Interiors Construction Manual: Integrated Planning, Finishings and Fitting-Out, Technical Services 9783034614474, 9783034602822

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Interiors Construction Manual INTEGRATED PLANNING FINISHINGS AND FITTING-OUT TECHNICAL SERVICES

Edition ∂

HAUSLADEN TICHELMANN

Interiors Construction Manual INTEGRATED PLANNING FINISHINGS AND FITTING-OUT TECHNICAL SERVICES HAUSLADEN TICHELMANN Birkhäuser Basel Edition Detail Munich

Authors Gerhard Hausladen Prof. Dr.-Ing. Chair for Building Climate & Building Services, Munich University of Technology Karsten Tichelmann Prof. Dr.-Ing. Institute for Dry & Lightweight Construction (ITL) Institute for Timber & Dry Lining Materials Testing (VHT), Darmstadt

Specialist contribution (introduction): Wolfgang Brune, Dipl.-Ing., architect and urban planner Brune Architekten, Munich Assistants, specialist contributions: Bernhard Friedsam, Dr. med., specialist for acupuncture (comfort), practice of Dr. med. Bernhard Friedsam, Munich Christoph Matthias, Dipl.-Ing. Designer (light) Lichtlauf – Planung.Design.Produkt, Munich

Project management: Ulla Feinweber, Dipl.-Ing. Architect (space and form, integrated planning, technical services); Katrin Rohr, Dipl.-Ing. (space and form, integrated planning, technical services); Bastian Ziegler, Dipl.-Ing. (finishings and fittings-out)

Thomas Rühle, Dipl.-Ing. (materials) Intep – Integrale Planung GmbH, Munich

Assistants: Cécile Bonnet, Dipl.-Ing. (energy supplies); Philipp Dreher, Dr.-Ing. (light); Julia Drittenpreis, Dipl.-Ing. (concepts and building typologies); Martin Ehlers, Dipl.-Ing. (planning the sanitary installations); Elisabeth Endres, Dipl.-Ing. (comfort, energy requirements); Michael Fischer, Dipl.-Ing. Architect (building standards); Johanne Alesia Friederich, BA, MSc (planning the electrical installation); Robert Fröhler, MEng (space requirements for technical services); Zuzana Giertlová, Dr. (fire protection in: materials, heating/cooling/ventilation, planning the electrical installation, space requirements for technical services); Christian Huber, Dipl.-Ing. (space requirements for technical services); Friedemann Jung, Dipl.-Ing. (location and climate, energy requirements, heating/cooling/ ventilation); Hana Riemer, Dipl.-Ing. (concepts and building typologies); Timm Rössel, Dipl.-Ing., MSc (heating/cooling/ventilation); Judith Schinabeck, Dipl.-Ing. (materials); Uta Steinwallner, Dipl.-Ing. (heating/cooling/ ventilation); Tobias Wagner, Dipl.-Ing. (energy supplies, planning the sanitary installations); Sebastian Wissel, Dipl.-Ing. (building automation)

Lars Klemm, Dipl.-Rest. (concepts and building typologies – museums) Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics, Valley

Undergraduate assistants (Chair for Building Climate & Building Services): Christine Sittenauer, Philipp Vohlidka

Thomas Roggenkamp, Dipl.-Ing., MEng Trane – Klima- und Kältetechnisches Büro GmbH, Krailling

Editorial services

Bibliographic information published by the German National Library. The German National Library lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de.

Project Manager: Steffi Lenzen, Dipl.-Ing. Architect Editor: Cornelia Hellstern, Dipl.-Ing. Editorial assistants: Carola Jacob-Ritz, MA; Sandra Leitte, Dipl.-Ing.; Julia Liese, Dipl.-Ing.; Peter Popp, Dipl.-Ing.; Eva Schönbrunner, Dipl.-Ing. Drawings: Dejanira Ornella Bitterer, Dipl.-Ing.; Melanie Denys, Dipl.-Ing.; Ralph Donhauser, Dipl.-Ing.; Daniel Hajduk, Dipl.-Ing.; Martin Hämmel, Dipl.-Ing.; Emese Köszegi, Dipl.-Ing.; Nicola Kollmann, Dipl.-Ing. Architect; Simon Kramer, Dipl.-Ing.; Elisabeth Krammer, Dipl.-Ing. Translation into English: Gerd H. Söffker, Philip Thrift, Hannover Proofreading: Raymond D. Peat, Alford, UK Production & layout: Roswitha Siegler, Simone Soesters Reproduction: Martin Härtl OHG, Martinsried Printing & binding: Kösel GmbH & Co. KG, Altusried-Krugzell

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Peter Springl, Dipl.-Ing. (sanitary installations) Springl – Ingenieurbüro für Haustechnik, Ingolstadt

Consultancy services: Robert Busch-Maass, Dipl.-Ing., MAS Lumen3 Lichtplanungsbüro, Munich Fabian Ghazai, Dipl.-Ing. (building automation) Chair for Building Climate & Building Services, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Gerhard Hausladen, Munich University of Technology Ingenieurbüro Hausladen GmbH, Kirchheim Josef Bauer; Florian Hausladen, Dipl.-Ing., MEng; Cornelia Jacobsen, Dipl.-Ing. Christoph Meyer, Dr.-Ing. Ingenieurbüro für Bauklimatik – Hausladen+Meyer GbR, Kassel

This work is subject to copyright. All rights reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in other ways, and storage in databases. For any kind of use, permission of the copyright owner must be obtained. This book is also available in a German language edition (ISBN 978-3-0346-0134-4) Publisher: Institut für internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co. KG, Munich www.detail.de © 2010 English translation of the 1st German edition Birkhäuser GmbH PO Box 133, 4010 Basel, Switzerland Printed on acid-free paper produced from chlorine-free pulp. TCF∞ ISBN: 978-3-0346-0282-2 (hardcover) ISBN: 978-3-0346-0284-6 (softcover) 987654321

www.birkhauser-architecture.com

Contents

6

Preface

10

Part A Space and form Gerhard Hausladen 1 Comfort Elisabeth Endres, Ulla Feinweber, Bernhard Friedsam 2 Light Philipp Dreher, Christoph Matthias, Katrin Rohr 3 Materials Ulla Feinweber, Thomas Rühle, Judith Schinabeck

Gerhard Hausladen Heating, cooling, ventilation Friedemann Jung, Timm Rössel, Uta Steinwallner 2 Planning the electrical installation Johanne Friederich, Sebastian Wissel 3 Planning the sanitary installation Martin Ehlers, Peter Springl, Tobias Wagner 4 Space requirements for technical services Robert Fröhler, Christian Huber 1

Introduction On the idea of the interior Wolfgang Brune

Part D Technical services

32

174

186 196

208

46 Part E 60

Case studies

Project examples 1 to 20

213

Part F Appendix Part B

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2 3

4

Integrated planning

Gerhard Hausladen Concepts and building typologies Julia Drittenpreis, Hana Riemer, Lars Klemm Location factors Friedemann Jung Energy and buildings Elisabeth Endres, Michael Fischer, Friedemann Jung Energy supplies Cécile Bonnet, Tobias Wagner

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100

Statutory instruments, directives, standards Bibliography Authors Picture credits Index of names Subject index

274 277 279 280 283 284

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108

Part C Finishings and fitting-out Karsten Tichelmann, Bastian Ziegler 1 Wall systems 2 Ceiling systems 3 Flooring systems 4 Fire-resistant casing systems

120 140 156 168

5

Preface

Normally, when we think about architecture we do not immediately think of the interior. Instead, it is primarily the outsides of buildings that attract our attention and the attention of the critics. The built environment – in the best cases we can speak of architecture – represents not only the client, but much more the society in which it is erected, from which it has evolved. There are good reasons why the expression “culture of building” has kindled ambitious discussions surrounding the existence or non-existence of architecture. And perhaps quite rightly so. For the building envelope does indeed shape its immediate environment and not infrequently exercises a considerable influence on a locality. At best, we see the insides of only a fraction of the buildings we encounter. When it comes to the interior of a building, it seems that this matter is, at first glance, very much more private, subjective and, primarily, ephemeral, changeable. When we do consider the interior, it is mostly from the functional viewpoint, the requirements that living, learning, working, sports, the arts or leisure activities place on the building. Accordingly, the architect normally draws up plans for rooms – within the overall context of the whole building, of course – according to the interior layout requirements defined beforehand in his brief. Here, besides economic aspects, it is frequently functionality and flexibility that are the main criteria. At the same time, however, the interior means much more than just the enclosed areas within a building. It is the place for people to live, relax and develop, and the yardstick by which they measure those things. The use of an interior space should be reflected in its design. The dimensions and proportions of the rooms, their zoning, degree of openness, lighting and navigation create differentiated areas, enable us to experience the interior. The interior fittingout, with its choice of shapes, materials and lighting, becomes a crucial aspect with respect to atmosphere and well-being. Intangible qualities such as interior climate, acoustics, odours, lighting conditions and colours exercise a subtle influence on users and their perception of the interior which is impossible to ignore. Appropriate knowledge, appreciation and consideration at

6

an early stage of the design is therefore the foundation for successful planning. However, the architectural, haptic and intangible qualities of interior spaces can never be considered in isolation. They are always directly related to each other and to the exterior conditions, e.g. climate, location, traffic, regional materials and energy supplies. Good architecture is therefore quite rightly defined as a successful exterior AND interior. Many planning and design tasks these days are linked with all the components of the interiors of the building stock. The building stock frequently brings with it – in addition to the boundary conditions already mentioned above – diverse geometrical, functional and, usually, technical characteristics or preconditions. What we need here, much more than with new-build projects, is interdisciplinary thinking at the design stage plus adequate knowledge of the possibilities and systems. In doing so, the flexibility of the interior, especially when considering old buildings, turns out to be not only a desirable sideeffect, but rather the critical prerequisite for developing buildings fit for the future. In principle, the development of sustainable architecture (inside and outside) has to be understood as a multi-dimensional, integrative process that takes place on many different levels of the planning and calls for an approach appropriate to the location, the users and the brief. In other words, a holistic view of all matters and the building within a total system. This therefore combines ambitious architecture with an optimised loadbearing structure, intelligent use of building services and suitable choice of materials at the detail level. That in turn presumes integrated planning and cooperation right from the start. This demand applies to the interior to the same extent, to its surfaces, the design of visible and/or invisible details and aesthetically integrated building services that function optimally and seem to be a natural part of the whole. The elements of the interior fitting-out that create the interior spaces themselves – like those of the entire building – not only have to satisfy requirements such as sound and thermal insu-

lation, moisture control and fire protection, but in addition room acoustics, hygiene and interior climate functions. Successful planning therefore calls for extensive specialist knowledge. The integration of highly functional technical services elements represents only one of the many challenges. The Interiors Construction Manual not only adds yet another theme to the series of Construction Manuals from DETAIL, but also presents a multifaceted, interdisciplinary work that implies an integrated planning process. What we are dealing with here is not so much one type or form of construction, not one building material, not one or several construction elements. Instead, the focus is the “total concept” planning approach, an alliance between engineering (sciences), research and architecture. The Interiors Construction Manual provides fundamental and in-depth specialist knowledge for all phases of the design process. It will serve architects, engineers and students as a sound work of reference and an aid for making and explaining their decisions. Preserving the tried-and-tested layout of the Construction Manuals from DETAIL, the Interiors Construction Manual is divided into five main parts complemented by a thematic introduction and a comprehensive appendix. The introduction, “On the idea of the interior”, focuses on the key aspects of this subject. It explores the history and besides describing the general development of interior works also establishes the principal relationships between interior and exterior design. Part A, “Space and form”, discusses intangible influences and qualities such as comfort, light and materials. The principal theme here is perception and atmosphere, seemingly “soft” factors that, however, are far less subjective than is often supposed and in most cases can be readily planned and controlled. Critical for our well-being, in addition to quantifiable comfort and optimum lighting design, is the choice of materials, which implies direct tactile experiences and at the same time has to take into account all the technical demands regarding durability and life cycles. The aim of this section of the book is not to describe all the materials available,

but rather to provide the basis for reaching decisions regarding the specific use of this or that material for a particular interior detail. Part B, “Integrated planning”, presents the theory of how it can and should work in practice. All the framework conditions are reflected in this part of the book and demonstrate the wide range of influences. As the qualities of the interior can only function in the context of the exterior and all the other overriding requirements, this section of the book in particular is guided by the notion of interdisciplinary thinking at the interface between building envelope and space. The interior design can follow the form of the building and its envelope, but can also be designed to contrast with them. What is essential here, though, is the holistic consideration of the building as a complete system: outside – inside, urban space – interior space, general – detailed. From the master urban planning documents and concepts for energy supplies to communities right down to detailed issues of the building’s construction and services, networked thinking and an interdisciplinary working process are always in the forefront of successful planning. Part C, “Finishings and fitting-out”, discusses the current standards and designs for wall, ceiling and floor systems and devotes considerable attention to the use of lightweight and dry materials for interior works. Just as in the past, the form of the enclosing elements in conjunction with the technical elements is still unfortunately mainly additive instead of integrative, and this means that the options available are by no means fully exploited. The flexibility and integration of building services requirements in conjunction with unrestricted forms and an almost unrestricted choice of materials deserve particular attention here. The transition between the individual subjects is often indistinct – exactly like the transitions between the individual interior spaces. The contours between wall, ceiling and floor systems plus space-forming furniture are becoming increasingly vague. The desire to make building services aspects “invisible” increases the demands, increases the complexity. Junctions, connections and details are therefore given special attention in this section. Part D, “Technical services”, investigates the

building services options in depth without, however, becoming bogged down in technical details. The communication of relevant knowledge for the successful planning of interior works is the focus of the treatment here. Themes such as HVAC (heating, ventilating & air conditioning), planning of electrical and plumbing installations or the space requirements of building services concentrate on presenting the vital specialist knowledge needed to underpin decisions. Potential solutions for all designers involved with interior works are provided, which at the same time promotes mutual understanding – a fundamental prerequisite for successful integrated cooperation. The projects shown in Part E, “Case studies”, were mainly selected in order to illustrate the relationship between the demands placed on the interior design, the quality of the construction and, in some circumstances, also conservation and building services requirements. The projects show the broad spectrum of interior works with all its interdisciplinary approaches on an exemplary architectural level. Keywords at the end of each project description provide a brief guide to the particular features and selection criteria of the respective project. Nevertheless, these projects remain merely examples of the almost infinite possibilities and recent rapid technological developments and should be used and understood as such. We would like to express our sincere thanks to all those institutions and persons whose competent and dedicated contributions have helped to make this book possible. Our thanks also go to our families and friends who cleared the decks in order that we could complete this publication. The authors and publishers August 2009

7

Introduction

On the idea of the interior Interiors are life-worlds Genesis Interiors for cultural identification Built aspiration The new spirit and the unconfined space The living space experiment The “plan libre” The industrialisation of the life-world Light and space Personalisation and tradition The demand for clarity Fitting-out and room concepts

Fig. 1

10 10 11 13 15 16 19 20 23 23 24 26 29

Humayun Mausoleum, c. 1570, Delhi (IND)

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On the idea of the interior Wolfgang Brune

2

Interiors are life-worlds

2

3

10

“Life begins at home.” The question regarding to what extent the rooms in which we live can condition how we live is one that concerns not only the Swedish furniture producer IKEA. This problem has always affected all planners and designers and will continue to do so. An igloo represents an ideal answer using the only building material available, snow. Only with an igloo is living under such extreme climatic conditions possible. Courtyard in a beehive house complex Compactness appears to be the basis for standard forms of construction in very diverse climate regions.

The interior fittings and furnishings of buildings embody the transition from the generalities of the structure to the specifics of our living environment. Besides the technical issues, there are more elementary questions to answer: Can we really configure our living environment ourselves? Within that environment, are we free to make our own decisions? Are we in the position to use, indeed imagine, objects that lie outside the traditions of our world of commodities prepared by industry and marketing strategies? Or vice versa and inevitably: To what extent can massproduced products, i.e. modular systems, be personal in any way, i.e. portray cultural or individual identities? When considering the interaction between a personally designed living environment and one that shapes our personality, over the centuries we have seen again and again profound reinterpretations of living spaces. What was treasured yesterday – the uniqueness of a material, for example, or extraordinary manual skills – over time gives way to the opinions of successive generations, e.g. the simple, the historical, the industrially manufactured, the decorative, the morphed and so on. Historicism, for example, brought aesthetic, position and practical value closer together around the turn of the 20th century, but insisted on ornamentation dominating the appearance. It was not feats of engineering that were in the foreground in this period, but rather the will to fashion. A programme of ornamentation continued into the facades, the staircases and even the living rooms. It has enjoyed the prestige of the special up to the present day, but back then was very often industrially manufactured. Furthermore, predetermined patterns of utilisation and built-in items left the occupants little leeway with respect to the use of the rooms. Instead of personal taste, position and style were the dominating factors. A fundamental problem of the world of commodities and products is implied here, which in the construction sector, too, led to the question of the right relationship between the stipulations determined by production and individual freedoms. Currently, for example, the historicising external image is once again the desired motif, as is

demonstrated by the ever-present debate surrounding reconstruction and new forms of decoration. So the design positions are changing constantly and every generation has to redefine them. The respective aesthetic principles are always relevant here when planned environment and social conditions meet. But how does this planned environment arise? The primary aim of all building work is and always has been the provision of a shelter for some commodity that requires protection. In the beginning this was certainly the provision of shelters for people, who required protection from certain external influences. But important goods also require shelter – works of art, e.g. in museums, commodities in warehouses, the dead in tombs, and much more besides. Interior worlds and exterior worlds were separated, indeed created, by building works. It is from this seemingly banal principle that we derive all the demands that we place on any form of shelter. On the functional level it is necessary to oppose the given circumstances, e.g. the climatic conditions, or to guarantee protection and separation from the social environment. The cultural ambition and hence the level of design is always intrinsic to these requirements. Everything we use to separate the exterior from the interior creates a form. The form has become inseparable from building and hence all difficulties and potential solutions that are linked with design. We must therefore assume that all actions and hence all building, too, is motivated. When we plan and build interior spaces, we are therefore following one or more motifs, functional and cultural, in one form or another. The question of the hierarchy, i.e. the ranking of the motifs, is one that often crops up. Is form subordinate to function or vice versa? Or is the function the form? Or does it only follow it, as Mies van der Rohe postulated? And what does this obedience signify for both? In order to decide, we must know our motifs very precisely and how they stand in relation to the respective cultural and functional continuum of the environment in which we are planning and building. In any case, the spaces we create – whether planned or not – always portray environments, i.e. the way in which we imagine and can imagine our lives and living conditions. In this respect, a reference to

Introduction

the distortions between freedom of action and the world of commodities mentioned earlier is necessary, i.e. the question of our opportunities. In the planning case – and this is the aim of our specialist architectural knowledge – we express this process of the creation of worlds explicitly. Plans reveal how we wish to, have to or can position ourselves in the world on functional and cultural levels. This applies to the exterior to the same extent as the interior. Every planning process sounds out the chances and constraints in order to experience how the motif, whether ecological, economic, cultural or whatever, and the expression thereof can be fused together.

Genesis All the cultures of the world contain examples from all periods that illustrate, in a surprising way, the ties between society, culture, climate and production possibilities. For example, Arctic ethnic groups have developed fascinatingly simple forms of construction that defy the extreme climatic conditions in which human beings could not otherwise survive. Owing to the strong winds and low temperatures, the ratio of the enclosed volume to the area of the enclosing surface is especially significant. A hemisphere exhibits the most favourable ratio in this respect because it requires the smallest enclosing surface for the volume within. This minimises the loss of heat from inside. The building material used, like so often with early forms of construction, is what the builders found around them, generally readily obtainable materials, and in this case snow, of course, a loose conglomerate of crystal nuclei, supercooled water and ice crystals with an average density of about 0.3 t/m3 (Fig. 2). Snow is therefore an ideal building material for this climate because it has a similar density to, for example, wood fibreboards (as a comparison: the density of concrete is about 2.4 t/m3). The walls of snow, about 800 mm thick, are therefore very good insulators. In addition, the sunken entrances provide protection against the wind. This simple form of construction, which uses minimal resources, and from our modern ecological viewpoint represents a sustainable 3

11

Introduction

4 “Air conditioning”, Hyderabad A wooden “sail” redirects the wind into the building. During the cold months of the year, the opening in the roof can be closed off with a wooden board. 5 Grain store, Chad These loam-brick structures are raised clear of the ground on stones to prevent problems with rising damp and to keep out vermin. The surrounding huts are also

6

built of loam bricks and have additional insulation in the form of brushwood and branches. Monks’ caves, Turkey This monastery complex in central Anatolia dates from the 4th century AD and has been cut into the rock. Today, there are hotel companies which rent out these cave dwellings with their unusual living conditions to tourists.

building form, allowed cultures to expand and develop despite the harsh climate in these desperately cold regions. The same form appears in the 3rd century BC in the region of present-day Syria, i.e. in an area with totally different climatic conditions. The existence of beehive houses between the coastal mountain range and the desert to the east has been proved (Fig. 3, p. 11). The original form makes use of a circular plan shape and a layer of stones as a foundation protects the walls against rising damp. The building material is again a local resource, in this case sun-dried loam bricks. Based on this original form, individual tribes erected whole complexes with more than 30 such beehive houses constructed around a large open area. The ensuing groups of beehive houses made from loam bricks result in a structure with its own very special character that fits in ideally with the landscape. Loam, the building material that determines the appearance, is a clay contaminated by sand, silt and other substances. The greater the proportion of clay, the more “fatty” is the loam; low-clay loams are designated “lean”. Building with loam has been practised by all cultures in all centuries. Alongside wood, loam in its dried and fired forms, was the building material of the pre-industrial age. The first ceramics can be traced back to the 9th century BC. Vitrified clay bricks were used for building in the advanced civilisation of Egypt under the pharaohs. In other words, the loamy raw materials were refined at a very early date in order to create high-quality, fully developed building materials. In our example, the beehive houses of Syria, the loam is pressed into moulds the help of a wooden template and allowed to dry in the sun. The resulting bricks are assembled using a damp loam mass as the mortar and given a coat of the same material. This outer coat has to be renewed periodically because one characteristic of loam is its good capacity for absorbing moisture and releasing it again. However, this ability leads to expansion and contraction of the material and hence to cracks. Therefore, these beehive houses, but also the loam buildings of other cultures, include steps in the walls so that the annual refurbishment measures can be carried out easily. Besides its 4

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Introduction

5

ability to absorb large quantities of moisture, the density of the loam enables it to store a great deal of thermal energy. The density fluctuates between 1.2 and 2.3 t/m3, depending on the degree of compaction and proportion of clay, and therefore lies between that of vertically perforated clay bricks and concrete components. Loam structures therefore exhibit a very high specific heat capacity. And in climates with a large temperature difference between day and night this is crucial. During the day, the material heats up and at night releases the stored heat so that the next day storage capacity is available again. This leads to a pleasant interior climate in the hot regions of the world, which are usually also areas of low rainfall. Trying to achieve a favourable ratio of enclosing surface to enclosed volume should be a goal in all climates. A “compact” structure always has a good ratio of surface area to internal volume and hence is economical in terms of erection and upkeep. This knowledge was exploited by the world’s early civilisations all over the planet. The decision to employ a building material adapted to the respective climatic conditions, which is readily available, e.g. snow or loam, represents the starting point for a good interior climate. However, man-made structures also portray communities and cultural identities. This relationship between economic and technical possibilities, climate and cultural identity, is apparent in numerous examples, in nomadic (e.g. yurt tents) and sedentary societies. Moreover, many ethnic groups have developed methods of improving the climate in their buildings substantially by exploiting the natural circumstances accordingly. One striking example of this can be found in southern Pakistan: the “air conditioning systems” of Hyderabad (Fig. 4), which have been in use for at least 500 years. The principle is simple: the cooling wind, which blows down from the nearby mountains and drives away the searing heat of the plain, always comes from the same direction and always at the same time; wooden “sails” on the roofs channel this incoming air into shafts. Some shafts serve only one room, but some extend over several storeys and are connected to various rooms, which are then also linked acoustically. The air flowing through the structure cools not

only the interior air, but also the building components that have heated up during the day. The cooling air circulates and therefore creates an agreeable, more hygienic interior climate. And on top of that, this form of “air conditioning” – it’s actually only ventilation – has become a feature that shapes the townscape. Our esteem for the commodities of daily life is also evident in the form of our buildings. Loam buildings are ideal for storing grain, especially because of their excellent ability to regulate moisture levels. In regions with low rainfall and poor harvests, these buildings are highly valued because of their content. The grain stores of Africa provide one example of this. In Burkina Faso and Mali they are square loam structures, often richly decorated, on hardwood foundations. But even the simple cylindrical stores of Chad are impressive. The villagers take great care with the storage of their grain and the building of such stores because they represent their survival. They are located in the middle of the village, protected between the villagers’ loam huts insulated with branches and brushwood. Not every family enjoys the luxury of improved climatic living conditions in their huts – but the grain does! For an African, the stores are an expression of an obvious hierarchy of values (Fig. 5). The knowledge of the performance of building materials in relation to improving the interior climate is as old as building itself. And the use of climatic circumstances to improve living conditions is not an invention of the modern age, either. Wherever people settled, they quickly learned how to use the local circumstances and, furthermore, express them in their culture (Fig. 6).

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Interiors for cultural identification This symbiosis of building and cultural identity makes it interesting for us to examine the buildings of all ages. Typologies that portray the relationships between the respective living conditions and forms of society evolve in all cultures. Space – whether internal or external – therefore becomes a mirror of cultural ties and opportunities. Of course, the cultural ties are as diverse as the respective cultures themselves, and this diversity makes it difficult to draw simple conclusions. Upon closer examination, though, it becomes clear that there are recurring themes in building across all societies and cultures, e.g. the desire to generate a particular microclimate through the choice of building materials, which from the modern viewpoint couples comfort with a responsibility for the ecological consequences. However, this examination also teaches us to value the differences between and the diversity of the ideas. Constructional options and cultural ties are readily apparent in the houses of Islamic cultures. The Arabic-Islamic household often consists of many branches of an extended family, with several generations living together. In principle with a patriarchal character, its internal structure is organised around separation of the sexes and separation from the surrounding public environment. This strict separation, both internally and externally, means that whatever is left to observe is observed very intently. A game of hide and seek ensues – communication principles with very precise rules. The many varieties of residential buildings from different regions and periods yield an incredible wealth of preformed identities. However, they all serve the same religious and social conditions of Islamic culture (Fig. 7, p. 14). The concept of the home is based on three socioeconomic principles: it must provide privacy for the occupants, enable guests to be received without infringing the private sphere and provide space for everyday needs and activities. Even today, the latter still often means the storage of agricultural commodities, even accommodation for animals. The space for this is created through demarcation, in this cultural sphere through enclosure. And this reflects the strictly regulated

13

Introduction

relationship between the family and the general public. Within the house, individual areas often have separate entrances but still have access to common courtyards and the rooftop garden. In order to understand this complex structure, it is necessary to assume a basic element relevant for the organisation of the building. This basic element is the salon, the enclosed living space, called beit in the Maghreb of northern Africa, which is usually accessed from a courtyard. Several of these salons can form separate units within the same house if, for example, sons marry and continue to live in the house. A conglomerate of houses within a house ensue which provide the chance for temporary privacy because public and private uses are not specified in advance. A network of gates, doors, curtains, screens and thresholds weaves the relationships in such a way that the family structure and the separation of the sexes can be realised by dividing the spaces at any time. Particular attention is given to the interface with the outside world. Entrances do not lead directly to courtyards or halls, but

instead first “filter” visitors by way of corridors and intermediate rooms that are intended to conceal the most private family areas. In contrast to European lifestyles, the uses of rooms are not dictated by heavy furniture. Instead, lightweight, movable interior furnishings and fittings, e.g. small tables, cushions, sofas, etc., permit the completely flexible use of the rooms in the houses of Muslim cultures. Most rooms are suitable for living, sleeping and receiving guests. Depending on where the family is at any particular moment, large circular trays on frames serve as dining tables. Guests and family members all sit on cushions. Uses such as living, sleeping or receiving guests flow through the building, which leads to a very dynamic life and spaces for the most diverse lifestyles. The interior spaces are merely “place-holders”. They are almost always empty and only the designs of the wall and floor surfaces determine the quality and importance of the house and its parts. The fittings and furnishings of the house are therefore linked to a very strict canon of values that

is reflected in the design of the windows, doors and surfaces (Fig. 8). The interior constantly reinterprets the cultural link with religion and society. This portrayal is closely associated with rites that the occupants have to adhere to on certain occasions, and is therefore not expressed in materials, at least not exclusively, but rather in actions. The appearances of houses in Islamic cultures are ideally adapted to the climatic conditions of the areas in which they are located. The size of the courtyard is related to the lighting conditions and the need to exclude or admit solar gains. The water features within the house help to improve the interior climate, but are not infrequently also designed as a symbol of life and paradise. Owing to the cooler air and the warm floor, the rooftop garden is ideal as a bedroom. Such houses seldom have prestigious exteriors (religious beliefs and the urban conglomerate do not allow this), but on the inside they disclose the complex cosmos of their traditions and those of the individual families.

1

2

7

Fez House, axonometric view The rooms are grouped around courtyards and at the same time encircle them. Access to the building is possible from three different sides. All corridors pass behind the rooms and appear to lead to the courtyards as if by chance. There are two vertical access routes and a house within a house with its own courtyard. 1 Rooms for guests, in this example massreiya 2 House within a house, for separate family groups 3 Living area, in this example beit 8 Pond in front of the entrance portal to the Shah Mosque in Esfahān ·

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Introduction

Built aspiration In Europe the constitutive conditions of modern architecture, which quite rightly still determine the architecture debate of today, evolved out of the complicated relationships of the multi-faceted 19th century. That century is important if we wish to understand this evolution because the permanent conflict between the attempt to achieve objectivity in architectural criteria on the one hand and the subjective burden of the structure on the other is intrinsic to the 19th century. In those days, the incredible yearning for the historical role models and motifs of the 18th century lived on in all forms of art. Simultaneous with the emergence of research into history and rapid developments in the humanities and natural sciences, conflicts arose between the historical references. For example, the questions of whether Gothic style should be preferred to Greek, and whether one is German and the other universal, whether the style of the Renaissance would not be more appropriate for a middle-class society,

and so on, were essential to classicism and historicism, but from our modern viewpoint are difficult to understand. One of the reasons for this is our relationship to what style stood for then and what it stands for today. In the 19th century the reference to the past was consistently idealised and hence stylised. As Goethe said as long ago as 1789, style “rests on the most fundamental principle of cognition.” But a cultural cognition is meant here. This means that style embodies, on the one hand, the normative, which is of maximum significance and is essential, and, on the other, the perceived truth of the concept. Very often a national symbolism and its history are involved. In an absolutist system, significance and legitimacy is reflected in the style chosen. But style is not founded on some derived logic, is not itself justifiable, although conclusions and debates are certainly based on it. This idiosyncratic reality of style, which is based on pretext and assigns an impression of reality to the allegorical, enlivened the 19th century.

The cultural tour that enjoyed great popularity in the late 17th and throughout the 18th century surfaced again in the 19th. Visiting the sites of the ancients, mapping and cataloguing them, was for many architects at the start of the 19th century their creative roots. The fascination of these sites and the cultural credentials of the ancients and their systemisation seduced architects into idealising individual epochs in the social sense so that building styles in the 19th century represented positions – for a form of interpretation of the style that had already been established in previous epochs. It was this period that saw the building of incomparable heritage assets such as Schinkel’s Neues Museum in Berlin, Semper’s art gallery in Dresden and much more besides. Two intellectual positions will be used as examples here to show how the different readings of the historical inheritance were applied. Both of these reasoning strategies still appear as positions today. One is based on the design teachings of the French architecture theorist Jean-NicolasLouis Durand dating from the early 19th century and is represented by, for example, Leo von Klenze and also Karl Friedrich Schinkel. Durand, trained as an engineer, advocated a design procedure valid for all building tasks which he derived from a sort of genealogy of the built environment. The “objectification of the design process” [1] was used by Klenze and Schinkel as a reasoning strategy for their designs motivated by the world of the Ancient Greeks. Klenze sees in this historical reference the consummate realisation of the combination of statics, materials and design. And his attitude towards interior design must also be seen in the same light. Gottfried Semper is in the opposite corner; just over 30 years after Durand’s design theory was published, Semper countered with “nature does not work with templates like a lathe” [2]. He himself developed certainly the most significant architecture theory position of the 19th century. His principle of “dressing” is based on the intrinsic nature of materials and aims to provoke a subconscious effect. So the immaterial magic of the material and the logic of structure and form were already opponents in the 19th century. It is still difficult, even today, to step outside the dialectics of being and structure. Even today, we are still debating Durand’s stereotyped thinking, his idea of standardisation, his unalterable demand for a functionalism of purpose and economy on the one hand and the notion of the effect of the symbolical, inspired form in the sense of Semper on the other. Of course, the whole force of architectural expression lies between structure and effect. Today, however, this can no longer be connoted with the question of style. Klenze’s design for the Church of All Saints at the Royal Court in Munich can serve as an example of a sphere of influence of particular significance and transformation. The problems outlined above are easy to decline on this sacred building. But the building, especially the interior, has experienced a reinterpretation due to its

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secular conversion and the refurbishment work completed in 2003. We therefore have a timeline that stretches from the building’s first construction to the interpretation of today. We must begin with a journey: King Ludwig I of Bavaria spent the Christmas of 1823 in Palermo and celebrated midnight mass in the Palatine Chapel. His enthusiasm for this church dating from the 12th century knew no bounds. He was especially fascinated by the mosaics on their gold background and he appointed Klenze to design a chapel for his palace in Munich. Byzantine style was totally alien to Klenze, partly because it was the province of Cornelius and Gärtner. His classical Greek design won no favour with Ludwig I and was ridiculed by Gärtner. In the end, Klenze bowed to Ludwig’s request, at least for the outside. But for the inside he devised an extraordinarily legible internal structure with elaborate decoration in the form of marble floors, colourful paintings on a gold background and wall linings of stucco (Fig. 9). The lighting is interesting. Whereas the decoration to the surfaces below the gallery tends to be dark, the upper half of the interior shines due to the radiance of the paintings illuminated by the light from the side windows. Ludwig’s place is of course in the gallery, which is connected to the palace itself. The king and his entourage therefore enter from behind, illuminated in the radiance of the golden surfaces and on the level of the biblical images. His entrance becomes a ritual in which the divine and historical legitimacy of his sovereignty are united. The refurbishment has completely altered the lighting. The church, destroyed in the war, left with makeshift repairs for a long time and disfigured by an extension on the east side, had lost its significance. The secularised interior is now used for events all kinds. The masonry is now visible on the inside, i.e. there are no reflective surfaces, and luminous ceilings have been installed below the gallery that illuminate the main part of the interior from the sides. The impression of the interior has therefore been reversed, perhaps a treatment of the historical substance appropriate to secularisation.

9 Court Church of All Saints, Munich (D), 1837, Leo von Klenze; interior painting by Heinrich von Hes 10 Moller House, Vienna (A), 1928, Adolf Loos a – d Plans of ground floor to roof terrace The route through all floors and the respective viewpoints are shown. e Garden facade There is nothing here to reveal the compositional boldness that determines the interior or the road facade. f Road facade A free composition, put together like an abstract painting, which despite its autonomy reveals a critical element of Loos’ Raumplan: the “oriel room”, which cantilevers from the middle of the facade, allows an overview of the spatial relationship of the entire main floor. g Oriel room in 1930 h Oriel room today 9

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The new spirit and the unconfined space At the turning point from monarchical to postmonarchical societies, a design freedom appeared that put the individual view of life to the test. Only in this way can we understand the positions and work of the individual architects of that period. The architect Adolf Loos, born in Brno in Moravia, plays a special role in our new understanding of interior space. The architecture critic Julius Posener places Loos in a line with Andrea Palladio, Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Karl Friedrich Schinkel, and regards these architects as “the true classical school”. These very different architects can be assigned to one category – and a classical one at that – “because they granted ornamentation no or only a very minor role and tried to unveil the essence of architecture” [3]. Why is Adolf Loos granted this honour? Loos’ rejection of ornamentation is not a rejection of designed form. On the contrary, it is a rejection of insubstantial design, of meaningless form, of the repetition of the traditional. We can add nothing new to that today. We can only appreciate Adolf Loos’ position if we understand just how demanding was his struggle to achieve the essential in architecture. And that at a time when the visual tradition did not pay homage to the essence of spatial relationships or the precision in sequences of spaces and uses. Instead, this was a time when artistic, historically based design was endorsed. Very much a problem of the present day! Posener describes the essence of architecture using Le Corbusier’s three favourite terms: scale, proportion and geometry. Loos based every design on a principle that in turn was based on the relationship of the dimensions, the spaces and their respective relationship to function. Of course, he also had a purpose in this, namely a calculated effect, generating a state of mind in the people, to touch them: “The task of the architect is therefore to specify this state of mind exactly. The room must be cosy, the house appear homely. The courthouse must look like a threatening gesture to the secret vice. The bank must say to us: ‘Your money is secure among honest people.’” [4] Loos transfers the purposefulness of the ornamentation in historicism to the interior space. So here it becomes clear that Loos – and this is the only possible interpretation of his writings – felt himself chosen to educate his society, to show it his position, a position opposing the artistic, the decorative, a position in favour of the simple, the essential, developed out of materials and ideas based on utilisation. This self-assuredness and self-image of the planner, who wishes to guide a society towards a new way of thinking, motivated Loos in his vitriolic writings against the Vienna Secession. Apart from this very polemic criticism, we have to thank him for one idea that became crucial to the 20th century: the Raumplan (Frampton: “plan of volumes”). Following his training in Dresden, Loos spent three years in the USA, where he was introduced

Introduction

to the positions of the sculptor Horatio Greenough and the architects John Wellborn Root and Louis Sullivan. All three were in favour of simplicity, clarity and austerity in architecture and gave priority to practical value. After his return, Loos settled in Vienna, a city that was receptive to the ideas coming from England at an early date, on the one hand in the form of exhibitions on the Arts and Crafts movement, which in the end manifested itself in the foundation of the Wiener Werkstätte, and, on the other, with the examination of Palladianism, primarily through the book Das englische Haus (the English house) by Muthesius. Loos, encouraged by his experiences in the USA, tried to unite practical value, homeliness and spatial and formal clarity in his work. For him, the Raumplan was the portrayal of the hierarchies of the individual living and ancillary rooms within an overall structure. In the Raumplan traditional hierarchies, such as those of entrance, living and sleeping quarters, dissolve into a flow of volumes. Loos did not design on plan, he composed in space. He himself never spoke of a Raumplan, but in retrospect, after the rejection of his contribution to the Weisenhof Estate in Stuttgart, described his programme thus: “I would have had something to show, namely the resolution of the arrangement of the living room in space, not on one plane, storey by storey, as was always the case hitherto. With this invention I would have saved mankind much time and effort in its evolution. For that is the great revolution in architecture: resolving the plan in space. Prior to Immanuel Kant, mankind could not think in space and architects were forced to make the toilet as high as the hall.” [5] The design in space described in this way led Loos to staggered but nevertheless related levels with different room heights. Two examples from his later works demonstrate the import and topicality of his invention. And it is perhaps worthwhile to remind the reader that both of these examples were created 80 years ago. Their bold clarity is still impressive today. Moller House at Starkfriedgasse 19 in Vienna, completed in 1928, brings together all the design elements typical of Loos’ last period of creativity (Fig. 10). The facade facing the road is an inward-looking, abstract composition based on the square. For the Viennese this was a radical demonstration of the autonomy of the new way of building, but in essence it still remained true to the loadbearing fenestrate facade and the grand gesture of the sequence of spaces within. Loos was unable to overcome this balancing act between the tried-and-tested of the historically established and its reinterpretation. However, it is precisely this combination of traditional and modern that makes his accomplishments so relevant today. The facade facing the garden is again very simple and takes its points of reference from the interior and its grid-lines. In order to be able to realise the theory of the different room heights for rooms with different uses, a loadbearing facade and an internal column, which at the same time houses

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the chimney, are absolutely essential. This is the only way to achieve unrestricted development of the respective internal volumes. The entrance to the house is located below the oriel. Visitors must immediately change their direction and turn towards the garden before reaching the central room. Once this central point has been reached, a decision must be made between the seating in the “oriel room”, from where there is a view across the full depth of the house right into the garden, and the imposing hall. So far, the visitor has changed direction five times and has therefore shed all references to the exterior of the building, can no longer connect inside with outside. This scenic setting of the many places and the focus on the spatial change inside the building is the hallmark of the quality of the Raumplan. Once in the hall, visitors can choose to move on to the garden, but at first only on a landing – the actual terrace is in front of the dining room. All these references are intentional and not infrequently surprising. Users are therefore forced to sound out their relationship with the interior anew at every point. This artistic understanding of building requires appropriate clients. Hans and Anny Moller were particularly artistically minded and involved in the arts scene of that period. Franz Singer and Friedl Dicker, friends of Anny Moller, fitted out her room with functional, convertible furniture and designed a pavilion for the garden. Following the general refurbishment of the house, it would have been nice to see furniture in the same quality as the internal surfaces, with highquality materials and made-to-measure built-in furniture that underscores the tectonic structure of the building. It was in 1930 that Loos realised what is certainly his most important work – a house for the building contractor boss Frantisek Müller. This is a sculpture in the meaning of the new way of building. Here again, the Raumplan evolves independently and at the same time ingeniously. The axes of movement and the axes of the rooms are offset when they meet but each refers to the other. Loos used the extreme slope of the site, with its view of Prague, to best effect. Müller House spans between two roads. The entrance is again brilliantly designed, but slightly concealed – a small, well-designed place on

the path through this sculpted space. The external walls and two rows of columns form the loadbearing structure. And again, in the centre of the house there stands a spatially complex place between arrival and distribution. The room for the lady of the house is an almost sacred place from where there is a view of the entire house without being directly seen. The fittings and furnishings also express the idea of three dimensions; the species of wood used, the stone and the plastered surfaces generate states of mind without portraying themselves. Loos relies on their presence, their character alone, not on any artistic treatment applied to them. Although if we look closer even the outward forms employed by Loos do not necessarily reflect the content (not every column is really a loadbearing member), his treatment of space, internal surfaces and materials was pioneering yet still contemporary. The austere external appearance is an object with an autonomous form that has little communication with the flow of spaces inside the building, but remains related to it in spirit. On the contrary, the theme of the road and garden facades is declined in the external appearance, with many, sometimes offset, symmetries. Facade and interior appear to be almost unrelated to each other: the outside simple and undisguised, the inside complex and disguised. However, in the spirit of the departure towards a new way of building they function as a harmonious whole (Figs. 11 and 12).

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Introduction

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The living space experiment

its last breath at the start of the new thinking of the modern movement – was searching for the “universal”, the legitimate that opposes the coincidental, arbitrary “individual” of the “old world”. The universal presented here did not adhere to traditions, the dogmas of the past which had determined the perception of the world and its artistic adoption according to predictable patterns. All this was certainly also a reaction to the First World War – a new order was called for after the world order had been physically and constitutively destroyed. For the founding members of De Stijl, which included the painters Theo van Doesburg and Piet Mondrian, the universal had to be equal to the individual. The “individual domination” – that is how the ornamentation of the imperial era was branded – obstructed the way forward to a new sense of time. The universal expressed itself in abstraction, in the departure from the figurative image of nature. It was against this background that Gerrit Rietveld, together with his client Truus Schröder, designed a unique example of the implementation of what is probably not even a sculptural idea in architecture. Rietveld, who trained as a master joiner and studied at night school to become an architect, resolved all the walls and floors into vertical and horizontal plates. The internal walls, more like internal plates, are in the form of sliding doors and thus movable. The resulting areas were finished in primary colours plus black, white and shades of grey. Every single part of the interior fitting-out, from the sliding door tracks to the radiators, is included in the colour scheme. The house is therefore space and image simultaneously. Furthermore, the walk-in sculpture is influential in another context: it substantiated the idea of the flexibility of buildings, a concept that is still important today. The living space is constantly subjected to changes and adaptations, and the building portrays this. All scales become one here. Rietveld’s joinery beginnings are evident in the furniture. Right down to the tiniest detail, the pieces are designed according to the same principles as the interior space and the entire house. Everything adheres to a three-dimensional structure that separates line from surface and gives both a colour. Rietveld, so we are told,

The period in which Loos realised the above examples of his Raumplan marked the birth of the most revolutionary building experiments of the last century. Loos was at the end of his career, but many others such as Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier were just beginning theirs. For the young designers of the early modern movement in particular, the understanding of space had become fully detached from the traditions of the 19th century. During the 1920s and 1930s, freed from ornamentation, architects developed an independent sculptural quality. The idea behind this new departure and the architectural theory that finally led to the Bauhaus, was formulated in the Deutscher Werkbund. Whereas today we pursue a dialogue between the individual and the living space, the Werkbund discussed the relationship between technology and aesthetic plus the questions of the typological tradition of the 19th century. The multitude of approaches and opinions were not cemented together by a common theoretical concept. The Werkbund movement was held together more by its social awareness and the desire to study and shape daily activities, and probably more than anything else an ever stronger architectural language, which advanced through the CIAM congresses to become the International Style. The founding idea for the Bauhaus had been formulated by Walter Gropius as early as 1919: the Bauhaus desires to “create a new guild of craftsmen” for the purpose of creating a “total work of art”, with the basic needs of the observer, or rather the user, being addressed. Gropius added another goal to this already ambitious one: the standardisation of practical everyday tasks. It may be that not much of the social side has remained, especially after the rationalisation of the second wave of reconstruction after the war, but this left more room for the aesthetic and industrial sides. The Dutch group of artists De Stijl represent one important influence on the architecture of the Bauhaus. Their design principles were certainly realised most faithfully by the architect Gerrit Rietveld in his Schröder House in Utrecht in 1924. Even in its first manifest, the De Stijl group – the term “style” had not yet breathed

Müller House, Prague (CZ), 1930, Adolf Loos a – d Floor plans, with access principle indicated Scale 1:400 Müller House, Prague (CZ), 1930, Adolf Loos a Road facade b Stairs between dining room and central staircase viewed from the hall Schröder House, Utrecht (NL), 1924, Gerrit Rietveld a Exterior view b Interior view of upper floor The room for the boys is on the left, the one for the girls on the right. The staircase is located in the middle below the rooflight.

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visited the building site almost every day. The drawings submitted to the authority for planning permission were so difficult to decipher that the authorities could not discern the extreme break with tradition and the neighbouring buildings that was being attempted here. Only with a supreme effort was it possible to complete this experiment with space, and like so many icons of the modern movement, refurbishment has been essential in order to preserve it. It remains a unique and pioneering example of the fusion of technical, artistic and spatial ideas. Inside and the outside are indivisible parts of a whole (Fig. 13). At the same time, Franz Singer and Friedl Dicker in Vienna, who had already worked for Anny Moller and Adolf Loos, were developing the principle of convertible furniture within the scope of interior architecture. Singer and Dicker likewise understood the interior space to be a stage for constant changes. They first met at Johannes Itten’s School of Art and later studied with him at the Bauhaus. After attending the foundation course, Singer and Dicker worked with Itten in the joinery, textiles, printing and bookbinding workshops, designed stage scenery and houses. They founded their own studio in Berlin and completed the stage scenery for a number of plays directed by the Austrian Berthold Viertel. They returned to Vienna in the mid-1920s where for the next six years they worked on a series of remarkable interior architecture projects and also furniture. The fascination in their work is to be found in the transformation of the planned spaces, which leave behind a nomadic impression. Those spaces are not linked with any specific use, but everyday use generally. Like dumb waiters, the accessories await transformation depending on the use of the room. Despite the fact that every piece of furniture is composed like a painting, everything is assigned a use. The meaning of social rituals is not questioned in this choreography of the useful; everything functions as before. The optimisation of the spatial requirements seems to be the only thing of interest for the ensemble. Franz Singer communicated the design motivation of the studio to paper in his 1927 article on the modern housing principle, which he called an economy of time, space, money and nerves:

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“It is essential for a style to arise out of the difficulties of modern living conditions. The growth of the awareness and fulfilment of all the needs resulting from the shortcomings resulted in a compression compared to the reduction of the pseudo-modern style. The small number of mostly cramped spaces does not allow them to be withdrawn from constant use to serve a single purpose. A living room is at the same time a dining room, often a room for guests; the bedroom is at the same time the study, and all rooms have to be used for daily purposes, have to be adaptable. The demand for furniture to be mobile is quite right here, but this does not mean that, like divans, desks, benches, etc., it should be positioned askew within the room or alter its place every day. But this characteristic should not create more work through handling difficulties or the need to clear away bedding (e.g. in the case of a divan), nor should the ventilation options suffer, nor should the furniture be uncomfortable, ugly or expensive. “The shortcomings therefore became the governing principle. This gave rise to another, major advantage in addition to being able to avoid the superfluous and burdensome. We had recognised how we can do justice to the needs of the most necessary comforts in the smallest space and would now be able to design a pleasant interior to a house that is rational in use and therefore economical. And that for the workers, too, not just the bosses. But it is not

enough to create a house with many small cells, as if for bees, and then leave the occupants to their fate, allow them to move in with their excessive quantities of old-fashioned, space-consuming, irrational-in-every-direction furniture. Instead, the house should be designed from the start so that all needs are met, and the occupants should be provided with purposeful furniture and instructed in how to organise it. Only that would be true residential culture. The furniture shown here by Franz Singer, Vienna 9, Wasserburggasse 2, is patented. German representative: Margit Téry, Berlin-Wilmersdorf, Laubenheimerstrasse 1.” [6] A good example of this manifest can be seen in the design for a guesthouse in the garden of Countess Heriot. Every room lives from change. For example, the bed can be rotated out of the landing, the lamp folded against the wall. All loose furniture is designed for several different situations (Fig. 14). Shortly after this design, the pair separated. Friedl Dicker’s social and political commitments led to her arrest and later to her emigration to Prague. She turned more and more to painting. In late 1944 she was deported to Auschwitz and murdered. The growing political pressure forced Franz Singer to flee to London, where he began afresh with the development of a prefabricated system for the interior fitting-out of old apartments. Their joint works were almost completely destroyed and are only scantily documented.

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The “plan libre” “Architecture is not the object of clever speculation and should in reality be understood merely as an everyday procedure, an expression of how mankind asserts itself with respect to its environment and how mankind tries to master it.” [7] Mies van der Rohe, the author of this concise but irresistibly precise formulation, was – for a long time – one of the two most important architects of the 20th century. He and Le Corbusier shaped architecture from the 1920s onwards like no others. All the themes of current productions in the culture of building relate in some way or other to the positions of these geniuses. With their work they defined what the avant-garde was and still is today. The brief spotlight that will be cast on examples of their creativity here cannot do justice to their positions in the history of architecture, but does allow the reader to surmise the reach of their work. The abstract form plays a prominent role in the architectural language in which these two exceptional planners reformulated living spaces and life-worlds. In Le Corbusier we encounter the rare example of an architect who could establish the theoretical approach before the built examples. His Dom-Ino system dating from 1914, a prefabricated framework of reinforced concrete members reduced to floor slabs, columns and stairs, proved to be the starting point for the unconfined plan layout, the unrestricted facade design. The columns are set back and therefore allow the design of the facade to be independent of the loadbearing external wall and hence the tectonic debate. The floor slabs span between the columns and therefore transfer the vertical planning freedom to the horizontal plane. Le Corbusier developed these freedoms in his Five Points Towards a New Architecture (1926) and explored their inherent potential further. The use of the “pilotis”, i.e. the stilts raising the building clear of the ground, avoids interrupting the landscape and relieves the structure of all its references to its surroundings. The house on stilts hardly touches the ground, merely “docks” onto it. The association with shipping is certainly intended here. An imposing entrance is no longer common in this notion. The column as a stilt relieves the planner of all contextual references and frees the design from all demands for integration. We can see here the utopian dimension of modern architecture, which rejects any concessions to the towns and cities of the late 19th century. The rooftop garden, as the fifth facade, only becomes conceivable when we understand the building as a cube. It is this that provides the crucial added value of the design once built – whether Villa Savoye or Unite d’Habitation. It is a contrived buildingrelated social space that returns the developed area of the building to the city in the form of a garden. The long horizontal window (fenêtre en longeur) and the uninterrupted facade need each other and are only possible because the structure is set back from the facade. The over-

Introduction

riding idea is certainly the “plan libre”, the free plan, in which the freedom from all the ties of the building work of the past reaches its climax. Le Corbusier did not regard the room as a more or less enclosed unit, but rather as part of a pervasive, flowing composition. His “five points” provided an opportunity for every formal gesture at every point. And his “Le Modulor”, a system of proportions that Le Corbusier first began developing in 1942, placed all his designs in relation to a human scale. The free spirit and the human scale constitute the theoretical structure in the work of Le Corbusier (Fig. 15). Villa Savoye near Paris is an excellent example of how he united all these principles in his architecture. The building does not have a principal facade and stands in the centre of a park overlooking the Seine valley, surrounded by deciduous woods and meadows. The villa opens out equally in all directions. The living quarters with terraces and rooftop garden are raised clear of the ground and therefore enables its occupants to enjoy the views. The ground floor is arranged around the entrance below the house, which is unpretentious and incidental. The “gradual ascent”, i.e. the access to the upper floors by means of a long ramp, and also the stroll through the interior space, begins on the ground floor. Le Corbusier exploited the frame construction, with the loadbearing structure being separated from the interior fitting-out, to allow himself every freedom in the interior layout, e.g. a bathroom with rounded alcoves for toilet and wash-basin. These motifs permeate the entire building and are also visible on the exterior. Rounded walls on the roof shield users against the wind and lend the building its sculptural character (Fig. 16a). The relationship between loadbearing structure and interior fitting-out enters a new dimension in the thinking of Le Corbusier because here the loadbearing structure underpins the freedom in the layout of the rooms, which the fittingout then serves. The architecture of Le Corbusier pays homage to the colour white. White plaster and render on the surfaces disclose his programme in the most undisguised way imaginable. In later years, Le Corbusier contrasted this with fair-face concrete in a masterly way. This is where his artistic talent is expressed most powerfully because the concrete illustrates the sculptural dimension of his work. Furthermore, Le Corbusier had developed his own colour spectrum that creates particular relationships. The colours intonate, they guide, they permit recognition, etc. Le Corbusier’s buildings are walk-in sculptures, artistic conceptions and compositions on every level (Fig. 16b). It was around the same time that Mies van der Rohe produced a design for a pavilion that used very similar principles to those of Le Corbusier’s “five points”, but led to different results. Both Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe worked in the practice of Peter Behrens; Walter Gropius, the man who brought Mies van der Rohe to the Bauhaus, had also worked there. Mies van der Rohe turned the Bauhaus into a school of architecture when he was in charge from 1930 to 1933.

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Living room, guesthouse for Countess Heriot, Vienna (A), 1933, Friedl Dicker, Franz Singer a During the day b At night “Le Modulor”, Le Corbusier, 1942 After Albert Einstein had met Le Corbusier in Princetown, he wrote about “Le Modulor”: “[It is] a scale of proportions which makes the bad difficult and the good easy.” The publication describing “Le Modulor” spread surprisingly quickly throughout the entire world without the need for any advertising. Villa Savoye, Poissy-sur-Seine (F), 1931, Le Corbusier a Elevation b The “gradual ascent” – the internal ramps

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He had previously been head of the Werkbund exhibition for the Stuttgart Weisenhof Estate and was therefore fully familiar with the architecture of the avant-garde. In his early writings he advocated an architectural form derived from the properties of the building materials. Only later did he link this thesis with that of expressing a time in the form. Materials, their fabrication and processing, and the values of the respective period – and by that he meant the period of modern architecture – determine the form. This results in an idiosyncratic functionalism of form, which can be seen in the German pavilion for the World Exposition in Barcelona. After his success with the Weisenhof Estate, Mies van der Rohe was appointed in 1928 by the German government to design the pavilion. Germany, after losing the war, wanted to present itself as an avant-garde, new, open society. The building develops across a broad plinth that turns the site into the genius loci. This then becomes the foundation for vertical and horizontal plates around which the uninterrupted plan layout flows. The southern frame to the interior space grows out of the plinth and uses the same material. This frame leads to a service building with a roof plate above the entrance. In front of this, along the wall, there is a long bench, also made of travertine, the material of the plinth. The visitor, upon mounting the plinth, initially walks towards the entrance pond, originally filled with water lilies, and is then forced to turn through 180° in order to gain access to the actual interior itself. All the lines and joints of the apparently completely free composition are in an ideal relationship with the form. The fine texture of the structure underscores the rhythm and proportion of the building. Chromium-plated, cruciform crosssection columns support the roof plate to the main room. The wall plates of intensely patterned stone stand like sculptures within the flow of the rooms. The full-height glazing with its very narrow stainless steel frame members functions like a veil. Interior and exterior at one. Only the passage through the uninterrupted space counts. The proportions, appearance of the materials and views change along this route, but the theme is never lost. Mies van der Rohe designed what is certainly his best-known chair for the interior of this pavilion, the Barcelona chair. The southern boundary to the interior is a lighting fixture which, illuminated by artificial lamps, is intended to be reminiscent of the lights of Berlin. The sculpture Der Morgen (the morning) by Georg Kolbe stands in the pond beyond the glazing. So the various places on the route through the pavilion were certainly

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German Pavillion, Barcelona (E), 1929, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (rebuilt in 1983 – 86) a View of inner courtyard b Interior with Barcelona chair and the sculpture Der Morgen (the morning) by Georg Kolbe

Introduction

ornamented, but the interior layout itself is minimalistic, defined merely by the wall and roof plates. Never before had this degree of clarity been achieved with such simple means (Fig. 17). The Barcelona Pavilion is regarded as one of the highlights of modern architecture. Reduction represents one of the strongest motifs in the work of Mies van der Rohe and became the crystallisation point for a separate art form, minimalism, in the second half of the 20th century. The pavilion was dismantled in 1930 after the World Exposition and was not re-erected until 1983–86; the original therefore no longer exists. However, the reconstruction does convey an impression of how thrilling this minimalistic approach must have seemed in 1929 – a position that even after 80 years is still modern. With his Farnsworth House, Seagram Building in New York, new National Gallery in Berlin and many other buildings, Mies van der Rohe left us many icons of the modern movement, all of which captivate us through their concentration on just a few simple principles. Weighing up this artifice – abstraction and reduction – ideally and establishing a separate aesthetic category in this makes the work of Mies van der Rohe imposing even in the 21st century.

The industrialisation of the life-world One of the central moments in the modern movement, besides abstraction, was standardisation and hence the use of industrial prefabrication. New materials, principally reinforced concrete, and new methods of production were the patrons of a new aesthetic. The segmentation, the confines and the real problematic living conditions in the towns and cities of the late 19th century were rejected as the inheritance of monarchist society with its historic demeanour. The realisation of the demands of modern architecture on a large scale, e.g. in housing for the masses, inevitably led to the use of repetitive components. This repetition of precisely developed and optimised units to form a new whole was celebrated by the modern movement in conjunction with a social aspiration and the shift to a new society. Large urban components, always with identical parts, which whenever possible used industrial production processes, were seen as positive. Looking back, we see the key to a range of problems that post-modern society has inherited with the large-scale urban expansion of rationalism, the consequences of which now have to be solved. But back then, the aesthetic dimension of this repetition played mostly a subsidiary role, even during the planning. One extremely important example from the range of themes covering the rationalisation and industrialisation of construction elements is the involvement with everyday tasks, especially those of women. It was pure luck that a woman planner played a key role in this. But it is not only the designs of Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky, the “Frankfurt kitchen” in particular, of course, that reveal a great deal about the century of modern architecture; her career also contains much useful information. Margarete Lihotzky was the first female graduate of the College of Arts in Vienna. Urged by Lihotzky’s mother, Gustav Klimt wrote a letter of recommendation for Margarete Lihotzky which enabled her to attend the college. Her exceptional talents helped her gain acceptance right through to her final examination. Her teacher, Oskar Strnad, had the greatest influence on her during this period. As one of the pioneers of publicly assisted housing in Vienna, he had designed affordable housing for workers. Lihotzky later worked in the studio of Adolf Loos. She also designed houses for invalids and veterans of the First World War. It was in 1926 that Ernst May nominated her for the Building Department of the city of Frankfurt am Main, and it was there that what became known as the “Frankfurt kitchen” was designed. Tens of thousands of these kitchens were installed. It is the prototype of today’s built-in kitchen, and was based on the on-board kitchen of a railway carriage. The economic use of space, taking into account ergonomic constraints, guided Lihotzky to one of the most important innovations in this field. Later (1930–32), she designed two houses for the Werkbund Estate in Vienna. After the Second World War she found it difficult to gain a foothold as an architect in Vienna again

and took on several jobs, one of which was as a consultant to the People’s Republic of China. Her most important contribution as an architect remains the “Frankfurt kitchen”. “How did the Frankfurt kitchen arise? The City of Frankfurt had an extensive housebuilding programme in the second half of the 1920s. It was my task to investigate the fundamentals of the design and construction of the housing with respect to the rationalisation of the domestic environment. Where do people live, cook, eat, sleep? Those are essentially the four functions that all housing has to serve. The key factors that have a critical influence on the plan layout right from the start are cooking and eating. My first proposal to build living rooms and kitchens with dining areas was rejected owing to a lack of funds ... So we opted for small, fully fitted kitchens.” [8]

Light and space After the great icons of the modern movement, it was difficult for the next generation of planners to develop independent positions. A few, however, did manage this, but this was only possible through an intellectual rethink. New questions plus answers to old questions opened up new horizons. For example: How do our brains create the image of the environment around us? How do we arrive at our view of the world and what constitutes our perception of the world? These and other questions were discussed again in the light of the accomplishments of the modern movement mentioned above. The reason for this perpetual debate was the experience with urban expansion and major projects, which had been realised in accordance with the terms of the International Style, primarily in Europe and North America. On the one hand, not all the projects over the decades from the 1940s to the 1960s achieved the quality that those who shaped this style had demonstrated. On the other, standardisation and repetition had turned out to be both a social and aesthetic problem. Moreover, the support of a wide public for the design principles of modern architecture was lacking – still an everyday theme in contemporary building. The link between modern architecture and an improvement to living conditions became more and more lost. In order to be able to explore new paths, it was worth analysing the relationship between the objective environment and the subjectively constructed environment. Understanding the world is a constructive process. We create our world in front of us, in us, from that what we see, touch and perceive in other ways. In other words, perception and reaction exist in a permanent mutually dependent and mutually constitutive relationship. Only in interpretation does this process allow us a brief moment for stopping and considering. The modes in which we assemble our perceived world, the syntax of our world structure, determine how and what we can recognise. By implication, the world, as we see it, perceive it, is a

23

Introduction

18

construction in itself. Building behaves in a very similar way. The way in which we join particular pieces together, the semantics and the syntax of elements, materials and joints, produce the significance of the building. Materials, elements and construction determine our perception of space in the first place. But seeing always depends on light, all cognition from the gesture of the building in materials and construction, in the way in which they are illuminated. An unmistakable perception of space presupposes knowledge and awareness of fundamental characteristics of type, construction and materials, but also light. Furthermore, the intrinsic, interpretationbased subjective in the objective of things that define the space and thus make it tangible, the way we can understand space and categorise it socially, historically, politically, etc. A feeling for spatial context can then only develop and find its way via its ubiquity if it is given a chance for categorisation. Space is in the first place permanent and everywhere. Constructional, agricultural, social and cultural spaces are very closely interwoven. Disentangling this web calls for dedicated categories. In his work from the 1930s onwards, Louis I. Kahn came close – in theory and practice – to the question of an entity-based appearance. He resolved the apparent conflict between aesthetics and relevance. He spoke of order, an order that, as it was equally committed to aesthetics and relevance, is much more than a systematic division. It is character. Kahn assumed that human beings are equipped with a sense for the ubiquitousness of the order of things, that they – in the silence, even before the wisdom – know about the order. The inner evidence of the creative work therefore refers to a superindividual principle. This metaphysical position inspired Kahn’s work at every turn. Kahn asks questions about the significance of a wall, whether the interior of a column is filled with hope, and the much-quoted “What does a building want to be?” [9] Such questions are crucial to Kahn’s designs and theory. Light plays a key role in the answers to these questions because for Kahn light is not just a means of being able to perceive things, but rather the origin of the material. As Kahn has said: “Material, I believe, is spent light.” [10] For Kahn,

24

when light stopped being light, it became material – “the measurable, giver of all presence … the measure of things already made”. He regarded silence as “the unmeasurable, desire to be, desire to express, the source of new need”. In Kahn’s words: “I likened the emergence of Light to a manifestation of two brothers, knowing quite well that there are not two brothers, nor even one. But I saw that one is the embodiment of the desire to be, to express, and one (not saying ‘the other’) is to be, to be. The latter is non-luminous, and the former, prevailing, is luminous. This prevailing luminous source can be visualised as becoming a wild dance of flame that settles and spends itself into material … all material in nature, the mountains and the streams and the air and we, are made of Light which has been spent.” Kahn defines inspiration as “the feeling of beginning at the threshold where Silence and Light meet.” [11] What we see here is both the holistic and the metamorphic aspects in Kahn’s thinking. Kahn’s work is determined by five constants that are the expression of the aforementioned position: composition and integrity, respect for the material, the individual space as a fundamental element of architecture and the plan as the community of spaces, light as a factor determining the design and architecture that creates associations. Kahn introduced ethical values, in the sense of an attitude of mind, into the design process. Those values were based on his view of mankind. For him human beings were not nature, but were created from nature. With such a view, Kahn affiliated himself equally with an evolutionary and an ethical humanity. The Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California, is a good example of diversity, modernity, poesy and lighting. Kahn met Jonas Salk, the discoverer and developer of the first safe and effective polio vaccine, in 1964. The doctor was very interested in bringing together the natural sciences and the humanities and was striving for an exchange between scientific and cultural positions. Instead of writing a book, he decided to express his position in architecture. He found his ideal planner in Louis I. Kahn. We see this in the overall poesy of his complex, which speaks more of a humanistic language

than a natural sciences one. Kahn divided the project into three functional units: the laboratory buildings, the conference buildings and the residential buildings. The magnificent site is crowned by the laboratory buildings, the residential buildings are adapted to fit the slope and the conference area is about 200 m away to the side. In the two laboratory buildings, Kahn spanned the laboratories in an open-plan layout between the work rooms, offices and libraries. With the buildings framing a courtyard that opens out onto the Pacific Ocean, the whole complex radiates something of a monastic feeling. The expert use of concrete pervades the whole complex, from outside to inside. The concrete is joined by timber, which is integrated as a separate, seemingly repetitive, element into facades and interior fitting-out. Technical services are located in the intermediate service floors, which also conceal the Vierendeel girder loadbearing structure. Every gesture of the material and the form is exposed by the harsh light of the West Coast (Figs. 18 and 19). For Kahn, architecture is, above all, tangible, narrative space, which neither closes nor subordinates itself to either function or usage. Kahn’s spaces, with their own, new expressive language, are inviting structures for people.

Personalisation and tradition If one relevant motif can indeed be extracted from the architecture production line of the last 20 years, then it is certainly most likely to be the revival of integration. The discussion surrounding localism, surrounding context, is a necessary reaction to the autoreferential position of modern architecture. Aldo Rossi, Rob Krier, Oswald Mathias Ungers and a number of theorists of the late 1960s and early 1970s had already tried to develop an integrative position with respect to the city. The design canon of Jean-Nicolas-Louis Durand, who had revived the fundamental principles of the ancients in the 19th century, and the urban planning principles of Camillo Sitte took on a new relevance for architects such as Rob Krier, O. M. Ungers and Josef Paul Kleihues. The link with established urban fabric, coupled with an under-

Introduction

standing of the spatial and constructional typologies, led to a new rationalism in urban structures. At the moment, this position is certainly represented most prominently in Germany by the Ungers student Hans Kollhoff. Kollhoff’s most recent designs reveal an affinity with historicism. The early days of his international career, however, were marked by a gripping examination of mass as a primary typological substance. There are no “pilotis” to lift buildings here. Certainly not! For as Kollhoff understands them, buildings, in the urban tradition, stand on the ground. And this is what concerns Hans Kollhoff: overcoming the break with the past as advocated by the modernists. For Kollhoff the consequence of Bauhaus architecture is, “on the one hand, the distancing not only from all conventional architecture, but from context generally, and especially from the conventionally created city. On the other hand, refraining from the subtle interplay between structural identity and characterisation in the outward appearance of the building. Structure and envelope lead independent lives. They know nothing of each other, exactly like the naive historicism to which the propaganda campaign of the Bauhaus originally applied.” [12] Hans Kollhoff’s position polarises as much today as it did 15 years ago when he began teaching. His design vocabulary has been accused of being a nostalgic imitation of known formalisms. It appears anachronistic, whatever that may mean. Admittedly, Kollhoff creates very direct references because he reuses principles already accepted. He describes what he is trying to do as follows: “In the end it is about breathing organic life into dead material, understanding the artefact as something whole by analogy to our human make-up which, freely interpreting Kant, is segmented and not cumulative. We know that we are entering the spiritual catchment area of classical architecture. After almost a century of modern architecture and the associated, increasing losses, this step is unavoidable if we want to avoid continuing to fish around in the murkiness of all those ungeneralisable generalisations that characterise our contemporary architecture. Although this architecture may well correspond to the pluralistic self-image of our profession, with the lack of superindividual categories it is unteachable ... If the liberal arts rapidly exhaust themselves in entertainments, we will have to look to architecture when it begins to reflect on its special position.” [13] Kollhoff’s apparently polemic attitude to modern architecture is being increasingly listened to. But quality is not always the result: in housebuilding, for example, building developers happily tell their customers about an established urban structure that has never existed. Kollhoff’s architectural position, however, is much more profound and shows quite clearly the relationship between tradition and quality. What is important to him is authenticity and manual skills on the highest level. Another, much younger student of Ungers is Uwe Schröder. His designs are characterised

by a close relationship with the established urban structure, and all aspire to the continuation of the typological inheritance of the history of architecture. His buildings are primarily the consolidation of his ideas regarding topos and type. The pictorial abstraction achieved in this follows on easily from known traditions, but only on an allegorical level, and remains far enough away from this origin in order to be able to proclaim autonomy. The question of the chronological, also of the modern, becomes insubstantial in the light of Schröder’s work. Rather, the spatial dialogue in his work calls for dedication and codification. “The differentiated dedication of individual rooms within a sequence leads to a certain codification of the room constellation which characterises the architectural type. Through dedication and codification, the outcome of social action is inscribed in the rooms, to a certain extent pre-empted. And even without real occurrences, the preconceived action constitutes the room. As a ‘projection’ of the action, the room is a symbol of the bond with a meaning that refers to something outside itself, to social identification, language and action: the architectural space is a symbol of social constitution ... The social dependence of architectural spaces provides the foundation to pursue the presence and absence of time in the type and in this way unfold the language of the spaces starting from their origin (archetype).” [14]

In the house for the art collectors Brunhilde and Günther Friedrichs, the “House on the Hostert”, the success of dedication and codification is exemplary, without disturbing the clients’ collection. Schröder has developed an admirable type with very economical and precisely positioned means. Interior and exterior spaces are related to each other, but retain their independence. The sloping site became a motif for the architecture but affects it only to the same extent as the formulation of the spaces follow the motifs and is never dominated by them. A restrained self-image is the result, which awakens many memories but at the same time remains independent (Fig. 20, p. 26).

18

19

Central courtyard between the laboratory buildings with a view of the Pacific Ocean; Salk Institute, La Jolla, California (USA), 1965, Louis I. Kahn Study rooms, loggias and laboratories behind the central pond at the entrance to the courtyard; Salk Institute, La Jolla, California (USA), 1965, Louis I. Kahn

19

25

Introduction

The demand for clarity

20

21

“House on the Hostert”, Bonn-Plittersdorf (D), 2007, Uwe Schröder a Front elevation as seen from the west b View from the library to the studio Museum of Modern Literature, Marbach (D), 2006, David Chipperfield a View from the entrance structure towards the historical part of the Schiller National Museum b View from the exhibition rooms towards the entrance structure. This is where the coarse structure meets the fine, dark exhibition rooms just like light meets dark.

a

b

26

20

In Europe the aforementioned inclination towards tradition and manual skills is opposed by another movement. England has provided a group of architects of different generations whose works contain elements of a new, very universal understanding of mass, structure and minimalism in form. Until well into the 1990s, the UK tended to be known more for large-scale planning with technological solutions, as implemented by the practices of Norman Foster and Richard Rogers. But the work of architect David Chipperfield has attracted designers such as John Pawson, David Adjaye, Adam Caruso and Peter St. John, who are developing a type-based minimalism that is drawn more from the mass and the material rather than the element or the technology. Portraying the dogma, the flow of forces, the node, the joining of the elements, no longer plays a role in the language of these architects. However, if we look beyond this apparent common ground, their individual positions are very different. David Chipperfield’s design for the Museum of Modern Literature in Marbach is an excellent example of minimalism and integration into an existing ensemble. The design fits into the park that surrounds the Schiller National Museum – Marbach is Schiller’s birthplace – dating from 1903 and the German Literature Archive completed in the 1970s. Of course, the given contours provide reference points and the topography of the park is a welcome excuse for the idiosyncratic structure that Chipperfield has devised. Chipperfield’s initial studies are always devoted to the place and the material that the architecture serves (Fig. 21a). The museum’s exhibits are documents of special cultural value that cannot tolerate any light, any moisture. The path to the vaults, past numerous exhibits, is a path into darkness. Lighting levels exceeding 50 lux would damage these documents. The relevance and prominence of the exhibits are usually not immediately obvious; generally, their value is unpretentious. And so the language of Chipperfield is the ideal framework for these hidden treasures because omitting that which should not burden the interior spaces is the true accomplishment of this architecture. The reduction forces us to look at the essential. This applies to the place, the room, the material and the use. Such an environment is especially helpful for the documents on display here because a competing voice is absent. The building preserves and safeguards the exhibits and provides places for their contemplation. The clarity of the internal volumes, which is necessary through the interplay with the neighbouring structures, is refined by the fragility of the structure. David Chipperfield relies on places within and around the building, also in the landscape. All these places establish relationships, visual relationships, relationships between volumes and states of mind. This subtle texture is the obvious framework for the usage. The materials used, e.g. fair-face concrete,

Introduction

glass, wood, shelly limestone and reconstituted stone, represent the respective spatial reference and link each room with the next. The views benefit from narrative traits, especially the view into the nearby Neckar valley. To achieve this differentiated view it is necessary to examine the constructional settings very precisely with respect to their degree of coherence and, vice versa, to check the path to the exhibition rooms very precisely with respect to its openness (Fig. 21b). David Chipperfield is a master of the invention of balanced references. In his holistic concept, the question of the fitting-out is not uttered as such because it coincides with the overall planning of the building. On the other hand, the question is asked quite virulently because the minimalistic position is also one of disguise. The wooden wall panelling in the exhibition rooms, like the benches in front, conceal HVAC installations. All the display cabinets are separate from the walls. The joint between downstand beam and wall serves as an outlet, likewise the junction between bench and wall. The technical services have to remain invisible. Chipperfield achieves this in a very intelligent way by simulating the loadbearing structure in the fitting-out works. His simplicity always appears frank and is borrowed from the building’s structure, is never self-opinionated. In his architecture, simplicity and modesty meet in an agreeable fashion. This also applies to the work of John Pawson, but in a different way. Pawson’s rooms possess such an inherent form of restrained discipline that there are recipients who cannot imagine leading an active life within them. Pawson is aware of this austerity and also its consequence. When he talks about minimalism, he speaks of – taking his cue from Donald Judd – the “simple expression of a complex thought”. This contains a wealth of demands. At first glance, however, reorientation is required. Reduction in his interior spaces goes so far that the character of the instruction for action is almost lost. The necessary reorientation – how individual parts of the space are to be used – is a challenge for the user. So Pawson assumes a visitor who is interested in active perception, who is able to recognise the richness in the reduction to the essential. In this approach, everything that is displayed gains in importance. When the visible is reduced to the minimum, whatever remains visible becomes even more meaningful. According to Pawson, the user, as the interpreter and the true focus of the spatial arrangement, is taken seriously. Within the space there is nothing fast, confusing or distracting because the aim is precise clarification of the essential. The image of the user considered here is not the consumer controlled by outside interests, but rather calls for an independent self-awareness in the world. There might be nowhere better to express this position than in the field of sacred buildings. In 1999 a decision was taken to build a separate daughter-house for the 40 monks, who live as Trappists, of the Cistercian order of Sept-Fons. The Trappists are a reformist group of Roman

a

b

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27

Introduction

Catholic monks that was formed in the 17th century. Ideal conditions – seclusion, a beautiful landscape and the chance for a fresh beginning in the former communist state – for the new establishment were found in the west of the Czech Republic, at Nový Dvůr. The relationship to contemporary architecture was important for the Cistercian order right from the outset. Imitations of existing solutions were alien to the order. Nevertheless, particular attention was given to ensuring that the architectural language would serve the practical and religious needs of the order. Simplicity, utility and economy are the essential principles of the Cistercian aesthetic. A large farm in the Bohemian Baroque style, the main building of which had been refurbished and converted, provided a base for the new foundation. The layout of this type of farm appeared to be perfect for a monastery. Instead of a barn, a new church was inserted. The core of the design brief was to organise the monastery around the cloister, the area reserved for the monks, and in doing so not to neglect the links to the non-monastical world because all the monks work in the fields together with the local inhabitants. Church, vestry, chapter-house, infirmary, scriptorium, chapel, parlatory, refectory and library are accessed via the cloister garden (Fig. 22b). The church interior with a semicircular enclosure to the east is a tall, long and austere room with impressive lighting. Whereas the monks enter through the cloister doors, visitors enter the church via a route along the nave. A small change in level behind the altar, together with the incoming light, conveys the impression that the apse is floating in the light. The indirect, incoming daylight bathes the whitewashed interior in a veiled splendour (Fig. 22a). All reduction is a man-made image in which the

complexity is nevertheless intrinsic. This artificial component in reduction has always been pursued by a number of protagonists in the Swiss architecture scene. However, only a few have been successful in taking the reduction through the monolithic into the archaic and hence making a reference to the fundamental and, at the same time, the progressive. The designs of Valerio Olgiati represent certainly the most impressive demonstration of this. Olgiati, the son of an architect, came into contact with this discussion about tradition and its rejection at a very early age. He rejects the referential in the sense of a language dependent on form, i.e. a symbolic structure. Fully aware that he can never design a truly non-referential building, it is precisely this that Olgiati attempts in every design. In addition, he does not speak of designing; it is more deriving. In this context, his notion of the idea is relevant. Olgiati presumes that structures, if they wish to achieve relevance, depend on a system of order that has to be deeply rooted. So idea is not the quick formal processing of a stimulant, but rather the essence of an efficacy. In the recognition of the idea lies the opportunity of deriving a constructional position deductively or inductively. In this derivation, the totality again plays an essential part. Additive structures threaten to collapse, according to Olgiati. For him, the totality of the minimal is of prime importance. This energy, diametrically opposed to the eclecticism inherent to the architecture of any period, appears to point to a semantic origin. Reduction is not an aesthetic principle for him, rather a consequence. Olgiati’s architecture therefore stands apart from aesthetic debates. It can only be understood against the background of its intrinsic nature. Here, he presents the chance for a discourse on the conflicts and unknowns in the harmony.

a

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This claim, borrowing from the built environment and in doing so not lapsing into symbolism, has been achieved in Zernez, where Olgiati worked on the visitor centre to the Swiss National Park from 2002 to 2008 (Fig. 23). This monolithic construction made from insulating concrete is a key to the presence of the exhibits. Another is his typological earthiness and the diagonal reflection. The resulting mirrored plan layouts enable an autonomous and stimulated reflection of the exhibits. The marginally offset storeys, each of which has only one window per wall, betray nothing but nevertheless point to a temple-like genesis. The wall surfaces divulge the construction process – the corners were erected before the main surfaces – and create references to design traditions, in this case the window surround. The true solid, single-leaf wall construction permits the concealment of the technical services within the walls without losing the authenticity of the material displayed. The floors and ceilings were constructed in the same way. Nothing and everything is realised in one in this structure, something that Olgiati is keen to talk about.

22

Introduction

Fitting-out and room concepts Interior and exterior are components of a spatial approach that mirror each other. They are like Siamese twins who must remain inseparably connected at one point. As illustrated in the foregoing sections by way of a number of examples from the history of architecture, fitting-out cannot be read off as a separate design category. Fitting-out is part of the construction process and has nothing to do with the aesthetic conception of buildings and spaces. Nevertheless, requirements, the solution to which is often a question of form, arise out of those things that rooms have to provide when in use. The principles and approaches presented in the following chapters group together the requirements and options together with ways of handling these. The invention of form correlates with their conditions, but always remains a setting with its own spiritual assertion. As shown above, the room concept emanates from the architectural position. It is both confined and unconfined. Using the freedoms and not neglecting the orientation towards the environment shaping them remains the aspiration of lasting design.

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Cistercian Monastery “Our Blessed Lady” of Nový Dvůr, Dobrá Voda (CZ), 2004, John Pawson a View towards altar. Behind that, steps lead down to the eastern exit from the church. The steeply sloping site enabled this man-made feature, which lends the altar a transcendental freedom.

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b Chapter-house, the assembly room for the members of the order National Park Centre, Zernez (CH), 2008, Valerio Olgiati a Forecourt b View of the staircases to the exhibition rooms in the mirrored parts of the building

a

References: [1] Neumeyer, Fritz: Quellentexte zur Architekturtheorie. Munich, 2002, p. 39 [2] ibid., p. 40 [3] Posener, Julius: Vorlesungen zur Geschichte der neuen Architektur II. In: arch+ 53/1980, p. 36 [4] Loos, Adolf: Architektur (1909). In: Trotzdem 1900 –1930. Vienna, 1982, p. 102 [5] Loos, Adolf; Veillich, Josef. In: Trotzdem 1900 –1930. Innsbruck, 1931, p. 215 [6] Schrom, Georg (ed.): Franz Singer, Friedel Dicker: 2 ≈ Bauhaus in Wien. Vienna, 1988, p. 11 [7] Zimmerman, Claire: Mies van der Rohe. Cologne, 2006, inside cover [8] Schutte-Lihotzky, Margarete: Warum ich Architektin wurde. Salzburg, 2004 [9] Brownlee, D. B.; De Long, D. G.: Louis I. Kahn: In the Realm of Architecture, New York, 1991, p. 16 [10] Lobell, J.: Between Silence and Light, Spirit in the Architecture of Louis I. Kahn, Boston, 1979, p. 20 [11] Lobell, J.: Between Silence and Light, Spirit in the Architecture of Louis I. Kahn, Boston, 1979, pp. 20 – 21 [12] Architekturlehre Hans Kollhoff. Zurich, 2004, p. 9 [13] ibid., pp. 12f. [14] Schröder, Uwe: Der architektonische Raum, Materialien zur Architekturtheorie 2. Tubingen, 2007, p. 16 b

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Comfort

Part A

1

2

Fig. A

Beyeler Foundation, Riehen (CH), 1997, Renzo Piano Building Workshop

Space and form

Comfort Conditions to measure, experience Natural science versus empiricism Thermal comfort Physiology: human heat balance – production, transport and dissipation Air and surface temperatures Radiation asymmetry Humidity of the interior air Thermal comfort zone Air circulation in the interior Olfactory comfort Physiology: sense of smell Fresh air Contamination of the air Intensity of odours Quality of odours Acoustic comfort Physiology: sense of hearing Sound Sound propagation Room acoustics Visual comfort Physiology: how light affects the human organism Light Exposure to light and illumination Colour The effect of colour Colour in architecture Multi-dimensional with all the senses Standardised comfort Designing for comfort

32 32 33 34

Light The fundamentals of lighting design Using daylight Basic lighting design parameters Lighting design Quantitative and qualitative lighting design Materials and light Light and colour Additive and subtractive mixing of colours Visualisation Artificial light sources Incandescent lamps Halogen lamps Fluorescent lamps

46 46 46 49 50

34 36 36 36 36 37 37 37 37 38 38 38 39 39 39 39 39 40 40 41 41 42 42 43 44 44 44

50 50 50 51 51 52 52 53 53

3

Compact fluorescent lamps Metal halide lamps LEDs Organic LEDs Light fittings Types of light fitting Lighting controls The structure of light fittings Object and space

54 55 55 57 57 57 58 58 59

Materials Space and material The diversity of materials Selection criteria Aesthetics and usage The properties of materials Planning Trade and industry Space-dividing components Masonry Fair-face concrete Solid timber Prefabricated forms of construction Coatings for interior work Plaster Screeds and subfloors Impregnation and sealing treatments, paints Wall and floor finishes Stone finishes Reconstituted stone finishes Ceramic finishes Wooden finishes Textile finishes Resilient finishes Sealants Product selection strategies Quality of the interior air Constituents and possible effects Legal stipulations, regulations, standards Product selection Labels and quality marks Life cycles and sustainability New technologies

60 60 60 60 60 60 61 61 61 62 63 63 64 68 68 69 70 70 71 71 71 71 72 72 73 73 73 74 74 75 76 76 77

31

Comfort Elisabeth Endres, Ulla Feinweber, Bernhard Friedsam

A 1.1

“Anyone entering on the study of architecture must understand that even though a plan may have abstract beauty on paper, the four facades may seem well balanced and the total volume well proportioned, the building itself may turn out to be poor architecture. Internal space, that space which cannot be completely represented in any form, which can be grasped and felt only through direct experience, is the protagonist of architecture.” Bruno Zevi [1] Basically, a building should function like a good coat. Depending on the climatic conditions, it must keep out cold, snow, rain, wind and unwelcome solar radiation, but at the same time allow excess heat and moisture to escape. But we expect much more from an internal space than just protection from the weather: it should be readily usable and illuminated, attractive, well proportioned and well laid out, offer safety and security, but also provide the chance for contact with the outside world, reflect its cultural background and represent its users. It should also be adaptable to suit different functions but, equally, meet the individual needs of its users regarding comfort and convenience. And: it should be good to the touch.

A 1.1 A 1.2 A 1.3

A 1.4 A 1.5

A 1.6

What makes a room comfortable? Our well-being in interior spaces can be determined to a certain extent by objective, measurable parameters: thresholds for physical variables such as room temperature, humidity of the air, velocity of air movements and lighting levels ensure a “standardised degree of comfort”. Why, then, do some complain about the unbearable heat in a room while others are happy to enjoy the summer within the building as well? Comfort therefore also depends on factors such as the interior fittings and furnishings, the activities of the users and the nature of their clothing. It is therefore important to concentrate on usage-related, intermediate conditions right from the start of the planning work as well as the physical variables. Looking beyond the usage-related requirements, however, it is clear that our well-being is still dependent on many subjective factors: the background, age, sex, character, education, status, personality, constitution and state of health of users are all factors just as important as daily or seasonal changes of mood or unusual events. One and the same stimulus can exercise totally different effects on different people. The evaluation and weighting of various sensual impressions, likewise their interaction, is vital. For example, colours have a great influence on the perceived temperature of a room, and the humidity of the air within a room and

Fireplace let into the floor, farmhouse, Shikoku (J), early 18th century The utopia of technology, 1914, Antonio Sant’Elia Cross-ventilation analysis for the plan layout of an apartment with the position varied according to the prevailing wind direction, Alexander Klein, 1942 (cross-ventilated areas shown in white) Systematic presentation of comfort factors The rationality of technology, “Casa giravolta” revolving house project, Pier Luigi Nervi, early 1930s a Axonometric view b Section The magic of technology, “Walking City”, Ron Herron (Archigram), 1964 A 1.2

32

Conditions to measure, experience

A 1.3

Comfort

Comfort

Intermediate conditions

Physical conditions

Food intake

Ethnic influences

Age

Sex

Physical fitness

State of health, constitution

Psychosocial factors

Room occupancy

Daily & annual rhythms

Adaptation & acclimatisation

Activity

Clothing

Electrical charge in interior air

Air pressure

Others

Dust

Carbon dioxide & other gases

Odours/repellent substances

Reference to outside world, view out

Olfactory

Colours, colour composition/rendering

Glare, distribution of luminance

Lighting, contrast, lighting angle

Visual

Reverberation times

Noise levels

Frequencies

Acoustic

Air movements

Interior air humidity

Average temp. of enclosing surfaces

Interior air temp.

Thermal

Physiological conditions

A 1.4

In traditional vernacular architecture, forms of construction and types of building evolved over centuries on the basis of observation and experience. They exploited the regional potential of their location and were well adapted to the lifestyles of their users. The buildings designed by anonymous architects with their traditional functional and cultural experiences are effective and durable – simple yet intelligent. Even today, their sensual presence, haptic qualities, odours, acoustics and looks still appeal. These – unquantifiable – characteristics have been ignored more and more, particularly over the past century. Technical inventions and the development of new, more efficient materials such as steel and concrete plus the structural testing and analysis options that arose in the early 19th century are just some of the reasons for this. Our belief in technology, the concept of “everything is possible”, led to a shift in our priorities: the objectivisable and measurable stepped into the limelight, totally in keeping with our picture of the world that still prevails today – of the “exact” natural sciences. This

idea can essentially be traced back to Descartes and Newton. It is a mechanistic-materialistic philosophy that regards the universe as one gigantic, complex machine whose functions are governed by the laws of nature and even thinking itself is explained as the effects of material processes in our brains. The object of natural sciences is the orderliness of nature, and mathematics is their language. Experimentation is their basic principle, which says that observations must be reproducible. An experiment should – presuming the experimenter is competent – lead to the same result anywhere in the world because the laws of nature are the same everywhere whether we like it or not. The mechanistic view of the world is also represented in architecture. In their “Manifesto for Futuristic Architecture” of 1914, Antonio Sant’Elia and Filippo Tommaso Marinetti made it clear that “modern building materials and our scientific ideas absolutely do not lend themselves to the disciplines of historical styles”. They called for the “Futurist house” to be “like an enormous machine” [2] (Fig. A 1.2) In his book Towards a New Architecture (1925), Le Corbusier says that besides the “steamship” and the “airplane” there is another technical accomplishment of our age: “A house ... will be a tool as the motor-car is becoming a tool.” [3] Modern architecture also tried to integrate the findings of natural science into architecture. In the early 1920s the modern movement was one in which interest started to

a

b

our personal power of recollection affects our perception of odours. Individual needs and sensual experiences cannot be quantified, but are very significant for interior design (Fig. A 1.4).

Natural science versus empiricism

A 1.5

focus on hygiene; light, air and sunshine would create healthy living conditions. In numerous analyses and diagrams, architects and engineers attempted to standardise orientation, exposure to the sun, building volumes, plan layouts and zoning, and hence make comfort programmable (Fig. A 1.3). Although it could be said that the Bauhaus was the first attempt at comfort, the connection with technology and rationalism tended to lead more to theoretical formulations. The outcome of what had originally been a programme of social reforms was functionalism – a technical aesthetic: from now on functional criteria governed the planning process and the “objective logic” left little leeway for specific local relationships (Fig. A 1.5). Even in the technophiliac 1960s we still believed that we could create an agreeable interior climate in any “box”; you only had to equip it with powerful enough HVAC. “Man-made weather” was the buzzword, which meant that architects saw the control of the interior climate as a purely technical problem that should be left to HVAC engineers. In the poorly insulated but fully airconditioned open-plan offices of the 1970s, however, “sick building syndrome” – the great discomfort – became the new buzzword. While some architects were still building apparently “perfect machines”, the mind-set committed to classical physics had to make way for revolutionary new findings: quantum mechanics does not fit into the strict determinism of the

A 1.6

33

Comfort

mechanistic world view. In the subatomic world, other laws apply: on the one hand, for example, the duality of light leads to confusion because it can be described both as a particle and as a wave; on the other hand, the exact position of the particle and its momentum at a defined point in time can no longer be calculated exactly. Quantum theory describes probabilities. In other words: material has a certain tendency to exist at a certain time. One difficulty with experiments in this field is that the expectations of the experimenter influence the course of the experiment: the object to be investigated, the subject of the investigator and the investigation itself are part of a common domain and are mutually influential. Absolute objectivity is therefore abolished in certain branches of the exact natural sciences. This realisation can also be transferred to construction: a building that has been correctly erected according to purely objective, measurable criteria, e.g. the rules of structural analysis, building physics, materials science, etc., is not necessarily comfortable. Subjective, intangible qualities such as odours, sounds, surface textures, light and colour all play an equally important role. The individual needs of the users are subject to dynamic changes and are therefore difficult to allow for in the planning. In order to do justice to these subjective aspects, we need to take empirical findings into account. In addition, individual users should have the chance to adapt easily the interior fittings and furnishings

and the interior climate to suit their own personal comfort expectations. Human beings experience their surroundings through their senses. The comfort of an interior space must therefore be considered under the aspects of “feeling”, “smelling”, “hearing” and “seeing”. Our starting point below is in each case the physiology of the sense involved. Following on from that, the interior climate relationships and measures are explained from the point of view of optimised comfort. Even though the methods of traditional, anonymous building cannot be transferred to today’s utilisation requirements and methods of construction, we can nevertheless learn from regional building traditions. One example of an efficient form of construction that results in a comfortable interior climate using low-tech means can be found in traditional Hungarian architecture (Fig. A 1.7).

Thermal comfort Thermal comfort is closely linked with the human heat balance. Optimum conditions prevail in neutral temperature conditions, i.e. when the human body, with a normal blood flow, needs neither to produce heat nor lose it. Generally, human beings perceive an environment as thermally comfortable when the ambient temperature is slightly lower than the temperature at which they begin to perspire.

Physiology: human heat balance – production, transport and dissipation

The human being, as a homeothermal organism, keeps its internal temperature of 37 °C constant even in the case of considerable fluctuations in the external temperature. At low ambient temperatures, the body temperature decreases from the trunk to the extremities (Fig. A 1.8). Our body temperature varies over the course of a day: the highest temperature is reached between 5 and 8 p.m., the lowest between 3 and 6 a.m. If there is a risk of the internal temperature dropping too low, the body must produce heat through muscle activity, shivering or increasing the metabolism. The blood circulates the heat within the body. Excess heat is dissipated to our surroundings in various ways via the skin: • Conduction refers to the direct heat exchange between the body and contacting surface. It depends on the temperature and thermal conductivity of the material touched (Fig. A 1.9a). • Radiation is the transfer of heat by way of the long-wave infrared radiation emitted from the skin. It is not dependent on contact with a conductive medium (Fig. A 1.9b). • Convection is the process in which a flow of air is generated on the surface of the skin which removes the heat; the cooler layer of air in contact with the skin heats up, rises and is replaced by cooler air (Fig. A 1.9c). • Evaporation of the moisture on the surface of

A 1.7

34

Comfort

• • • • •

Interior air temperature Average temperature of enclosing surfaces Temperature distribution Movements of the air Moisture in the air

The above factors have a close, mutually influential relationship with the factors that are dependent on the people themselves: • • • • • • • • •

Type of clothing Physical activity Age, sex, constitution, physical well-being Food intake Adaptability Psychosocial factors Ethnic influences Daily and annual rhythms Length of time in the room

Further, factors related to the room itself and its use have a substantial effect on the interior climate, too: • • • • •

Room occupancy Sources of heat and substances Temperature distribution within the room Air change rate Air management in the room

0 °C

The energy concept of a traditional Hungarian farmhouse A 1.8 Temperature zones in the body at different ambient temperatures A 1.9 Forms of heat transmission a Conduction b Radiation c Convection A 1.10 Thermal insulation values of clothing (clo) to EN ISO 7730-2005 (D) A 1.11 Energy turnover depending on physical activity to EN ISO 7730-2005 and EN ISO 8996 A 1.12 Heat emissions depending on the ambient temperature a Strenuous work b Light work c Relaxing, seated

35 °C

28 °C 31 °C 32 °C 34 °C 36 °C 37 °C A 1.8

kJ/h

Temperature of body

A 1.7

20 °C

1000

800

moist heat emissions (perspiring) 600

a

400

dry heat emissions b

200

0 0

5

10

15

a

c A 1.9

Clothing

clo

m²K/W

T-Shirt

0.09

0.014

Shorts

0.06

0.009

Underwear with short sleeves and legs, shirt, trousers, jacket, socks, shoes

1.00

0.155

Underwear, shirt, trousers, socks, shoes

0.70

0.110

Panties, tights, blouse, a long skirt, jacket, shoes

1.10

0.170

Underwear with short sleeves and legs, shirt, trousers, waistcoat, jacket, coat, socks, shoes

1.50

0.230

kJ/h

With the body at rest and an ambient temperature of 20 °C, the body’s total heat loss is as follows: approx. 46 % in the form of radiation, approx. 33 % by convection, 19 % by evaporation through the skin, and 2 % by respiration. But this relationship alters dynamically depending on the ambient temperature, the degree of activity and clothing. In the case of strenuous physical work, the body is cooled mainly through the evaporation of perspiration through the skin – and exclusively at ambient temperatures exceeding 36 °C. The human being is a tropical creature: we can adapt well to warm ambient temperatures, also in the long term. In contrast to this, long-term adaptation to cold temperatures is not possible. In temperate and cold climate zones human beings must rely on adapting their behaviour, i.e. through warm clothing, shelter and heating. Clothing is the simplest form of thermal insulation. The insulation value of clothing is indicated by the unit of measurement clo (m2K/W) – derived from the word “clothing” (Fig. A 1.10). Heat production through physical activity is measured in met (W/m2), the heat flow per m2 of body surface area, and is essentially dependent on the degree of physical movement (Fig. A 1.11) and the age of the person. As the degree of physical activity increases, so the body releases more energy – in the form of both dry and moist heat – into its surroundings (Fig. A 1.12). The range in which human beings feel thermally comfortable depends on many conditions. It is influenced by five physical factors:

Temperature of surroundings

20 25 30 35 Room temperature (°C)

1000

800

600

400

dry heat emissions 200

0 0

5

10

15

b A 1.10

Degree of activity

moist heat emissions (perspiring)

Energy production (W/m2) (met)

kJ/h

the skin and the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract also dissipates heat.

20 25 30 35 Room temperature (°C)

1000

800

Lying down

46

0.8

Relaxed, seated

58

1.0

Relaxed, standing

70

1.2

Sedentary activity (office, laboratory, industry)

93

1.6

Moderate physical activity, standing (salesperson, housework, operating a machine)

116

2.0

200

Strenuous physical activity (operating heavy machinery, vehicle repairs)

174

3.0

0

600

moist heat emissions (perspiring) 400

dry heat emissions 0

c A 1.11

5

10

15

20 25 30 35 Room temperature (°C) A 1.12

35

80 60 40

20 10 8 6

30

Ceiling temperature t D (°C)

Floor temperature t FB (°C)

Dissatisfied (%)

Comfort

Uncomfortably hot

28 26 24 Comfortable

22 20 18

2 4 6 8 10 0 Difference in air temperature between head and feet (K) A 1.13

Acceptable

34 32 30

Comfortable

24

Uncomfortably cold

0

36

26

14 2

Uncomfortably hot

38

28

Acceptable

16

4

40

12

22

10

20

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

Uncomfortably cold 12

14

16

Interior air temperature t L (°C)

18

20

22

24

26

28

A 1.14

Interior air temperature t L (°C) A 1.15

Air and surface temperatures

Radiation asymmetry

The temperature of the air and the average radiation temperature of all surrounding surfaces should not deviate from each other by more than 3 K. The operative room temperature is calculated from the average of the air and radiation temperatures. In the comfort temperature zone, the lower limit is an operative temperature of 20 °C and the upper limit is 26 °C. As the operative temperature deviates more and more from this range, the greater the efficiency of the human being is restricted: the ability to concentrate decreases and hence the frequency of accidents increases. On the other hand, an interior climate that remains constant for many hours or even days also results in impaired efficiency. Without a regularly varying moderate load on the body, physical and mental fatigue cannot be ruled out. It is therefore certainly advisable to ensure different temperatures in different rooms or parts of rooms depending on their usage as relaxation or activity zones, individual or common areas. We perceive radiant heat, e.g. that from the sun, as very pleasant because it permeates cool air without heating it and is only converted into heat when it reaches the body. We feel particularly comfortable in rooms in which the surface temperature of the walls of the room is so high that no heat is lost from the body. In the thermal comfort zone the human body loses more heat by radiation than by convection; there are therefore no radiation losses in this condition because with warm surrounding surfaces there is no constant exchange of radiation and a low air temperature is not perceived as unpleasant. This is the case, for example, when the surface temperature of the body, with normal clothing, is 21 °C, the wall temperature 20 °C and the air temperature 17 °C. As compensating for low surface temperatures by way of high air temperatures is possible to a limited extent only, coil heating with a high radiation component should be preferred to a warmair system where possible. Horizontal radiant heat in conjunction with inert thermal masses, which retain the heat for a long time, are perceived as particularly agreeable. Traditional tiled stoves operate on this principle.

The thermal currents in a room are also substantially affected by horizontal and vertical temperature distributions as well as the average temperature of the various surfaces. A horizontal temperature gradient between opposing surfaces which exceeds 10 K will have a negative effect on our well-being because we then experience an uneven exchange of radiation with the walls. With great temperature differences between two walls, e.g. a poorly insulated cold outside wall and a warm inside wall, we might even experience a draught. The limit values for the temperature difference between opposing walls is given in DIN ISO 7730 as max. 23 K for warm and 10 K for cold walls. In the case of a vertical temperature gradient between floor and ceiling, the difference in temperature between the feet and head of a person should not exceed 3 K. Extremities such as head, hands and feet react particularly sensitively to overcooling and overheating because this is where the majority of thermoreceptors are to be found. However, a “cool head” is regarded as more comfortable as “cold feet”! It is therefore advisable to plan cooling at ceiling level wherever possible. The temperature of the floor also has a considerable influence on thermal comfort. If it drops below 19 °C, the body loses too much heat by way of conduction through the feet. If it rises above 29 °C, heat dissipation is hampered (Figs. A 1.13 to A 1.15).

contain at a certain temperature; this figure increases with the temperature. The relative humidity ϕ (%) of the air specifies the percentage of the maximum quantity of water vapour that the air contains at that moment. The maximum quantity of water vapour that can be absorbed by the air depends on the temperature of the air. So with a constant absolute water vapour content in the interior air, the relative air humidity varies depending on the temperature of the air. If the moisture content exceeds the maximum possible absorption capacity of the air at a certain temperature, the saturation moisture content of the interior air is reached and the body can no longer lose excess heat by way of evaporation to its surroundings. We find an excessively high air humidity unpleasantly humid. Above an absolute air humidity of 12 g/kg, the interior air is only just suitable for breathing. And above 20 g/kg we find it very difficult to breathe because too little moisture can be lost to the surroundings through the air we exhale. A low relative humidity is therefore advantageous for our well-being (Fig. A 1.16). On the other hand, very dry air with a relative humidity below 40 %, as can occur in winter in badly heated rooms with a high air circulation, leads to substantial dust levels and electrostatic discharges from synthetic materials. Such air dries out our mucous membranes and makes them vulnerable to infectious diseases.

Humidity of the interior air

Thermal comfort zone

Each day, each of us releases approx. 1 l of water into our surroundings in the form of water vapour through the skin and respiratory tract. The air in turn always contains a certain amount of water vapour. The warmer the air, the more water vapour it can absorb. The absolute humidity of the air in g/kg specifies how many grams of water are contained in 1 kg of dry air. This figure changes depending on season, time of day and weather conditions and is important for the dissipation of moisture from interiors. The maximum humidity (g/kg) is the saturation moisture content of the air, i.e. the maximum quantity of water vapour that 1 kg of dry air can

Although the thermal comfort zone differs for every person, a range of temperature and air humidity has been determined within which the majority of people feel comfortable. The upper limit of the thermal comfort zone is given by a relative humidity of ϕ = 65 % and an operative temperature of 26 °C; the lower limit lies at a relative humidity of ϕ = 30% and an operative temperature of 20 °C. If we include a person’s activities in the equation, we arrive at more concrete comfortable temperatures. For a seated person wearing light clothing, the comfortable temperature for a humidity of 50 % is around 25 °C when

36

Comfort

70 60 comfortable

40

0.2

10

0.1

5 2

20 comfortable 10 uncomfortable

10

0

0 24

26

28

12

14

16

18

Interior air temperature t L (°C) A 1.16

wall and air temperatures are identical. As physical activities increase, so the comfortable temperature decreases, although with strenuous physical work, when we perspire, it rises again. The most comprehensive tool for considering the temperature and humidity in interiors is the Mollier h-x diagram (Fig. A 1.19). It shows the humidity of the air in relation to the temperature of the room and enables changes to the moist air due to a rise in temperature, an increase/ decrease in moisture, cooling and the mixing of different volumes of air to be read off. Here, h (kJ/kg) denotes the specific enthalpy (thermodynamic properties of the air) and x (g/kg) the moisture content. The h-x diagram is relevant for both the design of comfortable buildings and the choice of technical services, right up to energy-efficiency planning. A continuous change of air is necessary in order to guarantee an agreeable exchange of moisture between the body and the air in the room. However, even the best ventilation cannot compensate for shortcomings in design and construction, e.g. thermal bridges, where the moisture in the air can condense. Air circulation in the interior

In the ideal state, a person does not perceive the change of air in a room. Draughts only occur when the air passes over the body with an excessive velocity and causes it to lose heat. In summer such drafts can be perceived as agreeably cooling, but as a rule the threshold for air movements that are regarded as comfortable is a velocity of 0.19 m/s in summer and 0.16 m/s in winter. Important here is the ratio of air temperature to air velocity and degree of turbulence in the airflow: as the air velocity or degree of turbulence rises, so the temperature of the air must increase, too (Figs. A 1.17 and A 1.18). Irrespective of whether natural ventilation via the windows or mechanical ventilation is involved, fresh air should always be introduced into a room at a low velocity and should be able to disperse uniformly throughout the room. Air velocities in the interior exceeding 0.2 m/s are perceived as unpleasant draughts.

18

26 28 24 20 22 Interior air temperature t L (°C)

20

22

24

26

28

Operative temperature (°C)

A 1.17

Olfactory comfort We decide whether we can smell somebody or something within a fraction of a second because the central processing of smell stimuli is closely linked with the limbic system, a formation of nerve cells in the proximity of the hypothalamus, the part of the brain that controls the emotional behaviour of a human being. This close contact explains why odours quickly awaken positive or negative feelings in us. The sense of smell works over a distance: even minimal concentrations of a substance can trigger an olfactory sensation. The original function was to detect dangers, e.g. the smell of stale food or unhygienic conditions, and thus prompt a subconscious reflex.

A 1.18 A 1.13 A 1.14 A 1.15 A 1.16 A 1.17 A 1.18

A 1.19

Temperature stratification to DIN EN ISO 7730 Comfort in relation to interior air and floor temperatures Comfort in relation to interior air and ceiling temperatures Comfort in relation to interior air temperature and relative humidity, adaptive model Comfort in relation to interior air temperature and air velocity near the body Predicted percentage of dissatisfied (PPD) in relation to the air velocity and operative temperature after Fanger (0.8 clo, 1.0 met). The red line indicates the comfort range according to DIN 1946-2. Mollier h-x diagram

0.1

-45

Physiology: sense of smell

Fresh air and pleasant odours are very stimulating sensations for us. Otl Aicher describes air as an “intense stimulation factor”: “The air-conditioning system never gives us the fresh, sparkling air of country rainfall or the dry working air of a summer morning or the soft air of an August evening.” [4] Odours help us to feel familiar with a place, revive memories and awaken expectations. We can even differentiate between the finest fragrance nuances of different blossoms: our brains can distinguish about 10 000 different odours. Besides the different basic tastes, we often associate a smell with a certain image and compare that with previous experiences. Three factors are critical for olfactory comfort: the measurable quality of the air, the intensity of the contamination of the air and the perceived quality of the air (Fig. A 1.20, p. 38).

0.2

-40

0.3

-35

0.4

-30

0.5 ir

ity

a of

0.6 0,7

id

-25

m

e

tiv

hu

0.8

la Re

0.9 1.0

20

65

15 13.8

55 50

10 9.2

45 40

5

35

70

60

)

22

kg

20

18

J/

16

(k

14

h

12

Air temperature (°C)

0

y

20

acceptable

15

lp

uncomfortably dry

uncomfortable

30

20 0.3

th a

30

40

0.4

En

50

50

Dissatisfied (%)

uncomfortably moist

80

Air velocity (m/s)

90

Air velocity at head height v (cm/s)

Relative humidity ϕ (%)

30

100

30 25

0 20 15

-5 10

Fresh air

Besides the temperature and humidity of the air, it is the composition of the air we breathe that is critical for our well-being. Stuffy rooms are not only uncomfortable, they are also questionable in terms of hygiene and may involve health risks. One indicator of the quality of the interior air is the carbon dioxide content. The air exhaled by an adult at rest contains approx. 16 % oxygen (O2) and approx. 4 % carbon dioxide (CO2).

5

-10

0 0

-15

0

-5

-1

-20 0

2

4

6 7.3 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Absolute humidity x (g/kg) of dry air

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 3032 Water vapour pressure (mbar) A 1.19

37

Comfort

A 1.20 A 1.21 A 1.22 A 1.23 A 1.24

Fre

sh

Room and air to DIN 1946 and document “AMEV RLT-Anlagen-Bau-93” Air quality and CO2 concentration in a room with different air change rates (after Pettenkofer) Determination of flow rate of outside air according to type of room to DIN 1946-2 Airborne and structure-borne sound Recommended values for sound pressure level and reverberation time in rooms according to room categories

air

Outside air

Contamination of the air

Air quality Air contamination air aust

Exh

CO 2 content (%)

A 1.20

0.5

Max. workplace concentration d) Specific room volume: 30 m3/person ale CO 2 production 18 l/h e s ( 0.4 on rs pe 3 /h m 0 0.3 rson 3 h pe / 5m Limit value after Pettenkoffer 0.2 3 rson 15 m /h pe 3 25 m /h person 0.1 50 m3/h person 0 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Time (h) A 1.21

Flow rate of outside air Type of room

Person-related m3/h

Area-related m3/(m2 · h)

Single office

40

4

Open-plan office

60

6

Place of assembly

20

10 to 2

Classroom

30

15

Reading room

20

12

Retail premises

20

2 to 6

Restaurant

40

8

The air change rate required in a room is also considerably influenced by the pollution in the air in the room in addition to the fresh air requirement of the occupants and the quality of the incoming fresh air. The air change rate necessary, depending on the volume and use of the room, can be calculated from the number of persons in the room, the length of time they spend in the room and the nature of their activities. For example, rooms in which a large number of people remain for a long time carrying out concentrated tasks requires a high ventilation level. Contamination caused by activities, objects and building materials in the room must also be taken into account (see “Product selection strategies”, pp. 73 – 77). So the exhaust air also has to remove emissions from building components, room furnishings and fittings, furniture and technical equipment, in addition to exhaled air, moisture and bodily odours, and also reduce the level of pollutants such as carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, solvents, dust, radon and unhealthy microorganisms (e.g. bacteria, viruses, mites, mould and yeast fungi) (Fig. A 1.22). The air change rates required are calculated based on the volume of the room. In residential buildings with normal ceiling heights, this results in an hourly air change rate requirement of 0.4 to 0.8 times the volume of the room. This rate climbs to 1.5 for offices and places of assembly because of the higher occupancy.

Intensity of odours

A 1.22

38

Fresh air consists of approx. 21 % oxygen and 79 % nitrogen (N2); at 0.03 % the carbon dioxide content is relatively low. An oxygen content below 15 % and a carbon dioxide content above 0.07 % in the interior air lead to fatigue, a drop in productivity and headaches – and a carbon dioxide content of 2.4 % or higher is a health risk. Ventilation is therefore essential in order to guarantee an adequate supply of fresh air. It must ensure a supply of oxygen and the quality of the air introduced must be that of uncontaminated exterior air. Depending on activity, a human being requires an average of 20 – 30 m3 of fresh air every hour. In rooms with a high humidity, e.g. bathrooms, this requirement climbs to approx. 60 m3/h. Taking an average value of 25 m3/h, in a room without any particular contamination of the air the Pettenkofer limit for the maximum carbon dioxide content in the interior air can be complied with. In housing this is 0.10 % by vol. and in offices and places of assembly 0.15 % by vol. (Fig. A 1.21).

When determining ventilation requirements, the intensity and quality of an odour must also be considered as well as the measurable quality of the air. In order to be able to stipulate limit values and hence enable the comparison of odours as perceived, so-called sniff tests are carried out with trained testers, who assess the intensity of an odour by comparing it with standardised

odour sources. Derived from olfactus the Latin word for smell, the intensity of an odour source is specified using the unit of measurement “olf”: 1 olf corresponds to the odour emissions from an adult with normally functioning glands and an average standard of hygiene during light sedentary work. This allows the contamination of the air in a room to be related to the number of users, the room materials and exterior air. Contamination per unit area for offices is specified as 0.1 olf/m2 per person and 0.3 olf/m2 for materials and incoming fresh air. The intensities of all sources of contamination in the interior air are simply added together. Generalising, we can assume a value of 0.2 olf/m2 for the contamination load in buildings with minimal contamination. Quality of odours

More important than the intensity of an odour, however, is whether it is perceived as pleasant or unpleasant. And here the perception of the intensity of an odour is heavily influenced by social and psychological factors: a poor working atmosphere, a badly equipped workplace or inadequate HVAC systems – i.e. factors, over which the user has no control – can hardly be compensated for by a better air change rate or pleasant fragrances. The humidity of the air also has a considerable influence on our perception of odours: as the humidity or temperature of the air increases, so we perceive the quality of the air to decrease – kitchen and tobacco smells are, however, then not noticed so intensely. The quality of the interior air as perceived by a person entering a room is measured in decipols (dp). The moment of entry has been chosen because our sense of smell adapts very quickly. The ventilation flow rate is taken into account in this unit of measurement. A value of 1 dp corresponds to the perceived contamination of the interior air when 36 m3 per hour (or 10 l of fresh air per second) is contaminated by 1 olf: 1 dp =

1 olf 10 l/s

According to DIN 1946-2, values between 0.7 and 2.5 dp are regarded as agreeable. Only by considering measurable air quality (CO2 concentration), intensity of air contamination (olf) and perceived air quality (dp) together is it possible to work out HVAC concepts for a comfortable interior air quality.

Comfort

Acoustic comfort

Sound

Acoustic comfort is hard to define, whereas acoustic discomfort is usually rather more easy to determine accurately. For human beings, acoustic discomfort is any type of noise, both continuous and brief sound events, that is connected with a high sound level. But every person perceives noise differently depending on the information content of a sound and the attitude towards the sound events. A rock concert, for example, might be pure noise to one person, but pure enjoyment to another! Physiology: sense of hearing

The human ear converts sound waves into nerve pulses that are fed to the brain. We hear sounds with a frequency of 16 to approx. 20 000 Hz. The frequency describes the pitch of a sound, the amplitude its loudness. With age, the upper limit can drop as low as 5000 Hz. How loud a person perceives a sound depends on its frequency and intensity; pitches with a medium frequency seem to be louder than those with a lower or higher frequency. These days, silence has become a rare event. A constant noise level, generated by machines and media, accompanies our daily lives. As a result of an increase in traffic volumes, the noise exposure now doubles roughly every 10 years. This is not without consequences for our sensitive sense of hearing and in some circumstances even affects the whole body. This is because our sense of hearing is the only sense that cannot be consciously “switched off”. Well-known stress-related symptoms such as concentration problems and disrupted sleep are the outcome. Timber, metal, glass – every material has its own unmistakable sound. This fact helps us to perceive objects and our orientation in space. The room acoustics provide a clue to the form and size of a room, also fittings and furnishings and other occupants. The echo of our footsteps allows us to recognise the material or construction of a floor.

Sound is the result of the vibrations of a body that are transmitted to another medium (mostly air) and propagate in all directions. The sound waves are reflected, absorbed, diffracted or refracted at obstacles and the boundaries of a room. The sound pressure level (dB) is a logarithmic scale for describing the magnitude of a sound event and is used to evaluate interior spaces. The discomfort threshold depends very much on the nature and origin of the sound – the threshold of pain lies between 120 and 140 dB depending on the combination of frequencies. If our sense of hearing is exposed to sound pressure levels close to the threshold of pain, permanent damage to our ears is to be expected even after only a brief period of exposure. Sound propagation

Sound can be conducted through air or solid bodies (Fig. A 1.23). The propagation of sound from room to room through walls, ceilings and floors is especially critical where different users or uses meet. Also critical for sound insulation are the flanking paths for sound transmission at junctions, built-in elements, cable ducts and technical services. Structure-borne sound ensues through the direct physical contact with or the application of a force to a material, e.g. by means of footsteps, moving furniture or vibrating machinery on the floor. The sound is transmitted through the material to the fabric of the building and in this way can propagate over great distances within the building. Decoupling or the provision of layers of elastic materials with a low dynamic stiffness, e.g. impact sound insulation, ensure sound insulation in such instances (see “Insulating materials”, pp. 67 – 68). In the case of airborne sound, a surface is caused to vibrate by the changing air pressures of the sound waves perpendicular to and incident on that surface. A material’s resistance to sound propagation increases with its weight and density. Sound is broken up and reflected at hard,

Type of room

α

Airborne sound

Degree of absorption

Structure-borne sound

A 1.23

smooth surfaces, which leads to disagreeable reverberations. Porous building materials and rough surfaces absorb the sound and attenuate the reverberation (Fig. A 1.28, p. 40). Doubling the sound absorption achieves a three-fold reduction in the sound level (see “Sound insulation”, pp. 129 – 130). Room acoustics

Acoustic comfort is also dependent on the use of the room. Weighted sound pressure levels have been specified for certain room categories, which are normally in the region of approx. 25 to about 55 dB(A). Rooms for concentrated work and communication should not exceed a sound pressure level of approx. 35 dB(A) – depending on size and occupancy. The reverberation time T (s) is the most important variable for describing the acoustic character of a room. It specifies the duration of an echo and is influenced by the volume of the room, the sound-absorbing surfaces of all the materials in the room and the number of people in the room. As good speech intelligibility is especially important in working areas, the reverberation time in offices should not exceed 0.5 s, and 0.6 to 1 s in rooms for meetings and presentations. Recommended values for the sound pressure level and reverberation time for various uses are given in Fig. A 1.24.

Sound pressure level (dB)

Reverberation time (s)

Living room, bedroom

35 /30

0.5

Hospital: ward, day/night Examination room, hall, corridor Operating theatre

35 /30 40 40

1 2 3

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10 /25 30 /25 25 35 35

1/1.5 1/1.5 2 1 3

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35 40 45

1 0.5 0.5

Restaurant Museum Reading room, classroom Gymnasium, indoor swimming pool

40 – 55 40 35 /40 45 /50

1 1.5 1 1.5/2 A 1.24

39

Comfort

Range of visible light

10

-9

10

-6

1

10

Infrared

Heat radiation

X-rays

Ultraviolet

Cosmic rays Gamma rays

Wavelength (nm)

380 nm

4

10

6

10

12

10

15

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780 nm -9

1nm = 10 m

A 1.25 The part of the electromagnetic spectrum visible to the human eye A 1.26 Interior of Hakama House, Kyoto (J), 1998, Jun Tamaki A 1.27 Daylight entering through the roof, Silvertop private house, Reiner-Burchill, Los Angeles (USA), 1957, John Lautner A 1.28 Lighting from above and from the side, student accommodation, Amsterdam (NL), 1959, Herman Hertzberger A 1.29 Admission of daylight, ventilation and view of the outside world, private house for Margaret Esherick, Chestnut Hill, Pennsylvania (USA), 1961, Louis I. Kahn

A 1.25

Visual comfort In our culture the sense of vision has a very high priority. First and foremost, it serves us as a means of orientation in our environment. Physiology: how light affects the human organism

Our visual perception of the world is realised through the image of our surroundings on the retina of the eye, where the information is converted into electrical impulses and sent to the visual cortex in the brain, where it is converted into pictures.

In addition, the light that enters our eyes influences and controls primary functions of the brain. The intensity of the incident light means that our eyes bond the human organism to the light/dark alternation in nature and hence the 24-hour day/night rhythm. Just how important sunlight is for the human organism becomes clear during the winter months with their short days and long nights: in sensitive people the lack of daylight leads to depression, the “winter blues” (seasonal affective disorder, SAD). But even a brief lack of daylight has an effect on our bodily functions.

Who is not familiar with the rapid loss of concentration during a lecture in a window-less lecture theatre? Scientific studies have shown that the human body needs dark rooms for relaxing sleep and the gentlest way to wake up in the morning is with light. Wavelength and intensity have an influence on how light affects the autonomic-vegetative functions. Sunlight can indeed be replaced by artificial light for the purpose of seeing, but not for its influence on vital functions. This is because artificial light is 5 to 20 times weaker than natural light on an overcast day in winter.

A 1.27

A 1.26

40

A 1.28

Comfort

Light

The spectral composition of sunlight changes over the course of a day because the light in the mornings and evenings has to pass through a thicker layer of atmosphere, meaning that the blue component is absorbed to a greater degree. Between sunrise and sunset, the colours of the day pass through pink, orange, white and pale blue, returning to pink at twilight. Blue-green light stimulates our metabolism and encourages attention and activity, whereas red-orange components are better for relaxation. Daylight, with its natural spectrum preferably unadulterated, is therefore indispensable for the comfort of an interior. We must be able to share in the daily and seasonal changes in the weather outside. Openings in the facade, however, should not only optimise the admission of light, they should also provide a means of visual contact with the outside world. Exposure to light and illumination

Whereas people in agricultural societies are active outdoors and return to their houses primarily to seek protection against the vagaries of the weather, in our industry- and services-oriented societies people are mainly indoors. This means that the need for daylight in interiors and the demand for light management in rooms has increased enormously. At workplaces in particular, visual comfort is extremely important. Concentrated work is only

possible in pleasant interior lighting conditions. And sound lighting design is essential for exploiting daylight and providing optimum artificial lighting. Lighting design takes into account the measurable physical variables of light and the high adaptability of the human eye, which can perceive luminous intensities between 0.1 and 100 000 lx (lux). This is why it is possible for us to read, for example, outside under an overcast sky (10 000 lx) but also indoors (500 lx). Illuminance E is defined as the ratio of the luminous intensity I of a light source to the square of the distance r (m) to the illuminated surface and is dependent on the angle of incidence: ε E = I × cos r2 Here, ε is the angle between the incident light beam and a line perpendicular to the surface. So the decrease in the illuminance does not change linearly with the distance from the light source, but rather exponentially. We make a fundamental distinction between direct and diffuse light. The former originates from a point-like light source and leads to shadows on bodies and structured surfaces and reflections on reflective surfaces. Light and shade causes a “modelling” that is very important for our three-dimensional perception of objects and surface structures. Diffuse light, originating from large, luminous surfaces, illuminates large

areas of a room and creates low-contrast lighting environments. Besides the two light variables illuminance and luminance (cd/m²), the distribution of the luminance and the glare resulting from this, the direction of the light and its colour and colour rendering are important factors for visual comfort. We cannot see light, only the surfaces illuminated by the light. Whereas the illuminance specifies merely the luminous flux incident on a certain surface, the luminance describes the light radiated by an illuminated surface or light source. Luminance therefore determines the impression of brightness we receive from a luminous or illuminated surface and is directly related to the reflectance of the surface material. Excessive luminance leads to physiological glare phenomena: if a surface leads to excessive reflections, the adaptability of the human eye is overtaxed and our vision impaired. So-called disabling glare begins at a level of 104 cd/m². Also unpleasant are large differences in the luminance levels within the field of vision. Severe contrast between the middle and the periphery of the field of vision means that the eye has to cope with a constant light/dark adjustment. Such a situation quickly leads to fatigue and our ability to concentrate sinks rapidly. On the other hand, inadequate differences in the luminance levels and inadequate contrast result in an uninspiring working environment and the negative effects are similar. This is because

A 1.29

41

Comfort

only with a distribution of light and shade within a room do objects appear three-dimensional. The task of lighting design is to create a differentiated lighting environment of lighter and darker zones within a room to suit different visual tasks. Efficient and comfortable illumination of our surroundings requires both the optimised admission of daylight and the specific use of artificial light tuned to our visual comfort (see “Light”, pp. 46 – 59). Colour

No light, no colour! “Colours are a manifestation of light, and all spectrums are borrowed from the sun in one way or another.” At least that is how Ulrich Conrads sees it in Architecture: miscoloured [5]. The range of the electromagnetic spectrum visible to us is that between wavelengths of 380 and 780 nm. The effect of colour

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A 1.31

Reconstruction of the colour wheel of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Factors influencing human beings in their buildings Sensual man by D. Langmaak, 1984 Church interior, Şoala, Schaal (Romania), c. 14th/15th century

Safety, privacy, communication etc.

A 1.30

Newton’s physiological-mechanical explanatory model assumes that the light waves incident on a body influence the human organism in different ways depending on their frequency or energy. Accordingly, blue light has a calming effect, red light a stimulating effect on our bodies. And consequently, we perceive colours as warm or cold. In conjunction with the room temperature, we experience here a superimposition of sensations: tests have revealed that rooms painted red are

perceived as up to 3 °C warmer than they really are, rooms painted blue about 2 °C cooler. Goethe’s phenomenological explanation contrasts with that of the Newtonian model (Fig. A 1.30). The psychogenic effect of a colour was explored further by C. G. Jung in his hypothesis on “archetypes”. According to that, it is possible to derive the characters of colours from the “elementary impressions” that act in our collective subconscious. For example, the elementary experiences fire, blood and love are assigned to the colour red. The attempt to found laws in psychological perception led to the establishment of colour psychology. This is concerned with the subjective aspects of perception and concentrates on what importance an observer attaches to a certain observation. In doing so, it does not consider just the concrete associations of colour, but also how shape influences the effect of a colour. For example, a blue square seems to be cooler than a blue circle, which in turn has more depth. Michael Hauskeller emphasises the importance of the context: “ It is indeed true that colours are never without affective value, yet this value is not given but first constituted in the situation. Colours take on brilliance when they are encountered and as such, no matter how they have been encountered, they are always meaningful and always embedded in situations which lend them character.” [6]

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Comfort

Colour in architecture

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like coating. The latter also retains the basic characteristics of the material. The RAL colour system with its mathematical regime is the opposite of the “Natural Colour System” (NCS), in which the colours are defined and arranged according to perception criteria. With its sensual and suggestive qualities, colour – like light, sounds, odours and movement – is a volatile medium. It is severely affected by changing fashions and is therefore a tool whose use requires careful planning. A harmonious colour scheme for an entire building can only be devised in close consultation with decorators, lighting designers, architects and interior architects (see “Colour rendering”, p. 49).

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librium and rest for our overtaxed senses. Colours can change rooms. Used in concordant or discordant ways, they can animate monotonous interiors, brighten dark ones, open confined ones, widen narrow ones, raise the ceiling in low ones – or vice versa. As a memorable aid to orientation, they assist navigation in buildings, especially at interfaces within a building or between interior and exterior. On cantilevers in front of and returns within the facade especially, coloured surfaces can colour the incoming daylight and therefore influence the atmosphere within a room. Colours quickly become a topic in the planning process because they are intrinsic to the materials employed. Applied colours, on the other hand, are hardly predictable, not even in computer-generated co‚lour simulations, because their spatial effect does not unfold until we see the interplay with light and materials in the finished building itself. Depending on the lighting conditions and the colour of the light, the structure of the surface and the distribution and dimensional relationships with respect to the interaction of different colours, the effect of any one colour is different in every situation (see “Colour rendering”, p. 49). The shade that we perceive is always defined by its context and we should therefore always test the effect of a colour in situ beforehand. Surfaces with vivid colours can be produced with a pigmented plaster or render, or a varnish-

clear – unclea r lou d– qu iet

The ideal of the Greek temple as an immaculately pure and – as they thought in those days – white structure was carried forward into the 20th century even though the bold colouring of these structures had long since been known. Colours in architecture were mostly treated with some contempt and only the muted colouring of the materials was tolerated. But architecture and colour were destined to find one another again with the De Stijl group in the early 20th century. Henry van de Velde had the following advice for architects: “... Whenever you are filled with the desire to beautify these (spare and elementary) forms and structures, succumb to the urge for refinement ... only to the extent that you can respect and maintain the rightness and the essential appearance of these forms and structures!” [7]. The question as to whether in architecture the muted colouring of the materials or the boldness of additional colouring should dominate, was also posed by Donald Judd: “In the present noisy and cluttered society, urban and rural, the obvious recommendation is to avoid colour. As seen in bright signs everywhere, colour becomes further junk. But without colour, … most cities are junk anyway, the newest the worse.” [8] The flood of stimuli in our urban environments also has an effect on interiors: more than ever before we want our interiors to provide equi-

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A 1.32

A 1.33

43

Comfort

Multi-dimensional with all the senses “If the house does not serve mankind, its body and its soul, then why build it?” asks Hugo Kükelhaus [9]. The task of architecture is to create multi-dimensional situations and offer variegated stimuli. However, we can only perceive space in its three dimensions through the interaction of all our senses (Fig. A 1.32). We experience space visually through the sculpted play of light and shade and the estimation of distances, sizes and proportions, audibly from its reverberations, and physically through contact with our hands and feet. Materials and surfaces should radiate a presence that offers a rich palette for the senses, should bear witness to their origins and production, and should be able to age in dignity.

Standardised comfort Feeling, touching, smelling, hearing and seeing – our senses are the doors and windows to our world. People need constant stimulation of their sensory organs in order to be able to exchange information with their surroundings, access the world. Franz Xaver Baier sees sensuality as a part of our education: “Sensuality is formed by exposing ourselves to processes of change, letting ourselves be reorganised within those processes and in doing so experience subtle differences … The sensuality spectrum ranges from intense and long-lasting experiences, which have a profound effect on us, to brief superficial nerve stimuli.” [10] There is no separate DIN standard dealing with the subject of comfort. Individual feelings cannot be described by way of objective, measurable criteria. Nevertheless, the findings of the physiology of perception have in the meantime found their way into a number of standards and statutory instruments because the growing energy requirements for HVAC in buildings and an increasingly holistic approach to design have focused attention on the topic of comfort once again. Starting with empirical values and their verification, in recent years a number of approaches have been summarised in directives and standards in order to make comfort in

44

buildings certifiable and appraisable. DIN 4108 “Thermal insulation and energy economy in buildings”, published in July 2003, deals with the minimum requirements for thermal performance, primarily summertime thermal performance, and was therefore one of the first standards to consider comfort in relation to the cooling of a building. Since the publication of that standard, the interior climate has been considered in more and more detail. When considering comfort, it is the limits of thermal comfort in a room that play the main role. DIN ISO 7730, published in 2007, deals with the ergonomics of the thermal environment and specifies a method that can be used to predict thermal discomfort. Based on surveys and studies, it is possible to estimate – depending on the respective local conditions – a predicted percentage of dissatisfied (PPD) and a predicted mean vote (PMV). Subjective factors such as physical activity and clothing are included in the equation. The local conditions take into account the operative room temperature, radiation asymmetries due to the surrounding surfaces, draughts and vertical temperature gradients. DIN EN 15251, also published in 2007, devotes even more attention to comfort. This standard places criteria for the interior climate in relation to the design and operation of a building. The interior climate is important for both the calculated energy requirements and the long-term evaluation according to energy efficiency directives. New in this standard is the fact that rooms are divided into “non-actively cooled” and “mechanically cooled” categories. This standard makes it easier to save energy because it allows rooms not served by an active cooling system a certain latitude within which the room temperature may exceed the recommended values. The prerequisite for this is that the deviation from the operative design temperature does not exceed a specified range within one day and users have a reasonable length of time in which they can adapt to the temperature change. This standard also mentions factors such as exposure to light and emissions of pollutants. Through the categorisation of individual buildings and their users, DIN EN 15251 will become an important tool for designers during the concept

phase (see “User adaptiveness and comfort in buildings to DIN EN 15251”, pp. 82 – 84, and “Statutory instruments and certification”, pp. 106 –107).

Designing for comfort Even though the requirements for a comfortable interior climate are slowly finding their way into directives and standards, the most important task still remains with the architects: networked thinking, interdisciplinary working. Frederic Vester, the pioneer of “interconnected thinking”, was demanding a change from the technocratic to the cybernetic era as long ago as the 1980s. He compares this way of thinking and working with the way that jazz musicians play together. “In the end it is nothing more than the consonance of countless association patterns, their interactions, resonances, superimpositions, which simply allow the creation of something totally different to that which even the most talented individual could create.” [11] Today, the design process can no longer be linear, passing through individual phases in a sequence. Instead, tailored concepts have to be able to develop simultaneously in a complex web of disparate demands and potential solutions and their mutual dependencies in a constant alternation between scale and detail. Architects and specialist consultants cannot optimise individual aspects in isolation, but rather have to take account of the relationships between the individual parts and the overriding whole at all times. A building that as a whole is more than just the sum of its parts has to arise out of the complex interaction between light management, choice of materials, orientation and the zoning of rooms and functions, location, local potential, energy requirements, opportunities for using renewable energy supplies and HVAC systems (Fig. A 1.31, p. 42).

Comfort

References: [1] cited in Ching, Francis D. K.: A Visual Dictionary of Architecture. New York, 1996, p. 8 [2] Sant’Elia, Antonio; Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso: Futuristische Architektur. In: Conrads, Ulrich: Programme und Manifeste zur Architektur des 20. Jahrhunderts. Braunschweig/Wiesbaden, 1981, p. 32 [3] Le Corbusier: Ausblick auf eine Architektur. In: Conrads, Ulrich: Programme und Manifeste zur Architektur des 20. Jahrhunderts. Braunschweig/ Wiesbaden, 1981, p. 20 [4] Aicher, Otl: Intelligentes Bauen. In: Philipp Oswalt (ed.): Wohltemperierte Architektur. Neue Techniken des energiesparenden Bauens. Heidelberg, 1995, p. 101 [5] Conrads, Ulrich: Architecture: miscoloured. In: Daidalos 51, 1994, p. 116 [6] Hauskeller, Michael: Colour as a subject of psychology. In: Daidalos 51, 1994, pp. 103 –106 [7] cited in Conrads, Ulrich: Architecture: miscoloured. In: Daidalos 51, 1994, p. 119 [8] Judd, Donald: Some aspects of colour in general and red and black in particular. In: Daidalos 51, 1994, p. 47 [9] König, Holger: Wege zum gesunden Bauen. Staufen, 1998, p. 9 [10] Baier, Franz Xaver: Das Haus der Sinnlichkeit. In: Der Architekt, 7/2001, pp. 17f. [11] Vester, Frederic: Denken, Lernen, Vergessen. Stuttgart, 1975

A 1.34

Homo ad circulum, 1521, Cesare Cesariano A 1.34

45

Light Philipp Dreher, Christoph Matthias, Katrin Rohr

A 2.1

“I sense Light as the giver of all presences, and material as spent Light. What is made by Light casts a shadow, and the shadow belongs to light. ... – an ambiance of inspiration in which the desire to be, to express, crosses with the possible.” Louis I. Kahn We human beings perceive our world by way of light, at least that part of the world that we perceive in the form of images. For without light there would be no images. It is light that makes spaces intelligible for us in the first place. Every visual involvement with space is therefore impossible without light. The natural lighting environment is subjected to constant change. The vagaries of the weather are superimposed arrhythmically and randomly on the daily and seasonal rhythms to produce ever new, ever changing lighting environments.

Time (CET)

Unrestricted visual perception is one of the most important prerequisites for being able to process the flood of information offered to us every day because the brain receives almost 90 % of all its data through our sense of vision. Good design for daylight aids the process of perception and therefore has a positive effect on our efficiency and well-being (see “Visual comfort”, pp. 39 – 43). N NW

Using daylight

The quality of natural light is far superior to any artificial light source. Experiencing the daily and seasonal dynamic of natural light contributes to our well-being and supplies important information about the world around us. A high daylight autonomy (DA) should therefore be a primary goal of building and interior design (see “Daylight factor” below). Daylight is made up of direct and indirect (diffuse) components whose ratio to each other varies considerably depending on location. Daylight is transmitted, absorbed, reflected and refracted. In principle it is true to say that diffuse radiation leads to a

The fundamentals of lighting design

NE

June July/ May

The nature and quality of daylight also has a significant influence on the comfort within a building. The most important variables in conjunction with visual comfort are illuminance, luminance distribution, glare, colour rendering and reference to the outside world. The illuminance levels required are initially related to artificial lighting, for which there are minimum requirements laid down in standards. The amount of daylight available during the day is generally far higher than the values specified for artificial lighting. So when planning for daylight it is not simply the quantity that is important, but rather the quality of the light, and this depends on the path and distribution of the daylight within an interior (daylight factor), glare (balanced contrast levels), sunshading (reduction factor) and the reference to the outside world.

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0 200 0 600

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A 2.1 A22 A 2.3 A 2.4 A 2.5 A 2.6 A 2.7

“The Weather Project”, Tate Modern (Turbine Hall), London (UK), 2008, Olafur Eliasson Solar altitude diagram for latitude 51° north (for the 21st of each month) Outdoor illuminance levels (lx) under an overcast sky for Innsbruck (A) Directing the light into the interior by way of a light shelf Duplex louvres, perforated and coated Microgrid Light shelf

00 140 0 0 160 00 180

6.00

18.00

12 September/ March

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E 9.00

15.00

00

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00

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SW

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S

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

A 2.2

46

00

Day in year A 2.3

Light

more uniform illumination of an interior. Direct radiation, on the other hand, can be channelled deep into an interior by using additional constructed elements. One important parameter for the quantitative evaluation of daylight is the daylight factor. When we speak of daylight in an interior, it is always the diffuse daylight that is meant and not direct sunlight. We therefore assume that on a cloudless, sunny day some form of sunshading is available. “Windows serve to admit light, a little, much, or not at all, and to see outside.” This postulation by Le Corbusier, taken from his book Towards a New Architecture (1925), already contains the most important evaluation criteria for a window opening. And according to modern demands natural ventilation and the limitation of glare must also be taken into account. Le Corbusier’s apparently trite definition in reality implies a whole spectrum of complex issues that are involved when we try to describe the functions of a window. For a start, regulating the amount of incoming light and the view out are two conflicting criteria. And modern windows have to satisfy additional requirements in the form of thermal insulation (in order to save heating energy) and the limitation of glare (to ensure good conditions at computer screens). Another factor is summertime thermal performance, but contrasting with this is the desire to allow plenty of daylight into the interior and intentional solar gains in the winter (see “Solar radiation”, pp. 100 – 102). Using daylight reduces the artificial lighting requirements, which in turn cuts the electricity consumption but also lowers internal heat loads because artificial lighting generates more heat than daylight for the same level of illumination. However, large areas of glazing weaken the wintertime thermal performance of a building envelope because in contrast to opaque walls, glazing generally exhibits a higher thermal conductivity. It is therefore vital to optimise the lighting taking into account both summertime and wintertime thermal performance aspects. In doing so, we must weigh up the energy requirements for removing the ensuing heat loads due to incoming daylight against the reduction in the energy requirements brought about by limiting the length of time during which it is necessary to use artificial lighting. Daylight factor The daylight factor (DF, expressed as a percentage) is a variable for assessing the provision of natural light in interiors. It is a constant specific to a particular room, i.e. it is determined by the arrangement, size and number of windows, and depends on the ratio of the illuminance in the room and the lighting level outside with a clear, overcast sky. A standard overcast sky according to the stipulations of the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) is assumed and the direct component of sunlight is ignored. The daylight factor enables the degree of daylight autonomy for a certain point within a building with specific illuminance requirements, e.g. office workplaces, to be determined. The DA

value denotes the percentage of the illumination requirement that can be guaranteed solely by way of daylight over a typical period of use. The daylight factor is used almost exclusively for office buildings and is then always related to the weekday working hours of 8 a.m. to 6 p.m. Working areas in office buildings should be designed for a daylight factor of 3 % on average, which results in a DA value of about 50 % for office workplaces. Geometric optimisation An accurate study of the location with an analysis of the sun’s trajectory and shadows cast by neighbouring structures and vegetation represents an important element in building design. This is because the trajectory of the sun makes natural lighting a dynamic variable with daily and seasonal fluctuations (Figs. A 2.2 and A 2.3). The most important factors that have an influence on the geometrical daylight optimisation for a building are the structure itself, the room and the glazing. Daylighting systems The quantity of light near the windows is generally very high and this level then decreases as we move further back into the room. Owing to this unfavourable daylight distribution, workplaces are typically positioned near the windows and ancillary functions and circulation routes further back within the depth of the building (Fig. A 2.4). This places limitations on the use of the interior even though the quantity of incoming daylight would also be adequate for other types of interior layout provided the amount of light available could be distributed better. Daylighting systems enable the daylight to be (re)directed in such a way that the levels available directly adjacent to the windows are also available further back within the room (Figs. A 2.5 to A 2.7 and A 2.8 to A 2.11, p. 48). The actual, physically measurable and the subjectively perceived efficiency of daylighting systems can differ considerably, however. If users feel that the environment available to them is disagreeable or distracting (possibly because of servomotor noises, sudden switching processes or constant opening and closing), then it is likely that they will reject it or try to intervene to alter it. Despite the gain in daylight, users frequently regard the restricted view out as unsatisfactory.

A 2.4

A 2.5

A 2.6

A 2.7

47

Light

Daylighting systems

Static systems

Tracking systems

Scattering the light

Light-scattering glasses HOE

Redirecting the light

Prismatic plates Fixed louvres Light shelves Light-redirecting glasses HOE

Pivoted lightredirecting louvres

Transporting the light

Lightpipes Fibre-optics

Heliostats

Movable systems

Switchable glasses Photochromic Thermochromic Gasochromic

Light-redirecting venetian blinds

A 2.8

Selection criteria As the systems vary considerably in terms of cost of investment and cost of maintenance as well as their specific features, it is vital to consider the following criteria before opting for a particular system: • • • • • •

View out Angle of incoming light Illumination across depth of room Freedom from glare Possible thermal problems Reaction to a change in the angle of incident light • Options for user intervention and ease of use Total energy transmittance (g-value) The g-value is a physically measurable variable which specifies the percentage of incident solar energy that arrives in the interior. This value is related to a standard global spectrum with a range of wavelengths from 300 to 2500 nm. It is the sum of direct radiation energy transmission and secondary heat emissions to the inside (radiation and convection). The g-value encountered in practice is not a product-related constant because it depends on varying boundary conditions. It is valid for radiation incident approximately perpendicular to the facade and is made up of three components: direct radiation transmission to the inside, secondary

a

b

c

d A 2.10

48

A 2.9

heat emissions to the inside by way of convection, and secondary heat emissions to the inside by way of infrared radiation. Sunshading The aim of a sunshade is to reduce the intensity of the solar radiation. However, sunshades also reduce the level of daylight in a room. In order to achieve their full effect, sunshading systems must be fully closed, which leads to a darkened interior. Experience has shown that precisely because of the darkening and the hindrance to the view out, sunshades are never fully closed and in practice therefore seldom achieve the shading effect that is theoretically possible. Therefore, despite careful planning, an overheated interior is still possible. A view out and a sunshade are two conflicting demands. One way out of this dilemma is to provide a sunshade that can be moved clear of the opening, an option that allows users to decide which requirement, light or shade, should have priority at any particular moment. But studies have revealed that even an adjustable sunshade is often not altered to suit the changing conditions over the course of the day, which in turn is not sensible from the energy viewpoint.

world. To what extent restricting this view out is permissible or justifiable heavily depends on perception psychology aspects. There is much evidence to suggest that users are willing to make compromises provided part of the facade remains unobstructed by shading or light-redirecting components. Studies have shown that new or retrofitted, elaborate daylighting systems are more readily accepted by users when they include an option for active intervention, i.e. users are able to make adjustments to the system via manual or electrical controls. The danger here, however, is that user interventions will not necessarily correspond with the original design intentions. Manually adjustable systems are generally less effective because the settings chosen by users are not necessarily the most advantageous from the energy viewpoint. Settings are frequently determined based on subjective criteria such as glare or view out and are often left unaltered even after the workplace is vacated.

User intervention Experience shows that every user expects an opening to offer a reference to the outside

a

b

c

d

e

f

g

h A 2.11

Light

Basic lighting Unit of Symbol design parameter measurement

Description

Luminous flux

Total light output emitted by a light source

lumen (lm)

Luminous intensity candela (cd)

Illuminance

φ Ι=

lux (lx)

A 2.9

The luminous intensity Ι is a measure of the light emitted in a certain direction. It depends on the luminous flux φ in this direction and the solid angle illuminated.-

φ Ω

E=

A 2.8

A 2.10 ΙΩφ A 2.11

The illuminance E is a measure of the luminous flux φ incident on a certain surface area A.

φ A

1 lumen 1 lux 1 m2

Luminance

L=

Observed surface

A 2.12 A 2.13 A 2.14

Luminous intensity

ce rfa su

The luminance L is the luminous intensity per unit area. The luminance of an illuminated surface is a measure of the perceived impression of brightness.

ed at in

φ A ∙ cos ε

m Illu

candela per square metre (cd/m2)

The use of daylight, Design Center, Linz (A), Herzog + Partner Systematic presentation of systems for redirecting daylight Schematic presentation of light-redirecting systems a Light Shelf b Holographic optical element (HOE) c, d Adjustable louvres, pivoting about one axis Schematic presentation of light-redirecting glazing elements a Venetian blind b Light-redirecting louvres c Reflective elements d Laser-cut panel e, f Light-scattering glasses g, h Electrochromic glazing Basic lighting design parameters The parameters of lighting technology Relative brightness sensitivity for photopic vision

A 2.12 Basic lighting design parameters

Light radiation is that part of the electromagnetic spectrum that causes a sensation of brightness or colour after it enters the eye. The wavelengths of that radiation between 380 and 780 nm are visible to the human eye. Some of the most important basic lighting design parameters are described below (Figs. A 2.12 and A 2.13). Luminous flux The luminous flux specifies the total lighting power emitted in all directions. Unit of measurement: lumen (lm). Luminous intensity The luminous intensity is a measure of the amount of light radiated in a certain direction. It is the product of luminous flux related to a defined direction of emission and solid angle. Unit of measurement: candela (cd). Illuminance The illuminance (illumination) specifies the luminous flux incident on a defined surface. Unit of measurement: lux (lx). This is the critical parameter for planning lighting levels according to the relevant standards. Luminance The luminance describes an observer’s impression of the brightness of a light source or an

Reflection from ceiling

Reflection from wall

illuminated surface. It is the quotient of luminous intensity and surface area. Unit of measurement: candela per square metre (cd/m2). Glare Excessive luminance (>104 cd/m2) results in disabling glare. Direct glare is caused by excessive differences in luminance levels within the field of vision. An agreeable level of contrast must therefore be taken into account during the design work (see “Visual comfort”, pp. 39 – 43). Colour rendering Over the course of human evolution, we have become adapted, physically and psychically, to natural sunlight. Our daily rhythm and also the functions of our organs follow the spectrum of the sun as it changes over the day, which is why the dominating colour of the light should be kept within the natural range for the majority of activities (Fig. A 2.14). It is therefore advisable to choose glazing that changes the frequency pattern of the light at best only marginally (see “Visual comfort”, pp. 39 – 43). However, the spectrum of the light changes as it penetrates a pane of glass. The colour rendering index (Ra) specifies how natural colours are reproduced after passing through glass. Daylight or an artificial light source with a spectrum similar to that of daylight can be used as a reference. A conventional pane of insulating glass has a good

1.0

0.5

Luminous flux (φ) Illuminance (L)

Luminous intensity (Ι)

380

Vertical illuminance

780

0.0 400 UV Reflection from floor

Horizontal illuminance

Solariums Blueprint lamps UV lamps

500

600

700

Light Incandescent lamps High-pressure lamps: mercury vapour, Halogen lamps Fluorescent lamps fluorescent, metal halide

(nm) IR Radiant heater (grill)

Low-pressure sodium vapour lamps

A 2.13

colour rendering index > 90 (see Fig. A 2.32, p. 54). Solar-control glasses with a vapourdeposited metallic coating generally exhibit a much poorer colour rendering index because in order to achieve their energy targets they also reflect part of the visible light as well as infrared radiation with its longer wavelength. Extract from the German Places of Work Act According to Germany’s new Arbeitsstättenverordnung (ArbStättV – Places of Work Act), places of work “must be provided with an adequate amount of daylight and be equipped with facilities for artificial lighting appropriate to the safe, secure and healthy working conditions of the workforce”. This means that daylight in the meaning of the Act is no longer referred to merely in terms of a view of the outside world, but also in terms of lighting. Furthermore, the use of daylight for illumination is accorded a higher significance than artificial lighting. The Act also prescribes the possibility for screening against excessive solar radiation. In addition, the view of the outside world is regulated with respect to the characteristics, positions and dimensions of windows plus the total area of the view out. However, neither a specific definition nor adequate explanations have yet been provided with respect to an adequate amount of daylight. So-called Places of Work Directives (Arbeitsstättenrichtlinien – ASR) are available for individual regulations and these contain more accurate definitions and interpretations of vague legal terminology. ASR 7/1 defines the view out as the “view of the outside world from the interior”. However, neither a precise definition nor satisfactory explanations have yet been provided. For designers it is therefore unclear as to whether, for example, a view of a small lightwell or atrium satisfies the requirements regarding an adequate view out. ASR 7/1 regulates the total area of the view of the outside world and hence the minimum size of the windows. However, the stipulations do not consider any obstructions or other influences that could reduce the amount of light (e.g. daylighting system, glazing, soiling). For this reason, adequate levels of brightness and daylight at workplaces are not always possible even when using the minimum window sizes according to ASR 7/1.

A 2.14

49

Light

Lighting design

A 2.15 a – c St. Anna pharmacy, Munich (D), 2003, Huber Rössler; lighting design: Lichtlauf A 2.16 Additive colour mixing A 2.17 Additive colour mixing A 2.18 Subtractive colour mixing A 2.19 Additive colour mixing, several coloured lights A 2.20 White primary light and coloured direct light A 2.21 Coloured primary light and white direct light

Our experiences with daylight and the changing natural lighting environment are subconsciously linked with emotions and stored in our brains. For example, watching a campfire immediately establishes a comforting, warm and, in the end, positive feeling in us, whereas we regard the light of a misty day with drizzle as unpleasant and uncomfortable. So light – incidentally, just like sounds and odours – can have a very direct, emotional effect on us. The special laboratorylike situation created by stage lighting in a theatre reveals this fact clearly again and again. Totally different emotional spaces are created with light alone, without any change to the scenery or props. There is no more obvious example: no light, no space. It was only the development of artificial light sources that gave us the opportunity to plan light and the associated spatial effects. Quantitative and qualitative lighting design

In the early days of electric lighting people were happy simply to have an adequate level of illumination at last! The aim of lighting design was to ensure that a room was evenly and sufficiently illuminated as far as possible. Suitable levels of illumination and qualities such as colour rendering but also glare limitation were intensively studied, primarily for workplaces, and in the form of statutory instruments and standards formed the basis for quantitative lighting design. Even today, these stipulations form a valuable starting point for any architectural lighting design and are laid down in DIN EN 12464 “Light and lighting – Lighting of workplaces”. But quantitative lighting design alone is not enough when it comes to the spatial effect, comfort or legibility of internal functions (see “Visual comfort”, pp. 39 – 43). The American lighting designer Richard Kelly was one of the first to recognise this around the middle of the 20th century. He recommended that good lighting design should not only focus on the amount of light required for visual tasks, but also on that required for perceiving and interpreting the surroundings. In architectural lighting design the effect of the structure should be coupled with the needs of people. Kelly introduced three elements that should be incorporated into any good lighting concept: the soft background lighting (“ambient luminescence”), the directed, focused light (“focal glow”) and highlighting, which he referred to as the “play of brillants”. In this context, light fittings gradually became specialised lighting tools, allocated to one of these three categories. Good qualitative lighting design therefore takes account of, above all, the findings of perception psychology as well as the obvious technical aspects. Pictures are what concern us here. In a similar way to a photographer, the lighting designer “paints” a picture of a room, building, urban framework or landscape – but under artificial lighting only. The designer first plans the light, then the light

a

b

c

50

A 2.15

fittings. Good lighting design underscores both the functional and the emotional significance of an interior, makes it legible. Furthermore, it is precisely this differentiated consideration of different room functions that is intended to produce the most efficient economic solution (see “Electrical load categories”, p. 187). Materials and light

Light is only visible when it strikes the retina directly. This means that, almost exclusively, the light we perceive is that reflected from the surfaces of a room. The characteristics of those surfaces therefore determine the immediate lighting environment. Light-coloured, matt surfaces reflect the light into the room differently to dark, glossy surfaces (see “Wall and floor finishes”, pp. 70 – 73). This at first sounds mundane, but is one of the central principles in well-conceived lighting design. Only after the characteristics of the interior surfaces (window size, floor covering, wall and ceiling surfaces, possibly even fittings and furnishings) have been determined can the positions of the light fittings, beam spreads, colour filters or diffuser panels begin (see “Light fittings”, pp. 57 – 59). And this is where we encounter one of the great practical difficulties of lighting design: in most construction projects it is precisely these critical lighting design parameters that are not yet known when the positions of the light fittings have to be fixed! It is therefore highly desirable that the lighting designer should be consulted at an early stage of the project planning in order to avoid adverse situations that are afterwards irreversible. Light and colour

Colour of course has a particularly significant effect on the lighting environment (see “Colour”, p. 41). The colours of interior surfaces have an effect not only directly in the light, but also, albeit more subtle, via the reflection of coloured light. This coloured scattered light in turn influences the colours of other interior surfaces. The more accurately these factors are investigated in advance, the easier it is to predict the result. The example of the St. Anna pharmacy, situated in an old building in the centre of Munich, demonstrates this effect (Fig. A 2.15a – c). The interior architecture concept provided for full-height shelving with a red gloss paint finish and all other wall and floor surfaces in matt white. The display windows in the old facade are relatively small. The lighting concept responded to these boundary conditions as follows: In order to render the pharmacy visible to passersby, a fresh, summer-like lighting environment with a comparatively high level of illumination was chosen (Fig. A 2.15b). The typical lighting of a sunny summer’s day and the positive feelings associated with that are created by two different light sources used simultaneously: a cool white-blueish, indirect, diffuse uplights and a row of warm white, directional downlights and pendants (direct sunlight) illuminate the interior. In addition to this, individual, intensive blue

Light

A 2.16

highlights are occasionally reflected in the gloss paint to reinforce the effect of the shiny red rear wall (Fig. A 2.15c). Additive and subtractive mixing of colours

Both additive and subtractive mixing of colours are of great importance in lighting design. Additive mixing is when lights of different colours are superimposed such that a new colour effect is produced. The result of the mixing is always a lighter colour than the two respective original colours. In lighting technology it is mostly threecolour systems composed of the additive primary colours red, green and blue (RGB) that prevail (Figs. A 2.16 and A 2.17). With orange-red, yellow-green and blue-violet light components it is possible to create a multitude of different colours, including white. Subtractive mixing is when filters are used to filter out, i.e. absorb, certain spectral components from, for example, a white light beam, which leaves only certain colours that create a new colour effect. The result of the mixing is always darker than the original light. In lighting technology three subtractive primary colours are again used: cyan, magenta and yellow. Superimposing filters in these three colours in a white light beam again generates a multitude of different colours. But all three filters together do not produce white light, as is the case with additive colour mixing, but rather black, because

A 2.19

A 2.17

all the components of the spectrum are totally absorbed (Fig. A 2.18). The colour mixing rules always play a role when light sources of different colours are used simultaneously. In addition to the results of the mixing, it is particularly the coloured shadows that are relevant. The following basic scenarios apply: • Several coloured lights create shadows of mixed colours according to the aforementioned rules of additive mixing (Fig. A 2.19). • A white primary light and a coloured direct light generate shadows in complementary colours (Fig. A 2.20). • A coloured primary light and a white direct light generate shadows in primary colours (Fig. A 2.21). These phenomena are all more important because they are very subtle and are perceived almost subconsciously. For example, coloured shadows appear even with white light of different colour temperatures. When planning interiors, this can play a major role and is crucial for the selection of light fittings.

A 2.18

of convincing images, then a rendering can have a good effect. Whether real photos or digital templates are processed or the CAD data is edited directly in a light rendering program depends on the respective options and financial circumstances of the project. What is important is that decisions that lead to a rendering or night-time image must be based on great experience and knowledge of lighting effects. This is the only way of preventing the simulated result awakening false expectations in the viewer that have nothing in common with the reality upon completion. Very good simulation possibilities, at the same time providing valuable knowledge for the designers, are obtained with 1:1 simulations using specimen light fittings, preferably in situ. The main technical aspects of lighting design can be clarified with lighting design programs such as “ReluxSuite” or “DIALux”. Here again, some experience is necessary in order to evaluate and classify the results which are quickly obtained.

Visualisation

A series of options are available for demonstrating lighting concepts, the choice of which very much depends on the purpose of the visualisation. If the purpose is to sell an idea by means

A 2.20

A 2.21

51

Light

Artificial light sources Artificial light sources

Thermal radiators

Incandescent lamps

Discharge lamps

Low-pressure lamps

High-pressure lamps

Halogen lamps

Fluorescent lamps

Mercury vapour lamps

Low-voltage halogen lamps

Compact fluorescent lamps

Metal halide lamps

Low-pressure sodium vapour lamps

High-pressure sodium vapour lamps

Electroluminescence radiators

LEDs

OLEDs

A 2.22

Incandescent lamps: general lighting service lamp halogen lamp, low-voltage halogen lamp

The choice of an artificial light source depends on the lighting task and the architectural intention of a design (Fig. A 2.22). Artificial light sources can be distinguished according to both their quantitative (Kelly: “activity needs”) and their qualitative (Kelly: “biological needs”) features. Qualitative criteria that must be considered are the light colour and the colour temperature (K) (Fig. A 2.24), the spectrum of the light emitted (Fig. A 2.23) and the associated colour rendering characteristics (Fig. A 2.25) plus the options for dimming and control. The economics and the energy efficiency of the light fittings installed play a critical role in quantitative lighting design, especially in buildings where artificial light is switched on for long periods (see “Electrical load categories”, p. 187). Measurable values for this are the luminous efficacy (lm/W) and the service life (h) (Fig. A 2.26). Some lighting units can only be operated with special equipment. This can have a direct effect on the dimensions and design of a light fitting or how readily it can be integrated into a building. In the following portrayal of artificial light sources, the incandescent lamp is also included – despite the EU ban on such lamps already partly in force – because of its continuous light spectrum and the optimum colour rendering properties associated with that in order to obtain a full understanding of the quality of artificial light sources. Incandescent lamps

400

500

600

700

(nm)

400

500

600

700

(nm)

400

500

600

700

(nm)

400

500

600

700

(nm)

400

500

600

700

(nm) A 2.23

Metal halide lamp

High-pressure sodium vapour lamp

Fluorescent tube

Light-emitting diode (LED) warm white (WW)

52

The incandescent lamp is a thermal radiator – a current applied to a tungsten filament causes this to heat up because of its high electrical resistance. During this process, only a small part of the electrical energy is converted into light – about 5 % in the case of conventional incandescent lamps. The rest of the energy is released into the surroundings in the form of heat. The spectral composition of the incandescent lamp is continuous, i.e. it covers the entire daylight spectrum, albeit slightly displaced towards the red end. The spectral composition and the warm white light colour mean that this light source can be used wherever excellent colour rendering and well-being aspects are priorities. However, from the energy viewpoint, the very low luminous efficacy of up to 18 lm/W and the short service life of about 1000 h on average are disadvantages that discourage the selection of this type of light source. One positive aspect, however, is that the switching frequency has hardly any influence on the service life of an incandescent lamp. [1] Another positive aspect of thermal radiators is their excellent dimming properties. Not only is dimming easy to achieve technically, but when the light is dimmed the good colour rendering properties are still retained – in contrast to, for example, fluorescent lamps. The atmosphere in a room illuminated with dimmed incandescent lamps is warm and pleasant. As we feel very comfortable in such surroundings, owing to our

Light

Compact fluorescent lamp

Compact fluorescent lamp

Compact fluorescent lamp

Metal halide lamp

Metal halide lamp

Metal halide lamp

LED

LED

LED (warm white)

TF (K)

Luminous efficacy (lm/W)

A 2.24

A 2.25

positive experience of fire, this form of lighting is especially popular for residential work. Furthermore, incandescent lamps operated with mains voltage are easy to handle and in contrast to fluorescent lamps do not require any special technology, e.g. electronic ballasts. They consist mainly of glass and metal and can therefore be disposed of in normal domestic waste. Besides the standard incandescent lamps there are also lamps with a krypton noble gas filling which achieve luminous efficacy figures of up to 10 % [2]. The luminous intensity can be improved by applying a reflective coating to the inside of the glass bulb. In order to achieve a higher luminous intensity and greater luminous efficacy, a reflector lamp is used to concentrate the luminous flux.

If a thermal radiator is used exclusively in the dimmed condition, it is important to weigh up the gain in service life against the reduced luminous efficacy. Low-voltage halogen lamps exhibit a luminous efficacy better than that of the high-voltage variety and are characterised by their extremely small size (Fig. A 2.27). They are plugged into special sockets and are frequently fitted with a reflector. These aluminium or cold-light (or coolbeam) reflectors made from vacuum-metallised glass focus the light beam. Thanks to the outstanding qualities with respect to the light colour, also when dimmed, and the colour rendering, the focused, directional light of the halogen lamp with a small beam spread means that this type of lamp is frequently used in spotlights designed to illuminate particular objects (Fig. A 2.28), or for specific illumination of individual areas such as counters or dining tables.

Halogen lamps

Halogen lamps represent the high-tech form of the standard incandescent lamp. We distinguish between high-voltage halogen lamps operated with normal mains voltage (240 V) and low-voltage halogen lamps operated with 6, 12 or 24 V. As with the conventional incandescent lamp, in the halogen lamp there is a tungsten filament that is heated up because of its high electrical resistance when a current is applied. The use of halogens means that the escaping tungsten is transported back to the filament. This helps to increase the service life of such lamps (up to 2000 h) and also means they can be operated at higher temperatures. A higher luminous flux increases both the luminous efficacy (up to 24 lm/W) and the colour temperature. [3] A very bright, warm white light, which covers all the wavelengths of the visible daylight spectrum, is characteristic of high-voltage halogen lamps. Good colour rendering is guaranteed when selecting this type of light source. Halogen lamps are fully dimmable and also retain their good colour rendering characteristics when dimmed. However, the power consumption and the brightness do not decrease equally; instead, the brightness decreases to a greater extent than the power consumption upon dimming. The luminous efficacy therefore worsens, although the service life is increased by lowering the temperature of the tungsten filament.

0 20 40 60 60 100 120 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Fluorescent lamp

Ra

Fluorescent lamp

100

Fluorescent lamp

80

LV halogen lamp

60

LV halogen lamp

40

LV halogen lamp

20

HV halogen lamp

6000

HV halogen lamp

5000

HV halogen lamp

4000

Incandescent lamp

3000

Incandescent lamp

2000

Incandescent lamp

Service life (1000 h)

A 2.26

A 2. 22 Overview of lamps A 2. 23 Colour rendering spectra A 2. 24 Colour temperature ranges of different types of lamp A 2. 25 Colour rendering index (Ra) ranges of different types of lamp A 2. 26 Luminous efficacies (lm/W) and service lives (h) of different types of lamp A 2. 27 Low-voltage halogen lamp A 2. 28 Baptismal font, Church of the Holy Trinity, Oberschleißheim (D); lighting design: Lichtlauf

Fluorescent lamps

Discharge lamps operate according to different principle to that of thermal radiators. In these lamps, visible light is generated by the excitation of gases or metal vapours. Fluorescent lamps (Fig. A 2.29, p. 54) are low-pressure mercury discharge lamps. In a glass receptacle filled with noble gases or metal vapours at low temperature and low gas pressure, a voltage is generated between two electrodes which ensures a continuous flow of electrons between the electrodes. This excites the noble gas and the mercury vapour and causes them to emit radiation. Most of the radiation is in the ultraviolet wavelength range invisible to human beings. A fluorescent coating on the inside of the glass receptacle converts the UV radiation into visible light. In contrast to the incandescent lamp, the visible light of all discharge lamps does not exhibit a continuous spectrum, but rather individual lines characteristic of the gases used. Different lamp fillings and the use of specific fluorescent substances results in different light colours. It is even possible to obtain light similar to daylight with a high colour temperature. Depending on the lighting task it is possible to choose between various colour temperatures

A 2.27

A 2.28

53

Light

A 2.29

A 2.29 Fluorescent tube A 2.30 Spectra of fluorescent lamps with different colour temperatures A 2.31 Example of fluorescent tube nomenclature A 2.32 Colour rendering categories A 2.33 International designations for colour temperature and light colour combinations A 2.34 Application according to light colour A 2.35 Metal halide lamp A 2.36 ck Loft, Munich (D), 2002; lighting design: pfarré lighting design A 2.37 Church of St. John the Baptist, Gröbenzell (D), 2006; lighting design: pfarré lighting design; special light fittings: Lichtlauf, Christoph Matthias

400 warm white (WW), < 3300 K

500

600

700

(nm)

400 500 enhanced (neutral) white (EW), 3300–5000 K

600

700

(nm)

400 cool daylight (DW), > 5000 K

600

700

(nm)

500

A 2.30

Fluorescent lamp 58 watt 8 = colour rendering category 1 B (Ra > 80) 40 = colour temperature 4000 kelvin

L 58 W / 840 A 2.31 1.1 A 1B 2.2 A 2B 3 4B

Ra 90 –100 Ra 80 – 89 Ra 70 –79 Ra 60 – 69 Ra 40 – 59 Ra 20 – 39 A 2.32

54

with, for example, a white light colour. We distinguish between warm white, cool white and cool daylight (Fig. A 2.30). Owing to the discontinuous (or line) spectrum, colour rendering is never as good as with a thermal radiator. However, good colour rendering can be achieved by combining various fluorescent substances. Basically, fluorescent lamps exhibit a high luminous efficacy of up to 100 lm/W and more [4]. Improvements to the colour rendering are paid for by a drop in efficiency; with a high colour rendering quality, e.g. code 930, i.e. CRI/ Ra ≥ 90 at 3000 K, the luminous efficacy drops to about 60 lm/W (Figs. A 2.31 to A 2.34). Extreme temperatures, both hot and cold, also lead to a decrease in the luminous flux. The good luminous efficacy and the high average service life of up to 20 000 h [5] mean that fluorescent lamps are economic and energy-efficient light sources. But the service life does depend on the switching frequency; frequent on/off cycles reduce durability noticeably. It is for this reason and because of the diffuse light emitted from the relatively large surface area of the linear fluorescent lamp that these lamps are used primarily for general lighting in interiors. In contrast to halogen spotlights, they are not suitable for the focused illumination of certain areas or objects, rather more suited to the uniform illumination of large areas. Soft shadows and little brilliance on glossy surfaces are characteristic features of these lamps. In addition, dimming reduces the colour rendering quality; illuminated surfaces appear pale and grey. A linear fluorescent lamp represents a light source with a low luminance. It can be incorporated in so-called cove lighting for indirect lighting effects (Figs. A 2.36 and A 2.37). Fluorescent lamps can only be operated with an electronic ballast. This additional device is necessary for the ignition and operation of discharge lamps in order to limit the lamp current and thus prevent irreparable damage to the lamp itself. Owing to their toxic coating and mercury content, fluorescent lamps must be disposed of separately and recycled. Compact fluorescent lamps

Compact fluorescent lamps, also known as energy-saving bulbs, are similar to linear fluorescent lamps in terms of their operation, high luminous efficacy and long service life. Owing to their design with bent or a combination of several short discharge tubes, neighbouring light-emitting surfaces screen each other and therefore the luminous efficacy is somewhat lower than that of a linear fluorescent lamp. With an output of up to 80 lm/W [6], however, these lamps are much better than conventional incandescent lamps. Their disadvantages are the discontinuous spectrum and their sensitivity to high switching frequencies, which reduce the service life of such lamps considerably. Compact fluorescent lamps are therefore suitable for applications where they can remain on for several hours and where the colour rendering quality is of only secondary importance.

Compact present lamps can only be operated and dimmed with an external starter, or rather electronic ballast. They are also available with an integral ballast and a screw or bayonet cap so that they can be used to replace normal incandescent lamps. Like linear fluorescent lamps they contain mercury and a toxic coating, which means that they cannot be disposed of in normal domestic waste, and in the case of those with electronics integrated into the cap, the electronics are also thrown away with the lamp. The compact designs of these lamps have presented new properties, opened up new applications for fluorescent lighting. For example, it is now possible to integrate fluorescent lamps not only in luminaires, but also in small reflector light fittings, e.g. downlights, or in integral light fittings, where they can replace conventional incandescent lamps. It is therefore possible to create a focused beam of light in this way with a lower connected load which emphasizes the qualities of the illuminated objects by casting shadows. However, fluorescent lamps can never achieve the brilliance of halogen lamps. Fluorescent lamps are frequently used for illuminating offices; high luminous efficacy plus long service life adds up to economic lighting. But owing to the poorer colour rendering and the diffuse light, fluorescent lamps are used only for general background lighting purposes in the professional illumination of interiors.

Light

827

830

835

840

860

865

930

940

950

960

965

Colour temperature (kelvin)

2700

3000

3500

4000

6000

6500

3000

4000

5400

6000

6500

Light colour

WW

WW

EW

EW

DW

DW

WW

EW

DW

DW

DW

International designation

A 2.33

Colour code

Light colour

Description of colour

Application

827

extra warm white

warm light

home

830

warm white

soft, pleasant light

office, school, home

835

white

balanced light

office

840

cool white

fresh, harsh light

office

cool daylight, daylight

very cool light

industrial, commercial

860/865

Metal halide lamps

These lamps also belong to the discharge lamp category (Fig. A 2.35). They represent a further development of the high-pressure mercury vapour lamp and these days represent the most popular form of high-pressure lamp in use. [7] Visible light is generated by the excitation of diverse combinations of metal vapours in a discharge tube. Additional metal halides prevent vaporisation of the electrodes at operating temperature and preserve their functionality over the long service life of this type of lamp. The discharge tube is surrounded by an outer bulb that stabilises the temperature of the lamp and protects the discharge tube against atmospheric corrosion. It takes several minutes to achieve the high-pressure discharge between the two electrodes. Only after that does the metal halide lamp achieve its full light output and develop the characteristics typical of this light source. Metal halide lamps are available in the colours warm white, cool white and cool daylight. In contrast to the mercury vapour lamp, in which a fluorescent substance is applied to the inside of the elliptical or cylindrical outer bulb in order to convert the blueish-white light into a warm white spectrum, it is not necessary to apply an additional fluorescent coating to improve the colour rendering. As with fluorescent lamps, the combination of various metals results in a

A 2.34

A 2.35

multi-line, discontinuous spectrum, which contains only a few of the spectral lines of natural light and therefore cannot reproduce all colours. Despite this drawback, the colour rendering of metal halide lamps is very good, albeit not always constant; the colour varies depending on the age of the lamp and the ambient conditions, especially with the warm white type. Metal halide lamps only achieve their full output after a longer warm-up time. With a low heat development, the high luminous efficacy then lies between 65 and 95 lm/W. Even at the lowest output of 20 W the metal halide lamp still emits a very large “lumen package”. Service lives of up to 6000 h are possible. [8] Metal halide lamps are generally not dimmable and not suitable for frequent on/off cycles. After being switched off they need a certain length of time to cool down. External ignition devices are always required. Metal halide lamps are available in tube form with caps at one or both ends, as elliptical lamps or as reflector lamps. Lamps are being designed with ever smaller dimensions and lower wattages, which opens up new opportunities for the design of light fittings and the realisation of energy-efficient and differentiated illumination concepts. As with the halogen lamp, this is a point-like, compact light source and so the light from a metal halide lamp is easy to channel and redirect optically. Such lamps are

therefore suitable as light sources for brilliant, focused spotlighting in the form of built-in ceiling lights or pendant downlights, also in spotlights with various symmetrical or asymmetrical beam spread forms (see “Light fittings”, pp. 57 – 59). Owing to improvements with respect to colour stability and colour rendering quality, metal halide lamps are suitable for many applications in the professional architectural lighting of interiors. Potential applications include, for example, the illumination of large spaces in industrial buildings or department stores, also prestigious entrance foyers and retail premises (Fig. A 2.15, p. 50). The further development of the electronic operating devices with regard to dimmable systems opens up further options for practical lighting design. At present no other lamp technology offers a comparable efficiency or light quality. [9]

A 2.36

A 2.37

LEDs

LEDs (light emitting diodes) belong to the family of electroluminescence radiators. In contrast to the thermal radiators in which light is produced as a byproduct of heating or through the conversion of the UV radiation component generated by a gas discharge, in the LED a solid-state crystal is excited so that it produces light. If a current flows in the forward direction of the semiconductor crystal, then the positive and negative

55

Light

Type class 1

626 nm red

615 nm red-orange

605 nm orange

590 nm amber

Material: aluminium-indium-gallium nitride

Type class 2

525 nm green

505 nm blue-green

495 nm turquoise

450 nm blue

3200 K

2800 K

Material: indium-gallium nitride

Colour class 6500 K 4500 K

A 2.38 The p-n junction between n-conducting zone (surplus of electrons) and p-conducting zone (shortage of electrons). By applying a voltage/DC voltage to cathode and anode (1), the LED emits light from the p-n junction. The electrons change their energy level and release energy in the form of photons by way of a recombination process at the p-n junction (2), where equilibrium between the surplus and shortage of electrons is achieved (3).

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

+ -

1 Crystal charged by voltage source

+ -

+ -

positive (p) negative (n)

++ - -

+ -

+ -

+ -

2 Pairing of + and –

+ -

+ -

+ Light

3 Neutralisation of + and – (neutralisation energy = light)

A 2.39

56

charges generate visible light and heat as they are neutralised (Figs. A 2.39 and A 2.40). The ratio of visible light to heat is about 20 to 80 %. As the heat cannot escape into space, it must be dissipated. The light colour of an LED depends on the material of the semiconductor crystal. Red and yellow LEDs are produced from aluminiumindium-gallium phosphide (AllnGaP), and indiumgallium nitride (InGaN) is used for green and blue LEDs (Fig. A 2.38). White light is produced by mixing red, green and blue LEDs (RGB LED; see “Additive and subtractive mixing of colours”, p. 51), sometimes enhanced by adding another coloured diode. Another option for producing white light is to combine a blue LED with a fluorescent substance. The semiconductor manufacturing process results in semiconductor crystals with colour tolerances that lie within the range of visible light. Therefore, the use of high-quality LEDs is very important for demanding lighting tasks. LEDs emit light over a very narrow range of wavelengths. The coloured light exhibits a high saturation and is almost monochromatic. Coloured, dynamic lighting scenarios can be planned exactly by using RGB colour mixing owing to the high saturation of every individual colour. This type of application is ideal where light with a certain colour, e.g. for intensifying coloured surfaces, is required. White LED light does not exhibit a continuous spectrum because it is produced by mixing coloured LEDs or by a single-colour LED in combination with a fluorescent substance. Where very good colour rendering (Ra 80 or higher) is required, the coated blue LEDs represent the best option. LED light does not contain any components such as UV or IR radiation, which means that objects illuminated in interiors are not affected by heat or colour changes. In addition, the light from LEDs does not flicker and their operation is completely silent. Compared to other lamps such as halogen or highpressure products, the luminous flux of the LED is relatively low, which means that LEDs are characterised by an extremely low connected load. White diodes have a lower luminous efficacy than coloured diodes. However, luminous efficacies of up to 100 lm/W are expected in the future. [10] The radiation output and luminous efficacy of an LED decrease as the temperature rises. Direct sunlight should be avoided, likewise mounting in the vicinity of heat sources. Good heat dissipation is extremely important for optimum operation and a long service life. The heat can be removed through a heat sink on the LED itself or by attaching the LED directly to an aluminium or steel mounting. In comparison to the size of the LED, the heat sink, usually of aluminium, is considerable (Fig. A 2.41b). In terms of size, a light fitting containing an LED is hardly any different to that of, for example, a surfacemounted downlight. The service life of an LED is therefore dependent on the conducting-state current on the one

hand, the ambient temperature on the other. The decrease in the luminous flux increases over the lifetime of the LED. High temperatures (e.g. due to high currents) shorten the service life substantially. In order to achieve a maximum luminous efficacy, current high-output LEDs are often operated such that their lifetime is 15000 – 30 000 h. The high currents result in special requirements for the heat dissipation and heat management in the light fittings. The useful service life of an LED is regarded as the length of time taken for the luminous efficacy to drop to half the initial value. In principle, the luminous efficacy of an LED decreases over its lifetime; they do not often fail suddenly unless they are damaged by environmental factors such as moisture or chemicals. In addition, they are not affected by vibrations and do not have a hollow shell that could implode. The light output of an LED can be dimmed with an electronic ballast. The luminous flux and the power input decrease linearly with the dimming. At the same time, the lifetime is prolonged and the decrease in the luminous flux over the service life is slowed down. For example, white LEDs, which generally have a lifetime of 50 000 h, can therefore achieve service lives of up to 100 000 h if they are operated with half their normal power input. Such very long lifetimes reduce maintenance requirements considerably. LEDs are operated with a constant 2 to 4 V DC power supply. If connected to the mains supply, operating equipment is required to provide the correct operating current. Additional control modules are required for installations with dimming and dynamic lighting effects; these are operated with a DALI (Digital Addressable Lighting Interface) or DMX (Digital Multiplex). The immediate start-up, the direct response to controls, the reliable operation and the low failure rates turn LEDs into a unique tool for the planning of dynamic lighting settings. The easy changeability of the light colour and the white LED light offer new opportunities for interior illumination. For instance, the light colour can be adjusted to the daily rhythm or respective degree of activity. Warm white and cool white LEDs are mixed to achieve a good light colour (Figs. A 2.38 and A 2.41a). LEDs are small and robust. The plastic encapsulation to the diode functions as protection and lens. The point-like light source with its high luminance enables precise guiding of the light beam. LEDs can be easily mounted on flexible and bendable printed circuit boards. Backlighting to any type of structure is therefore possible, which results in excellent flexibility for many design briefs. The small size of LEDs makes them suitable for background lighting in furniture and cove lighting installations. Owing to improvements in the colour rendering, the small dimensions, the extremely low power requirements, the high luminous efficacy and the long service life, the LED represents a promising technology for the future design of the energy-efficient and differentiated illumination of interiors.

Light

1 3

2

4 1 2 3 4 5

LED crystal Gold wire Reflective cavity Anode Cathode with flat spot

5

+

-A 2.40

Organic LEDs

In an organic light-emitting diode (OLED) the LED crystal is replaced by organic materials such as conductive plastics and smaller molecules. These have the same properties as an LED, e.g. high energy efficiency, low operating voltage, no mercury. The light source consist of a homogenous, very thin light-generating surface. However, OLEDs are unsuitable for many demanding lighting tasks because they constitute a planar – not a point-like – light source. [11]

a

b

Light fittings

The types of light fitting available can initially be divided into groups that are based on their mounting position: table lamp, standard lamp, pendant, wall, floor and ceiling fittings. It is also important to subdivide these groups into the nature and purpose of their lighting characteristics. A ceiling light, for example, can provide general light for a room, focused illumination for a certain area or uniform illumination for wall surfaces. Pendant lamps are very common in residential and similar settings (Figs. A 2.42 and A 2.43), also wall lights, standard lamps

and table lamps, all of which serve as decorative objects in addition to providing light. This decorative asset means that light fittings can become very important elements in the architectural concept of an interior, depending on the lighting design brief. However, much of a designer’s work is concerned with so-called luminaires, which in permanent installations are part of the architecture, so to speak. These are mainly built-in light fittings whose lamps, integrated into parts of the construction, remain essentially concealed. The type of installation situation is important here (plasterboard ceiling, hollow-block floor, fairface concrete, etc.). The space available for the installation is a vital aspect because the dimensions of built-in light fittings vary considerably. Coordination with the other building trades is therefore a priority. In contrast to a plasterboard ceiling, when positioning light fittings on a concrete soffit, the positions must be established at a much earlier stage of the planning and afterwards can no longer be altered. Cast-in housings of metal or plastic create a space in the concrete for the ballast and lamps of such lights, and they must match the intended type of light fitting (depth, heat load, soffit cutout, space for electrical fittings, etc.; Fig. A 2.45, p. 58). In situations where a built-in installation is not possible, light fittings with appropriate housings are available

A 2.42

A 2.43

Light fittings are the tools of the lighting designer and have been around as long as artificial light has been available. Even the very first and very simplest artificial light source, the naked flame, required more or less elaborate technical aids in order to provide the input, to transport it, or protect it against wind and weather. As lamps underwent development, so new demands were placed on the design of the light fittings. Today, a light fitting is a highly complex technical construction that has to satisfy the most diverse requirements. However, it still has to serve three primary functions: to hold and protect the lamp, to influence the light emitted and to act as a decorative element itself. Types of light fitting

A 2.38 A 2.39 A 2.40 A 2.41

A 2.42

A 2.43

LED type classes How an LED works The structure of a light-emitting diode WakuWaku, Hamburg (D), 2008, ippolitofleitz group; lighting design: pfarré lighting design; LED light development /design: Lichtlauf, Christoph Matthias “Canned Light” pendant lamps; design: Christoph Matthias, Hagen Sczech, Ingo Maurer Collection “Lichtenfest” pendant lamp; design: Lichtlauf, Christoph Matthias

A 2.41

57

Light

for surface mounting. Where considerable flexibility of usage is required, a lighting track system represents one way of altering the positions and types of light to a certain extent so that the lighting environment can be modified and supplemented again and again subsequently as a response to different fittings and furnishings (e.g. in retail premises). The primary task of luminaires is to create a certain lighting quality; the design of the light fitting itself is usually functional and restrained. Their multitude of lighting technology properties can be subdivided into the following main categories:

Uplights These are light fittings that emit their light upwards. They can be mounted on the wall or in the floor and thus illuminate ceiling or wall surfaces. The reflected part of the light serves as indirect lighting. Decreasing the distance between a light fitting and a wall increases the dramatic effect of this form of lighting.

Diffuse amenity lighting This is provided by light fittings with matt covers which emit a diffuse, indirect light into all corners of the room. Such light fittings are mainly used in ancillary areas, e.g. staircases.

Spotlights The direction of the light beam emitted from these lights is adjustable. A spotlight can therefore provide different lighting effects even after it has been installed. For example, spotlights are recommended for situations where the furnishings may change or different objects have to be illuminated at different times.

Downlights Light fittings that are mainly built into the ceiling and emit their light downwards are known as downlights. They are available for almost all types of lamps. Their reflector geometry determines the beam spread and how much glare can be expected, something that is very important where, for example, computer screens are in use. As with all light fittings with a directional light output, downlights, too, create typical and very conspicuous cones of light when they are positioned near a wall.

Wall illumination Wall-mounted fittings in the form of uplights or downlights have a reflector geometry that distributes the light as evenly as possible over the surface of the wall, illuminating it without any great variations in the luminance. These lights are important tools for the lighting designer because the impression of the brightness of a room is essentially determined by the vertical surfaces. Such wall fittings ensure restrained, natural lighting effects.

LED varychrome

10W

LED warm white

1.7W

3.6W

14W 28W

3.6W

Lighting controls

Different local conditions and different uses call for flexible lighting installations. The prerequisite for this is separate circuits for individual light fittings. Complex lighting installations will require the electronic storage of various lighting scenarios. Receiver components in individual or groups of interconnected light fittings plus junction boxes can be used to switch or dim the lights affected upon receiving an infrared signal. The structure of light fittings

The technical structure of a light fitting very much depends on its purpose and location, but the principle is similar in all cases.

42W

LED cool daylight 1.7W

Orientation lights These lights provide illuminated accents that permit orientation within an interior even with a low level of illumination (Fig. A 2.49). They illuminate only a very restricted area within their immediate vicinity (e.g. lighting to the steps in a darkened cinema).

A 2.44 A 2.45 A 2.46

20W

10W

Soffit illumination In a similar way to wall fittings in the form of uplights or downlights, an uplight directed at a ceiling or soffit should distribute its light as uniformly and softly as possible over a horizontal overhead surface. Part of the reflected light can provide general background illumination.

10W 14W

28W

A 2.47 A 2.48

42W

A 2.49

Incandescent lamps 100W 150W

A 2.50 Low-voltage halogen lamps

20W

An overview of lamp technologies Installation housing for light fitting Classes of protection, e.g. IP 20: protection against contact with the fingers, protection against solid foreign bodies with Ø > 12 mm, no protection against water; IP 65: total protection against contact, protection against penetration of dust, protection against water (out of a nozzle) from all directions Classes of protection “aTool” workplace light; design: Christoph Matthias, Ingo Maurer Collection Staircase lighting, Stadthaus, Munich (D), 2007; design: Lichtlauf, Christoph Matthias “Casino” custom light fitting, Burghausen (D), 2008; design: Lichtlauf, Christoph Matthias

50 W 75W 100W 150W

Backplate

Halogen lamps 60W

100W 150W

300W 500W 1000W

Housing

Compact fluorescent lamps Fluorescent lamps

24W 28W 35W 58W

Metal halide lamps

Mounting plate

Mineral-fibre plate 35W 70W 150W 250W 400W

20W

High-pressure sodium vapour lamps Luminous flux (lm)

Transformer tunnel

9W 18W 26W 32W 42W 55W

50W

10

50

100

500

1000

2000

Transformer cover – for thermal separation between lamp installation space and transformer tunnel; protects the electronics against overheating.

100W

5000

10000

A 2.44

58

A 2.45

Light

The lamp itself, as the governing basic element of the construction, is especially important of course. It determines the quality of the light emitted, the space required in the housing, the reflector geometry and the type of lamp holder. For example, when using LEDs it should be remembered that the components must be well cooled because LEDs cannot withstand their own heat development. The lamp holder represents the electrical and mechanical connection between lamp and light fitting. The type of lamp holder plays a role when choosing lamps because identical lamps are available with different caps. It may therefore be advisable to restrict the number of different caps used on a project because this will reduce maintenance and repair costs. The function of the reflector is to direct the light emitted by the lamp out of the lamp in the desired direction and the desired form. The most important reflector geometries are circular, elliptical or parabolic, assembled from pressed, deepdrawn or preformed sheet metal components. Aluminium with a coating of pure aluminium is the most popular reflector material. Pressed or deep-drawn (plastically deformed) components must be electropolished afterwards to give them a highly reflective surface (Fig. A 2.48). Reflectors of glass and plastic are used in many lighting products (e.g. high bay lighting). Lenses, filters and anti-glare grilles are employed when the light output is to be further influenced.

Lenses and combinations of lenses are used to alter the light further after it has been reflected by a reflector. So-called sculpture lenses, for example, split the rotationally symmetric cone of light in such a way that an elliptical, ribbonshaped beam of light ensues. Filters change the colour and quality of the light. Anti-glare grilles are often optional fittings that can be attached to limit the glare due to stray light. The housing now has the task of combining all the functions and attaching the complete unit to the building. Important parameters here are the heat development, or rather heat dissipation, and the class of protection, which specifies the environmental influences (dust, moisture, etc.) the light fitting can withstand (Figs. A 2.46 and A 2.47).

Index

1st index figure: protection against foreign bodies and contact

Index

2nd index figure: protection against water

0

No protection

0

No protection

1

Protected against solid objects ≥ ∅ 50 mm

1

Protected against vertical water drops

2

Protected against solid objects ≥ ∅ 12 mm

2

Protected against water drops at angle of ≤ 15°

3

Protected against solid objects ≥ ∅ 2.5 mm

3

Protected against sprayed water

4

Protected against solid objects ≥ ∅ 1 mm

4

Protected against splashing water

5

Protected against dust

5

Protected against water jets

6

Dust-tight

6

Protected against powerful water jets

–

–

7

Protected against the effects of temporary immersion in water

–

–

8

Protected against the effects of continuous immersion in water

A 2.48

produce light, but assemblies designed with light. We can therefore say that a three-dimensional object is linked by light (the fourth dimension, if you like) to form something superior. Such light objects are mostly bespoke designs intended for specific projects and only produced in small numbers.

Object and space

As objects, light fittings have an especially important function as “light sculptures”. The light fitting becomes part of the interior furnishings and must be integrated into the most diverse design contexts, complement or supplement these. The lampshade is attributed a great significance here. It is, so to speak, part of the housing, but must satisfy significant aesthetic demands. A lampshade can be made from any type of material placed around the light source, attenuating the light in a certain way, focusing, shading, splitting, filtering or reflecting it. Good “designer” lights are not simply assemblies that

References: [1] Pistohl, Wolfram: Handbuch der Gebäudetechnik. Cologne, 2007, p. K 35 [2] ibid. [1], p. K 37 [3] ibid. [1], p. K 39 [4] ibid. [1], p. K 40 [5] ibid. [1], p. K 40 [6] ibid. [1], p. K 45 [7] ibid. [1], p. K 45 [8] ibid. [1], p. K 500 [9] Krautter, Martin: greenbuilding – Viel Licht, wenig Strom. Berlin, 2009, pp. 45f. [10] ibid. [1], p. K 53 [11] ibid. [9], p. 47

Protection class I

Protection class II

The appliance casing must be earthed. In the event of a fault a protective device is tripped to cut off the electricity supply.

The appliance has no earth connection. Instead, there are two layers of insulating material surrounding all live parts.

A 2.46

A 2.47

A 2.49

A 2.50

59

Materials Ulla Feinweber, Thomas Rühle, Judith Schinabeck

A 3.1

Space and material Like light, space is intangible. It is created by erecting boundaries. The abstract dimensions and proportions defined in the design only become reality after surrounding them with materials, only achieve their particular spatial effect through the sensual qualities of those materials. For example, walls, ceilings and floors of wood create a totally different atmosphere to those of concrete (Fig. A 3.1). Added to that are surface textures and coatings: waxed wooden floorboards, for example, lend a floor a warm appearance, but black paint gives it depth and detachment. Whereas the materials of facades are designed for viewing from a distance, the materials of our interiors are very close to us. We learn about our surroundings through touching contours, materials and surfaces, feeling hot or cold, listening to the echoes of voices or footsteps, following the path of light and shade on surfaces, and – in the best instances – through their individual odours. Only through the selection of the materials, their combination and jointing, is it possible to formulate a design concept and strengthen the themes or establish a contrast. The diversity of materials

A 3.1

A 3.2

60

Silver fir and weathering steel as materials for walls, floors and ceilings, workshop and office building, Friedberg (D), 2006, hiendl_schineis The building physics parameters of a selection of building materials

Three main building materials have been used over the last few centuries: timber, stone and clay. And depending on their regional availability those three have characterised a particular local built environment. In the form of solid, heavyweight constructions, they not only provided protection from the weather, they were also used for loadbearing and bracing purposes. In the form of homogeneous layers, these materials also had an effect on the interior climate – storing heat by way of their mass, providing thermal insulation through their air inclusions, adjusting the moisture balance by way of their sorption capacity, serving as sound insulation through their density, providing sound attenuation by way of their surface structure, and (re)directing the light by way of the reflective properties of their surfaces. The development of new, more efficient materials towards the end of the 19th century was accompanied by the increasing specialisation of individual building materials: the loadbearing structure was separated from the envelope,

which in turn consisted of layers of different materials. Today, the growth in transport routes and transport options, also the industrial production of building components, which provides a constant stream of new products, means we have at our disposal a multitude of materials and components. Unless the object of the design brief happens to be a futuristic prestige project, then it is certainly advisable to wait and see how a new product behaves over the longterm.

Selection criteria The huge range on offer means it is not always easy to select the appropriate material. Aesthetics, serviceability, structural requirements, building physics properties, erection, installation and assembly, durability and costs all have to be weighed up. Aesthetics and usage

The most important criteria for architects are the styling and the presence of the material, its appearance and haptic features, its smell and acoustic qualities, also its cultural and contemporary history context. Another important aesthetic aspect is the material’s behaviour in use over a longer period of time, i.e. whether it, for example, becomes unattractive or develops a beautiful patina. In addition, the material should suit the use of the room. Durability, longevity, toughness, protection and care of surfaces plus the possibility of replacing or repairing defective parts are important factors for the operation of a building. The safety and health of users (e.g. the non-slip properties of floor coverings, the avoidance of unhealthy emissions) also have to be taken into account to the same extent as how individual materials and components react to fire. The properties of materials

The physical and interior climate properties of materials play an important role (Fig. A 3.2). Also critical are the load-carrying capacity and elasticity of materials that determine not only the structure and the enclosing envelope. Every material has its own jointing and assembly

Materials

techniques, which must be taken into account during the planning work. Fire protection has to be considered, too. The behaviour of building materials in fire is classified according to DIN 4102-1 or DIN EN 13501-1. In the event of a fire it is smoke development that is the significant factor in addition to stability. It is also essential to comply with the stipulations of the building regulations and the appropriate statutory instruments and directives, e.g. in Germany the Places of Assembly Act (Versammlungsstättenverordnung) or the High-Rise Buildings Directive (Hochhausrichtlinie). In places of assembly, furthermore, additional requirements are placed on floor coverings, furnishings, fittings, equipment and decorations. The development of the technical services concept can only be realised in conjunction with the materials to be used and their properties such as thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity, sorption ability, acoustics and how they reflect light. Where floors, ceilings or entire building components are required for the heating or cooling of rooms, then their surfaces must make direct contact with the air in the room (see “Heating, cooling, ventilation”, pp. 174 – 185). Suspended ceilings, wall linings or raised floors (vital for the distribution of services in office buildings) all interrupt that contact. Moreover, some technical fixtures, e.g. ventilation outlets in the ceiling, have a very negative effect on the appearance. Planning

All these demands that materials have to satisfy when used internally should be specifically included in the planning process at the earliest possible stage. That calls for processing of the draft design at various scales simultaneously, including 1:1, parallel development in draft and working drawings, weighing up the spatial idea and its detailed realisation, and considering the mutual influences. During this work, the effect of the materials should be checked again and again by means of perspective sketches and collages using samples of the materials. Trade and industry

In order to be able to verify the potential uses of industrial products, architects should have a basic knowledge of transport, forms ofsupply and formats, processing and assembly, jointing, degree of prefabrication, installation and erection times, but also how materials are produced, shaped and treated. Architects need objective and intelligible information regarding the life cycles, primary energy requirements, degradability, separability and reusability of materials. Only then is it possible for designers to estimate the long-term costs for the operation, care and maintenance of a building in addition to the cost of actually erecting it in the first place. As industrial production is geared to large batches and hence maximum flexibility in the use of manufactured products, designers should check the application options for their specific construction tasks. As in the past, exchanging

information and ideas with the building trades, and contact with experienced workers is very valuable. Their specialist knowledge and experience should ideally be incorporated into the draft design. Fig. A 3.3 (p. 62) summarises the criteria for the use of materials in architecture.

Space-dividing components Walls and suspended floors are space-dividing components that separate different functional

areas from each other. They usually provide a barrier to sight and/or sound and can be made up of layers of homogeneous materials such as clay bricks or solid timber or be cast in concrete or assembled to form a lightweight construction consisting of various materials and elements. Tasks and uses, building physics and interior climate properties, surfaces and their effects, composition and manufacture plus forms of supply and the formats of the materials are described below with reference to these components.

Density (kg/m3)

Thermal conductivity (W/mK)

Primary energy input, non-renewable (MJ/kg)

Vapour diffusion resistance index

2600 – 2800 2000 – 2700

1.6 – 3.4 1.2 – 3.4

1.6

10 000 250

Stone Granite Sandstone

incombustible

Concrete Lightweight concrete Normal-weight concrete

Combustibility

incombustible 800 – 2000 2000 – 2600

0.8

70 – 150

Gypsum, mortar, plaster/ render, screed

incombustible 8

Plasterboard Lime-cement mortar Lime plaster/render Gypsum plaster Cement screed

1.3 1.6 1.7 0.8

5 – 10 10

5 /10 8 5 – 25 6–8

Masonry

incombustible

Vert. perf. clay bricks Solid clay bricks Calcium silicate bricks Aerated concrete bricks

1200 – 2000 1200 – 2000 600 – 2200 350 – 1000

0.50 – 0.96 0.50 – 0.96

2.5 2.5 1.1 4.2

Window glass

2490

0.8

14.4

incombustible

Ceramics

incombustible

Metals

incombustible

Steel Aluminium

7800 2700 – 2800

50 130 – 230

38.3 – 95.7 96.6 (sheet)

Wood, wood-based products Spruce Oak 3-ply core plywood Particleboard OSB MDF

combustible 430 – 470 650 – 760 400 – 500 550 – 700 600 – 660 450 – 750

0.09 – 0.12 0.13 – 0.21 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.1 – 0.17

3.2 7.6 12.2 8.0 22.7

88 140 50/400 50/100 50/100 8/70

Plastics Polyethylene Polyvinyl chloride Polystyrene Polyurethane Silicone

combustible 910 – 960 1160 – 1550 1050 1050 1250 – 1900

0.32 – 0.40 0.15 0.16 0.58 0.3 – 0.4

75 (PE-HD) 52 – 61

12 – 250 15 – 30 20 – 80 30 – 100 100 – 150

0.035 – 0.050 0.035 – 0.040 0.035 – 0.040 0.035 – 0.040 0.040 – 0.060

22.2 118.9 8.8 4.2 21.8

91 (sealing compound)

Insulating materials Rock wool Polystyrene (EPS) Sheep’s wool Cellulose flakes Cellular glass

1/2 20/100 1/2 1/2 practically vapour-tight

incombustible combustible combustible combustible incombustible

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Materials

Life cycle Production Primary energy input • Winning, extraction • Production • Transport Environmental impact Raw materials

Usage phase Technical/functional suitability • Thermal insulation • Sound insulation • Moisture control, moisture balance • Fire protection • Loadbearing • Regulation of interior climate Applications Handling • Form of supply • Transport • Packaging • Installation/assembly/erection time

End-of-life situation Costs/benefits • Investment costs • Running costs • Life cycle costs • Service life

Deconstruction

Health compatibility

Degradability

Reuse, further use Recyclability

Sensual perception • Visual • Tactile • Thermal • Acoustic • Olfactory

A 3.3 Masonry

Masonry can fulfil a number of structural, building physics and aesthetic requirements. Only facing masonry is worth considering in conjunction with the interior. However, masonry with some form of coating or behind an internal lining also influences the interior climate by way of properties such as specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity, moisture absorption/release or sound attenuation. Masonry can be divided into lightweight, normalstrength and high-strength categories; it is the density class of the masonry units that governs here. Masonry can be used in many ways, e.g. single- or double-leaf walls, with or without reinforcement, loadbearing or non-loadbearing components, exposed or plastered. DIN 1053 covers the design and construction of masonry elements, which places demands on the masonry units themselves, also the mortars used and the masonry bonds. Many different materials can be used for masonry elements, depending on the particular requirements.

factured masonry units can be adjusted exactly and reconstituted stone is much cheaper. Stone today is therefore used mainly as a facing for less costly materials. Granite, limestone and sandstone are especially suitable because of their compressive strength and workability. Different interior effects and atmospheres can be created by using different types of stone (Fig. A 3.4). The colour of a type of stone can vary considerably depending on its origins, and the effect of that colour can be decidedly influenced by the surface treatment. The decorative effect of semi-precious stones such as alabaster or onyx is only really advantageous when used, for example, in the form of large, polished slabs (see “Stone floor coverings”, p. 71).

(Fig. A 3.5). Clay bricks are classed as ceramic building materials; the raw materials are clay, loam, sand and water. The manufacturing process involves moulding and cutting the raw materials to produce the desired formats and firing at a temperature of approx. 900 – 1200 °C after drying. Extensive deposits of the raw materials are still available. The impact on the environment due to transport can be minimised by obtaining the raw materials near to the place of manufacture and use. [1] Calcium silicate Calcium silicate masonry units are just as versatile as clay bricks. Their high specific heat capacity has a positive effect on the interior climate. However, the grey-white colouring of their smooth surfaces is rather cool. The raw materials for calcium silicate bricks are sand, quicklime and water. Lime and recycled materials can also be used in certain products. The bricks are hardened under high pressure at a temperature of approx. 200 °C. Considered over its whole life cycle, the use of this costeffective type of masonry unit must be regarded as ecologically sensible [2].

Stone Stone is a traditional material that has been used for thousands of years. However, these days the use of stone no longer represents the norm. In the meantime the building physics requirements placed on masonry have changed considerably, the properties of industrially manu-

Clay Clay bricks can be used for facing masonry or loadbearing walls and also to provide thermal and sound insulation. They have a positive effect on the interior climate because they store heat and balance the level of moisture in the room, although this latter characteristic decreases as the density of the material increases. In interiors, clay bricks only have a real effect when left exposed. The pattern of the joints lends such a wall of facing brickwork a vibrant, small-format appearance that can be softened by a coat of lime or cement wash or paint. A homogeneous, light colour increases the reflection of light and hence the luminous efficacy within the room

Aerated concrete Aerated concrete is often used in the structure in the form of panels for walls and suspended floors. It is very light and easy to work, and therefore is an ideal material for blocks for built-in components and conversion work in interiors. Aerated concrete masonry units exhibit low to moderate specific heat capacity and sound insulation values, and their ability to regulate the moisture in an interior is poorer than that of clay bricks. The thermal insulation properties depend on the density and can achieve very good values. Aerated concrete products are made from quartz sand (or other materials containing quartz, e.g. fly ash or blastfurnace slag), water, binders, blowing agents and, if required, additives. Aluminium powder or paste is used as the blowing agent. Recycled materials can be included to supplement the main raw materials. The life cycle assessment (LCA) of aerated concrete units indicates a relatively low environmental impact.

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A 3.5

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Materials

The formats available include precision bricks and elements, specials, panels and precision panels. The precision bricks, like clay bricks, can be built using the thin-bed technique, which improves the thermal insulation characteristics of a wall and reduces the drying time. [3] Fair-face concrete

Concrete is used both internally and externally. When used in the interior, it is wall and soffit surfaces of fair-face concrete that are particularly relevant. However, it is now also possible to encounter kitchen and vanity units in concrete (Fig. A 3.6). Concrete’s high density means that it exhibits a high sound reduction index with respect to airborne sound, but on the other hand that high density leads to high structure-borne sound values. The considerable sound reflections result in long reverberation times, and the only way to improve the room acoustics in such a situation is to attach sound-absorbent materials. The thermal insulation, too, can only be improved by adding other materials. On the other hand, the high specific heat capacity of concrete components has a positive effect on the interior climate. Compared to other wall materials, the manufacture of cement certainly involves a higher energy input, but concrete components are generally very long-lasting. [4] Heavyweight, normal-weight or lightweight concrete mixes are available for different purposes. The density of heavyweight concrete exceeds 2600 kg/m3, for normal-weight concrete lies between 2000 and 2600 kg/m3, and for lightweight concrete between 800 and 2000 kg/m3. The latter cannot be used for more demanding structural requirements, but its lower thermal conductivity can be a boon. DIN EN 206-1 defines concrete as a “building material produced by mixing together cement, coarse and fine aggregates and water, with or without the addition of additives and/or admixtures. It achieves its properties through the hydration of the cement.” Because it is a hydraulic binder, the cement solidifies after water is added, hardens and lends the concrete component its coherence, which is critical for its high compressive strength.

According to DIN EN 197-1, cements are divided into five categories according to their composition: Portland cement (CEM I), Portland composite cement (CEM II), blastfurnace cement (CEM III), pozzolanic cement (CEM IV) and composite cement (CEM V). Concrete only achieves tensile strength in the form of reinforced concrete, i.e. in conjunction with steel bars, meshes and other cast-in elements. The natural colour of concrete depends on the type of cement it contains. For example, fairface concrete surfaces approaching a white colour can be produced by adding white cement (Portland cement with low-iron constituents). The aggregates for concrete can be obtained from natural rocks or industrially manufactured or recycled products. Aggregates have to comply with various requirements regarding wear, abrasion, freeze-thaw cycles, the content of substances such as chlorides, etc. In order to guarantee an optimum aggregate mix to suit different requirements, particle sizes are specified by a defined grading curve – and that in turn can influence the appearance and colour of the concrete. One important parameter for a concrete mix is the water/cement ratio, which regulates not only the compressive strength of the hardened concrete, but also its colour and the uniformity of its surface. Properties such as workability or setting behaviour can be improved by mixing in additives, e.g. plasticiser, superplasticiser, stabiliser or air entrainer. Natural aggregates, e.g. black basalt, white marble, coloured limestone or metals such as copper and iron change the colour of the concrete. And the addition of pigments to the concrete opens up an even larger range of colour options. Concrete is “cast stone”. Consequently, it is primarily the formwork that dictates the texture and appearance of the surfaces. Various types of surface structure can be created during the casting of the concrete itself or by treating or working the surfaces afterwards. Large-format, smooth formwork panels result in large areas with a uniform finish characterised by the regular pattern of the joints between the formwork panels and the marks of the formwork ties (Fig. A 3.6). Specific textures and patterns on the surface

are created by inserting liners into the formwork prior to pouring the concrete. Relief and subtle textures are achieved by using boards and planks instead of large smooth panels. Their absorbent surfaces result in the grain of the timber being reproduced on the surface of the concrete (Fig. A 3.7). Surfaces can also be worked and treated after the concrete has been cast. It is possible to scratch and grind the surface of the new concrete, or – in a similar way to surface treatments for stone – to employ stonemasonry techniques such as pitching, bush-hammering or combchiselling on the hardened concrete. Washing or rubbing away the cement paste at the surface exposes the aggregate and lends the surface a relief-like finish. Uniform, matt surfaces can be produced by sandblasting or by removing the uppermost, thin layer of cement with a weak acid. Especially fine, glossy surfaces can be produced by grinding and polishing. Adequate cover to the reinforcement must be guaranteed when any manual, mechanical or chemical surface treatments are to be employed. Corroded surfaces can be protected by applying a glaze, special coatings increase the wearing and cracking resistance, and suitable impregnation treatments can make concrete water-repellent. The colour of the surface can be brightened and coloured by applying washes or glazes; an opaque paint finish, on the other hand, can conceal the effect of the fair-face concrete entirely. [5] Solid timber

Timber is used as a structural wall material in platform-frame, braced frame and stud constructions; the intermediate spaces are filled with thermal or sound insulation materials (see “Stud wall systems”, pp. 121–122). And now it is being used more and more in solid timber construction systems. Considering its low density, timber achieves a good specific heat capacity. Its cellular structure ensures good thermal insulation values and hence an agreeable surface temperature. In addition, timber regulates the moisture balance. Species of timber can be classed as softwoods, medium-hard woods and hardwoods. The softwoods are less expensive because they grow

A 3.3 A 3.4 A 3.5 A 3.6 A 3.7

A 3.8 A 3.7

Criteria for the use of materials in architecture Masonry of Valaisan quartzite, thermal baths, Vals (CH), 1996, Peter Zumthor Whitewashed clay brickwork, St. Francis parish centre, Regensburg (D), 2004, Königs Architekten A kitchen in fair-face concrete, private house K, Fischen (D), 2000, Bembé Dellinger Architekten Fair-face concrete wall with distinctive horizontal pattern, private house, Tokyo (J), 2000, Akira Watanabe Precast concrete components on steel rods, “Minihouse”, Kobe (J), 2003, Hiroaki Ohtani

A 3.8

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Materials

faster; they are used mainly for structural purposes. Their vigorous grains and knots tend to result in “disquieting” surfaces when used for interior fitting-out purposes. Internal linings, finishes and furniture therefore mainly make use of medium-hard woods and hardwoods. The latter are characterised by their high compressive strength and good wearing resistance. The compressive, tensile and shear strength figures for timber, also durability plus shrinkage and swelling behaviour, are important selection criteria for structural timber in addition to natural defects such as distortion, knots, resin pockets, etc. Drying defects, e.g. fissures, are mainly caused by too rapid drying because timber warps. If it is not stored for long enough at the place where it is to be installed, its moisture content cannot adapt to the interior climate. Distortion due to swelling and cracking due to subsequent shrinkage are frequent causes for complaints in buildings. For Germany, the most important indigenous species of wood used in the construction industry are spruce, fir, Scots pine, larch, birch, alder, maple, ash, beech and oak (Fig. A 3.9). Dark species are being used more and more, which are often obtained from abroad and therefore entail long journeys from forest to building site. It is still not possible to control fully the production conditions for these timbers and their effects on the environment. The fundamental principle of timber production should be sustainability, which means that producers should fell no more trees than can grow in the same period. At the same time, economic, ecological and social goals are important if we are to guarantee the long-term cultivation of our forests. Consumers can help here by selecting

only accredited timbers. The FSC label (Forest stewardship Council) is acknowledged internationally. Timber should be used in construction in such a way that it can be separated from other components and fed back into the life cycle. Provided such prerequisites are complied with, timber can be assessed positively compared to other building materials because it is a reusable resource. Various forms of treatment are employed to increase timber’s resistance to fungi, insects and fire. We distinguish between passive protective measures, e.g. the choice of a suitable species, adequate ventilation, protection against splashing water, facings, and protection based on the use of chemicals. When using wood internally, chemical preservatives should always be avoided in order to exclude the risk of contaminating the interior air. In addition, chemicals render timber components unsuitable for recycling at a later date. Prefabricated forms of construction

Space-dividing components and elements built in using dry construction techniques consists of posts and frameworks that are clad with boards and panels made from diverse materials (see “Materials for boarding and surfaces”, pp. 124–127). Wood-based products The strengths and dimensional stability of woodbased products are better than those of solid timber; such products are also characterised by less swelling and shrinkage. They are used as structural and bracing elements, as linings and for furniture. Provided with perforations, holes or slits and a backing of insulating mate-

rial, wood-based products can also help to improve the room acoustics (see “Room acoustics”, pp. 150 – 152). Wood-based products are components and planar elements “that are produced by bonding together fibres, chips, wool, battens or veneers of wood or other ligno-cellulose-based raw materials, mostly with the addition of a binder” [6]. When choosing a type of wood-based product, it should be ensured that the binder used does not lead to excessive contamination of the interior air due to emissions of formaldehyde or volatile organic compounds (VOC). Glued laminated timber This is made from at least three laminae glued together usually parallel to the grain. Glulam products are used for cladding and for loadbearing components. Plywood Plywood consists of at least three layers (plies) of wood veneer glued together at 90° to each other. Most of the adhesives used contain formaldehyde, which has a negative effect on the quality of the interior air. Plywood is used mainly for furniture, but can also be found in loadbearing or bracing elements in interiors. Veneer plywood consists exclusively of veneers and the species available include beech, birch, poplar and various tropical imports. At the edges the individual plies are visible as fine lines. Blockboard and laminboard consist of a thicker core ply of timber battens, placed side by side. These boards are lighter and cheaper than veneer plywood, but the edges are very unsightly and therefore must be covered with edging strips.

Type of wood

Special characteristics

Main uses

50

Softwood

Pale yellow colour, easy to work, vulnerable to mould and insect attack, very inexpensive

Loadbearing members, joinery, linings, floors

0.45

47

Softwood

Easy to work, vulnerable to mould and insect attack, very inexpensive

Loadbearing members, joinery, linings, floors

Scots pine

0.51

55

Medium-hard woods

Durable, rich in resin, inexpensive

Loadbearing members, windows and doors, end-grain wood-block flooring, floors, linings

Larch

0.59

55

Medium-hard woods

Durable, rich in resin, expressive grain, inexpensive

Linings

Oak

0.69

61

Hardwood

Reddish-brown colour, resistant to mould and insects, expensive

Stairs, wood-block flooring, veneers

Beech

0.72

62

Hardwood

Considerable expansion/contraction, short fibres, yellowish colour

Thresholds, floors, plywood, joinery, veneers

Ash

0.69

52

Hardwood

Elastic, greyish colour

Ladders, veneers

Alder

0.55

55

Medium-hard woods

Average density (g /cm3) for a 12 –15 % moisture content

Compressive strength (N/mm²)

Spruce

0.47

Fir

Veneers, special wood for particleboard and fibreboards A 3.9

64

Materials

Particleboards Particleboards are made from wood particles and, if necessary, other cellulose fibres plus a binder (generally a synthetic resin). Woodworking industry residues or recycled materials are often used for the particles. The result is an inexpensive material with many uses – even in curved applications when the rear face of the board is factory-cut so that the material can be bent. In wall and floor constructions, particleboards can be used for bracing or loadbearing functions, in the refurbishment of old buildings they are often used as a dry subfloor. A board’s sensitivity to moisture is denoted by the designations V-20 (low humidity), V-100 (higher humidity) and V-100 G (high moisture load). Surfaces are usually finished with paints, films, foils or veneers, but oiled, waxed or untreated surfaces are now also encountered. OSB The oriented strand board is a coarser variety of particleboard. It consists of longer, aligned chippings and generally exhibits relatively high emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOC) and formaldehyde due to the types of glue used. In order to minimise these emissions into the interior air, certain requirements have to be complied with, or rather the boards used must be verified as low-emissions boards by the manufacturer. Typical applications in interiors include bracing, wall and soffit linings, subfloors and floor coverings. Wood-wool lightweight boards These boards are made of wood wool plus an inorganic binder. It is the magnesite binder or cement that gives these boards their grey colour. They are used, for example, as a backing for plaster or as acoustic elements. They are not known to give off any harmful emissions. Wood fibreboards The production of wood fibreboards involves taking wood fibres obtained from waste, scrap or low-strength woods, pulverising these and then gluing them together with a binder. As with all wood-based products, wood fibreboards are very sensitive to moisture. Hardboards are used as linings to walls and soffits. Wood fibre insulating boards can be used as sound insulation elements in interiors. Medium density fibreboards (MDF) are used primarily in furniture and are also available in various colours. The homogeneity of the material means that objects appear to be “cast from one mould” (Fig. A 3.12).

covered both sides with thick paper. These boards, 9.5 – 18 mm thick, have good tensile bending properties, are elastic and easy to work, and are attached to timber or metal frameworks. They are characterised by good thermal insulation and moisture regulation properties, although only the special moistureresistant variety is suitable for wet interior areas. In the form of fire-resistant boards, which contain glass fibres, they are useful where fireresistant linings are required (see “Fire-resistant casing systems”, pp. 168 – 171). In order to achieve a flat, seamless surface, the joints between the boards are filled and sanded ready for painting, plastering or wallpapering. Perforated plasterboard has an improved sound-attenuating effect.

A 3.9

The properties and applications of the most important species of wood used in interior work A 3.10 Additional storey, atrium house in timber, Dornbirn (A), 2007, Hermann Kaufmann A 3.11 Wooden lining, mountain hotel at Vigiljoch, Meran (I), 2003, Matteo Thun A 3.12 Interior fittings and furniture made from MDF, conversion of the city and university library, Frankfurt am Main (D), 2004, Frankfurt Building Department

Gypsum fibreboard Gypsum fibreboard is produced from gypsum and cellulose fibres. In contrast to plasterboard, however, it does not have a covering of thick paper both sides. The applications are similar to those of plasterboard. Loam building boards A natural and readily recyclable or compostable alternative to plasterboard is the loam building board. This type of board is produced from a combination of loam and stabilising additives in the form of plant fibres, straw or wood chippings. These 20 – 60 mm thick boards are likewise attached to a supporting framework and the joints filled with a loam plaster. As loam boards can absorb and release large quantities of moisture, rustproof fasteners must be used. Cement boards and cement fibreboards These boards are harder, more brittle and harder to work than gypsum-based boards. Both types are incombustible and are therefore often used in fire protection applications. They are also ideal for wet interior areas because they are impermeable to water and resistant to mould attack. The basic material is cement, reinforced both sides with a glass-fibre cloth in the case of cement boards, synthetic and cellulose fibres in the case of cement fibreboards. In contrast to the asbestos boards produced in the past, the cement fibreboards now available do not represent a health hazard.

A 3.10

A 3.11

Mineral-bonded boards Mineral-bonded boards are often used for interior linings. They are ideal as backings to plaster or wallpaper. Their properties make them useful when fire resistance is important. Plasterboard Plasterboard is a very popular material for wall and soffit linings, also for built-in interior elements (Fig. A 3.13, p. 66). It consists of a gypsum core A 3.12

65

Materials

Concrete panels Concrete panels can be used as especially thin, large-format and robust wall linings. Very fine aggregates are necessary for their production. Glass fibre reinforcement provides these 6 – 20 mm thick panels with the necessary bending strength.

A 3.13

A 3.14

A 3.15

A 3.16

66

Panels of synthetic materials Synthetic materials are produced from single organic molecules. We distinguish between three categories depending on the cross-linking of the molecular chains: elastomers, thermoplastics and thermosets. Elastomers consist of low-density cross-linked molecular chains and typically exhibit a rubbery elastic behaviour, i.e. they return to their original shape after being deformed. In thermoplastics the bonds between the molecular chains are broken down upon the application of heat. They exhibit plastic properties at temperatures of approx. 200 – 300 °C and can therefore be deformed at such temperatures (Fig. A 3.14). Thermoplastics can be welded to similar or related materials by applying pressure and heat. At room temperature they are not elastic and can therefore only be worked mechanically (by machining). Thermosets consist of permanently cross-linked three-dimensional molecular chains. The thermal stability is better than that of thermoplastics, but these materials exhibit no plastic properties, instead are destroyed when subjected to significant amounts of heat. Relatively good recycling rates can now be achieved for thermoplastics provided they have been separated from other materials beforehand. However, a problem from the ecological viewpoint is that an important material for the manufacture of plastics is petroleum. In interior applications it is acrylic sheets, polyester and polycarbonate (all thermoplastics) plus glass fibre-reinforced plastics that are most popular. These products are available in various forms, e.g. as solid or corrugated sheets, or stable, self-supporting double-wall or trapezoidal profile sheets. Translucent materials can be illuminated from behind very effectively. Coloured effects can be created by using coloured lights, coloured films or pigmented materials (Figs. A 3.15 and A 3.16). In situ heat treatment enables thermoplastic materials to be permanently moulded. This effect can be used, for example, for stretched fabric ceiling systems, which are used as temporary soffit linings over large areas. Mineral-based boards are composite materials of acrylic or polyester combined with minerals. Such materials are available in many colours, are relatively light and enable large seamless surfaces to be created. Mineral-based boards are warm, closed-pore, easy-care materials that can be re-sanded again and again and so are particularly popular for counters, worktops or vanity units. [7]

Glass panels The principal raw material for the production of glass is quartz sand, which is melted together with additives that modify the microstructure plus other constituents (e.g. metals, salts) at 1100 – 1500 °C. Glass requires huge amounts of energy for its production. Recycled glass can be introduced to reduce the primary energy input. Glass can be cast to form a milky-translucent, non-even product or glass blocks, or the float method can be used to produce highly transparent panes of glass with smooth surfaces free from inherent stresses. The properties of glass can be modified by changing the raw materials or through surface treatments. Chemical or physical coating methods are the most popular. These modify not only the strength, sound insulation, reaction to fire and resistance to soiling, but also the light permeability and total energy transmittance. When used as a wall, spandrel panel (Fig. A 3.17), door or in suspended floors, toughened safety glass or laminated glass reduces the risk of injuries due to fragments of glass. When used as a floor covering, glass has to satisfy very particular structural requirements and for this purpose can be reinforced with plastic films, for instance. The light permeability and surface characteristics can be modified by sandblasting, acid-etching or the use of ceramic silk-screen printing techniques, methods that result in milky-translucent (Fig. A 3.18) to opaque, also decorated surfaces. Laser engraving techniques can be used to create seemingly three-dimensional objects within the glass out of thousands of tiny white dots. Coloured transparent or translucent glass can be achieved by adding a PVB film between the panes. A durable colouring to glass is achieved by stove-enamelling with ceramic or other pigments during manufacture. The colour and transparency of glass surfaces can also be changed by using integral lighting. New types of glass with integral LED lights are available, or glasses that can change their transparency to suit various internal functions. Working in conjunction with lighting designers, it is therefore possible to create very effective lighting and colour effects (see “LEDs”, pp. 55 – 57). Metal panels Metals have a crystalline structure with free valency electrons and it is this that gives them their density and good thermal conductivity. Metals are very stable and watertight. Pure metals consist of a single chemical element; their properties, however, can be changed as required by alloying them with other elements. Metal panels are used in interior work for linings to walls and spandrel panels, also in suspended ceilings. As sheet metal is inherently unstable, it must be given a profile or bent up or over at the edges to prevent buckling. Bonding sheet metal to backings of wood-based products, plastic panels or profiled sheet metal to form sandwich elements prevents additional changes

Materials

in length due to temperature fluctuations and therefore minimises the gaps at the joints between individual panels. In perforated form with a backing of insulating material, metal panels are often used as sound-attenuating linings or for suspended ceilings. Metal panels are manufactured with diverse surface textures – smooth, or with slits or perforations – or in the form of expanded metal. Metal surfaces are cool, and shiny metal is highly reflective and requires considerable upkeep in those areas that are frequently touched. Mechanical working in the form of sandblasting, grinding, polishing or wire-brushing results in a homogeneous, matt or structured appearance on which fingerprints, for instance, are less obvious. Coatings of other metals such as zinc, chromium or titanium increase the resistance of the surface, and a long-lasting coloured finish is achieved with powder coatings. Metal fabrics with their textile-like, light-permeable and at the same time reflective appearance have been used in recent years to create large areas of backlit linings for ecclesiastical applications in particular (Fig. A 3.19). Steel The manufacture of steel involves regulating the carbon content in the molten pig iron to suit the steel properties required and reducing the proportion of undesirable elements. The loadcarrying capacity and elasticity can be influenced by the quantity and nature of the elements – in addition to iron – in the steel. Hardening or tempering changes the crystalline microstructure in several specific heating and cooling phases, which makes the steel even more durable. There are many potential applications for steel in interior work: as the supporting framework for raised access floors, suspended ceilings and lightweight partitions, for stairs and balustrades, in the form of sheet metal for soffit linings and floor coverings, in the form of wire meshes for linings, as door and window hardware, as housings for HVAC and other equipment, in the form of stainless steel for fittings in kitchen and bathroom, etc. Aluminium Aluminium is obtained from bauxite. Pure aluminium is produced by means of electrolytic deposition and requires huge amounts of energy. The ensuing environmental impact, however, can be considerably reduced by using a high proportion of recycled aluminium. Aluminium is very corrosion-resistant and in interior work is used wherever low weight is advantageous, e.g. in the supporting frameworks to suspended ceilings, in lightweight partitions and as a facing to insulating materials. Its low tensile strength can be improved by alloying it with other elements.

rials is, however, coupled with a considerable environmental impact; the use of recycled copper reduces the impact significantly.

A 3.13

Textile panels In office buildings in particular, reverberations due to a hard, closed-pore surface such as fair-face concrete and large areas of glazing must be reduced through using soft, soundabsorbent materials (see “Acoustic comfort”, pp. 39 – 40). If suspended ceilings or acoustic panels on the walls are undesirable for design or aesthetic reasons, it is possible to use textile panels as decoration on the walls, demountable partitions or even as stretched fabrics on room dividers. Textile panels are produced by stretching fabrics or felts across wooden or aluminium frames. Panels with a textile covering on one side only can be attached to a supporting framework; panels with a textile covering on both sides are fitted into tracks fixed to the ceiling and/or wall. Detachable connections enable the fabrics to be removed for cleaning.

A 3.15

Insulating materials Insulating materials in interior work are primarily required for insulating against structure-borne sound (e.g. impact sound insulation in a floor) and airborne sound (e.g. in the walls). Thermal insulation is only required in components that separate rooms with different temperature levels. In stud walls insulating materials fill the voids between the boarding. The principle of thermal insulation is to minimise the heat transfer by conduction, radiation and convection. Many insulating materials therefore have small, isolated, air- or gas-filled pores with a low thermal conductivity. In the extreme case the air is evacuated from the insulating material to create a vacuum which minimises the heat transfer. Basically, insulating materials should contain only a minimum amount of moisture in order to achieve an optimum insulating effect. This is because the thermal conductivity of water is greater than that of air. The degree of sound absorption of an insulating material is critical for the insulation against airborne sound. This is why soft and open-pore materials are ideal. When insulation against structure-borne sound is required, e.g. impact sound insulation, the insulating materials are used to separate the solid parts of the construction and must be able to withstand compressive loads (see “Acoustic comfort”, pp. 39 – 40). Fig. A 3.20 breaks down insulating materials into organic and inorganic, natural and synthetic types according to their constituents.

A 3.14

A 3.16

A 3.17 A 3.18 A 3.19

Plasterboard cube, White Loft, Barcelona (E), 2000, Bugunani & Fortunato Archive zones made from light-scattering plastic, bank offices, Munich (D), 1999, Borkner, Feinweber, Tellmann Backlit plastic panels, Karolinen Centre, Munich (D), 2008, Koch & Partner Lining elements made from matt acrylic sheet, shoe retailer, Amsterdam (NL), 2003, Meyer en van Schooten Glass spandrel panel to a gallery, loft apartment, A Coruña (E), 2001, A-cero Corridor lighting with matt glass, House E, Tutzing (D), 2006, Bembé Dellinger Architekten Curtain of metallic fabric, Herz Jesu Church, Munich (D), 2000, Allmann Sattler Wappner

A 3.17

A 3.18

Copper Copper is another metal with very good corrosion resistance. It is readily shaped and in interior work is therefore primarily used for pipes. The production of copper from primary raw mateA 3.19

67

Materials

Insulating material

Inorganic, mineral

Made from natural raw materials

Organic

Made from synthetic raw materials

Made from natural raw materials

Made from synthetic raw materials

Expanded clay

Foamed glass

Cotton

Expanded perlite

Calcium silicate

Flax

Urea-formaldehyde resin in situ foam (UF)

Natural pumice

Ceramic foam

Serial granulate

Melamine foam

Foams made from kaolin or perlite

Mineral wool (MW) made from glass wool or rock wool

Hemp

Phenolic foam (PF)

Wood chippings

Polyester fibres

Cellular glass (CG)

Wood fibres (WF)

Expanded polystyrene (EPS)

Vacuum insulation panel (VIP)

Wood-wool boards (WW)

Extruded polystyrene foam (XPS)

Coconut fibres

Polyurethane rigid foam (PUR)

Cork products

Polyurethane in situ foam (PUR)

Vermiculite (expanded mica)

Sheep’s wool Reeds Straw/straw lightweight loam Peat Cellulose fibres

Mineral wool The term mineral wool covers rock wool and glass wool. These materials are used for thermal and sound insulation in floors, ceilings and internal walls. Mineral wool products are typically supplied in the form of felts and batts, sometimes as a loose fill. It is still not 100 % certain as to whether mineral fibres are carcinogenic, although this should be assumed for older products in existing buildings at least. It should certainly be ensured that mineral wool insulating materials are never installed so that they remain in direct contact with the interior air. Polystyrene Polystyrene is a popular insulating material for suspended floors and roofs. However, in interior work it can also be used for impact sound insulation below a screed or subfloor and for lagging pipes. Polystyrene for insulating applications is available in expanded (EPS) and extruded (XPS) forms. The production of polystyrene results in a considerable environment impact, mainly due to the use of petroleum and HCFC blowing agents. [8] Sheep’s wool This natural material is used mainly for thermal and sound insulation in walls, but sometimes also as impact sound insulation in floors. The type of installation should ensure that the wool remains inaccessible to insects and mice. The production of sheep’s wool insulating materials involves cleaning the wool, adding a mothrepellent and then forming non-woven blankets. Borates are sometimes added as a flameretardant. It can be assumed that the contamination of the interior air due to moth-repellent and flame-retardant is only minimal. Sheep’s wool insulating materials can absorb form-

68

aldehyde from the interior air and therefore reduce the concentration and its effect on the health of the building’s users. Sheep’s wool is available as blankets, rolls, felts and also in the form of packing and caulking material. Cellulose Cellulose flakes are produced either from raw cellulose fibres or from scrap paper. In the case of the latter the paper is pulverised and mixed with a flame-retardant (often boric salts). The environmental impact is minimal, especially in the case of scrap paper. As a rule, cellulose flakes are installed in situ, either blown into walls, laid loose or sprayed onto wall surfaces. This means it is also possible to provide good insulation to irregular voids as well. Cellulose flakes cannot withstand any compression and are best used as insulation in walls and ceilings. An installation that is airtight on the inside is important because otherwise organic fibres can escape into the interior air. Cellular glass Cellular glass is manufactured from glass powder to which a blowing agent (carbon) is added before it is heated to approx. 1000 °C and foamed up. The high energy requirement can be compensated for to a certain extent by adding scrap glass. The recycling of cellular glass insulating materials is, however, hardly possible because of the impurities. Owing to its high compressive strength and moisture resistance, cellular glass panels are preferred for areas subjected to compressive loads.

A 3.20

Coatings for interior work Coatings in the interior help to resist wear and can also help to regulate the moisture balance and improve the room acoustics. Owing to their textures and/or colours they are often very significant for the effect of interior surfaces. Plaster

This term includes all types of internal wall and soffit finishes that are based on plastering mixes or premixed dry constituents. Plasters fulfil various requirements: surface decoration, increasing the comfort due to a controlled absorption and release of moisture, acoustic properties, thermal insulation and fire protection. Fig. A 3.21 lists plasters according to their material composition (see DIN V 18550). The lime plasters of group P I are characterised by their excellent water vapour permeability. The vapourpermeable, porous surface not only helps to regulate the moisture balance, but also filters pollutants out of the air. The plasters of this group are used for internal work. The lime-cement plasters of group P II can be used internally and externally (for external work they are known as renders) and are also vapourpermeable. The cement plasters of group P III, when used internally, are mainly used in wet areas because of their very low vapour permeability. The gypsum plasters of group P IV help to regulate the moisture balance but are not waterresistant and therefore are used only in rooms where a high level of moisture is not expected. Very fine finishes are possible with this type of plaster. In addition to the materials given in Fig. A 3.21, it is also possible to produce plasters for internal work from loam. These are characterised by their excellent moisture regulation abilities.

Materials

Plaster is applied in one or more coats each 10 – 15 mm thick and must achieve a permanent bond with the backing material. The risk of cracking can be reduced by including reinforcement, but not over the expansion joints in the structure. The characteristics of plastered surfaces depend very much on the way the plaster is applied. The various finishes include trowelled, floated, scraped, Tyrolean, sprayed, scratched and exposed aggregate (Fig. A 3.22). Besides the plasters referred to here, there are also special acoustic plasters available for improving the room acoustics. New on the market are plasters containing PCMs (Phase Change Materials), which help to regulate the thermal balance in the interior. The wax PCM becomes fluid at higher room temperatures and can therefore regulate the temperature (see “Latent heat storage media”, p. 116 and “PCMs”, pp. 181 – 182). Screeds and subfloors

A screed is a layer of mineral-based material laid on a substrate (see Fig. C 3.3, p. 157). Screeds can be used to prepare a structural floor to receive a floor covering, to level an existing floor or indeed can be used directly as a wearing course themselves (Fig. A 3.23). Screeds have to satisfy certain requirements specified in DIN EN 13813; critical factors are compressive strength, abrasion resistance, surface hardness, resistance to chemicals, shrinkage, swelling and the impact sound reduction. Screeds can be laid directly on the loadbearing substrate (monolithic or bonded screed) or on a separating layer (unbonded or floating screed). Insulating mats or boards capable of carrying the floor loads can be used to decouple the screed from the loadbearing floor construction underneath and therefore ensure impact sound or thermal insulation. Reinforcement in the screed prevents cracking and damage over deep layers of insulation. Owing to their good specific heat capacity, screeds are ideal for use in conjunction with underfloor heating. Cement screeds Cement screeds are inexpensive and suitable for virtually all types of situation. Bonded screeds are usually laid in thicknesses of at least 30 mm, the depth of a floating screed depends on the thickness of the layer of insulation underneath. In any case it is essential to provide contraction joints. The use of a cement screed intentionally as a wearing course and floor finish is described in more detail later in this section (see “Reconstituted stone finishes”, p. 71).

Mastic asphalt Mastic asphalt is laid at a temperature of 250 °C on a heat-resistant substrate, can be produced in situ regardless of the weather conditions and is ready to receive the floor loads after just a few hours, which means it is highly recommended for refurbishment work in existing buildings. Large seamless areas can be produced with mastic asphalt and those areas are vapour-tight, moisture-resistant and not readily flammable (Fig. A 3.24, p. 70). The homogeneous, black layer is, however, not suitable for point loads because these leave impressions in the surface.

Mineral plasters

Dry subfloors A dry subfloor is one produced with wood- or gypsum-based board products that are laid over the insulation to create a substrate for the floor finishes. In contrast to the materials described above, no drying or curing times are necessary before further work can continue. This dry form of construction and the low weight make dry subfloors very attractive for the refurbishment of existing buildings (see “Dry subfloors”, pp. 156 –160).

Synthetic resin plasters

PI

Non-hydraulic lime mortar, hydraulic lime mortar, mortar with hydraulic lime

P II

Lime-cement mortar, mortar with masonry lime or mortar with render and masonry binder

P III

Cement mortar with or without lime hydrate

P IV

Gypsum mortar and mortar containing gypsum

P Org 1

Suitable for render (external) and plaster (internal)

P Org 2

Suitable for plaster (internal) A 3.21

A 3.20 A 3.21

Synthetic resin screeds These screeds are suitable for heavily loaded floor areas, also for industrial buildings. They consist of synthetic resins (epoxy resin, polyurethane resin, polyester resin, polymethyl acrylate resin) that are mixed on the building site in a two-part method and spread over the surface to create a 3 – 8 mm thick, seamless, impact-resistant, waterproof and chemicalresistant finish. It is worthwhile using these expensive materials for less heavily loaded surfaces as well when a smooth, shiny and coloured surface finish is required (Fig. A 3.25, p. 70). Polyurethane resins can be sprayed onto vertical surfaces, or epoxy resins applied with a trowel.

A 3.22

A 3.23

Classification of insulating materials according to their raw materials Classification of plasters according to their material composition Roughcast plaster, staircase in the Sainte-Marie de La Tourette Monastery, Eveux (F), 1960, Le Corbusier Screed floor at BMW World, Munich (D), 2007, Coop Himmelb(l)au

A 3.22

Calcium sulphate screeds Formerly known as anhydrite screed, this type of screed is characterised by its shorter curing time and better volume stability, which enables these screeds to be laid over large areas without expansion joints. Magnesite flooring This type of screed is not moisture-resistant and these days is used only rarely. A 3.23

69

Materials

A 3.24 Impregnation and sealing treatments, paints

Paints have a significant influence on the atmosphere and lighting in a room (see “The effect of colour”, p. 42). In physical terms, opaque paints, sealing treatments, glazes or impregnation treatments should protect components against wear due to mechanical or chemical effects. Coatings can be applied to mineral substrates, wood, wood-based products, metals and glass. In many cases pretreatment of the substrate is necessary. The reflection of light depends on the surface characteristics of the coating: gloss surfaces are better reflectors than matt ones but can cause glare in certain circumstances (see “Visual comfort”, pp. 40 – 44). Impregnation treatments Impregnation treatments, e.g. wood preservatives or oils, infiltrate the pores of absorbent substrates such as timber and concrete and do not form a film on the surface. They therefore preserve the natural appearance of the material but the surfaces are not as durable and easy to maintain as sealed or painted ones. In addition, impregnation treatments must be renewed at regular intervals. Glazes Glazes contain non-opaque pigments or a small amount of finely dispersed pigment and therefore allow the natural structure of a timber or concrete surface to show through. Sealing

A 3.25

treatments form a dense, colourless film on the surface so that gases and fluids cannot infiltrate the material. Opaque and glaze coatings contain pigments and are normally applied to the substrate in several coats. Coatings Coatings consist of a binder plus, if necessary, a pigment. Binders based on organic or inorganic materials are available. We also divide coatings into water-soluble (e.g. lime, cement, dispersions, glue) and solvent-soluble (e.g. paints, resins). Powder coatings Metals can be provided with a durable coating in the form of a stove-enamelled pigment powder. Another coating option is to provide a thin layer of another metal. Bronze, copper, brass, aluminium, iron or steel are suitable metals. How coatings affect the quality of the interior air must be examined at all costs. One important criterion here is the solvents content. As a rule, this is specified on the packaging or the information obtained from the manufacturer. Quality marks such as the “Blauer Engel” can be found on low-emissions coating materials (see “Product selection” and “Labels and quality marks”, pp. 75 – 76). Coatings are applied in several stages in order to achieve optimum adhesion and durability. A surface may need pretreatment in the form

Wood, wood-based products

A 3.26

of, for example, paint stripper or degreasing agent. The next stage is to apply a primer or filling compound. Only after application of the final coat does the surface achieve the desired characteristics. Fig. A 3.27 provides an overview of a number of water- or solvent-soluble coating materials. The techniques used to apply surface coatings are basically divided into industrial or manual methods. The former include, for example, spraying, powder coating, rolling, immersion, flow-coating, casting or dip-spinning. The manual methods are application by brush, roller or spray.

Wall and floor finishes Coverings and linings provide not only mechanical protection or conceal the materials of the structure and the technical services. They also represent an active contribution to the visual and haptic design of the interior surfaces. Floor coverings provide important interior design functions. Because they cover large areas and are in direct contact with the users of the room, they make a vital contribution to the effect of an interior and its comfort. Many different materials can be used to suit users’ particular requirements. All the requirements are laid down in standards, e.g. non-slip properties, wearing resistance, reaction to fire. In every case the floor covering must be coor-

Metals

Mineral substrates

Synthetic dispersion paint

Lime(-cement) paint (Dispersion) silicate paint Distemper Synthetic dispersion (paint) Dispersion paint

Lacquer (e.g. polyurethane, epoxy resin, acrylic resin) Paint (e.g. alkyd resin, polymer resin, rubber, silicone resin, polyurethane, epoxy resin)

Lacquer (polymer resin, epoxy resin, polyurethane) Glaze (acrylic)

Water-soluble coating materials

A 3.24 A 3.25 A 3.26 A 3.27

A 3.28 A 3.29

Mastic asphalt floor, bookshop, Innsbruck (A), 2004, Rainer Köberl Synthetic resin floor, Glass Cube, Bad Driburg (D), 2007, 3deluxe Coloured surfaces, advertising agency, Stuttgart (D), 2001, zipherspaceworks Water- and solvent-soluble coating materials for wood, wood-based products, metals and mineral substrates Stone floor, Castelvecchio, Verona (I), 1964, Carlo Scarpa Stone floor, chapel of rest, Munich (D), 2000, Andreas Meck

Synthetic dispersion Glaze (acrylic, synthetic) Dispersion paint

Solvent-soluble coating materials Lacquer (e.g. alkyd resin, acid-curing reaction, polyurethane) Glaze (impregnated, lacquer form)

Paint (e.g. alkyd resin, polyurethane)

Paint (e.g. alkyd resin, polymer resin, rubber, polyurethane epoxy resin) A 3.27

70

Materials

A 3.28

dinated with the substrate and the functional layers of the floor construction. Different requirements are placed on floor coverings depending on the usage category of the building. In industrial buildings, for example, high compression or shear loads and abrasion resistance are the priorities, and for such floors the wearing course is often a screed. In schools, on the other hand, sound insulation, haptic factors, odour and durability are critical. And in wet interior areas both a non-slip surface and ease of cleaning must be guaranteed. As walls and floors are exposed to wear, it must be possible to renew or repair any non-durable finishes that are subject to the whims of fashion without significantly affecting any other parts of the construction [9] (see “Life cycles and sustainability”, p. 76). Stone finishes

All types of stone, from hard granite to soft sandstone, are suitable for use as floor coverings. Their load-carrying capacity and resistance to abrasion are excellent compared to other finishes. Characteristic of stone is its slow absorption and release of heat, which is why the material feels cool to the touch. Its inertia is an advantage for underfloor heating because it ensures an even heat output (see “Coil heating”, p. 176). Typical applications are walls and floors in high-quality interiors (Figs. A 3.28 and A 3.29), areas with a link to the outside world, e.g. entrance foyers and corridors, also kitchens and bathrooms. Stone tiles and slabs can be laid in a thick (10 – 15 mm) or thin (3 – 8 mm) bed of mortar depending on the substrate and the dimensional accuracy of the stone material itself. The use of types of stone available locally avoids the need for the materials to be transported over long distances, and also gives the building a local reference. Besides colour and structure, it is the surface that determines the appearance and the serviceability of a floor. Finishes range from rough-hewn to sawn to polished. Reconstituted stone finishes

Reconstituted stone is in the first place a heavy-duty floor covering. A cement screed represents a robust, inexpensive version. It is ground and must be well protected during fur-

A 3.29

ther work so that it is not damaged or contaminated prior to being sealed (see “Cement screeds”, p. 69). A terrazzo floor is a more expensive version because it is more labour-intensive. This type of floor originated in the southern part of the Mediterranean region and consists of marble, porphyry, tuff or granite chippings that form the aggregate in a concrete or cement mass. After grinding and sealing, the result is a 20 – 30 mm thick, highly durable finish. Besides its use for covering large areas, reconstituted stone is also available in the form of tiles and flags. The raw material for cement tiles is white cement. The matt surface of these tiles is very smooth and they are characterised by their excellent robustness. Reconstituted stone tiles contain gravel as an aggregate and therefore are somewhat coarser than cement tiles, but they can be produced in large formats up to 500 x 500 mm.

the substrate and the dimensional accuracy of the tiles themselves (see “Floor coverings for dry subfloors”, p. 158). Owing to their high specific heat capacity, ceramic floor finishes are suitable for use in conjunction with underfloor heating. The tall, narrow rooms often found in older buildings appear wider when the wall tiles terminate just below the top of the door frame. The colour of the grout joints should be chosen very carefully and the patterns of the joints on the various surfaces should be coordinated with each other right at the planning stage. Wooden finishes

Wood is a natural, open-pore building material that not only ensures a pleasant interior climate and warm surfaces, but is also very hardwearing and long-lasting. Solid timber planks or woodbased products can be used as wall finishes (see “Wood-based products”, pp. 64– 65).

Ceramic finishes

Ceramic tiles represent a durable, hardwearing finish. The raw material is clay which is fired at a high temperature to create earthenware, at a lower temperature for stoneware. The latter must be protected against abrasion and the infiltration of water by a vitreous glaze, whereas the more durable earthenware is merely impregnated to produce an easy-care surface. For example, oils or waxes lend terracotta a warm, earthy appearance. A huge range of tile formats is available for wall and floor surfaces in kitchens, bathrooms and other interior zones. Large-format floor tiles (max. 600 or 1200 mm side length) make rooms appear more spacious. Very large formats, up to 1000 ≈ 3000 mm, can be produced from porcelain, a very dense, durable material that can be used to produce tiles just 3 mm thick. Small-format mosaic tiles on a mesh backing are laid in a thin bed of tile adhesive and can be used on walls and floors to produce decorative patterns and artistic effects, even on more demanding or rounded contours. Glass mosaic tiles represent an even more durable variant for wet areas and swimming pools; they are available in sizes starting at just 10 ≈ 10 mm. Ceramic tiles can be laid in a thick or thin bed of tile adhesive depending on the properties of

Wooden floorboards Wooden floorboards, made from spruce or fir, are available in various thicknesses (approx. 16 – 24 mm). Floorboards butt-jointed together and nailed directly to timber joists are still found in many older buildings. The contemporary variant consists of hardwood floorboards up to 35 mm thick and max. 6 m long, which are nailed to timber grounds and interconnected by tongue and groove joints (Fig. A 3.30, p. 72). The direction of laying should suit the shape of the room and preferably be perpendicular to the principal direction of movement and parallel with the main lighting direction. Impregnation with water-based oils or waxes is a treatment that requires considerable care over the long-term but is the best answer for preserving the structure of the wood and the diffusion ability of the floor; it also helps the floor to take on a certain patina over years of use. The surfaces can also be finished with coloured oils, stains, glazes or a lime wash. In order to avoid gaps between boards or fissures caused by shrinkage at a later date, the wood used should only be installed after it has dried sufficiently and prior to laying the floorboards should be stored in the room in which they are to be used so that they can acclimatise.

71

Materials

A 3.30 A 3.31

A 3.32 A 3.33 A 3.34

Wooden floorboards, private house, Mineyama (J), 2000, FOBA Oiled herringbone oak wood-block flooring, residential conversion, Berlin (D), 2006, Behles & Jochimsen Oiled block-on-edge parquet flooring, MGS, Munich (D), 2001, Robert Meyer Linoleum as wall and floor finish, retail outlet, New York (USA), 2000, Choi-Campagna Design Natural rubber as wall and floor finish, “George” restaurant, Paris (F), 2000, Jakob+MacFarlane

A 3.30

Wood-block flooring Hardwoods such as oak, beech, maple or ash, but also tropical imports, are generally used for wood-block flooring. Birch, chestnut, pine, cherry and lime are also popular species. They are either bonded to a stable substrate, e.g. screed, secret-nailed to a subfloor or laid “floating” on top of impact sound insulation. The materials are available in many different forms, e.g. mosaic parquet, wood-strip flooring, right up to the particularly hardwearing block-on-edge parquet flooring. Different forms of laying have an effect on the visual appearance of the wood-block flooring in the room: three-strip parquet flooring with square baskets looks very detailed and non-directional, a herringbone (Fig. A 3.31) or ship’s deck pattern results in a dynamic effect, and the directional, smallformat block-on-edge parquet flooring makes an area look spacious (Fig. A 3.32). Impregnation (with water- or solvent-based oils, waxes or resins) or sealing (with water- or solvent-soluble varnishes) can protect a wooden floor covering against abrasion. One important criterion here is the formaldehyde and solvent content; both are substances that can contaminate the interior air permanently. Laminated floors A laminated floor is generally made up of three layers: a backing layer of wood fibreboard to which a backing paper is attached on the underside, and a wearing course of paper impregnated with resins on which a wood-grain effect is printed, which does give the floor a somewhat unnatural appearance. This inexpensive floor covering is used – particularly in refurbishment work – when there is not sufficient depth available for wood-block flooring. The impact sound level is higher than that for wood-block flooring and laminated floors are not suitable for wet areas. Care should be taken to make sure that products with a low formaldehyde and solvent content are selected.

Pile carpets consist of threads woven vertically into a backing material. In so-called bouclé (looped-pile) carpets the threads remain intact, whereas in velour carpets they are cut, which lends them a dense, soft appearance, but makes them unsuitable for heavier loads, e.g. chair castors in offices. Fleece carpets consist of impregnated fibres, which are, for example, attached to a backing material. Generally, jute, sisal or coconut fibres are used for producing flatweave carpets in which the backing is at the same time the wearing course. These carpets are very thin and durable and are mainly used in entrance zones and corridors, also as runners on wooden stairs. The cultivation of the raw materials in monocultures and the long distances over which the materials have to be transported result in considerable environmental impact. Carpets can be laid loose over small areas but should then be provided with a non-slip underlay or backing. But when large areas are involved, the carpet is often glued to the substrate over the whole area. When choosing the adhesive, it should be ensured that there will not be any emissions that could contaminate the interior air. Soluble adhesives ease the task of renewing the carpet at a later date. The laying of carpets that are stretched from wall to wall and fixed with gripper strips is labour-intensive and costly. The suitability of textile floor coverings for persons who suffer from allergies is a matter of fierce debate [10]; some help is provided by the GUT quality mark, which was developed jointly by a number of carpet manufacturers and provides an indication as to the potential environmental and health hazards of carpeting (see also “Labels and quality marks”, p. 76). Resilient finishes

Resilient finishes include synthetic materials, rubber and renewable raw materials such as cork and linoleum. These finishes are softer than wood or stone but easier to clean than textile finishes.

Textile finishes

A 3.31

A 3.32

72

Textile finishes benefit from a series of positive properties: they are sound-absorbent, thermally insulating and easy to install. Wall finishes in the form of fabrics or carpet can be used as a facing to a lower-quality backing, as extensive decoration or to provide a soundattenuating function. They can be glued to the substrate or stretched across a framework of battens, which means they can be easily removed at a later date. Carpets can be manufactured from natural fibres (e.g. wool, cotton, viscose, silk, coconut, sisal, jute), synthetic fibres (e.g. polyamide, polyacrylonitrile, polyester, polypropylene) or combinations of these. Metal, glass or carbon fibres can be woven into synthetic fibres to prevent the build-up of an electric charge. Carpets constitute a not inconsiderable fire load; their fire categories, ranging from not readily flammable (T-a) to highly flammable (T-c) should therefore be considered when selecting products.

Cork The raw material for cork products is obtained from the bark of the cork oak, a species of tree that grows around the Mediterranean. Cork floor coverings provide good thermal and sound insulation. They are available in rolls or as tiles, also as laminated flooring. Oiled and waxed, cork provides a warm finish in residential work. And provided with a dirt-repellent coating of varnish, cork can even be used for more heavyduty purposes. Linoleum Linoleum contains a large proportion of renewable raw materials and is therefore to be recommended from the ecological viewpoint. In the production of linoleum, a binding consisting of linseed oil and common rosin (colophonium) is mixed with sawdust or cork dust, inorganic fillers and pigments, and then pressed onto a jute backing. Rolls up to 30 m long can be sup-

Materials

A 3.33

plied in many colours and patterns (Fig. A 3.33). Linoleum can insulate against impact sound, has an antibacterial effect and is not readily flammable. It is therefore popular for public and government buildings, hospitals, schools and sports halls. Rubber finishes The raw material for rubber finishes is in most cases synthetic rubber, which is produced from petroleum. Natural rubber is used only rarely these days. Although rubber finishes contain no plasticisers, carcinogenic substances can be released during production. The advantages of these finishes are their elasticity, resistance to wear, good impact sound insulation and good resistance to water and fire. Rubber floor coverings are used mainly in industrial or commercial premises, also in areas to which the public has access. Smooth or textured surface finishes are possible (Fig. A 3.34). Synthetic finishes We divide synthetic floor finishes into PVC, PO and PU coverings. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) products are watertight and resistant to most chemicals. However, they release harmful substances into the interior air that are particularly problematic for persons with allergies, and in the event of a fire the plasticisers in PVC give off toxic gases. Polyolefin (PO) coverings do not require any plasticisers, but therefore are more brittle and can also swell up in the presence of moisture. Polyurethane (PU) coverings are mainly used in circulation zones and for industrial applications. They are applied seamless in situ and are characterised by their high abrasion resistance. Glass When used as a floor covering, glass has to comply with safety regulations regarding loadcarrying capacity, protection against shattering and non-slip properties. Glass is therefore used in small formats, mainly for the steps to stairs and only for large areas of flooring in special cases (see “Glass panels”, p. 66)

A 3.34

Metals Metals are rarely used for interior floor finishes. When they are, then it is usually in the form of sheet aluminium or galvanised steel. Structured surfaces improve the non-slip properties (see “Metal panels”, pp. 66 – 67).

Sealants Sealants close off joints to prevent the infiltration of moisture. We divide sealants into elastic, plasto-elastic and plastic varieties depending on their physical behaviour. Filling compounds represent another variety. Sealants can also be categorised according to their reactivity: chemically reactive, physically reactive and non-reactive. Although in terms of their mass sealants represent only a very small proportion of the total amount of building materials used, very careful selection is still necessary because these materials can release dangerous substances into the interior air in significant quantities. Furthermore, it is vital that every sealant provides long-lasting protection against moisture and does not fail prematurely. The sealants generally available are based on silicone rubber, polysulphide rubber, polyurethane, polyacrylate, butyl rubber or polyisobutylene. In situ foams are also used for sealing joints. Their propellants are generally substances that promote the greenhouse effect and also represent a health hazard. Alternatives in the form of tapes made from natural fibres, e.g. flax, hemp or sheep’s wool, can be used to close off gaps and spaces. [11]

Product selection strategies Important criteria regarding the selection and tender specifications for products are the contamination of the interior air due to emissions from the materials plus the production, transport, installation, maintenance, disposal and reuse of the materials considered over the life cycle of the products (Fig. A 3.3, p. 62). The different requirements placed on materials are categorised according to type of building and are shown in Fig. A 3.35 (p. 74). Quality of the interior air

The selection of materials for interior fitting-out has a significant effect on the quality of the interior air. As the release of odours and dangerous substances often takes place over a long period of time, materials can have a negative effect on human health and comfort. Therefore, the number one priority for the use of building materials or products, in addition to the technical requirements, is their harmlessness with respect to workers and users. The regulations covering the sale and/or use of building materials and products are therefore described in more detail below. When health disorders occur among building occupants, then a link to environmental factors is often suspected. The most common of these complaints are sick building syndrome (SBS), multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS) and chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). Buildings in which users complain about SBS symptoms frequently have many things in common [12]: lightweight forms of construction, good sealing and mechanical HVAC systems with a high proportion of recirculated air. The temperatures in the rooms are relatively high and at the same time there is a homogeneous thermal environment, often with large areas of textiles and textile floor coverings. Odours are a frequent cause of discomfort, and may originate from emissions from the materials used for the interior fitting-out. Unpleasant odours in interiors are therefore regarded as a sign of poor interior air quality, irrespective of whether they can actually trigger a toxicological effect (see “Olfactory comfort”, pp. 37 – 39). The German Federal Environment Agency publishes recommendations for evaluating the quality of the interior air. [13]

73

Materials

Constituents and possible effects

Both the chemical composition of fitting-out materials and also their chemical reactions during processing or even during use can be the cause of health disorders, unpleasant odours or discomfort. Like in other industries, in the building sector the manufacture and use of products involving a potential health hazard is not actually impossible or prohibited. There are stipulations and regulations that apply to the quality of the interior air and these recommend the use of low-emissions materials. Compliance with the valid recommended values for certain substances in the interior air can only be achieved

when products that emit such substances are minimised or avoided completely. Legal stipulations, regulations, standards

The assessment of the quality of the interior air is currently regulated in Germany by a Federal Environment Agency document released in June 2007. This specifies reference and recommended values for assessing contamination in the interior air. [14] The aim is to achieve a uniform evaluation of the interior air quality and the emphasis is on assessing the volatile organic compounds (VOC), which are among the main causes of health disorders and discomfort.

Offices

In order to assess the air quality, recommended values for a few substances have been derived from toxicological studies. We distinguish here between recommended values RW I (a concentration of a substance at which no health disorders are to be expected even after a lifetime of exposure) and RW II (the concentration at which health disorders cannot be ruled out). In the case of values between RW I sand RW II, more ventilation is suggested as an immediate corrective measure. When concentrations exceed the RW II value, immediate action is required – which usually means that the rooms can no longer be used.

Requirements

Housing

Schools

Sports halls

Museums

Hospitals

Aesthetics

Rented: only consider as far as necessary for comfort Owner-occupied: very user-specific

Only consider as far as necessary for comfort.

Not a priority

Priority

Only consider as far as necessary for comfort; must be weighed against the life cycle costs.

Health aspects, freedom from dangerous substances

Currently only important for sensitive clients; should be given priority owing to long occupancy times of users.

In some cases minimum requirements for public-sector clients; the aim should be minimum use of dangerous substances.

Currently only important for sensitive clients; should be given priority owing to long occupancy times of users.

In some cases minimum requirements for publicsector clients; the aim should be minimum use of dangerous substances.

Not a priority

In some cases minimum requirements for public-sector clients; the aim should be minimum use of dangerous substances.

Investment costs

Very user-specific

Reduction is currently a priority; should be balanced with the optimum life cycle costs.

Very user-specific

Reduction is currently a priority; should be balanced with the optimum life cycle costs.

Very user-specific

Reduction is currently a priority; should be balanced with the optimum life cycle costs.

Life cycle costs

Is currently not a priority, but should be seen as an important decision-making criterion.

Ease of cleaning

Very user-specific

Priority

Currently very userspecific; should be considered.

Priority

Very user-specific; must be weighed against the aesthetics, for example.

Priority

Durability

Rented: consider durability only as part of the life cycle cost optimisation Owner-occupied: very user-specific

Crucial because the life cycle costs can thus be reduced.

Relatively short renewal cycles ∫ adaptation to these cycles

Crucial because the life cycle costs can thus be reduced.

Depends on usage: adapt durability to the planned renewal cycles.

Crucial because the life cycle costs can thus be reduced.

Safety

Minimum standards should be complied with.

Priority

Minimum standards should be complied with.

Priority

Minimum standards should be complied with.

Priority

Ease of maintenance

Very user-specific; life cycle costs can be considerably reduced.

Already considered with respect to technical services, life cycle costs can thus be reduced.

Priority in the case of frequent changes of user.

Already considered with respect to technical services, life cycle costs can thus be reduced.

Very user-specific; life cycle costs can be considerably reduced.

Already considered with respect to technical services, life cycle costs can thus be reduced.

Recyclability

Is currently only important for sensitive clients, but should be considered for reasons of environmental compatibility.

A 3.35 A 3.35 A 3.36

74

The different requirements that materials have to satisfy, classified according to type of building Emissions behaviour of materials with respect to VOC and formaldehyde

Materials

As the interior air contains a multitude of different substances, its quality can be assessed with the help of the total concentration of volatile organic compounds (TVOC). Owing to the different compositions of the mixtures of substances that occur, the TVOC value merely serves as a parameter for characterising the exposure and indicates the need to search for the sources. In addition to these recommended values, the German Commission for the Federation & the Federal States (BLK) specifies further reference values for assessing the quality of the interior air based on a research project carried out by the Working Group for Ecological Material Stone

Gypsum Mortar, plaster/ mineral basis render synthetic resin basis Screed/submineral basis floor mastic asphalt Masonry Glass Ceramics Metal Timber

Plastics

Insulating materials Floor coverings

plywood glued laminated timber particleboards OSB wood fibreboards wood-wool lightweight boards synthetic resins PUR silicone

wooden floors

carpet cork linoleum

Sealants

The strategy for choosing products according to toxicological criteria should follow the minimisation principle. This means that zero- or low-emissions materials and products should be employed for all applications as far as possible. Only a few tools are availa-

Check preparation of substrate.

Constituents of jointing materials must be considered. Corrosion protection, coatings: chromium compounds must be avoided. Use of wood preservatives: check need for loadbearing components, never use for interior fittings. Formaldehyde, wood preservatives and other inherent contamination, etc. in the case of scrap wood of unclear origin; check emissions class (E1 = low-formaldehyde) when using new board materials.

Can release solvents.

Check constituents despite this classification.

laminated floors

Coatings

Product selection

Remarks – critical or must be checked for the individual case Stone is not critical, but sundries such as coatings, laying materials, adhesives, etc. and radon, are, depending on origins. Avoid concrete additives/admixtures where possible (because accurate information is unavailable).

Concrete

Wood-based products

Research Projects (AGOF). In the light of the fact that in addition to health disorders, unpleasant odours are the most frequent cause behind interior air investigations, this work places more emphasis on odour thresholds (see “Intensity of odours”, p. 38).

PUR PVC dispersion paints dispersion lacquers lime paints solvent-based paints oils waxes polyacrylate

Significant emissions are possible depending on the type of surface treatment and adhesives. VOC emissions are possible (increased by underfloor heating); significant emissions may occur depending on the type of adhesive. Foam backing and type of adhesive lead to significant emissions; biocides in the case of natural fibres. Cork itself does not lead to any significant emissions, but the type of adhesive is critical. No significant emissions in the case of high-quality products, but otherwise emissions are possible; the type of adhesive is critical. Significant emissions are possible depending on the type of surface treatment and adhesives. Solvent-free products are available; otherwise VOC and formaldehyde are released.

Contain solvents in very different quantities; check constituents. Avoid solvents, sensitising substances, carcinogenic substances, etc.

PUR silicone rubber butyl rubber Classification with respect to emissions of dangerous substances (VOC, formaldehyde) Harmless Check composition Harmful

ble to planners and clients which help specifically with the avoidance of dangerous substances. Measurements of the interior air can only reveal the success or otherwise of the minimisation measures afterwards. During design and construction, the tight timetables of the modern building industry do not usually include allowances for interim measurements. At best, the emissions behaviour of individual products or selected forms of construction can be investigated under laboratory conditions. Experts for ecology and health issues in the construction industry can be consulted by clients, architects and other members of the design team to help with the selection of materials during the earlier phases of a project. Such experts can also advise on the exact wording necessary in the tender documents regarding the requirements to be satisfied by building products. The European chemicals regulation REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation & Restriction of Chemicals), which came into force on 1 July 2007, means that both manufacturers and processors must now provide comprehensive information about the chemicals they use. This requirement also includes information on the emissions behaviour of building products. A basis for predicting possible contamination of interiors has thus been established. There are some substances that represent critical constituents in construction products in toxicological terms. One example of this is solvents, which can be found in a whole variety of building materials (Fig. A 3.36). In order to achieve an optimum interior air quality, the following qualitative targets should be specified: • All materials and products for interior fittingout must be free from biocides, i.e. free from fungicides, insecticides and bactericides that by legislation must be labelled as dangerous products. • No chemical wood preservatives may be used indoors. Exceptions are only permitted within the scope of very specific, prescribed circumstances. Instead, passive measures should be preferred. • Only zero- or low-formaldehyde materials and products may be used in interiors. This fact must be considered for adhesives, paints and wood-based products in particular. • Only coatings and adhesives that do not represent any health hazards may be used in internal applications. Products labelled “zerosolvents” or “low-solvents” are to be preferred. When choosing adhesives, paints and other building chemicals, the emissions of solvents should be reduced to a minimum. • When using mineral fibres, measures must be taken to prevent fibres being released into the interior air.

A 3.36

75

Materials

Influence on cost of usage

Preliminary study

Actual cost for planned usage

Target cost for planned usage

Draft design

A 3.37 Detailed design

A 3.38 Construction Tender

Operations planning

A 3.39 A 3.40

Operation Time A 3.37

Labels and quality marks

Life cycles and sustainability

The use of the right wording in the tender documents is especially important for the implementation of requirements that must be satisfied by building products with respect to health aspects. Such formulations therefore become part of the contract and are then binding for contractors. It is possible to specify certain qualities here, e.g. the avoidance of undesirable constituents (solvents, formaldehyde, preservatives, etc.) or the use of products that comply with the requirements of specific quality standards. Quality marks, labels and other product designations designed to assist in the selection of building products and materials are available for various product categories and also individual product groups. The quality marks for various product categories are as follows:

One primary aim of modern planning must be to achieve products of maximum quality with the minimum use of resources. When considering life cycles especially, quantitative and qualitative comparisons should represent key themes in the planning of interior fitting-out and technical services measures designed to avoid depletion of resources (Fig. A 3.37). Besides the number one priority of sustainable design, building materials should be used sparingly and the amounts required reduced to the necessary minimum. It is these factors that should determine the choice of materials, their combination and proper jointing, and therefore lead to a result that is ecological and sustainable. The respective lifespan of every building component can be calculated from the durability of the materials used and the way they are assembled. The financial and material costs for the production, use and renewal of these components are determined within the course of a life cycle assessment (LCA). The longer the parts of a building last, the more favourable is the ratio between the initial financial and materials investment and the ongoing cost of a building’s upkeep. In principle it is true to say that all building components with shorter renewal cycles should be integrated into the building so that they can be repaired or replaced without affecting longer-lasting components. Unnecessary damage to building components that are still intact in order to expose parts in need of refurbishment, and making good afterwards, must be avoided at all costs. Reducing the number of different materials used in a building generally leads to a longer service life and hence lower life cycle costs. The use of many different materials in a structure results in higher maintenance costs and sometimes also to the premature replacement of components.

• Blauer Engel: for labelling insulating materials, paints, varnishes, glazes, wallpaper, floor coverings, installation sundries, etc. with especially low VOC and formaldehyde emissions. • Natureplus: like the Blauer Engel this assesses the emissions of dangerous substances. • EU “Flower”: for products that exhibit aboveaverage ecological values over their entire life cycle. • TOXPROOF: issued by the German TÜV organisation for buildings whose rooms are below the threshold for interior air contamination. • eco-INSTITUT label: this indicates a construction product with a low content of dangerous substances. • IBO test mark: an evaluation of products over their entire life cycle in terms of building biology and building ecology aspects. • IBR test mark: this indicates construction products with a low dangerous substances content. The quality marks for individual product groups are as follows: • EMICODE: floor-laying materials (adhesives, primers, filling compounds, etc.) • GUT carpet mark • FSC/PEFC: wood, wood-based products • Cork logo • Naturland: wood, wood-based products • RugMark: carpets

76

Strategies for fitting-out Taking sustainable planning goals into account at an early stage leads to buildings with better overall economies (design, construction, usage and deconstruction costs). It has been shown that building components with the highest investment costs do not generally also lead to the highest life cycle costs. The many fitting-out

Influences on cost of usage with a comparison between the target cost for operations planning and the actual cost Routed wood finish, private house, New York (USA), 2006, Herzog & de Meuron Translucent concrete Polyamide carpet with fluorescent coating, “Shining Islands”, furniture trade fair, Cologne (D), 2002, Ulrich Nether

trades – especially those for doors and windows in the building envelope, built-in items of all kinds, fittings and furnishings to suit the specific requirements of users, floors, floor finishes and internal walls – account for a large proportion of the life cycle costs. Changes during the period of use due to renewal, conversions or repairs generate further costs for the fitting-out trades in particular. In many cases building components or layers of materials are replaced before they reach the end of their (theoretical) service life. Consequently, this can lead to the high durability of certain surfaces called for in the planning to be unnecessary in practice because frequent conversions can result in premature replacement. For example, comparative studies of floor coverings have resulted in the following practical advice: In office buildings resilient floor coverings result in low investment and annual costs. Wooden floor coverings, advantageous in terms of ecology, result in somewhat higher annual costs. Hard or resilient floor coverings do not usually require any additional measures to combat impact sound, but in some circumstances additional measures are needed to absorb sound. This becomes especially relevant when there are no finishes to the soffits because the building components in the offices are activated for heating and/or cooling purposes. Owing to their shorter service lives, carpets are less economic, less ecological. For circulation zones in particular, long-lasting stone floor coverings are not only to be favoured from the ecological viewpoint, but are also very economic. Shorter periods of use (e.g. due to tenant fit-out and changes to finishes for decorative reasons), however, diminish the economy of long-lasting wooden and stone finishes. Besides the materials themselves, methods of fixing, surface treatments, choice of filling compounds, etc. all have a considerable influence on the ecological quality of a system. Zerosolvents products without constituents relevant in ecological or toxicological terms should be used wherever possible. The use of cleaning systems optimised in terms of economy and ecology enable hard or resilient floor coverings to achieve better figures than carpets. On the other hand, the coatings common in the past increase the environmental im-

Materials

A 3.38

pact and the amount of maintenance required. The use of microfibre cleaning implements saves cleaning agents and hence decreases the environmental impact. Lobbies with walk-off mats and cleaning rooms must be allowed for in the layout in order to help achieve cost-effective everyday cleaning. [15]

New technologies Achieving sustainable buildings with this vast and difficult-to-evaluate range of materials represents a huge challenge. In the meantime we really have to ask ourselves the question of at what point does our building become the contaminated waste of the future? New technologies result in ever more specialised, thin layers, the efficiency of which, however, is only revealed over the long-term. Those new technologies cover new materials, new coating techniques plus technologies and systems integrated into the materials. The materials that enable new visual effects include, for example, translucent concrete, which is produced by adding light-conducting fibre-optics to the concrete mix. This lends this heavyweight material an unaccustomed lightness (Fig. A 3.39). New techniques such as glass fibre-reinforced stone veneers, coatings of real metals and mineral “concrete” coatings develop the patina of their original material on the surface and lend the backing material, e.g. wood-based products and lightweight building boards, an unusual, heavyweight appearance. Plastic coatings, rolls and sheets welded together or stretched fabrics enable the realisation of spatial internal structures in which floors, walls, ceilings and fittings appear to be cast from one mould. Besides the visual effects, new materials technologies also satisfy functional requirements. Metal foam, for example, was originally developed for the automotive industry. The foaming process results in a large metal surface that can be used as a climate-regulating heat absorber, e.g. in lightweight partitions. Catalytic coatings on the backs of carpets represent one attempt to neutralise dangerous substances in the interior air. And meshes of metal threads

A 3.39

woven into textiles can shield against electrosmog. Glass and plastics with water-repellent, self-cleaning or antibacterial surfaces are possible thanks to nanotechnology – whose effect on the human organism is, however, still being discussed. Thermochromic coatings react to the ambient temperature. Used on glass, such a coating adjusts the degree of permeability from transparent to translucent upon exposure to direct sunlight. Thermochromic pigments in paints or synthetic coatings change their colour as the temperature fluctuates or even upon being touched. PCM (phase change materials) function like solid building components. Tiny paraffin beads mixed into, for example, plaster, absorb excess heat and release it to the surroundings again at a later time (see “Heating, cooling, ventilation”, pp. 181–182). All these highly specialised, lightweight materials and interactive hybrids help customary costs/benefits analyses in which maximisation of the saleable and lettable useful floor area has priority. For as long as gross floor areas form part of the building application procedure, loadbearing structure, envelope and internal partitions will be reduced further and further, and the loadbearing, separating, sealing, insulating and climate-regulating functions will be transferred to ever thinner layers that are difficult to reach and difficult to maintain during operation of the building, and whose installation calls for extremely careful workmanship. Apart from the fact that sustainable ventilating, heating and cooling are to a large extent still coupled with the thermal activation of the heavyweight building fabric, it is important to realise that in our high-tech buildings we still need to satisfy the needs of people and their wish for materials and surfaces they can experience with their senses (see “Standardised comfort”, p. 44).

A 3.40 References: [1] Harig, Siegfried, et al.: Technologie der Baustoffe – Handbuch fur Studium und Praxis. Heidelberg, 2003, pp. 285ff. [2] http://www.eco-bau.ch/resources/uploads/eco-devis_ merkblaetter/ed314d.pdf [3] Zwiener, Gerd; Motzl, Hildegund: Ökologisches Baustoff-Lexikon – Bauprodukte, Chemikalien, Schadstoffe, Ökologie, Innenraum. Heidelberg 2006, pp. 412f. [4] König, Holger: Wege zum gesunden Bauen – Wohnphysiologie, Baustoffe, Baukonstruktionen, Normen und Preise. Staufen bei Freiburg, 1997, p. 65 [5] ibid. [1] pp. 148ff. [6] ibid. [3] p. 222 [7] ibid. [1] pp. 509ff. [8] Austrian Institute for Building Biology & Ecology, Danube University Krems – Building & Environment Centre (pub.): Ökologie der Dammstoffe. Grundlagen der Wärmedammung, Lebenszyklusanalyse von Wärmedammstoffen, optimale Dammstandards. Vienna, 2000, pp. 62ff. [9] Wilhide, Elizabeth: Fußboden. Die idealen Materialien für jeden Raum. Über 400 Beispiele. Munich, 1998, p. 29 [10] ibid. [3] p. 501 [11] ibid. [1] pp. 583ff. [12] Seifert, Bernd: Das Sick Building Syndrom. In: Öffentliches Gesundheitswesen 53, 1991, p. 376ff. [13] Indoor Air Hygiene Commission (pub.): Leitfaden für die Innenraumhygiene in Schulgebauden. Berlin, 2008 [14] http://www.umweltbundesamt.de/gesundheit-e/irk.htm [15] Coordination of the Building & Real Estate Bodies of the Swiss Federation (pub.): Bodenbeläge im Bürobau. Ein Vergleich über 50 Jahre. KBOB/IPB Recommendation 2000/1

77

Part B

Integrated planning

1 Concepts and building typologies Intelligent simplicity Sustainable planning Building typologies Usage typologies User adaptiveness and comfort in buildings to DIN EN 15 251 Flexibility Residential buildings Schools Sports halls Office buildings Museums

Fig. B

80 80 80 81 82 82 84 85 88 92 94 98

2 Location factors Solar radiation Outside temperature Humidity of the air Wind Geology Sound Urban climate

100 100 102 102 102 103 103 103

3 Energy and buildings Energy balance Transmission QT Ventilation heat losses QL Solar gains QS Internal heat sources QI Heating requirement QH Cooling energy requirement QC Building standards Political targets Statutory instruments and certification

104 104 104 104 105 105 105 105 106 106 106

4 Energy supplies Energy sources Solar energy Biomass Ambient heat Energy conversion Furnaces Solar energy systems Heat pumps and refrigeration units Energy storage Hot-water storage Latent heat storage media Thermochemical storage Energy infrastructures Heating networks Co-generation plants Heating plants Overriding energy concepts

108 109 109 109 111 113 113 114 114 115 115 116 116 116 116 117 117 117

Ground coupling, Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Dübendorf (CH), 2006; Bob Gysin + Partner

79

Concepts and building typologies Julia Drittenpreis, Hana Riemer

B 1.1

Architecture and technology should always be considered as a total system. Only by optimising the numerous interfaces within that system are we able to create buildings that do justice to their usage requirements and meet high demands regarding their functionality, aesthetics and quality.

Intelligent simplicity “Less high-tech, more low-tech” – a sustainable planning approach that is anchored in the philosophy of climate design. The aim here is to develop buildings that can be operated with less energy, less resources, but still provide a high standard of comfort over the long-term. Sustainable planning

B 1.1

B 1.2 B 1.3

80

Building for individual retailers, offices and apartments under construction, Hamburg (D), 2010; Eric van Egeraat architects Breakdown of the potential fixed and variable factors influencing the integrated design process Quality assurance measures during the design, construction, operation and refurbishment of a building

The development of interior design concepts calls for communication between the many members of the planning team on various levels in a complex planning process. Added to this is the fact that many boundary conditions influence a sustainable concept. Those conditions arise out of the function of the building on the one hand and the specific needs of users on the other. Furthermore, the location factors also have to be considered in order to guarantee the longterm optimisation of comfort, energy efficiency and upkeep. Fundamental to an interior design concept is the careful choice of passive and active energyefficiency measures, taking into account mutual dependencies. Each of these measures should be checked on all levels of the total system, e.g. structure, internal layout, facade, technical services, and coordinated with the building as a whole. The specialists for each of these areas, who each contribute different experiences, together form an interdisciplinary team. There are no universal solutions, neither for the architecture nor the technical fitting-out or the energy concept. The principle of sustainability should therefore be anchored in the design from the very outset as an overriding guideline for action and planning because the first draft design phases – by defining the form – determine the climatic characteristics of the building quite decisively. As conceptual changes to formdefining parameters at a later stage of the plan-

ning are associated with increased costs, it is important to understand the relationships between all building and design parameters and to harmonise these with the requirements and specifications of the design brief. This also helps to avoid shortcomings in the planning which otherwise have to be corrected later – often with the use of additional technology (Fig. B 1.2). The tightening of legislation and rising energy prices are steering the awareness of clients and users towards solutions with better longterm economies. So in architecture competitions as well, clients and juries should be made aware of the energy-efficiency quality of a design, which should be readily apparent without the need for complicated calculations. Project realisation Sustainable building means the implementation of functional, social, economic and ecological requirements throughout the entire life cycle of the construction measure. In contrast to other branches of industry, the realisation of projects in the construction sector takes place under the direct influence of the weather and with the participation of a multitude of trades. Although individual components can and are produced in batches, the provision of components, buildings or groups of buildings is still essentially characterised by a demand for individual building concepts. In the multi-faceted construction process, all those involved would be well advised to establish robust quality management principles in order to pursue the realisation of goals and agreements defined in advance. A quality management system presumes clearly defined specifications for quality control measures and audits throughout the whole process, which are among the supervisory and coordination responsibilities of the design and construction teams. Comprehensive records of the design and construction phases also represent an important basis for optimum operation of the building, a mine of information that can be referred to throughout the building’s life cycle. In broad terms, three areas of quality assurance measures are relevant during the project realisation phase of a building: specification, supervision and final inspection (Fig. B 1.3). The

Concepts and building typologies

Design brief fixed

variable

Usage

Legislation, directives

Location

Typology

• Size • Energy limit values • Usage profile • Level of • Fire protection occupancy • Places of Work • Interior climate Directive (ASR) requirements

Legislation, stipulations • Development plan • Clearances to neighbouring buildings

Client

Design

Factors

Economy

Specification

Architecture

Technology

• Urban setting, location, plot • Shadows • Infrastructure • Resources • Macroclimate, microclimate

• Maximum budget • Funding, assistance

• Corporate identity • Special requirements (e.g. barrier-free access) • Sometimes energy and technical stipulations

• Building form • Internal structure/ organisation • Facade • Structure

• Source, generation • Distribution • Output

B 1.2

specification (and, if applicable, bill of quantities) define detailed quality requirements for building materials, forms of construction, junctions, connections, etc. and formulate requirements for the properties of materials and forms of construction relevant to visual, haptic, functional, building physics and health aspects. The quality assurance measures for the targets and stipulations defined during the planning phase take place during and immediately after the actual construction. Site management, airtightness tests, IR thermographic images and monitoring of construction moisture represent the in situ quality control measures. These services are finally accepted and recorded in detail following visual inspections and function tests.

Quality

Team

Building operation Ongoing monitoring is one useful quality assurance tool for the operation of a building because it helps to rectify many problems that occur during everyday usage. The prerequisites for monitoring can be created by the design team during the planning phase by specifying a measuring

concept and defining the scope of the monitoring, working out the costs and providing the appropriate technologies. Monitoring enables the optimisation of operation with respect to comfort, user satisfaction and protecting the fabric of the building. Facility management frequently includes the quality control measures during the operation phase. Continuous specialist assistance during operation, e.g. by way of IT-supported data management, enables a comparison of all the building parameters. Even in the private sector, there is now a growing demand for monitoring methods and tools. Refurbishment It is necessary to analyse the suitability of the building fabric for the intended use before drawing up a refurbishment concept. The building fabric itself often seriously restricts the range of options for conversion measures. Many technical concepts, e.g. thermoactive floor slabs, are difficult or impossible to realise because interventions in the loadbearing structure are associated with high costs. And special solutions often have to

be developed for the integration of new technical services because the sizes of existing zones for services are mostly inadequate.

Building typologies Building typologies enable buildings to be allocated to different groups that differ in terms of their usage and hence their form. Differentiated requirements profiles can be derived from the function of a building. If we take other factors, e.g. the location and the legislative framework, into account, then the optimisation potential and concepts for the interior works and the interior climate can be prepared to suit the needs of comfort, energy-efficient operation and functional suitability. It is necessary to deal in detail with aspects such as plan layout, elevations, relationships between and dimensions of rooms, materials, internal climate, operation of systems, etc. to match the respective typology when developing the building concept and its infrastructure.

Concept

Construction

Building operation

Refurbishment

Interdisciplinary planning

Interdisciplinary realisation

Linear to interdisciplinary cooperation (degree of complexity)

Interdisciplinary planning and realisation

• Architect • Interior climate consultant • Specialist consultant

• Architect • Interior climate consultant • Specialist consultant

• Specialist competence • Facility management

• Architect • Interior climate consultant • Specialist consultant

Integral design • Calculations • Simulations • Formation of variants

Quality assurance and audits: Specification and bill of quantities • Materials (properties) • Connections, joints, junctions • Design • Building physics quality

Quality assurance and audits: Monitoring and optimisation of operations • Technical functions • User satisfaction • Building physics • Consumption monitoring • Adapting requirements

Integrated design • Comprehensive in situ analysis • Feasibility study • Calculations • Simulations • Formation of variants

Definition of quality management • Drafting of contract, definition of quality, energy and functional targets • Definition and timing of quality assurance measures (construction and operation phases)

Construction • Adherence to planning targets • Airtightness (blower door test) • IR thermography • Monitoring of construction moisture

Quality assurance and audits Quality management • Specifications and bills of quantities • Quality assurance during construction • Quality audits during final inspection • Monitoring after completion

Acceptance • Visual and functional tests • Documentation • IR thermography B 1.3

81

Concepts and building typologies

B 1.4

B 1.5

Studies of use-related characteristics such as the intensity and continuity of usage, hours of use day and night, level of occupancy, internal loads, daylight requirements, quality of lighting, acoustics, room temperature, air quality, fire protection, etc. can help when drawing up holistic approaches. But such studies show that there are no universal solutions. The different requirements result in tailored concepts for the total system of building plus interior works. Technical systems guarantee both the supply and disposal of media and substances, also the stabilisation of the interior climate with respect to the exterior climate and internal influences. The positions and forms of the interfaces are particularly important for the interior works, depending on the scale of the systems to be integrated. The very different flows of materials and substances such as heat, air, water, electricity and gas require very different systems for their transport and provision, which means that their technical integration has a very significant effect on the interior design. Usage and flexibility requirements are further factors critical for the integration of technical services. System integration synergies should therefore be included in the planning at an early stage. In order to achieve trouble-free and energy-efficient operation – according to the usage typology – we need concepts for the technical adaptation of the users but also concepts for the adaptiveness of the systems to suit the usage. The extent to which the outside climate can be perceived on the inside depends not only on the choice of technical services, but also on the facade design. The building envelope characterises a building’s contact and interaction with its environment. Depending on the type of building, it takes on a role varying from passive shielding to active functioning. In the form of a structure surrounding the building it can be used for the integration of systems, e.g. photovoltaic modules. In principle, we can distinguish between two main types of building: extroverted (Figs. B 1.7 and B1.8) and introverted (Figs. B 1.4 to B 1.6). Because of their usage, extroverted buildings have a closer relationship with their surroundings. In such instances the building envelope

is an interface that regulates the interchange between interior and exterior. The position of the building in its urban setting, its orientation and the outside climate, the course of the daily and annual weather fluctuations and the changing light conditions over the day are perceived visually within the building but, depending on the design concept, also have a noticeable effect on the interior climate. External influences depend on the orientation of the rooms, the design of the building, the area of glazing, the choice of sunshading, but also other measures such as daylight usage (see “Daylighting systems”, p. 47). In buildings with high internal loads (see “Internal heat sources”, p. 105), e.g. offices, schools, attention must be given to minimising external loads as well as reducing the heating requirement (see “Solar gains”, p. 105). Thermal mass influences the way the outside climate affects the interior. Users themselves can exert an influence on the interior climate by opening/closing windows and adjusting sunshades. Residential and office buildings, schools and sports centres are examples of extroverted buildings. Introverted buildings, on the other hand, screen off their interiors from the surroundings because their functions are orientated inwards. The proportion of transparent surfaces in the facade is low and this results in an interface that permits only a low level of exchange between interior and exterior climates. This is the case, for example, in buildings in which the interior climate does not meet the human comfort criteria. In warehouses and laboratories, for instance, it may be the perishable nature of the goods or strictly defined regulations that determine the interior climate conditions. Special conditions are usually necessary in museums, too, in order to preserve the works of art. And acoustics requirements characterise the interior design of concert halls and other venues. In addition, specific uses and special lighting concepts require an introverted building organisation. It is not possible for users to make individual adjustments to the interior climate situation. Systems in which the exterior climate influences the interior one, e.g. thermal mass, daylight usage or natural ventilation, do not help to achieve the aims of the

Usage typologies

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B 1.6

building in these cases. On retail premises, for example, daylight is excluded almost completely because it is purely the visibility of the display windows on the ground floor that characterise the external design of the building envelope. The fact that such buildings are used mainly during the hours of daylight is hardly relevant when considering the optimisation of the energy efficiency of the premises. User adaptiveness and comfort in buildings to DIN EN 15251

People have different relationships with the buildings in which they find themselves. For instance, they may be the owners or tenants of buildings and rooms, or use these over a longer period of time, e.g. offices. In the first place, the nature and scope of the personalisation of and the identification with a building depend on the duration and intensity, or rather frequency, of the usage. Many everyday activities, however, are performed in buildings and rooms where the formation of a particular relationship is unlikely. Such premises include services buildings or cultural, educational and congress facilities in which the number of people using those buildings is very high and variable. Visitors, customers or occasional users have absolutely no influence on the design of the environment. The interior climate requirements and the systems required in buildings with centralised control are therefore substantially different to those where individual adjustments are possible. In principle, we assume that people feel more comfortable in rooms in which they have the chance to adjust the interior climate themselves, e.g. by opening/closing a window, opening/ closing an individual sunshade or adjusting the thermostat on a radiator. Individual controllability, however, depends on the number of people in the room; with a high number of occupants, each individual can exert only a limited influence because it is not possible to take every person’s requirements into account. If the ambient climate corresponds to the expectations of the user because he or she has an influence on it, then it is more likely that, for example, higher temperatures will be tolerated in summer. On the other hand, people’s expectations with respect to temperature and other comfort aspects such as air

Concepts and building typologies

Prada Shop, New York (USA), 2001; OMA “Parco della Musica” auditorium , Rome (I); Renzo Piano Building Workshop B 1.6 BMW Museum, Munich (D), 2008; Atelier Bruckner B 1.7 Housing, Ljubljana (SVN), Sadar Vuga Arhitekti B 1.8 Grammar school, Markt Indersdorf (D), 2002; Allmann Sattler Wappner B 1.9 Interior climate categories to DIN EN 15251; interior climate input parameters for designing and evaluating the energy efficiency of interior air quality, temperature, light and acoustics in the building B 1.10 Comparison of comfort zones for the operative temperature during the cooling and heating periods for sedentary office activities to DIN EN 15251 for buildings with and without mechanical cooling according to categories I – IV of the adaptive or static comfort model. B 1.8

is specified in relation to the weekly running mean outdoor temperature (Fig. B 1.10). If this value rises, e.g. during extended periods of hot weather, the upper limit value for the operative interior temperature also rises. The following adaptive requirements must be satisfied in order to design buildings according to the criteria of the adaptive comfort model and assess them with respect to the interior climate:

Greater reliance must be placed on passive building components, e.g. sunshades (see “Sunshading”, p. 48), when the adaptive comfort model is used, and the area of glazing and the availability of thermal mass must be optimised so that the risk of overheating in the building is minimised. By specifying recommended values, e.g. temperature limits, at the planning stage, the use of the adaptive comfort model can have an effect on the overall energy efficiency of the building. The standard also includes design criteria for sizing systems and lays down parameters that can be entered into the building energy calculations and the long-term evaluation of the interior climate. Different categories (Fig. B 1.9) take into account users’ expectations and therefore can be applied to refurbishment and new-built projects.

Category

Description

I

High level of expectation and is recommended for spaces occupied by very sensitive and fragile persons with special requirements like handicapped, sick, very young children and elderly persons.

IV

An acceptable, moderate level of expectation and may be used for existing buildings. Values outside the criteria for the above categories. This category should only be accepted for a limited part of the year.

Note: Categories are also used in other standards, e.g. EN 13779, EN ISO 7730; however, these may be designated differently (A, B, C… or 1, 2, 3… etc.).

32

Category II Building without heating in operation and cooling (adaptive comfort model)

31

Category I

30 Building with mechanical heating and cooling (static comfort model)

29 28 27

III

26

Category II Category I

II

25

Summer cooling period

I

24 23

Category II

Winter heating period

22 21

I

Category I

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II

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Category III

18 -5

0

5

10

15

20

25

Max. value during cooling period in °C

III

Normal level of expectation and should be used for new buildings and renovations.

Category III

33

Min. value for heating period [°C]

II

• The rooms must have opening windows that are readily accessible to users and easy to operate. • Where mechanical ventilation is installed, priority must still be given to using natural ventilation for regulating the interior climate and there should be no mechanical cooling of the incoming fresh air. • Other measures for the mechanical cooling of the rooms are not permissible. • It must be possible to use low-energy supplementary measures for regulating the internal temperature, e.g. night-time ventilation or fans. • The method is used for those months of the year in which the heating system is not in operation. • Users who perform sedentary activities must be able to adjust the interior climate to suit their level of clothing.

Upper limit value in °C

B 1.7

quality, etc. are considerably higher in rooms in cooled and mechanically ventilated buildings without individual controls (see “Standardised comfort”, p. 43). The implementation of DIN EN 15251 “Indoor environmental input parameters for design and assessment of energy performance of buildings addressing indoor air quality, thermal environment, lighting and acoustics” includes the idea of user adaptiveness as a design parameter for the first time, allowing this aspect to be incorporated in the planning of the building. Accordingly, this standard distinguishes between buildings with mechanical heating and cooling (static comfort model) and those without (adaptive comfort model). Minimum and maximum values for the indoor operative temperatures during the heating and cooling periods (Fig. B 1.10) have been specified for the thermal comfort in mechanically heated/ cooled buildings (static comfort model) according to various comfort categories (Fig. B 1.9). A new departure from the static comfort model is the definition of other limit values for the warmer months of the year for buildings without mechanical cooling systems (adaptive comfort model). This takes into account the fact that users have different expectations of an interior climate because they are given the opportunity to influence that climate and adjust it to their needs. The permissible indoor operative temperature

Acceptable indoor operative temperature [°C]

B 1.4 B 1.5

30

Weekly running mean outdoor temperature [°C] B 1.9

B 1.10

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Flexibility

A flexible system can reduce the cost of construction, upkeep and refurbishment, also the extent to which users are affected by maintenance and repairs. An installation optimised with respect to flexibility must take into account the following five principles: • Centralised routing of services • Decoupling the service installations from the loadbearing structure • Permanent accessibility

• Space reserved for subsequent expansion • Appropriate voids for the subsequent installation of pipework Installations are generally systems of pipes, ducts and cables which distribute all kinds of supply and disposal services vertically and horizontally. Those services include electricity, heating, cooling, drinking water, hot water, waste water, process water, gas and mechanical ventilation plus data, audio, video and control lines. Extra space for later additions and changes

should be available within the building to cope with growing technical requirements; flexible lines with a small cross-section, e.g. electric cables (see “Installation systems”, pp. 190 –191), are easier to deal with in this respect than water pipes, for example (see “Routing services in the interior”, pp. 202 – 203). The lifespans of service installations are normally shorter than those of the building fabric or loadbearing structure. Solutions that enable non-destructive replacement must be planned so that other components are not affected unnecessarily.

Hours of use per day [h/d]

Education

Sport

Office

Shopping

Event

16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Classroom

Lecture theatre

Sports hall

Loads, 1 – 6 workplaces

Open-plan office > 7 workplaces

Seminar and meeting

Without chilled products

With chilled products

Auditorium

Foyer

Stage

a

Internal heat loads (Wh/m²d)

Persons

Equipment

700 650 600 550 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 -50 -100 -150 -200 Classroom

Lecture theatre

Sports hall

Office, 1 – 6 workplaces

Open-plan office > 7 workplaces

Seminar and meeting

Without chilled products

With chilled products

Auditorium

Foyer

b

Annual hours of use [h]

Day

Night

3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 Classroom

c

84

Lecture theatre

Sports hall

Office, 1 – 6 workplaces

Open-plan office > 7 workplaces

Seminar and meeting

Without chilled products

With chilled products

Auditorium

Foyer

Stage

B 1.11

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B 1.12 Residential buildings

Human beings have always searched for or created sheltered spaces in order to protect them from the vagaries of the weather. And the desire for interior spaces and climates under our own control has always characterised the development of housing forms. The interior design is the almost ubiquitous personal mark, the witness to human creativity and the compulsion for development. But the degree of individuality of a housing form is also dependent on the resources available and the social position. Living accommodation takes different forms. We generally live in owner-occupied or rented apartments or houses for longer periods of time. But there are also forms of accommodation that are intended to be occupied for only a certain length of time, distinguished according to the nature of that occupancy; for example, the duration of our stay in a hotel depends on the circumstances, i.e. whether we are on holiday or on business. Another form of temporary accommodation is the residential home in which units are rented for several months or years. The period of use is closely associated with the duration of some activity, e.g. a course of study or a project. Nursing homes and similar establishments represent special forms of accommodation in which the living and caring functions are combined under one roof. Living accommodation must be suitable for many everyday activities – work as well as leisure. Sleeping, relaxing, cooking, eating, washing, working and playing and all the respective requirements regarding fitting-out, space and services often have to be organised within a very confined area. Usage The intensity of usage day and night in residential buildings, over the course of a week and the year, is the highest of any building type. However, the usage does fluctuate depending on age, family structure or circumstances. The frequency of changes of user is low compared with other types of building. The basic layout of the interior varies only marginally. And although the rooms must adapt to various lifestyles over the building’s life cycle, there is hardly any

B 1.13

demand for loose-fit interior layouts. Furthermore, the average size, quality and fitting-out standards are closely related to social developments. HVAC In housebuilding there is a very pronounced demand for the private sphere and self-determination. For those of us confronted with the outside world during the day, a private apartment or hotel room provides the chance to retreat and exert an individual influence on the interior climate. Heating The energy standards of future buildings will enable efficient heating of living areas, both by conventional systems such as pipes and radiators (with their associated high flow temperatures) and coil-type low-temperature heating systems that guarantee comfortable conditions. The choice of a suitable system should be based on the given location factors and energy supplies, but also with respect to the interior design. Thermoactive floor slabs are sluggish and their output is limited, but in residential buildings they guarantee a background temperature in both heating and cooling modes. Contrasting with this is the distinct human need for different temperatures in different rooms. But a coil-type system is hardly able to cope with the need for flexible, immediate adjustments in every room, responding spontaneously to the momentary activities or amount of clothing. One solution could be fast-response, switchable, local “hotspots”, e.g. in the form of light-giving radiant heaters in bathrooms, whose operating time is controlled and limited by time switches. Fast-response heating systems with individual control options for guests are advisable in buildings intended for short-term accommodation, e.g. hotels or hostels. From the energy efficiency viewpoint, buildings with fluctuating occupancy levels in particular benefit from systems that can be activated and deactivated centrally and provide guests with comfortable conditions as soon as they enter their rooms. On the other hand, in traditional apartment buildings it is possible to use programmable systems, e.g. usage-related controls for heating, and possibly ventilation, in every apartment.

Hot water Reducing the transmission losses by using lowenergy forms of construction means that the amount of energy necessary for providing hot water is becoming more important compared to the space heating requirements. Centralised hot-water provision must guarantee high temperatures all year round for reasons of convenience and hygiene. If low-temperature environmental thermal energy is to be used for heating, then supplementary systems will be necessary, e.g. a solar thermal installation or a two-stage heat pump. Another option is to provide decentralised fresh-water units that pump the water for space heating through a heat exchanger as required in order to heat up the cold drinking water, which reduces the flow temperature for hot-water supplies because it is not necessary to store any hot water. This also reduces the risk of legionella bacteria growth.

B 1.11

B 1.12 B 1.13

Knowledge of building physics relationships and energy flows and the corresponding usage profiles in a building are crucial when drawing up a concept. The usage profiles are summarised in pre-standard DIN V 18599-10. a Daily hours of use for various building types divided according to day and night b Annual total hours of use for various building types c Internal heat loads due to persons and equipment for various building types Daytime and night-time usage considered over the year: housing Private house, Vná (CH), 2007; Andreas Fuhrimann Gabrielle Hächler Architekten

85

Concepts and building typologies

Daylight Daylight and air are essential prerequisites in housing. In multi-storey apartment buildings, however, it is frequently not always possible to ensure that all rooms, e.g. bathrooms, are located on external walls. Even when extract systems guarantee adequate ventilation, such rooms tend to be very unpopular. Ventilation One important criterion with respect to hygiene and comfort in housing – in addition to heating, water and electricity – is the provision of fresh air (see “Fresh air”, p. 38). A relatively high build-up of moisture is inevitable in living accommodation and this can lead to uncomfortable conditions. Systematic ventilation is necessary to dissipate this moisture, but also in order to maintain the quality of the air. Ventilation through the windows requires discipline and frequently cannot be reliably guaranteed over the whole course of a day. Mechanical extract systems can be used to supplement the natural ventilation. A higher level of comfort by way of pretreated fresh air can be ensured by suitably designed and controllable supply and extract systems, which in conjunction with heat recovery also reduce the ventilation heat losses. Accommodating the relatively large duct crosssections required for both horizontal and vertical distribution presents the architect with a difficult

interior design problem; fire and acoustic requirements also have to be taken into account. In new buildings horizontal ducts can be positioned above suspended ceilings in corridors, for example, or integrated into built-in furniture or “boxed in”. The vertical routing via shafts must be taken into account in the plan layout within the housing unit and in multi-storey apartment buildings will have to be considered throughout the entire building. In energy-efficient buildings it would be possible to cover the diminished space heating requirement with small quantities of heated air from ventilation systems. Experience has shown, however, that warm-air systems require a high technical input and do not achieve a comfortable interior climate. Separating fresh-air supplies from the heat output systems enables the ventilation system to be operated without additional heating.

resent one potential answer. It is sometimes possible to retrofit low-temperature coil heating systems in walls or above ceilings. One important prerequisite for this is thermal improvements to the building envelope. Fire protection In Germany the building regulations of the federal states regulate the fire protection requirements of residential buildings. Additional fire safety measures are necessary when a residential building is in the form of a high-rise structure or is a special building according to cl. 2 para. 4 No. 1 of the Model Building Code (MBO).

B 1.14

Refurbishment More than 70 % of all apartments in Germany were built before 1979. And most of the buildings erected in the 1950s and 1960s are characterised by decentralised space heating and hot-water systems. The existing services zones are usually too small for new technical systems, e.g. ventilation ducts. For refurbishment projects involving occupied buildings, major interventions in the building fabric are therefore not possible, but systems fitted externally rep-

Apartment block a View of exterior b Plan layout faces in several directions c Interior climate concept (schematic) d Plan, scale 1:500 B 1.15 Noise control development a View of exterior b View of interior c Location plan, scale 1:2000 (road with heavy traffic results in high noise disturbance for building occupants) d Interior climate concept (schematic) B 1.16 Hotel a View of exterior b Bedroom, with untreated pine wall finish c Interior climate concept (schematic)

a

b

Apartment block Munich, 2007 Architects: Steidle & Partner Architekten Energy concept: Ingenieurbüro Hausladen, Kirchheim

‡ Heating concept: District heating Underfloor heating in living areas Additional radiators in bathrooms ‡ Ventilation concept: Centralised extract system with make-up air grilles incorporated into windows 1

Interior climate concept: The coil heating system is supplemented by radiators in the bathrooms to improve comfort. Plan layout concept: The three wings of the building are accessed by an internal corridor with natural lighting and ventilation. All apartments face in three compass directions. There are only a few rooms not on external walls.

1 2 3 3

c

86

2

d

Bathroom Living area District heating

B 1.14

Concepts and building typologies

Noise control development Munich, 2009 Architects: Léon Wohlhage Wernik Architekten, Berlin Acoustics consultant: Müller BBM, Planegg Energy concept: Ingenieurbüro Hausladen, Kirchheim

a

b

‡ Heating concept: District heating Radiators ‡ Ventilation concept: Centralised mechanical supply and extract system with heat recovery Interior climate concept: The supply and extract system improves the comfort in the living areas by raising the quality of the incoming air and protecting against the disturbing noise of this location.

4 4 c

d

a

b

District heating B 1.15

Biohotel Hohenbercha, 2006 Architects: Deppisch Architekten, Freising Energy concept: Ingenieurbüro Vogt + Partner, Freising Ingenieurbüro Cohrs, Freising

‡ Heating concept: Biomass power plant Coil heating in floors and walls Electricity requirements covered by photovoltaic installation

5

‡ Ventilation concept: Extract system with fresh-air elements in windows Interior climate concept: The temperatures in the sanitary zones in the hotel rooms are controlled by additional wall heating elements. The supply of heat and electricity to the hotel is mostly covered by renewable energy sources.

6

7

5 6 7 8 9

8

Photovoltaic installation Hotel bedroom Bathroom External access, unheated Group heating network supplied by biomass power plant

9

c

B 1.16

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Concepts and building typologies

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B 1.17

B 1.18

The architecture of school buildings often owes more to the social preferences of their architects, influenced by the fashions of the day, than to their actual purpose; the schools of the 19th century can be more like villas or palaces to look at. Placed in tidy rows, the pupils were to learn one thing above all others: sit still and memorise. Inspired by the demands of the German pedagogue Georg Kerschensteiner, whose vision was the replacement of the pure “book school” by the versatile “working school”, the architect Theodor Fischer, working in Munich, designed a new type of school around 1900. In his new design he incorporated rooms for manual and handicrafts activities as well as the traditional classrooms, also halls fur drawing and gymnastics plus a school kitchen. At the dawn of the modern movement, hygiene requirements became the focus of school architecture. In 1931 the Dutch architect Johannes Duiker designed an open-air school in Amsterdam, “a healthy school for the healthy child”. A dematerialised construction created open-air classrooms in which the children could soak up the sunshine and bathe in the light. Hans Sharoun incorporated the ideas of the open-air classroom in his school buildings of the 1950s. They form part of urban microorganisms, small school “towns” in which access is designed as a succession of “roads” and “squares” around which

the individual rooms are grouped, some of them in the form of pavilions. The idea of a school as a place for encounters can also be seen in the Amsterdam schools of Hermann Hertzberger built in the 1980s. The finely tuned zoning provides areas for encounters and withdrawal, also opportunities for group and individual work. Simple materials were chosen to withstand the physical activity and experimentation needs of children and youngsters. Schools in which the pupils remain all day have to serve additional functions. As places for disseminating knowledge, communication and personal development, they represent an important drive motor in our society. As a working environment and living space they become a piece of “home” for pupils and teachers. In order to achieve good concentration and performance capacities in the transfer of knowledge, comfort is an important aspect for pupils, students and teaching staff. It is for this reason that high comfort demands are placed on classrooms, especially with respect to lighting, fresh air and acoustics. This is precisely why we need holistic, user-friendly architecture and technology concepts. The interior climate has to satisfy high demands because of the specific type of use and this must be guaranteed right from the draft design phase. Many schools are the property of central or local government, which is why the presentation of an image – in contrast to office buildings – is not crucial for the building design.

Usage Whereas in the past in Germany schools were occupied for only half a day, the modern trend is towards whole-day schools. This means that facilities for pupils’ welfare and leisure needs have to be added to existing schools. Buildings for lessons are made up of various usage zones with different usage intensities and functional requirements. The usage structure on workdays is characterised over the entire year by the sequence of terms and holidays. The interior climate requirements can therefore be clearly assigned to certain periods of usage. The defined school term times thus enable the interior climate to be regulated to suit the needs.

B 1.19

B 1.20

B 1.21

Schools

88

HVAC Educational establishments generally contain many different rooms, each allocated a certain use, e.g. classrooms, seminar rooms, IT rooms, homework rooms, workshops, canteen, etc. Depending on the subject and number of pupils, school classes change their rooms according to their timetables. It is frequently not clear as to who is responsible for regulating heating and ventilation. Robust systems are therefore required here so that optimum interior climate conditions can be created without human intervention, but nevertheless with the option for adjustment. The interior layout usually remains unchanged over many years; flexibility in terms of organisa-

Concepts and building typologies

tion and usage of the interior is therefore of only secondary importance for the building. Consequently, technical services can make use of the floor, ceiling, facade and internal wall surfaces. Integrating heat output systems into internal walls presumes that all internal fittings, e.g. blackboards, notice boards, cupboards and also acoustic elements, are planned exactly. Light Looking and watching are vital elements in the learning process. The lighting concept must therefore be matched to the different visual tasks, e.g. reading and writing, teaching with multimedia or traditional resources. In addition, an adequate level of lighting is necessary for maintaining concentration. The aim of a school building optimised in terms of energy and climate should be the maximum use of daylight. An unobstructed view of the outside world from every point in the room aids concentration. Severe luminance contrasts in the direct field of view of the pupils should be avoided because it leads to glare. When the tables and chairs can be rearranged as required, care should be taken to ensure that all the pupils sit facing different directions with respect to the windows. Distracting shadows caused by strong direct light in the working area should be avoided. Room geometries and a plan layout designed to follow the long side of the building guarantee uniform illumination and a view out. For those hours during which there is insufficient daylight available, the artificial lighting concept should guarantee even illumination from all sides, but at the same time also reduce contrast, glare and undesirable reflections on blackboards or screens. The provision of occupancy sensors helps to cut the electricity requirements for artificial lighting. Blackout options should be provided for classrooms where multimedia presentations take place. Air The high number of pupils means that individual controls for all users according to DIN EN 15251 is not possible. Nevertheless, the principle of the adaptive comfort model should still be pursued in schools (see “User adaptiveness and comfort in buildings…”, pp. 82 – 83) because the conscious perception of the natural climate is an important experience, especially for children and youngsters. And the use of the adaptive comfort model is also important because the pupils spend many hours in their classrooms and are familiar with their conditions. In addition, they usually have the option of varying their clothing to suit the temperature. A number of studies have shown that the CO2 concentration in classrooms over the course of a school day frequently exceeds the recommended limit (see Fig. D 1.1, p. 174). An excessively high level of CO2 in a room leads to a drop in concentration and to tiredness, i.e. has a nega-

tive influence on performance. Natural ventilation through the windows is possible at locations where outside noise levels and pollution are acceptably low. The basic requirement for pure window ventilation is that the windows can be opened for purge ventilation. Such quick ventilation with doors and windows open wide before and after lessons plus controlled ventilation during lessons is necessary in order to guarantee an adequate air change rate. A “CO2 traffic light” installed in each classroom is a useful aid; as soon as the CO2 concentration reaches the limit value, the device emits a warning signal (Fig. B 1.24). Supplementing the natural ventilation concept with a low level of mechanical ventilation combines the advantages of an essentially natural interior climate with a high air quality. The constant and predictable occupancy levels plus the modular-type layout of the classrooms means that a centralised ventilation system can guarantee basic levels of ventilation, primarily during the winter months. Where large rooms for events in schools are in the form of atria or where a large volume of air is involved through the combination of several smaller rooms, then it may be possible to avoid the need for a mechanical ventilation system, provided the relevant legislation and guidelines are complied with and an exemption is granted by the authorities. It is often the case that such rooms are fully occupied only occasionally and so the capital outlay and cost of maintenance for mechanical ventilation is disproportionately high. Lecture theatres require a very high air change rate because of their higher occupancy levels and so a mechanical supply and extract system with heat recovery will normally be required. A CO2-based control enables the quantity of air to the adjusted to the actual requirement because the CO2 content of the interior air depends directly on the number of people present in the room. Natural ventilation through the windows is nevertheless still advisable as a supplement to the mechanical ventilation because in the case of a low occupancy level a quick replenishment of the interior air can be achieved during breaks and before large events.

B 1.17 B 1.18 B 1.19

B 1.20 B 1.21 B 1.22

B 1.23

B 1.24

Daytime and night-time usage considered over the year: schools Classroom, grammar school, Markt Indersdorf (D), 2002; Allmann Sattler Wappner Good acoustics within classrooms are important in schools, also the sound insulation between adjacent rooms and insulation against noise from outside. Library for doctorate candidates, Lausanne (CH), 2000; Devanthéry & Lamunière School kitchen, Splügen (CH), 2007; Corinna Menn Natural ventilation of a school auditorium based on the large volume of air; grammar school, Markt Indersdorf Uniform illumination of classrooms via continuous glazing, secondary school, Klaus (A), 2003; Dietrich & Untertrifaller Architekten “CO2 traffic light” for checking the quality of air in rooms

B 1.22

B 1.23

Heating The large numbers of persons in classrooms results in very high internal loads – comparable to those of offices, where equipment such as computers and printers are the main sources. The low level of technical services means it is possible to activate the thermal masses of walls, floors and ceilings for passive cooling measures. In order to avoid overheating of the rooms due to the high internal loads, an appropriate building concept must minimise the external loads during the summer months. Choosing the right proportion of windows and sunshading measures while still ensuring an adequate supply of daylight are important aspects here. Low-temperature systems such as thermoB 1.24

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Concepts and building typologies

a

b

c

active floor slabs and underfloor heating can also be used for cooling in summer and counteract the overheating effect due to the high occupancy rates. Environmental energy, e.g. in the form of groundwater, in conjunction with the potential of the location, can be used for heating and cooling. Another advantage of concealed systems is that they are less vulnerable to vandalism.

Fire protection Schools are classed as special buildings according to cl. 2 para. 4 No. 11 of the Model Building Code. The principal technical fire safety requirements for general and vocational schools are included in the Muster-Schulbau-Richtlinie (Model School Buildings Directive). It should be assumed that in the event of danger a large number of persons must be evacuated simultaneously. It must be possible to escape from every classroom via one of two independent routes to exits that lead directly to the outside or to protected staircases. One of the two escape routes may lead to the outside via external stairs without shafts, escape balconies, terraces and accessible roofs provided this route is not endangered in the event of a fire. It is also possible for one of the two escape routes to pass through a hall when this is equipped with smoke vents. The length of the escape route, measured as the distance of travel, may not exceed 35 m. As a distance of 60 m between internal fire walls is permitted (this deviates from the requirements of the building regulations), the plans should allow for about 12 classrooms each measuring 60 – 70 m2 and containing 30 pupils in one fire compartment.

protection concepts specific to the building plus measures to match the individual situation are necessary so that the level of safety necessary can be guaranteed. School buildings mostly belong to central or local government, which means that costeffectiveness is especially important. Stringent requirements are necessary for the organisation of the construction procedures and the execution of technical and building measures when the refurbishment work is carried out while the school is still in use. The primary aims are conservation of the existing fabric, comfort in the building and reducing the cost of upkeep, with one focus being the optimisation of the thermal building envelope. The level of technical services in existing schools is generally very low, i.e. increasing the level of services by adding a ventilation system, for example, may well require accompanying building measures because of the low ceiling heights and the lack of adequately sized zones for services. The integration of decentralised solutions or routing services in the external walls represent just two options. It is not generally possible to use low-temperature systems such as thermoactive floor slabs or underfloor heating in existing buildings, at least not at a reasonable cost. One option is to install wall and ceiling heating systems that can be mounted beneath the plaster. It is usually best to leave existing heat output systems, e.g. radiators, in place.

Acoustics Besides disturbances caused by noise from outside, the acoustic conditions within a room also play an important role. If the teacher’s words during a lesson are difficult to understand because of a high noise level, both staff and pupils quickly lose concentration. Rooms with lightweight, resonant components, e.g. made from wood, frequently do not require any additional acoustic measures. The materials of floors and chairs must be compatible with each other in order to prevent high noise levels caused by shifting chairs, for instance. Additional measures to improve the room acoustics may be necessary when a large amount of thermal mass needs to be activated in the classrooms for thermal reasons. Good room acoustics within the classrooms is very important, but just as significant is sound insulation between adjoining classrooms and between classrooms and corridors. It is also vital to limit noise from outside or from technical services, e.g. fans.

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Various room plan layouts for educational establishments a Small classrooms in nursery and primary schools, differentiated usage structure Persons: 20 Room size: 40 m2 Average int. loads: 45 W/m2 Air requirement: 20 ≈ 20 m3/h = 400 m3/h b Seminar rooms, standard classrooms for all types of school, standard and specialist subjects, less specialised rooms Persons: 30 Room size: 70 m2 Average int. loads: 55 W/m2 Air requirement: 30 ≈ 25 m3/h = 750 m3/h c Lecture theatres for tertiary education,

Refurbishment Many existing schools are currently undergoing refurbishment and modernisation. Owing to the often difficult technical fire safety situation, fire

B 1.26

B 1.27

universities lectures and specialist tuition Persons: 100 Room size: 115 m2 Average int. loads: 110 W/m2 Air requirement: 100 ≈ 25 m3/h = 2500 m3/h Aschheim Secondary School a View of exterior b Integration of acoustic panels and technical services in built-in wall cupboards; the internal walls are solid (activation of thermal mass) c Interior climate concept (schematic) for classroom Refurbishment of a primary school a Extract from plan showing building refurbishment concept b Interior climate concept (schematic)

B 1.25

Concepts and building typologies

Secondary school Aschheim, 2006 Architects: Bar Stadelmann Stöcker Architekten, Nuremberg Energy concept: Ingenieurbüro Hausladen, Kirchheim

a

b

‡ Heating concept: Groundwater heat pump (basic load) Gas-fired low-temperature boiler (peak load) Underfloor heating with individual room controls for heating and cooling ‡ Cooling concept: Temperature of underfloor heating controlled in summer by groundwater

2 3

1 2 3

1

‡ Ventilation concept: Natural ventilation to classrooms Supply and extract system with heat recovery for toilets, kitchen, physics room, etc. Technical services integration: Vertical routing of electrical, heating, water and waste-water services (wash-basins) in the built-in wall cupboards, also horizontal along the classrooms

4 5 4

Classroom Acoustic element Built-in wall cupboard for technical services Gas-fired low-temperature boiler Groundwater heat pump

5 c

B 1.26

Refurbishment of a primary school Waldmünchen, 2009 7 Architects: Hans Schranner and Matthias Reichenbach-Klinke, Adlkofen (concept) Schneider & Partner, Waldmünchen (realisation) Energy concept: Ingenieurbüro Hausladen, Kirchheim

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Heated zone Unheated buffer zone External thermal insulation Internal masonry Buffer zone in the form of a double-leaf facade

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a ‡ Heating concept: Gas-fired group heating network Heating in walls between rooms and corridors

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‡ Ventilation concept: Centralised mechanical ventilation with heat recovery for classrooms and leakage-air grilles to corridors Pretreated fresh air from ground coupling Natural ventilation to classrooms via facade cavity or penetrating ventilation elements without connection to double-leaf facade for surge ventilation Night-time ventilation via facade cavity protected from the weather

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Double-leaf facade with penetrating ventilation elements Classroom Corridor acting as unheated buffer zone Expelled air Heat recovery Gas-fired group heating network Ground coupling

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17 B 1.27

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B 1.28 Sports halls

Human beings need to balance their daily learning or working activities with leisure pursuits. An essentially static day in a school or workplace must be offset by sufficient healthy exercise. People play sport mainly in the form of a hobby, a leisure activity, which is why fun and relaxation are the most important factors. Uniform, non-glare lighting, moderate temperatures and an adequate supply of fresh air represent optimum conditions for indoor sports. The interior architecture of sports halls must also comply with certain rules in order to minimise the risk of injury and damage, e.g. caused by ball impacts. For example, floors must exhibit a certain elasticity and the enclosing walls must be lined with a shock-absorbent material, at least over the first 2 m. Up to that height at least, a sports hall should be designed in such a way that there are no edges or protrusions in the vicinity of openings and glazing. Sports centres are frequently integrated into school complexes. The compact volume of the sports hall results from the dimensions of the playing area and the necessary internal height. The associated ancillary areas, e.g. changing rooms, showers, equipment storage, occupy relatively little space and are frequently accommodated on several storeys adjacent to the volume of the hall itself. Larger school complexes often include large halls that can be divided into two

B 1.28 B 1.29 B 1.30

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B 1.29

or three areas as required so that more than one group or school class can use the facility simultaneously. Smaller communities in particular without their own venues or community centres of adequate size often use sports halls for social and cultural events, e.g. plays, concerts, dances, galas, etc. Such uses call for additional measures and ancillary rooms for storing chairs and stage elements. The easily marked sports floor surfaces must then be protected appropriately.

the opening mechanisms for the doors to equipment stores right up to controllable technical systems for sunshades, windows, heating and ventilation.

Usage During the day it is mainly schoolchildren who use the sports halls for their sports lessons, in the evening mostly sports clubs. Sports halls therefore exhibit a high utilisation intensity that fluctuates over the course of a year because of school holidays and the fact that some games and sports are played outdoors when the weather permits. However, even when the weather is good, the ancillary facilities such as changing rooms and showers are still used.

Light Sports activities place high demands on visual comfort. Even illumination, freedom from glare and the surface characteristics of the materials are critical factors for the interior design. A uniform level of daylight over the entire width of the hall can generally be achieved by providing a strip of high-level windows along the side of the building, which also provides a link with the outside world. Windows on both sides or additional rooflights will be necessary if the great depth of the interior space is be properly illuminated with daylight and the artificial lighting requirement is to be minimised. Optimum use of daylight or artificial lighting calls for light-coloured surfaces which, however, should have a matt finish so that users are not distracted by glare or reflections.

HVAC Sports activities, primarily ball games, require robust surfaces and fitting-out systems. Those systems must be used by many different users and so must be easily and quickly operated without the need for any instruction – requirements that apply to functional facilities such as

Heating The proportion of windows in the facade can reach 60 % owing to the given volume and hence the low ratio between wall and plan areas. Safety reasons dictate that the windows are usually more than 2 m above floor level, but a view out should still be possible despite the shadows,

a

b

Daytime and night-time usage considered over the year: sports halls School sports hall, Vienna (A), 2002; henke & schreieck Architekten Sports hall, Tübingen (D), 2005; Allmann Sattler Wappner Architekten a Use as sports hall b Use for a sporting event with retractable spectator seating Sports hall a View of exterior b View of interior c Interior climate concept (schematic) B 1.30

Concepts and building typologies

albeit with the main viewing direction from below. The use of suitable sunshades matching the orientation of the building is generally sufficient to protect this type of building against overheating without the need for conventional cooling systems. Owing to the large internal volume and the use of essentially lightweight forms of construction for the walls and roof, the attenuating effect of components with thermal mass is much lower in such buildings. This becomes apparent in the fact that the internal temperatures are much more dependent on the external temperatures as they change over the course of a day. However, this effect can be beneficial when the sports hall is being used on late summer evenings. Owing to the type of use and the volume of the interior, heat output systems with a high radiation component, e.g. underfloor heating, are advisable. Furthermore, such systems do not involve any risks of injuries to users and can also be operated with environmental energy. In contrast to other non-residential buildings, sports halls have a high hot-water requirement. Where it is not possible to connect to an existing hot-water supply network, it will be necessary to provide plant (and hence space) for heating and/or storing hot water. Solar thermal collectors represent a particularly efficient method of heating water. Combining these with low-temperature systems driven by

environmental energy is especially advisable because then the high temperature required does not have to be provided solely by a heat pump. Air During normal sports activities the level of occupancy is relatively low compared to other events. Owing to the large volume of air, the air change rate required is low and can usually be achieved with natural ventilation. Careful positioning of the windows can guarantee a flow of air through the hall. If not located on an external wall, ancillary facilities such as toilets, showers and changing rooms require supply and extract systems. If large events are frequently held in the sports hall or if the location, e.g. in inner-city areas, means that noise or waste gas emissions are a problem, then mechanical ventilation with heat recovery is a viable alternative. In this case the incoming fresh air can be introduced to suit requirements as displacement ventilation through outlets in the floor or at the base of the walls. The air from the hall can be extracted through make-up air grilles incorporated into doors or walls and routed via the access and ancillary zones or separately in ceilings and partitions. This type of building and the high ceiling height always permit the exposed routing of services at ceiling level.

Refurbishment Most sports halls have a cubic form and therefore an effective energy efficiency upgrade is achieved by optimising the thermal building envelope. It is usually possible to retrofit radiant ceiling panels in existing buildings. Although these require a high flow temperature, their output can be changed quickly and unlike conventional heating systems with radiators they do not represent a risk of injury for users. Following a thermal upgrade of the external walls, the ensuing warmer internal surfaces ensure that all the heat in the hall is emitted to hall users by way of radiation. Comfortable conditions can therefore be achieved with an interior air temperature that is on the whole lower. Fire protection Sports halls fall within the remit of the German Places of Assembly Act (Versammlungsstättenverordnung) (special building according to cl. 2 para. 4 No. 7a, Model Building Code) because the design rules assume two persons per square metre, which means that a total of more than 200 persons can congregate within the building. This classification can have an effect on the design and construction of wall and soffit linings plus the arrangement of escape routes. Compliance with other regulations, e.g. seating layouts, may also be necessary. Such uses must be verified and approved by means of a fire prevention concept.

Sports hall Riem, 2006 Architects: Glaser Architekten, Munich Energy concept: Ingenieurbüro Hausladen, Kirchheim

a

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‡ Heating concept: District heating Radiant ceiling panels ‡ Ventilation concept: Natural ventilation to sports hall Mechanical supply and extract system with heat recovery for ancillary areas

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Interior climate concept: The heating of the naturally ventilated sports hall by way of radiant ceiling panels enables the air temperature to be reduced while maintaining the operative room temperature but without decreasing the level of comfort.

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Changing WC Corridor Sports hall

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Equipment storage Radiant ceiling panels District heating B 1.31

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B 1.33

B 1.32 Office buildings

Buildings containing offices represent a form of construction that only appeared in the second half of the 19th century. At that time there was little difference between areas for office workers and areas for production – the desks were lined up in rows like on a conveyor belt. Louis Sullivan first developed his cellular office structure in 1896, a style that was popular in Germany up until the early 1960s. As a contrast to Sullivan’s “honeycombs in a beehive”, Mies van der Rohe designed spacious, bright, multifunctional open-plan offices in the 1920s which were intended to convey a clear organisational structure and economy. It was in the 1970s that this idea was further developed and the group space office appeared, where separate teams of workers were screened off from each other by door-high partitions. As adequate ventilation and lighting in large rooms always requires a high technical input, planners reduced the depth of such rooms again over the years. However, the problem of acoustic screening in the “sea of partitions” was never solved satisfactorily. During the 1980s human needs started to be considered again, with private areas becoming important, little “territories” where the individual was in control. The hybrid open/cellular office is an attempt to combine the privacy of the office cubicle with the easy communications of the open-plan layout. In this office form, the size of the individual office is minimised but each user can arrange the office to suit his needs, and windows, apart from providing a view out, permit individual regulation of ventilation and daylight. Areas and equipment required by the entire workforce, e.g. printers, archives, library, kitchenette, meeting rooms and teamwork stations, are placed further back within the building, together with access routes and circulation zones. Highlevel glazing breaks up the boundary between the “private” offices and the “public” common areas and at the same time ensures a basic level of daylighting throughout the building. The vision of the “nomadic office” emerged in the 1990s out of the fascination for information technology. Equipped with only a notebook computer, the user would be able to dock into any workstation. The desire for economic work-

94

spaces caused some workplaces to be immediately transferred to the home. The office is a place of inspiration, communication, ingenuity and concentrated work. A comfortable working environment is critical for the effectiveness of that work and therefore an important economic factor for a business. Human beings need comfortable conditions – with heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting and acoustics all playing a part – in order to be able to work efficiently in offices and meeting rooms. The return to the ambient physiological needs of human beings and the functional requirements placed on communication options within a team demand that modern office buildings both enhance the corporate image and provide a comfortable working environment. The level of equipment and technical services in office buildings not only depends on the nature of the activities and the use of the interior space, but also on the design brief of the client or investor and, if applicable, also the image that the business wishes to convey to the public. Specifying the fitting-out standard has a major influence on the degree of technology in office buildings and hence the internal technical systems. In office buildings with small-format interior layouts it is certainly possible to guarantee a comfortable interior climate without using active cooling measures, simply by means of natural ventilation and lighting. Whereas in the past the office landscape was dominated by static offices for one or two people, the changing world of work now requires a more flexible use of interior spaces. Flexible internal structures are now required in order to cope with fluctuating requirements regarding levels of occupancy and uses of rooms. Depending on the respective type of office layout, different consequences for ventilation, lighting, heating and, if necessary, cooling are the result, which in turn affects the technical services required and their integration.

Usage Office buildings are used regularly throughout the year, primarily on workdays and during the day. Patterns of usage and levels of occupancy are both constant and predictable. It is therefore possible to regulate the interior climate according to needs. Changing the level of technical equipment, e.g. computers, and the uses of the rooms call for adaptable building infrastructures and the interior fitting-out must therefore be able to respond flexibly to changes. Demountable fitting-out elements, e.g. lightweight partitions, and standardised workplaces enable good flexibility in terms of organisation and utilisation. Variable plan layouts for different types of organisation should therefore be considered at the planning stage as variants with respect to energy, media and data lines so that expensive technical and constructional modifications can be avoided in the event of changing usage requirements. Separating the building structure from the technical services results in better flexibility. HVAC and services integration The choice of HVAC systems depends on the prevailing potential of the location, the building concept and the technical fitting-out demands of the user. The surfaces of facades, spandrel panels, ceilings and floors are available for integrating building and technical services (see “Installing services in the ceiling void”, pp. 154 – 155; “Integrating HVAC items into raised access floors”, pp. 166 –167; “Fittings and installation”, pp. 187–191). Internal walls are less suitable because of the high demands regarding the flexibility of the plan layout. A coordinated plan layout is extremely important when coil heating/cooling systems are to be integrated into floors or ceilings. Heating and cooling Owing to their high internal loads, high temperatures can lead to uncomfortable conditions in office buildings in spring and autumn as well as summer. However, offices should be designed so that comfortable interior climate conditions can be achieved without energy-guzzling active cooling measures. The use of passive cooling

Concepts and building typologies

B 1.32

Daytime and night-time usage considered over the year: office buildings B 1.33 Office, Kempten (D), 2007; Maucher + Höss Architekten B 1.34 Open-plan office B 1.35 Open-plan office zone, workshops and office building, Friedberg (D), 2006; hiendl_schineis B 1.36 Suspended ceilings, acoustic panels and raised access floors decouple the thermal mass from the interior climate

systems presumes a specific and detailed optimisation of the building concept. In addition, the choice of type of office and plan layout influences the internal heat loads. Centralisation of the computer hardware reduces the equipment at computer workstations in office areas to the provision of monitors, which reduces the internal loads yet further. Offices are used during the day and so the thermal masses available help to stabilise the internal climate. They buffer peak loads during the day and solar gains only start raising the room temperature after a delay. However, raised access floors and suspended ceilings for concealing pipes and cables separate the effective thermal masses enclosing the interior spaces from the interior climate. Therefore, the routing of the services, the room acoustics and the furnishings and fittings must be taken into account in the interior design so that thermal masses remain available and can be activated if necessary. The constant, predictable patterns of use mean that coil heating/cooling systems are ideal for office buildings; their low temperatures and the use of environmental energy means they can be operated efficiently. These slow-acting systems integrated into components of the building, which heat in winter and cool in summer, enable maximum flexibility when subdividing the internal spaces. Control

B 1.34

B 1.35

of individual areas by users is then only possible by providing supplementary systems, e.g. radiators, radiant ceiling panels for heating/ cooling. Owing to the higher radiation output compared to activation of the building components, such systems can also cope with greater loads. When combined with natural ventilation, the output of a cooling ceiling is diminished because of the condensation problem. And the flexibility with regard to changes in the internal layout is limited compared with systems integrated into building components and thus not restricted to individual areas.

or small groups, meeting and seminar rooms, server rooms, laboratories, storage areas, canteen, etc. – give rise to diverse ventilation requirements. Concepts to suit requirements, e.g. with decentralised ventilation systems, can improve the energy efficiency of the ventilation by employing shorter duct lengths to minimise pressure losses, an effect that also helps to achieve a slower flow rate. The disadvantage, however, is that larger air ducts are required. Grouping together similar room types and zones can be beneficial.

Air The minimal depth and low occupancy levels in office cubicles for individuals and small groups enables natural ventilation through the windows. Brief uncomfortable conditions when the windows are open for ventilation are accepted by the users because they can influence the interior climate themselves. However, the quality of natural ventilation is very much dependent on the prevailing location factors. High exterior noise levels call for special measures if natural ventilation is not to disturb the acoustic comfort. Sound-attenuating window forms, e.g. double windows, can be used but the air change rate necessary for ventilating the offices must still be guaranteed. In certain cases the use of the room or the conditions at the location make it necessary to separate the internal climate from the external conditions. The use of mechanical ventilation results in almost complete independence from the outside world. In densely occupied office environments and in meeting rooms it is hardly possible for individuals to regulate the HVAC system to suit their personal preferences. If an agreeable interior climate is to be guaranteed for a large number of users and the high fresh-air requirement cannot be covered solely by window ventilation, mechanical ventilation is generally the only answer, although natural ventilation can still fulfil a supplementary function. The volume of air conveyed mechanically should be limited to the minimum required to provide the necessary amount of fresh air. The multitude of different internal functions in an office building – offices for one or two people

Light Visual comfort is vital to improving concentration, especially in rooms occupied by people during the day. Optimising the use of daylight and at the same time reducing solar gains in summer are critical factors for office buildings. The level of daylight within the building is increased by an appropriate facade design and plan layout, also the careful selection of materials and colours for the interior. The use of the room and its geometry also have a considerable influence on the potential for using daylight and in turn the ensuing artificial lighting requirement. In principle, a low room depth in offices for individuals and small groups is advantageous for good natural lighting. But in open-plan offices the potential for using daylight is diminished and supplementary artificial lighting is always necessary. That in turn increases the internal loads and hence the associated cooling requirement. Acoustics The integration of thermal mass into the energy concept often conflicts with the need to provide sound-attenuating and acoustic elements. These limit the effectiveness of ceiling-mounted acoustic systems and should therefore not be used throughout the building. Sound-absorbing elements, e.g. baffles, represent one option for improving the room acoustics. The way in which such elements are mounted has hardly any effect on heat transmission because the contact between the thermally active mass and the interior climate is preserved. Such elements do, however, have a considerable effect on the interior design. Radiant ceiling panels can also be designed in the form of acoustic elements.

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Concepts and building typologies

Fire protection The interior design of office buildings is governed by the requirements of each federal state’s building regulations, but also other building legislation covering the construction and operation of high-rise buildings, places of assembly, etc. Office buildings frequently include conference areas, lecture theatres, prestigious entrance lobbies, cafés, etc. The dimensions of these areas often mean that they can be used for events. And if those fall within the remit of the German Places of Assembly Act, then the wall and soffit linings, the dimensions of escape routes and also the interior fitting-out must satisfy precise requirements, and further stipulations such as seating, escape route and fire brigade plans will also be necessary. One particular design aspect for office buildings is the routing and construction of escape routes. Where approx. 25 – 30 persons simultaneously use office units whose gross floor area is < 400 m2, then the rescue equipment of the fire brigade can be regarded as the second, alternative escape route. As office buildings in particular can vary considerably in terms of structure, usage and architecture, technical fire safety measures should be incorporated into the draft design in the form of a fire protection concept.

Persons

Equipment

Refurbishment The trend in office buildings is towards providing a natural interior climate with plenty of options for users to adjust the conditions. Ventilation systems are no longer used to ensure full air conditioning, but instead to guarantee a supply of fresh air where adequate natural ventilation is impossible or undesirable. Heating and cooling requirements are covered by additional systems. In existing buildings with low ceiling heights is often not possible to install services overhead. The thermal masses available that help to stabilise the interior climate can be exposed but their surface finishes frequently do not satisfy aesthetic requirements. Phase change materials (see “PCMs”, pp. 181 – 182) in components such as walls or ceilings can provide additional thermal mass. It is not usually possible to integrate low-temperature systems, e.g. thermoactive floor slabs, into existing buildings, or at least not without excessive intervention and high costs. Conventional systems such as radiators or radiant ceiling panels for heating/cooling are generally more suitable. A thermally optimised building envelope reduces the heating requirement so that in winter in particular more comfortable conditions can be easily achieved. In some circumstances all that is

Lighting

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Electrical installation

trunking in spandrel panels and below corridor floors

trunking in spandrel panels and below corridor floors, raised access floors

trunking in spandrel panels and below corridor floors, raised access floors

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via windows, mechanical ventilation if necessary

via windows, mechanical ventilation if necessary

normally mechanical ventilation

Workplace illumination

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daylight supplemented by artificial lighting

mainly artificial lighting in areas distant from windows

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needed in order to obviate the need for conventional cooling methods in summer is to provide better sunshades and reduce the proportion of glazing in the facade. Where a ventilation system already exists, reducing the flow rate to the minimum required for hygiene reasons can save further energy by reducing pressure losses. As many office buildings dating from the 1960s to the 1980s are fully air-conditioned, the problem of insufficient space for modern technology is not usually an issue.

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Internal loads for various types of office Room and fitting-out parameters for various types of office B 1.39 Various types of office a Cellular office b – c Office for two persons d Hybrid open/cellular office (cubicles combined with multi-functional common zones) e Open-plan office B 1.40 Town hall a View of exterior b View of interior c Interior climate concept (schematic) for office B 1.41 Office building a Atrium b View of hybrid open/cellular office from corridor c Interior climate concept (schematic) for individual office

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Town hall Feldkirchen, 2005 Architects: Miroslav Volf, Cologne Technical services concept: Ingenieurbüro Hausladen, Kirchheim

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‡ Heating concept: Groundwater heat pump, condensing boiler Underfloor heating (council chamber, library, conference room, foyer) Thermoactive floor slab (offices) ‡ Cooling concept: Temperature of underfloor heating controlled by groundwater in summer

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‡ Ventilation concept: Natural regulation to offices through opaque ventilation elements Mechanical ventilation with heat recovery in council chamber, library, conference room and foyer

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Technical services integration: Radiators, electric cables and data lines integrated into spandrel panels in offices

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Office Acoustic element Duct in spandrel panel Groundwater heat pump for heating Use of groundwater for cooling thermoactive floor slabs Gas-fired condensing boiler

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Office building Gilching, 2007 Architects: BARTHARCHITEKTEN, Gauting Technical services concept: Ingenieurbüro Hausladen, Kirchheim (see also p. 184)

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‡ Cooling concept: • Cooling in summer from groundwater by means of ventilation, underfloor heating, cooling ceiling and thermoactive floor slab ‡ Ventilation concept: • Natural ventilation to small office units • Fresh-air supply to internal meeting rooms through slotted channels in suspended ceiling • Displacement ventilation outlets in open-plan offices • Ventilation with partial cooling and heat recovery

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B 1.42 Museums

The rise of the middle classes saw the founding of arts societies in many towns and cities in the early 19th century; their aim was the collection and presentation of works of art. Museums were set up and that established the museum as a cultural form in the context of architecture. The International Council of Museums (ICOM) defines a museum as “a non-profit making permanent institution in the service of society and of its development, open to the public, which acquires, conserves, researches, communicates and exhibits, for purposes of study, education and enjoyment, the tangible and intangible evidence of people and their environment” [1]. The quadriga of traditional museum work is hence the collection, study, presentation and preservation of cultural artefacts. Among architects, a commission to design a new museum is regarded as a prominent and highly demanding challenge. New museums are prestigious projects accompanied by much discussion and plenty of public attention. But in addition to the architectural aspects, the safe, sustainable and successful operation of the building requires well-conceived functional procedures plus sensible concepts covering security, the stability of the interior climate, shading and lighting, fire protection, visitor comfort and convenience, presentation of exhibits, access for disabled persons, storage and deliveries.

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Daytime and night-time usage considered over the year: museums “Kolumba”, Cologne (D), 2007; Peter Zumthor Brandhorst Museum a View of exterior b Exhibition room c Daylighting and interior climate concept (schematic)

B 1.43

Usage The construction and operation of a museum must satisfy two principal requirements. Firstly, the interior architecture, spatial effect, lighting and acoustics of a museum should guarantee a high degree of comfort for visitors and staff. Secondly, a museum must satisfy the requirements of preventive conservation, i.e. the building should preserve and protect the collections stored and exhibited there. And this means a holistic approach is required that extends from the maintenance of the building to the handling of the exhibits and the regulation of interior climate and lighting. Ideally, all the aspects of the building should be in harmony with the presentation of the collections so that an aesthetic overall effect of architecture and the communication of art ensues. Visitor comfort and convenience is required seven days a week, 8 to 12 hours a day, but preventive conservation must be guaranteed all day, every day. And this aspect must be accorded full attention in the planning or refurbishment of a museum. HVAC Preventive measures for preserving the collections are necessary not only from the conservation viewpoint, but also for reasons of economics. Systematic research and development of suitable methods and technologies for preventive conservation are currently being carried out for many areas – the aim being the development of long-term management.

serve merely as a guide, and a more differentiated approach has been employed since the early 1990s. On the one hand, the various materials of the exhibits must be considered individually, but on the other, the various climate zones must be taken into account. A new approach to internal conditions is the trend towards a climate that changes gradually with the seasons, where the fluctuations are accepted, because damage only occurs with brief climatic changes. The fact that cultural artefacts have survived centuries of storage shows that this concept works. However, building physics deficits in the building concept itself are certainly out of the question if the museum is to manage without elaborate air-conditioning systems. For reasons of energy efficiency and economy as well, full air-conditioning is certainly not the answer in the long-term. Extensive technical services involve short life cycles as well as disproportionately high investment, operating and maintenance costs. These days there are much more energy-efficient ways of establishing an interior climate that promotes conservation reliably without air recirculation and high air change rates. For example, air change rates can be considerably reduced, the specific heat capacity of walls and suspended floors increased, climate zones designed depending on type of usage, and heating and cooling achieved through activation of the building components. Geothermal energy, photovoltaics or ground couplings can also be employed in museum projects (see “Energy conversion”, pp. 113 – 115).

Relative humidity and temperature The most important parameters in preventive conservation are the relative humidity and temperature of the air. Much of the work – and much of the budget – is devoted to maintaining international standards. Organisations such as ICOM, ICROM-CC and the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating & Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) have defined recommended values for internal climate conditions in their publications. Since then, almost all museums and galleries have been trying to comply with those recommendations by using very complicated and expensive plant-based solutions. However, none of the values are binding, they

Light The lighting design for a new museum is one of the most important issues alongside security, interior climate and plan layout. The aim here is to establish solutions that prevent daylight from damaging exhibits but at the same time to allow them to be adequately presented. All the materials used for works of art react differently to light – but dyes differently to pigments, wood differently to paper or textiles. The situation is the same with humidity and temperature. Daylighting and artificial lighting concepts for museums are increasingly being considered from several viewpoints. Visitors must be able to view the exhibits under conditions that provide

Concepts and building typologies

minimum brightness, good contrast and no glare but at the same comply with the conservation recommendations regarding the longterm treatment of the exhibits. Furthermore, the incoming daylight should underscore the architecture, highlight the interior design and also reduce the level of artificial lighting required. Another aspect to be considered is the specific channelling of daylight into darker areas of the interior. Recommended values for lighting were first laid down in the 1950s and 1960s and since then have been updated on several occasions. The recommended maximum value for paintings and mixed collections is 150 lx, for drawings and textiles 50 lx; brighter lighting is possible if the duration of illumination is shortened. An optimised lighting concept should not only prevent fading, but also define the distribution of brightness, the colour rendering, the limits to glare, the lighting direction, the casting of shadows and the level of illuminance. Depending on the nature of the collections and the way in which they are presented, the technical infrastructure for the lighting may well need to be designed to be flexible so that it can be modified to suit different exhibits, different exhibitions. Finally, the lighting design must take into account the service lives of the lighting systems and the maintenance costs.

Safety and security The security of exhibits in museums, galleries and storage facilities is a key topic. Theft and burglary are traditionally given the most consideration. However, in terms of global statistics, fire and especially the phenomena associated with fire – smoke, soot, extinguishing water – result in much greater losses. Particles of soot are in the order of magnitude of 0.1 μm to 1 mm in size and can easily infiltrate other rooms via air ducts or door grilles. The hydrochloric acid gas released when plastics burn forms a cloud of caustic hydrochloric acid in conjunction with the moisture in the air. And the foam and powder extinguishing agents used by the fire-fighters can also cause virtually irreparable damage to exhibits. When selecting a fire detection system for a museum, a distinction must be made between public exhibition areas and functional ancillary areas. Air-sampling smoke detector systems are being used more and more for exhibition rooms with very high safety requirements. Such detectors suck in air and check it for even the tiniest trace of smoke. Safety and security measures are indispensable when a major part of a collection is concentrated in one place in a storage facility. The biggest danger here is a fire caused by a short-circuit. In order to exclude this risk from the very out-

set, a special system reduces the oxygen content to 15 %, which is enough to prevent a fire starting in the first place. The costs and benefits of all electronic and mechanical safety and security measures deemed necessary must be weighed up, and they must be incorporated into an overall safety and security concept and sensible access management. Only in this way is it possible to achieve maximum safety and security for storage depots and museums while taking into account the constraints of the budget. The four pillars of a safety and security concept for museums are:

a

b

• • • •

Fire detection system Intruder detection system Access management Video surveillance

References [1] ICOM code of ethics for museums. Paris, 2006, p. 14.

Brandhorst Museum Munich, 2009 Architects: Sauberbruch Hutton, Berlin Technical services: Ingenieurbüro für Versorgungstechnik Kuder, Flein Conservation consultant: Doerner Institute

‡ Heating concept: Groundwater heat pump Building component activation in floors and walls Reduced air conditioning

1

‡ Cooling concept: Compression-type refrigeration unit Cooling by incoming air and coil systems ‡ Ventilation concept: Mechanical ventilation with careful particle/pollutant filtering and moisture regulation Displacement ventilation outlets along the walls ‡ Lighting concept: Lighting ceiling for distributing the diffuse daylight and artificial lighting with light control elements for regulating the incident light Daylight redirection by reflectors Natural lighting of individual exhibition areas

1

2

3 c

4

1 2 3

1

4

Exhibition room Plant room Heat pump using waste heat from the return flow of the airconditioning plant in the “Pinakothek der Moderne” Museum Compression-type refrigeration unit B 1.44

99

Location factors Friedemann Jung

B 2.1

The external circumstances that have an effect on the building vary from place to place, also over the course of a day, the whole year (Fig. B 2.2). Local influences are superimposed on the large-scale climatic conditions. The most important factors to which a building is exposed are solar radiation, the humidity and temperature of the outside air, wind, the subsoil and the urban integration. The factors critical for the relationships at any location are in the first place the large-scale ones, such as the geographical position on the planet, which determines the solar altitude angle and the solar irradiation, and the proximity to oceans or mountains (macroclimate). The factors on a somewhat smaller scale are, for example, whether the site is on an island or slope, in an inner-city area or extensive forest. In this context we speak of urban climate, rural climate or mesoclimate. The smallest unit is the microclimate, which describes the direct, local factors at a particular location. The influencing variables here are the subsoil properties and vegetation, shadows cast by neighbouring buildings or other local circumstances such as a large lake, extensive hardstandings or inner-city parks. Solar radiation

B 2.1 Shelter in Norway B 2.2 A comparison of the wind speeds, temperatures (‡), absolute humidities (‡), global irradiation levels (‡) and geographical positions of three cities a Munich b Naples c Singapore

100

The climate of the earth is governed by the sun, which provides us with a continuous supply of energy in the form of radiation. The total amount of radiation incident on the earth’s surface is designated global irradiation. This is made up of direct radiation (i.e. radiation arriving directly from the sun) plus diffuse radiation (i.e. radiation that is scattered as it passes through the atmosphere). In Europe the average global irradiation on a horizontal surface varies between 850 and 1800 kWh/m2a depending on the region (Fig. B 2.3, p. 102), in Germany between 900 and 1200 kWh/m2a. The incident solar radiation varies depending on the position on the earth, season and time of day. Different facade orientations lead to very different irradiation values over the course of the day. When the temperature outside is cold, the sun can represent an additional, passive source of heat. The conversion of solar radiation into heat directly at the building without the use

of any specific technical facilities represents the passive use of solar energy, so-called solar gains. The building envelope acts as a collector, the structure as a thermal mass. The underlying principle here is the photothermal effect: every object absorbs solar radiation and converts this into heat radiation. When combined with the principle of the greenhouse effect, heat gains can be achieved in buildings because whereas glass allows the penetration of shortwave sunlight, that same glass prevents longwave infrared (heat) radiation from escaping back into the atmosphere. Factors that influence the amount of passive solar gains and their distribution over the course of a day are the settlement structure and surroundings, shadows, orientation and form of building, roof form, the materials of the building envelope, internal thermal masses and the proportion and type of glazing in the facade. Generally, passive solar gains should reach their maximum values in winter and minimum values in summer. This is easiest to achieve on south-facing facades. In summer, with the sun high in the sky, little solar radiation enters the building, but in winter, with the sun low in the sky and when the need is greatest, more solar energy can be captured. It is rooms facing west that are most likely to experience overheating problems in summer because it is here that very high solar irradiation values and high temperatures coincide during the afternoon. The areas of glazing should be reduced here and a good sunshading system installed. Turning to the interior works, the layout of the rooms can have a considerable influence on optimising passive solar gains. The requirements can vary considerably depending on the type of use and circumstances. In residential buildings it is often best to place habitable rooms requiring higher temperatures on the south side but ancillary rooms and buffer zones, which require lower temperatures, on the north side. However, the opposite approach is usually more desirable for office buildings because the internal heat loads play a greater role and can lead to overheating in summer (Fig. B 2.4, see also “Office buildings”, pp. 94 – 97).

Location factors

a Munich 48° 9' N, 11° 35' E,~520 m above sea level

b Naples 40° 50' N, 14° 15' E, 0 – 17 m above sea level

N NW

N

NW

NE

W

NW

NE

W

E

W

E

2.5

3.0

3.0

3.0

3.5

3.5

3.5

4.0

4.0

4.0

4.5

SW

SE

5.0

5.5 m/s

5.5 m/s

5.5 m/s

S

S

S °C 40

30

30

30

20

20

20

10

10

10

0

0

0

-10

-10

-10

Apr

May Jun

Jul

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May Jun

Jul

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

g/m³

g/m³

g/m³

20

20

20

16

16

16

12

12

12

8

8

8

4

4

4

0

0 Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May Jun

Jul

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May Jun

Jul

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

0

Dec

W/m² 1200

W/m² 1200

W/m² 1200

1000

1000

1000

800

800

800

600

600

600

400

400

400

200

200

200

0 Feb

Mar

Apr

May Jun

Jul

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May Jun

Jul

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May Jun

Jul

Aug

Aug

Sept

Sept

Oct

Oct

Nov

Dec

Nov

Dec

0

0 Jan

SE

5.0

°C 40

Mar

4.5

SW

SE

°C 40

Feb

E

2.5

5.0

Jan

NE

2.5

4.5

SW

c Singapore 1° 17' N, 103° 50' E, 0 – 176 m above sea level

N

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May Jun

Jul

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

B 2.2

101

Location factors

Outside temperature

The temperature of the outside air depends on the solar irradiation, the degree of absorption of the surfaces exposed to that irradiation and the large-scale inflow of air masses. During winter, cold external temperatures lead to ventilation and transmission heat losses. When the outside temperature drops below about 0 °C, the chance of admitting fresh air via the windows while still maintaining a good level of thermal comfort is limited because of the risk of draughts (see “Air circulation in the interior”, p. 37). During summer, high outside temperatures affect the cooling potential and therefore can lead to additional heat gains if windows are opened to ventilate the interior directly. The outside temperatures fluctuate depending on climate zone, location, season and time of day. Where the difference between daytime and night-time temperatures is considerable, solid building components store heat during the day and then release this again during the night. The temperature at night should drop below 20 °C in order to achieve an appreciable cooling effect. The building must be fitted with openings protected from the weather which achieve a higher air change rate (up to six per hour) during the night and the thermal masses must remain exposed. A wind that blows continuously through the night helps to enhance the flow of air through the building. In this situation

the building should be placed transverse to the prevailing wind direction so that the pressure difference between the facades can be exploited to drive the night-time ventilation. At coastal sites the temperature fluctuations between night and day are usually only low because of the high specific heat capacity of the water. Humidity of the air

The outside air contains a certain proportion of water in the form of vapour. We distinguish here between relative and absolute humidity. The absolute humidity specifies the actual quantity of water vapour in the air in g/m3. It depends on the incoming air masses, the weather conditions and the time of year or time of day. Local factors such as the proximity to the coast or large lakes, or locations in floodplains can raise the absolute humidity of the air. The relative humidity specifies the percentage of the maximum possible quantity of water vapour (saturation humidity) the air really contains. The saturation humidity increases with the temperature because warm air can hold more water vapour than cold air. Human beings perceive air as humid and uncomfortable when the absolute humidity climbs above about 12 g/m3. In many regions of the world the absolute humidity of the outside air is frequently higher than this value. Dehumidification of the incoming fresh air is necessary in such

Wind

Different levels of solar irradiation cause different air pressure relationships in the atmosphere, depending on the characteristics of the earth’s surface. Air particles always flow from areas of high pressure to areas of lower pressure, flows which occur both near the ground and also at great altitudes. This wind can be exploited as a drive mechanism for natural ventilation concepts within a building. To do this, an exact analysis of the local wind conditions is necessary in order to establish the prevailing wind direction (Fig. B 2.2, p. 101), which like the wind speed depends on the topographical circumstances (e.g. valley or coastal site), the surrounding developments (e.g. high-rise building providing shelter from the wind) and the vegetation. Wind speeds increase considerably over large open areas such as the sea, large lakes or plains, and also increase over the height of a building. Mountains, vegetation

Global irradiance (W/m²)

< 1200 kWh / m2a

regions in order to achieve comfortable conditions indoors. In Europe, however, absolute humidity values are usually below this figure, which means that mechanical dehumidification is unnecessary. Good cross-ventilation in buildings can create comfortable conditions even on humid days. This is because the increased air velocities enable our bodies to release more heat into the surrounding air by way of convection (see “Humidity of the interior air”, p. 36).

> 1200 kWh / m2a > 1400 kWh / m2a > 1600 kWh / m2a > 1800 kWh / m2a > 2000 kWh / m2a > 2200 kWh / m2a

S 800 E

W

600 400 200 0 4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18 20

Hours of sunshine (h)

Global irradiance (W/m²)

a

E

800

W S

600 400 200 4

6

8

10

12

Global irradiance (W/m²)

b

B 2.3

102

14

16

18 20

Hours of sunshine (h)

S

800 600 E

400

W

200 4 c

6

8

10

12

14

16

18 20

Hours of sunshine (h) B 2.4

Location factors

Height above ground level [m]

Rural climate

500

100% 93%

100 % 93%

90%

80%

Urban climate

Rural climate

Prevailing wind direction 100%

400

Dust

Increased precipitation

Heating up 300 100%

93%

82%

72%

92%

85%

72%

59%

86% 82%

76% 58%

62% 40%

49% 23%

Open water α=0.1

Open ground α=0.16

Evaporation Fresh air

200

100

0 Forests, suburbs α =0.22

City centres α =0.35

Fresh air

Groundwater

B 2.5

or urban developments reduce the wind speed near ground level. Further, the geometry of a structure determines the nature and manner in which the wind flows around it. Areas of pressure and suction develop at the building and these can be used to drive natural flows of air through the building. Local air movements can also arise due to external influences. Thermal upslope and downslope currents often ensue in mountain valleys with different sunshine conditions on either side of the valley. Along the coast, the different specific heat capacities of the land mass and the sea result in an alternation of land and sea breezes over the course of a day. Mechanical ventilation concepts, too, should be designed so that the positions of supply- and extract-air openings match the wind conditions around the building. Extract-air openings, for example, should be located in areas where suction develops. External sunshades should be sufficiently stable so that they are not damaged by high winds or cause annoying rattling noises in windy weather. Geology

The subsoil beneath a building is not only responsible for supporting the building. It can also function as a potential supplier of energy. An accurate geological analysis is therefore recommended for every construction project (see “Ambient heat”, pp. 111–113). The temperature of the soil tracks the average temperature of the outside air but with a delay of about three months. As we go deeper into the ground, so the annual temperature fluctuations decrease and in Germany level off at an average annual temperature of about 10 °C below a depth of approx. 10 m. The temperature starts to rise again at depths of approx. 50 – 100 m and this thermal energy can be used for heating buildings. Installing a heat pump enables the subsoil to be used for heating in winter and cooling in summer. However, the relatively low temperature level of the soil means that a heat pump can only work efficiently when it is connected to a distributed heat output system (see “Coil heating", p. 176) in the rooms. The subsoil can therefore have a direct influence on the design of

B 2.6

the systems in the building and the individual rooms. Groundwater is particularly suitable as a renewable cooling medium because it is usually flowing and so the heat loads in the building can be dissipated very efficiently. Very damp subsoil strata represent ideal seasonal (i.e. long-term) thermal storage media because the water they contain has a high specific heat capacity. However, if using such strata for storage, it is important to make sure that this water does not flow. Sound

Passive and active sound insulation is especially important in locations exposed to noise, e.g. directly adjacent to major traffic routes (see “Acoustic comfort”, pp. 38 – 39). Disturbing noise can be avoided by locating habitable rooms on the side of the building facing away from the source of the noise. Facade concepts with double glazing (glass double facade, hybrid single/ double-leaf facade, double windows) are advantageous on the side facing the noise and always result in a deeper facade. This additional space available in the spandrel panels is ideal for integrating technical services (radiators, local ventilation units, etc.). Planting in front of the building can also help to reduce the effects of noise from outside.

the roughness and irregularity of the built environment breaks up and slows down the air flows near the ground (Fig. B 2.5). Long straight roads, however, can lead to a channelling effect and in some cases faster wind speeds. Up to 10 % more rain falls in urban areas because the higher concentration of dust offers more condensation nuclei for moist air. However, this precipitation is quickly removed from the area by the drainage networks, the consequence of which is that evaporation diminishes and the water table drops. Various sources of heat in the soil, e.g. heated basements or underground railways, raise the temperature of the groundwater, which in turn limits the possibility of using it for cooling buildings in summer. Additional areas of planting, e.g. green roofs, planting directly adjacent to facades, can improve the urban climate considerably because they bind dust, do not heat up so quickly, regulate the humidity and slow down the drainage of rainfall (Fig. B 2.6).

Urban climate

The climate in large conurbations is usually very different to that of the immediate environs. The extent of soil sealing in towns and cities encourages the build-up of heat because roads and structures absorb large amounts of solar radiation and industry, traffic and buildings create additional waste heat. The outcome of this is that external temperatures in inner-city areas can be up to 3 K higher than the surrounding districts. However, as buildings cast shadows on each other, the solar radiation values can be much lower in some cases. The quality of the air in urban settlements in valleys and bowls in particular is much poorer because the largescale cross-ventilation of the whole urban area is restricted. Wind speeds in towns and cities are also lower than those of the surrounding areas because

B 2.3 B 2.4

Average annual global irradiation in Europe Different irradiation values for facades a Spring/autumn b Summer c Winter B 2.5 Wind speeds in relation to roughness α of terrain and height above ground level B 2.6 Structure of the urban atmosphere plus principal dependencies within the system

103

Energy and buildings Elisabeth Endres, Michael Fischer, Friedemann Jung

B 3.1

Human beings only feel well and comfortable within a narrow range of external conditions. If the parameters of the factors that affect human beings lie outside that range, then our bodies have to use their own energy to compensate for the deficiencies. Uncomfortable surroundings can therefore limit the capabilities of human beings, indeed poor conditions can even make us ill. Only at a few places on the earth does the natural climate feel comfortable for human beings without any further measures – and then only for a limited time during the day, over a limited period of the year. A building is an enclosure that protects against adverse external conditions and should create a comfortable environment inside. If it cannot do this, additional technology is required, the use of which is always coupled with the consumption of energy – whether for heating, cooling, ventilation or lighting. The design of the building, and especially the facades, has a direct influence on its technical fitting-out and energy consumption. As the efficiency of the design increases, so the consumption of energy decreases. The weighting of the individual factors differs according to the building typology (Fig. B 3.5). The interior design freedoms of the planning team increase as the degree of technical equipment and transportation of energy supplies within the building diminish. The requirements of users and the circumstances in the building vary depending on the building’s usage and typology (see “Concepts and building typologies”, pp. 80 – 99).

Energy balance

B 3.1 B 3.2 B 3.3 B 3.4

B 3.5

104

Thermographic image of the facade to a residential building The principle of the energy flows in a building: gains and losses Overview of the energy requirements over the course of a year Interior temperatures that become established in conventional and low-energy buildings when the building is not heated Comparison of gains and losses in the building a Building stock b With good thermal insulation c In an optimised low-energy building

A set of very diverse energy flows becomes established in a building and these flows are always trying to achieve equilibrium between the internal and external circumstances (Fig. B 3.2). The most important of these are the heat flows through the external components (transmission QT) and the air flows to the outside through openings (QL). Also crucial for the energy balance is the energy consumption resulting from the use of the building: internal gains/loads QI. These quantities of energy depend to a very large extent on the behaviour of the building’s users – the designer can exert only a very limited influence.

Furthermore, solar radiation enters the building from outside through transparent areas in the facades. This solar radiation is primarily desirable because the interior needs to be supplied with daylight. But at the same time the solar radiation transports large quantities of thermal energy (QS) into the building. The energy flows are either welcome gains or unwelcome losses depending on the time of year and conditions outside. Balancing the gains and losses results in the residual energy that is necessary to create comfortable conditions within the building. Transmission QT

Transporting energy in the form of heat through the components of the building envelope is known as transmission. The greater the temperature difference between inside and outside, the greater is the drive mechanism for such heat flows. Good thermal insulation to the building envelope and the use of components with low thermal transmittance values (U-values) reduce these heat flows considerably and improve the interior comfort. In winter a well-insulated facade results in a much lower space heating requirement for the building. In summer that same facade prevents high temperatures on the inner surfaces of components exposed to direct sunlight. Ventilation heat losses QL

Openings in the facade provide a chance for a direct exchange between interior and exterior air. Such an exchange is crucial for ensuring good air quality within the building. But low outside temperatures in winter mean that heat is lost from the interior directly. And very high outside temperatures in summer allow hot air to enter the interior, which in some circumstances may then have to be cooled. Users can reduce ventilation heat losses through correct behaviour, e.g. opening windows wide for a short time only. The behaviour of users is, however, hardly possible to predict and therefore represents an unknown quantity in the calculation. Optimising the arrangement and geometry of opening lights makes it easier for users to ventilate their rooms “properly”. Mechanical ventilation enables the losses to be reduced compared to direct,

Energy and buildings

Heating

Temperature °C

Cooling

40

QT QS

Passive house Conventional building

40 30

QT

Temperature °C 50

30

Qi QL

20 20 10

QT Qi

0

10

QT

-10 QT

QH

0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

B 3.2

kWh/m 2 a

Solar radiation that enters a building is converted into heat by way of absorption. Although in winter this represents a desirable additional source of warmth, in summer it quickly becomes a further heat load that leads to overheating of the interior and a higher cooling energy requirement. The solar gains must therefore be controllable so that they can be adapted to the daily and seasonal requirements. This is best achieved by installing an efficient sunshading system on the outside of the facade and reducing the transparent areas in the facade to an acceptable minimum. In office buildings in particular it is advantageous when ample daylight can reach far into the interior in order to enable concentrated working and, in the end, efficient plan layouts. Efficient sunshades to glazed areas help to minimise the cooling loads in the summer. And with an additional daylight-channelling system, 200 QS

QS QL

QL

adequate daylight can be made available within the interior even with the sunshades closed (see “Daylighting systems”, p. 47). Internal heat sources Qi

Inside the building, people, technical equipment and artificial lighting all give off heat. The high occupancy levels and the great number of technical devices in office buildings in particular lead to high internal heat loads. The conditions are, however, relatively easy to calculate because the office users are present in certain numbers and at certain times. Internal heat sources in office buildings amount to approx. 25 W/m2. In housing such loads are very difficult to estimate but much less relevant for the overall energy balance of the building because both the number of occupants and the level of technical equipment are much lower. Heating requirement QH

This is the quantity of energy required to maintain comfortable temperatures in the building during the heating season. The calculation of this value is characterised by transmission and ventilation heat losses on the one side of the equation, solar gains and internal heat sources on the other. And the heating requirement for the provision of hot water must be added to this. In modern housing the use of high-quality insulating materials means that the ventilation heat losses and the energy required for provid200

Qi

Qi QL QT

QH

Housing

200

Office building

Housing b

100

Qi QL

QH QT

a

Cooling systems are being installed in more and more buildings in order to remove excess heat from interiors during the summer months. The energy needed to dissipate this heat is known as the cooling energy requirement. The calculation must take into account internal heat sources and solar gains. The latter can be cut considerably by reducing the area of glazing and installing efficient sunshading systems. Where the heat loads are very low it is also possible to dissipate the heat from the interior simply by opening the windows. A simple cooling system such as a thermoactive floor slab can be used to remove excess heat from rooms where heat loads up to approx. 30 W/m2 are expected. Such systems can be operated with comparatively low flow temperatures (e.g. 18 °C) based on natural sources such as groundwater or ground couplings (see “Ambient heat”, pp. 111–113). When the cooling loads exceed 30 W/m2, cooling systems with a higher performance will be necessary, which frequently entails a greater energy consumption.

QS QS

100

QH

Cooling energy requirement QC

Qi

100

QT

B 3.4

ing hot water are now much more significant than transmission heat losses. And in office buildings the heating requirement has been reduced to such an extent by well-insulated facades and efficient heat recovery that heating systems only need to be operated on a few days of the year.

kWh/m 2 a

Solar gains QS

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

B 3.3

kWh/m 2 a

uncontrolled natural ventilation because efficient heat recovery can be used. However, the installation of ventilation systems substantially increases the work required in the interior of a building. The vertical and horizontal zones required for such installations have an effect on the interior layout and the fittings and finishes of the individual rooms. In addition, the acceptance of such systems among users is much lower because of the severe restrictions on individual controllability and the view out.

-20

QL

QH

QS

QL

Qi

QT

QT Housing

Office building c

QH

QS Qi

QT

QH

Office building B 3.5

105

Energy and buildings

The stipulations for energy-efficient and sustainable buildings have a considerable effect on the design of the interior. But it is the building envelope, the interface between interior and exterior, that is influenced most significantly by building energy standards. Current classification systems for buildings which integrate a life cycle assessment (LCA) into the analysis, e.g. the certification system of the German Sustainable Building Council (DGNB), also focus on subjects such as deconstruction and conversion of the technical fitting-out. Careful design of the interfaces between the individual parts of the building such as loadbearing structure, facade and fitting-out elements while taking into account their different lifespans is fundamental in such analyses, demands an integrated planning process and at the same time can leave a distinctive mark on the interior design. Political targets

Germany’s national government adopted its energy and climate programme in August 2007 [1]. Themes such as reliability of supplies, economics and environmental compatibility characterise the direction of energy policies. The so-called Meseberger resolutions confirm the improvement of energy efficiency as a fundamental target. When it comes to buildings, this means that the relationship between costs and benefits must be optimised when covering the energy requirement. In the built environment this can be achieved by developing intelligent systems and, first and foremost, by applying a high-quality, integrative planning process. Statutory instruments and certification

In Germany DIN 4108 has regulated minimum thermal performance since 1952. At the time of its introduction, the aim of the standard was to avoid moisture damage and summertime overheating. Three editions of the Thermal Insulation Act (Wärmeschutzverordnung, WSchV) in 1977, 1982 and 1995 successively updated the thermal performance of buildings [2] (Fig. B 3.6). The

Statute

EnEV 2002

Overall balance of primary energy requirement

150

EnEV 2009

106

Energy performance certificate DIN 18599 for non-residential buildings (zones with defined boundary conditions) Reference building method for residential buildings and DIN 18599 B 3.6

WSchV 95

EnEV 2002/2007 100 Low-energy house 50

0 EnEV 2007

Energy requirement

Specification of U-values HeizAnlVo Joint permeability (Heating Plant Act) Heating requirement

QPE heating, housing

Innovation

EnEG (Energy-Savings Act)

WSchV

fundamental innovation in the Energy Conservation Act (Energieeinsparverordnung, EnEV) published in 2002 was the inclusion of the plant technology in the overall calculation of the primary energy requirement. The primary energy requirement defines the quantity of energy that is required to cover annual energy needs. It includes the provision and cost of plant and takes into account the additional quantity of energy consumed in the chain of processes upstream and outside the system boundaries of the building, i.e. for obtaining, converting and distributing of the respective energy media used [3]. So the production, distribution and transfer losses of the plant technology are added to the net energy requirement of the building, e.g. the heating energy, in order to calculate the final energy requirement. The final energy is converted into primary energy using the primary energy factor. But only the non-renewable portion of the primary energy is evaluated. Key targets are therefore the reduction of the transmission heating requirement in buildings and minimising the annual primary energy requirement in the integrated assessment. The integration of the plant technology in the definition of energy requirements in the legislation bears witness to the significance of a holistic planning approach. Separate requirements for residential and non-residential buildings were defined the first time in the revised edition of the Act (EnEV 2007) and also led to the introduction of Energy Performance Certificates (EPC) for buildings. The energy requirements for ventilation, cooling and lighting based on DIN 18599 are incorporated into the overall analysis for non-residential buildings. DIN 18599 contains the reference building method for nonresidential buildings (described below) and considers the entire annual balance for a building, not just that related to the heating season. It also specifies zones with different, defined boundary conditions, e.g. office use, retailing, etc. To enable comparisons, calculations are carried out with fixed boundary conditions in the so-called public-law verification: climate data, internal heat sources, air change rates, etc.

-50

EnEV 2009 EnEV 2012

3-litre house Zero-energy house

Energy-plus house Balance resulting from energy requirement and energy gains

Energy gains

Building standards

B 3.7

EnEV 2009 The 2009 edition of the Act tightens the standards for primary energy requirements by approx. 30 % [4] (Fig. B 3.7) and permits the use of DIN 18599 as a means of verification for residential buildings as well [5]. In addition, the evaluation of transmission heat losses in relation to the A/V ratio (ratio of heat-transmitting enclosing surface A to volume V of a building) for residential buildings has now been replaced by the reference building model [6]. In the reference building method the primary energy requirement of the reference building – with the same geometry as the planned building – is calculated using given values for thermal transmittance, airtightness and plant technology. The answer obtained may not be exceeded in the actual building configuration, although it is possible to vary the given figures, taking into account the maximum values, and adapt them to the circumstances and the design concept. In certain situations the electricity generated from renewable energy sources (see “Energy sources”, pp. 109 – 113) can be subtracted from the final energy requirement calculation, i.e. when the electricity is generated in the direct vicinity of the building and is primarily consumed in the building itself. The maximum quantity of electricity that may be assumed results from the calculated electricity requirement of the respective use (see “Electricity requirements and supplies”, pp. 186 –187). [7] Renewable Energies Heat Act (EEWärmeG) This act, which came into force on 1 Jan 2009, stipulates that the thermal energy requirement (heating, cooling, hot water) for new buildings must make use of renewable energies. The proportion varies according to the type of renewable energy: for solar collectors it is 15 % of the thermal energy requirement, biogas 30 % and solid biomass, geothermal energy and ambient heat 50 %. Permissible alternatives are a 15 % reduction in the transmission heat losses of a building compared to the respective applicable EnEV edition, the use of waste heat or heat from a combined heat and power (CHP) plant to cover at least 50 % of requirements, also supplies from group and district heating networks provided a large part of that heat is generated using renewable energy sources, waste heat or CHP plants (see “Energy infrastructures”, pp. 116 –117). [8] DGNB certification Clients who erect an especially sustainable building can have it accredited according to the German Sustainable Building Council (DGNB) scheme (Fig. B 3.8). The DGNB’s objective is the equal consideration of economic, social and ecological aspects and a planning process that is embedded in a sustainable overall strategy [9]. In order to make this objective tangible, a joint DGNB/BMVBS (Federal Ministry of Transport, Building & Urban Development) committee has now taken the first step towards an evaluation system for office buildings. In this system

Energy and buildings

1 District heating network 2 Cooling provision 3 Raised access floor

B 3.6 Development of energy-related statutes B 3.7 Comparison of the primary energy consumption according to the statutes B 3.8 Office building awarded a German Sustainable Building Council (DGNB) certificate a MK2, Munich (D), 2008; KSP Engel & Zimmermann; energy concept: Ingenieurbüro Hausladen b Interior climate concept for an office • Heating concept: thermoactive floor slabs for background heating, radiators for individual controllability • Cooling concept: controlling the temperature of thermoactive floor slabs and air with groundwater • Ventilation concept: mechanical ventilation with heat recovery for offices because of noisy location B 3.9 Monthly energy consumption of different types of building: comparison of building stock and new buildings/targets

2

3

1

a

b

it is not only the energy requirements and energy efficiency that are taken into account, but also the total life cycle of the building and its ecological, technical, socio-cultural and functional quality plus the quality of the construction process. In addition, the quality of the location is described, although this is not included in the overall evaluation. In the opinion of the DGNB, existing international evaluation systems such as LEED (Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design) or BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method) do not consider these themes adequately. Experts from various fields collated their knowledge to enable the development of this certification scheme, and the evaluation profiles that were drafted were subsequently tested in practice in a pilot phase. The findings were incorporated in the 2009 version of the scheme. The DGNB is also developing assessment criteria for other building typologies, using the evaluation profiles already developed as a starting point. This German certificate represents the start of a more comprehensive assessment of buildings. The certification of buildings taking into account the complex overall web of building physics, economic, ecological, socio-cultural and technical characteristics plus comfort aspects will undoubtedly influence other certification systems as well.

Zero-energy and self-sufficient buildings Clients wishing to erect a zero-energy or selfsufficient building set themselves very ambitious targets. Whereas a zero-energy building has an annual energy requirement of plus/minus zero, the concept of the self-sufficient building is such that it requires absolutely no input of energy from outside. In summer a zero-energy building can therefore generate the energy it needs for the winter, whereas the self-sufficient building must rely on storage technologies, e.g. hot water storage (see “Energy storage”, pp. 115 – 116). With the current state of the art, the storage of energy results in a very high financial and technological investment, which is unnecessary with the zero-energy building. Comparing the two types of building, the advantage of the zeroenergy building is found to be its economy and the appropriateness of the means. What is not considered in either of these two concepts is the so-called grey energy that is required throughout the entire production process – for the storage, transport and recycling of a product. Especially efficient plant technologies and an optimised building structure are vital if a zeroenergy building is to generate enough energy to meet its requirements. Active solar energy systems (e.g. solar collectors, photovoltaic modules) integrated into the facade and/or the roof of the building can provide sufficient energy.

B 3.8

Housing

Offices

Sports halls

Owing to the building envelope’s secondary function as an energy provider, the ratio of facade and roof surfaces designed for energy generation to the usable floor area becomes important. As the compactness of the building increases, so the specific energy requirement decreases, but likewise the potential specific quantity of energy that can be generated on the building. The urban situation and, in particular, shadows on the facade and roof surfaces also affect the areas available for electricity generation (see “Urban climate”, p. 103). Determining the limit to the balance of energy generated is decisive for an unequivocal definition of the term “zero-energy building”. In order that this term is not weakened, it is advisable to include only the energy generation surfaces integrated into the building itself in the calculation and thus avoid classifying other buildings with additional energy generation surfaces, which fulfil no further functions, as zero-energy buildings.

Museums

Cooling Heating

References:

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec B 3.9

[1] http://www.bmu.de/files/pdfs/allgemein/application/ pdf/klimapaket_aug2007.pdf, 24 Jul 2007 [2] Richarz, Clemens, et al.: Energy-Efficiency Upgrades. Munich, 2006, p. 8 [3] DIN 18599-1, 3.1.1 [4] http://praxis.enev-online.de/2009/0318_bmvbs_ enev2009_wesentliche_aenderungen.pdf, 18 Mar 2009 [5] EnEV 2009 Annex 1, 2.1.1 [6] EnEV 2009 cl. 3 para. 1 [7] EnEV 2005 cl. 5 [8] http://www.erneuerbare-energien.de/files/pdfs/allgemein/application/pdf/ee_waermegesetz_fragen_en.pdf, 16 Oct 2008 [9] http://www.dgnb.de/fileadmin/downloads/DGNB_ system_en_44S_20091217_ohneblatt.pdf, as of Mar 2009

107

Energy supplies Cécile Bonnet, Tobias Wagner

B 4.1

Reyner Banham has said that you can convert practically any floating object into a steerable ship just by fitting an outboard motor. So Banham sees any small, compact machinery package as being able to transform an undifferentiated entity into an object with function and purpose. Continuing the boating theme, Philipp Oswalt says that a sailing boat manages without a motor because it itself is designed like a machine: the hull has a minimal flow resistance, the sails exploit the wind perfectly and can be trimmed to suit different wind conditions, and the crew is part of the system – their weight helps to keep the boat on an even keel. Oswalt looks at a house in the same way: a house has to be developed as a climate device, as a perpetuum mobile that is kept afloat by exploiting the physical forces present and not by way of manmade motors. The integration of sustainable energy supplies into the planning of building and fitting-out works is now more important than ever before. The building sector plays a key role in international efforts to protect our climate. Rising energy prices and dwindling deposits of fossil fuels are increasing the demand for energy-efficient systems and concepts for environmentally compatible and, at the same time, cost-effective energy supplies.

Nuclear energy

B 4.1 Combination of coloured louvres and photovoltaic elements, school, Pic Saint-Loup (F), 2003; Pierre Tourre B 4.2 The earth’s energy sources and the forms in which they occur B 4.3 Schematic presentation of exergy energy = exergy + anergy exergy = high-quality usable energy component anergy = energy component that cannot be used for a process B 4.4 Parameters influencing the passive use of solar energy B 4.5 Heat consumption and solar heat gains over the year B 4.6 CO2 cycle for biomass B 4.7 Classification of biogenic fuels

Solar radiation

Past radiation Atomic power

In Germany almost one-third of energy consumption can be attributed to the provision of heat in buildings. Targeted savings measures and sustainable building concepts, both for the building stock and new buildings, can reduce this proportion substantially (see “Building standards”, pp. 106 –107). And various principles must be taken into account to meet the outstanding energy needs. In thermodynamic terms, only a finite part of the energy content of a system can be converted into work. This part is known as exergy, whereas the remaining, unusable part is called anergy. In the case of heat sources the exergy component depends on the temperature difference with respect to the surroundings or the consumer (Fig. B 4.3). A relatively high temperature level is normally required for the generation of electricity. Consequently, the total energy content of a system that can be converted into electricity is in principle less than the heat with a lower temperature level that can be obtained from this. The latter often ensues as a “waste product” anyway. Obtaining heat from low-temperature energy sources such as certain renewable energies (e.g. ground couplings) or from the waste heat resulting from an energy-usage chain (e.g. industrial processes) is therefore very efficient. The availability of energy resources locally, as well as their quality, plays an important role in sustainable energy supplies. In order to minimise the primary energy input for the transport

Coal Petroleum Natural gas

Non-renewable

Gravitation

Geothermal energy

Current radiation Global radiation Deep geothermal Shallow energy geothermal energy Atmospheric heat Wind Oceanic heat Ocean currents Waves Rivers Biomass production

Tides

Renewable B 4.2

108

Energy supplies

Anergy Shadows Anergy

Orientation

Energy Exergy Exergy Proportion and nature of glazing

Settlement structure Ambient 20 °C

Water 30 °C Water 80 °C

Building materials and internal thermal masses

Building form and roof form

B 4.3

and guarantee reliable supplies, it is preferable to make use of local energy sources.

Energy sources Even today, most of the energy supplied to buildings is provided by fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas). The energy stored in these materials is converted into heat in various combustion processes. The finite nature of fossil fuels and the climate change problems call for a significant reduction in energy requirements above all else. And for the future, the provision of the residual energy needs must be met by renewable energy sources (Fig. B 4.2). Solar energy

On the human timescale, the energy from the sun represents an inexhaustible energy supply. It is the sun that creates, or has created, by far the greatest part of all the energy resources available on the earth (petroleum, natural gas, biomass, wind, shallow geothermal energy). The solar energy that reaches the surface of the earth in one hour is enough to supply the world's energy needs for one year! In Europe the average global irradiation on a horizontal surface varies between 850 and 1800 kWh/m2a depending on the region, in Germany between 900 and 1200 kWh/m2a (see “Solar radiation”, p. 100).

B 4.4

Special technical installations can be used to convert solar radiation into heat (solar thermal system) or electricity (photovoltaic system). Solar thermal collectors and solar cells are mostly installed on roof surfaces. However, photovoltaic installations in particular are ideal for integrating into the facades of buildings. The optimum inclination of the modules depends on the orientation of the building and the geographical latitude of the location. Solar thermal energy The commonest use of solar thermal collectors is to provide hot water for non-heating purposes. Installations intended to supplement a building’s space heating system are also possible but less efficient because the incident radiation in winter is very limited when the heating requirement is greatest; and in the summer more heat is produced than can be consumed (Fig. B 4.5). Nevertheless, in energy-efficient buildings some 20 – 30 % of the annual total heating requirement can be covered in this way. When using solar thermal energy for space heating, heat output systems with a low flow temperature (e.g. coil heating, activation of building components) should be preferred because even with a lower level of incident solar radiation, the temperature level required is achieved (see “Heat output systems”, pp. 176 – 177). An additional heat source not dependent on solar radiation, e.g. gas-fired

boiler for bridging over periods of bad weather, is, however, indispensable in most instances. And with the help of a sorption-type refrigeration unit solar thermal energy can be used for cooling purposes, too (see “Refrigeration units”, p. 115). Other applications for solar thermal energy include swimming pool heating and preheating of the incoming fresh air by means of special systems. Photovoltaics Most photovoltaic installations mounted on buildings feed their electricity into the public grid. The use of such installations, in contrast to solar thermal energy, is therefore not directly coupled to the building’s energy requirements. In some cases photovoltaic installations can also be used as stand-alone systems for remote locations. Solar cells are assembled to form modules that are mounted on or integrated into roof and facade surfaces. Biomass

All non-fossil substances with an organic origin, i.e. every material containing carbon, can be referred to as biomass. Although according to that definition substances of animal origin could also be classed as biomass, it is primarily only plants with a photosynthesis mechanism that produce biomass (primary biomass). Such plants convert sunlight into chemical energy with the help of water and carbon dioxide. Expressed in

Q

Biomass

He

s lar

at

r ge

CO2

so

Biogenic raw materials

CO2

Biogenic waste materials

ns co

r

B 4.6

Liquid

Alcohols

Sewage gas

8760 h B 4.5

Landfill gas

2760 h

Biogas

Heating

Briquettes

Biomass

Wood chippings

Excess heat

Rotting 6000 h

Gaseous

Vegetable oil-based methyl ester

Solid

Culmiferous plants

n

io

pt

ystem

Solar s

Logs

um

La

Space heating backup Consumption Hot-water provision

m

te

ys

B 4.7

109

Energy supplies

simple terms, biomass is an organic store of solar energy. In contrast to fossil fuels, biomass is classed as a renewable energy medium because of the short span of time between absorbing and releasing the carbon dioxide. When biomass is used to provide energy, only that proportion of carbon dioxide is released that the plant absorbed from the atmosphere in the first place (Fig. B 4.6, p. 109). Nevertheless, the process is not entirely neutral in terms of greenhouse gases. The total production and utilisation process consumes a greater or lesser quantity of (fossil) energy and releases greenhouse gases because of the use of, for example, machines for cultivation, harvesting and transport, the use of fertilisers and pesticides, or the conversion processes required, e.g. the production of pellets or chippings. When employing biomass it is therefore always important to consider the sustainability aspects of the supply chain, i.e. environmental compatibility and primary energy input, regional availability and transport distances. In principle, the biomass that can be exploited by human beings is divided into biogenic raw materials and biogenic waste materials (Fig. B 4.7, p. 109). Biogenic, or renewable, raw materials are provided by human beings specifically for their usage (forests, energy crops). On the other hand, biogenic waste materials occur in the form of usable by-products or residues created by various processes that essentially serve another purpose. That is the case in the woodworking industry, for instance, but harvesting waste, organic waste and compost are other examples. It is precisely the biogenic waste materials that constitute a large, unused potential for providing energy. Most biomass sources must be processed beforehand to form solid, liquid or gaseous energy media. The advantage of these products over other renewable energy sources such as sunlight, water and wind is that they are easy to transport and store.

a

b

Solid fuels Among the solid biogenic fuels, wood plays by far the greatest role in terms of quantities and traditions. Wood will need some form of preparation if it is to be used as a source of energy, the amount of that preparation depending on the origins and form of the wood. The simplest type of preparation is the provision of logs and firewood (Fig. B 4.8a). Wood chippings (Fig. B 4.8b), pellets (Figs. B 4.8c and B 4.8d) and briquettes are ideal for the automatic feeding of boiler furnaces. Besides wood, other solid biogenic materials such as culmiferous plants (e.g. miscanthus, elephant grass) can be processed to form chippings or pellets suitable for use as energy sources. Straw, too, can also be used to form pellets, but the incineration of such pellets places greater demands on the plant and the emissions requirements are tougher. A sufficiently large storage facility will be required when using biomass in the form of solid fuels. Their lower energy density means that such fuels require larger storage spaces than fossil

c

d

110

B 4.8

fuels. For instance, compared with heating oil, wood pellets require about three times the volume of storage space for an equivalent amount of energy (Fig. B 4.9). Different energy media will require different sizes of storage facility, a fact that must be taken into account in good time when planning buildings and interior works. In principle, solid biogenic fuels are burned in boilers, which means that space heating based on all customary temperature levels is possible. Heat output systems with a low flow temperature are therefore just as suitable as those requiring a high flow temperature, e.g. radiators, convectors or hot-water provision. Gaseous fuels The use of biogas for generating heat and electricity is especially suitable for rural areas with plenty of agriculture. Suitable substrates for the biogas fermentation process are silage maize or grass silage, liquid manure from animal husbandry, organic waste from trade and industry, domestic organic waste, green waste or sewage sludge. The biogas obtained is normally used to operate co-generation plants that provide heat and electricity in the immediate vicinity of the biogas plant (Fig. B 4.10). When using the heat from such plants, consumers do not need any large technical installations, merely a connection to the system. The temperature level of waste heat generated in biogas plants is suitable for all customary forms of space heating (see “Co-generation plants”, p. 117). Liquid fuels Vegetable oils and alcohols are the main liquid energy media produced from biomass. For example, soya, rape or oil-palms can be used to produce vegetable oils for use as sources of energy, from which methyl ester – generally referred to as biodiesel – can be obtained. Alcohols can be produced from plants containing sugar or starch by way of fermentation processes and subsequent distillation (bio-ethanol). In the biomass-to-liquid (BTL) method, the most diverse types of biomass can be converted into high-quality oils using elaborate and expensive synthesis processes. Vegetable oils and their fuel derivatives can be incinerated in heating boilers or combined heat and power (CHP) plants and can therefore be combined with customary heat output systems. In practice, however, most liquid biogenic fuels are used for running vehicles. Co-generation plants operated with vegetable oils offer a number of advantages for the environment. Besides saving resources and protecting the climate, the fast biodegradability and low ecotoxicity of vegetable oils can help to protect soils and water. In rural areas the regional production and use of vegetable oil (primarily oil-seed rape) plus the press cake allows efficient exploitation of the energy content of this vegetable oil-based fuel.

Energy supplies

Ambient heat

Ambient heat (also known as environmental heat) is the thermal energy contained in soil, groundwater, surface waters, air and waste water, also the heat produced as a waste byproduct of production processes. Owing to the mostly low temperature levels of these heat sources (with the exception of deep geothermal energy), ambient heat is regarded as a lowquality form of energy. But combined with heat pumps, it represents an abundant source of energy for buildings. The temperature level of the soil can also be used to cool the incoming fresh air in summer or preheat it in winter (see “Geology”, p. 103). Deep geothermal energy Geothermal energy is the heat stored below the earth’s crust. It is assumed that 99 % of the planet is at a temperature > 1000 °C. And of the remaining 1 % , the temperature of 99 % of that is > 100 °C. From this it is easy to see the huge potential of geothermal energy. Deep geothermal energy is the term used for

tapping the thermal energy at depths below approx. 400 m. To exploit this heat, boreholes are drilled into the ground (up to 4000 m deep) and the heat is used directly, i.e. without raising the temperature, for heating but also electricity generation purposes. The use of deep geothermal energy depends on whether an aquifer (waterbearing formation) with a high temperature (80 –150 °C) is available in the subsoil, and therefore this method can be used in certain areas only. Owing to the high technical input and high cost of the boreholes, such systems are only feasible in conjunction with a heating network, i.e. when large quantities of heat are to be extracted and a corresponding consumer structure exists (see “Energy infrastructures”, pp. 116 –117). Shallow geothermal energy In contrast to deep geothermal energy, shallow geothermal energy taps the heat that is nearer the surface of the earth. Down to a depth of about 100 m, the reserves of heat are fed by solar energy as well as the heat rising from the earth’s core. The temperature in the ground

Fuel

Calorific value

Space requirement related to energy content

Solid fuels Wood pellets Wood chippings Logs (stacked

5.1 kWh/kg 5.1 kWh/kg 5.1 kWh/kg

0.35 m3/MWh 0.9 –1.3 m3/MWh 0.5 – 0.7 m3/MWh

Liquid fuels Oil-seed rape Biodiesel Ethanol Extra-light heating oil

10.3 kWh/kg 10.2 kWh/kg 7.4 kWh/kg 11.9 kWh/kg

0.10 m3/MWh 0.11 m3/MWh 0.17 m3/MWh 0.10 m3/MWh

Gaseous fuels Biogas Natural gas

6.0 kWh/m3 10.0 kWh/m3

166 m3/MWh 100 m3/MWh

varies over the year down to a depth of approx. 15 m, but below that the temperature remains essentially constant and increases by approx. 3 °C per 100 m depth on average (Fig. B 4.11). The use of shallow geothermal energy – in contrast to deep geothermal energy – is possible almost everywhere, except in areas where groundwater protection legislation is in force. The temperature of the thermal energy available near the surface is too low to be able to use it directly for heating purposes (8 – 12 °C on average). It is therefore necessary to use a heat pump in order to raise the thermal energy extracted to the temperature level required by using mechanical driving energy (see “Heat pumps”, pp. 114 – 115). In summer the low temperature level of the strata near the surface can also be used as a heat sink for cooling the building. In doing so, it is possible to operate the heat pump as a refrigeration unit and also to use the cooling energy directly. Basically, the following options can be considered for extracting the thermal energy near the surface to operate heat pumps or refrigeration units:

B 4.8

Different forms of wood fuel a Logs b Wood chippings c Wood pellets d Pelleting machine B 4.9 The calorific values and space requirements of different fuels B 4.10 How biogas production functions B 4.11 Temperature levels for shallow geothermal energy

B 4.9

Shed/house

Heat

Depth (m)

February Public grid

Future: biogas as substitute for natural gas

May

August

November

0 5

Electricity Local supply

Industry

10

15 Greenhouse

House Co-generation plant

20

50 Heat/ electricity

Biogas

Heat/ electricity

Biogas

100

200 Primary fermenter

Secondary fermenter

Fermented substrate 300

400 0 Maize silo

Maize field

Agricultural usage B 4.10

5

10

15

20 25 Temperature (°C) B 4.11

111

Energy supplies

Brine Backfilling Pair of U-pipes 150–200 mm

Re-injection well min. 6 m borehole spacing

Ground coupling

Thermally activated area

Heat pump

min. 15 m 3m

Heat pump

B 4.12

• Ground couplings consist of grids of pipes or capillary tube mats that are laid horizontally at a depth of approx. 1 – 1.2 m (below the frost line) (Fig. B 4.12). These use the solar energy stored in the uppermost strata as a heat source and so the regeneration of the heat extracted is guaranteed. The disadvantage of ground couplings is that they are subject to seasonal temperature fluctuations. In winter the lowest temperatures of the heat source coincide with maximum heating demands, which lowers the efficiency of the heat pump (see “Heat pumps”, pp. 114 – 115). • Boreholes extract the heat from lower strata (Fig. B 4.13). The boreholes contain exchanger pipes in which the heat is conveyed to the heat pump via a circulating heat transfer fluid (brine). The boreholes are usually up to 100 m deep and at such a depth the temperature remains relatively constant. Deeper boreholes are rare because of the technical input required, the costs and in Germany primarily the legal situation: boreholes > 100 m deep must comply with mining legislation and registered with the mining authority. • Groundwater, if used as a source of heat, is conveyed to the heat pump via a production well (Fig. B 4.14). The temperature of the groundwater generally remains at a constant 8 – 12 °C over the whole year. The prerequisite for the use of groundwater is a continuous

B 4.12 Ground coupling B 4.13 Pair of U-pipes in borehole for exploiting geothermal heat B 4.14 Groundwater-source heat pump B 4.15 Comparison of different ambient heat sources for heat pumps B 4.16 The use of waste heat from industrial plants (schematic) B 4.17 The principle of using the heat of waste water B 4.18 Heat exchanger for waste water

Production well

Submersible pump B 4.14

B 4.13

flow. Once the heat has been removed from the water, the cold water is fed back into the groundwater via a re-injection well. The direction of the groundwater flow and the distance between the two wells must be taken into account in order to prevent the re-injection well from influencing the production well. In addition, attention must be given to how different systems exploiting the same groundwater stratum could have a negative effect on each other. When the output exceeds approx. 10 kW, groundwater heat pumps are more economical than boreholes, provided the water table permits such usage. Groundwater wells are normally < 15 m deep.

Outside air The outside air, too, in conjunction with a heat pump, can be used as a source of heat. The advantage of the outside air is that it is available everywhere; the disadvantage, however, is that the temperature is subject to severe seasonal fluctuations – with the lowest external air temperatures coinciding with the maximum heating demand. This great temperature difference has a very unfavourable effect on the efficiency of a heat pump. Frost starts to form on the heat exchangers at temperatures below approx. 5 °C. In order to prevent that, a defrosting device will be required, which in turn consumes additional energy.

Owing to the relatively low efficiency of an airto-air (or air-source) heat pump and the high electricity requirement, this technology has only a limited appeal from the ecological viewpoint (Fig. B 4.15).

Waste heat Basically, waste heat is any form of heat released into the environment. Although the use of waste heat cannot be directly considered as a renewable form of energy, it does represent an important contribution to sustainable energy supplies. In industrial waste heat is an unused by-product that results from various processes whose primary purpose is not the creation of heat (foodstuffs industry, chemicals industry, electricity generation). The waste heat can no longer be used in the process and is expelled, unused, into the surroundings with the extract air, cooling water, waste water or exhaust gases. Using waste heat that cannot be avoided is therefore a good way of improving the overall energy efficiency. The heating of buildings and whole communities is one way of using waste heat sensibly (Fig. B 4.16). It is primarily the cost of removing the waste heat from its source that governs the economy of such a use. How much energy in the various processes is available in the form of waste heat depends very much on the respective plant and must be determined separately

Ground coupling, grid of pipes

Ground coupling, borehole

Groundwater

Air

Availability

Preferably open areas

High

Depends on Anywhere local availability

Space requirement

High

Low

Low

Low

Average temperature in °C in winter

-5 to +5 °C

8 to 10 °C

8 to 12 °C

-25 to +15 °C

Water legislation permit required

No

Almost always

Always

No

Typical energy efficiency ratio (EER) for heat pump

up to 4.0

up to 4.5

up to 4.5

up to 3.3 B 4.15

112

Energy supplies

Central heating plant Plant for separating the heat

Community

Industrial plant

Pipes for transporting waste heat

Group heating network

B 4.16

for each case. Though as a rough guide, it can be assumed that 20 – 30 % of the energy used in a production facility (electricity, fuel) can be exploited in the form of waste heat. If the temperature level of the waste heat available is sufficiently high, it can be fed directly into, for example, a group heating network (see “Energy infrastructures”, pp. 116 – 117). Waste heat with a lower temperature can be raised to the desired temperature level by using a heat pump (see “Heat pumps”, pp. 114 – 115). Waste water One special case of waste heat is the use of waste water. Both domestic and industrial waste water contains a large quantity of unused heat. Over the course of a year, the average temperature of the waste water in the sewerage network varies between 10 and 20 °C. In winter it is therefore much higher than the external air temperature, in summer normally lower (in Central Europe). The energy potential in waste water can be exploited for heating purposes with the help of a heat pump. To do this, the heat is removed from the sewerage network by means of a heat exchanger which is either integrated into the invert of a waste-water drain (Fig. B 4.17) or the sewage treatment works. Such heat exchangers can be incorporated into existing drains as part of refurbishment works (Fig. B 4.18). The sewerage network, in

conjunction with a refrigeration unit, can also be used to remove heat from cooling processes.

Energy conversion Appropriate technical systems are required to obtain usable heating (cooling) energy from the various energy sources in the building. Furnaces represent the most conventional form of plant for this purpose. There are also systems that do not rely on incineration, but instead collect the available thermal energy and raise it to a higher temperature, using additional energy if necessary (see “Heat pumps”, pp. 114 – 115). Conventional electric heaters are still used. Basically, they form an electrical resistance and thus generate heat. However, as the generation of electricity is mostly associated with the consumption of large quantities of primary energy, such systems are on the whole very inefficient.

hence it is worth exploiting the waste heat contained in the exhaust gases. Low-temperature boiler This is a further development of the standard boilers of the past in which the water was kept at a constant, high temperature. In contrast to those boilers, the flow temperature in low-temperature systems is reduced depending on the outside temperature. A special control ensures that the water in a low-temperature boiler is heated up so that the building is heated according to the outside temperature. The design ensures that the temperature within the boiler never drops below the dew point, even with return temperatures of 35 – 40 °C.

Furnaces

Various types of energy media (oil, gas, biomass) are incinerated in boiler furnaces and the heat produced is transferred to a heat output system. Standard boilers operate with a constant hotwater temperature of 90 –110 °C. The temperature of the exhaust gas lies between 160 and 300 °C. The efficiency of a boiler increases as the temperature of the waste gas decreases,

Waste-water drain Central heating plant

Consumers Boiler Hot water

Energy storage

Heat pump

Space heating

Co-generation plant

Sewage treatment works Heat exchanger half shell

Hot waste water

Waste water

Group heating network up to 80 °C

Waste-water drain 12–20 °C

Heat exchanger Flow B 4.17

Return B 4.18

113

Gains Losses Direct radiation

Rain, wind, snow Housing

Reflection Diffuse radiation

Insulation

Degree of efficiency

Energy supplies

Swimming pool absorber

Selective absorber

Non-selective absorber

Evacuated collector

1 0.9

Hot water

Space heating

Orientation

Process heat

Shadows

0.8 0.7 Angle with respect to position of sun

0.6 0.5

Ambient temperature

0.4 0.3

Convection

Heat radiation Pane of glass Absorber

0.2 0.1

Useful output

Optimisation of controls

0 0 0.02

0.06

0.1

B 4.19

Condensing boiler In the condensing boiler the inclusion of additional heat exchanger surfaces enables the sensible (measurable) and some of the latent (released through condensation) heat to be extracted from the exhaust gases. The prerequisite for this is a return temperature that lies below the dew point of the water vapour in the exhaust gases. As this means that the temperature within the appliance is designed to drop below the dew point, condensing boilers are fitted with a condensate drain. The low temperature of the exhaust gases means that they must be expelled with the help of a fan. Gas is the most suitable fuel for such boilers because the exhaust gases contain less sulphur dioxide than those of heating oil and also exhibit a higher dew point temperature.

Solar energy systems

Two types of solar energy system are used in buildings: solar thermal installations for generating heat, photovoltaic installations for generating electricity (see “Photovoltaics”, p. 109). Solar collectors There are many different solar thermal systems available but those with flat-plate collectors are the most common at the present time (Fig. B 4.19). Vacuum-tube collectors deliver

Designation

Unglazed collector

0.14

0.18

greater yields owing to their very low thermal losses and integral reflector surfaces, but are much more expensive. Cheaper unglazed collectors and air collectors are also on the market but their efficiencies are much lower in practice. But they can be very advantageous in some cases, e.g. swimming pool heating in the summer or preheating of incoming fresh air (Figs. B 4.20 and B 4.22). The solar radiation captured in the collector raises the temperature of a heat transfer fluid, normally a water/glycol mixture. The efficiencies and yields of solar thermal collectors depend on the angle in relation to the sun, orientation, shadows, the ambient temperature and the quality of insulation, or rather the level of losses; the overall efficiency of the solar thermal system also depends to a great extent on optimum controls (Fig. B 4.21). In a system for providing hot water, approx. 5 m2 of collector surface is sufficient to supply the requirements of a detached house with four occupants, assuming that a hotwater tank with a volume of 0.3 – 0.4 m3 is available. A solar thermal system for providing hot water can cover about 50 – 60 % of requirements, taken as an average over the year. During the summer almost 100 % coverage is possible, depending on the weather and the location. Where there is a higher hot-water requirement over the whole year, e.g. multi-occupancy

Air collector

Flat-plate collector

Quality of insulation, level of losses

0.22 (TAbs -Ta )/lg B 4.20

B 4.21

housing, hospitals or hotels, collectors covering an area of up to several hundred square metres and correspondingly large storage tanks will be necessary. And much larger collector areas will be required if the solar thermal system is to be used to supplement the space heating as well as providing hot water. The rule of thumb is: approx. 1 m2 of flat-plate collector surface per 10 m2 of floor space. This figure drops to 0.5 – 0.8 m2 when using vacuum-tube collectors (Fig. B 4.23). Heat pumps and refrigeration units

Heat pumps and refrigeration units are systems into which work (e.g. electricity) is fed in order to remove heat from a source with a lower temperature level and expel this at a higher temperature level at a heat sink. Heat pumps The operation of a heat pump is based on the fact that every object contains a certain quantity of energy. A heat pump can be used to turn (ambient) heat at a practically unusable temperature level (anergy) into a useful medium. Mechanical energy (exergy) must be fed into the system in order to achieve this (Fig. B 4.24). The efficiency of a heat pump is shown by its coefficient of performance (COP), which describes the relationship between the heat produced (and output into the building over the

Vacuum-tube collector

Cross-section

Flow of energy medium

B 4.19 B 4.20

B 4.21 Degree of efficiency Typical operating temperature Typical applications

40 % 30–40°C Open-air pool heating, heat pump

60–65 % 40–50 °C Warm-air heating, solar cooling

65–70 % 60–90 °C Hot-water provision, space heating, solar cooling

80–85 % 70–130 °C Hot-water provision, space heating, solar cooling, process heat

B 4.22

114

B 4.22 B 4.23 B 4.24 B 4.25

How a flat-plate solar collector works The efficiency of various types of collector depending on incident solar radiation and temperature difference between absorber and ambient The factors influencing a collector’s degree of efficiency Typical collector types and their applications Solar combi-system (space heating + hot water) How a heat pump works The use of different heat sources by heat pump systems

Energy supplies

Solar collectors Electrical energy 2 Solar storage

Solar circulation control

Flow 1

The refrigerant evaporates and in doing so extracts heat from its surroundings. The compressor compresses the refrigerant to 12 – 22 bar, whereupon its temperature and condensation point rise. In the condenser the refrigerant condenses at high pressure and releases its thermal energy to a heat distribution circuit. The expansion valve causes a loss of pressure, whereupon the refrigerant cools and the atmospheric boiling point drops.

2

Supplementary heating

3 Underfloor heating

4

Loads

Flow 3 Space heating

Ambient heat

1 Return

4

Return

B 4.24

B 4.23

year) and the driving energy (usually electricity) the heat pump consumes (Fig. B 4.26, p. 116). The higher the COP, the lower is the amount of electricity required in relation to the heat obtained. The prerequisite for a high COP is a minimal difference between the temperature of the heat source and the temperature of the heating system flow circuit. Consequently, it is more efficient to operate heat pumps in conjunction with lowtemperature heat distribution systems. Depending on the heat source, a heat pump can produce up to four times as much heat as a conventional electric heater for the same amount of electricity. As a heat pump fitted with the necessary technical apparatus can be operated in reverse as a refrigeration unit, it is in principle possible to use a heat pump for cooling a building as well. Besides the mechanically driven heat pumps common these days, sorption heat pumps operated with heat are now available. Refrigeration units Whereas in the heat pump thermal energy is raised to a higher temperature level for heating purposes, a refrigeration unit at a lower temperature extracts heat and therefore produces a cooling effect. Conventional refrigeration units driven with mechanical energy have now been joined by adsorption- and absorption-type units, which are operated with heat instead of mechanical energy. It is hoped that these new

External air, compact

units will increase the number of applications in the future. One worthwhile use of sorption-type refrigeration units is in connection with solar cooling. The advantage of this is that maximum solar radiation levels coincide with the highest cooling requirements. However, the waste heat should be available at an adequately high temperature level because absorption-type refrigeration units must be operated at a temperature of at least 80 °C. Higher temperatures enable more efficient operation. Locations with plenty of sunshine are therefore especially suitable for this technology. The suitability of absorption-type refrigeration units in practice depends on the respective state of the art. Until now the relatively high output of the sorption-type refrigeration units available on the market meant that they were only suitable for larger buildings or groups of several interconnected buildings. However, work to develop systems with a lower output for operation in smaller buildings is ongoing (see “Solar cooling”, p. 181). The heat required to operate sorption-type refrigeration units can also be provided by a cogeneration plant, which with the additional heat usage in summer enables such systems to be operated over more of the year and achieve a higher degree of efficiency. All refrigeration units require a recooling unit to dissipate the heat extracted. At lower outside

External air, split unit

temperatures these can also provide cooling energy directly and be used for cooling purposes without having to run the refrigeration unit.

Energy storage Daily and seasonal discrepancies between supply and demand are characteristic of some energy sources. This problem is most obvious in conjunction with the use of solar energy. The answer lies in decoupling input from output, i.e. maximising the timespan between when the energy is available and when it is needed. And to do that we must store the energy. Hot-water storage

Heat can be kept at a certain temperature level for a limited amount of time by using a wellinsulated hot-water tank. The volume of such a tank depends on whether the system is required just for providing hot water or for supplementing the space heating as well. With a solar thermal system, the surface area of the collectors also has a direct influence on the size of the tank. This factor has a crucial effect on the planning of buildings and interiors. Where heat is to be stored for several days, the volume of the tank should be twice the daily hot-water requirement (approx. 45 l per person). But where the system is required to supplement the space heating, a

Solar absorber

HP

HP

HP

HP

Solid absorber

Surface water HP Ground coupling, grid of pipes

HP Ground coupling, boreholes

HP

Waste heat

HP

HP

Groundwater

B 4.25

115

Coefficient of performance (COP)

Energy supplies

5.0

4.5

Solar collectors Groundwater

4.0

Central heating plant Soil

3.5

3.0

Air Heating network

Solar network

2.5 30

35

40 45 50 Max. flow temperature (°C) B 4.26

much larger reservoir will be necessary – approx. 50 l per m2 of collector surface. In order to compensate for the discrepancy between the seasonal availability of the heat and the heating requirement over the whole year, long-term storage facilities with very large volumes are necessary (seasonal storage). For sizing purposes, approx. 3 m3 of tank volume should be assumed per megawatt-hour of annual heating requirement. The seasonal storage option is currently only economical for residential estates in which several housing units are connected to a central heat supply system by means of a group heating network (Fig. B 4.27). Other storage media are currently being tested, the aim being to prolong the storage time right up to seasonal storage. These new media exhibit a higher volume-related storage capacity compared with water, the conventional storage medium. Latent heat storage media

Latent heat storage media are based on the principle that substances absorb a large amount of thermal energy upon changing from the solid to the liquid state and then release this again when they return to the solid state. This change of state takes place at a certain temperature, which varies depending on the particular material. Such materials are therefore known as phase change materials (PCM). Their advantage lies in the fact that they exhibit

Long-term heat storage B 4.27

a higher energy density than water. Consequently, a larger amount of energy can be stored in the same volume. Different materials can be employed for storing heating (or cooling) energy, with the phase transition taking place in the range between 5 and 130 °C. Paraffins or salt hydrates are the most popular substances. A material with the right phase change temperature must be chosen to suit the application. Latent heat storage media are not yet state of the art but are already being marketed by some manufacturers (see “PCMs”, pp. 181–182). Thermochemical storage

Thermochemical storage represents another alternative for raising the energy density compared with water. The principle of such storage media is based on reversible chemical reactions that absorb heat (endothermic reactions) or release heat (exothermic reactions). One example of this is sorption reactions. The materials used most frequently are zeolites and silica gels. The advantage of thermochemical storage media, besides their very high storage capacity, is that they exhibit virtually no losses, which means that long-term storage is theoretically possible. In order to do this, however, they require high temperatures. On the whole, these systems are very complicated and are currently still at the development stage.

Energy infrastructures Sustainable planning should include consideration of the energy structures already in place at or planned for the location, especially the option for connecting to an existing or planned group or district heating network. Heating networks

In a group or district heating network the energy is generated not directly in the individual buildings, but instead in one or more central heating plants. A network of pipes then conveys the heat to the individual consumers (Fig. B 4.29). The creation of such infrastructures is generally associated with an enormous capital outlay and huge amount of work. Heating networks offer diverse advantages over separate heating systems in buildings. Several individual consumers together form one large heating customer. This means that the heat can be generated using techniques that would be technically and/or economically inconceivable for small systems. Heating networks are therefore indispensable for tapping some resources. When using heat produced by co-generation plants in particular, waste heat and some renewable energy sources, e.g. deep geothermal energy, the establishment of a heating network is usually essential. In addition, heating networks generally have the advantage that they are much

Exhaust gas Exhaust gas heat exchanger Storage type/ medium

Energy density/ working temperature

Sensible/ water

approx. 60 kWh /m3 < 100 °C

Latent/ salt hydrates Paraffins

up to 120 kWh /m3 approx. 30 – 80 °C approx. 10 – 60 °C

Thermochemicals/ metal hydrides Silica gels Zeolites

200 – 500 kWh /m3 approx. 280 – 500 °C approx. 40 – 100 °C approx. 100 – 300 °C

Motor Generator Heating network

Central heating plant

Cooling water heat exchanger

Group heating network

B 4.28

116

Fuel (gas, oil)

B 4.29

Electrical load B 4.30

Energy supplies

more flexible than individual heating solutions should the boundary conditions change (e.g. costs or availability of raw materials). Such networks also enable several energy sources to be combined. The majority of existing heating networks or those currently being planned convey the heat at the relatively high temperature of 80 – 90 °C and thus supply as many customers as possible with different temperature level requirements (depending on their heat distribution systems). For the user, a group or district heating network offers great comfort benefits. In the buildings only one so-called heat substation is necessary, which compared with a furnace requires little maintenance and little space. Furthermore, neither fuel store nor chimney are necessary. This substation (heat exchanger) is the link between heating network and building heating system and it adapts the supply of heat to the thermal and hydraulic requirements of the building’s heating system (temperature and pressure required). The provision of hot water in buildings connected to a heating network for space heating purposes can be achieved in a number of different ways. One possibility is to employ an instantaneous water heater, which heats the water through a plate heat exchanger directly at the point of use. This solution is hygienic and the capital outlay and space requirements are low; the power input is high, however. Water can also be heated by means of separate electric or gas appliances in the building not connected to the heating network. However, using the heating network to provide hot water is more energy efficient and hence environmentally friendly, and should therefore be preferred. The most energy-efficient option for providing hot water is to incorporate low-temperature freshwater units. In this solution a heat exchanger using heat from the space heating systems raises the temperature of the water directly at the place of use to a temperature level adequate for normal requirements (approx. 40 – 45 °C). As there is no storage of hot water, there is no risk of legionella bacteria. In addition, no space is required for a hot-water tank.

Heat source

Shallow geothermal energy Outside air Incineration of biomass Solar Waste heat Waste water Co-generation plant Deep geothermal energy

Co-generation plants

Co-generation plants produce electricity and thermal energy (combined heat and power) simultaneously (Fig. B 4.30). The fuels used for such plants include natural gas, heating oil, landfill gas, sewage gas or biogas. The larger the plant, the greater is the degree of efficiency and the lower are the emissions of pollutants. A huge amount of thermal energy is produced as a “waste by-product” of the electricity generation. This heat can then be transported through a heating network to consumers over a wide area. Standard co-generation plants achieve a degree of efficiency of 85 – 95 %, some 30 – 40 % of which is a form of electricity and the rest in the form of heat. Using the heat generated increases the economic efficiency of the plant on the one hand, and on the other saves considerable amounts of primary energy and carbon dioxide compared with the separate production of the same quantities of electricity and heat. So-called micro co-generation units for small applications are possible as well as the larger plants. The output of such systems is normally adjusted to suit the heating requirements. The quantity of electricity generated therefore depends on those heating requirements, whereas large plants are designed – for economic reasons – to generate the maximum amount of electricity over the whole year.

Overriding energy concepts

When considering sustainable energy supplies fit for future needs, it is becoming more and more necessary to look beyond the individual building and think about whole complexes, communities and regions. The aim here is not only the optimisation of individual buildings, equipping them with maximum efficiency installations making use of renewable energy sources, but rather the development of holistic, interdisciplinary energy strategies. Energy consumption, energy infrastructures and energy potential can thus be exactly tuned to each other. Moreover, overriding energy concepts enable the establishment of a better link between demand and the availability of local supplies of renewable energies – in terms of time and location. Synergies and high degrees of utilisation lead to energysavings and better efficiencies. In particular, when designing heating networks to guarantee energy supplies for several consumers, overriding energy concepts represent an important starting point for discussions about technical and economic feasibility.

Heating plants

Heating plants generate heat from the incineration of a fuel at a central location; in principle, these plants can use the same fuels as co-generation plants. Basically, however, the alternative of combined heat and power (CHP) should be preferred because this generates high-value energy (electricity) in addition to the heat required from the same fuel. When using ligneous biomass for heating purposes, heating plants with group heating networks exhibit certain advantages over individual furnaces. For example, heating plants use wood chippings almost exclusively and therefore the work required to prepare the fuel is less than in the case of separate furnaces burning pellets, for instance. The space requirements are usually easier to

Heat pump required?

Suitable flow temperature for distributing heat

Storage of heat necessary?

Combination with heating network?

yes

low

no

rare

yes

low

no

no

no

low to high

possibly

possible

no

low

yes

possible

low to high

no

almost always

low

no

almost always

no

low to high

no

almost always

no

low to high

no

almost always

depends on temperature level yes

deal with than in the case of individual buildings, and the cost of and work involved in scrubbing the exhaust gases (particles) are reduced.

Other important parameters

low efficiency

additional heating required B 4.26 B 4.27 B 4.28 B 4.29 B 4.30 B 4.31

The coefficient of performance (COP) of a heat pump depending on heat source Long-term heat storage The physical properties of different storage media Group heating network How a co-generation plant works How various heat sources affect the planning of technical services systems

B 4.31

117

Part C

Fig. C

Ibere Camargo Foundation, Porto Alegre (BR), 1998; Alvaro Siza Architects

Finishing and fitting-out

1 Wall systems Design principles Stud wall systems Wall elements made from preformed parts Demountable partitions Glass partition systems Building materials Materials for the supporting framework Materials for boarding and surfaces Insulating materials Building physics requirements for internal walls Fire protection Sound insulation Moisture control Thermal performance Junctions and details Movement joints Free-standing wall ends and corners Junctions with adjoining components Junctions with shadowline joints Reduced junctions Sliding junctions Integrating columns and beams Doors Glass in partitions Integrating technical services Coil heating

120 121 121

2 Ceiling systems Design principles Components Seamless ceiling systems Systems with a grid-type ceiling surface Self-supporting ceilings Ceiling systems with open soffit Materials Materials for the framing Materials for the ceiling surface Building physics requirements for ceilings Fire protection Acoustics Junctions and details Movement joints Junctions with walls Change in level Stepped corner detail with indirect lighting

140 141 141 141 142 146 146 147 147 147

122 123 123 123 123 124 127 127 129 129 130 131 131 131 132 132 134 135 136 137 137 138 139 139

Attaching loads to the ceiling surface Installing services in the ceiling void Access hatches

154 154 155

3 Flooring systems 156 Dry subfloors 156 Dry loose fill (levelling layer) 157 Materials for dry subfloors 158 Building physics requirements for floors 158 Dry subfloor junction details 159 Integrating underfloor heating into dry subfloors 160 Proprietary flooring systems 160 Hollow floor systems 161 Raised access floors systems 161 Materials for raised access floors 163 Building physics requirements for proprietary flooring systems 163 Junctions and details for raised access floors 166 Integrating HVAC items into raised access floors 166 4 Fire-resistant casing systems Beam and column casings Beam casings Column casings Ventilation, cable and service ducts I-class cable ducts E-class cable ducts L-class ducts (separate ventilation ducts)

168 168 169 169 169 170 170 170

149 149 149 152 152 152 154 154

119

Wall systems Karsten Tichelmann, Bastian Ziegler

C 1.1

C 1.1 C 1.2 C 1.3 C 1.4 C 1.5

C 1.6

120

Internal wall under construction, surgical clinic, Erfurt (D), 2000; rossmann+partner Architekten Internal wall completed, surgical clinic, Erfurt Properties of stud wall systems Single-stud wall with metal framing and one layer of boarding each side Double-stud wall with metal framing, two layers of boarding each side and each pair of studs separated by a strip of resilient material Double-stud wall with timber framing and two layers of boarding each side; the studs can be staggered or positioned so that they are not in direct contact with one another to ease the electrical installation, as shown here

Wall systems for interior works are non-loadbearing constructions that form internal enclosures. We essentially divide them into heavyweight (masonry and reinforced concrete) and lightweight (stud walls, glass partitions and demountable partition systems) forms (see “Prefabricated forms of construction”, pp. 64 – 68). The wall systems have to satisfy diverse requirements which vary depending on the particular application. Apart from space-dividing functions and the integration of technical services, such requirements may include architectural and haptic demands or the requirement for a certain type of substrate for a specific interior finish. In addition, fire resistance, sound insulation and room acoustics requirements may have to be satisfied. The building physics and interior architecture of existing buildings can be improved by retrofitting internal wall systems, which are available in the following forms to suit different specifications:

junctions with other parts of the building call for careful planning and good workmanship because it is at such points that we find weaknesses inherent to the system with respect to the constructional and building physics performance. The most important criteria affecting the selection of a suitable wall construction are listed below:

• Walls designed to satisfy high sound insulation and fire protection requirements (e.g. party walls, outer walls, fire walls, stair shaft walls, etc.) • Wall systems with enhanced structural requirements (e.g. regarding height of wall, surface hardness, out-of-plane loads, loadbearing and bracing systems) • Walls for interiors with high moisture loads • Walls with room acoustics functions • Minimum-footprint, slender partitions with adequate sound insulation and fire resistance values (gain in floor space) • Demountable partitions, partition systems • Walls housing services, inner linings to conceal services, walls with technical functions • Walls with integral heating/cooling systems • Walls as architectural elements (curves and other shapes, integral lighting, etc.) • Special systems such as radiation screens, bullet-proof walls, wall systems for clean rooms, field-free rooms, etc.

Building physics characteristics • Fire resistance • Airborne sound insulation • Flanking sound transmissions • Thermal insulation

The configuration of a wall to fulfil the above requirements is based on constructional principles that can be applied to all lightweight partitions. The inclusion of doors, glazing and technical services, and the design of the details at

System characteristics • Thickness of wall • Height of wall • Weight of wall • Flexibility, demountability • Integration of technical services • Load-carrying capacity: out-of-plane loads, impact resistance, etc. • Integration of windows, doors, penetrations, etc. • Site operations aspects (construction time, waiting time, sequence of operations)

Special requirements • Radiation screening • Clean-room requirements • Bullet resistance etc. Aesthetics • Seamless or separate elements • Curved and inclined forms • Varying surfaces Costs • Construction • Disposal • Repositioning the walls • Retrofitting

Wall systems

Properties of stud wall systems Wall thickness

75 –150 mm

Wall grid

1250 mm, seamless

Wall height

up to 13 m

Wall length

unlimited

Weight

35 – 68 kg/m2 depending on configuration

Sound insulation R'W to DIN 52210

38 – 67 dB (for walls > 140 mm thick)

Fire protection rating

D: F 0 to F180; CH: REI 90-M

Single-stud walls Single-stud walls are lightweight, non-loadbearing wall systems with a supporting framework arranged in one plane. The framing is clad with one, two or more layers of boarding on both sides to suit the fire protection and sound insulation specification. Single-stud walls are quick and easy to erect and therefore are advantageous provided no particular sound insulation requirements have to be satisfied. Fig. C 1.4 illustrates the principle of a single-stud wall.

Stud wall systems essentially consist of a supporting framework of metal or timber sections that are clad with board materials to form a sturdy, interconnected whole. The voids between the supporting members can be filled with insulating materials and used for routing pipes and cables. The framing members at the ends of a wall and those at top and bottom must be connected to secure substantial parts of the structure. Tapes and compounds compensate for any unevenness in the adjoining components, and the detail at this junction depends

on the anticipated deformations of those components. Sliding connections can accommodate deformation at the junction, rigid connections can lead to cracks if components move. Gypsum-based boards, cement-bonded boards, wood-based panels and other boards faced with aluminium or other materials are suitable for cladding the supporting framework. A huge range of materials is available and their use is only limited by the prevailing building physics requirements. Board-type materials form the enclosure to an interior space and are therefore critical to the surface finishes and the interior climate. In order to simplify the design and construction of wall systems, a standard format is used for all common board materials, which results in a stud spacing of 625 mm. Although different stud spacings are possible, that usually results in increased work on site. Where a greater stud spacing is required, it should not exceed 50 times the thickness of the boards to be used. Curved walls are possible with flexible board materials, e.g. thin, pliable MDF or gypsum fibreboard. Fig. C 1.3 lists the main characteristics of stud wall systems. There are basically two types of stud wall construction: single- and double-stud walls. The former has just one row of studs, the latter two parallel rows.

C 1.4

C 1.5

C 1.6

C 1.2

Design principles Non-loadbearing internal walls are primarily in the form of lightweight partitions, some of which can be set up without affecting the existing building fabric. Stud wall systems and walls made from preformed parts are assembled directly on the building site using the various system elements. Demountable partitions and glass partition systems, on the other hand, consist of industrially prefabricated elements or wall segments that are erected or joined together on the building site. Stud wall systems are suitable for a huge variety of applications in interior works and so they are given priority here. Stud wall systems

C 1.3

Double-stud walls Double-stud (or twin-frame) walls consist of two parallel rows of studs that are clad with one, two or more layers of boarding on both sides; the rows of studs can be aligned (Fig. C 1.5) or offset (Fig. C 1.6). In order to decouple the two sides of the wall from each other for sound insulation purposes, the studs should be separated by an insulating tape or an air gap. The sound insulation properties of double-stud walls are superior to those of comparable single-stud walls because of the separate framing to the two sides of the wall. Attaching a double layer of boards on both sides brings about a further improvement in the sound insulation. Extra boards are also necessary for structural reasons because each row of studs, in contrast to the row of studs in a single-stud wall, is clad on one side only.

121

Wall systems

1 2 3 4 5 6

Ceiling channel Sound insulation, 60 mm rock wool Frame section Frame section Gasket Floor channel

1 C 1.7

C 1.8

2 3 4 5

Wall channel Special clamping stud

2 6 Boarding element Wall junction strip

C 1.9

The stability of a particularly tall double-stud wall can be increased by connecting the two rows of studs together by means of small plates (Fig. C 1.7). However, it should be remembered that this direct connection between the two sides of the wall will reduce the sound-insulating properties. Double-stud walls whose voids are used for routing technical services are sometimes known as plumbing walls. The distance between the two leaves of the wall should be chosen so that there is sufficient space in the voids for horizontal and vertical pipes and cables.

a

b

component behind, it is also possible to improve the fire resistance, thermal insulation and sound insulation properties of the existing wall. The voids can be used for routing technical services and installing additional insulation.

C 1.7

Wall elements made from preformed parts

C 1.10

Wall linings and walls to shafts Wall linings and walls to shafts are single-stud walls clad on one side only; the supporting framework is attached to a component behind the wall, e.g. an existing structural wall (Fig. C 1.8). Besides adding an architectural finish to the

Preformed parts are elements made from bent or folded boards, supporting members and insulating materials. Such walls can be assembled for all common wall thicknesses and fire resistance ratings. They mainly use gypsum fibreboard and plasterboard in thicknesses of 10 and 12.5 mm. Single- and double-layer quarter, half and complete shells are industrially prefabricated for curved elements. The type and thickness of insulation depend on the sound insulation and fire resistance requirements and are the same as for straight walls (Fig. C 1.11).

a

b

122

C 1.11

C 1.8 C 1.9

C 1.11

C 1.12 C 1.13 C 1.14

C 1.10 Pairs of studs connected with small plates for tall walls or for housing services Independent wall lining with metal framing Semi-prefabricated partition with sheet steel trays (plasterboard inlay) clipped directly to the supporting framework, partition-wall junction Glass partition system a Horizontal section b Vertical section Dental practice KU 64, Berlin (D), 2006; Graft Architekten a Under construction b Completed Glass walls, Hartela headquarters, Turku (FIN), 2002; Tiula Architects Ltd. Metal stud wall sections (and their designations) Web optimised to reduce heat losses and sound transmission

C 1.12

Wall systems

Example of a C stud section showing two different lip and web forms (CW section)

Example of a wall channel (UW section)

Example of a wall external corner angle (LWa section)

C 1.13 Demountable partitions

Demountable partitions are industrially prefabricated wall systems that, owing to their form of construction using standard elements, can be erected, taken down and re-erected with minimum effort. As with all prefabricated components, the maximum dimensions of the individual parts are limited by production, transport and handling requirements. Prefabricated wall systems are particularly advisable when internal layouts are likely to change frequently and individual wall forms are not a priority. The building physics performance (e.g. sound reduction index) of demountable partitions is usually poorer than that of a comparable stud wall. One of the reasons for this is the design of the connections between the individual parts, which must be detachable. Systems based on a modular grid permit connections at every grid-line. Such systems consist of a succession of identical wall and node elements which can be fixed together like a building kit. Flexible systems based on axial or linear grids have fewer joints and comprise wall and make-up elements in different lengths. Make-up elements are required in order to adapt the size of the wall to the dimensions or the grid of the main structure. Building physics, erection and architectural aspects must be taken into account in the design and construction of the unavoidable joints between the prefabricated components. Besides the wall elements themselves with their different widths to suit different grids, the systems include numerous perimeter sections and capping strips, door frames, door leaves and glazing. A large variety of materials is available for the boarding. Demountable partitions are divided into fully prefabricated and semi-prefabricated systems. Fully prefabricated partitions Fully prefabricated partitions are finished wall elements consisting of supporting framework plus boarding, possibly insulation as well, that are delivered to the site in units ready for erection. The connections and fixings depend on the particular supplier. Their easy, rapid installation means that changing the position of these partitions at a later

C 1.14

date is also correspondingly straightforward. The incorporation of pipes and cables is limited to the horizontal sections at the top and bottom of the wall, the grid-lines or zones specially designed and reserved for services. Fully prefabricated partitions are normally supplied with surfaces of sheet steel or wood-based panel products. Melamine-faced particleboard, plasterboard with a sheet metal or machine-applied vinyl foil facing, decorative wood finishes, real wood veneers and solid synthetic sheets are other possible cladding materials.

Building materials

Semi-prefabricated partitions Semi-prefabricated partitions consist of a supporting framework, wall, floor and ceiling channels, ready-finished boarding materials and, if required, insulation. The elements are assembled on site to form a complete wall (Fig. C 1.9). The advantages of this form of construction are the low transport weights of the individual items and the easier incorporation of technical services.

Metal sections Metal sections can be used for the supporting framework to internal fitting-out components such as wall and soffit linings, stud walls and suspended ceilings. These sections can be combined with all common gypsum- and woodbased board materials (Fig. C 1.13).

Glass partition systems

Glass partition systems are designed either as demountable systems with a finished surface in semi-prefabricated form, or as fully prefabricated elements with double glazing flush with the wall surface. The glazing is generally 2 – 4 mm float glass, but panes up to 7 mm thick can be used where sound insulation requirements dictate this (see “Glass panels”, p. 66). Fully prefabricated elements are factory-glazed so that soiling in the cavity between the panes is ruled out. It is possible to incorporate a louvre blind in this cavity (Figs. C 1.10 and C 1.12).

Prior to choosing materials, it is important to check the building physics requirements that apply to the wall design and the system. Those requirements could restrict the choice of materials; for example, the building materials class is important when considering fire protection. Materials for the supporting framework

Metal and timber sections are preferred because of their low weight and easy working.

CW sections (= C studs for walls) These sections are used as vertical loadbearing members in walls. Holes are usually punched through the web so that pipes and cables can be passed through. The ends of the flanges are bent over to enhance stability. The flanges of CW sections provide the bearing surfaces for the boarding materials and therefore must be 50 mm wide so that there is enough material to fix two boards butted together over the flange. CW sections are available with web depths between 28.8 and 98.8 mm. This is a little less than the web depths of the matching channel sections so that the sections can be easily fitted together. The thickness of the metal varies between 0.6 and 1.0 mm. UW sections (= wall channels) These sections are the horizontal components in a stud wall. Their edges are not folded over, which means that they can accommodate vertical CW sections inserted into horizontal UW sections attached to floor or soffit. Web depths lie between 30 and 100 mm, the flanges are 40 mm wide and the metal is 0.6 mm thick.

123

Wall systems

UA sections (= stiffening channels) The edges of these sections are not folded over either, but in contrast to UW sections they are made from thicker material (2 mm). They are used for strengthening the framing around wall and door openings. Their dimensions vary between 50 ≈ 40 mm and 100 ≈ 40 mm. a

Wall internal corner angles LWi Wall external corner angles LWa These are L-shaped sections for forming corners and junctions. The difference between the two types is that the edges of internal corner angles are bent outwards, those of external corner angles inwards. Both legs are 60 mm long and the metal is 0.6 mm thick. b

c

C 1.15

Solid timber Square and rectangular timber sections can be used as the studs for internal walls. The softwood used must comply with the requirements of DIN 4074-1 grade S 10, cutting class S (square-edged). Upon installation, the timber should have a moisture content appropriate to the later interior conditions, i.e. in the region of 15 % ± 3 %, in order to avoid drying-related deformations. Materials for boarding and surfaces

The most common materials for linings are industrially manufactured board and panel products that can be fitted together without joints. The lining terminates the wall construction on the inside and may be provided with some form of surface finish. High-performance composite materials (e.g. special fire-resistant boards), boards with conducting properties, boards with integral heating and cooling coils (see p. 139) plus boards with a wood, glass, aluminium or other facing material provide designers with a multitude of options. With different compositions and special additives, specific to the manufacturer, the properties of the board materials can be adjusted to suit certain applications. Such adjustments affect, for example, the strength of a product, its moisture sensitivity and reaction to fire. Mechanical modifications such as perforations, embossing, slots and slits can help to improve the degree of sound attenuation. Owing to the huge number of different materials, only the board materials encountered most frequently will be described below (see also “Prefabricated forms of construction”, pp. 64 – 68).

a

b

c

Gypsum-based boards Gypsum has a high proportion of pores and this is why boards based on gypsum help to regulate the moisture in the interior air. The moisture that is absorbed when the humidity is high is released again during dryer conditions. Gypsumbased boards exposed to moisture constantly will, however, suffer permanent damage.

d

Gypsum plasterboard Plasterboard consists of a gypsum core that is covered with paper (so-called lining paper). The e

124

C 1.16

longitudinal edges are also covered but the gypsum core remains visible at the cut transverse edges. The paper is permanently attached to the gypsum core, forms a stable surface and acts as reinforcement because gypsum has only a low tensile strength (Fig. C 1.15a). Different types of plasterboard are available for different applications, distinguished by the paper used and the additives in the gypsum core. Plasterboard is manufactured in thicknesses of 10, 12.5, 15, 18, 20 and 25 mm. The standard width is 1250 mm, but the 20 and 25 mm boards are only 600 mm wide. Fig. C 1.17 provides an overview of the different boards and their applications. Gypsum fibreboard Gypsum fibreboard consists of a mixture of gypsum, cellulose fibres (which act as reinforcement) and other additives. The dense structure strengthened by the cellulose fibres results in a material that is stronger and tougher than conventional plasterboard (Figs. C 1.15c, C 1.18 and C 1.19). Special fire-resistant gypsum-based boards These boards, like plasterboard, are made from hemihydrate gypsum plaster, water and aggregates. However, the crucial difference is that instead of paper, a glass-fibre fleece is permanently attached to the gypsum core. The surfaces may also be finished with a coat of gypsum depending on the fleece (and the manufacturer). Besides a high tensile bending strength, such boards exhibit good fire resistance which is better than conventional fire-resistant gypsum plasterboard (type GKF) even though they are somewhat lighter. Wood-based board products Wood-based products have a more homogeneous structure than solid timber, which improves the properties of the boards, e.g. swelling and shrinkage are less pronounced. 3- and 5-core plywood These boards consist of three or five crosslaminated plies of softwood (Fig. C 1.16a). Laminated veneer lumber LVL boards are made by compressing and bonding together approx. 3 mm thick rotarycut softwood veneers with a phenolic resin (Fig. C 1.16b). Pressed wood This is veneer plywood with several plies that has been shaped with the help of steam while being pressed into a mould. The creation of any shape is possible with this wood-based product. Particleboards The particles for these boards can be bonded together with a synthetic resin or a mineral binder. The use of very small particles results in

Wall systems

a very dense surface that is ideal as a substrate for a huge range of finishes (Fig. C 1.16c). Oriented strand boards OSB products consist of approx. 75 mm long wood particles pressed together with a binder. The vigorous surface structure remains visible under thin finishes (Fig. C 1.16d). Medium density fibreboards Owing to their solid structure and smooth surfaces, MDF products are ideal for coatings and other surface finishes. The addition of pigments during manufacture results in coloured boards which can then be used without the need for any further surface finishes. It is also possible to shape these boards (Fig. C 1.16e). Other board materials In addition to the board materials based on gypsum and wood, there are many other types of boards and panels manufactured from combinations of various materials. For example, mineral materials can be reinforced with fibres or textiles in order to achieve good fire resistance properties. Many different board materials are available, the properties of which vary depending on the manufacturer, and so only a few of the more significant types will be described below. Calcium silicate boards The main material of these boards is calcium silicate to which further mineral fillers and various reinforcing fibres (e.g. cellulose) are added. These boards are unaffected by moisture and are therefore ideal for wet interior areas. Fibre-cement boards These boards are made from synthetic or cellulose fibres, cement and water. They are impervious to water, resistant to the weather and incombustible. They are particularly suitable for areas with high moisture levels because in contrast to materials containing gypsum, they are not affected by moisture (Fig. C 1.15b).

Cement-bonded, glass fibre-reinforced building boards These purely mineral, incombustible and weather-resistant boards are used in wet areas and as a background for plaster. The glass fibre reinforcement lends this material a certain flexibility which allows the creation of curved forms. Cement-faced polystyrene building boards These boards consist of an extruded polystyrene rigid foam core reinforced both sides with a glass-fibre fabric and coated with a cement mortar that has been improved with a synthetic additive. As these boards are not sensitive to moisture, they can be used in wet areas. Thicker boards can also be used as self-supporting elements, e.g. for vanity units or shower cabins, without any additional supporting framework.

Plasterboard types and their applications Designation

Properties

Purpose, applications

Gypsum plasterboard (GKB/type A)

No special properties

For general use As lining to walls and soffits.

Gypsum fire-resistant board (GKF/type DF)

Enhanced fire resistance

For fire protection Applications as for GKB but where components have to provide fire resistance.

Impregnated gypsum plasterboard (GKBI/type H)

Reduced water absorption rate

For wet areas Applications as for GKB but for use in wet areas (kitchens, bathrooms, etc.), outdoors and also as a background for ceramic tiles.

Impregnated gypsum fire-resistant board (GKFI/type DFH)

Enhanced fire resistance, reduced water absorption rate

For fire protection and wet areas Applications as for GKF but where a reduced water absorption rate is necessary.

Gypsum acoustic boards

Enhanced sound insulation

For sound insulation Applications as for GKB but where components have to satisfy sound insulation requirements.

Gypsum board with enhanced surface hardness (type I)

Impact-resistant and hardwearing

For public buildings or schools

Gypsum board with hardwood granulate additive (enhanced strength – type R)

Enhanced surface hardness, resistant to compressive and tensile bending forces

For carrying heavy out-of-plane loads or for structural purposes

Gypsum perforated/slit board/panel

Enhanced sound absorption

For acoustic ceilings and as decorative elements

Gypsum composite boards

Combined with thermal insulation

For thermal insulation Plasterboard composite boards consist of polystyrene or rigid polyurethane boards or mineral fibre insulating materials attached to 9.5 – 12.5 mm thick plasterboard.

Thin gypsum plasterboard

Flexible and pliable

For lining to curved components

Gypsum plasterboard with embossed finish

No special properties

For decorating walls, spandrel panels and soffits (e.g. like wall panelling)

Factory-coated gypsum plasterboard (permanent coating, foil)

No special properties

Applications as for GKB

C 1.17

Gypsum fibreboard types and their applications Designation

Areas of use

Purpose, applications

Gypsum fibreboard (GF)

General, fire protection, wet areas, increased loads, dry subfloors

As lining to walls and soffits, as bracing in timber structures according to approval documents, where components have to satisfy fire protection requirements, where a reduced water absorption rate is necessary (wet areas), where higher strength is necessary (gypsum fibreboard is stronger than gypsum plasterboard), as a dry subfloor (also in conjunction with thermal and impact sound insulation), as a panel material for hollow and raised access floors systems.

Dense gypsum fibreboard

General

For high loads

Gypsum composite fibreboard

Thermal insulation

Combined with insulating material (polystyrene or rigid polyurethane boards, mineral wool) C 1.18

Dimensions and thicknesses of gypsum fibreboard Possible board thicknesses (mm) 10

12.5

15

18

Standard formats (in cm) 62.5 ≈ 200 125 ≈ 200 125 ≈ 260

62.5 ≈ 260 125 ≈ 250 125 ≈ 275

100 ≈ 150 125 ≈ 254 125 ≈ 300

C 1.15 Mineral-bonded boards a Plasterboard type A (GKB) b Fibre-cement board c Gypsum fibreboard (GF) C 1.16 Wood-based board products a 3-ply core plywood b Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) c Particleboard (P) d Oriented strand board (OSB) e Medium density fibreboard (MDF) C 1.17 Plasterboard types to DIN 18180/EN 520 and their applications C 1.18 Applications for gypsum fibreboard C 1.19 Dimensions and thicknesses of gypsum fibreboard products

C 1.19

125

Wall systems

Board material

Properties

Gypsum plasterboard Gypsum fibreboard

Gypsum-bonded boards

Product standard

Mineralbonded boards

Applications Bldg. mat. ¬ class4 (W/m²K)

μ

Seamless

FP

SI

RA

Wet area

Loadbearing

Gypsum plasterboard GKB

680 – 750

++

°

+

•

Gypsum fire-resistant board GKF

800 – 950

++

+

+

•

++

°

+

•

+

800 – 950

++

+

+

•

+

°

Gypsum acoustic board

800 – 900

++

+

++

800 – 1050

++

+

++

• •

10 – 20

++

+

++

•

° ° °

°

Gypsum hard-surface board

30 / 50

+

+

++

•

++

++

++

+

•

° °

Impregnated gypsum plasterboard GKBI Impregnated gypsum fireresistant board GKFI

DIN 18180, EN 520

680 – 800 A 2-s 1, d 0 25 (A 2)

0.2 – 0.383

Gypsum fibreboard

Approval

950 – 1250

Dense gypsum fibreboard

Approval

A 2-s 1, d 0 1350 – 1500 (A 2) 0.44

Gypsum special fire-resistant board Woodbased boards

Density

Synthetic resin-bonded wood-based board

800 – 900

(A1)

600 – 700

D-s 2, d 0 (B 2)

1000 – 1200

4 / 10

3

Calcium silicate board Cement-bonded mineral board

Cement-faced polystyrene building board

450 – 900

•

°

•

•

B-s 1, d 0 (B 1, A 2)

0.23

30 / 50

•

–

°

•

–

++

(A1)

0.01 – 0.33

3 – 203

+

++

+

•

+

+

0.17– 0.43

19 – 563

+

°

°

•

++

++

0.037

100

°

•

–

•

++

°

B-s1 , d 0 (B 1)

Product standard

Properties Bldg. mat. class

μ

EN 13162 (DIN 18165)

A 1, A 2, B 1

0.035 – 0.04

1

Cellular glass (CG)

EN 13167 (DIN 18174)

A1

0.045 – 0.06

Wood fibres (WF)

EN 13171 (DIN 68755)

B2

0.04 – 0.055

5 /10

Coconut fibres

(DIN 18165)

B2

0.04 – 0.055

1

Cellulose fibres

Approval

B2

0.04 – 0.045

1 /2

Cotton, sheep’s wool, flax, hemp

Approval

B2

0.04

1/2

Polyester fibres

Approval

B2

Expanded polystyrene foam (EPS)

EN 13163 (DIN 18164)

B1

0.035 – 0.04

20 /50 – 40 /100

Extruded polystyrene foam (XPS)

EN 13164 (DIN 18164)

B1

0.03 – 0.04

Polyurethane rigid foam (PUR)

EN 13165 (DIN 18164)

B 1, B 2

0.025 – 0.035

Phenolic foam (PF)

EN 13166 (DIN 18164)

B 1, B 2

Mineral insulating materials

Mineral wool (MW) Rock wool Foams

Organic insulating materials

Fibres

Foams

Melamine foam (MF) Others

Wood-wool board (WW)

EN 13168 (DIN 1101,

Wood-wool composite board (WW-C)

DIN 1102)

Insulation cork board (ICB)

EN 13170 (DIN 18161)

FP

SI

RA

TI

+

++

++

+

++

++

++

+

+

–

•

°

° ° ° °

++

+

++

+

++

+

++

+

° ° ° °

–

+

+

•

•

•

+

80 /250

•

•

•

+

30 /100

•

•

•

++

0.03 – 0.045

•

•

•

+

B2

0.034

•

°

++

+

B 1, B 2

0.09 – 0.15

2 /5

+

–

+

–

0.035 – 0.045

1, 20 /50

–

+

+

0.045 – 0.055

5 /10

° °

•

•

B2

Assessment: ++ ideal, specific application + very suitable, typical application suitable, untypical application Applications: FP: fire protection; SI: sound insulation/insulation to voids; RA: room acoustics/sound attenuation; TI: Thermal insulation 1 Building materials class to DIN 4102-2 (national) λ = Thermal conductivity; μ = water vapour diffusion resistance index (min./max.)

°

126

C 1.20

Applications ¬ (W/m²K)

1

Mineral wool (MW) Glass wool

°

•

°

Fibres

+

++

Assessment: ++ ideal, specific application + very suitable, typical application suitable, untypical application – generally unsuitable • absolutely unsuitable Applications: FP: fire protection; SI: sound insulation; RA: room acoustics 1 Particleboard 2 OSB 3 Depends on product, manufacturer, density 4 Euroclass to DIN EN 13501-1 (DIN 4102-2 national classes in brackets) λ = Thermal conductivity; μ = water vapour diffusion resistance index (min./max.)

Insulating material

+

0.13

1000 – 1150 A1 30

° ° °

50/1001 200 /3002

EN 13986 Mineral-bonded wood-based board

° °

– generally unsuitable

•

absolutely unsuitable

° C 1.21

Wall systems

Fig. C 1.20 provides an overview of the properties of various board materials. The main criteria and potential requirements influencing the choice of a suitable board material (boarding) are listed below:

Handling • Working, shaping • Weight (transport) • Dimensions (length, width, thickness) • Fixings, jointing

Mechanical properties • Mechanical strength (bending strength) • Impact resistance • Surface hardness, compressive strength

Insulating materials

Building physics properties • Building materials class (fire protection) • Sensitivity to moisture • Vapour permeability, sorption ability • Dimensional accuracy, expansion behaviour Surface • Material • Type of cleaning • Application of finishes (painting, plastering, wallpapering, etc.)

Besides their thermal insulation effect, insulating materials can also help to improve sound insulation and fire resistance. The choice of an insulating material for an internal wall is therefore mainly governed by noise control and fire protection criteria. We divide insulating materials into those made from organic and those made from mineral substances depending on their structure and constituents. It is the structure that is responsible for the acoustic characteristics. Fibrous insulation materials, for instance, are better for sound insulation than closed-pore foams because their fibrous, open-pore structure results in a high flow resistance, which reduces the transmis-

A A

B

A

B

F (xx) –B Timber studs; boarding and insulation to building materials class B2 or better.

B

A B

A

B B

F (xx) –A Metal studs; boarding and insulation to building materials class A2 or better.

A

Building physics requirements for internal walls Enclosing walls, e.g. separating walls between two apartments or offices, walls enclosing staircases and corridors, must generally satisfy both fire protection and sound insulation requirements. Stud walls clad with plasterboard can

B A

B

A

sion of sound in the voids of internal walls, wall linings or suspended ceilings. On the other hand, foams are advantageous when a compression-resistant material is required or moisture problems cannot be ruled out. Organic materials are combustible and that means comparable mineral insulating materials exhibit better properties in fire. Fig. C 1.21 provides an overview of the customary insulation materials and their properties (see also “Insulating materials”, pp. 67 – 68).

A

B

B

B

A

B

F (xx) –AB Metal studs; one layer of boarding each side to building materials class A2, all other layers of boarding and insulation to class B2 or better.

K (xx) Timber studs; component-enclosing, incombustible boarding is effective for fire protection purposes.

(xx): corresponding fire resistance rating

C 1.20 Board materials for interior works, overview of properties and applications C 1.21 Insulating materials for interior works, overview of properties and applications C 1.22 Classification of stud wall systems for fire resistance purposes C 1.23 German fire resistance ratings for typical metal stud walls with optimised thickness (stud section CW) C 1.24 Firestopping around pipes and cables where they penetrate partitions with a fire resistance rating 1 Fire-resistant jointing compound 2 Fire-resistant coating 3 Sleeve for combustible pipe

C 1.22

German fire resistance ratings for typical metal stud walls with optimised thickness Description

Studs

Boarding (mm)

Insulation Thickness/density (mm / kg/m3)

Thickness

Mass

(mm)

(kg / m2)

Fire resistance rating

CW 50

12.5 GKF

MW 40 /≥ 30

75

25

F 30

CW 50

12.5 GF

MW 40 /20

75

34

F 30

CW 50

2≈ 12.5 GKF

MW 40 /40

100

49

F 60

CW 50

2≈ 12.5 GKF

MW 40 /100

100

49

F 90

CW 50

2≈ 12.5 GF

MW 50 /50

100

64

F 90

CW 50

3≈ 12.5 GKF

MW 40 /40

125

75

F120

1 2 3

GKF = gypsum fire-resistant board GF = gypsum fibreboard C 1.23

C 1.24

127

Wall systems

Acoustic properties of dry wall constructions compared to heavyweight solid walls Construction

Component thickness (mm)

Weight per unit area (kg / m2)

Airborne sound insulation index Rw, R (dB)

Single-stud wall, 1 layer of gypsum fibreboard/plasterboard

75 – 125

35 – 45

40 – 54

F 30–A

Single-stud wall, 2 layers of gypsum fibreboard/plasterboard

100 – 150

45 – 65

47 – 60

F 60–A, F 90–A

Single-stud wall with “resilient channels”, 2 layers of gypsum fibreboard/plasterboard

approx. 155

approx. 52

approx. 61

F 60–A, F 90–A

Double-stud wall, 2 layers of gypsum fibreboard/plasterboard

175 – 275

65 – 80

59 – 65

F 90–A, F 120–A

Solid wall of clay or calcium silicate bricks, 115 mm, plastered

145

160 – 240

42 – 47

F 90–A, F 120–A

Solid wall of clay or calcium silicate bricks, 240 mm, plastered

270

260 – 500

48 – 55

F 180–A; Fire wall

Fire resistance rating

C 1.25

System component

Physical influencing factor

Practical influencing factor with positive effect on sound insulation

Boarding (single leaf)

Rigidity

• • • • •

Mass per unit area

Supporting framework, fixings

Decoupling of the leaves

Limiting the boarding thickness1 Boarding structure, boarding material2 Number of layers Density of boarding material Adding ballast to boarding

• Studs optimised for acoustic purposes (e.g. special, resilient metal stud sections exhibit better acoustic properties than standard CW sections, which are in turn better than timber studs) • Large stud spacing • Large leaf spacing (overall component thickness) • Isolated supporting construction, e.g. doublestud wall • Intermediate elements (e.g. transverse battens, insulating strips, resilient elements) • Fixing of boarding (e.g. spacing/type of fixings)

Insulating material

Sound absorption in void

• 80 % of voids filled • Type and properties of insulating material (e.g. sound impedance)

1

Examples of resilient boarding: plasterboard (12.5 –15 mm), gypsum fibreboard (10 – 15 mm) and wood-based board products (13 –16 mm). 2 Special acoustic plasterboard products are less rigid than conventional plasterboard. C 1.26

C 1.27 1

C 1.25 C 1.26 C 1.27 C 1.28

Acoustic properties of dry wall constructions compared to heavyweight solid walls Examples of special metal sections with improved acoustic properties Factors influencing the sound insulation of lightweight stud wall systems System components that influence the acoustic behaviour of lightweight partitions

A

2

B

3

4

5

6

1 2 3 4 5 6 A B

Material Ballast Thickness of insulating material Number of layers and their thickness Type of stud Fixings, possibly transverse members Spacing Spacing between leaves C 1.28

128

Wall systems

achieve fire resistance ratings up to F 180 and sound reduction indices up to 67 dB while still remaining economical. In order that the separating wall complies with the fire protection and sound insulation requirements, all joints and junctions must also satisfy the same specifications. Combinations of components must as a whole guarantee the fire resistance or sound insulation required. For these reasons, special care must be taken at the following details when building walls: • Vertical and horizontal joints between individual elements • Junctions with walls, floors and soffits • The inclusion of light-permeable elements • The inclusion of doors • Penetrations by technical services The following basic requirements must be satisfied if a wall is to be constructed properly in terms of fire protection and sound insulation: • • • •

Impermeability due to complete separation Impermeability of junctions Impermeability of joints and connections Use of several layers of boarding where high sound insulation or fire protection requirements must be fulfilled

Fire protection

The fire resistance of internal walls is essentially determined by the nature and thickness of the boarding and the insulating material in the voids. DIN 4102-4 specifies wall configurations with a fire resistance rating. Numerous other forms of construction have been verified by the manufacturers of the boards and insulating materials by way of national test certificates (AbP) (Fig. C 1.23, p. 127). As a solid wall’s behaviour in fire can be matched by thinner, lightweight walls, the usable floor area of a building can be enlarged. During both design and construction, special attention must be paid to service penetrations because these represent weak points in the wall and are often not sealed properly. The fire-stopping methods used with concrete and masonry walls cannot necessarily be transferred to lightweight walls. Their suitability must be assured by way of test certificates and approvals (Fig. C 1.24, p. 127). According to DIN 4102, building components are allocated to fire resistance ratings F 30, F 60 (building authority designation: “fire-retardant”) and F 90 (building authority designation: “fireresistant”), which are further subdivided into four groups A, B, AB and K according to the reaction to fire of the building materials used in the component (Fig. C 1.22, p. 127). Suffix “A” means that the component is made from incombustible materials. Components that consist mainly of combustible materials are allocated the suffix “B”. The hybrid class “AB” designates components whose main parts are made from incombustible materials. In the case of enclosing components, it is also important to provide an

uninterrupted incombustible layer; the other constituents can then make use of combustible materials if necessary. Special importance is attached to forms of construction with fire-resistant surfaces. Components that comply with the encapsulation criterion according to DIN EN 13501-2 are designated with the “K” suffix (also referred to as class BA), which means that combustible materials may be used within the component provided the covering materials meet the requirements for building materials class A “incombustible”. According to this principle the fire-resistant covering material encapsulates the fire load, e.g. timber studs, for a defined period of time. Ignition of the combustible materials within the component or the uncontrolled spread of fire through the voids is delayed for a certain time, which depends on the classification. Plasterboard or special fire-resistant panels can be used for the boarding to such walls. Class “K” forms of construction are essentially characterised by the following design criteria: • Combustible loadbearing construction (building materials class B) and incombustible boarding/covering (class A) or • Combustible boarding (building materials class B) covered by an incombustible second layer of boarding (class A)

When it comes to the boarding, non-rigid materials such as plasterboard or gypsum fibreboard 15 mm thick and wood-based board products 16 mm thick are advantageous. The sound reduction index can be further improved by 5 –10 dB by adding ballast to the leaves in the form of rubber, sheet lead or bitumen sheeting. Attaching gypsum-based boards or hardboard with staples or glue is another possibility provided these products do not increase the rigidity of the leaf. Fig. C 1.27 lists the most important sound insulation parameters for stud wall systems, which are illustrated schematically in Fig. C 1.28. The sound reduction indexes of stud walls can be found in test certificates or DIN 4109 Bbl. 1. It is not only the wall configuration and the properties of the individual components that determine the final level of sound insulation. The quality of workmanship on site is also crucial. Interruptions to otherwise continuous sections of wall usually have a negative effect on the sound insulation. Such interruptions include, for example: • Built-in items such as power sockets, inspection openings, luminaires • Doors, high-level windows, glazing • Weak points at junctions and transitions (e.g. shadowline joints, reduced junctions at the facade, facade fins, skirting boards recessed into the wall, sliding soffit junctions)

Sound insulation

The sound insulation effect of solid internal walls is mainly determined by the wall’s weight per unit area; greater mass means better sound insulation. With solid building components, adequate sound insulation can only be achieved by adding more weight. When refurbishing old buildings with lightweight solid walls, it is therefore necessary to increase the mass of the walls in order to improve the sound insulation. This can become a problem when the unnecessary extra load exceeds the reserves of the loadbearing structure. Stud walls can achieve equivalent or better sound insulation properties than solid walls despite their much lower weight because in terms of building physics they constitute a double-leaf component (Fig. C 1.25). In contrast to a solid wall, a stud wall is a compact system of two coupled leaves made up of several individual components (boards, supporting framework, insulating material, fasteners, etc.). The sound insulation is essentially determined by the properties of the two individual leaves (board material, board thickness, number of layers, rigidity), the connection between the two leaves (framing, fasteners) and the insulating material in the voids. The connection between the two leaves can be optimised, for example, by using special metal sections which have a specially designed web that provides a certain degree of resilience. Some special sections already include openings for small pipes and cables. Fig. C 1.26 shows examples of two such special sections.

Flanking components (suspended floor/ceiling, facade/corridor wall, screed/flooring system), flanking paths (e.g. cable ducts, technical services) and the details at junctions with these components also have a considerable influence on the sound insulation. Where a partition meets a solid building component, the flanking transmission depends on the mass per unit area of the flanking solid component, and in the case of a flanking stud wall it is primarily the design and construction of the junction between the boards that is critical because these transmit most of the sound. Low flanking transmissions are achieved by employing the following measures (listed in order of increasing effect). Junction with floor: • Cutting through a floating screed along the line of the partition • Complete interruption of the screed by the partition (partition erected on structural floor) Junction with wall (flanking stud wall): • Filling the voids of the flanking wall with insulation • Attaching several layers of boarding on the flanking wall • Forming a joint at the junction with the partition in order to interrupt the boarding (Fig. C 1.31) • Interrupting the boarding at the junction with the partition over the full depth of the partition (Fig. C 1.32)

129

Wall systems

Junction with soffit (suspended ceiling or soffit lining): • Adding a backing layer of fibrous insulating material (mineral wall) to the ceiling • Attaching several layers of boarding in the case of a flanking soffit with continuous surface • Forming a joint at the junction with the partition in order to interrupt the soffit lining • Interrupting the boarding at the junction with the partition over the full depth of the partition • Complete subdivision of the ceiling void at the junction with the partition by means of a bulkhead built from absorbent or board materials, or by continuing the partition through the void and up to the soffit of the floor above (Figs. C 2.43 and C 2.44, p. 150) Moisture control

Moisture control is significant for the durability of a design primarily because many building materials are sensitive to moisture; gypsum materials, for example, which can be ruined

when they are exposed to moisture for a long period. In addition, there is generally a risk of mould growth where damp substrates are present. It is therefore important to protect the loadbearing structure and all materials that react sensitively to moisture against the effects of long-term exposure to water in its various forms. The moisture load classes are subdivided into seven further classes depending on usage, and the waterproofing system to be chosen depends on the respective moisture load class. Classes 0, A 01 and A 02 cover standard domestic uses such as bathrooms and kitchens which involve only occasional and brief loads due to splashing water. Class 0 is for wall and floor surfaces subjected to a low load, class A 01 applies to moderate loads on wall surfaces and A 02 moderate loads on floor surfaces. Moisture load classes A 1, A 2, B and C are for high loads, e.g. public showers and swimming pools.

Moisture load classes for walls

Flanking transmissions at wall–wall junctions (T-junctions) Flanking wall–partition junction detail

Sound reduction index RL, w, R of flanking wall [dB]

Sound reduction index Rw, R of partition [dB]

1

53 to DIN 4109, plasterboard

42 plasterboard2

57 test certificate, gypsum fibrebd. 2

3

4

5

1 2

Resultant sound reduction index R'w, R (dB)1

52 test certificate, gypsum fibrebd.

41

49 Gypsum plasters Lime-cement plasters

52 plasterboard2

62 test certificate, gypsum fibrebd.

57 test certificate, gypsum fibrebd.

75 similar to DIN 4109, plasterboard

54 plasterboard2

54

75 similar to test certificate, gypsum fibreboard

60 gypsum fibreboard 2

59

75 to DIN 4109, plasterboard

60 plasterboard2

59

75 test certificate, gypsum fibrebd.

64 test certificate, gypsum fibrebd.

63

approx. 76 similar to DIN 4109, plasterboard

64 plasterboard2

63

approx. 76 similar to test certificate, gypsum fibreboard

68 gypsum fibreboard2

66

960 kg ~ 420 mm reinforced concrete

63

400 kg 24 cm KS-1.8

810 kg ~ 350 mm reinforced concrete

63

600 kg 30 cm KS-1.8

600 kg ~ 260 mm reinforced concrete

63

49

23

Cement-bonded building boards 54

Sound transmissions via the partition and two identical flanking walls [dB], in accordance with the illustration. Average value for the construction as shown, determined in a series of tests by the plasterboard industry for metal stud walls with plasterboard. C 1.29

130

Gypsum plasterboard¹ Gypsum fibreboard Other gypsum boards, e.g. special fire-resistant boards

57 to DIN 4109, plasterboard

Construction comparable to No. 4 300 kg 17.5 cm KS-1.8

Waterproofing systems for internal work In Germany waterproofing systems for areas with high moisture loads (classes A 1, A 2, B and C) require a national test certificate (AbP) and must be labelled with the “Ü-mark” to signify conformity. Waterproofing systems for areas with low and moderate moisture loads (classes 0, A 01 and A 02) are, on the other hand, classed as non-regulated construction products. Any waterproofing system (e.g. waterproof sheeting) that is approved for high moisture loads may therefore be used in such situations. In areas with low or moderate moisture loads, systems (e.g. waterproof coatings, sealing tapes, thin-bed mortar) used in conjunction with linings and finishes of ceramic tiles and panels are recommended. The properties of the substrate are extremely important for the proper application and hence the effectiveness of the waterproofing system employed. All substrates must comply with the following requirements:

Cement-based polystyrene building board²

0 Low

A01 moderate

° °

•

° ° ° ° °

•

•

• •

° °

¹ Application to DIN 18181 ² Note manufacturer’s data ³ Except for cement-bonded building boards with organic aggregates (e.g. cement-bonded particleboards) Waterproofing not essential (only when specified by client or planner) • Waterproofing essential

°

C 1.30 C 1.29 Flanking transmissions at junctions (T-junctions) between stud walls and compared to heavyweight solid walls C 1.30 Substrates for waterproofing materials and ceramic finishes depending on the moisture load class C 1.31 T-junction with isolating joint C 1.32 T-junction with boarding cut away, supporting construction of CW sections C 1.33 Movement joint a With jointing strip b Movement joint, fire resistance rating F 30, x = joint width c Movement joint, fire resistance rating F 30, in corridor wall, joint on inside hidden behind incoming partition (isolating tape plus jointing compound or elastic joint filler) C 1.34 Single-stud wall, corner detail… a …with CW sections, screwed b …with CW sections, stapled c …with LW sections

Wall systems

• Flat and even • Dry and sufficiently firm • Dimensionally stable, permitting limited deformations within the tolerances accessible to the finishes (e.g. ceramic tiles) • Free from penetrating cracks, oil and grease, lose constituents and dust Fig. C 1.30 provides an overview of the building materials suitable for walls depending on moisture loads 0 and A 01.

Junctions and details

Thermal performance

As internal walls between heated rooms do not have to satisfy any thermal performance requirements, it is the fire protection and sound insulation requirements that govern the design and construction of such walls. However, internal walls that separate heated from unheated zones with a lower interior temperature must include thermal insulation to prevent heat losses and low surface temperatures. The design principles for external walls therefore apply to such walls. Improving the thermal performance of an external wall by adding a lining with thermal insulation on the inside often results in condensation problems and must always be checked beforehand.

Special attention should be given to junctions and details during design and construction because they have a considerable influence on the building physics and appearance. Cracks in corners, for example, are not only unsightly, they also act as a path for sound, and even smoke, from one room to the next. Well-conceived, durable details properly designed and properly constructed are therefore indispensable. Movement joints

Existing movement joints in the structure must be continued through the fitting-out works so that no components are damaged by unexpected tension or compression forces. Long

Aluminium backing profile with elastic inlay

a

a

C 1.31 b

x

x

b

x x

c

C 1.32

c

C 1.33

C 1.34

131

Wall systems

1

C 1.35

C 1.36

C 1.37

C 1.38

C 1.39

C 1.40

walls normally have to be subdivided into sections. The number of joints and their positions will depend on the constructional situation. The spacing between movement joints should not exceed approx. 15 m for plasterboard and approx. 8 m for gypsum fibreboard. Where sound insulation and fire protection requirements must be complied with, movement joints must be designed accordingly so that the wall is not weakened by the joints. According to DIN 4102-4, classified movement joints can meet the requirements of fire resistance ratings F 30 to F 90 provided the fire protection construction details for boarding and insulating material are maintained (Fig. C 1.33, p. 131).

Junctions are therefore generally resilient or sliding. Where the deformation of the adjoining components is minimal, however, a rigid junction is also possible. In principle, we distinguish between the following types of junction:

angle to create junctions at any angle (Fig. C 1.38). When the walls are clad with plasterboard or gypsum fibreboard, the joint between a stud wall with one layer of boarding and a flanking wall can be in the form of an isolating tape plus jointing compound or a jointing tape fitted into the corner with jointing compound. With two layers of boarding, the inner layer is butted against a strip of insulation, the outer layer finished with jointing compound and an isolating tape (Fig. C 1.40).

Free-standing wall ends and corners

An unsupported end to a wall more than 2.60 m high must include a 2 mm thick UA section in the supporting framework at that point (Fig. C 1.35). Wall corners can be formed with standard CW sections (Figs. C 1.34a and 1.34b, p. 131) or LW corner angles (Fig. C 1.34c, p. 131). Corner angles can be bent accordingly to permit the construction of corners at any angle. To guard against damage, the boarding to an external corner should be trimmed with an edge bead bedded in jointing compound. Junctions with adjoining components

Deformations in adjoining components, e.g. deflection of a suspended floor slab, can often cause damage (e.g. cracks) to internal walls.

132

• Rigid connections: e.g. junction members connected with anchors, bolts or cast-in steel components • Sliding connections (see also “Sliding connections”, pp. 136 – 137): e.g. junction members positioned adjacent to the adjoining components in such a way that the partition can slide, by way of interlocking metal sections or by continuing the boarding beyond the members (Figs. C 1.33b and 1.33c, p. 131). • Resilient connections: e.g. by using resilient materials such as silicone or fixing the junction members with spring-mounted fasteners. Stud wall–stud wall (T-junction) A stud wall is attached to a flanking stud wall by screwing together the frames of the two walls (Fig. C 1.36). Where a partition is being erected at a later date, the new partition can be attached to an existing plasterboard wall with suitable cavity fixings (Fig. C 1.37), or with screws to an existing gypsum fibreboard wall. It is also possible to use internal and external angles bent to an obtuse

Stud wall–solid wall (T-junction) Stud walls are connected to a solid structural wall by attaching the end member of the framing to the solid wall. There are two options for the junction between the boarding and the solid wall. Where the partition meets a structural wall that is to be plastered, a self-adhesive isolating tape should be attached to the boarding to protect it against saturation during plastering and also to ensure a straight joint between the plaster, once it has set, and the stud wall because there should be no direct contact between plaster and boarding. Once the plaster is dry, the isolating tape is cut off flush with the plaster. This prevents a direct connection between boarding and plaster and hence uncontrolled cracking at a later date; at worst a hairline crack forms along the isolating tape (Fig. C 1.41a). Where the stud wall meets a component with a finished surface (e.g. plastered masonry wall,

Wall systems

a

b

C 1.41

1 1

a

b

fair-face concrete wall), either attach an isolating tape and cut this off flush with the boarding once the jointing compound has set, or fill the joint with a resilient material (Fig. C 1.41b). In any case, a deliberate, clean and straight separation between the different materials is the most durable solution.

there must either be a separating joint in the wall lining, which is subsequently sealed vapour-tight (Fig. C 1.42a), or the boarding to the internal wall, interrupted by the vapour barrier, must continue through to the structural wall (Fig. C 1.42b). This form of construction guarantees a continuous vapour barrier and only a minimal interruption to the thermal insulation.

Stud wall–solid wall with lining Wherever partitions meet a solid wall with a lining or composite boards (e.g. internal insulation), the detail at the junction depends on the building physics requirements to be satisfied by the lining and the partition. But where the wall lining (dry lining) is to an internal wall that does not have to comply with any building physics requirements, then the partition can be joined directly to the solid wall (Fig. C 1.39). However, a wall lining to an external component is generally specified for reasons of thermal performance and moisture control. If the partition does not have to satisfy any particular fire protection and sound insulation requirements, it should be joined to the wall lining so that the thermal insulation and, if present, vapour barrier are not interrupted. In the case of an internal wall that must comply with sound insulation and/or fire protection requirements (e.g. party wall), the wall lining must be interrupted where it meets the internal wall. Any vapour barrier provided must continue through the junction with the internal wall. To do this,

C 1.35 C 1.36 C 1.37

C 1.38 C 1.39 C 1.40 C 1.41

C 1.42

C 1.43 C 1.44

C 1.42

Free-standing wall end Supporting framework of partition screwed to flanking wall T-junction with continuous boarding and cavity anchor (1) when the wall is erected later. (Selfdrilling/tapping screws can be used instead of cavity anchors in the case of gypsum fibreboard.) Two single-stud walls meeting at an angle and connected with angle sections bent to suit Junction between partition and solid wall with independent wall lining T-junction with continuous boarding, detail for walls with gypsum fibreboard Junction between partition and a solid wall, wet plaster isolated b plastered masonry wall or fair-face concrete wall Junction between party wall and external wall a with composite board lining plus vapour barrier (1) b with independent wall lining plus vapour barrier (1) Preformed parts used for a coved junction between partition and ceiling Coved skirting corner detail

C 1.43

C 1.44

133

Wall systems

C 1.45

C 1.50

C 1.46

C 1.47

1 2 3 4

C 1.48

C 1.49

134

Stud wall–floor and stud wall–soffit As sound transmissions through unsealed joints have an influence on the resultant sound reduction index of a partition, an airtight connection between partition and floor is imperative if sound insulation requirements are to be met. Some form of sealing material is therefore advisable, e.g. a strip of insulation material below the wall. In order that such a seal also complies with fire protection stipulations, only a DIN 4102 class A material may be used (e.g. mineral wool). If there is a bonded screed on top of the structural floor, then it is counted as a solid component from the acoustics viewpoint. Flanking transmissions through a suspended floor therefore depend on the resultant mass per unit area of structural floor plus screed. It is not possible to reduce flanking transmissions by constructional means in such a situation (Fig. C 1.45). A continuous floating screed leads to very high flanking transmissions. Indeed simply erecting a partition on the screed will not comply with the current sound insulation requirements that apply to partitions. However, one advantage of this is that the partition can be dismantled and repositioned elsewhere without affecting the floor. The sound insulation can only be improved by interrupting the screed beneath the wall. This constructional separation can be achieved, for example, by means of a separating joint beneath the partition (Figs. C 1.46 and C 1.47). Building the partition directly off the structural floor results in a higher sound reduction index (Fig. C 1.48). In this case of a strip of insulating material should be inserted between screed and partition in order to reduce the transmission of impact sound. Where floor coverings are to be turned up the wall to form a skirting flush with the wall surface, the thickness of the partition can be reduced along the bottom edge by omitting one layer of boards (Fig. C 1.49). However, this form of construction weakens the sound insulation and fire protection specifications of the wall. A rigid connection between a stud wall and a

solid floor functions in a similar way to the junction with a solid wall, but is only to be recommended when movement of the structural floor is not expected. Otherwise, a sliding soffit detail should be provided (see “Sliding connections”, pp. 136 –137). If the stud wall does not continue up to the underside of the structural floor, it is necessary to brace the partition back to the soffit with tension- and compression-resistant members – number and size depending on the loads and the length of the partition (Fig. C 1.50). See the chapter on ceiling systems (p. 152) for details of junctions between walls and suspended ceilings. Junctions with shadowline joints

Shadowline joints (feature joints) are particularly popular at junctions between partitions and solid walls or floors/soffits. The idea behind the shadowline joint is the creation of a “clean” connection that conceals the true joint between the two components so that any cracks that do occur do not impair the appearance. To create a shadowline joint, the outermost layer of boarding does not continue right up to the adjoining component. In the case of a partition with just one layer of boarding at the junction, this type of joint can weaken the fire protection and sound insulation properties of the wall unless other constructional measures are taken. For example, the sound reduction index can be reduced by up to 7 dB. But by adding a second layer of boarding within the wall at this point, it is possible to maintain the level of sound insulation and fire protection (Fig. C 1.51). Another possibility is to attach two strips of boarding material between partition and adjoining component. The first strip is attached flush with the surface of the boarding to form a lateral termination to the partition, the second strip must be a little narrower than the thickness of the partition. At a shadowline joint between a partition and a plastered masonry wall or fair-face concrete wall, the inner layer of boarding continuing through and butting up to the wall should always be sealed with a resilient filling compound.

Wall systems

C 1.45 C 1.46 C 1.47 C 1.48

C 1.49 C 1.50 C 1.51

Partition built off bonded screed Partition built off floating screed with isolating joint Double-stud wall built off floating screed with isolating joint Floating screed interrupted by double-stud wall 1 Strip of insulating material 2 Floating screed 3 Plastic sheeting 4 Impact sound insulation Wall recessed at base to accept turned-up floor covering Partition braced back to structural floor above with an adjustable hanger Second layer of boarding within the wall on both sides to guarantee compliance with sound insulation and fire protection requirements at the shadowline joint

C 1.52 Junction between partition and solid wall, with shadowline joint (feature joint) and not subjected to any special requirements C 1.53 Junction between partition and facade, with sound insulation and fire protection requirements satisfied by means of a fin built out from the facade 1 Jointing compound 2 Board material 3 Channel section 4 Galvanised steel sheet 5 Mineral wool 6 Angle section 7 Jointing compound/jointing tape 8 Strip of board material C 1.54 Reduced junction for single-stud wall, “wall-in-wall” C 1.55 Reduced junction for double-stud wall, “wall-onwall”, with sheet lead inlay (1) in the narrower section

Reduced junctions

When connecting stud walls to facades, it is often necessary to reduce the thickness of the wall to suit the size of the facade sections. The thickness of the wall is reduced at this point and that diminishes the sound reduction index of the entire wall. In order to raise the lower sound reduction index of the thinner part of the wall to that of the rest of the wall, boards faced with lead foil should be used in this area or a lead foil attached on one or both sides. This increases the mass of the boarding, which in turn increases the sound reduction index at this point. The width of the wall segment with reduced thickness should be kept as narrow as possible in order to minimise the loss in sound insulation at a reduced junction. The level of fire protection afforded by a partition can be maintained despite the use of a reduced junction provided the thickness of the boarding and the amount of mineral wool in the voids are identical with the rest of the wall. “Wall-in-wall” reduced junction Where only a minor reduction in the thickness of the wall is necessary, a junction according to the “wall-in-wall” principle is possible (Fig. C 1.54). A segment of wall built using smaller sections is placed between the projecting boards of the partition and the column. The detail in Fig. C 1.53 shows that even with a particularly slender reduced junction, a decrease in the sound insulation of a partition with a sound reduction index of Rw ≤ 50 dB can be prevented. With a value of Rw ≥ 50 dB for the main part of the partition, the sound reduction index at this junction drops by only 1 dB. “Wall-on-wall” reduced junction In the case of a greater reduction in the wall thickness, the junction can be in the form of a “wall-on-wall” connection. Here, the end of the partition is finished off with boarding material short of the column or facade in a similar way to the end of a wall. An intermediate section with a thickness to match the facade element is then constructed to close the gap (Fig. C 1.55).

C 1.51

C 1.52

≥ 25 mm 1

7 8

2

3

4

5

6

≤ 625 mm

C 1.53

1 C 1.54

C 1.55

135

Wall systems

Sliding junctions

Sliding junctions are necessary when movement of the adjoining component is expected, e.g. a lightweight facade element due to wind loads. x

x

x

1

C 1.56

C 1.58

C 1.59 C 1.60

1

C 1.62

Various door frame details for a stud wall (horizontal sections) a Steel frame b Aluminium frame c Prefabricated frame d Timber frame in timber stud wall Arrangement of studs and boarding at a door opening; butt joints between boards on rear face or second layer of boards shown by dotted lines

x+5

2

C 1.61

20 x

C 1.57

Sliding junction between partition and lightweight external wall element, “wall-in-wall” Sliding reduced junction, “wall-in-wall”, x = joint width, 1 = strip of board material Sliding soffit junction, x ≤ 20 mm, for walls that must satisfy fire protection requirements 1 Strip of board material 2 Top edge of stud A beam integrated completely into a partition Partial integration of a beam into a partition a Single-stud wall b Double-stud wall

x

C 1.56

C 1.57

C 1.58

a

Sliding wall junction A sliding wall junction is formed by omitting the fasteners for a direct connection between the partition and a column or facade. Instead, the boarding of the partition is fitted loosely over an intermediate component so that relative movement between partition and column/facade is possible. The intermediate component can be, for example, a framing section clad with narrow pieces of boarding stepped back to permit movement (Fig. C 1.56). Where the thickness of the wall is reduced at the same point, a sliding wall junction is achieved with strips of boarding at the connection. The narrow strips forming the intermediate element are screwed to the column or facade and the boarding of the thinner section of partition fits around these (Fig. C 1.57). Sliding soffit junction A sliding junction between partition and soffit is necessary where deflection of the soffit > 10 mm is anticipated due to the floor loads or creep. In such a case it is necessary to provide a movement joint, the size of which must be at least equal to the deflection expected. To do this, the stud sections and the boarding to the partition must be shortened by an amount equal to the size of the movement joint in order to create a gap between the stud sections and the web of the soffit channel, also between boarding and underside of structural floor. The overlap between soffit channel and stud section must be at least 15 – 20 mm, which means that with a flange size of 40 mm for the channel, a movement joint of up to 25 mm is feasible. As the soffit channel slides between the flanges of the stud sections and the rear face of the boarding, the boarding may only be fixed to the stud sections and not to the soffit channel. A minimum distance of 20 mm is necessary between the screws and the underside of the flange of the soffit channel. Edge beads can be attached to the unsupported edges of boarding and covered with jointing compound. When the partition has to satisfy fire protection requirements, the soffit channel must be attached to strips of boarding as shown in Fig. C 1.58. In this case the movement joint should not exceed 20 mm. The width (b) of the strips of boarding must be equal to the depth of the web of the soffit channel in the stud wall. The standard prescribes the following minimum widths (b) depending on the fire resistance rating: • F 30 to F 90: b ≥ 50 mm • F 120: b ≥ 75 mm • F 180: b ≥ 150 mm

C 1.59

136

b

C 1.60

Wall systems

The total depth of strips of boarding required is equal to the expected deflection of the soffit, i.e. the permissible movement joint (≤ 20 mm where fire protection requirements apply), plus the overlap of the boarding of the wall on both sides (min. 20 mm). The sound insulation of such a sliding soffit junction is reduced by up to 3 dB. The sliding soffit junction detail for a single-stud wall can also be used for a doublestud wall. Where the deflection of the soffit is not expected to exceed 10 mm, then a sliding soffit junction is unnecessary. In such a situation only the stud sections need to be shortened by approx. 20 mm and fitted into the soffit channel. The boarding to the wall should also be stopped short of the soffit and the ensuing gap treated as a shadowline joint or filled with a resilient material.

a

b

Integrating columns and beams

Columns and beams can sometimes be integrated into the voids of internal walls. The boarding to the wall can continue past the column or beam without having to fix the studs to the column or beam. The thickness of the wall, or rather the void, can be adjusted to suit the width of the column or beam (Fig. C 1.59). If it is not possible to integrate a column or beam fully into the wall, the boarding can continue past the column or beam on one side at least (Fig. C 1.60). Doors

c

d C 1.61

The door frame is the link between wall and door leaf and therefore determines the way a door is integrated into the wall. Besides typical door frames of steel, aluminium or wood, complete prefabricated frames, possibly satisfying higher sound insulation or fire protection specifications, can be fitted. Door frames the full height of a room, e.g. with a transom to support a fanlight, and frames for sliding doors are also available. Fig. C 1.61 shows various door frame details for stud walls. In order to avoid cracking at the butt joints between individual boards at a later date, it must be ensured that the joints are not positioned in line with the studs trimming the door opening but instead above the door opening. Furthermore, the joints on the two sides of the wall should be offset with respect to each other, not in line. And with two layers of boarding, the joints of the two layers must not be aligned either (Fig. C 1.62). Sliding doors can be slid back completely into lightweight internal walls to save floor space. Suitable guide tracks will be necessary for this, plus special metal stud sections to stabilise the remaining cross-section of the wall around the void for the sliding door (Fig. C 1.63, p. 138). Doors classified as “fire doors” will generally be necessary where fire protection requirements are relevant. It should be remembered that the approval for the door also makes reference to the wall in which it is installed. As the individual C 1.62

137

Wall systems

Clear opening width

1

2 4

5

3

Height of door leaf

Clear opening height

Door housing

4

5 Modular width

a

b

components of a fire door, e.g. leaf, frame and closing mechanism, must work perfectly together, they are factory-assembled and supplied as one complete element (doorset). Door and window openings have an unfavourable effect on the overall sound insulation of a partition because such areas usually have a lower sound reduction index than the partition itself. The calculation method given in DIN 4109 Bbl. 1 section 11 can be used to estimate the extent to which areas with poorer sound insulation influence the overall airborne sound insulation of a partition. The resultant sound insulation depends on the sound insulation of the door leaf and the quality of the rebates into which the door fits, especially at the threshold.

Glass in partitions

C 1.64

138

Door jamb

The inclusion of fanlights, high-level windows and glazed panels in stud walls is restricted because no more than one framing member may be interrupted. Every second stud must continue through to the underside of the structural floor in order to guarantee the stability of the wall. This means that individual panes of glass may be no wider than 1250 mm. Horizontal reveals to window openings must be trimmed with UW sections that are fitted over the stud sections (Fig. C 1.64). The boarding must be screwed to the UW sections at the reveal. Panes of glass are not installed until after the board materials forming the surfaces of the wall have been attached and joints filled (Fig. C 1.65).

a

C 1.63

C 1.63 Sliding door with wooden door leaf and folded plasterboard trim to opening: a) vertical section, b) horizontal section 1 Fascia panel above door 2 Make-up fascia panel 3 Trim removable for maintenance 4 Door jamb on housing side 5 Door jamb on stop side C 1.64 Detail of surround to fixed glazing in stud wall (fire-resistant glazing, class F 30) C 1.65 Partition with high-level glazing a Under construction b After completion C 1.66 Wall coil heating in conjunction with a “functional channel” (houses coil heating flow and return pipes as well as light fittings) C 1.67 Isometric view of capillary tube matt incorporated into a wall

b

C 1.65

Wall systems

Integrating technical services In addition to being able to integrate pipes and cables into the voids of walls, internal walls can also serve as HVAC elements themselves (see also “Coil heating”, p. 176).

between the supporting members is 420 mm for standard systems.

Coil heating

• Low flow temperature (max. 35 °C) • Thin wall construction (total depth 20 – 40 mm) • Uniform heat distribution • Fast emission of radiant heat The hot water flowing through the pipes or capillaries gives up its heat uniformly to the adjacent gypsum fibreboard/plasterboard. A board material with a high thermal conductivity improves the heat transmission and reduces the warm-up time. There are also separate, prefabricated elements in addition to capillary tube systems in which the grid of pipes is laminated to a gypsum-based board or even cast into the board during its production. Such systems can be attached directly to the studs of the wall.

A wall surface with a low temperature means that the air temperature in the room must be higher in order to guarantee the necessary level of comfort for users. If a coil heating system is used, comfort is ensured with an interior air temperature that is 2– 3 °C lower than with radiators (see “Air and surface temperatures”, p. 36). Typical coil heating systems for walls consist of grids of plastic or copper pipes or plastic capillary tube mats which are installed on the back of mineral boards, e.g. gypsum fibreboard or plasterboard (Figs. C 1.66 and C 1.67). These are flexible systems that are simply mounted in the stud walls and can also be adapted to suit curved walls. The spacing

C 1.66

The advantages of coil heating systems:

C 1.67

139

Ceiling systems Karsten Tichelmann, Bastian Ziegler

C 2.1

Ceiling systems offer designers a huge range of options for satisfying architectural and functional requirements for the overhead enclosure to an interior space. With such as vast number of different systems on the market, only a selection of standard systems will be discussed here. However, the typical examples given form the basis for many different ceiling designs. Ceiling systems are basically distinguished according to the nature of the surface, i.e. seamless or grid-like. Fig. C 2.3 shows further subdivisions of these two basic forms.

C 2.1 C 2.2

C 2.3 C 2.4

C 2.5

Coens Gallery, Grevenbroich (D), 2002; Chapman Taylor Architekten Soffit lining attached to framework of timber battens (dimensions x, y and L according to manufacturer’s details) a Isometric view 1 Fixing to underside of structural floor 2 Main batten 3 Boarding 4 Cross-batten x Spacing of fixings y Spacing of main battens L Spacing of cross-battens b Section Overview of ceiling systems Suspended ceiling with metal framing and rapid hangers (dimensions x, y and L according to manufacturer’s details) a Isometric view 1 Fixing to underside of structural floor 2 Main runner 3 Ceiling material 4 Cross-runner x Spacing of hangers y Spacing of main runners L Spacing of cross-runners b Section Ceiling terminology 1 Structural floor 2 Fixing 3 Ceiling material 4 Connector 5 Fixing (screw, anchor) 6 Hanger 7 Framing (main runner) 8 Framing (cross-runner)

Besides satisfying enclosing, architectural and technical services requirements, ceiling systems can also provide building physics functions. Retrofitted ceiling systems, for example, can improve the room acoustics, sound insulation and fire protection properties of an existing structural floor. When opting for a specific ceiling system, the following criteria must be considered in addition to the type of structural floor above and the architectural aspects: Technical requirements • Flexibility, adaptability, extension options • Access to ceiling void • Integration of lighting, ventilation and technical services • Subsequent connections between partitions and ceiling

• Ease of replacing individual ceiling components • Resistance to ball impact • Durability, sensitivity, cleaning options Building physics requirements • Fire resistance of ceiling system alone or in conjunction with the structural floor • Building material classes • Airborne and impact sound insulation in conjunction with the structural floor • Reduction of flanking sound transmission • Sound absorption • Reaction to moisture, corrosion risks • Thermal conductivity Ceiling systems present designers with an enormous variety of interior design options, which range from plain ceilings to complex, individual forms: • Seamless or grid-like • Square or rectangular panels, tiles, trays, modular panels, grids, cells, louvres • Visible or concealed framing • Luminous ceilings As the analysis of the entire life-cycle costs of a building represents an important factor for the planning of investments, the following economic aspects should not be ignored (see “Materials”, pp. 75 – 77):

x 1 2 4 3

L a

y b C 2.2

140

Ceiling systems

Ceiling systems

Seamless ceilings

Stretch covering

Grid-like ceilings

Board ceiling

Synthetic membranes

Tile ceiling

Metal Wood and wood-based products Plastic

Gypsum-based boards • plain • perforated • special shapes Plaster backgrounds Other board materials

Trays, panels (modular grid)

Open ceiling

Mineral-fibre boards Metal Gypsum-based boards Wood-based products Glass/perspex (luminous ceilings)

Grid ceilings Plastic Metal Cell and louvre ceilings Mineral-fibre boards Acoustic elements C 2.3

• Cost of production • Cost of disposal • Costs of modifications and later installations

Design principles Ceiling systems are non-loadbearing elements attached to the underside of loadbearing suspended floors or roofs, but they can also be designed as self-supporting systems spanning between walls. We distinguish between two forms of fixing: • Soffit lining: the timber or metal framing is fixed directly to the underside of the structure (Fig. C 2.2). • Suspended ceiling: the timber or metal framing is hung below the structure or spans from wall to wall (Fig. C 2.4). Components

Suspended ceilings and soffit linings consist of the following components (Fig. C 2.5): • • • • •

Fixings Hangers (suspended ceilings only) Framing (various types of section) Connectors Ceiling surface materials

1

In the case of suspended ceilings in particular, it is essential to avoid combining the elements of different framing systems. The components used must always belong to the same system because, for example, the permissible loads are always determined for the system as a whole. Fixings Fixings form the load-transfer connection between ceiling and structural floor above. The number of fixing points should be designed such that the permissible load-carrying capacity of the fixings and the permissible deformation of the framing members are not exceeded. At least one fixing per 1.5 m2 of ceiling area should be specified. Fixings include, for example, cast-in parts, anchors and powder-actuated fasteners. Hangers Hangers (suspended ceilings only) connect the framing to the fixings. They normally include a mechanism for adjusting the height so that a level ceiling can be constructed despite any differences in the level of the underside of the floor above. Types of hangers include rapid hangers, adjustable hangers and brackets (Fig. C 2.7, p. 142).

Framing The framing is a combination of main members and cross-members positioned on one or two levels and connected together. The ceiling materials are fixed underneath these members (Fig. C 2.4). Connectors Connectors join together the individual parts of a ceiling system. Anchors, screws, bolts, clips and special connectors are used, depending on the particular system. Ceiling surface materials The materials, form and design of the ceiling surface itself can vary enormously: • • • •

Boards for seamless ceiling surfaces Elements for grid-like ceiling surfaces Modular panels Grid, cell and louvre designs

Seamless ceiling systems

The most common seamless ceiling system consists of framing in conjunction with a covering of gypsum-based boards. The framing in this case can be of timber or metal sections fitted directly beneath the structural floor or suspended from this on hangers. Figs. C 2.8 and C 2.9 show examples of timber framing.

x

1 2

5 6 7

2 4 3

L a

y 3

4

8

b C 2.4

C 2.5

141

Ceiling systems

C 2.6 C 2.7

C 2.8 C 2.9 C 2.10 C 2.11 C 2.12 C 2.13

Framing for a barrel vault-type ceiling Standard hangers a Rapid hanger b Adjustable hanger c Bracket Timber battens fixed directly to the structure with brackets Timber framing (main battens and cross-battens) and metal rapid hangers Butt joint between plasterboard with chamfered arrises Grid-type ceiling surface with integral lighting units and exposed framing Curving metal tray ceiling Framing for a flat ceiling

C 2.14

Grid-type ceiling with concealed Z-section framing, standard form 1 Hanger 2 T- or C-section main runner 3 Splice connector for main runners 4 Cross-runner with Z-shaped cross-section 5 Main runner/cross-runner connector 6 Splice connector for cross-runners 7 T-shaped intermediate runner (for soft materials only, e.g. mineral-fibre tiles) 8 Wall angle 9 Spring clip at wall a Isometric view b Transverse section c Longitudinal section C 2.6

a C 2.8

Alternate hangers fixed to opposite sides of main batten

The ceiling surface is screwed directly to the framing. The screw heads and the joints between the boards are subsequently filled with a gypsum compound to produce a seamless soffit (Fig. C 2.10). Gypsum-based boards, which are usually favoured because of their numerous architectural possibilities and building physics advantages, can be used to construct ceilings that satisfy fire protection and sound insulation requirements. Verification is carried out based on DIN 4102 and DIN 4109 or by referring to the test certificates of the system suppliers. Curved or vaulted ceiling forms can be created by using pliable gypsum-based boards attached to suitable frameworks. For instance, it is possible to achieve a barrel vault-type of construction by attaching straight cross-members to curved main members (Fig. C 2.6). When designing a seamless ceiling system, it must be remembered that items built into the ceiling (e.g. luminaires, access hatches) generally require trimmers in the framing and therefore additional hangers will be necessary. If the positions of built-in items can be specified at an early stage, the work required on site for adapting the framing will be minimal. The subsequent integration of built-in items is, however, costly and will require major modifications to the ceiling.

b Systems with a grid-type ceiling surface C 2.9

c

C 2.7 C 2.10

142

When using systems with a grid-type ceiling surface, the structure of the ceiling is created by the pattern of joints between the individual ceiling tiles or panels that are laid on or clipped to the framing. The pattern is enhanced when the framing members remain visible between the ceiling elements (Fig. C 2.11). Grids of 600 ≈ 600 mm and 625 ≈ 625 mm, which are determined by the format of the ceiling elements used, have become very common. However, grids based on these dimensions doubled or halved, also in conjunction with rectangular panels, are frequently encountered (Fig. C 2.12). The framing members are fitted along the gridlines so that the elements forming the ceiling surface can be simply laid on or clipped to them. The panels and boards are supplied

Ceiling systems

C 2.11

C 2.12

ready finished and only the perimeter elements adjacent to walls or columns need to be modified or cut on site. Many different materials are available, with different surface finishes and edge forms, also different building physics properties (see “Materials for boarding and surfaces”, pp. 124 – 127). Built-in elements such as luminaires, ventilation grilles and access hatches are designed to match the grid of the ceiling, and are simply substituted for standard elements. Such fittings are available for all standard grids, with edges designed to fit in with the construction and not disrupt the pattern of joints in the ceiling. Nonstandard built-in elements can be used provided they have supports on all sides that can accommodate the cut edges of the ceiling elements and the unsupported ends of framing members. Built-in elements are often heavier than standard panels, which may mean that additional hangers are required locally. There are various ways of providing access to the void above a grid-like ceiling: • All panels in the ceiling system are designed to be removable • Individual, removable panels are provided in ceiling systems with otherwise fixed panels • Access hatches

Z-systems Z-systems are those ceiling systems in which the framing members resemble a Z in crosssection (Fig. C 2.14). One particular feature of these systems is that the metal framing is arranged on two levels. The main runners form the upper level and the Z-shaped cross-runners of the lower level are attached to these. As the main runners are not connected directly to the panels of the ceiling, their spacing does not have to be a specific grid dimension and can be varied as required (Fig. C 2.13). This means it is possible to attach the hangers to the loadbearing structure at the most favourable points and also to avoid technical services and other obstacles. However, the spacing of the main runners should not exceed a maximum dimension which depends on the particular system and the load-carrying capacity of the members. The panels of the ceiling itself are fixed to the Z-shaped cross-runners, the spacing of which depends on the format of the panels. The positions and spacings of the Z-sections match the longitudinal joints between the ceiling materials.

There are various systems for these ceilings available, which differ mainly in terms of their framing members. The most common standard systems are described below.

When using soft materials (e.g. mineral-fibre tiles), additional T-shaped intermediate runners are required to stiffen the edges of the boards and thus minimise deflection. The ends of these runners are supported on the flanges of the cross-runners. Perimeter angles are used at the junctions with walls to support the cut edges of perimeter panels.

C 2.13

The particular features of these systems are: • They are suitable for any length and width of tile or panel, also custom formats. • The position of the hangers and main runners is not dependent on the pattern of joints in the ceiling and therefore can be adjusted to suit the local situation. • When using tiles or panels with different edge profiles, identical framing can be used for a series of design variations, e.g. with exposed framing or demountable tiles (Fig. C 2.14). Figs. C 2.16 and C 2.17 (p. 144) illustrate a number of examples for the fixing of mineralfibre tiles to Z-sections. T-systems In T-systems – in contrast to Z-systems – the entire metal framing is arranged on one level. All the framing members are in the form of upturned T-sections, with the longitudinal and transverse members permanently connected to each other (Fig. C 2.15, p. 144). Main runners are fixed to the structural floor with hangers, either at the standard grid spacing of 600 or 625 mm, or at twice this spacing. When the larger (1200/1250 mm) spacing is being used, cross-runners are positioned between the main runners to produce a rectangular grid (600 ≈ 1200 mm or 625 ≈ 1250 mm). Intermediate runners can then be inserted 1 5

2

9 1

4

5 7

8

b

6 4

1

2 3

a

5

4

2

7

c

C 2.14

143

Ceiling systems

1

2

4

2

3

5 2

C 2.15

between the cross-runners to convert this into a square grid (600 ≈ 600 mm or 625 ≈ 625 mm). When the main runners are positioned at the standard grid spacing, intermediate runners can be used instead of cross-runners. However, in this variation a larger number of main runners is needed, which increases the work of suspending and aligning these. Whether the framing remains visible or is concealed depends on the ceiling materials used and the way they are fixed. The pattern of joints varies depending on the form of the panel edges. Fig. C 2.18 illustrates typical edge details for mineral-fibre tiles in a T-system.

Where the framing remains visible, the ceiling materials are simply laid on the members from above, which means that the bottom flange of each member is not covered by the ceiling material. The advantage of this method is that the tiles are very easy to remove to gain access to the ceiling void at any point. Approx. 80 mm clearance is required above the tiles in order that they can be inserted and removed; this fact must be taken into account during the design process. Clip-in systems Metal ceiling systems are also available in clip-in designs. Like T- or Z-systems, these

a

also have framing members arranged on one or two levels. However, the members that support the ceiling surface are in the form of special rails to which the panels are clipped. The edges of these metal panels include lugs that are designed to clip into these rails. The panels are pressed into place from below, which causes the lug to be forced into the rail which then grips it tightly to prevent it from falling out (Fig. C 2.21). In certain systems each metal panel can be swung downwards to provide access without having to remove the panel completely from the framing or interfering with other panels. To do this, the upturned panel edges are long-

C 2.15

C 2.16

b C 2.17 a

C 2.18 c

C 2.16 C 2.19 C 2.20

1 3

2

C 2.21

4 C 2.22 C 2.23 C 2.24

b C 2.17

144

C 2.18

T-system grid-type ceiling, standard form 1 Hanger 2 T-shaped main runner 3 Cross-runner 4 Intermediate runner 5 Wall angle Z-system variations for mineral-fibre tiles (longitudinal and transverse sections for each type) a Concealed framing with shadowline joint b Concealed framing, tongue and groove joint c Semi-concealed framing Z-system with demountable mineral-fibre tiles and concealed framing 1 Hanger 2 T- or C-section main runner 3 Main runner/cross-runner connector 4 Cross-runner with Z-shaped cross-section T-system variations for mineral-fibre tiles (longitudinal and transverse sections for each type) a Semi-concealed framing with or without shadowline joint b Concealed framing Modular grid ceiling with mineral-fibre tiles Modular grid ceiling with main runners in both directions and square metal trays, Terminal 2, Munich Airport (D), 2003; K+P Architekten Clamping rail and tray edges with clip-in lugs (schematic) 1 Clamping rail 2 Clip-in tray Hinged access hatch Hinged access hatch–operation Various main runner (beam) forms for modular grid ceilings

Ceiling systems

3

4

1 1 2 3 4

Rigid hanger Main runner (beam) Diagonal bracing Splice connector for main runners 5 T- or Z-shaped stiffening ribs 6 Angle section (2 angle sections for demountable tiles)

5

2 6

er on two opposite sides and include an extra lug that remains within the clamping rail to serve as a hinge when the panel is pulled downwards (Figs. C 2.22 and C 2.23). This feature eases occasional work in the ceiling void. Modular grid ceilings Modular grid ceilings (some manufacturers use the German term Bandraster ceiling) are often used in conjunction with lightweight or emountable partitions that do not continue up to the underside of the structural floor above, but instead only to the underside of the ceiling, where they must be fixed securely.

C 2.19

C 2.20

To do this, particularly wide, stable, exposed main runners (so-called beams) are fixed at certain spacings in the ceiling, which usually correspond to the modular grid in use (Fig. C 2.19), which in turn is normally derived from the structural grid. Main runners can be fixed in one or both directions to suit the layout of the partitions (Fig. C 2.20). They are between 50 and 150 mm wide and serve as supports for the ceiling panels and at the same time as a fixing point for the partitions. Additional bracing in the ceiling void is necessary to transfer horizontal forces acting on the wall (e.g. due to doors) back to the structure.

This form of ceiling does not need to be removed when dismantling and re-erecting partitions, which reduces the work involved with interior modifications and conversions. In addition, technical services can be routed across the entire ceiling; they are not affected by partitions at any time. Modular grid ceilings are therefore ideal for integrating luminaires, ventilation grilles, power supplies, etc. Lighting is integrated either by simply replacing beams with luminaires of identical size, or fitting luminaires in the panels between the beams. It is also possible to integrate installations into the ceiling panels themselves. Fig. C 2.24 shows various modular grid beam sections with metal ceiling panels.

1

Modular panel ceilings Modular panel ceilings consist of panel-type aluminium or steel elements that are laid on or clipped to main runners (Fig. C 2.25, p. 146), which are in turn fixed to the underside of the structural floor above by means of hangers. On the underside of each main runner there are lugs that engage with the edges of the panels. The panel width must always correspond to the lug spacing of an exact multiple thereof (Fig. C 2.26, p. 146). Lights, vents and other built-in items are easy to incorporate into modular panel ceilings. Panels are available in different colours and with various surface finishes. Different panel widths, different joint designs and changing the direction of the panels are the main architectural options. Metal panel systems are generally also suitable for wet indoor areas.

2

C 2.21

C 2.22

C 2.23

C 2.24

145

Ceiling systems

34

34

84

134

184

234 C 2.25

C 2.26 Self-supporting ceilings

4 1

2

5

3

3

1

6

C 2.28

C 2.25 C 2.26 C 2.27 C 2.28

C 2.29

C 2.30

C 2.31

C 2.32 C 2.33

146

Modular panel ceiling with clip-in metal panels Panel widths that can be used with a 50 mm module main runner Grid-type ceiling panel (schematic) Self-supporting corridor ceiling (special fireresistant tiles in metal trays), supported on threaded bars along perimeter, fire resistance rating F 90 – AB for exposure to fire from above and below 1 Special fire-resistant board 2 Intumescent strip 3 Strip of mineral wool 4 Threaded bar 5 Metal tray 6 Wall angle Schematic view of louvre ceiling 1 Hanger 2 T-shaped main runner 3 Splice connector for main runners 4 Ceiling louvres Cell ceiling with square/rectangular format 1 Special hanger 2 Main runner 3 Cross-runner Node detail for a triangular cell ceiling 1 Node plate 2 Main runner 3 Node member Design options for cell-type ceilings “Pinakothek der Moderne” Museum, Munich (D), 2003; Stefan Braunfels

Self-supporting ceiling systems are constructions that are not suspended from or fixed to the structural floor above, but instead incorporate framing that allows them to span from wall to wall. The framing is either attached directly to the ceiling materials, or the ceiling materials themselves are self-supporting, achieving their strength by way of a box form or integral stiffeners. Uninterrupted spans of up to 5 m are possible, depending on the system chosen. Self-supporting ceilings represent an option in the following situations: • Where there is restricted access to the loadbearing floor above for fixing hangers (e.g. due to a high services density). • Where ceilings in corridors have to be removed frequently for maintenance or repair work. • When the load-carrying capacity of the floor above is inadequate (e.g. in existing buildings). As a rule, such ceilings cannot carry any further loads so the integration of light fittings and other built-in items depends on the particular system and the test certificate will have to be consulted. The ceiling panels themselves are either selfsupporting and do not require any separate framework, or they are fixed to or laid on loadbearing members. Some systems include individual demountable or hinged panels to provide access to the ceiling void. The self-supporting ceiling materials or the loadbearing construction span from wall to wall. Edge members mounted on the walls carry the load of the ceiling and any built-in items; such members are therefore larger and stronger than the usual edge members for ceilings. Self-supporting ceilings without a loadbearing framework can be in the form of sheet materials folded into a U-shape; the permissible span then depends on the depth of the web. Such folding increases the stiffness and load-carrying capacity of gypsum-based boards. Generally, such ceilings are classed as independent fire-resistant elements for exposure to fire from above and below. As the walls to which a self-supporting ceiling is fixed have to carry

C 2.27

the entire load of the ceiling and must continue to do so even in the event of a fire, they must comply with the same fire protection requirements as the ceiling itself (Fig. C 2.28). Ceiling systems with open soffit

Ceiling systems with an open soffit do not form a closed surface and so the services in the ceiling void are readily accessible. In order that the appearance of the room below is not adversely affected, all installations above the ceiling are usually painted a dark colour to render them less visible. Luminous ceilings Luminous ceilings consist of suspended open grids of plastic, aluminium or steel with different web depths and various surface finishes fitted together in square, circular or honeycomb arrangements (Fig. C 2.27). The grids are either supported on T-sections or are joined together seamlessly and suspended directly from the floor above. Luminaires are normally positioned above the grids to create indirect lighting in the room below by way of reflection from the grid elements. This type of lighting is especially suitable where glare must be limited. Positioning the webs of the grid elements at certain angles enables light to be directed to particular areas of the room below. The dimensions of the individual apertures and the web depths depend on the lighting specification and architectural requirements. Cell and louvre ceilings Cell (egg-crate) and louvre ceilings consist of vertical strips or panels, normally made from mineral-fibre boards (Figs. C 2.29 and C 2.30). The lighting is positioned above the ceiling because the vertical elements do not hamper the transmission of light but at the same time do shield against glare. Attaching the panels vertically increases the sound absorption surface area of the ceiling compared to a horizontal one and therefore this type of ceiling can be retrofitted to an existing building to improve the room acoustics, provided the resulting ceiling height is adequate (Figs. C 2.31 to C 2.33).

Ceiling systems

3

1 2

3

1

4 2

2

3 C 2.29

Materials The ceiling surface is critical for the properties of a ceiling system, especially in terms of building physics requirements. When choosing materials, it is therefore not only their effect on the interior spaces that is important, but also their properties.

1 C 2.30

other hand, exhibit similar sound absorption coefficients but their surface textures determine the appearance of a ceiling.

Materials for the ceiling surface

Gypsum-based boards Gypsum-based boards have many positive properties in terms of building physics, which is why they are frequently used for ceilings. They are particularly useful when a ceiling has to comply with fire protection requirements because they are DIN 4102 class A products and exhibit good behaviour in fire owing to the chemically bonded water of crystallisation. However, perforated, slit or slotted boards are less useful in the event of fire because the structure of such boards is open to the ceiling void. Gypsum-based materials can only be used in wet or damp indoor areas in conjunction with an effective waterproofing system over the entire surface because gypsum reacts very sensitively to saturation; moisture can ruin gypsum-based products. Gypsum-based boards with a grid of cooling/ heating pipes in their gypsum core can be integrated into ceilings to provide overhead heating and cooling systems (see Fig. C 2.35, p. 148 and “Cooling ceilings”, pp. 154 –155). Such boards have two pipe connections on the back that are connected to hot- or cold-water circuits. However, it is also possible to route heating or cooling pipes over the rear face of the boards. In this type of system the boards chosen should have a high thermal conductivity–achieved by choosing a material with a high density or by adding graphite particles to the board during manufacture. Additional thermal insulation should be installed behind the pipes to prevent the heat simply heating up the ceiling void.

Mineral-fibre and gypsum-based boards, wood-based products and sheet metal can be used for the ceiling surface itself. Depending on the particular system, the ceiling materials are either screwed or clipped to the framing, or simply laid on it. Although seamless systems with boarding and filled joints can also satisfy room acoustics requirements, such systems require considerable work on site. Perforated, slit or slotted boards, panels and trays, on the

Sheet metal Metals exhibit a high thermal conductivity and therefore sheet metal ceiling elements are particularly suitable for use in conjunction with heating or cooling systems. Fig. C 2.66 (p. 155) shows an example of a cooling system. In the event of a fire, on the other hand, the high thermal conductivity can have a negative

Materials for the framing

Metal sections are suitable for the framing to a diverse range of ceiling materials such as gypsum- and wood-based boards. The sections described below have been specially designed for use in ceilings (see “Prefabricated forms of construction”, pp. 64 – 68). CD sections (C sections for ceilings) CD sections have lipped flanges that engage with the hangers (see Fig. C 2.4, p. 141). The width of the web must be at least 48 mm in order to provide sufficient bearing for boards butt-jointed together below the section. Curved CD sections are available for creating arched or vaulted ceilings. UD sections (wall channels for ceilings) UD sections are fixed to the walls. Their edges are not bent over, which allows CD sections to be inserted easily. T- and Z-sections, clamping rails and modular grid sections These sections, specially designed for use in ceilings, are similar in form, but vary depending on the system supplier (see the descriptions of the various systems, pp. 143 –146).

C 2.31

C 2.32

C 2.33

147

Ceiling systems

Grooved and chamfered, concealed framing

effect, which means that sheet metal must be combined with a layer of mineral boarding or mineral wool insulation (fitted into metal trays) to improve the fire resistance. It is possible to optimise the room acoustics by perforating the metal ceiling elements, which increases the sound absorption coefficient.

Groove plus lap joint for demountable ceilings

Mineral-fibre boards Mineral-fibre boards are available with a diverse range of surface finishes. Forms and types range from plain surfaces to embossed finishes, textures and perforations. These boards are also available in various colours and with facings of metal foils, plastic films, glass-fibre fleeces or fabrics. The edges of mineral-fibre tiles include grooves or rebates depending on the appearance required (Fig. 2.34).

Grooved, rebated and chamfered for shadowline joint

Grooved and rebated for shadowline joint

Untreated, sharp square edge for exposed framing

Shallow rebate to enable framing to be installed flush with ceiling surface

Inclined rebate for shadowline joint

Rebated for shadowline joint

Tongue and groove tiles

Chamfered tongue and groove tiles

Wood-based products Wood-based products can be used for ceilings in the form of planks or boards. If the materials are to be left exposed, their moisture content upon installation must be checked if deformations and fissures caused by shrinkage or swelling are to be kept within accepted limits once the building is in use. When wood-based board products are used as a ceiling material supported by framing, perforated products in conjunction with an attenuated ceiling void are preferred; the perforated surface helps to achieve a good sound absorption coefficient. When using loose fill or insulating materials above wood-based products, a layer of plastic sheeting or paper is required to prevent dust or fibres leaking from the ceiling void.

C 2.34

C 2.34 Edge and arris forms for mineral-fibre tiles C 2.35 Cooling ceiling system with integral copper coil C 2.36 Ceiling void protected by a fire-resistant selfsupporting ceiling C 2.37 Fire-resistant self-supporting ceiling protecting the room below from a fire in the ceiling void C 2.38 Example of a luminaire built into a suspended ceiling to comply with fire protection requirements 1 Threaded bar as hanger 2 CD section, cut and bent to suit 3 Angle section C 2.39 Detail of ventilation opening around luminaire 1 Sheet metal angle 2 Threaded bar 3 Polystyrene block C 2.40 Wall-ceiling junction with shadowline joint complying with fire protection requirements 1 Seal (optional) 2 Perimeter section 3 Edge bead or similar (optional) 4 Strip of gypsum-based board 5 Gypsum-based board 6 Metal framing C 2.35

148

Ceiling systems

Building physics requirements for ceilings Ceiling systems provide a chance to improve the fire resistance and sound insulation properties of structural floors. It should be remembered, however, that the ensuing voids can have disadvantages, e.g. where a ceiling continues across a partition. For this reason, ceilings and their junctions with walls must be designed and constructed in such a way that the building physics specification for the ceiling system is also guaranteed at the junctions. Fire protection

When assessing the fire protection afforded by a ceiling, we must distinguish between two cases: ceilings that must be considered in conjunction with the structural floor in order to be awarded a fire resistance rating, and ceilings that can provide a certain degree of fire resistance alone. The fire resistance in the former case depends on the form of construction of the structural floor and is covered by DIN 4102. This could be, for example, a timber joist floor with a plasterboard ceiling. With ceilings that provide a certain degree of fire resistance alone, the duration of fire resistance has been proved by the manufacturer within the scope of a national test certificate (AbP). These are independent components from the fire protection viewpoint. They also protect technical services in the ceiling void in the event of a fire in the room below (Fig. C 2.36). A ceiling that can be awarded a fire resistance rating for exposure to fire from above protects the room below against a fire in the ceiling void (Fig. C 2.37). Items (e.g. lights, HVAC equipment, etc.) built into ceilings and soffit linings that have to satisfy fire protection requirements are not permitted by DIN 4102-4. If such items must nevertheless be incorporated in a ceiling, then the construction must be assessed by way of tests. One example of this is the housing to a luminaire, which must be in the form of a fire-resistant casing built from the same material (in the same thickness) as the ceiling (Fig. C 2.38). If the luminaires require vents to help dissipate heat, the back of the fire-resistant casing must be suspended separately from the sides in order to create a ventilation opening between the two parts. The back part of the casing is supported on a material that melts when the temperature rises (e.g. polystyrene blocks) and therefore closes off the vent during a fire (Fig. C 2.39). The details at junctions with adjacent components must exhibit the same fire resistance as the surface of the ceiling itself. To do this, perimeter members, rock wool or strips of boarding must be fitted behind the ceiling at the junction with the adjoining component (e.g. wall). Shadowline joints must have a backing of material in the same thickness as the ceiling so that the total thickness of material is guaranteed at the junction (Fig. C 2.40). The fire resistance at the junction between a

C 2.36

1

C 2.37

2 3

C 2.38

1

1

2

2

3

3

4

5

6

C 2.39

C 2.40

fire-resistant ceiling and a prefabricated partition must be verified.

cases considerably, by adding a ceiling underneath (in addition to sound insulation measures on the top of the floor, e.g. a floating screed). As floors employing lightweight forms of construction (timber joist floors, trapezoidal profile sheet metal floors) usually exhibit only low sound insulation values, in most cases ceilings are included to bring about improvements. Seamless, dense ceiling surfaces with a double layer of thin gypsum-based boards plus a layer of insulation and suspended on resilient fixings are particularly effective here (see “Insulating materials”, pp. 67 – 68). Fixings can be in the form of special acoustic hangers in the case of the suspended ceilings, or resilient rails for a soffit lining.

Acoustics

Ceiling systems must satisfy two basic requirements with respect to noise control. On the one hand, they must increase the sound insulation of a suspended floor in order to reduce the transmission of sound to the next storey. On the other hand they must improve the room acoustics by increasing the equivalent sound absorption area. Sound insulation The airborne and impact sound insulation of a suspended floor can be enhanced, in some

149

Ceiling systems

1

2

C 2.41

C 2.42

C 2.41 Flanking transmission paths in ceilings 1 via the ceiling materials 2 via the ceiling void C 2.42 Partition-ceiling junction, ceiling material interrupted above partition C 2.43 Bulkhead (absorbent material) in ceiling void above partition C 2.44 Bulkhead built from boards plus insulation on the main runner (beam) of a modular grid ceiling C 2.45 Ceiling materials and framing interrupted at partition C 2.46 Uniform distribution of sound by means of specific reflections achieved with specific ceiling geometries C 2.47 Sound absorption coefficients of various ceiling systems depending on frequency C 2.48 Optimisation of the form of ceiling and wall surfaces with the aim of improving the room acoustics, “Nikolai Hall” for concerts and events, Potsdam (D), 2000; Hegger + Hegger + Schleif, in collaboration with Rudy Ricciotti

1

approx.100

300

b

40-50

2

C 2.43

C 2.44

C 2.45

Solid structural floors with a low self-weight or continuous floors in timber or metal can result in high flanking sound transmissions from one room to another, or one occupancy to another. A retrofitted ceiling or soffit lining that is interrupted by the wall separating the two interiors can help to reduce the flanking sound transmission in such a situation. Where a partition between two rooms is attached to the underside of a ceiling, e.g. a modular grid ceiling, flanking sound transmission via the ceiling void must be limited accordingly (Fig. C 2.41). This is possible by using a plain ceiling material with a backing of open-pore insulating material and a separating joint above the partition (Fig. C 2.42). Where better sound insulation is necessary, the ceiling void should be subdivided above the partition by building a bulkhead from absorbent or board materials (Figs. C 2.43 and C 2.44).

continue the wall framing up to the underside of the structural floor. Of course, this results in a lower sound insulation value than is the case with complete interruption of the ceiling void at this point. A layer of fibrous insulating material over the entire area of the ceiling and continuing across the top of the partition brings some improvement (Fig. C 2.45).

acoustics at a later date is achieved almost exclusively by the design and construction of the ceiling. Ceiling systems with a high sound absorption coefficient are suitable for regulating the sound level, the intelligibility of speech and music and the reverberations in a room because these factors depend on the sound-absorbent surfaces in the room. The variables that influence the sound-absorbent properties of a ceiling system are:

If the ceiling void cannot be completely closed off at this point because of the presence of technical services, one possible alternative is to terminate the boarding of a partition about 100 mm above the level of the ceiling but to

150

Room acoustics Where certain room acoustics are specified, appropriate, optimised design is essential. Such design work includes, above all, optimising the shape of the room and the properties of the enclosing surfaces. The sound propagation in concert halls and lecture theatres, which are primarily designed for large audiences, is improved by arranging the geometry of the interior space so that the sound is transmitted by reflections from angled surfaces, helped in turn by the shape of the room. The sound is therefore distributed more evenly throughout the interior and disturbing echoes can be avoided (Figs. C 2.46 and C 2.48). In other rooms not specifically designed for presentation purposes, influencing the room

• Material and thickness of ceiling surface • Surface finishes • Sound-absorbent backings, coatings and plasters • Clearance between ceiling and underside of structural floor • Three-dimensional arrangement of ceiling materials As the sound absorption coefficient of a ceiling is not the same for all frequencies, the ceiling should be designed so that the maximum sound absorption coefficient coincides with the frequency of the majority of the sound to be expected.

Sound absorption coefficient αs

Ceiling systems

1.0 a

c

0.5 b

e

d

0 100

1000

5000 Frequency [Hz]

C 2.46

a Sound absorber

b Sound absorber with perforated facing

d Plate resonator

e Helmholtz resonator

c Acoustic board

C 2.47

Fig. C 2.47 indicates the sound absorption in relation to the frequency for customary absorption systems: • Sound-absorbent building materials (a) • Perforated soffit lining with backing of openpore insulating material (b) • Acoustic boards (c) • Plate resonator made from board materials attached to a timber framework (d) • Helmholtz resonator consisting of soffit lining with openings and a void behind (e) Generally, perforations or holes in a surface increase the degree of sound attenuation, provided there is a void behind. Varying the distance between ceiling and structural floor and the patterns and sizes of perforations enables the maximum degree of attenuation of a ceiling to be adjusted for the desired range of frequencies. Fig. C 2.49 shows how the distance (h) and the perforations in the surface affect the sound absorption coefficient αs of a suspended gypsumbased ceiling. Additional open-pore insulating materials in the void can have a positive effect on the sound absorption of such a ceiling. C 2.48

151

Ceiling systems

C 2.49

C 2.50

C 2.51

C 2.52

Sound absorption coefficient αs

C 2.53

Sound absorption coefficient αs in relation to frequency a Board without perforations, h = 50 mm b Perforated board, h = 50 mm c Perforated board, h = 200 mm Movement joint in ceiling surface, with additional framing member at joint and framing separated adjacent to joint 1 Sliding splice connector Movement joint complying with fire resistance requirements, x = joint width ≤ 25 mm 1 Edge bead if required 2 100 mm strip of ceiling material Ceiling-wall junction with shadowline joint formed with UD section; cross-runner fitted loose into UD section Joint filled with gypsum compound and ceiling screwed to perimeter angle (screw fixing to angle not required with larger ceilings and when using gypsum fibreboard for the ceiling surface)

1.4

Junctions and details

1.0 0.8 0.6

0.2

0

a

Sound absorption coefficient αs

C 2.59

Joint with special shadowline edge bead Joint filled with gypsum compound Joint with resilient sealant Intentional gap between wall and ceiling Sliding junction with shadowline joint and one layer of boarding 1 Seal (optional) 2 Perimeter section 3 Edge bead or similar (optional) 4 Gypsum-based board 5 Framing (cross-runner) 6 Framing (main runner) Junction with shadowline joint and two layers of boarding 1 Seal (optional) 2 Perimeter section 3 Edge bead or similar (optional) 4 Gypsum-based board 5 Framing (main runner) 6 Framing (cross-runner)

1.2

0.4

125

250

500

1k

2k 4k Frequency (Hz)

1.4

The junctions between ceilings and adjoining components, also variations in the level of the ceiling itself, require carefully designed details so that the appearance and building physics criteria of the ceiling system do not suffer. Damage to ceiling systems occurs primarily in the form of cracks at the joints between boards and between ceiling and adjoining components. The risk of cracking at these positions, however, can be considerably diminished by taking into account the constructional situation and the possibility of relative movements between the various components. The details given here are intended to illustrate typical solutions and design principles that can form the basis for a functioning ceiling system.

1.2 Movement joints

0.4

Movement joints in a soffit lining or suspended ceiling should be included at the same positions as those in the loadbearing structure. Furthermore, any movement joints required should be incorporated at a spacing of about 15 m for plasterboard and about 8 m for gypsum fibreboard (Fig. C 2.50). A movement joint is formed by including a sliding connection in the framing and the ceiling materials. This means that when two boards meet at a butt joint, only one should be fixed to the framing member at that point. Moreover, movement joints are always advisable when a ceiling surface adjoins different building components that could move relative to one another. The latter is the case with protecting walls, ceilings around columns and in corridor ceilings with alcoves or projections. Where ceilings have to comply with fire protection requirements, pieces of boarding material (equal in thickness to the rest of the ceiling) must be included as a backing to the movement joint. These strips of boarding are attached on one side of the joint only (Fig. C 2.51).

0.2

Junctions with walls

1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

0

b

Sound absorption coefficient αs

C 2.54 C 2.55 C 2.56 C 2.57 C 2.58

125

250

500

1k

2k 4k Frequency (Hz)

1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6

In practice it is usual to employ suitable sections, e.g. UD sections (Fig. C 2.52), angles c

0

125

250

500

1k

2k 4k Frequency (Hz) C 2.49

152

1

150

150 15-20

C 2.50

(Fig. C 2.53) or special shadowline edge beads (Fig. C 2.54), at junctions with walls. Such sections enable the materials of the ceiling surface to be fixed to the wall. When using a UD section, the cross-runner is inserted into this without being fixed (Fig. C 2.52). At such a detail gypsum fibreboards should not be fixed to the section attached to the wall. This also applies to plasterboard if movements of the ceiling are to be expected or the ceiling includes movement joints. Various details can be employed to guarantee junctions free from cracking. These details depend on the form of construction of the wall and the materials used for the ceiling surface. There are essentially four options: • • • •

Rigid junctions with gypsum jointing compound Joints with a resilient sealant Sliding connections Open joints (shadowline joints)

Rigid junction When a rigid junction is necessary, the recommendation is to fix isolating tape (self-adhesive masking tape) to the wall at the junction with the ceiling and to fill the joint up to this tape. Once the compound has set, the isolating tape is cut off flush with the ceiling. This results in a hardly perceptible, “controlled” straight hairline crack when the building is in use (Fig. C 2.55). At a junction between a plasterboard ceiling and a prefabricated wall made from the same material, an alternative solution is to fix jointing tape, folded to fit into the corner, with gypsum jointing compound, or to omit the jointing tape altogether if a suitable gypsum jointing compound is available. Joint with resilient sealant Where a resilient joint is required between ceiling and wall (e.g. acrylic sealant), a joint 5 – 7 mm wide should be formed and the edges of the boards primed prior to applying the sealant (Fig. C 2.56). The primer guarantees good adhesion between sealant and board. If the sealant comes into contact with a third surface (e.g. another piece of board used as a backing to

Ceiling systems

max. 250 UD section 20

x 1

20

100

x x 2

Ceiling NOT screwed to UD section

500

Edge bead if required

C 2.52

C 2.51

C 2.53

the joint), an isolating tape should be affixed to this first to guarantee the expansion of the sealant. Deformations equal to 10 – 15 % (approx. 1 mm) of the joint width can be accommodated without damage (see “Sealants”, p. 73).

50

Sliding connection When a filled corner joint between ceiling and wall is essential (e.g. in hospital rooms with high hygiene requirements), it is possible to create a sliding connection in the vertical direction. The ceiling is connected to the wall by sections, but the horizontal distance from the wall to the first ceiling hanger must be about 1 m (check permissible hanger spacing). As the ceiling along the perimeter is now not directly connected to the structure above, it can deform minimally in the vertical direction without any cracks forming. A horizontal sliding connection is formed by fitting the ceiling material against the underside of some form of support (e.g. wall channel, see Fig. C 2.58) but without fixing it to this.

Gypsum filling compound Isolating tape 500 mm

C 2.54

Shadowline joint The advantage of a shadowline joint is that any cracks at the junction are concealed within the shadow (Fig. C 2.59). A sliding shadowline joint is formed by using a UD or angle section and allowing the ceiling material to cantilever beyond its last support (Fig. C 2.58). Ceiling materials should not cantilever more than 150 mm and are not fixed to the section on the wall. An edge bead should be attached to any exposed edges (Fig. C 2.57).

C 2.55

Resilient sealant

Edge bead if required

150

150

C 2.56

1

2

3

C 2.57

1

4

5

2

6 3

C 2.58

4

5

6

C 2.59

153

Ceiling systems

C 2.60 Change in level

Rooms with different ceiling heights require special treatment at the change in level (Fig. C 2.63). Additional hangers are necessary in the region of the change in level (max. height difference 1250 mm) in order to carry the extra load of the vertical construction, which here should be built like a prefabricated wall with UW and CW stud sections clad on one side. The spacing of the studs, the board materials and any sound insulation required should be chosen to match the ceiling construction (Fig. C 2.68).

cavity fixings. However, loads exceeding 6 kg must be attached directly to the framing, and the additional loads must be taken into account when designing the hangers and their fixings. Items that exceed the permissible loads for the framing/hangers must be fixed directly to the structure above or to some form of auxiliary framework that transfers the loads back to the structure. Loads may not be attached directly to the ceiling materials or framing if the ceiling has to comply with fire protection requirements. In these cases the loads must be carried directly by the structure.

Stepped corner detail with indirect lighting

Stepped or curved ceiling surfaces require an appropriate framework. The design of a stepped wall–ceiling junction with integral indirect lighting shall serve as an example (Figs. C 2.61 and C 2.62). The individual ceiling levels are formed by installing hangers of different lengths. A preformed curved ceiling element can be used when a coved corner detail is required. The front edge of each step is formed by cutting a 90° V-groove in the back of the plasterboard so that it can be folded up. Attaching loads to the ceiling surface

If necessary, all the technical services (HVAC, sprinkler lines, electric cables, data lines, sanitary pipework, etc.) can be installed in the void between the underside of the structural floor and the ceiling or soffit lining. These services serve particular rooms, walls or fittings in the ceiling itself (see “Installation systems – Suspended floors and ceilings”, p. 190). Pipes, cables and ventilation supply/extract grilles are very easily installed in the ceiling void (some systems can even be retrofitted) and are accessible for maintenance. The integration of sanitary pipework in the ceiling void is a viable solution as part of a refurbishment project if a suspended ceiling is being

Cooling ceilings The presence of additional heat sources such as photocopiers, computers and luminaires has led to ceilings being increasingly designed to perform cooling tasks, especially in office buildings. A cooling ceiling can be installed instead of a conventional air-conditioning system (which results in considerable circulation of the interior air and hence also unpleasant draughts and background noise) in order to dissipate heat energy while avoiding the disadvantages (see “Office buildings”, pp. 94– 97). A radiation exchange takes place between the cooling ceiling and the heat sources in the room below, and the ceiling cools the interior air by way of conduction. The radiation and conduction proportions vary depending on the configuration of

1250

Lightweight fitting-out items such as curtain tracks or light fittings can be attached directly to the ceiling materials with appropriate

Installing services in the ceiling void

planned anyway to improve poor acoustics and there is sufficient height for such a ceiling. Sanitary pipework above the ceiling is easier to inspect and maintain than pipework under the floor (except raised access floors). Damage (e.g. a broken pipe) is discovered quicker and is usually easier to repair.The possibility of integrating lights, loudspeakers and ventilation grilles flush with the surface of the ceiling opens up further options for high-quality interior design (see “Heating, cooling, ventilation”, pp. 174–185).

150 C 2.61

154

C 2.62

C 2.63

Ceiling systems

C 2.64

the cooling ceiling and the air circulation in the room (see “Coil cooling”, p. 178). Cooling ceiling systems generally include a gypsum-based or metal soffit material because these have a high thermal conductivity and therefore achieve a high heat exchange. The cooling is usually achieved by way of closed water circuits installed on top of the soffit material. Such a ceiling-mounted system can also be used for heating. However, excessive temperature differences should be avoided in order to prevent damage caused by thermal expansion (Figs. C 2.66, C 2.67 and C 2.69).

C 2.68

Access hatches

Access hatches are available in sizes of 200 ≈ 200 mm to 800 ≈ 800 mm (Figs. C 2.64 and C 2.65). Off-the-shelf elements that also satisfy fire protection requirements consist of a metal tray with a mineral inlay (e.g. gypsum) or a frame with a gypsum-based board infill. The design of such access hatches is very much dependent on the system and manufacturer. Care must be taken to ensure that the hatch is suitable for the ceiling being installed and that the necessary fire resistance (from above/below) is guaranteed.

C 2.65 C 2.60 Technical services in the ceiling void above a fire-resistant self-supporting ceiling C 2.61 Multiple steps with lighting concealed C 2.62 Stepped ceiling detail with indirect cove lighting C 2.63 Change in level in fire-resistant ceiling C 2.64 Access hatch C 2.65 Example of framing and trimmers around an access hatch C 2.66 Cooling/heating ceiling with plain plasterboard C 2.67 Cooling/heating ceiling with metal trays C 2.68 Change in level in a suspended ceiling C 2.69 Installation of heating and cooling circuits in a ceiling C 2.70 Ventilation ducts above a modular panel ceiling still under construction

C 2.66

C 2.67

C 2.69

C 2.70

155

Flooring systems Karsten Tichelmann, Bastian Ziegler

C 3.1

Internal flooring systems are loadbearing structures that form the lower enclosure to an interior space. This function means they have to satisfy building physics and technology requirements, e.g. the integration of technical services, in addition to the architectural ones. In addition, the fire protection and sound insulation properties of flooring systems can sometimes represent an easy and cost-effective way of improving the building physics properties of existing structural floors. The following criteria must be considered when choosing a flooring system: • Appearance • Geometry (flatness, deformations) • Surface characteristics (abrasion resistance, non-slip properties, cleaning options) • Load-carrying capacity and stiffness • Acoustic properties (impact, airborne and flanking sound transmissions) • Fire protection properties (combustibility and fire resistance rating) • Thermal performance properties (removal of heat from a room) • Moisture resistance, especially in wet interior areas • Electrostatic properties (electrical conductivity) • Integration of technical services • Type and properties of structural floor below Flooring systems can be classified as systems with and without voids, which are further divided into three main groups: • Dry subfloors (no voids) • Hollow floors (voids, max. 200 mm deep) • Raised access floors: (voids, floor panels on max. 1250 mm high pedestals) Fig C 3.2 provides an overview of the different flooring systems plus their applications and the materials used.

C 3.1 C 3.2 C 3.3 C 3.4

156

Raised access floor under construction The properties and applications of flooring systems in dry construction Screed drying times and moisture quantities Materials for levelling uneven structural floors

Dry subfloors Dry subfloors are floor finishes without voids which are capable of transferring loads to the underlying structure. They are laid over the whole area of the floor without the use of wet trades and form a substrate for the floor covering. This type of floor includes: • Timber planks or boards laid on timber joist floors or timber battens • Dry subfloor systems, which use board materials and are normally separated from the underlying floor (floating) The advantages of dry subfloors are: • • • • •

No construction moisture Can be loaded and used without delay Low self-weight Low overall depth Easy adaptability

The low self-weight, the low overall depth and the avoidance of construction moisture means that dry subfloors are especially suitable for refurbishment and renovation work. Fig. C 3.3 compares the overall depths and drying times of screeds, asphalt and dry subfloors. The individual dry subfloor systems differ primarily in terms of the board materials used, which depend upon the application and the specification for the particular usage and floor covering. For example, gypsum-based materials are unsuitable for wet interior areas and wood-based board products may be unsuitable because of their combustibility. As the specific properties of a particular board product also differ from manufacturer to manufacturer, it is not possible to generalise about their suitability for certain applications. Structural floors without a basement underneath (e.g. basement slabs) must be waterproofed according to the appropriate loading group to prevent moisture from the outside air or the soil damaging the flooring material. Reinforced concrete suspended floors must also be completely covered with a vapour-tight material because of the residual moisture that is often still present. On timber joist floors, especially in

Flooring systems

conjunction with floorboards, a diffusion-permeable material such as corrugated or plain cardboard or plastic sheeting is required to retain any loose materials/fibres. As the boards used in dry subfloors exhibit a low bending strength, they must make contact with the underlying compression-resistant substrate over their entire surface area. Uneven surfaces must therefore be levelled; the materials used for this depend on the degree of unevenness. Fig. C 3.4 describes suitable measures depending on the difference in height between high and low points.

Where impact sound insulation is necessary, a suitably stiff insulating material must be used because otherwise vibrations could be transmitted to fittings and furnishings. A board material that spreads the load may be necessary when a loose fill has been laid on the structural floor. Hard floor coverings such as ceramic and stone tiles may crack if they are laid on dry subfloor materials that are in turn laid on a soft substrate. When sufficiently stiff floorboards or board materials are used, these can also be attached parallel to the timber battens fixed to the struc-

tural floor. The spacing of the timber battens depends on the load-carrying capacity and stiffness of the boards and may be up to 600 mm. Dry loose fill (levelling layer)

Where falls and unevenness exceed 10 mm, dry loose fill materials are used, which can also improve the thermal and impact sound insulation properties of the structural floor (Figs. C 3.5 and C 3.6, p. 158). The loose fill material is tipped directly onto the prepared structural floor. Some form of sheeting material will be required to retain loose materials on floors with

Flooring system

Description

Applications

Materials

Fire resistance

Dry subfloors

• Dry subfloors consist of loose fill for levelling purposes, impact sound insulation and dry flooring materials, depending on requirements.

Modernisation, refurbishment; housing, offices, conversion of roof spaces; ideal for floor finishes on top of timber joist floors.

Flooring materials made from plasterboard, gypsum fibreboard, calcium silicate or wood-based board products.

F 30 – F 120

Offices and corridors with high services density; computer rooms, workshops and production facilities with normal requirements regarding flexibility of use and accessibility to services.

Supports made from plastic, metal or stone; permanent formwork made from plasterboard, gypsum fibreboard or steel plates; self-levelling screed.

F 30 – F 90

Offices and corridors with high services density and/or requirements regarding changeability of plan layouts; computer rooms, switchgear rooms, radio and television studios, laboratories, workshops and clean rooms with high requirements regarding flexibility of use and accessibility to services.

Wood-based products, steel, aluminium (metal trays filled with mineral material, reinforced lightweight concrete or concrete), gypsum fibreboard, calcium silicate.

F 30 – F 60

• They are offered by manufacturers as composite systems or as individual boards (which are simply bonded together on site). • Overall depth ≥ 45 mm

Hollow floors

• Screed floors with seamless surface on permanent formwork with void below. • The void (25 – 87 mm) provides space for technical services. • Supports are spaced at 200 – 300 mm centres. • Total overall depth 70 – 232 mm; especially suitable for heavy loads.

Raised access floors

• Flexible flooring systems made from individual panels supported above the structural floor on pedestals on a standard 600 x 600 mm grid. • Various floor depths possible depending on usage (60 – 1200 mm and even more). • Various floor depths possible depending on usage (60 – 1200 mm and even more).

C 3.2

Type of subfloor

Dry subfloor Asphalt

Min. thickness of flooring material ≥ 20 mm 40 mm

Calcium sulphate screed

35 mm

Cement screed

40 mm

Drying time

Ready for loading after...

Moisture quantity

≤ 24 h

1 day

≤ 0.01 l / m2

36 h

½ day

0.3 l / m2

≥ 24 days

≥ 26 days

3 days

2 weeks

0.8 l / m

Unevenness

Levelling measures

≤ 2 mm

Rigid foam or fibrous insulating boards

≤ 5 mm

Soft foam materials (e.g. made from polyethylene)

≤ 10 mm

Self-levelling screed Binding compound

10 – 20 mm

Self-levelling compound plus fine-grain aggregate, mixed in the ratio 1:2 (e.g. washed sand, grading curve 0/2.0 mm)

10 – 25 mm

Cement-sand mixes in the ratio 1:5

>10 mm

Dry loose fill

2

0.5 l / m2

C 3.3

C 3.4

157

Flooring systems

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

a

10

b C 3.5

C 3.6

unsealed joints, e.g. timber floorboards; the sheeting must also be turned up the perimeter walls. In order to guarantee that the loose fill material is adequately compacted and can therefore distribute the loads properly, a minimum depth of 15 – 20 mm is necessary; generally, at least about five times the maximum particle size. Some dry loose fill materials can be spread out to a feather edge (i.e. zero thickness), which allows a smooth transition to be formed at the edge of a floor laid to a fall. A layer of loose fill more than about 40 mm thick will have to be subsequently compacted. And if the difference in levels exceeds 60 mm, rough levelling can be achieved first by laying additional building or insulating boards in order to limit the depth of the loose fill. Loose fill materials can be laid directly around service installations such as cold- and hot-water pipes, waste-water pipes or electric cables, but a minimum cover of 10 – 20 mm should be maintained over such items. All pipes and cables must be fixed to the structural floor with mechanical fasteners so that any dynamic movements do not cause fill material to creep under a component and lift it. Dry subfloor systems with rebated, tongue and groove or butt joints are laid in a specific pattern to suit the material and the joints glued to create an interconnected plate that will distribute the loads. When a tongue and groove dry subfloor system is laid on loose fill, it is advisable to cover the fill first to prevent it infiltrating the joints (Figs. C 3.7 and C 3.8).

• Two layers of 12.5 mm gypsum fibreboard factory-glued with peripheral rebated joint • Three layers of special plasterboard with tongue and groove joints on longitudinal edges, rebated joints on transverse edges, total thickness approx. 25 mm • Particleboard with peripheral tongue and groove joint: min. thickness 19 mm depending on the spacing of the supports (timber battens), or 25 mm for a floating-type floor • Cement-bonded wood particleboard, one or more layers • Mineral boards (cement-bonded, ceramic), one or more layers

Materials for dry subfloors

In principle, any firm board material can be used for a dry subfloor. Specially developed boards that are matched to the needs of a loadbearing floor are in widespread use. Board materials for dry subfloors The following board materials are preferred for dry subfloors: • 12.5 mm plasterboard or gypsum fibreboard glued in situ • Dense gypsum fibreboard supplied with rebated joint or clip-fit edges

158

C 3.7

must be compatible with each other in order to avoid permanent damage to the subfloor. Owing to the similar shrinkage and swelling behaviour, wood-block flooring is best laid on wood-based board products. Mineral substrates should be checked with regard to their suitability for wooden floors. Movement joints every 10 – 15 m will be necessary, depending on the type of wood-block flooring. The indispensable expansion joints between wall and subfloor, also between wall and wood-block floor finish, must be at least 10 mm wide (see “Wall and floor finishes”, pp. 70 – 73). Building physics requirements for floors

Many dry subfloors are also produced in the form of composite elements that have a layer of mineral-fibre, wood-fibre or rigid polystyrene foam insulating material attached to the back as impact sound insulation. This saves one operation on site because the insulation does not have to be laid separately. Floor coverings for dry subfloors Floor coverings for dry subfloors can be laid as soon as the adhesive has fully cured. Resilient (PVC, linoleum), textile (carpeting) and hard (ceramic tiles, wood-block flooring, laminated floors) flooring materials can be used. Depending on their thickness, materials supplied in rolls such as carpets and PVC may require a skim coat over the entire floor area so that joints between boards do not show through later. The majority of board materials will also require a min. 2 mm skim coat over the entire floor area if resistance to chair castors is an important requirement. Ceramic and stone tiles should not be larger than 300 x 300 mm in order to avoid subjecting them to bending and possibly breaking them. A thin layer of tile adhesive is applied directly to the dry subfloor, a skim coat is unnecessary. Mineral-bonded boards (e.g. gypsum-based boards) are suitable substrates for ceramic tiles. Wood-based boards are unsuitable because of their shrinkage and swelling behaviour. In wet interior areas, dry subfloors should be waterproofed over their entire area, e.g. with a liquidapplied synthetic material. The dry subfloor material, waterproofing material and tile adhesive

The improvements to sound insulation and fire protection that can be achieved with a dry subfloor essentially depend on the type of structural floor already in place. Manufacturers’ brochures provide information on the influences of various types of construction. Sound insulation Floating dry subfloors can be laid on solid concrete and timber joist floors in order to improve the impact sound insulation. The improvement essentially depends on the form of construction of the structural floor, the make-up of the dry subfloor and the dynamic stiffness of the insulating material. As a rule, a dry subfloor laid on a lightweight structural floor, e.g. timber joist floor, achieves only about a third of the impact sound improvement that is possible when the same dry subfloor is laid on a heavy, solid floor. As the standardised measuring procedure for determining the impact sound reduction index of floor constructions in the laboratory refers exclusively to solid floors, it is not possible to specify a impact sound reduction index that is universally applicable to lightweight floors. The values determined in tests using solid floors therefore cannot be transferred to lightweight floors and instead serve merely as a guide when comparing the acoustic quality of different dry subfloors. The impact sound reduction index of a dry subfloor system laid on a concrete floor can reach 28 dB, but on a timber joist floor no more than 17 dB is possible. Fig. C 3.9 shows a dry sub-

Flooring systems

C 3.5

Dry subfloor on loose fill laid around services (load distribution board above loose fill depends on system) Refurbishment of timber joist floor with floating dry subfloor, loose fill to compensate for different levels and suspended ceiling 1 Aerated concrete plank for rough levelling 2 Loose fill to complete levelling 3 Pugging 4 Particleboard or floorboards 5 Pugging boards 6 Impact sound insulation 7 Floating dry subfloor 8 Ceiling material 9 Cross-batten

C 3.6

10 Main batten 11 Hanger C 3.7 Joint between dry subfloor boards a two layers overlapped b three layers laid to form a tongue and groove joint C 3.8 Laying a dry subfloor with overlapping joints on a layer of insulation with integral underfloor heating C 3.9 Example of timber joist floor with improved sound insulation C 3.10 Detail of junction with screed, wood-based product as bearing pad along perimeter C 3.11 Detail of junction with screed a with metal angle b with timber batten

C 3.8

floor system consisting of gypsum fibreboard elements combined with impact sound insulation boards made from a fibrous material plus a loose fill laid in cardboard honeycomb elements. The soffit lining is attached by resilient channels. Fire protection A timber joist party floor can be allocated to fire resistance rating F 30 or F 60 when it includes a dry subfloor system. The dry subfloor protects the loadbearing floor underneath against premature failure in the event of a fire and preserves its integrity among other things. Other board materials, different forms of construction and higher fire resistance ratings are possible but must be determined by testing. Moisture control Waterproofing in wet interior areas is not guaranteed by the dry subfloor, but rather by a waterproofing system applied to it. The information given in the section on moisture control (pp. 130 –131) also applies to the waterproofing systems used for dry subfloors.

Dry subfloor junction details

The acoustic decoupling of the subfloor from adjoining building components (e.g. walls, columns) is achieved by laying strips of insulation approx. 10 mm thick along all edges. Junctions with other floor finishes Junctions with solid floors, stone flags, ceramic tiles or hollow floors require support in the form of metal angles or timber battens (Figs. C 3.10 and C 3.11). Joints between dry subfloor elements in doorways require a loadbearing support in the form of strip of subfloor material or timber boards/ planks. In order to prevent an acoustic bridge at this point, it should be ensured that the bearing material is also laid on a strip of insulation (Fig. C 3.12, p. 160) At the junction with a floor screed, the edge of the dry subfloor should be supported in order to minimise the relative deformations between the finished floor surfaces due to their different elasticity (Fig. C 3.10).

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Movement joints A movement joint is formed by creating an overlapping joint without any adhesive. The boards either side of the movement joint are laid with a gap which is then filled with an elastic compound. It should be ensured that the compound adheres to the two edges of the boards only and not to the face of the board underneath This guarantees that the compound can expand and contract uniformly and does not become detached from the edges of the boards (Fig. C 3.13, p. 160). Where a dry subfloor is laid on loose fill, it should be supported by a strip of timber plus an upturned T-section (Fig. C 3.14, p.160). Junctions with walls At the junction between a dry subfloor and a wall, an acoustic decoupling between floor and wall is important if unwanted sound transmissions are to be minimised. This is achieved by fitting a strip of insulation between the dry subfloor materials and the wall (Figs. C 3.15 and C 3.16, p. 160).

Insulation for acoustic decoupling

9

Metal angle

a

Loose fill levelling layer

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Gypsum fibreboard dry subfloor Wood-fibre insulating board Cardboard honeycomb elements with sand filling Particleboard Timber joist Resilient channel C 3.9 Gypsum fibreboard

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Floor covering over dry subfloor Dry subfloor Loose fill Wood-based product (bearing pad) Strip of insulation Waterproofing material Floor covering over screed Screed Structural floor

C 3.10

b

C 3.11

159

Flooring systems

Integrating underfloor heating into dry subfloors

Boards with preformed channels for the underfloor heating installation can be used when underfloor heating is to be installed. Heat diffusion plates placed improve the radiation of heat from the floor (Figs. C 3.17 and C 3.18, see also “Coil heating”, p. 176). In order to achieve an adequate surface temperature in the floor covering over the whole floor area but with a low flow temperature, the heating pipes should not be spaced more than 150 mm apart. The temperature at the heat diffusion plates should not exceed 45 °C for any extended period of time, otherwise there is a risk of dehydration of the gypsum, which

changes the microstructure of the material. The flow temperature should therefore be limited to 45 °C where possible.

Proprietary flooring systems Proprietary flooring systems are available in the form of hollow or raised access floors and are mainly intended for buildings where good flexibility of internal usage is required but this is not defined at the time the flooring is installed, or when services laid in the floor are to remain accessible. This is mostly the case in office buildings or hospitals, 100

approx. 100 55

45 1

5 10 5 1 a

where open-plan offices, computer rooms and laboratories require flexible, changeable routing of services (see also “Suspended floors and ceilings”, pp. 190f. and “sanitary installation”, p. 203). Proprietary flooring systems are also used for circulation zones because these often act as distribution zones for a large number of pipes, ducts and cables serving the various adjacent rooms and areas. The main difference between hollow floors and raised access floors is that access to the former is only possible at certain, planned positions, but in the latter is possible at any point by removing floor panels as required.

2

2

approx. 100

b

C 3.12

C 3.13

C 3.14

C 3.15 C 3.16 C 3.17 C 3.18

C 3.12

C 3.13

C 3.14

C 3.15

C 3.16

C 3.17

Butt joint in doorway a with resilient jointing compound b on loose fill Movement joint detail 1 Resilient jointing compound 2 Timber bearing pad Detail of movement joint over loose fill 1 Resilient jointing compound 2 Timber bearing pad Detail at junction with solid wall Integrating a lightweight wall into a floating dry subfloor Dry subfloor with underfloor heating and loose fill Underfloor heating laid in thermal insulation with heat diffusion plates

C 3.19

Hollow floor system with self-levelling screed, plasterboard/gypsum fibreboard permanent formwork and adjustable PVC supports 1 Self-levelling screed 2 Plasterboard/gypsum fibreboard permanent formwork 3 Adjustable PVC support filled with calcium sulphate screed C 3.20 Hollow floor system in dry construction made from dense gypsum fibreboard and metal pedestals 1 Adhesive 2 Dense gypsum fibreboard 3 Interlocking joint + adhesive C 3.21 Access panel in hollow floor system C 3.18

160

Flooring systems

Hollow floor systems

Hollow floors (also called cavity or shallow access floors) include voids (max. 200 mm deep) for routing technical services. They are used primarily in areas of the building where there are conventional requirements regarding access to services and no large duct or pipe crosssections are necessary in the floor. As the access openings are positioned at certain points only, all services must be laid along defined routes. Access to the voids is through planned or retrofitted access panels in the floor level. The features of hollow floor systems are as follows:

1

2

3

• • • •

Low overall depth High load-carrying capacity Advantageous fire protection properties Seamless, closed surface

Hollow floors with screed finish The loadbearing layer for this type of hollow floor is a self-levelling cement or similar screed laid on permanent formwork. Examples of the materials that can be used for the permanent formwork: • Deep-drawn PVC material supplied in rolls • Resilient moulded panels with factory-formed supports made from screed material or plastic • Factory-punched gypsum boards; adjustable PVC screw pedestals are inserted into the punched holes on site so that the floor elements can be levelled (Fig. C 3.19) Once it has cured, the screed takes over the loadbearing function from the permanent formwork. Holes can be drilled for the subsequent installation of panels providing access to the voids below.

312.5 C 3.19

1

3

2

600 C 3.20

Hollow floors in dry construction Hollow floors in dry construction can employ the same formwork elements as for screed systems, provided these have a flat top surface. As an alternative, the supporting construction can be in the form of metal pedestals or linear supports (stringers) made from square metal bars. The standard grid for metal pedestals is 600 ≈ 600 mm (Fig. C 3.21). The loadbearing layer generally consists of dense gypsum fibreboard 25 – 40 mm thick with tongue and groove edges which are glued together on site (Fig. C 3.20). Two layers of boards with staggered joints can be used where very heavy loads are involved. The type and layout of the pedestals (e.g. spacing, bearing area), or the span of boards between stringers, determine the maximum permissible loading. The load-carrying capacity can be increased by choosing a smaller spacing for the pedestals or installing additional members between the pedestals as a bearing for the flooring materials. A half-size grid or additional members between the pedestals are often necessary to strengthen the perimeter zones, which are weaker in structural terms (end bay of continuous beam). The advantages of hollow floors in dry construction over those with a screed are as follows: • A much lower level of construction moisture, no drying-out times. • Floors can accept loads immediately and other building trades (e.g. floor coverings) can gain access quickly. • Lower load on structural floor due to low selfweight of hollow floor construction.

Raised access floors systems

Raised access floors (also called platform floors) are installed where there is a high density of services in the floor with high requirements regarding accessibility and retrofitting of further installations, e.g. computer rooms, transformer substations, corridors in office buildings, computer centres (Figs. C 3.22 and C 3.23, p. 162). They consist of industrially prefabricated floor panels (standard dimensions: 600 ≈ 600 mm) with finished floor surface supported on special supports (pedestals) up to 1250 mm high. Every floor panel is simply laid loose on the pedestals and can therefore be easily removed to gain access to the floor void at any point. In addition to electrical installations, the floor void can be used to route water and waste-water pipes, compressed-air lines, pneumatic tube conveyors or central vacuum-cleaning systems. It can also form an integral element in an air-conditioning system (plenum). The requirements for offices, computer centres and other internal areas with higher loads can be met by specifying a suitable floor construction with floor panels that have the necessary mechanical strength, possibly achieved with the aid of additional strengthening measures (e.g. bonding steel plates to the underside of the floor panel). Such reinforcing measures mean that even lightweight forklift trucks can be driven across appropriately designed floors. Each floor panel is supported at its four corners on height-adjustable pedestals (usually metal) which are in turn fixed to the structural floor with mechanical fasteners or adhesive (curing time before floor can be loaded: 20 hours; adhesive takes 1–2 weeks to cure fully). The head of each pedestal is fitted with a noiseattenuating plastic pad, which at the same time ensures the correct positioning of the panel corners (Fig. C 3.25, p. 162). The pedestals must be braced in the case of high vertical and/or horizontal loads (e.g. fork-lift trucks) and floor depths exceeding 700 mm. This is achieved by providing X-bracing or tensioned steel wires. Additional members (stringers) can be fitted between the pedestals to provide a continuous bearing for the flooring materials and thus increase the load-carrying capacity. Small, narrow perimeter panels should be avoided when planning the layout of the floor so that pedestals do not touch or overlap and the structural design of the floor panels is not affected, e.g. unintentional one-way spans or the cutting of reinforcing ribs when cutting the panels to size on site. Pipes and ducts running parallel to a wall should be positioned at a clear distance of at least 100 mm from the wall in order to guarantee sufficient space for the pedestals. The system properties that should be considered for tender documents or when comparing different systems are given below. These properties can be specified by the manufacturer but may also be prescribed by the designers as minimum requirements.

C 3.21

161

Flooring systems

C 3.22

Geometry/weight • Panel thickness (mm) • Panel grid (mm) • Min. overall depth, FFL (mm) • Height adjustment (max. mm) • Panel weight without floor covering (kg)

C 3.23

Loadbearing capacity (to testing specification RAL 62941) • Point load at 1/300 (kN) • Point load with a factor of safety of 2 (kN) • Ultimate load (kN) Fire protection • Building materials class • Fire resistance rating

Materials • Panel materials • Edge protection • Finish to underside • Finish to top side • Floor covering options • Pedestals

Sound insulation • Normalised impact sound level Ln,w (dB) • Impact sound reduction index (dB) • Flanking sound reduction index RL,w (dB)

C 3.24

Electrostatic properties • Earth leakage resistance (Ω) Costs (€/m2) Bridge sections Where a pedestal cannot be installed because of some obstacle (e.g. structure, existing services) and the maximum pedestal spacing is exceeded as a result, a bridge section must be included to span the longer distance between two pedestals. As the bridge section replaces one pedestal, the load on the two pedestals at either end is higher and this must be taken into account in the design (Fig. C 3.24). Bridge sections will also be required where technical services are wider than the pedestal grid or coincide with the position of a pedestal.

1

2

3 C 3.26

C 3.22 – C3.23 Raised access floor in the form of sheet steel trays with calcium sulphate screed filling; integration of communications and technical services plus underfloor heating in entrance hall to Bayer company offices, Leverkusen (D), 2002; Helmut Jahn C 3.24 Hollow floor system made from dense gypsum fibreboard, DIN 4102 class A1, Highlight Towers, Munich (D), 2004; Helmut Jahn C 3.25 Typical construction of a raised access floor pedestal 1 Floor panel 2 Sound-attenuating bearing pad 3 Levelling shim (to aid assembly) 4 Locknut 5 Bond with structural floor C 3.26 Proprietary system for supporting pipes and cables below a raised access floor C 3.27 Intermediate floor C 3.28 Overview of typical raised access floor panels and their properties

4

5

C 3.25

162

C 3.27

Flooring systems

Overview of typical raised access floor panels and their properties Floor panel Strength Weight Fire resistance Wood-based board product with 1 1 ++ – aluminium foil on underside Wood-based board product with 1 1 + + + sheet steel on underside

°

Fibre-reinforced calcium sulphate panel

+2 2

Combust- Sound ibility insulation

Swelling/ shrinkage

Comfort underfoot

° °

°

2

°

–

1

+2

+

–

++

++

+2

++

2

1

° ° °

1

++

1

2

+

++

++

+

++

1

+2

++

++

+2

++

° ° ° °

°

Lightweight concrete panel

+

Steel tray with mineral filling

+2

Closed, empty metal tray

–

++

–

++

–

Closed metal tray with mineral filling

°

°

°

++

Diecast aluminium plate

+

+

–

++

Framed steel plate

+2

°

–

++

° ° °

° °

++ very good + good satisfactory – unsuitable/unsatisfactory properties

° 1 2

Property depends on actual density of floor panel Property depends on complex influences due to composition and processing C 3.28

Intermediate floors A high services density may make it necessary to provide additional installation surfaces in the form of intermediate floors. These consist of sheet steel trays laid on support brackets fitted to the metal pedestals. Such intermediate floors can be designed to accept foot traffic if necessary (Fig. C 3.27). Cable trays Trays for carrying small pipes and cables are supported on metal sections fitted to the pedestals. Cable trays are used for long, straight installations (e.g. in corridors) and where the floor depth exceeds 700 mm. Trays improve the clarity of the technical services layout, but another advantage is that in the event of the sprinkler system being triggered, cables do not lie in a pool of water and are therefore protected against short-circuits (Fig. C 3.26). Materials for raised access floors

Wood, steel, aluminium or fibre-reinforced mineral materials are used for the floor panels in raised access floor systems (Fig. C 3.28). Wood-based board products If wood is to be used at all, then a dense woodbased product (e.g. particleboard, plywood; density 680 – 750 kg/ ) is preferred as the backing material for floor panels. Such panels are normally finished with sheet aluminium or aluminium foil on the underside to protect the wood-based product against moisture. However, when using wood-based board products, the moisture-related shrinkage and swelling plus the combustibility of the material must be taken into account. Mineral fibre-reinforced boards Board materials such as dense gypsum fibreboard or fibre-reinforced calcium sulphate board are incombustible and can achieve fire resistance ratings up to F 60. As with woodbased board products, these mineral boards are relatively easy to cut on site to accommodate the building contours. The integration of ventilation grilles, power sockets, etc. is also very easy. The cut edges of these boards are generally protected with edge strips in order to prevent the infiltration of moisture.

Aluminium panels The advantages of these panels are their low weight, dimensional accuracy and moisture resistance. However, aluminium panels are expensive, loud underfoot and difficult to cut on site to fit the building contours. The good thermal conductivity of aluminium results in an increased transfer of heat to and from the floor void. However, with a low temperature in the floor void, this can result in a low surface temperature, which has a negative effect on the interior comfort. Although aluminium is incombustible, it fails very quickly in fire due to its low melting point (approx. 500 °C), which means that flooring systems with aluminium panels do not even achieve an F 30 fire resistance rating. Steel panels Steel panels are available in two different versions (although these are equivalent in terms of usage): a welded construction with spot-welded cover plate and a deep-drawn base plate (tray). Raised access floor panels made from steel plus a mineral material are heavy and very difficult to adapt to building contours on site. Although such panels are incombustible, they cannot achieve a fire resistance exceeding 30 minutes because they quickly lose their stability in fire. Steel panels without infill materials exhibit similar properties to aluminium panels, but although stronger, they are heavier and must be protected against corrosion. The floor coverings to all panel types are generally applied directly during the panel manufacture, which means the panels create a finished floor surface as soon as they are installed.

Building physics requirements for proprietary flooring systems

Proprietary flooring systems can help to improve the building physics properties of existing structural floors. However, when partitions are built directly off such floors, they can also lead to a worsening of the properties because of the continuous void beneath such partitions. Sound insulation The acoustic properties (impact and airborne sound insulation) with respect to the vertical sound transmission between two storeys result from the combination of proprietary flooring system and structural floor (Fig. C 3.29, p. 164). Flooring materials with a high weight per unit area and heavyweight floor coverings (e.g. ceramics, stone) can improve the airborne sound insulation because they increase the weight per unit area of the floor construction as a whole. Resilient or textile floor coverings do not have any appreciable influence on the airborne sound insulation. The degree of impact sound insulation for a raised access floor mainly depends on the impact sound reduction index (ΔLw,R) of the floor covering, the detail of the floor panel bearing on the top of the pedestal (e.g. insulating plastic pad) and the bearing of the pedestal on the structural floor (e.g. adhesive with intermediate pad of insulating material). When using a resilient floor covering with an impact sound reduction index ΔLw,R = 4 dB, the value increases to 10 dB in conjunction with a raised access floor. But when using carpeting with an impact sound reduction index of 18 – 20 dB, the raised access floor brings no further improvement. Fig C 3.31 (p. 164) lists examples of how the sound insulation of a solid suspended floor can be improved by installing a raised access floor with needle-punch carpet finish. The structural floor has no influence on the sound insulation between adjoining rooms when the partitions are built off the proprietary flooring system. Instead, it is the flanking sound transmissions through the latter that are critical. Here, the flanking sound transmissions via a raised access floor, which consists of individual panels, are lower than those of a hollow floor

163

Flooring systems

a

b

c

d C 3.29

with its continuous floor surface. However, with a hollow floor the flanking sound transmissions can be reduced by interrupting the flooring material beneath the partition. A continuous isolating joint is adequate here. As with suspended ceilings, the majority of the sound is transmitted via the void (Fig C 3.29). By building an absorbent bulkhead in the floor void beneath a partition, it is possible to reduce flanking transmissions due to airborne and impact sound (Fig. C 3.30). This should consist of 200 mm wide strips of mineral wool with a density of at least 40 kg/m3 which are positioned in the void and compressed by the floor above.

C 3.29

C 3.30 C 3.31

C 3.32

C 3.33

C 3.34

Four paths for sound transmissions in flooring systems a Airborne sound b Impact sound c Airborne sound flanking transmissions d Impact sound flanking transmissions Sound insulation bulkhead in void beneath raised access floor (absorbent bulkhead) Airborne and impact sound insulation of raised access floors with needle-punch carpeting for vertical sound transmission Airborne and impact sound insulation of raised access floors with needle-punch carpeting for horizontal sound transmission Insulation values that can be achieved for airborne and impact sound in hollow floors for vertical and horizontal sound transmissions Installing a smoke detector in the floor void

Figs. C 3.32 and C 3.33 list the improvements in sound reduction that can be achieved with such an absorbent bulkhead. As the sound reduction indexes of proprietary flooring systems are usually better than those of the partitions built off such floors, they do not have a negative effect on the sound insulation. When it comes to reducing the horizontal propagation of sound in a raised access floor, the self-weight can have different effects. Comparative measurements have revealed that the weight is irrelevant for insulation against airborne sound flanking transmissions. On the

other hand, for the horizontal propagation of impact sound, heavy mineral panels in raised access floors are better than lightweight panels made from wood-based materials or metal because heavier panels gradually absorb more and more of the sound energy as it is transmitted from panel to panel. Floor coverings with a high impact sound reduction index can be employed to reduce the transmission of impact sound into the floor itself. Fire protection The fire protection requirements are due to the high services density in the void below a

Weighted sound reduction index

R'w, P

Weighted normalised impact sound level

L'n, w, P

Increase in impact sound reduction index

Structural floor alone

48 dB

with raised access floor 53 dB Structural floor alone

81 dB

with raised access floor 61 dB 20 dB

ΔLw, P

Results from measurements carried out on test rigs with a 180 mm lightweight concrete solid structural floor, weight per unit area approx. 240 kg/m²

C 3.31

Depth of floor 200 mm 500 mm Weighted flanking sound reduction index Weighted normalised impact sound level for horizontal transmission

R'w, P L'n, w, P

w/o absorbent bulkhead 43 dB

46 dB

with absorbent bulkhead 54 dB

58 dB

w/o absorbent bulkhead 62 dB

56 dB

with absorbent bulkhead 53 dB

44 dB

Results from measurements carried out on a test rig with zero flanking transmissions.

C 3.32

Stud wall (lightweight partition)

Airborne sound insulation Floor panel

Sound path horizontal vertical Ln, w [dB] ΔLw [dB]

Monolithic

42 – 55 49 – 551

50 – 552

83 – 50

10 – 28

Multi-layer

42 – 57 50 – 571

55 – 562

69 – 62

10 – 28

Construction

Pedestal

Impact sound insulation

Sound path horizontal vertical Rw [dB] RL, w [dB]

1

with isolating joints with 150 mm structural floor The above figures are laboratory values and are valid without floor covering.

2

C 3.30

164

C 3.33

Flooring systems

C 3.34

proprietary flooring system, which may result in a not inconsiderable fire load, plus the openings and ventilation grilles typical of such floors. This means that the building materials and components of the floor must satisfy certain criteria with respect to building materials class, reaction to fire and fire resistance. A proprietary flooring system’s reaction to fire cannot be assessed like other building components because the relatively small volume in conjunction with the unfavourable ventilation conditions mean that a “standard fire situation”, i.e. a fully developed fire, cannot ensue in the void. In Germany the “Model Directive Regarding Fire Protection Requirements for Proprietary flooring systems” specifies the requirements that such floors must satisfy with respect to fire [1]. This document applies to proprietary flooring systems whose voids are used for technical services (e.g. electric cables, heating pipes, ventilation ducts). In the Directive, raised access floors are defined as prefabricated systems consisting of floor panels and pedestals. Systems with a seamless, cast-in-place loadbearing layer of screed over a void with a clear depth of max. 200 mm are classed as hollow floors; floors with a clear depth > 200 mm or built using dry construction principles (i.e. not seamless) are classed as raised access floors. Proprietary flooring systems in escape routes The Directive specifies the following general requirements that flooring systems must satisfy when used in escape routes (e.g. stair shafts and corridors essential for escape): • All parts of the flooring system must be made from incombustible materials. • Joints and junctions must be closed off with incombustible materials. • Loadbearing layer and floor panels may not include any openings (e.g. ventilation grilles). Further requirements are also specified, which depend on the system: Hollow floors must include a screed at least 30 mm thick and the permanent formwork may be made from a flammable material provided

it does not have a loadbearing function. In addition, the number and sizes of access openings must be minimised and they must include tight-fitting seals made from incombustible materials. The requirements for raised access floors are that the floor panels must be tightly fitted together (butt joint at least); edge strips and bearing pads may be made from combustible materials provided they do not exceed a thickness of 0.6 and 3 mm respectively. Furthermore, raised access floors with a void > 200 mm deep, which form a loadbearing and enclosing function, must be fire-retardant (F 30) on the underside (to protect against a fire in the void). Proprietary flooring systems in other rooms In rooms that do not form part of an escape route, the loadbearing construction (floor panels plus pedestals) of raised access floors > 500 mm deep must be fire-retardant on the underside. The failure criterion here is not only stability. Flooring systems whose voids also form part of the ventilation system and continue beneath several rooms must be fitted with smoke detectors in the voids or at the ventilation grilles. In the event of a fire these detectors must trigger a shutdown of the ventilation system (Fig. C 3.34). Walls built off proprietary flooring systems Fire walls, walls to escape routes, walls to corridors that separate different occupancies and party walls between different uses or different occupancies may not be built off a flooring system. Walls to corridors within one occupancy can be built off a flooring system with a clear void depth of max. 200 mm, but in such cases raised access floors must be at least fire-retardant on the underside. Other enclosing walls that must provide a certain fire resistance may be built off flooring systems provided these have been tested together with the wall and have achieved the fire resistance rating necessary for the wall. The testing criterion here is integrity. Thermal and moisture-related requirements Proprietary flooring systems are generally suitable for interior climate conditions with tempera-

tures of 15 – 30 °C and a relative humidity in the range 40 – 60 %. HVAC installations in the void must therefore be controlled in such a way that there is no chance of any extreme temperature and moisture fluctuations in the void. Any defects, e.g. thermal- or moisture-related changes in length, can usually be attributed to unsuitable climatic conditions during construction. Wood-based products can suffer from moisturerelated deformations in particular because of their material properties, and in the case of mineral and metal panels, their behaviour as a result of thermal fluctuations must be considered. For example, metal floor panels expand when the temperature rises beyond that prevailing at the time of their installation, and in large rooms that could mean that perimeter panels are pressed against and damage the walls. Electrostatic requirements Walking across a raised access floor can cause a build-up of electrostatic charges due to the friction between footwear and floor covering. Such charges must be quickly and safely discharged to earth in order to avoid the negative consequences of static electricity (e.g. the malfunction of, or damage to, electronic components, or the ignition of combustible materials caused by sparks). The relevant variable here is the earth leakage resistance RE, which is measured in ohms (Ω) between surface of floor covering and earth potential. With an earth leakage resistance below 108 Ω, a floor covering is sufficiently conductive to prevent the risk of flammable dusts and gases being ignited by electrostatic discharges as people walk across the floor. Below 106 Ω, a floor covering is also suitable for interiors where explosive substances are produced and stored. As the earth leakage resistance of a raised access floor depends on its various components (floor covering, adhesive, floor panels, bearing pads and pedestals), the value has to be determined for the complete flooring system. A floor covering with a high conductivity, for example, does not result in any advantages if the other components do not exhibit a similar conductivity.

165

Flooring systems

a

b

c

Junctions and details for raised access floors

Bulkheads Bulkheads in the void below a raised access floor are required as a barrier for:

Underfloor heating When using floor panels made from materials with a good thermal conductivity such as gypsum fibreboard, steel or concrete, underfloor heating elements can be positioned beneath the panels where required. The heating elements are made from an insulating material with an aluminium heat diffusion plate on top into which the heating pipes are clipped (Fig. C 3.39, see also “Coil heating”, p. 176).

The use of raised access floors results in many different junctions and details that can be solved in many different ways. An overview of viable details is given below. They show the principles upon which the specific details of the manufacturers’ systems are based. Movement joints If damage at a later date is to be avoided, movement joints must be included in a raised access floor at the same positions as those in the structural floor. This is achieved by fitting special movement joint profiles between the floor panels on either side of a joint. Horizontal strength is restored at this point by providing tension wires or bracing members fitted between top of pedestal and structural floor (Fig. C 3.35). Fascia panels Steps between different floor levels must be closed off with fascia panels. The top edges of such panels may be fitted with stair nosing trims if required. To ensure the necessary stability, panels are fixed to the pedestals or held in place by an angle bracket at the base and a tension wire between top of panel and structural floor (Figs. C 3.36 and C 3.37). Fascia panels can be made from the same material as the floor panels.

C 3.36

166

• Ventilation • Fire • Sound (absorbent bulkhead) Ventilation bulkheads prevent air flows reaching parts of the building where they are not required. Fire and sound bulkheads (Fig. C 3.30, p. 164) usually complement the barrier provided by a partition built off the raised access floor. Depending on requirements, bulkheads can consist of wall elements with one or more layers of boarding, or individual materials. They are often constructed like a stud wall in accordance with the specification. The materials used include, for example, metal sections, mineral wool and gypsum-based or calcium silicate boards (Fig. C 3.38).

C 3.35

Ventilation systems in raised access floors With a ventilation system integrated into the raised access floor, the air can be fed into the rooms above through outlets built into the floor panels as required. The air handling in the void up to the ventilation grilles can be carried out in one of two ways:

Integrating HVAC items into raised access floors

• Open ventilation: air supply through underfloor plenum (displacement ventilation) • Closed ventilation: air supply through pipes or ducts in the void (see “Ventilation”, pp. 174 –175).

Besides accommodating pipes, cables and ducts in their voids, the floors themselves can also perform certain HVAC functions. By way of example, the integration of underfloor heating and ventilation systems are described below.

Air supply through perforated panels or gratings Perforated ventilation panels can be used in the floor with an open ventilation system. The overpressure in the floor plenum causes fresh air to flow into the room through the openings in

C 3.37

C 3.38

Flooring systems

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

C 3.39

the floor panels. The velocity can be regulated, and by using an appropriate arrangement of perforated or slotted panels it is possible to achieve conditioned zones and hence a consistent air change rate. Air-permeable carpeting must be laid over the ventilation panels so that the air can flow through (Fig. C 3.40). It should be remembered, however, that the structural properties of perforated panels are different to those of plain panels. Air supply through floor outlets (diffusers) Floor outlets are better than ventilation panels for regulating the incoming air. The outlets can be connected directly to the network of air-conditioning ducts by flexible hoses or in the case of open ventilation can be supplied with fresh air directly from the floor plenum. Air supply through gratings Gratings enable relatively large quantities of air to be fed into a room (often required for computer centres, for example). Owing to the relatively high flow velocities, however, care must be taken to ensure that gratings are not positioned in the direct vicinity of workplaces. Warm-air heating Warm air can be fed into the void of a raised access floor in order to raise the temperature of

Air outlet

C 3.40

the floor panels and heat the room(s) above. The warm air is also fed into the room directly via floor outlets (Fig. C 3.41). This results in a combination of warm-air heating near the floor outlets and underfloor heating in all other areas. References: [1] Muster-Richtlinie über brandschutztechnische Anforderungen an Systemböden (Muster-Systembödenrichtlinie – MSysBöR), DIBt Mitteilung, 2005

C 3.35

C 3.36

C 3.37 C 3.38 C 3.39

C 3.40 C 3.41

Movement joint profile a, b flush c raised Fascia panel or perimeter pedestals must be braced back to the structure with tension wires; fascia panel fixed at base with angle bracket Fascia panel Bulkhead beneath raised access floor Example of underfloor heating suspended below raised access floor 1 Floor finish 2 Calcium sulphate screed 3 Heating pipe 4 Heat diffusion plate 5 Thermal insulation 6 Support member 7 Pedestal Perforated ventilation panel with air-permeable carpet finish Heating and ventilation plenum beneath raised access floor

Radiant heat as basic means of heating

Convection heat

Hypocaust warm-air/underfloor heating, ventilation from plenum C 3.41

167

Fire-resistant casing systems

Karsten Tichelmann, Bastian Ziegler

C 4.1

Fire-resistant casing systems in dry construction are primarily used for the following: • Loadbearing and bracing constructions (e.g. columns, beams) • Cable and service ducts • Ventilation ducts • Pipes

Beam and column casings Preventive fire protection measures for steel beams and columns, possibly also timber, are required in order to guarantee escape routes for as long as possible in the event of a fire. Steel loses its load-carrying capacity above a temperature of about 500 °C (critical steel temperature). So depending on the fire load, the dimensions of the steel component, the constructional details, the structural system and the reserves of strength in the steel component, uncased steel components retain their load-carrying ability for only 8 – 15 minutes on average. If steel components are to attain the necessary F 30 to F180 fire resistance ratings, appropriate measures must be taken to guarantee that the loadbearing capacity of the steel is maintained for the required length of time. Besides applying coats of plaster or intumescent paint, steel components can also be encased in fire-resistant dry materials. Steel components generally also require a protective casing even if they are already partly shielded from fire because they are behind a suspended ceiling or built into a wall. The following criteria must be considered when determining the fire-resistant casing required: C 4.1 C 4.2

C 4.3

168

Establishing the duration of fire resistance by means of a fire test Minimum casing thickness d a for steel beams b for steel columns Box-type casing for exposure to fire... a on one side b on two sides c on three sides d on four sides

• Type of component to be encased • Fire resistance required • Exposure to fire load (one, two, three or four sides, Fig. C 4.3) • Type and thickness of boards for casing • Timber: species, cross-section, h/b ratio • Steel: section factor (U/A ratio) • Fire protection verification (DIN 4102-4 or test certificate)

DIN 4102-4 contains overviews of beams and columns encased in gypsum fire-resistant board (GKF). In addition, there are many proprietary fire-resistant casing systems available that have been tested and are more economic or offer a better performance than the standardised solutions. The following board types are widely used for fire-resistant casing systems: • • • •

Special gypsum boards Cement-bonded fire-resistant boards Calcium silicate boards Mineral-fibre boards

The strength of some of these boards means that their edges are stable enough to accept mechanical fasteners (screws or staples) directly without the need for any internal framework (Fig. C 4.3). Other boards are fixed to a supporting framework, which is usually made from steel sections (Figs. C 4.8 and C 4.9, p. 171). Stocky steel sections with thick webs and flanges behave better in fire – and thus require thinner casings – than slender, thin-walled sections. This physical law has resulted in the development of a design method that is based on the ratio of the perimeter (U) of the casing (box-like when using boards) to the cross-sectional area (A) of the steel section. The required casing thickness – depending on the U/A value – for standard steel sections can be found in tables provided by the board manufacturers. The U/A value is limited to ≤ 300 m-1 for such steel sections. If steel sections with U/A values > 300 m-1 have to be assessed, tests according to DIN 4102-2 will be necessary in order to classify the components. Where loadbearing or non-loadbearing steel components requiring a certain fire resistance are connected to steel components that do not require fire protection, then both the connections and these latter steel components must be encased. The length of this additional encasement depends on the fire resistance rating and the U/A value of the adjoining steel components:

Fire-resistant casing systems

Minimum casing thickness d (in mm) for steel beams with U/A ≤ 300 m-1 with a casing of gypsum fire-resistant board (GKF) to DIN 18180 with closed surface d

Fire resistance rating

d

d

F 30-A

F 60-A

F 90-A

F 120-A

12.5

12.5 + 9.5

2≈ 15

2≈ 15 + 9.51

1

The outer layer of 9.5 mm thick boards may be replaced by plasterboard (GKB) to DIN 18180.

d a Minimum casing thickness d (in mm) for steel columns with U/A ≤ 300 m-1 with a casing of gypsum fire-resistant board (GKF) to DIN 18180 with closed surface Fire resistance rating

d

b

F 30-A

F 60-A

F 90-A

F 120-A

F 180-A

12.51

12.5 + 9.5

3≈ 15

4≈ 15

5≈ 15

1

May be replaced by ≥ 18 mm thick plasterboard (GKB) to DIN 18180. C 4.2

• at least 300 mm for fire resistance ratings F 30 to F 90, and • at least 600 mm for F120 to F180. Beam casings

A beam is exposed to fire on three sides when, for example, the top flange of the beam is protected because it is in contact with the soffit of a concrete floor slab. Such a floor beam requires a casing on three sides that must continue right up to the underside of the floor slab (Fig. C 4.7, p. 171). Casings made from gypsum fire-resistant board (GKF) and classified according to DIN 4102-4, and gypsum fibreboard established as equivalent to GKF board for fire protection purposes by means of tests, must satisfy the following conditions with respect to the constructional details: • The maximum permissible span (i.e. spacing of supporting members) for fixing the casing to the internal framework is 400 mm.

• When using a single layer of casing material, strips of gypsum fire-resistant board or gypsum fibreboard must be fitted behind the joints. • When using more than one layer of casing material, every layer must be fixed separately, all joints in each layer must be filled and the joints between layers offset by min. 400 mm. Column casings

Casings to columns must extend over the full height of the column on all sides – from the top of the floor finishes (top of structural floor when using class B flooring materials) to the underside of the structural floor above. The conditions listed above for beam casings also apply to columns (Fig. C 4.7, p. 171). Gypsum-based boards may also be connected directly to a column instead of an internal framework. In such situations, every layer of casing material must be fastened in place by steel straps or wires every max. 400 mm.

Ventilation, cable and service ducts Fire loads due to, for example, electric cable insulation and pipe lagging, are not permitted in escape routes, generally accessible corridors or stair shafts (including their exits to the open air). Consequently, such fire loads must be encased in dry materials in order to guarantee smokefree escape routes. Fire risks due to technical services can be encased in one of three ways: • Fire-resistant ceilings • Flooring systems • Service shafts and ducts The basic construction principles are similar for ventilation, cable and service ducts. Escape routes, corridors and adjoining rooms are protected against fire by encasing the fire loads to suit the duration of fire resistance required. Casings consist of one or more layers of boards in various thicknesses depending on the fire resistance rating required. The fire resistance is established by fire tests.

> _ 50 mm a

b

c

d C 4.3

169

Fire-resistant casing systems

Examples of minimum thicknesses of timber beam casings Casing material

Fire resistance rating F 30

F 60

F 90

Gypsum fibreboard (GF)1

10 mm

2≈ 10 mm

–

Special fire-resistant gypsum board

15 mm

15 mm

25 mm

Calcium silicate board1

8 mm

12 + 10 mm

20 + 15 mm

1

Depends on manufacturer’s verification of applicability.

C 4.4

Minimum thicknesses for cased beams, columns and ties made from solid or laminated timber Beams, columns and ties (casing on 3 sides) a 1 layer of boards

d

I-class cable ducts

In the event of a cable fire, for instance, this class of duct stops the fire spreading beyond the duct and so prevents escape and rescue routes against the effects of a cable fire. The fire is contained in the duct and cannot spread to, for example, a ceiling void. Service ducts are tested in accordance with DIN 4102-11 and are awarded an I rating (I = internal, ratings from I 30 to I 120). The maximum internal dimensions of I-class ducts tested are width b ≤ 1000 mm and height h ≤ 500 mm (Figs. C 4.10 and C 4.11).

Columns (casing on 4 sides)

b 2 layers of boards

c 1 layer of boards

E-class cable ducts

d d

These guarantee the functions of the services within the cable ducts in the event of a fire outside the duct. Such cable ducts are tested in accordance with DIN 4102-12 and are awarded an E rating (E = external, ratings from E 30 to E 90). The tests assess the length of time until the loss of an electrical function due to a shortcircuit or broken wire. The maximum dimensions of E-class ducts tested are width b ≤ 600 mm and height h ≤ 250 mm (Fig. C 4.12). Systems relevant to the safety of the building, e.g. fire detectors, emergency lighting and power, sprinkler systems, smoke and heat vents, must all continue working for the specified duration of fire resistance.

d

d

d Gypsum fire-resistant board (GKF) to DIN 18180 with closed surface, woodbased products or wooden planks Fire resistance rating F 30-B

F 60-B

a + b Beams, columns, ties when using • Gypsum fire-resistant board (GKF) to DIN 18180 • Plywood to DIN 68705-3¹ • Plywood to DIN 68705-5¹ • Particleboard to DIN 68763¹ • Tongue and groove softwood planks to DIN 4072

12.5 19 15 19 24

2≈ 12.5

c Columns when using • Gypsum wallboard with density ≥ 0.6 kg/dm³

50

Minimum thickness d of casing (mm)

50 L-class ducts (separate ventilation ducts)

¹ The minimum thickness may be reduced by 10 % when using wood-based products complying with building materials class B1. C 4.5

a

170

b

C 4.6

These ducts, with a fire resistance rating from L 30 to L 120, must guarantee supply or extract ventilation for the duration of the fire resistance. Ventilation ducts have to satisfy requirements regarding airtightness and thermal stability. They are tested according to DIN 4102-6. The simplest systems consist of a box made from boards fixed together without the need for any internal framework. The fasteners used to connect the boards depend on the material, but self-drilling screws and steel staples are widely used. A subsequent skim coat of plaster is not usually required for fire protection purposes. We distinguish between two-, three- and foursided ducts. Whereas walls or suspended floor slabs form the other sides to two- and three-sided ducts, a four-sided duct must be supported on wall brackets or suspended below the soffit of a structural floor using threaded rods etc.

Fire-resistant casing systems

30 d

d

C 4.8

d

C 4.7

30

d

30

Where cable ducts pass through walls satisfying fire resistance requirements, the details of I- and E-class ducts differ according to their functions. E-class ducts can continue through the wall without interruption, whereas a weak point should be built into the wall for I-class ducts.

d

d

Certain boundary conditions must be taken into account with this suspension arrangement. The anchors used must have a national technical approval; steel expansion anchors ≥ M8 are normally required, and they must be inserted to twice the depth given in the approval, but at least 60 mm. When checking the stresses in threaded rods, a reduced permissible steel stress of 6 N/mm2 must be used in the design for the fire situation. Important for the planning is not only the size of the cable duct, but also the density of the services in kg/m. The weight of potential retrofitted services should also be taken into account at the planning stage. The use of cable trays depends on the type and number of cables, but if the test includes cable trays, they must be used in practice. Access panels are usually in the form of loose covers that permit modifications, retrofitting and repairs in the duct to be carried out quickly and easily. The number and/or thickness of boards depends on the cross-sectional dimensions and the fire resistance required. Access panels in the sides of ducts must be secured with mechanical fasteners (e.g. screws).

C 4.9

C 4.10

C 4.11

C 4.12

C 4.4

Minimum thickness of timber beam casings according to expert reports or test certificates C 4.5 Minimum thicknesses for cased beams, columns and ties C 4.6 Fire-resistant casing to a steel column b steel downstand beam C 4.7 Beam casing without internal framework using special fire-resistant boards stapled together, d = casing thickness C 4.8 Beam casing on metal internal framework, d = casing thickness C 4.9 Double-layer column casing on metal internal framework, d = casing thickness C 4.10 Example of three-sided I-class duct C 4.11 Example of four-sided I-class duct on wall bracket C 4.12 Example of three-sided E-class duct

171

Part D

Fig. D

Technical services

1 Heating, cooling, ventilation Ventilation Natural ventilation Extract systems Supply and extract systems Mixing ventilation Displacement ventilation (low-level) Displacement ventilation (high-level) Heating Convection, radiation Heat output systems Cooling Cooling energy output systems Sunshading Passive cooling Techniques and technologies Decentralised ventilation systems Central ventilation systems Heat recovery Solar cooling PCMs

174 174 174 174 174 174 174 174 176 176 176 178 178 178 178 180 180 180 181 181 181

2 Planning the electrical installation Electricity requirements and supplies Primary electricity supply system Electricity consumption Electrical load categories Fittings and installation Number of fittings Installation zones in residential buildings Installation zones in non-residential buildings Interdisciplinary planning Installation systems Requirements for fitting-out flexibility Building automation The tasks of building automation The structure of automation systems Room automation Controlling lighting, sunshades and anti-glare screens Ventilation, heating and cooling systems Bus systems Data transmission methods Standardised systems and communication protocols

186 186 186 186 187 187 187 188 189 189 190

3 Planning the sanitary installation Sanitary spaces Room typology and uses Users Interior climate and comfort Sanitary appliances and space requirements Room surfaces, waterproofing and junctions Routing services in the interior Optimisation at the design stage Sound insulation Fire protection Protection against frost Drinking water supplies Ensuring hygienic drinking water Pipe lagging Sizing pipework Drainage of waste water Laying of pipes Gravity drainage and backflow level Venting the waste-water system Shaft sizes Fire extinguishing systems 4 Space requirements for technical services Central ventilation plant Central refrigeration plant Central heating plant Central sanitary and sprinkler plants Central electrical and data installations Integration of services Vertical service shafts

196 196 196 197 198 199 201 202 203 203 203 203 204 204 204 204 205 205 206 206 206 206

208 208 209 209 209 210 210 211

191 192 192 192 193 193 194 194 194 194

Services in a commercial/office building

173

CO2 content (%)

Friedemann Jung, Timm Rössel, Uta Steinwallner

L=1 L = 12

Limit value 0.15 after Pettenkoffer

0.4

0.3

0.2

Perceived air quality, (PPD, %)

Air change rate L=0 L=4

Heating, cooling, ventilation

60 50

40

30

20

10

0.1

0 0

15

30

45

60

75

90

105 120 Time (min) D 1.1

Technical systems are required in a building and its individual rooms in order to provide the necessary quantities of fresh air and heat, and also to dissipate excess heat in the summer. These systems differ in terms of their form, appearance, individual controllability, space and installation requirements and how they are integrated into the technical services concept as a whole. Only when heating, cooling and ventilation services match the needs of interior spaces and users, and the way in which energy is provided, i.e. in the end the location of the building and its environment, is it possible to erect energy-efficient buildings operated with renewable energy media (see “Location factors”, pp. 100 –103).

0

5

10

15

20

25 30 l/s per standard person (olf) Ventilation rate (q) in m3/h D 1.2

Extract systems

In an extract system mechanical plant removes air from the building. The incoming fresh air flows in naturally through openings in the facade. This type of system is easier to control than natural ventilation because there is a defined flow of air out of the building (Fig. D 1.4). Supply and extract systems

In a supply and extract system the air is fed into and extracted from the building by mechanical plant. In this type of system the incoming fresh air can be fully pretreated and can even include heat recovery. However, the work and cost of installing such a system with its ducts and shafts is much higher, and users’ influence on the system is limited and not always obvious (Fig. D 1.5).

Ventilation Mixing ventilation

Every building used by people requires a supply of fresh air in the interior. Human beings require good-quality air and an adequate supply of oxygen in order to be able to work and concentrate, and enjoy a feeling of well-being. In buildings, technical equipment, the building materials used and human beings themselves release numerous substances such as carbon dioxide, ozone and organic products into the interior air. Plants, sanitary facilities, kitchens and again human beings themselves cause internal moisture loads, and that moisture, too, must be removed from the interior (Figs. D 1.1 and D 1.2, see also “Humidity of the interior air”, p. 36) Natural ventilation

D 1.1

CO2 contents for various air change rates in a school classroom D 1.2 How the ventilation rate affects the quality of the air in a building (PPD = predicted percentage of dissatisfied). D 1.3 – D 1.8 Various ventilation concepts

174

Natural ventilation is a means of achieving a direct exchange between internal and external air through windows or dedicated ventilation louvres or flaps. The intensity of the ventilation depends on users’ behaviour and is determined by the air pressure relationships in and around the building. The air change rate is therefore difficult to control and limited by the size of the openings. And the introduction of untreated outside air can lead to undesirable hot and cold zones in the interior. Natural ventilation, however, is the simplest way of ventilating an interior and for users the most obvious way (Fig. D 1.3).

In this type of system (also known as dilution ventilation) pretreated incoming air is quickly mixed with the air in the room, which is achieved by using swirl diffusers, induction units or ensuring that the fresh air is introduced deep within the interior. Relatively small outlets, which increase the velocity of the supply air, are useful here. The supply air can be introduced with a wide range of temperatures without occupants experiencing any discomfort (Fig. D 1.6). Displacement ventilation (low-level)

With this type of ventilation pretreated fresh air is introduced with a relatively low velocity through large outlets at or near floor level (see “Integrating HVAC items into raised access floors”, pp. 166 –167). This results in a “lake” of good-quality fresh air around the room’s occupants. To satisfy comfort criteria, the temperature of the supply air should lie only marginally below that of the interior air temperature (Fig. D 1.7). Displacement ventilation (high-level)

In this system the fresh air is introduced at high velocity through very large outlets at or near ceiling level. Waste air is extracted via grilles at or near floor level and the high air velocities result in a laminar (low-turbulence) flow. A very high, defined air quality can be guaranteed throughout the room, which is ideal for operating theatres, for instance (Fig. D 1.8).

Heating, cooling, ventilation

D 1.3 Natural ventilation Arrangement in room: Openings in facade, inwardopening lights may be a nuisance in the interior Remarks: Direct contact with outside world and principle readily understood by users, lowest possible maintenance requirements, intensity of ventilation can be regulated individually, direct cold incoming air can lead to discomfort, energy losses because of lack of heat recovery, noise and pollutants can reach the interior Typical applications: Offices, housing, schools D 1.3

D 1.4 Extract system Arrangement in room: Supply air through facade openings, extract openings at high level in rooms Remarks: Air handling in building possible via leakageair openings, noise and pollutants can reach the interior, minor restrictions on interior layout design freedoms Typical applications: Internal sanitary areas, housing, kitchens

D 1.4

D 1.5 Supply and extract system Arrangement in room: Supply and extract openings possible in floors, walls and ceilings, openings must be integrated into interior design Remarks: Very involved/costly installation, space required for ventilation ducts, limited interior layout options, avoids noise and pollutants in the interior, heat recovery option Typical applications: Offices, retail premises, special buildings

D 1.5

D 1.6 Mixing ventilation Arrangement in room: Swirl diffusers near or in ceiling, long-range nozzles at high level in walls Remarks: Outlets relatively small, high air flow velocities in rooms, direct air flows can lead to discomfort, high air change rate possible, lower air quality in occupied areas Typical applications: Offices, places of assembly, restaurants

D 1.6

D 1.7 Displacement ventilation (low-level) Arrangement in room: Large supply-air outlets at low level in rooms (a very large number of small openings is also possible), extract openings at high level Remarks: Low air flow velocities and air change rates, high air quality in occupied areas due to “lake” of fresh air plus comfortable air flow velocities and temperatures Typical applications: Lecture theatres, offices, meeting rooms

D 1.7 D 1.8 Displacement ventilation (high-level) Arrangement in room: Large supply-air openings in suspended ceiling, extract openings at low level Remarks: Achieves a defined laminar (low-turbulence) air flow with high air change rate, for maximum demands regarding air quality throughout room, minimum air velocity required, very involved/costly installation Typical applications: Operating theatres, clean rooms, laboratories

D 1.8

175

Heating, cooling, ventilation

Heating Thermal insulation standards for buildings have been raised continually over recent years, which has led to a distinct reduction in the amount of energy required for heating buildings. Nevertheless, there is still a need for heating in temperate climate zones. The temperature levels of the output systems are generally lower which means that coil heating and thermoactive building systems are becoming more and more viable. And the low temperature level required is easier to achieve with renewable sources of energy (see “Energy sources”, pp. 109 –113). Convection, radiation

The individual heat output systems of space heating installations differ not only in terms of their form and appearance, but also in terms of the way the heat is emitted. Basically, heat transfer can be divided into radiation, convection and conduction (the latter plays no role in heat output systems). Radiated heat, which human beings find particularly comfortable, is heat transported via electromagnetic waves, an effect that is particularly prevalent with coil heating systems. Convection is the transport of heat by means of a moving medium, which in the case of space heating is the interior air. An operative interior temperature (i.e. a combination of the temperature due to radiation from the surrounding surfaces and the air temperature) of 20 – 26 °C is regarded as comfortable by most people (see “Thermal comfort”, pp. 34– 37). Heat output systems

Heat output systems are required to condition the interior air and cover any heating needs. Apart from a few exceptions, such as individual stoves or fireplaces, heat output systems are provided with heat transported from a central location through a heat transfer medium and must be integrated into the interior design concept. Various heat output systems are available to suit different usage and design specifications. They differ in terms of the way the heat is emitted, their controllability and the flow temperature required (Fig. D 1.9).

Flat radiant panels The heat output from wall-mounted flat radiant panels is largely by way of radiation. Flat radiant panels can be controlled individually and react quickly to adjustments. They guarantee a high specific output even with moderate flow temperatures (Fig. D 1.10). Radiators Radiators are wall-mounted heat output elements in which the radiation and convection components are of similar magnitude; the depth of the radiator is critical for the convection component. As with flat radiant panels, radiators can be controlled individually, react quickly to adjustments and are suitable for use with moderate flow temperatures. Radiators and flat radiant panels can be installed as individually controlled heating systems to supplement coil heating and thermoactive floor slab systems (Fig. D 1.10). Convectors Convectors output the heat to the interior air essentially by way of convection. Control can be very direct and very quick. Convectors are compact items and therefore can even be installed in floors. Fans improve the air handling. Higher flow temperatures are necessary if the desired specific output level of flat radiant panels or radiators is to be achieved. In addition, the spaces between the convector plates tend to collect dust and dirt, which could smoulder, for instance. The considerable movement of the interior air may also result in discomfort and unhygienic conditions due to dust being blown around (Fig. D 1.11). Coil heating Coil heating systems are usually integrated into floors, occasionally walls or ceilings. Most of the heat is emitted by way of radiation (see “Coil heating”, p. 139, and “Underfloor heating”, p. 166). The desired output can be achieved with low flow temperatures because of the large surface areas of these systems. But the inertia of such systems means that the overall temperature level is more difficult

Remarks

Specific output (W/m2)

Flow temperature (°C)

Controllability

Radiation/ convection

Lowenergy systems

Underfloor heating

40 – 50

30 – 35

low

90 / 10

+

Downflow cooling possible

Radiant ceiling panels

30 – 60

30 – 35

good

100 / 0

+

Possibly uncomfortable

Thermoactive floor slab

40

25

low

90 / 10

++

Radiant ceiling panels

80

80 –120

good

100 / 0

--

Flat radiant panels

75

35 – 55

good

70 / 30

o

Radiators

75

45 – 65

good

50 / 50

-

Convectors

75

60 – 90

good

20 / 80

--

Hygiene problems possible

Induction units

75

30 – 60

good

0 / 100

-

Hygiene problems possible

Warm-air heating

50

30 – 40

good

0 / 100

-

Passive house only

Self-regulating effect

Thermoactive floor slabs In a thermoactive floor slab pipes are integrated into the loadbearing construction; the entire component is therefore activated for heating purposes. The flexibility required for internal layouts, fittings and furnishings makes walls less suitable for such treatment. The large heat output surface area means that only very low flow temperatures are possible. Controllability and specific output are comparatively low. When using thermoactive floor slabs, barriers to the heat output (e.g. finishes) must be avoided. In addition, room acoustics problems can occur owing to the hard, acoustically reflective surfaces (see “Acoustic comfort”, pp. 38 – 39). One advantage of thermoactive building systems is their self-regulation: the heating output increases as the room temperature drops and decreases again as the room temperature reaches that of the building component (Fig. D 1.13). Radiant ceiling panels The heat output from radiant ceiling panels is entirely by way of radiation. This type of heat output system is installed horizontally beneath the soffit of the floor or roof above, requires very high flow temperatures and can achieve a high specific output. Such systems are used in large rooms and halls so that it is not necessary to heat the entire volume of the interior but instead only supply heat exactly where it is required (Fig. D 1.14, see also “Sports halls”, pp. 92 – 93). Warm-air heating In this type of system preheated air is introduced into interior zones where required. The preheating can be carried out centrally or locally through a heating battery. This type of system reacts quickly to adjustments. High air flow rates are necessary to cover heating requirements, which leads to further movement of the air in the room. Generally speaking, warmair heating systems are only advisable in passive houses (Fig. D 1.15).

For voluminous interiors

D 1.9 The properties of various heat output systems D 1.10 – D 1.15 Various heat output systems D 1.9

176

to regulate. Zones of descending cold air adjacent to external walls can be avoided by reducing the spacing of the pipes in such areas and therefore increasing the specific output locally. The choice of floor covering is important when using underfloor heating. The floor covering should have a high thermal conductivity and be easy to clean. Undesirable dust-laden thermal currents can develop with carpeting in particular (Fig. D 1.12).

Heating, cooling, ventilation

D 1.10 Radiators and flat radiant panels Arrangement in room: Fitted below glazing in order to counteract possibility of cold air drop, also near windows in highly thermally insulated facades Remarks: Restricts the facade design, facade depth necessary, must be incorporated into interior design Typical applications: Offices, schools, housing

D 1.10

D 1.11 Convectors Arrangement in room: Fitted below glazing, underfloor convectors let into the floor near facade Remarks: Good air circulation is important, radiation to the outside must be prevented when installed directly in front of glazing, integration into furnishings and fittings is possible, increased cleaning and hygiene requirements because of unhygienic dust blown into the air Typical applications: Housing, schools, offices

D 1.11

D 1.12 Coil heating Arrangement in room: Integrated into screed/subfloor, pipe spacing reduced at facade, not directly visible Remarks: Well-insulated facade necessary, unrestricted design freedoms for facade and internal layout (but check zoning due to heating circuits), output can be diminished by unfortunate positioning of furniture, carpets, etc. Typical applications: Housing, offices

D 1.12 D 1.13 Thermoactive floor slabs Arrangement in room: Integrated into loadbearing floor construction, not directly visible, soffit linings not possible, ceiling design restricted Remarks: Well-insulated facade necessary, unrestricted design freedoms for facade and internal layout (but check zoning due to heating circuits), possibly problems with room acoustics, self-regulating (with low temperature difference), can be combined with further heating systems Typical applications: Offices D 1.13 D 1.14 Radiant ceiling panels Arrangement in room: Suspended below ceiling, concentrated in areas where the heat is required directly Remarks: Used in high interiors (entire volume is not heated), unrestricted design freedoms for facade, very low air movements in the interior, no dust blown into the air, can be integrated into ceiling design (acoustic elements etc.) Typical applications: Industrial buildings, sports halls

D 1.14 D 1.15 Warm-air heating Arrangement in room: Fresh air introduced through floors, ceilings and walls, supply-air openings must be integrated into interior design Remarks: Very involved/costly installation of supply and extract ducts, space required for ventilation ducts, high air movements in the interior, unrestricted design freedoms for facade, restrictions on interior layout, air hygiene must be considered Typical applications: Churches, passive houses D 1.15

177

Heating, cooling, ventilation

Cooling The increased internal heat loads due to technical equipment and higher solar gains because of much larger transparent areas in the building envelope have led to a growing demand for cooling systems. Furthermore, the demands of users with respect to individual comfort have also increased (see “Thermal comfort”, pp. 34 – 37). This concerns – primarily in non-residential buildings – the number of hours over the year during which the temperature lies above the comfort zone and the maximum interior air temperature and humidity in the summer. The primary objective is to keep the ensuing thermal loads in check, and various systems are available to transport excess heat out of the building. Cooling energy output systems

The main differences between the systems available lie in the way in which the cooling energy is output and the flow temperature required. In energy terms, relatively high flow temperatures are easier to provide for the cooling case. With very low flow temperatures, which in turn mean cooling systems with very low surface temperatures, it is important to avoid dropping below the dew point, otherwise condensation will form. This can be achieved by reducing the cooling energy output (i.e. raising the surface temperature) or providing additional dehumidification of the interior air, although this latter solution involves considerable technical plant and frequently an enormous energy consumption (Fig. D 1.16). Cooling ceiling Large, specific heat loads can be dissipated by cooling ceilings, which differ in terms of their design and the way they are integrated into the interior architecture. Common methods are grids of pipes concealed in a plastered soffit, systems incorporated into suspended ceilings or cooling fins or panels fitted beneath the ceiling. Cooling ceilings are very easy to control, but it is vital to prevent the temperature dropping below the dew point at any time. The output of the cooling energy depends on the par-

ticular system, but is primarily by way of radiation. Flow temperatures are in the range 10 – 18 °C depending on the output required and the dew point control (Fig. D 1.17). Thermoactive floor slabs A thermoactive floor slab contains pipes integrated within the floor construction. The high specific heat capacity of such a component and the associated inertia of such a system mean that direct, fast-response control is impossible; however, the cooling output essentially regulates itself. The relatively high flow temperatures are particularly suitable for the provision of passive cooling. Thermoactive floor slabs can dissipate only comparatively low specific heat loads, however (Fig. D 1.18). Coil cooling Coil cooling systems integrated into floors or walls can be used to dissipate heat loads (see “Cooling ceilings”, pp. 154 – 155). Excessively low floor temperatures quickly lead to uncomfortable conditions, however, and therefore the surface temperature should not be allowed to drop below 19 °C. The specific cooling performance is therefore limited by this dependence on the surface temperature. Ceiling convectors, downflow cooling Convectors positioned in or near the ceiling remove the heat from the interior air. Low flow temperatures are used in such systems so a condensate drain must be provided. The specific cooling performance is relatively high and individual controls for each room are possible (Fig. D 1.19). Induction units Induction units combine fresh air pretreated in a central plant with local return-air cooling. A heating function is possible in addition to cooling. A condensate drain may be necessary because of the low flow temperatures. The provision of such a local air-conditioning unit means that the supply air flow rate can be minimised to that necessary for hygienic conditions. Such systems can be fitted with individual controls for each room (Fig. D 1.20).

Cooling output (W/m2)

Flow temperature (°C)

Controllability

80 –120

10 –18

very good

radiation

+

~50

16 – 20

low

radiation

++

No suspended ceilings

Coil cooling

30 – 40

16 – 20

low

radiation

++

Discomfort possible

Downflow cooling

60 –100

6 –10

good

convection

-

Possibly condensate drain

Induction units

60 –100

6 –10

good

convection

-

Possibly condensate drain

Recirculating air units

80 –120

6 –10

very good

convection

--

Possibly condensate drain

Air conditioning

80 –120

6 –10

good

convection

--

Involved/costly installation

Cooling ceiling Thermoactive floor slab

Radiation/ Passive/ convection renew. cooling energy

Remarks

Dew point control

D 1.16

178

Return-air cooling Return-air cooling units can handle high cooling loads. In this system the waste air is drawn into the unit and fed through a cooling battery. The treated air is then fed back directly into the room. A return-air cooling unit therefore cannot replace the minimum supply air flow rate required to ensure hygienic conditions. These units can be controlled very easily and directly but require low flow temperatures (Fig. D 1.21). Air conditioning, cool-air systems In an air-conditioning system the air is pretreated in a central plant and then fed to the respective rooms or interior zones. Pretreatment of the incoming fresh air can include humidification/ dehumidification and heating/cooling stages. However, in able to be able to handle large cooling loads, high air flow rates and low flow temperatures are necessary. The air handling within the rooms and the design of the air ducts and shafts must be considered (Fig. D 1.22). Sunshading

Highly transparent facade areas lead to high solar gains in the building. In order to minimise the cooling requirement, some form of sunshading is therefore unavoidable. In particular, for those systems with a low cooling output and no active refrigerant circuit, e.g. thermoactive floor slabs, the appropriate summertime thermal performance must be guaranteed. The sunshading system can be integrated into the design of the facade. Allowing users to influence the shading and yet ensuring a good supply of daylight at all times are factors that must always be considered when designing sunshading systems. Passive cooling

Most of the cooling energy output systems described above require an active refrigerant circuit. However, simple, passive systems for dissipating heat, generally with a lower cooling performance, are sensible from the energy viewpoint. One simple method of passive heat dissipation is night-time ventilation, which can be achieved by natural (i.e. windows) or mechanical ventilation. To do this, large, solid, exposed storage masses are necessary (see “Outside temperature”, p. 102). The incoming fresh air for a building can also be cooled passively; the adiabatic cooling principle (evaporative cooling) is exploited here. This humidification of the air can take place both in the extract-air duct with heat recovery or in the supply-air duct. There is also the option of reducing the temperature of the outside air marginally by feeding it through a ground exchanger. Water-cooling systems, e.g. thermoactive building systems, represent another passive method for removing unwanted heat from a building. Recooling of

D 1.16 The properties of various cooling systems D 1.17 – D 1.22 Various cooling systems

Heating, cooling, ventilation

D 1.17 Cooling ceiling Arrangement in room: In the form of cooling fins, in suspended ceilings or as pipe coils within plaster soffit, positioned in areas where heat is to be removed directly Remarks: Must be integrated into ceiling design, unrestricted design freedoms for facade, dew point control necessary (costly air dehumidification, reduction in output) Typical applications: Offices, meeting rooms

D 1.17 D 1.18 Thermoactive floor slab Arrangement in room: Integrated into loadbearing floor construction, not directly visible Remarks: Heat loads must be reduced, brief heat load fluctuations (due to direct solar gains) must be avoided, cooling in floor can absorb heat directly where it ensues, unrestricted design freedoms for facade and internal layout, possibly problems with room acoustics, self-regulating Typical applications: Offices, schools

D 1.18 D 1.19 Ceiling convectors, downflow cooling Arrangement in room: Convectors installed in or near the ceiling Remarks: Must be integrated into interior design, integration of lighting possible, air flow can lead to soiling of lights, condensate drain may be necessary, unrestricted design freedoms for facade, direct downflow cooling can lead to discomfort Typical applications: Offices

D 1.19 D 1.20 Induction units Arrangement in room: At the bottom of the facade, in the ceiling or in the floor Remarks: Must be integrated into interior design, space required for refrigerant installation and ventilation ducts, ducts can be smaller than those for pure cool-air systems Typical applications: Offices, retail premises

D 1.20 D 1.21 Return-air cooling Arrangement in room: At high level in the room, integration into suspended ceiling is possible, positioned directly where heat must be removed Remarks: Cold air flows can lead to discomfort, suitable for cooling where hygienic air change rate is less important, retrofitted installations possible, cooling energy can be provided centrally or locally Typical applications: Server rooms, retail premises, hotel bedrooms

D 1.21 D 1.22 Air conditioning, cool-air system Arrangement in room: Supply air can be introduced through floors, ceilings or walls, supply-air openings must be integrated into interior design Remarks: Very involved/costly supply and extract installations required, high air change rate and high air movements in interior, restricted design freedoms for interior layout, air hygiene must be considered, cold air flows can lead to discomfort Typical applications: Offices, retail premises, hotels D 1.22

179

Heating, cooling, ventilation

2 m/s 6 m/s

Advantages

Disadvantages

No services ducts/shafts required

High maintenance requirement

Lower storey heights

Higher suction temperature in front of facade

Duct cross-section (m 2 )

Decentralised ventilation systems

4 m/s 8 m/s

14

Heat recovery systems

12

Temperature transfer efficiency without condensation (%)

Air ducts combined

Plate heat exchanger

45 – 65

yes

Rotary heat exchanger

65 – 80

yes

Run-around coil

40 –70

no

10

8

Retrofitting possible

Wind can influence ventilation function

Good controllability

Lower efficiency

4

Individual user influence

Limited performance

2

6

0

Obvious air path

Condensate drain may be necessary

0

10.000

20.000 30.000 40.000 50.000 60.000 70.000 80.000 90.000 100.000

Flow rate (m3/h) D 1.24

D 1.23

the fluid is necessary for this, which is achieved through a ground or groundwater exchanger or a recooling unit.

Techniques and technologies It may be necessary to minimise ventilation heat losses in order to comply with the high thermal performance requirements buildings have to satisfy these days. The use of ventilation systems with heat recovery are very advantageous in this respect. However, with central ventilation systems in particular, the direct influence users can exert and their view out can be limited. Decentralised ventilation systems

In a decentralised system, the supply air enters directly through the facade. Consequently, the air change rate can be regulated individually per room or zone and the incoming air can be treated – an advantage over natural ventilation. Local units can be fitted with heating and/or cooling options, heat recovery as well. A condensate drain will be necessary where a high cooling performance is required and that involves additional installation work, additional costs. The arrangement of these units on or near the facade and the connections required for heating and/or cooling must be considered in the interior design.

One particular advantage of decentralised systems is that less space is required for ventilation ducts, and services shafts for this type of air conditioning can be reduced to the size of the water pipes necessary. Nevertheless, the individual ventilation units on or near the facade must be taken into account during the initial planning. Decentralised systems are characterised by high user flexibility. They can be controlled directly by occupants and adjustment to suit personal needs is easier than with central systems. The method of operation is readily understood by users. Heating/cooling outputs and air flow rates are controlled through the number of units. It is possible to install further units at a later date to cope with changing demands. However, they still require appropriate openings in the facade and space inside the building, aspects which must be allowed for during the initial planning of the building. Maintenance requirements for decentralised systems are much higher than those for central systems because every individual unit has to be serviced. Furthermore, the external air pressure conditions adjacent to the facade can have an influence on the flow rate (Fig. D 1.23). Central ventilation systems

In a central air-conditioning plant, the outside

D 1.25

air is treated and then fed to the respective areas of the building. It is possible to build modular pretreatment units (heating, cooling, humidification, dehumidification, heat recovery, filters) into one plant. The interior design must take account of the supply and extract openings required, also the much higher space requirement for ventilation ducts (Fig. D 1.24). The ventilation ducts can be routed behind suspended ceilings, below raised access floors or in permanent plumbing walls (see “Integration of services”, pp. 210 – 211). In Germany the stipulations of the directives for ventilation systems (MLüAR) and flooring systems (MSysBöR) must be taken into account. Systems can be designed for a smaller capacity if the flow rate is reduced to that necessary for a hygienic air change rate. In that case it is usually necessary to provide a further heating or cooling system to deal with specific requirements within the building. The individual controllability of central ventilation systems is limited and only possible by adjusting the flow rate for a whole zone. How the system operates is not immediately obvious to users because they cannot regulate the temperature directly themselves. During the planning it is vital to consider minimising pressure losses in order to reduce the auxiliary energy requirement for fans. This can be achieved by reducing the components to

Backup heating Backup heating

Hot water tank

Refrigeration unit Hot water tank

Expelled air Recooling unit

Outside air

9

8 1

7

6

5

2

3

4

Extract air Supply air

Sorption wheel Heat recovery D 1.26

180

D 1.27

1200

Solar radiation Heating load Cooling load

1000

190

kw

W/m 2

Heating, cooling, ventilation

170

150 800 120

110 600 90

400

70

60 200 30

10

0 Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sept

Oct

Nov

Dec

D 1.23 The advantages and disadvantages of decentralised ventilation systems D 1.24 Ventilation duct cross-sections required for various flow rates and air velocities D 1.25 The parameters of various heat recovery systems D 1.26 Schematic diagram of solar cooling with absorption-type refrigeration unit and cooling ceiling (closed sorption method) D 1.27 Schematic diagram of solar cooling with sorption wheel and evaporative cooling (open sorption method) D 1.28 Diagram showing the solar radiation in relation to the cooling and heating requirements over the course of a year

D 1.28

the necessary minimum and by routing the ventilation ducts sensibly. Special attention must be given to the hygiene aspects of an air-conditioning system. When a system includes humidification and dehumidification stages, the cleanliness of the components is a vital requirement. In addition, dust and dirt in the network of ventilation ducts is undesirable and must be removed regularly – a costly and time-consuming business. Heat recovery

Thermal performance standards for new buildings are already high and the requirements for facades will become even more stringent in the future. The upshot of this is that ventilation heat losses are accounting for more and more of the total heat losses from a building. In order to minimise ventilation heat losses too, a heat recovery system must be integrated into the building ventilation (Fig. D 1.25). Heat recovery systems are essentially divided into two types, depending on the heat transfer medium. In air-to-air systems the extract air must be routed pass the supply air, which leads to a duplication of ducts in the building. These systems are further classified according to the type of heat exchanger. On the one hand, there are plate heat exchangers in which the air flows between the individual aluminium plates, normally in the form of a crossor counter-flow heat exchanger. On the other hand, rotary heat exchangers have a slowly rotating rotor that absorbs the heat from the extract air and transfers it to the incoming supply air. Air-to-air heat recovery systems are often integrated into central ventilation plants. The big difference in air-to-water systems is the space saved due to the absence of the ventilation ducts. In these systems it is not essential to feed the extract air back to a central ventilation plant. A run-around coil is used in these systems, which requires a water-filled heat exchanger in both the extract-air and supply-air systems. The water-filled connection between the supply and extract ducts is much smaller than a ventilation duct, which results in greater interior design freedoms. The heat exchangers in the supply and extract ducts must be very large in order to achieve a high degree of efficiency.

Solar cooling

Compression-type refrigeration units are widely used for cooling tasks in buildings. However, they are powered almost exclusively by electricity and hence entail a high consumption of fossil fuels. Besides the mechanically driven compression-type refrigeration units, there are also thermally driven models available that represent an interesting alternative. Apart from the active provision of cooling energy by means of an absorption- or adsorption-type refrigeration unit, passive solar cooling methods represent yet another option. In contrast to the use of solar energy to supplement heating requirements, solar cooling methods exploit the fact that solar gains and cooling requirements in a building occur at the same time (Fig. D 1.28). A refrigeration unit extracts heat energy from a medium and cools this. To do this it uses a refrigerant that is vaporised at a low temperature and pressure level. In a thermally driven refrigeration unit a compressor is superfluous and the increase in pressure is achieved by means of a sorption process. The integration into a solar system is also possible (Fig. D 1.26). A heat storage medium is heated by a solar system or other source of heat. This heat is required to regenerate the sorption-type refrigeration unit, or rather to drive the refrigerant out of the sorption medium again. The primary circuit is cooled and both the heat from the building and the heat for driving the refrigeration unit are dissipated through a recooling circuit. Another option for using solar radiation for regulating the internal climate is an open sorption process in conjunction with adiabatic cooling, as shown in Fig. D 1.27. In this system the warm and relatively moist air is dehumidified in a sorption wheel (desiccant rotor) (1) and in doing so absorbs some of the heat of condensation and heat of hydration that is released. In the heat recovery stage (2), the heat is released into the adiabatically cooled extract air. The dry, partly cooled supply air is subsequently cooled further in an evaporative cooler (3) and then fed into the building (4). The warmer waste air is extracted, humidified and heated further after heat recovery (5 – 8) in order to drive the moisture out of the sorption wheel again (9). As with closed systems, the heat required can be

provided by a collector array or other source of heat. Large collector arrays are necessary for the implementation of a solar cooling system in practice. In addition, the operation of a thermally driven refrigeration unit or a sorption wheel requires a high temperature level, which in turn has a negative influence on the efficiency of the collectors. When using fossil fuel-fired backup heating, an adequately high solar coverage rate must be ensured because otherwise the low efficiency of the thermally driven cooling system cannot guarantee any savings in primary energy compared with an electrically driven reference system. One sensible option is to combine this with a solar thermal system for backing up the heating so that the solar energy can be used throughout the year. PCMs

There are basically two types of heat storage: latent and sensible. Latent heat is the quantity of heat that is absorbed or released at the transition from one phase to another. The storage is latent, i.e. hidden, because this absorption or release process does not change the temperature of the substance. Contrasting with this, sensible heat is measurable and can be verified by the changing temperature of the substance (Fig. D 1.31, p. 182). The “phase change materials” are salt hydrates or paraffins that function as latent heat storage media (Fig. D 1.30, p. 182). They possess the property of being able to store heat above a certain temperature level without the PCM altering its temperature. This thermal energy is required to change the state of the material (from solid to liquid). The melting point of the PCMs used in building work lies between 20 and 26 °C (comfort range). Once the phase change is complete, the temperature of the PCM continues to rise. This process is completely reversible. Below the melting point, the PCM releases the heat energy again. This means that heat stored during the day can be removed from the building at night with the help of night-time ventilation or other passive cooling methods; active recooling must be integrated into the system if passive cooling options are not adequate. PCMs are employed to even out load or temperature

181

Heating, cooling, ventilation

Dimensions, weight

100 kJ/kg

–

Description

PCM

Plaster

Machine-applied gypsum plaster; single coat to internal walls

Passive: thin wall or soffit coating Microencapsulated for large areas Active: as coil cooling system in paraffins capillary tube mats

Gypsumbased boards

Gypsum boards, w. glass-fibre facing on both sides

Passive: in composite form with an Micro330 kJ/m2 encapsulated incombustible gypsum-based board for internal walls and ceilings paraffins 23 – 26 °C

Granulate

Heat storage granulate in loose fill form

Paraffins bonded in a silicate mineral

Heat storage medium contained in small pouches

Passive: on metal trays in suspended 158 kJ/kg, Macroencapsulated ceiling systems salt hydrate 22 – 28 °C

Aluminium pouches

Applications

Melting energy, -temperature

Building material

Passive: in voids or in the form of air storage Active: beneath dry subfloor as part of underfloor hot-air storage

24 – 26 °C

72 kJ/kg approx. 28 °C

15 ≈ 2000 ≈ 1250 mm, 11.5 kg 0.75 kg/l, 1– 3 mm particle size Pouch 300 ≈ 600 mm, 8 –10 kg/m2 D 1.29

PCM Gypsum plasterboard σ = d = 1.5 cm

A = 10.22 m2

m = 0.05 t

Conc. reinforced with 2 % steel σ = 16.9 cm

A = 3.13 m2

D 1.30

Temperature m = 0.9 t sensible heat storage Clay masonry σ = 8.8 cm Phase change temperature

peaks, and are useful in refurbishment projects and lightweight structures, enabling the specific heat capacity, and hence the summertime thermal performance, to be improved. Just a thin coating of a PCM can increase the heat storage capacity of a conventional masonry wall (Fig. D 1.32). There must be a high heat transfer between room and PCM for installation in a building. The PCM should therefore be integrated into a material with a high thermal conductivity which guarantees a large heat-transfer surface. The combustibility of paraffins means that they will have to be considered in the fire safety concept for the building. PCMs can be added directly to building materials, e.g. as additives in plasters and mortars, or incorporated in interior components (e.g. suspended ceilings, cooling fins, etc. – see Fig. D 1.29) in the form of aluminium pouches (Fig. D 1.30). It is also possible to integrate a PCM directly into glazing so that the melting point is reached upon exposure to solar radiation. The material is translucent and so sufficient diffuse daylight still reaches the interior. In a special form, a PCM also be used to buffer surplus solar energy. This is usually in the form of water-filled latent heat storage or in combination with underfloor heating.

A = 10.74 m2 latent heat storage

Quantity of heat energy stored

m = 1.07 t

D 1.31

Solid timber σ = 5.8 cm

D 1.29 D 1.30 D 1.31

A = 19.3 m2

m = 0.33 t

D 1.32 D 1.32

182

Properties and potential applications of PCMs Macro-encapsulated PCM in aluminium pouches Heat storage capacities of sensible and latent storage media. Water is the best-known PCM. Approx. 333 kJ of energy is required to melt 1 kg of frozen (crystallised) water at 0 °C. As the water temperature at this phase change hardly alters, the process is referred to as latent heat storage. The same quantity of energy can be used to heat cold water at a temperature of 1 °C to approx. 80 °C, which corresponds to sensible (i.e. measurable) heat storage. Comparison of the storage capacities of various

building materials. The materials of the walls can store a cooling load of 1 kWh for a temperature rise of 4 K as thermal energy in the surfaces facing the room. Taking into account the heat penetration depth σ, each material requires a certain surface area A and a certain mass m in order to do this. The period is a 24 h day-night cycle. The values for the PCM are valid for a temperature rise from 21 to 25 °C. D 1.33 Selection chart for internal climate concepts. Potential applications for various systems to suit various ambient conditions and the effects on the use of energy and technology in the building.

Heating, cooling, ventilation

Internal climate concept

Cooling

Heating

Ventilation

Circumstances, location, requirements

Unpolluted location

Natural ventilation

Noise

Ventilation via sound-insulated windows

High occupancy level

Mechanical supply and extract system

High internal air pollution

Natural supply, mechanical extract

Strong winds

Decentralised ventilation

Individual control

Radiators/convectors

Very large glass facades

Warm-air heating

Flexible occupancy times

Coil heating

Defined occupancy times

Thermoactive floor slabs

Large rooms, halls

Radiant ceiling panels

Individual control

Cooling ceiling

Increased solar gains

Ceiling convectors

Very high comfort demands

Thermoactive floor slabs

Very high technical cooling loads

Return-air cooling

Large rooms, halls

Air-conditioning/ cool-air system

Heavyweight form of construction

Night-time cooling

Good controllability

Low space requirement

Heat recovery

Use of renewable energy

Low technical input

Underfloor cooling

applicable

partly applicable

not applicable D 1.33

183

Heating, cooling, ventilation

R&D centre Gilching, 2007

Architects: BARTHARCHITEKTEN, Gauting Friedrich Barth, Andreas Barth Technical services: Ingenieurbüro Hausladen, Kirchheim

a

b D 1.34

Heat pump 400 kW

Biomass 2≈ 440 kW

Cooling technology: Temperature-controlled chambers, testing areas, server room cooling HVAC installations Thermoactive floor slabs, underfloor heating max. 40 kW

Heat recovery

Groundwater well 1 300 kW

Redundancy

Thanks to an integrated and innovative building concept, this R&D centre in Gilching is theoretically a zero-carbon building. The space heating is divided into two separate temperature circuits. A groundwater heat pump feeds the low-temperature system. It outputs the heat via underfloor heating and thermoactive floor slabs, which ensure a background temperature. Two wood chippings-fired boilers run the high-temperature circuit to which heating battery, radiators and radiant ceiling panels are connected. An underfloor heating system provides background heating for atrium and entrance hall, which in summer also help to dissipate heat from the building. All the other rooms are heated individually via radiators connected to the hightemperature system in addition to the thermoactive floor slabs. The ceiling systems in the meeting rooms ensure heating in the winter, cooling in the summer. On the ground floor the heating in the vicinity of the vehicle hoists and aisles is by way of radiant ceiling panels. Groundwater flows through the thermoactive floor slabs to cool the building in summer. In addition, a displacement ventilation system increases the cooling performance in the open-plan offices. Groundwater is also used to guarantee pretreatment of the supply air. The meeting zones within the building are also fitted with a supply and extract system, which is not used for regulating the internal climate, but only for cooling the supply air to 1 K below the interior air in order to guarantee a defined flow. Mechanical ventilation has also been installed for the testing areas on the ground floor and in the basement, where in addition to the supply and extract system there are separate extraction units for removing the gases given off during tests. The cold-water pipework in the testing areas and server rooms is also connected to the heat pump so that the waste heat from test setups can be exploited. The semi-transparent photovaltaic roof to the atrium (1200 m2) serves as a sunshade and as an indirect supplier of electricity for the heat pump. In addition, the silver-coloured underside of the thin-film modules reflects the lighting on the third floor.

Low-temperature heating systems: Thermoactive floor slabs Underfloor heating Ceiling heating

High-temperature heating technology: Radiators HVAC installations Radiant ceiling panels Heating to bus bay

D 1.35

184

Heating, cooling, ventilation

Office building Weiden, 2003

Architects: SHL Architekten, Weiden Emil Lehner, Stefan Kunnert Technical services: Ingenieurbüro Hausladen, Kirchheim

This three-story office building is divided into three office zones and two atria. The latter play an important role in the interior climate concept because they form the foundation for the entire ventilation concept. The building ventilation is regulated in three stages. Below an outside temperature of 18 °C, preheated fresh air is introduced into the atria through induction units at three different levels. This avoids creating a rising temperature gradient over the height of the atrium. The only exception is a buffer of air at a higher temperature directly below the glass roof. Sliding windows guarantee a change of air for the internal offices via the atrium. Above 18 °C, the active ventilation is switched off and the fresh air required allowed to enter the building naturally through ventilation flaps. The waste air always escapes to the outside via openings at the top of each atrium. With an atrium or outside air temperature exceeding 28 °C, the system switches to summertime operation, which means that the supply air cooled to about 18 °C is introduced through the atria, from where it flows into the office zones. Apart from introducing fresh air, pretreated by way of a ground exchanger, during summer and winter further output systems ensure the desired level of comfort. The offices are heated and cooled by thermoactive floor slabs employing system temperatures of 19 – 25 °C. One advantage of this system is its self-regulation, but quick room temperature changes are impossible. Staff in this building can also adjust the temperature of their areas individually by way of small radiators. In winter underfloor heating keeps the atria at the desired temperature level and heating elements on the facade prevent cold air drop. During the summer the thermoactive floor slabs dissipate the excess heat in the office areas. Cooling ceilings in the meeting rooms guarantee a basic cooling performance and return-air devices can be switched on to handle peak loads.

D 1.34

Internal climate concept, R&D centre, Gilching (D), 2007; BARTHARCHITEKTEN a Load case winter b Load case summer D 1.35 Technical services system, R&D centre, Gilching D 1.36 Ventilation concept, office building, Weiden (D); SHL Architekten a Winter b Spring, autumn c Summer D 1.37 Supply-air openings in glass air ducts, office building, Weiden

a

b

c

D 1.36

D 1.37

185

Planning the electrical installation

Johanne Friederich, Sebastian Wissel

D 2.1

The invisibility and flexibility of a building’s electrical installation improve with the amount of work invested in its design. But how can an extensive electrical installation be compatible with agreeable interior aesthetics? Will current installation standards satisfy the needs of future users? New and convenient information and communication technologies are increasing the demand for electrical equipment in buildings. The technological state of the art ranges from energy-efficient electricity generators and heating plant to decentralised energy management systems (DEMS), personalised entry systems and the graphic display of consumption data. But this new, fit-for-the-future standard calls for a high planning input at an early stage of the building’s design.

Electricity requirements and supplies As demands for a convenient and comfortable standard of living grow, so does the need for more and more electricity. The increasing density of services and the increasing level of technology must be accompanied by the optimisation of the use of that electricity. This applies to refrigeration units and air-conditioning plant, energy-efficient household appliances, differentiated and efficient lighting, the avoidance of standby modes, information and communication technologies, modern metering and transparency

for the user. All the parts of the electricity supply system in a building must be adequately sized right from the start if overloads are to be prevented. The stipulations of the appropriate standards and regulations (in Germany VDE, MLAR, etc.) must be observed. Primary electricity supply system

Every building is supplied with mains electricity from the public grid through a service cable. The primary electricity supply system connects the supply unit to the individual meters and from there through distribution cables to the consumer unit, which is in most cases located at a central place in the building (e.g. in the hallway of an apartment). From the consumer unit (which also houses fuses and switches) the individual cables branch out to the circuits to which the electrical loads are connected (Fig. D 2.7). Electricity consumption

In residential buildings electricity accounts for approx. 20 % of the final energy consumption, but in non-residential buildings this proportion varies considerably depending on the type of use. For example, in an office building the electricity consumption, including auxiliary power for services and electrical equipment, amounts to about 40 %. Attempts to reduce this consumption are therefore vital. [1] Figs. D 2.3 and D 2.6 show typical electricity Electricity consumption figs. according to type of bldg.

D 2.1 D 2.2 D 2.3 D 2.4 D 2.5

D 2.6

D 2.7 D 2.8

Technical services as art, art gallery café, Rotterdam (NL); OMA Electricity consumption figures for apartments according to size of household Electricity consumption figures according to type of building GFA = gross floor area Fundamental physical and technical variables Energy consumption figures for housing according to 2007 Energy Conservation Act (EnEV 2007) compared with a passive house (in KWh/m2ERA a); ERA = energy reference area (= heated gross floor area) Comparison of electricity consumption figures for conventional and optimised office buildings (in KWh/m2NFA a); NFA = net floor area Primary electricity supply system The structure of electricity consumption according to sector (in %)

Usage

Size of household

Avg. electricity consumption kWh/a

Specific electricity consumption kWh/a

1 person 2 persons 3 persons 4 persons > 4 persons

2018 3533 4182 4618 5830

30.7 36.4 38.5 39.1 44.3

Average

3617

36.4

186

Office buildings Hospitals1 Schools, total, with/without gymnasium Schools, total, with swimming pool Child daycare centres Nursery schools Sports facilities/centres Gymnasia/sports halls Fire stations Exhibition halls Buildings for events Residential homes Housing 1

D 2.2

Specific electricity consumption, median kWh /m2GFAa 23 151 11 21 19 13 28 20 14 17 20 26 18

45 m2 per bed D 2.3

Planning the electrical installation

Variable symbols

Designation context

Unit abbreviation

Electrical power P = U ≈ I

voltage ≈ current

watt W

Electrical work W = P ≈ t

output ≈ time

watt-hour Wh

Electrical resistance R = U / I

voltage current

ohm Ω

Voltage U = I ≈ R

current ≈ resistance

volt V D 2.4

consumption values for non-residential buildings, Figs. D 2.2 and D 2.5 those for non-residential buildings, and Fig. D. 2.8 the consumption figures for various sectors. Electrical load categories

The main electrical loads in buildings can be categorised as follows [2]: • Plug-in appliances, e.g. hair drier, vacuum cleaner, coffee machine, computer, are operated with a voltage of 230 V. In large buildings these appliances account for only a small share of the total electricity consumption. • Lighting installations, which in contrast to plug-in appliances account for a large share of the total electricity consumption. Electronic ballasts and diverse starters enable artificial light sources operated with a voltage of 230 V to be used for normal visual tasks. A rough calculation of the connected load can be worked out based on a lighting output of 8 –12 W/m2. When using energy-saving forms of lighting, a figure of 6 – 10 W/m2 can be assumed (see “Artificial light sources”, pp. 52 – 57). • Lifts and conveyors have motors with a connected load of 5 – 30 kW and require a voltage of at least 400 V. The high starting current needed for a lift should also be considered. • Appliances in industrial kitchens are operated with 400 V and account for a large proportion

of the electricity consumption, a fact that must be considered in the planning from an early stage. A connected load of approx. 400 kW can be assumed for the production of 750 meals in a kitchen with electric cookers. The brief peak loads are huge, but can be reduced by operating various appliances with a cyclic on/off switching mode. • Motors, e.g. for air-conditioning units, are regarded as major loads. If large loads are envisaged, these must be defined at an early stage of the planning because they can have an influence on the local mains electricity network. Powerful motors etc. are operated with voltages of at least 400 V.

Public electricity grid

Transformer

Building installation

Supply unit

Primary electricity supply system

Meter(s)

Fittings and installation The designer must decide where and how many power sockets and connection points should be installed, depending on the usage zone. As the user should form the focal point of an integrated planning approach, standards have been defined in order to guarantee minimum electrical installations for various usage zones (Fig. D 2.9, p. 188).

Distribution system

Consumer unit

Electrical loads Number of fittings

DIN 18015-2 specifies the nature and scope of minimum electrical installations in housing. In Germany the directive RAL-RG 678 defines

Cookers etc. 400 V

Small appliances 230 V D 2.7

kWh/m 2 ERA a

kWh/m 2NFA a

Lighting Elec. for ventilation

160

Elec. for appliances

180

140

Elec. for ventilation

160

Hot water

Elec. for cooling (compression-type) Diverse equipment

140

Central facilities

120

Operational facilities Heating

120

Heating

100

100 80

Industry Commerce Trade Households 26.7 %

42.8 %

Transport

80

60

60

40

40

20

20

0

3.1 %

Housing to EnEV 2007

0

Passive house D 2.5

27.4 %

Office building

Optimised office building D 2.6

D 2.8

187

Planning the electrical installation

numbers of electrical fittings for residential buildings and can be used for assessing electrical installations in general. This system can help users define what they expect from an electrical installation. Office installations are generally specified according to the workplaces. For example, at least two power sockets per computer and at least two further power sockets for general equipment such as workplace lighting and small appliances should be provided per workplace. The growing number of small appliances means that more and more power sockets are necessary these days. The power sockets for printers, photocopiers, fax machines, etc. should be

additional to those for the workplaces. Power connections for the workplaces are provided via sockets in the floor, walls or trunking at window sill or floor level. Where trunking passes through a wall, fire protection and sound insulation requirements must be considered. [3]

zones for residential buildings. Cables must be laid vertically or horizontally in these zones and may not be laid diagonally or transversely to reduce the length of cable. This system means that users always know where concealed cables lie and results in the following preferred dimensions (centre-lines of installation zones) for laying cables in a wall: horizontal cables 300 mm below finished ceiling level and 300 or 1150 mm above finished floor level; vertical cables 150 mm from the edges or corners of the structure (Fig. D 2.12, p. 190). This standard applies to laying cables in walls only; there are no regulations covering cables laid in floors and ceilings. Special installation zones apply to fitted kitch-

Installation zones in residential buildings

Preventing nails or drills being driven into concealed cables once the building is in use is vital because electrical installations represent a risk of fire and injury. In order to protect users, DIN 18015-3 “Electrical installations in residential buildings – Part 3: Wiring and disposition of electrical equipment” specifies installation

RAL-RG 678

DIN 18015-2

Circuits

Minimum number of fittings Standard number of fittings Superior number of fittings

Number of fittings

Lighting and power circuits

Additional appliance circuits, one per…

Power sockets

Lamps

Power sockets

Lamps

Power sockets

Lamps

Power sockets

Lamps

Hall/entrance area < 3 m long > 3 m long

1 1

1 1

1 2

2 2

1 3

3 3

1 1

1 2

1

–

Bedroom/living < 12 m² 12 – 20 m² > 20 m²

3 4 5

1 1 2

5 7 9

2 2 3

7 9 11

3 3 4

3 4 5

1 1 2

1– 2

–

Kitchenette/kitchen

5 7

2 2

7 9

2 3

8 11

2 3

3 5

2 2

1

Bathroom

3

2

4

3

5

3

2

2

1

–

WC

1

1

2

1

2

2

1

1

1

–

Storage area

1

1

2

1

2

1

1

1

1

2 + 21

11

–

–

–

–

2 + 21

11

1

–

Utility room

4

1

7

2

9

3

3

1

1

Washing machine, drier, steam press

Workshop

3

1

5

2

7

2

3

1

1 power circuit, possibly shared with entrance/ hall/WC

–

Study*

Cooker, oven, microwave, dishwasher

DIN 18015-2 Usable floor area

Radio & television reception system

Amplifier

Telephone system, number of sockets

1 telephone socket

Building communication systems

1

Doorbell, elec. door opener

2 antenna sockets

Amplifier

4 antenna sockets

3 telephone sockets

Door intercom

Doorbell, elec. door opener

Amplifier

7 antenna sockets

5 telephone sockets

Door intercom

Doorbell, elec. door opener

Circuits for power sockets & lighting

Telecommunication sockets

Antenna sockets

< 50 m² 50 – 75 m²

3 4

1 2

2 3

75 – 100 m²

5

3

4

100 – 125 m²

6

3

4

7

4

5

> 125 m2 Door intercom, alarm system

Not according to RAL-RG 678 or DIN 18015-2, instead based on a comparable single office. Additional power sockets should be provided for peripheral equipment irrespective of the workplace. D 2.9

188

Planning the electrical installation

6

Installation zones in non-residential buildings

Interdisciplinary planning

There is no standard specifying the number of fittings for non-residential buildings (Fig. D 2.13, p. 190). The requirements are fundamentally different and that means electrical installations must be designed for the particular building and its usage. For example, on retail premises the primary objective is to illuminate the products. The type of installation system should be decided upon at an early stage together with the HVAC measures, especially when thermoactive building systems are being planned (see “Heating”, pp.

Space is often a problem in floors where heating pipes and electric cables cross. The stipulations of the local development plan call for a standard storey height of 2.75 m, which allows a clear ceiling height of 2.40 – 2.45 m, but that in turn calls for floor finishes of minimum depth. However, the floor finishes must allow for pipes and cables crossing within the layer of insulation, a fact that is ignored in most cases. In addition, the dimensional tolerances of the structural floor must be taken into account in the floor finishes

2

3

2

176f and “Cooling”, pp. 178f). Fig. D 2.11 shows possible types of installation and their features.

6

1

ens. A wall lining is advantageous because it permits greater flexibility. [4]

+ yes possible

•

Lines

Ceiling/ soffit

(Empty) conduits

Ducts/ trunking

Rising mains cable Distribution cable Insulation

+ +

Installed in structure Inst. in fitting-out elements Optimisation of trades

+ +

Flexible internal layout Additional connections Additional lines Damage-free replacement Accessible

+

Wall

D 2.9

Number of fittings for typical rooms and housing according to RAL-RG 678 and DIN 18015-2 D 2.10 Minimum depth of floor finishes for maximum technical services, intersection, scale 1:10 1 Underfloor heating 2 Heating pipe  32 mm 3 Electric cable  20 mm D 2.11 Overview of installation systems

Floor

Suspended Void/ ceiling cavity/ trunking/ duct

+

D 2.10

+

Trunking (window sill/floor level)

+

Elements

Underfloor Hollow Surfacefloor mounted/ duct/ concealed trunking

+

+

+

In the structure

+

•

+

+

•

+

•+

+ + +

+

+

Fire protection Sound insulation

• •

+ +

•+ +

•

• •

•

+ +

+

+ + +

+

+

•+ +

• +

+

+

• •+

+ + +

•

•

•

•

+

+ +

+ +

+ + + +

+

+

+

•

• •

•

•

+

•

•

+

•

•

• •

+ +

+

Production/installation… by fitter

•

•

by builder/ dry liner

•

Installation by 1 person

+

+

•

Primary usage room

•

•

•

•

Ancillary usage room

•

•

•

•

Economical for 1 or more identical units

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

Economical for 10 or more identical units

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

Economical for 20 or more identical units

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

•

•

• +

Services integrated into facade

+ +

New building Refurbishment

+

Services integrated into door frame

Raised access floor

+

+

•

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

•

•

•

•

•

+

•

+

•

•

•

+

•

•

+

•

•

•

•

•

•

+

+

•

•

•

+

•

•

+

+

D 2.11

189

Planning the electrical installation

3

2 20 15

30

15 4

1

30

105

10

30

5

D 2.12

(DIN 18202, Tab. 3). The minimum depth for the maximum number of pipes and cables is a floor construction 140 mm deep with 80 mm insulation. The services are laid in the insulation, and the Energy Conservation Act (see EnEV 2009, p. 106) calls for the minimum thickness of insulation between underside of heating pipes and top of structural floor to be equal to the nominal diameter of the pipes. At intersections it may be assumed that only half the thickness of insulation is available. The screed – 60 mm thick with underfloor heating, 40 mm without – is laid on a continuous layer of insulation 20 mm thick. In practice the electric cables should be laid in chases in the top of the structural floor at intersections so that the heating pipes can cross these without problems (Fig. D 2.10, p. 189). This procedure is only possible, however, when interdisciplinary planning with the architect and the technical services engineer takes place at an early stage and laying the cables in this way is taken into account in the project planning for the electrical work. And the electrician working on the building site must know where intersections are likely to occur because electric cables are usually installed before heating systems. Installation systems

Laying cables in (empty) conduits is a practice often used in housing. Conduits are flexible plastic tubes which enable installations to be

D 2.14

190

6

Preferred dimensions for electric cables Preferred heights for switches and sockets Installation zones 7

8

replaced or extended at a later date, albeit restricted to the conduits that were installed originally. The positions of conduits must be considered an early stage because chases may need to be formed or conduits cast in. Suspended floors and ceilings Ducts and trunking can be integrated into the floor construction, pipes and cables laid in voids in the structural floor. The voids between individual suspended floor elements can also provide spaces for services. Pipes and cables can be laid in the floor’s direction of span. Access to services at a later date is impossible when they are laid in the neutral axis of the suspended floor construction, but access may be possible if they are laid near the soffit. The suspended ceiling is the most common form of installation for office and similar buildings with a high density of services because a suspended ceiling can accommodate many technical components, e.g. heating pipes, ventilation ducts, sanitary pipework, etc. (see “Ceiling systems”, pp. 140 –155). One disadvantage, however, is that the space required for a suspended ceiling reduces the clear ceiling height; but the good access to all services is an advantage (Fig. D 2.14). Decoupling pipework and duct noises from the ceiling construction is an important aspect that should not be forgotten. [5]

D 2.15

8

9

D 2.13

Walls Electric cables can be laid in cavities and voids in walls, also in surface-mounted trunking. This is a flexible approach and enables further connections and cables to be added at a later date (Fig. D 2.15). Special airtight cavity wall junction boxes and airtight membranes should be used. Alternatively, ducts and trunking in the walls represent a flexible solution because they can be opened and so all cables remain accessible. Routing cables in trunking along the walls at window sill or floor level is a simple way of achieving horizontal distribution, and sockets can also be integrated directly into such trunking. This solution for laying cables is frequently used when refurbishing old buildings. Trunking can be incorporated flush with the wall (new buildings) or surface-mounted (refurbishment projects). It can be used for telephone, antenna, door intercom and doorbell cables as well as those for power sockets etc., and a certain amount of spare capacity should be allowed for. This type of installation provides good flexibility, but surface-mounted trunking does present a challenge in terms of the interior architecture. Common floorlevel ducts for electric cables and heating pipes (with insulation between the two) are now available. Surface-mounted cables are only installed in

D 2.16

Planning the electrical installation

ancillary rooms. Concealed installations require conduits to be fitted into horizontal and/or vertical chases cut in the walls, but the requirements of the masonry standard DIN 1053-1 must be taken into account. This type of installation is used these days in housing and buildings where subsequent changes to the installation are unlikely. [6] Floors Underfloor trunking systems are laid directly on the structural floor; the top edge of the trunking is either flush with or below the finished surface of the screed. In the former case, the trunking can be opened over its entire length, which makes this the more flexible type of installation. The positions of junction boxes must be coordinated with the positions of the trunking and the fitting-out and furnishings layout so that a flexible subdivision of the interior is still possible. This type of installation is mainly advisable for nonresidential buildings with a high density of services, large room depths and potential changes of use (Fig. D 2.16). Screeded hollow floors are mainly used in buildings with very extensive electrical installations that are subject to frequent modifications, e.g. computer centres, office buildings (see “Hollow floor systems”, p. 161). In terms of flexibility, this type of floor lies between that of the underfloor trunking system and the raised access floor. The total depth of a screeded hollow floor is relatively modest – between 80 and 1000 mm depending on the manufacturer. The continuous screed distributes loads well and so very high imposed loads (up to 100 kN/m2) are possible. [7] Laying electric cables in the floor is an approach that is mainly used with prefabricated forms of interior fitting-out. Empty conduits are laid to enable further cables to be installed at a later date. Flexible tubes are used to connect the conduits from panel to panel. Although laying cables within the construction is the ideal form of installation, the sequence of design and construction procedures is a problem in practice. Only after the planning of the entire electrical installation is complete is it possible to begin building the loadbearing structure on site, which means a huge delay for site operations – a costly solution that is not employed in practice. [8] Raised access floor systems are primarily used in non-residential projects with a high density of services. These floors make use of heightadjustable pedestals with feet (including impact sound insulation) that support floor panels on which the floor covering is laid (see “Raised access floor systems”, pp. 161–167). The floor void can be used for pipes and cables as required. Access to services is possible at any point thanks to the removable floor panels. Such floors cost about one-third more than a comparable floor with integral services. Imposed loads of up to 50 kN/m2 are possible. The depth of the installation void lies between 80 and 2000 mm. [9]

Elements within the room Doors and facade elements with integral decentralised services components increase the flexibility of the interior layout. The cables for decentralised ventilation systems, heating and cooling components as well as electrical and data installations can be incorporated in door frames. Laying cables in door frames is a useful solution when the walls are of facing masonry. Switching functions for sunshades, daylighting systems and artificial lighting can be incorporated in facades (Fig. D 2.17). Requirements for fitting-out flexibility

D 2.12 Installation zones in rooms D 2.13 Sketch showing the principles of alternative installation systems in an office with two workplaces 1 Pendant lamp 2 Trunking for electric cables 3 Ceiling 4 Luminaire 5 Trunking below window sill 6 Service pole 7 Raised access floor 8 Floor outlet 9 Underfloor trunking D 2.14 Suspended ceiling D 2.15 Wall cavity for services prior to attaching dry lining D 2.16 Raised access floor D 2.17 Services integrated into facade D 2.18 Possible electrical installation for a kitchen

Flexibility demands are high. They encompass the possibility of rearranging usage zones, changing the type of usage and also the tenancy and ownership relationships. All that adds up to problems for the electrical installation [10]: • Definition of the distribution zones in advance • No cables laid between different occupancies • Difficulties in (re)organising metering • Changes to concealed cables in existing buildings are not possible without major intervention A few potential solutions are given below [11]: • Usage zones should be kept as small as possible right at the start so that modular uses are possible. Every zone is supplied by a separate rising mains cable for the electrical installations. • A three-phase cable should be laid in apartments so that it is possible to upgrade the electrical installation at a later date. Through appropriate connections between the phases it is possible to supply either the normal 230 V (small appliances) or 400 V (cookers etc.) as required. • Concealed cables must be disconnected during refurbishment work and replaced by surface-mounted trunking/conduits, for example. • Service cores (staircases, main corridors, sanitary facilities) in non-residential buildings should be constructed first and the installation zones in all other areas left empty apart from main supply cables. Allocation of the distribution zones should then not be carried out until the desired uses have been established. • Another option for maintaining fitting-out flexibility is to construct readily accessible services shafts in the immediate vicinity of the usage zones (see "Integration of services", p. 210). This method, however, requires more space and may involve fire protection problems between different usage zones. It is therefore only used in building types with frequent changes of use (e.g. shopping centres, high-rise buildings).

D 2.17

D 2.18

191

Planning the electrical installation

Building automation Automation in technical services is becoming more and more important as the comfort and convenience demands of users in modern buildings increase but at the same time the energy- and resources-efficient operation of ever more complex system technologies is essential. Systems for automatic control, regulation, monitoring and optimisation plus systems for the operation and management of technical services are grouped together under the heading of “building automation”. [12] The tasks of building automation

The intelligent networking of all technical systems installed in a building to form functional units enables an entire building to be controlled and monitored from one central point. The simplified monitoring of operating statuses is achieved by the automatic acquisition of operating data and alarms. The automated control and regulation of plant can guarantee the desired comfort criteria and minimise the incorrect actions of users that waste energy. [13] The following elements can be integrated into building automation [14]: • Supply systems (e.g. heating, air-conditioning, ventilation, sanitary facilities) • Conveying technology (e.g. lifts, escalators, goods conveyors, facade cleaning systems)

• Power current technology (e.g. medium- or low-voltage circuits and installations, lighting systems, electricity generators, uninterruptible power supplies) • Usage-specific systems (e.g. kitchens, laboratories, medical gas supplies, compressed air, process cooling, disposal systems) • Safety and security technology (e.g. access control systems, escape route surveillance, intruder and alarm systems, fire detectors/ alarms and the associated extinguishing systems, emergency lighting) • Information and communication technology (e.g. transmission networks for telephone and LAN, works mobile radios, computer rooms) • Room installations (e.g. individual room controls, room thermostats, radiator valves, room air sensors, lighting systems, detectors, alarms, switches, time switches, remote controls and sunshading systems) The structure of automation systems

Building automation systems can be broken down into three main functional levels, each of which fulfils different tasks: the field, automation and management levels (Fig. D 2.19). Field level At field level the operation of the technical systems is carried out by means of sensors and actuators. [15] The sensors measure technical

Database server Data storage

Control panel

Interface to: intranet, telephone network, Internet

External control panel

values, e.g. temperature, air humidity, and convert this information into electrical signals. The actuators receive these electrical signals and carry out the appropriate actions, e.g. closing a contact. Automation level The automation level functions as an interface between the higher, management level and the lower, field level. The tasks of the automation components are to control and regulate the technical systems on the basis of data supplied from the field level and the stipulations sent from the management level. In line with the state of the art, digital controls are used almost exclusively these days. Management level The management level is where users’ requirements for all the automated processes in the building and its systems are input and adapted as required during the everyday running of the building. In addition, all the system processes are monitored at a central location and can be displayed graphically. If malfunctions occur that require human intervention, logs are generated and alarms output. Further management level tasks are the recording and evaluation of the operational statuses of all technical equipment connected to the systems plus the storage of energy consumption data. Provided with an

Management level Alarm monitoring, operations management, energy management

Network protocol, e.g. BACnet/IP

Systems for special applications, e.g. fire alarm control panel

Automation level Measuring, controlling and regulating processes

Network protocol, e.g. BACnet/IP

Automation component/ communication unit

Automation component

Field bus, e.g. LON, KNX (BatiBUS, EIB, EHS)

Lamp

Electric drive

Switch

Field level Measuring, actuating, metering

Conventional cabling

Motion detector

Room control panel

Pump

Fan

Valve D 2.19

192

Planning the electrical installation

D 2.19 The structure of a building automation system D 2.20 Control panel with touchscreen for monitoring and controlling the entire technical services installation D 2.21 Local control panel in living quarters D 2.20

appropriate database, it is also possible for the system to track the ongoing cost of energy consumption. Room automation

Room automation is the interdisciplinary use of the aforementioned building automation and control tasks in individual rooms within a building. The aim of room automation is to guarantee the comfort for the users of that room and at the same time still ensure the energy-efficient operation of the systems involved. It is possible to achieve energy-efficient operation by reducing the unnecessary consumption or input of energy caused by incorrect user behaviour. Inefficiencies include superfluous or even contraproductive cooling or heating of rooms with open windows, the permanent heating, cooling and ventilation of unused rooms or switching on artificial lights despite an adequate level of daylight. Efficient room automation entails collecting all the relevant and measurable data, e.g. temperature, air quality, brightness, positions of opening lights, in the respective rooms at certain intervals and evaluating it with the help of defined parameters. The technical installations connected to the control system, e.g. heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting, sunshades, are coordinated with each other and optimally regulated or controlled according to the parameters. However, the resulting interior climate is not necessarily ideal for every user, which can be attributed to the fact that every individual has a different perception of comfort (see “Conditions to measure, experience”, p. 32). Users should therefore always have the option of regulating the interior climate individually where possible, e.g. living quarters, individual or team offices, from a local control panel (Figs. D 2.20 and D 2.21). In interiors used by many people, e.g. libraries, theatres, retail premises, circulation zones, the comfort requirements of the “average user” plus the requirements dictated by the particular type of use are critical for the regulation of the interior climate (see “Usage typologies”, p. 82). In utility areas, e.g. plant rooms, warehouses, production bays, the room automation functions are adapted to the respective specific tasks and processes. [16]

D 2.21 Controlling lighting, sunshades and anti-glare screens

The automatic control of lighting plus sunshades and anti-glare screens promises increased comfort but also the potential for energy savings. Constant light control Constant light control involves equipping rooms with sensors for detecting the illuminance so that the brightness in the room can be measured and evaluated. Dimmable lighting systems then ensure that the artificial lighting in the room is automatically adjusted to the level of brightness required. And the artificial lighting is switched off completely when an adequate amount of daylight is available. Great savings can be achieved with constant light control when the rooms equipped with such a system enjoy a good supply of daylight, e.g. through large windows or daylightchannelling systems (see “Daylighting systems”, p. 47). When controlling artificial lighting depending on the brightness in the room, the electricity requirements and the shortening of the service life of discharge lamps, for instance, due to frequent on/off switching must be considered. (see “Artificial light sources”, pp. 52 – 57). The fast response time of the sensors represents a problem here. For example, the brief passage of a cloud can lead to the level of artificial lighting being adjusted up and down unnecessarily. The answer to this is to delay the control system’s reaction to the sensor.

Automatic lights Where rooms without an adequate supply of daylight are used mainly only temporarily, e.g. corridors, sanitary facilities, energy can be saved by switching on the lights only when the area is in use. Motion or other sensors detect the presence of people and provide the necessary data for switching on the lights automatically. The lights are also switched off automatically once the programmed switch-off delay of the sensor has expired following its last activation (Fig. D 2.22a). Controlling sunshades and anti-glare screens Global radiation or illuminance sensors can be used to control sunshades or anti-glare screens automatically to suit the needs of building occupants. Simple systems such as roller shutters or awnings can therefore be raised or lowered depending on the incident solar radiation or the actual illuminance level. Compared with the manual control of such systems, such automatic controls generally improve the level of daylight in the interior. More complex sunshading or anti-glare systems with adjustable louvres or integral light-redirecting functions can further optimise the use of daylight by tracking the altitude of the sun and adjusting the angle of the louvres to suit. However, the readiness of building occupants to accept such systems decreases with the frequency of the – often not entirely silent – adjustment of such shading systems (see “Daylighting systems”, p. 47). The automatic control of sunshading systems in unoccupied rooms or those used only temporarily can avoid overheating in summer. [17]

Lighting with automatic brightness control This system is similar to constant light control in principle but the use of non-dimmable lighting systems means that it is not possible to adjust the level of illumination exactly. Depending on the level of brightness in the room, individual lights or groups of lights are switched on or off. When there is an adequate supply of daylight, all artificial lighting is switched off completely. With this type of system there is a relatively high energy-saving potential compared with rooms using conventional lighting systems, especially when there is no particular need for uniform or infinitely adjustable levels of illumination.

193

Planning the electrical installation

S S

Door lock

S

Motion

S S

Switching/ dimming actuator

Wind

S

Brightness

S

Internal temperature

S

Window contact Rain Internal temperature

Window actuator

Blind actuator

A

A

A

Control panel

Control panel

Control Panel

a

b

c

Ventilation, heating and cooling systems

Night-time ventilation Ventilating rooms at night allows the colder outside air to cool the interior so that less energy is needed for operating mechanical cooling systems. This principle can be achieved with the help of the building’s mechanical ventilation system or by way of natural air flows if windows or make-up air grilles are fitted with automatic opening/closing mechanisms (see “Outside temperature”, p. 102, and “Passive cooling”, p. 178).

Twisted-pair cables This transmission method employs twisted, two-core copper wires to transmit the data and also provide the power for the sensors and actuators connected to the system. The bus lines can be laid alongside other electric cables.

Ventilation, heating and cooling systems have a great influence on a building’s energy requirements. Demand-based control of all systems is therefore to be recommended for energy reasons. Operating mode switchover The definition of different operating modes for the heating, cooling or ventilation systems in a room with the option of demand-based switchover between these operating modes with their own set values (e.g. comfort or economy operation) guarantees the energy-efficient use of those systems. Time switches, manual controls or motion detectors can be used to trigger the switchover between the different modes. Room ventilation Mechanical ventilation provides the chance of regulating the supply of air to a room depending on the presence of occupants and requirements. One simple form of control involves specifying the times in which the room is used or installing motion detectors. The momentary air change rate required in the room, determined by evaluating the momentary interior air quality by way of CO2 or mixed gas sensors, can be used for more exact demand-based regulation. Whereas CO2 sensors measure only the amount of CO2 in the interior air, mixed gas sensors can detect various gases and vapours such as body odours and emissions from furniture, carpets or paints. The air change rate required is determined depending on the automatic assessment of the interior air quality and the amount of air to be fed into the room controlled accordingly. This guarantees that the quality of the air in the room remains consistent (see “Ventilation”, pp. 174f.). At the same time, the demand-based air change rate prevents unnecessary ventilation energy losses. [18] Window monitoring Electrical contacts can be used to monitor the positions of opening lights, which in turn allows the supply of warm or cold air to the room or its ventilation to be controlled according to requirements, e.g. by switching off HVAC systems automatically when the windows are open. Unnecessary energy losses are therefore avoided (Fig. D 2.22c).

194

Bus systems

Conventional electrical installations employ a multitude of separate networks and control lines for operating the individual technical systems, which results in a considerable investment in cabling. But by using bus systems the number of individual networks – and hence the number of cables and the work required to install them – is substantially reduced. Bus systems allow all the components connected to them to communicate via a single line. [19] To do this, the associated components, e.g. sensors and actuators, are connected to a bus line that transmits all the operating signals for controlling, regulating and monitoring the technical systems in digital form. Bus systems often have a decentralised structure and their control and regulation functions can be integrated into devices such as sensors and actuators. In room automation, for example, bus systems can be set up to control lights and/or sunshades. To do this, the sensors measure data such as illuminance, temperature, etc. and relay this information via the bus line to the actuators, which then carry out the desired action, e.g. switching on artificial lighting or lowering a sunshade. [20] Bus systems can be extended or adapted as required. If, for example, a room undergoes a change of use or is subdivided, the existing sensors and actuators can be reprogrammed to suit their new tasks and no new cables are required (Figs. D 2.23 to D 2.25). Data transmission methods

Various data transmission methods exist for bus systems and can even be combined. Different media can be used for the data transmissions and a selection is presented below.

D 2.22

Radio In a radio bus system the information between the individual bus devices is transmitted by radio waves. As no cables have to be laid, these systems are especially suitable for retrofitting to existing buildings or for buildings where it is not possible to install bus lines. Powerline method In powerline systems the normal electric cables (230 or 400 V) in the building are used for the simultaneous transmission of data. Powerline systems are therefore also suitable for retrofitting to existing buildings without having to lay separate bus lines. Standardised systems and communication protocols

Despite the standardisation that has been partially successful, manufacturers still flood the market with their own specific solutions and systems. The disadvantage of this is that the same manufacturer’s products must be used for any extensions or repairs to such systems. In order to guarantee that bus systems can continue to be used and extended in the future without problems, it should be possible to integrate operation, management and automation equipment into the diverse systems of different manufacturers. This can be achieved by using open and standardised communication interfaces and methods. KNX bus systems The KNX standard resulted from the combination of systems that had previously been developed independently: EIB (European Installation Bus), BatiBUS (Bâtiment Bus) and EHS (European Home Systems). It is a standardised system covered by DIN EN 50090, which means that any KNX-compliant components from any manufacturer may be used together. This bus system is primarily used for decentralised control and regulation of technical systems.

Planning the electrical installation

Door contact

Motion Wind detector detector

IR remote control

Thermostat

Glass breakage alarm

Heating

Alarm warning light

Brightness sensor

Brightness sensor

Lamp

Time switch

Switch

Time switch Max. demand indicator

Fan

Alarm system HVAC

Lamp

Electric drive

Switch

Master key for alarm control panel

Blind

Lighting control Energy & load management Louvre blind & roller shutter control D 2.23

LON (Local Operating Network) The LON bus system was developed by the Echolon company and is a standardised system covered by DIN EN 14908. All the components on the LON-BUS communicate by way of the LONTalk protocol. This bus system is used for decentralised control and regulation of installations. M-BUS (Meter Bus) M-Bus is a standardised system covered by DIN EN 13757 and is primarily used for the remote read-out of consumption figures (heat, water, gas, electricity). Interfaces are available so that the system can be combined with other building automation bus systems. [21] BACnet (Building Automation and Control Networks) BACnet is a building automation system transmission standard not based on any particular manufacturer. It was developed by the American engineering organisation ASHRAE and is standardised worldwide according to DIN EN ISO 16484-5. The BACnet communication protocol can be used for the management, automation and field levels. BACnet permits the use of various data transmission methods because the protocol is not dependent on the hardware used. It enables the interoperability of diverse devices and systems within building automation setups.

Door Motion Wind contact detector detector

Time switch

Brightness sensor

D 2.24

References: [1] Federal Ministry for Environment, Nature Conservation & Nuclear Safety (pub.): Neues Denken – neue Energie, Roadmap Energiepolitik 2020. Berlin, 2009, p. 20 [2] Daniels, Klaus: Gebäudetechnik. Ein Leitfaden für Architekten und Ingenieure. Munich/Zurich, 2000, p. 316f. [3] Krimmling, Jörn: Atlas Gebäudetechnik. Grundlagen, Konstruktionen, Details. Cologne, 2008, p. 298 [4] Laasch, Thomas; Laasch, Erhard: Haustechnik, Grundlagen – Planung – Ausführung. Wiesbaden, 2005, p. 362 [5] Pistohl, Wolfram: Handbuch der Gebäudetechnik. 1. Sanitär/Elektro/Förderanlagen. Planungsgrundlagen und Beispiele. Cologne, 2007, p. E56 [6] ibid. [5], p. E58ff. [7] ibid. [5], p. E63f. [8] ibid. [4], p. 383 [9] ibid. [5], p. E64 [10] ibid. [3], p. 299f. [11] ibid., p. 299f. [12] VDI 3814 Blatt 1, Technical rule: Building automation and control systems (BACS) – System basics, 2005 [13] ibid. [3], p. 388 [14] Mechanical & Electrical Engineering Working Group for State & Local Government (AMEV): Hinweise für Planung, Ausführung und Betrieb der Gebäudeautomation in öffentlichen Gebäuden. Berlin, 2005, p. 12 [15] ibid. [14], p. 13ff. [16] Staub, Richard; Kranz, Hans R. : Raumautomation im Bürogebäude. Moderne Gebäudeautomation als Voraussetzung für Produktivität und Behaglichkeit. Landsberg/Lech, 2001, p. 51 [17] LonMark Deutschland e.V.: Energieeffizienz automatisieren. Information sheet. Aachen, 6/2007 [18] VDI 3813 Blatt 1, Technical rule: Room automation – Fundamentals, 2007 [19] Wellpot, Edwin, Bohne, Dirk: Technischer Ausbau von Gebäuden. Stuttgart, 2006, p. 573 [20] ibid. [3], p. 389 [21] ibid. [14], p. 25ff.

Max. Thermodemand stat indicator

Switch

Master key for alarm control panel

IR Glass remote breakage control alarm Sensors (command receiver)

Installation bus 230 V/AC

Actuators (command receiver)

Lamp

Electric drive

Blind

Fan

Lamp

Alarm Heating warning light

D 2. 22 Room automation a Lighting b Sunshade c Ventilation D 2.23 Conventional electrical installation D 2.24 Switching actuators D 2.25 Separate transmission of power and information

D 2.25

195

Planning the sanitary installation

Martin Ehlers, Peter Springl, Tobias Wagner

D 3.1

The significance and diversity of sanitary facilities in architecture have changed considerably over the course of time. Whereas in the past a supply of running water within a building was something special, comfortable, convenient kitchens and bathrooms have long since become standard in housing. Before sanitary installations became normal, wash-bowls and jugs were the first “sanitary appliances” in homes. Although there were private bathrooms in ancient times as well as public bathing facilities, for most people private systems remained an unattainable luxury until well into the 20th century. Taking a bath at home was a major event! Nonetheless, more than ever before we must be aware of the fact that water, like energy sources, is a precious resource. Contemporary sanitary installation planning must therefore take this fact increasingly into account in addition to the demand for maximum comfort and convenience. Systems that use grey water and rainwater are becoming more and more important – almost half of the daily consumption of drinking water can be replaced by rainwater. A good mix of architecture and technology plus good cooperation between architect and technical services engineer can make a decisive contribution to the careful use of water.

Sanitary spaces

D 3.1 Supply lines D 3.2 Bathroom, private house R, Schondorf (D), 2008; Bembé Dellinger Architekten D 3.3 Bathroom, private house, Laachen (D), 2007; Bembé Dellinger Architekten D 3.4 Kitchen, private house CC, Munich (D), 2008; lynx architecture; kitchen design: Wiedemann Küchen

196

Sanitary facilities must satisfy very many different requirements depending on the type of building and its use. On the one hand, people expect bathrooms to be designed to ever higher aesthetic standards; on the other, these rooms still have to satisfy very diverse functional and technical requirements. For the sanitary trade that means primarily planning water supplies and waste-water drains, but hardly any other part of the building involves so many interfaces with other trades. And at the same time the planning of sanitary installations must comply with numerous, sometimes conflicting requirements regarding function and use, design, hygiene, operational safety, economics, fire protection and sound insulation.

Room typology and uses

It is mainly the bathroom, toilet and kitchen that are affected by the sanitary installation planning. The relationships between these different uses with their very different requirements, especially with respect to hygiene, have changed constantly over the years. Until well into the 20th century, taking a bath, particularly in rural areas, was an event for the kitchen, or a room near the kitchen, because of the need for hot water; it was only later that the bathroom was moved nearer to the bedrooms. The convenience of a separate WC was also recognised. When planning the internal layout of a housing unit or building, the sanitary spaces should generally be positioned adjacent to each other horizontally and/or vertically. However, the growing desire for variability means that satisfying this design criterion is not always easy. Bath, shower and WC The focus of the sanitary installation planning is traditionally the bath, shower and WC. These days, the design of such rooms is very much characterised by the desire for maximum individuality and self-determination. Some want to enjoy relaxing in a “wellness oasis”, others want to combine bath and entertainment, and yet others see the bathroom merely as a functional space without any serious architectural or spatial requirements. The question of bath or shower has lost some of its significance because it is possible to combine both satisfactorily, but the ready interchangeability of bath and shower to suit changing lifestyles is desirable. It is precisely the planning of minimal, functional bathrooms that presents planners with a demanding task because the goal is the optimum use of the available space. This task is further complicated when a barrier-free design is required. Generally, wall-mounted sanitary appliances are advisable in bathrooms because they are easier to clean, and – in small bathrooms in particular – they create the illusion of a larger space. The supporting constructions in the walls must be adequately sized and guarantee a secure anchorage – especially for the rails and other aids necessary in bathrooms for the disabled.

Planning the sanitary installation

The best solution for narrow bathrooms is usually to mount all the sanitary appliances in a row on one wall, which has proved to be a good, inexpensive answer for routing the pipework. Screens in the form of half-height walls or other room-dividing elements can be provided between toilet, bath and wash basin. Another good idea for small bathrooms is a sliding door instead of an inward-opening hinged door. Minimal bathrooms are also available in the form of prefabricated, fully fitted, finished sanitary units, which can be integrated into the loadbearing structure. In Germany the building regulations of the federal states, which are based on the Model Building Code (MBO), contain the legal basis for the fittings required in bathrooms. In our modern society, many people regard the bathroom as additional living space, not just as a minimal, functional zone satisfying personal hygiene needs. It is this aspect in particular that has led to the installation of a separate WC, which can also be used by guests, in households with more than one person. The “wellness bathroom” is a quiet, relaxing place where the user can escape from the daily grind. Not only the body is cleansed and groomed, but the mind and senses as well! One design factor that must be considered with such a bathroom is its much larger footprint, which is due to the demand for more space and more fittings (Fig. D 3.3). It must also be remembered that large baths and whirlpools hold a much larger quantity of water and this heavier load must be taken into account in the structural design of the building. Additional connections for sauna, steam bath, etc. must be allowed for. And massage jets or hydrotherapy equipment will require an adequate, higher water pressure, which in some circumstances will require measures to boost the pressure. Kitchen and utility room Kitchens and utility rooms are the second main focus of the sanitary installation planning after bath, shower and WC. Here again, demands regarding functionality and design have increased noticeably, and individual solutions are needed (Fig. D 3.4). Nevertheless, fitted kitchens with standardised modular dimensions are still the

D 3.2

norm in apartments. What could be more flexible than cupboards and built-in appliances? The sink is one of the most important sanitary items in any kitchen. And owing to the water supply and waste-water drain connections, a dishwasher is often positioned close to the sink. All the appliances and aids required for domestic activities can be sensibly grouped together in a utility room. Washing machines should not be placed in the kitchen for hygiene reasons. One good solution is to provide a separate laundry room near to an outdoor drying area or next to a well-ventilated drying room. Common laundry rooms with washing machines and tumble driers represent a sensible solution for apartment blocks or residential homes. Public buildings and special facilities The planning of sanitary installations for public areas, e.g. places of assembly, department stores, nurseries, schools, universities, production plants, offices, sports centres, etc. involves totally different requirements to those for private areas. The sanitary spaces in such buildings are usually very important, are usually located adjacent to the building circulation zones and are essentially functional areas. Every building designed for use by larger groups of people must generally be provided with a sufficient number of toilets. For certain uses, e.g. hospitals, restaurants, workplaces and campsites, the necessary minimum number of toilets is laid down in specific regulations or directives; and in Germany every federal state has its own regulations for restaurants. Complying with the numerous architectural, functional, constructional and economic criteria for public facilities is an important part of the architect’s design work. Swimming pools, both private and public, represent a special area of sanitary installation planning and therefore call for cooperation with the appropriate specialist planners and manual trades.

the designer is dealing with a defined, specific, individual user, but rather essentially heterogeneous user groups, which could change over the lifetime of the building. Factors that must be considered here are frequency of use and whether the facilities are for private or public use. User groups and variability The layout of a family bathroom differs in principle from that for a single person or senior citizens. A family bathroom must satisfy the needs of various users of different generations simultaneously and those different needs and physical abilities must therefore be taken into account in the planning. Bathroom “congestion” during the typical peak times should be allowed for in the design. The needs of young children can be considered in family bathrooms by providing additional aids such as removable, smaller WC seats and step stools. But family life changes constantly: the children grow up, the parents wish to be able to continue to use their apartment as senior citizens (Fig. D 3.5, p. 198). Maximum variability should be built into a bathroom so that it can accommodate these changes. Sanitary installations in private households represent a long-term investment, and so the question of the anticipated future family situation should always be examined.

The user with his or her individual needs plays a critical role in the planning of sanitary installations. In practice it is not usually the case that

Barrier-free design Continuing this theme of meeting users’ needs, barrier-free access is an aspect that is becoming increasingly important as demographic change presents us with more and more elderly people. An adult requires a width of 600 mm for walking, which corresponds to an area measuring 600 ≈ 600 mm for an adult turning about his own axis. But persons with mobility aids or blind people require an area of 1200 ≈ 1200 mm, wheelchair users 1500 ≈ 1500 mm. Sanitary facilities are spaces for intimate human functions. For this reason it is especially important that elderly or disabled people can manage without limitations and without assistance for as long as possible. Barrier-free areas, products or systems are those that can be

D 3.3

D 3.4

Users

197

Single

Pair

Family

Single, weekend family

Patchwork family

Pair, pensioners

Single, widowed

Disabled, care-dependent, elderly

Separate living and working areas

Separate children’s rooms

One room

Several individual children’s rooms

Private area for each partner

Single room

Barrier-free apartment

Household form

One room

Planning the sanitary installation

Space requirements

Apartment size

large

D 3.5 Examples of changes to household forms and living conditions and their influence on lifestyles D 3.6 Circulation spaces according to DIN 18025 D 3.7 Footprints and clearances for appliances in bathrooms and WCs

small Time spent in apartment

considerable

Working from home 70

150 150

Functional Experience, wellness

Several bathrooms Wellness

Functional Designed for disabled persons

150

Wellness

150

150

Experience, wellness

95

Bathroom requirements

30

minimal

20

Time of moving

150 D 3.5

used or accessed by disabled persons in the usual way without any particular difficulties and definitely without any assistance. Conventional bathrooms and WCs do not normally fulfil such requirements. Special designs and special fittings suitable for elderly or disabled persons are therefore necessary. Existing, old bathrooms do not usually satisfy the requirements either, and conversion or modifications are costly and involved. When converting other rooms into sanitary spaces, it is the connections to the existing pipework and also the structural aspects that must be considered first – and inextricably linked with that the question of the floor construction possible or necessary. DIN 18024 and DIN 18025 describe the requirements that must be fulfilled when constructing barrier-free housing for disabled and elderly people. For instance, an apartment suitable for a wheelchair user must have doors with a clear opening width of at least 900 mm. In addition, a clear area measuring 1500 ≈ 1500 mm is necessary in front of WCs, wash basins, baths and showers (Fig. D 3.6), although those areas may overlap. Apartments used by more than three persons, at least one of whom is a wheelchair user, must have an additional sanitary room with WC and wash basin. In order to guarantee access in an emergency, bathroom doors must be openable from outside. Emergency call buttons must also be provided so

198

D 3.6

that a person in trouble can summon help. In buildings to which the public has access, there should be at least one WC cubicle suitable for wheelchair users.

switch, moisture sensors, motion detectors, door contact switches, programmed run-on, delayed start-up or adjustable time switches (see “Ventilation”, pp. 174 f.).

Interior climate and comfort

Heating DIN EN 12831 specifies a design room temperature of 24 °C for private bathrooms, 20 °C for WCs and kitchens. The temperatures of the air and the surrounding surfaces are both equally important factors for the temperature of the room as perceived by its users. A floor covering that feels warm underfoot is especially important in the bathroom – a barefoot area – if users are to feel warm. Underfloor heating in bathrooms is therefore standard these days; in addition, underfloor heating is an energy-efficient system and no space is required for radiators etc. Coil heating systems in walls and ceilings are also worth considering. Besides heating systems based on hot water, electrical coil heating systems, which require even less depth, are also available. The disadvantages of electrical systems are their cost as electricity prices rise and the unfavourable CO2 balance. In practice these coil heating systems are supplemented by heated towel rails, with and without electrical cartridge heater, possibly arranged as a room divider (see “Heating”, pp. 176 –177).

Bathrooms and WCs in buildings are traditionally preferably located on a north wall. However, as bathrooms have gradually changed from purely functional spaces to part of the living area, bathrooms facing in other directions are no longer uncommon. Natural ventilation and daylight should always be preferred. Ventilation The subject of ventilation is especially important for sanitary facilities. In order to prevent condensation and mould growth, also annoying odours, the damp or smelly air must be quickly and effectively extracted. In private kitchens and bathrooms this is best achieved by way of natural ventilation. Bathrooms and WCs located on outside walls are, however, not always possible in practice, especially in multistorey apartment blocks or public buildings. According to the Model Building Code (MBO), bathrooms and toilets without windows are only permitted when effective mechanical waste-air extraction is guaranteed. Such systems are costly, however. User comfort also means no draughts. Bathroom ventilators can be controlled in various ways, e.g. through the light

Planning the sanitary installation

60

Bathroom furniture

Side wall1

see manufacturers’ information

Washing machine Tumble drier

60

43 – 60 55 – 60

Urinal

70

55 – 120 94 – 130

WC pan with cistern or auto flush, built-in or wall-mounted

55 55

Bath

60 120

Shower

Conventional models w d

d

Bidet, floor- or wallmounted

Vanity unit with 1 basin & cupboard

to VDI 6000-1 w

Side clearances to

Handrinse basin

Appliances Basins etc. Single vanity unit Double vanity unit

Footprints for appliances in bathrooms and WCs (cm)

Vanity unit with 1/2 basins & cupboard

for shower enclosures, too clearance may be reduced to zero 3 for walls on both sides 4 not recommended 5 when the supply fittings are fixed to the dividing wall 2

Single vanity unit Double vanity unit

1

20

–

–

25

202

20

20

20

20

5

20

–

0

–

252

152

15

20

20

15

0

0 153

Vanity unit with 2 basins & cupboard

140

Handrinse basin Bidet, floor- or wall-mounted

45

35

40 – 55

32 – 42

–

–

–

25

20

20

20

20

40

60

35 – 40

57 – 66

25

25

25

–

25

25

25

254

20 25

20 25

20 25

≥ 80 (90) ≥ 170

≥ 80 (90) ≥75

80 – 120 160 – 200

75 – 90 70 – 120

202 202

152 152

20 20

25 25

– 0.15

0.155 –

20 20

20 20

0 0

0 0

0 0

WC pan with wall-mounted cistern or auto flush WC pan with built-in cistern or auto flush

40

75

35 – 40

53 – 60 20

20

20

25

20

20

–

20

20

20

40

60

35 – 40

66 – 75

20 253

Urinal

40

40

29 – 40

21 – 40

20

20

20

254

20

20

20

–

20

20

37.5 – 40

60 60

60 60

20

15

20

25

0

0

20

20

0

0

3

5

0 0 153

20 20 253

20 20 253

0

0

3

3

3

–

Baths etc. Shower tray Bath WC pan & urinal

Clothes washing appliances Washing machine Tumble drier Bathroom furniture Side wall1

for compact models see manufacturers’ information

20

20

25

0

0

20

25

0

0

D 3.7 Sanitary appliances and space requirements

The number, size and fittings for sanitary rooms are always linked to the number of users. Right from an early stage of the planning it is necessary to consider the respective specific characteristics and requirements with respect to the space requirements and arrangement of sanitary appliances. Adequate space for users to move around is crucial for their well-being. Furthermore, a sensible layout of functional areas is extremely important. Up until 2007 the distances between sanitary appliances, bathroom furniture or appliances such as washing machines, tumble driers or radiators or their distance from the wall was covered by DIN 18022. Since then, DIN 68935 has been published and it contains fewer details about the spacing of bathroom and kitchen furniture. VDI 6000-1 can be used to determine the layouts for housing. It provides information for planning, sizing and equipping sanitary spaces such as bathrooms, separate WCs, kitchens, laundry rooms and utility rooms (Fig. D 3.7). It applies to rented and owner-occupied accommodation, also apartments in detached houses and multi-occupancy buildings. In practice it is frequently the case that the sanitary fittings actually installed are different to those originally planned. This can result in problems with regard to the height of connections and fixings, also the necessary spacings

and circulation areas. The selection process should therefore always be carried out in close consultation with the client. WCs, urinals and bidets Standard toilets measure about 400 ≈ 600 mm on plan (without cistern) and are mounted with a seat height of approx. 400 mm. When positioned beneath a sloping ceiling, the clear ceiling height at the position of the seat should be at least 2000 mm. A minimum clearance of 200 mm between a toilet and a wall or neighbouring sanitary appliance should be maintained in order to guarantee adequate freedom of movement. According to VDI 6000-1 there should be a clear area of min. 600 mm in front of a toilet, although larger spaces are desirable in practice. Barrier-free toilets must have a circulation area at least 950 mm wide and 700 mm deep to the left or right of the WC pan. On the other side the clearance to the wall or the next sanitary appliance should be at least 300 mm. The height to the top of the seat should be 480 mm. It should always be ensured that adequate handles and rails are available to meet the needs of users. Height-adjustable toilets are available to help wheelchair users switch from wheelchair to toilet seat. Critical for the design of the WC area is the optimum integration of the flushing system. Common these days are cisterns that are mounted

on the WC pan itself or, becoming ever more popular, fitted into the wall. Where space behind the WC pan is limited, special flat cisterns can be installed. Water-saving cisterns are available that allow the quantity of flushing water to be controlled (e.g. dual-flush cistern). Contactless control technologies are useful additions to flushing systems for public or barrierfree facilities. Urinal bowls require less space and less water than WC pans. Besides individual urinal bowls there are also stall and trough urinals available, which for public facilities are usually made of stainless steel. These types of urinal are practical for sanitary facilities that are not constantly checked and cleaned, also for heavily used public facilities. Bidets are usually installed next to the WC if required and where space allows.

199

Planning the sanitary installation

Baths Baths are available in a huge range of designs for one or two persons as built-in, free-standing or corner models. They are mostly designed for use in a reclining position but often serve as shower trays as well. Where space is really at a premium, a “sitz bath” can be used. Specially shaped baths with seat, non-slip base and easy access/egress are available for disabled persons. Moulded bath surrounds are available that match the building’s construction and guarantee sound and thermal insulation as well as secure support. Alternatively, baths can be mounted on feet or in recesses in the primary building construction. Besides the normal floormounted position, a path can be partly or fully let into the floor. But installing a bath flush with the floor in particular is a costly variation and requires a special solution for the sound insulation and routing of the pipework. A bath rim height of approx. 600 mm is normal. An unobstructed area at least 900 mm wide and 750 mm deep should be provided in front of a bath. Showers In apartments showers are traditionally provided in the form of a shower tray, which normally measures approx. 800 ≈ 800 mm on plan. Shower trays do not enable the floor covering to be continued into the shower, but are easy to install and seal. Quadrant or round shower trays are available as well as the more usual square ones. An unobstructed area 800 mm wide and 750 mm deep should be provided in front of a shower tray. To enable use by wheelchair users, the shower area should be designed without steps and measure at least 1500 ≈ 1500 mm. Shower areas flush with the floor (walk-in showers) have therefore long since been standard for sanitary facilities used by the public, e.g. sports centres, hospitals, hotels. But in private housing, too, they are becoming more and more popular, very often purely for reasons of appearance. The floor covering continues into the shower area, which is thus integrated into the whole room. Critical planning details for such showers are the total depth and the drainage. The peripheral silicone joint at floor level must be regularly maintained because settlement means that cracking along this joint is almost inevitable. A peripheral channel system represents a good solution for collecting and draining the leakage water and preventing damage to the building fabric (Figs. D 3.9 and D 3.10). When planning a walk-in shower, the measures necessary must therefore be considered from an early stage of the building design. If the shower tray is deeper than the floor finishes, a recess in the structural floor will be necessary. The depth of the floor finishes depends on the fall of the horizontal drain pipe, and in order to minimise this, the floor outlet should be located as close as possible to the vertical drain pipe. Individual floor outlets or a floor channel can be used for drainage. The latter is built in flush

200

with the floor and normally an opening must be left in the floor construction for the connection to the drain. In some cases pipes can be fitted below the structural floor, i.e. in the rooms below, possibly concealed behind a suspended ceiling. When installing a walk-in shower with a subfloor element, a waterproof panel with integral fall is let into the screed (Fig. D 3.8a). The total depth with a horizontal drain is min. 100 mm, depending on the manufacturer. With a vertical drain, the depth can be reduced to approx. 50 mm. As an alternative to the prefabricated systems, the necessary fall can be formed in situ (Fig. D 3.8b). Depending on location and purpose, showers will need screens on one, two, three or all four sides. The simplest solution is a shower curtain hung on a rail. Better alternatives are laminated safety glass in various designs, acrylic sheet or masonry shower enclosures. Vanity units and wash basins The colossal variety of vanity units and wash basins available these days has developed from the combination of wash-bowl and table that was common before bathrooms became the norm. There are full-sized wash basins and the smaller handrinse basins. In an apartment occupied by more than three persons, an additional vanity unit or double vanity unit is to be recommended. In the case of the latter, an adequate width is important (> 1200 mm) because otherwise two people using the basins simultaneously will not have enough space. Wash basins are normally mounted on the wall with screws, brackets, etc. Pedestals or halfpedestals can be used to conceal the trap and waste pipe. Vanity units often represent a more elegant solution and can be used in conjunction with diverse wash basin forms. The front of a vanity unit with cupboards underneath should not continue down to the floor because that prevents the user from getting close enough to the wash basin. The recommended mounting height for wash basins and vanity units is 850 mm from floor to rim of basin. Vanity units and wash basins in barrier-free bathrooms require knee space underneath for wheelchair users; an offcentre outlet, for example, can guarantee this. In addition, a mirror behind the wash basin should be positioned so that it can be used by both seated and standing persons (bottom edge approx. 1000 mm above floor). A tilting mirror represents one alternative. The top edge of the wash basin itself should not be more than 800 mm above floor level. Other sanitary appliances Other typical sanitary appliances are found mostly in kitchens and utility rooms. Single or double sinks are available in an enormous variety of wall-mounted or built-in forms, with or without draining boards on one or both sides. The latter are often incorporated into continuous worktops and are virtually standard these days. Utility rooms often include a bucket or cleaner’s sink. Such sinks must be very stable, robust and

easy to clean. They should include a splashback and fold-down grating for supporting buckets or other receptacles. Fittings and accessories A prodigious range of different fittings for sanitary installations is available on the market. In principle the distinction is drawn between supply fittings and waste fittings. Supply fittings come in the form of simple taps or valves or convenient mixer taps. The latter have long since become standard for supplies of hot and cold water to wash basins, handrinse basins, sinks, baths, showers and bidets. Mixer taps with separate hot and cold controls, singlelever mixer taps and thermostat-controlled mixer taps have now been joined by infraredcontrolled mixer units which are particularly suitable for barrier-free and public installations. Supply fittings are either fixed to the wall or to the sanitary appliance itself (pillar type). Wall-mounted fittings are always easier to clean than the pillar type because the sanitary appliance remains clear and no deposits can collect around the fittings. Pillar-type fittings normally require appropriate holes in the sanitary appliance. Supply fittings for showers normally include either a flexible hose plus shower head or a fixed shower head. Most modern shower heads can be adjusted to provide different spray forms. Preformed shower panels have been available for a number of years and are becoming more and more popular. They are quickly and easily fitted and therefore very useful for refurbishment work. The growing trend in favour of the wellness bathroom has led to the desire for several fixed shower heads positioned to supply jets of water to certain parts of the body. Such “massage showers” require a specific water pressure that is not available everywhere and therefore a system to boost the pressure may be necessary. The water consumption of a shower depends on the type of shower head. All taps must be connected to the water supply and this is achieved with a 90° valve, usually fitted below the sanitary appliance. The water supply can be shut off at these valves to enable the sanitary appliance to be maintained or replaced. Every water draw-off point in a building must be accompanied by a drain or waste connection. And if the latter can be closed off, as is the case with wash basins, baths or sinks, then an overflow is also essential, which is normally integrated into the drain or waste fitting itself. Drain and waste fittings must include a trap, in the form of a U-bend or a bottle, to prevent the passage of foul air into the room. A very shallow, flat trap is necessary for baths. Shower traps are either above floor level or integrated into the floor construction. In addition to the various fittings, a vast and diverse range of accessories is available for sanitary installations: mirrors, lamps, shelves, soap dispensers, soap holders, hand driers, hair driers, towel rails, paper towel dispensers, coat hooks, etc.

Planning the sanitary installation

Materials The materials used for sanitary appliances must be able to withstand temperature fluctuations, the effects of cleaning chemicals and mechanical loads, and must be resistant to scratching and ageing. The comfort of a bath depends very much on the thermal conductivity of the material used. The typical materials for sanitary appliances are porcelain, acrylic, enamelled steel, stainless steel and glass. Cleaning can be reduced by applying a special coating to the surfaces which causes the water on the surface to collect in droplets and thus carry away dust and dirt particles (Lotus effect). Acrylic bath liners are often used in refurbishment projects but their scratch resistance cannot match that of enamelled surfaces. Stainless steel is the preferred material for sinks, but enamelled steel (various colours), ceramics, stone and plastic are also used. Fittings and valves are made from brass, gunmetal, copper alloys, metal-plastic combinations, zinc alloys or chromium-plated plastics. Chromium-plated fittings ensure a neutral appearance, protection against corrosion and smooth, easy-care, durable surfaces. Matt chrome and black chrome finishes are also available. Stainless steel fittings represent a high-quality but expensive alternative to chrome-plated items. The new aluminium surface finish offered by some manufacturers has not yet penetrated the market.

Ceramic wall finishes require a stable substrate. A double layer of boarding or closer stud spacings are therefore recommended for lightweight walls. Besides large or small ceramic tiles, there are a number of alternatives now available for the wall and floor surfaces of sanitary facilities, e.g. combinations of tiles and plastered surfaces plus special wallpapers. Profiled boards and panels made from treated or specific woods or wood-plastic composites are also good as wall finishes, and linoleum, vinyl, cork or rubber can be laid on the floors. A floating screed must be well protected during the fitting-out phase if it is to appear unblemished after being sealed. Wood, too, is now being used more and more in wet interior areas because it creates a warm atmosphere and a good level of comfort (Fig. D 3.11, p. 202). Barrier-free rooms must have non-slip floor finishes with no sharp-edged, rough or unglazed surface structures. In sanitary facilities for people with a visual impairment, contrasts and the careful use of colours can aid orientation (see “Wall and floor finishes”, pp. 70 –73).

D 3.8

Shower outlet flush with floor (a), and with fall constructed in situ (b) 1 Stone floor 2 Shower tray 3 Outlet 4 Screed 5 Thermal insulation 6 Reinforced concrete floor slab 7 Composite waterproofing 8 Screed laid to falls 9 Raising piece 10 Outlet housing D 3.9 Cut-away model of floor-level shower tray D 3.10 Example of walk-in shower tray (flush with floor)

1 2 3 4 5 6 a 7 8 4 9 10 5 6 b

D 3.8

Room surfaces, waterproofing and junctions

The enormous range of products and finishes on offer means that the architect must take on the role of designer when it comes to sanitary installations. Besides functional aspects such as hygiene and non-slip surfaces, it is the “atmosphere” necessary in the room that is decisive for the choice of materials. And at the same time, reliable waterproofing and good junction details must be guaranteed. Room surfaces Ceramic tiles on floors and walls, in their regular patterns determined by tile size and joint width, have always been popular for sanitary facilities. Whereas in the past the manufacturing process resulted in a standard tile size of 100 ≈ 150 mm, these days ceramic tiles are available with dimensions of up to 900 ≈ 900 mm or 600 ≈ 1200 mm. Such large formats reduce the area of the joints where mould can become established. Mosaic tiles made from glass or enamel are also available in formats between 10 ≈ 10 mm and 20 ≈ 20 mm. Wherever possible, sanitary appliances mounted on tiled walls should be aligned with a vertical joint or the centre of a tile. But the huge number of different tile sizes now available means it is almost impossible for every connection to be aligned with the centre of a tile or a joint intersection. One solution is to align the centre of each sanitary appliance with a horizontal or vertical joint.

D 3.9

D 3.10

201

Planning the sanitary installation

D 3.12

D 3.13

the surfaces, movement and perimeter joints plus penetrations must all be designed in detail according to DIN 18195-5 (see “Junctions and details”, pp. 131–138).

the clearance between the wall lining and the wall itself. Ducts, shafts and trunking can also have an effect on this clearance if they are fitted behind the wall lining. There are two principles ways of concealing services: the conventional approach with a masonry wall in front of the services, and – the solution generally favoured these days – a lightweight wall lining (see “Wall linings and walls to shafts”, p. 122). Installations with a wall lining can be built in situ or supplied in the form of installation elements or systems with a greater or lesser degree of prefabrication. If the installation is to be concealed behind a wall lining, this must be considered when planning the building or the sanitary areas because the floor space occupied by wall linings must be taken into account in the internal layout. A wall lining will have an effect on the actual floor space available in the final building. Lightweight internal walls can be used to accommodate services provided there is sufficient space between the components. For example, a vertical waste-water pipe, DN 100, even if no other services cross it, requires a wall cavity at least 170 mm wide, which means a wall thickness ≥ 220 mm. Loadbearing studs and installation components should be used to support wall-mounted appliances and any additional compression forces exerted on the wall. If it is not possible to achieve the necessary wall thickness and/or the sound insulation values cannot be guaranteed, a wall lining can even be added to a lightweight internal wall. Prefabricated wall systems can be set up in front of lightweight internal walls as well as solid walls and clad with the boarding used for the lightweight wall. Wall linings can be erected over the full height of a room or just over the height required to conceal the services.

D 3.11

Waterproofing and junctions Sanitary installations must be waterproofed to protect the building fabric against water and moisture from inside the building. Otherwise, infiltrating water would either be soaked up by the substrate, depending on type of construction and materials, or would drain towards floor level where it would collect and saturate the floor construction. In such a situation, the strength of a timber joist floor below a sanitary area could be reduced – a problem particularly prevalent in refurbishment projects. If left to accumulate over a long period of time, the water would eventually find its way through the suspended floor and possibly saturate adjoining masonry. The back-diffusion of water that has entered the construction takes place only very slowly and depends on the surface finish. Although the surface finishes in sanitary rooms are generally moisture-resistant and waterrepellent themselves, the construction as a whole cannot be classed as impermeable because of the joints between the individual elements, the number and size of which can vary. A waterproofing material must therefore be applied to the substrate behind the ceramic or other finishes around showers, baths and other wet areas. Wall and floor areas are generally splashed only briefly and intermittently in normal domestic situations. Composite waterproofing materials together with ceramic tiles laid in a thin bed of adhesive are adequate in such situations. Modern waterproofing compounds, applied with a brush or a trowel, are suitable for use directly below the thin bed of adhesive for the ceramic finishes; no further waterproofing measures are necessary. Wet interior areas with heavier usage, e.g. sports centres, will require floor drainage beneath the wall and floor coverings. The waterproofing materials below the floor covering and the floor covering itself are therefore laid to falls and the floor outlets integrated into the waterproofing material. The boarding materials of lightweight walls also require perfection against water and moisture (see “Moisture control”, pp. 130 –131). Following impregnation of the board surface, waterproof details for pipe penetrations (sealing collar) are essential. Besides the waterproofing to

202

Routing services in the interior

Services are understood to be pipes, ducts and cables for the supply and disposal of all kinds of media. In sanitary areas it is the water pipes that are most important. In order to ensure hygienic drinking water at all times, pipes should be routed over the shortest distance to their draw-off points and a regular flow of water should be guaranteed. In the past it was often normal to fix sanitary installations subsequently in solid or loadbearing parts of the building. But since the introduction of DIN 1053, chases in structural masonry of the size necessary to accommodate water pipes are practically impossible without a structural analysis. And these days routing pipes in solid parts of the building no longer corresponds to the state of the art when we consider the possibilities of prefabrication, maintenance and operational reliability. Furthermore, contemporary installations more than ever before have to be able to respond to changing requirements, changing usage options. Surface-mounted installations In a surface-mounted installation pipes are simply fixed to walls and soffits and left exposed. The advantages of this are the simple, quick and inexpensive fixing on site, the ease of accessibility for inspections, the easy maintenance and repairs and the great flexibility regarding changes. In practice, however, surfacemounted installations are used only in ancillary rooms, plant rooms and industrial applications because exposed services are not always desirable. Concealed installations One form of concealed installation is simply a surface-mounted installation that is afterwards covered up by a wall lining, usually in conjunction with wall-mounted sanitary appliances. The entire installation for a room is mounted on the wall behind the lining. The WC cistern and the size of the largest waste-water pipe determine

Routing services in the floor Installing pipes and cables in the floor construction is possible in principle. Pipes should adhere to an orthogonal layout and where they pass under doors should be aligned with the centre of the door. The integration of pipes and cables in the floor should be carried out such

Planning the sanitary installation

D 3.11 Bathroom and bedroom, private house H, Stockdorf (D), 2005; Bembé Dellinger Architekten D 3.12 Internal layout with unfavourable building acoustics D 3.13 better solution D 3.14 Fire stop sleeve D 3.15 Firestopping system D 3.14

that structure-borne sound transmissions are prevented and all imposed loads can be carried without damage. Pipes can be installed in the floor construction itself, in a floor channel or in the void of a hollow floor. However, horizontal offsets in wastewater pipes should not be integrated into the floor construction because sound transmission problems cannot be ruled out. The size, length and fall of a waste-water pipe governs the minimum depth of a hollow floor void. Hollow floors are particularly suitable for changes of use because alterations, extensions and also repairs can be carried out relatively easily (see “Proprietary flooring systems”, pp. 160 –167). Prefabricated installations Prefabricated installation blocks or complete units with all pipes and sanitary appliances pre-installed are frequently used for terrace houses, apartment blocks or hotels. Compact units with fixed dimensions are also in use.

D 3.15

Optimisation at the design stage

Rooms requiring protection from noise:

Approaches to optimise sound insulation, fire safety and protection against frost should be considered right at the design stage of a building

• • • • •

Living rooms Bedrooms Children’s rooms Studies and offices Classrooms and seminar rooms

Sound insulation

The propagation of sound is by way of structure-borne and airborne sound transmissions. Airborne sound is the propagation of sound waves in the air. Solid components such as walls and suspended floors can reduce the propagation of sound waves substantially. Generally speaking, the more massive a component, the better it is at reducing airborne sound transmissions. Structure-borne sound, on the other hand, propagates exclusively through solid materials and can only be avoided by isolating the components involved from each other. Separating pipes and sanitary appliances from their fixings is therefore important during the installation work. Pipe clips are used for fixing pipes and these should include a thick rubber inlay that fits around the pipe. When casting concrete around pipes that pass through floors, for instance, the pipes must be protected against the ingress of cement slurry. DIN 4109 “Sound insulation in buildings” and VDI 4100 “Noise control in dwellings” stipulate that single-leaf walls to which sanitary fittings, water pipes and waste-water pipes are fixed should have a weight per unit area of at least 220 kg/m2 (see “Acoustic comfort”, p. 38, and “sound insulation for wall systems”, pp. 129 –130, “ceiling systems”, pp. 149 –151, and “flooring systems”, p. 158). Sound insulation measures: • Wall lining instead of fitting pipes into wall chases • Moulded bath surrounds for baths and shower trays • Floating screed with perimeter insulation strips • Avoidance of acoustic bridges caused by surplus mortar • Pipe clips with rubber inlay

Whatever approach is chosen, the sound insulation standards being applied should always be written into the contract. It is generally true to say that subsequent rectification of sound insulation defects is a very expensive matter and a compromise solution is usually the best that can be expected. A plan layout with good building acoustics is characterised by the fact that rooms requiring protection from noise are not located adjacent to walls housing services (Fig. D 3.13). Fire protection

Fire protection measures in a building are intended to prevent fire and smoke spreading to neighbouring occupancies or rooms. Fire protection requirements must therefore be taken into account for all parts of the installation that pass through more than one fire compartment (see “Ventilation, cable and service ducts”, pp. 169 –171). Fire stop sleeves are normally required where pipes pass through fire walls or floors (Figs. D 3.14 and D 3.15). Protection against frost

Water pipes that pass through areas at risk of frost can burst if the water in them is allowed to freeze. As the uncontrolled passage of water can lead to serious damage to the building fabric, such pipes must be protected. In areas where frost is likely, e.g. basement garages, protection can be provided in the form of electrical trace heating where use of the system throughout the year is required. Simply wrapping the pipes in thicker lagging is not regarded as adequate frost protection. Water pipes in buildings that are not used throughout the year should be completely drained in order to guarantee the hygiene of the drinking water. Such pipes must be laid to an appropriate fall to permit drainage.

203

Planning the sanitary installation

It is the responsibility of the water supply company to guarantee the quality of the water from its source to the water meter on the customer’s premises. But from that point onwards it is the responsibility of the technical services planner or the plumber to install to arrange the drinking water pipes in such a way that the quality of the water is maintained. Furthermore, in Germany the Drinking Water Act (Trinkwasserverordnung) specifies that operators of systems are responsible for ensuring that the water in the pipes and appliances connected to the drinking water system remains a drinkable foodstuff. The main causes of poor quality are stagnation and the backflow of contaminated water. In stagnant water a temperature of just 25 °C to approx. 45 °C is sufficient to promote an increased rate of bacterial growth, which leads to the loss of the foodstuff quality originally guaranteed. The inhalation of contaminated aerosols in the form of water vapour, primarily while taking a shower, can lead to a legionella infection, which can be fatal. Pipe lagging

Pipes should be insulated (lagged) for acoustic and energy-saving reasons. In addition, pipes

Cold water Units Size

Hot water Units Size

1 2–3 4–7 8 – 23 24 – 30

DN 15 DN 20 DN 25 DN 32 DN 40

1 2–4 5–9 10 – 30

DN 15 DN 20 DN 25 DN 32

1 – 13 14 – 29 30

DN 100 DN 125 DN 150

Office building 2 wash basins 5 auto flush urinals

1–2 3–7 8 – 12 13 – 20

DN 25 DN 32 DN 40 DN 50

1 2–4 5 – 13 14 – 20

DN 10 DN 15 DN 20 DN 25

1–5 6 – 12 13 – 20

DN 100 DN 125 DN 150

1–2 3–5 6–9 10 – 17 18 – 20

DN 25 DN 32 DN 40 DN 50 DN 65

1 2–4 5 – 11 12 – 20

DN 10 DN 15 DN 20 DN 25

Pipe sizes Pipe sections without branch waste pipes in horizontal offset without bypass line to DIN 1986-100 (May 2008) 1 Inlet bend 2 Outlet bend 3 Pipe section with branch waste pipe connections, soil stack horizontal offset D 3.18 Soil stack horizontal offset < 22 m with bypass line to DIN 1986-100 (May 2008) 4 Soil stack horizontal offset 5 Bypass line D 3.19 Transition to soil stack horizontal offset D 3.20 Positions of branch waste pipe connections in soil stacks for WC pans

2

1 min. 1m

1 1–3 4 – 20

3

min. 1m

DN 100 DN 125 DN 150 D 3.17

The waste-water pipes are sized according to DIN 1986-100 (May 2008) and DIN EN 12056.

D 3.16 D 3.17

Pipes of the wrong size result in restrictions on the use of a facility. All pipes must therefore be carefully designed according to the appropriate codes of practice. Pipes that are too large for their purpose cannot guarantee that, for example, there is adequate replenishment of water; the risk of the growth of legionella bacteria also increases. On the other hand, appliances will not receive enough water if pipes are too small. Higher flow velocities coupled with annoying flow noises are usually the result. If waste-water pipes of the wrong size are installed, siphonage can occur, i.e. water is sucked out of the traps, allowing foul air to reach the room. Therefore, the motto “as large as necessary, as small as possible” should be followed during the design work. Careful sizing ensures that every draw-off point in the drinking-water system is supplied with enough water at an adequate pressure and that drainage is guaranteed. Fig. D 3.16 provides a rough guide to the sizes of drinking- and waste-water pipes for housing, offices, schools and hotels where the sanitary installations are aligned vertically. A secondary circuit can be installed to ensure that hot water flows as soon as a tap is turned on. Such circuits circulate the hot water until it is needed. A pipe size of DN 15 is adequate for

Waste water Units Size

Apartment 1 bath 1 shower 1 WC 2 wash basins

School/hotel 2 wash basins 5 auto flush urinals

Sizing pipework

D 3.16

D 3.21

Example of the application of backflow prevention devices D 3.22 Correct positioning of branch waste pipes to DIN 1986-100 (May 2008) 6 Soil stack 7 Branch waste pipe D 3.23 Waste-water pump system 8 Pressurised line 9 Backflow loop 10 Vent 11 Backflow level specified by local authority 12 Drain to sewer 13 Incoming drain 14 Waste-water pump

45°

4

5

min. 1m

Ensuring hygienic drinking water

no gaps at joints between the individual pieces of insulation. A vapour-tight self-adhesive insulating tape should be wrapped around the joints.

min. 2m

Drinking water is a vital resource that must not be simply wasted. It is a foodstuff and therefore its quality must also be protected.

conveying cold drinking water, i.e. water as a foodstuff, should be protected against heat. The Energy Conservation Act (EnEV) stipulates that hot-water pipes must be lagged. Lagging 20 mm thick is required for pipes with an inside diameter of up to 22 mm, 30 mm for pipes up to 35 mm I.D., and for pipes up to 100 mm I.D. the thickness of the insulation should be equal to the inside diameter. Lagging 100 mm thick is necessary for pipes of size DN 100 and larger. The lagging thicknesses specified in the EnEV are based on an insulating material with a thermal conductivity of λ = 0.035 W/mK. The lagging thickness required when using materials with a different thermal conductivity must be calculated in each case. Pipes carrying cold water are lagged to prevent acoustic bridges (structure-borne sound) and condensation. The lagging is normally thinner than that specified for hot-water pipes in the EnEV. In order to guarantee the quality of the drinking water, cold-water pipes must be protected against heat. Planners are therefore recommended to insulate these pipes according to the EnEV standard. Waste-water pipes require adequate lagging to prevent the propagation of the structure-borne sound. A 4 mm thick insulating sleeve is usually used in practice. Rainwater pipes within a building should be insulated to prevent the propagation of structure-borne sound and condensation. Lagging should always be applied over the full circumference of the pipe and there should be

min. 2m

Drinking water supplies

< 2m D 3.18

204

Planning the sanitary installation

secondary circuits in small buildings, DN 20 will be required for larger installations.

stack that runs vertically through the building. Where several soil stacks are in use, they drain into a common horizontal discharge pipe.

Drainage of waste water

Horizontal pipework Waste-water systems are designed and constructed according to the principle of gravity drainage. All pipes must therefore be laid to a fall and must be able to drain fully. The difference in level due to the fall over the length of a pipe must always be taken into account and possible collisions (doors, basement windows, etc.) avoided. House drains below the ground or basement floor slab of a building should be avoided whenever possible. Waste-water pipes that lead from upper floors into the basement storey in the form of soil stacks should drain into a common horizontal discharge pipe routed through the basement (e.g. below the ground floor soffit). House drains can therefore be avoided. However, if a house drain must be used, it should be straight and routed over the shortest distance below the ground or basement floor slab.

Waste water includes not only domestic foul water but also more heavily contaminated waste water from trade and industry. The important thing with drainage is to ensure that the waste water flows down a natural gradient, which depends on the diameter of the pipe and the quantity of waste water. The optimum fall is 20 mm/m. This fall can be varied, but 5 mm/m should be regarded as a minimum and 50 mm/m as a maximum. Falls and pipe diameters should be designed in such a way that unpleasant odours due to the foul air in drains cannot escape into sanitary rooms. Drainage systems therefore require adequate ventilation to prevent the build-up of a partial vacuum which then sucks the water out of the traps connected to the systems (siphon effect). In Germany a vent pipe with an inside diameter at least equal to the largest pipe laid in the building must extend above roof level.

Soil stacks Soil stacks (also called discharge stacks) should run straight through all floors, from roof to house drain, without any change in diameter. Routing horizontal offsets in soil stacks or common horizontal discharge pipes on the structural concrete floor slab should be avoided to prevent noise problems.

Laying of pipes

Waste pipes must be laid properly if sanitary appliances are to be drained completely. The house drain is laid in the ground below the building’s ground or basement floor slab. The branch waste pipes from the various sanitary appliances in the building discharge into a soil

According to DIN 1986-100, a soil stack up to 10 m high should be connected to a common horizontal discharge pipe with an 88° (± 2°) bend. Figs. D 3.17 and D 3.18 show the measures to be taken for soil stacks 10 – 22 m high. In this arrangement any connections should be at least 2 m above the inlet bend to a horizontal offset. Exceptions to this are horizontal offsets with a 45° change of direction. Connections within a horizontal offset are to be connected to the horizontal pipe at least 1 m downstream of the inlet bend and 1 m upstream or downstream of the outlet bend (Fig. D 3.17). A bypass line will be required for a horizontal offset < 2 m (Fig. D 3.18). The individual branch waste pipes are to be connected to this bypass. With a horizontal offset in the soil stack, the transition between vertical and horizontal parts must be separated by a short piece of pipe 250 mm long (Fig. D 3.19), but this intermediate piece may be omitted when installing a bypass line. A bypass line must terminate at least 2 m above the inlet bend and 1 m below the outlet bend (Fig. D 3.18). Branch waste pipes Branch waste (or discharge) pipes for WCs, floor outlets, baths and showers should be laid so that the difference in levels between inlet and outlet is equal to the inside diameter of the soil stack into which these lines discharge. Adjacent branch waste pipes should be offset by 90°, and when offset by 180° the difference in levels between adjacent pipes should be min. 200 mm (Figs. D 3.20 and D 3.22).

0 25

≥ 0 mm

m

> 200 mm

m

Backflow level

α ≤ 180°

α ≤ 90° D 3.19

D 3.21

D 3.20

9 11 8 6

h ≥ DN

DN 7 h ≥ DN

12

10

α

DN

D 3.22

13

14

D 3.23

205

Planning the sanitary installation

D 3.24

D 3.25

a

D 2.26

b

Roof drainage options a Gravity drainage by vertical downpipes b Siphonic action drainage by horizontal pipes Examples of plan layouts and shaft sizes a Bathroom with wall-hung WC b Separate WC with handrinse basin c Bathroom with wall-hung WC and washing machine Schematic drawing of a sprinkler system

D 3.24 Gravity drainage and backflow level

The backflow level is the highest level to which the waste water may rise in a drainage system. It is normally defined by the local authority, but if not, then the level of the road (including footpath) at the connection point shall apply. Backflow is the flow of waste water back from the public sewer into a building’s house drain. In order to prevent backflow and the resulting damage to the building, pumps or backflow prevention devices must be fitted to all drainage components below the backflow level. The most efficient security against backflow is a pump. Systems are generally classified according to their function: • Pumps for non-faecal waste water • Pumps for faecal waste water • Faecal pumps for limited use (Fig. D 3.23, p. 205) A backflow prevention device can be used as well (Fig. D 3.21, p. 205), but it may only be installed when… • the rooms served are of an ancillary nature, • there is a fall to the sewer, • the number of users is small and they have a WC above the backflow level, and • the discharge point affected need not be used in the event of a backflow.

roughly 200 m2 of roof area and a DN 70 pipe approx. 400 m2. In contrast to gravity drainage, the design of siphonic action drainage assumes that pipes are filled to capacity (fullbore flow). The drainage capacity of siphonic action drainage is greater than that of gravity drainage. Siphonic action drainage requires fewer downpipes, which reduces the excavation work required for laying house drains (Fig. D 3.24). It can also prove to be the more economic alternative, but this depends on the size of the roof surface to be drained. Both types of roof drainage require overflows that may not be blocked in any way at any time. Such overflow provision may take the form of openings in a parapet, or additional downpipes draining to a specific area set aside for the purpose. Accessibility for maintenance and inspection The planning of sanitary installations should always allow for cleaning eyes that are readily accessible for use by persons and machines. Such cleaning eyes should be positioned just before the drains leave the building, at changes of direction exceeding 90° and at the junctions between soil stacks and common horizontal discharge pipes or house drains.

Venting the waste-water system In contrast to a pump, when the backflow prevention device has been activated, no further drainage is possible. All sanitary appliances located above the backflow level must be drained by natural falls and may not be drained by a pump or backflow prevention device. Roof drainage Precipitation falling on pitched and flat roofs must be drained by a gravity drainage system with a natural fall. As a rough estimate, a roof surface with an area of up to 150 m2 can be drained by one DN 100 pipe; a DN 150 pipe can drain an area of approx. 270 m2. Siphonic action drainage represents an option for draining flat roofs. With such a system a horizontal drain pipe of size DN 50 can handle

206

Adequate ventilation must be assured for drainage systems and public sewers to guarantee optimum functioning. Every soil stack must be in the form of a vent pipe that rises above roof level. The cross-sectional area of a vent pipe must be equal to that of the largest waste-water pipe in the system. Vent pipes should be straight and vertical whenever possible, and should terminate not less than 150 mm above the roof surface.

Shaft sizes Shafts must be allowed for at the planning stage and must provide sufficient space for installing the envisaged pipework. Dry lining or traditional

masonry techniques may be used for constructing such shafts. Whatever method is chosen, the shaft must comply with fire protection and sound insulation requirements. In addition, it is important to ensure that there is enough room for sealing the shaft where it passes through a suspended floor. A number of manufacturers offer systems that satisfy these requirements and have been verified by tests.

Fire extinguishing systems Fire extinguishing systems are generally divided into two types: sprinkler systems (Fig. D 3.26) and hydrant-based systems. A sprinkler system is an active automatic fire extinguishing system with permanent pipework leading to closed nozzles (sprinklers) at a regular spacing (see “Central sanitary and sprinklre plants”, p. 209). Sprinkler systems can also be designed as “dry pipe” systems, a solution that is better for canopies and basement garages where frost could be a problem because there is no water in the lines that could freeze. The spacing between the sprinklers depends on the fire load in the building; a larger spacing for a low fire load, closer together for higher risks. A spacing of 4 m can be assumed for preliminary design purposes. The quantity of extinguishing water required also depends on the fire load and can range from 50 to more than 1000 m3. This extinguishing water must be stored in or near the building and the appropriate space requirement must be considered when preparing the fire safety concept. Hydrant-based fire extinguishing systems can either be connected to the building’s drinking water system or supplied with water from outside the building. Such a system is designed to be used by the persons present in the building for immediate fire-fighting measures and must be installed in such a way that all hydrants can be operated at all times without difficulties. In order to rule out the risk of contaminating the drinking water, dry systems are installed, i.e. water is only fed into the hydrant system in the event of a fire.

Planning the sanitary installation

25

Shaft allocation1: waste water, drinking water, heating, vent, mounting element for wall-hung WC and vanity unit

a

28

Shaft allocation1: waste water, drinking water, heating, vent, mounting element for wall-hung WC and vanity unit

b

1

Hot water = DN 32

32

Shaft allocation1: waste water, drinking water, heating, vent, mounting element for wall-hung WC, vanity unit and bath/shower

The actual width of the shaft depends on the dimensions and minimum clearances from wallhung WC and vanity unit.

c D 3.25

Drinking water = DN 32 Hot water secondary circuit = DN 15 5

Heating flow = DN 25

6

Heating return = DN 25 Waste water = DN 100 Vent = DN 110

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Extinguishing water tank Sprinkler pump Dry alarm valve unit Wet alarm valve unit Sprinkler dry pipe network (upward sprinklers, exposed pipes) Sprinkler wet pipe network (downward sprinklers, concealed pipes) Compress-air/water tank Pump test line with measuring supply Feed line for fire brigade Tank filling pump Compressor Mechanical alarm bells Fire alarm control panel Alarm pressure switch Pressure switch for starting pump Electrical cabinet

12

3

4

14

9

14 15 8

7

1

16 13 2

11

10

D 3.26

207

Space requirements for technical services Robert Fröhler, Christian Huber

D 4.1

The technical components for heating plant, sanitary pipework and electrical installations are grouped together in central plant rooms in residential buildings, schools, sports centres and office buildings. Depending on requirements, ventilation and refrigeration plant may also be necessary. Central ventilation plant must be coordinated with the building concept because of the large space requirements and because certain areas have specific ventilation requirements. It is therefore essential to provide sufficient space for technical services right from the draft design phase. The space requirement for service shafts for the vertical distribution generally amounts to 1– 2 % of the gross floor area. Besides reserving space for technical services, their integration also requires other factors to be considered, e.g. accessibility, openings for initial installation, fire protection, sound insulation and minimising the lengths of pipes, cables and ducts in order to improve the cost-effectiveness and energy efficiency. Central ventilation plant

D 4.1 D 4.2 D 4.3 D 4.4 D 4.5

208

Installation zones for different media in an office building Central ventilation plant mounted outside on the roof Ventilation ducts in a central plant room Ventilation plant in a central plant room within the building Server room in a usage zone

The position of a ventilation plant room depends on the requirements of the ventilation system, or rather the ventilation concept, the location of the building in its urban environment, e.g. alongside a busy road, and the corresponding positions of the air inlets and outlets (see “Wind”, p. 102, and “Ventilation”, pp. 174 –175). Ventilation concept here means the type of ventilation system. With a pure extract system, the supply air flows in through decentralised elements in the facade so that the expelled air outlet, and hence the ventilation plant, too, should ideally be located on the roof. Pure extract systems require smaller vertical shafts than any other type of system. But as the fresh air entering through decentralised inlets is not treated (e.g. preheated), the positions of those inlets can have a significant influence on the interior comfort, and this fact must be properly considered at the design stage (see “Air circulation in the interior”, p. 37). Ventilation concepts with separate supply and extract systems result in smaller shafts than systems with common supply and extract ducts on one level. One plant room is in the basement, the other on the roof. The duct cross-sections

decrease as the amount of air to be conveyed decreases, and the largest ducts are therefore adjacent to the central plants. With this type of system, a run-around coil is the only way of realising heat recovery. And compared to other heat recovery systems, a run-around coil exhibits a lower degree of efficiency and the pipework occupies further space in vertical shafts. Ventilation systems with supply and extract air in the same plant achieve the highest heat recovery efficiencies. Although the central ventilation plant required for such a system requires larger vertical shafts than any other type of system, such plants achieve the best possible energy efficiency. In principle, it is possible to locate the central plant in the basement, on the roof or on an intermediate floor. A basement setup is generally preferred when the supply air is obtained at low level or, for example, is preconditioned through a ground coupling. But with a central ventilation plant in the basement, apart from the plant’s footprint itself, adequate space is necessary for transporting the individual parts of the system through the building during initial installation and later replacement. This can have an influence on the running and/ or maintenance costs. Rooftop ventilation plant is generally mounted from outside with the help of a mobile crane. A rooftop enclosure is not usually necessary because most ventilation plants are available in weatherproof designs suitable for mounting outdoors. In taller buildings positioning central ventilation plant in an intermediate storey is advantageous because fewer floors need to be served by the ductwork in each direction and that reduces the area needed for the vertical shafts. Plant floors are frequently obvious from the outside because they are much taller than a standard storey. When accommodating central ventilation plant on an intermediate floor, transporting the plant items through the building and sound insulation are important points to consider. Air inlets and outlets should be on opposite sides of the building, or at least on two adjacent sides. When choosing the positions of the ventilation openings, it is vital to ensure that the expelled air is not drawn back into the supply air inlet, thus creating a “short-circuit”. The geometry of

Space requirements for building services

the building, the prevailing wind direction and thermal currents must be taken into account in order to avoid this problem. In addition, the urban circumstances, e.g. pollution due to heavy traffic, can also affect the positioning of the supply air inlets.

such a tank is positioned in a well-insulated roof space or topmost storey near to the collectors. Shorter pipes reduce the heat losses and therefore increase the efficiency of the installation (see “Energy storage”, pp. 115 –116). Central sanitary and sprinkler plants

Central refrigeration plant

Refrigeration plant generally means vibration and noise. This fact influences where such plant can be located in the building and measures must be taken to ensure that rooms used by people are not adversely affected. Refrigeration plant is very heavy and must be considered in the structural analysis if a plant room is located on a suspended floor. The heat generated by refrigeration plant must be dissipated into the surroundings. If the building’s cooling concept requires the heat to be dissipated to the soil or groundwater, then positioning the refrigeration plant in the basement is the best answer. When dissipating the heat to the outside air, larger heat exchanger surfaces and a high air change rate are necessary, which will require recooling units or a cooling tower. Recooling units are usually located on the roof because the large quantities of air they require are difficult to transport through the building and the ensuing pressure loss would lead to a higher energy consumption. When planning central refrigeration plant, adequate openings for initial installation, maintenance and replacement at a later date must be provided. Refrigeration plant and the associated recooling are unnecessary when the cooling concept is based on a higher cold-water temperature level, e.g. thermoactive building systems. A heat exchanger provides the system with cooling energy directly from the groundwater or soil. Such a cooling concept results in a smaller space requirement for the central refrigeration plant but the lower performance leads to limitations when the system is used for conditioning the interior air. Central heating plant

In most instances logistics dictate that the basement is the ideal position for a central heating plant. As a rule, this is where the fuel is stored or the gas or district heating pipes enter the building. Incineration plant always requires an effective chimney height, which ideally extends over the full height of the building. There will need to be a connection to a groundwater well or ground coupling in the basement if the energy concept includes the use of ambient heat provided from a heat pump. Placing the central heating plant in the roof space or on the roof is only advisable for heat pumps that draw ambient heat from the surrounding air because such systems require very high air change rates. Adequate sound insulation to prevent annoying the neighbours is essential because of the flow noise. The intensive use of solar thermal energy requires additional space for setting up a large hot-water tank. The need for large shafts is reduced when

Connections to the drinking-water and wastewater networks can only be located at basement level. Accordingly, this is where the plant room should be located. Waste-water pipes in basements must be laid with a minimum fall of 10 mm/m from the vertical shafts to the public sewer connection. Short pipes and adequate headroom in the basement are therefore important. Longer waste-water pipes can be routed along walls. The maximum length of pipe with a natural fall depends on the level of the connection to the public sewer. If the fall is inadequate for this form of installation or if there are sanitary appliances below road, i.e. backflow, level, it will be necessary to install a waste-water pump. This is normally placed in a pit in the basement floor slab. A pump is noisy when in operation and therefore sound insulation measures will be required. Besides the connection to the public sewer network, a central sanitary plant room also includes the connection to the public drinking-water network. Drinking-water pipes must be protected against heat in order to satisfy hygiene requirements; separating the drinking-water connection from the heating plant is therefore a mandatory requirement. Where the water has a high degree of hardness, additional space must be allowed for in the central sanitary plant room for a water softening unit. Such units are used to protect the pipes against incrustation (furring) in residential buildings. In non-residential buildings, their use cuts the ongoing costs for cleaning sanitary appliances because of the reduced incrustation. New hygiene legislation in Germany means that water supply companies no longer supply the quantities of water needed for the proper operation of sprinkler installations. The amount of water necessary must therefore be stored in the building. Generally, structural and internal layout considerations mean that only the basement is worth considering for such storage (see “Drinking water supplies”, p. 204, and “Fire extinguishing systems”, pp. 206 – 207).

D 4.2

D 4.3

D 4.4

D 4.5

209

m²

Space requirements for building services

200

Central electrical and data installations

Central electrical installation

150 100 50 0 3

5

7

9

11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 Gross floor area (m² ≈ 1000)

m²

a

200

Sprinklers, building height > 45 m

150 100

Sprinklers, building height < 45 m

50

Central sanitary installation

0 3

5

7

9

11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51

m²

b

Gross floor area (m² ≈ 1000)

200 Central heating plant

150 100 50 0 3

5

7

9

11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 Gross floor area (m² ≈ 1000)

m²

c

200

Central refrigeration plant

150

Electrical installations are divided into the main distribution and the subdistribution areas. The main distribution is the connection to the public grid, which is always located at basement level, plus the cables to the individual occupancies or usage zones. Those cables can be at basement or roof level. The advantage of distribution in the roof space or over the roof is that the cables, which represent a fire load, are not routed through occupied areas or escape routes in the basement and therefore do not require any special fire protection measures. The subdistribution networks supply electricity within the individual occupancies or usage zones and include the consumer units with fuses and meters. Each area therefore requires space for this (see “Electricity requirements and supplies”, pp. 186 – 187). A similar division into main distribution and subdistribution is also common in central data installations. Data and telephone line connections are usually found at basement level. These cables are then distributed to the individual occupancies or usage zones, and it is vital to ensure adequate clearance between these cables and electric cables in order to prevent the latter causing interference in the former. Appropriate server rooms are then provided in the individual occupancies or usage zones. Server rooms generally result in high heat loads which usually have to be dissipated through a cooling system (see “Building automation”, pp. 192 – 195).

100 Integration of services

50 0 3

5

7

9

11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 Gross floor area (m² ≈ 1000)

m²

d

800 750 700 650 600 550 Central ventilation plant 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 3

e

5

7

9

11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 Gross floor area (m² ≈ 1000) D 4.6

210

Besides providing enough space for centralised installations, it is also important to consider how other services components, e.g. pipes, cables, ducts, are integrated into the building. Services should be routed through vertical shafts and along horizontal installation zones within the building. In office buildings the integration of technical services components must also remain highly flexible because the constantly evolving working environment results in frequent changes of use and changing internal layouts. When planning internal layouts, it must be remembered that offsets in vertical shafts are not always possible or desirable and should be kept within one storey; they also consume more space. The size of a vertical shaft should allow for additional space for the installation and maintenance of fire stops. Heating, cooling, water, waste-water, electricity and data services routed vertically in shafts must be readily accessible at the connection points on each floor of the building. The horizontal distribution of services across the building should be restricted to certain zones leading to and from the vertical shafts. The individual rooms on each floor are usually served by distribution zones in the corridors. Adequate storey heights should be ensured so that services can be installed overhead or below the floor. The space required for horizontal distribution increases with the number of rooms to

Space requirements for building services

be connected to the systems. Additional vertical shafts can lead to savings in the storey height (see “Installing services in the ceiling void”, pp. 154 –155, Fig. C 3.4, p. 157, and “Proprietary flooring systems”, pp. 160 –167). Vertical service shafts

New findings and changes to working procedures are leading to new forms of organisation in office buildings which are placing new demands on the interior climate. One essential prerequisite for erecting long-lasting buildings is therefore their variability with respect to architectural and technology needs. So the routing of services must also be planned with this in mind (see “Office buildings”, pp. 94 – 97). Vertical service shafts are vital to the infrastructure of a building because they connect all areas to the supply and disposal services. In Germany the building regulations of the federal states stipulate that where services pass through enclosing components with a specified fire resistance (in this case suspended floors), precautions must be taken to prevent the spread of fire. Suspended floors in buildings belonging to building classes 1 (e.g. detached family home) and 2 (e.g. semi-detached house) are excluded from this requirement, also the suspended floors within apartments and within one occupancy with less than 400 m2 floor area on one or two floors. Exact stipulations with respect to the design of service installations of any kind (electric cables and pipes with their associated components) can be found in the appropriate directive (M-LAR) and must be taken into account during all planning work. Sanitary Cooling

Heating Ventilation

Electrics Sprinklers

Data D 4.7

D 4.6

D 4.7

D 4.8

Diagrams for the rough calculation of areas required for central plant rooms in office buildings. The x-axis denotes the gross floor area of the building. The floor area for the corresponding central plant room can then be read off on the y-axis. The grey area between the curves shows the spread of the floor area that may be necessary. Basically, the upper curve represents plant rooms with a high level of equipment, the lower curve plant rooms with minimal equipment. a Central electrical installation b Central sprinkler installation c Central heating plant d Central refrigeration plant e Central ventilation plant Potential plant room locations within the building a Standard positions of central plant rooms b Possible alternatives Central sanitary installation D 4.8

211

Part E

Case studies

01

sam architekten, art gallery in Zurich (CH)

02

Tony Fretton Architects, museum in Lolland (DK)

03

C 18 Architekten, church in Herbrechtingen (D)

04

Wandel Hoefer Lorch, synagogue in Munich (D)

05

UNStudio, theatre in Lelystad (NL)

06

Busmann + Haberer, concert hall in Köthenn (D)

07

Jesús Marino Pascual y asociados, winery in Logrono (ES)

08

office dA, restaurant in Boston (USA)

09

Regula Harder and Jürg Spreryermann, guest-house in Ittingen (CH)

10

Gassmann Architekten, roof space conversion in Munich (D)

11

lynx architecture, private house in Munich (D)

12

Kohlmayer Oberst Architekten, university in Brixen (I)

13

Eichstätt Diocesan Building Dept, sports hall in Ingolstadt (D)

14

Frankfurt am Main Building Dept, university library in Frankfurt am Main (D)

15

Lichtblau Architekten, workshops in Lindenberg (D)

16

Paul de Ruiter, office building in Middelburg (NL)

17

Staab Architekten, plenary hall in Munich (D)

18

Florian Hausladen, offices in Heimstetten (D)

19

Koeberl Architekten, medical centre in Altötting (D)

20

Landau + Kindelbacher, orthodontic practice in Mindelheim (D)

For the key to the colour coding used in the schematic drawings, see p. 282.

Fig. E

Wooden slats in a restaurant in Boston (USA), 2008; office dA (see pp. 234 – 236)

213

Example 01

Ground floor Upper floor Scale 1:2000 Section through Bührle Hall Not to scale

Zurich Art Gallery Zurich, CH, 2005 Architects (overall refurbishment): SAM Architekten & Partner, Zurich Project management: Tobias Ammann, Dorette Birker, Kai Konopacki, Markus Meili, Bruno Schulthess, Martin Stettler, Sacha Wiesner Building services: Brunner Haustechnik, Wallisellen (HVAC/sanitary); Amstein & Walthert, Zurich (electrics); Riesen Elektroplanung, Zurich (security); Institut für Tageslichttechnik Stuttgart (daylight); Lichtdesign Ingenieurgesellschaft, Cologne (artificial lighting) The technical services for this art gallery, extended again and again since it was built in 1910, had to be completely renewed in order to comply with the very highest international standards regarding HVAC services, interior lighting and security. The architects upgraded all the exhibition areas to satisfy the latest requirements and refurbished the interior taking into account the conservation constraints; apart from a reconfiguration of the ground floor, however, the internal layout was changed very little. The ventilation is regulated in such a way that constant internal climate conditions prevail depending on the number of visitors. The building automation software is programmed to take into account both annual and daily changes in the sun’s trajectory by way of specially controlled light-boxes and metal louvres. Daylight sensors monitor the brightness in the interior and switch on the artificial lighting as required. Thanks to this automation, fluctuations in the incoming sunlight and the external lighting conditions are hardly noticed by visitors in the exhibition rooms. All the mechanical ventilation plant, which was previously installed in the roof space and thus reduced the amount of incoming daylight, is now located in the basement. Following the changeover to natural gas, there was space for the plant in the former tank room. Waste heat and the heat released due to the pretreatment of exterior air are exploited with the help of a heat recovery system, which reduces the overall energy costs. If the external temperature climbs above 5 °C, the refrigeration unit also functions as a heat pump. Displacement ventilation outlets at floor level or in the spandrel panels feed pretreated supply air into the exhibition areas which is then extracted at ceiling level. Individual solutions were needed for each of the rooms in order to respond to the needs of the exhibits as well as the demands of the architecture and conservation stipulations. • Renewal of building services • Building automation (interior humidity, temperature, lighting) • Displacement ventilation with heat recovery

1 2 3 4 5

Entrance Tickets/café Cloakroom/ shop Giacometti Foundation Bührle Hall

3

4

2

5 a

a

1

6 7 8 9

Roof space ventilation, permanent Roof space ventilation, controlled Natural ventilation, permanent Natural ventilation, controlled

10 11 12 13

Common duct for exhaust air/smoke and heat Insulating glass Supply air distribution duct Suspended ceiling: change of air/illumination of exhibits

6 7

7

9

10

8

9

11

8

12

12 13

aa

214

Zurich Art Gallery

Horizontal section Vertical section Scale 1:20

14

15 16

14

Plasterboard, 2 No. 12.5 mm supporting framework 75 ≈ 50 mm aluminium channel masonry (existing) supporting framework 15 ≈ 98 mm aluminium top-hat section 2 No. 12.5 mm plasterboard Wood-based panel product, 40 mm, with sprayed polyurethane paint finish Carpet, 5 mm 20 mm mortar (existing)

17 18 19 20 21

approx. 160 mm reinforced concrete slab (existing) 40 mm suspended acoustic board Reflective surface, 5 mm plasterboard bent to suit on site Fluorescent tube lighting Suspended plasterboard, 18 mm Extract-air duct, 300 ≈ 100 mm Stone tiles, 20 mm 5 mm tile adhesive 20 mm mortar levelling layer min. 120 mm reinforced concrete

b

d

b

d

15

cc

16

17 18

20

19

c

c

21

21

bb

dd

215

Example 02

Fuglsang Art Gallery Lolland, DK, 2007 Architects: Tony Fretton Architects, London Working drawings: BBP Arkitekter A/S, Copenhagen Project team: Jim McKinney, Donald Matheson, Guy Derwent, Annika Rabi, Sandy Rendel, Matt Barton, Michael Lee, Nina Lundvall, Simon Jones, Martin Nässén, Gus Brown

Sections • Plans Scale 1:750 1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Foyer Café Reading room Hall for events Tickets/book sales

Temporary exhibitions Modern art Quiet zone Corridor (exhibition room) 19th century art Office Terrace Library aa

A

B

bb

11

13 12

c c

The Fuglsang Estate has a tradition of providing a home to artists, authors and musicians which goes back to 1869. The building in the centre of this flat landscape therefore provided the ideal location for an art gallery. In contrast to the other participants in the competition organised in 2004, the architects of the winning entry did not close off the inner courtyard with its whitewashed brick facade, which is formed by the existing building dating from the 19th century; instead, they extended the axis of the main building to direct the view towards the landscape. Many of the Danish art exhibits – dating from the late 18th century to the present day – deal with precisely this theme. Each of the rooms is dedicated to a different period. To the south of the long corridor, which can also be used for exhibitions, there is a row of three small rooms in which the light enters through rooflights positioned diagonally above the room. On the opposite side of the corridor there are two large rooms, one for modern art, the other a divisible area that can be used for temporary exhibitions. The charm of the various rooms can be attributed to the different lighting conditions. Almost all of them are illuminated by rooflights. Some of these are visible from below, but in the large halls suspended metal grids scatter the incoming light to provide diffuse lighting for the areas below. Every change in the intensity and colour of the natural daylight can therefore be perceived indirectly in the interior. Pivoted frames with adjustable louvres protect the works of art against excessive sunlight.

a

• Suspended metal grid ceiling • Natural lighting through rooflights º

Bauwelt 23/2008

b

b 3

7

4 6 1

2

5 8

9 10

10

a

216

10

9

Fuglsang Art Gallery

14

16

17

18

Vertical section Scale 1:20 14 15 19 15

16

17 18 19

Powder-coated aluminium parapet capping, 3 mm Brick outer leaf, 108 mm 15 mm mineral-fibre board 25 mm rigid foam thermal insulation 150 mm mineral-fibre thermal insulation vapour barrier 160 ≈ 80 mm timber framework 12.5 mm plasterboard Insulating glass: 8 mm tough. safety glass + 16 mm cavity + 12 mm tough. safety glass Operating mechanism Fluorescent tube lighting Adjustable sunshade in pivoting steel frame

cc

217

Example 02

1

2 5

3 6

4

7

9

8

A

218

Fuglsang Art Gallery

Vertical sections Scale 1:20 1 2 3 4 5

11

6

7 8

2

9

10 3 11

10

Insulating glass: 3 No. 12 mm lam. safety glass + 15 mm cavity + 8 mm tough. safety glass Operating mechanism Adjustable sunshade Mineral-fibre acoustic board, 50 mm Waterproofing 200 mm thermal insulation vapour barrier 75 mm reinforced concrete 75 mm reinforced concrete waffle slab 50 mm mineral-fibre acoustic board 38 mm suspended metal grid ceiling Brick outer leaf, 108 mm, with ventilation cavity 200 mm mineral wool thermal insulation vapour check 200 mm reinforced concrete Air outlet slit Oak wood-block flooring, 20.5 mm 120 mm screed 120 mm reinforced concrete 150 mm thermal insulation 150 mm blinding Plasterboard, 12.5 mm 2 No. 150 mm timber framework 200 mm reinforced concrete, painted Drainage layer 250 mm mineral-fibre thermal insulation vapour barrier 300 mm reinforced concrete 12.5 mm suspended plasterboard ceiling Insulating glass: 8 mm tough. safety glass + 10 mm cavity + 12 mm tough. safety glass

B

219

Example 03

St. Boniface Church Herbrechtingen, D, 2007 Architects: C18 Architekten, Stuttgart Marcus Kaestle, Andreas Ocker, Michel Roeder Dry lining contractor: Baumann & Sohn, Heubach Technical services: Heidel Haustechnik, Gundremmingen

1

2

The architects had only a limited budget to work with for the refurbishment of this church originally built in 1959. There were two objectives: to rectify deficiencies in the building fabric and to achieve a liturgical and artistic restructuring of the interior. The biggest change is the division into a large room for 300 persons and a small oratory, which functions as a weekday chapel accommodating about 50 worshippers. This division is created by a semi-circular wall element between the church interior and the chapel which has a supporting framework of timber and standard dry lining sections. The framework is clad both sides with a double layer of plasterboard supplied pre-bent to the required radius. A cross cut into the wall – the only sacral design feature – creates a link between the two parts of the building. All the walls and ceiling surfaces have a smooth plaster plus silicate paint finish – but without the use of any colour anywhere. Even the jointless, heavy-duty concrete floor is integrated into this homogeneous colour scheme. The white cement finish did not require any further coating or sealing treatment. Together with specialist designers, the architects devised a lighting concept that deliberately refrains from any form of accentuation. The existing detail at the ceiling perimeter was the obvious place to incorporate the lighting units, which remain invisible but still manage to cast an even, glancing light. The framework to the wall behind the altar is 105 mm wide at the cove lighting positions, and therefore two dimmable fluorescent tubes can be accommodated here adjacent to each other. The offset positioning of the tubes prevents the gaps between the individual tubes becoming visible and this results in a homogeneous “halo” effect. The framework in areas without lighting is just 50 mm wide. A gas-fired condensing boiler feeds the underfloor heating system, but a ground coupling is not possible at this location owing to the inadequate water flow. Concealed photovoltaic modules with an area of approx. 250 m2 achieve a total output of 16.5 kWp. • Semi-circular wall element dividing the interior • Indirect lighting concept

220

3

Location drawing Scale 1:2500 6 Plan Scale 1:500

a a d

d

5

e

e

4

A

1 2 3 4 5 6

Parish office Parish hall Vicarage Entrance Church interior Chapel

St. Boniface Church

Horizontal section Vertical section through wall/ceiling junction Scale 1:20 7

8 9

10

11

Floated fine plaster, 2 mm 2 No. 12.5 mm plasterboard 85 mm aluminium channel framework Softwood studs, 100 ≈ 240 mm @ approx. 1250 mm centres Hollow block masonry (existing), 365 mm 15 mm plaster (existing) 40 mm mineral wool thermal insulation 15 mm plaster silicate paint finish, white Fixed glazing, 12 mm toughened safety glass

12 13 14

15 16

Floorboards to roof space (existing), 24 mm 80 ≈ 200 mm timber joists (existing) 120 mm mineral wool thermal insulation vapour check 30 mm aluminium channel framework 12.5 mm plasterboard Building-grade veneer plywood strip, 240 ≈ 30 mm, curved on plan Building-grade veneer plywood strip, 140 ≈ 35 mm, curved on plan Softwood studs, 100 ≈ 240 mm, cut down to 100 ≈ 140 mm, @ approx. 1250 mm centres Fluorescent tube lighting Building-grade veneer plywood strip, 260 ≈ 35 mm, curved on plan

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Example 03

Vertical sections • Horizontal sections Gallery Entrance zone Scale 1:20

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St. Boniface Church

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Balustrade, 25 mm wood-based panel product Steel channel, 35 ≈ 40 mm (existing) Steel hollow section (existing) Flatweave carpet softwood floorboards (existing) timber battens and counter battens (existing) 150 mm reinforced concrete Reinforced concrete, 280 mm 50 mm polystyrene thermal insulation 5 mm plaster Fixed insulating glass Reinforced concrete, 280 mm 40 + 10 mm polystyrene thermal insulation 5 mm plaster Render, 20 mm 240 mm hollow block masonry 15 mm plaster (existing) 40 mm mineral wool thermal insulation 15 mm plaster Fluorescent tube lighting

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Powder-coated sheet steel lighting recess Terrazzo floor finish, 70 mm underfloor heating, separating layer 20 mm impact sound insulation 60 mm rigid foam thermal insulation 10 mm waterproofing, bitumen felt 100 mm reinforced concrete ground floor slab (existing) Reinforced concrete floor slab (existing) 12.5 mm plasterboard on supporting framework Terrazzo preformed stair treads, 50 mm, mortar bed reinforced concrete stairs (existing) Terrazzo floor finish, 50 mm 30 – 90 mm white cement reinforced concrete ground floor slab (existing) Render (existing), 20 mm 365 mm hollow block masonry (existing) plaster (existing) 90 mm mineral-fibre thermal insulation 12.5 mm plasterboard, 3 mm plaster Handrail, 40 mm dia. steel bar

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Example 04

Synagogue Munich, D, 2007 Architects: Wandel Hoefer Lorch, Saarbrücken Rena Wandel-Hoefer, Wolfgang Lorch, Andrea Wandel Technical services: Konrad Huber, Munich

1 2 3

A sequence of squares and paths surrounds the Jewish centre at St.-Jakobs-Platz in the heart of Munich’s old quarter. The most important building, the synagogue, stands on its own facing east, in a balanced relationship with the a Jewish Museum and the Jewish community centre. The windowless stone-clad outer wall provides a protective screen for the prayer room within and is a reference to Solomon’s Temple. The “dome” in the centre, rising above the stone walls, is in this case a delicate steel cube surrounded by a bronze fabric through which the light streams into the interior. Cedar wood and stone from Israel surround the prayer room, the layout of which is governed by the central, raised Almemor (lectern) as the spiritual focus and the longitudinal axis between the entrance and the Aron Hakodesch (Torah Ark) on the east wall. A large door protects the Torah Ark, which during the day is lit naturally from above via a rooflight. The seating areas for the women are on the two longitudinal sides, raised on steps above the main floor level. Although separate, the layout of the interior is such that these areas are fully integrated into the Jewish prayer services. Outside air pretreated in a ground coupling is fed into the prayer room at low level beneath the women’s seating areas. If necessary, a groundwater-coupled recooling unit can lower the temperature of the supply air even further. An extract system with heat recovery removes the waste air through a gap between the steel dome construction and the wooden lining to the prayer room. The synagogue is heated when required by an underfloor heating system fed from a district heating network. In the summer the underfloor heating pipes are used for cooling (groundwater coupling) to ensure agreeable temperatures. • Use of groundwater for thermoactive building systems and partial air-conditioning • Mechanical ventilation with heat recovery • Concrete ground coupling for exploiting geothermal heat and for cooling • Underfloor heating system connected to district heating network º

224

Baumeister 02/2007

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Synagogue

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Location drawing Scale 1:2500 Plan • Section Scale 1:500 Vertical section Scale 1:20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Jewish community centre Synagogue Jewish Museum Almemor (lectern) Aron Hakodesch (Torah Ark) Raised women’s seating area Ground coupling District heating network Heat recovery Recooling unit Re-injection well Production well

23

Travertine cladding, 80 –120 mm 50 mm cavity 120 mm thermal insulation 300 mm reinforced concrete 80 ≈ 100 mm timber battens 19 mm cedar plywood 3-ply core plywood, cedar, 22 mm Timber rail, 40 ≈ 40 mm Steel angle, 120 ≈ 80 ≈ 8 mm Timber beam with felt strip, 160 ≈ 40 mm Steel section, IPE 120 Hole for ventilation Steel hollow section, 100 ≈ 60 ≈ 5.6 mm Book-rest, 3-ply core plywood, cedar Screen, bronze fabric between 40 ≈ 10 mm bronze sections Stone floor tiles, 20 mm, in 5 mm tile adhesive 72 mm calcium sulphate screed, PE sheeting 33 mm underfloor heating system 20 mm thermal insulation

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225

Example 05

Agora Theatre Lelystad, NL, 2007 Architects: UNStudio, Amsterdam Ben van Berkel, Gerard Loozekoot, Jacques van Wijk Working drawings: B+M, The Hague Acoustics, fire safety concept: DGMR, Arnhem Technical services: Valstar Simones, Apeldoorn

Bold colours and irregular forms dominate this new arts centre, the Agora Theatre, in the Dutch town of Lelystad. During the day and even at night, the orange “crystal” is conspicuous, a true landmark, because of its neon colouring and shimmering lighting effects. The diverse colours and surfaces are intended to arouse the interest of visitors, entice them to explore the irregular building envelope and all the facets of this building. Besides the auditorium and its associated fly tower, this metal-clad structure also houses the necessary ancillary functions plus a small hall, multi-purpose rooms and catering facilities so that the building can be used for congresses as well. Visitors enter the building through a glazed foyer, where the colour changes to a bold pink, which creates an inviting atmosphere. The open staircase, also in pink, winds upwards to be crowned by a triangular rooflight. Diagonal and curved surfaces emphasize the dynamic here. Aluminium slats are fitted to the underside of the stair flights and landings, the inside of the solid balustrades have a neutral white finish. Upon entering the auditorium, the visitor is greeted by yet another colour experience. All the interior surfaces are finished in a bold red – walls, soffits, carpets without exception, also the 753 seats. The deep-red, soft carpet to the main hall contrasts with the light-coloured, smooth bamboo wood-block flooring of the foyer and staircase. The red upholstery to the seats enhances the atmosphere, an effect that is reinforced even further by the internal wall surfaces. Contrasting with the smooth walls of the foyer with its printed “bubbles” wallpaper, the walls of the auditorium take up the idea of the angular building envelope once more. Profiled MDF acoustic panels alternating with smooth plasterboard reach out into the space, to the audience, and thus resolve the walls into smaller elements.

8 11

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Plans 2nd floor Ground floor Section Scale 1: 800

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• Walls resolved into smaller elements • Acoustic panels

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AIT 05/2007

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Box office Reception/ congress office Cloakroom Foyer Café Changing room Main hall Store room Bar Small hall Multi-purpose hall Kitchen

Agora Theatre

Section through gallery Scale 1:10

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Steel angle, 100 ≈ 50 ≈ 3 mm MDF panel, 30 mm Pink foil on 2 No. 12.5 mm perforated plasterboard MDF perforated acoustic lining, 20 mm Timber framework, 96 ≈ 146 mm, with 140 mm compressed rock wool thermal insulation between MDF skirting board, 100 ≈ 20 mm Bamboo wood-block flooring, 15 mm 35 mm screed 60 mm concrete topping (structural compression zone) 200 mm precast prestressed concrete hollow plank floor Fire-retardant plasterboard casing, 12.5 mm Steel beam, HEA 500 Tubular aluminium slats, 30 ≈ 39 ≈ 0.5 mm fire-retardant black viscose fleece as opaque backing material supporting framework of aluminium sections with 50 mm mineral wool thermal insulation between

227

Example 06

Concert hall Köthen, D, 2008 Architects: BUSMANN + HABERER, Berlin Busmann, Haberer, Bohl, Vennes, Tebroke Project team: Andree Helm, Thomas Wolter, Anja Borchard, Bernd Jäger, Jonas Kohler Technical services: skm-haustechnik, Munich Acoustics consultants: Müller BBM, Planegg Lighting design: Studio dinnebier, Berlin The heart of the refurbished complex consisting of multi-purpose halls, rehearsal rooms and a café is the new concert hall for Köthen Palace. A reinforced concrete block clad with fibrecement panels now rises out of what was once the indoor riding arena. This 400-seat concert hall is also suitable for drama productions and other events. The dominant design feature inside the hall is its cedar wood lining which, isolated from the outer reinforced concrete structure, guarantees excellent sound insulation. The plain, wave-like arrangement of the lining across the base of the walls contrasts with the delicate louvres higher up, in front of the existing round-arch windows, which allow daylight to illuminate the interior. The louvres also increase the acoustic diffusivity of the interior, which benefits the room acoustics. Convectors behind the plain lining at the base of the walls heat the hall with the help of a heat pump connected to a ground coupling. Further wave-like acoustic elements continue the material concept across the ceiling. Four extract units with heat recovery remove the waste air – which flows into the hall through displacement ventilation grilles in the sides of the two stage lifts – through the gaps between the elements. A ground coupling below the lawn lowers the temperature of the air by 2 K in summer and raises it by 3 K in winter. The supply air has a constant temperature of 20 °C and relative humidity of 45 %. As all the technical services plant is located in the basement directly below the concert hall, stringent acoustic standards had to be complied with so that performances are not disturbed by any noise. • • • •

Displacement ventilation with heat recovery Ground coupling with heat pump Enhanced insulation against external noise Acoustic diffusivity in concert hall

º

228

Baumeister 07/2008

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aa

max. 70 dB(A) sound pressure level in front of facade

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Multi-purpose hall Rehearsal room Workshop Office Instrument store

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Chair store Concert hall Lobby Foyer Bistro

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Concert hall

Horizontal section • Vertical section Scale 1:20

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Plaster, 5 mm, masonry (existing) 50 –120 mm rigid thermal insulation, slip membrane 300 mm impervious reinforced concrete wave-type lining: wood-based panel product, cedar veneer finish, oiled, 2 No. 30 mm Steel column, HEM 240 mm Steel hollow section, 70 ≈ 50 ≈ 5 mm Solid cedar wood louvres, 25 ≈ 25 mm, oiled, attached to slotted aluminium framework Solid cedar wood louvres, 90 ≈ 40 mm, oiled, sloping underside Light fitting Cable trunking Wood-based panel product, cedar veneer finish, 20 mm, oiled Wood-strip flooring, 22 mm, on 3 mm synthetic resin adhesive 80 mm cement screed, separating layer, 30 mm mineral-fibre impact sound insulation 25 mm lightweight wood-wool boards, waterproofing 270 mm impervious reinforced concrete 80 mm expanded polystyrene insulation 50 mm lean concrete blinding

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Example 06

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50 mm, curved Pendant lamp Fibre-cement panel, 12 mm 60 ≈ 60 mm aluminium hollow sections 100 mm thermal insulation 300 mm reinforced concrete 65 ≈ 65 mm timber framework wood-based panel product, cedar veneer finish, oiled, 2 No. 30 mm Sound-absorbent curtain

Winery

Winery Logrono, E, 2007 Architects: J. M. P. y asociados, Logroño Jesús Marino Pascual

As angular as the surrounding rocks – that’s how this winery in Spain’s La Rioja wine-growing region presents itself. The visitor approaches this sculpted structure across spacious terraces. A jumbled stack of interwoven levels create the volume of this building. However, the largest part – i.e. the rooms in which the wine is pressed, matured and stored – is hidden below ground. Almost all the walls and soffits are lined with different types of plasterboard. The prestigious foyer with its spacious staircase also functions as an art museum; steps in front of the perimeter walls provide space for exhibiting the artefacts. The steps are constructed from white-painted gypsum hard-surface boards supported by a metal framework. Perforated plasterboard lines the rooms where better acoustics are necessary. Even without mechanical HVAC systems, the basement rooms present optimum conditions for the production and storage of the wine because the surrounding soil guarantees adequate cooling; rooflights ensure the necessary change of air. But in the other areas accessible to visitors, e.g. foyer, restaurant, wine-tasting and seminar rooms, mechanical HVAC systems provide pleasant conditions. In the media room it is also possible to adjust the ventilation and temperature individually to suit requirements. If heating is required in winter, this is also provided by the ventilation system; the air is preheated by means of a gas-fired boiler. The ducts and grilles for the HVAC systems are located throughout the building in installation zones or above the suspended ceiling. • Use of various types of plasterboard to suit requirements • Continuation of the sculpted outer form in the interior

Sections Plan of ground floor Scale 1:1000

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Barrel hall Main entrance Foyer Media room Wine-tasting Exhibition Terrace

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Example 07

Vertical sections through ceiling to media room Scale 1:20 1

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Single-sized concrete, 2 No. 30 mm layers 1.8 mm PVC waterproofing, separating layer 30 mm extruded polystyrene thermal insulation separating layer, 50 mm concrete topping 250 mm hollow plank floor Reinforced concrete, 300 mm 30 mm glass wool thermal insulation 46 mm galvanised steel framework 12.5 mm plasterboard, paint finish Granite tiles, 40 mm 30 – 40 mm mortar

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PE sheeting 40 mm extruded polystyrene thermal insulation 1.8 mm PVC waterproofing 100 mm concrete topping 250 mm hollow plank floor Fluorescent tube lighting Plasterboard, 12.5 mm, paint finish Epoxy resin coating, 3 mm 100 mm screed PE sheeting 50 mm concrete topping 250 mm hollow plank floor Reinforced concrete, 300 mm Long-range nozzle

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Galvanised steel framework, 46 mm Perforated plasterboard, 2 No. 12.5 mm Oak wood-block flooring, 20 mm 100 mm screed separating layer 300 mm reinforced concrete Insulating glass: 2 No. 4 mm lam. safety glass + 8 mm cavity + 6 mm tough. safety glass Plasterboard, 12.5 mm, painted white 46 mm galvanised steel framework Reinforced concrete, 300 mm 30 mm polystyrene thermal insulation 46 mm galvanised steel framework 12.5 mm plasterboard, painted white

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Winery

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Example 08

Restaurant Boston, USA, 2008 Architects: office dA, Boston Nader Tehrani, Monica Ponce de Leon Project team: Dan Gallagher, Catie Newell, Brandon Clifford, Harry Lowd, Richard Lee, Lisa Huang, Remon Alberts, Janghwan Cheon, Jumanah Jamal, Aishah Al Sager

aa

Sections • Plan Scale 1:400 1 2 3 4

An exciting game of hide and seek characterises this restaurant in Boston. Housed in a former bank building dating from 1917, there is nothing left in the interior to remind us of the building’s past. It seems as though a wooden capsule has been inserted into the banking hall. The bar and the lounge face the road, the large dining area is further back. Guests are seated amid a “landscape of birch wood”. Across the whole interior, veneer plywood slats are suspended below the existing loadbearing structure, which has been given a coat of black intumescent paint and is therefore hardly visible. Depending on the viewing angle, the view of the soffit varies from completely closed to completely open, with the lighting and services above then becoming visible. In the middle of the restaurant there is a room that can be used for both the storage and presentation of wine bottles. Here and around all the columns it seems as though the undulating slats of the suspended ceiling reach down to the floor like stalactites, always creating fluid transitions to the other building components and built-in items. The shapes of the slats, curving downwards or upwards, depend on what is above them at that particular point. Like a puzzle, every slat has a unique shape and therefore fits at one place only. Indirect lighting is incorporated between the individual slats around the columns. The floor, benches and tables are finished with the same bamboo wood and this reinforces the homogeneous impression of the interior. Near the bar, the backs to the benches include cupboards as additional storage place for wine bottles. Concealed radiators are located beneath some of the benches. • Wooden slats as a space-forming element • Multi-purpose benches

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Restaurant Wine store Bar Lounge

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Horizontal section • Vertical section Multi-purpose bench Horizontal sections • Vertical sections Details of wooden slats Scale 1:20 5 6 7 8 9 10

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Reflective stainless steel sheet on 19 mm plywood backing Timber battens, 89 ≈ 38 mm Low-iron safety glass with opaque foil for privacy, 12.7 mm Bamboo board, 19 mm Upholstered seat on 19 mm plywood Solid bamboo floorboards, 15 mm screed (existing)

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LED strip lighting Translucent acrylic sheet, 9.5 mm Light fitting “Main beam”, 152.4 ≈ 19 mm plywood painted matt black “Secondary beam”, 152.4 ≈ 19 mm birch veneer plywood Wood-based panel product, 19 mm Fluorescent tube lighting Beech veneer plywood, 19 mm

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Example 08

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safety glass Aluminium post, 51 ≈ 102 Beech veneer plywood, 152.4 ≈ 19 mm Mineral-fibre thermal insulation, 92 mm 16 mm plasterboard Fluorescent tube lighting with green coating Shelf, 32 mm plywood Polished and coated screed, 50 mm reinforced concrete (existing) Light fitting

Guest-house

Guest-house Ittingen, CH, 2004 Architects: Harder Spreyermann, Zurich Regula Harder and Jürg Spreyermann Project team: Samuel Sieber (project and site management), Serge Schoemaker, Benjamin Schmücking, Douwe Wieërs, Daniel Frei Artistic design consultants: Harald F. Müller, Öhningen Ernst Thoma, Stein am Rhein

This monastery complex is embedded in an idyllic landscape. It was founded in 1150 and originally belonged to the Carthusian order. Over the centuries, the building and its interior have been changed many times. At the moment it serves as a meeting place where the values of the Carthusian monks are presented. There is a training and conference centre, an estate with cheese- and wine-making, plus a number of social and cultural facilities. The lower guesthouse was originally an agricultural building that was converted for use as a hostel in the 1980s. This latest conversion is intended to improve the level of comfort and general atmosphere of the building so that it is closer to that of the upper guest-house, a hotel. The built-in elements dating from the 1980s were therefore removed to make space for a large hall in which an open, sculpted staircase creates a spatial coherence. Two artists designed the hall, using elements from the history of the Carthusian order to create a space for sound and colour. The side wall is bathed in a bold red, the end wall to the foyer in turquoise illumination. The light breaks up on the coloured surfaces, the white ceilings and walls reflect the colours. Inspired by the former monks’ cells, the new rooms for guests in the south wing are designed as simple white rooms. As a contrast to this, the granolithic finish to the screed containing the underfloor heating pipes is a beige-grey colour. The furniture consists of just a bed and a chair made from solid, oiled elm wood. A wooden block placed in each room, which contains shower, WC, wash-basin, wardrobe and minibar, divides up the room into clear zones. In addition, there is a flat-screen television concealed behind a panel and a pull-out desktop. This minimalistic cube combines all the important functions a hotel room should provide and integrates them in an artistic way. All in all, this reduced approach creates a restful atmosphere and for a short time allows the guest to experience the concentration and solitude of the Carthusian monk.

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Section Plans Scale 1:500

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Laundry Kitchen Plant room

Entrance hall Monastery shop Auditorium

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Example 09

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239

Example 10

Roof space conversion Munich, D, 2006 Architects: Erich Gassmann Architekten, Munich Assistant: Ursula Krissen Dry lining contractor: Trockenbau 3000, Poing

A b b

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A low, dark, “temporary” roof was until recently still serving as the roof structure (the original roof had been destroyed in the war) to an art nouveau building in Schwabing, a district of Munich. Converting this roof space into living accommodation would not have been worthwhile and so the existing “temporary” roof had to make way for a new construction. The architect added two new rooftop storeys to the existing four-storey building – totally in keeping with the conservation order that applied to the original, high roof form. One of the two apartments in the roof space was joined to part of the third floor, which means that this particular apartment now extends over three storeys. Rounded, white-painted walls redirect the light entering through the Velux-type roof windows deep into the interiors of these apartments. Wall and ceiling surfaces merge, the underside of the gallery curves upwards to form the balustrade. The lining to the external walls/roof is merely decorative, denoting the boundary to the interior space; the separate outer layers perform all the building physics tasks: fire protection, thermal insulation and airtightness. Between the inner and outer layers there is sufficient space for routing all the technical services. Penetrations through the inner lining do not present any problems because the two parts of the envelope are separate. The outer, airtight layer remains unaffected, regardless of whether power sockets or lights are added inside at a later date. In order to create a homogeneous impression of the internal space, it was necessary to first transfer the contours of the roof to particleboard. Hangers attached to the front edges carry UD cold-formed sections let into the boards. Connected to these at 90° are CD rails which form a framework for the lining. As the wall in the roof area has a tighter radius, each of the two layers of plasterboard used here is only 6.5 mm thick, whereas lower down the wall each layer is 9.5 mm thick.

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• Inner lining as fluid transition between wall and ceiling • Void for installing additional services behind lining

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Roof space conversion

Section Plans Scale 1:400 Vertical sections Horizontal section through gallery Scale 1:20 1 2

Access to apartment 1 Access to apartment 2

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Glazing: 6 mm tough. safety glass + 12 mm cavity + 2 No. 3 mm lam. safety glass Bullnose roof tiles 30 ≈ 50 mm tiling battens 30 mm counter battens acid-resistant roofing felt 19 mm OSB 200 mm mineral-fibre thermal insulation between 100 ≈ 200 mm timber pulins vapour check 19 mm OSB 25 mm fire-resistant board 19 mm wood-based panel product ribs 60 ≈ 27 mm CD section 2 No. 9.5 mm plasterboard Wood-block flooring, 22 mm 37 mm asphalt 3 mm corrugated cardboard

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241

Example 11

Private house Munich, D, 2008 Architects: lynx architecture, Munich Susanne Muhr, Volker Petereit Assistant: Dirk Härle Technical services: Ingenieurbüro Haff-Lyssoudis, Munich Kitchen design: Wiedemann Werkstätten, Munich

This detached family home situated in the centre of a large garden plays with the alternation between introverted and extroverted appearances. The cladding made from pre-weathered larch battens can be almost completely opened and closed with the help of large, motorised folding shutters. It is therefore possible to control the amount of incoming solar radiation individually on all the sides of the building exposed to the sun. Spacious terraces around the house enable the family’s lifestyle to spread outdoors. The U-shaped ground floor contains common areas such as living room, kitchen and dining area, the L-shaped upper floor the bedrooms and bathrooms for the parents and their children. A large opening in the floor links the two storeys and allows daylight from the rooflight above to reach the kitchen. An extractor hood fitted flush with the ceiling prevents unpleasant cooking smells from spreading to the bedrooms. A low-level, gently sloping courtyard facing eastwards ensures that plenty of light and air reach the guest room and wellness area in the semi-basement. This private house with a heating load of 27 kW is heated by a groundwater-coupled heat pump system. In addition, 17 m2 of solar panels on the roof heat the swimming pool in the garden. Before use, water is softened in the basement plant room. Underfloor heating, with individual room controls, ensures comfortable conditions throughout the house. The exposed thermoactive concrete floor slabs contain the ducts for the controlled ventilation of the living areas, a system that also includes heat recovery. A pollen filter removes particles likely to cause allergies before the supply air is fed to the rooms. A bus system controls all the services in the building. • • • • •

Groundwater-coupled heat pump Thermoactive floor slabs Underfloor heating Controlled ventilation with heat recovery Solar collectors

242

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Sections Schematic diagram of ventilation (bb) Schematic diagram of heating/cooling (cc) Plans Scale 1:400 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Supply air Expelled air Pollen filter Ventilation system with heat recovery Production well Heat pump Cold exchanger Re-injection well

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Kitchen/dining Living room Media room Child’s room Office Garage Guest room Fitness studio Sauna Pool plant room Hobbies room Plant room Utility room

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Private house

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Vertical section • Scale 1:20 22

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Battens, 20 ≈ 60 mm, rough-sawn Siberian larch, impregnated 35 ≈ 80 mm larch counter battens, rhombic form, painted black vapour-permeable airtight membrane 140 mm wood-fibre thermal insulation 150 mm reinforced concrete 3-ply wooden flooring, 22 mm 58 mm calcium sulphate self-levelling screed

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28 5 mm perforated board 25 mm mineral-fibre impact sound insulation 40 mm rigid foam thermal insulation 250 mm reinforced concrete thermoactive floor slab Flat cable trunking, 8 ≈ 75 mm Filter element Stainless steel plate elastically supported on Z-sections Slit for extract air MDF, 19 mm, oak veneer finish

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Example 11

Vertical sections Horizontal section Scale 1:20

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Plasterboard, 2 No. 12.5 mm flue blocks 150 mm reinforced concrete 20 mm ground basalt stone in 5 mm mortar bed 3-ply wooden flooring, 22 mm 58 mm calcium sulphate self-levelling screed 5 mm perforated board 25 mm mineral-fibre impact sound insulation 40 mm rigid foam thermal insulation 250 mm reinforced concrete thermoactive floor slab Lining to chimney, 12.5 mm plasterboard Transparent glass ceramic, 4 mm 3-ply wooden flooring, 22 mm 58 mm calcium sulphate self-levelling screed 5 mm perforated board 25 mm mineral-fibre impact sound insulation 40 mm rigid foam thermal insulation 200 mm reinforced concrete thermoactive floor slab 12.5 mm suspended moisture-resistant plasterboard Slit for extract air Service duct, 2 No. 12.5 mm plasterboard Insulating glass, 20 mm Ground basalt stone, 20 mm, in 5 mm mortar bed 150 mm reinforced concrete 2 No. 12.5 mm plasterboard service duct 20 mm ground basalt stone in 5 mm mortar bed Removable basalt stone panel, 20 mm, held in place by magnets Hatch for cleaning Plasterboard, 2 No. 12.5 mm 50 mm elastically supported insulating material 2 No. 12.5 mm plasterbd., 50 mm ventilation cavity Sauna panel 15 mm multi-layer chipboard 70 mm mineral wool in wooden frame aluminium foil vapour barrier, 15 mm fir wall lining Basalt stone tiles, 20 mm, in 5 mm mortar bed 60 mm calcium sulphate self-levelling screed 5 mm perforated board 10 mm mineral-fibre impact sound insulation 50 mm thermal insulation, waterproofing 300 mm reinforced concrete Electrically heated bench skim plaster coat, heating mat filling compound for levelling lightweight concrete blocks Wood-block flooring, 12 mm 60 mm calcium sulphate self-levelling screed 5 mm perforated board 25 mm mineral-fibre impact sound insulation 50 mm thermal insulation, waterproofing 300 mm reinforced concrete

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Example 12

University building Brixen, I, 2004 Architects: Kohlmayer Oberst, Stuttgart Regina Kohlmayer, Jens Oberst Building services: Ingenieurbüro Hausladen, Kirchheim

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This square block provides four new rooms for the University of Brixen. A raised three-storey ring surrounds the four-storey inner zone. A thermal building simulation was used to help the designers specify the type of glass and sunshades required for the facade. As a result, the flush outer pane of each window is translucent, whereas the set-back transparent pane permits an unobstructed view of the outside world. Even with the external roller-shutter, highly reflective sunshades lowered, the view through is hardly restricted because of the special shutter profile geometry. One particular feature of this stepped facade is the push-out panels in the reveals, which permit natural ventilation regardless of the weather conditions. Even areas in the middle of the building, e.g. the main hall, are naturally ventilated through rooflights. Owing to the high internal heat loads, however, the natural ventilation is backed up by a mechanical system. A ground coupling dehumidifies the incoming air and heats or cools it depending on the time of year. CO2 sensors determine the quality of the interior air and control the flow rate of the pretreated supply air depending on the number of occupants and the requirements. Heating throughout the building is provided by way of underfloor heating with individual room controls. When the outside temperature drops below -5 °C, a thermoactive building system cuts in; when temperatures exceed 18 °C, the thermoactive building system runs in cooling mode at 16 °C, supplied with cooling energy from a groundwater coupling. The partitions in the individual seminar rooms are designed in such a way that there are cupboards on both sides, the top section of which is reserved for routing the technical services. The fire hoses are incorporated on the corridor side of each illuminated glass partition. • Groundwater coupling for thermoactive building system • Underfloor heating • Ground coupling for pretreating the supply air • CO2 sensors

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Steel fin for connecting partition Sheet aluminium sill, 4 mm, designed for foot traffic Linoleum, 2.5 mm 75 mm calcium sulphate self-levelling screed separating layer, PE sheeting 20 mm impact sound insulation 100 mm thermal insulation 300 mm thermoactive reinforced concrete slab Insulating glass: 10 mm tough. safety glass + 16 mm cavity + 6 + 8 mm lam. safety glass Sheet steel light-box, 350 ≈ 180 ≈ 1280 mm, with cold-light reflectors

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Example 12

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Sports hall

Sports hall Ingolstadt, D, 2006 Architects: Eichstätt Diocesan Building Department Karl Frey Project team: Richard Breitenhuber, Robert Fürsich, Clemens Bittl, Winfried Glasmann, Roland Seidl Technical services: Ingenieurbüro Hausladen, Kirchheim

This sports hall, which can be divided into three sections, has been built above a municipal underground car park in the middle of the old quarter of the town, in the courtyard of a former Jesuit college. The facade of perforated sheet aluminium results in shimmering coloured line effects – a discreet allusion to the use of the building. Various clubs and social organisations as well as a neighbouring school use the facilities. The ground floor contains the changing rooms, showers and toilets for the sports staff and the equipment rooms. The changing rooms and showers for all other users are situated alongside a glazed gallery on the upper floor providing a view of the town. In order to achieve a “thermal break” between the underground car park and the columns to the sports hall, the floor has been raised and insulated. The ensuing void accommodates floor ducts for the technical services and the remaining spaces are filled with a thermally insulating lightweight concrete. The coil heating installed in the sprung floor can be controlled separately for each of the three sections. The supply air is fed into the sports hall through displacement ventilation grilles at low level – with a constant temperature in winter, spring and autumn, but in the summer at a temperature that depends on the exterior temperature. Waste air is fed through sound-insulated elements into the changing rooms from where it is extracted from the showers. In summer the sports hall can also be ventilated naturally, and cooled at night, through louvre windows in the facade and vertical opening panels in the rooflights. The horizontal glazing to the rooflights is in the form of solar-control, impactresistant insulating glass in which a light-coloured, matt foil has been incorporated to scatter the incoming daylight and reduce glare. The high degree of reflection of the floor surface improves the level of daylight in interior. The objective of this project was to create maximum comfort for users with a minimum amount of energy. • Technical services routed through raised floor • Underfloor heating • Mechanical and natural ventilation º

Bauwelt 10/2007

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Example 14

Conversion of city and university library Frankfurt am Main, D, 2004 Architects: Frankfurt am Main Building Department Project team: Helmut Sachwitz, Stefanie Rook, Harald Leisinger

Nowadays, researching and studying in libraries no longer makes use of “analogue” facilities such as non-circulation collections or card indexes, but instead relies on digital facilities in the form of computers and the Internet. This adaptation to keep up with the needs of technical progress had become unavoidable in Frankfurt’s city and university library, designed by Ferdinand Kramer and built in the 1960s. A new interior concept was needed. This sober, spacious building, protected by a conservation order, has been refurbished and provided with demountable, furniture-type fitting-out elements. Separate containers and seating areas divide the foyer into common and research areas. The recurring element of the luminous wall of backlit opaque double-walled polycarbonate sheets on a steel framework is used to distribute cables and divide the interior into zones. In the reading room, “dual-purpose containers”, which are walk-in bookshelves and a reading platform at the same time, provide areas for working and browsing on two levels. Two meandering wooden walls along the window facade – “séparées” – provide more privacy for undisturbed working. The low-budget furniture made from black MDF make the originally spacious reading room seem more compact. The high number of visitors using the “séparées” and “dual-purpose containers” shows that the aim of this project, to create a contemporary and pleasant working atmosphere, has been achieved. • Distribution of cables in illuminated furniture • Furniture-type fitting-out

Plan of ground floor Foyer • Reading room Scale 1:500 1 2 3 4 5

Entrance Foyer Information Café “Book box”

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Conversion of city and university library

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Double-walled polycarbonate sheets, 10 mm, milky white translucent MDF bookshelf, 350 ≈ 300 ≈ 25 mm Steel hollow section, 40 ≈ 40 ≈ 2 mm, welded, white primer finish Bench back in reading corner, 25 mm MDF Bench seat in reading corner, 2 No. 25 mm MDF Bench support, 2 No. 25 mm MDF Platform for book corner, 2 No. 25 mm MDF 2 mm anodised aluminium perimeter strip 50 ≈ 40 mm timber framework Corner trim, 25 ≈ 25 mm anodised aluminium angle Anodised aluminium sheet, 2 mm 30 mm MDF, silver paint finish Fluorescent tube lighting with MDF fascia panel, 5 mm, white Birch veneer plywood, 30 mm

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Example 15

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Conversion of city and university library

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welded, white primer finish Double-walled polycarbonate sheets, 10 mm, milky white translucent Aluminium clamping rail, 40 ≈ 3 mm, on timber batten, 40 ≈ 40 mm, white Fluorescent tube lighting with MDF fascia panel, 5 mm, white Desktop, 830 ≈ 25 mm black MDF, matt paint finish Cutout for cables, 80 mm dia. Divider, 2 No. 12.5 mm MDF fitted to 100 ≈ 40 ≈ 4 mm aluminium angle Tubular steel leg, 20 dia. Bookshelves, 25 mm MDF

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Example 15

Workshops and offices Lindenberg, D, 2005 Architects: Lichtblau Architekten, Munich Florian Lichtblau, Wendelin Lichtblau Project team: Alexander Reichmann, Christoph Rein, Elmar Bäuml Energy concept: Ingenieurbüro Hausladen, Kirchheim

The workshops, which provide jobs for up to 140 disabled people with differing abilities, are located in the town of Lindenberg above Lake Constance. The climate in this region is characterised by a high level of solar radiation and, on average, cool temperatures. The use of ecological building materials and renewable energy media as well as low building and running costs were critical elements in this model project sponsored by the Ministry of Trade within the scope of its solar energy programme. Much of the highly insulated building envelope and the loadbearing structure is made from zero-carbon building materials such as wood and cellulose. Vacuum insulation panels are used on the spandrel panels. The south elevation employs double glazing, all other elevations triple glazing. Another important aspect of the fitting-out is the level of daylight in the interior. Above the windows, glass panels with transparent thermal insulation scatter the light deep into the interior, and special “lighting ducts” channel diffuse light from north-facing windows in the roof into the workshops on the ground floor. Pipes laid in the screed are used for heating or cooling from a direct groundwater coupling. In the workshops, the load for the underfloor heating would be too high and therefore radiant ceiling panels have been installed here. A boiler fired by wood pellets, which covers all peak loads, provides the high flow temperature necessary for these panels. A mechanical ventilation system with heat recovery ensures a hygienic air change rate. This system feeds the supply air through the workshops and from there via adjustable openings into the unheated workshop corridor, where it is heated by solar gains before being expelled to the outside through a heat exchanger. The air also flows into the ventilation loggias of the offices above and can be used via the doors as preheated supply air or expelled to the outside through louvres. • • • •

Groundwater usage Underfloor heating Mechanical ventilation “Lighting ducts”

Workshop Main corridor Deliveries Store room Metalworking shop

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Photovoltaic panel Waterproofing Prefabricated element: 25 mm wood-based panel product 300 ≈ 120 mm glued laminated timber rafters with 300 mm cellulose thermal insulation between 16 mm wood-based panel product Plasterboard, 12.5 mm Low E glazing: 6 mm tough. safety glass + 16 mm cavity + 8 mm lam. safety glass Multi-ply board, 30 mm, Swedish red paint finish, reflective foil Glazing, 6 mm low-iron, anti-reflection toughened safety glass Glazing, 2 No. 4 mm laminated safety glass Sound insulation, 100 mm

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Example 15

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Green roof: 80 mm substrate, 60 mm drainage root barrier, EPDM waterproofing 25 mm OSB 60 ≈ 300 mm glued laminated timber beam 300 mm cellulose thermal insulation vapour check 16 mm vapour-permeable wood-based panel product 40 mm wood-fibre insulating board Glass roof to main corridor: 12 mm tough. safety glass + 16 mm cavity + 16 mm lam. safety glass Glued laminated timber rafter, 80 ≈ 360 mm Glued laminated timber beam, 150 ≈ 400 mm Larch shiplap boarding, 30 mm 30 mm battens 16 mm vapour-permeable wood-based panel product 240 mm cellulose thermal insulation 15 mm OSB Glazing to workshops: 6 mm acid-etched tough. safety glass + 16 mm cavity + 6 mm tough. safety glass Ventilation louvre to loggia: 4 mm tough. safety glass + 16 mm cavity + 4 mm tough. safety glass

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Photovoltaic panel as fixed sunshade Glazing to loggia: 6 mm transparent tough. safety glass + 16 mm cavity + 6 mm tough. safety glass Glued laminated timber post, 60 ≈ 240 mm Glued laminated timber column, 300 mm dia. Fixed larch louvres, 150 ≈ 20 mm Larch floorboards, 140 ≈ 25 mm 80 ≈ 120 mm timber joists 100 mm mineral-fibre thermal insulation Magnesite flooring, 20 mm 80 mm screed with underfloor heating pipes, PE sheeting 25 mm impact sound insulation 25 mm loose fill, building paper to prevent loss of fill 7 180 mm edge-glued timber floor element Operating cable with trolley Supporting cable Fabric sunshade

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Headquarters of Dutch Roads & Waterways Agency

Headquarters of Dutch Roads & Waterways Agency Middelburg in Zeeland, NL, 2004 Architects: Paul de Ruiter, Amsterdam Project team: Dieter Blok, Monique Verhoef, Willeke Smit, Helga Traksel, Michael Noordam, Sander van Veen, Emma Franks, Melanie Go, Florent Rougemont, Jeroen Quanjier, Nicolle Flagiello Technical services: Halmos bv, The Hague

This very distinctive elongated block, the new headquarters of the Dutch Roads & Waterways Agency in Zeeland, denotes the border of the town of Middelburg. The building contains a crisis centre, from where all the lock gates in Zeeland can be controlled in an emergency, plus state archives, restaurant, conference area and fitness centre – a total floor area of about 12 000 m2. The structural and fitting-out grids permit flexible usage of traditional cellular office structures by distributing the workplaces according to requirements right up to separation of lettable areas. Telephone sockets, data lines and power supplies are available everywhere in the building on the 1.20 m facade grid. The resources-saving measures employed include the passive use of solar gains, the storage of heating and cooling energy in the ground plus thermoactive building systems. In addition, the environmental compatibility of the materials and methods used was checked. Thermoactive building systems make use of water-filled pipes, which are installed in the precast concrete floor elements alongside ventilation ducts, electric cables and data lines. The internal heat gains in the offices can therefore be dissipated by running cold water through the pipes in the concrete. As suspended ceilings are therefore generally unnecessary to conceal the services, it is possible to have higher ceilings which allows better use of daylight. The external louvres and high-level glazing on the southern elevation (re)direct the daylight deep into the interior. Together with the all-glass facade on the north side, this reduces the need for artificial lighting substantially. In the winter cooling energy is stored in the groundwater at a depth of about 65 m, which is tapped in the summer for cooling purposes. At another place in the soil, heat removed from the building in the summer is stored and with the help of heat pumps retrieved for heating the building in the winter. • Thermoactive building systems • Technical services routed through precast concrete floor elements • Louvres for (re)directing daylight into the interior • Storage of heating and cooling energy in the soil

Section • Plans Scale 1:1500

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Car parking Furniture store Store room Restaurant Kitchen

Servery Entrance hall Reception Workstations for part-time/field staff Meeting room Conference room Atrium Office zone for flexible usage Zone with low ceiling for routing services

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Headquarters of Dutch Roads & Waterways Agency

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Example 17

Plenary hall Munich, D, 2005 Architects: Staab Architekten, Berlin Volker Staab, Alfred Nieuwenhuizen Project team: Thomas Schmidt, Jens Achtermann, Ulf Theenhausen, Dirk Brändlin, Jurgen Rustler Technical services: Karl Pitscheider Ingenieurbüro, Munich Glass consultants: R + R Fuchs, Munich Acoustics consultants: Müller BBM, Planegg More space, more light, more colour and more flexibility – that’s how we could sum up the new plenary hall for the Bavarian State Parliament following its refurbishment. The totally different, now barrier-free, interior with its electrical installations and the latest media technology – all complying with the current fire safety regulations – satisfies the contemporary and functional demands placed on a modern plenary hall. A new central gallery on the western side provides seating for 133 visitors. The seats and desks for the members of parliament are arranged in concentric rows. There have been many changes behind the scenes as well. Partial air conditioning has been installed in the gently sloping raised access floor, which consists of a system of prefabricated steel sections and incombustible gypsum fibreboard panels. Supply air flows into the room via the front panels of the MPs’ desks. The partial vacuum above the glass ceiling enables the waste air to be extracted through the joints between the panels. The light-coloured oak veneer to the desks and the wall lining and the red leather upholstery reproduce the original colour scheme. The lighting design played a special role in the refurbishment work. The plenary hall is conceived as an interior illuminated by daylight from the fully glazed roof. Prismatic panels in the cavity between the panes of the 470 m2 glass roof reflect direct sunlight and therefore prevent glare problems as well as excessive solar gains. They redirect the intensive overhead light and diffuse daylight into the interior. Infinitely adjustable artificial lighting can be switched on to ensure optimum interior lighting conditions depending on the intensity of the daylight. More than 400 asymmetric-beam lamps have been installed between the glass roof and the suspended translucent ceiling below. Two independently dimmable lamps in each unit enable the interior to be illuminated with different light colours and brightness levels. The satin-finish glass still enables the colours of the sky to be perceived but the equipment and fittings in the roof space are only seen as blurred outlines.

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Examples 18

Offices Heimstetten, D, 2008 Architects: Udo Rieger, Isen Martina Thurner, Munich Structural engineers: Barthel & Maus, Munich Energy concept: Florian Hausladen, Heimstetten

Following a careful, durable and energy-optimised refurbishment project, this former industrial building now houses a drinks store on the ground floor and offices above. The existing volume was retained and so the task was to optimise the lighting, which up until the point of refurbishment had been provided through windows in the walls only. The new windows can be opened to allow fresh air into the interior. Additional, motorised Velux-type windows in the roof now ensure much better lighting conditions inside the building. A high-quality interior can be created efficiently and inexpensively by refurbishment measures such as an energyoptimised facade (internal insulation + thermal mass) and forming large glazed openings in the gables. Visible technical systems for controlling the interior temperature have been avoided; the building is heated by a groundwater heat pump with a total output of 43 kW. Owing to the low flow temperature of max. 30 °C, this system achieves the best possible performance figures. To achieve a 3 K cooling effect, 35.8 kW of cooling energy is extracted from the groundwater. Only 7.2 kW of electrical energy is required to drive the heat pump. The thermoactive floor slab makes a major contribution to ensuring a comfortable interior. In the winter the system outputs heat by radiation and convection. In the summer this effect is intentionally reversed: the concrete floor slab acts as a passive cooling element by lowering the flow temperature with the help of the cool groundwater. In the end there are many things that have contributed to making this project successful: the appeal of the location, the open office layout, which promotes communication, and the wellthought-out technical services solutions. Crucial for the well-being of the workers in the offices is, however, the comfort at their workplaces. And comfortable working conditions were the objective of this project. • Groundwater heat pump • Thermoactive floor slab • Underfloor heating

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Cooling case, summer: The groundwater is pumped to the heat exchanger from the production well. The groundwater at a temperature of 14 °C cools the flow circuit to 15 °C. Heat is removed from the interior through the pipes in the floor. Warm outside air entering the interior is cooled to a pleasant level. The temperature of the water in the return circuit to the heat exchanger is then 19 °C. Heating case, winter: Some 3 K of thermal energy is extracted from the cold groundwater at a temperature of 10 °C. The flow circuit temperature is regulated by the heat exchanger via the heat pump depending on the heating requirement. The underfloor heating provides an output of up to 50 W/m2.

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Production well Heat exchanger Re-injection well Heat pump Reception/ administration Meeting room Office open to underside of roof Office with mezzanine floor Office for management Escape balcony Printers Storage Sanitary facilities Common kitchen

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Lime-cement plaster, 10 mm 105 mm vertically perforated clay bricks 10 mm lime-cement plaster Column, 200 ≈ 100 ≈ 6.3 mm steel hollow section Fixed glazing, 8 mm toughened safety glass Media panel, 150 ≈ 80 mm spruce lining Glass door, 8 mm toughened safety glass Balustrade, 50 ≈ 10 mm steel flats Mezzanine floor: 60 mm floated screed with underfloor heating pipes 20 mm mineral wool impact sound insulation 160 mm reinforced concrete floor slab Beam casing, 15 mm birch plywood Transom, 20 mm birch plywood Suspended floor: 60 mm floated screed with underfloor heating pipes 20 mm polystyrene impact sound insulation 40 mm polystyrene thermal insulation 160 mm reinforced concrete slab Wooden floorboards, 28 mm 12 mm OSB 80 mm timber joists with cutouts for cable trunking

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Example 19

Radiotherapy clinic Altötting, D, 2006 Architects: Albert Koeberl, Passau Assistant: Andreas Gerlinger Dry lining contractor: Baierl+Demmelhuber, Töging

Even from a distance, this new radiotherapy clinic for Altötting Hospital stands out because of its bright yellow colour scheme. Visible through the glazed facades, the yellow dominating the interior of the building gives it a distinctive appearance. Free-standing, curved, tilted and arched internal walls create a unique spatial impression. They open up to reveal cosy corners with seating in the waiting zone, widen out to form bays in which the changing rooms are accommodated, and surround the reception area with its computer screens and desks. The dry lining contractor fabricated full-scale templates made from a wood-based product in order to build this complex set of wall geometries that were designed beforehand as a 3D model in the computer. The templates together with metal hollow sections form the framework for the plasterboard-clad fitting-out elements. To make sure that the surfaces appear completely smooth even with a glancing light, additional filling and skim coats were necessary. A twopart epoxy resin coating was used for the final finish. This material was also used on the floor, which merges into the walls. The therapy rooms themselves are enclosed by 1.8 m thick concrete walls to prevent the radiation escaping to the outside. Inside, they are designed as abstract white capsules in which cupboards, technical equipment and ventilation are integrated into the plasterboard lining. Three coloured fluorescent tubes, concealed between the structural roof slab and a translucent stretched fabric ceiling, can be used to generate various light colours according to the RGB principle. In contrast to the typical confined and dark therapy rooms, the idea here was to create a bright, friendly atmosphere.

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Radiotherapy clinic

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Template, 30 mm MDF Solid epoxy resin coating on bond enhancer 2 No. 12.5 mm plasterboard 30 ≈ 50 mm planed timber sections max. 180 mm mineral wool thermal insulation 40 ≈ 40 ≈ 3 mm free-standing steel hollow section 2 No. 12.5 mm plasterboard, coated Solid epoxy resin floor coating

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80 mm shot-peened calcium sulphate screed separating layer, PE sheeting 2 No. 60 mm polystyrene thermal insulation 10 mm undercoat 200 mm reinforced concrete Table, 40 mm wood-fibre board, painted yellow Fluorescent tube lighting Timber 2-part fixing rail

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Example 19

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Reinforced concrete, 250 mm Extract-air duct MDF batten with cutouts, 40 ≈ 70 mm Bendable wood-fibre board, 19 mm, painted white Particleboard, 19 mm, plastic facing Steel angle, 60 ≈ 30 ≈ 6 mm Laser Supply-air duct Ventilation grille, 1.5 mm sheet aluminium with

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square perforations Solid epoxy resin floor coating, conductive 80 mm shot-peened calcium sulphate screed separating layer, PE sheeting 2 No. 60 mm polystyrene thermal insulation 10 mm undercoat 420 mm reinforced concrete ground slab Fluorescent tube lighting Stretched fabric ceiling, translucent white with 64 % light permeability Bracket Plastic edge bead rail

Orthodontic practice

Orthodontic practice Mindelheim, D, 2007 Architects: Landau + Kindelbacher, Munich Assistant: Christiane Kern Furniture: Engel Möbelwerkstätten, Stetten-Erisried

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When it comes to teeth in particular, patients must feel comfortable and cared-for. This is the feeling conveyed by this orthodontic practice which occupies the entire first floor of a building that is part of a complex protected by a conservation order. The interior architects have created a loft-type layout without intervening columns. The furniture with its organic design language creates an interior layout that does not interfere in any way with the fabric of the building. A “portal” of painted MDF boards frames the reception. Here, where the patient arrives, the front panel to the reception desk is covered with leather, a material with a pleasant feel. The waiting zone is made up of individual seating areas, a curving cupboard for the dental impressions separates the corridor to the laboratory and offices from the treatment area. There are hardly any doors in the areas open to patients and so the functions merge, which guarantees optimum treatment. The illuminated ceiling spanning over the entire area is on different levels and includes rounded cutouts that continue the design concept of the furniture below. The lighting has been designed for the respective working situations, which makes it possible to use different light colours to create different atmospheres. The luminaires so typical of such situations are absent from the treatment area and so the medical practice character is reduced here. Throughout the interior, the suspended ceiling ensures agreeable room acoustics. The plasterboard with its perforations in three different sizes has a soundabsorbent fleece backing. Colour has been deliberately avoided and so the texture of the ceiling helps to break up the surfaces. • Space-forming furniture • Suspended ceiling with different levels • Tailored task lighting º

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Example 20

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MDF, 19 mm, satin paint finish 40 ≈ 80 mm timber battens 19 mm MDF Artificial leather on 19 mm MDF Acoustic ceiling, 12.5 mm Fluorescent tube lighting Plasterboard, 12.5 mm Built-in low-voltage spotlight, 12 mm dia. MDF, 19 mm 70 ≈ 200 mm timber beam 19 mm MDF Counter surface, 8 mm clear glass 25 mm MDF Wooden quadrant moulding, 40 ≈ 40 mm Cement screed finish, 5 mm 115 mm screed with underfloor heating reinforced concrete (existing) MDF, 19 mm, satin paint finish Timber batten, 35 ≈ 80 mm Threaded bar, steel, 20 mm dia. Aluminium channel, 27 mm 12.5 mm MDF, satin paint finish built-in downlight Shelf, 5 mm, in 5 mm aluminium rail Worktop and wash-basin, 12 mm acrylic-bonded mineral material

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Statutory instruments, directives, standards

Statutory instruments, directives, standards The EU has issued directives for a number of products, the particular aim of which is to ensure the safety and health of users. These directives must be implemented in the EU member states in the form of compulsory legislation and regulations. The directives themselves do not contain any technical details, but instead only lay down the mandatory underlying requirements. The corresponding technical values are specified in associated sets of technical rules (e.g. codes of practice) and in the form of EN standards harmonised throughout Europe. Generally, the technical rules provide advice and information for everyday activities. They are not statutory instruments, but rather give users decision-making aids, guidelines for implementing technical procedures correctly and /or practical information for turning legislation into practice. The use of the technical rules is not compulsory; only when they have been included in government legislation or other statutory instruments do they become mandatory, or when the parties to a contract include them in their conditions. In Germany the technical rules include DIN standards, VDI directives and other publications such as the Technical Rules for Hazardous Substances. The standards are divided into product, application and testing standards. They often relate to just one specific group of materials or products, and are based on the corresponding testing and calculation methods for the respective materials and components. The latest edition of a standard – which should correspond with the state of the art – always applies. A new or revised standard is first published as a draft for public discussion before (probably with revisions) it is finally adopted as a valid standard. The origin and area of influence of a standard can be gleaned from its designation: • DIN plus number (e.g. DIN 4108) is essentially a national document (drafts are designated with “E” and preliminary standards with “V”). • DIN EN plus number (e.g. DIN EN 335) is a German edition of a European standard – drawn up by the European Standardisation Organisation CEN – that has been adopted without amendments. • DIN EN ISO (e.g. DIN EN ISO 13786) is a standard with national, European and worldwide influence. Based on a standard from the International Standardisation Organisation ISO, a European standard was drawn up, which was then adopted as a DIN standard. • DIN ISO (e.g. DIN ISO 2424) is a German edition of an ISO standard that has been adopted without amendments.The following compilation represents a selection of statutory instruments, directives and standards that reflects the state of the art regarding building materials and building material applications as of August 2009.

Part A Light and space Comfort DIN EN 1946-2 Thermal performance of building products and components – Specific criteria for the assessment of laboratories measuring heat transfer properties – Part 2: Measurements by the guarded hot plate method. Apr 1999 DIN 4108-2 Thermal protection and energy economy in buildings – Part 2: Minimum requirements for thermal insulation. Jul 2003 DIN EN ISO 7730 Ergonomics of the thermal environment – Analytical determination and interpretation of thermal comfort using calculation of the PMV and PPD indices and local thermal comfort criteria. May 2006 Light ASR 7/1 Sichtverbindung nach außen. Apr 1976 DIN 5031 Optical radiation physics and illuminating engineering part 1: Quantities, symbols and units of radiation physics. Mar 1982

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part 2: Evaluation of radiation by different detectors. Mar 1982 part 3: Quantities, symbols and units for lighting engineering. Mar 1982 part 4: Efficiencies. Mar 1982 part 5: Definitions for temperatures. Mar 1982 part 6: Pupil intensity as a measure of retinal illumination. Mar 1982 part 7: Terms for wavebands. Jan 1984 part 8: Definitions and constants of radiation physics. Mar 1982 part 9: Definitions in the field of luminescence. Mar 1982 part 10: Photobiologically effective radiation, quantities, symbols and actions. Mar 2000 DIN 5034 Daylight in interiors part 1: General requirements. Oct 1999 part 2: Principles. Feb 1985 part 3: Calculation. Feb 2007 DIN 5036 Radiometric and photometric properties of materials part 1: Definitions, characteristics. Jul 1978 part 3: Methods of measurement for photometric and spectral radiometric characteristics. Nov 1979 part 4: Classification. Aug 1977 DIN 6169 Colour rendering part 1: General terms. Jan 1976 part 2: Colour rendering properties of light sources in the field of lighting. Feb 1976 part 4: Method of specifying colour reproduction in colour photography. May 1976 part 5: Method of specifying object-related colour reproduction in multicolour printing. Jan 1976 part 6: Method of specifying colour reproduction in colour television cameras. Jan 1976 part 7: Method of specifying colour reproduction of film scanning in colour television. Sept 1976 part 8: Method of specifying colour image-related colour reproduction in multicolour printing. Sept 1976 DIN EN 410 Glass in building – Determination of luminous and solar characteristics of glazing. Dec 1998 DIN EN 12464 Light and lighting – Lighting of workplaces part 1: Indoor workplaces. Mar 2003 part 2: Outdoor workplaces. Oct 2007 Materials DIN 276-1 Building costs – Part 1: Building construction. Dec 2008 DIN 1045-1 Concrete, reinforced and prestressed concrete structures – Part 1: Design and construction. Aug 2008 DIN 1053-1 Masonry – Part 1: Design and construction. Nov 1996 DIN 4102-1 Fire behaviour of building materials and building components – Part 1: Building materials; concepts, requirements and tests. May 1998 DIN 18960 User costs of buildings. Feb 2008 DIN 31051 Fundamentals of maintenance. Jun 2003 DIN 68364 Properties of wood species – Density, modulus of elasticity and strength. May 2003 DIN EN 197-1 Cement – Part 1: Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common cements. Sept 2004 DIN EN 206-1 Concrete – Part 1: Specification, performance, production and conformity. Jul 2001 DIN EN 572-1 Glass in building – Basic soda lime silicate glass products – Part 1: Definitions and general physical and mechanical properties. Sept 2004 DIN EN 934-2 Admixtures for concrete, mortar and grout – Part 2: Concrete admixtures – Definitions, requirements, conformity, marking and labelling. Sept 2008 DIN EN 10020 Definition and classification of grades of steel. Jul 2000 DIN EN 12620 Aggregates for concrete. Jul 2008 DIN EN 13139 Aggregates for mortar. Aug 2002 DIN EN 13318 Screed material and floor screeds – Definitions. Dec 2000 DIN EN 13501-1 Fire classification of construction products and building elements – Part 1: Classification using data from reaction to fire tests. Jan 2007 DIN EN 13813 Screed material and floor screeds – Screed materials – Properties and requirements. Jan 2003

DIN 4108-4 Thermal insulation and energy economy in buildings part 4 (pre-standard): Hygrothermal design values. Jun 2007 part 10: Application-related requirements for thermal insulation materials – Factory-made products. Jun 2008 DIN V 18550 (pre-standard) Plastering/rendering and plastering/rendering systems – Execution. Apr 2005 GEFMA 200 Kostenrechnung im Facility Management GEFMA Richtlinie 220-1 Lebenszykluskostenrechnung im FM; Einführung und Grundlagen. Jun 2006

Part B

Integrated planning

Concepts and building typologies BINE Themeninfo Gebäude sanieren – Schulen. 01/2006 DIN 4108 Thermal insulation and energy economy in buildings  part 2: Minimum requirements to thermal insulation. Jul 2003 part 6 (pre-standard): Calculation of annual heat and energy use. Jun 2003 DIN 7730 Ergonomics of the thermal environment – Analytical determination and interpretation of thermal comfort using calculation of the PMV and PPD indices and local thermal comfort criteria. May 2006 DIN EN 15251 Indoor environmental input parameters for design and assessment of energy performance of buildings addressing indoor air quality, thermal environment, lighting and acoustics. Aug 2007 DIN V 18599 (pre-standard) Energy efficiency of buildings – Calculation of the net, final and primary energy demand for heating, cooling, ventilation, domestic hot water and lighting. Feb 2007 VDI 2050 Blatt 1: Technical rule. Requirements at technique centres – Technical bases for planning and execution. Dec 2006 VDI 3807 Characteristic value of energy and water consumption in buildings Blatt 1: Fundamentals. Mar 2007 Blatt 2: Heating and electricity. Jun 1998 Blatt 4: Characteristic values for electrical energy. Aug 2008 Energy and buildings DIN 4108 Thermal insulation and energy economy in buildings DIN V 4701-10 (pre-standard) Energy efficiency of heating and ventilation systems in buildings – Part 10: Heating, domestic hot water supply, ventilation. Aug 2003 DIN V 18599 (pre-standard) Energy efficiency of buildings – Calculation of the net, final and primary energy demand for heating, cooling, ventilation, domestic hot water and lighting. Feb 2007 EnEV, Appendix 1, section 2.1.1. 2009 EnEV, cl. 3, para 1. 2009 EnEV, cl. 5. 2009 Energy supplies DIN V 18599-5 (pre-standard) Energy efficiency of buildings – Calculation of the net, final and primary energy demand for heating, cooling, ventilation, domestic hot water and lighting – Part 5: Final energy demand of heating systems. Feb 2007 DIN V 4701 (pre-standard) Energy efficiency of heating and ventilation systems in buildings. Aug 2003 Energieeinsparverordnung 2009 (EnEV)

Part C Finishing and fitting-out General DIN 4102 Fire behaviour of building materials and building components  DIN 4108 Thermal insulation and energy economy in buildings DIN 4109 Sound insulation in buildings; requirements and testing. Beiblatt 1: construction examples and calculation methods. Nov 1989

Statutory instruments, directives, standards

DIN 18180 Gypsum plasterboards – Types and requirements. Jan 2007 DIN 18181 Gypsum plasterboards for building construction – Application. Oct 2008 DIN 18182 Accessories for use with gypsum plasterboards DIN 18184 Gypsum plaster boards with polystyrene or polyurethane rigid foam as insulating material. Oct 2008 DIN 68127 Acoustic boards. Aug 1970 DIN 68740-2 Panels – Part 2: Veneer outer layers on wood-based panels. Oct 1999 DIN 68762 Chipboard for special purposes in building construction; concepts, requirements, testing. Mar 1982 DIN EN 520 Gypsum plasterboards – Definitions, requirements and test methods. Dec 2004 DIN EN ISO 10456 Building materials and products – Hygrothermal properties – Tabulated design values and procedures for determining declared and design thermal values. Apr 2008 DIN EN 13162 Thermal insulation products for buildings – Factory-made mineral wool (MW) products – Specification. Feb 2009 DIN EN 13163 Thermal insulation products for buildings – Factory-made products of expanded polystyrene (EPS) – Specification. Feb 2009 DIN EN 13164 Thermal insulation products for buildings – Factory-made products of extruded polystyrene foam (XPS) – Specification. Feb 2009 DIN EN 13165 Thermal insulation products for buildings – Factory-made rigid polyurethane foam (PUR) products – Specification. Feb 2009 DIN EN 13166 Thermal insulation products for buildings – Factory-made products of phenolic foam (PF) – Specification. Feb 2009 DIN EN 13167 Thermal insulation products for buildings – Factory-made cellular glass (CG) products – Specification. Feb 2009 DIN EN 13168 Thermal insulation products for buildings – Factory-made wood-wool (WW) products – Specification. Feb 2009 DIN EN 13169 Thermal insulation products for buildings – Factory-made products of expanded perlite (EPB) – Specification. Feb 2009 DIN EN 13170 Thermal insulation products for buildings – Factory-made products of expanded cork (ICB) – Specification. Feb 2009 DIN EN 13171 Thermal insulating products for buildings – Factory-made wood-fibre (WF) products – Specification. Feb 2009 DIN EN 13986 Wood-based panels for use in construction – Characteristics, evaluation of conformity and marking. Mar 2005 DIN EN 14195 Metal framing components for gypsum plasterboard systems – Definitions, requirements and test methods. May 2005 DIN EN 14322 Wood-based panels – Melamine-faced boards for interior uses – Definitions, requirements and classification. Jun 2004 DIN EN 14566 Mechanical fasteners for gypsum plasterboard systems – Definitions, requirements and test methods. Oct 2009 DIN EN ISO 354 Acoustics – Measurement of sound absorption in a reverberation room. Dec 2003 DIN EN ISO 11654 Acoustics – Sound absorbers for use in buildings – Rating of sound absorption. Jul 1997 VDI 4100 Technical rule. Noise control in dwellings – Criteria for planning and assessment. Aug 2007 Wall systems DIN 4103-1 Internal non-loadbearing partitions – Part 1: requirements, testing. Jul 1984 DIN 18101 Doors; doors for residential buildings; sizes of door leaves, position of hinges and lock, interdependence of dimensions. Jan 1985 DIN 18111 Door frames – Steel door frames. Aug 2008 DIN 68706 Interior doors made from wood and woodbased panels. Feb 2002 Ceiling systems DIN 18168 Ceiling linings and suspended ceilings with gypsum plasterboards part 1: Requirements for construction. Apr 2007

part 2: Verification of the load-carrying capacity of metal sub-constructions and metal suspending rods. May 2008 DIN EN 13964 Suspended ceilings – Requirements and test methods. Feb 2007 Flooring systems DIN EN 12431 Thermal insulating products for building applications – Determination of thickness for floating floor insulating products. Jun 2007 DIN EN 12825 Raised access floors. Apr 2002 DIN EN 13213 Hollow floors. Dec 2001

Part D Technical services Heating DIN 4703 Heating appliances. DIN 4726 Warm water surface heating systems and radiator connecting systems – Plastics piping systems and multilayer piping systems. Oct 2008 DIN EN 215 Thermostatic radiator valves – Requirements and test methods. Nov 2007 DIN EN 442 Radiators and convectors. Dec 2003 DIN EN 1264 Floor heating – Systems and components. DIN EN 14037 Ceiling-mounted radiant panels supplied with water at temperature below 120 °C. Aug 2003 DIN EN 15316-2-1 Heating systems in buildings – Method for calculation of system energy requirements and system efficiencies – Part 2-1: Space heating emission systems. Oct 2007 DIN 18599 (pre-standard) Energy efficiency of buildings – Calculation of the net, final and primary energy demand for heating, cooling, ventilation, domestic hot water and lighting. Feb 2007 VDI 2067 Technical rule. Economic efficiency of building installations Blatt 10: Energy requirements for heated and air-conditioned buildings. Jun 1998 Blatt 11: Calculation of energy requirements for heated and air-conditioned buildings. 1998-06 VDI 3805 Blatt 2: Technical rule. Product data exchange in the building services – Heating value assemblies. Feb 2003 VDI 6030 Blatt 1: Technical rule. Designing free heating surfaces – Fundamentals – Designing of heating appliances. Jul 2002 Ventilation DIN 1946 Ventilation and air conditioning  part 4: Ventilation in buildings and rooms of health care. Dec 2008 part 6: Ventilation for residential buildings – General requirements, requirements for measuring, performance and labelling, delivery/acceptance (certification) and maintenance. May 2009 DIN 18017-3 Ventilation of bathrooms and WCs without outside windows – Part 3: Ventilation by fans. Jul 2009 DIN EN 12097 Ventilation for buildings – Ductwork – Requirements for ductwork components to facilitate maintenance of ductwork systems. Nov 2006 DIN EN 12238 Ventilation for buildings – Air terminal devices – Aerodynamic testing and rating for mixed flow application. Dec 2001 DIN EN 12239 Ventilation for buildings – Air terminal devices – Aerodynamic testing and rating for displacement flow applications. Nov 2001 DIN EN 12792 Ventilation for buildings – Symbols, terminology and graphical symbols. Jan 2004 DIN EN 13779 Ventilation for non-residential buildings – Performance requirements for ventilation and roomconditioning systems. Sept 2007 DIN EN 14240 Ventilation for buildings – Chilled ceilings – Testing and rating. Apr 2004 DIN EN 15251 Indoor environmental input parameters for design and assessment of energy performance of buildings addressing indoor air quality, thermal environment, lighting and acoustics. Apr 2007 DIN EN 15665 Ventilation for buildings – Determining performance criteria for residential ventilation systems. Jul 2009

DIN EN ISO 13790 Energy performance of buildings – Calculation of energy use for space heating and cooling. Sept 2008 DIN V 4701-10 (pre-standard) Energy efficiency of heating and ventilation systems in buildings – Part 10: Heating, domestic hot water supply, ventilation. Aug 2003 VDI 6035 Technical rule. Ventilation and air-conditioning technology – Decentralized ventilation systems – Wall-mounted air-conditioners (VDI ventilation code of practice). Sept 2009 Cooling DIN EN 1264-5 Embedded water-based surface heating and cooling systems – Part 5: Heating and cooling surfaces embedded in floors, ceilings and walls – Determination of the thermal output. Jan 2009 DIN EN 14240 Ventilation for buildings – Chilled ceilings – Testing and rating. Apr 2004 DIN EN 15241 Ventilation for buildings – Calculation methods for energy losses due to ventilation and infiltration in commercial buildings. Sept 2007 DIN EN 15316-4-3 Heating systems in buildings – Method for calculation of system energy requirements and system efficiencies – Part 4-3: Heat generation systems, thermal solar systems. Oct 2007 DIN EN 15377 Heating systems in buildings – Design of embedded water-based surface heating and cooling systems part 1: Determination of the design heating and cooling capacity. Feb 2009 part 3: Optimizing for use of renewable energy sources. Dec 2007 Coil heating DIN 4726 Warm water surface heating systems and radiator connecting systems – Plastics piping systems and multilayer piping systems. Oct 2008 Induction units DIN EN 12589 Ventilation for buildings – Air terminal units – Aerodynamic testing and rating of constant and variable rate terminal units. Jan 2002 Air conditioning DIN 1946-6 Ventilation and air conditioning – Part 6: Ventilation for residential buildings – General requirements, requirements for measuring, performance and labelling, delivery/acceptance (certification) and maintenance. May 2009 DIN EN 1886 Ventilation for buildings – Air-handling units – Mechanical performance. Jul 2009 Sunshades DIN EN 13363 Solar protection devices combined with glazing – Calculation of solar and light transmittance part 1: Simplified method. Sept 2007 part 2: Detailed calculation method. May 2005 Passive cooling DIN EN 15242 Ventilation for buildings – Calculation methods for the determination of air flow rates in buildings including infiltration. Sept 2007 DIN EN ISO 13791 Thermal performance of buildings – Calculation of internal temperatures of a room in summer without mechanical cooling – General criteria and validation procedures. Feb 2005 Heating load DIN EN 12831 Heating systems in buildings – Method for calculation of the design heat load. Aug 2003 Cooling load VDI 2078 Blatt 1: Technical rule. Cooling load calculation of air-conditioned buildings with room-conditioning from cooled walls and ceilings. Feb 2003 HVAC, general DIN 4108 Thermal protection and energy economy in buildings part 2: Minimum requirements to thermal insulation. Jul 2003

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part 6 (pre-standard): Calculation of annual heat and energy use. Jun 2003 Planning the electrical installation VDI 3807 Technical rule. Characteristic value of energy and water consumption in buildings Blatt 1: Fundamentals. Mar 2007 Blatt 2: Heating and electricity. Jun 1998 Blatt 3: Characteristic values of water consumption inside buildings and on adjacent ground. Jul 2000 Blatt 4: Characteristic values for electrical energy. Aug 2008 Electrical installations, housing DIN 18015 Electrical installations in residential buildings part 1: Planning principles. Sept 2007 part 2: Nature and extent of minimum equipment. Aug 2004 part 3: Wiring and disposition of electrical equipment. Jan 2008 Electrical installations, symbols DIN EN 60617 Graphical symbols for diagrams; parts 1 to 11. Aug 1997 Electrical installations, protection DIN VDE 0100-410 Low-voltage electrical installations – Part 4- 41: Protection for safety – Protection against electric shock. Jun 2007 DIN VDE 0105 Operation of electrical installations – Part 100: General requirements. Oct 2009 Electrical installations, equipment and fittings RAL-RG 678 Elektrische Anlagen in Wohngebäuden – Anforderungen. Sept 2004 Electrical installations, cutting chases in masonry DIN 1053-1 Masonry – Part 1: Design and construction. Nov 1996 DIN 18330 German construction contract procedures (VOB) – Part C: General technical specifications in construction contracts (ATV) – Masonry work. Apr 2010 Electrical installations, fire safety DIN 4102 Fire behaviour of building materials and building components. Electrical installations, building automation DIN EN ISO 16484 Building automation and control systems (BACS) DIN EN ISO 16 484 Systeme der Gebäudeautomation (GA) part 2: Hardware. Oct 2004 part 3: Functions Dec 2005 part 5: Data communication protocol. May 2008 part 6: Data communication conformance testing. Apr 2006 VDI 3813 Blatt 1: Room automation – Fundamentals. May 2007 VDI 3814 Technical rule. Building automation and control systems (BACS) Blatt 1: System basics. May 2005 Blatt 2: Legislation, technical rules. Jul 2009 Blatt 3: Advice for technical building management – Planning, operation, and maintenance. Jun 2007 Blatt 5: Advice for system integration. Jan 2000 VDI 6015 BUS Technical rule. -systems in building installation – Application examples. Mar 2003 Planning the sanitary installation AVBWasserV Verordnung über Allgemeine Bedingungen für die Versorgung mit Wasser. 1980-06 DIN 1053-1 Masonry – Part 1: Design and construction. Nov 1996 (p. 19f.) DIN 1986 Drainage systems on private ground part 3: Specifications for service and maintenance. Nov 2004 part 4: Fields of application of sewage pipes and fittings of different materials. Feb 2003 part 30: Maintenance. Feb 2003 part 100: Specifications in relation to DIN EN 752 and

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DIN EN 12056. May 2008 DIN 1988 Drinking water supply systems part 1: General (DVGW code of practice). Dec 1988 part 2: Materials, components, appliances, design and installation (DVGW code of practice). Dec 1988 part 3: Pipe sizing (DVGW code of practice). Dec 1988 part 3, Beiblatt 1: examples for calculation (DVGW code of practice). Dec 1988 part 4: Drinking water protection and drinking water quality control (DVGW code of practice). Dec 1988 part 5: Pressure boosting and reduction (DVGW code of practice). Dec 1988 part 6: Fire-fighting and fire protection installations (DVGW code of practice). May 2002 part 7: Prevention of corrosion and scaling (DVGW code of practice). Dec 2004 part 8: Operation (DVGW code of practice). Dec 1988 DIN 1989-1 Rainwater harvesting systems – Part 1: Planning, installation, operation and maintenance. Apr 2002 DIN 2000 Central drinking water supply – Guidelines regarding requirements for drinking water, planning, construction, operation and maintenance of plants – Technical rule of the DVGW. Oct 2000 DIN 2001 Drinking water supply from small units and non stationary plants part 1: Small units – Guidelines for drinking water, planning, construction, operation and maintenance of plants; Technical rule of the DVGW. May 2007 part 2: Non-stationary units – Guidelines for drinking water, planning, construction, operation and maintenance of units; Technical rule of the DVGW. Jun 2007 DIN 18012 House service connections facilities – Principles for planning. May 2008 DIN 18024 Barrier-free built environment part 1: Streets, squares, paths, public transport, recreation areas and playgrounds – Design principles. Jan 1998 part 2: Publicly accessible buildings and workplaces, design principles. Nov 1996 DIN 18025 Accessible dwellings part 1: Dwellings for wheelchair users, design principles. Dec 1992 part 2: Design principles. Dec 1992 DIN 18040 Construction of accessible buildings – Design principles part 1: Publicly accessible buildings. Feb 2009 part 2: Dwellings. Feb 2009 DIN 18381 German construction contract procedures (VOB) – Part C: General technical specifications in construction contracts (ATV) – Installation of gas, water and drainage pipework inside buildings. Apr 2010 DIN 50930-6 Corrosion of metals – Corrosion of metallic materials under corrosion load by water inside of tubes, tanks and apparatus – Part 6: Influence of the composition of drinking water. Aug 2001 DIN EN 1717 Protection against pollution of potable water installations and general requirements of devices to prevent pollution by backflow – Technical rule of the DVGW. May 2001 DIN EN 12050-3 Waste-water lifting plants for buildings and sites – Principles of construction and testing – Part 3: Lifting plants for waste-water containing faecal matter for limited application. May 2001 DIN EN 12056 Gravity drainage systems inside buildings part 1: General and performance requirements. Jan 2001 part 2: Sanitary pipework, layout and calculation. Jan 2001 part 3: Roof drainage, layout and calculation. Jan 2001 part 4: Waste-water lifting plants, layout and calculation. Jan 2001 part 5: Installation and testing, instructions for operation, maintenance and use. Jan 2001 DIN EN 12502 Protection of metallic materials against corrosion – Guidance on the assessment of corrosion likelihood in water distribution and storage systems part 1: General. Mar 2005 part 2: Influencing factors for copper and copper

alloys. Mar 2005 part 3: Influencing factors for hot dip galvanised ferrous materials. Mar 2005 part 4: Influencing factors for stainless steels. Mar 2005 part 5: Influencing factors for cast iron, unalloyed and low alloyed steels. Mar 2005 DVGW W 551 Arbeitsblatt Trinkwassererwärmungs- und Trinkwasserleitungsanlagen; Technische Maßnahmen zur Verminderung des Legionellenwachstums; Planung, Errichtung, Betrieb und Sanierung von TrinkwasserInstallationen. Apr 2004 DVGW W 553 Arbeitsblatt Bemessung von Zirkulationssystemen in zentralen Trinkwassererwärmungsanlagen. Dec 1998 DWA-A 138 Planung, Bau und Betrieb von Anlagen zur Versickerung von Niederschlagswasser. Apr 2005 DWA-M 153 Handlungsempfehlungen zum Umgang mit Regenwasser. Aug 2007 EnEV Verordnung über energiesparenden Wärmeschutz und energiesparende Anlagentechnik bei Gebäuden (Anlage 5). Jul 2007 TrinkwV B Verordnung über die Qualität von Wasser für den menschlichen Gebrauch. May 2001 VDI 4100 Technical rule. Noise control in dwellings – Criteria for planning and assessment. Aug 2007 VDI 6023 Blatt 1: Technical rule. Hygiene for drinking water supply systems – Requirements for planning, design, operation, and maintenance. Jul 2006 VDI 6001 Blatt 1: Technical rule. Reconstruction of tap-water installations – Water intended for human consumption. Jul 2004 VDI 6000 Technical rule. Provision and installation of sanitary facilities Blatt 1: Private housing. Feb 2008 Blatt 2: Workplaces and workstations. Nov 2007 Blatt 3: Public buildings and areas. Nov 2007 Blatt 4: Hotel rooms. Nov 2006 Blatt 5: Housing for the elderly, old people’s homes, nursing homes. Nov 2004 Blatt 6: Kindergarten, day-care centres, schools. Nov 2006 ZVSHK Betriebsanleitung Trinkwasserinstallation. May 2005 ZVSHK Betriebsanleitung Regenwassernutzungsanlage. Sept 2005 ZVSHK Betriebsanleitung Entwässerungsanlage. May 2005 ZVSHK Merkblatt Spülen, Desinfizieren und Inbetriebnahme von Trinkwasser-Installationen. Oct 2004 ZVSHK Merkblatt Dichtheitsprüfungen von TrinkwasserInstallationen. 2004 Space requirements for technical services VDI 2050 Blatt 1: Technical rule. Requirements at technique centres – Technical basis for planning and execution. Dec 2006 VDI 2050 Blatt 2: Technical rule. Central heating installations – Free-standing central heating installations – Engineering principles for planning and design. Sept 1995 VDI 2050 Blatt 5: Technical rule (draft). Requirements at technique centres – Electrical engineering. Sept 2007

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Part A Light and space Comfort Baier, Franz Xaver, in: Der Architekt, 7/01, Geschmackssache. Kunst- und Ausstellungshalle der Bundesrepublik Deutschland . Göttingen, 1994 Daidalos – Architektur, Kunst, Kultur, 51/1994 Daniels, Klaus: Gebäudetechnik – Ein Leitfaden für Architekten und Ingenieure. Munich, 2000 Dürr, Hans-Peter; Oesterreicher, Marianne: Wir erleben mehr als wir begreifen. Freiburg, 2001 Feldenkrais, Moshe: Die Feldenkraismethode in Aktion. Paderborn, 1990 Hausladen, Gerhard; de Saldana, Michael; Liedl, Petra; Sager, Christina: ClimaDesign – Lösungen für Gebäude, die mit weniger Technik mehr können. Munich, 2005 Hedgecoe, John: The Art of Color Photogaphy. London, 1998 Hegger, Manfred et al.: Energy Manual, Munich / Basel, 2008 Heller, Eva: Wie Farben wirken. Reinbeck, 1989 Herzog, Thomas et al.: Facade Construction Manual. Munich/Basel, 2004 König, Holger: Wege zum gesunden Bauen. Staufen, 1998 Oswald, Philip (ed.); Rexroth, Susanne: Wohltemperierte

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Part B

Integrated planning

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Bundesverband der Gipsindustrie e.V. (pub.): IGG Merkblatt 5: Bäder und Feuchträume im Holz- und Trockenbau. Darmstadt, 2006 Bundesverband der Gipsindustrie e.V. (pub.): IGG Merkblatt 6: Trockenbauflächen aus Gipsplatten zur weitergehenden Oberflächenbeschichtung bzw. -bekleidung. Darmstadt, 2006 Bundesverband der Gipsindustrie e.V. (pub.): IGG Merkblatt 7: CE-Kennzeichnung von Gipsplatten. Darmstadt, 2006 Bundesverband Systemböden e.V. (pub.): Allgemeine Technische Vertragsbedingungen für Hohlboden- und Doppelbodenarbeiten. Düsseldorf, 2004 Daniels, Klaus: Gebäudetechnik. Munich, 1992 Daniels, Klaus: Low-Tech Light-Tech High-Tech, Bauen in der Informationsgesellschaft. Basel / Boston / Berlin, 1998 Eisele, Staniek: Bürobauatlas. Munich, 2005 Entwicklungsgemeinschaft Holzbau (EGH) in der DGfH (pub.): Informationsdienst Holz, Holzbau Handbuch, Reihe 1, Entwurf und Konstruktion. Teil 14: Umbau / Modernisierung, Folge 3: Nachträglicher Dachgeschossausbau. Munich, 1992 Entwicklungsgemeinschaft Holzbau (EGH) in der DGfH (pub.): Informationsdienst Holz, Holzbau Handbuch, Reihe 3, Bauphysik. Teil 3: Schallschutz, Folge 3: Holzbalkendecken. Düsseldorf, 1993 Fachkommission Bauaufsicht der ARGEBAU: Musterrichtlinie über brandschutztechnische Anforderungen an Systemböden (Muster-Systembödenrichtlinie – MSysBöR). Berlin, 2005 Frikell, Eckhard; Hofmann, Olaf; Winkler, Karl-Heinz: Trockenbau Handbuch. Munich, 1992 Gösele, Karl; Schüle, Walter: Schall – Wärme – Feuchte. Wiesbaden/Berlin, 1989 Gösele, Karl; Engel, Volker: Körperschalldämmung von Sanitärräumen. Bauforschung für die Praxis, vol. 11. Stuttgart, 1995 Hammer, Günter; Völker, Heino A.: Trockenbaupraxis – Angewandte Bauphysik. Cologne, 1984 Hanusch, Hellmut: Gipskartonplatten. Cologne, 1978 Hegger, Manfred et al.: Construction Materials Manual. Munich, 2006 Jungewelter, Norbert: Trockenbaupraxis mit Mineralfaserdecken. Cologne, 1983 Kordina, Karl; Meyer-Ottens, Klaus: Holz-BrandschutzHandbuch. Berlin, 1995 Knauf Gips KG (pub.); Krämer, Georg; Pfau, Jochen; Tichelmann, Karsten: Handbuch Sanierung. Iphoven, 2002 Lange, Jörg; Naujoks, Bernd; Tichelmann, Karsten; Volkwein, Jürgen; Stahl-Informations-Zentrum (pub.): Stahlleichtbau im Wohnungsbau. Düsseldorf, 2002 Ljunggren, Sten: Kosteneffektive Lösungen zur Verbesserung der Schalldämmung. In: WKSB – Zeitschrift für Wärmeschutz, Kälteschutz, Schallschutz, Brandschutz 38/1996 Mayr, Josef: Brandschutzatlas. Eggenfelden, 1995 Nüßle, Fritz: Heizen und Kühlen mit abgehängten Decken. In: IKZ-Haustechnik 19/1998 Pfau, Jochen: Befestigungstechnik mit ballistischen Verbindungsmitteln. Berlin, 2007 Pfau, Jochen: Flankenangriff des Schalls. In: Trockenbau Akustik 3/1995 Pfau, Jochen: Schallschutz mit Trockenbau-Konstruktionen, Alles über Bauprodukte – Trockenbau. Neustadt, 1994 Pfau /Tichelmann /Ohl: Dokumentation 591, Bauen im Bestand – Lösungen in Stahlleichtbauweise, StahlInformations-Zentrum (pub.): Düsseldorf, 2007 Rasmussen, Rindel: Wohnungen für die Zukunft. Das Konzept des akustischen Komforts und welcher Schallschutz von den Bewohnern als zufriedenstellend beurteilt wird. In: WKSB – Zeitschrift für Wärmeschutz, Kälteschutz, Schallschutz, Brandschutz 38/1996 Stark, Jochen; Teschner, Albrecht: Einfluß von feuchtebedingten Längenänderungen auf das Verhalten von Gipskartonplatten-Systemen. MFPA (Materialforschungsund Prüfanstalt) Weimar, 1993 VHT (pub.): Proceedings, DarmstädterTrockenbautagen 1–10. Darmstadt, 1991–1999

Tichelmann, Karsten: Tragverhalten von hybriden Systemen in Leichtbauweise mit Gipswerkstoffplatten, Kölner Wissenschaftsverlag, Cologne, 2006 Tichelmann, Karsten; Lange, Jörg: Dokumentation 560, Häuser in Stahlleichtbauweise, Stahl-InformationsZentrum (pub.). Düsseldorf, 2002 Tichelmann, Karsten, Pfau, Jochen: Entwicklungswandel Wohnungsbau: Neue Gebäudekonzepte in Trockenund Leichtbauweise. Braunschweig/ Wiesbaden, 2000 Tichelmann, Karsten: Baulicher Brandschutz mit Trockenbausystemen. In: Trockenbau Akustik 8/1993 Tichelmann, Karsten; Ohl, René: Wärmebrückenatlas. Cologne, 2005 Tichelmann, Karsten; Pfau, Jochen: Dry Construction. Munich, 2008 Weeber, Rotraut; Merkel, Horst; Rossbach-Lochmann, Heide; Buchta, Edmund; Gösele, Karl: Schallschutz in Mehrfamilienhäusern aus der Sicht der Bewohner. Stuttgart, 1986 Wendehorst, Reinhard: Baustoffkunde. Hannover, 1992

Part D Technical services Heating, cooling, ventilation Baumgarth, Siegried; Hörner, Berndt; Reeker, Josef: Handbuch der Klimatechnik. Heidelberg, 2008 Buderus Heiztechnik GmbH (pub.); Richter, Wolfgang: Handbuch für Heizungstechnik – Zahlen und Fakten, Arbeitshilfe für die tägliche Praxis. Berlin, 2002 Daniels, Klaus: Gebäudetechnik – ein Leitfaden für Architekten und Ingenieure. Munich/Zurich, 2002 Hausladen, Gerhard; de Saldanha, Michael; Liedl, Petra; Sager, Christina: ClimaDesign – Lösungen für Gebäude, die mit weniger Technik mehr können. Munich, 2005 Hausladen, Gerhard; De Saldanha, Michael, Liedl, Petra: ClimaSkin – Konzepte für Gebäudehüllen, die mit weniger Energie mehr leisten. Munich, 2006 Hausladen, Gerhard; de Saldanha, Michael: Einführung in die Bauklimatik. Berlin, 2003 Hausladen, Gerhard: Innovative Gebäude-, Technik- und Energiekonzepte. Munich, 2001 Henning, Hans-Martin: Solar-Assisted Air Conditioning in Buildings – A Handbook for Planers. Vienna, 2003 Krause, Michael: Solares Kühlen von Büro- und Serverräumen. Kassel, 2008 Laasch, Erhard; Vogler Karl: Haustechnik – Grundlagen, Planung, Ausführung. Stuttgart, 1994 Nowotny, Siegfried; Feustel, Helmut E.: Lüftungs- und klimatechnische Gebäudeausrüstung. Wiesbaden/ Berlin, 1996 Pistohl, Wolfram: Handbuch der Gebäudetechnik – Band 1: Sanitär, Elektro, Förderanlagen. Düsseldorf, 2001 Pistohl, Wolfram: Handbuch der Gebäudetechnik – Band 2: Heizung, Lüftung, Energiesparen. Planungsgrundlagen und Beispiele. Neuwied, 2005 Recknagel, Hermann; Sprenger, Eberhard; Schramek, Ernst-Rudolf: Taschenbuch für Heizung + Klimatechnik. Munich, 2005 Reeker, Josef: Haustechnik – Heizung, Raumlufttechnik. Düsseldorf, 1994 Wellpott, Edwin: Technischer Ausbau von Gebäuden. Stuttgart / Berlin /Cologne, 2000 Planning the electrical installation AMEV – Arbeitskreis Maschinen- und Elektrotechnik staatlicher und kommunaler Verwaltungen: Gebäudeautomation. Berlin, 2005 Daniels, Klaus: Gebäudetechnik. Ein Leitfaden für Architekten und Ingenieure. Munich, 2000 Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation & Nuclear Safety (pub.): Neues Denken – neue Energie, Roadmap Energiepolitik 2020. Berlin, 2009 Frondel, Manuel: Research project No. 61/04, Erhebung des Energieverbrauchs der privaten Haushalte für das Jahr 2003. Federal Ministry of Economics & Technology (pub.). Berlin, 2005 LonMark Deutschland e.V.: http://www.lonmark.de (25.8.2009) (data sheets) Krimmling, Jörn: Atlas Gebäudetechnik, Grundlagen, Konstruktionen, Details. Cologne, 2008

Bibliography /Authors

Laasch, Thomas; Laasch, Erhard: Haustechnik, Grundlagen – Planung – Ausführung. Wiesbaden, 2005 Schultke, Hans; Werner, Michael: ABC der Elektroinstallation. Frankfurt am Main, 2005 Staub, Richard; Kranz, Hans Rudolf: Raumautomation im Bürogebäude: Moderne Gebäudeautomation als Voraussetzung für Produktivität und Behaglichkeit. Landsberg am Lech, 2001 Zeine, Carl: Verbrauchskennwerte 2005, Energie- und Wasserverbrauchskennwerte in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Münster, 2008 Planning the sanitary installation Conran, Terence: Terance Conran on Bathrooms. Munich, 2004 Holfeld, Monika: Barrierefreie Lebensräume. Bauen und Wohnen ohne Hindernisse. Baden-Baden, 2008 Husemann, Klaus W. (ed.): Schwerpunkte neuzeitlicher Sanitärtechnik. Munich/ Vienna, 1991 Peukert, Martin: Gebäudeausstattung. Munich, 2004 Pistohl, Wolfram: Handbuch der Gebäudetechnik – Band 1: Allgemeines, Sanitär, Elektro, Gas. Planungsgrundlagen und Beipiele. Cologne, 2007 Stemshorn, Axel: Barrierefrei Bauen für Behinderte und Betagte. Leinfelden-Echterdingen, 2003 Space requirements for technical services Hausladen, Gerhard; de Saldanha, Michael; Liedl, Petra; Sager, Christina: ClimaDesign – Lösungen für Gebäude, die mit weniger Technik mehr können. Munich, 2005

Authors Gerhard Hausladen Born 1947 Studies in mechanical engineering at Munich University of Technology, doctorate studies (Dr.-Ing.) at Munich University of Technology 1992 – 2001: Professor of technical services at the University of Kassel 1998: Founding of the Zentrum für Umweltbewusstes Bauen e.V. at the University of Kassel (chairman 1998 – 2001) 1986 to date: Consultancies for technical services, building physics and energy technology in Kirchheim bei München, 2001 to date: Consultancy for building climate, Kassel 2001 to date: Professor, Chair for Building Climate & Technical services at Munich University of Technology 2007 to date: Chairman of ClimaDesign e.V. Research projects in the fields of innovative ventilation technology, facade planning, energy concept development for innovative construction projects, fire protection, daylight, low-energy houses; member of the City of Munich Energy Council; collaboration in national and international standards committees

Karsten Tichelmann Born 1965 Studies in engineering sciences at Darmstadt University of Technology, doctorate studies (Dr.-Ing.) at Munich University of Technology 1993 to date: Managing partner of VHT (institute for testing timber and dry lining materials/assemblies) Materials Testing Institute, Darmstadt 1994 to date: Consultancy for structural engineering and building physics in Darmstadt (since 2001 in Bochum) 1995 to date: Lecturer for “lightweight construction – design, technology and building physics”, Darmstadt University of Technology 2000 to date: Managing partner of ITL (institute for dry/ lightweight construction), non-profit-making research institute, Darmstadt University of Technology 2004 to date: Professor for structural engineering theory and design at the Faculty of Architecture, Bochum Polytechnic 2009 to date: Professor for loadbearing structure development at the Faculty of Architecture, Darmstadt University of Technology Research projects in the fields of lightweight construction, resources intensity in loadbearing and fitting-out structures, fire protection, earthquake-resistant construction, energy-efficiency upgrades; publications and awards at home and abroad; member of specialist and standards committees

279

Picture credits

Picture credits The authors and publishers would like to express their sincere gratitude to all those who have assisted in the production of this book, be it through providing photos or artwork or granting permission to reproduce their documents or providing other information. Photographs not specifically credited were taken by the architects or are works photographs or were supplied from the archives of the magazine DETAIL. Despite intensive endeavours we were unable to establish copyright ownership in just a few cases; however, copyright is assured. Please notify us accordingly in such instances. The numbers refer to the figures.

Introduction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 a – d 10 e 10 f 10 g 10 h 11 a – d 12a 12 b 13a – b 14a – b

15 16 a – b 17a 17b

18 19 20a – b 21a 21b 22a – b 23a – b

iStockphoto/Jeremy Edwards Oliver, Paul: Dwellings. London, 2003, p. 23 see 2, p. 101 Rudofsky, Bernhard: Architektur ohne Architekten. Vienna, 1993, p. 115 Steen, Bill et al.: Built by Hand. Layton, 2003, p. 305 Yoshio Kamatsu, Tokyo Bianca, Stefano: Hofhaus und Paradiesgarten. Munich, 2001, p. 222 see 7, p. 69 Nerdinger, Winfried (ed.): Leo von Klenze – Architekt zwischen Kunst und Hof. Munich, 2000, p. 383 Ralf Bock, Vienna Albertina, Vienna Philippe Ruault, Nantes Sarnitz, August: Loos. Cologne, 2003, p. 68 Philippe Ruault, Nantes Ralf Bock, Vienna Albertina, Vienna Sarnitz, August: Loos. Cologne, 2003, p. 74 © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn, 2009 Exhibition catalogue: Franz Singer & Fridl Dicker, University of Applied Arts. Vienna, 1989, p. 94 © FLC / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn, 2009 © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn, 2009 Cornelia Hellstern, Munich; © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2009 Zimmerman, Claire: Mies van der Rohe. Cologne, 2006, p. 43; © VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn, 2009 Klaus Kinold, Munich Klaus Kinold, Munich Stefan Müller, Berlin Duccio Malagamba, Barcelona Christian Richters, Münster Hisao Suzuki, Barcelona Miguel Verme, Chur

Die Evolution der solaren Architektur. Munich/ New York, 1996, p. 37 A 1.9 Oswald, Philip (ed.); Rexroth, Susanne: Wohltemperierte Architektur – neue Techniken des energiesparenden Bauens. Heidelberg, 1995 A 1.10 to EN ISO 7730-2005 (D) A 1.11 to EN ISO 7730-2005 and EN ISO 8996 A 1.12a – c Daniels, Klaus: Gebäudetechnik – Ein Leitfaden für Architekten und Ingenieure. Munich, 2000, p. 24 A 1.13 to DIN EN ISO 7730 A 1.14 –15 Hegger, Manfred; Fuchs, Matthias et al.: Energie Atlas. Munich, 2007, p. 58 A 1.16 –17 see A 1.14, p. 59 A 1.18 see A 1.12, p. 29 A 1.19 see A 1.12, p. 29 A 1.21 König, Holger: Wege zum gesunden Bauen, Ökobuch. Staufen (Freiburg), 1998, p. 15 A 1.23 Hausladen, Gerhard; de Saldanha, Michael; Liedl, Petra; Sager, Christina: ClimaDesign – Lösungen für Gebäude, die mit weniger Technik mehr können. Munich, 2005, p. 25 A 1.24 see A 1.12, p. 32 A 1.25 Peter Bartenbach, Munich A 1.26 Shinkenshiku-sha, Tokyo A 1.28 Lüchinger, Arnulf: Herman Hertzberger 1959 – 86. Bauten und Projekte. The Hague, 1987, p. 20 A 1.29 Brownlee, David B.: Louis I. Kahn: in the realm of architecture. New York, 2005, p. 159 A 1.30 Daidalos 51/1994, p. 68 A 1.31 Deutsches Architektenblatt, 1/200, p. 46 A 1.33 Ulla Feinweber, Munich A 1.34 Zöllner, Frank: Vitruvs Proportionsfigur. Worms, 1987 Light A 2.1 A 2.2 A 2.3 – 4 A 2.6 – 8 A 2.9 A 2.10 A 2.11

A 2.12 A 2.13

A 2.14 A 2.15a – c A 2.16 – 21 A 2.22 A 2.23 – 25 A 2.26

Part A Light and space Comfort A

Cornelia Hellstern, Munich; © ADAGP/FAAG, Paris / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2009 A 1.1 Taschen, Angelika (ed.): Living in Japan. Cologne, 2006, p. 87 A 1.2 Conrads, Ulrich: Programme und Manifeste zur Architektur des 20. Jahrhunderts, p. 35 A 1.3 Journal of the Association of Engineers & Architects, 1942 A 1.4 based on: Frank, W.: Raumklima und thermische Behaglichkeit. In: Berichte aus der Bauforschung, No. 104. Berlin, 1975 A 1.5a – b Greco, Claudio: Pier Luigi Nervi. Lucerne, 2008, p. 124 A 1.6 McQuaid, Matilda: Visionen und Utopien. Munich, 2003, p. 151 A 1.7 István Kistelegdi, Hungary A 1.8 Behling, Sophia; Behling, Stefan: Sol power.

280

A 2.27

A 2.28 A 2.29 A 2.30 A 2.34 A 2.35 A 2.36 – 37 A 2.41a – b A 2.42 – 43 A 2.44 A 2.45 A 2.46 – 47 A 2.48 – 50

Ursprung, Philip: Studio Olafur Elliasson. Cologne, 2008 see A 1.14, p. 54 Peter Bartenbach, Munich Peter Bartenbach, Munich see A 1.14, p. 106 Neufert, Ernst; Kister, Johannes: Architects’ Data. Wiesbaden, 2005, p. 497 based on: Balkow, Dieter; Schittich, Christian et al.: Glass Construction Manual, 1st ed. Munich, 1999 http://www.regiolux.de/cms/index.php?a_m_ id=521, Information Pistohl, Wolfram: Handbuch der Gebäudetechnik – Band 2: Heizung, Lüftung, Beleuchtung, Energiesparen. Planungsgrundlagen und Beispiele. Neuwied, 2007, K7 Peter Bartenbach, Munich Markus Traub, Munich Christoph Matthias, Munich Author, based on: Erco, in DETAIL Style ERCO GmbH, Lüdenscheid based on: Bavarian State Agency for Environmental Protection (pub.): Effiziente Lichtsysteme. Energie sparen. Klima schützen. Kosten senken! Augsburg, 2004, p. 4 http://shop.strato.de/epages/61157087. sf/?ObjectPath=/Shops/61157087/ Products/%22osr%200335087%22&ViewAction =ViewProductViaPortal&Locale=de_DE Christoph Matthias, Munich OSRAM, Munich ERCO GmbH, Lüdenscheid http://www.energie-bildung.de/download. phtml/Leuchtstofflampen, S. 4 OSRAM, Munich Andreas J. Focke / www.fockefoto.de Zooey Braun, Stuttgart Christoph Matthias, Munich ERCO GmbH, Lüdenscheid KAISER GmbH & Co. KG http: //www.rademacher-gmbh.de/hp/download/download.php?attachment=schutzart.pdf Christoph Matthias, Munich

Materials A 3.1 A 3.4 A 3.5 A 3.6 A 3.7 A 3.8 A 3.10 A 3.11 A 3.12 A 3.13 A 3.14 A 3.15 A 3.16 A 3.17 A 3.18 A 3.19 A 3.22 A 3.23 A 3.24 A 3.25 A 3.26 A 3.28 A 3.29 A 3.30 A 3.31 A 3.32 A 3.34 A 3.38 A 3.39 A 3.40

Part B

Eckhardt Matthäus, Augsburg Zooey Braun / arthur, Cologne Christian Richters, Münster Stefan Müller Naumann, Munich Shinkenchiku-sha, Tokyo Kouji Okamoto /Techni Staff, Fukuoka Bruno Klomfar, Vienna vigilius mountain resort, Lana Christoph Kraneburg, Cologne Canizares, Christina G. (ed.): Lofts. New York, 2005, p. 237 Tobias Hohenacker, Dietramaszell Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich Jeroen Musch, Amsterdam Cañizares, Christina G. (ed.): Lofts. New York, 2005, p. 72 Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich Florian Holzherr, Munich Cornelia Hellstern, Munich; © FLC/ VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2009 Christian Schittich, Munich Lukas Schaller, Vienna Emanuel Raab, Wiesbaden Zooey Braun, Stuttgart Los, Sergio; Frahm, Klaus: Carlo Scarpa. Cologne, 1993, p. 79 Michael Heinrich, Munich Shinkenchiku-sha, Tokyo Markus Bredt, Berlin Wolfgang Dürr, Würzburg Françoise Morin /archipress, Paris Iwan Baan, Amsterdam Christiane Sauer, Berlin Eberhard Weible, Cologne

Integrated planning

Concepts and building typologies B B 1.1 B 1.5 B 1.6 B 1.7 B 1.8 B 1.9 B 1.10 B 1.13 B 1.14a – b B 1.15a – b B 1.16a – b B 1.18 B 1.20 B 1.21 B 1.22 B 1.24 B 1.25 B 1.26a B 1.29 B 1.30a – b B 1.31b B 1.33 B 1.34 B 1.35 B 1.36

B 1.37 B 1.38

B 1.39 B 1.40a – b B 1.43 B 1.44a – b

Roger Frei, Zurich Jens Beckmann, Hamburg Moreno Maggi, Rome Christian Schittich, Munich Hisao Suzuki, Barcelona Florian Holzherr, Munich Author, to DIN EN 15251 (2007) Hellwig, Runa Tabea: Thermische Behaglichkeit. Munich, 2005, p. 36 Valentin Jeck, CH-Uerikon Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich Meltem Tekin, Munich Sebastian Schels + Simon Schels, Munich Florian Holzherr, Munich Fausto Pluchinotta, Geneva Franz Rindlisbacher, Zurich Jan Schabert, Munich Leuphana University Lüneburg see A 1.23, p. 112 Michael Heinrich, Munich Margherita Spiluttini, Vienna Jens Passoth, Berlin Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich Hermann Rupp, Kempten/Allgäu Katsuhisa Kida, Tokyo Eckhart Matthäus, Augsburg Voss, Karsten; Löhnert, Günter; Herkel, Sebastian; Wagner, Andreas; Wambsganß, Mathias: Bürogebäude mit Zukunft. Berlin, 2007, p. 38 see A 1.23, p. 87 Beyerle, Thomas; DEGI (pub.): Immobilienwirtschaftliche Trends, Nr. 3: Zukunftsorientierte Bürokonzepte – Eine Betrachtung aus Sicht der Immobilienentwicklung. Frankfurt am Main, 2003 see A 1.23, p. 84 Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich Hélène Binet, London Frank Kaltenbach, Munich

Picture credits

Location factors B 2.1 Eva Schönbrunner, Munich B 2.3 Photovoltaic Geographical Information System, European Commission: Solar resource and photovoltaic electricity potential in Europe. Ispra, 2006 B 2.4a – c see A 1.23, p. 183 B 2.5 Daniels, Klaus: Technologie des ökologischen Bauens. Grundlagen und Maßnahmen, Beispiele und Ideen. Basel/Berlin/Boston, 1995 Energy and buildings B 3.1 http://www.grazer-ea.at/cms/ueber-uns/ unsere-leistungen/idart_259-content.html B 3.5a – c Alois Schärfl B 3.6 – 7 Michael Fischer B 3.8a Eva Schönbrunner, Munich Energy supplies B 4.1 Pierre Tourre, Montpellier B 4.2 based on: Kaltschmitt, Martin (ed.): Regenerative Energieträger zur Stromerzeugung I+II. Stuttgart, 2001 B 4.6 see A 1.14, p. 115 B 4.8a – c Jenni Engergietechnik AG, Oberburg (CH) B 4.8d Westerwälder Holzpellets GmbH, Langenbach B 4.9 based on: Fachagentur Nachwachsende Rohstoffe e.V. (pub.): Leitfaden Bioenergie, Planung, Betrieb und Wirtschaftlichkeit von Bioenergieanlagen. Gülzow, 2000 B 4.10 www.schmack-biogas.com/wDeutsch/img/ schema.jpg B 4.11 Bavarian State Ministry for Environment, Health & Consumer Affairs, Bavarian State Ministry for Trade, Infrastructure, Transport & Technology (pub.): Oberflächennahe Geothermie, Heizen und Kühlen mit Energie aus dem Untergrund, Munich, 2007 B 4.13 see A 1.14, p. 122 B 4.15 based on: BINE Informationsdienst (pub.): Basis Energie 10: Wärmepumpen. Bonn, 2001, p. 2 B 4.17 Bundesverband WärmePumpe (BWP) e.V., Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt, Arbeitsgemeinschaft für sparsame Energie- und Wasserverwendung (ASEW) GbR im Verband kommunaler Unternehmen, Institut Energie in Infrastrukturanlagen (pub.): Energierückgewinnung aus Abwasserkanälen, Heizen und Kühlen mit AbwasserBundesverbandWärmePumpe, Ratgeber für Bauherren und Kommunen, Munich, 2005 / http://www.waermepumpe.de/fileadmin/user_upload/pdf/ abwasser.pdf B 4.18 www.santec-gmbh.de/sanierungstechnik/ rabtherm/image1.gif B 4.20 Wolfgang Streicher, Institute for Heating Technology, Graz University of Technology, solar energy usage; http://portal.tugraz.at/portal/ page?_pageid=75,3484902&_dad=portal&_ schema=PORTAL B 4.22 Fisch, Manfred Norbert: lecture notes, Solartechnik I, ITW, University of Stuttgart. Stuttgart, 2007 B 4.24 Bavarian State Ministry for Environment, Health & Consumer Affairs, Bavarian State Ministry for Trade, Infrastructure, Transport & Technology (pub.): Oberflächennahe Geothermie, Heizen und Kühlen mit Energie aus dem Untergrund, Munich, 2007 B 4.25 see A 1.14, p. 124 B 4.27 http://www.aee.at/publikationen/zeitung/ 2008-04/images/08_2.gif B 4.28 see A 1.23, p. 177 B 4.29 http://www.bioenergiedorf-lippertsreute.de/ media/bioenergie-Lippertsreute-infomappe_ 140808.pdf B 4.30 http://www.jowimat.at/pics/Funktionsprinzip_ BHKW.png

Part C Finishing and fitting-out Wall systems C Fernando Guerra, Lisbon C 1.1 Bernhard Heinze, Vienenburg C 1.2 Bernhard Heinze, Vienenburg C 1.3 Tichelmann, Karsten; Pfau, Jochen: Dry Construction. Munich, 2008, p. 23 C 1.4 – 5 see C 1.3, p. 22 C 1.6 – 8 see C 1.3, p. 23 C 1.9 see C 1.3, p. 24 C 1.10a – b see C 1.3, p. 25 C 1.11a Knauf Gips KG, Iphofen/Galanti, Berlin C 1.11b Knauf Gips KG, Iphofen/Hiepler und Brunier, Berlin C 1.13 see C 1.3, p. 11 C 1.14 Becker, Klausjürgen; Tichelmann, Karsten; Pfau, Jochen: Trockenbau Atlas I. Cologne, 2004, p. 196 C 1.15a ARGE Holz, Düsseldorf C 1.15b Friedemann Zeitler, Penzberg C 1.15c Knauf Gips KG, Iphofen C 1.16a – e Holzabsatzfonds, Bonn C 1.17 Tichelmann, Karsten; Pfau, Jochen: Entwicklungswandel Wohnungsbau. Neue Gebäudekonzepte in Leicht- und Trockenbauweise. Wiesbaden, 2000, p. 88 C 1.18 –19 see C 1.14, p. 87 C 1.20 see C 1.17, p. 92 C 1.21 see C 1.17, p. 96 C 1.22 see C 1.17, p. 24 C 1.23 see C 1.3, p. 27 C 1.24 see C 1.3, p. 29 C 1.25 see C 1.3, p. 28 C 1.26 – 28 see C 1.3, p. 29 C 1.29 see C 1.3, p. 30 C 1.31 see C 1.3, p. 32 C 1.32 see C 1.3, p. 33 C 1.33a – c see C 1.3, p. 30 C 1.34a – c see C 1.3, p. 31 C 1.35 – 37 see C 1.3, p. 32 C 1.38 see C 1.14, p. 265 C 1.39 see C 1.3, p. 34 C 1.40 see C 1.3, p. 32 C 1.41a – b see C 1.3, p. 34 C 1.42a – b see C 1.3, p. 35 C 1.43 – 44 Saint-Gobain Rigips GmbH, Düsseldorf C 1.45 – 49 see C 1.3, p. 38 C 1.50 see C 1.3, p. 39 C 1.51 see C 1.14, p. 267 C 1.52 see C 1.3, p. 36 C 1.53 Trockenbau Akustik 1/2009, p. 28 C 1.54 – 55 see C 1.3, p. 36 C 1.56 see C 1.3, p. 37 C 1.57 see C 1.3, p. 36 C 1.58 see C 1.3, p. 39 C 1.59 see C 1.17, p. 117 C 1.60a see C 1.17, p. 117 C 1.60b see C 1.17, p. 118 C 1.61a – d see C 1.17, p. 125 C 1.62 see C 1.14, p. 276 C 1.63a – b Information brochure: Knauf SchiebetürSystem Krone – der Weg zu mehr Wohnraum 03/2007 C 1.64 Becker, Klausjürgen; Pfau, Jochen; Tichelmann, Karsten: Trockenbau-Atlas Teil II. Cologne, 2005, p. 59 C 1.65a Bernhard Heinze, Vienenburg C 1.66 – 67 see C 1.17, p. 79 Ceiling systems C 2.2a see C 1.3, p. 40 C 2.2b see C 1.17, p. 158 C 2.3 see C 1.3, p. 41 C 2.4a see C 1.3, p. 40 C 2.4b see C 1.3, p. 43 C 2.5 see C 1.3, p. 40 C 2.7a – c see C 1.3, p. 41 C 2.8 see C 1.17, p. 158 C 2.9 see C 1.14, p. 315 C 2.10 see C 1.14, p. 267

C 2.11

Knauf AMF GmbH & Co. KG, Grafenau C 2.12 Suckow & Fischer Systeme GmbH & CO. KG, Biebesheim C 2.14 see C 1.3, p. 50 C 2.15 see C 1.3, p. 51 C 2.16a – c see C 1.3, p. 50 C 2.17 see C 1.3, p. 49 C 2.18a – b see C 1.3, p. 51 C 2.19 see C 1.3, p. 52 C 2.20 Suckow & Fischer Systeme GmbH & CO. KG, Biebesheim C 2.21 see C 1.3, p. 51 C 2.22 see C 1.14, p. 328 C 2.23 see C 1.14, p. 267 C 2.24 see C 1.3, p. 52 C 2.25 see C 1.3, p. 54 C 2.26 see C 1.14, p. 332 C 2.27 see C 1.14, p. 333 C 2.28 see C 1.3, p. 52 C 2.29 – 30 see C 1.3, p. 54 C 2.31 – 32 see C 1.14, p. 334 C 2.33 Jens Weber Foto-Design, Munich / Knauf Gips KG, Iphofen C 2.34 see C 1.14, p. 60 C 2.35 KME Germany AG, Osnabrück C 2.36 see C 1.14, p. 289 C 2.37 see C 1.14, p. 289 C 2.38 – 39 see C 1.3, p. 48 C 2.40 see C 1.3, p. 45 C 2.41 see C 1.3, p. 42 C 2.42 see C 1.3, p. 47 C 2.43 – 44 see C 1.3, p. 42 C 2.45 see C 1.3, p. 46 C 2.46 see C 1.14, p. 138 C 2.47 see C 1.14, p. 136 C 2.48 Saint-Gobain Rigips GmbH, Düsseldorf C 2.49 Knauf Raumakustik-Rechner: http://www.knauf.de C 2.50 – 51 see C 1.3, p. 44 C 2.52 – 53 see C 1.17, p. 159 C 2.54 see C 1.14, p. 318 C 2.55 – 57 see C 1.17, p. 159 C 2.58 – 59 see C 1.3, p. 45 C 2.60 see C 1.14, p. 295 C 2.61 see C 1.3, p. 80 C 2.62 see C 1.3, p. 85 C 2.63 see C 1.3, p. 47 C 2.64 see C 1.14, p. 324 C 2.65 see C 1.3, p. 48 C 2.66 – 67 see C 1.3, p. 55 Flooring systems C 3.2 see C 1.3, p. 56 C 3.3 – 6 see C 1.3, p. 57 C 3.7a – b see C 1.3, p. 57 C 3.9 see C 1.3, p. 59 C 3.10 see C 1.3, p. 58 C 3.11a – b see C 1.3, p. 58 C 3.12 –14 see C 1.3, p. 58 C 3.15 see C 1.64, p. 14 C 3.16 see C 1.17, p. 179 C 3.17 see C 1.3, p. 60 C 3.19 – 20 see C 1.3, p. 60 C 3.22 – 24 MERO – TSK, Würzburg C 3.25 see C 1.3, p. 62 C 3.26 see C 1.3, p. 65 C 3.27 see C 1.64, p. 41 C 3.28 see C 1.3, p. 61 C 3.29 see C 1.3, p. 66 C 3.30 – 32 see C 1.3, p. 67 C 3.33 see C 1.3, p. 66 C 3.35a see C 1.3, p. 65 C 3.35b see C 1.64, p. 40 C 3.35c see C 1.3, p. 64 C 3.36 see C 1.3, p. 65 C 3.37– 38 see C 1.3, p. 64 C 3.39 see C 1.3, p. 65 C 3.40 see C 1.64, p. 38 C 3.41 see C 1.3, p. 63

281

Picture credits

Fire-resistant casing systems C 4.2a – b to DIN 18180 C 4.3a – d see C 1.3, p. 69 C 4.4 – 5 to DIN 18180 C 4.7– 8 see C 1.3, p. 70 C 4.9 –14 see C 1.3, p. 71

Part D Technical services Heating, cooling, ventilation D Eva Schönbrunner, Munich D 1.2 Olesen, Bjarne W.: Umweltbewusstes Bauen – Gefährdet das Raumklima unsere Gesundheit? Stuttgart, 2008, p. 423 D 1.4 ZehnderGmbH, Lahr D 1.6 – 7 TROX GmbH, Neukirchen-Vluyn D 1.8 Eggl & Lyra GmbH, Plattling D 1.9 see A 1.23, p. 157 D 1.11 AFG Arbonia-Forster-Riesa GmbH, Riesa D 1.14 Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich D 1.15 VisionAIR Lüftungs- und Luftheiztechnik GmbH Deutschland, Ebersbach D 1.16 see A 1.23, p. 158 D 1.18 Zent-Frenger Gesellschaft für Gebäudetechnik, Heppenheim D 1.19 TROX GmbH, Neukirchen-Vluyn D 1.20 TROX GmbH, Neukirchen-Vluyn D 1.22 p_jp55, http://www.flickr.com D 1.23 XIA intelligente architektur 52/2005, p. 29 D 1.25 Recknagel, Hermann, Sprenger, Eberhard, Schramek, Ernst-Rudolf: Taschenbuch für Heizung + Klimatechnik. Munich, 2005, p. 1397 D 1.28 SolarNext AG, Rimsting/Dr. Uli Jakob D 1.29 Hausladen, Gerhard; De Saldanha, Michael, Liedl, Petra: ClimaSkin – Konzepte für Gebäudehüllen, die mit weniger Energie mehr leisten. Munich, 2006, p. 131 D 1.30 see D 1.29, p. 132 D 1.31 see D 1.29, p. 130 D 1.32 see D 1.29, p. 131 D 1.36 see D 1.23, p. 38 Planning the electrical installation D 2.2 RWI/forsa (pub.): Erhebung des Energieverbrauchs der privaten Haushalte für das Jahr 2003. Research project No. 61/04. Final report. Berlin, 2005 D 2.3 Gesellschaft für Energieplanung und Systemanalyse ages GmbH, Münster D 2.9 Pistohl, Wolfram: Handbuch der Gebäudetechnik. Cologne, 2007, E30 D 2.12 based on: Schultke, Hans; Werner, Michael: ABC der Elektroinstallation. Frankfurt 2005, p. 50 D 2.13 Krimmling, Jörn: Atlas Gebäudetechnik, Grundlagen, Konstruktionen, Details. Cologne, 2008, p. 298 D 2.17 Thomas Ott, Mühltal D 2.18 EUBIQ Pte Ltd, Singapore D 2.19 based on: Krimmling, Jörn: Atlas Gebäudetechnik, Grundlagen, Konstruktionen, Details. Cologne, 2008, p. 372 D 2.20 – 21 GIRA, Giersiepen GmbH & Co. KG, Radevormwald D 2.23 after: Schultke, Hans; Werner, Michael: ABC der Elektroinstallation. Frankfurt 2005, p. 190 D 2.24 GIRA, Giersiepen GmbH & Co. KG, Radevormwald Planning the sanitary installation D 3.1 Cornelia Hellstern, Munich D 3.2 – 3 Thomas Drexel, Augsburg D 3.4 Gunther Bieringer, Munich D 3.6 Bavarian Chamber of Architects brochure D 3.7 based on: VDI 6000-1/Geberit Vertriebs GmbH, Pfullendorf D 3.8a – b Dallmer GmbH & Co. KG, Arnsberg D 3.9 –10 Franz Kaldewei GmbH & Co. KG D 3.11 Thomas Drexel, Augsburg

282

D 3.12 –13 Wilhelm Gienger München KG, Markt Schwaben D 3.14 –15 Geberit Vertriebs GmbH, Pfullendorf D 3.17 –18 to DIN 1986-100 (May 2008) D 3.20a – b see D 3.17 D 3.21 see D 3.17 D 3.22 see D 3.17 D 3.23 Kessel GmbH, Lenting D 3.24 – 25 Geberit Vertriebs GmbH, Pfullendorf D 3.26 http: //www2.hs-esslingen.de/fachbereiche/ vu /VU_aktuell/total.html Space requirements for technical services D 4.6a – e based on: VDI 2050 D 4.7 see D 4.6

Part E

Case studies

E John Horner, Somerville p. 214 bottom Kai Konopacki, Zurich p. 215 Alexander Troehler, Zurich; ©ADAGP / FAAG, Paris / VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2009 p. 216 Klaus Bang, Copenhagen p. 217 – 219 Hélène Binet, London p. 220 – 223 Brigida Gonzales, Stuttgart p. 224 – 225 Roland Halbe, Munich p. 226 Christian Richters, Münster p. 227 left Christian Richters, Münster p. 228 – 230 Werner Huthmacher, Berlin p. 231 – 233 Adriana Landaluce, Logroño La Rioja p. 234 – 236 John Horner, Somerville p. 238 – 239 Walter Mair, Zurich p. 240 Angelo Kaunat, Salzburg p. 242 – 245 Gunter Bieringer, Munich p. 246 Höller KG, Leifers p. 247–248 Günter Richard Wett, Innsbruck p. 249 – 251 Magenta 4, Eichstätt p. 252 – 255 Christoph Kraneburg, Cologne p. 257 – 258 Frank Kaltenbach, Munich p. 259 Pieter Kers, Amsterdam p. 260 Rob 't Hart, Rotterdam p. 262 Georg Wiesenzarter, Töging / Knauf Gips KG, Iphofen p. 263 – 265 Werner Huthmacher, Berlin p. 268 – 270 Stefan Müller-Naumann, Munich p. 271 – 273 Christian Hacker, Munich

Colour coding and symbols Parts A, B, D and case studies Heating Cooling Extract air Supply air Daylight Solar thermal energy/photovoltaic electricity Groundwater Part D (drawings, pp. 177 and 179) Convection Radiation Part B (usage diagrams, pp. 85, 88, 92, 94 and 98) Daytime Night-time

‡ ‡

Index of names

Ingenieurbüro Hausladen ∫ 86f., 91ff., 107, 184f., 246, 249, 256 Ingenieurbüro Kuder ∫ 99 Ingenieurbüro Vogt + Partner ∫ 87 Institut für Tageslichttechnik, Stuttgart ∫ 214 ippolitofleitz group ∫ 57

Index of names 3deluxe ∫ 70 A-cero ∫ 67 Adjaye, David ∫ 26 Allmann Sattler Wappner ∫ 67, 83, 89, 92 Alvaro Siza Architects ∫ 119 Amstein & Walthert ∫ 214 Andreas Fuhrimann Gabriele Hächler Architekten ∫ 85 Archigram ∫ 32 Atelier Brückner ∫ 83 B+M ∫ 226 Baierl+Demmelhuber ∫ 268 Banham, Reyner ∫ 108 Bär Stadelmann Stöcker Architekten ∫ 91 BARTHARCHITEKTEN ∫ 97, 184 Barthel & Maus ∫ 266 Baumann & Sohn ∫ 220 BBP Arkitekter A /S ∫ 216 Behles & Jochimsen ∫ 72 Behrens, Peter ∫ 21 Bembé Dellinger Architekten ∫ 63, 67, 196, 203 Bob Gysin + Partner ∫ 79 Borkner Feinweber Tellmann ∫ 67 Braunfels, Stefan ∫ 146 Brunner Haustechnik ∫ 214 Bugunani & Fortunato ∫ 67 BUSMANN + HABERER ∫ 228 C18 Architekten ∫ 220 Caruso, Adam ∫ 26 Chapman Taylor Architekten ∫ 140 Chipperfield, David ∫ 26f. Choi.Campagna Design ∫ 72 ck Loft ∫ 54 Coop Himmelb(l)au ∫ 69 Deppisch Architekten ∫ 87 Descartes, Rene ∫ 33 Devanthéry & Lamunière ∫ 89 DGMR ∫ 226 Dicker, Friedl ∫ 18ff. Dietrich & Unterrifallner Architekten ∫ 89 Doerner Institut ∫ 99 Durand, Jean-Nicolas-Louis ∫ 15, 25 Eichstätt Diocesan Building Dept. ∫ 249 Eliasson, Olafur ∫ 46 Engel Möbelwerkstätten ∫ 271 Eric van Egeraat arcitects ∫ 80 Erich Gassmann Architekten ∫ 240 FOBA ∫ 72 Frankfurt am Main Building Dept. Frey, Karl ∫ 249

∫ 252

Gärtner, Friedrich von ∫ 16 Glaser Architekten ∫ 93 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von ∫ 15, 42 Graft Architekten ∫ 123 Gropius, Walter ∫ 19 Halmos bv ∫ 259 Harder Spreyermann ∫ 237 Hauskeller, Michael ∫ 42 Hausladen, Florian ∫ 266 Hegger + Hegger + Schleif ∫ 150 Heidel Haustechnik ∫ 220 henke & schreieck Architekten ∫ 92 Herron, Ron ∫ 32 Hertzberger, Herman ∫ 40 Herzog & de Meuron ∫ 76 Herzog + Partner ∫ 49 hiendl_schineis ∫ 60, 95 Ingenieurbüro Cohrs ∫ 87 Ingenieurbüro Haff-Lyssoudis ∫ 242

J.M.P. y asociados ∫ 231 Jahn, Helmut ∫ 162 Jakob+MacFarlane ∫ 72 Judd, Donald ∫ 27 K+P Architekten ∫ 144 Kahn, Louis I. ∫ 24, 40, 46 Karl Pitscheider Ingenieurbüro ∫ 262 Kaufmann, Hermann ∫ 65 Kleihues, Josef Paul ∫ 25 Klenze, Leo von ∫ 15f. Köberl, Rainer ∫ 70 Koch & Partner ∫ 67 Koeberl Architekten ∫ 268 Kohlmayer Oberst ∫ 246 Kollhoff, Hans ∫ 25 Königs Architekten ∫ 63 Konrad Huber ∫ 224 Krier, Rob ∫ 24f. KSP Engel & Zimmermann ∫ 107 Landau + Kindelbacher ∫ 271 Lautner, John ∫ 40 Le Corbusier ∫ 16, 19ff., 33, 47, 69 Ledoux, Claude-Nicolas ∫ 16 Léon Wohlhage Wernik Architekten ∫ 87 Lichtblau Architekten ∫ 256 Lichtdesign Ingenieurgesellschaft ∫ 214 Lichtlauf ∫ 50, 53ff. Lihotzky, Margarete ∫ 23 Loos, Adolf ∫ 17ff. lynx architecture ∫ 196, 242 Marinetti, Tommaso ∫ 33 Maucher + Höß ∫ 95 Maurer, Ingo ∫ 57ff. Meck, Andreas ∫ 70 Meyer en van Schooten ∫ 67 Meyer, Robert ∫ 72 Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig ∫ 19ff. Müller BBM ∫ 87, 228, 262 Müller, Harald F. ∫ 237

Scarpa, Carlo ∫ 70 Schinkel, Karl Friedrich ∫ 15f. Schneider & Partner ∫ 91 Schranner, Hans ∫ 91 Schröder, Uwe ∫ 25 Semper, Gottfried ∫ 15 SHL Architekten ∫ 185 Singer, Franz ∫ 18ff. Sitte, Camillo ∫ 25 skm-haustechnik ∫ 228 St John, Peter ∫ 26 Staab Architekten ∫ 262 Steidle & Partner Architekten ∫ 86 Studio dinnebier ∫ 228 Sullivan, Louis ∫ 17 Tamaki, Jun ∫ 40 Thoma, Ernst ∫ 237 Thun, Matteo ∫ 65 Thurner, Martina ∫ 266 Tiula Architects Ltd. ∫ 123 Tony Fretton Architects ∫ 216 Tourre, Pierre ∫ 108 Trockenbau 3000 ∫ 240 UNStudio ∫ 226 Ungers, Oswald Matthias ∫ 24f. Valstar Simones ∫ 226 van Berkel, Ben ∫ 226 van de Velde, Henry ∫ 43 Vester, Frederic ∫ 44 Volf, Miroslav ∫ 97 Wandel Hoefer Lorch ∫ 224 Watanabe, Akira ∫ 63 Wiedemann Werkstätten ∫ 242 Zevi, Bruno ∫ 32 zipherspaceworks ∫ 70 Zumthor, Peter ∫ 63, 98

Nervi, Pier Luigi ∫ 32 Nether, Ulrich ∫ 76 Newton, Isaac ∫ 33 Office dA ∫ 213, 234 Ohtani, Hiroaki ∫ 63 Olgiati, Valerio ∫ 28f. OMA ∫ 83, 186 Oswalt, Philipp ∫ 108 Palladio, Andrea ∫ 16 Pawson, John ∫ 26ff. pfarré lighting design ∫ 54ff. Posener, Julius ∫ 16 R + R Fuchs ∫ 262 Reichenbach-Klinke, Matthias ∫ 91 Renzo Piano Building Workshop ∫ 31, 83 Ricciotti, Rudy ∫ 150 Rieger, Udo ∫ 266 Riesen Elektroplanung ∫ 214 Rietveld, Gerrit ∫ 19 Root, John Wellborn ∫ 17 Rossi, Aldo ∫ 24 Rössler, Huber ∫ 50 Rossmann+Partner Architekten ∫ 120f. Ruiter, Paul de ∫ 259 Sadar Vuga Arhitekti ∫ 83 SAM Architekten & Partner ∫ 214 Sant'Elia, Antonio ∫ 32 Sauberbruch Hutton ∫ 99

283

Index

Index 3-litre house ∫ 106 A A / V ratio ∫ 106 absolute humidity ∫ 36f., 102 absorption ∫ 105 absorption-type refrigeration unit ∫ 115 access hatch ∫ 143ff. access management ∫ 99 access panel ∫ 160f., 171 acoustic board ∫ 151 acoustic bridge ∫ 203f. acoustic comfort ∫ 39, 95 acoustic decoupling ∫ 159 acoustic element ∫ 97 acoustic panel ∫ 90, 95 acoustics ∫ 88ff., 95 acrylic sheet ∫ 66f. adaptive comfort model ∫ 83 additive colour mixing ∫ 50 additive mixing ∫ 51 adhesive ∫ 75 adiabatic cooling ∫ 178 adsorption-type refrigeration unit ∫ 181 aerated concrete ∫ 62 aesthetics ∫ 74 air change rate ∫ 38, 93, 95 air circulation ∫ 37 air collectors ∫ 114 air conditioning ∫ 179 air flow ∫ 104, 181 air flow rate ∫ 178, 180 air handling ∫ 178 air movement ∫ 32 air quality ∫ 38, 83 air recirculation ∫ 98 air velocity ∫ 37 air-conditioning ∫ 178, 180 air-to-air heat recovery ∫ 181 airborne sound ∫ 39, 164, 203 airtightness ∫ 106 aluminium panel ∫ 163 ambient heat ∫ 106, 111, 209 anergy ∫ 108f., 114 apartment block ∫ 86 artificial lighting ∫ 47, 49f., 89, 92, 95, 98, 193 automatic brightness control ∫ 193 automatic light ∫ 193 awning ∫ 193 B backflow level ∫ 204ff. backflow prevention device ∫ 204, 206 BACnet ∫ 195 barrier-free design ∫ 196f. basement ∫ 205, 208 bathroom ∫ 196, 206 Bauhaus ∫ 19, 21, 25, 33 beam casing ∫ 169, 170f. bio-ethanol ∫ 110 biocide ∫ 75 biodiesel ∫ 110 biogas ∫ 106, 110f., 117 biogenic fuel ∫ 108 biogenic raw material ∫ 110 biogenic waste material ∫ 110 biomass ∫ 109 biomass-to-liquid ∫ 110 Blauer Engel ∫ 76 blockboard ∫ 64 boiler furnace ∫ 113 bonded screed ∫ 69, 134f. borehole ∫ 111f., 115 branch waste pipe ∫ 204f. BREEAM ∫ 107 brightness ∫ 41, 49, 53 buffer zone ∫ 91, 100

284

building acoustics ∫ 203 building automation ∫ 192f. building envelope ∫ 82 building physics ∫ 61, 62, 85, 98 building standards ∫ 106 built environment ∫ 60, 103, 106 bulkhead ∫ 150, 164, 166 bus system ∫ 194 bypass line ∫ 204f. C cable duct ∫ 171 cable tray ∫ 163, 171 calcium silicate ∫ 157 calcium silicate board ∫ 125f. calcium silicate brick ∫ 62 calcium sulphate screed ∫ 69, 157, 162 calorific value ∫ 111 capillary tube mat ∫ 139, 182 carpeting ∫ 158, 163f., 167, 176 cavity anchor ∫ 133 ceiling channel ∫ 122 ceiling convector ∫ 178f., 183 ceiling light ∫ 57 ceiling panel ∫ 145f. ceiling void ∫ 145 cell ceiling ∫ 146 cellular glass ∫ 68, 126 cellulose fibre ∫ 126 cellulose flake ∫ 68 cement board ∫ 65 cement fibreboard ∫ 65 cement plaster ∫ 68 cement screed ∫ 69, 157 cement-bonded bldg. board ∫ 125, 130 cement-bonded mineral board ∫ 126 cement-bonded wood particlebd. ∫ 158 cement-faced polystyrene bldg. bd. ∫ 125f., 130 central electrical installation ∫ 210 central heating plant ∫ 116, 209f. central refrigeration plant ∫ 209f. central sanitary installation ∫ 210 central ventilation ∫ 180, 208, 210 chronic fatigue syndrome ∫ 73 classes of protection ∫ 58 clay brickwork ∫ 63 cleaning eye ∫ 206 climatic condition ∫ 11, 32, 100 co-generation plant ∫ 110, 116f. CO2 concentration ∫ 89 CO2 sensor ∫ 194 CO2 traffic light ∫ 89 coconut fibre ∫ 126 coefficient of performance ∫ 114, 116f. coil cooling ∫ 95, 178, 182, 198 coil heating ∫ 86f., 95, 139, 176f., 183 cold-water pipe ∫ 204 colour mixing rule ∫ 51 colour psychology ∫ 42 colour rendering ∫ 41, 49 colour scheme ∫ 19 colour temperature ∫ 51ff. colour wheel ∫ 42 colours ∫ 32 column casing ∫ 169, 171 combined heat and power ∫ 106, 110, 117 combustibility ∫ 61 combustible material ∫ 129 comfort ∫ 73, 82 comfort zone ∫ 83 communication protocol ∫ 194 compact fluorescent lamp ∫ 53f. complementary colour ∫ 51 compression-type refrigeration unit ∫ 99, 181 condensation ∫ 97, 114f., 131, 178ff., 198, 204 conduction ∫ 34f., 154, 176 constant light control ∫ 193

construction moisture ∫ 161 consumer unit ∫ 186, 210 contamination ∫ 37, 38, 68, 75f. contrast ∫ 41, 46, 49, 89, 99 convection ∫ 34 convector ∫ 176 conversion ∫ 81 cool-air system ∫ 178f., 183 cooling ceiling ∫ 95 cooling energy ∫ 259 cooling energy output ∫ 178 cooling energy requirement ∫ 105 cooling fin ∫ 178f. cooling load ∫ 105, 181 cooling performance ∫ 180, 185 cooling system ∫ 178 cooling tower ∫ 209 COP ∫ 115 copper ∫ 67 cork ∫ 72 corrosion ∫ 55 corrosion-resistant ∫ 67 cove ceiling ∫ 155 cove lighting ∫ 54 coved corner detail ∫ 154 coved skirting ∫ 133 crack ∫ 134, 152f. creep ∫ 136 cross-ventilation ∫ 32, 102, 103 D data transmission ∫ 194, 195 daylight ∫ 41, 46 daylight autonomy ∫ 46f. daylight factor ∫ 46f. De Stijl ∫ 19 decentralised energy management system ∫ 186 decentralised ventilation system ∫ 180f., 191 deep geothermal energy ∫ 111, 117 dehumidification ∫ 102 demountable partition ∫ 121, 123 dense gypsum fibreboard ∫ 125f. dew point ∫ 178 DGNB certification ∫ 106 diffuse amenity lighting ∫ 58 diffuse light ∫ 41, 47, 54 diffuser ∫ 167 dimmable lighting ∫ 193 dimming ∫ 52f., 56 disabling glare ∫ 41 discharge lamp ∫ 53, 55 discomfort ∫ 73f. displacement ventilation ∫ 174f. distemper ∫ 70 district heating ∫ 116 Dom-Ino system ∫ 20 double glazing ∫ 103 double-leaf facade ∫ 91 double-stud wall ∫ 121 downflow cooling ∫ 178f. downlight ∫ 58 downpipe ∫ 206 draining board ∫ 200 draught ∫ 37 drinking water ∫ 204 dry construction ∫ 64 dry subfloor ∫ 69, 156ff. drying room ∫ 197 durability ∫ 74 E E-class duct ∫ 171 earth leakage resistance ∫ 165 ease of maintenance ∫ 74 Eco-INSTITUT label ∫ 76 electric heater ∫ 113, 115 electrical fitting ∫ 188 electrical installation ∫ 210 electrical load ∫ 187

electricity consumption ∫ 186f. electricity requirement ∫ 106 electromagnetic spectrum ∫ 49 electrostatic charge ∫ 165 EMICODE ∫ 76 emission ∫ 75 encapsulation criterion ∫ 129 endothermic reaction ∫ 116 energy balance ∫ 104f. Energy Conservation Act ∫ 106, 186 energy consumption ∫ 104, 106, 178 energy conversion ∫ 113 energy density ∫ 110, 116 energy efficiency ∫ 106f. energy flow ∫ 104 energy infrastructure ∫ 116f. Energy Performance Certificate ∫ 106 energy source ∫ 108f., 117 energy storage ∫ 115 energy-plus house ∫ 106 environmental compatibility ∫ 110 epoxy resin ∫ 69 escape route ∫ 93 EU Flower ∫ 76 evaporation ∫ 34, 36 evaporative cooling ∫ 178, 181 exergy ∫ 108 exhaust gas ∫ 113 exothermic reaction ∫ 116 expanded polystyrene foam ∫ 126 expansion joint ∫ 158 expelled air ∫ 208 external wall ∫ 133 extract system ∫ 86, 174 extruded polystyrene foam ∫ 126 F facility management ∫ 81 fair-face concrete ∫ 63 family bathroom ∫ 197 fascia panel ∫ 166f. fibre-cement board ∫ 125 filling compound ∫ 73, 134 final energy requirement ∫ 106 fire detection ∫ 99 fire door ∫ 137 fire extinguishing system ∫ 206 fire load ∫ 164, 168 fire protection ∫ 129ff. fire resistance ∫ 129 fire resistance rating ∫ 127ff., 132, 136, 149, 159, 168, 170 fire wall ∫ 165 fire-resistant casing ∫ 149, 168, 171 fire-resistant ceiling ∫ 169 fire-resistant gypsum-based board ∫ 124 fire-retardant ∫ 129, 165 fire-stopping ∫ 129 fitting-out ∫ 76 flame-retardant ∫ 68 flanking sound transmission ∫ 129f., 150, 163f. flat radiant panel ∫ 177 flat-plate collector ∫ 114 floating screed ∫ 69, 135, 203 floor board ∫ 157f. floor channel ∫ 122 floor covering ∫ 70ff., 157 floor panel ∫ 161, 167, 191 floor void ∫ 161, 164 flow temperature ∫ 109f. fluorescent lamp ∫ 53f. Forest stewardship Council ∫ 64 formaldehyde ∫ 64, 68 fossil fuel ∫ 108f., 181 free-standing wall end ∫ 132f. fresh air ∫ 86ff., 95 FSC ∫ 76 full air-conditioning ∫ 98 fully prefabricated partition ∫ 123 fungi ∫ 38, 64

Index

G g-value ∫ 48 gas-fired condensing boiler ∫ 220 gas-fired low-temperature boiler ∫ 91 geothermal energy ∫ 98, 106, 108 German Places of Work Act ∫ 49 German Sustainable Building Council ∫ 106 glass fibre-reinforced building bd. ∫ 125 glass partition ∫ 121 glass wool ∫ 68, 126 global irradiance ∫ 102 global irradiation ∫ 100, 103, 109 glued laminated timber ∫ 64 gravitation ∫ 108 gravity drainage ∫ 206 greenhouse effect ∫ 100 greenhouse gas ∫ 110 grey energy ∫ 107 grid-type ceiling ∫ 142 groundwater ∫ 103, 111 groundwater heat pump ∫ 91 group heating network ∫ 113, 116f. gypsum acoustic board ∫ 125f. gypsum board ∫ 161 gypsum composite board ∫ 125 gypsum composite fibreboard ∫ 125 gypsum fibreboard ∫ 65, 124 gypsum fire-resistant board ∫ 126, 169 gypsum hard-surface board ∫ 126 gypsum plaster ∫ 130, 68 gypsum plasterboard ∫ 124ff. gypsum-based board ∫ 124, 146ff. gypsum-bonded board ∫ 126 H hairline crack ∫ 132, 152 halogen lamp ∫ 52f. hardboard ∫ 65 hardwood ∫ 63f., 71f. health disorder ∫ 73ff. health hazard ∫ 74 heat diffusion plate ∫ 160, 166 heat exchanger ∫ 85, 112 heat flow ∫ 104 heat gain ∫ 102 heat load ∫ 105 heat output system ∫ 110, 176, 93 heat pump ∫ 112ff. heat pump flow temperature ∫ 117 heat radiation ∫ 100 heat recovery ∫ 86f., 91, 93, 97, 105, 175, 178, 180f., 183, 208 heat sink ∫ 111, 114 heat transfer fluid ∫ 112, 114 heat transmission ∫ 139 heating ∫ 117 heating ceiling ∫ 155 heating load ∫ 181 heating network ∫ 116f. heating plant ∫ 117 heating requirement ∫ 105, 109, 116 height adjustable pedestal ∫ 161, 191 Helmholtz resonator ∫ 151 high specific heat capacity ∫ 103 high-pressure sodium vapour lamp ∫ 52 High-Rise Buildings Directive ∫ 61 hollow floor ∫ 157, 160ff., 165, 189, 191, 203 holographic optical element ∫ 49 horizontal discharge pipe ∫ 205f. hot-water pipe ∫ 204 hot-water system ∫ 86 hot-water storage ∫ 115 hours of sunshine ∫ 102 hours of use ∫ 84f. house drain ∫ 205f. humidification ∫ 178, 180f. humidity ∫ 36, 103 HVAC ∫ 33, 38, 85, 88, 92, 94f., 98, 139, 165, 189

hydrant-based system ∫ 206 hypocaust ∫ 167 I I-class cable duct ∫ 170 IBO test mark ∫ 76 IBR test mark ∫ 76 illuminance ∫ 41, 46ff., 193f. illumination ∫ 47, 50, 54ff., 89, 92, 96, 99 impact sound insulation ∫ 149, 157ff., 163f. impregnated gypsum fire-resistant board ∫ 125f. impregnated gypsum plasterboard ∫ 125f. incandescent lamp ∫ 52ff. incombustible material ∫ 129 individual controllability ∫ 104, 107, 82 indoor operative temperature ∫ 83 induction unit ∫ 178.f infrared radiation ∫ 48, 49 installation zone ∫ 188ff., 210 instantaneous water heater ∫ 117 insulating material ∫ 67ff., 126f., 157 insulation cork board ∫ 126 integrative planning ∫ 106 interior air quality ∫ 73f. interior air temperature ∫ 35, 139 interior climate ∫ 44, 60ff., 81ff., 85 interior comfort ∫ 104, 163 interior design ∫ 80, 85f., 92, 96, 99, 104, 106, 179, 180f. interior fitting-out ∫ 94 intermediate floor ∫ 163 internal heat load ∫ 84f., 95, 105 internal heat source ∫ 105 internal load ∫ 89, 94ff. International Style ∫ 23 intruder detection ∫ 99 intumescent paint ∫ 168 investment costs ∫ 74 irradiation ∫ 100, 102f. isolating joint ∫ 130 isolating tape ∫ 132f., 152f. J joint permeability ∫ 106 joint with resilient sealant ∫ 152 jointing compound ∫ 132f., 135f. jointing tape ∫ 132, 135, 152 junction box ∫ 191 K KNX bus system ∫ 194 L L-class duct ∫ 170 laboratory ∫ 24, 82, 95, 175 lacquer ∫ 70 lagging ∫ 203f. laminated floor ∫ 158, 72 laminated glass ∫ 66 laminated veneer lumber ∫ 124f. laminboard ∫ 64 lamp holder ∫ 59 latent heat ∫ 181, 182 latent heat storage media ∫ 116 laundry room ∫ 197, 199 Le Modulor ∫ 21 lead foil ∫ 135 leakage air opening ∫ 175 LED ∫ 53, 55ff. LEED ∫ 107 legionella bacteria ∫ 85, 117 levelling layer ∫ 157, 159 levelling measure ∫ 157 life cycle ∫ 76, 107 life cycle assessment ∫ 76, 106 life cycle costs ∫ 74, 76 light colour ∫ 52ff. light fitting ∫ 50ff., 55ff. light shelf ∫ 46, 49

light-emitting diode ∫ 52 lighting concept ∫ 82, 89 lighting control ∫ 58 lighting design ∫ 42, 49ff. lighting track ∫ 58 lightweight partition ∫ 121, 128 lime-cement plaster ∫ 68, 130 linoleum ∫ 72, 158 loam ∫ 65, 68 local air movement ∫ 103 location factor ∫ 80, 85, 95, 100 LON bus system ∫ 195 long-term heat storage ∫ 117 loose fill ∫ 148, 157ff. louvre ceiling ∫ 146, 147 louvreblind ∫ 123 louvres ∫ 49, 108 low-energy house ∫ 106 low-temperature boiler ∫ 113 low-temperature freshwater unit ∫ 117 luminaire ∫ 57f., 146, 149 luminance ∫ 41, 46, 48, 89 luminous ceiling ∫ 146 luminous efficacy ∫ 52ff., 62 luminous flux ∫ 41, 48, 54, 56 luminous intensity ∫ 41, 48, 53 M M-Bus ∫ 195 macroclimate ∫ 100 magnesite flooring ∫ 69 mastic asphalt ∫ 69, 70 maximum humidity ∫ 36 MDF ∫ 252 mechanical cooling ∫ 83 mechanical ventilation ∫ 89, 103, 194 medium density fibreboard ∫ 65, 125 medium-hard wood ∫ 63f. melamine foam ∫ 126 mesoclimate ∫ 100 metal grid ceiling ∫ 216 metal halide lamp ∫ 52ff. metal stud ∫ 123, 127 metal tray ∫ 148 micro co-generation unit ∫ 117 microclimate ∫ 13, 100 mineral board ∫ 158 mineral fibre tile ∫ 75, 143 mineral plaster ∫ 69 mineral wool ∫ 68, 126, 148, 164 mineral-based board ∫ 66 mineral-bonded board ∫ 65, 125, 158 mineral-fibre board ∫ 147ff. mineral-fibre tile ∫ 144, 148 mixed gas sensor ∫ 194 mixer tap ∫ 200 mixing of colours ∫ 51 mixing ventilation ∫ 174ff. modular grid ∫ 123, 145, 147 modular panel ceiling ∫ 145f. moisture absorption ∫ 62 moisture balance ∫ 60, 68 moisture content ∫ 64, 124 moisture control ∫ 130, 133, 159 moisture damage ∫ 106 moisture load ∫ 130, 174 Mollier h-x diagram ∫ 37 mould growth ∫ 198 movement joint ∫ 130ff-, 136f., 152, 158ff., 166f. multiple chemical sensitivity ∫ 73 N nanotechnology ∫ 77 national test certificate ∫ 129, 149 natural colour system ∫ 43 natural lighting ∫ 86 natural regulation ∫ 97 natural ventilation ∫ 174 Nature plus ∫ 76 Naturland ∫ 76

night-time cooling ∫ 183 night-time ventilation ∫ 83, 91, 102, 178, 194 noise control ∫ 86f. noise level ∫ 90 non-destructive replacement ∫ 84 non-slip property ∫ 70, 73 non-slip surface ∫ 71, 201 nuclear energy ∫ 108 O odour ∫ 73ff. office building ∫ 185ff. oil-seed rape ∫ 110 olfactory comfort ∫ 37 open-plan layout ∫ 24 open-plan office ∫ 94ff. operating mode switchover ∫ 194 operating temperature ∫ 114 operative interior temperature ∫ 176 operative room temperature ∫ 36, 44, 93 organic LED ∫ 57 orientation light ∫ 58 oriented strand board ∫ 65, 125 outside air ∫ 112 outside climate ∫ 82 outside temperature ∫ 102, 104, 113 overflow ∫ 206 oxygen ∫ 174 ozone ∫ 174 P particleboard ∫ 65, 124ff. partition ∫ 138 passive cooling ∫ 94, 178 passive house ∫ 176f. passive solar gain ∫ 100 PEFC ∫ 76 pendant lamp ∫ 57 perceived temperature ∫ 32 permanent formwork ∫ 160f., 165 phase change material ∫ 69, 77, 96, 116, 181 phenolic foam ∫ 126 photothermal effect ∫ 100 photovoltaic element ∫ 108 photovoltaic installation ∫ 114, 87 photovoltaic module ∫ 107, 220 photovaltaic roof ∫ 184 photovoltaic system ∫ 109 pipework ∫ 197f., 198, 204ff. Places of Assembly Act ∫ 61 places of assembly ∫ 38, 61, 93, 96, 175 Places of Work Directives ∫ 49 plan libre ∫ 20, 21 plant room ∫ 208, 211 plaster ∫ 68, 69, 132 plasterboard ∫ 65, 125, 130, 169 plasterboard gypsum fibreboard ∫ 157 plate heat exchanger ∫ 180f. plate resonator ∫ 151 plumbing wall ∫ 122, 180 plywood ∫ 64, 124f., 170 pollutant ∫ 38, 68, 117 pollution ∫ 89 polycarbonate ∫ 66 polyester ∫ 66, 69 polyester fibre ∫ 126 polyolefin ∫ 73 polystyrene ∫ 68 polyurethane rigid foam ∫ 126 polyurethane ∫ 69, 73 polyvinyl chloride ∫ 73, 158, 160f. powder coating ∫ 70 powerline ∫ 194 precast concrete ∫ 63 predicted mean vote ∫ 44 predicted percentage of dissatisfied ∫ 37, 44, 174 prefabricated wall system ∫ 123, 202 prefabrication ∫ 23, 61

285

Index

pressed wood ∫ 124 prevailing wind ∫ 102f. primary colour ∫ 51 primary electricity supply system ∫ 186 primary energy ∫ 117 primary energy consumption ∫ 107 primary energy input ∫ 108, 110 primary energy requirement ∫ 106 production well ∫ 112 protection against frost ∫ 203 purge ventilation ∫ 89 Q quality assurance ∫ 80f., 87 quality control ∫ 81 quality management ∫ 80 quality mark ∫ 70, 72, 76 quality of the interior air ∫ 73 R radiant ceiling panel ∫ 176f. radiant heat ∫ 36, 139, 167 radiation ∫ 34ff., 154, 176, 178 radiation asymmetry ∫ 36, 44 radiator ∫ 176f., 199 rainwater ∫ 196, 204 raised access floor ∫ 156f., 160ff. Raumplan ∫ 16ff. re-injection well ∫ 112 REACH ∫ 75 reaction to fire ∫ 165, 70 reconstituted stone ∫ 27, 71 recooling unit ∫ 115, 180, 209 reference building method ∫ 106 reflector ∫ 114 reflector geometry ∫ 58f. reflector lamp ∫ 53, 55 refrigerant ∫ 115, 181 refrigeration unit ∫ 113ff., 186, 209 refurbishment ∫ 76, 81, 86, 90ff., 96, 113, 156 relative humidity ∫ 36, 98, 102 Renewable Energies Heat Act ∫ 106 renewable energy ∫ 110, 117 renewable energy source ∫ 87, 106, 116 resilient connection ∫ 132 return temperature ∫ 113 return-air cooling ∫ 178f., 183 reverberation ∫ 38, 39, 150 rigid connection ∫ 132, 134 rigid junction ∫ 152 rising damp ∫ 12 rock wool ∫ 68, 126 roller shutter ∫ 193 roof drainage ∫ 206 roof form ∫ 109 roof space ∫ 209ff. rooflight ∫ 92 room acoustics ∫ 39, 90, 95, 126, 148ff. room automation ∫ 193ff. room temperature ∫ 32 rotary heat exchanger ∫ 180f. routing service ∫ 202 rubber covering ∫ 72, 73 RugMark ∫ 76 run-around coil ∫ 180f., 208 rural climate ∫ 103 S safety ∫ 74, 99 sandwich element ∫ 66 sanitary appliance ∫ 196f., 199ff., 205, 209 sanitary facility ∫ 196ff. sanitary installation ∫ 196f., 202 sanitary space ∫ 196f. sanitary unit ∫ 197 saturation humidity ∫ 102 screed ∫ 69 sealant ∫ 73 seamless ceiling ∫ 141f.

286

seasonal affective disorder ∫ 40 secondary circuit ∫ 204, 207 secondary heat emission ∫ 48 self-levelling screed ∫ 157, 160 self-sufficient building ∫ 107 self-supporting ceiling luminaire ∫ 148 self-supporting ceiling ∫ 146, 155 semi-prefabricated partition ∫ 123 sensible heat ∫ 181, 182 separate WC ∫ 196, 199, 206 separating joint ∫ 133f., 150 separating wall ∫ 129 server room ∫ 208, 210 service cable ∫ 186 service core ∫ 191 service floor ∫ 24 services integration ∫ 94 sewage treatment work ∫ 113 sewer ∫ 204, 206, 209 sewerage network ∫ 113 shadowline joint ∫ 134f., 152f. shallow geothermal energy ∫ 111, 117 sheep’s wool ∫ 68 sheet metal ∫ 67, 148 shower head ∫ 200 shower tray ∫ 200ff. shower ∫ 196ff., 200ff., 204f. shrinkage ∫ 64, 69, 158 sick building syndrome ∫ 33, 73 single-stud wall ∫ 121, 128, 136f. siphonic action drainage ∫ 206 sliding connection ∫ 132, 152f. sliding door ∫ 137f. sliding junction ∫ 136, 152 sliding soffit junction ∫ 136f. sliding wall junction ∫ 136 smoke ∫ 61, 99, 131, 203 smoke detector ∫ 99, 164f. smoke vent ∫ 90 soffit channel ∫ 136, 137 soffit illumination ∫ 58 soffit lining ∫ 65f., 140f., 149f., 152 softwood ∫ 63f. soil sealing ∫ 103 soil stack ∫ 204f. solar altitude angle ∫ 100 solar altitude diagram ∫ 46 solar cell ∫ 109 solar collector ∫ 106f., 114 solar cooling ∫ 181 solar energy ∫ 108ff., 115, 182 solar gains ∫ 47, 95, 100, 105, 178, 181, 183 solar heat gains ∫ 108 solar irradiation ∫ 100, 102 solar radiation ∫ 100, 103ff., 108ff., 114ff., 181f., 193 solar thermal collector ∫ 93, 109, 114 solar thermal energy ∫ 109, 209 solar thermal installation ∫ 114 solar thermal system ∫ 109, 114f. solid biogenic fuel ∫ 110 solid biomass ∫ 106 solid timber ∫ 63 sorption capacity ∫ 60 sorption heat pump ∫ 115 sorption reaction ∫ 116 sorption wheel ∫ 181 sorption-type refrigeration unit ∫ 109, 115, 181 sound absorption ∫ 147, 148, 150f. sound attenuation ∫ 62, 151 sound insulation ∫ 71, 103, 126ff., 137, 149f., 158, 162ff. sound pressure level ∫ 38f. sound propagation ∫ 39 sound reduction index ∫ 130, 158, 163f. sound transmission ∫ 164f., 203 space heating ∫ 86, 110, 114f., 176 space-dividing component ∫ 61 specific heat capacity ∫ 13, 61ff., 98,

102, 182 spectral composition ∫ 52 spectrum ∫ 51ff. sports hall ∫ 92f., 177 spotlight ∫ 53, 55, 58 sprinkler system ∫ 170, 206 standard global spectrum ∫ 48 static comfort model ∫ 83 stiffening channel ∫ 124 stone tile ∫ 158 stoneware ∫ 71 storage facility ∫ 110 strategies for fitting-out ∫ 76 stretched fabric ∫ 7 structural timber ∫ 64 structure-borne sound ∫ 38f., 63, 67 stucco ∫ 16 stud wall ∫ 120ff., 127, 129, 132, 136ff. subfloor ∫ 65, 72, 177 subsoil ∫ 103, 111 subtractive colour mixing ∫ 50 subtractive mixing ∫ 51 summertime thermal performance ∫ 47, 178 sun’s trajectory ∫ 47 sunlight ∫ 40 supply and extract system ∫ 86f., 91, 93, 174f., 183f., 208 supply fitting ∫ 200 surface temperature ∫ 36, 178 suspended ceiling ∫ 140f., 154f., 182, 189, 190 sustainable building ∫ 80 swelling ∫ 64, 69, 158 swirl diffuser ∫ 174 synthetic finish ∫ 73 synthetic material ∫ 66 synthetic resin ∫ 69f. system integration ∫ 82

unglazed collector ∫ 114 uplight ∫ 50, 58 urban climate ∫ 103 usage typology ∫ 82 user adaptiveness ∫ 82f. user intervention ∫ 48 utility room ∫ 197, 199f. V vacuum-tube collector ∫ 114 vanity unit ∫ 199f., 207 vapour barrier ∫ 133 vapour diffusion resistance index ∫ 61 vent pipe ∫ 205f. ventilation ∫ 38, 86, 87, 93, 96 ventilation duct ∫ 155, 170, 179ff., 208 ventilation flow rate ∫ 38 ventilation heat loss ∫ 104f., 180f. ventilation plant ∫ 208 ventilation system ∫ 180 ventilation systems in raised access floors ∫ 166 vertical service shaft ∫ 211 video surveillance ∫ 99 visible light ∫ 40, 55 visual comfort ∫ 40ff., 95 volatile organic compound (VOC) ∫ 64f., 74ff.

T T-junction ∫ 132, 133 T-system ∫ 143, 144 technical fitting-out ∫ 80, 94, 104, 106 telecommunication socket ∫ 188 temperature stratification ∫ 37 terrazzo ∫ 71 textile panel ∫ 67, 72 thermal activation ∫ 77 thermal comfort ∫ 34, 36, 102 thermal conductivity ∫ 61ff., 126 thermal current ∫ 36 thermal energy ∫ 13, 103f., 111, 115ff. thermal expansion ∫ 155 thermal insulation ∫ 67ff. Thermal Insulation Act ∫ 106 thermal loss ∫ 114 thermal performance ∫ 44, 106, 131 thermal transmittance ∫ 104, 106 thermally driven refrigeration unit ∫ 181 thermoactive building system ∫ 176, 178 thermoactive floor slab ∫ 85, 176ff. thermochemical storage ∫ 116 thermographic image ∫ 104 timber joist floor ∫ 156, 158, 202 total concentration of volatile organic compound ∫ 74 total energy transmittance ∫ 48 toughened safety glass ∫ 66 TOXPROOF ∫ 76 translucent concrete ∫ 76f. transmission heat loss ∫ 102, 105f. transmission heating requirement ∫ 106 trunking ∫ 189ff.

W walk-in shower ∫ 200f. walk-off mat ∫ 77 wall illumination ∫ 58 wall lining ∫ 122f., 189, 202f. wall-in-wall junction ∫ 130 wall-in-wall reduced junction ∫ 135 wall-on-wall reduced junction ∫ 135 warm-air heating ∫ 167, 176f., 183 warm-air system ∫ 86 waste air ∫ 174, 178, 185 waste heat ∫ 103, 106, 110, 112f., 115, 117, 184 waste water ∫ 113, 117, 205f. waste water drain ∫ 113, 197 waste water pipe ∫ 202ff., 209 waste water pump ∫ 204, 209 water consumption ∫ 200 water softening unit ∫ 209 water vapour diffusion resistance index ∫ 126 water-filled heat exchanger ∫ 181 waterproofing ∫ 130, 159, 201f. waterproofing material ∫ 158 wellness bathroom ∫ 197, 200 Werkbund ∫ 19, 22 wheelchair user ∫ 197ff. wind speed ∫ 100, 102f. window monitoring ∫ 194 wintertime thermal performance ∫ 47 wood chipping ∫ 110f. wood fibre ∫ 126 wood fibreboard ∫ 65 wood pellet ∫ 110, 111 wood preservative ∫ 70, 75 wood-based board ∫ 126, 158 wood-based board product ∫ 124f., 128f., 148, 163 wood-based product ∫ 64, 66, 70, 77, 147f., 157 wood-block flooring ∫ 72, 158 wood-wool board ∫ 126 wood-wool lightweight board ∫ 65 wooden floorboard ∫ 71f. workplace ∫ 50, 188, 191

U Ü-mark ∫ 130 U-value ∫ 104 U/A value ∫ 168 underfloor cooling ∫ 183 underfloor heating ∫ 160, 166f., 198

Z Z-system ∫ 143f. zero-carbon building ∫ 184 zero-energy building ∫ 106f. zero-solvent ∫ 76 zoning ∫ 33, 44, 88

Index

287

288