Construction Materials Manual 9783034614559

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• ons ruc Ion • a erla s anua HEGGER AUCH-SCHWELK FUCHS ROSENKRANZ

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BIRKHAUSER - PUBLISHERS FOR ARCH ITECTURE BASE L· BOSTON· BERLIN EDITION DETAIL MUNICH

This book was compiled at the Chair of Energy-Efficient Building Design, Prof. Manfred Hegger Department of Architecture, TU Darmstadt W'N'N . arc hitektur .tu-da rmsta dt. de/ee in conjunction with Institut fOr internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co. KG, Mun ich www.detail.de

Authors

Specialist articles:

Manfred Hegger Prof. Dipl.- Ing. M. Econ Architect Chair of Energy-Efficient Building Design, TU Darmstad t

Christian Schittich, Dipl.-Ing. Architect Institut fOr internationale Architektur-Dokumentation, Munich

Volker Auch-Schwelk Oipl. -Ing . Architect Chair of Design and Building Stud ies, TU Darmstadt Matthias Fuchs Dipl.-Ing . Architect Chair of Energy-Efficient Building Design, TU Darmstadt Thorsten Rosenkranz Dipl.-Ing. Chair of Energy-Efficient Build ing Design, TU Darmstadt Scientific assistants: JOrgen Volkwein, Dipl. -Ing . Architect (Building services) Martin Zeumer, Dipl.-Ing. (Glass, Physical parameters of materials, Life cyc le assessments) Student assistants: Christoph Drebes, Andreas Gottschling, Cornelia Herhaus, Viola John, Yi Zhang

Editorial services

Editors: Steffi Lenzen, Dipl.-Ing. Architect (project manager) Julia Liese, Dipl.-Ing.

Christiane Sauer, Dipl.-Ing . Architect Formade/Architektur + Material, Berlin Peter Steiger, Prof. Architect intep AG, ZOrich Alexander Rudolphi, Dlpl.-Ing. GFOB Berlin mbH, Berlin Dirk Funhoff. Dr. rer. nat. BASF, Ludwigshafen Marc Esslinger frog design gmbh, Herrenberg Karsten Tichelmann, Prof. Dipl.-Ing . Patrik Jakob, Dipl.-Ing. VHT, Darmstadt A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., USA Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek. Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available on the Internet at http://dnb. ddb.de.

Editorial assistants: Carola Jacob-Ritz, M. A.; Sabine Schmid, Dipl.-Ing .; Manuel Zolier, Dipl.-Ing.

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the right of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in other ways, and storage in databases. For any kind of use, permission of the copyright owner must be obtained.

Drawings: Marion Griese, Dipl.-Ing.

This book is also available in a German language edition (ISBN 3-7643-7272 -9).

Drawing assistants: Kathr in Draeger, Dipl.-Ing.; Norbert Graeser, Oipl.-Ing.; Emese K6szegi, Oipl. -Ing .; Nicola Kollmann, Dipl.-Ing .; Elisabeth Krammer, Dipl.-Ing.; Andrea Saiko, Dipl.-Ing.

Editor: Institut fOr internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co. KG, Munich W'N'N.detail.de

Production/DTP: Roswitha 8ieg ler

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Reproduct ion: Martin Hartel OHG, Martinsried Translation into English: Gerd H. Sbffker and Philip Thrift, Hannover

2006 English translation of the 1st German edition Birkhauser - Publishers for Architecture, P.O. Box 133, 4010 Basel, Switzerland, Part of the Springer 8cience+Business Media. W'N'N. birkhauser.ch Printed on acid-free paper produced from chlorine-free pulp. TCF Printed in Germany ISBN-1O: 3-7643-7570-1 ISBN-13: 978-3-7643-7570-6

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Contents

6

Preface

Part A

Materials and architecture

9

Part C Applications of building

102

materials

2 3 4 5 6

The surface in contemporary architecture Christian Schittich The architect as bui Iding materials scout Christiane Sauer The critical path to sustainable construction Peter Steiger Criteria for the selection of building materials Alexander Rudolphi The development of innovative materials Dirk Funhoff Touching the senses - materials and haptics in the design process Marc Esslinger

Part B Properties of building

10 1 The building envelope

14 18

2 3 4 5 6 7

Insulating and seal ing Building services Walls Intermediate floors Floors Surfaces and coatings

104 132 146 152 162 170 186

22 28

Part D

Case studies in detail

Project examples

1 to 25

202

204-263

32

37

Part E

Glossary: Physical parameters of materials Karsten Tichelmann, Patrik Jakob Glossary: Hazardous substances Alexander Rudolph l

264

38 44 48 54 62 66 76 84 90 98

Statutory instruments, directives, standards Bibliography Picture credits Subject index Index of names

270

Appendix

materials

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Stone Loam Ceramic materia ls Building materials with mineral binders Bituminous materials Wood and wood-based products Metal Glass Syn thetic ma terials life cycle assessments

268

272 275 277 279

5

Preface

Books explaining the fundamentals of building materials have long since been standard reading for architects and engineers. They supply comprehensive information about materials for construction, explain their origins and production processes, outline the forms in which they are available and the potential applications, and hence provide an in -depth understand ing of properties and processing options. The publications currently available also follow the traditional layout: an overview divided into sec tions devoted to the groups of materials, with comprehensive information on how they affect the performance of the building. This established technical and business-like approach has been supplemented recently by other groups of publ ications . One group is the books - some of them in large format - of samples of materials which wi th their primarily visual means of communication would seem to represent the antithesis to the aforementioned standard works. They present ex tensive ranges of materials or provide an insight into the diversity of the possibilities of individual groups of materials. They display the available diversity as materials or in as-built contexts. This illustrates the increasing need to place the way we experience building materials on a sensual level at the very heart of our decisions regard ing materials and hence improve the tangible qualities of the bu ilt environment in visual and sensual terms. The task of such books is to show us the surface of the material. The other group is those recent publications and sets of figures that primarily consider how bui lding materials affect the environment and our health, also their durability and recyclability plus other sustainability criteria . These parameters were neglected for many years although the building industry consumes the largest share of all raw materials and energy and - despite the comparative longevity of this industry's products - also contributes the lion's share of the waste produced. The origins of the impact of building operations can be traced back to, above all, the choice of materials. Until now, their criteria and indicators have only been available to a specialist c ircle of readers.

6

The Construction Materials Manual combines the contents of these three formats. It brings together clearly the techn ical, sensual and, for the first time , also the ecological aspects in one work. The refore, continuing in the tradition of the se ries of the Construction Manuals , it c loses a sensitive gap. The reader gains access to a more comprehens ive treatment of building materials. Based on this approach, the choice of material can be made with more circumspection and care, will also permit more sound reasoning than was possible in the past. The carefully prepared, comprehensive parameters now enable verifiable statements instead of vague claims , especially in the categories of efficiency and sustainability in the building sec tor. This also means we can say farewell to global prejudices regarding building materials; there is actually no building material that can be unanimously recommended or rejected without any riders. Does this mean that "anything goes" where building is concerned? No, it always depends on the structural, building performance, functional and environmental contexts and the extent to which the material is used. The Construction Materials Manual can be used to check the intended application, to establish whether the planned material should be considered as suitable or critical. Unfavourable results need not necessarily lead to the exclusion of a material preferred for economic or design reasons . Increasingly, we find that material properties can be influenced , in the sense of "custom-made". In the future architects, designers and enginee rs - also with the help of the knowledge gathered together in this book - will be able to specify desired properties and assist in the development of new, high ly efficient materials. At the same time, they can therefore make a significant contr ibution to improving the quality of bui lding and to extending the design repertoire. The choice of material has a very decisive effect on the appearance and perception of build ings, and not only their surfaces. For hun dreds of years the materials available for buildings were very limited . Knowledge about mate-

rials was acquired over generations and handed down. Today, the expanding world of materials puts a broad selection of materials at our disposal for creating architecture . The risks of using new materials are high because longterm experience is not available. Nevertheless, the playfu l use of and pleasure in experimenting with materials are increasingly evident in our architecture. Material diversification, material alienation, conscious misuse of materials or materials "borrowed" from other industries have become acknowledged styling tools . Besides the primary edict of architectural form, the rhetoric of the materials is increasingly becoming the focal point of the culture of our built envi ronment. Diverse innovations are creating an incredible need for information among architects and engineers. The Construction Materials Manual cannot present every material, track every trend. Nevertheless, the authors have tried to take into account the diverse options available to architects today by covering a wide range of groups of materials, by describing their use in various practical contexts and by d irect comparisons of their properties. For unconventional groups of materials, the various levels of consideration can perhaps to some degree compensate for the features that characterise our traditional building materials: dependable awareness of their properties, familiarity with their treatment and use.

only in design, is clarified. This aspect is st ill much underestimated in architecture. Part B "Properties of building materials" is dedicated to the overall consideration of the materi als themselves. Here, the materials are sorted into groups accord ing to their origins and production, methods of processing, but also their chemical composition, physical properties plus their impact and appearance. This section reviews the fundamentals for using the building materials covered and mentions the risks at those materials. The properties in terms of building performance are mainly shown in the form of tables. Wherever poss ible, the text is backed up with drawings, photographs and diagrams. Environmental parameters for the materials are described at the end of this section and are summarised in practical terms for the main building materials. Common reference units such as m2 or kg are employed for easy comparison and ease of understanding.

The layout of the book follows the procedure for choosing building materials and then integrating them into the draft and detail designs.

Just considering the material alone is always an abstract exercise for planning and design when materials have a wide range of potential applica tions. This is true for the majority of building materials. For example: metals are just as useful as structural components as they are as cladding to external walls or linings to soffits, or pipework, or facade members. The authors therefore also saw it as part of their task to show the unison between material and design in addition to the wide range of potential materials. This context made it necessary to formulate the different possibilities and relation ships that result from specific applications.

Part A "Material and architecture" approaches the current and fundamental aspects of choice of materials. The articles show how choice of material influences contemporary architecture and trace the associated selection processes. They present the importance of sustainabil ity criteria in the choice of material and describe the dynamics in the development of innovative bui lding materials. Furthermore, the enormous part played by the surfaces of materials as the interiace between building and occupants, not

Accordingly, Part C "Applications of building materials" describes assemblies of components with respect to the use of the material. Besides functional and constructional aspects, building performance criteria such as fire protection, thermal insulation and sound insulation are considered specifically for the particular application (e.g. building envelope, intermediate floors). The multitude of design options and their framework conditions is derived directly from this . This also applies to the sustainability

criteria. Various typical, layer-type constructions, presented in tabular form, are compared at the end of each section. From this, environmental effects and durability aspects related to particular components can be read off directly, which enable designers to estimate the overall impact on the environment of components and the comp lete structure at an early planning stage. Again in this section, the form of presentation is based on the need to provide the infor~ mation in a compact format, and therefore uses the preferred method of conveying information for architects, i.e. photographs, drawings and graphics. The prime aim of the selection of buildings in Part 0 "Case studies in detail" was to present the relationship between architectural expression and the materials used. The majority of buildings represent recent projects that are notable for their use of suriace textures limited to just a few materials. The presentation of the projects features the materials and shows typical details for the use of such materials. The intention is to illustrate the architectural strengths that can evolve from an economic and skilful choice of materials. Finally, I shou ld like to thank all the staff of my department and all the institutions and people who contributed to this publication, and those who so generously provided material for inclusion . Damstadt, August 2005 Manfred Hegger

7

Part A

Materials and architecture

The surface in contemporary architecture Christian Schittich 2

The architect as building materials scout Christiane Sauer

3 The critical path to sustainable construction Peter Steiger 4

Criteria for the selection of building materials Alexander Rudolphi

5 The development of innovative materials Dirk Funhoff 6

Fig. A

Limestone stairs worn by thousands of feet over hundreds of years, Chapter House, Wells Cathedra l, UK, commenced c. 1180 (stairs date from c. 1255), Adam Lock et al.

Touching the senses - materials and haptics in the design process Marc Esslinger

The surface in contemporary architecture Christian Schittich

The increasing overabundance of stimuli, sen sual impressions and colourful images has embraced architecture as well, even though the reaction to this is mixed. Some architects adapt to the circumstances and respond with similarly colourful images silk-screen-printed on brittle glass. Or with multi-coloured patterns over large areas, flickering media facades and illuminated screens. But others contemplate the quality of tried -and-tested building materials solid, jointed natural stone, fair-face concrete, untreated timber or clay brickwork - in order to demonstrate the physical presence of a structure in an increasingly virtual world, or as a deliberate contrast to shrill surroundings. Whatever approach the architect chooses, the surface always plays a dominant role . It is essentially through the surfaces we see and touch that we perceive architecture. Their co lours, textures and auras dominate the characters of interiors and facades. Since time immemorial, people in all cultu res have paid special attention to the surfaces of their houses and rooms, have fashioned them and decorated them. We see th is in the colourful tapestries hanging in the ten ts of nomads, the colourful paintings in churches and palaces, and the tiles and stucco work of Islamic architecture (fig. A 1.1). In contemporary architecture we witness an alternation between schools that place form in the foreground, and others that emphasise the building envelope. Emphasising the surface is currently "in". This goes hand in hand with the increasing separation between load bearing structure and building envelope, but also with new technical options such as printing on glass and plastics, or the reproduction of patterns by means of computer techniques. And, of course, this trend is also linked to the growing significance of d iffe rent media, which seem to imply that the image of a building is sometimes more important than the building itself! However, emphasising the surface directs ou r attention to the material itself, which more and more is being given the proper setting. The material becomes visible at its su rface and its specific properties dominate its appearance, which depends quite decisively on whether a traditional or an industrially fabricated building material is being used, whether the material has been left untreated or covered or coated (to protect against corrosion), whether it is glossy or matt, textured or plain, or whether its appearance and its properties change over the course of time (intended or unintended). Like timber, which takes on a silvery g rey colour, or metals, which oxidise and become dull, or untreated sandstone, which turns black over time. In contrast to earlier times when everyday building projects could only make use of the materials available locally, we have at our disposal today an unprecedented diversity of building materials from the four corners of the globe to which industry is constantly adding new developments. This diversity brings with it

10

A 1.1 previously unforeseen opportunities, but also risks, at least in terms of the huge choice . Moreover, the growing "staging" of the material, which is not limited to traditional building materia ls, leads to more and more products from other sectors of industry - which hitherto found no use in building - being emp loyed in architecture. " Authentic" materials

The conscious treatment of materials is not a new concept confined to contemporary architecture . For more than 20 years, Tadao Ando has been using "authentic building materials with substance", such as untreated timber or (insp ired by Le Corbusier and Louis Kahn) the raw power of fa ir-face concrete, in order to create rooms and moods. In his best designs the surfaces are not absolutely flat, but instead exhibit a minimal waviness within each formwork panel; the ensuing play of light and shad ow lends the surface an adroit vigorousness (fig . A 1.4) . The buildings of Tadao Ando helped fair-face concrete to make a comeback. However, it was mostly the completely smooth surfaces divided into strict patterns by the formwork panels and punctuated by a regular ne twork of real, sometimes even dummy, formwork tie holes on his ever larger works that found imitators worldwide. Concrete in all its forms is currently popular. The use of rough formwork boards or subsequent furrowing or bush hammering gives it a striking, coarse character, the addition of coloured pigments or certain aggregates lend it a certa in materiality. Jacques Herzog & Pierre de Meuron. for example, specified a concrete mix with gravel containing soil plus subsequent coarse pointing for the external walls of their so-called Schaulager in Basel (2003) in order to achieve a loam -type character (see p . 112, fig. C 1.27 c). On the other hand, the Baselbased architectural practice of Morger Degelo Kerez used a concrete mix with green and b lack basalt river aggregates plus extensive grinding and polishing on the art gallery in Lichtenstein (2000) to create the appearance of marble (see p . 112, fig . C 1.27d).

The surface in contemporary architecture

A 1.1

Glazed ceramic tiles and stucco work, Alhambra, Granada, Spain, 14th century A 1.2 National library of France, Paris. France. 1996. Dominique Perrault with Gaelle Lauriot Prevost A 1.3 Thermal baths, Vals. Switzerland, 1996, Peter Zumthor A 1.4 Sunday school, Ibaraki , Japan, 1999, Tadao Ando

"Genuine" natural stone is used these days almost exclusively on the suriace, in the form of thin cladding panels or even as "veneers" just a few millimetres thick bonded to an aluminium backing panel. Countless facades and foyers for banks and insurance companies bear witness to this. But Peter Zumthor - like Tadao Ando a maestro in terms of the handling of materials - is not satisfied with such approaches. His structures draw their impressive strength from the conscious use of a limited number of primarily untreated materials such as stone, timber or concrete . Zumthor wants to expose the "actual nature of these materials, freed from all culturally mediated meaning", to allow the "materials to resound and radiate in the architecture". [1] In works like his stone-clad thermal baths in Vals (1996) or the chapel in Sumvitg covered in larch shingles (1988), his choice of materials reflects local traditions and helps to establish the structures in their surroundings. For example, the thermal baths in Vals takes on the appearance of a monolith growing out of the mountainous landscape, with the stone itself in the form of solid walls made from local quartzite or as floor finishes and the linings to pools made from the same material - providing a multitude of aesthetic and haptic experiences both internally and externally.

A 1.2

A 1.3

overlapping cladding of acid-etched glass panes (see p. 86, fig. B 8.8), which thereby impressively reveals the physical presence of this "invisible" material. Translucent but not transparent, the consistent envelope changes its appearance depending on viewing ang le, time of day and lighting conditions. On their hospital pharmacy in Basel (1999), Jacques Herzog & Pierre de Meuron achieved a dematerialisation of the building fabric by using silk-screen-printed glass (see p . 117, fig. C 1.36c). In this example a completely regular pattern of green dots was applied to the glass cladding which encloses the entire build ing, even extending into the window revea ls. The cladding therefore changes its appear-

ance according to the observer's distance from the building. From far away the bui lding takes on a uniform green appearance, but from closer the green dots become apparent. The spac ing of the dots is such that the insulation behind and its fixings rema in visible . As the observer changes his or her position, so he or she is treated to unceasing optical interierence phenomena which animate the structure and break down its strict contours. The reflections of the surrounding trees merge with the facade . The Austrian architects Andreas Lichtblau and Susanna Wagner also used glass on their parish centre (200 t) in Podersdorf on Neusiedler Lake, but this time for a subtle form of decoration . An enclosing and integrating glass wall

Industrially fabricated material s

Glass and transparent synthetic materials, but also metal meshes and fabrics, enable architects to play with the surface in a special way, to separate the physical and visual boundaries. In this respect, it is especially cha llenging to sound out the multifaceted zone between transparency and translucency. That can be achieved by covering the glass with louvres or perforated sheet metal, by printing, by acidetching or the specific use of mirror effects and reflections. The individual characters of and contrast between two very different materials - concrete and glass - was turned into an imposing theme by Peter Zumthor on his art gallery in Bregenz (1997). The monoli thic core of in situ fair-face concrete walls and floors is enclosed in an A1.4

11

The surface in contemporary architecture

position, the material generates constantly changing colour effects. Inside the building, the interaction with the inner leaf of translucent glass results in a pleasant, softly coloured light which generates a positive atmosphere and suits the dance and practice rooms admirably.

IJ JJ JJ [IJ JJ JJ JJ JJ ~IJ IJ A 1.5

A 1.6

placed in front of the group of buildings was printed with passages of text written by local children mi xed with quotes from the Bible (see p. 117, fig. C 1.36d). The result is not only interesting lighting effects on the buildings behind, but also a type of media facade conveying a message. Printing with texts or images - the primary objective of which is an aesthetic effect - still remains the customary form of media facade because active building envelopes with moving images and changing messages - with the exception of large advertising screens in city centres - have not yet become a familiar addition to the streetscape despite promising starts. Matthias Sauerbruch and Louisa Hutton also exploited the possibilities of printed glass for their comb ined police and fire station in Berlin (see Example 24, pp. 258-60). In contrast to the two examples described above, however,

transparency was less important than the concept of large-scale coloured patterns, with reflections in the glass surfaces providing addi tional charm.

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Jacques Herzog & Pierre de Meuron managed to achieve a successful setting for synthetic materials, currently so popular in architecture, on the Laban Centre in south-east London (2003) . The plastic four-wall panels are used so skilfully here that the result IS a splendid, shimmering scu lpture (fig. A 1.7) . It emulates the straight lines of its surroundings, but at the same time its outlines become blurred with the sky, which leads to an almost unrealistic, seemingly intangible appearance. Colours are used very subtly here. with colour applied to the rear faces of only some of the plastic panels. This reinforces the shimmering, pastel-like effect. Depending on lighting conditions and viewing

Synthetic materials in the form of corrugated sheeting or multi-wall panels are inexpensive products that have been used in building for many decades, but usually for ancillary areas. In architecture they led a sort of shadowy existence - similarly to plywood, expanded metal or fibre-cement sheeting - until their aesthetic qualities were discovered and literally brought to the surface - to the visible sides of claddings and linings - in the course of the new awareness of materials. Forming a contrast to this is the stainless steel fabric used by Dominique Perrault for the first time on the National Library of France in Paris (1995) - an example of the sensible transfer of a material from industry (where, for example, it is used for sieves) to architecture. Internally. in lecture theatres, staircases and other public areas, this semi-transparent material can be used as an acoustically effective soffit and wall lining, to concea l build ing services. as translucent partitions or as sunshading. This textured light- and air-permeable second skin lends the interior a special quality (fig. A 1.2). Nowadays, the material appears in all sorts of places - from bank foyers to airport car parks. It is an effective treatment for facades too, as the curving skin of stainless steel fabric on the NOX arts centre in Lille demonstrates (see Example 15, pp. 234-36). The facade changes

----=---='

~~~-= - ='

~.

A 1.7

12

The surface in contemporary architecture

------------------------------------------------

its appearance depending on weather conditions and time of day - sometimes shining in the sunlight and concealing what lies behind it, at other times looking like a semi-transparent, fine veil draped in front of the building.

MVRDV team , the veil of water flowing across the outer skin was used to provide texture, its movement leading to a multitude of kaleidoscope-type patterns and a neverending alternation between transparency and translucency .

Vari able surfaces

Interior surfaces

The effect and aura of a surface is essentially determined by the properties of the material, by the interaction of different building materials, by the alternation between closed and open zones, or even by movable elements. Variable building envelopes are not a new phenomenon. The window shutters of earlier times fall into this category of variability, likewise fabric sun blinds; in addition to being functional. they have always served as design features too. But hardly ever before has the aesthetic effect of the variable facade been given so much attention, the contrast between the closed and open conditions of hinged or sliding shutters placed in the settings conceived for them today . This applies to the student accommodation in Coimbra, Portugal, (1999) by Manuel and Francisco Rocha de Aires Mateus, where a completely flat. homogeneous surface of timber panels becomes an interestingly subdivided external wall by opening the shutters (figs A t.5 and A t .6). Another example is the straightforward, box-like stone house by MADA (see Example 5, pp. 212-13), whose hinged and sliding shutters do much to soften the building's severity.

Besides the internal spaces themselves, the materials used internally for walls, floors, soffits, furnishings and fittings playa vital role . Their surfaces, textures and colours have a very decisive influence on the atmosphere. Unlike the facade, the building occupants have direct contact with the materials used internally; they can inspect them close-up, touch them, stroke them, perhaps even smell them. Natural and earthy materials such as timber, stone and concrete radiate warmth, exhibit a sensual materiality, whereas synthetic and coated materials can be readily used to express formal design concepts. For instance, in the minimalist interior of John Pawson (1999) it is wood with its reddish colour ing and grain that dominates the character of the room, whereas in the fashion boutique by propeller z (2000) in Vienna it is the curving contours and the rich yellow colouring (figs A 1.8 and A 1.9).

That surfaces need not always be rigid was demonstrated by the Dutch pavilion at EXPO 2000 in Hannover, admitted ly an extreme example. In this pavilion designed by the

A 1.8

separates sensible innovation from hackneyed effects simply striving for attention. Focusing increasingly on the surface brings with it the risk of superficiali ty, which is particularly true for the applied ornamentation so popular at the moment, although it is true that the boundary between tastefully applied patterns and pure decoration is of course not fi xed . References: Zumthor, Peter: Thinking Architecture. Basel l Boston l Berlin 2006

[lJ

Whether plastics, glass or wood, variable or minimalist, brightly coloured or plain, with its vast palette of possibilities the theme of the surface is probably more exciting now than it has ever been in the past. A tremendous delight in experimentation can be seen everywhere; boundaries are sounded out, traditional looks questioned, new materials and concepts tried out. But sometimes only a narrow divid ing line

A 1.5--6

A 1.7 A 1.8 A 1.9

Student accommodation , Coimbra, Portugal, 20Cl0, Manuel and Francisco Rocha de Aires Maleus Laban Centre, London , UK, 2003, Jacques Herzog & Pierre de Meuron Private house, London, UK, 1999, John Pawson Fashion boutique, Vienna, Austria, 2000, propeller z

13

The architect as building materials scout Christiane Sauer

A 2.1

Architects have always tried to exploit the full design potential of the materials available to them. In the past, the architectural options were often limited to local materials and traditional methods of working . But over recent decades the globalisation of trade plus global communi cations and transport logistics networks have changed the situation drastically. For the archi tect, the search for the "perfect" material has become the search for the proverbial pin in the - now global - haystack. Research into innovative materials generally follows two principles: either the discovery of new technolog ies or the transfer of existing materials to other contexts. Another approach is the targeted new development of a material for a certain purpose or application, but this presumes an appropriate budget and a corresponding timeframe . Materials and researc h

The laboratories and think-tanks of the automotive and aerospace industries are now the world leaders in the development of innovative materials. The ultra-tearproof, highly insulating, extra-lightweight materials and coatings developed by these centres of excellence also offer new opportunities for sophisticated building concepts. However, it is not unusual for many years to pass before the development of a highly specialised material in a high-tech industry is transformed into a marketable building product. This may be because the potential of the innovation transfer is not recognised immediately or because the funding for protracted, expensive approval procedures is not forthcoming . We therefore get the paradoxical situation of a solution being available before the problem has even materialised : industry already has a high-quality material waiting in the wings, but a use in construction has yet to be found .

A 2.1 A 2.2

A 2.3 A 2.4 A 2.5

14

Aerogel- "Solid Smoke~ Light-permeable thermal insu lation panel. filled with nanogel "HeatSeats", Jurgen Mayer H ThermosenSitive bed linen. JOrgen Mayer H . "WOs 8" heat exchanger station, Utrecht, Netherlands, 1998, NL Architects

One example of this dilemma is the nanomaterial aerogel, which was developed by NASA way back in the 1950s as an insulating material (fig. A 2.1). Aerogel. also called "solid smoke", has the lowest density of any solid material discovered or developed so far and exhibits excellent insulating properties. It consists of 99.8% air; the remaining 0.2% is ultra-fine sili-

cone foam with pores just 0.2 x 10-6 mm in diameter. The pores are therefore smaller than the wavelength of solar radiation and smaller than the mean free path of air molecules, which means that the thermal conduction is less than that of stationary air. It was only just a few years ago - in other words nearly 50 years later - tha t the material was discovered for the building sector, and the first products are now appearing on the market in the form of translucent thermal insulation panels (fig. A 2.2). Materials and arc hitecture

The adaptation of materials for new applications is a theme for the architectural avan tgarde, at least since the 1970s when Frank Gehry built and clad his house in Santa Monica with materials like wire mesh, corrugated sheet metal and plywood. Polycarbonate double- and multi-wall sheeting and neon tubes from the local DIY store were given a new honour by Rem Koolhaas in the design for the Rotterdam art gallery in 1992. Transferring the materials into an unusual programmatic context fasci nated the architects because it tapped new aesthetic freedoms . By the late 1990s design experiments had become more virtual: new computer software, the origins of which are also to be found in the high-tech laboratories of the aerospace industry, rendered possible the development of complex forms that were very difficult, indeed even impossible, to realise using traditional bu ilding materials. The amorphous "blob" became the symbol of a generation of architects: wall, roof and floor merged into one form and called for new, flex ible properties in structure and surface. To date, the manufacturers of building materials have hardly reacted to these new trends. The architect must therefore devise individual solutions alone - and take the responsibility . This demands a high degree of personal commitment and idealism. The architect as "building materials scout" can become a job in itself, like the post of "Materials Manager" at the Rotterdam offices of OMA; the manager's task is to handle all the developments in materials and the practice's contacts with manufacturers. Or the architect cou ld "just

The architect as building materia ls scout

walk around with eyes wide open and gather information to be recalled as and when needed", which is how Berlin-based architect Jurgen Mayer H. describes his source of inspi ration. "Magazines, books or DIY store, discussions with experts from specific fie lds such as shipbuilding - the boundaries are fluid." Thermosen sitive p aint

Jurgen Mayer H. works consciously with the transformation of surtaces into new contexts. His use of thermosensitive paint spans the boundaries between people, spaces and objects. He was still a student when he designed a facade that reacted to temperature fluctuations by changing colour. His "housewarming" exhibition in a New York gallery in 1994 gave him the opportun ity to realise this concept. The paint - a technical product designed to reveal overheating on machine parts - originated in the laboratories of NASA. In his exhibition, this special paint - adjusted to react to body tem perature - was applied to the walls and doors. Visitors to the exhibition left behind temporary white patches - imprints of those parts of the body that had made contact with the paint. He developed this interior suriace treatment into a covering for chairs, the so-called HeatSeats, and also for bed linen (figs A 2.3 and A 2.4). The original idea of decorating facades with this pa int had to be discarded owing to the material's insufficient resistance to ultraviolet radiation. In the opinion of JOrgen Mayer H., innovations in materials are easier to implement internally than they are externally: " ... because here the requirements in terms of liability and guarantees are not as high as for external applications. In the case of innovations, the clients' guarantee demands are disproportionately higher than for conventional materials, which calls for a huge amount of work to convince them. Graphic displays and reference samples represent important aids in this respect." JOrgen Mayer H. knows what he is talking about. He is currently working on the transformation of a nutty chocolate spread into a design for the University of Karlsruhe. The structure of the cafeteria is based on the "Nutellagram": when a nutty chocolate spread (= Nutella) sandwich is pulled apart, thread -like connections ensue between the solid top and bottom parts (i.e. slices of bread) . In the search for a suriace material corresponding to the elasticity of this image, the architect hit upon the idea of a synthetic coating: liquid polyurethane is sprayed over an inexpensive timber backing to form a homogeneous, skin-like surface.

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proofing roofs, is used here on horizontal and vertical suriaces to cover the entire building. The underlying structure is a conventional assembly of calcium silicate bricks, precast concrete elements and cement render. This utility building had to comply with strict stipulations: the external d imensions had to be kept as compact as possible and had to match exactly the sizes of the technical equipment inside. The opportunities for architectural expression were therefore restricted to the surfaces of the building. The polyurethane skin results in a seamless, monolithic appearance. Individual elements such as doors, which con vey the sca le, are lost in this large format. Normally, isolated buildings such as this are targets for vandalism . "was 8" does not attempt to defend itself, but instead invites utilisation: its sides embody various functions and therefore can be used as a vertical playing field for those forms of youth culture that are undesirable on other buildings. A basketball basket, a climbing wall, peepholes - the hardwearing skin amalgamates all these elements both architecturally and technologically. The sprayed synthetic envelope makes traditional facade details such as flashings unnecessary. Rainwater is allowed to cascade down the building at random, creating an almost sculptural display on the days on which it rains in the Netherlands (average: 134 p.a.). "The material permits a differentiation in the facade, which still appears uniform," is how Kamiel

Klaase, co-founder of NL Architects, describes the aesthetic advantages of the envelope. It was in the 1990s tha t NL Architects began researching the possibilities of using rubber and synthetic materials for architectural applications. Inspiration for the black finish to "was 8" came from the immediate neighbourhood of the plot itself. The fields around the site are used for agriculture, and after harvesting, the bales of hay are wrapped in black plastiC and weighted down with old car tyres. The building therefore fits in well with the prevailing colour and material language of the local scene. Kamiel Klaase explains the design process: "Naivety is the starting point. It begins with minor fantasies and brainstorming, and then you have to find the specialists who can realise the idea .... Many of our elemen ts are materials 'recycled' from another context. That is the simplest form of design: simply change the operating instructions]" " Baroque high-tec h" made from expanded polystyrene foam

Maurice Nio from Rotterdam goes one step further in the construction . In 2003 he designed the largest-ever building built entirely of plastic. His 50 m long bus terminal in Hoofddorp (see Example t 1, page 224- 25), lovingly christened by him as "the amazing whale jaw", consists of an expanded polystyrene foam core with a covering of glass fibre-reinforced polyester - not unlike the construction of a surfboard.

Seamless synthetic coatings

NL Architects used the principle of the plastiC skin for the first time on the "was 8" heat exchanger station in Utrecht (fig. A 2.5). The material, which bridges over cracks and was originally developed as a material for waterA 2.5

15

The architect as building materials scout

In terms of architecture, the structure is difficult to classify. "To me this is Baroque high-techthe positive feeling of modernism la Oskar Niemeyer coupled with a type of voodoo cul ture," is how Maurice Nio himself describes the building (fig . A 2.6) . "When we develop a project, we start with an emblematic picture that drives the whole project forward . We immediately also think in terms of the materials that could fit this picture - the form as such is not so important; that simply happens at some stage." The architects wanted to create a strong, dynamic image to counter the normal picture of a bus stop - a ubiquitous utility structure normally designed to be as neutral and inconspicuous as possible. The original plan was to use concrete , but the complex formwork requirements exceeded the budget considerably . On the lookout for alternatives, Maurice Nio was inspired by a LEGO building kit, and began to break down the structure into modules. The construction is almost completely open in all three dimensions, like a three-dimensional roof - there is only a small enclosed restroom for bus drivers. A manufacturer of swimming pool articles and a boatbuilder provided Maurice Nio with the right material and the technology to produce the components. The load bearing foam material is extremely lightweight and inexpensive, and can be machined with a five-axis eNC milling machine (fig. A 2.7) in order to produce the complex, partly undercut forms. More than 100 individual parts were worked out in a computer model and fed directly into the milling machine. All features such as recesses and benches were integrated into the prefabricated surface. On the build ing site, the parts were anchored to a timber plin th and glued together in situ. "The most important thing you need to carry out such a project is a good team of people who believe in the idea," says Maurice Nio. "The team is a close and sensitive network made up of client, contractor, subcontractors and architect - and all with the courage to take a risk. In the end, the building could not be built perfectly; there are several details that are not quite correct. But it is precisely this beauty in imperfection that I like - just like a wrinkled face tel ls us something about a person's life."

a

Bus terminal, Hoofddorp, NL, 2003, NIO CNC milling of the expanded polystyrene foam for the Hoofddorp bus terminal A 2.8 "Prada foam " product development: gypsum test A2.9 "Prada foam ", scale 1: 1 A 2.10 Translucent concrete A 2.11 Prada Store, Los Angeles, USA , 2004 , OMA A2.6 A 2.7

The transfer of an existing technology from boatbuilding to a building in this example brought about a new way of thinking about design and detailing . The working of the material was tailored to the needs of the project. But what happens when the surface itself becomes the object of the design? What happens when the architect is also the inventor of the material? Again, those involved need stamina, cooperative industrial partners and clients , and must be prepared to take risks. This was the case in the Rem Koolhaas project for Prada: two large stores in New York and Los Angeles required new concepts in order to redefine the Prada brand, to create exclusivity and a new identity. A 2. 1O

16

Virtual measures were added to the traditional interior design brief: research into shopping trends, the conception of the Prada website, even the development of new types of exclusive materials, e.g. shelving made from solid, cast synthetic resin , silicone mats with a bubble structure, and the so-called Prada foam , a light green polyurethane material whose structure oscillates between open and closed , posi tive and negative. "Prada foam " made from light green polyurethane

The development began with one of the countless design models at scale 1:50 in which a model building foam was tested as a wall or display element. This foam - an open-pore, beige-yellow material - is normally used on urban planning models to represent areas of shrubbery and trees. The surface proved to be fascinating, especially when lit from behind , and that initiated a period of intensive research into how to transform this material into scale 1: 1. In other words, the original belonging to the model had to be found, or rather developed. Countless tests were carried out on the most diverse materials and surfaces: air-filled balloons as voids in a gypsum structure (fig. A 2.8) , soft silicone, chromium-plated metal, rubber, gloss, matt, opaque or translucent surfaces. Several companies were involved in the industrial realisation of the material. The prototypes were manufactured from plastic and finished by hand in the architects ' Rotterdam offices. The aim was to check the shape and position of the holes once again according to aesthetic criteria and - where necessary - to regrind the material until the appropriate permeability and appearance was attained exactly. The 3.0 x 1.5 m panels were subsequently measured and fed into a compu ter as a 30 structure. This data served as the digital basis for producing the final eNC -milled negative moulds. The moulding compound for the "Prada foam " was a greenish translucent polyurethane compound specially developed for the project that met the necessary fire resistance requirements (fig. A 2.9) . After two years of preparatory work, the material was first revealed to the public in 2004 at the opening of the Prada store on Rodeo Drive in Los Angeles (fig. A 2.11). OMA and Prada share the rights to the new development; neither can use the material for further projects without the approval of the other. The exclusivity of the material is therefore guaranteed. Translucent concre te

Following a spontaneous impulse and without the financial backing of a large organisation like Prada, a young architect from Hungary developed an idea for a new material almost out of nothing . In 2001 Aron Losonczi submitted his translucent concrete idea for a Swedish postgraduate scholarship promoting new approaches in art and architecture. He had been inspired by a work of art he had seen shortly before: fragments of glass cast into a

The architect as building materials scout

block of concrete, and with some of the frag ments left protruding to catch the light. The concrete appeared to be perforated and therefore lost its massiveness. Aron Losonczi was granted a scholarship to develop his idea at the Royal University College of Fine Arts in Stockholm. He studied the principle of directing light and built the first prototypes - about the size of a standard brick using gypsum and glass fibre . Further prototypes followed, this time in concrete, and after two years of research he applied for a pa tent for his light-directing concrete. Back in Hungary, the first large panel was made by hand : 1500 x 800 x 200 mm and weighing 600 kg . The fibres were laid manually in the fine concrete in layers perpendicular to the surface. The amazing thing about th is material is that it appears incredibly delicate and transparent, although only about 4% of the concrete is replaced by glass, and therefore the load bearing capacity of the concrete is hardly affected . The material is currently undergoing various trials - so far successful; it has a compressive strength of 48 N/mm 2 . The principle is simple and fascinating at the same time: light is directed through the fine glass capillaries from one side of the concrete to the other. The concrete appears to be illuminated from within. shadows and silhouettes appear quite distinctly on the non -illuminated side (fig . A 2.10). The brand-name "LiTraCon" - an acronym of Light Transmitting Concrete - was invented for the industrial production and marketing of this new material.

that such experiments can bring . In this respect, the establishment of strategic partnerships is without doubt beneficial for both sides: the architect profits from the technical expertise of the company, and the company can tap new markets with the architect's ideas. For a number of years we have been witnessing designers' tremendous fascination for surfaces and new materials. This is revealed not only in the numerous publications, sympos ia, trade fairs, research and consultancy offers on this subject. but also in the designs of the new generation of young architects. The sutiace often forms the starting po int for a deSign, be it the external cladding to a facade or an internal lining. Materials have always been a central theme among architec ts, but the handling of this theme has become much more cosmopoli tan and experimental. Where did this materials "trend" originate? It is possible that new approaches were required to enrich the amorphous, arbitrary forms generated by computer designs by adding haptic qualities again. In our over-informed world there is without doubt a longing for the sensual, for the d irect experience. In this respect, surfaces are the direct mediator between people and architecture; this is where we can touch the building. At the same time, there is also the danger that the sutiace will become more and more superficial, reduced to just an eye-catcher, simply a gimmick. What might appear very decorative in

high-gloss publications, could in reality be nothing more than cladding to trivial, trite architecture. On the other hand, good-quality architecture has always been distinguished by a close conceptual relationship between perception, space and materials which transcends all definitions of style or personal taste. An interesting material cannot create interesting architecture on its own. In this sense, the well-known slogan of the concrete industry can be extended to cover the entire spectrum of building materials: material - it depends what you do with it.

Talking about the long way from the idea to the marketable product, Aron Losonczi says: "It was very difficult at first to convince the companies to work with me. The larger a company, the more difficult it is to get in touch with the right people. It was certainly important that I had built the samples as prototypes and my idea could therefore not be rejected out of hand as crazy. Nevertheless, up until the first major papers, the companies d id not take the product seriously. In the final year there was then a boom in publications, and in December LiTraCon was presented as one of the 'Innovations of the year 2004' by Time Magazine." But the success story of Aron Losonczi's lightdirecting concrete is not yet over. In the meantime he has found a manufacturer who wishes to produce the concrete on an industrial scale. We await with excitement the first buildings with translucent concrete walls ... New materials - from the idea to the product

The story of the development of translucent concrete shows the stony road from the idea to the product: however much the idea of the material may fascinate the architect, the build ing materials industry works purely according to economic criteria governed by batch sizes, sales and profits. If the industry was to look beyond the direct costs-benefits calculation, it would often see the long-term gain in prestige A 2.11

17

The critical path to sustainable construction Peter Steiger

The term "sustainability" was coined in 1987 by the World Commission on Environment and Development, the "Brundtland Commission" . What this means is: " ... to make development sustainable - to ensure that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ab ility of future generations to meet their own needs." At the United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, sustainable development was defined as the improvement of the living conditions of people in economic and social terms but in harmony with the long-term safeguard ing of the natural foundations for life. Today, the term sustainability awakens the hope of a trouble-free interaction between an efficient economy, a sound society and an intact environment. The global concept, which is formulated in Agenda 21, should be implemented on a local level with a responsib ility towards the environment and future generations. As the forces of nature are sometimes experienced as a threat and generate a feeling of helplessness, the prospect of an intact environment awakens hidden longings in many people. However, this ideal state can no longer be produced through the realisation of the global concept of Agenda 21 . But, looked at realistically, which goals can we pu rsue through sustainable development? What should we call them? Interestingly, there is no precise term for the "maximum utilisation of naturally occurring environmental energy", for the "lowest technically achievable value of env ironmental impact" (for unavoidable energy conversion processes), or for the "lowest possible consumption of resources for the maximum quality of a structure" (for sustainable methods of construction). But without such terms we are also lacking designations for a targeted way of thinking and acting and also information about those forces that can deliver results in this issue. Where are we growing to?

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18

Tools and information systems for the work phases of the German scale of fees for architects and engineers (HOAI ) Loam structures (these examples are in Morocco) exhibit optimum conditions regarding comfort and durability, even from the modern viewpoint. At the same time, the environmental impact - from production to disposal of materials - is minima l. Even with sustainable forms of construction, buildings still have to be maintained and cared for. Deserted houses and settlements gradually disintegrate and return to the landscape.

Even the first report of the Club of Rome (1972) questioned the sense of everything technically feasible. However, it was not until the mid1980s that we managed to shrug off the conviction that energy consumption went hand in hand with economic growth. Today, this recognition must be transferred to the consumpt ion of all resources as a whole because if economic growth is only possible with a constant increase in the consumption of resources, then economic growth must be restricted. From the point of view of ecological sustainability, the term "growth" must be replaced by words like retreat, sacrifice, limitation, avoidance or reinstatement in order to formulate an adequate ecological objective. However, al l these terms have negative connotations in the general use of the language because success is harder to identify in the form of restraint than it is in the form of accomplishment. Consequently, such terms do not trigger any positively motivated actions. Typically, there is also no word for the opposite of economic growth that in the same way promises hope of greater prosperity but without the

growth associated with this in the past. The term "qualitat ive growth", which fills the void as a placeholder, at least points to the expectation that an increase in prosperity includes not only quantitative but also qual itative components. But terms that are not associated with values and imply benefits and success are not suitable for the advancement of science and culture. This is clearly shown by the word "sustainability", from which all sides currently derive their own particular interests. The tallest skyscrapers are given the "sustainable" award when their huge steel-and -glass facades include attributes for the paSSive or active use of solar energy. In this way, emphasising indi vidual aspects while ignoring the overriding objective helps those terms that can only be measured in terms of benefits and success. The goal of present and future generations of architects must be to achieve maximum quality in the finished products with a maximum sparing of resources. Therefore, the motto for consumption of resources "less is more" coined by the architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe will no longer be just the technically feas ible, but instead the actually necessary. In the building sector in particular, the work required to achieve high quality consists not only of labour costs, but also the Intelligent deployment of capital and suitable means of production . Quant itative and qualitative comparisons to ensure a thrifty consumption of resources should therefore be the focus of our construction ideas in order to create the foundations for measuring complete building works under sustainable and qualitative premises. Developing tools for the selection of building materials

In order to be able to measure and evaluate the consumption of resources in building works, a method of assessment based on the primary energy input (PE l) of a building ma terial was developed as long ago as 1982. The comparison of various building materials by means of the primary energy input represents an important basis for life cycle assessments (LCA). In order to assess buildings and structures as a whole and to enable the choice of those construction methods and forms with minimal environmental impact, a model was developed in Switzerland in 1995 (SIA Documentation 0 0123) which comprises a scientific-quantitative part, the "inde x", and an assessment of the qualitative serviceability, the "profile". By converting the respective pollutant emissions from a construction into equivalent variables (C02 , SO, ), the environmental effects (e.g. global warming, acidification of soil and water) can be compared. Today, we increasingly need computer-assisted information systems to enable eco logical and economic comparisons of individual forms of construct ion and overall concepts, and to meet the current thermal standards. As a further development of SIA 0 0123, an online component computation system is currently

The critical path to sustainable construction

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Numerous optimisation and evaluation tools for the goals of design and construction in building have been devised over recent decades; target and limit va lues have been defined and continually updated. A well-known tool already available is the bui lding energy audit, which was introduced to help reduce the consumption of fossil fuels and the associated carbon dioxide emissions. Target values can only be defined with the help of corresponding methods of calculation, e.g. the energy requirement of 15 kWh/m 2a for heating, electricity consumption and ventilation as a criterion for "passive-energy houses" . But in this field as well , furthe r research is still necessary despite the precise knowledge of the physica l relationships, and this is revealed time and again when the true total energy requirements of buildings are found to exceed the forecasts. In future the aim will be to specify buildings in terms of a total primary energy factor measured in MJ / m? which includes all the forms of operating energy consumption plus the ene rgy requirement for the production/construction of the building and all the materials consumed - the so-called grey energy. Fig. A 4.1 shows the estimate of the grey energy for a new four-storey office building with approx. 16000 m 2 usable floor space (foundations, floors and columns in reinforced concrete, facades and windows in timber). The total energy requirement for the building is approx. 160000 GJ, or 44000 MWh. [f we spread 1his consumption over an operational lifetime of 50 years , the result is approx. 55 kWh / m2a. The indicators and methods of calculation for the "life cycle assessment" (LCA) were developed and standardised internationally in the DIN ISO 14040-14043 standards. The aim of the method is to evaluate primarily global and regional environmental impacts resulting from the extraction, production and disposal of building products. However, this quantitative method must be restricted to the recording of known processes and their consequences; unknown or secondary cause-and-effect re lationships cannot be covered by a life cycle assessment.

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It was not until recently that methods of calculation became available w ith which complex relationships such as the level of comfort in interiors and its effect on the occupants could be described and optimised . For the first time, these took account of the individual perceptions of people statistically by way of a socalled PMV (predicted mean vote) index and used methods of calculation to develop these into planning parameters for technical standards and codes . Olfactory effects due to emissions in interiors were approached in a similar way . Again, these effects are often not measurable, and therefore they are assessed using factors derived from the subjective perceptions of volunteers. The description and evaluation of hygiene aspects has proved to be even more complex. For this purpose, about 150 volatile substances from building and home products were first defined and classified according to their volatility (very volatile, volatile and semi-volatile), a project that was initiated in 1989 by the European Commission. [2 ] Firstly, as no toxicity studies were available for the majority of the individual substances, the total of all the substances contained in the interior air (TVOC) was measured and evaluated . This approach proved to be unsatisfactory because there was no differentiation between highly toxic and less problematic substances. For this reason, work on evaluations of individual substances on severa I levels is currently being undertaken to establ ish guidelines for internal loads, and some of these have already found their way into new methods of assessment for building products through environmental agencies and regulatory bodies The object of current research is the applicable and interdisciplinary methods for the environmental goals of easy reparability and durability of forms of construction. In future the new standards 21 930-21932 "Sustainability in building construction" will attempt to bring together terminology, indicators, the necessary underlying data and product declarations plus methods of evaluation for sustainable bu ilding. Common to all these assessment and op timisation tools is the fact that each covers only a specific area of effects, a sing le planning and

construction objective. Of course, in the light of the complexity and the amount of work required it is neither possible nor advisable to consider and use the tools available to evaluate all environmental targets simultaneously for every practical decision. For example, when deciding on a load bearing material. e.g. concrete, timber, steel or aluminium, the question of the cleanliness of the interior air is hardly re levant. The main issue here is the environmental impact connected with the provision of such materials, which can be evaluated with a life cycle assessment. On the other hand, fittingout and surface materials have a considerable effect on the interior hygiene and so the environmental effects of the manufacturing proc esses retreat into the background .

Criteria and indicators for sustainable construction

From a practical viewpoint it is therefore important to transfer the aforementioned general protection goals affecting the choice of building materials and the optimisation of forms of construction into practical optimisation targets, and to allocate the respective descriptive and evaluation tools available to these targets. To supplement this, the opt imisation targets can be assigned to the phases of construction corresponding to the respective associated decision -making and action stages.

Preliminary and draft design

Selecting products and processes to save

materials and minimise environmental impact: Plan layout that saves materials and allows flex ible utilisation. Optimisation of materials used with regard to the ir global and regional environmental impact caused by extraction, production and provision . Preference for materials and products available locally to avoid transport. Saving of resources , preference for renewa ble materials or those with long-term availability_ Avoidance of materials whose production processes are associated with severe risks in the case of malfunctions or those in which hazardous substances are requ ired for the production process. Recommending materials that can be recycled with minimal loss of prope rties and without being linked to a particular function, plus composite products and elements that can be reverse-engineered locally. Recommending materials whose manufacturing processes include the environmentally friendly use of recycled materials.

23

Criteria for the selection of building materials

Hygiene and health, interior climate: Safeguarding natural lighting when designing the plan layout. Insulation to prevent overheating in summer and heat dissipation by specifying storage masses.

Whereas the need for plan layouts and forms of construction that save materials and permit flexible utilisation is a well-known part of the planning process which can be evaluated by way of specifying floor areas and standardised, large grids, a realistic assessment of the environmental relevance of materials is much hard er. In the context of the draft design, the selection of the main materials or deciding between possible construction alternatives - e.g. for facade, roof construction or ground slab requires an analysis and relative evaluation of the environmental effects with respect to the materials chosen, or rather their extraction , production and provision processes. Quantitative life cycle assessment

The life cycle assessment (LCA) procedure developed over the last 20 years and standardised in ISO 14040-14043 - four evaluation parts necessary within the scope of a complete evaluation of the most important materials can be used as a method of evaluation. According to these standards, the construction or material alternatives must first be analysed from the ecological viewpoint and quantified w ith respect to environmental impacts. In addition to this, ecological effects that can be estimated qualitatively - if applicable and known must be specified and weighted according to their significance. Afterwards, the costs of the alternatives are investigated, and finally the socio-cultural aspects are listed. The latter includes such factors as strengthening the regional economy by restricting the invitation to tender to a certain region, the architectural requests of the users, or the integration into the neighbourhood. The final decision is based on bringing together all the individual results. Listed below - and based on DIN ISO 14042 "Impact assessment" - are the most important indicators or impact categories defined in the life cycle assessment which should be used in the quantitative evaluation depending on the data available: primary energy input (PEl) Aproportion of renewable (ER) and nonrenewable energy (NER) in the energy consumption Frequently, only the primary energy input necessary for the provision of materials is included in the comparative evaluation. However, this so-called grey energy should be further broken down into renewab le and non-renewable forms of energy in order to d istinguish environmentally friendly production methods. A 4.2

24

life cyc le assessment tor concrete: variations with and without recycled aggregates

In addit ion to this, the energy requirement during the entire life cycle, including any recycling potential if applicable, can be used as the "cumulative energy input" according to VD14600. The energy requirement during the period of use of the build ing is estimated by way of assumptions or scenarios. In a comprehensive quantitative assessment, the primary energy input is included in the eval uation by way of the environmental effects caused by the energy generation: global warming potential (GWP) ozone depletion potential (OOP) acidification potential (AP) eutrophication potential (EP) or nutrification potential (NP) photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP) CO 2 storage (for regenerative raw materials) space requirements Owing to the comp lex data, the indicators (also defined for the life cycle assessment) for the toxicity of the provision processes are mostly used only for significant individual evaluations. Examples of this are the heavy metals abraded from copper, zinc or lead oxides by rainfall and their toxic effects in the soil, or the use of particular poisons such as phosgene and isocyanate as by-products in the production of polyurethane. For this reason, the following indicators have also been defined: aquatic ecotoxicity (ECA) terrestrial ecotoxicity (EeT) human toxicological classification (HT) Expressed simply, all the individual steps of the necessary extraction and production processes - and wherever possible also the utilisation and disposal processes - are described within the scope of a quantitative life cycle assess-

ment to ISO 14040. Product units to be com pared must match exactly in terms of their functions (functional unit) . The input-output analysis produced in this way is called a life cycle inventory analysis. Wherever possib le, the individual values recorded for the aforementioned impact categories are grouped together (impact assessment). Different periods of use must be considered where applicable. The necessary respective renewal cycles for building components or individual bu ilding component layers for an assumed period of use of 80 or 100 years are calculated as a factor and multiplied by the result of the impact assessment. The final evaluation of the indicators determined can be carried out - depending on the situation - based on the severity of the consequences (ecological risk), a relative compari son of variations, or the significance of the effects in relation to an existing environmental burden (distance to target). This latter evaluation principle is often anticipated by calculating the life cycle assessment on the basis of just a few indicators - those regarded as particularly important. Oualitative environmental effects

In the second step of our overall evaluation, we consider the fact that numerous, essentially acknowledged but disadvantageous environmental effects cannot be covered by the quantifiable impact categories - part ly because the relationships are not fully understood. These ecological effects must be specified in addition to the calculated life cycle assessment results mentioned above and considered in qualitative terms. These include: the irreversible impairment or destruction of ecosystems the infrastructure required for production and disposal

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A4.2

Criteria for the selection of building materials

the supervisory work requ ired to safeguard the industrial processes and the scope of the industrial process ing stages the potentia l risk of intermediate products the probab ility of reuse A typical example of qualitative reasoning is the desirable avoidance of timber obtained from overielling in tropical rainforests (fig. A 4.4). The effects in the form of the destruction of the ecosystems and the loss of diversity of flora and fauna species are hardly measurable. Appropriate bans or the demand for the certification of timber obtained from sustainab le forests, i.e. a "Forest Stewardship Council" (FSC) certificate, are therefore environmental policy decisions based on qualitative assessments. Until recently , the analysis of materials and forms of construction in a life cycle assessment was still very time-consuming and costly, and could not be integrated into a planning process. In addition, the life cycle assessment required extensive, generally accepted data on all the materials to be considered. Today, the situation with the data has improved to such an extent that a comparative appraisal on the basis of the life cycle assessment can be carried out alongside the planning work, provided we limit ourselves to the best-documented and most important impact categor ies. Furthermore, the auditing and calculation work has been eased considerably by the appearance of suitable computer programs. Life cycle assessments are a suitable way of checking the reality of what appears to be - on the face of it - plausible, ecologically founded argumentat ion. We shall use the example of in situ concrete to illustrate this. In principle, it is possible to produce in situ concrete with recycled mineral aggregates. In order to compensate for the risk to the strength that can occur when using these "scrap" materials, an increase in the cement conten t is prescribed for a recycled aggregate content > 35%. At first, the use of recycled materials appears to be sensible in principle. A number of variations are compared here for a practical design situation:

result: the zero line of the diagram represents normal -weight concrete without recycled aggregate; the vertical bars rep resent the improvement or worsen in g of the effects as percentages. It can be seen that owing to the transportation required and the extra cement, in the most important impact categories the environmental impact rises as we increase the content of recycled material. Only the indicator for the consumption of materials decreases. So the use of recycled aggregates in concrete relieves the burden on the environment only when the agg regates are obtained from a nearby site « 100 km) and if there is a scarcity of aggrega tes in the form of gravel or sand in the region of the batching p lant, which it could also be due to limits placed on the quarrying of such materials. This example c learly reveals that even after drawing up a comprehensive life cycle assessment, the results are not necessarily generally applicable to all projects or all regions. Each individual case must be checked to establish whether individua l effects playa particular role. Comparison of costs

Cost comparisons in bu ilding are generally performed by way of the well-known cost estimate, cost calculation and cost control. The crux of the problem in cost comparisons is the estimate of the cost of usage because this requires knowledge about the anticipated costs of maintenance and renewa l. Several computer-assisted approaches based on the costs breakdown according to DIN 276 are available. [4[ However, these do not permit any flexible treatment of the durability of building components or layers (in a sense of optimising sustainability). The costs including cost of usage and cost of d isposaVdemolition are known as the life cycle costs. In conjunction with efforts to harmonise the methods and to develop sustainability indicators for bui ldings. a dynamic. quality-related durability estimate for building components and products is currently undergoing development. [51

Detail design

normal-weight concrete, grade C 25/30, without recycled agg regates concrete, grade C 25/30, with 35% recycled aggregates obtained locally « 100 km) concrete, grade C 25/30. with 35% recyc led aggregates not obtained locally (> 100 km) concrete , grade C 25/30, with 100% recycled aggregates (can be approved for individual projects) obtained locally, plus higher cement content As the recycled aggregates should be as uniform as possible and hence are best obtained from a single demolition site, the material may well have to be transported over long distances, which is why the distance parameter < 100 kml> 100 km IS relevant. Fig A 4.2 shows the

Selecting products and processes to save materials and minimise environmental impact: Plann ing of bu ilding services (electrics, hoV cold water, heating) to save materials through an optimised arrangement of sanitary and supply zones, service routes and supply lines. Water-saVing systems. Reducing the conversion and renewal work during the period of use by choosing durable and reparable component forms that allow flexibility of usage. Building with recycling in mind by using splittable, mechanically detachable component layers or homogeneous material assemblies.

Hygiene and health. interior climate: Ventilation systems and ventilation rates . Optimisation of the interior climate conditions through the release of heat over a large area without convection. Safeguarding of a comfortable and healthy interior climate through optimised ventilation design. optimised supply and removal of heat, plus the provision of sufficient storage mass. Optimisation of sound insu lation. Quality assurance for detail design work

The optimisation targets of the long -term guarantees for the functions of building components, the ease of repair and the flexibility regarding change-of-use requirements can be grouped together under the heading of durability. This variable which has to be estimated is, of course, not a fi xed va lue, but instead to a large extent dependent on the quality of design and workmansh ip . Depending on the quality assurance measures, it is not usual these days to replace wooden double-glazed windows until after 10, 20 or even 50 years . Likewise, in an entrance zone a floor covering with adjacent walk-off mats will last much longer than one without such mats. As already explained, it is vital to know the estimated durability of a building component when assuming renewal cycles and hence for the chronological part of the life cycle assessment and life cycle costing (LCC) . The quality to be optimised here is commonly referred to as the experience of the arch itect, engineer or contractor involved. Unlike with the evaluation of the environmental effects of materials during extraction of raw materials, production and disposal, there is still no uniform tool for assessing the technical-constructional quality attained and the achievable useful life of a building component; however. research into this is ongo ing, and this work allows us to discern a number of fundamentals. One important criterion for optimising the durability is the more or less successful concurrence of properties and risks (sensitivities) of the material on the one hand, and the function al req uirements and loads on the build ing component on the other. The result improves as the number of loads coinciding with sensitivities decreases. and the number of desirable functions coinciding with the typical properties of the material increases. This leads to a second criterion: how the potential damage resulting from the convergence of particular loads and material -specific risks is compensated for in technical and constructional terms. The third criterion concerns the question of the detachability of connections in a building component and hence the issue of reparability and partial renewal. The question regarding the respective main uses of the building component are important here. In the case of suriaces in particular, it is very likely that one of the main uses will be aesthetics, which can lead to a fashion-, taste- or identity-related replacement

25

Criteria for the selection of building materials

of otherwise fully functional and trouble-free surfaces or products. A similar situation is found with components such as sanitary appliances, which are heavily influenced by culture. In such cases mechanical, easily detached connections should be chosen in order to minimise the consumption of materials in the event of replacement . In the case of concealed, purely technical components such as waste-water pipes, waterproofing systems or load bearing components, it is the technical durability that must be given priority. Industrially manufactured composite elements may represent an improvement in quality, although they should always be checked for the separability of the different materials to aid recycling. A4.3 Comfort index

In recent years, the boundary conditions responsible for a healthy and agreeable interior climate have been standardised in the regulations with increasing precision, and have been fleshed out with target values. This concerns such important aspects as the airtightness of buildings (measured using the blower door technique to EN 13829), the minimum air change rate (0.6-0.7 times the volume of the room per hour for removing pollutants and carbon dioxide from the interior air), or the avoid ance of cold bridges and mould growth (by using appropriate calculation methods to DIN EN ISO 10211. Moreover, the perceived comfort in an interior depends on the air speed of the convection currents, the cold air radiated from walls and soffits, and the temperature stratification. The interaction of the individual influences plus their physical effects and individual, subjective percept ions cannot be solved with simple, physical relationships or algorithms. Therefore, the subjective perceptions of volunteers were included in DI N EN ISO 7730 for determin ing the thermal comfort conditions. The PMV (predicted mean vote) index represents an assessment of the thermal comfort and is formed by combining several physical boundary conditions . The PPD (predicted percentage of dissatisfied) index is a statistical function of the PMV and describes a forecasted figure for dissatisfied persons in per cent. We distinguish between three quality categories: A, Band C. These are the same as the climatic requirements of both DIN EN ISO 7730 and Swiss standard SIA 180, which should be used when planning climate-regulating forms of construction, e.g. for the design of thermal storage masses available in the interior, when conceiving the removal of heat in the summer, the ventilation systems, or the design and construct ion of thermally insulating components and their internal surfaces.

26

Tendering, award of contract and work on site Selecting products and processes to save materials and minimise environmental impact:

Safeguarding of the long-term retention of value and sustainable functionality of forms of construction and building components through inviting tenders for quality-controlled building materials, products or components and through a detailed functional description of the building works desired. Selection of solvent-free chemical products. Avoidance of products with environmental and health risks in the extraction and production processes. Low-waste building, recovery of residues. Ensuring a low-noise and low-dust building site, avoidance of groundwater contamination, pollution and dangerous methods of working. Hygiene and health, interior climate:

Selection of non-hazardous and low-emissions surface materials. Avoidance of materials with higher fire risks caused by high smoke densities or corrosive and . in addition, toxic fumes. Prevention of radon loads in the building from the subsoil through corresponding sealing measures to the ground slab and the basement walls. Avoidance of electrostatic fields and surface charges during usage through the specification of conductive products for floor coverings or office fittings in the tender. As a rule, it is the tender documentation that first specifies details to the extent that specific products, connections and assemblies can be distinguished for the internal fitting-out trades. In the case of public-sector build ing projects especially, the nomination of specific products is only permissible in exceptional cases, and they are mostly not known until the bid is received - provided the requirements for naming products were correctly specified in the tender documents. The ecology and hygiene requirements the products should meet must be known and specified in full during this stage

A 4.4

of the project at the latest. The interior air generally contains a broad spec trum of organic materials as well as dust and fibres. The source of these is people themselves (breathing, body odour) and the activities people are apt to perform indoors, e.g. smoking, cooking, etc., but also building materials and internal finishes and fittings, which may give off chemical compounds. Depending on their concentration and composition, the internal air can become overloaded. which may impair the comfort or even the health of the occupants, and in this respect poor climatic conditions reinforce such negative influences. Such impurities are becoming a problem as buildings become more airtigh t and the air change rates decrease. Airborne pollution from organic substances

Emissions from surface coverings and coat ings on buildings, assemblies, furnishings and fittings can give rise to organic contamination. Building components made from organic materials in particular, e.g. plastics, paints or adhesives, contribute significantly to airborne pollution. In order to develop an evaluation tool for this, a list of approx. 150 volatile substances (volatile organic compounds - VOC) [6[ frequently encountered was drawn up. These are divided into the following classes (based on boiling pOint): very volatile organic compounds (WOC), boiling point < 0-50 to 100°C volatile organic compounds (VOG) , boiling point 50-100 to 240-260°C semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOC) , bOiling point 240-260 to 380-400°C The sum of all these substances is known as the total VOC (TVOC). As toxicological studies are lacking for the majority of these substances, and therefore there are no useful limit values available for interiors, the German Environmental Agency has set target values for TVOC measurements which are applicable in Germany: short-term (1-2 months): approx. 1500-2500 ~g/m ' long-term (1-2 years): approx. 200-300 ~g/m2

Criteria for the selection of building materials

------------------------------------------------

Owing to the highly disparate toxicities of the individual substances, evaluations of individual substances are currently being carried out one by one within the scope of the initiative "European Collaborative Action: Indoor air quality and its impact on man". According to this, two guide values for indoor air quality - RW I (desirable value) and RW II (intervention value with clean-up recommendation) - are specified for the individual substances. To date, substances such as styrene, benzene, naphthalene and formaldehyde have been assessed . The VOC measurements are the final results of evaluations and are not suitable as planning values . To help choose individual materials relevant to surfaces in a tender, a method of eva luation was developed recently in which the products themselves can be classified and certified on the basis of VOC test chamber measurements (prEN 13419) ove r a period of 28 days. According to this, building products must exhibit the property "suitable for use in interiors" corresponding to an evaluation scheme specified by the German Institute of Building Technology (DIBt) . This property must be verified for products requiring approval using test chamber measurements provided by the manufacturers and must be declared in the product specifications. The boundary conditions for the measurements are to be stipulated and recorded by the laboratory appo inted to do the work based on the DISt criteria . This method of evaluation can be specified for primary and surface materials such as floor coverings, door leaves, faces of built-in items, and wallpapers. Using the product specification. the final emission values reached in interiors cannot be simulated with adequate reliability, which contrasts with the building performance planning of the interior climate. The design of internal surfaces is therefore carr ied out pr imarily according to the principle of avoidance, i.e. by concentrating on low-emissions and zero-emissions materials (e.g . all mineral surfaces), and where low emissions are acceptable, by choosing certified products. Numerous certification systems are already in place, usually in the form of trade organisation awards, e.g. the Emissions Code for floor coverings and adhesives (EC-1), the certification for wal l paints with zero emissions and zero solvents (ELF), or the RAL environment symbol for paints issued by Germany's Environmental Agency ("low em issions and low pollutants" RAL UZ 12). Besides the organic impurities in the interior air, man-made mineral fibres or organic fibres represent another possible hazard. Since 1995 the formulations of mineral insulating fibres, for instance. have been changed in such a way that the so-cal led bio-persistence (presence of ultra-fine fibres in the lungs or pulmonary fluid) and hence the carCinogenic potential was able to be reduced in accordance w ith the size definition of the World Health Organisation (WHO). [71 Of course, even coarser fibres rep resent a potential risk for human respiratory tracts. Fibre

insulating materials are used internally mainly in lightweight partitions, suspended ceilings. floor insulation and w indow junctions. These assemblies and details must be designed to prevent the fibres getting into the interior air, i.e. sealed. As a relative scale for the contamination in a room, the background contamination of the exterior air - which va ries considerably from region to region - can be used (e.g. in Berlin approx. 300--500 WHO-definition fibreslm3 ). Owing to the passage of air through joints and junctions, this backgrou nd contamination usually exists inside buildings as well and should not be worsened by add ing fibres from building components and materials.

Application of optimisation tools

Ref eren ces;

[11 Tota l Volatile Organic Compounds [2] European Collaborative Action: Indoor Air Quality and its Impact on Man (ECA) [3] The FSC certificate regulates the sustainable management 01 forests. It is often demanded by public-sector clients in Europe in conjunction with the uCha in of Custody" trade certifica te. [4J GEFMA 2()(x): Kostenrechnung im Facility Management; PLAKOOA, Planungs- und Kostendaten ; Schmitz. Heinz, et al.: Baukosten 2004 - Instandsetzung. Sanierung. Modernisierung. Umnutzung. Essen. 2003 15] ISO/TC/59 : Item Buildings and Constructed Assets Sustainability in Building construction - Sustainability indicators [6] A list of the TVOC groups can be found in the g lossary, p. 269 [7J Corresponding rock wool fibres are declared as having "reduced bio-persistence". Glass wool fibres are characterised by the "carcinogenicity index" (Ki). which may not be less than 40: Ki ;;>: 40.

The information structure required for the application of the aforementioned optimisat ion tools is being constantly improved by the growing declaration requirements for bu ilding products. The introduction of additional certification systems by the manufacturers, the provision by trade organisations of data records for life cycle assessment calculations and the development of standardised methods of measurement have led to the methods of evaluation being included in the design and construction phases of building projects without any significant time and cost disadvantages. However, owing to the information that must be gathered, the appointment of appropriate experts as consultants for d rawing up comparative life cycle assessments for important components or for the ecological quality control of tenders and workmanship is recommended for larger construction projects. Besides the ecologically optimised selection of main materials and components, another focus of the optimisation work is the writing of the tender documents, the product declarations of the suppliers and the constant inspection of workmanship. The finished structure can comply w ith the sustainability requirements only if these have been stated in detail in the tender documents without reference to any products. In numerous projects it has proved beneficial to demand - at the latest after opting for a certain bid - a binding declaration for the products and by-produc ts to be used with the help of a list of products (including the safety and certification information), and to make this a component of the contract award and contract documents. Only after target values regarding primary energy input, comfort or hygiene have become part of the contract can they be checked upon completion of the structure and, if applicable, be demanded as an ag reed property within the scope of the warranty. In future, defects in the environmental quality of buildings will increasingly rep resent a verifiable design error. A 4.3 A 4.4

Transport distances should also be considered when selecting build ing materia ls. Destruction of the environmerlt in the tropics

27

The development of innovative materials

Industrial client

Dirk Funhoff Building site

DIY store

- Physical materials flow -to building site - Influence on choice of material- for building A 5. 1

The building industry is not regarded as an innovative sector. According to a survey of Swiss companies carried out in 1999, the proportion of sales of innovative products in the building sector is just 10.7%, which does not compare favourably with the average figure of 37.1 % for all sectors of industry. Just 24% of the companies polled carry out R&D work, compared to 49% for industry as a whole. [1 [ High growth rates in the building industry are a thing of the past. In Germany low demand has resulted in many years of stagnation. Extensive regulations, standards and approval proce~ dures make changes difficult; increasing com~ plexity puts up the costs. At the same time, people are still looking for high ~ quality facilities for work and play. New findings in the field of housing physiology demand modified prod~ ucts; high demands need to be satisfied with ~ out excessive price rises. In the light of all this, the need for innovations is rising. This chapter attempts to iliustrate the development of innovative materials for homes and building, and to foster the mutual understand ~ ing of those involved in this process. What is innovation?

A 5.1 A 5,2

28

Simplified diagram of the value-creation network in the building industry Thermal conductivities of various materials

The term "innovation" is frequently used simply as a synonym for "new" or "novel". But new~ ness, i.e. the invention of a new material or new effect, is not enough by itself. Innovation is the establishment in the marketplace of a new technical or organisational idea, not just the invention of such. [2] This econom ic aspect explains why innovations offer great chances; innovators enjoy a better reputation in the mar~ ket (also for their standard products) and they are attributed greater competence, which in turn is reflected in a higher acceptance of their products. The term "innovation" is frequently used simply as a synonym for "new" or "novel". But new~ ness, i.e. the invention of a new material or new effect, is not enough by itself. Innovation is the establishment in the marketplace of a new technical or organisational idea, not just the invention of such. [2] This economic aspect explains why innovations offer great chances; innovators enjoy a better reputat ion in the mar~ ket (also for their standard products) and they

are attributed greater competence, which in turn is reflected in a higher acceptance of their products. Marketing success is vital to innovation. It is therefore not sufficient merely to describe which new materials or technologies exist. [4] Their development takes place within certain boundary conditions, which restrict the use and availability of the new materials. Placing these products in a fresh context is "new", but the desirability triggered is often neither sensible nor satisfying in the long~term. And if the mar~ keting success is not realised, then we have no innovation. If those involved in innovation proc~ esses and the value~creation network of the building industry could learn to understand each other better and improve the coordination of their processes, it would open up a major chance for innovation. Boundary conditions

Innovation on the material side is advanced by researchers or developers in the laboratories of the raw materials and building materials indus ~ tries, even if there are impulses from other branches such as architecture or design. From the scientist's viewpoint, material in the more precise definition means "substance, raw mate~ rial or medium". [5] From this they (also) create materials whose shape, colour, etc. are adapt~ ed to various applications. Architects and designers deploy these materials in order to create a deSirable environment in which to build and live. In order to modify the products to match their ideas, they contact the suppliers. However, the suppliers do not always have the abilities to influence the underlying "fabric" of the materials because the value~creation net~ work is so complex (fig. A 5.1). Which materials are actually used in building work is decided by those by those working on the building site. The manufacturers of building products or the raw materials suppliers do not play an active role and are seldom called in to answer questions regarding choice of materi~ als. The story is different in the automotive and avi~ ation industries. In these industries the manu ~ facturers of the end products hold discussions with components and raw materials suppliers

The development of innovative materials

and define the specifications of the materials. This joint approach guarantees innovation: when the new material satisfies the requirements of, for instance, a car manufacturer, it is also employed in the production of those cars, i.e. the marketing success is highly probable. A primary impetus for this type of development can be found in the structure of these sectors: in the automotive industry the 10 largest companies have a global market share exceeding 80%; in civil aviation the two aircraft manufacturers Boeing and Ai rbus rule the market. But the situation is very different in the building industry: with a global value of approx. 3.8 trillion US dollars, the 100 largest companies together accounting for 373 billion US dollars enjoy a market share of less than 10%. [61 The industry is highly fragmented, the demand very heterogeneous; therefore, an integrated approach is harder to realise. Nevertheless, such a model can be transferred to the building industry. Here again, the objective is, after all, to optimise materials with a view to satisfying human requirements - including "soft" factors such as aesthetics or haptics. But such factors are subjective and difficult to quantify, and therefore have not yet found the ir way into the industry's development laboratories. In order to achieve that, users need to know not only which options new materials offer, but also understand how their development functions, which boundary conditions apply and how they can be influenced. On the other hand, developers in their laboratories must learn to understand better which needs an architect or a designer is trying to satisfy. A researcher is driven by curiosity and an enthusiasm for something new. There is certainly no great difference here between a researcher and an architect or a designer. Like sport has its motto "further, faster, higher", laboratories work with the maxim "smaller, lighter, smarter" . Basically, the idea is an ongoing improvement of the technical propert ies of materials. With an increasing understanding of the physical and chemical properties of a ma terial, the researcher is in the position to manipUlate these and combine them to form new types of property profiles. The flood of information

In the natural sciences and technology we are currently witnessing an unprecedented explosion of knowledge . According to a study carried out in the 1960s, the natural sciences grew exponentially between 1650 and 1950, i.e. our knowledge doubled every 15 years or so. [7] Since the 1970s growth has slowed and stabilised at a high level. [8] At present, some four million articles dealing with the natural sciences and technology are published every year that's about 20000 every working day, [g] and doesn't even inc lude the output of the arts and humanities! These figures show that trying to retain an overview of all aspects of knowledge is hopelessthe age of the universal scholar is over. Further-

more, it is becoming more difficult to distinguish the relevant results from the less relevant. As we know more and more, the input required for new discoveries increases (decreasing fringe benefits) . What this means is that fundamentally new materials are discovered less and less often; for example, further chemical elements are no longer "discovered" in nature, but instead briefly "created" in horrendously expensive partic le accelerators. Consequently, these days we focus more and more on novel, creative combinations of known materials in order to generate new effects, or transfer effects to other materials. This approach leads to a gigantic number of combination options, which ve ry quickly gives the impression of new technologies and applications. But many new technologies are old friends in new guises; however, their application or interpretation in a new context does offer new possibilities and chances. The challenge for the future is to steer the development proc ess and turn the many ideas into innovative products. Developments in materials

More and more, the R&D departments of industry are under pressure to improve their effectiveness, i.e. to identify the right themes and develop these accordingly. In the meantime, prior to the start of any research, the potential marketing chances and the potential profits are analysed alongside the technological aspects. Only when the fi rst two factors show a positive result can the developers embark on the ever more costly research work. [101 In the first place, technological parameters form the guidelines for the development quantifiable effects and properties are important prerequ isites for a targeted development. Two examples of this are thermal insulation and phase change materials (PCM); Thermal insulation The optimisation of thermal insulation materials is based on a precise analysis of the physical principles of heat conduction . The thermal con ductivity of an insulating material depends on the thermal conductivity of the solid (e.g. polystyrene, stone), the thermal conductivity of the gas (e.g. air) and heat radiation. In doing so, we assume that convect ion in the gas is prevented by suitable measures (foam, fibre composite). Therefore, we get the following equation for thermal conductivity:

As a low A-value represents an increase in the thermal insulation capacity, the strategy for further work is clear: each of the above factors must be minimised, a goal that industry has pursued systematically. A vacuum is the best insulator, followed by gases and solids (fig . A 5.2) . Al l known natural and man-made insulating materials are based

Material

Thermal c onductivity [W/ mK]

Structural steel Marble

50

3.5

Normal-weight concrete

2. 1

Solid clay products

0.96

Glass

0.8

Polyurethane

0.35 -0.58

Hardwood

0.2

Polystyrene

0.13 - 0 .16

Air

0.024

Carbon dioxide

0.016

Vacuum

o A 5.2

on this law of physics. From animal skins to high-tech thermal insulation composite systems, all make use of the same principle. But there are still further opportunities for improvement. On the graph of an expanded polystyrene foam we see that the heat radiation in the infrared range plays a considerable (negative) role, especially when the foam is thin (fig. A 5.3]. In order to halt the infrared radiation, infrared absorbers or reflectors can be incorporated into the matrix of the foam - of course without damaging the cell formation or the other good properties of this insulating material . Appropriate methods are available to introduce such infrared absorbers, e.g. in the form of graphite, into the foam beads. It is therefore possible to reduce the thermal conductivity of the polystyrene foam even further (fig. A 5.5). IR absorber-modified polystyrene insulating materials can be up to 50% thinner than convent ional insulating materi als with the same density and same insulating performance (fig. A 5.4). This proves to be an advantage when modernising existing buildings, where there is not always sufficient space for an adequately thick layer of insulation . But IR absorber-modified polystyrene insu lating materials have already been used for new building work too, e.g. in the Petra Winery in Tuscany by Mario Botta. But the developments in the rmal insulation go even further. The recogn ition that cell gas makes a substantial contribution to heat conduction (fig . A 5.3) led to two new approaches aimed at minimising this disadvantage: • vacuum insulation (complete avoidance of cell gas) • nanocellular foams (freezing the molecu lar movement of the cell gas) The first approach resulted in the so-called vacuum insulation panels (VIP), wh ich consist of an open-pore core (e.g. siliciC acid powder or polyurethane foam) with a gastight covering (see "Insulating and sealing", p. 139). OWing to its cell structure, the open-pore foam enables the element to be evacuated (fig. A 5.10) . This means thermal conductivities of 0.004-0.008

29

The development of innovative materials

Thermal conductivity

,,[W/ mK]

0.05

~~EP_S

0.04

0.03

___ +_ _

Cell gas (air)

0.02

-'-

0.01

Infrared radiation _~p~S~m~a~I'~"~~========

o

o

10

20

30

__======== 40

50

60

Density tp [kg / m 3j

Thermal conductivity

A5.3

,[W/ mK] 0.05

~Non.mod'f;ed

0.04

EPS

0.03 IR absorber-modified EPS

0.02

---+-

0.01

o

o

10

20

30

40

50

Density tp

60 [kg/ m 3 j A 5.4

A 5.3

A 5.4

A 5.5 A 5.6

Parameters of an expanded polystyrene foam and the various contributions to heat conduction Thermal conductivities of IR absorber-modilied EPS in comparison to conventional EPS dependIng on the density The principle of infrared absorption The principle of nanoceilular foam a Macrofoam: ceil gas has a large influence on thermal conductivity b Nanofoam: cell gas has no influence on thermal conductivity

.~ ---t:oa1b,o;f=~~~T--­ ¥ ---~~~~~~-~~--if

IR absorber

AS.5

0.1 mm

30

b

Phase change materials for passive cooling A phase change material (PCM) is a substance in which heat is stored by means of a phase transition (e.g. solid to liquid). The temperature of the material remains constant until the phase transition has been completed. The stored heat (or cold) is invisible, but present in a latent state. Such materials have been known for a long time. [11 [ For example, the use of ice to cool a drink is an applicat ion of the phase change principle: as long as the ice melts, the drink remains cool because the heat is used to melt the ice. However, in order to master this principle on a technical level. some development work was necessary first. Materials with a phase transition in the desired temperature range had to be found, and these then had to be housed in corresponding containers because the storage of heat is generally associated with a melting of the material. In the first applications so lar heat was stored in tanks filled with salt hydrates technically elaborate and offering little flexibility for practical applications. Later, paraffin was used as an alterna tive; paraffin can be stored in sealed plastic containers and panels. One of tile first applications of this macroencapsulated phase change material was in Switzerland. "Solar House II" in Ebnat-Kappel by Die trich Schwarz has a heat storage element consisting of paraffin-filled plastic boxes fitted into a glass wall, which acts as a buffer against excessive heat in the summer, and as a solar energy store in the winter. A cleverly arranged prism in front of the phase change material prevents overheating in summer and enables the heat gains in winter. [12[

The most obvious next - technology-driven step was to transfer the encapsulation to the microscopic level. The first attempts using

l00nm

a

W/mK can be ach ieved - values well below those of conventional insulating materials. Such vacuum insulation panels are already on the market. Their potential applications are currently being investigated more closely in various pilot projects. We are on the br ink of an innovation. One disadvantage of these elements is their vulnerability to mechanical damage, which calls for great care during installation. However, such systems have already been used in industrially prefabricated appliances, e.g . refrigerators. Nanocellular foams could have a high insulating effect similar to that of VIP and would be less vulnerable to mechanical damage. These foams exploit the effect that if the size of the cell is small enough, each cell contains just one single gas molecule, which would be more or less "frozen" (fig. A 5.6). However, such foams cannot yet be produced on an industrial scale. But should th is succeed, their technical properties would be equal to those of conventional foams, albeit with a much reduced thermal conductivity. The marketing success or otherwise of this invention has still to be tested.

A 5.6

melamine were carried out in the USA. These microcapsules containing a phase change material are used, for instance, in special clothing. For the building industry in particular, several German companies and institutes have developed formaldehyde-free systems based on methyl acrylate within the scope of a joint project. [ 13] Using micro-encapsulated paraffins (figs A 5.11 and A 5. t 2), it has been possi· b le to incorporate phase change materials into building materials like plaster, plasterboard and particleboards (fig. A 5.8), PCMs are very good at preventing overheating in summer. Initial applications show that this passive cooling funct ions marvellously. Properly integrated into the energy design criteria, their use results in lower capital outlay (thanks to smaller refrigeration plant) and lower operat ing costs (thanks to lower refrigeration output). On the other side of the equation, such materials are more expensive. In the near future we will see just how far the economic appeal of PCMs can guarantee their market success; such materials are still at the market development stage. What is certain, however, is that cooling systems with PCMs will make a significant contribution to the energy efficiency of buildings within the scope of sustainable developmen t. There are other fields of innovation that could become interesting in the coming years : · energy management - saving on heating and cooling energy · "easy-to-clean" - cleaning of surfaces • "easy-to-handle" -lightweight, foolproof products, especially for renovation and modernisation · interior climate and wellness - low-emissions products, the feel of surfaces Although the solutions will be based on technology, soft factors, too, will have to be considered for their application . Establishment of innovations in the future

The examples described above demonstrate the technologically motivated development of new materials: technically de finable properties such as heat conduction or heat capacity we re ab le to be improved. The materials described are functional, they carry out their work in the building invisibly. Their aesthetic or haptic qualities are not the result of a design process, but rather a product of their properties. In the marketing of these materials it is therefore the technical quality that is critical - and hence the leeway for further marketing is limited. But by considering soft factors this leeway could be expanded; at the same time, it should be possible to achieve a more targeted development of innovative materials. In product development it is only in the final phases that we find out whether an invention will really become an innovation. The influence of pure technology is large at the start and

The development of innovative materials

[cm]

25

Ideal invention

Niche product

20

15

~

:r"#

a 10

g

~

Architecture/design

5 Technology

8

c

•c

.£ .9:

Q)(j)g; $'2.~c .;;

2C O 'f ~ 'iii ~ :>l>:t;:

S8~~~

"Belgian granite" (actually limestone) can re sult in considerable damage if the real nature of the rock is not known. Igneous rocks

These types of rock are formed directly from liquid magma and are divided into three subdivisions according to their place of origin: Plutonic rocks

Named after the god of the underworld, these rocks are formed by the full crystallisation of "mobilised magma" in the Earth's crust. Theusually - uniform, non-directional and dense structure is due to the gradual cooling. The varying mineral composition gives rise to rock types like granite, diorite and gabbro. Almost all plutonic rocks are frost-resistant and are popular in building owing to their high compressive strength and hardwearing qualities. Some igneous rocks, e.g. granite, can exhibit above-average natural radioactivity in some circumstances.

Hypabyssal rocks These types of rock are formed when small amounts of magma solidify within the Earth's crust in volcanic vents or fissures. Their structure is similar to the plutonic rocks but the faster cooling process results in non-uniform crystallisation with phenocrysts of other material. This subdivision includes pegmatites, aplites and lamprophyres.

B 1.8

Sedimentary rocks

Sediments are mainly formed by the weathering, erosion and deposition of older rocks (igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic) which are then transported by water or glacial movements and deposited again in the form of debriS, gravel or sand. These rocks frequently contain animal or plant fossils. The pressure of the overlying strata compresses the individual particles of the sediments to form a solid mass, cemented together by water containing binders (e.g. quartz, calcite, clay) circulating in the remaining voids . This process of the solidification of sediments is known as diagenesis. Clastic sediments consist of the mechanically disintegrated parts of the original rock. Depending on the grain size, we distinguish between conglomerates (~2 mm), sandstones (0.02-2 mm) and siltstones (s 0.02 mm) . Chemical sedi ments are "precipitation" from solutions as a result of chemical reactions or biological processes which subsequently solidify under pressure. These include limestone, shelly limestone and travertine. The properties of sedimentary rocks that are interesting for building purposes vary considerably and essentially depend on the conditions during their formation (temperature, pressure) and the respective binder. Chemical sediments (e.g. onyx, petrographiC name: calc-sinter) are particularly suitable for internal finishings owing to their diverse textures Metamorphic rocks

Extrusive rocks

In contrast to plutonic rocks, rocks of this type, e.g. diabase, basalt or rhyolite, form at the trans ition between the upper mantle (crust) and the surface of the Earth. The relatively fast cooling process leaves these rocks with a fine crystalline structure. Partial melting of neighbouring rocks can lead to highly diverse appearances.

40

Metamorphic rocks are formed from existing rocks and are ca lled orthorocks when formed from igneous rocks or pararocks when the orig inal material is a sedimentary rock. High pressures, high temperatures or chemical influences transform the original rock or even form completely new types. They are usually easily recognised by the ir dense structure free from virtually all voids, their distinct texture or the clear bedding marks. Their chemical composi -

Stone

tion, appearance and uses in building vary considerably . Important metamorphic rock types are slate, marble and gneiss.

Types of stone A selection of the most common types of stone used in building is given below. Granite

Granite is probably the best known of the plu tonic rocks (fig. B 1.11 a). Its constituents are feldspar (which determines the colour), quartz (responsible for the high mineral hardness) and mica. Granite is weather-resistant, is regarded as the most resistant of rocks, can be used almost without restriction in building work, and is unaffected by airborne pollution. Numerous colours are available: red , pink, yellow, white, grey, blue-green. Basalt

Basalt is a dark, usually dark grey to black, extrusive rock with a dense, non-directional structure consisting mainly of feldspar and aug ite (fig. B 1.11 b). It exhibits a very high compressive strength, is extremely difficult to work, is weather-resistant, and is ideal for external applications. However, it can become very slippery when smooth. Weathered and aged basalt is also known as diabase. It is formed by the chemical disintegration of the mineral constituents (e.g. chlorite, serpentine). Sandstone

Sandstone belongs to the group of clastic sedimentary rocks and consists primarily of quartz grains in the size 0.02-2 mm cemented together by a binder. Sandstones are found in many colours: red, yellow, brown, green (fig . B 1.11c). The type of binder (quartz, calcite, clay) determines p rimarily the strength, water absorption and frost resistance. Sandstone is regarded as easy to work and is found on many older buildings. However, owing to its low abrasion resistance it is not suitable for heavily trafficked floors .

Limestone

This is a chemical sedimentary rock that was formed during various geological periods, originally in water - proved by the fossils found in limestone. It consists mainly of calcium carbonate and occurs in various colours, usually yellowish, grey-brown, red or white (fig . B 1.11 d) . Limestone can be used almost universally. Only its use in areas that require frequent cleaning (e.g. entrances, pub lic buildings) or wet areas is not recommended owing to its low resistance to the chemicals used in cleaning agents. Its abrasion resistance differs considerably depending on the particular rock deposit.

c E",Q

• suitable o less suitable

• U

• '"

~~

~ R

"-'"u

.. .g

~

8 '"c

c ~'6

'0

u:

0'0

E

.~

li

> 0

w

u

• 0

Igneous rocks Granite

,

,

,

Syenite

,

,

,

Diorite

,

, , t- ,

, -

Gabbro

,

Rhyolite (porphyry)

,

, , ,

, , ,-

Trachyte

0

0

0

0

Basalt

0

Diabase

0

, ,

, ,

, ,

0

r- ,

0

0

0

0

Sedimentary rocks Marble

Braccia

0

Marble, a para rock. is formed by the metamorphosis of calcareous sedimentary rocks. Pure marble is white, crystall ine and free from fossils. The crystal surfaces shine in bright light (fig. B 1.11 e). This stone IS ideal for sculpted work with fine contours, but is also used in building as a floor finish or wall/facade cladding.

Conglomerate

0

Sandstone

,

o-

Greywacke

0

, , ,

-

Calcereous sandstone

~-

Volcanic tuffs

0

0

Limestone

,

Shelly limestone

,

, ,

The term shale deSignates the splitting or cleaving properties of rocks, w ith the mineral inclusions (clay, chlorite, mica) indicating the degree of metamorphosis. Clayey sha le exhib its a sheet-like, parallel structure. It is a very fine-grained, dense stone and usually dark grey to black in colour (fig. B 1.111). Its good cleaving ability enables the production of thin slabs just 5- 7 mm thick. Owing to the shaley structure, its strength depends on direction. Shales in the form of slates have been used for centuries as roof coverings, cladding and floor tiles.

.-

0

0

,

, ,

0

0

0

0

,

Solnhofen limestone Clayey shale

,

Dolomite

,

,

Tuffaceous limestone

0

0

Travertine

0

,

Orthogneiss

,

Serpentinite

0

, -

t-

~ 0

-0

0

,

,

,

0

0

0

Metamorphic rock s

Migmatite

,-- - , -

Paragneiss Quartz ite Mica-schist Clayey shale Marble

0

- I-- - - , 0

r- , - -

,-

,

,

,

I-

0

,

0

0

,

-

0 0

, 81.10

Building with stone Stone is usually obtained from open quarries, with only some types of marble, slate and limestone being obtained from underground mines. When exploring new sources, the extent of the deposit and the properties of the stone are estimated by way of ultrasound measurements, or samp les are obtained from deep boreholes.

B 1.8 Systematic classification of rOCk types B 1.9 Art ga llery, Wurth, Schwabisch Hall. Germany, 2001, Henning Larsen B 1.10 Applications for various types of stone in building (guide only) B 1.11 Examples of common types 01 stone a Eging coarse-grained granite b Greifensteiner basalt c Seeberger sandstone d Jura limestone e White Togo marble f Moselle slate

"

a

b

c

d

e

B 1.11

41

Stone

Hydraulic wedges are driven between the blocks along natural cleavage planes in order to separate the blocks. Diamond-beaded steel wires and cross-cutters (sort of oversized chainsawsi) have also become common in recent years. The aim of quarrying is to obtain approximately right-angled blocks of a suitab le size and in doing so to generate as little "waste" as possib le. Quarrying involves destruction of the landscape, and creates large quantities of dust and debris. New deposits may therefore only be quarried when certain official stipulations are met. Those stipulations include restoration of the landscape once the workable deposits have been exhausted. Industrial processing

Cleaving of the stone is usually carried out directly in the quarry especially in the case of paving stones and stone for ashlar walling. Otherwise, the stone is transported to factories for further processing - it is then that we speak of dressed stone. The use of regional deposits and hence short distances between quarry and works considerably improves the life cycle assessment for natural stone. Various methods are used to process the quarried blocks: • Steel-shot abrasion or diamond saws: for 20-80 mm thick slabs (the time taken to saw through a 1.20 m high block of granite is about 1-2 days) • Taglia Siocci saws: for stone tiles or long strips with a th ickness of about 15 mm • Gangsaws with circular blades or steel wires: for the production of coarse slabs> 80 mm thick; steel wires can also create three-dimensional workp ieces. Surlace fini shes

We distinguish between stonemason techniques and industrial processing, although new compressed-a ir tools are enabling "manual" methods to gain popularity again (fig. B 1.13). The type of surface finish satisfies both aesthetic criteria and functional requirements . For

a

42

b

example, floor coverings in public build ings must comp ly with non-slip g rade R 9. Henning Larsen developed and used an unusual technique on the facade clad d ing to the art gallery in Wurth, Germany. The Crailshe imer shelly limestone he used was cut perpendicular to the cleav ing plane (fig . B 1.9). Applicatio ns

Stone in the form of aggregates for concrete and mortar or for producing mineral binders accounts for the largest share of natural stone in building. In order to establish the suitability of a type of stone for building work, the stone industry classifies stones as hard (igneous and some metamorphic rocks) or soft (sedimentary rocks). However, owing to the availabil ity of relatively "soft" igneous rocks and very hard sedimentary rocks, the specific physical properties (compressive strength, frost res istance, abrasion resistance) should always be checked for the appl ication when choosing a type of stone (fig. B 1.12). Generally, stone is suitable for the following applications in building : · masonry · gabion walls , facade cladding • floor finishes · internal linings · roof coverings Disposal

Natural stone can be fu lly reused within the total product lifecycle of quarrying, processing and disposal. Even so-called waste products that are generated during processing can still be used as aggregates. The disposal of stone in landfill sites for building debris does not cause any problems, and it is generally possible to reuse slabs and panels. The Forum Romanum is an exce llent example of this - during the Renaissance it was the largest source of used natural stone!

c

d

B 1.12 PhYSical properties of vanous types of stone (guide only) B 1.13 Various manua l and machine-appl ied surface finishes: a limestone, coarse-pointed: The surtace is broken away using a hammer and a pointed chisel (pyramidal form), with the depth and angle of cut determining the grade of finish (coarse or fine). The entire surface is worked in this way. b Limestone. pointed and ground: Grinding the whole surtace reduces the powerful texture of the first treatment c limestone, comb-chiselled: Varying blows and different chisel widths can be used to achieve different effects. d Limestone, bush-hammered: Fine to coarse, even surfaces can be produced with a bush hammer. Tile spacing of the pyram id-shaped teeth varies between 4 and 15 mm depending on the type of hammerhead. e Limestone, bush-hammered, brushed and ground: The super impOSition of the Ulree operations gives a finer, smoother finish to the initially coarse texture Limestone, diamond-sawn: Diamond-tipped saw-blades create a relatively fine cut surface and leave behind traces of the sawing process. g Gran ite, bush-hammered: Bush-hammered granite finish achieved with a machine. h Granite, fine-pitched: The rough-split surface is worked with a 30 mm wide chisel. This vigorous finish is ach ieved by changing the direction and depth of the chiselling. i Granite, flamed Extremely high temperatures from a torch destroy the surface structure of a crystalline stone. On ly rock types containing quartz are suitable for this type of surtace treatment, and the slab must also be sufficienlly thick. Granite, sandblasted: Sandblasting is suitable for creating coarse surface finishes, which vary depending on the blasting media used and its exit velocity. k Granite, ground: The colour and texture Of a stone becomes clearly visible on finely ground surtaces. Any grit size can be chosen between C 30 (coarse) and C 500 (fine). Granite. polished: Polishing can be regarded as very fine grinding in which a pol ishing medium is used to give the surtace such a high sheen that it reflects the light.

e

Stone

Type of roc k

Density

[kg / m3]

Coefficient of thermal expansion [mm / mK]

Vapo ur ditto resistance index J

Abrasion resistance

Water

Frost

absorption

resistance

[W / mK]

Heat storage index 2 [kJ / ml K]

[-J

[cm3/ 50 cm2J

[% by mass]

2370-2550

Compressive strength

Therm a l conductivity

[N / mm2J

1

Igneous rocks Granite

2600 - 2800

130 - 270

2.8 (1.6 - 3.4)

0.008

10000

"-"

O.l--{) ,9

Syenite

2600-2800

160-240

3.5

0.008

10000

0.2--0.9

Diorite

2800-3000

35

2800-3000

3.5

0.0088 0.0088

10000

Gabbro

170-300 170-300

"-" "-"

10000

5-8

0.2-0.4 0.2--0.7

Rhyolite (porphyry)

2500 - 2800

180- 300

3.5

0.0125

10000

"-"

Trachyte

2500-2800

180-300

3.5

0.Q1

10000

Basalt

2900-3000

3.5 (1.2-2.0)

0.009

10000

Diabase

2800 - 2900

240-400 180- 250

"-" "-"

n.a.

10000

2640-2730

3.5

5-8

0.2--0.4

0.2--0.7

0.1--0.3 0.1--0.4

Sedimentary rocks

Braccia

2600-2750

50-160

2.3

0.8.

2/250

Conglomerate

2200 - 2500

20- 160

2.3 (1.2- 3.4)

n.a.

Sandstone

2000-2700

30-150

2.3 (1.2-3.4)

1760-2380

0.012

2/250 2/250

Quartz sandstone

2600-2700

120-200

2.3 (2.1)

2290-2380

n.a.

30/40

Greywacke

2800-2650

150-300

2.3

n.a.

10-35 15-40

0.1-3

0 0

0.5-1.0

0

14-80"

0.8-10

9-35

0.2-10

0

7~

0.2-0.5

0

7~

0.2-0.5

Volcanic luffs

1800- 2000

20- 30

2.3 (0.4 - 1.7)

0.004--0.01

Limestone

2600-2900

75-240

2.3 (2.0-3.4)

0.0075

2/250 15/20 200/250

Shelly limestone

2600-2900

80-180

23 (2.0-3.4)

0Q03-D.OO6

2/250

15-40

0.2-0.6

Solnhofen platy limestone

2500-2700

180-260

23

00048

15

0.2-0.6

15-40

0.1-3

0

20-45

2-5

0

n.a.

1-10

0

Dolomite

2600- 2900

75 - 240

2.3

0.0075

Travertine

2400-2500

20-60

2.3

0.0068

200/250 200/250 200/250

Tuffaceous limestone

1700-2200

30-50

0.85-1.7

0.003-0,007

20/200

6-15

0

Metamorphic rocks Orthogneiss

2600-3000

100-200

3.5 (1.6-2.1)

Serpenllnite

2600-2800

140-250

3.5 (3.4)

2370-2730

Migmalite

2600 - 3000

100-200

3.5 (1.6 - 2.6)

2370-2730 2370-2730

0.005-0.008

10000

4-10

0.005--0.01

1QOOO

8-18

0.3-0,4 0.3- 2,0

0.005-0.008

10000

4-10

0.3-0 ,4 0.3-0.4

Paragneiss

2600-3000

100-200

3.5(1.6-2.1)

0.005-0.008

10000

4-10

Quartzite

2600-2700

150-300

3.5

0.0125

10000

7-8

0,2-0.5

Mlca·schist

2600-2800

140-200

2.2

n.a.

15- 25

0.2-0.4

Clayey shale

2700 - 2800

50- 80

2.2 (1.2-2.1)

2430-2520

n.a.

800/1000 800/1000

n.a.

0 ,5-0.6

Marble

2600-2900

75-240

3.5 (2.0-2.6)

2370-2640

O.003-D.006

10000

15-40

0.1-3

1

2

3 4

0

0

Values according to general information on thermal conductivity in EN 12524 and DIN V 4108-4; values in brackets taken from trade publicaliOns. The specific heat capacity of stone is specified as 1 kJlkgK in EN 12524; in the absence of values, the heat storage index corresponds to the density. Values according 10 EN 12524 and DIN V 4108-4. Composite rock - the abrasion resistance therefore fluctuates considerably. 81.12

9

h

k

81.13

43

Loam

B 2. 1

The early civilisations developed in the large river valleys of our planet, where clay and loam were readily avai lable as building materials. Those early cultures that have been researched most thoroughly are those centred around the Nile in Egypt and Mesopotamia. Some 5000 years ago, these were the locations of the first sett lements built from loam. Even the Great Wall of China, the largest manmade object on this planet, is to a large extent made from tamped loam. Only later was it given a facing of bricks and stone. and thus turned into a "masonry wall". In Europe too, building with loam has a long tradition. The real heyday was during the early decades of our modern industrial age because as forests were cleared, suppl ies of timber declined and became expensive, which encouraged the spread of building with loam. In the towns and cities loam was primarily used for the infill panels of timber-framed buildings, or as a form of rendering. In Weilburg an der Lahn in central Germany, five-storey houses up to 20 m tall were built from tamped loam, and those houses are stili occupied today. However, a distinctive architectural style never emerged for this material. Loam was regarded as the building material of the poor, was mainly hidden behind rendered facades and gradually lost much of its significance as the brickmaking industry became established towards the end of the 19th century. After the two world wars, when building materials, energy and money were hardly plentiful commodities, people turned to loam once again . The German loam building code became DIN 18951 in 195t, but was withdrawn and not replaced during the years of the "Economic Miracle". It was not until the oil crisis and the emerging environmental movements of the 1970s that interest once again turned to loam as a building material. B 2.1 B B B B

2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

B 2.6 B 2.7

44

Studio 400 Rubio Avenue, Tucson/Arizona (USA) 1998, Rick Joy Triangular network for loam designations Mean drying shrinkage of Ioams for building Shrinkage cracks due to drying out Exhibit in the Art Gallery in Bregenz, Austria , 2001, Olafur Eliasson Loam-rendered house, 8arna, India Loam wall around the rock garden of the Ryoanji Temple, Kyoto. Japan. lale 15th century

Loa m building today

Even today, one-third of the world's popu lation lives in loam houses, and in the countries of the Third World this figure rises to more than half. The reasons for using loam vary across the world. In poorer regions loam represents a locally available, affordable building matenal

for which there is hardly any equivalent substi tute. In Central Europe on the other hand, the rediscove ry of loam as a building material is due primarily to the desire for a good interior climate, living accommodation free from hazardous substances, and architectural aspects. The tranSition from the traditional to the contemporary loam building culture has called for fundamental innovations in terms of product development and the integration of this material into our modern methods of building . Building with loam is currently one of the growing market segments in the building industry. This trend is reflected in the number of projects completed and a gradual increase in the number of prefabricated loam products, which are primarily used for non-load bearing components. In Germany, the old standards were updated and supplemented in 1999, and republished in the form of a new "Loam Building Code". This code has now been incorporated into the building codes of the majority of Germany's federal states, making loam building one of the acknowledged construction methods of the modern age.

Properties

Mass, good mouldability, robustness and excellent adhesive and bonding forces count as the main properties of loam. Diverse additions (e.g. whey, soda) plus organ ic or mineral aggregates are su itable for optimis ing the building material qualities accord ing to the type of application . Loam is odourless, non-toxic and pleasant to work with. Like virtually no other building material, loam fulfils the criteria of sustainable and resourcessparing construction . It is available in almost all regions of the world. Energy for transport can be saved by using excavated material. The building of a solid tamped loam wall requires only a fraction of the primary energy of a comparab le wall made from concrete or clay bricks (see "Life cycle assessments", page 1(0). Loam can be reused an infinite number of times and returned to the natural product lifecycle without causing any problems. Its good

Loam

Clay

60 \ 50

i> Cb

'"'%",

Designation according to cohesion

40 '9;..~.

Clay, sandy Clay, silty \. Sandy, Clayey Silty, 30 '6 clayey loam loam clayey loam 20

"& and

*"

Sandy loam

-

Loam

Silly loam

10

lean loams

1.0-2.5 %

medium loams

2.0-3.5 %

fatty loams

3.5-5.5 %

clays

4.5-7.5 %

822

heat storage capacity can help even out temperature fluctuations. The interior climate is also improved by the material's ability to absorb water vapour and release it again as required, a property known as sorption capacity. The sorption capacity of loam plasters is 1.5 to 3 times that of conventional plasters. The diversity of loam deposits and the associated considerable differences in their composition call for experience in the assessment of this material for building applications. Without additives, loam is very sens itive to water. As it becomes wetter, so it loses its strength, and therefore surfaces exposed to the weather must be protected against erosion (fig. B 2.4). Shrinkage cracks can sometimes appear as the material dries out, which in the wet loam method can amount to 3-12 %, but in the tamped loam method less than 0.5% . Compared to other building materials, loam has a low strength (similar to that of lean concrete), but th is is fully adequate for the majority of bu ilding tasks . Surface finish

We distinguish between architecture employing a decorative loam render and non-rendered, tamped loam structures (pise - rammed earth). In Japan the masters of loam building have developed their art to such an extent that you can see your reflection in the walls! Some of these loam render surfaces are protected by preservation orders: likewise coloured surfaces, which enjoy particular esteem as a sign of their age (fig. B 2.7). At the same time, contemporary architecture in Europe and the USA has rediscovered the qual ity of raw, untreated surfaces (figs B 2.1 and B2 .9) .

Loam for building Loam essentially consists of clay, sand and silt (ultra-fine sand). However, it can also include larger grains (e.g. gravel) and organic constituents. Depend ing on the main component, we speak of clayey, silty, or sandy loam (fig . B 2 .2). The clay acts as a b inder which bonds together the other sand, silt and gravel "fillers".

Mean drying shrinkage

823 Origins

Clay is a product of the weathering (degradation) of rock, whose raw material is generally minerals such as feldspars . The rock is subject to mechanical and chemical reactions, which transform it. The properties (fig . B 2.3) and designations of the loam vary depending on the location of the deposit: • Mountainside loam: In geological terms this type of loam is relatively young and is deposited on the rocks from which it originates. Its granulometric composition makes it ideal for components requiring a good compressive strength . · Boulder loam: Glacial movements deposit this loam. Its rounded grains and lower clay content give it a reduced tensile and compressive strength. • Marl: Marl is a boulder loam containing lime. · Alluvial loam: This is boulder loam that has been redeposited by water. Most of the lime has been removed to leave a material that is readily usable for building purposes. · Loess loam: Loess has a very finely-grained mineral structure and often a low clay content. It is easier to use than fatty loams. However, its higher sensitivity to water calls for special care during construction .

j

Extraction

If the excavated loam is used directly for building, it must be obtained from an adequate depth free from roots and humus. It is also possible to obtain loam from excavations for the brickmaking industry. Owing to the highly diverse properties and compositions of loam deposits, the material's suitability for the respective application must be checked. Besides laboratory tests, there are also simple methods (DIN 4022-1) that can serve to provide an initial indication of the loam's properties. Such methods are adequate for low-grade applications, e.g. infill panels, loose fill or mortar. It is not usually necessary to check material that has been milled after excavation or material that is supplied dry in sacks. B 2.7

45

Loam

Loam building materials

Moulded

[ Timber lightweight loam Straw lightweight loam

Mineral lightweighlloam

Loam fill Lightweight loam fill

Mmtac

J

Loam masonry mortar Lightweight loam masonry mortar Loam plaster mix

Loam board Lightweight loam board) Lightweight loam brick

Solid brick

Dry partitioning board

Perforated brick

Lightweight loam plaster mix Loam mortar for spraying

B 2.8 B 2.9

Systematic classification of loam building materials Chapel of Reconciliation, Berlin, Germany, 2000, Reilermann + Sassenroth B 2.10 Typical applications for loam building materials

a Loam render b c d e

Tamped loam with mortar strips Tamped loam with clay brick strips Lightweight straw loam in moist condition Loam inner lining in timber-framed construction: unburned bricks, cladding of loam building board, loam plaster f Prefabricated limber-framed construction with lightweight loam brick infill B 2.11 Physical properties of loam building materials

Preparation

Depending on the properties and intended use of the loam, various options are available to improve the material's properties. These include soaking, crushing, mixing, sieving, souring (storing the moist loam to increase the bonding force of the clay), suspending in a slurry and making leaner (m ixing with aggre gates to reduce the proportion of clay). The addition of organic (e.g. straw, casein, cellulose fibres) or mineral (e.g . lime, expanded clay) additives optimises properties such as strength, shrinkage and thermal insulation. In America and Australia cement or synthetic dispersions are often added to low-strength or water-soluble loam materials. However, this treatment impairs the material's positive characteristics such as sorption, diffusion and recyclability . Based on the type and quantity of aggregates, we distinguish loams for building according to the density of the finished, dry components: • solid and heavyweight loam (17CXl-2200 kg/m') - straw loam (1200-1700 kg/m') - lightweight loam (400-1200 kg/m' ) Loams for building

The designa tion of loam building materials depends on the density, aggregates, processing or type of use (fig. B 2.8). During construction it is important to make sure that the respective building material - depending on wall thickness, temperature and humidity - is able to dry out for a period of 3-10 weeks . Tamped/oam With a denSity of 1700-2200 kg/m' , thiS is the heaviest type of loam and can be used for load bearing walls . Such wails are constructed by placing the earth-damp loam In the formwork in layers 100-150 mm thick and then compacting this . This layering ca n be seen later on the finished surface and creates the

46

82.8

specific texture of this material (figs B 2, lOb and c). Common wall thicknesses for loadbearing walls are 400-600 mm. Infili/oam This type of loam is used exclusively for the refurbishment of historical buildings. The semistiff mix of straw and loam is placed in layers using hayforks. Sharpened spades are then used to strike off the excess material and this results in relatively flat wall surfaces. Straw/Dam Straw loam is a soft to pulpy prepared mix of loam and vegetab le fibres (usually straw) that can be used for filling the panels in timberframed buildings or - pressed in moulds - for making loam bricks and boards (fig . B 2.lOd). Ready-made mixes are now available on the market. Lightweight loam Depending on the aggrega tes, we distinguish between organic and mineral lightweight loam . This material is suitable for walls, faci ngs or the infill panels to floors, but cannot carry any loads apart from its own weight. It is placed moist in formwork or moulded into bricks and boards. Loose fill

Organic or mineral aggregates are mixed with earth-damp building loam to produce a loose fill material. The density varies between 400 and 2200 kg/m 3 depend ing on the requirements. This material is usually used as a solid infill to floors and voids . Loam mortar for render, plaster or masonry All the major manufacturers now offer loam mortar, to which pigments can be added to achieve a wide range of colours (fig . B 2.10a) . In contrast to other types of mortar, loam mortar

Loam

a

c

b

does not set. The working time can be prolonged indefinitely simply by adding water . Fibre

reinforcement can be added to mortar for render and plaster in order to prevent cracks in the finished suriace. Bricks

Many brickmaking plants produce loam bricks and unburned (sun-dried) bricks in addition to

their standard range of clay products. . Loam and lightweight loam bricks: These bricks are suitable for wall infill panels

Loam building material

Density [kg/m3j

e

d

Boards

and facings, and floor toppings (figs 2.t Oe and f). Provided the strength is adequate, they can also assume a load bearing role .

Earth-damp pressed bricks (compressed blocks) represent the most common form of loam building material in the world today. • These are highly compressed, selected bricks from brickmaking production that were intended for firing but are then used without firing. Their high clay content gives them a good sorption capacity. They are used only for non -load bearing purposes and in unexposed areas not at risk of frost damage.

Compressive Thermal strength 1 conductivity [N/mm2j [W/ mK]

2

82.10

Heat storage index [kJ/mJKJ

Loam building boards are panel-type loam materials < 50 mm thick. They are used to construct non-load bearing partitions. New products made from reed-reinforced lightweight loam are also used for cladding dry partitioning. Their flat surface is ideal as a background for loam plaster.

Vapour diffusion resistance index IJ

Building materials class 3

H

Type of loam Tamped loam Loam infill Straw loam Lightweight loam

1700-2200 1500-1800 1200-1700 400-1200

2-6 2.5-3 2- 3

~

~ 0

0> C

,,;

•• d:

0> C

"2>

"'

Jointing methods

0> C

c

.cu

ro

sheets a Trapezoidal profi le sheet metal b Perforated sheet meta l c Stamped sheet metal d Expanded metal Ropes and rods: e Cable net f Knitted fabric 9 Woven meshes of str ips h Woven meshes of ropes and rods Sections: i Rolled stainless steel sections j Extruded aluminium sections (window frames) Castings' k Cast steel node I Washbasin tap

Cast iron

Zinc

o

B 7.8

Semi-finished products made from various metals

Copper

,

B 7.9

Structural steelwork, Times Tower, New York, USA, 1905, Daniel Burham

Brass

• sUitab le o limited suitab ility - unsuitable

D-

:>

0> C

U

0;

0> C

0> C

."

U

ro

0;

" •

til

~

0> C

"a;

"

C

u

•> •

.";

" " ~

~

ro

""

C

U c

S 0

Steel

o

,

Aluminium

,

Lead

, B 7.6

advantage because it requires much less energy to melt down the metal. The reuse quota for scrap metals sent for recycling is 90%, in the case of steel almost 100%. Behaviour in fire, fire protection

Metals are incombustible, but lose their strength at high temperatures . The modu lus of elastiCity and the yield point fali, and the metal deforms. The maximum temperature for steel is approx. 500-600'C, depending on the crosssection. In order to protect building occupants against the failure of components in a fire, structural steelwork must be protected, either by enclosing it in a fire-resistant material or coating, by filling hollow members, or by installing fire extinguishing systems. Corrosion

Corrosion is the chemical or electrochemical reaction of a substance. Metals oxidise in high humidities and through contact with wet or damp materials. Galvanic corrosion takes place at the point where two d isparate metals are in contact in the presence of an electrolyte, e.g. water. In this case the less noble metal is corroded, a

a

b

••••• ••••• ••••• •••••

fact that must be taken into account by considering the electrochemical series when using non-ferrous metals. The series extends from the non-noble metals magnesium and aluminium to the noble metals silver and gold . Simplified, the series looks like this: Mg-AI-Zn-Cr-Fe-Ni-Sn-PbCu-Ag-Au. In order to prevent corrosion, pipes of copper, for example, should be laid downstream of those made from iron or zinc, and not vice versa. As the working or machining of metals can change their properties, especially in the case of steel, an electrochemical reaction can take place even within a steel component, e.g. at bending points, welds or through alloying constituents.

Natural protective layers Copper, aluminium, lead and zinc plus a number of steel alloys (stainless steel, wea thering steel) form protective layers on their suriac es that prevent further corrosion. Shaping and processing of metal

Corrosion protection We distinguish between two fundamental approaches to the protection of components against corrosion: active and passive protection. Active protective measures are forms of construction that present little or no chance for corrosion to gain a foothold. The targeted "sacrificing" of a less noble metal with an electrically conductive attachment to the component can actively prevent corrosion.

c

d

Passive corrosion protection is provided by numerous forms of metallic and non-metallic coverings such as paint, powder and plast ic coatings, enamel, galvanising and zinc plating. Such coatings and coverings should not be damaged during erection (e.g. through bolted connections). Corrosion protection prolongs the lifetime of external components or internal components where the humidity is high.

We distinguish between cold- and hot-working and mechanical machining processes. In coldworking the geometry of the atomic metal microstructure is altered mechanically. In hotworking it is not the absolute temperatures (for stee1900-t300'C, for lead 20'C) that govern, but rather the possible rearrangement of the crystal lattice, a process that also occurs during the hardening and tempering of steel. Therefore, rolling, pressing and forging can be

k

h

B 7.7

78

Melal

Semi -fini shed products

made from various metals

w

8

*.. E 0

~

'£ 0

~

w

n o

~

if)

w ~

'"" c

.6.

'"

rm

D

""nw

w

0

D-

a:

0

~0 n

n 0 n

""o:

0:

0

0:

0

0

0

0

w

c

:§

w

D0

Cast iron

w

c

0

w

w

'"c

',;:; m u

n w ~t) w 0

~n

c '-T

E 0 w

0

a;

"

~

ill

6 0

0

0

0

Steel

0

Weathering slee l

0

Corrosion-resistant steel

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Galvanised steel

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Aluminium

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Lead

0

Zinc

0

0

Copper

0

0

Bronze

0

Brass

0

0

0 -

0

- - C-o

-

0

0

0

0

0 0

0

0

eD-

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

B 7.8

used for both hot- and cold-working depending on Ihe malerial (fig. B 7.6).

Forging Forging can be carried out manually or by machine using a hammer and anvil or with pressing moulds (forging dies). Forging can be both a co ld- and a hot-working process. Diverse shapes are possible. Casting

Casting permits any shape to be formed. However, further processing of steel castings is only possible using machining methods. Tin and bronze are suitable for the production of delicate, precision castings.

Rolling Workpieces (e .g . rolled stee l sections) are shaped in several operations in a rolling mill by applying high contact pressures through a system of variously sized rolls . Extrusion In extrusion the metal is forced through an opening (die) to form the desired final shape.

This process is particularly suitable for nonferrous metals, which enab les, for example, complicated aluminium cross-sections for window frames to be produced. Extrusion can be both a cold - and a hot-working process. Drawing Wires , rods and reinforcing bars are produced by drawing, usually a cOld-working process. Twisting Sections, rods and wires for cables are twisted about themselves . The enlarged suriace area of twisted reinforcing bars, for instance, improves the bond between steel and concrete.

Mechanical machining A wide range of metal products in the building industry require mechanical machining. Milling, drilling, filing, sawing and turning are the socalled material -removal machining options. It is poss ible to cut a thread in solid material , mill holes, or turn hinges for doors and windows , to name just a few examp les. Bending and stamping are among the cold-working processes (e.g. for sheet metals). And Ihe folding of thin sheet metal creates rainproof joints for roof surtaces (see "The building envelope", p. 124). Jointing techniques

Numerous methods are used to join metals together. We distinguish between detachable joints such as screws, bolts, nails, rivets and pins , and the non-detachable ones such as welding , soldering, brazing and bonding with adhesives. Welding involves melting the workpieces at their po int of contact to create a material bond at the joint. In soldering, a molten metal or an alloy with a low melting point joins together two other metal workpieces. Products, semi-finished products

The great number of metal products relevant to building means that it is only possible to mention a few groups here: castings , drawn wires , rods, reinforcing bars and meshes, pipes , steel sections, welded sections, COld-formed sections , extruded sections, rings, collars, discs, bolts, screws , turned parts and many forms of sheel melal (figs B 7. 7 and B 7.8).

Ferrous metals Iron and its alloys, especially steel. are suitable for diverse technical applications and are therefore required in such large quantities that today the production plants shape many European cities.

Iron

Iron is the most widely used metal worldwide. Iron deposits account for about 5% of the chemical elements available in nature and it thus ranks fourth after oxygen, silicon and alu minium. Pig iron contains approx. 4% carbon and is brittle. Chemically pure iron is hardly ever used because of its low strength and rapid oxidation (corrosion) . But as the properties of iron can be improved by reducing the carbon content , it is mainly further processed to form steel and other iron alloys. Production and recycling Iron are is mixed with lime in a blast-furnace and reduced to iron at temperatures of 1500°C. The process also produces slag and gases from the non-metallic constituents in the iron are. Some of the carbon in the iron dissolves, which lowers the melting point. The result is pig iron containing carbon, which is heavier than the slag and so sinks to the bottom of the furnace from where it can be drawn off continuously. The addition of scrap metal to this process results in two advantages: firstly, it improves the quality of the pig iron, and secondly, the primary energy requirement of recycling is only about 20-40% of that required for new production. Materials for casting Compounds of iron with a carbon content> 2% are known as cast iron , those with < 2% cast sleel (fig. B 7.10). The properties and designations of cast iron depend on the form of the carbon in the solidified casting material. We distinguish between cast iron with lamellar graphite (grey cast iron, GJL), with spheroidal graphite (ducille cast iron, GJS) and malleable casl iron (GJM) . The latter turns a lighter colour in an oxidising atmosphere (white cast iron). In sand moulding the carbon remains in the material and gives it a dark colour (grey cast iron, L). There are also alloys of cast iron. Cast iron

79

Metal

Ferrous metals

Abbreviation

De ns ity

[kg / m3J

Thermal conductivity

Coefficient Electrical Tensile of thermal conduc tivity strength expansion

Modulus of

Elongation Yield

elasticity

at failure

[W / mKJ

[mm / mKJ

[m /U mm9

[N / mm9

[N / mm2]

[% ]

[N / mm9

&0.2% proof stress

Cast iron 71 ()(}-7300

40-50

0.012

36.2-31.1

0.013

5-7 5-7

100-450 (600-1080) 1 400-900 (700-1150) 1

78000-143 (XX) 169000-176()(x)

0.8-03 18-2

98/285 ~

7100-7200 7850

40--50

0.012

5-7

380-1100

210000

7- 25

2Q0-830

7850

56,9

0.012

5

340-470

212000

25

235

7850

48

0.012

5

450-680

212000

17-20

275--355

7920

14.5 15

0.016 0.017

1.5 1.4

500-700 500-730

200000 45 45-50 200000 I In contrast to steel, the compressive strength and tensile strength of cast iron are not identical. The compressive strengths are therefore given in brackets 2 Owing to tile low elongation at failure, these values apply to a 0.1 % proof

190 210-255

cast iron (lamellar graphite) cast iron (spheroidal graphite)

GJL GJS

240- 800

Tensile bending strength

[N / mm' ]

30-90

2490

6-7

Mohs hardness Vickers hardness

[kN / mm2)

Modulus of elasticity

]N / mm' )

7x10~

Coeff. of thermal expansion

[1O.{oK]

8.4

Thermal conductivity

IW/ mKI

0.8

Specific heat capacity

IJ / kgK)

0.23

Transformation temperature

1' C)

525-545

Softening temperature

I' CI [0C)

710-735

Processing temperature

4.93±O.34

1015-1045 B8.3

85

Glass

Metal oxide

Chemical formula

Colour

Iron oxide

FeO, Fep3 FeO , Crp 3 Fep 3. CoO

blue-green deep blue grey

Nickel oxide

NiO

grey-brown

Manganese oxide

MoO

violet

Copper oxide

CuO

'ed pale red

Selenium oxide

SeO

Cobalt oxide

CoO

deep blue

Chromium oxide

Crp s

light green

Silver oxide

AgO

yellow

Gold oxide

AuO

yellow

B 8.6

88 .7

There are two ways of fixing glass: clamping or bolting. The clamping method is generally preferred because with suitable fixings this results in lower stresses in the glass. If fixings with bolts in drilled holes are employed, then it is important to ensure that the glass is mounted without any restraints. Washers help to distrib~ ute the forces at the fixings over a larger area, Drilled holes and cut-outs must conform to minimum spacing and radii requirements.

can be varied between 1 .5 and 12 mm. The maximum dimensions of sing le float glass panes are approx. 3.20 x 6.00 m (fig . B 8.9) . Today, some 95% of all flat glass is produced by the float glass method . Float glass reheated to 640°C or more can be relatively easily bent over forms made from fireresistant material.

Special types of glass for building

Heat-resistant borosilicate glass for fire-resistant glazing has a higher silicon dioxide content and in addition contains boron trioxide (8 2° 3)' Quartz glass has a high silicon content, is especially heat-resistant, is pervious to ultraviolet radiation and is ideal for photovoltaic modules. If lead oxide (Pb02 ) is mixed into the glass melt, this produces lead glass, which owing to its high optical density can be used for lenses and similar optical apparatus. Normal, "clear" glass generally has a light green tinge and th is can be minimised by reducing the amount of iron oxide (FeO) in the glass melt to produce "colourless" or extra-clear glass. The use of metals and metal oxides to colour glass (fig. B 8.6) has been known since ancient times . Such oxides are introduced during the melting process and colour the whole body of the glass, not just the surface (body-tinted glass).

Glass products As the glass products (fig. B 8.2) depend upon the production methods, the respective methods are described below together with their particular features. Float glass

Float glass is a high-quality, clear glass with a flat surface. It is produced by floating the liquid glass at a temperature of 11 OO°C on a large bath of molten tin. Being lighter, the glass floats on the surface, spreads out as far as the edges of the bath and gradually solidifies. So-called top rollers convey the glass out of the bath and at the same time regulate the thickness , which

86

Cast glass

Cast glass, more correctly called rolled glass, passes through pai rs of cooled rollers and it is this process that gives this type of glass its undulating surface. like f loat g lass it can also be further processed. It is suitable for applications such as greenhouses. The rolling process also enables a wire mesh to be incorporated (wired glass), which helps bond the glass fragments together in the case of damage. The glass can also be given a pattern on one or both sides (patterned g lass). Wired g lass can satisfy the requirements for fire-resistant glazing. Profiled glass is a special form of cast glass. The edges of the glass are bent through 900 during rolling to form glass channels. This product can carry considerable loads and is available in standard Widths of 232, 262, 331 and 498 mm; flange sizes between 41 and 60 mm are possible. Profiled glass provides the chance of producing endless ribbons of glass with horizontal retaining profiles alone (fig. B 8.5). Glass ti les are cast glass products available in sizes up to 640 x 7 15 mm, also in various colours. They can be used both internally and externally.

8 8.8 Glass fibres and foam glass

Glass fleece and glass cloth can be used to reinforce flexible sheeting, synthetic resins, screeds and concrete, Glass cloth is suitable as wallpaper and for bridging over cracks. Optical fibres of glass are used for data transmission and in lighting systems. In accordance with their applications, foam glass (cellular glass) and glass fibre insulating materials (glass WOOl) are discussed in the chapter "Insulating and sealing" (p. 136). Capil lary panels such as those used for transparent thermal insulation consist either of cellular glass structures, PMMA or polycarbonate (PC). These panels are translucent, approx. 8-40 mm thick and achieve U-values as low as 0.8 W / m2K with a simultaneous solar energy gain (see "Insulating and sealing" , p. 140). Glass ceramics

A tempe rature change in the glass melt transforms this into a crystalline (ceramic) state and enables the production of glass with an especially low coefficient of thermal expansion . This type of glass is resistant to high temperatures (up to 700°C) and can therefore be used for cooker hobs or oven windows for instance.

Further processing of glass This includes working the edges, thermal treatment or modifying the surface of the glass by va rious means. Edge work

There are four quality grades for working the ascut edge (code KG ):

Pressed glass

Hollow glass blocks are produced by pressing two glass halves together. These very hardwearing building components can be bonded together with mortar and exhibit good sound insulation properties. Pressing is also used to produce transparent glass roofing tiles. All pressed glass products exhibit the typica l marks that ensue where the two parts of the press come together.

Arnssed edges (KGS), produced by grinding chamfers. Ground edges cut exactly to size (KMG ) in which the dimensions of the glass correspond exactly to the dimensions ordered. Ground edges (KGN) with a matt finish. Polished edges (KPO) have the same surface quality as the pane of glass itself.

Glass

Thermal treatment (toughened safety glass, heattreated glass)

The thermal treatment involves heating the glass to approx. 600o G, then cooling the surface in blasts of cold air, which induces a prestress: tension in the core, compression on the surfaces. This type of treatment reduces brittleness, improves crack behaviour and also increases the tens ile strength. Toughened or heat-treated glass is therefore used for loadbearing applicat ions (fig . B 8.11). One such type of glass is called toughened safety glass because it breaks into sma ll, blunt fragments instead of large, sharp pieces when it breaks. Toughened safety glass exhibits a higher bending strength (fig. B 8.10) and better thermal stability. If intended for use as overhead glazing or cladding to an external wall, it must withstand a heat-soak test (see "The building envelope", p. 116). The storage over several hours at approx. 300 0 G tests the glass for possible inclusions that could lead to failure once the glass is buil t into the structure. The cooling process is slower in the case of heat-treated glass. Heat-treated glass has a lower internal stress and it breaks into larger p ieces than toughened safety glass. However, in contrast to toughened safety glass, heattreated glass in laminated form possesses a residual load-carrying capacity. Thin panes of glass for aircraft and lighting units are pretreated with a chemical method in an elec trolytic bath. This method also creates a prestress and permits loads up to six times higher than normal glass. Surlace treatments and coatings

Surface treatments can be for purely aesthetic reasons, but adding a coating to the surface of the glass can also change its properties. Enamelling Enamel is a coloured glass powder that can be melted onto the glass at approx. 700o G. This enables coloured surfaces to be produced which, depending on the thickness of the enamel, can vary from translucent to opaque. Any type of pattern, Sign, etc. can be produced as required. The temperature rise during the enamelling process creates a prestress in the glass similar to that of toughened safety glass. Fusing This method involves fusing coloured pieces of glass into the surface of a single pane of glass. Glass treated in this way is suitable for interior use only. If required outside, the treated pane must be bonded to a pane of toughened safety glass with casting resin. Obscuring processes The mechanical treatments used are grinding or sand-blasting the surface of the glass. After this treatment the glass is no longer transparent and has a matt appearance (fig. B 8.8). Certa in areas can be masked in order to create patterns as required. Etching with hydrofluoric

acid has a similar effect, but surfaces treated in this way do not attract so much dust and dirt as sand-blasted or ground surfaces. Engraving is suitable for intermittent obscured portions. SHk-screen printing Silk-screen printing is used for decorating areas of glass. Transparent, coloured surfaces and any form of decoration are possible (fig. B 8.7) . Self-cleaning glass In order to gain the maximum benefits from glass in energy terms and to reduce the cost of cleaning the glass, glass with self-cleaning surfaces has been on the market for a number of years . A coating of polymers prevents the formation of water droplets and this prevents dirt and dust adhering after the wa ter has evaporated (hydrophilic effect). Other coatings function in a simi lar manner: the hydrophobiC principle uses a microscopically coarse structure to prevent the formation of a film of water (Lotus Effect), and a photocatalytic coating breaks down organic residues with the help of the incident solar radiation. In doing so, catalytic radicals are formed in a chemical reaction and these destroy biological structures.

Nom. thk.

Permissible deviations Max. producthk. side side tion size; length length xwidth length < 2000 mm > 2000 mm

3

~ 0.2

4 5

[mm]

[mm]

[mm]

[mm]

2

3

4500x3180

02

2

3

6CX)() x 3180

0.2

2

3

6OOOx3180

6

0.2

2

3

6CX)() x 3180

8

0.2

2

3

7500x3180

10

0.3

3

4

9OOOx3180

12

0.3

3

4

9000 x 3180

15

05

5

6

6CX)() x 3 180

5

6

4500x2820

19

88.9 Property

Float

Heattreated

Tough. safety

Ult. bend, slrength

45

70

120

12

29

50

Max. permissible temp. 40 gradient [KJ

1DO

150

Densily [g / cm 3 ]

2.5

2.5

[N/mm?] Max. bending strengUl

[N/mm?]

2.5

Cutting ability

Optically effective coatings Anti-reflection coatings reduce the reflection from the g lass surface. The re are two ways of doing th is. In one method several thin layers are applied to the glass and the effec t of these is to cancel out the reflected rad iation by means of interference. Such coatings can be applied for selected wavelengths. In the other method microscopic structures embossed in a layer of synthetic material reduce the refractive index of the glass. In contrast to the first method, such microscopic surfaces work particularly well at shallow incident angles. And the total incident solar energy is able to pass through the glass. Dichroic coatings break up the incoming light at the surface of the glass and allow the pane to shine in various colours - based on interference effects.

Failure behaviour

radial cracks emanat- dice-likeing from failure poinl slruct.

88.10 Melal oxides for body-linted glass Glass with silk-screen printing, heallh spa admin. building , Bad Elster, 0, 1999, Behnisch & Partner B 8.8 Acid-etched glass, art gallery, 8regenz, Austria, 1997. Peter Zumthor B 8.9 Nominal thicknesses, permissible deviations and maximum pane SiZeS for float glass B 8.10 Comparison of the physical parameters of float, heat-treated and toughened safety glass B 8.11 Glass beams made from laminated safely glass, sunshading by means of baked-on ceramic ink, Museum of Glass, Kingswinford, UK, 1994, Design Anlenna B 8.6 B 8.7

Laminated glass The bonding of float, toughened safety or heattreated glass over its full area opens up further possibilities for the use of glass regarding: · • · ·

safety sound insulation fire protection visual design

Laminated safety glass

Laminated safety glass is produced by bonding together up to si x panes with polyv inyl butyl (PVB) film. This transparent film binds the fragments of glass together in the case of breakage and ensures a certain residual load-carrying capacity. Applications range from load-

87

Glass

Outside

light permeability

Inside

Transmission Reflection

B 8.12 Schematic diagram of position and effect of coatings B 8.13 Louvre Pyramid, Paris, France, 1989, leoh Mlng Pei B 8.14 Comparison of heat-absorbing and solar-control g lazing 88 .15 Adaptive glass, ~ R 129" Project, Werner Sobek

Emission + convection

1 2 3 4

Emission

+ convection

1 2 3 4 Surface coating Low-e coating for thermal insulation Low-e coating for sun protection Surface coating 88.12

bearing (fig. B 8.11) to bullet-resistant glazing depending on the th ickness. Fire-resistant glass

The use of aqueous gel layers as the interlayer instead of PVB film results in laminated fireresistant glass. A rise in temperature causes the gel to foam up, which makes it opaque and therefore able to absorb heat radiation. DI N 4102 distinguishes between G-glass, which reduces the heat radiation by 50%, and Fglass, which must limit the temperature rise to 140 K on the side not exposed to the fire. Film interlayers

The use of, for example, printed polyethylene {PEl films instead of the PVB interlayer required for laminated safety glass leads to further design options for architects. Very high quality printing is possible in any colour and any intensity from transparent to opaque. This technique is limited only by the width of the films available. Casting resin rep resents an alternative for bonding panes together. It is also possible to use laser imaging to create holographic optical effects. Like opt ical devic es such as lenses etc., holographic optical elements (HOE) can generate specific redirection , refraction or shading of the incoming light.

Insulating glass

Insulating glass consists of at least two panes on either side of an insulating layer of gas prevented from escaping by a hermetic edge seal. Such composite glazing units improve the thermal and sound insulating properties. All the types of glass described above can be combined to form insulating glass elements. Further d ivision of the cavity between the panes by means of extra glass panes or separating films can improve the insulating properties of the g lazing sti!1 further . The cavity is generally between 8 and 20 mm wide. The hermetic edge seal must be designed according to the requirements of the gas filling. The glued metal edge seal most commonly used consists of a double seal, a metal spacer and an integral dessicant.

88

Thermal insulation

In comparison with Single glazing, insulating glazing achieves substantially better thermal insulation values. In p hysical terms, the heat transfer through the composite glass unit involves three different processes: · Convection, i.e. energy transfer by means of gas movements in the cavity • Transmission, i.e. energy transfer by means of radiation · Heat conduction in the glass, glass composite and cavity Gas fillings Noble gas fillings such as argon, xenon or krypton improve the thermal insulation; compared with air they lower the U-value (fig . B

8.14). Such heavy gases reduce the effects of convection and transmission in the cavity . Although xenon and krypton exhibit better thermal properties, argon is generally used owing to its ready availability and the simpler production process. Vacuum Creating a vacuum in the cavity enables the heat conduction to be reduced even further . This requires a vacuum of about 10.3 bar in the cavity. The insulating effect of the vacuum does not depend on the spacing of the panes, which renders possible cavities < 1 mm wide. However, as the vacuum causes the panes of glass to deflect inwards, spacers are necessary to prevent them touching and hence nega ting the insulating effect. Coatings Metallic coatings of silver or titanium influence the reflective and absorption behaviour of the glazing . The aim is to reflect the majority of the infrared radiation that is re-emitted out of the build ing. Such coatings reduce the emissivity and are in principle suitable for solar control and thermal insulation purposes. The spectral emissivity denotes that part of the transmission that penetrates a body by way of thermal emission. The emissivity of float glass is 0.89. There are three ways of applying such coatings. In the online method a layer of metal

88.13

oxide is applied to the hot surface of the glass during the manufacturing process. The offline process (including sputtering) involves coating the finished pane of glass. A coating produced in this way is less durable than an online coating and is therefore immediately incorporated in an insulating glazing unit. The physical vapour deposition (PVD) method allows the coating material to condense on the glass. Heat-absorbing glass coated with silver is known as low-e (= low emissivity) glass and represents the current state of the art. These days, such glass can be produced practically without any colour. A low-e coating can cut the U-value of a glass pane from 3.0 to 1.6 W/m2K . As the position of the coating influences the effect of the insulating glazing (fig . B 8.12), the glazing units must be suitably marked to ensure that they are installed correctly.

Heat -absorbing insulating glass This is an insulating unit with at least one heatabsorbing coating . It is normal for a heatabsorbing double glazing unit to achieve U-values of 1.0-1 .1 W/m2K. Triple-glazed units with a noble gas filling and two low-e coatings can achieve U-values as low as 0.4 W/m2K. Solar-control glass

A reflective coating on the outer pane can lower the U-value considerably, improve the energy transmittance and hence contribute to controlling the amount of solar radiation entering a building. The type of reflection can range from simple mirroring to selective coating (e.g. inverse low-e coating). As can be seen from fig. B 8.14, it is necessary to check the colour rendering of the g lass when using solar-control coatings. Angle-selective coating Metallic coatings with a optical refraction behaviour dependent on angle represent a new development. A microscopically small prismatic structure refracts the incoming light depending on the angle of incidence. Such coatings prevent solar glare, but must be produced specifically for the location and the corresponding angle of incidence.

Glass

Technical values of various insulating glazing units

Dimensions (pane/cavity/pane) [mm] Cavity filling (gas concentration : 40 >35 ,30 >22

90

1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

30/ 40

45 55 55

Al Al Al Al

::: 1200 ::: 1200 ::: 1200

Profiled concrete roof tiles flat pan

>22

55

1.5

60/ 100

Al

>800'

Metal sheets galvanised steel

>10

15-30

15

60

> 600 >900 > 900

8 - 30 8 - 30

8-30

> 1()()() 8-30 8-30 8 - 30 8 - 30

vapourtight vapourtight vapourtight vapourtight vapourtight

Al Al Al Al Al

470-700 270-500 :::150 90-230 200-300

virt. vapourtight

Al

270-500

virt. virt. 109 virt. 160- 235 vir!. 293-385 vir!.

60

(N/mm:lj (N/mm:lj

83

1/2

Flat clay roof tiles bullnose wire-cut interlocking pressed interlocking

Sheet metal (double welt standing seam) >7 stainless steel 30 >7 30 galvanised steel zinc >7 30 >7 25 aluminium copper >7 30

Bending Tensile strength strength

For crown and double-lap liling: ~ 30 mm. 2 Depends on the cover width: ~ 200 mm cover width = max. load ~ 800 N; ~ 300 mm cover width = max. load ~ 1200 N: intermediate values may be interpolated. 3 Owing to the specific maleria l properties. the strenglh is measured differently (see "Bituminous materials", p. 65). 1

C 1.47

usually from right to left. Sometimes tiling with an offset bond and a variable head lap is possible. • Tiles with an adjustable head lap enable the overlap at the head of the tile to be varied by up to 30 mm despite the presence of head and tail ribs.

Precut splayed corners prevent four-sheet overlaps at the corners. The sheets are fixed to the supporting construction with screws, at least four per sheet, through the crests of the corrugations. A sealing washer/cap between fastener and sheet prevents ingress of water.

Profiled overlapping concrete roof tiles

Corrugated bitumen sheets

Concrete roof tiles cure after being moulded and hardly shrink during production (fig. C 1.46e). In some more elaborate forms of concrete roof tile, e.g . double Roman, the tail ribs interlock with the head ribs of the tile below and therefore can be laid dry while still attaining a good level of rainproofing . They are laid in a similar way to profiled overlapping clay roof tiles.

Plain sheets made from cellulose fibres are impregnated with bitumen, shaped in presses and allowed to dry. Coatings on an acrylic resin basis give the sheets their colour and also help to protect the sunace. The maximum size available is 2000 x 1060 mm, and the sheets are 2.4-3.0 mm thick. Edge and special components plus translucent corrugated sheets of PVC or glass fibre-reinforced polyester resin are also available. Corrugated bitumen sheets are laid offset with the corrugations parallel to the slope so that rainwater can drain away easily. The side overlaps are equal to one corrugation. The end lap of 140-160 mm depends on the roof pitch . The sheets are fixed through the crests of the corru gations with non-rusting nails with a PVC head, or countersunk-head nails with a sealing washer. Run-off water that has drained across corrugated bitumen sheets can cause corrosion on unprotected metal parts, e.g. roof gutters, which must be avoided at all costs. The supporting construction of battens or boards must allow for ventilation of the sheets.

Corrugated fibre -cement sheets

Owing to their large format (up to 2500 mm long and 1097 mm wide), corrugated fibrecement sheets can provide a rapid covering to roof pitches ~ r. They are divided into standard -pitch and narrow-pitch types. The latter have more corrugations than standard-pitch sheets (over the same width), but are not as deep. Special components for edges, junctions and special purposes (e.g. translucent sheets of glass fibre-reinforced plastic) complement the range of standard sheets. The sheets are laid start ing at the eaves and proceeding towards the ridge, usually from right to left.

124

Profiled metal sheets

Profiled metal sheets can be made from galvanised, stainless or duplex-coated (= galvanising + powder coating) steels, aluminium alloys or copper. The shaping of the flat sheet metal, 0.5-1.5 mm thick, produces planar components with various trapezoidal, corrugated or ribbed profiles, also metal panels. Composite panels are produced by enclosing insulating material between two metal sheets. The production process limits the width to about 1200 mm, the length is limited by the transport restrictions. The side overlaps of these sheets are equal to one rib or corrugation. The fixing to the supporting structure is by way of screws, rivets or clips through the crests . Elongated holes and sliding fixings are used to accommodate temperature-related changes in length. Additional sealing washers prevent the ingress of wind and water (fig. C 1.46g). Sheet metal

Flat sheets of aluminium, lead, copper, stainless stee l, galvanised steel and zinc are available in rolls. The minimum roof pitch is 3°, but 7° is recommended because standing water can penetrate through the seams. Furthermore, as it evaporates, the water can leave behind aggressive substances on the surface of the metal. Rainproof side joints between the bays of sheet metal are ensured with single, double or locked double welt standing seams, or various batten rolls and, for sheet lead only, hollow or wood-cored rolls (fig . C 1.46h). All the different types of side joints make use of the same bent-up edge, which can be bent by hand or machine. Clips fixed to the supporting con struction are fitted into the side joints to create a structural connection to the supporting construction. Nevertheless, they still permit chang es in length caused by temperature fluctuations. The transverse joints are overlapped and welted. Sheet metal roof coverings are very durable (70 - 80 years for copper, lead and stainless steel) and are suitable for shallow pitches and curved surfaces. The width of the sheets and the material chosen give the final roof surface its characteristic appearance. Double-skin roof construct ions prevent a build-up of moisture below the vapour-tight metal covering. The supporting construction is usually made from timber boards.

The building envelope

Roof waterproofing systems

Flexible bitumen sheeting

Flexible synthetic and rubber sheeting

made from polymermodified bitumen

Poly. -mod, bit. sheetin for waterproofin with thermoplastic elastomers Elastomer bitumen sheeting

Poly.-modified bituen waterproof sheet ing for felt torching with thermoplastic elastomers Elastomer bitumen sheeting

made from thermoplastics s nthetic sheetin

liquid-applied waterproofing systems

made from elastomers rubber sheeting)

Polyisobutylene

Butyl rubber

Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride

Ethylene-propylene-diene rubber

Flexible polyurethane resins

Ethylene copolymer bitumen

Chlorosulphonated polyethylene

Flexible polymethyl methacrylate

Ethylene-vinylacetate terpolymer

Chloroprene rubber

Ch lorinated polyethylene

Thermoplastic elastomers

Flexible unsaturated polyester resins

with thermoplastic materials C 1.47 Physical parameters of roof covenngs C 1.48 Systematic classification of roof waterproofing systems

Alloys of flexib le polyolefins Plas\omer bitumen sheeting

Roof waterproofing Flat and shallow-pitched roofs require a waterproofing or sealing layer because water cannot drain away quickly enough. This watertight layer covers the entire roof surface and includes penetrations and junctions. The surfaces of flat roofs can be used in many ways, e.g, as open landscaped areas, for parking, as circulation areas in urban surroundings (e.g . above basement parking), or as rooftop gardens. Flat and sh allo w-pitc hed roofs

The term "flat roof" is difficult to define precisely. We can class roofs with a pitch s 50 as flat, and those with pitches up to 250 as shallowpitched. However, the German Flat Roof Guidelines speak of flat roofs with waterproofing but without stating an angle. In order to avoid ponding, the fall of the roof should be at least 2%. Shallower falls must be regarded as special constructions. The multitude of possible types of construction for flat and shallow-pitched roofs is due to the number of layers, which perform various functions and together form that complex system known as a flat roof. Single-skin designs are favoured in practice. These can be classed according to the position of the roof waterproofing within the system of layers. Conventional flat roof The waterproofing lies above the thermal insu lation. A vapour barrier must be included to protect the insulating material against moisture from the interior of the building. Depending on the method of laying the waterproofing, gravel can be used as protection against wind suction, heat and ultraviolet radiation (fig. C 1.49). Should any leaks occur, water tends to seep underneath the layers of the conventional flat roof.

C 1.48

Compact roof The compact roof is similar to the conventional flat roof. Cellular glass slabs laid in hot bitumen serve as thermal insulation, and a vapour barrier is unnecessary. This plus the fully bonded flexible waterproof sheeting prevents any water seeping underneath . Upside-down roof In this roof the insulation is laid above the waterproofing and therefore protects it against mechanical loads. The loosely laid insulating material should not absorb any water, and it is usually made from expanded polystyrene (EPS). Gravel, stone/concrete flags or planting secures the insulating material against wind suction and uplift. The roof waterproofing functions both as drainage level and vapour barrier (fig. C 1.50).

Duo-roof! plus-roof The duo~roof is a combination of conventional flat roof and upside-down roof. There are two layers of thermal insulation - one above and one below the waterproofing. If a roof is given a new layer of insulation (e.g. in the case of adding rooftop planting), this is known as a duoroof. In the case of refurbishment work, th is type of roof is known as a plus-roof when a new layer of waterproofing is laid on top of the existing, insulated roof construction, and further insulation is laid on top of this.

Flexible waterproof sheeting Flexible waterproof sheeting can be divided into bitumen, synthetic (thermoplastics) and rubber (elastomers) groups. Each group has its specific properties, resulting in different meth ods of working and different arrangements. Provided they are compatible, different types of flexibl e waterproof sheeting can be combined.

Flexible bitumen sheeting

Bituminous sheeting consists of a backing soaked in straight-run bi tumen and coated on both sides with a facing layer of blown bitumen. Sheeting made from polymer-modified bitumen uses straight-run bitumen (including thermoplastic or elastomeric additives) for the facing layer and for soaking the inlays, Depending on the type of sheeting, a surface finish protects against ultraviolet radiation (see "Bituminous materials", pp. 64-65). Bituminous sheet ing is suitable for waterproofing roofs and basements. Laying Bituminous waterproofing can only claim to be permanently watertight when at least two layers are used, one on top of the other, which are bonded or welded together to form a homogeneous layer. The following methods have become established in practice:

• Pouring and rolling: the (polymer-modified) bitumen sheeting is rolled out and pressed down into a hot bitumen compound that is poured ahead of the material. There must always be a continuous bulge of compound just ahead of the roll of material. • Felt torching: the underside of suitab le sheeting can be melted with a propane gas torch as it is unrolled and pressed down onto the roof surface. · Mopping: the hot bitumen compound can be spread over the roof before unrolling the sheeting . There must always be a continuous bulge of compound just ahead of the roll of material. • Cold application: self-adhesive sheeting has an adhesive applied to the underside of the sheeting by the manufacturer. Depending on the type of roof construction, the first layer of sheeting can be fully bonded to the substrate or just with spots or strips of bonding

125

The building envelope

Water

1f

• f

: -';; '"

I "

1 2 3 4 5

.-

-

p

1

0

p 0

0

compound. If mechanical fixings are being used, the first layer of sheeting is laid loose. Overlaps at aliloints must be at least 80 mm. To avoid multiple overlaps at the same place, further layers are laid with a corresponding offset, but parallel with the first layer. From a material point of view, it is also possible to combine different types of flexible bitumen sheeting, or to lay a combination of synthetic and bitumen sheeting. However, compatibility between the different types must be assured.

• BV - bitumen-compatible N8 - not bitumen -compatible P - plasticised • K - lamination V - reinforcement E - inlay • GV - glass fleece GW - glass cloth PV - polyester fleece PW - polyester cloth PPV - polypropylene fleece

Ftexible synthetic and rubber sheeting

Applications Owing to the multitude of different types of sheeting, the manufacturers must specify product-related properties and hence the applications. In principle, the following applies:

0

1 Ballast 2 Waterproofing 3 Thermal Insulation

Heat Vapour

4 Vapour barrier

5 Loadbearing structure

C 1.49 Water

!

,

.....

-

1 2 3 4 5

i

~

\

I

iy l' Heat

I

0 0 0

--

~

0 0

Vapour

1 2 3 4 5

Ballast Waterproofing Thermal insulation vapour barrier Loadbearing structure C 1.50

C 1.49 Conventional fla t roof (schematic) C 1.50 Upside-down roof (schematic) C 1.51 Roof waterproofing w ith flexible synthetic sheeting at pipe penetration C , .52 Physical parameters of roof waterproofin g systems

Synthetic and rubber sheeting can be used for waterproofing roofs and basements. DIN 18531 and 18195 specify the materials, applications, dimensions and laying techniques. Synthetic and rubber sheeting is made from thermoplastic and elastomeric materials respectively, with or without a backing . Tear resistance, tear propagation, temperature-related changes in length and how the sheeting adheres to the substrate are all influenced by the backing. Although somet imes referred to as a plastic film, this is incorrect because films are max. 0.8 mm thick, and the thickness of this sheeting is 1-3 mm. Sheeting pre-joined at the works to cover a large area is also available. Properties In contrast to flexible bitumen sheeting, the synthetic sheet ing is normally resistant to ultraviolet radiation. In addition, it and its welded seams exhibit good root resistance. However, a single layer of waterproofing is vulnerable to mechanical damage, but this can be prevented by a layer of loose gravel with rounded grains (16/32 mm), or planting. A multitude of prefabricated special components is available, e.g. junctions for internal and external corners, roof vents, drainage outlets, etc. Such components ease the waterproofing of complex roof geometries.

Some types of sheeting made from thermoplastic materials are resistant to chemicals - with the exception of some solvents. They can be heated up and moulded in order to waterproof complicated details and junctions. Once the material cools, it solidifies again. Owing to their low-density cross-linked molecular structure, sheeting made from elastomeric materials has a rubbery elastic nature and cannot be remoulded upon heating. However, its resistance to chemicals and solvents and its good durability with respect to environmental influences make this a very durable form of roof waterproofing. Types of sheeting A typical standardised sheeting designation would be DIN 16734-PVC-P-NB-1SV-PW. This describes the standard, type of material, specific properties, sheeting thickness in millimetres, sheeting make -up and type of inlay:

C 1.51

126

· Non-laminated, unreinforced sheeting types without an inlay are rarely used in practice. However, they are suitable for roofs with a comp lete, uniform covering (e.g. flags, gravel), bonded laying methods or for waterproofing basements. • A lamination on the underside of the sheeting improves the adhesion characteristics for full or partial (spoVstrip) bonding and can protect the sheeting against a rough substrate. • The improved tear resistance of types of sheeting with a cloth inlay are suitable for use with mechanical fixings because the inlay diminishes the resilience of the sheeting . • Fleece inlays likewise reduce the resilience. On roofs with a complete. uniform covering (e.g. flags, gravel). sheeting with a fleece inlay is usually preferred. Laying

Roof waterproofing with synthetic and rubber sheet ing is usually carried out with just one layer of material. Separating layers between sheeting and substrate prevent chemical reactions in the case of incompatibility (e.g. between PVC sheeting and polystyrene insulation or bitumen).

Fixing Mechanical fixings are suitable for sheeting with a high tear strength and for lightweight supporting constructions. The mechanical fixing comprises fixing bars or fasteners in the substrate consisting of fastener plus retaining washers . The fasteners are positioned at a reg ular spacing along the edge of the sheeting and are welded to the next piece of sheeting with an overlap. Continuous metal sections or strips are positioned at the necessary spacing and covered with additional strips of sheeting approx. 200-250 mm wide. The number of fixings depends on the wind suction loads calculated. Full or partial bonding is carried out with hot bitumen and polyurethane adhesives, which bond the sheeting to the substrate. In the case of bituminous adhesives, the bitumen compatibility must be checked. Some types of sheeting are manufactured with a self-adhesive coating on the back for full

The building envelope

Flexible sheeting

Bitumen Uncoated bitumen-saturated sheeting Bitumen roofing felt with felt inlay Bitumen roofing felt with glass fleece base Bitumen sheeting for waterproofing of roofs Bitumen waterproof sheeting for felt torching with jute cloth with g lass cloth with g lass fleece with polyester fleece Flexible bitumen sheetin g with metal inlay Polymer-modified bitumen Polymer-modified bitumen sheetingfor waterproofing of roofs Polymer-modified bitumen waterproof sheeting for felt torching with glass cloth

with polyester fleece Cold-applied self-adhesive bitumen sheeting Thermoplastics Ethylene copolymer bitumen Ethylene-vinylacetate Chlorinated polyethylene Polyisobutylene Polyvinyl chloride, unplasticised Elastomers Chloroprene rubber Chlorosulphonated polyethylene Ethylene-propylene·diene rubber Isobutylene-isoprene rubber

Abbreviation

DIN

Service temperature [0C]

R 500 N R 500 V 11 ; V 13

52129 52 128

0-70 0-70

Max_ tensile force [N] long. trans.

Max. elongation Min. tearing Elongation strength (N I mm2] at tear (% ] [%] trans. long. trans. long . trans. long.

1.5 2

1.5

2

2

2

3 2

350 300 400

200 200 300

J 300 DO; J 300 84; J 300 85

600

G 200 DO; G 200 84; G200 85 V60S4 PV 200 DO; PV 200 S5 Cu 0.10; AI 0.2 0

1000 400 800 500

500 1000 300 800 500

2 2 40

2 40

5

5

1000

1000

2

2

800

800

40

40

200

200

150

150

2

52130; 52131

18190-4

0-70

0-70

52132 52133 PYE-G 200 DO; PYE-G 200 84; PYE-G 200 G5; PYP-G 200 $4; PYP-PV 200 85 PYE-PV 200 DD; PYP-PV 200 DD: PYE-PV 200 S5; PYP-P'v' 200 S5 KSK

18195-2

ECS

16732

IPVE) -25-100; IPYP) -15-130

PE-C PIS PVC-P

16736 16731 16730

depends on depends on depends on depends on depends on

CR CSM

7864 16733 7864 7864

-20 -20 - 20 ·20

EVA

EPDM IIR

to to to to

3-3.5

product product product product product

300-500

12

> 330

300-500 :> 330

4.5 10-18

350

350

10-18

250-360

250-360

8.5 13 5 - 9.8

6.9 15 5- 9.8

7.5-8

7.5-8

280 280 :> 550 :> 800 350-540 350-540 :> 450 :> 450

12 4.5

70 70 70 70

400-600 400-600

3-3.5 4-10

4-10

C 1.52

bonding to the substrate. Roof waterproofing beneath a complete, uniform covering (e.g. planting, gravel) can dispense with fixings and bonding provided the load of the covering can withstand the wind suction forces. Jointing

The quality of the overall roof waterproofing depends on the quality of the seams. This calls for careful cutt ing of the sheeting (especially at the edges), avoiding folds, creases and tension, and ensuring that the sheeting is turned up 100-150 mm above the top of the roof finishes at all junctions and term inations. Sheeting made from thermoplastic materials can be connected homogeneously with suitable solvents (solvent welding . In doing so, the overlap should be approx. 50 mm, depending on the type of fixing (min. 30 mm for a welded seam). Hot air (temperature at nozzle approx. 600°C) can be blown into the overlap to weld the sheeting together. Using a roller, the softened sheeting is then pressed together to form a welded joint min. 30 mm wide. Heat fusing with a heat gun uses the same principle. Owing to their cross-linked molecular structure, sheeting made from elastomeric materials cannot be welded (exception: partially cross-linked

CSM and some other materials) . Instead, a contact adhesive is spread over the surfaces to be joined and once the adhesive has gone off, the sheeting is pressed together with a min. 50 mm overlap. Hot vulcanising is suitable for off-site prefabrication. The seams produced using this method have the same properties as the sheeting itself.

Roofs for circulation

Waterproofed surfaces on buildings and civil engineering works can be used as circulation areas (e.g. flat roofs and basement parking). Besides the structural load-carrying capacity, they require a suitable finish that is not connected directly to the structure and also preserves the flexible sheeting. An upside-down roof can be used to provide permanent protection for the high-quality flexible sheeting. Finishes for roofs with foot traffic can be divided into three groups depending on type of laYing , type of jointing and the contact with the roof waterproofing . Permanent finishes

Cement screeds, asphalt and flags in mortar are among the permanent roof finishes. In

order to avoid stresses, movement joints must be included at certain intervals. The finishes must be laid to a fall of ;;:= 1.5% so that surface water can drain readily. Loose finishes

Like in the building of footpaths, flags (e.g. concrete or stone) and paviors (e.g. concrete, stone or timber) can be laid in a bed ~ 50 mm thick that allows some movement. The bed consists of sand (risk of washing out, poor water seepage) or fine gravel or chippings separated from the layer of sand by a non-woven fabric filter. The advantage of this is that it allows some of the water to seep away. An additional drainage mat carries the seepage water to gutters or outlets. It is not essential to lay the finishes to a fall. Raised finishes

In this case a finish of stone/concrete flags of timber is raised above the roof waterproofing. Provided the underlying layers have sufficient compressive strength. the advantages of this type of construction are its low self-weight, quick installation and absence of falls because the water simply drains through the open joints onto the roof waterproofing below and from there flows to the concea led outlets. Simple

127

The building envelope

t

':9

~l~'mm~u -:$ 1I

1 "

Heat

1 2 3 4

123456789

Water

v

Layer s

I

1 0 "

;! 0 0 0

Vapour

Plants Plant-bearing layer Filter fleece Orainaae laver

(f ig " C 1"55) " Such plants demand specific substrates and thicker layers, and they must be constantly cared for and watered .

if required 6 Waterproofing 7 Thermal insulation 8 Vaoour barrier

C 1.53

sawn timber is used under the uprights, or mortar sacks or height-adjustable supports with an X-joint. Numerous systems are available on the market.

Green roofs By adding landscaping and planting to roofs, it is possible to gain multiple uses from roofs over private or public areas. Besides the aesthetic aspects, the areas of greenery and plant ing can provide leisure and recreation zones. From the ecological viewpoint, landscaped suriaces on structures improve the microclimate of the urban environment by evening out temperature peaks, increasing the humidity of the air and bonding dust and dirt better than gravel -covered roof surfaces. Furthermore, areas of planting protect the roof waterproofing against ultraviolet radiation. Owing to their layer of vegetation, green roofs are classed as combustible. They must therefore satisfy requirements regarding distances from neighbouring buildings and they require incombustible thermal insulation. The additional layers for the planting increase the thermal insulation effect and function as a basin for retaining precipitation water - they store the water and release it again later. Flat and shallow-pitched roofs up to approx. 25° are suitable for planting . The steeper the slope, the greater is the work required to retain the water and prevent sli p page. We distinguish between extensive and intensive rooftop planting irrespective of the function of the area.

Starting with the standard construction of the sing le- and double-skin roof, further layers are added in order to meet the requirements for a green roof. Sometimes individual layers provide more than one function, in other cases not all functions are required . The sequence of layers from outside to inside is, in principle: plants, plant-bearing layer, filter, drainage layer, protection mat, root barrier, separating layer, waterproofing (fig . C 1.53) . Basically, it is also possible to add planting 10 an upside-down roof . Plants Moss and sedum varieties plus many plants that seed themselves or form shoots spread out over the roof surface according to season and weather cond itions. A permanently green surface can only be achieved with intensive rooftop planting, which is then akin to a garden.

layer because such particles would impair the drainage function. If the grains of the plantbearing layer are coarse and those of the drainage layer fine, the drainage layer act as a filter. Loose mineral materials, boards and nonwoven fabrtcs (PA, PP, PET, glass fibre or rockwool) are available for use as filters.

Drainage layer The excess water seeping down from the plants is carried away to outlets and gutters via the drainage layer in order to avoid a build-up of water . At the same time, the drainage layer has the task, through a medium pore size, to store some of the seepage water for the plants. Roots then penetrate the drainage layer. It corresponds to the natural subsoil and can be classified in a similar way to the plant-bearing layers:

Plant-bearing layer The plant-bearing layer (substrate) has the task of storing or draining water, retaining nutrients and providing a firm hold for the roots of the plants. The thickness of the layer, the particle size and form, the constituents and its water retention capacity determine the plant variet ies that can be planted. On pitches :2: 15° a vegetation mat prevents erosion of the substrate . The different plant-bearing layers are classified according to form and composition :

· Depending on the roof pitch, uncrushed (:>;; 5°) and broken (:>;; 20°) loose mineral materials can be used. On roof pitches> 20° additional grids of battens are required to prevent slippage. • Drainage mats of expanded polystyrene (EPSl, bitumen-bonded extruded polystyrene beads (XPS) and moulded, foamed boards can be used, even for roof pitches exceeding 20°, provided they are secured against slippage. • Mats of textured non -woven fabric, embossed sheets (PE, rubber) or welded, recycled flakes of plastic foam (PEl exhibit a good drainage performance for a minimum thickness (10-35 mm). However, they store little or no water.

· loose materials with varying organic and inorganic proportions and porous structures, e.g . mineral-organic soil mixes, humus, lava mixes, pumice, expanded clay • slabs of mineral wool or mineral -enriched polyurethane foam • mats of natural and synthetic fibres together with loose materials

The long-term root penetration resistance of waterproof sheeting depends on its composition. If sheeting and seams are not permanently resistant to root penetration, metal or po lyester inlays in bitumen sheeting or an additional root barrier (e .g. polyethylene sheeting) will be required over the entire roof surface.

Root barrier

Filter The filter layer prevents fine particles seeping from the plant-bearing layer into the drainage

Extensive rooftop planting This type of planting req uires less work during preparation, establishment and subsequent care because only low-level, drought-resistant plant variet ies are chosen and the roof construction comprises only thin layers. This type of planting is often used on pitched roofs or added subsequently to gravel -covered flat roofs (fig. C 1 "54)" Intensive rooftop planting Intensive planting includes shear-resistant grass zones suitable for foot traffic, plus taller grasses and shrubs, even individual trees C 1.54

128

C 1.55

The building envelope

--------------------------------------------------------

Membranes

Closed-pore materials

~oated cloth

J

J

[

PVC-coated polyester cloth PTFE-coated glass clotht silicone-coated glass cloth

Uncoated or impregnated cloth

[

Thermal insulating matenal

Externallinternal

PTFE CIOUl cotton cloth monofilament cloth made from fluorocarbon resins perforated ETFE film perforated PC film

PTFE-Iaminated glass cloth

Laminated cloth

Special materials

Open-pore materials

Internal

Sound insulation membranes

Stain less steel fabric

] Gas-tight membrane material

inseparable glass cloth polyester cloth

[

Film

1

ETFE film THVfilm PVC film

Membranes In the construction industry we associate the term membrane with lightweight, long-span surfaces in tension made from thin , light-permeable textiles or films. Membranes are used in conjunct ion with cables in tension and steel, concrete or timber columns in compression . During the 1950s, at the same time as developments in synthetic composite materials, engineers began to develop membranes as protection against the weather and solar radiation or as temporary roofs. In addition, the development of new materials and multi-layer membranes have made permanent roof constructions possible that can comply with complex building performance requirements.

G

w-e glass

clot~

PU-coated polyester cloth

fluoropolymer-coated low-e glass cloth PTFE-coaled ow-e glass cloth

C 1.56

tion, e.g. sphere, dome or cylinder. Such forms requ ire a supporting construction which is surrounded by the membrane, or pneumatic pressure from inside that tensions the membrane. Anticlastic forms are surfaces curved in two directions; they are inherently stable and require no supporting structure (e.g. hyperbolic paraboloid) . Materials

Isotropic materials exhibit approximately identical mechanical properties in all directions. Such materials include metal foils and thermoplastic materials. Textiles form the foundation for membranes made from anisotropic materia ls. They are divided into three groups according to their method of manufacture:

Fo rm s

Membranes can only accommodate tensile forces. As the tensile forces of the spanned surfaces in plane structures approach infinity and wind and precipitation cause severe oscillations and deformations, membrane constructions require three-dimensional, prestressed or pre-curved planar geometries. We distinguish between sync las tic and anticlastic forms. Synclastic forms are surfaces curved in one direc-

PC capillarystructure mat

• mesh products (knitted fabrics) · woven products (cloths) · non-woven products (fleeces. felts. nets) As cloths consist of warp and weft threads in an approximately orthogonal arrangement, exhibit a non -linear force-elongation progression and are non-elastic, they are ideal for carrying loads.

The yarns used can be made from the following fibres: · natural fibres • mineral fibres · metallic fibres · fibres from thermoplastic materials Depending on the type of weave, the untreated cloth exhibits anisotropic properties, i.e. different mechanical parameters in the warp and weft directions. Uncoated cloths are an end product in themselves. A coating of PVC. Silicone or PTFE can be added to both sides of the cloth after pretreatment to improve the adhesion of the coating. Coatings protect the c loth against moisture (glass cloth), ultraviolet rad iation (polyester cloth), fire and infestation by microorganisms. They thus improve the durability and soiling behaviour of the membrane materials. Coated cloths can be welded as well as sewn and glued together. In order to refine the suriace finish and improve the soiling and cleaning characteristics, membranes can be add itionally sealed with materials based on fluoropolymers or acrylic resins.

C C C C C

1.53 1.54 1.55 1.56 1.57

Single-skin green rool construction (schematic) Extensive rooftop planting Intensive rooftop planting, raised roof finish Systematic classification of membrane materials PVC-coated polyester cloth. roof to main grandstand, sports stadium, Oldenburg, Germany. 1996, Archilektengemeinschaft Marschwegstadion C 1.58 PVC-coated glass-fibre cloth (two layers, pneumatic). velodrome, Aigle. Switzerland. 2002. Pascal Grand C 1.58

129

The building envelope

Membrane

Weight per unit area [g/m~

Film ETFE film

5O"m 8O"m 1oo~m

150 ~m 200 ~m THVfilm

5OO"m

Uncoated cloth cotton cloth PTFE cloth

Coated cloth PVC-coated polyester cloth

Ten. strength based on DIN 53353 (guide only) [N / 5 cm]

Translucency Building Buckling materials resi s tance class

[- to·]

[''!o ]

87.5

64 / 56

140 175 350 980

58 / 54 58 / 57 58 / 57 52 / 52 22 / 21

81 81 81 81 B1 B1

350 520 300 520 710

1700/1000 2500/2000 2390/2210 3290/ 3370 4470 / 4510

82 B2 A2 A2 A2

varies varies up to 37 up to 37 up to 37

800

3000/ 3000 4400 / 3950 5750 / 5100 7450 / 6400 9800 / 8300 13000/13000 3500/ 3500 5800/5800 7500 / 6500 3500/ 3000 6600 / 6000 7000 / 9000 24500 / 24500 1200/ 1200

B1 B1 81 81 81 81 A2 A2 A2 A2 A2 81 81 81

up up up up up up

262.5

UV resist.

Ourability

[- to·]

[a) > 25

up to 96

0

up to approx . 95

0

-

> 20

25 > 25 > 25 C 1.60

Type Type Type Type Type Type

I II III IV

1300

V

1450

VI

2000 800

PTFE-coaled glass cloth silicone-coated glass-fibre cloth PVC-coated aramid-fibre cloth THV-coated ETFE cloth

900 1050

1150 1550

800 1270

900

2020 250

C 1.59 Physical parameters of membrane materials C 1.60 PTFE-coated glass-fibre cloth, carport. municipal waste management depot. Munich. Germany, 1999, Ackermann & Partner

0 0

to to to to to to

20 17.5 15 12.5 10 7.5

0

> 20

0 0 0 0 0

15 12 8

> 25

up to 25 up to 25 basically zero basically zero up to approx. 90

> 20

> 20 > 25

C 1.59 C 1.61 ETFE foil cushions, Allianz Arena, Munich, Germany. 2005. Jacques Herzog & Pierre de Meuron C 1.62 Life cycle assessment data for roof coverings and roof waterproofing systems

Applications and properties

Material categories

Membranes can be erected considerably faster than conventional roofs because the material is cut to size and all the edges are prepared prior to delivery. Owing to the low weight of 200-1500 glm' , movable roofs like the tennis court at Rothenbaum, Hamburg, Germany (see Example 25, pp. 261-63), and long-span structures free from intervening columns can be erected. Multi-layer membrane systems satisfy additional thermal insula tion criteria (U-values from 2.7 down to 0.8 W/m 2K); they also improve the sound insulation. Transparent films have a higher UV radiation permeability than glass, which can be an advantage for indoor swimming pools and greenhouses. Multi-layer, pneumatic, prestressed membrane constructions made from films (cushions) provide thermal insulation in conjunction with good translucency and transparency, In a three-layer arrangement the pneumatic adjustment of the middle layer results in different degrees of light transmission when the middle and upper membranes are printed with offset light-reflective patterns. Membrane systems for the active use of solar energy are currently undergoing development.

Membrane materials can be classed as watertight, closed-pore, and water-permeable, openpore materials because the watertightness is usually the primary application criterion.

130

~

Closed-pore materials The technical properties of PVC-coated polyester cloth and PTFE-coated glass cloth enable them to be used externally as protection from the weather. PVC-coated polyester cloth with various surface finishes is suitable for movable and reusable membrane construct ions thanks to its good buckling resistance. It is not readily flammable and, at 15-20 years, relatively longlasting. PTFE-coated glass cloth is incombustible and will remain serviceable for more than 25 years . It has a self-cleaning surface and owing to its coating does not absorb any moisture. The translucency can be controlled between 0% and 50% by adjusting the density of the cloth and the thickness of the coating. However, it is less elastic and less resistant to creasing than PVC-coated polyester cloth. Factors such as draft design, structural calculations and functional requirements determine the choice of material just as much as the anti cipated module sizes. PVC-coated polyester

C 1.61

cloth can be prefabricated in sizes up to 10000 m 2 , By contrast, owing to the handling during production, PTFE- or ETFE-coated glass-fibre cloth is available only in sizes up to 2500 m' . Together with ETFE films, PTFE- or ETFE-coated glass-fibre cloth and PVC-coated polyester cloth account for approx. 90% of all membrane constructions . The durability of ETFE films is about 25 years . They are primarily used for pneumatic, translucent constructions and are read ily printed. Their high shear strength calls for very precise cutting during fabrication to create irregular and curved shapes. THV film (tetrafluoroethylene hexafluoropropylene vinylidine fluoride copolymer) has a lower tear strength but is more elastic and easier to work. The elongation behaviour of PVC film varies considerably with the temperature and this film also has only a low strength. It is therefore used for internal applications only. Open-pore materials Uncoated PTFE cloth is ideal for movable constructions that do not have to be rainproof, e.g. folding membranes for shading systems. Cotton cloth can be used temporarily both internally and externally. The swelling behaviour of cotton once it is wet provides the necessary rainproof effect. Interior acoustics can be influenced by using m icro-peliorated membranes made from cloth or film.

The building envelope

Roof finishes Layers

, for origin of data see "Ufe cycle assessments", p. 100

PEl PEl primary energy primary energy non-renewable renewable

IMJI

poep

Durability

[kg P0 4 eq]

summer smog [kg C2H~ eq]

lal

0,10

0.0053

0.0 12

50

0

=

0

0.000012

0.10

0.0061

0.012

0

0

=

0

17

0.000015

0.16

0.0086

0.013

==

0

0

=

0

35

0.()(X)J33

1.16

0.012

0.024

IMJI

GWP global warming [kg C0 2 eq]

ODP AP ozone acidifidepletion cation (kg R11 eq] [kg S02eq]

180

11

0

=

"""'"

155

4

=

lEI

143

EP eutrophi-

cation

Roof coverings

concrete liles, 20 mm limber battens. 24 x 48 mm polyethylene {PE-HDl Sheathing, O.5mm

-

titanium-zinc sheet

458

flat plan tiles, titanium-zinc flashings clay flat pan tiles, 20 mm timber banens, 24 x 48 mm polyethylene {PE-HDJ sheathing, O.5mm concrete tiles, titanium-zinc flashings

331

288

titanium-zinc wi th double-welt standing seams, 0.7 mm timber boards, 24 mm copper sheer

= 830

copper sheet with double~welt stand ing seams, 0.7 mm timber boards, 24 mm fibre -cement sheets', titanium-zinc flashings

689

corrugated fibre-cement sheets, 8 mm timber banens, 24 x 48 mm polyethylene (PE-HD) sheathing, 0.5 mm MDF board. 18 mm natural slates', copper flashings

= 197

= 26

999

138

24

0

0.000087

= 501

708

~44

910

asphalt shingles, 3 mm wood fibreboard, 24 mm

115

22

=

0.21

0.014

0.028

0

=

=

0.65

0.014

0.058

=

=

I c:::::::J

wooden shingles, double-lap tiling, 24 mm timber battens, 24 x 48 mm polyethylene (PE-HO) sheathing, 0.3 mm timber boards, 24 mm asphalt shingles. titanium-zinc flashings

1c:==J

=

natural slates, Old German slating, 5 mm flexible bitumen sheeting type V 13. 5 mm timber boards, 24 mm wooden shingles, copper flashings

130

0.000019

0.50

0.010

0.026

D

=

=

=

0000086

0.33

0.013

0.057

c:::J

=

=

0.50

0.019

0.091

CJ

I

50

70

80

40

70

40

25

Roof waterproofing systems flexible bitumen sheeting, with gravel

1355

gravel, 50 mm polyester Ileece (PES)' 2 mm flexible bitumen sheeting (PYE PY200 SS), 5 mm flexible bitumen sheeting (G2oo 84), 4 mm PVC. with gravel

394

p lant-bearing layer, SO mm polyeth ylene (PE-HD) filter fleece. 0.1 mm expanded clay filler layer. 30 mm drainage mats, extruded polystyrene (XPS), 30 mm root barrier, polyester fleece, 1.5 mm waterproofing, flexible PVC sheeting. 2.4 mm perforated g lass fleece, 3 rnm polyeth ylene (PE-HD) vapour barrier, 0.4 mm

0

=

58

27

0

0

394

gravel. 50 mm fle Xible EPDM sheeting, 1.2 mm perforated glass fleece, 3 mm polyeth ylene (PE-HD) vapour barrier, 0.4mm PVC with extensive planting

40

0

gravel, 50 mm fle xible PVC sheeting, 2.4 mm perforated glass fleece, 3 mm polyettwlene (PE-HD) vapour barrier, 0.4 mm EPDM with gravel

38

28

17

0

0

848

69 0

46

0

II

0.20

0.014

0.022

0

=

CJ

0.13

0.0086

0 .028

0

=

=

0.54

0.019

0.054

=

25-30

25-30

25-35

30-40

I c::::::::J

C 1.62

131

Insulating and sealing

C2.1

Since the dawn of industrialisation in the 18th century, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by more than 30% and has probably never been higher in the past 20 million years. Beside emissions from intensive agriculture (methane and dinitrogen oxide), it is mainly the carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels that contributes to the greenhouse effect and hence to global warming. In Germany more than one-third of the energy consumed annually is used for heating buildings. Thermal insulating and sealing materials significantly reduce the heating requirements of both old and new buildings. Modern standards of thermal insulation save more energy than is requ ired for the production and transport of the insulating materials - at the latest after two heating periods. Cavities of stationary air behind timber planking and the double-leaf masonry that began to appear at the start of the 20th century are regarded as the first constructional measures aimed at improving thermal insulation and moisture control. Insulating materials made from wood-wool, cork and minerai fibres first became available during the 1920s. However, until the 1970s the primary task of passive thermal insulation was to avoid damage to the building and guarantee hygien ic living conditions. Ener gy econom y

C 2.1 C 2.2 C 2.3

C 2.4

132

Infrared image of buildings Systematic classification of insulating materials according to their raw materials Comfort zone depending on U-va lue of wall with an external temperature of -10°C Thickness of insulation required to achieve a therma l resistance of 0.3 W/m2K

As a result of the oil crisis, the rapid increase in the price of crude o il and the associated realisation that our consumption of energy must be reduc ed, Germany passed its first Thermal Insulation Act in 1977, which was updated in 1982 and 1994. The prime aim of the act was to specify maximum thermal transmittance values (U-values) in order to reduce the transmission heat losses through external building components, and hence lower the heating requ irements. The Energy Economy Act in force since 2002 instructs users to consider the influence of the airtightness of the building as well by determining the ventilation heat losses. The airtightness of building envelopes with good thermal insulation has a decisive effect on the heating energy requirements (see p. 142). Insulation and airtightness concepts

must therefore be coord inated at an early stage as part of a holistic approach to the design.

Insulation principles The insulating effect of a material improves as the air pores in the material become smaller, more numerous and more evenly distributed; stationary air in the pores is always a poorer conductor of heat than the surrounding solid material. According to DIN 4108, building materials with a thermal conductivity I, < 0.1 W/mK can be classed as thermal insulating materials (fig. C 2.4). Owing to the growing demand for insulating materials and the increasing requirements to be met by thermal insulation , the number of different insulating products on the market is constantly rising. Mineral -fibre insulating materials and expanded foam materials are the most popular, with a combined market share exceeding 90%. In recent years insulating materials made from renewable raw materials have been rediscovered, and their application options are growing. Innovative insulating materials such as vacuum insulation panels (VIP) or infrared absorbermodified polystyrene insulating materials (see "The development of innovative materials", p. 29) achieve considerably better insulation values (fig. C. 2.7). The building materials industry can supply numerous products for the thermal insulation of external walls that are both load bearing and insulating , e.g. lightweight vertically perforated clay bricks. But the insulating function does reduce the load bearing capacity of the materi al. These products are dealt with in "Ceramic ma terials" (see pp. 50-51). Classificatio n

Insulating materials are distingu ished according to the raw materials on which they are based (fig. C 2.2): • inorganic, mineral insulating materials • organic insulating materials Both organic and inorganic insulating materials

Insulating and sealing

l

]

Insulating material

Inorganic, mineral

made from natural materials

=

made from synthetic materials

-=

[

Organic

--=r-,-----_ _L -_ __ made from synthetic materials

made from natural materials

expanded clay

frothed glass

cotton

expanded perlite

calcium silicate

Ilax

urea-formaldehyde resin in situ foam (UF)

natural pumice

ceramic insulating foam

granulated cereals

expanded melamine resin foam

foam made from kaolin or perlite

mineral wool (MW) made from glass wool or rock wool

hemp

expanded phenolic resin foam (PF)

wood shavings

polyester fibres

cellular glass (CG)

wood fibres (WF)

expanded polystyrene foam (EPS)

vacuum insu lation panel (VIP))

wood-wool slabs (WN)

extruded polystyrene foam (XPS)

coconut fibres

expanded polyurethane foam (PUR)

cork products

polyurethane in situ foam (PUR)

vermiculite

sheep's wool bulrushes straw/straw lightweight loam peal cellulose fibres

can be made from natural or synthetic raw materials. We distinguish between the following types according to their structure:

• sound insulation (depending on material) • protecting the construction against condensation or frost

· fibre insulating materials · foamed insulating ma terials · granulates/loose fill

Thermal comfort

Fibre materials form a type of no-fines material and hence prevent airflows. In foamed materials the fixed cell structure and the enclosed air, or special gases, prevent convection .

Functions and requirements

Once the building is complete, the insulating materials are normally "invisible". They fulfil a number of tasks and functions: • guaranteeing a comfortable and hygienic interior climate · reducing the transmission and ventilation heat losses · preventing overheating in summer

Thermal inSUlation

• air movements • humidity of the interior air · temperature of the interior air and fluctuations thereof · mean internal surface temperature The temperature-related comfort zone regarded as agreeable for the majority of people has been determined through comprehensive studies (fig . C 2.3) . The temperature of the interior air and the mean internal surface temperature both contribute to chilling and hence the perception of comfort to roughly the same extent. In buildings with good thermal insulation, the higher internal surface temperatures mean that

/

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able / /

20

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§ 15

/ /

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II

20

/ /

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f----

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/

0

-~ ~ ~

f----

~

c

ODD

/

/

/

/

~

/

/

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/

/

/

/

Thermal conductivity The outward flow of heat takes place by way of conduction, radiation and convection. As a building performance parameter, thermal con-

/

/

23"(;' /

/

o

0

o

0

~

0 0 c

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~~~f/.-tl-f/-tI-';-(,{>

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C 2.4

133

Insulating and sealing

C 2.5

C 2.6 Part of building

Floor, roof

Abbreviation

Typical applications

DAD

External inSUlation to floor or roof, protected from the weather, insulation beneath covering External insulation to floor or roof, protected from the weather, insulation beneath waterproofing External insulation to roof, exposed to the weather (upside-down roof) Insulation between rafters, double-skin roof, uppermost floor not designed for toot tratfic but accessible Internal insulation to floor (soffit) or roof, insulation below raftersllOadbearing construction, suspended ceiling, etc. Internal inSUlation to floor or ground slab (top) beneath screed, without sound insulation requirements : "u" i'"e:c m"e"n,, ts'---_ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ Internal insulation to floor or ground slab (top) beneath screed, with sound insula" '"io:cn:c'"e q

OM DUK

DZ 01

DEO DES

Wall

WAS

WTH WTR

External insulation to wall behind cladding External insulation to wall behind waterproofing External inSUlation to wall beneath render Insulation to double-leaf wall, cavity insulation Insulation to timber-frame and timber-panel construction Internal insulation to wall Insulation between party walls with sound insulation requirements Insulation to partitions

PW PS

External thermal insulation to walls in contact with the soil (outside the waterproofing) Externaltherrnal insulation beneath ground slab in contact with tile soil (outside the waterproofing)

WM WAP

WZ WH WI

Perimeter

Applications tor thermal insulation to DIN V 4108-10, table 1 Differentiation ot certain product properties to DIN V 4108-10, table 2

C2.5

ductivity /.. [W/mKJ groups these three heat transport mechanisms together. It should be remembered that the lower the thermal conductivity, the better is the thermal insulating effect of a material. The properties of metals make them especially conductive, with values up to 400 W/mK. Vacuum insulation panels achieve values as low as 0 .004-0.008 W ImK by emploYing the thermos flask principle (vacuum layer). The classification of thermal insu lating mate rials into thermal conductivity groups (e.g. WLG 035 or WLG 040) val id hitherto has been superseded since the introduction of the European product standards. According to DIN 4108-4 the designation uses the so-called design thermal conductivity value, which can be specified in 1 mW steps (e.g. A = 0.028 W/mK). Thermal transmittance value (U-value) The U-value is the building periormance parameter indicating the thermal transmittance of building components and is specified in W/m 2K. The thermal insulating properties of different constructions can therefore be compared directly. A low U-value signifies a low heat flow through the bu ilding components and hence lower heat losses (U = unit of heat transfer) . Wherever components with a good thermal conductivity (e.g. concrete balcony slabs without a thermal break) penetrate the insu lated externa l wall, the material properties lead to thermal bridges. Besides increased heat losses, there is also the risk of mould growth caused by the condensation that can collect at such places.

Specific heat capacity DIN 4108-2 contains recommendations for thermal insulation in summer in order to guarantee

134

a comfortable internal climate even in the case of high external temperatures. Building materials that store heat help to even out the weatherand utilisation-related temperature fluctuations over the day. The specific heat capacity c specifies the storage capacity of a building material. Owing to their low weight. most insulating materials have only a low heat storage capacity. Heavy insulating materials such as wood fibre insulating boards (density> 100 kg/m3) can be used in areas where overheating is likely (e.g. converted roof spaces) in order to improve the thermal insulation in summer through their high storage capacity. Moisture control

There is a strong correlation between therma l insulation and moisture control. At 15°C water /.. = 0 .598 W/mK has a thermal conductivity 25 times greater than that of air (A = 0.024 W/mK). Consequently, any water in a bu ilding material significantly reduces its thermal insulation capacity. Furthermore, moisture in building components can lead to corrosion, mould growth and frost damage. In organic insulating materials water contributes to decomposition and destruction of the materials. In winter in particular, there is a vapour pressu re g radient between a heated interior and the cold outside air. The diffusion of water vapour from inside to outside can lead to condensation within external wall and roof constructions (interstitial condensation). Insulating materials used in the cavities of double-leaf walls must therefore be hydrophobic (water-repe llent) over their ent ire thic kness. Water vapour diffusion The IJ-value specifies the diffusion resistance of a material and has no units. According to D IN 4108-4 insulating materials made from mineral wool (IJ = 1), for example, are very

open to diffusion, but cellular glass on the other hand is practically vapourtight (~ = 100000). When designing external components, the diffusion resistance of the individual component layers should decrease from inside to outside. The quantity of water diffusing into and out of the insulating materials. and hence possible risks to the materials, can be checked using the Glaser method (DIN 4108-3). Sound insulation

In building work we distinguish between insulating materials for airborne and structureborne (impact) sound when discussing their acoustic insulation propert ies. In order to improve the airborne sound insulation of lightweight walls or voids, soft fibrous insulating materials with a high flow resistance are particularly suitable. Such materials reduce the sound energy (air pressure fluctuations) as it passes through the fibres by converting into kinetic energy. Insulating materials for impact sound insulation (e .g . beneath floating screeds) are always elastic and must exhibit minimal dynamic stiffness in order to absorb the incident impact energy and transfer only a part of this energy to the underlying structure. Fire protec tion

Insulating materials are also suitable for use in preventive, passive fire protection concepts in order to protect building components against rap id temperature rises . The majority of inorganic insulating materials belong to building materials class A (incombustible), but organiC insulating materials only class B (combustible) . Health and environmental issues

Even though insulating materials are not generally in direct contact with the interior air, the

Insulating and sealing

Product property

Abbre viation

Description

Examples

Compressive strength

dk

No compressive strength little compressive strength Moderate compressive strength High compressive strength Very high compressive strength Extremely high compressive strength

Insulation to voids, insulation between rafters Residential and office areas beneath screeds Roof not designed for foot traffic, with waterproofing Roofs for foot traffic, terraces Industrial floors. parking decks Heavily loaded industrial floors, parking decks

No requirements regarding water absorption Absorbs liquid water Absorbs liquid or diffusing wale

Internal insulation for residential and office areas External insulation to external walls and roofs Perimeter insulation. upside-down roof

No requirements regarding tensile strength Low tensile strength High tensile strength

Insulation to voids. insulation between rafters External insulation to wall behind cladding External insulation to wall under render. roof w. bonded waterproofing

No requ irements regarding acoustics Impact sound insulation, low compressibility Impact sound insulation. moderate compressibility Impact sound insulation, enhanced compressibility

All applications without Floating screeds, party Floating screeds. party Floating screeds. party

No requirements regarding deformation Dim. stability not affected by moisture and temp. Deforms under load and thermal stress

Internal insulation External insulation to wall beneattl render, roof with waterproofing Roof Witll waterproofing

d9 dm dh

d, d, Water absorption

wk wf

wd

Tensile strength

zk

Z9 zh

Acoustic properties

,k s9

sm

,h Deformation

tk

tf tI

acoustic requirements walls walls walls

C 2.6

amounts of hazardous substances they contain (e.g. formaldehyde, styrene, isocyanate, phenol; see "Hazardous substances", p. 268) should nevertheless be kept to a minimum. The discussion surrounding the toxicity to humans of additives (flame retardants in organic insulating materials, pesticides in some organic insulating materials made from natural materials) is ongOing. These days, foamed plastics production mostly uses pentane (pure hydrocarbon) or carbon dioxide. The use of CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) and partially halogenated HCFCs has been banned throughout Europe since 1995 and 2002 respectively. As an alternative, some manufacturers use chloride -free HFCs, whose ban is currently a subject of debate. Owing to the proven health risks of asbestos fibres and dust in interiors, synthetiC mineral fibres are also suspected of having a carcinogenic potential. For this reason, in 1995 the insulating materials industry switched the production of mineral wool to non-inhalable fibre thicknesses (carcinogenicity index:2: 40) and reduced the bio-persistence of rock wool. Like with all other fibre insulating materials, it should ensured at the planning stage that no fibres can be released into the interior air.

Applications The harmonised insulating materials standards DIN EN 13168 to 13171 are pure product standards and specify properties and designations only. The applications for thermal insulation (fig . C 2 .5) and the differentiation of certain product properties (fig. C 2.6) are regulated at national level (in Germany DIN V 4108-10) . The type codes are in each case made up of the application (e.g. WAA = external wa ll insulation behind waterproofing) plus the product proper-

ty (e.g. dh = high compressive strength). According to their method of supply and installation, we distinguish between boards, mats, felt, packing wool, loose fill and in situ foams. From the building performance point of view, thermal insulating materials should be attached to the cold side of the construction whenever possible. However, in order to reduce the transmission heat losses from old buildings with facades protected by preservation orders, internal insulation is often the only solution. This treatment lowers the temperature of the wa ll construction on the cold side and considerably increases the risk of interstitial condensation. As a rule, internal insulation calls for an extremely carefully installed vapour barrier or vapour check on the inside (see p. 145). Moreover, thermal bridges at the wall-floor junctions are practically unavoidable. An vapour diffusion analysis is essential when using internal insulation. When choosing a suitable insulating material, the constructional framework conditions, the technical rules and the respective requirements should be taken into account: · General requirements: dimensions, density, properties (texture, edges, colour, etc.) • Strength: compressive strength or compressive stress at 10% compaction, long -term compressive stress, tensile strength, adhesive strength of foams • Dimensional stability when subjected to the effects of heat and cold • Thermal inSUlation: thermal conductivity, thermal resistance, heat storage capacity • Moisture control: water vapour permeability, hydrophobic properties, water absorption · Sound insulation: dynamic st iffness, flow resistance · Fire protection: building materials class,

upper service temperature limit • Health and environmental issues • Durability: ageing resistance, resistance to high humidity, thermal stability, UV radiation resistance · Economic factors Fixi ng

We distinguish between the following types of fixing irrespective of the choice of insulating material: · loose: no permanent mechanical connection, e.g. tipped, packed, blown in, laid loose • individual: permanent individual or linear fixings, e.g. nailed, screw, dowelled, glued • full bond: a connection over the entire area of the insulating material, e.g. glued (adhesive, bitumen), bedded in mortar Recycling

The type of fixing has a crucial impact on the later recyclability of an insulating material. Materials installed loose can usually be very easily reused, but those installed with a full bond are impossible to reuse. The technical options for recycling the materials have developed at a faster rate than their practical application. Normally, mineral insulating materials are still sent to landfill sites, organic insulating materials are incinerated.

Insulating materials The technical parameters of insulating materi als shown in fig. C 2.7 represent guidelines; these should be compared with the actual product data provided by the manufacturer in each individual case. A selection of insulating materials is given below.

135

Insulating and sealing

Insulating material

Density

Design thermal conductivity value

Vapour diffusion resistance index IJ

[k9 / m~

[W / mK)

[-)

Inorganic, made from synthetic materials calcium silicate glass wool/rock wool cellular glass (CG)

115-290 12 - 250 100 - 150

0.045-0.070 0.035 - 0.050

2/20

0040 - 0060

virtually vapourlight

Inorganic, made from natural materials expanded perlite (EP8) expanded clay vermiculite

60-300 260 - 500 60-180

0.050-0.065 0.090 - 0.160 0.065 - 0.070

2/5

15-45 15 - 30 25 - 45

0.035-0.045 0.035 - 0.040

Organic, made from synthetic materials polyester fibres expanded polystyrene foam (EPS) extruded polystyrene foam (XPS) expanded polyurethane foam (PUR) Organic, made from natural materiats cotton flax granulated cereals hemp fibres wood fibre insulating board (WF) wood-wool slab (\MN) wood-wool mulli-ply board (WoN-C) coconut fibres insulallOn cork board (ICB) sheep's wool cellulose fibres

,30 20-60

25 105 - 115 20-70 45-450 360-570

0.030 - 0.040 0.025-0.035 0.040-0.045 0.040-0,045 0.050 0.040 - 0.045 0.040-0.070 0.065-0.090

112

2 2/3

1

20 / 100 80 / 250 30 / 100

112 112 n.a.

112 115 2/5

heavily dependent on lay-up of plies

50 - 140

30-100

0.045 - 0.050 0.040-0.055 0.035-0.040 0.035-0.040

" Innovative" insulating materials (organic/inorganic) IR absorber modified EPS 15-30 transparent thermal insulation 150-300 vacuum insulation panel (VIP)

0.032 0.02-0.1 J 0.004-0.008

80-500 20-80

112 5 / 10

112 112

20 / 100 virtually vapourtight virtually vapourtight

Building materials class 1

A l -A2/to AI At -81/to AI AI/AI

AI-82/toAl AliA! AllAl

81-2/to 8 811to 8 81/108 81 - 2 / 108

81-82/to 8 81-82110 8 82/ 10 0 82/to D 82/to 0 81/t08 81-82/to 8 81 - 82/108 81-82/to 8 81-82/10 8 81-82/10 8

81110 B 82/to 0

Standard

Product form s

DIN EN 13162 DIN EN 13167

board board, fleece, packing wool board, loose fill

DIN EN 13169 DIN EN 14063

DIN EN 13163 DIN EN 13164 DIN EN 13165

DIN EN 13171 DIN EN 13168 DIN EN 13168 DIN 18165-1/- 2 DIN EN 13170

DIN EN 13163

board, loose fill loose fill loose fill

fleece board board board, in silu foam

mat, felt, pack. wool, blow-in prod. board, mat, felt, packing wool blow-in product, loos8 fill board board board board mat, fell, packing wool loose fill, board mat, felt, packing wool blow-in product, board

board panel panel

The building materials classes are given as a guide only; Ihey must be compared with Ihe actual producl data. Insulaling material with building aulhority approva l. J The insulating material exploits the slatic insulating effect plus solar gains; the values given here include solar gains determined over one heating period in Germany. These figures can vary considerably depend ing on climate and the orientation of the insulation. 4 Insulating materials for transparent thermal insulation systems fall inlo building malerials classes Alto 83 depending on the raw material. 1

2

C 2.7 Mineral wool (MW) made from glass wool or rock wool

In Germany mineral-fibre insulating materials account for about 60% of the market - the largest share. In terms of raw materials and bonding of the fibres, we distinguish between glass wool and rock wool. Glass wool (fig . C 2.8a) normally consists of recycled glass (approx. 50% by mass), quartz sand, feldspar, sodium carbonate and limestone. In addition there is 3-9% binder made from synthetic resins (usually phenol-formaldehyde) and approx. 1% waterproofing agent based on a silicone or on mineral oil. Rock wool (fig. C 2.8b) is mainly produced from natural stone (e.g. diabase, basalt, dolomite), but can also contain clay brick and bauxite constituents from product ion waste. The proportions of binder and waterproofing agent are somewhat lower than those of glass wool. Just 1 m3 of stone produces about 100m3 of rock wool. The production involves melting the raw materials and additives at 1300-1500°C, which produces a pulp to which the binder is added. Mineral-fibre insulating materials have equa lly good thermal and sound insulation properties. They are open to diffusion and are regarded as highly durable thanks to their rotting and

136

weathering resistance . However, insulating boards must be protected against extreme moisture because otherwise their insulating effect and strength are substantially reduced. Applications . Thermal insulation, airborne and impact sound insulation, and fire protection in vi rtually all situations Cellular glass (CG)

Also known as foam glass, this material (fig . C 2.8c) is produced like normal glass by heating the raw materials quartz sand, feldspar, calcium carbonate and sodium carbonate at about 1400°C. The proportion of recycled glass may account for about one-third of the total mass of raw materials. After cooling, the glass is milled to form a powd er and carbon is added as a blowing agent (hence the dark grey colour) before the powder is heated again. The oxidation of the carbon causes the formation of gas bubbles which foam up the fluid mixture. Owing to its closed-cell structure impervious to gas, cellular glass is practically vapourtight, completely unaffected by water and dimensionally stable. It IS therefore mainly used for building components in contact with the ground or those su bjected to com pressive loads. As cel -

lular glass is normally bonded to components with bitumen, recycling is virtually impossible. Applications · peripheral basement insulation and insulation beneath load bearing ground slabs · thermal insulation to surfaces with heavy compressive load s (e.g. industrial floors, parking decks) · internal insula tion • cavity insulation · flat and green roofs Calcium silicate insulating boards

Calcium silicate insulating boards have only recently been launched on the market (also with the designation mineral foam), and provide an alternative to the conventional insulating materials in thermal insulation composite systems. The raw materials are quartz sand, hydrated lime, cement and a curing agent with hydrophobic properties; about 10% cellulose is added to boards for internal use. They are produced (formation of pores, hardening and drying) in autoclaves like aerated concrete. Calcium silicate insulating boards are very open to diffusion and thanks to their water absorption ability contribute to regulating the humidity of

Insulating and sealing

the interior air, which makes them suitable for use as internal insulation on external walls. When used externally, the water absorption is reduced to :::;; 5% by adding a waterproofing agent. If this insulating material is incorporated in a mineral wall construction, the complete wall can be disposed of as a who le. Owing to the higher density of calcium silicate insulating boards, they seem clearly more massive than conventional thermal insulation composite systems. Applications • external and internal insulation to walls · fire protection Expanded perlite

Perlite (fig. C 2.8d) is among the group of aqueous, vitreous roc ks with a volcanic origin. In the expanding process crushed raw perlite is briefly heated to about 1000°C to give it a viscous consistency. The water in the rock turns to steam and expands the particles to max. 20 times their origina l volume. A silicone waterproofing agent or encasing in bitumen or a natural resin can be used depending on the intended use of the material. Loose fill perlite treated with waterproofing agent is open to diffusion, hardly affected by moisture and cannot rot. Expanded perlite is either combustible or incombustible depending on the encasing ma terial. Expanded perlite boards (EPB) can be produced by adding binders plus organic and inorganic fibres. Applications • lightweight aggregate for concrete and mortar · cavity insulation • thermal and impact sound insulation · levelling layer beneath screeds · loose insulation for roofs and timber joists floors Expanded clay

After the clay is obtained from open-cast mines it is stored for about a year. The processing involves milling the raw material and passing it through a rotary kiln where it is dried using the countercurrent method and subsequently heated to approx. 1200°C, at which temperature the bonded water turns to steam and expands the particles. Expanded clay does not rot and can withstand high compressive loads. However, the thermal insulation characteristics (approx. 0.09 W/mK ) are rather poor when compared to other insulating materials. Applications · lightweight aggregate for concrete and mortar · levelling layer beneath screeds · thermal insulation in floors

Expanded polystyrene foam

Polystyrene (fig. C 2.8e) has been used by the building industry since the 1950s and in Germany has the second-largest share of the market. In the production of EPS, polymerisation creates EPS beads (0.1-2 .0 mm) from the raw material styrene (obtained from petroleum or natural gas) by add ing a highly volatile blowing agent (pentane). After drying and intermediate storage. the granulate is heated with steam in pre -foaming units at temperatures of approx . 100°C, which causes it to expand to 20-50 times its original volume before being formed into boards on a continuous production line. The proportion of pure recycled EPS can amount to 40% depending on the application . Expanded polystyrene foam does not rot, but becomes brittle in direct sunlight (no resistance to ultraviolet radiation) and is not resistant to solvents. Owing to its comparatively high vapour diffusion resistance, when used as internal insulation it should be ensured at the planning stage that any condensation can evaporate again. However, EPS products open to diffusion are also available. Owing to its sensitivity to temperature (max. temperature in use: 75-85°C), this material cannot be bonded with hot bitumen or used beneath mastic asphalt. Applications · thermal insulation in almost all situations · impact sound insulation Extruded polystyrene foam (XPS)

The chemica l composition of extruded polystyrene foam (fig. C 2.8 f) is almost identical to that of expanded polystyrene foam. Polystyrene granulate is melted in an extruder, foamed up by adding a blowing agent and formed into a continuous web of foam material. The blowing agent used is normally carbon dioxide these days, instead of the CFCs or HCFCs employed in the past. After production, all the carbon dioxide escapes from the material and is replaced by air. XPS absorbs very little water and has a high compressive strength. It has a high diffusion resistance, but is not resistant to ultraviolet radiation and cannot resist solvents. The maximum temperature for applications is 75°C. Applications • peripheral basement insulation and insulation beneath load bearing ground slabs • therma l insulation to surfaces with heavy compressive loads (e.g . industrial floors, parking decks) · upside-down roofs • insulation to thermal bridges (concrete lintels, insulated starter-bar units) Polyurethane foam (PUR)

Polyurethane foam (fig. C 2.8g) achieves the best insulation values among conventional insulating materia ls. Its main constituents are diphenylmethane d i-Isocyanate (MDI), polyether and/or polyester polyalcohol; the latter

C 2.7 C 2.8

Physical parameters of selected insul. materials Insulating materials (selection) a Glass wool b Rock wool c Cellular glass d Expanded perlite e Expanded polystyrene foam f Extruded polystyrene foam 9 Expanded polyurethane foam

137

Insulating and sealing

can be produced from crude oil or renewable raw materials (e.g . sugar beet, maize, potatoes). Polyurethane foam is produced by mi xing and the chemical reactions between the liq uid components when a blowing agent such as pentane or carbon dioxide is added . Depend ing on the method of production, it is possible to produce insulating boards without facings (slabstock foam boards), or with flexible (laminated foam boards) or rigid facings (sandwich panels). Polyurethane boards laminated with aluminium on one side are vapourtig ht and achieve (depending on product) ),-values of 0.025 W/mK. In situ polyurethane foam is also available in add ition to the boards. The in situ foam is made from similar raw materials and is used to fill voids on site. Polyurethane is not resistant to ultraviolet radiation, but does not rot and, unlike polystyrene, is resistant to both hot bitumen and solvents. Applications · insulation over the rafters · flat roofs · thermal insulation to suriaces with heavy compressive loads (e.g. industrial floors, parking decks) · thermal insulation beneath floating screeds · sandwich panels · filling of voids (in situ foam)

c

Wood-wool slabs rNW)

These consist of long wood shavings (mostly spruce). The fibres are mixed with mineral binders (magnesite or cement), pressed together at high temperatures and subsequently dried. The chips can be pretreated with magnesium sulphate to protect against insect attack. Cement-bonded boards (grey colour) absorb more water than magnesite-bonded boards (beige colour) . Wood-wool slabs have a good heat storage capacity , are open to diffusion and can contribute to sound attenuation.

d

e

Applications · permanent formwork • internal fitting-out, sound-attenuating lining • plaster background Wood-wool multi-ply boards (WW-C)

C 2.9

9 C 2.9

138

Insulating materials (selection) a Wood -wool multi-ply board b Wood fibre insulating board c Insulation cork board d Cotton e Cellulose fibres I IR absorber-modified polystyrene g Vacuum insulation panel

These boards (fig. C 2.9a) consist of a core of expanded foam or mineral-fibre insulation and a facing of mineral -bonded wood-wool on one side (2-ply board) or both sides (3-ply board). The properties are the resu lt of the respective build-up of wood-wool and insulation (e.g. minerai fibre, EPS, PUR) . In contrast to normal wood-wool slabs, wood-wool multi -ply boards comp ly with modern insulation standards. Applications • permanent formwork • insulation to the underside of roofs over base ments or basement parking · insulation to thermal bridges (e .g . edges of floor slabs)

Wood fibre insulating boards (WF)

The raw materials for the manufacture of wood fibre insulating boards (fig . C 2.9b) are lowstrength wood (e.g. spruce, fir and Scots pine) or scrap wood from sawmills. The chips are crushed, mixed with water to form a pulp, dried to 2% residual moisture content and cut into boards. The bond is generally based on the interlocking of the fibres and the adhesive qualities of the lignin already present in the wood. Some manufacturers add small amounts of aluminium sulphate, paraffin or glue to assist the bond ing process. We essentially distinguish between porous and bitumenised wood fibre insulating boards - the bitumen improves the moisture resistance. Wood fibre insulating boards absorb moisture, are relatively open to diffusion, are airtight and have a high heat storage capacity. They can be recycled , and the boards w ithout bitumen can also be composted. Applications · insulation over and between rafters, also to contain loose insulating materials • thermal insulation to walls and floors • impact sound insulation Cork products

Cork insulating materials are made from the bark of the cork oak, mainly indigenous to Portugal , Spain and Algeria . The first stripping is when the tree is 25-30 years old , and subsequent bark removal can take place every 10 years without endangering the tree . Supplies of cork are therefore not unlimited and the whole process is relatively costly. We distinguish between vario us cork products depending on the method of manufacture. In the production of insulation cork board (ICB) the bark is milled to form a granulate and baked under pressure in hot steam (approx. 370°C) . The cork expands by 20-30% of its original volume and the resin that is released binds the granules into blocks (fig. C 2.9c). Pressed cork board is produced by compacting the milled cork granulate into blocks under high pressure and subsequently sawing the blocks to form boards. Impregnated cork contains additional binder (e.g. bitumen). Granulated cork is obtained through the mechanical milling of the ba rk without any further additions. All cork products have relatively good thermal insulation properties and also a high heat storage capacity. Applications · thermal and impact sound insulation below floating screeds or wood floor finishes • insulation to lightweight parti tions and timber joist floors · granulated cork as a loose insulating material (attenuation to voids, roofs) Sheep's wool

This product comes mainly from Central Europe, but supplies from overseas (e.g. New Zealand)

Insulating and sealin!;

are also on the market. The raw wool contains about 40% grease (yolk), foreign matter and perspiration that is removed in the washing plant with soap and soda. Some manufacturers enhance moth protection by adding 1- 2% by mass additions of boron salt in the order of magnitude of 1% by mass serve as a fire retardant. After carding (disentangling and straightening) the wool, it is processed to form a thin fleece, several layers of which are needled together to form insulating mats. Fine wool - a waste product of the production process can be used for packing purposes or as backing cords for joints. Sheep's wool is open to diffusion and very hygroscopic - the fibres can absorb moisture (up to 33% by mass) and release it again without impairing their insulating effect. Applications • thermal insulation to (close) couple roofs • insulation to lightweight partitions and timber joist floors • impact sound insulation • packing and attenuation in voids Cotton

Cotton insulation board (fig. C 2.9d) is produced from roughly equal parts of raw cotton and offcuts and scraps from the textiles industry. Raw cotton consists of 90% cellulose, wax and pectin. The production involves carding the raw material, cleaning it mechanically and adding boron salts (pesticide, fire protection). Afterwards, it is processed to form a th in fleece, several layers of which are needled together to form insulating mats. This building material exhibits very good thermal and sound insulation properties. The debate cont inues about whether cotton - a renewable raw material - is also worthwhile as an insulating material from the economic viewpoint. In a life cycle assessment the relatively low energy requirements of the production are offset by the long transport distances, and the environmental effects of fertilisers and pesticides are not taken into account. Some manufacturers use hand-picked cotton, which usually requires no pesticide, as their basic raw material. Applications • thermal insulation to (close) couple roofs · insulation to lightweight partitions and timber joist floors · packing and attenuation in voids Flax

In Central Europe flax plants grow to a height of approx. 1.0-1.2 m. have a relatively short vegetation period and do not usually require any fertilisers or pesticides. The short fibres used for flax insulating materials are a by-product of the process to obtain long fibres for the textiles industry (linen). The retted (soaked) and dried short fibres are carded and processed to form a thin fleece. After adding boron salts (fire pro-

tection). severa l layers of the fleece are bonded together with potato starch or by weaving in reinforcing polyester fibres. Flax insulating materials are open to diffusion and exhibit very good thermal and sound insulation characteristics. Applications · thermal insulation to floors and roofs • impact sound insulation · packing Cellulose fibres

Among the insulating materials made from renewable raw materials, cellulose fibre prod ucts currently enjoy the largest market share. The raw material is scra p paper, e.g. daily newspapers printed with lead-free printing ink, and other waste paper products. Flakes (fig . C 2.ge) and boards made from cel lulose fibres differ with respect to methods of production and applications. In the production of cellulose flakes the scrap paper is crushed in a mUlti-stage process and mi xed mechanically with boron salt (20% by mass) to improve the fire protection properties. In the production of cellulose fibreboards, reinforcing fibres (jute or polyolefins) and binders (lignin sulphonate) are added after pulverising the scrap paper and mi xing in the boron salt. Aluminium sulphate and tall oil are used as waterproofing agents. Cellulose fibres exhibit very good thermal insulation properties, are hygroscopic and open to diffusion. The material is durable and has been used in Scandinavia and the USA since the 1920s. However, only the processing by trained operatives in approved specialist plants guarantees non-settling products free from voids . For recycling, the flakes are easily collected by vacuuming. Applications • thermal insulation to (close) couple roofs and timber joist floors · insulati on to lightweight partitions · attenuation in voids

Innovative insulating materials The ever more stringent thermal insulation standards and the increasing thicknesses called for are currently encouraging rapid developments and trials of highly efficient insulating materials. Based on industrial research and development programmes. the efficiency of existing materials can be constantly improved through the use of novel combinations and new effects (see "The development of innovative materials, p . 28) . For example, adding an infrared absorber to the matrix of expanded polystyrene (fig . C 2.9f) renders possible a reduction in thickness of up to 25% (see fig. C 2.4, p. 133). The (still) comparatively high cost of such innovative insulating materials must be weighed against the considerable gain in usable floor space and the new design options (more slender components). For refurbishment work, high-performance insulating materials result in modern U-values even with thin assembl ies (e.g. adjacent neighbouring structures, junctions around windows, short eaves overhang) . Vacuum insulation panels (VIP)

Vacuum Insulation panels (fig. C 2.9g) have been established for use in refrigerators and deep freezes since the 1970s, but it is only recently that the first trials and demonstrations for building applications have been carried out successfully. In comparison with conventional insulating materials, the thermal conductivity is lower by a factor of 5-10. VIPs consist of a core material with a good compressive strength that is laminated with gastight composite foils in a vacuum chamber. Besides fibres and open-cell foams, pyrogenic silicic acid is now the favourite filling material because - owing to its extremely small voids (100 nm) - this places the lowest demands on the airtightness of the envelope. The initial gas pressure is 1-5 mbar and increases by approx. 2 mbar every year. The airtightness has a decisive influence on the durability and thermal conductivity of VIPs: · 0.004 W/mK at < 5 mbar gas pressure · 0.008 W/mK at < 100 mbar gas pressure · 0.020 W/m K ven tila ted The use of aluminium foil or multi-layer, vacuum-metallised synthetic barrier foils results in a guaranteed lifetime of 30-50 years . Applications • thermal insulation beneath underiloor heating • internal insulation with facing of plasterboard • spandrel elements for post-and-rail facades · thermal insulation composite system in conjunction with 35 mm XPS boards as plaster background (protective layer)

139

Insulating and sealing

p o

2

3 4

2 3

5

4

6 7

5

6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

- - - Solar radia tion

Solid timber, spruce, 80 mm Softboard, 22 mm Vacuum insulation panel, 40 mm Compressible tape ali round Battens. 40 x 45 mm Softboard 3-ply core plywood. 22 mm

1 2 3 4 5 6

• Defined sizes (usually 1.0 x 0.5 m): the panels cannot be cut. special sizes are time-consuming and costly. · Protection of the vacuum : the panels need a fi xing without restraint, and the insulating layer must not be damaged (e.g. nails) during construction and utilisation of the building . · Thermal bridges: in comparison to VIPs, air is a good conductor of heat; therefore joints and penetrations must be minimised . · So far there is no building authority approva l. Transparent thermal insulation

Transparent thermal insulation enables the transmission heat losses through opaque external walls to be reduced but the same time pe rmits high solar radiation transmission and, moreover, acts as a daylight element in a translucent facade. The insulating material often makes use of cel lular structures (capillary, honeycomb) of glass or plastic (PMMA. PC) . Alternatively. honeycomb structures made from recycled paper or microporous aerogel bead fillings are feasible. The insulating materials are protected against the weather, dust, dirt and mechanical damage by fitting them in the cavity of insulating glass units or between profiled glass elements or in multi-walled panels. How it works Generally. we distinguish between three different transparent thermal insulation systems:

140

""-

"-

"""-

""-

-- - - Heat radiation

I

1

2 3

2 3

a

Glass Shading element Transparent thermal insulation Glass Absorber Masonry

C 2.10

Planning advice In order to achieve U-values ~ 0.15 W/m2K, i.e. passive-energy house standard, with conventional insulating materials, a total wal l thickness > 500 mm is normal. In a pilot project by Lichtblau Architekten, a U-value of 0.14 W/m 2K was achieved using a load bearing solid timber wall and interchangeable VIPs - with a total wall thickness of just 192 mm (fig. C 2.10). The thinner wall results in a gain in usable floor space amounting to about 15 m2 (in relation to the total floor space of 265 m' ). The following aspects should be considered at the planning stage:

--.--.----.----.-----.--

1 Glass 2 Panel in heating mode 3 Masonry

b

1

Glass

2 Panel in insulat3

ing mode Masonry

C2.11

C 2.12

· Direct gain system: In terms of their appearance, translucent thermal insulation units integrated into post-andrail facades resemble acid-etched or sand blasted glazing (fig. C 2.13). The light-scattering effect of the thermal insulation structure distributes the daylight deep into the interior evenly and without glare. In the form of trip le glazing with an 8 mm thick capillary panel, U-values of 0.8 W/m' K are possible. · Solid wall system: The combination of transparent thermal insulation elements and heat storage mass enables the incident solar radiation to be converted into heat at the (usually) black-painted outside face of the wall (absorber) and transported to the inside face of the wall after a delay (fig. C 2.11). Through the reversal of the hea t flow during periods of incident solar radiation, this construction realises gains of 50150 KWh/m2 per square metre of transparent thermal insulation (depending on system, orientation, shading, etc.). · Thermally decoupled systems; Convective and hybrid systems are decoupled from the storage mass by controllable air or water layers. However, such systems are still at the development stage .

converted into heat and transported to the interior via the solid masonry after a delay (fig. C 2.12). In Insulating mode the element protects against heat losses and overheating in summer. Switch ing between the two modes is achieved by applying an electric current, which influences the pressure relat ionships of the glass-fibre core and hence alters the thermal conductivity by a factor of 40.

To protect against overheating in summer, transparent thermal insulation systems must be fitted with effective sunshades. Besides electrically driven foil roller blinds. cover plates attached manually (seasonally) are also used. Passive measures (e.g. eaves overhang. balcony) can also provide some shade, but reduce the overall solar gains achievable. Switchable thermal insulation

Switchable thermal insulation is based on the knowledge gained from VIPs and transparent thermal insulation and to date only one pilot project has been completed. The facade elements can be switched as required from a highly insulating state with U-values of 0.20.3 W/m2K to a solar collector state with much higher thermal conductivity and a U-value of 10 W/m 2K . On sunny but cold winter days (heating mode) the incident solar radiation is

C 2.10 Solid timber external wall construction with interchangeable vacuum insulation panels C 2.11 Transparent thermal insulation element with shading and temperature gradient C 2.12 SWltchable thermal insulation a in heating mode (heating period and sunshine) b in insulating mode (ali other times) C 2.13 "Rathausgalerien" shopping mali. lnnsbruck. Austria. 2002. Dominique Perrault C 2.14 Life cycle assessment data for insu lation and sea ling

Insulating and sealing

Insulation Layers " for origin of data see "Life cycle

PEl assessmen ts~,

p. 100

PEl

primary energy primary energy non-renewable renewable

GWP

ODP

AP

EP

poep

ozone depletion [kg R11 eq]

acidification [kg S02eq]

eutrophication [kg P04eq]

summer smog [kg C 2H4eq]

0.022

IMJ)

IMJ)

global warming [kg C0 2 eq]

51 1

17

28

0

0.70

0.cXJ62

405

12

21

0

0.50

0.0049

Boards expanded polystyrene (EPS) EPS board, " '= 0.040 W/mK, p '" 25 kg/m 3, 120 mm polyvinyl acetate adhesive (PVAC) extruded polystyrene (XPS)

=

XPS board, t.. '= 0.040 W/mK, P 20 kg/m J , 120mm polyvinyl acetate adl1esive (PVAC)

d

349

polyurethane PUR

13

PUR board, I, 0.035 W/mK, p 20 kg/mJ, 100 mm polyvinyl acetate adhesive (PVAC) insulation cork board 1GB" ICB,

17

0

~

15

=

=

0. 18

0.013

=

0.016

0.01 1

=

0.0060

0.()()()41

0.0010

0

0.038

0.0036

0.0050

0.13

=

=

0

0.0083

0.020

0

=

=

0.35

0.0 14

0.015

0.24

11

0

68

0.8

19

t. = 0.040 W/mK, 120 mm

mortar-based adhesive wood-wool multi-ply board WW-G, permanent formwork' WW-G board, /.. '= 0.040 W/mK. p '= 30 kg/mJ, 125mm magnesite-bonded. mineral fibres on inside

436

wood fibre insulating board WFWF board, I. '= 0.040 W/mK, p mortar-based adhesive

'=

89

79

160 kg/m3, 120 mm CJ

cellular glass CG, perimeter insulation· celllliar glass, " '= 0.040 W/mK, p bitumen compound

'=

1030

Fleeces

-

74

mineral wool fleece

t. = 0.040 W/mK,

p = 20 kg/m3, 120 mm

Loose fill

3.7

1.4

cellulose, I. '= 0.040 W/mK, p = 50 kg/m s, 120 mm (bel\Neen TJ I timber beams)

•

Sealing Layers • for origin of data see "Life cycle assessments' . p.loo

primary energy primary energy non-renewable renewable

'=

0.065 W/rnK, p = 100 kg/rn J, 160 rnrn

33

PEl IMJ)

Spread compounds reaction resin waterproofing epoxy mortar, 2 mm epoxy undercoat plastic-modified thick bitumen coating

94

373

I

=

0

0.061

0.0044

0.0030

0

=

D

5.4

0.037

0.0038

0.0050

=

=

0.0074

0.012

0

=

cellulose fill

expanded perlite, I, (on ground slab)

16

0 " Rte¥'" £&M"",a.

==

187

per lite fill

49

0

96

calcium silicate, /, = 0.045 W/mK, p '" 115 kglm J , 140mm mortar-based adhesive

29

ie

100 kg/m3, 120 mm

calcium silicate board

mineral wool fleece, polyamide fixings

c:l

21

11

1.7

1.8

0.20

=

=

=

0

0.0 12

0 .00074

0.0010

0

PEl IMJ)

3.4

GWP

ODP

AP

EP

poep

global warming [kg C0 2eq]

ozone depletion [kg R11 eq]

acidification {kg S02eq]

eutrophication [kg P04eq]

summer smog [kg C 2H 4eq]

5.8

0

0.040

0.0029

0.0030

0

=

0

0042

0.0044

0.015

D

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0

0.0030

0.00035

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0

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6.4

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embossed synthetic sheeting for protection (HOPE) bitumen emulsion. 3 mm mineral waterproofing

10

cement-based waterproofing, 2mm water glass undercoat

•

=

0

=

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0.2

0.8 0

Flexible sheeting pvC sheeting, 1 layer

312

PVC sheeting, 2 mm

polyethylene fleece. 0.5 mm bitumen sheeting, 1 layer bitumen sheeting (G200 S4), 4 mm bitumen undercoat

294

35

20

=

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5.6

7.4

C 2.14

141

Insulating and sealing

C 2. 15

Sealing

The sealing of joints or junctions between building components or their suliaces protects the building against the ingress of water, the uncontrolled loss of warm interior air through the building envelope and the ingress of cold air from the outside. Damaged or incomplete seal ing of joints and suriaces can lead to serious damage and increase the heating energy requirements significantly. Every building includes a multitude of joints which compen sate for tolerances and enable the va rious components to move without restra int as they expand and contract in harmony with temperature fluctuations . In addition, jOints can also be used as a means of adding texture or features to a surface, or to reflect geometrical or constructional configurations . Airtightness

Air can absorb water vapour up to the saturation vapour pressure, i.e. until reaching the dew point, at which po int the water condenses . Hot air can absorb more water vapour than cold air. As hot air cools, so its relative humidity rises. If the dew point is reached, the water condenses within the building component (interstitial condensation) . This promotes the growth of fungi (mou ld), causes roning of timber components and reduces the insulating effect of thermal insulation. Cold air that enters from outside via leaking joints can carry fibres, fungi and spores from the building components into the interior air. These may lead to health disorders among the occupants, generally summarised under the heading of "sick building syndrome". Interestingly, moisture damage to building components caused by condensation is mainly the result of airtightness problems and convection, and less often water vapour diffusion. Only approx. 1% of the water vapour passes through the external wall as a result of the water vapour gradient between inside and outside. In this context it is worth noting that only proper ventilation - if necessary with controlled mechanical systems - guarantees the changes of air necessary to meet hygiene and energy economy requirements.

142

Blower door measurements Leaks in the building envelope can be established and localised with the help of blower door measurements. In new buildings these measurements should be carried out before installing partitions and soffits, but after all windows, doors, sealing layers and plastering works have been completed . One external door is temporarily removed and replaced by a special sealed fan unit which creates a (negative) pressure difference of 50 Pa between inside and outside. Any leaks in the building envelope will cause air to be drawn into the building, which is then extracted w ith the fan . The measured airflow corresponds to the leakage flow (in m 3 / h) caused by leaks in the bui lding envelope. Dividing this value by the volume of the building produces the air change rate . According to the Energy Economy Act 2002, the air change rate should not exceed 1.S/h for buildings with mechanical ventilation, and in passive-energy houses it may not exceed 0.6/h. If these values are exceeded, the leaks can be localised with special instruments. We distinguish between leaks in the external building components and leaks in joints around win dows and external doors. Leaks also impair the airborne sound insulation.

Even at the draft design stage it is important to ensure that the airtight layer is carefully planned, the aim being to provide surfaces and joints that are permanently airtight. In doing so, it is primarily penetrations of the airtight layer, e.g. pipes and cables or loadbearing structure, that should be considered as potential wea knesses.

Sealing of joints

Deformations of building components are caused by, for example, settlement, temperature- related changes in length or shrinkage. Poor workmanship may lead to cracking. In order to keep such processes under control and to avoid damage, the effective lengths of components are limited by planned joints. In terms of construction we distinguish between the following types of joint: Construction joints Construction joints are rigid joints. They are the result of the building process, e.g. between concrete components that cannot be poured in one operation. Construction joints always occur between foundation and walls. but the load of the walls and the continuous reinforcement is usually sufficient to seal such construction jOints. However, shrinkage cracks often form at these points. A planned dummy joint simplifies the subsequent sealing of this crack because it provides space for a sealing compound. Expansion joints Expansion joints permit the horizontal movement of (arge build ing components. (n order to avoid uncontrolled cracking in the structure, vertical expansion joints extend over the full height of the building, down as far as the top of the foundation, e.g. in reinforced concrete walls or a facing leaf of day bricks. Expansion joints that are sealed with jointing materials to prevent ingress of rain and splashing water are not waterproof in building technology terms. According to DI N 18195 a waterproof jOint is achieved only with flexib(e waterproof sheeting or a thick bitumen coating .

Watertightness

Planar waterproofing systems prevent the ingress of water into the building . Numerous materials are available for this, and these may also be combined . Besides their waterproofing characteristics, such materials should also be able to bridge over any cracks so that the surface remains watertight even in the case of movement. Joint sealants complement the waterproofing systems.

Settlement joints Different parts of the building with different total loads exert unequal vertical loads on the subsoil. In order to permit differential settlement without restraint, settlement joints must also continue through the foundations. Separating joints Components with different physical properties, e.g. at junctions around windows, must be iso-

Insulating and sealing

n

a

.J

I

J I

I

I .

a

~

C 2.15 Separating joints between precast concrete elements, office building, Munich, Germany, 2003, Amann & Ginel C 2. 16 Expansion joint. separating joint C 2.17 Material and room transitions marked by joints, Museum of Modern Art, Kanazawa, Japan. 2005, Sejima Nishizawa C 2.18 Joints with sealants a expansion joint b separating joint at window-wa ll junction C 2.19 Thermoplastic waterstops a external b internal

~--~~'--~ ~--+-'--~~ /

'::'

__________

C 2.18

b

lated by separating joints that can accommodate temperature-related changes in length and d imensional tolerances. Such joints can also act as expansion or settlement joints at the same time. Maintenance joints These are joints exposed to severe chemical or physical influences. They must be read ily accessible so that they can be inspected regularly and renewed as required .

Joints without special requirements may be left open (drained joints). Other joints must be sealed. Various sealing materia ls can be used depending on type of joint and requirements . These materials can create any standard from draughtproof to watertight and are d ivi ded into the following groups: joint sealants (injectable, kneadab le) waterstops sealing strips, sealing gaskets Joint sealants, sealing strips and sealing gaskets for pressing, inserting and glueing into place are not suitable as the sale means of sealing in the case of hydrostatic pressure .

b

-J

-

~

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

C 2.19

Joint sealants that dry physically, e.g. butyl compounds, solidify as the solvent or water evaporates. In the case of non-reactive joint sealants, the material does not alter after being installed. We distinguish between plastic and elastic Joint sea lants depending on their deformation characteristics. The permissible total deformation is max. 25%. Joint deSign According to DI N 18540 a joint consists of two sides, if possible with chamfered edges and a stable substrate. A round backing strip limits the depth of the joint and prevents the joint sealants adhering to three surfaces (fig . C 2.18) . In order to guarantee the deformability of the joint, the backing material consists of a rot- resistant, closed-cell foam material. Only joints with a width-depth ratio of approx. 2:1 (e.g. 20:10 mm) will remain sealed permanently. The joint sealant should be pressed onto the sides of the joint to ensure ad hesion . Sealants are injected from cartridges or pressed into place as a kneadable plastic compound . Expansion and construction joints in contact with the soil must satisfy more stringent require ments, which are given in DI N 18195-8.

Injected joint sealants must be stable, must adhere well to the two sides of the joint (if necessary in conjunction with a primer to enhance the adhesion), must withstand changing climatic and mechanical loads (resilience and expansion behaviour). must exhibit a non-sticky surface and must be compatible with the adjoi ning building materials. They should also be suitable for uneven joint surfaces. According to DIN 18540 joint sealants should not be painted afterwards because the anticipated deformation of the sealant is usually greater than the elasticity of the paint. The outcome is that the paint cracks and flakes off. Nevertheless, in practice sealants are often painted for aesthetic reasons.

Silicone sealants Silicone sealants undergo a chemicalJy reactive curing process which exploits the moisture in the air and produces an elastic seal. The prod ucts given off are acetic acid, amines or alcohols, depending on the particular system. Silicone sealants exhibit acidic, neutral or alkaline reactions and must be compatible with the substrate. Some products give off odours as they cure . Silicone sealants ad here very well to smooth, mineral substrates such as glass and ceramics, also aluminium and coatings, both internal ly and externally. Sanitary applications, junctions, terraces and balconies are the main uses. They are available in many different colours.

Chemically reactive joint sealants, e.g. silicone sealants, cure due to the effects of the moisture in the ai r and expel molecules.

Polyurethane sealants Polyurethane sealants also undergo a chemicalJy reactive curing process and give off car-

Joint sealants

bon dioxide in a viscous state. They are used for sealing basement parking, parking decks and waste water systems, i.e. applications that require excellent adhesive qualities and chemi ca! resistance. Polyurethane sealants can also be used as an elastic adhesive. MS polymer sealants This reactive sealant type adheres to many different substrates and unites the properties of silicone and polyurethane sealants. It is resistant to ultraviolet radiation, is free from solvents, has no smell and can mostly be used without any pretreatment, even in the case of damp sides to the jOin t. Many types of paint adhere to this type of sealant, even those containing sol vents. Acrylate sealants Sealants based on acrylate dispersions exhibit a plastic deformation behaviour. The evaporation of the dispersion water causes an acrylate sealant to shrink by up to 20% . They adhere to mineral and metal substrates, also plastics. Acrylate sealants are available in many different colours and are used for rigid joints (dummy join ts, construction joints). They can be covered with certain, suitable types of paint. Polysulphide sealants Two-part polysulphide sealants undergo a chemically reactive curing process and exhibit an elastic deformation behaviour. During the hardening process they give off highly odorous sulphur compounds. Polysulphide sealants are used for joints in external walls or as secondary seals in the manufacture of insulating glass units. They adhere to a number of building materials such as plaster/render, timber, synthetic materials and metals. Butyl sealants These sealants are based on butyl rubber and adhere to the majority of substrates. They remain permanently sticky and are used in the form of tapes or strips, e.g. in metalworking. Butyl sealants containing solvents can be injected into joints and moisten the substrate well.

143

Insulating and sealing

Materials for sealing joints

Sealants (injectable, kneadable) Silicone (SI)

• acidic, neutral, alkaline (products given off)

Polyurethane (PUR)

. 1-part, 2-part

MS polymer

. l-part

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Acrylate (A Y)

• contains solvents, dispersant

Polyethylene (PE)

Polysulphide

• 1-part. 2-part

Butyl rubber

• with and withOut solvents

linseed oil

Synthetic rubber

• desiccant (putty)

Waterstops

Waterstops made from PVC and synthetic rubber are used wherever the maximum permissible total deformation of injected sealants is exceeded or perfect adherence to the sub strate cannot be guaranteed, Thermoplastic and elastomeric waterstops are concreted permanently in place in expansion and construction joints for in situ concrete. They provide a waterproof barrier across the joint. We distinguish between internal and external waterstops (fig . C 2.19). Alternatively, expanding gaskets can be used in construction joints. In waterproof concrete sheet metal waterstops can be used in construction joints if li11le movement is anticipated. Sealing strips

Sealing strips include backing strips made from PVC for construct ion joints and gaskets made from synthetic rubber to exclude rain and wind. Elastic sealing strips made from elastomers or soft polyurethane foams can achieve a degree of sealing ranging from draughtproof to watertight depending on the surface character-

• elastomer waterstop withtWithout profi le plastic, self-adhesive elastic, non-self-adhesive

• foam backing material (gasket)

Bentonite, EPDM

• compressible strip

Steel

• sheet metal waterstop

Composite

• compressible tube

. foam strip soaked in acrylic resin, precompressed · aluminium foil strip · single-/double-sided adhesive • with profile

Silicone (SI)

• gaSkets

Ethylene-propylene- • gaskets diene rubber(EPDM)

C 2.20

istics of the sides of the joint and the compression of the sealing strip . Sealing gaskets are fitted between movable components like doors and windows, and these also contribute to sound insulation.

protect against moisture from the SOil, nonhydrostatic pressure and rising damp. These sealants comprise a binder of polymer-modified cement which is mixed on site to form a slurry. The slurry is min. 2 mm thick and can bridge over smal l cracks.

Waterproofing

Thick bitumen coatings One- and two-part plastic-modified thick bitumen coatings consist of a bitumen-plastic emulsion plus a cementitious powder. It is sprayed or spread on in at least two coats. Non-ro11ing fleece inlays bridge over any cracks. Thick bitumen coatings protect against moisture from the soil, a build -up of seepage water and non-hydrostatic pressure, e.g. on roof surfaces and in wet interior areas.

Horizontal and vertical waterproofing systems protect the building against moisture. Horizontal damp-proof courses (dpc) between foundation and wall consisting of one or more layers of flexible bitumen sheeting prevent water rising through capillary action to saturate the wall (rising damp). Vertical layers of waterproofing on external walls in contact with the soil must be installed according to the load ing cases given in DIN 18195 using the specified materials. Waterproofing of building components

In DIN 18195 parts 4-7 the waterproofing of building components against ingress of water is divided into the following applications:

Bituminous coatings Coatings containing bitumen are applied as hot coatings and adhesive compounds. Hot coatings consist of straight-run or blown bitumen, often provided with fibrous or stone dust fil lers, which ensure weathering and impact resistance. They are used for non-hydrostatic pressure applications. Adhesive compounds are used to bond flexible sheeting to the substrate .

Flexible cement -based sealants Flexi ble cement-based sealants can be used to C 2.21

Polyurethane (PUR)

• thermoplastic waterstop

waterproofing against moisture from the soil, e.g. ground slabs or basement walls waterproofing against non-hydrostatic pressure, e.g. precipitation, seepage wate r or splashing water on roofs, floors and walls in wet interior areas waterproofing against external hydrostatic pressure, e.g. parts of the building below the groundwater table waterproofing against internal hydrostatic pressure, e.g. swimming pools or drinking water reservoirs

144

Sealing strips, sea ling gaskets

Waterstops

Flexible sheeting The application of flexible sheeting made from bitumen, polymer-modified bitumen, synthetic materials and rubber is very similar to the laying of these materials on roofs . The materials fulfil similar tasks and are described in "The building envelope" (see pp. 125-27). They ensure watertightness in the case of hydrostatic pressure. Embossed sheet metal is used to strengthen the waterproofing in the case of more severe loads. Waterproofing materials on components in contact with the soil must be protected against mechanical damage, e.g. by external thermal insulation, drainage mats or embossed sheets. Uquid-applied waterproofing systems These systems are suitable for waterproofing, for example, roofs and basements, primarily in the case of components with complica ted geometries. Liquid -applied waterproofi ng systems based on flexible unsaturated polyester resins, flexible PMMA and flexible polyurethane resins undergo a reactive curing process after mixing their components or through contact with moisture in the air. They are applied by spreading, rolling or spraying . An inlay of fleece made from synthetic fibres serves as reinforcement and bridges over any cracks. Together, they form a composite with the substrate. The thickness of the waterproofing, usually applied in two coats, must be at least

Insulating and sealing

Materials for waterproofing

[ Bitumen

Plastics

-"1 1'---_____M_a_t8_' _ia_" _f_oc_a_i'_ti_9_ht_n_e_" _ _ _ _ _---'

Materials for draughtproofing

Materials for watertightness _ _ _ _ · •

undercoat adhesive compound. coating mastic asphalt bitumen and polymer-modified bitumen flexible sheeting · plastic-modified thick bitumen coa ting · flexible synthetic sheeting (also cold-applied self-adhesive) · flexible rubber sheeting (also with self-adhesive coating) • liquid-app lied waterproofing systems

Metal

• embossed sheet metal

Cement

• cement-based sealants (rigidlflexiblej

1.5 mm, or 2 mm on trafficked roof surfaces. The European Technical Approva l to ETAG 005 classifies the serviceability of liquid-applied roof waterproofing systems according to performance. It assumes a durability of up to 25 years depending on the particular application. Liquid-applied waterproofing materials in conjunction with tiles and flags Polymer-modified cement, waterproofing materials based on polymer dispersions and flexible reaction resins on an epoxy or polyurethane base form the waterproofing layer for a composite system using tiles and flags. This composite is suitable for floors and walls in kitchens, sanitary areas, balconies and foodstuffsprocessing operations depending on the class of use (I-IV). The full bond between waterproofing layer and substrate - partly with cloth inlays to bridge over cracks - plus the overlying thin bed of adhesive for the tiles or flags provides three-fold protection against leaks. Airtightness, draughtproofing

We distinguish between internal and external layers when discussing airtightness and draughtproofing. Some insulating materials must be protected against airilows in order to guarantee the full insulating effect. In some circumstances the sheathing in a roof construction can, for example, protect the insulation against the wind when positioned on the outside of the insulation and provided with overlapping, bonded jOints. However, such layers are not airtigh t and the joints. fixings and junctions requ ired to achieve airtightness mean that it is generally easier to attach an airtight layer to the warm. inner side of the construction. Open to diffusion, resistanllO diffusion Depending on the type of construction, vapour permeability or impermeability is required. According to DIN 4108-3 component layers with a water vapour diffusion equivalent air layer thickness Sd :s:; 0.5 m are regarded as open to diffusion, layers with Sd:2: 1500 mare classed as resistant to diffusion and all values in between as diffusion-retardant. The terms airtight barrier. vapour barrier and vapour check corresponded to these figures.

Film/foil

- polyethylene (PEl - based on polyamide, moistureadaptive - polyvinyl chloride (PVC) - aluminium (AI)

Paper/cardboard

- coated. impregnated

Boards

. gypsum boards w ith filled joints . aluminium-laminated insulation with tongue and groove joints over rafters

Flexible sheeting

• PE cloth-reinforced sheathing. open to diffusion

Cardboard

· bitumen felt

Boards

• wood fibre insulating board (WF) · foamed insulating boards

Plasterirender

Diffusion-retardant layers are used in the majority of cases (timber construction, roofs). Basically, the construction should become more open to diffusion from inside to outside so that outer layers do not hamper the transport of moisture. Vapour checks must be installed airtight. The reverse is also true: airtight barriers can be used simultaneously as a vapour check. depending on the material. Installation In the case of solid external walls a plaster fin ish over the entire internal wall surface achieves adequate airtightness in most instances. In lightweight constructions airtightness is guaranteed by sheeting or boards. The weaknesses in all types of construction can be found at the joints - between different parts of the airtight layer itself and also at junctions with other components; these are often the sources of leaks. This can be avoided by ensuring min. 100 mm laps in the case of sheeting plus addi tional sealing with cloth-reinforced adhesive tape (not carpet or parcel tape!). Cardboard and paper can be used to provide an airtight or draughtproof layer by glueing them, like wallpaper, to inner linings. Next to the rafters they can be stapled or nailed in place, provided a double welt type of joint is formed . Sealing strips, joint sealants and compressible strips can be used to create airtight joints with other components . In addition to sheeting and cardboard, thermal insulation systems are available with a high water vapour diffusion resistance. Used properly, neither vapour barrier nor sheathing is required. But their tongue and groove connections must be glued airtight.

C 2.22 C 2.20 Systematic classification of materia ls for sea ling joints C 2.21 Installing diffusion-retardant sheeting C 2.22 Systematic classification of materials for waterproofing C 2.23 Physical parameters of sea lants C 2.24 Physical parameters of waterproofing materials

Sealant

Linseed oil putty Oil·based putty. mod. Butyl Acrylate Polyurethane Polysulphide Silicone

Type of deformation

Permis sible total deformation (%]

Durability

raj

o plastic plastic plastic/elastic elastic elastic elastic

7.4. In the case of val ues> 7.0, the concentration of organic carbon in the drinking water (TOC valuel may not exceed 1.5 mg / l. If higher concentrations of hydrogen ions occur in the water, copper can dissolve into the water and cause high concentrations in humans. As the water supply companies cannot guaran tee a consistent drinking water quality (in terms of the pH value) over the lifetime of a bui lding 's water system, the use of copper pipes for drinking water supplies is no longer recommended. In the case of existing copper pipework, it may prove necessary to install a water treatment plant w ithin the building in order to regulate the pH value and avoid any health hazards. Copper is a va luable raw material that can be recycled without any problems. Its straightforward, low-cost installation is a further advantage.

Metal pipes

Metal pipes achieve good durability. Despite their thin walls, they are very stable and can withstand some mechanical damage, which simplifies installation. However, their vulnerability to corrosion may need to be taken into account depending on the particular conditions . When adding metal pipes to an existing system, it is essential to ensure that the metal matches that of the existing pipes, or to use a non-metal material because otherwise owing to the different electrochemica l potentials of different metals, galvanic corrosion could occur. Galvanised steel pipes Steel pipes - seamless or welded - are galvanised inside and outside. As cadmium and zinc can dissolve out of the galvanic coating, such pipes should be used for service temperatures of max. 60°C only in order to avoid an unacceptable concentration of metal ions in the drinking water. Galvanised steel p ipes are suitable for drinking water with a neutral to slightly alkaline pH value only; an acidic environment accelerates the dissolution of the zinc coating. Installed properly, galvanised steel pipes are very durable, provided the anti-corrosion coating is not damaged. But the high cost of instal lation restricts the use of these pipes considerably. Stainless steel pipes Like galvanised stee l pipes, stainless steel pipes can be seamless or welded. They are

Lead pipes Lead pipes have been banned for new pipework installations for many decades. In the light of the health hazards. the removal of ali lead pipes must be considered as an urgent priority. Plastic pipes

Owing to their low weight , plastic pipes are easy to work and install, but must be fixed to the structure at closer intervals than metal pipes because they are less rigid. They are not electrica lly conductive and are therefore not susceptible to stray currents The smooth surface of plastic pipes makes them less vulnerable to furring within the crosssection. They have a low flow resistance and cause little noise. They are resistant to chemica ls and can be used for drinking water with any pH value. Non -toxicity and minimal influence on the quality of the water represent further advantages. However, plastic pipes are more vulnerable to mechanical damage than metal pipes and become brittle at low temperatures. Another disadvantage is their considerable thermal expansion, which calls for an appropriate installation in order to avoid irritating noises as the pipes expand and contract. Plastic pipes with plain ends can be glued or welded together. However, this involves health hazards due to the substances used or the va pours given off when the plastic melts. Mechanical fittings (screw or compression

joints) are therefore available and have become well established, also thanks to their durability and reliability. As plastics can form ideal habitats for colonies of bacteria, germicidal metal salts are added to some drinking water pipe materials. There is so far no evidence that such salts influence the quality of the drinking water. Untreated pipes must be impermeable to light and must be laid concealed in order to avoid attracting bacteria. Plastic pipes belong to building materials class B (combustible). They are less durable than metal pipes, but must last at least 50 years in order to obtain build ing authority approval. Pipes of high-densJly polyethylene (PE-HO) High-density polyethylene can be used for cold -water pipework only, and therefore is mainly used for public water mains laid in the soil and for the supply pipes to buildings. PEHD pipes are easy to work. The oxygen in drinking water (average content 3 g i l) can break down the molecular chains of the polymer under certain conditions. This can be prevented by adding an anti-oxidant (e.g. polynuclear phenols). The material 's resistance to ultraviolet light can be improved by adding carbon black, which also dyes the material black. Pipes of cross-linked polyethylene (PE-X) The properties of cross-linked polyethylene are better than those of other polyethylene materials. Cross-linked polyethylene has an enhanced impact resistance and better permiSS ible bending. tensile and compressive strengths. As the long-time creep rupture strength of this material is also higher, it is used for pipes that must satisfy particularly demanding bending requirements. PE-X is thermally stable and can be used for hot- or cold-water systems. Polyethylene pipes are also available as pipe in-pipe systems. Here. the pipe (PE-XI carrying the water is installed in a corrugated protective pipe made from PE-HD, which can be supplied fully insulated for hot-water lines. Pipes of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) PVC is a highly advanced synthetic material with almost ideal technical properties, but is still problematic from the ecological and fire viewpoints . This plastic is mainly used in the form of post-chlorinated PVC-C when required for drinking water pipes. The material is stable up to 100°C and therefore may be used for both cold- and hot-water pipes. Unplasticised PVC (PVC-UI contains no plasticisers. It is suitable for temperatures of max. 45°C and is therefore used for waste water only. Pipes of polypropylene (PP) In pipework polypropylene is mainly used in the form of random copolymer PP-R. The properties of this material are very similar to those of polyethylene. but PP-R can withstand higher temperatures and is therefore also suitable for hot-water systems. It IS harder than polyethy-

147

Building services

lene and is primarily used for supply pipes and distribution pipework.

nected with fittings made from metal, PPSU or PVDF.

polishing, electroplating (e.g. chromium) or powder coating .

Composite pipes

Fittings

These are multi-layer pipes whose layers are permanently bonded together. The inner lining carrying the water can be made from various plastics (PE-HD, PE-X, PB, PP) . This lining is embedded in a stabilising, welded aluminium pipe which is in turn encased in a protective layer of plastic (PE-X, PB, PP). Such pipes unite the advantages of plastic and metal pipes. The plastic inside and outside is not vulnerab le to corrosion or furring and is resistant to chemicals . Aluminium is resistant to diffusion and ensures good dimensional stability and low thermal expansion . Such pipes are low in weight and easy to install because they are very stable but at the same time flexible.

Valves, meters etc . for water consist mainly of metal parts. However, plastics such as PP are often used for some of the mechan ical parts inside, plus seals made from EPDM etc. The quantity of these materials is so low that it has no noticeable influence on the quality of the drinking water. Ceramics are being used and more and more for the seals in fittings because ceramics do not affect the drinking water in any way and are more durable than synthetic materials.

Gunmetal fittings Like brass, gunmetal is an alloy of copper, tin (max. 11 %), zinc (max. 9%). lead (max. 7%) and nickel (max. 2.5%) . Gunmetal components can produced by casting only. They therefore have a rough surface, possibly exhibiting seg regation, shrinkage and pores. Such defects can lead to failures in the case of mechanical loading, excessive noise and leaks. Gunmetal is primarily used for larger fittings. Gunmetal and brass can be installed with metal pipes without fear of galvanic corrosion. These valuable alloys are readily recycled.

Joint fitting s for plastic pipes

The connectors for plastic pipes can be made from metal, PP-R, PVC-C, polysulphone (PPSU) or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). Generally, pipes of PP-R, PB and PVC -C require couplings made from the same material as the pipe. PE-X and composite pipes can be con-

Materials for drinking water systems

Abbreviation

Brass fittings Brass is suitable for high mechanical loads and may be used (according to the 2001 Drinking Water Act) for drinking water fittings provided it contains no more than 3% lead in addition to copper and zinc . Pressed or forged components are better than cast ones because of their dense, homogeneous structure. The surfaces of brass components can be ground very smooth, which reduces flow resistance and noise, and also permits furthe r

Applications

Installation in .. ,

Type of joint

]i u

g

Technical rules

;;'" c

'0

Weight d - 20mm

Coefficient of thermal expansion

Durability 7

(-J

{kg/ mJ

{mm/ mKJ

(aJ

c .~ w

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'0

W

W '0

~ u

Aecyclab- Building ility materials class 9

'0

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Q.Q),tu

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6w

I.

·

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6,5 - 9.5

0.7

0.Q118

80 - 100

·

A1

Fe (Zn)

· ·

.'

·

· .' . . .

7.0-8.0

1.5

0.0118

40-60

·

A1

Cu

· ·

·

·· ·

> 7.4 6

0 ,59

0.0166

40-60

·

A1

PVC-C

· ·

· ··

6.5-9.5

0.33

0.07-0.08

70-90

0

81

6.5 - 9.5

0.25

0.2

70 - 90

0

82 •

6.5-9.5

0.17

0.2

40-60

0

82 •

6.5 - 9,5

0.45

0.12

60-80

0

82 '

6.5-95

0.2-0.5

0.025-0.03 40-60

-

82 •

V2A/V4A

D

0.0 w u

w

. .

· · . · · ·· · · · ··

PE-X PE-HD

· ·

pp

· ··

- f-

Composites composite pipe DVGWW542

pH-range

II

Plastics post-chlorinated polyvinyl chloride DIN 8079; DIN 8080 cross-linked polyethylene DIN 16892; DIN 16893; DVGW W 544 unplastlcised polyethylene DIN 19533; DIN 8074; DIN 8075; DVGW W 320 polypropylene DIN 8077; DIN 8078; DVGW W 544; DIN 8078; DVGW W 544

Chromium plating Fittings, joints, etc. can be given a plating of chromium, especially if they are to remain visible. Chromium plating provides excellent protection

1] Metals stainless steel DIN 2463; DVGW W 541; DIN EN ISO 1127; DIN 17455; DIN 17456 steel, hot-dip galvanised 3,' DIN 2440; DIN 2441; DIN 2460; DIN EN 10255; DIN EN 10240; DIN EN 10220 copper DIN EN 1057; DVGW GW 392; DVGW W 544

5

Stainless steel fittings Fittings in sanitary areas can also be manufactured from stainless steel; but due to the costly machining processes, they are more expensive than fittings made from copper-zinc alloys.

PE-X/AI/PE-X PE-HD/AII

· ·

· -

· · ···

-

PE-X/PP/A~ ~

Only with additional anti-corrosion coating. plastic pipes screw. compression and clamped connections are carried out with special fittings to DVGW W 534 3 Zinc coating to DIN 50930-6; possibly also with additional anti-corrosion coatings of bitumen or synthetic materials to DIN 2445 . • Do not install downstream of copper components. 5 Pipe threads must comply with DIN 2999-1. ~ May only be used with pH value:2 7.4, or for pH value 7.0-7.4 and TOC value ~ 1.5 mg/L 7The durability of pipework depends less on the material and far more on the workmanship during installation. BClass B 1 (not readily flammable) can only be achieved with a flame retardant. g Owing to the still inadequate testing guidelines for pipework to DIN EN 13501 -1. the DIN 4102 classification is still used. 1

2 On

148

C3.2

Build ing services

Waste-water systems

Waste-water pipes must be suitable for a water temperature of max. 95°C when laid within buildings or max. 45°C when laid in the ground, and must remain permanently gastight and watertight at an overpressure of 0.5 bar. The internal walls of the pipes plus the joints and transitions should not promote deposits, furring and clogging. Although plastic pipes are easier to lay owing to their low weight, the poor sound insulation of such pipes must be considered when laying them inside buildings.

Ductile cast iron is preferred for pipes because its production leads to a more stable, more flexible and also more corrosion -resistant prod uct than the grey cast iron used in the past. Normally supplied in the form of spigot-andsocket pipes, they can also be obtained with plain ends for laying with coupling sleeves. The seals are made from EPDM, chloroprene rub-

Stoneware pipes are ceramic products which are glazed on the inside and usually on the outside as well. This suriace treatment makes them extremely resistant to all the constituents found in waste water. Stoneware pipes are

Technical rules

Abbreviation

Applications waste-water pipes

Type of joint

building drains

0;

, ID U C

15. 0. ~

STZ

DIN 1230; DIN EN 295 Metals ductile cast Iron GGG DIN 19522 Fe steel. hot-d ip galvanised DIN 19530; DIN 2440; DIN 2448 Zn zinc sheet DIN 18461 , DIN EN 612 copper sheet Cu DIN 18461 ; DIN EN 6 12 Fe (ZN) steel sheet. hot-dip galvanised DIN 18461: DIN EN 612: DIN 2440; DIN 2458 aluminium sheet AI DIN 18461; DIN EN 612 Plastics unplaslicised polyvinyl chloride DIN V 19534 post-chlorinated polyvinyl chloride DIN 19538 unplasticised polyethylene DIN 19535 DIN 19537 polypropylene DIN V 19560

PVC-U

PVC-C PE-HD pp

u 0

ID ID

0.

'ii

il

ID

'ii

ii C ID >

0

0.

u

~

ID

~

0>

c ~ S

D

•

0>

."



0

u

~ E

•

-1

I

Gla" and metal

---1

glass mosaic tiles I

--1

laminated glass

~ ~:sedSheet metal etc. -1

• Class 1 covers the so-called antistatic floor coverings; i.e. the charge that builds up in persons walking across such floors is max. 2.0 kV. This is the specification for all rooms with electronic equipment (also residential accommodation) . • Class 2 is necessary to prevent damage in rooms with sensitive equipment. Suitable floor coverings are designated as conductive. • Class 3 is achieved by the especially conductive floor coverings essential for safety reasons in operating theatres, research establishments and production facilities (protection for persons and equipment, explosion protection) .

"c

'"

Laminated floor coverings

OSB

plywood laminated flooring

rubber cork rubber linoleum leather

Made from natural materials

> 0 u

In practice it is vital to ensure that the floor coverings are attached to conductive undercoats with suitable adhesives. Copper strips incorporated in the floor (and connected to a suitable earthing system) guarantee that any voltages that may build up can be discharged safely.

I

~woodlam .

-1

y

open mesh floor

floorboards wood -block fir. end-grain woodblk. parquet squares

Wood and woodbased products

-

.~

Non-slip properties Germany's employers' liability insurance assoc iations specify minimum requirements for floor coverings for safety reasons (publication BGR 181) . The parameters for this are the surface texture (classes R9-RI3) and the liquid displacement factor (classes V2 - V10) .

H mastic asphalt H

Electrostatic behaviour Electrical charges can accumulate in a person as he or she walks across an insulating floor covering, and these can lead to unpleasant discharges upon touching earthed metal objects such as door handles, safety barriers, even computers. Humidity, footwear material and clothes influence this process. Sensitive electronic equipment can be damaged by the ensuing high voltages. DIN 54346 divides floor coverings into three classes according to their electrostatic properties

Usage The suitability of floor coverings for certain uses are regulated by hygiene, industrial safety (non-slip), electrical conductivity and many other aspects.

H. flooring cement I

Finished subfloors

-

clay brk. agg. scd.1

~ C

.~

Made from synthetic materials

'a5 a:

•

-

"'"c 'iB

I--

Natural fibres

~

Y

8u

wool hair

~ ~

x ~

>-

'-------

sisal coconut jute seaweed bulrushes raffia cotton

-

Synthetic fibres

-

I

acrylic nylon polyester polypropylene polyamide C 6.7

175

Floors

For example, floor coverings in industrial kitchens must comply with the requirements of R13 and V4: class R13 means that a suriace inclined at an angle:> 35 0 is not slippery for persons under normal conditions, and V4 means that a volume of liquid equal to 4 cm 3/dm 2 can be accommodated by the suriace structure without forming a continuous film of mOisture. There are three classes (A-C) for barefoot areas (e.g. swimming pools); class C is the highest safety standard. Chair castors Product data sheets on floor coverings always contain details of the product's suitability for chair castors in offices. The castor and floor covering materials must be compatible. Castor type W is soft and therefore suitable for hard floor coverings, whereas type H is hard and better for soft floor coverings. Interior climate Floor coverings can have a serious influence on the interior climate . The materials and adhesives plus cleaning and care products must be chosen carefully in order to rule out - as far as possible - any risk of hazardous substances. Sustainabifity Floor coverings are subject to high mechanical loads. Accordingly, wearing characteristics playa key role in their selection . There is a DIN classification for contract ratings for various groups of coverings (fig . C 6.20). Floor coverings should not change colour when exposed to direct sunlight. Changes in the material structure due to mechanical loads and moisture or temperature fluctuations can cause fissures (wood -block flooring) or tension cracks. Owing to the necessity of regular care over the entire lifetime of a floor covering, the cost of upkeep of some floor finishes is higher than the capital outlay.

Hard floor coverings Natural and reconstituted stone, ceramics, glass, metal, wood and WOOd-based products make up the group of hard floor coverings. The large range of man-made ti les and flags can be differentiated according to the binder used: cement, synthetic resin, bitumen and clay (ceramics). Flags and tiles made from materials with a minerai binder can be laid in a 15-20 mm mortar bed (thick-bed method) when used as a floor covering. There should be no excess moisture in the underlying components because this in combination with the alkaline mortar can dissolve some constituents in stone and cause unattractive discoloration. When using the thinbed laying method, the flags and tiles used must exhibit better dimensional stability and the substrate must be more accurate, which is usually achieved with a levelling layer. This method is also suitable for laying flooring-grade boards. The choice of mortar or tile adhesive depends on the use of the area, the substrate and the loads anticipated. Joints The grouting of joints between stone or ceramic flags and tiles with a fine cement mortar should not be carried out too soon; a drying time of 714 days should be allowed for . Some types of stone susceptible to discoloration require a rapid -hardening mortar. The size, pattern and direction of joints are criti cal for the final appearance of a hard floor covering . A plan that also takes into account the junctions with vertical components is vital, especially for non-orthogonal layouts. Natural stone

The variety of different types of stone available is enormous. As they can exhibit different textures and colours depending on their origin, even though their composition is identical, stone types are often marketed with particular product names, which complicates any review.

Properties Owing to their good wearing resistance , stone floor coverings are always first choice if. despite heavy loads, a long service life can be anticipated to offset their high cost. The suriace treatment, which influences abrasion and nonslip characteristics, is very important (figs C 6 .9a and b). The spectrum ranges from porous stone types with rough surfaces (e.g. sandstone) to smooth. polished marble or granite . The suitabil ity of a type of stone and its surface treatment for a certain application must be verified by standardised (DIN) test certificates. Sedimentary rocks with porous, unsealed surfaces are vulnerab le to fluids such as fats, wine, etc . And acidic substances (e.g . vinegar) can cause chemical reactions that lead to discoloration . It is advisable to request the appropriate test certificates. Some types of stone such as quartzite, sandstone and gneiss have high a coefficient of thermal expansion. All types of natural stone belong to building materials class A1 (incombustible). Stone floor coverings are perceived as cold underioot. Owing to their high thermal conductivity and heat storage capacity, stone is a good choice in conjunction with underiloor heating. Stone floor coverings without an insulating layer make no contribution to impact sound insulation. Planning advice Thin (approx. 10 mm) stone tiles ground flat can be laid like ceramic tiles in a thin bed of adhesive. However, flags 20-50 mm thick in formats up to 300 x 600 mm are more common, and these require a mortar bed . The low tensile strength of stone means that the thickness increases with the plan size. As the production of larger formats results in more wastage, the costs increase disproportionately. Cement mortar plus quartz sand is used for filling the joints. The colour of the joints can be matched to that of the stone floor covering by mixing in stone dust or pigments. Some cleaning products attack some of the

-

-

-

C 6.8

C 6.9

a

b

c

d

C 6.8

176

Tile and flag layouts (examples) a crazy paving b random stretcher pattern c alternating grid and stretcher pattern d grid pattern Examples of hard floor coverings a natural stone (coarse) b natural stone (fine. dressed) c reconstituted stone d stone with synthetic resin binder e mastic asphalt tiles f engineering bricks g ceramic tiles h glass mosaic tiles

Floors

constituents in stone (e.g. lime). It is therefore essential to follow the recommendations of the suppliers. Special attention must be paid to a stone's chemical resistance to acids and dissolved salts when the stone is being used for external and entrance zones. Flags and pavers with a cement binder

Precasting plants fabricate flags and pavers (reconstitu ted stone) from large blocks, which are then sawn and ground after curing (fig. C 6.9c). Cement is used as the binder. The great variety of products is due to the large selection of aggregates avai lable, e.g. stone, gravel, pigments, glass, etc. The improper use of glass aggregates has led to prob lems in the past. Besides the so-called single layer method, twolayer elements can be manufactured by pressing, and this permits the use of a surface finish with a more expensive aggregate. Surface treatments and properties are similar to those of concrete, or rather the aggregates. The standard formats are 250 x 250 x 22 mm, 300 x 300 x 27 mm and 500 x 500 x 50 mm; larger. custom formats are also possible. These flags and pavers are usually laid in a thick bed of mortar. They represent a less expensive alternative to natural stone products and are also suitable for use in conjunction with underfloor heating. Flags with a synthetic re sin binder

These products are made from synthetic resins and a stone granulate. The 15-20 mm thick flags are cut from large blocks of cured material and the top surface is polished afterwards. They are similar in appearance to the reconstituted stone flags, some even look remarkably like natural stone (especially the conglomerate rocks) (fig. C 6.9d). The properties of the binder enable thinner flags to be produced than with reconstituted stone. Large formats up to 1800 x 3800 mm are available, but also specially formed components for washing areas etc. The surface is less hardwearing than comparable natural stone. Most of these products are not frost-resistant and belong to building materials class B1 (not readily flammable). These represent a less expensive alternative to natural stone products and have almost identical properties, but a lower chemical resistance to acids, stain removers and similar products. Tiles with a bitumen binder

Mastic asphalt tiles are available in similar formats to tiles made with a cement binder. The mixing ratios can be adjusted so that the prop erties are similar to those of a mastic aspha lt floor (see p. 173). The range on offe r includes three types of pressed asphalt tiles: standard, mineral oils- and acid-resistant, and terrazzo asphalt tiles, which combine the properties of reconstituted stone and mastic asphalt. Owing to their good resistance to chemical effects, mineral oils, facts, petrol, etc., mastic asphalt tiles are especially suitable for trade fair and

industrial buildings. A mastic asphalt floor covering requires protection against rising damp. They are weather- and frost-resistant (fig. C 6.ge). Ceramic products

The group of ceramic floor coverings includes stoneware and earthenware products, ceramic split-face blocks, engineering bricks (fig. C 6.9f) and brick slips. Fine ceramic tiles The standard sizes are 100 x 100 mm to 300 x 900 mm, but larger, custom sizes are also possible, as well as stoneware and glass products as small as 10 x 10 mm. The non -slip characteristics of earthenware products are only limited, and they are not frost-resistant. Stoneware products, on the other hand, have a denser body (i.e. clay product without glaze), which even without a glaze are also suitable as floor coverings. Glazes are divided into four wearing groups. However, grains of sand adhering to the sales of shoes can scratch all glazed surfaces, which is why they are not suitable for heavily trafficked areas. Coarse ceramic floor coverings Split-face blocks are produced by extrusion. The standard formats are 240 x 115 mm and 194 x 94 mm. Split-face slips are narrower, e.g. 240 x 52 mm or 240 x 73 mm. Engineering bricks for floors are manufactured by pressing. Besides square formats based on the 300 mm module, there are also many products that do not correspond to the modular dimensions. Properties and planning advice Ceramic floor coverings are very hardwearing and long-lasting. They are incombustible (building materials class A1), thermally stable, exhibit a good heat storage capacity and do not rot. Frost-resistant products must be selected for external applications. Both the thick- and thin-bed methods of laying can be used. Ceramic floor finishes are also ideal for use in conjunction with underfloor heating. Design options Besides the surface finish of the tile itself. the network of joints presents another significant design option. A plan of the tile layout should be produced in order to coord inate layout, cutting and fixtures, and to help avoid awkward small cuts, which are a disadvantage both visually and technically. The tiles can be laid in diagonal or orthogonal patterns, with contrasting strips, edges, arrangements and many more ideas. Individual designs and patterns are possible with little effort.

h

C 6.9

177

Floors

-

-

I

a

b

Floor coverings of wood and wood-based products Wooden floorboards were the principal covering to timber joist floors until well into the 20th century. The softwoods used in most cases are less hardwearing than hardwoods with their very durable surfaces. All wooden floors feel warm underfoot, exhibit good hygiene properties and require little maintenance. For details of the advantages of this renewable raw material, please refer to "Wood and woodbased products", p. 75. Design options

Owing to the multitude of possibilities, wooden floor coverings can create a vast range of different interior atmospheres. Species of wood, formats, method of laying and surface treatment are the parameters that affect the appearance of a wooden floor. Species of wood The appearance of the floor covering is essentially determined by the species of wood (see "Wood and wood-based products", p. 69). When choosing wood for parquet flooring, for instance, it is the texture or grain that is critical. For example, the term "exquisite" in oak parquet flooring describes equivalent pieces of wood that have been very carefully selected, whereas "rustic" can conta in vigorous colour variations, and "standard" lies somewhere between the two. Samples shou ld be requested to illustrate the difference in the overall appearance of a floor covering . Origin From the ecological viewpoint, indigenous species should be preferred over exotic varieties. The FSC (Forest Stewardship Council) certifi cate - also available for products from overseas - guarantees that the rules of sustainable forestry are upheld. Formats Wooden floor coverings can be divided into the following groups depending on the proportion of solid timber and the sizes of the components:

178

c

T T

r

j I

d

· floorboards • wood-block flooring • mosaic parquet · real wood parquet laminate · end-grain wood-block flooring Laminated floors do not include any solid timber and are therefore dealt with on p . 179.

Floorboards Floorboards are cut from solid timber and are usually laid in lengths to match the width of the room. Lengths up to 6 m and widths up to 350 mm are available (fig . C 6.t2a). When laying on battens and strips of insulation, a screed is not essential. Floorboards are not the same as the so-called rustic -look floorboards available these days, which are made from a multilayer wood-based product and therefore fall into the category of real wood parquet laminate (see below). Solid wood-block ffooring Solid wood-block flooring is max. 22 mm thick and available in squares or separate blocks. The blocks have a groove on all sides into which loose tongues are glued to join the strips to form a complete floor. Some versions are available with alternating tongue and groove jOints. The squares (or "til es") are blocks supplied already glued together into larger formats, up to 1 x 1 m depending on the planned pattern. Different species of wood can be combined within the squares to form complex patterns (figs C 6 .1 2c and d). Wood -block flooring is glued to flat substrates over its full area; but on a floating subfloor of timber or wood-based products, the flooring is secret-nailed in the joints. The laying options are almost endless: ship's deck, brick half-bond, straight basket and diagonal basket form orthogona l patterns. The dimensional tolerances of building components can lead to acute-angled cuts with these floor finishes . Herringbone, double herringbone and chevron patterns are laid at an angle of 450 to the enclosing walls . The patterns used with wood-block squares include Bordeaux, Monti-

e

C6.10

cello and Versailles with and without borders and/or tramlines.

10 mm solid wood-black flooring The thinner material is an alternative to solid wood-block flooring and is suitable for refurbishment work or as a substitute for floor coverings of similar thickness (ceramic tiles). A fab ric or paper mesh backing holds together the 10 mm thick blocks to ease the full-bond gluing to the substrate. The finished floor cannot be d istinguished from standard wood-block flooring. Mosaic parquet. block-an-edge parquet Smaller blocks of wood 8 mm thick correspond in principle to the 10 mm solid wood-block flooring. The length of the blocks is limited to max. 165 mm. The squares supplied on a paper mesh backing consist of, for example, four bays each comprising five blocks, which form the characteristic basket weave of five-finger pattern. Block-an-edge parquet is very hardwearing and consists of a mosaic of blocks on edge to form a wearing course 1824 mm thick (figs C 6. t 2 e and f).

Real wood parquet laminate flooring In order to avoid shrinkage of the wood and open joints in the flooring, multi-layer assemblies - mostly three cross-banded plies - of wood -block flooring are ava ilable. Both ind ivid ual blocks and also larger elements (to simplify

Floors

Wooden flooring format C 6.10 Examples of wood-block flooring a sh ip's deck b brick half-bond c herringbone d square basket e diagonal basket f parquet floor squares C 6.11 Oimensions of wooden floor coverings C 6.12 Types of parquet flooring a ship's deck b herringbone c parquet floor squares d marquetry parquet e mosaic parquet. square basket pattern f mosaic parquet, parallel pattern 9 end-grain wood -block h bamboo parquet, ship's deck pattern

Thickness of wearing course [mm]

Floorboards (solid) wood-block flooring

Thickness of material [mm]

Visible format, max. [mm]

15.5- 40

up to 6000 x 175

14-22

14-22

up to 600 x 80

mosaic parquet

8

8

upl0165x25

10 mm solid wood-block flooring

10

10

n,a.

block-an-edge parquet

18- 24

18- 24

end-grain wood -block flooring

22 - 60

22 - 60

130-160x8 138 x 69

real wood parquet laminate flooring

3-8

7-26

650x50.300-1200x60

rustic-look floorboards

3-8

7-26

up to 3000

oriented strand board

10-12

10-12

2500 x 1250

1500 ~m

water vapour diffusion (V) : low, moderate, high,'; 1510 > 150 g/m2 d water permeability (W): low, moderate, high crack-bridging (AI: 0 to > 2500 ~m carbon dioxide permeability (C) The above parameters enable us to assess whether a given coating material is suitable for a given substrate. This is made clear by taking some parameters as an example.

Water vapour diffusion

M

The V-value in g/m 2d (also known as the rate of evaporation) specifies how much water vapour diffuses through 1 m2 of coating in 24 hours at 23'C. The higher the V-value, the better is the water vapour diffusion, i.e. the V-value measures the rate at which the substrate dries out through the coating system. This is noticeably slower than the capillary water absorption. The coating is a good moisture regulator when the building components can dry out. Water permeability (W)

Carbon dioxide permeability (C) [Sd COJ

Carbon dioxide neutralises the anti-corrosive alkaline environment of the steel reinforcement in concrete. If the carbon dioxide permeability of the coating is low (the sd-value [C0 2 ] high), it helps to prevent carbonation. Manufacturers' data sheets must include the above parameters. All statements regarding

196

Wet-scrub resistance

One of the features specified in EN 13300 , which covers water-based coating materials for internal walls and soffits, is the wet-scrub resistance, which it divides into five classes; class 1 materials have the best resistance to wet scrubbing. This standard replaces DIN 53778 in which the washing or scrubbing resistance was defined.

Dry coat thickness (E) [lJrnJ

The coat thicknesses and surface textures are based on the manufacturer's information and depend on the method of application. They can influence the building performance properties because in some cases the diffusion resistance increases with the thickness of the coat.

The W-value specifies how much water penetrates through 1 m2 of coating during 24 hours of rainfall (e.g. on a facade). The unit of measurement kg/m 2hOS means that with a W-value of 1.0, the substrate absorbs approx. 5 I of water, and when W = 0 .1, only 1110 of this. Good coatings have low W-values, i.e. they allow very little water to pass through to the substrate,

C 7.25

quality that specify only tendencies must be verified with figures,

Application Prior to applying a coating it is essential to assess the state of the substrate. Further measures and the choice of coating system depend on the outcome of this assessment. Inspection of the substrate reveals whether the strength is adequate, and whether cracking, areas with large pores, rust or old, poorly adhering coatings are present. Constructional deficiencies and excessive moisture in the substrate can render a coating ineffective. Preparing the substrate

The substrate must be properly prepared in order to reach a condition that is suitable for the intended coating, The following methods remove the surface of the substrate: flame cleaning, high-pressure water jets, milling, compressed-air jets, shot peening, wet blasting, also brushing and grinding. The chemical treatments include washing with acids and wetting agents, which are subsequently rinsed off and neutralised. Industrially manufactured steel and plastic semi-finished goods are sometimes provided with a coating that must first be removed, likewise the layer of scale that forms on lime plasters. The debris must be separated from any blasting media used and disposed of properly. Once the surface has been prepared, it may be necessary to apply a primer to enhance the bond with the subsequent coating and/or to create a firm surface.

Surfaces and coatings

Methods of application

Coatings are applied manually - both in the factory and on a building site - in the liquid state with brushes, rollers, sponges, or by pouring. Spraying equipment - compressed-air or airless spray guns - improves the uniformity of the coating th ickness and avoids the characteristic surface textures of the other forms of application. The position of the building component plays an important role; when applied to a vertical surface, the viscosity of the coating material must be higher than for a horizontal surface. Besides the manual methods, there are also industrial methods in use, such as spraying in enclosed booths with extraction systems, which prevent operatives being exposed to excessive amounts of solvent (e.g. in the automotive industry) . Powder coating involves applying an electric current to the component and covering with a solvent-free coating material (fig. C 7.24) . In the duplex method metal parts are initially hot-dip galvanised and then coated afterwards. For radiators, for example, this then avoids the need for painting on site. The duplex method improves the quality and avoids solvent emissions.

Coating materials for specific substrates Iro n, steel

Atmospheric corrosion is a reaction between iron (Fe) and oxygen (0,) in the presence of water, and forms iron oxide (FeZ0 3 )) . Airborne pollutants or salts (e.g. at the coast) accelerate the rusting process. Coating is the most common way of protecting steel surfaces. Although polymer substances form a dense film, water and oxygen can still defuse through them; therefore, more elaborate measures such as galvanising or chemical passivation are necessary. All the methods require ca reful planning to avoid crevices and joints in the building component, to provide rounded edges and welded seams, and to exclude galvanic corrosion due to contact with other metals. Chemical passivation

Chemical passivation is provided by the primer because only this has direct contact with the steel. Here, zinc dust is the rustproof pigment used as a sacrificial anode (with a cathode effect) . As zinc is lower down the electrochemica l series than steel, an electrochemical neutralisation takes place so that there is no reaction between the steel and its environment. Zinc phosphate pigments have a passivating effect. Environmentally hazardous rustproofing pigments such as red lead are prohibited in Germany. Binders such as epoxy, acrylic and alkyd resins dispersed in water or dissolved in solvents, also polyurethane and chlorinated rubber, form the protective film. Undercoat and finish coat prevent corrosion stimulators from reaching the

primer and the steel surface. The dry coating thickness of the total system vanes from 160 to 320 ~m depending on the corrosion load 9iven in DI N EN ISO 12944 (e1 insignificant to C5 very severe) . Galvanising

The thickness of the protective layer of zinc varies depending on the form of galvanising, and decreases over the years as the zinc corrodes. The durability depends on 1he aggressiveness of the local conditions. We distinguish between three types of galvanising: Hot-dip galvanising is carried out in a bath of zinc heated to approx. 450°C into which the object to be gaJvanised is briefly immersed; this form of coating is the most durable and can be up to 100 ~m thick. Strip galvanising with subsequent polymer finish coat (coil coating) is used for many semi -finished sheet steel products. Electrogalvanising is based on the electrochemical deposition on the component of the dissolved zinc in the form of ions. After removing the layer of oxide caused by the manufacturing process, the duplex system enables an additional polymer finish coat to be applied which increases the service life of the galvanised component. Suitable coatings are physically drying binders based on acrylic resin or two-part products based on epoxy and polyurethane resins . Wood and wood-based products

Wooden windows and doors are dimensionally stable components made from carefully selected timber. Loadbearing assembl ies, external wa ll claddings and formwork are not dimensionally stable and may develop shrinkage cracks and undergo distortion, and this may affect any coatings applied beforehand . Impregnation with preservative, which penetrates deep into the substrate, prevents water absorption by capillary action . Passive preservation

The priority for externa l applications lies with passive timber protection measures. The species of wood, the moistu re content during installation, overhanging eaves, venti lation on all sides, covering of horizontal surfaces exposed to the weathe r, adequate clearance between timber and soil, and the avoidance of ponding all help to increase the durabi lity of timber components. However, such passive measures cannot prevent insect attack. Untreated timber exposed to the weather will gradually take on a grey colour owing to the effects of ultraviolet radiation and the recurring cycle of wetting and drying . If the component is essentially protected against rain, it will not suffer, merely show its age and assume its grey patina.

C 7.24 Systematic classification of coating applicallOn techniques based on DIN 8580 C 7.25 Powder-coated, high-gloss. curved metal surface C 7.26 Timber coating containing gold pigmen\. "Totenstube", Vrin, Switzerland, 2002, Gion Caminada C 7.27 Concrete facade treated With hydrophobiC coating, factory, Ebermannsdori, Germany, 2003, Francoise-He lene Jourda C 7.28 Lime coating popular in Mediterranean countries

197

Surfaces and coatings

Chemical preservation When treating timber with chemical preservatives we distinguish between penetration of several centimetres, penetration of just a few millimetres, and a surface coating. Pressure impregnation, thermal impregnation and immersion methods are available for the first two forms . A surface coating usually takes the form of a primer (for enhancing bond and reducing absorbency), an undercoat and a finish coat. AI! edges and corners of timber components should be chamfered so that the coating material has the chance to form a uniform film here, too.

Water-based coating materials with an acrylic resin binder are suitable for this form of surface protection. However, their thermoplastic prop erties increase the maintenance requirements. Alkyd resins are easier to renovate, but requi re more careful application. The following rules of thumb are valid for the maintenance intervals of coatings on timber: Opaque coatings prevent the photo-oxidation of lignin in the timber better than glaze coats. Dark colours contribute to a greater temperature rise in the timber and hence greater expansion. Hydrophobic coatings prevent rapid alterations of the timber's moisture content. Wood-based products require diffusion-proof edge trims in order to prevent swelling or delamination of the individual plies.

Coatings for facades of masonry, concrete and render are divided into water-based systems (based on lime, silicate or silicone resin binders and polymer dispersions) and solvent-based systems (based on polymer resin). Plasterwork

Plasters and rende rs rich in lime (MG P I) set very slowly by absorbing carbon dioxide. Coatings based on silicate or silicone resin , which are open to diffusion, assist this process. Polymer dispersions are also possible with MG P II and III mixes. Two-part silicate coatings are not suitable for gypsum plasters of group MG P IV because the silicification reaction of the coating material cannot take place with this type of substrate. Concrete

Good-quality reinforced concrete components exposed to the weather require little protection because the abrasion resistance and vapourtightness of the concrete increases with its compressive strength. The alkaline environment of the concrete protects the steel reinforcement against corrosion. Acids from the surroundings, which in an aqueous or gaseous state can infiltrate concretes of lower quality, reduce the pH value and cancel out the protective effect (carbonat ion). Fine cracks in the tension zones of reinforced concrete components offer additional opportuni ties for such substances to infiltrate. In order to prevent carbonation and to bridge over any cracks , new concrete can be coa ted with acrylic resin , bitumen

or epoxy resin, all of which adhere excellently to the concrete. Later, during refurbishment of the concrete, there is the opportunity to apply hydrophobic impregnation treatments based on silicone resin - provided the pore structure of the concrete permits some penetration. Systems based on acrylic resin or copolymers can be used as opaque coatings or glaze coats for decorative purposes. Aluminium

Owing to the ir low weight and good durability, aluminium components are used in many areas of building, e.g. facades, windows, cladding. Untreated aluminium is not sensitive to moisture or the oxygen in the air because it quickly forms a dense coating of protective oxide. Anodic oxidation in the factory creates a more uniform and stronger layer of oxide compared to uncontrolled (i.e. natural) oxidation, the col ~ our of which can also be influenced. This socalled anodising enables the aluminium to glisten in metallic colours ranging from silver to dark bronze. As a rule, the aluminium then requ ires no further surface treatment. However, this is advisable during refurbishment work. But there may also be architectural reasons for giving aluminium a further transparent or opaque coating. To do this, a powder coating based on polyurethane resin is applied to the anodised aluminium at the factory. The necessary adhesion for the coating must be achieved through roughening the surface by means of dry blast~ ing with a fine, solid blasting medium, or by grinding, rinsing and cleaning with a solvent.

Coating thickness and degree of pigmentation are crucial parameters for the durability - pig ments, for example, absorb ultraviolet radiation. The constituents of wood and its hygroscopic behaviour, wh ich varies with the species, can also influence the durability of a coating. Basically, less durable species of wood require maintenance at more frequent intervals. Internal timber components not subject to any severe loads do not require any chemical preservatives. Mineral substrates

Mineral substrates are divided into mineral plasters/renders to DI N V 18550 and other plasters/renders, calcium silicate, ceramic materials, natural stone, concrete, aerated concrete and cement-bonded or gypsum -bonded boards. In the case of materials with a mineral binder, we distinguish hydraulic (lime) and eminently hydraulic (cement) binders from non-hydraulic binders (high-calcium lime, gypsum). The different setting processes and the building performance properties of the materials determine the coating system.

C 7.29 Different degrees of glass finish and substrates, Van Royen Apartment, London, UK, 1986, John Pawson C 7.30 Parameters and possible applications (typical values) of coating materials C 7.29

198

Surfaces and coatings

Two or three coord inated coats guarantee protection. The primer forms a film and consists of materials based on acrylic, polymer or alkyd resi n. Undercoat and fi nish coat can contain the same binder. Epoxy resin is used for more demanding situations. Polyurethane resins ensure very good protection against chemicals and weathering. Synthetic materials

SynthetiC materials require surface protection only in exceptiona l circumstances, e.g. in the case of low light-fastness, or to improve the chemica ls and weathering resistance. However, plastic components are frequently coated for reasons of appearance. Owing to the variety of products on the market, on the building site it is often very difficult to establish which type of plastic is involved, but the cho ice of coating system depends prec isely on this factor. It is difficult to coat synthetic materials because their smooth, dense surfaces exhibit no polarity, which means that adequate adhesion between prime r and substra te is lacking. In addition, electrostatic charges attract dust, and release agents from the production and migration of auxiliary substances prevent a permanent coating. For these reasons, preparation of the substrate is critical, and this is basically only possible in an industrial environment. The three coats consist of a two-part primer based on polyurethane plus undercoat and finish coat of two-part acrylic or polymer resins. The high coefficient of thermal expansion of synthetic materials normally call for light colours

Coating material according to binder

Contains solvents?

Water vapour diffusion resistance

time. Once provided with an approved fireresistant coating, internal wood and woodbased products can be classed as not readily flammable (61) instead of flammable (62). The fire res istance class of load bearing internal and external steel components can be improved from F30 to F60 according to DIN 4102-2.

because otherwise the components distort too severely.

Coatings for special purposes New technologies enable the production of complex coating materials for satisfying special tasks . The important thing here is that the complete system from substrate to finish coat must be considered as a whole in order to avoid just one desirable quality causing innumerable building performance problems.

Water-repellent coatings

Generally, the surfaces of bui lding materials are hydrophiliC with respect to water, i.e. they attract water, depending on the contact angle of the water with respect to the building material. Where this is < 90°, the liquid is absorbed by capillary action. Hydrophobic (water-repellent) substances applied to the surface of the building material themselves seep into the capillaries and increase the contact ang le to > 90°. In this way they prevent the welting with water and absorption. Water incident on the surface runs off in droplets and washes away particles of dirt which cannot adhere to the surface. Hydrophobic treatments take the form of impregnation. But they last only a few years and must then be renewed. Masonry can be dried out with hydrophobic injection treatments that act like a horizontal damp-proof course. Hydrophobic treatments do not close off the pores of the building component and remain permeable to water vapour, but cannot withstand hydrostatic pressure. As they are transparent and permeable to ultraviolet radiation, they therefore cannot prevent the formation of the grey patina on timber surfaces. Water- and

Coatings for fire protection

DI N 4102-1 classes building materials according to their combustibility and behaviour in fire, and places them in various categories - from A 1 (incombustible) to 63 (h ighly flammable) (see "G lossary", pp. 265-66). Additional measures to protect components against fire, e.g. fire-retardant coatings, may be required depending on regulations or the actual risks. Such coatings consist of water-based dispersions on a polymer basis or solutions of acrylate resins, with or without pigments. Additives made from a carbon source, a catalyst and a propellant can form a layer of insulation and thus have a fire-retardant effect. The dry coating thickness on the component is 200- 2OCXJ ~m . Once the ambient temperature climbs beyond 200°C, the additive reacts and foams up. A porous (temporarily thermally insulating), carbon-based layer up to 50 mm thick then protects the component for a certain length of

Abrasion resistance

Applications according to substrate mineral materials

timber

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10000-40000

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199

Surfaces and coatings

C 7.31

solvent-based systems make use primarily of silicon organic compounds . Anti-graffiti coatings

The effect of these coatings is to prevent any form of soiling - not just malicious graffitiadhering to the surface, thus making atmospheric deposits and spray paint easy to remove . The complete system consists of a single- or multi-coat preventive coating with primer and separating layer, a chemical clean ing agent, which dissolves the soiling, and hotwater high-pressure cleaning equipment to rinse away the dirt, dust, paint and cleaning agent. In order to enable the rinsing of the surface, the anti-graffiti coating creates a non-polar surface. This is achieved with coating materials - normally based on fluoride polymers - that function in a similar way to the Teflon coating on cooking utensils. The film of coat ing material is transparent and scratch-resistant.

Wallpapers and stretch coverings

Materials for lining the walls are primarily provided for decorative purposes. But they can help to absorb sound and also provide some thermal insulation. During the Renaissance, leather or fabrics were stretched between poles and battens. Starting in the 19th century, paper wallpapers designed to imitate oil paintings were pasted over the entire wall. Modern wall lining materials include wallpapers, coverings of synthetic materials or cork, and textured underlays for coatings and stretch coverings (fig. C 7.34). As wallpapers and stretch coverings cover large areas internally, their diffusion and absorption behaviour has a considerable influ ence on the interior climate. Therefore, like coatings, they must be coordinated with the complete wall system in order to guarantee its proper functioning .

200

Apart from declared exceptions, wallpapers are supplied in standard metric rolls (eurorolls) which measure 10.05 x 0.53 m. Besides defined codes for manufacturing and processing properties, the following features are relevant: Polymer additives increase the wet tearing strength . Trea ting with fungicidal substances protects against mould growth. Impregnation achieves washing and scrubbing resistance. A special chemical preparation makes wall papers not readily flammable. Synthetic materials in and on wallpapers reduce their diffusion capacity.

ric and textured wallpapers require special pastes based on methyl cellulose with dispersed polyvinyl acetate, which reduce the diffusion capacity and have a detrimental effect on the interior climate. Stretch coverings

The indirect method involves fixing the fabrics to the substrate by way of tacking, nailing or gluing . This leaves no cavity between covering and substrate and so the substrate must be properly prepared. The direct method enables non-twist stretching of the fabric using battens and concealed fixings which are easy to remove for cleaning. These coverings attached at a small distance from the wall have a positive effect on the room acoustics.

Paper wallpapers

A single-layer, non-printed paper wallpaper without additives represents the wall covering most open to diffusion and with the lowest emissions. Embossing gives the appearance of a synthetic wallpaper . Woodchip wallpapers

These are produced from one or two layers of paper containing a high proportion of recycled paper. Fibres of wood or recycled paper are evenly distributed between the layers or embedded directly in the paper mass. Vinyl wallpapers

Expanded or solid synthetic material is applied over the whole area of a paper, fabric or syn thetic backing . Owing to the risk of mould growth beneath the wallpaper, some vinyl wall papers include a fungicide. These wallpapers have a poor diffusion behaviour (fig . C 7.32) . Adhesives for wallpapers

Wa llpaper pastes are normally based on methyl cellulose, or starch as an alternative. The adhesion of such pastes is usually adequate for the majority of wa llpapers app lied to dry, absorbent substrates. However, vinyl, fab-

Patterns

The reaction to the funct ionalism of wood chip wallpapers saw the appearance of wallpapers with floral and large geometrical patterns in bold colours during the 1970s. These days, young designers devise new wall lining concepts such as the "Single Wallpaper" (fig. C 7.31) or the thermosensitive "Club Wallpaper", which reveals different motifs as the temperature fluctuates.

Surfaces and coatings

Wallpapers

Paper wallpapers relief embossed textured size print wal l murals

Woodchip wallpapers fine/medium/coarse 1 or 2 layers of paper

Texti le wallpapers

Vinyl wallpapers backing material: · paper • synthetic material facing material: · expanded vinyl

Glass-fibre wallpapers

Other wallpapers

backing material: • paper • none

backing malerlal: • paper • expanded vinyl · synthetic fleece

velour metal foils natural materials

facing material: • glass·fibre cloth, fire·resist· ant. partly bonded with polymer resins

facing material: · cloth, knitted fabric • synthetic fibres

Stretch coverings

C 7.31 C 7.32 C 7.33 C 7.34

Wall mural "Single Wa llpaper" Vinyl wallpaper Textile wallpaper Systematic classification of wallpapers and stretch coverings C 7.35 Life cycle assessment data for plasterwork and coating materia ls

L

Textiles

~

Synthetic fibres

Natural/synthetic fibres e.g. cotton. linen, silk, polyester

Films, foils, membranes. e.g. PE, PVC, ETFE

Types of cloth , e.g. satin, velour. felt, malton Plasterwork and thermal insulation composite systems Layers • for origin of data see "Life cycle assessments", p.l00

Lime-cement plaster, internal. 2 coats ' lime-cement plaster MG P II , scraped, 15 mm primer gypsum plaster, internal , 2 coats' gypsum plaster, smooth. 15 mm primer insulating plaster

PEl

PEl

primary energy primary energy non-renewable renewable [MJ] [MJ]

110

97

237

1.8

EP

poep

global ozone acidifiwarming depletion cation [kg C0 2 eq] [kg R11 eq] [kg S02eq]

eutrophication [kg PO. eq]

summer smog [kg C 2 H 4 eq]

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0.0040

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lime-cement plaster with glass fleece reinforcement. 3 mm EPS, A = 0.035 W/m~ K. p = 30 kg/mJ, 100 mm UF-based adhesive, 3.2 mm

Coatings Layers, layer thicknesses to EN 1062 •. for origin 01 data see "Lile cycle assessments", p. 100

24

AP

16

lime-cement plaster w. expanded perlite aggregate, 15mm therma l insulation composite system

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silicate coating, I -part I-part silicate dispersion primer Organic coatings, external alkyd resin coating alkyd resin lacquer pr imer acrylic coating acrylic-based high-build glaze coat primer polyurethane coating (screed sealing) 2·part polyurethane coating (PUR) primer

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Part D

Fig. 0

ETFE cushions on lightweight steel structure. Eden Project. SI Austell, UK, 2001, Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners

Case studies in detail

01

Marte.Marte; chapel of rest in Batschuns

(A)

loam

02

Hans-Jorg Ruch; extension to mountain hut in Pontresina

(CH)

timber

03 Pe rraudin Architectes; wine stofe in Vauvert

(F)

stone

04 Simon Ungers, with Matthias Altwicker; holiday home in Ithaca

(USA)

lightweight concrete

05 MADA s.p .a .m .; private house in Lantian Xian

(PRC)

stone

06 Future Systems; private house in Pembrokeshire

(UK)

green roof

07 Lacaton Vassal; private house in Floirac

(F)

synthetic material

08 Ruben Anderegg; private house in Meiringen

(CH)

render

09 Snozzi + Vacchini; apartment block in Maastricht

(NL)

clay brickwork

10 Arte Charpentier & Abbes Tahir; Metro station in Pa ris

(F)

g lass

11

NIO architecten; bus terminal in Hoofddorp

(NL)

synthetiC material

12

Edward Cullinan; workshop for an open-air museum in Sussex

(UK)

timber

13 Kengo Kuma; Hiroshige Ando Museum in Batoh

(J)

timber

14 Tezuka; natural history museum in Matsunoyama

(J)

metal

15 NOXILars Spuybroek; arts centre in Li lle

(F)

membrane

16 Hascher Jehle Architektur; art gallery in Stuttgart

(0)

glass

17 Allmann Sattler Wappner; service centre in Ludwigshafen

(0)

glass tiles

18 Riegle r Riewe; institute headquarters in Graz

(A)

concrete

19 Tectone; hotel management schoo l in Nivilliers

(F)

clay elements

20 Jean-Marc Ibos & Myrta Vitart; fire station in Nan terre

(F)

metal

21

Dietz Joppien; service centre in Frankfurt am Main

(0)

lightweight concrete

22

MVRDV; hospital extension in Veld hoven

(NL)

g lass

23 Assmann Salomon & Scheidt; 110 kV substation in Berlin

(0)

stone

24 Sauerbruch Hutton; combined police and fire station in Berlin

(0)

glass

25 Schweger + Partner; roof to tennis stadium in Hamburg

(0)

membrane

203

Loam

Chapel of rest

u

Batschuns, Austria, 2001

I

Architects: Marte.Marte, Weiler Project team: Robert Zimmermann, Alexandra Fink, Stefan Baur, Davide Paruta Structural engineers: M+G, Feldkirch Loam consultant: Martin Rauch. Schlins

A small chapel of rest was added in the course of extending the cemetery of the parish church of St John, designed by Clemens Holzmeister in the 1920s. Access to the new section is via an opening in the cemetery wa ll opposite the church. A broad, low wall of tamped loam, which on the sloping side rises to form a wall for cinerary urns, surrounds an open, gravel covered area, but does not quite extend as far as the walls of the existing cemetery. And the external concrete access ramp, too. maintains a respectful distance. At the corner adjacent to the road, the simple, cube-shaped building forming the chapel of rest seeming ly grows out of the wall, providing a formal termination to one end of the ensemble, the church forming the other. A wide, asymmetrically positioned door of sanded oak provides access to the completely bare interior. One side wall is separated from the floor by a strip of glass and appears to float. A slit in the roof allows light to strike the rear wall at an acute angle. The oak batten incorpora ted vertically in the rear wall contrasts with the horizontal layered structure of the loam courses to suggest a cross. The plain, geometrical form and the austerity of the ensemble 's architectural language contrast with the vibrant, warm surfaces of the tamped loam . The loam used came directly from the excavations. It was mixed with clay brick chippings and clay minerals in an earth-damp consistency and placed in the formwork in 120 mm lifts. Mechanical stability was achieved by compacting the individual layers with hand-operated plant; no chemicals were added to the material. The tops of the walls are protected against rain by slabs bonded with a trass-lime binder. Erosion of the external surfaces was allowed for by oversizing the loam components to a certain extent. Despite loam being a labour-intensive building ma terial, the dedication of a number of people in the local community ensured that it was chosen instead of concrete for this project.

CO

204

I'architecture d'aujourd'hui 346, 2003 Detail 0612003

D

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c

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a

a

, Id Id Ib

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Example 01

Site plan Scale 1: 1250 Plan ' Sections Scale 1:200 Vertical sections Scale 1:20

1

7 Tamped loam, 450 0101 8 Reinforced concrete ring beam, 205 x 120 0101 9 Oak section, 80 x 80 mrn, together with the horizontal lines of the loam courses it symbolises a cross 10 Tamped concrete containing pigment to simu late loam 11 Reinforced concrete beam, 300 x 200 0101 12 Oak door leaf, 2 No. 24 mm 13 Door threshOld, solid oak on steel rectangular hollow section. 200 x l00x 7 mm 14 Sheet stainless steel, 240 x 10 mm 15 Waterproofing 16 Tamped loam floor, 1200101 compacted cellular glass granules, 100 mm anti-capil lary hardcore to prevent rising damp 17 Beam of welded steel flats, 380 x 15 mm + 2 No. 180x20mm 18 Float glass. 801m, g lued in sheet steel frame 19 Steel angle. 215 x 150 x 10 0101

Sheet steel, 3 mm

2 Copper guner. 2 mm 3 Double glazing, 8 mm toughened safety glass + 12 mm cavity .. 6 mm toughened safety glass 4

5

6

Sheet steel, 2 mm, glued to g lass Gravel, 40 mm waterproofing, 2 layers 3-ply core plywood. 19 mm timber blocks, 80 x 50 x 50 mm, ventilation cavity in between 3-ply core plywood, 40 mm loam building board, 20 0101 Lighting unit

3

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205

Timber

Extension to mountain hut

Pontresina, Switzerland, 2003

Architect: Hans-Jorg Ruch, St Moritz Project team: Sacha Michael Fahrni, Stefan Lauener, Alan Abrecht, Velia Jochum Structural engineer: Beat Birchler, Silva plana

The Tschierva Hut is just one of about 150 mountain huts belonging to the Swiss Alpine Club and is situated between imposing peaks at an altitude of 2583 m. The extension proved to be a difficult undertaking because - besides the client - various authorities, such as the Swiss Nature and Homeland Protection Commission, also had to be involved. However, the architect was able to convince all sides that a deliberate contrast between old and new was a good solution. The concept left the existing hut more or less undisturbed and added an extension which, with its distinct cube-like shape and timber facade, sets itself apart from the stonework of the existing building . Almost as if it wishes to capture the magnificent views, it cantilevers out inquisitively over the front retaining wall and forms one boundary to the sheltered rooftop terrace. The new staircase enabled compliance with the fire brigade stipulations and also minimised the changes to the existing construction. Although the Tschierva Hut still only provides accommodation for 100 guests, the standard of comfort has been considerably improved: the sleeping berths are wider, the kitchen is more spacious, and the dining room in the extension provides additional seating. It was not only the desired appearance that dictated the use of timber for the extension. The remote mountainside location required maximum off-site prefabrication and minimum on-site erection time in order to cut down the high cost of transport by helicopter and reduce the power and water supplies on the building site. The extension employs a double-leaf construction. The outer leaf consists of steel stanchions with planks of larch fitted between the flanges ; this form of construction protects the building against avalanches. Prefabricated timber wall elements in panel construction and timber floors of edge-fixed boards form the internalloadbearing structure. Construction elements left partly exposed internally and furniture of solid wood designed especially for this project mean that wood is the dominant material on the inside as well. [jJ

206

Hochparterre 01 -02/2004 Wallpaper 06/2004

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Steel flat capping, 240 x 10 mm steel channel, 120 mm Waterproofing. fl exible polymer-modified bitumen sheeting, slate granules finish, 2 layers expanded polystyrene foam to provide falls, 240-120 mil) vapour barrier edge-fixed boards, 260 mm Wooden window with double glazing, laminated safety glass Steel stanchion. HEA 160, hOI-dip galvanised. anchOred to concrete wall in basement. 20 mm EPDM intermed iate pad Timber facade, rough-sawn larch planks, BO x 160mm timber battens, rough-sawn larch. 50 x 60 mm ventilation and drainage cavity, 80 mm waterproofin g OSB. 18 mm limber frame, 80 x 180 mm mineral wool thermal insulation in bet\Neen, 180mm vapour barrier fibrous plasterboard, 2 No. 15 mm, joints filled and painted Linoleum on impact sound backing timber-concrete composite floor, F 60, joints filled, comprising 75 x 95 mm concrete topp ing + 125 x 145 mm edge-fixed timber elements Larch tongue and groove wood-block flooring, 27 mm, planed and oiled levelling layer wood-fibre insulating board. 30 mm mineral-fibre insulation, 10 mrn PE sheeting as separating layer reinforced concrete, 160 mm Ceramic tiles, 15 mm heated screed, 55 mm PE sheeting as separating layer thermal insulation, expanded polystyrene foam,100mm bitumen paint reinforced concrete, 120 mm

207

Stone

Wine store

Vauvert, France, 1999

Architects: Perraudin Architectes, Lyon Gilles Perraudin Structural engineers: Fran$ = TK&I'v'" -273. 15 TCeWuo = (T ~8"'""",,,1 -32) 1 1.8

giga tera

T

inch [in] foot [ft]

1 m = 39.370 in 1 m = 3.28 1 ft

peta

P

10 1~

exa

E

10 1B

square inch [in2] square 100 [ft2]

1 m2 = 1550 in' 1 m2 = 10.764 fl2

zetta

Z

10"

yolta

Y

10"

E 1.3

E 1.4

267

Glossary: Hazardous substances

Hazardous substances Alexander Rudolphi

Numerous public announcements concerning health risks. e.g. due to wood preservatives or asbestos. have In recent years brought hazardous substances to the attentIOn of building developers and building occupants. and have turned thOse substances Into another important planning aspect for architects. The most common hazardous substances are to be found in old buildings and are subject to national legislation. which can vary. Some pesticides such as DDT or pcp have been banned in Western Europe and Scandinavia since the 1960s. but were still in use In Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union until well into the 199Os. Even a hazardous substance like asbestos. the use of which has been severely restricted in Europe and tr18 USA since the 1980s, is sti ll being used by the building industry in Eastern Europe and. above all. in developing countries and in China. The same is true for PAHs with the carcinogenic substance benzoapyrene (BaP) as their reference substance and which were used in Western Europe until well into the 1960s in floor adhesives. wood preservatives or asphalt finishes. This substance came to light as a problem in the 1980s and from the 1990s was excluded from almost all building products in western industrialised countries. It IS frequently the case that certain hazardous substances are associated with certain countries and penods of tUTIe. For example. in former East Germany phenols and cresols. waste products from the chemicals industry. were used as binders in floor coverings and lightweight screeds, Old buildings therefore need 10 be approached with care. and a precise analysis of the existing fabric in terms of location and age is essential. In doing so. attention must be paid to the assessment and remediation regulations and legislation. which can vary from state to state in Germany. In contrast to those hazardous substances acknowledged as such and mostly regulated by government legislation. newer problematiC substances are characterised by the fact that damaging effects are surmised but have not yet been proved. They are therefore not (yet) subject to any restrictions and can be found in many building products. Hazardous substances in new buildings especially must therefore be given attenliOn. A typical example of thiS group is naphthalene. Originally a widely used hOusehold chemical product, its use in glues and woodbased products has been gradually reduced in Germany over recent decades. Current EU rc·evaluations of the carcinogenic potenllal Will lead to funher restrictions, but this hazardous substance is still in use at present. Different evaluations are also to be expected as a result 01 the European Biocidal Products Directive (98I8JEC) introduced In t 998. One of the reqUIrements of this directive is that all manufacturers of building products should declare the presence of biocides in wood or other preservatives. Such biocides are currently being re-evaluated, i.e. a number of new individual bans are expected. Arsenic In pure form a metallic grey, non-toxic solid, arsenic has been used as a pesticide in the especially toxic trivalent

268

form of arsenic(llI) oxide (white arsenic) and in the form of cuprous arsenide (also in wood preservatives). The use of arsenic salts (arsemtesfarsenates) has been banned in Germany since 1963. the use of arsenic compounds In general since 1974. Across the EU, the use 01 arsenic has been controlled more and more since 1967 (with the last revisions in 2003) by an EU directive. Asbestos Asbestos is a generic term for fibrous minerals comprising magnesium silicate, iron dioxide, calcium dioxide, aluminium d ioxide and silicon dioxide. We distinguish between three main forms depending on the chemical composition: fibres of serpentine (Chrysotile), of amphiboles (actinolite. amosite. anthophyllite, tremolite). and of hornblende. In the building industry, asbestos first proved to be an outstanding material with desirable qualities (incombustible, resistant to chemicals. electrical and thermal insulation , elastic, tensile strength). For these reasons. it is frequently found in buildings built between 1950 and 1990, primarily for fire protection or as fibre reinforcement Chrysotlle is the most important form for building products. The toxic effects are due to the geometry of the minerai fibres, so-called inhalable fibres 5-500 j.Jm long and 1-31J1ll thick (WHO definition). These are not soluble in pulmonary lIuid and cause lung cancer (asbestOSiS). According to the German Asbestos Act of 1991. the Import, use and production In Germany is essentially prohibited, Demolition. refurbishment and maintenance work in buildings containing asbestos must be carried out according to the statutory provisions of the Hazardous Substances Act (TRGS 519) in order to protect the work ers, the local inhabitants and the enVIronment. Loosely bonded applications, e.g. pipe lagging. seals or fireresistant mats. are assessed more critically than firmly bonded opplicaliOns such as plaster or fibre-reinforced cement products, e.g. roofing and wall boards, pipes and floor tiles. Biocides This IS a generic term lor all kinds of products poisonous to pests (pestiCides). fungi (fungiCides) . plants (herbicides) and insects (insecticides). Biocides are used. e.g. in wood preservatives. textile finishes. to combat damage caused by animal and plant infestation. to protect against mould growth or as a preservative in dispersion coatings. CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons cause severe damage to the ozone layer. The production. marketing and in certain cases the use of some CFCs has been prohibited in Germany since 1991 . The German legislaliOn. however. is limited to 17 substances. e.g. trichlorofluoromethane (Rl1), d ichlorodifluoromethane (RI2) or chlorotrilluoromethane (R 13). Commercially used substances like H 1201 halon or R 134a CFC also possess. respectively. 6300 or 3300 times the g lobal warming potential of carbon dioxide and should therefore be avoided even though not covered by the legiSlation. CFCs are also used as blowing agents lor insulating loams and as coolants. The disposal of re/rig eratlon systems containing CFCs may only be carried out by authofised specialist companies. Coolants containing CFCs in a concentration of > 1% by mass are no longer permittod. Insulating materials containing CFCs that are already Installed do not need to be removed. but their disposal In some regions of Germany reqUires special controls and they must be classed as hazardous waste.

DDT Dlchlorodlphenyldlchloroethane. a mixture of hydrocarbons and the by-products DOD and DOE. is a synthetic insecticide which is still used today in many countries. In Germany. however. it has been banned since 1972. DDT is essentia lly ecotoxlc (i.e. damaging to the environment) for land-, air- and water-based creatures. Chronic health d isorders have been observed in humans; the substances in DDT can lead to pu lmonary oedemas and damage liver. kidneys. heart, bone marrow and nervous system. In the bUilding industry, DDT is used as an active ingredient in wood preservatives.

Dioxins, furans In nature dioxins and lurans are a widespread group of organic compounds with a system of two benzene rings plus additional oxygen compounds. In everyday language the term dioxin covers about 75 polychlorinated (and polybromlnated) dlbenzodloxms (PCDD). some of them highly loxic. Similarly, the term luran covers polychlorinated (and polybrominated) dibenzofurans (PCDF). limit values lor 17 01 these substances were laid down in the 1993 German Dioxin Act. In the building industry the main danger is in the creation and removal of contaminat ed residues after fires when the halogens chlorine and bromine have been used in synthetic materials (e.g. as flame retardants). The risks can only be reduced by aVOiding such products. Form aldehyde This colourless gas with the chemical designation methanalls a Simple compound of carbon, oxygen and hydro· gen. ThiS pungent-smelling substance belongs to the vac group. is highly reactive and readily soluble in water . Contact with formaldehyde leads to symptoms in humans such as irritation to the eyes, bronchial problems and headaches. In the building Industry formaldehyde is primarily used as a binder In wood-based boards, which can stili give off formaldehyde even after 20 years. It is also used in synthetic resins. coatings or chemical additives, e.g. in self-levelling screeds. Owing to the massive and frequent health disorders. the content of formalde hyde in new wood-based boards has been limited by leglslallon in Germany (1996 Chemicals Prohibition Act. DIBt Formaldehyde Directive). The following recommended values apply to the air in habitable rooms: - Recommended value of German Federal Health Organisation/German EnVIronmental Agency 1977/ 1990: 0, 1 ppm (corresponds to 120 IJglm 1) , Target value for refurbishment work: 0.05 ppm (corresponds to 60 ~glm l) M ineral hydroc arbons This is the group of liquid distillation products obtained from petroleum or coal. Oil contamination (diesel. heating Oil. lubricants) in residential buildings is undesirable simply lor regions of hygiene, and in the case of fresh con lamination there IS also the question of exposure to unpleasant odours. Apart from that. mineral building components contaminated with oil lead to enormous difficulties because oil separates materials and hence breaks down the bonds. A minerai hydrocarbon content < 100 mg per kg of building material is regarded as harmless. But contamination ~ 1COO mg per kg of malerial represents a demolition project With waste that requires specia l can trois. Building components or materials contaminated With oi l should always be completely removed from interiors. MVOCs Microbial volatile organic compounds are volatile bioorganic compounds - alcohols, keytones, esters and aromatic compounds - produced by the metabolic processes of fungi, e.g. mould. Some health problems are attributed to MVOC contamination in buildings. The MVOC spectra 01 many mould types have not yet been fully investigated. However. remediation and treatment is carried out anyway owing to the presence of the mould that inevitably accompanies MVOC. PAH s The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons group contains more than 100 individual compounds which are formed by the heating or combustion of organic materials with an oxygen defiCIt. e.g. vehicle exhausts or Industrial processes. They never occur as individual substances but always in the form of complex mixtures. Measurement in solid materials usually cover 16 individual PAHs stipulated by the USA's Environment Protection Agency; tile ref erence substance is BaP (benzoapyrene). In high concentrations, PAHs are usual ly present in products manufactured using coal tars, coal-tar oils and coaltar pitches. These include carbol ineum. asphalt tiles and tar adhesive. Bitumen (which is also obtained through the

Glossary: Hazardous substances

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distlliallOn of petroleum) as well - but only in traces, unless mixed with tar . Especially critical are paints based on creosote used for waterproofing purposes (general waterproofi ng. wet interior areas, roofs). papers soaked in creosote (roofing fel\. insulating materials for power cables and heating pipes). adhesive for wood-block flooring. mastic asphalt and wood preservatives. Numerous PAHs have been proved to be carcinogenic. mutagenic. toxic to the immune system and the liver, and to irritate mucous membranes.

PCBs Polychlorinated biphenyls, a group of 209 chemical compounds made up of biphenyl and chlorine (so-called PCB congeners), have been manufactured since about 1929. Owing to their technically interesting properties - not read ily flammable, hardwearing and resistant to acids and alkalis - they have been used in many applications, e.g. as electrical insulators in trans formers and capaCitors, as plasticisers in synthetic materials, in sealing materials for expansion joints, and in hydraulic systems. Following severe mass poisonings (1968 in Japan, 1969 in Taiwan), the production and use 01 PCBs has been banned (with a few exceptions) in Germany since 1989, However, the use of capacitors containing PCBs was not finally prohibited until 2000, which means that these substances can even be found in modern buildings. PCBs and equipment containing PCBs must be removed by 2011 at the latest (apart from a few exceptions),

natural radon levels. The bases of buildings affected must be sealed with a radon-proof flexible synthetic or bitumen sheeting. Protective measures are required when tile radon concentration in the building exceeds 250 Bq/ m3 . The basement storeys must be sea led tighter than the storeys above and must be ventilated separately. Synthetic mineral fibres These fibres are manufactured from stone or glass melts. They are used in large quanllties mainly in fire protection, sound insulation and thermal insulation products. Like asbestos. up until about 1995 products with synthetic mineral fibres contained longitudinally fractured fibres with critical dimensions (diameter < 3 ~m, length:> 5 ~m, length-diameter ratio:> 3) which can infiltrate the lung alveoli and cause cancer and other lung disorders. This ri sk is heightened by those fibres that are not soluble in pulmonary fluid and which can accumulate over time. In German legislation synthetic mineral fibres with such properties have been classified as carcinogenic since 1995. The assessment is carried out by means of the biopersistence (solubility) which is influenced by the formu lation of tile melt among other things. As a unit 01 measurement, the so-called carcinogenicity index (KI) has been introduced · Substances with KI < 30 are regarded as carcinogenic. • Substances with KI 30-40 are suspected of having a carcinogenic potential. , Substances with KI :;. 40 are classified as not carcinogenic .

PCP Pentach lorophenol, a compound belonging to the chloropllenols group, is a colourless solid in its normal state and acts as a fungicide. Unti l it was banned in Germany in 1989, it was used in disinfectants and wood preservatives . In other countries it is stil l used in the textiles and cosmetics industries . PCP is ecotoxic. Toxicity in humans has been observed, but has not yet been fully investigated. It can lead to pulmonary oedemas, also liver, kidney, heart and bone marrow disorders. It is also a neurotoxin. Radon Radon is a noble gas wl tll eXClusively radioactive isotopes, As an intermediate product of the decay chain of uranium and radium. it escapes naturally from the soil and infi ltrates buildings from below. In newer buildings in particular. wh ich for energy efficiency reasons are built especially airtigh\. radon can accumu late in the interior air and lead to lung cancer. The soil contamination varies considerably from region to region: in Germany the Federal Office for Radiation Protection maintains a register of

voe

substance class

The groups for the TYOC match the chemical substance group designations (fig. E 2. 1). Accord ing to a recommendation of the German Environmental Agency, a value < 0.3 mg/mJ internal air is desirable for the TYOC concentration in interiors. In new bui ldings the TYOC concentration should not exceed 1-2 mglm3 internal air in the first year. Exceptions to this are individual substances within the VOC catalogue - naphthalene, styrene, toluene or dichloromethane - which are subject to a specific ruling by Germany's Interna l Air Commission. Wood preservatives OrganiC wood preservatives conta in pesticides and fungicides, The most important health hazards are caused by PAH. DDT, PCP. lindane or xylasan. and their use in Germany is now prohibited. Modern organic preservatives contain specific active substances such as propiconazol, dichlofluanid or flufeno xuron. Preservative salts contain primarily boron salts and borates plus copper and chromium salts. A total of about 60 different toxic substances are used, Of course, modern preservatives also represent a hea lth hazard; the risks of uncontrolled damage are, however, much lower than in the past thanks to better adherence to regulations. Old preservative treatments should always be analysed and assessed. Tile contamination varies conSiderably from region to region: in former East Germany and in Eastern Europe concentrations in roof structures of up to 10 000 mg (= 109) DDT per kg of timber can be found on the surface.

In the case of pre-1995 synthetic mineral fibre products, carcinogenic effects must always be assumed. The industrial safety regulations specific to each federal state in Germany must be observed when handling such products.

VOCs Volatile organic compounds are soluble and hence capable of causing emissions. We distinguish between four different groups according to their boiling points: - WOC (very volatile organ iC compounds): 0-50°C - VOC: 50-250~C - SVOC (semi-volatile organic compounds): 250-380°C • TYOC (total volatile organic compounds) This covers all substances from very volatile organic solvents to semi-volatile plasticizers lJsed in synthetic materials. fatty acids, etc. In the customary measuring procedure about 160-180 individual substances are evaluated.

Most frequent sources of emissions

Aliphates

All products contain ing solvents. e.g. paints, adhesives: white spirit and thinners, cleaning agents. carpets, isoa liphates in natural resin

Aromates

Products containing solvents, e.g. nitrocellulose lacquer, synthetiC resin paints, adhesives: thinners, carpets

Styrene

Insu lating materials, coatings based on unsaturated polyester resins, carpets, paints.

Heterocyclene

Synthetic resin paints, solvents, carpets.

Halogen hydrocarbons

Strippers, blowing agents in insulating foams.

Terpenes

Wood, wood-based products. natural and alkyd resin paints, stove enamel.

Aldehydes

Drying oils, alkyd resins, linoleum floor coverings.

Formaldehyde

Wood-based products, paints, urea-formaldehyde foams, insulating materials. fil ler compounds, furni ture, textiles.

Ketones

Water- and solvent-based products, e,g. pa ints, adhesives, strippers.

~--~----~~-Alcohols and esters Water- and solvent-based products. e.g . paints. adhesives, strippers; polyurethane foams,

varnishce~s~ . ~~_

filler compounds.

of monovalent alcohols Glycols

Water-based products, e.g . acrylic paints, adhesives, jOint sealants; stove enamel, wood stains, dispersion paints;

Pyrrolidone derivatives

Strippers. paints, wa ter-based paints.

as plasticiser additive in various synthetic materials and wOOd~sct=a~'n=sc.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Tnmeric isobutylenes

Carpets (foam-backed). al l products containing rubber.

Phtha lates

Plasticisers in latex and other paints. adhesives. varnishes. soft floor coverings, carpets, synthetic materials

8iocides

Timber preservative, natural cover ings, leather, carpets.

Flame retardan ts

Ca rpets, te xtile furnishings, intumescent paints.

E 2,1

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Statutory instruments, directives, standards

Statutory instruments, directives, standards The EU has issued directives for a number of products, the particular aim of which is to ensure the safety and health of users. These directives must be implemented in the member stales in the form of compulsory legislation and regula tions. The directives themselves do not contain any technical details, but instead lay down the requisite, underlying requirements. The correspond ing techn ical values are specified in associated sets of technical rules (e.g . codes of practice) and in the form of EN standards harmonised throughout Europe. Generally, the technical rules provide advice and infor~ mation for everyday activities. They are not statutory instruments, but rather g ive users a decision-making aid, a guideline for implementing technical procedures correctly and/or practical information for turning legislation into practice. The use of the technical ru les is not compulsory: only when they have been included in government legislation or other statutory instruments do they become mandatory, or the parties to a contract include them in their conditions. In Germany the technical rules include DIN standards, VOl directives and other publications such as the Technica l Rules for Hazardous Substances. The standards are divided into product, application and testing standards. They often relate to just one specific group of materials or products, and are based on the corresponding testing and calculation methods for the respective materials and components. The latest edition of a standard - which Shou ld correspond with the state of the art - always applies. A new or revised standard is firs t published as a draft for publ ic discussion before (with revisions) it is fina lly adopted as a valid standard. The orig in and area of influence of a standard can be gleaned from its designation: DIN plus number (e.g. DIN 4108) is essentially a nationa l document (drafts are designated w ith "E" and preliminary standards with "V") . DIN EN plus number (e.g. DIN EN 572) is a German edition of a European standard - drawn up by the European Standardisation Organisation CEN - that has been adopted without amendments. DI N EN ISO (e.g. DIN EN ISO 18064) is a standard with national, European and worldwide influence. Based on a standard from the Internationa l Standardisation Organisation ISO. a European standard was drawn up, which was then adopted as a DIN standard. DIN ISO (e.g. DI N ISO 21930) is a German edition of an ISO standard that has been adopted without amendments. The followin9 compilation represents a selection of statutory instruments, directives and standards that reflec ts the state of the art regarding build ing materials and building material applications as of September 2005.

Part A

DIN 398 Granulated slag aggregate concrete blocks. 1976-6 DIN V 4165 Autoclaved aerated concrete blocks and flat elements. 2003-6 DI N 4166 Autoclaved aerated concrete slabs and panels. 1997-10 DIN V 18152 Lightweight concrete solid bricks and blocks. 2003-10 DIN v 18153 Normal-weight concrete masonry units. 2003-10 DIN EN 520 Gypsum blocks - Definitions, requirements and test methods . 2005-3 DIN EN 12859 Gypsum blocks. 2001-11 DIN 18181 (draft standard) Gypsum plasterboards for building construction. 2004-8 DI N V 18550 Plastering/rendering and plastering/rendering systems. 2005-4 DIN EN 998-1 Spec ification for mortar for masonryPart 1: Rendering and plastering mortar. 2003-9 DIN EN 998-2 SpeCification for mortar for masonry Part 2; Masonry mortar. 2003-9 DIN 4102 Fire behaviour of build ing materia ls and bu ilding components. 1998-5

Part B

Bituminous material s DIN EN 12597 Bitumen and bituminous blndersTerminology . 2001- 1 DIN EN 12591 Bitumen and bituminous bindersSpecifications for paving-grade bitumen. 2000-4 DIN 1995-4 (draft standard) Bitumen and bituminous binders - ReqUifements for the binders Part 4: Petroleum cut-back bitumen. 2005-1 DI N 18195 Waterproofing of bui ldings and structures. 2000-8 DIN 52130 Bitumen sheetin g for waterproofing of roofs. 1995-11 DIN 52131 Bitumen waterproof sheeting for fusion welding . 1995-11 DIN 52132 POlymer bitumen sheeting for waterproofing of roofs. 1996-5 DI N 52133 Polymer bitumen waterproof sheeting for fusion welding . 1995-11 DIN 52143 Bitumen roofing felt with glass fleece base. 1985-8 DIN 18190-4 Waterproof sheeting for the waterproofing of bu ildings: waterproof sheeting w ith inlay of metal foil. 1992-10

Properties of building materials

Stone DIN 4 108 Thermal protection and energy economy in buildings 2003-7 DIN EN 12524 Building materials and products - hygrothermal properties - tabulated design values 2()(X)-7 loam DIN 4022-3 Subsoil and groundwater; desig nation and description of soil types and rock: borehole log for boring in soil (loose rock) by continuous extraction of cores. 1982-5 DI N 52611 Determination of thermal resistance of building elements. 1991-1 DIN 52612 Determination of thermal conductivity by the guarded hot plate apparatus. 1979-9 Ceramic materials DIN 105 Clay bricks. 1984-5 DIN 4172 Modu lar coordination in building construction . 1955-7 DIN 278 Hollow clay tiles (Hourdis) and hollow bricks, statica lly loaded. 1987-9 DI N 4159 Floor bricks and plasterboards, statical ly active. 1999-10 DI N 4160 Bricks for floors, statically inactive. 2()(X)-4 DIN EN 539 Clay roofing tiles for discontinuous laying 1998-7 DIN EN 295 Vitrified clay pipes and fittings and pipe joints for d rains and sewers. 1999-5 DIN EN 14411 Ceramic tiles - Definitions, classification, characteristics and marking. 2004-3 DIN 18156 Materials used for the application of ceramic tiling by the thin bed method . 1980-7 DIN 4108 Thermal protection and energy economy in buildings. 2003-7

Materials and architecture

The critical path to sustainable construction SIA Documentation D 0123 - Construction of build ings according to ecological aspects. SIA Documenta\IQn 0 0200 SNARC - System for assessing the environmenta l sustainability of architectural projects. 2004 SIA 480 Economic viability calculation for investments in buildings. 2004 Criteria for the selection of building materials DIN EN ISO 14040 Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Principles and framework. 1997-8 DIN EN ISO 14041 Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Goal and scope definition and life cycle inventory analysis. 1998- 11 DIN EN ISO 14042 Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Life cycle impact assessment. 2()(X)-7 DIN EN ISO 14043 Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Life cycle interpretation. 2()(X)-7

270

ISO 21930: Sustainable building - Environmental declaration of building products ISO 21931: Sustainable bui lding - Assessment of impact from buildings ISO 2 1932: Bui ldings and constructed assets - Terminology rela ted to sustainability DIN 276 Building costs. 1993-6 DIN EN 13829 Thermal performance of buildings - Determination of air permeability of buildings - Fan pressurisation method . 2001-1 DIN EN ISO 10211 Thermal bridges in building construction - Heat flows and surface temperatures - Part 1: General calculation methods. 1995-11 DI N EN ISO 7730 Ergonomics of the therma l environment - Analytical determination and interpretation of therma l com fort using calculation of the PMV and PPO indices and local thermal comfort. 1995-9 SIA 180 Thermal insulation and moisture control in bui ldings. 1999 DI N V ENV 13419 Building products - Determination of the emission of volatile organic compounds. 1999-10 ISOrrC/59

Building materials with mineral binders DIN 1168 Gypsum for build ing . 1986- 1 DIN EN 459 Bu ilding lime. 2002-2 DIN EN 197 Cement. 2004-8 DIN EN 13279 Gypsum binders and gypsum plasters. 1998-7 DIN EN 206-1 Concrete - Part 1 Specification, performance, production and conformity . 2001 -7 DIN 4226 Aggregates for concrete. 200 1-7 DI N EN 934 Admi xtures for concrete, mortar and grout. 2005-6 DI N EN 12878 (draft standard) Pigments for colouring of building materials based on cement and/or lime Specifications and methods of test. 2003- 12 DI N 1045 Structural use of concrete; design and construction . 2oo1-7 DI N 1053 Masonry. 1996-11 DI N EN 771 Specif ication for masonry un its. 2005-5 DIN V 106 Sand -lime briCkS and blocks. 2003-2

Wood and wood-based products DIN EN 350 Durability of wood and wood based products. 1994-10 DIN EN 338 Timber structures - Strength classes. 2003-9 DIN EN 1912 Structural timber - Strength classes Assignment of visual grades and species. 2005-3 DIN 4074-2 Build ing timber for wood build ing components; quality cond itions for build ing logs (softwood). 1958-12 DIN 4074-3 Strength grading of wood - Part 3: Grading machines for sawn timber, requirements and testing. 2003-6 DI N 1052 Timber structures 2004-8 DIN EN 13986 Wood-based panels for use in construction. 2005-3 DI N EN 312 Particleboards. 2003-11 DI N EN 622 Fibreboards - Specifications. 2003-9 DI N EN 14755 (draft standard) Extruded particleboardsSpecifications . 2006-1 DIN EN 13171 Thermal insulation products for bu ildlngsFactory made wood fibre (WF) products - Specification. 2004-8 DIN 68800-2 Protection of timber - Part 2: Preventive constructional measures in buildings. 1996-5 DI N 68800-3 Protection of timber - Part 3: Protection of timber; preventive chemical protection . 1990-4 DI N 4102 Fire behaviour of building materials and building components. 1998-5 DIN EN 13501 Fire classification of construction products and building elements. 2002-6 Metal DIN EN 10027 (draft standard) Designation systems for steels. 2001-8

Statutory instruments, directives, standards

DIN EN 10025 Hot-rolled products of non-alloy struc tural steels, 2005-2 DIN EN 1179 Zinc and zinc alloys - Primary zinc. 2003-9 DIN EN 485-2 Aluminium and aluminium alloys - Sheet, strip and plate - Part 2: Mechanical properties. 2004-9 Glass DIN 1249 Glass for use in building construction. 1986-9 DIN EN 572 Glass in building - Basic soda lime silicate glass products. 2004-9 DIN EN 13022 (draft standard) Glass in buildingStructural sealant glazing . 2003-4 DIN EN 14449 (draft standard) Glass in building Laminated glass and laminated safety glass. 2002-7 DIN EN ISO 10077 (draft standard) Thermal performance of windows, doors and shutters - Calculation of thermal transmittance. Synthetic materials DIN EN ISO 1043 Plastics - Symbols and abbreviated terms . 2002-6 DIN ISO 1629 Rubber and latices - Nomenclature. 2004-11 DIN EN ISO 18064 Thermoplastic elastomers - Nomenclature and abbreviated terms. 2005-5 DIN 16780 Plastic mouldin9 materials. 1988-1 DIN 7726 Cellular materials. 1982-5 DIN EN 923 Adhesives - Terms and definitions, 1998-5 DIN 4102 Fire behaviour of building materials and building components. 1998-5 Maximum working place concentrations and biological tolerance values for substances, Deutsche Forschungsgesellschaft DFG, Weinheim TRGS Technical Rules for Hazardous Substances. Federal Ministry of Industry and Employment. 2004-3 Life cycle assessments DIN EN ISO 14040 Environmental management- Life cycle assessment - Principles and framework. 1997-8 DIN EN ISO 14041 Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Goal and scope definition and life cycle inventory analysis. 1998-11 DIN EN ISO 14042 Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Life cycle impact assessment. 2CXXJ~7

DIN EN ISO 14043 Environmental management - Life cycle assessment - Life cycle Interpretation. 20Cl0-7

Part C

Applications of building materials

The building envelope DIN 1053 Masonry. 1996-11 DIN V 18 153 Normal -weight concrete masonry units. 2003-10 DIN 18516-1 Cladding for external wa lls, ventilated at rear - Part 1: Requirements, principles of testing. 1999-12 DIN 18516-3 Cladding for external wal ls, ventilated at rear - Part 3: Natural stone. 1999-12 DIN 18516-4 Cladd ing for externa l walls at rear - Part 4: tempered safety glass. 1990-2 DIN 1249 Glass for use in bui lding construction. 1986-9 DIN EN 13022 (draft standard) Glass in buildingStructural sealant glazing. 2003-4 TRAV Technical directive for the use of glass in safety barriers, 2003-1 TRLV Technical directive for the use of glazing carried on linear supports. 1998-9 DIN EN 350 Durability of wood and wood based products. I 994-10 DIN 68800-3 Protection of timber - Part 3: Protection of timber; preventive chemical protection. 1990-4 DIN 17440 Stainless steels. 2001-3 DIN 18338 Contract procedures for building worksPart C: General technical specifications for building works; Roof covering and roof sealing works. 2002-12 DIN 68119 Wood shingles. 1996-9 DIN EN 12326 Slate and stone products for discontinuous roofing and cladding. 2004-11 DIN EN 539 Clay roofing tiles for discontinuous laying. 1998-7

DIN EN 1304 Clay roofing tiles for discontinuous laying, 2005-7 DIN EN 490 Concrete roofing tiles and fittings. 2005-3 DIN EN 494 Fibre-cement profiled sheets and their fittings for roofing. 1999-7 DIN EN 534 Corrugated bitumen sheets. 1998-10 DIN EN 485-2 Aluminium and aluminium alloys - Sheet, strip and plate - Part 2: Mechanical properties. 2004-9 DIN EN 988 Zinc and zinc alloys - Specification for rolled flat products for building. 1996-8 DIN EN 1172 Copper and copper alloys - Sheet and strip for building purposes. 1996-10 DIN 18807 Trapezoidal sheeting in building; trapezoidal steel sheeting. 1987-6 DIN 18195 Waterproofin g of buildings and structures. 2000-8 DIN 18531 -1 Waterproofing of roofs - Sealings for nonutilised roofs - Part 1: Terms and definitions, requirements, design prinCiples. 2005-11 DIN EN 13967 Flexible sheets for waterproofing - Plastic and rubber damp·proof sheets includ ing plastic and rubber basement tanking sheet. 2005-3 DIN EN 13969 Flexible sheets for waterproofing Bitumen damp-proof sheets includ ing bitumen basementtanking sheets. 2005-2 DIN 7864 Sheets of elastomers for waterproofing. 1984-4 DIN 16729 Ethylene copolymer bitumen (ECB) plastic roofing sheeting and plastic sealing sheeting. 1984-9 DIN 16730 Plasticised polyvinyl chloride (PVC-P) roofing felt incompati ble with bitumen, 1986-12 DIN 16731 Polyisobutylene {PI B) roofing felt with baCking. 1986-12 DIN 16737 Ch lorinated polyethylene (PE-C) roofing felt and waterproofing sheet with woven fabric inner layer 1986-12 DIN 16935 Polyisobutylene (PIB) waterproofing sheet. 1986-12 DIN 16937 Plasticised polyvinyl chloride (PVC-P) waterproofing sheet compatible with bitumen. 1986-12 DIN 52128 Bituminous roof sheeting with felt core, 1977-3 DIN 52 129 Uncoated bitumen saturated sheeting. 1993-11 DIN 52130 Bitumen Sheeting for waterproofing of roofs. 1995-11 DIN 52131 Bitumen waterproof sheeting for fusion welding.1995-11 DIN 52132 Polymer bitumen sheeting for waterproofing of roofs. 1996-5 DIN 52133 Polymer bitumen waterproof Sheeting for fusion welding. 1995-11 DIN 18190-4 Waterproof sheeting for the waterproofing of buildings: waterproof sheeting w ith in lay of metal foil. 1992·10 DIN 52141 Glass-fibre fleece as layer for roof and waterproof sheeting. 1980-12 DIN 6Q()(X) Textiles. basic terms and definitions. 1969-1 DIN 4108 Thermal protection and energy economy in buildings. 2003-7 DIN 4102 Fire behaviour of building materials and building components. 1998-5 DIN EN 13501 Fire classification of construction products and building elements. 2002-6 Insulating and sealing DIN EN 14063 Thermal insulation materials and products. 2004-11 DIN EN 13162 Thermal insulation products for buildingsFactory-made mineral wool (MW) products. 2001 -10 DIN EN 13163 Thermal insulation products for buildlngsFactory-made products of expanded polystyrene (EPS). 2001 -10 DIN EN 13164 Thermal insulation products for bu ildingsFactory-made products of extruded polystyrene foam (XPSI·2001-10 DIN EN 13165 Thermal insulation products for buildingsFactory-made rigid polyurethane foam (PUR) products. 2005-2 DIN EN 13167 Thermal insulation products for buildings Factory-made cellular glass (CG) products. 2001-10 DIN EN 13168 Thermal insu lation products for buildingsFactory-made wood wool (WN) products. 200 1-10 DIN EN 13169 Thermal insulation products for buildings-

Factory-made products of expanded perlite (EPB). 2001-10 DIN EN 13170 Thermal insulation products for buildingsFactory-made products of expanded cork (ICB) . 2001 -10 DIN EN 13171 Thermal insulation products for buildingsFactory-made wood fibre (WF) products. 2001-10 DIN EN 18165 Fibre insulation materials. 2001-9 DIN EN 13171 /A 1 Thermal insulation products for buildings - Factory-made wood fibre (WF) products. 2004-8 DIN 18195 Waterproofing of buildings and structures 2000-8 DIN 18540 Seal ing of exterior wall joints in build ing using joint sealants. 1995-2 DIN EN 26927 Building construction; jOinting products; sea lants; vocabulary, 1991-5 DIN 52460 Sealing and glazing - Terms. 2000-2 DIN 7865 Elastomeric joint sealing strip for sealing joints in concrete. 1982-2 DIN 18541 (draft standard) Thermoplastic water stops for sealing joints in in situ concrete. 2005-3 ETAG 005 Guideline for European Technical Approval of liquid-applied roof waterproofing kits. DIN EN 14891 (draft standard) liquid-applied waterproofing membranes for use beneath ceramic tiling. 2004-5 DIN 4 108 Thermal protection and energy economy in buildings. 2003-7 Building services DIN 1988 Drinking water supply systems: general (DVGW code of practice). 1988-12 DIN EN 806-1 SpeCifications for installations inside buildings conveying water for human consumption - Part 1: General. 200 1-12 DIN EN 806-2 Specification for installations inside buildings conveying water for human consumption - Part 2: Design. 2005-6 DIN EN 12056 Gravity drainage systems inside buildings. 2001 -1 DIN EN 752 Drain and sewer systems outside buildings, 2005-10 DIN 18015 Electrical installations in residential buildings. 2002·9 DIN 1946 Ventilation and air conditioning. 1998-10 Walls DIN EN 771 Specification for masonry units. 2005-5 DIN V 106 Sand-lime bricks and blocks. 2003·2 DIN 18332 Contract procedures for building works Part C: General technical speCifications for building works; ash lar works. 2002-11 DIN V 4165 Autoclaved aerated concrete blocks and flat elements. 2003-6 DIN 4103 Internal non-load bearing partitions. 1988-11 DIN EN 520 Gypsum plasterboards - Definitions. requirements and test methods. 2005-3 DI N 18181 (draft standard) Gypsum plasterboards for building construction. 2004~8 DIN EN 12859 Gypsum blocks. 200 1-11 DIN EN 13915 Prefabricated gypsum wallboard panels. 2001 -1 DIN EN 14566 (draft standard) Mechanical fasteners for gypsum plasterboard systems. 2002-11 DIN EN 14195 Metal framing components for gypsum plasterboard systems. 2005-5 DIN EN 13986 Wood-based panels for use in construction. 2005-3 DIN EN 312 Particleboards. 2003-11 DIN EN 622 Fibreboards - Specifications. 1997-8 DIN EN 14755 (draft standard) Extruded particleboards Specifications. 2006-1 DIN 68762 Chipboard for special purposes in building construction. 1982-3 DI N 1249 Glass for use in building construction. 1986-9 DIN EN 12725 Glass in build ing - Glass block walls 1997-4 DIN 4102 Fire behaviour of building materials and building components. 1998-5 DIN 4109-10 (draft standard) Sound insulation in buildings - Part 10: Proposals for improved sound insulation for housing. 2oo(}6

271

Statutory instruments, directives, standards / Bibliography

.~-----------------------------------------------

Intermediate floors DIN 1045 Structural use of concrete: design and construction. 200 1-7 DIN 4223 Reinforced roofing slabs and ceiling tiles of steam-cured aerated and foamed concrete. 2003-12 DIN 68762 Chipboard for specia l purposes in building construction. 1982-3 DIN 4121 Hanging wire-plaster ceilings. 1987-7 DIN 4102 Fire behaviour of building materials and bui ld ing components. 1998-5 Floors DIN 18560 Floor screeds in building construclion. 2004-4 DIN EN 13813 Screed material and lloor screeds. 2003-1 DIN 18560-2 Floor screeds in building constructionPart 2: Floor screeds and heating floor screeds on insulation layers. 2004-4 DIN EN 13756 Wood llooring - Terminology. 2003-4 DIN EN 13329 Laminate floor coverings. 2CXXl-9 DIN 68771 Sub-floors of wood chipboards. 1973-9 DIN EN 14354 Wood-based panels - Wood veneer floor covering. 2005-3 DI N EN 14085 Resil ient floor coverings. 2003-5 DIN EN 14041 Resil ient, textile and laminate floor coverings, 2005-2 DIN EN 685 (draft standard) Resilient. texti le and laminate floor coverings. 2005-5 DIN EN 1307 Textile floor coverings - Classification of pile carpets. 2005-5 DI N 5 1130 Testing of floor coverings - Determination of the anti-slip properties. 2004-6 DIN 18202 Dimensional tolerances in building constructIOn - buildings. 1997-4 DIN 4 109-10 (draft standard) Sound insulation in buildings - Part 10: Proposals for improved sound insulation for housing. 2CXXl-6 Surfaces and coati ngs DIN V 18550 Plastering/rendering and plastering/rendering systems. 2005-4 DIN EN 998-1 Specification for mortar for masonryPart 1: Rendenng and plastering mortar. 2003-9 DIN EN 459 Building lime. 2002-2 DIN EN 13279 Gypsum binders and gypsum plasters 1998-7 DIN 18558 Synthetic resin plasters. 1985-1 DIN EN 971-1 Paints and varnishes - Terms and definitions for coating materials - Part 1: General terms. 1996-9 DIN 18363 Contract procedures for building worksPart C: General technical specifications for build ing works; Painting works. 2002-12 DIN 55945 Paints and varnishes - Terms and definitions for coating materials. 1999-7 DIN EN 1062 Paints and varnishes - Coating materials and coating systems for exterior masonry and concrete. 2004-8 DI N EN ISO 12944 Paints and varnishes - Corrosion protection of steel structures by protective paint systems. 1998-7 EN 13300 Paints and varnishes - Water-borne coating materials and coating systems for interior wa lls and ceilings, 2002- I 1 DIN EN ISO 12572 Building materials - Determination 01 water vapour transmission properties. 2001 -9 Maximum working place concentrations and biological tolerance values for substances. Deutsche Forschungsgesellschaft DFG, Weinheim DIN 8580 Manufacturing methods; classification. 2003-9 DIN 4102 Fire behaviour of building materials and building components. 1998-5

Part E

Appendix

Physical parameters of materials DI N 4108 Thermal protection and energy economy in buildings. 2003-7 DI N EN 12524 Bui lding materials and products - Hygrothermal properties - Tabulated deSign values. 2CXXl-7 Eurocode 2 (EC2) DI N 4 102 Fire behaviour of build ing materia ls and build ing components. 1998-5

272

DIN EN 13501 Fire classification of construction products and building elements. 2002-6 Hazardous substances Biocidal Products Directive (98J8IEC) Hazardous Substances Act TRGS 51 9 (techn ica l rules for health and safety): Asbestos Refurbishment Works Cl1emicals Prohibition Act 1996 Formaldehyde Directive: DIBt Directive 100 TRGS 905 list of carcinogenic. mutagenic or reprotoxic substances

Bibliography General Cowan. Henry J.; Smith, Peter: The Science and Technology of Build ing Materials, New York, 1988 Deplazes, Andrea (ed.): Constructing Architecture. Materials. Processes. Structures , A Handbook, Basel! Boston/Berlin, 2005 Everett. Alan: Materials (MitChell'S Building Series), HarlOw, 1994 Federal Ministry of Transport, Bu ilding & Urban Development (pub.): ECOB IS 20Cl0 - Ecolog ica l Building Materials Information System of the Federal Ministry of Transport, Building & Urban Development and the Bavarian Chamber of Architects, with the help of the Bavarian Ministry for Regional Development & Environmental Issues, CD-ROM. Berl in. 20Cl0 Herzog, Thomas et al.: Facade Construction Manual, MuniclvBasel, 2004 Hiese, Wolfram: Backe. Hans: Baustoffkunde fUr Ausbildung und Praxis, Dusseldorf. 2001 ibk Institut fOr das Bauen mit Kunststoffen e.v.: Bauen mit Kunststoffen, Berlin, 2002 Kallenbach. Frank (ed.): Translucent Materials: Glass, Plastics, Metals, MunicM3asel, 2004 Lyons, Arthur: Materials for Architects and Builders: An Introduction, 2nd edition. London, 2004 Neumann, Dielrich; Weinbrenner, Ulrich: FrickJKnoll Baukonstruktionslehre 1, StuttgartlLeipziglWiesbaden, 2002 Neumann, Dietrich; Weinbrenner, Ulrich: FrickA Volger, Karl; Laasch. Eberhard: Haustechnik. Grundlagen. Planung. Ausfuhrung. Leipzig, 1999 Wellpott, Edwin: Technischer Ausbau von Gebauden, StuttgartlBerlinICologne,2CXXl Walls Albin, Rudiger: Grundlagen des Mobel- und Innenausbaus: Werkstofle - Konstruktion, Verarbeitung von VolIholz und Platten, Beschlchtung, Oberflachenbehandlung, M6belprufung, Leinfelden-Echterdingen, 1991 DOrries, Cornelia; Patena, Andrea: Raumkunst, Berlin, 2004 Marschall, Verena: Wohnen mit Glas, Munich, 2003 Myerson Jeremy; Hudson, Jennifer: Innenraume, Munich,

2000

Nutsch, Wolfgang: Handbuch der Konstruktion: Innenausbau, StuttgartlMunich, 2()(x) Peukert, Martin: Gebaudeausstattung. Systeme, Produkte, Materialien, Munich, 2()()4 Pfeifer, Gunter et al.: Masonry Construction Manual, MunichIBasel, 200 1 Pracht, Klaus: M6bel und Innenausbau, Tubingen, 1996 Rose, Wulf-Dietrich: Wohngifte - Handbuch fUr gesundes Bauen und Einrichten, Cologne, 1994 Schittich, Christian (ed.): Interior Spaces: Space, Light, Material. BasellBoston/Berlin, 2002 Schricker, Rudolf et 0.1.: Innenarchitektur in Deutschland, Leinfelden-Echterdingen, 2002 Schulz. Peter: Handbuch fUr den Innenausbau, Stuttgart,

2004 Steinll6lel, Otto: Werkstoffe und Verarbeitung im Innenausbau, Stuttgart, 1965 van anna, Edwin: Material world - innovative structures and finishes for interiors, BasellBostonIBerlin, 2002 Weber, Helmut; Hullmann, He inz: Porenbeton-Handbuch. Planen und Bauen mit System, Wiesbaden, 2002 Wilhide, Elizabeth: Holz, Glas und Co., Stuttgart, 2002 Intermediate floors Herzog, Thomas et 0.1.: Timber Construction Manual, Munich!13asel, 2()()4 Kind-Barkauskas, Friedbert et al.: Concrete Construction Manual, Mun ichlDusseldorf. 2002 Kroyss, Josel; Bammer, Alois: biologisch, naturlich bauen - ein Ratgeber biologischer Baustoffe, Stuttgart, 2000 Peukert, Martin: Gebaudeausstattung. Systeme, Produkte, Materialien, Munich, 2004 Weber, Helmut; Hullmann, Heinz: Porenbeton·Handbuch, Planen und Bauen mit System, WieSbaden, 2002 Floors Arbeitsgemeinschaft Holz eY: Holzbau Handbuch Reihe 6, Teil 4, Foige 2. Parkett-Planungsgrundlagen, Dusseldorf, 2001 BOlA (pub.) Stratenwerth-Nelte, Anna' Innenarchitekten, Wiesbaden, 2000 Bobran, Hans; Bobran-Wittfoht. Ingrid: Handbuch der Bauphysik, Braunschweig, 1995 Bundesverband Flachenheizungen eY: Richtlinie zur Herstellung dunnschichtiger beheizter Verbundkonstruktionen in Wohnbestand. Hagen, 2004 Hill, Dellev: Naturstein im Innenausbau, Gestaltung und Ausflihrung, Cologne, 2003 Kroyss, Josef: Bammer, August: biologisch natUrlich Bauen, StuttgartILeipzig, 2000 Waltjen, Tobias (ed.); M6tzl, Hildegund et al.: Okologi scher Bauteilkatalog. Bewertete gangige Konstruktionen. ViennaINewYork, 1999 Wild, Uwe: Fliessestrich aus Zement; in: Deutsches Architektenbtatt 11/2()()4, p. 6911. Wi lh ide, Elisabeth: Flooring: The Essential Source Book for Planning, Selecting and Restoring Floors, New York,

2005 Surfaces and coatings 86ttcher, Peter: Informationsdienst Holz. Anstriche fur Holz und Holzwerkstoffe 1m Aussenbereich, Dusseldorf,

1999 Dettmering, Tanja: Pulze in Bausanierung und Denkma lpflege, Berlin, 2001 Engelfned. Robert: Schaden an polymeren Beschichtungen, Stuttgart, 2001, vol. 26 Frossel, Frank: Handbuch Putz und Stuck. Herstellung, Beschichtung und Sanierung fur Neu- und Altbau, Munich, 2003 Frossel, Frank: Lexikon der Putz- und Stucktechnik, Stuttgart, 1999 Hantschke, Bernhard; Hantschke. Christian: Lacke und Farben am Bau. Erstanstriche und Werterhaltung. Eine EinfUhrung fUr Maler, Arch itekten, Gutachter, Stuttgartlleipzig, 1998 Huber, Marianne: Farbe, ein vielseitiger Baustoff; in: archithese 04/1998, p. 29 Kuppers, Hara ld: Color: Origin, Systems, Uses, London, 1973 Nemcsics. Antal: Colour Dynamics: Environmental Colour Design, Budapest, ,993

Picture credits

Reichel, Alexander et al.: Plaster, Render, Paint and Coatings, MunichlBasel, 2004 Ross, Hartmut; Stahl, Friedemann: Praxis-Handbuch Putz. Stoffe, Verarbeitung. Schadensvermeidung, Cologne,

2003 Rusam, Horst: Anstnche als 8eschichtungen fOr mineralische Untergrunde: Eigenschaften und fachgerechte Aufbringung, Renningen, 2002 Rusam, Horst: Anstriche und 8eschichtungen im Bauwesen . Eigenschaften, UntergnJnde, Anwendung , Stuttgart, 2004 Schbnburg, Kurt: 8eschichtungstechniken heute. Wirtschaftl iche Faktoren, Beschichlungstrager, Putzgestaltung. Anstrichtechniken. Lackierungen, Korrosionsschutz, Holzschutz, Berlin, 2005 Munich TU, Institute of Building Materials & Building Design: Farbe: in: db 03/2003 Wettstein. Stefanie: oas Recht auf Farbe - der Farbe ihr Recht! Zur Geschichte eines billigen 8austoffs; in: archithese 04/1998, p. 26fl.

Picture credits The authors and publishers would like to express their sincere gratitude to all those who have assisted in the production of this book, be it through providing photos or artwork or granting permission to reproduce their documents or providing other information. All the drawings in this book were specially commissioned. Photographs not specifically credited were taken by the architects or are works photographs or were supplied from the archives of the magazine DETAIL. Despite intensive endeavours we were unab le to establish copyright ownership in just a few cases; however, copyright is assured. Please notify us accordingly in such instances. The numbers refer to the figures

Part A Materials and architecture A

Manfred Hegger, Kassel (D)

The surface in contemporary architecture A 1.1 Christian Schittich. Munich (D) A 1.2 Georges Fessy, Paris (F) A 1.3 Ralph Richter/Architekturphoto, Dusseldorf (D) A 1.4 Shigeo Ogawa, Tokyo (J) A 1.5--6 Daniel Malhao, Lisbon (P) A 1.7 Christian Richters, Munster (D) A 1.8 Richard Glover/view, London (GB) A 1.9 Margherita Spiluttini. Vienna (A) The architect as building materials scout A 2.1 NASA. Washington DC (USA) A 2.2 Cabot International GmbH, Zug (CH) A 2.3-4 Jurgen Mayer H., Berlin (D) A 2.5 Daria ScagolialStijn Brakkee, Rotterdam (NL) A 2.6-7 Maurice Nio, Rotterdam (NL) A 2.8 OMA. Rotterdam (NL) A 2.9 Phil MeechiOMA, Rotterdam (NL) A.2.10 Christiane Sauer, 8erlin (D) Phil MeechiOMA, Rotterdam (NL) A 2.11 The critical path to sustainable construction A 3.2-4 Ludwig Steiger. Munich (D) Criteria for the selection of building materials A 4.3 Royalty-Free/Corbis. Dusseldorf (D) A 4.4 Mattieu Paley/CarbiS, Dusseldorf (D) The development of innovative materials A 5.9-12 8ASF AG, Ludwigshafen

Touching the senses - materials and haptics in the design process A 6.1-3 frog design europe GmbH. Herrenberg (D) A 6.4 Apollinaris & Schweppes GmbH, Hamburg (D) A 6.5 frog design europe GmbH, Herrenberg (D) A 6.6 Apple Computer, Inc . A 6.7-9 frog design europe GmbH, Herrenberg (D) A 6.10 Allianz Arena GmbH. Munich (D)

Part B Properties of building materials 8 Stone B 1.1

B 1.2 B 1.3 Bl.4 B 1.5 8 1.6 B 1.7 B 1.9

Manfred Hegger. Kassel (0)

Avenue Images/Index Stocf 24, 99 acoustic plaster -'> 190 acrylate sealant -'> 143 acrylic paints -'> 195, 269 adaptive glazing -'> 89 additive """"153,187, 199,269 adhesive ......" 44, 53, 57, 62, 63, 65, 71, 74,78,94,96,97,121,123, 125-127, 135,138,141,143-145, 160. 17 1.174, 176,180, 181, 183,185,191,194.201, 225. 268, 269 admixtures -'> 56-58,188 aerated concrete -'> 60,61, 100, 156, 165, 166 aerogel --'I- 14, 140 Agenda 2 1 _18 aggregate ....... 25, 47. 56, 57, 59. 50, 61, 99.112.137.156, 161,172,173,177. 189,191,201,210,211 airborne pollutants --'I- 39, 99, 189 airtightness --'1-26,132,139,142, 145 air cavity --'1-105-107,110-112 air change rate --'I- 26, 142 air conditioning ....... 146, 150 alkyd resin -179,185, 193,195, 199, 201,269 aluminium --'I- 11,23.48,56,64.77-79, 81,83,85,89, 107, 110, 111, 113- 117, 119,121,122,124,138,139,143-145, 148-151.157,168,171,180,191,198, 199,209,215,225,227,228.24 1,243. 244.248,249,255,257-260,264,268 anhydrite binders --'I- 55 animal fibres --'I- 183 anisotropy --'I- 67, 68, 72 anti-glare applications --'I- 89 anti-graffiti coatings --'I- 200 antistatic floor coverings --'I- 175, 183 aquatic ecotoxicity --'I- 24

aramid fibres --'I- 92, 95 arCh --'I- 163, 165 arsenic --'I- 268 asbestos ....... 113, 135. 268, 269 ashlar walling .-....)0 42,155 asptlaltshingles .-....)063. 107, 121, 122, 131 B bakelite ....... 90 ballast _ 56, 57, 63 bamboo --'I- 179. 212, 213 basalt --'1-10,40.41, 110,112,113,136,

256 basement --'1-26,125,127,13&-138,143, 144,162, 189. 190,207,218,226,269 beam --'1-66,71-73.155.163-167,205, 209,2 11,213- 215,217,223,230,237, 239,246,255 behaviour in fire --'1-57,160,166,199,265 biocides _ 268 bitumen emulsion .-....)0 62, 63, 65, 141 bitumen solution --'I- 62 bituminous coating --'I- 209 block-an-edge parquet --'I- 178, 179, 184 blackboard _ 72-74 blower door --'I- 26, 142 blOWing agent --'I- 60, 13&-138 blown bitumen --'I- 62, 63, 65 blown cyl inder sheet glass _ 84 boiling point -'> 26, 65. 91,264 bonded screed --'I- 171 borosilicate glass --'I- 86 braCing --'1-70,71,73,74,80,112, 152, 158, 160. 162,236 brass _ 65, 82, 83, 148 brick arch floor .-....)0 163 bronze ......" 76, 77, 79, 83 building envelope --'I- 10, 38, 52, 65, 79, 87,103-106.11 1,118,120,133,142, 144, 153, 154. 186. 232, 240. 254 building materials class -'> 47, 265 building performance --'I- 27, 99, 106, 107,110-112,120,129,133-135,153, 170, 173, 18a, 194, 196, 198. 199 building services --'I- 12, 20. 25, 90.105. 146,153, 156,158, 163,164,167,168 C cable duct _ 243 cable net _78.117 CAD _33, 34 calcium silicate insulating boards ....... 136,168 calcium silicate units --'I- 60 calcium sulphate screed --'I- 172- 174 calendering --'I- 93 calorific value --'I- 94, 98-100 capillary action --'I- 51. 144, 158, 190, 191,194,197.199 capillary water absorption - 188,196 carbon dioxide _ 23. 26, 55, 59. 67, 75, 82,95,99,101,132,135,137,138. 143, 189,194-196,198,268 carbon dioxide emissions -'> 23 carbon d ioxide permeability .-....)0 195, 196 carbon fibre --'I- 33, 34 castin9 ......" 76, 79, 80, 83-85, 87, 92, 95, 101,115,148, 164,165,266 cast glass _ 84, 86. 195 cast iron ....... 76,79.80. 149,264 ceiling _61.166 cellular glass _86, 133,134, 136,141, 173,205,240.241.243.244,250 cellulose fi bre --'I- 139 cell ceilings --'I- 167, 168 cement-based sealants --'1-144,145 cement-bonded particleboard --'I- 109 cement fibreboard - 60. 100 cement screed ....... 6 1, 170-174,243,257 ceramic panels _107,11 1.119 ceramic tiles .-....)0 11, 53,1 11,160, 17&178,185,215,246 CFC ....... 99,268

characteristic strength .-....)0 266 chemical passivation --'I- 197 chippings --'I- 47,57,63,64, 123, 127, 173,204 chloroprene rubber --'I- 93, 97.149 chromium """" 16,63,77,80,81,148, 149,193,269 cladding _11,17, 38,39,41,42,46. 47,51.53,60,6 1,71,72,77,81.87, 90,99,107-116,134,135, 152,153, 158, 186, 198,226,228,256 clayey shale --'I- 40, 41 , 43 clayware --'I- 49 clay brick --'1-46,49,50.51,57,136, 153, 154, 155, 172,173,204 clay brickwork _ 10, 104. 113, 153. 155, 203, 220, 245. 258 clay element --'I- 245, 246 clay roof tile --'I- 53, 123 clay lile subfloor _ 174 coefficient of thermal expansion .-....)0 68, 81,86,91,94,113,176, 199,265 cold deck --'I- 120 colour reference systems ....... 187 colour rendering index --'I- 266 colour wheel --'I- 186, 187 combustibil ity class ....... 74 comfort .-....)0 18, 22, 23. 26, 27, 34, 104, 106, 116, 133, 146, 175, 180-183, 206 composite beams _ 164 composite boards - 61 composite Ilat slab ....... 162, 163 compOSite floor --'I- 163, 164, 207 compressive strength """"17,40-42,45, 47,48.50, 51,55,56.58-60,63.68, 80,8 1,85,127,135, 137,139,152, 1~,171, l n, 1 75,188,190,100,~4,

266 computer ....... 10.14,1&-19.25,34 ,35, 100.146,171 concrete cover .-....)0 57, 59.112,163, 165 concrete mix --'1-10,59,112 concrete plank floor --'I- 163 concrete roof tile --'I- 123, 124 concrete topping --'I- 50, 163-165, 167,

207 condensation --'1-106.107, 114,115, 142, 245 conductive floor coverings --'I- 175 construction joints _ 142 contact adhesives _ 97 convection --'I- 25, 26, 29. 88, 142 copper --'1-24,64,7&-78,81-84,113, 114, 118, 119, 121, 124,131, 147-149, 151, 182,248,249,269 core plywood .-....)0 72- 74.101,107.109. 159,160,167, 205 cork floor coverings .-....)0 180 corrosion --'1-10,59,78-80,82,83,99,110, 114,124,147- 150,193,195, 197,198 corrosion protection --'I- 78 corrugated bitumen sheets ....... 124 corrugated fibre-cemen t sheets __ 124 cotton cloth --'I- 130 crack --'1-85,87,142,181,196,25 1 cracking ....... 58, 59, 63, 69, 70, 71 , 74, 91,113. 142.166,170, 171,188, 189, 193, 196 cross-laminated timber _ 73, 158, 167 cross-linked polyethylene --'I- 147. 148. 150,151 CUring --'I- 55, 56, 58--60, 62, 63, 95, 96, 143, 144, 164,172,177,180,194,195,

251 curtain wall

--'1-84, 104,110-112,242

o damp-proof course --'I- 144, 199 damp-proof membrane _179.181, 211.215,225. 243,257 DDT --'I- 268, 269 demolition --'I- 20-22, 25, 98, 146, 155,

density .-....)0 14, 29, 30, 39, 43, 46, 49-51, 56-58,60,61,68,70,72,74,77,81, 86,91-94, 101, 113, 126, 130, 147, 150,153.156.159,160, 170,182,190, 193,208 diffusion --'1-22.46,47,51.63,70,73, 74,105,124,142,145, 148,150,166, 172,174,180,184, 188.100,190,100, 196, 198, 199.200 diffusion-equivalent air layer thickness .-....)0 188 diffusion resistance --'I- 145, 196 dimensional coordination --'I- 113, 155,

156 DIN colour system ....... 187 dioxi n -'> 268 discoloration .-....)0 51 double- leaf masonry --'I- 57, 111 double-skin roof --'I- 120, 122, 128 double glazing _ 85, 88. 116, 119,207, 209,211,214,2 15,2 19,22 1.225,241. 243.246,249,253,254,257,259.260 drainage layer --'I- 128, 253 dressed stone --'I- 42 drinking water _ 63.94, 96, 99, 144, 146-148.150 dry coat thickness --'I- 196, 197, 199 duopitch roof --'I- 122 durability _ 18, 20, 2 1, 23, 25. 26, 35, 39.48,49,52,64,66,68,75,82.83, 98,99, 106,108,110,122.126,129, 130,145,147- 151.157.181,186, 192- 194, 197, 198. 208 E earthenware ....... 49,53.175.177, 184 earthquakes .-....)0 162 eaves --'I- 75,108,109,122-124,197,

217 ecosystem .-....)0 21,22 efflorescence --'I- 51 elastomer --'I- 64, 65, 95, 144, 149 electrical conductivily _77,173,175 electrical installations --'1- 146,151 electrochemical series _ 78, 197 electroga lvanising --'I- 82 electrostatic behaviour --'I- 175 elongation at failure ....... 80 emissivity _ 88 enamelling .-....)0 87 end-grain wood-block flooring --'I- 178,

179 end grain --'1-71,109 energy economy --'I- 142 energy requirement ....... 22-24, 49, 79, 83 engineering brick ....... 50, 51, 53, 101, 107,155,176,177,184 engobe --'I- 49, 52 environmental audits _ 19 environmental compatibil ity .-....)0 19 environmental effects --';> 18, 22, 23, 24,

25,98 environmental impact

....... 18.19,23-26,

98 EnVIronmental Product Declarations

--'I-

98 EPDM --'1-93,95,97,101,119.127.131. 144,145,148-151,207,211,223,255 epoxy resin - 101, 199 equilibrium moisture content _ 68 eutrophication potential --'I- 24, 99 expanded clay --'I- 46. 57, 60, 110, 128, 131,156,165 expanded metal _ 12,115,168,189 expanded perlite --'I- 201 expanded polystyrene foam _ 15, 16, 29,30,207,231 expansion Joint --'1-112,143,179 external wall ....... 13,51.87, 101.105-107, 109--111,115,118,121,142,197 extrusion -'> 79

268

277

Subject index

F facade _11-13,15,17,24,38-42,53, 60,73,77,81,83,84,90,92-94,96, 99, 103-105, 107-119, 195-197,206, 207,214-216,220,226,229,230,234, 237,239-245,248,249,251,252,256, 259,260 fair -face concrete _ 10, 11, 54, 56, 58, 112,153,154,194,212,218,220,242, 251 fastener _124,126,257 ferrous metal _ 81 fibre-reinforced plastic _ 96, 115, 124 fibreboard -,lo60, 72, 74,100, 131, 159, 160, 169,180,231 fibre composile _ 29,174,183 fibrous plasterboard _ 50, 169 filler _ 55, 59, 68,165,189,269 film formation _ 193 filter -,lo 127, 128, 131, 186,229 finish coat -,lo 189-191,194,197-199 fire-resistant glass -,lo 85, 88 fire protection -,lo 57, 50, 61, 78, 87, 106, 108,114,146,150,158,163,165,167, 170,188,190,199,268,269 fire resis tance _16,60,150,153,156158,160,163,165,166,190,199,242 fittings _13,26,83,89,147-151,174, 222 flag -,lo 53, 176 flatweave carpets -,lo 182 flal roof -,lo 53, 62, 64,120,125,126 flal slab _162_ 164,166 flax _180 flexible bitumen Sheeting -,lo 64, 125, 12 fleXible polymer-modified bitumen sheeting -,lo 63,64 flexible waterproof sheeting -,lo 64, 125 floating screed -,lo 166, 170, 171 float glass _ 84,86-88,107 flooring -grade board _ 60 flooring cement _ 172, 173, 175 floor covering _ 25, 39, 57, 90, 99, 170-183,213 floor finish _41,170,173-175,181 foamed plastics _ 90 form-finding -,lo 34 formaldehyde -,lo 27, 30, 70, 71, 90, 91, 93,97,268,269 formwork -'" 10, 16,46,54,57-59,71, 110,112,153-155,157,163- 165,197, 204,212,213,242,251 fonnwork panel _ 10 forrnwork tie _10,154, 155,251 foundation _90,98, IDS, 129, 142, 144, 214,225,232,245 frost resistance _ 41, 42, 53, 56 fung icide _ 200, 269 furan _ 268 G

gabionwall -,lo107,1 10 galvanised steel -,lo 79,147,149,150, 228,230,231 gasket -,lo 101,119,144 glass --'> 83 glass-concrete slab _ 163 glass brick _ 157 glass ceramics _ 50, 86 glass cloth _ 61, 64, 85, 86, 97, 126, 127,129,130,191 glass fibre _ 15, 17, 86, 95, 96, 115, 124,128,150,160,180 glass fleece -,lo 64, 86 glass wool -+ 27 glaze -,lo 193-195 global warming -,lo 18, 22, 24, 98-101, 268 global warming polential -,lo 22, 24, 99, 100,101,268 glue _97, 192 glued laminated timber _ 71 - 73,166

278

granite _38,40-42,48,113,176,184 granite slabs _ 38 granolithic finish -+ 172 gravel -) 10, 25, 40, 45, 48, 54, 56-58, 63,64,112,125-128,131,173,177, 191,204,218 9reenhouse effect _ 22, 99 green roof -,lo 214 grey energy -'" 23, 24 grid ceilings _ 167, 168 grinding _10,42,81,84,86,87,113, 154,196,198 groundwater -,lo 26,99, 144 grouting -,lo 57 gunmetal _ 83, 148 gypsum _ 16, 17,54- 57,60,61,72,82, 100,145,153,155-157,159,161,166, 168,169,174,188-190,198,199,20 1, 234,241,259,260 gypsum plaster _ 55, 50, 168, 169, 188- 190,199,201,234,259,260 H haptics _ 9, 29, 32-35 hardboard -,lo 72, 74 hardness -,lo 39, 41,49, 52, 61, 68, 85, 147,173,179,193,208 hardwood _ 68, 71, 179 hazardous substance __ 19, 21, 23, 44, 93,135,176,193,196,268 HCFCs _ 135, 137 heartwood -,lo 67, 68, 108 heat-absorbing insulating glass -,lo 88 heat-treated glass -) 85, 87, 116,239, 259, 260 heated screed _ 171 heating system _ 150 heat conduction -,lo 29, 30, 88 heat flow -,lo 133, 134, 140 heat loss -,lo 118,132-135,140,150 heat radiation -) 29, 88, 157 heat storage capacity _ 31, 39, 45, 68, 134,135,138,153- 156,163,165,176, 177,190 high-density polyethylene -,lo 147 high-pressure laminate -,lo 160, 179 high-rise building _ 77, 84 hollow-block floor _ 163, 166 hollow-core slab _162- 164,166 hollow clay block _ 51 hollow clay block floors -,lo 51 hot-dip galvan ising -,lo 82, 149 hot water _146,147,150,171,200 human toxicological classification _ 24 humidity _ 46, 51, 56, 58, 50, 78, 80, 105,112,128, 133, 135,136,142,145, 155,156,159,160,172,179,189 hydration -,lo 55, 56 hydraulic lime ---'> 55,57, 188-190 hydrocarbon _ 62,91,135,192,268 hydrostatic pressure _65,143,144, 199

hygroscopy

_ 67

I impact assessment _ 24, 98 impact category -+ 98 impact sound insulation _134,136--139, 166, 172, 173, 176, 179-182,221, 243, 253 industrial bitumen _ 63 infrared radiation _ 29, 88, 99 injection moulding _ 93 insect attack -,lo 138, 197 insulating plaster -,lo 190 insulation cork board ---'> 136, 138, 141 interior cl imate -) 22, 24-27, 3D, 44, 45, 55,68,106,116,133,155,156, 163, 166,176,179,183,189,200,208,214 intermediate floor _ 163, 166 internal surface temperature _ 133 interstitial condensation _ 134, 135, 142 inventory analysis _ 24, 98

in situ concrete _ 25, 58, 107, 112, 118, 144,153,163-165,214,242 iron -,lo 37, 48, 55, 56, 63, 76-81, 84, 86, 101,112,149,193,195,197,268 IR absorber-modified polystyrene --Jo 29,138 isolated ceiling floor

-,lo 163

J jointirl g _64,65,71,78,108, 120,121, 127,142,157,181 joint sealant _ 143 L laboratory -,lo 27,32,45,150 laminated floor _ 175 laminated glass _ 87 laminated safety glass -,lo 87, 116 laminated strand lumber _ 72, 74 laminated veneer lumber -:> 72- 74,158 laminboard _ 73,74,159 lead -,lo 24, 25, 33, 40, 57, 70, 78, 81-84, 86,87,96,98,99, 114-117, 121, 123, 1 ~,134,1~,142,147,1~,1~160,

166,170,171,174-176,178,182,183, 186,188,19 1, 197,210,254,268,269 levelling _ 137,155,158,159,170-172, 176,207,239,268 lifetime -,lo 20 life cycle assessment _ 19, 23-25, 27, 42,67,72,98,100,110,139, 146,162, 181 life cycle costing -,lo 25 lightweighlloam _ 46, 47,133,155,159 lightweight plaster _ 190 light transmittance -,lo 157 lignin -,lo 68,75,109, 138, 139, 198 lime _ 55, 57, 100, 189, 195, 197, 199, 201 limestone -,lo 9, 40-43, 55 lime mortar -,lo 49, 54, 57, 155, 190 lime plasterwork ---'> 189 lining _12,17,46,120,138,148,152, 153, 158, 159, 160, 200,2 13,221,260 linoleum -,lo 180, 181,207 lintel _ 155, 221 liquid-applied waterproofing systems _ 125,144 load bearing function _ 38,158,242 loadbearing structure _ 10, 66, 111 , 112,114,120,142,152,158,206,212, 232,242,254 load bearing wall _ 152 loam _ 10,38,44-48,62,100, 133, 153,155,158-161,173,175,188,189, 203- 205 loam brick _ 46 loampiasler -,lo46,47,16 1,189 loam screed -) 173 log construction _ 66, 153, 157, 158, 218 Lotus Effect -,lo 52, 87 louvre _167,168,222,259,260 low-e coating _ 88 M ma9nesia cement _ 55 magnesite flooring -,lo 172 maintenance _19-21,25,1 14,116, 123,146, 178,186,195,198,268 marble _10,38,39,41,113,172,176, 184,186,192 masonry -) 42,44,46-51,54,55,57, 58,60-62,105,110-1 13,119,132,140, 146, ISO, 152-158, 160-162, 165, 166, 189,190,194,198,221,254 masonry bond -,lo110,111 mastic asphalt _63,65,137,145,172177,269 media facade _ 12 medium board -,lo 72, 74 medium density fibreboard -,lo 74 melamine resin -) 31,95,133,160,179, 185

melting point _ 77,79,80 membrane _129,130,179,181,203, 211,215,225,243,257,261,263 metal mesh -) 83 microbial volatile organic compounds _ 268 mineral-fibre insulation -,lo 138, 174,207 minera l binder -,lo 73,156,167,169,176, 190,198 mineral fibre _ 138, 257, 259, 260, 269 mineral wool _ 128, 133-135, 141 , 161, 191,207,249 mixing colours -,lo 187 modular system -) 96, 245 modulus of elasticity _ 70, 78, 80, 91,

190 moisture content -,lo 67,68,70-72,75, 100,109, 110,138,172,175,179, 183, 197,198 moisture control _ 106, 132, 134, 158, 170 monopitch roof -,lo 122 mortar -,lo 38, 42, 45-49, 5 1-57, 60, 62, 82,85,86,107,110,111,116,118,119, 123,127,128,135,137,141,154-157, 160,161,171,172,176,177,184, 185, 188, 190, 191, 208, 239, 253, 257 mosaic parquet -,lo 178, 179,184,185 MS polymer sealants _ 143 multi-layer wall _ 152, 158, 159 multi-walled sheets _ 115 N

nanocellular foam -,lo 30 natural asphalt ---'> 48, 62, 63, 65 Natural Colour System _ 187 naturallighllng _ 24 natural rubber -,lo 9(}, 180 natural stone -,lo 10, II, 38, 39, 42, 99, 107,110,113,136,155,175-177,181, 184,198 noise _26,106,147, 148, 150,156, 168,240 non-ferrous metal -,lo 81 non-hydraulic lime _ 55, 57 non-hydrostatic pressure _ 65, 144 non-Ioadbearing wall _ 152 non-slip -,lo42, 175-177, 180, 181 normal-weight concrete -) 25, 59 nutrification potential _ 24

o one-part coating -,lo 194 optical density -) 86 opus caementitium _ 48, 54 organic fibres _ 27 oriented strand board _ 72,74 overhead glazing -,lo 87, 116 Oxidised ceramics _ 49 ozone depletion potential _ 22, 24, 99 p paint _ 15, 78,112, 143,167,188,200, 207,225,234,24 1 Pantone colours ---'> 187 paper wallpaper _ 200 paraffin _30,31,62,138,190 parallel strand lumber _ 7 1-73 parapet -,lo 2 10,211,221 parquet flooring _ 178-180 particleboard _ 72, 74, 107, 109, 119, 159-151,168,169,174,180,181,251 parti\lOn -,lo 12,27,47,50,74,96,134, 138,139,142,152,153,158-160, 162-164 patent glazing _116,117,119,121 patination _ 82 patterned glass _ 85, 86, 116 pavers -,lo 177, 253 paving-grade bitumen _ 62, 63 pentachlorophenol _ 269 perceived temperature _ 175 perforated brick _ 46, 50, 51 perimeter joints -,lo 171

Subject index

perlite building boards --:>' 160 permanent formwork --:>' 138, 141, 153, 164,165,213 pesticide ----'> 139, 193, 194, 268 petroleum _62,63,91,137,268,269 phase Change material --:>' 30 phenolic resin --'10 73, 74, 90, 93, 97,133 photochemical ozone creation potential ----'>24 pHvalue _99,147,148,150,198 pigment _ 92,194, 195, 197, 205, 242, 243,253 pile carpet _ 182, 183 pipe --'1052,83.126, 147-151,171,268 pipe insulation --;. 150 pitch _52.63,64,116,120-125,128,

236 plain concrete _ 59 plant-bearing layer _ 128. 131,208, 209,215 plaster _ 30, 46, 47, 49, 51,54,55.60, 61,105,107,138,139,143,145,156, 157,160,161,168.169. 186, 188-192, 194, 199, 201, 219. 221. 234, 259, 260,

268 plasterboard _ 30, 50, 61,100,139, 159- 161,166,169,172,174.207,211, 231,232,235,246 plastering mix --'10 188 plasterwork _ 188, 189, 201 plasticised PVC --;. 94,151 plasticiser _ 57 plastic forming --:>' 93 plywood _12,14,72-74,101,104, 107, 109,1 19,140,158-161.167.175, 181. 193,205,209-21 1. 213-215. 217, 225. 227 polished plate glass _ 84, 85 polish ing _ 10, 39, 42, 83, 84, 113, 148, 149,154 pollutant --'10 18 pollution _21,26.41,261 polybutene _ 150. 151. 181 polycarbonate _ 14, 92, 93, 95, 97, 209.

255 polycarbonate double-walled sheet

209 polychlorinated biphenyls _ 269 polyester _ 15, 64, 9 1,92,93,95,97. 124-131,133, 136,137,139,144,173, 175,181,184, 192,194,201,224.225. 261. 263. 269 polyethylene _ 64. 88, 91. 93. 94, 96. 125.127, 128, 131.141,145,147- 151, 174,181, 185 polyisobutylene --'10 93, 97 polymer-modified bitumen ----'> 62-65, 125. 144. 145. 243. 253 polymerisation _ 91. 93 polymethyl methacrylate --:>' 91 polyolefin --'1093,181 polypropylene ----'> 64.93-96. 126, 147-151.175. 181 polystyrene _15,16,29-31,50,57,61, 91,93,94.96.125.126,128.131-133. 136-139.141.150.157,190,191,199. 207.224.231.243 polysulphide sealants --:>' 143 polytetra fluoroethylene _ 93-95, 97, 101 polyurethane ----'>15. 16,24.29,71,74. 92,96.97.125.126.128.133,136-138. 141,143.144.145,150,173,179,182, 185,195,197,198, 199,201,233,245, 246. 254, 269 polyurethane sealants _ 143 polyvinyl acetate _ 97, 14 1, 185, 200 polyvinyl chloride _91,145.147-150. 181,195,199 ponding _108.117.125.197 porcelain _ 49, 50 portland cement _ 54. 56, 61 post-and-rail -"'81,117.139, 140.153

potassium water glass --:>'192,194,195 powder coating _ 124,148,198 pozzolana _ 54. 55 prada foam _ 16 precast concrete _ 15, 58-60. 107, 112, 143, 157, 163, 165, 217 pressed glass _ 85, 86, 107 prestressed hollow-core slabs _ 164 primary energy input _ 18. 24. 27. 98-100 primer _143, 189,193,194,196-201,

254 profiled boards ---'" 108, 109 profiled glass ---'" 84. 86. 117. 157 proof stress _ 80, 83 PTFE-coated glass cloth _ 130 pumice aggregate --:>' 156, 161,210,21 1 purlin _ 122

a Quality control

--:>' 27

R

R&D ---'" 28, 29, 34 Rabitz ceiling _ 168 radioactivi ty _ 40 radon _ 26, 269 raised floor --:>' 170,17 1,183,241,253 real wood parquet laminate flooring --:>' 178

reconstituted stone ---'" 59. 107. 110, 112. 113.176,177. 184.209.221,257 recycled aggregate _ 25 recycled material _ 25, 83, 85 recycling _ 21,24-26.49,57,59,63, 77-82.93,94.99-10 1,135.136,139, 146

refractory products _ 49 refurbishment _ 20, 46,125,139,1 46, 178,180,190-192,195,198,268 reinforced concrete ---'" 23. 51, 57, 59, 62.77.99,100.142.152.153.158. 161-166,198.207.209.211-213.215, 219- 221,225,226.231.235,239-243, 246, 249, 250, 253. 257, 259, 260 render _15,45-49,51,54,57,61,73, 100,105.107.115.134.135. 143,145, 170,188-191.194.196.198.199,203, 218,219,241 renovation plaster _ 190 resilient floor coverings _ 170, 180, 181 ribbed slab ---'" 163-165 ridge ---'" 52. 66, 122-124,2 16,230.254 ripewood _ 67, 68 rising damp _ 65, 144, 177,205 rock wool _ 27,133,135,136,219 rolling _ 64, 78. 79, 81 , 83, 85. 86, 125, 144

rooftop planting

_125.128.129.208,

214 roof covering

_ 52, 53, 120-123,227,

231 roof pitch _52,64.120-124.128 roof tile _ 48,52,53.123. 124 root barrier _ 128,131,209 rotationa l moulding _ 93 rubber ---'" 15,16.65,90,91.93,95,97. 101.121,125-128,143-145,149-151, 172,175,180,181,184,185,192.194, 197,269 rubber sheeting _ 125.126,145

S safety _ 21,22,27,68,81,85,87,88, 116,119,150,161,175,176,205,207, 209,2 19,222,223.230,239.255.257. 259.260,269 sand _ 25, 40, 45, 49, 53, 54, 56, 57, 60,63,64.79,81,84.85,87,107,109, 112,113,127,136,140,154,172-174. 176,177,189,190,224,225.253 sand-blasting _ 81,85.87,113,154 sandstone _ 10, 39-41 . 43. 110. 176 sandwich elements _112, 153

sandwich panel _ 182, 217, 260 sanitary appliances _ 26, 150 sapwood ---'" 67.68.75,122 sawn timber _69,70.107.128 sawtooth roof _ 122 scagliola _ 54, 55 sealing strip _ 144 seamless ceiling _ 168 sedimentary rocks _ 40, 4 1. 43. 176 self-cleaning glass _ 87 selt-compacting concrete -Jo 58 selt-Ievelling screed _ 172 separating joints _ 142, 143 separating layer ---'" 128, 170. 17 1. 200, 207,211 . 215.221.225.243.253 serviceability _ 18, 52. 69, 106, 108, 145

sg raffito _ 191 shear wall _ 152, 158. 160 Sheathing _82,95,123,131, 145,151 sheep's wool _ 133, 136 sheet metal _ 11, 14,65,78,79.89, 108,114,115,120-122.124.144.145. 1 53,1~.I65,I68,ln.l~.I00.210.

243.246, 253 shell _ 54,57,90,96,226-228 shrinkage _ 44, 45, 74 shutter _155,213,249 silicon _ 55, 56, 77. 79, 8 1, 84-86. 91 , 95,118.200.268 silicone _14.16,95.110.116,117. 119, 129,130,136,137,143, 151,157, 188.192,194,195,198,223 silk-screen prinling _ 87 single-leaf glass facade _ 116 single-skin roof --;. 120, 122 sing le-storey sheds _ n, 77 skyscrapers _ 18, 33, 77 slate _41,64,113,123,184.185,207 socket _ 52, 148-151 soffit _12.134.159- 162.164_168.170. 190.260 software _14,19,33-35,100 softwood _66-69,71-73,161,178,179 solar-control glass _ 88 solar cells ---'" 118 solar collectors ----'> 96 solar energy _ 18, 30, 75, 86, 87, 118,

130 solar radiation _ 14.77,87,88,99, 111, 116. 118,123, 129,140,188,237 soldering _ 79. 82, 120, 121 solid modular wall _ 152 solid timber _ 66, 68-74,105,108,109. 140,153,158-160,163, 166,168,178, 179.199 solvent ....;.26,65.96.121,127.143, 180,192- 195,197,198.200.269 sorption _ 45-47,155,156,163,166, 183,189 sound absorption ---'" 74. 168 sound insulation _ 25. 51 , 60, 6 1. 74, 81.86,87,89.94,96,106,116,130, 133- 139, 142.144, 146,149, 153-159, 161.163. 166. 167. 170, I n- 176. 179-182.221.242.243,253,269 spalling _ 59,188 special ceramics _ 49, 50 specific heat capacity ---'" 43.59. 134 spray plastering _191 sprung floors _ 174 stabiliser _ 57 stability _ 39, 49. 52, 50, 6 1, 64, 67, 71-73,87.92.95,110,111. 114 , 135, 148 . 150. 1 ~,1~. 1 ~,1~. 1 ~.17 4 ,

176,195,204 stain less steel _ 12, 77, 78, 80, 81, 110. 114.118, 119.121.122, 124, 147- 151, 182,205. 222.223.234,236.239.248, 250. 259. 260 steel rein forcement _ 58, 196, 198 stone _10.11,13,29,38,39,41-44,

48,54,58,59,66,76,92,99,104, 107, 110-113.118,121,125,127.136.144, 153.155.162, In, 173, 175-177. 180, 181,184- 186,193,198,203,208,209, 212,221,237,253,256,257,269 stoneware ---'" 49. 50. 52. 53. 149. 177 stone facing _ 38. 54 stone tiles _42,110,111,176,184,257 straight-run bilumen _ 62, 65 straw loam ---'" 46 stretch coverings ....;. 167, 200. 201 structural steelwork _ 77, 78 structural veneer lumber (SVL) _ 71. 73 stucco work _ 10, 11 styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) ---4 91. 93 sunblind _ 243. 244 sunshading _12,87,89,116 sunace treatment - 15. 38, 39, 42. 58. 149,154,160,176,178- 180,198 sustainability _ 18, 19,22,25,27,75, 98.166 sustainable construction _ 9,18- 21. 23,98, 104 sustainable development _ 18, 22, 30 107. 108. 110. swelling ---'" 49. 68, 130, 188, 198 switchable thermal insulation _ 140 sWitches _ 35, 89 synthelic building materials ---'" 21 synthetic fibres _90. 128.144, 182- 184,201 synthetic material _ 87, 90-94, 96,147, 182,200,20 1.203 synthetic resin screed (SR) --4 173 synthetic rubber _ 144, 151,180 synthetic sheeting _ 125, 126, 141, 145,

n.

219 T T-beam slab _163,165,166 tamped concrete _ 205 tamped loam _44.45.153,155,173, 175,204 tar _ 63. 90, 268, 269 tear strength _ 126, 130 tensile bending strength _74,171,172 tensile strength _ 58.59,68. BO, 81,85, 87,91.135.176.268 terrazzo _ 56, 172, 173, 175, 177, 242 terrestrial ecotox ic ity (EeT) _ 24 textile floor coverings ---'" 175, 182-185 thatch _ 122 thermal break _ 85, 116, 134.211,215, 219,243,257 thermal bridges _ 107.117,134,135, 137, 138,191 thermal comfort _ 26 thermal conductivity _ 29, 30, 39, 43. 51,59,60,67,68.77.81,83.91. 106, 132-135. 139,140.150,153-155.173. 176. 188.190 thermal energy systems _ 118 thermal expansion _ 39, 68, 81-83, 86. 9 1,94,110.113. 147. 148,150,172, 176. 199,240 thermal Insu lation -'" 14,29,38.46,50, 51.57.68.86,88.89.105-107,1 11, 119.120.125,128.130,132-140.142, 144.145,153-158,170,171,175,183, 188-191.200,201,207,211,213,215. 217,219,221,225,227,228.231.233. 235.240.241,243.246,249-251.253, 257,268.269 thermal inSulation composile syslem _ 139,188,191,201 thermal resistance ----'> 132, 135 thermal transmittance _ 57,58, 132, 134,154,158 thermoplastic _ 62, 64, 65, 90-92, 94, 96.12 1.125-- 127,129.144, 173.181, 198

thermo sensitive paint _ 15 thermoset _ 93

279

Index of names

thick bitumen coat ing _ 141, 142, 145 tile _ 48, 52, 53,121,123,124,168, 172,174,176,177,240 timber-concrete composite construction --+ 167 timber-concrete composite floor __ 163, 207 timber-framed buildings __ 44, 46, 54 timber-frame construction _ 158 timber element floor --+ 163, 165 timber joist floor _164,166 titanium-zinc __ 82, 83,114, 119, 131 TOC value _147, 148 tolerance _ 39

waste water __ 26, 59, 94, 96, 143, 146, 147,149,150 wa ter-repellent coatings -"" 199 water/cement ratio _ 56 waterproofing _15,26,63-65,72,81, 83,90,92-96,105,120,121,125-128, 130,131,134- 137,139,141,142,144, 145,170,172,188,205,207,209,211, 213,215,221,227,231,241,243,249, 253,257,269 wa terstop _1 13,144 water absorption __ 39, 41, 49, 51, 53, 60,61,135- 137,188,189,191,196,

total energy transmittance --+ 89 toughened safety glass _ 85, 87, 116, 119,150,205,219,230,239,255,257, 259,260 to)(icity _ 23, 24, 135, 147, 192 translucency --+ 11, 13, 130 translucent concrete --+ 16 transparency _ 11-13, 85, 91, 116, 118, 130, 157, 216, 229, 240 transparent thermal insulation --+ 86, 136,140 trass --+ 48, 190, 204 triple glazing __ 89 tubular particleboard (ET) _74,159 tunnel --+ 49, 50, 63, 237 two-part coating --+ 193-195 two-way-span intermediate floors _163,164

water permeability --+ 196 wa ter vapour diffusion __ 63,142,145, 188, 195, 196 wearing course _57,120,170,172, 173, 178, 179 weathering steel _77,78 ,104,114, 115,232,233 weather resistance --+ 63 weld ing --+ 78, 79, 81, 90, 94,120,121, 127, 150,169 white cement _ 56, 59 w indow _ 11, 13,27,73 ,78,79,83,89, 93,94,108, 117,143,157,207,209-211, 213,215,218,219,221,241,243,244, 246,248- 251,253,257,259,260 wind loads _152,162,191,237 w ind suction _114,123 , 125-127 w ired glass _ 85,86, 116,230 wood -based product _73,74,159,178 wood-blOCk flooring _176-179,184, 185,207,210,249,269 wood-wool multi-ply board (WN-C) _ 136 wood-wool slab (WN) __ 136 wooden floorboards _166,174,185 wooden shakes and shingles --+ 109, 122 wood fibre insulating board (WF) _ 136, 145 wood preservatives --+ 75, 268, 269 wool --+ 27, 56, 57, 72, 86, 128, 132-139, 141,161,168,169,175,183-185,190, 191,207,219,249 workmanship _25,27,71,1 12,142, 148,149,151,154,159,166

U U-value --+ 19, 51, 88, 89, 11 5-1 17, 132, 134,140 ultraviolet radiation _ IS, 62-64, 86, 89, 91,92,109,115, 123,125,126,128, 129,137,138,143,184,193,194,197-

199 unbonded screed --+ 171 unburned (sun-dried) bricks _ 47, 155 uncoated PTFE cloth __ 130 undercoat --+63,65,141,145,189-191, 194,198,199,218,243,254 underfloor heatin g _ 39, 139, 172, 176, 177,183,184,211 unplastic ised PVC --+ 94, 147, 150 untreated timber --+ 10 upside-down roof --+ 125, 126 V vacuum insulation panel (VIP) _ 133, 136 vapour barrier _64,114,120,125,131,

135, 145,207,211,213, 215, 221, 227, 228,235,241,246,253 vapour permeability --+ 55, 135, 145, 153,189,190,195 varnishes --+ 192, 195,269 vault _122 vaulting _ 38,48,54,162 vegetable fibres --+ 46, 183 veneer _61,71-75, 107, 109,110,1 19, 158-161,167-169,211,214,217,227 ventilated cavity _107-111, 116,118, 119, 240, 241, 249, 257 venti lation --+ 23, 25, 26, 105, 107, 110, 111,114,120,122,124,132,133,142, 146,150,166,167,197,205,207,214, 216,22 1,245,250,254,255 ventilation cavity __ 120, 205, 221, 245, 250 verge --+ 52,122 vinyl wa llpaper --+ 201 volatile organic compounds --+ 26, 268,

269 volatile substances --)0 23, 26, 194 vulcanisation __ 90-92

W waffle slab --+ 162- 164 wallpaper --)0 27, 38, 86,145,157,182, 188,199-201 warm deck _ 120

280

197

y yield point

--+ 77, 78

Z zinc --+ 24, 77, 78, 81-83,101,1 14,119, 121,124,131,147-149,193,197 zinc alloys --+ 82

Index of names A Aalto, Alvar _ 53 Ackermann + Rail --+ 195 Ackermann & Partner --+ 66, 130 Allmann Sattler Wappner --+ 240, 241 Anderegg, Ruben _ 218, 219 Ando Architecture Design Office --+ 229-231 Ando, Tadao _ 58, 59 Architektengemeinschaft Marschwegstadion --+ 129 Architektengruppe Stuttgart (Lohrer, Pfeil, Bosch, Herrmann, Keck) _ 156 Arets, Wiel --+ 156 Arte Charpentier (+ Abbes Tahir) _ 222,223 ASP Schweger + Partner --+ 261 - 263 Aspdin, Joseph --+ 54 Assmann Sa lomon & Scheidt --+ 256, 257 Asymp tote --+ 193 Auer + Weber --+ 166

B b&k+ _92 Barragan, Luis --+ 186 Baumschlager Eberle --+ 66 Bearth + Deplazes __ 155 Behnisch + Partner --+ 87, 90,106 Behrens, Peter --+ 48, 155 Bel idor, Bernard Forest _ 54 Bendimerad, Sabri --+ 245 Betrix & Consolascio _ 193 Bicherou)(, Max _ 84 Bienefeld, Heinz --+ 51 Blandini, Lucio _ 96 Bol les & W ilson Burham, Daniel

-"" 158 -"" 78

C Calatrava, Santiago _ 57 Caminada, Gion _197 Charreau, Pierre _ 84 Cheret & Bozic __ 158 Chombart de Lauwe, Pascal --'> 245-247 Christo & Jeanne-Claude --+ 152 Claessen Koivisto Rune ~ 60 Colburn, Irving --+ 84 Cruz Ovalle, Jose _ 166 Cullinan, Edward __ 226-228

o

--+ 59

_ 54

H Haring, Hugo --+ 104 Hascher Jehle --+ 237- 239 Hasenauer, Karl Freiherr von -"" 166 Haus-Rucker-Co -;. 90 Hegger Hegger Schleiff _ 48, 95, 118 Herzog & de Meuron --+ 34, 60, 83, 106,

130 Hid & K _155 Holzmeister, Clemens

_ 204

lbos + Vitart --+ 248 lbas, Jean Marc _ 24&-250 Ikeda, Masahiro --+ 232, 233

J Johnson, Philip --)0 84 Jourda + Perraudin --+ 118 Jourda, Fran90ise _197,208,209 Joy, Rick --+ 44, 106, 155

K Kahn, Louis --+ 54,165 Karl + Probst --)0 165 Klotz , Matthias --+ 165 Klumpp, Hans --+ 189 Koolhaas, Rem --'> 14, 115 Korteknie & Stuhlmacher --'> 75 Kraemer & Sieverts --+ 166

Lacaton & Vassal --+ 90, 216, 217 La iner, Rudiger _ 189 Larsen , Henning _ 41 Le Corbusier --+ 54, 57, 186, 195 Longllena, Baldassare _ 175 Loos, Adolf --+'22,38 Losonczi, Aron --'> 17 M MADA s.p.a.m. _ 212,213 Mansilla y Tunon --'> 162 Marin + Trottin _ 195 Marquardt Architeklen __ 84 Marte.Marte --'> 204, 205 Mayer H" Jurgen _14,15,81 Meier, Richard __ 160 Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig _ 62, 83, 84,158,18 Ming Pei, leoh --+ 88 MVRDV _ 53, 254, 255

N NIO _ 224, 225 Nio, Maurice __ 16 NL architects --+ 14, 15 NOX (Lars Spuybroek) 234 Olbrich, Joseph Maria --+ 76 Olgiati, Valerio --+ 189 Otto, Frei _ 90, 95

F Forma lhaut _ 104 Fourcault, Emile _ 84 Fueg, Franz --+ 38 Funhoff, Dirk _ 28 Future Systems -"" 214,215

G Garc ia-Abril, Anton --+ 95 Gaztelu, Jaime (Ana Fernandez) Gehry, Frank -;.83,14,168 G igon + Guyer -SI, 84, 158 Gobbe, Emile _ 84 Graft --+ 181 Grand, Pascal _ 129 Grimshaw, Nicholas --)0 76 Gropius, Walter _ 84

_ 229

l

o

Delugan + Meissl --+ 120 Design Antenna -;. 87 Dieste, Eladio _ 48 Dietz Joppien --+ 251 - 253

E Eliasson, Olafur _ 44 EM2N (Mathias Muller, Daniel Niggli) Esslinger, Marc _ 32

Kuma, Kengo

p Palladia, Andrea --+ 104 Pawson, John _ 198 Perraudin, Gilles _ 208, 209 Perrault, Dom in ique _ 140 Perret. Auguste --+ 54 Piano, Renzo _ 83, 38 Pilkington, Alastair _ 84

R Reitermann + Sassenroth _ 46 Riegler Riewe _ 242 Rogers, Richard -;. 8 1 Rubio, Justo Garcia _ 57 Ruch, Hans-Jbrg _ 206, 207 Rudolphi, Alexander --+ 22

S Sauer, Christiane _14 Sauerbruch Hutton Architekten --+ 116, 166, 258-260 Schultes, Axel --+ 58 Semper, Gottfried --+ 166 Snozzi + Vacch ini __ 220, 221 Sobek, Werner --+ 88, 96 Splitterwerk --+ 95 Staab, Volker _ 155 Steiger, Peter --+ 18 Suuronen, Matti --+ 96

T Tahir, Abbes _ 222, 223 Team Extasia __ 95 Tectone (Sabri Bendimerad and Pascal Chombart de Lauwe) --)0 245-247 Tezuka, Takaharu & Yui --+ 232, 233 Trucco, Jacomo Matteo --+ 54 U Ungers, Simon _ 210, 211 Utzon, Jorn --+ 48, 53

V Vitart, Myrto

_ 248

W Wandel Hoefer Lorch Hirsch --+ 59, 83 Wright, Frank Lloyd --+ 54, 109, 113 Wulf & Partner _ 156

Z Zumthor, Peter --+ 87, 155 Zuuk, Rene van _ 122