c oa s ta l r eg ion t h a t c on t inued i n to t h e R oman P e r iod w e re e s tab l ished a ta bou t t h i s t ime . F edde r sen Wie rde a nd F löge ln a r e w e l l e xcava ted e xamp le s ( Z imme rmann 1 988 ) . O ther c hanges i n t he f i r s t h a lf o f f i na l c en tury BC . I na dd i t ion t ot h ea bandonmen to fs ome s e t t lemen t sa nd t h e e s tab l i shmen to fo the r si nt h ef i r s th a l fo ft h ef i na l c en tu ry BC . , o t he r i mpo r tan t c hange s a re r e f lec ted i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence w hen L a T ene D 2 -s ty le o b jec t s a ppea r ed . S eve ra lo ft h eo b je c t s mo s tc ha rac te r i s t ic o fD 2 i n d i ca t el i nk s w i th r e g ions t ot h e n o r th . N or the rn G e rman c eme t e r ie s s u ch a s V eh low ( Pe sche l 1 971) a nd B uchow K a rp zow ( R . S eye r 1 988 ,2 19 f i g . 5 8 ) ,n ea rB e r l in ,c on ta in f i bu lae a nd b e l th ook s o ft h e t y pe s t h a tc ha ra c te r ize p ha se D 2 i nt h e s ou th . Whe the r s uch o b je c t s w e re i mpo r t s i n s ou the rn G e rman c on tex t s , m ade l o ca l ly b y i mm ig ran t s f r om t h en o r th ,o rm ade b yi n d igenou sc r a f t swo rke r sb a sed o n n o r the rn p ro to type s , i su nc lea r . Many o f t h e c o in h oa rd s w e re b u r ied a tt h e e nd o fL a T ene D 1 ( Ove rbeck 1 987 ) , a nd t h e n ew s e r ie s o fr i ch g rave s a tt h i s t ime ( s ee a bove )a r ec onnec ted t ot h eo t he rc hange s .

R ieckhof f -Pau l i ( 1983 , 8 8 -103 ) p rov ides a u sefu l d i scuss ion o f t h e c h rono logy o f D 2 w i th p a r t icu la r r e f e rence t oB ava r ia a nd Manch ing . M i ron ( 1 986 )r e v iew s H af fne r 's c h rono logy , l i nk s i tw i th o t he r s cheme s i n t empe ra te E u rope , a nd s ugge s t s t wo r ef inemen t s . O ne i s t h ed i v i s ion , f o rH o ra th a tl e a s t ,o fD 2i n to s ub -pha se s( s e e a bove ) ;t h eo t he r , as t a r t ing d a te f o rD 2i nt h a tr e g ion a sf a r b ack a s8 5 BC . N ow t h a tp ha se sD 1 a nd D 2h ave b een d ef ined f o rs ou the rn a nd c en t ra l G e rmany , i ti sp o s s ib le t oc ompa r e m a te r ia l s f r om o t he r o pp ida b e s ide s Manch ing w i th t h e s t anda rd c h rono logy , t o d e te rm ine i n w h ich p ha se t h ey w e re a bandoned . L ike Manch ing ,o t he rB ava r ian o pp ida a ppea r t o h ave e nded w i th L a T ene D I . F o r e xamp le , t h e S t a f f e lbe rg h a s n o t y i e lded a ny i n d ica t ion s o fs e t t lemen t a c t iv i ty a f t e r L a T ene D 1 ( Abe I s 1 988 ) , n o r h a s K e lhe im ( K luge 1 987 ;E tze l 1 990 , 5 8 ) .

E ar ly i n terac t ions w i th t he R oman wor ld . I no r de rt ou nde r s tand t h ec on t ex t i nw h ich t h ese c hange s o ccu r red , w e n eed t o w iden o u r s cope t o i n c lude i n fo rma t ion p rov ided b ya nc ien tw r i te r sa bou te ven t s a tt h e e nd o ft h es e cond a nd d u r ing t h ef i na lc en tu ry BC . R oman a c t iv i ty i ns ou the rn G au lb egan a r ound t h ee nd o ft h e t h i rd c en tu ry BC . ,a nd b ya bou t 1 20 BC . ,R ome h ad e s tab l i shed t h ep r ov ince G a ll ia N a rbonen s i s( R ive t 1 988 ) . T he i mpa c t o n c en t ra l a nd n o r ther n G au l w a s s i gn if ican t , a s w e s e e r ef l e c t ed i nl a rge q uan t i t ie s o fR oman m anuf a c tu re s a tt h e G a l l ic o pp ida a nd i ng rave s (Wer ne r 1 978 ) . T he e f fe c t so n r e g ion s e a s to ft h eR h ine a r e n o ts oe a sy t oa s se s s ,b u tt h e q uan t i t ie so fR oman g ood sb rough tn o r th o ft h eA lp sg r ew

I ns ou th -we s t er nG e rmany , p r e sen te v idence s ugge s t s t h a t t h e o pp ida b egan a r ound t h e m idd le o ft h es e cond c en tu ry BC . ( Mau te 1 991 ) ,a nd e spec ia l ly d u r ing L aT ene D , a f te r 1 25 BC . H e ideng raben a nd F in s t e r loh r , n e i the ro fw h ich h a s b een e x ten s ive ly r e sea rched , a ppea r t o d a te t o D 1 ( F i sche r 1 988 , 2 44 ) . A l tenbu rg b egan a r ound t h e s t a r to f L aT ene D b u tc on t inued t ob e s e t t led u n t i la bou tt h et i me o f t h e a r r iva l o f t h e R oman m i l i ta ry , i n 1 5 BC . ( F i sche r 1 988 , Mau te 1 991 ) . A t B r e i sa ch al a rge o pen s e t t lemen t d a t ing t oL a T ene D 1 w a s a bandoned a tt h e e nd o f t h a t p ha se , a nd w a s s ucce eded b y a n o pp idum a tB re i sach -

1 4

P e ter WELLS r eg ions . T he s i tua t ion p o r t rayed b y t h e t e x t s c o r re spond s w e l l w i th t h e s e t t lemen t c hange s a nd i n c rea sed r i tua l a c t iv i ty o ft h ep e r iod .

r a p id ly ,a s We rne ra nd o t he r s ( Kunow 1 983 , H ansen 1 987 ) h ave s hown . T he a r r iva l o fR oman a mpho rae ,b ronze w ine j ug s a nd o t he rp a rapherna l ia , f i ne p o t tery , c o in s , a nd o t he r g ood s , b e speak s ag row ing t r ade . T h is i n te rac t ion w a s q u i te d i f f e r en tf r om t h a tb e tween E a r ly L a The p eop le sa nd t h e Med i te r ranean s oc ie t ie s , w h ich w a s p robab ly l a rge ly

B y t h e f i na l d ecades o ft h eL a The P e r iod , a f te ra bou t 3 0 BC . , o the r n ew t ypes o fo b jec t s a ppea red i ns ou the rn a nd c en t ra l G e rmany , f r om t wo d i f f e ren t s ou rce s . We s to ft h e R h ine , ' Ga l lo -Roman ' m a te r ia lc u l tu re m ade i t s a ppea rance

o rgan i sed a round g i f t -g iv ing a nd s oc ia l r e la t ionsh ip s ( F i sche r 1 973 ) . Many o f t h e R oman e xpor t g oods w e re

a round 2 0 BC . ( Haf fne r 1 974 , W igh tman 1 985 ) , s ome t h ree d ecade s a f te r t h e c onques t o f t h a t r eg ion b y t h e R oman a rm ie s . I nn o r ther n B ava r ia a nd i nH e s sen , m e ta l o b je c t s a nd p o t te ry c ha rac t e r is t ic o fl a nd s t ot h e n or th a nd e as t a ppea r a t a bou t t h is s ame t ime ( Pesche ck 1 977 , R o sens tock 1 985 ,J o ckenhöve l 1 990c ) .

m a s s -p roduced b y t h e e xpand ing f a c to r ie s , i n many c a se s e xp re s s ly f o rn on -Roman c onsump t ion ( Dyson 1 988 ) . T h i s g row ing R oman t r ade w a s o ne o f many f a c to r s o f c hange i ne conomy a nd s o c ie ty i n s ou the rn G ermany a nd e l sewhe re i nt empe ra te E u rope ( on G au l , s e e N a sh 1 978 ) . T ot h es ou th -ea s t ,a r chaeo log ica l ,e p ig raph ic ,a nd h i s to r ica l e v idence a t t h e Magda lensbe rg i n C a r in th ia , A us t r ia , i n d ica tes a h i gh ly -deve loped r e la t ionsh ip b e tween l o ca l p roduce r sa nd R oman m e rchan t sf r om I t a ly , w ho p u rcha sed ar a nge o fm e ta lp roduc t s t h e re ( Egge r 1 961 ) . S uch c l ose c omme rc ia l r e la t ion sh ip s may h ave b een m a in ta ined w i th R oman m e rchan t s a t Manch ing a nd o the r c en t re s , b u t w e h ave n og ood e v idence a sy e tf o rs uch ap a t te rn . T he u se o f w r i t ing i nG reek c ha rac te r s s uppor t s t h e p o ss ib i l i ty t h a t c l o se c on tac t se x is ted b e tween me rchan t s i nc en t ra lE u rope a nd t h e i r c oun te rpa r t s s ou th o f t he A lp s ( J acob i 1 974b , K räme r 1 982 ) . E xac t ly wha t t h e C e l t ic p eop les o f s ou the rn G e rmany w e re e xchang ing w i th R oman m e r chan t s i su nc lea r ( We l l s 1 984 , 1 54 -157 ) . One o f t h e i t ems may h ave b een s l ave s .

C e l ts a nd G er mans J u l ius C aesa r , t h e a u tho r o f t h e m os t d e ta i led a ccoun t o f p eop les n o r th o f t he A lp s b e fo re t h e t ime o f C h r is t , d i s t ingu ishe s t wo ma in g roup s o f p eop le s t he re , G au l s ( Ce l t s ) a nd G e rmans . T rad i t iona l ly i n a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch , t h eC e l t s o fC ae sa r 's t ime h ave b een c ons ide red t o b e t ho se p eop le s o ft empe ra te E u rope w ho b o re t h e c l a s s ic L a The c u l tu re , w h i le t h eG e rmans h ave b een r ega rded a s t h e p eop le s o f n o r the rn G e rmany c ha rac te r ised b y t h e ` J as to rf C u l tu re ' ( Ke i l ing 1 989 ) . R ecen t ly , G e rman s cho la r s h ave a dop ted a mo re c r i t ica l a pp roach t o t h e q ues t ion o f t h e i d en t if ica t ion o fC e l t s a nd G e rman s a tt h e e nd o ft h eI r on A ge .

A rchaeo log ica l e v idence f o r s l ave t r ade i sd i f f icu l t t o i d en t ify , a nd u nfor tuna te ly w e h ave n o c l ea r s t a temen t s a bou t s l ave t r ade w i th Ge rmany i n t h e s urv iv ing d ocumen t s . R oman s l ave t r ade w i th r eg ion s e as t o f t h e R h ine i sl i ke ly f o rt h ep er iod a f t e r 1 20 BC . ( A rno ld 1 988 ) i tc ou ld e ven b eb rough t i n to t h e d i scus s ion a bou t t h e e nd o f Manch ing a tt h es t a r to fL a The D 1 -a nd i tw ou ld h e lp t oe xp la in w ha th appened t ot h eo pp ida b e twe en t h e s t a r to f L a The D a nd t h e ir d em ise a t t h e e nd o f L a The D 1 ,

' Ce l t s ' ,o r' Gau l s ' , w e re k nown t oG re ek a nd R oman w r i te r s s i nce t h e f i f th c en tu ry BC . ( s e e a bove ) , b u t t h e n ame ' Germans ' f i r s ta ppea r s w i th C ae sa r i nh i sa ccoun t s o ft h e G a l l ic Wa r s , 5 8 -5 1 BC . ( s l igh t ly e a r l ie r r e fe rence s t o

a r ound 7 0 o r 6 0 BC . AR oman d emand f o r s l ave s c ou ld h ave s e ti nm o t ion ap a t ter no fC e l t ic c ommun i t ies r a id ing o t he r sf o rc ap t ive s . T he g r ea ti n cr ea s ei ne v idence f o rr i tua l a c t iv i ty i nt h e r e c tangu la r e nc lo sure s d u r ing L a The D 1 c ou ld b e i n te rp re ted i nt e rms o f t h e s t re s se s g ene ra ted b y s u ch v io len t a c t iv i ty , a s c ou ld t h e b u r ia l o ft h e n ume rou s h oa rd s o f p rec ious me ta l ( whe the r i n te rp re ted a s s t o red t r easure o r a s o f fe r ings ) . S uch c onnec t ions r ema in s pe cu lat ive a tp re sen t ; d e ta i led s ys tema t ic s t ud ies o ft h ese p o s s ib i l i t ie sh ave y e tt ob ec onduc ted .

R ome t ot h ink . T hese q ue s t ions c oncer n R oman p o l i t ic s , C aesa r 's p e r sona l a mb i t ion s , a nd R oman p e rcep t ion s o f c u l tu ra l g eog raphy ( Amen t 1 984 ) . A r chaeo log i s t s h ave a t temp ted t od e te rm ine h ow f a rn o r th g roup sw ho i d en t if ied w i th t h e C e l t ic c i v i l isa t ion o f s ou ther n G e rmany s e t t led ,

G ermans i n P os idon ius a re u nce r ta in ) . E x tens ive d i scuss ion h a s f o cused o n q ue s t ions s u ch a s w ha t C ae sa r mean t b y t h e t e rm ' Ge rman , ' f r om w hom h e l e a rned t h e n ame , a nd t ow ha te x ten th er epo r ted w ha th eb el ieved a nd t o wha t e x ten t h e w ro te w ha t h e w an ted h i s r eade r s i n

a nd w ha t k ind s o fi n te rac t ion s t o ok p l a ce b e tween p eop le t h e R omans i d en t if ied a s C e l t s a nd t ho se i d en t if ied a s s ome th ing e l se . T he f undamen ta l s t udy o f t h ese q ues t ion s i sH achmann , K ossa ck ,a nd K ühn ,V ö lk er z w i schen G ermanen u nd K e l t en ( 1962 ) , w h ich e xam ines t e x tua l , a r chaeo log ica l , a nd l i ngu is t ic e v idence t oa sce r ta in t h e n o r ther n b ounda ry o f C e l t ic c u l tu re d u r ing t h e L a te L a The P e r iod . T hey i d en t ify ab ounda ry r eg ion j u s t n o r th o f t h e Ma in R ive r ,

C ae sa r a nd o t he r R oman w r i te r s men t ion a n umbe r o f g roup s t h a t moved f r om n or the rn o rc en t ra lE u rope i n to o r t h rough s ou the rn G e rmany b e twe en a bou t 1 25 BC .a nd t h e c onque s to fG au l i n5 1 BC . T he se i n c lude t h e C imb r i a nd T eu tone s , t h e S ueb i , t h e He lve t i i , a nd t h e B o i i ( s ee

b eyond w h ich s uch c ha ra c te r i s t ic m a rke r so fL a The C e l t ic c u l ture a s c o ins , g l a ss b race le t s , w hee l -made p o t te ry , a nd g raph i te -c lay p o t t ery o ccu r red o n ly s po r ad ica l ly . T h i s l i ne i sn ea r t h e n o r the rn b ounda ry o f t h e o pp ida a nd o f t h e r e c tangu la re nc lo su re s .

Wen sku s 1 961 , C h r is t le in 1 982 , F i sche r 1 988 ) . A t temp t s t ol i nk a r chaeo log ica l e v idence w i th s pec if i c m ig ra t ions m en t ioned i nt h e l i t e ra ry s ou rce s h ave p roven e x t reme ly d i f f icu l t . I n a ny c a se , t he t e x t s c an b e i n te rp re ted t o i n d ica te ap e r iod o fc ons ide rab le movemen ta nd i n s tab i l i ty b e tween 1 25 a nd 5 0 BC . i n G e rmany a nd n e ighbou r ing

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P e ter WELLS t ot h a to ft h eG ro s s roms ted tc eme te ry ( Pe sche ck 1 977 ) . A t O be r s t reu , R o sen s tock ( 1985 ) r epo r t s s e t t lemen t p i t s c on ta in ing p o t t e ry s im i la r t ot h a ta tG ro s s rom s t ed t , a nd a t A ubs tad t , b u r ia l s w i th me ta l g rave g oods c ha rac te r i s t ic b o th o f L a t e L a T ene t r ad i t ions a nd o f p eop le s w ho i n hab i t ed t h er e g ion o nt h eu ppe rE lbe R ive r .

T he c en t ra l z one b e tween t h e Ma in R ive r a nd t h e N o r th E u ropean P la in i s ap rob lema t ic r e g ion a nd h a s b een t h e f o cu so f much o ft h ed i scus s ion a bou tC e l t sa nd G e rman s . As ub s tan t ia ln umbe ro ft r a i t sc ha ra c te r i s t ic o ft h eo pp idum c u l tu r eo ccu rt h e re , i n c lud ing N auhe im f i bu lae ,c o in s ,a nd w he e l -made p o t te ry ,b u tt h ea r chaeo log ica la s semb lage so f t h e r e g ion d o n o t d i sp lay t h e h omogene i ty o f t h o se i n s ou the rn G e rmany . T he c ha rac te r o f t h i s z one i s e xemp l if ied b y m a te r ia ls f r om t h e s e t t lemen t s o n t h e S t e in sbu rg a nd t h e A l tebu rg i nT hu r ing ia ( P e sche l 1 989 ) , a nd f r om t h ec eme te ry a tT a lmüh le i n We s tpha l ia ( B6 r enge r 1 981 ) . S ome a u tho r s a rgue t h a tt h ep eop le s o ft h ec en t r a l u p land s d u r ing L aT ene C a nd D w e re C e l t s , s ome a r gue t h a tt h ey w e re G e rmans , a nd o t he r s s ugge s tt h a tt h ey w e r e ' m ixed ' o rm emb e r so fo t he rg roup s ( Ha chmann ,K o s sa ck , a nd K ühn 1 962 ; S chr icke l 1 964 ; S töck l i 1 979b , 10 . 1 98 f f , C h r i s t le in 1 982 ; R ieckho f f -Pau l i 1 983 ; P e sche l 1 989 ) .

Amen t ( 1 984 ) p ropo se s as o lu t ion t o t h is p rob lem t h a t t a ke sa ccoun to ft h ec omp lex v a r iat ion s i n ma te r ia lc u l tu r e a nd t h eh i s to r i ca lm ig ra t ion sa nd i sc on s i s ten tw i th mode rn u nde r s tand ing o fe t hn ic i ty a nd e xp re s s ion o fi d en t i ty . A s S ch r icke l a r gued i n1 964 , t h e re i sn o r e a son t ot h ink t h a t ' G e rman s 'e x i s ted a s ar e cogn i sed g roup o fp eop le sb e fo re t h e t ime o fC ae sa r , a tt h e e a rl ie s t . Amen ta rgue s t h a tt h e ' Ge rman s ' m en t ioned b y C ae sa r w e re p a r t o f t h e C e l t ic p eop le s , d e s igna ted d i f f e ren t ly b ecau se t h ey l i ved o n t h e o t he r s i de o ft h e R h ine f r om h i s s c ene o f a c t iv i ty . T he n o r the rn e l emen t s ,s u ch a st h ef i bu la ea nd b e l th ook si nt h e s ou the rn B ava r ian b u r ia ls , r ef lec t e f fo r t s o n t h e p a r t o f i n d igenou s p eop le s t h e re ( Ce l t s ) t oa dop t m a te r ia l s i gn s f r om t h e i r n o r the rn n e ighbou r s , i n o rde r t o d i s t ingu i sh t h emse lve s f r om t h ec onque r ed C e l t ic g roup s o n t h eo t he r s i de o ft h eR h ine , i nG au l . T h i s mode l i sc on s i s t en tw i th c u r ren t u nde r s tand ing o f e t hn ic i d en t i ty a s as i tua t ion c on s t ruc t . T he s t re s s a r i s ing f r om t h e R oman m i l i ta ry a c t iv i ty w e s t o ft h e R h ine a nd t h e c u l tu ra l d i s lo ca t ion s t o t h e e a s t w ou ld h ave p rov ided t h e me chan i sm f o r s uch a c hange . Amen t ' sa r gumen tv i ew s t h ea ppea rance o fs ome o ft h e n o r ther nf e a tu re s i nt h eD 2 p ha se a tl e a s ti np a r t i n t e rms o f a dop t ion b y i nd igenou s p eop le s o f f o re ign s ymbo l s ,i n s t ead o fp r ima r i ly a s ar ef le c t ion o fm ig ra t ion s .

T he q ue s t ion o f ' e thn ic ' i d en t i f ica t ion i si mpo r tan ta l so i n t h e s t udy o f t h e L a T ene D 2 g r ave s i ns ou the rn B ava r ia . T hese f ew g raves , f r om E in ing , Hö rge r t shau sen , K ronw in ld , T raun s te in , a nd U t tenhof en ( K räme r 1 985 ) , d a te b e tween t h e e nd o fL a T ene D 1 ( a nd t h u s t h e e nd o f Manch ing a nd o t he r B ava r ian o pp ida ) a nd t h e R oman a r r iva l , a nd t h e o b jec t s i nt h em i n d ica te c onnec t ion s w i th o t he r r e g ions . S i nce t h e p o t te ry , f i bu lae , a nd b e l t h ook s r e f lec t l i nk s t ot h e n o r th , s ome a u tho r s h ave v i ewed t h e s e b u r ia l s a se v idence f o r ' Ge rman s ' m ig ra t ing i n to s ou the r n G e rmany , c o r re spond ing t ot h e m ig ra t ion s r e co rded i nt h e t e x t s ( G lü s ing 1 964 ) . O the r s , s uch a s C h r i s t le in ( 1 982 ) , a rgue t h a t t h e g rave s w e re t ho se o f C e l t s , f r om t h e c u l tu ra l ly m ixed z one o f t h e c en t ra l u p land s . T hough m any o ft h e o b jec t sp o in t t oc onnec t ion s w i th c en t r a l a nd n o r the rn G e rmany , n one o ft h eg r ave s i sj u s tl i ke t h o se o f a ny r eg ion t o t h e n o r th a nd a s ag roup , t h e se s ou the r n B ava r ian D 2g rave sa r eh e te rogeneou s -t h ey d on o tr ef l e c t a ny c on s i s ten tb u r ia l t r ad i t ion . I nn o r the rn B ava r ia , t h e r e i se v idence f o rt h ea r r iva lo fp eop le f r om l a nd st ot h en o r th e a s td u r ing L aT ene D 2 ,w ho se m a te r ia lc u l tu re w a ss im i la r

T he n ew p e r spec t ive s o n t h e f i na l p ha se s o ft h e L a T ene P e r iod i nG e rmany a nd n e ighbou r ing r eg ion s r equ i r e r e e va lua t ion o ft h ec ha ra c te ro fI r on A ge s o c ie ty a tt h et ime o ft h eR oman c onque s t . T he n a tu re o ft h ec onque s ti sa l so s ub jec tt oc on s ide rab le d i scu s s ion ,a si st h eq ue s t ion o fp r e R oman s u r v iva l sd u r ing t h eR oman P e r iod ( F ische r 1 988 ) , b u tt h o se t o p i c sa r eb eyond t h eb ounda r ie so ft h i sp ape r .

B ib l iography A be l s ,B . -U . 1 988 .N eue A u sg rabungen i mB e f e s t igung sb e re ich d e sS t a f f e lb e rge s ,S t ad tS t a f f e l s te in ,O be r f ranken ,B e r ich t d e rB aye r i schen B odendenkma lpf lege 2 8 -29 , 1 4 3 180 . A be I s ,B . -U . 1 992 .E ine T ons chnabe lkanne v on d e rE h r enbü rg i nO be r f ranken ,A r chäo log is che sK o r r e spondenzb la t t2 2 ,7 9 9 2 . Amen t ,H . 1 984 . D e rR he in u nd d i eE thnogene se d e rG e rmanen ,P raeh i s to r i sche Z e i t sch r if t5 9 ,3 7 -47 . A rno ld ,B . 1 988 . S l ave ry i nL a te P reh i s to r ic E u rop e ,i nD .B .G ib son a nd M .N .G e se low i t z ,e d i to r s ,T r ibe a nd P o l i ty i n L a te P reh i s to r ic E u rope , 1 79 -192 . N ew Y o rk : P l enum . B a r the l ,S .1 984 .L a tene s ied lung v on G ro s sf ahne r ,K r .E r fu r t ,A l tThü r ingen 2 0 ,8 1 -139 . B ehm -B lancke ,G . 1 989 . H e i l ig tüme r ,K u l tp lä tze u nd R e l ig ion ,i nJ .He r rmann ,e d i to r , A rchäo log ie i nd e r DDR ,v o l . 1 , 1 66 -176 . S t u t tga r t : T he i ss . B ende r ,H . ,R . D ehn ,a nd I .S to rk . 1 976 .N eue re U n te r su chungen a u fd em Mün s te rbe rg i nB r e i sa ch ( 1 966 -1975 ) , A rchäo log i sche sK o r re sponden zb la t t6 ,2 13 -224 . B 6 r enge r ,D . 1 981 .D a sG r äbe r f e ld T a lmüh le i nP e t e r sh agen -Lahde ,K r e i sM indenLübbe cke : D ie B randg rubeng räbe rd e r Z e i tu m C h r i s t iG ebu r t ,i nK .G ün te r ,e d i to r ,B e i t räge z u rv o r röm is chen E i senze i ti nO s twe s t f a len , 7 9 -148 . Mün s te rA schendo r f f . B e rge r ,F .1 985 .K e l t i sche F undmünzen a u sN iede r sa ch s en ,D ie K unde .N .F . 3 6 ,2 07 -215 . B ie l ,J .1 990 .F o r t se tzung d e rS i ed lung sg rabung i nE b e rd ingen -Hochdo r f ,K r e i sL udw ig sbu rg ,A r chäo log i sche A usg rabungen i nB aden - Wü r t t embe rg 1 990 ,8 9 -93 .

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P e ter WELLS r chäo log i sche A usg rabungen i nB aden B ie l ,J .1 991 . We i te re G rabungen i nE b e rd ing en -Hochdo r f , K re i sL udw ig sbu rg ,A Wü r t tembe rg 1 991 ,9 7 -102 . B i t te l , K . 1 981 . R e l ig ion u nd K u l t ,i nK . B i t te l , W . K imm ig ,a nd S . Sch iek , e d i to r s , D ie K e l ten i nB aden - Wü r t t embe rg , 8 5 -117 . S tu t tga r t : T he iss . C h r i s t le in ,R . 1 964 .D a t ien ing sf ragen d e rs p ä t e s t la tene ze i t l ichen B randg räbe rS üdbaye rns ,B aye r ische V o rge sch ich t sb lä t t e r 2 9 , 2 41 -249 . C h r i s t le in ,R . 1 982 .Z ud en j üng s ten k e l t i schen F unden S üdbaye rns ,B ayer ische V o rge sch ich t sb lä t te r4 7 ,2 75 -292 . C lau s , M .a nd W . S ch lü te r . 1 975 . D ie P ip in sbu rg b e iO s te rode i m H a r z , A u sg rabungen i nD eu t sch land , v on , 2 53 -272 . Ma inz : R öm i sch -Ge rman ische sZ en t ra lmuseum . D ehn ,W . 1 951 . D ie g a l l i schen ' Opp ida 'b e i C ä sa r ,S aa lbu rg J ah rbuch 1 0 , 3 6 -49 . D ehn ,R . ,H . Wagne r ,a nd G . Webe r . 1 987 .N eue sz uT a rodunum ,G eme inde K i rchzar ten ,K re i sB re i sgau H o ch schwa rzwa ld , A r chäo log i s che A u sg rabungen i nB aden - Wü r t temb e rg 1 987 ,8 5 -88 . D ieck ,A . 1 972 . S tand u nd A ufgaben d e r Moo r le ichen fo r schung , A r chäo log ische s Ko r re spondenzb la t t 2 ,3 65 -368 . D r iehau s ,J .1 965 . ' F ü r s teng räbe r ' u nd E is ene r ze z w i schen M i t te l rhe in , Mo se l u nd S aa r ,G e rman ia 4 3 , 3 2 -49 . D yson , S .L . 1 988 . R ise o fC omp lex S o c ie t ie s i nI t a ly , i nD .B . G ib son a nd M .N . G e se low i tz , e d i to r s , T r ibe a nd P o l i ty i n L a te P reh i s to r ic E u rope , 1 93 -203 .N ew Y o rk : P lenum . E gge r ,R . 1 961 . D ie S t ad ta uf d em Magda len sbe rg . V ienna : B öh lau . E nde r ,W . 1 987 .E ine S ied lungsg rube d e rS pä t la teneze i tv om S t a f f e lbe rg , Das Archäo log ische J ahr i n Bayern 1 987 , 8 6 -88 . E tze l , C . 1 990 . D ie G rabungen 1 987 u nd 1 988 i m k e l t ischen O pp idum A lk imoenn is b e i K e lhe im . Ma s te r 's t h e s i s , U n ive r s i ty o fE r langen . F ied le r ,L .a nd E .H end le r . 1 984 .E ine F undkonzen t ra t ion e i se rne r Wa f f en u nd We rkzeuge a u fd e rA l tenbu rg b e i R öme r sbe rg ,S chwa lm -Ede rK re i s ,i n0 . -H .F rey a nd H . R o th ,e d i to r s , S tud ien z u S ied lung sf ragen d e rL a teneze i t , 9 9 -106 . Ma rbu rg : V o rge sch ich t l iche s S em ina r . F i sche r ,F . 1 959 . D e rs pä t la teneze i t l iche D epo t -Fund v on K appe l ( K r e is S au lgau ) . S tu t tga r t : S i lbe rbu rg . F i sche r ,F . 1 973 . KE I MHALA , G e rman ia 5 1 , 4 36 -459 . F i sche r ,F . 1 975 . Un te r suchungen i m s pä tke l t ischen O pp idum v on A l tenbu rg -Rhe inau , i nA u sg rabungen i nD eu t sch land , v o l . 1 , 3 12 -323 . Ma inz : R öm i sch -Ge rman ische sZ en t ra lmu seum . F i sche r ,F . 1 981 . S in she im -Düh ren , i nK .B i t te l ,W . K imm ig , a nd S . Sch iek , e d i to r s , D ie K e l ten i nB aden - Wü r t tembe rg , 4 71 -472 . S tu t tga r t : T he is s . F i sche r ,F . 1 988 . S üdwe s tdeu t sch land i m l e tz ten J ah rhunde r tv o rC hr i s t iG ebu r t , i nD . P lanck ,e d i to r , A rchäo log ie i n Wür t tembe rg , 2 35 -250 . S tu t tga r t : T he i s s . F i sche r ,T . , S .R ie ,ckho f f -Pau l i ,a nd K . S p ind le r . 1 984 . G rabungen i nd e rs pä tke l t i schen S ied lung i m S u lz ta lb e i B e rch ing P o l lan ten , G e rman ia 6 2 , 3 11 -363 . F rey ,0 . -H . 1 986 . E in ige Ü be r legungen z ud en B ez iehungen z w i schen K e l ten u nd G e rmanen i nd e rS pä t la teneze i t , Ma rbu rge rS tud ien z u rV o r -u nd F rühge sch ich te 7 ,4 5 -79 . F rey . 0 . -H . 1 991 . T he F o rma t ion o ft h eL aT ene C u l tu re , i nS . Mo sca t i , 0 . -H . F rey , V . K ru ta , B .R af te ry , a nd M . S zabo , e d i to r s , T he C e l t s , 1 27 -146 . N ew Y o rk : R izzo l i . F rey ,0 . -H . a nd H . L aumann . 1 978 .E ine s pä t la teneze i t l iche T öpf e re ib e i Weh ren ,G eme inde F r i tz la r , S chwa lm -Ede rK re i s , F undber ich te a u sH e ssen 1 7 -18 , 1 37 -150 . F rey ,0 . -H .a nd F .S chwappach . 1 973 . S t ud ie si nE a r ly C e l t ic D e s ign , Wo r ld A rchaeo logy 4 ,3 39 -356 . F u rge r -Gun t i ,A . 1 982 . D e r' Go ld fund v on S a in t -Lou i s 'b e iB ase l u nd ä hn l iche k e l t i sche S cha tzfunde ,Z e i t sch r i f tf ü r s chwe izensche A rchäo log ie u nd Kuns tgesch ich te 3 9 , 1 47 . G ebha rd ,R . 1 991 . D ie F ibe ln a us d em O pp idum v on Manch ing . S t u t tga r t : S t e ine r .

G ensen ,R . 1 990 . Amönebu rg , i nF . -R . H e r rmann a nd A . J ockenhöve l ,e d i to r s , D ie Vo rge sch ich te H es sens , 3 07 -310 . S tu t tga r t : T he is s . G lüs ing ,P . 1 965 . F rühe G ermanen s üd l ich d e rD onau ,O f f a2 1 -22 , 7 -20 . Goe tze ,A . 1 900 . D epo t fund v on E i senge r ä then a u sf r uh röm is che rZ e i tv on K ö rne r( Sach senCobu rgGo tha ) ,Z e i t s ch r if tf ü r E thno log ie 3 2 , 2 02 -214 . H achmann ,R . 1 990 . G unde s t rup -S tud ien ,B e r icn tc l e r Kom isch -Uerman ischen Kom m iss ion 7 1 , 5 65 -903 . H achmann ,R . ,G . K o ssack ,a nd H . K uhn . 1 962 . V ö lke rz w ischen G e rmanen u nd K e l ten . N eumüns ter : Wachho l tz . H ä s s le r ,H . J . 1 991 .Vo r röm ische E isenze i t ,i nH . J . H a s s le r ,e d i to r , U r - u nd Fr ühgesch icht ei n N iedersachsen 1 93 -237 . S tu t tga r t : T he is s . H af fne r ,A . 1 974 .Z um E nde d e rL a t eneze i ti mM i t te l rhe in ,A r chäo log ische sK o r re spondenzb la t t4 ,5 9 -72 . H af fne r ,A . 1 979 .Z u ra bso lu ten C h rono log ie d e rM i t te l la t eneze i t ,A rchäo log i sche s Ko r re spondenzb la t t9 ,4 05-409 . H a f f ne r ,A . 1 989 . G räbe r -Sp iege ld e sL eb en s :Z um T o tenb rauch tum d e rK e l ten u nd R öme ra m B e isp ie ld e sT reve r e r G räb e r f e lde s Wede ra th Be lg inum . Ma in z : P h i l ipp v on Z abem . H a f fne r ,A . a nd H . -E .J oach im . 1 984 . D ie k e l t ischen Wageng räbe rd e rM i t te l rhe ing ruppe , i nM . G us t in a nd L .P au l i , e d i to r s , K e l t sk i VQ Z , 7 1 -88 . B r ez ice : P o sav sk i Muze j . H ahn , E . 1 992 . D ie Mensch l ichen S ke le t t re s te , i nF . Ma ie r ,U . G e i lenbr ügge , E . H ahn , H -J K öh le r , a nd S .S ieve r s ( e d s . ) E rgebn isse d e rA usg rabungen 1 984 1987 i n Manch ing , 2 14 -234 . S tu t tga r t : S te ine r . H ansen ,U .L . 1 987 . R öm is che rI mpo r ti m N o rden . C openhagen : D e tK onge l ige N o rd iske O ld sk r if t se lskab .

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P e t er WELLS H e ege ,A . 1 987 .D ie S i ed lung d e rv o r röm i schen E i senze i ta m ' S te inbuh l 'b e iN o r ten -Ha rdenbe rg ,L dk r .N o r the im , N a ch r ich ten a u sN iede r sa ch sen sU rge sch ich te 5 6 ,5 9 116 . H e il igendo r f f ,W .a nd F .P au lu s . 1 965 .D a sL a teneze i t l iche G räbe r f e ld v on B e r l in -B lanken f e lde .B e r l in :B runo H e s sl ing . H e r rmann ,F . -R . 1 975 . G rabungen i m O pp idum v on K e lhe im 1 964 b i s 1 972 ,i nA u sg rabungen i nD eu t s ch land ,v o l . 1 , 2 98 -311 . Ma inz :Röm i s ch -Ge rman i sche sZ en t ra lmuseum . H ing s t ,H . 1 987 .E i senze i t l i che S ied lungen a u f Am rum ,K re i s No rd f r ie s land ,O f f a4 4 ,7 5 -100 . H ing s t ,H . , S .H umme l ,a nd H . S chu tkow sk i . 1 990 . U rnenf r iedhö f ea u s S ch le sw ig -Ho l s te in ,G e rman ia 6 8 , 1 67 -222 . H o l l s t e in ,E . 1 980 .M i t te leu ropä i sche E ichench rono log ie . Ma inz : P h i l ipp v on Z abe rn . I r l inge r ,W . 1 990 .D ie k e l t is che S i ed lung i nS tö f f l ing ,L andk re i sT raun s te in ,D a sA r chäo log i sche J a h ri nB aye r n 1 990 ,7 6 7 9 . J a cob i ,G . 1 974a . We r i czeug _und G e r ä ta u sd em O pp idum v on Manch ing .W ie sbad en : S t e ine r . J a cob i ,G . 1 974b .Z um S ch r i f tgeb rauch i nk e l t i schen O pp ida n ö rd l ich d e rA lpen ,H ambu rge rB e i t räge z u rA r chäo log ie 4 , 1 71 181 . J en sen ,I .1 98 1 .N euenbü rg ,i nK . B i t t e ! ,W .K imm ig ,a nd S .S ch iek ,e d i to r s ,D ie K e l ten i nB aden - Wü r t tembe rg , 4 37 4 41 . S t u t tga r t : T he i s s . J o a ch im ,H . -E . 1 973 .E in r e ich a u sge s ta t te t e s Wageng rab d e rS pä t la tene ze i ta u sN euw ied ,S t ad t te i lH e imba ch -W ie s ,B onne r J ah rbüche r1 73 , 1 44 . J oa ch im ,H . -E . 1 980 .J ünge r la teneze i t l iche S i ed lungen b e iE s chwe i le r ,K r . A a chen ,B onne rJ ah rbüche r 1 80 ,3 55 -44 1 . J oa ch im ,H . -E . 1 99 1a .J ünge re i senze i t l iche S i ed lung sp rob leme a mN iede r rhe in , Ma rbu rge rK o l loqu ium 1 989 , 2 9 -48 . Ma rbu rg : V o rge s ch ich t l iche sS em ina r . J oa ch im ,H . -E . 1 99 l b . T he V o t ive D epo s i ta tN iede r z ie r , i nS . Mo sca t i ,0 . -H .F rey , V . K ru ta , B .R a f t e ry ,a nd M . S zabo , e d i to r s ,T he C e l t s ,p .5 32 . N ew Y o rk : R izzol i . J o ckenhöve l ,A .1990a . D ie E i senze i t ,i nF . -R .H e r rmann a nd A .J o ckenhöve l ,e d i to r s ,D ie V o rge sch ich te H e s sen s , 2 44 2 94 . S t u t tga r t : T he i s s . J o ckenhöve l ,A . 1 990b .O be ru r se l -Obe r s t ed ten ,H e ide t ränk -Opp idum ,i nF .R .H e r rmann a nd A .J ockenhöv e l ,e d i to r s ,D ie V o rge s ch ich te H e s sen s , 4 6 1 -462 . S tu t tga r t : T he i s s . J o ckenhöve l ,A . 1 990 c .F rühe G e rmanen i nH e s sen ,i nF . -R .H e r rmann a nd A .J o ckenhöve l ,e d i to r s ,D ie V o rge sch ich t e H e s sen s , 2 95 -297 . S t u t tga r t : T he i s s . K au fmann ,H . 1 984 .E inf lü s se d e rL a teneku l tu ri mG eb ie tn ö rd l ich d e sE r zgeb i rge s ,A rbe i t s -u nd F o r s chung sb e r ich t ez u r s ä ch s i s chen B odendenkma lpf lege 2 7 -28 , 1 25 -166 . K au fmann ,H .a nd A .F l e i sche r . 1 986 . We i te re sk e l t i sche sE infüh rgu tv om U n te r lau fd e r We i s sen E l s te r ,A rb e i t s -u nd F o r s chung s _ be r i zi rs ä ch s i schen B odendenkma lpf leg e 3 0 , 1 3 1 138 . K e i l ing ,H . 1 989 .J a s to r fku l tu ru nd G e rmanen , i nJ .H e r rmann ,e d i to r ,A r chäo log ie i nd e r DDR v o l . 1 , 1 47 -155 . S tu t tga r t : T he i s s . K elne r ,H . J . 1 989 .D e rk e l t i s che Münzs cha tz v on Wa l le r sdo r f . Mun ich : K u l tu r s t i f tung d e r Unde r . K elne r ,H . J . 1 990 .D ie Münz funde v on Manch ing u nd d i ek e l t is chen F undmünzen a u sS üdbaye rn .S t u t tga r t : S t e ine r . K luge ,J .1 987 .D ie l a tene ze i t l iche B e s ied lung d e sK e lhe ime rB e cken s ,N iede rbave rn .D oc to ra ld i s s e r ta t ion ,U n ive r s i ty o f Mün s te r . K o ch ,H . 1 987 .N eue A u sg r abungen i mf r ühke l t i schen E rdwe rk 1v on N iede re r lba ch ,D a sA r chäo log is che J ah ri nB aye rn 1 987 , 6 9 -71 . K r äme r ,W . 1 950 .E in a us s e rgewöhn l iche rL a tene fund a u sd em O pp idum v on Manch ing ,R e ine cke F e s t s ch r if t , 8 4 -95 . Ma inz :R öm i sch -Ge rman i sche sZ en t ra lmu seum . K räme r ,W . 1 9 58 . Manch ing :e i nv i nde l ik i s che sO pp idum a nd e rD onau ,i nW .K räme r ,e d i to r ,N eue A u sg r abungen i n D eu t s ch land , 1 75 -202 . B e rl in : G eb r . Mann . K r äme r ,W . 1 96 1 .F remde rF rauen schmuck a u s Manch ing ,G e rman ia 3 9 ,3 05 -322 . K räme r ,W . 1 962 . Manch ing I :Z ud en A u sg rabungen i nd en J ah ren 1 957 b i s 1 961 ,G e rman ia 4 0 ,2 93 -317 . K r äme r ,W . 1 964 .D a sk e l t is che G räb e r f e ld v on N eb r ing en ( K re i sB öb l ingen ) . S t u t tga rt S i lbe rbu rg . K r äme r ,W . 1 982 .G ra ff i t ia u fS pä t la teneke ram ik a u s Manch ing ,G e rman ia 6 0 ,4 89 -499 . K räme r ,W . 1 985 .D ie G rab f unde v on Manch ing u nd d i el a teneze i t l ichen F l a chg räbe ri nS üdbaye rn .W ie sbaden :S t e ine r . K unow ,J .1 983 .D e rr öm i sche I mpo r ti nd e rG e rman ia l i be ra .N eumün s te r : Wa chho l tz . L ange ,G . 1 983 .D ie m ens ch l ichen S ke le t t re s te a u sd em O pp idum v on Manch ing . Wie sbaden ,S t e ine r . L appe ,U . 1 979 . K e l t i sche G la sa rm r inge u nd R ingpe r len a u sT hü r ingen ,A l t -Thü r ingen 1 6 ,8 4 -111 . L aumann ,H . 1 984 . Zwe is pä te s t la t eneze i t l iche Ur neng räbe ra u sN eunk i rchenfZeppenf e ld ,K r .S i egen ,i n0 . -H .F rey a nd H . R o th ,e d i to r s ,S t ud ien z uS i ed lung s f ragen d e rL a t eneze i t , 1 07 -116 . Ma rbu rg : V o rge s ch ich t l iche sS em ina r . L ene r z -de W i lde ,M . 1 977 .Z i rke lo rnamen t ik i nd e rK un s td e rL a t ene ze i t . Mun ich : B e ck . L en e r z -d eW i lde ,M . 1 980 .D ie f r üh la teneze i tl ichen G ü r te lhaken m i tf i gu ra len V e r z ie rung ,G e rman ia 5 8 ,6 1 10 3 . Ma i e r ,F .1 986 .V o rbe r ich tü be rd i eA u sg rabung 1 985 i nd em s pä tke l t is chen O pp idum v on Ma nch ing ,G e rman ia 6 4 , 1 43 . Mann spe rge r , D . 1 981 . Münz en u nd Münz f unde ,i nK . B i t te ! ,W . K imm ig ,a nd S .S ch iek ,e d i to r s ,D ie K e l ten i nB aden Wü r t tembe rg , 2 28 -247 . S tu t tga r t : T he i s s . Mau t e ,M . 1 991 .D a sF ibe l spek t rum a u sd em s pä t la teneze i t l ichen O pp idum A l t enbu rg ,K r . Wa ld shu t ,A r chäo log i sche s K o r r e spondenzb la t t2 1 ,3 93 -397 .

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P e ter WELLS M i ron ,A . 1 986 .D a sG räbe r f e ld v on H o ra th ,T r ie re rZ e i t schr i f t4 9 , 7 -198 . M i ron ,A . 1 989 .D a sF raueng rab 1 242 : Z u rc h rono log is chen G l iederung d e rS tuf eL a tkne D 2 ,i nA . H a f fne r , G räbe r S p iege l d e sL ebens , 2 15 -228 . Ma inz : P h il ipp v on Z abe rn . Mü l le r ICa rpe ,A . a nd M . Mü l le r -Ka rpe . 1 977 .N eue l a t& teze i t l iche F unde a u sd em H e ide t ränk -Opp idum i mT aunu s , G erman ia 5 ,3 3 -63 . N a sh ,D . 1 978 . S e t t lemen ta nd C o inage i nC en t ra l G au l c2 00 -50 B .C . . O xfo rd : B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s . O ve rbeck ,B . 1 987 .C e l t ic C h rono logy i nS ou th G ermany ,i nA .M . Bu rne t ta nd M .H . C rawfo rd ,e d i to r s ,T he C o inage o f t h eR oman Wo r ld i nt h eL a te R epub l ic , 1 12 . Ox fo rd : B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s . O ve rbe ck ,B .a nd P .S . We l l s . 1 991 . V ie rn eue k e l t ische Münzen v om K e lhe ime rM i t te r f e ld ,B ayer i sche V o rge sch ich t sb lä t te r5 6 , 1 63 -168 . P aul i ,L . 1 978 . D e rD ü r rnbe rg b e i H a l le in I I . Mun ich : B eck . P au l i ,L . 1 980 . D ie H e rkun f td e rK e l t en , i nL .P au l i , e d i to r , D ie K e l ten i nM i t te leu ropa , 1 6 -24 . S a lzbu rg : L ande s reg ie rung . P au l i ,L . 1 985 . E n t-1 yC e l t ic S oc ie ty : Two C en tu r ie s o f Wea l th a nd T u rmo i l i nC en tra l E u rope , i nT .C . C hamp ion a nd J .V .S . Megaw ,e d i to r s ,S e t t lemen ta nd S oc ie ty , 2 3 -43 . L e ice s t e r : L e ice s te rU n ive r s i ty P re s s . P e s check ,C . 1 977 .A u sk lang d e rL a tkne -Z iv il i sa t ion u nd A nf änge d e rg e rman ischen B e s ied lung i nN o rdbaye rn , i nB . C h ropov sky ,e d i to r ,A u sk lang d e rL a tMe -Z iv i l isa t ion u nd A nf änge d e rg e rman ischen B es ied lung i mm i t t le ren D onaugeb ie t , 2 49 -259 .B ra t i s lava : V ydava te l s tvo S l ovenske j a kade rn ie v i ed . P e s che l , K . 1 968 . D e rH o r izon tv on G ro s sroms t ed ti mR ahmen d e rE isenze i td e s s üd l ichen M i t te ldeu t sch land s ,Z e i t schr i f t f ü rA rchäo log ie 2 ,1 92 -206 . P e s che l ,K . 1 971 .E in G räber f e ld d e rj ünge ren L a t Meze i ti nV eh low , K r . Ky r i t z , V e röf f en t l ichungen d e s Museums f ü rU r u nd F rühge sch ich te P o t sdam 6 ,5 -35 . P e s che l , K . 1 982 . B eme rkungen z u re i senze i t l ichen B es ied lung d e rS te insbu rg b e iR ömh i ld ,K r . Me in ingen ,Z e i t sch r if tf ü r A rchäo log ie 1 6 ,2 3 -51 . P e s che l ,K . 1 989 . K e l t ische L a t& teku l tu ru nd d e ren R andg ruppen i m M i t te lgeb irg s raum , i nJ .H e r rmann ,e d i to r , A rchäo log ie i nd e r DDR , v o l . 1 , 1 30 -139 . S tu t tga r t : T he is s . P lanck ,D . 1 985 . D ie V ie reckschanze v on F e l lbach -Schm iden ,i nD . P lanck ,e d i to r ,D e rK e l t en fü r s tv on H o chdo r f : Me thoden u nd E rgebn i s se d e rL andesa r chäo log ie , 3 40 -353 . S tu t tga r t : T he i s s . P o lenz ,H . 1 971 .M i t te l - u nd s pä t la tkneze i t l iche B randg räbe ra us D ie tzenbach ,L andk re i sO f f enbach a m Ma in .L angen : K ühn . P o lenz , H . 1 982 . Münzen i nl a t Meze i t l ichen G räbe rn M i t t e leu ropa s a us d e rZ e i tz w i schen 3 00 u nd 5 0v o rC h r i s t iG ebu r t , B aye r i sche V o rge sch ich t sb lä t te r4 7 ,2 7 -222 . R adda tz ,K . 1 967 . D a s Wageng rab d e rj ünge ren v o r röm ischen E isenze i tv on H usby , K re is F lensbu rg .N eumün s te r : Wa chho l tz . R adda tz ,K . 1 981 .F unde d e rj ünge ren v o r röm i schen E isenze i tv om S te inbüh lb e i Nör t en -Ha rdenbe rg ,K re is N o r thhe im , N eue A usg r abungen u nd F o r schungen i nN iede r sach sen 1 4 , 2 21 -238 . R ed l i ch ,C . 1 980 .P o l i t is che u nd w i r t scha f t l iche B edeu tung d e rB ronzegef ä s se a nU n t e re lbe u nd S aa le z u rZ e i td e r R öme rk r iege ,S tud ien z u rS a ch senfo r schung 2 ,3 29 -374 . R e im ,H . 1 979 .E in V e r s te ck fund v on Münzen u nd F ibe ln a u sd e rS pä t la t& teze i tb e iL angenau , A lb -Donau -K re i s , A r chäo log ische A u sg rabungen 1 979 ,5 0 -53 . R e im ,H . 1 990 .E ine S i ed lung d e rH a l l s ta t t - u nd F rüh la tkneze i ti m I ndus t r iegeb ie t" S ieben l inden" i nR o t t enbu rg a .N . , K re is T üb ingen ,A r chäo log ische A u sg rabungen i nB aden - Wür t tembe rg 1 990 ,7 9 -84 . R e ine cke ,P .1 965 . Ma inze rA uf sä tze z u rC h rono log ie d e rB ronze -u nd E isenze i t . B onn : R udo lf H abe l t . R ieckho f f -Pau l i , S .1 983 . S pä tke lt is che u nd f r ühge rman i sche F unde a u sR egen sbu rg ,B aye r ische V o rge s ch ich t sb lä t te r4 8 , 6 3 -128 . R ive t ,A .L .F . 1 988 . G a l l ia N a rbonen s is . L ondon : B a t sfo rd . R o sens to ck ,D . 1 985 .D ie e r s ten G rab -u nd S i ed lung sfunde d e rG ro s s roms ted t e rK u l tu ra u sd em L andk re i sR hön -G rab f e ld , D a sA rchäo log ische J ah ri nB aye rn 1 985 ,9 5 -99 . R ybovä ,A . a nd K . Mo tykovä . 1 983 . D e rE i sendepo t fund d e rL a t Me -ze i tv on K o l in ,P amä tky A rcheo log icke 7 4 ,9 6 -174 . S cha af f ,U . a nd A .T ay lo r . 1 975 . S pä tke l t i sche O pp ida i mR aum n ö rd l ich d e rA lpen ,A u sg rabungen i nD eu t sch land ,v o l .3 , 3 22 -326 . Ma inz : R öm i sch -Ge rman ische sZ ent ra lmuseum . S ch ind le r ,R . 1 968 . S t ud ien z um v o rge sch ich t l ichen S ied lung s -u nd B ef e s t igung swe sen d e s S aa r lande s .T r ie r : P au l inu s . S chönbe rge r ,H . 1 952 .D ie S pä t la t Meze i ti nd e r We t te rau ,S aa lbu rg J ah rbuch 1 , 2 1-130 . S ch r i cke l ,W . 1 964 .D ie No rdg renze d e rK e l ten i mr e ch t s rhe in i schen G eb ie tz u rS pä t la tkneze i t ,J ah rbuch d e sR öm isch G erman ischen Z en t ra lmuseums 1 , 1 38 -153 . S chube r t ,F .1 983 .N eue E rgebn i s se z um B ebauungsp lan d e sO pp idums v on Manch ing , B er ich td e rR öm i sch -Ge rman ischen K omm is s ion 6 4 , 5 19 . S chu l t ze ,E . 1 986 .Z u rV e rb re i tung v on Wa f f enbe igaben b e id en g e rman i schen S tämmen u m d en B eg inn u nse re r Z e i t rechnung ,J ah rbuch d e rB odendenkma lpf lege i n Me ck lenbu rg 1 986 ,9 3 -117 . S chwa r z ,K . 1 975 . D ie G es ch ich te e i ne sk e l t i schen T emeno si mn ö rd l ichen A lpenvo r land , i nA usg rabungen i nD eu t s ch land v o l . 1 , 3 24 -358 . Ma inz : R öm i sch -Ge rman ische sZ en t ra lmuseum .

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P e ter WELLS S eye r ,H . 1 988 .D ie g e rman is chen S t ämme b i sz um B eg inn u n se r e rZ e i t r echnung : A u s tau sch u nd H ande l ,i nB .K rüge r , e d i to r ,D ie G e rmanen ,v o l . 1 , 1 60 -166 . B e rl in : A kad em ie -Ve r lag . S eye r ,R . 1 988 . S i ed lung s -u nd S t ämme sgeb ie te i nd en J ah r zehn ten u md en B eg inn u nse re rZ e i t rechnung ,i nB .K rüge r , e d i to r ,D ie G e rmanen , 2 03 -225 . B e rl in : A kadem ie -Ve r lag . S i eve r s ,S .1 989 . D ie Wa f f en v on Manch ing u n te rB e rück s ich t igung d e sÜ be rgang sv on L TC z u LTD ,G e rman ia 6 7 ,9 7 1 20 . S p ind le r ,K . 1 983 .D e rA ch snage le i ne ss pä tke l t i s chen P runkwagen sv on B e r ch ing -Po l lan ten ,D a sA r chäo log i sche J ah ri n B ayer n 1 983 ,8 1 -83 . S t eue r ,H . 1 987 .G ew ich tge ldw i r t scha f ten i m f r ühge s ch ich t l ichen E u ropa ,i nK . D üwe l , H .J ankuhn ,H . S i ems ,a nd D . T impe ,e d i to r s ,U n te r suchungen z uH ande lu nd V e rkeh rd e rv o r -u nd f r ühge sch ich t l i chen Z e i ti nM i t te l -u nd N o rdeu rop a ,p a r t4 : D e rH ande ld e rK a ro l inge r -u nd W i l c inge r ze i t , 4 05 -527 .G ö t t ingen :V andenhoe ck & R up rech t . S töc ld i ,W .E . 1 974 .B eme rkungen z u rr äum l ichen u nd z e i t l ichen G rupp ie r ung d e rF unde i mO pp idum v on Manch ing , G erman ia 5 2 ,3 68 -385 . S töc ld i ,W .E . 1 979a .D ie K e l ten s ied lung v on A l t endo r f( Landk r e i sB ambe rg ) ,B aye r i sche V o rge sch ich t sb lä t te r4 4 ,2 7 -43 . S tö c ld i ,W .E . 1 979b .D ie G rob -u nd I mpo r tke ram ik v on Manch ing .W ie sbaden : S t e ine r . T odd ,M . 1 992 .T he E a r ly G e rman s .O xfo rd :B la ckwe l l . T o rbrügge ,W . 1 971 .V o r -u nd f r ühge sch ich t l iche F l u s s funde , B e r ich td e rR öm is ch -Ge rman i schen K omm i s s ion 5 1 -52 , 1 1 46 . V o ig t ,T . 1 988 .K u l tu nd B e s ta t tung swe sen ,i nB .K rüge r ,e d i to r ,D ie G e rmanen ,v o l . 1 , 1 82 -191 . B e rl in : A kadem ie V e r lag . Webe r ,G . 1 989 .N eue sz u rB e f e st igung d e sO pp idum sT a rodunum ,G de .K i r chza r t en ,K re i sB r e i sgau -Hoch schwa rzwa ld , F undbe r ich t ea u sB aden - Wü r t t embe rg 1 4 ,2 73 -288 . We i s shaa r ,H . J . 1 984 . A u sg rabungen a uf d e r Amönebu rg ,i n0 . -H .F rey a nd H .R o th ,e d i to r s ,S t ud ien z uS i ed lung s f ragen d e rL a tene ze i t , 6 5 -87 . Ma rbu rg : V o rge sch ich t l i che sS em ina r . We l l s ,P .S . 1 984 .F a rm s . V i l lage s ,a nd C i t ie s : C omme r ce a nd U rban O r ig in s i nL a t eP reh i s to r ic E u rope . I t ha ca NY : C o rne l lU n ive r s i ty P re s s . We l l s ,P .S . 1 987 .I n du s t ry ,C omme r ce a nd T empe ra te E u rope ' sF i r s tC i t ie s : P r e l im ina ry R epo r to n 1 987 E xcava t ion sa t K e lhe im ,B ava r ia ,J ou rna lo fF ie ld A r chaeo logy 1 4 ,3 99 -412 . We l l s ,P . S . 1 991 .Z u rV e rb r e i tung d e rs pä te i senze i t l i chen S i ed lung s r e s te a mK e lhe ime rM i t te r f e ld ,A r chäo log is che s K o r re spond enzb la t t2 1 ,5 17 -522 . Wen sku s ,R . 1 96 1 .S t amme sb i ldung u nd V e r f a s sung . C o logne : B öh lau . Wer ne r ,J .1 978 .Z u rB ronzekanne v on K e lhe im ,B aye r i sche V o rg e s ch ich t sb lä t te r4 3 , 1 18 . W igh tman ,E .M . 1 985 .G a l l ia B e lg ica . B e rke ley :U n ive r s i ty o fC a l i fo rn ia . d e Wi lde ,M . 1 976 .Z i rke ls ch lag i nd e rO rnamen t ik d e rF rüh la tene ze i t ,A r chäo log i sche sK o r r e spondenzb la t t6 ,2 9 -33 . Wi l l ,E .L . 1 987 .T he R oman Ampho ra s f r om Manch ing ,B aye r i s che V o rg e sch ich t sb lä t t e r5 2 ,2 1 -36 . Wo l lkopf ,P . 1 986 .A u sg rabungen e i ne rl a teneze i t l ichen S i ed lung b e iJ ühnde ,K r e i sG ö t t ingen ,D ie K unde N .F . 3 7 ,2 79 2 98 . Z imme rmann ,W .H . 1 970 .U rge s ch i ch tl iche O p f e r f unde a u sF l ü s sen , Moo ren ,Q u elen u nd B runnen S üdwe s td eu t sch land s , N eue A u sg r abungen u nd F o r s chungen i nN iede r sa chs en 6 ,5 3 -92 . Z imme rmann ,W .H . 1 988 .R ege lhaf t eI n nengl ied e r ung p r äh i s to r i s che rL anghäu se ri nd en N o rd seean ra ine r s taa ten ,G e rman ia 6 6 , 4 65 -488 .

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F igu re 2 .S chema t ic d r aw ing so fs ome a r te f a c tt y p e s c h rono logy o ft h eL a te L a Une P e r iod . a .N auhe im f i bu la . b .S chü s se l f ibe l . c .B e l t zT yp e Jf i bu la . d .G e schwe if tef ibe l .

m en t ioned i nt h et e x tt h a ta r ei mpo r tan ti nc u r ren td i scu s s ion so ft h e e .A lmg ren T ype 6 5 f i bu la . f .L ochgü r t e lhaken . g .S t abg z ir t e lhaken .

( D raw ing sa dap ted f r om f olow ing o r ig ina l s : a ,b ,d , ef r om Mau t e 1 99 1 , 3 94 , f i g . 1 ; cf r om K räme r 1 985 ,p l . 1 06 ,3 ;f f r om K räme r 1 985 ,p l . 1 04 ,A 2 ; gf r om K räme r 1 985 ,p l . 1 06 , 1 2 . ) . T he a u tho rt h ank st h eR öm isch -Ge rman i s che s Z en t ra lmu seum o f Ma inz ,a nd F ranz S t e ine rV e r lag o fS tu t tga r t , f o rp e rm i s s ion t or ep roduce t h e se d r aw ing s .

2 2

T ove HJORUNGDAL

T he E ar ly I ron A ge i n Wes tern Norway : A Gender C r i t ica l P erspec t ive T ove H jorungda l I n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy , Un ive r s i ty o f Umeä , S -901 8 7 , Umeä , Sweden Abs trac t T h i s p ape rs umma r ises r e sea r ch w h ich s ough tt oe ngende rt h e a r chaeo logy o ft h e E ar ly I r on A ge ( 500BC AD600 ) i n Wes te rn N orway ( H jo rungda l 1 991 ) . T ak ing ag ende r c r i t ica l p e r sp ec t ive , t h e p ape r a r gue s t h e i mpo r tance o fr e cogn i s ing t h e c en t ra l r o le g ende r r e la t ions p l ayed i na l l l i on A ge s oc ie t ies t h rough ac a se s t udy o fa r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l f r om b u r ia ls a nd o the r c on tex t s f ound i n t h e c oun ty o f S unnmo re . T he C h iefdom mode l , o f ten u sed i nh on A ge s t ud ies , i sc r i t ic ised f r om ag ende rp e r spe c t ive f o r t h e s ubo rd ina te p o s i t ion i ta s c r ibe s t ow omen t h rough t h e mode l 's d i rec t , a nd i nd i rec t , d i cho tom iza t ion o ft h e w o r ld . I nt h is l i gh t ,r i ch ly e qu ipped f ema le g r ave sf r om We s te rn No rway a r er ea s se ssed . Howeve r , t h i s a na lys is q ue st ion s s imp le i n te rp re ta t ion s o f b u r ia l d a ta . B y c oncen t ra t ing o n t h e p roduc t ion a nd r ep roduc t ion o f s ymbo l s , I a r gue t h a tr i ch ly f u rn ished b u r ia ls a r e n o t s imp ly r i ch i ng ood s , u pon w h ich f unc t iona l is t a na lyse s w ou ld c oncen t ra te . R a the r , t h ey a r e s ymbo l ica l ly r i ch , c on ta in ing a g rea te r r ange a nd q uant i ty o f m a te r ia l e xp re s s ion s f o r s uch p henomena a sm en ta l i ty a nd c o smo logy . I nve s t iga t ing t h e se p henomena a l lows u s t o s e e ' u nde rt h e s t ruc tu re s ' o fa nE a r ly h on Age u n ive r se . Iw i l l s ugge s tt h a t g ende rw a s a n i mpo r tan ta spe c t o fl i f ee xp re s sed i nd i f fe ren t w ay s i nd i f f e ren tc on tex t s , m a scu l in i ty d i rec t ly t h rough p ha l l ic s cu lp tu re s a nd i n d i re c t ly t h rough w eapon s i ng raves , f em in in i ty i nd i rec t ly t h rough o rnamen t s a nd t e x t i le i mp lemen t s i n g r ave sa nd ,p o s s ib ly ,v o t ive f i nds i nb ogs . C oncep t ions o fg ende ra pp ea rt oh ave b e en a s so c ia ted w i th b road n o t ion so ff e r t il i ty i np o s s ib le o ppo s i t ion t o( o ri ni n teg ra t ion w i th? ) aw a r r io r i d eo logy a s soc ia ted w i th t wo c on f l ic t ing s oc ia l i d ea s , w h ich c ou ld b ee i the ri n teg ra t ed o rd en ied : o ne b a sed o n l o ca lk i nsh ip , a nd o ne b a sed o nl a rge g roup ing s o r aw ide n e two rk o fg eog raph ica l c on tac t s . T o b e a b le t od i scu ss s oc ia l r e la t ion s o n a g ene ra lb a s i s ,w e n eed t os e a r ch f o ra l ter na t ives t of unc t iona l i s t mode ls o fe xp lana t ion . I s sue i st a ken w i th s eve ra lc oncep t su sed t od e sc r ibe s oc ia l r e la t ions , e . g . t h en o t ion o f" commun i ty " .

1 . I n troduc t ion T he t h eme o f t h is p ape r i s t h e p rob lema t isa t ion a nd d i scu s s ion o fa r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion s o f p reh is to r ic c on tex t sf r om ag ende rc r i t ica l p o s i t ion . I nt h i s d i scu s s ion g ende r a nd b ur ia ls p l ay t h e mo s t c en t ra l r o le . F em in i s t c r i t ic i sm , a s w e l l a s t h e d eve lopmen t o f g ender c r i t ica l t h eo ry , h a s b e en a n e xpand ing f i e ld i na r chaeo logy a nd r e la ted d i sc ip l ine s s uch a s a n thropo logy i n r e cen t y ea rs ( e .g . C onkey & S pec to r 1 984 ; D omma sne s 1 985 ; Mand t & Nx ss 1 986 ; E nge ls tad 1 991a , A r chaeo log ica l R ev iew f r om C ambr idge 7 / 1 , 1 988 ; Moo re 1 988 ; C o l l ie r & Y anag isako 1 989 ; G e ro & C onkey e d s . 1 991 ; Wa lde & Wi l lows e ds . 1 991 ; C laa ssen e d . 1 992 ; Norweg ian A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew V o l . 2 5 N o . 1 , 1 992 ) . I n S cand inav ia f em in is t i n sp i red a r chaeo logy a nd g ende r s t ud ie s h ave p a r t icu la r ly c ome t o t h e f o re t h rough t h e f ound ing o f KAN ,K v inne r iA rkeo log i iN o rge ( = Women i nA rchaeo logy i nN orway )i nt h e 1 985 . S tud ie s f r om a g ende rc r i t ica lp e r spec t ive o f( La te r ) I r on A ge ma te r ia lh ave b een c a r r ied o u t o n al a rge s ca le b y N o rweg ian s cho la rs s i nce t h e 1 970 s ( e .g . D omma sne s 1 979 ; 1 982 ; 1 987 : L i l lehamme r 1 985 ; 1 988 ; S ta lsbe rg 1 987a , 1 987b ; 1 991 ; F a rb regd 1 988 ; H oges to l 1 986 ; H O igaa rd H of se th 1 990 ) . H oweve r ,d i scu s s ion sa bou th ow t oc ons t ruc tg ene ra l s oc ia l a ccoun t s , o r mode ls o f l a rge r i n teg ra l r eg iona l e n t i t ie s , f r om a na ly se s o f I r on A ge ma te r ia l h ave n o t b een a n i mpo r tan tf e a tu re o ft h is w o rk . T he l e s se ra t ten t ion g i ven t ot h e se i s sue si s ,p e rhap s ,b e cause t h ey h ave b een r ega rded a sh av ing al e sse rs i gn if i cance t han d i scu s s ion so fg ende ri n t h e l o ca la nd s ma l l s ca le c o tex t s , w h ich h ave b een g iven a p r io r i ty . T h i s p ap e r o f f e r s o ne s pec if ic c a se s t udy f r om t he E a r ly I r on A ge i n We s te rn No rway t o d i scu s s t h e p o ten t ia l a g ende rp e r spec t ive c an o f f e r . Iw i l l s umma r i se my d o c to ra l r e sea r ch o n t h i s t o p ic ( H jo rungda l 1 991) , b u t r ev ise s ome

2 3

a spec t s a nd c onc lus ions , p r inc ipa l ly t he q ue s t ion o f a scr ib ing g ende r t o b u r ia l s . Iw i l l a rgue t h a t ag ende r p e r spec t ive o f f e r s a n i mpor tan t n ew i n s igh t o n h on A ge s oc ie t ie s t h a tq ue s t ions m any o ft h eb a s ic a s sump t ion sh e ld b y L a te r P reh is to r ic a rchaeo log is t s , e spec ia l ly t h e a pp l ica t ion o f t h e f unc t iona l is t C h iefdom t ype mode l s . T he mo s t i mpo r tan t i s sue t h i s s t udy a t temp t s t oa dd r e s s i s h ow t h ec a tego ry o fg ende rs t ruc tu red t h ew o r ld v i ew o ft h e E a r ly I r on A ge . Iw i l l a l so a rgue w e w i l l n eed a n i n teg ra l o u t look w h ich i n co rpo ra te st h ef o l low ing m a jo rc ha l lenge : C an w e c r ea te ap i c tu re o fs oc ie ty w he re t h e d i cho tomy o f p ub l ic=ma le v e r su sp r iva te= f ema le i sn o t , e i the rd i rec t ly o r i n d i rec t ly ,m a in ta ined ? However , a g ender p e r spec t ive i s n o t j us t a bou t i n te rp re ta t ions o f t h e p a s t . I ta l so r a ise s q ue s t ion s a bou t t h e c u l tu ra l a nd a cadem ic c on tex t i n t h e p re sen t i nw h ich k now ledge a bou t t h e p a s t i sp roduced . Wh i le t h i s p ap e r c oncen t ra t e s o n I r on A ge c on tex t s i n Wes t e rn N orway , i t mu s tb eb o rne i nm ind t h a ta n i mpo r tan tc ha rac te r is t ic o fa g ende r p e r spec t ive i n a r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch i st h a t i t w o rks o n t wo p a ra l le l l e ve l s : 1 .A na lys is o ft h e s c ien t if ic t r ad i t ion ( p re sen t ) 2 .A na ly s i so f ac ho sen p reh i s to r ic c on tex t( p a s t ) I tc once rn s t h e p re sen t a s w e l l a s t h e p a s t ( H jorungda l 1 991 :8 -25 ) . O ne i mpo r tan ta im o f my r e sea rch w a s t or e a sse s s c r i t icaly c e r ta in a spe c t s o ft h e i n te l lec tua l t r ad i t ion o fa r chaeo logy , e spec ia l ly i t s u se o f e vo lu t iona ry f unc t iona l i s t mode l s , o f ten c ho sen f r om s oc ia l a n th ropo logy . Among t h e se , t h e mode l o f c h iefdom h a s b een v e ry i mpor tan t , e ven d om inan t , i nt h e i n te rp re ta t ions o f s oc ie ty m ade b y We s t

T ove HJORUNGDAL My c r i t ic i sm i sc once rned w i th w h ich s c ien t if ic t oo l s , n o t ion s a nd a s sump t ion s w et a ke i n to c on s ide ra t ion i no u r e f fo r t st oi n t e rp r e ts o c ia lc ond i t ion si np r eh i s to ry .

No rweg ian I r on A ge r e sea rche r s . I nt h eN o rweg ian c on tex t d i scu ssed h e re , t h e c h ie fdom mode l i su sua l ly b o r rowed f r om E lman R . S e rv ice ( e .g . 1 971 ) , a nd i st r an sfo rmed t o s u i t We s t S cand inav ian c ond i t ions ( Myh re 1 978 ; 1 985 ; S o lbe rg 1 984 -s ee d i scus s ion i nH jo rungda l 1 991 :55 f . ) . Knu tO dne r ( 1 973 ) h a s a l so d eve loped ac h ie fdom mode l w h ich i si nm any r e spec t ss im i la rt oS e rv ic e 's . Ih ave t r i ed t op rob lema t ize t h i sf o rm o f mode l t h rough t h ea pp l i ca t ion o f ag ende r p e r spec t ive ( H jo rungda l 1 991 ) . I th a s s i nce l ong b een m ade c l ea r t h a t t h e mode l s w h ich a r chaeo logy f r equen t ly b o r rows f r om s oc ia la n th ropo logy a r eg ene ra l ly ma le b ia sed . T he b ackg round t o t h i s a nd rocen t r ism i s p a r t ia l ly t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a n th ropo log i s t h a s t r ad i t iona l ly b een ma le , o b ta in ing h i s k now ledge e xc lu s ive ly t h rough ma le i n fo rman t s , e xc lu s ive ly o n ma le c ond i t ion s a nd b y ma le w ay s o f c op ing w i th t h e s u r round ing s . T h rough a r chaeo log i s t s ' u se o ft h e se g ende rb i a sed mode l s i nt h e i r i n te rp re ta t ion s o f p reh i s to r ic c on tex t s , w e c on t inue t o r ep roduce ag ene ra l o p in ion o fa l l s o c ie t ie s a sc on s t i tu ted b y t wo o ppo s i te s phe re s , a nd a s h av ing a symme t r ica l g ende r r e la t ions i n g ene ra l . S t i l l w o r se , i n t h is w ay , a nd rocen t r ic p owe rr e la t ion sa r ei n d i re c t ly m ade l e g i t ima te t h rough s c ience ( d i scu s s ion i nC onkey & S pec to r 1 984 ) .

As e cond i mpo r tan ta im o fm yw o rk w a st om ake ag ende r c r i t ica l a na ly s i s o f E a r ly I r on A ge b u r ia l s a nd , a s a c onsequence , t od i scu ss t h e p o s s ib i l i t ie s o f c ons t ruc t ing g ende r c r i t ica l mode l s o f E a r ly I r on A ge s oc ie t ie s i n We s te rn N o rway . A s a l ready i nd ica t ed , n o a l te rna t ive m ode l o fs oc ie ty a sa n i n teg ra ted e n t i re ty h a s s o f a r b een p u t f o rwa rd , e i the r b y m e n o r b y a ny o f my c o l legue s . H oweve r , t h e q ue s t ion i sw he the r t h e s ugges t ion o f a n a l te rna t ive mode l i s as o lu t ion t ot h e q ue s t ion o fh ow t o c ope w i th p r eh i s to r i cs o c ia lc ond i t ion s . D eve lopmen t o fc r i t ic i sm s hou ld n o t l e ad d i rec t ly t ot h e d emand s t h a to ne s hou ld b eu r ged t op r e s en t ar e adymade a nd d i ge s ted a l te rna t ive t o t h e mode l w h ich h a s b een p rob lema t ized . O n t h e c on t ra ry , Iw ou ld f i nd i t mo re i n sp i r ing t ot a ke p a r ti n ad i scu s s ion o n t h ep r inc ipa l l e ve l o f h ow t o r e a ch a n u nde r s tand ing o f p r eh i s to r ic s oc ia l e n t i t ie s .

F unc t iona l i s t ,n eoevo lu t ion i s t mode l sa r ea l so a nd ro cen t r ic i n o the r r e spec t s . I n t h e se i n te rp re ta t ion s o f L a te r P reh i s to ry w a ra nd v i o lence a r e s e en t oh ave a n i mpo r tan t p a r ti ns hap ing s oc ie ty . T h rough o u r a s sump t ion s It h ink w e h ave l e a rn t t oa s soc ia t e m a le s w i th w eapon s a nd w i th w a r ,a nd g ene ra l ly w i th a' p ub l ic ' s phe re w he re t h ee ven t s i mpo r tan tt os o c ia lo rgan i sa t ion a nd d eve lopmen tt o ok / tak e p la ce . T h rough t h eu se o f ac h ie fdom mode l ,t h ed ome s t i c m i l ieu , a s w e l l a s t h e l o ca l p roduc t ion o f g oods a nd o f f ood ,a r e i g no red . I n s tead , i ti st h er ed i s t r ibu t ion o fg ood s ( o f ten h i gh v a lue a nd e xo t ic /non lo ca l o r ig in ) a nd , o f ten , w omen t h a ta r e s t re s sed , a l ong w i th t h e r o le o ft h e ( ma le ) c h ief ta in i nc o mpi l ing s uch ar e d i s t r ibu t ive e conomy . T h i s i n te rp re ta t ion h a s b een c on s t ruc ted o n t r ad i t iona l i s t a nd s t e reo typed ma le c ha rac te r is t ics . T he f a c t t h a t No rweg ian a r chaeo log is t s h ave d e f ined s ome r i ch ly e qu ipped w omen 's g r ave sa st h eb u r ia l so ff ema le c h ie f ta in s h a s n o tq ue s t ioned t h i sp rob lem . T he n o rms s uppo r t ing a c h ie f ta in 's c ha rac te ra r es t il t ob er e ga rded a st r ad i t iona l ly ma le o ne s . A s s uch , i t i s p o ss ib le t o r e la te t h ese f unc t iona l i s tm ode l st o ab i a s sed u n ive r sa l i s tu nde r s tand ing o fs o c ie t ie sa sc on s truc t s made u po fb i po la rs phe r e s : A Ma le ,p ubl i c , s o c ie ta la nd v i s ib le s phe re v e r su s AF ema le ,p r iva te ,d ome s t ic a nd i n v i s ib le s phe r e

S ome p o s s ib le c ond i t ion s f o r s u ch a d i scu ss ion c an b e s ugge s ted . F i r s t , t h i s f i e ld o f d i scus s ion i si n t ima te ly r e la ted t o c r i t ica l , t h eo re t ica l a pp roache s t o g ende r a nd m a t e r ia lc u l tu r e ,a nd n o tl e a s tt o ag ende rc r i t ica l mo r tua ry a r chaeo logy . S e cond , mode l s o f s oc ie ty o ugh t t ob e i n h a rmony w i th t h e e x ten s ive k now ledge w e a l ready h ave , t h ank s t ot h e n umbe r o f g ende r c r i t ica l s t ud ie s o n b u r ia l c u s tom si n We s t e rn S cand inav ia m en t ioned a bove . G ende r c r i t ica l mode l s o fs oc ie ty w i l l a ss uch h ave t ob e mode l s b u i ld ing o n f em in i s t , i . e . n on -b ipo la r , c u l tu ra l i d eo log ie s , o f w h ich n on -b ipo la r g ende r i d eo log ie s w i l l c on s t i tu te a c ohe ren t p a r t . G re te L i l lehamme r ( 1985 ; 1 988 ) h a s p roposed s eve ra l t op ic s w h ich s hou ld b e ap ro l if ic i n te rp r e ta t ive b a se f o ru nde r s tand ing s o c ie t ie s ,o nl o ca la nd s upe r loca l l e ve l s . A spec t s o f t h e t op ic s i n t roduced h e r e w i l lb ef u r the rd eve loped b e low . T aken t o ge the r , Iw ou ld a r gue t h a tb u r ia l c u s toms r ema in o ne o ft h em o s tp rom i s ing t h eme s i nf u tu r eg ende rc r i t ica l s t ud ie s i na r cha eo logy ( e .g . S o rensen 1 991 ; 1 992 ; Ar no ld 1 991 ; D amm 1 991 ) . A s s u ch ,m o r tua ry d a ta a r et h em a jo r f o cu so ft h i sp ape r . O the ri mpo r tan tc a t ego r ie so f ma te r ia l e v idence f r om t h ep e r iod d i scu s sed a r ec ave s e t t lemen t sa nd t h es oc a l led ' s a c r ed w h i te s t one s ' ,p ha l l ic s cu lp tu r e s made o fm a rb le o rq ua r tz i te ( F ig 5 ) . T he se m a te r ia l s ou r ce sw i l l b es umma r ized a nd b r ief ly d i scu s sed b e low .

I ti s t h is w o r ld v i ew w h ich t h e f em in is t c r i t ique h a s p rob lema t iz ed .

2 . T he A rchaeo logy o f E ar ly I ron S unnmore ( 500 BC -AD 6 00 )

T he re h a sb een as ho r tb u tl i ve ly d eba t eo ve rt h ec h ie fdom mode l i nS cand inav ian P reh i s to ry , e spec ia l ly t h e v e r s ion p re sen t ed b yO dne r( s ee N o rweg ian A r cha eo log ica lR ev iew 7 /2 , 1 974 ) . I nt h e l i gh to ft h i s d eba te , a nd t h e e me rgence o f g ende r c onsc iou s s t ud ie s o n S cand inav ian I r on A ge s oc ie t ie s , i ti s r a the r a s ton i sh ing t o n o t ice t h a t t h is c h iefdom mode l h a s n eve r b een q ue s t ioned i n ag ende r c r i t ica l l i gh t b e fo re . Howeve r , t h e d eba te a bou t O dne r ' s mode l w a s l a rge ly c once rned w i th e s tab l i sh ing w he the r t he re h ad b e en c h ie fdoms i nl a te r p reh i s to ry , o r t ow ha t e x ten t Odne r ' s s pec if ic i n te rp re ta t ions o fc he ifdoms w e re r i gh to rw rong . O nt h ec on t ra ry ,m yc r i t ic i sm c oncer n st h e u nde r ly ing w ay o f u nde r s tand ing s oc ie ty b eh ind t h e se i n te rp re ta t ion s ,a nd n o t t h e e x i s tence o fc h ie fdom sp e rs e .

My r e sea r ch c oncen t ra ted o nE a r ly I r on A ge m a te r ia l f r om t h e c oun ty o f S unnmO re i n We s tern N o rway ( F ig 1 ) , e s pec ia l ly t h e l a t te r c en tu r ie s o ft h eE a r ly I r on A ge . T he l a nd scape o fS unnmo re i so ne w h ich i nm any r e spe c t s i s t y p ica lo f We s t er n No rway i ng ene ra l . T he l a nd scape c an b e d i v ided i n to t h ree z one s f r om t h e i n te r io r t ot h e c oa s t . F jo rd s a nd p en in su la s c ha ra c te r i ze t h e m idd le a nd i n ne r z one s . S ome o f t h e se p en in su la s r e ach i n to t h e c oa s ta l z one , w h ich i sm ade u p o f an umbe r o f l a rge a nd s ma l l i s land s . T he i n te r io r c ons i s t s o f h i gh moun ta ins , w i th l i t t le a va i lab le l a nd f o r a r ab le a g r icu l tu r e . H oweve r , o n s e ve ra lo ft h ec oa s ta l i s land s a r ea r ea s o fb road a nd f e r t i le c u l t ivab le l a nd ( f o r d i scus s ion o f t h e l a nd scape a nd t h e e conom ic c ond i t ion s o f N o r the rn S unnmo re s e e S o lbe rg 1 984 ) .

2 4

Age

T ove HJOR UNGDAL l a ye r s , w he re t h e b rooche s w e re d epo s i ted , t h e re w e re n o s i gn s o fa ny b u r ia l c ons t ruc t ion s , a l though j ewe l le ry may h ave b e longed t o ad e s t royed g r ave .

I n Norway t he E a r ly I r on A ge c or respond s t o t h e P re R oman ( Ce l t ic ) I r on Age , t h e R oman I r on A ge , a nd t h e E a r ly G erman ic I r on A ge /M ig ra t ion p er iod , i . e . ap er iod o f o ve r at h ousand y ea r s r unn ing f r om a bou t 5 00 B .C . t o AD 6 00 . T he Roman I r on A ge a nd t h e M igra t ion P e r iod a r e a mong t h e mo s t t ho rough ly i n ve s t iga ted p e r iod s i n t h e p reh is to ry o f S unnmo re . A s i n o the r p a r t s o f We s tern No rway , t he ma te r ia l c u l tu re o f t h ese p e r iods i sa l so i n s ha rp c on t ra s tt ot h e ma te r ia l c u l tu re o ft h ep rece ed ing P re R oman p e r iod , w h ich , l i ke t h e p re ced ing B ronze A ge , i s c ha r ac t e r ised b yo n ly s po rad ic m a te r ia lc u l tu re t r ace s .

O ne o f t h e l a rges t b u r ia l mounds d i scu ssed i n t h is i n ve s t iga t ion i sc aled B l imshaugen o n t h ei s land o fV ig ra . T h is mound m ea su res 3 3 m e t re s i n d iame ter , a nd 2 . 5 m e t re s h i gh , a nd w a s r e s to red a f te r e xcava t ion i n 1 934 . F ive b u r ia ls w e re f ound i nB l imshaugen , e ach i ns epa ra te s t one c i s t s . F ou r o f t h em a r e d a ted t ot h e R oman p e r iod , a nd o ne t ot h et r an s i t ion b e twe en t h eR oman p e r iod a nd t h e M ig ra t ion p e r iod . T he mo s t e xc lu s ive o f t h e se b u r ia l s i s t h e e a r l ie s t w h ich w a s d ef ined a s aw oman 's g rave . T he b u r ia l w a s e qu ipped w i th af r agmen ta ry R oman i mpo r t ( a b ronze s i eve ) a nd ag o lden s p i ra lr i ng ,c hopped o f fa to ne o f i t s e nd s . T he re a l so w e re u t ens i ls s uch a s k n if e , s p ind le w ho r l ,c omb a nd t weeze r( Be rgen s Museums Ä rbok 1 934 ) . T he c r i te r ion o n w h ich t h i s b u r ia l w a s g ende red , w a s a t r i angu la rb one h a i rp i n . S uch h a i rp i n sa r er ega rded a sp a r t o f aw oman 's c o if fu re . T he mound a l so c on ta ined ab u r ia l d ef ined a s am an 's g rave . T he c r i te r ia u sed f o r a s cr ib ing t h is b ur ia l w e re t h e w eapon s , as pea r a nd s h ie ld . Ac h i ld h ad a l so b een i n ter red i n t h e monumen ta l mound o f B l imshaugen . A s t h e b ody h ad b een b u r ied w i th 1 3 g l a s s b ead s , t h e o p in ion h a s b een t h a t t h e d e cea sed w a s ag i r l . S he h ad a l so b een c ove red w i th ab l anke t . T he f ou rb u r ia l s f r om t h e R oman I r on A ge w e re a l l i n huma t ions ( Be rgens Mu seums Ä rbok 1 934 ) . T he M ig ra t ion p e r iod b u r ia l w a s , o n t h e c on t ra ry , ac r ema t ion , a nd t h ec r ema ted b one s w e re d epo s i ted i n aV e s t land c au ld ron -al a rge , b ronze c au ld ron f r om c on t inen ta l E u rope ( Hauken 1 991) - t oge the r w i th a g o lden s p i ra lr i ng ( Be rgen s Mu seums Ä rbok 1 901 ;H auken 1 984 ) .

T he re a r e s eve ra lb u r ia l c a i rns o n t h e c oa s tw h ich d a t e t o , o r a r e s uppo sed t od a te t o , t h e B ronze Age . E xcava ted g rave s a r e v e ry r a re . T he mo s t w e l l k nown B ronze A ge b ur ia l m ound i nt h e c oun ty i sM je l tehaugen o n t h e s ma l l i s land o f G iske . I n t h is l a rge mound a b ur ia l c i s t w a s f ound b u i l t o f s t one s l ab s b ea r ing r ock c a rv ings . T he c a rv ing sa re i n te rp re ted a s i m i ta t ion s o ft e x t i le s , a nd h ave b een c ompa red t o woven t a pes t ry (Mand t 1 983 w i th r e fe r ence s ) . B e s ide s t h ese r ock c a rv ings f r om t h is b u r ia l c on tex t , B ronze A ge r ock c a r v ing s a re n o t k nown w i th c e r ta in ty a nd b ronze o b je c t sa r eu ncommon i nS unnmo re . T he s ub s is tence d ur ing t h e B ronze Age a nd t h e I r on A ge wa s c ompr ised o f am ixed e conomy o f c u l t iva t ion , h usband ry , f i sh ing , h un t ing a nd f o rag ing . We h ave l i t t le d e ta i led k now ledge f o r s ub s is tence i n S unnmO re d u r ing l a te rp r eh i s tory . T h i s i sp a r t icu la r ly d ue t ot h e d i f f icu l t ie s i n l o ca t ing s e t t lemen t s i tes o r o t he r t r ace s w h ich c an b e r e la ted t os ub s i s tence . C ave s e t t lemen t s w e re u sed d u r ing a l l p reh i s tor ic p e r iod s , b u t i ti so f ten d i f f icu l t t o e x t rac t mo re p rec ise i n fo rma t ion f r om t h e se s i te s . H oweve r , i n r e cen ty ea r st r ace so fs eve ra ls e t t lemen t sh ave b een d e t ec ted d a t ing t ot he B ronze A ge , t h e P re -Roman I r on A ge a nd t o t he t r ans i t iona l p e r iod b e tween ( t hese h ave n o t b een e x tens ive ly p ub l i shed , b u t s ee Ägo tnes 1 986 ; 1 989 ) . T he se s e t t lemen t s p roduced a sbe s tos p o t te ry , a nd p low ma rk sa r ek nown f r om s ome o ft h ese s i te s .

O ne o f t h e mo re e x t rao rd ina ry M ig ra t ion P er iod f i nd s i s f r om t h e f a rm V e ibe rg i n No rdda l , E a s tern S unnmo re . T h i s g r ave w a s u nde r ac a ir na bou t 1 5 me t re s i nd iame te r a nd 1 . 5 m e t re s h i gh . I tc on ta ined a n A s sy r ian mosa ic b ead w i th f a c ia l ma sk s ( van d e r S l een 1 967 P l . I I ) , g l as sb ead s a nd a mbe r b eads , a nd s eve ra l b rooche s -t wo c ruc iform ( Re ich s te in 1 975 :128 ; H ine s 1 984 :308 ) a nd u tens i l s f o r t e x t i le p roduc t ion , n ame ly t h ree s p ind le w ho r ls a nd a w eave r 's s wo rd . P o t te ry i sa l so f r equen t ly f ound i nt h e se r i ch ly e qu ipped b u r ia ls . T he se v e s se ls a r e b ucke t s haped p o t s , m ade f r om a sbe s to sc l ay s ( Magnus 1 984 ) , a l ong w i th f i ne rh and led v e s se l s ( S tou t 1 986 ) .

B y a nd l a rge t h eE a r ly I r on A ge i s ap er iod r a the rp oo ri n f i nd s a nd monumen t s i n We s t e rn N orway , a nd d ur ing t h e P re -Roman I r on A ge t he ma te r ia l f r om S unnmo re i s s imp ly s can ty . T owa rd s t h e l a te r p a r t o f t h e E a r ly I r on Age ,t h e ma te r ia l i n c rea se s ,b o th i nq uan t i ty a nd i nq ua l i ty . T h i s p a t te rn i st y p ica l o f c oa s ta l N orway i ng ene ra l ( e .g . S he te l ig 1 912 ; S t raume 1 961 ) . Mo s t o f t h e m a ter ia l f r om t h e P re -Roman I r on A ge i nS unnmo re c on s is t s o fp o t te ry o r s oap s tone b ow ls , e i the r s t ray f i nd s o r f r om b og s ( c f . Ägo tne s 1 986 ) . T he se m igh t r ep re sen t e i the r b ur ia l s , o r w hen d epos i ted i nb og s ,s a cr i f ice s( o ff ood ) . T he re a r ev e ry f ew b u r ia l c a i rn s w i th r ad io ca rbon d a te s w i th in t h e P re R oman P er iod . T he se f i nd s f r om t h e e a r l ie r p a r t s o f t h e I r on A ge i nS unnmore a r e a lmo s te xc lu s ive ly f r om f e r t i le i s land so f ft h e ma in land .

A long s ide t h e se ma ter ia l ly r i che r b u r ia ls , t h e t r ad i t ion o f b u r ia ls f u rn ished e xc lus ive ly w i th o n ly c e ram ics o r s oap s tone v e s se l sc on t inued f r om t h eP re -Roman I r on A ge . T he se b u r ia l s a r e u sua l ly f ound i n s ma l le r mound s a nd c a i rns , i n l ong b ar rows a s w e l l a s i n r ound mound s . S eve ra lo ft h e se a r e s i tua ted i nb u r ia lg round s ,a s ac on t ra s t t o s o l i ta ry monumen t s w i th r i ch ly e qu iped b u r ia ls . G ene ra l ly , t h e l a rge s t b u r ia l mounds , a s w e l l a s t h e m a jor i ty o f t h e r i ch ly f u rn ished b u r ia ls i n S unnmo re , a r e f ound i nt h e i s land so f ft h ec oa s ti nt h en o r the rn a nd n o r th w e s ter np a r t s o ft h e c oun ty . A l though i t mus tb e s t re ssed t h a t t h e se a r e t h e p a r t s o ft h e c oun ty t h a t h ave b een mo s t t ho rough ly i nves t iga ted ( H jo rungda l 1 991 :55f f w i th r e f e rence s ) . L e s s a t ten t ion h a s b een p a id t ot h e s ou the rn , m idd le a nd e a s te rn p a r t s o f S unnmo re , a l though i ti si n t h e se a r ea s t h a t t h e m a jo r i ty o f ' s ac red w h i te s t one s ' h ave b een f o und . T hese p ha ll ic w h i te s t one s a r e u sua l ly a bou t 2 0 -40 c m h igh . I n S unnmo re ' s ac red w h i te s t one s ' a r e r a re ly f ound i nb a r rows . I n f a c t o n ly o ne s ac red w h i te s t one h a s w i th c e r ta in ty b een f ound i n ab ur ia l c on tex t , n ame ly i n t h e u ppe r s t one l a ye r o f al ong b a r row , 3 2 m e t re s l o ng , i n t h e b u r ia l g round o f L ongva ( Hvos lef

T he re a r e af a r l a rge r n umbe r o fb u r ia ls f r om t h e R oman a nd M ig ra t ion P e r iod s , u sua l ly u nde rb u r ia l mound s /ca ir n s o f d i f f e ren t s hape s . S ome o f t h e se b ur ia ls a r e f ur n i shed w i th w eapons , j ewe l lery , i mpor t s f r om t he R oman p rov ince s ,a s w el a sw o rk u t en s i l s s uch a s s p ind le w ho r l s . O the r g r ave g ood s i n c lude c omb s a nd t weeze r s . I n s ome b u r ia l s f r agmen t s o fd re ss a nd c l o th a r e p reserved , a s w e l l a s d re ss e qu ipmen t , s uch a s b rooches a nd b e l thook s ( Re ich s te in 1 975 ; H ine s 1 984 ; B ende r J o rgensen 1 986 ; L und H ansen 1 987 ) . O ne R oman p e r iod f i nd ,c ons is t ing o f t wo f r agmen t s o fp a i r b roo che s m ade o fb ronze a nd g o ld s hee t , w as f ound i n t he t op o f t he B ronze A ge M je l tehaugen b u r ia l mound d i scu s sed a bove . I nt h e u ppe r

2 5

T ove HJORUNGDAL o t he r wo rd s , w hen d i scus s ing h uman s oc ie ty a s s uch , w e h ave t oc on s ide r b o th ma te r ia l p roduc t ion , r e p roduc t ion , a nd t h ep rodu c t ion o fm ean ing . T h i sa pp roach t ot h es t udy o f h uman s oc ie ty i s a dvoca ted b y t h e D an i sh a n th ropo log i s t s , K i r s ten H a s tr up a nd J an O ve sen ( Ha s t rup &O ve sen 1 980 :16 f ) . My e mpha s i s w a s o n s ymbo l i sm i n ma te r ia l c u l tu re . T he r ea son w hy Ic ho se t os t re ss t h i s a spe c t o f c u l tu re w a s t h a t i ts e emed l i ke ag ood p o in t o f d epa r tu re i na t temp t ing t or e ach a nu nde r s tand ing o fg end e r i np reh i s to ry .

K rüge r 1 977 ) . I n t h e w ho le c oun ty at o ta l o f2 1 s a c red w h i t e s t one s a r ek nown a tt h ep r e sen t . T h re eo ft h e se a r e n ow l o s t , b u t i n fo rma t ion o n t h em r ema in s i n mu seum c a ta logue s . I n c oa s ta l S unnmo re t h e r e a r e s e ve ra l c ave s w h ich w e re i n hab i ted d u r ing t h e E a r ly I r on A ge , a s w e l l a s o t he r p reh i s to r ica l p e r iod s . Mo s t o f t h e I r on A ge m a te r ia l i n t h e se s i te s d a te s f r om t h e l a te r R oman P e r iod a nd t h e M ig ra t ion P e r iod . C ave s i te s a r e u sua l ly u nde r s tood a s s i te s r e la ted t of i sh ing a nd h un t ing a c t iv i t ie s o n t h eb a s i s o f t h e m any f i nd s o f e qu ipmen t f o r s uch s ub s i s tence a c t iv i t ie s . T he m o s t f amou s c ave i n t h is c oun ty i st h e S k jong c ave o n t h e i s land o fV a lde roy . C ha ra c te r i s t ic o f S k jong a r e t h e n ume rous s p ind le w ho r l s a nd aw eave r 's s wo rd f ound t h e re . A t t h e R On s tad c ave , i nt h e i s land o f L ep s0y , t h e re w a s as ma l l r o om b u i l t o f s t one s . W i th in t h i sr oom ac omb m ade o fb one w a sd epo s i ted ,a l ong w i th a n ima lb one s a nd s he l l s . A nde r s L o range ( 1 879 ) , o ne o f o u rf amou sn i ne t een th c en tu r ya n t iqua r ian s ,i n te rp re ted t h i s c on t ex ta s as a c r if i c ia lo ne . Af u l l c a ta logue o fI r on A ge m a te r ia l f r om S unn ino re i s c on ta ined i n m y t h e s is ( H jo rungda l 1 991 :13O f f w i th r e f e rence s ) . I n s tead o f m ak ing a mo re e x tens ive p re sen ta t ion o f t h e s ou r ce m a te r ia l , Is ha l l o u t l ine t h e m e thod sa nd t h er e su l t so fm yr e s ea r ch .

3 .

Me thod s a nd Approach

F i r s t , It r ied t od i scove rt h ep o s s ib le s t ruc tu re so fm ean ing b e twe en t h e d i f f e ren t c a t ego r ie s o f m a te r ia l e v idence t h rough c h rono log ica l a nd c ho ro log ica l s t ud ie s . If ound t h a t t h e re i s ac on t rad ic to ry d i s tr ibu t ion b e tween ' s ac red w h i te s t one s ' , a nd t h e h i gh f r equenc ie s o fc l ea r ly m a rked a nd /o rw e l le qu ipped b u r ia lm ound si nS unnmo r e( F ig .6 ) . I no t he rp a r t so fc oa s ta lN o rway , ' s ac red w h i te s t one s ' a r e mo s t f r equen t ly f ound i nt h e i n te r io r s o r o n t h e t o p s o f b u r ia l mound s ( K r i s to f f e r sen 1 992 ; P e te r sen 1 905 ) . T h i s m ay h ave b een t h e o r ig ina l s i tua t ion a l so i nS unnmo re , a nd t h eb a r row si nq ue s t ion m igh th ave b e en d e s t royed a sa r e su l t o f f a rme r s ' w o rk t h rough c en tu r ie s . I ft h i s i st h e c a se , a l t h a tr ema in a r e t h e p ha l l ic s c u lp tu re s . T he se a r e f r equen t ly f ound a ss t r ay f i nd s , b u t o f ten t h ey h ave b een h i dden a way o re ven d e s t royed b yl o ca lf a rme r s ,b ecau se o f t h e i r p rovoca t ive s hape . Whe the r o r n o t t h ey o r ig ina l ly c ame f r om b u r ia l mound s , " sac red w h i te s t one s" i n S unnmo re a r em a in ly f ound , o rp r e se rved , i nt h e s ou the rn a nd m idd le p a r t s o f t h e c oun ty , a way f r om t h e m a in c oncen t ra t ion o fk nown g r ave s . T o i n te rp re t t h is a r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l i ti sn e i the r s a t i sf ac to ry n o r p o ss ib le t o l ook a t t h e c oun ty o f S unnmo re i n i s o la t ion , b u t r a the r w hen b u r ia l s a r e c once rned , i n t h e b roade r c on tex t o f c oa s ta l We s te rn N o rway i ng ene ra l . P a ra l le l sc an b ed r awn w i th t h es ou th w e s te rn r eg ion so fN o rway ,w i th J x ren i nR oga land ,w he re G re te L i l lehamme r h a s a na lysed t h e b u r ia l g round o f K vasshe im ( L i l lehamme r 1 985 ; 1 987 ; 1 988) . A dd i t iona l ly , s ome o t he rb u r ia l s f r om c oa s ta l d i s t r ic t s , i . e . b u r ia l sw i th s pe c ia la nd r ema rkab le e qu ipmen t( c f .S he te l ig 1 912 ) ,w e re t a ken i n to c on s ide ra t ion i nm y s t udy . T he a pp roach Iu sed i n a na lys ing t h is m a te r ia l w a s t o c oncen t ra te o np roduc t ion i ni t sw ide s ts e n se . T h i s m ean s t h a t It r ied t o d i scu s s b o th p roduc t ion o f f o od a nd o f m a t e r ia lo b je c t s ,a nd t h er e p roduc t ion o fl i f ea nd o fs o c ie ty , a sw e l l a st h ep roduc t ion a nd r e p roduc t ion o fs ymbo l s . I n

A n e mpha s i s o n a spec t s o fp roduc t ion a l so p rov ided a n a l te rna t ive t ot h e f unc t iona l i s t f o cu s o n t h e r e d i s t r ibu t ion o f g ood s w i th in c h ief ta ins . T h is a pp roa ch , f o cu s ing o n d i f fe ren t a spe c t s o f p roduc t ion , f o l low s t h e s t imu la t ing w o rk o fL i l lehamme r( L i l lehamme r 1 985 ; 1 988 ) . E v idence f o r m a te r ia l p roduc t ion , wo rk ing t o o l s a nd u t ens i ls , w a s s ome t ime s d epo s i ted i n g rave s , a l though t h is w a s n o t a w ide sp read p rac t ice t h roughou t t h e E a r ly I r on A ge i n We s te rn S cand inav ia . Ah and le t oe nab le amo re t h o rough u nde r s tand ing o f t h e p roduc t ion o f s ymbo l s i sp o s s ib le t h rough t h es ugge s t ion so fp a ra l le l si ni n t e rp r e ta t ion sm ade b y h i s to r ian s o fO ld No r se r e l ig ion . I nN o r se m y tho logy c er ta in w o rk ing t o o l s s e em t oh ave b een g i ven p a r t icu la r c o smo log ica l m ean ing s . Iw ou ld a r gue t h a ts ome o ft h e se my tho log ica lt h eme sf ound i nt h em ed ieva ll i t e ra tu r em igh t h ave b een r e p re sen ted t h rough m a te r ia l c u l tu re d u r ing t h e l a te rp a r t s o ft h e E a r ly I r on A ge . T h i s a na ly t ica l m e thod , g ene t ic c ompa ra t iv i sm i sa dvoca t ed b ys e ve ra lS cand inav ian h i s to r ian so fr e l ig ion ( e .g . S t e in s land 1 986 ; S ch jod t 1 989 ) . A s ar e su l t Ih ave p a r t icu la r ly f o cu sed o nt h ep roduc t ion o f m ean ing , a nd u sed t h e me thod s a nd i n te rp re ta t ion s o ft h e h i s to ry o fr e l ig ion t os e e" unde rt h es t ruc tu re s" o fa nE a r ly I r on A ge We s tS cand inav ian u n ive r se . A sb u r ia l d a ta w e re t h e ma in b ody o fe v idence t oc on s ide r g ende r , i ti sn ece ssa ry t o e xp la in my m e thod s o f b u r ia l a na ly s i s . H ow s hou ld w e l o ok u pon b u r ia l a nd d ea th ? P rev ious ly , f unc t iona l is t p e r spec t ive s i n mo r tua ry a r chaeo logy s aw t h ew ay i nd iv idua l s w e re t r ea t ed i nb u r ia l a s am i r ro r o fs oc ie ty . T h i s v i ew h a s b een q ue s t ioned i n S cand inav ian a r chaeo logy a nd a l te rna t ive , s t ruc tu ra l i s t i n f luenced , i n te rp re ta t ions h ave b een p u tf o rwa rd . D u r ing t h e l a s t f ew y ea r s s ome S cand inav ian s t ud ie s i n mo r tua ry a r chaeo logy h ave e ven f ocused o n i d eo log ies a nd men ta l i t ie s a s w e l l a s c o smo log ie s ( e .g . L i l lehamme r 1 987 ; B enne t t 1 987 ; J ennbe r t 1 988 ; 1 992 ; K a l if f 1 992 ; A nd r6n 1 993 ) .A nd r in ( 1 993 )e ven d i scu s se st h ep o s s ib i l i ty o fl o ok ing a tg r ave sa sm e tapho r s . My a im w a st os t udy b u r ia l sa sa ni n teg ra t ed w ho le i n s te ad o f i s o la t ing s i ng le e l emen t s s uch a s t h e v o lume o f t h e b u r ia l mound , a nd t h e q ua l i ty o rq uan t i ty o fb u r ia l g ood s . S im i la r w ay s o f a na lys ing b u r ia ls , a me thod o f a pp roach ing t h e d ead s t ep b y s t ep , h ave b een u sed b y s eve ra l s cho la r s d u r ing t h e l a s t d e cade ( e .g . H äkansson 1 985 ; L i l lehamme r 1 987 ; L oken 1 987 ) . T h i s a pp roa ch t a kes i n to c ons ide ra t ion a l l c on s t ruc t iona l d e ta i l s o f t h e b u r ia l , b o th e x te rna l a nd i n te rna l , a sw e l l a sa l l c a tego r ie s o ff u rn i sh ing ,a nd t r ea tmen to ft h eb ody o ft h ed ecea sed . S econd ly , It r i ed t oc l a ss i fy b u r ia l si n to r e spe c t ive ly ' ma le ' a nd ' f ema le ' b u r ia l s i nt e rm s o f t h ep re sence o fw eapon s ( f o r ' ma le s ' )a nd d i f f e ren tk i nd so fj ewe l le ry ,e . g .b roo che s a nd b ead s ( f o r ' f ema le s ' ) . C r i te r ia s im i la r t o t h e se a r e c ommon ly u s ed i na r chaeo logy t od e te rm ine g ende r ( e .g . H jo rungda l 1 991 : 7 0 f . a nd r e f e rence s ; P e t it 1 984 ; 1 993 a nd r e f e rence s ) . T he p re se rva t ion o f b one m a te r ia l i n S unnmo re i s ap rob lem b ecause o f t h e a c id s o i ls . I f

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T ove HJORUNGDAL p re served a t a l l , h uman o s teo log ica l m a te r ia l i si n b ad c ond i t ion , wh ich s eve re ly l im i t s t h e b io log ica l s ex ing o f s ke le ta l ma te r ia l . Wha ts can ty ma te r ia l i sa va i lab le h a s n o t b een o s teo log ica l ly e xam ined . T he f ew e xcep t ions a r e c r ema t ed b one sf r om b u r ia ls e qu ipp ed w i th b ea r s ' c l aws a nd d epo s i ted i nV e s t land c au ld rons . T he s ew e re a na lysed s ome t ime a go , b u t a re n o t e x tens ive ly p ub l ished ( Hvos le f K rüge r 1 988 ) . T h is means t ha t i n forma t ion i s n o t a va i lab le t od ec ide w he the rt h eV e s t land c au ld ron sc on ta ined t h ec r ema ted r ema in so fi nd iv idua l sr e ga rded a sb io log ica l ly men o r women . I n ac oup le o fg rave s l a ck ing b a r row s , i n S taurne s o n t he i s land o f G iske , t h e s ke le tons w e re p rese rved , a nd e ven e xam ined . T he b io log ica l s ex c l a ss if ica t ions c o r re spond t o t h e ma te r ia l ly b a sed g ende r d ef in i t ions . T he re w a s ab io log ica l ly s exed f ema le b u r ia l wh ich c on ta ined j ewe l lery , e .g . b rooches , a nd a b io log ica l ly s exed ma le b ur ia l w h ich c on ta ined w eapon s ( Be rgen s Mu seums Ä rbok 1 930 ) . Unfo r tuna te ly , t h ese a r e t h e o n ly o s teo log ica l r e su l t s f o r E a r ly I r on A ge ma ter ia l o f S unnmo re . T h is s i u ta t ion i s s im i la r t o L i l lehamme r 's i nves t iga t ion i n K vasshe im , whe re b u r ia ls w e re a l so ma in ly g ende red a cco rd ing t o ma te r ia lc r i t er ia . L ilehamme rw a sa b le t oa s soc ia te f ema le b u r ia l w i th l ong b a r rows ( L i l lehamme r 1 985 ; 1 988 ) . T he r e la t ion b e tween g ende r a nd s hape o f b a r rows h a s b een d i scu s sed b y s eve ra l o the r a rchaeo log is ts ( e .g . B enne t t 1 987 ; L oken 1 987 ) .

W i th in t h e se c h rono log ica l g roups i tw a s p oss ib le t o a r range t h e m a te r ia l i n to p hys ica l f i nd c on tex t s ( a s a cco rd ing t om useum c a ta logue s ) i . e . ; B u r ia l s ; B og F ind s ; S e t t lemen t s ; C ave s ; R ock C a rv ing ( on ly as i ng le o ne ) ; S u r f ace F ind so rS t ray F ind s ; T he l a rge s t ca tego ry o f ma te r ia l c ame f r om b u r ia l c on tex ts . C h rono log ica l ly , b u r ia ls a r e r ep resen ted i nt h e m a te r ia l f r om t h e e a r l ie s t P re -Roman p e r iod u n t i l t h e e nd o f t h e M ig ra t ion P e r iod . Whe the r t h e re i sc on t inu i ty i n s uch b ur ia l p rac t ice s f r om t h e t he B ronze Age i n to t h e E a r ly I r on A ge , a nd f r om t h e E a r ly I r on Age i n to t h e Me rov ing ian P e r iod i sn o tc l ea r . T he re a r ev e ry f ew b u r ia l s d a ted t ob o th o ft h e se t r ans i t iona lp e r iod s . S ome o f t h e e a r l ie s t I r on A ge b u r ia l s a r e c rema t ion s i n c a i rns w i thou t m a te r ia l e qu ipmen t . C rema t ion w a s p rac t iced a l l t h rough t h e E a r ly I r on A ge i n S unnmo re . Ma ter ia l c u l tu re a s r ep re sen ted i n b ur ia l c on tex t s w a s t h o rough ly c hanged a tt h et r ans i ton b e tween E a r ly a nd L a te R oman p e r iod ( c .200AD ) . T h is c o r re sponds t o t he e x t ens ive s h i f t i nm a te r ia l c u l tu re i n We s te rn Norway a nd i n mo s t p a r t s o f S cand inav ia i ng ene ra l . F rom t h i s t ime o n ,g rave g i f t sa nd o t he re qu ipmen tb ecome mo re c ommon , a nd i n huma t ion w a s n ow p rac t iced i n S unnmo re . T he e a r l ie s t b u r ia l Iw a s a b le t o g ende r o n t he c r i te r ia o f m a ter ia l c u l tu re w a s a' f ema le ' b u r ia l f r om t h e E a r ly R oman p e r iod . T h rough t h e R oman h on Age t h e re a re s eve ra l , b u t n o t many , ' f ema le ' b ur ia ls . I ti sn o t p o ss ib le t or e cogn ise ' ma le 'b u r ia l s u n t i l t h e t h i rd c en tu ry AD . T he m a jor i ty o f ' ma le ' g rave s b e long t ot h e M ig ra t ion p e r iod , a s d o t h e m a jor i ty o f ' f ema le ' b u r ia l s . H oweve r , i tw a s u nfo r tuna t e ly n o t p o s s ib le t og ende r mo re t han 3 3% o fa l l t h eb u r ia l sd ue t ot h en a r row a nd s eve r ec r i te r ia u sed .

T oday w hen t he t heore t ica l d ef in i t ion o f g ende r i s c on s ide red t ob e a much mo re c omp lex m a t te r t h an ma le v e r su s f ema le , t he g ender ing o f p reh is tor ic b ur ia ls i s e qua l ly amuch mo re c omp lex ma t t e r . T he g ender ing o f b ur ia l s i s c onsequen t ly a d i f f icu l t p rob lem , a nd n o t p r inc ipa l ly ame thodo log ica lp rob lem o fc hoo s ing t h eb e s t ma te r ia l c r i te r ia o f g ender . R a the r , t h e p rob lem i sa n i d eo log ica la nd t h eo re t ica lo ne , a nd w i l lb eb r ief ly d i s cu s sed b e low . Ih ave e n la rged o n t h is p rob lem e l sewhe re ( H jO rungda lf o r thcom ing ) .

Among t h e b og f i nd s o f t h is p e r iod , c e ram ics , s oap s tone b ow l sa nd q ua r tz i t e h one s s hou ld b em en t ioned . Mo s tb og f i nd s a r e d i f f icu l t t od a te , b u t s ome o f t h e c e ram ic p o t s b e long t ot h e o l de s t I r on A ge o b jec t s i nt h is r eg ion , a nd f o l low aB ronze A ge t r ad i t ion .

4 . R esu lts T he n umbe r o fp ub l ished f i nd c on tex t s d a ted t ot h e E a r ly h on A ge i n S unnmO re w a s , a tt h e t i me o fp ub l ica t ion o f my t h es i s , 2 09 . S eve ra l o f t h ese c on tex t s c on ta in mo re t han o ne f i nd . E xamp le s o ft h ese a r e b u r ia l mound s w i th s eve ra l g rave s ,a s w el a sc aves w i th an umbe ro ft ype s o f o b je c t s ( c f . H jo rungda l 1 991 :130 f , c a ta logue ) . I th a s b een p o s s ib le t od a te t h e ma jor i ty o ff i nds , mo s t ly t h rough c h rono log ie sa l ready s ugge s ted b yo t he rs cho la r s ( e .g .L und Hansen 1 987 ; R e ichs te in 1 975 ; Magnus 1 984 ; a nd r e fe rence s i n t h ese w o rk s ) . Iw a s a b le t o a r range t h e ma te r ia l i n to 1 c h rono log ica l g roup s , i . e . ;

S e t t lemen t s a r e p oo r ly k nown . A f ew h ouse s i te s w e re e xcava ted s eve ra l y ea r s a go , b u t t h e re h ave b een n o l a rge r s ca le s y s tema t ic i n ve s t iga t ion s . T race so fE a r ly I r on A ge s e t t lemen th ave b een d i scove red i n many c ave s i tes i n S unnmo re . T he mos t e x tens ive k now ledge o fs u ch i sf r om t h eS k jong c ave o n t h ei s land o f V a lde roy . F ind s o f t e x t i le e qu ipmen t , s p ind le w ho r l s a s w e l la s aw eave r 's s wo rd ,c ou ld s ugge s tt h a tc ave s w e re n o t o n ly l o ca l i t ie s o f o rd ina ry s e t t lemen t , e . g . f o r f i sh ing a nd h un t ing a c t iv i t ie s , b u tc ou ld h ave b een ak ind o fr i tua l s i te a sw e l l , b ecau se o ft h er e p re sen ta t ion o ft e x t i le e qu ipmen t , a n i mpo r tan tc l a s so fo b je c t sp la ced i nb u r ia l s .

P re -Roman ; E a r ly R oman ; t h et r ans i t iona lp ha se E a r ly /La te R oman ; L a te R oman ; R oman P e r iod ; R oman /M ig ra t ion P e r iod ; t h et r an s i t iona lp ha se L a te R oman /M ig ra t ion p e r iod ; M ig ra t ion P e r iod ;

Mo s t s a c red w h i te s t one s ( pha l l ic s cu lp tu re s ) a r e s o -ca l led s t ray f i nd s , a nd a sm en t ioned e a r l ie r , o n ly o ne i sk nown t o b e f r om t h e t op o f ag rave mound . T he t e n ta t ive c onc lus ion w a s m ade t h a t s a c red w h i te s t ones c ou ld h ave b e longed t oa no the r b o th p hy s ica l a nd i d eo log ica l c on tex t i n S unnmo re t h an t h ey d id i n o the r p a r t s o f We s te rn N o rway i nw h ich p ha l l ic s cu lp tu re sa r ef o und i nb u r ia ls

L oca l i t ie sw i th s eve ra l d a t ing s w i th in t h eE ar ly I r on A ge ; E a r ly h on A ge i ng ene ra l ; F ind sp l aced w i th in t h ee r ao ft h eE a r ly I r on A ge o n ly o n h ypo the t ica lg round s .

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T ove HJORUNGDAL a bou tg ende r . G ende ri nt h i sc a se w a se xp r e s sed o n ar a the r a b s tra c t a nd s ub t le l e ve l , a nd t e x t i le e qu ipmen t s e ems b y a nd l a rge t ob ea s soc ia ted w i th t h ef em in ine g ende r . I th a s b een d i ff icu l tt od ec ide w he the rm a scu l ine g ende ri nt h e se c on tex t s w a s e xp res sed t h rough m a te r ia l o the r t h an w eapon s . H oweve r , a s w eapons w e re d ef ined a s am a le c r i te r ion i na dvance t h i sm ake st h ep re sen td i scu s s ion m o re d i ff i cu l t . O ne e a s i ly e nd su pi n ac i r cu la ra r gument

B ya nd l a rge ,t h ep i c tu r e Ih ave b e en a b le t op i e ce t o ge the r o f E a r ly l i on Age Ma te r ia l i n S unnmo re , s hows d i f f e ren t ia t ion d u r ing t h e l a te r p a r t s o f t h e i n ve s t iga ted p e r iod , i . e . d u r ing mo s t o f t h e R oman I r on A ge a nd t h e M ig ra t ion p e r iod . T he e a r l ie s tp e r iod s ,P r e -Roman a nd t h e i n i t ia l p a r to ft h eR oman p e r iod , a r ep oo r ,a nd e ven r a the r h omogenou s ,c ompa red t os u cce ed ing p e r iod s . T he ma te r ia lc a tego r ie sf r om w h i ch Ih ave b e en a b le t og e t mo s t i n fo rma t ion a r e t h eb u r ia l s o ft h eR oman p e r iod a nd t h e M ig ra t ion p e r iod , a s w e l l a st h e s a c red w h i te s t one s , w h ich a r e r ega rded a s c on tempo r a ry w i th t h e se b ur ia l s . T he se f i nd c a tegor ie s w i l l a cco rd ing ly b e o f t h e mo s t c en tra li n te re s ti nt h ef olow ing d i s cu s s ion s .

H oweve r , i n t h e p oo re r m i l ieu , ma scu l ine g ende r i s m a te r ia l i sed i n av e ry o bv iou s w ay , n ame ly t h rough t h e ' s ac r ed w h i te s t one s ' . T he d i f f e ren tw ay so fm a te r ia l i s ing g ende r i n t h e t wo c on tex t s d i scussed h e re m igh t b e i n t e rp re ted a se xp re s s ion s o fd i f f e ren ta spec t so f af e r t il i ty c u l t . D if f e ren ta spec t so ft h e s ame k i nd o fi d eo logy s e em t o b e r ep re sen ted i n t h e t wo s o -ca l led c l a ss c on tex t s r e sp ec t ive ly .

5 . D iscus s ion : Gender a nd C ommun i ty I ts e em sg ene ra l ly p o s s ib le t od i sce rn t wo d i f f e ren tk i nd so f m a te r ia l c on tex t s i nt h e c oun ty o f S unnmo re d u r ing t h e R oman I r on A ge a nd t h e M ig ra t ion p e r iod . T he d i f f e ren t c on tex t s i n q ue s t ion u sed d i f f e ren t m a te r ia l s ymbo ls t o e xp re s sa sp ec t so fg ende r . O ne o f t h ese c on tex t s i n c lude t h e c oa s ta l m i l ieu , i . e . m a in ly t h en o r the rn a r ea o ft h ec oa s ta lz one . T he o ppo s i t e c on tex ti n c lude s t h e i n land m i l ieu a sw e l l a st h e s ou the rn m idd le p a r to ft h e c oun t ry ( F ig . 6 ) . I ts hou ld b e b o rne i n m ind , h oweve r , t h a t t h e re i sn o s h a rp g eog raph ica l b o rde r b e tween t h e t wo m a te r ia l s e t t ing s . T he i mpo r tan tp o in t i s t h a t i nt h e se t wo s e t t ing s o fd i f f e r en t a nc ien t monumen t s o ne c an s peak o f c l ea r ly d i f f e ren t u se s o f m a te r ia l s ymbo l ism . T h i s p o in t i so f v i ta l i mpo r tance t o t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o fd i scu s s ing t h em i na l t e rna t ive s o c ia l t e rms . T he c on tex t s m igh t b e i n te rp re ted a s c ons t i tu t ing t wo d i f f e ren t c l a s s c on tex t s ( a nc ien t m onumen t s e t t ing s ) i n w h ich g ende r w a s e xp re s sed i n d i f f e ren t w ay s . T h i s i n te rp re ta t ion w a s s ugge s ted o n t h e b a s is o f m a te r ia l s ymbo l i sm a s i ti se xp r e s sed t h rough v o lum inou s b u r ia l mounds a nd /o r b u r ia l s w i th c omp lex m a te r ia l e qu ipmen t , v e r sus t h e u se o f s a c red w h i te s t one s a nd amo r e s c a rce f u rn i sh ing o fg r ave s .

T he a r chaeo logy o fS unnmO re i si n many w ay s s im i la r t o o t he r p a r t s o f c oa s ta l Norway , b u t w i th s ome m a rked d i s s im i la r i t ie s . O ne o ft h em a in d i s s im i la r i t ie sh a sa l ready b een m en t ioned , i . e . t h ef i nd c on tex t so fp ha ll i cs cu lp tu re s . A no the r i st h e e x ter na l s hape o fb u r ia l mound s , a nd t h e i r g ende rr e p resen ta t ion . A tt h eb u r ia lg round o fK va s she im , J a 2 r en ,t h el o ng b a r row sg ene raly c on ta ined l ema le 'bu r ia l s ( L i l lehamme r 1985 ,1988 ) . T h i sc ha ra c te r i s t ic i sa l so f o und i ns ou th -ea s te rn c oa s ta l N o rway ( Loken 1 987 ) . H oweve r , i nS unnmo re n one o ft h eb u r ia l sc l a s s if ied a s' f ema le ' w e re i nl o ng b a r row s , a l though t h i s w a s t h e c a se w i th j u s tt wo o r t h ree ' ma le ' b ur ia l s . O the r b u r ia l s i n l o ng b a r rows c ou ld n o tb e ` g ende red ' o n t h eb a s i s o ft h eg ende rc r i t e r ia u sed . R a the r i nS unnmo re , mo s t o ft h e b a r row s w he re i t w a s p o s s ib le t oa s c r ibe g ende r t ot h eb u r ia ls t h rough t h e i r a s so c ia ted a r te f ac t s , t h eb u r ia l s c ame f r om r ound b a r row s . P e r son s e qu ipped w i th i mpo r t s , me ta l o b je c t s , j ewe l le ry , w eapon s , t e x t i le u t en s i ls , a nd i n te r red i nl a rge b a r row s o r c a i rn s , m igh t b e r ega rded a s r epresen ta t ives o f c e r ta in g ende ri d en t i t ie s . A m a te r ia l e l emen t c ha rac te r i s t ic o f s eve ra l b u r ia l s i n c oa s ta l N o rway , a nd i no t he rp a r t s o fS cand inav ia a nd t h e C on t inen t , i s t h e d epo s i t ion o f u t ens i ls f o r t e x t i le p roduc t ion . I nS cand inav ia s u ch o b je c t s h ave s ome t ime s b een i n te rp re ted i nt h el i gh to fr e f e rence sa nd mo t if sf ound i no l d N o r se l i t e ra tu re . I nt h e se l i t e ra ry s ou r ce s w e f i nd m y tho log ica l c ha rac t e r s a s so c ia ted w i th t e x t i le p roduc t ion e qu ipmen t . T he n orner a r e my tho log ica l c ha rac te r s w ho w eave t h ew eb o fl i f e . T hey a r ea l so s uppo sed t oh ave t h e p owe r o f c u t t ing t h e t h read o f l i f e a ta ny m omen t t h ey d e c id e .

T h i s h a s i mpo r tan t i mp l ica t ion s f o r mo r tua ry a na lyses . We s hou ld s e er i ch ly e qu ipped b u r ia l sn o ta ss imp ly ' r i che r b ur ia l s ' i n t e rms o f ' wea l th ' , b u t a s ' mo re m a te r ia l ly c omp lex ' . I nc on t r a s tt h e ' p oo r e r 'b u r ia l s ,o f t en c on ta in ing n o th ing b u t ac e ram ic p o t ,o rp o s s ib le ah one ( k n i f e ) , s e en i n c omb ina t ion w i th t h e ' s a c red w h i te s t one s ' f ound i n o the r c on tex t s t han g rave s , c an b e i n te rp re ted a s r ep re sen ta t ive o f ad i f f e ren t ,m aybe m o re s imp le ,s ymbo l ic l a nguage .

I ng ene ra l ,I r on A ge p e r son sg i ven t e x t i le u t en s i l s i nd ea th w e re u sua l ly w omen , w ho a l so s e em t oh ave b e en p e r son s i ns ome k i nd o fp owe r , mo s tp robab ly i n af a rm e conomy c on tex t . A s e xamp le s o ft h i s , Ic ou ld m en t ion t h eb u r ia l s o f B l indhe im a nd V e ibe rg , d i scu s sed e a r l ie r i nt h i s t e x t . G ene ra l ly , w ec an r e ach t h e c onc lu s ion t h a t t h e se w omen m igh th ave h ad r a the re x ten s ive p owe ro ve rr e p roduc t ion o n a l l l e ve ls o f s oc ie ty . T h is s hou ld n o t b e s een i n c onne c t ion j u s t w i th c h i ldb i r th , b u t s hou ld e ven b e e x tended t oc ond i t ions c onne c ted w i th m a r r iage a l l iance s , a nd t h e m a in tenance o fs o c ie ty i ng ene ra l . A s s u ch , t h ey m igh th ave h ad p owe rr e ach ing f a rb eyond t h ef a rm s e t t ing i t se l f .

S oc ie t ie so rc ommun i t ie sh ave b e en d e f ined o nt h eb a s i so f t h e s hape o fb u r ia l monumen t s i nt h i sp e r iod , a sh a s b een t h o rough ly d i s cus sed i n aS wed i sh t h e s i s o n V ik ing A ge c ommun i t ie s ( Bu r s t röm 1 991 ) . If o r o ne w ou ld n o t b e s a t i sf ied w i th f o cu s ing o n ar e s t r ic t ed a spe c t , s u ch a s t h e e x terna l c ons t ruc t ion o f mo r tua ry monumen t s f o r a pp roach ing t h e se i s sue s . T o m e i ti so fv i ta l i mpo r tance t o l ook a t b u r ia l s a s a n i n teg ra ted w ho le , a n a pp roach f o l lowed b ym o s tc u r ren ta r chaeo log i s t sw ho d r aw s o c ia l ly a nd i d eo log icaly r e la ted c onc lu s ion so nt h eb a s i so fb u r ia l d a ta . N eg le c t ing t h e m any a sp ec t s o f b u r ia l c u s toms w ou ld r educe , a nd e ven d e s t roy , o u r c hances o f u nde r s tand ing t h ec u l tu r a lc on t ex t sw ea r es t udy ing .

B e s ide s t h e s p inn ing a nd w eav ing c ha rac te r s i n t h e m y tho logy , w e a l so me e t t h e V ö lva h e r s e lf . S he i st h e mo s t p owe r fu l o ne , a nd i sa b le t o o ve r look a nd c on t ro l f u tu re , p a s t a nd p re sen t . H e r c ha rac te r i s t ic a t t r ibu te p a r

G ene ra l ly ,i tw a s i nt h er i che ra nd c omp lex c u l tu ra l m i l ieu t h a tt e x t i le e qu ipmen tw a sp r ima r i ly u s ed t oe xp re s s i d ea s

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T ove HJORUNGDAL e xce l lence i s aw ooden s t ick , a nd s he i sc a l led u pon w hen t h e re a r ep er sona lc once rn ss uch a si l ne ss a nd q ue s t ion so f f a te . A tO s , n o r th o fB e rgen , t h e re i s as i x th c en tu ry AD b u r ia l w h ich i so fs pe c ia l i n te res t i nt h is r e spec t . H e re a woman w a s b u r ied w i th j ewe l lery , as p ind le w ho r l a nd a w ooden s t ick ,w h ich s he s eems t oh ave b een h o ld ing i nh e r h and ( She te l ig 1 912 ) . T h is p a r t icu la r b u r ia l h a s i n many r e spe c t s i n sp i red my e n t i re wo rk o n I r on A ge b u r ia ls . I ti s i mpo s s ib le t ot e l l w he the rt h e w oman i n te r red i nt h i sg rave wa s ap e r son if ica t ion o fVö lva ,o rn o t . R a the r , s he m igh t h ave b e longed t o af am i ly o r ac l an , w ho w e re t h e c e leb ra to r s o f af e r t i l i ty c u l t a s so c ia ted w i th t h e V ö lva . T hey m igh th ave i d en t if ied t h emse lve s w i th t h ese k ind s o f my tho log ica lc ha ra c t e r s . T he V ö lva w i th t h e w ooden s t ick i so n ly o ne k ind o f V ö lva . A no the r k ind w a s t h e " hou sew ife V ö lva" . T h i s w a s ar e a lp e r son r a the rt h an amy tho log ica lc ha rac t e r . T he " Vö lva o f O s" m igh t h ave b een t h i s k i nd o f V ö lva . T he h ousew i f eV ö lva w a sc ha rac te r ized t h rough h e rl e ad ing p a r t i n ar i tua l , ak ind o f p lay , c ons t i tu t ing t h e c o smo log ica l d rama o fc r ea t ion a nd p ro cr ea t ion . I nt h is r i tua l ah o rse 's p ha l lu s , n amed V o lse w a s u sed a s ar emed ium . I tw a s t h e d u ty o f t h e h ousew if e t o t a ke c a re o f t h e p ha l lu s , a nd p rese rve i ti nl i nen ,i nc omb ina t ion w i th s ome k i nd o fl e ek a nd o the r h e rb s i n ac he s t . T he n ame s V o lse a nd V ö lva s eem t o s ha re t h e s ame e t ymo log ica l r oo t s . D u r ing a c e remony o ft h i sk ind , t h eh o r se 's p ha l lu s w a sp a s sed f r om p e r son t op e r son w i th in t h e h ou seho ld ,a st h ey w e re s i t t ing a tt h e t a b le f o rs uppe r . E ach m embe r w a ss uppo sed t os ay av e r se o ve rt h ep ha l lus . T he m ed ieva l l i t e ra ry s ou r ce , t h e V olsatä t tr , f o r t h is r i tua l i s f ound i n t h e I c e land ic F la tey ja rbok . I nf a c t ,s ome R oman I r on A ge a nd G e rman ic I r on A ge b ur ia ls i n We s te rn No rway a r e e qu ipped w i th b one k n ive si n sc r ibed w i th t h ew o rd sf o rl i nen a nd l e ek . I n Wes tern Norway t h ese k n ive s a r e f ound i ng rave s w h ich a cco rd ing t o my g ende r d e f in i t ion s o ugh t t ob e f ema le , a s w e l l a s i n g rave s w h ich If ound d i f f icu l t t o a sc r ibe a ny g ende r . T he re a r e ,h oweve r , n o s uch b u r ia l s i nS unnmo re . T he q ue s t ion h a s b een a sked , w he the r t h is t ype o f b one k n ive c ou ld h ave b een c onnec t ed w i th t h e c e remony w i th t h e h o r se p ha l lu s m en t ioned a bove ( O lsen & S he te l ig 1 909 ; S te in s land & V og t 1 981) . T aken t o ge the r , t h e b one k n ive s a sw el a s t h ep oem o fV o lsa tä t t rt h row l i gh to n t h e m ean ing o f" s ac red w h i te s t one s ."

o f I r on A ge s oc ie ty . I n s p i te o f h e r f ocus o n p roduc t ive a nd s ymbol ic a spe c t s ,s h ec hoo se a n i n te rp re t ive f r amewo rk o fs o c ie ty w h ich d ev i ta l ize s h e ro wn s t rong c onc lu s ions o n s o c ia l o rgan izat ion . S he r e f e rs t o ama ins t ream c h ie fdom m ode l w h ich i sc ons t ruc ted o n n o t ions c on t rad ic tory t o L i l lehamme r ' s i n t e rp re ta t ion s o fs o c ia l r e la t ion s i ng ene ra l . O n t h e c on t rary , h e r a pp roa ch , a sw e l l a s h e rc onc lus ion s , s hou ld b e e xce l len t i n s t rumen t s f o r c r i t ic iz ing a nd c ha l leng ing t h ese k i nd o f g ende r a symme t r ica l mode l s . T he t o p ic sp u tf o rwa rd b yL i l lehamme rs hou ld i nf a c tb u i ld ap r o l i f ic i n t e rp re ta t ive b a se f o rc ons t ruct ing g ende rc r i t ica l mode l s o f s oc ie t ie s , o r maybe w e s hou ld r a the r u se t h e t e rm ' c ommun i t ie s ' . A' c ommun i ty ' i sd ef ined a s ac on tex t s ymbo l ica l ly s t ruc tu red v ia s ha red s ymbo l ism ( c f . E nge l s tad 1 991b w i th r e f e rence s ) . I t mus t , a cco rd ing ly ,b e p o ss ib le t o u se s uch a d ef in i t ion i n t he t wo d i f fe ren t m a ter ia l s e t t ings I d i sce rned i n S unnmo re d ur ing t h e R oman a nd M ig ra t ion p er iod s . It h e refo re t h ink t h a tt h e se d i f f e ren t s e t s o f s ymbo l s m igh t h ave b een s ha red b y t wo k i nd s o f c ommun i t ie s . Wha t t h en m igh t t hese s ymbo l ic l a nguage s e xp re ss? We m igh t h ave a n e xamp le o f t wo d i f f e r en tr e l ig ious a nd /o ri deo log ica l s y s tems . Ii n te rp re ted i ta s d i ss im i la r w ay s o f c op ing w i th g ende r a nd g ende r s ymbo l ism . I nt u rn , t h is w a s c onnec ted w i th t h e n o t ion o f t wo d i ff e ren t w ays o f l ook ing a t f e r t i l i ty c u l t , a t p roduc t ion , a nd a t r ep roduc t ion o f l i fe a nd o f s oc ia l c ond i t ion s . O n t h e o ne h and , w e m igh t s ugge s t t ha t t h e ma te r ia l ly r i che r a nd mo re c omp lex c ommun i ty r ep resen ted a n i d eo logy i n c lud ing b road c on tac t s . D id t he f ew p eop le c on s t i tu t ing a n u ppe r c oa s ta l c l a ss b e long t o ( f o re ign ) t r ad ing m i l ieu? O n t h e o the r h and , w as t h e ma te r ia l ly p oo re r c ommun i ty p oss ib ly b ased o n a mo re l o ca l t r ad i t ion , a nd l a cked t h e e conom ic b a se a nd t h e s oc ia l c ond i t ion sf o r aw ide rn e two rk ? T he se a r eq ue s t ion sw ec an a sk , i f tn o ta nswe rf i rm ly . T he re m igh ta nyway h ave b een d i f f e rence s i n s oc ia l i den t i t ies b e tween t he t wo c ommun i t ies w h ich r e su l ted i n t he u se o f d i f fe ren t s ymbo l ic s y s tems . S o c ia ld i f f e rence s m igh ta l so h ave b e en m a in ta ined t h rough t h e u se o f d i ss im i la r s y mbo l ic s y s tems .

6 . C onc lus ions T h i sp ape rh a sp rov ided o ne c a se s t udy o ft he p o ten t ia lo fa g ende r p e r spec t ive i n I r on A ge a r chaeo logy . I n t h e s t ru c tu r e sw h ich e me rge f r om d i f f e ren tc l a s ses o fE a r ly I r on A ge a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s i nS unnmo re Ih ave a rgued t h a t g ende rw a sa n i mpo r tan ta sp ec to fl i f ee xp re ssed i nd i f f e ren t w ay s i nd i f f e ren t a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s . C oncep t ion s o f g ende r a ppea r t o b e a s soc ia ted w i th n o t ions o f f e r t i l i ty . T ha t i s f e r t i l i ty i n ab road s ense , n o t me re ly t h e p ropaga t ion o ft h e f am i ly b u ta l so o the rs oc ia l a nd p ol i t ica l r e la t ion s . No t ion s o f f e r t i l i ty a l so a ppea r t ob e e l emen t s w h ich w e re mo s ti n s tr umen ta li ns t ruc tu r ing t h ec oncep tua l u n ive r se . A longs ide t h is i d eo logy , t h e re w as a wa r r ior i d eo logy , b u t i ti su nc lea r w he the rt h e t wo i d eo log ies w e re i no ppo s i t ion t o e a ch o the r o r p a r t o f t he s ame s y s tem . T he ma te r ia l s ou rce s s ugge s t t ha t t hey w e re p a r t ly i n teg ra ted . P eop le i nt h e r i che r c l a ss s e t t ing man if e s ted t h e i rs e nse o fb e long ing t ot h ep l ace a nd t h e i rl o ng a nce s t ry t oi tb y c ons t ruc t ing l a rge b a r rows i m i ta t ing t hose f r om t h e B ronze A ge , a nd b y d epos i t ing o ld o b je c t s i ng rave s . A tt h es ame t ime w ide g eog raph ica l c on tac t s b ecame mo re i mpo r tan t , a ss hown b y i mpor ted o b jec t s i ng rave s . Wha t w e s e e h e re i sp robab ly t wo s oc ia l i d ea s i nc onf l ic t : o ne b a sed o n k i nsh ip , a nd o ne b a sed o n l a rge g roup ings o r a w ide n e two rk o f g eog raph ica l c on tac t s . Man ipu la t ing

C e r ta in e l emen t s i nt h e b u r ia l c u s toms o fE a r ly I r on A ge c oa s ta l N orway h ave b een d i scu ssed i no rde r t ov i sua l ise p henomena u nde r s tood a sf em in ine . F o ri n s tance ,i ns ome d i s t r ic t s t h e re a r ea s soc ia t ions b e tween l o ng b a r rows w i th s o c a l led " housew ives" , i .e . af ema le l e ade r o f af a rm . T h i st o p ic w a sd ef ined a nd d i s cu s sed b yG r e te L i l lehamme r , w ho h a s s ugge s ted amode l f o r ac oa s t s e t t lemen t . I nt h e c oa s ta l s oc ie ty o fJ x ren ,L i l lehamme r a r gue s t h a tm en a nd women m igh t h ave t aken e qua l r e spons ib i l i t ies i n p roduc t ion , a nd t h a t w omen h ad a s t rong p o s i t ion w i th in p roduc t ion . One o f h e r c onc lus ion s w a s t h a t t h e re g ene ra l ly w a s ac l o se r r e la t ion b e tween p ub l ic a nd p r iva te i n ac oas ta l c ommun i ty . R ich ly f u rn ished b u r ia l s i n K va s she im a l so r a is ed t h eq ue s t ion o fw he the rw omen e ven c on t ro l led p roduc t ion . E ven t hough t h e e x te rna l b ur ia l c ons t ruc t ions i n S unnmo re a r e d i f fe ren t f r om t ho se i n Kva s she im , t h e re a r e s im i la r i t ie s i n s uch g ravegood s a s t e x t i le u t ens i ls , w h ich i nd ica te t h a t s ome c ommon i deo log ica l e lemen t s c oncern ing p roduc t ion a nd r e p roduct ion w e re s ha red b e tween t h e se a r eas . If ound i tw o r thwh i le , h oweve r , t om ake ag ende r c r i t ica l p rob lem o fs ome o ft h ep o in t s i nL i l lehamme r ' s d i scu s s ion

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T ove HJORUNGDAL g ende r i n m o r tua ry p ra c t ice s a ppea r s t o h ave b een a n i mpo r tan t e l emen t i nt h e a s se r t ion o f l o ca l t r ad i t ion . I t a ppea r s a s i fp eop le w e re a nx ious t o s how i n m a te r ia l t e rms t h a tt h ef e r t i l i ty c u l tw a so fg r ea te ra n t iqu i ty t h an t h e w a r r io ri d eo logy , i nt h a tf e r t i l i ty w a s h e r ea s soc ia ted w i th t h ed ead ,o f t en b u r ied i nl a rge b a r rows ,a nd e spe c ia l ly w i th w omen . I st h i sa na nce s t r e s sc u l t ? T he f a c tt h a tt h e r ew e re o n ly t wo l a rge b a r row s ,b o th w i th r i ch ly e qu ipped p r ima ry g rave s o f w omen , m ake s t h i s p henomenon a n e xc lu s ive o ne . T he c l ea r ly f em in ine a s so c ia t ion o fw ha t h a s b e en made v i s ib le o ft h et o ta lp roduc t ion i nE a r ly I r o n A ge S unnmo re a g ree si ng ene ra lw i th w ha tG re te L i l lehamme rf ound i nh e r i n ve s t iga t ion s o f t h e K va s she im c eme te ry a t J x ren i n S ou thwe s t N o rway . L i l lehamme r c onc luded i n h e r i n ve s t iga t ion t h a t t h e m an i fe s ta t ion o f f ema le s ymbo l s i n g raves e xp re ssed a l i f e -g iv ing a spec t w h ich c an b e a s soc ia ted w i th p roduc t ion a nd r e p roduc t ion . Iw ou ld a l so s ugge s tt h a tt h e se r e su l t sc an b e i n te rp r e ted i nt h e l i gh to f a r gumen t s t h a t t r a ce s o f m a t r ia rchy c an b e d e tec ted i n m ed ieva ll aw s . T h i sq ue s t ion t a ke so nn ew r e levance w hen w eb ea r i nm ind t h a t o cca s iona l E a r ly I r on A ge w omen 's g r ave si nS unnmO re a nd e l sewhe re i nw e s t e r nN o rway ,a r e o f ac ha ra c t e rt h a ts ugge s t st h a tt h e w omen b u r ied i nt h em m ay h ave h ad ap owe rf a rg r ea t e rt h an t h a te xe r c i sed b ya ny w omen f a rme r . Iw ou ld n o t make m y se l f as t ubbo rn a dvoca te o f m a t r ia rchy i n p reh i s to ry , b u t i ti s w o r th c ons ide r ing s u ch a c omp l ica ted a nd d e l ica te ma t te r i n c onne c t ion w i th s t ud ie s o fr e a l m a te r ia l c u l tu re , a nd n o t o n ly a s am e r e ly s p ecu la t ive a r gumen t .

3 . T he i d eo logy o f f ema le p owe r a ppea r s t o b e r e la ted t oc oncep t ion sa bou t ak in -ba sed s o c ie ty . I t w a s t h e u ppe r e che lon s o f s oc ie ty i n p a r t icu la r w h ich a s se r ted a n a nc ien ti d ea l o fk i nsh ip . I st h i s a n a t temp t t o l e g i t ima te a n i d ea l b a sed o n m o re w id e sp r ead a l ianc e s ? T h i s v i ew o f t h e R oman I r on A ge a nd M ig ra t ion P e r iod a l so s hed s l i gh t o n t h e P re -Roman I r on A ge , w h ich i s c ha ra c te r i sed b y f ew a nd c omp le te ly d i f f e ren t m ean s o f e xp re s s ion . T h i s c an b e i n te rp re ted a s s ugge st ing t h a t i n t h e v e ry E a r ly I r on A ge t h e re w a s n o q ue s t ion ing o ft h e p reva i l ing s oc ia l i d ea l . E xac t ly h ow t o c ha ra c t e r ize s o c ie ty , o rc ommun i t ie s ,d u r ing t h eP re R oman a sw e l l a s d u r ing t h e R oman a nd t h e M ig ra t ion p e r iod , i s , h oweve r , v e ry u n c lea r . O ne p rob lem , w h ich i s mo re c l ea rt om en ow t h an e a r l ie r i n my r e sea r ch , i st h e i deo log ica l p rob lem o f h ow t o i n te rp re te g ende r s ymbo l i sm i nt h e ma te r ia l c u l tu re . N o t l e a s t , t h is b e comes a n o ve rwhe lm ing d i ff icu l ty i n t h e g ende r ing o fb u r ia l s . F o r my o wn p a r t , Iw ou ld p u ti tt h i s w ay : Ii n c lud ed af em in i s tc r i t ique i n o my t h e s i s , ac r i t ique o f t h e p a t r ia r cha l b ipo la r w o r ld v i ew w h ich t r ad i t iona l ly c ha ra c te r i se s s c ience . I ns p i te o f t h i s , Iw a s s t i l l a b le t o u se g ende ra s ad ua l a na ly t ica l t o o l i nm yb u r ia l a na lys e s , i . e . t ou se ad ef in i t ion o fg ende ra st h et r ad i t iona l i s tm a le f ema le d i cho tomy i ng ende r ing b u r ia ls . T h i s i n s igh t h a s l e dm et oi n ve s t iga te t h ei s sue o fh ow b u r ia l sa r eg ende r ed i n a r chaeo logy f r om g ende r c r i t ica l a nd c r i t ica l h i s to r iog raph ic p e r spec t ive s( H jo rungda lF o r thcom ing ) .

Is t i l l t h ink t h a tw ed on o tk now t h a tm uch a bou t I r on A ge s oc ie t ie s i n We s te rn N o rway . H oweve r , S e rv ice ' s a nd O dne r 's mode l s o f I r on A ge c he if ta in s a r e n o t o n ly u nde rp inned b y a n a nd rocen t r ic i d eo logy , b u t a l so t oo s upe rf i c ia l ,a b s t ra c ta nd m e chan ica l . A nd o fc ou r se t h ey a r e m echan ica l ; t h ey m i r ro rt h e mode l s i nn a tu ra l s c ience , a nd a r e a s s uch b u i l t n e i the r o n i n te rp re ta t ion s o fp reh i s to r ic ma te r ia l c u l tu re n o r o n a ny o the r k i nd s o f h uman e xpe r ience . B e tween t h e se mode ls a nd L i l lehamme r 's s ke tch o f I r on A ge s oc ia l r e la t ion s , t h e re h ave b een n o s ugge s t ion s a bou t h ow s oc ie ty m igh t h ave l ooked i n We s te rn N o rway d u r ing t h ep e r iod i nq ue s t ion . T he re fo re , i ti si mpo r tan t t op o in t t ot h is s ub je c t , a nd t om ake i ta t o p i c o fr e s ea r ch . F o r f u tu re c on s ide ra t ion o fE a r ly I r on s o c ie ty Iw ou ld e mpha s is et h ei mpo r tance o fd i s cu s s ing t h e n a tu re o f s o c ie ty i nd i f f e ren t t e rms f r om t h o se e xp r e ssed t h rough f unc t iona l i s t mode ls . A s s u ch , n o t ions o f p roduc t ion h ave b een s ugge s ted t o b e ag ood p o in t o f d epa r tu re . A no the r Iw ou ld a l so s t r e s s i st h e s oc io log ica l c oncep to f' c ommun i ty ' i n s tead o f' s oc ie ty 'a s ap rom is ing b a se f o rd i f f e r en t ia t ing a nd mu l t if ac e t ted i n te rp re ta t ion s o f s o c ia lc ond i t ion si np r eh i s to ry .

Al a s t p o in t Iw ou ld l i ke t o make i st h e o ne t h a t i fi ti s p o ss ib le t od o n on -b ipo la r g ende r a na ly se s o f b u r ia l s , i t s hou ld a l so b ep o s s ib le t oc on s t ruc tn on -b ipo la r mode l s o f s oc ie t ie s . F unc t iona l is t mode ls , l i ke t h e mode l o f c h iefdoms , b e long t o a n i d eo logy w h ich d i cho tom i se s g ende ra sw e l la ss o c ie ty a nd c u l tu re . A s ac onsequence o f t h i s f a c t , w e s hou ld c on t inue t oq ue s t ion t h e u se o ft h e se mode ls w i th in a rchaeo logy . T he a pp l ica t ion o f f unc t iona l i s t mode l s i n a r chaeo logy , e ven i fs ome t ime s mod i f ied , h ave c on t inued , i n s p i te o f t h e f a c t t h a t n ew t h eo r ie s a nd n ew k now ledge o n p reh i s to ry h a s b e en p r odu c ed . T o s um u p , i nt h i s p ape r s ome o f t h e i s sue s r a i sed i na n e a r l ie rp ubl i shed t h e s i s a r e d i s cu s sed . Ih ave f o cu sed m y a t ten t ion o n s ome t op ics w h ich I t h ink w i l l r ema in i mpo r tan ta nd b e f u r the rd eve loped t h rough t h ed i scu s s ion o n m a te r ia l c u l tu re a nd g ende r , i . e . t h e many a spe c t s o f b u r ia lc u s tom sa nd b u r ia la na ly se s .

A cknow ledge men ts S eve ra l p e r sons h ave o f f e red u se fu l a nd s t imu la t ing c ommen t s o n my w o rk . P a r t icu la r ly Iw ish t o t h ank p ro f e s so r s Mä r ta S t römbe rg a nd L a r s L a r sson , L und ,J a n l N o rdb ladh , G o thenbu rg , a nd S t ig We l inde r , Upp sa la , a s w e l la st h eD r .E l isabe th I r eg ren a nd D r .K r i s t ina J ennbe r t , L und . L a s tb u t n o t l e a s t , Ia m g r a t efu l t oD r . JD H i l l f o r m any s ugge s t ions o nh ow t od eve lop i s sue sp u tf o rwa rd i n a ne a r l ie rd r a f to ft h i sp ap e r .

Id r ew t h ef o l low ing c onc lu s ion s o nce r n ing t h eE a r ly I r on A ge i n S unnmo re i n my t he s is f r om t he v e ry h e t e rogeneou sm a te r ia lc u l tu r e : 1 .S oc ie ty w a s c ha ra c te r i sed b y c on f l ic t b e tween t wo d i f f e r en ti d ea l s -a ni d ea lo fk i n sh ip a nd a ni d ea l b a sed o nb r oad g eog raph ica lc on ta c t so ra l iance s . 2 .G ende r ,r e la ted t of e r t i l i ty i n aw ide s e nse , w a s m an ipu la t ed t os t reng then t h e i d eo logy o f f am i ly t r ad i t ion s a nd as e n se o fb e long ing t ot h e l o ca l i ty . T he re w a s as t rugg le t om a in ta in t h e k i n sh ip i d ea l a nd ak i n -b a s ed s o c ie ty .

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T ove H IOR UNGDAL

B ib l iography A nd r& i , A . 1 993 . D oo r s t ot h e o the r w o r lds : S cand inav ian d ea th r i tua l s i nG o t land ic p e r spe c t ive s . J ou rna l o f E uropean A rchaeo logy Vo l . 1 ,1 993 S p r ing ARC . 1 988 . A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew f r om C ambr idge 7 / 1 ( ma in t h eme -Women & A rchaeo logy ) . A rno ld , B . 1 991 . T he d epo sed p r ince s s o fV ix : T he n e ed f o ra n e ngende r ed E u ropean P reh is to ry . I n Wa lde a nd Wi l low s ( ed s . )T he A rchaeo logy o fG ende r :P ro ceed ing so ft h e2 2nd C hacmoo lC on f e r ence .C a lga ry . B ende rJ o rgensen ,L . 1 986 .F o rh is to r i ske t e x t i le r iS kand inav ien . No rd i ske F o r t id sm inde r( Se r ie sB )9 . B enne t t , A . 1 987 . G raven : R e l ig iö so ch s oc ia l s ymbo l . S t r i ik twe r if o lkvand r ing . s t idens g r ay sk ick iMä la romräde t . T he se s a nd p ape r si n Nor th E u ropean A r chaeo logy 1 8 ,S to ckho lm . BMA . B e rgens Mu seums Ä rbok . H uman is t i sk R ekke . B rogge r , AW 1 910 : V e s tno r ske h u le fund f r ax ld re j e rna lde r . BMA . B e rgen s Museums Ä rbok 1 910 N o . 1 6 . B u r s t röm , M . 1 991 : A rkeo log isk s amhä l lsavg ränsn ing . E n s t ud ie a v v i k inga t ida s amhä l ls te rr i to r ie r iSmä lands i n land . S tockho lm S tud ie si nA rchaeo logy 9 .S tockho lm . C laa s sen , C . e d . 1 992 : E xp lor ing G ende r T h rough A rchaeo logy . S e lec ted P ape r s f r om t h e 1 991 B oone C onf e rence . Monog raph s i n Wo r ld A rchaeo logy 1 . C o l l ie r , J .F . &Y anag i sako , S . 1 989 : T heory i nA n th ropo logy s i nce f em in is t p rac t ice . C r i t ique o f A n th ropo logy v o l . 9 , No . 2 . C onkey , M . &S pec to r , J .1 984 . A rchaeo logy a nd t h e s t udy o fg ende r . I nM . S ch if f e r ( ed . ) A dvances i nA rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heo ry 7 . D amm , C . 1 991 . F rom b ur ia ls t og ende r r o le s : P rob lems a nd p o ten t ia l s i np os t -p roce ssua l a r chaeo logy . I n Wa lde a nd Wilow s( e d s . )T he A r chaeo logy o fG ende r : P roceed ing so ft h e2 2nd C hacmoo lC onf e rence . C a lga ry . D omma sne s ,L . H . 1 979 : E t tg ravma te r ia le f r a y ng re j e rna lde rb ruk t t i l ab e ly se k v inne r s s t i ll ing . V ik ing 4 2 . Domma sne s , L . H . 1 982 : L a te I r on A ge i n We s te rn Norway . F ema le R o le s a nd R ank s a s d educed f r om a n A na ly s i s o f B u r ia l C us toms . NAR . No rweg ian A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew V o l . 1 5 ,N o . 1 2 . D omma sne s ,L .H .1985 : A na lyse a v f a k to re r s om v i rke ri n np ä f a ge t si n nho ld . KAN ( Kv inne r iA rkeo log i iN o rge ) 1 . D omma snes , L . H . 1 987 : Ma le /Fema le R o le s a nd R ank s i nL a te I r on A ge N orway . I n : B e r te lsen e ta l . ( ed s ) : We re T hey A l l Men? A ne xam ina t ion o fs ex r o le si np reh is to r ic s oc ie ty . AmS V a r ia 1 . A rkeo log isk Museum iS tavange r . E nge l s tad , E . 1 991a . I mage s o fp owe r a nd c on t rad ic t ion : F em in is t t h eo ry a nd p o s tp roce s sua l a r chaeo logy . A n t iqu i ty 6 5 ( No . 2 48 ) . E nge l s tad , E . 1 991b : T he s ymbo l ism o f e veryday l i f e i np reh is to ry . N o rd ic TAG . R epo r t f r om t h e 2 nd Nord ic TAG c onfe rence . Umeä 1 987 . A rchaeo logy a nd E nv ironmen t 1 . Umeä . F a rb regd , 0 . 1 988 : Kv inne l iv iv ik ing t id : k ven v a r k v innene s om l i gg il a nghauga r? KAN . ( Kv inne r iA rkeo log i i No rge ) .7 G e ro ,J .& C onkey ,M . ( e d s ) 1 991 : E ngender ing A r chaeo logy . Women a nd P r eh i s to ry . B a s i l B lackwe l lL td . H a s t rup ,K . &O ve sen ,J .1 980 .E tnog ra f isk G r undbog . Me tode r ,t e or ie r ,r e su l ta te r . G y ldenda l , K obenhavn . H auken ,A . D . 1 984 . V e s t land sk i t t la r . E n s t ud ie a ve n p rov in s ia l rome r sk i mpo r tg rupp iN o rge . Mag i s te rt h e s i s . B e rgen . H auken , A . D . 1 991 . G if t -exchange i ne a r ly I r on A ge N o r se s oc ie ty . I n . R . S amson ( e d . ) S oc ia l A pp roache s t o V ik ing S tud ie s . G la sgow , T he C ru i thne P re s s , p p 1 05 -112 . H ine s , J .1 984 . T he S cand inav ian c ha rac t e ro fA ng l ian E ng land i nt h e P re -V ik ing p er iod . B r i t ish A r chaeo log ica l R epor t s . Ox fo rd . H oge s t0 1 , M . 1 986 .E nd r inge r is o s ia l p o s i s jon h o sj e rna lde ren s k v inne r . KAN . ( Kv inne r iA rkeo log i iNo rge ) . 3 . H o igaa rd Ho f se th ,E . 1 990 : K v inneg rave rf r av ik ing t ida iS o r -Gudb rand sda l . K .A .N . ( Kv inne r iA rkeo log i iN o rge ) . 9 10 H vo s lef K rüge r , S .1 977 .U nde r sOke l se a ve tg rav f e l tp äL ongva iH a ram A rkeo .B e rgen . H jorungda l ,T . ( f o r thcom ing ) : P o le sA pa r t . H ave t h e re b een a ny Ma le a nd F ema le B u r ia l s? C u r ren tS wed i sh A rchaeo logy , No . 2 , 1 994 . H jorungda l , T . 1 991 . D e t s k ju l te k jonn . P a t r ia rka l t r ad is jon o _ g f em in is t isk v i s jon ia rkeo log ien b e lys t m ed f okus p a e n j e rna lde rkon tek s t .A c ta A r chaeo log ica L unden s ia .N o .19 . H vo s le fK rüge r , S .1 988 : B j enek lo r iv e s t land ske g rave r . A rkeo log iske S k r if te rN r . 4f r aH is tor i sk Museum , U n ive r s i te te t iB e rgen .F es t sk r if tt i lA nde r sH agen . H äkans son , I .1 985 . S käne s g ravfynd f r än ä l d re b ron sä lde r s om k ä l la t i l l s t ud ie t a v s oc ia l s t ruk tu r . A c ta A rchaeo log ia L undens ia . No .14 . J ennbe r t , K . 1 988 . G ray sede ro ch k u l tur forme r . Ia rkeo log in s g rän s land . I nI r egen e ta l( ed s . ) G raysk ick o ch G ravda ta Un ive r s i ty o fL und , I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy R epor tS e r ie s 3 2 . J ennbe r t , K . 1 992 . C hang ing c u s toms . R ef lec t ion s o n g r ave g i f t s , b u r ia l p r ac t ice s a nd b u r ia l r i tua l s d u r ing p e r iod I I o f t he B ronze A ge i nS ou thea s tS can ia . P ap e r so ft h e A rchaeo log ica l I n s t i tu t e ,U n ive r s i ty o fL und 1 991-1992 ( New S er ie s )9 . K a l if f , A . 1 992 . B randg raysk ick o ch f ö re s tä l ln ingsvä r ld . E n r e l ig ion sa rkeo log isk d i sku ss ion . O ccas iona l P ape r s i n A rchaeo logy 4 ,U pp sa la . KAN . K v inne r iA rkeo log i iN o rge . K r is tof f e rsen ,K . 1 992 . Doden -e n d e l a vl i ve t .G rav r i tua le r ir omer t id o g f o lkevand r ing s t id . A rkeo 2 ,1 992 . B e rgen . L i l lehamme r , G . 1 985 . F o rh i s tor iens k v inne r f r am f r as k ju le s tede t . Ny t to m K v inne fo r skn ing 2 . L i l lehamme r ,G . 1 987 .L ook ing f o ri n d iv idua ls i na r chaeo log ica lb u r ia l d a ta . I nB e r te lsen e ta l( e d s . ) We re T hey A l l Men? A n e xam ina t ion o fs ex r o le si nP reh is to r ic s o c ie ty . Ams V a r ia 1 7 ,A rkeo log isk Museum iS tavange r . L i l lehamme r ,G . 1 988 . Kv innebonde r iNo rdens f o rh is to r ie . KAN . (Kv inne r i A rkeo log i iN o rge ) . 7 .

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T ove HJORUNGDAL L o range , A . 1 879 . I ndbe re tn ing om A rkao log i ske Unde r soge lse r i1 878 . H e l le rne p aa S jong , R ons tad o g Havnsund . F o r en ingen t i l No r ske F o r t id sm inde r sme rke r sB eva r ing A a r sbe re tn ing f o r 1 878 . L und H ansen ,U . 1 987 . R öm i sche rI mpo r ti m No rden . Wa renaus tausch z w ischen d em R öm i schen R e ich u nd d em F re ien G e rman ien w äh rend d e rK a i se rze i tu n te rb e sonde r e rB e rück s ich t igung No rdeu ropa s . No rd i ske F o r t id sm inde r( Se r ie s B ) 1 0 . L oken ,T . 1 987 . T he c o r re la t ion b e tween t h e s hape o fg rave monumen t s a nd s ex i nt he I r on A ge ,b a sed o n ma te r ia l f r om O s tfo ld a nd V e s t fo ld . I nB e r te l sen e ta l( ed s . ) We re T hey A l l Men? A n e xam ina t ion o fs ex r o le s i nP reh is to r ic s oc ie ty . Am s V a r ia 1 7 ,S tavange r . Magnu s ,B . 1 984 .T he i n te r lac e mo t i fo nt h eb ucke t -shaped p o t te ry o ft he M ig ra t ion p e r iod .F e s t sk r if tt i lT ho r le if S k ew° ld p ä7 0 -ä r sdagen .U n ive r s i te te t sO ld saksam l ing s Sh i f te r . Ny R ekke 5 ,O s lo . Mand t , G . 1 983 : T rad i t ion a nd d i f fus ion i n We s t No rweg ian r ock a r t . M je l tehaugen r ev is i ted . NAR , No rweg ian A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew V o l . 1 6 . No . 11 983 Mand t , G . & Na s s , J . 1 986 . H vem s kap te o g g j enskape r v ä r f j e rne f o r t id? S t ruk tu r o g i nnho ld in o r sk a rkeo log i i p e r spek t ive t : H vo rm annl ig e rv i tenskapen . KAN 3 . Moo re ,H . 1 988 : F em in ism a nd A n th ropo logy . P o l i ty P re s s . C ambr idge Myh re , B . 1 978 . A g ra r ian d eve lopmen t , s e t t lemen t h i s to ry a nd s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion i nS ou th - We s te rn N orway i nt h e l i on A ge . I nK r i s t iansen & P a ludan Müle r( e d s . )N ew D i rec t ions i nS cand inav ian A rchaeo logy . KObenhavn . Myh re , B . 1 985 . K u l tu r land s l cap o g s o s ia l o rgan i sa s jon . I nJ ankay s ( ed . ) P ro jek te t B ebygge lse o ch Ma r I canvändn in2 V ä st sve r ige 2 500 -500 f ö re n u t id . GOTARC ( Se r ie s C ) , A rkeo log iska Sh if te r 1 ,A rkeo log i ska I ns t i tu t ionen G ö tebo rg . NAR . N o rweg ian A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew . V o l . 2 5 N o .1 , 1 992 Na ss , J . 1 991 . Om ma ske r ing a v mak t o g u k jen te ( ? ) k u l turba r ie re r in o rd isk a rkeo log i . I n L a r sson & R ybe rg ( e d . ) A rkeo log iO ch Mak t . U n ive r s i ty o fL und ,I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy .R epor tS e r ie s4 0 . Odne r ,K . 1 973 .O konom i ske S t ruk tu re rp aV e s t lande t ie i che j er na lde r . S tens i l , H i s to r i sk Museum B e rgen ,B e rgen . O lsen ,M . &S he te l ig ,H . 1 909 .E n i nd sk r if tm ed a ld re r une rf r aF lok sand , No rdho rd land . B e rgens Museum s Ä rbok 1 909 , 6 -7 ,B e rgen . P e te r sen , T . 1 905 . N og le b eme rkn inge r om d e s aaka ld te " He l l ige Hv ide S tene" . D e t Konge l ige No r ske V idenskabe r s S e lskap . Sh if te r8 ,T rondh jem . Pa re , B . 1 984 . A rkeo log i ska u nde r sökn inga r p ä L ovö . D e l 4 . B ebygge lsea rkeo log isk a na lys . S tud ie s i n No r the rn A rchaeo logy 1 0 , S to ckho lm . Pa re ,B . 1 993 . Ma le a nd f ema le f i nd sa nd s ymbo l si nG e rman ic I r on Age g rave s . C u r ren t Swed ish A rchaeo logy 1 . R e ichs te in , J . 1 975 . D ie K reuzfö rm ige F ibe l . Z u r C hrono log ie d e r s pä ten r öm ischen Ka ise rze i t u nd d e r V ö lke rwande rung sze i ti nS kand inav ien ,a u fd em K on t inen tu nd i nE ng land .O f f aB üche r .B and 3 4 .N eumüns t e r . S ch jod t ,J .P . 1 989 : D en k ompa ra t ive r e l ig ionsh i s to r ie s mu l ighede r s om h ja lped isc ip l in f o ra rkao log ien . I n : L a r sson & Wy szom i r s l ca ( ed s ) 1 989 : A rkeo log i o ch R e l ig ion . U n ive r s i ty o fL und . I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy . R epo r t S e r ie s No . 3 4 . S e rv ice ,E . 1 971 . P r im i t ive S oc ia l O rgan i sa t ion . A n e vo lu t iona ry p e r spec t ive .R andom House ,N ew Yo rk ( 2nd E d i t ion ) . S he te l ig ,H 1 902 : D a te r ing a fe th u le fund f r aS ondmo r . B e rgens Museums Ä rbok 1 902 ,No . 7 . S he te l ig ,H 1 912 : V e s t land ske g r ave rf r aj e rna lde ren . B e rgen s Museums S l c r if te r ,N yR ek l ce B dI , No . 1 . v an d e rS leen ,W . 1 967 . AH andbook o nB ead s .L iege . S o lbe rg ,B . 1 984 . S e t t lemen ta nd e xp lo i ta t ion o fn a tu ra lr e sou rce s i n Nor the rn S unnmO re AD200 -1050 . I nK r is t iansen , K . ( e d ) : S e t t lemen ta nd E conomy i nL a te rS cand inav ian P reh is to ry . BAR . I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s2 11 .O xfo rd S ta l sbe rg ,A . 1 987a : T he i mp l ica t ions o ft h e w omen ' sf i nd s f o r t h e u nde r s tand ing o ft h e a c t iv i t ies o ft h e S cand inav ians i n R u s 'd u r ing t h eV ik ing A ge . KAN . K v inne r iA rkeo log i iNo rge . 5 . S ta l sbe rg , A . 1 987b : T he I n te rp re ta t ion o f Women ' sO b je c t s o f S cand inav ian o r ig in f r om t h e V ik ing P e r iod f ound i n R uss ia . I n : B e r te l sen e ta l . ( e d s ) 1 987 : We re T hey A l l Men? A n e xam ina t ion o f s ex r o le s i np r eh i s to r ic s oc ie ty . AmS V a r ia 1 7 . A rkeo log isk Museum iS t avange r . S ta l sbe rg , A . 1 991 : T rade swomen d u r ing t h e V ik ing A ge . No rd ic TAG . R epo r t f r om t he 2 nd No rd ic TAG c onfe rence . Umeä 1 987 .A rchaeo logy a nd E nv i ronmen t 1 . Umeä . S te in s land ,G . 1 986 .G ian t sa sr e c ip ien t so fc u l ti nt h e V ik ing I r on Age . I nS te ins land ( ed . ) Wo rd sa nd Ob jec t s .T owa rd sa d i a logue b e tween a r chaeo logv a nd h i s to ry o fr e l ig ion . T he Norweg ian U n ive r s i ty P re s s . S te ins land , G & V og t , K . 1 981 . A uk inn e r tu U o l se o k v pp vm t ek inn . E n r e l ig ionsh is to r isk a na lyse a v Vo l sa t ä t t r i F la tey ja rbok . A rk iv f ö r No rd isk F i lo log i 9 6 ,L und . S tou t , A . 1 986 : T he F ine rH and led V e s se l so f We s te rn N o rway ' sE a r ly I r on Age . A rkeo log iske Sh if te rn r . 3f r aH is to r i sk Museum iB e rgen . S tr aume ,E . 1 961 :N o rdf jo rd ie ic h ej er na lde r . UBÄ . U n ive r s i te te t iB e rgen Ä rbok , 1 96 1 N r .4 . S O rensen , M . 1 991 . T he c on s t ruc t ion o fg ende r t h rough a ppea rance . I n Wa lde a nd Wi l low s ( ed s . ) T he A r chaeo logy o f G ende r .P ro ceed ing so ft h e2 2nd C ha cmoo lC on f e rence . C a lga ry . S o rensen ,M . 1 992 .G ende rA r chaeo logy a nd S cand inav ian B ronze Age s t ud ie s .N .A .R . No rweg ian A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew 2 5 / 1 , 1 992 . Wa lde , D . & Wilow s , N .D . ( e ds ) 1 991 : T he A rchaeo logy o fG ende r . P roceed ing s o f t he 2 2nd C hacmoo l C onf e rence . C a lga ry . Ägo tne s , A . 1 986 . No rdves tno r sk a sb es tke ram ikk . K a r fo rm , g od ss t ruk tu r , u tb rede lse o g d a te r ing . A rkeo log iske Sh if te r N r .3 f r aH i s to r isk Mu seum ,B e rgen . Ä go t nes ,A . 1 989 : A sbe s tke ram ikk o gs unnmo r ske k ys tbop la s se rf r ab ron sea lde ren . A rkeo 1 ,1 989 . B e rgen .

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F ig . 1 C oun ty o fS unnmo re , We s t e rn N o rway . D is t r ibu t iona l m ap s how ing E a r ly I r on A ge c on tex t s .F rom H jorungda l 1 991 F ig . 5 . Map d r awn b yC h r i s t ina B o r s tam ,U n ive r s i ty o fL und .

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F ig . 2E qu ipmen to ft h e f ema le b u r ia l f r om V e ibe rg i nN o rdda l , S unnmo re . F rom R e ichs te in 1 975 T a f e l 1 .

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F ig . 3 E qu ipmen to f ar i ch ly f u rn ished f ema le b u r ia l i nV in je i nS to rda l , S unnmo re . F rom S he te l ig 1 912 F ig . 7 1 -8 1 .

F ig .4A n e xamp le o f as o -ca l led " s ac red w h i te s t one " . H je lme se ti nH e re , S unnmo r e . F rom O ld t iden IF ig . 4 .

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F ig . 5 T oo ls f r om c ave s e t t lemen t si nS unnmo re : A r rowhead s a nd as poon i r om t h e S k jong c ave i nV a lde roy ( f rom B rOgge r 1 910 ) . Ac omb f r om t h eR ons tad c ave i nL ep soy ( f rom S hc ie l ig 1 902 F ig . 1 ) .

3 6

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Wa s t here E ver a R oman Conques t? E l izabe th H am i l ton D epa r tm en to fA n th ropo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fP ennsy lvan ia , P h i lade lph ia , PA 1 9104 , USA .

Abs trac t T h is p ape r e xam ines t h e i n f luence o ft h e t e x tua l r e co rd i nt h e i n te rp re ta t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l e v idence , b y s u rvey ing t h e ma ter ia l e v idence f o r t h e R oman C onque s t i n s even s i tes i n t he a rea a round T r ier a nd L uxembou rg ( G .D . ) . T he r e su l t s a r e a mb iguous a tb e s t , s ugges t ing t h a t t h e l ong -s tand ing a t temp t t ou se a r chaeo logy t op rov ide an a r ra t ive a ccoun to ft h ep r eh i s to r ic p a s ti sl a rg ley f r u i t le s s .

I n troduc t ion :

A rchaeo logy a nd H is tory

T he t ime i sp a s tw hen i tw a s a s sumed t h a tt h ep r ima ry t a sk o fa r chaeo logy w a s t oi lu s t ra te t h e w r i t t en t e x t s . T he re i s ag ood r ea son f o r t h is ; n o t o n ly h a s mo s t o f t h e h uman c a ree rt a ken p l ace i n as t a te o fi l i te ra cy ,b u te ven w hen t h e t e x t s h ave s u rv ived , t h e f i t b e twe en t h e w r i t ten e v idence a nd t he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i so f ten r ema rkab ly p oo r . E f fo r t s t o f i nd a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r h i s to r ica l ly k nown e ven t s g oe s o n , o f c ou r se ; ab oa t f ound i nt h e S ea o f Ga l i lee i sb i l led a s ' t he J e su s b oa t ' ( Brode r 1 986 ) ; t h e h un t c on t inues f o r t h e s i te o f t h e T eu tobe rg F o res t ma ssac re , w he re t h eR oman e mpe ro rV a ru s 's l e g ion s w e re s l augh te red b y t h e G e rman s i n A .D . 9( Do rnbe rg 1 992 ) , a nd s o o n . T he s ucce s s r a te i sn o th i gh . When i tc ome st o s pec if ic e ven t s , s uch a sm a ssac re s i nt h eT eu tobe rg F o re s t , L ie f E r icks son 's v i s i t s t o V in land , o r t h e e x is tence o r n onex is tence o f K ing A r thu r , mo s t a r chaeo log is t s a r e i nd if f e ren t t ot h e d i sc repancy ; t h ey s h rug t h e i r s hou lde r s a nd s ay t h a tt h ey d on ' td ea l w i th t h e i nd iv idua l . B u tw hen i tc omes t o ma jo re ven t s ,e ven t s t h a th ave c hanged -o ra r e a s sumed t oh ave c hanged -t h e w o r ld v i ew o fm i l l ions o f p eop le , t h eb l and i n scru tab i l i ty o ft h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd b ecomes f a r mo r ed i s tu rb ing .

t h a tG au l b ecame a n i n teg ra lp a r to ft h eR oman Emp i re f o r c en tu r ie s a f te r t h a t , w e k now t h a t mo s t o ra l l o ft h eC e l t ic l a nguage s f a i led i nG au l a nd w e r ee ven tua l ly r ep laced b ya f o rm o f L a t in . We k now a l l t h i s b ecause w e h ave t he w r i t ten r e co rd s . B u t w ha t d o w e k now f r om a r chaeo logy? I t 's d i ff icu l t t o s ay ,b ecau se e ve ry s he rd r e cove r ed ,e ve ry b ody u nea r thed ,i s i n te rp re ted i nt h e l i gh t o fc en tu r ie s o f s cho la r sh ip d e r ived f r om s t udy o ft h e w r i t ten r e co rd s . T he g lo ry o fE u ropean a r chaeo logy , t h e e x t rao rd ina ry l e ng th a nd r i chness o f i t s e xp lo ra t ion o f t h e E uropean p a s t , i sa l so i t s c u r se , s i nce t h es hee r ma s so ff a c t sa nd e xp lana t ion sc an b e ad eaden ing h and o nn ew i n te rp re ta t ions o fo ld d a ta .

I n r eac t ion , many , i f n o t mos t , a r chaeo log is t s h ave p roc la imed t h eo ve r r id ing i mpo r tance o ft h eo n ly f a c to r so f s oc ie ty t ha t t h ey f e l t t h ey c ou ld g e t ag ood h and le o n : e conomy a nd s ubs is tence . Unfo r tuna te ly , r epo r t s a nd b ooks w r i t ten w i th t h i s c onv ic t ion t e nd t ob e s t up ify ing ly d u l l . T hey a r et h e k i nd o fb ook w eb uy o u to fc ons c ience , a nd n eve r o pen a ga in . O u r r e luc tance t op er use e nd le ss d i squ i s i t ions o n s ea sona l c hange s i ns he l lf i sh u se d oe s n o t r e f lec t , It h ink ,i n telec tua ll a z ine s sb u tr a the r ad eep ly h e ld i fl a rge ly u na cknow ledged c onv ic t ion a mong mo s tp eop le , i n c lud ing a r chaeo log i s t s , t h a t t h e ' e p iphenomena o f t h e e conomy ' r e l ig ion , i d eo logy , a r t , s o c ia l s t ruc tu re -a r e f a r mo re i n te res t ing t h an h ow p eop le g e tt h e i rf ood . B u ts i nce t h e a r chaeo log ica l r eco rd i s o f ten c ha ry o f r evea l ing p rec ise ly t h o se d e ta i l s t h a tw ew ou ld f i nd mo s ti n te re s t ing , w e c l ing t h e mo re t i gh t ly t ow ha t w r i t ten r e co rd s m igh t e x i s t , r eco rd s w h ich ,b y t h e i rb i a s t ot h ei n d iv idua l a nd t h e i d eo log ica l , r e vea l , w e s e c re t ly f e e l , s o much mo re t h an a s c r e -en fu lo fs he rd sw ou ld . I n n o a rea h a s a r chaeo logy b e en mo re s ubo rd ina te t ot h e w r i t ten r e co rd t h an i nt h es t udy o ft h eR oman Emp i re . T he e mpha s is i s u nde r s tandab le ; t h e t e x t s w e re r e la t ive ly c op ious , i n fo rma t ive , a nd a va i lab le f o r c en tu r ie s b efo re a nyone t hough to fg rubb ing i nt h e e a r th f o ra r t i f ac t s . We k now t ha tJ u l ius C aesa ri n vaded G au li n5 8B .C . , w ek now

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T he p a s t a nd p re sen t o r thodoxy i s , o f c ou r se , t h a t Ga l l ic c on ta c t s w i th t h eR oman R epub l ic a nd Emp i re , e nfo r ced o r o the rw i se , e xp la in n ea r ly a l l o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l ly a nd e t hnog raph ica l ly v i s ib le e ven t s i nG au l f r om 2 00 B .C . t o A .D . 4 00 : t h e s p read o ft he f a s t w hee l , t h e a ppea rance o f o pp ida , t he p u ta t ive r i se o ft h e s t a te i nc en t ra l F rance , t h e s p read o fR oman g ood s , g od s , a nd i ndu s t r ial iza t ion . I nt h e p a s t , t h e i nf luence o fR ome w a s a t t r ibu ted t ot h e P owe r o f C iv i l iza t ion ; n owadays , i t a ppea rs i n t he more i n te l lec tua l ly i n te re s t ing f o rm o f' c o re -pe r iphery r e la t ions ' ( Ha se lg rove 1 987 ) . E ven mo re i n te re s t ing , t hough , i st h e a ppea rance o f a t temp t s t o r ea s se ss t h e o r thodox v iew ; B in t l if f 's s ugge s t ions t ha t p o l i t ica l a nd s oc ia l c hange s i n p re -Roman G au lw e re d ue t oi n te rna la nd i nd igenou s s oc ia l f o rce s a nd n o t t ot h e s t rugg le f o rR oman l u xu r ie s ( 1984 ) , a nd , mo re n o tab ly , p ape r s b y R eece ( 1990 ) a nd o the r s , t o t h ee f f ec tt h a ta r chaeo log ica l ly v i s ib le p roce sse si n We s te rn E u rope a re d ue t ol ong term p roce s se s o f' h omogen iza t ion ' t h a tm ay h ave v ery l i t t le t od o w i th R oman iza t ion p er s e . T he c onque s t o f Wes te rn E u rope b y t h e R oman Emp i re w a s , w e f e e l , s uch ac a tac lysm ic e ven ti nE u ropean h i s to ry t h a t i ti sd i ff icu l t t ob e l ieve t h a t t h e a r chaeo log ica l r eco rd w ou ldn ' t s h r iek i ta t u s . T o R ome , w e owe s o much : l a nguages , l e arn ing , l aw , g overnmen t . B u t i ti sb y n o m ean s c l ea r t h a t t h e t r ansm is s ion o f t h e se t h ing s w a s d ue t ot h e w eapons o f t h e R oman Emp i re , a nd e ven l e s s c l ea r t h a t t h is f undamen ta l c hange i nw o r ld v i ew , i fi td id o ccu r d u r ing t h e p e r iod o fR oman d om ina t ion , c an b e s e en i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . Iwou ld s ubm i t t h a t , i nf a c t , w e d o n o t k now w ha t t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd wou ld s ay , b ecau se i th a sn eve rb een e xam ined w i thou tt h es pec tac le s Iw on ' t s ay b l inde r s -o ft he w r i t ten r e co rd . T o t h is e nd , I w ou ld l i ke t o p ropose a G edanken Exper imen t , a n

E l i zab e th HAM ILTON i n t e l le c tua l e xe r c i se : w ha t wou ld t h e a r chaeo logy o fo ne p a r t icu la r a r ea o fG au l , s ay , n o r th -ea s t B e lg ic G au l , t h e h ome g round o ft h e t r ibe o ft h e T reve r i , a r ound T r ie ra nd A r lon , f r om 2 00 B .C . t o A .D . 2 00 , l ook l i ke i fw e h ad a b so lu t e ly n o w r i t ten i n fo rma t ion t o i lum ina te i t ? I fi t w e re at r u ly ' p r eh i s to r ic 's i tua t ion? Wha tw ou ld w ed e te c t a bou t e ven t s t h en , u s ing i n terp re ta t ions c ommon i n p reh i s to r ic a r chaeo logy ? C ou ld w e d e tec t t h e s i gn s o fa n i n va s ion a ta l l ?

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BC -AD

T he b a s ic q ue s t ion a sked h e r ei s :w ha tw ou ld y ou s e ei nt h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd o ft h i sa r ea f o rt h i sp e r iod i fy ou w e re r e ga rd ing i ta s' p reh i s to r ic '? I st h e re a ny e v iden ce f o r ac onque s tt h a tw ou ld p a s sm u s t e r w i th ap r eh is to r ian? Whe re d o t h e s i gn i f ican t d i scon t inu i t ie s , i ft h e re a r e a ny , o c cu r ? T o a n swe rt h e se q ue s t ion s w e s ha l l l o ok a te v idence f r om n o r th -ea s tB e lg ic G au l , s pe c i f ica l ly a r ea a r ound T r ie ra nd A r lon , ( c .200 B .C . t o A .D . 2 00 ) . Af u l l a nswe r t o t h i s q ue s t ion w ou ld i n vo lve ac omp i la t ion o f ah und red y ea r so f f i nd s a nd e xcava t ions i nt h i s h eav i ly r e se a r ched a r ea ( s ee H ase lg rove 1 987 , 1 990 ; R he in ische s L ande smu seum 1 984a&b ; W igh tman 1 971 , 1 985 f o r s umma r ie s o f t h e a r chaeo logy a nd h i s to ry o ft h i sr e g ion ) . We w i l ld ea l h e re o n ly w i th t h r ee n o tab le s i te s t h a t h ave h ad e x ten s ive a nd r e cen t e xcava t ion , a nd as c a t te r o fo t he r s i te s c u l led f r om r e cen ti s sue so ft h eT r ie re rZ e i t schr if t . T he t h re e s i t e sa r e t h e T i te lbe rg a nd t h e a s so c ia ted g r ave s i te o fG oeb l ingen No spe l t , t h e c i ty o fT r ie r , a nd t h e c eme t e ry o f Wede ra th B e lg in ium .

A rchaeo logy a nd I nvas ions I nva s ion a sa ne xp lana t ion o ft h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd h a s b een i nb ad r e pu te f o r3 0 y ea r s ; i t s r epu ta t ion i sn ea r ly a s b ad a s t h a t o f m ig ra t ion a nd d i f f us ion . O f c ou r se , b o th i nvas ion a nd m ig ra t ion w e re g ross ly o ve rused a s e xp lana t ion s f o r c hange , b u t r eac t ion s c an g o t o o f a r . Mo s t s o c ia l a nd e conom ic c hange s a r e d ue , Is u spe c t , t o l o ca l f o r ce s , b u tt h e b r ief e s tp e ru sa l o f ab ook o f h i s to ry s hows t h a t b o th i n va s ion s a nd m ig ra t ion s a r e e ndem ic i n h i s to ry , a nd m u s t b e t a ken a ccoun t o f b y a r chaeo log i s t s . E u ropean h i s to ry , c e r ta in ly , i ss t udded w i th e xamp le s o f m ig ra t ion s a nd i nva s ions - C e l t s , G e rmans , H uns , V ik ings , Mongo l s , F rench , E ng l i sh , a nd a l l t h e o the r w ou ld -be m ake r so fe mp i re . T he a r chaeo log ica ld i sda in f o r m ig ra t ion a sa ne xp lana t ion i sb eg inn ing t oa ba te , w i th t h e p ub l ica t ions o f R ouse ( 1986 ) , A n thony ( 1990 ) a nd K r i s t ian sen ( 1989 ) . T hese a u tho r s h ave a t temp ted t o f o rmu la te t h ep a t t e rn sa nd c onsequence so fm ig ra t ion i nt h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . H oweve r , n o a t t emp ta sy e t h a s b een made t od ea l i na ny c omp rehen s ive s e nse w i th t h e a r chaeo log ica l c o r re la t e s o f i n va s ion a nd c onque s t . T he re m ay b e an umbe ro fr e a son s f o r t h i s . O ne i s t h e a fo remen t ioned u npopu la r i ty o f i n va s ion a s a n e xp lana to ry mechan i sm , af e e l ing t h a t h a s g one b eyond d ue c au t ion i n to i n to le rance . T he S econd m ay b e t h e d i ff icu l ty o fd ef in ing t h e t e rm ' i nva s ion ' . I nva s ion c an c e r ta in ly b e c omb ined w i th m ig ra t ion , a s i n t h e E u ropean c o lon iza t ion o ft h e Ame r ica s ,y e t' i nva s ion 'n eed n o t i mp ly a ny l a rge p opu la t ion movemen t . I ndeed , mo s t o f t h e mo re n o tab le c onque s t s i n h i s to ry , s uch a s t h e Mo s lem i n va s ion o fN o r th A f r ica ,t h eT u rk i sh c onque s to f A s ia M ino r -a nd t h eR oman c onque s to fG au la nd B r i ta in a c tua l ly i nvo lved r e la t ive ly f ew s o ld ie r s /wa r r io r s . A n i n va s ion i n vo lve s p o l i t ica l a nd m i l i ta ry d om ina t ion o f a s ub je c tp eop le i n aw ay t h a t ' m ig ra t ion ' d oe s n o t , y e t t h e a r chaeo log ica l c o r re la te s o fa n i nva s ion /m ig ra t ion s hou ld b ev e ry d i f f e r en tf r om t h o se o f ap u re ly m i l i ta ry c onque s t . T he T h i rd r e a son m ay b e a mo re g ene ra l r e luc tance t o f o rmu la te ' u n ifo rm i ta r ian ' mode ls i n c on t ras t t o p a r t icu la r i s t ic , ' p o s t -p roce ssuar e xp lana t ions ( An thony 1 992 :174 ) . T h i sr e luc tance i su nfo r tuna te ; t h er e je c t ion o f t h e p r inc ip le t h a t h uman s oc ie t ies h ave s im i la r a nd s omewha t u nde r s tandab le p a t ter n s o f b ehav iou r d e l ive r s o ne ,u l t ima te ly ,i n to a r chaeo log ica l n i h i l i sm . T h i ss ho r tp ape rm ake sn o p re tense a tf o rm ing amode l o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l c on sequence s o f m i l i ta ry i n va s ion s , a s A n thony d id f o rm ig ra t ion s , t hough Ib e l ieve t h a ti ts hou ld b e d one . B u t g i ven t h e r i chne s s o f t h e p re -Roman a nd R oman p e r iod r e co rd i nG au la nd B r i ta in ,a ny a r chaeo log i s t l o ok ing t o f o rmu la te s uch a mode l s hou ld s t a r t t h e re , e spe c ia l ly s i nce t h i sa r ea o f f e r s t h eb enef i to fb e ing a b le t o c ompa re o ne ' s f i nd ings a ga in s t t h e e qua l ly r i ch t e x tua l r e co rd . T h i sp ap e rs imp ly p o se sq ue s t ions a nd o f f e r s af ew t e n ta t ive a n swe r s .

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T he T i te lberg T he T i te lbe rg w a s t h e l a rge s t o pp idum i nt h e t e r r i to ry o f t h e T reve r i . L oca ted o n ab l u f f o ve r look ing t h e R ive r C h ie r s , t h e s t il su rv iv ing e a r then w a l l se nc lo se a na r ea o f 4 3 h a . Af ew a r t i f a c t sd a t ing f r om L a te H a l l s ta t ta nd E a r ly L a nne t imes h ave b een f ound o u t s ide s t ra t ig raph ic c on tex t , b u t t h e m a jo r o ccupa t ion o f t h e s i te a ppea r s t o b eg in i nt h e S econd C en tu ry B .C . Ma s s ive f o r t if i ca t ion w a l l s a r ound t h e p l a teau w e re e r e c ted ; t h e f i r s t t h ree b u i ld ing s t age s o f t h e r ampa r t a r e u nda t ed , b u t t h ey a l l a ppea rt oh ave b e en d e s t royed b yf i re . T he f ou r th r ampa r t , d a ted t ot h e f i r s t h a lf o f t h e l a s t C en tu ry B .C . , c o l lap sed t h rough wood r o t , a nd t h e l a s t r ampa r t , b u i l t a r ound t h e m idd le o f t h e s ame c en tu ry , h a s n o c au s e o f d e s t ruc t ion i d en t if ied (Me tz le r 1 986 ) . O ccupa t ion o f t h e T i t e lbe rg c on t inued f r om a t l e a s t t h e S e cond C en tu ry B .C . t o r ough ly A .D . 4 00 . T hough R ow le t ta nd T homa s ( Thoma s e j .1 976 ; R ow le t t e ta l . 1 982 ) e xcava t ed am in t / sm i thy s t ruc tu re t h a t w a s r epea ted ly r e bu i l tf r om c a . 1 00 B .C . t o c a . A .D . 7 0 , t h e h e igh t o ft h e p rospe r i ty o ft h e T i te lbe rg s e t t lemen ta ppea r st oh ave b e en t h eS e cond h a l fo ft h eF i r s t C en tury B .C . Mo s t o f t h e F i r s t C en tu ry o ccupa t ion h a s b een d i s tu rbed b y l a te r b u i ld ing , b u t e nough r ema in s t o s how t h a t i tw a s d en se , a nd l a te r c on s t r uc t ion s e em s t o h ave l a rge ly f olowed t h er o ad sa nd b u i ld i ng sl a id d own i n t h eF i r s tC en tu ry B .C . ( Me t z le r 1 986 ) . C o ins w e re f ound i n h uge q uan t i t ie s ( t he 1 968 -1972 e xcava t ion s b y t h eL uxembou rg S t a te Museum t u rned u p 1 208 c o in s f r om t h i s p e r iod ) , t h e g r ea t m a jo r i ty o ft h em C e l t ic (We i l le r 1 977 ) . T he m in t a ppea r s t o h ave b een p roduc ing C e l t ic t r ad i t ion c o ins u n t i l c a . A .D . 2 5 . T he m in t b u i ld ing w a s o f w a t t le a nd d aub u n t i l c a . A .D . 1 , w hen i ta cqu i red as t one f l oo r ,t i l er oo f ,a nd s t one c o lumn s . T he l a you to ft h es t ruc tu re r ema ined u n changed f r om e a rl ie r p e r iod s , h oweve r ( Thoma sa nd R ow le t t 1 979 ) . B e fo re c a . 3 0B .C . ,R oman c e ram ic sw e re f ew : t h eo dd a mpho ra s he rd o r C ampan ian p l a te . B u t a r ound 3 0 -2 0 B .C . , t e rra s i g i l la ta s he rd s a ppea r , a l ong w i th 5 0 s ma l lf i nd s t h a ta r e u sua l ly i n te rp re ted a sR oman m i l i ta ry i t ems . T he n umbe r o f R oman c o in s i n crea sed . N ew f i bu la t y pe s a ppea r ( Me tz le r 1 986 ) . T hough ' Be lg ic ' w a re a pp ea r si ni n c r ea s ing

E l i zabe th HA M ILTON q uant i t ie s , C e l t ic c e ram ic s n eve rd i sapp ea r ; t h ep e rcen tage o fC e l t ic s he l l tempe red w a re d ec l ine s f r om ah igh o f4 4% i nt h eF i r s tC en tu ry B .C . t o 2% a round A .D . 3 50 ( Thoma s a nd R ow le t t 1 979 , T homa s g _ tä . 1 976 ) . Two R oman s t y le g rave s tone s h ave b een f ound t h a t d a te t oa round t h e b i r th o fC h r i s t , t hough t h ey a r er a the r c l ums i ly e xe cu t ed i n as t y le t h a t w a s c ur ren t i nI t a ly i n t h e s econd h a lf o f t h e F i r s tC en tu ry B .C . ( Kr ie r 1 980 ) . A f te r 2 0 B .C . t h e p opu la t ion o f t h e T i te lbe rg s eems t o h ave d w ind led i n n umbe r s a nd i mpo r tance , t hough o ccupa t ion c on t inued u n t i l c a . A .D . 4 00 . T he a l ready e x i s t ing r oad w a s p aved w i th l ime s tone . N ew b u i ld ings w i th l ime s tone c e l la r s a ppea red , a ppa ren t ly i n t h e s ame l o ca t ion s a s t h e o ld t imbe r b u i ld ing s . C o in f i nd s w e re p redom inan t ly o fR oman i s sue . T he e xcava ted p or t ion s o f t h e s i te w e re d es t royed i n t h e s e cond h a lf o f t h e T h ird C en tu ry ( Me tz le r 1 977 ) . D iscus s ion L e t u s s umma r ize t h e d a ta . T he f i r s t f o r t if ica t ions w e re e re c ted i n t h e S econd C en tu ry B .C . T he f i r s t t h ree f o r t if ica t ion wa l ls w e re d e s t royed b y f i re , w h ich m igh t i mp ly v i o lence . T he f ou r th w a l l , f i r s t h a lf o f F i r s t C en tu ry B .C . , w a sd e s t royed b y wood r o t , w h ich c e r ta in ly d oe s n o t i mp ly v io lence . T he f i f th w a l l , b u i l t i n t h e m idd le o f t he c en tu ry , d oe s n o t a ppea r t o h ave b een d e s t royed a ta l l ;c e r ta in ly t h ee a r then w a l l ss t i l l s t and t oday . T ha t t h e f o r t if ica t ions w e re e re c ted a t a l l s ugge s t s a c ons ide rab le l e ve lo fc h ron ic w a r fa re ,b u tt h ew a l l sg ob ack t o t h e S econd C en tury . T ha t f o r t if ica t ions c ea sed t ob e b u i l t a f te r t h e m idd le o f t h e F i r s t C en tu ry B .C . c ou ld i mp ly t h a t t h e l e ve l o f g ene ra l a gg re ss ion w en t d own a t t h a t t ime . F rom a l li n d ica t ion s , t h e T i te lbe rg w a s at h r iv ing c en t re o f p roduc t ion , c omme rce , a nd p o s s ib le p o l i t ica l p owe ri nt h e t h i rd q ua r te r o f t h e F i rs t C en tury B .C . Abou t t h is t ime a l so a ppea ra n i n c rea s ing ly l a rge n umbe ro f Med i te r ranean c e ram ic s .A round 2 0B .C . , t h ep opu la t ion a nd p ro sper i ty o f t h e s e t t lemen t a ppea r t o d ec l ine ; t o t h is t ime d a te s ome R oman m i l i ta ry s ma l l -f inds t ha t i mp ly a p o ss ib le b r ief R oman m i l i ta ry o ccupa t ion . H oweve r , t h ey c ou ld e qua l ly w e l l h ave b e longed t o me rcena r ie s o r e ven t h ieve s , s i nce t h e i r n umbe r i s s ma l l . T he re a re n o s i gns o f R oman m il i ta ry c on s t ruc t ion . A round t h e t u rn o ft h e m i l lenn ium , t h e m a in r oad w a s p aved , a nd s t r uc tu res a r e r ebu i l t i n R oman s ty le ma te r ia ls , w i th l imes tone c e l la r s a nd t i le r oof s . R oman a nd i m i ta t ion R oman c e ram ics i n c rease , t hough t h ey n eve r c omp le te ly s upe r sede t h e p re -Roman t ype s . T he p roduc t ion o f C e l t ic t ype c o ins c ea se s , a nd R oman i mpe r ia l c o ins d om ina te t h e c o in r e co rd . T he f i r s t s i gn o fi m i ta t ions o f Roman b u r ia l c u s toms a ppea ra round t h i s t ime , a sw e l l .

Goeb l ingen-Nospe lt T he c eme t e ry o f Goeb l ingen -No spe l t , s ome 1 7 k i lome te r s f r om t h e T i te lbe rg , w a s d i scove red i n 1 966 . I tc on ta ined f ou r l ow b a r row s , e ach c on ta in ing as i ng le w ooden -wa l led c hambe r w i th c r ema t ion r ema ins . A l l t h e c hambe r s w e re r i ch ly f u rn ished w i th g rave g ood s . T he g rave s l a be led C a nd D , d a ted t ot h e t h i rd q ua r te ro ft h eF i r s t C en tury B .C . , c on ta ins at y p ica l ly L a Une a r ray o fg ood s : s wo rd s , w he e l m ade a nd h and -made p o t te ry ,f i bu lae . G rave D c on ta ined a D resse l 1 B a mpho ra . G rave A d a te s t ot h e l a s td ecade so f t h e F i r s t C en tu ry B .C . , a nd c on ta ins p u re ly C e l t ic v e s se l s , a nd i mpor t s f r om t h e Med i te r ranean a rea , a nd l o ca l i m i ta t ions o f R oman c e ram ics . B ronze i t em s i n c lude a w ine s erv ice a nd I t al ic b ronze c u t le ry . T he l a te s tg r ave ,B , d a ted t ot h e e nd o ft h eF i r s tC en tu ry B .C . ,c on ta in sf ew L a nne o b je c t s , n o tab ly a l a rge b ronze c au ld ron a nd 2 d eco ra ted b ucke t s . T he r ema inde ro ft h e ma te r ia lc on s is ted o f al a v ish a r ray o fi mpo r ted a nd i m i ta t ion Med i te r ranean b ronze a r t ifac t s a nd c e ram ic s . ( Th is i st a ken f r om Me tz le r 1 991 . ) D iscuss ion T he f our g raves h ere f o rm a n ice ly d a ted a r ray d emons t ra t ing t h e i n c rea s ing a cces s t o a nd p re s t ige o f R oman o b jec t s . T he e a r l ie s t t wo g rave s , d a ted t ot h e t h i rd q ua r ter o f t h e F i r s t C en tu ry B .C . ( t he t ime o f t h e T i te lbe rg 's g rea te s t p rospe r i ty a nd a c t iv i ty ) , a r e a lmo s t p u re ly L a Une i n n a tu re , w i th o n ly o ne a mpho ra . T he t h i rd g rave ,d a ted t ot h el a s td e cade o ft h a tc en tu ry ,c on ta in s am ix -L a T ène , i m i ta t ion Med i te r ranean , a nd i mpo r t s . T he l a te s t g rave c on ta ined mo s t ly R oman a nd i m i ta t ion m a te r ia l . T h is s how s t h a t a tl e a s t af ew p eop le a tt h e t u rn o f t h e m i l lenn ium b o th w an ted a nd g o t R oman p re s t ige g ood s , a tl e a s t e nough t os t ock ag rave s i te . T he re i sn o n eed t oa s sume p o l i t ica la nd m i l i ta ry d om ina t ion t oe xp la in t h is . C le mency T h is T reve ran n ob le 's g rave w a sd i scove red i n1 985 o n t h e E i sch R ive r i nL uxembou rg ( G .D . ) , s ome f i ve k i lome te r s f r om t h e T i te lbe rg ( Me tz le r e ta l . 1 988 ) . T he g r ave w a s i mp re ss ive : a1 6 s q . m e te rw ooden c hambe rw i th c r ema t ed r ema ins a nd n ume rou s g rave g ood s . T he g rave h ad b een p a r t ia l ly d i s tu rbed i na n t iqu i ty , a s w e l l a s b y amode rn d ra inage l i ne t h a t r an t h rough i t . 3 0 c eram ic v e sse l s r ema in ; f r om t h e c l ay i ti sp o s s ib le t os ay t h a t mo s t w e re p roduced i n t h e T i te lbe rg . I mpor ted g ood s i n c luded 7 a mpho rae f r om I t a ly , a n o i l l amp , af r agmen t o f a C ampan ian v esse l , a nd a b ronze b eake r w i th a n ' omegafo rm ' h and le . T h i s g r ave i sd a t ed t ot h ee a r ly p ha se o f LTD2 , i . e . c a . 7 0 50 B .C . D iscu ss ion

T o s um u p , t h e o n ly p e r iod s o fd i scer nab le v io lence w e re i nt h e S e cond C en tu ry B .C . a nd t h e T h i rd C en tury A .D . T he F i r s t C en tu ry B .C . wa s , f r om t h e ma te r ia l r e co rd , a t ime o fc on s ide rab le c hange s : t h ee nd ing o ff o r t if ica t ions ,a g rea tr i se i np rospe r i ty , a nd t h e b eg inn ing o fc ons ide rab le R oman i nf luence i nc e ram ics a nd a r ch i tec tu re . H oweve r , t h eo n ly r e a li nd ica t ion , a r chaeo log ica l ly s peak ing ,t h a tt h e R omans m igh t h ave e xer ted p o l i t ica l d om ina t ion r a the r t h an me re ly p o sse s sed g rea tc u l tu ra l p re s t ige i st h e s t eady p re sence o fi mper ia l c o ins . T he se d o n o t a ppea r i na ny g rea t n umbe r s u n t i l t he t u rn o f t h e m i l lenn ium ( Me tz le r 1 977 ) .

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I t i s n o tab le t h a t t h is g rave , w i th s o many i t ems o f Med i te r ranean i mpo r ta t ion ,i sd a ted t ow e l lb e f o re e ven t h e e a r l ies t , a nd e n t i re ly n a t ive , g rave C a t Goeb l ingen N o spe l t . I fb o th g rave a r ea sa r ec onne c ted t ot h eT i te lb e rg , a s Me tz le r b e l ieve s , t h en w e h ave a n i n te res t ing d emons t ra t ion o f t h e d i f f e r ing r a t e s o f t h e p ene t ra t ion o f a nd p ref e rence f o r a l ien g ood s a mong p eop le o ft h e s ame a r ea . Wederath-Be lg in ium T h is l a rge c eme te ry o f o ve r 3 000 g rave s i sl o ca ted o n a t r iang le o f l a nd s ome 4 0 km w e s t o f T r ie r . I t w a s e xcava ted f r om 1 954 t o1 985 ( Ha f fne r 1 989 :44 -129 ) . T he c eme tery a ppea r st oh ave b een u sed b yo ne o r mo re r u ra lo r

E l i zabe th HA M ILTON s em i ru ra ls e t t lemen t sf r om t h et i me o ft h eH un sh i ck -E i f e l Ku l tu r ( La te H a l l s ta t t t oM idd le L a T ene ) t h rough t ot h e T h i rd / fou r th c en tu r ies A .D . T he c h rono log ica l a nd g rave type b r eakdown i sa sf o l low s :

( W igh tman 1 970 ) ,a nd w h i le t h ey a r ea s so c ia ted w i th u r ban c eme te r ie s i n I t a ly , t h ey a re l a rge ly c onf ined t o r u ra l c on tex t s i n t h e No r th ( Toynbe e 1 971 :91 -92 ) . T he r e i s , d u r ing t h eF i r s tC en tu ry a f te rC h r i s t ,a ni n c rea s ing q uan t i ty o fR oman m a t e r ia l i nt h e g rave s , b u t t h e g r ave s t y le a nd m o s tg ood sr ema in L aT ene .

7H un s rück -E if e l -Ku l tu rt umu l i 2 500 c r ema t ion g r ave s( 3 rd c .B .C . - A .D .4 t hc . ) 3 00 G rabgä r ten ( F i r s tc .B .C . -A .D . 2 nd c . ) 5 00 a s hp i t s( A .D . 2 nd -3 rd c . ) 1 5 i n huma t ion s ( A .D . 3 rd -4 t hc . ) T he f i r s t c hange i n f une ra ry h ab i t s c an b e s e en i n t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e L a te L a T ene ( c a . 1 50 B .C . ) , w hen , i n c on t r a s t t ot h e p rac t ice o f t h e E a r ly a nd M idd le L a T ene p e r iod s i nt h i s c eme te ry , w eapons , e sp ec ia l ly s wo rd s a nd s pea r s ,a ppea ri nt h eg rave s . T he se w eapon s h ave u sua l ly b een ' d e s t royed ' . T he re i si n c r ea sed d i f f e r en t ia t ion b e tween g rave s i n n umbe r a nd q ua l i ty o f g ood s . Whee l tu rned p o t te ry a ppea r s , t hough h andmade i s s t i l l c ommon . D u r ing t h eL aT ene D 2( 70 -2 0B .C . ) ,q uan t i ty a nd t y pe o f g rave g ood a r eu nchanged , s ave t h a tt h e r ei sl e s sj ewe l le ry i nw omen ' sg rave s . T he re a r e s ome c hange si ns h ie ld a nd l a nce f o rm . A round 2 0 B .C . , w e s e e t h e F i r s t R oman c o in sa nd Med i te r ran ean a r t i f a c t s . T he G rabgär t en ( bu r ia l a r ea se nc lo sed b y ad i t ch o rw a l l , u sua l ly a s sumed t ob e r e se rved f o r s pe c i f ic f am i l ie s ) f i r s t a ppea ri nt h eL a te L a T ene , b u t mo s td a te t ot h e t i me 2 0 B .C . A .D . 1 50 . I nt h ep e r iod f r om 2 0 B .C . t ot h e m idd le o f t h e F i r s t C en tu ry A .D . t h e n umbe r o f g rave s -a nd i n f e ren t ia l ly t h ep opu la t ion -g rows , b u t t h e g rave g ood s , s ave f o r as ca t t e ro fi mpo r t sa nd R oman i m i ta t ion m a te r ia l , s t ay L aT ene , a nd t h e g rave s t y le r ema in s u nchanged . I n t h e m idd le o f t h e F i r s t C en tury , af a sh ion e me rge s f o r l i n ing g r ave p i t s w i th f l a ts l ab so fl i me s tone o rs a nd s tone ; s and s tone o s sua r ie st oh ou se a she sa l so a ppea r ,b u tr a re ly . D e sp i t e t h e L a T ene s t y le g rave p i t s , m any o f t h e g ood s i n s ide a r e R oman i mpo r t s o r i m i ta t ion s , e spe c ia l ly c o in s a nd d r ink ing a nd e a t ing w a r e . N one the le s s ,t e r ra s i g i l la ta i s r a r e ,a nd h andmade c e ram ic sa r ef r equen t ly f ound f a r i n to t h eS e cond C en tu ry . Ag roup o fm a le g r ave sd a t ing t ot h e f i r s t h a lf o f t h e F i r s t C en tu ry A .D . c on ta in w eapons o f R oman t ype -g lad ius ,p i lum -b u to fn a t ive m anu f a c tu re . T he L a T ene r oad t ha t ma rk s t h e n o r th w e s t b ounda ry o f t h ec eme te ry i sp re served t h roughou tt h e w ho le p e r iod o f u se . T he mo s t n o t iceab le b reak i nt h e f une ra ry p a t ter n c ome s i n t h e b eg inn ing t o t h e m idd le o f t h e S econd C en tu ry A .D . , w hen t h e v a r ie ty o fg r ave p i t s a nd v a r ie ty a nd r i chne s s o fg rave g ood d i sappea r ,t ob e r e p la ced b y a s imp le ur ng r ave . T he b u rn tr ema in sa nd s ome t ime ss ma l l v e sse l s o fc e ram ic o r g la s s a s w e l l a r e p l aced i n as i ng le u rn ,a nd ab ow lo rp l a te p l a ced o ve ri t . D i scu s s ion T h i s l a rge c eme t e ry s hows t wo n o tab le c hange s i nb u r ia l s t y le a nd g ood s ; o ne , a round 1 50 B .C . , w hen w eapons a ppea r i nt h e g rave s , a nd t wo , f r om A .D . 1 00 -150 , w hen s imp le u rn g rave s w i th f ew g ood s r e p lace t h e f o rme r d ive r s i ty o fp i ta nd g rave g ood s . T he s t one l ined p i t s t h a t a ppea ra r ound A .D . 5 0m ay r ef le c tR oman i nf luence ,s i nce t h ey a r e a l so k nown f r om I t a l ian c eme te r ie s ( Toynbe e 1 971 :101 ) , b u t t h e re i sn o c l ea r i n d ica t ion t h a t t h e s t y le a ppea red f i r s ti nt h e Med i te r ranean . T he G räbgar ten , o r w a l led f une ra ry e nc lo su re s , l i kew ise a ppea r i nR oman c eme t e r ie s ( Toynbee 1 971 :91) , b u t t h e re i sn o r e a son t o p o s tu la te R oman i nf luence f o r t h e i r o ccu r rence i nG au l . T hey e x tend w e l lb a ck i n to t h eL aT ene i nn o r the r nE u rop e

T r ier T he c i ty o fT r ie ri sl o ca ted o n at o ngue o fh i gh , f l ood f ree l a nd o n t h e Mo se l le R ive r (W igh tman 1 971 ) . T he re i sn o t r ace o fa ny e x ten s ive L aT ene s e t t lemen t ,d e sp i te t h es i t e 's n a tu ra l a dvan tage s . T he f i r s ti mpo r tan ts e t t lemen tw a s i n t h el a s ty ea r so ft h eF i r s tC en tu ry B .C .o rt h ef i r s ty ea r so f t h e F i r s t C en tu ry A .D . , when a s ymme t r ica l s t ree t p l an w a s l a id o u t . O ne o r t wo o b jec t s o f am i l i ta ry n a tu re , a c co rd ing t oW igh tman ( 1971 :71 ) , a r ep l aced a tt h i s t i me , a sw e l l a st wo R oman t omb s tone s o fS pan i sh c ava l rymen , b u tt h e re i sn oa r chaeo log ica le v idence o f af o r t . T h i se a r ly e s tab l i shmen ti n c luded s ome t y pe o fp ub l ic s t ruc tu re s u ch a sa na r ch . Ab r idge w i th s t one p i e r sw a sb u i l ta round t h e m idd le o ft h eC en tu ry . T ot h i s t i me c an a l so b et r a ced t h e F i r s th ou se sw i th s t one f ounda t ion s ,a sw e l la si d en t if iab le p o t te r s ' q ua r t e r sa nd a n a r ea a ppa ren t ly d ed i ca ted t os ma l l s h r ine s . G rave s t r aceab le t ot h is e a r ly p e r iod c on ta in L a T ene m a te r ia ls u ch a si r on s hea r s ,a sw el a ss he rd so ft e r ra s i g i l la ta w i th R oman ized n ame s s c ra t ched o n . B y A .D . 1 00 , T r ie rw a s af l ou r i sh ing t own , t hough s t i l l u n fo r t if ied a nd w i th m any o fi t s s t ruc tu re s s t il b u i l ti nw ood . ( Hence t h e n ume rou s s i gn o fb u rn ing i nt h e l a te F i r s t C en tu ry ? ) . T he f o rum a nd t h ea mph i thea te rw e re c on s t ruc ted o fs t one p robab ly i nt h ee a r ly S e cond C en tu ry ; a tt h es ame t i me t h e b r idge w a s r e bu i l t a nd t h e s t ree t s c omp le te ly r e su r f a ced . H uge b a th s w e r e c ons t ruc ted a round t h e m idd le o f t h e c en tu ry . F rom t h e l a te F i r s tC en tu ry A .D . , T r ie rh ad b een ac en t e r o fs k i l led c r a f two rke r s i ns t one a nd mo sa ic , a nd s i gn s o f t h e i r w o rk a r e s een i n c rea s ing ly i n t h e S e cond C en tu ry . T he A l tba ch ta l ,t h es a c red a r ea ,c on ta ined s h r ine s t o m any n on -Roman g od s w i th d i s t inc t ive ly G au l i sh a t t r ibu te s ,a nd t h es t amped s he rd so fB e lg ic w a re a nd t e r ra s i g i l la ta b ea rG au l i sh n ame s ,b u tf r om t h ee v idence g i ven , b y t h e m idd le o ft h e S econd C en tu ry ,T r ie r s e ems t oh ave p r e s en t ed ac on s ide rab ly R oman ized p i c tu r e . D is cu s s ion T r ie rs e ems t oh ave b een d e l ibe ra te ly f ounded a tt h et u rn o f t h e m i l lenn ium . I n t h a t i th ad f r om t h e b eg inn ing a s ymme t r ica ls t ree tp l an i td id n o tr e semb le t h eo pp ida ,b u t i tw a s n o t u n t i l t h e m idd le o f t h e F i r s t C en tu ry t h a t b u i ld ing s w i th s t one f ounda t ions a ppea r . T h roughou tt h a t c en tu ry mo s t s t ruc tu re s w e re b u i l t C e l t ic -s ty le , i n w ood . T he S pan i sh g r ave s tone s a r e t h e o n ly r e a l i nd ica t ion t h a t t h ei mpe tu s f o rt h e f ound ing m ay h ave c ome f r om R ome ; t h e r e i sn o e v idence f o r af o r t . H oweve r , i ti sc l ea r t h a t T r ie rd i d n o th ave m uch o f a' Roman ' a ppea rance u n t i l a t l e a s t ac en tu ry a f t e ri t sf ound ing . Wi ldenburg i m Hunsrück T h i s i s ah i l l top t h a t s how s e v idence o fo ccupa t ion f r om L a T ene B t h rough t h e L a te A n t ique p e r iod ( No r tmann 1 987 ) . A r t if a c t f i nd s a re f ew , l a rge ly , a cco rd ing t o N o r tmann , d ue t o l a te R oman d i s tu rbance . T he mo s t n o tab le f e a tu re i st h el a rge a nd e l abo ra te f o r t i f ica t ion w a l l ( Pf os t ensch l i t zmauer ) , f l anked b y t wo s t agge red u nna i led w a l l s o f am urus g a l l icus t ype . T h is w a l l w a s n o t d e s t royed ,b u tc o l lap sed a nd w a sr e pa i r ed o n ce ,a f t e r as p an o f t i me . T he o ccupa t ion h e re , f r om t h e s pa r se a r t if a c t s , l a s t ed f r om L TB t h rough LTD1 . Af ew mo r ea r t i f ac t sd a te

4 0

E l i zabe th HA M ILTON f r om a r ound t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e F i r s t C en tu ry A .D . , a nd l a te r ; t h e ma jor i ty a r e f r om t h eT h i rd a nd F ou r th c en tu r ie s A .D . ,j udg ing f r om t he c e ram ics a nd R oman c o ins . T he p ropo r t ion s o f n a t ive , B e lg ic , a nd R oman w a re s a r e n o t c l ea r .

B .C . T hough t h i s c ou ld b e t aken a s as i gn o f i n c rea sed d a i ly v io lence , i t may , i n f ac t , i nd ica te t h e o ppos i te , a s r e la t ive s o f t h e d e cea sed b ecame mo re w i l l ing t oc on s ign p res t ige d ef en s ive i t ems t o t he u se lessne ss o f t h e g rave . T he g rave g ood s o f t h e F i r s t C en tu ry B .C . a r e u nchanged f r om t h e p rev iou s c en tury , s ave f o r ap o ss ib le s i gn o f p ove r ty i nt h e r e la t ive p auc i ty o fj ewe l ry i nt h e women ' s g raves . Men c on t inued t ob e b u r ied w i th w eapon s . T he re i s , i n t hese s i tes , l i t t le a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f o r d eva s ta t ion ,i mpover ishmen t ,o re ven d i sa rmamen t .

D iscu ss ion T he re w a s h eavy f o r t if ica t ion i nt h eS econd C en tu ry B .C . , b u t n o s i gn o f d es t ruc t ion . Wa s t h is d ue t o s i te a bandonmen t , o r l a ck o f i n te res t i n m a in ta in ing t h e f o r t if i cat ion? A f i na lr epa i rw a sd one ,f r om t h ee v idence o f t he a r t ifac ts , b efo re LTD2 ( c a . 7 0 B .C . ) . A f i na l a bandonmen to ccu r red e a r ly i nt h eF i r s tC en tu ry B .C . , t h en g radua l ly i n c rea s ing r eo ccupa t ion d ecade sl a te r . T he r ew a s n o s i gn o ff i gh t ing ,d e s t ruc t ion , o rm i l i ta ry o ccupa t ion .

Wha t h as a lways d om ina ted d iscuss ions o f t he ' Roman iza t ion ' o f G au l i st h e r ema rkab le i n f i l t ra t ion o f R oman a r t if ac t s . T he c eme te ry a t Wede ra th -Be lg in ium d emons t ra te s t h a t t h is e xpans ion o f p re s t ige o b jec t s o f Med i te r ranean o r ig in o r d e s ign w a s n o t c onf ined t o t h e u rban o r a r is toc ra t ic e l emen t . Howeve r a rchaeo log is t s h a rd ly n eed r em ind ing t h a t t he me re p opu la r i ty o f l u xury o b jec t s f r om a no the r c u l tu re d oe s n o t n e ces sa r i ly m ean much i nt h e w ay o fc u l tu re c hange ; t h eg rea t p opu la r i ty o f C h ine se s i lk a nd O r ien ta l c a rpe t s i n E u rope a nd N o r th Ame r ica o ve r t h e l a s t s eve ra l c en tu r ie s i nn o w ay i mp l ie s t h e c oncom i tan t p ene t ra t ion o f B uddh ism , t he A rab ic l a nguage , o r I mper ia l C h inese i d eo logy . B u t w hen d oe s t h es hee rw e igh to fa r t if ac tua lp ref e rence si mp ly ag rea t e ro r l e sse r d eg ree o f c u l ture c hange , a ssum ing t ha t o ne i s d ef in ing ' c u l tu re ' a s as e t o f i dea s a nd n o t me re ly a s a c o l lec t ion o fa r t if a c t s? When d oe s t h ep res t ige o ft h et h ing t r ansmu te i n to a n a c t ive p ref e rence f o r t h e c u l tu re b eh ind t h e t h ing?

S chankwe i ler T h i s c r ema t ion g raveya rd , l o ca ted s ome 1 5 k m SW o f B i tbu rg , i sd a ted t oA .D . 1 70 ( Ludw ig 1 988 ) . W i th 4 9 g rave s ,i ts eems t oh ave b een t h ec eme te ry f o r as ma l lr u ra l h am le t o f C e l t ic t ype , w i th 4 -5 f am i l ie s . T he re w e re v i r tua l ly n o d i s t inc t ions i nt h e r i chne s s o ft h e g r ave s -n o a ppea rance o fh i e ra r chy o rt h e s o c ia l s t ra t i f ica t ion i n he ren t i n a R oman -s ty le f a rm /v i l la s ys tem . T he g rave s t h em se lve s a re f a i r ly u n ifo rm , ap i ta round 1 . 8 m x1 . 4 m , w i th w ooden w a l ls ,s t one e dg ing ,a nd ,i nt h ee a r ly d ecade s , as t one c ap . A t t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e p er iod o fu se , m any o ft h e v e s se ls a re h andmade ; b y t h ee nd , t h ep ropo r t ion o f t e r ra s i g i l la ta , B e lg ic w a re , a mpho rae , a nd g l a s s i sf a r h ighe rt h an t h e h andmade f o rm s . T he a u tho rn o te s t h a tt h e f o rm o ft h eg rave sc ons is ten t ly f o l lows n a t ive t r ad i t ion , a s d o t h e k i nd s ( i fn o tt h e s pec if ic i t em s ) o fg ood s l e f t i nt h e g r ave s .

T he d i ff icu l ty o fe ven b eg inn ing t oa pp roa ch t h is q ue s t ion f o r t h e p e r iod 1 00 B .C . -A .D . 3 00 i se xace rba ted b y t h e h ab i t o f mo s t e xcava to r s o f n eg lec t ing t o c a ta logue a nd d i scuss mos t o f t he n on -Roman ma ter ia l t ha t t hey e xcava t e . I ti sv e ry d i f f icu l t , e ven i n many mode rn r epo r t s , t oo b ta in s ome i d ea o f t h e r a t ios o f i mpo r t w a re , B e lg ic w a re ,a nd L a The s ty le w a re e xcava ted ,n o tt om en t ion t h e r a t io s o f ma te r ia l -c e ram ic , m e tal ic , a nd o therw ise -t h a t a c tua l ly c an b ea s s igned t o ap a r t icu la rc u l tu re t ot ho se t h a t c anno t . I n t h e a bsence o f t h is i n forma t ion , i t i s i mpo ss ib le t o e va lua te t he d eg ree o f t h e p ene t ra t ion o f R oman m a te r ia l c u l tu re i nB e lg ic G au l , o r , p e rhap s b e t te r p u t , t o e va lua te t h e d eg ree o f ' h omogen iza t ion ' ( Reece 1 991) o f t h e m a te r ia l c u l tu re o f We s ter n E u rope , b o th t r ans -a nd c i s -A lp ine .

D iscu s s ion I ti si mpo s s ib le t ok now w he the rt h i s w a s t h e c eme te ry o f an ew ly f ounded h am le to rs imp ly an ew g r aveya rd f o ra n a l ready e x is t ing s e t t lemen t . E xcep tf o rt h el u xu ry g ood so f R oman o ri m i ta t ion R oman m ake t h a ta ppea ri ni n c rea s ing p ropo r t ion s i nt h eg raves , t h e re i sn o th ing t h a tw ou ld m a rk t h i s o u t a s a ny th ing b u t ap u re ly L a The h am le t . T he g rave g ood s d oi nd ica te t h a tt h e i n hab i tan t sd on o ts e em t o h ave b een m i red i np ove r ty . A ga in ,w ec anno tk now i ft h e s e t t lemen t i t se lf s h if ted a round A .D . 7 0 , o r i fo n ly t h e c eme te ry d i d .

S o w e n o te , r a the r i n av acuum , t h e r ema rkab le n umbe r o f R oman g oods i n t h e t h ree c eme te r ies a t wh ich w e a r e l ook ing . F rom C lemency w e n o te t ha t t h e p resumed a r i s to cra cy h ad e a r ly a cce ss t ot h i s ma te r ia l ( 70 -50 B .C . ) ; f r om Goeb l ingen -Nospe l t w e s ee t h a t s ome a r is toc ra t s e i the rd idn ' tw an ti to rc ou ldn ' tg e tt h is m a te r ia l u n t i ll a te r , b u t t h a t a cce ss o rp refe rences c hanged t h rough t ime ; f r om Wede ra th -Be lg in ium w es ee t h a te ven t h er u ra lc ommone r s h ad i n c rea s ing a cces s t o t h is ma te r ia l , b eg inn ing a round A .D . 1 . A round A .D . 5 0 , o ne s ee s t h e f a sh ion t h e re f o r l i n ing g rave p i t s w i th s and s tone , w h ich m igh tb e a t tr ibu ted t oR oman i nf luence , b u t g iven t h e r ema rkab le v a r ie ty o f R oman f une ra ry p rac t ice s ( Toynbee 1 971 ) , t h i s wou ld b e d i f f icu l tt od emon s t ra te . I nS chankwe i le rw es e et h es ame t h e p ene t ra t ion o f Roman ma ter ia l g oods i n to a r u ra l p opu la t ion t ha t c on t inues t o f o l low i t s own b ur ia l t r ad i t ion s .

Genera l D iscuss ion I fo ne p u t sa l l t h ese s i te s t o ge the r , w ha tp a t te rn s e me rge i n t he a r chaeo log ica l p ic tu re? T he mos t s t r ik ing i s t h e r ema rkab le a bsence b o th o fs i gn s o fv io lence a nd s i gn s o f p ove r ty i nt h e t h ree c en tur ie s 1 00 B .C . -A .D . 2 00 . T he S e cond C en tu ry B .C . f or t if ica t ion s o f t h e T i te lbe rg w e re d e s t royed t h ree t imes ( a ssum ing t h a t b u rn ing e qua ls d es t ruc t ion i n wa rfa re ) , b u t t h e l a s t t wo w a l ls t o b e c ons t ruc ted mere ly r o t ted i n p lace . T he e l abo ra te f o r t if i ca t ions a tt h e Wi ldenbu rg i m H unsr ück ,c on s truc ted , a ppa r en t ly ,i nt h eS e cond -Th i rd c en tu r ie s ,s how n os i gn so f v io lence a ta l l , a nd t he s e t t lemen t a ppea r s t oh ave b een l a rge ly e mp ty i n t he F ir s t C en tu ry B .C . T he n ob le s ' g rave s a tC lemency a nd G oeb l ingen -No spe l t , a l l d a t ing f r om 7 0 B .C . t o A .D . 1 , a re r i ch ly f u rn ished . T he T i te lbe rg , f a rf r om s how ing i mpover i shmen t , f l our ished a s n eve rb e fo re i nt h e p er iod 5 0 -2 0 B .C . T he c eme te ry a t Wede ra th -Be lg in ium , w h ich p robab ly g i ve s am uch c l ea re r p i c tu re o ft h e w ea l th a nd c us tom s o fo rd ina ry p eop le , h a s s wo rd s a nd o the rw eapons a ppea r ing i ng r ave s a r ound 1 50

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A s f o r t own s , w en o te t h e f ound ing , a ppa ren t ly d e n ovo , o f T r ie r c . A .D . 1 , t hough w i th o n ly s l igh t e v idence o f m i l i tary o ccupa t ion . T hough i tw a s l a id o u t w i th u n -

E l i zabe th HA M ILTON C e l t ic r egu la r i ty ,i tl o oked R oman ( i . e . s t one -bu i l t )o n ly i n t h eS e cond C en tu ry . A tt h es ame t ime ,w en o te t h ed e c l ine i n to at own le t o r v i l lage o f t h e f l ou r ish ing t own o n t h e T i te lbe rg . T he r e co rd o ft h e u r ge t ot own l i f e i st h e re fo re m ixed . L eav ing o u ra r ea o fi n te r e s ta nd l o ok ing a tG au la s aw ho le ,w es e et h ea ppa ren tf o und ing o f many n ew t own s , b u ti ti sn o mo re n ece ssa ry t oa t t r ibu te t h e se t oa n ' i nvade r ' t h an i ti st oa t t r ibu te t h e e qua l ly s udden a nd r ema rkab le a pp ea r ance o ft h eo pp ida a c ro s sc en t ra la nd w e s te rn E u rop e t oi n vade r s -w h ich n oo ne d oe s . Many o ft h e n ew t own s h ave R oman a r ch i te c tu ra lf e a tu re s ,b u tt h i s n e ed n o ti mp ly c onque s t ; t h e re a r e s ky sc rape r s a nd f l ush t o i le t s i n B angkok , t hough T ha i land w a s n eve r c o lon ized b y E u ropean s .

r e co rd a nd t h e w r i t ten r e co rd a r e d ea l ing i nt wo d i f f e ren t k i nd so fe xp e r ience . A r chaeo log i s t s ,p a r t i cu la r ly h i s to r i ca l a r chaeo log i s t s , l o ng h ave s t rugg led t oi mpo se an a r ra t ive s t ruc tu re o n t h e m a te r ia l r e co rd , t o t u rn p o t s a nd t omb s i n to t e x t s a nd s t o r ie s . F rom t h is p e r spe c t ive , t h e p o in t made a bove i sc o r re c t: a ny i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e m a te r ia l r e co rd o fG au l 1 00 B .C . -A .D .200 t h a td i dn o ti n c lude t h e R oman i n va s ion w ou ld b e w rong . I fo ne i st r y ing t od o t h is ,t h en t h ep o in t Iu rged a tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h i sp ape ri s v e ry v a l id ; o ne o ft h eg r ea te s to ppo r tun i t i e st h a tt h er i ch ly d o cumen ted a r chaeo logy o fE u rope o f f e r s s c ho la r s i st h e c hance t o f o rm a nd t e s t g ene ra l h ypo the se s , t h a t m uch ma l igned ' m idd le -range ' t h eo ry . T h is i s w ha t mo s t a r chaeo log i s t sd o ,a nd p robab ly w il c on t inue t od o .

T he c onc lu s ion o fa l l t h i s w ande r ing? T he c onc lu s ion i s t h a t , i fo ne u se s c u r ren t mode l s r e ga rd ing e xp lana t ion s o f c u l tu re c hange ,o ne w ou ld c onc lud et h a tt h e re i sr ema rkab ly l i t t le e v idence t h a t t h e R oman s u nde r took ac onque s t o f t h i s p a r to fG au l . E ve ry a r chaeo log ica l r ema in , w i th t h e p o s s ib le e xcep t ion o ft h e c o ins , c ou ld b e e xp la ined a way b yr e f e rence t oi n te ra c t ion s phe re s ,p re s t ige z one s ,a nd c o re p e r iphe ry r e la t ions , a nd , w i thou t t h e w r i t ten r e co rd , p robab ly w ou ld h ave b een . E ven t h e c e ssa t ion o f t h e m ak ing o fC e l t ic c o in s a nd t h e u se o fR oman c o ins n eed n o t n e ce s sa r i ly i mp ly p o l i t ica l d om ina t ion , t h ough i ti s p robab le t h a t i td oe s . ( I t w ou ld b e i n te re s t ing t oh ave a c ompa ra t ive s t udy o f w hen a nd h ow t h i s c o in t r ans i t ion t o ok p l ace ; a tt h e T i te lbe rg t h e p ropo r t ion o f R oman t o C e l t ic c o in s r o s e t o5 0% i nt h e p e r iod 3 0 B .C . -A .D . 1 0 ( We i l le r 1 977 ) , b u t t h e re i sn o i n d ica t ion o fw hen C e l t i c c o in sc ea sed t ob e m ade o ru sed o n t h e s i te ) . T he re i sn o a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd o f v i o lence o ccu r r ing w hen t h e w r i t ten r e co rd s s ay t h a t i td i d , i . e . , i n t h e F i r s t C en tu ry B .C . , n o s i gn o f a n a l ien s t ra tum t a k ing o ve r p opu la ted a r ea s , n o s udden a ppea rance o fp o cke t s o fa l ien e l i te s , n o c hange i n b u r ia l r i te s , l i t t le e v idence f o r v io lence , d epopu la t ion o ri mpove r i shmen t .

T he t h i rd p o in t , h oweve r , i st h a tt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd c an b e u sed i n a no the r w ay f r om t h i s . I ti s l a te ly f a sh ionab le i n a r chaeo log ica l c i rc les t o c a s t m a te r ia l r ema ins a s ' t ex t s ' , o b jec t s wh ich t e l l as t o ry , t hu s r e shap ing a n a r t i f ac ti n to t h ea b s t ra c tw o rd so np ape rw i th w h ich w ea ss c ho la r s a r es o f am i l ia r . H oweve r ,d oub th a s b een r a i sed t h a tm a te r ia lo b jec t sc an b es ot r ea t ed , t h a tt h e a im o f a r chaeo logy s hou ld b e n a r ra t ive ( Go sden 1 992 , T ay lo r 1 992 ) . I nt h is v i ew , a s Iu nde r s tand i t ,t h ea im o f a r chaeo logy i sn o t t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e a b s t r ac t , t h e s t o ry o ft h e " I nd ian b eh ind t h e a r t if ac t " ( F lanne r y 1 967 ) , b u t af o cu s o n t h e c onc re te w o r ld s o mu ch d i sda ined b y s cho la r s i nm any f i e ld s ( Sack s 1 985 ) . T he ' p eop l e 's p a s t ' i su na t ta inab le ; t h e w o rk o fa r chaeo logy s hou ld l i e i nt h e c l o se a nd d e ta i led r e cons t ruc t ion o f t h e a l l f a ce t s o f t h e m a te r ia l s u r round ing s -n a tu ra l a nd h uman -made -a st h ey c hange t h rough t ime . S ome m igh t t h ink t h a t t h i s w ou ld r e tu rn u s t ot h e d ay s o fa r t if a c tl i s t sa nd s e a sona l c hange s i ns he l lf i sh u s e , b u t n o t n ece ssa r i ly . T he h uman r e la t ion t o t h e c onc re te w o r ld i sb o th a c t ive a nd r e a c t ive ; t h e p hy s ica l w o r ld b o th a c t s o n a nd i sa c ted o n b y h uman b e ing s . L ong te rm c hange i nt h is p hy s ica l w o r ld r e su l t s f r om h a lf -unconsc iou s p roce sses , b u t i tp rov ide s t h e f undamen ta l b ackd rop f o r t h e i r re t r ievab le s t o r ie s o f t h e i n d iv idua l ( Go sden 1 992 ) . F rom t h i sp e r spe c t ive , w he the r t h e c hange s i n t h e m a te r ia l r e co rd t h a t w e s e e i nG au l r e su l t ed f r om R oman i n va s ion o rs imp ly c u l tu re c on ta c ti s e n t i r e ly i re levan t .

When d oc hange so c cu ri nt h er e co rd ? T he re i se v idence ,i n t h e f o rm o f f o r t if ica t ions a nd d e s t ruc t ions t h e reof , o f a i n c rea se i n v i o lence i n t h e S econd C en tu ry B .C . T he s udden a ppea rance o f s wo rd s a nd s pea r s i nt h e g r ave s o f m en a r ound 1 50 B .C . m ay a l so i n d ica te t h is . F rom t h e F i r s t C en tu ry B .C . t ot h e S econd C en tu ry A .D . , t h e re a r e n o s h a rp c hange s i nt h er e co rd ; t h en ex tn o tab le c hange i s t h ec hange i ng r ave f o rm a t Wede ra th -Be lg in ium A .D . 1 00 1 50 . I n o t he r w o rd s , t h e re i sn o th ing i n t h e m a te r ia l r e co rd , a s o pposed t ot h e w r i t ten r e co rd , t h a t w ou ld u rge u pon t h e o b se rve r t h e c onc lu s ion t h a t am i l i ta ry i n va s ion a nd o ccupa t ion h ad t a ken p l a ce h e re . Wha t mo s t moder n a r chaeo log is t s w ou ld c onc lude i st h a t ar e la t ive ly s l ow ( 1 50 -200 y ea r s )p roce s s o fd i f fu s ion o fa r t if ac t s a nd , l a te r , s ome i d ea sa nd h ab i t s , h ad o c cu r red . T h r ee c onc lu s ions r e su l t f r om a l l t h i s . O ne , t h e c u r ren t a n t i inva s ion b i a si na r chaeo logy n eed s t ob er e con s ide red . T he a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd o fG au lc a . 1 00 B .C . -A .D . 2 00 c an i n deed b e e xp la ined w i thou t r e fe rence t o i d ea s o f i n va s ion -e xcep t , a si th appen s , t h ee xp lana t ion w ou ld b e w rong . Two , t h e c o r re spondence b e tween t h e w r i t ten r e co rd a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i sd i s t re s s ing ly s l im , p a r t i cu la r ly i fo ne e xpe c t st h em a te r ia lr e co rd t oc o r r e spond t ot h e n a r ra t ive t o ld i nt h e w r i t ing s . Wha t i sb ecom ing i n c r ea s ing ly c l ea rt oh i s to r ic p e r iod a r chaeo log is t s( a nd w i l l c ome a s n o s u rp r i se t oa ny r e ade r s ) i st h a t t h e m a te r ia l

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A rchaeo log i s t s , Is u spec t , w i l l a lway s t r y t oe xp la in t h e c hange s i nt h em a ter ia lr e co rd , b u to u re xp lana t ion sa r es o o f ten ' J u s t -So S to r ie s ' , w i th o n ly t h e t h inne s t s c a f fo ld ing o fv e r if ica t ion p o s s ib le . Ar e jec t ion o ft h en a r r a t ive m ode o f a r chaeo logy m igh t b e t h e o n ly w ay t o r e conc i le a r cha eo logy a nd t h ew r i t ten r e co rd .

E l izabe th HA M ILTON B ib l iography A n thony ,D . 1 992 . T he B a th R ef i l led : M ig ra t ion i nA r cheo logy A ga in . Ame r ican A n th ropo log is t 9 4 , p p74 -176 . B in t l if f , J . 1 984 . h on A ge E u rope i nt h e C on tex t o f S oc ia l E vo lu t ion f r om t h e B ronze A ge t h rough t oh i s to r ic t ime s . I n J .B in t l i f f( ed . ) E u ropean S oc ia l E vo lu t ion . B rad fo rd ,T he U n ive r s i ty ,p p . 1 57 -226 . B lagg ,T .& M i l le t t , M . ( ed s . ) 1 990 . T he E a r ly R oman Emp i re i nt h e We s t . O xfo rd , O xbow B ook s . B rode r ,J . 1 986 . B ib l ica lE ra D is covery F loa t s o nT roub led S ea . C h icago T r ibune . J u ly 1 3 , p .C3 . C hapman , J . & Do lukhanov , P . 1 992 . T he B aby a nd t h e B a thwa te r : P u l l ing t h e P lug o n M ig ra t ions . Amer ican A n th ropo log is t 9 4 , p p 169 -174 . D o rnbe rg ,J . 1 992 . B a t t le o ft h eT eu tobe rg F o re s t . A rchaeo logy 4 5 (5 ) , p p26 -33 . F lanne ry , K . 1 967 . C u l tu re H is tory V e r sus C u l tu ra l P rocess : aD eba te i n Ame r ican A rchaeo logy . N ew Wo r ld A rchaeo logy ( Read ing sf r om S c ien t if i c Ame r ican ) .p p .5 -8 . Go sden ,C . 1 992 . E ndem ic D oub t : I sw ha tw e w r i te r i gh t ? . A n t iqu i ty 6 6 , p p803 -808 . H a f f ne r ,A . 1 989 . D a s G räbe r f e ld v on Wede ra th -Be lg in ium v om 4 .J ah rhunde r tv o rb i s z um 4 .J ah rhunde r tN ach C h r is t i G ebu r t . i n A . Ha f fne r ( e d . ) G räbe rSp iege l d e s L ebens : z um T o tenb rauch tum d e r K e l ten u nd R öme r . R he in ische sL ande smu seum T r ie r , Ma inz a m R he in . ,p p . 3 7 -129 . H as e lg rove , C . 1 987 . C u l tu re p roces s o n t h e p e r iphe ry : B e lg ic G au l a nd R ome d ur ing t h e L a te R epub l ic a nd E a r ly Emp i re . i n M . Row land s , M . L a r son s & K . K r i s t iansen ( ed s . ) C en t re a nd P e r iphery i n t h e A nc ien t Wo r ld , C amb r idge ,T he Un ive r s i ty P re s sp p . 1 04 -124 . H a se lg rove ,C . 1 990 . T he R oman iza t ion o fB e lg ic G au l : s ome a r chaeo log ica lp e r spe c t ive s . T . B lagg & M . M ile t t( ed s . ) 1 990 . T he E a r ly R oman Emp i re i nt h e We s t . O xfo rd ,O xbow B ook s ,p p45 -71 . K r ie r ,J .1 980 . E ine w e i te re f r ühka ise r ze i t l iche G rabs te l le v om T i te lbe rg . H emech t 3 2 ,p p208 -212 . K r i s t ian sen , K . 1 989 . P reh is tor ic m ig ra t ion s -t h e c a se o ft h e s i ng le g rave a nd c o rded w a re c u l tu re s . J our na l o f D an ish A rchaeo logy 8 ,p p211-225 . L udw ig ,R . 1 988 . D a s f r üh röm is che B randg räber f e ld v on S chankwe i le r K re is B i tbu rg -P r i im . T r ie re r Z e i t sch r if t 5 1 ,pp51 4 22 . Me tz le r ,J . 1 977 . B e i t räge z u rA rchäo log ie d e sT i te lbe rge s . I n J . Me tz le r &R . We i l le r ( ed s . ) B e i t räge z u r A r chäo log ie u nd N um isma t ik d e sT i te lbe rge s 9 1 , L uxembou rg ,P ub l ica t ion d el aS e c t ion H is to r ique , p p . 1 7 -103 . Me tz le r ,J . 1 986 . L eT i te lbe rg : O pp idum T rev i re e tV icu s G a l lo -Roma in . i nJ .K r ie r , N . T he is , R . Wagne r& N . F o lme r ( ed s . ) C a r te A rcheo log ique d u G rand -Duche d e L uxembou rg . ( Feu i l le 2 4 D if f e rdange ) . L uxembou rg , Mu see D 'H is to i re e tD 'A r t , p p . 2 2 -29 . Me t z le r ,J .1 991 . T he C e l t ic Ho r semen 's G rave s a t Goeb l ingen -No spe l t . I n0 . F rey , V . K ru ta , B . R a f te ry & M . S zabö , T he C e l t s . N ew Yo rk , R izzo l i , p p520 -521 . Me tz le r ,J . , Wa r ingo , R . & B is , R . 1 988 . E in T rever i sche s A de l sg rab b e i C lemency : V o rber ich t z u d en A usg rabungen v on 1 987 . H emech t 4 0 ,p p93 -99 . Nor tmann , H . 1 987 . D ie Wi ldenbu rg i m H un s rück v on d e r L a t6 leze i tb i s z u r S pä tan t ike . T r ie rer Z e i t schr if t 5 0 , p p31 15 . R eece , R . 1 990 R oman iza t ion : aP o in t o f V iew . i n T . B lagg & M . M i l le t t ( ed s . ) T he E a r ly R oman Emp ire i n t h e Wes t . O xfo rd ,O xbow B ooks , p p . 3 0 -34 . R he in ishe sL ande smuseum T r ie r 1 984a . T r ie r : A ugus tu s s tad td e rT reve re r . ( Exh ib i t ion C a ta logue ) Ma inz . R he in ishe sL ande smuseum T r ie r 1 984b .T r ie r : K a ise r re s idenz u nd B i schof s s i tz . ( Exh ib i t ion C a ta logue ) Ma inz . R ou se , I . 1 986 M ig ra t ions i nP reh is to ry : I n f er r ing P opu la t ion Movemen t F rom C u l tu ra l R ema ins . N ew H aven , Y a le U n ive r s i ty P res s . R ow le t t ,R . &P r ice , A . 1 982 . D if f e ren t ia lG ra in U se o n t h e T i t e lbe rg ,L uxembou rg . J our na l o fE thnob io logy 2 ,p p79 -88 . R ow le t t ,R . , T homa s , H . , R ow le t t . E . 1 982 . S t ra t if ied I r on A ge H ou se F loo r s o n t h e T i t e lbe rg , L uxembou rg . J ourna l o fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 9 ,p p30 1-312 . S ack s ,0 . 1 985 T he Man w ho M i s took h i s W if e f o r aH a ta nd O the rC l in ica l T a les . N ew Y o rk , S umm i tB ook s . T ay lo r , T . 1 992 Among t h e N ew B ook s . A n t iqu i ty 6 6 , p p975 -979 . T homa s , H . &R ow le t t , R . 1 979 P re l im ina ry R e su l t s o ft h e T i te lbe rg P ro je c t . i n L . F e ldman & E . R ow le t t ( ed s . ) T he 1 978 -79 A nnua l R epo r t o f t h e Museum o f A n th ropo logy . U n ive r s i ty o f M is sour i -C o lumb ia . C o lumb ia , T he Un ive r s i ty o fM is sou r i , p p . 5 0 -71 . T homa s , H . , R ow le t t , R . & R ow le t t , E . 1 975 . T he T i te lbe rg : AH i l l F o r t o fC e l t ic a nd R oman T imes . A rchaeo logy 2 8 (1 ) ,p p55 -57 . T homa s , H . , R ow le t t , R . & R ow le t t , E . 1 976 . E xcava t ions o n t h e T i te lbe rg , L uxembou rg . J ourna l o f F ie ld A rchaeo logy 3 ,p p241-259 . T oynbee ,J . 1 971 . D ea th a nd B u r ia l i nt h eR oman Wo r ld . I t haca ,C orne l lU n ive r s i ty P res s . We i I le r , R . 1 977 . D ie Münzfunde a u s d e r G rabung v om T e te lbe rg . I n J . Me tz le r &R . We i I le r ( ed s . ) B e i t räge z ur A rchäo log ie u nd Num isma t ik d e s T i te lbe rge s 9 1 , L uxembou rg , P ub l ica t ion d e l aS ec t ion H i s to r ique , p p . 18 1 95 Wigh tman ,E . 1 970 . R h ine land ' G rabgä r ten ' a nd t h e i rC on tex t . B onne rJ ah rbuch 1 70 ,p p211-227 . Wigh tman ,E . 1 971 . R oman T r ie ra nd t h eT r ever i . N ew Y o rk , P raege r . Wigh tman ,E . 1 985 . G a l l ia B e lg ica . L ondon , B a t s fo rd .

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E l i zabe th HA M ILTON

F igu re 1 .Map s how ing t h e l o ca t ion o fs i tes d i scu ssed i nt h is p ape r . I .T i te lberg

2 .C lemency

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4 4

5 .T r ie r 6 . Wede ra th -Be lg in ium

J DH ILL

How S hou ld We Under s tand I ron A ge S oc ie t ies a nd H i l lfor t s? A C on tex tua l S tudy f rom S ou thern B r i ta in J DH i l l C hu r ch i l lC o l lege ,C amb r idge , UK , CB3 ODN Abs trac t T h is p ape r o f f e r s ac a se s t udy f r om S ou the rn B r i ta in o f t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f L a te r P reh i s to r ic s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion . I nve s t iga t ing t h e h i l lfo r t s o f We s sex , a nd t h e s o c ia l f o rm s t ha t c on s t ruc ted a nd u sed t h em , i t o f f e r s ac r i t ique o f ad om inan t i n te rp re ta t ion w h ich s ee s h i l lfor t s a s c en t ra l p lace s w i th in ah i e ra rch ica l s oc ie ty , b efo re o u t l in ing t h eb a s i sf o ra no the r . T he e x i s t ing mode l i sc r i t ic ised f o ra s sum ing t h ee x i s tence o f ah i e ra rch ica l o rgan i sa t ion a nd ac ommon f o rm o f ' Ce l t ic ' S oc ie ty . T e s t ing t h i s i n te rp re ta t ion a ga ins t t h e d a ta f r om E a r ly a nd M idd le I r on Age We ssex d oe s n o t s uppor t t h e e x is tence o f h i l lfo r t s a s c en t re s o f p roduc t ion , e xchange o r a s e l i te r e s idence s . R a the r , ma te r ia l f r om s e t t lemen t e xcava t ions p o in t s t o a n a b sence o f ma rked s oc ia l i n equa l i t ie s , a nd t h a t h i l lfo r t s c omp lemen ted r a the r t han d om ina ted e x is t ing s e t t lemen ts y s tem s . T he f ounda t ion f o ra na l te rna t ive u nde r s tand ing o ft h e se s oc ie t ies i so f f e red t h a ts t re sse s t h e n eed t oe xam ine t h ep a r t icu la rd e ta i l s o fh ow s pec if ic s o c ie t ie s o pe ra ted . T he e v idence f r om E a r ly a nd M idd le I r on A ge Wessex s ugge s t s t h e e x is tence o f s oc ia l f o rms c en t red a round t he e conom ica l ly a nd s ymbo l ica l ly i s o la ted i nd iv idua lh ou seho ld . T he se s oc ia lf o rm sa r ed e sc r ibed i nt e rm so ft h e i rs oc ia lr e la t ion s o fp roduc t ion a nd t h e r o le o fh i l lfor t s w i th in t h em i sr e a s se s sed . Wi th in s uch af r amewo rk , i ti ss ugge s ted t h a t w e s hou ld a sk a s much w hy many S ou ther nE ng l ish I r on A ge s oc ie t ie s d id n o t n eed h i l lfo r t s , a s w hy o the r sd id? I ti ss ugge s ted t h a th i l lfo r t sa r en o ta so bv iou s ly c once rned w i th d ef ence a nd w a r f a re a sg ene ra l ly a s sumed a nd t h a th i l lfor t s d on o tr e p re sen t ac ohe ren t , mono l i th ic , c l a s s o f monumen t s ; e ach w i th t h e s ame u nchang ing f unc t ion s . I ndeed , r a the r t h an t h e t r ad i t iona l t o p d own a pp roach t oh i l lfor t s a nd o pp ida , i ti s a rgued t ha t ab o t tom u p p e r spec t ive i sr equ i red w h ich s e e s h i l lfo r t s a s n o t -f arm s tead s . A s ac l a ss o f monumen t s o n w h ich ad ive r se r a nge o fa c t iv i t ie s n o t f ound o n f a rm s tead s t ook p lace d i sc re te ly s pa t ia l ly d i s t ingu i shed f r om f a rm s tead s a nd h am le t s . O ne c ommon e l emen t b eh ind many o ft h e se s i te s , e spec ia l ly t ho se w i th in We s sex , may h ave b een a sc en t re sf o rc ommuna lr i tua ls a nd f e s t iv i t ie s .

Wha t i f ? Wha ti ft h e re w e re n o tc h iefdom si nt h eI r on A ge? Wha t i f t he d ef ence s s ur round ing h i l lfo r t s w e re n o t d e f en s ive? Wha t i ft h e c ommon a s sump t ion o f ag ene ra l i sed ' Ce l t ic ' f o rm o fI r on Age s oc ia lo rgan isa t ion o rr e l ig ion i s amy th? Wha t i fh i l lfo r t s a nd o pp ida c an n o t b e u nde r s tood w i th in t h ef r amewo rk o fC en t ra lP lace T heo r y? Wha ti ft h ev e ry a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd w ee xcava te i sn o ta s t ra igh t fo rwa rd r e f lec t ion o ft h ep a s t ? Wha ti ft h eE u ropean I r on A ge w a sf u ndamen ta l ly d i f f e ren t f r om w ha tw eh ave a lway sa s sumed? Wha ti f . . . ?

I ron Age S oc ie t ies i n Wes sex Wha ti f ad om inan ti n te rp re ta t ion o fS ou ther nE ng l i sh I r on Age s oc ie ty a nd t h er o le o fh i l lfo r t si sw rong? T he p reh i s to ry o f' We s sex ' h a so f ten b een w rong ly s een a s s ynonymous w i th B r i t i sh P reh i s to ry i ng ene ra l . ' We ssex ' i so ne s ma l l p a r t o f S ou the rn E ng land ( a pp rox . a r ea 1 20 l cm s b y 9 0 km s ) ( Cun l if f e 1 993 ) ( F ig . 1 ) . T he r e g ion h a s w i tne s sed ac oncen t ra t ion o fk ey r e sea r ch s i nce t h e 1 850 's , a nd t h ee xce l len tp re se rva t ion c ond i t ion sa nd l a rge n umbe r s o fd eep s ub -so i l f e a tu re s mean s t ud ie s c an d raw o n l a rge d a taba se so fa r te f a c t sa nd e cof ac t s . T he P re -Roman I r on A ge ( c .600BC t o AD43 ) i n We s sex w a s c ha rac te r ised b y ad ense ly u t i l ised l a nd scape o fs ma l l d i spe r sed e nc lo sed s e t t lemen t s s im i la rt oL i t t le Woodbu ry o rG u ssage A l l S a in t s , a nd l a rge re nc lo su re s -t r ad i t iona l ly c a l led h i l lfor t s -s uch a s Ma iden C a s t le a nd D anebu ry ( F ig . 2 ) . O ccupa t ion a nd e xp lo i ta t ion o fm a rg ina l a r ea s o f ft h e c ha lk , s uch a s t h e c oa s ta l p la in , w a s i n i t ia l ly l i gh t b u t i n c rea sed t h roughou t t h ep e r iod ( s ee F i tzpa t r ick & Mo r r i s 1 994 f o r at ho rough r e v iew o ft h e We s sex I r on A ge ) .

I ti si mpo r tan t t o r ecogn ise t ha t t h e se w e re n o t s t a t ic s oc ie t ie s . P rev ious a ccoun ts h ave e mpha s ised b o th t h e B ronze Age / I ron Age t r an s i t ion a nd t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e L a te I r on A ge a s c ruc ia l p er iod s o f c hange -d ue t o t h e e nd ing a nd b eg inn ing o f l ong d i s tance e xchange ( e .g . B rad ley 1 984 ; Cun l if fe 1 984b ) . Howeve r , r ecen t i n te rp re ta t ion s h ave s t ressed c on t inuou s c hange a nd t h e n eed t or e cogn ise t he l o ca l r oo t s o fd eve lopmen t s i nb o th t r an s i t ion s ( Ba r re t t , B rad ley & G reen 1 991 ; B rad ley 1 991 ; H a se lg rove 1 989 ) . R a the r t han s ee ing t he B ronze / I ron t r ans i t ion ( c .700BC ) a s a lmos t a c omp le te s oc ia l d evo lu t ion , i t i s i mpor tan t t o r ecogn ise i mpo r tan t c on t inu i t ie s ( Brad ley 1 990 , T homa s 1 989 ) . An i mpo r tan t c hange may h ave o ccu r red d u r ing t h e M idd le B ronze A ge ( c .1200 -1000BC ) , when t h e l ong monumen ta l t r ad i t ion so f t h e N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze Age g ave w ay t o n ew c u l tu ra lt r ad i t ion s ( Brad ley 1 991 ;B a r r e t t ,B rad ley & G reen 1 991 ) . F rom t h i sp e r iod a n a r chaeo logy o fs e t t lemen t sa nd f i e ld s b ecome s v i s ib le , i n c on t ra s t t o t h e l a ck o f v i s ib le s e t t lemen ta nd c oncen t ra t ion o nh igh ly v i s ib le f une ra ry a nd c ommuna l monumen t s i nt h ep reced ing 2 000 y ea r s . D u r ing t h eL a te B ronze A ge ama jo rr e -o rgan isa t ion o ft h e l a nd scape t ook p lace , w i th t he d iv is ion o fl a rge t r ac t s o f l a nd b y l ong l i nea r e a r thwo rk s . T he n umbe r s o f h i l lfo r t s / la rge e nc lo su res i n cr ease d u r ing t h e L a te B ronze A ge / E a r ly I r on Age . Many w e re c ons t ruc ted o ve r t h e i n te r sec t ion o f t he l i nea r e a r thwo rk s ( Cun l if f e 1 990 ) . B u r ia l s a r e v i r tua l ly a bsen t f r om t h e L a te B ronze Age t o M idd le I r on A ge . S ome h uman r ema ins a re f ound o n s e t t lemen t s (Wh im s te r 1 981) , a s p a r t o f ar i tua l t r ad i t ion i n vo lv ing t h e d epo s i t ion o fa n ima l s , h uman s a nd d ome s t ic o b je c t s ( H i l l 1 993a&b ) .

4 5

J DH ILL

A pp rox ima te D a t e 1008 00BC

C un l if f e 's C e ram ic P ha se

L a te B ronze Age

8 006 50BC 6 5050BC

P la in P o s tD eve re l -R imbu ry 1

E a r ly I r on Age

D eco ra t ed P o s tD eve r e l -R imbu ry

2

5 50 -450BC

3

S c ra t ched C o rdon Wa re B ow l s

4 50 -350BC

4 / 5

P ro to -Saucepan S t y le s

4 005 0BC

M idd le I r on Age

6 / 7

S aucepan S t y le s

1 001 0BC

L a te I r on Age

8

Whee lT u rned P o t s ,D re ss e l 1A /B

9

Whe e lT u rned P o t s ,D re s se l 1 B ,

1 0BC -AD50

G a ll i cI mpo r t s AB a s ic C h rono logy f o rt h e We s sex P re -Roman I r on A ge ( a f te rC un l if f e 1 984a :234 ; B a r re t t 1 980 . H i l l 1 993a & Mo r r i sP e r sc o rn , )

I nt h eE a r ly a nd M idd le I r on A ge sC un l i f f eh a sa r gued t h a t t h e n umbe r o fh i l lfo r t s d ecreased , p roduc ing al a nd scap e d om ina ted b y af ew , e ven ly s paced ' Deve loped H i l l fo r t s ' . I ti ss ugge s ted t h a t mo s t h i l l fo r t s w e re a bandoned d u r ing t h eF i r s tC en tu ry BC -t h eb eg inn ing o ft h eL a te h on A ge -a l though h i l l for t s i n t h e w e s t o f We s sex , e . g . Ma iden C a s t le a nd S ou th C adbu ry , r ema ined i mpo r tan t f o c i t i l l a f te rt h eR oman C onque s t . I mpo r tan tc hange so ccu r red a t t h i st ime i nS ou the rn E ng land , i n c lud ing t h ea ppea rance o f an ew mo r tua ry r i te ,c o inage , whee l made p o t t e ry , ` o pp i c ia ' a nd i mpo r ted G a ll i ca nd Med i te r ranean o b je c t s( Ha se lg rove 1 982 , 1 989 ) . I n We ssex l a te S econd C en tu ry BC c on ta c t s w i th We s t e rn G au la r ea ppa ren tt h rough H eng i s tbu ry H ead a nd o the r s i t e s ( Cun l if f e 1 987 ) . An umbe r o f ' Te r r i to r ia l O pp ida ' a r e n ow k nown f r om We s sex ( Co rney i nB a r r e t t , B rad ley & G re en 1 991 ) a nd b y t h e R oman C onque s t t h e a r ea w a s l a rge ly d iv ided b e tween t h e ' t r ibe s ' o f t h e D obunn i ,D u ro t r ige sa nd A t reba te s( Cun l if f e 1 984b , 1 993 ) .

e s tab l i shed u s ing t h e u b iqu i tou s p o lygon s . H i l lfo r t s w e re s upposed t ob e" foca lp o in t s" w h i ch " a r t icu la t ed t h es o c ia l , e conom ic , p o l i t ica l a nd p o s s ib ly r e l ig iou s s y s tems o f c l ea r ly d ef ined t e r r i to r ie s" ( Cun l if f e 1 984b :27 ) . T he m anage r s o f t h e se f unc t ion s a r e e xp l ic i t ly s t a ted a s t h e e l i te . T h i s i s a' B igge s ti sB e s t ' p h i lo sophy w h i ch a s sume st h a t ; T he L a rge s tE nc lo su r e s m u s th ave h ad T he L a rge s tP opu la t ion s a nd m u s th ave b een T he P eak o ft h eS e t t lemen tH ie r a r chy a nd mu s th ave b e en T he P eak o ft h eE conom ic S y s tem a nd mu s th ave b een

I : Cun l if f e 's I n terpre ta t ion o f H i l lfor ts

T he P eak o ft h eS oc ia lS y s tem .

T he c u r ren t d om inan t i n t e rp re ta t ion o fE a r ly a nd M idd le P re -Roman h on A ge s o c ie ty i n We s sex h a sb een p roduced t h rough t h e e xcava t ion s a tD anebu ry b y P ro f e s so r B a r ry C un l if f e . T h i s i so ne o fr ema rkab ly f ew e xp l ic i ta t temp t s t oi n te rp re tB r i t i sh h on A ge s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion ( Cun l if f e 1 983 ; 1 984a ,b&c ) . I tc omb ine s p roce s sua l i d ea s , s u ch a s c en t ra l p l a ce t h eo ry a nd a s y s tem ic , s oc ia l e vo lu t iona ry v i ew o f s o c ie ty , w i th t h e n o t ion o f au n ive rsa l ' Ce l t ic S oc ie ty ' ( c .f .C la rke 1 972 ) .

E ach s t age i nt h i s a rgumen t i so pen t oq ue s t ion ( Ba r r e t t 1 986 ) . I n C un l if f e 's 1 984 i n te rp re ta t ion i ti s f e l t t h a t i ti s r e la t ive ly e a sy t or e con s t ruc ts ub s i s tence a nd e xchange ,b u t d i f f icu l t t o r e ach s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion o r r e l ig ion ( c .f . H awke s 1 954 ' Ladde ro fI n f e rence ' ) . H e re t h e a ssumed e s sen t ia l u n i ty o f a' Ce l t ic ' E u ropean I r on A ge i sc en t ra l . D ocumen ta ry e v idence f r om l a te r ' Ce l t ic ' s o c ie t ie s ( i . e . s o c ie t ie s i n w h ich a ' Ce l t ic ' l a nguage w a s s poken ) c an r e ach t ho se p a r t s ( s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion a nd r e l ig ion ) t h a t a r chaeo logy a l one c anno t r e ach w i thou t d i ff i cu l ty . T he r e levance o ft h e se l i t e ra ry s ou r ce s ,o rt h ea pp rop r ia t en a tu re o ft h i sa pp roa ch ,i sn o td i s cu s sed .

T h i s mode l w e ld s t oge the r t wo w ide sp read a s sump t ion s a bou t l a te r p r eh i s to ry i n to a s i ng le a rgumen t , w i th t h e h i l lfo r t s a s t h e c en t ra l e l emen t . I ta s sumed t h a t t h e re e x i s ted b o th ; 1 .P ronounc ed s e t t lemen th i e ra r ch ie s a nd 2 .P ronounced s oc ia lh i e ra rch ie s .

A d e sc r ip t ion o f ' Ce l t ic S o c ie ty ' i sd r awn f r om E a r ly Med ieva l I r i sh l i t e ra ry s ou rce s ( C la s s i ca l s ou rce s a r ea l so u sed i np opu la ra ccoun t s -e . g . C un l i f f e 1 983 / 1993 ) . T h i s d e sc r ibe s ' Ce l t ic ' s oc ie ty a so rgan i sed i n to t r ibe sr u led b y k i ng sa nd s t ruc tu r ed t h rough c l an s . T h i si saC la s sD iv id ed s o c ie ty ( G iddens 1 984 ) , w i th a n a ppa ren t ly s e pa ra te , n on p roduc ing c l a s so fn ob le s /wa r r io r sl i nked t oc l ien tf r e emen f a rme r s . T h i s d e sc r ip t ion i su sed t oi n t e rp re t D anebu ry

T h i s i n te rp re ta t ion b u i ld s o n t h e a pp l ica t ion o f C en t ra l P l ace T heo ry i nh on A ge s t ud ie s ( s ee E .G ran t 1 986 ) . I t a c cep t s t h a th i l l fo r t s w e re c ompe t ing c en t ra l p l ace se ven ly d i s t r ibu ted a c ro s s t h e l a nd s cape , who se t e r r i to r ie s c an b e

4 6

JD H ILL 1 200AD , t h e u se o f e a r ly med ieva l I r ish l aw c ode s t o e xp la in D anebu ry i g no re s t h ef o l low ing ( c .f . Wa i le s 1 988 ) ;

( a nd h ence o the rh i l lfor ts ) a st h e r e s idence o ft h e k i ng a nd h i s s pe c ia l is t c ra f t smen . T ha t t h e f o r t w a s n o t a n e l i te r e s idence a nd s imp ly p rov ided s pe c ia l i s t f unc t ion s f o r t h e c ommun i ty i sr e je c ted a si t" wou ld b ei nc onf l ic tw i th w ha t i sk nown o fC e l t ic s oc ie ty" ( Cun l i f f e 1 984a : 5 62 ) .

O ne t housand y ea r s o f c hanges -i n c lud ing t h e i mpac t o f R oman Emp i re , C h r is t ian i ty , l i te racy , t h e t r ans i t ion t o f euda l i sm e t c . . . . ( F i tzpa t r ick 1 989 ) . A s s uch t h ey s hou ld n o tb es een e ven a sa ' w indow o n t h e I r ish I r on A ge ' ( A i tch ison 1 987 ) .

C r it ic is ms T h i si n te rp re ta t ion h a sc on t inued t ob eo f f e red b yP ro f es so r C un l i f fe ( e .g . 1 990 , 1 991 , 1 993 ) a nd h a s b ecome w ide ly a dop ted i n t h e l i t e ra tu re ( e .g . A udouze & B uchen schu t z 1 989 D a rv i l l 1 987 ; G ibson & G e se low i tz 1 988 ;G o sden 1 989 ; H ing ley 1 989 ; J one s 1 986 ) . H oweve r , o t he r s h ave r e jec ted t h is mode l ( e .g . C o l l is 1 985 ; H a se lg rove 1 986 ) , w h i le S top fo rd ( 1987 ) , B a r re t t ( 1989 ) , McG lade ( 1990 , f o r thcom ing ) a nd S ha rp le s ( 1991a , 1 991b , 1 991c ) h ave o f fe red i mpor tan t a l terna t ive i n te rp re ta t ions o f We s sex h i l l fo r t s -s e eH a se lg rove ( 1994 ) f o r ar ev iew .

T he f a c t t h a t t h e s oc ie ty d e sc r ibed i n t h e I r ish t e x tua l s ou rce s h ad n o th ing l i ke h i l lfor t s ( Co l l is 1 985 ) . T ha t t h e s ou rces t hemse lves a re i deo log ica l c ons t ruc t ions o f a n i dea l s oc ie ty -i dea l f o r a c e r ta in s e c t ion o f s oc ie ty -a nd n o t a n o b jec t ive d e scr ip t ion o f s oc ia l r ea l it ie s o fE a r ly Med ieva l I r e land ( A i tch i son 1 987 ; B a r re t t 1 981) .

T h i s i n te rp re ta t ion c an b ec r i t ic ised b o th f o ri t s ` Ce l t ic i sm ' a nd i t s Tunc t iona l ism /P roce ssua l i sm ' . I tr e s t s u pon a l a rge b ody o ff unct iona l is t a nd p roce ssua l is t a s sump t ions a bou t t h e n a tu re o fs oc ie ty a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , w h ich a r es imp ly t a ken a sg iven . A s s uch , t h e d e scr ip t ion o f I r on A ge s oc ie ty p re sen ted i sc l ea r ly t h e c l a s s ic S oc ia l E vo lu t iona ry mode lo fr ed i s t r ibu t ing C h iefdom s ( c .f . E a r le 1 977 . A s ys tem ic v iew o f s oc ie ty i so f fe red , i n w h ich s oc ia l c hange i sc aused b y d i se qu i l ibr ium a nd s t re s s p opu la t ion p re s su re e t c . ( c f . C un l if f e 1 991) . Wh i le t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i ss een a s d i rec t ly r ef le c t ing p a s t e conom ic a nd s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion . S pace p re c lude s af u l l c r i t ique o f t he se a ssump t ions , s ave t o s ay t h a t s uch p o s i t ions h ave b een i nc reas ing ly r e jec ted b y B r i t ish P reh i s to r ian s ,b o th t h rough a dvance s i nt h eory a nd ,j u s ta s i mpo r tan t ly , t h rough a n e ngagemen t w i th t h e d a ta ( s ee B a r re t t 1 993 ,T homa s 1 991 e t c . ) . H e re Iw an t t oc oncen t ra te o n t he e xp l ic i t ` Ce l t ic i sm ' o f t h i s i n te rp re ta t ion w h ich h a sr e ce ived m uch c r i t ic i sm . T he r e levance o fI r i sh med ieva l s oc ie ty f o ru nde r s tand ing E a r ly a nd M idd le I r on A ge We ssex h a s b een q ue s t ioned ( e .g . C o l l i s 1 985 ; H a se lg rove 1 986 ) . I mpo r tan t p rob lems w i th t h e ' Ce l t ic a pp roa ch ' a nd t h eu se o fl a te rE u ropean w r i t ten s ou rc e s o ra na log ie s t oi n te rp re tE u ropean p reh i s to ry h ave b een r e cogn i sed , s t re ss ing t h a ta l I r on A ge s oc ie t ie s mu s t b e p r ima r i ly u nde r s tood i n t h e i r o wn s pec if ic h i s tor ica l c on tex t , a nd n o t t h rough t h e i mpo s i t ion o f p o s s ib ly v e ry d i f f e ren ts oc ia lf o rms k nown f r om l a te ri nE u ropean h i s to ry ( s ee C hamp ion 1 987 ; C o l l is 1 985 ; C umbe rpa t ch & H i l l 1 993 ; F i tzpa t r ick 1 991 ; H i l l 1 989 , 1 993b ; Me r r iman 1 987 ) .

i v .

T ha t s uch s ou rce s c an b e r ead i n t he p re sen t t o p roduce d i f f e ren ti n te rp re ta t ions o ft h is i d ea lE a r ly Med ieva lI r i sh s oc ie ty ( a sc an C aesa r 's d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e s o c ia l o rgan isa t ion o f LPR IA G au l -o r a p a r to fG au l -H a se lg rove 1 987 :108 ) .

S im i la r a r gumen t s c an b e made a ga in s t t h e u se o f l i t e ra ry d e scr ip t ion sf r om L a te I r on A ge G au lo rS ou ther nE ng land , a l though c l o se r i n t ime a nd s pace t o Danebury . S uch d e sc r ip t ions a r e s pa r se a nd r e fe r t os oc ie t ie s w h ich w e re d emon s t rab ly v e ry d i f fe ren tw i th c o inage ,v i s ib le c r ema t ion mo r tua ry r i te , l o ng d i s tance e xchange , p res t ige i t ems , ` o pp ida ' e t c . . T h i s a c t s a s awa rn ing a ga ins t t h e u ncr i t ica l p ro jec t ion b ackwa rd s f r om s i tua t ion s w i th w r i t ten r e co rd s e ven s ho r t d i s tances i n to t he p a s t . C on t inu i ty a nd s t ra igh t fo rwa rd e vo lu t ion c an n o tb ea s sumed ; t h ey mu s tb e p roven . A s s uch a rchaeo log ica l a na lyse s mus t b e c on tex tua l a nd a lways p roceed f orwa rd s i n t ime ( H i l l 1 993b ) . We s hou ld n o t a ssume as i ng le g ene ra l f o rm o f ' Ce l t ic S oc ie ty ' i nI r on Age We s te rn E u rope , b u t r a the r e xpec t t oe ncoun t e r many d i f f e ren t a nd c hang ing t ype s o f s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion f o r p eop le s , many o f whom s poke a C e l t ic l a nguage ( amongs to the r s? ) . T es t ing t he Mode l T he p resence o fC h iefdoms , h i l lfo r t s a s p ivo ta l s oc ia l c en t re s , o r a' Ce l t ic s oc ie ty ' i nE a r ly a nd M idd le I r on A ge We s sex a r ea rchaeo log ica lq ues t ion s . A s Woo lf ( 1993 )h a s a rgued f o r ` Opp i c ia ' ,t h es uppo sed s pec ia l n a tu re o fh ilfo r t s n eed s t ob ea s se ssed i nt h ec on tex to ft h e w ho le s e t t lemen t s ys tem o f w h ich t h ey w e re a p ar t . F o r D anebury t h is mean s t e s t ing t h e h ypo the s is a ga ins t d a ta f r om t h e l a rge n umbe r o fr e sea rch a nd , e spec ia l ly , r e scue e xcava t ions o n o the r s i te s i nt h e r eg ion ( Co ll i s 1 985 ; C un l i f fe 1 984a :559 ; H a se lg rove 1 986 :367 ) . C un l if fe i d en t i f ie s s eve ra lk ey a r ea s i n w h ich D anebu ry wa s s uppo sed ly s upe r ior t o o the r s e t t lemen t s w h ich c an b e t e s ted u s ing d a ta f r om a l a rge s amp le o f e xcava ted c on tempo ra ry s i tes , mo s t w i th in 3 0kms o fD anebu ry . I n t e s t ing t h e mode l Ih ave made n o a ccoun tf o rc hange w i th in t h eE a r ly a nd M idd le I r on A ge .

T he ` Ce l t ic ism ' o f C un l if fe 's i n te rp re ta t ion i sp a r t o f a l o ng t r ad i t ion i nI r on A ge r e sea rch w h ich a s sume s ab a s ic s im i la r i ty b e tween a l l C e l t s ; t h a t s peake r s o f t h e s ame l a nguage s ha red e t hn ic i ty , t empe ramen t , r e l ig ious i d ea s , c u l tu re , s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion e t c . .I ta u thor ise s t h e u se o f l i te ra ry d escr ip t ion s o f h i s to r ica l ly a nd g eog raph ica l ly s pec if i c s oc ie t ie s t h a t s poke aC e l t ic l a nguage a st h e o n ly v a l id a na log ies t o e xp la in o the r h i s to r ica l ly a nd g eog raph ica l ly s pe c if ic s oc ie t ie s , s uch a s a tD anebu ry , w h ich a r ea s sumed t oh ave s poken aC e l t ic l a nguage ( a long w i th o t he r s? ) .

T he s t udy s umma r ised h e re i s o ne o f f ew a t temp t s t o c ompa re p reh is to r ic s e t t lemen t s s y s tema t ica l ly ( c .f . We l l s 1 986 ) . Mos t c ompa r isons a re u sua l ly c u r so ry ( an e xcep t ion i s Ma rchan t 1 989 ) a nd t r ea t ma ter ia l f r om s e t t lemen t s a s as t ra igh t forwa rd r ef lec t ion o fp a s t a c t iv i t ie s -w h ich i s q ue s t ionab le ( Champ ion 1 987 ; H i l l 1 989 , 1 993a&b ) . H oweve r , t ot e s tt h e mode l o n i t s o wn t e rm s , I s imp ly a s sume t h a t t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd w a s ad i re c t

T h i s a pp roach i g no res o bv iou s d i f f e rence s b e tween v ery d i spa ra t es oc ie t ie st op roduce ag ene ra l i sed ' Ce l t ic S oc ie ty ' . E ven a s sum ing ad eg ree o fc on t inu i ty i nt h e p opu la t ion o r l a nguage b e tween We ssex c . 700 -100BC a nd I r e land c . 800 -

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J DH ILL r e f le c t ion o ft h e n a tu re a nd s c a le o fe conom ic a nd s oc ia l a c t iv i t ie s -a sC un l i f f e 's h ypo the s i sd id . S imp le s i t e t o ta l s f o r d i f f e r en tm a te r ia l m ake n o a lowance f o r t h e s ca le o f e xcava t ion s a td i f f e ren ts i te s , s t re s s ing t h e n eed f o r s ome s t anda rd i sa t ion . T he m a jo r i ty o f f i nd s f r om s uch s i te s c ome f r om t h e f i l l s o f p i t s . C a lcu la t ing t h e d ens i ty o f m a te r ia l p e r v o lume o fe xcava ted p i t w a s f ound t ob e a u se fu l c r ude g u ide t oc ompa r e s i te s . H oweve r , t h i s d oe s n o ta l low f o rd i f f e rence si ns amp l ing a nd r e cove ry , -o rf o r t h e f a c t t h a t s u ch m a te r ia l i sn ow k nown t o c ome f r om i regu la rr i tua ld epo s i t s ( H i l l 1 993a&b ) . ( s ee H i l l 1 988 f o r f u l ld e ta i l so ft h ea na lys i s ) .

s i te s (F ig 3 a ) . S i te s s pec ia l i s ing i nt h e o ne o r m o re p a r t s o ft h et e x t i le manu f a c tu r ing p ro ce s sp robab ly s hou ld y i e ld h i ghe r d ens i t ie s o f l o om w e igh t s o r s p ind le w ho r l s t h an o the r s i te s . C a lcu la t ions o f s uch d en s i t ie s s ugge s t D anebu ry w a sa v erage ,a nd d i dn o th ave t h ee xpec ted h i ghe r d ens i t ie s c ompa red t oo the r s i te s ( H i l l 1 988 ) ( F ig . 3 a ) . A s im i la r r e su l t w a s o b ta ined b y c a lcu la t ing t h e r a t io o f s p ind le w ho r l s a nd l oom w e igh t s , ap o s s ib le i n d ica to r o f t h er e la t ive p ropo r t ion s o fs p inn ing t ow eav ing ( H i l l 1 988 , Ma rchan t 1 989 ) ( F ig . 4 a&b ) . T he re fo re , c l a ims t h a t D anebu ry w a s as pe c ia l ised w eav ing c en t re ( Se l lwood 1 984 )c an n o tb es uppo r ted .

S torage Ac ha rac te r i s t ic f e a tu re o fm any B r i t ish h i l lfo r t s i st h e i r l a rge n umbe r o f c e rea l s t o rage f a c i l i t ie s -b o th b e low g round p i t s / s i lo sa nd a bove g r ound ' f ou rp o s te r s ' /g rana r ie s ( Gen t 1 983 ) . T he c e r ea l st h a tw e re s t o red o nt h e se s i t e sa r e i n te rp re ted a s e i the r c ommuna l r e serve s p ro tec ted f r om a t tack , o r t r ibu te t o ak i ng / ch ie f ta in . H oweve r , n o t a l l We s sex h i l lfo r t s h ad s t o rage s t r uc tu re s ( e .g . P i l sdon P en ; G e l l ing 1 977 ) , a nd n o ta l h ad s u ch f a c il i t ie s i ns uch h i gh d en s i t ie s a sa tD anebu ry ( e .g . W ink lebu ry ; Sm i th 1 977 ) . A t Ma iden C a s t le , t h ed en se n umbe r s o fs t o rage s t ruc tu re s w e r e o n ly a f e a tu re o f t h e E a r ly I r on A ge p ha se o f t h e h i l l fo r t ,n o to ft h e M idd le I r on A ge p ha se w i th i t s i n ten se o ccupa t ion ( Sha rp le s 1 99 1c ) . E qua l ly , t h e l a rge n umb e r s o fp i t s a nd ' f ou rp o s te r s ' a ts ome /many h i l lfo r t s mu s tb e s e t i n aw ide rp e r spec t ive . C e rea l s t o rage i s ap rom inen t f e a tu re o f mo s t S ou the rn E ng l i sh E a r ly a nd M idd le I r on A ge s i te s , d e f ended o rn o t . N on -h i l l fo r ts e t t lemen t s c ou ld h ave s t o red a mp le c e rea l s , e ven a s u rp lu s f o r e xchange ( Fa sham 1 985 :141-142 ) , s ugges t ing t h ey w e re n o t d ependen to ng r a in r e d i s t r ibu t ed f r om h i l lf o r t s .

H i l lfor t s w e re s upposed t o b e c en t re s f o r l a rge s c a le o r s pec ia l i s t i r on s m i th ing a nd b ronze w o rk ing , b u t t h e r e i s l i t t le e v idence t o s ugges t t h a t me ta l w o rk ing w a s m o r e i n ten s ive o rs pe c ia l i sed a th i l l fo r t s t h an n on -h il fo r t s i t e s . I ndeed i ti sp o s s ib le t oc l a im t h e r eve r se ( Co l l i s 1 985 ) . . E v idence f o rm e ta l w o rk ing ( s lag , c r uc ib le se t c . ) i sf o und o n a lmo s t a l l I r on Age s i tes i n We s sex ( Mo r r is f o r thcom ing ) . I n t h e f i r s t t e n y ea r s a tD anebu ry , o n ly 8 . 6kg o fs l ag w a s r e cove red f r om a ne x cava t ion o fa lmo s t 1 000 p i t s . Non -h i l lfo r t s i te s h ave p roduced h i ghe r d en s i t ie s -e . g . 7 5kg+ f r om 3 80 p i t sa tG u s sage ( No r thove r 1 988 :227 ) o r 3 2kg o f i r on s l ag f r om a s i ng le p i t a t R uc t sha l l s H i l l ( O l ive r & A pp l in 1 979 :190 ) . T he l a t te r c oncen tra t ion o fd eb r i si sm i r ro r ed a tG u s sage p i t2 09 ,w i th 7 . 5kg o fs l ag p l u sc r uc ib le s , t o o l sa nd m ou ld f r agmen t sf o r 5 0 s e t s o f h o r se h ar nes s ( Sp ra t l ing 1 979 ) . S ugge s t ion s t h a t D anebu ry w a s as pec ia l i s t c en t re f o r s hee t b ronze w o rk ing ( No r thove r 1 988 )a r eb a sed u pon a' c oncen t ra t ion ' o f 4 5 f r agmen t s f r om t he s i te i n t h e f i r s t t e n y ea r s e xcava t ion s . O ve ra l l , t h e e v idence s uppo r t s c onc lu s ion s t h a t me ta l w o rk ing i nt h e I r on A ge o f S ou ther nE ng land w a su ncen t ra l i sed c r a f ta c t iv i ty ( Sa l te r &E h r en r e ich 1 984 ) . T h i s i st r ue f o r o t he r a rea s o fp roduc t ion a nd e xchange . l i on A ge We s sex c an b e c ha rac te r ised b y al ow l e ve l o f e ven ly s p r ead c r a f t p roduc t ion , w i th l i t t le l a rge r s c a le p roduc t ion o re xchange b eyond t h o se c ommod i t ie se s sen t ia l t os ub s i s t ence - s u ch a sq ue rn s ,s a l ta nd l i m i t ed q uan t i t ie s o f me ta l .

E ven i ft h er ed i s t r ibu t ion o fa g r icu l tu ra lp roduce t o ok p l a ce -ac en t ra l f e a tu re a r gued f o r ' Ch ie fdom ' t ype s o f s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion ( e .g .E a r le 1 977 ) -i tn e ed n o th ave i n vo lved a s pec i f ic , c en t ra l i sed l o ca t ion . T he re i s e v idence f o r c omp lex s y s tems o fe xchange a nd r ed i s t r ibu t ion o fc e r ea l s a nd a n ima l s o n al o ca l l e ve l w i th in t h e Uppe r T hame s V a l ley a tt h i s t i me ( c . 6 0k m s N o r th o fD anebu ry ) ( J one s 1 985 ) . T h i sa r ea c on ta in sf ew h i lfo r t sa nd J one s d oe sn o t i n voke ah i l l fo r tt oc o -o rd ina t et h i sn e two rk . D anebu ry d i d r e ce ive , p roce s s a nd s t o re c r op s f r om a w ide r ange o f e nv i ronmen t s f ound b eyond a n o p t ima l d i s tance f o r p ra c t ica lf a rm ing f r om t h ef o r t( J one s 1 984a ) . Howeve r ,a s s im i la r w o rk o n o t he r n on -h i l lfo r t s i te s i n t h e r eg ion i s l a ck ing , i ti sd i ff i cu l t t oe va lua te D anebu ry 's a nd o t he r h i l lfo r t s ' s uppo sed d i f f e rence . I ti sh a rd t oq uan t ify t h e a c tua lp ropo r t ion o fg r a in c om ing t oD anebu ry f r om d i s tan t e co tome s . F u r the rw o rk m ay d emon s t ra te as im i la rp a t te rn o n s upposed ly ' l owe r o rde r ' s e t t lemen t s , t h e l o ca t ion o f many s i te s e nab l ing t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f t wo o r mo r e d i f f e r en te nv i ronmen t s , u nknown s y s tem so fl a nd t e nu re o r n on -op t im i s ing a g r icu l tu ra lp r a c t ice s ,a nd l o ca le xchange . C raf t P roduc t ion & E xchange A k ey a spec t o f C un l if f e 's 1 984 i n te rp re ta t ion i s t h e a s sumed p r e sence o fl a rge -s ca le c r a f tp rodu c t ion a bove t h e n e ed so ft h er e s id en tp opu la t ion . O ne s u ch h i gh l igh t ed a r ea i st e x t i le p roduc t ion , b u te v idence ( l oom w e igh t s , s p ind le w ho r ls a nd c omb s ) i su b iqu i tous o n S ou the rn E ng l i sh s i tes . A s s uch i t i s n ece s sa ry t o d emons t ra te a s pe c ia l isa t ion o r c oncen t ra t ion o f p roduc t ion a t h i l lfo r t s b eyond t h a t o n o t he r s e t t lemen t s ( Ma rchan t 1 989 ) . A p o s s ib le m ea su re o f t h e s c a le o f p roduc t ion i s o f t h e d en s i t ie so ft e x t i le m anu f a c tu r ing e qu ipmen tr e cove r ed f r om

4 8

Dome s t ic p roduc t ion a nd l ow l eve ls o f e xchange c ha rac te r i se mo s tp o t te ry p roduc t ion f o rt h ep e r iod i nt h i s r eg ion - i tw a s n o tn e ce s sa r i ly t h e c a s e f o ro t he rp a r t s o f S ou ther n B r i ta in ( s ee Mo r r i s 1 981 , f o r th com ing ) . I nt h e E a r ly a nd M idd le I r on Age p o t te ry p roduc t ion d i dn o tu s e k i lns , s o d i re c t e v idence f o r p roduc t ion i sa bsen t . O n ly v e ry s ma l l q uan t i t ie s (

awn • : • . 6 0 4 . 0 0 A s eew . 's -r . e

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