History in the Encyclopedie 9780231883665

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STUDIES IN HISTORY, ECONOMICS AND PUBLIC L A W Edited by the F A C U L T Y OF P O L I T I C A L SCIENCE OF COLUMBIA U N I V E R S I T Y

NUMBER

HISTORY IN THE

533

ENCYCLOPEDIE

BY

NELLY NOÉMIE SCHARGO

HISTORY IN THE ENC YCLOPEDIE

BY

NELLY NOEMIE SCHARGO

o 1970

OCTAGON New

York

BOOKS

Copyright, 1947 by Columbia University Press

Reprinted 1970 by special

arrangement

with Columbia

O C T A G O N

University

Press

B O O K S

A DIVISION OF FARRAR, STRAUS & G I R O U X .

INC.

19 Union S q u a r e West New Y o r k , N . Y . 1 0 0 0 3

L I B R A R Y OF C O N G R E S S CATALOG CARD N U M B E R :

Printed in U.S.A. by NOBLE O F F S E T FRINTERS, INC. N E W YORK 3 , N. Y.

77-120662

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION

7

CHAPTER

I

T h e Method of H i s t o r y

17 CHAPTER

II

T y p e s of History : " Ecclesiastical " and " Civil " CHAPTER

III

T y p e s of H i s t o r y : " L i t e r a r y " CHAPTER

52

131 IV

Interpretation and Role of History

171

CONCLUSION

201

APPENDIX A : Sources of the Encyclopedists

209

APPENDIX B : List of articles directly used for text

211

BIBLIOGRAPHY

243

INDEX

249

INTRODUCTION THE Encyclopédie was the " noeud vital " of the eighteenth century. Brunetière 1 named it so in his history of French literature, and no name suits it better. The vital knot, the living knot, the knot where at the precise date of the mid-century were gathered all the threads, intellectual, social, political, of French life. It is in the Encyclopédie that many of the philosophers and writers of the century expressed their views for the first time. Those born within the limits of the century had reached maturity by 1750. Diderot was thirty-seven years old, d'Alembert thirty-two, Jaucourt forty-six, Boucher d'Argis forty-two. For the next fifteen years these men were to live together in intellectual cooperation and form the society of men of letters who collaborated in this enterprise. Many ideas as yet not integrated in separate writings passed through the encyclopedic melting pot and emerged crystallized as theories to be presented in book form later; such were d'Alembert's ideas on history 2 and Forbonnais' economic theories. 3 Much of what finally appeared in writing had been expressed, discussed, criticized and approved in one or the other of the salons of Paris. The social threads of the noeud vital were subtle, but important. They led from the salons to the Encyclopédie, from the Encyclopédie to the public. The political background loomed always large behind the intellectual activities of the men called Encyclopedists. The last ten volumes were produced clandestinely, set up and printed in Paris under a fly-leaf bearing the imprint of Samuel Faulche et Contp. à Neufchaiel. The 1 Ferdinand Brunetière, Histoire grave, 1931, III, 321.

de la littérature française,

Paris, Dela-

2 Jean le Rond d'Alembert, Reflexions sur l'histoire et sur les différentes manières de l'écrire . . . Oeuvres philosophiques, historiques et littéraires (Paris, Bastien, 1805), vol. IV. 3 François Véron Duverger de Forbonnais, (Leyden and Paris, Briasson, etc., 1754).

Eléments

de

Commerce 7

8

INTRODUCTION

government, f r o w n i n g upon the e n t e r p r i s e — t h o u g h

secretly

a w a r e of what was g o i n g o n — l i f t e d the ban only in 1765, and the last ten volumes appeared all at the same time, eagerly acclaimed by the public and subscribers w h o had waited so long. T h e vital knot is not the only name given to the pédie.

Encyclo-

M a n y a definition, many a name have been created to

describe it since V o l t a i r e called it a " monument which honors France."

4

" T h e fortress of the eighteenth century,"

balance sheet of human k n o w l e d g e , "

8

6

" the

" the last of the great

publications which were undertaken by old erudition" ' are but a few of their great number. A n d yet F a g u e t w a s quite right when he said that the Encyclopédie than k n o w n "

8

" is much more famous

and Rocafort w a s well justified in declaring that

for the nineteenth century the Encyclopédie

was but a name, 9

and a name which w a s often misunderstood. T o w a r d the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth centuries, however, interest in this monument erected by the eighteenth century became lively once more. It became a mine of research. A l m o s t each new problem, each new development of the branches of human k n o w l e d g e , w a s tested by nineteenth and twentieth century standards in this library of the past. T h e Encyclopedists as a g r o u p and individually were 4 Voltaire, complètes, 5 Pascal

" Questions

sur

l'Encyclopédie

par

des

Oeuvres

amateurs,"

P a r i s , G a m i e r F r è r e s , X V I I , 3. D u p r a t , Les

Encyclopédistes....

Paris, Librairie

Internationale,

1866, p. 36 R e n é Hubert,

L e s sciences

sociales

dans

l'Encyclopédie,

Paris,

Alcan,

IÇ/23, P- 36-47 R e n é H u b e r t , " I n t r o d u c t i o n b i b l i o g r a p h i q u e à l ' é t u d e d e s s o u r c e s d e la s c i e n c e e t h n o g r a p h i q u e d a n s l ' E n c y c l o p é d i e , " Reine sophie

et d'Histoire

8 Emile

générale...,

d'Histoire

de la

Philo-

1933, p. 163.

F a g u e t , " L ' E n c y c l o p é d i e ...",

Rei'ue

des

littéraires

de

Deux

Mondes,

Janv.-

F e v r . 1901, p. 7949 Jacques

Rocafort,

Les

doctrines

H a c h e t t e , 1890, p. 6. L a r o u s s e ' s p r e f a c e t o t h e Grand is a rare i n s t a n c e of praise.

l'Encyclopédie, Dictionnaire

Paris, Universel

INTRODUCTION

9

quoted and misquoted, understood, but more often misunderstood. T h e nineteenth century was ready to discredit the work as a whole, the early twentieth century was ready to extoll it, but not quite ready to accept the praises. In 1900, Ducros said: " the Encyclopcdie, which is so often talked about and so little read, has until now not been the object of a work of any great length, and yet everyone knows that it is a work of utmost importance to the historian of civilisation." 1 0 Forty-five years later, and in spite of the relative multiplicity of monographic material, 1 1 this indictment still stands. A great inclusive work which will trace the Encyclopcdie from its remote and immediate sources, through its writing to its direct and indirect influence is still to be written. And even the monographs have not exhausted possible subjects of research. One of the fields which has remained largely unexplored is the field of history in the Encyclopcdie. Except for the works of Gibbon and Voltaire, the nineteenth century tended to ignore or disdain the historical work of the eighteenth, its immediate predecessor. The accepted ideas on history in the eighteenth century have been revised but very recently. Though Lerminier had stated as one early as 1 8 3 3 , results of the eighteenth century had been to renew history, 1 2 this opinion came to life again only about seventy years later, with the writings of Flint and Dilthey, 1 3 was emphasized again by Black and Fueter, 1 4 and found 10 Louis Ducros, Les Encyclopédistes,

Paris, Champion, 1900, p. vi.

11 See Bibliography for detailed list. 12 Eugene Lerminier, Influence sur la legislation et la sociabilitc 1833. P- 39-

de la philosophic du dixhuitieme siccle du dixncuvicme, Paris, Prévost-Crocius,

13 Robert Flint, History of the Philosophy of History.... New York, Scribners, 1894; Wilhelm Dilthey, " D a s achtzehnte Jahrhundert und die geschichtliche Welt," Deutsche Rundschau, Juli-Sept., 1901. 14 J. B. Black, The Art of History..., New York, F. S. Crofts & Co., 1926; Eduard Fueter, Geschichtc der ncuercn Historiographic, München und Berlin, R. Oldenburg, 1011.

io

INTRODUCTION

its most emphatic expression in the writings of t w o distinguished historians and philosophers, C a r l Becker and Ernest Cassirer. 1 5 Both men point out that the assertion that the eighteenth century w a s anti-historical is itself an unhistorical one. " Philosophers, whether they wrote history or not, almost all took the trouble to tell us w h y and how it ought t o be written " 1 8 says

Carl

Becker.

To

Professor

Cassirer

history

in

the

eighteenth century is " an all encompassing force." " If history is such a force, it also must be one of the threads that gather in the " noeud vital."

Hubert saw this in the early twentieth cen-

tury, and analyzed the philosophy of history in the

Encyclopé-

die as far as it w a s connected with Social Sciences in general and with the problem of the origin of society in particular. 1 8 Y e t , despite Hubert's study, F a g u e t ' s opinion seems largely to prevail, that the Encyclopédie

teaches but one lesson, that it

is useless to study history, and that the Encyclopedists turn a w a y f r o m the study of history as from an empty and somewhat bitter pastime. " T h e studies between

chill which fell upon

historical

1 7 6 0 and 1815 is one of the most

striking

facts of history and is due in part to the spirit of the Encyclopédie " 1 8 claims the eminent literary

critic, of the

century. It seems that F a g u e t did not read the

nineteenth Encyclopédie

either. F o r at its beginning he would have found v e r y explicit statements by its t w o editors, w h o seem to answer him f r o m beyond the grave. " T h e historical account of the development of our knowledge will help greatly to clarify to ourselves the manner

in which we must pass on our k n o w l e d g e to our

15 C a r l L o t u s Becker, The Heavenly City of the Eighteenth Philosophers, N e w H a v e n , Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1932; E r n s t Die Philosophie der Aufklärung, T ü b i n g e n , J. C. B. M o h r , 1932. 16 Becker, op. cit., p. 92. 17 C a s s i r e r , op. cit., p. 265. 18 H u b e r t , Sciences

Sociales.

19 F a g u e t , loc. cit., p. 803.

Century Cassirer,

INTRODUCTION

readers " 2 0 says d'Alembert in the Discours préliminaire. Diderot wrote in the Prospectus (and d'Alembert restated in the Discours) " May [posterity] add its discoveries to those we have recorded, and may the history of the human mind and its achievements reach back from generation to generation into the remotest centuries." 2 1 Finally Diderot declares in his article on the Encyclopédie that its aim is to gather scattered knowledge, explain it to the contemporaries and " hand it down to those who follow us, so that the labor of centuries past may not become lost labor for the centuries which follow." 22 With such declarations in mind, it seemed but natural to delve further into the work to see how far these aims were carried out, how far the Encyclopedists, as a group, pushed their study of history in general—not only in connection with the origin of society; what were their approaches to historical methods and aims, to historical analysis and historical synthesis, to the types of history, to branches of history, and to history as a separate branch of human knowledge. Such a study might show that here, as well as in other branches, the Encyclopédie is truly the mirror of the eighteenth century and that on this score too, the long ingrained opinion of the nineteenth century needs to be revised. Among the approximately sixty-thousand six-hundred and sixty articles in the Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonné 3 des sciences, des arts et des métiers.' six-thousand one-hun20 D'Alembert, I, 247-

" Discours

préliminaire

à l'Encyclopédie," Oeuvres

...,

21 Denis Diderot, " Prospectus," Oeuvres complètes, Assézat éd., Paris, Garnier Frères, 1876, XIII, 139; D'Alembert, loc. cit., p. 315. 22 Diderot, article "Encyclopédie," Oeuvres..., X I V , 415. Hereafter articles by Diderot will be quoted in abbreviated form. Example : Ass. X I V , 415, Encyclopedic, Ass. denoting that the Assézat edition of Diderot's works is meant, and not the Encyclopédie. 23 Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, par une société de gens de lettres. Mis en ordre et publié par M. D i d e r o t . . . et quant à la partie mathématique par M. d ' A l e m b e r t . . . (Paris, Briasson, etc., 1751-1765).

12

INTRODUCTION

drcd and ninety-nine are historical. These articles, of varied lengths, either fall directly within the categories of sacred or profane history—the two main historical subdivisions of the Encyclopédie—or have a historical content, narrative or methodological. though belonging to some other branch of knowledge. Of these articles, seven-hundred and fifty are relatively extensive, running from one to forty or even more columns. 24 Such explicit articles are the points where the main ideas of the Encyclopedists on history are concentrated. Some of these articles contain long historical accounts on various subjects, others are detailed discourses on historical research, historical method and historical criticism. They are the main pillars holding up the edifice of this study. But the short articles, sometimes of a few lines only, cannot be neglected. They often show a specific interest or viewpoint, they sometimes are brief comments to the long articles, and from time to time they contain some striking sentence that stands as the link between the longer articles. Most of the brief articles are unsigned. S o are some of the longer ones. This is usually supposed to mean that they are due to the pen of the editor, Diderot, and though they are not contained in Assczat's edition of Diderot's works, it can be assumed that most of the unsigned articles are by Diderot. Many of the longer articles, however, bear either a symbol which permits their identification or a full signature. In general those men who are generally thought of when the word Encyclopedists is pronounced, are also those who wrote in it on history. Diderot, the editor, heads the list. D'Alembert's articles are few, but important, not only in their intrinsic value, but also in the direct influence they had on some of his contemporaries. 2 4 S u c h articles a s Blancs tion historib-26oa.

116 Soulier des anciens, X V , 404b-4«5a. 117 Brodequin, III, 433a.

80

HISTORY

IN

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIE

The article about the footwear of the ancients goes into more detail concerning the shape of these shoes, especially those worn by Roman soldiers. A description of Roman shoes taken from Pliny is given, with indication of color and ornaments used. The article on the buskin gives a description of that type of footwear and discusses its possible origin. These three articles are supplemented by an illustration of four different types of Roman shoes, contained in the first volume of plates, (Antiquities, plate V I I I ) . The general dress of peoples is described in an article by Jaucourt, 118 who states that it is impossible to know all the different types of dresses worn by the various peoples of the earth, and wishes that he knew for instance, the type of dress worn by the Greeks in the times when they were the most refined nation of the world. According to the Chevalier, only the names of Greek dresses are really known. The garments of the Romans are much better known, and are discussed in a separate article. As for French fashions, Jaucourt tries to trace the variations of dress from Charles V to Henri IV, but " the fickleness which is proper to our nation has produced so much variety in its dress, that it would be impossible to follow its development." 119 The article on dress in general ends with a brief note on the development of textiles in ancient times and the invention of embroidery. The separate article which treats the Roman dress 120 follows the pattern set by the articles on Roman political history and differentiates among the three periods of Roman history, and also describes the variations in the dress from one class to the other. The evolution of the Roman garb, from the frugality of the republic to the luxury of the empire, when silk was first introduced, is summed up in an apt sentence: " Thus the toga, 118 Habit,

VIII,

119 Habit, V I I I ,

nb-i2b. nb.

120 Habits des Romains,

V I I I , I2b-isb.

TYPES

OF T H E

HISTORY

8l

the veil and the hood of coarse w o o l changed to shirts of fine linen, transparent robes and silk dresses of high price . . . S u c h is the history of R o m e in this respect, and it is that of all corrupt peoples; for there is a sameness in the o r i g i n of their l u x u r y as well as in their progress."

121

T h e R o m a n dress

did not have a completely indigenous evolution. If the g r o w t h of luxury changed it, w a r s and intercourse with foreign nations b r o u g h t certain types of dress into the empire, which influenced the native styles, but to what extent Jaucourt cannot tell. 1 2 2 T h e robe and the shoes are basic parts of man's dress. T h e r e a r e still the accessories to be mentioned. T h e belt for instance can be traced f a r back into antiquity

123

and w a s a l w a y s a most

important article of dress. A c c o r d i n g to Diderot to be deprived of one's belt w a s considered a mark of infamy. T h e cap t o o is part of dress, and according to Mallet w a s first seen in F r a n c e in 1449, at the entrance of Charles V I I into R o u e n — t h o u g h the abbé hastens to add that certain sources trace it back as far as C h a r l e s V . 1 2 4 J e w e l r y , t h o u g h not an essential accessory is also an important part of human dress. T h e history of the ring, w h i c h A b b é Mallet took out of Chambers, is therefore of interest. 1 2 5 T h e history of the bracelet is related by Diderot. 12 ® T o complete the costumes of those w h o act upon the stage of history there are still t w o articles. O n e is on cosmetics, of which the use is an ancient a r t 1 2 7 while the other is on beards, the style and shape of which have undergone many changes, and have been the subject of many customs and c e r e m o n i e s . m 121 Ibid., 15a. 122 Ibid., 13b. 123 Ass., X I V , 40-42, Ceinture. 124 Bonnet, II, 3243-325». 125 Anneau, I, 4793-4803. 126 Ass., X I I I , 507, Bracelet. YiH Fard, VI, 4o8a-4iob. Rouge, X I V , 40ib-402a. 128 Barbe, II, 7ob-7ia.

82

HISTORY

IN

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIE

A general article on styles of hairdress is unfortunately missing, though there are a few definition-articles under specific names, such as the article on fontange for instance. 129 T h e first volume of plates moreover contains several pictures of the different coiffures worn by R o m a n ladies. T h e costumes have been accounted for. N o w the scenerymust be set. T h e art of building is very ancient and its evolution is traced in several articles. In an article on the techniques of masonry 13°, M. Lucote, cabinetmaker, touches briefly upon the evolution of human dwelling places f r o m the caverns of olden times to the stone buildings of the Phrygians, Assyrians, Egyptians, and Greeks. T h e use of bricks goes back many centuries, as is manifest f r o m the ruins of buildings in Asia. 1 3 1 T h e art of masonry and the progress made in the techniques of brick burning were responsible for such buildings as were erected in the R o m a n world, which particularly impressed the Encyclopedists, though the Egyptian pyramids too are described at great length. 132 R o m a n bridges, R o m a n buildings, R o m a n aqueducts, canals and baths are the object of rather extensive articles. 133 These articles, whether by Diderot or by some other Encyclopedist all follow the same descriptive pattern. T h e descriptions are made as vivid as possible, and this graphic effort is f u r t h e r supplemented by illustrations in the first volume of plates which depict the temple of Jupiter, the grave of Adrian, the amphitheatre of Vespasian in its ruined and reconstructed state, the arches of Constantine and Sep129 T h i s article, which is contained in the seventh volume w a s sent in by a lady of fashion and accepted by the editor. 130 Maçonnerie,

I X , 8o3b-836b.

131 Brique, II, 42ib-423a ; this article was written by a doctor of medicine, member of the academy of Science, de Vandenesse. 132 Pyramides

d'Egypte,

X I I I , 595b-599a.

133 Ponts des Romains, X I I I , 7 i a - 7 2 a ; Capitole, II, 632b; Bains, II, i8b-2ob ; Ass., X I I I , 3 1 1 - 3 1 4 ; Aqueducs, X I V , 7-9, Canal artificiel, XIII, 325-328, Arc de Triomphe, and others. T h e long line of articles on various temples contains little historical material.

T Y P E S OF T H E

HISTORY

83

timius Severus, the circus of Augustus and the Forum of Nerva. The buildings described above are the buildings seen in a town. But towns cannot exist in isolation. There must be roads, and " one can presume that there were important roads as soon as men existed in numbers large enough to warrant a distribution in societies which were separated by a certain distance." 134 Greek and Roman roads reached a high degree of perfection, but the Roman ones were the more perfect. 135 Their network, under the republic and empire was registered in various tables ; they differed according to the use to which they were put, being either simple connecting ways, or large military roads. They also differed in the ways they were built and paved. The article concludes with a list and brief description of the main roads of the Roman empire. As far as Rome is concerned, one can say that the Encyclopedists set the stage and indicated the costumes of that particular drama of history. The men of Rome as described in the Encyclopédie were fully dressed and moved about their city and their empire among buildings and on roads all of which were treated in various articles. As far as the other ancient and modern societies are concerned, the picture is not complete, and Rome has to serve as model for what the Encyclopedists might have done. The aspects of the everyday life of human society, which are a part of the " histoire des mdeurs," are portrayed against a definite background in Rome, while in many other cases they are simply presented as isolated facts, testimony of some Encyclopedist's interest, but without correlating or binding factors which would have made them part of a larger whole. In the everyday life of a people, its manners are probably the first thing which strike the observer. They are, as Diderot remarks, in relation to general customs or moeurs, what the 134 Ass., XIV, 116-121, Chemins. 135 Voie Romaine, XVII, 4l7a-42ia.

84

HISTORY

IN T H E

138

ENCYCLOPEDIE

ritual is t o religion. Also a comparative and historical analysis of manners is of great importance, and Diderot undertook it from the historical as well as f r o m the philosophical point of view. 137 The manners of the Chinese differ certainly f r o m those of the French, and the way women were honored by the ancient Germanic tribes and the knights of the middle ages contrasts singularly with the place assigned to them by the Kaffirs for instance. Manners change with the various types of government. In a despotic government the manners of every day life will reflect the dependence of the people, while in a democracy the political freedom will be apparent in the general attitude of the citizen. W h e n manners, religion and the constitution of the state are in perfect harmony, the nation will endure a long time, Diderot thought. T h u s the Egyptians and the Spartans were, of all the peoples in history, those who had kept their manners the longest. Manners, according to Diderot's analysis, are then not only the polite ways of meeting a fellow citizen. They are an attitude and a way of life ; they are the way in which a people lives its everyday life within the formal organization of its political structure. Understood in such a way, manners include ceremonies as well as games, habits as well as customs, techniques as well as arts. T h e two last mentioned topics were of particular importance to the Encyclopedists and will be treated separately, but an indication of eighteenth century " manners " may be found in Jaucourt's exclamation : " T h e r e does not exist a single pamphlet about the art of making shirts, stockings, shoes, bread; the Encyclopédie is the first and unique work describing the arts which are useful to men, while bookstores are swamped with books about the vain and ridiculous science which concerns itself with coats of arms." 138 136 Ass., X V I , go,

Manières.

137 Ibid., 90-96. 138 Héraldique,

Art,

V I I I , 143a.

TYPES

OF T H E

HISTORY

85

A m o n g the customs or ceremonies which were all important in antiquity especially, was the practice of hospitality, of which Jaucourt traces a short history. 1 3 * F r o m the ancient Hebrews to the present day hospitality has been practised, but it has undergone many changes. T h e belief that gods travelled w a s at the root of the hospitality practised by the ancient peoples ; Greeks, Egyptians and Persians exercised it, the ancient Italians knew it, the Romans perfected it to a high degree, while Germans, ancient Gauls and Celts had their own customs about it. Hospitality was a ritual, which became a simple custom. T h e kissing of hands, also a ritual at the beginning, changed gradually and became a simple mark of politeness. Abbé Mallet gives a hurried sketch of the evolution of handkissing from Homer to the present day, mentioning the fact that Hernando Cortez found this custom in Mexico. 1 4 0 The two articles analyzed above exhaust the list of ceremonial manners to which the Encyclopedists gave more than passing attention. Games and celebrations (fêtes) in general find a more generous treatment. The historical account of celebrations goes into the antiquity of this custom and gives a glowing description of certain Renaissance entertainments, such as the marriage festivities of Gian Galeazzo and Isabella of A r a g o n in 1480, all the entertainments given by Catherine de'Medici. The descriptions, which are quite detailed, are f r o m the pen of the baron de Cahusac, who had a great ability for word painting. 1 4 1 A different type of festivals, but equal or even greater in importance, were the triumphs of Rome, several of which are described by Jaucourt. 1 4 2 Y e t another type were the royal banquets or the "fêtes des fous," which also fall within the cate139 Hospitalité, VIII, 3i4b-3i6b. 140 Baise-main, II, 2^b-23b. 141 Ft'te, V I , 5/6b-579b.

142 Triomphe, XVI, 652a-655a.

86

HISTORY

IN T H E

ENCYCLOPEDIE

gory of history and are treated as such. 143 T h e " fous " or jesters, who began to appear about the middle of the ninth century, and whose heyday came after the crusades, are part of manners, especially in France, where the custom was particularly developed. 144 Games were even more diversified than festivals, especially in antiquity. Olympic games occupied an important place in Greek manners, 1 4 5 while chariot racing, fights between ferocious animals and combats between gladiators held an important place in Roman everyday life. 146 T h e origin of fights between animals seems to have come to R o m e f r o m the Etruscans, who in their turn perhaps took it f r o m the Greeks. 147 As for combats of gladiators, they were introduced into Rome at a time when it was already civilized. T h e i r history, according to Jaucourt has been " too involved with erudition, too long-winded and not connected enough in most of the works on that subject." 148 Jaucourt therefore tries to give an historical résumé of this institution, a résumé which takes in most of the aspects, f r o m the way these combats were announced to the way they were ended by popular vote. Crossing the centuries and t u r n i n g to a different type of entertainment, an entertainment which was not open to the general public as were the fights between gladiators, Jaucourt described medieval tournaments, using as his main source de la Curne de St. Palaye's study. 1 4 9 W i t h this work as a guide, 143 Festins royaux,

V I , 559b-s64a; Fêtes des fous, V I , 573b-576a.

144 Fol, depuis Fou, V I I , 42ab; Mère folle ou Mère folie, X, 38ob-3&2b. 145 Olympiques,

jeux,

X I , 4ô6a-57b.

146Ass., X I V , 237, Courses Gladiateurs, V I I , 694a-697b. 147 Bustuaires, 148 Gladiateurs,

de Cirque-,

Bctcs,

combat

de,

II,

215a;

I I , 469a. V I I , 694b.

149 de la Curne de Saint Palaye, Mémoires sur fancienne chevalerie considérée comme un établissement politique et militaire, Paris, Duchesne, 17591781.

TYPES

OF

THE

HISTORY

8J

he discussed the origin of these games in England, Germany and France, concluding the article with a description of a tournament. 150 Though more limited in their audience, tournments still fell within the category of public entertainment. Card games 1 5 1 had a more limited participation, while the game of chess was even more restricted. 152 This latter game seems to have had a particular fascination for Jaucourt, who goes into its possible origins and spends much time explaining the terms of the game which prove its oriental source, before analyzing the techniques of the game itself. Games and festivals are part of the daily life of a people, but a part only. There is much to the private life of men which is toil and drudgery. T o the Encyclopedists it was unfortunate that this common life was little known, and that while other aspects had been discussed at great length in many works, the private life of peoples had been neglected by ancient authors. 153 The attempt to reconstruct certain phases of the life of ancients and moderns necessarily becomes a very piecemeal affair in the Encyclopédie, and the interest is focused on certain manifestations, while others are completely neglected. A study of the concept of time in ancient nations is attempted briefly in several articles. Such a study would, according to the authors, allow a better understanding of days, months and years as they used to be. 154 Certain daily occupations are also represented in various articles. The history of horseback riding, written by Charles d'Authville, commandant de bataillon, and profusely footnoted with quotations from ancient sources is long and very complete and its conclusion discusses Fréret's specu150 Tournois, X V I , 486)5-4893.

151 Ass., XIV, 32-34, 152 Echec, 153 Vie

jeu des,

privée

Cartes.

V, 244b-248a.

des Romains,

154 An, I, 387a-39oa; 55b.

Mois

XVII, 254b. des Grecs,

X, 62ib-623a;

Julienne,

année,

IX,

88

HISTORY IN T H E

ENCYCLOPEDIE

158

lation on centaurs. Navigation and fishing, which are economic manifestations as well as a manner of life, appear in several historical articles, with a full discussion of origin and evolution.1** The herring fisheries particularly seem but a humble and unimportant object in the history of the world, and yet (and here Jaucourt as so often already, turned to Voltaire) they laid the foundations for Amsterdam's greatness and helped to bring wealth and dignity to a once sterile and despised country. 187 As for navigation in general, it is one of the oldest occupations known to humanity and deserves an article by itself. 158 The great epidemics of humanity also are part of the every day experience, and the plagues which have devastated East and West are discussed from the historical point of view before the medical expert takes up the pen to describe symptoms and cures. 159 Following the Encyclopedists from the general to the particular, it is amusing to note that the exotic once again attracts them, and certain customs of the Near-East are discussed in êeveral articles, especially prominent among these being the organization of the seraglio. 160 Such are some of the glimpses which the authors of the Encyclopédie give of the everyday life of peoples. They are few and scattered, and yet interesting in their almost exclusively historical approach. One aspect of human life remains to be considered, the aspect of religious thinking of various peoples, which, as long as it is not Christian thought does not fall 155 Equitation, V, 883b-8çMa. 156 Hareng, pèche du, V I I I , 46b-48a; Pêche à la baleine, II, 33b-36a;

Navigateur, XI, 5ib-54a; Navigation, XI, 54b-55b. 157 Hareng, pèche du, V I I I , 46b. 158 Navigateur, X I , 51b.

159 Peste, X I I , 456a-457b; Peste d'Orient, X I I , 457b-4s8b. 160 Serrait,

X V , Ii4b-n6a; Eunuque, VI, is8b-i6ia; Aseki,

Bostangis, II, 339b-34oa.

I, 752a;

TYPES

OF T H E

HISTORY

89

directly within their category of ecclesiastical history. It is under this classification that one finds such general articles as Religion des Grecs et des Romains, Mythologie, and Idole,™ as well as some specific articles on certain aspects of ancient or non-European religions, such as Chacabout, Bardes, Druide, Bacchanales, Oracles, and others. 162 Of the general articles, the first two are purely historical ; the third, Idole written by Voltaire, is largely philosophical, and, basing itself on history, it tries to refute the stand taken by the Dictionnaire de Trévoux. It is " the testament of Voltaire as an Encyclopedist and at the same time the indication of his final vocation." 163 This indication is very clear, and the challenge thrown at the dictionnaire de Trévoux is quite definite, and based on historical evidence. It is quite useful to note here, that the dictionnaire de Trévoux begins its article by stating that all pagans were idolatrous and that the Indians are still an idolatrous people : first of all nobody was called a pagan before Theodosian the Younger, at which time this name was given to the inhabitants of certain small towns of Italy, pagorum incolae pagani, who kept their old religion : secondly, the region of Hindustan is moslem, and the mohammedans are unrelenting enemies of images and idolatry: in the third place many peoples of India must not be called idolatrous because they belong to the ancient religion of the Persians, while still others possess no idols.164 161 Religion des Grecs et Romains, X I V , 83a-88b; Mythologie, Idole, Idolâtre, Idolâtrie, V I I I , soob-504a.

926b;

162 Chacabout ou Xacabout,

I I I , 3ab ; Bardes,

II, 75ab; Druide,

150b; Bacchanales, II, 5b; Oracles, XI, 53ib-537b. 163 Raymond Naves, Voltaire 1938, p. 138.

et l'Encyclopédie,

X,

924a

V , 149a-

Paris, Presses Modernes,

164 Idole, V I I I , 500b; the sentence to which Voltaire refers in particular is : " Keeping within the accepted ideas, we shall continue to call Idolatrous those who render a divine cult to physical beings (créatures) . . . a s a substantive this word also means those who adore idols or false images." (Trévoux, V, 3 1 b ) .

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HISTORY IN T H E

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As for the ancients, they had imagined, Voltaire insisted, but one Appollo, one Diana, one Aesculapius, and not as many as there were temples and statues, " which proves, as much as any point in history can be proven, that the ancients did not believe that the statue was the divinity, that the cult was not directed toward the statue, this idol, and that therefore, the ancients were not idolatrous." 185 Voltaire called upon history to prove a point. Jaucourt, treating subjects just as controversial, remained purely historical. The religion of Greeks and Romans was, according to Jaucourt, the same, the Greek being the mother, the Roman the daughter. The differences between the two are discussed according to the theory of the Abbé Coyer.16® As for mythology, which concerns not only the gods but also the demigods and heroes, its legends seem to this author to contain the whole life of the people of Greece. The discussion of the general aspect of religion is complemented by several articles on the various aspects or ceremonies of ancient religions. An article on the terrible divinities of the ancient inferno, the furies, explains their " origin, their names, their use, their character, the cult which was dedicated to them and the forms through which they were represented." 167 The oracles were discussed from the point of view of ancient writers. 168 For certain religious ceremonies, such as funerals, detailed descriptions of Egyptian, Greek and Roman rituals are given, 169 while in a lighter vein, the historical description of bacchanalias also found its place in the pages of the Encyclopédie,170 Among goddesses Juno was given a prom165 Idole, VIII, soia. 166 Abbé Coyer, Trois dissertations dont l'une sur la différence des anciennes religions grecques et romaines, which appeared in 1755. 167 Furies, VII, 382a. 168 Oracles, XI, S3ib-537b; Delphes, oracles de, IV, 795a. 169 Funérailles (Hist, anc.), VII, 368a-37ia; Embaumements, 170 Bacchanales, II, 5b; Bacchantes, II, 5b.

V, 552a-553t>.

TYPES

OF T H E

HISTORY

91

171

inent place, while among priestesses of ancient times, the vestals seemed to excite particular interest of the Encyclopé-

die.172

For ancient religions outside the Greek and Roman world, the articles on Druids and Bards offer a brief glimpse 1 7 8 while outside Europe some Turkish customs are described. 174 The religious aspect of manners is the last, and with the political aspect, probably the most unified division of the social and political history. Whether the articles are numerous and unified or whether they are sketchy and few, it is always apparent that the interest of the Encyclopedists was not focused upon one branch of history to the exclusion of all others. T o show these diversified interests, it seems well to conclude this part of the discussion on the branches of history by giving the historical picture of France, as it emerges from the Encyclopédie. For the general aspect of France, its main historical development and the character of its people, two articles stand out : the article France by Jaucourt, 1 7 5 and the article Français by Voltaire. 178 For certain more peculiar events of French history or social organization there are such articles as Ligue,

Pacification, Bachelier and Templier.1'1''

France, according to Jaucourt and Voltaire, emerges from its earliest period and its characteristics soon become apparent. The Franks came and established themselves in the territories of the Gauls and Celts. Under Clovis they became the masters. At the Congress of Verdun in 843, Gaul and Germany were 171 Junon, IX, spb-ôîb. 172 Vestale, XVII, 2iia-2i7a; for a different type of religious women there is also the article Sibylle, XV, i5sa-is"a. 173 Druide, V, 149a-150b ; Bardes, I, 75a. 174 Bairam, II, 22b; Bectachis, II, i88ab.

175 France, VII, 282ab. 176 François ou Français, VII, 284b-287a.

177 Ligue, IX, 527b-52()b ; Bachelier, II, 6b-8a ; Templier XVI, 88a-8b; Ass., XVI, 181-184, Pacification.

92

HISTORY

IN T H E

ENCYCLOPED1E

separated, and the truly French character, which is the same everywhere in the country except in Paris,—as Voltaire maliciously points out—began to take shape. For a time only those were counted as French who lived north of the right bank of the Loire; their government was a popular one, by general assembly of the nation. Under the rule of the Capetian kings the popular assemblies were abolished and " the people were truly slaves until Philip Augustus, /while/ the nobles were tyrants until Louis X I , a tyrant himself. " 1 7 8 With the evolution of social structure came the growth of the territory, which crossed the Loire: Brittany was united to the kingdom by marriage, Burgundy through right of tenure as well as through the skill of Louis X I ; Dauphine through a gift which was the result of political actions; the county of Toulouse came through an agreement backed by an army; Provence was due to money transactions; one peace treaty gave Alsace while another gave Lorraine. 1 7 ' Within these rounded-out domains, Frenchmen began to live in a fashion consonant with their government. Certain events went to develope certain traits. The destruction of the Templars gave more power to the king in the middle ages, the defeat of the League gave power to one king, Henri I V , and prepared the way for Louis X I V . With the political development came the economic and intellectual. During the political troubles there was not much time for other matters, and when those subsided, at first the French were " holding tournaments while Portuguese and Spaniards discovered and conquered new worlds in the East and in the West of the known universe." 180 But the attempt of Francis I to revive commerce, navigation, letters and arts was revived again by Henri I V and continued to a certain extent by Richelieu, whose main 178 France, 179 Franfois,

V I I , 282a. V I I , 286a.

180 France, VII, 2823b.

TYPES

OF T H E

HISTORY

93

aims, however, were more political and who spent his time " humbling the house of Austria, Calvinism and the nobles." 181 His successor, Mazarin, thought only of "maintaining his position with skill and with art." 1 8 2 But " things changed in the middle of the last century ; the Arts, Sciences, Commerce, Navigation appeared under Colbert, with such magnificence that Europe was amazed." 183 The development of France up to the century preceding the Encyclopedists was thus traced in its political, social and economic aspects. It is but a sketch, but the style and words used paint well-known situations succinctly and clearly. The development of the French language, which began in the tenth century, when it rose from the ruins of Latin and Celtic, 184 is sketched in a few strokes. As to the manners and moeurs of Frenchmen, they followed the social and political development and "passed from the passions ( f u r e u r s ) which characterized the times of king John, Charles V I , Charles I X , Henri III and Henri IV even, to those easy-going manners which Europe cherishes." 185 With a few bold lines and only basic colors Jaucourt and Voltaire have managed to give the portrait of the historical evolution of a nation in the varied aspects that go to make up what the Encyclopedists considered a proper civil history. ECONOMIC

HISTORY

ECONOMIC APPROACH TO HISTORY

After having considered the social and political history as it presents itself in the pages of the Encyclopédie, one can turn to another important branch of general history; a branch which .'bid., 282a. m France, V I I , 282a. m Ibid., 282ab. 154 François, V I I , 286a 185 Ibid., 285b. 181

94

HISTORY

IN

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIE

actually should be part of civil history in general but which is best considered apart for reasons of convenience as well as for reasons of importance. This branch is economic history. That the Encyclopedists were economically minded, no one has denied. The Encyclopédie expounded the theories of many famous economists among whom Quesnay and Turgot. Economic history, however, has often been considered as springing fully armed from the heads of Marx and Engels, and many would think it quite unlikely to find interest in the economic aspects of human evolution, and much less a division of history according to economic periods in the pages of the Encyclopédie. Yet both these divisions of economic history are present in its pages. The interpretation of history according to economic criteria appears clearly in two important articles, one on commerce, the other on colonies. 188 An historical interest in things economic appears, moreover, in such varied articles as Agriculculture written by Diderot, Foire, which is anonymous but has been attributed to Turgot, 1 8 7 Vingtième, which, though it appears over Boulanger's signature actually was written by Damilaville, Laine and Hanse by Jaucourt, and many others. 188 Before considering the historical treatment of economic subjects, a glance at the division of history in terms of economic development seems to be indicated. The article Commerce gives the full outline of such a division. It is due to the pen of Veron 186 Commerce,

I I I , ôçob-ôççb; Colonie, I I I , 64811-651 a.

187 Brunetière, Histoire littéraire..., Paris, Delgrave, 1931, p. 370. The introduction to the sixth volume of the Encyclopédie mentions this article as well as the article Fondation as having been sent in by a person who did not wish to disclose his identity. Both articles are contained in Dupont de Nemours' edition of Turgot's works ( P a r i s , 1808) as well as in subsequent editions, and are attributed to him by Henri Hauser in his article on T u r g o t in the Grande Encyclopédie. 188 Ass., X I I I , 243-248, Agriculture ; Foire, V I I , 3çb-4ib; Vingtième, X V I I , 855a-8çK)b (Voltaire attributes it to Damilaville, c f . Naves, op. cit., p. 112, no. 95 and Tourneux in his article on Boulanger in the Grande Encyclopédie, op. cit. upholds this statement) ; for specific proof see Diderot, Correspondance inédite, Paris, Gallimard ( 1 9 3 1 ) , I, 282, 283; Laine, I X , I76a-i82a; Hanse, V I I I , 390b.

T Y P E S OF T H E

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95

de Forbonnais, who later used it, with very few changes, as the first chapter of his " Eléments de Commerce," in the preface of which he declared that he had feared that his essay might suffer from appearing by itself in an isolated publication, but that he had published it thus in order to reach a greater public.189 But it was for the subscribers of the Encyclopédie that he outlined in easy and fluent style his historico-economic theories. The word commerce has come to have a rather restricted meaning today. " In the widest sense of the term commerce covers the exchange of commodities and all the arrangements necessary for effecting such exchange " says the current edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica in its article on the subject. Forbonnais saw it in a different light.190 Commerce for him has its origin in the needs and wants of mankind. Its essence, it is true, is exchange. But it is much more inclusive than that. It has seven branches : agriculture, manufacturing, liberal arts, fisheries, navigation, colonies and exchange. The whole economic occupation and situation of a people is for Forbonnais contained in the term commerce, which explains why he chose this article as a means to outline his economic theory of history. But, as his basis, he does tend to use the evolution of exchange. Commerce existed from the earliest times. Of the six epochs into which Forbonnais divides the development of commerce, the first epoch was based on the produce of nature exclusively and on exchange in kind. This type of society had as yet no concept of individual property. The second epoch of commerce had for its scene Asia, as is proven by the vast conquests of the Assyrians and the wonders of Babylon. It was the period when the Phoenician culture flowered, when Carthage was founded and Greece began its economic expansion, of which Marseille is a vestige. 189 Véron de Forbonnais, op. cit., I, 1. 190 The following paragraphs are an extensive analysis of Forbonnais' article.

96

HISTORY IN THE

ENCYCLOPEDIE

The third epoch of commerce had its beginnings with the conquests of Alexander, for those conquests opened new ways towards economic development. Tyre was destroyed, India and Egypt opened to commerce. Alexandria, built at the entrance of Egypt, " became the key to the commerce with India and the center of the commerce of the West." 1 9 1 The height of this epoch and its flowering came under the Ptolemies. But during this time factors were already at work, which, though still results of Alexander's conquests, were at the same time preparing the fourth period. The second phase within the third epoch of commerce was the rise of Rome, which was then seeking alliances with the small commercial republics. In the economic struggle between Rome and Carthage, Rome won and the commerce of the Phoenician city was buried under its ruins. Spain, Greece, Asia and Egypt, all became provinces of Rome, which protected their commerce. The fourth epoch of commerce was a result of the division of the Roman Empire, and more directly of the fall of the Western Empire. Byzantium, favorably situated, kept her commerce while western Europe lost it, except for Italy. Within this epoch falls the rise of the towns and the rivalries between Venice, Genoa, Florence and Pisa. During this period also, the center of commerce gradually began to shift to the North. The Italians had been used to voyages lasting only a year; they were afraid of expanding their commerce and therefore lost it. Just as the preceding epoch had two phases, so does this one. With the shift of commerce toward the North, Flanders became the general entrepot for the surrounding countries, Germany, England, France, to which other European countries were soon added. While Italy turned to the Orient, Flanders became the center for Europe. With the shift of commerce to the North entirely new kinds of economic institutions arose. One such institution was the Hansa, another was the letter of exchange. New cities began to prosper. Bruges flourished and fell, and 191 Commerce, III, 691a.

TYPES

OF

THE

HISTORY

97

its fall became " the seal for the greatness of A n t w e r p and Amsterdam." 192 W i t h the rise of these t w o cities and certain other developments of the end of the fifteenth century, Europe entered into the fifth epoch of commerce. These above mentioned developments were the voyages of discovery, which, according to Forbonnais began in 1487 when Bartholomew Diaz sailed around the Cape of Good Hope. W i t h this epoch, " the history of commerce becomes in part the history of states." 193 N e w cities began to assume importance from an economic point of view. Lisbon became the exclusive center for spices and other rich produces, which were sent on to Antwerp. Egypt, unable to maintain herself, declined, and her decline gave the final blow to the commerce of the Italians. Other discoveries followed the first: the discovery of America which diverted Spanish and Portuguese energies from Europe toward the New World, the discovery of Newfoundland which became a fishing-ground for Basques, Bretons and Normans, though in general France did not enter as yet into the economic picture, for " torn apart by the religious wars [France] was deaf to any other sentiment than her sorrow." 194 H e r s was to be the next period, while the fifth epoch in Europe properly belonged to Holland, and to a certain degree to England. T h e freedom of the cities of the Netherlands had attracted many foreigners. Their main resource was commerce which grew to immense proportions. W h e n at this point Philip II introduced new taxes as well as the Inquisition, " the revolt was general." 195 A n d out of this revolt, due largely to economic factors according to Forbonnais, grew the economic greatness of the United Provinces. T h e order forbidding their subjects to trade in Spanish or Portuguese ports " made their 192 Commerce,

I I I , 639a.

193 Ibid. 194 Commerce, 195 ibid.

I I I , 693b.

98

HISTORY

IN

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIE

despair as well as their fortune reach the summit." 198 They began the peaceful conquest of the East and became the rivals of England as well as of Spain and Portugal. In 1621, the Company of the W e s t Indies was established and attempts to push commerce into Brazil were made. A t this time, which marked the end of the fifth epoch, France, having finally reached public peace, began to enter the sphere of commerce. Richelieu had not much time to give to this important matter, yet it was to " these weak beginnings that France owed the success of her commerce." 1 , 7 T h e sixth period, according to Forbonnais, can be started with a fixed date, and begins in 1664. It can be properly called " the French period." It is the period of Colbert, when "manufactures, navigation, arts of every kind were carried to such a perfection in a few years, that Europe was astonished and alarmed." 198 France entered upon the picture of commercial rivalry and became a competitor of England and Holland. Spain and Portugal by this time were more or less out of the picture, for these t w o nations " neglected the arts and culture of Europe in order to reap a harvest of gold and silver in their new provinces." 199 France then was economically the most powerful nation of the day, and the sixth period of commerce was all hers. But it was a very brief period and ended tragically : " . . . the activity of our industry had become proverbial, when the revocation of the Edict of Nantes reduced it by the loss of a great number of citizens who scattered among those countries which wished to acquire wealth; never was a greater sacrifice offered to religion." 200 W i t h the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, which terminates the sixth epoch of commerce, Forbonnais brings to a close 196 Ibid., 694a. 197 Commerce, 198 Ibid. 199 Ibid., 693b. 200 Ibid., 695a.

III, 694b.

T Y P E S OF T H E

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99

his economic picture of the evolution of societies in terms of time; an evolution which in terms of geography follows the road from East to West. It is only after this purely historical basis, that Forbonnais, the economist, begins to build his theories on commerce in general, theories which were closely linked with theories of government, for, as one may remember, in its fifth epoch the history of commerce had become largely that of states 201 and economic and political history were to be closely associated from that epoch on, thus giving an even tighter interdependence to all the interlocking branches of history. HISTORY OF M A T T E R S E C O N O M I C

After this general introduction into economic history, the historical treatment of economic subjects can be undertaken. One of the first topics to be considered under this classification is the subject of colonies, which are closely linked with commerce in some phases of their development. According to Forbonnais, author of the article on colonies, 202 colonization reached the commercial stage rather late. Its first aspects were political tinged only with some economic colors. The first type of colonization was the simple division of social groups into tribes, a division which was the result of necessity. The second type of colonization was due to interior strife within the primitive groups, strife which obliged certain members of one group to emigrate and found new abodes. The new groups, which at the beginning were for the most part republican in government, grew with their laws, arts and sciences. With the growth of population came, according to Forbonnais, the loss of freedom, and the loss of freedom was a major cause for the formation of new colonies. Such was the origin of the Greek colonies in Asia, Sicily, Italy and Gaul. 201 See above. 202 Colonie,

I I I , 648b-6s2a.

IOO

HISTORY

IN

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIE

T h e g r o w t h of population and wealth w a s the cause of another w a y of colonizing, a third type, which w a s the colonization by conquest, and w h i c h had for its goal the safeguard of t h e frontiers a n d not the desire to rule the conquered country. A t first rather sporadic, these conquest-colonies became an important feature of history w h e n economic necessity pushed the G a u l s into Italy, the G o t h s and V a n d a l s into A f r i c a and the T a r t a r s into C h i n a . T h e s e colonies of barbarians carried in their w a k e the decline of the arts and brought ignorance e v e r y w h e r e , but b y the increase of population they laid the foundations for n e w , p o w e r f u l monarchies. T h e causes for these colonies w e r e economic, but their aim was political, and in this lies the main difference between the preceding type of colonies and the f o l l o w i n g t w o types. T h e preceding types, though often m o t i v a t e d by economic conditions, were not striving toward an economic goal. T h e last t w o types were economic in their aims.

Unlike

previous

colonizing

movements

they

were

founded in the spirit of commerce and sought to increase the wealth of the metropolis. T h e former had sought to establish new societies, while the latter attempted to establish outposts, closely linked to the motherland by economic ties. T h o u g h T y r e and Marseille came close to the later type, in general this development w a s recent in history, and found its ultimate expression in the colonies established after the discovery of A m e r ica. H a v i n g reached the commercial aspect, colonies, in their historical development, also entered into a new political phase, because E u r o p e , casting lines across the seas, tried to maintain its hold on the colonies, and this attempt was the cause for a w h o l e new legal system. T h e last period of colonization corresponds to the last epoch of commercial development. T h o u g h the other discussions of economic history are not so important or well developed there are further articles on the subject to be considered. T h e history of agriculture

203

which

D i d e r o t attempted to sketch before he discussed the theories of 203 Ass., X I I I , 243-248,

Agriculture.

T Y P E S OF T H E

HISTORY

IOI

good husbandry, falls within that category. Admiring the importance assigned to agriculture in ancient Rome, the editor of the Encyclopédie went into a rather detailed account of it. This account breaks off with the middle-ages, and has only a few lines on agriculture in France after Henry I I I , and in the later period the greatest emphasis is given to the edicts of Henri IV. Diderot tried to find in history the proof to his argument that to work on the soil was not degrading. Probably that thesis and not ignorance of medieval institutions, accounts for the omission of the description of agriculture in the middle-ages. That he was not unaware of medieval institutions is proven by two articles, one on bakers, 204 the other on butchers, 205 which not only describe the organization of these crafts in the cities of Greece and in Rome, but go into detail concerning the guild rules in France under Saint Louis, Philip the Fair of Valois and finally, in the modern period, under Henri III. The middle ages are discussed in several other articles too, for though the Encyclopedists may have despised them as " dark ages " from an intellectual point of view, they thought their economic importance great enough to warrant an historical treatment. One important medieval institution was the Hansa, of which Forbonnais had spoken in his article on commerce. Jaucourt, using as his main source Heiss " Histoire de l'empire," managed to trace a rather complete picture of the Hanseatic flowering and decline in an article of only two columns. 206 He is particularly good in the brief summary which he gives of the decline of the Hansa, the breaking of the links between the Hanseatic cities ; the voyages of discovery, the commercial colonization in Africa, East India and America, the personal ambitions of Charles V and the policies of the petty 204 Ass., X I I I , 498-506, 205 Ass., X I I I , 498,

Boulanger.

Boucher.

206 Hanse, V I I I , 39ab; the source is Johan von Kogenheim Heiss, Histoire de l'empire ..., Paris, Barbin, 1684, 2 vols. There seems to have been a later edition in 1733.

102

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German princes as well as the defection of certain towns which were no longer able to pay the Hanseatic dues, all these together brought about the disintegration of this powerful medieval organization, and " the Hansa, which had at one time carried as many as eighty towns on its roster, began to decline at the beginning of the sixteenth century and ended like the Rhine, which is but a creek when it reaches the ocean." 207 The Hansa, in the period of its prosperity, had been dependent upon navigation. The importance of navigation as a manner of life has already been discussed, but its relation to commerce—a very close one according to Forbonnais—may well be indicated here; If one examines why commerce passed from the Venetians to the Genoans, and from the Hanseatic towns to the Portuguese and Spaniards, and from them to the English and Dutch, one can establish the general maxim, that the relation, or, if one may express it thus, the union of navigation and commerce, is such a close one (intime), that the ruin of the one necessarily involves the ruin of the other and that the two must flower or decline together.208 Other medieval economic institutions are the fair, 209 the economic origins of which are discussed in one article, while its legal aspects, to be mentioned later, were left to Boucher d' Argis. Medieval money was mentioned in the article Monnaie bract eater1" Bills of exchange, which seem to have originated in the middle-ages, were treated by Boucher d'Argis, who carefully noted many opinions concerning their invention, 211 207 Hanse,

V I I I , 39b.

208 Navigation,

X I , 55b.

209 Foire, V I I ,

39b-4ib.

210 Monnaie bracteate, X , 6S3b-6S4b. 211 Boucher d'Argis, always carefully gives his bibliography at the end of each article, and the sources he used for this particular article w e r e : Villani, Giovan for general opinions and for particular studies: Scace, De commercis cambiorum, de Rubys, Histoire de la ville de Lyon, p. 289; Dupuy

TYPES

OF T H E

HISTORY

IO3

adopting for himself Rubys' opinion that they were first used by the Florentines, especially in their trade with Lyon. Bills of exchange were only one of the medieval developments which had survived to play an important role in modern times. Another was the taille 212 which was probably one of the oldest taxes levied. Though its origin commonly was traced back to Saint Louis, Boucher d'Argis quoted Pierre Louvet as having mentioned the existence of charters concerning the taille as early as 1060. According to Damilaville however, who expressed himself on this point in his article Vingtième,the feudal organization which established itself upon the ruins of the Roman empire had no need for taxes. According to this author, the dues owed in France at that time were feudal payments rather than taxes, and only the foreign invasion under Charles V I brought about the imposition of the taille. Damilaville indicated no sources. If certain taxes had their roots in the middle-ages, certain economic organizations of the eighteenth century did too, and the Encyclopedists, who pleaded for the abolition of the old guilds did so only after having introduced them historically and based their argument against them on the fact that they had outlived their historical function. 214 There is, among the articles on economic matters, one which it is difficult to classify ; it is not an institution, but as an economic manifestation it reaches back into the middle-ages and beyond ; " the attention given wool-bearing animals is not an indication of fashion or of caprice; history makes the first epoch of that attention date back to the first ages of the world." 215 The wool industry is an important and ancient de la Serre, Traité de l'art des lettres de change ; Clarac, Traité de ¿'usance du négoce ; Savary, Le parfait négociant ; Bornier, Titres de l'ordonnance du Commerce. 212 Taille,

X V , 84ib-843b.

213 Vingtième, 214 Maîtrises,

X V I I , 85Sa-89ob. I X , 9 i i a - 9 i 5 b ; Lettres

215 Laine, I X , 177a.

de Maîtrise,

I X , 4253-4263.

I04

HISTORY

IN

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIE

216

one, and Jaucourt carried it from the Romans (who stamped the ewe on their coins) to recent developments, treating such important countries as Spain and England separately and in some detail. One important omission can be noted in his treatment of Spain however and that is the lack of any description of the mesta. In order to round) out the discussion of the treatment of economic history in the Encyclopédie some mention must be made of the articles on money. Though the articles on that subject are largely theoretical, there was an attempt to develop the subject and to mention certain institutions which depend upon a money economy. Jaucourt, who was primarily interested in the question of how money received its value, did, however, spend some time in discussing the sacred money of the ancients, Roman coins and certain types of money used during sieges.217 Véron de Forbonnais in his long article on specie enumerated the different values given to various coins and mentioned ordinances concerning the regulation of this value. Regulations concerning money were also discussed by Boucher d'Argis in his article Cours des Monnaies 218 which tells of the organization of these courts in Rome, in France under the Merovingians and their structure from Charles the Bald on. Banks and stock exchanges, both institutions of money economy, were also given a brief history in the pages of the Encyclopédie,219 Thus the variety and number of articles dealing with economic history show that if economic theory and doctrines had a much larger place in the volumes of the Encyclopédie than the history of economic institutions, still the theory sought for proofs in the realm of history, and did so fairly often. That the 216 Laine, I X , i76b-i»2a. 217 Monnaie, X , 544a-64& ; Monnaie des Romains, X , 649)3-65 i a ; obsidionale, X , 648a-649b. 218 Monnaies,

Monnaie

cours des, X , 6s6a-6s9b.

219 Banco ou Banquo, I I , 55ab ; Bourse, I I , 372a-374a ; both articles, signed by Mallet, use as their source the Dictionnaire de Commerce of Savary.

T Y P E S OF T H E

HISTORY

I05

Encyclopedists could conceive of a history from a purely economic point of view is shown by Forbonnais. The interest which the Encyclopedists took in economic theory is a longacknowledged fact, while the interest they had in the historical treatment of these same questions has largely been ignored. A n d yet the article on commerce bears vivid witness to such an interest. T h e historical quest for things economic was even carried into the realm of philosophy when Diderot, discussing luxury, stated : " I do not pretend to gather all the good and the bad which has been said about luxury. I shall confine myself to the main favorable and unfavorable statements, and shall show that history contradicts them both." 220 History then is likewise the final arbiter in this philosophico-economic discussion in which Diderot gives brief historical sketches of economic conditions in Athens, Rome, Egypt, modern Europe and even Asia. 2 2 1 T o use history persuasively in an economic argument, what could be more modern ? Closely interlinked with the history of social and political customs, the history of matters economic forms the second great branch of civil history. In order to complete our survey of that field we must consider that branch of history which has for its subject the sanctions placed on customs, as Diderot said, 222 the history of man-made laws which reflect social, political and economic institutions. LEGAL GENERAL

HISTORY

LEGAL

HISTORY

Legal history in the Encyclopédie, which, even if it were only judged by quantity, is one of the most important branches of civil history, was almost exclusively the work of one man, Antoine Gaspard Boucher d'Argis. Born in 1708, he had 220 Ass., X V I , 7-8, Luxe. Originally attributed to St. Lambert, this article is included in Diderot's works by Assézat. 221 Ass., X V I , 5-30, Luxe. 222 See above.

IOÔ

HISTORY

IN

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIE

already a distinguished career behind him and had written many works on Jurisprudence 223 when he joined the society of men of letters who worked for the Encyclopédie. His contribution to it was very great, and the editors of that work were very conscious of its value. Announcing his collaboration d'Alembert stated in the Avertissement to the third volume that with this volume the vast science of Jurisprudence would " appear in the Encyclopédie with the detail and dignity it deserves," 224 and Voltaire considered Boucher d'Argis a source of very precious information. 225 Though his subject would have lent itself very easily to the exposition of theories, proposals of possible improvements in the French legal system, for instance, Boucher d'Argis almost completely refrained from the theoretical approach to his subject. " H e is not a critic, he is an historian," 226 and it was not the theory but the history of legal institutions which interested him. He knew that for a good lawyer the knowledge of history is indispensable. The science of law, which is Jurisprudence, necessitates a wide acquaintance with all human things : . . . Jurisprudence necessarily embraces the knowledge of all that belongs to religion, . . . it also requires the knowledge of geography, chronology and history ; one cannot understand well the law of nations (droit des gens) and politics without differentiating countries and times, without knowing the customs of each nation and the revolutions which occurred in its government, and one cannot understand the spirit of a law without knowing to what circumstances it is due and through what changes it has passed.227 223 A complete list of his works can be found in the Biographie Universelle of Michaud. All the articles on legal history discussed below are by Boucher d'Argis unless otherwise indicated. 224 Avertissement,

III, iii.

225 Naves, op. cit., p. 109. 226 Hubert, Sciences 227 Jurisprudence,

Sociales . . . , p. 125.

I X , 81b.

TYPES

OF T H E

HISTORY

107

Therefore, Boucher d'Argis' procedure, which remains the same throughout all the varied articles, is to go back to the remotest origins of the law, to find the historical reasons for it, to trace the curve of its evolution and the detail of its epochs, to mention all its phases and to include for each analysis as complete a list as possible of the sources used (with specific page references whenever necessary). Built upon this method, his articles can be classified a s : general legal history, ancient legal history, feudal institutions and the legal history of France. The best way to start the treatment of the general legal history in the Encyclopédte, is probably by choosing that subject which Boucher d'Argis himself gave as an example. H o w does this author treat the law of nations? 228 According to his definition it is the Jurisprudence which natural reason has established for certain matters among all men. The first type to be considered is that of Rome, where the law of nations was distinguished from natural law. T h e law of nations which Europe observed in modern times came in part from these Roman laws, partly from Germanic laws, especially Frankish laws which, in Charlemagne's times, were diffused throughout Europe. Mentioning the fact that according to some authors of his day the law of nations only went as far back as M a x imilian I, Boucher d'Argis terminates his article by an analysis of Puffendorf's treatise on the subject. Roman laws separated the law of nations from natural law, but actually the two are close, though never fused. 229 Their definitions are very similar. Natural law is composed of rules of justice and equity which only natural reason has established among men. Dealing with the subject as an historian, Boucher d'Argis leaves the discussion of what natural law should be to Diderot, and traces what it has been in the minds of the philosophers since Pythagoras to Burlamaqui, whose Principes du 228 Droit dcs gens, V , 126b- 129b. 229 Droit Naturel,

V , I3ib-t34b.

I08

HISTORY

IN

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIE

droit naturel, published in 1747, were, according to d'Argis the best work on the subject. L a w of nations, natural law, any other law or collection of laws requires careful professional study. T h e study of law is very ancient, and the first school of jurisprudence, according to Boucher d'Argis, seems to have been that of the Phoenician town of Beirut. 230 The first Roman emperors did not, however, seem to show interest in such schools, and the first Roman school of law was established in Constantinople by Theodosius and Valentinian the Younger, while the best was founded by Justinian. In 1453, the study of Roman law was abolished in Constantinople, but received great impetus in Europe with the rediscovery of the Justinian Code. T h e study of laws even in ancient times gave the right to become doctor of law. 231 for in spite of Blondel's statement that there were no doctors in law before 1138, Boucher d'Argis found them mentioned in Tacitus and Pliny. In France they seemed to have originated around 460 and were certainly mentioned in 835. T h e schools of Bologna and Paris granted the title of doctor of law, but in France after the Ordinance of Blois in 1579 it was forbidden to graduate as doctor of civil law exclusively. T h e study of law should not be confined to those who seek a doctorate. A l l those who dispense justice, and all those who work with the codes of law need this knowledge, and judges as well as notaries must have it. T h e position of a judge in a society has been subject to many changes since justice was first dispensed by the pater familias.2&2 Boucher d'Argis, tracing a comparative picture of judges in France and Rome, brings his discussion up to the Ordinance of Blois, after a rather detailed discussion of the measures taken by Charlemagne. A s for 230 Ecole

de Droit,

V, 304a-306b.

231 Docteur en Droit, V , 5b-8a. 2 3 2 Juge, I X , 8a-9b; t h i s article is p a r a l l e l e d b y t h e article o n J u s t i c e in g e n e r a l w h i c h t r a c e s the s a m e d e v e l o p m e n t , o n l y in m o r e d e t a i l : I X , 8c>b-93a.

Justice,

TYPES

OF T H E

HISTORY

IOÇ

notaries, their origin is more recent, for they were unknown to the Hebrews, where agreements were oral, but existed in Greek cities, where contracts were written down. 233 The Romans had them for money questions, and with the Roman domination, the institution passed into Gaul. There were, however, no real contracts in France before 1270, according to d'Argis. A s for such legal officials as barristers they existed in Rome, 234 while solicitors seemed to be mentioned only in the realm of the church. 235 Even one of the lowest legal officials is accounted for historically and the clerk of the court is traced from Roman times and on down through different French ordinances.® 8 Before entering into the discussion of certain special legal documents, it is of interest to glance how documents in general were treated in the Encyclopédie. F o r instance, before discussing some charters granted by the kings of France, it is interesting to note that from the time of the Merovingians down to that of King John most deeds, especially customs, privileges and concessions were called charters, though that meaning had come to change somewhat as early as the reign of Hugh Capet. The last charter, according to Argis, can be dated December 12, 1354. From that time on the word charter does not signify the same thing, but the lawyer stopped his discussion at that point. 237 Legal documents are usually recorded on stamped paper, a custom which can be dated back to Justinian, though it was introduced into Europe throug Spain and Holland only in 1 5 5 5- 238 A type of legal document not recorded on such paper, but important all the same is the testament, the history of which 233 Notaire, XI, 232b-23Sb.

234 Advocat, I,

I5ib-I52b;

article by Toussaint.

235 Advoué, I, 152b-153a; article by Toussaint. 236 Greffier, VII, Q24b-926b. 237 Charte, III, 2i8ab. 238 Papier

et Parchemin

timbré, X I , 862b-872b.

110

HISTORY

IN

THE

ENCYCLOPEDIE

can be traced back to the patriarchs. 239 According to Boucher d'Argis, its origin goes back to natural and not civil law, for the Hebrews had it before the laws of Moses. From the Hebrews, he says, it passed to Egypt and from there into Greece and Rome. The Gauls had it independently. If one could make a distinction between the theoretical and the practical side of Justice, one could say that legal documents belong to the theoretical part while punishments meted out for crimes belong to the practical side. In his general treatment of legal history, after having spent some time on the theory, Boucher d'Argis lingers a while with the practical side and goes into a discussion of the historical evolution of certain punishments, 240 but leaves the treatment of punishment in general to his colleague, Jaucourt. 241 T h e legal aspect of ecclesiastical history necessarily has a place in a general legal history, and after having given a brief outline of ecclesiastical jurisprudence, 242 A r g i s spends some time on a discussion of origin and evolution of certain legal church officials, 243 while church assemblies are dealt with by his colleague Bouchaud, docteur agrégé de la faculté de Droit.2** T o complete a general picture of the various phases of legal history, the legal side of economic matters should and does find its place here. Property, which Diderot treats from the point of view of ethics and natural law, is treated by Boucher d'Argis from the juridical point of view, and not in the sense of the 239 Testament,

X V I , I90b-I92a.

240 Galcre, V I I , 44ob-44ib; Exécuteur 332b ; Homicide, 25ob-253a.

de la Haute

Justice,

V I , 229a-

241 Peine, X I I , 2468-2493. 242 Jurisdiction

ecclésiastique,

IX,

75a-79b.

243 Ecclésiastique, V , 223b-228b; Chanoine, III, 1333-1363 ; Echevins, 255a-257a; Légat, I X , 34^-346; Nonce, X I , 2 i s - 2 i 6 b ; Expéditionnaires cour de Home et de Législation, V I , 29ob-297a.

244 Concile, III, 8o6a-8i9b.

V, de

TYPES

OF T H E

HISTORY

III

possessions of one individual, but in the sense of that which belongs to a family in general or to one branch to the exclusion of another. The Roman origins as well as French, Frisian and Sicilian customs are mentioned and the article ends with a discussion of the rulings of Saint Louis in 1270.245 Slavery, which is a legal and economic manifestation, is treated from its juridical point of view, from the position of the slave in Egypt, Greece and Rome down to his position in French colonies under the Code Noir.2*9 The legal aspect of taxes in general appears in several articles which try to go back to their origin, which sometimes is found in Athens, sometimes in feudal times.247 An economic aspect of marriage, the wife's dowry, receives a rather extensive treatment from a legal and historical point of view. 258 In ancient times the husband gave a dowry to his wife and apparently the more modern form of the custom originated in Rome and was adopted by the Greeks during the period of the Byzantine Empire. According to Caesar's Commentaries, the Gauls already had the institution of dowries when the Romans entered into their lands. After a discussion of French common law on this score, Boucher d'Argis concludes the article with the regulations concerning the dowry in France. One last legal article on economic matters, and one which closely touches upon politics is the very detailed discussion of the evolution of hunting rights.249 As usual, Boucher d'Argis refrains from any particular criticism, but he builds up his article in such a way that the purely historical discussion stands as an indictment against the existing order. He begins from 245 Propre, XIII, 4865-4893. 246 Esclave, V, 8393-9433. 247 Epices, V, 77